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### Subsidiaries
In 1907, the Associated Pipe Line Company was formed as a [subsidiary](/wiki/Subsidiary "Subsidiary") of the Associated Oil Company with the Southern Pacific Company providing property along its railroad tracks which ran from the [Bakersfield](/wiki/Bakersfield "Bakersfield") Kern River oil fields to [Port Costa, California](/wiki/Port_Costa%2C_California "Port Costa, California"), later being shipped to [China](/wiki/China "China") and other parts of the [world](/wiki/World "World"). The Southern Pacific Company attained the controlling interest of the Associated Oil Company's stock.
[right\|238px\|thumb\|The Kern River Oil Field (purple) in south\-central California. Other oil fields are shown in gray.](/wiki/Image:KernRiver.jpg "KernRiver.jpg")
There was a fast\-growing market on the Pacific for [petroleum](/wiki/Petroleum "Petroleum") [distillates](/wiki/Distillates "Distillates") as well as crude oil and since the high gravity crude oil from the [San Joaquin Valley](/wiki/San_Joaquin_Valley "San Joaquin Valley") required some sort of refining to make fuel usable for [locomotives](/wiki/Locomotives "Locomotives") and ship burners, the Associated Oil Company decided to construct a topping plant called the Avon Refinery (now the [Golden Eagle Refinery](/wiki/Golden_Eagle_Refinery "Golden Eagle Refinery")) in 1913\. Until then the company had produced and marketed fuel oils only and with the completion of the refinery were launched into the manufacture of [gasoline](/wiki/Gasoline "Gasoline") and [kerosene](/wiki/Kerosene "Kerosene").
Also in 1913, unfavorable commuting conditions prompted the Associated Oil Company to build a company town called the [Avon Village](/wiki/Avon%2C_Contra_Costa_County%2C_California "Avon, Contra Costa County, California") and by 1920 consisted of 65 [cottages](/wiki/Cottages "Cottages"), a one\-room [schoolhouse](/wiki/One-room_school "One-room school"), worker's [bunkhouse](/wiki/Bunkhouse "Bunkhouse"), a [dining hall](/wiki/Dining_hall "Dining hall") and a [clubhouse](/wiki/Community_centre "Community centre") that included an indoor [swimming pool](/wiki/Swimming_pool "Swimming pool"), [auditorium](/wiki/Auditorium "Auditorium") and a two\-lane [bowling alley](/wiki/Bowling_alley "Bowling alley") which serves today as the Refinery Museum. A branch of the [United States](/wiki/United_States "United States") [Post Office](/wiki/Post_Office "Post Office") was established and named the Associated Post Office.
Associated purchased the Amoroco Terminal in 1923 from the American\-Oriental Refining Company (AMORCO) and consisted of a topping plant, [storage tanks](/wiki/Storage_tanks "Storage tanks"), a [wharf](/wiki/Wharf "Wharf"), pipelines and pumping equipment. The next year a clarifying plant and an [Edeleanu liquid dioxide plant](/wiki/Edeleanu_process "Edeleanu process"), the first in the United States, were constructed at the Avon Refinery. The quality of the oils treated was so excellent that it prompted the [U.S. Navy](/wiki/U.S._Navy "U.S. Navy") to purchase these [lubricants](/wiki/Lubricants "Lubricants") exclusively from the Avon Refinery for many years. By 1925 the Avon Refinery became the first West Coast refinery to produce [gasoline](/wiki/Gasoline "Gasoline") with [tetraethyl lead](/wiki/Tetraethyllead "Tetraethyllead") additive and in 1926 the [tanker](/wiki/Oil_tanker "Oil tanker") ship S.S. McKittrick received the first crude receipt at the Amorco Wharf. The Southern Pacific Company bought the terminal in 1929 to construct a new railroad [drawbridge](/wiki/Drawbridge "Drawbridge") a year later.
[thumb\|right\|Associated Oil service station from 1927, restored and moved to [History Park at Kelley Park](/wiki/History_Park_at_Kelley_Park "History Park at Kelley Park") in [San Jose, California](/wiki/San_Jose%2C_California "San Jose, California")](/wiki/File:History_Park_%284527120330%29.jpg "History Park (4527120330).jpg")
In 1926, the Associated Oil Company stock owned by the Pacific Oil Company,Walker's Manual of Pacific Coast Securities, 1927 which was formed by Southern Pacific Company to handle their oil interests, was sold to a new holding company, the Tide Water Associated Oil Company, which also acquired the Tide Water Oil Company at the same time. Standard Oil of New Jersey, the largest stockholder in Tide Water at the time, later formed a holding company, Mission Corporation, to hold the stocks of Tide Water and Associated.
In 1931, the Associated Oil Company joined with [Mitsubishi](/wiki/Mitsubishi "Mitsubishi") to establish [Mitsubishi Oil](/wiki/ENEOS "ENEOS") in Japan, before establishing the [Manchurian Oil Company](/wiki/Manchurian_Oil_Company "Manchurian Oil Company") in [Dalian](/wiki/Dalian "Dalian") under the Japanese wartime regime in 1934\.[Eneos](/wiki/Eneos "Eneos"), *[Corporate History \- Nippon Oil Corporation](https://www.eneos.co.jp/english/company/history/noc.html).*
Beginning in 1934, Associated Oil Company commissioned a series of photographs to be taken to record the progress of construction on the [Golden Gate Bridge](/wiki/Golden_Gate_Bridge "Golden Gate Bridge") and [San\-Francisco Oakland Bay Bridge](/wiki/San_Francisco%E2%80%93Oakland_Bay_Bridge "San Francisco–Oakland Bay Bridge") projects. The projects were of special interest to the Associated Oil Company because they provided **Flying A Gasoline** and **Cycol Motor Oil** almost entirely for the projects.
|
[
"### Subsidiaries",
"In 1907, the Associated Pipe Line Company was formed as a [subsidiary](/wiki/Subsidiary \"Subsidiary\") of the Associated Oil Company with the Southern Pacific Company providing property along its railroad tracks which ran from the [Bakersfield](/wiki/Bakersfield \"Bakersfield\") Kern River oil fields to [Port Costa, California](/wiki/Port_Costa%2C_California \"Port Costa, California\"), later being shipped to [China](/wiki/China \"China\") and other parts of the [world](/wiki/World \"World\"). The Southern Pacific Company attained the controlling interest of the Associated Oil Company's stock.",
"[right\\|238px\\|thumb\\|The Kern River Oil Field (purple) in south\\-central California. Other oil fields are shown in gray.](/wiki/Image:KernRiver.jpg \"KernRiver.jpg\")",
"There was a fast\\-growing market on the Pacific for [petroleum](/wiki/Petroleum \"Petroleum\") [distillates](/wiki/Distillates \"Distillates\") as well as crude oil and since the high gravity crude oil from the [San Joaquin Valley](/wiki/San_Joaquin_Valley \"San Joaquin Valley\") required some sort of refining to make fuel usable for [locomotives](/wiki/Locomotives \"Locomotives\") and ship burners, the Associated Oil Company decided to construct a topping plant called the Avon Refinery (now the [Golden Eagle Refinery](/wiki/Golden_Eagle_Refinery \"Golden Eagle Refinery\")) in 1913\\. Until then the company had produced and marketed fuel oils only and with the completion of the refinery were launched into the manufacture of [gasoline](/wiki/Gasoline \"Gasoline\") and [kerosene](/wiki/Kerosene \"Kerosene\").",
"Also in 1913, unfavorable commuting conditions prompted the Associated Oil Company to build a company town called the [Avon Village](/wiki/Avon%2C_Contra_Costa_County%2C_California \"Avon, Contra Costa County, California\") and by 1920 consisted of 65 [cottages](/wiki/Cottages \"Cottages\"), a one\\-room [schoolhouse](/wiki/One-room_school \"One-room school\"), worker's [bunkhouse](/wiki/Bunkhouse \"Bunkhouse\"), a [dining hall](/wiki/Dining_hall \"Dining hall\") and a [clubhouse](/wiki/Community_centre \"Community centre\") that included an indoor [swimming pool](/wiki/Swimming_pool \"Swimming pool\"), [auditorium](/wiki/Auditorium \"Auditorium\") and a two\\-lane [bowling alley](/wiki/Bowling_alley \"Bowling alley\") which serves today as the Refinery Museum. A branch of the [United States](/wiki/United_States \"United States\") [Post Office](/wiki/Post_Office \"Post Office\") was established and named the Associated Post Office.",
"Associated purchased the Amoroco Terminal in 1923 from the American\\-Oriental Refining Company (AMORCO) and consisted of a topping plant, [storage tanks](/wiki/Storage_tanks \"Storage tanks\"), a [wharf](/wiki/Wharf \"Wharf\"), pipelines and pumping equipment. The next year a clarifying plant and an [Edeleanu liquid dioxide plant](/wiki/Edeleanu_process \"Edeleanu process\"), the first in the United States, were constructed at the Avon Refinery. The quality of the oils treated was so excellent that it prompted the [U.S. Navy](/wiki/U.S._Navy \"U.S. Navy\") to purchase these [lubricants](/wiki/Lubricants \"Lubricants\") exclusively from the Avon Refinery for many years. By 1925 the Avon Refinery became the first West Coast refinery to produce [gasoline](/wiki/Gasoline \"Gasoline\") with [tetraethyl lead](/wiki/Tetraethyllead \"Tetraethyllead\") additive and in 1926 the [tanker](/wiki/Oil_tanker \"Oil tanker\") ship S.S. McKittrick received the first crude receipt at the Amorco Wharf. The Southern Pacific Company bought the terminal in 1929 to construct a new railroad [drawbridge](/wiki/Drawbridge \"Drawbridge\") a year later.",
"[thumb\\|right\\|Associated Oil service station from 1927, restored and moved to [History Park at Kelley Park](/wiki/History_Park_at_Kelley_Park \"History Park at Kelley Park\") in [San Jose, California](/wiki/San_Jose%2C_California \"San Jose, California\")](/wiki/File:History_Park_%284527120330%29.jpg \"History Park (4527120330).jpg\")\nIn 1926, the Associated Oil Company stock owned by the Pacific Oil Company,Walker's Manual of Pacific Coast Securities, 1927 which was formed by Southern Pacific Company to handle their oil interests, was sold to a new holding company, the Tide Water Associated Oil Company, which also acquired the Tide Water Oil Company at the same time. Standard Oil of New Jersey, the largest stockholder in Tide Water at the time, later formed a holding company, Mission Corporation, to hold the stocks of Tide Water and Associated.",
"In 1931, the Associated Oil Company joined with [Mitsubishi](/wiki/Mitsubishi \"Mitsubishi\") to establish [Mitsubishi Oil](/wiki/ENEOS \"ENEOS\") in Japan, before establishing the [Manchurian Oil Company](/wiki/Manchurian_Oil_Company \"Manchurian Oil Company\") in [Dalian](/wiki/Dalian \"Dalian\") under the Japanese wartime regime in 1934\\.[Eneos](/wiki/Eneos \"Eneos\"), *[Corporate History \\- Nippon Oil Corporation](https://www.eneos.co.jp/english/company/history/noc.html).*",
"Beginning in 1934, Associated Oil Company commissioned a series of photographs to be taken to record the progress of construction on the [Golden Gate Bridge](/wiki/Golden_Gate_Bridge \"Golden Gate Bridge\") and [San\\-Francisco Oakland Bay Bridge](/wiki/San_Francisco%E2%80%93Oakland_Bay_Bridge \"San Francisco–Oakland Bay Bridge\") projects. The projects were of special interest to the Associated Oil Company because they provided **Flying A Gasoline** and **Cycol Motor Oil** almost entirely for the projects.",
""
] |
Demographics
------------
{{US Census population
\|align\=
\|1890\= 324
\|1900\= 230
\|1910\= 317
\|1920\= 559
\|1930\= 914
\|1940\= 881
\|1950\= 988
\|1960\= 1028
\|1970\= 936
\|1980\= 862
\|1990\= 850
\|2000\= 903
\|2010\= 867
\|2020\= 770
\|estyear\=
\|estimate\=
\|estref\=
\|align\-fn\=center
\|footnote\=\[https://www.census.gov/programs\-surveys/decennial\-census.html U.S. Decennial Census]
}}
### 2020 census
The [2020 United States census](/wiki/2020_United_States_census "2020 United States census") counted 770 people, 333 households, and 208 families in Jetmore.{{Cite web \|title\=US Census Bureau, Table P16: HOUSEHOLD TYPE \|url\=https://data.census.gov/table?q\=Jetmore%20city,%20Kansas%20p16\&y\=2020 \|access\-date\=2024\-01\-03 \|website\=data.census.gov}} The population density was 182\.9 per square mile (70\.6/km{{sup\|2}}). There were 378 housing units at an average density of 89\.8 per square mile (34\.7/km{{sup\|2}}).{{Cite web \|title\=US Census Bureau, Table DP1: PROFILE OF GENERAL POPULATION AND HOUSING CHARACTERISTICS \|url\=https://data.census.gov/table/DECENNIALDP2020\.DP1?q\=Jetmore%20city,%20Kansas%20dp1 \|access\-date\=2024\-01\-03 \|website\=data.census.gov}}{{Cite web \|last\=Bureau \|first\=US Census \|title\=Gazetteer Files \|url\=https://www.census.gov/geographies/reference\-files/2020/geo/gazetter\-file.html \|access\-date\=2023\-12\-30 \|website\=Census.gov}} The racial makeup was 89\.87% (692\) [white](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 "White (U.S. Census)") or [European American](/wiki/European_American "European American") (88\.31% [non\-Hispanic white](/wiki/Non-Hispanic_White "Non-Hispanic White")), 1\.56% (12\) [black](/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29 "African American (U.S. Census)") or [African\-American](/wiki/African_American "African American"), 0\.52% (4\) [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 "Native American (U.S. Census)") or [Alaska Native](/wiki/Alaska_Native "Alaska Native"), 0\.78% (6\) [Asian](/wiki/Asian_%28U.S._Census%29 "Asian (U.S. Census)"), 0\.13% (1\) [Pacific Islander](/wiki/Pacific_Islander_%28U.S._Census%29 "Pacific Islander (U.S. Census)") or [Native Hawaiian](/wiki/Native_Hawaiian "Native Hawaiian"), 1\.56% (12\) from [other races](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 "Race (United States Census)"), and 5\.58% (43\) from [two or more races](/wiki/Multiracial_Americans "Multiracial Americans").{{Cite web \|title\=US Census Bureau, Table P1: RACE \|url\=https://data.census.gov/table/DECENNIALPL2020\.P1?q\=Jetmore%20city,%20Kansas%20p1\&y\=2020 \|access\-date\=2024\-01\-03 \|website\=data.census.gov}} [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 "Hispanic (U.S. Census)") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 "Latino (U.S. Census)") of any race was 5\.84% (45\) of the population.{{Cite web \|title\=US Census Bureau, Table P2: HISPANIC OR LATINO, AND NOT HISPANIC OR LATINO BY RACE \|url\=https://data.census.gov/table/DECENNIALPL2020\.P2?q\=Jetmore%20city,%20Kansas%20p2\&y\=2020 \|access\-date\=2024\-01\-03 \|website\=data.census.gov}}
Of the 333 households, 30\.6% had children under the age of 18; 52\.3% were married couples living together; 23\.4% had a female householder with no spouse or partner present. 33\.6% of households consisted of individuals and 18\.3% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\.1 and the average family size was 2\.8\.{{Cite web \|title\=US Census Bureau, Table S1101: HOUSEHOLDS AND FAMILIES \|url\=https://data.census.gov/table/ACSST5Y2020\.S1101?q\=Jetmore%20city,%20Kansas%20s1101%20\&y\=2020 \|access\-date\=2024\-01\-03 \|website\=data.census.gov}} The percent of those with a bachelor’s degree or higher was estimated to be 20\.6% of the population.{{Cite web \|title\=US Census Bureau, Table S1501: EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT \|url\=https://data.census.gov/table/ACSST5Y2020\.S1501?q\=Jetmore%20city,%20Kansas%20s1501%20\&y\=2020 \|access\-date\=2024\-01\-03 \|website\=data.census.gov}}
25\.5% of the population was under the age of 18, 3\.9% from 18 to 24, 21\.7% from 25 to 44, 25\.8% from 45 to 64, and 23\.1% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 44\.1 years. For every 100 females, there were 103\.2 males. For every 100 females ages 18 and older, there were 101\.4 males.
The 2016\-2020 5\-year [American Community Survey](/wiki/American_Community_Survey "American Community Survey") estimates show that the median household income was $55,000 (with a margin of error of \+/\- $11,841\) and the median family income was $74,107 (\+/\- $19,811\).{{Cite web \|title\=US Census Bureau, Table S1903: MEDIAN INCOME IN THE PAST 12 MONTHS (IN 2020 INFLATION\-ADJUSTED DOLLARS) \|url\=https://data.census.gov/table/ACSST5Y2020\.S1903?q\=Jetmore%20city,%20Kansas%20s1903%20\&y\=2020 \|access\-date\=2024\-01\-03 \|website\=data.census.gov}} Males had a median income of $39,028 (\+/\- $8,639\) versus $30,144 (\+/\- $12,330\) for females. The median income for those above 16 years old was $32,500 (\+/\- $7,047\).{{Cite web \|title\=US Census Bureau, Table S2001: EARNINGS IN THE PAST 12 MONTHS (IN 2020 INFLATION\-ADJUSTED DOLLARS) \|url\=https://data.census.gov/table/ACSST5Y2020\.S2001?q\=Jetmore%20city,%20Kansas%20s2001%20\&y\=2020 \|access\-date\=2024\-01\-03 \|website\=data.census.gov}} Approximately, 7\.2% of families and 9\.8% of the population were below the [poverty line](/wiki/Poverty_line "Poverty line"), including 13\.7% of those under the age of 18 and 7\.4% of those ages 65 or over.{{Cite web \|title\=US Census Bureau, Table S1701: POVERTY STATUS IN THE PAST 12 MONTHS \|url\=https://data.census.gov/table/ACSST5Y2020\.S1701?q\=Jetmore%20city,%20Kansas%20s1701%20\&y\=2020 \|access\-date\=2024\-01\-03 \|website\=data.census.gov}}{{Cite web \|title\=US Census Bureau, Table S1702: POVERTY STATUS IN THE PAST 12 MONTHS OF FAMILIES \|url\=https://data.census.gov/table/ACSST5Y2020\.S1702?q\=Jetmore%20city,%20Kansas%20s1702\&y\=2020 \|access\-date\=2024\-01\-03 \|website\=data.census.gov}}
### 2010 census
As of the [census](/wiki/Census "Census"){{cite web\|title\=U.S. Census website\|url\=https://www.census.gov\|publisher\=\[\[United States Census Bureau]]\|accessdate\=2012\-07\-06}} of 2010, there were 867 people, 366 households, and 232 families residing in the city. The [population density](/wiki/Population_density "Population density") was {{convert\|193\.1\|PD/sqmi\|PD/km2\|1}}. There were 439 housing units at an average density of {{convert\|97\.8\|/sqmi\|/km2\|1}}. The racial makeup of the city was 96\.3% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 "White (U.S. Census)"), 0\.1% [African American](/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29 "African American (U.S. Census)"), 0\.1% [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 "Native American (U.S. Census)"), 0\.5% [Asian](/wiki/Asian_%28U.S._Census%29 "Asian (U.S. Census)"), 1\.7% from [other races](/wiki/Race_%28U.S._Census%29 "Race (U.S. Census)"), and 1\.3% from two or more races. [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 "Hispanic (U.S. Census)") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 "Latino (U.S. Census)") of any race were 4\.6% of the population.
There were 366 households, of which 32\.2% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 50\.8% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage "Marriage") living together, 6\.6% had a female householder with no husband present, 6\.0% had a male householder with no wife present, and 36\.6% were non\-families. 33\.6% of all households were made up of individuals, and 22\.2% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\.33 and the average family size was 2\.97\.
The median age in the city was 42\.1 years. 26\.2% of residents were under the age of 18; 5\.4% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 21\.9% were from 25 to 44; 24\.8% were from 45 to 64; and 21\.8% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 47\.4% male and 52\.6% female.
### 2000 census
As of the [census](/wiki/Census "Census"){{cite web\|url\=https://www.census.gov \|publisher\=\[\[United States Census Bureau]] \|access\-date\=2008\-01\-31 \|title\=U.S. Census website \|df\= }} of 2000, there were 903 people, 362 households, and 241 families residing in the city. The population density was {{convert\|823\.5\|PD/sqmi\|PD/km2\|sp\=us\|adj\=off}}. There were 427 housing units at an average density of {{convert\|389\.4\|/sqmi\|/km2\|sp\=us\|adj\=off}}. The racial makeup of the city was 96\.79% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 "White (U.S. Census)"), 1\.22% [African American](/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29 "African American (U.S. Census)"), 0\.11% [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 "Native American (U.S. Census)"), 0\.22% from [other races](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 "Race (United States Census)"), and 1\.66% from two or more races. [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 "Hispanic (U.S. Census)") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 "Latino (U.S. Census)") of any race were 2\.99% of the population.
There were 362 households, out of which 33\.7% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 57\.5% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage "Marriage") living together, 5\.5% had a female householder with no husband present, and 33\.4% were non\-families. 31\.2% of all households were made up of individuals, and 18\.8% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\.40 and the average family size was 3\.02\.
In the city, the population was spread out, with 27\.7% under the age of 18, 5\.0% from 18 to 24, 25\.5% from 25 to 44, 19\.9% from 45 to 64, and 21\.9% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 40 years. For every 100 females, there were 88\.5 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 88\.2 males.
The median income for a household in the city was $33,618, and the median income for a family was $39,375\. Males had a median income of $27,917 versus $24,250 for females. The [per capita income](/wiki/Per_capita_income "Per capita income") for the city was $15,510\. About 10\.9% of families and 14\.0% of the population were below the [poverty line](/wiki/Poverty_line "Poverty line"), including 19\.4% of those under age 18 and 7\.5% of those age 65 or over.
|
[
"Demographics\n------------",
"{{US Census population\n\\|align\\=\n\\|1890\\= 324\n\\|1900\\= 230\n\\|1910\\= 317\n\\|1920\\= 559\n\\|1930\\= 914\n\\|1940\\= 881\n\\|1950\\= 988\n\\|1960\\= 1028\n\\|1970\\= 936\n\\|1980\\= 862\n\\|1990\\= 850\n\\|2000\\= 903\n\\|2010\\= 867\n\\|2020\\= 770\n\\|estyear\\=\n\\|estimate\\=\n\\|estref\\=\n\\|align\\-fn\\=center\n\\|footnote\\=\\[https://www.census.gov/programs\\-surveys/decennial\\-census.html U.S. Decennial Census]\n}}\n### 2020 census",
"The [2020 United States census](/wiki/2020_United_States_census \"2020 United States census\") counted 770 people, 333 households, and 208 families in Jetmore.{{Cite web \\|title\\=US Census Bureau, Table P16: HOUSEHOLD TYPE \\|url\\=https://data.census.gov/table?q\\=Jetmore%20city,%20Kansas%20p16\\&y\\=2020 \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-01\\-03 \\|website\\=data.census.gov}} The population density was 182\\.9 per square mile (70\\.6/km{{sup\\|2}}). There were 378 housing units at an average density of 89\\.8 per square mile (34\\.7/km{{sup\\|2}}).{{Cite web \\|title\\=US Census Bureau, Table DP1: PROFILE OF GENERAL POPULATION AND HOUSING CHARACTERISTICS \\|url\\=https://data.census.gov/table/DECENNIALDP2020\\.DP1?q\\=Jetmore%20city,%20Kansas%20dp1 \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-01\\-03 \\|website\\=data.census.gov}}{{Cite web \\|last\\=Bureau \\|first\\=US Census \\|title\\=Gazetteer Files \\|url\\=https://www.census.gov/geographies/reference\\-files/2020/geo/gazetter\\-file.html \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-12\\-30 \\|website\\=Census.gov}} The racial makeup was 89\\.87% (692\\) [white](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 \"White (U.S. Census)\") or [European American](/wiki/European_American \"European American\") (88\\.31% [non\\-Hispanic white](/wiki/Non-Hispanic_White \"Non-Hispanic White\")), 1\\.56% (12\\) [black](/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"African American (U.S. Census)\") or [African\\-American](/wiki/African_American \"African American\"), 0\\.52% (4\\) [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Native American (U.S. Census)\") or [Alaska Native](/wiki/Alaska_Native \"Alaska Native\"), 0\\.78% (6\\) [Asian](/wiki/Asian_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Asian (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.13% (1\\) [Pacific Islander](/wiki/Pacific_Islander_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Pacific Islander (U.S. Census)\") or [Native Hawaiian](/wiki/Native_Hawaiian \"Native Hawaiian\"), 1\\.56% (12\\) from [other races](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 \"Race (United States Census)\"), and 5\\.58% (43\\) from [two or more races](/wiki/Multiracial_Americans \"Multiracial Americans\").{{Cite web \\|title\\=US Census Bureau, Table P1: RACE \\|url\\=https://data.census.gov/table/DECENNIALPL2020\\.P1?q\\=Jetmore%20city,%20Kansas%20p1\\&y\\=2020 \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-01\\-03 \\|website\\=data.census.gov}} [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Hispanic (U.S. Census)\") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Latino (U.S. Census)\") of any race was 5\\.84% (45\\) of the population.{{Cite web \\|title\\=US Census Bureau, Table P2: HISPANIC OR LATINO, AND NOT HISPANIC OR LATINO BY RACE \\|url\\=https://data.census.gov/table/DECENNIALPL2020\\.P2?q\\=Jetmore%20city,%20Kansas%20p2\\&y\\=2020 \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-01\\-03 \\|website\\=data.census.gov}}",
"Of the 333 households, 30\\.6% had children under the age of 18; 52\\.3% were married couples living together; 23\\.4% had a female householder with no spouse or partner present. 33\\.6% of households consisted of individuals and 18\\.3% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\\.1 and the average family size was 2\\.8\\.{{Cite web \\|title\\=US Census Bureau, Table S1101: HOUSEHOLDS AND FAMILIES \\|url\\=https://data.census.gov/table/ACSST5Y2020\\.S1101?q\\=Jetmore%20city,%20Kansas%20s1101%20\\&y\\=2020 \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-01\\-03 \\|website\\=data.census.gov}} The percent of those with a bachelor’s degree or higher was estimated to be 20\\.6% of the population.{{Cite web \\|title\\=US Census Bureau, Table S1501: EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT \\|url\\=https://data.census.gov/table/ACSST5Y2020\\.S1501?q\\=Jetmore%20city,%20Kansas%20s1501%20\\&y\\=2020 \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-01\\-03 \\|website\\=data.census.gov}}",
"25\\.5% of the population was under the age of 18, 3\\.9% from 18 to 24, 21\\.7% from 25 to 44, 25\\.8% from 45 to 64, and 23\\.1% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 44\\.1 years. For every 100 females, there were 103\\.2 males. For every 100 females ages 18 and older, there were 101\\.4 males.",
"The 2016\\-2020 5\\-year [American Community Survey](/wiki/American_Community_Survey \"American Community Survey\") estimates show that the median household income was $55,000 (with a margin of error of \\+/\\- $11,841\\) and the median family income was $74,107 (\\+/\\- $19,811\\).{{Cite web \\|title\\=US Census Bureau, Table S1903: MEDIAN INCOME IN THE PAST 12 MONTHS (IN 2020 INFLATION\\-ADJUSTED DOLLARS) \\|url\\=https://data.census.gov/table/ACSST5Y2020\\.S1903?q\\=Jetmore%20city,%20Kansas%20s1903%20\\&y\\=2020 \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-01\\-03 \\|website\\=data.census.gov}} Males had a median income of $39,028 (\\+/\\- $8,639\\) versus $30,144 (\\+/\\- $12,330\\) for females. The median income for those above 16 years old was $32,500 (\\+/\\- $7,047\\).{{Cite web \\|title\\=US Census Bureau, Table S2001: EARNINGS IN THE PAST 12 MONTHS (IN 2020 INFLATION\\-ADJUSTED DOLLARS) \\|url\\=https://data.census.gov/table/ACSST5Y2020\\.S2001?q\\=Jetmore%20city,%20Kansas%20s2001%20\\&y\\=2020 \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-01\\-03 \\|website\\=data.census.gov}} Approximately, 7\\.2% of families and 9\\.8% of the population were below the [poverty line](/wiki/Poverty_line \"Poverty line\"), including 13\\.7% of those under the age of 18 and 7\\.4% of those ages 65 or over.{{Cite web \\|title\\=US Census Bureau, Table S1701: POVERTY STATUS IN THE PAST 12 MONTHS \\|url\\=https://data.census.gov/table/ACSST5Y2020\\.S1701?q\\=Jetmore%20city,%20Kansas%20s1701%20\\&y\\=2020 \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-01\\-03 \\|website\\=data.census.gov}}{{Cite web \\|title\\=US Census Bureau, Table S1702: POVERTY STATUS IN THE PAST 12 MONTHS OF FAMILIES \\|url\\=https://data.census.gov/table/ACSST5Y2020\\.S1702?q\\=Jetmore%20city,%20Kansas%20s1702\\&y\\=2020 \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-01\\-03 \\|website\\=data.census.gov}}",
"### 2010 census",
"As of the [census](/wiki/Census \"Census\"){{cite web\\|title\\=U.S. Census website\\|url\\=https://www.census.gov\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[United States Census Bureau]]\\|accessdate\\=2012\\-07\\-06}} of 2010, there were 867 people, 366 households, and 232 families residing in the city. The [population density](/wiki/Population_density \"Population density\") was {{convert\\|193\\.1\\|PD/sqmi\\|PD/km2\\|1}}. There were 439 housing units at an average density of {{convert\\|97\\.8\\|/sqmi\\|/km2\\|1}}. The racial makeup of the city was 96\\.3% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 \"White (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.1% [African American](/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"African American (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.1% [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Native American (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.5% [Asian](/wiki/Asian_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Asian (U.S. Census)\"), 1\\.7% from [other races](/wiki/Race_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Race (U.S. Census)\"), and 1\\.3% from two or more races. [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Hispanic (U.S. Census)\") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Latino (U.S. Census)\") of any race were 4\\.6% of the population.",
"There were 366 households, of which 32\\.2% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 50\\.8% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage \"Marriage\") living together, 6\\.6% had a female householder with no husband present, 6\\.0% had a male householder with no wife present, and 36\\.6% were non\\-families. 33\\.6% of all households were made up of individuals, and 22\\.2% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\\.33 and the average family size was 2\\.97\\.",
"The median age in the city was 42\\.1 years. 26\\.2% of residents were under the age of 18; 5\\.4% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 21\\.9% were from 25 to 44; 24\\.8% were from 45 to 64; and 21\\.8% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 47\\.4% male and 52\\.6% female.",
"### 2000 census",
"As of the [census](/wiki/Census \"Census\"){{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.census.gov \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[United States Census Bureau]] \\|access\\-date\\=2008\\-01\\-31 \\|title\\=U.S. Census website \\|df\\= }} of 2000, there were 903 people, 362 households, and 241 families residing in the city. The population density was {{convert\\|823\\.5\\|PD/sqmi\\|PD/km2\\|sp\\=us\\|adj\\=off}}. There were 427 housing units at an average density of {{convert\\|389\\.4\\|/sqmi\\|/km2\\|sp\\=us\\|adj\\=off}}. The racial makeup of the city was 96\\.79% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 \"White (U.S. Census)\"), 1\\.22% [African American](/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"African American (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.11% [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Native American (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.22% from [other races](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 \"Race (United States Census)\"), and 1\\.66% from two or more races. [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Hispanic (U.S. Census)\") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Latino (U.S. Census)\") of any race were 2\\.99% of the population.",
"There were 362 households, out of which 33\\.7% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 57\\.5% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage \"Marriage\") living together, 5\\.5% had a female householder with no husband present, and 33\\.4% were non\\-families. 31\\.2% of all households were made up of individuals, and 18\\.8% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\\.40 and the average family size was 3\\.02\\.",
"In the city, the population was spread out, with 27\\.7% under the age of 18, 5\\.0% from 18 to 24, 25\\.5% from 25 to 44, 19\\.9% from 45 to 64, and 21\\.9% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 40 years. For every 100 females, there were 88\\.5 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 88\\.2 males.",
"The median income for a household in the city was $33,618, and the median income for a family was $39,375\\. Males had a median income of $27,917 versus $24,250 for females. The [per capita income](/wiki/Per_capita_income \"Per capita income\") for the city was $15,510\\. About 10\\.9% of families and 14\\.0% of the population were below the [poverty line](/wiki/Poverty_line \"Poverty line\"), including 19\\.4% of those under age 18 and 7\\.5% of those age 65 or over.",
""
] |
Description of the tablet
-------------------------
The tablet consists of three parts: the world map, a text above it, and a text on the reverse side. It is not clear whether all three parts should be read as a single document. Systematic differences between the texts suggest that the tablet may have been compiled from three separate documents.Horowith 1998, pp. 26, 30\.
### The map
[thumb\|300px\|Babylonian Map of the World with false color](/wiki/File:4000BCE_map_of_the_world_showing_Armeny_Ashur_Bavel_Akkad-British_Museum-Object_Number-92687-PubDomain-details5.svg "4000BCE map of the world showing Armeny Ashur Bavel Akkad-British Museum-Object Number-92687-PubDomain-details5.svg")
The map is circular with two boundary circles. [Cuneiform](/wiki/Cuneiform "Cuneiform") script labels all locations inside the circular map, as well as a few regions outside. The two circles represent a body of water labelled id*maratum* "bitter river", the salt sea.
[Babylon](/wiki/Babylon "Babylon") is marked north of center; parallel lines at the bottom seem to represent the *southern marshes*, and a curved line coming from the north\-northeast appear to represent the [Zagros Mountains](/wiki/Zagros_Mountains "Zagros Mountains").Horowitz, Wayne, "The Babylonian Map of the World", iraq, vol. 50, pp. 147\-165, 1988
Horowitz, Wayne, "Cosmic Geography: Mesopotamian Cosmic Geography", Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbraun, 1998
F.E. Peier *ZA* 4 (1889\), R.C. Thompson, "Cuneiform texts from Babylonian tablets", pp. 22\-48, 1906E. Weidner, BoSt 6, pp. 85\-93, 1922E. Unger, "Babylon", pp. 254\-258, 1931
[thumb\|290px\|Drawing by [B. Meissner](/wiki/Bruno_Meissner "Bruno Meissner") in *Babylonien und Assyrien,* 1925\.](/wiki/File:Meissner_Babylonien_und_Assyrien_clay_map_1925.jpg "Meissner Babylonien und Assyrien clay map 1925.jpg")
There are seven small interior circles within the perimeter of the circle, appearing to represent seven cities.
Seven or eight triangular sections outside the water circle represent named "regions" (*nagu*).
The descriptions for five of them have survived.[British Museum Inv. No.92687](http://britishmuseum.org/research/collection_online/collection_object_details.aspx?objectId=362000&partId=1).
| \+ Objects on the Babylonian map of the world | [center\|320px](/wiki/File:BabylonianWorldMap2.jpg "BabylonianWorldMap2.jpg") | 1\. "Mountain" ({{Lang\-akk\|šá\-du\-ú}}) 2\. "City" ({{Lang\-akk\|uru}}) 3\. [Urartu](/wiki/Urartu "Urartu") ({{Lang\-akk\|ú\-ra\-áš\-tu}}) 4\. [Assyria](/wiki/Assyria "Assyria") ({{Lang\-akk\|kuraš\+šurki}}) 5\. Der ({{Lang\-akk\|dēr}}) (a city) 6\. ? 7\. Swamp ({{Lang\-akk\|\[\[ap (cuneiform)\|ap]]\-\[\[pa (cuneiform)\|pa]]\-\[\[ru (cuneiform)\|ru]]}}) 8\. [Susa](/wiki/Susa "Susa") (capital of [Elam](/wiki/Elam "Elam")) ({{Lang\-akk\|šuša}}) 9\. Canal/"outflow" ({{Lang\-akk\|bit\-qu}}) 10\. [Bit Yakin](/wiki/Bit_Yakin "Bit Yakin") ({{Lang\-akk\|bῑt\-ia\-᾿\-ki\-nu}}) (a region) 11\. "City" ({{Lang\-akk\|uru}}) | 12\. Habban ({{Lang\-akk\|ha\-ab\-ban}}) (a [Kassite](/wiki/Kassites "Kassites") land and city) 13\. [Babylon](/wiki/Babylon "Babylon") ({{Lang\-akk\|tin.tirki}}), divided by [Euphrates](/wiki/Euphrates "Euphrates") 14 – 17\. Ocean (salt water, {{Lang\-akk\|idmar\-ra\-tum}}) 19 – 22 (and 18?). outer "regions" (*nagu*): 18\. "Great Wall, 6 leagues in between, where the Sun is not seen" ({{Lang\-akk\|BÀD.GU.LA 6 bēru ina bi\-rit a\-šar Šamaš la innammaru}}). – The "Great Wall" may be a mountain ridge, the "6 leagues in between" probably refer to the width of the Ocean.Horowitz 1998, pp. 30, 32\. 19\. "*nagu*, 6 leagues in between" 20\. "\[*nag*]*u* \[..." (rest of text missing) 21\. "\[*na*]*gu* \[..." (rest of text missing) 22\. "*nagu*, 8 leagues in between" 23\. No description. (a city in Assyria?) 24, 25\. No description. (cities in Habban?) |
### Accompanying texts
#### Front side
The text above the mapHorowith 1998, pp. 22\-23, 33\-37\. (11 lines) seems to describe part of the creation of the world by [Marduk](/wiki/Marduk "Marduk"), the patron god of Babylon, who parted the primeval Ocean (the goddess [Tiamat](/wiki/Tiamat "Tiamat")) and thus created Land and Sea. Of the Sea it says:
{{blockquote\|the ruine\[d] gods which he (Marduk) set\[tled] inside the Sea{{nbsp}}\[...] are present; the viper, the great sea\-serpent inside.}}
Next, on Land, a series of two mythical creatures ("the [Anzu\-bird](/wiki/Anz%C3%BB "Anzû"), and [scorpi\[on\-man](/wiki/Scorpion_man "Scorpion man")]") and at least fifteen land animals are mentioned, "beasts which Marduk created on top of the res\[tl]ess Sea" (i.e. on the land, visualized as a kind of giant raft floating in the Sea), among them mountain goat, gazelle, lion, wolf, monkey and female\-monkey, ostrich, cat, and chameleon. With the exception of the cat, all these animals were typical of faraway lands.
The last two lines of the text refer to three legendary heroes: [\[U]tnapištim](/wiki/Utnapishtim "Utnapishtim") (the hero of the Flood), [Sargon](/wiki/Sargon_of_Akkad "Sargon of Akkad") (ruler of Akkad), and Nur\-\[D]agan the King of [Buršaḫa\[nda](/wiki/Purushanda "Purushanda")] (opponent of Sargon).Horowith 1998, pp. 20–42\.
#### Back side
The back sideHorowith 1998, pp. 23–25, 37–40\. (29 lines) seems to be a description of (at least) eight *nagu*. After an introduction, possibly explaining how to identify the first *nagu*, the next seven *nagu* are each introduced by the clause "To the *n*\-th region \[*nagu*], where you travel 7 leagues" (the distance of 7 leagues seems to indicate the width of the Ocean, rather than the distance between subsequent *nagu*).Horowith 1998, p. 30\.
A short description is given for each of the eight *nagu*, but those of the first, second, and sixth are too damaged to read. The fifth *nagu* has the longest description, but this too is damaged and uncomprehensible. The seventh nagu is more clear:
{{blockquote\|... where cattle equipped with horns \[are ...] they run fast and reach{{nbsp}}\[...]}}
The third *nagu* may be a barren desert, impassable even for birds:
{{blockquote\|A winged \[bi]rd cannot safely comp\[lete its journey]}}
In the fourth *nagu* objects are found of remarkable dimensions:
{{blockquote\|\[...] are thick as a ''parsiktum''\-measure, 20 fingers \[...]}}
The eighth *nagu* may refer to a supposed heavenly gate in the east where the Sun enters as it rises in the morning.
{{blockquote\|\[... the p]lace where{{nbsp}}\[...] dawns at its entrance.}}
Concluding, the description then states that the map is a bird's eye description:
{{blockquote\|of the Four Quadrants of the entire \[world?]{{nbsp}}\[...] which no one can compre\[hend] \[i.e., the ''nagu'' extend infinitely far]}}
The last two lines apparently recorded the name of the scribe who wrote the tablet:
{{blockquote\|\[...] copied from its old exemplar and colla\[ted ...] the son of Iṣṣuru \[the descend]ant of Ea\-bēl\-il\[ī].}}
|
[
"Description of the tablet\n-------------------------",
"The tablet consists of three parts: the world map, a text above it, and a text on the reverse side. It is not clear whether all three parts should be read as a single document. Systematic differences between the texts suggest that the tablet may have been compiled from three separate documents.Horowith 1998, pp. 26, 30\\.",
"### The map",
"[thumb\\|300px\\|Babylonian Map of the World with false color](/wiki/File:4000BCE_map_of_the_world_showing_Armeny_Ashur_Bavel_Akkad-British_Museum-Object_Number-92687-PubDomain-details5.svg \"4000BCE map of the world showing Armeny Ashur Bavel Akkad-British Museum-Object Number-92687-PubDomain-details5.svg\")",
"The map is circular with two boundary circles. [Cuneiform](/wiki/Cuneiform \"Cuneiform\") script labels all locations inside the circular map, as well as a few regions outside. The two circles represent a body of water labelled id*maratum* \"bitter river\", the salt sea.\n[Babylon](/wiki/Babylon \"Babylon\") is marked north of center; parallel lines at the bottom seem to represent the *southern marshes*, and a curved line coming from the north\\-northeast appear to represent the [Zagros Mountains](/wiki/Zagros_Mountains \"Zagros Mountains\").Horowitz, Wayne, \"The Babylonian Map of the World\", iraq, vol. 50, pp. 147\\-165, 1988\nHorowitz, Wayne, \"Cosmic Geography: Mesopotamian Cosmic Geography\", Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbraun, 1998\nF.E. Peier *ZA* 4 (1889\\), R.C. Thompson, \"Cuneiform texts from Babylonian tablets\", pp. 22\\-48, 1906E. Weidner, BoSt 6, pp. 85\\-93, 1922E. Unger, \"Babylon\", pp. 254\\-258, 1931",
"[thumb\\|290px\\|Drawing by [B. Meissner](/wiki/Bruno_Meissner \"Bruno Meissner\") in *Babylonien und Assyrien,* 1925\\.](/wiki/File:Meissner_Babylonien_und_Assyrien_clay_map_1925.jpg \"Meissner Babylonien und Assyrien clay map 1925.jpg\")",
"There are seven small interior circles within the perimeter of the circle, appearing to represent seven cities.\nSeven or eight triangular sections outside the water circle represent named \"regions\" (*nagu*).\nThe descriptions for five of them have survived.[British Museum Inv. No.92687](http://britishmuseum.org/research/collection_online/collection_object_details.aspx?objectId=362000&partId=1).",
"",
"| \\+ Objects on the Babylonian map of the world | [center\\|320px](/wiki/File:BabylonianWorldMap2.jpg \"BabylonianWorldMap2.jpg\") | 1\\. \"Mountain\" ({{Lang\\-akk\\|šá\\-du\\-ú}}) 2\\. \"City\" ({{Lang\\-akk\\|uru}}) 3\\. [Urartu](/wiki/Urartu \"Urartu\") ({{Lang\\-akk\\|ú\\-ra\\-áš\\-tu}}) 4\\. [Assyria](/wiki/Assyria \"Assyria\") ({{Lang\\-akk\\|kuraš\\+šurki}}) 5\\. Der ({{Lang\\-akk\\|dēr}}) (a city) 6\\. ? 7\\. Swamp ({{Lang\\-akk\\|\\[\\[ap (cuneiform)\\|ap]]\\-\\[\\[pa (cuneiform)\\|pa]]\\-\\[\\[ru (cuneiform)\\|ru]]}}) 8\\. [Susa](/wiki/Susa \"Susa\") (capital of [Elam](/wiki/Elam \"Elam\")) ({{Lang\\-akk\\|šuša}}) 9\\. Canal/\"outflow\" ({{Lang\\-akk\\|bit\\-qu}}) 10\\. [Bit Yakin](/wiki/Bit_Yakin \"Bit Yakin\") ({{Lang\\-akk\\|bῑt\\-ia\\-᾿\\-ki\\-nu}}) (a region) 11\\. \"City\" ({{Lang\\-akk\\|uru}}) | 12\\. Habban ({{Lang\\-akk\\|ha\\-ab\\-ban}}) (a [Kassite](/wiki/Kassites \"Kassites\") land and city) 13\\. [Babylon](/wiki/Babylon \"Babylon\") ({{Lang\\-akk\\|tin.tirki}}), divided by [Euphrates](/wiki/Euphrates \"Euphrates\") 14 – 17\\. Ocean (salt water, {{Lang\\-akk\\|idmar\\-ra\\-tum}}) 19 – 22 (and 18?). outer \"regions\" (*nagu*): 18\\. \"Great Wall, 6 leagues in between, where the Sun is not seen\" ({{Lang\\-akk\\|BÀD.GU.LA 6 bēru ina bi\\-rit a\\-šar Šamaš la innammaru}}). – The \"Great Wall\" may be a mountain ridge, the \"6 leagues in between\" probably refer to the width of the Ocean.Horowitz 1998, pp. 30, 32\\. 19\\. \"*nagu*, 6 leagues in between\" 20\\. \"\\[*nag*]*u* \\[...\" (rest of text missing) 21\\. \"\\[*na*]*gu* \\[...\" (rest of text missing) 22\\. \"*nagu*, 8 leagues in between\" 23\\. No description. (a city in Assyria?) 24, 25\\. No description. (cities in Habban?) |",
"### Accompanying texts",
"#### Front side",
"The text above the mapHorowith 1998, pp. 22\\-23, 33\\-37\\. (11 lines) seems to describe part of the creation of the world by [Marduk](/wiki/Marduk \"Marduk\"), the patron god of Babylon, who parted the primeval Ocean (the goddess [Tiamat](/wiki/Tiamat \"Tiamat\")) and thus created Land and Sea. Of the Sea it says:",
"{{blockquote\\|the ruine\\[d] gods which he (Marduk) set\\[tled] inside the Sea{{nbsp}}\\[...] are present; the viper, the great sea\\-serpent inside.}}",
"Next, on Land, a series of two mythical creatures (\"the [Anzu\\-bird](/wiki/Anz%C3%BB \"Anzû\"), and [scorpi\\[on\\-man](/wiki/Scorpion_man \"Scorpion man\")]\") and at least fifteen land animals are mentioned, \"beasts which Marduk created on top of the res\\[tl]ess Sea\" (i.e. on the land, visualized as a kind of giant raft floating in the Sea), among them mountain goat, gazelle, lion, wolf, monkey and female\\-monkey, ostrich, cat, and chameleon. With the exception of the cat, all these animals were typical of faraway lands.",
"The last two lines of the text refer to three legendary heroes: [\\[U]tnapištim](/wiki/Utnapishtim \"Utnapishtim\") (the hero of the Flood), [Sargon](/wiki/Sargon_of_Akkad \"Sargon of Akkad\") (ruler of Akkad), and Nur\\-\\[D]agan the King of [Buršaḫa\\[nda](/wiki/Purushanda \"Purushanda\")] (opponent of Sargon).Horowith 1998, pp. 20–42\\.",
"#### Back side",
"The back sideHorowith 1998, pp. 23–25, 37–40\\. (29 lines) seems to be a description of (at least) eight *nagu*. After an introduction, possibly explaining how to identify the first *nagu*, the next seven *nagu* are each introduced by the clause \"To the *n*\\-th region \\[*nagu*], where you travel 7 leagues\" (the distance of 7 leagues seems to indicate the width of the Ocean, rather than the distance between subsequent *nagu*).Horowith 1998, p. 30\\.",
"A short description is given for each of the eight *nagu*, but those of the first, second, and sixth are too damaged to read. The fifth *nagu* has the longest description, but this too is damaged and uncomprehensible. The seventh nagu is more clear:",
"{{blockquote\\|... where cattle equipped with horns \\[are ...] they run fast and reach{{nbsp}}\\[...]}}",
"The third *nagu* may be a barren desert, impassable even for birds:",
"{{blockquote\\|A winged \\[bi]rd cannot safely comp\\[lete its journey]}}",
"In the fourth *nagu* objects are found of remarkable dimensions:",
"{{blockquote\\|\\[...] are thick as a ''parsiktum''\\-measure, 20 fingers \\[...]}}",
"The eighth *nagu* may refer to a supposed heavenly gate in the east where the Sun enters as it rises in the morning.",
"{{blockquote\\|\\[... the p]lace where{{nbsp}}\\[...] dawns at its entrance.}}",
"Concluding, the description then states that the map is a bird's eye description:\n{{blockquote\\|of the Four Quadrants of the entire \\[world?]{{nbsp}}\\[...] which no one can compre\\[hend] \\[i.e., the ''nagu'' extend infinitely far]}}",
"The last two lines apparently recorded the name of the scribe who wrote the tablet:\n{{blockquote\\|\\[...] copied from its old exemplar and colla\\[ted ...] the son of Iṣṣuru \\[the descend]ant of Ea\\-bēl\\-il\\[ī].}}",
""
] |
Selected projects
-----------------
[thumb\|Sam Philipe working on the Exodus Memorial in the foundry](/wiki/File:Sam_Philipe_working_on_the_Exodus_Memorial.jpg "Sam Philipe working on the Exodus Memorial.jpg")
**SS Exodus Memorial**, Haifa 2017
The Exodus, nicknamed the "Ship that Launched a Nation" by writer [Ruth Gruber](/wiki/Ruth_Gruber "Ruth Gruber"), was an American [Aliyah Bet](/wiki/Aliyah_Bet "Aliyah Bet") ship that attempted to bring in 5,400 desperate Holocaust survivors. The Exodus' story fundamentally affected the United Nations vote on the [United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine](/wiki/United_Nations_Partition_Plan_for_Palestine "United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine") dividing [Mandatory Palestine](/wiki/Mandatory_Palestine "Mandatory Palestine") into two States, one Jewish and one Arab. The sculpture consists of a relief map of Israel with a model of the Exodus anchor.[https://www.jpost.com/israel\-news/first\-israeli\-monument\-to\-exodus\-inaugurated\-in\-haifa\-500112](https://www.jpost.com/israel-news/first-israeli-monument-to-exodus-inaugurated-in-haifa-500112) \[First Israeli Monument to the Exodus][http://www.jewish\-american\-society\-for\-historic\-preservation.org/internationalprograms/exodusmemorialisrael.html](http://www.jewish-american-society-for-historic-preservation.org/internationalprograms/exodusmemorialisrael.html) \[Doing the Right Thing][https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\=m6YAJ4OMe2g](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=m6YAJ4OMe2g) \[YouTube dedication ceremony][https://www.timesofisrael.com/in\-pictures\-the\-70th\-anniversary\-of\-the\-ss\-exodus\-in\-haifa/](https://www.timesofisrael.com/in-pictures-the-70th-anniversary-of-the-ss-exodus-in-haifa/) \[70th Anniversary of the S.S. Exodus][https://www.jewishtimes.com/64661/exodus\-1947\-haifa\-memorial/news/](https://www.jewishtimes.com/64661/exodus-1947-haifa-memorial/news/) \[S.S. Exodus][https://int.icej.org/news/commentary/remembering\-exodus](https://int.icej.org/news/commentary/remembering-exodus) \[Remembering the Exodus]\[Remembering the Exodus]{{cite web \| url\=https://www.washingtonjewishweek.com/the\-ship\-that\-launched\-a\-nation/ \| title\=The ship that launched a nation \| date\=26 July 2017 }}
**Machal Memorial**, Ammunition Hill, Jerusalem 2018
The Memorial commemorates the 5,000 foreign volunteers who helped defend the new state of Israel in the 1948 War of Independence. The rock is adorned with sculpted models of the three military corps that the volunteers served in, Navy, Air Force and Army. .[http://www.machal.org.il/index.php?option\=com\_content\&view\=article\&id\=847\&Itemid\=1271\&lang\=en/](http://www.machal.org.il/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=847&Itemid=1271&lang=en/)
\[Dedication of a Machal Memorial at Ammunition Hill in Jerusalem][https://jewishjournal.com/news/united\-states/228631/machal\-fighters\-get\-memorial\-jerusalem\-seven\-decades\-volunteering\-israel/](https://jewishjournal.com/news/united-states/228631/machal-fighters-get-memorial-jerusalem-seven-decades-volunteering-israel/) \[Machal Fighters Get Memorial in Jerusalem, Seven Decades After Volunteering for Israel]{{cite web \| url\=https://blogs.timesofisrael.com/from\-the\-old\-maccabees\-to\-the\-new\-maccabees\-a\-wrong\-made\-right/ \| title\=From the Old Maccabees to the New Maccabees "A wrong made right" }}
**Anne Frank Children's Human Rights Memorial(s),** Ma'aleh Adumim, Antigua, Guatemala, Buenos,Aires, Argentina
Philipe's [Anne Frank](/wiki/Anne_Frank "Anne Frank") Children's Human Rights Memorial combines interpretive and realistic art with a life\-size representation of Frank sitting at her desk in the secret annex with a bare light bulb hanging above her head as the Nazis march through the streets below. The plaque on the base of the sculpture reads: "Children are the ultimate victims of adult hatred, bigotry, and ignorance."
{{cite web \| url\=https://blogs.timesofisrael.com/the\-anne\-frank\-childrens\-human\-rights\-memorial/\#:\~:text\=On%20the%20main%20road%20outside,is%20unique%20in%20the%20world \| title\=The Anne Frank Children's Human Rights Memorial }}
Anne Frank Children's Human Rights Memorials have been placed in Antigua, Guatemala and shortly in Buenos Aires.
**Golan Heights Eagle Menorah,** Golan Heights
The large bronze eagle and menorah sculpture is modeled upon the indigenous Golan Eagle and the depiction of the Menorah found in the 5th\-century [Golan Heights](/wiki/Golan_Heights "Golan Heights") synagogue, Ein Keshatot. [Trump Heights](/wiki/Trump_Heights "Trump Heights") and the Golan Eagle Menorah sculpture were dedicated in appreciation to President [Donald J. Trump](/wiki/Donald_J._Trump "Donald J. Trump").{{cite web \| url\=https://blogs.timesofisrael.com/thank\-you\-president\-trump\-ani\-modeh\-lecha/ \| title\=Thank you, President Trump Ani Modeh Lecha }}
**Temple Lions,** Beit Shean 2019
Inspired by a basalt relief discovered in archeological excavations in Beit Shean and attributed to a local Temple from the 14th BCE.
**Departure and Expulsion Memorial,** Jerusalem {{Cite web\|url\=https://blogs.timesofisrael.com/for\-the\-forgotten\-victims\-of\-hate\-at\-israels\-birth\-a\-memorial/\|title \= For the forgotten victims of Hate at Israel's Birth, a Memorial}}{{cite web \| url\=https://blogs.timesofisrael.com/the\-departure\-and\-expulsion\-memorial\-the\-jewish\-nakba\-memorial/ \| title\=The Departure and Expulsion Memorial – the Jewish "Nakba" Memorial }}
Based on the iconic image of Jewish Yemenite refugees fleeing in the desert attempting to reach Israel. Inscription: “With the birth of the State of Israel, over 850,000 Jews were forced from Arab Lands and Iran. The desperate refugees were welcomed by Israel. The Memorial was conceived and funded by the [Jewish American Society for Historic Preservation](/wiki/Jewish_American_Society_for_Historic_Preservation "Jewish American Society for Historic Preservation").
**Tree of Life,** Ma'aleh Adumim
In June 2022, Tree of Life, a 60\-ton steel and concrete sculpture based on [Kabbalistic](/wiki/Kabbalistic "Kabbalistic") symbolism, was installed in Park Shamir overlooking a lake at the entrance to [Ma'aleh Adumim](/wiki/Ma%27aleh_Adumim "Ma'aleh Adumim"). The sculpture, shaped like the trunk of an old, gnarled olive tree, is 18 meters high and 7 meters wide.{{Cite web\|date\=2022\-06\-16\|title\=פסל עץ החיים\|url\=https://www.myzman.co.il/articles/Mekomi/6028\|access\-date\=2022\-07\-08\|website\=maaleh net\|language\=he}}
**Hands of Choice,** Tzfat
The Hands of Choice is a memorial in [Tzfat](/wiki/Tzfat "Tzfat") created to honor ordinary Jews who chose to save Jews, even at the cost of their own lives. The design is two upturned hands cupping a Star of David. Each facet of the Star has a Jerusalem stone panel inscribed with the names of these heroic Jews."{{Cite web\|date\=2021\-07\-24\|title\=Jews Who Saved Other Jews Memorialized\|url\=https://www.sdjewishworld.com/2021/07/24/jews\-who\-saved\-other\-jews\-memorialized\|access\-date\=2022\-07\-08\|website\=San Diego Jewish World\|language\=en\-US}}
[thumb\|Monument commemorating 1947 UN Partition Plan, [Netanya](/wiki/Netanya "Netanya")](/wiki/File:Shofar_monument_by_Sam_Philipe%2C_Netanya.jpg "Shofar monument by Sam Philipe, Netanya.jpg")
**UN Partition Plan Memorial,** Netanya
Philipe's monument, featuring a giant [shofar](/wiki/Shofar "Shofar"), was unveiled in [Netanya](/wiki/Netanya "Netanya") on November 29, 2022, to mark the 75th anniversary of the [UN Partition Plan](/wiki/UN_Partition_Plan "UN Partition Plan"). According to the sculptor, his inspiration was a verse from the [Hebrew](/wiki/Hebrew "Hebrew") [prayerbook](/wiki/Siddur "Siddur"): "Blow a big trumpet for our freedom and let there be a miracle to collect our dispersed."[75th anniversary of UN decision](https://www.jwire.com.au/142806-2/)
**The Lion's Trail**
Stretching from the Golan to Dimona, Israel, Sam has brought a proposed concept to life, ten giant, 10' plus Lions, "Border Lions," defining, with biblical references in stone, the borders of the lands of Israel.
He is at work on creating the biggest lion in Israel, the Lion of Ofakim, a 24' powerful behemoth. The Ofakim Lion will stand on the Western approach to Ofakim, a city near Gaza that was attacked on October 7\. 53 residents of Ofakim died before the heavily armed Gazan terrorists were defeated by the extraordinary courage of Ofakim residents using only small arms.
The Ofakim Lion will have at its base a quote from the Prophet Amos 6\-7\.
"Thus says the Lord, For three transgressions of Gaza and for four I will not revoke its punishment, Because they 'kidnapped' an entire population To deliver it up to Edom.
7 “So I will send fire upon the wall of Gaza and it will consume her citadels."
A number of the Lion's Trail lions have become de facto October 7 war memorials, such as the Lion of Beit Jann for the Druze soldiers who have died in the war.[https://blogs.timesofisrael.com/the\-lions\-trail\-beit\-jann\-the\-tenth\-man/](https://blogs.timesofisrael.com/the-lions-trail-beit-jann-the-tenth-man/)
|
[
"Selected projects\n-----------------",
"[thumb\\|Sam Philipe working on the Exodus Memorial in the foundry](/wiki/File:Sam_Philipe_working_on_the_Exodus_Memorial.jpg \"Sam Philipe working on the Exodus Memorial.jpg\")\n**SS Exodus Memorial**, Haifa 2017",
"The Exodus, nicknamed the \"Ship that Launched a Nation\" by writer [Ruth Gruber](/wiki/Ruth_Gruber \"Ruth Gruber\"), was an American [Aliyah Bet](/wiki/Aliyah_Bet \"Aliyah Bet\") ship that attempted to bring in 5,400 desperate Holocaust survivors. The Exodus' story fundamentally affected the United Nations vote on the [United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine](/wiki/United_Nations_Partition_Plan_for_Palestine \"United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine\") dividing [Mandatory Palestine](/wiki/Mandatory_Palestine \"Mandatory Palestine\") into two States, one Jewish and one Arab. The sculpture consists of a relief map of Israel with a model of the Exodus anchor.[https://www.jpost.com/israel\\-news/first\\-israeli\\-monument\\-to\\-exodus\\-inaugurated\\-in\\-haifa\\-500112](https://www.jpost.com/israel-news/first-israeli-monument-to-exodus-inaugurated-in-haifa-500112) \\[First Israeli Monument to the Exodus][http://www.jewish\\-american\\-society\\-for\\-historic\\-preservation.org/internationalprograms/exodusmemorialisrael.html](http://www.jewish-american-society-for-historic-preservation.org/internationalprograms/exodusmemorialisrael.html) \\[Doing the Right Thing][https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\\=m6YAJ4OMe2g](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=m6YAJ4OMe2g) \\[YouTube dedication ceremony][https://www.timesofisrael.com/in\\-pictures\\-the\\-70th\\-anniversary\\-of\\-the\\-ss\\-exodus\\-in\\-haifa/](https://www.timesofisrael.com/in-pictures-the-70th-anniversary-of-the-ss-exodus-in-haifa/) \\[70th Anniversary of the S.S. Exodus][https://www.jewishtimes.com/64661/exodus\\-1947\\-haifa\\-memorial/news/](https://www.jewishtimes.com/64661/exodus-1947-haifa-memorial/news/) \\[S.S. Exodus][https://int.icej.org/news/commentary/remembering\\-exodus](https://int.icej.org/news/commentary/remembering-exodus) \\[Remembering the Exodus]\\[Remembering the Exodus]{{cite web \\| url\\=https://www.washingtonjewishweek.com/the\\-ship\\-that\\-launched\\-a\\-nation/ \\| title\\=The ship that launched a nation \\| date\\=26 July 2017 }}",
"**Machal Memorial**, Ammunition Hill, Jerusalem 2018",
"The Memorial commemorates the 5,000 foreign volunteers who helped defend the new state of Israel in the 1948 War of Independence. The rock is adorned with sculpted models of the three military corps that the volunteers served in, Navy, Air Force and Army. .[http://www.machal.org.il/index.php?option\\=com\\_content\\&view\\=article\\&id\\=847\\&Itemid\\=1271\\&lang\\=en/](http://www.machal.org.il/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=847&Itemid=1271&lang=en/)\n\\[Dedication of a Machal Memorial at Ammunition Hill in Jerusalem][https://jewishjournal.com/news/united\\-states/228631/machal\\-fighters\\-get\\-memorial\\-jerusalem\\-seven\\-decades\\-volunteering\\-israel/](https://jewishjournal.com/news/united-states/228631/machal-fighters-get-memorial-jerusalem-seven-decades-volunteering-israel/) \\[Machal Fighters Get Memorial in Jerusalem, Seven Decades After Volunteering for Israel]{{cite web \\| url\\=https://blogs.timesofisrael.com/from\\-the\\-old\\-maccabees\\-to\\-the\\-new\\-maccabees\\-a\\-wrong\\-made\\-right/ \\| title\\=From the Old Maccabees to the New Maccabees \"A wrong made right\" }}",
"**Anne Frank Children's Human Rights Memorial(s),** Ma'aleh Adumim, Antigua, Guatemala, Buenos,Aires, Argentina",
"Philipe's [Anne Frank](/wiki/Anne_Frank \"Anne Frank\") Children's Human Rights Memorial combines interpretive and realistic art with a life\\-size representation of Frank sitting at her desk in the secret annex with a bare light bulb hanging above her head as the Nazis march through the streets below. The plaque on the base of the sculpture reads: \"Children are the ultimate victims of adult hatred, bigotry, and ignorance.\" \n{{cite web \\| url\\=https://blogs.timesofisrael.com/the\\-anne\\-frank\\-childrens\\-human\\-rights\\-memorial/\\#:\\~:text\\=On%20the%20main%20road%20outside,is%20unique%20in%20the%20world \\| title\\=The Anne Frank Children's Human Rights Memorial }}",
"Anne Frank Children's Human Rights Memorials have been placed in Antigua, Guatemala and shortly in Buenos Aires.",
"**Golan Heights Eagle Menorah,** Golan Heights",
"The large bronze eagle and menorah sculpture is modeled upon the indigenous Golan Eagle and the depiction of the Menorah found in the 5th\\-century [Golan Heights](/wiki/Golan_Heights \"Golan Heights\") synagogue, Ein Keshatot. [Trump Heights](/wiki/Trump_Heights \"Trump Heights\") and the Golan Eagle Menorah sculpture were dedicated in appreciation to President [Donald J. Trump](/wiki/Donald_J._Trump \"Donald J. Trump\").{{cite web \\| url\\=https://blogs.timesofisrael.com/thank\\-you\\-president\\-trump\\-ani\\-modeh\\-lecha/ \\| title\\=Thank you, President Trump Ani Modeh Lecha }}",
"**Temple Lions,** Beit Shean 2019",
"Inspired by a basalt relief discovered in archeological excavations in Beit Shean and attributed to a local Temple from the 14th BCE.",
"**Departure and Expulsion Memorial,** Jerusalem {{Cite web\\|url\\=https://blogs.timesofisrael.com/for\\-the\\-forgotten\\-victims\\-of\\-hate\\-at\\-israels\\-birth\\-a\\-memorial/\\|title \\= For the forgotten victims of Hate at Israel's Birth, a Memorial}}{{cite web \\| url\\=https://blogs.timesofisrael.com/the\\-departure\\-and\\-expulsion\\-memorial\\-the\\-jewish\\-nakba\\-memorial/ \\| title\\=The Departure and Expulsion Memorial – the Jewish \"Nakba\" Memorial }}",
"Based on the iconic image of Jewish Yemenite refugees fleeing in the desert attempting to reach Israel. Inscription: “With the birth of the State of Israel, over 850,000 Jews were forced from Arab Lands and Iran. The desperate refugees were welcomed by Israel. The Memorial was conceived and funded by the [Jewish American Society for Historic Preservation](/wiki/Jewish_American_Society_for_Historic_Preservation \"Jewish American Society for Historic Preservation\").",
"**Tree of Life,** Ma'aleh Adumim",
"In June 2022, Tree of Life, a 60\\-ton steel and concrete sculpture based on [Kabbalistic](/wiki/Kabbalistic \"Kabbalistic\") symbolism, was installed in Park Shamir overlooking a lake at the entrance to [Ma'aleh Adumim](/wiki/Ma%27aleh_Adumim \"Ma'aleh Adumim\"). The sculpture, shaped like the trunk of an old, gnarled olive tree, is 18 meters high and 7 meters wide.{{Cite web\\|date\\=2022\\-06\\-16\\|title\\=פסל עץ החיים\\|url\\=https://www.myzman.co.il/articles/Mekomi/6028\\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-07\\-08\\|website\\=maaleh net\\|language\\=he}}",
"**Hands of Choice,** Tzfat",
"The Hands of Choice is a memorial in [Tzfat](/wiki/Tzfat \"Tzfat\") created to honor ordinary Jews who chose to save Jews, even at the cost of their own lives. The design is two upturned hands cupping a Star of David. Each facet of the Star has a Jerusalem stone panel inscribed with the names of these heroic Jews.\"{{Cite web\\|date\\=2021\\-07\\-24\\|title\\=Jews Who Saved Other Jews Memorialized\\|url\\=https://www.sdjewishworld.com/2021/07/24/jews\\-who\\-saved\\-other\\-jews\\-memorialized\\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-07\\-08\\|website\\=San Diego Jewish World\\|language\\=en\\-US}}\n[thumb\\|Monument commemorating 1947 UN Partition Plan, [Netanya](/wiki/Netanya \"Netanya\")](/wiki/File:Shofar_monument_by_Sam_Philipe%2C_Netanya.jpg \"Shofar monument by Sam Philipe, Netanya.jpg\")\n**UN Partition Plan Memorial,** Netanya",
"Philipe's monument, featuring a giant [shofar](/wiki/Shofar \"Shofar\"), was unveiled in [Netanya](/wiki/Netanya \"Netanya\") on November 29, 2022, to mark the 75th anniversary of the [UN Partition Plan](/wiki/UN_Partition_Plan \"UN Partition Plan\"). According to the sculptor, his inspiration was a verse from the [Hebrew](/wiki/Hebrew \"Hebrew\") [prayerbook](/wiki/Siddur \"Siddur\"): \"Blow a big trumpet for our freedom and let there be a miracle to collect our dispersed.\"[75th anniversary of UN decision](https://www.jwire.com.au/142806-2/)",
"**The Lion's Trail**",
"Stretching from the Golan to Dimona, Israel, Sam has brought a proposed concept to life, ten giant, 10' plus Lions, \"Border Lions,\" defining, with biblical references in stone, the borders of the lands of Israel.",
"He is at work on creating the biggest lion in Israel, the Lion of Ofakim, a 24' powerful behemoth. The Ofakim Lion will stand on the Western approach to Ofakim, a city near Gaza that was attacked on October 7\\. 53 residents of Ofakim died before the heavily armed Gazan terrorists were defeated by the extraordinary courage of Ofakim residents using only small arms.",
"The Ofakim Lion will have at its base a quote from the Prophet Amos 6\\-7\\.",
"\"Thus says the Lord, For three transgressions of Gaza and for four I will not revoke its punishment, Because they 'kidnapped' an entire population To deliver it up to Edom.",
"7 “So I will send fire upon the wall of Gaza and it will consume her citadels.\"",
"A number of the Lion's Trail lions have become de facto October 7 war memorials, such as the Lion of Beit Jann for the Druze soldiers who have died in the war.[https://blogs.timesofisrael.com/the\\-lions\\-trail\\-beit\\-jann\\-the\\-tenth\\-man/](https://blogs.timesofisrael.com/the-lions-trail-beit-jann-the-tenth-man/)",
""
] |
Career
------
He studied chemistry at [University College London](/wiki/University_College_London "University College London") (UCL) and was awarded a PhD in 1945\. In 1947, he was awarded an [Imperial Chemical Industries](/wiki/Imperial_Chemical_Industries "Imperial Chemical Industries") (ICI) research fellowship at the [Hospital for Sick Children](/wiki/Great_Ormond_Street_Hospital "Great Ormond Street Hospital") at Great Ormond Street, London, working on [tyrosine](/wiki/Tyrosine "Tyrosine") metabolism in premature babies and inherited [metabolic disorders](/wiki/Metabolic_disorders "Metabolic disorders"), with a focus on [amino acids](/wiki/Amino_acids "Amino acids").
Woolf believed that the metabolic disorder [phenylketonuria](/wiki/Phenylketonuria "Phenylketonuria") (PKU) could be treated through dietary changes, most notably a low\-phenylalanine diet. At the time, the [scientific consensus](/wiki/Scientific_consensus "Scientific consensus") was that PKU was untreatable.{{Cite journal \|last1\=Alonso\-Fernández \|first1\=J R \|last2\=Colón \|first2\=C \|date\=December 2009 \|title\=Article Commentary: The contributions of Louis I Woolf to the treatment, early diagnosis and understanding of phenylketonuria \|journal\=\[\[Journal of Medical Screening]] \|volume\=16 \|issue\=4 \|pages\=205–211 \|doi\=10\.1258/jms.2009\.009062 \|pmid\=20054096 \|issn\=0969\-1413\|doi\-access\=free }} However, the idea that it could be treated through diet was proposed by some doctors since the 1930s, shortly after the condition was first described.{{cite journal \|last1\=Green \|first1\=Anne \|title\=The First Treatment for PKU: The Pioneers—Birmingham 1951 \|journal\=International Journal of Neonatal Screening \|date\=20 March 2021 \|volume\=7 \|issue\=1 \|pages\=19 \|doi\=10\.3390/ijns7010019 \|doi\-access\=free \|pmid\=33804699 \|pmc\=8006244 \|issn\=2409\-515X}} However, this was not easy as scientists struggled to reduce the levels of phenylalanine in food. Woolf's idea of using [activated charcoal](/wiki/Activated_charcoal "Activated charcoal") to filter phenylalanine from [casein](/wiki/Casein "Casein") hydrolysate laid the groundwork for future dietary interventions,{{Cite journal \|last1\=Howell \|first1\=R. Rodney \|last2\=Sinclair \|first2\=Graham \|date\=2020\-05\-30 \|title\=A Visit with Dr. Louis Woolf, Recognizing His 100th Birthday and His Contributions to the Diagnosis and Treatment of Phenylketonuria \|journal\=\[\[International Journal of Neonatal Screening]] \|volume\=6 \|issue\=2 \|pages\=45 \|doi\=10\.3390/ijns6020045 \|issn\=2409\-515X \|pmc\=7423008 \|pmid\=33073035 \|doi\-access\=free }} which he researched in the late 1940s and early 1950s.
The first successful trial of this diet involved proposing a low\-phenylalanine diet as a treatment for PKU. This was done in collaboration with [Horst Bickel](/wiki/Horst_Bickel "Horst Bickel"), [John W. Gerrard](/wiki/John_W._Gerrard "John W. Gerrard") and other scientists in 1951\. This trialled despite Woolf and others facing scepticism and professional challenges, including the belief that PKU was untreatable due to its genetic nature. The result of the trial diet on a young PKU patient led to significant clinical improvement.{{Cite web \|last1\=Sloan \|first1\=Laura \|last2\=Adams \|first2\=John \|date\=9 November 2011 \|title\=Unsung Heroes: Role of Families in Driving Science \& Health Care: Inside PKU. Newborn Screening and Genetic Testing Symposium \|url\=https://www.aphl.org/conferences/proceedings/Documents/2011/NBS\-Genetic\-Testing\-Symposium/048\-Adams.pdf \|website\=\[\[Association of Public Health Laboratories]]}}
In 1957, Woolf and colleagues recommended mass screening for PKU using a [ferric chloride test](/wiki/Ferric_chloride_test "Ferric chloride test") on [urine samples](/wiki/Urine_samples "Urine samples") from newborn babies. They emphasised the importance of early diagnosis and treatment, proposing screening at 21 days after birth.
This urine test was the basis of the first commercial PKU screening test, Phenistix, which was released the next year. Phenistix was adopted in various locations, including the United Kingdom and the United States, where screening programmes which emphasise early detection and treatment were adopted. In 1966–1967, Woolf's screening methods were adopted in Spain, with a pilot program in Granada.
Woolf moved to Vancouver in 1968, where he joined the [University of British Columbia](/wiki/University_of_British_Columbia "University of British Columbia") and continued research on phenylalanine biochemistry and metabolic diseases. His work extended beyond PKU to include a wide range of [inborn errors of metabolism](/wiki/Inborn_errors_of_metabolism "Inborn errors of metabolism").
In 1979, Woolf discussed the variants of PKU, including cases with blood concentrations of phenylalanine below typical PKU levels, and the consequences of interrupting a low\-phenylalanine diet in later childhood.
|
[
"Career\n------",
"He studied chemistry at [University College London](/wiki/University_College_London \"University College London\") (UCL) and was awarded a PhD in 1945\\. In 1947, he was awarded an [Imperial Chemical Industries](/wiki/Imperial_Chemical_Industries \"Imperial Chemical Industries\") (ICI) research fellowship at the [Hospital for Sick Children](/wiki/Great_Ormond_Street_Hospital \"Great Ormond Street Hospital\") at Great Ormond Street, London, working on [tyrosine](/wiki/Tyrosine \"Tyrosine\") metabolism in premature babies and inherited [metabolic disorders](/wiki/Metabolic_disorders \"Metabolic disorders\"), with a focus on [amino acids](/wiki/Amino_acids \"Amino acids\").",
"Woolf believed that the metabolic disorder [phenylketonuria](/wiki/Phenylketonuria \"Phenylketonuria\") (PKU) could be treated through dietary changes, most notably a low\\-phenylalanine diet. At the time, the [scientific consensus](/wiki/Scientific_consensus \"Scientific consensus\") was that PKU was untreatable.{{Cite journal \\|last1\\=Alonso\\-Fernández \\|first1\\=J R \\|last2\\=Colón \\|first2\\=C \\|date\\=December 2009 \\|title\\=Article Commentary: The contributions of Louis I Woolf to the treatment, early diagnosis and understanding of phenylketonuria \\|journal\\=\\[\\[Journal of Medical Screening]] \\|volume\\=16 \\|issue\\=4 \\|pages\\=205–211 \\|doi\\=10\\.1258/jms.2009\\.009062 \\|pmid\\=20054096 \\|issn\\=0969\\-1413\\|doi\\-access\\=free }} However, the idea that it could be treated through diet was proposed by some doctors since the 1930s, shortly after the condition was first described.{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Green \\|first1\\=Anne \\|title\\=The First Treatment for PKU: The Pioneers—Birmingham 1951 \\|journal\\=International Journal of Neonatal Screening \\|date\\=20 March 2021 \\|volume\\=7 \\|issue\\=1 \\|pages\\=19 \\|doi\\=10\\.3390/ijns7010019 \\|doi\\-access\\=free \\|pmid\\=33804699 \\|pmc\\=8006244 \\|issn\\=2409\\-515X}} However, this was not easy as scientists struggled to reduce the levels of phenylalanine in food. Woolf's idea of using [activated charcoal](/wiki/Activated_charcoal \"Activated charcoal\") to filter phenylalanine from [casein](/wiki/Casein \"Casein\") hydrolysate laid the groundwork for future dietary interventions,{{Cite journal \\|last1\\=Howell \\|first1\\=R. Rodney \\|last2\\=Sinclair \\|first2\\=Graham \\|date\\=2020\\-05\\-30 \\|title\\=A Visit with Dr. Louis Woolf, Recognizing His 100th Birthday and His Contributions to the Diagnosis and Treatment of Phenylketonuria \\|journal\\=\\[\\[International Journal of Neonatal Screening]] \\|volume\\=6 \\|issue\\=2 \\|pages\\=45 \\|doi\\=10\\.3390/ijns6020045 \\|issn\\=2409\\-515X \\|pmc\\=7423008 \\|pmid\\=33073035 \\|doi\\-access\\=free }} which he researched in the late 1940s and early 1950s.",
"The first successful trial of this diet involved proposing a low\\-phenylalanine diet as a treatment for PKU. This was done in collaboration with [Horst Bickel](/wiki/Horst_Bickel \"Horst Bickel\"), [John W. Gerrard](/wiki/John_W._Gerrard \"John W. Gerrard\") and other scientists in 1951\\. This trialled despite Woolf and others facing scepticism and professional challenges, including the belief that PKU was untreatable due to its genetic nature. The result of the trial diet on a young PKU patient led to significant clinical improvement.{{Cite web \\|last1\\=Sloan \\|first1\\=Laura \\|last2\\=Adams \\|first2\\=John \\|date\\=9 November 2011 \\|title\\=Unsung Heroes: Role of Families in Driving Science \\& Health Care: Inside PKU. Newborn Screening and Genetic Testing Symposium \\|url\\=https://www.aphl.org/conferences/proceedings/Documents/2011/NBS\\-Genetic\\-Testing\\-Symposium/048\\-Adams.pdf \\|website\\=\\[\\[Association of Public Health Laboratories]]}}",
"In 1957, Woolf and colleagues recommended mass screening for PKU using a [ferric chloride test](/wiki/Ferric_chloride_test \"Ferric chloride test\") on [urine samples](/wiki/Urine_samples \"Urine samples\") from newborn babies. They emphasised the importance of early diagnosis and treatment, proposing screening at 21 days after birth.",
"This urine test was the basis of the first commercial PKU screening test, Phenistix, which was released the next year. Phenistix was adopted in various locations, including the United Kingdom and the United States, where screening programmes which emphasise early detection and treatment were adopted. In 1966–1967, Woolf's screening methods were adopted in Spain, with a pilot program in Granada.",
"Woolf moved to Vancouver in 1968, where he joined the [University of British Columbia](/wiki/University_of_British_Columbia \"University of British Columbia\") and continued research on phenylalanine biochemistry and metabolic diseases. His work extended beyond PKU to include a wide range of [inborn errors of metabolism](/wiki/Inborn_errors_of_metabolism \"Inborn errors of metabolism\").",
"In 1979, Woolf discussed the variants of PKU, including cases with blood concentrations of phenylalanine below typical PKU levels, and the consequences of interrupting a low\\-phenylalanine diet in later childhood.",
""
] |
As a *Sprachbund*
-----------------
According to {{Harvp\|Haspelmath\|2001}}, the SAE languages form a *[Sprachbund](/wiki/Sprachbund "Sprachbund")* characterized by the following features, sometimes called "euroversals" by analogy with [linguistic universals](/wiki/Linguistic_universal "Linguistic universal"):{{Harvp\|Haspelmath\|2001}}
* definite and indefinite [articles](/wiki/Article_%28grammar%29 "Article (grammar)") (e.g. English *the* vs. *a*/*an*)
* postnominal [relative clauses](/wiki/Relative_clause "Relative clause") with inflected [relative pronouns](/wiki/Relative_pronoun "Relative pronoun") that signal the role of the head in the clause (e.g. English *who* vs. *whose*)
* a [periphrastic](/wiki/Periphrastic "Periphrastic") perfect formed with 'have' plus a passive participle (e.g. English *I have said*);
* a preponderance of generalizing [predicates](/wiki/Predicate_%28grammar%29 "Predicate (grammar)") to encode [experiencers](/wiki/Thematic_relation%23Experiencer "Thematic relation#Experiencer"), i.e. experiencers appear as surface subjects in [nominative case](/wiki/Nominative_case "Nominative case") (e.g. English *I like music* instead of *Music pleases me,* though compare Italian *Mi piace la musica* and German *Musik gefällt mir,* which are of the form "Music pleases me")
* a passive construction formed with a passive participle plus an intransitive [copula](/wiki/Copula_%28linguistics%29 "Copula (linguistics)")\-like verb (e.g. English *I am known*);
* a prominence of [anticausative verbs](/wiki/Anticausative_verb "Anticausative verb") in [inchoative](/wiki/Inchoative_verb "Inchoative verb")\-[causative](/wiki/Causative "Causative") pairs (e.g. Russian inchoative anticausative *izmenit’\-sja* 'to change ([intransitive](/wiki/Intransitive_verb "Intransitive verb"))' is derived from causative *izmenit’* 'to change \[something], make \[something] change')
* [dative](/wiki/Dative_case "Dative case") external possessors (e.g. German *Die Mutter wusch **dem Kind** die Haare* "The mother washed the child's hair" (lit. "The mother washed the hair **to the child**"), Portuguese *Ela lavou\-**lhe** o cabelo* "She washed his hair" (lit. "She washed him the hair")
* negative indefinite pronouns without verbal negation (e.g. German *Niemand kommt* "nobody comes" vs. Modern Greek {{lang\|el\|κανένας δεν ερχεται}} "nobody (lit. not) comes")
* particle comparatives in comparisons of inequality (e.g. English *bigger **than** an elephant*)
* equative constructions (i.e. constructions for comparison of equality) based on adverbial relative\-clause structures, e.g. Occitan *tan grand **coma** un elefant*, Russian *tak že X kak Y*, where *coma/kak* (historically coming from the adverbial interrogative pronoun "how") are "adverbial relative pronouns" according to Haspelmath
* subject person affixes as strict [agreement](/wiki/Agreement_%28linguistics%29 "Agreement (linguistics)") markers, i.e. the verb is inflected for person and number of the subject, but subject pronouns may not be [dropped](/wiki/Null-subject_language "Null-subject language") even when this would be unambiguous (only in some languages, such as German and French)
* differentiation between intensifiers and [reflexive pronouns](/wiki/Reflexive_pronoun "Reflexive pronoun") (e.g. German intensifier *selbst* vs. reflexive *sich*)
Besides these features, which are uncommon outside Europe and thus useful for defining the SAE area, Haspelmath (2001\) lists further features characteristic of European languages (but also found elsewhere):
* verb\-initial order in yes/no questions;
* comparative inflection of adjectives (e.g. English *bigger*);
* For [conjunctions](/wiki/Conjunction_%28grammar%29 "Conjunction (grammar)") of [noun phrases](/wiki/Noun_phrase "Noun phrase"), SAE languages prefer "A and\-B" instead of "A\-and B", "A\-and B\-and", "A B\-and", or the [comitative](/wiki/Comitative_case "Comitative case") "with";
* syncretism of [instrumental](/wiki/Instrumental_case "Instrumental case") and [comitative](/wiki/Comitative_case "Comitative case") cases (e.g. English *I cut my food **with** a knife when eating **with** my friends*);
* [suppletivism](/wiki/Suppletivism "Suppletivism") in *second* vs. *two*;
* lack of distinction between alienable (e.g. legal property) and [inalienable](/wiki/Inalienable_possession "Inalienable possession") (e.g. body part) possession;
* lack of distinction between [inclusive and exclusive](/wiki/Clusivity "Clusivity") first\-person plural pronouns ("we and you" vs. "we and not you");
* lack of productive usage of [reduplication](/wiki/Reduplication "Reduplication");
* [topic](/wiki/Topic_%28linguistics%29 "Topic (linguistics)") and [focus](/wiki/Focus_%28linguistics%29 "Focus (linguistics)") expressed by intonation and word order;
* word order [subject–verb–object](/wiki/Subject%E2%80%93verb%E2%80%93object "Subject–verb–object");
* only one [converb](/wiki/Converb "Converb") (e.g. English *\-ing* form, Romance gerunds), preference for finite rather than non\-finite subordinate clauses{{Examples\|date\=March 2019}};
* specific construction for negative coordination (e.g. English *neither...nor...*);
* phasal adverbs (e.g. English *already*, *still*, *not yet*);
* tendency towards replacement of [past tense](/wiki/Past_tense "Past tense") by the [perfect](/wiki/Perfect_%28grammar%29 "Perfect (grammar)").
The *Sprachbund* defined this way consists of the following languages:
* [Germanic languages](/wiki/Germanic_languages "Germanic languages");
* [Romance languages](/wiki/Romance_languages "Romance languages");
* [Baltic languages](/wiki/Baltic_languages "Baltic languages");
* [Slavic languages](/wiki/Slavic_languages "Slavic languages");
* [Albanian](/wiki/Albanian_language "Albanian language");
* [Greek](/wiki/Modern_Greek_language "Modern Greek language");
* the "westernmost" [Finno\-Ugric languages](/wiki/Finno-Ugric_languages "Finno-Ugric languages").
The [Balkan sprachbund](/wiki/Balkan_sprachbund "Balkan sprachbund") is thus included as a subset of the larger SAE, while Baltic Eastern Europe is a coordinate member.
Not all the languages listed above show all the listed features, so membership in SAE can be described as gradient. Based on nine of the above\-mentioned common features, Haspelmath regards French and German as forming the *nucleus* of the *Sprachbund*, surrounded by a *core* formed by English, the other Romance languages, the Nordic languages, and the Western and Southern Slavic languages. Hungarian, the Baltic languages, the Eastern Slavic languages, and the [Finnic languages](/wiki/Finnic_languages "Finnic languages") form more peripheral groups.Haspelmath, Martin, 1998\. How young is Standard Average European? *Language Sciences*. All languages identified by Haspelmath as core SAE are [Indo\-European languages](/wiki/Indo-European_languages "Indo-European languages"), except Hungarian and the Finnic languages. However, not all Indo\-European languages are SAE languages: the [Celtic](/wiki/Insular_Celtic_languages "Insular Celtic languages"), [Armenian](/wiki/Armenian_languages "Armenian languages"), and [Indo\-Iranian languages](/wiki/Indo-Iranian_languages "Indo-Iranian languages") remain outside the SAE *Sprachbund*.
The Standard Average European *Sprachbund* is most likely the result of ongoing [language contact](/wiki/Language_contact "Language contact") beginning in the time of the [Migration Period](/wiki/Migration_Period "Migration Period"). Inheritance of the SAE features from [Proto\-Indo\-European](/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_language "Proto-Indo-European language") can be ruled out because Proto\-Indo\-European, as currently reconstructed, lacked most of the SAE features. Furthermore, in some cases younger forms of a language do have an SAE feature which attested older forms lack; for example, [Latin](/wiki/Latin "Latin") does not have a periphrastic perfect, but modern [Romance languages](/wiki/Romance_languages "Romance languages") such as Spanish and French do. Much of the area of SAE was at various times part of the [Roman Empire](/wiki/Roman_Empire "Roman Empire") or the vague concept of a political entity called [Christendom](/wiki/Christendom "Christendom") and thus affected by the religious, political and ideological discourse of these entities and their respective [sphere of influence](/wiki/Sphere_of_influence "Sphere of influence"). This discourse and long distance communication among elites generally took place in one of the [linguas francas](/wiki/Lingua_franca "Lingua franca") of the era – [Koine Greek](/wiki/Koine_Greek "Koine Greek") and [Classical Latin](/wiki/Classical_Latin "Classical Latin") in [Late Antiquity](/wiki/Late_Antiquity "Late Antiquity"), [Medieval Latin](/wiki/Medieval_Latin "Medieval Latin") in the Middle Ages and finally in the modern era [Modern Latin](/wiki/Modern_Latin "Modern Latin") gradually being replaced by vernaculars such as modern French, German and – in the 20th and 21st century – increasingly English. These languages have left [learned borrowings](/wiki/Learned_borrowing "Learned borrowing") (also known as [inkhorn terms](/wiki/Inkhorn_term "Inkhorn term")) in the [prestige](/wiki/Linguistic_prestige "Linguistic prestige") variants of almost all European languages and continue to provide [loanwords](/wiki/Loanword "Loanword"), [calques](/wiki/Calque "Calque") and [idioms](/wiki/Idiom "Idiom").
|
[
"As a *Sprachbund*\n-----------------",
"According to {{Harvp\\|Haspelmath\\|2001}}, the SAE languages form a *[Sprachbund](/wiki/Sprachbund \"Sprachbund\")* characterized by the following features, sometimes called \"euroversals\" by analogy with [linguistic universals](/wiki/Linguistic_universal \"Linguistic universal\"):{{Harvp\\|Haspelmath\\|2001}}\n* definite and indefinite [articles](/wiki/Article_%28grammar%29 \"Article (grammar)\") (e.g. English *the* vs. *a*/*an*)\n* postnominal [relative clauses](/wiki/Relative_clause \"Relative clause\") with inflected [relative pronouns](/wiki/Relative_pronoun \"Relative pronoun\") that signal the role of the head in the clause (e.g. English *who* vs. *whose*)\n* a [periphrastic](/wiki/Periphrastic \"Periphrastic\") perfect formed with 'have' plus a passive participle (e.g. English *I have said*);\n* a preponderance of generalizing [predicates](/wiki/Predicate_%28grammar%29 \"Predicate (grammar)\") to encode [experiencers](/wiki/Thematic_relation%23Experiencer \"Thematic relation#Experiencer\"), i.e. experiencers appear as surface subjects in [nominative case](/wiki/Nominative_case \"Nominative case\") (e.g. English *I like music* instead of *Music pleases me,* though compare Italian *Mi piace la musica* and German *Musik gefällt mir,* which are of the form \"Music pleases me\")\n* a passive construction formed with a passive participle plus an intransitive [copula](/wiki/Copula_%28linguistics%29 \"Copula (linguistics)\")\\-like verb (e.g. English *I am known*);\n* a prominence of [anticausative verbs](/wiki/Anticausative_verb \"Anticausative verb\") in [inchoative](/wiki/Inchoative_verb \"Inchoative verb\")\\-[causative](/wiki/Causative \"Causative\") pairs (e.g. Russian inchoative anticausative *izmenit’\\-sja* 'to change ([intransitive](/wiki/Intransitive_verb \"Intransitive verb\"))' is derived from causative *izmenit’* 'to change \\[something], make \\[something] change')\n* [dative](/wiki/Dative_case \"Dative case\") external possessors (e.g. German *Die Mutter wusch **dem Kind** die Haare* \"The mother washed the child's hair\" (lit. \"The mother washed the hair **to the child**\"), Portuguese *Ela lavou\\-**lhe** o cabelo* \"She washed his hair\" (lit. \"She washed him the hair\")\n* negative indefinite pronouns without verbal negation (e.g. German *Niemand kommt* \"nobody comes\" vs. Modern Greek {{lang\\|el\\|κανένας δεν ερχεται}} \"nobody (lit. not) comes\")\n* particle comparatives in comparisons of inequality (e.g. English *bigger **than** an elephant*)\n* equative constructions (i.e. constructions for comparison of equality) based on adverbial relative\\-clause structures, e.g. Occitan *tan grand **coma** un elefant*, Russian *tak že X kak Y*, where *coma/kak* (historically coming from the adverbial interrogative pronoun \"how\") are \"adverbial relative pronouns\" according to Haspelmath\n* subject person affixes as strict [agreement](/wiki/Agreement_%28linguistics%29 \"Agreement (linguistics)\") markers, i.e. the verb is inflected for person and number of the subject, but subject pronouns may not be [dropped](/wiki/Null-subject_language \"Null-subject language\") even when this would be unambiguous (only in some languages, such as German and French)\n* differentiation between intensifiers and [reflexive pronouns](/wiki/Reflexive_pronoun \"Reflexive pronoun\") (e.g. German intensifier *selbst* vs. reflexive *sich*)",
"Besides these features, which are uncommon outside Europe and thus useful for defining the SAE area, Haspelmath (2001\\) lists further features characteristic of European languages (but also found elsewhere):\n* verb\\-initial order in yes/no questions;\n* comparative inflection of adjectives (e.g. English *bigger*);\n* For [conjunctions](/wiki/Conjunction_%28grammar%29 \"Conjunction (grammar)\") of [noun phrases](/wiki/Noun_phrase \"Noun phrase\"), SAE languages prefer \"A and\\-B\" instead of \"A\\-and B\", \"A\\-and B\\-and\", \"A B\\-and\", or the [comitative](/wiki/Comitative_case \"Comitative case\") \"with\";\n* syncretism of [instrumental](/wiki/Instrumental_case \"Instrumental case\") and [comitative](/wiki/Comitative_case \"Comitative case\") cases (e.g. English *I cut my food **with** a knife when eating **with** my friends*);\n* [suppletivism](/wiki/Suppletivism \"Suppletivism\") in *second* vs. *two*;\n* lack of distinction between alienable (e.g. legal property) and [inalienable](/wiki/Inalienable_possession \"Inalienable possession\") (e.g. body part) possession;\n* lack of distinction between [inclusive and exclusive](/wiki/Clusivity \"Clusivity\") first\\-person plural pronouns (\"we and you\" vs. \"we and not you\");\n* lack of productive usage of [reduplication](/wiki/Reduplication \"Reduplication\");\n* [topic](/wiki/Topic_%28linguistics%29 \"Topic (linguistics)\") and [focus](/wiki/Focus_%28linguistics%29 \"Focus (linguistics)\") expressed by intonation and word order;\n* word order [subject–verb–object](/wiki/Subject%E2%80%93verb%E2%80%93object \"Subject–verb–object\");\n* only one [converb](/wiki/Converb \"Converb\") (e.g. English *\\-ing* form, Romance gerunds), preference for finite rather than non\\-finite subordinate clauses{{Examples\\|date\\=March 2019}};\n* specific construction for negative coordination (e.g. English *neither...nor...*);\n* phasal adverbs (e.g. English *already*, *still*, *not yet*);\n* tendency towards replacement of [past tense](/wiki/Past_tense \"Past tense\") by the [perfect](/wiki/Perfect_%28grammar%29 \"Perfect (grammar)\").",
"The *Sprachbund* defined this way consists of the following languages:\n* [Germanic languages](/wiki/Germanic_languages \"Germanic languages\");\n* [Romance languages](/wiki/Romance_languages \"Romance languages\");\n* [Baltic languages](/wiki/Baltic_languages \"Baltic languages\");\n* [Slavic languages](/wiki/Slavic_languages \"Slavic languages\");\n* [Albanian](/wiki/Albanian_language \"Albanian language\");\n* [Greek](/wiki/Modern_Greek_language \"Modern Greek language\");\n* the \"westernmost\" [Finno\\-Ugric languages](/wiki/Finno-Ugric_languages \"Finno-Ugric languages\").",
"The [Balkan sprachbund](/wiki/Balkan_sprachbund \"Balkan sprachbund\") is thus included as a subset of the larger SAE, while Baltic Eastern Europe is a coordinate member.",
"Not all the languages listed above show all the listed features, so membership in SAE can be described as gradient. Based on nine of the above\\-mentioned common features, Haspelmath regards French and German as forming the *nucleus* of the *Sprachbund*, surrounded by a *core* formed by English, the other Romance languages, the Nordic languages, and the Western and Southern Slavic languages. Hungarian, the Baltic languages, the Eastern Slavic languages, and the [Finnic languages](/wiki/Finnic_languages \"Finnic languages\") form more peripheral groups.Haspelmath, Martin, 1998\\. How young is Standard Average European? *Language Sciences*. All languages identified by Haspelmath as core SAE are [Indo\\-European languages](/wiki/Indo-European_languages \"Indo-European languages\"), except Hungarian and the Finnic languages. However, not all Indo\\-European languages are SAE languages: the [Celtic](/wiki/Insular_Celtic_languages \"Insular Celtic languages\"), [Armenian](/wiki/Armenian_languages \"Armenian languages\"), and [Indo\\-Iranian languages](/wiki/Indo-Iranian_languages \"Indo-Iranian languages\") remain outside the SAE *Sprachbund*.",
"The Standard Average European *Sprachbund* is most likely the result of ongoing [language contact](/wiki/Language_contact \"Language contact\") beginning in the time of the [Migration Period](/wiki/Migration_Period \"Migration Period\"). Inheritance of the SAE features from [Proto\\-Indo\\-European](/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_language \"Proto-Indo-European language\") can be ruled out because Proto\\-Indo\\-European, as currently reconstructed, lacked most of the SAE features. Furthermore, in some cases younger forms of a language do have an SAE feature which attested older forms lack; for example, [Latin](/wiki/Latin \"Latin\") does not have a periphrastic perfect, but modern [Romance languages](/wiki/Romance_languages \"Romance languages\") such as Spanish and French do. Much of the area of SAE was at various times part of the [Roman Empire](/wiki/Roman_Empire \"Roman Empire\") or the vague concept of a political entity called [Christendom](/wiki/Christendom \"Christendom\") and thus affected by the religious, political and ideological discourse of these entities and their respective [sphere of influence](/wiki/Sphere_of_influence \"Sphere of influence\"). This discourse and long distance communication among elites generally took place in one of the [linguas francas](/wiki/Lingua_franca \"Lingua franca\") of the era – [Koine Greek](/wiki/Koine_Greek \"Koine Greek\") and [Classical Latin](/wiki/Classical_Latin \"Classical Latin\") in [Late Antiquity](/wiki/Late_Antiquity \"Late Antiquity\"), [Medieval Latin](/wiki/Medieval_Latin \"Medieval Latin\") in the Middle Ages and finally in the modern era [Modern Latin](/wiki/Modern_Latin \"Modern Latin\") gradually being replaced by vernaculars such as modern French, German and – in the 20th and 21st century – increasingly English. These languages have left [learned borrowings](/wiki/Learned_borrowing \"Learned borrowing\") (also known as [inkhorn terms](/wiki/Inkhorn_term \"Inkhorn term\")) in the [prestige](/wiki/Linguistic_prestige \"Linguistic prestige\") variants of almost all European languages and continue to provide [loanwords](/wiki/Loanword \"Loanword\"), [calques](/wiki/Calque \"Calque\") and [idioms](/wiki/Idiom \"Idiom\").",
""
] |
Career
------
### 2015–2016: Career beginnings
From August 2015 to July 2016, Sophia sang at bars, weddings, and private functions around Kuala Lumpur to gain confidence in her live singing, where she sang cover songs in a wide array of genres such as [Pop](/wiki/Pop_music "Pop music"), [Jazz](/wiki/Jazz "Jazz"), [R\&B](/wiki/Rhythm_and_blues "Rhythm and blues") and [Country](/wiki/Country_music "Country music"), by artists like [Amy Winehouse](/wiki/Amy_Winehouse "Amy Winehouse"), [Norah Jones](/wiki/Norah_Jones "Norah Jones") to more current artist like [Ed Sheeran](/wiki/Ed_Sheeran "Ed Sheeran"), [Rihanna](/wiki/Rihanna "Rihanna") and [Adele](/wiki/Adele "Adele"). During this time Sophia developed her singing style and versatility in singing a wide range of musical styles.
### 2016–2021
In late 2016, Sophia started to seek opportunities to get her songs recorded professionally and she chanced upon a collaboration with Malaysian DJ, Songwriter, and Producer Cuurley aka Bo Amir, with whom she co\-wrote the English song "Go" released in November 2017\. The song in Pop EDM's genre ended up being influential in the direction of music Sophia would be creating in from then onwards. Fredskild also released a second English single "More Than You See" in February 2018, a collaboration with Russian DJ, Songwriter and Producer Alexey Dorokhov aka Dorox.
In October 2018, she released her first solo project, a Malay song "Menanti Cinta"{{Cite web\|date\=30 December 2018\|title\=Malaysian\-Danish Songbird Sophia Fredskild Debut 1st Malay Single\|url\=https://hype.my/2018/162845/malaysian\-danish\-songbird\-sophia\-fredskild\-debut\-1st\-malay\-single/\|access\-date\=19 May 2021\|website\=Hype Malaysia\|language\=en\-US}}{{Cite web\|date\=1 December 2018\|title\=Sophia Fredskild enggan raih populariti ekspres – Hiburan {{!}} mStar\|url\=https://www.mstar.com.my/spotlight/hiburan/2018/12/01/sophia\-fredksild\|access\-date\=19 May 2021\|website\=www.mstar.com.my\|language\=en}}{{Cite web\|date\=10 January 2019\|title\=Siapa Sangka Sophia Fredskild Sebenarnya Berbakat Besar!\|url\=https://murai.my/2019/53251/siapa\-sangka\-sophia\-fredskild\-sebenarnya\-berbakat\-besar/\|access\-date\=19 May 2021\|website\=Murai MY\|language\=en\-US}} followed with an English version "Waiting For Love" in November 2018\. In early 2019 she released English and Malay singles "Forever Mine"{{Cite web\|date\=5 April 2019\|title\=Sophia Fredskild Travels Through Different Eras In "Forever Mine"\|url\=https://hype.my/2019/166112/sophia\-fredskild\-travels\-through\-different\-eras\-in\-forever\-mine/\|access\-date\=19 May 2021\|website\=Hype Malaysia\|language\=en\-US}} and "Cinta Selamanya" along with music videos uploaded to her [YouTube](/wiki/YouTube "YouTube") channel which have reached over a million views each.
In October 2019 Sophia collaborated once again with another EDM artist Starlyte, a Malaysian Producer on the song "No Limit", which garnered over 1 million streams on the popular streaming service [Spotify](/wiki/Spotify "Spotify"). In February 2020 she released "Head In The Clouds" another solo project produced by American Producer, Asaa. In October 2020, she released "Keep Me In Your Heart", which reached over 1 million views on [YouTube](/wiki/YouTube "YouTube").
In February 2021 she released "Shine A Light", and in May 2021 "Heartbreaks Not Gonna Break Me", a pop ballad, which was produced by Danish Producer, Gustav Boje*.*
On 27 August 2021, Sophia collaborated with Furo, a Caribbean\-influenced DJ from Florida, US on a Moombahton Tropical\-Dance Pop song called "Back To Paradise" and on 15 October 2021, Sophia released an EDM song called "Future So Bright" with Brazilian DJ Tutsss.
### 2021–present
In November 2021, Sophia relocated to Denmark to further her music career. She released a Pop\-Ballad single called 'In Another Lifetime" on 20 May 2022, which has since achieved over 1 million streams on [Spotify](/wiki/Spotify "Spotify") and over a half million views on her [YouTube](/wiki/YouTube "YouTube") channel to date.
|
[
"Career\n------",
"### 2015–2016: Career beginnings",
"From August 2015 to July 2016, Sophia sang at bars, weddings, and private functions around Kuala Lumpur to gain confidence in her live singing, where she sang cover songs in a wide array of genres such as [Pop](/wiki/Pop_music \"Pop music\"), [Jazz](/wiki/Jazz \"Jazz\"), [R\\&B](/wiki/Rhythm_and_blues \"Rhythm and blues\") and [Country](/wiki/Country_music \"Country music\"), by artists like [Amy Winehouse](/wiki/Amy_Winehouse \"Amy Winehouse\"), [Norah Jones](/wiki/Norah_Jones \"Norah Jones\") to more current artist like [Ed Sheeran](/wiki/Ed_Sheeran \"Ed Sheeran\"), [Rihanna](/wiki/Rihanna \"Rihanna\") and [Adele](/wiki/Adele \"Adele\"). During this time Sophia developed her singing style and versatility in singing a wide range of musical styles.",
"### 2016–2021",
"In late 2016, Sophia started to seek opportunities to get her songs recorded professionally and she chanced upon a collaboration with Malaysian DJ, Songwriter, and Producer Cuurley aka Bo Amir, with whom she co\\-wrote the English song \"Go\" released in November 2017\\. The song in Pop EDM's genre ended up being influential in the direction of music Sophia would be creating in from then onwards. Fredskild also released a second English single \"More Than You See\" in February 2018, a collaboration with Russian DJ, Songwriter and Producer Alexey Dorokhov aka Dorox.",
"In October 2018, she released her first solo project, a Malay song \"Menanti Cinta\"{{Cite web\\|date\\=30 December 2018\\|title\\=Malaysian\\-Danish Songbird Sophia Fredskild Debut 1st Malay Single\\|url\\=https://hype.my/2018/162845/malaysian\\-danish\\-songbird\\-sophia\\-fredskild\\-debut\\-1st\\-malay\\-single/\\|access\\-date\\=19 May 2021\\|website\\=Hype Malaysia\\|language\\=en\\-US}}{{Cite web\\|date\\=1 December 2018\\|title\\=Sophia Fredskild enggan raih populariti ekspres – Hiburan {{!}} mStar\\|url\\=https://www.mstar.com.my/spotlight/hiburan/2018/12/01/sophia\\-fredksild\\|access\\-date\\=19 May 2021\\|website\\=www.mstar.com.my\\|language\\=en}}{{Cite web\\|date\\=10 January 2019\\|title\\=Siapa Sangka Sophia Fredskild Sebenarnya Berbakat Besar!\\|url\\=https://murai.my/2019/53251/siapa\\-sangka\\-sophia\\-fredskild\\-sebenarnya\\-berbakat\\-besar/\\|access\\-date\\=19 May 2021\\|website\\=Murai MY\\|language\\=en\\-US}} followed with an English version \"Waiting For Love\" in November 2018\\. In early 2019 she released English and Malay singles \"Forever Mine\"{{Cite web\\|date\\=5 April 2019\\|title\\=Sophia Fredskild Travels Through Different Eras In \"Forever Mine\"\\|url\\=https://hype.my/2019/166112/sophia\\-fredskild\\-travels\\-through\\-different\\-eras\\-in\\-forever\\-mine/\\|access\\-date\\=19 May 2021\\|website\\=Hype Malaysia\\|language\\=en\\-US}} and \"Cinta Selamanya\" along with music videos uploaded to her [YouTube](/wiki/YouTube \"YouTube\") channel which have reached over a million views each.",
"In October 2019 Sophia collaborated once again with another EDM artist Starlyte, a Malaysian Producer on the song \"No Limit\", which garnered over 1 million streams on the popular streaming service [Spotify](/wiki/Spotify \"Spotify\"). In February 2020 she released \"Head In The Clouds\" another solo project produced by American Producer, Asaa. In October 2020, she released \"Keep Me In Your Heart\", which reached over 1 million views on [YouTube](/wiki/YouTube \"YouTube\").",
"In February 2021 she released \"Shine A Light\", and in May 2021 \"Heartbreaks Not Gonna Break Me\", a pop ballad, which was produced by Danish Producer, Gustav Boje*.*",
"On 27 August 2021, Sophia collaborated with Furo, a Caribbean\\-influenced DJ from Florida, US on a Moombahton Tropical\\-Dance Pop song called \"Back To Paradise\" and on 15 October 2021, Sophia released an EDM song called \"Future So Bright\" with Brazilian DJ Tutsss.",
"### 2021–present",
"In November 2021, Sophia relocated to Denmark to further her music career. She released a Pop\\-Ballad single called 'In Another Lifetime\" on 20 May 2022, which has since achieved over 1 million streams on [Spotify](/wiki/Spotify \"Spotify\") and over a half million views on her [YouTube](/wiki/YouTube \"YouTube\") channel to date.",
""
] |
Operations
----------
The port plays a large [international trade](/wiki/International_trade "International trade") role in the [Pacific Northwest](/wiki/Pacific_Northwest "Pacific Northwest"), and is a municipal [corporation](/wiki/Corporation "Corporation") that operates under state\-enabling legislation.
Each year, the port handles between about 9 and 13 million tons of cargo,{{cite web \|url\= http://www.portoftacoma.com/File.ashx?cid\=5114 \|title\= Port of Tacoma Cargo Volumes \|publisher\= Port of Tacoma \|access\-date\= May 28, 2011 \|url\-status\= dead \|archive\-url\= https://web.archive.org/web/20110723021534/http://www.portoftacoma.com/File.ashx?cid\=5114 \|archive\-date\= July 23, 2011 \|df\= mdy\-all }} and more than $25 billion of commerce. Major imports include automobiles, electronics, and toys, while major exports include grain, forest products, and agricultural products. Based on tonnage, the port's largest export is grain (corn and soybeans) that come into the port by rail from the Midwest.
In 2010, the Port of Tacoma's top trading partner, based on two\-way trade value, was [China](/wiki/China "China")/[Hong Kong](/wiki/Hong_Kong "Hong Kong"). China/Hong Kong was also the top partner ranked by volume imported and value imported. [Japan](/wiki/Japan "Japan") was the top partner ranked by volume exported and value exported. The top commodities exported, by value, were cereals and grains. The top commodities imported, by value, were vehicles and parts, followed by industrial machinery and electronics.
The port is among the top ten largest container ports in North America.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.portoftacoma.com/about\-us \|title\= Port of Tacoma \- About Us \|publisher\= Port of Tacoma \|access\-date\= May 28, 2011}} Containers hold everything from computers and lawn furniture to apples and frozen meat. Based on container volumes, China is the port's largest trading partner.
More than 70 percent of the containers imported through the port move by rail to markets in the Midwest and East Coast. The port is served by the [BNSF Railway](/wiki/BNSF_Railway "BNSF Railway") and [Union Pacific](/wiki/Union_Pacific "Union Pacific") railroads. Shortline rail service is provided by [Tacoma Rail](/wiki/Tacoma_Rail "Tacoma Rail"), which is owned by the City of Tacoma.
[U.S. Oil and Refining](/wiki/U.S._Oil_and_Refining "U.S. Oil and Refining") operates an [oil refinery](/wiki/Oil_refinery "Oil refinery") in the Port of Tacoma. [Oil tankers](/wiki/Oil_tanker "Oil tanker") bring [crude oil](/wiki/Petroleum "Petroleum"), which is refined into a variety of products, including [JP\-8](/wiki/JP-8 "JP-8") [jet fuel](/wiki/Jet_fuel "Jet fuel") for [McChord Field](/wiki/McChord_Field "McChord Field") [Air Force](/wiki/United_States_Air_Force "United States Air Force") [base](/wiki/Airbase "Airbase"). The refinery and airbase are connected by a dedicated [pipeline](/wiki/Pipeline_transport "Pipeline transport"), McChord Pipeline.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.mcchordpipeline.com/ \|title\= McChord Pipeline Co. \|publisher\= McChord Pipeline Company \|access\-date\= May 28, 2011}}{{cite web \|url\= http://www.co.pierce.wa.us/xml/abtus/ourorg/dem/EMDiv/HIVA/pipelines.pdf \|title\= Pipelines \|publisher\= \[\[Pierce County, Washington\|Pierce County]] \|access\-date\= May 28, 2011 \|url\-status\= dead \|archive\-url\= https://web.archive.org/web/20110928045835/http://www.co.pierce.wa.us/xml/abtus/ourorg/dem/EMDiv/HIVA/pipelines.pdf \|archive\-date\= September 28, 2011 \|df\= mdy\-all }}
|
[
"Operations\n----------",
"The port plays a large [international trade](/wiki/International_trade \"International trade\") role in the [Pacific Northwest](/wiki/Pacific_Northwest \"Pacific Northwest\"), and is a municipal [corporation](/wiki/Corporation \"Corporation\") that operates under state\\-enabling legislation.",
"Each year, the port handles between about 9 and 13 million tons of cargo,{{cite web \\|url\\= http://www.portoftacoma.com/File.ashx?cid\\=5114 \\|title\\= Port of Tacoma Cargo Volumes \\|publisher\\= Port of Tacoma \\|access\\-date\\= May 28, 2011 \\|url\\-status\\= dead \\|archive\\-url\\= https://web.archive.org/web/20110723021534/http://www.portoftacoma.com/File.ashx?cid\\=5114 \\|archive\\-date\\= July 23, 2011 \\|df\\= mdy\\-all }} and more than $25 billion of commerce. Major imports include automobiles, electronics, and toys, while major exports include grain, forest products, and agricultural products. Based on tonnage, the port's largest export is grain (corn and soybeans) that come into the port by rail from the Midwest.",
"In 2010, the Port of Tacoma's top trading partner, based on two\\-way trade value, was [China](/wiki/China \"China\")/[Hong Kong](/wiki/Hong_Kong \"Hong Kong\"). China/Hong Kong was also the top partner ranked by volume imported and value imported. [Japan](/wiki/Japan \"Japan\") was the top partner ranked by volume exported and value exported. The top commodities exported, by value, were cereals and grains. The top commodities imported, by value, were vehicles and parts, followed by industrial machinery and electronics.",
"The port is among the top ten largest container ports in North America.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.portoftacoma.com/about\\-us \\|title\\= Port of Tacoma \\- About Us \\|publisher\\= Port of Tacoma \\|access\\-date\\= May 28, 2011}} Containers hold everything from computers and lawn furniture to apples and frozen meat. Based on container volumes, China is the port's largest trading partner.",
"More than 70 percent of the containers imported through the port move by rail to markets in the Midwest and East Coast. The port is served by the [BNSF Railway](/wiki/BNSF_Railway \"BNSF Railway\") and [Union Pacific](/wiki/Union_Pacific \"Union Pacific\") railroads. Shortline rail service is provided by [Tacoma Rail](/wiki/Tacoma_Rail \"Tacoma Rail\"), which is owned by the City of Tacoma.",
"[U.S. Oil and Refining](/wiki/U.S._Oil_and_Refining \"U.S. Oil and Refining\") operates an [oil refinery](/wiki/Oil_refinery \"Oil refinery\") in the Port of Tacoma. [Oil tankers](/wiki/Oil_tanker \"Oil tanker\") bring [crude oil](/wiki/Petroleum \"Petroleum\"), which is refined into a variety of products, including [JP\\-8](/wiki/JP-8 \"JP-8\") [jet fuel](/wiki/Jet_fuel \"Jet fuel\") for [McChord Field](/wiki/McChord_Field \"McChord Field\") [Air Force](/wiki/United_States_Air_Force \"United States Air Force\") [base](/wiki/Airbase \"Airbase\"). The refinery and airbase are connected by a dedicated [pipeline](/wiki/Pipeline_transport \"Pipeline transport\"), McChord Pipeline.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.mcchordpipeline.com/ \\|title\\= McChord Pipeline Co. \\|publisher\\= McChord Pipeline Company \\|access\\-date\\= May 28, 2011}}{{cite web \\|url\\= http://www.co.pierce.wa.us/xml/abtus/ourorg/dem/EMDiv/HIVA/pipelines.pdf \\|title\\= Pipelines \\|publisher\\= \\[\\[Pierce County, Washington\\|Pierce County]] \\|access\\-date\\= May 28, 2011 \\|url\\-status\\= dead \\|archive\\-url\\= https://web.archive.org/web/20110928045835/http://www.co.pierce.wa.us/xml/abtus/ourorg/dem/EMDiv/HIVA/pipelines.pdf \\|archive\\-date\\= September 28, 2011 \\|df\\= mdy\\-all }}",
""
] |
Research
--------
### Vascular cognitive impairment
At the beginning of Hachinski's career, the view prevailed that most dementias were caused by hardened [brain arteries](/wiki/Circle_of_Willis "Circle of Willis") (mental deterioration via [cerebral atherosclerosis](/wiki/Cerebral_atherosclerosis "Cerebral atherosclerosis")). Hachinski showed in 1975 that, in fact, only a small minority of dementias were so\-caused, and that most were “[multi\-infarct dementias](/wiki/Multi-infarct_dementia "Multi-infarct dementia")” — dementias caused by multiple, small, often imperceptible strokes.{{cite journal \|last1\=Hachinski \|first1\=VC \|last2\=Lassen \|first2\=NA \|last3\=Marshall \|first3\=J \|title\=Multi\-infarct dementia. A cause of mental deterioration in the elderly \|journal\=Lancet \|date\=27 July 1974 \|volume\=2 \|issue\=7874 \|pages\=207–10 \|doi\=10\.1016/s0140\-6736(74\)91496\-2 \|pmid\=4135618 }} The terms “[vascular dementia](/wiki/Vascular_dementia "Vascular dementia")” and “[vascular cognitive impairment](/wiki/Vascular_cognitive_impairment "Vascular cognitive impairment")” would later be widely adopted to describe all [cognitive impairments](/wiki/Cognitive_Impairment "Cognitive Impairment") "with a vascular component" in order to distinguish them from [primary degenerative dementia](/wiki/Primary_degenerative_dementia_of_the_Alzheimer%27s_type "Primary degenerative dementia of the Alzheimer's type") (i.e., [Alzheimer disease](/wiki/Alzheimer%27s_disease "Alzheimer's disease") and senile dementia) and to emphasize that they are preventable and treatable, insofar as their [vascular](/wiki/Vascular "Vascular") causes (i.e., [atherosclerosis](/wiki/Atherosclerosis "Atherosclerosis"), stroke, etc.) are treatable as well.{{Cite web\|url\=http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/292105\-overview\|title\=Vascular Dementia\|last1\=Alagiakrishnan\|first1\=Kannayiram\|last2\=Memon\|first2\=Mohammed A.\|website\=MedScape\|at\=Background\|access\-date\=2016\-05\-31}} He has offered an explanation for the origin of some of these lesions and associated symptoms through his concept of ambibaric brain. He postulates that the brain has two complementary blood pressure systems, one high and one low and disturbances in each lead to different types of preventable lesions.{{cite journal \|last1\=Hachinski \|first1\=Vladimir \|last2\=Østergaard \|first2\=Leif \|title\=The Ambibaric Brain: Pathophysiological and Clinical Implications \|journal\=Stroke \|date\=June 2021 \|volume\=52 \|issue\=6 \|pages\=e259–e262 \|doi\=10\.1161/STROKEAHA.120\.033492 \|pmid\=33940956 \|s2cid\=233719602 \|doi\-access\=free }}
At the time, the prevalent view that dementia ensued from the slow strangulation of the brain's blood supply by hardening of the arteries spawned a whole industry of brain vessel “vasodilators”. He showed that brain blood vessels in dementia were not “hardened” and that “vasodilators” were not only expensive but useless. He also developed an eponymic “ischemic score” that continues to be widely used to identify the vascular (treatable and preventable) component of dementia.{{cite journal \|last1\=Hachinski \|first1\=V. C. \|last2\=Iliff \|first2\=L. D. \|last3\=Zilhka \|first3\=E. \|last4\=Du Boulay \|first4\=G. H. \|last5\=McAllister \|first5\=V. L. \|last6\=Marshall \|first6\=J. \|last7\=Russell \|first7\=R. W. R. \|last8\=Symon \|first8\=L. \|title\=Cerebral Blood Flow in Dementia \|journal\=Archives of Neurology \|date\=1 September 1975 \|volume\=32 \|issue\=9 \|pages\=632–637 \|doi\=10\.1001/archneur.1975\.00490510088009 \|pmid\=1164215 }} Successfully distinguishing between the two is tremendously important for patient [prognosis](/wiki/Prognosis "Prognosis"), as treating the vascular causes of dementias can mitigate their effects. The scale is a prolifically cited tool, and has since been validated and optimized for use outside of clinical research settings.{{cite journal \|last1\=Hachinski \|first1\=Vladimir \|last2\=Oveisgharan \|first2\=S \|last3\=Romney \|first3\=AK \|last4\=Shankle \|first4\=WR \|title\=Optimizing the Hachinski Ischemic Scale \|journal\=Archives of Neurology \|date\=1 February 2012 \|volume\=69 \|issue\=2 \|pages\=169–75 \|doi\=10\.1001/archneurol.2011\.1698 \|pmid\=21987392 }}
In 1986, the journal, [Archives of Neurology](/wiki/JAMA_Neurology "JAMA Neurology") published a series of papers by Hachinski, Harold Merskey and colleagues on the rarefaction of [white matter](/wiki/White_matter "White matter") in the brains of elderly people. These papers were among the first to recognize the importance of white matter [lesions](/wiki/Lesion "Lesion") as risks for stroke and dementia. Rarefaction of white matter in the brain had already been shown to be correlated with a wide variety of health problems, but these papers were groundbreaking for two reasons especially: First, they introduced the term, “[leukoaraiosis](/wiki/Leukoaraiosis "Leukoaraiosis"),” a word derived by Hachinski, Paul Potter and Harold Merskey to etymologically and [Hippocratically](/wiki/Hippocrates "Hippocrates") describe the rarefaction; and second, they specifically highlighted a previously underappreciated relationship between vascular risk factors for cognitive impairment (i.e., treatable and preventable risk factors for both stroke and multi\-infarct dementia) and leukoaraiosis. By coining “leukoaraiosis,” Hachinski drew medical practitioners’ attention to these white matter hypodensities in the brains of patients affected by small strokes.{{cite journal \|last1\=Steingart \|first1\=A. \|last2\=Hachinski \|first2\=V. C. \|last3\=Lau \|first3\=C. \|last4\=Fox \|first4\=A. J. \|last5\=Diaz \|first5\=F. \|last6\=Cape \|first6\=R. \|last7\=Lee \|first7\=D. \|last8\=Inzitari \|first8\=D. \|last9\=Merskey \|first9\=H. \|title\=Cognitive and Neurologic Findings in Subjects With Diffuse White Matter Lucencies on Computed Tomographic Scan (Leuko\-Araiosis) \|journal\=Archives of Neurology \|date\=1 January 1987 \|volume\=44 \|issue\=1 \|pages\=32–35 \|doi\=10\.1001/archneur.1987\.00520130024012 \|pmid\=3800719 }}{{Cite book\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=lB6oVJ50oL4C\|title\=Neurology and General Medicine\|last\=Aminoff\|first\=Michael Jeffrey\|date\=2008\-01\-01\|publisher\=Elsevier Health Sciences\|isbn\=978\-0443067075\|page\=128\|language\=en}}{{cite journal \|last1\=Hachinski \|first1\=V. C. \|last2\=Potter \|first2\=P. \|last3\=Merskey \|first3\=H. \|title\=Leuko\-Araiosis \|journal\=Archives of Neurology \|date\=1 January 1987 \|volume\=44 \|issue\=1 \|pages\=21–23 \|doi\=10\.1001/archneur.1987\.00520130013009 \|pmid\=3800716 }}
Hachinski continued to develop and promote his novel approach to dementia — viewing it as a product of preventable and treatable vascular problems, thus itself also amenable to prevention, delay, and mitigation — eventually coining it as the “vascular cognitive impairment approach” to dementias in 1994\.{{cite journal \|last1\=Hachinski \|first1\=Vladimir \|title\=Vascular Dementia: A Radical Redefinition \|journal\=Dementia and Geriatric Cognitive Disorders \|date\=1994 \|volume\=5 \|issue\=3–4 \|pages\=130–132 \|doi\=10\.1159/000106709 \|pmid\=8087166 }}{{cite journal \|last1\=Bowler \|first1\=JV \|last2\=Hachinski \|first2\=V \|title\=Vascular cognitive impairment: a new approach to vascular dementia. \|journal\=Baillière's Clinical Neurology \|date\=August 1995 \|volume\=4 \|issue\=2 \|pages\=357–76 \|pmid\=7496625 }} This proactive and [preventative](/wiki/Preventive_healthcare "Preventive healthcare"), rather than solely retroactive and treatment\-based approach included other novel coinages, such as “brain at risk,” describing patients without cognitive impairment but with risk factors for it.{{Cite book\|title\=Cognitive Neurology: A Clinical Textbook\|last\=Cappa\|first\=S. F.\|publisher\=Oxford University Press\|year\=2008\|isbn\=9780198569275\|pages\=258}}{{cite journal \|last1\=Hachinski \|first1\=V \|title\=Preventable senility: a call for action against the vascular dementias \|journal\=Lancet \|date\=12 September 1992 \|volume\=340 \|issue\=8820 \|pages\=645–8 \|doi\=10\.1016/0140\-6736(92\)92177\-h \|pmid\=1355217 \|s2cid\=30957302 }}{{cite journal \|last1\=Hachinski \|first1\=V. C. \|last2\=Bowler \|first2\=J. V. \|last3\=Loeb \|first3\=C. \|title\=Vascular dementia \|journal\=Neurology \|date\=1 October 1993 \|volume\=43 \|issue\=10 \|pages\=2159–60; author reply 2160–1 \|doi\=10\.1212/wnl.43\.10\.2159\-a \|pmid\=8414002 \|s2cid\=40803369 }}
Even with these developments, available diagnostic criteria for dementias continued to present a challenge, as they were not able to capture the complex, interactive, and adaptive nature of brain [pathologies](/wiki/Pathology "Pathology") leading to dementia. For this reason, in 2006, Hachinski decided to lead (with Gabrielle LeBlanc) the development of core common standards to describe the clinical, [neuropsychological](/wiki/Neuropsychology "Neuropsychology"), [imaging](/wiki/Medical_Imaging "Medical Imaging"), [genetic](/wiki/Genetics "Genetics"), and [neuropathological](/wiki/Neuropathology "Neuropathology") features of cognitive impairment. This [standardization](/wiki/Standardization "Standardization") has allowed for ongoing improvement of the diagnostic criteria with new knowledge, comparison of results from different studies, and analysis \& [meta\-analysis](/wiki/Meta-analysis "Meta-analysis") using “[big data](/wiki/Big_data "Big data")” techniques.{{cite journal \|last1\=Hachinski \|first1\=Vladimir \|last2\=Iadecola \|first2\=Costantino \|last3\=Petersen \|first3\=Ron C. \|author4\-link\=Monique Breteler \|last4\=Breteler \|first4\=Monique M. \|last5\=Nyenhuis \|first5\=David L. \|last6\=Black \|first6\=Sandra E. \|last7\=Powers \|first7\=William J. \|last8\=DeCarli \|first8\=Charles \|last9\=Merino \|first9\=Jose G. \|last10\=Kalaria \|first10\=Raj N. \|last11\=Vinters \|first11\=Harry V. \|last12\=Holtzman \|first12\=David M. \|last13\=Rosenberg \|first13\=Gary A. \|last14\=Wallin \|first14\=Anders \|last15\=Dichgans \|first15\=Martin \|last16\=Marler \|first16\=John R. \|last17\=Leblanc \|first17\=Gabrielle G. \|title\=National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke–Canadian Stroke Network Vascular Cognitive Impairment Harmonization Standards \|journal\=Stroke \|date\=September 2006 \|volume\=37 \|issue\=9 \|pages\=2220–2241 \|doi\=10\.1161/01\.STR.0000237236\.88823\.47 \|pmid\=16917086 \|s2cid\=10272849 \|doi\-access\= }}
### Acute stroke
The MacLachlan Stroke Unit at Sunnybrook, Canada's first stroke unit (est. 1975\), was almost 20 years ahead of its time; stroke units have been considered the most effective treatment for stroke patients of all ages, severities, and types only since the 1990s.{{cite journal \|last1\=Langhorne \|first1\=P. \|last2\=Williams \|first2\=B.O. \|last3\=Gilchrist \|first3\=W. \|last4\=Howie \|first4\=K. \|title\=Do stroke units save lives? \|journal\=The Lancet \|date\=August 1993 \|volume\=342 \|issue\=8868 \|pages\=395–398 \|doi\=10\.1016/0140\-6736(93\)92813\-9 \|pmid\=8101901 \|s2cid\=1756294 }}{{cite journal \|last1\=Sinha \|first1\=S. \|last2\=Warburton \|first2\=E.A. \|title\=The evolution of stroke units—towards a more intensive approach? \|journal\=QJM \|date\=September 2000 \|volume\=93 \|issue\=9 \|pages\=633–638 \|doi\=10\.1093/qjmed/93\.9\.633 \|pmid\=10984558 }} Hachinski and Norris' early work with that unit and others helped to cement the importance of dedicated wards for stroke patient monitoring and treatment, but his research over the next 17 years also shaped how those treatments and monitoring methods are executed.
In 1986, while he was Director of the Investigative Stroke Unit at [University Hospital in London](/wiki/Teaching_hospital "Teaching hospital"), he developed (with Robert Coté), the Canadian Neurological Scale – a simple but systematic tool, usable by non\-physicians for evaluating and monitoring the neurological status of patients with acute stroke.{{cite journal \|last1\=Côté \|first1\=R \|last2\=Hachinski \|first2\=V C \|last3\=Shurvell \|first3\=B L \|last4\=Norris \|first4\=J W \|last5\=Wolfson \|first5\=C \|title\=The Canadian Neurological Scale: a preliminary study in acute stroke. \|journal\=Stroke \|date\=July 1986 \|volume\=17 \|issue\=4 \|pages\=731–737 \|doi\=10\.1161/01\.str.17\.4\.731 \|pmid\=3738958 \|doi\-access\=free }} Later, in 1992, he (with collaborators David Cechetto and [Stephen Oppenheimer](/wiki/Stephen_Oppenheimer "Stephen Oppenheimer")) began work to explore possible mechanisms for observed increases in [catecholamines](/wiki/Catecholamine "Catecholamine"), [cardiac enzymes](/wiki/Cardiac_marker "Cardiac marker"), [arrhythmias](/wiki/Cardiac_arrhythmia "Cardiac arrhythmia"), and sudden death following acute stroke. This would eventually lead to the discovery that the insula of the brain is the mediator of these various cardiac complications.{{cite journal \|last1\=Oppenheimer \|first1\=SM \|last2\=Hachinski \|first2\=VC \|title\=The cardiac consequences of stroke. \|journal\=Neurologic Clinics \|date\=February 1992 \|volume\=10 \|issue\=1 \|pages\=167–76 \|pmid\=1557001 \|doi\=10\.1016/S0733\-8619(18\)30239\-1 }}{{cite journal \|last1\=Oppenheimer \|first1\=Stephen M. \|last2\=Cechetto \|first2\=DF \|last3\=Hachinski \|first3\=VC \|title\=Cerebrogenic Cardiac Arrhythmias \|journal\=Archives of Neurology \|date\=1 May 1990 \|volume\=47 \|issue\=5 \|pages\=513–9 \|doi\=10\.1001/archneur.1990\.00530050029008 \|pmid\=2185720 }}{{cite journal \|last1\=Oppenheimer \|first1\=S. M. \|last2\=Gelb \|first2\=A. \|last3\=Girvin \|first3\=J. P. \|last4\=Hachinski \|first4\=V. C. \|title\=Cardiovascular effects of human insular cortex stimulation \|journal\=Neurology \|date\=1 September 1992 \|volume\=42 \|issue\=9 \|pages\=1727–32 \|doi\=10\.1212/wnl.42\.9\.1727 \|pmid\=1513461 \|s2cid\=32371468 }}{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.dementiaaction.org.uk/assets/0000/3817/International\_Innovation.pdf\|title\=A stroke of genius\|at\=Understanding vascular mechanisms \> Stroke Related Research \> par. 3\|access\-date\=2016\-05\-31}} Knowing this alters doctors to monitor the heart closely, to prevent sudden death.
The scientific bases for preventing stroke and dementia together have been summarized by an international panel of experts.{{Cite journal \|last1\=Hachinski \|first1\=Vladimir \|last2\=Einhäupl \|first2\=Karl \|last3\=Ganten \|first3\=Detlev \|last4\=Alladi \|first4\=Suvarna \|last5\=Brayne \|first5\=Carol \|last6\=Stephan \|first6\=Blossom C. M. \|last7\=Sweeney \|first7\=Melanie D. \|last8\=Zlokovic \|first8\=Berislav \|last9\=Iturria\-Medina \|first9\=Yasser \|last10\=Iadecola \|first10\=Costantino \|last11\=Nishimura \|first11\=Nozomi \|last12\=Schaffer \|first12\=Chris B. \|last13\=Whitehead \|first13\=Shawn N. \|last14\=Black \|first14\=Sandra E. \|last15\=Østergaard \|first15\=Leif \|date\=2019\-09\-22 \|title\=Special topic section: linkages among cerebrovascular, cardiovascular, and cognitive disorders: Preventing dementia by preventing stroke: The Berlin Manifesto \|url\=http://dx.doi.org/10\.1177/1747493019871915 \|journal\=International Journal of Stroke \|pages\=174749301987191 \|doi\=10\.1177/1747493019871915 \|pmid\=31543058 \|s2cid\=202732274 \|issn\=1747\-4930}}{{Cite journal \|last1\=Hachinski \|first1\=Vladimir \|last2\=Ganten \|first2\=Detlev \|last3\=Lackland \|first3\=Daniel \|last4\=Kreutz \|first4\=Reinhold \|last5\=Tsioufis \|first5\=Konstantinos \|last6\=Hacke \|first6\=Werner \|date\=2018\-10\-17 \|title\=Implementing the Proclamation of Stroke and Potentially Preventable Dementias \|journal\=International Journal of Stroke \|language\=en \|volume\=13 \|issue\=8 \|pages\=780–786 \|doi\=10\.1177/1747493018799965 \|pmid\=30328803 \|s2cid\=53528721 \|issn\=1747\-4930\|doi\-access\=free }}
Since stroke, heart disease and dementia represent risks for each other and share the same risk and protective factors, he advocates preventing this “Triple Threat” together.{{Cite journal \|last\=Hachinski \|first\=Vladimir \|date\=2021\-08\-10 \|title\=Brain Health—Curbing Stroke, Heart Disease, and Dementia: The 2020 Wartenberg Lecture \|url\=https://www.neurology.org/lookup/doi/10\.1212/WNL.0000000000012103 \|journal\=Neurology \|language\=en \|volume\=97 \|issue\=6 \|pages\=273–279 \|doi\=10\.1212/WNL.0000000000012103 \|pmid\=33883239 \|s2cid\=233349756 \|issn\=0028\-3878}}
He leads a multidisciplinary team studying for the first time together environmental, socioeconomic and individual risk and protective factors in the joint prevention of stroke, heart disease and dementia.
He is a participant in an initiative to make brain health the top priority. He has offered a definition of brain health based on the World Health Organization definition of health” “A state of complete physical, mental and social well\-being through a full, balanced, continuous development and exercise of the brain{{Cite journal \|last1\=Hachinski \|first1\=Vladimir \|last2\=Avan \|first2\=Abolfazl \|last3\=Gilliland \|first3\=Jason \|last4\=Oveisgharan \|first4\=Shahram \|date\=May 2021 \|title\=A new definition of brain health \|journal\=The Lancet Neurology \|volume\=20 \|issue\=5 \|pages\=335–336 \|doi\=10\.1016/s1474\-4422(21\)00102\-2 \|pmid\=33894188 \|s2cid\=233328835 \|issn\=1474\-4422\|doi\-access\=free }} or in lay terms *"Brain health is when thinking, feeling and connecting are the best that they can be in a sage, healthy environment."*
### Stroke prevention
In addition to his interest in the mechanisms of stroke and [best practices](/wiki/Best_practice "Best practice") for treatment, Hachinski also has a keen research interest in stroke prevention. He acted as the principal neurological investigator on several seminal, multicentre studies, beginning with the Canadian\-American [Ticlopidine](/wiki/Ticlopidine "Ticlopidine") study (1983–88\){{cite journal \|last1\=Gent \|first1\=M \|last2\=Blakely \|first2\=J A \|last3\=Easton \|first3\=J D \|last4\=Ellis \|first4\=D J \|last5\=Hachinski \|first5\=V C \|last6\=Harbison \|first6\=J W \|last7\=Panak \|first7\=E \|last8\=Roberts \|first8\=R S \|last9\=Sicurella \|first9\=J \|last10\=Turpie \|first10\=A G \|title\=The Canadian American Ticlopidine Study (CATS) in thromboembolic stroke. Design, organization, and baseline results. \|journal\=Stroke \|date\=October 1988 \|volume\=19 \|issue\=10 \|pages\=1203–1210 \|doi\=10\.1161/01\.str.19\.10\.1203 \|pmid\=3051529 \|doi\-access\= }}{{cite journal \|last1\=Gent \|first1\=Michael \|last2\=Donald Easton \|first2\=J. \|last3\=Hachinski \|first3\=VladimirC. \|last4\=Panak \|first4\=Edouard \|last5\=Sicurella \|first5\=Jane \|last6\=Blakely \|first6\=JohnA. \|last7\=Ellis \|first7\=DavidJ. \|last8\=Harbison \|first8\=JohnW. \|last9\=Roberts \|first9\=RobinS. \|last10\=Turpie \|first10\=AlexanderG.G. \|title\=The Canadian American Ticlopidine Study (Cats) in Thromboembolic Stroke \|journal\=The Lancet \|date\=June 1989 \|volume\=333 \|issue\=8649 \|pages\=1215–1220 \|doi\=10\.1016/s0140\-6736(89\)92327\-1 \|pmid\=2566778 \|s2cid\=22484643 }} and the Extracranial/Intracranial Arterial Bypass Surgery trial (1983–87\). The former showed a preventative advantage to the drug Ticlopidine over commonly\-prescribed [Aspirin](/wiki/Aspirin "Aspirin"), while the latter showed that the increasingly popular and very expensive [EC/IC](/wiki/Vascular_bypass "Vascular bypass") [arterial bypass](/wiki/Bypass_surgery "Bypass surgery") procedure did not significantly reduce the risk of ischemic stroke.{{cite journal \|last1\=EC/IC Bypass Study \|first1\=Group. \|title\=Failure of Extracranial–Intracranial Arterial Bypass to Reduce the Risk of Ischemic Stroke \|journal\=New England Journal of Medicine \|date\=7 November 1985 \|volume\=313 \|issue\=19 \|pages\=1191–1200 \|doi\=10\.1056/NEJM198511073131904 \|pmid\=2865674 }}
In 2003, alongside several other researchers, Hachinski began a [proof of principle](/wiki/Proof_of_concept "Proof of concept") study through the [Canadian Stroke Network](/wiki/Canadian_Stroke_Network "Canadian Stroke Network") on secondary stroke prevention. The study aimed to explore the efficacy of stroke risk\-factor counselling and monitoring in effecting lifestyle changes and prescription adherence in patients, as well as exploring barriers and testing possible solutions to effective stroke risk\-factor management.{{Cite web\|url\=http://canadianstrokenetwork.ca/en/wp\-content/uploads/2014/08/annualreport2003\-en.pdf\|title\=Canadian Stroke Network Annual Report 2002\-2003\|page\=7\|access\-date\=2016\-05\-31}} The preliminary results were extremely promising, showing that the addition of non\-medical personnel to usual stroke care results in far better outcomes and reduced risk\-factors. That initial study led to the creation of a multi\-centre study in 2009 under the direction of Richard Chan.{{Cite journal\|last\=Chan\|first\=Richard\|title\=Promoting Adherence to a Regimen of risk factor modification by Trained Non\-medical personnel Evaluated against Regular practice Study\|url\=http://www.isrctn.com/ISRCTN07607027\|journal\=International Standard Randomised Controlled Trial Number (ISRCTN) Registry\|doi\=10\.1186/isrctn07607027 \|doi\-access\= free}}
### Population health
Hachinski's home province of Ontario, Canada introduced a formal Provincial Stroke System in 2000\.{{Cite web\|url\=http://ocfp.on.ca/docs/cme/2011/04/18/ontario\-stroke\-system\-overview.pdf\|title\=Ontario Stroke System Overview\|date\=2011\-04\-18\|website\=Ontario College of Family Physicians (ocfp.on.ca)\|access\-date\=2016\-05\-31}} Hachinski advocates a strategy of preventing some dementias through the prevention of stroke.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.lhsc.on.ca/About\_Us/LHSC/Publications/Homepage/strokeconference.htm\|title\=Advocating for global stroke and dementia strategy\|date\=2016\-02\-22\|website\=London Health Sciences Centre\|access\-date\=2016\-06\-01}} With his colleagues, he showed, for the first time, a [concomitant](/wiki/Concomitant_%28statistics%29 "Concomitant (statistics)") decrease in the incidence of stroke and dementia at a [whole\-population level](/wiki/Population_health "Population health").{{cite journal \|last1\=Sposato \|first1\=Luciano A. \|last2\=Kapral \|first2\=Moira K. \|last3\=Fang \|first3\=Jiming \|last4\=Gill \|first4\=Sudeep S. \|last5\=Hackam \|first5\=Daniel G. \|last6\=Cipriano \|first6\=Lauren E. \|last7\=Hachinski \|first7\=Vladimir \|title\=Declining Incidence of Stroke and Dementia: Coincidence or Prevention Opportunity? \|journal\=JAMA Neurology \|date\=1 December 2015 \|volume\=72 \|issue\=12 \|pages\=1529–31 \|doi\=10\.1001/jamaneurol.2015\.2816 \|pmid\=26658969 \|doi\-access\=free }} He is leading a team from 5 Western University faculties, 5 provinces and 4 countries, to find out how and help apply the lessons widely.
He advocates and will help implement a new approach to the joint prevention of stroke, ischemic heart disease and dementia (the terrible three).
The new approach is based on these premises:
1\. The “terrible three” inflict the highest number of death and disability adjusted life years (DALY’s) globally. However, they share the same treatable and preventable risk factors and represent risks for each other. Consequently, conditions that occur together should be prevented together.
2\. To be effective prevention has to occur in “actionable units” small enough that their members have or can develop a sense of community.
3\. The approach has to be:
a. Comprehensive – meaning that all relevant factors need to be considered: Environment, socio\-economic factors and individual risk and protective factors
b. Customized – to address the main and manageable problems
c. Cost\-effective – to justify why it should be done ahead of other priorities
This approach is known as the CCCAP or the 3C’s approach.{{Cite journal \|last1\=Hachinski \|first1\=Vladimir \|last2\=the Dementia Prevention Initiative \|date\=2022\-02\-01 \|title\=The comprehensive, customized, cost\-effective approach (CCCAP) to prevention of dementia \|url\=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10\.1002/alz.12586 \|journal\=Alzheimer's \& Dementia \|volume\=18 \|issue\=8 \|language\=en \|pages\=1565–1568 \|doi\=10\.1002/alz.12586 \|pmid\=35103397 \|s2cid\=246444750 \|issn\=1552\-5260}}
Additionally, he advocates a change in strategy. Instead of using fear, warning people that if they don’t lead a healthy lifestyle they will suffer a stroke, heart disease or dementia decades later, the aim is to achieve brain/mental health now.{{Cite journal \|last1\=Avan \|first1\=Abolfazl \|last2\=Hachinski \|first2\=Vladimir \|last3\=Brain Health Learn and Act Group \|date\=2021\-09\-27 \|title\=Brain health: Key to health, productivity, and well\-being \|url\=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10\.1002/alz.12478 \|journal\=Alzheimer's \& Dementia \|language\=en \|volume\=18 \|issue\=7 \|pages\=1396–1407 \|doi\=10\.1002/alz.12478 \|pmid\=34569702 \|s2cid\=237942165 \|issn\=1552\-5260}}
|
[
"Research\n--------",
"### Vascular cognitive impairment",
"At the beginning of Hachinski's career, the view prevailed that most dementias were caused by hardened [brain arteries](/wiki/Circle_of_Willis \"Circle of Willis\") (mental deterioration via [cerebral atherosclerosis](/wiki/Cerebral_atherosclerosis \"Cerebral atherosclerosis\")). Hachinski showed in 1975 that, in fact, only a small minority of dementias were so\\-caused, and that most were “[multi\\-infarct dementias](/wiki/Multi-infarct_dementia \"Multi-infarct dementia\")” — dementias caused by multiple, small, often imperceptible strokes.{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Hachinski \\|first1\\=VC \\|last2\\=Lassen \\|first2\\=NA \\|last3\\=Marshall \\|first3\\=J \\|title\\=Multi\\-infarct dementia. A cause of mental deterioration in the elderly \\|journal\\=Lancet \\|date\\=27 July 1974 \\|volume\\=2 \\|issue\\=7874 \\|pages\\=207–10 \\|doi\\=10\\.1016/s0140\\-6736(74\\)91496\\-2 \\|pmid\\=4135618 }} The terms “[vascular dementia](/wiki/Vascular_dementia \"Vascular dementia\")” and “[vascular cognitive impairment](/wiki/Vascular_cognitive_impairment \"Vascular cognitive impairment\")” would later be widely adopted to describe all [cognitive impairments](/wiki/Cognitive_Impairment \"Cognitive Impairment\") \"with a vascular component\" in order to distinguish them from [primary degenerative dementia](/wiki/Primary_degenerative_dementia_of_the_Alzheimer%27s_type \"Primary degenerative dementia of the Alzheimer's type\") (i.e., [Alzheimer disease](/wiki/Alzheimer%27s_disease \"Alzheimer's disease\") and senile dementia) and to emphasize that they are preventable and treatable, insofar as their [vascular](/wiki/Vascular \"Vascular\") causes (i.e., [atherosclerosis](/wiki/Atherosclerosis \"Atherosclerosis\"), stroke, etc.) are treatable as well.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/292105\\-overview\\|title\\=Vascular Dementia\\|last1\\=Alagiakrishnan\\|first1\\=Kannayiram\\|last2\\=Memon\\|first2\\=Mohammed A.\\|website\\=MedScape\\|at\\=Background\\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-05\\-31}} He has offered an explanation for the origin of some of these lesions and associated symptoms through his concept of ambibaric brain. He postulates that the brain has two complementary blood pressure systems, one high and one low and disturbances in each lead to different types of preventable lesions.{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Hachinski \\|first1\\=Vladimir \\|last2\\=Østergaard \\|first2\\=Leif \\|title\\=The Ambibaric Brain: Pathophysiological and Clinical Implications \\|journal\\=Stroke \\|date\\=June 2021 \\|volume\\=52 \\|issue\\=6 \\|pages\\=e259–e262 \\|doi\\=10\\.1161/STROKEAHA.120\\.033492 \\|pmid\\=33940956 \\|s2cid\\=233719602 \\|doi\\-access\\=free }}",
"At the time, the prevalent view that dementia ensued from the slow strangulation of the brain's blood supply by hardening of the arteries spawned a whole industry of brain vessel “vasodilators”. He showed that brain blood vessels in dementia were not “hardened” and that “vasodilators” were not only expensive but useless. He also developed an eponymic “ischemic score” that continues to be widely used to identify the vascular (treatable and preventable) component of dementia.{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Hachinski \\|first1\\=V. C. \\|last2\\=Iliff \\|first2\\=L. D. \\|last3\\=Zilhka \\|first3\\=E. \\|last4\\=Du Boulay \\|first4\\=G. H. \\|last5\\=McAllister \\|first5\\=V. L. \\|last6\\=Marshall \\|first6\\=J. \\|last7\\=Russell \\|first7\\=R. W. R. \\|last8\\=Symon \\|first8\\=L. \\|title\\=Cerebral Blood Flow in Dementia \\|journal\\=Archives of Neurology \\|date\\=1 September 1975 \\|volume\\=32 \\|issue\\=9 \\|pages\\=632–637 \\|doi\\=10\\.1001/archneur.1975\\.00490510088009 \\|pmid\\=1164215 }} Successfully distinguishing between the two is tremendously important for patient [prognosis](/wiki/Prognosis \"Prognosis\"), as treating the vascular causes of dementias can mitigate their effects. The scale is a prolifically cited tool, and has since been validated and optimized for use outside of clinical research settings.{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Hachinski \\|first1\\=Vladimir \\|last2\\=Oveisgharan \\|first2\\=S \\|last3\\=Romney \\|first3\\=AK \\|last4\\=Shankle \\|first4\\=WR \\|title\\=Optimizing the Hachinski Ischemic Scale \\|journal\\=Archives of Neurology \\|date\\=1 February 2012 \\|volume\\=69 \\|issue\\=2 \\|pages\\=169–75 \\|doi\\=10\\.1001/archneurol.2011\\.1698 \\|pmid\\=21987392 }}",
"In 1986, the journal, [Archives of Neurology](/wiki/JAMA_Neurology \"JAMA Neurology\") published a series of papers by Hachinski, Harold Merskey and colleagues on the rarefaction of [white matter](/wiki/White_matter \"White matter\") in the brains of elderly people. These papers were among the first to recognize the importance of white matter [lesions](/wiki/Lesion \"Lesion\") as risks for stroke and dementia. Rarefaction of white matter in the brain had already been shown to be correlated with a wide variety of health problems, but these papers were groundbreaking for two reasons especially: First, they introduced the term, “[leukoaraiosis](/wiki/Leukoaraiosis \"Leukoaraiosis\"),” a word derived by Hachinski, Paul Potter and Harold Merskey to etymologically and [Hippocratically](/wiki/Hippocrates \"Hippocrates\") describe the rarefaction; and second, they specifically highlighted a previously underappreciated relationship between vascular risk factors for cognitive impairment (i.e., treatable and preventable risk factors for both stroke and multi\\-infarct dementia) and leukoaraiosis. By coining “leukoaraiosis,” Hachinski drew medical practitioners’ attention to these white matter hypodensities in the brains of patients affected by small strokes.{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Steingart \\|first1\\=A. \\|last2\\=Hachinski \\|first2\\=V. C. \\|last3\\=Lau \\|first3\\=C. \\|last4\\=Fox \\|first4\\=A. J. \\|last5\\=Diaz \\|first5\\=F. \\|last6\\=Cape \\|first6\\=R. \\|last7\\=Lee \\|first7\\=D. \\|last8\\=Inzitari \\|first8\\=D. \\|last9\\=Merskey \\|first9\\=H. \\|title\\=Cognitive and Neurologic Findings in Subjects With Diffuse White Matter Lucencies on Computed Tomographic Scan (Leuko\\-Araiosis) \\|journal\\=Archives of Neurology \\|date\\=1 January 1987 \\|volume\\=44 \\|issue\\=1 \\|pages\\=32–35 \\|doi\\=10\\.1001/archneur.1987\\.00520130024012 \\|pmid\\=3800719 }}{{Cite book\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=lB6oVJ50oL4C\\|title\\=Neurology and General Medicine\\|last\\=Aminoff\\|first\\=Michael Jeffrey\\|date\\=2008\\-01\\-01\\|publisher\\=Elsevier Health Sciences\\|isbn\\=978\\-0443067075\\|page\\=128\\|language\\=en}}{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Hachinski \\|first1\\=V. C. \\|last2\\=Potter \\|first2\\=P. \\|last3\\=Merskey \\|first3\\=H. \\|title\\=Leuko\\-Araiosis \\|journal\\=Archives of Neurology \\|date\\=1 January 1987 \\|volume\\=44 \\|issue\\=1 \\|pages\\=21–23 \\|doi\\=10\\.1001/archneur.1987\\.00520130013009 \\|pmid\\=3800716 }}",
"Hachinski continued to develop and promote his novel approach to dementia — viewing it as a product of preventable and treatable vascular problems, thus itself also amenable to prevention, delay, and mitigation — eventually coining it as the “vascular cognitive impairment approach” to dementias in 1994\\.{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Hachinski \\|first1\\=Vladimir \\|title\\=Vascular Dementia: A Radical Redefinition \\|journal\\=Dementia and Geriatric Cognitive Disorders \\|date\\=1994 \\|volume\\=5 \\|issue\\=3–4 \\|pages\\=130–132 \\|doi\\=10\\.1159/000106709 \\|pmid\\=8087166 }}{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Bowler \\|first1\\=JV \\|last2\\=Hachinski \\|first2\\=V \\|title\\=Vascular cognitive impairment: a new approach to vascular dementia. \\|journal\\=Baillière's Clinical Neurology \\|date\\=August 1995 \\|volume\\=4 \\|issue\\=2 \\|pages\\=357–76 \\|pmid\\=7496625 }} This proactive and [preventative](/wiki/Preventive_healthcare \"Preventive healthcare\"), rather than solely retroactive and treatment\\-based approach included other novel coinages, such as “brain at risk,” describing patients without cognitive impairment but with risk factors for it.{{Cite book\\|title\\=Cognitive Neurology: A Clinical Textbook\\|last\\=Cappa\\|first\\=S. F.\\|publisher\\=Oxford University Press\\|year\\=2008\\|isbn\\=9780198569275\\|pages\\=258}}{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Hachinski \\|first1\\=V \\|title\\=Preventable senility: a call for action against the vascular dementias \\|journal\\=Lancet \\|date\\=12 September 1992 \\|volume\\=340 \\|issue\\=8820 \\|pages\\=645–8 \\|doi\\=10\\.1016/0140\\-6736(92\\)92177\\-h \\|pmid\\=1355217 \\|s2cid\\=30957302 }}{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Hachinski \\|first1\\=V. C. \\|last2\\=Bowler \\|first2\\=J. V. \\|last3\\=Loeb \\|first3\\=C. \\|title\\=Vascular dementia \\|journal\\=Neurology \\|date\\=1 October 1993 \\|volume\\=43 \\|issue\\=10 \\|pages\\=2159–60; author reply 2160–1 \\|doi\\=10\\.1212/wnl.43\\.10\\.2159\\-a \\|pmid\\=8414002 \\|s2cid\\=40803369 }}",
"Even with these developments, available diagnostic criteria for dementias continued to present a challenge, as they were not able to capture the complex, interactive, and adaptive nature of brain [pathologies](/wiki/Pathology \"Pathology\") leading to dementia. For this reason, in 2006, Hachinski decided to lead (with Gabrielle LeBlanc) the development of core common standards to describe the clinical, [neuropsychological](/wiki/Neuropsychology \"Neuropsychology\"), [imaging](/wiki/Medical_Imaging \"Medical Imaging\"), [genetic](/wiki/Genetics \"Genetics\"), and [neuropathological](/wiki/Neuropathology \"Neuropathology\") features of cognitive impairment. This [standardization](/wiki/Standardization \"Standardization\") has allowed for ongoing improvement of the diagnostic criteria with new knowledge, comparison of results from different studies, and analysis \\& [meta\\-analysis](/wiki/Meta-analysis \"Meta-analysis\") using “[big data](/wiki/Big_data \"Big data\")” techniques.{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Hachinski \\|first1\\=Vladimir \\|last2\\=Iadecola \\|first2\\=Costantino \\|last3\\=Petersen \\|first3\\=Ron C. \\|author4\\-link\\=Monique Breteler \\|last4\\=Breteler \\|first4\\=Monique M. \\|last5\\=Nyenhuis \\|first5\\=David L. \\|last6\\=Black \\|first6\\=Sandra E. \\|last7\\=Powers \\|first7\\=William J. \\|last8\\=DeCarli \\|first8\\=Charles \\|last9\\=Merino \\|first9\\=Jose G. \\|last10\\=Kalaria \\|first10\\=Raj N. \\|last11\\=Vinters \\|first11\\=Harry V. \\|last12\\=Holtzman \\|first12\\=David M. \\|last13\\=Rosenberg \\|first13\\=Gary A. \\|last14\\=Wallin \\|first14\\=Anders \\|last15\\=Dichgans \\|first15\\=Martin \\|last16\\=Marler \\|first16\\=John R. \\|last17\\=Leblanc \\|first17\\=Gabrielle G. \\|title\\=National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke–Canadian Stroke Network Vascular Cognitive Impairment Harmonization Standards \\|journal\\=Stroke \\|date\\=September 2006 \\|volume\\=37 \\|issue\\=9 \\|pages\\=2220–2241 \\|doi\\=10\\.1161/01\\.STR.0000237236\\.88823\\.47 \\|pmid\\=16917086 \\|s2cid\\=10272849 \\|doi\\-access\\= }}",
"### Acute stroke",
"The MacLachlan Stroke Unit at Sunnybrook, Canada's first stroke unit (est. 1975\\), was almost 20 years ahead of its time; stroke units have been considered the most effective treatment for stroke patients of all ages, severities, and types only since the 1990s.{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Langhorne \\|first1\\=P. \\|last2\\=Williams \\|first2\\=B.O. \\|last3\\=Gilchrist \\|first3\\=W. \\|last4\\=Howie \\|first4\\=K. \\|title\\=Do stroke units save lives? \\|journal\\=The Lancet \\|date\\=August 1993 \\|volume\\=342 \\|issue\\=8868 \\|pages\\=395–398 \\|doi\\=10\\.1016/0140\\-6736(93\\)92813\\-9 \\|pmid\\=8101901 \\|s2cid\\=1756294 }}{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Sinha \\|first1\\=S. \\|last2\\=Warburton \\|first2\\=E.A. \\|title\\=The evolution of stroke units—towards a more intensive approach? \\|journal\\=QJM \\|date\\=September 2000 \\|volume\\=93 \\|issue\\=9 \\|pages\\=633–638 \\|doi\\=10\\.1093/qjmed/93\\.9\\.633 \\|pmid\\=10984558 }} Hachinski and Norris' early work with that unit and others helped to cement the importance of dedicated wards for stroke patient monitoring and treatment, but his research over the next 17 years also shaped how those treatments and monitoring methods are executed.",
"In 1986, while he was Director of the Investigative Stroke Unit at [University Hospital in London](/wiki/Teaching_hospital \"Teaching hospital\"), he developed (with Robert Coté), the Canadian Neurological Scale – a simple but systematic tool, usable by non\\-physicians for evaluating and monitoring the neurological status of patients with acute stroke.{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Côté \\|first1\\=R \\|last2\\=Hachinski \\|first2\\=V C \\|last3\\=Shurvell \\|first3\\=B L \\|last4\\=Norris \\|first4\\=J W \\|last5\\=Wolfson \\|first5\\=C \\|title\\=The Canadian Neurological Scale: a preliminary study in acute stroke. \\|journal\\=Stroke \\|date\\=July 1986 \\|volume\\=17 \\|issue\\=4 \\|pages\\=731–737 \\|doi\\=10\\.1161/01\\.str.17\\.4\\.731 \\|pmid\\=3738958 \\|doi\\-access\\=free }} Later, in 1992, he (with collaborators David Cechetto and [Stephen Oppenheimer](/wiki/Stephen_Oppenheimer \"Stephen Oppenheimer\")) began work to explore possible mechanisms for observed increases in [catecholamines](/wiki/Catecholamine \"Catecholamine\"), [cardiac enzymes](/wiki/Cardiac_marker \"Cardiac marker\"), [arrhythmias](/wiki/Cardiac_arrhythmia \"Cardiac arrhythmia\"), and sudden death following acute stroke. This would eventually lead to the discovery that the insula of the brain is the mediator of these various cardiac complications.{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Oppenheimer \\|first1\\=SM \\|last2\\=Hachinski \\|first2\\=VC \\|title\\=The cardiac consequences of stroke. \\|journal\\=Neurologic Clinics \\|date\\=February 1992 \\|volume\\=10 \\|issue\\=1 \\|pages\\=167–76 \\|pmid\\=1557001 \\|doi\\=10\\.1016/S0733\\-8619(18\\)30239\\-1 }}{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Oppenheimer \\|first1\\=Stephen M. \\|last2\\=Cechetto \\|first2\\=DF \\|last3\\=Hachinski \\|first3\\=VC \\|title\\=Cerebrogenic Cardiac Arrhythmias \\|journal\\=Archives of Neurology \\|date\\=1 May 1990 \\|volume\\=47 \\|issue\\=5 \\|pages\\=513–9 \\|doi\\=10\\.1001/archneur.1990\\.00530050029008 \\|pmid\\=2185720 }}{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Oppenheimer \\|first1\\=S. M. \\|last2\\=Gelb \\|first2\\=A. \\|last3\\=Girvin \\|first3\\=J. P. \\|last4\\=Hachinski \\|first4\\=V. C. \\|title\\=Cardiovascular effects of human insular cortex stimulation \\|journal\\=Neurology \\|date\\=1 September 1992 \\|volume\\=42 \\|issue\\=9 \\|pages\\=1727–32 \\|doi\\=10\\.1212/wnl.42\\.9\\.1727 \\|pmid\\=1513461 \\|s2cid\\=32371468 }}{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.dementiaaction.org.uk/assets/0000/3817/International\\_Innovation.pdf\\|title\\=A stroke of genius\\|at\\=Understanding vascular mechanisms \\> Stroke Related Research \\> par. 3\\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-05\\-31}} Knowing this alters doctors to monitor the heart closely, to prevent sudden death.",
"The scientific bases for preventing stroke and dementia together have been summarized by an international panel of experts.{{Cite journal \\|last1\\=Hachinski \\|first1\\=Vladimir \\|last2\\=Einhäupl \\|first2\\=Karl \\|last3\\=Ganten \\|first3\\=Detlev \\|last4\\=Alladi \\|first4\\=Suvarna \\|last5\\=Brayne \\|first5\\=Carol \\|last6\\=Stephan \\|first6\\=Blossom C. M. \\|last7\\=Sweeney \\|first7\\=Melanie D. \\|last8\\=Zlokovic \\|first8\\=Berislav \\|last9\\=Iturria\\-Medina \\|first9\\=Yasser \\|last10\\=Iadecola \\|first10\\=Costantino \\|last11\\=Nishimura \\|first11\\=Nozomi \\|last12\\=Schaffer \\|first12\\=Chris B. \\|last13\\=Whitehead \\|first13\\=Shawn N. \\|last14\\=Black \\|first14\\=Sandra E. \\|last15\\=Østergaard \\|first15\\=Leif \\|date\\=2019\\-09\\-22 \\|title\\=Special topic section: linkages among cerebrovascular, cardiovascular, and cognitive disorders: Preventing dementia by preventing stroke: The Berlin Manifesto \\|url\\=http://dx.doi.org/10\\.1177/1747493019871915 \\|journal\\=International Journal of Stroke \\|pages\\=174749301987191 \\|doi\\=10\\.1177/1747493019871915 \\|pmid\\=31543058 \\|s2cid\\=202732274 \\|issn\\=1747\\-4930}}{{Cite journal \\|last1\\=Hachinski \\|first1\\=Vladimir \\|last2\\=Ganten \\|first2\\=Detlev \\|last3\\=Lackland \\|first3\\=Daniel \\|last4\\=Kreutz \\|first4\\=Reinhold \\|last5\\=Tsioufis \\|first5\\=Konstantinos \\|last6\\=Hacke \\|first6\\=Werner \\|date\\=2018\\-10\\-17 \\|title\\=Implementing the Proclamation of Stroke and Potentially Preventable Dementias \\|journal\\=International Journal of Stroke \\|language\\=en \\|volume\\=13 \\|issue\\=8 \\|pages\\=780–786 \\|doi\\=10\\.1177/1747493018799965 \\|pmid\\=30328803 \\|s2cid\\=53528721 \\|issn\\=1747\\-4930\\|doi\\-access\\=free }}",
"Since stroke, heart disease and dementia represent risks for each other and share the same risk and protective factors, he advocates preventing this “Triple Threat” together.{{Cite journal \\|last\\=Hachinski \\|first\\=Vladimir \\|date\\=2021\\-08\\-10 \\|title\\=Brain Health—Curbing Stroke, Heart Disease, and Dementia: The 2020 Wartenberg Lecture \\|url\\=https://www.neurology.org/lookup/doi/10\\.1212/WNL.0000000000012103 \\|journal\\=Neurology \\|language\\=en \\|volume\\=97 \\|issue\\=6 \\|pages\\=273–279 \\|doi\\=10\\.1212/WNL.0000000000012103 \\|pmid\\=33883239 \\|s2cid\\=233349756 \\|issn\\=0028\\-3878}}",
"He leads a multidisciplinary team studying for the first time together environmental, socioeconomic and individual risk and protective factors in the joint prevention of stroke, heart disease and dementia.",
"He is a participant in an initiative to make brain health the top priority. He has offered a definition of brain health based on the World Health Organization definition of health” “A state of complete physical, mental and social well\\-being through a full, balanced, continuous development and exercise of the brain{{Cite journal \\|last1\\=Hachinski \\|first1\\=Vladimir \\|last2\\=Avan \\|first2\\=Abolfazl \\|last3\\=Gilliland \\|first3\\=Jason \\|last4\\=Oveisgharan \\|first4\\=Shahram \\|date\\=May 2021 \\|title\\=A new definition of brain health \\|journal\\=The Lancet Neurology \\|volume\\=20 \\|issue\\=5 \\|pages\\=335–336 \\|doi\\=10\\.1016/s1474\\-4422(21\\)00102\\-2 \\|pmid\\=33894188 \\|s2cid\\=233328835 \\|issn\\=1474\\-4422\\|doi\\-access\\=free }} or in lay terms *\"Brain health is when thinking, feeling and connecting are the best that they can be in a sage, healthy environment.\"*",
"### Stroke prevention",
"In addition to his interest in the mechanisms of stroke and [best practices](/wiki/Best_practice \"Best practice\") for treatment, Hachinski also has a keen research interest in stroke prevention. He acted as the principal neurological investigator on several seminal, multicentre studies, beginning with the Canadian\\-American [Ticlopidine](/wiki/Ticlopidine \"Ticlopidine\") study (1983–88\\){{cite journal \\|last1\\=Gent \\|first1\\=M \\|last2\\=Blakely \\|first2\\=J A \\|last3\\=Easton \\|first3\\=J D \\|last4\\=Ellis \\|first4\\=D J \\|last5\\=Hachinski \\|first5\\=V C \\|last6\\=Harbison \\|first6\\=J W \\|last7\\=Panak \\|first7\\=E \\|last8\\=Roberts \\|first8\\=R S \\|last9\\=Sicurella \\|first9\\=J \\|last10\\=Turpie \\|first10\\=A G \\|title\\=The Canadian American Ticlopidine Study (CATS) in thromboembolic stroke. Design, organization, and baseline results. \\|journal\\=Stroke \\|date\\=October 1988 \\|volume\\=19 \\|issue\\=10 \\|pages\\=1203–1210 \\|doi\\=10\\.1161/01\\.str.19\\.10\\.1203 \\|pmid\\=3051529 \\|doi\\-access\\= }}{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Gent \\|first1\\=Michael \\|last2\\=Donald Easton \\|first2\\=J. \\|last3\\=Hachinski \\|first3\\=VladimirC. \\|last4\\=Panak \\|first4\\=Edouard \\|last5\\=Sicurella \\|first5\\=Jane \\|last6\\=Blakely \\|first6\\=JohnA. \\|last7\\=Ellis \\|first7\\=DavidJ. \\|last8\\=Harbison \\|first8\\=JohnW. \\|last9\\=Roberts \\|first9\\=RobinS. \\|last10\\=Turpie \\|first10\\=AlexanderG.G. \\|title\\=The Canadian American Ticlopidine Study (Cats) in Thromboembolic Stroke \\|journal\\=The Lancet \\|date\\=June 1989 \\|volume\\=333 \\|issue\\=8649 \\|pages\\=1215–1220 \\|doi\\=10\\.1016/s0140\\-6736(89\\)92327\\-1 \\|pmid\\=2566778 \\|s2cid\\=22484643 }} and the Extracranial/Intracranial Arterial Bypass Surgery trial (1983–87\\). The former showed a preventative advantage to the drug Ticlopidine over commonly\\-prescribed [Aspirin](/wiki/Aspirin \"Aspirin\"), while the latter showed that the increasingly popular and very expensive [EC/IC](/wiki/Vascular_bypass \"Vascular bypass\") [arterial bypass](/wiki/Bypass_surgery \"Bypass surgery\") procedure did not significantly reduce the risk of ischemic stroke.{{cite journal \\|last1\\=EC/IC Bypass Study \\|first1\\=Group. \\|title\\=Failure of Extracranial–Intracranial Arterial Bypass to Reduce the Risk of Ischemic Stroke \\|journal\\=New England Journal of Medicine \\|date\\=7 November 1985 \\|volume\\=313 \\|issue\\=19 \\|pages\\=1191–1200 \\|doi\\=10\\.1056/NEJM198511073131904 \\|pmid\\=2865674 }}",
"In 2003, alongside several other researchers, Hachinski began a [proof of principle](/wiki/Proof_of_concept \"Proof of concept\") study through the [Canadian Stroke Network](/wiki/Canadian_Stroke_Network \"Canadian Stroke Network\") on secondary stroke prevention. The study aimed to explore the efficacy of stroke risk\\-factor counselling and monitoring in effecting lifestyle changes and prescription adherence in patients, as well as exploring barriers and testing possible solutions to effective stroke risk\\-factor management.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://canadianstrokenetwork.ca/en/wp\\-content/uploads/2014/08/annualreport2003\\-en.pdf\\|title\\=Canadian Stroke Network Annual Report 2002\\-2003\\|page\\=7\\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-05\\-31}} The preliminary results were extremely promising, showing that the addition of non\\-medical personnel to usual stroke care results in far better outcomes and reduced risk\\-factors. That initial study led to the creation of a multi\\-centre study in 2009 under the direction of Richard Chan.{{Cite journal\\|last\\=Chan\\|first\\=Richard\\|title\\=Promoting Adherence to a Regimen of risk factor modification by Trained Non\\-medical personnel Evaluated against Regular practice Study\\|url\\=http://www.isrctn.com/ISRCTN07607027\\|journal\\=International Standard Randomised Controlled Trial Number (ISRCTN) Registry\\|doi\\=10\\.1186/isrctn07607027 \\|doi\\-access\\= free}}",
"### Population health",
"Hachinski's home province of Ontario, Canada introduced a formal Provincial Stroke System in 2000\\.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://ocfp.on.ca/docs/cme/2011/04/18/ontario\\-stroke\\-system\\-overview.pdf\\|title\\=Ontario Stroke System Overview\\|date\\=2011\\-04\\-18\\|website\\=Ontario College of Family Physicians (ocfp.on.ca)\\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-05\\-31}} Hachinski advocates a strategy of preventing some dementias through the prevention of stroke.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.lhsc.on.ca/About\\_Us/LHSC/Publications/Homepage/strokeconference.htm\\|title\\=Advocating for global stroke and dementia strategy\\|date\\=2016\\-02\\-22\\|website\\=London Health Sciences Centre\\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-06\\-01}} With his colleagues, he showed, for the first time, a [concomitant](/wiki/Concomitant_%28statistics%29 \"Concomitant (statistics)\") decrease in the incidence of stroke and dementia at a [whole\\-population level](/wiki/Population_health \"Population health\").{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Sposato \\|first1\\=Luciano A. \\|last2\\=Kapral \\|first2\\=Moira K. \\|last3\\=Fang \\|first3\\=Jiming \\|last4\\=Gill \\|first4\\=Sudeep S. \\|last5\\=Hackam \\|first5\\=Daniel G. \\|last6\\=Cipriano \\|first6\\=Lauren E. \\|last7\\=Hachinski \\|first7\\=Vladimir \\|title\\=Declining Incidence of Stroke and Dementia: Coincidence or Prevention Opportunity? \\|journal\\=JAMA Neurology \\|date\\=1 December 2015 \\|volume\\=72 \\|issue\\=12 \\|pages\\=1529–31 \\|doi\\=10\\.1001/jamaneurol.2015\\.2816 \\|pmid\\=26658969 \\|doi\\-access\\=free }} He is leading a team from 5 Western University faculties, 5 provinces and 4 countries, to find out how and help apply the lessons widely.",
"He advocates and will help implement a new approach to the joint prevention of stroke, ischemic heart disease and dementia (the terrible three).",
"The new approach is based on these premises:",
"1\\. The “terrible three” inflict the highest number of death and disability adjusted life years (DALY’s) globally. However, they share the same treatable and preventable risk factors and represent risks for each other. Consequently, conditions that occur together should be prevented together.",
"2\\. To be effective prevention has to occur in “actionable units” small enough that their members have or can develop a sense of community.",
"3\\. The approach has to be:",
"a. Comprehensive – meaning that all relevant factors need to be considered: Environment, socio\\-economic factors and individual risk and protective factors",
"b. Customized – to address the main and manageable problems",
"c. Cost\\-effective – to justify why it should be done ahead of other priorities",
"This approach is known as the CCCAP or the 3C’s approach.{{Cite journal \\|last1\\=Hachinski \\|first1\\=Vladimir \\|last2\\=the Dementia Prevention Initiative \\|date\\=2022\\-02\\-01 \\|title\\=The comprehensive, customized, cost\\-effective approach (CCCAP) to prevention of dementia \\|url\\=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10\\.1002/alz.12586 \\|journal\\=Alzheimer's \\& Dementia \\|volume\\=18 \\|issue\\=8 \\|language\\=en \\|pages\\=1565–1568 \\|doi\\=10\\.1002/alz.12586 \\|pmid\\=35103397 \\|s2cid\\=246444750 \\|issn\\=1552\\-5260}}",
"Additionally, he advocates a change in strategy. Instead of using fear, warning people that if they don’t lead a healthy lifestyle they will suffer a stroke, heart disease or dementia decades later, the aim is to achieve brain/mental health now.{{Cite journal \\|last1\\=Avan \\|first1\\=Abolfazl \\|last2\\=Hachinski \\|first2\\=Vladimir \\|last3\\=Brain Health Learn and Act Group \\|date\\=2021\\-09\\-27 \\|title\\=Brain health: Key to health, productivity, and well\\-being \\|url\\=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10\\.1002/alz.12478 \\|journal\\=Alzheimer's \\& Dementia \\|language\\=en \\|volume\\=18 \\|issue\\=7 \\|pages\\=1396–1407 \\|doi\\=10\\.1002/alz.12478 \\|pmid\\=34569702 \\|s2cid\\=237942165 \\|issn\\=1552\\-5260}}",
""
] |
1902–1915: Black and white and the pre\-war era
-----------------------------------------------
{{multiple image
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\| image1 \=
\| width1 \=
\| alt1 \=
\| image2 \= Port adelaide fc team 1903\.jpg
\| width2 \= 330
\| alt2 \=
\| image3 \= 1910\_Richardson\_Shield.png
\| width3 \= 127
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\| image4 \= 1911 Port Adelaide State representatives.jpg
\| width4 \= 99
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\| footer \= Left: Port Adelaide adopted the black and white "Prison Bar" guernsey and the Magpie emblem in 1902\.
Middle Left: \[\[1903 SAFA season\|1903]] Port Adelaide premiership team.
Middle Right: The 1910 Richardson Shield awarded to Port Adelaide for defeating the Victorian premiers Collingwood, Western Australian premiers East Fremantle and the New South Wales premiers North Broken Hill.
Right: Port Adelaide's \[\[1911 Adelaide Carnival\|1911 State Representatives]]: \[\[Angelo Congear]], \[\[Harold Oliver (Australian footballer)\|Harold Oliver]], \[\[Sampson Hosking]] and \[\[Frank Hansen (Australian footballer)\|Frank Hansen]].
}}
In 1902, Port Adelaide took the field in black and white guernseys for the first time after it was having trouble finding appropriate and affordable dyes that would last for its blue and magenta guernseys.{{cite news \|url\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\-article162353382 \|title\=FOOTBALL. \|newspaper\=\[\[Adelaide Observer]] \|date\=26 April 1902 \|access\-date\=28 December 2014 \|page\=20 \|via\=National Library of Australia}}
Port Adelaide was now being referred to as "the Magpies" and would have instant success in the black and white wharf pylon guernsey defeating {{SANFL NthA}} by 28 points at [Alberton Oval](/wiki/Alberton_Oval "Alberton Oval") in its new guise. However the first year in the new guernsey would also be a controversial year for the club. After finishing the [1902 SAFA season](/wiki/1902_SAFA_season "1902 SAFA season") a game clear on top of the ladder with a scoring ratio of approximately 2–1, the club found itself disqualified during the finals by the SAFL after a game scheduled between the club and {{SANFL SthA}} was abandoned after a dispute regarding the use of Mr Kneebone as an umpire, who was not certified by the football association at the beginning of the year as an umpire. Port Adelaide considered that Mr Kneebone would not be impartial and refused to play.{{cite news \|url\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\-article4875685 \|title\=A FOOTBALL DISPUTE. \|newspaper\=\[\[The Advertiser (Adelaide)\|The Advertiser]] \|location\=Adelaide \|date\=4 September 1902 \|access\-date\=30 May 2015 \|page\=4 \|via\=National Library of Australia}} The 1902 SAFA premiership would subsequently be awarded to {{SANFL NthA}} after they defeated {{SANFL SthA}} in the Grand Final a week later.{{cite news \|url\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\-article56255969 \|title\=FOOTBALL. \|newspaper\=\[\[The Register (Adelaide)\|The Register]] \|location\=Adelaide \|date\=9 September 1902 \|access\-date\=29 December 2014 \|page\=6 \|via\=National Library of Australia}} Port Adelaide offered to play North Adelaide in a premiership deciding match, but the association refused.{{cite news \|url\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\-article56255969 \|title\=FOOTBALL. \|newspaper\=\[\[The Register (Adelaide)\|The Register]] \|location\=Adelaide \|date\=9 September 1902 \|access\-date\=30 May 2015 \|page\=6 \|via\=National Library of Australia}} This point in time marked the beginning of a halcyon era for the club participating in 12 Grand Final appearances in the next 13 seasons setting the foundations for the club to win 31 premierships in the newly adopted black and white wharf pylon guernsey over a period of 92 years until its entrance into the AFL in 1997\.
{{cquote\|"In the event of the Umpire Committee of the South Australian Football Association insisting on Mr. Kneebone being appointed to umpire the match between Port Adelaide and South Adelaide, it is the intention of the Club to forfeit the match to the South Adelaide Club."\|15px\|15px\|(Signed) H. Howell, Chairman, and J. Sweeney, Secretary.McLean, A 1971, '100 Years with the Magpies', Letterpress, South Australia, p. 19\.}}
[thumb\|left\|250px\|The 1910 premiership team.](/wiki/File:Port_Adelaide_1910_premiership_team.jpg "Port Adelaide 1910 premiership team.jpg")
| *[1910 Championship of Australia](/wiki/1910_Championship_of_Australia "1910 Championship of Australia")* | *G* | *B* | *Total* |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Port Adelaide | **15** | **20** | **110** |
| [Collingwood](/wiki/Collingwood_Football_Club "Collingwood Football Club") | 7 | 9 | 51 |
| Venue: [Adelaide Oval](/wiki/Adelaide_Oval "Adelaide Oval") | | | |
The first premiership after the dispute came the following year when Port Adelaide defeated South Adelaide 6\.6 (42\) to 5\.5 (35\) in the 1903 SAFA Challenge Final. In 1906 Port Adelaide appointed [James Hodge](/wiki/James_Hodge_%28administrator%29 "James Hodge (administrator)") as club secretary. Hodge would quickly earn the nickname 'Columbus' after taking the club on trips to play exhibition games all across Australia.{{cite news \|url\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\-article207210661 \|title\=FOOTBALL. \|newspaper\=\[\[Evening Journal (Adelaide)\|Evening Journal]] \|volume\=XLIV \|issue\=12305 \|location\=Adelaide \|date\=16 September 1910 \|access\-date\=30 October 2018 \|page\=6\|edition\=SPECIAL SPORTS \|via\=National Library of Australia}} That year would also see further premiership when Port defeated North Adelaide 8\.12 (60\) to 5\.9 (39\) in [the year's Grand Final](/wiki/1906_SAFA_Grand_Final "1906 SAFA Grand Final"). During the early stages of the 1907 season, Port Adelaide travelled to Sydney to play a combination of the cities best players. The game was marketed as 'Port Adelaide vs. Sydney' with the harbour city side taking the honours 8\.9 (57\) to 5\.14 (44\).{{cite news \|url\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\-article115235416 \|title\=Port Adelaide v. Sydney \|newspaper\=\[\[The Evening News (Sydney)\|The Evening News]]\|location\=Sydney \|date\=7 June 1907 \|access\-date\=5 May 2015 \|page\=3 \|via\=National Library of Australia}} Port Adelaide won the SAFL premiership in 1910 defeating [Sturt](/wiki/Sturt_Football_Club "Sturt Football Club") 8\.12 (60\) to 5\.11 (41\) in the Grand Final. The club would go on to defeat Collingwood for the [1910 Championship of Australia](/wiki/1910_Championship_of_Australia "1910 Championship of Australia") title.
| *1910 Port Adelaide vs. WAFL{{cite web\|url\=http://australianfootball.com/articles/view/Port\+in\+Perth\+\-\+Port\+Adelaide%27s\+1910\+WA\+tour/12\|title\=Australian Football \- Port in Perth \- Port Adelaide's 1910 WA tour\|author\=The Slattery Media Group\|publisher\=australianfootball.com\|access\-date\=12 July 2015}}* | *G* | *B* | *Total* |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| [WAFL](/wiki/Western_Australia_Australian_rules_football_team "Western Australia Australian rules football team") | 6 | 12 | 48 |
| Port Adelaide | **6** | **17** | **53** |
| Venue: [Fremantle Oval](/wiki/Fremantle_Oval "Fremantle Oval") | | | |
| *1910 WAFL vs. SAFL premiers* | *G* | *B* | *Total* |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| [East Fremantle](/wiki/East_Fremantle_Football_Club "East Fremantle Football Club") | 5 | 4 | 34 |
| Port Adelaide | **6** | **10** | **46** |
| Venue: [WACA Ground](/wiki/WACA_Ground "WACA Ground") | | | |
The [East Fremantle Football Club](/wiki/East_Fremantle_Football_Club "East Fremantle Football Club") had toured South Australia in 1909 and embarrassed Port Adelaide 12\.13 (85\) to 8\.16 (64\) in what was the two clubs' first encounter. During the 1910 post season, seeking revenge, Port Adelaide travelled to Western Australia and evened the ledger scoring 6\.10 (46\) to beat East Fremantle's 5\.4 (34\). To conclude this trip Port Adelaide played a combination of some of the [Western Australian Football League](/wiki/Western_Australian_Football_League "Western Australian Football League")'s best players and achieved a remarkable victory scoring 6\.17 (53\) to 6\.12 (48\), with [Sampson Hosking](/wiki/Sampson_Hosking "Sampson Hosking") named best on ground.[http://australianfootball.com/articles/view/Port\+in\+Perth\+\-\+Port\+Adelaide](http://australianfootball.com/articles/view/Port+in+Perth+-+Port+Adelaide)'s\+1910\+WA\+tour/12 Along with beating the premiers from South Australia, Victoria and Western Australia in 1910, Port Adelaide also invited North Broken Hill, the premier team of New South Wales, to a game at Adelaide Oval. Port Would win this game 14\.20 (104\) to 5\.5 (35\).{{cite news \|url\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\-article45135647 \|title\=FOOTBALL. \|newspaper\=\[\[The Barrier Miner]] \|location\=Broken Hill, NSW \|date\=16 August 1910 \|access\-date\=5 May 2015 \|page\=2 \|via\=National Library of Australia}}.
The following two seasons for Port Adelaide would be frustrating dropping only one game during the 1911 minor round and going undefeated the following year in 1912 only to be knocked out of contention by [West Adelaide](/wiki/West_Adelaide_Football_Club "West Adelaide Football Club") both times, the second of these encounters in front of a pre war South Australian record crowd of 28,500\. During the 1912 preseason, Port Adelaide travelled to Tasmania and took on a combination of players from various [Tasmanian Football League](/wiki/Tasmanian_Football_League "Tasmanian Football League") sides. The game would prove to be very competitive with Port Adelaide defeating the TFL combination 7\.13 (55\) to 6\.6 (42\).{{Cite book\|title \= SA Football Companion\|last \= Devaney\|first \= John\|publisher \= Full Points Footy's\|year \= 2008\|pages \= 431}}
| *[1913 Championship of Australia](/wiki/1913_Championship_of_Australia "1913 Championship of Australia")* | *G* | *B* | *Total* |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Port Adelaide | **13** | **16** | **94** |
| [Fitzroy](/wiki/Fitzroy_Football_Club "Fitzroy Football Club") | 4 | 7 | 31 |
| Venue: [Adelaide Oval](/wiki/Adelaide_Oval "Adelaide Oval") | | | |
{{multiple image
\| align \= left
\| image1 \= PortAdelaideOval.JPG
\| width1 \= 150
\| alt1 \=
\| image2 \= PortAdelaide1914\.jpg
\| width2 \= 280
\| alt2 \=
\| footer \= Left: Club legend \[\[Harold Oliver (Australian footballer)\|Harold Oliver]] taking a mark in the \[\[1914 SAFL season\#Week 1\|1914 SAFL Semi Final]] against \[\[Sturt Football Club\|Sturt]] at \[\[Adelaide Oval]].
Right: Port Adelaide's \[\[1914 SAFL season\|undefeated 1914 SAFL premiers]] and "\[\[1914 Championship of Australia\|Champions of Australia]]" team.
}}
During the 1913 preseason, Port Adelaide travelled back to Western Australia to play East Fremantle again with the local side winning for a second time 6\.6 (42\) to 4\.12 (36\). Despite this inauspicious preseason the club would break through in 1913, dropping only two games during the minor round and eventually defeating [North Adelaide](/wiki/North_Adelaide_Football_Club "North Adelaide Football Club") 7\.12 (54\) to 5\.10 (40\) for the SAFL premiership and [Fitzroy](/wiki/Fitzroy_Football_Club "Fitzroy Football Club") 13\.16 (94\) to 4\.7 (31\) for the [1913 Championship of Australia](/wiki/1913_Championship_of_Australia "1913 Championship of Australia").
The [1914 season](/wiki/1914_SAFL_season "1914 SAFL season") is widely regarded as the club's best season with Port Adelaide achieving the distinction of going through the entire year without losing a single match. It is won its fourteen SAFL games by an average margin of 49 points. The 1914 SAFL Grand Final is notable as Port Adelaide held [North Adelaide](/wiki/North_Adelaide_Football_Club "North Adelaide Football Club") to a single goal for the match 13\.15 (93\) to 1\.8 (14\), a feat that would be repeated in 1989\. The club would then meet [VFL](/wiki/Victorian_Football_League "Victorian Football League") premiers [Carlton](/wiki/Carlton_Football_Club "Carlton Football Club") on [Adelaide Oval](/wiki/Adelaide_Oval "Adelaide Oval"), defeating the V[ictorian](/wiki/Victoria_%28Australia%29 "Victoria (Australia)") club 9\.16 (70\) to 5\.6 (36\) to claim a record [fourth Championship of Australia title](/wiki/1914_Championship_of_Australia "1914 Championship of Australia"). At the end of 1914 season the [SAFL](/wiki/SANFL "SANFL") put together a combined team from the six other SAFL clubs to play Port Adelaide to no avail with the now dubbed "Invincibles" winning 14\.14 (98\) to South Australia's 5\.10 (40\). A third of the South Australian team that went to Sydney for the [1914 Australian football](/wiki/1914_Sydney_Carnival "1914 Sydney Carnival") were Port Adelaide players who were Jack Ashley, Angelo Congear, Frank Magor, Tom McFarlane and Alan Maynard.
| *1914 Port Adelaide vs. SAFL{{cite news \|url\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\-article59365634 \|title\=FOOTBALL. \|newspaper\=\[\[The Mail (Adelaide)\|The Mail]] \|location\=Adelaide \|date\=15 October 1914 \|access\-date\=9 January 2015 \|page\=4 \|via\=National Library of Australia}}* | *G* | *B* | *Total* |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| [SAFL](/wiki/South_Australia_Australian_rules_football_team "South Australia Australian rules football team") | 5 | 10 | 40 |
| Port Adelaide | **14** | **14** | **98** |
| Venue: [Jubilee Oval](/wiki/Jubilee_Oval "Jubilee Oval") | | | |
| *[1914 Championship of Australia](/wiki/1914_Championship_of_Australia "1914 Championship of Australia")* | *G* | *B* | *Total* |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Port Adelaide | **9** | **16** | **70** |
| [Carlton](/wiki/Carlton_Football_Club "Carlton Football Club") | 5 | 6 | 36 |
| Venue: [Adelaide Oval](/wiki/Adelaide_Oval "Adelaide Oval") | | | |
Champion players of this era included [Frank Hansen](/wiki/Frank_Hansen_%28Australian_footballer%29 "Frank Hansen (Australian footballer)"), [Harold Oliver](/wiki/Harold_Oliver_%28Australian_footballer%29 "Harold Oliver (Australian footballer)"), [Angelo Congear](/wiki/Angelo_Congear "Angelo Congear") and [Sampson Hosking](/wiki/Sampson_Hosking "Sampson Hosking"). The latter three of those players mentioned have the unique distinction of playing in three Championships of Australia together as well all taking part in South Australia's first victorious [Australian National Football Carnival in 1911](/wiki/1911_Adelaide_Carnival "1911 Adelaide Carnival").{{cite web\|url\=http://australianfootball.com/players/player/angelo%2Bcongear/43\|title\=Australian Football – Angelo Congear – Player Bio\|author\=The Slattery Media Group\|publisher\=australianfootball.com\|access\-date\=12 July 2015}}
The onset of World War I was causing players to start taking up arms in 1915 and forced the SAFL to be suspended for three years bringing an abrupt halt to Port Adelaide's dominance.
|
[
"1902–1915: Black and white and the pre\\-war era\n-----------------------------------------------",
"{{multiple image\n\\| align \\= right\n\\| image1 \\= \n\\| width1 \\= \n\\| alt1 \\= \n\\| image2 \\= Port adelaide fc team 1903\\.jpg\n\\| width2 \\= 330\n\\| alt2 \\=\n\\| image3 \\= 1910\\_Richardson\\_Shield.png\n\\| width3 \\= 127\n\\| alt3 \\=\n\\| image4 \\= 1911 Port Adelaide State representatives.jpg\n\\| width4 \\= 99\n\\| alt4 \\= \n\\| footer \\= Left: Port Adelaide adopted the black and white \"Prison Bar\" guernsey and the Magpie emblem in 1902\\. \n Middle Left: \\[\\[1903 SAFA season\\|1903]] Port Adelaide premiership team. \n Middle Right: The 1910 Richardson Shield awarded to Port Adelaide for defeating the Victorian premiers Collingwood, Western Australian premiers East Fremantle and the New South Wales premiers North Broken Hill. \nRight: Port Adelaide's \\[\\[1911 Adelaide Carnival\\|1911 State Representatives]]: \\[\\[Angelo Congear]], \\[\\[Harold Oliver (Australian footballer)\\|Harold Oliver]], \\[\\[Sampson Hosking]] and \\[\\[Frank Hansen (Australian footballer)\\|Frank Hansen]].\n}}",
"In 1902, Port Adelaide took the field in black and white guernseys for the first time after it was having trouble finding appropriate and affordable dyes that would last for its blue and magenta guernseys.{{cite news \\|url\\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\\-article162353382 \\|title\\=FOOTBALL. \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[Adelaide Observer]] \\|date\\=26 April 1902 \\|access\\-date\\=28 December 2014 \\|page\\=20 \\|via\\=National Library of Australia}}",
"Port Adelaide was now being referred to as \"the Magpies\" and would have instant success in the black and white wharf pylon guernsey defeating {{SANFL NthA}} by 28 points at [Alberton Oval](/wiki/Alberton_Oval \"Alberton Oval\") in its new guise. However the first year in the new guernsey would also be a controversial year for the club. After finishing the [1902 SAFA season](/wiki/1902_SAFA_season \"1902 SAFA season\") a game clear on top of the ladder with a scoring ratio of approximately 2–1, the club found itself disqualified during the finals by the SAFL after a game scheduled between the club and {{SANFL SthA}} was abandoned after a dispute regarding the use of Mr Kneebone as an umpire, who was not certified by the football association at the beginning of the year as an umpire. Port Adelaide considered that Mr Kneebone would not be impartial and refused to play.{{cite news \\|url\\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\\-article4875685 \\|title\\=A FOOTBALL DISPUTE. \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The Advertiser (Adelaide)\\|The Advertiser]] \\|location\\=Adelaide \\|date\\=4 September 1902 \\|access\\-date\\=30 May 2015 \\|page\\=4 \\|via\\=National Library of Australia}} The 1902 SAFA premiership would subsequently be awarded to {{SANFL NthA}} after they defeated {{SANFL SthA}} in the Grand Final a week later.{{cite news \\|url\\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\\-article56255969 \\|title\\=FOOTBALL. \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The Register (Adelaide)\\|The Register]] \\|location\\=Adelaide \\|date\\=9 September 1902 \\|access\\-date\\=29 December 2014 \\|page\\=6 \\|via\\=National Library of Australia}} Port Adelaide offered to play North Adelaide in a premiership deciding match, but the association refused.{{cite news \\|url\\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\\-article56255969 \\|title\\=FOOTBALL. \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The Register (Adelaide)\\|The Register]] \\|location\\=Adelaide \\|date\\=9 September 1902 \\|access\\-date\\=30 May 2015 \\|page\\=6 \\|via\\=National Library of Australia}} This point in time marked the beginning of a halcyon era for the club participating in 12 Grand Final appearances in the next 13 seasons setting the foundations for the club to win 31 premierships in the newly adopted black and white wharf pylon guernsey over a period of 92 years until its entrance into the AFL in 1997\\.",
"{{cquote\\|\"In the event of the Umpire Committee of the South Australian Football Association insisting on Mr. Kneebone being appointed to umpire the match between Port Adelaide and South Adelaide, it is the intention of the Club to forfeit the match to the South Adelaide Club.\"\\|15px\\|15px\\|(Signed) H. Howell, Chairman, and J. Sweeney, Secretary.McLean, A 1971, '100 Years with the Magpies', Letterpress, South Australia, p. 19\\.}}",
"[thumb\\|left\\|250px\\|The 1910 premiership team.](/wiki/File:Port_Adelaide_1910_premiership_team.jpg \"Port Adelaide 1910 premiership team.jpg\")",
"| *[1910 Championship of Australia](/wiki/1910_Championship_of_Australia \"1910 Championship of Australia\")* | *G* | *B* | *Total* |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| Port Adelaide | **15** | **20** | **110** |\n| [Collingwood](/wiki/Collingwood_Football_Club \"Collingwood Football Club\") | 7 | 9 | 51 |\n| Venue: [Adelaide Oval](/wiki/Adelaide_Oval \"Adelaide Oval\") | | | |",
"",
"The first premiership after the dispute came the following year when Port Adelaide defeated South Adelaide 6\\.6 (42\\) to 5\\.5 (35\\) in the 1903 SAFA Challenge Final. In 1906 Port Adelaide appointed [James Hodge](/wiki/James_Hodge_%28administrator%29 \"James Hodge (administrator)\") as club secretary. Hodge would quickly earn the nickname 'Columbus' after taking the club on trips to play exhibition games all across Australia.{{cite news \\|url\\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\\-article207210661 \\|title\\=FOOTBALL. \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[Evening Journal (Adelaide)\\|Evening Journal]] \\|volume\\=XLIV \\|issue\\=12305 \\|location\\=Adelaide \\|date\\=16 September 1910 \\|access\\-date\\=30 October 2018 \\|page\\=6\\|edition\\=SPECIAL SPORTS \\|via\\=National Library of Australia}} That year would also see further premiership when Port defeated North Adelaide 8\\.12 (60\\) to 5\\.9 (39\\) in [the year's Grand Final](/wiki/1906_SAFA_Grand_Final \"1906 SAFA Grand Final\"). During the early stages of the 1907 season, Port Adelaide travelled to Sydney to play a combination of the cities best players. The game was marketed as 'Port Adelaide vs. Sydney' with the harbour city side taking the honours 8\\.9 (57\\) to 5\\.14 (44\\).{{cite news \\|url\\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\\-article115235416 \\|title\\=Port Adelaide v. Sydney \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The Evening News (Sydney)\\|The Evening News]]\\|location\\=Sydney \\|date\\=7 June 1907 \\|access\\-date\\=5 May 2015 \\|page\\=3 \\|via\\=National Library of Australia}} Port Adelaide won the SAFL premiership in 1910 defeating [Sturt](/wiki/Sturt_Football_Club \"Sturt Football Club\") 8\\.12 (60\\) to 5\\.11 (41\\) in the Grand Final. The club would go on to defeat Collingwood for the [1910 Championship of Australia](/wiki/1910_Championship_of_Australia \"1910 Championship of Australia\") title.",
"| *1910 Port Adelaide vs. WAFL{{cite web\\|url\\=http://australianfootball.com/articles/view/Port\\+in\\+Perth\\+\\-\\+Port\\+Adelaide%27s\\+1910\\+WA\\+tour/12\\|title\\=Australian Football \\- Port in Perth \\- Port Adelaide's 1910 WA tour\\|author\\=The Slattery Media Group\\|publisher\\=australianfootball.com\\|access\\-date\\=12 July 2015}}* | *G* | *B* | *Total* |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| [WAFL](/wiki/Western_Australia_Australian_rules_football_team \"Western Australia Australian rules football team\") | 6 | 12 | 48 |\n| Port Adelaide | **6** | **17** | **53** |\n| Venue: [Fremantle Oval](/wiki/Fremantle_Oval \"Fremantle Oval\") | | | |",
"",
"| *1910 WAFL vs. SAFL premiers* | *G* | *B* | *Total* |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| [East Fremantle](/wiki/East_Fremantle_Football_Club \"East Fremantle Football Club\") | 5 | 4 | 34 |\n| Port Adelaide | **6** | **10** | **46** |\n| Venue: [WACA Ground](/wiki/WACA_Ground \"WACA Ground\") | | | |",
"The [East Fremantle Football Club](/wiki/East_Fremantle_Football_Club \"East Fremantle Football Club\") had toured South Australia in 1909 and embarrassed Port Adelaide 12\\.13 (85\\) to 8\\.16 (64\\) in what was the two clubs' first encounter. During the 1910 post season, seeking revenge, Port Adelaide travelled to Western Australia and evened the ledger scoring 6\\.10 (46\\) to beat East Fremantle's 5\\.4 (34\\). To conclude this trip Port Adelaide played a combination of some of the [Western Australian Football League](/wiki/Western_Australian_Football_League \"Western Australian Football League\")'s best players and achieved a remarkable victory scoring 6\\.17 (53\\) to 6\\.12 (48\\), with [Sampson Hosking](/wiki/Sampson_Hosking \"Sampson Hosking\") named best on ground.[http://australianfootball.com/articles/view/Port\\+in\\+Perth\\+\\-\\+Port\\+Adelaide](http://australianfootball.com/articles/view/Port+in+Perth+-+Port+Adelaide)'s\\+1910\\+WA\\+tour/12 Along with beating the premiers from South Australia, Victoria and Western Australia in 1910, Port Adelaide also invited North Broken Hill, the premier team of New South Wales, to a game at Adelaide Oval. Port Would win this game 14\\.20 (104\\) to 5\\.5 (35\\).{{cite news \\|url\\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\\-article45135647 \\|title\\=FOOTBALL. \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The Barrier Miner]] \\|location\\=Broken Hill, NSW \\|date\\=16 August 1910 \\|access\\-date\\=5 May 2015 \\|page\\=2 \\|via\\=National Library of Australia}}.",
"The following two seasons for Port Adelaide would be frustrating dropping only one game during the 1911 minor round and going undefeated the following year in 1912 only to be knocked out of contention by [West Adelaide](/wiki/West_Adelaide_Football_Club \"West Adelaide Football Club\") both times, the second of these encounters in front of a pre war South Australian record crowd of 28,500\\. During the 1912 preseason, Port Adelaide travelled to Tasmania and took on a combination of players from various [Tasmanian Football League](/wiki/Tasmanian_Football_League \"Tasmanian Football League\") sides. The game would prove to be very competitive with Port Adelaide defeating the TFL combination 7\\.13 (55\\) to 6\\.6 (42\\).{{Cite book\\|title \\= SA Football Companion\\|last \\= Devaney\\|first \\= John\\|publisher \\= Full Points Footy's\\|year \\= 2008\\|pages \\= 431}}",
"| *[1913 Championship of Australia](/wiki/1913_Championship_of_Australia \"1913 Championship of Australia\")* | *G* | *B* | *Total* |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| Port Adelaide | **13** | **16** | **94** |\n| [Fitzroy](/wiki/Fitzroy_Football_Club \"Fitzroy Football Club\") | 4 | 7 | 31 |\n| Venue: [Adelaide Oval](/wiki/Adelaide_Oval \"Adelaide Oval\") | | | |",
"",
"{{multiple image\n\\| align \\= left\n\\| image1 \\= PortAdelaideOval.JPG\n\\| width1 \\= 150\n\\| alt1 \\= \n\\| image2 \\= PortAdelaide1914\\.jpg\n\\| width2 \\= 280\n\\| alt2 \\= \n\\| footer \\= Left: Club legend \\[\\[Harold Oliver (Australian footballer)\\|Harold Oliver]] taking a mark in the \\[\\[1914 SAFL season\\#Week 1\\|1914 SAFL Semi Final]] against \\[\\[Sturt Football Club\\|Sturt]] at \\[\\[Adelaide Oval]]. \n Right: Port Adelaide's \\[\\[1914 SAFL season\\|undefeated 1914 SAFL premiers]] and \"\\[\\[1914 Championship of Australia\\|Champions of Australia]]\" team.\n}}\nDuring the 1913 preseason, Port Adelaide travelled back to Western Australia to play East Fremantle again with the local side winning for a second time 6\\.6 (42\\) to 4\\.12 (36\\). Despite this inauspicious preseason the club would break through in 1913, dropping only two games during the minor round and eventually defeating [North Adelaide](/wiki/North_Adelaide_Football_Club \"North Adelaide Football Club\") 7\\.12 (54\\) to 5\\.10 (40\\) for the SAFL premiership and [Fitzroy](/wiki/Fitzroy_Football_Club \"Fitzroy Football Club\") 13\\.16 (94\\) to 4\\.7 (31\\) for the [1913 Championship of Australia](/wiki/1913_Championship_of_Australia \"1913 Championship of Australia\").",
"The [1914 season](/wiki/1914_SAFL_season \"1914 SAFL season\") is widely regarded as the club's best season with Port Adelaide achieving the distinction of going through the entire year without losing a single match. It is won its fourteen SAFL games by an average margin of 49 points. The 1914 SAFL Grand Final is notable as Port Adelaide held [North Adelaide](/wiki/North_Adelaide_Football_Club \"North Adelaide Football Club\") to a single goal for the match 13\\.15 (93\\) to 1\\.8 (14\\), a feat that would be repeated in 1989\\. The club would then meet [VFL](/wiki/Victorian_Football_League \"Victorian Football League\") premiers [Carlton](/wiki/Carlton_Football_Club \"Carlton Football Club\") on [Adelaide Oval](/wiki/Adelaide_Oval \"Adelaide Oval\"), defeating the V[ictorian](/wiki/Victoria_%28Australia%29 \"Victoria (Australia)\") club 9\\.16 (70\\) to 5\\.6 (36\\) to claim a record [fourth Championship of Australia title](/wiki/1914_Championship_of_Australia \"1914 Championship of Australia\"). At the end of 1914 season the [SAFL](/wiki/SANFL \"SANFL\") put together a combined team from the six other SAFL clubs to play Port Adelaide to no avail with the now dubbed \"Invincibles\" winning 14\\.14 (98\\) to South Australia's 5\\.10 (40\\). A third of the South Australian team that went to Sydney for the [1914 Australian football](/wiki/1914_Sydney_Carnival \"1914 Sydney Carnival\") were Port Adelaide players who were Jack Ashley, Angelo Congear, Frank Magor, Tom McFarlane and Alan Maynard.",
"",
"| *1914 Port Adelaide vs. SAFL{{cite news \\|url\\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\\-article59365634 \\|title\\=FOOTBALL. \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The Mail (Adelaide)\\|The Mail]] \\|location\\=Adelaide \\|date\\=15 October 1914 \\|access\\-date\\=9 January 2015 \\|page\\=4 \\|via\\=National Library of Australia}}* | *G* | *B* | *Total* |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| [SAFL](/wiki/South_Australia_Australian_rules_football_team \"South Australia Australian rules football team\") | 5 | 10 | 40 |\n| Port Adelaide | **14** | **14** | **98** |\n| Venue: [Jubilee Oval](/wiki/Jubilee_Oval \"Jubilee Oval\") | | | |",
"",
"| *[1914 Championship of Australia](/wiki/1914_Championship_of_Australia \"1914 Championship of Australia\")* | *G* | *B* | *Total* |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| Port Adelaide | **9** | **16** | **70** |\n| [Carlton](/wiki/Carlton_Football_Club \"Carlton Football Club\") | 5 | 6 | 36 |\n| Venue: [Adelaide Oval](/wiki/Adelaide_Oval \"Adelaide Oval\") | | | |",
"Champion players of this era included [Frank Hansen](/wiki/Frank_Hansen_%28Australian_footballer%29 \"Frank Hansen (Australian footballer)\"), [Harold Oliver](/wiki/Harold_Oliver_%28Australian_footballer%29 \"Harold Oliver (Australian footballer)\"), [Angelo Congear](/wiki/Angelo_Congear \"Angelo Congear\") and [Sampson Hosking](/wiki/Sampson_Hosking \"Sampson Hosking\"). The latter three of those players mentioned have the unique distinction of playing in three Championships of Australia together as well all taking part in South Australia's first victorious [Australian National Football Carnival in 1911](/wiki/1911_Adelaide_Carnival \"1911 Adelaide Carnival\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://australianfootball.com/players/player/angelo%2Bcongear/43\\|title\\=Australian Football – Angelo Congear – Player Bio\\|author\\=The Slattery Media Group\\|publisher\\=australianfootball.com\\|access\\-date\\=12 July 2015}}",
"The onset of World War I was causing players to start taking up arms in 1915 and forced the SAFL to be suspended for three years bringing an abrupt halt to Port Adelaide's dominance.",
""
] |
1950–73: Fos Williams era
-------------------------
At the end of the [1949 SANFL season](/wiki/1949_SANFL_season "1949 SANFL season"), having missed two finals series in a row, the Port Adelaide Football Club had become desperate to improve its on\-field performances. The club's committee subsequently sought out a coach that could win the club its next premiership.
### 1950–1958: Fos Williams as captain\-coach
Eventually a decision was made which would influence the next 50 years of the Port Adelaide Football Club with [Foster Neil Williams](/wiki/Fos_Williams "Fos Williams"), a brilliant [rover](/wiki/Follower_%28Australian_rules_football%29 "Follower (Australian rules football)") from [West Adelaide](/wiki/West_Adelaide_Football_Club "West Adelaide Football Club"), being appointed captain\-coach of the club. Williams brought to the club a new coaching style based on success at any cost which was succinctly encapsulated in the legendary [club creed](/wiki/Port_Adelaide_Football_Club%23Club_creed "Port Adelaide Football Club#Club creed") he eventually wrote in 1962\. During his second season as coach in 1951, Williams led Port to their first official premiership (excluding World War II competition) for 9 seasons, defeating [North Adelaide](/wiki/North_Adelaide_Football_Club "North Adelaide Football Club") by 11 points. At the end of the 1951 season the VFL premiers Geelong visited South Australia to play the local premiers Port Adelaide on [Adelaide Oval](/wiki/Adelaide_Oval "Adelaide Oval"). Geelong won the match 8\.14 (62\) to 6\.18 (54\) in front of 25,000 people.{{Cite book\|title \= Bound for Glory\|last \= Wood\|first \= John\|publisher \= Largs Bay Printers\|year \= 1991\|isbn \= 0959316213\|location \= Port Adelaide\|pages \= 46}} The following year Port Adelaide would finish the 1952 SANFL home and away season in second spot, two points behind eventual premier North Adelaide. Their season would come to an end after being knocked out of the finals by rival Norwood during a preliminary final at Adelaide Oval. Port Adelaide would make the Grand Final again in 1953 against local rivals West Torrens in what would be the Eagles last appearance before merging with Woodville. West Torrens would disappoint Port Adelaide, winning the 1953 premiership by 7 points.
Port Adelaide's run of disappointment from the 1952 and 1953 seasons would prove to be short lived with the club subsequently going on to win a national record six Grand Finals in a row from 1954 to 1959\. The club had a win\-loss\-draw record of 105–16–1 (86%) over the six\-year period.
| 1954 SANFL Grand Final | *G* | *B* | *Total* |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Port Adelaide | **11** | **13** | **79** |
| [West Adelaide](/wiki/West_Adelaide_Football_Club "West Adelaide Football Club") | 10 | 16 | 76 |
| Venue: [Adelaide Oval](/wiki/Adelaide_Oval "Adelaide Oval") | Crowd: 42,894{{cite web\|url\=http://www.subiacofc.com/seasons/season/SANFL/1954/\|title\=Australian Football \- SANFL Season 1954\|author\=The Slattery Media Group\|publisher\=subiacofc.com\|access\-date\=12 July 2015}} | | | | | |
{{cquote\|"We expect you to do all those things, we've got two reserves so let me know when you've had it because you can go right off! But don't stay there unless you're going to do your job. Now lets get out there and do that."\|15px\|15px\|\[\[Fos Williams]] spray to his players during half time of the 1954 SANFL Grand FinalFos Williams, 1954 SANFL Grand Final – Port Adelaide vs. West Adelaide.}}
| 1955 Exhibition MatchVFL vs SANFL premiers. | *G* | *B* | *Total* |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Port Adelaide | 9 | 10 | 64 |
| {{AFL Mel}} | **9** | **11** | **65** |
| Venue: [Norwood Oval](/wiki/Norwood_Oval "Norwood Oval") | Crowd: 23,000{{Cite web\|url \= http://demonwiki.org/tiki\-index.php?page\=1955\+Exhibition\+Match\+vs\+Port\+Adelaide\|title \= 1955 Exhibition Match vs Port Adelaide}}{{cite news\|url\=https://news.google.com.au/newspapers?id\=5jlVAAAAIBAJ\&sjid\=nZUDAAAAIBAJ\&pg\=3335,879951\&hl\=en\|title\=Demons just home by point\|work\=The Age \|date\=6 October 1955}} | | | | | |
In 1955 Port Adelaide and [Melbourne](/wiki/Melbourne_Football_Club "Melbourne Football Club"), the premiers of South Australian and Victorian leagues, played an exhibition match at [Norwood Oval](/wiki/Norwood_Oval "Norwood Oval") in front of an estimated 23,000 spectators. The game was a thriller going down to the last 15 seconds with [Frank Adams](/wiki/Frank_%27Bluey%27_Adams "Frank 'Bluey' Adams") kicking a behind and sealing the game 9\.11 (65\) to 9\.10 (64\) in favour of [Norm Smith](/wiki/Norm_Smith "Norm Smith")'s demons.{{Cite web\|url \= http://demonwiki.org/tiki\-index.php?page\=1955\+Exhibition\+Match\+vs\+Port\+Adelaide\|title \= 1955 Exhibition Match vs Port Adelaide\|date \= 30 May 2014\|access\-date \= 20 January 2015\|website \= demonwiki.org}}
The following year both Port Adelaide and Melbourne were again premiers of their respective states leagues and the clubs agreed to a rematch. The game was again held at Norwood Oval with the result the same as the year before, Melbourne 13\.6 (84\) to Port Adelaide 11\.8 (74\). However the Melbourne club, despite their victory, was full of praise for their cross border challenger with all in the Demons camp agreeing that "Port Adelaide could take their place in the V.F.L. competition and do themselves credit".{{Cite book\|title \= Port Adelaide Football Club Annual Report\|publisher \= Port Adelaide Football Club\|year \= 1956\|pages \= 6}}
| *1957 WAFL vs SANFL premiers* | *G* | *B* | *Total* |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| **Port Adelaide** | **10** | **20** | **80** |
| {{WAFL\|EF}} | 10 | 13 | 73 |
| Venue: [Subiaco Oval](/wiki/Subiaco_Oval "Subiaco Oval") | Crowd: | | | | | |
The 1957 SANFL Grand Final between Port Adelaide and Norwood would officially attract 58,924 spectators at Adelaide Oval, the then largest crowd assembled for a football match in South Australia. Port Adelaide would go on to defeat Norwood by 11 points. During the post\-season Port Adelaide travelled to Western Australia to play East Fremantle, defeating the locals 10\.20 (80\) to 10\.13 (73\) at Subiaco Oval.
### 1959–1961: Geof Motley as captain\-coach and sixth in a row
Williams left as coach in 1958 to take a break from the game. [Geof Motley](/wiki/Geof_Motley "Geof Motley") took over the captain\-coaching role at the club to win the 1959 premiership, a national record sixth consecutive Grand Final victory. Port Adelaide's hope of winning 7 consecutive premierships would be brought to an end by Norwood during the 1960 SANFL preliminary final, with the redlegs prevailing by 27 points. For the following two seasons Port Adelaide would finish third.
### 1962–1973: Fos Williams return, three more and Jack Oatey rivalry
| [1965 SANFL Grand Final](/wiki/1965_SANFL_Grand_Final "1965 SANFL Grand Final")[Fos Williams](/wiki/Fos_Williams "Fos Williams") ninth premiership. | *G* | *B* | *Total* |
| Port Adelaide | **12** | **8** | **80** |
| {{SANFL Stu}} | 12 | 5 | 77 |
| Venue: [Adelaide Oval](/wiki/Adelaide_Oval "Adelaide Oval") | Crowd: 62,543{{cite web\|url\=http://www.subiacofc.com/seasons/season/SANFL/1965/\|title\=Australian Football \- SANFL Season 1965\|author\=The Slattery Media Group\|publisher\=subiacofc.com\|access\-date\=12 July 2015}} | | | | | |
[Fos Williams](/wiki/Fos_Williams "Fos Williams") returned in 1962 and Port Adelaide won three of the next four premierships taking his personal tally to nine and the club's record to 10 of the last 15 premierships. The 1965 premiership, the last that [Williams](/wiki/Fos_Williams "Fos Williams") coached, was played in front of 62,543 people, the largest ever crowd at [Adelaide Oval](/wiki/Adelaide_Oval "Adelaide Oval"). In that game Port Adelaide defeat Sturt 12\.8 (80\) to 12\.5 (77\). After the [1965 SANFL Grand Final](/wiki/1965_SANFL_Grand_Final "1965 SANFL Grand Final"), Port Adelaide would be particularly frustrated by the dominance of [Sturt](/wiki/Sturt_Football_Club "Sturt Football Club"), which won seven premierships over this period under the leadership of [Jack Oatey](/wiki/Jack_Oatey "Jack Oatey"). In all, despite playing in 6 of the next 10 grand finals, Port Adelaide would fail to win a premiership until 1977\. Champion players introduced in this era include [John Cahill](/wiki/John_Cahill_%28footballer%29 "John Cahill (footballer)"), [Peter Woite](/wiki/Peter_Woite "Peter Woite"), [Dave Boyd](/wiki/Dave_Boyd "Dave Boyd"), [Geof Motley](/wiki/Geof_Motley "Geof Motley") and [Russell Ebert](/wiki/Russell_Ebert "Russell Ebert").
On 24 May 1970, 100 years after the club's first game, an exhibition game between old Port Adelaide champion players including Fos Williams played against a group of famous players from other clubs including Neil Kerley and Ron Barassi was held at Alberton Oval with a crowd of 20,000 spectators present for the celebration.{{Cite book\|title \= 100 Years with the Magpies\|last \= McLean\|first \= Allan\|publisher \= Letterpress\|year \= 1971\|pages \= 51}}
#### Club creed
The creed was written and spoken for the first time in 1962 by Port Adelaide great [Fos Williams](/wiki/Fos_Williams "Fos Williams")Michael Owen, The Australian, 3 December 2009{{Quote box
\|quote \= "We, the Players and Management of the Port Adelaide Football Club, accept the heritage which players and administrators have passed down to us; in doing so we do not intend to rest in idleness but shall strive with all our ''power'' to further this Club's unexcelled achievements. To do this we believe there is a great merit and noble achievements in winning a premiership.
To be successful, each of us must be active, aggressive and devoted to this cause. We agree that success is well within our reach and have confidence that each member of both the team and management will suffer personal sacrifices for the common end.
Also we know that, should we after striving to our utmost and giving our everything, still not be successful, our efforts will become a further part of this Club's enviable tradition.
Finally, we concede that there can be honour in defeat, but to each of us, honourable defeat of our Club and guernsey can only come after human endeavour on the playing field is completely exhausted."\|source \= \[\[Fos Williams]]\|width \= 50%\|align \= center}}
|
[
"1950–73: Fos Williams era\n-------------------------",
"At the end of the [1949 SANFL season](/wiki/1949_SANFL_season \"1949 SANFL season\"), having missed two finals series in a row, the Port Adelaide Football Club had become desperate to improve its on\\-field performances. The club's committee subsequently sought out a coach that could win the club its next premiership.",
"### 1950–1958: Fos Williams as captain\\-coach",
"Eventually a decision was made which would influence the next 50 years of the Port Adelaide Football Club with [Foster Neil Williams](/wiki/Fos_Williams \"Fos Williams\"), a brilliant [rover](/wiki/Follower_%28Australian_rules_football%29 \"Follower (Australian rules football)\") from [West Adelaide](/wiki/West_Adelaide_Football_Club \"West Adelaide Football Club\"), being appointed captain\\-coach of the club. Williams brought to the club a new coaching style based on success at any cost which was succinctly encapsulated in the legendary [club creed](/wiki/Port_Adelaide_Football_Club%23Club_creed \"Port Adelaide Football Club#Club creed\") he eventually wrote in 1962\\. During his second season as coach in 1951, Williams led Port to their first official premiership (excluding World War II competition) for 9 seasons, defeating [North Adelaide](/wiki/North_Adelaide_Football_Club \"North Adelaide Football Club\") by 11 points. At the end of the 1951 season the VFL premiers Geelong visited South Australia to play the local premiers Port Adelaide on [Adelaide Oval](/wiki/Adelaide_Oval \"Adelaide Oval\"). Geelong won the match 8\\.14 (62\\) to 6\\.18 (54\\) in front of 25,000 people.{{Cite book\\|title \\= Bound for Glory\\|last \\= Wood\\|first \\= John\\|publisher \\= Largs Bay Printers\\|year \\= 1991\\|isbn \\= 0959316213\\|location \\= Port Adelaide\\|pages \\= 46}} The following year Port Adelaide would finish the 1952 SANFL home and away season in second spot, two points behind eventual premier North Adelaide. Their season would come to an end after being knocked out of the finals by rival Norwood during a preliminary final at Adelaide Oval. Port Adelaide would make the Grand Final again in 1953 against local rivals West Torrens in what would be the Eagles last appearance before merging with Woodville. West Torrens would disappoint Port Adelaide, winning the 1953 premiership by 7 points.",
"Port Adelaide's run of disappointment from the 1952 and 1953 seasons would prove to be short lived with the club subsequently going on to win a national record six Grand Finals in a row from 1954 to 1959\\. The club had a win\\-loss\\-draw record of 105–16–1 (86%) over the six\\-year period.",
"| 1954 SANFL Grand Final | *G* | *B* | *Total* |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| Port Adelaide | **11** | **13** | **79** |\n| [West Adelaide](/wiki/West_Adelaide_Football_Club \"West Adelaide Football Club\") | 10 | 16 | 76 |\n| Venue: [Adelaide Oval](/wiki/Adelaide_Oval \"Adelaide Oval\") | Crowd: 42,894{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.subiacofc.com/seasons/season/SANFL/1954/\\|title\\=Australian Football \\- SANFL Season 1954\\|author\\=The Slattery Media Group\\|publisher\\=subiacofc.com\\|access\\-date\\=12 July 2015}} | | | | | |",
"{{cquote\\|\"We expect you to do all those things, we've got two reserves so let me know when you've had it because you can go right off! But don't stay there unless you're going to do your job. Now lets get out there and do that.\"\\|15px\\|15px\\|\\[\\[Fos Williams]] spray to his players during half time of the 1954 SANFL Grand FinalFos Williams, 1954 SANFL Grand Final – Port Adelaide vs. West Adelaide.}}",
"",
"| 1955 Exhibition MatchVFL vs SANFL premiers. | *G* | *B* | *Total* |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| Port Adelaide | 9 | 10 | 64 |\n| {{AFL Mel}} | **9** | **11** | **65** |\n| Venue: [Norwood Oval](/wiki/Norwood_Oval \"Norwood Oval\") | Crowd: 23,000{{Cite web\\|url \\= http://demonwiki.org/tiki\\-index.php?page\\=1955\\+Exhibition\\+Match\\+vs\\+Port\\+Adelaide\\|title \\= 1955 Exhibition Match vs Port Adelaide}}{{cite news\\|url\\=https://news.google.com.au/newspapers?id\\=5jlVAAAAIBAJ\\&sjid\\=nZUDAAAAIBAJ\\&pg\\=3335,879951\\&hl\\=en\\|title\\=Demons just home by point\\|work\\=The Age \\|date\\=6 October 1955}} | | | | | |",
"In 1955 Port Adelaide and [Melbourne](/wiki/Melbourne_Football_Club \"Melbourne Football Club\"), the premiers of South Australian and Victorian leagues, played an exhibition match at [Norwood Oval](/wiki/Norwood_Oval \"Norwood Oval\") in front of an estimated 23,000 spectators. The game was a thriller going down to the last 15 seconds with [Frank Adams](/wiki/Frank_%27Bluey%27_Adams \"Frank 'Bluey' Adams\") kicking a behind and sealing the game 9\\.11 (65\\) to 9\\.10 (64\\) in favour of [Norm Smith](/wiki/Norm_Smith \"Norm Smith\")'s demons.{{Cite web\\|url \\= http://demonwiki.org/tiki\\-index.php?page\\=1955\\+Exhibition\\+Match\\+vs\\+Port\\+Adelaide\\|title \\= 1955 Exhibition Match vs Port Adelaide\\|date \\= 30 May 2014\\|access\\-date \\= 20 January 2015\\|website \\= demonwiki.org}}",
"The following year both Port Adelaide and Melbourne were again premiers of their respective states leagues and the clubs agreed to a rematch. The game was again held at Norwood Oval with the result the same as the year before, Melbourne 13\\.6 (84\\) to Port Adelaide 11\\.8 (74\\). However the Melbourne club, despite their victory, was full of praise for their cross border challenger with all in the Demons camp agreeing that \"Port Adelaide could take their place in the V.F.L. competition and do themselves credit\".{{Cite book\\|title \\= Port Adelaide Football Club Annual Report\\|publisher \\= Port Adelaide Football Club\\|year \\= 1956\\|pages \\= 6}}",
"| *1957 WAFL vs SANFL premiers* | *G* | *B* | *Total* |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| **Port Adelaide** | **10** | **20** | **80** |\n| {{WAFL\\|EF}} | 10 | 13 | 73 |\n| Venue: [Subiaco Oval](/wiki/Subiaco_Oval \"Subiaco Oval\") | Crowd: | | | | | |",
"The 1957 SANFL Grand Final between Port Adelaide and Norwood would officially attract 58,924 spectators at Adelaide Oval, the then largest crowd assembled for a football match in South Australia. Port Adelaide would go on to defeat Norwood by 11 points. During the post\\-season Port Adelaide travelled to Western Australia to play East Fremantle, defeating the locals 10\\.20 (80\\) to 10\\.13 (73\\) at Subiaco Oval.",
"### 1959–1961: Geof Motley as captain\\-coach and sixth in a row",
"Williams left as coach in 1958 to take a break from the game. [Geof Motley](/wiki/Geof_Motley \"Geof Motley\") took over the captain\\-coaching role at the club to win the 1959 premiership, a national record sixth consecutive Grand Final victory. Port Adelaide's hope of winning 7 consecutive premierships would be brought to an end by Norwood during the 1960 SANFL preliminary final, with the redlegs prevailing by 27 points. For the following two seasons Port Adelaide would finish third.",
"### 1962–1973: Fos Williams return, three more and Jack Oatey rivalry",
"",
"| [1965 SANFL Grand Final](/wiki/1965_SANFL_Grand_Final \"1965 SANFL Grand Final\")[Fos Williams](/wiki/Fos_Williams \"Fos Williams\") ninth premiership. | *G* | *B* | *Total* |\n| Port Adelaide | **12** | **8** | **80** |\n| {{SANFL Stu}} | 12 | 5 | 77 |\n| Venue: [Adelaide Oval](/wiki/Adelaide_Oval \"Adelaide Oval\") | Crowd: 62,543{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.subiacofc.com/seasons/season/SANFL/1965/\\|title\\=Australian Football \\- SANFL Season 1965\\|author\\=The Slattery Media Group\\|publisher\\=subiacofc.com\\|access\\-date\\=12 July 2015}} | | | | | |",
"[Fos Williams](/wiki/Fos_Williams \"Fos Williams\") returned in 1962 and Port Adelaide won three of the next four premierships taking his personal tally to nine and the club's record to 10 of the last 15 premierships. The 1965 premiership, the last that [Williams](/wiki/Fos_Williams \"Fos Williams\") coached, was played in front of 62,543 people, the largest ever crowd at [Adelaide Oval](/wiki/Adelaide_Oval \"Adelaide Oval\"). In that game Port Adelaide defeat Sturt 12\\.8 (80\\) to 12\\.5 (77\\). After the [1965 SANFL Grand Final](/wiki/1965_SANFL_Grand_Final \"1965 SANFL Grand Final\"), Port Adelaide would be particularly frustrated by the dominance of [Sturt](/wiki/Sturt_Football_Club \"Sturt Football Club\"), which won seven premierships over this period under the leadership of [Jack Oatey](/wiki/Jack_Oatey \"Jack Oatey\"). In all, despite playing in 6 of the next 10 grand finals, Port Adelaide would fail to win a premiership until 1977\\. Champion players introduced in this era include [John Cahill](/wiki/John_Cahill_%28footballer%29 \"John Cahill (footballer)\"), [Peter Woite](/wiki/Peter_Woite \"Peter Woite\"), [Dave Boyd](/wiki/Dave_Boyd \"Dave Boyd\"), [Geof Motley](/wiki/Geof_Motley \"Geof Motley\") and [Russell Ebert](/wiki/Russell_Ebert \"Russell Ebert\").",
"On 24 May 1970, 100 years after the club's first game, an exhibition game between old Port Adelaide champion players including Fos Williams played against a group of famous players from other clubs including Neil Kerley and Ron Barassi was held at Alberton Oval with a crowd of 20,000 spectators present for the celebration.{{Cite book\\|title \\= 100 Years with the Magpies\\|last \\= McLean\\|first \\= Allan\\|publisher \\= Letterpress\\|year \\= 1971\\|pages \\= 51}}",
"#### Club creed",
"The creed was written and spoken for the first time in 1962 by Port Adelaide great [Fos Williams](/wiki/Fos_Williams \"Fos Williams\")Michael Owen, The Australian, 3 December 2009{{Quote box\n \\|quote \\= \"We, the Players and Management of the Port Adelaide Football Club, accept the heritage which players and administrators have passed down to us; in doing so we do not intend to rest in idleness but shall strive with all our ''power'' to further this Club's unexcelled achievements. To do this we believe there is a great merit and noble achievements in winning a premiership.",
"To be successful, each of us must be active, aggressive and devoted to this cause. We agree that success is well within our reach and have confidence that each member of both the team and management will suffer personal sacrifices for the common end.",
"Also we know that, should we after striving to our utmost and giving our everything, still not be successful, our efforts will become a further part of this Club's enviable tradition.",
"Finally, we concede that there can be honour in defeat, but to each of us, honourable defeat of our Club and guernsey can only come after human endeavour on the playing field is completely exhausted.\"\\|source \\= \\[\\[Fos Williams]]\\|width \\= 50%\\|align \\= center}}",
"",
""
] |
1974–98: John Cahill era
------------------------
### 1974–1982: John Cahill as coach, premiership breakthrough and three in a row
{{multiple image
\| align \= left
\| image1 \=
\| width1 \= 150
\| alt1 \=
\| footer \= 1990 Thomas Seymour Hill trophy awarded to Port Adelaide in the last SANFL season before AFL football in South Australia.
}}
One of Port Adelaide's finest players during the Fos Williams era was [John Cahill](/wiki/John_Cahill_%28footballer%29 "John Cahill (footballer)"). He eventually became William's [protégé](/wiki/Mentorship "Mentorship") and ultimately took over as coach in 1974\. Cahill coached in the Williams style and was, if anything, even more aggressive. In 1975 an off\-field dispute between the [Port Adelaide City Council](/wiki/City_of_Port_Adelaide "City of Port Adelaide") and the SANFL over the use of Alberton Oval forced Port Adelaide to move its home matches to [Adelaide Oval](/wiki/Adelaide_Oval "Adelaide Oval") for two seasons. In 1976 Port Adelaide completely dominated the minor round, winning 17 of the 21 matches. Cahill would subsequently take Port Adelaide to its first Grand Final under his leadership against Sturt with an official attendance of 66,897, a record which still stands for the SANFL. The actual crowd was estimated at 80,000, much bigger than the official figure as the SANFL ran out of tickets early and were forced to shut the gates 90 minutes before the bounce as people were being crushed on entry.{{Cite book\|title \= Port Adelaide Football Club – 2013 Season Guide.\|last \= Norton\|first \= Daniel\|publisher \= Bowden Group\|year \= 2013\|location \= Adelaide\|pages \= 28}} The police were subsequently forced to allow spectators to sit along the fence. Despite being labelled "too old and too slow" by commentators, Sturt overwhelmed Port Adelaide to win by 41 points. The State Government enforced tighter regulations on the SANFL after this game to ensure crowd safety. In 1977 the council dispute regarding Alberton Oval was eventually resolved with the club moving back to its home ground. The 1977 premiership was notable as it broke an 11\-year drought, the longest since Port Adelaide began competing in an organised football competition. A side story to the 1977 premiership was Randall Gerlach, the club's leading goal kicker the year prior, who made the decision to play throughout 1977 against his doctors advice regarding a chronic kidney condition that would prematurely end his career at age 24\. Gerlach played his 100th game during the year and played in the 1977 Grand Final but his kidneys would shut down and cause him to endure dialysis and kidney transplants.{{Cite web\|title \= 1977 Premiership – portadelaidefc.com.au\| date\=22 January 2013 \|url \= http://www.portadelaidefc.com.au/news/2013\-01\-22/1977\-premiership\|access\-date \= 22 May 2015}} The club would go on to win four of the next five seasons from 1977 to 1981\.
| [1977 SANFL Grand Final](/wiki/1977_SANFL_Grand_Final "1977 SANFL Grand Final") | *G* | *B* | *Total* |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Port Adelaide | **17** | **11** | **113** |
| [Glenelg](/wiki/Glenelg_Football_Club "Glenelg Football Club") | 16 | 9 | 105 |
| Venue: [Adelaide Oval](/wiki/Adelaide_Oval "Adelaide Oval") | Crowd: 56,717{{cite web\|url\=http://www.subiacofc.com/seasons/season/SANFL/1977/\|title\=Australian Football \- SANFL Season 1977\|author\=The Slattery Media Group\|publisher\=subiacofc.com\|access\-date\=12 July 2015}} | | | | | |
{{cquote\|"It has taken us a bloody long time but by gee it was worth it!"\|15px\|15px\|\[\[Russell Ebert]] during the post game award presentations
of the \[\[1977 SANFL Grand Final]].Russell Ebert, \[\[1977 SANFL Grand Final]] – Port Adelaide vs. Glenelg.}}
The [1980 SANFL season](/wiki/1980_SANFL_season "1980 SANFL season") was Port Adelaide's most dominant since [1914](/wiki/1914_SAFL_season "1914 SAFL season"). The club won the Stanley H. Lewis Memorial Trophy as the best club in all SANFL divisions with both its League and reserve sides winning their respective premierships and all levels of the club playing finals. Russell Ebert won his record 4th [Magarey Medal](/wiki/Magarey_Medal "Magarey Medal"). [Tim Evans](/wiki/Tim_Evans_%28footballer%29 "Tim Evans (footballer)") set the league goal kicking record of 146 goals in a season. The club provided seven players to the state league team ([Ebert](/wiki/Russell_Ebert "Russell Ebert"), [Evans](/wiki/Tim_Evans_%28footballer%29 "Tim Evans (footballer)"), [Cunningham](/wiki/Brian_Cunningham_%28footballer%29 "Brian Cunningham (footballer)"), [Phillips](/wiki/Greg_Phillips "Greg Phillips"), [Williams](/wiki/Mark_Williams_%28Australian_footballer_born_1958%29 "Mark Williams (Australian footballer born 1958)"), [Giles](/wiki/Tony_Giles "Tony Giles") and [Faletic](/wiki/Milan_Faletic "Milan Faletic")). The club set a new record for most points scored during the whole season at 3,421 whilst also having the best defence conceding only 1,851 points for an end of season percentage of 184\.82%. Overall Port Adelaide lost 2 games from 24 for the year.
| [1980 SANFL Grand Final](/wiki/1980_SANFL_Grand_Final "1980 SANFL Grand Final") | *G* | *B* | *Total* |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Port Adelaide | **11** | **15** | **81** |
| [Norwood](/wiki/Norwood_Football_Club "Norwood Football Club") | 9 | 9 | 63 |
| Venue: [Football Park](/wiki/Football_Park "Football Park") | Crowd: 54,536{{cite web\|url\=http://australianfootball.com/seasons/season/SANFL/107/Premiership%2BSeason/3/3/1980\|title\=Australian Football \- SANFL Season 1980\|author\=The Slattery Media Group\|publisher\=australianfootball.com\|access\-date\=12 July 2015}} | | | | | |
{{cquote\|"This Port Adelaide side is probably one of the best football teams to play in South Australia since the war."\|15px\|15px\|\[\[Peter Marker]] during the preview
of the \[\[1980 SANFL Grand Final]].Peter Marker, \[\[1980 SANFL Grand Final]] – Port Adelaide vs. Norwood.}}
During the 1981 preseason, Port Adelaide, reigning SANFL premiers invited reigning VFL premiers [Richmond](/wiki/Richmond_Football_Club "Richmond Football Club") to a game at [Alberton Oval](/wiki/Alberton_Oval "Alberton Oval") to which they accepted. Although the game was nothing more than an exhibition match both teams fielded very strong teams. The match proved to be a thriller with Richmond holding off a late Port Adelaide charge to win by a single point, 14\.13 (97\) to 13\.20 (98\).{{Cite web\|url \= http://www.portadelaidefc.com.au/video/2014\-09\-05/ptv\-port\-v\-richmond\-1981\-friday\-flashback\|title \= PTV: Port v Richmond 1981 – Friday Flashback\|website \= portadelaidefc.com.au}} Port Adelaide would go on to defeat the local Glenelg Tigers by 51 points for the 1981 SANFL premiership.{{Cite web\|url \= http://australianfootball.com/seasons/season/SANFL/1981\|title \= SANFL {{ndash}} Premiership Season {{ndash}} 1981\|website \= Australianfootball.com\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20150402161638/http://australianfootball.com/seasons/season/SANFL/1981\|archive\-date \= 2 April 2015\|df \= dmy\-all}} The following year Port Adelaide would lose to Glenelg by 1 point in the SANFL preliminary final in what would be John Cahill's last game coaching the club until 1988\.
### 1983–87: Russell Ebert as coach
In 1983 [Russell Ebert](/wiki/Russell_Ebert "Russell Ebert") took on the coaching role at Port Adelaide when Cahill left Port Adelaide to coach [Collingwood](/wiki/Collingwood_Football_Club "Collingwood Football Club") for two seasons. This period saw Port Adelaide's form drop failing to reach the grand final. The period was also marked by the rise of the VFL as the premier football competition in the country. Many SANFL players were moving to the VFL for the larger salaries on offer.
In 1982 the [SANFL](/wiki/SANFL "SANFL") approached the [VFL](/wiki/Victorian_Football_League "Victorian Football League") in regards to entering a composite side in their league, an action also taken by [East Perth](/wiki/East_Perth_Football_Club "East Perth Football Club") and the [Norwood Football Club](/wiki/Norwood_Football_Club "Norwood Football Club"). These approaches were ignored by the VFL at the time.{{cite web\|url\=http://australianfootball.com/clubs/bio/Port%2BAdelaide/9\|title\=Australian Football – Port Adelaide Football Club – Bio\|author\=The Slattery Media Group\|publisher\=australianfootball.com\|access\-date\=12 July 2015}} The Port Adelaide Football Club's annual report from late 1982 showed that the failure of these attempts significantly impacted the club's understanding of its future.'Port Adelaide Football Club Inc. Annual Report and Balance Sheet Season 1982', page 11 From this point in time onwards Port Adelaide restructured the club in regards to economics, public relations and on\-field performance for an attempt to enter the league in 1990\. There was genuine feeling that failure to do this would result in the club ceasing to exist in the future.
John Cahill returned as coach at the end of the 1987 SANFL season.
### 1988–1996: Cahill's return, SANFL domination and AFL entry
| [1989 SANFL Grand Final](/wiki/1989_SANFL_Grand_Final "1989 SANFL Grand Final")*One goal in mind* | *G* | *B* | *Total* |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Port Adelaide | **15** | **18** | **108** |
| {{SANFL NthA}} | 1 | 8 | 14 |
| Venue: [Football Park](/wiki/Football_Park "Football Park") | Crowd: 50,487{{cite web\|url\=http://www.subiacofc.com/seasons/season/SANFL/1959/\|title\=Australian Football \- SANFL Season 1959\|author\=The Slattery Media Group\|publisher\=subiacofc.com\|access\-date\=12 July 2015}} | | | | | |
Talk of a side from South Australia entering the VFL was fast tracked in 1987 when a team from Western Australia, the [West Coast Eagles](/wiki/West_Coast_Eagles "West Coast Eagles"), and a team from [Brisbane](/wiki/Brisbane "Brisbane"), the [Brisbane Bears](/wiki/Brisbane_Bears "Brisbane Bears") joined the VFL. This left South Australia as the only mainland state in Australia without a team in an increasingly national competition. During the 1988 season, one of Fos Williams sons, Anthony, was tragically killed in a building accident. The following day the club played against Norwood and managed to overcome an early deficit to win the emotional charged game. The club would go on to win the 1988 premiership.
In 1989 seven out of ten SANFL clubs were recording losses and the combined income of the [SANFL](/wiki/SANFL "SANFL") and [WAFL](/wiki/West_Australian_Football_League "West Australian Football League") had dropped to 40% of that of the [VFL](/wiki/Victorian_Football_League "Victorian Football League").{{cite web\|url\=http://www.theroar.com.au/2012/07/16/revisiting\-the\-south\-australian\-license\-saga\-of\-1991/\|title\=Revisiting the South Australian license saga of 1991 \| The Roar\|publisher\=theroar.com.au\|access\-date\=12 July 2015}} During early 1990 the SANFL decided to wait three years before making any further decision in regards to fielding a South Australian side in the VFL until it could be done without negatively affecting football within the state. Frustrated with lack of progress, Port Adelaide were having secret negotiations in the town of Quorn for entry in 1991\.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.abc.net.au/stateline/sa/content/2003/s1206851\.htm\|title\=Stateline South Australia\|publisher\=abc.net.au\|date\=2004\-09\-24\|access\-date\=12 July 2015}} From these discussions Port Adelaide Football Club accepted an invitation from the VFL to join what had now become the AFL. The AFL signed a Heads of Agreement with the club in expectation that Port would enter the competition in 1991, meaning the Port Adelaide Football Club would field two teams, one in the AFL and one in the SANFL.
During the 1990 preseason Port Adelaide played a practice match against the [Geelong Cats](/wiki/Geelong_Football_Club "Geelong Football Club") at [Football Park](/wiki/Football_Park "Football Park") in front of 35,000 spectators with [Gary Ablett Snr](/wiki/Gary_Ablett_Sr. "Gary Ablett Sr.") and [Gavin Wanganeen](/wiki/Gavin_Wanganeen "Gavin Wanganeen") prominent.
| [1990 SANFL Grand Final](/wiki/1990_SANFL_Grand_Final "1990 SANFL Grand Final")*Last season without AFL in SA.* | *G* | *B* | *Total* |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| [Glenelg](/wiki/Glenelg_Football_Club "Glenelg Football Club") | 13 | 15 | 93 |
| Port Adelaide | **16** | **12** | **108** |
| Venue: [Football Park](/wiki/Football_Park "Football Park") | Crowd: 50,589 | | | | | |
{{cquote\|"These twenty blokes are sensational people and to our friends in the press the one thing that really matters is that there will always be a Port Adelaide Football Club."\|15px\|15px\|\[\[George Fiacchi]] upon accepting the 1990 \[\[Jack Oatey Medal]] for best on ground at the \[\[1990 SANFL Grand Final]].George Fiacchi, \[\[1990 SANFL Grand Final]] – Port Adelaide vs. Glenelg, Channel 9\.}}
When knowledge of [Port Adelaide Football Club](/wiki/Port_Adelaide_Football_Club_%28SANFL%29 "Port Adelaide Football Club (SANFL)")'s negotiations to gain an AFL licence were made public, the rest of the [SANFL](/wiki/SANFL "SANFL") and many other people across the state saw it as an act of treachery. SANFL clubs urged Justice Olssen to make an injunction against the bid, which he agreed to. The AFL suggested to the SANFL that if they didn't want [Port Adelaide](/wiki/Port_Adelaide "Port Adelaide") to join the AFL, they could put forward a counter bid to enter a composite South Australian side into the AFL. After legal action from all parties, the AFL finally agreed to accept the SANFL's bid and the [Adelaide Football Club](/wiki/Adelaide_Football_Club "Adelaide Football Club") was born.John P. Devaney *Full points footy: encyclopedia of Australian football clubs* [Lulu](/wiki/Lulu_%28company%29 "Lulu (company)"), 2009 pp 400 {{ISBN\|0\-9556897\-0\-8}}
The fallout from the failed bid resulted in some calling for [Port Adelaide](/wiki/Port_Adelaide "Port Adelaide") to be expelled from the SANFL. However, [Port Adelaide](/wiki/Port_Adelaide "Port Adelaide") continued to compete and continued to dominate. Port Adelaide followed its triple triumphs from 1988 to 1990 with a premiership in 1992 and three in a row again from 1994 to 1996\. When the {{AFL Ade}} Crows entered the AFL, SANFL attendances dropped by 14% however Port Adelaide attendances increased by 13%.1994 Port Adelaide licence promotional DVD.
Vocal supporters for Port Adelaide's AFL bid included [Kevin Sheedy](/wiki/Kevin_Sheedy_%28Australian_footballer%29 "Kevin Sheedy (Australian footballer)"), [Tom Hafey](/wiki/Tom_Hafey "Tom Hafey"), [Ron Barassi](/wiki/Ron_Barassi "Ron Barassi") and [David Parkin](/wiki/David_Parkin "David Parkin").Port Adelaide Football Club, AFL Bid Video, 1994\. In 1994, the AFL announced it would award a second AFL licence to a [South Australian](/wiki/South_Australian "South Australian") club. Adelaide's [Channel 7](/wiki/Seven_Network "Seven Network") broadcaster ran a phone poll asking whether Port Adelaide should get the second licence with 74% of the 6000 respondents saying 'yes'.{{cite web\|url\=http://footystats.freeservers.com/Special/1994review.html\|title\=1994review.html\|publisher\=footystats.freeservers.com\|access\-date\=12 July 2015\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110518011419/http://footystats.freeservers.com/Special/1994review.html\|archive\-date\=18 May 2011\|url\-status\=dead}} Present at the [1994 SANFL Grand Final](/wiki/1994_SANFL_Grand_Final "1994 SANFL Grand Final") was AFL CEO [Ross Oakley](/wiki/Ross_Oakley "Ross Oakley") and Alan Schwab who bore witness to the club's come from behind win against the [Woodville\-West Torrens Eagles](/wiki/Woodville-West_Torrens_Football_Club "Woodville-West Torrens Football Club").{{Cite web\|url \= http://www.portadelaidefc.com.au/news/2013\-08\-27/footy\-park\-flashbacks\-7\|title \= Footy Park Flashbacks \#7: 1994 SANFL Grand Final\|date \= 27 August 2013\|website \= portadelaidefc.com.au}}
| [1994 SANFL Grand Final](/wiki/1994_SANFL_Grand_Final "1994 SANFL Grand Final") | *G* | *B* | *Total* |
| {{SANFL WWT}} | 10 | 9 | 69 |
| Port Adelaide | **15** | **16** | **106** |
| Venue: [Football Park](/wiki/Football_Park "Football Park") | Crowd: 40,598 | | | | | |
{{cquote\|"I know I'm emotional but forgetting all that...seventy seven was great but today against all odds and the courage that the players showed...it was tremendous mate."\|15px\|15px\|\[\[John Cahill (footballer)\|John Cahill]] during an interview at the end of the 1994 SANFL Grand Final.Michael Aish, \[\[1994 SANFL Grand Final]] – Woodville\-West Torrens vs. Port Adelaide, ABC.}}
During December 1994 Max Basher announced that Port Adelaide had won the tender for the second South Australian AFL licence.{{Cite web\|url \= http://www.news.com.au/national/its\-bye\-bye\-port\-adelaide/story\-e6frfkp9\-1226453941613\|title \= It's bye bye Port Adelaide \|author\=Rucci, Michelangelo \|date \= 20 September 2012\|access\-date \=13 May 2015 \|publisher \= News Limited \|work\=Adelaide Advertiser}} However a licence did not guarantee entry and although a target year of 1996 was set, this was reliant upon an existing AFL club folding or merging with another. In 1996, the cash\-strapped [Fitzroy](/wiki/Fitzroy_Football_Club "Fitzroy Football Club") announced it would merge with the [Brisbane Bears](/wiki/Brisbane_Bears "Brisbane Bears") to form the [Brisbane Lions](/wiki/Brisbane_Lions "Brisbane Lions"). A spot had finally opened and it was announced that in 1997, one year later than expected, [Port Adelaide](/wiki/Port_Adelaide "Port Adelaide") would enter the AFL.
| [1996 SANFL Grand Final](/wiki/1996_SANFL_Grand_Final "1996 SANFL Grand Final")*Last SANFL game before AFL entry.* | *G* | *B* | *Total* |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| [Central Districts](/wiki/Central_District_Football_Club "Central District Football Club") | 6 | 8 | 44 |
| Port Adelaide | **11** | **14** | **80** |
| Venue: [Football Park](/wiki/Football_Park "Football Park") | Crowd: 46,210{{cite web\|url\=http://www.subiacofc.com/seasons/season/SANFL/1996/\|title\=Australian Football \- SANFL Season 1996\|author\=The Slattery Media Group\|publisher\=subiacofc.com\|access\-date\=12 July 2015}} | | | | | |
Once an entry date had been confirmed, the Port Adelaide Football Club set about forming a side fit for competition in the AFL. It was announced that existing Port Adelaide coach, [John Cahill](/wiki/John_Cahill_%28footballer%29 "John Cahill (footballer)") would make the transition to the AFL and [Stephen Williams](/wiki/Stephen_Williams_%28footballer%29 "Stephen Williams (footballer)") would take over the SANFL coaching role. Cahill then set about forming a group which would form the inaugural squad. [Brownlow Medallist](/wiki/Brownlow_Medal "Brownlow Medal") and 1990 Port Adelaide premiership player, [Gavin Wanganeen](/wiki/Gavin_Wanganeen "Gavin Wanganeen") was poached from [Essendon](/wiki/Essendon_Football_Club "Essendon Football Club") and made captain of a team made up of six existing Port Adelaide players, two from the Adelaide Crows, seven players from other SANFL clubs and 14 recruits from interstate.
Star players for Port Adelaide during its pursuit of an AFL licence include among others [Greg Phillips](/wiki/Greg_Phillips "Greg Phillips"), [Scott Hodges](/wiki/Scott_Hodges "Scott Hodges"), [Darren Smith](/wiki/Darren_Smith_%28Australian_rules_footballer%29 "Darren Smith (Australian rules footballer)"), [Tim Ginever](/wiki/Tim_Ginever "Tim Ginever"), [Stephen Williams](/wiki/Stephen_Williams_%28footballer%29 "Stephen Williams (footballer)"), [Mark Williams](/wiki/Mark_Williams_%28Australian_footballer_born_1958%29 "Mark Williams (Australian footballer born 1958)"), [Darryl Borlase](/wiki/Darryl_Borlase "Darryl Borlase"), [George Fiacchi](/wiki/George_Fiacchi "George Fiacchi"), [Roger Delaney](/wiki/Roger_Delaney "Roger Delaney") and [Bruce Abernethy](/wiki/Bruce_Abernethy "Bruce Abernethy").
### 1997–1998: John Cahill, AFL entry and "The Power"
| 1997 [West End](/wiki/West_End_%28beer%29 "West End (beer)") [Showdown](/wiki/Showdown_%28AFL%29 "Showdown (AFL)") I | *G* | *B* | *Total* |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| [Adelaide Crows](/wiki/Adelaide_Crows "Adelaide Crows") | 11 | 6 | 72 |
| Port Adelaide | **11** | **17** | **83** |
| Venue: [Football Park](/wiki/Football_Park "Football Park") | Crowd: 47,265 | | | | | |
| Inaugural Port Adelaide AFL list. | | | |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| **No.** | **Player** | **Recruited From** | **Affiliation with** **Port Adelaide in SANFL** |
| 1 | [Gavin Wanganeen](/wiki/Gavin_Wanganeen "Gavin Wanganeen") | [Essendon](/wiki/Essendon_Football_Club "Essendon Football Club") | **Yes** |
| 2 | [Matthew Primus](/wiki/Matthew_Primus "Matthew Primus") | [Fitzroy](/wiki/Fitzroy_Football_Club "Fitzroy Football Club") | No |
| 3 | [Shayne Breuer](/wiki/Shayne_Breuer "Shayne Breuer") | [Geelong](/wiki/Geelong_Football_Club "Geelong Football Club") | No |
| 4 | [Ian Downsborough](/wiki/Ian_Downsborough "Ian Downsborough") | [West Coast](/wiki/West_Coast_Eagles "West Coast Eagles") | No |
| 5 | [Shane Bond](/wiki/Shane_Bond "Shane Bond") | [West Coast](/wiki/West_Coast_Eagles "West Coast Eagles") | **Yes** |
| 6 | [Scott Cummings](/wiki/Scott_Cummings_%28footballer%29 "Scott Cummings (footballer)") | [Essendon](/wiki/Essendon_Football_Club "Essendon Football Club") | No |
| 7 | [John Rombotis](/wiki/John_Rombotis "John Rombotis") | [Fitzroy](/wiki/Fitzroy_Football_Club "Fitzroy Football Club") | No |
| 8 | [Fabian Francis](/wiki/Fabian_Francis "Fabian Francis") | [Brisbane Bears](/wiki/Brisbane_Bears "Brisbane Bears") | **Yes** |
| 9 | [Brayden Lyle](/wiki/Brayden_Lyle "Brayden Lyle") | [West Coast](/wiki/West_Coast_Eagles "West Coast Eagles") | **Yes** |
| 10 | [Josh Francou](/wiki/Josh_Francou "Josh Francou") | [North Adelaide](/wiki/North_Adelaide_Football_Club "North Adelaide Football Club") | No |
| 11 | [Scott Hodges](/wiki/Scott_Hodges "Scott Hodges") | {{AFL Por}} | **Yes** |
| 12 | [Brent Heaver](/wiki/Brent_Heaver "Brent Heaver") | [Carlton](/wiki/Carlton_Football_Club "Carlton Football Club") | No |
| 14 | [Stephen Paxman](/wiki/Stephen_Paxman "Stephen Paxman") | [Fitzroy](/wiki/Fitzroy_Football_Club "Fitzroy Football Club") | No |
| 15 | [Michael Wilson](/wiki/Michael_Wilson_%28Australian_footballer%29 "Michael Wilson (Australian footballer)") | Port Adelaide | **Yes** |
| 16 | [Warren Tredrea](/wiki/Warren_Tredrea "Warren Tredrea") | Port Adelaide | **Yes** |
| 17 | [Nigel Fiegert](/wiki/Nigel_Fiegert "Nigel Fiegert") | Port Adelaide | **Yes** |
| 19 | [Donald Dickie](/wiki/Donald_Dickie "Donald Dickie") | [Norwood](/wiki/Norwood_Football_Club "Norwood Football Club") | No |
| 20 | [Brendon Lade](/wiki/Brendon_Lade "Brendon Lade") | [South Adelaide](/wiki/South_Adelaide_Football_Club "South Adelaide Football Club") | No |
| 21 | [David Brown](/wiki/David_Brown_%28Australian_footballer_born_1969%29 "David Brown (Australian footballer born 1969)") | Port Adelaide | **Yes** |
| 22 | [Bowen Lockwood](/wiki/Bowen_Lockwood "Bowen Lockwood") | [Geelong U18](/wiki/Geelong_U18 "Geelong U18") | No |
| 24 | [Damian Squire](/wiki/Damian_Squire "Damian Squire") | [North Adelaide](/wiki/North_Adelaide_Football_Club "North Adelaide Football Club") | No |
| 25 | [Nathan Eagleton](/wiki/Nathan_Eagleton "Nathan Eagleton") | [West Adelaide](/wiki/West_Adelaide_Football_Club "West Adelaide Football Club") | No |
| 26 | [Peter Burgoyne](/wiki/Peter_Burgoyne "Peter Burgoyne") | Port Adelaide | **Yes** |
| 28 | [Stephen Daniels](/wiki/Stephen_Daniels "Stephen Daniels") | [Norwood](/wiki/Norwood_Football_Club "Norwood Football Club") | No |
| 29 | [Adam Kingsley](/wiki/Adam_Kingsley "Adam Kingsley") | [Essendon](/wiki/Essendon_Football_Club "Essendon Football Club") | No |
| 30 | [Darryl Poole](/wiki/Darryl_Poole "Darryl Poole") | Port Adelaide | **Yes** |
| 31 | [Paul Geister](/wiki/Paul_Geister "Paul Geister") | [North Melbourne](/wiki/North_Melbourne_Football_Club "North Melbourne Football Club") | No |
| 33 | [Darren Mead](/wiki/Darren_Mead "Darren Mead") | Port Adelaide | **Yes** |
| 34 | [Nathan Steinberner](/wiki/Nathan_Steinberner "Nathan Steinberner") | [Central District](/wiki/Central_District_Football_Club "Central District Football Club") | No |
| 35 | [Mark Conway](/wiki/Mark_Conway_%28Australian_footballer%29 "Mark Conway (Australian footballer)") | [Central District](/wiki/Central_District_Football_Club "Central District Football Club") | No |
| 36 | [Stephen Carter](/wiki/Stephen_Carter_%28footballer%29 "Stephen Carter (footballer)") | Port Adelaide | **Yes** |
| 37 | [Stuart Dew](/wiki/Stuart_Dew "Stuart Dew") | [Central District](/wiki/Central_District_Football_Club "Central District Football Club") | No |
| 38 | [Roger James](/wiki/Roger_James_%28footballer%29 "Roger James (footballer)") | [Norwood](/wiki/Norwood_Football_Club "Norwood Football Club") | No |
| 39 | [Adam Heuskes](/wiki/Adam_Heuskes "Adam Heuskes") | [Sydney Swans](/wiki/Sydney_Swans "Sydney Swans") | No |
| 42 | [Tom Carr](/wiki/Tom_Carr_%28footballer%29 "Tom Carr (footballer)") | Port Adelaide | **Yes** |
| 44 | [Jarrod Cotton](/wiki/Jarrod_Cotton "Jarrod Cotton") | [Central District](/wiki/Central_District_Football_Club "Central District Football Club") | No |
On 29 March 1997, Port Adelaide played its first AFL premiership match against Collingwood at the MCG, suffering a 79\-point defeat. Port won its first game in Round 3 against [Geelong](/wiki/Geelong_Football_Club "Geelong Football Club"), and defeated cross town rivals and eventual premiers [Adelaide](/wiki/Adelaide_Football_Club "Adelaide Football Club") by 11 points in the first [Showdown](/wiki/Showdown_%28AFL%29 "Showdown (AFL)") in Round 4\. At the conclusion of Round 17, the side sat fifth – only one win and percentage off the top spot in what was an unusually close season – but it fell out of the finals after recording only a draw from its final five games. Port Adelaide was widely tipped to take the wooden spoon at the start of the season{{citation needed\|date\=May 2015}}, but defied the critics to finish 9th, missing the finals on percentage behind Brisbane. The 1998 season was looking very similar to the previous year as they hovered around ninth position for most of the year and looked like a threat for finals after Round 14; but they lost six of their last eight games to finish in 10th place, with a record of 9 wins, 12 losses and 1 draw.
|
[
"1974–98: John Cahill era\n------------------------",
"### 1974–1982: John Cahill as coach, premiership breakthrough and three in a row",
"{{multiple image\n\\| align \\= left\n\\| image1 \\=\n\\| width1 \\= 150\n\\| alt1 \\= \n\\| footer \\= 1990 Thomas Seymour Hill trophy awarded to Port Adelaide in the last SANFL season before AFL football in South Australia.\n}}",
"One of Port Adelaide's finest players during the Fos Williams era was [John Cahill](/wiki/John_Cahill_%28footballer%29 \"John Cahill (footballer)\"). He eventually became William's [protégé](/wiki/Mentorship \"Mentorship\") and ultimately took over as coach in 1974\\. Cahill coached in the Williams style and was, if anything, even more aggressive. In 1975 an off\\-field dispute between the [Port Adelaide City Council](/wiki/City_of_Port_Adelaide \"City of Port Adelaide\") and the SANFL over the use of Alberton Oval forced Port Adelaide to move its home matches to [Adelaide Oval](/wiki/Adelaide_Oval \"Adelaide Oval\") for two seasons. In 1976 Port Adelaide completely dominated the minor round, winning 17 of the 21 matches. Cahill would subsequently take Port Adelaide to its first Grand Final under his leadership against Sturt with an official attendance of 66,897, a record which still stands for the SANFL. The actual crowd was estimated at 80,000, much bigger than the official figure as the SANFL ran out of tickets early and were forced to shut the gates 90 minutes before the bounce as people were being crushed on entry.{{Cite book\\|title \\= Port Adelaide Football Club – 2013 Season Guide.\\|last \\= Norton\\|first \\= Daniel\\|publisher \\= Bowden Group\\|year \\= 2013\\|location \\= Adelaide\\|pages \\= 28}} The police were subsequently forced to allow spectators to sit along the fence. Despite being labelled \"too old and too slow\" by commentators, Sturt overwhelmed Port Adelaide to win by 41 points. The State Government enforced tighter regulations on the SANFL after this game to ensure crowd safety. In 1977 the council dispute regarding Alberton Oval was eventually resolved with the club moving back to its home ground. The 1977 premiership was notable as it broke an 11\\-year drought, the longest since Port Adelaide began competing in an organised football competition. A side story to the 1977 premiership was Randall Gerlach, the club's leading goal kicker the year prior, who made the decision to play throughout 1977 against his doctors advice regarding a chronic kidney condition that would prematurely end his career at age 24\\. Gerlach played his 100th game during the year and played in the 1977 Grand Final but his kidneys would shut down and cause him to endure dialysis and kidney transplants.{{Cite web\\|title \\= 1977 Premiership – portadelaidefc.com.au\\| date\\=22 January 2013 \\|url \\= http://www.portadelaidefc.com.au/news/2013\\-01\\-22/1977\\-premiership\\|access\\-date \\= 22 May 2015}} The club would go on to win four of the next five seasons from 1977 to 1981\\.",
"",
"| [1977 SANFL Grand Final](/wiki/1977_SANFL_Grand_Final \"1977 SANFL Grand Final\") | *G* | *B* | *Total* |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| Port Adelaide | **17** | **11** | **113** |\n| [Glenelg](/wiki/Glenelg_Football_Club \"Glenelg Football Club\") | 16 | 9 | 105 |\n| Venue: [Adelaide Oval](/wiki/Adelaide_Oval \"Adelaide Oval\") | Crowd: 56,717{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.subiacofc.com/seasons/season/SANFL/1977/\\|title\\=Australian Football \\- SANFL Season 1977\\|author\\=The Slattery Media Group\\|publisher\\=subiacofc.com\\|access\\-date\\=12 July 2015}} | | | | | |",
"{{cquote\\|\"It has taken us a bloody long time but by gee it was worth it!\"\\|15px\\|15px\\|\\[\\[Russell Ebert]] during the post game award presentations \nof the \\[\\[1977 SANFL Grand Final]].Russell Ebert, \\[\\[1977 SANFL Grand Final]] – Port Adelaide vs. Glenelg.}}",
"The [1980 SANFL season](/wiki/1980_SANFL_season \"1980 SANFL season\") was Port Adelaide's most dominant since [1914](/wiki/1914_SAFL_season \"1914 SAFL season\"). The club won the Stanley H. Lewis Memorial Trophy as the best club in all SANFL divisions with both its League and reserve sides winning their respective premierships and all levels of the club playing finals. Russell Ebert won his record 4th [Magarey Medal](/wiki/Magarey_Medal \"Magarey Medal\"). [Tim Evans](/wiki/Tim_Evans_%28footballer%29 \"Tim Evans (footballer)\") set the league goal kicking record of 146 goals in a season. The club provided seven players to the state league team ([Ebert](/wiki/Russell_Ebert \"Russell Ebert\"), [Evans](/wiki/Tim_Evans_%28footballer%29 \"Tim Evans (footballer)\"), [Cunningham](/wiki/Brian_Cunningham_%28footballer%29 \"Brian Cunningham (footballer)\"), [Phillips](/wiki/Greg_Phillips \"Greg Phillips\"), [Williams](/wiki/Mark_Williams_%28Australian_footballer_born_1958%29 \"Mark Williams (Australian footballer born 1958)\"), [Giles](/wiki/Tony_Giles \"Tony Giles\") and [Faletic](/wiki/Milan_Faletic \"Milan Faletic\")). The club set a new record for most points scored during the whole season at 3,421 whilst also having the best defence conceding only 1,851 points for an end of season percentage of 184\\.82%. Overall Port Adelaide lost 2 games from 24 for the year.",
"| [1980 SANFL Grand Final](/wiki/1980_SANFL_Grand_Final \"1980 SANFL Grand Final\") | *G* | *B* | *Total* |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| Port Adelaide | **11** | **15** | **81** |\n| [Norwood](/wiki/Norwood_Football_Club \"Norwood Football Club\") | 9 | 9 | 63 |\n| Venue: [Football Park](/wiki/Football_Park \"Football Park\") | Crowd: 54,536{{cite web\\|url\\=http://australianfootball.com/seasons/season/SANFL/107/Premiership%2BSeason/3/3/1980\\|title\\=Australian Football \\- SANFL Season 1980\\|author\\=The Slattery Media Group\\|publisher\\=australianfootball.com\\|access\\-date\\=12 July 2015}} | | | | | |",
"{{cquote\\|\"This Port Adelaide side is probably one of the best football teams to play in South Australia since the war.\"\\|15px\\|15px\\|\\[\\[Peter Marker]] during the preview \nof the \\[\\[1980 SANFL Grand Final]].Peter Marker, \\[\\[1980 SANFL Grand Final]] – Port Adelaide vs. Norwood.}}",
"During the 1981 preseason, Port Adelaide, reigning SANFL premiers invited reigning VFL premiers [Richmond](/wiki/Richmond_Football_Club \"Richmond Football Club\") to a game at [Alberton Oval](/wiki/Alberton_Oval \"Alberton Oval\") to which they accepted. Although the game was nothing more than an exhibition match both teams fielded very strong teams. The match proved to be a thriller with Richmond holding off a late Port Adelaide charge to win by a single point, 14\\.13 (97\\) to 13\\.20 (98\\).{{Cite web\\|url \\= http://www.portadelaidefc.com.au/video/2014\\-09\\-05/ptv\\-port\\-v\\-richmond\\-1981\\-friday\\-flashback\\|title \\= PTV: Port v Richmond 1981 – Friday Flashback\\|website \\= portadelaidefc.com.au}} Port Adelaide would go on to defeat the local Glenelg Tigers by 51 points for the 1981 SANFL premiership.{{Cite web\\|url \\= http://australianfootball.com/seasons/season/SANFL/1981\\|title \\= SANFL {{ndash}} Premiership Season {{ndash}} 1981\\|website \\= Australianfootball.com\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20150402161638/http://australianfootball.com/seasons/season/SANFL/1981\\|archive\\-date \\= 2 April 2015\\|df \\= dmy\\-all}} The following year Port Adelaide would lose to Glenelg by 1 point in the SANFL preliminary final in what would be John Cahill's last game coaching the club until 1988\\.",
"### 1983–87: Russell Ebert as coach",
"In 1983 [Russell Ebert](/wiki/Russell_Ebert \"Russell Ebert\") took on the coaching role at Port Adelaide when Cahill left Port Adelaide to coach [Collingwood](/wiki/Collingwood_Football_Club \"Collingwood Football Club\") for two seasons. This period saw Port Adelaide's form drop failing to reach the grand final. The period was also marked by the rise of the VFL as the premier football competition in the country. Many SANFL players were moving to the VFL for the larger salaries on offer.",
"In 1982 the [SANFL](/wiki/SANFL \"SANFL\") approached the [VFL](/wiki/Victorian_Football_League \"Victorian Football League\") in regards to entering a composite side in their league, an action also taken by [East Perth](/wiki/East_Perth_Football_Club \"East Perth Football Club\") and the [Norwood Football Club](/wiki/Norwood_Football_Club \"Norwood Football Club\"). These approaches were ignored by the VFL at the time.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://australianfootball.com/clubs/bio/Port%2BAdelaide/9\\|title\\=Australian Football – Port Adelaide Football Club – Bio\\|author\\=The Slattery Media Group\\|publisher\\=australianfootball.com\\|access\\-date\\=12 July 2015}} The Port Adelaide Football Club's annual report from late 1982 showed that the failure of these attempts significantly impacted the club's understanding of its future.'Port Adelaide Football Club Inc. Annual Report and Balance Sheet Season 1982', page 11 From this point in time onwards Port Adelaide restructured the club in regards to economics, public relations and on\\-field performance for an attempt to enter the league in 1990\\. There was genuine feeling that failure to do this would result in the club ceasing to exist in the future.",
"John Cahill returned as coach at the end of the 1987 SANFL season.",
"### 1988–1996: Cahill's return, SANFL domination and AFL entry",
"",
"| [1989 SANFL Grand Final](/wiki/1989_SANFL_Grand_Final \"1989 SANFL Grand Final\")*One goal in mind* | *G* | *B* | *Total* |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| Port Adelaide | **15** | **18** | **108** |\n| {{SANFL NthA}} | 1 | 8 | 14 |\n| Venue: [Football Park](/wiki/Football_Park \"Football Park\") | Crowd: 50,487{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.subiacofc.com/seasons/season/SANFL/1959/\\|title\\=Australian Football \\- SANFL Season 1959\\|author\\=The Slattery Media Group\\|publisher\\=subiacofc.com\\|access\\-date\\=12 July 2015}} | | | | | |",
"Talk of a side from South Australia entering the VFL was fast tracked in 1987 when a team from Western Australia, the [West Coast Eagles](/wiki/West_Coast_Eagles \"West Coast Eagles\"), and a team from [Brisbane](/wiki/Brisbane \"Brisbane\"), the [Brisbane Bears](/wiki/Brisbane_Bears \"Brisbane Bears\") joined the VFL. This left South Australia as the only mainland state in Australia without a team in an increasingly national competition. During the 1988 season, one of Fos Williams sons, Anthony, was tragically killed in a building accident. The following day the club played against Norwood and managed to overcome an early deficit to win the emotional charged game. The club would go on to win the 1988 premiership.",
"In 1989 seven out of ten SANFL clubs were recording losses and the combined income of the [SANFL](/wiki/SANFL \"SANFL\") and [WAFL](/wiki/West_Australian_Football_League \"West Australian Football League\") had dropped to 40% of that of the [VFL](/wiki/Victorian_Football_League \"Victorian Football League\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.theroar.com.au/2012/07/16/revisiting\\-the\\-south\\-australian\\-license\\-saga\\-of\\-1991/\\|title\\=Revisiting the South Australian license saga of 1991 \\| The Roar\\|publisher\\=theroar.com.au\\|access\\-date\\=12 July 2015}} During early 1990 the SANFL decided to wait three years before making any further decision in regards to fielding a South Australian side in the VFL until it could be done without negatively affecting football within the state. Frustrated with lack of progress, Port Adelaide were having secret negotiations in the town of Quorn for entry in 1991\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.abc.net.au/stateline/sa/content/2003/s1206851\\.htm\\|title\\=Stateline South Australia\\|publisher\\=abc.net.au\\|date\\=2004\\-09\\-24\\|access\\-date\\=12 July 2015}} From these discussions Port Adelaide Football Club accepted an invitation from the VFL to join what had now become the AFL. The AFL signed a Heads of Agreement with the club in expectation that Port would enter the competition in 1991, meaning the Port Adelaide Football Club would field two teams, one in the AFL and one in the SANFL.\nDuring the 1990 preseason Port Adelaide played a practice match against the [Geelong Cats](/wiki/Geelong_Football_Club \"Geelong Football Club\") at [Football Park](/wiki/Football_Park \"Football Park\") in front of 35,000 spectators with [Gary Ablett Snr](/wiki/Gary_Ablett_Sr. \"Gary Ablett Sr.\") and [Gavin Wanganeen](/wiki/Gavin_Wanganeen \"Gavin Wanganeen\") prominent.",
"| [1990 SANFL Grand Final](/wiki/1990_SANFL_Grand_Final \"1990 SANFL Grand Final\")*Last season without AFL in SA.* | *G* | *B* | *Total* |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| [Glenelg](/wiki/Glenelg_Football_Club \"Glenelg Football Club\") | 13 | 15 | 93 |\n| Port Adelaide | **16** | **12** | **108** |\n| Venue: [Football Park](/wiki/Football_Park \"Football Park\") | Crowd: 50,589 | | | | | |",
"",
"{{cquote\\|\"These twenty blokes are sensational people and to our friends in the press the one thing that really matters is that there will always be a Port Adelaide Football Club.\"\\|15px\\|15px\\|\\[\\[George Fiacchi]] upon accepting the 1990 \\[\\[Jack Oatey Medal]] for best on ground at the \\[\\[1990 SANFL Grand Final]].George Fiacchi, \\[\\[1990 SANFL Grand Final]] – Port Adelaide vs. Glenelg, Channel 9\\.}}",
"When knowledge of [Port Adelaide Football Club](/wiki/Port_Adelaide_Football_Club_%28SANFL%29 \"Port Adelaide Football Club (SANFL)\")'s negotiations to gain an AFL licence were made public, the rest of the [SANFL](/wiki/SANFL \"SANFL\") and many other people across the state saw it as an act of treachery. SANFL clubs urged Justice Olssen to make an injunction against the bid, which he agreed to. The AFL suggested to the SANFL that if they didn't want [Port Adelaide](/wiki/Port_Adelaide \"Port Adelaide\") to join the AFL, they could put forward a counter bid to enter a composite South Australian side into the AFL. After legal action from all parties, the AFL finally agreed to accept the SANFL's bid and the [Adelaide Football Club](/wiki/Adelaide_Football_Club \"Adelaide Football Club\") was born.John P. Devaney *Full points footy: encyclopedia of Australian football clubs* [Lulu](/wiki/Lulu_%28company%29 \"Lulu (company)\"), 2009 pp 400 {{ISBN\\|0\\-9556897\\-0\\-8}}",
"The fallout from the failed bid resulted in some calling for [Port Adelaide](/wiki/Port_Adelaide \"Port Adelaide\") to be expelled from the SANFL. However, [Port Adelaide](/wiki/Port_Adelaide \"Port Adelaide\") continued to compete and continued to dominate. Port Adelaide followed its triple triumphs from 1988 to 1990 with a premiership in 1992 and three in a row again from 1994 to 1996\\. When the {{AFL Ade}} Crows entered the AFL, SANFL attendances dropped by 14% however Port Adelaide attendances increased by 13%.1994 Port Adelaide licence promotional DVD.\nVocal supporters for Port Adelaide's AFL bid included [Kevin Sheedy](/wiki/Kevin_Sheedy_%28Australian_footballer%29 \"Kevin Sheedy (Australian footballer)\"), [Tom Hafey](/wiki/Tom_Hafey \"Tom Hafey\"), [Ron Barassi](/wiki/Ron_Barassi \"Ron Barassi\") and [David Parkin](/wiki/David_Parkin \"David Parkin\").Port Adelaide Football Club, AFL Bid Video, 1994\\. In 1994, the AFL announced it would award a second AFL licence to a [South Australian](/wiki/South_Australian \"South Australian\") club. Adelaide's [Channel 7](/wiki/Seven_Network \"Seven Network\") broadcaster ran a phone poll asking whether Port Adelaide should get the second licence with 74% of the 6000 respondents saying 'yes'.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://footystats.freeservers.com/Special/1994review.html\\|title\\=1994review.html\\|publisher\\=footystats.freeservers.com\\|access\\-date\\=12 July 2015\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110518011419/http://footystats.freeservers.com/Special/1994review.html\\|archive\\-date\\=18 May 2011\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} Present at the [1994 SANFL Grand Final](/wiki/1994_SANFL_Grand_Final \"1994 SANFL Grand Final\") was AFL CEO [Ross Oakley](/wiki/Ross_Oakley \"Ross Oakley\") and Alan Schwab who bore witness to the club's come from behind win against the [Woodville\\-West Torrens Eagles](/wiki/Woodville-West_Torrens_Football_Club \"Woodville-West Torrens Football Club\").{{Cite web\\|url \\= http://www.portadelaidefc.com.au/news/2013\\-08\\-27/footy\\-park\\-flashbacks\\-7\\|title \\= Footy Park Flashbacks \\#7: 1994 SANFL Grand Final\\|date \\= 27 August 2013\\|website \\= portadelaidefc.com.au}}",
"| [1994 SANFL Grand Final](/wiki/1994_SANFL_Grand_Final \"1994 SANFL Grand Final\") | *G* | *B* | *Total* |\n| {{SANFL WWT}} | 10 | 9 | 69 |\n| Port Adelaide | **15** | **16** | **106** |\n| Venue: [Football Park](/wiki/Football_Park \"Football Park\") | Crowd: 40,598 | | | | | |",
"{{cquote\\|\"I know I'm emotional but forgetting all that...seventy seven was great but today against all odds and the courage that the players showed...it was tremendous mate.\"\\|15px\\|15px\\|\\[\\[John Cahill (footballer)\\|John Cahill]] during an interview at the end of the 1994 SANFL Grand Final.Michael Aish, \\[\\[1994 SANFL Grand Final]] – Woodville\\-West Torrens vs. Port Adelaide, ABC.}}",
"During December 1994 Max Basher announced that Port Adelaide had won the tender for the second South Australian AFL licence.{{Cite web\\|url \\= http://www.news.com.au/national/its\\-bye\\-bye\\-port\\-adelaide/story\\-e6frfkp9\\-1226453941613\\|title \\= It's bye bye Port Adelaide \\|author\\=Rucci, Michelangelo \\|date \\= 20 September 2012\\|access\\-date \\=13 May 2015 \\|publisher \\= News Limited \\|work\\=Adelaide Advertiser}} However a licence did not guarantee entry and although a target year of 1996 was set, this was reliant upon an existing AFL club folding or merging with another. In 1996, the cash\\-strapped [Fitzroy](/wiki/Fitzroy_Football_Club \"Fitzroy Football Club\") announced it would merge with the [Brisbane Bears](/wiki/Brisbane_Bears \"Brisbane Bears\") to form the [Brisbane Lions](/wiki/Brisbane_Lions \"Brisbane Lions\"). A spot had finally opened and it was announced that in 1997, one year later than expected, [Port Adelaide](/wiki/Port_Adelaide \"Port Adelaide\") would enter the AFL.",
"| [1996 SANFL Grand Final](/wiki/1996_SANFL_Grand_Final \"1996 SANFL Grand Final\")*Last SANFL game before AFL entry.* | *G* | *B* | *Total* |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| [Central Districts](/wiki/Central_District_Football_Club \"Central District Football Club\") | 6 | 8 | 44 |\n| Port Adelaide | **11** | **14** | **80** |\n| Venue: [Football Park](/wiki/Football_Park \"Football Park\") | Crowd: 46,210{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.subiacofc.com/seasons/season/SANFL/1996/\\|title\\=Australian Football \\- SANFL Season 1996\\|author\\=The Slattery Media Group\\|publisher\\=subiacofc.com\\|access\\-date\\=12 July 2015}} | | | | | |",
"Once an entry date had been confirmed, the Port Adelaide Football Club set about forming a side fit for competition in the AFL. It was announced that existing Port Adelaide coach, [John Cahill](/wiki/John_Cahill_%28footballer%29 \"John Cahill (footballer)\") would make the transition to the AFL and [Stephen Williams](/wiki/Stephen_Williams_%28footballer%29 \"Stephen Williams (footballer)\") would take over the SANFL coaching role. Cahill then set about forming a group which would form the inaugural squad. [Brownlow Medallist](/wiki/Brownlow_Medal \"Brownlow Medal\") and 1990 Port Adelaide premiership player, [Gavin Wanganeen](/wiki/Gavin_Wanganeen \"Gavin Wanganeen\") was poached from [Essendon](/wiki/Essendon_Football_Club \"Essendon Football Club\") and made captain of a team made up of six existing Port Adelaide players, two from the Adelaide Crows, seven players from other SANFL clubs and 14 recruits from interstate.",
"Star players for Port Adelaide during its pursuit of an AFL licence include among others [Greg Phillips](/wiki/Greg_Phillips \"Greg Phillips\"), [Scott Hodges](/wiki/Scott_Hodges \"Scott Hodges\"), [Darren Smith](/wiki/Darren_Smith_%28Australian_rules_footballer%29 \"Darren Smith (Australian rules footballer)\"), [Tim Ginever](/wiki/Tim_Ginever \"Tim Ginever\"), [Stephen Williams](/wiki/Stephen_Williams_%28footballer%29 \"Stephen Williams (footballer)\"), [Mark Williams](/wiki/Mark_Williams_%28Australian_footballer_born_1958%29 \"Mark Williams (Australian footballer born 1958)\"), [Darryl Borlase](/wiki/Darryl_Borlase \"Darryl Borlase\"), [George Fiacchi](/wiki/George_Fiacchi \"George Fiacchi\"), [Roger Delaney](/wiki/Roger_Delaney \"Roger Delaney\") and [Bruce Abernethy](/wiki/Bruce_Abernethy \"Bruce Abernethy\").",
"### 1997–1998: John Cahill, AFL entry and \"The Power\"",
"",
"| 1997 [West End](/wiki/West_End_%28beer%29 \"West End (beer)\") [Showdown](/wiki/Showdown_%28AFL%29 \"Showdown (AFL)\") I | *G* | *B* | *Total* |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| [Adelaide Crows](/wiki/Adelaide_Crows \"Adelaide Crows\") | 11 | 6 | 72 |\n| Port Adelaide | **11** | **17** | **83** |\n| Venue: [Football Park](/wiki/Football_Park \"Football Park\") | Crowd: 47,265 | | | | | |",
"",
"| Inaugural Port Adelaide AFL list. | | | |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| **No.** | **Player** | **Recruited From** | **Affiliation with** **Port Adelaide in SANFL** |\n| 1 | [Gavin Wanganeen](/wiki/Gavin_Wanganeen \"Gavin Wanganeen\") | [Essendon](/wiki/Essendon_Football_Club \"Essendon Football Club\") | **Yes** |\n| 2 | [Matthew Primus](/wiki/Matthew_Primus \"Matthew Primus\") | [Fitzroy](/wiki/Fitzroy_Football_Club \"Fitzroy Football Club\") | No |\n| 3 | [Shayne Breuer](/wiki/Shayne_Breuer \"Shayne Breuer\") | [Geelong](/wiki/Geelong_Football_Club \"Geelong Football Club\") | No |\n| 4 | [Ian Downsborough](/wiki/Ian_Downsborough \"Ian Downsborough\") | [West Coast](/wiki/West_Coast_Eagles \"West Coast Eagles\") | No |\n| 5 | [Shane Bond](/wiki/Shane_Bond \"Shane Bond\") | [West Coast](/wiki/West_Coast_Eagles \"West Coast Eagles\") | **Yes** |\n| 6 | [Scott Cummings](/wiki/Scott_Cummings_%28footballer%29 \"Scott Cummings (footballer)\") | [Essendon](/wiki/Essendon_Football_Club \"Essendon Football Club\") | No |\n| 7 | [John Rombotis](/wiki/John_Rombotis \"John Rombotis\") | [Fitzroy](/wiki/Fitzroy_Football_Club \"Fitzroy Football Club\") | No |\n| 8 | [Fabian Francis](/wiki/Fabian_Francis \"Fabian Francis\") | [Brisbane Bears](/wiki/Brisbane_Bears \"Brisbane Bears\") | **Yes** |\n| 9 | [Brayden Lyle](/wiki/Brayden_Lyle \"Brayden Lyle\") | [West Coast](/wiki/West_Coast_Eagles \"West Coast Eagles\") | **Yes** |\n| 10 | [Josh Francou](/wiki/Josh_Francou \"Josh Francou\") | [North Adelaide](/wiki/North_Adelaide_Football_Club \"North Adelaide Football Club\") | No |\n| 11 | [Scott Hodges](/wiki/Scott_Hodges \"Scott Hodges\") | {{AFL Por}} | **Yes** |\n| 12 | [Brent Heaver](/wiki/Brent_Heaver \"Brent Heaver\") | [Carlton](/wiki/Carlton_Football_Club \"Carlton Football Club\") | No |\n| 14 | [Stephen Paxman](/wiki/Stephen_Paxman \"Stephen Paxman\") | [Fitzroy](/wiki/Fitzroy_Football_Club \"Fitzroy Football Club\") | No |\n| 15 | [Michael Wilson](/wiki/Michael_Wilson_%28Australian_footballer%29 \"Michael Wilson (Australian footballer)\") | Port Adelaide | **Yes** |\n| 16 | [Warren Tredrea](/wiki/Warren_Tredrea \"Warren Tredrea\") | Port Adelaide | **Yes** |\n| 17 | [Nigel Fiegert](/wiki/Nigel_Fiegert \"Nigel Fiegert\") | Port Adelaide | **Yes** |\n| 19 | [Donald Dickie](/wiki/Donald_Dickie \"Donald Dickie\") | [Norwood](/wiki/Norwood_Football_Club \"Norwood Football Club\") | No |\n| 20 | [Brendon Lade](/wiki/Brendon_Lade \"Brendon Lade\") | [South Adelaide](/wiki/South_Adelaide_Football_Club \"South Adelaide Football Club\") | No |\n| 21 | [David Brown](/wiki/David_Brown_%28Australian_footballer_born_1969%29 \"David Brown (Australian footballer born 1969)\") | Port Adelaide | **Yes** |\n| 22 | [Bowen Lockwood](/wiki/Bowen_Lockwood \"Bowen Lockwood\") | [Geelong U18](/wiki/Geelong_U18 \"Geelong U18\") | No |\n| 24 | [Damian Squire](/wiki/Damian_Squire \"Damian Squire\") | [North Adelaide](/wiki/North_Adelaide_Football_Club \"North Adelaide Football Club\") | No |\n| 25 | [Nathan Eagleton](/wiki/Nathan_Eagleton \"Nathan Eagleton\") | [West Adelaide](/wiki/West_Adelaide_Football_Club \"West Adelaide Football Club\") | No |\n| 26 | [Peter Burgoyne](/wiki/Peter_Burgoyne \"Peter Burgoyne\") | Port Adelaide | **Yes** |\n| 28 | [Stephen Daniels](/wiki/Stephen_Daniels \"Stephen Daniels\") | [Norwood](/wiki/Norwood_Football_Club \"Norwood Football Club\") | No |\n| 29 | [Adam Kingsley](/wiki/Adam_Kingsley \"Adam Kingsley\") | [Essendon](/wiki/Essendon_Football_Club \"Essendon Football Club\") | No |\n| 30 | [Darryl Poole](/wiki/Darryl_Poole \"Darryl Poole\") | Port Adelaide | **Yes** |\n| 31 | [Paul Geister](/wiki/Paul_Geister \"Paul Geister\") | [North Melbourne](/wiki/North_Melbourne_Football_Club \"North Melbourne Football Club\") | No |\n| 33 | [Darren Mead](/wiki/Darren_Mead \"Darren Mead\") | Port Adelaide | **Yes** |\n| 34 | [Nathan Steinberner](/wiki/Nathan_Steinberner \"Nathan Steinberner\") | [Central District](/wiki/Central_District_Football_Club \"Central District Football Club\") | No |\n| 35 | [Mark Conway](/wiki/Mark_Conway_%28Australian_footballer%29 \"Mark Conway (Australian footballer)\") | [Central District](/wiki/Central_District_Football_Club \"Central District Football Club\") | No |\n| 36 | [Stephen Carter](/wiki/Stephen_Carter_%28footballer%29 \"Stephen Carter (footballer)\") | Port Adelaide | **Yes** |\n| 37 | [Stuart Dew](/wiki/Stuart_Dew \"Stuart Dew\") | [Central District](/wiki/Central_District_Football_Club \"Central District Football Club\") | No |\n| 38 | [Roger James](/wiki/Roger_James_%28footballer%29 \"Roger James (footballer)\") | [Norwood](/wiki/Norwood_Football_Club \"Norwood Football Club\") | No |\n| 39 | [Adam Heuskes](/wiki/Adam_Heuskes \"Adam Heuskes\") | [Sydney Swans](/wiki/Sydney_Swans \"Sydney Swans\") | No |\n| 42 | [Tom Carr](/wiki/Tom_Carr_%28footballer%29 \"Tom Carr (footballer)\") | Port Adelaide | **Yes** |\n| 44 | [Jarrod Cotton](/wiki/Jarrod_Cotton \"Jarrod Cotton\") | [Central District](/wiki/Central_District_Football_Club \"Central District Football Club\") | No |",
"On 29 March 1997, Port Adelaide played its first AFL premiership match against Collingwood at the MCG, suffering a 79\\-point defeat. Port won its first game in Round 3 against [Geelong](/wiki/Geelong_Football_Club \"Geelong Football Club\"), and defeated cross town rivals and eventual premiers [Adelaide](/wiki/Adelaide_Football_Club \"Adelaide Football Club\") by 11 points in the first [Showdown](/wiki/Showdown_%28AFL%29 \"Showdown (AFL)\") in Round 4\\. At the conclusion of Round 17, the side sat fifth – only one win and percentage off the top spot in what was an unusually close season – but it fell out of the finals after recording only a draw from its final five games. Port Adelaide was widely tipped to take the wooden spoon at the start of the season{{citation needed\\|date\\=May 2015}}, but defied the critics to finish 9th, missing the finals on percentage behind Brisbane. The 1998 season was looking very similar to the previous year as they hovered around ninth position for most of the year and looked like a threat for finals after Round 14; but they lost six of their last eight games to finish in 10th place, with a record of 9 wins, 12 losses and 1 draw.",
""
] |
### 1988–1996: Cahill's return, SANFL domination and AFL entry
| [1989 SANFL Grand Final](/wiki/1989_SANFL_Grand_Final "1989 SANFL Grand Final")*One goal in mind* | *G* | *B* | *Total* |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Port Adelaide | **15** | **18** | **108** |
| {{SANFL NthA}} | 1 | 8 | 14 |
| Venue: [Football Park](/wiki/Football_Park "Football Park") | Crowd: 50,487{{cite web\|url\=http://www.subiacofc.com/seasons/season/SANFL/1959/\|title\=Australian Football \- SANFL Season 1959\|author\=The Slattery Media Group\|publisher\=subiacofc.com\|access\-date\=12 July 2015}} | | | | | |
Talk of a side from South Australia entering the VFL was fast tracked in 1987 when a team from Western Australia, the [West Coast Eagles](/wiki/West_Coast_Eagles "West Coast Eagles"), and a team from [Brisbane](/wiki/Brisbane "Brisbane"), the [Brisbane Bears](/wiki/Brisbane_Bears "Brisbane Bears") joined the VFL. This left South Australia as the only mainland state in Australia without a team in an increasingly national competition. During the 1988 season, one of Fos Williams sons, Anthony, was tragically killed in a building accident. The following day the club played against Norwood and managed to overcome an early deficit to win the emotional charged game. The club would go on to win the 1988 premiership.
In 1989 seven out of ten SANFL clubs were recording losses and the combined income of the [SANFL](/wiki/SANFL "SANFL") and [WAFL](/wiki/West_Australian_Football_League "West Australian Football League") had dropped to 40% of that of the [VFL](/wiki/Victorian_Football_League "Victorian Football League").{{cite web\|url\=http://www.theroar.com.au/2012/07/16/revisiting\-the\-south\-australian\-license\-saga\-of\-1991/\|title\=Revisiting the South Australian license saga of 1991 \| The Roar\|publisher\=theroar.com.au\|access\-date\=12 July 2015}} During early 1990 the SANFL decided to wait three years before making any further decision in regards to fielding a South Australian side in the VFL until it could be done without negatively affecting football within the state. Frustrated with lack of progress, Port Adelaide were having secret negotiations in the town of Quorn for entry in 1991\.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.abc.net.au/stateline/sa/content/2003/s1206851\.htm\|title\=Stateline South Australia\|publisher\=abc.net.au\|date\=2004\-09\-24\|access\-date\=12 July 2015}} From these discussions Port Adelaide Football Club accepted an invitation from the VFL to join what had now become the AFL. The AFL signed a Heads of Agreement with the club in expectation that Port would enter the competition in 1991, meaning the Port Adelaide Football Club would field two teams, one in the AFL and one in the SANFL.
During the 1990 preseason Port Adelaide played a practice match against the [Geelong Cats](/wiki/Geelong_Football_Club "Geelong Football Club") at [Football Park](/wiki/Football_Park "Football Park") in front of 35,000 spectators with [Gary Ablett Snr](/wiki/Gary_Ablett_Sr. "Gary Ablett Sr.") and [Gavin Wanganeen](/wiki/Gavin_Wanganeen "Gavin Wanganeen") prominent.
| [1990 SANFL Grand Final](/wiki/1990_SANFL_Grand_Final "1990 SANFL Grand Final")*Last season without AFL in SA.* | *G* | *B* | *Total* |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| [Glenelg](/wiki/Glenelg_Football_Club "Glenelg Football Club") | 13 | 15 | 93 |
| Port Adelaide | **16** | **12** | **108** |
| Venue: [Football Park](/wiki/Football_Park "Football Park") | Crowd: 50,589 | | | | | |
{{cquote\|"These twenty blokes are sensational people and to our friends in the press the one thing that really matters is that there will always be a Port Adelaide Football Club."\|15px\|15px\|\[\[George Fiacchi]] upon accepting the 1990 \[\[Jack Oatey Medal]] for best on ground at the \[\[1990 SANFL Grand Final]].George Fiacchi, \[\[1990 SANFL Grand Final]] – Port Adelaide vs. Glenelg, Channel 9\.}}
When knowledge of [Port Adelaide Football Club](/wiki/Port_Adelaide_Football_Club_%28SANFL%29 "Port Adelaide Football Club (SANFL)")'s negotiations to gain an AFL licence were made public, the rest of the [SANFL](/wiki/SANFL "SANFL") and many other people across the state saw it as an act of treachery. SANFL clubs urged Justice Olssen to make an injunction against the bid, which he agreed to. The AFL suggested to the SANFL that if they didn't want [Port Adelaide](/wiki/Port_Adelaide "Port Adelaide") to join the AFL, they could put forward a counter bid to enter a composite South Australian side into the AFL. After legal action from all parties, the AFL finally agreed to accept the SANFL's bid and the [Adelaide Football Club](/wiki/Adelaide_Football_Club "Adelaide Football Club") was born.John P. Devaney *Full points footy: encyclopedia of Australian football clubs* [Lulu](/wiki/Lulu_%28company%29 "Lulu (company)"), 2009 pp 400 {{ISBN\|0\-9556897\-0\-8}}
The fallout from the failed bid resulted in some calling for [Port Adelaide](/wiki/Port_Adelaide "Port Adelaide") to be expelled from the SANFL. However, [Port Adelaide](/wiki/Port_Adelaide "Port Adelaide") continued to compete and continued to dominate. Port Adelaide followed its triple triumphs from 1988 to 1990 with a premiership in 1992 and three in a row again from 1994 to 1996\. When the {{AFL Ade}} Crows entered the AFL, SANFL attendances dropped by 14% however Port Adelaide attendances increased by 13%.1994 Port Adelaide licence promotional DVD.
Vocal supporters for Port Adelaide's AFL bid included [Kevin Sheedy](/wiki/Kevin_Sheedy_%28Australian_footballer%29 "Kevin Sheedy (Australian footballer)"), [Tom Hafey](/wiki/Tom_Hafey "Tom Hafey"), [Ron Barassi](/wiki/Ron_Barassi "Ron Barassi") and [David Parkin](/wiki/David_Parkin "David Parkin").Port Adelaide Football Club, AFL Bid Video, 1994\. In 1994, the AFL announced it would award a second AFL licence to a [South Australian](/wiki/South_Australian "South Australian") club. Adelaide's [Channel 7](/wiki/Seven_Network "Seven Network") broadcaster ran a phone poll asking whether Port Adelaide should get the second licence with 74% of the 6000 respondents saying 'yes'.{{cite web\|url\=http://footystats.freeservers.com/Special/1994review.html\|title\=1994review.html\|publisher\=footystats.freeservers.com\|access\-date\=12 July 2015\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110518011419/http://footystats.freeservers.com/Special/1994review.html\|archive\-date\=18 May 2011\|url\-status\=dead}} Present at the [1994 SANFL Grand Final](/wiki/1994_SANFL_Grand_Final "1994 SANFL Grand Final") was AFL CEO [Ross Oakley](/wiki/Ross_Oakley "Ross Oakley") and Alan Schwab who bore witness to the club's come from behind win against the [Woodville\-West Torrens Eagles](/wiki/Woodville-West_Torrens_Football_Club "Woodville-West Torrens Football Club").{{Cite web\|url \= http://www.portadelaidefc.com.au/news/2013\-08\-27/footy\-park\-flashbacks\-7\|title \= Footy Park Flashbacks \#7: 1994 SANFL Grand Final\|date \= 27 August 2013\|website \= portadelaidefc.com.au}}
| [1994 SANFL Grand Final](/wiki/1994_SANFL_Grand_Final "1994 SANFL Grand Final") | *G* | *B* | *Total* |
| {{SANFL WWT}} | 10 | 9 | 69 |
| Port Adelaide | **15** | **16** | **106** |
| Venue: [Football Park](/wiki/Football_Park "Football Park") | Crowd: 40,598 | | | | | |
{{cquote\|"I know I'm emotional but forgetting all that...seventy seven was great but today against all odds and the courage that the players showed...it was tremendous mate."\|15px\|15px\|\[\[John Cahill (footballer)\|John Cahill]] during an interview at the end of the 1994 SANFL Grand Final.Michael Aish, \[\[1994 SANFL Grand Final]] – Woodville\-West Torrens vs. Port Adelaide, ABC.}}
During December 1994 Max Basher announced that Port Adelaide had won the tender for the second South Australian AFL licence.{{Cite web\|url \= http://www.news.com.au/national/its\-bye\-bye\-port\-adelaide/story\-e6frfkp9\-1226453941613\|title \= It's bye bye Port Adelaide \|author\=Rucci, Michelangelo \|date \= 20 September 2012\|access\-date \=13 May 2015 \|publisher \= News Limited \|work\=Adelaide Advertiser}} However a licence did not guarantee entry and although a target year of 1996 was set, this was reliant upon an existing AFL club folding or merging with another. In 1996, the cash\-strapped [Fitzroy](/wiki/Fitzroy_Football_Club "Fitzroy Football Club") announced it would merge with the [Brisbane Bears](/wiki/Brisbane_Bears "Brisbane Bears") to form the [Brisbane Lions](/wiki/Brisbane_Lions "Brisbane Lions"). A spot had finally opened and it was announced that in 1997, one year later than expected, [Port Adelaide](/wiki/Port_Adelaide "Port Adelaide") would enter the AFL.
| [1996 SANFL Grand Final](/wiki/1996_SANFL_Grand_Final "1996 SANFL Grand Final")*Last SANFL game before AFL entry.* | *G* | *B* | *Total* |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| [Central Districts](/wiki/Central_District_Football_Club "Central District Football Club") | 6 | 8 | 44 |
| Port Adelaide | **11** | **14** | **80** |
| Venue: [Football Park](/wiki/Football_Park "Football Park") | Crowd: 46,210{{cite web\|url\=http://www.subiacofc.com/seasons/season/SANFL/1996/\|title\=Australian Football \- SANFL Season 1996\|author\=The Slattery Media Group\|publisher\=subiacofc.com\|access\-date\=12 July 2015}} | | | | | |
Once an entry date had been confirmed, the Port Adelaide Football Club set about forming a side fit for competition in the AFL. It was announced that existing Port Adelaide coach, [John Cahill](/wiki/John_Cahill_%28footballer%29 "John Cahill (footballer)") would make the transition to the AFL and [Stephen Williams](/wiki/Stephen_Williams_%28footballer%29 "Stephen Williams (footballer)") would take over the SANFL coaching role. Cahill then set about forming a group which would form the inaugural squad. [Brownlow Medallist](/wiki/Brownlow_Medal "Brownlow Medal") and 1990 Port Adelaide premiership player, [Gavin Wanganeen](/wiki/Gavin_Wanganeen "Gavin Wanganeen") was poached from [Essendon](/wiki/Essendon_Football_Club "Essendon Football Club") and made captain of a team made up of six existing Port Adelaide players, two from the Adelaide Crows, seven players from other SANFL clubs and 14 recruits from interstate.
Star players for Port Adelaide during its pursuit of an AFL licence include among others [Greg Phillips](/wiki/Greg_Phillips "Greg Phillips"), [Scott Hodges](/wiki/Scott_Hodges "Scott Hodges"), [Darren Smith](/wiki/Darren_Smith_%28Australian_rules_footballer%29 "Darren Smith (Australian rules footballer)"), [Tim Ginever](/wiki/Tim_Ginever "Tim Ginever"), [Stephen Williams](/wiki/Stephen_Williams_%28footballer%29 "Stephen Williams (footballer)"), [Mark Williams](/wiki/Mark_Williams_%28Australian_footballer_born_1958%29 "Mark Williams (Australian footballer born 1958)"), [Darryl Borlase](/wiki/Darryl_Borlase "Darryl Borlase"), [George Fiacchi](/wiki/George_Fiacchi "George Fiacchi"), [Roger Delaney](/wiki/Roger_Delaney "Roger Delaney") and [Bruce Abernethy](/wiki/Bruce_Abernethy "Bruce Abernethy").
|
[
"### 1988–1996: Cahill's return, SANFL domination and AFL entry",
"",
"| [1989 SANFL Grand Final](/wiki/1989_SANFL_Grand_Final \"1989 SANFL Grand Final\")*One goal in mind* | *G* | *B* | *Total* |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| Port Adelaide | **15** | **18** | **108** |\n| {{SANFL NthA}} | 1 | 8 | 14 |\n| Venue: [Football Park](/wiki/Football_Park \"Football Park\") | Crowd: 50,487{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.subiacofc.com/seasons/season/SANFL/1959/\\|title\\=Australian Football \\- SANFL Season 1959\\|author\\=The Slattery Media Group\\|publisher\\=subiacofc.com\\|access\\-date\\=12 July 2015}} | | | | | |",
"Talk of a side from South Australia entering the VFL was fast tracked in 1987 when a team from Western Australia, the [West Coast Eagles](/wiki/West_Coast_Eagles \"West Coast Eagles\"), and a team from [Brisbane](/wiki/Brisbane \"Brisbane\"), the [Brisbane Bears](/wiki/Brisbane_Bears \"Brisbane Bears\") joined the VFL. This left South Australia as the only mainland state in Australia without a team in an increasingly national competition. During the 1988 season, one of Fos Williams sons, Anthony, was tragically killed in a building accident. The following day the club played against Norwood and managed to overcome an early deficit to win the emotional charged game. The club would go on to win the 1988 premiership.",
"In 1989 seven out of ten SANFL clubs were recording losses and the combined income of the [SANFL](/wiki/SANFL \"SANFL\") and [WAFL](/wiki/West_Australian_Football_League \"West Australian Football League\") had dropped to 40% of that of the [VFL](/wiki/Victorian_Football_League \"Victorian Football League\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.theroar.com.au/2012/07/16/revisiting\\-the\\-south\\-australian\\-license\\-saga\\-of\\-1991/\\|title\\=Revisiting the South Australian license saga of 1991 \\| The Roar\\|publisher\\=theroar.com.au\\|access\\-date\\=12 July 2015}} During early 1990 the SANFL decided to wait three years before making any further decision in regards to fielding a South Australian side in the VFL until it could be done without negatively affecting football within the state. Frustrated with lack of progress, Port Adelaide were having secret negotiations in the town of Quorn for entry in 1991\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.abc.net.au/stateline/sa/content/2003/s1206851\\.htm\\|title\\=Stateline South Australia\\|publisher\\=abc.net.au\\|date\\=2004\\-09\\-24\\|access\\-date\\=12 July 2015}} From these discussions Port Adelaide Football Club accepted an invitation from the VFL to join what had now become the AFL. The AFL signed a Heads of Agreement with the club in expectation that Port would enter the competition in 1991, meaning the Port Adelaide Football Club would field two teams, one in the AFL and one in the SANFL.\nDuring the 1990 preseason Port Adelaide played a practice match against the [Geelong Cats](/wiki/Geelong_Football_Club \"Geelong Football Club\") at [Football Park](/wiki/Football_Park \"Football Park\") in front of 35,000 spectators with [Gary Ablett Snr](/wiki/Gary_Ablett_Sr. \"Gary Ablett Sr.\") and [Gavin Wanganeen](/wiki/Gavin_Wanganeen \"Gavin Wanganeen\") prominent.",
"| [1990 SANFL Grand Final](/wiki/1990_SANFL_Grand_Final \"1990 SANFL Grand Final\")*Last season without AFL in SA.* | *G* | *B* | *Total* |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| [Glenelg](/wiki/Glenelg_Football_Club \"Glenelg Football Club\") | 13 | 15 | 93 |\n| Port Adelaide | **16** | **12** | **108** |\n| Venue: [Football Park](/wiki/Football_Park \"Football Park\") | Crowd: 50,589 | | | | | |",
"",
"{{cquote\\|\"These twenty blokes are sensational people and to our friends in the press the one thing that really matters is that there will always be a Port Adelaide Football Club.\"\\|15px\\|15px\\|\\[\\[George Fiacchi]] upon accepting the 1990 \\[\\[Jack Oatey Medal]] for best on ground at the \\[\\[1990 SANFL Grand Final]].George Fiacchi, \\[\\[1990 SANFL Grand Final]] – Port Adelaide vs. Glenelg, Channel 9\\.}}",
"When knowledge of [Port Adelaide Football Club](/wiki/Port_Adelaide_Football_Club_%28SANFL%29 \"Port Adelaide Football Club (SANFL)\")'s negotiations to gain an AFL licence were made public, the rest of the [SANFL](/wiki/SANFL \"SANFL\") and many other people across the state saw it as an act of treachery. SANFL clubs urged Justice Olssen to make an injunction against the bid, which he agreed to. The AFL suggested to the SANFL that if they didn't want [Port Adelaide](/wiki/Port_Adelaide \"Port Adelaide\") to join the AFL, they could put forward a counter bid to enter a composite South Australian side into the AFL. After legal action from all parties, the AFL finally agreed to accept the SANFL's bid and the [Adelaide Football Club](/wiki/Adelaide_Football_Club \"Adelaide Football Club\") was born.John P. Devaney *Full points footy: encyclopedia of Australian football clubs* [Lulu](/wiki/Lulu_%28company%29 \"Lulu (company)\"), 2009 pp 400 {{ISBN\\|0\\-9556897\\-0\\-8}}",
"The fallout from the failed bid resulted in some calling for [Port Adelaide](/wiki/Port_Adelaide \"Port Adelaide\") to be expelled from the SANFL. However, [Port Adelaide](/wiki/Port_Adelaide \"Port Adelaide\") continued to compete and continued to dominate. Port Adelaide followed its triple triumphs from 1988 to 1990 with a premiership in 1992 and three in a row again from 1994 to 1996\\. When the {{AFL Ade}} Crows entered the AFL, SANFL attendances dropped by 14% however Port Adelaide attendances increased by 13%.1994 Port Adelaide licence promotional DVD.\nVocal supporters for Port Adelaide's AFL bid included [Kevin Sheedy](/wiki/Kevin_Sheedy_%28Australian_footballer%29 \"Kevin Sheedy (Australian footballer)\"), [Tom Hafey](/wiki/Tom_Hafey \"Tom Hafey\"), [Ron Barassi](/wiki/Ron_Barassi \"Ron Barassi\") and [David Parkin](/wiki/David_Parkin \"David Parkin\").Port Adelaide Football Club, AFL Bid Video, 1994\\. In 1994, the AFL announced it would award a second AFL licence to a [South Australian](/wiki/South_Australian \"South Australian\") club. Adelaide's [Channel 7](/wiki/Seven_Network \"Seven Network\") broadcaster ran a phone poll asking whether Port Adelaide should get the second licence with 74% of the 6000 respondents saying 'yes'.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://footystats.freeservers.com/Special/1994review.html\\|title\\=1994review.html\\|publisher\\=footystats.freeservers.com\\|access\\-date\\=12 July 2015\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110518011419/http://footystats.freeservers.com/Special/1994review.html\\|archive\\-date\\=18 May 2011\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} Present at the [1994 SANFL Grand Final](/wiki/1994_SANFL_Grand_Final \"1994 SANFL Grand Final\") was AFL CEO [Ross Oakley](/wiki/Ross_Oakley \"Ross Oakley\") and Alan Schwab who bore witness to the club's come from behind win against the [Woodville\\-West Torrens Eagles](/wiki/Woodville-West_Torrens_Football_Club \"Woodville-West Torrens Football Club\").{{Cite web\\|url \\= http://www.portadelaidefc.com.au/news/2013\\-08\\-27/footy\\-park\\-flashbacks\\-7\\|title \\= Footy Park Flashbacks \\#7: 1994 SANFL Grand Final\\|date \\= 27 August 2013\\|website \\= portadelaidefc.com.au}}",
"| [1994 SANFL Grand Final](/wiki/1994_SANFL_Grand_Final \"1994 SANFL Grand Final\") | *G* | *B* | *Total* |\n| {{SANFL WWT}} | 10 | 9 | 69 |\n| Port Adelaide | **15** | **16** | **106** |\n| Venue: [Football Park](/wiki/Football_Park \"Football Park\") | Crowd: 40,598 | | | | | |",
"{{cquote\\|\"I know I'm emotional but forgetting all that...seventy seven was great but today against all odds and the courage that the players showed...it was tremendous mate.\"\\|15px\\|15px\\|\\[\\[John Cahill (footballer)\\|John Cahill]] during an interview at the end of the 1994 SANFL Grand Final.Michael Aish, \\[\\[1994 SANFL Grand Final]] – Woodville\\-West Torrens vs. Port Adelaide, ABC.}}",
"During December 1994 Max Basher announced that Port Adelaide had won the tender for the second South Australian AFL licence.{{Cite web\\|url \\= http://www.news.com.au/national/its\\-bye\\-bye\\-port\\-adelaide/story\\-e6frfkp9\\-1226453941613\\|title \\= It's bye bye Port Adelaide \\|author\\=Rucci, Michelangelo \\|date \\= 20 September 2012\\|access\\-date \\=13 May 2015 \\|publisher \\= News Limited \\|work\\=Adelaide Advertiser}} However a licence did not guarantee entry and although a target year of 1996 was set, this was reliant upon an existing AFL club folding or merging with another. In 1996, the cash\\-strapped [Fitzroy](/wiki/Fitzroy_Football_Club \"Fitzroy Football Club\") announced it would merge with the [Brisbane Bears](/wiki/Brisbane_Bears \"Brisbane Bears\") to form the [Brisbane Lions](/wiki/Brisbane_Lions \"Brisbane Lions\"). A spot had finally opened and it was announced that in 1997, one year later than expected, [Port Adelaide](/wiki/Port_Adelaide \"Port Adelaide\") would enter the AFL.",
"| [1996 SANFL Grand Final](/wiki/1996_SANFL_Grand_Final \"1996 SANFL Grand Final\")*Last SANFL game before AFL entry.* | *G* | *B* | *Total* |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| [Central Districts](/wiki/Central_District_Football_Club \"Central District Football Club\") | 6 | 8 | 44 |\n| Port Adelaide | **11** | **14** | **80** |\n| Venue: [Football Park](/wiki/Football_Park \"Football Park\") | Crowd: 46,210{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.subiacofc.com/seasons/season/SANFL/1996/\\|title\\=Australian Football \\- SANFL Season 1996\\|author\\=The Slattery Media Group\\|publisher\\=subiacofc.com\\|access\\-date\\=12 July 2015}} | | | | | |",
"Once an entry date had been confirmed, the Port Adelaide Football Club set about forming a side fit for competition in the AFL. It was announced that existing Port Adelaide coach, [John Cahill](/wiki/John_Cahill_%28footballer%29 \"John Cahill (footballer)\") would make the transition to the AFL and [Stephen Williams](/wiki/Stephen_Williams_%28footballer%29 \"Stephen Williams (footballer)\") would take over the SANFL coaching role. Cahill then set about forming a group which would form the inaugural squad. [Brownlow Medallist](/wiki/Brownlow_Medal \"Brownlow Medal\") and 1990 Port Adelaide premiership player, [Gavin Wanganeen](/wiki/Gavin_Wanganeen \"Gavin Wanganeen\") was poached from [Essendon](/wiki/Essendon_Football_Club \"Essendon Football Club\") and made captain of a team made up of six existing Port Adelaide players, two from the Adelaide Crows, seven players from other SANFL clubs and 14 recruits from interstate.",
"Star players for Port Adelaide during its pursuit of an AFL licence include among others [Greg Phillips](/wiki/Greg_Phillips \"Greg Phillips\"), [Scott Hodges](/wiki/Scott_Hodges \"Scott Hodges\"), [Darren Smith](/wiki/Darren_Smith_%28Australian_rules_footballer%29 \"Darren Smith (Australian rules footballer)\"), [Tim Ginever](/wiki/Tim_Ginever \"Tim Ginever\"), [Stephen Williams](/wiki/Stephen_Williams_%28footballer%29 \"Stephen Williams (footballer)\"), [Mark Williams](/wiki/Mark_Williams_%28Australian_footballer_born_1958%29 \"Mark Williams (Australian footballer born 1958)\"), [Darryl Borlase](/wiki/Darryl_Borlase \"Darryl Borlase\"), [George Fiacchi](/wiki/George_Fiacchi \"George Fiacchi\"), [Roger Delaney](/wiki/Roger_Delaney \"Roger Delaney\") and [Bruce Abernethy](/wiki/Bruce_Abernethy \"Bruce Abernethy\").",
""
] |
1999–2010: Mark Williams era
----------------------------
### 1999–2003: First AFL success and finals frustration
In 1999 [Mark Williams](/wiki/Mark_Williams_%28Australian_footballer_born_1958%29 "Mark Williams (Australian footballer born 1958)") took over as coach of Port Adelaide. In only its third season the club played in the [pre\-season grand final](/wiki/Ansett_Cup "Ansett Cup") against [Hawthorn](/wiki/Hawthorn_Football_Club "Hawthorn Football Club") at [Waverley Park](/wiki/Waverley_Park "Waverley Park"). Port Adelaide lost 5\.6 (36\) to 12\.11 (83\). The season wasn't looking very promising and by Round 12 they had dropped down to a low of fourteenth. But they put together a five\-game win streak from Round 13 through to Round 17 to eventually finish seventh and earn them a spot in the finals for the first time in the club's history. They were eliminated by eventual premier, North Melbourne, by 44 points in the Qualifying Final. The side fell away in 2000, winning only one of its first twelve games before ultimately finishing 14th with a record of 7–14–1\.
Port Adelaide had a very successful [2001 season](/wiki/2001_AFL_season "2001 AFL season"), starting with a maiden pre\-season competition victory, defeating the [Brisbane Lions](/wiki/Brisbane_Lions "Brisbane Lions") 17\.9 (111\) to 3\.8 (26\) to become the first non\-Melbourne based club to win the competition. Port Adelaide finished their 2001 home and away season in third place with 16 wins and six losses. The club travelled to Brisbane for the Qualifying Final, losing by 32 points, then lost its home Semi Final against sixth\-placed [Hawthorn](/wiki/Hawthorn_Football_Club "Hawthorn Football Club") to be eliminated: Port had led Hawthorn by 17 points going into the last quarter, but Hawthorn came back and Port lost by three points.
| *[2002 AFL Home \& Away Season](/wiki/2002_AFL_season "2002 AFL season")* | *W* | *L* | *D* | *Total* | *%* |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| **Port Adelaide** | **18** | **4** | **0** | **72** | **132\.36** |
| | *Minor Premiers* | | | | | | | | |
Port Adelaide started 2002 strongly, winning the pre\-season competition for the second time in a row, defeating {{AFL Ric}} by 9 points. The side built on its success and won its first [minor premiership](/wiki/McClelland_Trophy "McClelland Trophy") with an 18–4 record. However, they could not convert this form into a Grand Final berth losing to the eventual premiers, the Brisbane Lions, by 56 points in the preliminary final. Port Adelaide continued its minor round dominance in 2003 and again finished top to claim the minor premiership; however like the previous year, Port Adelaide was eliminated in the preliminary finals, losing to Collingwood by 44 points.
| *[2003 AFL Home \& Away Season](/wiki/2003_AFL_season "2003 AFL season")* | *W* | *L* | *D* | *Total* | *%* |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| **Port Adelaide** | **18** | **4** | **0** | **72** | **127\.23** |
| | *Minor Premiers* | | | | | | | | |
### 2004: Premiership glory
Port Adelaide opened the 2004 season well with four straight wins, but then won only four of its next eight games, dropping to as low as fifth on the premiership table, three games below ladder leaders [St Kilda](/wiki/St_Kilda_Football_Club "St Kilda Football Club"). From Rounds 12–17, Port Adelaide turned their fortunes around and had six consecutive wins, and with five rounds remaining were equal top of the ladder with [Brisbane](/wiki/Brisbane_Lions "Brisbane Lions"), [St Kilda](/wiki/St_Kilda_Football_Club "St Kilda Football Club") and [Melbourne](/wiki/Melbourne_Football_Club "Melbourne Football Club").
| *[2004 AFL Home \& Away Season](/wiki/2004_AFL_season "2004 AFL season")* | *W* | *L* | *D* | *Total* | *%* |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| **Port Adelaide** | **17** | **5** | **0** | **68** | **132\.36** |
| | *Minor Premiers* | | | | | | | | |
After losing in Round 18 against Essendon, Port Adelaide won its remaining four games – including wins against minor premiership contender [Melbourne](/wiki/Melbourne_Football_Club "Melbourne Football Club") and cross town rivals {{AFL Ade}} to claim the minor premiership for the third consecutive year. Port Adelaide easily won its qualifying final against [Geelong](/wiki/Geelong_Football_Club "Geelong Football Club"), earning a home preliminary final. Port Adelaide made it through to its first AFL grand final after defeating St Kilda in a thrilling preliminary final by just six points in front of over 46,000 people at home, with Gavin Wanganeen kicking the winning goal with about a minute to go.
{{multiple image
\| align \= left
\| image1 \= Warren\_tredrea.jpg
\| width1 \= 142
\| alt1 \=
\| image2 \= Port Adelaide 2004 Trophy.jpg
\| width2 \= 135
\| alt2 \=
\| footer \= Left: 2004 club leading goalkicker, \[\[Warren Tredrea]].
Right: The \[\[2004 AFL Grand Final\|2004 AFL premiership]] was Port Adelaide's first since joining the league.
}}
The following, Port Adelaide faced a highly fancied Brisbane side attempting to win a record\-equalling fourth straight AFL premiership. Only one point separated the sides at half time, however late in the third quarter Port Adelaide took the ascendency to lead by 17 points at three\-quarter time, and dominated the final term to [win by 40 points](/wiki/2004_AFL_Grand_Final "2004 AFL Grand Final"): 17\.11 (113\) to 10\.13 (73\). [Byron Pickett](/wiki/Byron_Pickett "Byron Pickett") was awarded with the [Norm Smith Medal](/wiki/Norm_Smith_Medal "Norm Smith Medal") after being judged the best player in the match, tallying 20 disposals and kicking three goals.
| [2004 AFL Grand Final](/wiki/2004_AFL_Grand_Final "2004 AFL Grand Final") | *G* | *B* | *Total* |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Port Adelaide | **17** | **11** | **113** |
| [Brisbane Lions](/wiki/Brisbane_Lions "Brisbane Lions") | 10 | 13 | 73 |
| Venue: [Melbourne Cricket Ground](/wiki/Melbourne_Cricket_Ground "Melbourne Cricket Ground") | Crowd: 77,671 | | | | | |
{{cquote\|"Port Adelaide are the winningest team in Australia. The old Port Adelaide have won 36 premierships, today, at the MCG, may just be their finest hour."\|15px\|15px\|\[\[Tim Lane (journalist)]]'s statement at the conclusion of the 2004 AFL Grand Final.Tim Lane, 2004 AFL Grand Final – Port Adelaide vs. Brisbane, Channel 10\.}}
### 2005–06: Finals goal and a rapid rebuild
After 2004, Port Adelaide struggled to maintain its form and endured a disappointing 2005\. After a slow start to the season, they finished eighth on the ladder, and defeated the Kangaroos by 87 points in the elimination final. In the semi\-final, Port faced the highly fancied minor premiers [Adelaide](/wiki/Adelaide_FC "Adelaide FC") in what was dubbed "The Ultimate Showdown" – the first occasion when the two cross\-town rivals had met in a finals series. The result was an 83\-point loss for Port. The club missed the finals in 2006, winning eight games; young player [Danyle Pearce](/wiki/Danyle_Pearce "Danyle Pearce") won the [AFL Rising Star](/wiki/AFL_Rising_Star "AFL Rising Star") award.
### 2007: Young side success and grand final loss
[thumb\|right\|200px\|[Justin Westhoff](/wiki/Justin_Westhoff "Justin Westhoff") (pick No. 71\) made his debut in the 2007 season, along with [Robert Gray](/wiki/Robert_Gray_%28Australian_rules_footballer%29 "Robert Gray (Australian rules footballer)") (pick No. 55\) and [Travis Boak](/wiki/Travis_Boak "Travis Boak") (pick No. 5\).](/wiki/File:Justin_Westhoff_%28Port_Adelaide_Power%29.jpg "Justin Westhoff (Port Adelaide Power).jpg")
Port Adelaide made a strong recovery in 2007, and with strong performances from midfielders [Shaun Burgoyne](/wiki/Shaun_Burgoyne "Shaun Burgoyne") and [Chad Cornes](/wiki/Chad_Cornes "Chad Cornes") and strong debut seasons from [Justin Westhoff](/wiki/Justin_Westhoff "Justin Westhoff"), [Robert Gray](/wiki/Robert_Gray_%28Australian_rules_footballer%29 "Robert Gray (Australian rules footballer)") and [Travis Boak](/wiki/Travis_Boak "Travis Boak"), Port Adelaide finished the minor round second on the ladder with 15–7 record.
Port Adelaide started their finals campaign against the [West Coast Eagles](/wiki/West_Coast_Eagles "West Coast Eagles") at [AAMI Stadium](/wiki/AAMI_Stadium "AAMI Stadium") and won a tight contest by three points: Port Adelaide 9\.14 (68\) d. West Coast 9\.11 (65\). That win gave Port the bye, and they easily defeated the Kangaroos in the preliminary final to win by 87 points: Port 20\.13 (133\) d. North Melbourne 5\.16 (46\). This win delivered Port its second Grand Final berth in four years. However, in the [grand final](/wiki/2007_AFL_Grand_Final "2007 AFL Grand Final") they were defeated by Geelong by an AFL record margin of 119 points, 24\.19 (163\) to Port Adelaide's 6\.8 (44\) in a crowd of 97,302\.
### 2008–10: Grand final aftermath
The 2008 season was disappointing one for a Port Adelaide side keen to build on its 2007 grand final appearance, dropping to 13th on the ladder and out of the finals. In 2009, [Domenic Cassisi](/wiki/Domenic_Cassisi "Domenic Cassisi") took on Port Adelaide's captaincy,[Cassisi takes long road to captaincy](http://portadelaidefc.com.au/news/newsarticle/tabid/6038/default.aspx?newsid=71888) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110807234504/http://www.portadelaidefc.com.au/news/newsarticle/tabid/6038/default.aspx?newsid\=71888 \|date\=7 August 2011 }} Official Website of the Port Adelaide Football Club, 9 February 2009 generated controversy due to coach [Mark Williams](/wiki/Mark_Williams_%28Australian_footballer_born_1958%29 "Mark Williams (Australian footballer born 1958)") originally wanting Shaun Burgoyne or [Chad Cornes](/wiki/Chad_Cornes "Chad Cornes") to be captain, which was overruled by Port Adelaide's administration board.*[Over\-ruled, Mark Williams' slide at Port continues](http://www.news.com.au/adelaidenow/sport/afl/story/0,26547,25037644-5016212,00.html) *[The Advertiser](/wiki/The_Advertiser_%28Adelaide%29 "The Advertiser (Adelaide)")* 9 February 2009*
During the 2009 pre\-season Port Adelaide announced that they had requested an immediate seven\-figure sum from the [AFL](/wiki/Australian_Football_League "Australian Football League") in a bid to ease its financial crisis. Port Adelaide had accumulated a consolidated debt totaling $5\.1 million and was unable to pay its players; they had lost $1\.4 million the season before, and had their average home crowds drop to little more than 23,000\.[Port tell league: we'll go broke](http://www.realfooty.com.au/news/news/port-tell-league-well-go-broke-without-a-handout/2009/03/16/1237054738203.html) realfooty 17 March 2009 However the financial assistance was denied by the league, with [AFL chief executive Andrew Demetriou](/wiki/Andrew_Demetriou "Andrew Demetriou") saying that they would have to undergo an intensive application process and work with the [SANFL](/wiki/South_Australian_National_Football_League "South Australian National Football League"), who owned Port Adelaide's AFL licence.[It's not a snub – AFL still in the wings](http://thepowerfromport.com.au/articles.php?action=view&article_id=6827&lid=6&yr=2009) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110930070448/http://thepowerfromport.com.au/articles.php?action\=view\&article\_id\=6827\&lid\=6\&yr\=2009 \|date\=30 September 2011 }} TPFP 19 March 2009 On 20 May, Port were handed $2\.5 million in debt relief by the SANFL, and on 15 June were handed a $1 million grant by the AFL commission.[Port Adelaide gets $2\.5 million SANFL funding](https://web.archive.org/web/20090523162629/http://www.afl.com.au/news/newsarticle/tabid/208/newsid/77190/default.aspx) [AFL](/wiki/Australian_Football_League "Australian Football League") 20 May 2009[Power AFL grant](http://www.portadelaidefc.com.au/news/newsarticle/tabid/6038/newsid/78867/default.aspx) [AFL](/wiki/Australian_Football_League "Australian Football League"), 15 June 2009 By the end of the season the financial situation had reached the point where either the Port Adelaide Magpies (also suffering from crippling debt) or Port Adelaide could be forced to fold. The SANFL had announced it could support one club but not both. Plans for a merger of the two clubs to keep Port Adelaide in both the AFL and SANFL were rejected by the SANFL. The club's financial prospects were given a major boost in December 2009 when Premier Mike Rann announced a $450 million government commitment to redevelop Adelaide Oval, to enable AFL Football and home games for both Port and the Crows to be played in the city centre. Amidst these off\-field struggles, the club finished 10th in 2009\.
The 2010 season started well for the club with it winning five of its first seven games. However, after that, Port Adelaide went on a club record nine\-game losing streak. On 9 July 2010, [Mark Williams](/wiki/Mark_Williams_%28Australian_footballer_born_1958%29 "Mark Williams (Australian footballer born 1958)") stepped down as senior coach with a final game against [Collingwood](/wiki/Collingwood_Football_Club "Collingwood Football Club") at Football Park, marking the end of the Williams era for the club.
|
[
"1999–2010: Mark Williams era\n----------------------------",
"### 1999–2003: First AFL success and finals frustration",
"In 1999 [Mark Williams](/wiki/Mark_Williams_%28Australian_footballer_born_1958%29 \"Mark Williams (Australian footballer born 1958)\") took over as coach of Port Adelaide. In only its third season the club played in the [pre\\-season grand final](/wiki/Ansett_Cup \"Ansett Cup\") against [Hawthorn](/wiki/Hawthorn_Football_Club \"Hawthorn Football Club\") at [Waverley Park](/wiki/Waverley_Park \"Waverley Park\"). Port Adelaide lost 5\\.6 (36\\) to 12\\.11 (83\\). The season wasn't looking very promising and by Round 12 they had dropped down to a low of fourteenth. But they put together a five\\-game win streak from Round 13 through to Round 17 to eventually finish seventh and earn them a spot in the finals for the first time in the club's history. They were eliminated by eventual premier, North Melbourne, by 44 points in the Qualifying Final. The side fell away in 2000, winning only one of its first twelve games before ultimately finishing 14th with a record of 7–14–1\\.",
"Port Adelaide had a very successful [2001 season](/wiki/2001_AFL_season \"2001 AFL season\"), starting with a maiden pre\\-season competition victory, defeating the [Brisbane Lions](/wiki/Brisbane_Lions \"Brisbane Lions\") 17\\.9 (111\\) to 3\\.8 (26\\) to become the first non\\-Melbourne based club to win the competition. Port Adelaide finished their 2001 home and away season in third place with 16 wins and six losses. The club travelled to Brisbane for the Qualifying Final, losing by 32 points, then lost its home Semi Final against sixth\\-placed [Hawthorn](/wiki/Hawthorn_Football_Club \"Hawthorn Football Club\") to be eliminated: Port had led Hawthorn by 17 points going into the last quarter, but Hawthorn came back and Port lost by three points.",
"| *[2002 AFL Home \\& Away Season](/wiki/2002_AFL_season \"2002 AFL season\")* | *W* | *L* | *D* | *Total* | *%* |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| **Port Adelaide** | **18** | **4** | **0** | **72** | **132\\.36** |\n| | *Minor Premiers* | | | | | | | | |",
"Port Adelaide started 2002 strongly, winning the pre\\-season competition for the second time in a row, defeating {{AFL Ric}} by 9 points. The side built on its success and won its first [minor premiership](/wiki/McClelland_Trophy \"McClelland Trophy\") with an 18–4 record. However, they could not convert this form into a Grand Final berth losing to the eventual premiers, the Brisbane Lions, by 56 points in the preliminary final. Port Adelaide continued its minor round dominance in 2003 and again finished top to claim the minor premiership; however like the previous year, Port Adelaide was eliminated in the preliminary finals, losing to Collingwood by 44 points.",
"| *[2003 AFL Home \\& Away Season](/wiki/2003_AFL_season \"2003 AFL season\")* | *W* | *L* | *D* | *Total* | *%* |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| **Port Adelaide** | **18** | **4** | **0** | **72** | **127\\.23** |\n| | *Minor Premiers* | | | | | | | | |",
"",
"### 2004: Premiership glory",
"Port Adelaide opened the 2004 season well with four straight wins, but then won only four of its next eight games, dropping to as low as fifth on the premiership table, three games below ladder leaders [St Kilda](/wiki/St_Kilda_Football_Club \"St Kilda Football Club\"). From Rounds 12–17, Port Adelaide turned their fortunes around and had six consecutive wins, and with five rounds remaining were equal top of the ladder with [Brisbane](/wiki/Brisbane_Lions \"Brisbane Lions\"), [St Kilda](/wiki/St_Kilda_Football_Club \"St Kilda Football Club\") and [Melbourne](/wiki/Melbourne_Football_Club \"Melbourne Football Club\").",
"| *[2004 AFL Home \\& Away Season](/wiki/2004_AFL_season \"2004 AFL season\")* | *W* | *L* | *D* | *Total* | *%* |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| **Port Adelaide** | **17** | **5** | **0** | **68** | **132\\.36** |\n| | *Minor Premiers* | | | | | | | | |",
"After losing in Round 18 against Essendon, Port Adelaide won its remaining four games – including wins against minor premiership contender [Melbourne](/wiki/Melbourne_Football_Club \"Melbourne Football Club\") and cross town rivals {{AFL Ade}} to claim the minor premiership for the third consecutive year. Port Adelaide easily won its qualifying final against [Geelong](/wiki/Geelong_Football_Club \"Geelong Football Club\"), earning a home preliminary final. Port Adelaide made it through to its first AFL grand final after defeating St Kilda in a thrilling preliminary final by just six points in front of over 46,000 people at home, with Gavin Wanganeen kicking the winning goal with about a minute to go.",
"{{multiple image\n\\| align \\= left\n\\| image1 \\= Warren\\_tredrea.jpg\n\\| width1 \\= 142\n\\| alt1 \\= \n\\| image2 \\= Port Adelaide 2004 Trophy.jpg\n\\| width2 \\= 135\n\\| alt2 \\= \n\\| footer \\= Left: 2004 club leading goalkicker, \\[\\[Warren Tredrea]]. \nRight: The \\[\\[2004 AFL Grand Final\\|2004 AFL premiership]] was Port Adelaide's first since joining the league.\n}}",
"The following, Port Adelaide faced a highly fancied Brisbane side attempting to win a record\\-equalling fourth straight AFL premiership. Only one point separated the sides at half time, however late in the third quarter Port Adelaide took the ascendency to lead by 17 points at three\\-quarter time, and dominated the final term to [win by 40 points](/wiki/2004_AFL_Grand_Final \"2004 AFL Grand Final\"): 17\\.11 (113\\) to 10\\.13 (73\\). [Byron Pickett](/wiki/Byron_Pickett \"Byron Pickett\") was awarded with the [Norm Smith Medal](/wiki/Norm_Smith_Medal \"Norm Smith Medal\") after being judged the best player in the match, tallying 20 disposals and kicking three goals.",
"",
"| [2004 AFL Grand Final](/wiki/2004_AFL_Grand_Final \"2004 AFL Grand Final\") | *G* | *B* | *Total* |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| Port Adelaide | **17** | **11** | **113** |\n| [Brisbane Lions](/wiki/Brisbane_Lions \"Brisbane Lions\") | 10 | 13 | 73 |\n| Venue: [Melbourne Cricket Ground](/wiki/Melbourne_Cricket_Ground \"Melbourne Cricket Ground\") | Crowd: 77,671 | | | | | |",
"{{cquote\\|\"Port Adelaide are the winningest team in Australia. The old Port Adelaide have won 36 premierships, today, at the MCG, may just be their finest hour.\"\\|15px\\|15px\\|\\[\\[Tim Lane (journalist)]]'s statement at the conclusion of the 2004 AFL Grand Final.Tim Lane, 2004 AFL Grand Final – Port Adelaide vs. Brisbane, Channel 10\\.}}",
"### 2005–06: Finals goal and a rapid rebuild",
"After 2004, Port Adelaide struggled to maintain its form and endured a disappointing 2005\\. After a slow start to the season, they finished eighth on the ladder, and defeated the Kangaroos by 87 points in the elimination final. In the semi\\-final, Port faced the highly fancied minor premiers [Adelaide](/wiki/Adelaide_FC \"Adelaide FC\") in what was dubbed \"The Ultimate Showdown\" – the first occasion when the two cross\\-town rivals had met in a finals series. The result was an 83\\-point loss for Port. The club missed the finals in 2006, winning eight games; young player [Danyle Pearce](/wiki/Danyle_Pearce \"Danyle Pearce\") won the [AFL Rising Star](/wiki/AFL_Rising_Star \"AFL Rising Star\") award.",
"### 2007: Young side success and grand final loss",
"[thumb\\|right\\|200px\\|[Justin Westhoff](/wiki/Justin_Westhoff \"Justin Westhoff\") (pick No. 71\\) made his debut in the 2007 season, along with [Robert Gray](/wiki/Robert_Gray_%28Australian_rules_footballer%29 \"Robert Gray (Australian rules footballer)\") (pick No. 55\\) and [Travis Boak](/wiki/Travis_Boak \"Travis Boak\") (pick No. 5\\).](/wiki/File:Justin_Westhoff_%28Port_Adelaide_Power%29.jpg \"Justin Westhoff (Port Adelaide Power).jpg\")\nPort Adelaide made a strong recovery in 2007, and with strong performances from midfielders [Shaun Burgoyne](/wiki/Shaun_Burgoyne \"Shaun Burgoyne\") and [Chad Cornes](/wiki/Chad_Cornes \"Chad Cornes\") and strong debut seasons from [Justin Westhoff](/wiki/Justin_Westhoff \"Justin Westhoff\"), [Robert Gray](/wiki/Robert_Gray_%28Australian_rules_footballer%29 \"Robert Gray (Australian rules footballer)\") and [Travis Boak](/wiki/Travis_Boak \"Travis Boak\"), Port Adelaide finished the minor round second on the ladder with 15–7 record.",
"Port Adelaide started their finals campaign against the [West Coast Eagles](/wiki/West_Coast_Eagles \"West Coast Eagles\") at [AAMI Stadium](/wiki/AAMI_Stadium \"AAMI Stadium\") and won a tight contest by three points: Port Adelaide 9\\.14 (68\\) d. West Coast 9\\.11 (65\\). That win gave Port the bye, and they easily defeated the Kangaroos in the preliminary final to win by 87 points: Port 20\\.13 (133\\) d. North Melbourne 5\\.16 (46\\). This win delivered Port its second Grand Final berth in four years. However, in the [grand final](/wiki/2007_AFL_Grand_Final \"2007 AFL Grand Final\") they were defeated by Geelong by an AFL record margin of 119 points, 24\\.19 (163\\) to Port Adelaide's 6\\.8 (44\\) in a crowd of 97,302\\.",
"### 2008–10: Grand final aftermath",
"The 2008 season was disappointing one for a Port Adelaide side keen to build on its 2007 grand final appearance, dropping to 13th on the ladder and out of the finals. In 2009, [Domenic Cassisi](/wiki/Domenic_Cassisi \"Domenic Cassisi\") took on Port Adelaide's captaincy,[Cassisi takes long road to captaincy](http://portadelaidefc.com.au/news/newsarticle/tabid/6038/default.aspx?newsid=71888) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110807234504/http://www.portadelaidefc.com.au/news/newsarticle/tabid/6038/default.aspx?newsid\\=71888 \\|date\\=7 August 2011 }} Official Website of the Port Adelaide Football Club, 9 February 2009 generated controversy due to coach [Mark Williams](/wiki/Mark_Williams_%28Australian_footballer_born_1958%29 \"Mark Williams (Australian footballer born 1958)\") originally wanting Shaun Burgoyne or [Chad Cornes](/wiki/Chad_Cornes \"Chad Cornes\") to be captain, which was overruled by Port Adelaide's administration board.*[Over\\-ruled, Mark Williams' slide at Port continues](http://www.news.com.au/adelaidenow/sport/afl/story/0,26547,25037644-5016212,00.html) *[The Advertiser](/wiki/The_Advertiser_%28Adelaide%29 \"The Advertiser (Adelaide)\")* 9 February 2009*",
"During the 2009 pre\\-season Port Adelaide announced that they had requested an immediate seven\\-figure sum from the [AFL](/wiki/Australian_Football_League \"Australian Football League\") in a bid to ease its financial crisis. Port Adelaide had accumulated a consolidated debt totaling $5\\.1 million and was unable to pay its players; they had lost $1\\.4 million the season before, and had their average home crowds drop to little more than 23,000\\.[Port tell league: we'll go broke](http://www.realfooty.com.au/news/news/port-tell-league-well-go-broke-without-a-handout/2009/03/16/1237054738203.html) realfooty 17 March 2009 However the financial assistance was denied by the league, with [AFL chief executive Andrew Demetriou](/wiki/Andrew_Demetriou \"Andrew Demetriou\") saying that they would have to undergo an intensive application process and work with the [SANFL](/wiki/South_Australian_National_Football_League \"South Australian National Football League\"), who owned Port Adelaide's AFL licence.[It's not a snub – AFL still in the wings](http://thepowerfromport.com.au/articles.php?action=view&article_id=6827&lid=6&yr=2009) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110930070448/http://thepowerfromport.com.au/articles.php?action\\=view\\&article\\_id\\=6827\\&lid\\=6\\&yr\\=2009 \\|date\\=30 September 2011 }} TPFP 19 March 2009 On 20 May, Port were handed $2\\.5 million in debt relief by the SANFL, and on 15 June were handed a $1 million grant by the AFL commission.[Port Adelaide gets $2\\.5 million SANFL funding](https://web.archive.org/web/20090523162629/http://www.afl.com.au/news/newsarticle/tabid/208/newsid/77190/default.aspx) [AFL](/wiki/Australian_Football_League \"Australian Football League\") 20 May 2009[Power AFL grant](http://www.portadelaidefc.com.au/news/newsarticle/tabid/6038/newsid/78867/default.aspx) [AFL](/wiki/Australian_Football_League \"Australian Football League\"), 15 June 2009 By the end of the season the financial situation had reached the point where either the Port Adelaide Magpies (also suffering from crippling debt) or Port Adelaide could be forced to fold. The SANFL had announced it could support one club but not both. Plans for a merger of the two clubs to keep Port Adelaide in both the AFL and SANFL were rejected by the SANFL. The club's financial prospects were given a major boost in December 2009 when Premier Mike Rann announced a $450 million government commitment to redevelop Adelaide Oval, to enable AFL Football and home games for both Port and the Crows to be played in the city centre. Amidst these off\\-field struggles, the club finished 10th in 2009\\.",
"The 2010 season started well for the club with it winning five of its first seven games. However, after that, Port Adelaide went on a club record nine\\-game losing streak. On 9 July 2010, [Mark Williams](/wiki/Mark_Williams_%28Australian_footballer_born_1958%29 \"Mark Williams (Australian footballer born 1958)\") stepped down as senior coach with a final game against [Collingwood](/wiki/Collingwood_Football_Club \"Collingwood Football Club\") at Football Park, marking the end of the Williams era for the club.",
""
] |
Biography
---------
Mestre Pé de Chumbo was born December 8, 1964, in [Floresta Azul](/wiki/Floresta_Azul "Floresta Azul"), a small town in the interior of Bahia. He began the practice of capoeira at the age of 10 in his small Bahian town. At the age of 16, Pé de Chumbo traveled to the southern state of São Paulo Brazil in search of employment and brought capoeira with him. Settling in Indiatuba, São Paulo he began balancing his full\-time job with his practice and teaching of capoeira. During this time he had the opportunity to meet various notable mestres such as [Mestre Suassuna](/wiki/Mestre_Suassuna "Mestre Suassuna"), Miguel Machado, Silvestre, Belisco, [Mestre Brazilia](/wiki/Mestre_Brazilia "Mestre Brazilia"), and [Mestre Gato Preto](/wiki/Mestre_Gato_Preto "Mestre Gato Preto") among others. The young capoeira teacher was especially inspired by [Mestre Paulo dos Anjos](/wiki/Mestre_Paulo_dos_Anjos "Mestre Paulo dos Anjos") and began to develop a passion for the traditional form of [capoeira angola](/wiki/Capoeira_angola "Capoeira angola").
By 1981, Pé de Chumbo had become intrigued by the Angolan style of capoeira and decided to travel to Salvador to meet [Mestre Pastinha](/wiki/Mestre_Pastinha "Mestre Pastinha"), the grandfather of capoeira angola. But Pastinha's death occurred a few days prior to Pe de Chumbo's arrival, so he began training with Pastinha's lead students, Mestre Joao Pequeno and [Mestre Joao Grande](/wiki/Mestre_Joao_Grande "Mestre Joao Grande") instead. During the following years, Pe de Chumbo would travel between work and capoeira, constantly bringing new knowledge from Mestre Joao Pequeno to his students in São Paulo.
Starting in 1987, Mestre Pé de Chumbo began bringing such renowned Mestres as João Gande, João Pequeno and Boca Rica to São Paulo during large capoeira events, and in 1991 he brought [Mestre Jogo de Dentro](/wiki/Mestre_Jogo_de_Dentro "Mestre Jogo de Dentro") to the city. It was during this time that the capoeira mestre moved to Sao Carlos to begin another capoeira group. It was also during this time that Mestre Pé de Chumbo was graduated as a mestre under João Pequeno, who encouraged Pé de Chumbo to use the CECA school name and uniform.
Mestre Pé de Chumbo began taking capoeira out of the country in 1990s with his mestre's blessing. He established schools throughout Europe in the late 1990s and early 2000s. As of 2006, Mestre Pé de Chumbo has established schools throughout Brazil and in Sweden, Denmark, Portugal, Mexico City and the United States.
Currently, Mestre Pé de Chumbo is establishing a new capoeira academy in Germany where he currently lives and teaches.
|
[
"Biography\n---------",
"Mestre Pé de Chumbo was born December 8, 1964, in [Floresta Azul](/wiki/Floresta_Azul \"Floresta Azul\"), a small town in the interior of Bahia. He began the practice of capoeira at the age of 10 in his small Bahian town. At the age of 16, Pé de Chumbo traveled to the southern state of São Paulo Brazil in search of employment and brought capoeira with him. Settling in Indiatuba, São Paulo he began balancing his full\\-time job with his practice and teaching of capoeira. During this time he had the opportunity to meet various notable mestres such as [Mestre Suassuna](/wiki/Mestre_Suassuna \"Mestre Suassuna\"), Miguel Machado, Silvestre, Belisco, [Mestre Brazilia](/wiki/Mestre_Brazilia \"Mestre Brazilia\"), and [Mestre Gato Preto](/wiki/Mestre_Gato_Preto \"Mestre Gato Preto\") among others. The young capoeira teacher was especially inspired by [Mestre Paulo dos Anjos](/wiki/Mestre_Paulo_dos_Anjos \"Mestre Paulo dos Anjos\") and began to develop a passion for the traditional form of [capoeira angola](/wiki/Capoeira_angola \"Capoeira angola\").",
"By 1981, Pé de Chumbo had become intrigued by the Angolan style of capoeira and decided to travel to Salvador to meet [Mestre Pastinha](/wiki/Mestre_Pastinha \"Mestre Pastinha\"), the grandfather of capoeira angola. But Pastinha's death occurred a few days prior to Pe de Chumbo's arrival, so he began training with Pastinha's lead students, Mestre Joao Pequeno and [Mestre Joao Grande](/wiki/Mestre_Joao_Grande \"Mestre Joao Grande\") instead. During the following years, Pe de Chumbo would travel between work and capoeira, constantly bringing new knowledge from Mestre Joao Pequeno to his students in São Paulo.",
"Starting in 1987, Mestre Pé de Chumbo began bringing such renowned Mestres as João Gande, João Pequeno and Boca Rica to São Paulo during large capoeira events, and in 1991 he brought [Mestre Jogo de Dentro](/wiki/Mestre_Jogo_de_Dentro \"Mestre Jogo de Dentro\") to the city. It was during this time that the capoeira mestre moved to Sao Carlos to begin another capoeira group. It was also during this time that Mestre Pé de Chumbo was graduated as a mestre under João Pequeno, who encouraged Pé de Chumbo to use the CECA school name and uniform.",
"Mestre Pé de Chumbo began taking capoeira out of the country in 1990s with his mestre's blessing. He established schools throughout Europe in the late 1990s and early 2000s. As of 2006, Mestre Pé de Chumbo has established schools throughout Brazil and in Sweden, Denmark, Portugal, Mexico City and the United States.",
"Currently, Mestre Pé de Chumbo is establishing a new capoeira academy in Germany where he currently lives and teaches.",
""
] |
Decision
--------
### Majority opinion
[Associate Justice](/wiki/Associate_Justice_of_the_United_States_Supreme_Court "Associate Justice of the United States Supreme Court") [Byron White](/wiki/Byron_White "Byron White") wrote the decision for the majority.
Justice White began by noting that while the plaintiffs in *United Public Workers* had only made vague assertions of the kind of political activity they wished to engage in, the plaintiffs in the present case had clearly outlined the activities they believed were unconstitutionally barred by the Hatch Act.*U.S. Civil Service Commission v. National Association of Letter Carriers*, 413 U.S. 548, 554\-555\. White then "unhesitatingly reaffirm\[ed] the *Mitchell* holding".*U.S. Civil Service Commission v. National Association of Letter Carriers*, 413 U.S. 548, 556\. White reviewed the lengthy history in the U.S. of barring political activity by federal workers, a practice which extended to the presidency of [Thomas Jefferson](/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson "Thomas Jefferson"),*U.S. Civil Service Commission v. National Association of Letter Carriers*, 413 U.S. 548, 557\-563\. and emphasized the considered and lengthy history of the conclusion that such activity was highly dangerous to the proper functioning of government and democracy.*U.S. Civil Service Commission v. National Association of Letter Carriers*, 413 U.S. 548, 557, 563\.
But, citing *[Pickering v. Board of Education](/wiki/Pickering_v._Board_of_Education "Pickering v. Board of Education")*, 391 U.S. 563, 568 (1968\), White noted that the government has a special and unique interest in regulating the speech of federal workers.*U.S. Civil Service Commission v. National Association of Letter Carriers*, 413 U.S. 548, 564\. This special interest is not in question; rather, balancing this interest against the rights of workers is the key. Calling "the impartial execution of the laws" the "great end of Government", White asserted that not only is the actual impartiality of government but its appearance both justify the infringement of the rights of federal workers.*U.S. Civil Service Commission v. National Association of Letter Carriers*, 413 U.S. 548, 565, 567\.
White next turned to the issue of vagueness. White reviewed the adoption of the 1939 Act, the rulemaking of the [United States Civil Service Commission](/wiki/United_States_Civil_Service_Commission "United States Civil Service Commission") between 1939 and 1940 (which defined many specific political acts barred by the 1939 legislation), and the adoption by Congress of amendments to the Hatch Act in 1940 which strictly limited the Civil Service Commission's rulemaking powers regarding the Act (as amended) but which also incorporated (almost, but not quite) the rules already promulgated by the Commission.*U.S. Civil Service Commission v. National Association of Letter Carriers*, 413 U.S. 548, 568\-575\. White concluded that these "prohibitions sufficiently clearly carve out the prohibited political conduct from the expressive activity permitted by the prior section to survive any attack on the ground of vagueness".*U.S. Civil Service Commission v. National Association of Letter Carriers*, 413 U.S. 548, 575\-579, quoted at 579\.
The judgment of the District Court was reversed.
### Douglas' dissent
Associate Justice [William O. Douglas](/wiki/William_O._Douglas "William O. Douglas") dissented, joined by Associate Justices [William J. Brennan, Jr.](/wiki/William_J._Brennan%2C_Jr. "William J. Brennan, Jr.") and [Thurgood Marshall](/wiki/Thurgood_Marshall "Thurgood Marshall").
Douglas rejected the majority's conclusion that the Hatch Act of 1939 (as amended in 1940\) was constitutionally not vague. He noted that more than 3,000 rulings of the Civil Service Commission had been made between the first adoption of the prohibition on political activity in 1886 and 1940, along with 800 decisions since then.*U.S. Civil Service Commission v. National Association of Letter Carriers*, 413 U.S. 548, 595\-596\. The sheer mass of decisions indicated that the legislation's phrase "political activity" was vague. But Douglas also noted that many of the decisions and rulings were themselves unclear and vague.*U.S. Civil Service Commission v. National Association of Letter Carriers*, 413 U.S. 548, 596\. "The chilling effect of these vague and generalized prohibitions," Douglas concluded, "is so obvious as not to need elaboration."
Douglas observed that the Supreme Court had already abandoned the "doctrine of privilege" defense for the Hatch Act, and had only in 1972 held "that Government employment may not be denied or penalized "on a basis that infringes \[the employee's] constitutionally protected interests \-\- especially, his interest in freedom of speech."*U.S. Civil Service Commission v. National Association of Letter Carriers*, 413 U.S. 548, 597, *quoting* *[Perry v. Sindermann](/wiki/Perry_v._Sindermann "Perry v. Sindermann")*, 408 U.S. 593 (1972\), at 597\. Douglas equated freedom of speech with freedom of religion, and concluded that "speech, assembly, and petition are as deeply embedded in the First Amendment as proselytizing a religious cause."*U.S. Civil Service Commission v. National Association of Letter Carriers*, 413 U.S. 548, 598\. If the Court would not condition public employment based on a religious test, it should not therefore base employment on a political test (e.g., nonpartisanship).
Douglas agreed with the District Court that a number of Supreme Court decisions since *United Public Workers* had called into question the Hatch Act's constitutionality.*U.S. Civil Service Commission v. National Association of Letter Carriers*, 413 U.S. 548, 598\-599\. For Douglas, the majority's long discussion of the 1940 amendments boiled down to one thing: Congress had refused to delegate to the Civil Service Commission the authority to regulate First Amendment rights, and this fatally left the Act uninterpreted and thus unconstitutionally vague.*U.S. Civil Service Commission v. National Association of Letter Carriers*, 413 U.S. 548, 599\.
Douglas would have struck down the Act as "self\-imposed censorship imposed on many nervous people who live on narrow economic margins."*U.S. Civil Service Commission v. National Association of Letter Carriers*, 413 U.S. 548, 600\.
|
[
"Decision\n--------",
"### Majority opinion",
"[Associate Justice](/wiki/Associate_Justice_of_the_United_States_Supreme_Court \"Associate Justice of the United States Supreme Court\") [Byron White](/wiki/Byron_White \"Byron White\") wrote the decision for the majority.",
"Justice White began by noting that while the plaintiffs in *United Public Workers* had only made vague assertions of the kind of political activity they wished to engage in, the plaintiffs in the present case had clearly outlined the activities they believed were unconstitutionally barred by the Hatch Act.*U.S. Civil Service Commission v. National Association of Letter Carriers*, 413 U.S. 548, 554\\-555\\. White then \"unhesitatingly reaffirm\\[ed] the *Mitchell* holding\".*U.S. Civil Service Commission v. National Association of Letter Carriers*, 413 U.S. 548, 556\\. White reviewed the lengthy history in the U.S. of barring political activity by federal workers, a practice which extended to the presidency of [Thomas Jefferson](/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson \"Thomas Jefferson\"),*U.S. Civil Service Commission v. National Association of Letter Carriers*, 413 U.S. 548, 557\\-563\\. and emphasized the considered and lengthy history of the conclusion that such activity was highly dangerous to the proper functioning of government and democracy.*U.S. Civil Service Commission v. National Association of Letter Carriers*, 413 U.S. 548, 557, 563\\.",
"But, citing *[Pickering v. Board of Education](/wiki/Pickering_v._Board_of_Education \"Pickering v. Board of Education\")*, 391 U.S. 563, 568 (1968\\), White noted that the government has a special and unique interest in regulating the speech of federal workers.*U.S. Civil Service Commission v. National Association of Letter Carriers*, 413 U.S. 548, 564\\. This special interest is not in question; rather, balancing this interest against the rights of workers is the key. Calling \"the impartial execution of the laws\" the \"great end of Government\", White asserted that not only is the actual impartiality of government but its appearance both justify the infringement of the rights of federal workers.*U.S. Civil Service Commission v. National Association of Letter Carriers*, 413 U.S. 548, 565, 567\\.",
"White next turned to the issue of vagueness. White reviewed the adoption of the 1939 Act, the rulemaking of the [United States Civil Service Commission](/wiki/United_States_Civil_Service_Commission \"United States Civil Service Commission\") between 1939 and 1940 (which defined many specific political acts barred by the 1939 legislation), and the adoption by Congress of amendments to the Hatch Act in 1940 which strictly limited the Civil Service Commission's rulemaking powers regarding the Act (as amended) but which also incorporated (almost, but not quite) the rules already promulgated by the Commission.*U.S. Civil Service Commission v. National Association of Letter Carriers*, 413 U.S. 548, 568\\-575\\. White concluded that these \"prohibitions sufficiently clearly carve out the prohibited political conduct from the expressive activity permitted by the prior section to survive any attack on the ground of vagueness\".*U.S. Civil Service Commission v. National Association of Letter Carriers*, 413 U.S. 548, 575\\-579, quoted at 579\\.",
"The judgment of the District Court was reversed.",
"### Douglas' dissent",
"Associate Justice [William O. Douglas](/wiki/William_O._Douglas \"William O. Douglas\") dissented, joined by Associate Justices [William J. Brennan, Jr.](/wiki/William_J._Brennan%2C_Jr. \"William J. Brennan, Jr.\") and [Thurgood Marshall](/wiki/Thurgood_Marshall \"Thurgood Marshall\").",
"Douglas rejected the majority's conclusion that the Hatch Act of 1939 (as amended in 1940\\) was constitutionally not vague. He noted that more than 3,000 rulings of the Civil Service Commission had been made between the first adoption of the prohibition on political activity in 1886 and 1940, along with 800 decisions since then.*U.S. Civil Service Commission v. National Association of Letter Carriers*, 413 U.S. 548, 595\\-596\\. The sheer mass of decisions indicated that the legislation's phrase \"political activity\" was vague. But Douglas also noted that many of the decisions and rulings were themselves unclear and vague.*U.S. Civil Service Commission v. National Association of Letter Carriers*, 413 U.S. 548, 596\\. \"The chilling effect of these vague and generalized prohibitions,\" Douglas concluded, \"is so obvious as not to need elaboration.\"",
"Douglas observed that the Supreme Court had already abandoned the \"doctrine of privilege\" defense for the Hatch Act, and had only in 1972 held \"that Government employment may not be denied or penalized \"on a basis that infringes \\[the employee's] constitutionally protected interests \\-\\- especially, his interest in freedom of speech.\"*U.S. Civil Service Commission v. National Association of Letter Carriers*, 413 U.S. 548, 597, *quoting* *[Perry v. Sindermann](/wiki/Perry_v._Sindermann \"Perry v. Sindermann\")*, 408 U.S. 593 (1972\\), at 597\\. Douglas equated freedom of speech with freedom of religion, and concluded that \"speech, assembly, and petition are as deeply embedded in the First Amendment as proselytizing a religious cause.\"*U.S. Civil Service Commission v. National Association of Letter Carriers*, 413 U.S. 548, 598\\. If the Court would not condition public employment based on a religious test, it should not therefore base employment on a political test (e.g., nonpartisanship).",
"Douglas agreed with the District Court that a number of Supreme Court decisions since *United Public Workers* had called into question the Hatch Act's constitutionality.*U.S. Civil Service Commission v. National Association of Letter Carriers*, 413 U.S. 548, 598\\-599\\. For Douglas, the majority's long discussion of the 1940 amendments boiled down to one thing: Congress had refused to delegate to the Civil Service Commission the authority to regulate First Amendment rights, and this fatally left the Act uninterpreted and thus unconstitutionally vague.*U.S. Civil Service Commission v. National Association of Letter Carriers*, 413 U.S. 548, 599\\.",
"Douglas would have struck down the Act as \"self\\-imposed censorship imposed on many nervous people who live on narrow economic margins.\"*U.S. Civil Service Commission v. National Association of Letter Carriers*, 413 U.S. 548, 600\\.",
""
] |
Hunting cults
-------------
### Bear
{{Main\|Bear worship}}
There is evidence that connects the Greek goddess [Artemis](/wiki/Artemis "Artemis") with a cult of the bear. Girls danced as "bears" in her honour, and might not marry before undergoing this ceremony. According to mythology, the goddess once transformed [a nymph](/wiki/Callisto_%28mythology%29 "Callisto (mythology)") into a bear and then into the constellation [Ursa Major](/wiki/Ursa_Major "Ursa Major").
The existence of an ancient bear cult among Neanderthals in the Middle Paleolithic period has been a topic of discussion spurred by archaeological findings.[Wunn (2000\)](/wiki/%23Reference-idWunn2000 "#Reference-idWunn2000"), pp. 434\-435 Ancient bear bones have been discovered in several different caves and their peculiar arrangement is believed by some archaeologists to be evidence of a bear cult during the Paleolithic era.[Wunn (2000\)](/wiki/%23Reference-idWunn2000 "#Reference-idWunn2000"), p. 435
[thumb\|upright\=1\.35\|right\|The [Ainu](/wiki/Ainu_people "Ainu people") *[Iomante](/wiki/Iomante "Iomante")* ceremony (bear sending). Japanese scroll painting, circa 1870\.](/wiki/Image:AinuBearSacrificeCirca1870.jpg "AinuBearSacrificeCirca1870.jpg")
The [Ainu people](/wiki/Ainu_people "Ainu people"), who live on select islands in the Japanese archipelago, call the bear "[kamui](/wiki/Kamui "Kamui")" in [their language](/wiki/Ainu_language "Ainu language"), which translates to mean god. While many other animals are considered to be gods in the Ainu culture, the bear is the head of the gods.[Kindaichi (1949\)](/wiki/%23Reference-idKindaichi1949 "#Reference-idKindaichi1949"), p. 345 For the Ainu, when the gods visit the world of man, they don fur and claws and take on the physical appearance of an animal. Usually, however, when the term "kamui" is used, it essentially means a bear. The Ainu people willingly and thankfully ate the bear as they believed that the disguise (the flesh and fur) of any god was a gift to the home that the god chose to visit.[Kindaichi (1949\)](/wiki/%23Reference-idKindaichi1949 "#Reference-idKindaichi1949"), p. 348
### Whale
{{Main\|Whale worship}}
[right\|thumb\|The largest whale skeleton in Vietnam at [Vạn Thủy Tú temple](/wiki/V%E1%BA%A1n_Th%E1%BB%A7y_T%C3%BA "Vạn Thủy Tú"), one of [Vietnamese Whale worship](/wiki/Whale_worship "Whale worship") in [Vietnamese folk religions](/wiki/Vietnamese_folk_religion "Vietnamese folk religion")](/wiki/Image:B%E1%BB%99_c%E1%BB%91t_c%C3%A1_voi.jpg "Bộ cốt cá voi.jpg")
Whales were little understood for most of human history as they spend up to 90% of their lives underwater, only surfacing briefly to breathe.{{cite web \|last\=Bird \|first\=Jonathan \|author\-link\=Jonathan Bird \|date\=2007 \|title\=Sperm Whales: The deep rivers of the ocean \|work\=The Wonders of the Seas \|publisher\=Ocean Research Group \|url\= http://www.oceanicresearch.org/education/wonders/spermwhales.htm \|access\-date\=14 February 2010}} Many cultures, even those that have hunted them, hold whales in awe and feature them in their mythologies.
A prevalent [whale](/wiki/Whale "Whale") cult in Japan occurs around the coastal area. There are cemeteries with memorial stones dedicated to the whales which were hunted and killed to feed the people.[Naumann (1974\)](/wiki/%23Reference-idNaumann1974 "#Reference-idNaumann1974"), p. 4 Buddhist epitaphs mark these stones which implore that Buddha is reborn as a whale. Along with these memorials, there is evidence that whale embryos, found in a deceased mother's womb, were extracted and buried with the same respect as a human being.[Naumann (1974\)](/wiki/%23Reference-idNaumann1974 "#Reference-idNaumann1974"), p. 5 For certain shrines, the bones of a perished whale were also deposited in the area.
In Alaska, there are cultures that have ceremonial tributes to whales after they are captured in a hunt.[Lantis (1938\)](/wiki/%23Reference-idLantis1938 "#Reference-idLantis1938"), p. 445 Some tribes bring the hump, the fins, or the nose of the whale into their camps or the whaler's house. These parts are meant to represent the entirety of the whale and are honored as such during the festival. The bones of a whale are also given ritual treatment. The Alaskan tribes that participate in such acts believe that their ceremonies protect the whale's soul from injury and the soul can then be free to return to the sea.
In China, *Yu\-kiang*, a whale with the hands and feet of a man, was said to rule the ocean.[Siebert (2011\)](/wiki/%23Reference-idSiebert2011 "#Reference-idSiebert2011"), pp. 15–16
In the [Tyrol](/wiki/Tyrol_%28state%29 "Tyrol (state)") region of Austria, it was said that if a sunbeam were to fall on a maiden entering womanhood, she would be carried away in the belly of a whale.[Frazer (1913\)](/wiki/%23Reference-idFrazer1913 "#Reference-idFrazer1913"), p. 72
[Paikea](/wiki/Paikea "Paikea") (also Maori name for [humpback whales](/wiki/Humpback_whale "Humpback whale"){{Cite encyclopedia\|url\=https://teara.govt.nz/en/te\-whanau\-puha\-whales \|title\=Te whānau puha – whales \|encyclopedia\=Te Ara: Encyclopedia of New Zealand\|first\=Bradford\|last\=Haami\|date\=12 June 2006\|access\-date\=2024\-06\-13}}), the youngest and favourite son of the chief Uenuku from the island of [Mangaia](/wiki/Mangaia "Mangaia"), in the present day [Cook Islands](/wiki/Cook_Islands "Cook Islands"), was said by the Kati Kuri people of [Kaikōura](/wiki/Kaik%C5%8Dura "Kaikōura") to have come from the Pacific Islands on the back of the whale *Tohora* (Māori name for [southern right whales](/wiki/Southern_right_whale "Southern right whale")) many centuries before.{{cite web \|url\=http://collections.tepapa.govt.nz/exhibitions/whales/EducationResource.aspx?irn\=198\|title\=Whales \|work\=Tinirau education resource \|access\-date\=14 February 2010}}
The whale features in [Inuit](/wiki/Inuit "Inuit") [creation myths](/wiki/Creation_myth "Creation myth"). When 'Big Raven', a deity in human form, found a stranded whale, he was told by the [Great Spirit](/wiki/Great_Spirit "Great Spirit") where to find special mushrooms that would give him the strength to drag the whale back to the sea and thus return the order to the world.
The [Tlingit](/wiki/Tlingit "Tlingit") people of northern Canada say that the orcas were created when the hunter Natsihlane carved eight fish from yellow cedar, sang his most powerful spirit song and commanded the fish to leap into the water.[Heimlich \& Boran (2001\)](/wiki/%23Reference-idHeimlichBoran2001 "#Reference-idHeimlichBoran2001"), p. 7
In Icelandic legend, a man threw a stone at a [fin whale](/wiki/Fin_whale "Fin whale") and hit the blowhole, causing the whale to burst. The man was told not to go to sea for twenty years, but in the nineteenth year he went fishing and a whale came and killed him.{{cite web \|title\=Whale Mythology from around the World \|url\=http://www.worldtrans.org/creators/whale/myths0\.html \|website\=worldtrans.org \|access\-date\=14 February 2010}}
In East African legend, King Sulemani asked God that he might permit him to feed all the beings on earth. A whale came and ate until there was no corn left and then told Sulemani that he was still hungry and that there were 70,000 more in his tribe. Sulemani then prayed to God for forgiveness and thanked the creature for teaching him a lesson in humility.
Some cultures that associate [divinity](/wiki/Divinity "Divinity") with whales, such as some Ghanaians and Vietnamese (also known as [Cá Ông](/wiki/C%C3%A1_%C3%94ng "Cá Ông")), coastal Chinese except for southernmost region,{{cite journal \|author\=謝婧 \|author2\=下園知弥 \|author3\=宮崎克則 \|date\=2015 \|script\-title\=ja:明清時代の中国における鯨資源の利用 \|url\=http://www.seinan\-gu.ac.jp/museum/wp\-content/uploads/2015/publish/kiyou3\.pdf \|script\-journal\=ja:西南学院大学博物館研究紀要 第3号 \|pages\=9–14 \|publisher\=\[\[Seinan Gakuin University]] \|access\-date\=2016\-01\-15 \|archive\-date\=2015\-12\-25 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151225164716/http://www.seinan\-gu.ac.jp/museum/wp\-content/uploads/2015/publish/kiyou3\.pdf \|url\-status\=dead }} Japanese (also known as [Ebisu](/wiki/Ebisu_%28mythology%29 "Ebisu (mythology)")),{{Cite book\|author\=\[\[村上健司]]編著\|script\-title\=ja:日本妖怪大事典\|year\=2005 \|publisher\=\[\[角川書店]]\|series\=Kwai books\|isbn\=978\-4\-04\-883926\-6\|pages\=182}}{{Cite book\|author\=大藤時彦他\|editor\=民俗学研究所編 \|script\-title\=ja:綜合日本民俗語彙\|year\=1955\|publisher\=\[\[平凡社]]\|volume\=2\|page\=763}} occasionally hold funerals for beached whales; a throwback to Vietnam's ancient sea\-based Austro\-Asiatic culture.{{cite news\|title\=Whale funeral draws 1000 mourners in Vietnam \|url\=http://www.smh.com.au/articles/2003/04/13/1050172476288\.html \|agency\=AFP\|work\=Sydney Morning Herald\|access\-date\=15 April 2011 \|date\=14 April 2003}}{{cite news\|title\=Thousand gather for whale's funeral in Vietnam\|work\=The Independent \|agency\=Associated Press \|location\=London \|date\=23 February 2010 \|url\=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/asia/thousand\-gather\-for\-whales\-funeral\-in\-vietnam\-1907716\.html \|access\-date\=15 April 2011 \|url\-access\=subscription \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100225085312/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/asia/thousand\-gather\-for\-whales\-funeral\-in\-vietnam\-1907716\.html \|archive\-date\=2010\-02\-25}}{{cite web \|last\=Viegas \|first\=Jennifer \|date\=23 February 2010 \|title\=Thousands Mourn Dead Whale in Vietnam \|website\=Discovery News \|url\=http://news.discovery.com/animals/thousands\-mourn\-dead\-whale\-in\-vietnam.html \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100226081301/http://news.discovery.com/animals/thousands\-mourn\-dead\-whale\-in\-vietnam.html \|archive\-date\=2010\-02\-26}}{{cite web\|title\=Funeral for a Whale held at Apam \|url\=http://www.ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/NewsArchive/artikel.php?ID\=87737\|publisher\=Ghana News Agency\|date\=30 November 2001 \|work\=GhanaWeb \|access\-date\=15 April 2011}} See also the below\-mentioned **Ebisu** in fish part for more details. In some lore, whales have been told to work for [Ryūgū\-jō](/wiki/Ry%C5%ABg%C5%AB-j%C5%8D "Ryūgū-jō") as well.
Indigenous [Ainu](/wiki/Ainu_people "Ainu people") tribes on Hokkaido revered [killer whales](/wiki/Killer_whale "Killer whale") as *[Repun Kamuy](/wiki/Repun_Kamuy "Repun Kamuy")*, "God of Sea/Offshore" in their folklore and myths that the deities will bring fortunes (whales) to coastal people.
|
[
"Hunting cults\n-------------",
"### Bear",
"{{Main\\|Bear worship}}\nThere is evidence that connects the Greek goddess [Artemis](/wiki/Artemis \"Artemis\") with a cult of the bear. Girls danced as \"bears\" in her honour, and might not marry before undergoing this ceremony. According to mythology, the goddess once transformed [a nymph](/wiki/Callisto_%28mythology%29 \"Callisto (mythology)\") into a bear and then into the constellation [Ursa Major](/wiki/Ursa_Major \"Ursa Major\").",
"The existence of an ancient bear cult among Neanderthals in the Middle Paleolithic period has been a topic of discussion spurred by archaeological findings.[Wunn (2000\\)](/wiki/%23Reference-idWunn2000 \"#Reference-idWunn2000\"), pp. 434\\-435 Ancient bear bones have been discovered in several different caves and their peculiar arrangement is believed by some archaeologists to be evidence of a bear cult during the Paleolithic era.[Wunn (2000\\)](/wiki/%23Reference-idWunn2000 \"#Reference-idWunn2000\"), p. 435",
"[thumb\\|upright\\=1\\.35\\|right\\|The [Ainu](/wiki/Ainu_people \"Ainu people\") *[Iomante](/wiki/Iomante \"Iomante\")* ceremony (bear sending). Japanese scroll painting, circa 1870\\.](/wiki/Image:AinuBearSacrificeCirca1870.jpg \"AinuBearSacrificeCirca1870.jpg\")\nThe [Ainu people](/wiki/Ainu_people \"Ainu people\"), who live on select islands in the Japanese archipelago, call the bear \"[kamui](/wiki/Kamui \"Kamui\")\" in [their language](/wiki/Ainu_language \"Ainu language\"), which translates to mean god. While many other animals are considered to be gods in the Ainu culture, the bear is the head of the gods.[Kindaichi (1949\\)](/wiki/%23Reference-idKindaichi1949 \"#Reference-idKindaichi1949\"), p. 345 For the Ainu, when the gods visit the world of man, they don fur and claws and take on the physical appearance of an animal. Usually, however, when the term \"kamui\" is used, it essentially means a bear. The Ainu people willingly and thankfully ate the bear as they believed that the disguise (the flesh and fur) of any god was a gift to the home that the god chose to visit.[Kindaichi (1949\\)](/wiki/%23Reference-idKindaichi1949 \"#Reference-idKindaichi1949\"), p. 348",
"### Whale",
"{{Main\\|Whale worship}}\n[right\\|thumb\\|The largest whale skeleton in Vietnam at [Vạn Thủy Tú temple](/wiki/V%E1%BA%A1n_Th%E1%BB%A7y_T%C3%BA \"Vạn Thủy Tú\"), one of [Vietnamese Whale worship](/wiki/Whale_worship \"Whale worship\") in [Vietnamese folk religions](/wiki/Vietnamese_folk_religion \"Vietnamese folk religion\")](/wiki/Image:B%E1%BB%99_c%E1%BB%91t_c%C3%A1_voi.jpg \"Bộ cốt cá voi.jpg\")",
"Whales were little understood for most of human history as they spend up to 90% of their lives underwater, only surfacing briefly to breathe.{{cite web \\|last\\=Bird \\|first\\=Jonathan \\|author\\-link\\=Jonathan Bird \\|date\\=2007 \\|title\\=Sperm Whales: The deep rivers of the ocean \\|work\\=The Wonders of the Seas \\|publisher\\=Ocean Research Group \\|url\\= http://www.oceanicresearch.org/education/wonders/spermwhales.htm \\|access\\-date\\=14 February 2010}} Many cultures, even those that have hunted them, hold whales in awe and feature them in their mythologies.",
"A prevalent [whale](/wiki/Whale \"Whale\") cult in Japan occurs around the coastal area. There are cemeteries with memorial stones dedicated to the whales which were hunted and killed to feed the people.[Naumann (1974\\)](/wiki/%23Reference-idNaumann1974 \"#Reference-idNaumann1974\"), p. 4 Buddhist epitaphs mark these stones which implore that Buddha is reborn as a whale. Along with these memorials, there is evidence that whale embryos, found in a deceased mother's womb, were extracted and buried with the same respect as a human being.[Naumann (1974\\)](/wiki/%23Reference-idNaumann1974 \"#Reference-idNaumann1974\"), p. 5 For certain shrines, the bones of a perished whale were also deposited in the area.",
"In Alaska, there are cultures that have ceremonial tributes to whales after they are captured in a hunt.[Lantis (1938\\)](/wiki/%23Reference-idLantis1938 \"#Reference-idLantis1938\"), p. 445 Some tribes bring the hump, the fins, or the nose of the whale into their camps or the whaler's house. These parts are meant to represent the entirety of the whale and are honored as such during the festival. The bones of a whale are also given ritual treatment. The Alaskan tribes that participate in such acts believe that their ceremonies protect the whale's soul from injury and the soul can then be free to return to the sea.",
"In China, *Yu\\-kiang*, a whale with the hands and feet of a man, was said to rule the ocean.[Siebert (2011\\)](/wiki/%23Reference-idSiebert2011 \"#Reference-idSiebert2011\"), pp. 15–16",
"In the [Tyrol](/wiki/Tyrol_%28state%29 \"Tyrol (state)\") region of Austria, it was said that if a sunbeam were to fall on a maiden entering womanhood, she would be carried away in the belly of a whale.[Frazer (1913\\)](/wiki/%23Reference-idFrazer1913 \"#Reference-idFrazer1913\"), p. 72",
"[Paikea](/wiki/Paikea \"Paikea\") (also Maori name for [humpback whales](/wiki/Humpback_whale \"Humpback whale\"){{Cite encyclopedia\\|url\\=https://teara.govt.nz/en/te\\-whanau\\-puha\\-whales \\|title\\=Te whānau puha – whales \\|encyclopedia\\=Te Ara: Encyclopedia of New Zealand\\|first\\=Bradford\\|last\\=Haami\\|date\\=12 June 2006\\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-06\\-13}}), the youngest and favourite son of the chief Uenuku from the island of [Mangaia](/wiki/Mangaia \"Mangaia\"), in the present day [Cook Islands](/wiki/Cook_Islands \"Cook Islands\"), was said by the Kati Kuri people of [Kaikōura](/wiki/Kaik%C5%8Dura \"Kaikōura\") to have come from the Pacific Islands on the back of the whale *Tohora* (Māori name for [southern right whales](/wiki/Southern_right_whale \"Southern right whale\")) many centuries before.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://collections.tepapa.govt.nz/exhibitions/whales/EducationResource.aspx?irn\\=198\\|title\\=Whales \\|work\\=Tinirau education resource \\|access\\-date\\=14 February 2010}}",
"The whale features in [Inuit](/wiki/Inuit \"Inuit\") [creation myths](/wiki/Creation_myth \"Creation myth\"). When 'Big Raven', a deity in human form, found a stranded whale, he was told by the [Great Spirit](/wiki/Great_Spirit \"Great Spirit\") where to find special mushrooms that would give him the strength to drag the whale back to the sea and thus return the order to the world.",
"The [Tlingit](/wiki/Tlingit \"Tlingit\") people of northern Canada say that the orcas were created when the hunter Natsihlane carved eight fish from yellow cedar, sang his most powerful spirit song and commanded the fish to leap into the water.[Heimlich \\& Boran (2001\\)](/wiki/%23Reference-idHeimlichBoran2001 \"#Reference-idHeimlichBoran2001\"), p. 7",
"In Icelandic legend, a man threw a stone at a [fin whale](/wiki/Fin_whale \"Fin whale\") and hit the blowhole, causing the whale to burst. The man was told not to go to sea for twenty years, but in the nineteenth year he went fishing and a whale came and killed him.{{cite web \\|title\\=Whale Mythology from around the World \\|url\\=http://www.worldtrans.org/creators/whale/myths0\\.html \\|website\\=worldtrans.org \\|access\\-date\\=14 February 2010}}",
"In East African legend, King Sulemani asked God that he might permit him to feed all the beings on earth. A whale came and ate until there was no corn left and then told Sulemani that he was still hungry and that there were 70,000 more in his tribe. Sulemani then prayed to God for forgiveness and thanked the creature for teaching him a lesson in humility.",
"Some cultures that associate [divinity](/wiki/Divinity \"Divinity\") with whales, such as some Ghanaians and Vietnamese (also known as [Cá Ông](/wiki/C%C3%A1_%C3%94ng \"Cá Ông\")), coastal Chinese except for southernmost region,{{cite journal \\|author\\=謝婧 \\|author2\\=下園知弥 \\|author3\\=宮崎克則 \\|date\\=2015 \\|script\\-title\\=ja:明清時代の中国における鯨資源の利用 \\|url\\=http://www.seinan\\-gu.ac.jp/museum/wp\\-content/uploads/2015/publish/kiyou3\\.pdf \\|script\\-journal\\=ja:西南学院大学博物館研究紀要 第3号 \\|pages\\=9–14 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Seinan Gakuin University]] \\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-01\\-15 \\|archive\\-date\\=2015\\-12\\-25 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151225164716/http://www.seinan\\-gu.ac.jp/museum/wp\\-content/uploads/2015/publish/kiyou3\\.pdf \\|url\\-status\\=dead }} Japanese (also known as [Ebisu](/wiki/Ebisu_%28mythology%29 \"Ebisu (mythology)\")),{{Cite book\\|author\\=\\[\\[村上健司]]編著\\|script\\-title\\=ja:日本妖怪大事典\\|year\\=2005 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[角川書店]]\\|series\\=Kwai books\\|isbn\\=978\\-4\\-04\\-883926\\-6\\|pages\\=182}}{{Cite book\\|author\\=大藤時彦他\\|editor\\=民俗学研究所編 \\|script\\-title\\=ja:綜合日本民俗語彙\\|year\\=1955\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[平凡社]]\\|volume\\=2\\|page\\=763}} occasionally hold funerals for beached whales; a throwback to Vietnam's ancient sea\\-based Austro\\-Asiatic culture.{{cite news\\|title\\=Whale funeral draws 1000 mourners in Vietnam \\|url\\=http://www.smh.com.au/articles/2003/04/13/1050172476288\\.html \\|agency\\=AFP\\|work\\=Sydney Morning Herald\\|access\\-date\\=15 April 2011 \\|date\\=14 April 2003}}{{cite news\\|title\\=Thousand gather for whale's funeral in Vietnam\\|work\\=The Independent \\|agency\\=Associated Press \\|location\\=London \\|date\\=23 February 2010 \\|url\\=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/asia/thousand\\-gather\\-for\\-whales\\-funeral\\-in\\-vietnam\\-1907716\\.html \\|access\\-date\\=15 April 2011 \\|url\\-access\\=subscription \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100225085312/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/asia/thousand\\-gather\\-for\\-whales\\-funeral\\-in\\-vietnam\\-1907716\\.html \\|archive\\-date\\=2010\\-02\\-25}}{{cite web \\|last\\=Viegas \\|first\\=Jennifer \\|date\\=23 February 2010 \\|title\\=Thousands Mourn Dead Whale in Vietnam \\|website\\=Discovery News \\|url\\=http://news.discovery.com/animals/thousands\\-mourn\\-dead\\-whale\\-in\\-vietnam.html \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100226081301/http://news.discovery.com/animals/thousands\\-mourn\\-dead\\-whale\\-in\\-vietnam.html \\|archive\\-date\\=2010\\-02\\-26}}{{cite web\\|title\\=Funeral for a Whale held at Apam \\|url\\=http://www.ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/NewsArchive/artikel.php?ID\\=87737\\|publisher\\=Ghana News Agency\\|date\\=30 November 2001 \\|work\\=GhanaWeb \\|access\\-date\\=15 April 2011}} See also the below\\-mentioned **Ebisu** in fish part for more details. In some lore, whales have been told to work for [Ryūgū\\-jō](/wiki/Ry%C5%ABg%C5%AB-j%C5%8D \"Ryūgū-jō\") as well.",
"Indigenous [Ainu](/wiki/Ainu_people \"Ainu people\") tribes on Hokkaido revered [killer whales](/wiki/Killer_whale \"Killer whale\") as *[Repun Kamuy](/wiki/Repun_Kamuy \"Repun Kamuy\")*, \"God of Sea/Offshore\" in their folklore and myths that the deities will bring fortunes (whales) to coastal people.",
""
] |
### Whale
{{Main\|Whale worship}}
[right\|thumb\|The largest whale skeleton in Vietnam at [Vạn Thủy Tú temple](/wiki/V%E1%BA%A1n_Th%E1%BB%A7y_T%C3%BA "Vạn Thủy Tú"), one of [Vietnamese Whale worship](/wiki/Whale_worship "Whale worship") in [Vietnamese folk religions](/wiki/Vietnamese_folk_religion "Vietnamese folk religion")](/wiki/Image:B%E1%BB%99_c%E1%BB%91t_c%C3%A1_voi.jpg "Bộ cốt cá voi.jpg")
Whales were little understood for most of human history as they spend up to 90% of their lives underwater, only surfacing briefly to breathe.{{cite web \|last\=Bird \|first\=Jonathan \|author\-link\=Jonathan Bird \|date\=2007 \|title\=Sperm Whales: The deep rivers of the ocean \|work\=The Wonders of the Seas \|publisher\=Ocean Research Group \|url\= http://www.oceanicresearch.org/education/wonders/spermwhales.htm \|access\-date\=14 February 2010}} Many cultures, even those that have hunted them, hold whales in awe and feature them in their mythologies.
A prevalent [whale](/wiki/Whale "Whale") cult in Japan occurs around the coastal area. There are cemeteries with memorial stones dedicated to the whales which were hunted and killed to feed the people.[Naumann (1974\)](/wiki/%23Reference-idNaumann1974 "#Reference-idNaumann1974"), p. 4 Buddhist epitaphs mark these stones which implore that Buddha is reborn as a whale. Along with these memorials, there is evidence that whale embryos, found in a deceased mother's womb, were extracted and buried with the same respect as a human being.[Naumann (1974\)](/wiki/%23Reference-idNaumann1974 "#Reference-idNaumann1974"), p. 5 For certain shrines, the bones of a perished whale were also deposited in the area.
In Alaska, there are cultures that have ceremonial tributes to whales after they are captured in a hunt.[Lantis (1938\)](/wiki/%23Reference-idLantis1938 "#Reference-idLantis1938"), p. 445 Some tribes bring the hump, the fins, or the nose of the whale into their camps or the whaler's house. These parts are meant to represent the entirety of the whale and are honored as such during the festival. The bones of a whale are also given ritual treatment. The Alaskan tribes that participate in such acts believe that their ceremonies protect the whale's soul from injury and the soul can then be free to return to the sea.
In China, *Yu\-kiang*, a whale with the hands and feet of a man, was said to rule the ocean.[Siebert (2011\)](/wiki/%23Reference-idSiebert2011 "#Reference-idSiebert2011"), pp. 15–16
In the [Tyrol](/wiki/Tyrol_%28state%29 "Tyrol (state)") region of Austria, it was said that if a sunbeam were to fall on a maiden entering womanhood, she would be carried away in the belly of a whale.[Frazer (1913\)](/wiki/%23Reference-idFrazer1913 "#Reference-idFrazer1913"), p. 72
[Paikea](/wiki/Paikea "Paikea") (also Maori name for [humpback whales](/wiki/Humpback_whale "Humpback whale"){{Cite encyclopedia\|url\=https://teara.govt.nz/en/te\-whanau\-puha\-whales \|title\=Te whānau puha – whales \|encyclopedia\=Te Ara: Encyclopedia of New Zealand\|first\=Bradford\|last\=Haami\|date\=12 June 2006\|access\-date\=2024\-06\-13}}), the youngest and favourite son of the chief Uenuku from the island of [Mangaia](/wiki/Mangaia "Mangaia"), in the present day [Cook Islands](/wiki/Cook_Islands "Cook Islands"), was said by the Kati Kuri people of [Kaikōura](/wiki/Kaik%C5%8Dura "Kaikōura") to have come from the Pacific Islands on the back of the whale *Tohora* (Māori name for [southern right whales](/wiki/Southern_right_whale "Southern right whale")) many centuries before.{{cite web \|url\=http://collections.tepapa.govt.nz/exhibitions/whales/EducationResource.aspx?irn\=198\|title\=Whales \|work\=Tinirau education resource \|access\-date\=14 February 2010}}
The whale features in [Inuit](/wiki/Inuit "Inuit") [creation myths](/wiki/Creation_myth "Creation myth"). When 'Big Raven', a deity in human form, found a stranded whale, he was told by the [Great Spirit](/wiki/Great_Spirit "Great Spirit") where to find special mushrooms that would give him the strength to drag the whale back to the sea and thus return the order to the world.
The [Tlingit](/wiki/Tlingit "Tlingit") people of northern Canada say that the orcas were created when the hunter Natsihlane carved eight fish from yellow cedar, sang his most powerful spirit song and commanded the fish to leap into the water.[Heimlich \& Boran (2001\)](/wiki/%23Reference-idHeimlichBoran2001 "#Reference-idHeimlichBoran2001"), p. 7
In Icelandic legend, a man threw a stone at a [fin whale](/wiki/Fin_whale "Fin whale") and hit the blowhole, causing the whale to burst. The man was told not to go to sea for twenty years, but in the nineteenth year he went fishing and a whale came and killed him.{{cite web \|title\=Whale Mythology from around the World \|url\=http://www.worldtrans.org/creators/whale/myths0\.html \|website\=worldtrans.org \|access\-date\=14 February 2010}}
In East African legend, King Sulemani asked God that he might permit him to feed all the beings on earth. A whale came and ate until there was no corn left and then told Sulemani that he was still hungry and that there were 70,000 more in his tribe. Sulemani then prayed to God for forgiveness and thanked the creature for teaching him a lesson in humility.
Some cultures that associate [divinity](/wiki/Divinity "Divinity") with whales, such as some Ghanaians and Vietnamese (also known as [Cá Ông](/wiki/C%C3%A1_%C3%94ng "Cá Ông")), coastal Chinese except for southernmost region,{{cite journal \|author\=謝婧 \|author2\=下園知弥 \|author3\=宮崎克則 \|date\=2015 \|script\-title\=ja:明清時代の中国における鯨資源の利用 \|url\=http://www.seinan\-gu.ac.jp/museum/wp\-content/uploads/2015/publish/kiyou3\.pdf \|script\-journal\=ja:西南学院大学博物館研究紀要 第3号 \|pages\=9–14 \|publisher\=\[\[Seinan Gakuin University]] \|access\-date\=2016\-01\-15 \|archive\-date\=2015\-12\-25 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151225164716/http://www.seinan\-gu.ac.jp/museum/wp\-content/uploads/2015/publish/kiyou3\.pdf \|url\-status\=dead }} Japanese (also known as [Ebisu](/wiki/Ebisu_%28mythology%29 "Ebisu (mythology)")),{{Cite book\|author\=\[\[村上健司]]編著\|script\-title\=ja:日本妖怪大事典\|year\=2005 \|publisher\=\[\[角川書店]]\|series\=Kwai books\|isbn\=978\-4\-04\-883926\-6\|pages\=182}}{{Cite book\|author\=大藤時彦他\|editor\=民俗学研究所編 \|script\-title\=ja:綜合日本民俗語彙\|year\=1955\|publisher\=\[\[平凡社]]\|volume\=2\|page\=763}} occasionally hold funerals for beached whales; a throwback to Vietnam's ancient sea\-based Austro\-Asiatic culture.{{cite news\|title\=Whale funeral draws 1000 mourners in Vietnam \|url\=http://www.smh.com.au/articles/2003/04/13/1050172476288\.html \|agency\=AFP\|work\=Sydney Morning Herald\|access\-date\=15 April 2011 \|date\=14 April 2003}}{{cite news\|title\=Thousand gather for whale's funeral in Vietnam\|work\=The Independent \|agency\=Associated Press \|location\=London \|date\=23 February 2010 \|url\=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/asia/thousand\-gather\-for\-whales\-funeral\-in\-vietnam\-1907716\.html \|access\-date\=15 April 2011 \|url\-access\=subscription \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100225085312/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/asia/thousand\-gather\-for\-whales\-funeral\-in\-vietnam\-1907716\.html \|archive\-date\=2010\-02\-25}}{{cite web \|last\=Viegas \|first\=Jennifer \|date\=23 February 2010 \|title\=Thousands Mourn Dead Whale in Vietnam \|website\=Discovery News \|url\=http://news.discovery.com/animals/thousands\-mourn\-dead\-whale\-in\-vietnam.html \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100226081301/http://news.discovery.com/animals/thousands\-mourn\-dead\-whale\-in\-vietnam.html \|archive\-date\=2010\-02\-26}}{{cite web\|title\=Funeral for a Whale held at Apam \|url\=http://www.ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/NewsArchive/artikel.php?ID\=87737\|publisher\=Ghana News Agency\|date\=30 November 2001 \|work\=GhanaWeb \|access\-date\=15 April 2011}} See also the below\-mentioned **Ebisu** in fish part for more details. In some lore, whales have been told to work for [Ryūgū\-jō](/wiki/Ry%C5%ABg%C5%AB-j%C5%8D "Ryūgū-jō") as well.
Indigenous [Ainu](/wiki/Ainu_people "Ainu people") tribes on Hokkaido revered [killer whales](/wiki/Killer_whale "Killer whale") as *[Repun Kamuy](/wiki/Repun_Kamuy "Repun Kamuy")*, "God of Sea/Offshore" in their folklore and myths that the deities will bring fortunes (whales) to coastal people.
|
[
"### Whale",
"{{Main\\|Whale worship}}\n[right\\|thumb\\|The largest whale skeleton in Vietnam at [Vạn Thủy Tú temple](/wiki/V%E1%BA%A1n_Th%E1%BB%A7y_T%C3%BA \"Vạn Thủy Tú\"), one of [Vietnamese Whale worship](/wiki/Whale_worship \"Whale worship\") in [Vietnamese folk religions](/wiki/Vietnamese_folk_religion \"Vietnamese folk religion\")](/wiki/Image:B%E1%BB%99_c%E1%BB%91t_c%C3%A1_voi.jpg \"Bộ cốt cá voi.jpg\")",
"Whales were little understood for most of human history as they spend up to 90% of their lives underwater, only surfacing briefly to breathe.{{cite web \\|last\\=Bird \\|first\\=Jonathan \\|author\\-link\\=Jonathan Bird \\|date\\=2007 \\|title\\=Sperm Whales: The deep rivers of the ocean \\|work\\=The Wonders of the Seas \\|publisher\\=Ocean Research Group \\|url\\= http://www.oceanicresearch.org/education/wonders/spermwhales.htm \\|access\\-date\\=14 February 2010}} Many cultures, even those that have hunted them, hold whales in awe and feature them in their mythologies.",
"A prevalent [whale](/wiki/Whale \"Whale\") cult in Japan occurs around the coastal area. There are cemeteries with memorial stones dedicated to the whales which were hunted and killed to feed the people.[Naumann (1974\\)](/wiki/%23Reference-idNaumann1974 \"#Reference-idNaumann1974\"), p. 4 Buddhist epitaphs mark these stones which implore that Buddha is reborn as a whale. Along with these memorials, there is evidence that whale embryos, found in a deceased mother's womb, were extracted and buried with the same respect as a human being.[Naumann (1974\\)](/wiki/%23Reference-idNaumann1974 \"#Reference-idNaumann1974\"), p. 5 For certain shrines, the bones of a perished whale were also deposited in the area.",
"In Alaska, there are cultures that have ceremonial tributes to whales after they are captured in a hunt.[Lantis (1938\\)](/wiki/%23Reference-idLantis1938 \"#Reference-idLantis1938\"), p. 445 Some tribes bring the hump, the fins, or the nose of the whale into their camps or the whaler's house. These parts are meant to represent the entirety of the whale and are honored as such during the festival. The bones of a whale are also given ritual treatment. The Alaskan tribes that participate in such acts believe that their ceremonies protect the whale's soul from injury and the soul can then be free to return to the sea.",
"In China, *Yu\\-kiang*, a whale with the hands and feet of a man, was said to rule the ocean.[Siebert (2011\\)](/wiki/%23Reference-idSiebert2011 \"#Reference-idSiebert2011\"), pp. 15–16",
"In the [Tyrol](/wiki/Tyrol_%28state%29 \"Tyrol (state)\") region of Austria, it was said that if a sunbeam were to fall on a maiden entering womanhood, she would be carried away in the belly of a whale.[Frazer (1913\\)](/wiki/%23Reference-idFrazer1913 \"#Reference-idFrazer1913\"), p. 72",
"[Paikea](/wiki/Paikea \"Paikea\") (also Maori name for [humpback whales](/wiki/Humpback_whale \"Humpback whale\"){{Cite encyclopedia\\|url\\=https://teara.govt.nz/en/te\\-whanau\\-puha\\-whales \\|title\\=Te whānau puha – whales \\|encyclopedia\\=Te Ara: Encyclopedia of New Zealand\\|first\\=Bradford\\|last\\=Haami\\|date\\=12 June 2006\\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-06\\-13}}), the youngest and favourite son of the chief Uenuku from the island of [Mangaia](/wiki/Mangaia \"Mangaia\"), in the present day [Cook Islands](/wiki/Cook_Islands \"Cook Islands\"), was said by the Kati Kuri people of [Kaikōura](/wiki/Kaik%C5%8Dura \"Kaikōura\") to have come from the Pacific Islands on the back of the whale *Tohora* (Māori name for [southern right whales](/wiki/Southern_right_whale \"Southern right whale\")) many centuries before.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://collections.tepapa.govt.nz/exhibitions/whales/EducationResource.aspx?irn\\=198\\|title\\=Whales \\|work\\=Tinirau education resource \\|access\\-date\\=14 February 2010}}",
"The whale features in [Inuit](/wiki/Inuit \"Inuit\") [creation myths](/wiki/Creation_myth \"Creation myth\"). When 'Big Raven', a deity in human form, found a stranded whale, he was told by the [Great Spirit](/wiki/Great_Spirit \"Great Spirit\") where to find special mushrooms that would give him the strength to drag the whale back to the sea and thus return the order to the world.",
"The [Tlingit](/wiki/Tlingit \"Tlingit\") people of northern Canada say that the orcas were created when the hunter Natsihlane carved eight fish from yellow cedar, sang his most powerful spirit song and commanded the fish to leap into the water.[Heimlich \\& Boran (2001\\)](/wiki/%23Reference-idHeimlichBoran2001 \"#Reference-idHeimlichBoran2001\"), p. 7",
"In Icelandic legend, a man threw a stone at a [fin whale](/wiki/Fin_whale \"Fin whale\") and hit the blowhole, causing the whale to burst. The man was told not to go to sea for twenty years, but in the nineteenth year he went fishing and a whale came and killed him.{{cite web \\|title\\=Whale Mythology from around the World \\|url\\=http://www.worldtrans.org/creators/whale/myths0\\.html \\|website\\=worldtrans.org \\|access\\-date\\=14 February 2010}}",
"In East African legend, King Sulemani asked God that he might permit him to feed all the beings on earth. A whale came and ate until there was no corn left and then told Sulemani that he was still hungry and that there were 70,000 more in his tribe. Sulemani then prayed to God for forgiveness and thanked the creature for teaching him a lesson in humility.",
"Some cultures that associate [divinity](/wiki/Divinity \"Divinity\") with whales, such as some Ghanaians and Vietnamese (also known as [Cá Ông](/wiki/C%C3%A1_%C3%94ng \"Cá Ông\")), coastal Chinese except for southernmost region,{{cite journal \\|author\\=謝婧 \\|author2\\=下園知弥 \\|author3\\=宮崎克則 \\|date\\=2015 \\|script\\-title\\=ja:明清時代の中国における鯨資源の利用 \\|url\\=http://www.seinan\\-gu.ac.jp/museum/wp\\-content/uploads/2015/publish/kiyou3\\.pdf \\|script\\-journal\\=ja:西南学院大学博物館研究紀要 第3号 \\|pages\\=9–14 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Seinan Gakuin University]] \\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-01\\-15 \\|archive\\-date\\=2015\\-12\\-25 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151225164716/http://www.seinan\\-gu.ac.jp/museum/wp\\-content/uploads/2015/publish/kiyou3\\.pdf \\|url\\-status\\=dead }} Japanese (also known as [Ebisu](/wiki/Ebisu_%28mythology%29 \"Ebisu (mythology)\")),{{Cite book\\|author\\=\\[\\[村上健司]]編著\\|script\\-title\\=ja:日本妖怪大事典\\|year\\=2005 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[角川書店]]\\|series\\=Kwai books\\|isbn\\=978\\-4\\-04\\-883926\\-6\\|pages\\=182}}{{Cite book\\|author\\=大藤時彦他\\|editor\\=民俗学研究所編 \\|script\\-title\\=ja:綜合日本民俗語彙\\|year\\=1955\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[平凡社]]\\|volume\\=2\\|page\\=763}} occasionally hold funerals for beached whales; a throwback to Vietnam's ancient sea\\-based Austro\\-Asiatic culture.{{cite news\\|title\\=Whale funeral draws 1000 mourners in Vietnam \\|url\\=http://www.smh.com.au/articles/2003/04/13/1050172476288\\.html \\|agency\\=AFP\\|work\\=Sydney Morning Herald\\|access\\-date\\=15 April 2011 \\|date\\=14 April 2003}}{{cite news\\|title\\=Thousand gather for whale's funeral in Vietnam\\|work\\=The Independent \\|agency\\=Associated Press \\|location\\=London \\|date\\=23 February 2010 \\|url\\=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/asia/thousand\\-gather\\-for\\-whales\\-funeral\\-in\\-vietnam\\-1907716\\.html \\|access\\-date\\=15 April 2011 \\|url\\-access\\=subscription \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100225085312/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/asia/thousand\\-gather\\-for\\-whales\\-funeral\\-in\\-vietnam\\-1907716\\.html \\|archive\\-date\\=2010\\-02\\-25}}{{cite web \\|last\\=Viegas \\|first\\=Jennifer \\|date\\=23 February 2010 \\|title\\=Thousands Mourn Dead Whale in Vietnam \\|website\\=Discovery News \\|url\\=http://news.discovery.com/animals/thousands\\-mourn\\-dead\\-whale\\-in\\-vietnam.html \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100226081301/http://news.discovery.com/animals/thousands\\-mourn\\-dead\\-whale\\-in\\-vietnam.html \\|archive\\-date\\=2010\\-02\\-26}}{{cite web\\|title\\=Funeral for a Whale held at Apam \\|url\\=http://www.ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/NewsArchive/artikel.php?ID\\=87737\\|publisher\\=Ghana News Agency\\|date\\=30 November 2001 \\|work\\=GhanaWeb \\|access\\-date\\=15 April 2011}} See also the below\\-mentioned **Ebisu** in fish part for more details. In some lore, whales have been told to work for [Ryūgū\\-jō](/wiki/Ry%C5%ABg%C5%AB-j%C5%8D \"Ryūgū-jō\") as well.",
"Indigenous [Ainu](/wiki/Ainu_people \"Ainu people\") tribes on Hokkaido revered [killer whales](/wiki/Killer_whale \"Killer whale\") as *[Repun Kamuy](/wiki/Repun_Kamuy \"Repun Kamuy\")*, \"God of Sea/Offshore\" in their folklore and myths that the deities will bring fortunes (whales) to coastal people.",
""
] |
Domesticated mammals
--------------------
### Cattle and buffalo
{{Main\|Sacred bull\|Cattle in religion}}
Many religions have considered [cattle](/wiki/Cattle_in_religion "Cattle in religion") to be sacred, most famously [Hinduism](/wiki/Hinduism "Hinduism") from India and Nepal, but also [Zoroastrianism](/wiki/Zoroastrianism "Zoroastrianism"), and ancient [Greek](/wiki/Ancient_Greek_religion "Ancient Greek religion") and [Egyptian](/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_religion "Ancient Egyptian religion") religion. Cattle and buffalo are respected by many pastoral peoples that rely on the animals for sustenance and the killing of an ox is a sacrificial function.
The [Toda](/wiki/Toda_%28tribe%29 "Toda (tribe)") of southern [India](/wiki/India "India") abstain from the flesh of their domestic animal, the buffalo. However, once a year they sacrifice a bull calf, which is eaten in the forest by the adult males. The buffalo plays an important part in many Toda rituals. These buffalo are currently endangered.
The Ancient Egyptians worshipped a great number of deities who were either depicted entirely as cattle, or incorporated cattle features in their appearance. [Hesat](/wiki/Hesat "Hesat"), a goddess of milk and motherhood, was depicted as a full cow, as was [Mehet\-weret](/wiki/Mehet-weret "Mehet-weret"), a sky goddess, identified as the Celestial Cow whose body made up the sky, and whose four legs marked the four cardinal directions. [Bat (goddess)](/wiki/Bat_%28goddess%29 "Bat (goddess)"), a goddess of music and dance, was depicted as a woman with bovine ears and horns, as was [Hathor](/wiki/Hathor "Hathor"), a very major goddess who borrowed a lot of her attributes from Bat. The great antiquity of the worship of Bat is evidenced by her appearance on the [Narmer Palette](/wiki/Narmer_Palette "Narmer Palette"), made by the very first of the dynastic pharaohs. When identified with the Celestial Cow Mehet\-weret, the sky goddess [Nut](/wiki/Nut_%28goddess%29 "Nut (goddess)") may also take the form of a cow, as in the [Book of the Heavenly Cow](/wiki/Book_of_the_Heavenly_Cow "Book of the Heavenly Cow"). When acting in her role as a heavenly goddess, the mother goddess [Isis](/wiki/Isis "Isis") may also be shown with bovine horns, adopting the traditional headdress of Hathor.
As well as these female cow goddesses, the Egyptians also had a number of male bull gods. Conspicuous among these was the bull god [Apis](/wiki/Apis_%28god%29 "Apis (god)"), who was embodied in a living bull kept at the Temple of [Ptah](/wiki/Ptah "Ptah") at [Memphis](/wiki/Memphis%2C_Egypt "Memphis, Egypt"). Regarded as [Ptah](/wiki/Ptah "Ptah")'s herald, the Apis bull was distinguished by certain marks, and when the old bull died a new one was sought. The finder was rewarded, and the bull underwent four months' education at [Nilopolis](/wiki/Nilopolis "Nilopolis"). Its birthday was celebrated once a year when oxen, which had to be pure white, were sacrificed to it. Women were forbidden to approach it once its education was finished. Oracles were obtained from it in various ways. After its death, it was mummified and buried in a rock tomb. A similar practice was in place at [Heliopolis](/wiki/Heliopolis_%28ancient_Egypt%29 "Heliopolis (ancient Egypt)") with the [Mnevis](/wiki/Mnevis "Mnevis") bull, the herald of [Ra](/wiki/Ra "Ra"), and at [Hermonthis](/wiki/Hermonthis "Hermonthis") with the [Buchis](/wiki/Buchis "Buchis") bull, the herald of [Montu](/wiki/Montu "Montu"). After their death, all these sacred bulls were considered to become part of [Osiris](/wiki/Osiris "Osiris").
Similar observances are found in our own day on the Upper [Nile](/wiki/Nile "Nile"). The [Nuba](/wiki/Nuba "Nuba") and [Nuer](/wiki/Nuer_people "Nuer people") revere cattle. The [Angoni](/wiki/Angoni "Angoni") of Central Africa and the [Sakalava](/wiki/Sakalava "Sakalava") of Madagascar keep sacred bulls. In [India](/wiki/India "India") respect for the cow is widespread, but is of post\-Vedic origin; there is little actual worship, but the products of the cow are important in magic.
While there are several animals that are worshipped in India, the supreme position is held by the cow.[Margul (1968\)](/wiki/%23Reference-idMargul1968 "#Reference-idMargul1968"), p. 63 The [humped zebu](/wiki/Humped_zebu "Humped zebu"), a breed of cow, is central to the religion of Hinduism. Mythological legends have supported the sanctity of the zebu throughout India.[Margul (1968\)](/wiki/%23Reference-idMargul1968 "#Reference-idMargul1968"), p. 64 Such myths have included the creation of a divine cow mother and cow heaven by the God, [Brahma](/wiki/Brahma "Brahma") and [Prithu](/wiki/Prithu "Prithu"), the sovereign of the universe, who created the earth's vegetation, edible fruits, and vegetables, disguised as a cow.
According to Tadeusz Margul, observations of the Hindu religion and the cow have led to a misunderstanding that Hindi has a servile relationship with the zebu, giving prayers and offerings to it daily. Typically, however, only during the Cow Holiday, an annual event, is the cow the recipient of such practices.[Margul (1968\)](/wiki/%23Reference-idMargul1968 "#Reference-idMargul1968"), p. 65 Margul suggests that the sanctity of the cow is based on four foundations: abstaining from cow slaughter, abstaining from beef consumption, control of breeding and ownership, and belief in the purification qualities of cow products (milk, curd, ghee, dung, and urine).[Margul (1968\)](/wiki/%23Reference-idMargul1968 "#Reference-idMargul1968"), pp. 65\-66
### Sheep
{{Main\|Sheep\#In religion and folklore}}
[thumb\|A Sumerian group of two separate shell inlay fragments forming the body and head of a sheep. Circa 27th \- 24th Century BC. From a Mayfair gallery, London, UK.](/wiki/File:Sumerian_Sheep_Shell_Plaque_27th_BC.jpg "Sumerian Sheep Shell Plaque 27th BC.jpg")
The Ancient Egyptians worshipped several gods with the head of a ram, including [Khnum](/wiki/Khnum "Khnum"), [Heryshaf](/wiki/Heryshaf "Heryshaf"), [Banebdjedet](/wiki/Banebdjedet "Banebdjedet"), [Ra](/wiki/Ra "Ra") (sometimes) and [Kherty](/wiki/Kherty "Kherty"). [Amun](/wiki/Amun "Amun"), the god of [Thebes, Egypt](/wiki/Thebes%2C_Egypt "Thebes, Egypt"), was also associated with the ram, and in later periods was sometimes represented as ram\-headed. His worshippers held the ram to be sacred, however, it was sacrificed once a year. Its fleece formed the clothing of the idol.[Thomas (1911\)](/wiki/%23CITEREFThomas1911 "#CITEREFThomas1911"){{Broken anchor\|date\=2024\-06\-14\|bot\=User:Cewbot/log/20201008/configuration\|target\_link\=\#CITEREFThomas1911\|reason\= }}, p. 52
### Goat
{{Main\|Goat\#Religion, mythology, and folklore}}
[thumb\|left\|Pavement mosaic with the head of Pan. Roman artwork, Antonine period, 138–192 CE.](/wiki/File:Mosaic_Pan_Genazzano_Massimo.jpg "Mosaic Pan Genazzano Massimo.jpg")
[Silenus](/wiki/Silenus "Silenus"), the [Satyrs](/wiki/Satyr "Satyr"), and the [Fauns](/wiki/Faun "Faun") were either capriform or had some part of their bodies shaped like that of a goat. In northern Europe the wood spirit, [Leszi](/wiki/Leszi "Leszi"), is believed to have a goat's horns, ears and legs. A deity known as the Goat of [Mendes](/wiki/Mendes "Mendes") is associated with the [pentagram](/wiki/Pentagram "Pentagram").
In Greece, Italy, and Egypt, the goat was worshipped in both goat form and phallic form.[Neave (1988\)](/wiki/%23Reference-idNeave1988 "#Reference-idNeave1988"), p. 8 This type of worship has sometimes been said to have originated from the goat's increased sex drive. One male goat was capable of fertilizing 150 females. The Greek god [Pan](/wiki/Pan_%28mythology%29 "Pan (mythology)") was depicted as having goat characteristics, such as hooves, horns, and a beard. Along with Pan, the goat was closely related to Dionysus during the Roman era. To honor Dionysus, Romans would tear apart a goat and eat it alive.{{citation needed\|date\=February 2020}} The goat was commonly associated with dark arts and the devil. This association was amplified in Egypt during the Middle Ages.
Excavations in Central Asia have revealed ancient ritual goat\-burial that show the religious significance of the goat predominantly in the area.[Sidky (1990\)](/wiki/%23Reference-idSidky1990 "#Reference-idSidky1990"), p. 286 These findings have been used as evidence for a goat cult in Asia originating either in the Neolithic or Bronze Ages.
### Dog
[thumb\|A dog after being decorated in the [Kukur tihar](/wiki/Kukur_tihar "Kukur tihar") festival in Nepal.](/wiki/Image:Dog_worship_in_Hinduism.jpg "Dog worship in Hinduism.jpg")
{{Main\|Dogs in religion}}
Dogs have a major religious significance among the [Hindus](/wiki/Hindu "Hindu") in [Nepal](/wiki/Nepal "Nepal") and some parts of [India](/wiki/India "India"). The dogs are worshipped as a part of a five\-day [Tihar](/wiki/Tihar_%28festival%29 "Tihar (festival)") festival that falls roughly in November every year. In [Hinduism](/wiki/Hinduism "Hinduism"), it is believed that the dog is a messenger of *[Yama](/wiki/Yama "Yama")*, the god of death, and dogs guard the doors of [Heaven](/wiki/Heaven "Heaven"). Socially, they are believed to be the protectors of our homes and lives. So, in order to please the dogs they are going to meet at Heaven's doors after death, so they would be allowed in Heaven, people mark the 14th day of the [lunar cycle](/wiki/Lunar_cycle "Lunar cycle") in November as **Kukur\-tihar**, as known in the Nepali language for the dog's day. This is a day when the dog is worshipped by applying *[tika](/wiki/Tilaka "Tilaka")* (the holy vermilion dot), incense sticks, and garlanded generally with [marigold](/wiki/Tagetes "Tagetes") flower.
Actual dog worship is uncommon. The [Nosarii](/wiki/Nosarii "Nosarii") of western Asia are said to worship a dog. The [Karang](/wiki/Karang_Jiwo "Karang Jiwo") of Java had a cult of the red dog, with each family keeping one in the house. According to one authority, the dogs are images of wood that are worshipped after the death of a member of the family and burnt after a thousand days. In [Nepal](/wiki/Nepal "Nepal") it is said that dogs are worshipped at the festival called Khicha Puja. Among the [Harranians](/wiki/Harranian "Harranian") dogs were sacred, but this was rather as brothers of the mystae.
### Horse
{{Main\|Horse worship}}
[thumb\|The Uffington White Horse](/wiki/File:Uffington-White-Horse-sat.jpg "Uffington-White-Horse-sat.jpg") [Horse worship](/wiki/Horse_worship "Horse worship") has been practiced by a number of [Indo\-European](/wiki/Proto-Indo-Europeans "Proto-Indo-Europeans") and [Turkic peoples](/wiki/Turkic_peoples "Turkic peoples"). In the nomadic tradition, the horse is one of the mythological animals, embodying the connection with the other world, with the supernatural. The horse, [exceptionally white](/wiki/White_horses_in_mythology "White horses in mythology"), has always been associated with the sun, with daytime clarity, with fire, air, sky, water, and solar heroes, as an expression of good human aspirations in daily work and struggle against difficulties. The white sun horse is an attribute of divine forces that are constantly fighting against evil — an opposition to death.
In the beliefs and rites of the nomads, first, the horse itself, second, its separate parts — the skull, cervical vertebrae, skin, hair, and third, objects associated with it — bridle, clamp, sweat, reins, whip, fallen horseshoe, image, etc., act as the patroness and protector of people. The horse is seen to have the ability to drive out evil forces from the human body.
A bronze top with the image of a horse was found in the Ferghana Valley in the early twentieth century, the only one found so far in the [Eurasian steppes](/wiki/Eurasian_steppe "Eurasian steppe"). It was dated to the period between 4th and 1st century BC and was claimed to have been used in rituals dedicated to the cult of Heavenly Horses.{{Cite web \|title\=The Akhal\-Teke was history's first pureblood horse breed \|url\=https://artdaily.com/news/147043/The\-Akhal\-Teke\-was\-history\-s\-first\-pureblood\-horse\-breed\#.Y1qi0ORBzIX \|access\-date\=2020\-07\-21 \|website\=artdaily.com}}
[thumb\|Heavenly horse. Bronze ceremonial finial produced during the Greco\-Bactrian Kingdom.](/wiki/File:Cult_of_Heavenly_horse_bronze_horse_ancient_finial_Bucephalus_Ancient_Akhal_Teke.jpg "Cult of Heavenly horse bronze horse ancient finial Bucephalus Ancient Akhal Teke.jpg")
There is some reason to believe that [Poseidon](/wiki/Poseidon "Poseidon"), like other water gods, was originally conceived under the form of a [horse](/wiki/Horse "Horse"). In the cave of [Phigalia](/wiki/Phigalia "Phigalia") [Demeter](/wiki/Demeter "Demeter") was, according to popular tradition, represented with the head and mane of a horse, possibly a relic of the time when a non\-specialized [corn\-spirit](/wiki/Vegetation_deity "Vegetation deity") bore this form. Her priests were called [Poloi](/wiki/Poloi "Poloi") ([Greek](/wiki/Greek_language "Greek language") for "colts") in [Laconia](/wiki/Laconia "Laconia"). The mule and the horse are sacred to the Roman god [Consus](/wiki/Consus "Consus"). In [Gaul](/wiki/Gaul "Gaul") we find a horse\-goddess, [Epona](/wiki/Epona "Epona"). There are also traces of a horse god, [Rudiobus](/wiki/Rudiobus "Rudiobus"). [Hayagriva](/wiki/Hayagriva "Hayagriva") is a horse\-headed deity that appears in both [Hinduism](/wiki/Hinduism "Hinduism") and [Buddhism](/wiki/Buddhism "Buddhism"). The [Gonds](/wiki/Gonds "Gonds") in India worship a horse god, [Koda Pen](/wiki/Koda_Pen "Koda Pen"), in the form of a shapeless stone, but it is not clear that the horse is regarded as divine. The horse or mare is a common form of the corn spirit in Europe.
Among the Balkan culture, swaddling an unmarried person in a horse girth is a typical ritual. It is thought that the sexual potency of the horse is passed to the individual wrapped in its girth.[Vukanović (1980\)](/wiki/%23Reference-idVukanovi%C4%871980 "#Reference-idVukanović1980"), p. 112 Along with the Balkan swaddling, Virgil's Aeneid bases the founding of the great city of Carthage upon a horse.[Brown (1950\)](/wiki/%23Reference-idBrown1950 "#Reference-idBrown1950"), p. 32 When the Phoenicians dug up a horse head from the ground they decided to build their city (Carthage) upon that spot because the horse was a sign of success. Thus, Brown argued that the horse was sacred to the Phoenician people.
Horses are godlike beings to [Romani people](/wiki/Romani_people "Romani people").{{sfnp\|Guiley\|2008\|p\=151}}
### Elephant
{{main\|Cultural depictions of elephants}}
[right\|upright\=0\.8\|thumb\|A statue of [Ganesha](/wiki/Ganesha "Ganesha") \- the elephant\-headed Hindu god of wisdom and obstacle removal](/wiki/Image:13th_century_Ganesha_statue.jpg "13th century Ganesha statue.jpg")
In [Thailand](/wiki/Thailand "Thailand") it is believed that a white [elephant](/wiki/Elephant "Elephant") may contain the soul of a dead person, perhaps a Buddha. When one is taken the capturer is rewarded and the animal is brought to the king to be kept ever afterward. It cannot be bought or sold. It is baptized and fêted and mourned for like a human being at its death. In some parts of [Indochina](/wiki/Mainland_Southeast_Asia "Mainland Southeast Asia"), the belief is that the soul of the elephant may injure people after death; it is therefore fêted by a whole village. In [Cambodia](/wiki/Cambodia "Cambodia") it is held to bring luck to the kingdom. The cult of the white elephant is also found at [Ennarea](/wiki/Ennarea "Ennarea") in southern [Ethiopia](/wiki/Ethiopia "Ethiopia"). In India, the popular Hindu god [Ganesha](/wiki/Ganesha "Ganesha") has the head of an elephant and a torso of a human.
In [Surat](/wiki/Surat "Surat"), unmarried Anāvil girls participate in a holiday referred to as Alunām.[Naik (1958\)](/wiki/%23Reference-idNaik1958 "#Reference-idNaik1958"), p. 393 This holiday is to honor the goddess [Pārvatī](/wiki/P%C4%81rvat%C4%AB "Pārvatī"). During this celebration, a clay elephant is prepared (most likely to celebrate [Pārvatī](/wiki/P%C4%81rvat%C4%AB "Pārvatī")'s creation of [Ganesha](/wiki/Ganesha "Ganesha") from a paste of either [turmeric](/wiki/Turmeric "Turmeric") or [sandalwood](/wiki/Sandalwood "Sandalwood"). Every day, unmarried women worship this elephant by dancing, singing songs, and abstaining from eating salt. On the final day of Alunām, the clay elephant is immersed in some body of water.
Certain cultures also used elephant figurines to display the animal's importance. There was evidence of an ancient elephant cult in [Sumatra](/wiki/Sumatra "Sumatra").[Schnitger (1938\)](/wiki/%23Reference-idSchnitger1938 "#Reference-idSchnitger1938"), p. 41 Stone elephant figurines were built as "seats of the souls" in the Sumatran culture. In [North Borneo](/wiki/North_Borneo "North Borneo"), however, wooden elephant figurines were placed on the top of a bamboo pole. This bamboo pole was only erected after the tribe chief had collected a certain number of human heads.
|
[
"Domesticated mammals\n--------------------",
"### Cattle and buffalo",
"{{Main\\|Sacred bull\\|Cattle in religion}}",
"Many religions have considered [cattle](/wiki/Cattle_in_religion \"Cattle in religion\") to be sacred, most famously [Hinduism](/wiki/Hinduism \"Hinduism\") from India and Nepal, but also [Zoroastrianism](/wiki/Zoroastrianism \"Zoroastrianism\"), and ancient [Greek](/wiki/Ancient_Greek_religion \"Ancient Greek religion\") and [Egyptian](/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_religion \"Ancient Egyptian religion\") religion. Cattle and buffalo are respected by many pastoral peoples that rely on the animals for sustenance and the killing of an ox is a sacrificial function.",
"The [Toda](/wiki/Toda_%28tribe%29 \"Toda (tribe)\") of southern [India](/wiki/India \"India\") abstain from the flesh of their domestic animal, the buffalo. However, once a year they sacrifice a bull calf, which is eaten in the forest by the adult males. The buffalo plays an important part in many Toda rituals. These buffalo are currently endangered.",
"The Ancient Egyptians worshipped a great number of deities who were either depicted entirely as cattle, or incorporated cattle features in their appearance. [Hesat](/wiki/Hesat \"Hesat\"), a goddess of milk and motherhood, was depicted as a full cow, as was [Mehet\\-weret](/wiki/Mehet-weret \"Mehet-weret\"), a sky goddess, identified as the Celestial Cow whose body made up the sky, and whose four legs marked the four cardinal directions. [Bat (goddess)](/wiki/Bat_%28goddess%29 \"Bat (goddess)\"), a goddess of music and dance, was depicted as a woman with bovine ears and horns, as was [Hathor](/wiki/Hathor \"Hathor\"), a very major goddess who borrowed a lot of her attributes from Bat. The great antiquity of the worship of Bat is evidenced by her appearance on the [Narmer Palette](/wiki/Narmer_Palette \"Narmer Palette\"), made by the very first of the dynastic pharaohs. When identified with the Celestial Cow Mehet\\-weret, the sky goddess [Nut](/wiki/Nut_%28goddess%29 \"Nut (goddess)\") may also take the form of a cow, as in the [Book of the Heavenly Cow](/wiki/Book_of_the_Heavenly_Cow \"Book of the Heavenly Cow\"). When acting in her role as a heavenly goddess, the mother goddess [Isis](/wiki/Isis \"Isis\") may also be shown with bovine horns, adopting the traditional headdress of Hathor.",
"As well as these female cow goddesses, the Egyptians also had a number of male bull gods. Conspicuous among these was the bull god [Apis](/wiki/Apis_%28god%29 \"Apis (god)\"), who was embodied in a living bull kept at the Temple of [Ptah](/wiki/Ptah \"Ptah\") at [Memphis](/wiki/Memphis%2C_Egypt \"Memphis, Egypt\"). Regarded as [Ptah](/wiki/Ptah \"Ptah\")'s herald, the Apis bull was distinguished by certain marks, and when the old bull died a new one was sought. The finder was rewarded, and the bull underwent four months' education at [Nilopolis](/wiki/Nilopolis \"Nilopolis\"). Its birthday was celebrated once a year when oxen, which had to be pure white, were sacrificed to it. Women were forbidden to approach it once its education was finished. Oracles were obtained from it in various ways. After its death, it was mummified and buried in a rock tomb. A similar practice was in place at [Heliopolis](/wiki/Heliopolis_%28ancient_Egypt%29 \"Heliopolis (ancient Egypt)\") with the [Mnevis](/wiki/Mnevis \"Mnevis\") bull, the herald of [Ra](/wiki/Ra \"Ra\"), and at [Hermonthis](/wiki/Hermonthis \"Hermonthis\") with the [Buchis](/wiki/Buchis \"Buchis\") bull, the herald of [Montu](/wiki/Montu \"Montu\"). After their death, all these sacred bulls were considered to become part of [Osiris](/wiki/Osiris \"Osiris\").",
"Similar observances are found in our own day on the Upper [Nile](/wiki/Nile \"Nile\"). The [Nuba](/wiki/Nuba \"Nuba\") and [Nuer](/wiki/Nuer_people \"Nuer people\") revere cattle. The [Angoni](/wiki/Angoni \"Angoni\") of Central Africa and the [Sakalava](/wiki/Sakalava \"Sakalava\") of Madagascar keep sacred bulls. In [India](/wiki/India \"India\") respect for the cow is widespread, but is of post\\-Vedic origin; there is little actual worship, but the products of the cow are important in magic.",
"While there are several animals that are worshipped in India, the supreme position is held by the cow.[Margul (1968\\)](/wiki/%23Reference-idMargul1968 \"#Reference-idMargul1968\"), p. 63 The [humped zebu](/wiki/Humped_zebu \"Humped zebu\"), a breed of cow, is central to the religion of Hinduism. Mythological legends have supported the sanctity of the zebu throughout India.[Margul (1968\\)](/wiki/%23Reference-idMargul1968 \"#Reference-idMargul1968\"), p. 64 Such myths have included the creation of a divine cow mother and cow heaven by the God, [Brahma](/wiki/Brahma \"Brahma\") and [Prithu](/wiki/Prithu \"Prithu\"), the sovereign of the universe, who created the earth's vegetation, edible fruits, and vegetables, disguised as a cow.",
"According to Tadeusz Margul, observations of the Hindu religion and the cow have led to a misunderstanding that Hindi has a servile relationship with the zebu, giving prayers and offerings to it daily. Typically, however, only during the Cow Holiday, an annual event, is the cow the recipient of such practices.[Margul (1968\\)](/wiki/%23Reference-idMargul1968 \"#Reference-idMargul1968\"), p. 65 Margul suggests that the sanctity of the cow is based on four foundations: abstaining from cow slaughter, abstaining from beef consumption, control of breeding and ownership, and belief in the purification qualities of cow products (milk, curd, ghee, dung, and urine).[Margul (1968\\)](/wiki/%23Reference-idMargul1968 \"#Reference-idMargul1968\"), pp. 65\\-66",
"### Sheep",
"{{Main\\|Sheep\\#In religion and folklore}}\n[thumb\\|A Sumerian group of two separate shell inlay fragments forming the body and head of a sheep. Circa 27th \\- 24th Century BC. From a Mayfair gallery, London, UK.](/wiki/File:Sumerian_Sheep_Shell_Plaque_27th_BC.jpg \"Sumerian Sheep Shell Plaque 27th BC.jpg\")\nThe Ancient Egyptians worshipped several gods with the head of a ram, including [Khnum](/wiki/Khnum \"Khnum\"), [Heryshaf](/wiki/Heryshaf \"Heryshaf\"), [Banebdjedet](/wiki/Banebdjedet \"Banebdjedet\"), [Ra](/wiki/Ra \"Ra\") (sometimes) and [Kherty](/wiki/Kherty \"Kherty\"). [Amun](/wiki/Amun \"Amun\"), the god of [Thebes, Egypt](/wiki/Thebes%2C_Egypt \"Thebes, Egypt\"), was also associated with the ram, and in later periods was sometimes represented as ram\\-headed. His worshippers held the ram to be sacred, however, it was sacrificed once a year. Its fleece formed the clothing of the idol.[Thomas (1911\\)](/wiki/%23CITEREFThomas1911 \"#CITEREFThomas1911\"){{Broken anchor\\|date\\=2024\\-06\\-14\\|bot\\=User:Cewbot/log/20201008/configuration\\|target\\_link\\=\\#CITEREFThomas1911\\|reason\\= }}, p. 52",
"### Goat",
"{{Main\\|Goat\\#Religion, mythology, and folklore}}\n[thumb\\|left\\|Pavement mosaic with the head of Pan. Roman artwork, Antonine period, 138–192 CE.](/wiki/File:Mosaic_Pan_Genazzano_Massimo.jpg \"Mosaic Pan Genazzano Massimo.jpg\")\n[Silenus](/wiki/Silenus \"Silenus\"), the [Satyrs](/wiki/Satyr \"Satyr\"), and the [Fauns](/wiki/Faun \"Faun\") were either capriform or had some part of their bodies shaped like that of a goat. In northern Europe the wood spirit, [Leszi](/wiki/Leszi \"Leszi\"), is believed to have a goat's horns, ears and legs. A deity known as the Goat of [Mendes](/wiki/Mendes \"Mendes\") is associated with the [pentagram](/wiki/Pentagram \"Pentagram\").",
"In Greece, Italy, and Egypt, the goat was worshipped in both goat form and phallic form.[Neave (1988\\)](/wiki/%23Reference-idNeave1988 \"#Reference-idNeave1988\"), p. 8 This type of worship has sometimes been said to have originated from the goat's increased sex drive. One male goat was capable of fertilizing 150 females. The Greek god [Pan](/wiki/Pan_%28mythology%29 \"Pan (mythology)\") was depicted as having goat characteristics, such as hooves, horns, and a beard. Along with Pan, the goat was closely related to Dionysus during the Roman era. To honor Dionysus, Romans would tear apart a goat and eat it alive.{{citation needed\\|date\\=February 2020}} The goat was commonly associated with dark arts and the devil. This association was amplified in Egypt during the Middle Ages.",
"Excavations in Central Asia have revealed ancient ritual goat\\-burial that show the religious significance of the goat predominantly in the area.[Sidky (1990\\)](/wiki/%23Reference-idSidky1990 \"#Reference-idSidky1990\"), p. 286 These findings have been used as evidence for a goat cult in Asia originating either in the Neolithic or Bronze Ages.",
"### Dog",
"[thumb\\|A dog after being decorated in the [Kukur tihar](/wiki/Kukur_tihar \"Kukur tihar\") festival in Nepal.](/wiki/Image:Dog_worship_in_Hinduism.jpg \"Dog worship in Hinduism.jpg\")\n{{Main\\|Dogs in religion}}",
"Dogs have a major religious significance among the [Hindus](/wiki/Hindu \"Hindu\") in [Nepal](/wiki/Nepal \"Nepal\") and some parts of [India](/wiki/India \"India\"). The dogs are worshipped as a part of a five\\-day [Tihar](/wiki/Tihar_%28festival%29 \"Tihar (festival)\") festival that falls roughly in November every year. In [Hinduism](/wiki/Hinduism \"Hinduism\"), it is believed that the dog is a messenger of *[Yama](/wiki/Yama \"Yama\")*, the god of death, and dogs guard the doors of [Heaven](/wiki/Heaven \"Heaven\"). Socially, they are believed to be the protectors of our homes and lives. So, in order to please the dogs they are going to meet at Heaven's doors after death, so they would be allowed in Heaven, people mark the 14th day of the [lunar cycle](/wiki/Lunar_cycle \"Lunar cycle\") in November as **Kukur\\-tihar**, as known in the Nepali language for the dog's day. This is a day when the dog is worshipped by applying *[tika](/wiki/Tilaka \"Tilaka\")* (the holy vermilion dot), incense sticks, and garlanded generally with [marigold](/wiki/Tagetes \"Tagetes\") flower.",
"Actual dog worship is uncommon. The [Nosarii](/wiki/Nosarii \"Nosarii\") of western Asia are said to worship a dog. The [Karang](/wiki/Karang_Jiwo \"Karang Jiwo\") of Java had a cult of the red dog, with each family keeping one in the house. According to one authority, the dogs are images of wood that are worshipped after the death of a member of the family and burnt after a thousand days. In [Nepal](/wiki/Nepal \"Nepal\") it is said that dogs are worshipped at the festival called Khicha Puja. Among the [Harranians](/wiki/Harranian \"Harranian\") dogs were sacred, but this was rather as brothers of the mystae.",
"### Horse",
"{{Main\\|Horse worship}}\n[thumb\\|The Uffington White Horse](/wiki/File:Uffington-White-Horse-sat.jpg \"Uffington-White-Horse-sat.jpg\") [Horse worship](/wiki/Horse_worship \"Horse worship\") has been practiced by a number of [Indo\\-European](/wiki/Proto-Indo-Europeans \"Proto-Indo-Europeans\") and [Turkic peoples](/wiki/Turkic_peoples \"Turkic peoples\"). In the nomadic tradition, the horse is one of the mythological animals, embodying the connection with the other world, with the supernatural. The horse, [exceptionally white](/wiki/White_horses_in_mythology \"White horses in mythology\"), has always been associated with the sun, with daytime clarity, with fire, air, sky, water, and solar heroes, as an expression of good human aspirations in daily work and struggle against difficulties. The white sun horse is an attribute of divine forces that are constantly fighting against evil — an opposition to death.",
"In the beliefs and rites of the nomads, first, the horse itself, second, its separate parts — the skull, cervical vertebrae, skin, hair, and third, objects associated with it — bridle, clamp, sweat, reins, whip, fallen horseshoe, image, etc., act as the patroness and protector of people. The horse is seen to have the ability to drive out evil forces from the human body.",
"A bronze top with the image of a horse was found in the Ferghana Valley in the early twentieth century, the only one found so far in the [Eurasian steppes](/wiki/Eurasian_steppe \"Eurasian steppe\"). It was dated to the period between 4th and 1st century BC and was claimed to have been used in rituals dedicated to the cult of Heavenly Horses.{{Cite web \\|title\\=The Akhal\\-Teke was history's first pureblood horse breed \\|url\\=https://artdaily.com/news/147043/The\\-Akhal\\-Teke\\-was\\-history\\-s\\-first\\-pureblood\\-horse\\-breed\\#.Y1qi0ORBzIX \\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-07\\-21 \\|website\\=artdaily.com}}\n[thumb\\|Heavenly horse. Bronze ceremonial finial produced during the Greco\\-Bactrian Kingdom.](/wiki/File:Cult_of_Heavenly_horse_bronze_horse_ancient_finial_Bucephalus_Ancient_Akhal_Teke.jpg \"Cult of Heavenly horse bronze horse ancient finial Bucephalus Ancient Akhal Teke.jpg\")\nThere is some reason to believe that [Poseidon](/wiki/Poseidon \"Poseidon\"), like other water gods, was originally conceived under the form of a [horse](/wiki/Horse \"Horse\"). In the cave of [Phigalia](/wiki/Phigalia \"Phigalia\") [Demeter](/wiki/Demeter \"Demeter\") was, according to popular tradition, represented with the head and mane of a horse, possibly a relic of the time when a non\\-specialized [corn\\-spirit](/wiki/Vegetation_deity \"Vegetation deity\") bore this form. Her priests were called [Poloi](/wiki/Poloi \"Poloi\") ([Greek](/wiki/Greek_language \"Greek language\") for \"colts\") in [Laconia](/wiki/Laconia \"Laconia\"). The mule and the horse are sacred to the Roman god [Consus](/wiki/Consus \"Consus\"). In [Gaul](/wiki/Gaul \"Gaul\") we find a horse\\-goddess, [Epona](/wiki/Epona \"Epona\"). There are also traces of a horse god, [Rudiobus](/wiki/Rudiobus \"Rudiobus\"). [Hayagriva](/wiki/Hayagriva \"Hayagriva\") is a horse\\-headed deity that appears in both [Hinduism](/wiki/Hinduism \"Hinduism\") and [Buddhism](/wiki/Buddhism \"Buddhism\"). The [Gonds](/wiki/Gonds \"Gonds\") in India worship a horse god, [Koda Pen](/wiki/Koda_Pen \"Koda Pen\"), in the form of a shapeless stone, but it is not clear that the horse is regarded as divine. The horse or mare is a common form of the corn spirit in Europe.",
"Among the Balkan culture, swaddling an unmarried person in a horse girth is a typical ritual. It is thought that the sexual potency of the horse is passed to the individual wrapped in its girth.[Vukanović (1980\\)](/wiki/%23Reference-idVukanovi%C4%871980 \"#Reference-idVukanović1980\"), p. 112 Along with the Balkan swaddling, Virgil's Aeneid bases the founding of the great city of Carthage upon a horse.[Brown (1950\\)](/wiki/%23Reference-idBrown1950 \"#Reference-idBrown1950\"), p. 32 When the Phoenicians dug up a horse head from the ground they decided to build their city (Carthage) upon that spot because the horse was a sign of success. Thus, Brown argued that the horse was sacred to the Phoenician people.",
"Horses are godlike beings to [Romani people](/wiki/Romani_people \"Romani people\").{{sfnp\\|Guiley\\|2008\\|p\\=151}}",
"### Elephant",
"{{main\\|Cultural depictions of elephants}}",
"[right\\|upright\\=0\\.8\\|thumb\\|A statue of [Ganesha](/wiki/Ganesha \"Ganesha\") \\- the elephant\\-headed Hindu god of wisdom and obstacle removal](/wiki/Image:13th_century_Ganesha_statue.jpg \"13th century Ganesha statue.jpg\")\nIn [Thailand](/wiki/Thailand \"Thailand\") it is believed that a white [elephant](/wiki/Elephant \"Elephant\") may contain the soul of a dead person, perhaps a Buddha. When one is taken the capturer is rewarded and the animal is brought to the king to be kept ever afterward. It cannot be bought or sold. It is baptized and fêted and mourned for like a human being at its death. In some parts of [Indochina](/wiki/Mainland_Southeast_Asia \"Mainland Southeast Asia\"), the belief is that the soul of the elephant may injure people after death; it is therefore fêted by a whole village. In [Cambodia](/wiki/Cambodia \"Cambodia\") it is held to bring luck to the kingdom. The cult of the white elephant is also found at [Ennarea](/wiki/Ennarea \"Ennarea\") in southern [Ethiopia](/wiki/Ethiopia \"Ethiopia\"). In India, the popular Hindu god [Ganesha](/wiki/Ganesha \"Ganesha\") has the head of an elephant and a torso of a human.",
"In [Surat](/wiki/Surat \"Surat\"), unmarried Anāvil girls participate in a holiday referred to as Alunām.[Naik (1958\\)](/wiki/%23Reference-idNaik1958 \"#Reference-idNaik1958\"), p. 393 This holiday is to honor the goddess [Pārvatī](/wiki/P%C4%81rvat%C4%AB \"Pārvatī\"). During this celebration, a clay elephant is prepared (most likely to celebrate [Pārvatī](/wiki/P%C4%81rvat%C4%AB \"Pārvatī\")'s creation of [Ganesha](/wiki/Ganesha \"Ganesha\") from a paste of either [turmeric](/wiki/Turmeric \"Turmeric\") or [sandalwood](/wiki/Sandalwood \"Sandalwood\"). Every day, unmarried women worship this elephant by dancing, singing songs, and abstaining from eating salt. On the final day of Alunām, the clay elephant is immersed in some body of water.",
"Certain cultures also used elephant figurines to display the animal's importance. There was evidence of an ancient elephant cult in [Sumatra](/wiki/Sumatra \"Sumatra\").[Schnitger (1938\\)](/wiki/%23Reference-idSchnitger1938 \"#Reference-idSchnitger1938\"), p. 41 Stone elephant figurines were built as \"seats of the souls\" in the Sumatran culture. In [North Borneo](/wiki/North_Borneo \"North Borneo\"), however, wooden elephant figurines were placed on the top of a bamboo pole. This bamboo pole was only erected after the tribe chief had collected a certain number of human heads.",
""
] |
### Cattle and buffalo
{{Main\|Sacred bull\|Cattle in religion}}
Many religions have considered [cattle](/wiki/Cattle_in_religion "Cattle in religion") to be sacred, most famously [Hinduism](/wiki/Hinduism "Hinduism") from India and Nepal, but also [Zoroastrianism](/wiki/Zoroastrianism "Zoroastrianism"), and ancient [Greek](/wiki/Ancient_Greek_religion "Ancient Greek religion") and [Egyptian](/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_religion "Ancient Egyptian religion") religion. Cattle and buffalo are respected by many pastoral peoples that rely on the animals for sustenance and the killing of an ox is a sacrificial function.
The [Toda](/wiki/Toda_%28tribe%29 "Toda (tribe)") of southern [India](/wiki/India "India") abstain from the flesh of their domestic animal, the buffalo. However, once a year they sacrifice a bull calf, which is eaten in the forest by the adult males. The buffalo plays an important part in many Toda rituals. These buffalo are currently endangered.
The Ancient Egyptians worshipped a great number of deities who were either depicted entirely as cattle, or incorporated cattle features in their appearance. [Hesat](/wiki/Hesat "Hesat"), a goddess of milk and motherhood, was depicted as a full cow, as was [Mehet\-weret](/wiki/Mehet-weret "Mehet-weret"), a sky goddess, identified as the Celestial Cow whose body made up the sky, and whose four legs marked the four cardinal directions. [Bat (goddess)](/wiki/Bat_%28goddess%29 "Bat (goddess)"), a goddess of music and dance, was depicted as a woman with bovine ears and horns, as was [Hathor](/wiki/Hathor "Hathor"), a very major goddess who borrowed a lot of her attributes from Bat. The great antiquity of the worship of Bat is evidenced by her appearance on the [Narmer Palette](/wiki/Narmer_Palette "Narmer Palette"), made by the very first of the dynastic pharaohs. When identified with the Celestial Cow Mehet\-weret, the sky goddess [Nut](/wiki/Nut_%28goddess%29 "Nut (goddess)") may also take the form of a cow, as in the [Book of the Heavenly Cow](/wiki/Book_of_the_Heavenly_Cow "Book of the Heavenly Cow"). When acting in her role as a heavenly goddess, the mother goddess [Isis](/wiki/Isis "Isis") may also be shown with bovine horns, adopting the traditional headdress of Hathor.
As well as these female cow goddesses, the Egyptians also had a number of male bull gods. Conspicuous among these was the bull god [Apis](/wiki/Apis_%28god%29 "Apis (god)"), who was embodied in a living bull kept at the Temple of [Ptah](/wiki/Ptah "Ptah") at [Memphis](/wiki/Memphis%2C_Egypt "Memphis, Egypt"). Regarded as [Ptah](/wiki/Ptah "Ptah")'s herald, the Apis bull was distinguished by certain marks, and when the old bull died a new one was sought. The finder was rewarded, and the bull underwent four months' education at [Nilopolis](/wiki/Nilopolis "Nilopolis"). Its birthday was celebrated once a year when oxen, which had to be pure white, were sacrificed to it. Women were forbidden to approach it once its education was finished. Oracles were obtained from it in various ways. After its death, it was mummified and buried in a rock tomb. A similar practice was in place at [Heliopolis](/wiki/Heliopolis_%28ancient_Egypt%29 "Heliopolis (ancient Egypt)") with the [Mnevis](/wiki/Mnevis "Mnevis") bull, the herald of [Ra](/wiki/Ra "Ra"), and at [Hermonthis](/wiki/Hermonthis "Hermonthis") with the [Buchis](/wiki/Buchis "Buchis") bull, the herald of [Montu](/wiki/Montu "Montu"). After their death, all these sacred bulls were considered to become part of [Osiris](/wiki/Osiris "Osiris").
Similar observances are found in our own day on the Upper [Nile](/wiki/Nile "Nile"). The [Nuba](/wiki/Nuba "Nuba") and [Nuer](/wiki/Nuer_people "Nuer people") revere cattle. The [Angoni](/wiki/Angoni "Angoni") of Central Africa and the [Sakalava](/wiki/Sakalava "Sakalava") of Madagascar keep sacred bulls. In [India](/wiki/India "India") respect for the cow is widespread, but is of post\-Vedic origin; there is little actual worship, but the products of the cow are important in magic.
While there are several animals that are worshipped in India, the supreme position is held by the cow.[Margul (1968\)](/wiki/%23Reference-idMargul1968 "#Reference-idMargul1968"), p. 63 The [humped zebu](/wiki/Humped_zebu "Humped zebu"), a breed of cow, is central to the religion of Hinduism. Mythological legends have supported the sanctity of the zebu throughout India.[Margul (1968\)](/wiki/%23Reference-idMargul1968 "#Reference-idMargul1968"), p. 64 Such myths have included the creation of a divine cow mother and cow heaven by the God, [Brahma](/wiki/Brahma "Brahma") and [Prithu](/wiki/Prithu "Prithu"), the sovereign of the universe, who created the earth's vegetation, edible fruits, and vegetables, disguised as a cow.
According to Tadeusz Margul, observations of the Hindu religion and the cow have led to a misunderstanding that Hindi has a servile relationship with the zebu, giving prayers and offerings to it daily. Typically, however, only during the Cow Holiday, an annual event, is the cow the recipient of such practices.[Margul (1968\)](/wiki/%23Reference-idMargul1968 "#Reference-idMargul1968"), p. 65 Margul suggests that the sanctity of the cow is based on four foundations: abstaining from cow slaughter, abstaining from beef consumption, control of breeding and ownership, and belief in the purification qualities of cow products (milk, curd, ghee, dung, and urine).[Margul (1968\)](/wiki/%23Reference-idMargul1968 "#Reference-idMargul1968"), pp. 65\-66
|
[
"### Cattle and buffalo",
"{{Main\\|Sacred bull\\|Cattle in religion}}",
"Many religions have considered [cattle](/wiki/Cattle_in_religion \"Cattle in religion\") to be sacred, most famously [Hinduism](/wiki/Hinduism \"Hinduism\") from India and Nepal, but also [Zoroastrianism](/wiki/Zoroastrianism \"Zoroastrianism\"), and ancient [Greek](/wiki/Ancient_Greek_religion \"Ancient Greek religion\") and [Egyptian](/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_religion \"Ancient Egyptian religion\") religion. Cattle and buffalo are respected by many pastoral peoples that rely on the animals for sustenance and the killing of an ox is a sacrificial function.",
"The [Toda](/wiki/Toda_%28tribe%29 \"Toda (tribe)\") of southern [India](/wiki/India \"India\") abstain from the flesh of their domestic animal, the buffalo. However, once a year they sacrifice a bull calf, which is eaten in the forest by the adult males. The buffalo plays an important part in many Toda rituals. These buffalo are currently endangered.",
"The Ancient Egyptians worshipped a great number of deities who were either depicted entirely as cattle, or incorporated cattle features in their appearance. [Hesat](/wiki/Hesat \"Hesat\"), a goddess of milk and motherhood, was depicted as a full cow, as was [Mehet\\-weret](/wiki/Mehet-weret \"Mehet-weret\"), a sky goddess, identified as the Celestial Cow whose body made up the sky, and whose four legs marked the four cardinal directions. [Bat (goddess)](/wiki/Bat_%28goddess%29 \"Bat (goddess)\"), a goddess of music and dance, was depicted as a woman with bovine ears and horns, as was [Hathor](/wiki/Hathor \"Hathor\"), a very major goddess who borrowed a lot of her attributes from Bat. The great antiquity of the worship of Bat is evidenced by her appearance on the [Narmer Palette](/wiki/Narmer_Palette \"Narmer Palette\"), made by the very first of the dynastic pharaohs. When identified with the Celestial Cow Mehet\\-weret, the sky goddess [Nut](/wiki/Nut_%28goddess%29 \"Nut (goddess)\") may also take the form of a cow, as in the [Book of the Heavenly Cow](/wiki/Book_of_the_Heavenly_Cow \"Book of the Heavenly Cow\"). When acting in her role as a heavenly goddess, the mother goddess [Isis](/wiki/Isis \"Isis\") may also be shown with bovine horns, adopting the traditional headdress of Hathor.",
"As well as these female cow goddesses, the Egyptians also had a number of male bull gods. Conspicuous among these was the bull god [Apis](/wiki/Apis_%28god%29 \"Apis (god)\"), who was embodied in a living bull kept at the Temple of [Ptah](/wiki/Ptah \"Ptah\") at [Memphis](/wiki/Memphis%2C_Egypt \"Memphis, Egypt\"). Regarded as [Ptah](/wiki/Ptah \"Ptah\")'s herald, the Apis bull was distinguished by certain marks, and when the old bull died a new one was sought. The finder was rewarded, and the bull underwent four months' education at [Nilopolis](/wiki/Nilopolis \"Nilopolis\"). Its birthday was celebrated once a year when oxen, which had to be pure white, were sacrificed to it. Women were forbidden to approach it once its education was finished. Oracles were obtained from it in various ways. After its death, it was mummified and buried in a rock tomb. A similar practice was in place at [Heliopolis](/wiki/Heliopolis_%28ancient_Egypt%29 \"Heliopolis (ancient Egypt)\") with the [Mnevis](/wiki/Mnevis \"Mnevis\") bull, the herald of [Ra](/wiki/Ra \"Ra\"), and at [Hermonthis](/wiki/Hermonthis \"Hermonthis\") with the [Buchis](/wiki/Buchis \"Buchis\") bull, the herald of [Montu](/wiki/Montu \"Montu\"). After their death, all these sacred bulls were considered to become part of [Osiris](/wiki/Osiris \"Osiris\").",
"Similar observances are found in our own day on the Upper [Nile](/wiki/Nile \"Nile\"). The [Nuba](/wiki/Nuba \"Nuba\") and [Nuer](/wiki/Nuer_people \"Nuer people\") revere cattle. The [Angoni](/wiki/Angoni \"Angoni\") of Central Africa and the [Sakalava](/wiki/Sakalava \"Sakalava\") of Madagascar keep sacred bulls. In [India](/wiki/India \"India\") respect for the cow is widespread, but is of post\\-Vedic origin; there is little actual worship, but the products of the cow are important in magic.",
"While there are several animals that are worshipped in India, the supreme position is held by the cow.[Margul (1968\\)](/wiki/%23Reference-idMargul1968 \"#Reference-idMargul1968\"), p. 63 The [humped zebu](/wiki/Humped_zebu \"Humped zebu\"), a breed of cow, is central to the religion of Hinduism. Mythological legends have supported the sanctity of the zebu throughout India.[Margul (1968\\)](/wiki/%23Reference-idMargul1968 \"#Reference-idMargul1968\"), p. 64 Such myths have included the creation of a divine cow mother and cow heaven by the God, [Brahma](/wiki/Brahma \"Brahma\") and [Prithu](/wiki/Prithu \"Prithu\"), the sovereign of the universe, who created the earth's vegetation, edible fruits, and vegetables, disguised as a cow.",
"According to Tadeusz Margul, observations of the Hindu religion and the cow have led to a misunderstanding that Hindi has a servile relationship with the zebu, giving prayers and offerings to it daily. Typically, however, only during the Cow Holiday, an annual event, is the cow the recipient of such practices.[Margul (1968\\)](/wiki/%23Reference-idMargul1968 \"#Reference-idMargul1968\"), p. 65 Margul suggests that the sanctity of the cow is based on four foundations: abstaining from cow slaughter, abstaining from beef consumption, control of breeding and ownership, and belief in the purification qualities of cow products (milk, curd, ghee, dung, and urine).[Margul (1968\\)](/wiki/%23Reference-idMargul1968 \"#Reference-idMargul1968\"), pp. 65\\-66",
""
] |
Wild mammals
------------
### Hare
In North America, the [Algonquian](/wiki/Algonquian_peoples "Algonquian peoples") tribes had as their chief deity a "mighty great [hare](/wiki/Hare "Hare")" to whom they went to death. According to one account, he lived in the east, according to another in the north. In his anthropomorphized form he was known as [Menabosho](/wiki/Nanabozho "Nanabozho") or [Michabo](/wiki/Michabo "Michabo").
The Ancient Egyptians also worshipped a hare goddess, named [Wenut](/wiki/Wenut "Wenut"). She was associated with the city of [Hermopolis](/wiki/Hermopolis "Hermopolis"), and her image appears on the standard of the Hermopolitan nome.
### Deer
{{Main\|Deer\#Human interaction\|Deer in mythology}}
[thumb\|upright\=0\.8\|right\|[Artemis](/wiki/Artemis "Artemis") with a deer, the *[Diana of Versailles](/wiki/Diana_of_Versailles "Diana of Versailles")* in the Louvre *Galerie des Caryatides* that was designed for it](/wiki/Image:Diana_of_Versailles.jpg "Diana of Versailles.jpg")
The [deer](/wiki/Deer_in_mythology "Deer in mythology") is important in the mythology of many peoples. To the Greeks it was sacred to the goddess [Artemis](/wiki/Artemis "Artemis"), while in [Hinduism](/wiki/Hinduism "Hinduism") it is linked to the goddess [Saraswati](/wiki/Saraswati "Saraswati"). The deer also held spiritual significance to the pastoralist cultures of the [Eurasian Steppe](/wiki/Eurasian_Steppe "Eurasian Steppe"). The golden stag figurine found in the [Pazyryk burials](/wiki/Pazyryk_burials "Pazyryk burials") is one of the most famous pieces of Scythian art.
### Wolf
{{Main\|Wolves in folklore, religion and mythology}}
In the story of [Rome's foundation](/wiki/Founding_of_Rome "Founding of Rome"), wolves are used in totemic imagery. The founding brothers [Romulus](/wiki/Romulus "Romulus") and [Remus](/wiki/Remus "Remus") are raised by a mother wolf, making the wolf the symbolic mother of Rome.
Among the Ancient Egyptians, the gods [Anubis](/wiki/Anubis "Anubis") and [Wepwawet](/wiki/Wepwawet "Wepwawet") both took the form of a wolf, jackal or wild dog, or a man with the head of such a creature. Anubis was a funerary deity, considered the patron of the mummification process and a protector of tombs. In the afterlife, it was he who performed the crucial role in the Weighing of the Heart ceremony that decided the individual's post\-mortem fate. In earlier times Anubis was the supreme god of the underworld, but he was later replaced in that role by the human\-formed [Osiris](/wiki/Osiris "Osiris"). It is possible that the Egyptians originally conceived of Anubis as a wild dog because of the animal's location on the outskirts of towns, near the tombs of the dead, or possibly because of their scavenging of corpses, which led them to congregate near tombs. Wepwawet was a deity more focussed on the world of the living, whose chief role was to 'open the way', whether this is opening the way of the pharaoh to victory in battle, opening the way for the priests in a ritual procession, or any other application. The great antiquity of Wepwawet's worship in Egypt is evidenced by the [Narmer Palette](/wiki/Narmer_Palette "Narmer Palette"), made by the very first of the dynastic pharaohs, including the image of a wolf on a standard as a part of a ritual procession. It has been suggested that Wepwawet's depiction as a wolf stems from the animal's keen sense of smell, allowing it to 'open the way' to find something important.
### Big cats
[thumb\|upright\=0\.8\|Granite statue of the lion\-headed Egyptian deity [Sekhmet](/wiki/Sekhmet "Sekhmet") from the [temple of Mut at Luxor](/wiki/Luxor_Temple "Luxor Temple"), dating to 1403–1365 BC, exhibited in the [National Museum of Denmark](/wiki/National_Museum_of_Denmark "National Museum of Denmark")](/wiki/File:Luxor_Sekhmet_New_Kingdom.JPG "Luxor Sekhmet New Kingdom.JPG")
{{Anchor\|Cats}}
{{See also\|Cultural depictions of lions\|Cats in ancient Egypt}}
The cult of the [leopard](/wiki/Leopard "Leopard") is widely found in West Africa. Among the [Ashanti people](/wiki/Ashanti_people "Ashanti people") a man who kills one is liable to be put to death; no leopard skin may be exposed to view, but a stuffed leopard is worshipped. On the Gold Coast, a leopard hunter who has killed his victim is carried around the town behind the body of the leopard; he may not speak, must besmear himself so as to look like a leopard and imitate its movements. In [Loango](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Loango "Kingdom of Loango") a prince's cap is put upon the head of a dead leopard, and dances are held in its honour.
In [Ancient Egypt](/wiki/Ancient_Egypt "Ancient Egypt"), there were several feline\-shaped deities. The earliest attested of these was the goddess [Mafdet](/wiki/Mafdet "Mafdet"). During the [First Dynasty](/wiki/First_Dynasty_of_Egypt "First Dynasty of Egypt") 2920–2770 BC, Mafdet was regarded as the protector of the [Pharaoh](/wiki/Pharaoh "Pharaoh")'s chambers against [snakes](/wiki/Snake "Snake"), [scorpions](/wiki/Scorpion "Scorpion") and other evil. She was often depicted with the head of a cheetah, leopard or lynx.[Hornblower (1943\)](/wiki/%23Reference-idHornblower1943 "#Reference-idHornblower1943") In later periods, other feline deities were more dominant. There were several [lion](/wiki/Lion "Lion")\-headed deities, included goddesses such as [Sekhmet](/wiki/Sekhmet "Sekhmet"), [Tefnut](/wiki/Tefnut "Tefnut"), [Bastet](/wiki/Bastet "Bastet") (early form), [Pakhet](/wiki/Pakhet "Pakhet"), [Mehit](/wiki/Mehit "Mehit") and [Menhit](/wiki/Menhit "Menhit"), and gods such as [Maahes](/wiki/Maahes "Maahes"). All of these were fierce deities, dedicated to destroying the enemies of the gods and the pharaoh. Sekhmet, the most famous Egyptian lion\-goddess, was considered a daughter of the chief god [Ra](/wiki/Ra "Ra") and was worshipped as a beneficent goddess who protected Egypt from pestilence and misfortune,[Engels (2001\)](/wiki/%23Reference-idEngels2001 "#Reference-idEngels2001") though at the same time was greatly feared due to her destructive capabilities, as demonstrated in the [Book of the Heavenly Cow](/wiki/Book_of_the_Heavenly_Cow "Book of the Heavenly Cow"). [Bastet](/wiki/Bastet "Bastet"), formerly called Bast, was originally worshipped as a fierce lioness, though in later times was 'tamed' and worshipped as a gentler domestic cat. During the [Late Period of ancient Egypt](/wiki/Late_Period_of_ancient_Egypt "Late Period of ancient Egypt") from 664 BC until the 4th century AD, the practice of mummifying [small cats](/wiki/Felis "Felis") in Bastet's honour grew in popularity. Cat mummies were used as [votive offerings](/wiki/Votive_offering "Votive offering") to the goddess, mostly during festivals and by [pilgrims](/wiki/Pilgrim "Pilgrim").{{sfnp\|Ikram\|2015}} Hundreds of thousands of cat mummies were excavated at cat cemeteries in [Bubastis](/wiki/Bubastis "Bubastis"), [Saqqara](/wiki/Saqqara "Saqqara"), [Speos Artemidos](/wiki/Speos_Artemidos "Speos Artemidos") and [Gizeh](/wiki/Gizeh "Gizeh").[Conway (1891\)](/wiki/%23Reference-idConway1891 "#Reference-idConway1891")[Herdman (1890\)](/wiki/%23Reference-idHerdman1890 "#Reference-idHerdman1890")[Zivie \& Lichtenberg (2005\)](/wiki/%23Reference-idZivie%26Lichtenberg2005 "#Reference-idZivie&Lichtenberg2005")
There was a lion god at [Baalbek](/wiki/Baalbek "Baalbek"). The [pre\-Islamic Arabs](/wiki/Arabic_mythology "Arabic mythology") worshipped the lion god [Yaghuth](/wiki/Yaghuth "Yaghuth"). In modern Africa there is a lion\-idol among the [Balondo](/wiki/Balondo_Civilization "Balondo Civilization"). The lion was also sacred to [Hebat](/wiki/Hebat "Hebat"), the [mother goddess](/wiki/Mother_goddess "Mother goddess") of the [Hurrians](/wiki/Hurrians "Hurrians").{{citation needed\|date\=October 2018}}
In [Judaism](/wiki/Judaism "Judaism") the patriarch Jacob refers to his son Judah as a Gur Aryeh גּוּר אַרְיֵה יְהוּדָה, a "Young Lion" (Genesis 49:9\) when blessing him. Thus the [Lion of Judah](/wiki/Lion_of_Judah "Lion of Judah") started to be reverenced in some other Abrahamic cults, symbolising their prophets, such as [Jesus](/wiki/Jesus "Jesus") and [Haile Selassie I](/wiki/Haile_Selassie_I "Haile Selassie I"), the *ras* Tafari.
In Mesoamerica [the jaguar was revered](/wiki/Jaguars_in_Mesoamerican_culture "Jaguars in Mesoamerican culture") as a symbol of fertility and warriorship among the [Aztec](/wiki/Aztec "Aztec"), [Maya](/wiki/Maya_civilization "Maya civilization") and [Olmec](/wiki/Olmec "Olmec"), and had an important role in shamanism.
### Tiger
[thumb\|right\|A stone [tiger](/wiki/Tiger_in_Chinese_culture "Tiger in Chinese culture") from the ritual area of the [Shu](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Shu "Kingdom of Shu") [Jinsha site](/wiki/Jinsha_site "Jinsha site"). (1st mill.{{nbsp}}{{sc\|bc}})](/wiki/File:Jinsha_Oct_2007_444.jpg "Jinsha Oct 2007 444.jpg")
[thumb\|right\|upright\=0\.8\|The [Hindu](/wiki/Hinduism "Hinduism") [goddess](/wiki/Hindu_pantheon "Hindu pantheon") [Durga](/wiki/Durga "Durga") riding a tiger. (Guler School, early 18th cent.)](/wiki/File:Durga_Mahisasuramardini.JPG "Durga Mahisasuramardini.JPG")
{{See also\|Tiger\#Cultural depictions}}
[Of great importance](/wiki/Tiger_in_Chinese_culture "Tiger in Chinese culture") in [Chinese myth](/wiki/Chinese_myth "Chinese myth") and [culture](/wiki/Chinese_culture "Chinese culture"), the tiger has been considered a [major symbol](/wiki/Animals_in_Chinese_folklore "Animals in Chinese folklore") of [masculine yang](/wiki/Yang_%28concept%29 "Yang (concept)") [energy](/wiki/Qi_%28force%29 "Qi (force)") since the earliest surviving records of [Chinese history](/wiki/Chinese_history "Chinese history"). In modern China, it is thought to represent nobility, fearlessness, and wrath and to be the king of the animals,{{cite web \|url\=http://english.savechinastigers.org/node/316 \|title\=Tiger Culture \|website\=Save China's Tigers \|access\-date\=2009\-03\-07 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090212165117/http://english.savechinastigers.org/node/316 \|archive\-date\=12 February 2009 }} with stripes over its forehead frequently redrawn to form the [character](/wiki/Chinese_character "Chinese character") for [king](/wiki/Wang_%28title%29 "Wang (title)") ({{lang\|zh\|{{linktext\|王}}}}).[Cooper (1992\)](/wiki/%23Reference-idCooper1992 "#Reference-idCooper1992"), pp. 226–227\. The tiger was originally paired and contrasted with the [dragon](/wiki/Chinese_dragon "Chinese dragon") in Chinese myth, [literature](/wiki/Chinese_literature "Chinese literature"), [art](/wiki/Chinese_art "Chinese art"), and [martial arts](/wiki/Chinese_martial_arts "Chinese martial arts") to represent the [yin\-yang](/wiki/Taiji_%28philosophy%29 "Taiji (philosophy)") as well as the dualities of [earth and water](/wiki/Wuxing_%28Chinese_philosophy%29 "Wuxing (Chinese philosophy)"), west and east, matter and spirit, although by the late [imperial era](/wiki/Imperial_China "Imperial China") the dragon was instead taken to represent yang and paired with the [phoenix](/wiki/Chinese_phoenix "Chinese phoenix") as the symbol of [feminine yin](/wiki/Yin_%28concept%29 "Yin (concept)") instead. The [White Tiger](/wiki/White_Tiger_%28Chinese_constellation%29 "White Tiger (Chinese constellation)") is one of the [four cardinal symbols](/wiki/Four_Symbols_%28Chinese_constellation%29 "Four Symbols (Chinese constellation)") of [Chinese astrology](/wiki/Chinese_astrology "Chinese astrology") and [traditional astronomy](/wiki/Chinese_astronomy "Chinese astronomy"), representing [autumn](/wiki/Chinese_calendar "Chinese calendar") and the west and an important figure in [Taoism](/wiki/Taoism_in_China "Taoism in China") and [Chinese folk religion](/wiki/Chinese_folk_religion "Chinese folk religion"). Separately, the [Year of the Tiger](/wiki/Tiger_%28zodiac%29 "Tiger (zodiac)") is the 3rd year of the duodecennial [Chinese zodiac](/wiki/Chinese_zodiac "Chinese zodiac"), based on the [stars in opposition](/wiki/Tai_Sui "Tai Sui") to the [Jovian cycle](/wiki/Jovian_cycle "Jovian cycle").
Tigers were either worshipped directly or used as a symbols of aspects of the divine in [Shu](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Shu "Kingdom of Shu") and other [ancient Chinese states](/wiki/Ancient_Chinese_state "Ancient Chinese state"), as well as the [Black Pottery culture](/wiki/Black_Pottery_culture "Black Pottery culture") and among the [Tungus](/wiki/Tungusic_peoples "Tungusic peoples").[Waterbury (1952\)](/wiki/%23Reference-idWaterbury1952 "#Reference-idWaterbury1952"), p. 80\. The [Han](/wiki/Han_people "Han people") sometimes depicted Xiwangmu, the [Queen Mother of the West](/wiki/Queen_Mother_of_the_West "Queen Mother of the West"), with the tail of a tiger[Waterbury (1952\)](/wiki/%23Reference-idWaterbury1952 "#Reference-idWaterbury1952"), p. 76\. and once wore stone representations of tigers as [protective amulets](/wiki/Protective_amulet "Protective amulet"). Even today, some celebrants of the [Dragon Boat Festival](/wiki/Dragon_Boat_Festival "Dragon Boat Festival") paint the character {{lang\|zh\|王}} on children's foreheads with [arsenic](/wiki/Arsenic "Arsenic") [realgar](/wiki/Realgar "Realgar") as a [protective ward](/wiki/Ward_%28magic%29 "Ward (magic)") against [snakebite](/wiki/Snakebite "Snakebite") and other summer ailments.{{citation needed\|date\=March 2023}} Some tiger worship still occurs, primarily as a form of [minority](/wiki/Minority_cultures_of_China "Minority cultures of China") [cultural tourism](/wiki/Cultural_tourism "Cultural tourism"). The Solar Calendar Square is a tourist site in [Kunming](/wiki/Kunming "Kunming"), [Yunnan](/wiki/Yunnan "Yunnan"), related to the traditional religion of the [Yi people](/wiki/Yi_people "Yi people") which held that a tiger was responsible for the [creation of the world](/wiki/Cosmogeny "Cosmogeny"). It includes a growling tiger statue {{convert\|5\|m\|sp\=us}} high.[Harrell \& Yongxiang (2003\)](/wiki/%23Reference-idHarrell%26Yongxiang2003 "#Reference-idHarrell&Yongxiang2003"), p. 380\. A similar attraction with an Yi tiger [totem](/wiki/Totem_pole "Totem pole") is located in [Chuxiong](/wiki/Chuxiong_City "Chuxiong City"), Yunnan. The towns of [Shuangbai County](/wiki/Shuangbai_County "Shuangbai County") in [Chuxiong Prefecture](/wiki/Chuxiong_Prefecture "Chuxiong Prefecture") preserve a traditional dance that originated in rituals related to tiger worship. Continued worship of tigers also occurs in [Manchurian folk religion](/wiki/Dongbei_folk_religion "Dongbei folk religion").{{citation needed\|date\=January 2019}}
In [Korean history](/wiki/Korean_history "Korean history") and [culture](/wiki/Korean_culture "Korean culture"), a tiger is regarded as a guardian that drives away evil spirits and a sacred creature that brings good luck – the symbol of courage and absolute power. It appears not only in the [Korean foundation mythology](/wiki/Korean_foundation_mythology "Korean foundation mythology") but also in [folklore](/wiki/Korean_folklore "Korean folklore"), as well as being a favorite subject of [Korean art](/wiki/Korean_art "Korean art"). For example, the 19th\-century painting named "Sansindo" ({{lang\|ko\|산신도}}) depicts the guardian spirit of a mountain leaning against a tiger or riding on the back of the animal. The animal is also known to do errands for the mountain's guardian spirit which is known to wish for peace and the well\-being of the village. So, the tiger was ordered by the spiritual guardian of the mountain to give protection and wish for peace in the village. People drew such paintings and hung them in the shrine built on the mountain of the village where memorial rituals were performed regularly. In Buddhism, there is also a shrine that keeps the painting of the guardian spirit of the mountain. Called "Sansintaenghwa" (산신탱화, 山神幀畵), it is a depiction of the guardian spirit of the mountain and a tiger.[Standard Korean Language Dictionary](/wiki/Standard_Korean_Language_Dictionary "Standard Korean Language Dictionary").{{fcn\|date\=June 2024\|reason\=This is a WIkipedia article and does not contain information to support the statement referenced.}}
In many parts of [Vietnam](/wiki/Vietnam "Vietnam"), the tiger is a revered creature with many villages having a tiger temple.{{citation needed\|date\=January 2019}} This [Vietnamese folk religion](/wiki/Vietnamese_folk_religion "Vietnamese folk religion") might have stem from the fear of tigers used to raid human settlements in ancient times. Tigers are admired for their great strength, ferocity, and grace. The tiger is also considered a guardian deity. Tiger statutes are also seen at the entrance of temples and palaces, keeping evil spirits from entering those places.
The tiger is associated with the [Hindu](/wiki/Hinduism "Hinduism") [deities](/wiki/Hindu_pantheon "Hindu pantheon") [Shiva](/wiki/Shiva "Shiva") and [Durga](/wiki/Durga "Durga"). In [Pokhara](/wiki/Pokhara "Pokhara"), [Nepal](/wiki/Nepal "Nepal"), the tiger festival is known as [Bagh Jatra](/wiki/Bagh_Jatra "Bagh Jatra"). Celebrants dance disguised as tigers and are "hunted". The [Warli](/wiki/Warli "Warli") of western India worship the tiger\-like god [Waghoba](/wiki/Waghoba "Waghoba"). The Warli believe that shrines and sacrifices to the deity will lead to better coexistence with the local big cats, both tigers and leopards, and that Waghoba will protect them when they enter the forests.{{sfnp\|Nair\|Dhee\|Patli\|Surve\|2021}}
### Monkey
[thumb\|upright\=1\.35\|The [three wise monkeys](/wiki/Three_wise_monkeys "Three wise monkeys") over the [Tōshō\-gū](/wiki/Nikk%C5%8D_T%C5%8Dsh%C5%8D-g%C5%AB "Nikkō Tōshō-gū") shrine in [Nikkō](/wiki/Nikk%C5%8D "Nikkō"), [Japan](/wiki/Japan "Japan")](/wiki/File:Hear_speak_see_no_evil_Toshogu.jpg "Hear speak see no evil Toshogu.jpg")
{{Main\|Monkey}}
In Hinduism, the monkey deity, [Hanuman](/wiki/Hanuman "Hanuman"), is a prominent figure. He is a reincarnation of Shiva, the god of destruction. In orthodox villages monkeys are safe from harm.
[Chinese religions](/wiki/Chinese_religions "Chinese religions") and [mythologies](/wiki/Chinese_mythology "Chinese mythology") give monkeys and apes [cultural significance](/wiki/Monkeys_in_Chinese_culture%23Religious_significance "Monkeys in Chinese culture#Religious significance") as metaphors for people. Chinese deities sometimes appear in the guise of monkeys, for example, [Sun Wukong](/wiki/Sun_Wukong "Sun Wukong") or "Monkey King" is the main protagonist in [Wu Cheng'en](/wiki/Wu_Cheng%27en "Wu Cheng'en")'s [picaresque](/wiki/Picaresque_novel "Picaresque novel") novel *[Journey to the West](/wiki/Journey_to_the_West "Journey to the West")*. In traditional [Chinese folk religion](/wiki/Chinese_folk_religion "Chinese folk religion"), monkeys are supernatural beings that could [shape shift](/wiki/Shape_shift "Shape shift") into either monkey\-demons or were\-monkeys, and legends about monkey\-human interbreeding are common. In [Daoism](/wiki/Daoism "Daoism"), monkeys, particularly gibbons, were believed to have longevity like a *[xian](/wiki/Xian_%28Daoism%29 "Xian (Daoism)")* "transcendent; immortal", and to be innately adept at circulating and absorbing *[qi](/wiki/Qi "Qi")* "breath; life force" through the Daoist discipline of *[daoyin](/wiki/Daoyin "Daoyin")* "guiding and pulling". Similar to Daoism, [Chinese Buddhism](/wiki/Chinese_Buddhism "Chinese Buddhism") paradoxically treats monkeys as both wise and foolish animals. On the one hand, the *[Jataka tales](/wiki/Jataka_tales "Jataka tales")* say that [Gautama Buddha](/wiki/Gautama_Buddha "Gautama Buddha") was a benevolent monkey king in an earlier incarnation; and on the other hand, monkeys symbolized trickery and ignorance, represented by the [Chan Buddhist](/wiki/Chan_Buddhist "Chan Buddhist") "[mind monkey](/wiki/Mind_monkey "Mind monkey")" metaphor for the unsettled, restless nature of human mentality.
Monkeys are said to be worshipped in [Togo](/wiki/Togo "Togo"). At [Porto Novo](/wiki/Porto_Novo "Porto Novo"), in [Benin](/wiki/Benin "Benin"), twins have tutelary spirits in the shape of small monkeys.
The hamadryas baboon was sacred to the Ancient Egyptians and often appeared as a form of a deity. Egyptian deities depicted as baboons include [Hapi (Son of Horus)](/wiki/Hapi_%28Son_of_Horus%29 "Hapi (Son of Horus)"), [Babi (mythology)](/wiki/Babi_%28mythology%29 "Babi (mythology)") and [Thoth](/wiki/Thoth "Thoth"), although the latter is more often shown with the head of an ibis. A group of 6 or 8 baboons was also a common feature in scenes depicting the sun god at dawn as he rose over the horizon, with the baboons raising their hands to him in praise. This is probably inspired by the observed behaviour of baboons, as they are known to 'chatter' at sunrise as if greeting the sun.
### Hippopotamus
In Ancient Egyptian religion, the [hippopotamus](/wiki/Hippopotamus "Hippopotamus") had both positive and negative associations. On the one hand, the strong maternal instinct of female hippos led to the worship of several female hippo goddesses, usually as goddesses of pregnancy and motherhood, and protectors of women and children. The most famous of these hippopotamus goddesses is [Taweret](/wiki/Taweret "Taweret"), a very common household deity among the common people of Egypt, and many amulets were made in her form. Others included Opet or Ipet, who was similar to Taweret but a little more stately, as well as Reret, who personified the constellation of Draco. On the other hand, the destructive capabilities of the hippopotamus towards useful boats led to it also being seen as a force of chaos, and so it also became associated with the god of disorder, [Set](/wiki/Set_%28deity%29 "Set (deity)"). Though normally depicted as a man with the head of the mysterious "sha" animal, in scenes of the battles between Seth and Horus, Seth can sometimes be shown in hippopotamus form, with Horus standing on a papyrus raft and spearing him with a harpoon. This victory of Horus over Seth was symbolically re\-enacted during royal hunting expeditions, with the king taking the role of Horus, and a wild hippopotamus embodying Seth. The king's successful slaughter of the hippopotamus thus connected his martial prowess to that of Horus himself, demonstrating his right to be king.
### Rodent
In some countries, e.g. India, a small number of temples are dedicated to the worship of wild [mice](/wiki/Mice "Mice"). Whilst widely regarded as a creature to be avoided, for pestilential reasons in such temples the animals are actively encouraged. It is frequently associated with Ganesh. As a creature capable of survival, it is to be revered and respected.
|
[
"Wild mammals\n------------",
"### Hare",
"In North America, the [Algonquian](/wiki/Algonquian_peoples \"Algonquian peoples\") tribes had as their chief deity a \"mighty great [hare](/wiki/Hare \"Hare\")\" to whom they went to death. According to one account, he lived in the east, according to another in the north. In his anthropomorphized form he was known as [Menabosho](/wiki/Nanabozho \"Nanabozho\") or [Michabo](/wiki/Michabo \"Michabo\").",
"The Ancient Egyptians also worshipped a hare goddess, named [Wenut](/wiki/Wenut \"Wenut\"). She was associated with the city of [Hermopolis](/wiki/Hermopolis \"Hermopolis\"), and her image appears on the standard of the Hermopolitan nome.",
"### Deer",
"{{Main\\|Deer\\#Human interaction\\|Deer in mythology}}\n[thumb\\|upright\\=0\\.8\\|right\\|[Artemis](/wiki/Artemis \"Artemis\") with a deer, the *[Diana of Versailles](/wiki/Diana_of_Versailles \"Diana of Versailles\")* in the Louvre *Galerie des Caryatides* that was designed for it](/wiki/Image:Diana_of_Versailles.jpg \"Diana of Versailles.jpg\")\nThe [deer](/wiki/Deer_in_mythology \"Deer in mythology\") is important in the mythology of many peoples. To the Greeks it was sacred to the goddess [Artemis](/wiki/Artemis \"Artemis\"), while in [Hinduism](/wiki/Hinduism \"Hinduism\") it is linked to the goddess [Saraswati](/wiki/Saraswati \"Saraswati\"). The deer also held spiritual significance to the pastoralist cultures of the [Eurasian Steppe](/wiki/Eurasian_Steppe \"Eurasian Steppe\"). The golden stag figurine found in the [Pazyryk burials](/wiki/Pazyryk_burials \"Pazyryk burials\") is one of the most famous pieces of Scythian art.",
"### Wolf",
"{{Main\\|Wolves in folklore, religion and mythology}}",
"In the story of [Rome's foundation](/wiki/Founding_of_Rome \"Founding of Rome\"), wolves are used in totemic imagery. The founding brothers [Romulus](/wiki/Romulus \"Romulus\") and [Remus](/wiki/Remus \"Remus\") are raised by a mother wolf, making the wolf the symbolic mother of Rome.",
"Among the Ancient Egyptians, the gods [Anubis](/wiki/Anubis \"Anubis\") and [Wepwawet](/wiki/Wepwawet \"Wepwawet\") both took the form of a wolf, jackal or wild dog, or a man with the head of such a creature. Anubis was a funerary deity, considered the patron of the mummification process and a protector of tombs. In the afterlife, it was he who performed the crucial role in the Weighing of the Heart ceremony that decided the individual's post\\-mortem fate. In earlier times Anubis was the supreme god of the underworld, but he was later replaced in that role by the human\\-formed [Osiris](/wiki/Osiris \"Osiris\"). It is possible that the Egyptians originally conceived of Anubis as a wild dog because of the animal's location on the outskirts of towns, near the tombs of the dead, or possibly because of their scavenging of corpses, which led them to congregate near tombs. Wepwawet was a deity more focussed on the world of the living, whose chief role was to 'open the way', whether this is opening the way of the pharaoh to victory in battle, opening the way for the priests in a ritual procession, or any other application. The great antiquity of Wepwawet's worship in Egypt is evidenced by the [Narmer Palette](/wiki/Narmer_Palette \"Narmer Palette\"), made by the very first of the dynastic pharaohs, including the image of a wolf on a standard as a part of a ritual procession. It has been suggested that Wepwawet's depiction as a wolf stems from the animal's keen sense of smell, allowing it to 'open the way' to find something important.",
"### Big cats",
"[thumb\\|upright\\=0\\.8\\|Granite statue of the lion\\-headed Egyptian deity [Sekhmet](/wiki/Sekhmet \"Sekhmet\") from the [temple of Mut at Luxor](/wiki/Luxor_Temple \"Luxor Temple\"), dating to 1403–1365 BC, exhibited in the [National Museum of Denmark](/wiki/National_Museum_of_Denmark \"National Museum of Denmark\")](/wiki/File:Luxor_Sekhmet_New_Kingdom.JPG \"Luxor Sekhmet New Kingdom.JPG\")\n{{Anchor\\|Cats}}\n{{See also\\|Cultural depictions of lions\\|Cats in ancient Egypt}}\nThe cult of the [leopard](/wiki/Leopard \"Leopard\") is widely found in West Africa. Among the [Ashanti people](/wiki/Ashanti_people \"Ashanti people\") a man who kills one is liable to be put to death; no leopard skin may be exposed to view, but a stuffed leopard is worshipped. On the Gold Coast, a leopard hunter who has killed his victim is carried around the town behind the body of the leopard; he may not speak, must besmear himself so as to look like a leopard and imitate its movements. In [Loango](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Loango \"Kingdom of Loango\") a prince's cap is put upon the head of a dead leopard, and dances are held in its honour.",
"In [Ancient Egypt](/wiki/Ancient_Egypt \"Ancient Egypt\"), there were several feline\\-shaped deities. The earliest attested of these was the goddess [Mafdet](/wiki/Mafdet \"Mafdet\"). During the [First Dynasty](/wiki/First_Dynasty_of_Egypt \"First Dynasty of Egypt\") 2920–2770 BC, Mafdet was regarded as the protector of the [Pharaoh](/wiki/Pharaoh \"Pharaoh\")'s chambers against [snakes](/wiki/Snake \"Snake\"), [scorpions](/wiki/Scorpion \"Scorpion\") and other evil. She was often depicted with the head of a cheetah, leopard or lynx.[Hornblower (1943\\)](/wiki/%23Reference-idHornblower1943 \"#Reference-idHornblower1943\") In later periods, other feline deities were more dominant. There were several [lion](/wiki/Lion \"Lion\")\\-headed deities, included goddesses such as [Sekhmet](/wiki/Sekhmet \"Sekhmet\"), [Tefnut](/wiki/Tefnut \"Tefnut\"), [Bastet](/wiki/Bastet \"Bastet\") (early form), [Pakhet](/wiki/Pakhet \"Pakhet\"), [Mehit](/wiki/Mehit \"Mehit\") and [Menhit](/wiki/Menhit \"Menhit\"), and gods such as [Maahes](/wiki/Maahes \"Maahes\"). All of these were fierce deities, dedicated to destroying the enemies of the gods and the pharaoh. Sekhmet, the most famous Egyptian lion\\-goddess, was considered a daughter of the chief god [Ra](/wiki/Ra \"Ra\") and was worshipped as a beneficent goddess who protected Egypt from pestilence and misfortune,[Engels (2001\\)](/wiki/%23Reference-idEngels2001 \"#Reference-idEngels2001\") though at the same time was greatly feared due to her destructive capabilities, as demonstrated in the [Book of the Heavenly Cow](/wiki/Book_of_the_Heavenly_Cow \"Book of the Heavenly Cow\"). [Bastet](/wiki/Bastet \"Bastet\"), formerly called Bast, was originally worshipped as a fierce lioness, though in later times was 'tamed' and worshipped as a gentler domestic cat. During the [Late Period of ancient Egypt](/wiki/Late_Period_of_ancient_Egypt \"Late Period of ancient Egypt\") from 664 BC until the 4th century AD, the practice of mummifying [small cats](/wiki/Felis \"Felis\") in Bastet's honour grew in popularity. Cat mummies were used as [votive offerings](/wiki/Votive_offering \"Votive offering\") to the goddess, mostly during festivals and by [pilgrims](/wiki/Pilgrim \"Pilgrim\").{{sfnp\\|Ikram\\|2015}} Hundreds of thousands of cat mummies were excavated at cat cemeteries in [Bubastis](/wiki/Bubastis \"Bubastis\"), [Saqqara](/wiki/Saqqara \"Saqqara\"), [Speos Artemidos](/wiki/Speos_Artemidos \"Speos Artemidos\") and [Gizeh](/wiki/Gizeh \"Gizeh\").[Conway (1891\\)](/wiki/%23Reference-idConway1891 \"#Reference-idConway1891\")[Herdman (1890\\)](/wiki/%23Reference-idHerdman1890 \"#Reference-idHerdman1890\")[Zivie \\& Lichtenberg (2005\\)](/wiki/%23Reference-idZivie%26Lichtenberg2005 \"#Reference-idZivie&Lichtenberg2005\")",
"There was a lion god at [Baalbek](/wiki/Baalbek \"Baalbek\"). The [pre\\-Islamic Arabs](/wiki/Arabic_mythology \"Arabic mythology\") worshipped the lion god [Yaghuth](/wiki/Yaghuth \"Yaghuth\"). In modern Africa there is a lion\\-idol among the [Balondo](/wiki/Balondo_Civilization \"Balondo Civilization\"). The lion was also sacred to [Hebat](/wiki/Hebat \"Hebat\"), the [mother goddess](/wiki/Mother_goddess \"Mother goddess\") of the [Hurrians](/wiki/Hurrians \"Hurrians\").{{citation needed\\|date\\=October 2018}}",
"In [Judaism](/wiki/Judaism \"Judaism\") the patriarch Jacob refers to his son Judah as a Gur Aryeh גּוּר אַרְיֵה יְהוּדָה, a \"Young Lion\" (Genesis 49:9\\) when blessing him. Thus the [Lion of Judah](/wiki/Lion_of_Judah \"Lion of Judah\") started to be reverenced in some other Abrahamic cults, symbolising their prophets, such as [Jesus](/wiki/Jesus \"Jesus\") and [Haile Selassie I](/wiki/Haile_Selassie_I \"Haile Selassie I\"), the *ras* Tafari.",
"In Mesoamerica [the jaguar was revered](/wiki/Jaguars_in_Mesoamerican_culture \"Jaguars in Mesoamerican culture\") as a symbol of fertility and warriorship among the [Aztec](/wiki/Aztec \"Aztec\"), [Maya](/wiki/Maya_civilization \"Maya civilization\") and [Olmec](/wiki/Olmec \"Olmec\"), and had an important role in shamanism.",
"### Tiger",
"[thumb\\|right\\|A stone [tiger](/wiki/Tiger_in_Chinese_culture \"Tiger in Chinese culture\") from the ritual area of the [Shu](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Shu \"Kingdom of Shu\") [Jinsha site](/wiki/Jinsha_site \"Jinsha site\"). (1st mill.{{nbsp}}{{sc\\|bc}})](/wiki/File:Jinsha_Oct_2007_444.jpg \"Jinsha Oct 2007 444.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|right\\|upright\\=0\\.8\\|The [Hindu](/wiki/Hinduism \"Hinduism\") [goddess](/wiki/Hindu_pantheon \"Hindu pantheon\") [Durga](/wiki/Durga \"Durga\") riding a tiger. (Guler School, early 18th cent.)](/wiki/File:Durga_Mahisasuramardini.JPG \"Durga Mahisasuramardini.JPG\")\n{{See also\\|Tiger\\#Cultural depictions}}\n[Of great importance](/wiki/Tiger_in_Chinese_culture \"Tiger in Chinese culture\") in [Chinese myth](/wiki/Chinese_myth \"Chinese myth\") and [culture](/wiki/Chinese_culture \"Chinese culture\"), the tiger has been considered a [major symbol](/wiki/Animals_in_Chinese_folklore \"Animals in Chinese folklore\") of [masculine yang](/wiki/Yang_%28concept%29 \"Yang (concept)\") [energy](/wiki/Qi_%28force%29 \"Qi (force)\") since the earliest surviving records of [Chinese history](/wiki/Chinese_history \"Chinese history\"). In modern China, it is thought to represent nobility, fearlessness, and wrath and to be the king of the animals,{{cite web \\|url\\=http://english.savechinastigers.org/node/316 \\|title\\=Tiger Culture \\|website\\=Save China's Tigers \\|access\\-date\\=2009\\-03\\-07 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090212165117/http://english.savechinastigers.org/node/316 \\|archive\\-date\\=12 February 2009 }} with stripes over its forehead frequently redrawn to form the [character](/wiki/Chinese_character \"Chinese character\") for [king](/wiki/Wang_%28title%29 \"Wang (title)\") ({{lang\\|zh\\|{{linktext\\|王}}}}).[Cooper (1992\\)](/wiki/%23Reference-idCooper1992 \"#Reference-idCooper1992\"), pp. 226–227\\. The tiger was originally paired and contrasted with the [dragon](/wiki/Chinese_dragon \"Chinese dragon\") in Chinese myth, [literature](/wiki/Chinese_literature \"Chinese literature\"), [art](/wiki/Chinese_art \"Chinese art\"), and [martial arts](/wiki/Chinese_martial_arts \"Chinese martial arts\") to represent the [yin\\-yang](/wiki/Taiji_%28philosophy%29 \"Taiji (philosophy)\") as well as the dualities of [earth and water](/wiki/Wuxing_%28Chinese_philosophy%29 \"Wuxing (Chinese philosophy)\"), west and east, matter and spirit, although by the late [imperial era](/wiki/Imperial_China \"Imperial China\") the dragon was instead taken to represent yang and paired with the [phoenix](/wiki/Chinese_phoenix \"Chinese phoenix\") as the symbol of [feminine yin](/wiki/Yin_%28concept%29 \"Yin (concept)\") instead. The [White Tiger](/wiki/White_Tiger_%28Chinese_constellation%29 \"White Tiger (Chinese constellation)\") is one of the [four cardinal symbols](/wiki/Four_Symbols_%28Chinese_constellation%29 \"Four Symbols (Chinese constellation)\") of [Chinese astrology](/wiki/Chinese_astrology \"Chinese astrology\") and [traditional astronomy](/wiki/Chinese_astronomy \"Chinese astronomy\"), representing [autumn](/wiki/Chinese_calendar \"Chinese calendar\") and the west and an important figure in [Taoism](/wiki/Taoism_in_China \"Taoism in China\") and [Chinese folk religion](/wiki/Chinese_folk_religion \"Chinese folk religion\"). Separately, the [Year of the Tiger](/wiki/Tiger_%28zodiac%29 \"Tiger (zodiac)\") is the 3rd year of the duodecennial [Chinese zodiac](/wiki/Chinese_zodiac \"Chinese zodiac\"), based on the [stars in opposition](/wiki/Tai_Sui \"Tai Sui\") to the [Jovian cycle](/wiki/Jovian_cycle \"Jovian cycle\").",
"Tigers were either worshipped directly or used as a symbols of aspects of the divine in [Shu](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Shu \"Kingdom of Shu\") and other [ancient Chinese states](/wiki/Ancient_Chinese_state \"Ancient Chinese state\"), as well as the [Black Pottery culture](/wiki/Black_Pottery_culture \"Black Pottery culture\") and among the [Tungus](/wiki/Tungusic_peoples \"Tungusic peoples\").[Waterbury (1952\\)](/wiki/%23Reference-idWaterbury1952 \"#Reference-idWaterbury1952\"), p. 80\\. The [Han](/wiki/Han_people \"Han people\") sometimes depicted Xiwangmu, the [Queen Mother of the West](/wiki/Queen_Mother_of_the_West \"Queen Mother of the West\"), with the tail of a tiger[Waterbury (1952\\)](/wiki/%23Reference-idWaterbury1952 \"#Reference-idWaterbury1952\"), p. 76\\. and once wore stone representations of tigers as [protective amulets](/wiki/Protective_amulet \"Protective amulet\"). Even today, some celebrants of the [Dragon Boat Festival](/wiki/Dragon_Boat_Festival \"Dragon Boat Festival\") paint the character {{lang\\|zh\\|王}} on children's foreheads with [arsenic](/wiki/Arsenic \"Arsenic\") [realgar](/wiki/Realgar \"Realgar\") as a [protective ward](/wiki/Ward_%28magic%29 \"Ward (magic)\") against [snakebite](/wiki/Snakebite \"Snakebite\") and other summer ailments.{{citation needed\\|date\\=March 2023}} Some tiger worship still occurs, primarily as a form of [minority](/wiki/Minority_cultures_of_China \"Minority cultures of China\") [cultural tourism](/wiki/Cultural_tourism \"Cultural tourism\"). The Solar Calendar Square is a tourist site in [Kunming](/wiki/Kunming \"Kunming\"), [Yunnan](/wiki/Yunnan \"Yunnan\"), related to the traditional religion of the [Yi people](/wiki/Yi_people \"Yi people\") which held that a tiger was responsible for the [creation of the world](/wiki/Cosmogeny \"Cosmogeny\"). It includes a growling tiger statue {{convert\\|5\\|m\\|sp\\=us}} high.[Harrell \\& Yongxiang (2003\\)](/wiki/%23Reference-idHarrell%26Yongxiang2003 \"#Reference-idHarrell&Yongxiang2003\"), p. 380\\. A similar attraction with an Yi tiger [totem](/wiki/Totem_pole \"Totem pole\") is located in [Chuxiong](/wiki/Chuxiong_City \"Chuxiong City\"), Yunnan. The towns of [Shuangbai County](/wiki/Shuangbai_County \"Shuangbai County\") in [Chuxiong Prefecture](/wiki/Chuxiong_Prefecture \"Chuxiong Prefecture\") preserve a traditional dance that originated in rituals related to tiger worship. Continued worship of tigers also occurs in [Manchurian folk religion](/wiki/Dongbei_folk_religion \"Dongbei folk religion\").{{citation needed\\|date\\=January 2019}}",
"In [Korean history](/wiki/Korean_history \"Korean history\") and [culture](/wiki/Korean_culture \"Korean culture\"), a tiger is regarded as a guardian that drives away evil spirits and a sacred creature that brings good luck – the symbol of courage and absolute power. It appears not only in the [Korean foundation mythology](/wiki/Korean_foundation_mythology \"Korean foundation mythology\") but also in [folklore](/wiki/Korean_folklore \"Korean folklore\"), as well as being a favorite subject of [Korean art](/wiki/Korean_art \"Korean art\"). For example, the 19th\\-century painting named \"Sansindo\" ({{lang\\|ko\\|산신도}}) depicts the guardian spirit of a mountain leaning against a tiger or riding on the back of the animal. The animal is also known to do errands for the mountain's guardian spirit which is known to wish for peace and the well\\-being of the village. So, the tiger was ordered by the spiritual guardian of the mountain to give protection and wish for peace in the village. People drew such paintings and hung them in the shrine built on the mountain of the village where memorial rituals were performed regularly. In Buddhism, there is also a shrine that keeps the painting of the guardian spirit of the mountain. Called \"Sansintaenghwa\" (산신탱화, 山神幀畵), it is a depiction of the guardian spirit of the mountain and a tiger.[Standard Korean Language Dictionary](/wiki/Standard_Korean_Language_Dictionary \"Standard Korean Language Dictionary\").{{fcn\\|date\\=June 2024\\|reason\\=This is a WIkipedia article and does not contain information to support the statement referenced.}}",
"In many parts of [Vietnam](/wiki/Vietnam \"Vietnam\"), the tiger is a revered creature with many villages having a tiger temple.{{citation needed\\|date\\=January 2019}} This [Vietnamese folk religion](/wiki/Vietnamese_folk_religion \"Vietnamese folk religion\") might have stem from the fear of tigers used to raid human settlements in ancient times. Tigers are admired for their great strength, ferocity, and grace. The tiger is also considered a guardian deity. Tiger statutes are also seen at the entrance of temples and palaces, keeping evil spirits from entering those places.",
"The tiger is associated with the [Hindu](/wiki/Hinduism \"Hinduism\") [deities](/wiki/Hindu_pantheon \"Hindu pantheon\") [Shiva](/wiki/Shiva \"Shiva\") and [Durga](/wiki/Durga \"Durga\"). In [Pokhara](/wiki/Pokhara \"Pokhara\"), [Nepal](/wiki/Nepal \"Nepal\"), the tiger festival is known as [Bagh Jatra](/wiki/Bagh_Jatra \"Bagh Jatra\"). Celebrants dance disguised as tigers and are \"hunted\". The [Warli](/wiki/Warli \"Warli\") of western India worship the tiger\\-like god [Waghoba](/wiki/Waghoba \"Waghoba\"). The Warli believe that shrines and sacrifices to the deity will lead to better coexistence with the local big cats, both tigers and leopards, and that Waghoba will protect them when they enter the forests.{{sfnp\\|Nair\\|Dhee\\|Patli\\|Surve\\|2021}}",
"### Monkey",
"[thumb\\|upright\\=1\\.35\\|The [three wise monkeys](/wiki/Three_wise_monkeys \"Three wise monkeys\") over the [Tōshō\\-gū](/wiki/Nikk%C5%8D_T%C5%8Dsh%C5%8D-g%C5%AB \"Nikkō Tōshō-gū\") shrine in [Nikkō](/wiki/Nikk%C5%8D \"Nikkō\"), [Japan](/wiki/Japan \"Japan\")](/wiki/File:Hear_speak_see_no_evil_Toshogu.jpg \"Hear speak see no evil Toshogu.jpg\")\n{{Main\\|Monkey}}\nIn Hinduism, the monkey deity, [Hanuman](/wiki/Hanuman \"Hanuman\"), is a prominent figure. He is a reincarnation of Shiva, the god of destruction. In orthodox villages monkeys are safe from harm.",
"[Chinese religions](/wiki/Chinese_religions \"Chinese religions\") and [mythologies](/wiki/Chinese_mythology \"Chinese mythology\") give monkeys and apes [cultural significance](/wiki/Monkeys_in_Chinese_culture%23Religious_significance \"Monkeys in Chinese culture#Religious significance\") as metaphors for people. Chinese deities sometimes appear in the guise of monkeys, for example, [Sun Wukong](/wiki/Sun_Wukong \"Sun Wukong\") or \"Monkey King\" is the main protagonist in [Wu Cheng'en](/wiki/Wu_Cheng%27en \"Wu Cheng'en\")'s [picaresque](/wiki/Picaresque_novel \"Picaresque novel\") novel *[Journey to the West](/wiki/Journey_to_the_West \"Journey to the West\")*. In traditional [Chinese folk religion](/wiki/Chinese_folk_religion \"Chinese folk religion\"), monkeys are supernatural beings that could [shape shift](/wiki/Shape_shift \"Shape shift\") into either monkey\\-demons or were\\-monkeys, and legends about monkey\\-human interbreeding are common. In [Daoism](/wiki/Daoism \"Daoism\"), monkeys, particularly gibbons, were believed to have longevity like a *[xian](/wiki/Xian_%28Daoism%29 \"Xian (Daoism)\")* \"transcendent; immortal\", and to be innately adept at circulating and absorbing *[qi](/wiki/Qi \"Qi\")* \"breath; life force\" through the Daoist discipline of *[daoyin](/wiki/Daoyin \"Daoyin\")* \"guiding and pulling\". Similar to Daoism, [Chinese Buddhism](/wiki/Chinese_Buddhism \"Chinese Buddhism\") paradoxically treats monkeys as both wise and foolish animals. On the one hand, the *[Jataka tales](/wiki/Jataka_tales \"Jataka tales\")* say that [Gautama Buddha](/wiki/Gautama_Buddha \"Gautama Buddha\") was a benevolent monkey king in an earlier incarnation; and on the other hand, monkeys symbolized trickery and ignorance, represented by the [Chan Buddhist](/wiki/Chan_Buddhist \"Chan Buddhist\") \"[mind monkey](/wiki/Mind_monkey \"Mind monkey\")\" metaphor for the unsettled, restless nature of human mentality.",
"Monkeys are said to be worshipped in [Togo](/wiki/Togo \"Togo\"). At [Porto Novo](/wiki/Porto_Novo \"Porto Novo\"), in [Benin](/wiki/Benin \"Benin\"), twins have tutelary spirits in the shape of small monkeys.",
"The hamadryas baboon was sacred to the Ancient Egyptians and often appeared as a form of a deity. Egyptian deities depicted as baboons include [Hapi (Son of Horus)](/wiki/Hapi_%28Son_of_Horus%29 \"Hapi (Son of Horus)\"), [Babi (mythology)](/wiki/Babi_%28mythology%29 \"Babi (mythology)\") and [Thoth](/wiki/Thoth \"Thoth\"), although the latter is more often shown with the head of an ibis. A group of 6 or 8 baboons was also a common feature in scenes depicting the sun god at dawn as he rose over the horizon, with the baboons raising their hands to him in praise. This is probably inspired by the observed behaviour of baboons, as they are known to 'chatter' at sunrise as if greeting the sun.",
"### Hippopotamus",
"In Ancient Egyptian religion, the [hippopotamus](/wiki/Hippopotamus \"Hippopotamus\") had both positive and negative associations. On the one hand, the strong maternal instinct of female hippos led to the worship of several female hippo goddesses, usually as goddesses of pregnancy and motherhood, and protectors of women and children. The most famous of these hippopotamus goddesses is [Taweret](/wiki/Taweret \"Taweret\"), a very common household deity among the common people of Egypt, and many amulets were made in her form. Others included Opet or Ipet, who was similar to Taweret but a little more stately, as well as Reret, who personified the constellation of Draco. On the other hand, the destructive capabilities of the hippopotamus towards useful boats led to it also being seen as a force of chaos, and so it also became associated with the god of disorder, [Set](/wiki/Set_%28deity%29 \"Set (deity)\"). Though normally depicted as a man with the head of the mysterious \"sha\" animal, in scenes of the battles between Seth and Horus, Seth can sometimes be shown in hippopotamus form, with Horus standing on a papyrus raft and spearing him with a harpoon. This victory of Horus over Seth was symbolically re\\-enacted during royal hunting expeditions, with the king taking the role of Horus, and a wild hippopotamus embodying Seth. The king's successful slaughter of the hippopotamus thus connected his martial prowess to that of Horus himself, demonstrating his right to be king.",
"### Rodent",
"In some countries, e.g. India, a small number of temples are dedicated to the worship of wild [mice](/wiki/Mice \"Mice\"). Whilst widely regarded as a creature to be avoided, for pestilential reasons in such temples the animals are actively encouraged. It is frequently associated with Ganesh. As a creature capable of survival, it is to be revered and respected.",
""
] |
Birds
-----
### Crow/raven
{{Main\|Raven in mythology}}
The [Raven](/wiki/Raven "Raven") is the chief deity of the [Tlingit](/wiki/Tlingit_people "Tlingit people") people of [Alaska](/wiki/Alaska "Alaska"). All over that region it is the chief figure in a group of myths, fulfilling the office of a cultural hero who brings the light, gives fire to mankind, and so on. A raven story from the [Puget Sound](/wiki/Puget_Sound "Puget Sound") region describes the "Raven" as having originally lived in the land of spirits (literally *bird land*) that existed before the world of humans. One day the Raven became so bored with *bird land* that he flew away, carrying a stone in his beak. When the Raven became tired of carrying the stone and dropped it, the stone fell into the ocean and expanded until it formed the firmament on which humans now live.
In the creator role, and in the Raven's role as the [totem](/wiki/Totem "Totem") and [ancestor](/wiki/Apical_ancestor "Apical ancestor") of one of the four northwest clan houses, the Raven is often addressed as *Grandfather Raven*. It is not clear whether this form of address is intended to refer to a [creator](/wiki/Creator_deity "Creator deity") Raven who is different from the [trickster](/wiki/Trickster "Trickster") Raven, or if it is just a vain attempt to encourage the trickster spirit to act respectably.
Together with the eagle hawk the crow plays a great part in the mythology of southeastern [Australia](/wiki/Australia "Australia"). Ravens also play a part in some European mythologies, such as in the [Celtic](/wiki/Celtic_mythology "Celtic mythology") and [Germanic](/wiki/Germanic_peoples "Germanic peoples") [Religions](/wiki/Religions "Religions"), where they were connected to [Bran](/wiki/Bran_the_Blessed "Bran the Blessed") and the [Morrigan](/wiki/Morrigan "Morrigan") in the former and [Woden](/wiki/Woden "Woden") in the latter.
### Hawk
North Borneo treated the [hawk](/wiki/Hawk "Hawk") as a god, but it was technically the messenger of the people's Supreme God.[Waterbury (1952\)](/wiki/%23Reference-idWaterbury1952 "#Reference-idWaterbury1952"), p. 62 There were rituals that involved the hawk when the natives wished to make decisions about certain events, such as journeys from home, major agricultural work, and war. In North [Borneo](/wiki/Borneo "Borneo") we seem to see the evolution of a god in the three stages of the cult of the hawk among the [Kenyahs](/wiki/Kenyahs "Kenyahs"), the [Kayans](/wiki/Kayans "Kayans"), and the sea [Dyaks](/wiki/Dyaks "Dyaks"). The Kenyahs will not kill it, address to it thanks for assistance, and formally consult it before leaving home on an expedition. It seems, however, to be regarded as the messenger of the supreme god Balli Penyalong. The Kayans have a hawk god, [Laki Neho](/wiki/Laki_Neho "Laki Neho"), but seem to regard the hawk as the servant of the chief god, [Laki Tenangan](/wiki/Laki_Tenangan "Laki Tenangan"). [Singalang Burong](/wiki/Singalang_Burong "Singalang Burong"), the hawk\-god of the Dyaks, is completely anthropomorphized. He is the god of omens and ruler of the omen birds, but the hawk is not his messenger for he never leaves his house. Stories are, however, told of his attending feasts in human form and flying away in hawk form when all was over.
According to Florance Waterbury, hawk worship was universal.[Waterbury (1952\)](/wiki/%23Reference-idWaterbury1952 "#Reference-idWaterbury1952"), p. 26 This particular bird was "a heavenly deity; its wings were the sky, the sun and moon were its eyes".
The hawk is commonly associated with the Egyptian god [Horus](/wiki/Horus "Horus"). As a [god of the sky](/wiki/Sky_god "Sky god"), divine authority, war, victory, and civilisation, Horus became the patron deity of the pharaohs. The souls of former pharaohs were said to be the followers of Horus and therefore, the hawk. Horus was originally depicted by the Egyptians as a full hawk, but after the Fourth and Fifth Dynasty depictions with a human body and a hawk head became more common.[Waterbury (1952\)](/wiki/%23Reference-idWaterbury1952 "#Reference-idWaterbury1952"), p. 27 Other Egyptian deities shown in the form of a hawk or hawk\-headed man include [Qebehsenuef](/wiki/Qebehsenuef "Qebehsenuef"), [Sopdu](/wiki/Sopdu "Sopdu"), [Ra](/wiki/Ra "Ra") (not always), and [Sokar](/wiki/Seker "Seker").
Egypt was not the only location of hawk worshippers. There were several other cultures that held the hawk in high regard. The hawk was a deity on the island of Hawaii and symbolized swift justice. Along with the lone island from the Hawaiian archipelago, the Fiji islands also had some tribes who worshipped a hawk god. Furthermore, although animal worshipping is not a part of Sikh culture, a white falcon bird is primarily regarded in Sikhism as it was associated with the sixth guru and especially the tenth guru. The tenth guru would always carry a white falcon perched on his hand when going out to hunt. The tenth guru was known as the Master of White Hawk. Many people believe that the bird carried by Guru Gobind Singh was a hawk, however, historians believe that the bird was a gyrfalcon or a saker falcon.
### Frigatebird
On [Easter Island](/wiki/Easter_Island "Easter Island") until the 1860s there was a [Tangata manu](/wiki/Tangata_manu "Tangata manu") (Bird man) cult which has left us Paintings and [Petroglyphs](/wiki/Petroglyphs "Petroglyphs") of Birdmen (half men half [frigatebirds](/wiki/Frigatebird "Frigatebird")). The cult involved an annual race to collect the first [sooty tern](/wiki/Sooty_tern "Sooty tern") egg of the season from the islet of [Moto Iti](/wiki/Motu_Iti_%28Rapa_Nui%29 "Motu Iti (Rapa Nui)") and take it to [Orongo](/wiki/Orongo "Orongo").
The Frigate Bird Cult is thought to have originated in the Solomon Islands before immigrating to Easter Island where it became obsolete.[Balfour (1917\)](/wiki/%23Reference-idBalfour1917 "#Reference-idBalfour1917"), p. 374 The Frigate\-Bird was a representation of the god [Make\-make](/wiki/Makemake_%28mythology%29 "Makemake (mythology)"), the god of the seabird's egg on Easter Island.
### Ibis
In Ancient Egypt, the ibis was considered sacred as it was viewed as a manifestation of [Thoth](/wiki/Thoth "Thoth"), a god of the moon and wisdom. In art, Thoth was usually depicted as a man with the head of an ibis, or more rarely as a baboon. Sacred ibises were kept and fed in temples in his honour, and mummified ibises were given to him as votive offerings. It is thought that the association of the ibis with Thoth may have originated from the curved shape of the bird's beak, which resembles a crescent moon.
### Vulture
Another species of bird that was considered sacred in Ancient Egypt was the [Egyptian vulture](/wiki/Egyptian_vulture "Egyptian vulture"). At the city of [Nekheb](/wiki/Nekheb "Nekheb") in [Upper Egypt](/wiki/Upper_Egypt "Upper Egypt") there was a temple dedicated to the goddess [Nekhbet](/wiki/Nekhbet "Nekhbet"), who was depicted in art as a vulture, sometimes wearing a royal crown. Nekhbet was closely associated with the Egyptian royal family and was considered a personal protector of the Egyptian king. She was often portrayed or invoked alongside a similar goddess named [Wadjet](/wiki/Wadjet "Wadjet"), who was depicted as a cobra and had her main temple at [Buto](/wiki/Buto "Buto") in [Lower Egypt](/wiki/Lower_Egypt "Lower Egypt"). Nekhbet and Wadjet thus often featured together on temple reliefs and stelae, representing in heraldic format the union between Upper and Lower Egypt. These two goddesses were considered so important that they could be referred to by the simple title "nebty" ("the two ladies") without any confusion as to their identity. Out of the five names that made up the [Ancient Egyptian royal titulary](/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_royal_titulary "Ancient Egyptian royal titulary"), one of them, the "nebty name" was dedicated to the Two Ladies. This great honour of patronage over one of the king's names was shared only with such major gods as [Ra](/wiki/Ra "Ra") and [Horus](/wiki/Horus "Horus"). Egyptologists have theorised that the association of Nekhbet with the vulture may have originated from observations of a mother vulture's behaviour as it protects its chicks by "mantling" them with its wings, leading to its association with a protective and maternal goddess. In fact, the Egyptian word "mut" ("mother") is spelt in hieroglyphs with a picture of a vulture. Due to the vulture's maternal connotations and its early use in the iconography of Nekhbet, in later periods a vulture headdress came to be worn by a large number of Egyptian goddesses, as well as by human queens. The goddess [Mut](/wiki/Mut "Mut"), worshipped at [Thebes, Egypt](/wiki/Thebes%2C_Egypt "Thebes, Egypt") alongside [Amun](/wiki/Amun "Amun") and [Khonsu](/wiki/Khonsu "Khonsu"), was written in hieroglyphs with a picture of a vulture, and would be indistinguishable from the common noun "mother" except for the fact that in the goddess's name the vulture bears a royal flail. Goddesses who wore the vulture headdress in later periods included Mut, [Hathor](/wiki/Hathor "Hathor"), [Isis](/wiki/Isis "Isis"), and [Wadjet](/wiki/Wadjet "Wadjet"), although only Nekhbet appeared as a vulture in its entirety.
[thumb\|Jaṭayu sculpture at [Jaṭāyū Nature Park](/wiki/Jatayu_Nature_Park "Jatayu Nature Park"), credited as the world's largest bird sculpture.{{cite web \|date\=23 May 2018 \|title\=Kerala tourism to unveil world's largest bird sculpture \|website\=The Quint \|url\=https://www.thequint.com/hotwire\-text/kerala\-tourism\-to\-unveil\-world\-s\-largest\-bird\-sculpture \|access\-date\=25 May 2018}}](/wiki/File:Jatayu_Earth_Centre.jpg "Jatayu Earth Centre.jpg")
In the [Hindu](/wiki/Hinduism "Hinduism") epic [Ramayana](/wiki/Ramayana "Ramayana"), [Jatayu](/wiki/Jatayu "Jatayu"), the "King of Vultures"(*gṛdhrarāja*),*daśagrīvasthito dharme purāṇe satyasaṃśrayaḥ jaṭāyur nāma nāmnāhaṃ gṛdhrarājo mahābalaḥ* — Ramayana 3\.048\.003 fights valiantly with the [rakshasa](/wiki/Rakshasa "Rakshasa") [Ravana](/wiki/Ravana "Ravana") to prevent him from abducting [Sita](/wiki/Sita "Sita"). However, as Jatayu was very old, Ravana soon defeated him, clipping his wings, and Jatayu descended upon the earth. [Rama](/wiki/Rama "Rama") and [Lakshmana](/wiki/Lakshmana "Lakshmana"), while searching for Sita, chanced upon the stricken and dying Jatayu, who informed them of the battle with Ravana, and told them that Ravana had headed south. Jatayu then died of his wounds and Rama performed his final funeral rites.{{cite book \|last\=Chandramouli \|first\=C. \|title\=Temples of Tamil Nadu Kancheepuram District \|publisher\=Directorate of Census Operations, Tamil Nadu \|year\=2003}}{{sfnp\|Raman\|Padmaja\|1995\|p\=86}} Jatayu's elder brother [Sampati](/wiki/Sampati "Sampati") later helps [Rama](/wiki/Rama "Rama") and [Lakshmana](/wiki/Lakshmana "Lakshmana") find Sita.
Jatayu is worshipped at the [Vijayaraghava Perumal temple](/wiki/Vijayaraghava_Perumal_temple "Vijayaraghava Perumal temple") ([Thiruputkuli](/wiki/Thiruputkuzhi "Thiruputkuzhi"), [Tamil Nadu](/wiki/Tamil_Nadu "Tamil Nadu")), which is believed to be the site where he fell.
|
[
"Birds\n-----",
"### Crow/raven",
"{{Main\\|Raven in mythology}}",
"The [Raven](/wiki/Raven \"Raven\") is the chief deity of the [Tlingit](/wiki/Tlingit_people \"Tlingit people\") people of [Alaska](/wiki/Alaska \"Alaska\"). All over that region it is the chief figure in a group of myths, fulfilling the office of a cultural hero who brings the light, gives fire to mankind, and so on. A raven story from the [Puget Sound](/wiki/Puget_Sound \"Puget Sound\") region describes the \"Raven\" as having originally lived in the land of spirits (literally *bird land*) that existed before the world of humans. One day the Raven became so bored with *bird land* that he flew away, carrying a stone in his beak. When the Raven became tired of carrying the stone and dropped it, the stone fell into the ocean and expanded until it formed the firmament on which humans now live.",
"In the creator role, and in the Raven's role as the [totem](/wiki/Totem \"Totem\") and [ancestor](/wiki/Apical_ancestor \"Apical ancestor\") of one of the four northwest clan houses, the Raven is often addressed as *Grandfather Raven*. It is not clear whether this form of address is intended to refer to a [creator](/wiki/Creator_deity \"Creator deity\") Raven who is different from the [trickster](/wiki/Trickster \"Trickster\") Raven, or if it is just a vain attempt to encourage the trickster spirit to act respectably.",
"Together with the eagle hawk the crow plays a great part in the mythology of southeastern [Australia](/wiki/Australia \"Australia\"). Ravens also play a part in some European mythologies, such as in the [Celtic](/wiki/Celtic_mythology \"Celtic mythology\") and [Germanic](/wiki/Germanic_peoples \"Germanic peoples\") [Religions](/wiki/Religions \"Religions\"), where they were connected to [Bran](/wiki/Bran_the_Blessed \"Bran the Blessed\") and the [Morrigan](/wiki/Morrigan \"Morrigan\") in the former and [Woden](/wiki/Woden \"Woden\") in the latter.",
"### Hawk",
"North Borneo treated the [hawk](/wiki/Hawk \"Hawk\") as a god, but it was technically the messenger of the people's Supreme God.[Waterbury (1952\\)](/wiki/%23Reference-idWaterbury1952 \"#Reference-idWaterbury1952\"), p. 62 There were rituals that involved the hawk when the natives wished to make decisions about certain events, such as journeys from home, major agricultural work, and war. In North [Borneo](/wiki/Borneo \"Borneo\") we seem to see the evolution of a god in the three stages of the cult of the hawk among the [Kenyahs](/wiki/Kenyahs \"Kenyahs\"), the [Kayans](/wiki/Kayans \"Kayans\"), and the sea [Dyaks](/wiki/Dyaks \"Dyaks\"). The Kenyahs will not kill it, address to it thanks for assistance, and formally consult it before leaving home on an expedition. It seems, however, to be regarded as the messenger of the supreme god Balli Penyalong. The Kayans have a hawk god, [Laki Neho](/wiki/Laki_Neho \"Laki Neho\"), but seem to regard the hawk as the servant of the chief god, [Laki Tenangan](/wiki/Laki_Tenangan \"Laki Tenangan\"). [Singalang Burong](/wiki/Singalang_Burong \"Singalang Burong\"), the hawk\\-god of the Dyaks, is completely anthropomorphized. He is the god of omens and ruler of the omen birds, but the hawk is not his messenger for he never leaves his house. Stories are, however, told of his attending feasts in human form and flying away in hawk form when all was over.",
"According to Florance Waterbury, hawk worship was universal.[Waterbury (1952\\)](/wiki/%23Reference-idWaterbury1952 \"#Reference-idWaterbury1952\"), p. 26 This particular bird was \"a heavenly deity; its wings were the sky, the sun and moon were its eyes\".",
"The hawk is commonly associated with the Egyptian god [Horus](/wiki/Horus \"Horus\"). As a [god of the sky](/wiki/Sky_god \"Sky god\"), divine authority, war, victory, and civilisation, Horus became the patron deity of the pharaohs. The souls of former pharaohs were said to be the followers of Horus and therefore, the hawk. Horus was originally depicted by the Egyptians as a full hawk, but after the Fourth and Fifth Dynasty depictions with a human body and a hawk head became more common.[Waterbury (1952\\)](/wiki/%23Reference-idWaterbury1952 \"#Reference-idWaterbury1952\"), p. 27 Other Egyptian deities shown in the form of a hawk or hawk\\-headed man include [Qebehsenuef](/wiki/Qebehsenuef \"Qebehsenuef\"), [Sopdu](/wiki/Sopdu \"Sopdu\"), [Ra](/wiki/Ra \"Ra\") (not always), and [Sokar](/wiki/Seker \"Seker\").",
"Egypt was not the only location of hawk worshippers. There were several other cultures that held the hawk in high regard. The hawk was a deity on the island of Hawaii and symbolized swift justice. Along with the lone island from the Hawaiian archipelago, the Fiji islands also had some tribes who worshipped a hawk god. Furthermore, although animal worshipping is not a part of Sikh culture, a white falcon bird is primarily regarded in Sikhism as it was associated with the sixth guru and especially the tenth guru. The tenth guru would always carry a white falcon perched on his hand when going out to hunt. The tenth guru was known as the Master of White Hawk. Many people believe that the bird carried by Guru Gobind Singh was a hawk, however, historians believe that the bird was a gyrfalcon or a saker falcon.",
"### Frigatebird",
"On [Easter Island](/wiki/Easter_Island \"Easter Island\") until the 1860s there was a [Tangata manu](/wiki/Tangata_manu \"Tangata manu\") (Bird man) cult which has left us Paintings and [Petroglyphs](/wiki/Petroglyphs \"Petroglyphs\") of Birdmen (half men half [frigatebirds](/wiki/Frigatebird \"Frigatebird\")). The cult involved an annual race to collect the first [sooty tern](/wiki/Sooty_tern \"Sooty tern\") egg of the season from the islet of [Moto Iti](/wiki/Motu_Iti_%28Rapa_Nui%29 \"Motu Iti (Rapa Nui)\") and take it to [Orongo](/wiki/Orongo \"Orongo\").",
"The Frigate Bird Cult is thought to have originated in the Solomon Islands before immigrating to Easter Island where it became obsolete.[Balfour (1917\\)](/wiki/%23Reference-idBalfour1917 \"#Reference-idBalfour1917\"), p. 374 The Frigate\\-Bird was a representation of the god [Make\\-make](/wiki/Makemake_%28mythology%29 \"Makemake (mythology)\"), the god of the seabird's egg on Easter Island.",
"### Ibis",
"In Ancient Egypt, the ibis was considered sacred as it was viewed as a manifestation of [Thoth](/wiki/Thoth \"Thoth\"), a god of the moon and wisdom. In art, Thoth was usually depicted as a man with the head of an ibis, or more rarely as a baboon. Sacred ibises were kept and fed in temples in his honour, and mummified ibises were given to him as votive offerings. It is thought that the association of the ibis with Thoth may have originated from the curved shape of the bird's beak, which resembles a crescent moon.",
"### Vulture",
"Another species of bird that was considered sacred in Ancient Egypt was the [Egyptian vulture](/wiki/Egyptian_vulture \"Egyptian vulture\"). At the city of [Nekheb](/wiki/Nekheb \"Nekheb\") in [Upper Egypt](/wiki/Upper_Egypt \"Upper Egypt\") there was a temple dedicated to the goddess [Nekhbet](/wiki/Nekhbet \"Nekhbet\"), who was depicted in art as a vulture, sometimes wearing a royal crown. Nekhbet was closely associated with the Egyptian royal family and was considered a personal protector of the Egyptian king. She was often portrayed or invoked alongside a similar goddess named [Wadjet](/wiki/Wadjet \"Wadjet\"), who was depicted as a cobra and had her main temple at [Buto](/wiki/Buto \"Buto\") in [Lower Egypt](/wiki/Lower_Egypt \"Lower Egypt\"). Nekhbet and Wadjet thus often featured together on temple reliefs and stelae, representing in heraldic format the union between Upper and Lower Egypt. These two goddesses were considered so important that they could be referred to by the simple title \"nebty\" (\"the two ladies\") without any confusion as to their identity. Out of the five names that made up the [Ancient Egyptian royal titulary](/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_royal_titulary \"Ancient Egyptian royal titulary\"), one of them, the \"nebty name\" was dedicated to the Two Ladies. This great honour of patronage over one of the king's names was shared only with such major gods as [Ra](/wiki/Ra \"Ra\") and [Horus](/wiki/Horus \"Horus\"). Egyptologists have theorised that the association of Nekhbet with the vulture may have originated from observations of a mother vulture's behaviour as it protects its chicks by \"mantling\" them with its wings, leading to its association with a protective and maternal goddess. In fact, the Egyptian word \"mut\" (\"mother\") is spelt in hieroglyphs with a picture of a vulture. Due to the vulture's maternal connotations and its early use in the iconography of Nekhbet, in later periods a vulture headdress came to be worn by a large number of Egyptian goddesses, as well as by human queens. The goddess [Mut](/wiki/Mut \"Mut\"), worshipped at [Thebes, Egypt](/wiki/Thebes%2C_Egypt \"Thebes, Egypt\") alongside [Amun](/wiki/Amun \"Amun\") and [Khonsu](/wiki/Khonsu \"Khonsu\"), was written in hieroglyphs with a picture of a vulture, and would be indistinguishable from the common noun \"mother\" except for the fact that in the goddess's name the vulture bears a royal flail. Goddesses who wore the vulture headdress in later periods included Mut, [Hathor](/wiki/Hathor \"Hathor\"), [Isis](/wiki/Isis \"Isis\"), and [Wadjet](/wiki/Wadjet \"Wadjet\"), although only Nekhbet appeared as a vulture in its entirety.\n[thumb\\|Jaṭayu sculpture at [Jaṭāyū Nature Park](/wiki/Jatayu_Nature_Park \"Jatayu Nature Park\"), credited as the world's largest bird sculpture.{{cite web \\|date\\=23 May 2018 \\|title\\=Kerala tourism to unveil world's largest bird sculpture \\|website\\=The Quint \\|url\\=https://www.thequint.com/hotwire\\-text/kerala\\-tourism\\-to\\-unveil\\-world\\-s\\-largest\\-bird\\-sculpture \\|access\\-date\\=25 May 2018}}](/wiki/File:Jatayu_Earth_Centre.jpg \"Jatayu Earth Centre.jpg\")",
"In the [Hindu](/wiki/Hinduism \"Hinduism\") epic [Ramayana](/wiki/Ramayana \"Ramayana\"), [Jatayu](/wiki/Jatayu \"Jatayu\"), the \"King of Vultures\"(*gṛdhrarāja*),*daśagrīvasthito dharme purāṇe satyasaṃśrayaḥ jaṭāyur nāma nāmnāhaṃ gṛdhrarājo mahābalaḥ* — Ramayana 3\\.048\\.003 fights valiantly with the [rakshasa](/wiki/Rakshasa \"Rakshasa\") [Ravana](/wiki/Ravana \"Ravana\") to prevent him from abducting [Sita](/wiki/Sita \"Sita\"). However, as Jatayu was very old, Ravana soon defeated him, clipping his wings, and Jatayu descended upon the earth. [Rama](/wiki/Rama \"Rama\") and [Lakshmana](/wiki/Lakshmana \"Lakshmana\"), while searching for Sita, chanced upon the stricken and dying Jatayu, who informed them of the battle with Ravana, and told them that Ravana had headed south. Jatayu then died of his wounds and Rama performed his final funeral rites.{{cite book \\|last\\=Chandramouli \\|first\\=C. \\|title\\=Temples of Tamil Nadu Kancheepuram District \\|publisher\\=Directorate of Census Operations, Tamil Nadu \\|year\\=2003}}{{sfnp\\|Raman\\|Padmaja\\|1995\\|p\\=86}} Jatayu's elder brother [Sampati](/wiki/Sampati \"Sampati\") later helps [Rama](/wiki/Rama \"Rama\") and [Lakshmana](/wiki/Lakshmana \"Lakshmana\") find Sita.",
"Jatayu is worshipped at the [Vijayaraghava Perumal temple](/wiki/Vijayaraghava_Perumal_temple \"Vijayaraghava Perumal temple\") ([Thiruputkuli](/wiki/Thiruputkuzhi \"Thiruputkuzhi\"), [Tamil Nadu](/wiki/Tamil_Nadu \"Tamil Nadu\")), which is believed to be the site where he fell.",
""
] |
Other non\-mammals
------------------
### Serpents
{{Main\|Snake worship}}
[thumb\|upright\=0\.8\|right\|The altar where serpent deities are worshipped in a temple in [Belur](/wiki/Belur%2C_Karnataka "Belur, Karnataka"), [Karnataka](/wiki/Karnataka "Karnataka"), India](/wiki/Image:Naga3.jpg "Naga3.jpg")
[thumb\|right\|Quetzalcoatl depicted as a snake devouring a man, from the [Codex Telleriano\-Remensis](/wiki/Codex_Telleriano-Remensis "Codex Telleriano-Remensis").](/wiki/Image:Quetzalcoatl_telleriano.jpg "Quetzalcoatl telleriano.jpg")
The worship of the serpent is found in many parts of the [Old World](/wiki/Old_World "Old World"), and in the Americas.
In India [snake worship](/wiki/Snake_worship "Snake worship") refers to the high status of [snakes](/wiki/Snake "Snake") in [Hindu mythology](/wiki/Hindu_mythology "Hindu mythology"). Over a large part of India, there are carved representations of cobras ([nagas](/wiki/Naga_%28mythology%29 "Naga (mythology)")) or stones as substitutes. To these people, food and flowers are offered and lights are burned before the shrines. Among the Dravidians a cobra that is accidentally killed is burned like a human being; no one would kill one intentionally. The serpent god's image is carried in an annual procession by a celibate priestess.
At one time there were many prevalent different renditions of the serpent cult located in India. In Northern India, a masculine version of the serpent named Nagaraja, known as the "king of the serpents" was worshipped. Instead of the "king of the serpents," actual live snakes were worshipped in South India.[Bhattacharyya (1965\)](/wiki/%23Reference-idBhattacharyya1965 "#Reference-idBhattacharyya1965"), p. 1 The Manasa cult in Bengal, India, however, was dedicated to the anthropomorphic serpent goddess, [Manasa](/wiki/Manasa "Manasa").[Bhattacharyya (1965\)](/wiki/%23Reference-idBhattacharyya1965 "#Reference-idBhattacharyya1965"), p. 1
In Africa the chief centre of [serpent](/wiki/Serpent_%28symbolism%29 "Serpent (symbolism)") worship was [Dahomey](/wiki/Dahomey "Dahomey"). But the cult of the python seems to have been of exotic origin, dating back to the first quarter of the 17th century. By the conquest of Whydah, the Dahomeyans were brought in contact with a people of serpent worshippers and ended by adopting from them the beliefs which they at first despised. At Whydah, the chief centre, there is a serpent temple, tenanted by some fifty snakes. Every python of the *danh\-gbi* kind must be treated with respect, and death is the penalty for killing one, even by accident. *Danh\-gbi* has numerous wives, who until 1857 took part in a public procession from which the profane crowd was excluded; a python was carried around the town in a hammock, perhaps as a ceremony for the expulsion of evils. The rainbow god of the Ashanti was also conceived to have the form of a snake. His messenger was said to be a small variety of boa. But only specific individuals, not the whole species, were sacred. In many parts of Africa, the serpent is looked upon as the incarnation of deceased relatives. Among the Amazulu, as among the [Betsileo](/wiki/Betsileo "Betsileo") of Madagascar, certain species are assigned as the abode of certain classes. The [Maasai](/wiki/Maasai_people "Maasai people"), on the other hand, regard each species as the habitat of a particular family of the tribe.
In Ancient Egyptian religion, serpents had both positive and negative representations. On the one hand, the Egyptians worshipped several beneficent snake deities, including [Wadjet](/wiki/Wadjet "Wadjet"), [Renenutet](/wiki/Renenutet "Renenutet"), [Meretseger](/wiki/Meretseger "Meretseger"), [Nehebkau](/wiki/Nehebkau "Nehebkau") and [Mehen](/wiki/Mehen "Mehen"). The [uraeus](/wiki/Uraeus "Uraeus") was a fierce divine cobra that protected Egyptian kings and major deities. On the other hand, the serpent [Apophis](/wiki/Apep "Apep") was a malevolent demon, who endeavoured to destroy the chief deity [Ra](/wiki/Ra "Ra").
The Sumerians had a serpent god [Ningizzida](/wiki/Ningizzida "Ningizzida").
### Other reptiles
As well as the serpent, the Nile crocodile was another important reptile in Ancient Egyptian religion. Several deities were depicted in crocodilian form, but the most famous and important of these was undoubtedly the god [Sobek](/wiki/Sobek "Sobek"). Sobek was a powerful and fearsome god, associated with violence and strength, and acted as a fierce protector against evil, and a punisher of wrongdoers. It is easy to see why he was associated with the crocodile, which similarly is a very fearsome creature. Sobek also had a role relating to fertility, particularly the fertility brought to the land by the Nile flood, in whose waters crocodiles live. Sobek's main temple was located in the city of [Crocodilopolis](/wiki/Crocodilopolis "Crocodilopolis") in the [Fayyum](/wiki/Fayyum "Fayyum") area, and he also had the important [Temple of Kom Ombo](/wiki/Temple_of_Kom_Ombo "Temple of Kom Ombo"), which he shared with the god Horus. Sobek was also worshipped as a secondary deity in the temples of other gods, particularly those of his mother, the goddess [Neith](/wiki/Neith "Neith"). Other Egyptian crocodile gods include Shemanefer, the lesser\-known brother of Sobek, as well as Khenty\-Khety and Wenty, about whom little is known.
### Fish
{{Main\|Fish in culture}}
[thumb\|A modern interpretation of Dagon as a "fish\-god"](/wiki/Image:Dagon1.jpg "Dagon1.jpg")
According to the [Jewish](/wiki/Jewish "Jewish") scholar [Rashi](/wiki/Rashi "Rashi"), the [Canaanite](/wiki/Canaan "Canaan") god [Dagon](/wiki/Dagon "Dagon") was a fish god. This tradition may have originated here, with a misinterpretation, but recently uncovered [reliefs](/wiki/Relief "Relief") suggest a fish\-god with human head and hands was worshipped by people who wore fish\-skins.
In Japan, there was a deity called Ebisu\-gami who, according to Sakurada Katsunori, was widely revered by fishing communities and industries.[Naumann (1974\)](/wiki/%23Reference-idNaumann1974 "#Reference-idNaumann1974"), p. 1 Ebisu, in later traditions, normally appeared in the form of a fisherman holding a fishing pole and carrying a red tai (a perch), but would sometimes take the form of a whale, shark, human corpse, or rock. The general image of Ebisu, however, appears to be the whale or the shark, according to Sakurada.[Naumann (1974\)](/wiki/%23Reference-idNaumann1974 "#Reference-idNaumann1974"), p. 2
During Ebisu\-gami festivals, there have been legends told of strange fish creatures which have arrived and been considered sacred. Examples of such fish creatures include familiar species of fish with multiple tails. Sometimes these fish were considered to be simply an offering to the deity. Other times, however, they were considered to be Ebisu himself, visiting on the festival day. Large marine [megafaunas](/wiki/Megafauna "Megafauna") such as whales and [whale sharks](/wiki/Whale_shark "Whale shark") (also called "Ebisu\-shark") were often referred to as Ebisu himself to bring a mass of fish among them and as guardians of fishermen.
The Ancient Egyptian goddess [Hatmehit](/wiki/Hatmehit "Hatmehit") from the city of [Mendes](/wiki/Mendes "Mendes") was depicted as a fish, fish\-woman hybrid, or a woman with a fish emblem or crown on her head. She was a goddess of life and protection. Fish, specifically Nile perch, were also held sacred to the Egyptian goddess [Neith](/wiki/Neith "Neith") at her temple at [Esna](/wiki/Esna "Esna"), though she was never depicted in their form.{{citation needed\|date\=May 2020}}
### Amphibians
{{Main\|Frogs in culture}}
The Ancient Egyptians worshipped a goddess in the form of a frog, named [Heqet](/wiki/Heqet "Heqet"). She was a goddess of fertility, both the fertility of the land and the fertility of human reproduction. She was particularly associated with the final stages of the Nile flood, as well as the final stages of human birth. She was portrayed as a divine midwife and was considered the consort of the god [Khnum](/wiki/Khnum "Khnum") due to their similar roles.
### Insects
The [dung beetle](/wiki/Dung_beetle "Dung beetle"), or [scarab](/wiki/Scarabaeus_sacer "Scarabaeus sacer"), was an important symbol in Ancient Egyptian religion. The behaviour of the beetle rolling its ball of dung along the ground was likened to the sun god rolling the sun across the sky. As a result, the beetle god [Khepri](/wiki/Khepri "Khepri") received worship in the city of [Heliopolis](/wiki/Heliopolis_%28ancient_Egypt%29 "Heliopolis (ancient Egypt)"), the main sanctuary of the sun god [Ra](/wiki/Ra "Ra"). In addition, the birth of young beetles from eggs laid in dung was an important symbol of rebirth, so amulets in the shape of scarabs were often included in tombs.
Another insect (technically, an arachnid) venerated by the Egyptians was the scorpion. The goddess [Serqet](/wiki/Serqet "Serqet") was depicted wearing a scorpion on her headdress, and was prayed to in order to heal venomous stings and bites. She was one of a group of four goddesses frequently invoked together to protect the body in funerary customs, the others being [Isis](/wiki/Isis "Isis"), [Nephthys](/wiki/Nephthys "Nephthys"), and [Neith](/wiki/Neith "Neith"). The four were often charged with protecting particular organs, assisting the [Four Sons of Horus](/wiki/Four_Sons_of_Horus "Four Sons of Horus"). Though less famous than the other three canopic goddesses, Serqet's worship is clearly very ancient, with images of scorpions appearing very early in Egyptian art, and even appearing in the names of several early kings. Though the association of Serqet with the scorpion has long been assumed her original function, recent scholarship has questioned whether the original animal in her headdress may have actually been a water scorpion and whether the association with the land scorpion came later. As well as Serqet, there were several more minor scorpion goddesses, including [Hededet](/wiki/Hededet "Hededet") and [Ta\-Bitjet](/wiki/Ta-Bitjet "Ta-Bitjet"). A group of seven scorpions also appear as protectors of Isis in the myth of her raising her son Horus.
|
[
"Other non\\-mammals\n------------------",
"### Serpents",
"{{Main\\|Snake worship}}\n[thumb\\|upright\\=0\\.8\\|right\\|The altar where serpent deities are worshipped in a temple in [Belur](/wiki/Belur%2C_Karnataka \"Belur, Karnataka\"), [Karnataka](/wiki/Karnataka \"Karnataka\"), India](/wiki/Image:Naga3.jpg \"Naga3.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|right\\|Quetzalcoatl depicted as a snake devouring a man, from the [Codex Telleriano\\-Remensis](/wiki/Codex_Telleriano-Remensis \"Codex Telleriano-Remensis\").](/wiki/Image:Quetzalcoatl_telleriano.jpg \"Quetzalcoatl telleriano.jpg\")\nThe worship of the serpent is found in many parts of the [Old World](/wiki/Old_World \"Old World\"), and in the Americas.",
"In India [snake worship](/wiki/Snake_worship \"Snake worship\") refers to the high status of [snakes](/wiki/Snake \"Snake\") in [Hindu mythology](/wiki/Hindu_mythology \"Hindu mythology\"). Over a large part of India, there are carved representations of cobras ([nagas](/wiki/Naga_%28mythology%29 \"Naga (mythology)\")) or stones as substitutes. To these people, food and flowers are offered and lights are burned before the shrines. Among the Dravidians a cobra that is accidentally killed is burned like a human being; no one would kill one intentionally. The serpent god's image is carried in an annual procession by a celibate priestess.",
"At one time there were many prevalent different renditions of the serpent cult located in India. In Northern India, a masculine version of the serpent named Nagaraja, known as the \"king of the serpents\" was worshipped. Instead of the \"king of the serpents,\" actual live snakes were worshipped in South India.[Bhattacharyya (1965\\)](/wiki/%23Reference-idBhattacharyya1965 \"#Reference-idBhattacharyya1965\"), p. 1 The Manasa cult in Bengal, India, however, was dedicated to the anthropomorphic serpent goddess, [Manasa](/wiki/Manasa \"Manasa\").[Bhattacharyya (1965\\)](/wiki/%23Reference-idBhattacharyya1965 \"#Reference-idBhattacharyya1965\"), p. 1",
"In Africa the chief centre of [serpent](/wiki/Serpent_%28symbolism%29 \"Serpent (symbolism)\") worship was [Dahomey](/wiki/Dahomey \"Dahomey\"). But the cult of the python seems to have been of exotic origin, dating back to the first quarter of the 17th century. By the conquest of Whydah, the Dahomeyans were brought in contact with a people of serpent worshippers and ended by adopting from them the beliefs which they at first despised. At Whydah, the chief centre, there is a serpent temple, tenanted by some fifty snakes. Every python of the *danh\\-gbi* kind must be treated with respect, and death is the penalty for killing one, even by accident. *Danh\\-gbi* has numerous wives, who until 1857 took part in a public procession from which the profane crowd was excluded; a python was carried around the town in a hammock, perhaps as a ceremony for the expulsion of evils. The rainbow god of the Ashanti was also conceived to have the form of a snake. His messenger was said to be a small variety of boa. But only specific individuals, not the whole species, were sacred. In many parts of Africa, the serpent is looked upon as the incarnation of deceased relatives. Among the Amazulu, as among the [Betsileo](/wiki/Betsileo \"Betsileo\") of Madagascar, certain species are assigned as the abode of certain classes. The [Maasai](/wiki/Maasai_people \"Maasai people\"), on the other hand, regard each species as the habitat of a particular family of the tribe.",
"In Ancient Egyptian religion, serpents had both positive and negative representations. On the one hand, the Egyptians worshipped several beneficent snake deities, including [Wadjet](/wiki/Wadjet \"Wadjet\"), [Renenutet](/wiki/Renenutet \"Renenutet\"), [Meretseger](/wiki/Meretseger \"Meretseger\"), [Nehebkau](/wiki/Nehebkau \"Nehebkau\") and [Mehen](/wiki/Mehen \"Mehen\"). The [uraeus](/wiki/Uraeus \"Uraeus\") was a fierce divine cobra that protected Egyptian kings and major deities. On the other hand, the serpent [Apophis](/wiki/Apep \"Apep\") was a malevolent demon, who endeavoured to destroy the chief deity [Ra](/wiki/Ra \"Ra\").",
"The Sumerians had a serpent god [Ningizzida](/wiki/Ningizzida \"Ningizzida\").",
"### Other reptiles",
"As well as the serpent, the Nile crocodile was another important reptile in Ancient Egyptian religion. Several deities were depicted in crocodilian form, but the most famous and important of these was undoubtedly the god [Sobek](/wiki/Sobek \"Sobek\"). Sobek was a powerful and fearsome god, associated with violence and strength, and acted as a fierce protector against evil, and a punisher of wrongdoers. It is easy to see why he was associated with the crocodile, which similarly is a very fearsome creature. Sobek also had a role relating to fertility, particularly the fertility brought to the land by the Nile flood, in whose waters crocodiles live. Sobek's main temple was located in the city of [Crocodilopolis](/wiki/Crocodilopolis \"Crocodilopolis\") in the [Fayyum](/wiki/Fayyum \"Fayyum\") area, and he also had the important [Temple of Kom Ombo](/wiki/Temple_of_Kom_Ombo \"Temple of Kom Ombo\"), which he shared with the god Horus. Sobek was also worshipped as a secondary deity in the temples of other gods, particularly those of his mother, the goddess [Neith](/wiki/Neith \"Neith\"). Other Egyptian crocodile gods include Shemanefer, the lesser\\-known brother of Sobek, as well as Khenty\\-Khety and Wenty, about whom little is known.",
"### Fish",
"{{Main\\|Fish in culture}}",
"[thumb\\|A modern interpretation of Dagon as a \"fish\\-god\"](/wiki/Image:Dagon1.jpg \"Dagon1.jpg\")\nAccording to the [Jewish](/wiki/Jewish \"Jewish\") scholar [Rashi](/wiki/Rashi \"Rashi\"), the [Canaanite](/wiki/Canaan \"Canaan\") god [Dagon](/wiki/Dagon \"Dagon\") was a fish god. This tradition may have originated here, with a misinterpretation, but recently uncovered [reliefs](/wiki/Relief \"Relief\") suggest a fish\\-god with human head and hands was worshipped by people who wore fish\\-skins.",
"In Japan, there was a deity called Ebisu\\-gami who, according to Sakurada Katsunori, was widely revered by fishing communities and industries.[Naumann (1974\\)](/wiki/%23Reference-idNaumann1974 \"#Reference-idNaumann1974\"), p. 1 Ebisu, in later traditions, normally appeared in the form of a fisherman holding a fishing pole and carrying a red tai (a perch), but would sometimes take the form of a whale, shark, human corpse, or rock. The general image of Ebisu, however, appears to be the whale or the shark, according to Sakurada.[Naumann (1974\\)](/wiki/%23Reference-idNaumann1974 \"#Reference-idNaumann1974\"), p. 2",
"During Ebisu\\-gami festivals, there have been legends told of strange fish creatures which have arrived and been considered sacred. Examples of such fish creatures include familiar species of fish with multiple tails. Sometimes these fish were considered to be simply an offering to the deity. Other times, however, they were considered to be Ebisu himself, visiting on the festival day. Large marine [megafaunas](/wiki/Megafauna \"Megafauna\") such as whales and [whale sharks](/wiki/Whale_shark \"Whale shark\") (also called \"Ebisu\\-shark\") were often referred to as Ebisu himself to bring a mass of fish among them and as guardians of fishermen.",
"The Ancient Egyptian goddess [Hatmehit](/wiki/Hatmehit \"Hatmehit\") from the city of [Mendes](/wiki/Mendes \"Mendes\") was depicted as a fish, fish\\-woman hybrid, or a woman with a fish emblem or crown on her head. She was a goddess of life and protection. Fish, specifically Nile perch, were also held sacred to the Egyptian goddess [Neith](/wiki/Neith \"Neith\") at her temple at [Esna](/wiki/Esna \"Esna\"), though she was never depicted in their form.{{citation needed\\|date\\=May 2020}}",
"### Amphibians",
"{{Main\\|Frogs in culture}}\nThe Ancient Egyptians worshipped a goddess in the form of a frog, named [Heqet](/wiki/Heqet \"Heqet\"). She was a goddess of fertility, both the fertility of the land and the fertility of human reproduction. She was particularly associated with the final stages of the Nile flood, as well as the final stages of human birth. She was portrayed as a divine midwife and was considered the consort of the god [Khnum](/wiki/Khnum \"Khnum\") due to their similar roles.",
"### Insects",
"The [dung beetle](/wiki/Dung_beetle \"Dung beetle\"), or [scarab](/wiki/Scarabaeus_sacer \"Scarabaeus sacer\"), was an important symbol in Ancient Egyptian religion. The behaviour of the beetle rolling its ball of dung along the ground was likened to the sun god rolling the sun across the sky. As a result, the beetle god [Khepri](/wiki/Khepri \"Khepri\") received worship in the city of [Heliopolis](/wiki/Heliopolis_%28ancient_Egypt%29 \"Heliopolis (ancient Egypt)\"), the main sanctuary of the sun god [Ra](/wiki/Ra \"Ra\"). In addition, the birth of young beetles from eggs laid in dung was an important symbol of rebirth, so amulets in the shape of scarabs were often included in tombs.",
"Another insect (technically, an arachnid) venerated by the Egyptians was the scorpion. The goddess [Serqet](/wiki/Serqet \"Serqet\") was depicted wearing a scorpion on her headdress, and was prayed to in order to heal venomous stings and bites. She was one of a group of four goddesses frequently invoked together to protect the body in funerary customs, the others being [Isis](/wiki/Isis \"Isis\"), [Nephthys](/wiki/Nephthys \"Nephthys\"), and [Neith](/wiki/Neith \"Neith\"). The four were often charged with protecting particular organs, assisting the [Four Sons of Horus](/wiki/Four_Sons_of_Horus \"Four Sons of Horus\"). Though less famous than the other three canopic goddesses, Serqet's worship is clearly very ancient, with images of scorpions appearing very early in Egyptian art, and even appearing in the names of several early kings. Though the association of Serqet with the scorpion has long been assumed her original function, recent scholarship has questioned whether the original animal in her headdress may have actually been a water scorpion and whether the association with the land scorpion came later. As well as Serqet, there were several more minor scorpion goddesses, including [Hededet](/wiki/Hededet \"Hededet\") and [Ta\\-Bitjet](/wiki/Ta-Bitjet \"Ta-Bitjet\"). A group of seven scorpions also appear as protectors of Isis in the myth of her raising her son Horus.",
""
] |
Production variants
-------------------
[thumb\|Original {{cvt\|160\|hp\|disp\=flip}} Mercedes D.III, with "side\-slot" rocker\-arm design SOHC valvetrain atop the cylinders.](/wiki/File:Daimler_D.III_LSide_DMFO_10June2013_%2814606972403%29.jpg "Daimler D.III LSide DMFO 10June2013 (14606972403).jpg")
The original D.III was introduced in 1914\. While it saw widespread use in early examples of the C\-series of two\-seat general\-purpose biplanes, the D.III was too large for contemporary fighter designs and did not see use in that role. At the time, fighters were generally powered by lighter rotary engines of power output levels from {{cvt\|80\|hp\|disp\=flip}} to about {{cvt\|110\|hp\|disp\=flip}}, or by water\-cooled inline engines in the {{cvt\|100\|hp\|disp\=flip}} to {{cvt\|120\|hp\|disp\=flip}} range such as the earlier [Mercedes D.II](/wiki/Mercedes_D.II "Mercedes D.II"). By 1916 new designs had grown in size and performance and the D.III became popular on new designs. By 1917 the D.III was being widely used in fighters, most notably on the famous [Albatros D.I](/wiki/Albatros_D.I "Albatros D.I"). Production of this version was essentially wound down by May 1917, with only a handful continuing to be delivered until October. British HP ratings being slightly different (with 746 watts \= 1 hp) to the German PS or [*Pferdestärke*](/wiki/Horsepower%23Metric_horsepower_%28PS%2C_cv%2C_hk%2C_pk%2C_ks%2C_ch%29 "Horsepower#Metric horsepower (PS, cv, hk, pk, ks, ch)") standard of roughly 735 watts per PS horsepower, it is probable that this engine would have had a slightly higher rating under British HP numbers. Fuel consumption was 11\.75 gallons per hour.{{Cite book\|last\=Miller\|first\=James F.\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=RpqjCwAAQBAJ\&q\=mercedes\+d.ii\+bore\&pg\=PA21\|title\=Albatros D.I\-D.II\|publisher\=Bloomsbury Publishing\|year\=2013\|isbn\=978\-1780966014\|pages\=21–22}} Its compression ratio was 4\.5:1\.{{Cite book\|last1\=Angle\|first1\=Glenn\|url\=https://archive.org/details/airplaneenginee00anglgoog\|quote\=mercedes e6f.\|title\=Airplane Engine Encyclopedia\|last2\=Dale\|publisher\=Otterbein Press\|year\=1921\|pages\=\[https://archive.org/details/airplaneenginee00anglgoog/page/n356 341], 346}}
Development of the basic design led to the slightly modified {{cvt\|170\|hp\|disp\=flip}} **D.IIIa**, which took over on the production lines in June 1917\. The main change was to change the piston profile to have a flat head instead of the former concave one, thereby slightly increasing maximum compression to 4\.64:1\. Other changes were mainly in design details, notably a redesigned crankcase and new carburetor. Many of the accessories were also redesigned or moved around on the engine. This model was produced only briefly, for use on the [Albatros D.III](/wiki/Albatros_D.III "Albatros D.III") but there are indications that possibly some early Albatros (Alb.) made Fokker D.VII's were also equipped but probably had the engines upgraded or replaced as quickly as possible. This engine has been referred to in postwar British analysis as generating {{cvt\|180\|hp\|disp\=flip}}
A more "radical" upgrade was the {{cvt\|180\|\-\|200\|hp\|disp\=flip}} **D.IIIaü**, introduced in late 1917, the D.IIIaü was a standardized refinement of the D.III and D.IIIa design and the ü designation was never official. This engine changed the pistons again, this time to a domed profile that further increased the maximum compression – the ü was for "über", meaning "overcompressed". Additionally, a new altitude\-compensating carburetor was added, which improved performance at higher altitudes. To support operations at these altitudes, water from the radiator was used to heat the air intake and prevent icing in the carburetor. The aü model, which included upgraded D.III and D.IIIa engine blocks, was the most prolific German fighter engine of 1918 and designed into most fighter designs from late 1917 on. This included most of the entries in the First Fighter Competition at [Adlershof](/wiki/Adlershof "Adlershof") in January 1918, notably the famed [Fokker D.VII](/wiki/Fokker_D.VII "Fokker D.VII"). In British post war evaluation the D.IIIaü demonstrated {{cvt\|200\|hp\|disp\=flip}} according to the British standards.
A final version attempting to keep the D.III block competitive was the {{cvt\|200\|hp\|disp\=flip}} ({{cvt\|200\|\-\|217\|hp\|disp\=flip}}) **D.IIIav** (or avü), introduced mid\-October 1918\. The av used slightly longer pistons made of aluminium (possibly a first for a production engine), increasing the compression yet again, while at the same time allowing them to move faster due to the reduced weight. The maximum allowable RPM increased from 1,400 in the earlier models to 1,600 in the av, accounting for most of the gains in power. It is unclear if any av's saw service use. The increased use of [Benzol](/wiki/Benzene "Benzene") in German aviation fuel may have helped this final upgrade of power, its higher octane rating being better suited for the higher compression ratio.
### External differences between models
[thumb\|left\|Aft\-end details of the original [SOHC](/wiki/SOHC "SOHC") valvetrain for the D.III \- the rocker arm emerges from the "rocker box" through a slot in the box's side.](/wiki/File:Early_Mercedes_D_III_Valvetrain.jpg "Early Mercedes D III Valvetrain.jpg")
All of the D.III series were generally very similar to other models, with the exception of the piston profile, carburetor details and valvetrain details. It appears that upgrades were available for many of the engines, certainly for the III to IIIa, and IIIa to IIIaü. It would seem unlikely that early III's would ever make it to the IIIaü standard, as they would almost certainly have been worn out in service before then.
The valvetrain changes concerned the layout of the rocker arms that operated the valves. Early models had square [rocker boxes](/wiki/Rocker_cover "Rocker cover") positioned directly over the cylinders with the rocker arms exiting through vertical slots, one cut into each of the opposing sides of the boxes, as shown at left.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1915/1915%20\-%200984\.html \|title\=The Mercedes Engines on the Captured Aeroplanes \|author\= \|date\=December 3, 1915 \|page\=948 \|website\=flightglobal.com \|publisher\=Flightglobal Archive \|access\-date\=February 14, 2014}} The earlier "side\-slot" rocker arm design had also been used for the Mercedes D.I and D.II engines' valvetrains. In later versions of the D.III engines, the boxes were relocated rearward on the tubular camshaft housing, and the now easily sealable cylindrical rocker arm shafts protruded forwards through the front surfaces of the boxes, operating the now fully exposed rocker arms with the exposed shaft ends, as shown at right.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1918/1918%20\-%200685\.html \|title\=The 180 H.P. Mercedes Aero Engine \|author\= \|date\=June 20, 1918 \|page\=683 \|website\=flightglobal.com \|publisher\=Flightglobal Archive \|access\-date\=March 2, 2015}}
[thumb\|Later pattern SOHC D.III valvetrain, using the relocated rocker box design, with rotary shafts to operate the fully exposed [roller rocker](/wiki/Roller_rocker "Roller rocker") arms.](/wiki/File:Later_Mercedes_D_III_Valvetrain.jpg "Later Mercedes D III Valvetrain.jpg")
The newer arrangement was stated as being interchangeable as a set with the complete camshaft, rocker boxes, rocker arms and valve springs, with the D.III's earlier "side\-slot" cam drive system design \- the later system seems to have influenced both [Packard](/wiki/Packard "Packard")'s and [Hall\-Scott](/wiki/Hall-Scott "Hall-Scott")'s engine designers to adopt a nearly identical "slotless" rocker\-box overhead cam valvetrain design feature for the [Liberty L\-12](/wiki/Liberty_L-12 "Liberty L-12") [Allied](/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_I "Allies of World War I") V\-12 aviation engine.
Confusingly, the "ü" was not an official part of the name. This leads to a number of problems in various references, which often confuse the IIIa with the IIIaü, listing the former as a {{cvt\|180\|hp\|disp\=flip}} engine. There are two D.IV engines — from the *[IdFlieg](/wiki/IdFlieg "IdFlieg")* aircraft powerplant class designations based on power output — one [the straight\-eight](/wiki/Mercedes_D.IV "Mercedes D.IV") based on the 140 mm bore D.III pistons; and the later, six\-cylinder [Mercedes D.IVa](/wiki/Mercedes_D.IVa "Mercedes D.IVa") with 160 mm bore cylinders, which was essentially unrelated.
The D.III line of engines would find themselves eclipsed in performance by the [BMW IIIa](/wiki/BMW_IIIa "BMW IIIa") of {{cvt\|185\|hp\|disp\=flip}} and then {{cvt\|200\|hp\|disp\=flip}}(British rated it at {{cvt\|230\|hp\|disp\=flip}}) in 1918, however, the small number of BMW's produced ensured that the Mercedes D.III series would be the primary German fighter engine up to the last month or two of the war and it would still be seen in very large numbers even at the end. At the end of the war the D.IIIaü would still be the numerically predominant German fighter engine. As a result, the Fokker D.VII's (those not equipped with BMW IIIa's) and the Pfalz D.XII's would be engine\-limited in performance (as opposed to "airframe\-limited") and yet would still be formidable adversaries to their Allied counterparts. The D.IIIaü was considered the optimum engine for the Roland D.VI, Pfalz D.IIIa, and Albatros D.Va fighters, whose airframes were of an earlier, "all\-wood" generation in design.
|
[
"Production variants\n-------------------",
"[thumb\\|Original {{cvt\\|160\\|hp\\|disp\\=flip}} Mercedes D.III, with \"side\\-slot\" rocker\\-arm design SOHC valvetrain atop the cylinders.](/wiki/File:Daimler_D.III_LSide_DMFO_10June2013_%2814606972403%29.jpg \"Daimler D.III LSide DMFO 10June2013 (14606972403).jpg\")\nThe original D.III was introduced in 1914\\. While it saw widespread use in early examples of the C\\-series of two\\-seat general\\-purpose biplanes, the D.III was too large for contemporary fighter designs and did not see use in that role. At the time, fighters were generally powered by lighter rotary engines of power output levels from {{cvt\\|80\\|hp\\|disp\\=flip}} to about {{cvt\\|110\\|hp\\|disp\\=flip}}, or by water\\-cooled inline engines in the {{cvt\\|100\\|hp\\|disp\\=flip}} to {{cvt\\|120\\|hp\\|disp\\=flip}} range such as the earlier [Mercedes D.II](/wiki/Mercedes_D.II \"Mercedes D.II\"). By 1916 new designs had grown in size and performance and the D.III became popular on new designs. By 1917 the D.III was being widely used in fighters, most notably on the famous [Albatros D.I](/wiki/Albatros_D.I \"Albatros D.I\"). Production of this version was essentially wound down by May 1917, with only a handful continuing to be delivered until October. British HP ratings being slightly different (with 746 watts \\= 1 hp) to the German PS or [*Pferdestärke*](/wiki/Horsepower%23Metric_horsepower_%28PS%2C_cv%2C_hk%2C_pk%2C_ks%2C_ch%29 \"Horsepower#Metric horsepower (PS, cv, hk, pk, ks, ch)\") standard of roughly 735 watts per PS horsepower, it is probable that this engine would have had a slightly higher rating under British HP numbers. Fuel consumption was 11\\.75 gallons per hour.{{Cite book\\|last\\=Miller\\|first\\=James F.\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=RpqjCwAAQBAJ\\&q\\=mercedes\\+d.ii\\+bore\\&pg\\=PA21\\|title\\=Albatros D.I\\-D.II\\|publisher\\=Bloomsbury Publishing\\|year\\=2013\\|isbn\\=978\\-1780966014\\|pages\\=21–22}} Its compression ratio was 4\\.5:1\\.{{Cite book\\|last1\\=Angle\\|first1\\=Glenn\\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/airplaneenginee00anglgoog\\|quote\\=mercedes e6f.\\|title\\=Airplane Engine Encyclopedia\\|last2\\=Dale\\|publisher\\=Otterbein Press\\|year\\=1921\\|pages\\=\\[https://archive.org/details/airplaneenginee00anglgoog/page/n356 341], 346}}",
"Development of the basic design led to the slightly modified {{cvt\\|170\\|hp\\|disp\\=flip}} **D.IIIa**, which took over on the production lines in June 1917\\. The main change was to change the piston profile to have a flat head instead of the former concave one, thereby slightly increasing maximum compression to 4\\.64:1\\. Other changes were mainly in design details, notably a redesigned crankcase and new carburetor. Many of the accessories were also redesigned or moved around on the engine. This model was produced only briefly, for use on the [Albatros D.III](/wiki/Albatros_D.III \"Albatros D.III\") but there are indications that possibly some early Albatros (Alb.) made Fokker D.VII's were also equipped but probably had the engines upgraded or replaced as quickly as possible. This engine has been referred to in postwar British analysis as generating {{cvt\\|180\\|hp\\|disp\\=flip}}",
"A more \"radical\" upgrade was the {{cvt\\|180\\|\\-\\|200\\|hp\\|disp\\=flip}} **D.IIIaü**, introduced in late 1917, the D.IIIaü was a standardized refinement of the D.III and D.IIIa design and the ü designation was never official. This engine changed the pistons again, this time to a domed profile that further increased the maximum compression – the ü was for \"über\", meaning \"overcompressed\". Additionally, a new altitude\\-compensating carburetor was added, which improved performance at higher altitudes. To support operations at these altitudes, water from the radiator was used to heat the air intake and prevent icing in the carburetor. The aü model, which included upgraded D.III and D.IIIa engine blocks, was the most prolific German fighter engine of 1918 and designed into most fighter designs from late 1917 on. This included most of the entries in the First Fighter Competition at [Adlershof](/wiki/Adlershof \"Adlershof\") in January 1918, notably the famed [Fokker D.VII](/wiki/Fokker_D.VII \"Fokker D.VII\"). In British post war evaluation the D.IIIaü demonstrated {{cvt\\|200\\|hp\\|disp\\=flip}} according to the British standards.",
"A final version attempting to keep the D.III block competitive was the {{cvt\\|200\\|hp\\|disp\\=flip}} ({{cvt\\|200\\|\\-\\|217\\|hp\\|disp\\=flip}}) **D.IIIav** (or avü), introduced mid\\-October 1918\\. The av used slightly longer pistons made of aluminium (possibly a first for a production engine), increasing the compression yet again, while at the same time allowing them to move faster due to the reduced weight. The maximum allowable RPM increased from 1,400 in the earlier models to 1,600 in the av, accounting for most of the gains in power. It is unclear if any av's saw service use. The increased use of [Benzol](/wiki/Benzene \"Benzene\") in German aviation fuel may have helped this final upgrade of power, its higher octane rating being better suited for the higher compression ratio.",
"### External differences between models",
"[thumb\\|left\\|Aft\\-end details of the original [SOHC](/wiki/SOHC \"SOHC\") valvetrain for the D.III \\- the rocker arm emerges from the \"rocker box\" through a slot in the box's side.](/wiki/File:Early_Mercedes_D_III_Valvetrain.jpg \"Early Mercedes D III Valvetrain.jpg\")\nAll of the D.III series were generally very similar to other models, with the exception of the piston profile, carburetor details and valvetrain details. It appears that upgrades were available for many of the engines, certainly for the III to IIIa, and IIIa to IIIaü. It would seem unlikely that early III's would ever make it to the IIIaü standard, as they would almost certainly have been worn out in service before then.",
"The valvetrain changes concerned the layout of the rocker arms that operated the valves. Early models had square [rocker boxes](/wiki/Rocker_cover \"Rocker cover\") positioned directly over the cylinders with the rocker arms exiting through vertical slots, one cut into each of the opposing sides of the boxes, as shown at left.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1915/1915%20\\-%200984\\.html \\|title\\=The Mercedes Engines on the Captured Aeroplanes \\|author\\= \\|date\\=December 3, 1915 \\|page\\=948 \\|website\\=flightglobal.com \\|publisher\\=Flightglobal Archive \\|access\\-date\\=February 14, 2014}} The earlier \"side\\-slot\" rocker arm design had also been used for the Mercedes D.I and D.II engines' valvetrains. In later versions of the D.III engines, the boxes were relocated rearward on the tubular camshaft housing, and the now easily sealable cylindrical rocker arm shafts protruded forwards through the front surfaces of the boxes, operating the now fully exposed rocker arms with the exposed shaft ends, as shown at right.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1918/1918%20\\-%200685\\.html \\|title\\=The 180 H.P. Mercedes Aero Engine \\|author\\= \\|date\\=June 20, 1918 \\|page\\=683 \\|website\\=flightglobal.com \\|publisher\\=Flightglobal Archive \\|access\\-date\\=March 2, 2015}}\n[thumb\\|Later pattern SOHC D.III valvetrain, using the relocated rocker box design, with rotary shafts to operate the fully exposed [roller rocker](/wiki/Roller_rocker \"Roller rocker\") arms.](/wiki/File:Later_Mercedes_D_III_Valvetrain.jpg \"Later Mercedes D III Valvetrain.jpg\")\nThe newer arrangement was stated as being interchangeable as a set with the complete camshaft, rocker boxes, rocker arms and valve springs, with the D.III's earlier \"side\\-slot\" cam drive system design \\- the later system seems to have influenced both [Packard](/wiki/Packard \"Packard\")'s and [Hall\\-Scott](/wiki/Hall-Scott \"Hall-Scott\")'s engine designers to adopt a nearly identical \"slotless\" rocker\\-box overhead cam valvetrain design feature for the [Liberty L\\-12](/wiki/Liberty_L-12 \"Liberty L-12\") [Allied](/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_I \"Allies of World War I\") V\\-12 aviation engine.",
"Confusingly, the \"ü\" was not an official part of the name. This leads to a number of problems in various references, which often confuse the IIIa with the IIIaü, listing the former as a {{cvt\\|180\\|hp\\|disp\\=flip}} engine. There are two D.IV engines — from the *[IdFlieg](/wiki/IdFlieg \"IdFlieg\")* aircraft powerplant class designations based on power output — one [the straight\\-eight](/wiki/Mercedes_D.IV \"Mercedes D.IV\") based on the 140 mm bore D.III pistons; and the later, six\\-cylinder [Mercedes D.IVa](/wiki/Mercedes_D.IVa \"Mercedes D.IVa\") with 160 mm bore cylinders, which was essentially unrelated.",
"The D.III line of engines would find themselves eclipsed in performance by the [BMW IIIa](/wiki/BMW_IIIa \"BMW IIIa\") of {{cvt\\|185\\|hp\\|disp\\=flip}} and then {{cvt\\|200\\|hp\\|disp\\=flip}}(British rated it at {{cvt\\|230\\|hp\\|disp\\=flip}}) in 1918, however, the small number of BMW's produced ensured that the Mercedes D.III series would be the primary German fighter engine up to the last month or two of the war and it would still be seen in very large numbers even at the end. At the end of the war the D.IIIaü would still be the numerically predominant German fighter engine. As a result, the Fokker D.VII's (those not equipped with BMW IIIa's) and the Pfalz D.XII's would be engine\\-limited in performance (as opposed to \"airframe\\-limited\") and yet would still be formidable adversaries to their Allied counterparts. The D.IIIaü was considered the optimum engine for the Roland D.VI, Pfalz D.IIIa, and Albatros D.Va fighters, whose airframes were of an earlier, \"all\\-wood\" generation in design.",
""
] |
Plot
----
{{quote box\|bgcolor\=\#CCDDFF\|align\=left\|width\=25%\|fontsize\=101%\|quote\=
''Sensitive hearts, faithful hearts,''
''Who shun love whither it does range,''
''Cease to be so bitter:''
''Is it a crime to change?''
''If Cupid was given wings,''
''Was it not to flitter?''
\|source\=— Quotation at the beginning of the film, from Beaumarchais' ''\[\[The Marriage of Figaro (play)\|Le Mariage de Figaro]] ''(IV, 10\){{cite web \|url\=http://thefifiorganization.net/janus/the\-rules\-of\-the\-game/ \|title\=The Rules of the Games \|website\=thefifiorganization.net \|publisher\=The Fifi Organization \|date\=August 30, 2009 \|access\-date\=11 May 2014}}}}
Aviator André Jurieux lands at [Le Bourget Airfield](/wiki/Le_Bourget_Airfield "Le Bourget Airfield") outside Paris after crossing the Atlantic in his plane. He is greeted by his friend Octave, who tells André that Christine {{spaced ndash}}the Austrian\-French noblewoman André loves{{spaced ndash}}has not come to greet him. André is heartbroken. When a radio reporter comes to broadcast André's first words upon landing, he explains his sorrow and denounces Christine. She is listening to the broadcast in her Paris apartment while attended by her maid, Lisette. Christine has been married to Robert, Marquis de la Chesnaye for three years. For two years, Lisette has been married to Schumacher {{spaced ndash}}the gamekeeper at Robert's country estate, La Colinière in [Sologne](/wiki/Sologne "Sologne"){{spaced ndash}}but she is more devoted to Christine than to her husband. Christine's past relationship with André is openly known by her husband, her maid and their friend Octave. After Christine and Robert playfully discuss André's emotional display and pledge devotion to one another, Robert excuses himself to make a telephone call. He arranges to meet his mistress Geneviève the next morning.
At Geneviève's apartment, Robert says he must end their relationship but invites her to join them for a weekend retreat to La Colinière. Christine also invites her niece, Jackie. Later, Octave induces Robert to invite André to the estate as well. They joke that André and Geneviève will begin a relationship, thereby solving everyone's problems. At the estate, Schumacher is policing the grounds and trying to eliminate rabbits. Marceau {{spaced ndash}}a poacher{{spaced ndash}}sneaks onto the estate to retrieve a rabbit caught in a snare. Before Marceau can escape, Schumacher catches him and begins to escort him from the property when Robert demands to know what is happening. Marceau explains that he can catch rabbits and Robert hires him as a servant. Once inside the house, Marceau flirts with Lisette. The assembled guests go on a hunt led by Schumacher, who resents Marceau. On the way back to La Colinière's castle, Robert tells Geneviève that he no longer loves her. Geneviève wants to pack up and leave but Christine persuades her to stay.
At a masked ball, various romantic liaisons are made. André and Christine declare their love for each other and plan to run away together. Marceau pursues Lisette, and the jealous Schumacher is upset. Robert and André come to an argument over Christine. In the secluded greenhouse, Octave declares that he too loves Christine{{spaced ndash}}who is now having doubts about André{{spaced ndash}}and they decide to run away together. Schumacher and Marceau, who have both been expelled from the estate by Robert after a fight over Lisette, watch Octave and Christine in the greenhouse. As in Beaumarchais's *Marriage of Figaro,* the literary basis for Mozart's opera, they mistake Christine for Lisette because Christine is wearing Lisette's cape and hood. Octave returns to the house for his coat and hat, where Lisette begs him not to leave with Christine.
Breaking his promise to Christine, Octave meets André and sends him out to Christine in the greenhouse, lending him his overcoat. When André reaches the greenhouse wearing Octave's coat, Schumacher mistakes him for Octave, whom he thinks is trying to run off with his wife Lisette, and Schumacher shoots him dead.
In the closing moments of the film, Octave and Marceau walk away into the night as Robert brings Schumacher back into the household and explains that he would report the killing to the authorities as nothing more than an unfortunate accident.
|
[
"Plot\n----",
"{{quote box\\|bgcolor\\=\\#CCDDFF\\|align\\=left\\|width\\=25%\\|fontsize\\=101%\\|quote\\=\n''Sensitive hearts, faithful hearts,''\n''Who shun love whither it does range,''\n''Cease to be so bitter:''\n''Is it a crime to change?''\n''If Cupid was given wings,''\n''Was it not to flitter?''\n\\|source\\=— Quotation at the beginning of the film, from Beaumarchais' ''\\[\\[The Marriage of Figaro (play)\\|Le Mariage de Figaro]] ''(IV, 10\\){{cite web \\|url\\=http://thefifiorganization.net/janus/the\\-rules\\-of\\-the\\-game/ \\|title\\=The Rules of the Games \\|website\\=thefifiorganization.net \\|publisher\\=The Fifi Organization \\|date\\=August 30, 2009 \\|access\\-date\\=11 May 2014}}}}",
"Aviator André Jurieux lands at [Le Bourget Airfield](/wiki/Le_Bourget_Airfield \"Le Bourget Airfield\") outside Paris after crossing the Atlantic in his plane. He is greeted by his friend Octave, who tells André that Christine {{spaced ndash}}the Austrian\\-French noblewoman André loves{{spaced ndash}}has not come to greet him. André is heartbroken. When a radio reporter comes to broadcast André's first words upon landing, he explains his sorrow and denounces Christine. She is listening to the broadcast in her Paris apartment while attended by her maid, Lisette. Christine has been married to Robert, Marquis de la Chesnaye for three years. For two years, Lisette has been married to Schumacher {{spaced ndash}}the gamekeeper at Robert's country estate, La Colinière in [Sologne](/wiki/Sologne \"Sologne\"){{spaced ndash}}but she is more devoted to Christine than to her husband. Christine's past relationship with André is openly known by her husband, her maid and their friend Octave. After Christine and Robert playfully discuss André's emotional display and pledge devotion to one another, Robert excuses himself to make a telephone call. He arranges to meet his mistress Geneviève the next morning.",
"At Geneviève's apartment, Robert says he must end their relationship but invites her to join them for a weekend retreat to La Colinière. Christine also invites her niece, Jackie. Later, Octave induces Robert to invite André to the estate as well. They joke that André and Geneviève will begin a relationship, thereby solving everyone's problems. At the estate, Schumacher is policing the grounds and trying to eliminate rabbits. Marceau {{spaced ndash}}a poacher{{spaced ndash}}sneaks onto the estate to retrieve a rabbit caught in a snare. Before Marceau can escape, Schumacher catches him and begins to escort him from the property when Robert demands to know what is happening. Marceau explains that he can catch rabbits and Robert hires him as a servant. Once inside the house, Marceau flirts with Lisette. The assembled guests go on a hunt led by Schumacher, who resents Marceau. On the way back to La Colinière's castle, Robert tells Geneviève that he no longer loves her. Geneviève wants to pack up and leave but Christine persuades her to stay.",
"At a masked ball, various romantic liaisons are made. André and Christine declare their love for each other and plan to run away together. Marceau pursues Lisette, and the jealous Schumacher is upset. Robert and André come to an argument over Christine. In the secluded greenhouse, Octave declares that he too loves Christine{{spaced ndash}}who is now having doubts about André{{spaced ndash}}and they decide to run away together. Schumacher and Marceau, who have both been expelled from the estate by Robert after a fight over Lisette, watch Octave and Christine in the greenhouse. As in Beaumarchais's *Marriage of Figaro,* the literary basis for Mozart's opera, they mistake Christine for Lisette because Christine is wearing Lisette's cape and hood. Octave returns to the house for his coat and hat, where Lisette begs him not to leave with Christine.",
"Breaking his promise to Christine, Octave meets André and sends him out to Christine in the greenhouse, lending him his overcoat. When André reaches the greenhouse wearing Octave's coat, Schumacher mistakes him for Octave, whom he thinks is trying to run off with his wife Lisette, and Schumacher shoots him dead.",
"In the closing moments of the film, Octave and Marceau walk away into the night as Robert brings Schumacher back into the household and explains that he would report the killing to the authorities as nothing more than an unfortunate accident.",
""
] |
Early years, 1832–1846
----------------------
### The opening of the university
[thumb\|University House (now Cosin's Hall), the first home of the university](/wiki/File:Bishop_Cosin%27s_Hall.jpg "Bishop Cosin's Hall.jpg")
The university was intended from the start to be collegiate, and the foundation college was [University College](/wiki/University_College%2C_Durham "University College, Durham"). This was originally accommodated in the former Archdeacon's Inn, renamed University House (now [Cosin's Hall](/wiki/Cosin%27s_Hall "Cosin's Hall")).{{cite web\|url\=https://www.dur.ac.uk/university.college/about/\|title\=About University College\|publisher\=\[\[University College, Durham]]\|access\-date\=5 October 2015}}
After the passing of the Act, a year was spent setting up the university and recruiting staff. The [library](/wiki/Durham_University_Library "Durham University Library") was established in January 1833 by a donation of 160 volumes from Van Mildert, with the Bishop's librarian, Rev. Patrick George, being named the university's first librarian. The library was housed in a gallery of [Cosin's Library](/wiki/Cosin%27s_Library "Cosin's Library") on Palace Green.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.dur.ac.uk/resources/library/library\_history\_early.pdf\|title\=A History of Durham University Library: Early History\|publisher\=Durham University\|access\-date\=8 October 2015}} On 20 July the opening of the university in Michaelmas Term 1833 was announced, along with an almost complete list of staff.
The university opened on 28 October 1833 with 19 "scholars" and 18 "students" on the Bachelor of Arts course and 5 students on the theology licence course. The university was the first in England to introduce matriculation examinations, although these had been in use at the [University of St Andrews](/wiki/University_of_St_Andrews "University of St Andrews") and Marischal College, Aberdeen since the 1820s;{{cite web\|url\=https://universityhistories.com/2016/08/12/durham\-university\-last\-of\-the\-ancient\-universities\-and\-first\-of\-the\-new\-1831\-1871\|title\=Durham University: Last of the Ancient Universities and First of the New (1831\-1871\)\|date\=12 August 2016\|website\=University Histories\|publisher\=Research Group on University History, \[\[University of Manchester]]\|access\-date\=10 December 2017}} the first student to be matriculated was John Cundill. Shortly after the first students arrived, the "first calendar" was published, advertising the institution as the "University of Durham founded by Act of Chapter with the Consent of the Bishop of Durham 28 September 1831\. Constituted a University by Act of Parliament 2nd and 3rd William IV., Sess. 1831\-2\." The university had three professors (all Anglican clergymen) at its opening: [Hugh James Rose](/wiki/Hugh_James_Rose "Hugh James Rose") (Divinity and Ecclesiastical History), Henry Jenkyns (Greek and Classical Literature) and John Carr (Mathematics). This reflected the two BA honours courses in classics and mathematics (following Oxford and Cambridge) and the course in theology, leading to the Licence in Theology (LTh). There were also readers in law (William Gray), medicine (William Cooke), history (Thomas Greenwood), natural philosophy (Charles Thomas Whitley) and moral philosophy (J. Miller), and lecturers in Modern languages (James Hamilton), and chemistry and mineralogy ([James Finlay Weir Johnston](/wiki/James_Finlay_Weir_Johnston "James Finlay Weir Johnston"), [FRSE](/wiki/FRSE "FRSE")). Unlike at Oxford and Cambridge, where the teaching was carried out by the colleges, the professors at Durham were expected to "have the charge of the studies in their respective departments and work as at Glasgow and the foreign Universities, and as they did at Oxford in old times".{{refn\|Letter from Thorp to Van Mildert, 10 December 1831\.}}
Unfortunately, Carr died suddenly on 30 October, only two days after the university opened. The university went into mourning for fourteen days.{{cite journal\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=iKFEAQAAMAAJ\&pg\=PA471\|pages\=471–472\|title\=Obituaries: Rev. John Carr\|journal\=The Gentleman's Magazine\|volume\=103\|date\=1833}} George, the librarian, died on 13 January 1834, Whitley taking over that role in addition to his readership. Rose was also plagued by ill health and left in March. He became the second principal of [King's College London](/wiki/King%27s_College_London "King's College London") in 1836 but again only lasted around six months before ill health forced him from the post; he died in 1838 aged 43\. After he left Durham, his brother, [Henry John Rose](/wiki/Henry_John_Rose "Henry John Rose"), filled in for the rest of the academic year, before returning to his fellowship at Cambridge.{{cite journal\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=AfkRAAAAYAAJ\&pg\=PA449\|title\=Clergy Deceased\|page\=449\|journal\=The Gentleman's Magazine\|volume\=155–156\|year\=1834}}
[thumb\|Temple Chevallier, first professor of mathematics](/wiki/File:Temple_Chevallier.jpg "Temple Chevallier.jpg")
Jenkyns took over as acting professor of divinity, while remaining professor of Greek until 1839, when he was appointed professor of Greek permanently and made a canon of the cathedral. [Temple Chevallier](/wiki/Temple_Chevallier "Temple Chevallier") came to Durham in 1834 to assist Jenkyns with the teaching of theology and Hebrew, and was appointed professor of mathematics, reader in Hebrew and Registrar to the university in 1835\.
In early 1834, Thorp wrote to the bishops of the Church of England asking if they would accept holders of Durham degrees for ordination alongside those from Oxford and Cambridge. The answers were mostly positive, with only two bishops refusing: [George Murray (bishop of Rochester)](/wiki/George_Murray_%28bishop_of_Rochester%29 "George Murray (bishop of Rochester)") and [Henry Phillpotts](/wiki/Henry_Phillpotts "Henry Phillpotts") (bishop of Exeter and a canon of Durham Cathedral). At the end of the 1833–34 academic year, George Selby Thomson became the first recipient of the LTh, which was available with only one year's study for those with degrees from Oxford, Cambridge, Dublin or Durham (as opposed to three years' study for non\-graduates). Thomson had gained his BA at [Jesus College, Cambridge](/wiki/Jesus_College%2C_Cambridge "Jesus College, Cambridge") and took his MA in June 1834\.{{cite book\|title\=Calendar of the University of Durham\|publisher\=\[\[Durham University]]\|date\=1844\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=kt8NAAAAQAAJ\&pg\=PA1}}{{cite book\|title\=The Cambridge University Calendar\|date\=1835\|publisher\=\[\[University of Cambridge]]\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=Pd4NAAAAQAAJ\&pg\=PA163\|page\=163}}
There was originally an intention to offer a medical course similar to those at the London colleges, leading to the Licence of the [Society of Apothecaries](/wiki/Society_of_Apothecaries "Society of Apothecaries"). However, there was insufficient demand to sustain the course, particularly after the opening of the medical school in Newcastle (1834\), and lectures in medicine stopped after 1836\.
In March 1834, Thorp received a letter from John Burder, the Bishop's London secretary,{{cite web\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=6eANAAAAQAAJ\&pg\=PA303\|title\=The Royal Kalendar, and Court and City Register for England, Scotland ...\|work\=google.co.uk\|year\=1842}} checking whether the proceedings regarding the university in Chapter were in writing under their common seal and with the Bishop's signature, Following this, an Act of Chapter on 4 April 1834 resolved "that the College established by Act of Chapter, 28th September 1831, be constituted a University". On 9 May 1835 the university took legal advice on the extent of its powers under the 1832 act, and in particular whether it could grant degrees. It was then announced on 13 June 1835 that the university would confer degrees and that a fundamental statute would be drawn up for the university. This fundamental statute was passed by the dean and chapter on 20 July 1835; it established the University [Senate](/wiki/Academic_senate "Academic senate") and [Convocation](/wiki/Convocation%23University_use "Convocation#University use"), explicitly allowed the university to grant degrees (stating "that the degrees in the various faculties shall be conferred by the Warden in Convocation"), limited degrees to members of the established church, and gave the Senate (subject to the approval of Convocation) the right to make further regulations.{{cite book\|title\=The University of Durham (1832–1932\)\|author\=C.E. Whiting\|page\=58\|publisher\=\[\[Sheldon Press]]\|date\=1932}}
The statement that the university would grant degrees and the publication of the statutes led to a letter to the *York Herald* accusing the university of deceit in claiming the right to offer degrees without actually possessing that right, and claiming that students had been transferred to Oxford because "when the time for degrees grew near, not a degree could the Durhamites confer".{{cite news \|title\=The Durham University \|work\=York Herald \|date\=31 October 1835 \|access\-date\=16 January 2016 \|url\=http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000498/18351031/016/0003\| via \= \[\[British Newspaper Archive]]\|url\-access\=subscription }} A response in the *Durham Advertiser* from "Dunelmensis" pointed out that "\[t]he time for conferring degrees has not yet arrived" and that therefore the supposed lack of any right to confer degrees was purely the opinion of the writer of the original letter, without any evidence to back it up.{{cite news \|title\=To the Editor of the Durham Advertiser \|work\=Durham Advertiser\|date\=20 November 1835 \|access\-date\=16 January 2016 \|url\=http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000612/18351120/017/0002\|via \= \[\[British Newspaper Archive]]\|url\-access\=subscription }}
The first Convocation was held on 4 March 1836 to approve the regulations for the university, a second meeting the following week approved the appointment of examiners.{{cite news\|work\=Cumberland Pacquet, and Ware's Whitehaven Advertiser\|date\= 15 March 1836\|title\=The first meeting of the Convocation of the University of Durham\|access\-date\=12 December 2015 \|url\=http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000950/18360315/035/0003\| via \= \[\[British Newspaper Archive]]\|url\-access\=subscription }} The 1836 Convocation consisted of 84 graduates (doctors or MAs) of Oxford, Cambridge and Dublin who had become members of the University of Durham, including [John Keble](/wiki/John_Keble "John Keble") and [John Henry Newman](/wiki/John_Henry_Newman "John Henry Newman").{{cite news\|work\=\[\[Yorkshire Post]]\|date\=29 June 1937\|title\=Durham University Centenary\|access\-date\=12 December 2015 \|url\=http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000687/19370629/295/0008\| via \= \[\[British Newspaper Archive]]\|url\-access\=subscription \|author\=C. E. Whiting}}
[thumb\|An examination taking place in Cosin's Library in 1842](/wiki/File:ExamInCosin.jpg "ExamInCosin.jpg")
The first final degree examinations were held in Easter term, 1836, although following the practice of Oxford at the time the students would not receive their degrees for another year. The examinations in 1836 saw Durham introduce the use of [external examiners](/wiki/External_examiner "External examiner") to ensure comparability of its degrees with those of Oxford and Cambridge. This marked the start of the system of external examination that spread throughout British higher education and is still used today.{{cite web\|last\=Cuthbert\|first\=Mike\|date\=2003\|url\=http://www.ukcle.ac.uk/resources/assessment\-and\-feedback/cuthbert/\|title\=The external examiner: how did we get here?\|work\= Presentation to the UKCLE/ALT workshop on external examiners, 6 June 2003\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130518100020/http://www.ukcle.ac.uk/resources/assessment\-and\-feedback/cuthbert/\|archive\-date\=18 May 2013\|access\-date\=20 October 2015}} John Cundill became the first Durham student to gain first class honours, in mathematics, although he missed out on a [double first](/wiki/Double_first "Double first"), taking second class honours in classics.{{cite book\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=fd8NAAAAQAAJ\&pg\=PA45\|title\=Durham University Calendar\|date\=1842\|page\=45}}
{{Blockquote\|At this last examination, by the assistance of Examiners from Oxford, the same standard of attainments has been fixed for a certificate, which is observed on the like occasion in that University.\|source\=Durham University Calendar 1844\[https://books.google.com/books?id\=kt8NAAAAQAAJ\&pg\=PA7\&focus\=viewport\&output\=html ''Durham University Calendar'']''. 1844\. p. 7\.''}}
On 21 February 1836, Van Mildert died. The funding for the university was not yet fully established – Van Mildert had been supporting it with £2,000 a year from his own income and had been working to get prebendal stalls attached to the professorships of divinity and classics and to the wardenship, but this was in the hands of the [Ecclesiastical Commissioners](/wiki/Ecclesiastical_Commissioners "Ecclesiastical Commissioners") and not yet decided. He had also allowed the university the use of Durham Castle, but this again was not yet settled. Thirdly, the royal charter to incorporate the university was not yet granted. There was also a fear that the Whig government, now under [Lord Melbourne](/wiki/Lord_Melbourne "Lord Melbourne"), would appoint a liberal bishop who might not support the idea of the exclusively Anglican university.{{cite DNB\|wstitle\=Van Mildert, William}}
The new bishop was named as [Edward Maltby](/wiki/Edward_Maltby "Edward Maltby"), a liberal and supporter of UCL who had read the prayer at the laying of its foundation stone (and, from its foundation in November 1836, a senator of the [University of London](/wiki/University_of_London "University of London")). Before he was installed, the petition for the royal charter was submitted. On the legal advice of Sir [Charles Wetherell](/wiki/Charles_Wetherell "Charles Wetherell"), it contained no explicit mention of degree awarding powers, only incorporation and the right to hold property.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.dur.ac.uk/about/governance/charter/\|title\=About Durham University: Royal Charter\|publisher\=Durham University\|access\-date\=24 December 2014}}{{cite journal\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=2a4QAAAAIAAJ\&pg\=PA216\|title\=Laying the Foundation Stone of the London University\|journal\=Christian Journal and Literary Register\|volume\=11\|page\=216\|year\=1827}}{{cite book\|title\=Universities in the Age of Reform, 1800–1870\|author\=Matthew Andrews\|publisher\=Springer\|date\=1 June 2018\|page\=96}}
However, the charter was delayed by [Lord Russell](/wiki/John_Russell%2C_1st_Earl_Russell "John Russell, 1st Earl Russell"), the Home Secretary, after the fee had been paid for sealing the charter, due to Durham degrees not being open to non\-Anglicans. With the time set for the conferring of degrees approaching, there were fears that, while the university believed it had the power to grant degrees under the 1832 act, objections would be made and the public perception of the degrees would be affected. Nevertheless, the intention was to grant degrees whether or not the charter was sealed in time.{{cite book\|title\=Universities in the Age of Reform, 1800–1870\|author\=Matthew Andrews\|publisher\=Springer\|date\=1 June 2018\|page\=98}}
### The royal charter
[thumb\|right\|[King William IV](/wiki/King_William_IV "King William IV") granted [Durham University](/wiki/Durham_University "Durham University") its [royal charter](/wiki/Royal_charter "Royal charter") in 1837](/wiki/File:Martin_Archer_Shee_-_King_William_IV_-_c.1800.jpg "Martin Archer Shee - King William IV - c.1800.jpg")
In the event, Maltby "heartily entered into the scheme for the Durham University",{{cite DNB\|wstitle\=Maltby, Edward}} and with his support the university's [royal charter](/wiki/Royal_charter "Royal charter") was granted on 1 June 1837 by [William IV](/wiki/William_IV_of_the_United_Kingdom "William IV of the United Kingdom"), incorporating "The Warden, Masters and Scholars of the University of Durham". While, following Wetherell's advice, this did not include explicit degree awarding powers, it stated that the fundamental statute passed by the dean and chapter (as governors of the university) in 1835 was "by virtue, and in pursuance of the trusts and powers in the said Act of Parliament, and of every other power enabling them in that behalf" and also that the university "shall have and enjoy all the property, rights, and privileges which are assured by the said Act \[the University of Durham Act 1832] to the university therein contemplated and authorised; or are incident to a University established by our Royal Charter". The charter did not create a new institution but rather confirmed Durham's status as a university.{{cite book\|title\=Universities in the Age of Reform, 1800–1870\|author\=Matthew Andrews\|publisher\=Springer\|date\=1 June 2018\|page\=100}}
The first students graduated a week after the grant of the charter, on 8 June 1837\. At the same [congregation](/wiki/Congregation_%28university%29 "Congregation (university)") the charter was accepted and the original seal of the university adopted (a [St Cuthbert's](/wiki/Cuthbert "Cuthbert") cross in a circle, the coat of arms not then having been granted).{{cite web\|url\=http://shop.dur.ac.uk/item/HeritageCollection\_HeritageRingSilver\_251\_0\_177\_0\.html\|title\=Heritage Ring Silver\|quote\=This is a traditional signet ring, with the original University seal carved in relief from the metal.\|access\-date\=6 October 2015\|publisher\=Durham University}} The first honorary degree was awarded the Earl Grey in 1838\.
The examination period of 1837 saw the first examinations for the MA. This was a break with the tradition of the ancient universities, where the [Oxbridge MA](/wiki/Oxbridge_MA "Oxbridge MA") had come to be awarded on payment of a fee to all BAs of the required standing. Durham, by contrast, required a further year of study and the passing of an examination.
[thumb\|Durham Castle, granted to the university in 1837](/wiki/File:Durham_Castle_Eingang.jpg "Durham Castle Eingang.jpg")
On 19 July 1837, [Queen Victoria](/wiki/Queen_Victoria "Queen Victoria"), by an order of the [Queen\-in\-Council](/wiki/Queen-in-Council "Queen-in-Council"), granted the use of [Durham Castle](/wiki/Durham_Castle "Durham Castle"), previously a palace of the Bishop of Durham, to the university. University College moved into the castle, however the [keep](/wiki/Keep "Keep") was ruinous and needed substantial reconstruction before it could be occupied. In the course of this renovation, the skeleton of a whale was discovered in the castle ruins, and a report on this made at the 1839 meeting of the [British Association](/wiki/British_Association "British Association"). It was originally claimed that these were the remains of a whale cast up on the shore of Co. Durham in 1661 and acquired by Bishop Cosin.{{cite journal\| journal\=The Gentleman's Journal\|title\=Antiquarian Researchers \- Whale in Durham Castle\|date\=1839\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=1FdIAAAAYAAJ\&pg\=PA526\|page\=526\|volume\=12}} It was later admitted that the letter on which this claim was based was a forgery.{{cite journal\|journal\=The Gentleman's Journal\|title\=Minor Correspondence\|date\=1840\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=KPRfAAAAcAAJ\&pg\=PA450\|page\=450\|volume\=49\|first\=Sylvanus\|last\=Urban}}
1837 also saw the university found the first course in engineering at any university institution in England, which opened in January 1838, led by Chevallier and Johnston.{{cite journal\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=JNk\-AAAAYAAJ\&pg\=PA1\|title\=Education of Students in Civil Engineering and Mining at the University of Durham\|journal\=The London and Edinburgh Philosophical Magazine and Journal of Science\|date\=1838}} While it was initially popular, with admissions exceeding those for Arts or Theology in 1839/40, this did not last. The course was too expensive for students and although leading industrialists supported it, employers did not give any credit for it; it closed a few years later due to falling student numbers, the last students being admitted in 1851\.
Johnston was elected a Fellow of the [Royal Society](/wiki/Royal_Society "Royal Society") on 15 June 1837\. His sponsors included [Charles Wheatstone](/wiki/Charles_Wheatstone "Charles Wheatstone") and [Michael Faraday](/wiki/Michael_Faraday "Michael Faraday").{{cite web\|url\=https://collections.royalsociety.org/DServe.exe?dsqIni\=Dserve.ini\&dsqApp\=Archive\&dsqCmd\=Show.tcl\&dsqDb\=Catalog\&dsqPos\=78\&dsqSearch\=%28%28text%29%3D%27Johnston%27%29\|title\=Johnston, James Finlay Weir\|publisher\=\[\[Royal Society]]\|access\-date\=5 November 2015\|archive\-date\=13 January 2016\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160113232707/https://collections.royalsociety.org/DServe.exe?dsqIni\=Dserve.ini\&dsqApp\=Archive\&dsqCmd\=Show.tcl\&dsqDb\=Catalog\&dsqPos\=78\&dsqSearch\=%28%28text%29%3D%27Johnston%27%29\|url\-status\=dead}} On 30 May 1839, Thorp was also elected a Fellow, his sponsors including Bishop Maltby (signing E. Dunelm, as Bishop of Durham{{cite web\|url\=https://collections.royalsociety.org/DServe.exe?dsqIni\=Dserve.ini\&dsqApp\=Archive\&dsqDb\=Persons\&dsqSearch\=Code\=\=%27NA2181%27\&dsqCmd\=Show.tcl\|title\=Fellow details\|publisher\=\[\[Royal Society]]\|access\-date\=5 November 2015\|archive\-date\=13 January 2016\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160113232707/https://collections.royalsociety.org/DServe.exe?dsqIni\=Dserve.ini\&dsqApp\=Archive\&dsqDb\=Persons\&dsqSearch\=Code\=\=%27NA2181%27\&dsqCmd\=Show.tcl\|url\-status\=dead}}), as well as [William Tooke](/wiki/William_Tooke_%281777%E2%80%931863%29 "William Tooke (1777–1863)"), one of the founders of UCL, and [Leonard Horner](/wiki/Leonard_Horner "Leonard Horner"), UCL's first Warden.{{cite web\|url\=https://collections.royalsociety.org/DServe.exe?dsqIni\=Dserve.ini\&dsqApp\=Archive\&dsqCmd\=Show.tcl\&dsqDb\=Catalog\&dsqPos\=1\&dsqSearch\=%28%28text%29%3D%27thorp%27%29\|title\= Thorp, Charles\|publisher\=\[\[Royal Society]]\|access\-date\=5 November 2015}}
[thumb\|Durham University observatory](/wiki/File:Durham_Observatory.jpg "Durham Observatory.jpg")
In 1839 the [Durham University Observatory](/wiki/Durham_University_Observatory "Durham University Observatory") was established. This opened in 1842 with an 8\-foot (2\.44 m) focal length equatorial\-mount refractor with a 6\.5 inch (17 mm) primary, built by H. Fraunhofer.{{cite book\|url\=https://archive.org/details/historyandantiq00joicgoog\|title\=The history and antiquities of the county palatine of Durham\|publisher\=A. Fullarton and co.\|author\=William Fordyce\|date\=1857\|page\=\[https://archive.org/details/historyandantiq00joicgoog/page/n345 325]}} This was used, in particular, for [sunspot](/wiki/Sunspot "Sunspot") observations through the 19th century, as well as for observations of minor planets and comets.{{cite journal\|author\=Arnold Wolfendale\|author\-link\=Arnold Wolfendale\|date\=December 1992\|journal\=Quarterly Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society\|publisher\=\[\[Royal Astronomical Society]]\|title\=Durham and the New Astronomies\|volume\=33\|page\=312\|bibcode\=1992QJRAS..33\..311W}}{{cite journal\|author\=George Rochester\|author\-link\=George Rochester\|date\=December 1980\|journal\=Quarterly Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society\|publisher\=\[\[Royal Astronomical Society]]\|title\=The History of Astronomy in the University of Durham from 1835 TO 1939\|volume\=21\|page\=369\|bibcode\=1980QJRAS..21\..369R}}
1839 also saw Thorp involved in establishing a diocesan teacher training college for men (later to be St Bede's College, now the [College of St Hild and St Bede](/wiki/College_of_St_Hild_and_St_Bede "College of St Hild and St Bede")), with the first Master being John Cundill. This was originally proposed to be part of the university, and the dean and chapter approved a scheme in 1836, but this did not prove practical. The college opened in Framwellgate Moor in 1841 before moving to Leazes Road in 1847\.{{cite book\|url\=http://issuu.com/communicationsoffice/docs/hildbededoc\|title\=The College of St Hild \& St Bede, Durham\|publisher\=College of St Hild \& St Bede\|date\=1979\|author\=Ian Booth}}
{{Multiple image
\| image1 \= Ye Freshmonne Page 1\.jpg
\| image2 \= Ye Freshmonne Page 2\.jpg
\| footer\=''Ye Freshmonne His Adventures at Univ. Coll. Durham'', a contemporary cartoon of student life in the 1840s by \[\[Edward Bradley (writer)\|Edward Bradley]] (Univ Coll 1845\-8\)
}}
On 4 June 1841 a further Order in Council transferred further estates to the university and attached [canonries](/wiki/Canonry "Canonry") to the professorships of Divinity and Greek, while the professor of mathematics (Chevallier) was made the professor of mathematics and astronomy. The wardenship of the university was (after the term of the current Warden, Charles Thorp) to be held *ex officio* by the [Dean of Durham](/wiki/Dean_of_Durham "Dean of Durham"), the revenues freed up to be used to establish a professorship in Hebrew.{{cite book\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=fd8NAAAAQAAJ\&pg\=PA6\|title\=Durham University Calendar\|date\=1842\|page\=6}} Three weeks after this order was made, John Edwards was appointed professor of Greek, the office having been vacant since Jenkyns' appointment as professor of Divinity in 1839\.
On 18 May 1843 the university received a grant of arms:
{{Blockquote\|Argent, a Cross Patee quadrate Gules; a Canton Azure, charged with a Cheveron Or between three Lions rampant of the First, together with this Motto 'Fundamenta ejus super montibus Sanctis,'\|author\=J. T. Fowler\|source\=Durham University; earlier foundations and present colleges, quoting the official grant}}
These are alternatively described (bringing out the origin of the various elements) as "Argent S. Cuthbert's cross (formée quadrate) gules; on a canton the arms of Bishop Hatfield: Azure, a chevron or, between three lions rampant argent".{{cite book\|title\=A Treatise On Ecclesiastical Heraldry\|author\=John Woodward\|date\=1894\|publisher\=Рипол Классик \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=CIASAwAAQBAJ\&pg\=PA444\|isbn\=9785878640695}} It is interesting that Bishop Hatfield, the founder of Durham College, Oxford, is commemorated in the arms rather than Bishop Van Mildert. This was not the only attempt to draw a link between the college and the university. In an undated letter to "Mr Grey" (not the Earl), Thorp wrote:
{{Blockquote\|The university is the legitimate successor of Durham College, the property of which remained since the reformation in the hands of the Chapter and which successive Governments from Henry VIII downwards have proposed to apply to academic education at Durham.\|author\=Charles Thorp, 1st Warden of Durham University}} Early university calendars also contained a note setting out the link between the college and the university.{{cite book\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=fd8NAAAAQAAJ\&pg\=PA1\|title\=Durham University Calendar\|date\=1842\|pages\=1–2\|quote\=It is also a fact worthy of notice that the Dean and Chapter were endowed by Henry VIII, not only with the revenues of the Benedictine Priory at Durham, but also with those of the College connected with it in the University of Oxford. This College, though in existence at an earlier period, seems to have owed much of its prosperity to Bishops Richard de Bury and Hatfield, and, at the death of the latter prelate in 1381, is stated to have enjoyed a provision for 8 Fellows (one of whom was Warden or Prior), and 8 secular Scholars. It was dissolved at the Reformation on account of its connexion with the Priory of Durham; and its advowsons and other endowments were granted by Henry VIII to the new Dean and Chapter. This body, therefore, is the representative of the ancient College, as well as of the ancient Priory: and thus there is a peculiar fitness in their endeavour to replace the suppressed establishment for education in Oxford by the foundation of a new one of a similar nature at Durham.}} It is worth noting also that the head of the mediaeval Durham College was its Warden, the same title assumed by Thorp as head of the new University.{{cite book\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=jjqMN2G8fGoC\&pg\=PA138\|title\=The Heads of Religious Houses: England and Wales, III. 1377–1540\|author1\=David Knowles\|author2\=David M. Smith\|author3\=Christopher Nugent Lawrence Brooke\|date\=13 March 2008\|publisher\=\[\[Cambridge University Press]]\|pages\=138–140\|isbn\=9780521865081}}
### Sports and societies
[thumb\|Durham Regatta](/wiki/File:Durham_regatta_Univ_College_Durham_v%27s_Newcastle_Uni.jpg "Durham regatta Univ College Durham v's Newcastle Uni.jpg")
1834 saw the foundation of the [Durham Regatta](/wiki/Durham_Regatta "Durham Regatta"), the second oldest in the country. The university was one of the founding members of the Regatta, along with [Durham School](/wiki/Durham_School "Durham School") and Durham Boat Club.{{cite web\|publisher\=\[\[Durham Regatta]]\|access\-date\=10 October 2015\|title\=Regatta History\|url\=http://www.durham\-regatta.org.uk/history/}}{{cite web\|url\=http://www.rrm.co.uk/exhibitions/previous\-exhibitions/175\-years\-of\-durham\-university\-rowing.aspx\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120107012256/http://www.rrm.co.uk/exhibitions/previous\-exhibitions/175\-years\-of\-durham\-university\-rowing.aspx\|publisher\=River and Rowing Museum, Henley\-on\-Thames\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-date\=7 January 2012\|title\=175 Years of Durham University Rowing\|date\=2008\|access\-date\=10 October 2015}} The university was represented by a crew from [University College Boat Club](/wiki/University_College_Boat_Club_%28Durham%29 "University College Boat Club (Durham)") in the six\-oared *Sylph*,{{cite journal\|journal\=Castellum\|date\=2008\|volume\=61\|title\=Obituary: Martin Proctor\|url\=https://www.castlealumni.uk/files/castellum/Castellum%252061%2520(2008\).pdf\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201025045135/https://www.castlealumni.uk/files/castellum/Castellum%2061%20(2008\).pdf\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-date\=25 October 2020\|page\=10\|publisher\=Durham Castle Society}} losing to W. L. Wharton's *Velocity* in the first race of the Regatta, on 17 June.{{cite news \|title\=Durham Boat Regatta \|work\=York Herald\|date\=28 June 1834 \|access\-date\=27 November 2015 \|url\=http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000498/18340628/024/0003\| via \= \[\[British Newspaper Archive]]\|url\-access\=subscription }}
The first debating society in Durham was founded in 1835\. However, this appears to have closed by 1839\.{{cite web\|url\=http://reed.dur.ac.uk/xtf/view?docId\=ead/uni/undg.xml\#UNDall\-3507\|title\=Durham University Records: Associations and Societies \- Durham Union Society\|publisher\=Durham University\|access\-date\=3 October 2015}} In 1842, the Durham University Union debating society was established. It was later revived in 1872–73, when it took the name of the [Durham Union Society](/wiki/Durham_Union_Society "Durham Union Society") and moved to [Palace Green](/wiki/Palace_Green "Palace Green").{{cite web\|url\=http://dus.org.uk/our\-history/\|title\=Our History\|publisher\=Durham Union Society\|access\-date\=3 October 2015}}
The university played its earliest recorded [cricket](/wiki/Cricket "Cricket") match away at [Sunderland](/wiki/Sunderland%2C_Tyne_and_Wear "Sunderland, Tyne and Wear") on 17 June 1842, the result being a 58 run victory for the university.{{cite news \|title\=Cricket \|work\=Durham County Advertiser \|date\=24 June 1842 \|access\-date\=27 November 2015 \|url\=http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000612/18420624/019/0002\| via \= \[\[British Newspaper Archive]]\|url\-access\=subscription }} The first home cricket match at [the Racecourse](/wiki/The_Racecourse "The Racecourse") was played in 1843, again against Sunderland.{{cite web\|url\=http://reed.dur.ac.uk/xtf/view?docId\=ead/uni/undg.xml\&toc.id\=\#UNDall\-1464\|publisher\=Durham University\|access\-date\=23 October 2015\|title\=Durham University Records: Associations and Societies}} The oldest recorded scorecard at the Racecourse, from 2 June 1843, is for a drawn two\-innings one\-day match against [Bishopwearmouth](/wiki/Bishopwearmouth "Bishopwearmouth").{{cite web\|url\=https://cricketarchive.com/Archive/Scorecards/828/828210\.html\|title\=Durham University v Bishopwearmouth\|access\-date\=23 October 2015\|publisher\=Cricket Archive}} As Bishopwearmouth is part of Sunderland, this may have been the same match.
|
[
"Early years, 1832–1846\n----------------------",
"### The opening of the university",
"[thumb\\|University House (now Cosin's Hall), the first home of the university](/wiki/File:Bishop_Cosin%27s_Hall.jpg \"Bishop Cosin's Hall.jpg\")\nThe university was intended from the start to be collegiate, and the foundation college was [University College](/wiki/University_College%2C_Durham \"University College, Durham\"). This was originally accommodated in the former Archdeacon's Inn, renamed University House (now [Cosin's Hall](/wiki/Cosin%27s_Hall \"Cosin's Hall\")).{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.dur.ac.uk/university.college/about/\\|title\\=About University College\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[University College, Durham]]\\|access\\-date\\=5 October 2015}}",
"After the passing of the Act, a year was spent setting up the university and recruiting staff. The [library](/wiki/Durham_University_Library \"Durham University Library\") was established in January 1833 by a donation of 160 volumes from Van Mildert, with the Bishop's librarian, Rev. Patrick George, being named the university's first librarian. The library was housed in a gallery of [Cosin's Library](/wiki/Cosin%27s_Library \"Cosin's Library\") on Palace Green.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.dur.ac.uk/resources/library/library\\_history\\_early.pdf\\|title\\=A History of Durham University Library: Early History\\|publisher\\=Durham University\\|access\\-date\\=8 October 2015}} On 20 July the opening of the university in Michaelmas Term 1833 was announced, along with an almost complete list of staff.",
"The university opened on 28 October 1833 with 19 \"scholars\" and 18 \"students\" on the Bachelor of Arts course and 5 students on the theology licence course. The university was the first in England to introduce matriculation examinations, although these had been in use at the [University of St Andrews](/wiki/University_of_St_Andrews \"University of St Andrews\") and Marischal College, Aberdeen since the 1820s;{{cite web\\|url\\=https://universityhistories.com/2016/08/12/durham\\-university\\-last\\-of\\-the\\-ancient\\-universities\\-and\\-first\\-of\\-the\\-new\\-1831\\-1871\\|title\\=Durham University: Last of the Ancient Universities and First of the New (1831\\-1871\\)\\|date\\=12 August 2016\\|website\\=University Histories\\|publisher\\=Research Group on University History, \\[\\[University of Manchester]]\\|access\\-date\\=10 December 2017}} the first student to be matriculated was John Cundill. Shortly after the first students arrived, the \"first calendar\" was published, advertising the institution as the \"University of Durham founded by Act of Chapter with the Consent of the Bishop of Durham 28 September 1831\\. Constituted a University by Act of Parliament 2nd and 3rd William IV., Sess. 1831\\-2\\.\" The university had three professors (all Anglican clergymen) at its opening: [Hugh James Rose](/wiki/Hugh_James_Rose \"Hugh James Rose\") (Divinity and Ecclesiastical History), Henry Jenkyns (Greek and Classical Literature) and John Carr (Mathematics). This reflected the two BA honours courses in classics and mathematics (following Oxford and Cambridge) and the course in theology, leading to the Licence in Theology (LTh). There were also readers in law (William Gray), medicine (William Cooke), history (Thomas Greenwood), natural philosophy (Charles Thomas Whitley) and moral philosophy (J. Miller), and lecturers in Modern languages (James Hamilton), and chemistry and mineralogy ([James Finlay Weir Johnston](/wiki/James_Finlay_Weir_Johnston \"James Finlay Weir Johnston\"), [FRSE](/wiki/FRSE \"FRSE\")). Unlike at Oxford and Cambridge, where the teaching was carried out by the colleges, the professors at Durham were expected to \"have the charge of the studies in their respective departments and work as at Glasgow and the foreign Universities, and as they did at Oxford in old times\".{{refn\\|Letter from Thorp to Van Mildert, 10 December 1831\\.}}",
"Unfortunately, Carr died suddenly on 30 October, only two days after the university opened. The university went into mourning for fourteen days.{{cite journal\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=iKFEAQAAMAAJ\\&pg\\=PA471\\|pages\\=471–472\\|title\\=Obituaries: Rev. John Carr\\|journal\\=The Gentleman's Magazine\\|volume\\=103\\|date\\=1833}} George, the librarian, died on 13 January 1834, Whitley taking over that role in addition to his readership. Rose was also plagued by ill health and left in March. He became the second principal of [King's College London](/wiki/King%27s_College_London \"King's College London\") in 1836 but again only lasted around six months before ill health forced him from the post; he died in 1838 aged 43\\. After he left Durham, his brother, [Henry John Rose](/wiki/Henry_John_Rose \"Henry John Rose\"), filled in for the rest of the academic year, before returning to his fellowship at Cambridge.{{cite journal\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=AfkRAAAAYAAJ\\&pg\\=PA449\\|title\\=Clergy Deceased\\|page\\=449\\|journal\\=The Gentleman's Magazine\\|volume\\=155–156\\|year\\=1834}}",
"[thumb\\|Temple Chevallier, first professor of mathematics](/wiki/File:Temple_Chevallier.jpg \"Temple Chevallier.jpg\")",
"Jenkyns took over as acting professor of divinity, while remaining professor of Greek until 1839, when he was appointed professor of Greek permanently and made a canon of the cathedral. [Temple Chevallier](/wiki/Temple_Chevallier \"Temple Chevallier\") came to Durham in 1834 to assist Jenkyns with the teaching of theology and Hebrew, and was appointed professor of mathematics, reader in Hebrew and Registrar to the university in 1835\\.",
"In early 1834, Thorp wrote to the bishops of the Church of England asking if they would accept holders of Durham degrees for ordination alongside those from Oxford and Cambridge. The answers were mostly positive, with only two bishops refusing: [George Murray (bishop of Rochester)](/wiki/George_Murray_%28bishop_of_Rochester%29 \"George Murray (bishop of Rochester)\") and [Henry Phillpotts](/wiki/Henry_Phillpotts \"Henry Phillpotts\") (bishop of Exeter and a canon of Durham Cathedral). At the end of the 1833–34 academic year, George Selby Thomson became the first recipient of the LTh, which was available with only one year's study for those with degrees from Oxford, Cambridge, Dublin or Durham (as opposed to three years' study for non\\-graduates). Thomson had gained his BA at [Jesus College, Cambridge](/wiki/Jesus_College%2C_Cambridge \"Jesus College, Cambridge\") and took his MA in June 1834\\.{{cite book\\|title\\=Calendar of the University of Durham\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Durham University]]\\|date\\=1844\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=kt8NAAAAQAAJ\\&pg\\=PA1}}{{cite book\\|title\\=The Cambridge University Calendar\\|date\\=1835\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[University of Cambridge]]\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=Pd4NAAAAQAAJ\\&pg\\=PA163\\|page\\=163}}",
"There was originally an intention to offer a medical course similar to those at the London colleges, leading to the Licence of the [Society of Apothecaries](/wiki/Society_of_Apothecaries \"Society of Apothecaries\"). However, there was insufficient demand to sustain the course, particularly after the opening of the medical school in Newcastle (1834\\), and lectures in medicine stopped after 1836\\.",
"In March 1834, Thorp received a letter from John Burder, the Bishop's London secretary,{{cite web\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=6eANAAAAQAAJ\\&pg\\=PA303\\|title\\=The Royal Kalendar, and Court and City Register for England, Scotland ...\\|work\\=google.co.uk\\|year\\=1842}} checking whether the proceedings regarding the university in Chapter were in writing under their common seal and with the Bishop's signature, Following this, an Act of Chapter on 4 April 1834 resolved \"that the College established by Act of Chapter, 28th September 1831, be constituted a University\". On 9 May 1835 the university took legal advice on the extent of its powers under the 1832 act, and in particular whether it could grant degrees. It was then announced on 13 June 1835 that the university would confer degrees and that a fundamental statute would be drawn up for the university. This fundamental statute was passed by the dean and chapter on 20 July 1835; it established the University [Senate](/wiki/Academic_senate \"Academic senate\") and [Convocation](/wiki/Convocation%23University_use \"Convocation#University use\"), explicitly allowed the university to grant degrees (stating \"that the degrees in the various faculties shall be conferred by the Warden in Convocation\"), limited degrees to members of the established church, and gave the Senate (subject to the approval of Convocation) the right to make further regulations.{{cite book\\|title\\=The University of Durham (1832–1932\\)\\|author\\=C.E. Whiting\\|page\\=58\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Sheldon Press]]\\|date\\=1932}}",
"The statement that the university would grant degrees and the publication of the statutes led to a letter to the *York Herald* accusing the university of deceit in claiming the right to offer degrees without actually possessing that right, and claiming that students had been transferred to Oxford because \"when the time for degrees grew near, not a degree could the Durhamites confer\".{{cite news \\|title\\=The Durham University \\|work\\=York Herald \\|date\\=31 October 1835 \\|access\\-date\\=16 January 2016 \\|url\\=http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000498/18351031/016/0003\\| via \\= \\[\\[British Newspaper Archive]]\\|url\\-access\\=subscription }} A response in the *Durham Advertiser* from \"Dunelmensis\" pointed out that \"\\[t]he time for conferring degrees has not yet arrived\" and that therefore the supposed lack of any right to confer degrees was purely the opinion of the writer of the original letter, without any evidence to back it up.{{cite news \\|title\\=To the Editor of the Durham Advertiser \\|work\\=Durham Advertiser\\|date\\=20 November 1835 \\|access\\-date\\=16 January 2016 \\|url\\=http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000612/18351120/017/0002\\|via \\= \\[\\[British Newspaper Archive]]\\|url\\-access\\=subscription }}",
"The first Convocation was held on 4 March 1836 to approve the regulations for the university, a second meeting the following week approved the appointment of examiners.{{cite news\\|work\\=Cumberland Pacquet, and Ware's Whitehaven Advertiser\\|date\\= 15 March 1836\\|title\\=The first meeting of the Convocation of the University of Durham\\|access\\-date\\=12 December 2015 \\|url\\=http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000950/18360315/035/0003\\| via \\= \\[\\[British Newspaper Archive]]\\|url\\-access\\=subscription }} The 1836 Convocation consisted of 84 graduates (doctors or MAs) of Oxford, Cambridge and Dublin who had become members of the University of Durham, including [John Keble](/wiki/John_Keble \"John Keble\") and [John Henry Newman](/wiki/John_Henry_Newman \"John Henry Newman\").{{cite news\\|work\\=\\[\\[Yorkshire Post]]\\|date\\=29 June 1937\\|title\\=Durham University Centenary\\|access\\-date\\=12 December 2015 \\|url\\=http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000687/19370629/295/0008\\| via \\= \\[\\[British Newspaper Archive]]\\|url\\-access\\=subscription \\|author\\=C. E. Whiting}}",
"[thumb\\|An examination taking place in Cosin's Library in 1842](/wiki/File:ExamInCosin.jpg \"ExamInCosin.jpg\")",
"The first final degree examinations were held in Easter term, 1836, although following the practice of Oxford at the time the students would not receive their degrees for another year. The examinations in 1836 saw Durham introduce the use of [external examiners](/wiki/External_examiner \"External examiner\") to ensure comparability of its degrees with those of Oxford and Cambridge. This marked the start of the system of external examination that spread throughout British higher education and is still used today.{{cite web\\|last\\=Cuthbert\\|first\\=Mike\\|date\\=2003\\|url\\=http://www.ukcle.ac.uk/resources/assessment\\-and\\-feedback/cuthbert/\\|title\\=The external examiner: how did we get here?\\|work\\= Presentation to the UKCLE/ALT workshop on external examiners, 6 June 2003\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130518100020/http://www.ukcle.ac.uk/resources/assessment\\-and\\-feedback/cuthbert/\\|archive\\-date\\=18 May 2013\\|access\\-date\\=20 October 2015}} John Cundill became the first Durham student to gain first class honours, in mathematics, although he missed out on a [double first](/wiki/Double_first \"Double first\"), taking second class honours in classics.{{cite book\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=fd8NAAAAQAAJ\\&pg\\=PA45\\|title\\=Durham University Calendar\\|date\\=1842\\|page\\=45}}",
"{{Blockquote\\|At this last examination, by the assistance of Examiners from Oxford, the same standard of attainments has been fixed for a certificate, which is observed on the like occasion in that University.\\|source\\=Durham University Calendar 1844\\[https://books.google.com/books?id\\=kt8NAAAAQAAJ\\&pg\\=PA7\\&focus\\=viewport\\&output\\=html ''Durham University Calendar'']''. 1844\\. p. 7\\.''}}",
"On 21 February 1836, Van Mildert died. The funding for the university was not yet fully established – Van Mildert had been supporting it with £2,000 a year from his own income and had been working to get prebendal stalls attached to the professorships of divinity and classics and to the wardenship, but this was in the hands of the [Ecclesiastical Commissioners](/wiki/Ecclesiastical_Commissioners \"Ecclesiastical Commissioners\") and not yet decided. He had also allowed the university the use of Durham Castle, but this again was not yet settled. Thirdly, the royal charter to incorporate the university was not yet granted. There was also a fear that the Whig government, now under [Lord Melbourne](/wiki/Lord_Melbourne \"Lord Melbourne\"), would appoint a liberal bishop who might not support the idea of the exclusively Anglican university.{{cite DNB\\|wstitle\\=Van Mildert, William}}",
"The new bishop was named as [Edward Maltby](/wiki/Edward_Maltby \"Edward Maltby\"), a liberal and supporter of UCL who had read the prayer at the laying of its foundation stone (and, from its foundation in November 1836, a senator of the [University of London](/wiki/University_of_London \"University of London\")). Before he was installed, the petition for the royal charter was submitted. On the legal advice of Sir [Charles Wetherell](/wiki/Charles_Wetherell \"Charles Wetherell\"), it contained no explicit mention of degree awarding powers, only incorporation and the right to hold property.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.dur.ac.uk/about/governance/charter/\\|title\\=About Durham University: Royal Charter\\|publisher\\=Durham University\\|access\\-date\\=24 December 2014}}{{cite journal\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=2a4QAAAAIAAJ\\&pg\\=PA216\\|title\\=Laying the Foundation Stone of the London University\\|journal\\=Christian Journal and Literary Register\\|volume\\=11\\|page\\=216\\|year\\=1827}}{{cite book\\|title\\=Universities in the Age of Reform, 1800–1870\\|author\\=Matthew Andrews\\|publisher\\=Springer\\|date\\=1 June 2018\\|page\\=96}}",
"However, the charter was delayed by [Lord Russell](/wiki/John_Russell%2C_1st_Earl_Russell \"John Russell, 1st Earl Russell\"), the Home Secretary, after the fee had been paid for sealing the charter, due to Durham degrees not being open to non\\-Anglicans. With the time set for the conferring of degrees approaching, there were fears that, while the university believed it had the power to grant degrees under the 1832 act, objections would be made and the public perception of the degrees would be affected. Nevertheless, the intention was to grant degrees whether or not the charter was sealed in time.{{cite book\\|title\\=Universities in the Age of Reform, 1800–1870\\|author\\=Matthew Andrews\\|publisher\\=Springer\\|date\\=1 June 2018\\|page\\=98}}",
"### The royal charter",
"[thumb\\|right\\|[King William IV](/wiki/King_William_IV \"King William IV\") granted [Durham University](/wiki/Durham_University \"Durham University\") its [royal charter](/wiki/Royal_charter \"Royal charter\") in 1837](/wiki/File:Martin_Archer_Shee_-_King_William_IV_-_c.1800.jpg \"Martin Archer Shee - King William IV - c.1800.jpg\")",
"In the event, Maltby \"heartily entered into the scheme for the Durham University\",{{cite DNB\\|wstitle\\=Maltby, Edward}} and with his support the university's [royal charter](/wiki/Royal_charter \"Royal charter\") was granted on 1 June 1837 by [William IV](/wiki/William_IV_of_the_United_Kingdom \"William IV of the United Kingdom\"), incorporating \"The Warden, Masters and Scholars of the University of Durham\". While, following Wetherell's advice, this did not include explicit degree awarding powers, it stated that the fundamental statute passed by the dean and chapter (as governors of the university) in 1835 was \"by virtue, and in pursuance of the trusts and powers in the said Act of Parliament, and of every other power enabling them in that behalf\" and also that the university \"shall have and enjoy all the property, rights, and privileges which are assured by the said Act \\[the University of Durham Act 1832] to the university therein contemplated and authorised; or are incident to a University established by our Royal Charter\". The charter did not create a new institution but rather confirmed Durham's status as a university.{{cite book\\|title\\=Universities in the Age of Reform, 1800–1870\\|author\\=Matthew Andrews\\|publisher\\=Springer\\|date\\=1 June 2018\\|page\\=100}}",
"The first students graduated a week after the grant of the charter, on 8 June 1837\\. At the same [congregation](/wiki/Congregation_%28university%29 \"Congregation (university)\") the charter was accepted and the original seal of the university adopted (a [St Cuthbert's](/wiki/Cuthbert \"Cuthbert\") cross in a circle, the coat of arms not then having been granted).{{cite web\\|url\\=http://shop.dur.ac.uk/item/HeritageCollection\\_HeritageRingSilver\\_251\\_0\\_177\\_0\\.html\\|title\\=Heritage Ring Silver\\|quote\\=This is a traditional signet ring, with the original University seal carved in relief from the metal.\\|access\\-date\\=6 October 2015\\|publisher\\=Durham University}} The first honorary degree was awarded the Earl Grey in 1838\\.",
"The examination period of 1837 saw the first examinations for the MA. This was a break with the tradition of the ancient universities, where the [Oxbridge MA](/wiki/Oxbridge_MA \"Oxbridge MA\") had come to be awarded on payment of a fee to all BAs of the required standing. Durham, by contrast, required a further year of study and the passing of an examination.",
"[thumb\\|Durham Castle, granted to the university in 1837](/wiki/File:Durham_Castle_Eingang.jpg \"Durham Castle Eingang.jpg\")",
"On 19 July 1837, [Queen Victoria](/wiki/Queen_Victoria \"Queen Victoria\"), by an order of the [Queen\\-in\\-Council](/wiki/Queen-in-Council \"Queen-in-Council\"), granted the use of [Durham Castle](/wiki/Durham_Castle \"Durham Castle\"), previously a palace of the Bishop of Durham, to the university. University College moved into the castle, however the [keep](/wiki/Keep \"Keep\") was ruinous and needed substantial reconstruction before it could be occupied. In the course of this renovation, the skeleton of a whale was discovered in the castle ruins, and a report on this made at the 1839 meeting of the [British Association](/wiki/British_Association \"British Association\"). It was originally claimed that these were the remains of a whale cast up on the shore of Co. Durham in 1661 and acquired by Bishop Cosin.{{cite journal\\| journal\\=The Gentleman's Journal\\|title\\=Antiquarian Researchers \\- Whale in Durham Castle\\|date\\=1839\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=1FdIAAAAYAAJ\\&pg\\=PA526\\|page\\=526\\|volume\\=12}} It was later admitted that the letter on which this claim was based was a forgery.{{cite journal\\|journal\\=The Gentleman's Journal\\|title\\=Minor Correspondence\\|date\\=1840\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=KPRfAAAAcAAJ\\&pg\\=PA450\\|page\\=450\\|volume\\=49\\|first\\=Sylvanus\\|last\\=Urban}}",
"1837 also saw the university found the first course in engineering at any university institution in England, which opened in January 1838, led by Chevallier and Johnston.{{cite journal\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=JNk\\-AAAAYAAJ\\&pg\\=PA1\\|title\\=Education of Students in Civil Engineering and Mining at the University of Durham\\|journal\\=The London and Edinburgh Philosophical Magazine and Journal of Science\\|date\\=1838}} While it was initially popular, with admissions exceeding those for Arts or Theology in 1839/40, this did not last. The course was too expensive for students and although leading industrialists supported it, employers did not give any credit for it; it closed a few years later due to falling student numbers, the last students being admitted in 1851\\.",
"Johnston was elected a Fellow of the [Royal Society](/wiki/Royal_Society \"Royal Society\") on 15 June 1837\\. His sponsors included [Charles Wheatstone](/wiki/Charles_Wheatstone \"Charles Wheatstone\") and [Michael Faraday](/wiki/Michael_Faraday \"Michael Faraday\").{{cite web\\|url\\=https://collections.royalsociety.org/DServe.exe?dsqIni\\=Dserve.ini\\&dsqApp\\=Archive\\&dsqCmd\\=Show.tcl\\&dsqDb\\=Catalog\\&dsqPos\\=78\\&dsqSearch\\=%28%28text%29%3D%27Johnston%27%29\\|title\\=Johnston, James Finlay Weir\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Royal Society]]\\|access\\-date\\=5 November 2015\\|archive\\-date\\=13 January 2016\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160113232707/https://collections.royalsociety.org/DServe.exe?dsqIni\\=Dserve.ini\\&dsqApp\\=Archive\\&dsqCmd\\=Show.tcl\\&dsqDb\\=Catalog\\&dsqPos\\=78\\&dsqSearch\\=%28%28text%29%3D%27Johnston%27%29\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} On 30 May 1839, Thorp was also elected a Fellow, his sponsors including Bishop Maltby (signing E. Dunelm, as Bishop of Durham{{cite web\\|url\\=https://collections.royalsociety.org/DServe.exe?dsqIni\\=Dserve.ini\\&dsqApp\\=Archive\\&dsqDb\\=Persons\\&dsqSearch\\=Code\\=\\=%27NA2181%27\\&dsqCmd\\=Show.tcl\\|title\\=Fellow details\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Royal Society]]\\|access\\-date\\=5 November 2015\\|archive\\-date\\=13 January 2016\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160113232707/https://collections.royalsociety.org/DServe.exe?dsqIni\\=Dserve.ini\\&dsqApp\\=Archive\\&dsqDb\\=Persons\\&dsqSearch\\=Code\\=\\=%27NA2181%27\\&dsqCmd\\=Show.tcl\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}), as well as [William Tooke](/wiki/William_Tooke_%281777%E2%80%931863%29 \"William Tooke (1777–1863)\"), one of the founders of UCL, and [Leonard Horner](/wiki/Leonard_Horner \"Leonard Horner\"), UCL's first Warden.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://collections.royalsociety.org/DServe.exe?dsqIni\\=Dserve.ini\\&dsqApp\\=Archive\\&dsqCmd\\=Show.tcl\\&dsqDb\\=Catalog\\&dsqPos\\=1\\&dsqSearch\\=%28%28text%29%3D%27thorp%27%29\\|title\\= Thorp, Charles\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Royal Society]]\\|access\\-date\\=5 November 2015}}",
"[thumb\\|Durham University observatory](/wiki/File:Durham_Observatory.jpg \"Durham Observatory.jpg\")",
"In 1839 the [Durham University Observatory](/wiki/Durham_University_Observatory \"Durham University Observatory\") was established. This opened in 1842 with an 8\\-foot (2\\.44 m) focal length equatorial\\-mount refractor with a 6\\.5 inch (17 mm) primary, built by H. Fraunhofer.{{cite book\\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/historyandantiq00joicgoog\\|title\\=The history and antiquities of the county palatine of Durham\\|publisher\\=A. Fullarton and co.\\|author\\=William Fordyce\\|date\\=1857\\|page\\=\\[https://archive.org/details/historyandantiq00joicgoog/page/n345 325]}} This was used, in particular, for [sunspot](/wiki/Sunspot \"Sunspot\") observations through the 19th century, as well as for observations of minor planets and comets.{{cite journal\\|author\\=Arnold Wolfendale\\|author\\-link\\=Arnold Wolfendale\\|date\\=December 1992\\|journal\\=Quarterly Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Royal Astronomical Society]]\\|title\\=Durham and the New Astronomies\\|volume\\=33\\|page\\=312\\|bibcode\\=1992QJRAS..33\\..311W}}{{cite journal\\|author\\=George Rochester\\|author\\-link\\=George Rochester\\|date\\=December 1980\\|journal\\=Quarterly Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Royal Astronomical Society]]\\|title\\=The History of Astronomy in the University of Durham from 1835 TO 1939\\|volume\\=21\\|page\\=369\\|bibcode\\=1980QJRAS..21\\..369R}}",
"1839 also saw Thorp involved in establishing a diocesan teacher training college for men (later to be St Bede's College, now the [College of St Hild and St Bede](/wiki/College_of_St_Hild_and_St_Bede \"College of St Hild and St Bede\")), with the first Master being John Cundill. This was originally proposed to be part of the university, and the dean and chapter approved a scheme in 1836, but this did not prove practical. The college opened in Framwellgate Moor in 1841 before moving to Leazes Road in 1847\\.{{cite book\\|url\\=http://issuu.com/communicationsoffice/docs/hildbededoc\\|title\\=The College of St Hild \\& St Bede, Durham\\|publisher\\=College of St Hild \\& St Bede\\|date\\=1979\\|author\\=Ian Booth}}",
"{{Multiple image\n \\| image1 \\= Ye Freshmonne Page 1\\.jpg\n \\| image2 \\= Ye Freshmonne Page 2\\.jpg\n \\| footer\\=''Ye Freshmonne His Adventures at Univ. Coll. Durham'', a contemporary cartoon of student life in the 1840s by \\[\\[Edward Bradley (writer)\\|Edward Bradley]] (Univ Coll 1845\\-8\\)\n}}",
"On 4 June 1841 a further Order in Council transferred further estates to the university and attached [canonries](/wiki/Canonry \"Canonry\") to the professorships of Divinity and Greek, while the professor of mathematics (Chevallier) was made the professor of mathematics and astronomy. The wardenship of the university was (after the term of the current Warden, Charles Thorp) to be held *ex officio* by the [Dean of Durham](/wiki/Dean_of_Durham \"Dean of Durham\"), the revenues freed up to be used to establish a professorship in Hebrew.{{cite book\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=fd8NAAAAQAAJ\\&pg\\=PA6\\|title\\=Durham University Calendar\\|date\\=1842\\|page\\=6}} Three weeks after this order was made, John Edwards was appointed professor of Greek, the office having been vacant since Jenkyns' appointment as professor of Divinity in 1839\\.",
"On 18 May 1843 the university received a grant of arms:\n{{Blockquote\\|Argent, a Cross Patee quadrate Gules; a Canton Azure, charged with a Cheveron Or between three Lions rampant of the First, together with this Motto 'Fundamenta ejus super montibus Sanctis,'\\|author\\=J. T. Fowler\\|source\\=Durham University; earlier foundations and present colleges, quoting the official grant}}\nThese are alternatively described (bringing out the origin of the various elements) as \"Argent S. Cuthbert's cross (formée quadrate) gules; on a canton the arms of Bishop Hatfield: Azure, a chevron or, between three lions rampant argent\".{{cite book\\|title\\=A Treatise On Ecclesiastical Heraldry\\|author\\=John Woodward\\|date\\=1894\\|publisher\\=Рипол Классик \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=CIASAwAAQBAJ\\&pg\\=PA444\\|isbn\\=9785878640695}} It is interesting that Bishop Hatfield, the founder of Durham College, Oxford, is commemorated in the arms rather than Bishop Van Mildert. This was not the only attempt to draw a link between the college and the university. In an undated letter to \"Mr Grey\" (not the Earl), Thorp wrote:\n{{Blockquote\\|The university is the legitimate successor of Durham College, the property of which remained since the reformation in the hands of the Chapter and which successive Governments from Henry VIII downwards have proposed to apply to academic education at Durham.\\|author\\=Charles Thorp, 1st Warden of Durham University}} Early university calendars also contained a note setting out the link between the college and the university.{{cite book\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=fd8NAAAAQAAJ\\&pg\\=PA1\\|title\\=Durham University Calendar\\|date\\=1842\\|pages\\=1–2\\|quote\\=It is also a fact worthy of notice that the Dean and Chapter were endowed by Henry VIII, not only with the revenues of the Benedictine Priory at Durham, but also with those of the College connected with it in the University of Oxford. This College, though in existence at an earlier period, seems to have owed much of its prosperity to Bishops Richard de Bury and Hatfield, and, at the death of the latter prelate in 1381, is stated to have enjoyed a provision for 8 Fellows (one of whom was Warden or Prior), and 8 secular Scholars. It was dissolved at the Reformation on account of its connexion with the Priory of Durham; and its advowsons and other endowments were granted by Henry VIII to the new Dean and Chapter. This body, therefore, is the representative of the ancient College, as well as of the ancient Priory: and thus there is a peculiar fitness in their endeavour to replace the suppressed establishment for education in Oxford by the foundation of a new one of a similar nature at Durham.}} It is worth noting also that the head of the mediaeval Durham College was its Warden, the same title assumed by Thorp as head of the new University.{{cite book\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=jjqMN2G8fGoC\\&pg\\=PA138\\|title\\=The Heads of Religious Houses: England and Wales, III. 1377–1540\\|author1\\=David Knowles\\|author2\\=David M. Smith\\|author3\\=Christopher Nugent Lawrence Brooke\\|date\\=13 March 2008\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Cambridge University Press]]\\|pages\\=138–140\\|isbn\\=9780521865081}}",
"### Sports and societies",
"[thumb\\|Durham Regatta](/wiki/File:Durham_regatta_Univ_College_Durham_v%27s_Newcastle_Uni.jpg \"Durham regatta Univ College Durham v's Newcastle Uni.jpg\")",
"1834 saw the foundation of the [Durham Regatta](/wiki/Durham_Regatta \"Durham Regatta\"), the second oldest in the country. The university was one of the founding members of the Regatta, along with [Durham School](/wiki/Durham_School \"Durham School\") and Durham Boat Club.{{cite web\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Durham Regatta]]\\|access\\-date\\=10 October 2015\\|title\\=Regatta History\\|url\\=http://www.durham\\-regatta.org.uk/history/}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.rrm.co.uk/exhibitions/previous\\-exhibitions/175\\-years\\-of\\-durham\\-university\\-rowing.aspx\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120107012256/http://www.rrm.co.uk/exhibitions/previous\\-exhibitions/175\\-years\\-of\\-durham\\-university\\-rowing.aspx\\|publisher\\=River and Rowing Museum, Henley\\-on\\-Thames\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-date\\=7 January 2012\\|title\\=175 Years of Durham University Rowing\\|date\\=2008\\|access\\-date\\=10 October 2015}} The university was represented by a crew from [University College Boat Club](/wiki/University_College_Boat_Club_%28Durham%29 \"University College Boat Club (Durham)\") in the six\\-oared *Sylph*,{{cite journal\\|journal\\=Castellum\\|date\\=2008\\|volume\\=61\\|title\\=Obituary: Martin Proctor\\|url\\=https://www.castlealumni.uk/files/castellum/Castellum%252061%2520(2008\\).pdf\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201025045135/https://www.castlealumni.uk/files/castellum/Castellum%2061%20(2008\\).pdf\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-date\\=25 October 2020\\|page\\=10\\|publisher\\=Durham Castle Society}} losing to W. L. Wharton's *Velocity* in the first race of the Regatta, on 17 June.{{cite news \\|title\\=Durham Boat Regatta \\|work\\=York Herald\\|date\\=28 June 1834 \\|access\\-date\\=27 November 2015 \\|url\\=http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000498/18340628/024/0003\\| via \\= \\[\\[British Newspaper Archive]]\\|url\\-access\\=subscription }}",
"The first debating society in Durham was founded in 1835\\. However, this appears to have closed by 1839\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://reed.dur.ac.uk/xtf/view?docId\\=ead/uni/undg.xml\\#UNDall\\-3507\\|title\\=Durham University Records: Associations and Societies \\- Durham Union Society\\|publisher\\=Durham University\\|access\\-date\\=3 October 2015}} In 1842, the Durham University Union debating society was established. It was later revived in 1872–73, when it took the name of the [Durham Union Society](/wiki/Durham_Union_Society \"Durham Union Society\") and moved to [Palace Green](/wiki/Palace_Green \"Palace Green\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://dus.org.uk/our\\-history/\\|title\\=Our History\\|publisher\\=Durham Union Society\\|access\\-date\\=3 October 2015}}",
"The university played its earliest recorded [cricket](/wiki/Cricket \"Cricket\") match away at [Sunderland](/wiki/Sunderland%2C_Tyne_and_Wear \"Sunderland, Tyne and Wear\") on 17 June 1842, the result being a 58 run victory for the university.{{cite news \\|title\\=Cricket \\|work\\=Durham County Advertiser \\|date\\=24 June 1842 \\|access\\-date\\=27 November 2015 \\|url\\=http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000612/18420624/019/0002\\| via \\= \\[\\[British Newspaper Archive]]\\|url\\-access\\=subscription }} The first home cricket match at [the Racecourse](/wiki/The_Racecourse \"The Racecourse\") was played in 1843, again against Sunderland.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://reed.dur.ac.uk/xtf/view?docId\\=ead/uni/undg.xml\\&toc.id\\=\\#UNDall\\-1464\\|publisher\\=Durham University\\|access\\-date\\=23 October 2015\\|title\\=Durham University Records: Associations and Societies}} The oldest recorded scorecard at the Racecourse, from 2 June 1843, is for a drawn two\\-innings one\\-day match against [Bishopwearmouth](/wiki/Bishopwearmouth \"Bishopwearmouth\").{{cite web\\|url\\=https://cricketarchive.com/Archive/Scorecards/828/828210\\.html\\|title\\=Durham University v Bishopwearmouth\\|access\\-date\\=23 October 2015\\|publisher\\=Cricket Archive}} As Bishopwearmouth is part of Sunderland, this may have been the same match.",
""
] |
Growth, crisis and revival, 1846–1909
-------------------------------------
### New colleges in Durham
[thumb\|Bishop Hatfield's Hall, now Hatfield College](/wiki/File:Hatfieldkitchenblock.jpg "Hatfieldkitchenblock.jpg")
In 1846, [Bishop Hatfield](/wiki/Thomas_Hatfield "Thomas Hatfield")'s Hall (later to become [Hatfield College](/wiki/Hatfield_College "Hatfield College")) was founded with the idea of providing more economical accommodation for students. While [University College](/wiki/University_College%2C_Durham "University College, Durham") had followed the system of the Oxbridge colleges, where students were expected to furnish their own rooms, employ their own servants, and buy their own food, David Melville, the first Master of Hatfield, proposed a "model college" based on three principles:{{cite web\|url\=http://community.dur.ac.uk/hatfield.history/intour/model.htm\|title\=Hatfield College History: A Model College\|access\-date\=23 October 2015\|publisher\=Hatfield College\|archive\-date\=17 November 2015\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151117015539/http://community.dur.ac.uk/hatfield.history/intour/model.htm\|url\-status\=dead}}
* All rooms were let furnished, with shared servants
* All meals were taken in Hall, communally provided
* Commons were to be fixed at a reasonable rate, known in advance.
This system was discussed by the [Royal Commission](/wiki/Royal_Commission "Royal Commission") on the [University of Oxford](/wiki/University_of_Oxford "University of Oxford") in 1852, who rejected it on the grounds that cheaper halls would provide worse tuition.{{cite journal\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=1F1KAQAAMAAJ\&pg\=RA1\-PA145\|journal\=Edinburgh Review\|volume\=95–96\|page\=145\|title\=The Oxford University Commission Report\|date\=1852}} The idea was, however, taken up by [Keble College, Oxford](/wiki/Keble_College%2C_Oxford "Keble College, Oxford") on its foundation in 1870, and has since spread throughout the world.{{cite web\|url\=http://collegiateway.org/news/2005\-hatfield\-melville\-building\|publisher\=The Collegiate Way\|title\=Hatfield College (re)dedicates its Melville building\|date\=24 May 2005\|author\=R. J. O'Hara\|access\-date\=23 October 2015}}
{{Blockquote\|Melville was determined to create a brand new concept of student living and learning which would both meet the increasing demand for places and at the same time provide access to a university education for people of limited means. His dream became a reality and the model has been replicated across the world – there is a strong argument to say that university halls of residence as we know them today started in Hatfield College, Durham!\|author\=Tim Burt, Master of Hatfield College\|source\=quoted by Collegiate Way}}
Hatfield's original building had been a coaching inn (the Red Lyon) in the 17th and 18th centuries. The college soon outgrew this and a new building (now the Melville building) was built in 1849 and a chapel was added in 1853\.{{cite web\|url\=http://community.dur.ac.uk/hatfield.history/intour/\|title\=Hatfield College History\|access\-date\=23 October 2015\|publisher\=Hatfield College}} 1851 saw the addition of a third College, [Bishop Cosin's Hall](/wiki/Bishop_Cosin%27s_Hall "Bishop Cosin's Hall"), occupying University House on Palace Green (the old Archdeacon's Inn) where University College had first been based.
The new colleges and University College were all owned by the university, rather than (like the colleges at Oxford and Cambridge) being independent corporations. This has since been held up as an easier template for new collegiate foundations to follow than Oxbridge, and was the model used in establishing York, Lancaster and Kent as collegiate universities and in establishing residential colleges at US universities.{{cite web\|url\=http://collegiateway.org/news/2001\-durham\-example\|title\=The University of Durham Collegiate Example\|date\=25 July 2001\|author\=R. J. O'Hara\|access\-date\=24 October 2015}}{{cite web\|url\=http://collegiateway.org/news/2002\-durham\-princeton\|title\=Collegiate Developments at Durham and Princeton\|date\=8 October 2002\|author\=R. J. O'Hara\|access\-date\=24 October 2015}}
Until the founding of Hatfield, the university and University College had been coextensive. This now changed, making it explicit that the teaching in Durham was carried out by the university, not (as in Oxford, Cambridge and London) partly by the colleges. This was not an innovation as such – it had been the older system at Oxford and Cambridge, who had been attacked around the time of Durham's foundation for abandoning it.{{cite journal\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=wjUeAQAAIAAJ\&pg\=PA384\|journal\=Edinburgh Review\|pages\=384–427\|date\=June 1831\|title\=Universities of England—Oxford\|quote\=It is thus not even pretended that Oxford now supplies more than the preliminary of an academical education. Even this is not afforded by the University, but abandoned to the Colleges and Halls; and the Academy of Oxford is therefore not one public University, but merely a collection of private schools. The University, in fact, exists only in semblance, for the behoof of the unauthorized seminaries by which it has been replaced, and which have contrived, under covert of its name, to slip into possession of its public privileges.\|last1\=Smith\|first1\=Sydney}} The University Cricket Club was established in 1846, making it clear that it represented the whole University, but Hatfield established its own Boat Club – which claims to have existed from 1846, although the first intercollegiate race was not held until 1854\.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.hatfieldcollegebc.com \|publisher\=Hatfield College Boat Club \|access\-date\=24 October 2015 \|title\=About the Club \|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151117022630/http://www.hatfieldcollegebc.com/ \|archive\-date\=17 November 2015 }}
In 1858, a diocesan teacher training college for women (later St Hild's College) opened on the Leazes Road site, next to the men's college.
### Academic dress
In the 1850s the [academic hoods](/wiki/Academic_dress_of_Durham_University "Academic dress of Durham University") were recorded as being:
* LTh: Black stuff trimmed with velvet{{cite news \|title\=University Hoods\|work\=Leeds Intelligencer \|date\=6 February 1858 \|access\-date\=27 November 2015 \|url\=http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000193/18580206/065/0010\| via \= \[\[British Newspaper Archive]]\|url\-access\=subscription }}
* BA: Black silk or bombazine, lined with white wool{{cite journal\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=kDdNAAAAMAAJ\&pg\=PA325\|title\=Hoods—Insignia of Degrees\|work\=The history and antiquities of the county palatine of Durham\|page\=325\|author\=William Fordyce\|date\=1857}} or fur{{cite journal\|work\=Notes and Queries\|date\=1858\|author\=William White\|publisher\=Oxford University Press\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=y0oAAAAAYAAJ\&pg\=PA402\|page\=402\|title\=Color of University Hoods}}
* MA: Black, lined with [Palatinate purple](/wiki/Palatinate_%28colour%29 "Palatinate (colour)") or lilac silk
* LLD: Scarlet cloth lined with white silk
* MB: Purple cloth bound with white fur
* MD: Purple cloth with scarlet silk lining
* MusD: Purple cloth lined with white silk
* BD: Entirely black, corded silk
* DD: Scarlet, lined with Palatinate purple.
### The medical college
[thumb\|Former Barber Surgeons' Hall, Newcastle, which housed the College of Medical and Practical Science from 1851 and later the College of Medicine and Surgery](/wiki/File:Former_Barber_Surgeons%27_Hall%2C_Houston_Street%2C_Newcastle.jpg "Former Barber Surgeons' Hall, Houston Street, Newcastle.jpg")
In June 1851 the Newcastle upon Tyne School of Medicine and Surgery, which had opened on 1 October 1834, split into two following internal disagreements: the Newcastle upon Tyne College of Medicine and Surgery (supported by the majority of staff), and the Newcastle upon Tyne College of Medicine and Practical Science. Discussions between the university and the School of Medicine and Surgery had been in progress at the time of the split, and were renewed in October with the College of Medicine and Surgery, against vigorous opposition from the College of Medicine and Practical Science. On 17 December 1851, the College of Medicine and Surgery became the "Newcastle upon Tyne College of Medicine, in connection with the University of Durham", this being approved by Convocation on 27 January 1852\.{{cite book\|title\=Durham University Calendar\|date\=1860\|publisher\=Durham University\|page\=159\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=L\-ANAAAAQAAJ\&pg\=PA159}}
The statutes of the university were amended on 20 November 1854 to remove religious tests from degrees, except those in arts and divinity, thus allowing degrees in medicine to be granted without religious distinction, although a religious test was still imposed on members of Convocation.{{cite book\|title\=Durham University Calendar\|date\=1860\|publisher\=Durham University\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=L\-ANAAAAQAAJ\&pg\=RA1\-PR10}}
Medical connections were not made only with Newcastle. The medical schools of two Anglican colleges, [King's College London](/wiki/King%27s_College_London "King's College London") and [Queen's College, Birmingham](/wiki/Queen%27s_College%2C_Birmingham "Queen's College, Birmingham"), were also affiliated to the university, allowing their students to obtain Durham degrees.{{cite journal\|title\=University of Durham\|journal\=Medical Times and Gazette\|volume\=2\|date\=22 September 1860\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=5LZXAAAAMAAJ\&pg\=PA281\|page\=281}}
The first Licences in Medicine were granted in 1856\. In 1857 the College of Medicine and Practical Science merged back into the College of Medicine, and in 1858 the first University examinations for the Bachelor of Medicine degree were held, with external examiners from Oxford and London. Durham was included in the Medical Act 1858 with the same status as the universities of Oxford, Cambridge and London.
### The Commission of 1861
[thumb\|Charles Thorp, Archdeaon of Durham and first warden of the University](/wiki/File:Archdeacon_Charles_Thorp_adjusted.jpg "Archdeacon Charles Thorp adjusted.jpg")
The number of students in the university had peaked at 130 in the early 1850s and by 1861 had fallen to 46\. The university was in crisis, and a commission was set up by Act of Parliament in 1861 to look into it. Modern analysis has shown that much of this crisis was due to a stagnation in demand for higher education between the 1820s and the 1860s which, coupled with growth at Oxford and Cambridge, affected all of the newer institutions.
One problem identified by the commission was Thorp, who ran the university as his private fiefdom. Melville, who had been dismissed as master of Hatfield in 1851, told the commission that:
{{Blockquote\|during the whole of my experience there, I should say the Dean and Chapter were simply managed, the Convocation was simply dictated to, and the Senate simply checkmated; that is the Constitution of the University of Durham\|author\=David Melville\|source\=Report of the Durham University Commissioners{{cite journal\|title\=The Durham university Commissioners\|work\=Accounts and Papers of the House of Commons\|page\=63\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=JCZcAAAAQAAJ\&pg\=RA1\-PA63\|year\=1863}}}}
The commission reported back in June 1862, recommending that the government of the university be removed from the dean and chapter and transferred to the senate, that a school of science be created, in which degrees in science would be awarded (the first science degrees in Britain having been awarded just two years earlier in 1860 by the [University of London](/wiki/University_of_London "University of London"){{cite book\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=NOd3N6291CQC\&pg\=PA5\|title\=The University of London, 1858–1900: The Politics of Senate and Convocation\|author\=Francis Michael Glenn Willson\|date\=2004\|publisher\=Boydell Press\|page\=5\|isbn\=9781843830658}}), that the BA course be shortened to two years, and that arts degrees be opened to non\-Anglicans. This was opposed by the dean and chapter, and the Privy Council rejected the recommendations. Thorp, now quite elderly, offered to retire, although he died in October 1862 before this could come into effect.
Thorp had been warden since 1831 and master of University College since its opening. On his death, the Dean of Durham, as specified by the 1841 Order in Council, became warden *ex officio*. The sub\-warden, which had been a rotating position, became permanent and eventually evolved into the vice\-chancellor. University College gained a separate master.
Despite rejecting the commission's recommendations, the dean and chapter proceeded to implement virtually all of them – except for their giving up control. New statutes in 1865 removed religious tests from all qualifications except licences and degrees in theology, although membership of Convocation remained closed to non\-Anglicans until after the [Universities Tests Act 1871](/wiki/Universities_Tests_Act_1871 "Universities Tests Act 1871"). The residence required for the BA degree was reduced to two years – although a "Student's Guide to the University of Durham" in 1880 recommended that, although it was possible to gain a pass degree in two years, "Candidates for honours should, if possible, allow themselves three years for the whole course". The length of the academic year was also increased from 6 months to 8\.{{cite book\|title\=Student's Guide to the University of Durham\|page\=38\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=PfkGAAAAQAAJ\|publisher\=Durham Advertiser\|date\=1880}}{{cite news \|title\=University of Durham\|work\=Morning Post \|date\=18 September 1865 \|access\-date\=5 December 2015 \|url\=http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000174/18650918/038/0006\| via \= \[\[British Newspaper Archive]]\|url\-access\=subscription }} Bishop Cosin's Hall closed as a separate College in 1864, being merged into University College.
In order to give graduates of the university a voice, the Durham University Society (now the Dunelm Society) was formed in London as an independent alumni association. It held its first meeting on 31 May 1866\.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.dunelm.org.uk/150th\-anniversary\|title\=Celebrating 150 years of the Durham Alumni community\|access\-date\=16 January 2016\|publisher\=Durham University}}
### The College of Physical Sciences
[thumb\|upright\=1\.5\|The College of Physical Sciences, now the Armstrong Building of Newcastle University](/wiki/File:Armstrong_Building%2C_Newcastle_University_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1761955.jpg "Armstrong Building, Newcastle University - geograph.org.uk - 1761955.jpg")
An attempt was made to establish a school of sciences at Durham in 1865, but this came to nothing. In 1870 the Newcastle College of Medicine became a college of the university as the Durham University College of Medicine. It gained representation on the senate, and residence in the college now counted as residence in the university – so it was no longer necessary to live in Durham for a period to gain a degree.
In 1871 the university and the [North of England Institute of Mining and Mechanical Engineers](/wiki/North_of_England_Institute_of_Mining_and_Mechanical_Engineers "North of England Institute of Mining and Mechanical Engineers"), led by [Nicholas Wood](/wiki/Nicholas_Wood "Nicholas Wood"), established the College of Physical Sciences in [Newcastle upon Tyne](/wiki/Newcastle_upon_Tyne "Newcastle upon Tyne"). £20,000 was raised by public subscription, and the university made an annual grant of £1,000, covering the salaries of professors in mathematics and physics. It originally granted the non\-degree title of Associate in Science. The college was formally incorporated into the university in 1874, gaining the right to award the BSc and have representation in the Senate. The MSc (granting membership of Convocation) was added in 1878,{{cite news\|url\=http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000289/18780824/007/0003\|work\=Sunderland Daily Echo and Shipping Gazette\|date\= 24 August 1878\|title\=Clippings from the Athenaeum\|via \= \[\[British Newspaper Archive]]\|url\-access\=subscription }} and the DSc in 1882\.{{refn\|Fowler gives dates of 1878 and 1882 in Chapter 2; Chapter 8 on the College of Science, by G. A. Labour, gives dates of 1881 and 1888}}{{cite journal\|journal\=\[\[Durham University Journal]]\|title\=The Jubilee of Armstrong College\|pages\=347–354\|author\=P. Phillips Bedson\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=GUxIAAAAYAAJ\&pg\=PA347\|date\=December 1921\|volume\=22}}
The College of Physical Sciences was the second provincial [university college](/wiki/University_college "University college") to be established, after [Owens College](/wiki/Owens_College "Owens College") in Manchester. From the start in 1871, the lecture and laboratory courses of the college were open to women, who were able to take the non\-degree ASc but could not (at that time) proceed to degrees. However, the first women did not actually enter until 1880, when Isabel Aldis won an exhibition at the college.{{cite journal\|journal\=Durham University Journal\|date\=13 November 1880\|title\=The College of Physical Science\|page\=53\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=JgAIAAAAQAAJ\&pg\=PA53\|volume\=4\|issue\=16}}
In 1883 the College of Physical Sciences was incorporated as a company under the name of the Durham College of Science. In 1886 land was acquired in Lax's Gardens for new buildings; construction started in 1887 with Sir W. G. Armstrong (later [Lord Armstrong](/wiki/William_George_Armstrong%2C_1st_Baron_Armstrong "William George Armstrong, 1st Baron Armstrong")) laying the foundation stone and the college moving to the new site in 1888\. In 1889, the College of Science was one of 11 [university colleges](/wiki/University_colleges "University colleges") to be awarded funding through the "Grant to University Colleges in Great Britain".{{cite web\|url\=https://api.parliament.uk/historic\-hansard/commons/1889/aug/16/class\-iv\#S3V0339P0\_18890816\_HOC\_256\|title\=Col. 1512 \|date\=16 August 1889\|work\=\[\[Hansard\|Parliamentary Debates (Hansard)]]\|access\-date\=26 October 2015}} 1886 also saw the college establish the first chair of mining in England, filled by John Herman Merivale who had been the college's first student 15 years earlier.
The curriculum was also expanded, with the School of Art merging into the college and the introduction of humanities subjects leading to the BLitt and DLitt from 1895 (the BA remaining limited to those studying at the Durham colleges). At the College of Medicine degrees of Bachelor and Doctor of Hygiene (BHy and DHy) were introduced in 1891 and a diploma in public health in 1894\. Unlike the Durham colleges, the two colleges in Newcastle were engaged in teaching and employed their own professors.
In 1904 the Durham College of Science was renamed Armstrong College in honour of Lord Armstrong, whose friends and admirers raised £50,000 for the college after his death, to be used to complete the buildings, on condition that the name be changed.
### Growth in Durham
[thumb\|St Hild's College](/wiki/File:St_Hild_College_001.jpg "St Hild College 001.jpg")
Back in Durham, "unattached" mature students were admitted from 1870: these were non\-resident students who were not associated with a college. In 1888 the unattached students founded [St Cuthbert's Society](/wiki/St_Cuthbert%27s_Society "St Cuthbert's Society"). The men's teacher training college (named St Bede's College from 1886\) was affiliated to the university from 1892, while the women's teacher training college was affiliated from 1896, in which year it was also renamed St Hild's College.
[thumb\|Fourah Bay College, Sierra Leone](/wiki/File:SierraLeoneHofstra2.2.jpg "SierraLeoneHofstra2.2.jpg")
The university also formed overseas links with two Anglican institutions: [Codrington College](/wiki/Codrington_College "Codrington College") in [Barbados](/wiki/Barbados "Barbados") in 1875 and [Fourah Bay College](/wiki/Fourah_Bay_College "Fourah Bay College") in [Sierra Leone](/wiki/Sierra_Leone "Sierra Leone") in 1876\. Via the latter of these, Durham awarded what was probably the first BA in Africa to Nathaniel Davis in 1878\.{{cite journal\|journal\=Durham First\|publisher\=Durham University\|volume\=33\|date\=January 2013\|page\=10\|url\=http://issuu.com/durhamfirst/docs/durham\_first\_issue\_33\_jan\_2013/10\|title\=Durham University's alumni magazine}} The [Times](/wiki/London_Times "London Times") said "it would not be much longer before the University of Durham was affiliated to the Zoo",{{cite journal\|title\=Rebuilding the Athens of West Africa: Education in the 21st Century in Sierra Leone\|url\=http://www.thejournalofsierraleonestudies.com/downloads/Version2\.pdf\|journal\=Journal of Sierra Leone Studies\|volume\=1\|edition\=2\|pages\=1–17\|date\=2012}} and although Durham was proud of what it was doing, the reaction in Sierra Leone was more mixed:
{{Blockquote\|it will be no little credit to the University of Durham for history to have to record that she was the first to throw open to Africa the full privileges of a liberal education.’\|source\=Durham University Journal, 1876}}
{{Blockquote\|The affiliation of FBC to Durham University elicited mixed reactions. On the one hand, it provided FBC with the prestige of conferring a British degree. On the other hand, it fell far short of being a West African university staffed with African faculty capable of addressing and embracing West African language, tradition and culture. … Amidst strong demands for a truly West African university, the affiliation was a compromise.\|author\=Daniel J. Paracka Jr.\|source\=The Athens of West Africa{{cite book\|page\=71\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=\_1iTAgAAQBAJ\&pg\=PA71\|title\=The Athens of West Africa: A History of International Education at Fourah Bay College, Freetown, Sierra Leone\|publisher\= Routledge\|date\=1 March 2004\|isbn\=9781135935993}}}}
Also in 1876 the university passed regulations allowing the affiliation of theological colleges, allowing students who obtained their licences to proceed to a Durham BA with only 1 year of residence and only sitting the final examination. Affiliated colleges in 1882 were: [St Aidan's College, Birkenhead](/wiki/St_Aidan%27s_College%2C_Birkenhead "St Aidan's College, Birkenhead"), [St Augustine's College, Canterbury](/wiki/St_Augustine%27s_College%2C_Canterbury "St Augustine's College, Canterbury"), [St Bees Theological College](/wiki/St_Bees_Theological_College "St Bees Theological College"), [Chichester Theological College](/wiki/Chichester_Theological_College "Chichester Theological College"), [Cumbrae Theological College](/wiki/Great_Cumbrae "Great Cumbrae"), [Edinburgh Theological College](/wiki/Edinburgh_Theological_College "Edinburgh Theological College"), [Gloucester Theological College](/wiki/Gloucester_Theological_College "Gloucester Theological College"), [Highbury Theological College](/wiki/St_John%27s_College%2C_Nottingham "St John's College, Nottingham"), [Lichfield Theological College](/wiki/Lichfield_Theological_College "Lichfield Theological College"), [Lincoln Theological College](/wiki/Lincoln_Theological_College "Lincoln Theological College"), [St Boniface Missionary College, Warminster](/wiki/St_Boniface_Missionary_College%2C_Warminster "St Boniface Missionary College, Warminster"), and the theological departments of [King's College London](/wiki/King%27s_College_London "King's College London") and [Queen's College, Birmingham](/wiki/Queen%27s_College%2C_Birmingham "Queen's College, Birmingham").{{cite book\|title\=Durham University Calendar\|year\=1882\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=2eANAAAAQAAJ\|page\=32}}
In 1882, the university celebrated its golden jubilee with the award of forty honorary degrees, including a DD for John Cundill, the installation of a stained glass window designed by [C E. Kempe](/wiki/Charles_Eamer_Kempe "Charles Eamer Kempe") in the great hall of the castle, a concert, and services in the cathedral, where Bishop [Lightfoot](/wiki/Joseph_Lightfoot "Joseph Lightfoot") preached.{{cite book\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=eZwyC18W1fkC\&pg\=PA73\|page\=73\|title\=Durham Castle: Fortress, Palace, College\|author\=Richard Brickstock\|publisher\=Jeremy Mills Publishing\|date\=2007\|isbn\=9781905217243}}{{cite journal\|title\=Richard de Bury\|work\=Leaders of the Northern Church\|author\=Joseph Lightfoot\|author\-link\=Joseph Lightfoot\|pages\=103–119\|url\=https://archive.org/stream/a590765100lighuoft\#page/102/mode/1up\|publisher\=London; New York : Macmillan\|year\=1892}}
For many years, attendance at the Sunday morning service at the [Cathedral](/wiki/Durham_Cathedral "Durham Cathedral") was compulsory.{{Cite journal\|last\=Green\|first\=Edwin\|date\=1939\|title\=Durham University in the Nineties\|url\=https://churchsociety.org/docs/churchman/053/Cman\_053\_3\_Green.pdf\|journal\=The Churchman\|volume\=53\|pages\=155–158\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200720061416/https://churchsociety.org/docs/churchman/053/Cman\_053\_3\_Green.pdf\|archive\-date\=20 July 2020}}
### Women students
[thumb\|Abbey House, Palace Green, home of the Women's Hostel from 1901](/wiki/File:Abbey_House%2C_Durham.jpg "Abbey House, Durham.jpg")
The university had originally voted to admit women in 1881, only three years after London had done so. However, implementation was delayed by disputes over who would pay for a women's college – the university did not have the money, and (unlike at Oxford and Cambridge) private backers were not forthcoming. A further blow was dealt in 1886 when the university sought a legal opinion and discovered it did not have the right under its current charter to grant degrees to women.
Women were, however, allowed to study at the College of Science from its opening in 1871, although the first women did not enter until 1880, and it had over thirty women students by 1893\.
The situation was allowed to rest for a while, until in 1892 Ella Bryant passed the BSc examination with second class honours in physics.{{cite book\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=amtGAwAAQBAJ\&q\=Ella\+bryant\&pg\=PA220\|title\=Ladies in the Laboratory? American and British Women in Science, 1800–1900\|author\=Mary R. S. Creese\|publisher\=Scarecrow Press\|date\=1 January 2000\|page\=220\|isbn\=9780585276847}} In June 1893 she tried to pay the fee for the BSc degree, but was refused. The university applied for a supplemental charter "almost immediately" after this, allowing it to grant degrees to women in all subjects but divinity, and it was granted in 1895\.{{cite book\|url\=https://archive.org/details/educationgirlsa00bremgoog\|page\=\[https://archive.org/details/educationgirlsa00bremgoog/page/n308 152]\|title\=Education of Girls and Women in Great Britain\|author\=Christina Sinclair Bremner\|publisher\=Swan Sonnenschein \& Company, Limited\|date\=1897}} Bryant received her BSc on 24 June 1895, becoming the first woman to receive a degree from Durham.{{cite journal\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=luA1AQAAMAAJ\&pg\=PA286\|title\=University of Durham: Degrees for Women\|journal\=Edinburgh Medical Journal\|page\=268\|date\=September 1895\|volume\=41}}
The first women to matriculate in Durham itself were three women from St Hild's College and two "Home Students" (later to be organised as St Aidan's Society, now [St Aidan's College](/wiki/St_Aidan%27s_College%2C_Durham "St Aidan's College, Durham")). The Hild students were the first to gain degrees, graduating with BLitts in 1898\. The first BA followed in 1899, being awarded to a "Miss Thomas", a member of staff at St Hild's, who also went on to become the first woman MA in 1902, although women were not admitted to Convocation until 1913\.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.stmaryscollegesociety.co.uk/history/\|title\=History of the College\|publisher\=SR Mary's College Society\|access\-date\=14 April 2016\|date\=2012\-01\-07}} In 1899 the Women's Hostel (now [St Mary's College](/wiki/St_Mary%27s_College%2C_Durham "St Mary's College, Durham")) was founded on Claypath, moving to the Abbey House on Palace Green in 1901\. Once it had the supplemental charter, Durham went further than other universities in opening up courses not only in Arts and Science but also in medicine, the College of Medicine becoming the first mixed medical school in England. In 1900 women could study medicine in England at Durham or the [London School of Medicine for Women](/wiki/London_School_of_Medicine_for_Women "London School of Medicine for Women").{{cite book\|chapter\-url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=qKcMAAAAYAAJ\&pg\=PA106\|title\=Englishwoman's Year Book\|date\=1900\|page\=106\|chapter\=Medical Training\|last1\=Mitton\|first1\=Geraldine Edith\|last2\=Janes\|first2\=Emily\|last3\=Hubbard\|first3\=Louisa M.}} By 1901, the London School of Medicine for Women was affiliated to Durham, enabling students there to take Durham degrees.{{cite book\|chapter\-url\=https://archive.org/details/handbookbritish01maddgoog\|chapter\=London School of Medicine for Women\|page\=\[https://archive.org/details/handbookbritish01maddgoog/page/n47 39]\|title\=Handbook of British, Continental and Canadian Universities, with Special Mention of the Courses Open to Women. Supplement for 1901, Compiled for the Graduate Club of Bryn Mawr College\|author\=Isabel Maddison\|publisher\=New Era Printing Company\|date\=1901}}
### New colleges
Durham graduate [Thomas Wilkinson](/wiki/Thomas_Wilkinson_%28bishop_of_Hexham_and_Newcastle%29 "Thomas Wilkinson (bishop of Hexham and Newcastle)") became [Bishop of Hexham and Newcastle](/wiki/Bishop_of_Hexham_and_Newcastle "Bishop of Hexham and Newcastle") in 1889 and president of the Catholic seminary, [Ushaw College](/wiki/Ushaw_College "Ushaw College"), near Durham, in 1890\. Ushaw had been affiliated to the [University of London](/wiki/University_of_London "University of London") since 1840, but in 1900 became affiliated to Durham for a decade, before reverting to London following Wilkinson's death.{{cite encyclopedia\|url\=http://www.catholicity.com/encyclopedia/u/ushaw\_college.html\|title\=Ushaw College\|encyclopedia\=Catholic Encyclopaedia\|access\-date\=26 October 2015}}
[thumb\|[St Chad's College](/wiki/St_Chad%27s_College "St Chad's College"), one of the two independent colleges](/wiki/File:Durham_Heritage_Centre.jpg "Durham Heritage Centre.jpg")
At the start of the 20th century, the university thus consisted of a college, a hall and a women's hostel in Durham, all owned by the university, along with non\-collegiate men in St Cuthbert's Society and "home" women students, all taught centrally by the university; two affiliated teacher training colleges in Durham sending students to university lectures; a medical college in Newcastle; and a government\-funded university college in Newcastle.
In 1904 an independent Anglican foundation, St Chad's Hall (now [St Chad's College](/wiki/St_Chad%27s_College "St Chad's College")), was established in Durham and licensed as a hall of residence. This was linked to [St Chad's Hostel](/wiki/St_Chad%27s_Hostel "St Chad's Hostel"), established in Doncaster in 1902 in the Anglo\-Catholic tradition to prepare students to enter theological colleges.{{cite web\|url\=http://mcr.stchads.ac.uk/about\_History.php\|title\=History\|publisher\=St Chad's College MCR\|access\-date\=25 October 2015}} In 1909 this was joined by another Anglican foundation, St John's Hall (now [St John's College](/wiki/St_John%27s_College%2C_Durham "St John's College, Durham")), established by [St John's Theological College](/wiki/St_John%27s_College%2C_Nottingham "St John's College, Nottingham") in Highbury, in the Evangelical tradition.{{cite book\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=7BXjYdOs2VYC\&pg\=PA79\|pages\=79–80\|title\=Nineteenth\-century Anglican Theological Training: The Redbrick Challenge\|author\=David A. Dowland\|publisher\=\[\[Clarendon Press]]\|date\=1997\|isbn\=9780198269298}}
### Constitutional stresses
The first Student Representative Council (SRC) in the university was formed in the late 19th century in the College of Medicine. The Durham Colleges SRC was formed around 1900 using the College of Medicine SRC as a model. The Durham University SRC, with equal representation for the Durham colleges, Armstrong College and the College of Medicine, was formed in 1907\.{{cite web\|url\=http://reed.dur.ac.uk/xtf/view?docId\=ead/uni/undg.xml\#UNDall\-3293\|title\=DC (from 1963 DU) Students Representative Council (SRC), later Students Union (DSU)\|work\=Durham University Records: Associations and Societies\|access\-date\=3 November 2015}}
The constitutional arrangements were put under severe strain by the growth of the Newcastle colleges, which outnumbered the Durham colleges three to one, and the movement of the other provincial university colleges to independent university status from 1900\. A new arrangement was proposed by Armstrong's principal, [Sir Isambard Owen](/wiki/Sir_Isambard_Owen "Sir Isambard Owen"), in 1907\. This would have made the Newcastle colleges self\-governing; transferred the government from the dean and chapter to the Senate (as had been proposed in 1862\), replaced the warden by a chancellor appointed by the Senate; given Durham and Newcastle equal representation in the Senate; stripped Convocation of its veto; and opened the possibility of transferring the seat of the university to Newcastle.{{cite journal\|journal\=The University Review\|volume\=5\|pages\=49–50\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=bc2gAAAAMAAJ\&pg\=PA49\|title\=Durham\|date\=April 1907}} The last two items, in particular, proved contentious, and the necessary bill was blocked in parliament until a compromise could be reached. This was that the graduates gained increased representation on the Senate, Convocation (rather than Senate) would appoint the chancellor, and the seat of the university was fixed in Durham.
The Durham University Act, enabling new statutes to be drawn up, received royal assent in April 1908, and the new statutes themselves were finally agreed and approved by the Privy Council in November 1909, transforming Durham into a federal university.
|
[
"Growth, crisis and revival, 1846–1909\n-------------------------------------",
"### New colleges in Durham",
"[thumb\\|Bishop Hatfield's Hall, now Hatfield College](/wiki/File:Hatfieldkitchenblock.jpg \"Hatfieldkitchenblock.jpg\")",
"In 1846, [Bishop Hatfield](/wiki/Thomas_Hatfield \"Thomas Hatfield\")'s Hall (later to become [Hatfield College](/wiki/Hatfield_College \"Hatfield College\")) was founded with the idea of providing more economical accommodation for students. While [University College](/wiki/University_College%2C_Durham \"University College, Durham\") had followed the system of the Oxbridge colleges, where students were expected to furnish their own rooms, employ their own servants, and buy their own food, David Melville, the first Master of Hatfield, proposed a \"model college\" based on three principles:{{cite web\\|url\\=http://community.dur.ac.uk/hatfield.history/intour/model.htm\\|title\\=Hatfield College History: A Model College\\|access\\-date\\=23 October 2015\\|publisher\\=Hatfield College\\|archive\\-date\\=17 November 2015\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151117015539/http://community.dur.ac.uk/hatfield.history/intour/model.htm\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}\n* All rooms were let furnished, with shared servants\n* All meals were taken in Hall, communally provided\n* Commons were to be fixed at a reasonable rate, known in advance.",
"This system was discussed by the [Royal Commission](/wiki/Royal_Commission \"Royal Commission\") on the [University of Oxford](/wiki/University_of_Oxford \"University of Oxford\") in 1852, who rejected it on the grounds that cheaper halls would provide worse tuition.{{cite journal\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=1F1KAQAAMAAJ\\&pg\\=RA1\\-PA145\\|journal\\=Edinburgh Review\\|volume\\=95–96\\|page\\=145\\|title\\=The Oxford University Commission Report\\|date\\=1852}} The idea was, however, taken up by [Keble College, Oxford](/wiki/Keble_College%2C_Oxford \"Keble College, Oxford\") on its foundation in 1870, and has since spread throughout the world.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://collegiateway.org/news/2005\\-hatfield\\-melville\\-building\\|publisher\\=The Collegiate Way\\|title\\=Hatfield College (re)dedicates its Melville building\\|date\\=24 May 2005\\|author\\=R. J. O'Hara\\|access\\-date\\=23 October 2015}}",
"{{Blockquote\\|Melville was determined to create a brand new concept of student living and learning which would both meet the increasing demand for places and at the same time provide access to a university education for people of limited means. His dream became a reality and the model has been replicated across the world – there is a strong argument to say that university halls of residence as we know them today started in Hatfield College, Durham!\\|author\\=Tim Burt, Master of Hatfield College\\|source\\=quoted by Collegiate Way}}",
"Hatfield's original building had been a coaching inn (the Red Lyon) in the 17th and 18th centuries. The college soon outgrew this and a new building (now the Melville building) was built in 1849 and a chapel was added in 1853\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://community.dur.ac.uk/hatfield.history/intour/\\|title\\=Hatfield College History\\|access\\-date\\=23 October 2015\\|publisher\\=Hatfield College}} 1851 saw the addition of a third College, [Bishop Cosin's Hall](/wiki/Bishop_Cosin%27s_Hall \"Bishop Cosin's Hall\"), occupying University House on Palace Green (the old Archdeacon's Inn) where University College had first been based.",
"The new colleges and University College were all owned by the university, rather than (like the colleges at Oxford and Cambridge) being independent corporations. This has since been held up as an easier template for new collegiate foundations to follow than Oxbridge, and was the model used in establishing York, Lancaster and Kent as collegiate universities and in establishing residential colleges at US universities.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://collegiateway.org/news/2001\\-durham\\-example\\|title\\=The University of Durham Collegiate Example\\|date\\=25 July 2001\\|author\\=R. J. O'Hara\\|access\\-date\\=24 October 2015}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://collegiateway.org/news/2002\\-durham\\-princeton\\|title\\=Collegiate Developments at Durham and Princeton\\|date\\=8 October 2002\\|author\\=R. J. O'Hara\\|access\\-date\\=24 October 2015}}",
"Until the founding of Hatfield, the university and University College had been coextensive. This now changed, making it explicit that the teaching in Durham was carried out by the university, not (as in Oxford, Cambridge and London) partly by the colleges. This was not an innovation as such – it had been the older system at Oxford and Cambridge, who had been attacked around the time of Durham's foundation for abandoning it.{{cite journal\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=wjUeAQAAIAAJ\\&pg\\=PA384\\|journal\\=Edinburgh Review\\|pages\\=384–427\\|date\\=June 1831\\|title\\=Universities of England—Oxford\\|quote\\=It is thus not even pretended that Oxford now supplies more than the preliminary of an academical education. Even this is not afforded by the University, but abandoned to the Colleges and Halls; and the Academy of Oxford is therefore not one public University, but merely a collection of private schools. The University, in fact, exists only in semblance, for the behoof of the unauthorized seminaries by which it has been replaced, and which have contrived, under covert of its name, to slip into possession of its public privileges.\\|last1\\=Smith\\|first1\\=Sydney}} The University Cricket Club was established in 1846, making it clear that it represented the whole University, but Hatfield established its own Boat Club – which claims to have existed from 1846, although the first intercollegiate race was not held until 1854\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.hatfieldcollegebc.com \\|publisher\\=Hatfield College Boat Club \\|access\\-date\\=24 October 2015 \\|title\\=About the Club \\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151117022630/http://www.hatfieldcollegebc.com/ \\|archive\\-date\\=17 November 2015 }}",
"In 1858, a diocesan teacher training college for women (later St Hild's College) opened on the Leazes Road site, next to the men's college.",
"### Academic dress",
"In the 1850s the [academic hoods](/wiki/Academic_dress_of_Durham_University \"Academic dress of Durham University\") were recorded as being:\n* LTh: Black stuff trimmed with velvet{{cite news \\|title\\=University Hoods\\|work\\=Leeds Intelligencer \\|date\\=6 February 1858 \\|access\\-date\\=27 November 2015 \\|url\\=http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000193/18580206/065/0010\\| via \\= \\[\\[British Newspaper Archive]]\\|url\\-access\\=subscription }}\n* BA: Black silk or bombazine, lined with white wool{{cite journal\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=kDdNAAAAMAAJ\\&pg\\=PA325\\|title\\=Hoods—Insignia of Degrees\\|work\\=The history and antiquities of the county palatine of Durham\\|page\\=325\\|author\\=William Fordyce\\|date\\=1857}} or fur{{cite journal\\|work\\=Notes and Queries\\|date\\=1858\\|author\\=William White\\|publisher\\=Oxford University Press\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=y0oAAAAAYAAJ\\&pg\\=PA402\\|page\\=402\\|title\\=Color of University Hoods}}\n* MA: Black, lined with [Palatinate purple](/wiki/Palatinate_%28colour%29 \"Palatinate (colour)\") or lilac silk\n* LLD: Scarlet cloth lined with white silk\n* MB: Purple cloth bound with white fur\n* MD: Purple cloth with scarlet silk lining\n* MusD: Purple cloth lined with white silk\n* BD: Entirely black, corded silk\n* DD: Scarlet, lined with Palatinate purple.",
"### The medical college",
"[thumb\\|Former Barber Surgeons' Hall, Newcastle, which housed the College of Medical and Practical Science from 1851 and later the College of Medicine and Surgery](/wiki/File:Former_Barber_Surgeons%27_Hall%2C_Houston_Street%2C_Newcastle.jpg \"Former Barber Surgeons' Hall, Houston Street, Newcastle.jpg\")",
"In June 1851 the Newcastle upon Tyne School of Medicine and Surgery, which had opened on 1 October 1834, split into two following internal disagreements: the Newcastle upon Tyne College of Medicine and Surgery (supported by the majority of staff), and the Newcastle upon Tyne College of Medicine and Practical Science. Discussions between the university and the School of Medicine and Surgery had been in progress at the time of the split, and were renewed in October with the College of Medicine and Surgery, against vigorous opposition from the College of Medicine and Practical Science. On 17 December 1851, the College of Medicine and Surgery became the \"Newcastle upon Tyne College of Medicine, in connection with the University of Durham\", this being approved by Convocation on 27 January 1852\\.{{cite book\\|title\\=Durham University Calendar\\|date\\=1860\\|publisher\\=Durham University\\|page\\=159\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=L\\-ANAAAAQAAJ\\&pg\\=PA159}}",
"The statutes of the university were amended on 20 November 1854 to remove religious tests from degrees, except those in arts and divinity, thus allowing degrees in medicine to be granted without religious distinction, although a religious test was still imposed on members of Convocation.{{cite book\\|title\\=Durham University Calendar\\|date\\=1860\\|publisher\\=Durham University\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=L\\-ANAAAAQAAJ\\&pg\\=RA1\\-PR10}}",
"Medical connections were not made only with Newcastle. The medical schools of two Anglican colleges, [King's College London](/wiki/King%27s_College_London \"King's College London\") and [Queen's College, Birmingham](/wiki/Queen%27s_College%2C_Birmingham \"Queen's College, Birmingham\"), were also affiliated to the university, allowing their students to obtain Durham degrees.{{cite journal\\|title\\=University of Durham\\|journal\\=Medical Times and Gazette\\|volume\\=2\\|date\\=22 September 1860\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=5LZXAAAAMAAJ\\&pg\\=PA281\\|page\\=281}}",
"The first Licences in Medicine were granted in 1856\\. In 1857 the College of Medicine and Practical Science merged back into the College of Medicine, and in 1858 the first University examinations for the Bachelor of Medicine degree were held, with external examiners from Oxford and London. Durham was included in the Medical Act 1858 with the same status as the universities of Oxford, Cambridge and London.",
"### The Commission of 1861",
"[thumb\\|Charles Thorp, Archdeaon of Durham and first warden of the University](/wiki/File:Archdeacon_Charles_Thorp_adjusted.jpg \"Archdeacon Charles Thorp adjusted.jpg\")",
"The number of students in the university had peaked at 130 in the early 1850s and by 1861 had fallen to 46\\. The university was in crisis, and a commission was set up by Act of Parliament in 1861 to look into it. Modern analysis has shown that much of this crisis was due to a stagnation in demand for higher education between the 1820s and the 1860s which, coupled with growth at Oxford and Cambridge, affected all of the newer institutions.",
"One problem identified by the commission was Thorp, who ran the university as his private fiefdom. Melville, who had been dismissed as master of Hatfield in 1851, told the commission that:\n{{Blockquote\\|during the whole of my experience there, I should say the Dean and Chapter were simply managed, the Convocation was simply dictated to, and the Senate simply checkmated; that is the Constitution of the University of Durham\\|author\\=David Melville\\|source\\=Report of the Durham University Commissioners{{cite journal\\|title\\=The Durham university Commissioners\\|work\\=Accounts and Papers of the House of Commons\\|page\\=63\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=JCZcAAAAQAAJ\\&pg\\=RA1\\-PA63\\|year\\=1863}}}}",
"The commission reported back in June 1862, recommending that the government of the university be removed from the dean and chapter and transferred to the senate, that a school of science be created, in which degrees in science would be awarded (the first science degrees in Britain having been awarded just two years earlier in 1860 by the [University of London](/wiki/University_of_London \"University of London\"){{cite book\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=NOd3N6291CQC\\&pg\\=PA5\\|title\\=The University of London, 1858–1900: The Politics of Senate and Convocation\\|author\\=Francis Michael Glenn Willson\\|date\\=2004\\|publisher\\=Boydell Press\\|page\\=5\\|isbn\\=9781843830658}}), that the BA course be shortened to two years, and that arts degrees be opened to non\\-Anglicans. This was opposed by the dean and chapter, and the Privy Council rejected the recommendations. Thorp, now quite elderly, offered to retire, although he died in October 1862 before this could come into effect.",
"Thorp had been warden since 1831 and master of University College since its opening. On his death, the Dean of Durham, as specified by the 1841 Order in Council, became warden *ex officio*. The sub\\-warden, which had been a rotating position, became permanent and eventually evolved into the vice\\-chancellor. University College gained a separate master.",
"Despite rejecting the commission's recommendations, the dean and chapter proceeded to implement virtually all of them – except for their giving up control. New statutes in 1865 removed religious tests from all qualifications except licences and degrees in theology, although membership of Convocation remained closed to non\\-Anglicans until after the [Universities Tests Act 1871](/wiki/Universities_Tests_Act_1871 \"Universities Tests Act 1871\"). The residence required for the BA degree was reduced to two years – although a \"Student's Guide to the University of Durham\" in 1880 recommended that, although it was possible to gain a pass degree in two years, \"Candidates for honours should, if possible, allow themselves three years for the whole course\". The length of the academic year was also increased from 6 months to 8\\.{{cite book\\|title\\=Student's Guide to the University of Durham\\|page\\=38\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=PfkGAAAAQAAJ\\|publisher\\=Durham Advertiser\\|date\\=1880}}{{cite news \\|title\\=University of Durham\\|work\\=Morning Post \\|date\\=18 September 1865 \\|access\\-date\\=5 December 2015 \\|url\\=http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000174/18650918/038/0006\\| via \\= \\[\\[British Newspaper Archive]]\\|url\\-access\\=subscription }} Bishop Cosin's Hall closed as a separate College in 1864, being merged into University College.",
"In order to give graduates of the university a voice, the Durham University Society (now the Dunelm Society) was formed in London as an independent alumni association. It held its first meeting on 31 May 1866\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.dunelm.org.uk/150th\\-anniversary\\|title\\=Celebrating 150 years of the Durham Alumni community\\|access\\-date\\=16 January 2016\\|publisher\\=Durham University}}",
"### The College of Physical Sciences",
"[thumb\\|upright\\=1\\.5\\|The College of Physical Sciences, now the Armstrong Building of Newcastle University](/wiki/File:Armstrong_Building%2C_Newcastle_University_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1761955.jpg \"Armstrong Building, Newcastle University - geograph.org.uk - 1761955.jpg\")",
"An attempt was made to establish a school of sciences at Durham in 1865, but this came to nothing. In 1870 the Newcastle College of Medicine became a college of the university as the Durham University College of Medicine. It gained representation on the senate, and residence in the college now counted as residence in the university – so it was no longer necessary to live in Durham for a period to gain a degree.",
"In 1871 the university and the [North of England Institute of Mining and Mechanical Engineers](/wiki/North_of_England_Institute_of_Mining_and_Mechanical_Engineers \"North of England Institute of Mining and Mechanical Engineers\"), led by [Nicholas Wood](/wiki/Nicholas_Wood \"Nicholas Wood\"), established the College of Physical Sciences in [Newcastle upon Tyne](/wiki/Newcastle_upon_Tyne \"Newcastle upon Tyne\"). £20,000 was raised by public subscription, and the university made an annual grant of £1,000, covering the salaries of professors in mathematics and physics. It originally granted the non\\-degree title of Associate in Science. The college was formally incorporated into the university in 1874, gaining the right to award the BSc and have representation in the Senate. The MSc (granting membership of Convocation) was added in 1878,{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000289/18780824/007/0003\\|work\\=Sunderland Daily Echo and Shipping Gazette\\|date\\= 24 August 1878\\|title\\=Clippings from the Athenaeum\\|via \\= \\[\\[British Newspaper Archive]]\\|url\\-access\\=subscription }} and the DSc in 1882\\.{{refn\\|Fowler gives dates of 1878 and 1882 in Chapter 2; Chapter 8 on the College of Science, by G. A. Labour, gives dates of 1881 and 1888}}{{cite journal\\|journal\\=\\[\\[Durham University Journal]]\\|title\\=The Jubilee of Armstrong College\\|pages\\=347–354\\|author\\=P. Phillips Bedson\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=GUxIAAAAYAAJ\\&pg\\=PA347\\|date\\=December 1921\\|volume\\=22}}",
"The College of Physical Sciences was the second provincial [university college](/wiki/University_college \"University college\") to be established, after [Owens College](/wiki/Owens_College \"Owens College\") in Manchester. From the start in 1871, the lecture and laboratory courses of the college were open to women, who were able to take the non\\-degree ASc but could not (at that time) proceed to degrees. However, the first women did not actually enter until 1880, when Isabel Aldis won an exhibition at the college.{{cite journal\\|journal\\=Durham University Journal\\|date\\=13 November 1880\\|title\\=The College of Physical Science\\|page\\=53\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=JgAIAAAAQAAJ\\&pg\\=PA53\\|volume\\=4\\|issue\\=16}}",
"In 1883 the College of Physical Sciences was incorporated as a company under the name of the Durham College of Science. In 1886 land was acquired in Lax's Gardens for new buildings; construction started in 1887 with Sir W. G. Armstrong (later [Lord Armstrong](/wiki/William_George_Armstrong%2C_1st_Baron_Armstrong \"William George Armstrong, 1st Baron Armstrong\")) laying the foundation stone and the college moving to the new site in 1888\\. In 1889, the College of Science was one of 11 [university colleges](/wiki/University_colleges \"University colleges\") to be awarded funding through the \"Grant to University Colleges in Great Britain\".{{cite web\\|url\\=https://api.parliament.uk/historic\\-hansard/commons/1889/aug/16/class\\-iv\\#S3V0339P0\\_18890816\\_HOC\\_256\\|title\\=Col. 1512 \\|date\\=16 August 1889\\|work\\=\\[\\[Hansard\\|Parliamentary Debates (Hansard)]]\\|access\\-date\\=26 October 2015}} 1886 also saw the college establish the first chair of mining in England, filled by John Herman Merivale who had been the college's first student 15 years earlier.",
"The curriculum was also expanded, with the School of Art merging into the college and the introduction of humanities subjects leading to the BLitt and DLitt from 1895 (the BA remaining limited to those studying at the Durham colleges). At the College of Medicine degrees of Bachelor and Doctor of Hygiene (BHy and DHy) were introduced in 1891 and a diploma in public health in 1894\\. Unlike the Durham colleges, the two colleges in Newcastle were engaged in teaching and employed their own professors.",
"In 1904 the Durham College of Science was renamed Armstrong College in honour of Lord Armstrong, whose friends and admirers raised £50,000 for the college after his death, to be used to complete the buildings, on condition that the name be changed.",
"### Growth in Durham",
"[thumb\\|St Hild's College](/wiki/File:St_Hild_College_001.jpg \"St Hild College 001.jpg\")",
"Back in Durham, \"unattached\" mature students were admitted from 1870: these were non\\-resident students who were not associated with a college. In 1888 the unattached students founded [St Cuthbert's Society](/wiki/St_Cuthbert%27s_Society \"St Cuthbert's Society\"). The men's teacher training college (named St Bede's College from 1886\\) was affiliated to the university from 1892, while the women's teacher training college was affiliated from 1896, in which year it was also renamed St Hild's College.",
"[thumb\\|Fourah Bay College, Sierra Leone](/wiki/File:SierraLeoneHofstra2.2.jpg \"SierraLeoneHofstra2.2.jpg\")",
"The university also formed overseas links with two Anglican institutions: [Codrington College](/wiki/Codrington_College \"Codrington College\") in [Barbados](/wiki/Barbados \"Barbados\") in 1875 and [Fourah Bay College](/wiki/Fourah_Bay_College \"Fourah Bay College\") in [Sierra Leone](/wiki/Sierra_Leone \"Sierra Leone\") in 1876\\. Via the latter of these, Durham awarded what was probably the first BA in Africa to Nathaniel Davis in 1878\\.{{cite journal\\|journal\\=Durham First\\|publisher\\=Durham University\\|volume\\=33\\|date\\=January 2013\\|page\\=10\\|url\\=http://issuu.com/durhamfirst/docs/durham\\_first\\_issue\\_33\\_jan\\_2013/10\\|title\\=Durham University's alumni magazine}} The [Times](/wiki/London_Times \"London Times\") said \"it would not be much longer before the University of Durham was affiliated to the Zoo\",{{cite journal\\|title\\=Rebuilding the Athens of West Africa: Education in the 21st Century in Sierra Leone\\|url\\=http://www.thejournalofsierraleonestudies.com/downloads/Version2\\.pdf\\|journal\\=Journal of Sierra Leone Studies\\|volume\\=1\\|edition\\=2\\|pages\\=1–17\\|date\\=2012}} and although Durham was proud of what it was doing, the reaction in Sierra Leone was more mixed:\n{{Blockquote\\|it will be no little credit to the University of Durham for history to have to record that she was the first to throw open to Africa the full privileges of a liberal education.’\\|source\\=Durham University Journal, 1876}}\n{{Blockquote\\|The affiliation of FBC to Durham University elicited mixed reactions. On the one hand, it provided FBC with the prestige of conferring a British degree. On the other hand, it fell far short of being a West African university staffed with African faculty capable of addressing and embracing West African language, tradition and culture. … Amidst strong demands for a truly West African university, the affiliation was a compromise.\\|author\\=Daniel J. Paracka Jr.\\|source\\=The Athens of West Africa{{cite book\\|page\\=71\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=\\_1iTAgAAQBAJ\\&pg\\=PA71\\|title\\=The Athens of West Africa: A History of International Education at Fourah Bay College, Freetown, Sierra Leone\\|publisher\\= Routledge\\|date\\=1 March 2004\\|isbn\\=9781135935993}}}}",
"Also in 1876 the university passed regulations allowing the affiliation of theological colleges, allowing students who obtained their licences to proceed to a Durham BA with only 1 year of residence and only sitting the final examination. Affiliated colleges in 1882 were: [St Aidan's College, Birkenhead](/wiki/St_Aidan%27s_College%2C_Birkenhead \"St Aidan's College, Birkenhead\"), [St Augustine's College, Canterbury](/wiki/St_Augustine%27s_College%2C_Canterbury \"St Augustine's College, Canterbury\"), [St Bees Theological College](/wiki/St_Bees_Theological_College \"St Bees Theological College\"), [Chichester Theological College](/wiki/Chichester_Theological_College \"Chichester Theological College\"), [Cumbrae Theological College](/wiki/Great_Cumbrae \"Great Cumbrae\"), [Edinburgh Theological College](/wiki/Edinburgh_Theological_College \"Edinburgh Theological College\"), [Gloucester Theological College](/wiki/Gloucester_Theological_College \"Gloucester Theological College\"), [Highbury Theological College](/wiki/St_John%27s_College%2C_Nottingham \"St John's College, Nottingham\"), [Lichfield Theological College](/wiki/Lichfield_Theological_College \"Lichfield Theological College\"), [Lincoln Theological College](/wiki/Lincoln_Theological_College \"Lincoln Theological College\"), [St Boniface Missionary College, Warminster](/wiki/St_Boniface_Missionary_College%2C_Warminster \"St Boniface Missionary College, Warminster\"), and the theological departments of [King's College London](/wiki/King%27s_College_London \"King's College London\") and [Queen's College, Birmingham](/wiki/Queen%27s_College%2C_Birmingham \"Queen's College, Birmingham\").{{cite book\\|title\\=Durham University Calendar\\|year\\=1882\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=2eANAAAAQAAJ\\|page\\=32}}",
"In 1882, the university celebrated its golden jubilee with the award of forty honorary degrees, including a DD for John Cundill, the installation of a stained glass window designed by [C E. Kempe](/wiki/Charles_Eamer_Kempe \"Charles Eamer Kempe\") in the great hall of the castle, a concert, and services in the cathedral, where Bishop [Lightfoot](/wiki/Joseph_Lightfoot \"Joseph Lightfoot\") preached.{{cite book\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=eZwyC18W1fkC\\&pg\\=PA73\\|page\\=73\\|title\\=Durham Castle: Fortress, Palace, College\\|author\\=Richard Brickstock\\|publisher\\=Jeremy Mills Publishing\\|date\\=2007\\|isbn\\=9781905217243}}{{cite journal\\|title\\=Richard de Bury\\|work\\=Leaders of the Northern Church\\|author\\=Joseph Lightfoot\\|author\\-link\\=Joseph Lightfoot\\|pages\\=103–119\\|url\\=https://archive.org/stream/a590765100lighuoft\\#page/102/mode/1up\\|publisher\\=London; New York : Macmillan\\|year\\=1892}}",
"For many years, attendance at the Sunday morning service at the [Cathedral](/wiki/Durham_Cathedral \"Durham Cathedral\") was compulsory.{{Cite journal\\|last\\=Green\\|first\\=Edwin\\|date\\=1939\\|title\\=Durham University in the Nineties\\|url\\=https://churchsociety.org/docs/churchman/053/Cman\\_053\\_3\\_Green.pdf\\|journal\\=The Churchman\\|volume\\=53\\|pages\\=155–158\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200720061416/https://churchsociety.org/docs/churchman/053/Cman\\_053\\_3\\_Green.pdf\\|archive\\-date\\=20 July 2020}}",
"### Women students",
"[thumb\\|Abbey House, Palace Green, home of the Women's Hostel from 1901](/wiki/File:Abbey_House%2C_Durham.jpg \"Abbey House, Durham.jpg\")",
"The university had originally voted to admit women in 1881, only three years after London had done so. However, implementation was delayed by disputes over who would pay for a women's college – the university did not have the money, and (unlike at Oxford and Cambridge) private backers were not forthcoming. A further blow was dealt in 1886 when the university sought a legal opinion and discovered it did not have the right under its current charter to grant degrees to women.",
"Women were, however, allowed to study at the College of Science from its opening in 1871, although the first women did not enter until 1880, and it had over thirty women students by 1893\\. \nThe situation was allowed to rest for a while, until in 1892 Ella Bryant passed the BSc examination with second class honours in physics.{{cite book\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=amtGAwAAQBAJ\\&q\\=Ella\\+bryant\\&pg\\=PA220\\|title\\=Ladies in the Laboratory? American and British Women in Science, 1800–1900\\|author\\=Mary R. S. Creese\\|publisher\\=Scarecrow Press\\|date\\=1 January 2000\\|page\\=220\\|isbn\\=9780585276847}} In June 1893 she tried to pay the fee for the BSc degree, but was refused. The university applied for a supplemental charter \"almost immediately\" after this, allowing it to grant degrees to women in all subjects but divinity, and it was granted in 1895\\.{{cite book\\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/educationgirlsa00bremgoog\\|page\\=\\[https://archive.org/details/educationgirlsa00bremgoog/page/n308 152]\\|title\\=Education of Girls and Women in Great Britain\\|author\\=Christina Sinclair Bremner\\|publisher\\=Swan Sonnenschein \\& Company, Limited\\|date\\=1897}} Bryant received her BSc on 24 June 1895, becoming the first woman to receive a degree from Durham.{{cite journal\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=luA1AQAAMAAJ\\&pg\\=PA286\\|title\\=University of Durham: Degrees for Women\\|journal\\=Edinburgh Medical Journal\\|page\\=268\\|date\\=September 1895\\|volume\\=41}}",
"The first women to matriculate in Durham itself were three women from St Hild's College and two \"Home Students\" (later to be organised as St Aidan's Society, now [St Aidan's College](/wiki/St_Aidan%27s_College%2C_Durham \"St Aidan's College, Durham\")). The Hild students were the first to gain degrees, graduating with BLitts in 1898\\. The first BA followed in 1899, being awarded to a \"Miss Thomas\", a member of staff at St Hild's, who also went on to become the first woman MA in 1902, although women were not admitted to Convocation until 1913\\.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.stmaryscollegesociety.co.uk/history/\\|title\\=History of the College\\|publisher\\=SR Mary's College Society\\|access\\-date\\=14 April 2016\\|date\\=2012\\-01\\-07}} In 1899 the Women's Hostel (now [St Mary's College](/wiki/St_Mary%27s_College%2C_Durham \"St Mary's College, Durham\")) was founded on Claypath, moving to the Abbey House on Palace Green in 1901\\. Once it had the supplemental charter, Durham went further than other universities in opening up courses not only in Arts and Science but also in medicine, the College of Medicine becoming the first mixed medical school in England. In 1900 women could study medicine in England at Durham or the [London School of Medicine for Women](/wiki/London_School_of_Medicine_for_Women \"London School of Medicine for Women\").{{cite book\\|chapter\\-url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=qKcMAAAAYAAJ\\&pg\\=PA106\\|title\\=Englishwoman's Year Book\\|date\\=1900\\|page\\=106\\|chapter\\=Medical Training\\|last1\\=Mitton\\|first1\\=Geraldine Edith\\|last2\\=Janes\\|first2\\=Emily\\|last3\\=Hubbard\\|first3\\=Louisa M.}} By 1901, the London School of Medicine for Women was affiliated to Durham, enabling students there to take Durham degrees.{{cite book\\|chapter\\-url\\=https://archive.org/details/handbookbritish01maddgoog\\|chapter\\=London School of Medicine for Women\\|page\\=\\[https://archive.org/details/handbookbritish01maddgoog/page/n47 39]\\|title\\=Handbook of British, Continental and Canadian Universities, with Special Mention of the Courses Open to Women. Supplement for 1901, Compiled for the Graduate Club of Bryn Mawr College\\|author\\=Isabel Maddison\\|publisher\\=New Era Printing Company\\|date\\=1901}}",
"### New colleges",
"Durham graduate [Thomas Wilkinson](/wiki/Thomas_Wilkinson_%28bishop_of_Hexham_and_Newcastle%29 \"Thomas Wilkinson (bishop of Hexham and Newcastle)\") became [Bishop of Hexham and Newcastle](/wiki/Bishop_of_Hexham_and_Newcastle \"Bishop of Hexham and Newcastle\") in 1889 and president of the Catholic seminary, [Ushaw College](/wiki/Ushaw_College \"Ushaw College\"), near Durham, in 1890\\. Ushaw had been affiliated to the [University of London](/wiki/University_of_London \"University of London\") since 1840, but in 1900 became affiliated to Durham for a decade, before reverting to London following Wilkinson's death.{{cite encyclopedia\\|url\\=http://www.catholicity.com/encyclopedia/u/ushaw\\_college.html\\|title\\=Ushaw College\\|encyclopedia\\=Catholic Encyclopaedia\\|access\\-date\\=26 October 2015}}",
"[thumb\\|[St Chad's College](/wiki/St_Chad%27s_College \"St Chad's College\"), one of the two independent colleges](/wiki/File:Durham_Heritage_Centre.jpg \"Durham Heritage Centre.jpg\")\nAt the start of the 20th century, the university thus consisted of a college, a hall and a women's hostel in Durham, all owned by the university, along with non\\-collegiate men in St Cuthbert's Society and \"home\" women students, all taught centrally by the university; two affiliated teacher training colleges in Durham sending students to university lectures; a medical college in Newcastle; and a government\\-funded university college in Newcastle.",
"In 1904 an independent Anglican foundation, St Chad's Hall (now [St Chad's College](/wiki/St_Chad%27s_College \"St Chad's College\")), was established in Durham and licensed as a hall of residence. This was linked to [St Chad's Hostel](/wiki/St_Chad%27s_Hostel \"St Chad's Hostel\"), established in Doncaster in 1902 in the Anglo\\-Catholic tradition to prepare students to enter theological colleges.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://mcr.stchads.ac.uk/about\\_History.php\\|title\\=History\\|publisher\\=St Chad's College MCR\\|access\\-date\\=25 October 2015}} In 1909 this was joined by another Anglican foundation, St John's Hall (now [St John's College](/wiki/St_John%27s_College%2C_Durham \"St John's College, Durham\")), established by [St John's Theological College](/wiki/St_John%27s_College%2C_Nottingham \"St John's College, Nottingham\") in Highbury, in the Evangelical tradition.{{cite book\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=7BXjYdOs2VYC\\&pg\\=PA79\\|pages\\=79–80\\|title\\=Nineteenth\\-century Anglican Theological Training: The Redbrick Challenge\\|author\\=David A. Dowland\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Clarendon Press]]\\|date\\=1997\\|isbn\\=9780198269298}}",
"### Constitutional stresses",
"The first Student Representative Council (SRC) in the university was formed in the late 19th century in the College of Medicine. The Durham Colleges SRC was formed around 1900 using the College of Medicine SRC as a model. The Durham University SRC, with equal representation for the Durham colleges, Armstrong College and the College of Medicine, was formed in 1907\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://reed.dur.ac.uk/xtf/view?docId\\=ead/uni/undg.xml\\#UNDall\\-3293\\|title\\=DC (from 1963 DU) Students Representative Council (SRC), later Students Union (DSU)\\|work\\=Durham University Records: Associations and Societies\\|access\\-date\\=3 November 2015}}",
"The constitutional arrangements were put under severe strain by the growth of the Newcastle colleges, which outnumbered the Durham colleges three to one, and the movement of the other provincial university colleges to independent university status from 1900\\. A new arrangement was proposed by Armstrong's principal, [Sir Isambard Owen](/wiki/Sir_Isambard_Owen \"Sir Isambard Owen\"), in 1907\\. This would have made the Newcastle colleges self\\-governing; transferred the government from the dean and chapter to the Senate (as had been proposed in 1862\\), replaced the warden by a chancellor appointed by the Senate; given Durham and Newcastle equal representation in the Senate; stripped Convocation of its veto; and opened the possibility of transferring the seat of the university to Newcastle.{{cite journal\\|journal\\=The University Review\\|volume\\=5\\|pages\\=49–50\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=bc2gAAAAMAAJ\\&pg\\=PA49\\|title\\=Durham\\|date\\=April 1907}} The last two items, in particular, proved contentious, and the necessary bill was blocked in parliament until a compromise could be reached. This was that the graduates gained increased representation on the Senate, Convocation (rather than Senate) would appoint the chancellor, and the seat of the university was fixed in Durham.",
"The Durham University Act, enabling new statutes to be drawn up, received royal assent in April 1908, and the new statutes themselves were finally agreed and approved by the Privy Council in November 1909, transforming Durham into a federal university.",
""
] |
The federal university, 1910–63
-------------------------------
### The new constitution
[thumb\|George Kitchin, dean of Durham and first chancellor of the university](/wiki/File:George-Kitchin.jpg "George-Kitchin.jpg")
After the new statues were approved, [George William Kitchin](/wiki/George_William_Kitchin "George William Kitchin"), dean of Durham and formerly the warden, became the first chancellor of the university, and the sub\-warden ([Frank Byron Jevons](/wiki/Frank_Byron_Jevons "Frank Byron Jevons"), also principal of Hatfield) became the first [vice\-chancellor](/wiki/Vice-chancellor "Vice-chancellor").{{cite web\|url\=http://reed.dur.ac.uk/xtf/view?docId\=ead/uni/undc.xml\#qxj\-396\|title\=Vice\-Chancellor and Warden\|work\=Durham University Records: Central Administration and Officers\|publisher\=Durham University\|access\-date\=25 October 2015}} The university property in Durham was passed to the newly formed Council of Durham Colleges – representing only University College, Hatfield Hall, and the Women's Hostel. The first president of the Council of Durham Colleges was [George Nickson](/wiki/George_Nickson "George Nickson"), then suffragan Bishop of Jarrow and later Bishop of Bristol, who served 1910–1911\.{{cite news \|title\=Bishop of Bristol \|work\=Western Morning News \|date\=19 December 1932 \|access\-date\=15 March 2016 \|url\=http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000329/19321219/082/0006\| via \= \[\[British Newspaper Archive]]\|url\-access\=subscription }} He was succeeded by [John Stapylton Grey Pemberton](/wiki/John_Stapylton_Grey_Pemberton "John Stapylton Grey Pemberton"), who served until the changes of the university's constitution in 1937 and was also vice\-chancellor 1918–1919\.{{cite news \|title\=Portrait Presentation at Durham \|work\=Sunderland Daily Echo and Shipping Gazette \|date\=17 February 1937 \|access\-date\=15 March 2016 \|url\=http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000640/19370217/160/0007\| via \= \[\[British Newspaper Archive]]\|url\-access\=subscription }}{{cite news \|title\=Death at Durham of Mr J. S. G. Pemberton\|work\=Sunderland Daily Echo and Shipping Gazette \|date\=23 February 1940 \|access\-date\=15 March 2016 \|url\=http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000640/19400223/062/0003\| via \= \[\[British Newspaper Archive]]\|url\-access\=subscription }}
New regulations allowed students at Armstrong College to take a "Modern B.A.", while Durham division students whose BA included Latin and Greek could add "in litteris antiquis" after their degree. Provision was also made for the affiliation of Sunderland Technical College (now [Sunderland University](/wiki/Sunderland_University "Sunderland University")) once it reached a sufficient standard, and any other college in the counties of Durham, Northumbria, Cumberland and Westmoreland.{{cite book\|title\=Durham University Calendar\|date\=1910\|publisher\=Durham University\|url\=https://archive.org/details/calendar1011durhuoft}} In 1913, women were admitted to Convocation.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.stmaryscollegesociety.co.uk/history/\|publisher\=St Mary's College Society\|title\=History of the College\|access\-date\=25 October 2015\|date\=2012\-01\-07}}
The [First World War](/wiki/First_World_War "First World War") saw 2,500 students and staff serve, and 325 killed. Many buildings were requisitioned in both Durham and Newcastle, and the number of students dropped so low that the university had to deny it was closing. The finances of both the Durham colleges and Armstrong College were, however, perilously low, leading to an appeal to the government for assistance.
### Post\-World War One expansion
In 1919, Bishop Hatfield's Hall became Hatfield College,{{cite web\|url\=http://community.dur.ac.uk/hatfield.history/intour/masters.htm\|title\=Hatfield College History: Principals \& Masters\|publisher\=Hatfield College\|access\-date\=25 October 2015\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140814150425/http://community.dur.ac.uk/hatfield.history/intour/masters.htm\|archive\-date\=14 August 2014\|url\-status\=dead}} St Bede's was licensed as a hall of residence,{{cite web\|title\=College of the Venerable Bedr\|url\=http://reed.dur.ac.uk/xtf/view?docId\=ead/uni/undf.xml\#UNDall\-5688a\|work\=Durham University Records: Colleges\|access\-date\=26 October 2015}} and St Chad's and St John's both adopted the style of independent colleges. In 1920 the Women's Hostel became St Mary's College and moved into a former prebendal house in the college (now home to the [Choristers School](/wiki/Choristers_School "Choristers School")). St John's and St Chad's were both formally made "constituent colleges" of the university in 1923, and St Hild's was licensed as a Hall of Residence.{{cite web\|title\=St Hild's College\|url\=http://reed.dur.ac.uk/xtf/view?docId\=ead/uni/undf.xml\#UNDall\-5688b\|work\=Durham University Records: Colleges\|access\-date\=26 October 2015}} In 1921 [Durham County Council](/wiki/Durham_County_Council "Durham County Council") established [Neville's Cross](/wiki/Neville%27s_Cross "Neville's Cross") College as a women's teacher training college. It became a licensed hall of the university in 1924\.{{cite web\|url\=http://reed.dur.ac.uk/xtf/view?docId\=ead/uni/undf.xml\#UNDall\-3922\|title\=Neville's Cross College\|work\=Durham University Records: Colleges\|access\-date\=26 October 2015}}
[thumb\|The Dawson Building (foreground), the first building on the university's science site (now lower Mountjoy) constructed in 1924](/wiki/File:View_from_the_4th_floor_of_the_Calman_centre.jpg "View from the 4th floor of the Calman centre.jpg")
In 1920 the university had 900 students in Newcastle but only 200 in Durham. The [University Grants Committee](/wiki/University_Grants_Committee_%28UK%29 "University Grants Committee (UK)") told the university in 1921 that it must produce ambitious expansion plans if it was to receive funding. This led to the establishment of a school of education and, in 1924, a faculty of pure science on what became known as the Science Site (now the Mountjoy site) on Elvet Hill. The Botanic Gardens were established on the Science Site in 1925\.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.dur.ac.uk/botanic.garden/aboutus/history/\|title\=History of the Garden\|access\-date\=1 October 2015\|publisher\=Durham University}} Important appointments at this time included [Arthur Holmes](/wiki/Arthur_Holmes "Arthur Holmes"), pioneer of [geochronology](/wiki/Geochronology "Geochronology") and [plate tectonics](/wiki/Plate_tectonics "Plate tectonics"), as professor of geology and [climatologist](/wiki/Climatologist "Climatologist") [Gordon Manley](/wiki/Gordon_Manley "Gordon Manley"), who established the Durham temperature series (based on meteorological observations at Durham Observatory and other sources) back to 1801 and the [Central England temperature](/wiki/Central_England_temperature "Central England temperature") series dating back to 1659, as head of Geography.{{cite news\|newspaper\=\[\[Palatinate (newspaper)\|Palatinate]]\| title\="Shaped by the past": our scientific legacy\|date\=22 October 2015\|author\=Shubhi Sharma}}{{cite web\|url\=https://www.dur.ac.uk/research/news/durham\_pioneers/\|title\=Durham Pioneers\|access\-date\=7 November 2015\|publisher\=Durham University}}{{cite journal\|journal\=Weather\|publisher\=\[\[Royal Meteorological Society]]\|first1\=J. M.\|last1\= Kenworth\|first2\=T. P.\|last2\= Burt\|first3\=N. J.\|last3\= Cox\|title\=Durham University Observatory and its meteorological record\|volume\=62\|issue\=10\|date\=October 2007\|pages\=265–269\|doi\=10\.1002/wea.86\|bibcode\=2007Wthr...62\..265K\|doi\-access\=free}} By 1935 numbers in Durham had more than doubled in 15 years to 475 (including 103 women), while Newcastle had grown to 1155 students.
During the 1920s and 30s, [Durham Castle](/wiki/Durham_Castle "Durham Castle"), home to University College, was found to be in danger of collapsing into the Wear. The issue was discussed in the House of Lords, with the government sympathising but saying there was nothing they could do to help – only [ancient monuments](/wiki/Ancient_monument "Ancient monument") were eligible for financial assistance, and these could not be occupied buildings. It was pointed out by Lord Gainford that this meant the government could help with the ruin once the castle fell into the river, but could not act to prevent the castle being ruined.{{cite web\|url\=https://api.parliament.uk/historic\-hansard/lords/1928/jul/03/durham\-castle\|title\=Durham Castle\|work\=\[\[Hansard\|Parliamentary Debates (Hansard)]]\|date\=3 July 1928\|access\-date\=28 October 2015}} By 1927 the Great Hall was too dangerous to use, with degree convocations being moved to the cathedral's Chapter House. The Durham Castle Preservation Fund raised around £100,000 in a nationwide campaign, with the government providing £10,000 in 1937\.{{cite web\|url\=https://api.parliament.uk/historic\-hansard/commons/1937/mar/04/special\-areas\#S5CV0321P0\_19370304\_HOC\_44\|title\=Special Areas\|work\=\[\[Hansard\|Parliamentary Debates (Hansard)]]\|date\=4 March 1928\|access\-date\=28 October 2015}} By 1934 underpinning had ensured the castle wouldn't collapse and convocations for degrees returned in December 1936, but it wasn't until early 1939 that the castle was completely stabilised and could be fully returned to use.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.engineering\-timelines.com/scripts/engineeringItem.asp?id\=1162\|title\=Durham Castle underpinning\|access\-date\=29 October 2015}}{{cite news\|url\=http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000640/19361210/051/0002\|title\=Safe Now\|work\=Sunderland Echo and Shipping Gazette\|date\=10 December 1936\|via\=\[\[British Newspaper Archive]]\|url\-access\=subscription }}
The university's centenary should have been celebrated in 1932, but with the northeast still in the grip of the [Great Depression](/wiki/Great_Depression "Great Depression") the celebrations were postponed until the centenary of the Royal Charter in 1937\. 1932 did see the publication of a centenary history of the university, *The University of Durham 1832 – 1932* by Charles Whiting, professor of history at the university, who also edited a small volume for the 1937 celebrations {{cite book\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=\_PuoQgAACAAJ\|title\=The University of Durham 1832 – 1932\|publisher\=Sheldon Press\|author\=Charles Whiting\|date\=1932}}{{cite book\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=Sp3oMgEACAAJ\|editor\=Charles Whiting\|date\=1937\|title\=The University of Durham, 1937\. (A General Account of the University.)}}
### Constitutional crisis
In the 1930s, the federal university was plunged into a constitutional crisis by arguments between the two Newcastle colleges. Austerity was imposed on the College of Medicine by the registrar and the treasurer in 1931, who also demanded the resignation of the principal without going through the Senate. This was compounded by their termination of an agreement with Armstrong College for medical students to receive teaching in physics, chemistry and biology there. The head of the UGC demanded action, and a [royal commission](/wiki/Royal_commission "Royal commission") was established by Act of Parliament in 1935 to look into the matter.
The commission recommended changes to the university's constitution, of which the most visible was the merger of the two Newcastle colleges to form King's College (originally to be called University College, Newcastle until the Durham colleges objected). The two divisions also gained permanent heads: the rector of King's College and the warden of the Durham colleges, with the vice\-chancellorship alternated between them (the legacy of this lives on, in that the executive head of the university is still called "the vice\-chancellor and warden"). Convocation's veto was abolished and a [University Court](/wiki/University_Court "University Court") established, and academic appointments were made the responsibility of the central University. The Senate was made responsible for granting degrees, which had previously been a function of Convocation. As a result, the ceremony at which degrees are conferred at Durham was separated from the meeting of Convocation and become known as Congregation.{{cite news\|url\=http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0001547/19430415/044/0002\|date\=15 April 1943\|title\=North Country Notes\|work\=Newcastle Journal\|via\=\[\[British Newspaper Archive]]\|url\-access\=subscription }}
The new University Court set about fundraising for an expansion of the Durham division, with plans for new buildings for St Mary's College, the student union and the science laboratories. The importance of this expansion was emphasised by a fall in the number of students to the low 400s in 1939 due to cutbacks in teacher training, although Newcastle grew to 1,500\. In early 1939, permission was given to start work on the science site and the union, but this was cut short by the outbreak of the [Second World War](/wiki/Second_World_War "Second World War").
By the end of 1940, the number of students in Durham had fallen to only 270, forcing Hatfield and University colleges to temporarily merge. But 1941 saw RAF cadets sent to Durham to study science – primarily maths, physics and mechanics – raising student numbers back to healthier levels. Newcastle, with its much larger student population, was much less affected than the Durham colleges.
### Expansion after World War Two
After the war, the Durham division expanded rapidly – the Warden, Sir [James Duff](/wiki/James_Fitzjames_Duff "James Fitzjames Duff"), believing not only that growth was essential but that more accommodation was the necessary first step to growing the division. Durham had to be a residential university – it didn't have the local population to thrive otherwise. He planned to double the number of students in Durham to over 1,000 in a decade. Under pressure from the UGC, this target was raised to 2,000 in 1946\. Newcastle was also constrained – at 1,700 students it had reached what was felt to be the local capacity, and (like the other [civic universities](/wiki/Redbrick_university "Redbrick university")) would have to start looking further afield to attract students in order to reach its target of 3,000\.
[thumb\|St Mary's College buildings on Elvet Hill, opened in 1952](/wiki/File:St_Mary%27s_College_Lawn.jpg "St Mary's College Lawn.jpg")
1947 saw progress towards this goal. St Aidan's Society ([St Aidan's College](/wiki/St_Aidan%27s_College%2C_Durham "St Aidan's College, Durham") from 1965\) was founded as the female counterpart to St Cuthbert's Society, catering for the non\-resident "home student" women, and moved onto Shincliffe Hall; the foundation stone for the new [St. Mary's](/wiki/St_Mary%27s_College%2C_Durham "St Mary's College, Durham") College building on Elvet Hill was laid by Princess Elizabeth (later Queen [Elizabeth II](/wiki/Elizabeth_II_of_the_United_Kingdom "Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom")); and plans for a new men's college (to become [Grey College](/wiki/Grey_College%2C_Durham "Grey College, Durham")) were approved by the Council of the Durham Colleges. In the same year, the College of the Venerable Bede (as St Bede's College had been renamed in 1935\) became a constituent college of the university. [Lumley Castle](/wiki/Lumley_Castle "Lumley Castle") was also leased from 1945 to house students from University College. By 1948 the Durham division hit 1100 students – the growth in numbers outstripping the residential capacity of the university and leaving a third of students without College accommodation – while Newcastle had over 3200\.
{{Blockquote\|We badly underestimated the rate at which our numbers would increase after the war\|author\=Sir James Duff\|source\=1950, quoted in ''The Durham Difference''}}
St Mary's took five years to build, the new site finally opening in 1952\. In the same year, final approval was given to the establishment of a new men's college south of the river, linked with the expansion of the science site. However, although the UGC approved the plan, funds were not immediately available, however, and it was 1956 before financial approval was given and 1957 before building work began. The new college opened in 1959 as [Grey College](/wiki/Grey_College%2C_Durham "Grey College, Durham") – the name being chosen over Cromwell College by a single vote – but the main block was not completed until 1961\.{{cite book\|title\=From the Ashes\|author\=Nigel Watson\|year\=2004\|publisher\=James \& James (Publishers) Ltd.}}
[thumb\|Buildings of St Aidan's College, designed by Sir Basil Spence and opened in 1964](/wiki/File:St_Aidans.jpg "St Aidans.jpg")
Expansion also continued in other parts of the university. The West Building, for the departments of geography and mathematics, opened in 1952\. Work on a new central admissions system, replacing the system whereby students applied to individual colleges, began in 1958\. In the same year St John's College was formally divided into two closely\-linked parts: St John's Hall for university students and [Cranmer Hall](/wiki/Cranmer_Hall%2C_Durham "Cranmer Hall, Durham") for those preparing for ordination.{{cite journal\|journal\=Durham First\|volume\=26\|title\=The First Lady of Cranmer Hall\|url\=https://www.dur.ac.uk/durham.first/spring09/cranmer/\|date\=2009\|access\-date\=30 October 2015}} 1960 saw the opening of the department of applied science. In 1961, St Aidan's Society became St Aidan's College, and in 1964 it moved into its new buildings on Elvet Hill, designed by Sir [Basil Spence](/wiki/Basil_Spence "Basil Spence"). Work on [Dunelm House](/wiki/Dunelm_House "Dunelm House") and Kingsgate Bridge started in 1962\.
In 1960 the council set a target of 3,000 students by the early 1970s, and in 1962 a target of 4,500 students by the early 1980s. Two more men's colleges (to become [Van Mildert College](/wiki/Van_Mildert_College "Van Mildert College") and [Collingwood College](/wiki/Collingwood_College%2C_Durham "Collingwood College, Durham")) and a third women's college (to become [Trevelyan College](/wiki/Trevelyan_College "Trevelyan College")) were planned.
In 1946 the University College of the West Indies was established, affiliated to the University of London. In 1955 this became the [University of the West Indies](/wiki/University_of_the_West_Indies "University of the West Indies") (UWI) and Codrington College stopped offering degrees except in theology.{{cite book\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=HRGW7WsDzhgC\&pg\=PT85\|title\=Afro\-Greeks: Dialogues between Anglophone Caribbean Literature and Classics in the Twentieth Century\|author\=Emily Greenwood\|publisher\=\[\[Oxford University Press]]\|date\=28 January 2010\|pages\=84–85 and 369–370\|isbn\=9780191610318}} In 1965, Codrington became affiliated to the UWI and no longer offered undergraduate Durham degrees.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.codrington.org/cms/index.php?option\=com\_content\&task\=view\&id\=18\&Itemid\=1 \|title\=A Historical Overview of Codrington College \|access\-date\=1 November 2015 \|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151119173303/http://www.codrington.org/cms/index.php?option\=com\_content\&task\=view\&id\=18\&Itemid\=1 \|archive\-date\=19 November 2015 }} Codrington's affiliation to Durham was finally removed from the University Statutes on 13 July 2011\.{{cite web\|url\=http://privycouncil.independent.gov.uk/wp\-content/uploads/2011/07/orders\-13july2011\.pdf\|publisher\=\[\[Privy Council (UK)\|Privy Council]]\|date\=13 July 2011\|access\-date\=1 November 2015\|title\=Orders approved at the Privy Council held by the Queen at Buckingham Palace on 13th July 2011}}
### Tensions between the Newcastle and Durham divisions
In 1947, tensions had surfaced again over the Durham\-Newcastle divide, with the growth in numbers meaning "the two divisions were acting as de facto universities". Lord Percy, rector of King's College, proposed that the university change its name to the 'University of Durham and Newcastle', with the divisions becoming 'Durham University' and 'Newcastle University'. This idea was defeated in [Convocation](/wiki/Convocation "Convocation") (the assembly of members of the university) by 135 votes to 129\.{{cite journal\|journal\=Durham University Journal\|page\=121\|volume\=13–14\|title\=Name of the University\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=Er4TAQAAMAAJ\&q\=%22university\+of\+durham\+and\+newcastle%22\|publisher\=Durham University\|year\=1951}}
By the late 1950s, Durham had over 1,500 students and Newcastle 3,500\. The academic board of the Newcastle division passed a resolution on 29 January 1960 calling for Newcastle to become an independent university:
{{Blockquote\|the healthy development of the university now makes desirable the establishment of a University of Newcastle in place of King's College\|author\=Academic Board of the Newcastle Division of Durham University\|source\=quoted in ''The Durham Difference''}}
On 23 February 1960 the academic board of the Durham division gave their agreement and by June the Council of King's College and the Council of the Durham Colleges had both approved. The government and the UGC approved the plan on 21 July, and by May 1961 statutes had been drafted. The Universities of Durham and Newcastle upon Tyne Act received royal assent on 10 July 1963, and on 1 August 1963 King's College became the [University of Newcastle upon Tyne](/wiki/Newcastle_University "Newcastle University"), leaving Durham University once more based solely in its home city.{{cite web\|url\=http://reed.dur.ac.uk/xtf/view?docId\=ead/uni/unda.xml\#UNDall\-400\|title\=Statutes\|work\=Durham University Records: Foundation and Statutes\|access\-date\=29 October 2015}}{{cite web\|url\=http://www.ncl.ac.uk/regulations/docs/statutes.pdf\|title\=University Statues – Newcastle University\|access\-date\=29 October 2015\|publisher\=\[\[Newcastle University]]\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100705075412/http://www.ncl.ac.uk/regulations/docs/statutes.pdf\|archive\-date\=5 July 2010\|url\-status\=dead\|df\=dmy\-all}}{{cite web\|url\=https://api.parliament.uk/historic\-hansard/commons/1963/jul/10/royal\-assent\|date\=10 July 1963\|title\=Royal Assent\|work\=\[\[Hansard\|Parliamentary Debates (Hansard)]]\|access\-date\=29 October 2015}}
|
[
"The federal university, 1910–63\n-------------------------------",
"### The new constitution",
"[thumb\\|George Kitchin, dean of Durham and first chancellor of the university](/wiki/File:George-Kitchin.jpg \"George-Kitchin.jpg\")",
"After the new statues were approved, [George William Kitchin](/wiki/George_William_Kitchin \"George William Kitchin\"), dean of Durham and formerly the warden, became the first chancellor of the university, and the sub\\-warden ([Frank Byron Jevons](/wiki/Frank_Byron_Jevons \"Frank Byron Jevons\"), also principal of Hatfield) became the first [vice\\-chancellor](/wiki/Vice-chancellor \"Vice-chancellor\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://reed.dur.ac.uk/xtf/view?docId\\=ead/uni/undc.xml\\#qxj\\-396\\|title\\=Vice\\-Chancellor and Warden\\|work\\=Durham University Records: Central Administration and Officers\\|publisher\\=Durham University\\|access\\-date\\=25 October 2015}} The university property in Durham was passed to the newly formed Council of Durham Colleges – representing only University College, Hatfield Hall, and the Women's Hostel. The first president of the Council of Durham Colleges was [George Nickson](/wiki/George_Nickson \"George Nickson\"), then suffragan Bishop of Jarrow and later Bishop of Bristol, who served 1910–1911\\.{{cite news \\|title\\=Bishop of Bristol \\|work\\=Western Morning News \\|date\\=19 December 1932 \\|access\\-date\\=15 March 2016 \\|url\\=http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000329/19321219/082/0006\\| via \\= \\[\\[British Newspaper Archive]]\\|url\\-access\\=subscription }} He was succeeded by [John Stapylton Grey Pemberton](/wiki/John_Stapylton_Grey_Pemberton \"John Stapylton Grey Pemberton\"), who served until the changes of the university's constitution in 1937 and was also vice\\-chancellor 1918–1919\\.{{cite news \\|title\\=Portrait Presentation at Durham \\|work\\=Sunderland Daily Echo and Shipping Gazette \\|date\\=17 February 1937 \\|access\\-date\\=15 March 2016 \\|url\\=http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000640/19370217/160/0007\\| via \\= \\[\\[British Newspaper Archive]]\\|url\\-access\\=subscription }}{{cite news \\|title\\=Death at Durham of Mr J. S. G. Pemberton\\|work\\=Sunderland Daily Echo and Shipping Gazette \\|date\\=23 February 1940 \\|access\\-date\\=15 March 2016 \\|url\\=http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000640/19400223/062/0003\\| via \\= \\[\\[British Newspaper Archive]]\\|url\\-access\\=subscription }}",
"New regulations allowed students at Armstrong College to take a \"Modern B.A.\", while Durham division students whose BA included Latin and Greek could add \"in litteris antiquis\" after their degree. Provision was also made for the affiliation of Sunderland Technical College (now [Sunderland University](/wiki/Sunderland_University \"Sunderland University\")) once it reached a sufficient standard, and any other college in the counties of Durham, Northumbria, Cumberland and Westmoreland.{{cite book\\|title\\=Durham University Calendar\\|date\\=1910\\|publisher\\=Durham University\\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/calendar1011durhuoft}} In 1913, women were admitted to Convocation.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.stmaryscollegesociety.co.uk/history/\\|publisher\\=St Mary's College Society\\|title\\=History of the College\\|access\\-date\\=25 October 2015\\|date\\=2012\\-01\\-07}}",
"The [First World War](/wiki/First_World_War \"First World War\") saw 2,500 students and staff serve, and 325 killed. Many buildings were requisitioned in both Durham and Newcastle, and the number of students dropped so low that the university had to deny it was closing. The finances of both the Durham colleges and Armstrong College were, however, perilously low, leading to an appeal to the government for assistance.",
"### Post\\-World War One expansion",
"In 1919, Bishop Hatfield's Hall became Hatfield College,{{cite web\\|url\\=http://community.dur.ac.uk/hatfield.history/intour/masters.htm\\|title\\=Hatfield College History: Principals \\& Masters\\|publisher\\=Hatfield College\\|access\\-date\\=25 October 2015\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140814150425/http://community.dur.ac.uk/hatfield.history/intour/masters.htm\\|archive\\-date\\=14 August 2014\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} St Bede's was licensed as a hall of residence,{{cite web\\|title\\=College of the Venerable Bedr\\|url\\=http://reed.dur.ac.uk/xtf/view?docId\\=ead/uni/undf.xml\\#UNDall\\-5688a\\|work\\=Durham University Records: Colleges\\|access\\-date\\=26 October 2015}} and St Chad's and St John's both adopted the style of independent colleges. In 1920 the Women's Hostel became St Mary's College and moved into a former prebendal house in the college (now home to the [Choristers School](/wiki/Choristers_School \"Choristers School\")). St John's and St Chad's were both formally made \"constituent colleges\" of the university in 1923, and St Hild's was licensed as a Hall of Residence.{{cite web\\|title\\=St Hild's College\\|url\\=http://reed.dur.ac.uk/xtf/view?docId\\=ead/uni/undf.xml\\#UNDall\\-5688b\\|work\\=Durham University Records: Colleges\\|access\\-date\\=26 October 2015}} In 1921 [Durham County Council](/wiki/Durham_County_Council \"Durham County Council\") established [Neville's Cross](/wiki/Neville%27s_Cross \"Neville's Cross\") College as a women's teacher training college. It became a licensed hall of the university in 1924\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://reed.dur.ac.uk/xtf/view?docId\\=ead/uni/undf.xml\\#UNDall\\-3922\\|title\\=Neville's Cross College\\|work\\=Durham University Records: Colleges\\|access\\-date\\=26 October 2015}}",
"[thumb\\|The Dawson Building (foreground), the first building on the university's science site (now lower Mountjoy) constructed in 1924](/wiki/File:View_from_the_4th_floor_of_the_Calman_centre.jpg \"View from the 4th floor of the Calman centre.jpg\")",
"In 1920 the university had 900 students in Newcastle but only 200 in Durham. The [University Grants Committee](/wiki/University_Grants_Committee_%28UK%29 \"University Grants Committee (UK)\") told the university in 1921 that it must produce ambitious expansion plans if it was to receive funding. This led to the establishment of a school of education and, in 1924, a faculty of pure science on what became known as the Science Site (now the Mountjoy site) on Elvet Hill. The Botanic Gardens were established on the Science Site in 1925\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.dur.ac.uk/botanic.garden/aboutus/history/\\|title\\=History of the Garden\\|access\\-date\\=1 October 2015\\|publisher\\=Durham University}} Important appointments at this time included [Arthur Holmes](/wiki/Arthur_Holmes \"Arthur Holmes\"), pioneer of [geochronology](/wiki/Geochronology \"Geochronology\") and [plate tectonics](/wiki/Plate_tectonics \"Plate tectonics\"), as professor of geology and [climatologist](/wiki/Climatologist \"Climatologist\") [Gordon Manley](/wiki/Gordon_Manley \"Gordon Manley\"), who established the Durham temperature series (based on meteorological observations at Durham Observatory and other sources) back to 1801 and the [Central England temperature](/wiki/Central_England_temperature \"Central England temperature\") series dating back to 1659, as head of Geography.{{cite news\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[Palatinate (newspaper)\\|Palatinate]]\\| title\\=\"Shaped by the past\": our scientific legacy\\|date\\=22 October 2015\\|author\\=Shubhi Sharma}}{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.dur.ac.uk/research/news/durham\\_pioneers/\\|title\\=Durham Pioneers\\|access\\-date\\=7 November 2015\\|publisher\\=Durham University}}{{cite journal\\|journal\\=Weather\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Royal Meteorological Society]]\\|first1\\=J. M.\\|last1\\= Kenworth\\|first2\\=T. P.\\|last2\\= Burt\\|first3\\=N. J.\\|last3\\= Cox\\|title\\=Durham University Observatory and its meteorological record\\|volume\\=62\\|issue\\=10\\|date\\=October 2007\\|pages\\=265–269\\|doi\\=10\\.1002/wea.86\\|bibcode\\=2007Wthr...62\\..265K\\|doi\\-access\\=free}} By 1935 numbers in Durham had more than doubled in 15 years to 475 (including 103 women), while Newcastle had grown to 1155 students.",
"During the 1920s and 30s, [Durham Castle](/wiki/Durham_Castle \"Durham Castle\"), home to University College, was found to be in danger of collapsing into the Wear. The issue was discussed in the House of Lords, with the government sympathising but saying there was nothing they could do to help – only [ancient monuments](/wiki/Ancient_monument \"Ancient monument\") were eligible for financial assistance, and these could not be occupied buildings. It was pointed out by Lord Gainford that this meant the government could help with the ruin once the castle fell into the river, but could not act to prevent the castle being ruined.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://api.parliament.uk/historic\\-hansard/lords/1928/jul/03/durham\\-castle\\|title\\=Durham Castle\\|work\\=\\[\\[Hansard\\|Parliamentary Debates (Hansard)]]\\|date\\=3 July 1928\\|access\\-date\\=28 October 2015}} By 1927 the Great Hall was too dangerous to use, with degree convocations being moved to the cathedral's Chapter House. The Durham Castle Preservation Fund raised around £100,000 in a nationwide campaign, with the government providing £10,000 in 1937\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://api.parliament.uk/historic\\-hansard/commons/1937/mar/04/special\\-areas\\#S5CV0321P0\\_19370304\\_HOC\\_44\\|title\\=Special Areas\\|work\\=\\[\\[Hansard\\|Parliamentary Debates (Hansard)]]\\|date\\=4 March 1928\\|access\\-date\\=28 October 2015}} By 1934 underpinning had ensured the castle wouldn't collapse and convocations for degrees returned in December 1936, but it wasn't until early 1939 that the castle was completely stabilised and could be fully returned to use.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.engineering\\-timelines.com/scripts/engineeringItem.asp?id\\=1162\\|title\\=Durham Castle underpinning\\|access\\-date\\=29 October 2015}}{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000640/19361210/051/0002\\|title\\=Safe Now\\|work\\=Sunderland Echo and Shipping Gazette\\|date\\=10 December 1936\\|via\\=\\[\\[British Newspaper Archive]]\\|url\\-access\\=subscription }}",
"The university's centenary should have been celebrated in 1932, but with the northeast still in the grip of the [Great Depression](/wiki/Great_Depression \"Great Depression\") the celebrations were postponed until the centenary of the Royal Charter in 1937\\. 1932 did see the publication of a centenary history of the university, *The University of Durham 1832 – 1932* by Charles Whiting, professor of history at the university, who also edited a small volume for the 1937 celebrations {{cite book\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=\\_PuoQgAACAAJ\\|title\\=The University of Durham 1832 – 1932\\|publisher\\=Sheldon Press\\|author\\=Charles Whiting\\|date\\=1932}}{{cite book\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=Sp3oMgEACAAJ\\|editor\\=Charles Whiting\\|date\\=1937\\|title\\=The University of Durham, 1937\\. (A General Account of the University.)}}",
"### Constitutional crisis",
"In the 1930s, the federal university was plunged into a constitutional crisis by arguments between the two Newcastle colleges. Austerity was imposed on the College of Medicine by the registrar and the treasurer in 1931, who also demanded the resignation of the principal without going through the Senate. This was compounded by their termination of an agreement with Armstrong College for medical students to receive teaching in physics, chemistry and biology there. The head of the UGC demanded action, and a [royal commission](/wiki/Royal_commission \"Royal commission\") was established by Act of Parliament in 1935 to look into the matter.",
"The commission recommended changes to the university's constitution, of which the most visible was the merger of the two Newcastle colleges to form King's College (originally to be called University College, Newcastle until the Durham colleges objected). The two divisions also gained permanent heads: the rector of King's College and the warden of the Durham colleges, with the vice\\-chancellorship alternated between them (the legacy of this lives on, in that the executive head of the university is still called \"the vice\\-chancellor and warden\"). Convocation's veto was abolished and a [University Court](/wiki/University_Court \"University Court\") established, and academic appointments were made the responsibility of the central University. The Senate was made responsible for granting degrees, which had previously been a function of Convocation. As a result, the ceremony at which degrees are conferred at Durham was separated from the meeting of Convocation and become known as Congregation.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0001547/19430415/044/0002\\|date\\=15 April 1943\\|title\\=North Country Notes\\|work\\=Newcastle Journal\\|via\\=\\[\\[British Newspaper Archive]]\\|url\\-access\\=subscription }}",
"The new University Court set about fundraising for an expansion of the Durham division, with plans for new buildings for St Mary's College, the student union and the science laboratories. The importance of this expansion was emphasised by a fall in the number of students to the low 400s in 1939 due to cutbacks in teacher training, although Newcastle grew to 1,500\\. In early 1939, permission was given to start work on the science site and the union, but this was cut short by the outbreak of the [Second World War](/wiki/Second_World_War \"Second World War\").",
"By the end of 1940, the number of students in Durham had fallen to only 270, forcing Hatfield and University colleges to temporarily merge. But 1941 saw RAF cadets sent to Durham to study science – primarily maths, physics and mechanics – raising student numbers back to healthier levels. Newcastle, with its much larger student population, was much less affected than the Durham colleges.",
"### Expansion after World War Two",
"After the war, the Durham division expanded rapidly – the Warden, Sir [James Duff](/wiki/James_Fitzjames_Duff \"James Fitzjames Duff\"), believing not only that growth was essential but that more accommodation was the necessary first step to growing the division. Durham had to be a residential university – it didn't have the local population to thrive otherwise. He planned to double the number of students in Durham to over 1,000 in a decade. Under pressure from the UGC, this target was raised to 2,000 in 1946\\. Newcastle was also constrained – at 1,700 students it had reached what was felt to be the local capacity, and (like the other [civic universities](/wiki/Redbrick_university \"Redbrick university\")) would have to start looking further afield to attract students in order to reach its target of 3,000\\.",
"[thumb\\|St Mary's College buildings on Elvet Hill, opened in 1952](/wiki/File:St_Mary%27s_College_Lawn.jpg \"St Mary's College Lawn.jpg\")",
"1947 saw progress towards this goal. St Aidan's Society ([St Aidan's College](/wiki/St_Aidan%27s_College%2C_Durham \"St Aidan's College, Durham\") from 1965\\) was founded as the female counterpart to St Cuthbert's Society, catering for the non\\-resident \"home student\" women, and moved onto Shincliffe Hall; the foundation stone for the new [St. Mary's](/wiki/St_Mary%27s_College%2C_Durham \"St Mary's College, Durham\") College building on Elvet Hill was laid by Princess Elizabeth (later Queen [Elizabeth II](/wiki/Elizabeth_II_of_the_United_Kingdom \"Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom\")); and plans for a new men's college (to become [Grey College](/wiki/Grey_College%2C_Durham \"Grey College, Durham\")) were approved by the Council of the Durham Colleges. In the same year, the College of the Venerable Bede (as St Bede's College had been renamed in 1935\\) became a constituent college of the university. [Lumley Castle](/wiki/Lumley_Castle \"Lumley Castle\") was also leased from 1945 to house students from University College. By 1948 the Durham division hit 1100 students – the growth in numbers outstripping the residential capacity of the university and leaving a third of students without College accommodation – while Newcastle had over 3200\\.",
"{{Blockquote\\|We badly underestimated the rate at which our numbers would increase after the war\\|author\\=Sir James Duff\\|source\\=1950, quoted in ''The Durham Difference''}}",
"St Mary's took five years to build, the new site finally opening in 1952\\. In the same year, final approval was given to the establishment of a new men's college south of the river, linked with the expansion of the science site. However, although the UGC approved the plan, funds were not immediately available, however, and it was 1956 before financial approval was given and 1957 before building work began. The new college opened in 1959 as [Grey College](/wiki/Grey_College%2C_Durham \"Grey College, Durham\") – the name being chosen over Cromwell College by a single vote – but the main block was not completed until 1961\\.{{cite book\\|title\\=From the Ashes\\|author\\=Nigel Watson\\|year\\=2004\\|publisher\\=James \\& James (Publishers) Ltd.}}",
"[thumb\\|Buildings of St Aidan's College, designed by Sir Basil Spence and opened in 1964](/wiki/File:St_Aidans.jpg \"St Aidans.jpg\")",
"Expansion also continued in other parts of the university. The West Building, for the departments of geography and mathematics, opened in 1952\\. Work on a new central admissions system, replacing the system whereby students applied to individual colleges, began in 1958\\. In the same year St John's College was formally divided into two closely\\-linked parts: St John's Hall for university students and [Cranmer Hall](/wiki/Cranmer_Hall%2C_Durham \"Cranmer Hall, Durham\") for those preparing for ordination.{{cite journal\\|journal\\=Durham First\\|volume\\=26\\|title\\=The First Lady of Cranmer Hall\\|url\\=https://www.dur.ac.uk/durham.first/spring09/cranmer/\\|date\\=2009\\|access\\-date\\=30 October 2015}} 1960 saw the opening of the department of applied science. In 1961, St Aidan's Society became St Aidan's College, and in 1964 it moved into its new buildings on Elvet Hill, designed by Sir [Basil Spence](/wiki/Basil_Spence \"Basil Spence\"). Work on [Dunelm House](/wiki/Dunelm_House \"Dunelm House\") and Kingsgate Bridge started in 1962\\.",
"In 1960 the council set a target of 3,000 students by the early 1970s, and in 1962 a target of 4,500 students by the early 1980s. Two more men's colleges (to become [Van Mildert College](/wiki/Van_Mildert_College \"Van Mildert College\") and [Collingwood College](/wiki/Collingwood_College%2C_Durham \"Collingwood College, Durham\")) and a third women's college (to become [Trevelyan College](/wiki/Trevelyan_College \"Trevelyan College\")) were planned.",
"In 1946 the University College of the West Indies was established, affiliated to the University of London. In 1955 this became the [University of the West Indies](/wiki/University_of_the_West_Indies \"University of the West Indies\") (UWI) and Codrington College stopped offering degrees except in theology.{{cite book\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=HRGW7WsDzhgC\\&pg\\=PT85\\|title\\=Afro\\-Greeks: Dialogues between Anglophone Caribbean Literature and Classics in the Twentieth Century\\|author\\=Emily Greenwood\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Oxford University Press]]\\|date\\=28 January 2010\\|pages\\=84–85 and 369–370\\|isbn\\=9780191610318}} In 1965, Codrington became affiliated to the UWI and no longer offered undergraduate Durham degrees.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.codrington.org/cms/index.php?option\\=com\\_content\\&task\\=view\\&id\\=18\\&Itemid\\=1 \\|title\\=A Historical Overview of Codrington College \\|access\\-date\\=1 November 2015 \\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151119173303/http://www.codrington.org/cms/index.php?option\\=com\\_content\\&task\\=view\\&id\\=18\\&Itemid\\=1 \\|archive\\-date\\=19 November 2015 }} Codrington's affiliation to Durham was finally removed from the University Statutes on 13 July 2011\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://privycouncil.independent.gov.uk/wp\\-content/uploads/2011/07/orders\\-13july2011\\.pdf\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Privy Council (UK)\\|Privy Council]]\\|date\\=13 July 2011\\|access\\-date\\=1 November 2015\\|title\\=Orders approved at the Privy Council held by the Queen at Buckingham Palace on 13th July 2011}}",
"### Tensions between the Newcastle and Durham divisions",
"In 1947, tensions had surfaced again over the Durham\\-Newcastle divide, with the growth in numbers meaning \"the two divisions were acting as de facto universities\". Lord Percy, rector of King's College, proposed that the university change its name to the 'University of Durham and Newcastle', with the divisions becoming 'Durham University' and 'Newcastle University'. This idea was defeated in [Convocation](/wiki/Convocation \"Convocation\") (the assembly of members of the university) by 135 votes to 129\\.{{cite journal\\|journal\\=Durham University Journal\\|page\\=121\\|volume\\=13–14\\|title\\=Name of the University\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=Er4TAQAAMAAJ\\&q\\=%22university\\+of\\+durham\\+and\\+newcastle%22\\|publisher\\=Durham University\\|year\\=1951}}",
"By the late 1950s, Durham had over 1,500 students and Newcastle 3,500\\. The academic board of the Newcastle division passed a resolution on 29 January 1960 calling for Newcastle to become an independent university:",
"{{Blockquote\\|the healthy development of the university now makes desirable the establishment of a University of Newcastle in place of King's College\\|author\\=Academic Board of the Newcastle Division of Durham University\\|source\\=quoted in ''The Durham Difference''}}",
"On 23 February 1960 the academic board of the Durham division gave their agreement and by June the Council of King's College and the Council of the Durham Colleges had both approved. The government and the UGC approved the plan on 21 July, and by May 1961 statutes had been drafted. The Universities of Durham and Newcastle upon Tyne Act received royal assent on 10 July 1963, and on 1 August 1963 King's College became the [University of Newcastle upon Tyne](/wiki/Newcastle_University \"Newcastle University\"), leaving Durham University once more based solely in its home city.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://reed.dur.ac.uk/xtf/view?docId\\=ead/uni/unda.xml\\#UNDall\\-400\\|title\\=Statutes\\|work\\=Durham University Records: Foundation and Statutes\\|access\\-date\\=29 October 2015}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.ncl.ac.uk/regulations/docs/statutes.pdf\\|title\\=University Statues – Newcastle University\\|access\\-date\\=29 October 2015\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Newcastle University]]\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100705075412/http://www.ncl.ac.uk/regulations/docs/statutes.pdf\\|archive\\-date\\=5 July 2010\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|df\\=dmy\\-all}}{{cite web\\|url\\=https://api.parliament.uk/historic\\-hansard/commons/1963/jul/10/royal\\-assent\\|date\\=10 July 1963\\|title\\=Royal Assent\\|work\\=\\[\\[Hansard\\|Parliamentary Debates (Hansard)]]\\|access\\-date\\=29 October 2015}}",
""
] |
Modern university, 1963–99
--------------------------
The university's new statutes abolished the court but maintained the title of Warden of the Durham Colleges, with the executive head of the university being the vice\-chancellor and warden. In 1963, the university consisted of five council colleges (now styled maintained colleges), with a further three planned, St Cuthbert's Society, the three independent constituent colleges (now styled recognised colleges), and the two licensed halls (the women's teacher training colleges: St Hild's and Neville's Cross).
Expansion continued, with Grey College's third building opening in 1963\. In 1964 the centralised admissions system went into operation. [Van Mildert College](/wiki/Van_Mildert_College "Van Mildert College"), the School of Engineering, the [Durham Business School](/wiki/Durham_Business_School "Durham Business School"), the Graduate Society (now [Ustinov College](/wiki/Ustinov_College "Ustinov College")), the Maiden Castle sports ground and a number of other academic departments all opened in 1965; and in the same year the BEd degree was introduced for students at the teacher training colleges. [Trevelyan College](/wiki/Trevelyan_College "Trevelyan College") and the new buildings for St Aidan's College opened in 1966\. The [botanic garden](/wiki/Durham_University_Botanic_Garden "Durham University Botanic Garden") moved to its current site in 1970\. Construction of new residences for University College in Durham also meant Lumley Castle could finally be given up in 1970\.
[Sierra Leone](/wiki/Sierra_Leone "Sierra Leone") had gained its independence in 1961, and in 1967 the government established the [University of Sierra Leone](/wiki/University_of_Sierra_Leone "University of Sierra Leone"). Fourah Bay College joined Njala University College to form the new University and ended its affiliation with Durham.{{cite encyclopedia\|url\=http://www.blackpast.org/gah/fourah\-bay\-college\-1827\|title\= Fourah Bay College\|encyclopedia\=Online Encyclopedia of Significant People and Places in Global African History\|access\-date\=3 November 2015\|date\= 2010\-01\-13}}
In 1963, Neville's Cross College became mixed, and in 1966 Cranmer Hall in St John's College became the first Anglican theological college in the world to train women for ordination. The [Roman Catholic](/wiki/Roman_Catholic "Roman Catholic") [seminary](/wiki/Seminary "Seminary") of [Ushaw College](/wiki/Ushaw_College "Ushaw College"), which had been located in [Ushaw Moor](/wiki/Ushaw_Moor "Ushaw Moor") near Durham since 1808, was licensed as a hall of residence in 1968\. St Chad's Hall stopped training for the Anglican priesthood in 1972, and in 1976 changed its name to St Chad's College.{{cite web\|url\=http://reed.dur.ac.uk/xtf/view?docId\=ead/uni/undf.xml\#UNDall\-3476\|title\=St Chad's College\|work\=Durham University Records: Colleges\|access\-date\=30 October 2015}}
In 1965 the sports hall at Maiden Castle opened and in 1966 Dunelm House was finally completed, providing centralised student facilities and a home for the Student Representative Council and the Athletics Union moved in. In 1969 the Statutes were amended to give the president of the Student Representative Council a seat on the University Council.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.dur.ac.uk/resources/university.calendar/volumei/2003\.2004/statutes/stat8\.pdf\|title\=The Council\|work\=Statutes of the University of Durham\|date\=2003\|access\-date\=3 November 2015}} In 1970 the Student Representative Council became Durham Student Union.
In the 1970s the reorganisation of teacher training by the government threatened the existence of the three teacher training colleges. In 1975 St Hild's College and the College of the Venerable Bede merged to form the [College of St Hild and St Bede](/wiki/College_of_St_Hild_and_St_Bede "College of St Hild and St Bede"), remaining a Recognised College and teaching a university\-validated BEd. This lasted until 1979 when it surrendered its autonomy to become a Maintained College of the university, with all teacher training being transferred to the university's School of Education. Neville's Cross College merged with Durham Technical College in 1977, leaving the university and forming [New College Durham](/wiki/New_College_Durham "New College Durham").
Following the lowering of the [age of majority](/wiki/Age_of_majority "Age of majority") from 21 to 18 in 1970, meaning universities were no longer *in loco parentis*, Van Mildert became the first maintained college to go mixed in 1971, with some students transferring in from other colleges that year followed by a full intake in 1972\.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.dur.ac.uk/van\-mildert.college/about/history/crest/\|title\= Building the College\|publisher\=Van Mildert College\|access\-date\=4 December 2015}} This was followed in 1972 by the opening of [Collingwood College](/wiki/Collingwood_College%2C_Durham "Collingwood College, Durham") as the first purpose\-built mixed college, and the first university residence in the UK to have men's and women's rooms in the same blocks. In 1973 St John's College went fully mixed, admitting women to St John's Hall.
St Aidan's decided to become mixed in 1978, with the first men entering in 1981 – the first of the Women's colleges to do so. This was followed by Grey JCR voting to go mixed in 1983, and the college governing board ratifying the decision. Some women students who had not won places at other colleges were admitted in 1984 and the first full intake was in 1985\. Decisions by college governing boards and the University Council in 1986 led to the final three men's colleges going mixed, in some cases against the wishes of the students: University College in 1987, and Hatfield and St Chad's in 1988\.{{cite journal\|url\=https://www.castlealumni.uk/files/castellum/Castellum%252039%2520(1986\).pdf\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200927034010/https://www.castlealumni.uk/files/castellum/Castellum%2039%20(1986\).pdf\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-date\=27 September 2020\|journal\=Castellum\|volume\=39\|date\=1986\|title\=Master's Letter\|pages\=1–2}} In October 1987, Trevelyan's governing body voted to go mixed despite the JCR voting to remain women\-only. The first men were admitted in 1990\.{{cite book\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=dWeZwQmKV2IC\&pg\=PA146\|pages\=146–151\|title\=Trevs: A Celebration of 40 Years\|publisher\=Roundtuit Publishing\|date\=2006\|author\=Susan Martin\|isbn\=9781904499077}}
In 1986 Durham Castle and Cathedral were made a [UNESCO](/wiki/UNESCO "UNESCO") [World Heritage Site](/wiki/World_Heritage_Site "World Heritage Site") in the first group of sites recognised in the UK.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.durhamworldheritagesite.com/heritage\|publisher\=Durham World Heritage Site\|title\=What is Durham World Heritage Site?\|access\-date\=31 October 2015}} This was extended in 2008 to cover Palace Green and the surrounding buildings.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.durhamworldheritagesite.com/heritage/site\-boundaries\|publisher\=Durham World Heritage Site\|title\=Site Boundaries: An Evolving Definition of Heritage\|access\-date\=31 October 2015}}
In 1987 the perception still existed that the university was too small. The student population was limited to 5000 (4936 in 1987\), and had only grown by 200 over the previous 5 years. The Senate noted in May 1988 that expansion was desirable, but that it would be more cost effective, and less risky to do this by making "more intensive use … of the present facilities" rather than establishing a new College.{{cite book\|url\=http://oxcheps.new.ox.ac.uk/MainSite%20pages/Resources/OxCHEPS\_OP3\.pdf\|title\=Breaking the Mould: The Surprising Story of Stockton\|author\=John Hayward\|date\=2003\|access\-date\=1 November 2015\|archive\-date\=13 May 2006\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20060513190857/http://oxcheps.new.ox.ac.uk/MainSite%20pages/Resources/OxCHEPS\_OP3\.pdf\|url\-status\=dead}}{{cite web\|url\=http://reed.dur.ac.uk/xtf/view?docId\=ead/uni/undf.xml\#UNDall\-6556\|title\=Howlands Trust Project\|work\=Durham University Records: Colleges\|access\-date\=1 November 2015}} By 1990 numbers had reached 5,908 and by 1995, 9,717 in Durham City or 10,436 including Stockton (see below) – doubling the population in under ten years.
In 1988 the [Wesley Study Centre](/wiki/Wesley_Study_Centre "Wesley Study Centre") opened within St John's College as a training centre for Methodist ministers, forming a unique ecumenical partnership with Cranmer Hall to train Anglican and Methodist ministers alongside each other.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.dur.ac.uk/wsc.online/wp\-content/uploads/2012/02/Wesley\-Study\-Centre\-Prospectus3\.pdf\|title\=Wesley Study Centre Prospectus\|access\-date\=4 November 2015}}
In 1989 the university started its fund\-raising and [alumni](/wiki/Alumni "Alumni") office, with a virtual community for alumni<http://www.dunelm.org.uk> dunelm.org.uk and several large gifts made to the university, including for the Centre for Middle Eastern Studies, the [Department of Physics](/wiki/Durham_University_Department_of_Physics "Durham University Department of Physics") and the [Wolfson Research Institute](/wiki/Wolfson_Research_Institute "Wolfson Research Institute").
1990 saw the opening of the [Teikyo University of Japan in Durham](/wiki/Teikyo_University_of_Japan_in_Durham "Teikyo University of Japan in Durham"), an overseas campus of [Teikyo University](/wiki/Teikyo_University "Teikyo University") in [Japan](/wiki/Japan "Japan"), by [Katharine, Duchess of Kent](/wiki/Katharine%2C_Duchess_of_Kent "Katharine, Duchess of Kent").{{cite book\|url\=http://www.teikyo\-u.ac.jp/english/pdf/english\_guide.pdf\|publisher\=Teikyo University\|page\=4\|title\=Global Guide Book\|access\-date\=1 November 2015}}{{cite web\|url\=https://www.dur.ac.uk/hr/applicants/about/highlights/\|title\=Historical Highlights\|access\-date\=1 November 2015}}
From 1993 to 1997 the university attempted unsuccessfully to raise funds for a new college at Howlands Farm. In 1997 the decision was made to instead build postgraduate accommodation on the site under the management of the existing Graduate Society.
In 1994, Durham was one of the founder members of the [1994 Group](/wiki/1994_Group "1994 Group") of smaller research\-intensive universities, set up in response to the establishment of the [Russell Group](/wiki/Russell_Group "Russell Group").
### Development in Stockton
[thumb\|Ebsworth Building, Queen's Campus](/wiki/File:Ebsworth_Building%2C_Durham.jpg "Ebsworth Building, Durham.jpg")
The idea of Durham University establishing a presence on Teesside was first floated in 1987 and planning began in earnest in 1988 for a "Birkbeck of the North" with around 1,000 students. Teesside was, at that time, the largest conurbation in Europe without a university, and the [Teesside Development Corporation](/wiki/Teesside_Development_Corporation "Teesside Development Corporation") had recently been established to try to regenerate the area. In April 1989 a formal announcement was made that Teesside Polytechnic and Durham University were working together "in planning a major development in Higher Education in Cleveland and its adjacent areas".
Stresses in the partnership arise in December 1989, when Durham approved plans for a new Institute of Health Studies without discussions with the Polytechnic. This led in January 1990 to a formula establishing the development as a Joint University College between Durham and Teesside rather than (as originally conceived) a Durham college with backing from Teesside. This was approved by Senate in mid February and the initiative was launched publicly three days later.
The initial bid to the funding councils (the Universities Funding Council – UFC; and the Polytechnics and Colleges Funding Council – PCFC) was for 280 students initially, rising to 840 after three years. In 1991 the UFC and PCFC agreed to fund 100 places each initially, rising to 225 each – only half of what had been hoped for. Nevertheless, plans went ahead and a site opposite [Stockton\-on\-Tees](/wiki/Stockton-on-Tees "Stockton-on-Tees") on the south bank of the river was chosen. The Joint University College on Teesside (JUCOT) was formally launched on 3 September 1991 by [Michael Fallon](/wiki/Michael_Fallon "Michael Fallon"), Schools Minister and MP for Darlington.
On 1 January 1992, Robert Parfitt was appointed as the first principal of the college. Later that year Durham's statutes were modified to allow it grant joint degrees, regulations for the degrees to be awarded by JUCOT were established, and JUCOT was formally incorporated as a Limited Company established under a joint venture agreement between Durham and Teesside. The name did not, however, prove acceptable to the various government departments, nor was the alternative of Queen's College (there were too many already), but the name of University College, Stockton was approved just before opening on 12 October 1992 with an initial enrolment of 190 students.
Near the end of is first year of operation, the college was formally opened by [Queen Elizabeth II](/wiki/Elizabeth_II_of_the_United_Kingdom "Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom") on 18 May 1993\. The 1993 academic year saw student numbers grow to 430 with the addition of teacher training. In 1994, at the suggestion of the UCS board, Durham assumed administrative and financial responsibility for the college. At the same time, approval was given to build student residences at Stockton, and the Privy Council approved changes to Durham's statutes making UCS a residential and teaching college of the university.{{cite web\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20041016085906/http://www.dur.ac.uk/about/history/qcs.php\|archive\-date\=16 October 2004\|url\=http://www.dur.ac.uk/about/history/qcs.php\|title\=Foundation of Queen's Campus}}
Parfitt retired in April 1994 and was replaced as principal by John Hayward. Integration with Durham began, with the departments being established as Boards of Studies, and the company being wound up – its board of directors becoming (like Durham colleges) a board of governors, still including Teesside but with increased representation from Durham.
In 1996 it was agreed that students at Stockton would take degrees of Durham from 1998, rather than the joint degrees that had been awarded previously. With Durham taking on sole responsibility in 1998, the campus was renamed the University of Durham, Stockton Campus (UDSC), separating teaching responsibilities from UCS.
|
[
"Modern university, 1963–99\n--------------------------",
"The university's new statutes abolished the court but maintained the title of Warden of the Durham Colleges, with the executive head of the university being the vice\\-chancellor and warden. In 1963, the university consisted of five council colleges (now styled maintained colleges), with a further three planned, St Cuthbert's Society, the three independent constituent colleges (now styled recognised colleges), and the two licensed halls (the women's teacher training colleges: St Hild's and Neville's Cross).",
"Expansion continued, with Grey College's third building opening in 1963\\. In 1964 the centralised admissions system went into operation. [Van Mildert College](/wiki/Van_Mildert_College \"Van Mildert College\"), the School of Engineering, the [Durham Business School](/wiki/Durham_Business_School \"Durham Business School\"), the Graduate Society (now [Ustinov College](/wiki/Ustinov_College \"Ustinov College\")), the Maiden Castle sports ground and a number of other academic departments all opened in 1965; and in the same year the BEd degree was introduced for students at the teacher training colleges. [Trevelyan College](/wiki/Trevelyan_College \"Trevelyan College\") and the new buildings for St Aidan's College opened in 1966\\. The [botanic garden](/wiki/Durham_University_Botanic_Garden \"Durham University Botanic Garden\") moved to its current site in 1970\\. Construction of new residences for University College in Durham also meant Lumley Castle could finally be given up in 1970\\.",
"[Sierra Leone](/wiki/Sierra_Leone \"Sierra Leone\") had gained its independence in 1961, and in 1967 the government established the [University of Sierra Leone](/wiki/University_of_Sierra_Leone \"University of Sierra Leone\"). Fourah Bay College joined Njala University College to form the new University and ended its affiliation with Durham.{{cite encyclopedia\\|url\\=http://www.blackpast.org/gah/fourah\\-bay\\-college\\-1827\\|title\\= Fourah Bay College\\|encyclopedia\\=Online Encyclopedia of Significant People and Places in Global African History\\|access\\-date\\=3 November 2015\\|date\\= 2010\\-01\\-13}}",
"In 1963, Neville's Cross College became mixed, and in 1966 Cranmer Hall in St John's College became the first Anglican theological college in the world to train women for ordination. The [Roman Catholic](/wiki/Roman_Catholic \"Roman Catholic\") [seminary](/wiki/Seminary \"Seminary\") of [Ushaw College](/wiki/Ushaw_College \"Ushaw College\"), which had been located in [Ushaw Moor](/wiki/Ushaw_Moor \"Ushaw Moor\") near Durham since 1808, was licensed as a hall of residence in 1968\\. St Chad's Hall stopped training for the Anglican priesthood in 1972, and in 1976 changed its name to St Chad's College.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://reed.dur.ac.uk/xtf/view?docId\\=ead/uni/undf.xml\\#UNDall\\-3476\\|title\\=St Chad's College\\|work\\=Durham University Records: Colleges\\|access\\-date\\=30 October 2015}}",
"In 1965 the sports hall at Maiden Castle opened and in 1966 Dunelm House was finally completed, providing centralised student facilities and a home for the Student Representative Council and the Athletics Union moved in. In 1969 the Statutes were amended to give the president of the Student Representative Council a seat on the University Council.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.dur.ac.uk/resources/university.calendar/volumei/2003\\.2004/statutes/stat8\\.pdf\\|title\\=The Council\\|work\\=Statutes of the University of Durham\\|date\\=2003\\|access\\-date\\=3 November 2015}} In 1970 the Student Representative Council became Durham Student Union.",
"In the 1970s the reorganisation of teacher training by the government threatened the existence of the three teacher training colleges. In 1975 St Hild's College and the College of the Venerable Bede merged to form the [College of St Hild and St Bede](/wiki/College_of_St_Hild_and_St_Bede \"College of St Hild and St Bede\"), remaining a Recognised College and teaching a university\\-validated BEd. This lasted until 1979 when it surrendered its autonomy to become a Maintained College of the university, with all teacher training being transferred to the university's School of Education. Neville's Cross College merged with Durham Technical College in 1977, leaving the university and forming [New College Durham](/wiki/New_College_Durham \"New College Durham\").",
"Following the lowering of the [age of majority](/wiki/Age_of_majority \"Age of majority\") from 21 to 18 in 1970, meaning universities were no longer *in loco parentis*, Van Mildert became the first maintained college to go mixed in 1971, with some students transferring in from other colleges that year followed by a full intake in 1972\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.dur.ac.uk/van\\-mildert.college/about/history/crest/\\|title\\= Building the College\\|publisher\\=Van Mildert College\\|access\\-date\\=4 December 2015}} This was followed in 1972 by the opening of [Collingwood College](/wiki/Collingwood_College%2C_Durham \"Collingwood College, Durham\") as the first purpose\\-built mixed college, and the first university residence in the UK to have men's and women's rooms in the same blocks. In 1973 St John's College went fully mixed, admitting women to St John's Hall.",
"St Aidan's decided to become mixed in 1978, with the first men entering in 1981 – the first of the Women's colleges to do so. This was followed by Grey JCR voting to go mixed in 1983, and the college governing board ratifying the decision. Some women students who had not won places at other colleges were admitted in 1984 and the first full intake was in 1985\\. Decisions by college governing boards and the University Council in 1986 led to the final three men's colleges going mixed, in some cases against the wishes of the students: University College in 1987, and Hatfield and St Chad's in 1988\\.{{cite journal\\|url\\=https://www.castlealumni.uk/files/castellum/Castellum%252039%2520(1986\\).pdf\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200927034010/https://www.castlealumni.uk/files/castellum/Castellum%2039%20(1986\\).pdf\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-date\\=27 September 2020\\|journal\\=Castellum\\|volume\\=39\\|date\\=1986\\|title\\=Master's Letter\\|pages\\=1–2}} In October 1987, Trevelyan's governing body voted to go mixed despite the JCR voting to remain women\\-only. The first men were admitted in 1990\\.{{cite book\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=dWeZwQmKV2IC\\&pg\\=PA146\\|pages\\=146–151\\|title\\=Trevs: A Celebration of 40 Years\\|publisher\\=Roundtuit Publishing\\|date\\=2006\\|author\\=Susan Martin\\|isbn\\=9781904499077}}",
"In 1986 Durham Castle and Cathedral were made a [UNESCO](/wiki/UNESCO \"UNESCO\") [World Heritage Site](/wiki/World_Heritage_Site \"World Heritage Site\") in the first group of sites recognised in the UK.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.durhamworldheritagesite.com/heritage\\|publisher\\=Durham World Heritage Site\\|title\\=What is Durham World Heritage Site?\\|access\\-date\\=31 October 2015}} This was extended in 2008 to cover Palace Green and the surrounding buildings.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.durhamworldheritagesite.com/heritage/site\\-boundaries\\|publisher\\=Durham World Heritage Site\\|title\\=Site Boundaries: An Evolving Definition of Heritage\\|access\\-date\\=31 October 2015}}",
"In 1987 the perception still existed that the university was too small. The student population was limited to 5000 (4936 in 1987\\), and had only grown by 200 over the previous 5 years. The Senate noted in May 1988 that expansion was desirable, but that it would be more cost effective, and less risky to do this by making \"more intensive use … of the present facilities\" rather than establishing a new College.{{cite book\\|url\\=http://oxcheps.new.ox.ac.uk/MainSite%20pages/Resources/OxCHEPS\\_OP3\\.pdf\\|title\\=Breaking the Mould: The Surprising Story of Stockton\\|author\\=John Hayward\\|date\\=2003\\|access\\-date\\=1 November 2015\\|archive\\-date\\=13 May 2006\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20060513190857/http://oxcheps.new.ox.ac.uk/MainSite%20pages/Resources/OxCHEPS\\_OP3\\.pdf\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://reed.dur.ac.uk/xtf/view?docId\\=ead/uni/undf.xml\\#UNDall\\-6556\\|title\\=Howlands Trust Project\\|work\\=Durham University Records: Colleges\\|access\\-date\\=1 November 2015}} By 1990 numbers had reached 5,908 and by 1995, 9,717 in Durham City or 10,436 including Stockton (see below) – doubling the population in under ten years.",
"In 1988 the [Wesley Study Centre](/wiki/Wesley_Study_Centre \"Wesley Study Centre\") opened within St John's College as a training centre for Methodist ministers, forming a unique ecumenical partnership with Cranmer Hall to train Anglican and Methodist ministers alongside each other.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.dur.ac.uk/wsc.online/wp\\-content/uploads/2012/02/Wesley\\-Study\\-Centre\\-Prospectus3\\.pdf\\|title\\=Wesley Study Centre Prospectus\\|access\\-date\\=4 November 2015}}",
"In 1989 the university started its fund\\-raising and [alumni](/wiki/Alumni \"Alumni\") office, with a virtual community for alumni<http://www.dunelm.org.uk> dunelm.org.uk and several large gifts made to the university, including for the Centre for Middle Eastern Studies, the [Department of Physics](/wiki/Durham_University_Department_of_Physics \"Durham University Department of Physics\") and the [Wolfson Research Institute](/wiki/Wolfson_Research_Institute \"Wolfson Research Institute\").",
"1990 saw the opening of the [Teikyo University of Japan in Durham](/wiki/Teikyo_University_of_Japan_in_Durham \"Teikyo University of Japan in Durham\"), an overseas campus of [Teikyo University](/wiki/Teikyo_University \"Teikyo University\") in [Japan](/wiki/Japan \"Japan\"), by [Katharine, Duchess of Kent](/wiki/Katharine%2C_Duchess_of_Kent \"Katharine, Duchess of Kent\").{{cite book\\|url\\=http://www.teikyo\\-u.ac.jp/english/pdf/english\\_guide.pdf\\|publisher\\=Teikyo University\\|page\\=4\\|title\\=Global Guide Book\\|access\\-date\\=1 November 2015}}{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.dur.ac.uk/hr/applicants/about/highlights/\\|title\\=Historical Highlights\\|access\\-date\\=1 November 2015}}",
"From 1993 to 1997 the university attempted unsuccessfully to raise funds for a new college at Howlands Farm. In 1997 the decision was made to instead build postgraduate accommodation on the site under the management of the existing Graduate Society.",
"In 1994, Durham was one of the founder members of the [1994 Group](/wiki/1994_Group \"1994 Group\") of smaller research\\-intensive universities, set up in response to the establishment of the [Russell Group](/wiki/Russell_Group \"Russell Group\").",
"### Development in Stockton",
"[thumb\\|Ebsworth Building, Queen's Campus](/wiki/File:Ebsworth_Building%2C_Durham.jpg \"Ebsworth Building, Durham.jpg\")",
"The idea of Durham University establishing a presence on Teesside was first floated in 1987 and planning began in earnest in 1988 for a \"Birkbeck of the North\" with around 1,000 students. Teesside was, at that time, the largest conurbation in Europe without a university, and the [Teesside Development Corporation](/wiki/Teesside_Development_Corporation \"Teesside Development Corporation\") had recently been established to try to regenerate the area. In April 1989 a formal announcement was made that Teesside Polytechnic and Durham University were working together \"in planning a major development in Higher Education in Cleveland and its adjacent areas\".",
"",
"Stresses in the partnership arise in December 1989, when Durham approved plans for a new Institute of Health Studies without discussions with the Polytechnic. This led in January 1990 to a formula establishing the development as a Joint University College between Durham and Teesside rather than (as originally conceived) a Durham college with backing from Teesside. This was approved by Senate in mid February and the initiative was launched publicly three days later.",
"The initial bid to the funding councils (the Universities Funding Council – UFC; and the Polytechnics and Colleges Funding Council – PCFC) was for 280 students initially, rising to 840 after three years. In 1991 the UFC and PCFC agreed to fund 100 places each initially, rising to 225 each – only half of what had been hoped for. Nevertheless, plans went ahead and a site opposite [Stockton\\-on\\-Tees](/wiki/Stockton-on-Tees \"Stockton-on-Tees\") on the south bank of the river was chosen. The Joint University College on Teesside (JUCOT) was formally launched on 3 September 1991 by [Michael Fallon](/wiki/Michael_Fallon \"Michael Fallon\"), Schools Minister and MP for Darlington.",
"On 1 January 1992, Robert Parfitt was appointed as the first principal of the college. Later that year Durham's statutes were modified to allow it grant joint degrees, regulations for the degrees to be awarded by JUCOT were established, and JUCOT was formally incorporated as a Limited Company established under a joint venture agreement between Durham and Teesside. The name did not, however, prove acceptable to the various government departments, nor was the alternative of Queen's College (there were too many already), but the name of University College, Stockton was approved just before opening on 12 October 1992 with an initial enrolment of 190 students.",
"Near the end of is first year of operation, the college was formally opened by [Queen Elizabeth II](/wiki/Elizabeth_II_of_the_United_Kingdom \"Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom\") on 18 May 1993\\. The 1993 academic year saw student numbers grow to 430 with the addition of teacher training. In 1994, at the suggestion of the UCS board, Durham assumed administrative and financial responsibility for the college. At the same time, approval was given to build student residences at Stockton, and the Privy Council approved changes to Durham's statutes making UCS a residential and teaching college of the university.{{cite web\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20041016085906/http://www.dur.ac.uk/about/history/qcs.php\\|archive\\-date\\=16 October 2004\\|url\\=http://www.dur.ac.uk/about/history/qcs.php\\|title\\=Foundation of Queen's Campus}}",
"Parfitt retired in April 1994 and was replaced as principal by John Hayward. Integration with Durham began, with the departments being established as Boards of Studies, and the company being wound up – its board of directors becoming (like Durham colleges) a board of governors, still including Teesside but with increased representation from Durham.",
"In 1996 it was agreed that students at Stockton would take degrees of Durham from 1998, rather than the joint degrees that had been awarded previously. With Durham taking on sole responsibility in 1998, the campus was renamed the University of Durham, Stockton Campus (UDSC), separating teaching responsibilities from UCS.",
""
] |
### Development in Stockton
[thumb\|Ebsworth Building, Queen's Campus](/wiki/File:Ebsworth_Building%2C_Durham.jpg "Ebsworth Building, Durham.jpg")
The idea of Durham University establishing a presence on Teesside was first floated in 1987 and planning began in earnest in 1988 for a "Birkbeck of the North" with around 1,000 students. Teesside was, at that time, the largest conurbation in Europe without a university, and the [Teesside Development Corporation](/wiki/Teesside_Development_Corporation "Teesside Development Corporation") had recently been established to try to regenerate the area. In April 1989 a formal announcement was made that Teesside Polytechnic and Durham University were working together "in planning a major development in Higher Education in Cleveland and its adjacent areas".
Stresses in the partnership arise in December 1989, when Durham approved plans for a new Institute of Health Studies without discussions with the Polytechnic. This led in January 1990 to a formula establishing the development as a Joint University College between Durham and Teesside rather than (as originally conceived) a Durham college with backing from Teesside. This was approved by Senate in mid February and the initiative was launched publicly three days later.
The initial bid to the funding councils (the Universities Funding Council – UFC; and the Polytechnics and Colleges Funding Council – PCFC) was for 280 students initially, rising to 840 after three years. In 1991 the UFC and PCFC agreed to fund 100 places each initially, rising to 225 each – only half of what had been hoped for. Nevertheless, plans went ahead and a site opposite [Stockton\-on\-Tees](/wiki/Stockton-on-Tees "Stockton-on-Tees") on the south bank of the river was chosen. The Joint University College on Teesside (JUCOT) was formally launched on 3 September 1991 by [Michael Fallon](/wiki/Michael_Fallon "Michael Fallon"), Schools Minister and MP for Darlington.
On 1 January 1992, Robert Parfitt was appointed as the first principal of the college. Later that year Durham's statutes were modified to allow it grant joint degrees, regulations for the degrees to be awarded by JUCOT were established, and JUCOT was formally incorporated as a Limited Company established under a joint venture agreement between Durham and Teesside. The name did not, however, prove acceptable to the various government departments, nor was the alternative of Queen's College (there were too many already), but the name of University College, Stockton was approved just before opening on 12 October 1992 with an initial enrolment of 190 students.
Near the end of is first year of operation, the college was formally opened by [Queen Elizabeth II](/wiki/Elizabeth_II_of_the_United_Kingdom "Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom") on 18 May 1993\. The 1993 academic year saw student numbers grow to 430 with the addition of teacher training. In 1994, at the suggestion of the UCS board, Durham assumed administrative and financial responsibility for the college. At the same time, approval was given to build student residences at Stockton, and the Privy Council approved changes to Durham's statutes making UCS a residential and teaching college of the university.{{cite web\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20041016085906/http://www.dur.ac.uk/about/history/qcs.php\|archive\-date\=16 October 2004\|url\=http://www.dur.ac.uk/about/history/qcs.php\|title\=Foundation of Queen's Campus}}
Parfitt retired in April 1994 and was replaced as principal by John Hayward. Integration with Durham began, with the departments being established as Boards of Studies, and the company being wound up – its board of directors becoming (like Durham colleges) a board of governors, still including Teesside but with increased representation from Durham.
In 1996 it was agreed that students at Stockton would take degrees of Durham from 1998, rather than the joint degrees that had been awarded previously. With Durham taking on sole responsibility in 1998, the campus was renamed the University of Durham, Stockton Campus (UDSC), separating teaching responsibilities from UCS.
|
[
"### Development in Stockton",
"[thumb\\|Ebsworth Building, Queen's Campus](/wiki/File:Ebsworth_Building%2C_Durham.jpg \"Ebsworth Building, Durham.jpg\")",
"The idea of Durham University establishing a presence on Teesside was first floated in 1987 and planning began in earnest in 1988 for a \"Birkbeck of the North\" with around 1,000 students. Teesside was, at that time, the largest conurbation in Europe without a university, and the [Teesside Development Corporation](/wiki/Teesside_Development_Corporation \"Teesside Development Corporation\") had recently been established to try to regenerate the area. In April 1989 a formal announcement was made that Teesside Polytechnic and Durham University were working together \"in planning a major development in Higher Education in Cleveland and its adjacent areas\".",
"",
"Stresses in the partnership arise in December 1989, when Durham approved plans for a new Institute of Health Studies without discussions with the Polytechnic. This led in January 1990 to a formula establishing the development as a Joint University College between Durham and Teesside rather than (as originally conceived) a Durham college with backing from Teesside. This was approved by Senate in mid February and the initiative was launched publicly three days later.",
"The initial bid to the funding councils (the Universities Funding Council – UFC; and the Polytechnics and Colleges Funding Council – PCFC) was for 280 students initially, rising to 840 after three years. In 1991 the UFC and PCFC agreed to fund 100 places each initially, rising to 225 each – only half of what had been hoped for. Nevertheless, plans went ahead and a site opposite [Stockton\\-on\\-Tees](/wiki/Stockton-on-Tees \"Stockton-on-Tees\") on the south bank of the river was chosen. The Joint University College on Teesside (JUCOT) was formally launched on 3 September 1991 by [Michael Fallon](/wiki/Michael_Fallon \"Michael Fallon\"), Schools Minister and MP for Darlington.",
"On 1 January 1992, Robert Parfitt was appointed as the first principal of the college. Later that year Durham's statutes were modified to allow it grant joint degrees, regulations for the degrees to be awarded by JUCOT were established, and JUCOT was formally incorporated as a Limited Company established under a joint venture agreement between Durham and Teesside. The name did not, however, prove acceptable to the various government departments, nor was the alternative of Queen's College (there were too many already), but the name of University College, Stockton was approved just before opening on 12 October 1992 with an initial enrolment of 190 students.",
"Near the end of is first year of operation, the college was formally opened by [Queen Elizabeth II](/wiki/Elizabeth_II_of_the_United_Kingdom \"Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom\") on 18 May 1993\\. The 1993 academic year saw student numbers grow to 430 with the addition of teacher training. In 1994, at the suggestion of the UCS board, Durham assumed administrative and financial responsibility for the college. At the same time, approval was given to build student residences at Stockton, and the Privy Council approved changes to Durham's statutes making UCS a residential and teaching college of the university.{{cite web\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20041016085906/http://www.dur.ac.uk/about/history/qcs.php\\|archive\\-date\\=16 October 2004\\|url\\=http://www.dur.ac.uk/about/history/qcs.php\\|title\\=Foundation of Queen's Campus}}",
"Parfitt retired in April 1994 and was replaced as principal by John Hayward. Integration with Durham began, with the departments being established as Boards of Studies, and the company being wound up – its board of directors becoming (like Durham colleges) a board of governors, still including Teesside but with increased representation from Durham.",
"In 1996 it was agreed that students at Stockton would take degrees of Durham from 1998, rather than the joint degrees that had been awarded previously. With Durham taking on sole responsibility in 1998, the campus was renamed the University of Durham, Stockton Campus (UDSC), separating teaching responsibilities from UCS.",
""
] |
Biography
---------
Larisa was born on September 3, 1923, in [Kaluga](/wiki/Kaluga "Kaluga"). Her father, Anatoly Grintsevich, secretary of the Prigorodny District Party Committee in [Odessa](/wiki/Odessa "Odessa"), was shot in 1937\. Mother, Olga Grintsevich, is a Leningrad art critic.
In 1937, after the death of her father, together with her mother and born in Odessa, her sister Irina, Larisa returned to Leningrad. In 1941 she graduated from the school and entered the [Leningrad University](/wiki/Saint_Petersburg_State_University "Saint Petersburg State University").
Larisa Grincevich met the [Great Patriotic War](/wiki/Great_Patriotic_War "Great Patriotic War") in [Moscow](/wiki/Moscow "Moscow"), where she, together with other alumni excellent students from Leningrad schools was sent on a special voucher to the All\-Union agricultural exhibition. At the beginning of the war, this group was left indefinitely in Moscow. Meanwhile, Larisa's mother and sister left for the Ural evacuation.
In September 1941, Larisa arrived in [Molotov](/wiki/Perm%2C_Russia "Perm, Russia"), where her mother and four\-year\-old sister were evacuated. Was enrolled in the Molotov University (now [Perm State University](/wiki/Perm_State_University "Perm State University")). She graduated from nursing courses, worked in the clinic. Then she graduated from the courses of machine gunners.
From April 1942 to July 1945, was a volunteer in the Air Defense Division of Moscow, the commander of the gun crew, was promoted to the rank of junior sergeant.
In 1950 she graduated from the Department of Mineralogy of the Leningrad University. Simultaneously with her studies she worked for three years as a geologist\-explorer in various expeditions of the North\-Western Geological Administration.
Already in 1950, her work in the north of the Irkutsk region was linked to diamonds. In the summer of 1951 she was on an expedition in the Subpolar Urals. In 1952, Larisa married a [LISI](/wiki/Saint-Petersburg_State_University_of_Architecture_and_Civil_Engineering "Saint-Petersburg State University of Architecture and Civil Engineering") teacher Viktor Popugayev.
In June 1954, Larisa Popugayeva and her assistant Fedor Belikov discovered a [kimberlite](/wiki/Kimberlite "Kimberlite") surface in [Yakutia](/wiki/Sakha_Republic "Sakha Republic"), following two months of labor intensive searches along the shores of the Daldyn River.{{Cite web \|title\=Russia, Diamonds and the Cold War – Kit Clayton Jewellery \|url\=https://kitclayton.com/blogs/brilliantcut/russia\-diamonds\-and\-the\-cold\-war \|access\-date\=2022\-04\-06 \|website\=kitclayton.com}} This discovery, the first of its kind on USSR territory, was later called the [Zarnitsa mine](/wiki/Zarnitsa_mine "Zarnitsa mine"). The following year, another 10 pipes were opened in this locality.{{cite web\|url\=http://magazines.russ.ru/neva/2003/9/treif.html\|author\=Sergey Kostyrko\|title\=Голгофа геолога Попугаевой\|website\=magazines.russ.ru\|accessdate\=2018\-09\-11}}{{cite web\|url\=http://www.lgz.ru/article/\-44\-6574\-9\-11\-2016/larisa\-popugaeva\-zhizn\-posle\-zhizni/\|title\=Лариса Попугаева: жизнь после жизни\|website\=lgz.ru\|accessdate\=2018\-09\-11}}
Larisa Popugayeva died on September 19, 1977, from occlusion and aortic rupture.
|
[
"Biography\n---------",
"Larisa was born on September 3, 1923, in [Kaluga](/wiki/Kaluga \"Kaluga\"). Her father, Anatoly Grintsevich, secretary of the Prigorodny District Party Committee in [Odessa](/wiki/Odessa \"Odessa\"), was shot in 1937\\. Mother, Olga Grintsevich, is a Leningrad art critic.",
"In 1937, after the death of her father, together with her mother and born in Odessa, her sister Irina, Larisa returned to Leningrad. In 1941 she graduated from the school and entered the [Leningrad University](/wiki/Saint_Petersburg_State_University \"Saint Petersburg State University\").",
"Larisa Grincevich met the [Great Patriotic War](/wiki/Great_Patriotic_War \"Great Patriotic War\") in [Moscow](/wiki/Moscow \"Moscow\"), where she, together with other alumni excellent students from Leningrad schools was sent on a special voucher to the All\\-Union agricultural exhibition. At the beginning of the war, this group was left indefinitely in Moscow. Meanwhile, Larisa's mother and sister left for the Ural evacuation.",
"In September 1941, Larisa arrived in [Molotov](/wiki/Perm%2C_Russia \"Perm, Russia\"), where her mother and four\\-year\\-old sister were evacuated. Was enrolled in the Molotov University (now [Perm State University](/wiki/Perm_State_University \"Perm State University\")). She graduated from nursing courses, worked in the clinic. Then she graduated from the courses of machine gunners.",
"From April 1942 to July 1945, was a volunteer in the Air Defense Division of Moscow, the commander of the gun crew, was promoted to the rank of junior sergeant.",
"In 1950 she graduated from the Department of Mineralogy of the Leningrad University. Simultaneously with her studies she worked for three years as a geologist\\-explorer in various expeditions of the North\\-Western Geological Administration.",
"Already in 1950, her work in the north of the Irkutsk region was linked to diamonds. In the summer of 1951 she was on an expedition in the Subpolar Urals. In 1952, Larisa married a [LISI](/wiki/Saint-Petersburg_State_University_of_Architecture_and_Civil_Engineering \"Saint-Petersburg State University of Architecture and Civil Engineering\") teacher Viktor Popugayev.",
"In June 1954, Larisa Popugayeva and her assistant Fedor Belikov discovered a [kimberlite](/wiki/Kimberlite \"Kimberlite\") surface in [Yakutia](/wiki/Sakha_Republic \"Sakha Republic\"), following two months of labor intensive searches along the shores of the Daldyn River.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Russia, Diamonds and the Cold War – Kit Clayton Jewellery \\|url\\=https://kitclayton.com/blogs/brilliantcut/russia\\-diamonds\\-and\\-the\\-cold\\-war \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-04\\-06 \\|website\\=kitclayton.com}} This discovery, the first of its kind on USSR territory, was later called the [Zarnitsa mine](/wiki/Zarnitsa_mine \"Zarnitsa mine\"). The following year, another 10 pipes were opened in this locality.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://magazines.russ.ru/neva/2003/9/treif.html\\|author\\=Sergey Kostyrko\\|title\\=Голгофа геолога Попугаевой\\|website\\=magazines.russ.ru\\|accessdate\\=2018\\-09\\-11}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.lgz.ru/article/\\-44\\-6574\\-9\\-11\\-2016/larisa\\-popugaeva\\-zhizn\\-posle\\-zhizni/\\|title\\=Лариса Попугаева: жизнь после жизни\\|website\\=lgz.ru\\|accessdate\\=2018\\-09\\-11}}",
"Larisa Popugayeva died on September 19, 1977, from occlusion and aortic rupture.",
""
] |
Plot
----
Jonathan Moore, an 18\-year\-old veterinary student at [UCLA](/wiki/UCLA "UCLA"), is an expert at "Gotcha", a popular [Assassin](/wiki/Assassin_%28game%29 "Assassin (game)")\-like game where students chase each other on campus using [paintball guns](/wiki/Paintball_gun "Paintball gun"). Jonathan and his roommate Manolo travel to Paris during spring break. While alone in a café, Jonathan meets Sasha Banicek, a 24\-year\-old Czechoslovakian woman, and later loses his virginity to her.
Instead of going to Spain with Manolo, Jonathan accompanies Sasha to [West Berlin](/wiki/West_Berlin "West Berlin") to spend more time with her. In their hotel room, Sasha tells Jonathan that she has to go to [East Berlin](/wiki/East_Berlin "East Berlin") to pick up a package, as she works as a courier. One night, after arriving in East Berlin, Sasha sneaks out their hotel room while Jonathan is asleep and meets with a German man, who tells her the location of the pickup of her package. Unknowingly, Sasha is monitored by Vlad, a [Soviet](/wiki/Soviet_Union "Soviet Union") agent.
The next day, Sasha tells Jonathan that if she ever instructs him to meet her at the Café Friedrichstrasse, it means that he must immediately leave East Berlin, and hands him a package with a [strudel](/wiki/Strudel "Strudel"). Noticing that Vlad is following them, Sasha tells Jonathan to meet her at a butcher shop near their hotel in one hour. Vlad chases her, but she escapes. She is ordered by the German man to use Jonathan to get the package over to West Berlin. Sasha meets Jonathan at a subway station, slipping an object into his backpack and saying she will meet him back at the hotel. However, she later calls him and tells him to meet her at the Café Friedrichstrasse.
That night, while Jonathan rushes to [Checkpoint Charlie](/wiki/Checkpoint_Charlie "Checkpoint Charlie") to cross into West Berlin, Sasha is caught by Vlad and the [East German secret police](/wiki/Stasi "Stasi"); she is [strip\-searched](/wiki/Strip_search "Strip search") by the Soviets, but nothing is found on her. Vlad arrives at the border crossing to search for Jonathan, who has crossed the border safely before he could be captured. Once in West Berlin, Jonathan finds that his hotel room has been ransacked and his traveler's checks have been stolen. Vlad and his henchmen eventually find Jonathan at the [Spandau Citadel](/wiki/Spandau_Citadel "Spandau Citadel"), the location Sasha gave him, where he meets a woman who asks for the object Sasha gave him. She is confused when he gives her the strudel, before Vlad shoots her. The agents chase Jonathan through the Citadel. Jumping into a water canal, Jonathan escapes and stumbles upon a German punk rock band headed for [Hamburg](/wiki/Hamburg "Hamburg"), who offer him a ride to the airport.
Soon after Jonathan safely makes it back to Los Angeles, a band of Soviet agents led by Vlad also arrives. Jonathan finds the object planted by Sasha, a film canister, in his backpack. He visits his parents and tells them what happened in Germany, but they do not believe him and instead accuse him of being a drug addict. Jonathan decides to call the [CIA](/wiki/Central_Intelligence_Agency "Central Intelligence Agency") for help, telling them about Sasha and the film. Temporarily arrested for ramming a car, Jonathan returns the next morning to find his apartment broken into and looted.
The CIA tells Jonathan to bring them the film canister. At the CIA's Los Angeles headquarters, Jonathan is surprised to find Sasha working there. Jonathan arranges a meeting with Sasha at UCLA and uses Manolo's help to separate her from the CIA agents. Sasha admits that she is actually Cheryl Brewster, a CIA agent from Pittsburgh, before Vlad and his henchmen appear and chase the pair through the campus. During their flight, Jonathan seizes a tranquilizer gun from the veterinary sciences building and uses it to incapacitate their pursuers. The Soviets are arrested and the CIA agents thank Jonathan for his help in obtaining the film. Cheryl/Sasha tells him she wants to continue their relationship, and they kiss.
After they part, Jonathan talks to an attractive student who previously rebuffed him, and she coldly turns him down. As she walks away, he aims the tranquilizer gun and shoots her in the rear.
|
[
"Plot\n----",
"Jonathan Moore, an 18\\-year\\-old veterinary student at [UCLA](/wiki/UCLA \"UCLA\"), is an expert at \"Gotcha\", a popular [Assassin](/wiki/Assassin_%28game%29 \"Assassin (game)\")\\-like game where students chase each other on campus using [paintball guns](/wiki/Paintball_gun \"Paintball gun\"). Jonathan and his roommate Manolo travel to Paris during spring break. While alone in a café, Jonathan meets Sasha Banicek, a 24\\-year\\-old Czechoslovakian woman, and later loses his virginity to her.",
"Instead of going to Spain with Manolo, Jonathan accompanies Sasha to [West Berlin](/wiki/West_Berlin \"West Berlin\") to spend more time with her. In their hotel room, Sasha tells Jonathan that she has to go to [East Berlin](/wiki/East_Berlin \"East Berlin\") to pick up a package, as she works as a courier. One night, after arriving in East Berlin, Sasha sneaks out their hotel room while Jonathan is asleep and meets with a German man, who tells her the location of the pickup of her package. Unknowingly, Sasha is monitored by Vlad, a [Soviet](/wiki/Soviet_Union \"Soviet Union\") agent.",
"The next day, Sasha tells Jonathan that if she ever instructs him to meet her at the Café Friedrichstrasse, it means that he must immediately leave East Berlin, and hands him a package with a [strudel](/wiki/Strudel \"Strudel\"). Noticing that Vlad is following them, Sasha tells Jonathan to meet her at a butcher shop near their hotel in one hour. Vlad chases her, but she escapes. She is ordered by the German man to use Jonathan to get the package over to West Berlin. Sasha meets Jonathan at a subway station, slipping an object into his backpack and saying she will meet him back at the hotel. However, she later calls him and tells him to meet her at the Café Friedrichstrasse.",
"That night, while Jonathan rushes to [Checkpoint Charlie](/wiki/Checkpoint_Charlie \"Checkpoint Charlie\") to cross into West Berlin, Sasha is caught by Vlad and the [East German secret police](/wiki/Stasi \"Stasi\"); she is [strip\\-searched](/wiki/Strip_search \"Strip search\") by the Soviets, but nothing is found on her. Vlad arrives at the border crossing to search for Jonathan, who has crossed the border safely before he could be captured. Once in West Berlin, Jonathan finds that his hotel room has been ransacked and his traveler's checks have been stolen. Vlad and his henchmen eventually find Jonathan at the [Spandau Citadel](/wiki/Spandau_Citadel \"Spandau Citadel\"), the location Sasha gave him, where he meets a woman who asks for the object Sasha gave him. She is confused when he gives her the strudel, before Vlad shoots her. The agents chase Jonathan through the Citadel. Jumping into a water canal, Jonathan escapes and stumbles upon a German punk rock band headed for [Hamburg](/wiki/Hamburg \"Hamburg\"), who offer him a ride to the airport.",
"Soon after Jonathan safely makes it back to Los Angeles, a band of Soviet agents led by Vlad also arrives. Jonathan finds the object planted by Sasha, a film canister, in his backpack. He visits his parents and tells them what happened in Germany, but they do not believe him and instead accuse him of being a drug addict. Jonathan decides to call the [CIA](/wiki/Central_Intelligence_Agency \"Central Intelligence Agency\") for help, telling them about Sasha and the film. Temporarily arrested for ramming a car, Jonathan returns the next morning to find his apartment broken into and looted.",
"The CIA tells Jonathan to bring them the film canister. At the CIA's Los Angeles headquarters, Jonathan is surprised to find Sasha working there. Jonathan arranges a meeting with Sasha at UCLA and uses Manolo's help to separate her from the CIA agents. Sasha admits that she is actually Cheryl Brewster, a CIA agent from Pittsburgh, before Vlad and his henchmen appear and chase the pair through the campus. During their flight, Jonathan seizes a tranquilizer gun from the veterinary sciences building and uses it to incapacitate their pursuers. The Soviets are arrested and the CIA agents thank Jonathan for his help in obtaining the film. Cheryl/Sasha tells him she wants to continue their relationship, and they kiss.",
"After they part, Jonathan talks to an attractive student who previously rebuffed him, and she coldly turns him down. As she walks away, he aims the tranquilizer gun and shoots her in the rear.",
""
] |
History
-------
The orchestra was founded in April 1968, when musicians from the defunct “Commander\-in\-Chief” (C\-in\-C) orchestra of the Malta\-based British Mediterranean Fleet regrouped as the [Manoel Theatre](/wiki/Manoel_Theatre "Manoel Theatre") Orchestra. It continued to serve as the theatre’s resident orchestra until September 1997, when it became an independent orchestra, taking up the name National Orchestra of Malta. The orchestra became the MPO in 2008 when it expanded into a full\-size symphony orchestra, bringing together the best of Maltese talent and musicians from Europe and beyond.
Joseph Sammut, the C\-in\-C’s last conductor, was the orchestra’s first conductor, remaining at the helm until 1992\. Since then, the orchestra has also been under the direction of Joseph Vella, John Galea, Michael Laus, and [Brian Schembri](http://www.brianschembri.com)(Artistic Director and Principal Conductor). In 2019, the MPO has appointed Sergey Smbatyan as Principal Conductor, joining Resident Conductor Michael Laus as part of the orchestra’s Artistic Team. The MPO also works with local and international guest conductors and soloists including [Lawrence Renes](/wiki/Lawrence_Renes "Lawrence Renes"), [Michalis Economou](/wiki/Michalis_Economou "Michalis Economou"), [Guy Braunstein](/wiki/Guy_Braunstein "Guy Braunstein"), [Alexei Volodin](/wiki/Alexei_Volodin "Alexei Volodin"), [Camilla Tilling](/wiki/Camilla_Tilling "Camilla Tilling"), [Joseph Calleja](/wiki/Joseph_Calleja "Joseph Calleja"), and Enrico Dindo.
As Malta’s leading musical ensemble, the MPO averages more than one performance a week including symphonic concerts, opera productions in Malta and [Gozo](/wiki/Gozo "Gozo"), community outreach and educational initiatives, as well as various concerts of a lighter nature.
The orchestra has performed in leading venues across the globe, including in the [United States](/wiki/United_States "United States"), [Russia](/wiki/Russia "Russia"), [Germany](/wiki/Germany "Germany"), [Austria](/wiki/Austria "Austria"), [China](/wiki/China "China"), [Italy](/wiki/Italy "Italy"), and [Belgium](/wiki/Belgium "Belgium"), and presently embarks on at least one international tour each concert season.
The MPO is a keen exponent of Maltese composers, regularly performing their works in Malta and overseas, as well as frequently premiering and commissioning new compositions.
Through the MPO Academy and the Malta Youth Orchestra, which regularly give concerts across [Malta](/wiki/Malta "Malta"), the MPO is also responsible for the training and professional development of the next generation of Maltese musicians.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"The orchestra was founded in April 1968, when musicians from the defunct “Commander\\-in\\-Chief” (C\\-in\\-C) orchestra of the Malta\\-based British Mediterranean Fleet regrouped as the [Manoel Theatre](/wiki/Manoel_Theatre \"Manoel Theatre\") Orchestra. It continued to serve as the theatre’s resident orchestra until September 1997, when it became an independent orchestra, taking up the name National Orchestra of Malta. The orchestra became the MPO in 2008 when it expanded into a full\\-size symphony orchestra, bringing together the best of Maltese talent and musicians from Europe and beyond.",
"Joseph Sammut, the C\\-in\\-C’s last conductor, was the orchestra’s first conductor, remaining at the helm until 1992\\. Since then, the orchestra has also been under the direction of Joseph Vella, John Galea, Michael Laus, and [Brian Schembri](http://www.brianschembri.com)(Artistic Director and Principal Conductor). In 2019, the MPO has appointed Sergey Smbatyan as Principal Conductor, joining Resident Conductor Michael Laus as part of the orchestra’s Artistic Team. The MPO also works with local and international guest conductors and soloists including [Lawrence Renes](/wiki/Lawrence_Renes \"Lawrence Renes\"), [Michalis Economou](/wiki/Michalis_Economou \"Michalis Economou\"), [Guy Braunstein](/wiki/Guy_Braunstein \"Guy Braunstein\"), [Alexei Volodin](/wiki/Alexei_Volodin \"Alexei Volodin\"), [Camilla Tilling](/wiki/Camilla_Tilling \"Camilla Tilling\"), [Joseph Calleja](/wiki/Joseph_Calleja \"Joseph Calleja\"), and Enrico Dindo.",
"As Malta’s leading musical ensemble, the MPO averages more than one performance a week including symphonic concerts, opera productions in Malta and [Gozo](/wiki/Gozo \"Gozo\"), community outreach and educational initiatives, as well as various concerts of a lighter nature.",
"The orchestra has performed in leading venues across the globe, including in the [United States](/wiki/United_States \"United States\"), [Russia](/wiki/Russia \"Russia\"), [Germany](/wiki/Germany \"Germany\"), [Austria](/wiki/Austria \"Austria\"), [China](/wiki/China \"China\"), [Italy](/wiki/Italy \"Italy\"), and [Belgium](/wiki/Belgium \"Belgium\"), and presently embarks on at least one international tour each concert season.",
"The MPO is a keen exponent of Maltese composers, regularly performing their works in Malta and overseas, as well as frequently premiering and commissioning new compositions.",
"Through the MPO Academy and the Malta Youth Orchestra, which regularly give concerts across [Malta](/wiki/Malta \"Malta\"), the MPO is also responsible for the training and professional development of the next generation of Maltese musicians.",
"",
"",
""
] |
Operations
----------
Vy Buss has several fully owned and some partially owned subsidiaries.[About Nettbuss](http://www.nettbuss.no/om-nettbuss) www.nettbuss.no
### Nordlandsbuss
[Nordlandsbuss](/wiki/Nordlandsbuss "Nordlandsbuss") is owned 34% by Vy Buss and 66% by [Saltens Bilruter](/wiki/Saltens_Bilruter "Saltens Bilruter") and was the result of a merger between Nettbuss Helgeland AS and Saltens Bilruter's bus division. The company operates local and express bus routes in [Nordland](/wiki/Nordland "Nordland") county and has its offices in [Bodø](/wiki/Bod%C3%B8 "Bodø").
### Vy Buss
Previously [Orusttrafiken](/wiki/Orusttrafiken "Orusttrafiken"), and is one of Vy Buss' [Swedish](/wiki/Sweden "Sweden") subsidiaries. Formerly headquartered in [Stenungsund](/wiki/Stenungsund "Stenungsund"), now [Gothenburg](/wiki/Gothenburg "Gothenburg"), the company operates primarily in Southwestern Sweden.
### Vy Travel
Vy Travel is another of Vy Buss' Swedish subsidiaries. It operates the Swedish part of the two intercity coach brands [Bus4You](/wiki/Bus4You "Bus4You") and [Nettbuss express](/wiki/Nettbuss_express "Nettbuss express"). Routes between cities like [Oslo](/wiki/Oslo "Oslo") to [Copenhagen](/wiki/Copenhagen "Copenhagen") and [Stockholm](/wiki/Stockholm "Stockholm"), and [Stockholm](/wiki/Stockholm "Stockholm") to [Gothenburg](/wiki/Gothenburg "Gothenburg"). Formerly headquartered in [Borås](/wiki/Bor%C3%A5s "Borås"), now [Gothenburg](/wiki/Gothenburg "Gothenburg").
### Former operations
#### BorgBuss
Initially 50% of [BorgBuss](/wiki/BorgBuss "BorgBuss") was owned by Nettbuss while the rest was owned by [Fredrikstad](/wiki/Fredrikstad "Fredrikstad") and [Hvaler](/wiki/Hvaler "Hvaler") municipalities. The company operated local buses in [Østfold](/wiki/%C3%98stfold "Østfold"). Later Nettbuss obtained a 100% share and bus operations were merged into Nettbuss Øst on 1 July 2013\.
#### Nettbuss Danmark
Nettbuss Danmark was Nettbuss' subsidiary in Danish market. In 2006, Nettbuss acquired [Partner Bus AS](/wiki/Partner_Bus "Partner Bus") and has merged it into Netbus Denmark. The headquarters were located in [Copenhagen](/wiki/Copenhagen "Copenhagen").[Nettbuss Denmark](http://nettbuss.dk/) {{in lang\|da}} In 2014, the operations merged with [Keolis](/wiki/Keolis "Keolis")' Danish subsidiary via a joint venture, where Nettbuss owns 25%.
#### Nettbuss Drammen
Nettbuss Drammen operated bus services in the counties of [Buskerud](/wiki/Buskerud "Buskerud") and [Telemark](/wiki/Telemark "Telemark"), including the city buses in [Drammen](/wiki/Drammen "Drammen"). [Nettbuss Telemark](/wiki/Nettbuss_Telemark "Nettbuss Telemark") was merged into Nettbuss Drammen in 2005\. The company had its headquarters in Drammen. In 2013, it was merged into Nettbuss Sør AS.
#### Nettbuss Midt\-Norge
Nettbuss Midt\-Norge AS, formerly Nettbuss Trøndelag AS, was the result of the acquisition of [Fjerdingen Busstrafikk](/wiki/Fjerdingen_Busstrafikk "Fjerdingen Busstrafikk"), serving [Stjørdal](/wiki/Stj%C3%B8rdal "Stjørdal") and [Meråker](/wiki/Mer%C3%A5ker "Meråker") as well as [Hemne og Orkladal Billag](/wiki/Hemne_og_Orkladal_Billag "Hemne og Orkladal Billag"), serving large parts of [Sør\-Trøndelag](/wiki/S%C3%B8r-Tr%C3%B8ndelag "Sør-Trøndelag"). The company was headquartered in [Trondheim](/wiki/Trondheim "Trondheim"). On 1 January 2016, it was merged into the parent company.
#### Nettbuss Møre
Nettbuss Møre was the result of numerous mergers in [Møre og Romsdal](/wiki/M%C3%B8re_og_Romsdal "Møre og Romsdal"), the latest between Nettbuss Møre and [Nettbuss Ålesund](/wiki/Nettbuss_%C3%85lesund "Nettbuss Ålesund"). The company operated a number of routes in the county, including the city buses in [Kristiansund](/wiki/Kristiansund "Kristiansund"), [Molde](/wiki/Molde "Molde") and [Ålesund](/wiki/%C3%85lesund "Ålesund") and two intercity coach routes to Oslo. The company was headquartered in Ålesund. In 2013, it was merged into Nettbuss Midt\-Norge AS.
#### Nettbuss Stadsbussarna
Nettbuss Stadsbussarna, formerly Stadsbussarna Sverige, operates the city buses in [Östersund](/wiki/%C3%96stersund "Östersund"), [Gävle](/wiki/G%C3%A4vle "Gävle"), [Hässleholm](/wiki/H%C3%A4ssleholm "Hässleholm") och [Lund](/wiki/Lund "Lund").[Nettbuss](http://www.nettbuss.se/) Sweden {{in lang\|sv}}
#### Nettbuss Sør
[thumb\|350px\|A [Mercedes\-Benz Citaro](/wiki/Mercedes-Benz_Citaro "Mercedes-Benz Citaro") in Nettbuss Sør livery in [Kristiansand](/wiki/Kristiansand "Kristiansand") (2014\)](/wiki/File:Nettbuss_S%C3%B8r_Kristiansand.JPG "Nettbuss Sør Kristiansand.JPG")
Nettbuss Sør operated local and intercity buses in [Buskerud](/wiki/Buskerud "Buskerud"), [Telemark](/wiki/Telemark "Telemark"), [Vest\-Agder](/wiki/Vest-Agder "Vest-Agder") (from January 2011 also local buses in [Kristiansand](/wiki/Kristiansand "Kristiansand")) and [Rogaland](/wiki/Rogaland "Rogaland"). The company had its headquarters in [Arendal](/wiki/Arendal "Arendal") until 2013, when it was moved to [Drammen](/wiki/Drammen "Drammen"). On 1 January 2016, it was merged into the parent company.
#### Nettbuss Travel
Nettbuss Travel operates several of their intercity coach lines in Norway, Nettbuss express and TIMEkspressen lines. Prior to 1 January 2016, the company was known as Nettbuss Ekspress AS. The company was initially founded in cooperation with [Fjord1](/wiki/Fjord1 "Fjord1"). Another company named Nettbuss Travel AS was merged into the company in the spring of 2015\.
#### Nettbuss Trondheim (Team Trafikk)
[Team Trafikk](/wiki/Team_Trafikk "Team Trafikk") was created by a merger between the [municipal](/wiki/Municipalities_of_Norway "Municipalities of Norway") [Trondheim Trafikkselskap](/wiki/Trondheim_Trafikkselskap "Trondheim Trafikkselskap") and private [Hemne og Orkladal Billag](/wiki/Hemne_og_Orkladal_Billag "Hemne og Orkladal Billag"). It was then acquired by Nettbuss and the city bus in [Trondheim](/wiki/Trondheim "Trondheim") and [Klæbu](/wiki/Kl%C3%A6bu "Klæbu") kept the name Team Trafikk while the rest of the operations were moved to Nettbuss Møre and Nettbuss Trøndelag. The company also owns the subsidiary Team Verkstedsenter that operates three commercial heavy duty workshops. Headquarters lay in Trondheim. On 1 January 2011, the company changed its name to Nettbuss Trondheim, and was merged into Nettbuss Trøndelag later the same year.
#### Nettbuss Øst
Nettbuss Øst, formerly Nettbuss Lillestrøm, operated local and intercity buses within the counties of [Akershus](/wiki/Akershus "Akershus"), [Hedmark](/wiki/Hedmark "Hedmark"), [Oslo](/wiki/Oslo "Oslo") and [Østfold](/wiki/%C3%98stfold "Østfold"). On 1 January 2016, it was merged into the parent company.
#### Nettbuss Østfold
Nettbuss Østfold operated local and intercity buses in [Østfold](/wiki/%C3%98stfold "Østfold") and was headquartered in [Sarpsborg](/wiki/Sarpsborg "Sarpsborg"). It was merged into Nettbuss Øst in 2013\.
|
[
"Operations\n----------",
"Vy Buss has several fully owned and some partially owned subsidiaries.[About Nettbuss](http://www.nettbuss.no/om-nettbuss) www.nettbuss.no",
"### Nordlandsbuss",
"[Nordlandsbuss](/wiki/Nordlandsbuss \"Nordlandsbuss\") is owned 34% by Vy Buss and 66% by [Saltens Bilruter](/wiki/Saltens_Bilruter \"Saltens Bilruter\") and was the result of a merger between Nettbuss Helgeland AS and Saltens Bilruter's bus division. The company operates local and express bus routes in [Nordland](/wiki/Nordland \"Nordland\") county and has its offices in [Bodø](/wiki/Bod%C3%B8 \"Bodø\").",
"### Vy Buss",
"Previously [Orusttrafiken](/wiki/Orusttrafiken \"Orusttrafiken\"), and is one of Vy Buss' [Swedish](/wiki/Sweden \"Sweden\") subsidiaries. Formerly headquartered in [Stenungsund](/wiki/Stenungsund \"Stenungsund\"), now [Gothenburg](/wiki/Gothenburg \"Gothenburg\"), the company operates primarily in Southwestern Sweden.",
"### Vy Travel",
"Vy Travel is another of Vy Buss' Swedish subsidiaries. It operates the Swedish part of the two intercity coach brands [Bus4You](/wiki/Bus4You \"Bus4You\") and [Nettbuss express](/wiki/Nettbuss_express \"Nettbuss express\"). Routes between cities like [Oslo](/wiki/Oslo \"Oslo\") to [Copenhagen](/wiki/Copenhagen \"Copenhagen\") and [Stockholm](/wiki/Stockholm \"Stockholm\"), and [Stockholm](/wiki/Stockholm \"Stockholm\") to [Gothenburg](/wiki/Gothenburg \"Gothenburg\"). Formerly headquartered in [Borås](/wiki/Bor%C3%A5s \"Borås\"), now [Gothenburg](/wiki/Gothenburg \"Gothenburg\").",
"### Former operations",
"#### BorgBuss",
"Initially 50% of [BorgBuss](/wiki/BorgBuss \"BorgBuss\") was owned by Nettbuss while the rest was owned by [Fredrikstad](/wiki/Fredrikstad \"Fredrikstad\") and [Hvaler](/wiki/Hvaler \"Hvaler\") municipalities. The company operated local buses in [Østfold](/wiki/%C3%98stfold \"Østfold\"). Later Nettbuss obtained a 100% share and bus operations were merged into Nettbuss Øst on 1 July 2013\\.",
"#### Nettbuss Danmark",
"Nettbuss Danmark was Nettbuss' subsidiary in Danish market. In 2006, Nettbuss acquired [Partner Bus AS](/wiki/Partner_Bus \"Partner Bus\") and has merged it into Netbus Denmark. The headquarters were located in [Copenhagen](/wiki/Copenhagen \"Copenhagen\").[Nettbuss Denmark](http://nettbuss.dk/) {{in lang\\|da}} In 2014, the operations merged with [Keolis](/wiki/Keolis \"Keolis\")' Danish subsidiary via a joint venture, where Nettbuss owns 25%.",
"#### Nettbuss Drammen",
"Nettbuss Drammen operated bus services in the counties of [Buskerud](/wiki/Buskerud \"Buskerud\") and [Telemark](/wiki/Telemark \"Telemark\"), including the city buses in [Drammen](/wiki/Drammen \"Drammen\"). [Nettbuss Telemark](/wiki/Nettbuss_Telemark \"Nettbuss Telemark\") was merged into Nettbuss Drammen in 2005\\. The company had its headquarters in Drammen. In 2013, it was merged into Nettbuss Sør AS.",
"#### Nettbuss Midt\\-Norge",
"Nettbuss Midt\\-Norge AS, formerly Nettbuss Trøndelag AS, was the result of the acquisition of [Fjerdingen Busstrafikk](/wiki/Fjerdingen_Busstrafikk \"Fjerdingen Busstrafikk\"), serving [Stjørdal](/wiki/Stj%C3%B8rdal \"Stjørdal\") and [Meråker](/wiki/Mer%C3%A5ker \"Meråker\") as well as [Hemne og Orkladal Billag](/wiki/Hemne_og_Orkladal_Billag \"Hemne og Orkladal Billag\"), serving large parts of [Sør\\-Trøndelag](/wiki/S%C3%B8r-Tr%C3%B8ndelag \"Sør-Trøndelag\"). The company was headquartered in [Trondheim](/wiki/Trondheim \"Trondheim\"). On 1 January 2016, it was merged into the parent company.",
"#### Nettbuss Møre",
"Nettbuss Møre was the result of numerous mergers in [Møre og Romsdal](/wiki/M%C3%B8re_og_Romsdal \"Møre og Romsdal\"), the latest between Nettbuss Møre and [Nettbuss Ålesund](/wiki/Nettbuss_%C3%85lesund \"Nettbuss Ålesund\"). The company operated a number of routes in the county, including the city buses in [Kristiansund](/wiki/Kristiansund \"Kristiansund\"), [Molde](/wiki/Molde \"Molde\") and [Ålesund](/wiki/%C3%85lesund \"Ålesund\") and two intercity coach routes to Oslo. The company was headquartered in Ålesund. In 2013, it was merged into Nettbuss Midt\\-Norge AS.",
"#### Nettbuss Stadsbussarna",
"Nettbuss Stadsbussarna, formerly Stadsbussarna Sverige, operates the city buses in [Östersund](/wiki/%C3%96stersund \"Östersund\"), [Gävle](/wiki/G%C3%A4vle \"Gävle\"), [Hässleholm](/wiki/H%C3%A4ssleholm \"Hässleholm\") och [Lund](/wiki/Lund \"Lund\").[Nettbuss](http://www.nettbuss.se/) Sweden {{in lang\\|sv}}",
"#### Nettbuss Sør",
"[thumb\\|350px\\|A [Mercedes\\-Benz Citaro](/wiki/Mercedes-Benz_Citaro \"Mercedes-Benz Citaro\") in Nettbuss Sør livery in [Kristiansand](/wiki/Kristiansand \"Kristiansand\") (2014\\)](/wiki/File:Nettbuss_S%C3%B8r_Kristiansand.JPG \"Nettbuss Sør Kristiansand.JPG\")\nNettbuss Sør operated local and intercity buses in [Buskerud](/wiki/Buskerud \"Buskerud\"), [Telemark](/wiki/Telemark \"Telemark\"), [Vest\\-Agder](/wiki/Vest-Agder \"Vest-Agder\") (from January 2011 also local buses in [Kristiansand](/wiki/Kristiansand \"Kristiansand\")) and [Rogaland](/wiki/Rogaland \"Rogaland\"). The company had its headquarters in [Arendal](/wiki/Arendal \"Arendal\") until 2013, when it was moved to [Drammen](/wiki/Drammen \"Drammen\"). On 1 January 2016, it was merged into the parent company.",
"#### Nettbuss Travel",
"Nettbuss Travel operates several of their intercity coach lines in Norway, Nettbuss express and TIMEkspressen lines. Prior to 1 January 2016, the company was known as Nettbuss Ekspress AS. The company was initially founded in cooperation with [Fjord1](/wiki/Fjord1 \"Fjord1\"). Another company named Nettbuss Travel AS was merged into the company in the spring of 2015\\.",
"#### Nettbuss Trondheim (Team Trafikk)",
"[Team Trafikk](/wiki/Team_Trafikk \"Team Trafikk\") was created by a merger between the [municipal](/wiki/Municipalities_of_Norway \"Municipalities of Norway\") [Trondheim Trafikkselskap](/wiki/Trondheim_Trafikkselskap \"Trondheim Trafikkselskap\") and private [Hemne og Orkladal Billag](/wiki/Hemne_og_Orkladal_Billag \"Hemne og Orkladal Billag\"). It was then acquired by Nettbuss and the city bus in [Trondheim](/wiki/Trondheim \"Trondheim\") and [Klæbu](/wiki/Kl%C3%A6bu \"Klæbu\") kept the name Team Trafikk while the rest of the operations were moved to Nettbuss Møre and Nettbuss Trøndelag. The company also owns the subsidiary Team Verkstedsenter that operates three commercial heavy duty workshops. Headquarters lay in Trondheim. On 1 January 2011, the company changed its name to Nettbuss Trondheim, and was merged into Nettbuss Trøndelag later the same year.",
"#### Nettbuss Øst",
"Nettbuss Øst, formerly Nettbuss Lillestrøm, operated local and intercity buses within the counties of [Akershus](/wiki/Akershus \"Akershus\"), [Hedmark](/wiki/Hedmark \"Hedmark\"), [Oslo](/wiki/Oslo \"Oslo\") and [Østfold](/wiki/%C3%98stfold \"Østfold\"). On 1 January 2016, it was merged into the parent company.",
"#### Nettbuss Østfold",
"Nettbuss Østfold operated local and intercity buses in [Østfold](/wiki/%C3%98stfold \"Østfold\") and was headquartered in [Sarpsborg](/wiki/Sarpsborg \"Sarpsborg\"). It was merged into Nettbuss Øst in 2013\\.",
""
] |
### Former operations
#### BorgBuss
Initially 50% of [BorgBuss](/wiki/BorgBuss "BorgBuss") was owned by Nettbuss while the rest was owned by [Fredrikstad](/wiki/Fredrikstad "Fredrikstad") and [Hvaler](/wiki/Hvaler "Hvaler") municipalities. The company operated local buses in [Østfold](/wiki/%C3%98stfold "Østfold"). Later Nettbuss obtained a 100% share and bus operations were merged into Nettbuss Øst on 1 July 2013\.
#### Nettbuss Danmark
Nettbuss Danmark was Nettbuss' subsidiary in Danish market. In 2006, Nettbuss acquired [Partner Bus AS](/wiki/Partner_Bus "Partner Bus") and has merged it into Netbus Denmark. The headquarters were located in [Copenhagen](/wiki/Copenhagen "Copenhagen").[Nettbuss Denmark](http://nettbuss.dk/) {{in lang\|da}} In 2014, the operations merged with [Keolis](/wiki/Keolis "Keolis")' Danish subsidiary via a joint venture, where Nettbuss owns 25%.
#### Nettbuss Drammen
Nettbuss Drammen operated bus services in the counties of [Buskerud](/wiki/Buskerud "Buskerud") and [Telemark](/wiki/Telemark "Telemark"), including the city buses in [Drammen](/wiki/Drammen "Drammen"). [Nettbuss Telemark](/wiki/Nettbuss_Telemark "Nettbuss Telemark") was merged into Nettbuss Drammen in 2005\. The company had its headquarters in Drammen. In 2013, it was merged into Nettbuss Sør AS.
#### Nettbuss Midt\-Norge
Nettbuss Midt\-Norge AS, formerly Nettbuss Trøndelag AS, was the result of the acquisition of [Fjerdingen Busstrafikk](/wiki/Fjerdingen_Busstrafikk "Fjerdingen Busstrafikk"), serving [Stjørdal](/wiki/Stj%C3%B8rdal "Stjørdal") and [Meråker](/wiki/Mer%C3%A5ker "Meråker") as well as [Hemne og Orkladal Billag](/wiki/Hemne_og_Orkladal_Billag "Hemne og Orkladal Billag"), serving large parts of [Sør\-Trøndelag](/wiki/S%C3%B8r-Tr%C3%B8ndelag "Sør-Trøndelag"). The company was headquartered in [Trondheim](/wiki/Trondheim "Trondheim"). On 1 January 2016, it was merged into the parent company.
#### Nettbuss Møre
Nettbuss Møre was the result of numerous mergers in [Møre og Romsdal](/wiki/M%C3%B8re_og_Romsdal "Møre og Romsdal"), the latest between Nettbuss Møre and [Nettbuss Ålesund](/wiki/Nettbuss_%C3%85lesund "Nettbuss Ålesund"). The company operated a number of routes in the county, including the city buses in [Kristiansund](/wiki/Kristiansund "Kristiansund"), [Molde](/wiki/Molde "Molde") and [Ålesund](/wiki/%C3%85lesund "Ålesund") and two intercity coach routes to Oslo. The company was headquartered in Ålesund. In 2013, it was merged into Nettbuss Midt\-Norge AS.
#### Nettbuss Stadsbussarna
Nettbuss Stadsbussarna, formerly Stadsbussarna Sverige, operates the city buses in [Östersund](/wiki/%C3%96stersund "Östersund"), [Gävle](/wiki/G%C3%A4vle "Gävle"), [Hässleholm](/wiki/H%C3%A4ssleholm "Hässleholm") och [Lund](/wiki/Lund "Lund").[Nettbuss](http://www.nettbuss.se/) Sweden {{in lang\|sv}}
#### Nettbuss Sør
[thumb\|350px\|A [Mercedes\-Benz Citaro](/wiki/Mercedes-Benz_Citaro "Mercedes-Benz Citaro") in Nettbuss Sør livery in [Kristiansand](/wiki/Kristiansand "Kristiansand") (2014\)](/wiki/File:Nettbuss_S%C3%B8r_Kristiansand.JPG "Nettbuss Sør Kristiansand.JPG")
Nettbuss Sør operated local and intercity buses in [Buskerud](/wiki/Buskerud "Buskerud"), [Telemark](/wiki/Telemark "Telemark"), [Vest\-Agder](/wiki/Vest-Agder "Vest-Agder") (from January 2011 also local buses in [Kristiansand](/wiki/Kristiansand "Kristiansand")) and [Rogaland](/wiki/Rogaland "Rogaland"). The company had its headquarters in [Arendal](/wiki/Arendal "Arendal") until 2013, when it was moved to [Drammen](/wiki/Drammen "Drammen"). On 1 January 2016, it was merged into the parent company.
#### Nettbuss Travel
Nettbuss Travel operates several of their intercity coach lines in Norway, Nettbuss express and TIMEkspressen lines. Prior to 1 January 2016, the company was known as Nettbuss Ekspress AS. The company was initially founded in cooperation with [Fjord1](/wiki/Fjord1 "Fjord1"). Another company named Nettbuss Travel AS was merged into the company in the spring of 2015\.
#### Nettbuss Trondheim (Team Trafikk)
[Team Trafikk](/wiki/Team_Trafikk "Team Trafikk") was created by a merger between the [municipal](/wiki/Municipalities_of_Norway "Municipalities of Norway") [Trondheim Trafikkselskap](/wiki/Trondheim_Trafikkselskap "Trondheim Trafikkselskap") and private [Hemne og Orkladal Billag](/wiki/Hemne_og_Orkladal_Billag "Hemne og Orkladal Billag"). It was then acquired by Nettbuss and the city bus in [Trondheim](/wiki/Trondheim "Trondheim") and [Klæbu](/wiki/Kl%C3%A6bu "Klæbu") kept the name Team Trafikk while the rest of the operations were moved to Nettbuss Møre and Nettbuss Trøndelag. The company also owns the subsidiary Team Verkstedsenter that operates three commercial heavy duty workshops. Headquarters lay in Trondheim. On 1 January 2011, the company changed its name to Nettbuss Trondheim, and was merged into Nettbuss Trøndelag later the same year.
#### Nettbuss Øst
Nettbuss Øst, formerly Nettbuss Lillestrøm, operated local and intercity buses within the counties of [Akershus](/wiki/Akershus "Akershus"), [Hedmark](/wiki/Hedmark "Hedmark"), [Oslo](/wiki/Oslo "Oslo") and [Østfold](/wiki/%C3%98stfold "Østfold"). On 1 January 2016, it was merged into the parent company.
#### Nettbuss Østfold
Nettbuss Østfold operated local and intercity buses in [Østfold](/wiki/%C3%98stfold "Østfold") and was headquartered in [Sarpsborg](/wiki/Sarpsborg "Sarpsborg"). It was merged into Nettbuss Øst in 2013\.
|
[
"### Former operations",
"#### BorgBuss",
"Initially 50% of [BorgBuss](/wiki/BorgBuss \"BorgBuss\") was owned by Nettbuss while the rest was owned by [Fredrikstad](/wiki/Fredrikstad \"Fredrikstad\") and [Hvaler](/wiki/Hvaler \"Hvaler\") municipalities. The company operated local buses in [Østfold](/wiki/%C3%98stfold \"Østfold\"). Later Nettbuss obtained a 100% share and bus operations were merged into Nettbuss Øst on 1 July 2013\\.",
"#### Nettbuss Danmark",
"Nettbuss Danmark was Nettbuss' subsidiary in Danish market. In 2006, Nettbuss acquired [Partner Bus AS](/wiki/Partner_Bus \"Partner Bus\") and has merged it into Netbus Denmark. The headquarters were located in [Copenhagen](/wiki/Copenhagen \"Copenhagen\").[Nettbuss Denmark](http://nettbuss.dk/) {{in lang\\|da}} In 2014, the operations merged with [Keolis](/wiki/Keolis \"Keolis\")' Danish subsidiary via a joint venture, where Nettbuss owns 25%.",
"#### Nettbuss Drammen",
"Nettbuss Drammen operated bus services in the counties of [Buskerud](/wiki/Buskerud \"Buskerud\") and [Telemark](/wiki/Telemark \"Telemark\"), including the city buses in [Drammen](/wiki/Drammen \"Drammen\"). [Nettbuss Telemark](/wiki/Nettbuss_Telemark \"Nettbuss Telemark\") was merged into Nettbuss Drammen in 2005\\. The company had its headquarters in Drammen. In 2013, it was merged into Nettbuss Sør AS.",
"#### Nettbuss Midt\\-Norge",
"Nettbuss Midt\\-Norge AS, formerly Nettbuss Trøndelag AS, was the result of the acquisition of [Fjerdingen Busstrafikk](/wiki/Fjerdingen_Busstrafikk \"Fjerdingen Busstrafikk\"), serving [Stjørdal](/wiki/Stj%C3%B8rdal \"Stjørdal\") and [Meråker](/wiki/Mer%C3%A5ker \"Meråker\") as well as [Hemne og Orkladal Billag](/wiki/Hemne_og_Orkladal_Billag \"Hemne og Orkladal Billag\"), serving large parts of [Sør\\-Trøndelag](/wiki/S%C3%B8r-Tr%C3%B8ndelag \"Sør-Trøndelag\"). The company was headquartered in [Trondheim](/wiki/Trondheim \"Trondheim\"). On 1 January 2016, it was merged into the parent company.",
"#### Nettbuss Møre",
"Nettbuss Møre was the result of numerous mergers in [Møre og Romsdal](/wiki/M%C3%B8re_og_Romsdal \"Møre og Romsdal\"), the latest between Nettbuss Møre and [Nettbuss Ålesund](/wiki/Nettbuss_%C3%85lesund \"Nettbuss Ålesund\"). The company operated a number of routes in the county, including the city buses in [Kristiansund](/wiki/Kristiansund \"Kristiansund\"), [Molde](/wiki/Molde \"Molde\") and [Ålesund](/wiki/%C3%85lesund \"Ålesund\") and two intercity coach routes to Oslo. The company was headquartered in Ålesund. In 2013, it was merged into Nettbuss Midt\\-Norge AS.",
"#### Nettbuss Stadsbussarna",
"Nettbuss Stadsbussarna, formerly Stadsbussarna Sverige, operates the city buses in [Östersund](/wiki/%C3%96stersund \"Östersund\"), [Gävle](/wiki/G%C3%A4vle \"Gävle\"), [Hässleholm](/wiki/H%C3%A4ssleholm \"Hässleholm\") och [Lund](/wiki/Lund \"Lund\").[Nettbuss](http://www.nettbuss.se/) Sweden {{in lang\\|sv}}",
"#### Nettbuss Sør",
"[thumb\\|350px\\|A [Mercedes\\-Benz Citaro](/wiki/Mercedes-Benz_Citaro \"Mercedes-Benz Citaro\") in Nettbuss Sør livery in [Kristiansand](/wiki/Kristiansand \"Kristiansand\") (2014\\)](/wiki/File:Nettbuss_S%C3%B8r_Kristiansand.JPG \"Nettbuss Sør Kristiansand.JPG\")\nNettbuss Sør operated local and intercity buses in [Buskerud](/wiki/Buskerud \"Buskerud\"), [Telemark](/wiki/Telemark \"Telemark\"), [Vest\\-Agder](/wiki/Vest-Agder \"Vest-Agder\") (from January 2011 also local buses in [Kristiansand](/wiki/Kristiansand \"Kristiansand\")) and [Rogaland](/wiki/Rogaland \"Rogaland\"). The company had its headquarters in [Arendal](/wiki/Arendal \"Arendal\") until 2013, when it was moved to [Drammen](/wiki/Drammen \"Drammen\"). On 1 January 2016, it was merged into the parent company.",
"#### Nettbuss Travel",
"Nettbuss Travel operates several of their intercity coach lines in Norway, Nettbuss express and TIMEkspressen lines. Prior to 1 January 2016, the company was known as Nettbuss Ekspress AS. The company was initially founded in cooperation with [Fjord1](/wiki/Fjord1 \"Fjord1\"). Another company named Nettbuss Travel AS was merged into the company in the spring of 2015\\.",
"#### Nettbuss Trondheim (Team Trafikk)",
"[Team Trafikk](/wiki/Team_Trafikk \"Team Trafikk\") was created by a merger between the [municipal](/wiki/Municipalities_of_Norway \"Municipalities of Norway\") [Trondheim Trafikkselskap](/wiki/Trondheim_Trafikkselskap \"Trondheim Trafikkselskap\") and private [Hemne og Orkladal Billag](/wiki/Hemne_og_Orkladal_Billag \"Hemne og Orkladal Billag\"). It was then acquired by Nettbuss and the city bus in [Trondheim](/wiki/Trondheim \"Trondheim\") and [Klæbu](/wiki/Kl%C3%A6bu \"Klæbu\") kept the name Team Trafikk while the rest of the operations were moved to Nettbuss Møre and Nettbuss Trøndelag. The company also owns the subsidiary Team Verkstedsenter that operates three commercial heavy duty workshops. Headquarters lay in Trondheim. On 1 January 2011, the company changed its name to Nettbuss Trondheim, and was merged into Nettbuss Trøndelag later the same year.",
"#### Nettbuss Øst",
"Nettbuss Øst, formerly Nettbuss Lillestrøm, operated local and intercity buses within the counties of [Akershus](/wiki/Akershus \"Akershus\"), [Hedmark](/wiki/Hedmark \"Hedmark\"), [Oslo](/wiki/Oslo \"Oslo\") and [Østfold](/wiki/%C3%98stfold \"Østfold\"). On 1 January 2016, it was merged into the parent company.",
"#### Nettbuss Østfold",
"Nettbuss Østfold operated local and intercity buses in [Østfold](/wiki/%C3%98stfold \"Østfold\") and was headquartered in [Sarpsborg](/wiki/Sarpsborg \"Sarpsborg\"). It was merged into Nettbuss Øst in 2013\\.",
""
] |
The rivalry
-----------
### Origins
The two teams first met on May 12, 1996; when the New York Red Bulls were branded as the New York/New Jersey MetroStars. The game was played at RFK Stadium in front of a crowd of 14,722, and ended 1–1 in regulation time. In regulation time, United's [John Harkes](/wiki/John_Harkes "John Harkes") scored United's first ever goal against the MetroStars off an assist from [Tony Sanneh](/wiki/Tony_Sanneh "Tony Sanneh") in the 11th minute. The MetroStars' [Giovanni Savarese](/wiki/Giovanni_Savarese "Giovanni Savarese") drew the match level in the 62nd minute. At the time, if Major League Soccer ended drawn at the end of regulation time, it entered the 35\-yard [shootout](/wiki/Penalty_shoot-out_%28association_football%29 "Penalty shoot-out (association football)"). In the shootout, the MetroStars won the first match of the series 2–1\.
During the [inaugural regular season](/wiki/1996_Major_League_Soccer_season "1996 Major League Soccer season"), the two sides would meet each other three more times, with the two sides sharing spoils. The 1996 season ended gridlocked with each club winning two matches apiece, winning one match in their home stadium, and another on the road. However, on aggregate goals, United outscored the MetroStars 6–4\. The two sides met again in the Conference Semifinals 1996 MLS Cup Playoffs, where United defeated the MetroStars 2–1 in a best\-of\-three series. The first game of the post\-season series, played on September 24, 1996, ended in the MetroStars' favor, as NY/NJ posted a victory in the shootout following a 2–2 tie after regulation. Three days later, United earned a 1–0 regulation victory at home, tying the series at 1–1, before culminating the series with a 2–1 victory, thanks to an 89th\-minute penalty kick from [Raul Diaz Arce](/wiki/Raul_Diaz_Arce "Raul Diaz Arce"). In the 1996 MLS Cup Playoffs, United would eventually go on to win the [inaugural MLS Cup](/wiki/MLS_Cup_%2796 "MLS Cup '96"), defeating the [Los Angeles Galaxy](/wiki/Los_Angeles_Galaxy "Los Angeles Galaxy"), 3–2\.
By next year, the two franchises took opposite routes in MLS' sophomore campaign, with D.C. United eventually going on to win their [second MLS Cup](/wiki/MLS_Cup_%2797 "MLS Cup '97") championship, while the NY/NJ MetroStars failed to qualify for the 1997 MLS Cup Playoffs altogether. Despite the poorer form from the MetroStars, the club won the regular season series against United, through the virtue of more aggregate goals.{{cite web\|title\=1997 Regular Season Schedule\|url\=http://www.dcunited.com/schedule/reg/1997/all\|publisher\=DCUnited.com\|access\-date\=January 10, 2012}} The two sides faced off four times during the season, with United winning the first two outings, while the MetroStars won the final two meetings. In the final regular season matchup, held on September 27, 1997; United lost at home by a 3–1 scoreline against the MetroStars, ultimately failing to win the series.
### Arrival of the formal cup
At the start of the [2002 Major League Soccer season](/wiki/2002_Major_League_Soccer_season "2002 Major League Soccer season"), a formal trophy was incarnated by the administrators of D.C. United and the MetroStars, which was titled the "Atlantic Cup". In the 2002 series, United earned the trophy, winning two of the three regular season outings against the MetroStars. Despite the success, neither team qualified for the 2002 MLS Cup Playoffs, being the only two teams in the league not to qualify that season.
During the [2003 Lamar Hunt U.S. Open Cup](/wiki/2003_Lamar_Hunt_U.S._Open_Cup "2003 Lamar Hunt U.S. Open Cup"), the MetroStars and United both enjoyed successful Open Cup campaigns, meeting each other in the semifinal round of the Open Cup, marking the first time the two rivals met in the domestic tournament. In the quarterfinals, the MetroStars enjoyed a [golden goal](/wiki/Golden_goal "Golden goal") victory from an [Amado Guevara](/wiki/Amado_Guevara "Amado Guevara") goal in the 116th minute, defeating fellow MLS side, the [New England Revolution](/wiki/New_England_Revolution "New England Revolution"), in the process. United faced [USISL Pro League](/wiki/USL_Second_Division "USL Second Division") side (third division), [Wilmington Hammerheads](/wiki/Wilmington_Hammerheads "Wilmington Hammerheads"). The match, played in [Wilmington, North Carolina](/wiki/Wilmington%2C_North_Carolina "Wilmington, North Carolina"), saw United emerge victorious 1–0 off a [Ronald Cerritos](/wiki/Ronald_Cerritos "Ronald Cerritos") goal in the 30th minute.
The October 1, 2003 Open Cup semifinal affair was hosted by the MetroStars and played on at [Yurcak Field](/wiki/Yurcak_Field "Yurcak Field") in [Piscataway, New Jersey](/wiki/Piscataway%2C_New_Jersey "Piscataway, New Jersey"), marking the first time in Atlantic Cup history the two sides met at Yurcak.{{cite web\|last\=Plenderleith\|first\=Ian\|title\=DC v Metrostars Part 3: Open Cup Semi\-Final Preview\|url\=http://www.dcunited.com/index.cfm?section\=main\&cont\_id\=206101\|publisher\=DCUnited.com\|access\-date\=January 11, 2012\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20031022223852/http://dcunited.com/index.cfm?section\=main\&cont\_id\=206982\|archive\-date\=October 22, 2003\|date\=September 24, 2003}} In the outing, United got the go\-ahead goal in the 18th minute of play off a strike from [Galin Ivanov](/wiki/Galin_Ivanov_%28footballer_born_1975%29 "Galin Ivanov (footballer born 1975)"). Honduran international, [Amado Guevara](/wiki/Amado_Guevara "Amado Guevara"), netted two unanswered goals for the MetroStars in the 20th and 43rd minutes of play, giving the MetroStars a 2–1 lead going into the break. With less than 15 minutes remaining in regulation, United's Cerritos netted the equalizer, only before longtime MetroStars striker, [John Wolyniec](/wiki/John_Wolyniec "John Wolyniec") netted the match\-winner, sending the MetroStars to their first ever championship of a major tournament.In American soccer, a "major tournament" or "major honor" usually pertains to either the [MLS Cup](/wiki/MLS_Cup "MLS Cup"), [Supporters' Shield](/wiki/Supporters%27_Shield "Supporters' Shield"), [U.S. Open Cup](/wiki/Lamar_Hunt_U.S._Open_Cup "Lamar Hunt U.S. Open Cup") or [CONCACAF Champions League](/wiki/CONCACAF_Champions_League "CONCACAF Champions League").
### Early club connections
In addition, early in the history of the league, there were personality clashes between members of the two teams. For example, MetroStars players [Tony Meola](/wiki/Tony_Meola "Tony Meola") and [Tab Ramos](/wiki/Tab_Ramos "Tab Ramos") were long time acquaintances of D.C. United's captain [John Harkes](/wiki/John_Harkes "John Harkes"). All three players were natives of New Jersey and had played together and against each other most of their lives. DC fans especially singled out Meola (who was briefly an actor and who had tried out to be the placekicker for the New York Jets) for scorn. In response, MetroStars supporters tended to reserve most of their scorn for [Richie Williams](/wiki/Richie_Williams "Richie Williams"). Ironically, former D.C. assistant coach [Bob Bradley](/wiki/Bob_Bradley "Bob Bradley") would coach the [MetroStars](/wiki/MetroStars "MetroStars"), and the [Red Bulls](/wiki/New_York_Red_Bulls "New York Red Bulls") coaching staff was also headed by former D.C. coach [Bruce Arena](/wiki/Bruce_Arena "Bruce Arena") until the end of the 2007 season, assisted by Harkes and Williams.
### Red Bull controversy
The rivalry became even greater when the two met at [Giants Stadium](/wiki/Giants_Stadium "Giants Stadium") on April 22, 2006 as [Alecko Eskandarian](/wiki/Alecko_Eskandarian "Alecko Eskandarian") scored the first goal of a 4–1 D.C. United victory. After the goal he took a sip of [Red Bull](/wiki/Red_Bull "Red Bull") energy drink and then spit it on the ground as an intentional slight on the recently renamed New York Red Bulls. MLS fined Eskandarian $250 for his actions.{{citation needed\|date\=October 2019}}
### Recent years
[thumb\|right\|[Thierry Henry](/wiki/Thierry_Henry "Thierry Henry") was one of several high\-profile acquisitions by New York in 2010\.](/wiki/File:Thierry_Henry_control_New_York_Red_Bulls_2010.jpg "Thierry Henry control New York Red Bulls 2010.jpg")
Throughout the 2010 season, [D.C. United](/wiki/D.C._United "D.C. United") hit an all\-time nadir record wise, whereas the New York Red Bulls were making several high\-profile acquisitions, causing some to believe that New York was becoming the more dominant Atlantic Cup team. On May 1, 2010; while United had lost their first four regular season matches, New York had won their first four matches. Attaining opposite records of 4–0–0 and 0–0–4, respectively, New York earned a 2–0 road win at [RFK Stadium](/wiki/RFK_Stadium "RFK Stadium"). The win was New York's first road win against D.C. since October 8, 2005 and their first win against United since 2008, as well as their first shutout against United since 2006\. Subsequently, United drew 0–0 against New York in their first meeting in [Red Bull Arena](/wiki/Red_Bull_Arena_%28New_Jersey%29 "Red Bull Arena (New Jersey)") allowing the Red Bulls to win the Atlantic Cup derby for the first time since 2003, ending a six\-year stretch of titles won by D.C.
The rivalry intensified, mainly between United and Red Bulls supporters in April 2011, when New York visited D.C. At the time, New York had been on a two\-game winning streak, and held by far the best Eastern Conference record. United, rebuilding from the prior year were much lower in the standings. Goals from [Thierry Henry](/wiki/Thierry_Henry "Thierry Henry"), [Joel Lindpere](/wiki/Joel_Lindpere "Joel Lindpere") and [Juan Agudelo](/wiki/Juan_Agudelo "Juan Agudelo") lead the Red Bulls to a commanding 4–0 victory over United, making it the worst loss United suffered at home since the [2005 MLS Cup Playoffs](/wiki/2005_Major_League_Soccer_season%23Conference_Semifinals "2005 Major League Soccer season#Conference Semifinals"), and their worst loss ever to New York. However, in the return match, United earned a 1–0 away victory at Red Bull Arena, giving them some consolation over New York, but ultimately failing to win the Atlantic Cup for the second straight year. In spite of winning the Atlantic Cup for two\-straight years, making it New York's first time since 2003, players expressed disinterest in the honor.{{citation needed\|date\=April 2012}}
On June 24, 2012, the two sides clashed again in the second of three legs of the series. The match ended in New York's advantage, earning a 3–2 victory over D.C. Ex\-United midfielder [Brandon Barklage](/wiki/Brandon_Barklage "Brandon Barklage") netted two of the Red Bulls' three goals. United's [Chris Pontius](/wiki/Chris_Pontius_%28soccer%29 "Chris Pontius (soccer)") scored the fastest goal in franchise history, scoring 29 seconds after kickoff. The announced crowd of 25,187 was the largest in Red Bull Arena history, and the largest crowd to witness the rivalry since 2004\.
On January 18, 2022, the LA Galaxy announced that the Red Bulls and D.C. United will participate in the [Coachella Valley Invitational](/wiki/Coachella_Valley_Invitational "Coachella Valley Invitational").{{cite web \|title\=LA Galaxy to host inaugural Coachella Valley Invitational Feb. 10\-19 at Empire Polo Club \|url\=https://www.lagalaxy.com/news/la\-galaxy\-to\-host\-inaugural\-coachella\-valley\-invitational\-feb\-10\-19\-at\-empire\-po \|website\=LA Galaxy \|access\-date\=21 January 2022 \|date\=18 January 2022}}
On April 21, 2022, the teams were drawn together for the Round of 32 in the U.S. Open Cup. The Red Bulls defeated D.C. United 3\-0 on May 10, 2022 to advance to the Round of 16, with a first half goal in stoppage time by [Luquinhas](/wiki/Luquinhas "Luquinhas"), and second half goals by [John Tolkin](/wiki/John_Tolkin "John Tolkin") and [Zach Ryan](/wiki/Zach_Ryan "Zach Ryan"). After adding up a few more wins, the Red Bulls would eventually fall to [Orlando City SC](/wiki/Orlando_City_SC "Orlando City SC") in the Semifinals.{{cite web \|title\=NY Red Bulls 3, DC United 0 \|url\=https://mlssoccer.com/competitions/u\-s\-open\-cup/2022/matches/dcvsrbny\-05\-10\-2022/ \|website\=mlssoccer.com \|access\-date\=7 August 2022 \|date\=10 May 2022}}
Despite D.C. United taking advantage of the Red Bulls in the 2000s, New York has seized control of the rivalry in the late 2010s, as well as the early 2020s. The Bulls took the past 5 of 6 season series, cutting D.C. United's Atlantic Cup lead to just 14\-13 heading into 2023\.
|
[
"The rivalry\n-----------",
"### Origins",
"The two teams first met on May 12, 1996; when the New York Red Bulls were branded as the New York/New Jersey MetroStars. The game was played at RFK Stadium in front of a crowd of 14,722, and ended 1–1 in regulation time. In regulation time, United's [John Harkes](/wiki/John_Harkes \"John Harkes\") scored United's first ever goal against the MetroStars off an assist from [Tony Sanneh](/wiki/Tony_Sanneh \"Tony Sanneh\") in the 11th minute. The MetroStars' [Giovanni Savarese](/wiki/Giovanni_Savarese \"Giovanni Savarese\") drew the match level in the 62nd minute. At the time, if Major League Soccer ended drawn at the end of regulation time, it entered the 35\\-yard [shootout](/wiki/Penalty_shoot-out_%28association_football%29 \"Penalty shoot-out (association football)\"). In the shootout, the MetroStars won the first match of the series 2–1\\.",
"During the [inaugural regular season](/wiki/1996_Major_League_Soccer_season \"1996 Major League Soccer season\"), the two sides would meet each other three more times, with the two sides sharing spoils. The 1996 season ended gridlocked with each club winning two matches apiece, winning one match in their home stadium, and another on the road. However, on aggregate goals, United outscored the MetroStars 6–4\\. The two sides met again in the Conference Semifinals 1996 MLS Cup Playoffs, where United defeated the MetroStars 2–1 in a best\\-of\\-three series. The first game of the post\\-season series, played on September 24, 1996, ended in the MetroStars' favor, as NY/NJ posted a victory in the shootout following a 2–2 tie after regulation. Three days later, United earned a 1–0 regulation victory at home, tying the series at 1–1, before culminating the series with a 2–1 victory, thanks to an 89th\\-minute penalty kick from [Raul Diaz Arce](/wiki/Raul_Diaz_Arce \"Raul Diaz Arce\"). In the 1996 MLS Cup Playoffs, United would eventually go on to win the [inaugural MLS Cup](/wiki/MLS_Cup_%2796 \"MLS Cup '96\"), defeating the [Los Angeles Galaxy](/wiki/Los_Angeles_Galaxy \"Los Angeles Galaxy\"), 3–2\\.",
"By next year, the two franchises took opposite routes in MLS' sophomore campaign, with D.C. United eventually going on to win their [second MLS Cup](/wiki/MLS_Cup_%2797 \"MLS Cup '97\") championship, while the NY/NJ MetroStars failed to qualify for the 1997 MLS Cup Playoffs altogether. Despite the poorer form from the MetroStars, the club won the regular season series against United, through the virtue of more aggregate goals.{{cite web\\|title\\=1997 Regular Season Schedule\\|url\\=http://www.dcunited.com/schedule/reg/1997/all\\|publisher\\=DCUnited.com\\|access\\-date\\=January 10, 2012}} The two sides faced off four times during the season, with United winning the first two outings, while the MetroStars won the final two meetings. In the final regular season matchup, held on September 27, 1997; United lost at home by a 3–1 scoreline against the MetroStars, ultimately failing to win the series.",
"### Arrival of the formal cup",
"At the start of the [2002 Major League Soccer season](/wiki/2002_Major_League_Soccer_season \"2002 Major League Soccer season\"), a formal trophy was incarnated by the administrators of D.C. United and the MetroStars, which was titled the \"Atlantic Cup\". In the 2002 series, United earned the trophy, winning two of the three regular season outings against the MetroStars. Despite the success, neither team qualified for the 2002 MLS Cup Playoffs, being the only two teams in the league not to qualify that season.",
"During the [2003 Lamar Hunt U.S. Open Cup](/wiki/2003_Lamar_Hunt_U.S._Open_Cup \"2003 Lamar Hunt U.S. Open Cup\"), the MetroStars and United both enjoyed successful Open Cup campaigns, meeting each other in the semifinal round of the Open Cup, marking the first time the two rivals met in the domestic tournament. In the quarterfinals, the MetroStars enjoyed a [golden goal](/wiki/Golden_goal \"Golden goal\") victory from an [Amado Guevara](/wiki/Amado_Guevara \"Amado Guevara\") goal in the 116th minute, defeating fellow MLS side, the [New England Revolution](/wiki/New_England_Revolution \"New England Revolution\"), in the process. United faced [USISL Pro League](/wiki/USL_Second_Division \"USL Second Division\") side (third division), [Wilmington Hammerheads](/wiki/Wilmington_Hammerheads \"Wilmington Hammerheads\"). The match, played in [Wilmington, North Carolina](/wiki/Wilmington%2C_North_Carolina \"Wilmington, North Carolina\"), saw United emerge victorious 1–0 off a [Ronald Cerritos](/wiki/Ronald_Cerritos \"Ronald Cerritos\") goal in the 30th minute.",
"The October 1, 2003 Open Cup semifinal affair was hosted by the MetroStars and played on at [Yurcak Field](/wiki/Yurcak_Field \"Yurcak Field\") in [Piscataway, New Jersey](/wiki/Piscataway%2C_New_Jersey \"Piscataway, New Jersey\"), marking the first time in Atlantic Cup history the two sides met at Yurcak.{{cite web\\|last\\=Plenderleith\\|first\\=Ian\\|title\\=DC v Metrostars Part 3: Open Cup Semi\\-Final Preview\\|url\\=http://www.dcunited.com/index.cfm?section\\=main\\&cont\\_id\\=206101\\|publisher\\=DCUnited.com\\|access\\-date\\=January 11, 2012\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20031022223852/http://dcunited.com/index.cfm?section\\=main\\&cont\\_id\\=206982\\|archive\\-date\\=October 22, 2003\\|date\\=September 24, 2003}} In the outing, United got the go\\-ahead goal in the 18th minute of play off a strike from [Galin Ivanov](/wiki/Galin_Ivanov_%28footballer_born_1975%29 \"Galin Ivanov (footballer born 1975)\"). Honduran international, [Amado Guevara](/wiki/Amado_Guevara \"Amado Guevara\"), netted two unanswered goals for the MetroStars in the 20th and 43rd minutes of play, giving the MetroStars a 2–1 lead going into the break. With less than 15 minutes remaining in regulation, United's Cerritos netted the equalizer, only before longtime MetroStars striker, [John Wolyniec](/wiki/John_Wolyniec \"John Wolyniec\") netted the match\\-winner, sending the MetroStars to their first ever championship of a major tournament.In American soccer, a \"major tournament\" or \"major honor\" usually pertains to either the [MLS Cup](/wiki/MLS_Cup \"MLS Cup\"), [Supporters' Shield](/wiki/Supporters%27_Shield \"Supporters' Shield\"), [U.S. Open Cup](/wiki/Lamar_Hunt_U.S._Open_Cup \"Lamar Hunt U.S. Open Cup\") or [CONCACAF Champions League](/wiki/CONCACAF_Champions_League \"CONCACAF Champions League\").",
"### Early club connections",
"In addition, early in the history of the league, there were personality clashes between members of the two teams. For example, MetroStars players [Tony Meola](/wiki/Tony_Meola \"Tony Meola\") and [Tab Ramos](/wiki/Tab_Ramos \"Tab Ramos\") were long time acquaintances of D.C. United's captain [John Harkes](/wiki/John_Harkes \"John Harkes\"). All three players were natives of New Jersey and had played together and against each other most of their lives. DC fans especially singled out Meola (who was briefly an actor and who had tried out to be the placekicker for the New York Jets) for scorn. In response, MetroStars supporters tended to reserve most of their scorn for [Richie Williams](/wiki/Richie_Williams \"Richie Williams\"). Ironically, former D.C. assistant coach [Bob Bradley](/wiki/Bob_Bradley \"Bob Bradley\") would coach the [MetroStars](/wiki/MetroStars \"MetroStars\"), and the [Red Bulls](/wiki/New_York_Red_Bulls \"New York Red Bulls\") coaching staff was also headed by former D.C. coach [Bruce Arena](/wiki/Bruce_Arena \"Bruce Arena\") until the end of the 2007 season, assisted by Harkes and Williams.",
"### Red Bull controversy",
"The rivalry became even greater when the two met at [Giants Stadium](/wiki/Giants_Stadium \"Giants Stadium\") on April 22, 2006 as [Alecko Eskandarian](/wiki/Alecko_Eskandarian \"Alecko Eskandarian\") scored the first goal of a 4–1 D.C. United victory. After the goal he took a sip of [Red Bull](/wiki/Red_Bull \"Red Bull\") energy drink and then spit it on the ground as an intentional slight on the recently renamed New York Red Bulls. MLS fined Eskandarian $250 for his actions.{{citation needed\\|date\\=October 2019}}",
"### Recent years",
"[thumb\\|right\\|[Thierry Henry](/wiki/Thierry_Henry \"Thierry Henry\") was one of several high\\-profile acquisitions by New York in 2010\\.](/wiki/File:Thierry_Henry_control_New_York_Red_Bulls_2010.jpg \"Thierry Henry control New York Red Bulls 2010.jpg\")",
"Throughout the 2010 season, [D.C. United](/wiki/D.C._United \"D.C. United\") hit an all\\-time nadir record wise, whereas the New York Red Bulls were making several high\\-profile acquisitions, causing some to believe that New York was becoming the more dominant Atlantic Cup team. On May 1, 2010; while United had lost their first four regular season matches, New York had won their first four matches. Attaining opposite records of 4–0–0 and 0–0–4, respectively, New York earned a 2–0 road win at [RFK Stadium](/wiki/RFK_Stadium \"RFK Stadium\"). The win was New York's first road win against D.C. since October 8, 2005 and their first win against United since 2008, as well as their first shutout against United since 2006\\. Subsequently, United drew 0–0 against New York in their first meeting in [Red Bull Arena](/wiki/Red_Bull_Arena_%28New_Jersey%29 \"Red Bull Arena (New Jersey)\") allowing the Red Bulls to win the Atlantic Cup derby for the first time since 2003, ending a six\\-year stretch of titles won by D.C.",
"The rivalry intensified, mainly between United and Red Bulls supporters in April 2011, when New York visited D.C. At the time, New York had been on a two\\-game winning streak, and held by far the best Eastern Conference record. United, rebuilding from the prior year were much lower in the standings. Goals from [Thierry Henry](/wiki/Thierry_Henry \"Thierry Henry\"), [Joel Lindpere](/wiki/Joel_Lindpere \"Joel Lindpere\") and [Juan Agudelo](/wiki/Juan_Agudelo \"Juan Agudelo\") lead the Red Bulls to a commanding 4–0 victory over United, making it the worst loss United suffered at home since the [2005 MLS Cup Playoffs](/wiki/2005_Major_League_Soccer_season%23Conference_Semifinals \"2005 Major League Soccer season#Conference Semifinals\"), and their worst loss ever to New York. However, in the return match, United earned a 1–0 away victory at Red Bull Arena, giving them some consolation over New York, but ultimately failing to win the Atlantic Cup for the second straight year. In spite of winning the Atlantic Cup for two\\-straight years, making it New York's first time since 2003, players expressed disinterest in the honor.{{citation needed\\|date\\=April 2012}}",
"On June 24, 2012, the two sides clashed again in the second of three legs of the series. The match ended in New York's advantage, earning a 3–2 victory over D.C. Ex\\-United midfielder [Brandon Barklage](/wiki/Brandon_Barklage \"Brandon Barklage\") netted two of the Red Bulls' three goals. United's [Chris Pontius](/wiki/Chris_Pontius_%28soccer%29 \"Chris Pontius (soccer)\") scored the fastest goal in franchise history, scoring 29 seconds after kickoff. The announced crowd of 25,187 was the largest in Red Bull Arena history, and the largest crowd to witness the rivalry since 2004\\.",
"On January 18, 2022, the LA Galaxy announced that the Red Bulls and D.C. United will participate in the [Coachella Valley Invitational](/wiki/Coachella_Valley_Invitational \"Coachella Valley Invitational\").{{cite web \\|title\\=LA Galaxy to host inaugural Coachella Valley Invitational Feb. 10\\-19 at Empire Polo Club \\|url\\=https://www.lagalaxy.com/news/la\\-galaxy\\-to\\-host\\-inaugural\\-coachella\\-valley\\-invitational\\-feb\\-10\\-19\\-at\\-empire\\-po \\|website\\=LA Galaxy \\|access\\-date\\=21 January 2022 \\|date\\=18 January 2022}}",
"On April 21, 2022, the teams were drawn together for the Round of 32 in the U.S. Open Cup. The Red Bulls defeated D.C. United 3\\-0 on May 10, 2022 to advance to the Round of 16, with a first half goal in stoppage time by [Luquinhas](/wiki/Luquinhas \"Luquinhas\"), and second half goals by [John Tolkin](/wiki/John_Tolkin \"John Tolkin\") and [Zach Ryan](/wiki/Zach_Ryan \"Zach Ryan\"). After adding up a few more wins, the Red Bulls would eventually fall to [Orlando City SC](/wiki/Orlando_City_SC \"Orlando City SC\") in the Semifinals.{{cite web \\|title\\=NY Red Bulls 3, DC United 0 \\|url\\=https://mlssoccer.com/competitions/u\\-s\\-open\\-cup/2022/matches/dcvsrbny\\-05\\-10\\-2022/ \\|website\\=mlssoccer.com \\|access\\-date\\=7 August 2022 \\|date\\=10 May 2022}}",
"Despite D.C. United taking advantage of the Red Bulls in the 2000s, New York has seized control of the rivalry in the late 2010s, as well as the early 2020s. The Bulls took the past 5 of 6 season series, cutting D.C. United's Atlantic Cup lead to just 14\\-13 heading into 2023\\.",
""
] |
History
-------
### Formation and progressive rock beginnings (1978–1980\)
Aerodrom leader [Jurica "Jura" Pađen](/wiki/Jurica_Pa%C4%91en "Jurica Pađen") started his career in 1970, at the age of 15, as the guitarist for Zoo Band, later performing with the bands Spectrum and Hobo.{{cite book\|last\=Janjatović\|first\=Petar\|title\=Ex YU rock enciklopedija 1960–2023\|year\=2024\|publisher\=self\-released / Makart\|location\=Belgrade\|page\=9}} In 1972, he joined popular band [Grupa 220](/wiki/Grupa_220 "Grupa 220"), at the time comprising vocalist [Drago Mlinarec](/wiki/Drago_Mlinarec_%28musician%29 "Drago Mlinarec (musician)"), guitarist [Husein Hasanefendić "Hus"](/wiki/Husein_Hasanefendi%C4%87 "Husein Hasanefendić"), drummer [Ivan "Piko" Stančić](/wiki/Piko_Stan%C4%8Di%C4%87 "Piko Stančić"), and bass guitarist Nenad Zubak. With the group, Pađen recorded their second and last studio album *Slike* (*Images*), released in 1975\. After the group disbanded during the same year, Pađen and Hasanefendić formed [Parni Valjak](/wiki/Parni_Valjak "Parni Valjak") with vocalist [Aki Rahimovski](/wiki/Aki_Rahimovski "Aki Rahimovski"), bass guitarist Zlatko Miksić "Fuma" and drummer Srećko Antonioli. With Parni Valjak, Pađen recorded two studio albums, the band's 1976 debut *Dođite na show!* (*Come to the Show!*) and the 1977 album *Glavom kroz zid* (*Head Against the Wall*).{{cite book\|last\=Janjatović\|first\=Petar\|title\=Ex YU rock enciklopedija 1960\-2023\|year\=2024\|publisher\=self\-released / Makart\|location\=Belgrade\|page\=223}} In 1978, both Hasanefendić and Rahimovski were drafted to serve their mandatory stints in the [Yugoslav People's Army](/wiki/Yugoslav_People%27s_Army "Yugoslav People's Army"), Parni Valjak going on hiatus and Pađen deciding to form a new band.
Pađen formed Aerodrom in 1978 with vocalist Zlatan Živković (previously a drummer for less\-known Zagreb bands), bass guitarist Remo Krstanović Cartagine, drummer Paolo Sfeci (former member of Balkan Sevdah Band) and keyboardist Mladen Krajnik (formerly of [Grupa Marina Škrgatića](/wiki/Grupa_Marina_%C5%A0krgati%C4%87a "Grupa Marina Škrgatića"), Grupa 220 and [Divlje Jagode](/wiki/Divlje_Jagode "Divlje Jagode")). Prior to hiring Živković, Pađen considered little\-known [Jura Stublić](/wiki/Jura_Stubli%C4%87 "Jura Stublić") (later of [Film](/wiki/Film_%28band%29 "Film (band)") fame) as Aerodrom's vocalist, but gave up on the idea due to Stublić's deep vocals. Pađen got the inspiration for the band's name from his relationship with a [stewardess](/wiki/Stewardess "Stewardess").
Initially, Aerodrom performed [progressive rock](/wiki/Progressive_rock "Progressive rock"). On the 1978 edition of [BOOM Festival](/wiki/BOOM_Festival "BOOM Festival"), the band had their first notable performance, during which Pađen was hit in the head by a bottle thrown from the audience. During the following year, the band held a large number of concerts across Yugoslavia, and in September they performed as one of the opening bands on [Bijelo Dugme](/wiki/Bijelo_Dugme "Bijelo Dugme")'s Rock Spectacle at the [JNA Stadium](/wiki/JNA_Stadium "JNA Stadium") in [Belgrade](/wiki/Belgrade "Belgrade"). The band made their first [demos](/wiki/Demo_recordings "Demo recordings") with the help from former [Time](/wiki/Time_%28Yugoslav_band%29 "Time (Yugoslav band)") guitarist [Vedran Božić](/wiki/Vedran_Bo%C5%BEi%C4%87 "Vedran Božić"), managing to secure a contract with [Jugoton](/wiki/Jugoton "Jugoton") record label. The band's debut album, entitled *Kad misli mi vrludaju* (*When My Thoughts Are Wandering*), was produced by Božić and released at the end of 1979\. Although released at the time when Yugoslav progressive rock scene saw its decline due to expansion of [Yugoslav punk rock](/wiki/Punk_rock_in_Yugoslavia "Punk rock in Yugoslavia") and [new wave scene](/wiki/New_wave_music_in_Yugoslavia "New wave music in Yugoslavia"), the band managed to gain the attention of the audience, mostly owing to the title track and "Kraj tebe u tami" ("Next to You in the Darkness"), the latter later covered by [Azra](/wiki/Azra "Azra"), and for the album the band was awarded a special acknowledgement by [SR Croatia](/wiki/SR_Croatia "SR Croatia")'s Comission for Culture. After Paolo Sfeci left the band to join Parni Valjak, Aerodrom's new drummer became former [Nepočin](/wiki/Nepo%C4%8Din "Nepočin") member Branko Knežević.
### Switch to new wave (1981\)
The band's following album, entitled *Tango Bango*, was recorded in 1981 in [Milan](/wiki/Milan "Milan") and produced by Piko Stančić. Influenced by the new, exuberant new wave scene,{{cite book\|last\=Vesić\|first\=Dušan\|title\=Bunt dece socijalizma: priča o novom talasu\|year\=2020\|publisher\=Laguna\|location\=Belgrade\|page\=266}} with songs authored by Pađen, Krajnik and Cartagine, *Tango Bango* brought radiophonic [pop rock](/wiki/Pop_rock "Pop rock")\-oriented sound. Pađen debuted as vocalist in the song "Djevojke" ("Girls"). The songs "Stavi pravu stvar" ("Put the Right Thing"), "Dobro se zabavljaj" ("Have a Lot of Fun") and "Tvoje lice" ("Your Face") became radio hits and provided the band with frequent performances. Soon after the album release, Krajnik left the band to serve his mandatory stint in the Yugoslav army, and was replaced by Zoran Kraš, formerly of the band Stakleno Zvono (*Bell Jar*). Soon after, Živković also left the band, and vocal duties were taken over by Pađen.
### Pađen taking over the vocals, biggest commercial success, disbandment (1982–1987\)
In 1982, the band released their third studio album, entitled *[Obične ljubavne pjesme](/wiki/Obi%C4%8Dne_ljubavne_pjesme "Obične ljubavne pjesme")* (*Ordinary Love Songs*). The album was recorded in [Sweden](/wiki/Sweden "Sweden") and produced by [Tini Varga](/wiki/Tini_Varga "Tini Varga"), who also played guitar and sang backing vocals on the album recording. The album also featured guest appearance by long\-time [ABBA](/wiki/ABBA "ABBA") collaborator Ulf Andersson on saxophone. The album brought the biggest hit in the band's career, "Obična ljubavna pjesma" ("Ordinary Love Song"), and was followed by a successful promotional tour which included concerts in [Sarajevo](/wiki/Sarajevo "Sarajevo")'s [Youth Centre Skenderija](/wiki/Youth_Centre_Skenderija "Youth Centre Skenderija"), Belgrade's [Tašmajdan Stadium](/wiki/Ta%C5%A1majdan_Stadium "Tašmajdan Stadium"), and Zagreb's [Kulušić](/wiki/Kulu%C5%A1i%C4%87 "Kulušić") club and Moša Pijade Hall. Following *Obične ljubavne pesme* promotional tour, the band went on hiatus due to Pađen's mandatory army stint.
After Pađen's return from the army, in the spring of 1984, Pađen and Cartagine accepted invitation from [Azra](/wiki/Azra "Azra") leader [Branimir "Johnny" Štulić](/wiki/Branimir_%C5%A0tuli%C4%87 "Branimir Štulić") to join Azra for the spring tour. After the tour ended, Pađen, Cartagine and drummer Nenad Smoljanović recorded Aerodrom's fourth studio album, *[Dukat i pribadače](/wiki/Dukat_i_pribada%C4%8De "Dukat i pribadače")* (*[Ducat](/wiki/Ducat "Ducat") and [Pins](/wiki/Pins "Pins")*). The album was produced by [Novi Fosili](/wiki/Novi_Fosili "Novi Fosili") vocalist and keyboardist [Rajko Dujmić](/wiki/Rajko_Dujmi%C4%87 "Rajko Dujmić"), who also played keyboards on the album recording. It brought the hits "Fratello", "24 sata" ("24 Hours") and "Digni me visoko" ("Lift Me High"), but also politically\-related songs "Laž" ("Lie") and "Daj neku lovu" ("Give Some Money"). The band negotiated with former [Time](/wiki/Time_%28Yugoslav_band%29 "Time (Yugoslav band)") and [September](/wiki/September_%28band%29 "September (band)") keyboardist [Tihomir "Pop" Asanović](/wiki/Tihomir_Pop_Asanovi%C4%87 "Tihomir Pop Asanović") to join them on promotional concerts, but eventually went on tour with pianist and [conductor](/wiki/Conducting "Conducting") Alen Bjelinski playing the keyboards.
After *Dukat i pribadače* tour, Bjelinski joined the newly\-formed band Limeni Bubanj (*Tin Drum*), so the band once again started album recording as a trio. Zlatan Živković returned to the band to replace Smoljanović, but also provided vocals for some of the songs. The album was entitled *[Trojica u mraku](/wiki/Trojica_u_mraku "Trojica u mraku")* (*Three Man in the Dark*), after 1936 comic by [Andrija Maurović](/wiki/Andrija_Maurovi%C4%87 "Andrija Maurović"). The album was produced by Pađen, and featured guest appearances by [Laza Ristovski](/wiki/Laza_Ristovski "Laza Ristovski") (keyboards), Miroslav Sedak Benčić (saxophone), Ante Dropuljić (trumpet) and Herbert Stencel (trombone). The album songs dealt with diverse topics – in "Zagreb, Ljubljana i Beograd" ("Zagreb, Ljubljana and Belgrade") Pađen criticized rock critics, "Eat a Shit" was filled with disappointment and anger and "Pozdrav sa Bardo ravni" ("Greetings from [Bardo Plains](/wiki/Bardo "Bardo")") was philosophical.
In 1987, Živković moved to [Australia](/wiki/Australia "Australia"), and Aerodrom ended their activity. At the end of the 1980s, Pađen and Cartagine, with former Azra and [Haustor](/wiki/Haustor "Haustor") drummer [Boris Leiner](/wiki/Boris_Leiner "Boris Leiner") and other musicians, held several live performance under the name Aerodrom, but without ambition to reestablish the band.
### Post breakup (1987–2001\)
After Aerodrom disbaned, Pađen rejoined Azra, recording the 1987 studio album *Između krajnosti* (*Between Extremes*) and the 1988 live album *Zadovoljština* (*Satisfaction*) with the group, also participating in the recording of Branimir Štulić's solo albums *Balkanska rapsodija* (*Balkan Rhapsody*, 1989\) and *Balegari ne vjeruju sreći* (*[Dung Beetles](/wiki/Dung_beetle "Dung beetle") Don't Believe in Luck*, 1989\). Pađen performed with Azra until the band's last concert, held on 15 August 1990 at [Hvar](/wiki/Hvar "Hvar").
In 1991, at the time of [Croatian War of Independence](/wiki/Croatian_War_of_Independence "Croatian War of Independence"), Pađen recorded the song "Tko to tamo gine" ("Who's That Dying Over There") for the various artists album *Moja domovina* (*My Homeland*), and a cover of Azra's "Balkan" entitled "Papan" (the title being a slang for an immature boy) for the various artists album *[Rock za Hrvatsku](/wiki/Rock_za_Hrvatsku "Rock za Hrvatsku")* (*Rock for Croatia*). During war years, Pađen joined Croatian musicians who performed for Croatian troops.
In 1993, he formed his Pađen Band, recording the album *Hamburger City*. The album brought the hit song "Što si u kavu stavila" ("What Did You Put in My Coffee"), featuring a [musical quotation](/wiki/Musical_quotation "Musical quotation") from "[Don't Let Me Be Misunderstood](/wiki/Don%27t_Let_Me_Be_Misunderstood "Don't Let Me Be Misunderstood")". Pađen Band recorded two more studio albums, the 1995 *Slatka mala stvar* (*Cute Little Thing*) and the 1997 *Izbrisani grafiti* (*Erased Graffiti*), the latter bringing the hits "Otkazani let" ("Cancelled Flight") and "Nevolja" ("Trouble"). The song "Samo da me draga ne ostavi" ("I Only Hope My Darling Won't Leave Me") from the album would receive large attention in 2020, with [Croatian Composers' Society](/wiki/Croatian_Composers%27_Society "Croatian Composers' Society") issuing a statement about "striking resemblance" between the song and [Paul McCartney](/wiki/Paul_McCartney "Paul McCartney")'s 2018 song "[Confidante](/wiki/Egypt_Station "Egypt Station")" and speculations about Pađen suing McCartney appearing in Croatian media.{{cite book\|last\=Janjatović\|first\=Petar\|title\=Ex YU rock enciklopedija 1960\-2023\|year\=2024\|publisher\=self\-released / Makart\|location\=Belgrade\|page\=10}}
### Reunion and new releases (2000–present)
[thumb\|right\|250px\|Jurica Pađen performing with Aerodrom in [Crikvenica](/wiki/Crikvenica "Crikvenica") in 2013](/wiki/File:Jurica_Padjen_Aerodrom_Crikvenica_31072013_2_roberta_f.jpg "Jurica Padjen Aerodrom Crikvenica 31072013 2 roberta f.jpg")
In 2000, following the release of the Pađen Band compilation album *Retro 16*, Pađen reformed Aerodrom. The new lineup of Aerodrom featured Pađen on vocals and guitar, Mladen Krajnik on keyboards, Tomislav Šojat (formerly of the bands [Prva Ljubav](/wiki/Prva_Ljubav "Prva Ljubav") and [Regata](/wiki/Regata "Regata")) on bass guitar, and Zlatan Živković on drums.{{cite book\|last\=Janjatović\|first\=Petar\|title\=Ex YU rock enciklopedija 1960\-2023\|year\=2024\|publisher\=self\-released / Makart\|location\=Belgrade\|page\=9\-10}} The new lineup released the comeback album *Na travi* (*On the Grass*) in 2001\. All the songs on the album were authored by Pađen, with "A do Splita pet" ("And Five More to [Split](/wiki/Split%2C_Croatia "Split, Croatia")") and "Badnja noć" ("Christmas Night") becoming hits. In 2003, Pađen released his solo album *[Žicanje](/wiki/%C5%BDicanje "Žicanje")* (*Wiring*), featuring his instrumentals inspired by 1960s music, with Šojat and Aerodrom former bass guitarist Remo Krstanović Cartagine taking part in the recording. The album was awarded with [Fender](/wiki/Fender_%28company%29 "Fender (company)") Award for the Best Croatian Instrumental Album. Simultaneously, Pađen formed the [supergroup](/wiki/Supergroup_%28music%29 "Supergroup (music)") [4 Asa](/wiki/4_asa "4 asa") (*4 Aces*) with [Vlado Kalember](/wiki/Vlado_Kalember "Vlado Kalember"), [Alen Islamović](/wiki/Alen_Islamovi%C4%87 "Alen Islamović") and [Rajko Dujmić](/wiki/Rajko_Dujmi%C4%87 "Rajko Dujmić"), releasing two studio albums, one live album and one video album with the band, all releases consisting of new versions of the band members' old songs.
In 2007, Pađen, Šojat and new drummer Slavko Pintarić "Pišta" (formerly of [Srebrna Krila](/wiki/Srebrna_Krila "Srebrna Krila")) recorded the album *[Rock @ Roll](/wiki/Rock_%40_Roll "Rock @ Roll")*, the first album to feature Pađen as the sole remaining original member of Aerodrom and the first to be released under Jurica Pađen \& Aerodrom moniker. Alongside Pađen's new songs, the album featured the old song "Fait Accompli", co\-written by Pađen and [Branimir Štulić](/wiki/Branimir_%C5%A0tuli%C4%87 "Branimir Štulić") and dedicated to [John Lennon](/wiki/John_Lennon "John Lennon"). In 2009, the band released their first live album, *[Hitovi i legende](/wiki/Hitovi_i_legende "Hitovi i legende")* (*Hits and Legends*). The album was recorded on Jurica Pađen \& Aerodrom concert in [Tvornica kulture](/wiki/Tvornica_kulture "Tvornica kulture") club in Zagreb held on 13 December 2008, and featured, alongside Aerodrom and Pađen Band songs, the songs of other Zagreb bands the members of the group played with.
Since 2009, the band performs in the lineup featuring Pađen, Šojat, Ivan Havidić (guitar) and Damir Medić (drums). The lineup recorded the 2012 studio album *[Taktika noja](/wiki/Taktika_noja "Taktika noja")* (*Ostrich Tactics*), which brought the hits "Loše volje" ("In a Bad Mood"), "Ostani" ("Stay") and "Duh je nestao" ("The Spirit Is Gone"). In 2014, Pađen released the solo album *[All Stars](/wiki/All_Stars_%28Jurica_Pa%C4%91en_album%29 "All Stars (Jurica Pađen album)")*, featuring instrumental tracks he recorded with Branimir Štulić, [Husein Hasanefendić](/wiki/Husein_Hasanefendi%C4%87 "Husein Hasanefendić"), [Massimo Savić](/wiki/Massimo_Savi%C4%87 "Massimo Savić"), [Vedran Božić](/wiki/Vedran_Bo%C5%BEi%C4%87 "Vedran Božić"), [Neno Belan](/wiki/Neno_Belan "Neno Belan"), [Zele Lipovača](/wiki/Zele_Lipova%C4%8Da "Zele Lipovača") and [Nikša Bratoš](/wiki/Nik%C5%A1a_Brato%C5%A1 "Nikša Bratoš"). In 2018, [Croatia Records](/wiki/Croatia_Records "Croatia Records") released the box set *The Original Album Collection* featuring reissues of the first five studio albums by Aerodrom. In 2019, Jurica Pađen \& Aerodrom released their latest studio album, *[Dnevni rituali](/wiki/Dnevni_rituali "Dnevni rituali")* (*Everyday Rituals*), with [hippie movement](/wiki/Hippie_movement "Hippie movement")–inspired song "Sunce mi se smije" ("The Sun Is Laughing at Me") becoming a hit.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"### Formation and progressive rock beginnings (1978–1980\\)",
"Aerodrom leader [Jurica \"Jura\" Pađen](/wiki/Jurica_Pa%C4%91en \"Jurica Pađen\") started his career in 1970, at the age of 15, as the guitarist for Zoo Band, later performing with the bands Spectrum and Hobo.{{cite book\\|last\\=Janjatović\\|first\\=Petar\\|title\\=Ex YU rock enciklopedija 1960–2023\\|year\\=2024\\|publisher\\=self\\-released / Makart\\|location\\=Belgrade\\|page\\=9}} In 1972, he joined popular band [Grupa 220](/wiki/Grupa_220 \"Grupa 220\"), at the time comprising vocalist [Drago Mlinarec](/wiki/Drago_Mlinarec_%28musician%29 \"Drago Mlinarec (musician)\"), guitarist [Husein Hasanefendić \"Hus\"](/wiki/Husein_Hasanefendi%C4%87 \"Husein Hasanefendić\"), drummer [Ivan \"Piko\" Stančić](/wiki/Piko_Stan%C4%8Di%C4%87 \"Piko Stančić\"), and bass guitarist Nenad Zubak. With the group, Pađen recorded their second and last studio album *Slike* (*Images*), released in 1975\\. After the group disbanded during the same year, Pađen and Hasanefendić formed [Parni Valjak](/wiki/Parni_Valjak \"Parni Valjak\") with vocalist [Aki Rahimovski](/wiki/Aki_Rahimovski \"Aki Rahimovski\"), bass guitarist Zlatko Miksić \"Fuma\" and drummer Srećko Antonioli. With Parni Valjak, Pađen recorded two studio albums, the band's 1976 debut *Dođite na show!* (*Come to the Show!*) and the 1977 album *Glavom kroz zid* (*Head Against the Wall*).{{cite book\\|last\\=Janjatović\\|first\\=Petar\\|title\\=Ex YU rock enciklopedija 1960\\-2023\\|year\\=2024\\|publisher\\=self\\-released / Makart\\|location\\=Belgrade\\|page\\=223}} In 1978, both Hasanefendić and Rahimovski were drafted to serve their mandatory stints in the [Yugoslav People's Army](/wiki/Yugoslav_People%27s_Army \"Yugoslav People's Army\"), Parni Valjak going on hiatus and Pađen deciding to form a new band.",
"Pađen formed Aerodrom in 1978 with vocalist Zlatan Živković (previously a drummer for less\\-known Zagreb bands), bass guitarist Remo Krstanović Cartagine, drummer Paolo Sfeci (former member of Balkan Sevdah Band) and keyboardist Mladen Krajnik (formerly of [Grupa Marina Škrgatića](/wiki/Grupa_Marina_%C5%A0krgati%C4%87a \"Grupa Marina Škrgatića\"), Grupa 220 and [Divlje Jagode](/wiki/Divlje_Jagode \"Divlje Jagode\")). Prior to hiring Živković, Pađen considered little\\-known [Jura Stublić](/wiki/Jura_Stubli%C4%87 \"Jura Stublić\") (later of [Film](/wiki/Film_%28band%29 \"Film (band)\") fame) as Aerodrom's vocalist, but gave up on the idea due to Stublić's deep vocals. Pađen got the inspiration for the band's name from his relationship with a [stewardess](/wiki/Stewardess \"Stewardess\").",
"Initially, Aerodrom performed [progressive rock](/wiki/Progressive_rock \"Progressive rock\"). On the 1978 edition of [BOOM Festival](/wiki/BOOM_Festival \"BOOM Festival\"), the band had their first notable performance, during which Pađen was hit in the head by a bottle thrown from the audience. During the following year, the band held a large number of concerts across Yugoslavia, and in September they performed as one of the opening bands on [Bijelo Dugme](/wiki/Bijelo_Dugme \"Bijelo Dugme\")'s Rock Spectacle at the [JNA Stadium](/wiki/JNA_Stadium \"JNA Stadium\") in [Belgrade](/wiki/Belgrade \"Belgrade\"). The band made their first [demos](/wiki/Demo_recordings \"Demo recordings\") with the help from former [Time](/wiki/Time_%28Yugoslav_band%29 \"Time (Yugoslav band)\") guitarist [Vedran Božić](/wiki/Vedran_Bo%C5%BEi%C4%87 \"Vedran Božić\"), managing to secure a contract with [Jugoton](/wiki/Jugoton \"Jugoton\") record label. The band's debut album, entitled *Kad misli mi vrludaju* (*When My Thoughts Are Wandering*), was produced by Božić and released at the end of 1979\\. Although released at the time when Yugoslav progressive rock scene saw its decline due to expansion of [Yugoslav punk rock](/wiki/Punk_rock_in_Yugoslavia \"Punk rock in Yugoslavia\") and [new wave scene](/wiki/New_wave_music_in_Yugoslavia \"New wave music in Yugoslavia\"), the band managed to gain the attention of the audience, mostly owing to the title track and \"Kraj tebe u tami\" (\"Next to You in the Darkness\"), the latter later covered by [Azra](/wiki/Azra \"Azra\"), and for the album the band was awarded a special acknowledgement by [SR Croatia](/wiki/SR_Croatia \"SR Croatia\")'s Comission for Culture. After Paolo Sfeci left the band to join Parni Valjak, Aerodrom's new drummer became former [Nepočin](/wiki/Nepo%C4%8Din \"Nepočin\") member Branko Knežević.",
"### Switch to new wave (1981\\)",
"The band's following album, entitled *Tango Bango*, was recorded in 1981 in [Milan](/wiki/Milan \"Milan\") and produced by Piko Stančić. Influenced by the new, exuberant new wave scene,{{cite book\\|last\\=Vesić\\|first\\=Dušan\\|title\\=Bunt dece socijalizma: priča o novom talasu\\|year\\=2020\\|publisher\\=Laguna\\|location\\=Belgrade\\|page\\=266}} with songs authored by Pađen, Krajnik and Cartagine, *Tango Bango* brought radiophonic [pop rock](/wiki/Pop_rock \"Pop rock\")\\-oriented sound. Pađen debuted as vocalist in the song \"Djevojke\" (\"Girls\"). The songs \"Stavi pravu stvar\" (\"Put the Right Thing\"), \"Dobro se zabavljaj\" (\"Have a Lot of Fun\") and \"Tvoje lice\" (\"Your Face\") became radio hits and provided the band with frequent performances. Soon after the album release, Krajnik left the band to serve his mandatory stint in the Yugoslav army, and was replaced by Zoran Kraš, formerly of the band Stakleno Zvono (*Bell Jar*). Soon after, Živković also left the band, and vocal duties were taken over by Pađen.",
"### Pađen taking over the vocals, biggest commercial success, disbandment (1982–1987\\)",
"In 1982, the band released their third studio album, entitled *[Obične ljubavne pjesme](/wiki/Obi%C4%8Dne_ljubavne_pjesme \"Obične ljubavne pjesme\")* (*Ordinary Love Songs*). The album was recorded in [Sweden](/wiki/Sweden \"Sweden\") and produced by [Tini Varga](/wiki/Tini_Varga \"Tini Varga\"), who also played guitar and sang backing vocals on the album recording. The album also featured guest appearance by long\\-time [ABBA](/wiki/ABBA \"ABBA\") collaborator Ulf Andersson on saxophone. The album brought the biggest hit in the band's career, \"Obična ljubavna pjesma\" (\"Ordinary Love Song\"), and was followed by a successful promotional tour which included concerts in [Sarajevo](/wiki/Sarajevo \"Sarajevo\")'s [Youth Centre Skenderija](/wiki/Youth_Centre_Skenderija \"Youth Centre Skenderija\"), Belgrade's [Tašmajdan Stadium](/wiki/Ta%C5%A1majdan_Stadium \"Tašmajdan Stadium\"), and Zagreb's [Kulušić](/wiki/Kulu%C5%A1i%C4%87 \"Kulušić\") club and Moša Pijade Hall. Following *Obične ljubavne pesme* promotional tour, the band went on hiatus due to Pađen's mandatory army stint.",
"After Pađen's return from the army, in the spring of 1984, Pađen and Cartagine accepted invitation from [Azra](/wiki/Azra \"Azra\") leader [Branimir \"Johnny\" Štulić](/wiki/Branimir_%C5%A0tuli%C4%87 \"Branimir Štulić\") to join Azra for the spring tour. After the tour ended, Pađen, Cartagine and drummer Nenad Smoljanović recorded Aerodrom's fourth studio album, *[Dukat i pribadače](/wiki/Dukat_i_pribada%C4%8De \"Dukat i pribadače\")* (*[Ducat](/wiki/Ducat \"Ducat\") and [Pins](/wiki/Pins \"Pins\")*). The album was produced by [Novi Fosili](/wiki/Novi_Fosili \"Novi Fosili\") vocalist and keyboardist [Rajko Dujmić](/wiki/Rajko_Dujmi%C4%87 \"Rajko Dujmić\"), who also played keyboards on the album recording. It brought the hits \"Fratello\", \"24 sata\" (\"24 Hours\") and \"Digni me visoko\" (\"Lift Me High\"), but also politically\\-related songs \"Laž\" (\"Lie\") and \"Daj neku lovu\" (\"Give Some Money\"). The band negotiated with former [Time](/wiki/Time_%28Yugoslav_band%29 \"Time (Yugoslav band)\") and [September](/wiki/September_%28band%29 \"September (band)\") keyboardist [Tihomir \"Pop\" Asanović](/wiki/Tihomir_Pop_Asanovi%C4%87 \"Tihomir Pop Asanović\") to join them on promotional concerts, but eventually went on tour with pianist and [conductor](/wiki/Conducting \"Conducting\") Alen Bjelinski playing the keyboards.",
"After *Dukat i pribadače* tour, Bjelinski joined the newly\\-formed band Limeni Bubanj (*Tin Drum*), so the band once again started album recording as a trio. Zlatan Živković returned to the band to replace Smoljanović, but also provided vocals for some of the songs. The album was entitled *[Trojica u mraku](/wiki/Trojica_u_mraku \"Trojica u mraku\")* (*Three Man in the Dark*), after 1936 comic by [Andrija Maurović](/wiki/Andrija_Maurovi%C4%87 \"Andrija Maurović\"). The album was produced by Pađen, and featured guest appearances by [Laza Ristovski](/wiki/Laza_Ristovski \"Laza Ristovski\") (keyboards), Miroslav Sedak Benčić (saxophone), Ante Dropuljić (trumpet) and Herbert Stencel (trombone). The album songs dealt with diverse topics – in \"Zagreb, Ljubljana i Beograd\" (\"Zagreb, Ljubljana and Belgrade\") Pađen criticized rock critics, \"Eat a Shit\" was filled with disappointment and anger and \"Pozdrav sa Bardo ravni\" (\"Greetings from [Bardo Plains](/wiki/Bardo \"Bardo\")\") was philosophical.",
"In 1987, Živković moved to [Australia](/wiki/Australia \"Australia\"), and Aerodrom ended their activity. At the end of the 1980s, Pađen and Cartagine, with former Azra and [Haustor](/wiki/Haustor \"Haustor\") drummer [Boris Leiner](/wiki/Boris_Leiner \"Boris Leiner\") and other musicians, held several live performance under the name Aerodrom, but without ambition to reestablish the band.",
"### Post breakup (1987–2001\\)",
"After Aerodrom disbaned, Pađen rejoined Azra, recording the 1987 studio album *Između krajnosti* (*Between Extremes*) and the 1988 live album *Zadovoljština* (*Satisfaction*) with the group, also participating in the recording of Branimir Štulić's solo albums *Balkanska rapsodija* (*Balkan Rhapsody*, 1989\\) and *Balegari ne vjeruju sreći* (*[Dung Beetles](/wiki/Dung_beetle \"Dung beetle\") Don't Believe in Luck*, 1989\\). Pađen performed with Azra until the band's last concert, held on 15 August 1990 at [Hvar](/wiki/Hvar \"Hvar\").",
"In 1991, at the time of [Croatian War of Independence](/wiki/Croatian_War_of_Independence \"Croatian War of Independence\"), Pađen recorded the song \"Tko to tamo gine\" (\"Who's That Dying Over There\") for the various artists album *Moja domovina* (*My Homeland*), and a cover of Azra's \"Balkan\" entitled \"Papan\" (the title being a slang for an immature boy) for the various artists album *[Rock za Hrvatsku](/wiki/Rock_za_Hrvatsku \"Rock za Hrvatsku\")* (*Rock for Croatia*). During war years, Pađen joined Croatian musicians who performed for Croatian troops.",
"In 1993, he formed his Pađen Band, recording the album *Hamburger City*. The album brought the hit song \"Što si u kavu stavila\" (\"What Did You Put in My Coffee\"), featuring a [musical quotation](/wiki/Musical_quotation \"Musical quotation\") from \"[Don't Let Me Be Misunderstood](/wiki/Don%27t_Let_Me_Be_Misunderstood \"Don't Let Me Be Misunderstood\")\". Pađen Band recorded two more studio albums, the 1995 *Slatka mala stvar* (*Cute Little Thing*) and the 1997 *Izbrisani grafiti* (*Erased Graffiti*), the latter bringing the hits \"Otkazani let\" (\"Cancelled Flight\") and \"Nevolja\" (\"Trouble\"). The song \"Samo da me draga ne ostavi\" (\"I Only Hope My Darling Won't Leave Me\") from the album would receive large attention in 2020, with [Croatian Composers' Society](/wiki/Croatian_Composers%27_Society \"Croatian Composers' Society\") issuing a statement about \"striking resemblance\" between the song and [Paul McCartney](/wiki/Paul_McCartney \"Paul McCartney\")'s 2018 song \"[Confidante](/wiki/Egypt_Station \"Egypt Station\")\" and speculations about Pađen suing McCartney appearing in Croatian media.{{cite book\\|last\\=Janjatović\\|first\\=Petar\\|title\\=Ex YU rock enciklopedija 1960\\-2023\\|year\\=2024\\|publisher\\=self\\-released / Makart\\|location\\=Belgrade\\|page\\=10}}",
"### Reunion and new releases (2000–present)",
"[thumb\\|right\\|250px\\|Jurica Pađen performing with Aerodrom in [Crikvenica](/wiki/Crikvenica \"Crikvenica\") in 2013](/wiki/File:Jurica_Padjen_Aerodrom_Crikvenica_31072013_2_roberta_f.jpg \"Jurica Padjen Aerodrom Crikvenica 31072013 2 roberta f.jpg\")\nIn 2000, following the release of the Pađen Band compilation album *Retro 16*, Pađen reformed Aerodrom. The new lineup of Aerodrom featured Pađen on vocals and guitar, Mladen Krajnik on keyboards, Tomislav Šojat (formerly of the bands [Prva Ljubav](/wiki/Prva_Ljubav \"Prva Ljubav\") and [Regata](/wiki/Regata \"Regata\")) on bass guitar, and Zlatan Živković on drums.{{cite book\\|last\\=Janjatović\\|first\\=Petar\\|title\\=Ex YU rock enciklopedija 1960\\-2023\\|year\\=2024\\|publisher\\=self\\-released / Makart\\|location\\=Belgrade\\|page\\=9\\-10}} The new lineup released the comeback album *Na travi* (*On the Grass*) in 2001\\. All the songs on the album were authored by Pađen, with \"A do Splita pet\" (\"And Five More to [Split](/wiki/Split%2C_Croatia \"Split, Croatia\")\") and \"Badnja noć\" (\"Christmas Night\") becoming hits. In 2003, Pađen released his solo album *[Žicanje](/wiki/%C5%BDicanje \"Žicanje\")* (*Wiring*), featuring his instrumentals inspired by 1960s music, with Šojat and Aerodrom former bass guitarist Remo Krstanović Cartagine taking part in the recording. The album was awarded with [Fender](/wiki/Fender_%28company%29 \"Fender (company)\") Award for the Best Croatian Instrumental Album. Simultaneously, Pađen formed the [supergroup](/wiki/Supergroup_%28music%29 \"Supergroup (music)\") [4 Asa](/wiki/4_asa \"4 asa\") (*4 Aces*) with [Vlado Kalember](/wiki/Vlado_Kalember \"Vlado Kalember\"), [Alen Islamović](/wiki/Alen_Islamovi%C4%87 \"Alen Islamović\") and [Rajko Dujmić](/wiki/Rajko_Dujmi%C4%87 \"Rajko Dujmić\"), releasing two studio albums, one live album and one video album with the band, all releases consisting of new versions of the band members' old songs.",
"In 2007, Pađen, Šojat and new drummer Slavko Pintarić \"Pišta\" (formerly of [Srebrna Krila](/wiki/Srebrna_Krila \"Srebrna Krila\")) recorded the album *[Rock @ Roll](/wiki/Rock_%40_Roll \"Rock @ Roll\")*, the first album to feature Pađen as the sole remaining original member of Aerodrom and the first to be released under Jurica Pađen \\& Aerodrom moniker. Alongside Pađen's new songs, the album featured the old song \"Fait Accompli\", co\\-written by Pađen and [Branimir Štulić](/wiki/Branimir_%C5%A0tuli%C4%87 \"Branimir Štulić\") and dedicated to [John Lennon](/wiki/John_Lennon \"John Lennon\"). In 2009, the band released their first live album, *[Hitovi i legende](/wiki/Hitovi_i_legende \"Hitovi i legende\")* (*Hits and Legends*). The album was recorded on Jurica Pađen \\& Aerodrom concert in [Tvornica kulture](/wiki/Tvornica_kulture \"Tvornica kulture\") club in Zagreb held on 13 December 2008, and featured, alongside Aerodrom and Pađen Band songs, the songs of other Zagreb bands the members of the group played with.",
"Since 2009, the band performs in the lineup featuring Pađen, Šojat, Ivan Havidić (guitar) and Damir Medić (drums). The lineup recorded the 2012 studio album *[Taktika noja](/wiki/Taktika_noja \"Taktika noja\")* (*Ostrich Tactics*), which brought the hits \"Loše volje\" (\"In a Bad Mood\"), \"Ostani\" (\"Stay\") and \"Duh je nestao\" (\"The Spirit Is Gone\"). In 2014, Pađen released the solo album *[All Stars](/wiki/All_Stars_%28Jurica_Pa%C4%91en_album%29 \"All Stars (Jurica Pađen album)\")*, featuring instrumental tracks he recorded with Branimir Štulić, [Husein Hasanefendić](/wiki/Husein_Hasanefendi%C4%87 \"Husein Hasanefendić\"), [Massimo Savić](/wiki/Massimo_Savi%C4%87 \"Massimo Savić\"), [Vedran Božić](/wiki/Vedran_Bo%C5%BEi%C4%87 \"Vedran Božić\"), [Neno Belan](/wiki/Neno_Belan \"Neno Belan\"), [Zele Lipovača](/wiki/Zele_Lipova%C4%8Da \"Zele Lipovača\") and [Nikša Bratoš](/wiki/Nik%C5%A1a_Brato%C5%A1 \"Nikša Bratoš\"). In 2018, [Croatia Records](/wiki/Croatia_Records \"Croatia Records\") released the box set *The Original Album Collection* featuring reissues of the first five studio albums by Aerodrom. In 2019, Jurica Pađen \\& Aerodrom released their latest studio album, *[Dnevni rituali](/wiki/Dnevni_rituali \"Dnevni rituali\")* (*Everyday Rituals*), with [hippie movement](/wiki/Hippie_movement \"Hippie movement\")–inspired song \"Sunce mi se smije\" (\"The Sun Is Laughing at Me\") becoming a hit.",
""
] |
Playing career
--------------
After a junior career ending with the [St. Catharines Teepees](/wiki/St._Catharines_Teepees "St. Catharines Teepees") of the [Ontario Hockey Association](/wiki/Ontario_Hockey_Association "Ontario Hockey Association") in 1953, Schinkel signed with the [Springfield Indians](/wiki/Springfield_Indians "Springfield Indians") of the [American Hockey League](/wiki/American_Hockey_League "American Hockey League"). He spent the next six years in the minors with the Indians' organization, garnering a reputation as a skilled two\-way forward and penalty killer. In 1959 he led the AHL in goals with 43 and scored 85 points, earning a place on the league's Second All\-Star Team, and his rights were dealt to the [New York Rangers](/wiki/New_York_Rangers "New York Rangers") of the NHL.
He played the [1960 season](/wiki/1959%E2%80%9360_NHL_season "1959–60 NHL season") with the Rangers and split the 1961 season between New York and Springfield \- returning to the AHL just in time to be part of the Indians' second consecutive [Calder Cup](/wiki/Calder_Cup "Calder Cup") championship \- before playing as a third\-liner with the Rangers in [1962](/wiki/1961%E2%80%9362_NHL_season "1961–62 NHL season") and [1963](/wiki/1962%E2%80%9363_NHL_season "1962–63 NHL season"). By 1964 he was back in the minors, however, and spent the next four years starring for the Rangers' farm team, the AHL [Baltimore Clippers](/wiki/Baltimore_Clippers "Baltimore Clippers"). While playing with future [Hall of Famers](/wiki/Hockey_Hall_of_Fame "Hockey Hall of Fame") such as [Jean Ratelle](/wiki/Jean_Ratelle "Jean Ratelle") and [Doug Harvey](/wiki/Doug_Harvey_%28ice_hockey%29 "Doug Harvey (ice hockey)"), Schinkel led the Clippers in scoring two of those seasons.
When the NHL [doubled in size](/wiki/1967_NHL_Expansion "1967 NHL Expansion") after the 1967 season, Schinkel was drafted in the [expansion draft](/wiki/1967_NHL_Expansion_Draft "1967 NHL Expansion Draft") by the Pittsburgh Penguins. Named an alternate captain by the club, he was an immediate impact player and noted penalty killer for the offensively\-thin Penguins, finishing first or second in team scoring the franchise's first three seasons and being named to play in the [NHL All\-Star Game](/wiki/NHL_All-Star_Game "NHL All-Star Game") in [1968](/wiki/1968_NHL_All-Star_Game "1968 NHL All-Star Game") and [1969](/wiki/1969_NHL_All-Star_Game "1969 NHL All-Star Game"); he was named again in [1971](/wiki/1971_NHL_All-Star_Game "1971 NHL All-Star Game"), but did not play due to a broken arm. He played six seasons in all before retiring to become the team's coach.
On April 11, 1970, Schinkel scored three goals for Pittsburgh in a Stanley Cup playoff game versus the Oakland Seals. Pittsburgh won the game 5–2\.
Schinkel retired as the Penguins' career leader in games and points (both since surpassed), and with 127 goals and 198 assists for 325 points in 636 games.
|
[
"Playing career\n--------------",
"After a junior career ending with the [St. Catharines Teepees](/wiki/St._Catharines_Teepees \"St. Catharines Teepees\") of the [Ontario Hockey Association](/wiki/Ontario_Hockey_Association \"Ontario Hockey Association\") in 1953, Schinkel signed with the [Springfield Indians](/wiki/Springfield_Indians \"Springfield Indians\") of the [American Hockey League](/wiki/American_Hockey_League \"American Hockey League\"). He spent the next six years in the minors with the Indians' organization, garnering a reputation as a skilled two\\-way forward and penalty killer. In 1959 he led the AHL in goals with 43 and scored 85 points, earning a place on the league's Second All\\-Star Team, and his rights were dealt to the [New York Rangers](/wiki/New_York_Rangers \"New York Rangers\") of the NHL.",
"He played the [1960 season](/wiki/1959%E2%80%9360_NHL_season \"1959–60 NHL season\") with the Rangers and split the 1961 season between New York and Springfield \\- returning to the AHL just in time to be part of the Indians' second consecutive [Calder Cup](/wiki/Calder_Cup \"Calder Cup\") championship \\- before playing as a third\\-liner with the Rangers in [1962](/wiki/1961%E2%80%9362_NHL_season \"1961–62 NHL season\") and [1963](/wiki/1962%E2%80%9363_NHL_season \"1962–63 NHL season\"). By 1964 he was back in the minors, however, and spent the next four years starring for the Rangers' farm team, the AHL [Baltimore Clippers](/wiki/Baltimore_Clippers \"Baltimore Clippers\"). While playing with future [Hall of Famers](/wiki/Hockey_Hall_of_Fame \"Hockey Hall of Fame\") such as [Jean Ratelle](/wiki/Jean_Ratelle \"Jean Ratelle\") and [Doug Harvey](/wiki/Doug_Harvey_%28ice_hockey%29 \"Doug Harvey (ice hockey)\"), Schinkel led the Clippers in scoring two of those seasons.",
"When the NHL [doubled in size](/wiki/1967_NHL_Expansion \"1967 NHL Expansion\") after the 1967 season, Schinkel was drafted in the [expansion draft](/wiki/1967_NHL_Expansion_Draft \"1967 NHL Expansion Draft\") by the Pittsburgh Penguins. Named an alternate captain by the club, he was an immediate impact player and noted penalty killer for the offensively\\-thin Penguins, finishing first or second in team scoring the franchise's first three seasons and being named to play in the [NHL All\\-Star Game](/wiki/NHL_All-Star_Game \"NHL All-Star Game\") in [1968](/wiki/1968_NHL_All-Star_Game \"1968 NHL All-Star Game\") and [1969](/wiki/1969_NHL_All-Star_Game \"1969 NHL All-Star Game\"); he was named again in [1971](/wiki/1971_NHL_All-Star_Game \"1971 NHL All-Star Game\"), but did not play due to a broken arm. He played six seasons in all before retiring to become the team's coach.",
"On April 11, 1970, Schinkel scored three goals for Pittsburgh in a Stanley Cup playoff game versus the Oakland Seals. Pittsburgh won the game 5–2\\.",
"Schinkel retired as the Penguins' career leader in games and points (both since surpassed), and with 127 goals and 198 assists for 325 points in 636 games.",
""
] |
History
-------
Federal unfunded mandates can be traced back to the post\-[World War II](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II") years, when the federal government initiated national programs in [education](/wiki/Education "Education"), [mental health services](/wiki/Community_mental_health_service "Community mental health service"), and [environmental protection](/wiki/Environmental_protection "Environmental protection").Smith, Tom W. 1990\. "Liberal and Conservative Trends in the United States since World War II." *Public Opinion Quarterly* 54:479–50 The method for implementing these projects at the state and local level was to involve state and local governments. In the 1970s, the federal government utilized grants as a way to increase state and local participation, which resulted in federal assistance constituting over 25 percent of state and local budgets.
The first wave of major mandates occurred in the 1960s and 1970s, concerning civil rights, education, and the environment.Presidential Task Force on Regulatory Relief. 1982\. Reagan administration achievements in regulatory relief for state and local governments: A progress report. Washington, D.C. The arrival of the [Reagan administration](/wiki/Reagan_administration "Reagan administration") ostensibly undermined various federal mandate efforts, as the [executive branch](/wiki/Executive_branch "Executive branch") promised to decrease federal regulatory efforts. For example, the passage of Executive Order 12291 required a [cost\-benefit analysis](/wiki/Cost-benefit_analysis "Cost-benefit analysis") and an [Office of Management and Budget](/wiki/Office_of_Management_and_Budget "Office of Management and Budget") clearance on proposed agency regulations, and the State and Local Cost Estimate Act of 1981 required the [Congressional Budget Office](/wiki/Congressional_Budget_Office "Congressional Budget Office") to determine the state and local cost effects of proposed federal legislation moving through the Legislative Branch. However, the [U.S. Advisory Commission on Intergovernmental Relations](/wiki/U.S._Advisory_Commission_on_Intergovernmental_Relations "U.S. Advisory Commission on Intergovernmental Relations") (ACIR) reported that, during the 1980s, more major intergovernmental regulatory programs were enacted than during the 1970s.Advisory Commission on Intergovernmental Relations, Federal Regulation of State and Local Governments: The Mixed Record of the 1980s, A\-126 (Washington, DC: ACIR, 1993\).
According to a 1995 [Brookings Institution](/wiki/Brookings_Institution "Brookings Institution") report, in 1980 there were 36 laws that qualified as unfunded mandates. Despite opposition from the Reagan administration and [George H. W. Bush administration](/wiki/George_H._W._Bush_administration "George H. W. Bush administration"), an additional 27 laws that could be categorized as unfunded mandates went into effect between 1982 and 1991\.Dilulio, John and Don Kettl, *Fine Print: The Contract with America, Devolution, and the Administrative Realities of American Federalism* (Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution, 1995\), p. 41\.
The [U.S. Supreme Court](/wiki/U.S._Supreme_Court "U.S. Supreme Court") has been involved in deciding the federal government's role in the U.S. governmental system based on constitutionality."A Brief Overview of the Supreme Court" (PDF). United States Supreme Court. Retrieved 2009\-12\-31\. During the period between the [New Deal](/wiki/New_Deal "New Deal") era and the mid\-1980s the Court generally utilized an expansive interpretation of the [interstate commerce clause](/wiki/Interstate_commerce_clause "Interstate commerce clause") and the [14th Amendment](/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution "Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution") to validate the growth of the federal government's involvement in domestic policymaking.Lawson, Gary. "The Rise and Rise of the Administrative State". *Harvard Law Review*. 1237–41 (1994\). For example, the 1985 Supreme Court case *[Garcia v. San Antonio Metropolitan Transit Authority](/wiki/Garcia_v._San_Antonio_Metropolitan_Transit_Authority "Garcia v. San Antonio Metropolitan Transit Authority")* affirmed the ability for the federal government to directly regulate state and local governmental affairs.*Garcia v. San Antonio Metropolitan Transit Authority*, 105 S. Ct. 1005 (1985\).
The increase of mandates in the 1980s and 1990s incited state and local protest.Gullo, Theresa A. and Janet M. Kelly, "Federal Unfunded Mandate Reform: A First\-Year Retrospective", *Public Administration Review*, Vol. 58, (Sept. 1998\). 380\. In October 1993, state and local interest groups sponsored a National Unfunded Mandates Day, which involved press conferences and appeals to congressional delegations about mandate relief. In early 1995, Congress passed unfunded mandate reform legislation.Public Law 104\-4, 109 Stat. 48\.
In 1992 the Court determined in various cases that the Constitution provides state and locality protections concerning unfunded mandate enactments.*New York v. United States*, 505 U.S. 144 (1992\). For example, in the 1992 case *New York v. United States*, the Court struck down a federal law that regulated the disposal of [low\-level radioactive waste](/wiki/Low-level_radioactive_waste "Low-level radioactive waste"), which utilized the [Tenth Amendment to the United States Constitution](/wiki/Tenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution "Tenth Amendment to the United States Constitution") to require states to dispose of the radioactive material.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"Federal unfunded mandates can be traced back to the post\\-[World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\") years, when the federal government initiated national programs in [education](/wiki/Education \"Education\"), [mental health services](/wiki/Community_mental_health_service \"Community mental health service\"), and [environmental protection](/wiki/Environmental_protection \"Environmental protection\").Smith, Tom W. 1990\\. \"Liberal and Conservative Trends in the United States since World War II.\" *Public Opinion Quarterly* 54:479–50 The method for implementing these projects at the state and local level was to involve state and local governments. In the 1970s, the federal government utilized grants as a way to increase state and local participation, which resulted in federal assistance constituting over 25 percent of state and local budgets.",
"The first wave of major mandates occurred in the 1960s and 1970s, concerning civil rights, education, and the environment.Presidential Task Force on Regulatory Relief. 1982\\. Reagan administration achievements in regulatory relief for state and local governments: A progress report. Washington, D.C. The arrival of the [Reagan administration](/wiki/Reagan_administration \"Reagan administration\") ostensibly undermined various federal mandate efforts, as the [executive branch](/wiki/Executive_branch \"Executive branch\") promised to decrease federal regulatory efforts. For example, the passage of Executive Order 12291 required a [cost\\-benefit analysis](/wiki/Cost-benefit_analysis \"Cost-benefit analysis\") and an [Office of Management and Budget](/wiki/Office_of_Management_and_Budget \"Office of Management and Budget\") clearance on proposed agency regulations, and the State and Local Cost Estimate Act of 1981 required the [Congressional Budget Office](/wiki/Congressional_Budget_Office \"Congressional Budget Office\") to determine the state and local cost effects of proposed federal legislation moving through the Legislative Branch. However, the [U.S. Advisory Commission on Intergovernmental Relations](/wiki/U.S._Advisory_Commission_on_Intergovernmental_Relations \"U.S. Advisory Commission on Intergovernmental Relations\") (ACIR) reported that, during the 1980s, more major intergovernmental regulatory programs were enacted than during the 1970s.Advisory Commission on Intergovernmental Relations, Federal Regulation of State and Local Governments: The Mixed Record of the 1980s, A\\-126 (Washington, DC: ACIR, 1993\\).",
"According to a 1995 [Brookings Institution](/wiki/Brookings_Institution \"Brookings Institution\") report, in 1980 there were 36 laws that qualified as unfunded mandates. Despite opposition from the Reagan administration and [George H. W. Bush administration](/wiki/George_H._W._Bush_administration \"George H. W. Bush administration\"), an additional 27 laws that could be categorized as unfunded mandates went into effect between 1982 and 1991\\.Dilulio, John and Don Kettl, *Fine Print: The Contract with America, Devolution, and the Administrative Realities of American Federalism* (Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution, 1995\\), p. 41\\.",
"The [U.S. Supreme Court](/wiki/U.S._Supreme_Court \"U.S. Supreme Court\") has been involved in deciding the federal government's role in the U.S. governmental system based on constitutionality.\"A Brief Overview of the Supreme Court\" (PDF). United States Supreme Court. Retrieved 2009\\-12\\-31\\. During the period between the [New Deal](/wiki/New_Deal \"New Deal\") era and the mid\\-1980s the Court generally utilized an expansive interpretation of the [interstate commerce clause](/wiki/Interstate_commerce_clause \"Interstate commerce clause\") and the [14th Amendment](/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution \"Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution\") to validate the growth of the federal government's involvement in domestic policymaking.Lawson, Gary. \"The Rise and Rise of the Administrative State\". *Harvard Law Review*. 1237–41 (1994\\). For example, the 1985 Supreme Court case *[Garcia v. San Antonio Metropolitan Transit Authority](/wiki/Garcia_v._San_Antonio_Metropolitan_Transit_Authority \"Garcia v. San Antonio Metropolitan Transit Authority\")* affirmed the ability for the federal government to directly regulate state and local governmental affairs.*Garcia v. San Antonio Metropolitan Transit Authority*, 105 S. Ct. 1005 (1985\\).",
"The increase of mandates in the 1980s and 1990s incited state and local protest.Gullo, Theresa A. and Janet M. Kelly, \"Federal Unfunded Mandate Reform: A First\\-Year Retrospective\", *Public Administration Review*, Vol. 58, (Sept. 1998\\). 380\\. In October 1993, state and local interest groups sponsored a National Unfunded Mandates Day, which involved press conferences and appeals to congressional delegations about mandate relief. In early 1995, Congress passed unfunded mandate reform legislation.Public Law 104\\-4, 109 Stat. 48\\.",
"In 1992 the Court determined in various cases that the Constitution provides state and locality protections concerning unfunded mandate enactments.*New York v. United States*, 505 U.S. 144 (1992\\). For example, in the 1992 case *New York v. United States*, the Court struck down a federal law that regulated the disposal of [low\\-level radioactive waste](/wiki/Low-level_radioactive_waste \"Low-level radioactive waste\"), which utilized the [Tenth Amendment to the United States Constitution](/wiki/Tenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution \"Tenth Amendment to the United States Constitution\") to require states to dispose of the radioactive material.",
""
] |
Plot
----
In 1952, 22\-year\-old Kevin David Walker is a promising graduating law student, who becomes an agent of the FBI in the San Francisco branch. Under the lasting impact of the [Second Red Scare](/wiki/Red_Scare%23Second_Red_Scare_%281947%E2%80%931957%29 "Red Scare#Second Red Scare (1947–1957)") and the rise of Maoism in China, Kevin is assigned to investigate San Franciscan Chinatown resident activities to root out sympathizers with the newly Communist Chinese state.
While vigilantly on patrol and on the course of a promising life with his lover, Cynthia, Kevin and his partner Ron Pirelli come across money transfers from a local laundry to Hong Kong by three Chinese American workers, and under vague suspicions that they may be involved with the Chinese Communist Party. Though the evidence is not sound and there is a push to crack down hard on communist activities to make examples of for public peace of mind, Kevin is at a moral dilemma, as while the charges can be a boost for his career and to uphold the law, the charges are trumped up and Cynthia is appalled at the actions the FBI is willing to take to fight communist influence. Kevin ultimately gives into pressing the charges at the berating of his superior and being goaded by appeal of nationalism upon trying to officially drop the case, which sends the three men to prison on indictment. While celebrating the success of their case with Ron, Cynthia ultimately breaks up with him for not doing the just thing. In grief over a disappeared Cynthia, a mysterious Chinese girl comes over to him to wipe his tears.
Ten years later in 1962, Kevin continues his career as an FBI agent, while Ron is eventually promoted to become the new head of the San Francisco branch. As the three men from the case in 1952 are released from prison, Ron orders Kevin to continue surveillance on Chen Jung Song, who is considered the "ringleader" of the trio. All throughout his surveillance, Chen suffers from poor public face throughout Chinatown, being denied a raise in pay at his old laundromat, and is shunned by the Chinese American community. While witnessing a vaguely evocative woman crying atop the apartment complex, Chen then revolts in madness in the streets, and is pursued by Kevin to the Golden Gate Bridge, who, overcome by guilt, offers to try and help the now despondent Chen. Upset and in anger at the man who unjustly sent him to prison, Chen curses Kevin to "become a Chinaman", before committing suicide by leaping over the Golden Gate Memorial.
Kevin, walking back to the Chinatown neighborhood, comes across the Chinese woman who was on the roof and consoling Chen before his death. At first with resistance, not revealing who he really is, Kevin introduces himself to the woman, who reveals herself to be Marilyn Song, the daughter of Chen Jung Song. Initially coming over to see how she is faring after her father's death, eventually, a romantic relationship develops between Kevin and Marilyn. Kevin eventually comes to earnestly learn a greater deal of the culture of the community he's been tasked to enforce over the years, allowing Marilyn to warm up greater to him. However, upon revealing he is the FBI agent who sent Marilyn's father to prison, Marilyn ultimately deserts him, and Kevin comes to spiral greater into grief over the consequences of his actions.
Six years later in 1968, Kevin is assigned a new partner, Agent Byrd, and is tasked with the job of keeping watch on prolific pro\-minority race revolutionary groups by the then dean of UC Berkeley and by orders of Ron and [J. Edgar Hoover](/wiki/J._Edgar_Hoover "J. Edgar Hoover"), specifically the Pro Asian Empowerment Movement, headed by Japanese American Bradley Ichiyasu, and whose members also includes Marilyn Song, who is considered a powerfully influential member of the group for her history and is romantically involved with Ichiyasu. Walker merely goes to incarcerate Ichiyasu to disband the Pro Asian Empowerment Movement, but able to make bail by his rich parents and with only charges of marijuana possession, Hoover demands Ron to arrest Marilyn Song upon seeing her on TV to use her influence to release Ichiyasu and cause civil unrest. Further disillusioned by the prolific racism within the FBI and its under current of pro\-white supremacist rhetoric, and knowing well that his actions have come full circle, Kevin refuses, and upon being dismissed from the case by Ron, goes to make the ultimate sacrifice for Marilyn and in repentance for his actions. Able to retrieve the case files, and at an on campus riot, Walker engages Ichiyasu, giving him the files able to redeem Marilyn's father from unfounded shame, and disposing of the evidence found on him, freeing him and Marilyn from the FBI's watching eyes.
At the same spot where Cynthia left him, Kevin meets Marilyn again, who hopes to save him from legal reprimand and charges by his superiors by giving him the files back. Unwilling to take back the case file, Kevin and Marilyn embrace a final time, and express their love for one another despite crossed stars and fate. After being fiercely interrogated by Ron and his superiors as news of Chen's innocence becomes nationwide, and weary of the world, Kevin walks back to the same place where Chen committed suicide. As Marilyn monologues, Kevin tried to leave the world the same way as her father did, but for his selfless devotion to redeem himself and sacrifice to save the life of Marilyn, Kevin was merely spirited away by [Guanyin](/wiki/Guanyin "Guanyin") into heaven as a [xian](/wiki/Xian_%28Taoism%29 "Xian (Taoism)") into her mercy.
|
[
"Plot\n----",
"In 1952, 22\\-year\\-old Kevin David Walker is a promising graduating law student, who becomes an agent of the FBI in the San Francisco branch. Under the lasting impact of the [Second Red Scare](/wiki/Red_Scare%23Second_Red_Scare_%281947%E2%80%931957%29 \"Red Scare#Second Red Scare (1947–1957)\") and the rise of Maoism in China, Kevin is assigned to investigate San Franciscan Chinatown resident activities to root out sympathizers with the newly Communist Chinese state.",
"While vigilantly on patrol and on the course of a promising life with his lover, Cynthia, Kevin and his partner Ron Pirelli come across money transfers from a local laundry to Hong Kong by three Chinese American workers, and under vague suspicions that they may be involved with the Chinese Communist Party. Though the evidence is not sound and there is a push to crack down hard on communist activities to make examples of for public peace of mind, Kevin is at a moral dilemma, as while the charges can be a boost for his career and to uphold the law, the charges are trumped up and Cynthia is appalled at the actions the FBI is willing to take to fight communist influence. Kevin ultimately gives into pressing the charges at the berating of his superior and being goaded by appeal of nationalism upon trying to officially drop the case, which sends the three men to prison on indictment. While celebrating the success of their case with Ron, Cynthia ultimately breaks up with him for not doing the just thing. In grief over a disappeared Cynthia, a mysterious Chinese girl comes over to him to wipe his tears.",
"Ten years later in 1962, Kevin continues his career as an FBI agent, while Ron is eventually promoted to become the new head of the San Francisco branch. As the three men from the case in 1952 are released from prison, Ron orders Kevin to continue surveillance on Chen Jung Song, who is considered the \"ringleader\" of the trio. All throughout his surveillance, Chen suffers from poor public face throughout Chinatown, being denied a raise in pay at his old laundromat, and is shunned by the Chinese American community. While witnessing a vaguely evocative woman crying atop the apartment complex, Chen then revolts in madness in the streets, and is pursued by Kevin to the Golden Gate Bridge, who, overcome by guilt, offers to try and help the now despondent Chen. Upset and in anger at the man who unjustly sent him to prison, Chen curses Kevin to \"become a Chinaman\", before committing suicide by leaping over the Golden Gate Memorial.",
"Kevin, walking back to the Chinatown neighborhood, comes across the Chinese woman who was on the roof and consoling Chen before his death. At first with resistance, not revealing who he really is, Kevin introduces himself to the woman, who reveals herself to be Marilyn Song, the daughter of Chen Jung Song. Initially coming over to see how she is faring after her father's death, eventually, a romantic relationship develops between Kevin and Marilyn. Kevin eventually comes to earnestly learn a greater deal of the culture of the community he's been tasked to enforce over the years, allowing Marilyn to warm up greater to him. However, upon revealing he is the FBI agent who sent Marilyn's father to prison, Marilyn ultimately deserts him, and Kevin comes to spiral greater into grief over the consequences of his actions.",
"Six years later in 1968, Kevin is assigned a new partner, Agent Byrd, and is tasked with the job of keeping watch on prolific pro\\-minority race revolutionary groups by the then dean of UC Berkeley and by orders of Ron and [J. Edgar Hoover](/wiki/J._Edgar_Hoover \"J. Edgar Hoover\"), specifically the Pro Asian Empowerment Movement, headed by Japanese American Bradley Ichiyasu, and whose members also includes Marilyn Song, who is considered a powerfully influential member of the group for her history and is romantically involved with Ichiyasu. Walker merely goes to incarcerate Ichiyasu to disband the Pro Asian Empowerment Movement, but able to make bail by his rich parents and with only charges of marijuana possession, Hoover demands Ron to arrest Marilyn Song upon seeing her on TV to use her influence to release Ichiyasu and cause civil unrest. Further disillusioned by the prolific racism within the FBI and its under current of pro\\-white supremacist rhetoric, and knowing well that his actions have come full circle, Kevin refuses, and upon being dismissed from the case by Ron, goes to make the ultimate sacrifice for Marilyn and in repentance for his actions. Able to retrieve the case files, and at an on campus riot, Walker engages Ichiyasu, giving him the files able to redeem Marilyn's father from unfounded shame, and disposing of the evidence found on him, freeing him and Marilyn from the FBI's watching eyes.",
"At the same spot where Cynthia left him, Kevin meets Marilyn again, who hopes to save him from legal reprimand and charges by his superiors by giving him the files back. Unwilling to take back the case file, Kevin and Marilyn embrace a final time, and express their love for one another despite crossed stars and fate. After being fiercely interrogated by Ron and his superiors as news of Chen's innocence becomes nationwide, and weary of the world, Kevin walks back to the same place where Chen committed suicide. As Marilyn monologues, Kevin tried to leave the world the same way as her father did, but for his selfless devotion to redeem himself and sacrifice to save the life of Marilyn, Kevin was merely spirited away by [Guanyin](/wiki/Guanyin \"Guanyin\") into heaven as a [xian](/wiki/Xian_%28Taoism%29 \"Xian (Taoism)\") into her mercy.",
""
] |
Aharoni's conditions: largest matching
--------------------------------------
Let {{math\|1\=''H'' \= (''X'' \+ ''Y'', ''E'')}} be a bipartite hypergraph (as defined in 1\. above), in which the size of every hyperedge is exactly {{mvar\|r}}, for some integer {{math\|''r'' \> 1}}. Suppose that, for every subset {{math\|''Y''{{sub\|0}}}} of {{mvar\|Y}}, the following inequality holds:
\\nu(N\_H(Y\_0\)) \\geq (r\-1\)\\cdot (\|Y\_0\| \- 1\) \+ 1
In words: the neighborhood\-hypergraph of {{math\|''Y''{{sub\|0}}}} admits a matching larger than {{math\|(''r'' – 1\) ({{abs\|''Y''{{sub\|0}}}} – 1\)}}. Then {{mvar\|H}} admits a {{mvar\|Y}}\-perfect matching (as defined in 2\. above).
This was first conjectured by Aharoni. It was proved with Ofra Kessler for bipartite hypergraphs in which {{math\|{{abs\|''Y''}} ≤ 4}} and for {{math\|1\={{abs\|''Y''}} \= 5}}. It was later proved for all {{mvar\|r}}\-uniform hypergraphs.{{Rp\|Corollary 1\.2}}
### In simple graphs
For a bipartite simple graph {{math\|1\=''r'' \= 2}}, and Aharoni's condition becomes:
\\nu(H\_H(Y\_0\)) \\geq \|Y\_0\|.
Moreover, the neighborhood\-hypergraph (as defined in 3\. above) contains just singletons \- a singleton for every neighbor of {{math\|''Y''{{sub\|0}}}}. Since singletons do not intersect, the entire set of singletons is a matching. Hence, {{math\|1\=''ν''(''H{{sub\|H}}''(''Y''{{sub\|0}})) \= {{abs\|N{{sub\|''H''}}(''Y''{{sub\|0}})}} \= }} the number of neighbors of {{math\|''Y''{{sub\|0}}}}. Thus, Aharoni's condition becomes, for every subset {{math\|''Y''{{sub\|0}}}} of {{mvar\|Y}}:
\|N\_H(Y\_0\)\| \\geq \|Y\_0\|.
This is exactly Hall's marriage condition.
### Tightness
The following example shows that the factor {{math\|(''r'' – 1\)}} cannot be improved. Choose some integer {{math\|''m'' \> 1}}. Let {{math\|1\=''H'' \= (''X'' \+ ''Y'', ''E'')}} be the following {{mvar\|r}}\-uniform bipartite hypergraph:
* {{math\|1\=''Y'' \= {1, ..., ''m''};}}
* {{mvar\|E}} is the union of {{math\|''E''{{sub\|1}}, … , ''E{{sub\|m}}''}} (where {{mvar\|E{{sub\|i}}}} is the set of hyperedges containing vertex {{mvar\|i}}), and:
+ For each {{mvar\|i}} in {{math\|{1, … , ''m'' – 1},}} {{mvar\|E{{sub\|i}}}} contains {{math\|''r'' – 1}} disjoint hyperedges of size {{mvar\|r}}: \\{ i, x\_{i,1,1}, \\ldots, x\_{i,1,r\-1} \\}, \\ldots , \\{i, x\_{i,r\-1,1}, \\ldots, x\_{i,r\-1,r\-1} \\}.
+ {{mvar\|E{{sub\|m}}}} contains {{math\|''m'' – 1}} hyperedges of size {{mvar\|r}}: \\{ m, x\_{1,1,1}, \\ldots, x\_{1,r\-1,r\-1}, \\} , \\ldots, \\{ m, x\_{m\-1,1,1}, \\ldots, x\_{m\-1,r\-1,1} \\}
Note that edge {{mvar\|i}} in {{mvar\|E{{sub\|m}}}} meets all edges in {{mvar\|E{{sub\|i}}}}.
This {{mvar\|H}} does not admit a {{mvar\|Y}}\-perfect matching, since every hyperedge that contains {{mvar\|m}} intersects all hyperedges in {{mvar\|E{{sub\|i}}}} for some {{math\|''i'' \< ''m''}}.
However, every subset {{math\|''Y''{{sub\|0}}}} of {{mvar\|Y}} satisfies the following inequality
\\nu(H\_H(Y\_0\)) \\geq (r\-1\)\\cdot (\|Y\_0\| \- 1\)
since {{math\|''H{{sub\|H}}''(''Y''{{sub\|0}} \\ {''m''})}} contains at least {{math\|(''r'' – 1\) ⋅ ({{abs\|''Y''{{sub\|0}}}} – 1\)}} hyperedges, and they are all disjoint.
### Fractional matchings
The largest size of a *[fractional matching](/wiki/Matching_in_hypergraphs "Matching in hypergraphs")* in {{mvar\|H}} is denoted by {{math\|''ν''\*(''H'')}}. Clearly {{math\|''ν''\*(''H'') ≥ ''ν''(''H'')}}. Suppose that, for every subset {{math\|''Y''{{sub\|0}}}} of {{mvar\|Y}}, the following weaker inequality holds:
\\nu^\*(H\_H(Y\_0\)) \\geq (r\-1\)\\cdot (\|Y\_0\| \- 1\) \+1
It was conjectured that in this case, too, {{mvar\|H}} admits a {{mvar\|Y}}\-perfect matching. This stronger conjecture was proved for bipartite hypergraphs in which {{math\|1\={{abs\|''Y''}} \= 2}}.
Later it was proved that, if the above condition holds, then {{mvar\|H}} admits a {{mvar\|Y}}\-perfect *fractional* matching, i.e., {{math\|1\=''ν''\*(''H'') \= {{abs\|''Y''}}}}. This is weaker than having a {{mvar\|Y}}\-perfect matching, which is equivalent to {{math\|1\=''ν''(''H'') \= {{abs\|''Y''}}}}.
|
[
"Aharoni's conditions: largest matching\n--------------------------------------",
"Let {{math\\|1\\=''H'' \\= (''X'' \\+ ''Y'', ''E'')}} be a bipartite hypergraph (as defined in 1\\. above), in which the size of every hyperedge is exactly {{mvar\\|r}}, for some integer {{math\\|''r'' \\> 1}}. Suppose that, for every subset {{math\\|''Y''{{sub\\|0}}}} of {{mvar\\|Y}}, the following inequality holds:\n\\\\nu(N\\_H(Y\\_0\\)) \\\\geq (r\\-1\\)\\\\cdot (\\|Y\\_0\\| \\- 1\\) \\+ 1\nIn words: the neighborhood\\-hypergraph of {{math\\|''Y''{{sub\\|0}}}} admits a matching larger than {{math\\|(''r'' – 1\\) ({{abs\\|''Y''{{sub\\|0}}}} – 1\\)}}. Then {{mvar\\|H}} admits a {{mvar\\|Y}}\\-perfect matching (as defined in 2\\. above).",
"This was first conjectured by Aharoni. It was proved with Ofra Kessler for bipartite hypergraphs in which {{math\\|{{abs\\|''Y''}} ≤ 4}} and for {{math\\|1\\={{abs\\|''Y''}} \\= 5}}. It was later proved for all {{mvar\\|r}}\\-uniform hypergraphs.{{Rp\\|Corollary 1\\.2}}",
"### In simple graphs",
"For a bipartite simple graph {{math\\|1\\=''r'' \\= 2}}, and Aharoni's condition becomes:\n\\\\nu(H\\_H(Y\\_0\\)) \\\\geq \\|Y\\_0\\|.\nMoreover, the neighborhood\\-hypergraph (as defined in 3\\. above) contains just singletons \\- a singleton for every neighbor of {{math\\|''Y''{{sub\\|0}}}}. Since singletons do not intersect, the entire set of singletons is a matching. Hence, {{math\\|1\\=''ν''(''H{{sub\\|H}}''(''Y''{{sub\\|0}})) \\= {{abs\\|N{{sub\\|''H''}}(''Y''{{sub\\|0}})}} \\= }} the number of neighbors of {{math\\|''Y''{{sub\\|0}}}}. Thus, Aharoni's condition becomes, for every subset {{math\\|''Y''{{sub\\|0}}}} of {{mvar\\|Y}}:\n\\|N\\_H(Y\\_0\\)\\| \\\\geq \\|Y\\_0\\|.\nThis is exactly Hall's marriage condition.",
"### Tightness",
"The following example shows that the factor {{math\\|(''r'' – 1\\)}} cannot be improved. Choose some integer {{math\\|''m'' \\> 1}}. Let {{math\\|1\\=''H'' \\= (''X'' \\+ ''Y'', ''E'')}} be the following {{mvar\\|r}}\\-uniform bipartite hypergraph:",
"* {{math\\|1\\=''Y'' \\= {1, ..., ''m''};}}\n* {{mvar\\|E}} is the union of {{math\\|''E''{{sub\\|1}}, … , ''E{{sub\\|m}}''}} (where {{mvar\\|E{{sub\\|i}}}} is the set of hyperedges containing vertex {{mvar\\|i}}), and:\n\t+ For each {{mvar\\|i}} in {{math\\|{1, … , ''m'' – 1},}} {{mvar\\|E{{sub\\|i}}}} contains {{math\\|''r'' – 1}} disjoint hyperedges of size {{mvar\\|r}}: \\\\{ i, x\\_{i,1,1}, \\\\ldots, x\\_{i,1,r\\-1} \\\\}, \\\\ldots , \\\\{i, x\\_{i,r\\-1,1}, \\\\ldots, x\\_{i,r\\-1,r\\-1} \\\\}.\n\t+ {{mvar\\|E{{sub\\|m}}}} contains {{math\\|''m'' – 1}} hyperedges of size {{mvar\\|r}}: \\\\{ m, x\\_{1,1,1}, \\\\ldots, x\\_{1,r\\-1,r\\-1}, \\\\} , \\\\ldots, \\\\{ m, x\\_{m\\-1,1,1}, \\\\ldots, x\\_{m\\-1,r\\-1,1} \\\\}",
"Note that edge {{mvar\\|i}} in {{mvar\\|E{{sub\\|m}}}} meets all edges in {{mvar\\|E{{sub\\|i}}}}.",
"This {{mvar\\|H}} does not admit a {{mvar\\|Y}}\\-perfect matching, since every hyperedge that contains {{mvar\\|m}} intersects all hyperedges in {{mvar\\|E{{sub\\|i}}}} for some {{math\\|''i'' \\< ''m''}}.",
"However, every subset {{math\\|''Y''{{sub\\|0}}}} of {{mvar\\|Y}} satisfies the following inequality\n\\\\nu(H\\_H(Y\\_0\\)) \\\\geq (r\\-1\\)\\\\cdot (\\|Y\\_0\\| \\- 1\\)\nsince {{math\\|''H{{sub\\|H}}''(''Y''{{sub\\|0}} \\\\ {''m''})}} contains at least {{math\\|(''r'' – 1\\) ⋅ ({{abs\\|''Y''{{sub\\|0}}}} – 1\\)}} hyperedges, and they are all disjoint.",
"### Fractional matchings",
"The largest size of a *[fractional matching](/wiki/Matching_in_hypergraphs \"Matching in hypergraphs\")* in {{mvar\\|H}} is denoted by {{math\\|''ν''\\*(''H'')}}. Clearly {{math\\|''ν''\\*(''H'') ≥ ''ν''(''H'')}}. Suppose that, for every subset {{math\\|''Y''{{sub\\|0}}}} of {{mvar\\|Y}}, the following weaker inequality holds:\n\\\\nu^\\*(H\\_H(Y\\_0\\)) \\\\geq (r\\-1\\)\\\\cdot (\\|Y\\_0\\| \\- 1\\) \\+1\nIt was conjectured that in this case, too, {{mvar\\|H}} admits a {{mvar\\|Y}}\\-perfect matching. This stronger conjecture was proved for bipartite hypergraphs in which {{math\\|1\\={{abs\\|''Y''}} \\= 2}}.",
"Later it was proved that, if the above condition holds, then {{mvar\\|H}} admits a {{mvar\\|Y}}\\-perfect *fractional* matching, i.e., {{math\\|1\\=''ν''\\*(''H'') \\= {{abs\\|''Y''}}}}. This is weaker than having a {{mvar\\|Y}}\\-perfect matching, which is equivalent to {{math\\|1\\=''ν''(''H'') \\= {{abs\\|''Y''}}}}.",
""
] |
Haxell's condition: smallest transversal
----------------------------------------
A *transversal* (also called [*vertex\-cover*](/wiki/Vertex_cover_in_hypergraphs "Vertex cover in hypergraphs") or *hitting\-set*) in a hypergraph {{math\|1\={{mvar\|H}} \= (''V'', ''E'')}} is a subset {{mvar\|U}} of {{mvar\|V}} such that every hyperedge in {{mvar\|E}} contains at least one vertex of {{mvar\|U}}. The smallest size of a transversal in {{mvar\|H}} is denoted by {{math\|''τ''(''H'')}}.
Let {{math\|1\=''H'' \= (''X'' \+ ''Y'', ''E'')}} be a bipartite hypergraph in which the size of every hyperedge is at most {{mvar\|r}}, for some integer {{math\|''r'' \> 1}}. Suppose that, for every subset {{math\|''Y''{{sub\|0}}}} of {{mvar\|Y}}, the following inequality holds:
\\tau(H\_H(Y\_0\)) \\geq (2r\-3\)\\cdot (\|Y\_0\| \- 1\) \+ 1
In words: the neighborhood\-hypergraph of {{math\|''Y''{{sub\|0}}}} has no transversal of size {{math\|(2''r'' – 3\)(''Y''{{sub\|0}} – 1\)}} or less.
Then, {{mvar\|H}} admits a {{mvar\|Y}}\-perfect matching (as defined in 2\. above).{{Rp\|Theorem 3}}
### In simple graphs
For a bipartite simple graph {{math\|1\=''r'' \= 2}} so {{math\|1\=2''r'' – 3 \= 1}}, and Haxell's condition becomes:
\\tau(H\_H(Y\_0\)) \\geq \|Y\_0\|.
Moreover, the neighborhood\-hypergraph (as defined in 3\. above) contains just [singletons](/wiki/Singleton_%28mathematics%29 "Singleton (mathematics)") \- a singleton for every neighbor of {{math\|''Y''{{sub\|0}}}}. In a hypergraph of singletons, a transversal must contain all vertices. Hence, {{math\|1\=''τ''(''H{{sub\|H}}''(''Y''{{sub\|0}})) \= {{abs\|''N''{{sub\|''H''}}(''Y''{{sub\|0}})}} \= }} the number of neighbors of {{math\|''Y''{{sub\|0}}}}. Thus, Haxell's condition becomes, for every subset {{math\|''Y''{{sub\|0}}}} of {{mvar\|Y}}:
\|N\_H(Y\_0\)\| \\geq \|Y\_0\|.
This is exactly Hall's marriage condition. Thus, Haxell's theorem implies Hall's marriage theorem for bipartite simple graphs.
### Tightness
The following example shows that the factor {{math\|(2''r'' – 3\)}} cannot be improved. Let {{math\|1\=''H'' \= (''X'' \+ ''Y'', ''E'')}} be an {{mvar\|r}}\-uniform bipartite hypergraph with:
* Y \= \\{ 0,1 \\}
* X \= \\{ x\_{ij} : 1 \\leq i,j \\leq r\-1 \\} \[so {{math\|1\={{abs\|''X''}} \= (''r'' – 1\){{sup\|2}}}}].
* E \= E\_0 \\cup E\_1, where:
+ E\_0 \= \\{ \\{ 0, x\_{i1}, \\ldots, x\_{i(r\-1\)} \\} \| 1 \\leq i \\leq r\-1 \\}
\[so {{math\|''E''{{sub\|0}}}} contains {{math\|''r'' – 1}} hyperedges].
+ E\_1 \= \\{ \\{ 1, x\_{1j\[1]}, \\ldots, x\_{(r\-1\) j\[r\-1]} \\} \| 1 \\leq j\[k] \\leq r\-1
for 1 \\leq k \\leq r\-1 \\}
\[so {{math\|''E''{{sub\|1}}}} contains {{math\|(''r'' – 1\){{sup\|''r''\-1}}}} hyperedges].
This {{mvar\|H}} does not admit a {{mvar\|Y}}\-perfect matching, since every hyperedge that contains 0 intersects every hyperedge that contains 1\.
However, every subset {{math\|''Y''{{sub\|0}}}} of {{mvar\|Y}} satisfies the following inequality:
\\tau(H\_H(Y\_0\)) \\geq (2r\-3\)\\cdot (\|Y\_0\| \- 1\)
It is only slightly weaker (by 1\) than required by Haxell's theorem. To verify this, it is sufficient to check the subset {{math\|1\=''Y''{{sub\|0}} \= ''Y''}}, since it is the only subset for which the right\-hand side is larger than 0\. The neighborhood\-hypergraph of {{mvar\|Y}} is {{math\|(''X'', ''E''{{sub\|00}} ∪ ''E''{{sub\|11}})}} where:
E\_{00} \= \\{ \\{ x\_{i1}, \\ldots, x\_{i(r\-1\)} \\} \| 1 \\leq i \\leq r\-1 \\}
E\_{11} \= \\{ \\{ x\_{1j\[1]}, \\ldots, x\_{(r\-1\) j\[r\-1]} \\} \| 1 \\leq j\[k] \\leq r\-1
for 1 \\leq k \\leq r\-1 \\}
One can visualize the vertices of {{mvar\|X}} as arranged on an {{math\|(''r'' – 1\) × (''r'' – 1\)}} grid. The hyperedges of {{math\|''E''{{sub\|00}}}} are the {{math\|''r'' – 1}} rows. The hyperedges of {{math\|''E''{{sub\|11}}}} are the {{math\|(''r'' – 1\){{sup\|''r''\-1}}}} selections of a single element in each row and each column. To cover the hyperedges of {{math\|''E''{{sub\|10}}}} we need {{math\|''r'' – 1}} vertices \- one vertex in each row. Since all columns are symmetric in the construction, we can assume that we take all the vertices in column 1 (i.e., {{math\|''v''{{sub\|''i''1}}}} for each {{mvar\|i}} in {{math\|{1, …, ''r'' – 1})}}. Now, since {{math\|''E''{{sub\|11}}}} contains all columns, we need at least {{math\|''r'' – 2}} additional vertices \- one vertex for each column {{math\|{2, …, ''r''}.}} All in all, each transversal requires at least {{math\|2''r'' – 3}} vertices.
### Algorithms
Haxell's proof is not constructive. However, Chidambaram Annamalai proved that a perfect matching can be found efficiently under a slightly stronger condition.{{Citation\|last\=Annamalai\|first\=Chidambaram\|title\=Finding Perfect Matchings in Bipartite Hypergraphs\|date\=2015\-12\-21\|work\=Proceedings of the 2016 Annual ACM\-SIAM Symposium on Discrete Algorithms\|pages\=1814–1823\|series\=Proceedings\|publisher\=Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics\|doi\=10\.1137/1\.9781611974331\.ch126\|isbn\=978\-1\-61197\-433\-1\|doi\-access\=free\|arxiv\=1509\.07007}}
For every fixed choice of {{math\|''r'' ≥ 2}} and {{math\|''ε'' \> 0}}, there exists an algorithm that finds a {{mvar\|Y}}\-perfect matching in every {{mvar\|r}}\-uniform bipartite hypergraph satisfying, for every subset {{math\|''Y''{{sub\|0}}}} of {{mvar\|Y}}:
\\tau(H\_H(Y\_0\)) \\geq (2r\-3 \+\\epsilon)\\cdot (\|Y\_0\| \- 1\) \+ 1
In fact, in any {{mvar\|r}}\-uniform hypergraph, the algorithm finds either a {{mvar\|Y}}\-perfect matching, or a subset {{math\|''Y''{{sub\|0}}}} violating the above inequality.
The algorithm runs in time polynomial in the size of {{mvar\|H}}, but exponential in {{mvar\|r}} and {{math\|{{frac\|1\|''ε''}}}}.
It is an open question whether there exists an algorithm with run\-time polynomial in either {{mvar\|r}} or {{math\|{{frac\|1\|''ε''}}}} (or both).
Similar algorithms have been applied for solving problems of [fair item allocation](/wiki/Fair_item_allocation "Fair item allocation"), in particular the [santa\-claus problem](/wiki/Santa-claus_problem "Santa-claus problem").{{Cite journal\|last1\=Asadpour Arash\|last2\=Feige Uriel\|last3\=Saberi Amin\|date\=2012\-07\-24\|title\=Santa claus meets hypergraph matchings\|journal\=ACM Transactions on Algorithms \|language\=EN\|volume\=8\|issue\=3\|pages\=1–9\|doi\=10\.1145/2229163\.2229168\|s2cid\=10281304}}{{Cite journal\|last1\=Annamalai Chidambaram\|last2\=Kalaitzis Christos\|last3\=Svensson Ola\|date\=2017\-05\-26\|title\=Combinatorial Algorithm for Restricted Max\-Min Fair Allocation\|journal\=ACM Transactions on Algorithms \|language\=EN\|volume\=13\|issue\=3\|pages\=1–28\|doi\=10\.1145/3070694\|arxiv\=1409\.0607\|s2cid\=14749011}}{{Citation\|last1\=Davies\|first1\=Sami\|title\=A Tale of Santa Claus, Hypergraphs and Matroids\|date\=2019\-12\-23\|work\=Proceedings of the 2020 ACM\-SIAM Symposium on Discrete Algorithms\|pages\=2748–2757\|series\=Proceedings\|publisher\=Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics\|doi\=10\.1137/1\.9781611975994\.167\|last2\=Rothvoss\|first2\=Thomas\|last3\=Zhang\|first3\=Yihao\|isbn\=978\-1\-61197\-599\-4\|s2cid\=49880727\|doi\-access\=free\|arxiv\=1807\.07189}}
|
[
"Haxell's condition: smallest transversal\n----------------------------------------",
"A *transversal* (also called [*vertex\\-cover*](/wiki/Vertex_cover_in_hypergraphs \"Vertex cover in hypergraphs\") or *hitting\\-set*) in a hypergraph {{math\\|1\\={{mvar\\|H}} \\= (''V'', ''E'')}} is a subset {{mvar\\|U}} of {{mvar\\|V}} such that every hyperedge in {{mvar\\|E}} contains at least one vertex of {{mvar\\|U}}. The smallest size of a transversal in {{mvar\\|H}} is denoted by {{math\\|''τ''(''H'')}}.",
"Let {{math\\|1\\=''H'' \\= (''X'' \\+ ''Y'', ''E'')}} be a bipartite hypergraph in which the size of every hyperedge is at most {{mvar\\|r}}, for some integer {{math\\|''r'' \\> 1}}. Suppose that, for every subset {{math\\|''Y''{{sub\\|0}}}} of {{mvar\\|Y}}, the following inequality holds:\n\\\\tau(H\\_H(Y\\_0\\)) \\\\geq (2r\\-3\\)\\\\cdot (\\|Y\\_0\\| \\- 1\\) \\+ 1\nIn words: the neighborhood\\-hypergraph of {{math\\|''Y''{{sub\\|0}}}} has no transversal of size {{math\\|(2''r'' – 3\\)(''Y''{{sub\\|0}} – 1\\)}} or less.",
"Then, {{mvar\\|H}} admits a {{mvar\\|Y}}\\-perfect matching (as defined in 2\\. above).{{Rp\\|Theorem 3}}",
"### In simple graphs",
"For a bipartite simple graph {{math\\|1\\=''r'' \\= 2}} so {{math\\|1\\=2''r'' – 3 \\= 1}}, and Haxell's condition becomes:\n\\\\tau(H\\_H(Y\\_0\\)) \\\\geq \\|Y\\_0\\|.\nMoreover, the neighborhood\\-hypergraph (as defined in 3\\. above) contains just [singletons](/wiki/Singleton_%28mathematics%29 \"Singleton (mathematics)\") \\- a singleton for every neighbor of {{math\\|''Y''{{sub\\|0}}}}. In a hypergraph of singletons, a transversal must contain all vertices. Hence, {{math\\|1\\=''τ''(''H{{sub\\|H}}''(''Y''{{sub\\|0}})) \\= {{abs\\|''N''{{sub\\|''H''}}(''Y''{{sub\\|0}})}} \\= }} the number of neighbors of {{math\\|''Y''{{sub\\|0}}}}. Thus, Haxell's condition becomes, for every subset {{math\\|''Y''{{sub\\|0}}}} of {{mvar\\|Y}}:\n\\|N\\_H(Y\\_0\\)\\| \\\\geq \\|Y\\_0\\|.\nThis is exactly Hall's marriage condition. Thus, Haxell's theorem implies Hall's marriage theorem for bipartite simple graphs.",
"### Tightness",
"The following example shows that the factor {{math\\|(2''r'' – 3\\)}} cannot be improved. Let {{math\\|1\\=''H'' \\= (''X'' \\+ ''Y'', ''E'')}} be an {{mvar\\|r}}\\-uniform bipartite hypergraph with:",
"* Y \\= \\\\{ 0,1 \\\\}\n* X \\= \\\\{ x\\_{ij} : 1 \\\\leq i,j \\\\leq r\\-1 \\\\} \\[so {{math\\|1\\={{abs\\|''X''}} \\= (''r'' – 1\\){{sup\\|2}}}}].\n* E \\= E\\_0 \\\\cup E\\_1, where:\n\t+ E\\_0 \\= \\\\{ \\\\{ 0, x\\_{i1}, \\\\ldots, x\\_{i(r\\-1\\)} \\\\} \\| 1 \\\\leq i \\\\leq r\\-1 \\\\} \n\t\\[so {{math\\|''E''{{sub\\|0}}}} contains {{math\\|''r'' – 1}} hyperedges].\n\t+ E\\_1 \\= \\\\{ \\\\{ 1, x\\_{1j\\[1]}, \\\\ldots, x\\_{(r\\-1\\) j\\[r\\-1]} \\\\} \\| 1 \\\\leq j\\[k] \\\\leq r\\-1 \n\tfor 1 \\\\leq k \\\\leq r\\-1 \\\\} \n\t\\[so {{math\\|''E''{{sub\\|1}}}} contains {{math\\|(''r'' – 1\\){{sup\\|''r''\\-1}}}} hyperedges].",
"This {{mvar\\|H}} does not admit a {{mvar\\|Y}}\\-perfect matching, since every hyperedge that contains 0 intersects every hyperedge that contains 1\\.",
"However, every subset {{math\\|''Y''{{sub\\|0}}}} of {{mvar\\|Y}} satisfies the following inequality:\n\\\\tau(H\\_H(Y\\_0\\)) \\\\geq (2r\\-3\\)\\\\cdot (\\|Y\\_0\\| \\- 1\\)\nIt is only slightly weaker (by 1\\) than required by Haxell's theorem. To verify this, it is sufficient to check the subset {{math\\|1\\=''Y''{{sub\\|0}} \\= ''Y''}}, since it is the only subset for which the right\\-hand side is larger than 0\\. The neighborhood\\-hypergraph of {{mvar\\|Y}} is {{math\\|(''X'', ''E''{{sub\\|00}} ∪ ''E''{{sub\\|11}})}} where:\nE\\_{00} \\= \\\\{ \\\\{ x\\_{i1}, \\\\ldots, x\\_{i(r\\-1\\)} \\\\} \\| 1 \\\\leq i \\\\leq r\\-1 \\\\}\nE\\_{11} \\= \\\\{ \\\\{ x\\_{1j\\[1]}, \\\\ldots, x\\_{(r\\-1\\) j\\[r\\-1]} \\\\} \\| 1 \\\\leq j\\[k] \\\\leq r\\-1\nfor 1 \\\\leq k \\\\leq r\\-1 \\\\}",
"One can visualize the vertices of {{mvar\\|X}} as arranged on an {{math\\|(''r'' – 1\\) × (''r'' – 1\\)}} grid. The hyperedges of {{math\\|''E''{{sub\\|00}}}} are the {{math\\|''r'' – 1}} rows. The hyperedges of {{math\\|''E''{{sub\\|11}}}} are the {{math\\|(''r'' – 1\\){{sup\\|''r''\\-1}}}} selections of a single element in each row and each column. To cover the hyperedges of {{math\\|''E''{{sub\\|10}}}} we need {{math\\|''r'' – 1}} vertices \\- one vertex in each row. Since all columns are symmetric in the construction, we can assume that we take all the vertices in column 1 (i.e., {{math\\|''v''{{sub\\|''i''1}}}} for each {{mvar\\|i}} in {{math\\|{1, …, ''r'' – 1})}}. Now, since {{math\\|''E''{{sub\\|11}}}} contains all columns, we need at least {{math\\|''r'' – 2}} additional vertices \\- one vertex for each column {{math\\|{2, …, ''r''}.}} All in all, each transversal requires at least {{math\\|2''r'' – 3}} vertices.",
"### Algorithms",
"Haxell's proof is not constructive. However, Chidambaram Annamalai proved that a perfect matching can be found efficiently under a slightly stronger condition.{{Citation\\|last\\=Annamalai\\|first\\=Chidambaram\\|title\\=Finding Perfect Matchings in Bipartite Hypergraphs\\|date\\=2015\\-12\\-21\\|work\\=Proceedings of the 2016 Annual ACM\\-SIAM Symposium on Discrete Algorithms\\|pages\\=1814–1823\\|series\\=Proceedings\\|publisher\\=Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics\\|doi\\=10\\.1137/1\\.9781611974331\\.ch126\\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-61197\\-433\\-1\\|doi\\-access\\=free\\|arxiv\\=1509\\.07007}}",
"For every fixed choice of {{math\\|''r'' ≥ 2}} and {{math\\|''ε'' \\> 0}}, there exists an algorithm that finds a {{mvar\\|Y}}\\-perfect matching in every {{mvar\\|r}}\\-uniform bipartite hypergraph satisfying, for every subset {{math\\|''Y''{{sub\\|0}}}} of {{mvar\\|Y}}:\n\\\\tau(H\\_H(Y\\_0\\)) \\\\geq (2r\\-3 \\+\\\\epsilon)\\\\cdot (\\|Y\\_0\\| \\- 1\\) \\+ 1\nIn fact, in any {{mvar\\|r}}\\-uniform hypergraph, the algorithm finds either a {{mvar\\|Y}}\\-perfect matching, or a subset {{math\\|''Y''{{sub\\|0}}}} violating the above inequality.",
"The algorithm runs in time polynomial in the size of {{mvar\\|H}}, but exponential in {{mvar\\|r}} and {{math\\|{{frac\\|1\\|''ε''}}}}.",
"It is an open question whether there exists an algorithm with run\\-time polynomial in either {{mvar\\|r}} or {{math\\|{{frac\\|1\\|''ε''}}}} (or both).",
"Similar algorithms have been applied for solving problems of [fair item allocation](/wiki/Fair_item_allocation \"Fair item allocation\"), in particular the [santa\\-claus problem](/wiki/Santa-claus_problem \"Santa-claus problem\").{{Cite journal\\|last1\\=Asadpour Arash\\|last2\\=Feige Uriel\\|last3\\=Saberi Amin\\|date\\=2012\\-07\\-24\\|title\\=Santa claus meets hypergraph matchings\\|journal\\=ACM Transactions on Algorithms \\|language\\=EN\\|volume\\=8\\|issue\\=3\\|pages\\=1–9\\|doi\\=10\\.1145/2229163\\.2229168\\|s2cid\\=10281304}}{{Cite journal\\|last1\\=Annamalai Chidambaram\\|last2\\=Kalaitzis Christos\\|last3\\=Svensson Ola\\|date\\=2017\\-05\\-26\\|title\\=Combinatorial Algorithm for Restricted Max\\-Min Fair Allocation\\|journal\\=ACM Transactions on Algorithms \\|language\\=EN\\|volume\\=13\\|issue\\=3\\|pages\\=1–28\\|doi\\=10\\.1145/3070694\\|arxiv\\=1409\\.0607\\|s2cid\\=14749011}}{{Citation\\|last1\\=Davies\\|first1\\=Sami\\|title\\=A Tale of Santa Claus, Hypergraphs and Matroids\\|date\\=2019\\-12\\-23\\|work\\=Proceedings of the 2020 ACM\\-SIAM Symposium on Discrete Algorithms\\|pages\\=2748–2757\\|series\\=Proceedings\\|publisher\\=Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics\\|doi\\=10\\.1137/1\\.9781611975994\\.167\\|last2\\=Rothvoss\\|first2\\=Thomas\\|last3\\=Zhang\\|first3\\=Yihao\\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-61197\\-599\\-4\\|s2cid\\=49880727\\|doi\\-access\\=free\\|arxiv\\=1807\\.07189}}",
""
] |
Aharoni–Haxell conditions: smallest pinning sets
------------------------------------------------
We say that a set {{mvar\|K}} of edges *pins* another set {{mvar\|F}} of edges if every edge in {{mvar\|F}} intersects some edge in {{mvar\|K}}. The [*width* of a hypergraph](/wiki/Width_of_a_hypergraph "Width of a hypergraph") {{math\|1\=''H'' \= (''V'', ''E'')}}, denoted {{math\|''w''(''H'')}}, is the smallest size of a subset of {{mvar\|E}} that pins {{mvar\|E}}.{{Cite journal\|last\=Meshulam\|first\=Roy\|date\=2001\-01\-01\|title\=The Clique Complex and Hypergraph Matching\|journal\=Combinatorica\|language\=en\|volume\=21\|issue\=1\|pages\=89–94\|doi\=10\.1007/s004930170006\|s2cid\=207006642\|issn\=1439\-6912}} The *matching width* of a hypergraph {{mvar\|H}}, denoted {{math\|''mw''(''H'')}}, is the maximum, over all matchings {{mvar\|M}} in {{mvar\|H}}, of the minimum size of a subset of {{mvar\|E}} that pins {{mvar\|M}}. Since {{mvar\|E}} contains all matchings in {{mvar\|E}}, the width of H is obviously at least as large as the matching\-width of {{mvar\|H}}.
Aharoni and Haxell proved the following condition:
> Let {{math\|1\=''H'' \= (''X'' \+ ''Y'', ''E'')}} be a bipartite hypergraph. Suppose that, for every subset {{math\|''Y''{{sub\|0}}}} of {{mvar\|Y}}, the following inequality holds:
> > mw(N\_H(Y\_0\)) \\geq \|Y\_0\|
>
> \[in other words: {{math\|''N{{sub\|H}}''(''Y''{{sub\|0}})}} contains a matching {{math\|M(''Y''{{sub\|0}})}} such that at least {{math\|{{abs\|''Y''{{sub\|0}}}}}} disjoint edges from {{math\|''N{{sub\|H}}''(''Y''{{sub\|0}})}} are required for pinning {{math\|M(''Y''{{sub\|0}})}}]. Then, {{mvar\|H}} admits a {{mvar\|Y}}\-perfect matching.{{Rp\|Theorem 1\.1}}
They later extended this condition in several ways, which were later extended by Meshulam as follows:
> Let {{math\|1\=''H'' \= (''X'' \+ ''Y'', ''E'')}} be a bipartite hypergraph. Suppose that, for every subset {{math\|''Y''{{sub\|0}}}} of {{mvar\|Y}}, at least one of the following conditions hold:
> > mw(N\_H(Y\_0\)) \\geq \|Y\_0\| or
w(N\_H(Y\_0\)) \\geq 2 \|Y\_0\| \- 1 Then, {{mvar\|H}} admits a {{mvar\|Y}}\-perfect matching.{{Rp\|Theorem 1\.4}}
### In simple graphs
In a bipartite simple graph, the neighborhood\-hypergraph contains just singletons \- a singleton for every neighbor of {{math\|''Y''{{sub\|0}}}}. Since singletons do not intersect, the entire set of neighbors {{math\|''N{{sub\|H}}''(''Y''{{sub\|0}})}} is a matching, and its only pinning\-set is the set {{math\|''N{{sub\|H}}''(''Y''{{sub\|0}})}} itself, i.e., the matching\-width of {{math\|''N{{sub\|H}}''(''Y''{{sub\|0}})}} is {{math\|{{abs\|''N{{sub\|H}}''(''Y''{{sub\|0}})}}}}, and its width is the same:
w(N\_H(Y\_0\)) \= mw(N\_H(Y\_0\)) \= \|N\_H(Y\_0\)\|.
Thus, both the above conditions are equivalent to Hall's marriage condition.
### Examples
We consider several bipartite graphs with {{math\|1\=''Y'' \= {1, 2} }} and {{math\|1\=''X'' \= {A, B; a, b, c}.}} The Aharoni–Haxell condition trivially holds for the empty set. It holds for subsets of size 1 if and only if each vertex in {{mvar\|Y}} is contained in at least one edge, which is easy to check. It remains to check the subset {{mvar\|Y}} itself.
1. {{math\|1\=''H'' \= { {1,A,a}; {2,B,b}; {2,B,c} }.}} Here {{math\|1\=''N{{sub\|H}}''(''Y'') \= { {A,a}, {B,b}, {B,c} }.}} Its matching\-width is at least 2, since it contains a matching of size 2, e.g. {{math\|{ {A,a}, {B,b} },}} which cannot be pinned by any single edge from {{math\|''N{{sub\|H}}''(''Y''{{sub\|0}})}}. Indeed, H admits a {{mvar\|Y}}\-perfect matching, e.g. {{math\|{ {1,A,a}; {2,B,b} }.}}
2. {{math\|1\=''H'' \= { {1,A,a}; {1,B,b}; {2,A,b}, {2,B,a} }.}} Here {{math\|1\=''N{{sub\|H}}''(''Y'') \= { {A,a}, {B,b}, {A,b}, {B,a} }.}} Its matching\-width is 1: it contains a matching of size 2, e.g. {{math\|{ {A,a}, {B,b} },}} but this matching can be pinned by a single edge, e.g. {{math\|{A,b}.}} The other matching of size 2 is {{math\|{ {A,b},{B,a} },}} but it too can be pinned by the single edge {{math\|{A,a}.}} While {{math\|''N{{sub\|H}}''(''Y'')}} is larger than in example 1, its matching\-width is smaller \- in particular, it is less than {{math\|{{abs\|''Y''}}}}. Hence, the Aharoni–Haxell sufficient condition is not satisfied. Indeed, {{mvar\|H}} does not admit a {{mvar\|Y}}\-perfect matching.
3. {{math\|1\=''H'' \= { {1,A,a}, {1,A,b}; {1,B,a}, {1,B,b}; {2,A,a}, {2,A,b}; {2,B,a}, {2,B,b} }.}} Here, as in the previous example, {{math\|1\=''N{{sub\|H}}''(''Y'') \= { {A,a}, {B,b}, {A,b}, {B,a} },}} so the Aharoni–Haxell sufficient condition is violated. The width of {{math\|''N{{sub\|H}}''(''Y'')}} is 2, since it is pinned e.g. by the set {{math\|{ {A,a}, {B,b} },}} so Meshulam's weaker condition is violated too. However, this {{mvar\|H}} does admit a {{mvar\|Y}}\-perfect matching, e.g. {{math\|{ {1,A,a}; {2,B,b} },}} which shows that these conditions are not necessary.
### Set\-family formulation
Consider a bipartite hypergraph {{math\|1\=''H'' \= (''X'' \+ ''Y'', ''E'')}} where {{math\|1\=''Y'' \= {1, …, ''m''}.}} The Hall\-type theorems do not care about the set {{mvar\|Y}} itself \- they only care about the neighbors of elements of {{mvar\|Y}}. Therefore {{mvar\|H}} can be represented as a collection of families of sets {{math\|{''H''{{sub\|1}}, …, ''H{{sub\|m}}''},}} where for each {{mvar\|i}} in {{math\|\[''m'']}}, {{math\|1\=''H{{sub\|i}}'' :\= ''N{{sub\|H}}''({''i''}) \=}} the set\-family of neighbors of {{mvar\|i}}. For every subset {{math\|''Y''{{sub\|0}}}} of {{mvar\|Y}}, the set\-family {{math\|''N{{sub\|H}}''(''Y''{{sub\|0}})}} is the union of the set\-families {{mvar\|H{{sub\|i}}}} for {{mvar\|i}} in {{math\|''Y''{{sub\|0}}}}. A *perfect matching* in {{mvar\|H}} is a set\-family of size {{mvar\|m}}, where for each {{mvar\|i}} in {{math\|\[''m'']}}, the set\-family {{mvar\|H{{sub\|i}}}} is represented by a set {{mvar\|R{{sub\|i}}}} in {{mvar\|H{{sub\|i}}}}, and the representative sets {{mvar\|R{{sub\|i}}}} are pairwise\-disjoint.
In this terminology, the Aharoni–Haxell theorem can be stated as follows.
Let {{math\|1\=''A'' \= {''H''{{sub\|1}}, …, ''H{{sub\|m}}''} }} be a collection of families of sets. For every sub\-collection {{mvar\|B}} of {{mvar\|A}}, consider the set\-family {{math\|∪ ''B''}} \- the union of all the {{mvar\|H{{sub\|i}}}} in {{mvar\|B}}. Suppose that, for every sub\-collection {{mvar\|B}} of {{mvar\|A}}, this {{math\|∪ ''B''}} contains a matching {{math\|''M''(''B'')}} such that at least {{math\|{{abs\|''B''}}}} disjoint subsets from {{math\|∪ ''B''}} are required for pinning {{math\|''M''(''B'')}}. Then {{mvar\|A}} admits a system of disjoint representatives.
### Necessary and sufficient condition
Let {{math\|1\=''H'' \= (''X'' \+ ''Y'', ''E'')}} be a bipartite hypergraph. The following are equivalent:{{Rp\|Theorem 4\.1}}
* {{mvar\|H}} admits a {{mvar\|Y}}\-perfect matching.
* There is an assignment of a matching {{math\|''M''(''Y''{{sub\|0}})}} in {{math\|''N{{sub\|H}}''(''Y''{{sub\|0}})}} for every subset {{math\|''Y{{sub\|0}}''}} of {{mvar\|Y}}, such that pinning {{math\|''M''(''Y''{{sub\|0}})}} requires at least {{math\|{{abs\|{{sub\|0}}}}}} disjoint edges from {{math\|∪ {''M''(''Y{{sub\|1}}''): ''Y{{sub\|1}}''}} is a subset of {{math\|''Y{{sub\|0}}''}.}}
In set\-family formulation: let {{math\|1\=''A'' \= {''H''{{sub\|1}}, …, ''H{{sub\|m}}''} }} be a collection of families of sets. The following are equivalent:
* {{mvar\|A}} admits a system of disjoint representatives;
* There is an assignment of a matching {{math\|''M''(''B''}} in {{math\|∪ ''B''}} for every sub\-collection {{mvar\|B}} of {{mvar\|A}}, such that, for pinning {{math\|''M''(''B'')}}, at least {{math\|{{abs\|''B''}}}} edges from {{math\|∪ {''M''(''C''): ''C''}} is a subcollection of {{math\|''B''} }} are required.
### Examples
Consider example \#3 above: {{math\|1\=''H'' \= { {1,A,a}, {1,A,b};}} {{math\|{1,B,a}, {1,B,b};}} {{math\|{2,A,a}, {2,A,b};}} {{math\|{2,B,a}, {2,B,b} }.}} Since it admits a {{mvar\|Y}}\-perfect matching, it must satisfy the necessary condition. Indeed, consider the following assignment to subsets of {{mvar\|Y}}:
* {{math\|1\=M({1}) \= {A,a} }}
* {{math\|1\=M({2}) \= {B,b} }}
* {{math\|1\=M({1,2}) \= { {A, a}, {B, b} } }}
In the sufficient condition pinning {{math\|M({1,2})}} required at least two edges from {{math\|1\=''N{{sub\|H}}''(''Y'') \= { {A,a}, {B,b}, {A,b}, {B,a} };}} it did not hold.
But in the necessary condition, pinning {{math\|M({1,2})}} required at least two edges from {{math\|1\=M({1}) ∪ M({2}) ∪ M({1,2}) \= { {A,a}, {B,b} };}} it does hold.
Hence, the necessary\+sufficient condition is satisfied.
### Proof
The proof is topological and uses [Sperner's lemma](/wiki/Sperner%27s_lemma "Sperner's lemma"). Interestingly, it implies a new topological proof for the original Hall theorem.{{Cite web\|last\=Kalai\|first\=Gil\|date\=2012\-11\-25\|title\=Happy Birthday Ron Aharoni!\|url\=https://gilkalai.wordpress.com/2012/11/25/happy\-birthday\-ron\-aharoni/\|access\-date\=2020\-06\-30\|website\=Combinatorics and more\|language\=en}}
First, assume that no two vertices in {{mvar\|Y}} have exactly the same neighbor (it is without loss of generality, since for each element {{mvar\|y}} of {{mvar\|Y}}, one can add a dummy vertex to all neighbors of {{mvar\|y}}).
Let {{math\|1\=''Y'' \= {1, …, ''m''}.}} They consider an {{mvar\|m}}\-vertex simplex, and prove that it admits a triangulation {{mvar\|T}} with some special properties that they call *economically\-hierarchic triangulation*. Then they label each vertex of {{mvar\|T}} with a hyperedge from {{math\|''N{{sub\|H}}''(''Y'')}} in the following way:
* (a) For each {{mvar\|i}} in {{mvar\|Y}}, The main vertex {{mvar\|i}} of the simplex is labeled with some hyperedge from the matching {{math\|M({''i''})}}.
* (b) Each vertex of {{mvar\|T}} on a face spanned by a subset {{math\|''Y''{{sub\|0}}}} of {{mvar\|Y}}, is labeled by some hyperedge from the matching {{math\|M(''Y''{{sub\|0}})}}.
* (c) For each two adjacent vertices of {{mvar\|T}}, their labels are either identical or disjoint.
Their sufficient condition implies that such a labeling exists. Then, they color each vertex {{mvar\|v}} of {{mvar\|T}} with a color {{mvar\|i}} such that the hyperedge assigned to {{mvar\|v}} is a neighbor of {{mvar\|i}}.
Conditions (a) and (b) guarantee that this coloring satisfies Sperner's boundary condition. Therefore, a fully\-labeled simplex exists. In this simplex there are {{mvar\|m}} hyperedges, each of which is a neighbor of a dif and only iferent element of {{mvar\|Y}}, and so they must be disjoint. This is the desired {{mvar\|Y}}\-perfect matching.
### Extensions
The Aharoni–Haxell theorem has a deficiency version. It is used to prove [Ryser's conjecture](/wiki/Ryser%27s_conjecture "Ryser's conjecture") for {{math\|1\=''r'' \= 3}}.{{Cite journal\|last\=Aharoni\|first\=Ron\|date\=2001\-01\-01\|title\=Ryser's Conjecture for Tripartite 3\-Graphs\|journal\=Combinatorica\|language\=en\|volume\=21\|issue\=1\|pages\=1–4\|doi\=10\.1007/s004930170001\|s2cid\=13307018\|issn\=1439\-6912}}
|
[
"Aharoni–Haxell conditions: smallest pinning sets\n------------------------------------------------",
"We say that a set {{mvar\\|K}} of edges *pins* another set {{mvar\\|F}} of edges if every edge in {{mvar\\|F}} intersects some edge in {{mvar\\|K}}. The [*width* of a hypergraph](/wiki/Width_of_a_hypergraph \"Width of a hypergraph\") {{math\\|1\\=''H'' \\= (''V'', ''E'')}}, denoted {{math\\|''w''(''H'')}}, is the smallest size of a subset of {{mvar\\|E}} that pins {{mvar\\|E}}.{{Cite journal\\|last\\=Meshulam\\|first\\=Roy\\|date\\=2001\\-01\\-01\\|title\\=The Clique Complex and Hypergraph Matching\\|journal\\=Combinatorica\\|language\\=en\\|volume\\=21\\|issue\\=1\\|pages\\=89–94\\|doi\\=10\\.1007/s004930170006\\|s2cid\\=207006642\\|issn\\=1439\\-6912}} The *matching width* of a hypergraph {{mvar\\|H}}, denoted {{math\\|''mw''(''H'')}}, is the maximum, over all matchings {{mvar\\|M}} in {{mvar\\|H}}, of the minimum size of a subset of {{mvar\\|E}} that pins {{mvar\\|M}}. Since {{mvar\\|E}} contains all matchings in {{mvar\\|E}}, the width of H is obviously at least as large as the matching\\-width of {{mvar\\|H}}.",
"Aharoni and Haxell proved the following condition:\n> Let {{math\\|1\\=''H'' \\= (''X'' \\+ ''Y'', ''E'')}} be a bipartite hypergraph. Suppose that, for every subset {{math\\|''Y''{{sub\\|0}}}} of {{mvar\\|Y}}, the following inequality holds:\n> > mw(N\\_H(Y\\_0\\)) \\\\geq \\|Y\\_0\\|\n> \n> \\[in other words: {{math\\|''N{{sub\\|H}}''(''Y''{{sub\\|0}})}} contains a matching {{math\\|M(''Y''{{sub\\|0}})}} such that at least {{math\\|{{abs\\|''Y''{{sub\\|0}}}}}} disjoint edges from {{math\\|''N{{sub\\|H}}''(''Y''{{sub\\|0}})}} are required for pinning {{math\\|M(''Y''{{sub\\|0}})}}]. Then, {{mvar\\|H}} admits a {{mvar\\|Y}}\\-perfect matching.{{Rp\\|Theorem 1\\.1}}",
"They later extended this condition in several ways, which were later extended by Meshulam as follows:\n> Let {{math\\|1\\=''H'' \\= (''X'' \\+ ''Y'', ''E'')}} be a bipartite hypergraph. Suppose that, for every subset {{math\\|''Y''{{sub\\|0}}}} of {{mvar\\|Y}}, at least one of the following conditions hold:\n> > mw(N\\_H(Y\\_0\\)) \\\\geq \\|Y\\_0\\| or",
"",
"w(N\\_H(Y\\_0\\)) \\\\geq 2 \\|Y\\_0\\| \\- 1 Then, {{mvar\\|H}} admits a {{mvar\\|Y}}\\-perfect matching.{{Rp\\|Theorem 1\\.4}}\n### In simple graphs",
"In a bipartite simple graph, the neighborhood\\-hypergraph contains just singletons \\- a singleton for every neighbor of {{math\\|''Y''{{sub\\|0}}}}. Since singletons do not intersect, the entire set of neighbors {{math\\|''N{{sub\\|H}}''(''Y''{{sub\\|0}})}} is a matching, and its only pinning\\-set is the set {{math\\|''N{{sub\\|H}}''(''Y''{{sub\\|0}})}} itself, i.e., the matching\\-width of {{math\\|''N{{sub\\|H}}''(''Y''{{sub\\|0}})}} is {{math\\|{{abs\\|''N{{sub\\|H}}''(''Y''{{sub\\|0}})}}}}, and its width is the same: \nw(N\\_H(Y\\_0\\)) \\= mw(N\\_H(Y\\_0\\)) \\= \\|N\\_H(Y\\_0\\)\\|. \nThus, both the above conditions are equivalent to Hall's marriage condition.",
"### Examples",
"We consider several bipartite graphs with {{math\\|1\\=''Y'' \\= {1, 2} }} and {{math\\|1\\=''X'' \\= {A, B; a, b, c}.}} The Aharoni–Haxell condition trivially holds for the empty set. It holds for subsets of size 1 if and only if each vertex in {{mvar\\|Y}} is contained in at least one edge, which is easy to check. It remains to check the subset {{mvar\\|Y}} itself.",
"1. {{math\\|1\\=''H'' \\= { {1,A,a}; {2,B,b}; {2,B,c} }.}} Here {{math\\|1\\=''N{{sub\\|H}}''(''Y'') \\= { {A,a}, {B,b}, {B,c} }.}} Its matching\\-width is at least 2, since it contains a matching of size 2, e.g. {{math\\|{ {A,a}, {B,b} },}} which cannot be pinned by any single edge from {{math\\|''N{{sub\\|H}}''(''Y''{{sub\\|0}})}}. Indeed, H admits a {{mvar\\|Y}}\\-perfect matching, e.g. {{math\\|{ {1,A,a}; {2,B,b} }.}}\n2. {{math\\|1\\=''H'' \\= { {1,A,a}; {1,B,b}; {2,A,b}, {2,B,a} }.}} Here {{math\\|1\\=''N{{sub\\|H}}''(''Y'') \\= { {A,a}, {B,b}, {A,b}, {B,a} }.}} Its matching\\-width is 1: it contains a matching of size 2, e.g. {{math\\|{ {A,a}, {B,b} },}} but this matching can be pinned by a single edge, e.g. {{math\\|{A,b}.}} The other matching of size 2 is {{math\\|{ {A,b},{B,a} },}} but it too can be pinned by the single edge {{math\\|{A,a}.}} While {{math\\|''N{{sub\\|H}}''(''Y'')}} is larger than in example 1, its matching\\-width is smaller \\- in particular, it is less than {{math\\|{{abs\\|''Y''}}}}. Hence, the Aharoni–Haxell sufficient condition is not satisfied. Indeed, {{mvar\\|H}} does not admit a {{mvar\\|Y}}\\-perfect matching.\n3. {{math\\|1\\=''H'' \\= { {1,A,a}, {1,A,b}; {1,B,a}, {1,B,b}; {2,A,a}, {2,A,b}; {2,B,a}, {2,B,b} }.}} Here, as in the previous example, {{math\\|1\\=''N{{sub\\|H}}''(''Y'') \\= { {A,a}, {B,b}, {A,b}, {B,a} },}} so the Aharoni–Haxell sufficient condition is violated. The width of {{math\\|''N{{sub\\|H}}''(''Y'')}} is 2, since it is pinned e.g. by the set {{math\\|{ {A,a}, {B,b} },}} so Meshulam's weaker condition is violated too. However, this {{mvar\\|H}} does admit a {{mvar\\|Y}}\\-perfect matching, e.g. {{math\\|{ {1,A,a}; {2,B,b} },}} which shows that these conditions are not necessary.",
"### Set\\-family formulation",
"Consider a bipartite hypergraph {{math\\|1\\=''H'' \\= (''X'' \\+ ''Y'', ''E'')}} where {{math\\|1\\=''Y'' \\= {1, …, ''m''}.}} The Hall\\-type theorems do not care about the set {{mvar\\|Y}} itself \\- they only care about the neighbors of elements of {{mvar\\|Y}}. Therefore {{mvar\\|H}} can be represented as a collection of families of sets {{math\\|{''H''{{sub\\|1}}, …, ''H{{sub\\|m}}''},}} where for each {{mvar\\|i}} in {{math\\|\\[''m'']}}, {{math\\|1\\=''H{{sub\\|i}}'' :\\= ''N{{sub\\|H}}''({''i''}) \\=}} the set\\-family of neighbors of {{mvar\\|i}}. For every subset {{math\\|''Y''{{sub\\|0}}}} of {{mvar\\|Y}}, the set\\-family {{math\\|''N{{sub\\|H}}''(''Y''{{sub\\|0}})}} is the union of the set\\-families {{mvar\\|H{{sub\\|i}}}} for {{mvar\\|i}} in {{math\\|''Y''{{sub\\|0}}}}. A *perfect matching* in {{mvar\\|H}} is a set\\-family of size {{mvar\\|m}}, where for each {{mvar\\|i}} in {{math\\|\\[''m'']}}, the set\\-family {{mvar\\|H{{sub\\|i}}}} is represented by a set {{mvar\\|R{{sub\\|i}}}} in {{mvar\\|H{{sub\\|i}}}}, and the representative sets {{mvar\\|R{{sub\\|i}}}} are pairwise\\-disjoint.",
"In this terminology, the Aharoni–Haxell theorem can be stated as follows.",
"Let {{math\\|1\\=''A'' \\= {''H''{{sub\\|1}}, …, ''H{{sub\\|m}}''} }} be a collection of families of sets. For every sub\\-collection {{mvar\\|B}} of {{mvar\\|A}}, consider the set\\-family {{math\\|∪ ''B''}} \\- the union of all the {{mvar\\|H{{sub\\|i}}}} in {{mvar\\|B}}. Suppose that, for every sub\\-collection {{mvar\\|B}} of {{mvar\\|A}}, this {{math\\|∪ ''B''}} contains a matching {{math\\|''M''(''B'')}} such that at least {{math\\|{{abs\\|''B''}}}} disjoint subsets from {{math\\|∪ ''B''}} are required for pinning {{math\\|''M''(''B'')}}. Then {{mvar\\|A}} admits a system of disjoint representatives.",
"### Necessary and sufficient condition",
"Let {{math\\|1\\=''H'' \\= (''X'' \\+ ''Y'', ''E'')}} be a bipartite hypergraph. The following are equivalent:{{Rp\\|Theorem 4\\.1}}",
"* {{mvar\\|H}} admits a {{mvar\\|Y}}\\-perfect matching.\n* There is an assignment of a matching {{math\\|''M''(''Y''{{sub\\|0}})}} in {{math\\|''N{{sub\\|H}}''(''Y''{{sub\\|0}})}} for every subset {{math\\|''Y{{sub\\|0}}''}} of {{mvar\\|Y}}, such that pinning {{math\\|''M''(''Y''{{sub\\|0}})}} requires at least {{math\\|{{abs\\|{{sub\\|0}}}}}} disjoint edges from {{math\\|∪ {''M''(''Y{{sub\\|1}}''): ''Y{{sub\\|1}}''}} is a subset of {{math\\|''Y{{sub\\|0}}''}.}}",
"In set\\-family formulation: let {{math\\|1\\=''A'' \\= {''H''{{sub\\|1}}, …, ''H{{sub\\|m}}''} }} be a collection of families of sets. The following are equivalent:",
"* {{mvar\\|A}} admits a system of disjoint representatives;\n* There is an assignment of a matching {{math\\|''M''(''B''}} in {{math\\|∪ ''B''}} for every sub\\-collection {{mvar\\|B}} of {{mvar\\|A}}, such that, for pinning {{math\\|''M''(''B'')}}, at least {{math\\|{{abs\\|''B''}}}} edges from {{math\\|∪ {''M''(''C''): ''C''}} is a subcollection of {{math\\|''B''} }} are required.",
"### Examples",
"Consider example \\#3 above: {{math\\|1\\=''H'' \\= { {1,A,a}, {1,A,b};}} {{math\\|{1,B,a}, {1,B,b};}} {{math\\|{2,A,a}, {2,A,b};}} {{math\\|{2,B,a}, {2,B,b} }.}} Since it admits a {{mvar\\|Y}}\\-perfect matching, it must satisfy the necessary condition. Indeed, consider the following assignment to subsets of {{mvar\\|Y}}:",
"* {{math\\|1\\=M({1}) \\= {A,a} }}\n* {{math\\|1\\=M({2}) \\= {B,b} }}\n* {{math\\|1\\=M({1,2}) \\= { {A, a}, {B, b} } }}",
"In the sufficient condition pinning {{math\\|M({1,2})}} required at least two edges from {{math\\|1\\=''N{{sub\\|H}}''(''Y'') \\= { {A,a}, {B,b}, {A,b}, {B,a} };}} it did not hold.",
"But in the necessary condition, pinning {{math\\|M({1,2})}} required at least two edges from {{math\\|1\\=M({1}) ∪ M({2}) ∪ M({1,2}) \\= { {A,a}, {B,b} };}} it does hold.",
"Hence, the necessary\\+sufficient condition is satisfied.",
"### Proof",
"The proof is topological and uses [Sperner's lemma](/wiki/Sperner%27s_lemma \"Sperner's lemma\"). Interestingly, it implies a new topological proof for the original Hall theorem.{{Cite web\\|last\\=Kalai\\|first\\=Gil\\|date\\=2012\\-11\\-25\\|title\\=Happy Birthday Ron Aharoni!\\|url\\=https://gilkalai.wordpress.com/2012/11/25/happy\\-birthday\\-ron\\-aharoni/\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-06\\-30\\|website\\=Combinatorics and more\\|language\\=en}}",
"First, assume that no two vertices in {{mvar\\|Y}} have exactly the same neighbor (it is without loss of generality, since for each element {{mvar\\|y}} of {{mvar\\|Y}}, one can add a dummy vertex to all neighbors of {{mvar\\|y}}).",
"Let {{math\\|1\\=''Y'' \\= {1, …, ''m''}.}} They consider an {{mvar\\|m}}\\-vertex simplex, and prove that it admits a triangulation {{mvar\\|T}} with some special properties that they call *economically\\-hierarchic triangulation*. Then they label each vertex of {{mvar\\|T}} with a hyperedge from {{math\\|''N{{sub\\|H}}''(''Y'')}} in the following way:",
"* (a) For each {{mvar\\|i}} in {{mvar\\|Y}}, The main vertex {{mvar\\|i}} of the simplex is labeled with some hyperedge from the matching {{math\\|M({''i''})}}.\n* (b) Each vertex of {{mvar\\|T}} on a face spanned by a subset {{math\\|''Y''{{sub\\|0}}}} of {{mvar\\|Y}}, is labeled by some hyperedge from the matching {{math\\|M(''Y''{{sub\\|0}})}}.\n* (c) For each two adjacent vertices of {{mvar\\|T}}, their labels are either identical or disjoint.",
"Their sufficient condition implies that such a labeling exists. Then, they color each vertex {{mvar\\|v}} of {{mvar\\|T}} with a color {{mvar\\|i}} such that the hyperedge assigned to {{mvar\\|v}} is a neighbor of {{mvar\\|i}}.",
"Conditions (a) and (b) guarantee that this coloring satisfies Sperner's boundary condition. Therefore, a fully\\-labeled simplex exists. In this simplex there are {{mvar\\|m}} hyperedges, each of which is a neighbor of a dif and only iferent element of {{mvar\\|Y}}, and so they must be disjoint. This is the desired {{mvar\\|Y}}\\-perfect matching.",
"### Extensions",
"The Aharoni–Haxell theorem has a deficiency version. It is used to prove [Ryser's conjecture](/wiki/Ryser%27s_conjecture \"Ryser's conjecture\") for {{math\\|1\\=''r'' \\= 3}}.{{Cite journal\\|last\\=Aharoni\\|first\\=Ron\\|date\\=2001\\-01\\-01\\|title\\=Ryser's Conjecture for Tripartite 3\\-Graphs\\|journal\\=Combinatorica\\|language\\=en\\|volume\\=21\\|issue\\=1\\|pages\\=1–4\\|doi\\=10\\.1007/s004930170001\\|s2cid\\=13307018\\|issn\\=1439\\-6912}}",
""
] |
Meshulam's conditions \- the topological Hall theorems
------------------------------------------------------
### In abstract simplicial complexes
Let {{mvar\|V}} be a set of vertices. Let {{mvar\|C}} be an [abstract simplicial complex](/wiki/Abstract_simplicial_complex "Abstract simplicial complex") on {{mvar\|V}}. Let {{mvar\|V{{sub\|y}}}} (for {{mvar\|y}} in {{mvar\|Y}}) be subsets of {{mvar\|V}}. A *{{mvar\|C\-V\-}}[transversal](/wiki/Transversal_%28combinatorics%29 "Transversal (combinatorics)")* is a set in {{mvar\|C}} (an element of {{mvar\|C}}) whose intersection with each {{mvar\|V{{sub\|y}}}} contains exactly one vertex. For every subset {{math\|''Y''{{sub\|0}}}} of {{mvar\|Y}}, let
V\_{Y\_0} :\= \\bigcup\_{y\\in Y\_0} V\_y.
Suppose that, for every subset {{math\|''Y''{{sub\|0}}}} of {{mvar\|Y}}, the [homological connectivity plus 2](/wiki/Homological_connectivity "Homological connectivity") of the sub\-complex induced by V\_{Y\_0} is at least {{math\|{{abs\|''Y''{{sub\|0}}}}}}, that is:
\\eta\_H(C\[V\_{Y\_0}]) \\geq \|Y\_0\|.
Then there exists a {{mvar\|C\-V\-}}transversal. That is: there is a set in {{mvar\|C}} that intersects each {{mvar\|V{{sub\|y}}}} by exactly one element. This theorem has a deficiency version.{{cite arXiv\|last1\=Aharoni\|first1\=Ron\|last2\=Berger\|first2\=Eli\|last3\=Briggs\|first3\=Joseph\|last4\=Segal\-Halevi\|first4\=Erel\|last5\=Zerbib\|first5\=Shira\|date\=2020\-11\-02\|title\=Fractionally balanced hypergraphs and rainbow KKM theorems\|class\=math.CO\|eprint\=2011\.01053}} If, for every subset {{math\|''Y''{{sub\|0}}}} of {{mvar\|Y}}:
\\eta\_H(C\[V\_{Y\_0}]) \\geq \|Y\_0\|\-d,
then there exists a partial {{mvar\|C}}\-transversal, that intersects some {{math\|{{abs\|''Y''}} – ''d''}} sets by 1 element, and the rest by at most 1 element. More generally, if {{mvar\|g}} is a function on positive integers satisfying {{math\|''g''(''z'' \+ 1\) ≤ ''g''(''z'') \+ 1}}, and for every subset {{math\|''Y''{{sub\|0}}}} of {{mvar\|Y}}:
\\eta\_H(C\[V\_{Y\_0}]) \\geq g(\|Y\_0\|),
then there is a set in {{mvar\|C}} that intersects at least {{math\|''g''({{abs\|''Y''}})}} of the {{mvar\|V{{sub\|y}}}} by at one element, and the others by at most one element.
### Meshulam's game
Using the above theorem requires some lower bounds on homological connectivity. One such lower bound is given by *[Meshulam's game](/wiki/Meshulam%27s_game "Meshulam's game")*. This is a game played by two players on a graph. One player \- CON \- wants to prove that the graph has a high [homological connectivity](/wiki/Homological_connectivity "Homological connectivity"). The other player \- NON \- wants to prove otherwise. CON offers edges to NON one by one; NON can either disconnect an edge, or explode it; an explosion deletes the edge endpoints and all their neighbors. CON's score is the number of explosions when all vertices are gone, or infinity if some isolated vertices remain. The value of the game on a given graph {{mvar\|G}} (the score of CON when both players play optimally) is denoted by {{math\|Ψ(''G'')}}. This number can be used to get a lower bound on the homological connectivity of the *[independence complex](/wiki/Independence_complex "Independence complex")* of {{mvar\|G}}, denoted {{tmath\|\\mathcal{I}(G)}}:
\\eta\_H(\\mathcal{I}(G)) \\geq \\Psi(G).
Therefore, the above theorem implies the following. Let {{mvar\|V}} be a set of vertices. Let {{mvar\|G}} be a graph on {{mvar\|V}}. Suppose that, for every subset {{math\|''Y''{{sub\|0}}}} of {{mvar\|Y}}:
\\Psi(G\[V\_{Y\_0}]) \\geq \|Y\_0\|.
Then there is an independent set in {{mvar\|G}}, that intersects each {{mvar\|V{{sub\|y}}}} by exactly one element.
### In simple bipartite graphs
Let {{mvar\|H}} be a bipartite graph with parts {{mvar\|X}} and {{mvar\|Y}}. Let {{mvar\|V}} be the set of *edges* of {{mvar\|H}}. Let {{math\|1\=''G'' \= L(''H'') \=}} the [line graph](/wiki/Line_graph "Line graph") of {{mvar\|H}}. Then, the independence complex {{tmath\|\\mathcal{I}(L(H))}} is equal to the [matching complex](/wiki/Matching_complex "Matching complex") of H, denoted {{tmath\|\\mathcal{M}(H)}}. It is a simplicial complex on the edges of {{mvar\|H}}, whose elements are all the matchings on {{mvar\|H}}. For each vertex {{mvar\|y}} in {{mvar\|Y}}, let {{math\|''V''{{sub\|y}}}} be set of edges adjacent to {{mvar\|y}} (note that {{math\|''V''{{sub\|y}}}} is a subset of {{mvar\|V}}). Then, for every subset {{math\|''Y''{{sub\|0}}}} of {{mvar\|Y}}, the induced subgraph G\[V\_{Y\_0}] contains a clique for every neighbor of {{math\|''Y''{{sub\|0}}}} (all edges adjacent to {{math\|''Y''{{sub\|0}}}} , that meet at the same vertex of {{mvar\|X}}, form a clique in the line\-graph). So there are {{math\|{{abs\|''N{{sub\|H}}''(''Y''{{sub\|0}})}}}} disjoint cliques. Therefore, when Meshulam's game is played, NON needs {{math\|{{abs\|''N{{sub\|H}}''(''Y''{{sub\|0}})}}}} explosions to destroy all of {{math\|L(''N{{sub\|H}}''(''Y''{{sub\|0}}))}}, so {{math\|1\=Ψ(L(''N{{sub\|H}}''(''Y''{{sub\|0}})) \= {{abs\|''N{{sub\|H}}''(''Y''{{sub\|0}})}}}}. Thus, Meshulam's condition
\\Psi(G\[V\_{Y\_0}]) \\geq \|Y\_0\|
is equivalent to Hall's marriage condition. Here, the sets {{mvar\|V{{sub\|y}}}} are pairwise\-disjoint, so a {{mvar\|C}}\-transversal contains a unique element from each {{mvar\|V{{sub\|y}}}}, which is equivalent to a {{mvar\|Y}}\-saturating matching.
### In matching complexes
Let {{mvar\|H}} be a bipartite hypergraph, and suppose {{mvar\|C}} is its [matching complex](/wiki/Matching_complex "Matching complex") {{tmath\|\\mathcal{M}(H)}}. Let {{mvar\|H{{sub\|y}}}} (for {{mvar\|y}} in {{mvar\|Y}}) be sets of edges of {{mvar\|H}}. For every subset {{math\|''Y''{{sub\|0}}}} of {{mvar\|Y}}, {{tmath\|\\mathcal{M}(H\_{Y\_0})}} is the set of matchings in the sub\-hypergraph:
\\bigcup\_{y\\in Y\_0} H\_y.
If, for every subset {{math\|''Y''{{sub\|0}}}} of {{mvar\|Y}}:
\\eta\_H(\\mathcal{M}(H\_{Y\_0})) \\geq \|Y\_0\|
Then there exists a matching that intersects each set {{mvar\|H{{sub\|y}}}} exactly once (it is also called a *[rainbow matching](/wiki/Rainbow_matching "Rainbow matching")*, since each {{mvar\|H{{sub\|y}}}} can be treated as a color).
This is true, in particular, if we define {{mvar\|H{{sub\|y}}}} as the set of edges of {{mvar\|H}} containing the vertex {{mvar\|y}} of {{mvar\|Y}}. In this case, {{tmath\|\\mathcal{M}(H\_{Y\_0})}} is equivalent to {{math\|''N{{sub\|H}}''(''Y''{{sub\|0}})}} \- the multi\-hypergraph of neighbors of {{math\|''Y''{{sub\|0}}}} ("multi" \- since each neighbor is allowed to appear several times for several different {{mvar\|y}}).
The matching complex of a hypergraph is exactly the independence complex of its [line graph](/wiki/Line_graph_of_a_hypergraph "Line graph of a hypergraph"), denoted {{math\|''L''(''H'')}}. This is a graph in which the vertices are the edges of {{mvar\|H}}, and two such vertices are connected iff their corresponding edges intersect in {{mvar\|H}}. Therefore, the above theorem implies:
\\eta\_H(\\mathcal{M}(H)) \\geq \\Psi(L(H))
Combining the previous inequalities leads to the following condition.
Let {{math\|1\=''H'' \= (''X'' \+ ''Y'', ''E'')}} be a bipartite hypergraph. Suppose that, for every subset {{math\|''Y''{{sub\|0}}}} of {{mvar\|Y}}, the following condition holds:
\\Psi(L(N\_H(Y\_0\))) \\geq \|Y\_0\|,
where {{math\|''N{{sub\|H}}''(''Y''{{sub\|0}})}} is considered a multi\-hypergraph (i.e., it may contain the same hyperedge several times, if it is a neighbor of several different elements of {{math\|''Y''{{sub\|0}}}}). Then, {{mvar\|H}} admits a {{mvar\|Y}}\-perfect matching.{{Cite journal\|last\=Meshulam\|first\=Roy\|date\=2003\-05\-01\|title\=Domination numbers and homology\|journal\=\[\[Journal of Combinatorial Theory]] \| series\=Series A\|language\=en\|volume\=102\|issue\=2\|pages\=321–330\|doi\=10\.1016/S0097\-3165(03\)00045\-1\|issn\=0097\-3165\|doi\-access\=free}}
### Examples
We consider several bipartite hypergraphs with {{math\|1\=''Y'' \= {1, 2} }} and {{math\|1\=''X'' \= {A, B; a, b, c}.}} The Meshulam condition trivially holds for the empty set. It holds for subsets of size 1 iff the neighbor\-graph of each vertex in {{mvar\|Y}} is non\-empty (so it requires at least one explosion to destroy), which is easy to check. It remains to check the subset {{mvar\|Y}} itself.
s
1. {{math\|1\=''H'' \= { {1,A,a}; {2,B,b}; {2,B,c} }.}} Here {{math\|1\=''N{{sub\|H}}''(''Y'') \= { {A,a}, {B,b}, {B,c} }.}} The graph {{math\|L(''N{{sub\|H}}''(''Y''))}} has three vertices: {{math\|Aa, Bb, Bc.}} Only the last two are connected; the vertex Aa is isolated. Hence, {{math\|1\=Ψ(L(''N{{sub\|H}}''(''Y'')) \= ∞}}. Indeed, {{mvar\|H}} admits a {{mvar\|Y}}\-perfect matching, e.g. {{math\|{ {1,A,a}; {2,B,b} }.}}
2. *H* \= { {1,A,a}; {1,B,b}; {2,A,b}, {2,B,a} }. Here {{math\|L(''N{{sub\|H}}''(''Y''))}} has four vertices: {{math\|Aa, Bb, Ab, Ba,}} and four edges: {{math\|{Aa,Ab}, {Aa,Ba}, {Bb,Ba}, {Bb,Ab}.}} For any edge that CON offers, NON can explode it and destroy all vertices. Hence, {{math\|1\=Ψ(L(''N{{sub\|H}}''(''Y'')) \= 1}}. Indeed, {{mvar\|H}} does not admit a {{mvar\|Y}}\-perfect matching.
3. {{math\|1\=''H'' \= { {1,A,a}, {1,A,b};}} {{math\|{1,B,a}, {1,B,b};}} {{math\|{2,A,a}, {2,A,b};}} {{math\|{2,B,a}, {2,B,b} }.}} Here {{math\|''N{{sub\|H}}''(''Y'')}} is the same as in the previous example, so Meshulam's sufficient condition is violated. However, this {{mvar\|H}} does admit a {{mvar\|Y}}\-perfect matching, e.g. {{math\|{ {1,A,a}; {2,B,b} },}} which shows that this condition is not necessary.
No necessary\-and\-sufficient condition using {{math\|Ψ}} is known.
|
[
"Meshulam's conditions \\- the topological Hall theorems\n------------------------------------------------------",
"### In abstract simplicial complexes",
"Let {{mvar\\|V}} be a set of vertices. Let {{mvar\\|C}} be an [abstract simplicial complex](/wiki/Abstract_simplicial_complex \"Abstract simplicial complex\") on {{mvar\\|V}}. Let {{mvar\\|V{{sub\\|y}}}} (for {{mvar\\|y}} in {{mvar\\|Y}}) be subsets of {{mvar\\|V}}. A *{{mvar\\|C\\-V\\-}}[transversal](/wiki/Transversal_%28combinatorics%29 \"Transversal (combinatorics)\")* is a set in {{mvar\\|C}} (an element of {{mvar\\|C}}) whose intersection with each {{mvar\\|V{{sub\\|y}}}} contains exactly one vertex. For every subset {{math\\|''Y''{{sub\\|0}}}} of {{mvar\\|Y}}, let \nV\\_{Y\\_0} :\\= \\\\bigcup\\_{y\\\\in Y\\_0} V\\_y.\nSuppose that, for every subset {{math\\|''Y''{{sub\\|0}}}} of {{mvar\\|Y}}, the [homological connectivity plus 2](/wiki/Homological_connectivity \"Homological connectivity\") of the sub\\-complex induced by V\\_{Y\\_0} is at least {{math\\|{{abs\\|''Y''{{sub\\|0}}}}}}, that is:\n\\\\eta\\_H(C\\[V\\_{Y\\_0}]) \\\\geq \\|Y\\_0\\|.\nThen there exists a {{mvar\\|C\\-V\\-}}transversal. That is: there is a set in {{mvar\\|C}} that intersects each {{mvar\\|V{{sub\\|y}}}} by exactly one element. This theorem has a deficiency version.{{cite arXiv\\|last1\\=Aharoni\\|first1\\=Ron\\|last2\\=Berger\\|first2\\=Eli\\|last3\\=Briggs\\|first3\\=Joseph\\|last4\\=Segal\\-Halevi\\|first4\\=Erel\\|last5\\=Zerbib\\|first5\\=Shira\\|date\\=2020\\-11\\-02\\|title\\=Fractionally balanced hypergraphs and rainbow KKM theorems\\|class\\=math.CO\\|eprint\\=2011\\.01053}} If, for every subset {{math\\|''Y''{{sub\\|0}}}} of {{mvar\\|Y}}:\n\\\\eta\\_H(C\\[V\\_{Y\\_0}]) \\\\geq \\|Y\\_0\\|\\-d,\nthen there exists a partial {{mvar\\|C}}\\-transversal, that intersects some {{math\\|{{abs\\|''Y''}} – ''d''}} sets by 1 element, and the rest by at most 1 element. More generally, if {{mvar\\|g}} is a function on positive integers satisfying {{math\\|''g''(''z'' \\+ 1\\) ≤ ''g''(''z'') \\+ 1}}, and for every subset {{math\\|''Y''{{sub\\|0}}}} of {{mvar\\|Y}}: \n\\\\eta\\_H(C\\[V\\_{Y\\_0}]) \\\\geq g(\\|Y\\_0\\|),\nthen there is a set in {{mvar\\|C}} that intersects at least {{math\\|''g''({{abs\\|''Y''}})}} of the {{mvar\\|V{{sub\\|y}}}} by at one element, and the others by at most one element.",
"### Meshulam's game",
"Using the above theorem requires some lower bounds on homological connectivity. One such lower bound is given by *[Meshulam's game](/wiki/Meshulam%27s_game \"Meshulam's game\")*. This is a game played by two players on a graph. One player \\- CON \\- wants to prove that the graph has a high [homological connectivity](/wiki/Homological_connectivity \"Homological connectivity\"). The other player \\- NON \\- wants to prove otherwise. CON offers edges to NON one by one; NON can either disconnect an edge, or explode it; an explosion deletes the edge endpoints and all their neighbors. CON's score is the number of explosions when all vertices are gone, or infinity if some isolated vertices remain. The value of the game on a given graph {{mvar\\|G}} (the score of CON when both players play optimally) is denoted by {{math\\|Ψ(''G'')}}. This number can be used to get a lower bound on the homological connectivity of the *[independence complex](/wiki/Independence_complex \"Independence complex\")* of {{mvar\\|G}}, denoted {{tmath\\|\\\\mathcal{I}(G)}}:\n\\\\eta\\_H(\\\\mathcal{I}(G)) \\\\geq \\\\Psi(G).\nTherefore, the above theorem implies the following. Let {{mvar\\|V}} be a set of vertices. Let {{mvar\\|G}} be a graph on {{mvar\\|V}}. Suppose that, for every subset {{math\\|''Y''{{sub\\|0}}}} of {{mvar\\|Y}}:\n\\\\Psi(G\\[V\\_{Y\\_0}]) \\\\geq \\|Y\\_0\\|.\nThen there is an independent set in {{mvar\\|G}}, that intersects each {{mvar\\|V{{sub\\|y}}}} by exactly one element.",
"### In simple bipartite graphs",
"Let {{mvar\\|H}} be a bipartite graph with parts {{mvar\\|X}} and {{mvar\\|Y}}. Let {{mvar\\|V}} be the set of *edges* of {{mvar\\|H}}. Let {{math\\|1\\=''G'' \\= L(''H'') \\=}} the [line graph](/wiki/Line_graph \"Line graph\") of {{mvar\\|H}}. Then, the independence complex {{tmath\\|\\\\mathcal{I}(L(H))}} is equal to the [matching complex](/wiki/Matching_complex \"Matching complex\") of H, denoted {{tmath\\|\\\\mathcal{M}(H)}}. It is a simplicial complex on the edges of {{mvar\\|H}}, whose elements are all the matchings on {{mvar\\|H}}. For each vertex {{mvar\\|y}} in {{mvar\\|Y}}, let {{math\\|''V''{{sub\\|y}}}} be set of edges adjacent to {{mvar\\|y}} (note that {{math\\|''V''{{sub\\|y}}}} is a subset of {{mvar\\|V}}). Then, for every subset {{math\\|''Y''{{sub\\|0}}}} of {{mvar\\|Y}}, the induced subgraph G\\[V\\_{Y\\_0}] contains a clique for every neighbor of {{math\\|''Y''{{sub\\|0}}}} (all edges adjacent to {{math\\|''Y''{{sub\\|0}}}} , that meet at the same vertex of {{mvar\\|X}}, form a clique in the line\\-graph). So there are {{math\\|{{abs\\|''N{{sub\\|H}}''(''Y''{{sub\\|0}})}}}} disjoint cliques. Therefore, when Meshulam's game is played, NON needs {{math\\|{{abs\\|''N{{sub\\|H}}''(''Y''{{sub\\|0}})}}}} explosions to destroy all of {{math\\|L(''N{{sub\\|H}}''(''Y''{{sub\\|0}}))}}, so {{math\\|1\\=Ψ(L(''N{{sub\\|H}}''(''Y''{{sub\\|0}})) \\= {{abs\\|''N{{sub\\|H}}''(''Y''{{sub\\|0}})}}}}. Thus, Meshulam's condition \n\\\\Psi(G\\[V\\_{Y\\_0}]) \\\\geq \\|Y\\_0\\|\nis equivalent to Hall's marriage condition. Here, the sets {{mvar\\|V{{sub\\|y}}}} are pairwise\\-disjoint, so a {{mvar\\|C}}\\-transversal contains a unique element from each {{mvar\\|V{{sub\\|y}}}}, which is equivalent to a {{mvar\\|Y}}\\-saturating matching.",
"### In matching complexes",
"Let {{mvar\\|H}} be a bipartite hypergraph, and suppose {{mvar\\|C}} is its [matching complex](/wiki/Matching_complex \"Matching complex\") {{tmath\\|\\\\mathcal{M}(H)}}. Let {{mvar\\|H{{sub\\|y}}}} (for {{mvar\\|y}} in {{mvar\\|Y}}) be sets of edges of {{mvar\\|H}}. For every subset {{math\\|''Y''{{sub\\|0}}}} of {{mvar\\|Y}}, {{tmath\\|\\\\mathcal{M}(H\\_{Y\\_0})}} is the set of matchings in the sub\\-hypergraph:\n\\\\bigcup\\_{y\\\\in Y\\_0} H\\_y.\nIf, for every subset {{math\\|''Y''{{sub\\|0}}}} of {{mvar\\|Y}}:\n\\\\eta\\_H(\\\\mathcal{M}(H\\_{Y\\_0})) \\\\geq \\|Y\\_0\\|\nThen there exists a matching that intersects each set {{mvar\\|H{{sub\\|y}}}} exactly once (it is also called a *[rainbow matching](/wiki/Rainbow_matching \"Rainbow matching\")*, since each {{mvar\\|H{{sub\\|y}}}} can be treated as a color).",
"This is true, in particular, if we define {{mvar\\|H{{sub\\|y}}}} as the set of edges of {{mvar\\|H}} containing the vertex {{mvar\\|y}} of {{mvar\\|Y}}. In this case, {{tmath\\|\\\\mathcal{M}(H\\_{Y\\_0})}} is equivalent to {{math\\|''N{{sub\\|H}}''(''Y''{{sub\\|0}})}} \\- the multi\\-hypergraph of neighbors of {{math\\|''Y''{{sub\\|0}}}} (\"multi\" \\- since each neighbor is allowed to appear several times for several different {{mvar\\|y}}).",
"The matching complex of a hypergraph is exactly the independence complex of its [line graph](/wiki/Line_graph_of_a_hypergraph \"Line graph of a hypergraph\"), denoted {{math\\|''L''(''H'')}}. This is a graph in which the vertices are the edges of {{mvar\\|H}}, and two such vertices are connected iff their corresponding edges intersect in {{mvar\\|H}}. Therefore, the above theorem implies: \n\\\\eta\\_H(\\\\mathcal{M}(H)) \\\\geq \\\\Psi(L(H))\nCombining the previous inequalities leads to the following condition. \nLet {{math\\|1\\=''H'' \\= (''X'' \\+ ''Y'', ''E'')}} be a bipartite hypergraph. Suppose that, for every subset {{math\\|''Y''{{sub\\|0}}}} of {{mvar\\|Y}}, the following condition holds:\n\\\\Psi(L(N\\_H(Y\\_0\\))) \\\\geq \\|Y\\_0\\|,\nwhere {{math\\|''N{{sub\\|H}}''(''Y''{{sub\\|0}})}} is considered a multi\\-hypergraph (i.e., it may contain the same hyperedge several times, if it is a neighbor of several different elements of {{math\\|''Y''{{sub\\|0}}}}). Then, {{mvar\\|H}} admits a {{mvar\\|Y}}\\-perfect matching.{{Cite journal\\|last\\=Meshulam\\|first\\=Roy\\|date\\=2003\\-05\\-01\\|title\\=Domination numbers and homology\\|journal\\=\\[\\[Journal of Combinatorial Theory]] \\| series\\=Series A\\|language\\=en\\|volume\\=102\\|issue\\=2\\|pages\\=321–330\\|doi\\=10\\.1016/S0097\\-3165(03\\)00045\\-1\\|issn\\=0097\\-3165\\|doi\\-access\\=free}}",
"### Examples",
"We consider several bipartite hypergraphs with {{math\\|1\\=''Y'' \\= {1, 2} }} and {{math\\|1\\=''X'' \\= {A, B; a, b, c}.}} The Meshulam condition trivially holds for the empty set. It holds for subsets of size 1 iff the neighbor\\-graph of each vertex in {{mvar\\|Y}} is non\\-empty (so it requires at least one explosion to destroy), which is easy to check. It remains to check the subset {{mvar\\|Y}} itself.\ns \n1. {{math\\|1\\=''H'' \\= { {1,A,a}; {2,B,b}; {2,B,c} }.}} Here {{math\\|1\\=''N{{sub\\|H}}''(''Y'') \\= { {A,a}, {B,b}, {B,c} }.}} The graph {{math\\|L(''N{{sub\\|H}}''(''Y''))}} has three vertices: {{math\\|Aa, Bb, Bc.}} Only the last two are connected; the vertex Aa is isolated. Hence, {{math\\|1\\=Ψ(L(''N{{sub\\|H}}''(''Y'')) \\= ∞}}. Indeed, {{mvar\\|H}} admits a {{mvar\\|Y}}\\-perfect matching, e.g. {{math\\|{ {1,A,a}; {2,B,b} }.}}\n2. *H* \\= { {1,A,a}; {1,B,b}; {2,A,b}, {2,B,a} }. Here {{math\\|L(''N{{sub\\|H}}''(''Y''))}} has four vertices: {{math\\|Aa, Bb, Ab, Ba,}} and four edges: {{math\\|{Aa,Ab}, {Aa,Ba}, {Bb,Ba}, {Bb,Ab}.}} For any edge that CON offers, NON can explode it and destroy all vertices. Hence, {{math\\|1\\=Ψ(L(''N{{sub\\|H}}''(''Y'')) \\= 1}}. Indeed, {{mvar\\|H}} does not admit a {{mvar\\|Y}}\\-perfect matching.\n3. {{math\\|1\\=''H'' \\= { {1,A,a}, {1,A,b};}} {{math\\|{1,B,a}, {1,B,b};}} {{math\\|{2,A,a}, {2,A,b};}} {{math\\|{2,B,a}, {2,B,b} }.}} Here {{math\\|''N{{sub\\|H}}''(''Y'')}} is the same as in the previous example, so Meshulam's sufficient condition is violated. However, this {{mvar\\|H}} does admit a {{mvar\\|Y}}\\-perfect matching, e.g. {{math\\|{ {1,A,a}; {2,B,b} },}} which shows that this condition is not necessary.\nNo necessary\\-and\\-sufficient condition using {{math\\|Ψ}} is known.",
""
] |
Demographics
------------
{{US Census population
\|1870\= 582
\|1880\= 816
\|1900\= 711
\|1910\= 843
\|1920\= 1148
\|1930\= 1613
\|1940\= 1773
\|1950\= 1937
\|1960\= 2074
\|1970\= 2428
\|1980\= 3324
\|1990\= 3750
\|2000\= 4626
\|2010\= 5719
\|2020\= 6142
\|footnote\=U.S. Decennial Census{{Citation\|title\=Census of Population and Housing\|url\=https://www.census.gov/programs\-surveys/decennial\-census.html\|newspaper\=Census.gov\|access\-date\=June 4, 2015}}
}}
### 2010 census
As of the [census](/wiki/Census "Census"){{Citation\|title\=U.S. Census website \|url\=https://www.census.gov \|publisher\=\[\[United States Census Bureau]] \|access\-date\=2012\-11\-25}} of 2010, there were 5,719 people, 2,201 households, and 1,537 families living in the city. The [population density](/wiki/Population_density "Population density") was {{convert\|1765\.1\|PD/sqmi\|PD/km2\|1}}. There were 2,302 housing units at an average density of {{convert\|710\.5\|/sqmi\|/km2\|1}}. The racial makeup of the city was 95\.0% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 "White (U.S. Census)"), 0\.7% [African American](/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29 "African American (U.S. Census)"), 0\.5% [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 "Native American (U.S. Census)"), 1\.2% [Asian](/wiki/Asian_%28U.S._Census%29 "Asian (U.S. Census)"), 0\.1% [Pacific Islander](/wiki/Race_%28U.S._Census%29 "Race (U.S. Census)"), 0\.7% from [other races](/wiki/Race_%28U.S._Census%29 "Race (U.S. Census)"), and 2\.0% from two or more races. [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 "Hispanic (U.S. Census)") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 "Latino (U.S. Census)") of any race were 3\.7% of the population.
There were 2,201 households, of which 42\.1% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 51\.7% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage "Marriage") living together, 13\.7% had a female householder with no husband present, 4\.5% had a male householder with no wife present, and 30\.2% were non\-families. 26\.7% of all households were made up of individuals, and 10\.7% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\.58 and the average family size was 3\.16\.
The median age in the city was 33\.7 years. 30\.9% of residents were under the age of 18; 7% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 27\.8% were from 25 to 44; 23\.6% were from 45 to 64; and 10\.7% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 47\.4% male and 52\.6% female.
The median income for a household in the city was $53,113, and the median income for a family was $71,700\. Males had a median income of $62,015 versus $33,325 for females. The per capita income for the city was $28,632\. About 10\.5% of families and 11\.7% of the population were below the poverty line, including 18\.5% of those under age 18 and 7\.2% of those age 65 or over.
### 2000 census
As of the [census](/wiki/Census "Census") of 2000, there were 4,626 people, 1,741 households, and 1,255 families living in the city. The population density was {{convert\|1,544\.2\|PD/sqmi\|PD/km2\|sp\=us\|adj\=off}}. There were 1,796 housing units at an average density of {{convert\|599\.5\|/sqmi\|/km2\|sp\=us\|adj\=off}}. The racial makeup of the city was 96\.20% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 "White (U.S. Census)"), 0\.61% [African American](/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29 "African American (U.S. Census)"), 0\.39% [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 "Native American (U.S. Census)"), 0\.91% [Asian](/wiki/Asian_%28U.S._Census%29 "Asian (U.S. Census)"), 0\.02% [Pacific Islander](/wiki/Pacific_Islander_%28U.S._Census%29 "Pacific Islander (U.S. Census)"), 0\.63% from [other races](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 "Race (United States Census)"), and 1\.25% from two or more races. [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 "Hispanic (U.S. Census)") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 "Latino (U.S. Census)") of any race were 1\.51% of the population.
There were 1,741 households, out of which 45\.7% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 54\.1% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage "Marriage") living together, 14\.9% had a female householder with no husband present, and 27\.9% were non\-families. 25\.3% of all households were made up of individuals, and 11\.3% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\.65 and the average family size was 3\.21\.
In the city, the population was spread out, with 33\.9% under the age of 18, 7\.1% from 18 to 24, 33\.0% from 25 to 44, 17\.1% from 45 to 64, and 9\.0% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 32 years. For every 100 females, there were 92\.6 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 80\.9 males.
The median income for a household in the city was $50,562, and the median income for a family was $55,954\. Males had a median income of $45,847 versus $28,024 for females. The [per capita income](/wiki/Per_capita_income "Per capita income") for the city was $19,906\. About 8\.4% of families and 8\.1% of the population were below the [poverty line](/wiki/Poverty_line "Poverty line"), including 10\.7% of those under age 18 and 12\.9% of those age 65 or over.
|
[
"Demographics\n------------",
"{{US Census population\n\\|1870\\= 582\n\\|1880\\= 816\n\\|1900\\= 711\n\\|1910\\= 843\n\\|1920\\= 1148\n\\|1930\\= 1613\n\\|1940\\= 1773\n\\|1950\\= 1937\n\\|1960\\= 2074\n\\|1970\\= 2428\n\\|1980\\= 3324\n\\|1990\\= 3750\n\\|2000\\= 4626\n\\|2010\\= 5719\n\\|2020\\= 6142\n\\|footnote\\=U.S. Decennial Census{{Citation\\|title\\=Census of Population and Housing\\|url\\=https://www.census.gov/programs\\-surveys/decennial\\-census.html\\|newspaper\\=Census.gov\\|access\\-date\\=June 4, 2015}}\n}}",
"### 2010 census",
"As of the [census](/wiki/Census \"Census\"){{Citation\\|title\\=U.S. Census website \\|url\\=https://www.census.gov \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[United States Census Bureau]] \\|access\\-date\\=2012\\-11\\-25}} of 2010, there were 5,719 people, 2,201 households, and 1,537 families living in the city. The [population density](/wiki/Population_density \"Population density\") was {{convert\\|1765\\.1\\|PD/sqmi\\|PD/km2\\|1}}. There were 2,302 housing units at an average density of {{convert\\|710\\.5\\|/sqmi\\|/km2\\|1}}. The racial makeup of the city was 95\\.0% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 \"White (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.7% [African American](/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"African American (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.5% [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Native American (U.S. Census)\"), 1\\.2% [Asian](/wiki/Asian_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Asian (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.1% [Pacific Islander](/wiki/Race_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Race (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.7% from [other races](/wiki/Race_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Race (U.S. Census)\"), and 2\\.0% from two or more races. [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Hispanic (U.S. Census)\") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Latino (U.S. Census)\") of any race were 3\\.7% of the population.",
"There were 2,201 households, of which 42\\.1% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 51\\.7% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage \"Marriage\") living together, 13\\.7% had a female householder with no husband present, 4\\.5% had a male householder with no wife present, and 30\\.2% were non\\-families. 26\\.7% of all households were made up of individuals, and 10\\.7% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\\.58 and the average family size was 3\\.16\\.",
"The median age in the city was 33\\.7 years. 30\\.9% of residents were under the age of 18; 7% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 27\\.8% were from 25 to 44; 23\\.6% were from 45 to 64; and 10\\.7% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 47\\.4% male and 52\\.6% female.",
"The median income for a household in the city was $53,113, and the median income for a family was $71,700\\. Males had a median income of $62,015 versus $33,325 for females. The per capita income for the city was $28,632\\. About 10\\.5% of families and 11\\.7% of the population were below the poverty line, including 18\\.5% of those under age 18 and 7\\.2% of those age 65 or over.",
"### 2000 census",
"As of the [census](/wiki/Census \"Census\") of 2000, there were 4,626 people, 1,741 households, and 1,255 families living in the city. The population density was {{convert\\|1,544\\.2\\|PD/sqmi\\|PD/km2\\|sp\\=us\\|adj\\=off}}. There were 1,796 housing units at an average density of {{convert\\|599\\.5\\|/sqmi\\|/km2\\|sp\\=us\\|adj\\=off}}. The racial makeup of the city was 96\\.20% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 \"White (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.61% [African American](/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"African American (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.39% [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Native American (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.91% [Asian](/wiki/Asian_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Asian (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.02% [Pacific Islander](/wiki/Pacific_Islander_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Pacific Islander (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.63% from [other races](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 \"Race (United States Census)\"), and 1\\.25% from two or more races. [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Hispanic (U.S. Census)\") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Latino (U.S. Census)\") of any race were 1\\.51% of the population.",
"There were 1,741 households, out of which 45\\.7% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 54\\.1% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage \"Marriage\") living together, 14\\.9% had a female householder with no husband present, and 27\\.9% were non\\-families. 25\\.3% of all households were made up of individuals, and 11\\.3% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\\.65 and the average family size was 3\\.21\\.",
"In the city, the population was spread out, with 33\\.9% under the age of 18, 7\\.1% from 18 to 24, 33\\.0% from 25 to 44, 17\\.1% from 45 to 64, and 9\\.0% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 32 years. For every 100 females, there were 92\\.6 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 80\\.9 males.",
"The median income for a household in the city was $50,562, and the median income for a family was $55,954\\. Males had a median income of $45,847 versus $28,024 for females. The [per capita income](/wiki/Per_capita_income \"Per capita income\") for the city was $19,906\\. About 8\\.4% of families and 8\\.1% of the population were below the [poverty line](/wiki/Poverty_line \"Poverty line\"), including 10\\.7% of those under age 18 and 12\\.9% of those age 65 or over.",
""
] |
Demographics
------------
{{US Census population
\|1880\= 100
\|1930\= 118
\|1940\= 99
\|1950\= 115
\|1960\= 91
\|1970\= 115
\|1980\= 118
\|1990\= 121
\|2000\= 207
\|2010\= 263
\|2020\= 217
\|footnote\=Sources:{{cite web\|url\=https://www.census.gov/programs\-surveys/decennial\-census.html\|publisher\=\[\[United States Census Bureau]]\|accessdate\=March 4, 2012\|title\=Census of Population and Housing: Decennial Censuses}}{{cite web\|title\=Incorporated Places and Minor Civil Divisions Datasets: Subcounty Resident Population Estimates: April 1, 2010 to July 1, 2012\|url\=https://www.census.gov/popest/data/cities/totals/2012/SUB\-EST2012\.html\|work\=Population Estimates\|publisher\=U.S. Census Bureau\|accessdate\=December 11, 2013\|url\-status\=dead\|archiveurl\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130611010502/http://www.census.gov/popest/data/cities/totals/2012/SUB\-EST2012\.html\|archivedate\=June 11, 2013}}{{cite web\|url\=https://api.census.gov/data/2020/dec/pl?get\=P1\_001N,NAME\&for\=place:\*∈\=state:47\&key\=5ccd0821c15d9f4520e2dcc0f8d92b2ec9336108\|title\=Census Population API\|publisher\=United States Census Bureau\|accessdate\=October 15, 2022}}
}}
### 2020 census
| \+Parrottsville racial composition{{Cite web\|title\=Explore Census Data\|url\=https://data.census.gov/cedsci/table?g\=1600000US4757040\&tid\=DECENNIALPL2020\.P2\|access\-date\=December 27, 2021\|website\=data.census.gov}} | Race
Number
Percentage
| --- |
| [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 "White (U.S. Census)") (non\-Hispanic)
194 |
89\.4% |
| [Black or African American](/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29 "African American (U.S. Census)") (non\-Hispanic)
3 |
1\.38% |
| [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 "Native American (U.S. Census)")
1 |
0\.46% |
| [Asian](/wiki/Asian_%28U.S._Census%29 "Asian (U.S. Census)")
1 |
0\.46% |
| [Other/Mixed](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 "Race (United States Census)")
8 |
3\.69% |
| [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 "Hispanic (U.S. Census)") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 "Latino (U.S. Census)")
10 |
4\.61% |
As of the [2020 United States census](/wiki/2020_United_States_census "2020 United States census"), there were 217 people, 117 households, and 51 families residing in the town.
### 2000 census
As of the [census](/wiki/Census "Census") of 2000, there were 207 people, 79 households, and 60 families residing in the town. The population density was {{convert\|572\.5\|PD/sqmi\|PD/km2\|sp\=us\|adj\=off}}. There were 85 housing units at an average density of {{convert\|235\.1\|/sqmi\|/km2\|sp\=us\|adj\=off}}. The racial makeup of the town was 94\.20% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 "White (U.S. Census)"), 4\.35% [African American](/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29 "African American (U.S. Census)"), and 1\.45% from two or more races. [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 "Hispanic (U.S. Census)") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 "Latino (U.S. Census)") of any race were 0\.48% of the population.
There were 79 households, out of which 36\.7% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 58\.2% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage "Marriage") living together, 15\.2% had a female householder with no husband present, and 22\.8% were non\-families. 20\.3% of all households were made up of individuals, and 10\.1% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\.62 and the average family size was 3\.00\.
In the town, the population was spread out, with 26\.6% under the age of 18, 10\.1% from 18 to 24, 31\.9% from 25 to 44, 18\.8% from 45 to 64, and 12\.6% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 34 years. For every 100 females, there were 101\.0 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 94\.9 males.
The median income for a household in the town was $31,458, and the median income for a family was $30,000\. Males had a median income of $26,607 versus $19,000 for females. The [per capita income](/wiki/Per_capita_income "Per capita income") for the town was $13,409\. About 7\.4% of families and 11\.5% of the population were below the [poverty line](/wiki/Poverty_line "Poverty line"), including 15\.1% of those under the age of eighteen and 11\.5% of those 65 or over.
|
[
"Demographics\n------------",
"{{US Census population\n\\|1880\\= 100\n\\|1930\\= 118\n\\|1940\\= 99\n\\|1950\\= 115\n\\|1960\\= 91\n\\|1970\\= 115\n\\|1980\\= 118\n\\|1990\\= 121\n\\|2000\\= 207\n\\|2010\\= 263\n\\|2020\\= 217\n\\|footnote\\=Sources:{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.census.gov/programs\\-surveys/decennial\\-census.html\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[United States Census Bureau]]\\|accessdate\\=March 4, 2012\\|title\\=Census of Population and Housing: Decennial Censuses}}{{cite web\\|title\\=Incorporated Places and Minor Civil Divisions Datasets: Subcounty Resident Population Estimates: April 1, 2010 to July 1, 2012\\|url\\=https://www.census.gov/popest/data/cities/totals/2012/SUB\\-EST2012\\.html\\|work\\=Population Estimates\\|publisher\\=U.S. Census Bureau\\|accessdate\\=December 11, 2013\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archiveurl\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130611010502/http://www.census.gov/popest/data/cities/totals/2012/SUB\\-EST2012\\.html\\|archivedate\\=June 11, 2013}}{{cite web\\|url\\=https://api.census.gov/data/2020/dec/pl?get\\=P1\\_001N,NAME\\&for\\=place:\\*∈\\=state:47\\&key\\=5ccd0821c15d9f4520e2dcc0f8d92b2ec9336108\\|title\\=Census Population API\\|publisher\\=United States Census Bureau\\|accessdate\\=October 15, 2022}}\n}}",
"### 2020 census",
"",
"| \\+Parrottsville racial composition{{Cite web\\|title\\=Explore Census Data\\|url\\=https://data.census.gov/cedsci/table?g\\=1600000US4757040\\&tid\\=DECENNIALPL2020\\.P2\\|access\\-date\\=December 27, 2021\\|website\\=data.census.gov}} | Race",
"Number",
"Percentage",
"| --- |\n| [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 \"White (U.S. Census)\") (non\\-Hispanic)",
"194 |\n 89\\.4% |\n| [Black or African American](/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"African American (U.S. Census)\") (non\\-Hispanic)",
"3 |\n 1\\.38% |\n| [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Native American (U.S. Census)\")",
"1 |\n 0\\.46% |\n| [Asian](/wiki/Asian_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Asian (U.S. Census)\")",
"1 |\n 0\\.46% |\n| [Other/Mixed](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 \"Race (United States Census)\")",
"8 |\n 3\\.69% |\n| [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Hispanic (U.S. Census)\") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Latino (U.S. Census)\")",
"10 |\n 4\\.61% |",
"As of the [2020 United States census](/wiki/2020_United_States_census \"2020 United States census\"), there were 217 people, 117 households, and 51 families residing in the town.",
"### 2000 census",
"As of the [census](/wiki/Census \"Census\") of 2000, there were 207 people, 79 households, and 60 families residing in the town. The population density was {{convert\\|572\\.5\\|PD/sqmi\\|PD/km2\\|sp\\=us\\|adj\\=off}}. There were 85 housing units at an average density of {{convert\\|235\\.1\\|/sqmi\\|/km2\\|sp\\=us\\|adj\\=off}}. The racial makeup of the town was 94\\.20% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 \"White (U.S. Census)\"), 4\\.35% [African American](/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"African American (U.S. Census)\"), and 1\\.45% from two or more races. [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Hispanic (U.S. Census)\") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Latino (U.S. Census)\") of any race were 0\\.48% of the population.",
"There were 79 households, out of which 36\\.7% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 58\\.2% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage \"Marriage\") living together, 15\\.2% had a female householder with no husband present, and 22\\.8% were non\\-families. 20\\.3% of all households were made up of individuals, and 10\\.1% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\\.62 and the average family size was 3\\.00\\.",
"In the town, the population was spread out, with 26\\.6% under the age of 18, 10\\.1% from 18 to 24, 31\\.9% from 25 to 44, 18\\.8% from 45 to 64, and 12\\.6% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 34 years. For every 100 females, there were 101\\.0 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 94\\.9 males.",
"The median income for a household in the town was $31,458, and the median income for a family was $30,000\\. Males had a median income of $26,607 versus $19,000 for females. The [per capita income](/wiki/Per_capita_income \"Per capita income\") for the town was $13,409\\. About 7\\.4% of families and 11\\.5% of the population were below the [poverty line](/wiki/Poverty_line \"Poverty line\"), including 15\\.1% of those under the age of eighteen and 11\\.5% of those 65 or over.",
""
] |
Overview
--------
### Syntax
{{Image frame\|caption\=Parts of an HTML container element
\|content\=
\\overbrace{
\\overbrace{\\mathtt{\\color{BrickRed}\<\\!p\\ }\\color{Magenta}\\underbrace\\mathtt{class}\_\\mathsf{\\color{Black}{Attribute \\atop name}}\\mathtt{\= ''}\\!\\underbrace\\mathtt{paragraph}\_\\mathsf{\\color{White}{Attr} \\atop \\color{Black}Attribute\\ value}''\\mathtt{\\color{BrickRed}\>}}^\\mathsf{Start\\ tag}
\\overbrace\\mathtt{\\color{Green}This\\ is\\ a\\ paragraph.}^\\mathsf{Content}
\\overbrace\\mathtt{\\color{BrickRed}\<\\!/p\\!\>}^\\mathsf{End \\atop tag}
}^\\mathsf{Element}
}}
In the HTML syntax, most elements are written with a start tag and an end tag, with the content in between. An **HTML tag** is composed of the name of the element, surrounded by [angle brackets](/wiki/Angle_bracket "Angle bracket"). An end tag also has a slash after the opening angle bracket, to distinguish it from the start tag. For example, a paragraph, which is represented by the {{tag\|p\|o}} element, would be written as:
\<p\>In the HTML syntax, most elements are written ...\</p\>
However, not all of these elements {{em\|require}} the end tag, or even the start tag, to be present. Some elements, the so\-called *[void elements](/wiki/%23Void_elements "#Void elements")*, do not have an end tag. A typical example is the {{tag\|br\|o}} (hard line\-break) element. A void element's behavior is predefined, and it cannot contain any content or other elements. For example, an address would be written as:
\<p\>P. Sherman\<br\>42 Wallaby Way\<br\>Sydney\</p\>
When using [XHTML](/wiki/XHTML "XHTML"), it is required to open and close all elements, including void elements. This can be done by placing an end tag immediately after the start tag, but this is not legal in HTML 5 and will lead to two elements being created. An alternative way to specify that it is a void element, which is compatible with both XHTML and HTML 5, is to put a `/` at the {{em\|end}} of the tag (not to be confused with the `/` at the {{em\|beginning}} of a closing tag).
\<p\>P. Sherman\<br /\>42 Wallaby Way\<br /\>Sydney\</p\>
[HTML attributes](/wiki/HTML_attribute "HTML attribute") are specified inside the start tag. For example, the {{tag\|abbr\|o}} element, which represents an [abbreviation](/wiki/Abbreviation "Abbreviation"), expects a `title` attribute within its opening tag. This would be written as:
\<abbr title\="abbreviation"\>abbr.\</abbr\>
Informally, HTML elements are sometimes referred to as "tags" (an example of [synecdoche](/wiki/Synecdoche "Synecdoche")), though many prefer the term *tag* strictly in reference to the markup delimiting the start and end of an element.
Element (and attribute) names may be written in any combination of upper or lower case in HTML, but must be in lower case in XHTML.[XHTML 1\.0](/wiki/%23XHTML10 "#XHTML10") §4\.2 The canonical form was upper\-case until [HTML 4](/wiki/HTML_4 "HTML 4"), and was used in HTML specifications, but in recent years, lower\-case has become more common.
#### Types of element
There are three kinds of [HTML](/wiki/HTML "HTML") elements: normal elements, raw text elements, and void elements.
**{{vanchor\|Normal elements}}** usually have both a start tag and an end tag, although for some elements the end tag, or both tags, can be omitted. It is constructed in a similar way:
* a *start tag* ({{tag\|{{var\|tag}}\|o}}) marking the beginning of an element, which may incorporate any number of [HTML attributes](/wiki/HTML_attribute "HTML attribute");
* some amount of *content*, including text and other elements;
* an *end tag*, in which the element name is prefixed with a [slash](/wiki/Slash_%28punctuation%29 "Slash (punctuation)"): {{tag\|{{var\|tag}}\|c}}.
**{{vanchor\|Raw text elements}}** (also known as text or text\-only elements) are constructed with:
* a *start tag* (in the form {{tag\|{{var\|tag}}\|o}}) marking the beginning of an element, which may incorporate any number of HTML attributes;
* some amount of text *content*, but no elements (all tags, apart from the applicable end tag, will be interpreted as content);
* an *end tag*, in which the element name is prefixed with a slash: {{tag\|{{var\|tag}}\|c}}. In some versions of HTML, the end tag is optional for some elements. The end tag is required in [XHTML](/wiki/XHTML "XHTML").
An example is the {{tag\|title\|o}} element, which must not contain other elements (including markup of text), only {{em\|plain}} text.
**{{Anchor\|Empty element}}{{vanchor\|Void elements}}** (also sometimes called empty elements, single elements or stand\-alone elements) only have a start tag (in the form {{tag\|{{var\|tag}}\|o}}), which contains any HTML attributes. They may not contain any children, such as text or other elements. For compatibility with [XHTML](/wiki/XHTML "XHTML"), the HTML specification{{Which\|date\=August 2022}} allows an optional space and slash{{Citation needed\|date\=August 2022}} ({{tag\|{{var\|tag}}\|s}} is permissible). The slash is required in [XHTML](/wiki/XHTML "XHTML") and other [XML](/wiki/XML "XML") applications. Two common void elements are {{tag\|br\|s}} (for a [hard line\-break](/wiki/Hard_return "Hard return"), such as in a poem or an address) and {{tag\|hr\|s}} (for a thematic break). Other such elements are often place\-holders which reference external files, such as the image ({{tag\|img\|s}}) element. The attributes included in the element will then point to the external file in question. Another example of a void element is {{tag\|link\|s}}, for which the syntax is:
\<link rel\="stylesheet" href\="fancy.css" type\="text/css"\>
This {{tag\|link\|s}} element points the browser at a [style sheet](/wiki/Style_sheet_%28web_development%29 "Style sheet (web development)") to use when presenting the HTML document to the user. In the HTML syntax attributes do not have to be quoted if they are composed only of certain characters: letters, digits, the hyphen\-minus and the period. When using the XML syntax (XHTML), on the other hand, all attributes must be quoted, and a spaced trailing [slash](/wiki/Slash_%28punctuation%29 "Slash (punctuation)") is required before the last angle bracket:
\<link rel\="stylesheet" href\="fancy.css" type\="text/css" /\>
#### Attributes
**[HTML attributes](/wiki/HTML_attribute "HTML attribute")** define desired behavior or indicate additional element properties. Most attributes require a *value*. In HTML, the value can be left unquoted if it does not include spaces (`{{var|attribute}}={{var|value}}`), or it can be quoted with single or double quotes (`{{var|attribute}}='{{var|value}}'` or `{{var|attribute}}="{{var|value}}"`). In [XML](/wiki/XML "XML"), those quotes are required.
[Boolean](/wiki/Boolean_data_type "Boolean data type") attributes, on the other hand, do not require a value to be specified. An example is the `checked` for checkboxes:
\<input type\=checkbox checked\>
In the XML (and thus [XHTML](/wiki/XHTML "XHTML")) syntax, though, a value is required, and the name should be repeated as the value:
\<input type\="checkbox" checked\="checked" /\>
### Element standards
HTML elements are defined in a series of freely available open standards issued since 1995, initially by the [IETF](/wiki/IETF "IETF") and subsequently by the [W3C](/wiki/W3C "W3C").
During the [browser wars](/wiki/Browser_wars "Browser wars") of the 1990s, developers of [user agents](/wiki/User_agent "User agent") (e.g. [web browsers](/wiki/Web_browser "Web browser")) often developed their own elements, some of which have been adopted in later standards. Other user agents may not recognize non\-standard elements, and they will be ignored, possibly causing the page to be displayed improperly.
In 1998, [XML](/wiki/XML "XML") (a simplified form of SGML) introduced mechanisms to allow anyone to develop their own elements and incorporate them in [XHTML](/wiki/XHTML "XHTML") documents, for use with XML\-aware user agents.[XML 1\.0](/wiki/%23XML10 "#XML10") (The ability to produce additional elements is part of the *eXtensibility* in the acronym.)
Subsequently, HTML 4\.01 was rewritten in an [XML](/wiki/XML "XML")\-compatible form, [XHTML 1\.0](/wiki/%23XHTML10 "#XHTML10") (*eXtensible HTML*). The elements in each are identical, and in most cases valid XHTML 1\.0 documents will be valid or nearly valid HTML 4\.01 documents. This article mainly focuses on real HTML, unless noted otherwise; however, it remains applicable to XHTML. See [HTML](/wiki/HTML%23SGML-based_versus_XML-based_HTML "HTML#SGML-based versus XML-based HTML") for a discussion of the minor differences between the two.
### Element status
Since the first version of HTML, several elements have become outmoded, and are *[deprecated](/wiki/Deprecated "Deprecated")* in later standards, or do not appear at all, in which case they are *invalid* (and will be found invalid, and perhaps not displayed, by [validating](/wiki/XML_validation "XML validation") user agents).[XML 1\.0](/wiki/%23XML10 "#XML10") §5\.1
In [HTML 4\.01](/wiki/HTML_4.01 "HTML 4.01") / [XHTML 1\.0](/wiki/XHTML_1.0 "XHTML 1.0"), the status of elements is complicated by the existence of three types of [DTD](/wiki/Document_Type_Definition "Document Type Definition"):
* **Transitional**, which contain deprecated elements, but which were intended to provide a transitional period during which authors could update their practices;
* **Frameset**, which are versions of the Transitional DTDs which also allow authors to write **frameset** documents;
* **Strict**, which is the up\-to\-date (as at 1999\) form of HTML.
HTML5 instead provides a listing of **obsolete** features to go along with the **standardized** normative content. They are broken down into "obsolete but conforming" for which implementation instructions exist and "non\-conforming" ones that should be replaced.[WHATWGLS](/wiki/%23WHATWGLS "#WHATWGLS"). § 15
The first Standard ([HTML 2\.0](/wiki/HTML%23HTML_2 "HTML#HTML 2")) contained four deprecated elements, one of which was invalid in [HTML 3\.2](/wiki/HTML_3.2 "HTML 3.2"). All four are invalid in [HTML 4\.01 Transitional](/wiki/HTML_4 "HTML 4"), which also deprecated a further ten elements. All of these, plus two others, are invalid in [HTML 4\.01 Strict](/wiki/HTML_4 "HTML 4"). While the frame elements are still current in the sense of being present in the Transitional and Frameset DTDs, there are no plans to preserve them in future standards, as their function has been largely replaced, and they are highly problematic for user accessibility.
(Strictly speaking, the most recent *XHTML* standard, [XHTML 1\.1](/wiki/XHTML_1.1 "XHTML 1.1") (2001\), does not include frames at all; it is approximately equivalent to [XHTML 1\.0 Strict](/wiki/XHTML_1.0 "XHTML 1.0"), but also includes the **[Ruby markup](/wiki/Ruby_%28annotation_markup%29 "Ruby (annotation markup)")** module.)[XHTML 1\.1](/wiki/%23XHTML11 "#XHTML11") §A
A common source of confusion is the loose use of *deprecated* to refer to both deprecated and invalid status, and to elements that are expected to be formally deprecated in the future.
### Content vs. presentation and behavior
Since HTML 4, HTML has increasingly focused on the separation of content (the visible text and images) from presentation (like color, font size, and layout).{{Cite web
\|title\=HTML \& CSS
\|url\=http://www.w3\.org/standards/webdesign/htmlcss
\|year\=2013
\|publisher\=\[\[W3C]]
}} This is often referred to as a [separation of concerns](/wiki/Separation_of_concerns "Separation of concerns"). HTML is used to represent the structure or content of a document, its presentation remains the sole responsibility of [CSS](/wiki/CSS "CSS") style sheets. A default [style sheet](/wiki/Style_sheet_%28web_development%29 "Style sheet (web development)") is suggested as part of the CSS standard, giving a default rendering for HTML.{{Cite web
\|title\=Appendix D. Default style sheet for HTML 4
\|work\=Cascading Style Sheets Level 2 Revision 1 (CSS 2\.1\) Specification
\|date\=7 June 2011
\|url\=http://www.w3\.org/TR/CSS2/sample.html
\|publisher\=\[\[W3C]]
}}
Behavior (interactivity) is also kept separate from content, and is handled by [scripts](/wiki/Client-side_scripting "Client-side scripting"). Images are contained in separate [graphics](/wiki/Graphics "Graphics") files, separate from text, though they can also be considered part of the content of a page.
Separation of concerns allows the document to be presented by different user agents according to their purposes and abilities. For example, a user agent can select an appropriate style sheet to present a document by displaying on a monitor, printing on paper, or to determine speech characteristics in an audio\-only user agent. The structural and semantic functions of the markup remain identical in each case.
Historically, user agents did not always support these features. In the 1990s, as a stop\-gap, presentational elements (like {{tag\|b\|o}} and {{tag\|i\|o}}) were added to HTML, at the cost of creating problems for interoperability and user accessibility. This is now regarded as outmoded and has been superseded by style sheet\-based design; most presentational elements are now deprecated.[HTML 4\.01](/wiki/%23HTML401 "#HTML401") §14\.1
External image files are incorporated with the {{tag\|img\|s}} or {{tag\|object\|s}} elements. (With [XHTML](/wiki/XHTML "XHTML"), the [SVG](/wiki/Scalable_Vector_Graphics "Scalable Vector Graphics") language can also be used to write graphics within the document, though linking to external SVG files is generally simpler.){{cite web \|editor\-last1\=Ferraiolo \|editor\-first1\=J. \|editor\-last2\=Fujisawa \|editor\-first2\=J. \|editor\-last3\=Jackson \|editor\-first3\=D. \|work\=Scalable Vector Graphics (SVG) 1\.1 Specification \|title\=§2\.3 Options for using SVG in Web pages \|publisher\=\[\[W3C]] \|date\=2003\-01\-14 \|url\= http://www.w3\.org/TR/2003/REC\-SVG11\-20030114/ \|access\-date\=2009\-03\-25}} Where an image is not purely decorative, HTML allows replacement content with similar semantic value to be provided for non\-visual user agents.
An HTML document can also be extended through the use of scripts to provide additional behaviors beyond the abilities of HTML hyperlinks and forms.
The elements {{tag\|style\|o}} and {{tag\|script\|o}}, with related [HTML attributes](/wiki/HTML_attributes "HTML attributes"), provide style sheets and scripts.
* In the document head, {{tag\|style\|s}} and {{tag\|script\|s}} may link to shared external documents, or {{tag\|style}} and {{tag\|script}} may contain embedded instructions. (The {{tag\|link\|o}} element can also be used to link style sheets.)
* {{tag\|script\|s}} or {{tag\|script}} can occur at any point in the document (head or body).
* The `style` attribute is valid in most document body elements (e.g. {{tag\|div\|o\|attribs\=style\="..."}}) for inclusion of *inline style* instructions.
* *Event\-handling attributes*, which provide links to scripts, are optional in most elements.
* For user agents which do not operate scripts, the {{tag\|noscript}} element provides embedded alternative content where appropriate; however, it can only be used in the document head and in the body as a block\-level element.
|
[
"Overview\n--------",
"### Syntax",
"{{Image frame\\|caption\\=Parts of an HTML container element\n\\|content\\=\n\\\\overbrace{\n \\\\overbrace{\\\\mathtt{\\\\color{BrickRed}\\<\\\\!p\\\\ }\\\\color{Magenta}\\\\underbrace\\\\mathtt{class}\\_\\\\mathsf{\\\\color{Black}{Attribute \\\\atop name}}\\\\mathtt{\\= ''}\\\\!\\\\underbrace\\\\mathtt{paragraph}\\_\\\\mathsf{\\\\color{White}{Attr} \\\\atop \\\\color{Black}Attribute\\\\ value}''\\\\mathtt{\\\\color{BrickRed}\\>}}^\\\\mathsf{Start\\\\ tag}\n \\\\overbrace\\\\mathtt{\\\\color{Green}This\\\\ is\\\\ a\\\\ paragraph.}^\\\\mathsf{Content}\n \\\\overbrace\\\\mathtt{\\\\color{BrickRed}\\<\\\\!/p\\\\!\\>}^\\\\mathsf{End \\\\atop tag}\n}^\\\\mathsf{Element}",
"}}\nIn the HTML syntax, most elements are written with a start tag and an end tag, with the content in between. An **HTML tag** is composed of the name of the element, surrounded by [angle brackets](/wiki/Angle_bracket \"Angle bracket\"). An end tag also has a slash after the opening angle bracket, to distinguish it from the start tag. For example, a paragraph, which is represented by the {{tag\\|p\\|o}} element, would be written as:",
"\\<p\\>In the HTML syntax, most elements are written ...\\</p\\>",
"However, not all of these elements {{em\\|require}} the end tag, or even the start tag, to be present. Some elements, the so\\-called *[void elements](/wiki/%23Void_elements \"#Void elements\")*, do not have an end tag. A typical example is the {{tag\\|br\\|o}} (hard line\\-break) element. A void element's behavior is predefined, and it cannot contain any content or other elements. For example, an address would be written as:",
"\\<p\\>P. Sherman\\<br\\>42 Wallaby Way\\<br\\>Sydney\\</p\\>",
"When using [XHTML](/wiki/XHTML \"XHTML\"), it is required to open and close all elements, including void elements. This can be done by placing an end tag immediately after the start tag, but this is not legal in HTML 5 and will lead to two elements being created. An alternative way to specify that it is a void element, which is compatible with both XHTML and HTML 5, is to put a `/` at the {{em\\|end}} of the tag (not to be confused with the `/` at the {{em\\|beginning}} of a closing tag).",
"\\<p\\>P. Sherman\\<br /\\>42 Wallaby Way\\<br /\\>Sydney\\</p\\>",
"",
"[HTML attributes](/wiki/HTML_attribute \"HTML attribute\") are specified inside the start tag. For example, the {{tag\\|abbr\\|o}} element, which represents an [abbreviation](/wiki/Abbreviation \"Abbreviation\"), expects a `title` attribute within its opening tag. This would be written as:",
"\\<abbr title\\=\"abbreviation\"\\>abbr.\\</abbr\\>",
"",
"Informally, HTML elements are sometimes referred to as \"tags\" (an example of [synecdoche](/wiki/Synecdoche \"Synecdoche\")), though many prefer the term *tag* strictly in reference to the markup delimiting the start and end of an element.",
"Element (and attribute) names may be written in any combination of upper or lower case in HTML, but must be in lower case in XHTML.[XHTML 1\\.0](/wiki/%23XHTML10 \"#XHTML10\") §4\\.2 The canonical form was upper\\-case until [HTML 4](/wiki/HTML_4 \"HTML 4\"), and was used in HTML specifications, but in recent years, lower\\-case has become more common.",
"#### Types of element",
"There are three kinds of [HTML](/wiki/HTML \"HTML\") elements: normal elements, raw text elements, and void elements.",
"**{{vanchor\\|Normal elements}}** usually have both a start tag and an end tag, although for some elements the end tag, or both tags, can be omitted. It is constructed in a similar way:\n* a *start tag* ({{tag\\|{{var\\|tag}}\\|o}}) marking the beginning of an element, which may incorporate any number of [HTML attributes](/wiki/HTML_attribute \"HTML attribute\");\n* some amount of *content*, including text and other elements;\n* an *end tag*, in which the element name is prefixed with a [slash](/wiki/Slash_%28punctuation%29 \"Slash (punctuation)\"): {{tag\\|{{var\\|tag}}\\|c}}.",
"**{{vanchor\\|Raw text elements}}** (also known as text or text\\-only elements) are constructed with:\n* a *start tag* (in the form {{tag\\|{{var\\|tag}}\\|o}}) marking the beginning of an element, which may incorporate any number of HTML attributes;\n* some amount of text *content*, but no elements (all tags, apart from the applicable end tag, will be interpreted as content);\n* an *end tag*, in which the element name is prefixed with a slash: {{tag\\|{{var\\|tag}}\\|c}}. In some versions of HTML, the end tag is optional for some elements. The end tag is required in [XHTML](/wiki/XHTML \"XHTML\").\nAn example is the {{tag\\|title\\|o}} element, which must not contain other elements (including markup of text), only {{em\\|plain}} text.",
"**{{Anchor\\|Empty element}}{{vanchor\\|Void elements}}** (also sometimes called empty elements, single elements or stand\\-alone elements) only have a start tag (in the form {{tag\\|{{var\\|tag}}\\|o}}), which contains any HTML attributes. They may not contain any children, such as text or other elements. For compatibility with [XHTML](/wiki/XHTML \"XHTML\"), the HTML specification{{Which\\|date\\=August 2022}} allows an optional space and slash{{Citation needed\\|date\\=August 2022}} ({{tag\\|{{var\\|tag}}\\|s}} is permissible). The slash is required in [XHTML](/wiki/XHTML \"XHTML\") and other [XML](/wiki/XML \"XML\") applications. Two common void elements are {{tag\\|br\\|s}} (for a [hard line\\-break](/wiki/Hard_return \"Hard return\"), such as in a poem or an address) and {{tag\\|hr\\|s}} (for a thematic break). Other such elements are often place\\-holders which reference external files, such as the image ({{tag\\|img\\|s}}) element. The attributes included in the element will then point to the external file in question. Another example of a void element is {{tag\\|link\\|s}}, for which the syntax is:",
"\\<link rel\\=\"stylesheet\" href\\=\"fancy.css\" type\\=\"text/css\"\\>",
"This {{tag\\|link\\|s}} element points the browser at a [style sheet](/wiki/Style_sheet_%28web_development%29 \"Style sheet (web development)\") to use when presenting the HTML document to the user. In the HTML syntax attributes do not have to be quoted if they are composed only of certain characters: letters, digits, the hyphen\\-minus and the period. When using the XML syntax (XHTML), on the other hand, all attributes must be quoted, and a spaced trailing [slash](/wiki/Slash_%28punctuation%29 \"Slash (punctuation)\") is required before the last angle bracket:",
"\\<link rel\\=\"stylesheet\" href\\=\"fancy.css\" type\\=\"text/css\" /\\>",
"",
"#### Attributes",
"**[HTML attributes](/wiki/HTML_attribute \"HTML attribute\")** define desired behavior or indicate additional element properties. Most attributes require a *value*. In HTML, the value can be left unquoted if it does not include spaces (`{{var|attribute}}={{var|value}}`), or it can be quoted with single or double quotes (`{{var|attribute}}='{{var|value}}'` or `{{var|attribute}}=\"{{var|value}}\"`). In [XML](/wiki/XML \"XML\"), those quotes are required.",
"[Boolean](/wiki/Boolean_data_type \"Boolean data type\") attributes, on the other hand, do not require a value to be specified. An example is the `checked` for checkboxes:",
"\\<input type\\=checkbox checked\\>",
"In the XML (and thus [XHTML](/wiki/XHTML \"XHTML\")) syntax, though, a value is required, and the name should be repeated as the value:",
"\\<input type\\=\"checkbox\" checked\\=\"checked\" /\\>",
"",
"### Element standards",
"HTML elements are defined in a series of freely available open standards issued since 1995, initially by the [IETF](/wiki/IETF \"IETF\") and subsequently by the [W3C](/wiki/W3C \"W3C\").",
"During the [browser wars](/wiki/Browser_wars \"Browser wars\") of the 1990s, developers of [user agents](/wiki/User_agent \"User agent\") (e.g. [web browsers](/wiki/Web_browser \"Web browser\")) often developed their own elements, some of which have been adopted in later standards. Other user agents may not recognize non\\-standard elements, and they will be ignored, possibly causing the page to be displayed improperly.",
"In 1998, [XML](/wiki/XML \"XML\") (a simplified form of SGML) introduced mechanisms to allow anyone to develop their own elements and incorporate them in [XHTML](/wiki/XHTML \"XHTML\") documents, for use with XML\\-aware user agents.[XML 1\\.0](/wiki/%23XML10 \"#XML10\") (The ability to produce additional elements is part of the *eXtensibility* in the acronym.)",
"Subsequently, HTML 4\\.01 was rewritten in an [XML](/wiki/XML \"XML\")\\-compatible form, [XHTML 1\\.0](/wiki/%23XHTML10 \"#XHTML10\") (*eXtensible HTML*). The elements in each are identical, and in most cases valid XHTML 1\\.0 documents will be valid or nearly valid HTML 4\\.01 documents. This article mainly focuses on real HTML, unless noted otherwise; however, it remains applicable to XHTML. See [HTML](/wiki/HTML%23SGML-based_versus_XML-based_HTML \"HTML#SGML-based versus XML-based HTML\") for a discussion of the minor differences between the two.",
"### Element status",
"Since the first version of HTML, several elements have become outmoded, and are *[deprecated](/wiki/Deprecated \"Deprecated\")* in later standards, or do not appear at all, in which case they are *invalid* (and will be found invalid, and perhaps not displayed, by [validating](/wiki/XML_validation \"XML validation\") user agents).[XML 1\\.0](/wiki/%23XML10 \"#XML10\") §5\\.1",
"In [HTML 4\\.01](/wiki/HTML_4.01 \"HTML 4.01\") / [XHTML 1\\.0](/wiki/XHTML_1.0 \"XHTML 1.0\"), the status of elements is complicated by the existence of three types of [DTD](/wiki/Document_Type_Definition \"Document Type Definition\"):\n* **Transitional**, which contain deprecated elements, but which were intended to provide a transitional period during which authors could update their practices;\n* **Frameset**, which are versions of the Transitional DTDs which also allow authors to write **frameset** documents;\n* **Strict**, which is the up\\-to\\-date (as at 1999\\) form of HTML.",
"HTML5 instead provides a listing of **obsolete** features to go along with the **standardized** normative content. They are broken down into \"obsolete but conforming\" for which implementation instructions exist and \"non\\-conforming\" ones that should be replaced.[WHATWGLS](/wiki/%23WHATWGLS \"#WHATWGLS\"). § 15",
"The first Standard ([HTML 2\\.0](/wiki/HTML%23HTML_2 \"HTML#HTML 2\")) contained four deprecated elements, one of which was invalid in [HTML 3\\.2](/wiki/HTML_3.2 \"HTML 3.2\"). All four are invalid in [HTML 4\\.01 Transitional](/wiki/HTML_4 \"HTML 4\"), which also deprecated a further ten elements. All of these, plus two others, are invalid in [HTML 4\\.01 Strict](/wiki/HTML_4 \"HTML 4\"). While the frame elements are still current in the sense of being present in the Transitional and Frameset DTDs, there are no plans to preserve them in future standards, as their function has been largely replaced, and they are highly problematic for user accessibility.",
"(Strictly speaking, the most recent *XHTML* standard, [XHTML 1\\.1](/wiki/XHTML_1.1 \"XHTML 1.1\") (2001\\), does not include frames at all; it is approximately equivalent to [XHTML 1\\.0 Strict](/wiki/XHTML_1.0 \"XHTML 1.0\"), but also includes the **[Ruby markup](/wiki/Ruby_%28annotation_markup%29 \"Ruby (annotation markup)\")** module.)[XHTML 1\\.1](/wiki/%23XHTML11 \"#XHTML11\") §A",
"A common source of confusion is the loose use of *deprecated* to refer to both deprecated and invalid status, and to elements that are expected to be formally deprecated in the future.",
"### Content vs. presentation and behavior",
"Since HTML 4, HTML has increasingly focused on the separation of content (the visible text and images) from presentation (like color, font size, and layout).{{Cite web\n \\|title\\=HTML \\& CSS\n \\|url\\=http://www.w3\\.org/standards/webdesign/htmlcss\n \\|year\\=2013\n \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[W3C]]\n}} This is often referred to as a [separation of concerns](/wiki/Separation_of_concerns \"Separation of concerns\"). HTML is used to represent the structure or content of a document, its presentation remains the sole responsibility of [CSS](/wiki/CSS \"CSS\") style sheets. A default [style sheet](/wiki/Style_sheet_%28web_development%29 \"Style sheet (web development)\") is suggested as part of the CSS standard, giving a default rendering for HTML.{{Cite web\n \\|title\\=Appendix D. Default style sheet for HTML 4\n \\|work\\=Cascading Style Sheets Level 2 Revision 1 (CSS 2\\.1\\) Specification\n \\|date\\=7 June 2011\n \\|url\\=http://www.w3\\.org/TR/CSS2/sample.html\n \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[W3C]]\n}}",
"Behavior (interactivity) is also kept separate from content, and is handled by [scripts](/wiki/Client-side_scripting \"Client-side scripting\"). Images are contained in separate [graphics](/wiki/Graphics \"Graphics\") files, separate from text, though they can also be considered part of the content of a page.",
"Separation of concerns allows the document to be presented by different user agents according to their purposes and abilities. For example, a user agent can select an appropriate style sheet to present a document by displaying on a monitor, printing on paper, or to determine speech characteristics in an audio\\-only user agent. The structural and semantic functions of the markup remain identical in each case.",
"Historically, user agents did not always support these features. In the 1990s, as a stop\\-gap, presentational elements (like {{tag\\|b\\|o}} and {{tag\\|i\\|o}}) were added to HTML, at the cost of creating problems for interoperability and user accessibility. This is now regarded as outmoded and has been superseded by style sheet\\-based design; most presentational elements are now deprecated.[HTML 4\\.01](/wiki/%23HTML401 \"#HTML401\") §14\\.1",
"External image files are incorporated with the {{tag\\|img\\|s}} or {{tag\\|object\\|s}} elements. (With [XHTML](/wiki/XHTML \"XHTML\"), the [SVG](/wiki/Scalable_Vector_Graphics \"Scalable Vector Graphics\") language can also be used to write graphics within the document, though linking to external SVG files is generally simpler.){{cite web \\|editor\\-last1\\=Ferraiolo \\|editor\\-first1\\=J. \\|editor\\-last2\\=Fujisawa \\|editor\\-first2\\=J. \\|editor\\-last3\\=Jackson \\|editor\\-first3\\=D. \\|work\\=Scalable Vector Graphics (SVG) 1\\.1 Specification \\|title\\=§2\\.3 Options for using SVG in Web pages \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[W3C]] \\|date\\=2003\\-01\\-14 \\|url\\= http://www.w3\\.org/TR/2003/REC\\-SVG11\\-20030114/ \\|access\\-date\\=2009\\-03\\-25}} Where an image is not purely decorative, HTML allows replacement content with similar semantic value to be provided for non\\-visual user agents.",
"An HTML document can also be extended through the use of scripts to provide additional behaviors beyond the abilities of HTML hyperlinks and forms.",
"The elements {{tag\\|style\\|o}} and {{tag\\|script\\|o}}, with related [HTML attributes](/wiki/HTML_attributes \"HTML attributes\"), provide style sheets and scripts.\n* In the document head, {{tag\\|style\\|s}} and {{tag\\|script\\|s}} may link to shared external documents, or {{tag\\|style}} and {{tag\\|script}} may contain embedded instructions. (The {{tag\\|link\\|o}} element can also be used to link style sheets.)\n* {{tag\\|script\\|s}} or {{tag\\|script}} can occur at any point in the document (head or body).\n* The `style` attribute is valid in most document body elements (e.g. {{tag\\|div\\|o\\|attribs\\=style\\=\"...\"}}) for inclusion of *inline style* instructions.\n* *Event\\-handling attributes*, which provide links to scripts, are optional in most elements.\n* For user agents which do not operate scripts, the {{tag\\|noscript}} element provides embedded alternative content where appropriate; however, it can only be used in the document head and in the body as a block\\-level element.",
""
] |
### Content vs. presentation and behavior
Since HTML 4, HTML has increasingly focused on the separation of content (the visible text and images) from presentation (like color, font size, and layout).{{Cite web
\|title\=HTML \& CSS
\|url\=http://www.w3\.org/standards/webdesign/htmlcss
\|year\=2013
\|publisher\=\[\[W3C]]
}} This is often referred to as a [separation of concerns](/wiki/Separation_of_concerns "Separation of concerns"). HTML is used to represent the structure or content of a document, its presentation remains the sole responsibility of [CSS](/wiki/CSS "CSS") style sheets. A default [style sheet](/wiki/Style_sheet_%28web_development%29 "Style sheet (web development)") is suggested as part of the CSS standard, giving a default rendering for HTML.{{Cite web
\|title\=Appendix D. Default style sheet for HTML 4
\|work\=Cascading Style Sheets Level 2 Revision 1 (CSS 2\.1\) Specification
\|date\=7 June 2011
\|url\=http://www.w3\.org/TR/CSS2/sample.html
\|publisher\=\[\[W3C]]
}}
Behavior (interactivity) is also kept separate from content, and is handled by [scripts](/wiki/Client-side_scripting "Client-side scripting"). Images are contained in separate [graphics](/wiki/Graphics "Graphics") files, separate from text, though they can also be considered part of the content of a page.
Separation of concerns allows the document to be presented by different user agents according to their purposes and abilities. For example, a user agent can select an appropriate style sheet to present a document by displaying on a monitor, printing on paper, or to determine speech characteristics in an audio\-only user agent. The structural and semantic functions of the markup remain identical in each case.
Historically, user agents did not always support these features. In the 1990s, as a stop\-gap, presentational elements (like {{tag\|b\|o}} and {{tag\|i\|o}}) were added to HTML, at the cost of creating problems for interoperability and user accessibility. This is now regarded as outmoded and has been superseded by style sheet\-based design; most presentational elements are now deprecated.[HTML 4\.01](/wiki/%23HTML401 "#HTML401") §14\.1
External image files are incorporated with the {{tag\|img\|s}} or {{tag\|object\|s}} elements. (With [XHTML](/wiki/XHTML "XHTML"), the [SVG](/wiki/Scalable_Vector_Graphics "Scalable Vector Graphics") language can also be used to write graphics within the document, though linking to external SVG files is generally simpler.){{cite web \|editor\-last1\=Ferraiolo \|editor\-first1\=J. \|editor\-last2\=Fujisawa \|editor\-first2\=J. \|editor\-last3\=Jackson \|editor\-first3\=D. \|work\=Scalable Vector Graphics (SVG) 1\.1 Specification \|title\=§2\.3 Options for using SVG in Web pages \|publisher\=\[\[W3C]] \|date\=2003\-01\-14 \|url\= http://www.w3\.org/TR/2003/REC\-SVG11\-20030114/ \|access\-date\=2009\-03\-25}} Where an image is not purely decorative, HTML allows replacement content with similar semantic value to be provided for non\-visual user agents.
An HTML document can also be extended through the use of scripts to provide additional behaviors beyond the abilities of HTML hyperlinks and forms.
The elements {{tag\|style\|o}} and {{tag\|script\|o}}, with related [HTML attributes](/wiki/HTML_attributes "HTML attributes"), provide style sheets and scripts.
* In the document head, {{tag\|style\|s}} and {{tag\|script\|s}} may link to shared external documents, or {{tag\|style}} and {{tag\|script}} may contain embedded instructions. (The {{tag\|link\|o}} element can also be used to link style sheets.)
* {{tag\|script\|s}} or {{tag\|script}} can occur at any point in the document (head or body).
* The `style` attribute is valid in most document body elements (e.g. {{tag\|div\|o\|attribs\=style\="..."}}) for inclusion of *inline style* instructions.
* *Event\-handling attributes*, which provide links to scripts, are optional in most elements.
* For user agents which do not operate scripts, the {{tag\|noscript}} element provides embedded alternative content where appropriate; however, it can only be used in the document head and in the body as a block\-level element.
|
[
"### Content vs. presentation and behavior",
"Since HTML 4, HTML has increasingly focused on the separation of content (the visible text and images) from presentation (like color, font size, and layout).{{Cite web\n \\|title\\=HTML \\& CSS\n \\|url\\=http://www.w3\\.org/standards/webdesign/htmlcss\n \\|year\\=2013\n \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[W3C]]\n}} This is often referred to as a [separation of concerns](/wiki/Separation_of_concerns \"Separation of concerns\"). HTML is used to represent the structure or content of a document, its presentation remains the sole responsibility of [CSS](/wiki/CSS \"CSS\") style sheets. A default [style sheet](/wiki/Style_sheet_%28web_development%29 \"Style sheet (web development)\") is suggested as part of the CSS standard, giving a default rendering for HTML.{{Cite web\n \\|title\\=Appendix D. Default style sheet for HTML 4\n \\|work\\=Cascading Style Sheets Level 2 Revision 1 (CSS 2\\.1\\) Specification\n \\|date\\=7 June 2011\n \\|url\\=http://www.w3\\.org/TR/CSS2/sample.html\n \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[W3C]]\n}}",
"Behavior (interactivity) is also kept separate from content, and is handled by [scripts](/wiki/Client-side_scripting \"Client-side scripting\"). Images are contained in separate [graphics](/wiki/Graphics \"Graphics\") files, separate from text, though they can also be considered part of the content of a page.",
"Separation of concerns allows the document to be presented by different user agents according to their purposes and abilities. For example, a user agent can select an appropriate style sheet to present a document by displaying on a monitor, printing on paper, or to determine speech characteristics in an audio\\-only user agent. The structural and semantic functions of the markup remain identical in each case.",
"Historically, user agents did not always support these features. In the 1990s, as a stop\\-gap, presentational elements (like {{tag\\|b\\|o}} and {{tag\\|i\\|o}}) were added to HTML, at the cost of creating problems for interoperability and user accessibility. This is now regarded as outmoded and has been superseded by style sheet\\-based design; most presentational elements are now deprecated.[HTML 4\\.01](/wiki/%23HTML401 \"#HTML401\") §14\\.1",
"External image files are incorporated with the {{tag\\|img\\|s}} or {{tag\\|object\\|s}} elements. (With [XHTML](/wiki/XHTML \"XHTML\"), the [SVG](/wiki/Scalable_Vector_Graphics \"Scalable Vector Graphics\") language can also be used to write graphics within the document, though linking to external SVG files is generally simpler.){{cite web \\|editor\\-last1\\=Ferraiolo \\|editor\\-first1\\=J. \\|editor\\-last2\\=Fujisawa \\|editor\\-first2\\=J. \\|editor\\-last3\\=Jackson \\|editor\\-first3\\=D. \\|work\\=Scalable Vector Graphics (SVG) 1\\.1 Specification \\|title\\=§2\\.3 Options for using SVG in Web pages \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[W3C]] \\|date\\=2003\\-01\\-14 \\|url\\= http://www.w3\\.org/TR/2003/REC\\-SVG11\\-20030114/ \\|access\\-date\\=2009\\-03\\-25}} Where an image is not purely decorative, HTML allows replacement content with similar semantic value to be provided for non\\-visual user agents.",
"An HTML document can also be extended through the use of scripts to provide additional behaviors beyond the abilities of HTML hyperlinks and forms.",
"The elements {{tag\\|style\\|o}} and {{tag\\|script\\|o}}, with related [HTML attributes](/wiki/HTML_attributes \"HTML attributes\"), provide style sheets and scripts.\n* In the document head, {{tag\\|style\\|s}} and {{tag\\|script\\|s}} may link to shared external documents, or {{tag\\|style}} and {{tag\\|script}} may contain embedded instructions. (The {{tag\\|link\\|o}} element can also be used to link style sheets.)\n* {{tag\\|script\\|s}} or {{tag\\|script}} can occur at any point in the document (head or body).\n* The `style` attribute is valid in most document body elements (e.g. {{tag\\|div\\|o\\|attribs\\=style\\=\"...\"}}) for inclusion of *inline style* instructions.\n* *Event\\-handling attributes*, which provide links to scripts, are optional in most elements.\n* For user agents which do not operate scripts, the {{tag\\|noscript}} element provides embedded alternative content where appropriate; however, it can only be used in the document head and in the body as a block\\-level element.",
""
] |
Document body elements
----------------------
In visual browsers, displayable elements can be rendered as either *block* or *inline*. While all elements are part of the document sequence, block elements appear within their parent elements:
* as rectangular objects which do not break across lines;
* with block margins, width, and height properties which can be set independently of the surrounding elements.
Conversely, inline elements are treated as part of the flow of document text; they cannot have margins, width, or height set, and do break across lines.
### Block elements
Block elements, or block\-level elements, have a rectangular structure. By default, these elements will span the entire width of its parent element, and will thus not allow any other element to occupy the same horizontal space as it is placed on.
The rectangular structure of a block element is often referred to as the [box model](/wiki/W3C_and_Internet_Explorer_box_models.svg "W3C and Internet Explorer box models.svg"), and is made up of several parts. Each element contains the following:
* The **content** of an element is the actual text (or other media) placed between the opening and closing tags of an element.
* The **padding** of an element is the space around the content but which still forms part of the element. Padding should not be used to create white space between two elements. Any background style assigned to the element, such as a background image or color, will be visible within the padding. Increasing the size of an element's padding increases the amount of space this element will take up.
* The **border** of an element is the absolute end of an element and spans the perimeter of that element. The thickness of a border increases the size of an element.
* The **margin** of an element is the white space that surrounds an element. The content, padding, and border of any other element will not be allowed to enter this area unless forced to do so by some advanced [CSS](/wiki/CSS "CSS") placement. Using most standard [DTDs](/wiki/Document_Type_Definition "Document Type Definition"), margins on the left and right of different elements will push each other away. Margins on the top or bottom of an element, on the other hand, will not stack or will intermingle. This means that the white space between these elements will be as big as the larger margin between them.
The above section refers only to the detailed implementation of CSS rendering and has no relevance to HTML elements themselves.
#### Basic text
{{glossary}}
{{term\|term\=p \|content\= {{XMLElement\|p\|Paragraph}} }}
{{defn\|1\= Creates a paragraph, perhaps the most common block level element.}}
{{defn\|`P` existed in ''\[\[\#HTMLTAGS\|HTML Tags]]'', and was '''standardized''' in \[\[\#HTML20\|HTML 2\.0]]; still current.}}
{{term\|term\=h1 \|content\= {{XMLElement\|h1\|Level 1 heading}} {{anchor\|heading}} }}
{{term\|term\=h2 \|content\= {{XMLElement\|h2\|Level 2 heading}} \|multi\=y}}
{{term\|term\=h3 \|content\= {{XMLElement\|h3\|Level 3 heading}} \|multi\=y}}
{{term\|term\=h4 \|content\= {{XMLElement\|h4\|Level 4 heading}} \|multi\=y}}
{{term\|term\=h5 \|content\= {{XMLElement\|h5\|Level 5 heading}} \|multi\=y}}
{{term\|term\=h6 \|content\= {{XMLElement\|h6\|Level 6 heading}} \|multi\=y}}
{{defn\|1\= Section headings at different levels. `h1` delimits the highest\-level heading, `h2` the next level down (sub\-section), `h3` for a level below that, and so on to `h6`. They are sometimes referred to collectively as `h''n''` tags, ''n'' meaning any of the available heading levels.
Most visual browsers show headings as large bold text by default, though this can be overridden with \[\[Cascading Style Sheets\|CSS]]. Heading elements are not intended merely for creating large or bold text – in fact, they should {{em\|not}} be used for explicitly styling text. Rather, they describe the document's structure and organization. Some programs use them to generate outlines and tables of contents.
}}
{{defn\|Headings existed in ''\[\[\#HTMLTAGS\|HTML Tags]]'', and were '''standardized''' in \[\[\#HTML20\|HTML 2\.0]]; still current.}}
{{glossary end}}
#### Lists
{{glossary}}
{{term\|term\=dl \|content\= {{XMLElement\|dl\|Definition List}} }}
{{defn\|1\= {{redirect\|Definition list\|Wikipedia's article on lists of definitions\|Glossary}}
A description list (a.k.a. \[\[association list]] or definition list) consists of name–value groups,{{cite web \|url\=http://www.w3\.org/TR/html5/grouping\-content.html\#the\-dl\-element \|title\=4\.4 Grouping content – HTML5 \|work\=HTML5: A vocabulary and associated APIs for HTML and XHTML – W3C Recommendation \|publisher\=\[\[World Wide Web Consortium]] \|at\=§4\.4\.8 The dl element \|date\=28 October 2014 \|access\-date\=16 August 2015}} and was known as a definition list prior to HTML5\.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.w3\.org/TR/html4/struct/lists.html\#edef\-DL \|title\=Lists in HTML documents \|at\=§10\.3 Definition lists: the DL, DT, and DD elements \|work\=HTML 4\.01 Specification – W3C Recommendation \|date\=24 December 1999 \|publisher\=World Wide Web Consortium \|access\-date\=2 May 2015 }} Description lists are intended for groups of "terms and definitions, metadata topics and values, questions and answers, or any other groups of name–value data".{{cite web \|website\=\[\[W3C]]\|title\=HTML5: A Vocabulary and Associated APIs for HTML and XHTML, W3C Working Draft\|date\=5 April 2011\|url\=http://www.w3\.org/TR/2011/WD\-html5\-20110405/grouping\-content.html\#the\-dl\-element}}.
}}
{{defn\|`DL` existed in ''\[\[\#HTMLTAGS\|HTML Tags]]'', and was '''standardized''' in \[\[\#HTML20\|HTML 2\.0]]; still current.}}
{{term\|term\=dt \|content\= {{XMLElement\|dt\|Definition Term}} }}
{{defn\|1\= A name in a description list (previously definition term in a definition list).}}
{{defn\|`DT` existed in ''\[\[\#HTMLTAGS\|HTML Tags]]'', and was '''standardized''' in \[\[\#HTML20\|HTML 2\.0]]; still current.}}
{{term\|term\=dd \|content\= {{XMLElement\|dd\|Definition}} }}
{{defn\|1\= A value in a description list (previously definition data in a definition list).}}
{{defn\|`DD` existed in ''\[\[\#HTMLTAGS\|HTML Tags]]'', and was '''standardized''' in \[\[\#HTML20\|HTML 2\.0]]; still current.}}
{{term\|term\=ol \|content\= {{XMLElement\|ol\|Ordered List}} }}
* + - * + {{defn\|1\= An ordered (enumerated) list. The `type` attribute can be used to specify the kind of marker to use in the list, but style sheets give more control. The default is Arabic numbering. In an HTML attribute: {{nobr\|{{code\|lang\=html\|code\=
}}}}; or in a CSS declaration: {{nobr\|{{code\|lang\=css\|code\=ol { list\-style\-type: foo; } }}}} – replacing `foo` with one of the following:
\* A, B, C ... – HTML value: `A`; CSS value: `upper-alpha`
\* a, b, c ... – HTML value: `a`; CSS value: `lower-alpha`
\* I, II, III ... – HTML value: `I`; CSS value: `upper-roman`
\* i, ii, iii ... – HTML value: `i`; CSS value: `lower-roman`
\* 1, 2, 3 ... – HTML value: `1`; `decimal`
CSS provides several other options not available as pure\-HTML markup, including `none`, and options for \[\[CJK]], Hebrew, Georgian, and Armenian script. The attribute is deprecated in HTML 3\.2 and 4\.01, but not in HTML 5\.
}}
{{defn\|`OL` existed in ''\[\[\#HTMLDRAFT12\|HTML Internet Draft 1\.2]]'', and was '''standardized''' in \[\[\#HTML20\|HTML 2\.0]]; still current.}}
{{term\|term\=ul \|content\= {{XMLElement\|ul\|Unordered List}} }}
{{defn\|1\= An unordered (bulleted) list. The type of list item marker can be specified in an HTML attribute: {{nobr\|{{code\|lang\=html\|code\=}}}}; or in a CSS declaration: {{nobr\|{{code\|lang\=css\|code\=ul { list\-style\-type: foo; } }}}} – replacing `foo` with one of the following (the same values are used in HTML and CSS): `disc` (the default), `square`, or `circle`. '''Only''' the CSS method is supported in HTML5; the attribute is deprecated in HTML 3\.2 and 4\.01\. CSS also provides `none`, and the ability to replace these bullets with custom images.}}
{{defn\|`UL` existed in ''\[\[\#HTMLTAGS\|HTML Tags]]'', and was '''standardized''' in \[\[\#HTML20\|HTML 2\.0]]; still current.}}
{{term\|term\=li \|content\= {{XMLElement\|li\|List Item}} }}
{{defn\|1\= A list item in ordered (`ol`) or unordered (`ul`) lists.}}
{{defn\|`LI` existed in ''\[\[\#HTMLTAGS\|HTML Tags]]'', and was '''standardized''' in \[\[\#HTML20\|HTML 2\.0]]; still current.}}
{{term\|term\=dir \|content\= {{XMLElement\|dir\|Directory List\|deprecated\=1}} }}
{{defn\|1\= A directory listing. The original purpose of this element was never widely supported; deprecated in favor of {{code\|lang\=html\|code\=}}.}}
{{defn\|`DIR` existed in ''\[\[\#HTMLTAGS\|HTML Tags]]'', and was '''standardized''' in \[\[\#HTML20\|HTML 2\.0]]; '''deprecated''' in \[\[\#HTML401\|HTML 4\.0 Transitional]]; '''invalid''' in \[\[\#HTML401\|HTML 4\.0 Strict]].}}
{{glossary end}}
#### Other block elements
{{glossary}}
{{term\|term\=address \|content\= {{XMLElement\|address\|Address}} }}
{{defn\|1\= Contact information for the document author.}}
{{defn\|`ADDRESS` existed in ''\[\[\#HTMLTAGS\|HTML Tags]]'', and was '''standardized''' in \[\[\#HTML20\|HTML 2\.0]]; still current.}}
{{term\|term\=article \|content\= {{XMLElement\|article\|Article}} }}
{{defn\|1\= {{Main\|Article element}}
Used for articles and other similar content.
}}
{{defn\|'''Standardized''' in \[\[\#HTML5\|HTML5]].}}
{{term\|term\=aside \|content\= {{XMLElement\|aside\|Aside}} }}
{{defn\|1\= Used for content in a document which is separate from the main page content, for example, sidebars or advertising.}}
{{defn\|'''Standardized''' in \[\[\#HTML5\|HTML5]].}}
{{term\|term\=blockquote \|content\= {{XMLElement\|blockquote\|BlockQuotation}} }}
{{defn\|1\= {{Main\|Blockquote element}}
A \[\[blockquote\|block level quotation]], for when the quotation includes block level elements, e.g. paragraphs. The `cite` attribute (not to be confused with the \[\[\#cite\|{{tag\|cite\|o}}]] element) may give the source, and must be a fully qualified \[\[Uniform Resource Identifier]].
The default presentation of block quotations in visual browsers is usually to indent them from both margins. This has led to the element being unnecessarily used just to indent paragraphs, regardless of semantics. For quotations not containing block level elements see the quote (\[\[\#q\|{{tag\|q\|o}}]]) element.
}}
{{defn\|`BLOCKQUOTE` existed in ''\[\[\#HTMLDRAFT12\|HTML Internet Draft 1\.2]]'', and was '''standardized''' in \[\[\#HTML20\|HTML 2\.0]]; still current. See \[\[blockquote element]] for more information.}}
{{term\|term\=center \|content\= {{XMLElement\|center\|Centered Text\|deprecated\=1}} }}
{{defn\|1\= Creates a block\-level center\-aligned division. Deprecated in favor of \[\[\#div\|{{tag\|div\|o}}]] or another element with centering defined using style sheets.}}
{{defn\|'''Standardized''' in \[\[\#HTML32\|HTML 3\.2]]; '''deprecated''' in \[\[\#HTML401\|HTML 4\.0]]; '''not supported''' in \[\[\#HTML5\|HTML5]].}}
{{term\|term\=del \|content\= {{XMLElement\|del\|Deleted Section}} }}
{{defn\|1\= Marks a deleted section of content. This element can also be used as ''inline''.}}
{{defn\|'''Standardized''' in \[\[\#HTML401\|HTML 4\.0]]; still current.}}
{{term\|term\=div \|content\= {{XMLElement\|div\|Logical division}} }}
{{defn\|1\= {{Main\|Span and div}}
A block\-level logical division. A generic element with no semantic meaning used to distinguish a document section, usually for purposes such as presentation or behavior controlled by \[\[Cascading Style Sheets\|style sheets]] or \[\[Document Object Model\|DOM]] calls.}}
{{defn\|Proposed in the \[\[\#HTML30\|HTML 3\.0 Drafts]]; '''Standardized''' in \[\[\#HTML32\|HTML 3\.2]]; still current.}}
{{term\|term\=figure \|content\= {{XMLElement\|figure\|Figure}} }}
{{defn\|1\= Used to group images and captions, along with {{tag\|figcaption\|o}}.}}
{{defn\|'''Standardized''' in \[\[\#HTML5\|HTML5]].}}
{{term\|term\=figcaption \|content\= {{XMLElement\|figcaption\|Figure Caption}} }}
{{defn\|1\= A caption for an image. Always placed inside the {{tag\|figure\|o}} element.}}
{{defn\|'''Standardized''' in \[\[\#HTML5\|HTML5]].}}
{{term\|term\=footer \|content\= {{XMLElement\|footer\|Footer}} }}
{{defn\|1\= Used for document footers. These might contain author or copyright information, or links to other pages.}}
{{defn\|'''Standardized''' in \[\[\#HTML5\|HTML5]].}}
{{term\|term\=header \|content\= {{XMLElement\|header\|Header}} }}
{{defn\|1\= Used for document headers. These typically contain content introducing the page.}}
{{defn\|'''Standardized''' in \[\[\#HTML5\|HTML5]].}}
{{term\|term\=hr \|content\= {{XMLElement\|hr\|Thematic break\|end\=no}} }}
{{defn\|1\= A \[\[thematic break (formatting)\|thematic break]] (originally: horizontal rule). Presentational rules can be drawn with style sheets.}}
{{defn\|'''Standardized''' in \[\[\#HTML20\|HTML 2\.0]]; still current.}}
{{term\|term\=ins \|content\= {{XMLElement\|ins\|Inserted Section}} }}
{{defn\|1\= Marks a section of inserted content. This element can also be used as ''inline''.}}
{{defn\|'''Standardized''' in \[\[\#HTML401\|HTML 4\.0]]; still current.}}
{{term\|term\=main \|content\= {{XMLElement\|main\|Main Content}} }}
{{defn\|1\= Contains the main content of a document.}}
{{defn\|'''Standardized''' in \[\[\#HTML5\|HTML 5\.1]].}}
{{term\|term\=menu \|content\= {{XMLElement\|menu\|Menu}} }}
{{defn\|1\= HTML 2\.0: A menu listing. Should be more compact than a {{tag\|ul\|o}} list.}}
{{defn\|`MENU` existed in ''\[\[\#HTMLTAGS\|HTML Tags]]'', and was '''standardized''' in \[\[\#HTML20\|HTML 2\.0]]; '''deprecated''' in \[\[\#HTML401\|HTML 4\.0 Transitional]]; '''invalid''' in \[\[\#HTML401\|HTML 4\.0 Strict]]; then redefined in \[\[\#HTML5\|HTML5]], removed in HTML 5\.2, but is included in the HTML Living Standard in 2019\. }}
{{term\|term\=nav \|content\= {{XMLElement\|nav\|Navigation}} }}
{{defn\|1\= Used in navigational sections of articles (areas of webpages which contain links to other webpages).}}
{{defn\|'''Standardized''' in \[\[\#HTML5\|HTML5]].}}
{{term\|term\=noscript \|content\= {{XMLElement\|noscript\|JavaScript Fallback}} }}
{{defn\|1\= Replacement content for scripts. Unlike '''script''' this can only be used as a block\-level element.}}
{{defn\|'''Standardized''' in \[\[\#HTML401\|HTML 4\.0]]; still current.}}
{{term\|term\=pre \|content\= {{XMLElement\|pre\|PreFormatted Text}} }}
{{defn\|1\= ''Pre\-formatted'' text. Text within this element is typically displayed in a \[\[non\-proportional font]] exactly as it is laid out in the file (see \[\[ASCII art]]). Whereas browsers ignore \[\[Whitespace (computer science)\|white\-space]] for other HTML elements, in {{tag\|pre}}, white\-space should be rendered as authored. (With the CSS properties: {{code\|lang\=css\|code\={ white\-space: pre; font\-family: monospace; }}}, other elements can be presented in the same way.) This element can contain any inline element except: \[\[\#image\|{{tag\|image\|o}}]], \[\[\#object\|{{tag\|object\|o}}]], \[\[\#big\|{{tag\|big\|o}}]], \[\[\#small\|{{tag\|small\|o}}]], \[\[\#sup\|{{tag\|sup\|o}}]], and \[\[\#sub\|{{tag\|sub}}]].}}
{{defn\|`PRE` existed in ''\[\[\#HTMLDRAFT12\|HTML Internet Draft 1\.2]]'', and was '''standardized''' in \[\[\#HTML20\|HTML 2\.0]]; still current.}}
{{term\|term\=section \|content\= {{XMLElement\|section\|Section}} }}
{{defn\|1\= Used for generic sections of a document. This is different from \[\[\#div\|{{tag\|div\|o}}]] in that it is only used to contain sections of a page, which the W3C defines as a group of content with a similar theme.}}
{{defn\|'''Standardized''' in \[\[\#HTML5\|HTML5]].}}
{{term\|term\=script \|content\= {{XMLElement\|script\|Script}} }}
{{defn\|1\= Places a script in the document. Also usable in the head and in inline contexts. It may be used as {{tag\|script\|s}} with a `src` attribute to supply a URL from which to load the script, or used as {{tag\|script}} around embedded script content.
{{strong\|Note:}} {{tag\|script\|o}} is not itself either a block or inline element; by itself it should not display at all, but it can contain instructions to dynamically generate either both block or inline content.}}
{{defn\|'''Standardized''' in \[\[\#HTML32\|HTML 3\.2]]; still current.}}
{{glossary end}}
### Inline elements
Inline elements cannot be placed directly inside the {{code\|lang\=html\|code\=}} element; they must be wholly nested within block\-level elements.{{citation\|url\=http://www.w3\.org/TR/html401/struct/global.html\#h\-7\.5\.1 \|title\=HTML 4\.01 \|publisher\=W3C \|access\-date\=2012\-03\-26}}
#### Anchor
{{for\|anchors on Wikipedia\|WP:ANCHOR DEF\|selfref\=true}}
{{glossary}}
{{term\|term\=a \|content\= {{XMLElement\|a\|Anchor}} }}
{{defn\|1\= An anchor element is called an anchor because web designers can use it to "anchor" a URL to some text on a web page. When users view the web page in a browser, they can click the text to activate the link and visit the page whose URL is in the link.{{cite book \|last1\= Tittel \|first1\= Ed \|last2\= Burmeister \|first2\= Mary C. \|date\= 2005 \|title\= HTML 4 for dummies \|edition\= 5th \|publisher\= Wiley \|location\= Hoboken, New Jersey \|isbn\= 978\-0\-7645\-8917\-1 \|page\= 96 \|url\= https://archive.org/details/html4fordummies00titt\_2/page/96/ \|url\-access\= registration \|access\-date\= 7 August 2022}}
In HTML, an "anchor" can be either the {{em\|origin}} (the \[\[anchor text]]) or the {{em\|target}} (destination) end of a \[\[hyperlink]]. As an origin, setting the attribute `href`,{{cite web\|url\=http://www.w3\.org/Provider/ServerWriter.html\|title\=ServerWriter \-\- /Provider\|website\=W3C}} creates a hyperlink; it can point to either another part of the document or another resource (e.g. a webpage) using an external \[\[Uniform Resource Locator\|URL]]. As a target, setting the `name` or `id` \[\[HTML attributes]], allows the element to be linked from a \[\[Uniform Resource Locator]] (URL) via a \[\[fragment identifier]]. The two forms, origin and anchor, can be used concurently.
In HTML5, any element can now be made into a target by using the `id` attribute,{{cite web\|url\=http://www.w3\.org/tr/html5/index.html\#attributes\-1\|title\=HTML 5\.2\|website\=W3C}} so using {{code\|lang\=html\|code\=...}} is not necessary, although this way of adding anchors continues to work.
To illustrate: the header of a table of contents section on `example.com`'s homepage could be turned into a target by writing: {{code\|lang\=html\|code\=Table of contents
-----------------
}}.
Continuing with this example, now that the section has been marked up as a target, it can be referred to from external sites with a link like: {{code\|lang\=html\|code\=[see contents](http://example.com#contents)}};
or with a link on the same page like: {{code\|lang\=html\|code\=[contents, above](#contents)}}.
The attribute `title` may be set to give brief information about the link: {{code\|lang\=html\|code\=[link text](URL "additional information")}}.
In most graphical browsers, when the cursor hovers over a link, the cursor changes into a hand with an extended index finger and the `title` value is displayed in a \[\[tooltip]] or in some other manner. Some browsers render \[\[Alt attribute\|alt text]] the same way, although this is not what the specification calls for.
}}
{{defn\|`A` existed in ''\[\[\#HTMLTAGS\|HTML Tags]]'', and was '''standardized''' in \[\[\#HTML20\|HTML 2\.0]];}}
{{glossary end}}
#### Phrase elements
Phrase elements are used for marking up phrases and adding structure or semantic meaning to text fragments. For example, the `<em>` and `<strong>` tags can be used for adding emphasis to text.
##### General
{{glossary}}
{{term\|term\=abbr \|content\= {{XMLElement\|abbr\|Abbreviation}} }}
{{defn\|1\= Marks an \[\[abbreviation]], and can make the full form available: {{code\|lang\=html\|code\=abbr.}}}}
{{defn\|'''Standardized''' in \[\[\#HTML401\|HTML 4\.0]]; still current.}}
{{term\|term\=acronym \|content\= {{XMLElement\|acronym\|Acronym\|deprecated\=1}} }}
{{defn\|1\= Similar to the {{code\|lang\=html\|code\=}} element, but marks an \[\[acronym]]: {{code\|lang\=html\|code\=HTML}}}}
{{defn\|'''Standardized''' in \[\[\#HTML401\|HTML 4\.0]]; still current, '''not supported''' in \[\[\#HTML5\|HTML5]]. Recommended replacement is the `abbr` tag.\[https://www.w3schools.com/tags/tag\_acronym.asp Acronym tag], acronym.}}
{{term\|term\=defn \|content\= {{XMLElement\|dfn\|Definition}} }}
{{defn\|1\= Inline definition of a single term.}}
{{defn\|`DFN` existed in ''\[\[\#HTMLDRAFT12\|HTML Internet Draft 1\.2]]'', and was fully '''standardized''' in \[\[\#HTML32\|HTML 3\.2]]; still current.}}
{{term\|term\=em \|content\= {{XMLElement\|em\|Emphasis}} }}
{{defn\|1\= *Emphasis* (conventionally displayed in italics)}}
{{defn\|`EM` existed in ''\[\[\#HTMLDRAFT12\|HTML Internet Draft 1\.2]]'', and was '''standardized''' in \[\[\#HTML20\|HTML 2\.0]]; still current.}}
{{term\|term\=strong \|content\= {{XMLElement\|strong\|Importance}} }}
{{defn\|1\= **importance**; originally strong emphasis (conventionally displayed bold).
An \[\[voice browser\|aural user agent]] may use different voices for emphasis.
}}
{{defn\|`STRONG` existed in ''\[\[\#HTMLDRAFT12\|HTML Internet Draft 1\.2]]'', and was '''standardized''' in \[\[\#HTML20\|HTML 2\.0]]; still current, redefined in HTML5\.}}
{{glossary end}}
##### Computer phrase elements
These elements are useful primarily for documenting computer code development and user interaction through differentiation of source code ({{code\|lang\=html\|code\=`}}), variables ({{code|lang=html|code=}}), user input ({{code|lang=html|code=}}), and terminal or other output ({{code|lang=html|code=}}).`
{{glossary}}
{{term\|term\=code \|content\= {{XMLElement\|code\|Sourcecode}} }}
{{defn\|1\= A code snippet (`code example`). Conventionally rendered in a mono\-space font.}}
{{defn\|`CODE` existed in ''\[\[\#HTMLDRAFT12\|HTML Internet Draft 1\.2]]'', and was '''standardized''' in \[\[\#HTML20\|HTML 2\.0]]; still current.}}
{{term\|term\=kbd \|content\= {{XMLElement\|kbd\|Keyboard}} }}
{{defn\|1\= Keyboard – text to be entered by the user (`kbd example`).}}
{{defn\|`KBD` existed in ''\[\[\#HTMLDRAFT12\|HTML Internet Draft 1\.2]]'', and was '''standardized''' in \[\[\#HTML20\|HTML 2\.0]]; still current.}}
{{term\|term\=samp \|content\= {{XMLElement\|samp\|Sample}} }}
{{defn\|1\= Sample output – from a program or script: (`samp example`).}}
{{defn\|`SAMP` existed in ''\[\[\#HTMLDRAFT12\|HTML Internet Draft 1\.2]]'', and was '''standardized''' in \[\[\#HTML20\|HTML 2\.0]]; still current.}}
{{term\|term\=var \|content\= {{XMLElement\|var\|Variable}} }}
{{defn\|1\= Variable (var example).}}
{{defn\|`VAR` existed in ''\[\[\#HTMLDRAFT12\|HTML Internet Draft 1\.2]]'', and was '''standardized''' in \[\[\#HTML20\|HTML 2\.0]]; still current.}}
{{glossary end}}
#### Presentation
As visual presentational markup only applies directly to visual browsers, its use is discouraged. Style sheets should be used instead. Several of these elements are deprecated or invalid in HTML 4 / XHTML 1\.0, and the remainder are invalid in the current draft of [XHTML 2\.0](http://www.w3.org/TR/2005/WD-xhtml2-20050527/). The current draft of [HTML5](https://web.archive.org/web/20150801133040/http://www.w3.org/TR/html5/text-level-semantics.html), however, re\-includes {{tag\|s\|o}}, {{tag\|u\|o}}, and {{tag\|small\|o}}, assigning new semantic meaning to each. In an [HTML5](/wiki/HTML5 "HTML5") document, the use of these elements is no longer discouraged, provided that it is semantically correct.
{{term\|term\=b \|content\= {{XMLElement\|b\|Keyword}} }}
{{defn\|1\=
In \[\[HTML 4]], set font to '''boldface''' where possible. Equivalent CSS: {{code\|lang\=css\|code\={ font\-weight: bold; } }}. The {{tag\|strong\|o}} element usually has the same effect in visual browsers, as well as having more semantic meaning, under \[\[HTML 4\.01]].
In \[\[HTML5]], however, {{tag\|b\|o}} has its own meaning, distinct from that of {{tag\|strong\|o}}. It denotes "text to which attention is being drawn for utilitarian purposes without conveying any extra importance and with no implication of an alternate voice or mood."{{citation\|url\=http://developers.whatwg.org/text\-level\-semantics.html\#the\-b\-element \|title\=4\.6 Text\-level semantics — The b element \|publisher\=Developers.whatwg.org \|access\-date\=2012\-03\-26}}
}}
{{defn\|`B` existed in ''\[\[\#HTMLDRAFT12\|HTML Internet Draft 1\.2]]'', and was '''standardized''' in \[\[\#HTML20\|HTML 2\.0]]; still current, redefined in HTML5\.}}
{{term\|term\=i \|content\= {{XMLElement\|i\|Alternate voice}} }}
{{defn\|1\=
In \[\[HTML 4]], set font to ''italic'' where possible. Equivalent \[\[CSS]]: {{code\|lang\=css\|code\={ font\-style: italic; } }}. Using {{tag\|em}} has the same visual effect in most browsers, as well as having a semantic meaning as ''emphasis'', under \[\[HTML 4\.01]]. (Purely typographic italics have many non\-emphasis purposes, as HTML 5 more explicitly recognized.)
In \[\[HTML5]], however, {{tag\|i\|o}} has its own semantic meaning, distinct from that of {{tag\|em\|o}}. It denotes "a different quality of text" or "an alternate voice or mood" e.g., a thought, a ship name, a \[\[Binomial nomenclature\|binary species name]], a foreign\-language phrase, etc.{{citation\|url\=http://developers.whatwg.org/text\-level\-semantics.html\#the\-i\-element \|title\=4\.6 Text\-level semantics — The i element \|publisher\=Developers.whatwg.org \|access\-date\=2012\-03\-26}}
}}
{{defn\|`I` existed in ''\[\[\#HTMLDRAFT12\|HTML Internet Draft 1\.2]]'', and was '''standardized''' in \[\[\#HTML20\|HTML 2\.0]]; still current, redefined in HTML5\.}}
{{term\|term\=u \|content\= {{XMLElement\|u\|Unarticulated annotation}} }}
{{defn\|1\= In \[\[HTML 4]], underlined text. Equivalent CSS: {{code\|lang\=css\|code\={ text\-decoration: underline; } }}. Deprecated in \[\[HTML 4\.01]]. Restored in \[\[\#HTML5\|HTML5]].
In \[\[HTML5]], the {{tag\|u\|o}} element denotes "a span of text with an unarticulated, though explicitly rendered, non\-textual annotation, such as labelling the text as being a proper name in Chinese text (a Chinese proper name mark), or labelling the text as being misspelt." The \[\[HTML5]] specification reminds developers that other elements are almost always more appropriate than {{tag\|u\|o}} and admonishes designers not to use underlined text where it could be confused for a hyper\-link.{{citation\|url\=http://developers.whatwg.org/text\-level\-semantics.html\#the\-u\-element \|title\=4\.6 Text\-level semantics — The u element \|publisher\=Developers.whatwg.org \|access\-date\=2012\-03\-26}}
}}
{{defn\|`U` existed in ''\[\[\#HTMLDRAFT12\|HTML Internet Draft 1\.2]]'', was '''standardized''' in \[\[\#HTML32\|HTML 3\.2]] but was '''deprecated''' in \[\[\#HTML401\|HTML 4\.0 Transitional]] and was '''invalid''' in \[\[\#HTML401\|HTML 4\.0 Strict]]. '''Reintroduced''' in \[\[\#HTML5\|HTML5]].}}
{{term\|term\=small \|content\= {{XMLElement\|small\|Side comment}} }}
{{defn\|1\= In \[\[HTML 4]], decreased font size (smaller text). Equivalent CSS: {{code\|lang\=css\|code\={ font\-size: smaller; } }}
In \[\[HTML5]], the {{tag\|small\|o}} element denotes "side comments such as small print."{{citation\|url\=http://developers.whatwg.org/text\-level\-semantics.html\#the\-small\-element \|title\=4\.6 Text\-level semantics — The small element \|publisher\=Developers.whatwg.org \|access\-date\=2012\-03\-26}} This has caused some confusion with the {{tag\|\[\[\#aside\|aside]]}} element.
}}
{{defn\|'''Standardized''' in \[\[\#HTML32\|HTML 3\.2]]; still current.}}
{{term\|term\=s \|content\= {{XMLElement\|s\|Inacurrate text}} }}
{{defn\|1\= In \[\[HTML 4]], indicated strike\-through text (~~Strikethrough~~) and was equivalent to {{tag\|strike\|o}}.
In \[\[HTML5]], the {{tag\|s\|o}} element denotes information that is "no longer accurate or no longer relevant", and is not to be confused with {{tag\|del\|o}}, which indicates removal/deletion.{{citation\|url\=http://developers.whatwg.org/text\-level\-semantics.html\#the\-s\-element \|title\=4\.6 Text\-level semantics — The s element \|publisher\=Developers.whatwg.org \|access\-date\=2012\-03\-26}}
}}
{{defn\|`S` was '''deprecated''' in \[\[\#HTML401\|HTML 4\.0 Transitional]] (having not appeared in any previous standard), and was '''invalid''' in \[\[\#HTML401\|HTML 4\.0 Strict]]. '''Reintroduced''' in \[\[\#HTML5\|HTML5]], which instead deprecated {{tag\|strike\|o}}.}}
{{term\|term\= \|content\= {{XMLElement\|big\|Big\|deprecated\=1}} }}
{{defn\|1\= Increased font size (bigger text). Equivalent CSS: {{code\|lang\=css\|code\={ font\-size: larger; } }}}}
{{defn\|'''Standardized''' in \[\[\#HTML32\|HTML 3\.2]]; '''not supported''' in \[\[\#HTML5\|HTML5]].}}
{{term\|term\= \|content\= {{XMLElement\|strike\|Strikethrough\|deprecated\=1}} }}
{{defn\|1\= Strike\-through text (~~Strikethrough~~), (Equivalent CSS: {{code\|lang\=css\|code\={ text\-decoration: line\-through; } }})}}
{{defn\|`STRIKE` was standardized in \[\[\#HTML32\|HTML 3\.2]]; '''deprecated''' in \[\[\#HTML401\|HTML 4\.0 Transitional]]; '''invalid''' in \[\[\#HTML401\|HTML 4\.0 Strict]].}}
{{term\|term\=tt \|content\= {{XMLElement\|tt\|Teletype\|deprecated\=1}} }}
{{defn\|1\= \[\[non\-proportional font\|Fixed\-width]] font ({{mono\|typewriter\-like}}), also known as \[\[Teleprinter\|teletype]], thus "tt". (Equivalent CSS: {{code\|lang\=css\|code\={ font\-family: monospace; } }})}}
{{defn\|`TT` existed in ''\[\[\#HTMLDRAFT12\|HTML Internet Draft 1\.2]]'', and was '''Standardized''' in \[\[\#HTML20\|HTML 2\.0]]; not supported{{citation\|url\=http://www.w3\.org/TR/html5/obsolete.html\#non\-conforming\-features \|title\=11 Obsolete features — HTML5 \|publisher\=W3C \|access\-date\=2012\-03\-26}} in HTML5\. Possible replacements: \[\[\#kbd\|{{tag\|kbd\|o}}]] for marking user input, \[\[\#var\|{{tag\|var\|o}}]] for variables (usually rendered italic, and not with a change to monospace), \[\[\#code\|{{tag\|code\|o}}]] for source code, \[\[\#samp\|{{tag\|samp\|o}}]] for output.}}
{{term\|term\=font \|content\= {{XMLElement\|font\|Teletype\|deprecated\=1}} }}
* + - * + - * + {{defn\|1\= {{code\|lang\=html\|code\=color] \[size\=size] \[face\=face]\>...}}
Can specify the font color with the `color` attribute (note the American spelling), typeface with the `face` attribute, and absolute or relative size with the `size` attribute.
Examples (all uses are deprecated, use CSS equivalents if possible):
\* {{code\|lang\=html\|code\=text}} creates {{green\|green text}}.
\* {{code\|lang\=html\|code\=text}} creates text with \[\[Hex triplet\|hexadecimal color]] \#114499.
\* {{code\|lang\=html\|code\=text}} creates text with size 4\. Sizes are from 1 to 7\. The standard size is 3, unless otherwise specified in the \<body\> or other tags.
\* {{code\|lang\=html\|code\=text}} creates text with size 1 bigger than the standard. {{code\|lang\=html\|code\=text}} is opposite.
\* {{code\|lang\=html\|code\=text}} makes text with Courier font.
Equivalent CSS for font attributes:
\*`<font size="N">` corresponds to `{font-size: Yunits}` (the HTML specification does not define the relationship between size N and unit\-size Y, nor does it define a unit).
\*{{code\|lang\=html\|code\=}} corresponds to {{code\|lang\=css\|code\={ color: red; } }}
\*{{code\|lang\=html\|code\=}} corresponds to {{code\|lang\=css\|code\={ font\-family: 'Times New Roman', Times, serif; } }} – CSS supports a \[\[font stack]], of two or more alternative fonts.
}}
{{defn\|'''Standardized''' in \[\[\#HTML32\|HTML 3\.2]]; '''deprecated''' in \[\[\#HTML401\|HTML 4\.0 Transitional]]; '''invalid''' in \[\[\#HTML401\|HTML 4\.0 Strict]]. Not part of HTML5\.}}
#### Span
{{glossary}}
{{term\|term\=span \|content\= {{XMLElement\|span\|Span}} }}
{{defn\|1\= {{Main\|Span and div}}
An inline logical division. A generic element with no semantic meaning used to distinguish a document section, usually for purposes such as presentation or behavior controlled by \[\[Cascading Style Sheets\|style sheets]] or \[\[Document Object Model\|DOM]] calls.
}}
{{defn\|'''Standardized''' in \[\[\#HTML401\|HTML 4\.0]]; still current.}}
{{glossary end}}
#### Other inline elements
{{glossary}}
{{term\|term\=br \|content\= {{XMLElement\|br\|Line Break\|end\=no}} }}
{{defn\|1\= A forced line break.}}
{{defn\|'''Standardized''' in \[\[\#HTML20\|HTML 2\.0]]; still current.}}
{{term\|term\=bdi \|content\= {{XMLElement\|bdi\|Bidirectional Isolation}} }}
{{defn\|1\= Isolates an inline section of text that may be formatted in a different direction from other text outside of it, such as user\-generated content with unknown directionality.}}
{{defn\|'''Standardized''' in \[\[\#HTML5\|HTML5]].}}
{{term\|term\=bdo \|content\= {{XMLElement\|bdo\|Bidirectional Override}} }}
{{defn\|1\= Marks an inline section of text in which the reading direction is the opposite from that of the parent element.}}
{{defn\|'''Standardized''' in \[\[\#HTML401\|HTML 4\.0]]; still current.}}
{{term\|term\=cite \|content\= {{XMLElement\|cite\|Citation}} }}
{{defn\|1\= A citation or a reference for a quote or statement in the document.}}
{{defn\|CITE existed in ''\[\[\#HTMLDRAFT12\|HTML Internet Draft 1\.2]]'', and was '''standardized''' in \[\[\#HTML20\|HTML 2\.0]]; still current.}}
{{defn\|''Note:'' The HTML 5 specifications have been confusingly \[\[Fork (software development)\|forked]],{{cite web \|url\= https://arstechnica.com/information\-technology/2014/10/html5\-specification\-finalized\-squabbling\-over\-who\-writes\-the\-specs\-continues/ \|title\=HTML5 specification finalized, squabbling over specs continues \|publisher\=Ars Technica \|date\=29 October 2014 \|access\-date\=29 October 2014}} including with regard to this element. In HTML 4 and earlier, {{tag\|cite\|o}} was for "a citation or a reference to other sources" without any particular limitations or requirements.{{cite web \|title\=9\.2\.1 Phrase elements: EM, STRONG, DFN, CODE, SAMP, KBD, VAR, CITE, ABBR, and ACRONYM \|work\=HTML 4\.01 Specification \|date\=24 December 1999 \|publisher\=\[\[W3C]] \|url\= https://www.w3\.org/TR/html401/struct/text.html\#h\-9\.2\.1 \|access\-date\=26 July 2018}} The \[\[W3C]] HTML 5 spec uses a refinement of this idea, reflecting how the element has historically been used, but now requiring that it contain (but not be limited to) at least one of "the title of the work or the name of the author (person, people or organization) or an URL reference, or a reference in abbreviated form as per the conventions used for the addition of citation metadata."\[\[\#HTML52\|''HTML 5\.2 W3C Recommendation'']], at \[https://www.w3\.org/TR/html52/textlevel\-semantics.html\#the\-cite\-element "§4\.5\.6\. The cite element"]. But the WHATWG spec only permits the element to be used around the title of a work.\[\[\#WHATWGLS\|''HTML Living Standard'']], at \[https://html.spec.whatwg.org/multipage/text\-level\-semantics.html\#the\-cite\-element "§4\.5\.6 The cite element"]. The W3C specs began with the broader definition, then switched to the very narrow one after WHATWG made this change. However, W3C reverted their own change in 2012, in response to negative developer\-community feedback; the element was in broadly\-deployed use with the broader scope, e.g., various blog and forum platforms wrap commenters' IDs and e\-mail addresses in {{tag\|cite}}, and people using the element for bibliographic citations were (and still are) routinely wrapping each entire citation in this element.
Another problem with the element is that WHATWG recommends that it be italicized by default (thus almost all browsers do so), because it (in their view) is only for publication titles. By convention, however, only certain kinds of titles actually take italics, while others are expected to be put in quotation marks, and standards may actually vary by publishing context and language. Consequently, many website authors and admins use a site\-wide stylesheet to undo this element's auto\-italics.
}}
{{term\|term\=data \|content\= {{XMLElement\|data\|Data}} }}
{{defn\|1\= Links inline content with a machine\-readable translation.}}
{{defn\|'''Standardized''' in \[\[\#HTML5\|HTML5]].{{cite web\|url\=https://developer.mozilla.org/en\-US/docs/Web/HTML/Element/data\|title\=\<data\>\|website\=MDN Web Docs}}}}
{{term\|term\=del \|content\= {{XMLElement\|del\|Deleted}} }}
{{defn\|1\= Deleted text. Typically rendered as a \[\[strikethrough]]: ~~Deleted text.~~}}
{{defn\|'''Standardized''' in \[\[\#HTML401\|HTML 4\.0]]; still current.}}
{{term\|term\=ins \|content\= {{XMLElement\|ins\|Inserted}} }}
{{defn\|1\= Inserted text. Often used to mark up replacement text for material struck with {{tag\|del\|o}} or {{tag\|s\|o}}. Typically rendered \[\[underline]]d: Inserted text.}}
{{defn\|'''Standardized''' in \[\[\#HTML401\|HTML 4\.0]]; still current.}}
{{defn\|Both {{tag\|ins\|o}} and {{tag\|del\|o}} elements may also be used as block elements: containing other block and inline elements. However, these elements must still remain wholly within their parent element to maintain a well\-formed HTML document. For example, deleting text from the middle of one paragraph across several other paragraphs and ending in a final paragraph would need to use three separate {{tag\|del\|o}} elements. Two {{tag\|del\|o}} elements would be required as inline elements to indicate the deletion of text in the first and last paragraphs, and a third, used as a block element, to indicate the deletion in the intervening paragraphs.}}
{{term\|term\=mark \|content\= {{XMLElement\|mark\|Mark}} }}
{{defn\|1\= Produces text that looks like this. Intended for highlighting relevant text in a quotation.}}
{{defn\|'''Standardized''' in \[\[\#HTML5\|HTML5]].}}
{{term\|term\=q \|content\= {{XMLElement\|q\|Quote}} }}
{{defn\|1\= An inline quotation (for block level quotation see {{tag\|\[\[\#blockquote\|blockquote]]\|o}}). Quote elements may be nested.
{{tag\|q\|o}} {{em\|should}} automatically generate quotation marks in conjunction with style sheets. Practical concerns due to browser non\-compliance may force authors to find workarounds.
The `cite` attribute gives the source, and must be a fully qualified \[\[Uniform Resource Identifier\|URI]].
}}
{{defn\|'''Standardized''' in \[\[\#HTML401\|HTML 4\.0]]; still current.}}
{{defn\|{{strong\|Note:}} Lengthy inline quotations may be displayed as indented blocks (as `block-quote`) using style sheets. For example, with a suitable CSS rule associated with `q.lengthy`: {{tag\|q\|attribs\=class\="lengthy" \|content\=Lengthy quote here.}}}}
{{term\|term\=rb \|content\= {{XMLElement\|rb\|Ruby Annotation Base}} }}
{{defn\|1\= Represents the base component of a \[\[Ruby character\|ruby annotation]].}}
{{defn\|'''Standardized''' in \[\[\#HTML5\|HTML5]].{{cite web\|url\=http://www.quackit.com/html/tags/html\_rb\_tag.cfm\|title\=HTML \<rb\> Tag\|website\=www.quackit.com}}}}
{{term\|term\=rp \|content\= {{XMLElement\|rp\|Ruby Fallback Parenthesis}} }}
{{defn\|1\= Provides fallback parenthesis for browsers lacking \[\[Ruby character\|ruby annotation]] support.}}
{{defn\|'''Standardized''' in \[\[\#HTML5\|HTML5]].{{cite web\|url\=https://developer.mozilla.org/en\-US/docs/Web/HTML/Element/rp\|title\=\<rp\>: The Ruby Fallback Parenthesis element\|website\=MDN Web Docs}}}}
{{term\|term\=rt \|content\= {{XMLElement\|rt\|Ruby Annotation Pronunciation}} }}
{{defn\|1\= Indicates pronunciation for a character in a \[\[Ruby character\|ruby annotation]].}}
{{defn\|'''Standardized''' in \[\[\#HTML5\|HTML5]].{{cite web\|url\=https://developer.mozilla.org/en\-US/docs/Web/HTML/Element/rt\|title\=\<rt\>: The Ruby Text element\|website\=MDN Web Docs}}}}
{{term\|term\=rtc \|content\= {{XMLElement\|rtc\|Ruby Semantic Annotation}} }}
{{defn\|1\= Semantic annotations for a \[\[Ruby character\|ruby annotation]].}}
{{defn\|'''Standardized''' in \[\[\#HTML5\|HTML5]].{{cite web\|url\=https://developer.mozilla.org/en\-US/docs/Web/HTML/Element/rtc\|title\=\<rtc\>: The Ruby Text Container element\|website\=MDN Web Docs}}}}
{{term\|term\=ruby \|content\= {{XMLElement\|ruby\|Ruby Annotation}} }}
{{defn\|1\= Represents a \[\[Ruby character\|ruby annotation]] for showing the pronunciation of East Asian characters.}}
{{defn\|'''Standardized''' in \[\[\#HTML5\|HTML5]].{{cite web\|url\=https://developer.mozilla.org/en\-US/docs/Web/HTML/Element/ruby\|title\=\<ruby\>\|website\=MDN Web Docs}}}}
{{term\|term\=script \|content\= {{XMLElement\|script\|Script}} }}
{{defn\|1\= Places a \[\[scripting language\|script]] in the document. Also usable in the head and in block contexts.
{{em\|Note:}} {{tag\|script\|o}} is not itself either a block or inline element; by itself it should not display at all, but it can contain instructions to dynamically generate either both block or inline content.
}}
{{defn\|'''Standardized''' in \[\[\#HTML32\|HTML 3\.2]]; still current.}}
{{term\|term\=sub \|content\= {{XMLElement\|sub\|Subscript}} }}
{{term\|term\=sup \|content\= {{XMLElement\|sup\|Superscript}} \|multi\=y}}
{{defn\|1\= Mark \[\[subscript]]ed or \[\[superscript]]ed text. (Equivalent CSS: {{code\|lang\=css\|code\={ vertical\-align: sub; } }} and {{code\|lang\=css\|code\={ vertical\-align: super; } }}, respectively.)}}
{{defn\|Both were proposed in the \[\[\#HTML30\|HTML 3\.0 Drafts]]; '''Standardized''' in \[\[\#HTML32\|HTML 3\.2]]; still current.}}
{{term\|term\=template \|content\= {{XMLElement\|template\|Template}} }}
{{defn\|1\= Code fragments to be copied by scripts.}}
{{defn\|'''Standardized''' in \[\[\#HTML5\|HTML5]].{{cite web\|url\=https://developer.mozilla.org/en\-US/docs/Web/HTML/Element/template\|title\=\<template\>\|website\=MDN Web Docs}}}}
{{term\|term\=time \|content\= {{XMLElement\|time\|Time}} }}
{{defn\|1\= Represents a time on the 24\-hour clock or a date on the \[\[Gregorian calendar]], optionally with time and time zone information. Also allows times and dates to be represented in a machine\-readable format.}}
{{defn\|'''Standardized''' in \[\[\#HTML5\|HTML5]].{{cite web\|url\=https://developer.mozilla.org/en\-US/docs/Web/HTML/Element/time\|title\=\<time\>\|website\=MDN Web Docs}}}}
{{term\|term\=wbr \|content\= {{XMLElement\|wbr\|Word Break Opportunity\|end\=no}} }}
{{defn\|1\= An optional word break.}}
{{defn\|Was widely used (and supported by all major browsers){{Citation needed\|date\=September 2023}} for years{{Clarify timeframe\|date\=September 2023}} despite being non\-standard until finally being '''standardized''' in \[\[\#HTML5\|HTML5]].{{cite web\|url\=https://developer.mozilla.org/en\-US/docs/Web/HTML/Element/wbr\|title\=\<wbr\>\|website\=MDN Web Docs}}}}
{{glossary end}}
### Images and objects
{{Update section\|reason\=How do current browsers handle ? What does HTML 5 say about it?\|date\=July 2023}}
{{glossary}}
{{term\|term\=applet \|content\= {{XMLElement\|applet\|Java Applet\|deprecated\=xhtml}} }}
{{defn\|1\= Embeds a \[\[Java applet]] in the page. Deprecated in favor of {{tag\|object\|o}}, as it could only be used with Java applets, and had accessibility limitations.}}
{{defn\|'''Standardized''' in \[\[\#HTML32\|HTML 3\.2]]; '''deprecated''' in \[\[\#HTML401\|HTML 4\.0 Transitional]]; '''invalid''' in \[\[\#HTML401\|HTML 4\.0 Strict]]. As of 2011, still widely used as the implementations of the replacing {{tag\|object\|o}} are not consistent between different browsers.}}
{{term\|term\=area \|content\= {{XMLElement\|area\|Area\|end\=no}} }}
{{defn\|1\= Specifies a \[\[Focus (computing)\|focusable]] area in a {{tag\|map\|o}}.}}
{{defn\|'''Standardized''' in \[\[\#HTML32\|HTML 3\.2]]; still current.}}
{{term\|term\=audio \|content\= {{XMLElement\|audio\|Audio}} }}
{{defn\|1\= Adds playable \[\[HTML audio]] to the page. The audio URL is determined using the `src` attribute. Supported audio formats vary from browser to browser.}}
{{defn\|'''Standardized''' in \[\[\#HTML5\|HTML5]].}}
{{term\|term\=canvas \|content\= {{XMLElement\|canvas\|Canvas}} }}
{{defn\|1\= {{Main\|Canvas element}}
Adds a canvas whose contents can be edited with \[\[JavaScript]]. Frequently used for online games.}}
{{defn\|'''Standardized''' in \[\[\#HTML5\|HTML5]].}}
{{term\|term\=embed \|content\= {{XMLElement\|embed\|Embed}} }}
{{defn\|1\= Inserts a non\-standard object (like applet) or external content (typically non\-HTML) into the document.}}
{{defn\|Deprecated in HTML 4 in favor of {{tag\|object\|o}}, but then was added back into the HTML5 specification\[http://webdesign.about.com/od/htmltags/p/bltags\_embed.htm Jennifer Kyrnin ] {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121102014318/http://webdesign.about.com/od/htmltags/p/bltags\_embed.htm \|date\=2012\-11\-02 }} {{tag\|embed\|o}}\[https://www.w3schools.com/tags/tag\_embed.asp W3Schools] about {{tag\|embed\|o}}}}
{{term\|term\=img \|content\= {{XMLElement\|img\|Image\|end\=no}} }}
{{defn\|1\= Used by visual user agents to insert an \[\[image]] in the document. The `src` attribute specifies the image URL. The required \[\[Alt attribute\|`alt` attribute]] provides alternative text in case the image cannot be displayed.The alt attribute's text cannot be styled with markup; as a result, other methods of alternative text presentation, such as \[\[Fahrner Image Replacement]], have been devised to accommodate situations in which the coder wishes styled text to be displayed if images are disabled in a user's browser. (Though `alt` is intended as alternative text, Microsoft \[\[Internet Explorer]] 7 and below render it as a \[\[tooltip]] if no `title` attribute is given.{{cite web \| url\=http://msdn.microsoft.com/en\-us/library/cc288472\.aspx\#access \| title\=What's New in Internet Explorer 8 – Accessibility and ARIA \| publisher\=Microsoft
\| website\=\[\[Microsoft Developer Network\|MSDN]]
\| access\-date\=2009\-07\-22}} \[\[Safari (web browser)\|Safari]] and \[\[Google Chrome]], on the other hand, do not display the alt attribute at all.){{citation\|url\=https://bugs.webkit.org/show\_bug.cgi?id\=5566 \|title\=Bug 5566 – ALT attribute value sometimes not displayed when image is missing \|publisher\=Bugs.webkit.org \|access\-date\=2012\-03\-26}} The {{tag\|img\|s}} element was first proposed by \[\[Marc Andreessen]] and implemented in the \[\[Mosaic (web browser)\|NCSA Mosaic]] web browser.{{citation\|url\=http://1997\.webhistory.org/www.lists/www\-talk.1993q1/0182\.html \|title\=WWW\-Talk Jan\-Mar 1993: proposed new tag: IMG \|publisher\=1997\.webhistory.org \|access\-date\=2012\-03\-26}}}}
{{defn\|`IMG` existed in ''\[\[\#HTMLDRAFT12\|HTML Internet Draft 1\.2]]'', and was '''standardized''' in \[\[\#HTML20\|HTML 2\.0]]; still current.}}
{{term\|term\=map \|content\= {{XMLElement\|map\|Image Map}} }}
{{defn\|1\= Specifies a client\-side \[\[image map]].}}
{{defn\|'''Standardized''' in \[\[\#HTML32\|HTML 3\.2]]; still current.}}
{{term\|term\=object \|content\= {{XMLElement\|object\|Object}} }}
{{defn\|1\= Includes an object in the page of the type specified by the `type` attribute. This may be in any \[\[MIME]]\-type the user agent understands, such as an embedded HTML page, a file to be handled by a plug\-in such as \[\[Adobe Flash Player\|Flash]], a \[\[Java (programming language)\|Java]] \[\[applet]], a sound file, etc.}}
{{defn\|'''Standardized''' in \[\[\#HTML401\|HTML 4\.0]]; still current.}}
{{term\|term\=param \|content\= {{XMLElement\|param\|Object Parameter\|end\=no}} }}
{{defn\|1\= Originally introduced with {{tag\|applet\|o}}, this element is now used with {{tag\|object\|o}}, and should only occur as a child of {{tag\|object\|o}}. It uses \[\[HTML attributes]] to set a parameter for the object, e.g. width, height, font, background color, etc., depending on the type of object. An object can have multiple {{tag\|param\|s}} elements.}}
{{defn\|'''Standardized''' in \[\[\#HTML32\|HTML 3\.2]]; still current.}}
{{term\|term\=source \|content\= {{XMLElement\|source\|Source}} }}
{{defn\|1\= Specifies different sources for audio or video. Makes use of the `src` attribute in a way similar to the {{tag\|video\|o}} and {{tag\|audio\|o}} elements.}}
{{defn\|'''Standardized''' in \[\[\#HTML5\|HTML5]].}}
{{term\|term\=track \|content\= {{XMLElement\|track\|Track}} }}
{{defn\|1\= Provides text tracks, like subtitles and captions, for audio and video.}}
{{defn\|'''Standardized''' in \[\[\#HTML5\|HTML5]].}}
{{term\|term\=video \|content\= {{XMLElement\|video\|Video}} }}
{{defn\|1\= Adds a playable \[\[HTML video]] to the page. The video URL is determined using the `src` attribute. Supported video formats vary from browser to browser.}}
{{defn\|'''Standardized''' in \[\[\#HTML5\|HTML5]].}}
{{glossary end}}
### Forms
{{Main\|Form (HTML)}}
These elements can be combined into a form or in some instances used separately as user\-interface controls; in the document, they can be simple HTML or used in conjunction with Scripts. HTML markup specifies the elements that make up a form, and the method by which it will be submitted. However, some form of scripts ([server\-side](/wiki/Server-side_script "Server-side script"), client\-side, or both) must be used to process the user's input once it is submitted.
(These elements are either block or inline elements, but are collected here as their use is more restricted than other inline or block elements.)
{{glossary}}
{{term\|term\=form \|content\= {{XMLElement\|form\|Form\|atr\={{XMLAttribute\|action\|Action\|url\|type\=URL\|need\=required}}}} }}
{{defn\|1\= Creates a \[\[form (web)\|form]]. The {{tag\|form\|o}} element specifies and operates the overall action of a form area, using the required `action` attribute.}}
{{defn\|'''Standardized''' in \[\[\#HTML20\|HTML 2\.0]]; still current.}}
{{term\|term\=button \|content\= {{XMLElement\|button\|Button}} }}
{{defn\|1\= A generic form button which can contain a range of other elements to create complex buttons.}}
{{defn\|'''Standardized''' in \[\[\#HTML401\|HTML 4\.0]]; still current.}}
{{term\|term\=datalist \|content\= {{XMLElement\|datalist\|Data List}} }}
{{defn\|1\= A list of `option`s for use in form elements.}}
{{defn\|'''Standardized''' in \[\[\#HTML5\|HTML5]].}}
{{term\|term\=fieldset \|content\= {{XMLElement\|fieldset\|Fieldset}} }}
{{defn\|1\= A container for adding structure to forms. For example, a series of related controls can be grouped within a {{tag\|fieldset\|o}}, which can then have a {{tag\|legend\|o}} added in order to identify their function.}}
{{defn\|'''Standardized''' in \[\[\#HTML401\|HTML 4\.0]]; still current.}}
{{term\|term\=input \|content\= {{XMLElement\|input\|Input\|end\=no}} }}
{{defn\|1\= {{tag\|input\|o}} elements allow a variety of standard form controls to be implemented.}}
{{defn\|'''Standardized''' in \[\[\#HTML20\|HTML 2\.0]]; still current.}}
{{defn\|1\='''Input Types:'''
{{glossary}}
{{term\|term\=checkbox \|content\= {{XMLAttribute\|type\|Field Type\|checkbox\|type\=ENUM\|need\=implied}} }}
{{defn\|A '''\[\[checkbox]]'''. Can be checked or unchecked.}}
{{term\|term\=radio \|content\= {{XMLAttribute\|type\|Field Type\|radio\|type\=ENUM\|need\=implied}} }}
{{defn\|A '''\[\[radio button]]'''. If multiple radio buttons are given the same name, the user will only be able to select one of them from this group.}}
{{term\|term\=button \|content\= {{XMLAttribute\|type\|Field Type\|button\|type\=ENUM\|need\=implied}} }}
{{defn\|A general\-purpose button. The element {{tag\|button\|o}} is preferred if possible (i.e., if the client supports it) as it provides richer possibilities.}}
{{term\|term\=submit \|content\= {{XMLAttribute\|type\|Field Type\|submit\|type\=ENUM\|need\=implied}} }}
{{defn\|A '''submit''' button.}}
{{term\|term\=image \|content\= {{XMLAttribute\|type\|Field Type\|image\|type\=ENUM\|need\=implied}} }}
{{defn\|An '''image button'''. The image URL may be specified with the `src` attribute.}}
{{term\|term\=reset \|content\= {{XMLAttribute\|type\|Field Type\|reset\|type\=ENUM\|need\=implied}} }}
{{defn\|A '''reset button''' for resetting the form to default values.}}
{{term\|term\=text \|content\= {{XMLAttribute\|type\|Field Type\|text\|type\=ENUM\|need\=optional}} }}
{{defn\|A '''one\-line text input field'''. The `size` attribute specifies the default width of the input in character\-widths. `max-length` sets the maximum number of characters the user can enter (which may be greater than size).}}
{{term\|term\=search \|content\= {{XMLAttribute\|type\|Field Type\|search\|type\=ENUM\|need\=implied}} }}
{{defn\|A variation of `text` which produces a search bar.}}
{{term\|term\=password \|content\= {{XMLAttribute\|type\|Field Type\|password\|type\=ENUM\|need\=implied}} }}
{{defn\|A variation of `text`. The difference is that text typed in this field is {{em\|masked}} – characters are displayed as an asterisk, a dot, or another replacement. The password is still submitted to the server as \[\[plaintext]], so an underlying secure \[\[communication protocol]] like \[\[HTTPS]] is needed if confidentiality is a concern.}}
{{term\|term\=file \|content\= {{XMLAttribute\|type\|Field Type\|file\|type\=ENUM\|need\=implied}} }}
{{defn\|A \[\[file select]] field (for uploading files to a server).}}
{{term\|term\=tel \|content\= {{XMLAttribute\|type\|Field Type\|tel\|type\=ENUM\|need\=implied}} }}
{{defn\|A variation of `text` for \[\[telephone numbers]].}}
{{term\|term\=email \|content\= {{XMLAttribute\|type\|Field Type\|email\|type\=ENUM\|need\=implied}} }}
{{defn\|A variation of `text` for \[\[email addresses]].}}
{{term\|term\=url \|content\= {{XMLAttribute\|type\|Field Type\|url\|type\=ENUM\|need\=implied}} }}
{{defn\|A variation of `text` for \[\[URLs]].}}
{{term\|term\=date \|content\= {{XMLAttribute\|type\|Field Type\|date\|type\=ENUM\|need\=implied}} }}
{{defn\|A date selector.}}
{{term\|term\=time \|content\= {{XMLAttribute\|type\|Field Type\|time\|type\=ENUM\|need\=implied}} }}
{{defn\|A time selector.}}
{{term\|term\=number \|content\= {{XMLAttribute\|type\|Field Type\|number\|type\=ENUM\|need\=implied}} }}
{{defn\|A variation of `text` for numbers.}}
{{term\|term\=range \|content\= {{XMLAttribute\|type\|Field Type\|range\|type\=ENUM\|need\=implied}} }}
{{defn\|Produces a slider for that returns a number, but the number is not visible to the user.}}
{{term\|term\=color \|content\= {{XMLAttribute\|type\|Field Type\|color\|type\=ENUM\|need\=implied}} }}
{{defn\|A color picker.}}
{{term\|term\=hidden \|content\= {{XMLAttribute\|type\|Field Type\|hidden\|type\=ENUM\|need\=implied}} }}
{{defn\|`hidden` inputs are not visible in the rendered page, but allow a designer to maintain a copy of data that needs to be submitted to the server as part of the form. This may, for example, be data that this web user entered or selected on a previous form that needs to be processed in conjunction with the current form. Not displayed to the user but data can still be altered client\-side by editing the HTML source.}}
{{glossary end}}
}}
{{term\|term\=isindex \|content\= {{XMLElement\|isindex\|Index\|end\=no\|deprecated\=1}} }}
{{defn\|1\= {{tag\|isindex\|s}} could either appear in the document head or in the body, but only once in a document.
{{tag\|isindex\|s}} operated as a primitive HTML search form; but was {{lang\|la\|\[\[de facto]]}} obsoleted by more advanced HTML forms introduced in the early to mid\-1990s. Represents a set of hyperlinks composed of a base URI, an \[\[ampersand]] and \[\[Percent\-encoding\|percent\-encoded]] keywords separated by \[\[plus sign]]s.}}
{{defn\|`ISINDEX` existed in ''\[\[\#HTMLTAGS\|HTML Tags]]''; '''standardized''' in \[\[\#HTML20\|HTML 2\.0]]; '''deprecated''' in \[\[\#HTML401\|HTML 4\.0 Transitional]]; '''invalid''' in \[\[\#HTML401\|HTML 4\.0 Strict]].}}
{{term\|term\=keygen \|content\= {{XMLElement\|keygen\|Key pair generator\|deprecated\=1}} }}
{{defn\|1\= A key pair generator.}}
{{defn\|'''Standardized''' in \[\[\#HTML5\|HTML5]], but removed in HTML 5\.2\.}}
{{term\|term\=label \|content\= {{XMLElement\|label\|Label\|atr\={{XMLAttribute\|for\|For\|id\|type\=ENUM\|need\=implied}}}} }}
{{defn\|1\= Creates a label for a form input, such as `radio`. Clicking on the label fires a click on the matching input.}}
{{defn\|'''Standardized''' in \[\[\#HTML401\|HTML 4\.0]]; still current.}}
{{term\|term\=legend \|content\= {{XMLElement\|legend\|Legend}} }}
{{defn\|1\= A legend (caption) for a {{tag\|fieldset\|o}}.}}
{{defn\|'''Standardized''' in \[\[\#HTML401\|HTML 4\.0]]; still current.}}
{{term\|term\=meter \|content\= {{XMLElement\|meter\|Meter}} }}
{{defn\|1\= A meter which needs a `value` attribute. Can also have: `min`, `low`, `high`, and `max`.}}
{{defn\|'''Standardized''' in \[\[\#HTML5\|HTML5]].}}
{{term\|term\=option \|content\= {{XMLElement\|option\|Select List Option\|atr\={{XMLAttribute\|value\|Value\|x\|type\=ANY\|need\=required}}}} }}
{{defn\|1\= Creates an item in a {{tag\|select\|o}} list.}}
{{defn\|'''Standardized''' in \[\[\#HTML20\|HTML 2\.0]]; still current.}}
{{term\|term\=optgroup \|content\= {{XMLElement\|optgroup\|Options Group}} }}
{{defn\|1\= Identifies a group of {{tag\|option\|o}} elements in a {{tag\|select\|o}} list.}}
{{defn\|'''Standardized''' in \[\[\#HTML401\|HTML 4\.0]]; still current.}}
{{term\|term\=output \|content\= {{XMLElement\|output\|Output}} }}
{{defn\|1\= The value of a form element.}}
{{defn\|'''Standardized''' in \[\[\#HTML5\|HTML5]].}}
{{term\|term\=progress \|content\= {{XMLElement\|progress\|Progress Bar}} }}
{{defn\|1\= A bar for showing the progress of an action.}}
{{defn\|'''Standardized''' in \[\[\#HTML5\|HTML5]].}}
{{term\|term\=select \|content\= {{XMLElement\|select\|Selection List\|atr\={{XMLAttribute\|name\|Name\|xyz\|type\=NMTOKEN\|need\=implied}}}} }}
{{defn\|1\= Creates a selection list, from which the user can select a single option. May be rendered as a dropdown list.}}
{{defn\|'''Standardized''' in \[\[\#HTML20\|HTML 2\.0]]; still current.}}
{{term\|term\=textarea \|content\= {{XMLElement\|textarea\|Multiline Textarea\|atr\={{XMLAttribute\|rows\|Rows\|8\|type\=INT}}}} }}
{{defn\|1\= A multiple\-line text area, the size of which is specified by `cols` (where a column is a one\-character width of text) and `rows` \[\[HTML attributes]]. The content of this element is restricted to plain text, which appears in the text area as default text when the page is loaded.}}
{{defn\|'''Standardized''' in \[\[\#HTML20\|HTML 2\.0]]; still current.}}
{{glossary end}}
### Tables
The format of HTML Tables was proposed in the [HTML 3\.0 Drafts](/wiki/%23HTML30 "#HTML30") and the later RFC 1942 *[HTML Tables](/wiki/%23HTMLTABLES "#HTMLTABLES")*. They were inspired by the [CALS Table Model](/wiki/CALS_Table_Model "CALS Table Model"). Some elements in these proposals were included in HTML 3\.2; the present form of HTML Tables was standardized in HTML 4\. (Many of the elements used within tables are neither *block* nor *inline* elements.)
{{glossary}}
{{term\|term\=table \|content\= {{XMLElement\|table\|Table}} }}
{{defn\|1\= Identifies a table. Several \[\[HTML attributes]] are possible in HTML Transitional, but most of these are invalid in HTML Strict and can be replaced with style sheets. The `summary` attribute is informally required for accessibility purposes, though its usage is not simple.}}
{{defn\|Proposed in the \[\[\#HTML30\|HTML 3\.0 Drafts]]; '''Standardized''' in \[\[\#HTML32\|HTML 3\.2]]; still current.}}
{{term\|term\=tr \|content\= {{XMLElement\|tr\|Table Row}} }}
{{defn\|1\= Contains a row of cells in a {{tag\|table\|o}}.}}
{{defn\|Proposed in the \[\[\#HTML30\|HTML 3\.0 Drafts]]; '''Standardized''' in \[\[\#HTML32\|HTML 3\.2]]; still current.}}
{{term\|term\=th \|content\= {{XMLElement\|th\|Table Header Cell}} }}
{{defn\|1\= A {{tag\|table\|o}} header cell; contents are conventionally displayed bold and centered. An \[\[aural]] user agent may use a louder voice for these items.}}
{{defn\|Proposed in the \[\[\#HTML30\|HTML 3\.0 Drafts]]; '''Standardized''' in \[\[\#HTML32\|HTML 3\.2]]; still current.}}
{{term\|term\=td \|content\= {{XMLElement\|td\|Table Data Cell}} }}
{{defn\|1\= A {{tag\|table\|o}} data cell.}}
{{defn\|Proposed in the \[\[\#HTML30\|HTML 3\.0 Drafts]]; '''Standardized''' in \[\[\#HTML32\|HTML 3\.2]]; still current.}}
{{term\|term\=colgroup \|content\= {{XMLElement\|colgroup\|Column Group}} }}
{{defn\|1\= Specifies a \[\[column group]] in a {{tag\|table\|o}}.}}
{{defn\|Proposed in \[\[\#HTMLTABLES\|HTML Tables]]; '''Standardized''' in \[\[\#HTML401\|HTML 4\.0]]; still current.}}
{{term\|term\=col \|content\= {{XMLElement\|col\|Table Column}} }}
{{defn\|1\= Specifies a column in a {{tag\|table\|o}}.}}
{{defn\|Proposed in \[\[\#HTMLTABLES\|HTML Tables]]; '''Standardized''' in \[\[\#HTML401\|HTML 4\.0]]; still current.}}
{{term\|term\=caption \|content\= {{XMLElement\|caption\|Table Caption}} }}
{{defn\|1\= Specifies a caption for a {{tag\|table\|o}}.}}
{{defn\|Proposed in the \[\[\#HTML30\|HTML 3\.0 Drafts]]; '''Standardized''' in \[\[\#HTML32\|HTML 3\.2]]; still current.}}
{{term\|term\=thead \|content\= {{XMLElement\|thead\|Table Header}} }}
{{defn\|1\= Specifies the header part of a {{tag\|table\|o}}. This section may be repeated by the user agent if the table is split across pages (in printing or other paged media).}}
{{defn\|Proposed in \[\[\#HTMLTABLES\|HTML Tables]]; '''Standardized''' in \[\[\#HTML401\|HTML 4\.0]]; still current.}}
{{term\|term\=tbody \|content\= {{XMLElement\|tbody\|Table Body}} }}
{{defn\|1\= Specifies a body of data for a {{tag\|table\|o}}.}}
{{defn\|Proposed in \[\[\#HTMLTABLES\|HTML Tables]]; '''Standardized''' in \[\[\#HTML401\|HTML 4\.0]]; still current.}}
{{term\|term\=tfoot \|content\= {{XMLElement\|tfoot\|Table Footer}} }}
{{defn\|1\= Specifies the footer part of a {{tag\|table\|o}}. Like {{tag\|thead\|o}}, this section may be repeated by the user agent if the table is split across pages (in printing or other paged media).}}
{{defn\|Proposed in \[\[\#HTMLTABLES\|HTML Tables]]; '''Standardized''' in \[\[\#HTML401\|HTML 4\.0]]; still current.}}
{{glossary end}}
|
[
"Document body elements\n----------------------",
"In visual browsers, displayable elements can be rendered as either *block* or *inline*. While all elements are part of the document sequence, block elements appear within their parent elements:\n* as rectangular objects which do not break across lines;\n* with block margins, width, and height properties which can be set independently of the surrounding elements.\nConversely, inline elements are treated as part of the flow of document text; they cannot have margins, width, or height set, and do break across lines.",
"### Block elements",
"Block elements, or block\\-level elements, have a rectangular structure. By default, these elements will span the entire width of its parent element, and will thus not allow any other element to occupy the same horizontal space as it is placed on.",
"The rectangular structure of a block element is often referred to as the [box model](/wiki/W3C_and_Internet_Explorer_box_models.svg \"W3C and Internet Explorer box models.svg\"), and is made up of several parts. Each element contains the following:\n* The **content** of an element is the actual text (or other media) placed between the opening and closing tags of an element.\n* The **padding** of an element is the space around the content but which still forms part of the element. Padding should not be used to create white space between two elements. Any background style assigned to the element, such as a background image or color, will be visible within the padding. Increasing the size of an element's padding increases the amount of space this element will take up.\n* The **border** of an element is the absolute end of an element and spans the perimeter of that element. The thickness of a border increases the size of an element.\n* The **margin** of an element is the white space that surrounds an element. The content, padding, and border of any other element will not be allowed to enter this area unless forced to do so by some advanced [CSS](/wiki/CSS \"CSS\") placement. Using most standard [DTDs](/wiki/Document_Type_Definition \"Document Type Definition\"), margins on the left and right of different elements will push each other away. Margins on the top or bottom of an element, on the other hand, will not stack or will intermingle. This means that the white space between these elements will be as big as the larger margin between them.",
"The above section refers only to the detailed implementation of CSS rendering and has no relevance to HTML elements themselves.",
"#### Basic text",
"{{glossary}}\n{{term\\|term\\=p \\|content\\= {{XMLElement\\|p\\|Paragraph}} }}\n{{defn\\|1\\= Creates a paragraph, perhaps the most common block level element.}}\n{{defn\\|`P` existed in ''\\[\\[\\#HTMLTAGS\\|HTML Tags]]'', and was '''standardized''' in \\[\\[\\#HTML20\\|HTML 2\\.0]]; still current.}}",
"{{term\\|term\\=h1 \\|content\\= {{XMLElement\\|h1\\|Level 1 heading}} {{anchor\\|heading}} }}\n{{term\\|term\\=h2 \\|content\\= {{XMLElement\\|h2\\|Level 2 heading}} \\|multi\\=y}}\n{{term\\|term\\=h3 \\|content\\= {{XMLElement\\|h3\\|Level 3 heading}} \\|multi\\=y}}\n{{term\\|term\\=h4 \\|content\\= {{XMLElement\\|h4\\|Level 4 heading}} \\|multi\\=y}}\n{{term\\|term\\=h5 \\|content\\= {{XMLElement\\|h5\\|Level 5 heading}} \\|multi\\=y}}\n{{term\\|term\\=h6 \\|content\\= {{XMLElement\\|h6\\|Level 6 heading}} \\|multi\\=y}}",
"{{defn\\|1\\= Section headings at different levels. `h1` delimits the highest\\-level heading, `h2` the next level down (sub\\-section), `h3` for a level below that, and so on to `h6`. They are sometimes referred to collectively as `h''n''` tags, ''n'' meaning any of the available heading levels.",
"Most visual browsers show headings as large bold text by default, though this can be overridden with \\[\\[Cascading Style Sheets\\|CSS]]. Heading elements are not intended merely for creating large or bold text – in fact, they should {{em\\|not}} be used for explicitly styling text. Rather, they describe the document's structure and organization. Some programs use them to generate outlines and tables of contents.\n}}\n{{defn\\|Headings existed in ''\\[\\[\\#HTMLTAGS\\|HTML Tags]]'', and were '''standardized''' in \\[\\[\\#HTML20\\|HTML 2\\.0]]; still current.}}\n{{glossary end}}",
"#### Lists",
"{{glossary}}\n{{term\\|term\\=dl \\|content\\= {{XMLElement\\|dl\\|Definition List}} }}\n{{defn\\|1\\= {{redirect\\|Definition list\\|Wikipedia's article on lists of definitions\\|Glossary}}\nA description list (a.k.a. \\[\\[association list]] or definition list) consists of name–value groups,{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.w3\\.org/TR/html5/grouping\\-content.html\\#the\\-dl\\-element \\|title\\=4\\.4 Grouping content – HTML5 \\|work\\=HTML5: A vocabulary and associated APIs for HTML and XHTML – W3C Recommendation \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[World Wide Web Consortium]] \\|at\\=§4\\.4\\.8 The dl element \\|date\\=28 October 2014 \\|access\\-date\\=16 August 2015}} and was known as a definition list prior to HTML5\\.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.w3\\.org/TR/html4/struct/lists.html\\#edef\\-DL \\|title\\=Lists in HTML documents \\|at\\=§10\\.3 Definition lists: the DL, DT, and DD elements \\|work\\=HTML 4\\.01 Specification – W3C Recommendation \\|date\\=24 December 1999 \\|publisher\\=World Wide Web Consortium \\|access\\-date\\=2 May 2015 }} Description lists are intended for groups of \"terms and definitions, metadata topics and values, questions and answers, or any other groups of name–value data\".{{cite web \\|website\\=\\[\\[W3C]]\\|title\\=HTML5: A Vocabulary and Associated APIs for HTML and XHTML, W3C Working Draft\\|date\\=5 April 2011\\|url\\=http://www.w3\\.org/TR/2011/WD\\-html5\\-20110405/grouping\\-content.html\\#the\\-dl\\-element}}.\n}}\n{{defn\\|`DL` existed in ''\\[\\[\\#HTMLTAGS\\|HTML Tags]]'', and was '''standardized''' in \\[\\[\\#HTML20\\|HTML 2\\.0]]; still current.}}",
"{{term\\|term\\=dt \\|content\\= {{XMLElement\\|dt\\|Definition Term}} }}\n{{defn\\|1\\= A name in a description list (previously definition term in a definition list).}}\n{{defn\\|`DT` existed in ''\\[\\[\\#HTMLTAGS\\|HTML Tags]]'', and was '''standardized''' in \\[\\[\\#HTML20\\|HTML 2\\.0]]; still current.}}",
"{{term\\|term\\=dd \\|content\\= {{XMLElement\\|dd\\|Definition}} }}\n{{defn\\|1\\= A value in a description list (previously definition data in a definition list).}}\n{{defn\\|`DD` existed in ''\\[\\[\\#HTMLTAGS\\|HTML Tags]]'', and was '''standardized''' in \\[\\[\\#HTML20\\|HTML 2\\.0]]; still current.}}",
"{{term\\|term\\=ol \\|content\\= {{XMLElement\\|ol\\|Ordered List}} }}\n* + - * + {{defn\\|1\\= An ordered (enumerated) list. The `type` attribute can be used to specify the kind of marker to use in the list, but style sheets give more control. The default is Arabic numbering. In an HTML attribute: {{nobr\\|{{code\\|lang\\=html\\|code\\=\n\t\t\t\t\t}}}}; or in a CSS declaration: {{nobr\\|{{code\\|lang\\=css\\|code\\=ol { list\\-style\\-type: foo; } }}}} – replacing `foo` with one of the following:\n\t\t\t\t\t\\* A, B, C ... – HTML value: `A`; CSS value: `upper-alpha`\n\t\t\t\t\t\\* a, b, c ... – HTML value: `a`; CSS value: `lower-alpha`\n\t\t\t\t\t\\* I, II, III ... – HTML value: `I`; CSS value: `upper-roman`\n\t\t\t\t\t\\* i, ii, iii ... – HTML value: `i`; CSS value: `lower-roman`\n\t\t\t\t\t\\* 1, 2, 3 ... – HTML value: `1`; `decimal`\n\t\t\t\t\tCSS provides several other options not available as pure\\-HTML markup, including `none`, and options for \\[\\[CJK]], Hebrew, Georgian, and Armenian script. The attribute is deprecated in HTML 3\\.2 and 4\\.01, but not in HTML 5\\.\n\t\t\t\t\t}}\n\t\t\t\t\t{{defn\\|`OL` existed in ''\\[\\[\\#HTMLDRAFT12\\|HTML Internet Draft 1\\.2]]'', and was '''standardized''' in \\[\\[\\#HTML20\\|HTML 2\\.0]]; still current.}}",
"{{term\\|term\\=ul \\|content\\= {{XMLElement\\|ul\\|Unordered List}} }}\n{{defn\\|1\\= An unordered (bulleted) list. The type of list item marker can be specified in an HTML attribute: {{nobr\\|{{code\\|lang\\=html\\|code\\=}}}}; or in a CSS declaration: {{nobr\\|{{code\\|lang\\=css\\|code\\=ul { list\\-style\\-type: foo; } }}}} – replacing `foo` with one of the following (the same values are used in HTML and CSS): `disc` (the default), `square`, or `circle`. '''Only''' the CSS method is supported in HTML5; the attribute is deprecated in HTML 3\\.2 and 4\\.01\\. CSS also provides `none`, and the ability to replace these bullets with custom images.}}\n{{defn\\|`UL` existed in ''\\[\\[\\#HTMLTAGS\\|HTML Tags]]'', and was '''standardized''' in \\[\\[\\#HTML20\\|HTML 2\\.0]]; still current.}}",
"{{term\\|term\\=li \\|content\\= {{XMLElement\\|li\\|List Item}} }}\n{{defn\\|1\\= A list item in ordered (`ol`) or unordered (`ul`) lists.}}\n{{defn\\|`LI` existed in ''\\[\\[\\#HTMLTAGS\\|HTML Tags]]'', and was '''standardized''' in \\[\\[\\#HTML20\\|HTML 2\\.0]]; still current.}}",
"{{term\\|term\\=dir \\|content\\= {{XMLElement\\|dir\\|Directory List\\|deprecated\\=1}} }}\n{{defn\\|1\\= A directory listing. The original purpose of this element was never widely supported; deprecated in favor of {{code\\|lang\\=html\\|code\\=}}.}}\n{{defn\\|`DIR` existed in ''\\[\\[\\#HTMLTAGS\\|HTML Tags]]'', and was '''standardized''' in \\[\\[\\#HTML20\\|HTML 2\\.0]]; '''deprecated''' in \\[\\[\\#HTML401\\|HTML 4\\.0 Transitional]]; '''invalid''' in \\[\\[\\#HTML401\\|HTML 4\\.0 Strict]].}}\n{{glossary end}}",
"#### Other block elements",
"{{glossary}}\n{{term\\|term\\=address \\|content\\= {{XMLElement\\|address\\|Address}} }}\n{{defn\\|1\\= Contact information for the document author.}}\n{{defn\\|`ADDRESS` existed in ''\\[\\[\\#HTMLTAGS\\|HTML Tags]]'', and was '''standardized''' in \\[\\[\\#HTML20\\|HTML 2\\.0]]; still current.}}",
"{{term\\|term\\=article \\|content\\= {{XMLElement\\|article\\|Article}} }}\n{{defn\\|1\\= {{Main\\|Article element}}\nUsed for articles and other similar content.\n}}\n{{defn\\|'''Standardized''' in \\[\\[\\#HTML5\\|HTML5]].}}",
"{{term\\|term\\=aside \\|content\\= {{XMLElement\\|aside\\|Aside}} }}\n{{defn\\|1\\= Used for content in a document which is separate from the main page content, for example, sidebars or advertising.}}\n{{defn\\|'''Standardized''' in \\[\\[\\#HTML5\\|HTML5]].}}",
"{{term\\|term\\=blockquote \\|content\\= {{XMLElement\\|blockquote\\|BlockQuotation}} }}\n{{defn\\|1\\= {{Main\\|Blockquote element}}\nA \\[\\[blockquote\\|block level quotation]], for when the quotation includes block level elements, e.g. paragraphs. The `cite` attribute (not to be confused with the \\[\\[\\#cite\\|{{tag\\|cite\\|o}}]] element) may give the source, and must be a fully qualified \\[\\[Uniform Resource Identifier]].",
"The default presentation of block quotations in visual browsers is usually to indent them from both margins. This has led to the element being unnecessarily used just to indent paragraphs, regardless of semantics. For quotations not containing block level elements see the quote (\\[\\[\\#q\\|{{tag\\|q\\|o}}]]) element.\n}}\n{{defn\\|`BLOCKQUOTE` existed in ''\\[\\[\\#HTMLDRAFT12\\|HTML Internet Draft 1\\.2]]'', and was '''standardized''' in \\[\\[\\#HTML20\\|HTML 2\\.0]]; still current. See \\[\\[blockquote element]] for more information.}}",
"{{term\\|term\\=center \\|content\\= {{XMLElement\\|center\\|Centered Text\\|deprecated\\=1}} }}\n{{defn\\|1\\= Creates a block\\-level center\\-aligned division. Deprecated in favor of \\[\\[\\#div\\|{{tag\\|div\\|o}}]] or another element with centering defined using style sheets.}}\n{{defn\\|'''Standardized''' in \\[\\[\\#HTML32\\|HTML 3\\.2]]; '''deprecated''' in \\[\\[\\#HTML401\\|HTML 4\\.0]]; '''not supported''' in \\[\\[\\#HTML5\\|HTML5]].}}",
"{{term\\|term\\=del \\|content\\= {{XMLElement\\|del\\|Deleted Section}} }}\n{{defn\\|1\\= Marks a deleted section of content. This element can also be used as ''inline''.}}\n{{defn\\|'''Standardized''' in \\[\\[\\#HTML401\\|HTML 4\\.0]]; still current.}}",
"{{term\\|term\\=div \\|content\\= {{XMLElement\\|div\\|Logical division}} }}\n{{defn\\|1\\= {{Main\\|Span and div}}\nA block\\-level logical division. A generic element with no semantic meaning used to distinguish a document section, usually for purposes such as presentation or behavior controlled by \\[\\[Cascading Style Sheets\\|style sheets]] or \\[\\[Document Object Model\\|DOM]] calls.}}\n{{defn\\|Proposed in the \\[\\[\\#HTML30\\|HTML 3\\.0 Drafts]]; '''Standardized''' in \\[\\[\\#HTML32\\|HTML 3\\.2]]; still current.}}",
"{{term\\|term\\=figure \\|content\\= {{XMLElement\\|figure\\|Figure}} }}\n{{defn\\|1\\= Used to group images and captions, along with {{tag\\|figcaption\\|o}}.}}\n{{defn\\|'''Standardized''' in \\[\\[\\#HTML5\\|HTML5]].}}",
"{{term\\|term\\=figcaption \\|content\\= {{XMLElement\\|figcaption\\|Figure Caption}} }}\n{{defn\\|1\\= A caption for an image. Always placed inside the {{tag\\|figure\\|o}} element.}}\n{{defn\\|'''Standardized''' in \\[\\[\\#HTML5\\|HTML5]].}}",
"{{term\\|term\\=footer \\|content\\= {{XMLElement\\|footer\\|Footer}} }}\n{{defn\\|1\\= Used for document footers. These might contain author or copyright information, or links to other pages.}}\n{{defn\\|'''Standardized''' in \\[\\[\\#HTML5\\|HTML5]].}}",
"{{term\\|term\\=header \\|content\\= {{XMLElement\\|header\\|Header}} }}\n{{defn\\|1\\= Used for document headers. These typically contain content introducing the page.}}\n{{defn\\|'''Standardized''' in \\[\\[\\#HTML5\\|HTML5]].}}",
"{{term\\|term\\=hr \\|content\\= {{XMLElement\\|hr\\|Thematic break\\|end\\=no}} }}\n{{defn\\|1\\= A \\[\\[thematic break (formatting)\\|thematic break]] (originally: horizontal rule). Presentational rules can be drawn with style sheets.}}\n{{defn\\|'''Standardized''' in \\[\\[\\#HTML20\\|HTML 2\\.0]]; still current.}}",
"{{term\\|term\\=ins \\|content\\= {{XMLElement\\|ins\\|Inserted Section}} }}\n{{defn\\|1\\= Marks a section of inserted content. This element can also be used as ''inline''.}}\n{{defn\\|'''Standardized''' in \\[\\[\\#HTML401\\|HTML 4\\.0]]; still current.}}",
"{{term\\|term\\=main \\|content\\= {{XMLElement\\|main\\|Main Content}} }}\n{{defn\\|1\\= Contains the main content of a document.}}\n{{defn\\|'''Standardized''' in \\[\\[\\#HTML5\\|HTML 5\\.1]].}}",
"{{term\\|term\\=menu \\|content\\= {{XMLElement\\|menu\\|Menu}} }}\n{{defn\\|1\\= HTML 2\\.0: A menu listing. Should be more compact than a {{tag\\|ul\\|o}} list.}}\n{{defn\\|`MENU` existed in ''\\[\\[\\#HTMLTAGS\\|HTML Tags]]'', and was '''standardized''' in \\[\\[\\#HTML20\\|HTML 2\\.0]]; '''deprecated''' in \\[\\[\\#HTML401\\|HTML 4\\.0 Transitional]]; '''invalid''' in \\[\\[\\#HTML401\\|HTML 4\\.0 Strict]]; then redefined in \\[\\[\\#HTML5\\|HTML5]], removed in HTML 5\\.2, but is included in the HTML Living Standard in 2019\\. }}",
"{{term\\|term\\=nav \\|content\\= {{XMLElement\\|nav\\|Navigation}} }}\n{{defn\\|1\\= Used in navigational sections of articles (areas of webpages which contain links to other webpages).}}\n{{defn\\|'''Standardized''' in \\[\\[\\#HTML5\\|HTML5]].}}",
"{{term\\|term\\=noscript \\|content\\= {{XMLElement\\|noscript\\|JavaScript Fallback}} }}\n{{defn\\|1\\= Replacement content for scripts. Unlike '''script''' this can only be used as a block\\-level element.}}\n{{defn\\|'''Standardized''' in \\[\\[\\#HTML401\\|HTML 4\\.0]]; still current.}}",
"{{term\\|term\\=pre \\|content\\= {{XMLElement\\|pre\\|PreFormatted Text}} }}\n{{defn\\|1\\= ''Pre\\-formatted'' text. Text within this element is typically displayed in a \\[\\[non\\-proportional font]] exactly as it is laid out in the file (see \\[\\[ASCII art]]). Whereas browsers ignore \\[\\[Whitespace (computer science)\\|white\\-space]] for other HTML elements, in {{tag\\|pre}}, white\\-space should be rendered as authored. (With the CSS properties: {{code\\|lang\\=css\\|code\\={ white\\-space: pre; font\\-family: monospace; }}}, other elements can be presented in the same way.) This element can contain any inline element except: \\[\\[\\#image\\|{{tag\\|image\\|o}}]], \\[\\[\\#object\\|{{tag\\|object\\|o}}]], \\[\\[\\#big\\|{{tag\\|big\\|o}}]], \\[\\[\\#small\\|{{tag\\|small\\|o}}]], \\[\\[\\#sup\\|{{tag\\|sup\\|o}}]], and \\[\\[\\#sub\\|{{tag\\|sub}}]].}}\n{{defn\\|`PRE` existed in ''\\[\\[\\#HTMLDRAFT12\\|HTML Internet Draft 1\\.2]]'', and was '''standardized''' in \\[\\[\\#HTML20\\|HTML 2\\.0]]; still current.}}",
"{{term\\|term\\=section \\|content\\= {{XMLElement\\|section\\|Section}} }}\n{{defn\\|1\\= Used for generic sections of a document. This is different from \\[\\[\\#div\\|{{tag\\|div\\|o}}]] in that it is only used to contain sections of a page, which the W3C defines as a group of content with a similar theme.}}\n{{defn\\|'''Standardized''' in \\[\\[\\#HTML5\\|HTML5]].}}",
"{{term\\|term\\=script \\|content\\= {{XMLElement\\|script\\|Script}} }}\n{{defn\\|1\\= Places a script in the document. Also usable in the head and in inline contexts. It may be used as {{tag\\|script\\|s}} with a `src` attribute to supply a URL from which to load the script, or used as {{tag\\|script}} around embedded script content.",
"{{strong\\|Note:}} {{tag\\|script\\|o}} is not itself either a block or inline element; by itself it should not display at all, but it can contain instructions to dynamically generate either both block or inline content.}}\n{{defn\\|'''Standardized''' in \\[\\[\\#HTML32\\|HTML 3\\.2]]; still current.}}\n{{glossary end}}",
"### Inline elements",
"Inline elements cannot be placed directly inside the {{code\\|lang\\=html\\|code\\=}} element; they must be wholly nested within block\\-level elements.{{citation\\|url\\=http://www.w3\\.org/TR/html401/struct/global.html\\#h\\-7\\.5\\.1 \\|title\\=HTML 4\\.01 \\|publisher\\=W3C \\|access\\-date\\=2012\\-03\\-26}}",
"#### Anchor",
"{{for\\|anchors on Wikipedia\\|WP:ANCHOR DEF\\|selfref\\=true}}\n{{glossary}}\n{{term\\|term\\=a \\|content\\= {{XMLElement\\|a\\|Anchor}} }}\n{{defn\\|1\\= An anchor element is called an anchor because web designers can use it to \"anchor\" a URL to some text on a web page. When users view the web page in a browser, they can click the text to activate the link and visit the page whose URL is in the link.{{cite book \\|last1\\= Tittel \\|first1\\= Ed \\|last2\\= Burmeister \\|first2\\= Mary C. \\|date\\= 2005 \\|title\\= HTML 4 for dummies \\|edition\\= 5th \\|publisher\\= Wiley \\|location\\= Hoboken, New Jersey \\|isbn\\= 978\\-0\\-7645\\-8917\\-1 \\|page\\= 96 \\|url\\= https://archive.org/details/html4fordummies00titt\\_2/page/96/ \\|url\\-access\\= registration \\|access\\-date\\= 7 August 2022}}",
"In HTML, an \"anchor\" can be either the {{em\\|origin}} (the \\[\\[anchor text]]) or the {{em\\|target}} (destination) end of a \\[\\[hyperlink]]. As an origin, setting the attribute `href`,{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.w3\\.org/Provider/ServerWriter.html\\|title\\=ServerWriter \\-\\- /Provider\\|website\\=W3C}} creates a hyperlink; it can point to either another part of the document or another resource (e.g. a webpage) using an external \\[\\[Uniform Resource Locator\\|URL]]. As a target, setting the `name` or `id` \\[\\[HTML attributes]], allows the element to be linked from a \\[\\[Uniform Resource Locator]] (URL) via a \\[\\[fragment identifier]]. The two forms, origin and anchor, can be used concurently.",
"",
"In HTML5, any element can now be made into a target by using the `id` attribute,{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.w3\\.org/tr/html5/index.html\\#attributes\\-1\\|title\\=HTML 5\\.2\\|website\\=W3C}} so using {{code\\|lang\\=html\\|code\\=...}} is not necessary, although this way of adding anchors continues to work.",
"To illustrate: the header of a table of contents section on `example.com`'s homepage could be turned into a target by writing: {{code\\|lang\\=html\\|code\\=Table of contents\n-----------------",
"}}.",
"Continuing with this example, now that the section has been marked up as a target, it can be referred to from external sites with a link like: {{code\\|lang\\=html\\|code\\=[see contents](http://example.com#contents)}};",
"or with a link on the same page like: {{code\\|lang\\=html\\|code\\=[contents, above](#contents)}}.",
"The attribute `title` may be set to give brief information about the link: {{code\\|lang\\=html\\|code\\=[link text](URL \"additional information\")}}.",
"In most graphical browsers, when the cursor hovers over a link, the cursor changes into a hand with an extended index finger and the `title` value is displayed in a \\[\\[tooltip]] or in some other manner. Some browsers render \\[\\[Alt attribute\\|alt text]] the same way, although this is not what the specification calls for.",
"}}\n{{defn\\|`A` existed in ''\\[\\[\\#HTMLTAGS\\|HTML Tags]]'', and was '''standardized''' in \\[\\[\\#HTML20\\|HTML 2\\.0]];}}\n{{glossary end}}",
"#### Phrase elements",
"Phrase elements are used for marking up phrases and adding structure or semantic meaning to text fragments. For example, the `<em>` and `<strong>` tags can be used for adding emphasis to text.",
"##### General",
"{{glossary}}\n{{term\\|term\\=abbr \\|content\\= {{XMLElement\\|abbr\\|Abbreviation}} }}\n{{defn\\|1\\= Marks an \\[\\[abbreviation]], and can make the full form available: {{code\\|lang\\=html\\|code\\=abbr.}}}}\n{{defn\\|'''Standardized''' in \\[\\[\\#HTML401\\|HTML 4\\.0]]; still current.}}",
"{{term\\|term\\=acronym \\|content\\= {{XMLElement\\|acronym\\|Acronym\\|deprecated\\=1}} }}\n{{defn\\|1\\= Similar to the {{code\\|lang\\=html\\|code\\=}} element, but marks an \\[\\[acronym]]: {{code\\|lang\\=html\\|code\\=HTML}}}}\n{{defn\\|'''Standardized''' in \\[\\[\\#HTML401\\|HTML 4\\.0]]; still current, '''not supported''' in \\[\\[\\#HTML5\\|HTML5]]. Recommended replacement is the `abbr` tag.\\[https://www.w3schools.com/tags/tag\\_acronym.asp Acronym tag], acronym.}}",
"{{term\\|term\\=defn \\|content\\= {{XMLElement\\|dfn\\|Definition}} }}\n{{defn\\|1\\= Inline definition of a single term.}}\n{{defn\\|`DFN` existed in ''\\[\\[\\#HTMLDRAFT12\\|HTML Internet Draft 1\\.2]]'', and was fully '''standardized''' in \\[\\[\\#HTML32\\|HTML 3\\.2]]; still current.}}",
"{{term\\|term\\=em \\|content\\= {{XMLElement\\|em\\|Emphasis}} }}\n{{defn\\|1\\= *Emphasis* (conventionally displayed in italics)}}\n{{defn\\|`EM` existed in ''\\[\\[\\#HTMLDRAFT12\\|HTML Internet Draft 1\\.2]]'', and was '''standardized''' in \\[\\[\\#HTML20\\|HTML 2\\.0]]; still current.}}",
"{{term\\|term\\=strong \\|content\\= {{XMLElement\\|strong\\|Importance}} }}\n{{defn\\|1\\= **importance**; originally strong emphasis (conventionally displayed bold).",
"An \\[\\[voice browser\\|aural user agent]] may use different voices for emphasis.\n}}\n{{defn\\|`STRONG` existed in ''\\[\\[\\#HTMLDRAFT12\\|HTML Internet Draft 1\\.2]]'', and was '''standardized''' in \\[\\[\\#HTML20\\|HTML 2\\.0]]; still current, redefined in HTML5\\.}}\n{{glossary end}}",
"##### Computer phrase elements",
"These elements are useful primarily for documenting computer code development and user interaction through differentiation of source code ({{code\\|lang\\=html\\|code\\=`}}), variables ({{code|lang=html|code=}}), user input ({{code|lang=html|code=}}), and terminal or other output ({{code|lang=html|code=}}).`",
"{{glossary}}\n{{term\\|term\\=code \\|content\\= {{XMLElement\\|code\\|Sourcecode}} }}\n{{defn\\|1\\= A code snippet (`code example`). Conventionally rendered in a mono\\-space font.}}\n{{defn\\|`CODE` existed in ''\\[\\[\\#HTMLDRAFT12\\|HTML Internet Draft 1\\.2]]'', and was '''standardized''' in \\[\\[\\#HTML20\\|HTML 2\\.0]]; still current.}}",
"{{term\\|term\\=kbd \\|content\\= {{XMLElement\\|kbd\\|Keyboard}} }}\n{{defn\\|1\\= Keyboard – text to be entered by the user (`kbd example`).}}\n{{defn\\|`KBD` existed in ''\\[\\[\\#HTMLDRAFT12\\|HTML Internet Draft 1\\.2]]'', and was '''standardized''' in \\[\\[\\#HTML20\\|HTML 2\\.0]]; still current.}}",
"{{term\\|term\\=samp \\|content\\= {{XMLElement\\|samp\\|Sample}} }}\n{{defn\\|1\\= Sample output – from a program or script: (`samp example`).}}\n{{defn\\|`SAMP` existed in ''\\[\\[\\#HTMLDRAFT12\\|HTML Internet Draft 1\\.2]]'', and was '''standardized''' in \\[\\[\\#HTML20\\|HTML 2\\.0]]; still current.}}",
"{{term\\|term\\=var \\|content\\= {{XMLElement\\|var\\|Variable}} }}\n{{defn\\|1\\= Variable (var example).}}\n{{defn\\|`VAR` existed in ''\\[\\[\\#HTMLDRAFT12\\|HTML Internet Draft 1\\.2]]'', and was '''standardized''' in \\[\\[\\#HTML20\\|HTML 2\\.0]]; still current.}}\n{{glossary end}}",
"#### Presentation",
"As visual presentational markup only applies directly to visual browsers, its use is discouraged. Style sheets should be used instead. Several of these elements are deprecated or invalid in HTML 4 / XHTML 1\\.0, and the remainder are invalid in the current draft of [XHTML 2\\.0](http://www.w3.org/TR/2005/WD-xhtml2-20050527/). The current draft of [HTML5](https://web.archive.org/web/20150801133040/http://www.w3.org/TR/html5/text-level-semantics.html), however, re\\-includes {{tag\\|s\\|o}}, {{tag\\|u\\|o}}, and {{tag\\|small\\|o}}, assigning new semantic meaning to each. In an [HTML5](/wiki/HTML5 \"HTML5\") document, the use of these elements is no longer discouraged, provided that it is semantically correct.",
"{{term\\|term\\=b \\|content\\= {{XMLElement\\|b\\|Keyword}} }}\n{{defn\\|1\\= \nIn \\[\\[HTML 4]], set font to '''boldface''' where possible. Equivalent CSS: {{code\\|lang\\=css\\|code\\={ font\\-weight: bold; } }}. The {{tag\\|strong\\|o}} element usually has the same effect in visual browsers, as well as having more semantic meaning, under \\[\\[HTML 4\\.01]].",
"In \\[\\[HTML5]], however, {{tag\\|b\\|o}} has its own meaning, distinct from that of {{tag\\|strong\\|o}}. It denotes \"text to which attention is being drawn for utilitarian purposes without conveying any extra importance and with no implication of an alternate voice or mood.\"{{citation\\|url\\=http://developers.whatwg.org/text\\-level\\-semantics.html\\#the\\-b\\-element \\|title\\=4\\.6 Text\\-level semantics — The b element \\|publisher\\=Developers.whatwg.org \\|access\\-date\\=2012\\-03\\-26}}\n}}\n{{defn\\|`B` existed in ''\\[\\[\\#HTMLDRAFT12\\|HTML Internet Draft 1\\.2]]'', and was '''standardized''' in \\[\\[\\#HTML20\\|HTML 2\\.0]]; still current, redefined in HTML5\\.}}",
"{{term\\|term\\=i \\|content\\= {{XMLElement\\|i\\|Alternate voice}} }}\n{{defn\\|1\\= \nIn \\[\\[HTML 4]], set font to ''italic'' where possible. Equivalent \\[\\[CSS]]: {{code\\|lang\\=css\\|code\\={ font\\-style: italic; } }}. Using {{tag\\|em}} has the same visual effect in most browsers, as well as having a semantic meaning as ''emphasis'', under \\[\\[HTML 4\\.01]]. (Purely typographic italics have many non\\-emphasis purposes, as HTML 5 more explicitly recognized.)",
"In \\[\\[HTML5]], however, {{tag\\|i\\|o}} has its own semantic meaning, distinct from that of {{tag\\|em\\|o}}. It denotes \"a different quality of text\" or \"an alternate voice or mood\" e.g., a thought, a ship name, a \\[\\[Binomial nomenclature\\|binary species name]], a foreign\\-language phrase, etc.{{citation\\|url\\=http://developers.whatwg.org/text\\-level\\-semantics.html\\#the\\-i\\-element \\|title\\=4\\.6 Text\\-level semantics — The i element \\|publisher\\=Developers.whatwg.org \\|access\\-date\\=2012\\-03\\-26}}\n}}\n{{defn\\|`I` existed in ''\\[\\[\\#HTMLDRAFT12\\|HTML Internet Draft 1\\.2]]'', and was '''standardized''' in \\[\\[\\#HTML20\\|HTML 2\\.0]]; still current, redefined in HTML5\\.}}",
"{{term\\|term\\=u \\|content\\= {{XMLElement\\|u\\|Unarticulated annotation}} }}\n{{defn\\|1\\= In \\[\\[HTML 4]], underlined text. Equivalent CSS: {{code\\|lang\\=css\\|code\\={ text\\-decoration: underline; } }}. Deprecated in \\[\\[HTML 4\\.01]]. Restored in \\[\\[\\#HTML5\\|HTML5]].",
"In \\[\\[HTML5]], the {{tag\\|u\\|o}} element denotes \"a span of text with an unarticulated, though explicitly rendered, non\\-textual annotation, such as labelling the text as being a proper name in Chinese text (a Chinese proper name mark), or labelling the text as being misspelt.\" The \\[\\[HTML5]] specification reminds developers that other elements are almost always more appropriate than {{tag\\|u\\|o}} and admonishes designers not to use underlined text where it could be confused for a hyper\\-link.{{citation\\|url\\=http://developers.whatwg.org/text\\-level\\-semantics.html\\#the\\-u\\-element \\|title\\=4\\.6 Text\\-level semantics — The u element \\|publisher\\=Developers.whatwg.org \\|access\\-date\\=2012\\-03\\-26}}\n}}\n{{defn\\|`U` existed in ''\\[\\[\\#HTMLDRAFT12\\|HTML Internet Draft 1\\.2]]'', was '''standardized''' in \\[\\[\\#HTML32\\|HTML 3\\.2]] but was '''deprecated''' in \\[\\[\\#HTML401\\|HTML 4\\.0 Transitional]] and was '''invalid''' in \\[\\[\\#HTML401\\|HTML 4\\.0 Strict]]. '''Reintroduced''' in \\[\\[\\#HTML5\\|HTML5]].}}",
"{{term\\|term\\=small \\|content\\= {{XMLElement\\|small\\|Side comment}} }}\n{{defn\\|1\\= In \\[\\[HTML 4]], decreased font size (smaller text). Equivalent CSS: {{code\\|lang\\=css\\|code\\={ font\\-size: smaller; } }}",
"In \\[\\[HTML5]], the {{tag\\|small\\|o}} element denotes \"side comments such as small print.\"{{citation\\|url\\=http://developers.whatwg.org/text\\-level\\-semantics.html\\#the\\-small\\-element \\|title\\=4\\.6 Text\\-level semantics — The small element \\|publisher\\=Developers.whatwg.org \\|access\\-date\\=2012\\-03\\-26}} This has caused some confusion with the {{tag\\|\\[\\[\\#aside\\|aside]]}} element.\n}}\n{{defn\\|'''Standardized''' in \\[\\[\\#HTML32\\|HTML 3\\.2]]; still current.}}",
"{{term\\|term\\=s \\|content\\= {{XMLElement\\|s\\|Inacurrate text}} }}\n{{defn\\|1\\= In \\[\\[HTML 4]], indicated strike\\-through text (~~Strikethrough~~) and was equivalent to {{tag\\|strike\\|o}}.",
"In \\[\\[HTML5]], the {{tag\\|s\\|o}} element denotes information that is \"no longer accurate or no longer relevant\", and is not to be confused with {{tag\\|del\\|o}}, which indicates removal/deletion.{{citation\\|url\\=http://developers.whatwg.org/text\\-level\\-semantics.html\\#the\\-s\\-element \\|title\\=4\\.6 Text\\-level semantics — The s element \\|publisher\\=Developers.whatwg.org \\|access\\-date\\=2012\\-03\\-26}}\n}}\n{{defn\\|`S` was '''deprecated''' in \\[\\[\\#HTML401\\|HTML 4\\.0 Transitional]] (having not appeared in any previous standard), and was '''invalid''' in \\[\\[\\#HTML401\\|HTML 4\\.0 Strict]]. '''Reintroduced''' in \\[\\[\\#HTML5\\|HTML5]], which instead deprecated {{tag\\|strike\\|o}}.}}",
"{{term\\|term\\= \\|content\\= {{XMLElement\\|big\\|Big\\|deprecated\\=1}} }}\n{{defn\\|1\\= Increased font size (bigger text). Equivalent CSS: {{code\\|lang\\=css\\|code\\={ font\\-size: larger; } }}}}\n{{defn\\|'''Standardized''' in \\[\\[\\#HTML32\\|HTML 3\\.2]]; '''not supported''' in \\[\\[\\#HTML5\\|HTML5]].}}",
"{{term\\|term\\= \\|content\\= {{XMLElement\\|strike\\|Strikethrough\\|deprecated\\=1}} }}\n{{defn\\|1\\= Strike\\-through text (~~Strikethrough~~), (Equivalent CSS: {{code\\|lang\\=css\\|code\\={ text\\-decoration: line\\-through; } }})}}\n{{defn\\|`STRIKE` was standardized in \\[\\[\\#HTML32\\|HTML 3\\.2]]; '''deprecated''' in \\[\\[\\#HTML401\\|HTML 4\\.0 Transitional]]; '''invalid''' in \\[\\[\\#HTML401\\|HTML 4\\.0 Strict]].}}",
"{{term\\|term\\=tt \\|content\\= {{XMLElement\\|tt\\|Teletype\\|deprecated\\=1}} }}\n{{defn\\|1\\= \\[\\[non\\-proportional font\\|Fixed\\-width]] font ({{mono\\|typewriter\\-like}}), also known as \\[\\[Teleprinter\\|teletype]], thus \"tt\". (Equivalent CSS: {{code\\|lang\\=css\\|code\\={ font\\-family: monospace; } }})}}\n{{defn\\|`TT` existed in ''\\[\\[\\#HTMLDRAFT12\\|HTML Internet Draft 1\\.2]]'', and was '''Standardized''' in \\[\\[\\#HTML20\\|HTML 2\\.0]]; not supported{{citation\\|url\\=http://www.w3\\.org/TR/html5/obsolete.html\\#non\\-conforming\\-features \\|title\\=11 Obsolete features — HTML5 \\|publisher\\=W3C \\|access\\-date\\=2012\\-03\\-26}} in HTML5\\. Possible replacements: \\[\\[\\#kbd\\|{{tag\\|kbd\\|o}}]] for marking user input, \\[\\[\\#var\\|{{tag\\|var\\|o}}]] for variables (usually rendered italic, and not with a change to monospace), \\[\\[\\#code\\|{{tag\\|code\\|o}}]] for source code, \\[\\[\\#samp\\|{{tag\\|samp\\|o}}]] for output.}}",
"{{term\\|term\\=font \\|content\\= {{XMLElement\\|font\\|Teletype\\|deprecated\\=1}} }}\n* + - * + - * + {{defn\\|1\\= {{code\\|lang\\=html\\|code\\=color] \\[size\\=size] \\[face\\=face]\\>...}}\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCan specify the font color with the `color` attribute (note the American spelling), typeface with the `face` attribute, and absolute or relative size with the `size` attribute.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tExamples (all uses are deprecated, use CSS equivalents if possible):\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* {{code\\|lang\\=html\\|code\\=text}} creates {{green\\|green text}}.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* {{code\\|lang\\=html\\|code\\=text}} creates text with \\[\\[Hex triplet\\|hexadecimal color]] \\#114499.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* {{code\\|lang\\=html\\|code\\=text}} creates text with size 4\\. Sizes are from 1 to 7\\. The standard size is 3, unless otherwise specified in the \\<body\\> or other tags.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* {{code\\|lang\\=html\\|code\\=text}} creates text with size 1 bigger than the standard. {{code\\|lang\\=html\\|code\\=text}} is opposite.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* {{code\\|lang\\=html\\|code\\=text}} makes text with Courier font.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tEquivalent CSS for font attributes:\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\*`<font size=\"N\">` corresponds to `{font-size: Yunits}` (the HTML specification does not define the relationship between size N and unit\\-size Y, nor does it define a unit).\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\*{{code\\|lang\\=html\\|code\\=}} corresponds to {{code\\|lang\\=css\\|code\\={ color: red; } }}\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\*{{code\\|lang\\=html\\|code\\=}} corresponds to {{code\\|lang\\=css\\|code\\={ font\\-family: 'Times New Roman', Times, serif; } }} – CSS supports a \\[\\[font stack]], of two or more alternative fonts.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t}}\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t{{defn\\|'''Standardized''' in \\[\\[\\#HTML32\\|HTML 3\\.2]]; '''deprecated''' in \\[\\[\\#HTML401\\|HTML 4\\.0 Transitional]]; '''invalid''' in \\[\\[\\#HTML401\\|HTML 4\\.0 Strict]]. Not part of HTML5\\.}}",
"#### Span",
"{{glossary}}\n{{term\\|term\\=span \\|content\\= {{XMLElement\\|span\\|Span}} }}\n{{defn\\|1\\= {{Main\\|Span and div}}\nAn inline logical division. A generic element with no semantic meaning used to distinguish a document section, usually for purposes such as presentation or behavior controlled by \\[\\[Cascading Style Sheets\\|style sheets]] or \\[\\[Document Object Model\\|DOM]] calls.\n}}\n{{defn\\|'''Standardized''' in \\[\\[\\#HTML401\\|HTML 4\\.0]]; still current.}}\n{{glossary end}}",
"#### Other inline elements",
"{{glossary}}\n{{term\\|term\\=br \\|content\\= {{XMLElement\\|br\\|Line Break\\|end\\=no}} }}\n{{defn\\|1\\= A forced line break.}}\n{{defn\\|'''Standardized''' in \\[\\[\\#HTML20\\|HTML 2\\.0]]; still current.}}",
"{{term\\|term\\=bdi \\|content\\= {{XMLElement\\|bdi\\|Bidirectional Isolation}} }}\n{{defn\\|1\\= Isolates an inline section of text that may be formatted in a different direction from other text outside of it, such as user\\-generated content with unknown directionality.}}\n{{defn\\|'''Standardized''' in \\[\\[\\#HTML5\\|HTML5]].}}",
"{{term\\|term\\=bdo \\|content\\= {{XMLElement\\|bdo\\|Bidirectional Override}} }}\n{{defn\\|1\\= Marks an inline section of text in which the reading direction is the opposite from that of the parent element.}}\n{{defn\\|'''Standardized''' in \\[\\[\\#HTML401\\|HTML 4\\.0]]; still current.}}",
"{{term\\|term\\=cite \\|content\\= {{XMLElement\\|cite\\|Citation}} }}\n{{defn\\|1\\= A citation or a reference for a quote or statement in the document.}}\n{{defn\\|CITE existed in ''\\[\\[\\#HTMLDRAFT12\\|HTML Internet Draft 1\\.2]]'', and was '''standardized''' in \\[\\[\\#HTML20\\|HTML 2\\.0]]; still current.}}\n{{defn\\|''Note:'' The HTML 5 specifications have been confusingly \\[\\[Fork (software development)\\|forked]],{{cite web \\|url\\= https://arstechnica.com/information\\-technology/2014/10/html5\\-specification\\-finalized\\-squabbling\\-over\\-who\\-writes\\-the\\-specs\\-continues/ \\|title\\=HTML5 specification finalized, squabbling over specs continues \\|publisher\\=Ars Technica \\|date\\=29 October 2014 \\|access\\-date\\=29 October 2014}} including with regard to this element. In HTML 4 and earlier, {{tag\\|cite\\|o}} was for \"a citation or a reference to other sources\" without any particular limitations or requirements.{{cite web \\|title\\=9\\.2\\.1 Phrase elements: EM, STRONG, DFN, CODE, SAMP, KBD, VAR, CITE, ABBR, and ACRONYM \\|work\\=HTML 4\\.01 Specification \\|date\\=24 December 1999 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[W3C]] \\|url\\= https://www.w3\\.org/TR/html401/struct/text.html\\#h\\-9\\.2\\.1 \\|access\\-date\\=26 July 2018}} The \\[\\[W3C]] HTML 5 spec uses a refinement of this idea, reflecting how the element has historically been used, but now requiring that it contain (but not be limited to) at least one of \"the title of the work or the name of the author (person, people or organization) or an URL reference, or a reference in abbreviated form as per the conventions used for the addition of citation metadata.\"\\[\\[\\#HTML52\\|''HTML 5\\.2 W3C Recommendation'']], at \\[https://www.w3\\.org/TR/html52/textlevel\\-semantics.html\\#the\\-cite\\-element \"§4\\.5\\.6\\. The cite element\"]. But the WHATWG spec only permits the element to be used around the title of a work.\\[\\[\\#WHATWGLS\\|''HTML Living Standard'']], at \\[https://html.spec.whatwg.org/multipage/text\\-level\\-semantics.html\\#the\\-cite\\-element \"§4\\.5\\.6 The cite element\"]. The W3C specs began with the broader definition, then switched to the very narrow one after WHATWG made this change. However, W3C reverted their own change in 2012, in response to negative developer\\-community feedback; the element was in broadly\\-deployed use with the broader scope, e.g., various blog and forum platforms wrap commenters' IDs and e\\-mail addresses in {{tag\\|cite}}, and people using the element for bibliographic citations were (and still are) routinely wrapping each entire citation in this element.",
"Another problem with the element is that WHATWG recommends that it be italicized by default (thus almost all browsers do so), because it (in their view) is only for publication titles. By convention, however, only certain kinds of titles actually take italics, while others are expected to be put in quotation marks, and standards may actually vary by publishing context and language. Consequently, many website authors and admins use a site\\-wide stylesheet to undo this element's auto\\-italics.\n}}",
"{{term\\|term\\=data \\|content\\= {{XMLElement\\|data\\|Data}} }}\n{{defn\\|1\\= Links inline content with a machine\\-readable translation.}}\n{{defn\\|'''Standardized''' in \\[\\[\\#HTML5\\|HTML5]].{{cite web\\|url\\=https://developer.mozilla.org/en\\-US/docs/Web/HTML/Element/data\\|title\\=\\<data\\>\\|website\\=MDN Web Docs}}}}",
"{{term\\|term\\=del \\|content\\= {{XMLElement\\|del\\|Deleted}} }}\n{{defn\\|1\\= Deleted text. Typically rendered as a \\[\\[strikethrough]]: ~~Deleted text.~~}}\n{{defn\\|'''Standardized''' in \\[\\[\\#HTML401\\|HTML 4\\.0]]; still current.}}",
"{{term\\|term\\=ins \\|content\\= {{XMLElement\\|ins\\|Inserted}} }}\n{{defn\\|1\\= Inserted text. Often used to mark up replacement text for material struck with {{tag\\|del\\|o}} or {{tag\\|s\\|o}}. Typically rendered \\[\\[underline]]d: Inserted text.}}\n{{defn\\|'''Standardized''' in \\[\\[\\#HTML401\\|HTML 4\\.0]]; still current.}}\n{{defn\\|Both {{tag\\|ins\\|o}} and {{tag\\|del\\|o}} elements may also be used as block elements: containing other block and inline elements. However, these elements must still remain wholly within their parent element to maintain a well\\-formed HTML document. For example, deleting text from the middle of one paragraph across several other paragraphs and ending in a final paragraph would need to use three separate {{tag\\|del\\|o}} elements. Two {{tag\\|del\\|o}} elements would be required as inline elements to indicate the deletion of text in the first and last paragraphs, and a third, used as a block element, to indicate the deletion in the intervening paragraphs.}}",
"{{term\\|term\\=mark \\|content\\= {{XMLElement\\|mark\\|Mark}} }}\n{{defn\\|1\\= Produces text that looks like this. Intended for highlighting relevant text in a quotation.}}\n{{defn\\|'''Standardized''' in \\[\\[\\#HTML5\\|HTML5]].}}",
"{{term\\|term\\=q \\|content\\= {{XMLElement\\|q\\|Quote}} }}\n{{defn\\|1\\= An inline quotation (for block level quotation see {{tag\\|\\[\\[\\#blockquote\\|blockquote]]\\|o}}). Quote elements may be nested.",
"{{tag\\|q\\|o}} {{em\\|should}} automatically generate quotation marks in conjunction with style sheets. Practical concerns due to browser non\\-compliance may force authors to find workarounds.",
"The `cite` attribute gives the source, and must be a fully qualified \\[\\[Uniform Resource Identifier\\|URI]].\n}}\n{{defn\\|'''Standardized''' in \\[\\[\\#HTML401\\|HTML 4\\.0]]; still current.}}\n{{defn\\|{{strong\\|Note:}} Lengthy inline quotations may be displayed as indented blocks (as `block-quote`) using style sheets. For example, with a suitable CSS rule associated with `q.lengthy`: {{tag\\|q\\|attribs\\=class\\=\"lengthy\" \\|content\\=Lengthy quote here.}}}}",
"{{term\\|term\\=rb \\|content\\= {{XMLElement\\|rb\\|Ruby Annotation Base}} }}\n{{defn\\|1\\= Represents the base component of a \\[\\[Ruby character\\|ruby annotation]].}}\n{{defn\\|'''Standardized''' in \\[\\[\\#HTML5\\|HTML5]].{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.quackit.com/html/tags/html\\_rb\\_tag.cfm\\|title\\=HTML \\<rb\\> Tag\\|website\\=www.quackit.com}}}}",
"{{term\\|term\\=rp \\|content\\= {{XMLElement\\|rp\\|Ruby Fallback Parenthesis}} }}\n{{defn\\|1\\= Provides fallback parenthesis for browsers lacking \\[\\[Ruby character\\|ruby annotation]] support.}}\n{{defn\\|'''Standardized''' in \\[\\[\\#HTML5\\|HTML5]].{{cite web\\|url\\=https://developer.mozilla.org/en\\-US/docs/Web/HTML/Element/rp\\|title\\=\\<rp\\>: The Ruby Fallback Parenthesis element\\|website\\=MDN Web Docs}}}}",
"{{term\\|term\\=rt \\|content\\= {{XMLElement\\|rt\\|Ruby Annotation Pronunciation}} }}\n{{defn\\|1\\= Indicates pronunciation for a character in a \\[\\[Ruby character\\|ruby annotation]].}}\n{{defn\\|'''Standardized''' in \\[\\[\\#HTML5\\|HTML5]].{{cite web\\|url\\=https://developer.mozilla.org/en\\-US/docs/Web/HTML/Element/rt\\|title\\=\\<rt\\>: The Ruby Text element\\|website\\=MDN Web Docs}}}}",
"{{term\\|term\\=rtc \\|content\\= {{XMLElement\\|rtc\\|Ruby Semantic Annotation}} }}\n{{defn\\|1\\= Semantic annotations for a \\[\\[Ruby character\\|ruby annotation]].}}\n{{defn\\|'''Standardized''' in \\[\\[\\#HTML5\\|HTML5]].{{cite web\\|url\\=https://developer.mozilla.org/en\\-US/docs/Web/HTML/Element/rtc\\|title\\=\\<rtc\\>: The Ruby Text Container element\\|website\\=MDN Web Docs}}}}",
"{{term\\|term\\=ruby \\|content\\= {{XMLElement\\|ruby\\|Ruby Annotation}} }}\n{{defn\\|1\\= Represents a \\[\\[Ruby character\\|ruby annotation]] for showing the pronunciation of East Asian characters.}}\n{{defn\\|'''Standardized''' in \\[\\[\\#HTML5\\|HTML5]].{{cite web\\|url\\=https://developer.mozilla.org/en\\-US/docs/Web/HTML/Element/ruby\\|title\\=\\<ruby\\>\\|website\\=MDN Web Docs}}}}",
"{{term\\|term\\=script \\|content\\= {{XMLElement\\|script\\|Script}} }}\n{{defn\\|1\\= Places a \\[\\[scripting language\\|script]] in the document. Also usable in the head and in block contexts.",
"{{em\\|Note:}} {{tag\\|script\\|o}} is not itself either a block or inline element; by itself it should not display at all, but it can contain instructions to dynamically generate either both block or inline content.\n}}\n{{defn\\|'''Standardized''' in \\[\\[\\#HTML32\\|HTML 3\\.2]]; still current.}}",
"{{term\\|term\\=sub \\|content\\= {{XMLElement\\|sub\\|Subscript}} }}\n{{term\\|term\\=sup \\|content\\= {{XMLElement\\|sup\\|Superscript}} \\|multi\\=y}}\n{{defn\\|1\\= Mark \\[\\[subscript]]ed or \\[\\[superscript]]ed text. (Equivalent CSS: {{code\\|lang\\=css\\|code\\={ vertical\\-align: sub; } }} and {{code\\|lang\\=css\\|code\\={ vertical\\-align: super; } }}, respectively.)}}\n{{defn\\|Both were proposed in the \\[\\[\\#HTML30\\|HTML 3\\.0 Drafts]]; '''Standardized''' in \\[\\[\\#HTML32\\|HTML 3\\.2]]; still current.}}",
"{{term\\|term\\=template \\|content\\= {{XMLElement\\|template\\|Template}} }}\n{{defn\\|1\\= Code fragments to be copied by scripts.}}\n{{defn\\|'''Standardized''' in \\[\\[\\#HTML5\\|HTML5]].{{cite web\\|url\\=https://developer.mozilla.org/en\\-US/docs/Web/HTML/Element/template\\|title\\=\\<template\\>\\|website\\=MDN Web Docs}}}}",
"{{term\\|term\\=time \\|content\\= {{XMLElement\\|time\\|Time}} }}\n{{defn\\|1\\= Represents a time on the 24\\-hour clock or a date on the \\[\\[Gregorian calendar]], optionally with time and time zone information. Also allows times and dates to be represented in a machine\\-readable format.}}\n{{defn\\|'''Standardized''' in \\[\\[\\#HTML5\\|HTML5]].{{cite web\\|url\\=https://developer.mozilla.org/en\\-US/docs/Web/HTML/Element/time\\|title\\=\\<time\\>\\|website\\=MDN Web Docs}}}}",
"{{term\\|term\\=wbr \\|content\\= {{XMLElement\\|wbr\\|Word Break Opportunity\\|end\\=no}} }}\n{{defn\\|1\\= An optional word break.}}\n{{defn\\|Was widely used (and supported by all major browsers){{Citation needed\\|date\\=September 2023}} for years{{Clarify timeframe\\|date\\=September 2023}} despite being non\\-standard until finally being '''standardized''' in \\[\\[\\#HTML5\\|HTML5]].{{cite web\\|url\\=https://developer.mozilla.org/en\\-US/docs/Web/HTML/Element/wbr\\|title\\=\\<wbr\\>\\|website\\=MDN Web Docs}}}}\n{{glossary end}}",
"### Images and objects",
"{{Update section\\|reason\\=How do current browsers handle ? What does HTML 5 say about it?\\|date\\=July 2023}}\n{{glossary}}\n{{term\\|term\\=applet \\|content\\= {{XMLElement\\|applet\\|Java Applet\\|deprecated\\=xhtml}} }}\n{{defn\\|1\\= Embeds a \\[\\[Java applet]] in the page. Deprecated in favor of {{tag\\|object\\|o}}, as it could only be used with Java applets, and had accessibility limitations.}}\n{{defn\\|'''Standardized''' in \\[\\[\\#HTML32\\|HTML 3\\.2]]; '''deprecated''' in \\[\\[\\#HTML401\\|HTML 4\\.0 Transitional]]; '''invalid''' in \\[\\[\\#HTML401\\|HTML 4\\.0 Strict]]. As of 2011, still widely used as the implementations of the replacing {{tag\\|object\\|o}} are not consistent between different browsers.}}",
"{{term\\|term\\=area \\|content\\= {{XMLElement\\|area\\|Area\\|end\\=no}} }}\n{{defn\\|1\\= Specifies a \\[\\[Focus (computing)\\|focusable]] area in a {{tag\\|map\\|o}}.}}\n{{defn\\|'''Standardized''' in \\[\\[\\#HTML32\\|HTML 3\\.2]]; still current.}}",
"{{term\\|term\\=audio \\|content\\= {{XMLElement\\|audio\\|Audio}} }}\n{{defn\\|1\\= Adds playable \\[\\[HTML audio]] to the page. The audio URL is determined using the `src` attribute. Supported audio formats vary from browser to browser.}}\n{{defn\\|'''Standardized''' in \\[\\[\\#HTML5\\|HTML5]].}}",
"{{term\\|term\\=canvas \\|content\\= {{XMLElement\\|canvas\\|Canvas}} }}\n{{defn\\|1\\= {{Main\\|Canvas element}}\nAdds a canvas whose contents can be edited with \\[\\[JavaScript]]. Frequently used for online games.}}\n{{defn\\|'''Standardized''' in \\[\\[\\#HTML5\\|HTML5]].}}",
"{{term\\|term\\=embed \\|content\\= {{XMLElement\\|embed\\|Embed}} }}\n{{defn\\|1\\= Inserts a non\\-standard object (like applet) or external content (typically non\\-HTML) into the document.}}\n{{defn\\|Deprecated in HTML 4 in favor of {{tag\\|object\\|o}}, but then was added back into the HTML5 specification\\[http://webdesign.about.com/od/htmltags/p/bltags\\_embed.htm Jennifer Kyrnin ] {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121102014318/http://webdesign.about.com/od/htmltags/p/bltags\\_embed.htm \\|date\\=2012\\-11\\-02 }} {{tag\\|embed\\|o}}\\[https://www.w3schools.com/tags/tag\\_embed.asp W3Schools] about {{tag\\|embed\\|o}}}}",
"{{term\\|term\\=img \\|content\\= {{XMLElement\\|img\\|Image\\|end\\=no}} }}\n{{defn\\|1\\= Used by visual user agents to insert an \\[\\[image]] in the document. The `src` attribute specifies the image URL. The required \\[\\[Alt attribute\\|`alt` attribute]] provides alternative text in case the image cannot be displayed.The alt attribute's text cannot be styled with markup; as a result, other methods of alternative text presentation, such as \\[\\[Fahrner Image Replacement]], have been devised to accommodate situations in which the coder wishes styled text to be displayed if images are disabled in a user's browser. (Though `alt` is intended as alternative text, Microsoft \\[\\[Internet Explorer]] 7 and below render it as a \\[\\[tooltip]] if no `title` attribute is given.{{cite web \\| url\\=http://msdn.microsoft.com/en\\-us/library/cc288472\\.aspx\\#access \\| title\\=What's New in Internet Explorer 8 – Accessibility and ARIA \\| publisher\\=Microsoft\n \\| website\\=\\[\\[Microsoft Developer Network\\|MSDN]]\n \\| access\\-date\\=2009\\-07\\-22}} \\[\\[Safari (web browser)\\|Safari]] and \\[\\[Google Chrome]], on the other hand, do not display the alt attribute at all.){{citation\\|url\\=https://bugs.webkit.org/show\\_bug.cgi?id\\=5566 \\|title\\=Bug 5566 – ALT attribute value sometimes not displayed when image is missing \\|publisher\\=Bugs.webkit.org \\|access\\-date\\=2012\\-03\\-26}} The {{tag\\|img\\|s}} element was first proposed by \\[\\[Marc Andreessen]] and implemented in the \\[\\[Mosaic (web browser)\\|NCSA Mosaic]] web browser.{{citation\\|url\\=http://1997\\.webhistory.org/www.lists/www\\-talk.1993q1/0182\\.html \\|title\\=WWW\\-Talk Jan\\-Mar 1993: proposed new tag: IMG \\|publisher\\=1997\\.webhistory.org \\|access\\-date\\=2012\\-03\\-26}}}}\n{{defn\\|`IMG` existed in ''\\[\\[\\#HTMLDRAFT12\\|HTML Internet Draft 1\\.2]]'', and was '''standardized''' in \\[\\[\\#HTML20\\|HTML 2\\.0]]; still current.}}",
"{{term\\|term\\=map \\|content\\= {{XMLElement\\|map\\|Image Map}} }}\n{{defn\\|1\\= Specifies a client\\-side \\[\\[image map]].}}\n{{defn\\|'''Standardized''' in \\[\\[\\#HTML32\\|HTML 3\\.2]]; still current.}}",
"{{term\\|term\\=object \\|content\\= {{XMLElement\\|object\\|Object}} }}\n{{defn\\|1\\= Includes an object in the page of the type specified by the `type` attribute. This may be in any \\[\\[MIME]]\\-type the user agent understands, such as an embedded HTML page, a file to be handled by a plug\\-in such as \\[\\[Adobe Flash Player\\|Flash]], a \\[\\[Java (programming language)\\|Java]] \\[\\[applet]], a sound file, etc.}}\n{{defn\\|'''Standardized''' in \\[\\[\\#HTML401\\|HTML 4\\.0]]; still current.}}",
"{{term\\|term\\=param \\|content\\= {{XMLElement\\|param\\|Object Parameter\\|end\\=no}} }}\n{{defn\\|1\\= Originally introduced with {{tag\\|applet\\|o}}, this element is now used with {{tag\\|object\\|o}}, and should only occur as a child of {{tag\\|object\\|o}}. It uses \\[\\[HTML attributes]] to set a parameter for the object, e.g. width, height, font, background color, etc., depending on the type of object. An object can have multiple {{tag\\|param\\|s}} elements.}}\n{{defn\\|'''Standardized''' in \\[\\[\\#HTML32\\|HTML 3\\.2]]; still current.}}",
"{{term\\|term\\=source \\|content\\= {{XMLElement\\|source\\|Source}} }}\n{{defn\\|1\\= Specifies different sources for audio or video. Makes use of the `src` attribute in a way similar to the {{tag\\|video\\|o}} and {{tag\\|audio\\|o}} elements.}}\n{{defn\\|'''Standardized''' in \\[\\[\\#HTML5\\|HTML5]].}}",
"{{term\\|term\\=track \\|content\\= {{XMLElement\\|track\\|Track}} }}\n{{defn\\|1\\= Provides text tracks, like subtitles and captions, for audio and video.}}\n{{defn\\|'''Standardized''' in \\[\\[\\#HTML5\\|HTML5]].}}",
"{{term\\|term\\=video \\|content\\= {{XMLElement\\|video\\|Video}} }}\n{{defn\\|1\\= Adds a playable \\[\\[HTML video]] to the page. The video URL is determined using the `src` attribute. Supported video formats vary from browser to browser.}}\n{{defn\\|'''Standardized''' in \\[\\[\\#HTML5\\|HTML5]].}}\n{{glossary end}}",
"### Forms",
"{{Main\\|Form (HTML)}}",
"These elements can be combined into a form or in some instances used separately as user\\-interface controls; in the document, they can be simple HTML or used in conjunction with Scripts. HTML markup specifies the elements that make up a form, and the method by which it will be submitted. However, some form of scripts ([server\\-side](/wiki/Server-side_script \"Server-side script\"), client\\-side, or both) must be used to process the user's input once it is submitted.",
"(These elements are either block or inline elements, but are collected here as their use is more restricted than other inline or block elements.)",
"{{glossary}}\n{{term\\|term\\=form \\|content\\= {{XMLElement\\|form\\|Form\\|atr\\={{XMLAttribute\\|action\\|Action\\|url\\|type\\=URL\\|need\\=required}}}} }}\n{{defn\\|1\\= Creates a \\[\\[form (web)\\|form]]. The {{tag\\|form\\|o}} element specifies and operates the overall action of a form area, using the required `action` attribute.}}\n{{defn\\|'''Standardized''' in \\[\\[\\#HTML20\\|HTML 2\\.0]]; still current.}}",
"{{term\\|term\\=button \\|content\\= {{XMLElement\\|button\\|Button}} }}\n{{defn\\|1\\= A generic form button which can contain a range of other elements to create complex buttons.}}\n{{defn\\|'''Standardized''' in \\[\\[\\#HTML401\\|HTML 4\\.0]]; still current.}}",
"{{term\\|term\\=datalist \\|content\\= {{XMLElement\\|datalist\\|Data List}} }}\n{{defn\\|1\\= A list of `option`s for use in form elements.}}\n{{defn\\|'''Standardized''' in \\[\\[\\#HTML5\\|HTML5]].}}",
"{{term\\|term\\=fieldset \\|content\\= {{XMLElement\\|fieldset\\|Fieldset}} }}\n{{defn\\|1\\= A container for adding structure to forms. For example, a series of related controls can be grouped within a {{tag\\|fieldset\\|o}}, which can then have a {{tag\\|legend\\|o}} added in order to identify their function.}}\n{{defn\\|'''Standardized''' in \\[\\[\\#HTML401\\|HTML 4\\.0]]; still current.}}",
"{{term\\|term\\=input \\|content\\= {{XMLElement\\|input\\|Input\\|end\\=no}} }}\n{{defn\\|1\\= {{tag\\|input\\|o}} elements allow a variety of standard form controls to be implemented.}}\n{{defn\\|'''Standardized''' in \\[\\[\\#HTML20\\|HTML 2\\.0]]; still current.}}",
"{{defn\\|1\\='''Input Types:'''\n{{glossary}}\n{{term\\|term\\=checkbox \\|content\\= {{XMLAttribute\\|type\\|Field Type\\|checkbox\\|type\\=ENUM\\|need\\=implied}} }}\n{{defn\\|A '''\\[\\[checkbox]]'''. Can be checked or unchecked.}}",
"{{term\\|term\\=radio \\|content\\= {{XMLAttribute\\|type\\|Field Type\\|radio\\|type\\=ENUM\\|need\\=implied}} }}\n{{defn\\|A '''\\[\\[radio button]]'''. If multiple radio buttons are given the same name, the user will only be able to select one of them from this group.}}",
"{{term\\|term\\=button \\|content\\= {{XMLAttribute\\|type\\|Field Type\\|button\\|type\\=ENUM\\|need\\=implied}} }}\n{{defn\\|A general\\-purpose button. The element {{tag\\|button\\|o}} is preferred if possible (i.e., if the client supports it) as it provides richer possibilities.}}",
"{{term\\|term\\=submit \\|content\\= {{XMLAttribute\\|type\\|Field Type\\|submit\\|type\\=ENUM\\|need\\=implied}} }}\n{{defn\\|A '''submit''' button.}}",
"{{term\\|term\\=image \\|content\\= {{XMLAttribute\\|type\\|Field Type\\|image\\|type\\=ENUM\\|need\\=implied}} }}\n{{defn\\|An '''image button'''. The image URL may be specified with the `src` attribute.}}",
"{{term\\|term\\=reset \\|content\\= {{XMLAttribute\\|type\\|Field Type\\|reset\\|type\\=ENUM\\|need\\=implied}} }}\n{{defn\\|A '''reset button''' for resetting the form to default values.}}",
"{{term\\|term\\=text \\|content\\= {{XMLAttribute\\|type\\|Field Type\\|text\\|type\\=ENUM\\|need\\=optional}} }}\n{{defn\\|A '''one\\-line text input field'''. The `size` attribute specifies the default width of the input in character\\-widths. `max-length` sets the maximum number of characters the user can enter (which may be greater than size).}}",
"{{term\\|term\\=search \\|content\\= {{XMLAttribute\\|type\\|Field Type\\|search\\|type\\=ENUM\\|need\\=implied}} }}\n{{defn\\|A variation of `text` which produces a search bar.}}",
"{{term\\|term\\=password \\|content\\= {{XMLAttribute\\|type\\|Field Type\\|password\\|type\\=ENUM\\|need\\=implied}} }}\n{{defn\\|A variation of `text`. The difference is that text typed in this field is {{em\\|masked}} – characters are displayed as an asterisk, a dot, or another replacement. The password is still submitted to the server as \\[\\[plaintext]], so an underlying secure \\[\\[communication protocol]] like \\[\\[HTTPS]] is needed if confidentiality is a concern.}}",
"{{term\\|term\\=file \\|content\\= {{XMLAttribute\\|type\\|Field Type\\|file\\|type\\=ENUM\\|need\\=implied}} }}\n{{defn\\|A \\[\\[file select]] field (for uploading files to a server).}}",
"{{term\\|term\\=tel \\|content\\= {{XMLAttribute\\|type\\|Field Type\\|tel\\|type\\=ENUM\\|need\\=implied}} }}\n{{defn\\|A variation of `text` for \\[\\[telephone numbers]].}}",
"{{term\\|term\\=email \\|content\\= {{XMLAttribute\\|type\\|Field Type\\|email\\|type\\=ENUM\\|need\\=implied}} }}\n{{defn\\|A variation of `text` for \\[\\[email addresses]].}}",
"{{term\\|term\\=url \\|content\\= {{XMLAttribute\\|type\\|Field Type\\|url\\|type\\=ENUM\\|need\\=implied}} }}\n{{defn\\|A variation of `text` for \\[\\[URLs]].}}",
"{{term\\|term\\=date \\|content\\= {{XMLAttribute\\|type\\|Field Type\\|date\\|type\\=ENUM\\|need\\=implied}} }}\n{{defn\\|A date selector.}}",
"{{term\\|term\\=time \\|content\\= {{XMLAttribute\\|type\\|Field Type\\|time\\|type\\=ENUM\\|need\\=implied}} }}\n{{defn\\|A time selector.}}",
"{{term\\|term\\=number \\|content\\= {{XMLAttribute\\|type\\|Field Type\\|number\\|type\\=ENUM\\|need\\=implied}} }}\n{{defn\\|A variation of `text` for numbers.}}",
"{{term\\|term\\=range \\|content\\= {{XMLAttribute\\|type\\|Field Type\\|range\\|type\\=ENUM\\|need\\=implied}} }}\n{{defn\\|Produces a slider for that returns a number, but the number is not visible to the user.}}",
"{{term\\|term\\=color \\|content\\= {{XMLAttribute\\|type\\|Field Type\\|color\\|type\\=ENUM\\|need\\=implied}} }}\n{{defn\\|A color picker.}}",
"{{term\\|term\\=hidden \\|content\\= {{XMLAttribute\\|type\\|Field Type\\|hidden\\|type\\=ENUM\\|need\\=implied}} }}\n{{defn\\|`hidden` inputs are not visible in the rendered page, but allow a designer to maintain a copy of data that needs to be submitted to the server as part of the form. This may, for example, be data that this web user entered or selected on a previous form that needs to be processed in conjunction with the current form. Not displayed to the user but data can still be altered client\\-side by editing the HTML source.}}\n{{glossary end}}\n}}",
"{{term\\|term\\=isindex \\|content\\= {{XMLElement\\|isindex\\|Index\\|end\\=no\\|deprecated\\=1}} }}\n{{defn\\|1\\= {{tag\\|isindex\\|s}} could either appear in the document head or in the body, but only once in a document.",
"{{tag\\|isindex\\|s}} operated as a primitive HTML search form; but was {{lang\\|la\\|\\[\\[de facto]]}} obsoleted by more advanced HTML forms introduced in the early to mid\\-1990s. Represents a set of hyperlinks composed of a base URI, an \\[\\[ampersand]] and \\[\\[Percent\\-encoding\\|percent\\-encoded]] keywords separated by \\[\\[plus sign]]s.}}\n{{defn\\|`ISINDEX` existed in ''\\[\\[\\#HTMLTAGS\\|HTML Tags]]''; '''standardized''' in \\[\\[\\#HTML20\\|HTML 2\\.0]]; '''deprecated''' in \\[\\[\\#HTML401\\|HTML 4\\.0 Transitional]]; '''invalid''' in \\[\\[\\#HTML401\\|HTML 4\\.0 Strict]].}}",
"{{term\\|term\\=keygen \\|content\\= {{XMLElement\\|keygen\\|Key pair generator\\|deprecated\\=1}} }}\n{{defn\\|1\\= A key pair generator.}}\n{{defn\\|'''Standardized''' in \\[\\[\\#HTML5\\|HTML5]], but removed in HTML 5\\.2\\.}}",
"{{term\\|term\\=label \\|content\\= {{XMLElement\\|label\\|Label\\|atr\\={{XMLAttribute\\|for\\|For\\|id\\|type\\=ENUM\\|need\\=implied}}}} }}\n{{defn\\|1\\= Creates a label for a form input, such as `radio`. Clicking on the label fires a click on the matching input.}}\n{{defn\\|'''Standardized''' in \\[\\[\\#HTML401\\|HTML 4\\.0]]; still current.}}",
"{{term\\|term\\=legend \\|content\\= {{XMLElement\\|legend\\|Legend}} }}\n{{defn\\|1\\= A legend (caption) for a {{tag\\|fieldset\\|o}}.}}\n{{defn\\|'''Standardized''' in \\[\\[\\#HTML401\\|HTML 4\\.0]]; still current.}}",
"{{term\\|term\\=meter \\|content\\= {{XMLElement\\|meter\\|Meter}} }}\n{{defn\\|1\\= A meter which needs a `value` attribute. Can also have: `min`, `low`, `high`, and `max`.}}\n{{defn\\|'''Standardized''' in \\[\\[\\#HTML5\\|HTML5]].}}",
"{{term\\|term\\=option \\|content\\= {{XMLElement\\|option\\|Select List Option\\|atr\\={{XMLAttribute\\|value\\|Value\\|x\\|type\\=ANY\\|need\\=required}}}} }}\n{{defn\\|1\\= Creates an item in a {{tag\\|select\\|o}} list.}}\n{{defn\\|'''Standardized''' in \\[\\[\\#HTML20\\|HTML 2\\.0]]; still current.}}",
"{{term\\|term\\=optgroup \\|content\\= {{XMLElement\\|optgroup\\|Options Group}} }}\n{{defn\\|1\\= Identifies a group of {{tag\\|option\\|o}} elements in a {{tag\\|select\\|o}} list.}}\n{{defn\\|'''Standardized''' in \\[\\[\\#HTML401\\|HTML 4\\.0]]; still current.}}",
"{{term\\|term\\=output \\|content\\= {{XMLElement\\|output\\|Output}} }}\n{{defn\\|1\\= The value of a form element.}}\n{{defn\\|'''Standardized''' in \\[\\[\\#HTML5\\|HTML5]].}}",
"{{term\\|term\\=progress \\|content\\= {{XMLElement\\|progress\\|Progress Bar}} }}\n{{defn\\|1\\= A bar for showing the progress of an action.}}\n{{defn\\|'''Standardized''' in \\[\\[\\#HTML5\\|HTML5]].}}",
"{{term\\|term\\=select \\|content\\= {{XMLElement\\|select\\|Selection List\\|atr\\={{XMLAttribute\\|name\\|Name\\|xyz\\|type\\=NMTOKEN\\|need\\=implied}}}} }}\n{{defn\\|1\\= Creates a selection list, from which the user can select a single option. May be rendered as a dropdown list.}}\n{{defn\\|'''Standardized''' in \\[\\[\\#HTML20\\|HTML 2\\.0]]; still current.}}",
"{{term\\|term\\=textarea \\|content\\= {{XMLElement\\|textarea\\|Multiline Textarea\\|atr\\={{XMLAttribute\\|rows\\|Rows\\|8\\|type\\=INT}}}} }}\n{{defn\\|1\\= A multiple\\-line text area, the size of which is specified by `cols` (where a column is a one\\-character width of text) and `rows` \\[\\[HTML attributes]]. The content of this element is restricted to plain text, which appears in the text area as default text when the page is loaded.}}\n{{defn\\|'''Standardized''' in \\[\\[\\#HTML20\\|HTML 2\\.0]]; still current.}}\n{{glossary end}}",
"### Tables",
"The format of HTML Tables was proposed in the [HTML 3\\.0 Drafts](/wiki/%23HTML30 \"#HTML30\") and the later RFC 1942 *[HTML Tables](/wiki/%23HTMLTABLES \"#HTMLTABLES\")*. They were inspired by the [CALS Table Model](/wiki/CALS_Table_Model \"CALS Table Model\"). Some elements in these proposals were included in HTML 3\\.2; the present form of HTML Tables was standardized in HTML 4\\. (Many of the elements used within tables are neither *block* nor *inline* elements.)",
"{{glossary}}\n{{term\\|term\\=table \\|content\\= {{XMLElement\\|table\\|Table}} }}\n{{defn\\|1\\= Identifies a table. Several \\[\\[HTML attributes]] are possible in HTML Transitional, but most of these are invalid in HTML Strict and can be replaced with style sheets. The `summary` attribute is informally required for accessibility purposes, though its usage is not simple.}}\n{{defn\\|Proposed in the \\[\\[\\#HTML30\\|HTML 3\\.0 Drafts]]; '''Standardized''' in \\[\\[\\#HTML32\\|HTML 3\\.2]]; still current.}}",
"{{term\\|term\\=tr \\|content\\= {{XMLElement\\|tr\\|Table Row}} }}\n{{defn\\|1\\= Contains a row of cells in a {{tag\\|table\\|o}}.}}\n{{defn\\|Proposed in the \\[\\[\\#HTML30\\|HTML 3\\.0 Drafts]]; '''Standardized''' in \\[\\[\\#HTML32\\|HTML 3\\.2]]; still current.}}",
"{{term\\|term\\=th \\|content\\= {{XMLElement\\|th\\|Table Header Cell}} }}\n{{defn\\|1\\= A {{tag\\|table\\|o}} header cell; contents are conventionally displayed bold and centered. An \\[\\[aural]] user agent may use a louder voice for these items.}}\n{{defn\\|Proposed in the \\[\\[\\#HTML30\\|HTML 3\\.0 Drafts]]; '''Standardized''' in \\[\\[\\#HTML32\\|HTML 3\\.2]]; still current.}}",
"{{term\\|term\\=td \\|content\\= {{XMLElement\\|td\\|Table Data Cell}} }}\n{{defn\\|1\\= A {{tag\\|table\\|o}} data cell.}}\n{{defn\\|Proposed in the \\[\\[\\#HTML30\\|HTML 3\\.0 Drafts]]; '''Standardized''' in \\[\\[\\#HTML32\\|HTML 3\\.2]]; still current.}}",
"{{term\\|term\\=colgroup \\|content\\= {{XMLElement\\|colgroup\\|Column Group}} }}\n{{defn\\|1\\= Specifies a \\[\\[column group]] in a {{tag\\|table\\|o}}.}}\n{{defn\\|Proposed in \\[\\[\\#HTMLTABLES\\|HTML Tables]]; '''Standardized''' in \\[\\[\\#HTML401\\|HTML 4\\.0]]; still current.}}",
"{{term\\|term\\=col \\|content\\= {{XMLElement\\|col\\|Table Column}} }}\n{{defn\\|1\\= Specifies a column in a {{tag\\|table\\|o}}.}}\n{{defn\\|Proposed in \\[\\[\\#HTMLTABLES\\|HTML Tables]]; '''Standardized''' in \\[\\[\\#HTML401\\|HTML 4\\.0]]; still current.}}",
"{{term\\|term\\=caption \\|content\\= {{XMLElement\\|caption\\|Table Caption}} }}\n{{defn\\|1\\= Specifies a caption for a {{tag\\|table\\|o}}.}}\n{{defn\\|Proposed in the \\[\\[\\#HTML30\\|HTML 3\\.0 Drafts]]; '''Standardized''' in \\[\\[\\#HTML32\\|HTML 3\\.2]]; still current.}}",
"{{term\\|term\\=thead \\|content\\= {{XMLElement\\|thead\\|Table Header}} }}\n{{defn\\|1\\= Specifies the header part of a {{tag\\|table\\|o}}. This section may be repeated by the user agent if the table is split across pages (in printing or other paged media).}}\n{{defn\\|Proposed in \\[\\[\\#HTMLTABLES\\|HTML Tables]]; '''Standardized''' in \\[\\[\\#HTML401\\|HTML 4\\.0]]; still current.}}",
"{{term\\|term\\=tbody \\|content\\= {{XMLElement\\|tbody\\|Table Body}} }}\n{{defn\\|1\\= Specifies a body of data for a {{tag\\|table\\|o}}.}}\n{{defn\\|Proposed in \\[\\[\\#HTMLTABLES\\|HTML Tables]]; '''Standardized''' in \\[\\[\\#HTML401\\|HTML 4\\.0]]; still current.}}",
"{{term\\|term\\=tfoot \\|content\\= {{XMLElement\\|tfoot\\|Table Footer}} }}\n{{defn\\|1\\= Specifies the footer part of a {{tag\\|table\\|o}}. Like {{tag\\|thead\\|o}}, this section may be repeated by the user agent if the table is split across pages (in printing or other paged media).}}\n{{defn\\|Proposed in \\[\\[\\#HTMLTABLES\\|HTML Tables]]; '''Standardized''' in \\[\\[\\#HTML401\\|HTML 4\\.0]]; still current.}}\n{{glossary end}}",
"",
"",
"",
"",
"",
"",
"",
"",
"",
"",
"",
"",
"",
""
] |
### Inline elements
Inline elements cannot be placed directly inside the {{code\|lang\=html\|code\=}} element; they must be wholly nested within block\-level elements.{{citation\|url\=http://www.w3\.org/TR/html401/struct/global.html\#h\-7\.5\.1 \|title\=HTML 4\.01 \|publisher\=W3C \|access\-date\=2012\-03\-26}}
#### Anchor
{{for\|anchors on Wikipedia\|WP:ANCHOR DEF\|selfref\=true}}
{{glossary}}
{{term\|term\=a \|content\= {{XMLElement\|a\|Anchor}} }}
{{defn\|1\= An anchor element is called an anchor because web designers can use it to "anchor" a URL to some text on a web page. When users view the web page in a browser, they can click the text to activate the link and visit the page whose URL is in the link.{{cite book \|last1\= Tittel \|first1\= Ed \|last2\= Burmeister \|first2\= Mary C. \|date\= 2005 \|title\= HTML 4 for dummies \|edition\= 5th \|publisher\= Wiley \|location\= Hoboken, New Jersey \|isbn\= 978\-0\-7645\-8917\-1 \|page\= 96 \|url\= https://archive.org/details/html4fordummies00titt\_2/page/96/ \|url\-access\= registration \|access\-date\= 7 August 2022}}
In HTML, an "anchor" can be either the {{em\|origin}} (the \[\[anchor text]]) or the {{em\|target}} (destination) end of a \[\[hyperlink]]. As an origin, setting the attribute `href`,{{cite web\|url\=http://www.w3\.org/Provider/ServerWriter.html\|title\=ServerWriter \-\- /Provider\|website\=W3C}} creates a hyperlink; it can point to either another part of the document or another resource (e.g. a webpage) using an external \[\[Uniform Resource Locator\|URL]]. As a target, setting the `name` or `id` \[\[HTML attributes]], allows the element to be linked from a \[\[Uniform Resource Locator]] (URL) via a \[\[fragment identifier]]. The two forms, origin and anchor, can be used concurently.
In HTML5, any element can now be made into a target by using the `id` attribute,{{cite web\|url\=http://www.w3\.org/tr/html5/index.html\#attributes\-1\|title\=HTML 5\.2\|website\=W3C}} so using {{code\|lang\=html\|code\=...}} is not necessary, although this way of adding anchors continues to work.
To illustrate: the header of a table of contents section on `example.com`'s homepage could be turned into a target by writing: {{code\|lang\=html\|code\=Table of contents
-----------------
}}.
Continuing with this example, now that the section has been marked up as a target, it can be referred to from external sites with a link like: {{code\|lang\=html\|code\=[see contents](http://example.com#contents)}};
or with a link on the same page like: {{code\|lang\=html\|code\=[contents, above](#contents)}}.
The attribute `title` may be set to give brief information about the link: {{code\|lang\=html\|code\=[link text](URL "additional information")}}.
In most graphical browsers, when the cursor hovers over a link, the cursor changes into a hand with an extended index finger and the `title` value is displayed in a \[\[tooltip]] or in some other manner. Some browsers render \[\[Alt attribute\|alt text]] the same way, although this is not what the specification calls for.
}}
{{defn\|`A` existed in ''\[\[\#HTMLTAGS\|HTML Tags]]'', and was '''standardized''' in \[\[\#HTML20\|HTML 2\.0]];}}
{{glossary end}}
#### Phrase elements
Phrase elements are used for marking up phrases and adding structure or semantic meaning to text fragments. For example, the `<em>` and `<strong>` tags can be used for adding emphasis to text.
##### General
{{glossary}}
{{term\|term\=abbr \|content\= {{XMLElement\|abbr\|Abbreviation}} }}
{{defn\|1\= Marks an \[\[abbreviation]], and can make the full form available: {{code\|lang\=html\|code\=abbr.}}}}
{{defn\|'''Standardized''' in \[\[\#HTML401\|HTML 4\.0]]; still current.}}
{{term\|term\=acronym \|content\= {{XMLElement\|acronym\|Acronym\|deprecated\=1}} }}
{{defn\|1\= Similar to the {{code\|lang\=html\|code\=}} element, but marks an \[\[acronym]]: {{code\|lang\=html\|code\=HTML}}}}
{{defn\|'''Standardized''' in \[\[\#HTML401\|HTML 4\.0]]; still current, '''not supported''' in \[\[\#HTML5\|HTML5]]. Recommended replacement is the `abbr` tag.\[https://www.w3schools.com/tags/tag\_acronym.asp Acronym tag], acronym.}}
{{term\|term\=defn \|content\= {{XMLElement\|dfn\|Definition}} }}
{{defn\|1\= Inline definition of a single term.}}
{{defn\|`DFN` existed in ''\[\[\#HTMLDRAFT12\|HTML Internet Draft 1\.2]]'', and was fully '''standardized''' in \[\[\#HTML32\|HTML 3\.2]]; still current.}}
{{term\|term\=em \|content\= {{XMLElement\|em\|Emphasis}} }}
{{defn\|1\= *Emphasis* (conventionally displayed in italics)}}
{{defn\|`EM` existed in ''\[\[\#HTMLDRAFT12\|HTML Internet Draft 1\.2]]'', and was '''standardized''' in \[\[\#HTML20\|HTML 2\.0]]; still current.}}
{{term\|term\=strong \|content\= {{XMLElement\|strong\|Importance}} }}
{{defn\|1\= **importance**; originally strong emphasis (conventionally displayed bold).
An \[\[voice browser\|aural user agent]] may use different voices for emphasis.
}}
{{defn\|`STRONG` existed in ''\[\[\#HTMLDRAFT12\|HTML Internet Draft 1\.2]]'', and was '''standardized''' in \[\[\#HTML20\|HTML 2\.0]]; still current, redefined in HTML5\.}}
{{glossary end}}
##### Computer phrase elements
These elements are useful primarily for documenting computer code development and user interaction through differentiation of source code ({{code\|lang\=html\|code\=`}}), variables ({{code|lang=html|code=}}), user input ({{code|lang=html|code=}}), and terminal or other output ({{code|lang=html|code=}}).`
{{glossary}}
{{term\|term\=code \|content\= {{XMLElement\|code\|Sourcecode}} }}
{{defn\|1\= A code snippet (`code example`). Conventionally rendered in a mono\-space font.}}
{{defn\|`CODE` existed in ''\[\[\#HTMLDRAFT12\|HTML Internet Draft 1\.2]]'', and was '''standardized''' in \[\[\#HTML20\|HTML 2\.0]]; still current.}}
{{term\|term\=kbd \|content\= {{XMLElement\|kbd\|Keyboard}} }}
{{defn\|1\= Keyboard – text to be entered by the user (`kbd example`).}}
{{defn\|`KBD` existed in ''\[\[\#HTMLDRAFT12\|HTML Internet Draft 1\.2]]'', and was '''standardized''' in \[\[\#HTML20\|HTML 2\.0]]; still current.}}
{{term\|term\=samp \|content\= {{XMLElement\|samp\|Sample}} }}
{{defn\|1\= Sample output – from a program or script: (`samp example`).}}
{{defn\|`SAMP` existed in ''\[\[\#HTMLDRAFT12\|HTML Internet Draft 1\.2]]'', and was '''standardized''' in \[\[\#HTML20\|HTML 2\.0]]; still current.}}
{{term\|term\=var \|content\= {{XMLElement\|var\|Variable}} }}
{{defn\|1\= Variable (var example).}}
{{defn\|`VAR` existed in ''\[\[\#HTMLDRAFT12\|HTML Internet Draft 1\.2]]'', and was '''standardized''' in \[\[\#HTML20\|HTML 2\.0]]; still current.}}
{{glossary end}}
#### Presentation
As visual presentational markup only applies directly to visual browsers, its use is discouraged. Style sheets should be used instead. Several of these elements are deprecated or invalid in HTML 4 / XHTML 1\.0, and the remainder are invalid in the current draft of [XHTML 2\.0](http://www.w3.org/TR/2005/WD-xhtml2-20050527/). The current draft of [HTML5](https://web.archive.org/web/20150801133040/http://www.w3.org/TR/html5/text-level-semantics.html), however, re\-includes {{tag\|s\|o}}, {{tag\|u\|o}}, and {{tag\|small\|o}}, assigning new semantic meaning to each. In an [HTML5](/wiki/HTML5 "HTML5") document, the use of these elements is no longer discouraged, provided that it is semantically correct.
{{term\|term\=b \|content\= {{XMLElement\|b\|Keyword}} }}
{{defn\|1\=
In \[\[HTML 4]], set font to '''boldface''' where possible. Equivalent CSS: {{code\|lang\=css\|code\={ font\-weight: bold; } }}. The {{tag\|strong\|o}} element usually has the same effect in visual browsers, as well as having more semantic meaning, under \[\[HTML 4\.01]].
In \[\[HTML5]], however, {{tag\|b\|o}} has its own meaning, distinct from that of {{tag\|strong\|o}}. It denotes "text to which attention is being drawn for utilitarian purposes without conveying any extra importance and with no implication of an alternate voice or mood."{{citation\|url\=http://developers.whatwg.org/text\-level\-semantics.html\#the\-b\-element \|title\=4\.6 Text\-level semantics — The b element \|publisher\=Developers.whatwg.org \|access\-date\=2012\-03\-26}}
}}
{{defn\|`B` existed in ''\[\[\#HTMLDRAFT12\|HTML Internet Draft 1\.2]]'', and was '''standardized''' in \[\[\#HTML20\|HTML 2\.0]]; still current, redefined in HTML5\.}}
{{term\|term\=i \|content\= {{XMLElement\|i\|Alternate voice}} }}
{{defn\|1\=
In \[\[HTML 4]], set font to ''italic'' where possible. Equivalent \[\[CSS]]: {{code\|lang\=css\|code\={ font\-style: italic; } }}. Using {{tag\|em}} has the same visual effect in most browsers, as well as having a semantic meaning as ''emphasis'', under \[\[HTML 4\.01]]. (Purely typographic italics have many non\-emphasis purposes, as HTML 5 more explicitly recognized.)
In \[\[HTML5]], however, {{tag\|i\|o}} has its own semantic meaning, distinct from that of {{tag\|em\|o}}. It denotes "a different quality of text" or "an alternate voice or mood" e.g., a thought, a ship name, a \[\[Binomial nomenclature\|binary species name]], a foreign\-language phrase, etc.{{citation\|url\=http://developers.whatwg.org/text\-level\-semantics.html\#the\-i\-element \|title\=4\.6 Text\-level semantics — The i element \|publisher\=Developers.whatwg.org \|access\-date\=2012\-03\-26}}
}}
{{defn\|`I` existed in ''\[\[\#HTMLDRAFT12\|HTML Internet Draft 1\.2]]'', and was '''standardized''' in \[\[\#HTML20\|HTML 2\.0]]; still current, redefined in HTML5\.}}
{{term\|term\=u \|content\= {{XMLElement\|u\|Unarticulated annotation}} }}
{{defn\|1\= In \[\[HTML 4]], underlined text. Equivalent CSS: {{code\|lang\=css\|code\={ text\-decoration: underline; } }}. Deprecated in \[\[HTML 4\.01]]. Restored in \[\[\#HTML5\|HTML5]].
In \[\[HTML5]], the {{tag\|u\|o}} element denotes "a span of text with an unarticulated, though explicitly rendered, non\-textual annotation, such as labelling the text as being a proper name in Chinese text (a Chinese proper name mark), or labelling the text as being misspelt." The \[\[HTML5]] specification reminds developers that other elements are almost always more appropriate than {{tag\|u\|o}} and admonishes designers not to use underlined text where it could be confused for a hyper\-link.{{citation\|url\=http://developers.whatwg.org/text\-level\-semantics.html\#the\-u\-element \|title\=4\.6 Text\-level semantics — The u element \|publisher\=Developers.whatwg.org \|access\-date\=2012\-03\-26}}
}}
{{defn\|`U` existed in ''\[\[\#HTMLDRAFT12\|HTML Internet Draft 1\.2]]'', was '''standardized''' in \[\[\#HTML32\|HTML 3\.2]] but was '''deprecated''' in \[\[\#HTML401\|HTML 4\.0 Transitional]] and was '''invalid''' in \[\[\#HTML401\|HTML 4\.0 Strict]]. '''Reintroduced''' in \[\[\#HTML5\|HTML5]].}}
{{term\|term\=small \|content\= {{XMLElement\|small\|Side comment}} }}
{{defn\|1\= In \[\[HTML 4]], decreased font size (smaller text). Equivalent CSS: {{code\|lang\=css\|code\={ font\-size: smaller; } }}
In \[\[HTML5]], the {{tag\|small\|o}} element denotes "side comments such as small print."{{citation\|url\=http://developers.whatwg.org/text\-level\-semantics.html\#the\-small\-element \|title\=4\.6 Text\-level semantics — The small element \|publisher\=Developers.whatwg.org \|access\-date\=2012\-03\-26}} This has caused some confusion with the {{tag\|\[\[\#aside\|aside]]}} element.
}}
{{defn\|'''Standardized''' in \[\[\#HTML32\|HTML 3\.2]]; still current.}}
{{term\|term\=s \|content\= {{XMLElement\|s\|Inacurrate text}} }}
{{defn\|1\= In \[\[HTML 4]], indicated strike\-through text (~~Strikethrough~~) and was equivalent to {{tag\|strike\|o}}.
In \[\[HTML5]], the {{tag\|s\|o}} element denotes information that is "no longer accurate or no longer relevant", and is not to be confused with {{tag\|del\|o}}, which indicates removal/deletion.{{citation\|url\=http://developers.whatwg.org/text\-level\-semantics.html\#the\-s\-element \|title\=4\.6 Text\-level semantics — The s element \|publisher\=Developers.whatwg.org \|access\-date\=2012\-03\-26}}
}}
{{defn\|`S` was '''deprecated''' in \[\[\#HTML401\|HTML 4\.0 Transitional]] (having not appeared in any previous standard), and was '''invalid''' in \[\[\#HTML401\|HTML 4\.0 Strict]]. '''Reintroduced''' in \[\[\#HTML5\|HTML5]], which instead deprecated {{tag\|strike\|o}}.}}
{{term\|term\= \|content\= {{XMLElement\|big\|Big\|deprecated\=1}} }}
{{defn\|1\= Increased font size (bigger text). Equivalent CSS: {{code\|lang\=css\|code\={ font\-size: larger; } }}}}
{{defn\|'''Standardized''' in \[\[\#HTML32\|HTML 3\.2]]; '''not supported''' in \[\[\#HTML5\|HTML5]].}}
{{term\|term\= \|content\= {{XMLElement\|strike\|Strikethrough\|deprecated\=1}} }}
{{defn\|1\= Strike\-through text (~~Strikethrough~~), (Equivalent CSS: {{code\|lang\=css\|code\={ text\-decoration: line\-through; } }})}}
{{defn\|`STRIKE` was standardized in \[\[\#HTML32\|HTML 3\.2]]; '''deprecated''' in \[\[\#HTML401\|HTML 4\.0 Transitional]]; '''invalid''' in \[\[\#HTML401\|HTML 4\.0 Strict]].}}
{{term\|term\=tt \|content\= {{XMLElement\|tt\|Teletype\|deprecated\=1}} }}
{{defn\|1\= \[\[non\-proportional font\|Fixed\-width]] font ({{mono\|typewriter\-like}}), also known as \[\[Teleprinter\|teletype]], thus "tt". (Equivalent CSS: {{code\|lang\=css\|code\={ font\-family: monospace; } }})}}
{{defn\|`TT` existed in ''\[\[\#HTMLDRAFT12\|HTML Internet Draft 1\.2]]'', and was '''Standardized''' in \[\[\#HTML20\|HTML 2\.0]]; not supported{{citation\|url\=http://www.w3\.org/TR/html5/obsolete.html\#non\-conforming\-features \|title\=11 Obsolete features — HTML5 \|publisher\=W3C \|access\-date\=2012\-03\-26}} in HTML5\. Possible replacements: \[\[\#kbd\|{{tag\|kbd\|o}}]] for marking user input, \[\[\#var\|{{tag\|var\|o}}]] for variables (usually rendered italic, and not with a change to monospace), \[\[\#code\|{{tag\|code\|o}}]] for source code, \[\[\#samp\|{{tag\|samp\|o}}]] for output.}}
{{term\|term\=font \|content\= {{XMLElement\|font\|Teletype\|deprecated\=1}} }}
* + - * + - * + {{defn\|1\= {{code\|lang\=html\|code\=color] \[size\=size] \[face\=face]\>...}}
Can specify the font color with the `color` attribute (note the American spelling), typeface with the `face` attribute, and absolute or relative size with the `size` attribute.
Examples (all uses are deprecated, use CSS equivalents if possible):
\* {{code\|lang\=html\|code\=text}} creates {{green\|green text}}.
\* {{code\|lang\=html\|code\=text}} creates text with \[\[Hex triplet\|hexadecimal color]] \#114499.
\* {{code\|lang\=html\|code\=text}} creates text with size 4\. Sizes are from 1 to 7\. The standard size is 3, unless otherwise specified in the \<body\> or other tags.
\* {{code\|lang\=html\|code\=text}} creates text with size 1 bigger than the standard. {{code\|lang\=html\|code\=text}} is opposite.
\* {{code\|lang\=html\|code\=text}} makes text with Courier font.
Equivalent CSS for font attributes:
\*`<font size="N">` corresponds to `{font-size: Yunits}` (the HTML specification does not define the relationship between size N and unit\-size Y, nor does it define a unit).
\*{{code\|lang\=html\|code\=}} corresponds to {{code\|lang\=css\|code\={ color: red; } }}
\*{{code\|lang\=html\|code\=}} corresponds to {{code\|lang\=css\|code\={ font\-family: 'Times New Roman', Times, serif; } }} – CSS supports a \[\[font stack]], of two or more alternative fonts.
}}
{{defn\|'''Standardized''' in \[\[\#HTML32\|HTML 3\.2]]; '''deprecated''' in \[\[\#HTML401\|HTML 4\.0 Transitional]]; '''invalid''' in \[\[\#HTML401\|HTML 4\.0 Strict]]. Not part of HTML5\.}}
#### Span
{{glossary}}
{{term\|term\=span \|content\= {{XMLElement\|span\|Span}} }}
{{defn\|1\= {{Main\|Span and div}}
An inline logical division. A generic element with no semantic meaning used to distinguish a document section, usually for purposes such as presentation or behavior controlled by \[\[Cascading Style Sheets\|style sheets]] or \[\[Document Object Model\|DOM]] calls.
}}
{{defn\|'''Standardized''' in \[\[\#HTML401\|HTML 4\.0]]; still current.}}
{{glossary end}}
#### Other inline elements
{{glossary}}
{{term\|term\=br \|content\= {{XMLElement\|br\|Line Break\|end\=no}} }}
{{defn\|1\= A forced line break.}}
{{defn\|'''Standardized''' in \[\[\#HTML20\|HTML 2\.0]]; still current.}}
{{term\|term\=bdi \|content\= {{XMLElement\|bdi\|Bidirectional Isolation}} }}
{{defn\|1\= Isolates an inline section of text that may be formatted in a different direction from other text outside of it, such as user\-generated content with unknown directionality.}}
{{defn\|'''Standardized''' in \[\[\#HTML5\|HTML5]].}}
{{term\|term\=bdo \|content\= {{XMLElement\|bdo\|Bidirectional Override}} }}
{{defn\|1\= Marks an inline section of text in which the reading direction is the opposite from that of the parent element.}}
{{defn\|'''Standardized''' in \[\[\#HTML401\|HTML 4\.0]]; still current.}}
{{term\|term\=cite \|content\= {{XMLElement\|cite\|Citation}} }}
{{defn\|1\= A citation or a reference for a quote or statement in the document.}}
{{defn\|CITE existed in ''\[\[\#HTMLDRAFT12\|HTML Internet Draft 1\.2]]'', and was '''standardized''' in \[\[\#HTML20\|HTML 2\.0]]; still current.}}
{{defn\|''Note:'' The HTML 5 specifications have been confusingly \[\[Fork (software development)\|forked]],{{cite web \|url\= https://arstechnica.com/information\-technology/2014/10/html5\-specification\-finalized\-squabbling\-over\-who\-writes\-the\-specs\-continues/ \|title\=HTML5 specification finalized, squabbling over specs continues \|publisher\=Ars Technica \|date\=29 October 2014 \|access\-date\=29 October 2014}} including with regard to this element. In HTML 4 and earlier, {{tag\|cite\|o}} was for "a citation or a reference to other sources" without any particular limitations or requirements.{{cite web \|title\=9\.2\.1 Phrase elements: EM, STRONG, DFN, CODE, SAMP, KBD, VAR, CITE, ABBR, and ACRONYM \|work\=HTML 4\.01 Specification \|date\=24 December 1999 \|publisher\=\[\[W3C]] \|url\= https://www.w3\.org/TR/html401/struct/text.html\#h\-9\.2\.1 \|access\-date\=26 July 2018}} The \[\[W3C]] HTML 5 spec uses a refinement of this idea, reflecting how the element has historically been used, but now requiring that it contain (but not be limited to) at least one of "the title of the work or the name of the author (person, people or organization) or an URL reference, or a reference in abbreviated form as per the conventions used for the addition of citation metadata."\[\[\#HTML52\|''HTML 5\.2 W3C Recommendation'']], at \[https://www.w3\.org/TR/html52/textlevel\-semantics.html\#the\-cite\-element "§4\.5\.6\. The cite element"]. But the WHATWG spec only permits the element to be used around the title of a work.\[\[\#WHATWGLS\|''HTML Living Standard'']], at \[https://html.spec.whatwg.org/multipage/text\-level\-semantics.html\#the\-cite\-element "§4\.5\.6 The cite element"]. The W3C specs began with the broader definition, then switched to the very narrow one after WHATWG made this change. However, W3C reverted their own change in 2012, in response to negative developer\-community feedback; the element was in broadly\-deployed use with the broader scope, e.g., various blog and forum platforms wrap commenters' IDs and e\-mail addresses in {{tag\|cite}}, and people using the element for bibliographic citations were (and still are) routinely wrapping each entire citation in this element.
Another problem with the element is that WHATWG recommends that it be italicized by default (thus almost all browsers do so), because it (in their view) is only for publication titles. By convention, however, only certain kinds of titles actually take italics, while others are expected to be put in quotation marks, and standards may actually vary by publishing context and language. Consequently, many website authors and admins use a site\-wide stylesheet to undo this element's auto\-italics.
}}
{{term\|term\=data \|content\= {{XMLElement\|data\|Data}} }}
{{defn\|1\= Links inline content with a machine\-readable translation.}}
{{defn\|'''Standardized''' in \[\[\#HTML5\|HTML5]].{{cite web\|url\=https://developer.mozilla.org/en\-US/docs/Web/HTML/Element/data\|title\=\<data\>\|website\=MDN Web Docs}}}}
{{term\|term\=del \|content\= {{XMLElement\|del\|Deleted}} }}
{{defn\|1\= Deleted text. Typically rendered as a \[\[strikethrough]]: ~~Deleted text.~~}}
{{defn\|'''Standardized''' in \[\[\#HTML401\|HTML 4\.0]]; still current.}}
{{term\|term\=ins \|content\= {{XMLElement\|ins\|Inserted}} }}
{{defn\|1\= Inserted text. Often used to mark up replacement text for material struck with {{tag\|del\|o}} or {{tag\|s\|o}}. Typically rendered \[\[underline]]d: Inserted text.}}
{{defn\|'''Standardized''' in \[\[\#HTML401\|HTML 4\.0]]; still current.}}
{{defn\|Both {{tag\|ins\|o}} and {{tag\|del\|o}} elements may also be used as block elements: containing other block and inline elements. However, these elements must still remain wholly within their parent element to maintain a well\-formed HTML document. For example, deleting text from the middle of one paragraph across several other paragraphs and ending in a final paragraph would need to use three separate {{tag\|del\|o}} elements. Two {{tag\|del\|o}} elements would be required as inline elements to indicate the deletion of text in the first and last paragraphs, and a third, used as a block element, to indicate the deletion in the intervening paragraphs.}}
{{term\|term\=mark \|content\= {{XMLElement\|mark\|Mark}} }}
{{defn\|1\= Produces text that looks like this. Intended for highlighting relevant text in a quotation.}}
{{defn\|'''Standardized''' in \[\[\#HTML5\|HTML5]].}}
{{term\|term\=q \|content\= {{XMLElement\|q\|Quote}} }}
{{defn\|1\= An inline quotation (for block level quotation see {{tag\|\[\[\#blockquote\|blockquote]]\|o}}). Quote elements may be nested.
{{tag\|q\|o}} {{em\|should}} automatically generate quotation marks in conjunction with style sheets. Practical concerns due to browser non\-compliance may force authors to find workarounds.
The `cite` attribute gives the source, and must be a fully qualified \[\[Uniform Resource Identifier\|URI]].
}}
{{defn\|'''Standardized''' in \[\[\#HTML401\|HTML 4\.0]]; still current.}}
{{defn\|{{strong\|Note:}} Lengthy inline quotations may be displayed as indented blocks (as `block-quote`) using style sheets. For example, with a suitable CSS rule associated with `q.lengthy`: {{tag\|q\|attribs\=class\="lengthy" \|content\=Lengthy quote here.}}}}
{{term\|term\=rb \|content\= {{XMLElement\|rb\|Ruby Annotation Base}} }}
{{defn\|1\= Represents the base component of a \[\[Ruby character\|ruby annotation]].}}
{{defn\|'''Standardized''' in \[\[\#HTML5\|HTML5]].{{cite web\|url\=http://www.quackit.com/html/tags/html\_rb\_tag.cfm\|title\=HTML \<rb\> Tag\|website\=www.quackit.com}}}}
{{term\|term\=rp \|content\= {{XMLElement\|rp\|Ruby Fallback Parenthesis}} }}
{{defn\|1\= Provides fallback parenthesis for browsers lacking \[\[Ruby character\|ruby annotation]] support.}}
{{defn\|'''Standardized''' in \[\[\#HTML5\|HTML5]].{{cite web\|url\=https://developer.mozilla.org/en\-US/docs/Web/HTML/Element/rp\|title\=\<rp\>: The Ruby Fallback Parenthesis element\|website\=MDN Web Docs}}}}
{{term\|term\=rt \|content\= {{XMLElement\|rt\|Ruby Annotation Pronunciation}} }}
{{defn\|1\= Indicates pronunciation for a character in a \[\[Ruby character\|ruby annotation]].}}
{{defn\|'''Standardized''' in \[\[\#HTML5\|HTML5]].{{cite web\|url\=https://developer.mozilla.org/en\-US/docs/Web/HTML/Element/rt\|title\=\<rt\>: The Ruby Text element\|website\=MDN Web Docs}}}}
{{term\|term\=rtc \|content\= {{XMLElement\|rtc\|Ruby Semantic Annotation}} }}
{{defn\|1\= Semantic annotations for a \[\[Ruby character\|ruby annotation]].}}
{{defn\|'''Standardized''' in \[\[\#HTML5\|HTML5]].{{cite web\|url\=https://developer.mozilla.org/en\-US/docs/Web/HTML/Element/rtc\|title\=\<rtc\>: The Ruby Text Container element\|website\=MDN Web Docs}}}}
{{term\|term\=ruby \|content\= {{XMLElement\|ruby\|Ruby Annotation}} }}
{{defn\|1\= Represents a \[\[Ruby character\|ruby annotation]] for showing the pronunciation of East Asian characters.}}
{{defn\|'''Standardized''' in \[\[\#HTML5\|HTML5]].{{cite web\|url\=https://developer.mozilla.org/en\-US/docs/Web/HTML/Element/ruby\|title\=\<ruby\>\|website\=MDN Web Docs}}}}
{{term\|term\=script \|content\= {{XMLElement\|script\|Script}} }}
{{defn\|1\= Places a \[\[scripting language\|script]] in the document. Also usable in the head and in block contexts.
{{em\|Note:}} {{tag\|script\|o}} is not itself either a block or inline element; by itself it should not display at all, but it can contain instructions to dynamically generate either both block or inline content.
}}
{{defn\|'''Standardized''' in \[\[\#HTML32\|HTML 3\.2]]; still current.}}
{{term\|term\=sub \|content\= {{XMLElement\|sub\|Subscript}} }}
{{term\|term\=sup \|content\= {{XMLElement\|sup\|Superscript}} \|multi\=y}}
{{defn\|1\= Mark \[\[subscript]]ed or \[\[superscript]]ed text. (Equivalent CSS: {{code\|lang\=css\|code\={ vertical\-align: sub; } }} and {{code\|lang\=css\|code\={ vertical\-align: super; } }}, respectively.)}}
{{defn\|Both were proposed in the \[\[\#HTML30\|HTML 3\.0 Drafts]]; '''Standardized''' in \[\[\#HTML32\|HTML 3\.2]]; still current.}}
{{term\|term\=template \|content\= {{XMLElement\|template\|Template}} }}
{{defn\|1\= Code fragments to be copied by scripts.}}
{{defn\|'''Standardized''' in \[\[\#HTML5\|HTML5]].{{cite web\|url\=https://developer.mozilla.org/en\-US/docs/Web/HTML/Element/template\|title\=\<template\>\|website\=MDN Web Docs}}}}
{{term\|term\=time \|content\= {{XMLElement\|time\|Time}} }}
{{defn\|1\= Represents a time on the 24\-hour clock or a date on the \[\[Gregorian calendar]], optionally with time and time zone information. Also allows times and dates to be represented in a machine\-readable format.}}
{{defn\|'''Standardized''' in \[\[\#HTML5\|HTML5]].{{cite web\|url\=https://developer.mozilla.org/en\-US/docs/Web/HTML/Element/time\|title\=\<time\>\|website\=MDN Web Docs}}}}
{{term\|term\=wbr \|content\= {{XMLElement\|wbr\|Word Break Opportunity\|end\=no}} }}
{{defn\|1\= An optional word break.}}
{{defn\|Was widely used (and supported by all major browsers){{Citation needed\|date\=September 2023}} for years{{Clarify timeframe\|date\=September 2023}} despite being non\-standard until finally being '''standardized''' in \[\[\#HTML5\|HTML5]].{{cite web\|url\=https://developer.mozilla.org/en\-US/docs/Web/HTML/Element/wbr\|title\=\<wbr\>\|website\=MDN Web Docs}}}}
{{glossary end}}
|
[
"### Inline elements",
"Inline elements cannot be placed directly inside the {{code\\|lang\\=html\\|code\\=}} element; they must be wholly nested within block\\-level elements.{{citation\\|url\\=http://www.w3\\.org/TR/html401/struct/global.html\\#h\\-7\\.5\\.1 \\|title\\=HTML 4\\.01 \\|publisher\\=W3C \\|access\\-date\\=2012\\-03\\-26}}",
"#### Anchor",
"{{for\\|anchors on Wikipedia\\|WP:ANCHOR DEF\\|selfref\\=true}}\n{{glossary}}\n{{term\\|term\\=a \\|content\\= {{XMLElement\\|a\\|Anchor}} }}\n{{defn\\|1\\= An anchor element is called an anchor because web designers can use it to \"anchor\" a URL to some text on a web page. When users view the web page in a browser, they can click the text to activate the link and visit the page whose URL is in the link.{{cite book \\|last1\\= Tittel \\|first1\\= Ed \\|last2\\= Burmeister \\|first2\\= Mary C. \\|date\\= 2005 \\|title\\= HTML 4 for dummies \\|edition\\= 5th \\|publisher\\= Wiley \\|location\\= Hoboken, New Jersey \\|isbn\\= 978\\-0\\-7645\\-8917\\-1 \\|page\\= 96 \\|url\\= https://archive.org/details/html4fordummies00titt\\_2/page/96/ \\|url\\-access\\= registration \\|access\\-date\\= 7 August 2022}}",
"In HTML, an \"anchor\" can be either the {{em\\|origin}} (the \\[\\[anchor text]]) or the {{em\\|target}} (destination) end of a \\[\\[hyperlink]]. As an origin, setting the attribute `href`,{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.w3\\.org/Provider/ServerWriter.html\\|title\\=ServerWriter \\-\\- /Provider\\|website\\=W3C}} creates a hyperlink; it can point to either another part of the document or another resource (e.g. a webpage) using an external \\[\\[Uniform Resource Locator\\|URL]]. As a target, setting the `name` or `id` \\[\\[HTML attributes]], allows the element to be linked from a \\[\\[Uniform Resource Locator]] (URL) via a \\[\\[fragment identifier]]. The two forms, origin and anchor, can be used concurently.",
"",
"In HTML5, any element can now be made into a target by using the `id` attribute,{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.w3\\.org/tr/html5/index.html\\#attributes\\-1\\|title\\=HTML 5\\.2\\|website\\=W3C}} so using {{code\\|lang\\=html\\|code\\=...}} is not necessary, although this way of adding anchors continues to work.",
"To illustrate: the header of a table of contents section on `example.com`'s homepage could be turned into a target by writing: {{code\\|lang\\=html\\|code\\=Table of contents\n-----------------",
"}}.",
"Continuing with this example, now that the section has been marked up as a target, it can be referred to from external sites with a link like: {{code\\|lang\\=html\\|code\\=[see contents](http://example.com#contents)}};",
"or with a link on the same page like: {{code\\|lang\\=html\\|code\\=[contents, above](#contents)}}.",
"The attribute `title` may be set to give brief information about the link: {{code\\|lang\\=html\\|code\\=[link text](URL \"additional information\")}}.",
"In most graphical browsers, when the cursor hovers over a link, the cursor changes into a hand with an extended index finger and the `title` value is displayed in a \\[\\[tooltip]] or in some other manner. Some browsers render \\[\\[Alt attribute\\|alt text]] the same way, although this is not what the specification calls for.",
"}}\n{{defn\\|`A` existed in ''\\[\\[\\#HTMLTAGS\\|HTML Tags]]'', and was '''standardized''' in \\[\\[\\#HTML20\\|HTML 2\\.0]];}}\n{{glossary end}}",
"#### Phrase elements",
"Phrase elements are used for marking up phrases and adding structure or semantic meaning to text fragments. For example, the `<em>` and `<strong>` tags can be used for adding emphasis to text.",
"##### General",
"{{glossary}}\n{{term\\|term\\=abbr \\|content\\= {{XMLElement\\|abbr\\|Abbreviation}} }}\n{{defn\\|1\\= Marks an \\[\\[abbreviation]], and can make the full form available: {{code\\|lang\\=html\\|code\\=abbr.}}}}\n{{defn\\|'''Standardized''' in \\[\\[\\#HTML401\\|HTML 4\\.0]]; still current.}}",
"{{term\\|term\\=acronym \\|content\\= {{XMLElement\\|acronym\\|Acronym\\|deprecated\\=1}} }}\n{{defn\\|1\\= Similar to the {{code\\|lang\\=html\\|code\\=}} element, but marks an \\[\\[acronym]]: {{code\\|lang\\=html\\|code\\=HTML}}}}\n{{defn\\|'''Standardized''' in \\[\\[\\#HTML401\\|HTML 4\\.0]]; still current, '''not supported''' in \\[\\[\\#HTML5\\|HTML5]]. Recommended replacement is the `abbr` tag.\\[https://www.w3schools.com/tags/tag\\_acronym.asp Acronym tag], acronym.}}",
"{{term\\|term\\=defn \\|content\\= {{XMLElement\\|dfn\\|Definition}} }}\n{{defn\\|1\\= Inline definition of a single term.}}\n{{defn\\|`DFN` existed in ''\\[\\[\\#HTMLDRAFT12\\|HTML Internet Draft 1\\.2]]'', and was fully '''standardized''' in \\[\\[\\#HTML32\\|HTML 3\\.2]]; still current.}}",
"{{term\\|term\\=em \\|content\\= {{XMLElement\\|em\\|Emphasis}} }}\n{{defn\\|1\\= *Emphasis* (conventionally displayed in italics)}}\n{{defn\\|`EM` existed in ''\\[\\[\\#HTMLDRAFT12\\|HTML Internet Draft 1\\.2]]'', and was '''standardized''' in \\[\\[\\#HTML20\\|HTML 2\\.0]]; still current.}}",
"{{term\\|term\\=strong \\|content\\= {{XMLElement\\|strong\\|Importance}} }}\n{{defn\\|1\\= **importance**; originally strong emphasis (conventionally displayed bold).",
"An \\[\\[voice browser\\|aural user agent]] may use different voices for emphasis.\n}}\n{{defn\\|`STRONG` existed in ''\\[\\[\\#HTMLDRAFT12\\|HTML Internet Draft 1\\.2]]'', and was '''standardized''' in \\[\\[\\#HTML20\\|HTML 2\\.0]]; still current, redefined in HTML5\\.}}\n{{glossary end}}",
"##### Computer phrase elements",
"These elements are useful primarily for documenting computer code development and user interaction through differentiation of source code ({{code\\|lang\\=html\\|code\\=`}}), variables ({{code|lang=html|code=}}), user input ({{code|lang=html|code=}}), and terminal or other output ({{code|lang=html|code=}}).`",
"{{glossary}}\n{{term\\|term\\=code \\|content\\= {{XMLElement\\|code\\|Sourcecode}} }}\n{{defn\\|1\\= A code snippet (`code example`). Conventionally rendered in a mono\\-space font.}}\n{{defn\\|`CODE` existed in ''\\[\\[\\#HTMLDRAFT12\\|HTML Internet Draft 1\\.2]]'', and was '''standardized''' in \\[\\[\\#HTML20\\|HTML 2\\.0]]; still current.}}",
"{{term\\|term\\=kbd \\|content\\= {{XMLElement\\|kbd\\|Keyboard}} }}\n{{defn\\|1\\= Keyboard – text to be entered by the user (`kbd example`).}}\n{{defn\\|`KBD` existed in ''\\[\\[\\#HTMLDRAFT12\\|HTML Internet Draft 1\\.2]]'', and was '''standardized''' in \\[\\[\\#HTML20\\|HTML 2\\.0]]; still current.}}",
"{{term\\|term\\=samp \\|content\\= {{XMLElement\\|samp\\|Sample}} }}\n{{defn\\|1\\= Sample output – from a program or script: (`samp example`).}}\n{{defn\\|`SAMP` existed in ''\\[\\[\\#HTMLDRAFT12\\|HTML Internet Draft 1\\.2]]'', and was '''standardized''' in \\[\\[\\#HTML20\\|HTML 2\\.0]]; still current.}}",
"{{term\\|term\\=var \\|content\\= {{XMLElement\\|var\\|Variable}} }}\n{{defn\\|1\\= Variable (var example).}}\n{{defn\\|`VAR` existed in ''\\[\\[\\#HTMLDRAFT12\\|HTML Internet Draft 1\\.2]]'', and was '''standardized''' in \\[\\[\\#HTML20\\|HTML 2\\.0]]; still current.}}\n{{glossary end}}",
"#### Presentation",
"As visual presentational markup only applies directly to visual browsers, its use is discouraged. Style sheets should be used instead. Several of these elements are deprecated or invalid in HTML 4 / XHTML 1\\.0, and the remainder are invalid in the current draft of [XHTML 2\\.0](http://www.w3.org/TR/2005/WD-xhtml2-20050527/). The current draft of [HTML5](https://web.archive.org/web/20150801133040/http://www.w3.org/TR/html5/text-level-semantics.html), however, re\\-includes {{tag\\|s\\|o}}, {{tag\\|u\\|o}}, and {{tag\\|small\\|o}}, assigning new semantic meaning to each. In an [HTML5](/wiki/HTML5 \"HTML5\") document, the use of these elements is no longer discouraged, provided that it is semantically correct.",
"{{term\\|term\\=b \\|content\\= {{XMLElement\\|b\\|Keyword}} }}\n{{defn\\|1\\= \nIn \\[\\[HTML 4]], set font to '''boldface''' where possible. Equivalent CSS: {{code\\|lang\\=css\\|code\\={ font\\-weight: bold; } }}. The {{tag\\|strong\\|o}} element usually has the same effect in visual browsers, as well as having more semantic meaning, under \\[\\[HTML 4\\.01]].",
"In \\[\\[HTML5]], however, {{tag\\|b\\|o}} has its own meaning, distinct from that of {{tag\\|strong\\|o}}. It denotes \"text to which attention is being drawn for utilitarian purposes without conveying any extra importance and with no implication of an alternate voice or mood.\"{{citation\\|url\\=http://developers.whatwg.org/text\\-level\\-semantics.html\\#the\\-b\\-element \\|title\\=4\\.6 Text\\-level semantics — The b element \\|publisher\\=Developers.whatwg.org \\|access\\-date\\=2012\\-03\\-26}}\n}}\n{{defn\\|`B` existed in ''\\[\\[\\#HTMLDRAFT12\\|HTML Internet Draft 1\\.2]]'', and was '''standardized''' in \\[\\[\\#HTML20\\|HTML 2\\.0]]; still current, redefined in HTML5\\.}}",
"{{term\\|term\\=i \\|content\\= {{XMLElement\\|i\\|Alternate voice}} }}\n{{defn\\|1\\= \nIn \\[\\[HTML 4]], set font to ''italic'' where possible. Equivalent \\[\\[CSS]]: {{code\\|lang\\=css\\|code\\={ font\\-style: italic; } }}. Using {{tag\\|em}} has the same visual effect in most browsers, as well as having a semantic meaning as ''emphasis'', under \\[\\[HTML 4\\.01]]. (Purely typographic italics have many non\\-emphasis purposes, as HTML 5 more explicitly recognized.)",
"In \\[\\[HTML5]], however, {{tag\\|i\\|o}} has its own semantic meaning, distinct from that of {{tag\\|em\\|o}}. It denotes \"a different quality of text\" or \"an alternate voice or mood\" e.g., a thought, a ship name, a \\[\\[Binomial nomenclature\\|binary species name]], a foreign\\-language phrase, etc.{{citation\\|url\\=http://developers.whatwg.org/text\\-level\\-semantics.html\\#the\\-i\\-element \\|title\\=4\\.6 Text\\-level semantics — The i element \\|publisher\\=Developers.whatwg.org \\|access\\-date\\=2012\\-03\\-26}}\n}}\n{{defn\\|`I` existed in ''\\[\\[\\#HTMLDRAFT12\\|HTML Internet Draft 1\\.2]]'', and was '''standardized''' in \\[\\[\\#HTML20\\|HTML 2\\.0]]; still current, redefined in HTML5\\.}}",
"{{term\\|term\\=u \\|content\\= {{XMLElement\\|u\\|Unarticulated annotation}} }}\n{{defn\\|1\\= In \\[\\[HTML 4]], underlined text. Equivalent CSS: {{code\\|lang\\=css\\|code\\={ text\\-decoration: underline; } }}. Deprecated in \\[\\[HTML 4\\.01]]. Restored in \\[\\[\\#HTML5\\|HTML5]].",
"In \\[\\[HTML5]], the {{tag\\|u\\|o}} element denotes \"a span of text with an unarticulated, though explicitly rendered, non\\-textual annotation, such as labelling the text as being a proper name in Chinese text (a Chinese proper name mark), or labelling the text as being misspelt.\" The \\[\\[HTML5]] specification reminds developers that other elements are almost always more appropriate than {{tag\\|u\\|o}} and admonishes designers not to use underlined text where it could be confused for a hyper\\-link.{{citation\\|url\\=http://developers.whatwg.org/text\\-level\\-semantics.html\\#the\\-u\\-element \\|title\\=4\\.6 Text\\-level semantics — The u element \\|publisher\\=Developers.whatwg.org \\|access\\-date\\=2012\\-03\\-26}}\n}}\n{{defn\\|`U` existed in ''\\[\\[\\#HTMLDRAFT12\\|HTML Internet Draft 1\\.2]]'', was '''standardized''' in \\[\\[\\#HTML32\\|HTML 3\\.2]] but was '''deprecated''' in \\[\\[\\#HTML401\\|HTML 4\\.0 Transitional]] and was '''invalid''' in \\[\\[\\#HTML401\\|HTML 4\\.0 Strict]]. '''Reintroduced''' in \\[\\[\\#HTML5\\|HTML5]].}}",
"{{term\\|term\\=small \\|content\\= {{XMLElement\\|small\\|Side comment}} }}\n{{defn\\|1\\= In \\[\\[HTML 4]], decreased font size (smaller text). Equivalent CSS: {{code\\|lang\\=css\\|code\\={ font\\-size: smaller; } }}",
"In \\[\\[HTML5]], the {{tag\\|small\\|o}} element denotes \"side comments such as small print.\"{{citation\\|url\\=http://developers.whatwg.org/text\\-level\\-semantics.html\\#the\\-small\\-element \\|title\\=4\\.6 Text\\-level semantics — The small element \\|publisher\\=Developers.whatwg.org \\|access\\-date\\=2012\\-03\\-26}} This has caused some confusion with the {{tag\\|\\[\\[\\#aside\\|aside]]}} element.\n}}\n{{defn\\|'''Standardized''' in \\[\\[\\#HTML32\\|HTML 3\\.2]]; still current.}}",
"{{term\\|term\\=s \\|content\\= {{XMLElement\\|s\\|Inacurrate text}} }}\n{{defn\\|1\\= In \\[\\[HTML 4]], indicated strike\\-through text (~~Strikethrough~~) and was equivalent to {{tag\\|strike\\|o}}.",
"In \\[\\[HTML5]], the {{tag\\|s\\|o}} element denotes information that is \"no longer accurate or no longer relevant\", and is not to be confused with {{tag\\|del\\|o}}, which indicates removal/deletion.{{citation\\|url\\=http://developers.whatwg.org/text\\-level\\-semantics.html\\#the\\-s\\-element \\|title\\=4\\.6 Text\\-level semantics — The s element \\|publisher\\=Developers.whatwg.org \\|access\\-date\\=2012\\-03\\-26}}\n}}\n{{defn\\|`S` was '''deprecated''' in \\[\\[\\#HTML401\\|HTML 4\\.0 Transitional]] (having not appeared in any previous standard), and was '''invalid''' in \\[\\[\\#HTML401\\|HTML 4\\.0 Strict]]. '''Reintroduced''' in \\[\\[\\#HTML5\\|HTML5]], which instead deprecated {{tag\\|strike\\|o}}.}}",
"{{term\\|term\\= \\|content\\= {{XMLElement\\|big\\|Big\\|deprecated\\=1}} }}\n{{defn\\|1\\= Increased font size (bigger text). Equivalent CSS: {{code\\|lang\\=css\\|code\\={ font\\-size: larger; } }}}}\n{{defn\\|'''Standardized''' in \\[\\[\\#HTML32\\|HTML 3\\.2]]; '''not supported''' in \\[\\[\\#HTML5\\|HTML5]].}}",
"{{term\\|term\\= \\|content\\= {{XMLElement\\|strike\\|Strikethrough\\|deprecated\\=1}} }}\n{{defn\\|1\\= Strike\\-through text (~~Strikethrough~~), (Equivalent CSS: {{code\\|lang\\=css\\|code\\={ text\\-decoration: line\\-through; } }})}}\n{{defn\\|`STRIKE` was standardized in \\[\\[\\#HTML32\\|HTML 3\\.2]]; '''deprecated''' in \\[\\[\\#HTML401\\|HTML 4\\.0 Transitional]]; '''invalid''' in \\[\\[\\#HTML401\\|HTML 4\\.0 Strict]].}}",
"{{term\\|term\\=tt \\|content\\= {{XMLElement\\|tt\\|Teletype\\|deprecated\\=1}} }}\n{{defn\\|1\\= \\[\\[non\\-proportional font\\|Fixed\\-width]] font ({{mono\\|typewriter\\-like}}), also known as \\[\\[Teleprinter\\|teletype]], thus \"tt\". (Equivalent CSS: {{code\\|lang\\=css\\|code\\={ font\\-family: monospace; } }})}}\n{{defn\\|`TT` existed in ''\\[\\[\\#HTMLDRAFT12\\|HTML Internet Draft 1\\.2]]'', and was '''Standardized''' in \\[\\[\\#HTML20\\|HTML 2\\.0]]; not supported{{citation\\|url\\=http://www.w3\\.org/TR/html5/obsolete.html\\#non\\-conforming\\-features \\|title\\=11 Obsolete features — HTML5 \\|publisher\\=W3C \\|access\\-date\\=2012\\-03\\-26}} in HTML5\\. Possible replacements: \\[\\[\\#kbd\\|{{tag\\|kbd\\|o}}]] for marking user input, \\[\\[\\#var\\|{{tag\\|var\\|o}}]] for variables (usually rendered italic, and not with a change to monospace), \\[\\[\\#code\\|{{tag\\|code\\|o}}]] for source code, \\[\\[\\#samp\\|{{tag\\|samp\\|o}}]] for output.}}",
"{{term\\|term\\=font \\|content\\= {{XMLElement\\|font\\|Teletype\\|deprecated\\=1}} }}\n* + - * + - * + {{defn\\|1\\= {{code\\|lang\\=html\\|code\\=color] \\[size\\=size] \\[face\\=face]\\>...}}\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCan specify the font color with the `color` attribute (note the American spelling), typeface with the `face` attribute, and absolute or relative size with the `size` attribute.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tExamples (all uses are deprecated, use CSS equivalents if possible):\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* {{code\\|lang\\=html\\|code\\=text}} creates {{green\\|green text}}.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* {{code\\|lang\\=html\\|code\\=text}} creates text with \\[\\[Hex triplet\\|hexadecimal color]] \\#114499.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* {{code\\|lang\\=html\\|code\\=text}} creates text with size 4\\. Sizes are from 1 to 7\\. The standard size is 3, unless otherwise specified in the \\<body\\> or other tags.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* {{code\\|lang\\=html\\|code\\=text}} creates text with size 1 bigger than the standard. {{code\\|lang\\=html\\|code\\=text}} is opposite.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* {{code\\|lang\\=html\\|code\\=text}} makes text with Courier font.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tEquivalent CSS for font attributes:\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\*`<font size=\"N\">` corresponds to `{font-size: Yunits}` (the HTML specification does not define the relationship between size N and unit\\-size Y, nor does it define a unit).\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\*{{code\\|lang\\=html\\|code\\=}} corresponds to {{code\\|lang\\=css\\|code\\={ color: red; } }}\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\*{{code\\|lang\\=html\\|code\\=}} corresponds to {{code\\|lang\\=css\\|code\\={ font\\-family: 'Times New Roman', Times, serif; } }} – CSS supports a \\[\\[font stack]], of two or more alternative fonts.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t}}\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t{{defn\\|'''Standardized''' in \\[\\[\\#HTML32\\|HTML 3\\.2]]; '''deprecated''' in \\[\\[\\#HTML401\\|HTML 4\\.0 Transitional]]; '''invalid''' in \\[\\[\\#HTML401\\|HTML 4\\.0 Strict]]. Not part of HTML5\\.}}",
"#### Span",
"{{glossary}}\n{{term\\|term\\=span \\|content\\= {{XMLElement\\|span\\|Span}} }}\n{{defn\\|1\\= {{Main\\|Span and div}}\nAn inline logical division. A generic element with no semantic meaning used to distinguish a document section, usually for purposes such as presentation or behavior controlled by \\[\\[Cascading Style Sheets\\|style sheets]] or \\[\\[Document Object Model\\|DOM]] calls.\n}}\n{{defn\\|'''Standardized''' in \\[\\[\\#HTML401\\|HTML 4\\.0]]; still current.}}\n{{glossary end}}",
"#### Other inline elements",
"{{glossary}}\n{{term\\|term\\=br \\|content\\= {{XMLElement\\|br\\|Line Break\\|end\\=no}} }}\n{{defn\\|1\\= A forced line break.}}\n{{defn\\|'''Standardized''' in \\[\\[\\#HTML20\\|HTML 2\\.0]]; still current.}}",
"{{term\\|term\\=bdi \\|content\\= {{XMLElement\\|bdi\\|Bidirectional Isolation}} }}\n{{defn\\|1\\= Isolates an inline section of text that may be formatted in a different direction from other text outside of it, such as user\\-generated content with unknown directionality.}}\n{{defn\\|'''Standardized''' in \\[\\[\\#HTML5\\|HTML5]].}}",
"{{term\\|term\\=bdo \\|content\\= {{XMLElement\\|bdo\\|Bidirectional Override}} }}\n{{defn\\|1\\= Marks an inline section of text in which the reading direction is the opposite from that of the parent element.}}\n{{defn\\|'''Standardized''' in \\[\\[\\#HTML401\\|HTML 4\\.0]]; still current.}}",
"{{term\\|term\\=cite \\|content\\= {{XMLElement\\|cite\\|Citation}} }}\n{{defn\\|1\\= A citation or a reference for a quote or statement in the document.}}\n{{defn\\|CITE existed in ''\\[\\[\\#HTMLDRAFT12\\|HTML Internet Draft 1\\.2]]'', and was '''standardized''' in \\[\\[\\#HTML20\\|HTML 2\\.0]]; still current.}}\n{{defn\\|''Note:'' The HTML 5 specifications have been confusingly \\[\\[Fork (software development)\\|forked]],{{cite web \\|url\\= https://arstechnica.com/information\\-technology/2014/10/html5\\-specification\\-finalized\\-squabbling\\-over\\-who\\-writes\\-the\\-specs\\-continues/ \\|title\\=HTML5 specification finalized, squabbling over specs continues \\|publisher\\=Ars Technica \\|date\\=29 October 2014 \\|access\\-date\\=29 October 2014}} including with regard to this element. In HTML 4 and earlier, {{tag\\|cite\\|o}} was for \"a citation or a reference to other sources\" without any particular limitations or requirements.{{cite web \\|title\\=9\\.2\\.1 Phrase elements: EM, STRONG, DFN, CODE, SAMP, KBD, VAR, CITE, ABBR, and ACRONYM \\|work\\=HTML 4\\.01 Specification \\|date\\=24 December 1999 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[W3C]] \\|url\\= https://www.w3\\.org/TR/html401/struct/text.html\\#h\\-9\\.2\\.1 \\|access\\-date\\=26 July 2018}} The \\[\\[W3C]] HTML 5 spec uses a refinement of this idea, reflecting how the element has historically been used, but now requiring that it contain (but not be limited to) at least one of \"the title of the work or the name of the author (person, people or organization) or an URL reference, or a reference in abbreviated form as per the conventions used for the addition of citation metadata.\"\\[\\[\\#HTML52\\|''HTML 5\\.2 W3C Recommendation'']], at \\[https://www.w3\\.org/TR/html52/textlevel\\-semantics.html\\#the\\-cite\\-element \"§4\\.5\\.6\\. The cite element\"]. But the WHATWG spec only permits the element to be used around the title of a work.\\[\\[\\#WHATWGLS\\|''HTML Living Standard'']], at \\[https://html.spec.whatwg.org/multipage/text\\-level\\-semantics.html\\#the\\-cite\\-element \"§4\\.5\\.6 The cite element\"]. The W3C specs began with the broader definition, then switched to the very narrow one after WHATWG made this change. However, W3C reverted their own change in 2012, in response to negative developer\\-community feedback; the element was in broadly\\-deployed use with the broader scope, e.g., various blog and forum platforms wrap commenters' IDs and e\\-mail addresses in {{tag\\|cite}}, and people using the element for bibliographic citations were (and still are) routinely wrapping each entire citation in this element.",
"Another problem with the element is that WHATWG recommends that it be italicized by default (thus almost all browsers do so), because it (in their view) is only for publication titles. By convention, however, only certain kinds of titles actually take italics, while others are expected to be put in quotation marks, and standards may actually vary by publishing context and language. Consequently, many website authors and admins use a site\\-wide stylesheet to undo this element's auto\\-italics.\n}}",
"{{term\\|term\\=data \\|content\\= {{XMLElement\\|data\\|Data}} }}\n{{defn\\|1\\= Links inline content with a machine\\-readable translation.}}\n{{defn\\|'''Standardized''' in \\[\\[\\#HTML5\\|HTML5]].{{cite web\\|url\\=https://developer.mozilla.org/en\\-US/docs/Web/HTML/Element/data\\|title\\=\\<data\\>\\|website\\=MDN Web Docs}}}}",
"{{term\\|term\\=del \\|content\\= {{XMLElement\\|del\\|Deleted}} }}\n{{defn\\|1\\= Deleted text. Typically rendered as a \\[\\[strikethrough]]: ~~Deleted text.~~}}\n{{defn\\|'''Standardized''' in \\[\\[\\#HTML401\\|HTML 4\\.0]]; still current.}}",
"{{term\\|term\\=ins \\|content\\= {{XMLElement\\|ins\\|Inserted}} }}\n{{defn\\|1\\= Inserted text. Often used to mark up replacement text for material struck with {{tag\\|del\\|o}} or {{tag\\|s\\|o}}. Typically rendered \\[\\[underline]]d: Inserted text.}}\n{{defn\\|'''Standardized''' in \\[\\[\\#HTML401\\|HTML 4\\.0]]; still current.}}\n{{defn\\|Both {{tag\\|ins\\|o}} and {{tag\\|del\\|o}} elements may also be used as block elements: containing other block and inline elements. However, these elements must still remain wholly within their parent element to maintain a well\\-formed HTML document. For example, deleting text from the middle of one paragraph across several other paragraphs and ending in a final paragraph would need to use three separate {{tag\\|del\\|o}} elements. Two {{tag\\|del\\|o}} elements would be required as inline elements to indicate the deletion of text in the first and last paragraphs, and a third, used as a block element, to indicate the deletion in the intervening paragraphs.}}",
"{{term\\|term\\=mark \\|content\\= {{XMLElement\\|mark\\|Mark}} }}\n{{defn\\|1\\= Produces text that looks like this. Intended for highlighting relevant text in a quotation.}}\n{{defn\\|'''Standardized''' in \\[\\[\\#HTML5\\|HTML5]].}}",
"{{term\\|term\\=q \\|content\\= {{XMLElement\\|q\\|Quote}} }}\n{{defn\\|1\\= An inline quotation (for block level quotation see {{tag\\|\\[\\[\\#blockquote\\|blockquote]]\\|o}}). Quote elements may be nested.",
"{{tag\\|q\\|o}} {{em\\|should}} automatically generate quotation marks in conjunction with style sheets. Practical concerns due to browser non\\-compliance may force authors to find workarounds.",
"The `cite` attribute gives the source, and must be a fully qualified \\[\\[Uniform Resource Identifier\\|URI]].\n}}\n{{defn\\|'''Standardized''' in \\[\\[\\#HTML401\\|HTML 4\\.0]]; still current.}}\n{{defn\\|{{strong\\|Note:}} Lengthy inline quotations may be displayed as indented blocks (as `block-quote`) using style sheets. For example, with a suitable CSS rule associated with `q.lengthy`: {{tag\\|q\\|attribs\\=class\\=\"lengthy\" \\|content\\=Lengthy quote here.}}}}",
"{{term\\|term\\=rb \\|content\\= {{XMLElement\\|rb\\|Ruby Annotation Base}} }}\n{{defn\\|1\\= Represents the base component of a \\[\\[Ruby character\\|ruby annotation]].}}\n{{defn\\|'''Standardized''' in \\[\\[\\#HTML5\\|HTML5]].{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.quackit.com/html/tags/html\\_rb\\_tag.cfm\\|title\\=HTML \\<rb\\> Tag\\|website\\=www.quackit.com}}}}",
"{{term\\|term\\=rp \\|content\\= {{XMLElement\\|rp\\|Ruby Fallback Parenthesis}} }}\n{{defn\\|1\\= Provides fallback parenthesis for browsers lacking \\[\\[Ruby character\\|ruby annotation]] support.}}\n{{defn\\|'''Standardized''' in \\[\\[\\#HTML5\\|HTML5]].{{cite web\\|url\\=https://developer.mozilla.org/en\\-US/docs/Web/HTML/Element/rp\\|title\\=\\<rp\\>: The Ruby Fallback Parenthesis element\\|website\\=MDN Web Docs}}}}",
"{{term\\|term\\=rt \\|content\\= {{XMLElement\\|rt\\|Ruby Annotation Pronunciation}} }}\n{{defn\\|1\\= Indicates pronunciation for a character in a \\[\\[Ruby character\\|ruby annotation]].}}\n{{defn\\|'''Standardized''' in \\[\\[\\#HTML5\\|HTML5]].{{cite web\\|url\\=https://developer.mozilla.org/en\\-US/docs/Web/HTML/Element/rt\\|title\\=\\<rt\\>: The Ruby Text element\\|website\\=MDN Web Docs}}}}",
"{{term\\|term\\=rtc \\|content\\= {{XMLElement\\|rtc\\|Ruby Semantic Annotation}} }}\n{{defn\\|1\\= Semantic annotations for a \\[\\[Ruby character\\|ruby annotation]].}}\n{{defn\\|'''Standardized''' in \\[\\[\\#HTML5\\|HTML5]].{{cite web\\|url\\=https://developer.mozilla.org/en\\-US/docs/Web/HTML/Element/rtc\\|title\\=\\<rtc\\>: The Ruby Text Container element\\|website\\=MDN Web Docs}}}}",
"{{term\\|term\\=ruby \\|content\\= {{XMLElement\\|ruby\\|Ruby Annotation}} }}\n{{defn\\|1\\= Represents a \\[\\[Ruby character\\|ruby annotation]] for showing the pronunciation of East Asian characters.}}\n{{defn\\|'''Standardized''' in \\[\\[\\#HTML5\\|HTML5]].{{cite web\\|url\\=https://developer.mozilla.org/en\\-US/docs/Web/HTML/Element/ruby\\|title\\=\\<ruby\\>\\|website\\=MDN Web Docs}}}}",
"{{term\\|term\\=script \\|content\\= {{XMLElement\\|script\\|Script}} }}\n{{defn\\|1\\= Places a \\[\\[scripting language\\|script]] in the document. Also usable in the head and in block contexts.",
"{{em\\|Note:}} {{tag\\|script\\|o}} is not itself either a block or inline element; by itself it should not display at all, but it can contain instructions to dynamically generate either both block or inline content.\n}}\n{{defn\\|'''Standardized''' in \\[\\[\\#HTML32\\|HTML 3\\.2]]; still current.}}",
"{{term\\|term\\=sub \\|content\\= {{XMLElement\\|sub\\|Subscript}} }}\n{{term\\|term\\=sup \\|content\\= {{XMLElement\\|sup\\|Superscript}} \\|multi\\=y}}\n{{defn\\|1\\= Mark \\[\\[subscript]]ed or \\[\\[superscript]]ed text. (Equivalent CSS: {{code\\|lang\\=css\\|code\\={ vertical\\-align: sub; } }} and {{code\\|lang\\=css\\|code\\={ vertical\\-align: super; } }}, respectively.)}}\n{{defn\\|Both were proposed in the \\[\\[\\#HTML30\\|HTML 3\\.0 Drafts]]; '''Standardized''' in \\[\\[\\#HTML32\\|HTML 3\\.2]]; still current.}}",
"{{term\\|term\\=template \\|content\\= {{XMLElement\\|template\\|Template}} }}\n{{defn\\|1\\= Code fragments to be copied by scripts.}}\n{{defn\\|'''Standardized''' in \\[\\[\\#HTML5\\|HTML5]].{{cite web\\|url\\=https://developer.mozilla.org/en\\-US/docs/Web/HTML/Element/template\\|title\\=\\<template\\>\\|website\\=MDN Web Docs}}}}",
"{{term\\|term\\=time \\|content\\= {{XMLElement\\|time\\|Time}} }}\n{{defn\\|1\\= Represents a time on the 24\\-hour clock or a date on the \\[\\[Gregorian calendar]], optionally with time and time zone information. Also allows times and dates to be represented in a machine\\-readable format.}}\n{{defn\\|'''Standardized''' in \\[\\[\\#HTML5\\|HTML5]].{{cite web\\|url\\=https://developer.mozilla.org/en\\-US/docs/Web/HTML/Element/time\\|title\\=\\<time\\>\\|website\\=MDN Web Docs}}}}",
"{{term\\|term\\=wbr \\|content\\= {{XMLElement\\|wbr\\|Word Break Opportunity\\|end\\=no}} }}\n{{defn\\|1\\= An optional word break.}}\n{{defn\\|Was widely used (and supported by all major browsers){{Citation needed\\|date\\=September 2023}} for years{{Clarify timeframe\\|date\\=September 2023}} despite being non\\-standard until finally being '''standardized''' in \\[\\[\\#HTML5\\|HTML5]].{{cite web\\|url\\=https://developer.mozilla.org/en\\-US/docs/Web/HTML/Element/wbr\\|title\\=\\<wbr\\>\\|website\\=MDN Web Docs}}}}\n{{glossary end}}",
"",
"",
"",
"",
"",
"",
"",
"",
"",
"",
""
] |
Frames
------
{{Main\|Frame (World Wide Web)}}
Frames allow a visual HTML browser window to be split into segments, each of which can show a different document. This can lower bandwidth use, as repeating parts of a layout can be used in one frame, while variable content is displayed in another. This may come at a certain usability cost, especially in non\-visual user agents,{{cite web\|url\=http://www.washington.edu/doit/are\-frames\-accessible\|title\=Are frames accessible?\|quote\=...frames do present additional usability challenges that are unique to users with disabilities, particularly those who use screen readers.}} due to separate and independent documents (or websites) being displayed adjacent to each other and being allowed to interact with the same parent window. Because of this cost, frames (excluding the {{tag\|iframe\|o}} element) are only allowed in HTML 4\.01 Frame\-set. Iframes can also hold documents on different servers. In this case the interaction between windows is blocked by the browser. Sites like [Facebook](/wiki/Facebook "Facebook") and [Twitter](/wiki/Twitter "Twitter") use iframes to display content ([plugins](/wiki/Plug-in_%28computing%29 "Plug-in (computing)")) on third party websites. Google [AdSense](/wiki/AdSense "AdSense") uses iframes to display banners on third party websites.
In HTML 4\.01, a document may contain a {{tag\|head\|o}} and a {{tag\|body\|o}} {{em\|or}} a {{tag\|head\|o}} and a {{tag\|frameset\|o}}, but not both a {{tag\|body\|o}} and a {{tag\|frameset\|o}}. However, {{tag\|iframe\|o}} can be used in a normal document body.
{{glossary}}
{{term\|term\=frameset \|content\= {{XMLElement\|frameset\|Frameset\|deprecated\=1}} }}
{{defn\|1\= Contains the set of {{tag\|frame\|s}} elements for a document. The layout of frames is given by comma separated lists in the `rows` and `cols` \[\[HTML attributes]].}}
{{defn\|'''Standardized''' in \[\[\#HTML401\|HTML 4\.0]] Frameset, '''obsolete''' in HTML5\.}}
{{term\|term\=frame \|content\= {{XMLElement\|frame\|Frame\|end\=no\|deprecated\=1}} }}
{{defn\|1\= Defines a single frame, or region, within the {{tag\|frameset\|o}}. A separate document is linked to a frame using the `src` attribute inside the {{tag\|frame\|s}} element.}}
{{defn\|'''Standardized''' in \[\[\#HTML401\|HTML 4\.0]] Frameset, '''obsolete''' in HTML5\.}}
{{term\|term\=noframes \|content\= {{XMLElement\|noframes\|Frame Support Fallback\|deprecated\=1}} }}
{{defn\|1\= Contains normal HTML content for user agents that do not support {{tag\|frame\|s}} elements.}}
{{defn\|'''Standardized''' in \[\[\#HTML401\|HTML 4\.0]] Transitional, '''obsolete''' in HTML5\.}}
{{term\|term\=iframe \|content\= {{XMLElement\|iframe\|Inline Frame}} }}
{{defn\|1\= An inline frame places another HTML document in a frame. Unlike an {{tag\|object\|s}} element, an {{tag\|iframe\|o}} can be the "target" frame for links defined by other elements, and it can be selected by the user agent as the focus for printing, viewing its source, and so on.
The content of the element is used as alternative text to be displayed if the browser does not support inline frames.
A separate document is linked to a frame using the `src` attribute inside the {{tag\|iframe\|s}}, an inline HTML code is embedded to a frame using the `srcdoc` attribute inside the {{tag\|iframe\|s}} element.}}
{{defn\|First introduced by Microsoft Internet Explorer in 1997, '''standardized''' in \[\[\#HTML401\|HTML 4\.0]] Transitional, '''allowed''' in HTML5\.}}
{{glossary end}}
### `longdesc` attribute
In [HTML](/wiki/HTML "HTML"), **`longdesc`** is an attribute used within the {{tag\|img\|s}}, {{tag\|frame\|s}}, or {{tag\|iframe\|o}} elements. It is supposed to be a [URL](/wiki/URL "URL"){{refn\|group\=note\|Strictly an \[\[Internationalized resource identifier\|IRI]], not a URL; although URLs are a subset of IRIs.}} to a document that provides a **long description** for the image, frame, or iframe in question.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.w3\.org/TR/REC\-html40/struct/objects.html\|title\=Objects, Images, and Applets\|publisher\=W3C\|access\-date\=2008\-12\-20}} This attribute should contain a URL, {{em\|not}} – as is commonly mistaken – the text of the description itself.
`longdesc` was designed to be used by [screen readers](/wiki/Screen_reader "Screen reader") to display image information for computer users with [accessibility](/wiki/Accessibility "Accessibility") issues, such as the blind or [visually impaired](/wiki/Visual_impairment "Visual impairment"), and is widely implemented by both web browsers and screen readers.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.w3\.org/html/wg/wiki/ChangeProposals/InstateLongdesc/Implementation\|title\=InState Longdesc\|access\-date\=2011\-09\-05}} Some developers object that{{cite web\|url\=http://www.webaim.org/techniques/images/longdesc.php\#longdesc\|title\=Creating Accessible Images\|publisher\=WebAim\|access\-date\=2008\-12\-20}} it is actually seldom used for this purpose because there are relatively few authors who use the attribute and most of those authors use it incorrectly; thus, they recommend deprecating `longdesc`.{{citation\|url\=http://wiki.whatwg.org/wiki/Longdesc\_usage \|title\=Longdesc usage \- WHATWG Wiki \|publisher\=Wiki.whatwg.org \|access\-date\=2012\-03\-26}} The publishing industry has responded, advocating the retention of `longdesc`.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.w3\.org/Bugs/Public/show\_bug.cgi?id\=13461\|title\=Bug 13461 \- Commentary on Issue \#30 (longdesc) from the Association of American Publishers \|access\-date\=2011\-09\-05}}
#### Example
\<img src\="Hello.jpg" longdesc\="description.html"\>
Content of `description.html`:
\<br /\>
\<p\>This is an image of a two\-layered birthday cake.\</p\>
...
#### Linking to the long description in the text
Since very few graphical browsers support making the link available natively (Opera and iCab being the exceptions), it is useful to include a link to the description page near the {{tag\|img\|s}} element whenever possible, as this can also aid sighted users.
##### Example
\<img src\="Hello.jpg" longdesc\="description.html" /\> \[\<a href\=
"description.html" title\="long description of the image"\>D\</a\>]
|
[
"Frames\n------",
"{{Main\\|Frame (World Wide Web)}}",
"Frames allow a visual HTML browser window to be split into segments, each of which can show a different document. This can lower bandwidth use, as repeating parts of a layout can be used in one frame, while variable content is displayed in another. This may come at a certain usability cost, especially in non\\-visual user agents,{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.washington.edu/doit/are\\-frames\\-accessible\\|title\\=Are frames accessible?\\|quote\\=...frames do present additional usability challenges that are unique to users with disabilities, particularly those who use screen readers.}} due to separate and independent documents (or websites) being displayed adjacent to each other and being allowed to interact with the same parent window. Because of this cost, frames (excluding the {{tag\\|iframe\\|o}} element) are only allowed in HTML 4\\.01 Frame\\-set. Iframes can also hold documents on different servers. In this case the interaction between windows is blocked by the browser. Sites like [Facebook](/wiki/Facebook \"Facebook\") and [Twitter](/wiki/Twitter \"Twitter\") use iframes to display content ([plugins](/wiki/Plug-in_%28computing%29 \"Plug-in (computing)\")) on third party websites. Google [AdSense](/wiki/AdSense \"AdSense\") uses iframes to display banners on third party websites.",
"In HTML 4\\.01, a document may contain a {{tag\\|head\\|o}} and a {{tag\\|body\\|o}} {{em\\|or}} a {{tag\\|head\\|o}} and a {{tag\\|frameset\\|o}}, but not both a {{tag\\|body\\|o}} and a {{tag\\|frameset\\|o}}. However, {{tag\\|iframe\\|o}} can be used in a normal document body.",
"{{glossary}}\n{{term\\|term\\=frameset \\|content\\= {{XMLElement\\|frameset\\|Frameset\\|deprecated\\=1}} }}\n{{defn\\|1\\= Contains the set of {{tag\\|frame\\|s}} elements for a document. The layout of frames is given by comma separated lists in the `rows` and `cols` \\[\\[HTML attributes]].}}\n{{defn\\|'''Standardized''' in \\[\\[\\#HTML401\\|HTML 4\\.0]] Frameset, '''obsolete''' in HTML5\\.}}",
"{{term\\|term\\=frame \\|content\\= {{XMLElement\\|frame\\|Frame\\|end\\=no\\|deprecated\\=1}} }}\n{{defn\\|1\\= Defines a single frame, or region, within the {{tag\\|frameset\\|o}}. A separate document is linked to a frame using the `src` attribute inside the {{tag\\|frame\\|s}} element.}}\n{{defn\\|'''Standardized''' in \\[\\[\\#HTML401\\|HTML 4\\.0]] Frameset, '''obsolete''' in HTML5\\.}}",
"{{term\\|term\\=noframes \\|content\\= {{XMLElement\\|noframes\\|Frame Support Fallback\\|deprecated\\=1}} }}\n{{defn\\|1\\= Contains normal HTML content for user agents that do not support {{tag\\|frame\\|s}} elements.}}\n{{defn\\|'''Standardized''' in \\[\\[\\#HTML401\\|HTML 4\\.0]] Transitional, '''obsolete''' in HTML5\\.}}",
"{{term\\|term\\=iframe \\|content\\= {{XMLElement\\|iframe\\|Inline Frame}} }}\n{{defn\\|1\\= An inline frame places another HTML document in a frame. Unlike an {{tag\\|object\\|s}} element, an {{tag\\|iframe\\|o}} can be the \"target\" frame for links defined by other elements, and it can be selected by the user agent as the focus for printing, viewing its source, and so on.",
"The content of the element is used as alternative text to be displayed if the browser does not support inline frames.",
"A separate document is linked to a frame using the `src` attribute inside the {{tag\\|iframe\\|s}}, an inline HTML code is embedded to a frame using the `srcdoc` attribute inside the {{tag\\|iframe\\|s}} element.}}\n{{defn\\|First introduced by Microsoft Internet Explorer in 1997, '''standardized''' in \\[\\[\\#HTML401\\|HTML 4\\.0]] Transitional, '''allowed''' in HTML5\\.}}\n{{glossary end}}",
"### `longdesc` attribute",
"In [HTML](/wiki/HTML \"HTML\"), **`longdesc`** is an attribute used within the {{tag\\|img\\|s}}, {{tag\\|frame\\|s}}, or {{tag\\|iframe\\|o}} elements. It is supposed to be a [URL](/wiki/URL \"URL\"){{refn\\|group\\=note\\|Strictly an \\[\\[Internationalized resource identifier\\|IRI]], not a URL; although URLs are a subset of IRIs.}} to a document that provides a **long description** for the image, frame, or iframe in question.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.w3\\.org/TR/REC\\-html40/struct/objects.html\\|title\\=Objects, Images, and Applets\\|publisher\\=W3C\\|access\\-date\\=2008\\-12\\-20}} This attribute should contain a URL, {{em\\|not}} – as is commonly mistaken – the text of the description itself.",
"`longdesc` was designed to be used by [screen readers](/wiki/Screen_reader \"Screen reader\") to display image information for computer users with [accessibility](/wiki/Accessibility \"Accessibility\") issues, such as the blind or [visually impaired](/wiki/Visual_impairment \"Visual impairment\"), and is widely implemented by both web browsers and screen readers.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.w3\\.org/html/wg/wiki/ChangeProposals/InstateLongdesc/Implementation\\|title\\=InState Longdesc\\|access\\-date\\=2011\\-09\\-05}} Some developers object that{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.webaim.org/techniques/images/longdesc.php\\#longdesc\\|title\\=Creating Accessible Images\\|publisher\\=WebAim\\|access\\-date\\=2008\\-12\\-20}} it is actually seldom used for this purpose because there are relatively few authors who use the attribute and most of those authors use it incorrectly; thus, they recommend deprecating `longdesc`.{{citation\\|url\\=http://wiki.whatwg.org/wiki/Longdesc\\_usage \\|title\\=Longdesc usage \\- WHATWG Wiki \\|publisher\\=Wiki.whatwg.org \\|access\\-date\\=2012\\-03\\-26}} The publishing industry has responded, advocating the retention of `longdesc`.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.w3\\.org/Bugs/Public/show\\_bug.cgi?id\\=13461\\|title\\=Bug 13461 \\- Commentary on Issue \\#30 (longdesc) from the Association of American Publishers \\|access\\-date\\=2011\\-09\\-05}}",
"#### Example",
"",
"\\<img src\\=\"Hello.jpg\" longdesc\\=\"description.html\"\\>",
"Content of `description.html`:",
"\\<br /\\>\n\\<p\\>This is an image of a two\\-layered birthday cake.\\</p\\>\n...",
"",
"#### Linking to the long description in the text",
"Since very few graphical browsers support making the link available natively (Opera and iCab being the exceptions), it is useful to include a link to the description page near the {{tag\\|img\\|s}} element whenever possible, as this can also aid sighted users.",
"##### Example",
"",
"\\<img src\\=\"Hello.jpg\" longdesc\\=\"description.html\" /\\> \\[\\<a href\\=\n\"description.html\" title\\=\"long description of the image\"\\>D\\</a\\>]",
"",
"",
""
] |
Decline
-------
In January and February 1860, Frank Leslie's *New York Illustrated Weekly* ran a series of articles condemning the Sons of Malta as an organization encouraging immorality and published a detailed account of their initiation. This is generally considered to have dealt a fatal blow to the S.O.M.{{\#tag:ref\|"A year or so after Plymouth \[Indiana] lodge was organized, Frank Leslie's New York Illustrated Weekly published the ritual in full, illustrating the scenes through which the candidate seeking. to penetrate the arcana of mysteries, or 'powers of numbers,' had to pass, giving all the signs, grips and passwords and everything else connected with its secret workings. This was the death knell of the order, and the members of Plymouth lodge decided to surrender the 'charter,' and close up the affairs of the lodge."McDonald, Daniel, 1908, ''A Twentieth Century History of Marshall County, Indiana, Volume 1'', Lewis Publishing Company, Marshall County, Indiana\|group\=Note}}
Another cause claimed for the organization's decline was the paralysis and eventual death of George Harding resulting from his initiatory hazing at the Lafayette, Indiana: "Harding was an intensely earnest man, and took the initiation to be a serious affair; being told by the grand conductor that from the elevated railway he would be plunged into a lake, he contracted his muscles and nerved himself for the battle with the waves. When he struck the \[wet] blanket the shock was too great for his nerves...His sufferings and death were the death knell of the Sons of Malta, not only in Lafayette, but throughout the United States.Newport Mercury Newport, (Rhode Island), November 10, 1883, attributed to the Lafayette, Indiana, Courier
A third factor is cited by *The Cyclopædia of Fraternities*: "When the available material at a given city or town was exhausted, Councils of the Sons of Malta naturally became dormant and ultimately died out. Existing only to initiate, they became extinct when candidates were scarce."
A National Encampment (also called a "Grand Encampment" in some newspaper reports) was held in Washington, D.C. on Feb. 15, 1860, "the object being a thorough revision of the laws and ritual of the order."Cincinnati Daily Press (Cincinnati, Ohio), February 16, 1860 Representatives from the National Encampment were received by President Buchanan:The New York Times (New York, New York), February 22, 1860 "So solemn was the scene that several portly delegates were evidently convulsed with emotion (or secret laughter), and the Union was regarded as safe. Owners of ships, stocks, States, and the Order took courage," as Benjamin Poore later wrote in his recollections.Poore, Benjamin Perley, 1866\. *Perley's Reminiscences of Sixty Years in the National Metropolis*, Hubbard Brothers, Philadelphia
Despite the efforts of the National Encampment, many or most S.O.M. lodges gave up their charters, if they had them, or otherwise ceased to function soon after the New York Illustrated Weekly articles appeared.
* Two days after reporting on the National Encampment, the *Cincinnati Daily Press* printed the item: "The two lodges of the Sons of Malta in Providence, R.I., have ceased to be. The order seems fading out fast."Cincinnati Daily Press (Cincinnati, Ohio), February 18, 1860
* The Fort Scott, Kansas, lodge disbanded in April of 1860: "This lodge was kept up until April, 1860, when we had succeeded in initiating about every man that was in town. At the closing up they had a torch\-light procession and marched around the Fort parade ground several times, each member carrying a roll of paper...after a speech by Wyllys Ransom, who was the grand master, explaining the aims of the lodge had been accomplished, and for fear the outside world might get hold of the records they would now burn them..." After solemnly burning the "records" the lodge members returned to their hall, where the ladies of the town met them for a dance.Goodlander, Charles W., 1900, *Memoirs and recollections of C. W. Goodlander of the early days of Fort Scott, from April 29, 1858, to January 1, 1870*, Monitor Printing Co., Fort Scott, Kansas.
The Sons of Malta did not completely disappear immediately after the articles in the *New York Illustrated Weekly*, however:
* There were still lodges in St. Joseph, Missouri and Leavenworth, Kansas in December 1860, though very much in decline. An item in the December 12, 1860, *Daily Times* of Leavenworth headed "SONS OF MALTA" reads, "The St. Joseph 'Gazette' says that 'this ancient and honorable institution has not been in a very flourishing condition' in that city, and that the treasury is empty. We regret to say that the 'Sons' in this neighborhood are in no better circumstances." The Easton, PA, Minehaha Lodge, founded in 1857, was the final lodge in existence when it closed in 1903\.{{cite web\|url\=http://lcpdams.librarycompany.org:8881/R/?func\=dbin\-jump\-full\&object\_id\=65821\&local\_base\=GEN01 \|title\=DigiTool \- Results \- Full \|publisher\=Lcpdams.librarycompany.org:8881 \|date\=1996\-08\-20 \|accessdate\=2015\-05\-31}}
* The *New York Advertiser* of February 27, 1861, carried a piece titled, "The last of the Sons of Malta," detailing the end of New York City's Pro Patria Lodge.{{\#tag:ref\|The 'ancient and honorable order of the Sons of Malta,' which is represented as being 'ancient because the memory of man knoweth not its origin, and honorable because the great and wise of every age have been numbered with its firm and steadfast supporters,' came to a complete, if not inglorious end, this forenoon. The furniture of Pro Patria Lodge, the largest, most thoroughly equipped, and most famous in the United States, was sold at auction, under mortgage, at 11 o'clock, together with all the regalia and warlike implements, which seem to have entered largely into the initiatory services of this mystic brotherhood.
The sale occurred in the lodge\-room, a spacious hall at 814 Broadway, the first floor from the roof and the fifth from the earth.\-\-The hall was fitted up in a peculiar style of elegance. The floor was richly carpeted, and the room was surrounded by long sofas, white the walls were decorated with twenty\-four knights in armor, with tapestry, and with the red cross of St. John, which appears to have been the symbol of the order.
The articles sold were classified as follows: 1st, the useful; 2d, the instrumental; 3d, the ornamental and mystical. Under the first head, were sold the sofas, chairs, carpets, \&c, one of the carpets containing three hundred yards, and selling for seventy\-five cents the yard, half what it cost. Under the second head were sold an Alexandria organ, which was started at $50, and sold at $90\. Also, a Chinese gong, which, the 'brothers' assert, was formerly owned by the Emperor Chow Chow, and which brought $11\. An immense tin trumpet and a quantity of horns were also sold, for a trifle.
Under the third head were sold five 'bloodless swords.' When the auctioneer reached these articles, one of the initiated called out at the top of his voice, 'Now left the stranger feel the height of the sword! Now, stranger, be strong and brave, and leap with all your might, for this will put your courage to the test!'\-\-whereupon, those who appeared to understand it laughed heartily, and outsiders concluded that this must have been a part of the initiation ceremonies.
According to the handbill, these swords were 'made of Damascus steel, and used in the terrible wars of the Knights of Malta, with roast beet and plum pudding, eighteen hundred years before the deluge,' and 'were presented to Pro Patria Lodge by Alexander the Great.' Among them was said to be the celebrated sword which was suspended by a single thread The purchasers, however, did not seem to be impressed with their great value for the five swords only brought five dollars.
Then there were five terrible tin spears, which were sold in a lot for four shillings.\-\-Then seven helmets, said to have descended from the Crusaders, under Peter the Hermit, with vizors complete, were also sold in a lot for the same amount. Then came the mail and armor, which went on like easy terms, five or six shillings paying for the whole.\-\-Next were sold eight rusty muskets, with fixed bayonets, four shillings each. Several hundred dominoes, with cowls, black and white, were sold at twelve and fifteen cents apiece. 'The Rugged Path' was not sold, but judging from its appearance the 'strangers' who passed over it must have had a rough journey over the rollers.
After the furniture and other articles named had been sold, the auctioneer withdrew to the back room, and proceeded to sell regalia, which he said must not be exposed to the gaze of the uninitiated. The mystic volume, said to be a large illustrated octave work, was sold unseen.
The 'sacred bath,' however, was displayed to the crowd. It sold for $1\.50, and appeared to be nothing more nor less than a large punch bowl.
In conclusion, the 'brothers' joined in a song, to the tune of 'Auld Lang Syne,' beginning\-\-
'When old Maltesia first was born.'
The crowd dispersed; and thus ends the mystic brotherhood of the I. O. S. M."{{cite web\|url\=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc\=Perseus%3Atext%3A2006\.05\.0053%3Aarticle%3Dpos%3D89 \|title\=The Daily Dispatch: February 27, 1861\., \[Electronic resource], The last of the Sons of Malta \|publisher\=Perseus.tufts.edu \|date\= \|accessdate\=2015\-05\-31}}\|group\=Note}}
+ The Easton, PA, Minehaha Lodge, founded in 1857, was the final lodge in existence when it closed in 1903\.
|
[
"Decline\n-------",
"In January and February 1860, Frank Leslie's *New York Illustrated Weekly* ran a series of articles condemning the Sons of Malta as an organization encouraging immorality and published a detailed account of their initiation. This is generally considered to have dealt a fatal blow to the S.O.M.{{\\#tag:ref\\|\"A year or so after Plymouth \\[Indiana] lodge was organized, Frank Leslie's New York Illustrated Weekly published the ritual in full, illustrating the scenes through which the candidate seeking. to penetrate the arcana of mysteries, or 'powers of numbers,' had to pass, giving all the signs, grips and passwords and everything else connected with its secret workings. This was the death knell of the order, and the members of Plymouth lodge decided to surrender the 'charter,' and close up the affairs of the lodge.\"McDonald, Daniel, 1908, ''A Twentieth Century History of Marshall County, Indiana, Volume 1'', Lewis Publishing Company, Marshall County, Indiana\\|group\\=Note}}",
"Another cause claimed for the organization's decline was the paralysis and eventual death of George Harding resulting from his initiatory hazing at the Lafayette, Indiana: \"Harding was an intensely earnest man, and took the initiation to be a serious affair; being told by the grand conductor that from the elevated railway he would be plunged into a lake, he contracted his muscles and nerved himself for the battle with the waves. When he struck the \\[wet] blanket the shock was too great for his nerves...His sufferings and death were the death knell of the Sons of Malta, not only in Lafayette, but throughout the United States.Newport Mercury Newport, (Rhode Island), November 10, 1883, attributed to the Lafayette, Indiana, Courier",
"A third factor is cited by *The Cyclopædia of Fraternities*: \"When the available material at a given city or town was exhausted, Councils of the Sons of Malta naturally became dormant and ultimately died out. Existing only to initiate, they became extinct when candidates were scarce.\"",
"A National Encampment (also called a \"Grand Encampment\" in some newspaper reports) was held in Washington, D.C. on Feb. 15, 1860, \"the object being a thorough revision of the laws and ritual of the order.\"Cincinnati Daily Press (Cincinnati, Ohio), February 16, 1860 Representatives from the National Encampment were received by President Buchanan:The New York Times (New York, New York), February 22, 1860 \"So solemn was the scene that several portly delegates were evidently convulsed with emotion (or secret laughter), and the Union was regarded as safe. Owners of ships, stocks, States, and the Order took courage,\" as Benjamin Poore later wrote in his recollections.Poore, Benjamin Perley, 1866\\. *Perley's Reminiscences of Sixty Years in the National Metropolis*, Hubbard Brothers, Philadelphia",
"Despite the efforts of the National Encampment, many or most S.O.M. lodges gave up their charters, if they had them, or otherwise ceased to function soon after the New York Illustrated Weekly articles appeared.\n* Two days after reporting on the National Encampment, the *Cincinnati Daily Press* printed the item: \"The two lodges of the Sons of Malta in Providence, R.I., have ceased to be. The order seems fading out fast.\"Cincinnati Daily Press (Cincinnati, Ohio), February 18, 1860\n* The Fort Scott, Kansas, lodge disbanded in April of 1860: \"This lodge was kept up until April, 1860, when we had succeeded in initiating about every man that was in town. At the closing up they had a torch\\-light procession and marched around the Fort parade ground several times, each member carrying a roll of paper...after a speech by Wyllys Ransom, who was the grand master, explaining the aims of the lodge had been accomplished, and for fear the outside world might get hold of the records they would now burn them...\" After solemnly burning the \"records\" the lodge members returned to their hall, where the ladies of the town met them for a dance.Goodlander, Charles W., 1900, *Memoirs and recollections of C. W. Goodlander of the early days of Fort Scott, from April 29, 1858, to January 1, 1870*, Monitor Printing Co., Fort Scott, Kansas.",
"The Sons of Malta did not completely disappear immediately after the articles in the *New York Illustrated Weekly*, however:\n* There were still lodges in St. Joseph, Missouri and Leavenworth, Kansas in December 1860, though very much in decline. An item in the December 12, 1860, *Daily Times* of Leavenworth headed \"SONS OF MALTA\" reads, \"The St. Joseph 'Gazette' says that 'this ancient and honorable institution has not been in a very flourishing condition' in that city, and that the treasury is empty. We regret to say that the 'Sons' in this neighborhood are in no better circumstances.\" The Easton, PA, Minehaha Lodge, founded in 1857, was the final lodge in existence when it closed in 1903\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://lcpdams.librarycompany.org:8881/R/?func\\=dbin\\-jump\\-full\\&object\\_id\\=65821\\&local\\_base\\=GEN01 \\|title\\=DigiTool \\- Results \\- Full \\|publisher\\=Lcpdams.librarycompany.org:8881 \\|date\\=1996\\-08\\-20 \\|accessdate\\=2015\\-05\\-31}}\n* The *New York Advertiser* of February 27, 1861, carried a piece titled, \"The last of the Sons of Malta,\" detailing the end of New York City's Pro Patria Lodge.{{\\#tag:ref\\|The 'ancient and honorable order of the Sons of Malta,' which is represented as being 'ancient because the memory of man knoweth not its origin, and honorable because the great and wise of every age have been numbered with its firm and steadfast supporters,' came to a complete, if not inglorious end, this forenoon. The furniture of Pro Patria Lodge, the largest, most thoroughly equipped, and most famous in the United States, was sold at auction, under mortgage, at 11 o'clock, together with all the regalia and warlike implements, which seem to have entered largely into the initiatory services of this mystic brotherhood.",
"The sale occurred in the lodge\\-room, a spacious hall at 814 Broadway, the first floor from the roof and the fifth from the earth.\\-\\-The hall was fitted up in a peculiar style of elegance. The floor was richly carpeted, and the room was surrounded by long sofas, white the walls were decorated with twenty\\-four knights in armor, with tapestry, and with the red cross of St. John, which appears to have been the symbol of the order.",
"The articles sold were classified as follows: 1st, the useful; 2d, the instrumental; 3d, the ornamental and mystical. Under the first head, were sold the sofas, chairs, carpets, \\&c, one of the carpets containing three hundred yards, and selling for seventy\\-five cents the yard, half what it cost. Under the second head were sold an Alexandria organ, which was started at $50, and sold at $90\\. Also, a Chinese gong, which, the 'brothers' assert, was formerly owned by the Emperor Chow Chow, and which brought $11\\. An immense tin trumpet and a quantity of horns were also sold, for a trifle.",
"Under the third head were sold five 'bloodless swords.' When the auctioneer reached these articles, one of the initiated called out at the top of his voice, 'Now left the stranger feel the height of the sword! Now, stranger, be strong and brave, and leap with all your might, for this will put your courage to the test!'\\-\\-whereupon, those who appeared to understand it laughed heartily, and outsiders concluded that this must have been a part of the initiation ceremonies.",
"According to the handbill, these swords were 'made of Damascus steel, and used in the terrible wars of the Knights of Malta, with roast beet and plum pudding, eighteen hundred years before the deluge,' and 'were presented to Pro Patria Lodge by Alexander the Great.' Among them was said to be the celebrated sword which was suspended by a single thread The purchasers, however, did not seem to be impressed with their great value for the five swords only brought five dollars.",
"Then there were five terrible tin spears, which were sold in a lot for four shillings.\\-\\-Then seven helmets, said to have descended from the Crusaders, under Peter the Hermit, with vizors complete, were also sold in a lot for the same amount. Then came the mail and armor, which went on like easy terms, five or six shillings paying for the whole.\\-\\-Next were sold eight rusty muskets, with fixed bayonets, four shillings each. Several hundred dominoes, with cowls, black and white, were sold at twelve and fifteen cents apiece. 'The Rugged Path' was not sold, but judging from its appearance the 'strangers' who passed over it must have had a rough journey over the rollers.",
"After the furniture and other articles named had been sold, the auctioneer withdrew to the back room, and proceeded to sell regalia, which he said must not be exposed to the gaze of the uninitiated. The mystic volume, said to be a large illustrated octave work, was sold unseen.",
"The 'sacred bath,' however, was displayed to the crowd. It sold for $1\\.50, and appeared to be nothing more nor less than a large punch bowl.",
"In conclusion, the 'brothers' joined in a song, to the tune of 'Auld Lang Syne,' beginning\\-\\-",
"'When old Maltesia first was born.'",
"The crowd dispersed; and thus ends the mystic brotherhood of the I. O. S. M.\"{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc\\=Perseus%3Atext%3A2006\\.05\\.0053%3Aarticle%3Dpos%3D89 \\|title\\=The Daily Dispatch: February 27, 1861\\., \\[Electronic resource], The last of the Sons of Malta \\|publisher\\=Perseus.tufts.edu \\|date\\= \\|accessdate\\=2015\\-05\\-31}}\\|group\\=Note}}\n\t+ The Easton, PA, Minehaha Lodge, founded in 1857, was the final lodge in existence when it closed in 1903\\.",
""
] |
Career
------
In 1979, at the age of twenty, Blow became the first rapper to be signed by a major label, [Mercury](/wiki/Mercury_Records "Mercury Records"), which released "Christmas Rappin'".{{cite web\|url\=http://www.billboard.com/artist/306188/kurtis\-blow/biography\|title\=Kurtis Blow – Biography\|access\-date\=December 17, 2014\|website\=billboard.com\|publisher\=Rovi\|last\=Huey\|first\=Steve\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161109193131/http://www.billboard.com/artist/306188/kurtis\-blow/biography\|archive\-date\=November 9, 2016\|url\-status\=dead}} It sold over 400,000 copies, becoming one of the first commercially successful hip hop singles.{{cite book\|last\=George\|first\=Nelson\|author\-link\=Nelson George\|date\=1988\|title\=The Death of Rhythm \& Blues\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=GgHIe\-GFjZUC\&pg\=PT193\|location\=New York, NY\|publisher\=Pantheon Books\|page\=191\|isbn\=0142004081\|access\-date\=June 16, 2015}} Its follow\-up, "[The Breaks](/wiki/The_Breaks_%28song%29 "The Breaks (song)")", sold over 840,000 copies. He released ten albums over the next eleven years. His first album was *[Kurtis Blow](/wiki/Kurtis_Blow_%28album%29 "Kurtis Blow (album)")*, while his second was the [top 40](/wiki/Top_40 "Top 40") R\&B album *[Deuce](/wiki/Deuce_%28Kurtis_Blow_album%29 "Deuce (Kurtis Blow album)")*. *Party Time* featured a fusion of rap and [go\-go](/wiki/Go-go "Go-go"). *Ego Trip* included the hits: "8 Million Stories", "AJ Scratch", and "Basketball". His 1985 album, *America*, garnered praise for its title track's music video. From this album, the song "If I Ruled the World" became a top 5 [hit](/wiki/Hit_record "Hit record") on *[Billboard](/wiki/Billboard_%28magazine%29 "Billboard (magazine)")'*s [R\&B](/wiki/Hot_R%26B/Hip-Hop_Songs "Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs") [chart](/wiki/Record_chart "Record chart"). By 1983, he moved into production.
He lived in [Co\-op City](/wiki/Co-op_City "Co-op City") in [the Bronx](/wiki/The_Bronx "The Bronx") in the mid\-1980s.{{cite web\|url\=http://hiphopruckus.com/2009/02/on\-da\-come\-up\-with\-clap\-cognac.html\|title\=On Da Come Up with Clap Cognac\|website\=HipHopRuckus.com\|date\=February 24, 2009\|accessdate\=June 13, 2009}}
Besides his own work, Blow has been responsible for hits by [The Fat Boys](/wiki/The_Fat_Boys "The Fat Boys") and [Run DMC](/wiki/Run_DMC "Run DMC"). Run began his career billed as 'The Son of Kurtis Blow'. [Lovebug Starski](/wiki/Lovebug_Starski "Lovebug Starski"), [Full Force](/wiki/Full_Force "Full Force"), [Russell Simmons](/wiki/Russell_Simmons "Russell Simmons") and [Wyclef Jean](/wiki/Wyclef_Jean "Wyclef Jean") all have been produced by, or collaborated with, Walker. Former label mates [René \& Angela](/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_%26_Angela "René & Angela") had their R\&B chart topping debut "[Save Your Love (For \#1\)](/wiki/Save_Your_Love_%28Rene_%26_Angela_song%29 "Save Your Love (Rene & Angela song)")" was gift rapped by Blow. Walker produced, with Phillip Jones as co\-producer and [Dexter Scott King](/wiki/Dexter_Scott_King "Dexter Scott King") as executive producer, the song "[King Holiday](/wiki/King_Holiday "King Holiday")", celebrating the first [Martin Luther King Jr. Day](/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr._Day "Martin Luther King Jr. Day"), a U.S. federal holiday inaugurated in January 1986\.{{cite book\|title\=\[\[Encyclopedia of Popular Music\|The Virgin Encyclopedia of Popular Music]]\|editor\=Colin Larkin\|editor\-link\=Colin Larkin (writer)\|publisher\=\[\[Virgin Books]]\|date\=1997\|edition\=Concise\|isbn\=1\-85227\-745\-9\|page\=151}}
He performed as an actor and in music coordination in several feature films including Leon Kennedy's *Knights of the City* and the hip hop film *[Krush Groove](/wiki/Krush_Groove "Krush Groove").* He was host and co\-producer for *Das Leben Amerikanischer Gangs* (1995\), an international film production focusing on the West Coast gang scene. As host and associate producer for Miramax's *Rhyme and Reason*, he gave an informative account of the status of hip hop, while he participated in the three volume record release *The History of Rap* for Rhino Records in 1998\. Blow also co\-produced "Slippin, Ten Years with the Bloods" and won praises from Showtime for being the most viewed documentary in 2003\. Blow was recently a producer for the Netflix show *The Get Down*.
Blow has spoken out emphatically against racism. He was an active participant in the [Artists United Against Apartheid](/wiki/Artists_United_Against_Apartheid "Artists United Against Apartheid") record "[Sun City](/wiki/Sun_City_%28song%29 "Sun City (song)")". He worked with Rev. [Jesse Jackson](/wiki/Jesse_Jackson "Jesse Jackson")'s [Operation Push](/wiki/Operation_Push "Operation Push") and [National Rainbow Coalition](/wiki/Rainbow/PUSH%23National_Rainbow_Coalition "Rainbow/PUSH#National Rainbow Coalition") in Chicago and with Rev. [Al Sharpton](/wiki/Al_Sharpton "Al Sharpton")'s Action Network in New York City. In 1995, he started working on\-air in radio, Power 106, the No. 1 [CHR](/wiki/Contemporary_hit_radio "Contemporary hit radio") radio station in [Southern California](/wiki/Southern_California "Southern California"). He hosted *The Old School Show* on Sunday nights, featuring hits from the past. He also worked for [Sirius Satellite Radio](/wiki/Sirius_Satellite_Radio "Sirius Satellite Radio") on the Classic Old School Hip Hop station Backspin (Channel 46\) from 2000 to 2004\.
Beginning in 1996, Kurtis Blow was featured in a hip hop display at the [Rock and Roll Hall of Fame](/wiki/Rock_and_Roll_Hall_of_Fame "Rock and Roll Hall of Fame"). In the same year, rapper [Nas](/wiki/Nas "Nas") debuted at No. 53 on the [*Billboard* Hot 100](/wiki/Billboard_Hot_100 "Billboard Hot 100") with his version of Blow's "If I Ruled the World". The song went on to double platinum. In 1998, the group [Next](/wiki/Next_%28American_group%29 "Next (American group)") released "[Too Close](/wiki/Too_Close_%28Next_song%29 "Too Close (Next song)")", in which the music of "Christmas Rappin'" was [sampled](/wiki/Sampling_%28music%29 "Sampling (music)"). [ASCAP](/wiki/ASCAP "ASCAP") honored Blow and Next at a gala affair on May 26, 1999 for having the number one song for 8 months. In 2002, he traveled to the Middle East to tour the Armed Forces bases performing seventeen shows for the troops.
In December 2014, Blow was the Guest MC for the world premiere of *[The Hip Hop Nutcracker](/wiki/The_Nutcracker "The Nutcracker")* at [New Jersey Performing Arts Center](/wiki/New_Jersey_Performing_Arts_Center "New Jersey Performing Arts Center"), a well received update of Tchaikovsky's holiday classic. A national tour of the show was scheduled to launch in November 2015 with Kurtis Blow reprising his role as Guest MC opening the show. The show has presently been up and running with 50–60 sold\-out performances during the holidays.
In 2016 Blow was unanimously elected as Chairman of the Universal Hip Hop Museum. The museum is slated to open in 2023 in the Bronx point section of NYC.{{cite web\|title\=Kurtis Blow to chair Hip Hop Museum\|url\=http://www.tv3\.ie/xpose/article/entertainment\-news/229771/Kurtis\-Blow\-to\-chair\-Hip\-Hop\-Museum\|website\=tv3\.ie\|access\-date\=3 November 2017\|date\=January 31, 2017}} In 2017, Blow formed "The Bboy Committee", a group of 1st generation Bboys/Girls, who created the style of dance called Bboying, Rocking, and Break Dancing. The members of the Bboy Committee are as follows: Trixie (Lauree Myers), RIP Wallace D, Dancing Doug (Douglas Colon), A1 Bboy Sasa, DJ Clark Kent (Tyrone Smith), the Legendary Smith Twins, the Zulu Kings and Cholly Rock (Anthony G. Horne), OG BGirl – Darlene Rivers, "Puppet" (William "Billy Bill" Waring), Darryl Solomon (The Mad Hatter), Kurtis Blow, Lil Cesar Rivas, and Shabba\-Doo. The committee is dedicated to the facilitation of the Bboy section of the Universal Hip Hop Museum.{{cite web\|title\=1st Generations Bboys on MSNBC\|url\=https://www.msnbc.com/the\-beat\-with\-ari/watch/chuck\-d\-and\-breakdancing\-legend\-b\-boys\-on\-politics\-and\-culture\-1434890819991\|website\=tv3\.ie\|access\-date\=3 January 2019\|date\=January 30, 2019}}
Blow became an ordained minister on August 16, 2009\. As the founder of the Hip Hop Church in Harlem, Blow serves as rapper, DJ, worship leader and licensed minister.{{cite news\|url\=https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId\=111696980\|website\=NPR.org\|title\=Rapper Turned Minister Kurtis Blow Is 50\|date\=August 9, 2009\|access\-date\=December 17, 2014}}
In 2016, Kurtis Blow appeared in a documentary on the evolution of hip hop, *[Hip\-Hop Evolution](/wiki/Hip-Hop_Evolution "Hip-Hop Evolution")*.{{cite web\|url\=https://hiphopdx.com/videos/id.25405/title.hip\-hop\-evolution\-documentary\-arrives\-on\-netflix\|title\="Hip Hop Evolution" Documentary Arrives On Netflix\|date\=2016\-12\-07\|website\=HipHopDX\|access\-date\=2019\-11\-09}} Hosted by Canadian rapper and broadcaster [Shad](/wiki/Shad_%28rapper%29 "Shad (rapper)"), the series profiled the history of [hip\-hop music](/wiki/Hip-hop_music "Hip-hop music") through interviews with many of the genre's leading cultural figures. The series was produced by [Russell Peters](/wiki/Russell_Peters "Russell Peters"), [Scot McFadyen](/wiki/Scot_McFadyen "Scot McFadyen"), [Sam Dunn](/wiki/Sam_Dunn "Sam Dunn") and [Nelson George](/wiki/Nelson_George "Nelson George"). It won the 2016 [Peabody Award](/wiki/Peabody_Award "Peabody Award"),{{cite web\|url\=http://www.peabodyawards.com/award\-profile/hip\-hop\-evolution\|title\=Hip\-Hop Evolution\|website\=www.peabodyawards.com\|language\=en\|access\-date\=2019\-11\-09}} and the 2017 [International Emmy Award for Best Arts Programming](/wiki/International_Emmy_Award_for_Best_Arts_Programming "International Emmy Award for Best Arts Programming").{{cite web\|url\=https://www.thestar.com/entertainment/television/2017/11/21/canadian\-documentary\-series\-hip\-hop\-evolution\-wins\-international\-emmy\-award.html\|title\=Canadian documentary series Hip\-Hop Evolution wins International Emmy Award {{!}} The Star\|website\=thestar.com\|date\=November 21, 2017 \|language\=en\|access\-date\=2019\-11\-09}} The series has been broadcast on Netflix.
|
[
"Career\n------",
"In 1979, at the age of twenty, Blow became the first rapper to be signed by a major label, [Mercury](/wiki/Mercury_Records \"Mercury Records\"), which released \"Christmas Rappin'\".{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.billboard.com/artist/306188/kurtis\\-blow/biography\\|title\\=Kurtis Blow – Biography\\|access\\-date\\=December 17, 2014\\|website\\=billboard.com\\|publisher\\=Rovi\\|last\\=Huey\\|first\\=Steve\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161109193131/http://www.billboard.com/artist/306188/kurtis\\-blow/biography\\|archive\\-date\\=November 9, 2016\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} It sold over 400,000 copies, becoming one of the first commercially successful hip hop singles.{{cite book\\|last\\=George\\|first\\=Nelson\\|author\\-link\\=Nelson George\\|date\\=1988\\|title\\=The Death of Rhythm \\& Blues\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=GgHIe\\-GFjZUC\\&pg\\=PT193\\|location\\=New York, NY\\|publisher\\=Pantheon Books\\|page\\=191\\|isbn\\=0142004081\\|access\\-date\\=June 16, 2015}} Its follow\\-up, \"[The Breaks](/wiki/The_Breaks_%28song%29 \"The Breaks (song)\")\", sold over 840,000 copies. He released ten albums over the next eleven years. His first album was *[Kurtis Blow](/wiki/Kurtis_Blow_%28album%29 \"Kurtis Blow (album)\")*, while his second was the [top 40](/wiki/Top_40 \"Top 40\") R\\&B album *[Deuce](/wiki/Deuce_%28Kurtis_Blow_album%29 \"Deuce (Kurtis Blow album)\")*. *Party Time* featured a fusion of rap and [go\\-go](/wiki/Go-go \"Go-go\"). *Ego Trip* included the hits: \"8 Million Stories\", \"AJ Scratch\", and \"Basketball\". His 1985 album, *America*, garnered praise for its title track's music video. From this album, the song \"If I Ruled the World\" became a top 5 [hit](/wiki/Hit_record \"Hit record\") on *[Billboard](/wiki/Billboard_%28magazine%29 \"Billboard (magazine)\")'*s [R\\&B](/wiki/Hot_R%26B/Hip-Hop_Songs \"Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs\") [chart](/wiki/Record_chart \"Record chart\"). By 1983, he moved into production.",
"He lived in [Co\\-op City](/wiki/Co-op_City \"Co-op City\") in [the Bronx](/wiki/The_Bronx \"The Bronx\") in the mid\\-1980s.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://hiphopruckus.com/2009/02/on\\-da\\-come\\-up\\-with\\-clap\\-cognac.html\\|title\\=On Da Come Up with Clap Cognac\\|website\\=HipHopRuckus.com\\|date\\=February 24, 2009\\|accessdate\\=June 13, 2009}}",
"Besides his own work, Blow has been responsible for hits by [The Fat Boys](/wiki/The_Fat_Boys \"The Fat Boys\") and [Run DMC](/wiki/Run_DMC \"Run DMC\"). Run began his career billed as 'The Son of Kurtis Blow'. [Lovebug Starski](/wiki/Lovebug_Starski \"Lovebug Starski\"), [Full Force](/wiki/Full_Force \"Full Force\"), [Russell Simmons](/wiki/Russell_Simmons \"Russell Simmons\") and [Wyclef Jean](/wiki/Wyclef_Jean \"Wyclef Jean\") all have been produced by, or collaborated with, Walker. Former label mates [René \\& Angela](/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_%26_Angela \"René & Angela\") had their R\\&B chart topping debut \"[Save Your Love (For \\#1\\)](/wiki/Save_Your_Love_%28Rene_%26_Angela_song%29 \"Save Your Love (Rene & Angela song)\")\" was gift rapped by Blow. Walker produced, with Phillip Jones as co\\-producer and [Dexter Scott King](/wiki/Dexter_Scott_King \"Dexter Scott King\") as executive producer, the song \"[King Holiday](/wiki/King_Holiday \"King Holiday\")\", celebrating the first [Martin Luther King Jr. Day](/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr._Day \"Martin Luther King Jr. Day\"), a U.S. federal holiday inaugurated in January 1986\\.{{cite book\\|title\\=\\[\\[Encyclopedia of Popular Music\\|The Virgin Encyclopedia of Popular Music]]\\|editor\\=Colin Larkin\\|editor\\-link\\=Colin Larkin (writer)\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Virgin Books]]\\|date\\=1997\\|edition\\=Concise\\|isbn\\=1\\-85227\\-745\\-9\\|page\\=151}}",
"He performed as an actor and in music coordination in several feature films including Leon Kennedy's *Knights of the City* and the hip hop film *[Krush Groove](/wiki/Krush_Groove \"Krush Groove\").* He was host and co\\-producer for *Das Leben Amerikanischer Gangs* (1995\\), an international film production focusing on the West Coast gang scene. As host and associate producer for Miramax's *Rhyme and Reason*, he gave an informative account of the status of hip hop, while he participated in the three volume record release *The History of Rap* for Rhino Records in 1998\\. Blow also co\\-produced \"Slippin, Ten Years with the Bloods\" and won praises from Showtime for being the most viewed documentary in 2003\\. Blow was recently a producer for the Netflix show *The Get Down*.",
"Blow has spoken out emphatically against racism. He was an active participant in the [Artists United Against Apartheid](/wiki/Artists_United_Against_Apartheid \"Artists United Against Apartheid\") record \"[Sun City](/wiki/Sun_City_%28song%29 \"Sun City (song)\")\". He worked with Rev. [Jesse Jackson](/wiki/Jesse_Jackson \"Jesse Jackson\")'s [Operation Push](/wiki/Operation_Push \"Operation Push\") and [National Rainbow Coalition](/wiki/Rainbow/PUSH%23National_Rainbow_Coalition \"Rainbow/PUSH#National Rainbow Coalition\") in Chicago and with Rev. [Al Sharpton](/wiki/Al_Sharpton \"Al Sharpton\")'s Action Network in New York City. In 1995, he started working on\\-air in radio, Power 106, the No. 1 [CHR](/wiki/Contemporary_hit_radio \"Contemporary hit radio\") radio station in [Southern California](/wiki/Southern_California \"Southern California\"). He hosted *The Old School Show* on Sunday nights, featuring hits from the past. He also worked for [Sirius Satellite Radio](/wiki/Sirius_Satellite_Radio \"Sirius Satellite Radio\") on the Classic Old School Hip Hop station Backspin (Channel 46\\) from 2000 to 2004\\.",
"Beginning in 1996, Kurtis Blow was featured in a hip hop display at the [Rock and Roll Hall of Fame](/wiki/Rock_and_Roll_Hall_of_Fame \"Rock and Roll Hall of Fame\"). In the same year, rapper [Nas](/wiki/Nas \"Nas\") debuted at No. 53 on the [*Billboard* Hot 100](/wiki/Billboard_Hot_100 \"Billboard Hot 100\") with his version of Blow's \"If I Ruled the World\". The song went on to double platinum. In 1998, the group [Next](/wiki/Next_%28American_group%29 \"Next (American group)\") released \"[Too Close](/wiki/Too_Close_%28Next_song%29 \"Too Close (Next song)\")\", in which the music of \"Christmas Rappin'\" was [sampled](/wiki/Sampling_%28music%29 \"Sampling (music)\"). [ASCAP](/wiki/ASCAP \"ASCAP\") honored Blow and Next at a gala affair on May 26, 1999 for having the number one song for 8 months. In 2002, he traveled to the Middle East to tour the Armed Forces bases performing seventeen shows for the troops.",
"In December 2014, Blow was the Guest MC for the world premiere of *[The Hip Hop Nutcracker](/wiki/The_Nutcracker \"The Nutcracker\")* at [New Jersey Performing Arts Center](/wiki/New_Jersey_Performing_Arts_Center \"New Jersey Performing Arts Center\"), a well received update of Tchaikovsky's holiday classic. A national tour of the show was scheduled to launch in November 2015 with Kurtis Blow reprising his role as Guest MC opening the show. The show has presently been up and running with 50–60 sold\\-out performances during the holidays.",
"In 2016 Blow was unanimously elected as Chairman of the Universal Hip Hop Museum. The museum is slated to open in 2023 in the Bronx point section of NYC.{{cite web\\|title\\=Kurtis Blow to chair Hip Hop Museum\\|url\\=http://www.tv3\\.ie/xpose/article/entertainment\\-news/229771/Kurtis\\-Blow\\-to\\-chair\\-Hip\\-Hop\\-Museum\\|website\\=tv3\\.ie\\|access\\-date\\=3 November 2017\\|date\\=January 31, 2017}} In 2017, Blow formed \"The Bboy Committee\", a group of 1st generation Bboys/Girls, who created the style of dance called Bboying, Rocking, and Break Dancing. The members of the Bboy Committee are as follows: Trixie (Lauree Myers), RIP Wallace D, Dancing Doug (Douglas Colon), A1 Bboy Sasa, DJ Clark Kent (Tyrone Smith), the Legendary Smith Twins, the Zulu Kings and Cholly Rock (Anthony G. Horne), OG BGirl – Darlene Rivers, \"Puppet\" (William \"Billy Bill\" Waring), Darryl Solomon (The Mad Hatter), Kurtis Blow, Lil Cesar Rivas, and Shabba\\-Doo. The committee is dedicated to the facilitation of the Bboy section of the Universal Hip Hop Museum.{{cite web\\|title\\=1st Generations Bboys on MSNBC\\|url\\=https://www.msnbc.com/the\\-beat\\-with\\-ari/watch/chuck\\-d\\-and\\-breakdancing\\-legend\\-b\\-boys\\-on\\-politics\\-and\\-culture\\-1434890819991\\|website\\=tv3\\.ie\\|access\\-date\\=3 January 2019\\|date\\=January 30, 2019}}",
"Blow became an ordained minister on August 16, 2009\\. As the founder of the Hip Hop Church in Harlem, Blow serves as rapper, DJ, worship leader and licensed minister.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId\\=111696980\\|website\\=NPR.org\\|title\\=Rapper Turned Minister Kurtis Blow Is 50\\|date\\=August 9, 2009\\|access\\-date\\=December 17, 2014}}",
"In 2016, Kurtis Blow appeared in a documentary on the evolution of hip hop, *[Hip\\-Hop Evolution](/wiki/Hip-Hop_Evolution \"Hip-Hop Evolution\")*.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://hiphopdx.com/videos/id.25405/title.hip\\-hop\\-evolution\\-documentary\\-arrives\\-on\\-netflix\\|title\\=\"Hip Hop Evolution\" Documentary Arrives On Netflix\\|date\\=2016\\-12\\-07\\|website\\=HipHopDX\\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-11\\-09}} Hosted by Canadian rapper and broadcaster [Shad](/wiki/Shad_%28rapper%29 \"Shad (rapper)\"), the series profiled the history of [hip\\-hop music](/wiki/Hip-hop_music \"Hip-hop music\") through interviews with many of the genre's leading cultural figures. The series was produced by [Russell Peters](/wiki/Russell_Peters \"Russell Peters\"), [Scot McFadyen](/wiki/Scot_McFadyen \"Scot McFadyen\"), [Sam Dunn](/wiki/Sam_Dunn \"Sam Dunn\") and [Nelson George](/wiki/Nelson_George \"Nelson George\"). It won the 2016 [Peabody Award](/wiki/Peabody_Award \"Peabody Award\"),{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.peabodyawards.com/award\\-profile/hip\\-hop\\-evolution\\|title\\=Hip\\-Hop Evolution\\|website\\=www.peabodyawards.com\\|language\\=en\\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-11\\-09}} and the 2017 [International Emmy Award for Best Arts Programming](/wiki/International_Emmy_Award_for_Best_Arts_Programming \"International Emmy Award for Best Arts Programming\").{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.thestar.com/entertainment/television/2017/11/21/canadian\\-documentary\\-series\\-hip\\-hop\\-evolution\\-wins\\-international\\-emmy\\-award.html\\|title\\=Canadian documentary series Hip\\-Hop Evolution wins International Emmy Award {{!}} The Star\\|website\\=thestar.com\\|date\\=November 21, 2017 \\|language\\=en\\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-11\\-09}} The series has been broadcast on Netflix.",
""
] |
Systems
-------
### January–June
As the year began, there were two tropical depressions active across the western Pacific. The westernmost one originated on December 29, and moved through the Visayas in the central Philippines before dissipating on January 3 in the South China Sea. It produced heavy rainfall along its track. The other depression formed on December 31 in the Caroline Islands, and also dissipated on January 3\.{{cite report\|title\=Typhoons and Depressions over the Far East, January 1936\|author\=Bernard F. Doucet\|journal\=Monthly Weather Review\|page\=39\|accessdate\=March 19, 2024\|url\=https://journals.ametsoc.org/view/journals/mwre/64/1/1520\-0493\_1936\_64\_29a\_tadotf\_2\_0\_co\_2\.xml?tab\_body\=pdf\|format\=PDF}}
On April 20, a tropical cyclone formed east of the Philippines island of Mindanao. The system moved northwestward, crossing the eastern Visayas and Luzon before dissipating late on April 22\.{{cite web\|url\={{IBTRACS url\|id\=1936111N07132}}\|title\=1936 Not Named (1936111N07132\)\|publisher\=International Best Track Archive for Climate Stewardship\|access\-date\=March 20, 2024}} The New York Times reported that seven people died during the Philippines storm.{{cite news\|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/1936/04/24/archives/7\-die\-in\-philippines\-typhoon.html\|newspaper\=New York Times\|date\=April 24, 1936\|accessdate\=March 20, 2024\|title\=7 Die in Philippines Typhoon}}
On June 29, a tropical cyclone formed in the South China Sea. It moved northwestward, striking the Chinese island of [Hainan](/wiki/Hainan "Hainan") the next day, before dissipating.{{cite web\|url\={{IBTRACS url\|id\=1936181N17113}}\|title\=1936 Not Named (1936181N17113\)\|publisher\=International Best Track Archive for Climate Stewardship\|access\-date\=March 21, 2024}}
### July
On July 1, a typhoon formed east of the Philippines island of Samar. The system moved to the northwest, brushing Luzon on July 4, but sparing the island from strong winds. The typhoon moved across the Luzon Strait before weakening, making landfall in southeastern China near [Shantou](/wiki/Shantou "Shantou") on July 5\. The storm turned northeastward and dissipated by July 6\.{{cite journal\|title\=Typhoons and Depressions over the Far East, July 1936\|volume\=64\|issue\=7\|author\=Reverend Bernard F. Doucette\|journal\=Monthly Weather Review\|date\=1936 \|pages\=248–249 \|doi\=10\.1175/1520\-0493(1936\)64\<248:TADOTF\>2\.0\.CO;2 \|accessdate\=March 21, 2024\|format\=PDF\|url\=https://journals.ametsoc.org/view/journals/mwre/64/7/1520\-0493\_1936\_64\_248\_tadotf\_2\_0\_co\_2\.xml?tab\_body\=pdf\|doi\-access\=free\|bibcode\=1936MWRv...64\..248D }}{{cite web\|url\={{IBTRACS url\|id\=1936184N11130}}\|title\=1936 Not Named (1936184N11130\)\|publisher\=International Best Track Archive for Climate Stewardship\|access\-date\=March 21, 2024}}
Between July 2–4, a [low pressure area](/wiki/Low_pressure_area "Low pressure area") was located over the Caroline Islands, which organized into a depression by July 5 to the northeast of [Yap](/wiki/Yap "Yap"). The system moved west\-northwestward toward the Philippines and intensified. On July 8, the *S.S. Barentsz* encountered the storm, observing a minimum pressure of 970 mbar (28\.65 inHg) as well as typhoon\-force winds. On the next day, the typhoon made landfall in northeastern Luzon near [Tuguegarao](/wiki/Tuguegarao "Tuguegarao"), [Cagayan](/wiki/Cagayan "Cagayan"), where an anemometer recorded a pressure of 991 mbar (29\.27 inHg). The typhoon weakened after crossing Luzon, eventually moving northward into China on July 10, where it soon dissipated. In Tuguegarao where the storm first moved ashore, two people died due to fallen trees. The typhoon sank the *M.S. Marie* near [Palanan](/wiki/Palanan "Palanan"), killing 23 people.{{cite web\|url\={{IBTRACS url\|id\=1936188N09142}}\|title\=1936 Not Named (1936188N09142\)\|publisher\=International Best Track Archive for Climate Stewardship\|access\-date\=March 21, 2024}}{{cite news\|date\=July 21, 1936\|title\=Island Vessel Goes Aground\|url\=https://www.newspaperarchive.com/us/nevada/reno/reno\-evening\-gazette/1936/07\-21/page\-3\|accessdate\=March 21, 2024\|agency\=Associated Press\|newspaper\=Reno Evening Gazette\|page\=3}}
On July 16, a depression was located northwest of Yap. The system moved northwestward and intensified, later turning northward through Japan's [Ryukyu Islands](/wiki/Ryukyu_Island "Ryukyu Island") on July 21\. At that time, the system was a "severe disturbance", according to the [Monthly Weather Review](/wiki/Monthly_Weather_Review "Monthly Weather Review") (MWR). After turning northeastward, the typhoon passed near the west coast of [Kyushu](/wiki/Kyushu "Kyushu") before entering the Sea of Japan on July 23\. A day later, the storm crossed Hokkaido, and was last reported on July 25\. Across Japan, the typhoon killed seven people, while 4,000 houses were flooded. The storm wrecked fishing boats and also washed a [navy ship](/wiki/Imperial_Japanese_Navy "Imperial Japanese Navy") and a submarine ashore the city of [Sasebo](/wiki/Sasebo "Sasebo").{{cite web\|url\={{IBTRACS url\|id\=1936199N10137}}\|title\=1936 Not Named (1936199N10137\)\|publisher\=International Best Track Archive for Climate Stewardship\|access\-date\=March 21, 2024}}{{cite news\|date\=July 21, 1936\|title\=Typhoon South of Japan\|url\=https://www.newspaperarchive.com/au/new\-south\-wales/singleton/singleton\-argus/1936/07\-27/page\-2\|accessdate\=March 23, 2024\|newspaper\=The Singleton Argus\|page\=2}}
On July 18, a depression developed in the South China Sea southwest of Manila. It moved to the northwest and intensified into a typhoon by July 19\. After turning to the west, the typhoon struck what is now Vietnam on July 21, and it quickly dissipated over land.{{cite web\|url\={{IBTRACS url\|id\=1936201N15115}}\|title\=1936 Not Named (1936201N15115\)\|publisher\=International Best Track Archive for Climate Stewardship\|access\-date\=March 21, 2024}}
A depression began developing on July 22 between Yap and Palau. It moved to the west\-northwest toward the Philippines, slowing its forward motion on July 27\. Subsequently the system intensified as it turned northwestward. On July 29, the typhoon moved across Luzon, producing heavy rainfall and killing seven people. The typhoon strengthened further in the South China Sea as it turned to the north. On August 1, [Pratas Island](/wiki/Pratas_Island "Pratas Island") recorded a minimum pressure of 953 mbar (28\.14 inHg). That day, the typhoon struck southeastern China near Shantou. The storm weakened over land as it moved through eastern China, re\-emerging into the East China Sea on August 3\. A day later, the storm was last reported near the Korean peninsula.{{cite web\|url\={{IBTRACS url\|id\=1936210N14132}}\|title\=1936 Not Named (1936210N14132\)\|publisher\=International Best Track Archive for Climate Stewardship\|access\-date\=March 21, 2024}}
A depression formed on July 26 over the western Caroline Islands. The system moved west\-northwestward without much development, dissipating on August 3 to the east of Luzon.
### August
[right\|thumb\|The grounded [USC\&GS Fathomer](/wiki/USC%26GS_Fathomer_%281904%29 "USC&GS Fathomer (1904)") on August 15 due to a typhoon](/wiki/File:USC%26GS_Fathomer_aground.jpg "USC&GS Fathomer aground.jpg")
On August 6, a depression formed northeast of Yap, which proceeded west\-northwesterly. The system intensified into a typhoon as it passed east of the Philippines. On August 12, the typhoon moved through the [Batanes](/wiki/Batanes "Batanes") islands, with a pressure of 995 mbar (29\.34 inHg) reported at [Basco](/wiki/Basco%2C_Batanes "Basco, Batanes"). Turning westward, the storm moved across the South China Sea, crossing China's Hainan island into the Gulf of Tonkin on August 14\. It soon moved ashore and dissipated.{{cite journal\|title\=Typhoons and Depressions over the Far East, August 1936\|volume\=64\|issue\=8\|author\=Reverend Bernard F. Doucette\|journal\=Monthly Weather Review\|date\=1936 \|pages\=278–279 \|doi\=10\.1175/1520\-0493(1936\)64\<278:TADOTF\>2\.0\.CO;2 \|accessdate\=March 24, 2024\|format\=PDF\|url\=https://journals.ametsoc.org/view/journals/mwre/64/8/1520\-0493\_1936\_64\_278\_tadotf\_2\_0\_co\_2\.xml?tab\_body\=pdf\|doi\-access\=free\|bibcode\=1936MWRv...64\..278D }}{{cite web\|url\={{IBTRACS url\|id\=1936220N08143}}\|title\=1936 Not Named (1936220N08143\)\|publisher\=International Best Track Archive for Climate Stewardship\|access\-date\=March 24, 2024}}
Newspapers reported a typhoon in the South China Sea on August 7 that wrecked nine Japanese fishing vessels, killing 68 people, with 136 people rescued.{{cite news\|date\=August 10, 1936\|page\=15\|url\=https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/page/3702044?\|title\=Wrecked by Typhoon\|location\=Perth, Australia\|newspaper\= The West Australian\|accessdate\=March 24, 2024}} However, the August MWR did not record a storm on that date in that location.
A depression originated on August 11 east\-southeast of Yap, which moved to the west\-northwest. The system quickly intensified, and was already at typhoon intensity by the time it passed 120 mi (195 km) south of Yap. After continuing northwestward, the typhoon brushed northeastern Luzon. On August 15, the *[Fathomer](/wiki/USC%26GS_Fathomer_%281904%29 "USC&GS Fathomer (1904)")* rode out the storm at [Port San Vicente](/wiki/Santa_Ana%2C_Cagayan "Santa Ana, Cagayan"), recording a minimum pressure of 913 mbar (26\.96 inHg). Curving northwestward, the typhoon eventually passed near northeastern Luzon on August 16, just four days after another storm in the region. [Aparri](/wiki/Aparri "Aparri") in the Philippine province of [Cagayan](/wiki/Cagayan "Cagayan") recorded a pressure of 948 mbar (28\.01 inHg). Across the Philippines, the typhoon killed 11 people, and also destroyed 90% of the crops in the Cagayan Valley. Proceeding into the South China Sea, the typhoon made landfall in southern China near August 17 near [Hong Kong](/wiki/Hong_Kong "Hong Kong"), which recorded gusts of {{convert\|131\|mph\|km/h\|abbr\=on}} and a pressure of 984 mbar (29\.07 inHg). Newspapers described it as the most severe typhoon since 1923\. Across the region, the typhoon grounded, damaged, or destroyed 60 ships, while also wrecking houses and buildings. The [Hong Kong Observatory](/wiki/Hong_Kong_Observatory "Hong Kong Observatory") ascribed 20 deaths to the typhoon.{{cite web\|url\={{IBTRACS url\|id\=1936225N07139}}\|title\=1936 Not Named (1936225N07139\)\|publisher\=International Best Track Archive for Climate Stewardship\|access\-date\=March 24, 2024}}{{cite report\|author\=R.F.A. Studds, H. and G. Engineer\|title\=The Stranding and Salvaging of the "Fathomer" in the Typhoon of 8/15/1936, Port San Vicente\|publisher\=U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey Field Engineers Bulletin\|number\=10\|date\=December 1936\|url\=http://www.history.noaa.gov/stories\_tales/fathomer2\.html\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150305095915/http://www.history.noaa.gov/stories\_tales/fathomer2\.html \|archive\-date\=2015\-03\-05 }}{{cite news\|title\=Two Are Killed by Convergence of Bad Typhoons\|date\=August 17, 1936\|page\=1\|url\=https://www.newspaperarchive.com/us/wisconsin/oshkosh/oshkosh\-daily\-northwestern/1936/08\-17/page\-1\|newspaper\=The Oshkosh Northwestern\|agency\=Associated Press}}{{cite web\|url\=https://www.hko.gov.hk/en/publica/gen\_pub/files/WeatheringTheStorm\-2\.pdf\|title\=A Review of Natural Disasters of the Past\|publisher\=Hong Kong Observatory\|accessdate\=March 24, 2024}}{{cite news\|title\=Philippine Typhoons Race Towards China\|date\=August 18, 1936\|page\=1\|url\=https://www.newspaperarchive.com/us/pennsylvania/bradford/bradford\-era/1936/08\-18/page\-1\|newspaper\=The Bradford Era\|agency\=Associated Press}}
[right\|thumb\|Track map of the deadly Korean typhoon](/wiki/File:1936_Pacific_typhoon_6_track.png "1936 Pacific typhoon 6 track.png")
On August 18, a depression formed southwest of Guam. It moved northwestward, and by August 25 was a "storm of considerable intensity", according to the MWR. Soon after, the typhoon moved through the Ryukyu Islands, passing about 100 mi (160 km) southwest of Okinawa. A day later, the typhoon recurved to the north and later northeast. On August 27, the typhoon struck what is now South Korea, and quickly crossed the Korean peninsula into the Sea of Japan. The typhoon continued northeastward across the Sea of Japan, crossing Sakhalin Island on September 1\.{{cite web\|url\={{IBTRACS url\|id\=1936231N12142}}\|title\=1936 Not Named (1936231N12142\)\|publisher\=International Best Track Archive for Climate Stewardship\|access\-date\=March 24, 2024}} The typhoon killed 1,516 people across the Korean peninsula, with another 1,183 people injured. The storm wrecked 36,000 houses, with thousands more inundated by floodwaters.{{cite news\|date\=September 1, 1936\|title\=1,500 Deaths Follow Typhoon in Korea\|newspaper\= The Argus\|location\=Melbourne, Australia\|accessdate\=March 24, 2024\|url\=https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/11909599}}
A depression was located over the South China Sea on August 24\. Largely stationary, the system intensified slightly. On August 28, the storm moved across China's Hainan island, through the Gulf of Tonkin, and into what is now Vietnam.
On August 28, a depression formed northeast of Yap, which proceeded northwestward. On September 2, it moved through the Ryukyu Island as a typhoon. A day later, the typhoon brushed eastern China while recurving northward. It later crossed over the Korean peninsula on September 4, dissipating a day later.{{cite journal\|title\=Typhoons and Depressions over the Far East, September 1936\|volume\=64\|issue\=9\|author\=Reverend Bernard F. Doucette\|journal\=Monthly Weather Review\|date\=1936 \|page\=310 \|doi\=10\.1175/1520\-0493\-64\.9\.310a \|accessdate\=March 24, 2024\|format\=PDF\|url\=https://journals.ametsoc.org/view/journals/mwre/64/9/1520\-0493\-64\_9\_310a.xml?tab\_body\=pdf\|doi\-access\=free}}{{cite web\|url\={{IBTRACS url\|id\=1936243N14142}}\|title\=1936 Not Named (1936243N14142\)\|publisher\=International Best Track Archive for Climate Stewardship\|access\-date\=March 24, 2024}}
On August 30, a depression developed over the Marianas Islands. The system moved generally northwestward until September 4, when it passed between Luzon and Taiwan and started moving to the west. Pratas Island recorded a pressure of 1002 mbar (29\.60 inHg). The depression crossed China's Hainan island on September 6, and a day later moved ashore what is now northern Vietnam.{{cite web\|url\={{IBTRACS url\|id\=1936247N17128}}\|title\=1936 Not Named (1936247N17128\)\|publisher\=International Best Track Archive for Climate Stewardship\|access\-date\=March 24, 2024}}
### September
On September 7, the *S.S. Malayan Prince* encountered a typhoon in the open western Pacific Ocean, recording typhoon\-force winds and a minimum pressure of 1007 mbar (29\.74 mbar).
A depression formed on September 8 east of Luzon. It moved northwestward without developing, dissipating on September 11\.
Another depression formed on September 10 northeast of Guam. The system moved westward, eventually dissipating on September 16 east of Taiwan.
On September 22, a depression formed between Luzon and Guam. For the next four days, the system meandered without much development, eventually taking a northwest path on September 27 toward the Ryukyu Islands. On October 1, the typhoon slowed and made its closest approach to Okinawa, where a pressure of 982 mbar (29\.005 inHg) was recorded in Okinawa. The typhoon turned northeastward and brushed the coast of southern Honshu, passing south of Tokyo on October 3\. The system was last observed on October 5 near the [Kuril Islands](/wiki/Kuril_Islands "Kuril Islands").{{cite journal\|title\=Typhoons and Depressions over the Far East, October 1936\|volume\=64\|issue\=10\|author\=Reverend Bernard F. Doucette\|journal\=Monthly Weather Review\|date\=1936 \|pages\=344–345 \|doi\=10\.1175/1520\-0493(1936\)64\<344:TADOTF\>2\.0\.CO;2 \|accessdate\=March 25, 2024\|format\=PDF\|url\=https://journals.ametsoc.org/view/journals/mwre/64/10/1520\-0493\_1936\_64\_344\_tadotf\_2\_0\_co\_2\.xml?tab\_body\=pdf\|doi\-access\=free\|bibcode\=1936MWRv...64\..344D }} Across Japan, the typhoon killed 70 people, including 60 fatalities related to the sinking of the *Kashima Maru*. The typhoon also flooded about 4,000 houses.{{cite news\|newspaper\=The Telegraph\-Herald\|location\=Dubuque, Iowa\|url\=https://www.newspaperarchive.com/us/iowa/dubuque/dubuque\-telegraph\-herald/1936/10\-04/page\-1\|page\=1\|date\=October 4, 1936\|title\=Typhoon Kills 70 Sweeping Over Japan\|agency\=Associated Press\|accessdate\=March 26, 2024\|author\=James A. Mills}}
A depression formed in the South China Sea on September 26\. On the next day, the *[S.S. President Garfield](/wiki/USS_Refuge "USS Refuge")* recorded a pressure of 997 mbar (29\.44 inHg). The depression did not move much, and it dissipated on September 30\.{{cite web\|url\={{IBTRACS url\|id\=1936247N17128}}\|title\=1936 Not Named (1936247N17128\)\|publisher\=International Best Track Archive for Climate Stewardship\|access\-date\=March 25, 2024}}
### October
[right\|thumb\|Track map of the October typhoon in the Philippines](/wiki/File:1936_Pacific_typhoon_18_track.png "1936 Pacific typhoon 18 track.png")
On October 7, a trough produced two depressions – one east of the Philippines, and the other forming between Yap and Guam. The western system moved toward Luzon and intensified into a typhoon. On October 9, it made landfall in Philippines' Isabela Province. [Echague](/wiki/Echague "Echague") recorded a minimum pressure of 976 mbar (28\.818 inHg) during the typhoon's passage. The storm weakened over land and re\-emerged into the South China Sea on October 11\. There, it became nearly stationary, influenced by a building [anticyclone](/wiki/Anticyclone "Anticyclone") to the north. On October 13, the former typhoon struck western Luzon, "very much weakened" as described by the MWR. Continuing to the northeast, the system was last observed on October 15\. While moving over Luzon, the typhoon dropped heavy rainfall that led to extensive river flooding, resulting in 546 fatalities. The heaviest damage was in [Nueva Ecija](/wiki/Nueva_Ecija "Nueva Ecija") and [Zambales](/wiki/Zambales "Zambales") provinces. Across Luzon, the typhoon caused flooding along rivers, with five towns isolated and hundreds of houses destroyed. The typhoon also wrecked crops and drowned livestock.{{cite news\|url\=https://www.newspaperarchive.com/us/nebraska/lincoln/lincoln\-nebraska\-state\-journal/1936/07\-12/page\-2\|date\=October 12, 1936\|newspaper\=Nebraska State Journal\|title\=Philippine Typhoon Takes a Heavy Toll}}{{cite web\|url\={{IBTRACS url\|id\=1936282N16127}}\|title\=1936 Not Named (1936282N16127\)\|publisher\=International Best Track Archive for Climate Stewardship\|access\-date\=March 25, 2024}}{{cite news\|date\=October 16, 1936\|title\=Hope Fades for 1,045 Missing in Typhoon\|agency\=Associated Press\|url\=https://www.newspaperarchive.com/us/washington\-dc/washington/washington\-dc\-washington\-evening\-star/1936/10\-16/page\-1\|newspaper\=The Evening Star\|location\=Washington, D.C.\|accessdate\=March 26, 2024\|page\=1}}
The other depression that developed concurrently with the previous typhoon was first observed between Yap and Guam. It moved to the northwest and eventually intensified into a typhoon. Curving to the north, the typhoon passed southeast of Japan's [Bonin Islands](/wiki/Bonin_Islands "Bonin Islands"), before turning northeastward. It was last observed on October 14 crossing 150ºE.
On October 12, a depression formed northeast of Guam, which intensified into a typhoon as it west\-northwestward. On October 15, a nearby ship recorded a minimum pressure of 989 mbar (29\.20 inHg). On October 16, the trajectory turned to the northeast toward the Ryukyu Islands. Two days later, the typhoon recurved and accelerated northeastward, passing 60 mi (95 km) southeast of Okinawa. After passing southeast of Japan, the typhoon was last observed on October 21\.{{cite web\|url\={{IBTRACS url\|id\=1936287N15147}}\|title\=1936 Not Named (1936287N15147\)\|publisher\=International Best Track Archive for Climate Stewardship\|access\-date\=March 25, 2024}}
A depression was first observed on October 22 to the southeast of Guam. The depression moved northwestward until October 25, when it slowed and recurved to the northeast. The system was last observed on October 27 between the Bonin Islands and Honshu.
Another depression formed on October 25 to the northeast of the Philippines. It moved to the northwest before curving northeastward. The depression was last observed on October 28\.
### November–December
A depression originated over the Caroline Islands on November 1\. Moving westward, it slowly strengthened, reaching typhoon status by November 6\. By the next day, it weakened as it moved through the central Philippines, crossing the [Visayas](/wiki/Visayas "Visayas"). Turning northwestward, the system was last observed on November 8 in the South China Sea.{{cite journal\|title\=Typhoons and Depressions over the Far East, November 1936\|volume\=64\|issue\=11\|author\=Reverend Bernard F. Doucette\|journal\=Monthly Weather Review\|date\=November 1936 \|pages\=388–389 \|doi\=10\.1175/1520\-0493(1936\)64\<388:NPON\>2\.0\.CO;2 \|accessdate\=March 26, 2024\|format\=PDF\|url\=https://journals.ametsoc.org/view/journals/mwre/64/11/1520\-0493\_1936\_64\_388\_npon\_2\_0\_co\_2\.xml?tab\_body\=pdf\|doi\-access\=free}} One person drowned in [Rizal](/wiki/Rizal_%28province%29 "Rizal (province)") province.{{cite news\|date\=November 9, 1936\|url\=https://www.newspaperarchive.com/us/california/oakland/oakland\-tribune/1936/11\-09/page\-1\|newspaper\=Oakland Tribune\|page\=1\|title\=Clipper Hops After Delay by Typhoon\|accessdate\=March 26, 2024\|agency\=Associated Press}}
On November 2, the *Thistlebrae* encountered a typhoon east of the Marianas Islands, reporting a pressure of {{convert\|980\|hPa\|inHg\|sigfig\=4\|abbr\=on}}. On November 6, the typhoon moved through the Marianas, and three days later turned to the north. On November 11, the Bonin Islands encountered the storm, reporting a pressure of {{convert\|1006\|hPa\|inHg\|sigfig\=4\|abbr\=on}}.{{cite web\|url\={{IBTRACS url\|id\=1936310N17150}}\|title\=1936 Not Named (1936310N17150\)\|publisher\=International Best Track Archive for Climate Stewardship\|access\-date\=March 26, 2024}}
A depression formed on November 18 over the eastern Caroline Islands. Moving northwestward, it moved through the Marianas Islands on November 19 as a typhoon. After turning to the north, the typhoon passed near the Bonin Islands on November 22, where a nearby ship recorded a pressure of {{convert\|991\|hPa\|inHg\|sigfig\=4\|abbr\=on}}. The storm was last observed a day later.{{cite web\|url\={{IBTRACS url\|id\=1936323N10152}}\|title\=1936 Not Named (1936323N10152\)\|publisher\=International Best Track Archive for Climate Stewardship\|access\-date\=March 26, 2024}}
On November 25, a depression originated east of Mindanao. Over the next few days, it moved through the Philippines, until it was last observed on November 30 near [Palawan Island](/wiki/Palawan_%28island%29 "Palawan (island)") in the South China Sea.
A depression that developed on November 28 in the Caroline Islands. Moving to the west\-northwest, the depression intensified into a typhoon on December 1\. Two days later, the typhoon moved through the central Philippines, producing heavy rainfall that led to flooding. [Camarines Sur](/wiki/Camarines_Sur "Camarines Sur") recorded a pressure of {{convert\|970\|hPa\|inHg\|sigfig\=4\|abbr\=on}}. After passing south of Manila, the storm emerged into the South China Sea, dissipating on December 5\. The typhoon killed 74 people across the Philippines, with the heaviest damage in Isabela province.{{cite journal\|title\=Typhoons and Depressions over the Far East, December 1936\|volume\=64\|issue\=12\|author\=Reverend Bernard F. Doucette\|journal\=Monthly Weather Review\|date\=November 1936 \|pages\=388–389 \|doi\=10\.1175/1520\-0493(1936\)64\<388:NPON\>2\.0\.CO;2 \|accessdate\=March 26, 2024\|format\=PDF\|url\=https://journals.ametsoc.org/view/journals/mwre/64/11/1520\-0493\_1936\_64\_388\_npon\_2\_0\_co\_2\.xml?tab\_body\=pdf\|doi\-access\=free}}{{cite web\|url\={{IBTRACS url\|id\=1936335N14139}}\|title\=1936 Not Named (1936335N14139\)\|publisher\=International Best Track Archive for Climate Stewardship\|access\-date\=March 26, 2024}}{{cite news\|newspaper\=Kingston Daily Gleaner\|url\=https://www.newspaperarchive.com/jm/kingston/kingston/kingston\-daily\-gleaner/1936/12\-18/page\-1\|date\=December 18, 1936\|location\=Kingston, Jamaica\|title\=Philippines Flood\|agency\=Canadian Press}}
On December 16, a depression formed over the Caroline Islands. Moving west\-northwestward, the depression failed to intensify much, and it moved through the Philippines on December 19\. It dissipated by December 24\.
Another depression formed on December 21 over the western Caroline Islands. Three days later, the depression moved through the central Philippines, producing heavy rainfall. It dissipated on December 26 over the South China Sea.
|
[
"Systems\n-------",
"### January–June",
"As the year began, there were two tropical depressions active across the western Pacific. The westernmost one originated on December 29, and moved through the Visayas in the central Philippines before dissipating on January 3 in the South China Sea. It produced heavy rainfall along its track. The other depression formed on December 31 in the Caroline Islands, and also dissipated on January 3\\.{{cite report\\|title\\=Typhoons and Depressions over the Far East, January 1936\\|author\\=Bernard F. Doucet\\|journal\\=Monthly Weather Review\\|page\\=39\\|accessdate\\=March 19, 2024\\|url\\=https://journals.ametsoc.org/view/journals/mwre/64/1/1520\\-0493\\_1936\\_64\\_29a\\_tadotf\\_2\\_0\\_co\\_2\\.xml?tab\\_body\\=pdf\\|format\\=PDF}}",
"On April 20, a tropical cyclone formed east of the Philippines island of Mindanao. The system moved northwestward, crossing the eastern Visayas and Luzon before dissipating late on April 22\\.{{cite web\\|url\\={{IBTRACS url\\|id\\=1936111N07132}}\\|title\\=1936 Not Named (1936111N07132\\)\\|publisher\\=International Best Track Archive for Climate Stewardship\\|access\\-date\\=March 20, 2024}} The New York Times reported that seven people died during the Philippines storm.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/1936/04/24/archives/7\\-die\\-in\\-philippines\\-typhoon.html\\|newspaper\\=New York Times\\|date\\=April 24, 1936\\|accessdate\\=March 20, 2024\\|title\\=7 Die in Philippines Typhoon}}",
"On June 29, a tropical cyclone formed in the South China Sea. It moved northwestward, striking the Chinese island of [Hainan](/wiki/Hainan \"Hainan\") the next day, before dissipating.{{cite web\\|url\\={{IBTRACS url\\|id\\=1936181N17113}}\\|title\\=1936 Not Named (1936181N17113\\)\\|publisher\\=International Best Track Archive for Climate Stewardship\\|access\\-date\\=March 21, 2024}}",
"### July",
"On July 1, a typhoon formed east of the Philippines island of Samar. The system moved to the northwest, brushing Luzon on July 4, but sparing the island from strong winds. The typhoon moved across the Luzon Strait before weakening, making landfall in southeastern China near [Shantou](/wiki/Shantou \"Shantou\") on July 5\\. The storm turned northeastward and dissipated by July 6\\.{{cite journal\\|title\\=Typhoons and Depressions over the Far East, July 1936\\|volume\\=64\\|issue\\=7\\|author\\=Reverend Bernard F. Doucette\\|journal\\=Monthly Weather Review\\|date\\=1936 \\|pages\\=248–249 \\|doi\\=10\\.1175/1520\\-0493(1936\\)64\\<248:TADOTF\\>2\\.0\\.CO;2 \\|accessdate\\=March 21, 2024\\|format\\=PDF\\|url\\=https://journals.ametsoc.org/view/journals/mwre/64/7/1520\\-0493\\_1936\\_64\\_248\\_tadotf\\_2\\_0\\_co\\_2\\.xml?tab\\_body\\=pdf\\|doi\\-access\\=free\\|bibcode\\=1936MWRv...64\\..248D }}{{cite web\\|url\\={{IBTRACS url\\|id\\=1936184N11130}}\\|title\\=1936 Not Named (1936184N11130\\)\\|publisher\\=International Best Track Archive for Climate Stewardship\\|access\\-date\\=March 21, 2024}}",
"Between July 2–4, a [low pressure area](/wiki/Low_pressure_area \"Low pressure area\") was located over the Caroline Islands, which organized into a depression by July 5 to the northeast of [Yap](/wiki/Yap \"Yap\"). The system moved west\\-northwestward toward the Philippines and intensified. On July 8, the *S.S. Barentsz* encountered the storm, observing a minimum pressure of 970 mbar (28\\.65 inHg) as well as typhoon\\-force winds. On the next day, the typhoon made landfall in northeastern Luzon near [Tuguegarao](/wiki/Tuguegarao \"Tuguegarao\"), [Cagayan](/wiki/Cagayan \"Cagayan\"), where an anemometer recorded a pressure of 991 mbar (29\\.27 inHg). The typhoon weakened after crossing Luzon, eventually moving northward into China on July 10, where it soon dissipated. In Tuguegarao where the storm first moved ashore, two people died due to fallen trees. The typhoon sank the *M.S. Marie* near [Palanan](/wiki/Palanan \"Palanan\"), killing 23 people.{{cite web\\|url\\={{IBTRACS url\\|id\\=1936188N09142}}\\|title\\=1936 Not Named (1936188N09142\\)\\|publisher\\=International Best Track Archive for Climate Stewardship\\|access\\-date\\=March 21, 2024}}{{cite news\\|date\\=July 21, 1936\\|title\\=Island Vessel Goes Aground\\|url\\=https://www.newspaperarchive.com/us/nevada/reno/reno\\-evening\\-gazette/1936/07\\-21/page\\-3\\|accessdate\\=March 21, 2024\\|agency\\=Associated Press\\|newspaper\\=Reno Evening Gazette\\|page\\=3}}",
"On July 16, a depression was located northwest of Yap. The system moved northwestward and intensified, later turning northward through Japan's [Ryukyu Islands](/wiki/Ryukyu_Island \"Ryukyu Island\") on July 21\\. At that time, the system was a \"severe disturbance\", according to the [Monthly Weather Review](/wiki/Monthly_Weather_Review \"Monthly Weather Review\") (MWR). After turning northeastward, the typhoon passed near the west coast of [Kyushu](/wiki/Kyushu \"Kyushu\") before entering the Sea of Japan on July 23\\. A day later, the storm crossed Hokkaido, and was last reported on July 25\\. Across Japan, the typhoon killed seven people, while 4,000 houses were flooded. The storm wrecked fishing boats and also washed a [navy ship](/wiki/Imperial_Japanese_Navy \"Imperial Japanese Navy\") and a submarine ashore the city of [Sasebo](/wiki/Sasebo \"Sasebo\").{{cite web\\|url\\={{IBTRACS url\\|id\\=1936199N10137}}\\|title\\=1936 Not Named (1936199N10137\\)\\|publisher\\=International Best Track Archive for Climate Stewardship\\|access\\-date\\=March 21, 2024}}{{cite news\\|date\\=July 21, 1936\\|title\\=Typhoon South of Japan\\|url\\=https://www.newspaperarchive.com/au/new\\-south\\-wales/singleton/singleton\\-argus/1936/07\\-27/page\\-2\\|accessdate\\=March 23, 2024\\|newspaper\\=The Singleton Argus\\|page\\=2}}",
"On July 18, a depression developed in the South China Sea southwest of Manila. It moved to the northwest and intensified into a typhoon by July 19\\. After turning to the west, the typhoon struck what is now Vietnam on July 21, and it quickly dissipated over land.{{cite web\\|url\\={{IBTRACS url\\|id\\=1936201N15115}}\\|title\\=1936 Not Named (1936201N15115\\)\\|publisher\\=International Best Track Archive for Climate Stewardship\\|access\\-date\\=March 21, 2024}}",
"A depression began developing on July 22 between Yap and Palau. It moved to the west\\-northwest toward the Philippines, slowing its forward motion on July 27\\. Subsequently the system intensified as it turned northwestward. On July 29, the typhoon moved across Luzon, producing heavy rainfall and killing seven people. The typhoon strengthened further in the South China Sea as it turned to the north. On August 1, [Pratas Island](/wiki/Pratas_Island \"Pratas Island\") recorded a minimum pressure of 953 mbar (28\\.14 inHg). That day, the typhoon struck southeastern China near Shantou. The storm weakened over land as it moved through eastern China, re\\-emerging into the East China Sea on August 3\\. A day later, the storm was last reported near the Korean peninsula.{{cite web\\|url\\={{IBTRACS url\\|id\\=1936210N14132}}\\|title\\=1936 Not Named (1936210N14132\\)\\|publisher\\=International Best Track Archive for Climate Stewardship\\|access\\-date\\=March 21, 2024}}",
"A depression formed on July 26 over the western Caroline Islands. The system moved west\\-northwestward without much development, dissipating on August 3 to the east of Luzon.",
"### August",
"[right\\|thumb\\|The grounded [USC\\&GS Fathomer](/wiki/USC%26GS_Fathomer_%281904%29 \"USC&GS Fathomer (1904)\") on August 15 due to a typhoon](/wiki/File:USC%26GS_Fathomer_aground.jpg \"USC&GS Fathomer aground.jpg\")\nOn August 6, a depression formed northeast of Yap, which proceeded west\\-northwesterly. The system intensified into a typhoon as it passed east of the Philippines. On August 12, the typhoon moved through the [Batanes](/wiki/Batanes \"Batanes\") islands, with a pressure of 995 mbar (29\\.34 inHg) reported at [Basco](/wiki/Basco%2C_Batanes \"Basco, Batanes\"). Turning westward, the storm moved across the South China Sea, crossing China's Hainan island into the Gulf of Tonkin on August 14\\. It soon moved ashore and dissipated.{{cite journal\\|title\\=Typhoons and Depressions over the Far East, August 1936\\|volume\\=64\\|issue\\=8\\|author\\=Reverend Bernard F. Doucette\\|journal\\=Monthly Weather Review\\|date\\=1936 \\|pages\\=278–279 \\|doi\\=10\\.1175/1520\\-0493(1936\\)64\\<278:TADOTF\\>2\\.0\\.CO;2 \\|accessdate\\=March 24, 2024\\|format\\=PDF\\|url\\=https://journals.ametsoc.org/view/journals/mwre/64/8/1520\\-0493\\_1936\\_64\\_278\\_tadotf\\_2\\_0\\_co\\_2\\.xml?tab\\_body\\=pdf\\|doi\\-access\\=free\\|bibcode\\=1936MWRv...64\\..278D }}{{cite web\\|url\\={{IBTRACS url\\|id\\=1936220N08143}}\\|title\\=1936 Not Named (1936220N08143\\)\\|publisher\\=International Best Track Archive for Climate Stewardship\\|access\\-date\\=March 24, 2024}}",
"Newspapers reported a typhoon in the South China Sea on August 7 that wrecked nine Japanese fishing vessels, killing 68 people, with 136 people rescued.{{cite news\\|date\\=August 10, 1936\\|page\\=15\\|url\\=https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/page/3702044?\\|title\\=Wrecked by Typhoon\\|location\\=Perth, Australia\\|newspaper\\= The West Australian\\|accessdate\\=March 24, 2024}} However, the August MWR did not record a storm on that date in that location.",
"A depression originated on August 11 east\\-southeast of Yap, which moved to the west\\-northwest. The system quickly intensified, and was already at typhoon intensity by the time it passed 120 mi (195 km) south of Yap. After continuing northwestward, the typhoon brushed northeastern Luzon. On August 15, the *[Fathomer](/wiki/USC%26GS_Fathomer_%281904%29 \"USC&GS Fathomer (1904)\")* rode out the storm at [Port San Vicente](/wiki/Santa_Ana%2C_Cagayan \"Santa Ana, Cagayan\"), recording a minimum pressure of 913 mbar (26\\.96 inHg). Curving northwestward, the typhoon eventually passed near northeastern Luzon on August 16, just four days after another storm in the region. [Aparri](/wiki/Aparri \"Aparri\") in the Philippine province of [Cagayan](/wiki/Cagayan \"Cagayan\") recorded a pressure of 948 mbar (28\\.01 inHg). Across the Philippines, the typhoon killed 11 people, and also destroyed 90% of the crops in the Cagayan Valley. Proceeding into the South China Sea, the typhoon made landfall in southern China near August 17 near [Hong Kong](/wiki/Hong_Kong \"Hong Kong\"), which recorded gusts of {{convert\\|131\\|mph\\|km/h\\|abbr\\=on}} and a pressure of 984 mbar (29\\.07 inHg). Newspapers described it as the most severe typhoon since 1923\\. Across the region, the typhoon grounded, damaged, or destroyed 60 ships, while also wrecking houses and buildings. The [Hong Kong Observatory](/wiki/Hong_Kong_Observatory \"Hong Kong Observatory\") ascribed 20 deaths to the typhoon.{{cite web\\|url\\={{IBTRACS url\\|id\\=1936225N07139}}\\|title\\=1936 Not Named (1936225N07139\\)\\|publisher\\=International Best Track Archive for Climate Stewardship\\|access\\-date\\=March 24, 2024}}{{cite report\\|author\\=R.F.A. Studds, H. and G. Engineer\\|title\\=The Stranding and Salvaging of the \"Fathomer\" in the Typhoon of 8/15/1936, Port San Vicente\\|publisher\\=U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey Field Engineers Bulletin\\|number\\=10\\|date\\=December 1936\\|url\\=http://www.history.noaa.gov/stories\\_tales/fathomer2\\.html\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150305095915/http://www.history.noaa.gov/stories\\_tales/fathomer2\\.html \\|archive\\-date\\=2015\\-03\\-05 }}{{cite news\\|title\\=Two Are Killed by Convergence of Bad Typhoons\\|date\\=August 17, 1936\\|page\\=1\\|url\\=https://www.newspaperarchive.com/us/wisconsin/oshkosh/oshkosh\\-daily\\-northwestern/1936/08\\-17/page\\-1\\|newspaper\\=The Oshkosh Northwestern\\|agency\\=Associated Press}}{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.hko.gov.hk/en/publica/gen\\_pub/files/WeatheringTheStorm\\-2\\.pdf\\|title\\=A Review of Natural Disasters of the Past\\|publisher\\=Hong Kong Observatory\\|accessdate\\=March 24, 2024}}{{cite news\\|title\\=Philippine Typhoons Race Towards China\\|date\\=August 18, 1936\\|page\\=1\\|url\\=https://www.newspaperarchive.com/us/pennsylvania/bradford/bradford\\-era/1936/08\\-18/page\\-1\\|newspaper\\=The Bradford Era\\|agency\\=Associated Press}}",
"[right\\|thumb\\|Track map of the deadly Korean typhoon](/wiki/File:1936_Pacific_typhoon_6_track.png \"1936 Pacific typhoon 6 track.png\")\nOn August 18, a depression formed southwest of Guam. It moved northwestward, and by August 25 was a \"storm of considerable intensity\", according to the MWR. Soon after, the typhoon moved through the Ryukyu Islands, passing about 100 mi (160 km) southwest of Okinawa. A day later, the typhoon recurved to the north and later northeast. On August 27, the typhoon struck what is now South Korea, and quickly crossed the Korean peninsula into the Sea of Japan. The typhoon continued northeastward across the Sea of Japan, crossing Sakhalin Island on September 1\\.{{cite web\\|url\\={{IBTRACS url\\|id\\=1936231N12142}}\\|title\\=1936 Not Named (1936231N12142\\)\\|publisher\\=International Best Track Archive for Climate Stewardship\\|access\\-date\\=March 24, 2024}} The typhoon killed 1,516 people across the Korean peninsula, with another 1,183 people injured. The storm wrecked 36,000 houses, with thousands more inundated by floodwaters.{{cite news\\|date\\=September 1, 1936\\|title\\=1,500 Deaths Follow Typhoon in Korea\\|newspaper\\= The Argus\\|location\\=Melbourne, Australia\\|accessdate\\=March 24, 2024\\|url\\=https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/11909599}}",
"A depression was located over the South China Sea on August 24\\. Largely stationary, the system intensified slightly. On August 28, the storm moved across China's Hainan island, through the Gulf of Tonkin, and into what is now Vietnam.",
"On August 28, a depression formed northeast of Yap, which proceeded northwestward. On September 2, it moved through the Ryukyu Island as a typhoon. A day later, the typhoon brushed eastern China while recurving northward. It later crossed over the Korean peninsula on September 4, dissipating a day later.{{cite journal\\|title\\=Typhoons and Depressions over the Far East, September 1936\\|volume\\=64\\|issue\\=9\\|author\\=Reverend Bernard F. Doucette\\|journal\\=Monthly Weather Review\\|date\\=1936 \\|page\\=310 \\|doi\\=10\\.1175/1520\\-0493\\-64\\.9\\.310a \\|accessdate\\=March 24, 2024\\|format\\=PDF\\|url\\=https://journals.ametsoc.org/view/journals/mwre/64/9/1520\\-0493\\-64\\_9\\_310a.xml?tab\\_body\\=pdf\\|doi\\-access\\=free}}{{cite web\\|url\\={{IBTRACS url\\|id\\=1936243N14142}}\\|title\\=1936 Not Named (1936243N14142\\)\\|publisher\\=International Best Track Archive for Climate Stewardship\\|access\\-date\\=March 24, 2024}}",
"On August 30, a depression developed over the Marianas Islands. The system moved generally northwestward until September 4, when it passed between Luzon and Taiwan and started moving to the west. Pratas Island recorded a pressure of 1002 mbar (29\\.60 inHg). The depression crossed China's Hainan island on September 6, and a day later moved ashore what is now northern Vietnam.{{cite web\\|url\\={{IBTRACS url\\|id\\=1936247N17128}}\\|title\\=1936 Not Named (1936247N17128\\)\\|publisher\\=International Best Track Archive for Climate Stewardship\\|access\\-date\\=March 24, 2024}}",
"### September",
"On September 7, the *S.S. Malayan Prince* encountered a typhoon in the open western Pacific Ocean, recording typhoon\\-force winds and a minimum pressure of 1007 mbar (29\\.74 mbar).",
"A depression formed on September 8 east of Luzon. It moved northwestward without developing, dissipating on September 11\\.",
"Another depression formed on September 10 northeast of Guam. The system moved westward, eventually dissipating on September 16 east of Taiwan.",
"On September 22, a depression formed between Luzon and Guam. For the next four days, the system meandered without much development, eventually taking a northwest path on September 27 toward the Ryukyu Islands. On October 1, the typhoon slowed and made its closest approach to Okinawa, where a pressure of 982 mbar (29\\.005 inHg) was recorded in Okinawa. The typhoon turned northeastward and brushed the coast of southern Honshu, passing south of Tokyo on October 3\\. The system was last observed on October 5 near the [Kuril Islands](/wiki/Kuril_Islands \"Kuril Islands\").{{cite journal\\|title\\=Typhoons and Depressions over the Far East, October 1936\\|volume\\=64\\|issue\\=10\\|author\\=Reverend Bernard F. Doucette\\|journal\\=Monthly Weather Review\\|date\\=1936 \\|pages\\=344–345 \\|doi\\=10\\.1175/1520\\-0493(1936\\)64\\<344:TADOTF\\>2\\.0\\.CO;2 \\|accessdate\\=March 25, 2024\\|format\\=PDF\\|url\\=https://journals.ametsoc.org/view/journals/mwre/64/10/1520\\-0493\\_1936\\_64\\_344\\_tadotf\\_2\\_0\\_co\\_2\\.xml?tab\\_body\\=pdf\\|doi\\-access\\=free\\|bibcode\\=1936MWRv...64\\..344D }} Across Japan, the typhoon killed 70 people, including 60 fatalities related to the sinking of the *Kashima Maru*. The typhoon also flooded about 4,000 houses.{{cite news\\|newspaper\\=The Telegraph\\-Herald\\|location\\=Dubuque, Iowa\\|url\\=https://www.newspaperarchive.com/us/iowa/dubuque/dubuque\\-telegraph\\-herald/1936/10\\-04/page\\-1\\|page\\=1\\|date\\=October 4, 1936\\|title\\=Typhoon Kills 70 Sweeping Over Japan\\|agency\\=Associated Press\\|accessdate\\=March 26, 2024\\|author\\=James A. Mills}}",
"A depression formed in the South China Sea on September 26\\. On the next day, the *[S.S. President Garfield](/wiki/USS_Refuge \"USS Refuge\")* recorded a pressure of 997 mbar (29\\.44 inHg). The depression did not move much, and it dissipated on September 30\\.{{cite web\\|url\\={{IBTRACS url\\|id\\=1936247N17128}}\\|title\\=1936 Not Named (1936247N17128\\)\\|publisher\\=International Best Track Archive for Climate Stewardship\\|access\\-date\\=March 25, 2024}}",
"### October",
"[right\\|thumb\\|Track map of the October typhoon in the Philippines](/wiki/File:1936_Pacific_typhoon_18_track.png \"1936 Pacific typhoon 18 track.png\")\nOn October 7, a trough produced two depressions – one east of the Philippines, and the other forming between Yap and Guam. The western system moved toward Luzon and intensified into a typhoon. On October 9, it made landfall in Philippines' Isabela Province. [Echague](/wiki/Echague \"Echague\") recorded a minimum pressure of 976 mbar (28\\.818 inHg) during the typhoon's passage. The storm weakened over land and re\\-emerged into the South China Sea on October 11\\. There, it became nearly stationary, influenced by a building [anticyclone](/wiki/Anticyclone \"Anticyclone\") to the north. On October 13, the former typhoon struck western Luzon, \"very much weakened\" as described by the MWR. Continuing to the northeast, the system was last observed on October 15\\. While moving over Luzon, the typhoon dropped heavy rainfall that led to extensive river flooding, resulting in 546 fatalities. The heaviest damage was in [Nueva Ecija](/wiki/Nueva_Ecija \"Nueva Ecija\") and [Zambales](/wiki/Zambales \"Zambales\") provinces. Across Luzon, the typhoon caused flooding along rivers, with five towns isolated and hundreds of houses destroyed. The typhoon also wrecked crops and drowned livestock.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.newspaperarchive.com/us/nebraska/lincoln/lincoln\\-nebraska\\-state\\-journal/1936/07\\-12/page\\-2\\|date\\=October 12, 1936\\|newspaper\\=Nebraska State Journal\\|title\\=Philippine Typhoon Takes a Heavy Toll}}{{cite web\\|url\\={{IBTRACS url\\|id\\=1936282N16127}}\\|title\\=1936 Not Named (1936282N16127\\)\\|publisher\\=International Best Track Archive for Climate Stewardship\\|access\\-date\\=March 25, 2024}}{{cite news\\|date\\=October 16, 1936\\|title\\=Hope Fades for 1,045 Missing in Typhoon\\|agency\\=Associated Press\\|url\\=https://www.newspaperarchive.com/us/washington\\-dc/washington/washington\\-dc\\-washington\\-evening\\-star/1936/10\\-16/page\\-1\\|newspaper\\=The Evening Star\\|location\\=Washington, D.C.\\|accessdate\\=March 26, 2024\\|page\\=1}}",
"The other depression that developed concurrently with the previous typhoon was first observed between Yap and Guam. It moved to the northwest and eventually intensified into a typhoon. Curving to the north, the typhoon passed southeast of Japan's [Bonin Islands](/wiki/Bonin_Islands \"Bonin Islands\"), before turning northeastward. It was last observed on October 14 crossing 150ºE.",
"On October 12, a depression formed northeast of Guam, which intensified into a typhoon as it west\\-northwestward. On October 15, a nearby ship recorded a minimum pressure of 989 mbar (29\\.20 inHg). On October 16, the trajectory turned to the northeast toward the Ryukyu Islands. Two days later, the typhoon recurved and accelerated northeastward, passing 60 mi (95 km) southeast of Okinawa. After passing southeast of Japan, the typhoon was last observed on October 21\\.{{cite web\\|url\\={{IBTRACS url\\|id\\=1936287N15147}}\\|title\\=1936 Not Named (1936287N15147\\)\\|publisher\\=International Best Track Archive for Climate Stewardship\\|access\\-date\\=March 25, 2024}}",
"A depression was first observed on October 22 to the southeast of Guam. The depression moved northwestward until October 25, when it slowed and recurved to the northeast. The system was last observed on October 27 between the Bonin Islands and Honshu.",
"Another depression formed on October 25 to the northeast of the Philippines. It moved to the northwest before curving northeastward. The depression was last observed on October 28\\.",
"### November–December",
"A depression originated over the Caroline Islands on November 1\\. Moving westward, it slowly strengthened, reaching typhoon status by November 6\\. By the next day, it weakened as it moved through the central Philippines, crossing the [Visayas](/wiki/Visayas \"Visayas\"). Turning northwestward, the system was last observed on November 8 in the South China Sea.{{cite journal\\|title\\=Typhoons and Depressions over the Far East, November 1936\\|volume\\=64\\|issue\\=11\\|author\\=Reverend Bernard F. Doucette\\|journal\\=Monthly Weather Review\\|date\\=November 1936 \\|pages\\=388–389 \\|doi\\=10\\.1175/1520\\-0493(1936\\)64\\<388:NPON\\>2\\.0\\.CO;2 \\|accessdate\\=March 26, 2024\\|format\\=PDF\\|url\\=https://journals.ametsoc.org/view/journals/mwre/64/11/1520\\-0493\\_1936\\_64\\_388\\_npon\\_2\\_0\\_co\\_2\\.xml?tab\\_body\\=pdf\\|doi\\-access\\=free}} One person drowned in [Rizal](/wiki/Rizal_%28province%29 \"Rizal (province)\") province.{{cite news\\|date\\=November 9, 1936\\|url\\=https://www.newspaperarchive.com/us/california/oakland/oakland\\-tribune/1936/11\\-09/page\\-1\\|newspaper\\=Oakland Tribune\\|page\\=1\\|title\\=Clipper Hops After Delay by Typhoon\\|accessdate\\=March 26, 2024\\|agency\\=Associated Press}}",
"On November 2, the *Thistlebrae* encountered a typhoon east of the Marianas Islands, reporting a pressure of {{convert\\|980\\|hPa\\|inHg\\|sigfig\\=4\\|abbr\\=on}}. On November 6, the typhoon moved through the Marianas, and three days later turned to the north. On November 11, the Bonin Islands encountered the storm, reporting a pressure of {{convert\\|1006\\|hPa\\|inHg\\|sigfig\\=4\\|abbr\\=on}}.{{cite web\\|url\\={{IBTRACS url\\|id\\=1936310N17150}}\\|title\\=1936 Not Named (1936310N17150\\)\\|publisher\\=International Best Track Archive for Climate Stewardship\\|access\\-date\\=March 26, 2024}}",
"A depression formed on November 18 over the eastern Caroline Islands. Moving northwestward, it moved through the Marianas Islands on November 19 as a typhoon. After turning to the north, the typhoon passed near the Bonin Islands on November 22, where a nearby ship recorded a pressure of {{convert\\|991\\|hPa\\|inHg\\|sigfig\\=4\\|abbr\\=on}}. The storm was last observed a day later.{{cite web\\|url\\={{IBTRACS url\\|id\\=1936323N10152}}\\|title\\=1936 Not Named (1936323N10152\\)\\|publisher\\=International Best Track Archive for Climate Stewardship\\|access\\-date\\=March 26, 2024}}",
"On November 25, a depression originated east of Mindanao. Over the next few days, it moved through the Philippines, until it was last observed on November 30 near [Palawan Island](/wiki/Palawan_%28island%29 \"Palawan (island)\") in the South China Sea.",
"A depression that developed on November 28 in the Caroline Islands. Moving to the west\\-northwest, the depression intensified into a typhoon on December 1\\. Two days later, the typhoon moved through the central Philippines, producing heavy rainfall that led to flooding. [Camarines Sur](/wiki/Camarines_Sur \"Camarines Sur\") recorded a pressure of {{convert\\|970\\|hPa\\|inHg\\|sigfig\\=4\\|abbr\\=on}}. After passing south of Manila, the storm emerged into the South China Sea, dissipating on December 5\\. The typhoon killed 74 people across the Philippines, with the heaviest damage in Isabela province.{{cite journal\\|title\\=Typhoons and Depressions over the Far East, December 1936\\|volume\\=64\\|issue\\=12\\|author\\=Reverend Bernard F. Doucette\\|journal\\=Monthly Weather Review\\|date\\=November 1936 \\|pages\\=388–389 \\|doi\\=10\\.1175/1520\\-0493(1936\\)64\\<388:NPON\\>2\\.0\\.CO;2 \\|accessdate\\=March 26, 2024\\|format\\=PDF\\|url\\=https://journals.ametsoc.org/view/journals/mwre/64/11/1520\\-0493\\_1936\\_64\\_388\\_npon\\_2\\_0\\_co\\_2\\.xml?tab\\_body\\=pdf\\|doi\\-access\\=free}}{{cite web\\|url\\={{IBTRACS url\\|id\\=1936335N14139}}\\|title\\=1936 Not Named (1936335N14139\\)\\|publisher\\=International Best Track Archive for Climate Stewardship\\|access\\-date\\=March 26, 2024}}{{cite news\\|newspaper\\=Kingston Daily Gleaner\\|url\\=https://www.newspaperarchive.com/jm/kingston/kingston/kingston\\-daily\\-gleaner/1936/12\\-18/page\\-1\\|date\\=December 18, 1936\\|location\\=Kingston, Jamaica\\|title\\=Philippines Flood\\|agency\\=Canadian Press}}",
"On December 16, a depression formed over the Caroline Islands. Moving west\\-northwestward, the depression failed to intensify much, and it moved through the Philippines on December 19\\. It dissipated by December 24\\.",
"Another depression formed on December 21 over the western Caroline Islands. Three days later, the depression moved through the central Philippines, producing heavy rainfall. It dissipated on December 26 over the South China Sea.",
""
] |
History
-------
Throughout the 19th and 20th century the land generally bounded by Cumberland Street, [Cahill Expressway](/wiki/Cahill_Expressway "Cahill Expressway"), Gloucester Street and Essex Street, including the subject site, was occupied by a number of dwellings and shops that housed a largely working\-class community. Little is known about the people who lived here prior to the 1830s, however, from 1839 when all formal claims for land and grants were made, the population increased.
The site is part of Allotment 14 of City Section 70 originally [granted](/wiki/Land_grant "Land grant") to Elizabeth Thompson on the 19 April 1839\. The 1838 Robert Russell plan shows Allotment 14 with narrow frontage to Essex Street, extending along Gloucester Street. The claimant is noted as the late [James Thompson](/wiki/James_Thompson_%28Australian_politician%29 "James Thompson (Australian politician)"). It would appear that Elizabeth subsequently subdivided the site. A plan of Section 70 shows Allotment 14 divided into two parcels, with the subject site located in the south eastern corner of the section which is generally bounded by Cumberland, Little Essex (formerly Essex Lane), Gloucester and Essex Streets. It is not clear if the Thompsons developed the site in any way, however, in October 1843 the land was conveyed to Mr N. Bray. Bray may have developed the site from this time, in 1849 he took out a mortgage to Mr John Minton Hart.
The 1865 Trig Survey plan shows that the site was occupied by a regular\-shaped structure constructed to the Gloucester Street alignment by this time. Two detached structures are also shown constructed to the rear, western site boundary.
In 1875 the land was purchased by [William Daley](/wiki/William_Daley_%28Australian_politician%29 "William Daley (Australian politician)"). The plan on the Land Title dated November 1877 also shows the building on the site, with frontage to Gloucester Street. A party wall is clearly indicated on the plan, along the north eastern site boundary. A small detached structure occupies the north western corner of the site. The site was subsequently transferred three times in 1879 and in early 1880 was part of a parcel of land extending along Essex Street transferred to Peter Francis Hart, a builder. The plan on this land title indicates the same building footprint seen on the earlier plans. In the same year the land was transferred to Elizabeth Hart. The Percy Dove plan of 1880 shows the two, one\-storey dwellings facing Gloucester Street, Nos. 153 and 155\. A small structure is attached to the rear of No. 153\. Another single storey structure is also shown on the Essex Street frontage, at the south western corner of the site. This building is numbered No.10 and is surrounded by open yard. It would appear that it was slightly setback from its neighbour to the west, No. 8 Essex Street, another single storey structure noted as being occupied by a bootmaker. The adjoining building at No. 6, also noted as being a single storey building, was occupied by a grocer.
These details were transferred to a detail sheet dated December 1887\. This plan was subsequently revised in September 1895, by which time new buildings are shown occupying the site. The buildings, shown hatched, are constructed to the Gloucester and Essex Street boundaries, with three open yards along the northern site boundary which also featured small timber, attached structures. The main building was constructed in brick. The structures that formerly occupied the site and stair from Gloucester Street are also indicated, however, are crossed out on the plan. It would also appear that the rock face was also cut back to the Gloucester Street building line.
Based on these plans, it would appear that the buildings were constructed sometime between 1887 and 1895\. It is assumed that they were constructed in 1892\. Nos. 153 and 155 Gloucester Street are listed in the Sands Directory until 1892\. Nos. 12 and 14 Essex Street are also listed in the Sands at this time, however, are listed to the east of Gloucester Street. Nos. 10, 12a and 14a, however, on the western side of Gloucester Street, are first listed in 1893\. The Sands indicates that the street number subsequently changed and the subject buildings became Nos. 10, 12 and 14 by 1898\. The buildings generally responded to the irregular shape of the site and were constructed on the original rock ledges that characterise the area. Unlike the previous building that occupied the site, the buildings were constructed with frontage to Essex Street and stepped down the grade of the street, which falls to the east, toward [George Street](/wiki/George_Street%2C_Sydney "George Street, Sydney"). It is not clear why the Essex Street address was preferred, possibly to allow northern aspect to the rear of the buildings. However, housing constructed in The Rocks by this time were not orientated towards the harbour and Essex Street may have lost is association with the gallows and old Gaol by this time.
The buildings were also constructed to the northern and western site boundaries, abutting the existing neighbouring buildings along Gloucester and Essex Streets streetscapes, with only small open yards provided along the northern boundary. It is assumed that the north eastern party wall from the earlier development on the site was retained and new buildings constructed to it and the single storey building to its north, No. 151 Gloucester Street. The wall is exposed today and the shadow line of the gable roof, the height of a single storey structure constructed on a rock ledge is evident. This building was subsequently replaced by two storey terraces constructed by the [NSW Housing Board](/wiki/Housing_NSW "Housing NSW") in {{circa\|1912}}\-13\. The 1895 field survey notes indicate a typical type of housing for this period, with rear tunnel back form. Terraces had long being an accepted form in The Rocks with land speculators looking to maximise inner city sites, with no front gardens or setback from the street and restricted open spaces. The buildings also show reference to building codes introduced decades earlier with the incorporation of party walls which extended beyond the roof planes of the buildings.
The external form illustrated and inspection of the buildings today suggest that internally the buildings also featured typical internal layout with two main rooms on the first and second floor with smaller room on both levels in the rear tunnel back. It is assumed that the three upper rooms were accessed via a stair extending up the party walls and returning into the building. The first floor level was typically split to allow access to each of the three first floor rooms. Another narrow stair extended from the first floor to the roof in each of the terraces. Only one of these stairs remains (in No. 14\) today.
In 1900 the buildings were resumed under the Darling Harbour Resumption Act and came under the responsibility of the [Sydney Harbour Trust](/wiki/Sydney_Harbour_Trust "Sydney Harbour Trust"). Despite resumption and change of ownership, the buildings appear to have retained their original form into the early decades of the twentieth century. A [Sydney Water](/wiki/Sydney_Water "Sydney Water") plan dated 1911 also shows the original form and suggests that no external change had been undertaken to the buildings with the open areas across the northern site boundary clearly evident. It also indicates that the buildings to the north of the site, along the Gloucester Street frontage were demolished about this time to make way for the proposed terrace of 17 houses about to be erected by the [Public Works Department](/wiki/NSW_Public_Works "NSW Public Works") at Nos. 127–152a Gloucester Street. The plan also shows a lane extending across the western site boundary and rear of the terrace sites and buildings facing Cumberland Street. This is consistent with a number of housing schemes following the cleansing operations of the early 1900s and preparations for the construction of the [Sydney Harbour Bridge](/wiki/Sydney_Harbour_Bridge "Sydney Harbour Bridge") which displaced a considerable percentage of the local population. The Housing Board notified City Council in October 1912 that before work commenced on the premises at Nos. 127\-152a Gloucester Street, the premises at Nos. 6 and 8 Essex Street would be demolished once the tenant was vacated. It is assumed that Nos. 6 and 8 were demolished in 1912\. The Gloucester Street terraces were demolished in 1987, and site was used as a car park prior to its redevelopment in the late 1980s.
A plaque in the building today notes that the buildings were occupied by [Margaret Fulton](/wiki/Margaret_Fulton "Margaret Fulton"), a celebrated cookery author, and her family between the years of 1954 and 1968\. The buildings were unoccupied for several years before their use as a temporary site office for the adjoining development of the D2 site (north eastern corner of Essex and Gloucester Streets) in the 1980s.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"Throughout the 19th and 20th century the land generally bounded by Cumberland Street, [Cahill Expressway](/wiki/Cahill_Expressway \"Cahill Expressway\"), Gloucester Street and Essex Street, including the subject site, was occupied by a number of dwellings and shops that housed a largely working\\-class community. Little is known about the people who lived here prior to the 1830s, however, from 1839 when all formal claims for land and grants were made, the population increased.",
"The site is part of Allotment 14 of City Section 70 originally [granted](/wiki/Land_grant \"Land grant\") to Elizabeth Thompson on the 19 April 1839\\. The 1838 Robert Russell plan shows Allotment 14 with narrow frontage to Essex Street, extending along Gloucester Street. The claimant is noted as the late [James Thompson](/wiki/James_Thompson_%28Australian_politician%29 \"James Thompson (Australian politician)\"). It would appear that Elizabeth subsequently subdivided the site. A plan of Section 70 shows Allotment 14 divided into two parcels, with the subject site located in the south eastern corner of the section which is generally bounded by Cumberland, Little Essex (formerly Essex Lane), Gloucester and Essex Streets. It is not clear if the Thompsons developed the site in any way, however, in October 1843 the land was conveyed to Mr N. Bray. Bray may have developed the site from this time, in 1849 he took out a mortgage to Mr John Minton Hart.",
"The 1865 Trig Survey plan shows that the site was occupied by a regular\\-shaped structure constructed to the Gloucester Street alignment by this time. Two detached structures are also shown constructed to the rear, western site boundary.",
"In 1875 the land was purchased by [William Daley](/wiki/William_Daley_%28Australian_politician%29 \"William Daley (Australian politician)\"). The plan on the Land Title dated November 1877 also shows the building on the site, with frontage to Gloucester Street. A party wall is clearly indicated on the plan, along the north eastern site boundary. A small detached structure occupies the north western corner of the site. The site was subsequently transferred three times in 1879 and in early 1880 was part of a parcel of land extending along Essex Street transferred to Peter Francis Hart, a builder. The plan on this land title indicates the same building footprint seen on the earlier plans. In the same year the land was transferred to Elizabeth Hart. The Percy Dove plan of 1880 shows the two, one\\-storey dwellings facing Gloucester Street, Nos. 153 and 155\\. A small structure is attached to the rear of No. 153\\. Another single storey structure is also shown on the Essex Street frontage, at the south western corner of the site. This building is numbered No.10 and is surrounded by open yard. It would appear that it was slightly setback from its neighbour to the west, No. 8 Essex Street, another single storey structure noted as being occupied by a bootmaker. The adjoining building at No. 6, also noted as being a single storey building, was occupied by a grocer.",
"These details were transferred to a detail sheet dated December 1887\\. This plan was subsequently revised in September 1895, by which time new buildings are shown occupying the site. The buildings, shown hatched, are constructed to the Gloucester and Essex Street boundaries, with three open yards along the northern site boundary which also featured small timber, attached structures. The main building was constructed in brick. The structures that formerly occupied the site and stair from Gloucester Street are also indicated, however, are crossed out on the plan. It would also appear that the rock face was also cut back to the Gloucester Street building line.",
"Based on these plans, it would appear that the buildings were constructed sometime between 1887 and 1895\\. It is assumed that they were constructed in 1892\\. Nos. 153 and 155 Gloucester Street are listed in the Sands Directory until 1892\\. Nos. 12 and 14 Essex Street are also listed in the Sands at this time, however, are listed to the east of Gloucester Street. Nos. 10, 12a and 14a, however, on the western side of Gloucester Street, are first listed in 1893\\. The Sands indicates that the street number subsequently changed and the subject buildings became Nos. 10, 12 and 14 by 1898\\. The buildings generally responded to the irregular shape of the site and were constructed on the original rock ledges that characterise the area. Unlike the previous building that occupied the site, the buildings were constructed with frontage to Essex Street and stepped down the grade of the street, which falls to the east, toward [George Street](/wiki/George_Street%2C_Sydney \"George Street, Sydney\"). It is not clear why the Essex Street address was preferred, possibly to allow northern aspect to the rear of the buildings. However, housing constructed in The Rocks by this time were not orientated towards the harbour and Essex Street may have lost is association with the gallows and old Gaol by this time.",
"The buildings were also constructed to the northern and western site boundaries, abutting the existing neighbouring buildings along Gloucester and Essex Streets streetscapes, with only small open yards provided along the northern boundary. It is assumed that the north eastern party wall from the earlier development on the site was retained and new buildings constructed to it and the single storey building to its north, No. 151 Gloucester Street. The wall is exposed today and the shadow line of the gable roof, the height of a single storey structure constructed on a rock ledge is evident. This building was subsequently replaced by two storey terraces constructed by the [NSW Housing Board](/wiki/Housing_NSW \"Housing NSW\") in {{circa\\|1912}}\\-13\\. The 1895 field survey notes indicate a typical type of housing for this period, with rear tunnel back form. Terraces had long being an accepted form in The Rocks with land speculators looking to maximise inner city sites, with no front gardens or setback from the street and restricted open spaces. The buildings also show reference to building codes introduced decades earlier with the incorporation of party walls which extended beyond the roof planes of the buildings.",
"The external form illustrated and inspection of the buildings today suggest that internally the buildings also featured typical internal layout with two main rooms on the first and second floor with smaller room on both levels in the rear tunnel back. It is assumed that the three upper rooms were accessed via a stair extending up the party walls and returning into the building. The first floor level was typically split to allow access to each of the three first floor rooms. Another narrow stair extended from the first floor to the roof in each of the terraces. Only one of these stairs remains (in No. 14\\) today.",
"In 1900 the buildings were resumed under the Darling Harbour Resumption Act and came under the responsibility of the [Sydney Harbour Trust](/wiki/Sydney_Harbour_Trust \"Sydney Harbour Trust\"). Despite resumption and change of ownership, the buildings appear to have retained their original form into the early decades of the twentieth century. A [Sydney Water](/wiki/Sydney_Water \"Sydney Water\") plan dated 1911 also shows the original form and suggests that no external change had been undertaken to the buildings with the open areas across the northern site boundary clearly evident. It also indicates that the buildings to the north of the site, along the Gloucester Street frontage were demolished about this time to make way for the proposed terrace of 17 houses about to be erected by the [Public Works Department](/wiki/NSW_Public_Works \"NSW Public Works\") at Nos. 127–152a Gloucester Street. The plan also shows a lane extending across the western site boundary and rear of the terrace sites and buildings facing Cumberland Street. This is consistent with a number of housing schemes following the cleansing operations of the early 1900s and preparations for the construction of the [Sydney Harbour Bridge](/wiki/Sydney_Harbour_Bridge \"Sydney Harbour Bridge\") which displaced a considerable percentage of the local population. The Housing Board notified City Council in October 1912 that before work commenced on the premises at Nos. 127\\-152a Gloucester Street, the premises at Nos. 6 and 8 Essex Street would be demolished once the tenant was vacated. It is assumed that Nos. 6 and 8 were demolished in 1912\\. The Gloucester Street terraces were demolished in 1987, and site was used as a car park prior to its redevelopment in the late 1980s.",
"A plaque in the building today notes that the buildings were occupied by [Margaret Fulton](/wiki/Margaret_Fulton \"Margaret Fulton\"), a celebrated cookery author, and her family between the years of 1954 and 1968\\. The buildings were unoccupied for several years before their use as a temporary site office for the adjoining development of the D2 site (north eastern corner of Essex and Gloucester Streets) in the 1980s.",
""
] |
Heritage listing
----------------
As at 30 March 2011, Harts Building and site are of State heritage significance for their historical and scientific cultural values. The site and building are also of State heritage significance for their contribution to The Rocks area which is of State Heritage significance in its own right. Harts Buildings, Nos. 10\-14 Essex Street, are of State and local heritage significance for their historical, aesthetic and scientific cultural values. The site and buildings are highly significant as part of a grouping of 19th century development remaining in this precinct that represent the residential built development and its evolution in the period between 1840 and 1900\.
The buildings provide evidence of the building practices of the 1890s and remain as good examples of speculative housing constructed in {{circa\|1892}}. The buildings retain classical, late Victorian detailing, however, their solid construction and decoration of the parapet also indicate the prosperity and confidence of the time leading up to the construction of the buildings. The buildings occupy a prominent corner site and are significant in the way that the building form and massing respond to the site conditions and demonstrate the topography and character of The Rocks. The buildings are amongst a few 19th century developments remaining in the area south of the Cahill Expressway and contribute to the diversity of the Essex and Gloucester streetscapes. The buildings are prominent elements in the Essex Street streetscape primarily due to their corner location and modest scale, which is contrast to the surrounding development. They are one of two survivors of the pre 1900 development in Essex Street and make a positive contribution to the varied character and historical nature of the precinct. The adaptation of the buildings represents the evolution of the area and shift away from residential use. Their use as part of the Hotel complex and leisure activities in the area represents the shift in the use of the area and provides opportunity for interpretation and appreciation of the buildings.
Harts Buildings was listed on the [New South Wales State Heritage Register](/wiki/New_South_Wales_State_Heritage_Register "New South Wales State Heritage Register") on 10 May 2002 having satisfied the following criteria.
**The place is important in demonstrating the course, or pattern, of cultural or natural history in New South Wales.**
Harts Buildings are historically significant as part of the late 19th century development in The Rocks' precinct located south of the Cahill Expressway. With the adjacent [Butchery Buildings](/wiki/Butchery_Building "Butchery Building") and Lilyvale Cottage they form a grouping of small scale residential and commercial development that importantly demonstrates the evolution of the area from 1840 to the turn of the 20th century. The buildings were constructed as speculative residential accommodation that despite changes of ownership and management continued in their original function for nearly 100 years. The buildings significantly were constructed to maximise the site and standard terrace house form adapted to suit the irregular site boundaries and topography of the area. The adaptation of the buildings in the early 1990s represents the shift of the use and evolution of the area from a residential precinct to a tourist and commercial area which began in the early decades of the 20th century.
As such Harts Buildings make a positive contribution to The Rocks and meets this criterion on a State level.
**The place has a strong or special association with a person, or group of persons, of importance of cultural or natural history of New South Wales's history.**
The buildings are associated with Peter Hart, a local builder who constructed the buildings which now bear his name. The buildings have subsequently been associated with a number of local residents and occupants including Margaret Fulton, a well known and highly regarded cookery writer who occupied part of the building during the late 1950s and early 1960s. The buildings have been associated with the Sydney Harbour Trust, who became responsible for the buildings in {{circa\|1900}}, [Maritime Services Board](/wiki/Sydney_Water "Sydney Water"), [Sydney Cove Redevelopment Authority](/wiki/Sydney_Cove_Redevelopment_Authority "Sydney Cove Redevelopment Authority") and [Sydney Harbour Foreshore Authority](/wiki/Sydney_Harbour_Foreshore_Authority "Sydney Harbour Foreshore Authority"). The buildings are also now associated with the Shangri\-La (former ANA) Hotel and part of the tourist and commercial enterprise in the area. Harts Buildings meet this criterion on a local level.
**The place is important in demonstrating aesthetic characteristics and/or a high degree of creative or technical achievement in New South Wales.**
Harts Buildings, Nos. 10–14 Essex Street, are three terrace houses constructed in {{circa\|1892}}. The buildings generally feature restrained classical detailing which illustrates the simple, late Victorian style with little ornamentation and incorporation of standard building techniques and finishes which reflects the speculative nature of the overall development.
The buildings occupy a prominent corner and are highly visible elements in the Essex Street streetscape. Their modest scale is in contrast with much of the surrounding development and together with the Butchery Buildings and Lilyvale Cottage, form a grouping of late 19th century buildings which demonstrate the historic character of the area. These buildings are of significance as the only survivors from this period (1840s to 1890s) in the block bounded by the Cahill Expressway, Cumberland, Essex and Gloucester Streets.
The architectural configuration and layout is typical of terrace housing of the period, however, like other buildings in The Rocks, have been adapted to suit the irregular site parameters and topography of the site. The massing and form of the buildings, construction to the street frontage and lack of open space around the buildings represents the shift in the style and perception of residential accommodation that became prevalent from the 1870s as the area became more developed and densely populated. Harts Buildings meet this criterion on a local level.
**The place has a strong or special association with a particular community or cultural group in New South Wales for social, cultural or spiritual reasons.**
Harts Buildings have no strong or special association with any particular community or cultural groups, however, were part of a primarily residential and small scale commercial precinct that developed after the relocation of the Old Gaol from George Street in the early 1840s. As such they were associated with a number of occupants and tenants who were part of a closely knit working class neighbourhood. The alterations and adaptation of the buildings represents a shift in the use of the building and area in general. The buildings are now part of an active commercial community and busy tourist precinct and popular venue for leisure activities for the local workers and tourists alike. Harts Buildings meet this criterion on a local level.
**The place has potential to yield information that will contribute to an understanding of the cultural or natural history of New South Wales.**
Harts Buildings, Nos. 10–14 Essex Street, is largely intact, and despite alterations and adaptation of the building remains as an example of terraces constructed during the 1890s and retains a sense of the domestic standards and spatial qualities can be interpreted in the building fabric. The buildings clearly demonstrate how the terraces of the later half of the 19th century responded to site conditions and the rock ledges that typified the early character of The Rocks. With the neighbouring Butchery Buildings and Lilyvale Cottage, the buildings demonstrate the architecture, domestic and commercial attitudes of the period between 1840 and 1900 in NSW. As such Harts Buildings satisfy this criterion on a State level.
**The place possesses uncommon, rare or endangered aspects of the cultural or natural history of New South Wales.**
There are a number of dwellings and terraces dating from a similar period remaining in The Rocks, however, these vary in scale and detail and do not have the distinctive [crenellated](/wiki/Crenellated "Crenellated") parapet. The buildings are relatively rare in that they respond to the site and retain evidence of the earlier topography and rocky ledges of The Rocks which can be interpreted in the way the buildings step down the slope of Essex Street and by the cut rock base of the buildings along the Gloucester Street frontage. Nos. 10\-14 Essex Street is of State significance as one of a few 19th century, small scale residential buildings remaining in the area south of the Cahill Expressway with the Butchery Buildings, Lilyvale and terraces at the southern end of Cumberland Street, they form a significant grouping. As such, Harts Buildings meet this criterion on a State level.
**The place is important in demonstrating the principal characteristics of a class of cultural or natural places/environments in New South Wales.**
Despite adaptation and alterations to the buildings, they retain their original external character and a sense of their original internal layout and remain as examples of late 19th century terrace houses. The buildings meet this criterion on a local level.
|
[
"Heritage listing\n----------------",
"As at 30 March 2011, Harts Building and site are of State heritage significance for their historical and scientific cultural values. The site and building are also of State heritage significance for their contribution to The Rocks area which is of State Heritage significance in its own right. Harts Buildings, Nos. 10\\-14 Essex Street, are of State and local heritage significance for their historical, aesthetic and scientific cultural values. The site and buildings are highly significant as part of a grouping of 19th century development remaining in this precinct that represent the residential built development and its evolution in the period between 1840 and 1900\\.",
"The buildings provide evidence of the building practices of the 1890s and remain as good examples of speculative housing constructed in {{circa\\|1892}}. The buildings retain classical, late Victorian detailing, however, their solid construction and decoration of the parapet also indicate the prosperity and confidence of the time leading up to the construction of the buildings. The buildings occupy a prominent corner site and are significant in the way that the building form and massing respond to the site conditions and demonstrate the topography and character of The Rocks. The buildings are amongst a few 19th century developments remaining in the area south of the Cahill Expressway and contribute to the diversity of the Essex and Gloucester streetscapes. The buildings are prominent elements in the Essex Street streetscape primarily due to their corner location and modest scale, which is contrast to the surrounding development. They are one of two survivors of the pre 1900 development in Essex Street and make a positive contribution to the varied character and historical nature of the precinct. The adaptation of the buildings represents the evolution of the area and shift away from residential use. Their use as part of the Hotel complex and leisure activities in the area represents the shift in the use of the area and provides opportunity for interpretation and appreciation of the buildings.",
"Harts Buildings was listed on the [New South Wales State Heritage Register](/wiki/New_South_Wales_State_Heritage_Register \"New South Wales State Heritage Register\") on 10 May 2002 having satisfied the following criteria.",
"**The place is important in demonstrating the course, or pattern, of cultural or natural history in New South Wales.**",
"Harts Buildings are historically significant as part of the late 19th century development in The Rocks' precinct located south of the Cahill Expressway. With the adjacent [Butchery Buildings](/wiki/Butchery_Building \"Butchery Building\") and Lilyvale Cottage they form a grouping of small scale residential and commercial development that importantly demonstrates the evolution of the area from 1840 to the turn of the 20th century. The buildings were constructed as speculative residential accommodation that despite changes of ownership and management continued in their original function for nearly 100 years. The buildings significantly were constructed to maximise the site and standard terrace house form adapted to suit the irregular site boundaries and topography of the area. The adaptation of the buildings in the early 1990s represents the shift of the use and evolution of the area from a residential precinct to a tourist and commercial area which began in the early decades of the 20th century.",
"As such Harts Buildings make a positive contribution to The Rocks and meets this criterion on a State level.",
"**The place has a strong or special association with a person, or group of persons, of importance of cultural or natural history of New South Wales's history.**",
"The buildings are associated with Peter Hart, a local builder who constructed the buildings which now bear his name. The buildings have subsequently been associated with a number of local residents and occupants including Margaret Fulton, a well known and highly regarded cookery writer who occupied part of the building during the late 1950s and early 1960s. The buildings have been associated with the Sydney Harbour Trust, who became responsible for the buildings in {{circa\\|1900}}, [Maritime Services Board](/wiki/Sydney_Water \"Sydney Water\"), [Sydney Cove Redevelopment Authority](/wiki/Sydney_Cove_Redevelopment_Authority \"Sydney Cove Redevelopment Authority\") and [Sydney Harbour Foreshore Authority](/wiki/Sydney_Harbour_Foreshore_Authority \"Sydney Harbour Foreshore Authority\"). The buildings are also now associated with the Shangri\\-La (former ANA) Hotel and part of the tourist and commercial enterprise in the area. Harts Buildings meet this criterion on a local level.",
"**The place is important in demonstrating aesthetic characteristics and/or a high degree of creative or technical achievement in New South Wales.**",
"Harts Buildings, Nos. 10–14 Essex Street, are three terrace houses constructed in {{circa\\|1892}}. The buildings generally feature restrained classical detailing which illustrates the simple, late Victorian style with little ornamentation and incorporation of standard building techniques and finishes which reflects the speculative nature of the overall development.",
"The buildings occupy a prominent corner and are highly visible elements in the Essex Street streetscape. Their modest scale is in contrast with much of the surrounding development and together with the Butchery Buildings and Lilyvale Cottage, form a grouping of late 19th century buildings which demonstrate the historic character of the area. These buildings are of significance as the only survivors from this period (1840s to 1890s) in the block bounded by the Cahill Expressway, Cumberland, Essex and Gloucester Streets.",
"The architectural configuration and layout is typical of terrace housing of the period, however, like other buildings in The Rocks, have been adapted to suit the irregular site parameters and topography of the site. The massing and form of the buildings, construction to the street frontage and lack of open space around the buildings represents the shift in the style and perception of residential accommodation that became prevalent from the 1870s as the area became more developed and densely populated. Harts Buildings meet this criterion on a local level.",
"**The place has a strong or special association with a particular community or cultural group in New South Wales for social, cultural or spiritual reasons.**",
"Harts Buildings have no strong or special association with any particular community or cultural groups, however, were part of a primarily residential and small scale commercial precinct that developed after the relocation of the Old Gaol from George Street in the early 1840s. As such they were associated with a number of occupants and tenants who were part of a closely knit working class neighbourhood. The alterations and adaptation of the buildings represents a shift in the use of the building and area in general. The buildings are now part of an active commercial community and busy tourist precinct and popular venue for leisure activities for the local workers and tourists alike. Harts Buildings meet this criterion on a local level.",
"**The place has potential to yield information that will contribute to an understanding of the cultural or natural history of New South Wales.**",
"Harts Buildings, Nos. 10–14 Essex Street, is largely intact, and despite alterations and adaptation of the building remains as an example of terraces constructed during the 1890s and retains a sense of the domestic standards and spatial qualities can be interpreted in the building fabric. The buildings clearly demonstrate how the terraces of the later half of the 19th century responded to site conditions and the rock ledges that typified the early character of The Rocks. With the neighbouring Butchery Buildings and Lilyvale Cottage, the buildings demonstrate the architecture, domestic and commercial attitudes of the period between 1840 and 1900 in NSW. As such Harts Buildings satisfy this criterion on a State level.",
"**The place possesses uncommon, rare or endangered aspects of the cultural or natural history of New South Wales.**",
"There are a number of dwellings and terraces dating from a similar period remaining in The Rocks, however, these vary in scale and detail and do not have the distinctive [crenellated](/wiki/Crenellated \"Crenellated\") parapet. The buildings are relatively rare in that they respond to the site and retain evidence of the earlier topography and rocky ledges of The Rocks which can be interpreted in the way the buildings step down the slope of Essex Street and by the cut rock base of the buildings along the Gloucester Street frontage. Nos. 10\\-14 Essex Street is of State significance as one of a few 19th century, small scale residential buildings remaining in the area south of the Cahill Expressway with the Butchery Buildings, Lilyvale and terraces at the southern end of Cumberland Street, they form a significant grouping. As such, Harts Buildings meet this criterion on a State level.",
"**The place is important in demonstrating the principal characteristics of a class of cultural or natural places/environments in New South Wales.**",
"Despite adaptation and alterations to the buildings, they retain their original external character and a sense of their original internal layout and remain as examples of late 19th century terrace houses. The buildings meet this criterion on a local level.",
""
] |
Biography
---------
[thumb\|Joseph Zaritsky with his wife Sara and daughter, Jerusalem, 1923](/wiki/File:Zeriztky%2C_1923.jpg "Zeriztky, 1923.jpg")
### Russia, 1891–1923
Joseph Zaritsky was born in 1891 in [Boryspil](/wiki/Boryspil "Boryspil"), in the Poltava Oblast (province), in the Southwestern portion of the [Russian Empire](/wiki/Russian_Empire "Russian Empire") (today the [Kyiv Oblast](/wiki/Kyiv_Oblast "Kyiv Oblast") of [Ukraine](/wiki/Ukraine "Ukraine")), to a large, traditional [Jewish](/wiki/Jewish "Jewish") family. His parents, Golda and Joseph Ben Ya'acov, were farmers with National\-Zionist leanings. One of the main expressions of this was their devoting of two rooms in their home to the study of Hebrew and reading. When he was 7 or 8 Zaritsky was sent away from home for a long period of time (it's not known to where).See: Yoel Dorkas, “Ukraine\-Jerusalem\-Tel Aviv\-Tsuba,” *Masa* 4 (February 1972\). (in Hebrew) From 1910 to 1914 he studied art at the Academy of Arts in the city of Kiev. Among the artists that influenced Zaritsky was the Russian Symbolist painter [Mikhail Vrubel](/wiki/Mikhail_Vrubel "Mikhail Vrubel"). In 1915, during [World War I](/wiki/World_War_I "World War I"), Zaritsky was conscripted into the Russian Army, where he served until 1917\.Gila Blass, *New Horizons* (Tel Aviv: Papyrus, Publishing House of the Student Association of Tel Aviv University, Reshafim, 1980\) (hereinafter: Blass, New Horizons), 126\. Omer, on the other hand, lengthens Zaritsky’s army service to 1919; see: Mordechai Omer, Zaritsky (Tel Aviv: Tel Aviv Museum of Art, 1984\). (in Hebrew) Zaritsky, in an interview, talked about his being sent to the front as an officer during the First World War, but then, when he got there, being sent back because the peace agreement between Russia and Germany had been signed. In 1918 he married Sarah (Sonia), a graduate of the Faculty of Dentistry in Kiev, and the daughter of Rabbi Israel Dov Zabin. A year later their daughter Etia was born.See: *Yediot* (1957\). (in Hebrew)
Because of the [pogrom](/wiki/Pogrom "Pogrom") of 1919, the family escaped to [Kalarash](/wiki/C%C4%83l%C4%83ra%C8%99i%2C_Moldova "Călărași, Moldova"), [Bessarabia](/wiki/Bessarabia "Bessarabia"), leaving behind all his works and art up to that point. In Kalarash he stayed in his father\-in\-law's home, where he painted small\-scale watercolors, of which only five have survived: three portraits of his wife and two rural landscapes. These small works are done in small dark colored dots, and they reflect the influence of Russian modernism.Mordechai Omer, *Zaritsky* (Tel Aviv: Tel Aviv Museum of Art, 1984\), 17\. (in Hebrew)
In his painting "Artist’s Wife Looking out at the Street" (1920\), Zaritsky divided the painting into two: the background, in which he describes the town, and the foreground, in which his figure sits. The angle of description of the figure – from behind – emphasizes this division. In spite of the division, Zaritsky cancelled the illusion of spaciousness by using identical materials and coloring for both parts. In his landscapes of this period as well, Zaritsky divided the format into a sort of mosaic on small canvases that blur the illusion of [perspective](/wiki/Perspective_%28visual%29 "Perspective (visual)").
### Jerusalem, 1923–1925
[thumb\|Jerusalem 1925: sitting (left to right): Ms. Sarah (Sonia) Zaritzky, [Israel Paldi](/wiki/Israel_Paldi "Israel Paldi"), Joseph Zaritzky and daughter Etia. Standing (left to right): [Arieh Lubin](/wiki/Arieh_Lubin "Arieh Lubin"), [Joseph Pressmane](/wiki/Joseph_Pressmane "Joseph Pressmane"), [Chaim Gliksberg](/wiki/Chaim_Gliksberg "Chaim Gliksberg"), [Todros Geller](/wiki/Todros_Geller "Todros Geller").](/wiki/Image:Joseph_Zaritsky_at_kandinof_yard%2C.jpg "Joseph Zaritsky at kandinof yard,.jpg")
In 1923 Zaritsky immigrated to the [Land of Israel](/wiki/Land_of_Israel "Land of Israel") alone and settled in [Jerusalem](/wiki/Jerusalem "Jerusalem"); a year later his family followed.Tikva Weinstock, "It's Not Easy to Live With a Painting," *Maariv*, December 27, 1957, 10\. (in Hebrew) In the city Zaritsky painted a number of watercolor landscapes in light colors. Gradually his artistic works became freer. In "Jerusalem: Abyssinian Gate” (1923\), a precise rendering of nature is still apparent, but in later works there is a pronounced expressionistic tendency in the composition of his works. Examples of this can be seen in “Haifa, the Technion” (1924\), and in the works called "Jerusalem: Nachalat Shiva" (1924\), in which Zaritsky uses an expressionistic technique for dividing the format into separate spaces. The use of lines in his work as a means of expression can be seen also in his depictions of houses in Jerusalem and Safad from this period.
In 1924 Zaritsky mounted his first solo exhibition in the club "Menorah" in Jerusalem. Another exhibition was opened in the [Technion](/wiki/Technion "Technion") in [Haifa](/wiki/Haifa "Haifa"). The journalistic criticism emphasized the lyricism in his works, and the fact that "the forms \[in his paintings] turn into dots of abstract color, the subject of which is an allegory of color and light, and not the plot of a story."M. Zamir, *Haaretz*, June 6, 1924\. In addition, Zaritsky and the sculptor [Abraham Melnikov](/wiki/Abraham_Melnikov "Abraham Melnikov"), were the initiators of the first of the exhibitions of Israeli artists in the [Tower of David](/wiki/Tower_of_David "Tower of David"). Also, from 1927 he served as the Chairman of the Israel Painters and Sculptors Association.
### Tel Aviv, 1925–1948
In the middle of the 1920s Zaritsky moved to [Tel Aviv](/wiki/Tel_Aviv "Tel Aviv") and continued to paint the series of landscapes that he had started in Jerusalem. The landscapes and portraits of that he painted during these years show his effort to create an artistic language appropriate to description.
In 1927 Zaritsky left his family behind and went to Paris for a stay of several months. There he was exposed to the western modernist art that was flourishing in Paris at the beginning of the twentieth century. Later Zaritsky remarked on how impressed he was by the exhibits at the [Guimet Museum](/wiki/Guimet_Museum "Guimet Museum") of [Asian Art](/wiki/Asian_Art "Asian Art").
In 1929 Zaritsky participated in the "Egged" group's exhibition, held in an apartment on [Allenby Street](/wiki/Allenby_Street "Allenby Street") in Tel Aviv, in which artists such as [Sionah Tagger](/wiki/Sionah_Tagger "Sionah Tagger"), [Arieh Lubin](/wiki/Arieh_Lubin "Arieh Lubin"), and [Pinchas Litvinovsky](/wiki/Pinchas_Litvinovsky "Pinchas Litvinovsky"), among others, also participated. The works of this group show the influence of late French post\-modernism (primarily of the "[School of Paris](/wiki/School_of_Paris "School of Paris")"), which was popular among the artists of the [Land of Israel](/wiki/Land_of_Israel "Land of Israel"). In Zaritsky's works this was manifested in his tendency to paint broad surfaces of color and to use broad, free brushstrokes. In "Portrait of the Artist's Wife," an oil painting done in 1929, Zaritsky used the image of a bouquet of flowers in front of the main image. Broad, free brushstrokes blur the boundary between the foreground and the background of the painting.
His exhibition at the Bezalel National Museum in 1930 established him as a modernist and reflected a turn toward European art.A. Landman, *Doar Hayom*, February 14, 1930\. [Uri Zvi Greenberg](/wiki/Uri_Zvi_Greenberg "Uri Zvi Greenberg") said, after a visit to the exhibition, that Zaritsky's work encompasses a different kind of painting which does not reflect "the literality of illustrative art toward the literary subject," the exotic imagery of the Land of Israel, "which drags Arabs from the shuk and their donkeys, by the ears, to the olive press." The atmosphere in the painting Greenberg described as "the stillness of colors" and "the holding of one's breath." “Even the red curtain," Greenberg writes, "which in his paintings reminds us of the abstraction of Kandinsky, even this red is restrained, and its judgment as red becomes just a matter of a wintry sunset."[Uri Zvi Greenberg](/wiki/Uri_Zvi_Greenberg "Uri Zvi Greenberg"), "Draft of an Article on the Zaritsky Exhibition in the Bezalel National Museum," *Studio* 56 (September 1994\): 6\.
Between 1932 and 1933, Zaritsky opened an art "studia" adjoining the basement of the home where he lived on 18 Mapu Street. Among the artists who came to his studio were [Yehiel Krize](/wiki/Yehiel_Krize "Yehiel Krize"), [Arie Aroch](/wiki/Arie_Aroch "Arie Aroch"), etc. Nonetheless, the studio did not last long, and Zaritsky was destined to earn his living in the future, for the most part, from the real estate he owned.
A subject that appears in his work during these years is the motif of flowers, such as in the series of watercolors called "Flowers on the Windowsill," which he painted in Tel Aviv between 1937 and 1944, and in his works that were created after a visit to Beit Daniel (Daniel House) in [Zichron Yaakov](/wiki/Zichron_Yaakov "Zichron Yaakov"), from 1939 and during the 1940s. While in the early works of the series flowers serve as an element for focusing the viewer's observation on reality, in the later works the flowers become more of a form used to express feeling.Mordechai Omer, *Zaritsky* (Tel Aviv: Tel Aviv Museum of Art, 1984\),54–55, 68–70\. (in Hebrew)
In 1935 Zaritsky moved to a new house that he built on the southeast corner of Ben Yehuda and Mapu Streets. In the large series of works he produced in the 1930s and 1940s, which depicted views of the city from his rooftop, Zaritsky turned his gaze away from the view of the beach which occupied his contemporaries, like [Nahum Gutman](/wiki/Nahum_Gutman "Nahum Gutman"), [Reuven Rubin](/wiki/Reuven_Rubin "Reuven Rubin"), etc., to views of the new, modern city spread out to his north and east. In his early works Zaritsky divided his works into areas that created the feeling of spaciousness. In some of the paintings the image of the painter working on views of the landscape even appears. His later works serve as a means of blurring and breaking up these areas. This blurring allows the blending of the landscape with what the painting is representing. [Yona Fischer](/wiki/Yona_Fischer "Yona Fischer") states that in Zaritsky's rooftop paintings there is an attempt at combining and unifying the light and the dark in his landscapes.Yona Fischer, *A Tribute to Zaritsky* (Jerusalem: Israel Museum, 1981\) (pages unnumbered). (in Hebrew) [Mordechai Omer](/wiki/Mordechai_Omer "Mordechai Omer") also described Zaritsky's use of light in his paintings and suggests that in these paintings the light is not perceived as a tonal problem.Tonality, that is, it doesn't relate to reality directly. The relationship to light and its influence on the object is not mimetic. In fact, Omer claims, Zaritsky left the objects in the paintings unnuanced.\[12]
In 1941 he mounted a solo exhibition in the [Habima](/wiki/Habima "Habima") building in honor of his 50th birthday. In 1942 Zaritsky won the [Dizengoff Prize](/wiki/Dizengoff_Prize "Dizengoff Prize") for Painting.
[thumb\|Zaritsky in Jerusalem](/wiki/Image:Zafrir_Zarizky_001.jpg "Zafrir Zarizky 001.jpg")
### New Horizons, 1948–1963
#### The Founding of "New Horizons"
[thumb\|Paintings by Zaritsky and Itzhak Danziger at the 9th "Ofakim Hadashim" exhibition, Tel Aviv Museum of Art, April 1959](/wiki/File:Ofakim_hadasin_1959.jpg "Ofakim hadasin 1959.jpg")
[thumb\|Zaritsky (left) at the "Histadrut Prize" Ceremony, 1961](/wiki/File:Ofakim_Hadasim_011.jpg "Ofakim Hadasim 011.jpg")
The motive behind the founding of an alternative to the general art association came into being in 1948, with an invitation to mount an exhibition of Israeli artists at the Italian pavilion of the [Venice Biennale](/wiki/Venice_Biennale "Venice Biennale"). Zaritsky, who was chairman of the association at the time, decided on his own to create a list of artists who would participate because he was afraid that, left to the general membership, the list would include mediocre artists. This created a scandal at the association"s general meeting, which took place at the home of [Chaim Gliksberg](/wiki/Chaim_Gliksberg "Chaim Gliksberg"). At the meeting it was decided to suspend Zaritsky from the group. As a reaction to the condemnation, several artists, among them [Moshe Castel](/wiki/Moshe_Castel "Moshe Castel"), [Yehezkel Streichman](/wiki/Yehezkel_Streichman "Yehezkel Streichman"), and [Yohanan Simon](/wiki/Yohanan_Simon "Yohanan Simon") announced their immediate resignation from the association and their invitation to Zaritsky to form an independent association.
Around the original core, 15 artists gathered and boycotted the general exhibition of Israeli artists, and instead held the dedication of the new Artist's House in Tel Aviv. On July 2, 1948, the dissidents published their manifesto in the newspaper *[Haaretz](/wiki/Haaretz "Haaretz")*, stating that the association must emphasize achievements in Jewish painting and not sink into mediocrity. On November 9, 1948, the new group mounted an exhibition of 18 member artists in the [Tel Aviv Museum of Art](/wiki/Tel_Aviv_Museum_of_Art "Tel Aviv Museum of Art"), under the name "[New Horizons](/wiki/New_Horizons "New Horizons")."Blass, *New Horizons*. (in Hebrew) While artists such as Yohanan Simon, Moshe Castel, and Marcel Janco dealt with Zionist and Jewish symbolism, Zaritsky chose for the exhibition an abstract still life influenced by the cubist painter [Georges Braque](/wiki/Georges_Braque "Georges Braque").
In the exhibition catalog Zaritsky emphasized the role of art in building the young nation in modernist terms: “We demand an art that exists in close proximity to the people \[…] and we are willing to explain to the public the paths and forms of the new art in order to inculcate into it these new values of truth, so that it will grasp them and march forward with us. In this way we will be able to develop the art of truth in our young country." While the art in the exhibition did not display aesthetic uniformity or a joint painting style, the exhibition was perceived as an attempt to put forward a change in the nature of local art and drew thousands who came to view the "sensationalist" modern art.Gideon Efrat, "The Dialectics of the 1950s: A Hegemony and a Plurality," in Galia Bar\-Or and Gideon Efrat, *The First Decade: A Hegemony and A Plurality* (Ein Harod: Museum of Art, 2008\), 19\. (in Hebrew)
From the moment it was formed, “New Horizons” was perceived as a movement which aspired to have the strength of the establishment behind it. An example of this can be seen in the reactions to the general exhibition of the Israel Painters and Sculptors Association held in November 1952, in commemoration of 20 years since the found of the Tel Aviv Museum of Art, claiming that the group “conquered” the main exhibition hall.Blass, *New Horizons*, 48\. (In Hebrew)
#### “Otsma”
[thumb\|*Might* (1958\) by Yosef Zaritsky at "the First Daecade Exhibition"' 1958](/wiki/File:Might_by_Yosef_zaritsky.jpg "Might by Yosef zaritsky.jpg")
In 1957 the government of Israel decided to put on a large national display in honor of the tenth anniversary of the founding of the State of Israel. Within the framework of the preparations for the "Exhibition of the Decade," which opened on June 5, 1978, in [Binyanei Hauma](/wiki/International_Convention_Center_%28Jerusalem%29 "International Convention Center (Jerusalem)") in Jerusalem, the government commissioned several works of monumental proportions from the members of "New Horizons." It was one of the first times that the abstract works of the members of this group were displayed in a non\-museum environment. Among the outstanding works were a large steel sculpture by [Yechiel Shemi](/wiki/Yechiel_Shemi "Yechiel Shemi"), "Sculpture of the Decade" by [Itzhak Danziger](/wiki/Itzhak_Danziger "Itzhak Danziger"), a frieze by [Yaakov Wechsler](/wiki/Yaakov_Wechsler "Yaakov Wechsler"), etc. Another notable work was Zaritsky's painting "Otsma" (Power), which had been commissioned by [Avraham Yaski](/wiki/Avraham_Yaski "Avraham Yaski"), a designer in the "Department of Economic Achievements." This oil painting was based on a number of motifs that had been appearing throughout his works as a secondary thread since his "Yechiam" period.For a description and review of this exhibition, see: Blass, New Horizons, 76–80; Gideon Efrat, “Exhibition of the Decade,” in: Galia Bar\-Or and Gideon Efrat, *The First Decade: A Hegemony and A Plurality* (Ein Harod: Museum of Art, 2008\), 241\. (In Hebrew)
On the eve of the opening of the exhibition, [David Ben\-Gurion](/wiki/David_Ben-Gurion "David Ben-Gurion") made a tour of the exhibition, perusing the pavilions and displays there, including the Zaritsky's painting. As a result of Ben\-Gurion's remark, which according to one version was – "So, this is modern art. Well, we can manage with modern art and we can manage without it" – Zaritsky's painting was moved from its central place in the Economics Division of the exhibition to another place in the exhibition.*Haaretz* (May 6, 1958\). (In Hebrew) As a result of this decision a protest was raised by some of the journalists covering the exhibition, as well as by some of the public, against the intervention of the government in matters of art. It turned into one of the biggest scandals between the artist and the government that ever occurred in the history of visual arts in Israel. Yona Fischer wrote in *[LaMerhav](/wiki/LaMerhav "LaMerhav")*, that "the insult to the veteran artist Zaritsky typifies the way in which the world 'culture' is understood in our country,"*LaMerhav/Masa* (September 19, 1958\). (In Hebrew) but he acknowledged that the choice of an abstract artist like Zaritsky for an exhibition intended for the masses was a mistake. When the exhibition closed, because of the insult, Zaritsky destroyed the painting.
Another monumental work, carried out jointly by Zaritsky and Yitzhak Danziger, was commissioned by the architect Zeev Rechter for the front of the building. The two planned a long fiberglass relief with geometric motifs also taken from "Yechiam." In the end the work was never created, and in the place intended for it, a long concrete strip was installed.Mordechai Omer, *Zaritsky* (Givatayim: Masada Publishers, 1987\),114\. (In Hebrew)
### Later years
In 1968 Zaritsky was the first recipient of the [Sandberg Prize](/wiki/Sandberg_Prize "Sandberg Prize") of Israeli Art From the [Israel Museum](/wiki/Israel_Museum "Israel Museum"), the money for which was donated by an American philanthropist. Among the committee members choosing the recipient were Sandberg and Yona Fischer. This prize was awarded to him for a large "painting" he produced in 1964, based on one of the works of Johannes Vermeer. In the many interviews he granted in honor of winning the prize, Zaritsky emphasized his worldview with regard to the independence of the meaning of a painting. "The viewer must not see more in the painting than what is there," Zaritsky explained. "He must not allow his imagination to run wild with regard to what he is looking at. What he sees is what there is. The painting is not a dream."\[28]
From 1968 to 1970 Zaritsky worked on a figurative portrait of art collector [Ayala Zacks\-Abramov](/wiki/Ayala_Zacks-Abramov "Ayala Zacks-Abramov"). For this unusual work, he drew several sketches and a number of preliminary drawings on canvas. The full portrait, carried out in shades of green, shows Zacks\-Abramov in the corner of the canvas, with her hands on her knees. While her hands undergo abstraction, the image's face retains a clear, realistic character. A large part of the composition is taken up by a curtain which becomes the dominant form in the background.
The tonality of this painting has much in common with other works he painted between 1964 and 1974\. In his "Green Touches" series, as well as in the paintings "Tel Aviv Windows" and "Red Stain," the growing distance in the composition and construction of his paintings from a description of nature as it is, toward a conversation with the abstract, is clearly evident.
In the 1980s Zaritsky would take up residence every summer in the studio he had received on Kibbutz [Tzuba](/wiki/Tzuba "Tzuba"). At Tzuba he would paint watercolors, among them abstract nature paintings, from direct contemplation of nature. In the summer of 1983, Zaritsky painted a number of paintings in the studio in which he returned to the motif of the window, which he had used in the past. In addition, in the 1980s Zaritsky created a number of paintings, some of them monumental in size, constructed along the lines of painters like [Goya](/wiki/Francisco_Goya "Francisco Goya"), [Picasso](/wiki/Picasso "Picasso"), [Chagall](/wiki/Chagall "Chagall"), etc.
In 1980 one of Zaritsky's watercolors from 1924 was sold at a public auction in the [Gordon Gallery](/wiki/Gordon_Gallery "Gordon Gallery") for $79,000\. However, in addition to economic success, in his last years Zaritsky received a number of public tributes as well. In 1979 he was interviewed on television for the first time on [Gideon Ofrat](/wiki/Gideon_Ofrat "Gideon Ofrat")'s show "Taste and Smell."See: *Lehiton—Cinema World* (January 7, 1979\). (In Hebrew) In 1981 the Israeli Postal Authority issued a stamp depicting Zaritsky's “Jerusalem: The View from Jaffa Gate” (1927\). In 1981 [Marc Scheps](/wiki/Marc_Scheps "Marc Scheps"), Director of the Tel Aviv Museum of Art, named Zaritsky recipient of the Yakir Ha'ir (Esteemed of the city) award; on May 26, 1982, Zaritsky received the award from [Shlomo Lahat](/wiki/Shlomo_Lahat "Shlomo Lahat"), the Mayor of Tel Aviv.Nathan Gross, "Portrait of the Artist," *Al Hamishmar* (January 11, 1982\). (In Hebrew) In January 1982 there was a festive screening of the film "Portrait of an Artist: Joseph Zaritsky” (1981; 32 min.), directed by Jachin Hirsch, under the auspices of the Ministry of Education and the Israel Film Service. In 1985 the Tel Aviv Museum Art hosted a retrospective exhibition of Zaritsky's art that included 340 of his works.
On March 26, 1985, Zaritsky's wife Sarah died. Zaritsky died a few months later, on November 30, in [Assouta Medical Center](/wiki/Assouta_Medical_Center "Assouta Medical Center"), aged 96\. After a ceremony at the Tel Aviv Museum of Art, he was buried at Kibbutz Tzuba.
|
[
"Biography\n---------",
"[thumb\\|Joseph Zaritsky with his wife Sara and daughter, Jerusalem, 1923](/wiki/File:Zeriztky%2C_1923.jpg \"Zeriztky, 1923.jpg\")",
"### Russia, 1891–1923",
"Joseph Zaritsky was born in 1891 in [Boryspil](/wiki/Boryspil \"Boryspil\"), in the Poltava Oblast (province), in the Southwestern portion of the [Russian Empire](/wiki/Russian_Empire \"Russian Empire\") (today the [Kyiv Oblast](/wiki/Kyiv_Oblast \"Kyiv Oblast\") of [Ukraine](/wiki/Ukraine \"Ukraine\")), to a large, traditional [Jewish](/wiki/Jewish \"Jewish\") family. His parents, Golda and Joseph Ben Ya'acov, were farmers with National\\-Zionist leanings. One of the main expressions of this was their devoting of two rooms in their home to the study of Hebrew and reading. When he was 7 or 8 Zaritsky was sent away from home for a long period of time (it's not known to where).See: Yoel Dorkas, “Ukraine\\-Jerusalem\\-Tel Aviv\\-Tsuba,” *Masa* 4 (February 1972\\). (in Hebrew) From 1910 to 1914 he studied art at the Academy of Arts in the city of Kiev. Among the artists that influenced Zaritsky was the Russian Symbolist painter [Mikhail Vrubel](/wiki/Mikhail_Vrubel \"Mikhail Vrubel\"). In 1915, during [World War I](/wiki/World_War_I \"World War I\"), Zaritsky was conscripted into the Russian Army, where he served until 1917\\.Gila Blass, *New Horizons* (Tel Aviv: Papyrus, Publishing House of the Student Association of Tel Aviv University, Reshafim, 1980\\) (hereinafter: Blass, New Horizons), 126\\. Omer, on the other hand, lengthens Zaritsky’s army service to 1919; see: Mordechai Omer, Zaritsky (Tel Aviv: Tel Aviv Museum of Art, 1984\\). (in Hebrew) Zaritsky, in an interview, talked about his being sent to the front as an officer during the First World War, but then, when he got there, being sent back because the peace agreement between Russia and Germany had been signed. In 1918 he married Sarah (Sonia), a graduate of the Faculty of Dentistry in Kiev, and the daughter of Rabbi Israel Dov Zabin. A year later their daughter Etia was born.See: *Yediot* (1957\\). (in Hebrew)",
"Because of the [pogrom](/wiki/Pogrom \"Pogrom\") of 1919, the family escaped to [Kalarash](/wiki/C%C4%83l%C4%83ra%C8%99i%2C_Moldova \"Călărași, Moldova\"), [Bessarabia](/wiki/Bessarabia \"Bessarabia\"), leaving behind all his works and art up to that point. In Kalarash he stayed in his father\\-in\\-law's home, where he painted small\\-scale watercolors, of which only five have survived: three portraits of his wife and two rural landscapes. These small works are done in small dark colored dots, and they reflect the influence of Russian modernism.Mordechai Omer, *Zaritsky* (Tel Aviv: Tel Aviv Museum of Art, 1984\\), 17\\. (in Hebrew)",
"In his painting \"Artist’s Wife Looking out at the Street\" (1920\\), Zaritsky divided the painting into two: the background, in which he describes the town, and the foreground, in which his figure sits. The angle of description of the figure – from behind – emphasizes this division. In spite of the division, Zaritsky cancelled the illusion of spaciousness by using identical materials and coloring for both parts. In his landscapes of this period as well, Zaritsky divided the format into a sort of mosaic on small canvases that blur the illusion of [perspective](/wiki/Perspective_%28visual%29 \"Perspective (visual)\").",
"### Jerusalem, 1923–1925",
"[thumb\\|Jerusalem 1925: sitting (left to right): Ms. Sarah (Sonia) Zaritzky, [Israel Paldi](/wiki/Israel_Paldi \"Israel Paldi\"), Joseph Zaritzky and daughter Etia. Standing (left to right): [Arieh Lubin](/wiki/Arieh_Lubin \"Arieh Lubin\"), [Joseph Pressmane](/wiki/Joseph_Pressmane \"Joseph Pressmane\"), [Chaim Gliksberg](/wiki/Chaim_Gliksberg \"Chaim Gliksberg\"), [Todros Geller](/wiki/Todros_Geller \"Todros Geller\").](/wiki/Image:Joseph_Zaritsky_at_kandinof_yard%2C.jpg \"Joseph Zaritsky at kandinof yard,.jpg\")\nIn 1923 Zaritsky immigrated to the [Land of Israel](/wiki/Land_of_Israel \"Land of Israel\") alone and settled in [Jerusalem](/wiki/Jerusalem \"Jerusalem\"); a year later his family followed.Tikva Weinstock, \"It's Not Easy to Live With a Painting,\" *Maariv*, December 27, 1957, 10\\. (in Hebrew) In the city Zaritsky painted a number of watercolor landscapes in light colors. Gradually his artistic works became freer. In \"Jerusalem: Abyssinian Gate” (1923\\), a precise rendering of nature is still apparent, but in later works there is a pronounced expressionistic tendency in the composition of his works. Examples of this can be seen in “Haifa, the Technion” (1924\\), and in the works called \"Jerusalem: Nachalat Shiva\" (1924\\), in which Zaritsky uses an expressionistic technique for dividing the format into separate spaces. The use of lines in his work as a means of expression can be seen also in his depictions of houses in Jerusalem and Safad from this period.",
"In 1924 Zaritsky mounted his first solo exhibition in the club \"Menorah\" in Jerusalem. Another exhibition was opened in the [Technion](/wiki/Technion \"Technion\") in [Haifa](/wiki/Haifa \"Haifa\"). The journalistic criticism emphasized the lyricism in his works, and the fact that \"the forms \\[in his paintings] turn into dots of abstract color, the subject of which is an allegory of color and light, and not the plot of a story.\"M. Zamir, *Haaretz*, June 6, 1924\\. In addition, Zaritsky and the sculptor [Abraham Melnikov](/wiki/Abraham_Melnikov \"Abraham Melnikov\"), were the initiators of the first of the exhibitions of Israeli artists in the [Tower of David](/wiki/Tower_of_David \"Tower of David\"). Also, from 1927 he served as the Chairman of the Israel Painters and Sculptors Association.",
"### Tel Aviv, 1925–1948",
"In the middle of the 1920s Zaritsky moved to [Tel Aviv](/wiki/Tel_Aviv \"Tel Aviv\") and continued to paint the series of landscapes that he had started in Jerusalem. The landscapes and portraits of that he painted during these years show his effort to create an artistic language appropriate to description.",
"In 1927 Zaritsky left his family behind and went to Paris for a stay of several months. There he was exposed to the western modernist art that was flourishing in Paris at the beginning of the twentieth century. Later Zaritsky remarked on how impressed he was by the exhibits at the [Guimet Museum](/wiki/Guimet_Museum \"Guimet Museum\") of [Asian Art](/wiki/Asian_Art \"Asian Art\").",
"In 1929 Zaritsky participated in the \"Egged\" group's exhibition, held in an apartment on [Allenby Street](/wiki/Allenby_Street \"Allenby Street\") in Tel Aviv, in which artists such as [Sionah Tagger](/wiki/Sionah_Tagger \"Sionah Tagger\"), [Arieh Lubin](/wiki/Arieh_Lubin \"Arieh Lubin\"), and [Pinchas Litvinovsky](/wiki/Pinchas_Litvinovsky \"Pinchas Litvinovsky\"), among others, also participated. The works of this group show the influence of late French post\\-modernism (primarily of the \"[School of Paris](/wiki/School_of_Paris \"School of Paris\")\"), which was popular among the artists of the [Land of Israel](/wiki/Land_of_Israel \"Land of Israel\"). In Zaritsky's works this was manifested in his tendency to paint broad surfaces of color and to use broad, free brushstrokes. In \"Portrait of the Artist's Wife,\" an oil painting done in 1929, Zaritsky used the image of a bouquet of flowers in front of the main image. Broad, free brushstrokes blur the boundary between the foreground and the background of the painting.",
"His exhibition at the Bezalel National Museum in 1930 established him as a modernist and reflected a turn toward European art.A. Landman, *Doar Hayom*, February 14, 1930\\. [Uri Zvi Greenberg](/wiki/Uri_Zvi_Greenberg \"Uri Zvi Greenberg\") said, after a visit to the exhibition, that Zaritsky's work encompasses a different kind of painting which does not reflect \"the literality of illustrative art toward the literary subject,\" the exotic imagery of the Land of Israel, \"which drags Arabs from the shuk and their donkeys, by the ears, to the olive press.\" The atmosphere in the painting Greenberg described as \"the stillness of colors\" and \"the holding of one's breath.\" “Even the red curtain,\" Greenberg writes, \"which in his paintings reminds us of the abstraction of Kandinsky, even this red is restrained, and its judgment as red becomes just a matter of a wintry sunset.\"[Uri Zvi Greenberg](/wiki/Uri_Zvi_Greenberg \"Uri Zvi Greenberg\"), \"Draft of an Article on the Zaritsky Exhibition in the Bezalel National Museum,\" *Studio* 56 (September 1994\\): 6\\.",
"Between 1932 and 1933, Zaritsky opened an art \"studia\" adjoining the basement of the home where he lived on 18 Mapu Street. Among the artists who came to his studio were [Yehiel Krize](/wiki/Yehiel_Krize \"Yehiel Krize\"), [Arie Aroch](/wiki/Arie_Aroch \"Arie Aroch\"), etc. Nonetheless, the studio did not last long, and Zaritsky was destined to earn his living in the future, for the most part, from the real estate he owned.",
"A subject that appears in his work during these years is the motif of flowers, such as in the series of watercolors called \"Flowers on the Windowsill,\" which he painted in Tel Aviv between 1937 and 1944, and in his works that were created after a visit to Beit Daniel (Daniel House) in [Zichron Yaakov](/wiki/Zichron_Yaakov \"Zichron Yaakov\"), from 1939 and during the 1940s. While in the early works of the series flowers serve as an element for focusing the viewer's observation on reality, in the later works the flowers become more of a form used to express feeling.Mordechai Omer, *Zaritsky* (Tel Aviv: Tel Aviv Museum of Art, 1984\\),54–55, 68–70\\. (in Hebrew)",
"In 1935 Zaritsky moved to a new house that he built on the southeast corner of Ben Yehuda and Mapu Streets. In the large series of works he produced in the 1930s and 1940s, which depicted views of the city from his rooftop, Zaritsky turned his gaze away from the view of the beach which occupied his contemporaries, like [Nahum Gutman](/wiki/Nahum_Gutman \"Nahum Gutman\"), [Reuven Rubin](/wiki/Reuven_Rubin \"Reuven Rubin\"), etc., to views of the new, modern city spread out to his north and east. In his early works Zaritsky divided his works into areas that created the feeling of spaciousness. In some of the paintings the image of the painter working on views of the landscape even appears. His later works serve as a means of blurring and breaking up these areas. This blurring allows the blending of the landscape with what the painting is representing. [Yona Fischer](/wiki/Yona_Fischer \"Yona Fischer\") states that in Zaritsky's rooftop paintings there is an attempt at combining and unifying the light and the dark in his landscapes.Yona Fischer, *A Tribute to Zaritsky* (Jerusalem: Israel Museum, 1981\\) (pages unnumbered). (in Hebrew) [Mordechai Omer](/wiki/Mordechai_Omer \"Mordechai Omer\") also described Zaritsky's use of light in his paintings and suggests that in these paintings the light is not perceived as a tonal problem.Tonality, that is, it doesn't relate to reality directly. The relationship to light and its influence on the object is not mimetic. In fact, Omer claims, Zaritsky left the objects in the paintings unnuanced.\\[12]",
"In 1941 he mounted a solo exhibition in the [Habima](/wiki/Habima \"Habima\") building in honor of his 50th birthday. In 1942 Zaritsky won the [Dizengoff Prize](/wiki/Dizengoff_Prize \"Dizengoff Prize\") for Painting.\n[thumb\\|Zaritsky in Jerusalem](/wiki/Image:Zafrir_Zarizky_001.jpg \"Zafrir Zarizky 001.jpg\")",
"### New Horizons, 1948–1963",
"#### The Founding of \"New Horizons\"",
"[thumb\\|Paintings by Zaritsky and Itzhak Danziger at the 9th \"Ofakim Hadashim\" exhibition, Tel Aviv Museum of Art, April 1959](/wiki/File:Ofakim_hadasin_1959.jpg \"Ofakim hadasin 1959.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|Zaritsky (left) at the \"Histadrut Prize\" Ceremony, 1961](/wiki/File:Ofakim_Hadasim_011.jpg \"Ofakim Hadasim 011.jpg\")\nThe motive behind the founding of an alternative to the general art association came into being in 1948, with an invitation to mount an exhibition of Israeli artists at the Italian pavilion of the [Venice Biennale](/wiki/Venice_Biennale \"Venice Biennale\"). Zaritsky, who was chairman of the association at the time, decided on his own to create a list of artists who would participate because he was afraid that, left to the general membership, the list would include mediocre artists. This created a scandal at the association\"s general meeting, which took place at the home of [Chaim Gliksberg](/wiki/Chaim_Gliksberg \"Chaim Gliksberg\"). At the meeting it was decided to suspend Zaritsky from the group. As a reaction to the condemnation, several artists, among them [Moshe Castel](/wiki/Moshe_Castel \"Moshe Castel\"), [Yehezkel Streichman](/wiki/Yehezkel_Streichman \"Yehezkel Streichman\"), and [Yohanan Simon](/wiki/Yohanan_Simon \"Yohanan Simon\") announced their immediate resignation from the association and their invitation to Zaritsky to form an independent association.",
"Around the original core, 15 artists gathered and boycotted the general exhibition of Israeli artists, and instead held the dedication of the new Artist's House in Tel Aviv. On July 2, 1948, the dissidents published their manifesto in the newspaper *[Haaretz](/wiki/Haaretz \"Haaretz\")*, stating that the association must emphasize achievements in Jewish painting and not sink into mediocrity. On November 9, 1948, the new group mounted an exhibition of 18 member artists in the [Tel Aviv Museum of Art](/wiki/Tel_Aviv_Museum_of_Art \"Tel Aviv Museum of Art\"), under the name \"[New Horizons](/wiki/New_Horizons \"New Horizons\").\"Blass, *New Horizons*. (in Hebrew) While artists such as Yohanan Simon, Moshe Castel, and Marcel Janco dealt with Zionist and Jewish symbolism, Zaritsky chose for the exhibition an abstract still life influenced by the cubist painter [Georges Braque](/wiki/Georges_Braque \"Georges Braque\").",
"In the exhibition catalog Zaritsky emphasized the role of art in building the young nation in modernist terms: “We demand an art that exists in close proximity to the people \\[…] and we are willing to explain to the public the paths and forms of the new art in order to inculcate into it these new values of truth, so that it will grasp them and march forward with us. In this way we will be able to develop the art of truth in our young country.\" While the art in the exhibition did not display aesthetic uniformity or a joint painting style, the exhibition was perceived as an attempt to put forward a change in the nature of local art and drew thousands who came to view the \"sensationalist\" modern art.Gideon Efrat, \"The Dialectics of the 1950s: A Hegemony and a Plurality,\" in Galia Bar\\-Or and Gideon Efrat, *The First Decade: A Hegemony and A Plurality* (Ein Harod: Museum of Art, 2008\\), 19\\. (in Hebrew)",
"From the moment it was formed, “New Horizons” was perceived as a movement which aspired to have the strength of the establishment behind it. An example of this can be seen in the reactions to the general exhibition of the Israel Painters and Sculptors Association held in November 1952, in commemoration of 20 years since the found of the Tel Aviv Museum of Art, claiming that the group “conquered” the main exhibition hall.Blass, *New Horizons*, 48\\. (In Hebrew)",
"#### “Otsma”",
"[thumb\\|*Might* (1958\\) by Yosef Zaritsky at \"the First Daecade Exhibition\"' 1958](/wiki/File:Might_by_Yosef_zaritsky.jpg \"Might by Yosef zaritsky.jpg\")",
"In 1957 the government of Israel decided to put on a large national display in honor of the tenth anniversary of the founding of the State of Israel. Within the framework of the preparations for the \"Exhibition of the Decade,\" which opened on June 5, 1978, in [Binyanei Hauma](/wiki/International_Convention_Center_%28Jerusalem%29 \"International Convention Center (Jerusalem)\") in Jerusalem, the government commissioned several works of monumental proportions from the members of \"New Horizons.\" It was one of the first times that the abstract works of the members of this group were displayed in a non\\-museum environment. Among the outstanding works were a large steel sculpture by [Yechiel Shemi](/wiki/Yechiel_Shemi \"Yechiel Shemi\"), \"Sculpture of the Decade\" by [Itzhak Danziger](/wiki/Itzhak_Danziger \"Itzhak Danziger\"), a frieze by [Yaakov Wechsler](/wiki/Yaakov_Wechsler \"Yaakov Wechsler\"), etc. Another notable work was Zaritsky's painting \"Otsma\" (Power), which had been commissioned by [Avraham Yaski](/wiki/Avraham_Yaski \"Avraham Yaski\"), a designer in the \"Department of Economic Achievements.\" This oil painting was based on a number of motifs that had been appearing throughout his works as a secondary thread since his \"Yechiam\" period.For a description and review of this exhibition, see: Blass, New Horizons, 76–80; Gideon Efrat, “Exhibition of the Decade,” in: Galia Bar\\-Or and Gideon Efrat, *The First Decade: A Hegemony and A Plurality* (Ein Harod: Museum of Art, 2008\\), 241\\. (In Hebrew)",
"On the eve of the opening of the exhibition, [David Ben\\-Gurion](/wiki/David_Ben-Gurion \"David Ben-Gurion\") made a tour of the exhibition, perusing the pavilions and displays there, including the Zaritsky's painting. As a result of Ben\\-Gurion's remark, which according to one version was – \"So, this is modern art. Well, we can manage with modern art and we can manage without it\" – Zaritsky's painting was moved from its central place in the Economics Division of the exhibition to another place in the exhibition.*Haaretz* (May 6, 1958\\). (In Hebrew) As a result of this decision a protest was raised by some of the journalists covering the exhibition, as well as by some of the public, against the intervention of the government in matters of art. It turned into one of the biggest scandals between the artist and the government that ever occurred in the history of visual arts in Israel. Yona Fischer wrote in *[LaMerhav](/wiki/LaMerhav \"LaMerhav\")*, that \"the insult to the veteran artist Zaritsky typifies the way in which the world 'culture' is understood in our country,\"*LaMerhav/Masa* (September 19, 1958\\). (In Hebrew) but he acknowledged that the choice of an abstract artist like Zaritsky for an exhibition intended for the masses was a mistake. When the exhibition closed, because of the insult, Zaritsky destroyed the painting.",
"Another monumental work, carried out jointly by Zaritsky and Yitzhak Danziger, was commissioned by the architect Zeev Rechter for the front of the building. The two planned a long fiberglass relief with geometric motifs also taken from \"Yechiam.\" In the end the work was never created, and in the place intended for it, a long concrete strip was installed.Mordechai Omer, *Zaritsky* (Givatayim: Masada Publishers, 1987\\),114\\. (In Hebrew)",
"### Later years",
"In 1968 Zaritsky was the first recipient of the [Sandberg Prize](/wiki/Sandberg_Prize \"Sandberg Prize\") of Israeli Art From the [Israel Museum](/wiki/Israel_Museum \"Israel Museum\"), the money for which was donated by an American philanthropist. Among the committee members choosing the recipient were Sandberg and Yona Fischer. This prize was awarded to him for a large \"painting\" he produced in 1964, based on one of the works of Johannes Vermeer. In the many interviews he granted in honor of winning the prize, Zaritsky emphasized his worldview with regard to the independence of the meaning of a painting. \"The viewer must not see more in the painting than what is there,\" Zaritsky explained. \"He must not allow his imagination to run wild with regard to what he is looking at. What he sees is what there is. The painting is not a dream.\"\\[28]",
"From 1968 to 1970 Zaritsky worked on a figurative portrait of art collector [Ayala Zacks\\-Abramov](/wiki/Ayala_Zacks-Abramov \"Ayala Zacks-Abramov\"). For this unusual work, he drew several sketches and a number of preliminary drawings on canvas. The full portrait, carried out in shades of green, shows Zacks\\-Abramov in the corner of the canvas, with her hands on her knees. While her hands undergo abstraction, the image's face retains a clear, realistic character. A large part of the composition is taken up by a curtain which becomes the dominant form in the background.",
"The tonality of this painting has much in common with other works he painted between 1964 and 1974\\. In his \"Green Touches\" series, as well as in the paintings \"Tel Aviv Windows\" and \"Red Stain,\" the growing distance in the composition and construction of his paintings from a description of nature as it is, toward a conversation with the abstract, is clearly evident.",
"In the 1980s Zaritsky would take up residence every summer in the studio he had received on Kibbutz [Tzuba](/wiki/Tzuba \"Tzuba\"). At Tzuba he would paint watercolors, among them abstract nature paintings, from direct contemplation of nature. In the summer of 1983, Zaritsky painted a number of paintings in the studio in which he returned to the motif of the window, which he had used in the past. In addition, in the 1980s Zaritsky created a number of paintings, some of them monumental in size, constructed along the lines of painters like [Goya](/wiki/Francisco_Goya \"Francisco Goya\"), [Picasso](/wiki/Picasso \"Picasso\"), [Chagall](/wiki/Chagall \"Chagall\"), etc.",
"In 1980 one of Zaritsky's watercolors from 1924 was sold at a public auction in the [Gordon Gallery](/wiki/Gordon_Gallery \"Gordon Gallery\") for $79,000\\. However, in addition to economic success, in his last years Zaritsky received a number of public tributes as well. In 1979 he was interviewed on television for the first time on [Gideon Ofrat](/wiki/Gideon_Ofrat \"Gideon Ofrat\")'s show \"Taste and Smell.\"See: *Lehiton—Cinema World* (January 7, 1979\\). (In Hebrew) In 1981 the Israeli Postal Authority issued a stamp depicting Zaritsky's “Jerusalem: The View from Jaffa Gate” (1927\\). In 1981 [Marc Scheps](/wiki/Marc_Scheps \"Marc Scheps\"), Director of the Tel Aviv Museum of Art, named Zaritsky recipient of the Yakir Ha'ir (Esteemed of the city) award; on May 26, 1982, Zaritsky received the award from [Shlomo Lahat](/wiki/Shlomo_Lahat \"Shlomo Lahat\"), the Mayor of Tel Aviv.Nathan Gross, \"Portrait of the Artist,\" *Al Hamishmar* (January 11, 1982\\). (In Hebrew) In January 1982 there was a festive screening of the film \"Portrait of an Artist: Joseph Zaritsky” (1981; 32 min.), directed by Jachin Hirsch, under the auspices of the Ministry of Education and the Israel Film Service. In 1985 the Tel Aviv Museum Art hosted a retrospective exhibition of Zaritsky's art that included 340 of his works.",
"On March 26, 1985, Zaritsky's wife Sarah died. Zaritsky died a few months later, on November 30, in [Assouta Medical Center](/wiki/Assouta_Medical_Center \"Assouta Medical Center\"), aged 96\\. After a ceremony at the Tel Aviv Museum of Art, he was buried at Kibbutz Tzuba.",
""
] |
### Tel Aviv, 1925–1948
In the middle of the 1920s Zaritsky moved to [Tel Aviv](/wiki/Tel_Aviv "Tel Aviv") and continued to paint the series of landscapes that he had started in Jerusalem. The landscapes and portraits of that he painted during these years show his effort to create an artistic language appropriate to description.
In 1927 Zaritsky left his family behind and went to Paris for a stay of several months. There he was exposed to the western modernist art that was flourishing in Paris at the beginning of the twentieth century. Later Zaritsky remarked on how impressed he was by the exhibits at the [Guimet Museum](/wiki/Guimet_Museum "Guimet Museum") of [Asian Art](/wiki/Asian_Art "Asian Art").
In 1929 Zaritsky participated in the "Egged" group's exhibition, held in an apartment on [Allenby Street](/wiki/Allenby_Street "Allenby Street") in Tel Aviv, in which artists such as [Sionah Tagger](/wiki/Sionah_Tagger "Sionah Tagger"), [Arieh Lubin](/wiki/Arieh_Lubin "Arieh Lubin"), and [Pinchas Litvinovsky](/wiki/Pinchas_Litvinovsky "Pinchas Litvinovsky"), among others, also participated. The works of this group show the influence of late French post\-modernism (primarily of the "[School of Paris](/wiki/School_of_Paris "School of Paris")"), which was popular among the artists of the [Land of Israel](/wiki/Land_of_Israel "Land of Israel"). In Zaritsky's works this was manifested in his tendency to paint broad surfaces of color and to use broad, free brushstrokes. In "Portrait of the Artist's Wife," an oil painting done in 1929, Zaritsky used the image of a bouquet of flowers in front of the main image. Broad, free brushstrokes blur the boundary between the foreground and the background of the painting.
His exhibition at the Bezalel National Museum in 1930 established him as a modernist and reflected a turn toward European art.A. Landman, *Doar Hayom*, February 14, 1930\. [Uri Zvi Greenberg](/wiki/Uri_Zvi_Greenberg "Uri Zvi Greenberg") said, after a visit to the exhibition, that Zaritsky's work encompasses a different kind of painting which does not reflect "the literality of illustrative art toward the literary subject," the exotic imagery of the Land of Israel, "which drags Arabs from the shuk and their donkeys, by the ears, to the olive press." The atmosphere in the painting Greenberg described as "the stillness of colors" and "the holding of one's breath." “Even the red curtain," Greenberg writes, "which in his paintings reminds us of the abstraction of Kandinsky, even this red is restrained, and its judgment as red becomes just a matter of a wintry sunset."[Uri Zvi Greenberg](/wiki/Uri_Zvi_Greenberg "Uri Zvi Greenberg"), "Draft of an Article on the Zaritsky Exhibition in the Bezalel National Museum," *Studio* 56 (September 1994\): 6\.
Between 1932 and 1933, Zaritsky opened an art "studia" adjoining the basement of the home where he lived on 18 Mapu Street. Among the artists who came to his studio were [Yehiel Krize](/wiki/Yehiel_Krize "Yehiel Krize"), [Arie Aroch](/wiki/Arie_Aroch "Arie Aroch"), etc. Nonetheless, the studio did not last long, and Zaritsky was destined to earn his living in the future, for the most part, from the real estate he owned.
A subject that appears in his work during these years is the motif of flowers, such as in the series of watercolors called "Flowers on the Windowsill," which he painted in Tel Aviv between 1937 and 1944, and in his works that were created after a visit to Beit Daniel (Daniel House) in [Zichron Yaakov](/wiki/Zichron_Yaakov "Zichron Yaakov"), from 1939 and during the 1940s. While in the early works of the series flowers serve as an element for focusing the viewer's observation on reality, in the later works the flowers become more of a form used to express feeling.Mordechai Omer, *Zaritsky* (Tel Aviv: Tel Aviv Museum of Art, 1984\),54–55, 68–70\. (in Hebrew)
In 1935 Zaritsky moved to a new house that he built on the southeast corner of Ben Yehuda and Mapu Streets. In the large series of works he produced in the 1930s and 1940s, which depicted views of the city from his rooftop, Zaritsky turned his gaze away from the view of the beach which occupied his contemporaries, like [Nahum Gutman](/wiki/Nahum_Gutman "Nahum Gutman"), [Reuven Rubin](/wiki/Reuven_Rubin "Reuven Rubin"), etc., to views of the new, modern city spread out to his north and east. In his early works Zaritsky divided his works into areas that created the feeling of spaciousness. In some of the paintings the image of the painter working on views of the landscape even appears. His later works serve as a means of blurring and breaking up these areas. This blurring allows the blending of the landscape with what the painting is representing. [Yona Fischer](/wiki/Yona_Fischer "Yona Fischer") states that in Zaritsky's rooftop paintings there is an attempt at combining and unifying the light and the dark in his landscapes.Yona Fischer, *A Tribute to Zaritsky* (Jerusalem: Israel Museum, 1981\) (pages unnumbered). (in Hebrew) [Mordechai Omer](/wiki/Mordechai_Omer "Mordechai Omer") also described Zaritsky's use of light in his paintings and suggests that in these paintings the light is not perceived as a tonal problem.Tonality, that is, it doesn't relate to reality directly. The relationship to light and its influence on the object is not mimetic. In fact, Omer claims, Zaritsky left the objects in the paintings unnuanced.\[12]
In 1941 he mounted a solo exhibition in the [Habima](/wiki/Habima "Habima") building in honor of his 50th birthday. In 1942 Zaritsky won the [Dizengoff Prize](/wiki/Dizengoff_Prize "Dizengoff Prize") for Painting.
[thumb\|Zaritsky in Jerusalem](/wiki/Image:Zafrir_Zarizky_001.jpg "Zafrir Zarizky 001.jpg")
|
[
"### Tel Aviv, 1925–1948",
"In the middle of the 1920s Zaritsky moved to [Tel Aviv](/wiki/Tel_Aviv \"Tel Aviv\") and continued to paint the series of landscapes that he had started in Jerusalem. The landscapes and portraits of that he painted during these years show his effort to create an artistic language appropriate to description.",
"In 1927 Zaritsky left his family behind and went to Paris for a stay of several months. There he was exposed to the western modernist art that was flourishing in Paris at the beginning of the twentieth century. Later Zaritsky remarked on how impressed he was by the exhibits at the [Guimet Museum](/wiki/Guimet_Museum \"Guimet Museum\") of [Asian Art](/wiki/Asian_Art \"Asian Art\").",
"In 1929 Zaritsky participated in the \"Egged\" group's exhibition, held in an apartment on [Allenby Street](/wiki/Allenby_Street \"Allenby Street\") in Tel Aviv, in which artists such as [Sionah Tagger](/wiki/Sionah_Tagger \"Sionah Tagger\"), [Arieh Lubin](/wiki/Arieh_Lubin \"Arieh Lubin\"), and [Pinchas Litvinovsky](/wiki/Pinchas_Litvinovsky \"Pinchas Litvinovsky\"), among others, also participated. The works of this group show the influence of late French post\\-modernism (primarily of the \"[School of Paris](/wiki/School_of_Paris \"School of Paris\")\"), which was popular among the artists of the [Land of Israel](/wiki/Land_of_Israel \"Land of Israel\"). In Zaritsky's works this was manifested in his tendency to paint broad surfaces of color and to use broad, free brushstrokes. In \"Portrait of the Artist's Wife,\" an oil painting done in 1929, Zaritsky used the image of a bouquet of flowers in front of the main image. Broad, free brushstrokes blur the boundary between the foreground and the background of the painting.",
"His exhibition at the Bezalel National Museum in 1930 established him as a modernist and reflected a turn toward European art.A. Landman, *Doar Hayom*, February 14, 1930\\. [Uri Zvi Greenberg](/wiki/Uri_Zvi_Greenberg \"Uri Zvi Greenberg\") said, after a visit to the exhibition, that Zaritsky's work encompasses a different kind of painting which does not reflect \"the literality of illustrative art toward the literary subject,\" the exotic imagery of the Land of Israel, \"which drags Arabs from the shuk and their donkeys, by the ears, to the olive press.\" The atmosphere in the painting Greenberg described as \"the stillness of colors\" and \"the holding of one's breath.\" “Even the red curtain,\" Greenberg writes, \"which in his paintings reminds us of the abstraction of Kandinsky, even this red is restrained, and its judgment as red becomes just a matter of a wintry sunset.\"[Uri Zvi Greenberg](/wiki/Uri_Zvi_Greenberg \"Uri Zvi Greenberg\"), \"Draft of an Article on the Zaritsky Exhibition in the Bezalel National Museum,\" *Studio* 56 (September 1994\\): 6\\.",
"Between 1932 and 1933, Zaritsky opened an art \"studia\" adjoining the basement of the home where he lived on 18 Mapu Street. Among the artists who came to his studio were [Yehiel Krize](/wiki/Yehiel_Krize \"Yehiel Krize\"), [Arie Aroch](/wiki/Arie_Aroch \"Arie Aroch\"), etc. Nonetheless, the studio did not last long, and Zaritsky was destined to earn his living in the future, for the most part, from the real estate he owned.",
"A subject that appears in his work during these years is the motif of flowers, such as in the series of watercolors called \"Flowers on the Windowsill,\" which he painted in Tel Aviv between 1937 and 1944, and in his works that were created after a visit to Beit Daniel (Daniel House) in [Zichron Yaakov](/wiki/Zichron_Yaakov \"Zichron Yaakov\"), from 1939 and during the 1940s. While in the early works of the series flowers serve as an element for focusing the viewer's observation on reality, in the later works the flowers become more of a form used to express feeling.Mordechai Omer, *Zaritsky* (Tel Aviv: Tel Aviv Museum of Art, 1984\\),54–55, 68–70\\. (in Hebrew)",
"In 1935 Zaritsky moved to a new house that he built on the southeast corner of Ben Yehuda and Mapu Streets. In the large series of works he produced in the 1930s and 1940s, which depicted views of the city from his rooftop, Zaritsky turned his gaze away from the view of the beach which occupied his contemporaries, like [Nahum Gutman](/wiki/Nahum_Gutman \"Nahum Gutman\"), [Reuven Rubin](/wiki/Reuven_Rubin \"Reuven Rubin\"), etc., to views of the new, modern city spread out to his north and east. In his early works Zaritsky divided his works into areas that created the feeling of spaciousness. In some of the paintings the image of the painter working on views of the landscape even appears. His later works serve as a means of blurring and breaking up these areas. This blurring allows the blending of the landscape with what the painting is representing. [Yona Fischer](/wiki/Yona_Fischer \"Yona Fischer\") states that in Zaritsky's rooftop paintings there is an attempt at combining and unifying the light and the dark in his landscapes.Yona Fischer, *A Tribute to Zaritsky* (Jerusalem: Israel Museum, 1981\\) (pages unnumbered). (in Hebrew) [Mordechai Omer](/wiki/Mordechai_Omer \"Mordechai Omer\") also described Zaritsky's use of light in his paintings and suggests that in these paintings the light is not perceived as a tonal problem.Tonality, that is, it doesn't relate to reality directly. The relationship to light and its influence on the object is not mimetic. In fact, Omer claims, Zaritsky left the objects in the paintings unnuanced.\\[12]",
"In 1941 he mounted a solo exhibition in the [Habima](/wiki/Habima \"Habima\") building in honor of his 50th birthday. In 1942 Zaritsky won the [Dizengoff Prize](/wiki/Dizengoff_Prize \"Dizengoff Prize\") for Painting.\n[thumb\\|Zaritsky in Jerusalem](/wiki/Image:Zafrir_Zarizky_001.jpg \"Zafrir Zarizky 001.jpg\")",
""
] |
### Later years
In 1968 Zaritsky was the first recipient of the [Sandberg Prize](/wiki/Sandberg_Prize "Sandberg Prize") of Israeli Art From the [Israel Museum](/wiki/Israel_Museum "Israel Museum"), the money for which was donated by an American philanthropist. Among the committee members choosing the recipient were Sandberg and Yona Fischer. This prize was awarded to him for a large "painting" he produced in 1964, based on one of the works of Johannes Vermeer. In the many interviews he granted in honor of winning the prize, Zaritsky emphasized his worldview with regard to the independence of the meaning of a painting. "The viewer must not see more in the painting than what is there," Zaritsky explained. "He must not allow his imagination to run wild with regard to what he is looking at. What he sees is what there is. The painting is not a dream."\[28]
From 1968 to 1970 Zaritsky worked on a figurative portrait of art collector [Ayala Zacks\-Abramov](/wiki/Ayala_Zacks-Abramov "Ayala Zacks-Abramov"). For this unusual work, he drew several sketches and a number of preliminary drawings on canvas. The full portrait, carried out in shades of green, shows Zacks\-Abramov in the corner of the canvas, with her hands on her knees. While her hands undergo abstraction, the image's face retains a clear, realistic character. A large part of the composition is taken up by a curtain which becomes the dominant form in the background.
The tonality of this painting has much in common with other works he painted between 1964 and 1974\. In his "Green Touches" series, as well as in the paintings "Tel Aviv Windows" and "Red Stain," the growing distance in the composition and construction of his paintings from a description of nature as it is, toward a conversation with the abstract, is clearly evident.
In the 1980s Zaritsky would take up residence every summer in the studio he had received on Kibbutz [Tzuba](/wiki/Tzuba "Tzuba"). At Tzuba he would paint watercolors, among them abstract nature paintings, from direct contemplation of nature. In the summer of 1983, Zaritsky painted a number of paintings in the studio in which he returned to the motif of the window, which he had used in the past. In addition, in the 1980s Zaritsky created a number of paintings, some of them monumental in size, constructed along the lines of painters like [Goya](/wiki/Francisco_Goya "Francisco Goya"), [Picasso](/wiki/Picasso "Picasso"), [Chagall](/wiki/Chagall "Chagall"), etc.
In 1980 one of Zaritsky's watercolors from 1924 was sold at a public auction in the [Gordon Gallery](/wiki/Gordon_Gallery "Gordon Gallery") for $79,000\. However, in addition to economic success, in his last years Zaritsky received a number of public tributes as well. In 1979 he was interviewed on television for the first time on [Gideon Ofrat](/wiki/Gideon_Ofrat "Gideon Ofrat")'s show "Taste and Smell."See: *Lehiton—Cinema World* (January 7, 1979\). (In Hebrew) In 1981 the Israeli Postal Authority issued a stamp depicting Zaritsky's “Jerusalem: The View from Jaffa Gate” (1927\). In 1981 [Marc Scheps](/wiki/Marc_Scheps "Marc Scheps"), Director of the Tel Aviv Museum of Art, named Zaritsky recipient of the Yakir Ha'ir (Esteemed of the city) award; on May 26, 1982, Zaritsky received the award from [Shlomo Lahat](/wiki/Shlomo_Lahat "Shlomo Lahat"), the Mayor of Tel Aviv.Nathan Gross, "Portrait of the Artist," *Al Hamishmar* (January 11, 1982\). (In Hebrew) In January 1982 there was a festive screening of the film "Portrait of an Artist: Joseph Zaritsky” (1981; 32 min.), directed by Jachin Hirsch, under the auspices of the Ministry of Education and the Israel Film Service. In 1985 the Tel Aviv Museum Art hosted a retrospective exhibition of Zaritsky's art that included 340 of his works.
On March 26, 1985, Zaritsky's wife Sarah died. Zaritsky died a few months later, on November 30, in [Assouta Medical Center](/wiki/Assouta_Medical_Center "Assouta Medical Center"), aged 96\. After a ceremony at the Tel Aviv Museum of Art, he was buried at Kibbutz Tzuba.
|
[
"### Later years",
"In 1968 Zaritsky was the first recipient of the [Sandberg Prize](/wiki/Sandberg_Prize \"Sandberg Prize\") of Israeli Art From the [Israel Museum](/wiki/Israel_Museum \"Israel Museum\"), the money for which was donated by an American philanthropist. Among the committee members choosing the recipient were Sandberg and Yona Fischer. This prize was awarded to him for a large \"painting\" he produced in 1964, based on one of the works of Johannes Vermeer. In the many interviews he granted in honor of winning the prize, Zaritsky emphasized his worldview with regard to the independence of the meaning of a painting. \"The viewer must not see more in the painting than what is there,\" Zaritsky explained. \"He must not allow his imagination to run wild with regard to what he is looking at. What he sees is what there is. The painting is not a dream.\"\\[28]",
"From 1968 to 1970 Zaritsky worked on a figurative portrait of art collector [Ayala Zacks\\-Abramov](/wiki/Ayala_Zacks-Abramov \"Ayala Zacks-Abramov\"). For this unusual work, he drew several sketches and a number of preliminary drawings on canvas. The full portrait, carried out in shades of green, shows Zacks\\-Abramov in the corner of the canvas, with her hands on her knees. While her hands undergo abstraction, the image's face retains a clear, realistic character. A large part of the composition is taken up by a curtain which becomes the dominant form in the background.",
"The tonality of this painting has much in common with other works he painted between 1964 and 1974\\. In his \"Green Touches\" series, as well as in the paintings \"Tel Aviv Windows\" and \"Red Stain,\" the growing distance in the composition and construction of his paintings from a description of nature as it is, toward a conversation with the abstract, is clearly evident.",
"In the 1980s Zaritsky would take up residence every summer in the studio he had received on Kibbutz [Tzuba](/wiki/Tzuba \"Tzuba\"). At Tzuba he would paint watercolors, among them abstract nature paintings, from direct contemplation of nature. In the summer of 1983, Zaritsky painted a number of paintings in the studio in which he returned to the motif of the window, which he had used in the past. In addition, in the 1980s Zaritsky created a number of paintings, some of them monumental in size, constructed along the lines of painters like [Goya](/wiki/Francisco_Goya \"Francisco Goya\"), [Picasso](/wiki/Picasso \"Picasso\"), [Chagall](/wiki/Chagall \"Chagall\"), etc.",
"In 1980 one of Zaritsky's watercolors from 1924 was sold at a public auction in the [Gordon Gallery](/wiki/Gordon_Gallery \"Gordon Gallery\") for $79,000\\. However, in addition to economic success, in his last years Zaritsky received a number of public tributes as well. In 1979 he was interviewed on television for the first time on [Gideon Ofrat](/wiki/Gideon_Ofrat \"Gideon Ofrat\")'s show \"Taste and Smell.\"See: *Lehiton—Cinema World* (January 7, 1979\\). (In Hebrew) In 1981 the Israeli Postal Authority issued a stamp depicting Zaritsky's “Jerusalem: The View from Jaffa Gate” (1927\\). In 1981 [Marc Scheps](/wiki/Marc_Scheps \"Marc Scheps\"), Director of the Tel Aviv Museum of Art, named Zaritsky recipient of the Yakir Ha'ir (Esteemed of the city) award; on May 26, 1982, Zaritsky received the award from [Shlomo Lahat](/wiki/Shlomo_Lahat \"Shlomo Lahat\"), the Mayor of Tel Aviv.Nathan Gross, \"Portrait of the Artist,\" *Al Hamishmar* (January 11, 1982\\). (In Hebrew) In January 1982 there was a festive screening of the film \"Portrait of an Artist: Joseph Zaritsky” (1981; 32 min.), directed by Jachin Hirsch, under the auspices of the Ministry of Education and the Israel Film Service. In 1985 the Tel Aviv Museum Art hosted a retrospective exhibition of Zaritsky's art that included 340 of his works.",
"On March 26, 1985, Zaritsky's wife Sarah died. Zaritsky died a few months later, on November 30, in [Assouta Medical Center](/wiki/Assouta_Medical_Center \"Assouta Medical Center\"), aged 96\\. After a ceremony at the Tel Aviv Museum of Art, he was buried at Kibbutz Tzuba.",
""
] |
Professional career
-------------------
Agbelese made his first professional footprints in [Iran](/wiki/Iran "Iran"), in the 2012–13 season, with Esteghlal Qeshm. The next year he moved to [Uruguay](/wiki/Uruguay "Uruguay"), and joined Union Atletica. During the season, he left the club, and signed with Wanderers Paysandu. At the start of 2014, he agreed with the Spanish club [Guadalajara](/wiki/CB_Guadalajara "CB Guadalajara"). The same year he also played with the Greek club [Rethymno](/wiki/Rethymno_B.C. "Rethymno B.C.")[AGO Rethymno landing Danny Agbelese.](http://archive.sportando.basketball/en/europe/greece/174388/ago-rethymno-landing-danny-agbelese.html) and the Spanish club [Ourense](/wiki/Club_Ourense_Baloncesto "Club Ourense Baloncesto").
In the 2015–16 season, he played again in Spain, with [Gipuzkoa Basket](/wiki/San_Sebasti%C3%A1n_Gipuzkoa_BC "San Sebastián Gipuzkoa BC").[Gipuzkoa announces Danny Agbelese.](http://archive.sportando.basketball/en/spain/acb/185315/gipuzkoa-announces-danny-agbelese.html) In 2016, he signed with the Italian club [Enel Brindisi](/wiki/New_Basket_Brindisi "New Basket Brindisi").[Enel Brindisi lands Danny Agbelese.](http://archive.sportando.basketball/en/italy/serie-a/201662/enel-brindisi-lands-danny-agbelese.html) During the 2017–18 season, he signed with [Élan Béarnais](/wiki/%C3%89lan_B%C3%A9arnais "Élan Béarnais") in [France](/wiki/France "France"),[Pau\-Lacq\-Orthez adds Agbelese to their roster.](http://nbbf.ng/pau-lacq-orthez-adds-agbelese-to-their-roster/) but later in the season he left the club, and re\-signed with [Gipuzkoa Basket](/wiki/San_Sebasti%C3%A1n_Gipuzkoa_BC "San Sebastián Gipuzkoa BC").[Danny Agbelese a new player of Gipuzkoa.](https://www.pianetabasket.com/en/danny-agbelese-a-new-player-of-gipuzkoa-141418) He went on to average 7\.5 points and 3\.6 rebounds per game.
On August 6, 2018, he joined [Holargos](/wiki/Holargos_B.C. "Holargos B.C.") of the [Greek Basket League](/wiki/Greek_Basket_League "Greek Basket League").[Holargos signed Danny Agbelese.](https://www.a1basket.gr/2018/08/holargos-signed-danny-agbelese.html) On August 7, 2019, Agbelese agreed to stay in Greece with [Kolossos Rodou](/wiki/Kolossos_Rodou_B.C. "Kolossos Rodou B.C."), joining his Holargos coach, [Aris Lykogiannis](/wiki/Aris_Lykogiannis "Aris Lykogiannis"), there.
On August 11, 2019, he signed with [Kolossos Rodou](/wiki/Kolossos_Rodou_B.C. "Kolossos Rodou B.C.") of the [Greek Basket League](/wiki/Greek_Basket_League "Greek Basket League").{{Cite news\|url\=https://sportando.basketball/en/kolossos\-rhodes\-sign\-danny\-agbelese/\|title\=Kolossos Rhodes sign Danny Agbelese\|date\=August 11, 2019\|newspaper\=Sportando\|language\=En\|access\-date\=August 12, 2019\|last1\=Skerletic \|first1\=Dario }} On July 22, 2020, Agbelese officially moved to his fourth Greek club, [Promitheas Patras](/wiki/Promitheas_Patras_B.C. "Promitheas Patras B.C."), which also competes in the [EuroCup](/wiki/EuroCup_Basketball "EuroCup Basketball").{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.promitheasbc.gr/index.php/nea/andriko/3191\-pro20\-welcome\-danny\-agbelese/\|title\=Ο DANNY AGBELESE ΣΤΟΝ ΠΡΟΜΗΘΕΑ\|date\=August 22, 2020\|publisher\=PromitheasPatrasB.C.\|language\=el\|access\-date\=July 22, 2020\|archive\-date\=July 22, 2020\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200722114925/https://www.promitheasbc.gr/index.php/nea/andriko/3191\-pro20\-welcome\-danny\-agbelese/\|url\-status\=dead}}
On August 16, 2021, Agbelese signed with [Real Betis](/wiki/Real_Betis_Baloncesto "Real Betis Baloncesto") of the Spanish [Liga ACB](/wiki/Liga_ACB "Liga ACB").{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.realbetisbalompie.es/noticias/baloncesto/acuerdo\-para\-la\-incorporacion\-del\-pivot\-danny\-agbelese\-26234\|title\=Acuerdo para la incorporación del pívot Danny Agbelese\|last\=\|first\=\|date\=August 16, 2021\|website\=\|publisher\=Sportando\|language\=En\|access\-date\=August 17, 2021}} In 16 games, he averaged 2\.3 points and 2\.8 rebounds per contest.
On March 6, 2022, Agbelese moved to [Peristeri](/wiki/Peristeri_B.C. "Peristeri B.C.") of the [Greek Basket League](/wiki/Greek_Basket_League "Greek Basket League") for the rest of the season.{{cite web \|last1\=Mammides \|first1\=Chris \|title\=Danny Agbelese (ex Real Betis) agreed terms with Peristeri \|url\=https://www.eurobasket.com/Greece/news/734124/Danny\-Agbelese\-(ex\-Real\-Betis)\-agreed\-terms\-with\-Peristeri \|website\=Eurobasket \|access\-date\=March 6, 2022 \|date\=March 6, 2022}} In a total of 11 games, he averaged 4\.5 points, 3\.6 rebounds, 0\.8 assists and 0\.8 blocks, playing around 15 minutes per contest.
|
[
"Professional career\n-------------------",
"Agbelese made his first professional footprints in [Iran](/wiki/Iran \"Iran\"), in the 2012–13 season, with Esteghlal Qeshm. The next year he moved to [Uruguay](/wiki/Uruguay \"Uruguay\"), and joined Union Atletica. During the season, he left the club, and signed with Wanderers Paysandu. At the start of 2014, he agreed with the Spanish club [Guadalajara](/wiki/CB_Guadalajara \"CB Guadalajara\"). The same year he also played with the Greek club [Rethymno](/wiki/Rethymno_B.C. \"Rethymno B.C.\")[AGO Rethymno landing Danny Agbelese.](http://archive.sportando.basketball/en/europe/greece/174388/ago-rethymno-landing-danny-agbelese.html) and the Spanish club [Ourense](/wiki/Club_Ourense_Baloncesto \"Club Ourense Baloncesto\").",
"In the 2015–16 season, he played again in Spain, with [Gipuzkoa Basket](/wiki/San_Sebasti%C3%A1n_Gipuzkoa_BC \"San Sebastián Gipuzkoa BC\").[Gipuzkoa announces Danny Agbelese.](http://archive.sportando.basketball/en/spain/acb/185315/gipuzkoa-announces-danny-agbelese.html) In 2016, he signed with the Italian club [Enel Brindisi](/wiki/New_Basket_Brindisi \"New Basket Brindisi\").[Enel Brindisi lands Danny Agbelese.](http://archive.sportando.basketball/en/italy/serie-a/201662/enel-brindisi-lands-danny-agbelese.html) During the 2017–18 season, he signed with [Élan Béarnais](/wiki/%C3%89lan_B%C3%A9arnais \"Élan Béarnais\") in [France](/wiki/France \"France\"),[Pau\\-Lacq\\-Orthez adds Agbelese to their roster.](http://nbbf.ng/pau-lacq-orthez-adds-agbelese-to-their-roster/) but later in the season he left the club, and re\\-signed with [Gipuzkoa Basket](/wiki/San_Sebasti%C3%A1n_Gipuzkoa_BC \"San Sebastián Gipuzkoa BC\").[Danny Agbelese a new player of Gipuzkoa.](https://www.pianetabasket.com/en/danny-agbelese-a-new-player-of-gipuzkoa-141418) He went on to average 7\\.5 points and 3\\.6 rebounds per game.",
"On August 6, 2018, he joined [Holargos](/wiki/Holargos_B.C. \"Holargos B.C.\") of the [Greek Basket League](/wiki/Greek_Basket_League \"Greek Basket League\").[Holargos signed Danny Agbelese.](https://www.a1basket.gr/2018/08/holargos-signed-danny-agbelese.html) On August 7, 2019, Agbelese agreed to stay in Greece with [Kolossos Rodou](/wiki/Kolossos_Rodou_B.C. \"Kolossos Rodou B.C.\"), joining his Holargos coach, [Aris Lykogiannis](/wiki/Aris_Lykogiannis \"Aris Lykogiannis\"), there.",
"On August 11, 2019, he signed with [Kolossos Rodou](/wiki/Kolossos_Rodou_B.C. \"Kolossos Rodou B.C.\") of the [Greek Basket League](/wiki/Greek_Basket_League \"Greek Basket League\").{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://sportando.basketball/en/kolossos\\-rhodes\\-sign\\-danny\\-agbelese/\\|title\\=Kolossos Rhodes sign Danny Agbelese\\|date\\=August 11, 2019\\|newspaper\\=Sportando\\|language\\=En\\|access\\-date\\=August 12, 2019\\|last1\\=Skerletic \\|first1\\=Dario }} On July 22, 2020, Agbelese officially moved to his fourth Greek club, [Promitheas Patras](/wiki/Promitheas_Patras_B.C. \"Promitheas Patras B.C.\"), which also competes in the [EuroCup](/wiki/EuroCup_Basketball \"EuroCup Basketball\").{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.promitheasbc.gr/index.php/nea/andriko/3191\\-pro20\\-welcome\\-danny\\-agbelese/\\|title\\=Ο DANNY AGBELESE ΣΤΟΝ ΠΡΟΜΗΘΕΑ\\|date\\=August 22, 2020\\|publisher\\=PromitheasPatrasB.C.\\|language\\=el\\|access\\-date\\=July 22, 2020\\|archive\\-date\\=July 22, 2020\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200722114925/https://www.promitheasbc.gr/index.php/nea/andriko/3191\\-pro20\\-welcome\\-danny\\-agbelese/\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}",
"On August 16, 2021, Agbelese signed with [Real Betis](/wiki/Real_Betis_Baloncesto \"Real Betis Baloncesto\") of the Spanish [Liga ACB](/wiki/Liga_ACB \"Liga ACB\").{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.realbetisbalompie.es/noticias/baloncesto/acuerdo\\-para\\-la\\-incorporacion\\-del\\-pivot\\-danny\\-agbelese\\-26234\\|title\\=Acuerdo para la incorporación del pívot Danny Agbelese\\|last\\=\\|first\\=\\|date\\=August 16, 2021\\|website\\=\\|publisher\\=Sportando\\|language\\=En\\|access\\-date\\=August 17, 2021}} In 16 games, he averaged 2\\.3 points and 2\\.8 rebounds per contest.",
"On March 6, 2022, Agbelese moved to [Peristeri](/wiki/Peristeri_B.C. \"Peristeri B.C.\") of the [Greek Basket League](/wiki/Greek_Basket_League \"Greek Basket League\") for the rest of the season.{{cite web \\|last1\\=Mammides \\|first1\\=Chris \\|title\\=Danny Agbelese (ex Real Betis) agreed terms with Peristeri \\|url\\=https://www.eurobasket.com/Greece/news/734124/Danny\\-Agbelese\\-(ex\\-Real\\-Betis)\\-agreed\\-terms\\-with\\-Peristeri \\|website\\=Eurobasket \\|access\\-date\\=March 6, 2022 \\|date\\=March 6, 2022}} In a total of 11 games, he averaged 4\\.5 points, 3\\.6 rebounds, 0\\.8 assists and 0\\.8 blocks, playing around 15 minutes per contest.",
""
] |
Biography
---------
Kiyohira was the son of [Fujiwara no Tsunekiyo](/wiki/Fujiwara_no_Tsunekiyo "Fujiwara no Tsunekiyo") and a daughter of [Abe no Yoritoki](/wiki/Abe_no_Yoritoki "Abe no Yoritoki") whose name is not known. He was born somewhere in the {{Interlanguage link\|Kitakami Basin\|ja\|北上盆地}} in 1056\. His father was of the Hidesato branch of the Fujiwara clan which was known for their fighting ability. Even so, Tsunekiyo was a mid\-level bureaucrat at [Fort Taga](/wiki/Site_of_Tagaj%C5%8D "Site of Tagajō") in present\-day [Sendai](/wiki/Sendai "Sendai"), [Miyagi Prefecture](/wiki/Miyagi_Prefecture "Miyagi Prefecture") when he married his [Emishi](/wiki/Emishi "Emishi") wife, left his position and went to live with his wife's family in present\-day [Iwate Prefecture](/wiki/Iwate_Prefecture "Iwate Prefecture"). Thus, Kiyohira was born in an Emishi household in Emishi territory to a father who was considered a traitor by the Japanese authorities.
Much of his early life was spent in a community at war with the Japanese central authorities. The Earlier Nine Years' War ([Zenkunen War](/wiki/Zenkunen_War "Zenkunen War"), 前九年合戦) was fought on and off from 1050 to 1062 while the Latter Three Years' War ([Gosannen War](/wiki/Gosannen_War "Gosannen War"), 後三年合戦) ran from 1083 to 1087\. He lost his grandfather, Abe no Yoritoki, in battle in 1057, his uncle Sadato in 1062 and all of his mother's brothers were deported to [Kyūshū](/wiki/Ky%C5%ABsh%C5%AB "Kyūshū") in the same year. His own father was personally beheaded by [Minamoto no Yoriyoshi](/wiki/Minamoto_no_Yoriyoshi "Minamoto no Yoriyoshi") (源 頼義) with a blunt sword. These are the events which would shape his life and influence his decisions as long as he lived.
[thumb\|This modern building houses statues of Fujiwara no Kiyohira and his father Tsunekiyo. It is at Fort Toyota ([Iwayadō Castle](/wiki/Iwayad%C5%8D_Castle "Iwayadō Castle")) in Oshu City](/wiki/Image:Nisei-in_at_Fort_Toyota.jpg "Nisei-in at Fort Toyota.jpg")
After he lost his father during the [Zenkunen War](/wiki/Zenkunen_War "Zenkunen War"), his mother became the concubine of his enemy, Kiyohara no Takehira, who had helped Minamoto no Yoriyoshi in the last war. Kiyohira was brought up in this enemy clan as Kiyohara no Kiyohira, with his elder stepbrother Sanehira and younger half\-brother Iehira. The Later Three Years' War involved a struggle among the three brothers in this complex relationship.
Kiyohira won the final victory in the war in 1087, with the aid of [Minamoto no Yoshiie](/wiki/Minamoto_no_Yoshiie "Minamoto no Yoshiie")(源 義家),{{Cite book \|last\=Sansom \|first\=George \|title\=A History of Japan to 1334 \|publisher\=Stanford University Press \|year\=1958 \|isbn\=0804705232 \|pages\=249–252}} the son of another of his old enemies, [Minamoto no Yoriyoshi](/wiki/Minamoto_no_Yoriyoshi "Minamoto no Yoriyoshi"). Kiyohira, however, lost his wife and son during the war, killed by his half\-brother Iehira.
Victorious in the Latter Three Years' War, Kiyohira returned to his home at Fort Toyota ([Iwayadō Castle](/wiki/Iwayad%C5%8D_Castle "Iwayadō Castle")), in present\-day Esashi Ward, [Ōshū](/wiki/%C5%8Csh%C5%AB%2C_Iwate "Ōshū, Iwate") City, [Iwate prefecture](/wiki/Iwate_prefecture "Iwate prefecture"), to plan his future. Sometime around 1090 to 1100 he built a new home on Mount Kanzan, "Barrier Mountain" in what is now [Hiraizumi](/wiki/Hiraizumi "Hiraizumi") Town. There appear to be three main reasons for his choice of site. First was its location directly on the Frontier Way, the main highway leading south to the capital and other major cities and north to the lands he controlled. Secondly it was determined to be the center of their realm, Ōshū, as measured from the [Shirakawa Barrier](/wiki/Shirakawa_Barrier "Shirakawa Barrier") in the south to [Sotogahama](/wiki/Sotogahama "Sotogahama") in present\-day [Aomori Prefecture](/wiki/Aomori_Prefecture "Aomori Prefecture") in the north. Thirdly this location is on the Southern side of the Koromo River, in what had traditionally been Japanese territory. Previously Emishi forts were always built on the North side of East or West flowing rivers.
There is evidence that Kiyohira did not use the name Fujiwara but the name Kiyohara until 1117, when he was more than 60 years old. But he did use it and passed it on to his children. Kiyohira had several wives and consorts including a Taira wife from Kyōto who was called the mother of his six children. She seems to have tired quickly of life on the remote frontier, returned to Kyōto, married a policeman and never returned. He is also known to have had two Emishi wives, a Kiyohara and an Abe. His eldest son and rightful heir was Koretsune. His second son and eventual successor was Motohira, born about 1105, likely to one of Kiyohira's Emishi wives.
After setting up house in Hiraizumi, Kiyohira began an ambitious Buddhist temple building program on the top of Mount Kanzan, [Chūson\-ji](/wiki/Ch%C5%ABson-ji "Chūson-ji"). This complex of temples, pagodas, repositories and gardens was to be his legacy, the embodiment of his vision for himself, his family and his domain for all time.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2015/03/14/national/monuments\-hint\-glory\-hiraizumis\-golden\-age\|title\=Monuments hint at glory of Hiraizumi's golden age\|last\=Rothmar\|first\=Tyler\|date\=14 March 2015\|publisher\=\[\[The Japan Times]]\|accessdate\=20 January 2018}}
|
[
"Biography\n---------",
"Kiyohira was the son of [Fujiwara no Tsunekiyo](/wiki/Fujiwara_no_Tsunekiyo \"Fujiwara no Tsunekiyo\") and a daughter of [Abe no Yoritoki](/wiki/Abe_no_Yoritoki \"Abe no Yoritoki\") whose name is not known. He was born somewhere in the {{Interlanguage link\\|Kitakami Basin\\|ja\\|北上盆地}} in 1056\\. His father was of the Hidesato branch of the Fujiwara clan which was known for their fighting ability. Even so, Tsunekiyo was a mid\\-level bureaucrat at [Fort Taga](/wiki/Site_of_Tagaj%C5%8D \"Site of Tagajō\") in present\\-day [Sendai](/wiki/Sendai \"Sendai\"), [Miyagi Prefecture](/wiki/Miyagi_Prefecture \"Miyagi Prefecture\") when he married his [Emishi](/wiki/Emishi \"Emishi\") wife, left his position and went to live with his wife's family in present\\-day [Iwate Prefecture](/wiki/Iwate_Prefecture \"Iwate Prefecture\"). Thus, Kiyohira was born in an Emishi household in Emishi territory to a father who was considered a traitor by the Japanese authorities.",
"Much of his early life was spent in a community at war with the Japanese central authorities. The Earlier Nine Years' War ([Zenkunen War](/wiki/Zenkunen_War \"Zenkunen War\"), 前九年合戦) was fought on and off from 1050 to 1062 while the Latter Three Years' War ([Gosannen War](/wiki/Gosannen_War \"Gosannen War\"), 後三年合戦) ran from 1083 to 1087\\. He lost his grandfather, Abe no Yoritoki, in battle in 1057, his uncle Sadato in 1062 and all of his mother's brothers were deported to [Kyūshū](/wiki/Ky%C5%ABsh%C5%AB \"Kyūshū\") in the same year. His own father was personally beheaded by [Minamoto no Yoriyoshi](/wiki/Minamoto_no_Yoriyoshi \"Minamoto no Yoriyoshi\") (源 頼義) with a blunt sword. These are the events which would shape his life and influence his decisions as long as he lived.",
"[thumb\\|This modern building houses statues of Fujiwara no Kiyohira and his father Tsunekiyo. It is at Fort Toyota ([Iwayadō Castle](/wiki/Iwayad%C5%8D_Castle \"Iwayadō Castle\")) in Oshu City](/wiki/Image:Nisei-in_at_Fort_Toyota.jpg \"Nisei-in at Fort Toyota.jpg\")",
"After he lost his father during the [Zenkunen War](/wiki/Zenkunen_War \"Zenkunen War\"), his mother became the concubine of his enemy, Kiyohara no Takehira, who had helped Minamoto no Yoriyoshi in the last war. Kiyohira was brought up in this enemy clan as Kiyohara no Kiyohira, with his elder stepbrother Sanehira and younger half\\-brother Iehira. The Later Three Years' War involved a struggle among the three brothers in this complex relationship.",
"Kiyohira won the final victory in the war in 1087, with the aid of [Minamoto no Yoshiie](/wiki/Minamoto_no_Yoshiie \"Minamoto no Yoshiie\")(源 義家),{{Cite book \\|last\\=Sansom \\|first\\=George \\|title\\=A History of Japan to 1334 \\|publisher\\=Stanford University Press \\|year\\=1958 \\|isbn\\=0804705232 \\|pages\\=249–252}} the son of another of his old enemies, [Minamoto no Yoriyoshi](/wiki/Minamoto_no_Yoriyoshi \"Minamoto no Yoriyoshi\"). Kiyohira, however, lost his wife and son during the war, killed by his half\\-brother Iehira.",
"Victorious in the Latter Three Years' War, Kiyohira returned to his home at Fort Toyota ([Iwayadō Castle](/wiki/Iwayad%C5%8D_Castle \"Iwayadō Castle\")), in present\\-day Esashi Ward, [Ōshū](/wiki/%C5%8Csh%C5%AB%2C_Iwate \"Ōshū, Iwate\") City, [Iwate prefecture](/wiki/Iwate_prefecture \"Iwate prefecture\"), to plan his future. Sometime around 1090 to 1100 he built a new home on Mount Kanzan, \"Barrier Mountain\" in what is now [Hiraizumi](/wiki/Hiraizumi \"Hiraizumi\") Town. There appear to be three main reasons for his choice of site. First was its location directly on the Frontier Way, the main highway leading south to the capital and other major cities and north to the lands he controlled. Secondly it was determined to be the center of their realm, Ōshū, as measured from the [Shirakawa Barrier](/wiki/Shirakawa_Barrier \"Shirakawa Barrier\") in the south to [Sotogahama](/wiki/Sotogahama \"Sotogahama\") in present\\-day [Aomori Prefecture](/wiki/Aomori_Prefecture \"Aomori Prefecture\") in the north. Thirdly this location is on the Southern side of the Koromo River, in what had traditionally been Japanese territory. Previously Emishi forts were always built on the North side of East or West flowing rivers.",
"There is evidence that Kiyohira did not use the name Fujiwara but the name Kiyohara until 1117, when he was more than 60 years old. But he did use it and passed it on to his children. Kiyohira had several wives and consorts including a Taira wife from Kyōto who was called the mother of his six children. She seems to have tired quickly of life on the remote frontier, returned to Kyōto, married a policeman and never returned. He is also known to have had two Emishi wives, a Kiyohara and an Abe. His eldest son and rightful heir was Koretsune. His second son and eventual successor was Motohira, born about 1105, likely to one of Kiyohira's Emishi wives.",
"After setting up house in Hiraizumi, Kiyohira began an ambitious Buddhist temple building program on the top of Mount Kanzan, [Chūson\\-ji](/wiki/Ch%C5%ABson-ji \"Chūson-ji\"). This complex of temples, pagodas, repositories and gardens was to be his legacy, the embodiment of his vision for himself, his family and his domain for all time.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2015/03/14/national/monuments\\-hint\\-glory\\-hiraizumis\\-golden\\-age\\|title\\=Monuments hint at glory of Hiraizumi's golden age\\|last\\=Rothmar\\|first\\=Tyler\\|date\\=14 March 2015\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[The Japan Times]]\\|accessdate\\=20 January 2018}}",
""
] |
Biography
---------
### *Dream Job*
Hall is perhaps best known for being the winner of the first season of [ESPN](/wiki/ESPN "ESPN")'s [reality television](/wiki/Reality_television "Reality television") show *[Dream Job](/wiki/Dream_Job "Dream Job")*. For his efforts, Hall won a one\-year contract to be an anchor on ESPN's popular sports news program *[SportsCenter](/wiki/SportsCenter "SportsCenter")* and a new [Mazda 3](/wiki/Mazda_3 "Mazda 3"). On the night that he won, March 28, 2004, Hall also took a sports quiz to raise his salary. His salary started at $70,000\. He then answered five trivia questions, each correct answer worth $5,000, to bump his first\-year salary to $95,000\.
### ESPN
On May 15, 2004, Hall graduated from the University of Missouri. At 1 [a.m.](/wiki/12-hour_clock "12-hour clock") [Eastern Daylight Time](/wiki/North_American_Eastern_Time_Zone "North American Eastern Time Zone") on July 20, 2004, Hall began his stint as an official *SportsCenter* anchor alongside [Linda Cohn](/wiki/Linda_Cohn "Linda Cohn"), having already done some work for [ESPNews](/wiki/ESPNews "ESPNews"). Before Missouri, he attended historic [Glenbard West High School](/wiki/Glenbard_West_High_School "Glenbard West High School"). Hall also appeared on ESPN, and occasionally [ESPN2](/wiki/ESPN2 "ESPN2"), broadcasting college games including the [Division I NCAA Frozen Four National Championship](/wiki/NCAA_Division_I_Men%27s_Ice_Hockey_Championship "NCAA Division I Men's Ice Hockey Championship"). He used to be the featured on\-air personality at [ESPN](/wiki/ESPN "ESPN")'s network devoted to college sports, [ESPNU](/wiki/ESPNU "ESPNU"). On March 4, 2005, he was the opening promo for the first ever program on ESPNU, a basketball game at Gallagher\-Iba arena on the campus of Oklahoma State University (OSU) between OSU and Texas. ESPN's *[Pardon the Interruption](/wiki/Pardon_the_Interruption "Pardon the Interruption")* reported during its "Happy Trails!" segment on April 27, 2007, that Hall was leaving ESPNU to move back to the [Chicago area](/wiki/Chicago_metropolitan_area "Chicago metropolitan area"), where he would pursue other job opportunities.
### Big Ten Network and Fox Sports
Beginning in 2007, Hall is employed with the [Big Ten Network](/wiki/Big_Ten_Network "Big Ten Network"). While at the network, Hall has hosted signature programs including Big Ten football pregames/halftimes/postgames, *Friday Night Tailgate*, *Big Ten Football Report*, *BTN Live* on [Sirius/XM satellite radio](/wiki/Sirius/XM_Satellite_Radio "Sirius/XM Satellite Radio"), *Big Ten Basketball \& Beyond* and Big Ten Basketball pre\-game, halftime, and wrap\-up segments.[Mike Hall's Blog \- Big Ten Network](http://www.bigtennetwork.com/blogs/index.asp?blogger_id=5) {{webarchive \|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20071216090013/http://www.bigtennetwork.com/blogs/index.asp?blogger\_id\=5 \|date\=December 16, 2007}}
Hall also makes appearances doing sideline reporting for *[The NFL on Fox](/wiki/NFL_on_Fox "NFL on Fox")*.{{citation needed\|date\=April 2014}}{{Cite news \|date\=March 14, 2011 \|title\=Mike Hall \|url\=https://www.chicagotribune.com/2011/03/14/mike\-hall/}} as well as for the network's coverage of the Big Ten men's basketball tournament.
In 2016 the network gave Hall his own late night comedy show, *Sports Lite*. It was a sports twist on "The Soup" where he did a monologue in front of a live studio audience, and aired feature pieces with him in the field showing athlete's goofing off with him, as well as utilizing comedians in NYC and LA interviewing famous Big Ten fans.
### Improv comedy
Hall performed [improv comedy](/wiki/Improv_comedy "Improv comedy") at [iO Chicago](/wiki/IO_Chicago "IO Chicago") for more than a decade with various teams including Wonderbat (co\-starring SNL's Alex Moffat), Electric Mayhem, and Coup de Grace{{cite web \|url\=http://ioimprov.com/chicago/io/teams/coup\-de\-grace \|title\=Coup de Grace \| Teams \| iO Chicago Theater \|accessdate\=2013\-06\-18 \|url\-status\=dead \|archiveurl\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130825221636/http://ioimprov.com/chicago/io/teams/coup\-de\-grace \|archivedate\=2013\-08\-25 }} and at [The Playground](/wiki/The_Playground "The Playground") with Boyish.{{Cite web \|url\=http://www.the\-playground.com/group/1494 \|title\=The Playground Theater \|access\-date\=2013\-06\-18 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140927043247/http://www.the\-playground.com/group/1494 \|archive\-date\=2014\-09\-27 \|url\-status\=dead }} He frequently would be seen showing up at Second City to do guest performances during the improv sets.
|
[
"Biography\n---------",
"### *Dream Job*",
"Hall is perhaps best known for being the winner of the first season of [ESPN](/wiki/ESPN \"ESPN\")'s [reality television](/wiki/Reality_television \"Reality television\") show *[Dream Job](/wiki/Dream_Job \"Dream Job\")*. For his efforts, Hall won a one\\-year contract to be an anchor on ESPN's popular sports news program *[SportsCenter](/wiki/SportsCenter \"SportsCenter\")* and a new [Mazda 3](/wiki/Mazda_3 \"Mazda 3\"). On the night that he won, March 28, 2004, Hall also took a sports quiz to raise his salary. His salary started at $70,000\\. He then answered five trivia questions, each correct answer worth $5,000, to bump his first\\-year salary to $95,000\\.",
"### ESPN",
"On May 15, 2004, Hall graduated from the University of Missouri. At 1 [a.m.](/wiki/12-hour_clock \"12-hour clock\") [Eastern Daylight Time](/wiki/North_American_Eastern_Time_Zone \"North American Eastern Time Zone\") on July 20, 2004, Hall began his stint as an official *SportsCenter* anchor alongside [Linda Cohn](/wiki/Linda_Cohn \"Linda Cohn\"), having already done some work for [ESPNews](/wiki/ESPNews \"ESPNews\"). Before Missouri, he attended historic [Glenbard West High School](/wiki/Glenbard_West_High_School \"Glenbard West High School\"). Hall also appeared on ESPN, and occasionally [ESPN2](/wiki/ESPN2 \"ESPN2\"), broadcasting college games including the [Division I NCAA Frozen Four National Championship](/wiki/NCAA_Division_I_Men%27s_Ice_Hockey_Championship \"NCAA Division I Men's Ice Hockey Championship\"). He used to be the featured on\\-air personality at [ESPN](/wiki/ESPN \"ESPN\")'s network devoted to college sports, [ESPNU](/wiki/ESPNU \"ESPNU\"). On March 4, 2005, he was the opening promo for the first ever program on ESPNU, a basketball game at Gallagher\\-Iba arena on the campus of Oklahoma State University (OSU) between OSU and Texas. ESPN's *[Pardon the Interruption](/wiki/Pardon_the_Interruption \"Pardon the Interruption\")* reported during its \"Happy Trails!\" segment on April 27, 2007, that Hall was leaving ESPNU to move back to the [Chicago area](/wiki/Chicago_metropolitan_area \"Chicago metropolitan area\"), where he would pursue other job opportunities.",
"### Big Ten Network and Fox Sports",
"Beginning in 2007, Hall is employed with the [Big Ten Network](/wiki/Big_Ten_Network \"Big Ten Network\"). While at the network, Hall has hosted signature programs including Big Ten football pregames/halftimes/postgames, *Friday Night Tailgate*, *Big Ten Football Report*, *BTN Live* on [Sirius/XM satellite radio](/wiki/Sirius/XM_Satellite_Radio \"Sirius/XM Satellite Radio\"), *Big Ten Basketball \\& Beyond* and Big Ten Basketball pre\\-game, halftime, and wrap\\-up segments.[Mike Hall's Blog \\- Big Ten Network](http://www.bigtennetwork.com/blogs/index.asp?blogger_id=5) {{webarchive \\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20071216090013/http://www.bigtennetwork.com/blogs/index.asp?blogger\\_id\\=5 \\|date\\=December 16, 2007}}",
"Hall also makes appearances doing sideline reporting for *[The NFL on Fox](/wiki/NFL_on_Fox \"NFL on Fox\")*.{{citation needed\\|date\\=April 2014}}{{Cite news \\|date\\=March 14, 2011 \\|title\\=Mike Hall \\|url\\=https://www.chicagotribune.com/2011/03/14/mike\\-hall/}} as well as for the network's coverage of the Big Ten men's basketball tournament.",
"In 2016 the network gave Hall his own late night comedy show, *Sports Lite*. It was a sports twist on \"The Soup\" where he did a monologue in front of a live studio audience, and aired feature pieces with him in the field showing athlete's goofing off with him, as well as utilizing comedians in NYC and LA interviewing famous Big Ten fans.",
"### Improv comedy",
"Hall performed [improv comedy](/wiki/Improv_comedy \"Improv comedy\") at [iO Chicago](/wiki/IO_Chicago \"IO Chicago\") for more than a decade with various teams including Wonderbat (co\\-starring SNL's Alex Moffat), Electric Mayhem, and Coup de Grace{{cite web \\|url\\=http://ioimprov.com/chicago/io/teams/coup\\-de\\-grace \\|title\\=Coup de Grace \\| Teams \\| iO Chicago Theater \\|accessdate\\=2013\\-06\\-18 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archiveurl\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130825221636/http://ioimprov.com/chicago/io/teams/coup\\-de\\-grace \\|archivedate\\=2013\\-08\\-25 }} and at [The Playground](/wiki/The_Playground \"The Playground\") with Boyish.{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://www.the\\-playground.com/group/1494 \\|title\\=The Playground Theater \\|access\\-date\\=2013\\-06\\-18 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140927043247/http://www.the\\-playground.com/group/1494 \\|archive\\-date\\=2014\\-09\\-27 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }} He frequently would be seen showing up at Second City to do guest performances during the improv sets.",
""
] |
Plot
----
It is now a few years into the war, and the platoon are having firing practice at a [country house](/wiki/English_country_house "English country house"). However, they are rudely interrupted and told to "keep the noise down" by the arrogant butler. Back at the church hall, Mainwaring and Wilson discuss how complacency is setting in amongst the townsfolk, and how people are seeing them as "Geriatric Fusiliers". As they discuss it, they are interrupted by [ARP](/wiki/Air_Raid_Precautions "Air Raid Precautions") Warden Hodges, who is in tears after Mr Bluett verbally attacked him for trying to do his job, and how people do not seem to be taking the war seriously.
Remembering the national reaction after the platoon were [recently mistaken for enemy agents](/wiki/Ring_Dem_Bells "Ring Dem Bells") during a training exercise, Mainwaring decides to get his men to masquerade as fifth columnists in "very sinister clothes" to scare the townsfolk and become appreciated again, and to prevent a repeat of last time he informs the Colonel at GHQ of the plan, called "Operation Wake\-Up". Taking pity on him, Mainwaring invites Hodges to join them, which he gratefully accepts.
The platoon (with the exception of Godfrey, who remains at the church hall to act as their contact man) meet up at their "secret base", although things get out of hand with disguises: Mainwaring wears an [eyepatch](/wiki/Eyepatch "Eyepatch") over his glasses, Pike is dressed as an American [gangster](/wiki/Gangster "Gangster"), Frazer is in his [undertaker](/wiki/Undertaker "Undertaker") attire, and Jones is dressed as a [nun](/wiki/Nun "Nun"). Mainwaring finds Jones' disguise unbearable and makes him wear his regular clothes instead.
The platoon and Hodges begin roaming the countryside, acting menacingly. At first, their efforts to frighten the locals are unsuccessful. They first stop a man in a truck and ask him where the [aerodrome](/wiki/Aerodrome "Aerodrome") is (with Jones attempting a foreign accent) but the annoyed man just drives off, splashing Mainwaring with mud. Next, the men pretend to interrogate Hodges and assault him. A big man arrives and recognises Jones as the local butcher, and Hodges, who had short\-changed the man some time before, and punches the latter in the face out of vengeance. Lastly, the platoon come across a group of men and assume from their similar clothing that they are real fifth columnists. Mainwaring questions them, even getting his [revolver](/wiki/Webley_Revolver "Webley Revolver") out, but one of the men casually disarms him and they all begin arguing.
However, the platoon finally manages to cause some concern with their talk of "blowing up an aerodrome", but the frightened locals send out for the Home Guard. With Mainwaring's platoon absent from their post, the neighbouring Eastgate platoon, led by Captain Square, are called out, using [Jones' van](/wiki/Jones%27_van_%28Dad%27s_Army%29 "Jones' van (Dad's Army)") (which is still at the church hall) as transport. Tracking the platoon down to the disused [flour mill](/wiki/Flour_mill "Flour mill") they are using as their base, Square and his men open fire, covering them in flour.
The men realise that Square had fallen for their trick. Mainwaring calls him a fool, and the episode ends with the two of them exchanging insults.
|
[
"Plot\n----",
"It is now a few years into the war, and the platoon are having firing practice at a [country house](/wiki/English_country_house \"English country house\"). However, they are rudely interrupted and told to \"keep the noise down\" by the arrogant butler. Back at the church hall, Mainwaring and Wilson discuss how complacency is setting in amongst the townsfolk, and how people are seeing them as \"Geriatric Fusiliers\". As they discuss it, they are interrupted by [ARP](/wiki/Air_Raid_Precautions \"Air Raid Precautions\") Warden Hodges, who is in tears after Mr Bluett verbally attacked him for trying to do his job, and how people do not seem to be taking the war seriously.",
"Remembering the national reaction after the platoon were [recently mistaken for enemy agents](/wiki/Ring_Dem_Bells \"Ring Dem Bells\") during a training exercise, Mainwaring decides to get his men to masquerade as fifth columnists in \"very sinister clothes\" to scare the townsfolk and become appreciated again, and to prevent a repeat of last time he informs the Colonel at GHQ of the plan, called \"Operation Wake\\-Up\". Taking pity on him, Mainwaring invites Hodges to join them, which he gratefully accepts.",
"The platoon (with the exception of Godfrey, who remains at the church hall to act as their contact man) meet up at their \"secret base\", although things get out of hand with disguises: Mainwaring wears an [eyepatch](/wiki/Eyepatch \"Eyepatch\") over his glasses, Pike is dressed as an American [gangster](/wiki/Gangster \"Gangster\"), Frazer is in his [undertaker](/wiki/Undertaker \"Undertaker\") attire, and Jones is dressed as a [nun](/wiki/Nun \"Nun\"). Mainwaring finds Jones' disguise unbearable and makes him wear his regular clothes instead.",
"The platoon and Hodges begin roaming the countryside, acting menacingly. At first, their efforts to frighten the locals are unsuccessful. They first stop a man in a truck and ask him where the [aerodrome](/wiki/Aerodrome \"Aerodrome\") is (with Jones attempting a foreign accent) but the annoyed man just drives off, splashing Mainwaring with mud. Next, the men pretend to interrogate Hodges and assault him. A big man arrives and recognises Jones as the local butcher, and Hodges, who had short\\-changed the man some time before, and punches the latter in the face out of vengeance. Lastly, the platoon come across a group of men and assume from their similar clothing that they are real fifth columnists. Mainwaring questions them, even getting his [revolver](/wiki/Webley_Revolver \"Webley Revolver\") out, but one of the men casually disarms him and they all begin arguing.",
"However, the platoon finally manages to cause some concern with their talk of \"blowing up an aerodrome\", but the frightened locals send out for the Home Guard. With Mainwaring's platoon absent from their post, the neighbouring Eastgate platoon, led by Captain Square, are called out, using [Jones' van](/wiki/Jones%27_van_%28Dad%27s_Army%29 \"Jones' van (Dad's Army)\") (which is still at the church hall) as transport. Tracking the platoon down to the disused [flour mill](/wiki/Flour_mill \"Flour mill\") they are using as their base, Square and his men open fire, covering them in flour.",
"The men realise that Square had fallen for their trick. Mainwaring calls him a fool, and the episode ends with the two of them exchanging insults.",
""
] |
Work in government (September 1975–February 2008\)
--------------------------------------------------
### Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Trade (1975–2006\)
[260px\|thumb\|left\|Song Minsoon as chief South Korean negotiator at the [Six\-Party Talks](/wiki/Six-Party_Talks "Six-Party Talks") in 2005](/wiki/Image:%EC%86%A1%EC%88%98%EC%84%9D%EB%8C%80%ED%91%9C.jpg "송수석대표.jpg")
As a young diplomat, Song had his first foreign posting in Germany. Subsequently, he had the opportunity to work around the globe through assignments in India, the United States, Singapore, and Poland.
Between 1989 and 1991, Song participated in the successful completion of the First Revised Status of Forces Agreement (SOFA) between the United States and Korea.
As Director\-General of the North American Affairs Bureau, Song headed the Second U.S.\-Korea Revised SOFA negotiations (1999–2000\), successfully improving upon the previous agreement in seven fields, including environmental protection and criminal trial procedures.
In December 2000, Song led the U.S.\-Korea Missile Technology Control Regime (MTCR) negotiations, and in March 2001, he was appointed ROK's Ambassador to the Republic of Poland.
As Deputy Minister for Political Affairs, Song was Chief Negotiator to the [Six\-Party Talks](/wiki/Six-Party_Talks "Six-Party Talks"). His efforts helped produce what has now become the quintessential blueprint for achieving a nuclear\-free Korean Peninsula: the Joint Statement of September 19, 2005\. The following are the main achievements of the Statement:
* The Six Parties unanimously reaffirmed that the goal of the Six\-Party talks is the verifiable denuclearization of the Korean Peninsula in a peaceful manner.
* The DPRK committed to abandoning all nuclear weapons and existing nuclear programs and returning, at an early date, to the Treaty on the Non\-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons and to IAEA safeguards.
* The 1992 Joint Declaration of the Denuclearization of the Korean Peninsula should be observed and implemented.
* The DPRK stated that it has the right to peaceful uses of nuclear energy.
* The other parties expressed their respect and agreed to discuss, at an appropriate time, the subject of the provision of light water reactor to the DPRK.
* The DPRK and the United States undertook to respect each other's sovereignty, exist peacefully together, and take steps to normalize their relations subject to their respective bilateral policies.
* China, Japan, ROK, Russia and the US stated their willingness to provide energy assistance to the DPRK.
* The directly related parties will negotiate a permanent peace regime on the Korean Peninsula at an appropriate separate forum.
* The Six Parties agreed to take coordinated steps to implement the afore\-mentioned consensus in a phased manner in line with the principle of "commitment for commitment, action for action".
Through these top diplomatic assignments and achievements, Song made a lasting impact on the furtherance of Korean diplomacy and the international effort to denuclearize North Korea.
### National Security Adviser (2006\)
In January 2006, President [Roh Moo\-hyun](/wiki/Roh_Moo-hyun "Roh Moo-hyun") appointed Song as his National Security Adviser. During his time as National Security Adviser, Song was accredited to have successfully handled two major foreign policy crises: North Korea's missile launching incident in July and its first nuclear test in October.
[255px\|thumb\|right\|Song Minsoon with former [US Secretary of State](/wiki/US_Secretary_of_State "US Secretary of State") [Condoleezza Rice](/wiki/Condoleezza_Rice "Condoleezza Rice") in 2007](/wiki/Image:%EC%86%A1%EB%AF%BC%EC%88%9C%EA%B3%BC_%EC%BD%98%EB%94%94.JPG "송민순과 콘디.JPG")
[252px\|thumb\|right\|Song Minsoon with Chinese Prime Minister [Wen Jiabao](/wiki/Wen_Jiabao "Wen Jiabao") in 2007](/wiki/Image:%EC%86%A1%EB%AF%BC%EC%88%9C%EA%B3%BC_%EC%9B%90%EC%9E%90.jpg "송민순과 원자.jpg")
### 34th Minister of Foreign Affairs and Trade (2006–2008\)
In December 2006, Song was appointed the 34th Minister of Foreign Affairs and Trade of the Republic of Korea. He succeeded [Ban Ki\-moon](/wiki/Ban_Ki-moon "Ban Ki-moon") and cooperated with world\-wide leaders to drive forward the [Six\-Party Talks](/wiki/Six-Party_Talks "Six-Party Talks"). Significantly, Song's leadership helped achieve the Initial Actions for Implementation of the Joint Statement, issued on Tuesday February 13, 2007\. This was heralded as one of the most significant milestones in the international effort to denuclearize North Korea and bring peace to the Korean peninsular. The major points in the agreement were that:
* North Korea will shut down and seal the Yongbyon nuclear facility, including the reprocessing facility and invite back IAEA personnel to conduct all necessary monitoring and verifications.
* In return, the other five parties in the six\-party talks will provide emergency energy assistance to North Korea in the initial phase of 50,000 tons of heavy fuel oil, to commence within 60 days.
* All six parties agree to take positive steps to increase mutual trust, and make joint efforts for lasting peace and stability in Northeast Asia. Directly related parties will negotiate a permanent peace regime on the Korean Peninsula at an appropriate separate forum.
* All six parties agree on establishing five working groups \- on the denuclearization of the Korean Peninsula, normalization of North Korea\-U.S. relations, normalization of North Korea\-Japan relations, economy and energy cooperation, as well as a joint Northeast Asia peace and security mechanism.
This Joint Statement led to the shutting\-down of North Korea's plutonium producing plant at Yongbyon in July. In October, Pyongyang started to disable the Yongbyon plant by removing eight thousand fuel rods from the nuclear reactor.{{cite web\| url \= http://www.cfr.org/publication/13593/sixparty\_talks\_on\_north\_koreas\_nuclear\_program.html\| url\-status \= dead\| archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20070715074946/http://www.cfr.org/publication/13593/sixparty\_talks\_on\_north\_koreas\_nuclear\_program.html\| archive\-date \= 2007\-07\-15\| title \= The Six\-Party Talks on North Korea s Nuclear Program \- Council on Foreign Relations}}
Another significant achievement while Song was in office was the conclusion of the [U.S.\-Korea Free Trade Agreement](/wiki/U.S.-Korea_Free_Trade_Agreement "U.S.-Korea Free Trade Agreement") (KORUS FTA) in 2007\. This is the largest FTA that Korea has signed with a single country, and the first U.S. FTA to be signed with a major Asian economy. The FTA now stands pending in the legislatures of both sides of the pacific.
|
[
"Work in government (September 1975–February 2008\\)\n--------------------------------------------------",
"### Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Trade (1975–2006\\)",
"[260px\\|thumb\\|left\\|Song Minsoon as chief South Korean negotiator at the [Six\\-Party Talks](/wiki/Six-Party_Talks \"Six-Party Talks\") in 2005](/wiki/Image:%EC%86%A1%EC%88%98%EC%84%9D%EB%8C%80%ED%91%9C.jpg \"송수석대표.jpg\")",
"As a young diplomat, Song had his first foreign posting in Germany. Subsequently, he had the opportunity to work around the globe through assignments in India, the United States, Singapore, and Poland.",
"Between 1989 and 1991, Song participated in the successful completion of the First Revised Status of Forces Agreement (SOFA) between the United States and Korea.",
"As Director\\-General of the North American Affairs Bureau, Song headed the Second U.S.\\-Korea Revised SOFA negotiations (1999–2000\\), successfully improving upon the previous agreement in seven fields, including environmental protection and criminal trial procedures.",
"In December 2000, Song led the U.S.\\-Korea Missile Technology Control Regime (MTCR) negotiations, and in March 2001, he was appointed ROK's Ambassador to the Republic of Poland.",
"As Deputy Minister for Political Affairs, Song was Chief Negotiator to the [Six\\-Party Talks](/wiki/Six-Party_Talks \"Six-Party Talks\"). His efforts helped produce what has now become the quintessential blueprint for achieving a nuclear\\-free Korean Peninsula: the Joint Statement of September 19, 2005\\. The following are the main achievements of the Statement:\n* The Six Parties unanimously reaffirmed that the goal of the Six\\-Party talks is the verifiable denuclearization of the Korean Peninsula in a peaceful manner.\n* The DPRK committed to abandoning all nuclear weapons and existing nuclear programs and returning, at an early date, to the Treaty on the Non\\-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons and to IAEA safeguards.\n* The 1992 Joint Declaration of the Denuclearization of the Korean Peninsula should be observed and implemented.\n* The DPRK stated that it has the right to peaceful uses of nuclear energy.\n* The other parties expressed their respect and agreed to discuss, at an appropriate time, the subject of the provision of light water reactor to the DPRK.\n* The DPRK and the United States undertook to respect each other's sovereignty, exist peacefully together, and take steps to normalize their relations subject to their respective bilateral policies.\n* China, Japan, ROK, Russia and the US stated their willingness to provide energy assistance to the DPRK.\n* The directly related parties will negotiate a permanent peace regime on the Korean Peninsula at an appropriate separate forum.\n* The Six Parties agreed to take coordinated steps to implement the afore\\-mentioned consensus in a phased manner in line with the principle of \"commitment for commitment, action for action\".",
"Through these top diplomatic assignments and achievements, Song made a lasting impact on the furtherance of Korean diplomacy and the international effort to denuclearize North Korea.",
"### National Security Adviser (2006\\)",
"In January 2006, President [Roh Moo\\-hyun](/wiki/Roh_Moo-hyun \"Roh Moo-hyun\") appointed Song as his National Security Adviser. During his time as National Security Adviser, Song was accredited to have successfully handled two major foreign policy crises: North Korea's missile launching incident in July and its first nuclear test in October.\n[255px\\|thumb\\|right\\|Song Minsoon with former [US Secretary of State](/wiki/US_Secretary_of_State \"US Secretary of State\") [Condoleezza Rice](/wiki/Condoleezza_Rice \"Condoleezza Rice\") in 2007](/wiki/Image:%EC%86%A1%EB%AF%BC%EC%88%9C%EA%B3%BC_%EC%BD%98%EB%94%94.JPG \"송민순과 콘디.JPG\")\n[252px\\|thumb\\|right\\|Song Minsoon with Chinese Prime Minister [Wen Jiabao](/wiki/Wen_Jiabao \"Wen Jiabao\") in 2007](/wiki/Image:%EC%86%A1%EB%AF%BC%EC%88%9C%EA%B3%BC_%EC%9B%90%EC%9E%90.jpg \"송민순과 원자.jpg\")",
"### 34th Minister of Foreign Affairs and Trade (2006–2008\\)",
"In December 2006, Song was appointed the 34th Minister of Foreign Affairs and Trade of the Republic of Korea. He succeeded [Ban Ki\\-moon](/wiki/Ban_Ki-moon \"Ban Ki-moon\") and cooperated with world\\-wide leaders to drive forward the [Six\\-Party Talks](/wiki/Six-Party_Talks \"Six-Party Talks\"). Significantly, Song's leadership helped achieve the Initial Actions for Implementation of the Joint Statement, issued on Tuesday February 13, 2007\\. This was heralded as one of the most significant milestones in the international effort to denuclearize North Korea and bring peace to the Korean peninsular. The major points in the agreement were that:",
"* North Korea will shut down and seal the Yongbyon nuclear facility, including the reprocessing facility and invite back IAEA personnel to conduct all necessary monitoring and verifications.\n* In return, the other five parties in the six\\-party talks will provide emergency energy assistance to North Korea in the initial phase of 50,000 tons of heavy fuel oil, to commence within 60 days.\n* All six parties agree to take positive steps to increase mutual trust, and make joint efforts for lasting peace and stability in Northeast Asia. Directly related parties will negotiate a permanent peace regime on the Korean Peninsula at an appropriate separate forum.\n* All six parties agree on establishing five working groups \\- on the denuclearization of the Korean Peninsula, normalization of North Korea\\-U.S. relations, normalization of North Korea\\-Japan relations, economy and energy cooperation, as well as a joint Northeast Asia peace and security mechanism.",
"This Joint Statement led to the shutting\\-down of North Korea's plutonium producing plant at Yongbyon in July. In October, Pyongyang started to disable the Yongbyon plant by removing eight thousand fuel rods from the nuclear reactor.{{cite web\\| url \\= http://www.cfr.org/publication/13593/sixparty\\_talks\\_on\\_north\\_koreas\\_nuclear\\_program.html\\| url\\-status \\= dead\\| archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20070715074946/http://www.cfr.org/publication/13593/sixparty\\_talks\\_on\\_north\\_koreas\\_nuclear\\_program.html\\| archive\\-date \\= 2007\\-07\\-15\\| title \\= The Six\\-Party Talks on North Korea s Nuclear Program \\- Council on Foreign Relations}}",
"Another significant achievement while Song was in office was the conclusion of the [U.S.\\-Korea Free Trade Agreement](/wiki/U.S.-Korea_Free_Trade_Agreement \"U.S.-Korea Free Trade Agreement\") (KORUS FTA) in 2007\\. This is the largest FTA that Korea has signed with a single country, and the first U.S. FTA to be signed with a major Asian economy. The FTA now stands pending in the legislatures of both sides of the pacific.",
""
] |
### Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Trade (1975–2006\)
[260px\|thumb\|left\|Song Minsoon as chief South Korean negotiator at the [Six\-Party Talks](/wiki/Six-Party_Talks "Six-Party Talks") in 2005](/wiki/Image:%EC%86%A1%EC%88%98%EC%84%9D%EB%8C%80%ED%91%9C.jpg "송수석대표.jpg")
As a young diplomat, Song had his first foreign posting in Germany. Subsequently, he had the opportunity to work around the globe through assignments in India, the United States, Singapore, and Poland.
Between 1989 and 1991, Song participated in the successful completion of the First Revised Status of Forces Agreement (SOFA) between the United States and Korea.
As Director\-General of the North American Affairs Bureau, Song headed the Second U.S.\-Korea Revised SOFA negotiations (1999–2000\), successfully improving upon the previous agreement in seven fields, including environmental protection and criminal trial procedures.
In December 2000, Song led the U.S.\-Korea Missile Technology Control Regime (MTCR) negotiations, and in March 2001, he was appointed ROK's Ambassador to the Republic of Poland.
As Deputy Minister for Political Affairs, Song was Chief Negotiator to the [Six\-Party Talks](/wiki/Six-Party_Talks "Six-Party Talks"). His efforts helped produce what has now become the quintessential blueprint for achieving a nuclear\-free Korean Peninsula: the Joint Statement of September 19, 2005\. The following are the main achievements of the Statement:
* The Six Parties unanimously reaffirmed that the goal of the Six\-Party talks is the verifiable denuclearization of the Korean Peninsula in a peaceful manner.
* The DPRK committed to abandoning all nuclear weapons and existing nuclear programs and returning, at an early date, to the Treaty on the Non\-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons and to IAEA safeguards.
* The 1992 Joint Declaration of the Denuclearization of the Korean Peninsula should be observed and implemented.
* The DPRK stated that it has the right to peaceful uses of nuclear energy.
* The other parties expressed their respect and agreed to discuss, at an appropriate time, the subject of the provision of light water reactor to the DPRK.
* The DPRK and the United States undertook to respect each other's sovereignty, exist peacefully together, and take steps to normalize their relations subject to their respective bilateral policies.
* China, Japan, ROK, Russia and the US stated their willingness to provide energy assistance to the DPRK.
* The directly related parties will negotiate a permanent peace regime on the Korean Peninsula at an appropriate separate forum.
* The Six Parties agreed to take coordinated steps to implement the afore\-mentioned consensus in a phased manner in line with the principle of "commitment for commitment, action for action".
Through these top diplomatic assignments and achievements, Song made a lasting impact on the furtherance of Korean diplomacy and the international effort to denuclearize North Korea.
|
[
"### Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Trade (1975–2006\\)",
"[260px\\|thumb\\|left\\|Song Minsoon as chief South Korean negotiator at the [Six\\-Party Talks](/wiki/Six-Party_Talks \"Six-Party Talks\") in 2005](/wiki/Image:%EC%86%A1%EC%88%98%EC%84%9D%EB%8C%80%ED%91%9C.jpg \"송수석대표.jpg\")",
"As a young diplomat, Song had his first foreign posting in Germany. Subsequently, he had the opportunity to work around the globe through assignments in India, the United States, Singapore, and Poland.",
"Between 1989 and 1991, Song participated in the successful completion of the First Revised Status of Forces Agreement (SOFA) between the United States and Korea.",
"As Director\\-General of the North American Affairs Bureau, Song headed the Second U.S.\\-Korea Revised SOFA negotiations (1999–2000\\), successfully improving upon the previous agreement in seven fields, including environmental protection and criminal trial procedures.",
"In December 2000, Song led the U.S.\\-Korea Missile Technology Control Regime (MTCR) negotiations, and in March 2001, he was appointed ROK's Ambassador to the Republic of Poland.",
"As Deputy Minister for Political Affairs, Song was Chief Negotiator to the [Six\\-Party Talks](/wiki/Six-Party_Talks \"Six-Party Talks\"). His efforts helped produce what has now become the quintessential blueprint for achieving a nuclear\\-free Korean Peninsula: the Joint Statement of September 19, 2005\\. The following are the main achievements of the Statement:\n* The Six Parties unanimously reaffirmed that the goal of the Six\\-Party talks is the verifiable denuclearization of the Korean Peninsula in a peaceful manner.\n* The DPRK committed to abandoning all nuclear weapons and existing nuclear programs and returning, at an early date, to the Treaty on the Non\\-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons and to IAEA safeguards.\n* The 1992 Joint Declaration of the Denuclearization of the Korean Peninsula should be observed and implemented.\n* The DPRK stated that it has the right to peaceful uses of nuclear energy.\n* The other parties expressed their respect and agreed to discuss, at an appropriate time, the subject of the provision of light water reactor to the DPRK.\n* The DPRK and the United States undertook to respect each other's sovereignty, exist peacefully together, and take steps to normalize their relations subject to their respective bilateral policies.\n* China, Japan, ROK, Russia and the US stated their willingness to provide energy assistance to the DPRK.\n* The directly related parties will negotiate a permanent peace regime on the Korean Peninsula at an appropriate separate forum.\n* The Six Parties agreed to take coordinated steps to implement the afore\\-mentioned consensus in a phased manner in line with the principle of \"commitment for commitment, action for action\".",
"Through these top diplomatic assignments and achievements, Song made a lasting impact on the furtherance of Korean diplomacy and the international effort to denuclearize North Korea.",
""
] |
Episcopate
----------
### Consecration
In 1956, both [Metropolitan James II of Jerusalem](/wiki/James_II_%28Coptic_archbishop_of_Jerusalem%29 "James II (Coptic archbishop of Jerusalem)") and [Pope Joseph II of Alexandria](/wiki/Pope_Joseph_II_of_Alexandria "Pope Joseph II of Alexandria"), died. Thus, both the [See of Jerusalem](/wiki/Coptic_Orthodox_Archdiocese_of_Jerusalem "Coptic Orthodox Archdiocese of Jerusalem"), and the [See of Alexandria](/wiki/Patriarch_of_Alexandria "Patriarch of Alexandria") would remain vacant from 1956 to 1959\. Upon his enthronement on May 10, 1959, [Pope Cyril VI of Alexandria](/wiki/Pope_Cyril_VI_of_Alexandria "Pope Cyril VI of Alexandria") made it his top priority to consecrate a bishop for Jerusalem, seeing that three years was a long time for such an important See, held second only to the See of Alexandria in the Coptic tradition, to remain empty. After discussing the possible candidates for the position, Pope Cyril VI, and the [Holy Synod](/wiki/Holy_Synod_of_the_Coptic_Orthodox_Church "Holy Synod of the Coptic Orthodox Church"), came to the final decision of appointing Hegumen Monk Cyril of Saint Anthony, due to his immense qualifications.
Upon hearing news of this decision, and feeling himself unworthy of the Episcopate, he escaped and hid himself seeking to escape the appointment. The Bishops and Metropolitans, however, continued to seek him, and of those who were personally acquainted with him, some wrote to him words of encouragement. Eventually he relented and accepted the will of the Pope and Holy Synod.
On June 7, 1959, he was consecrated as Bail IV, [Metropolitan of Jerusalem and Archbishop of all Palestine, Philadelphia of Jordan, and all the Near East](/wiki/Coptic_Orthodox_Archdiocese_of_Jerusalem "Coptic Orthodox Archdiocese of Jerusalem"), by the hands of Pope Cyril VI and the Bishops and Metropolitans of the Holy Synod. He was the first Bishop to be consecrated by the then newly appointed Patriarch, Pope Cyril VI.
### Service
During his reign, communities of Coptic expatriates began popping up in the newly developing countries of the [Arabian Gulf](/wiki/Persian_Gulf "Persian Gulf"), such as the United Arab Emirates, Qatar, and Kuwait. These communities required a lot of care and attention and there was no church infrastructure to support them within these countries, as Coptic communities had never been present there before that time. Thus, he spent much effort during his reign establishing new churches and monasteries to serve these new communities.
He also constructed the Monastery of the Virgin Mary in Bethlehem, and also revived the service of the Antonine College, and the [Saint Demiana](/wiki/Demiana "Demiana") College. He also put much effort into the restoration of the Coptic possessions in and around Jerusalem, and the Holy Land.
### [Deir al\-Sultan](/wiki/Deir_es-Sultan "Deir es-Sultan") Conflict
During the [Easter Vigil](/wiki/Easter_Vigil "Easter Vigil") in the Church of the Holy Sepulcher on April 25, 1970, the Israeli government sent military forces to change the locks of the monastery to enable the Ethiopian monks to take control of it. Afterwards, the [Israeli Supreme Court](/wiki/Israeli_Supreme_Court "Israeli Supreme Court") unanimously approved the restoration of the monastery to the Copts on March 16, 1971, yet the Israeli government refused to implement the Supreme Court ruling.{{Cite web\|date\=2018\-12\-06\|title\=Deir Es\-Sultan Monastery's mediation by Greek Church unsuccessful: Egypt Pope\|url\=https://egyptindependent.com/deir\-es\-sultan\-monasterys\-mediation\-by\-greek\-church\-unsuccessful\-egypt\-pope/\|access\-date\=2021\-06\-18\|website\=Egypt Independent\|language\=en\-US}}
Metropolitan Basil, put much time and effort during his time to try and resolve this issue, however it has yet to be resolved.
|
[
"Episcopate\n----------",
"### Consecration",
"In 1956, both [Metropolitan James II of Jerusalem](/wiki/James_II_%28Coptic_archbishop_of_Jerusalem%29 \"James II (Coptic archbishop of Jerusalem)\") and [Pope Joseph II of Alexandria](/wiki/Pope_Joseph_II_of_Alexandria \"Pope Joseph II of Alexandria\"), died. Thus, both the [See of Jerusalem](/wiki/Coptic_Orthodox_Archdiocese_of_Jerusalem \"Coptic Orthodox Archdiocese of Jerusalem\"), and the [See of Alexandria](/wiki/Patriarch_of_Alexandria \"Patriarch of Alexandria\") would remain vacant from 1956 to 1959\\. Upon his enthronement on May 10, 1959, [Pope Cyril VI of Alexandria](/wiki/Pope_Cyril_VI_of_Alexandria \"Pope Cyril VI of Alexandria\") made it his top priority to consecrate a bishop for Jerusalem, seeing that three years was a long time for such an important See, held second only to the See of Alexandria in the Coptic tradition, to remain empty. After discussing the possible candidates for the position, Pope Cyril VI, and the [Holy Synod](/wiki/Holy_Synod_of_the_Coptic_Orthodox_Church \"Holy Synod of the Coptic Orthodox Church\"), came to the final decision of appointing Hegumen Monk Cyril of Saint Anthony, due to his immense qualifications.",
"Upon hearing news of this decision, and feeling himself unworthy of the Episcopate, he escaped and hid himself seeking to escape the appointment. The Bishops and Metropolitans, however, continued to seek him, and of those who were personally acquainted with him, some wrote to him words of encouragement. Eventually he relented and accepted the will of the Pope and Holy Synod.",
"On June 7, 1959, he was consecrated as Bail IV, [Metropolitan of Jerusalem and Archbishop of all Palestine, Philadelphia of Jordan, and all the Near East](/wiki/Coptic_Orthodox_Archdiocese_of_Jerusalem \"Coptic Orthodox Archdiocese of Jerusalem\"), by the hands of Pope Cyril VI and the Bishops and Metropolitans of the Holy Synod. He was the first Bishop to be consecrated by the then newly appointed Patriarch, Pope Cyril VI.",
"### Service",
"During his reign, communities of Coptic expatriates began popping up in the newly developing countries of the [Arabian Gulf](/wiki/Persian_Gulf \"Persian Gulf\"), such as the United Arab Emirates, Qatar, and Kuwait. These communities required a lot of care and attention and there was no church infrastructure to support them within these countries, as Coptic communities had never been present there before that time. Thus, he spent much effort during his reign establishing new churches and monasteries to serve these new communities.",
"He also constructed the Monastery of the Virgin Mary in Bethlehem, and also revived the service of the Antonine College, and the [Saint Demiana](/wiki/Demiana \"Demiana\") College. He also put much effort into the restoration of the Coptic possessions in and around Jerusalem, and the Holy Land.",
"### [Deir al\\-Sultan](/wiki/Deir_es-Sultan \"Deir es-Sultan\") Conflict",
"During the [Easter Vigil](/wiki/Easter_Vigil \"Easter Vigil\") in the Church of the Holy Sepulcher on April 25, 1970, the Israeli government sent military forces to change the locks of the monastery to enable the Ethiopian monks to take control of it. Afterwards, the [Israeli Supreme Court](/wiki/Israeli_Supreme_Court \"Israeli Supreme Court\") unanimously approved the restoration of the monastery to the Copts on March 16, 1971, yet the Israeli government refused to implement the Supreme Court ruling.{{Cite web\\|date\\=2018\\-12\\-06\\|title\\=Deir Es\\-Sultan Monastery's mediation by Greek Church unsuccessful: Egypt Pope\\|url\\=https://egyptindependent.com/deir\\-es\\-sultan\\-monasterys\\-mediation\\-by\\-greek\\-church\\-unsuccessful\\-egypt\\-pope/\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-06\\-18\\|website\\=Egypt Independent\\|language\\=en\\-US}}",
"Metropolitan Basil, put much time and effort during his time to try and resolve this issue, however it has yet to be resolved.",
""
] |
Plot
----
Homer Wells grows up at St. Cloud's, a Maine orphanage directed by avuncular Dr. Wilbur Larch. Homer is returned to St. Cloud's twice by [foster parents](/wiki/Foster_care "Foster care"). The first family felt Homer was too quiet (due to orphanage babies soon learning that crying is pointless). The second beat him. Dr. Larch is addicted to [ether](/wiki/Diethyl_ether "Diethyl ether"), and he secretly performs abortions. Conditions at the orphanage are sparse, but the children have love and respect, and they are like an extended family. Older children, such as Buster, look out for the younger children, and in particular care for those who are sickly, including Fuzzy Stone, who was born [prematurely](/wiki/Premature_birth "Premature birth") to an alcoholic mother. Fuzzy suffers from respiratory disease and thus spends most of his time beneath a plastic tent ventilated with a breathing apparatus. Each night before sleeping, Dr. Larch says to the children "Good night, you Princes of Maine! You Kings of New England!" as both an encouragement and a kind of blessing.
Homer, the oldest of the orphans, is very bright, helpful and even\-tempered, so Larch trains him in [obstetrics](/wiki/Obstetrics "Obstetrics") and abortions as an apprentice despite Homer's never having attended high school. Homer disapproves of abortions, and although Larch has trained him, Homer refuses to perform them. After several years, Homer is very skillful and confident in performing obstetrical duties. Larch wants Homer to take over after Larch retires, but Homer feels it's impossible, as he lacks formal medical education and he wants to see the outside world beyond the orphanage. Dr. Larch performs an abortion on Candy Kendall, who came to the clinic with her boyfriend, Wally Worthington, for an abortion. Wally is a pilot on leave from the service. Wally's mother, Olive, owns the Worthington family apple orchard where Homer settles as a worker. He lives on the Worthington estate in Cider House, the bunkhouse. Wally returns to World War II. Homer is exempt from this as Dr. Larch has diagnosed him with a heart condition.
While Wally is away, Candy starts flirting with Homer, and they have an affair. Homer picks apples with Arthur Rose's team of migrant workers whom the Worthingtons employ seasonally at the orchard. A list of rules for its occupants is posted in the Cider House, but as the migrant workers are illiterate, they have never known what the rules are. When Homer reads them the list, the workers observe the rules have been made without the occupants' consent by people who do not live there and do not share their problems. Consequently, they feel they can ignore the rules. Homer and Candy become much closer during harvest and spend more time together while Wally is fighting in Burma.
At St. Cloud's, Fuzzy Stone succumbs to his illness while watching a private screening of *[King Kong](/wiki/King_Kong_%281933_film%29 "King Kong (1933 film)")* with Dr. Larch. Larch, Buster and the staff conceal Fuzzy's death from the other orphans by telling them that Fuzzy was adopted. Even so, the loss hits everyone hard, Larch most of all.
After Arthur and his team return to the orchard the following season, Homer discovers that Rose, Arthur's daughter, is pregnant. Candy learns that the baby's father is Arthur. Homer decides to abort Rose's baby with Arthur's assistance. A few days later, Rose tries to run away. When Arthur tries to say goodbye to her, she stabs him and flees. He then makes the injury worse, and as a last request, asks Homer and another worker to tell the police his death was a suicide.
Wally returns from Burma a paraplegic. Although Candy loves Homer, she decides to take care of Wally. Immediately after this, Homer learns Dr. Larch has died from an accidental overdose of ether. Homer decides he is most needed back at the orphanage. When he returns, he is greeted joyously by both the children and staff. He learns that not only did Larch fake Homer's medical record to keep him out of the war, but he also faked college credentials and used [reverse psychology](/wiki/Reverse_psychology "Reverse psychology") to convince the orphanage board to appoint Homer as the next director. Homer fills the paternal role that Larch previously held for the children of the orphanage, telling them, "Good night, you Princes of Maine! You Kings of New England!"
|
[
"Plot\n----",
"Homer Wells grows up at St. Cloud's, a Maine orphanage directed by avuncular Dr. Wilbur Larch. Homer is returned to St. Cloud's twice by [foster parents](/wiki/Foster_care \"Foster care\"). The first family felt Homer was too quiet (due to orphanage babies soon learning that crying is pointless). The second beat him. Dr. Larch is addicted to [ether](/wiki/Diethyl_ether \"Diethyl ether\"), and he secretly performs abortions. Conditions at the orphanage are sparse, but the children have love and respect, and they are like an extended family. Older children, such as Buster, look out for the younger children, and in particular care for those who are sickly, including Fuzzy Stone, who was born [prematurely](/wiki/Premature_birth \"Premature birth\") to an alcoholic mother. Fuzzy suffers from respiratory disease and thus spends most of his time beneath a plastic tent ventilated with a breathing apparatus. Each night before sleeping, Dr. Larch says to the children \"Good night, you Princes of Maine! You Kings of New England!\" as both an encouragement and a kind of blessing.",
"Homer, the oldest of the orphans, is very bright, helpful and even\\-tempered, so Larch trains him in [obstetrics](/wiki/Obstetrics \"Obstetrics\") and abortions as an apprentice despite Homer's never having attended high school. Homer disapproves of abortions, and although Larch has trained him, Homer refuses to perform them. After several years, Homer is very skillful and confident in performing obstetrical duties. Larch wants Homer to take over after Larch retires, but Homer feels it's impossible, as he lacks formal medical education and he wants to see the outside world beyond the orphanage. Dr. Larch performs an abortion on Candy Kendall, who came to the clinic with her boyfriend, Wally Worthington, for an abortion. Wally is a pilot on leave from the service. Wally's mother, Olive, owns the Worthington family apple orchard where Homer settles as a worker. He lives on the Worthington estate in Cider House, the bunkhouse. Wally returns to World War II. Homer is exempt from this as Dr. Larch has diagnosed him with a heart condition.",
"While Wally is away, Candy starts flirting with Homer, and they have an affair. Homer picks apples with Arthur Rose's team of migrant workers whom the Worthingtons employ seasonally at the orchard. A list of rules for its occupants is posted in the Cider House, but as the migrant workers are illiterate, they have never known what the rules are. When Homer reads them the list, the workers observe the rules have been made without the occupants' consent by people who do not live there and do not share their problems. Consequently, they feel they can ignore the rules. Homer and Candy become much closer during harvest and spend more time together while Wally is fighting in Burma.",
"At St. Cloud's, Fuzzy Stone succumbs to his illness while watching a private screening of *[King Kong](/wiki/King_Kong_%281933_film%29 \"King Kong (1933 film)\")* with Dr. Larch. Larch, Buster and the staff conceal Fuzzy's death from the other orphans by telling them that Fuzzy was adopted. Even so, the loss hits everyone hard, Larch most of all.",
"After Arthur and his team return to the orchard the following season, Homer discovers that Rose, Arthur's daughter, is pregnant. Candy learns that the baby's father is Arthur. Homer decides to abort Rose's baby with Arthur's assistance. A few days later, Rose tries to run away. When Arthur tries to say goodbye to her, she stabs him and flees. He then makes the injury worse, and as a last request, asks Homer and another worker to tell the police his death was a suicide.",
"Wally returns from Burma a paraplegic. Although Candy loves Homer, she decides to take care of Wally. Immediately after this, Homer learns Dr. Larch has died from an accidental overdose of ether. Homer decides he is most needed back at the orphanage. When he returns, he is greeted joyously by both the children and staff. He learns that not only did Larch fake Homer's medical record to keep him out of the war, but he also faked college credentials and used [reverse psychology](/wiki/Reverse_psychology \"Reverse psychology\") to convince the orphanage board to appoint Homer as the next director. Homer fills the paternal role that Larch previously held for the children of the orphanage, telling them, \"Good night, you Princes of Maine! You Kings of New England!\"",
""
] |
Biography
---------
Wright was an assistant city attorney before defeating incumbent Mayor Bill McCormick in 1983\. At the time of his election, Wright was 34 years old."Topeka Elects New Mayor," Lawrence Journal World, April 6, 1983\. Available online at \[Lawrence Journal World\|[https://news.google.com/newspapers?id\=W5oyAAAAIBAJ\&sjid\=lugFAAAAIBAJ\&pg\=5993,1131055\&dq\=douglas\+wright\+and\+topeka\+mayor\&hl\=en](https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=W5oyAAAAIBAJ&sjid=lugFAAAAIBAJ&pg=5993,1131055&dq=douglas+wright+and+topeka+mayor&hl=en)] He served as mayor from 1983 to 1989 and is remembered as an effective, hard working and aggressive mayor. He was a driving force behind the development of [Heartland Park Topeka](/wiki/Heartland_Park_Topeka "Heartland Park Topeka"), the [Kansas Expo Center](/wiki/Kansas_Expo_Center "Kansas Expo Center"), the [Topeka Performing Arts Center](https://web.archive.org/web/20100819071753/http://tpactix.org/history.html) and Westridge Mall. He served as a member of the Board of Directors of the National League of Cities and as President of the Governing Body of the League of Kansas Municipalities.
In 1984, Wright welcomed the Olympic Torch to the city running one kilometer with it as it made its way to Los Angeles."Crowd cheers Olympic Torch Bearers," The Courier, June 10, 1984, available at [https://news.google.com/newspapers?id\=ONoKAAAAIBAJ\&sjid\=R08DAAAAIBAJ\&pg\=6904,1844916\&dq\=douglas\+wright\+and\+topeka\+mayor\&hl\=en](https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=ONoKAAAAIBAJ&sjid=R08DAAAAIBAJ&pg=6904,1844916&dq=douglas+wright+and+topeka+mayor&hl=en) In 1985, the city changed its form of government from a city commission to a city council form of government. That same year, he was re\-elected to the mayor's office. Wright attempted to lure the [Kansas City Sizzlers](/wiki/Continental_Basketball_Association "Continental Basketball Association") to Topeka in 1986\."Sizzlers opt to stay in KC," The Nevada Daily Mail, March 11, 1986, available at [https://news.google.com/newspapers?id\=c\_AhAAAAIBAJ\&sjid\=ddUEAAAAIBAJ\&pg\=1486,5320370\&dq\=douglas\+wright\+and\+topeka\+mayor\&hl\=en](https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=c_AhAAAAIBAJ&sjid=ddUEAAAAIBAJ&pg=1486,5320370&dq=douglas+wright+and+topeka+mayor&hl=en) He led the effort to return a two\-hundred\-year\-old bell looted from a Buddhist temple during the American occupation of Japan following World War II."Zen Group, Topeka mayor make progress in effort to return bell," Lawrence Journal World, May 7, 1988, available at [https://news.google.com/newspapers?id\=ktMzAAAAIBAJ\&sjid\=cuYFAAAAIBAJ\&pg\=3755,1725507\&dq\=douglas\+wright\+and\+topeka\+mayor\&hl\=en](https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=ktMzAAAAIBAJ&sjid=cuYFAAAAIBAJ&pg=3755,1725507&dq=douglas+wright+and+topeka+mayor&hl=en) He also oversaw recovery efforts after a 1988 tornado that destroyed more than 20 homes and damaged 15 businesses."Tornadoes leave seven dead,"The Prescot Courier, November 16, 1988\. Available at [https://news.google.com/newspapers?id\=j5AOAAAAIBAJ\&sjid\=koEDAAAAIBAJ\&pg\=5201,4341365\&dq\=doug\+wright\+and\+topeka\+mayor\&hl\=en](https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=j5AOAAAAIBAJ&sjid=koEDAAAAIBAJ&pg=5201,4341365&dq=doug+wright+and+topeka+mayor&hl=en){{Dead link\|date\=February 2024 \|bot\=InternetArchiveBot \|fix\-attempted\=yes }}
Wright lost his re\-election bid in 1989 to former Parks Commissioner [Harry “Butch” Felker III](/wiki/Butch_Felker "Butch Felker") by about 5,000 votes."Voters in Topeka oust Wright as mayor," Lawrence Journal World, April 5, 1989, available at [https://news.google.com/newspapers?id\=jE4yAAAAIBAJ\&sjid\=W\-YFAAAAIBAJ\&pg\=5220,1156132\&dq\=doug\+wright\+and\+topeka\+mayor\&hl\=en](https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=jE4yAAAAIBAJ&sjid=W-YFAAAAIBAJ&pg=5220,1156132&dq=doug+wright+and+topeka+mayor&hl=en)
During the 1980s and 1990s, Wright rebuffed overtures from Republican officials to run for Congress against [Jim Slattery](/wiki/Jim_Slattery "Jim Slattery")."Local men mentioned as congressional possibilities," Lawrence Journal World, January 27, 1989, available at [https://news.google.com/newspapers?id\=xDEyAAAAIBAJ\&sjid\=DeYFAAAAIBAJ\&pg\=1812,5235460\&dq\=doug\-wright\+and\+topeka\&hl\=en](https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=xDEyAAAAIBAJ&sjid=DeYFAAAAIBAJ&pg=1812,5235460&dq=doug-wright+and+topeka&hl=en) Slattery and Wright were fraternity brothers at Washburn. After the seat became open with the election of [Sam Brownback](/wiki/Sam_Brownback "Sam Brownback") to the U.S. Senate, in 1996, Wright sought the Republican nomination for the 2nd District congressional seat."Former Mayor Makes House Bid," Lawrence Journal World, June 7, 1996\. Available online at \[Lawrence Journal archives\|[https://news.google.com/newspapers?id\=wZUyAAAAIBAJ\&sjid\=GOcFAAAAIBAJ\&pg\=6480,3982663\&dq\=doug\+wright\+and\+topeka\+mayor\&hl\=en](https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=wZUyAAAAIBAJ&sjid=GOcFAAAAIBAJ&pg=6480,3982663&dq=doug+wright+and+topeka+mayor&hl=en)] He finished second in the primary to eventual winner [Jim Ryun](/wiki/Jim_Ryun "Jim Ryun").
Throughout the 1990s, Wright practiced law. He was also the chairman of Myriad Development Corporation which attempted to build an 8,000 seat arena in [Olathe, Kansas](/wiki/Olathe%2C_Kansas "Olathe, Kansas"). Myriad sought about $20 million in state tax incentives but was unsuccessful. Myriad’s CEO was Greg Bair.
### Teaching
After serving his sentence, he worked as a car salesman before earning a teaching certificate from [Washburn University](/wiki/Washburn_University "Washburn University"). He then completed a student teaching rotation at Highland Park High School in Topeka.
In May 2009, a committee of the Kansas Board of Education denied Wright’s application for a teaching license. Wright filed suit and a Judge Larry Hendricks ordered the Board to reconsider its decision. In December 2009, the Kansas Board of Education in a 6\-4 vote upheld its decision to bar Wright from obtaining a Kansas teaching license. The Board’s decision came despite support from several including Dale Cushinberry, principal at Highland Park where Wright completed his student teaching, Matthew Herbert, the teacher who supervised his student teaching and would later go on to serve on the Lawrence City Commission and several of the professors who taught Wright when he earned his teaching certificate.
According to press reports, "The requirements to obtain a teaching license for a person with a criminal past include waiting at least five years since the conviction, finishing any probationary period and presenting evidence of rehabilitation." The Kansas Board gave no explanation of its decision.
|
[
"Biography\n---------",
"Wright was an assistant city attorney before defeating incumbent Mayor Bill McCormick in 1983\\. At the time of his election, Wright was 34 years old.\"Topeka Elects New Mayor,\" Lawrence Journal World, April 6, 1983\\. Available online at \\[Lawrence Journal World\\|[https://news.google.com/newspapers?id\\=W5oyAAAAIBAJ\\&sjid\\=lugFAAAAIBAJ\\&pg\\=5993,1131055\\&dq\\=douglas\\+wright\\+and\\+topeka\\+mayor\\&hl\\=en](https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=W5oyAAAAIBAJ&sjid=lugFAAAAIBAJ&pg=5993,1131055&dq=douglas+wright+and+topeka+mayor&hl=en)] He served as mayor from 1983 to 1989 and is remembered as an effective, hard working and aggressive mayor. He was a driving force behind the development of [Heartland Park Topeka](/wiki/Heartland_Park_Topeka \"Heartland Park Topeka\"), the [Kansas Expo Center](/wiki/Kansas_Expo_Center \"Kansas Expo Center\"), the [Topeka Performing Arts Center](https://web.archive.org/web/20100819071753/http://tpactix.org/history.html) and Westridge Mall. He served as a member of the Board of Directors of the National League of Cities and as President of the Governing Body of the League of Kansas Municipalities.",
"In 1984, Wright welcomed the Olympic Torch to the city running one kilometer with it as it made its way to Los Angeles.\"Crowd cheers Olympic Torch Bearers,\" The Courier, June 10, 1984, available at [https://news.google.com/newspapers?id\\=ONoKAAAAIBAJ\\&sjid\\=R08DAAAAIBAJ\\&pg\\=6904,1844916\\&dq\\=douglas\\+wright\\+and\\+topeka\\+mayor\\&hl\\=en](https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=ONoKAAAAIBAJ&sjid=R08DAAAAIBAJ&pg=6904,1844916&dq=douglas+wright+and+topeka+mayor&hl=en) In 1985, the city changed its form of government from a city commission to a city council form of government. That same year, he was re\\-elected to the mayor's office. Wright attempted to lure the [Kansas City Sizzlers](/wiki/Continental_Basketball_Association \"Continental Basketball Association\") to Topeka in 1986\\.\"Sizzlers opt to stay in KC,\" The Nevada Daily Mail, March 11, 1986, available at [https://news.google.com/newspapers?id\\=c\\_AhAAAAIBAJ\\&sjid\\=ddUEAAAAIBAJ\\&pg\\=1486,5320370\\&dq\\=douglas\\+wright\\+and\\+topeka\\+mayor\\&hl\\=en](https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=c_AhAAAAIBAJ&sjid=ddUEAAAAIBAJ&pg=1486,5320370&dq=douglas+wright+and+topeka+mayor&hl=en) He led the effort to return a two\\-hundred\\-year\\-old bell looted from a Buddhist temple during the American occupation of Japan following World War II.\"Zen Group, Topeka mayor make progress in effort to return bell,\" Lawrence Journal World, May 7, 1988, available at [https://news.google.com/newspapers?id\\=ktMzAAAAIBAJ\\&sjid\\=cuYFAAAAIBAJ\\&pg\\=3755,1725507\\&dq\\=douglas\\+wright\\+and\\+topeka\\+mayor\\&hl\\=en](https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=ktMzAAAAIBAJ&sjid=cuYFAAAAIBAJ&pg=3755,1725507&dq=douglas+wright+and+topeka+mayor&hl=en) He also oversaw recovery efforts after a 1988 tornado that destroyed more than 20 homes and damaged 15 businesses.\"Tornadoes leave seven dead,\"The Prescot Courier, November 16, 1988\\. Available at [https://news.google.com/newspapers?id\\=j5AOAAAAIBAJ\\&sjid\\=koEDAAAAIBAJ\\&pg\\=5201,4341365\\&dq\\=doug\\+wright\\+and\\+topeka\\+mayor\\&hl\\=en](https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=j5AOAAAAIBAJ&sjid=koEDAAAAIBAJ&pg=5201,4341365&dq=doug+wright+and+topeka+mayor&hl=en){{Dead link\\|date\\=February 2024 \\|bot\\=InternetArchiveBot \\|fix\\-attempted\\=yes }}",
"Wright lost his re\\-election bid in 1989 to former Parks Commissioner [Harry “Butch” Felker III](/wiki/Butch_Felker \"Butch Felker\") by about 5,000 votes.\"Voters in Topeka oust Wright as mayor,\" Lawrence Journal World, April 5, 1989, available at [https://news.google.com/newspapers?id\\=jE4yAAAAIBAJ\\&sjid\\=W\\-YFAAAAIBAJ\\&pg\\=5220,1156132\\&dq\\=doug\\+wright\\+and\\+topeka\\+mayor\\&hl\\=en](https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=jE4yAAAAIBAJ&sjid=W-YFAAAAIBAJ&pg=5220,1156132&dq=doug+wright+and+topeka+mayor&hl=en)",
"During the 1980s and 1990s, Wright rebuffed overtures from Republican officials to run for Congress against [Jim Slattery](/wiki/Jim_Slattery \"Jim Slattery\").\"Local men mentioned as congressional possibilities,\" Lawrence Journal World, January 27, 1989, available at [https://news.google.com/newspapers?id\\=xDEyAAAAIBAJ\\&sjid\\=DeYFAAAAIBAJ\\&pg\\=1812,5235460\\&dq\\=doug\\-wright\\+and\\+topeka\\&hl\\=en](https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=xDEyAAAAIBAJ&sjid=DeYFAAAAIBAJ&pg=1812,5235460&dq=doug-wright+and+topeka&hl=en) Slattery and Wright were fraternity brothers at Washburn. After the seat became open with the election of [Sam Brownback](/wiki/Sam_Brownback \"Sam Brownback\") to the U.S. Senate, in 1996, Wright sought the Republican nomination for the 2nd District congressional seat.\"Former Mayor Makes House Bid,\" Lawrence Journal World, June 7, 1996\\. Available online at \\[Lawrence Journal archives\\|[https://news.google.com/newspapers?id\\=wZUyAAAAIBAJ\\&sjid\\=GOcFAAAAIBAJ\\&pg\\=6480,3982663\\&dq\\=doug\\+wright\\+and\\+topeka\\+mayor\\&hl\\=en](https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=wZUyAAAAIBAJ&sjid=GOcFAAAAIBAJ&pg=6480,3982663&dq=doug+wright+and+topeka+mayor&hl=en)] He finished second in the primary to eventual winner [Jim Ryun](/wiki/Jim_Ryun \"Jim Ryun\").",
"Throughout the 1990s, Wright practiced law. He was also the chairman of Myriad Development Corporation which attempted to build an 8,000 seat arena in [Olathe, Kansas](/wiki/Olathe%2C_Kansas \"Olathe, Kansas\"). Myriad sought about $20 million in state tax incentives but was unsuccessful. Myriad’s CEO was Greg Bair.",
"### Teaching",
"After serving his sentence, he worked as a car salesman before earning a teaching certificate from [Washburn University](/wiki/Washburn_University \"Washburn University\"). He then completed a student teaching rotation at Highland Park High School in Topeka.",
"In May 2009, a committee of the Kansas Board of Education denied Wright’s application for a teaching license. Wright filed suit and a Judge Larry Hendricks ordered the Board to reconsider its decision. In December 2009, the Kansas Board of Education in a 6\\-4 vote upheld its decision to bar Wright from obtaining a Kansas teaching license. The Board’s decision came despite support from several including Dale Cushinberry, principal at Highland Park where Wright completed his student teaching, Matthew Herbert, the teacher who supervised his student teaching and would later go on to serve on the Lawrence City Commission and several of the professors who taught Wright when he earned his teaching certificate.",
"According to press reports, \"The requirements to obtain a teaching license for a person with a criminal past include waiting at least five years since the conviction, finishing any probationary period and presenting evidence of rehabilitation.\" The Kansas Board gave no explanation of its decision.",
""
] |
Practical efforts
-----------------
{{main\|Cloak of invisibility}}
Technology can be used theoretically or practically to render real\-world objects invisible.
Making use of a real\-time image displayed on a wearable display, it is possible to create a see\-through effect. This is known as [active camouflage](/wiki/Active_camouflage "Active camouflage"). Though [stealth technology](/wiki/Stealth_technology "Stealth technology") is declared to be invisible to [radar](/wiki/Radar "Radar"), all officially disclosed applications of the technology can only *reduce* the size and/or clarity of the signature detected by radar.
In 2003 the Chilean scientist [Gunther Uhlmann](/wiki/Gunther_Uhlmann "Gunther Uhlmann") postulates the first mathematical equations to create invisible materials.{{cite web \|last\=Alonso \|first\=N. \|url\=http://www.quepasa.cl/articulo/ciencia/2013/03/3\-11386\-9\-un\-genio\-invisible.shtml/ \|title\=Un genio invisible \|language\=es \|trans\-title\=An invisible genius \|website\=Qué Pasa \|date\=March 21, 2013}}{{better source needed \|date\=March 2020 \|reason\=Secondary source would be better}}
In 2006, a team effort of researchers from Britain and the US announced the development of a real [cloak of invisibility](/wiki/Cloak_of_invisibility%23Cloaks_of_invisibility_in_science "Cloak of invisibility#Cloaks of invisibility in science"), an artificially made [meta material](/wiki/Meta_material "Meta material") that is invisible to the microwave spectrum, though it is only in its first stages.{{cite web \|url\=https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna15329396 \|title\=Cloak of invisibility: Fact or fiction? \|website\=NBC News }}
In [filmmaking](/wiki/Filmmaking "Filmmaking"), people, objects, or backgrounds can be made to look invisible on camera through a process known as [chroma keying](/wiki/Chroma_key "Chroma key").
Engineers and scientists have performed various kinds of research to investigate the possibility of finding ways to create real optical invisibility (cloaks) for objects. Methods are typically based on implementing the theoretical techniques of [transformation optics](/wiki/Transformation_optics "Transformation optics"), which have given rise to several [theories of cloaking](/wiki/Theories_of_cloaking "Theories of cloaking").
Currently, a practical cloaking device does not exist.{{cite journal \|author1\-link\=Adrian Nachman \| last \= Nachman \| first \= Adrian I. \|date\=November 1988 \| title \= Reconstructions From Boundary Measurements \| journal \= Annals of Mathematics \| volume \= 128 \| issue \= 3 \| pages \= 531–576 \| doi \= 10\.2307/1971435 \| jstor \= 1971435 }}{{cite journal \| last \= Wolf \| first \= Emil \|author2\=Tarek Habashy \|date\=May 1993 \| title \= Invisible Bodies and Uniqueness of the Inverse Scattering Problem \| journal \= Journal of Modern Optics \| volume \= 40 \| issue \= 5 \| pages \= 785–792 \| doi \= 10\.1080/09500349314550821\|bibcode \= 1993JMOp...40\..785W }} A 2006 theoretical work predicts that the imperfections are minor, and [metamaterials](/wiki/Metamaterial "Metamaterial") may make real\-life "cloaking devices" practical.{{cite journal \| last \= Pendry \| first \= J. B. \|author2\=D. Schurig \|author3\=D. R. Smith \|date\=June 2006 \| title \= Controlling Electromagnetic Fields \| journal \= Science \| volume \= 312 \| pages \= 1780–1782 \| doi \= 10\.1126/science.1125907 \| pmid \= 16728597 \| issue \= 5781 \| bibcode\=2006Sci...312\.1780P\| s2cid \= 7967675 \| doi\-access \= free }}{{cite journal \| last \= Leonhardt \| first \= Ulf \|date\=June 2006 \| title \= Optical Conformal Mapping \| journal \= Science \| volume \= 312 \| pages \= 1777–1780 \| doi \= 10\.1126/science.1126493 \| pmid \= 16728596 \| issue \= 5781 \| bibcode\=2006Sci...312\.1777L\| s2cid \= 8334444 \| doi\-access \= free }} The technique is predicted to be applied to [radio waves](/wiki/Radio_frequency "Radio frequency") within five years, and the distortion of visible light is an eventual possibility. The theory that light waves can be acted upon the same way as radio waves is now a popular idea among scientists. The agent can be compared to a stone in a river, around which water passes, but slightly down\-stream leaves no trace of the stone. Comparing light waves to the water, and whatever object that is being "cloaked" to the stone, the goal is to have light waves pass around that object, leaving no visible aspects of it, possibly not even a shadow.{{cite news \| first \= Adrian \| last \= Cho \| url \= http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/summary/312/5777/1120a \| title \= High\-Tech Materials Could Render Objects Invisible \| work \= Science \| page \= 1120 \|date\=2006\-05\-26 \| access\-date \= 2006\-08\-01}} This is the technique depicted in the 2000 television portrayal of [The Invisible Man](/wiki/The_Invisible_Man_%282000_TV_series%29 "The Invisible Man (2000 TV series)").
Two teams of scientists worked separately to create two "Invisibility Cloaks" from '[metamaterials](/wiki/Metamaterials "Metamaterials")' engineered at the [nanoscale](/wiki/Nanoscopic_scale "Nanoscopic scale") level. They demonstrated for the first time the possibility of cloaking three\-dimensional (3\-D) objects with artificially engineered materials that redirect radar, light or other waves around an object. While one uses a type of fishnet of metal layers to reverse the direction of light, the other uses tiny silver wires. Xiang Zhang, of the [University of California](/wiki/University_of_California "University of California"), [Berkeley](/wiki/Berkeley%2C_California "Berkeley, California") said: "In the case of invisibility cloaks or shields, the material would need to curve light waves completely around the object like a river flowing around a rock. An observer looking at the cloaked object would then see light from behind it, making it seem to disappear."
[UC Berkeley](/wiki/UC_Berkeley "UC Berkeley") researcher Jason Valentine's team made a material that affects light near the visible spectrum, in a region used in fibre optics: 'Instead of the fish appearing to be slightly ahead of where it is in the water, it would actually appear to be above the water's surface. For a metamaterial to produce negative refraction, it must have a structural array smaller than the wavelength of the electromagnetic radiation being used." Valentine's team created their 'fishnet' material by stacking silver and metal dielectric layers on top of each other and then punching holes through them. The other team used an oxide template and grew silver nanowires inside porous aluminum oxide at tiny distances apart, smaller than the wavelength of visible light. This material refracts visible light.
The [Imperial College London](/wiki/Imperial_College_London "Imperial College London") research team achieved results with [microwaves](/wiki/Microwaves "Microwaves"). An invisibility cloak layout of a copper cylinder was produced in May, 2008, by physicist Professor Sir [John Pendry](/wiki/John_Pendry "John Pendry"). Scientists working with him at [Duke University](/wiki/Duke_University "Duke University") in the US put the idea into practice.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.themoneytimes.com/articles/20080811/scientists\_turn\_fiction\_into\_reality\_closer\_to\_make\_objects\_invisible\-id\-1032139\.html \|website\=themoneytimes.com \|title\=Scientists Turn Fiction Into Reality, Closer to Make Objects "Invisible" \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080816035413/http://www.themoneytimes.com/articles/20080811/scientists\_turn\_fiction\_into\_reality\_closer\_to\_make\_objects\_invisible\-id\-1032139\.html \|archive\-date\=2008\-08\-16 }}{{cite web \|url\=https://www.mirror.co.uk/news/top\-stories/2008/08/11/secrets\-of\-invisibility\-discovered\-115875\-20692852/ \|website\=mirror.co.uk \|title\=Secrets of invisibility discovered\|date\=10 August 2008 }}
Pendry, who theorized the invisibility cloak "as a joke" to illustrate the potential of metamaterials, said in an interview in August 2011 that grand, theatrical manifestations of his idea are probably overblown: "I think it’s pretty sure that any cloak that Harry Potter would recognize is not on the table. You could dream up some theory, but the very practicality of making it would be so impossible. But can you hide things from light? Yes. Can you hide things which are a few centimeters across? Yes. Is the cloak really flexible and flappy? No. Will it ever be? No. So you can do quite a lot of things, but there are limitations. There are going to be some disappointed kids around, but there might be a few people in industry who are very grateful for it."{{cite journal \|url\=http://spie.org/x57588\.xml \|author\=John Pendry \|title\=video: The birth and promise of metamaterials \|website\=SPIE \|date\=18 October 2011 \|doi\=10\.1117/2\.3201110\.02}}
In Turkey in 2009, Bilkent University Search Center Of Nanotechnology researches explained and published in *[New Journal of Physics](/wiki/New_Journal_of_Physics "New Journal of Physics")* that they achieved to make invisibility real in practice using nanotechnology making an object invisible with no shadows etc. next to perfect transparent scene by producing nanotechnologic material that can also be produced like a suit anyone can wear.
In 2019, [Hyperstealth Biotechnology](/wiki/HyperStealth_Biotechnology_Corporation "HyperStealth Biotechnology Corporation") has patented the technology behind a material that bends light to make people and objects near invisible to the naked eye. The material, called Quantum Stealth, is currently still in the prototyping stage, but was developed by the company's CEO Guy Cramer primarily for military purposes, to conceal agents and equipment such as tanks and jets in the field. Unlike traditional camouflage materials, which are limited to specific conditions such as forests or deserts, according to Cramer this "invisibility cloak" works in any environment or season, at any time of day. This is despite its actual application requiring artificial backgrounds made up of horizontal lines.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.dezeen.com/2019/11/07/hyperstealth\-biotechnology\-quantum\-stealth\-invisibility\-cloak/\|title\=Hyperstealth Biotechnology's "invisibility cloak" can conceal people and buildings\|date\=2019\-11\-07\|website\=Dezeen\|language\=en\|access\-date\=2019\-11\-16}}
|
[
"Practical efforts\n-----------------",
"{{main\\|Cloak of invisibility}}",
"Technology can be used theoretically or practically to render real\\-world objects invisible.",
"Making use of a real\\-time image displayed on a wearable display, it is possible to create a see\\-through effect. This is known as [active camouflage](/wiki/Active_camouflage \"Active camouflage\"). Though [stealth technology](/wiki/Stealth_technology \"Stealth technology\") is declared to be invisible to [radar](/wiki/Radar \"Radar\"), all officially disclosed applications of the technology can only *reduce* the size and/or clarity of the signature detected by radar.",
"In 2003 the Chilean scientist [Gunther Uhlmann](/wiki/Gunther_Uhlmann \"Gunther Uhlmann\") postulates the first mathematical equations to create invisible materials.{{cite web \\|last\\=Alonso \\|first\\=N. \\|url\\=http://www.quepasa.cl/articulo/ciencia/2013/03/3\\-11386\\-9\\-un\\-genio\\-invisible.shtml/ \\|title\\=Un genio invisible \\|language\\=es \\|trans\\-title\\=An invisible genius \\|website\\=Qué Pasa \\|date\\=March 21, 2013}}{{better source needed \\|date\\=March 2020 \\|reason\\=Secondary source would be better}}\nIn 2006, a team effort of researchers from Britain and the US announced the development of a real [cloak of invisibility](/wiki/Cloak_of_invisibility%23Cloaks_of_invisibility_in_science \"Cloak of invisibility#Cloaks of invisibility in science\"), an artificially made [meta material](/wiki/Meta_material \"Meta material\") that is invisible to the microwave spectrum, though it is only in its first stages.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna15329396 \\|title\\=Cloak of invisibility: Fact or fiction? \\|website\\=NBC News }}",
"In [filmmaking](/wiki/Filmmaking \"Filmmaking\"), people, objects, or backgrounds can be made to look invisible on camera through a process known as [chroma keying](/wiki/Chroma_key \"Chroma key\").",
"Engineers and scientists have performed various kinds of research to investigate the possibility of finding ways to create real optical invisibility (cloaks) for objects. Methods are typically based on implementing the theoretical techniques of [transformation optics](/wiki/Transformation_optics \"Transformation optics\"), which have given rise to several [theories of cloaking](/wiki/Theories_of_cloaking \"Theories of cloaking\").",
"Currently, a practical cloaking device does not exist.{{cite journal \\|author1\\-link\\=Adrian Nachman \\| last \\= Nachman \\| first \\= Adrian I. \\|date\\=November 1988 \\| title \\= Reconstructions From Boundary Measurements \\| journal \\= Annals of Mathematics \\| volume \\= 128 \\| issue \\= 3 \\| pages \\= 531–576 \\| doi \\= 10\\.2307/1971435 \\| jstor \\= 1971435 }}{{cite journal \\| last \\= Wolf \\| first \\= Emil \\|author2\\=Tarek Habashy \\|date\\=May 1993 \\| title \\= Invisible Bodies and Uniqueness of the Inverse Scattering Problem \\| journal \\= Journal of Modern Optics \\| volume \\= 40 \\| issue \\= 5 \\| pages \\= 785–792 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1080/09500349314550821\\|bibcode \\= 1993JMOp...40\\..785W }} A 2006 theoretical work predicts that the imperfections are minor, and [metamaterials](/wiki/Metamaterial \"Metamaterial\") may make real\\-life \"cloaking devices\" practical.{{cite journal \\| last \\= Pendry \\| first \\= J. B. \\|author2\\=D. Schurig \\|author3\\=D. R. Smith \\|date\\=June 2006 \\| title \\= Controlling Electromagnetic Fields \\| journal \\= Science \\| volume \\= 312 \\| pages \\= 1780–1782 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1126/science.1125907 \\| pmid \\= 16728597 \\| issue \\= 5781 \\| bibcode\\=2006Sci...312\\.1780P\\| s2cid \\= 7967675 \\| doi\\-access \\= free }}{{cite journal \\| last \\= Leonhardt \\| first \\= Ulf \\|date\\=June 2006 \\| title \\= Optical Conformal Mapping \\| journal \\= Science \\| volume \\= 312 \\| pages \\= 1777–1780 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1126/science.1126493 \\| pmid \\= 16728596 \\| issue \\= 5781 \\| bibcode\\=2006Sci...312\\.1777L\\| s2cid \\= 8334444 \\| doi\\-access \\= free }} The technique is predicted to be applied to [radio waves](/wiki/Radio_frequency \"Radio frequency\") within five years, and the distortion of visible light is an eventual possibility. The theory that light waves can be acted upon the same way as radio waves is now a popular idea among scientists. The agent can be compared to a stone in a river, around which water passes, but slightly down\\-stream leaves no trace of the stone. Comparing light waves to the water, and whatever object that is being \"cloaked\" to the stone, the goal is to have light waves pass around that object, leaving no visible aspects of it, possibly not even a shadow.{{cite news \\| first \\= Adrian \\| last \\= Cho \\| url \\= http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/summary/312/5777/1120a \\| title \\= High\\-Tech Materials Could Render Objects Invisible \\| work \\= Science \\| page \\= 1120 \\|date\\=2006\\-05\\-26 \\| access\\-date \\= 2006\\-08\\-01}} This is the technique depicted in the 2000 television portrayal of [The Invisible Man](/wiki/The_Invisible_Man_%282000_TV_series%29 \"The Invisible Man (2000 TV series)\").",
"Two teams of scientists worked separately to create two \"Invisibility Cloaks\" from '[metamaterials](/wiki/Metamaterials \"Metamaterials\")' engineered at the [nanoscale](/wiki/Nanoscopic_scale \"Nanoscopic scale\") level. They demonstrated for the first time the possibility of cloaking three\\-dimensional (3\\-D) objects with artificially engineered materials that redirect radar, light or other waves around an object. While one uses a type of fishnet of metal layers to reverse the direction of light, the other uses tiny silver wires. Xiang Zhang, of the [University of California](/wiki/University_of_California \"University of California\"), [Berkeley](/wiki/Berkeley%2C_California \"Berkeley, California\") said: \"In the case of invisibility cloaks or shields, the material would need to curve light waves completely around the object like a river flowing around a rock. An observer looking at the cloaked object would then see light from behind it, making it seem to disappear.\"",
"[UC Berkeley](/wiki/UC_Berkeley \"UC Berkeley\") researcher Jason Valentine's team made a material that affects light near the visible spectrum, in a region used in fibre optics: 'Instead of the fish appearing to be slightly ahead of where it is in the water, it would actually appear to be above the water's surface. For a metamaterial to produce negative refraction, it must have a structural array smaller than the wavelength of the electromagnetic radiation being used.\" Valentine's team created their 'fishnet' material by stacking silver and metal dielectric layers on top of each other and then punching holes through them. The other team used an oxide template and grew silver nanowires inside porous aluminum oxide at tiny distances apart, smaller than the wavelength of visible light. This material refracts visible light.",
"The [Imperial College London](/wiki/Imperial_College_London \"Imperial College London\") research team achieved results with [microwaves](/wiki/Microwaves \"Microwaves\"). An invisibility cloak layout of a copper cylinder was produced in May, 2008, by physicist Professor Sir [John Pendry](/wiki/John_Pendry \"John Pendry\"). Scientists working with him at [Duke University](/wiki/Duke_University \"Duke University\") in the US put the idea into practice.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.themoneytimes.com/articles/20080811/scientists\\_turn\\_fiction\\_into\\_reality\\_closer\\_to\\_make\\_objects\\_invisible\\-id\\-1032139\\.html \\|website\\=themoneytimes.com \\|title\\=Scientists Turn Fiction Into Reality, Closer to Make Objects \"Invisible\" \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080816035413/http://www.themoneytimes.com/articles/20080811/scientists\\_turn\\_fiction\\_into\\_reality\\_closer\\_to\\_make\\_objects\\_invisible\\-id\\-1032139\\.html \\|archive\\-date\\=2008\\-08\\-16 }}{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.mirror.co.uk/news/top\\-stories/2008/08/11/secrets\\-of\\-invisibility\\-discovered\\-115875\\-20692852/ \\|website\\=mirror.co.uk \\|title\\=Secrets of invisibility discovered\\|date\\=10 August 2008 }}",
"Pendry, who theorized the invisibility cloak \"as a joke\" to illustrate the potential of metamaterials, said in an interview in August 2011 that grand, theatrical manifestations of his idea are probably overblown: \"I think it’s pretty sure that any cloak that Harry Potter would recognize is not on the table. You could dream up some theory, but the very practicality of making it would be so impossible. But can you hide things from light? Yes. Can you hide things which are a few centimeters across? Yes. Is the cloak really flexible and flappy? No. Will it ever be? No. So you can do quite a lot of things, but there are limitations. There are going to be some disappointed kids around, but there might be a few people in industry who are very grateful for it.\"{{cite journal \\|url\\=http://spie.org/x57588\\.xml \\|author\\=John Pendry \\|title\\=video: The birth and promise of metamaterials \\|website\\=SPIE \\|date\\=18 October 2011 \\|doi\\=10\\.1117/2\\.3201110\\.02}}",
"In Turkey in 2009, Bilkent University Search Center Of Nanotechnology researches explained and published in *[New Journal of Physics](/wiki/New_Journal_of_Physics \"New Journal of Physics\")* that they achieved to make invisibility real in practice using nanotechnology making an object invisible with no shadows etc. next to perfect transparent scene by producing nanotechnologic material that can also be produced like a suit anyone can wear.",
"In 2019, [Hyperstealth Biotechnology](/wiki/HyperStealth_Biotechnology_Corporation \"HyperStealth Biotechnology Corporation\") has patented the technology behind a material that bends light to make people and objects near invisible to the naked eye. The material, called Quantum Stealth, is currently still in the prototyping stage, but was developed by the company's CEO Guy Cramer primarily for military purposes, to conceal agents and equipment such as tanks and jets in the field. Unlike traditional camouflage materials, which are limited to specific conditions such as forests or deserts, according to Cramer this \"invisibility cloak\" works in any environment or season, at any time of day. This is despite its actual application requiring artificial backgrounds made up of horizontal lines.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.dezeen.com/2019/11/07/hyperstealth\\-biotechnology\\-quantum\\-stealth\\-invisibility\\-cloak/\\|title\\=Hyperstealth Biotechnology's \"invisibility cloak\" can conceal people and buildings\\|date\\=2019\\-11\\-07\\|website\\=Dezeen\\|language\\=en\\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-11\\-16}}",
""
] |
History
-------
### 1999: Debut
Superchick made their debut in 1999 at an [Audio Adrenaline](/wiki/Audio_Adrenaline "Audio Adrenaline") concert in front of an audience of 5,000\. They continued to perform at live events throughout that year.
### Early 2000s: *Karaoke Superstars* and *Last One Picked*
Superchick self\-released their first album in 2000\. The album was re\-released with three added remix tracks after they signed to [Inpop Records](/wiki/Inpop_Records "Inpop Records"), and became their first official album: *[Karaoke Superstars](/wiki/Karaoke_Superstars "Karaoke Superstars")*. Since then, their music has appeared in several movies and television shows, including the 2001 movie *[Legally Blonde](/wiki/Legally_Blonde "Legally Blonde")*, the 2002 made for TV [Disney](/wiki/Disney "Disney") movie *[Cadet Kelly](/wiki/Cadet_Kelly "Cadet Kelly")*, and the 2009 movie *[To Save a Life](/wiki/To_Save_a_Life "To Save a Life")*. *[Last One Picked](/wiki/Last_One_Picked "Last One Picked")* was released on October 8, 2002\.
### Mid\-2000s: *Beauty from Pain*
Superchick signed with mainstream record label Columbia Records to promote their 2005 album *[Beauty from Pain](/wiki/Beauty_from_Pain "Beauty from Pain")*, resulting in their 2006 mainstream debut *[Beauty from Pain 1\.1](/wiki/Beauty_from_Pain_1.1 "Beauty from Pain 1.1")*.{{cite magazine\|url\=http://www.christianitytoday.com/music/reviews/2006/beautyfrompain11\.html\|title\=Beauty from Pain 1\.1\|last\=Banister\|first\=Christa\|date\=July 2006\|magazine\=Christianity Today\|access\-date\=April 12, 2009}} The re\-release album contains their signature hit "Stand in the Rain". Their music has received favorable reviews in both Christian and mainstream publications.
### Late 2000s: Grammy nomination and *Rock What You Got*
[thumb\|Opening night of their Hey! Hey! (That's Freedom You Hear) tour](/wiki/File:SuperchickManitowoc2009.jpg "SuperchickManitowoc2009.jpg")
On December 4, 2008, Superchick was nominated for their first [Grammy Award](/wiki/Grammy_Award "Grammy Award"). The group was recognized in the category of "Best Rock Or Rap Gospel Album" for their 2008 album, *[Rock What You Got](/wiki/Rock_What_You_Got "Rock What You Got")* which was featured on ABC Family's *[Make It or Break It](/wiki/Make_It_or_Break_It "Make It or Break It")*. The band launched their "Hey! Hey! (That's Freedom You Hear)" Tour on April 3, 2009\.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.jesusfreakhideout.com/news/2009/03/30\.SUPERCHICK%20RALLIES%20FANS%20FOR%20HEY!%20HEY!%20TOUR.asp \|title\=Superchick Rallies Fans For "Hey! Hey! (That's Freedom You Hear)" Tour \|access\-date\=April 5, 2009 \|publisher\=Jesus Freak Hideout \|date\=March 30, 2009}}
### 2010s: Temporary hiatus and death of Lovelace
On June 7, 2011, lead singer Tricia Brock released her debut solo album entitled *The Road*.
The group announced that former member Chase Lovelace had died. The memorial took place on May 11, 2013\. Matt Dally confirmed that "he \[Lovelace] is on the new record".{{cite web \| url\=https://twitter.com/Superchickmatt/status/333350720252301312 \| title\=@LABcrab he is on the new record \| last1\=Dally \| first1\=Matt \| publisher\=Twitter \| date\=May 11, 2013 \| access\-date\=May 11, 2013}} On May 28, 2013, the band posted "This is the Time" written in memory of Lovelace.{{cite web \| url\=http://christianmusiczine.com/superchick\-post\-new\-song\-note\-about\-chases\-passing/ \| archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130905142339/http://christianmusiczine.com/superchick\-post\-new\-song\-note\-about\-chases\-passing/ \| url\-status\=usurped \| archive\-date\=September 5, 2013 \| last1\=Andre \| first1\=Joshua \| title \= Superchick Post New Song; Note About Chase's Passing \| date \= May 28, 2013 \| access\-date \= June 7, 2013}}
### 2013: Disbandment
On August 11, 2013, Superchick announced on their Facebook page{{cite web \|url\=https://www.facebook.com/superchick/posts/10151800418995540 \|title\=Superchick's closing chapter post \|publisher\=(Max Hsu) Superchick \|via\=\[\[Facebook]] \|date\=August 11, 2013 \|access\-date\=August 11, 2013 \|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20130812030701/https://www.facebook.com/superchick/posts/10151800418995540 \|archivedate\=August 12, 2013 \|url\-status\=live }} that the band had reached its closing chapter.
In the post, Max Hsu stated: "Everyone has new stories to write: Tricia has another solo record coming out, Dave is touring with [Audio Adrenaline](/wiki/Audio_Adrenaline "Audio Adrenaline"), Melissa started Rosebuds East, Matt is busy being a realtor/songwriter/daddy daycare and I've got plenty of projects to finish up, including a ThumpMonks record years in the making". He also confirmed the release of five new tracks in the future featuring Chase Lovelace.
### 2016: Reunion
On June 27, 2016, a photo was posted of the band rehearsing for an upcoming reunion show.{{cite web \| url\=https://web.facebook.com/superchick/photos/a.153862065539\.150988\.21446340539/10154173155675540/?type\=3\&theater \|archive\-url\=https://ghostarchive.org/iarchive/facebook/21446340539/10154173155675540 \|archive\-date\=2022\-02\-26 \|url\-access\=limited\| title\=Getting the band back together?!... \| publisher\=Superchick via \[\[Facebook]] \| date\=June 28, 2016 \| access\-date\=December 2, 2016}}{{cbignore}} The band then performed at [Lifest](/wiki/Lifest "Lifest") on July 9, 2016, which featured the line\-up of Tricia Brock, Max Hsu, Dave Ghazarian, Matt Dally, Andy Vegas and Brandon Estelle.{{citation needed\|date\=February 2017}} In an interview at the show posted on [YouTube](/wiki/YouTube "YouTube"), Brock said that they were asked to perform one last show at the site of their first show.{{cite web\|title\=Superchick interview\| date\=July 10, 2016 \|url\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\=QS9KpFrjj8o \|archive\-url\=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211222/QS9KpFrjj8o \|archive\-date\=2021\-12\-22 \|url\-status\=live\|publisher\=snyderrob\|access\-date\=December 5, 2017}}{{cbignore}} The show was a one\-off and also considered as a final concert for the band. It was later posted on Facebook Live.{{cite web \| url\=https://web.facebook.com/superchick/videos/10154202200985540/\| title\=Reunion show! \| publisher\=Superchick via \[\[Facebook]] \| date\=July 9, 2016 \| access\-date\=December 2, 2016}}
|
[
"History\n-------",
"### 1999: Debut",
"Superchick made their debut in 1999 at an [Audio Adrenaline](/wiki/Audio_Adrenaline \"Audio Adrenaline\") concert in front of an audience of 5,000\\. They continued to perform at live events throughout that year.",
"### Early 2000s: *Karaoke Superstars* and *Last One Picked*",
"Superchick self\\-released their first album in 2000\\. The album was re\\-released with three added remix tracks after they signed to [Inpop Records](/wiki/Inpop_Records \"Inpop Records\"), and became their first official album: *[Karaoke Superstars](/wiki/Karaoke_Superstars \"Karaoke Superstars\")*. Since then, their music has appeared in several movies and television shows, including the 2001 movie *[Legally Blonde](/wiki/Legally_Blonde \"Legally Blonde\")*, the 2002 made for TV [Disney](/wiki/Disney \"Disney\") movie *[Cadet Kelly](/wiki/Cadet_Kelly \"Cadet Kelly\")*, and the 2009 movie *[To Save a Life](/wiki/To_Save_a_Life \"To Save a Life\")*. *[Last One Picked](/wiki/Last_One_Picked \"Last One Picked\")* was released on October 8, 2002\\.",
"### Mid\\-2000s: *Beauty from Pain*",
"Superchick signed with mainstream record label Columbia Records to promote their 2005 album *[Beauty from Pain](/wiki/Beauty_from_Pain \"Beauty from Pain\")*, resulting in their 2006 mainstream debut *[Beauty from Pain 1\\.1](/wiki/Beauty_from_Pain_1.1 \"Beauty from Pain 1.1\")*.{{cite magazine\\|url\\=http://www.christianitytoday.com/music/reviews/2006/beautyfrompain11\\.html\\|title\\=Beauty from Pain 1\\.1\\|last\\=Banister\\|first\\=Christa\\|date\\=July 2006\\|magazine\\=Christianity Today\\|access\\-date\\=April 12, 2009}} The re\\-release album contains their signature hit \"Stand in the Rain\". Their music has received favorable reviews in both Christian and mainstream publications.",
"### Late 2000s: Grammy nomination and *Rock What You Got*",
"[thumb\\|Opening night of their Hey! Hey! (That's Freedom You Hear) tour](/wiki/File:SuperchickManitowoc2009.jpg \"SuperchickManitowoc2009.jpg\")\nOn December 4, 2008, Superchick was nominated for their first [Grammy Award](/wiki/Grammy_Award \"Grammy Award\"). The group was recognized in the category of \"Best Rock Or Rap Gospel Album\" for their 2008 album, *[Rock What You Got](/wiki/Rock_What_You_Got \"Rock What You Got\")* which was featured on ABC Family's *[Make It or Break It](/wiki/Make_It_or_Break_It \"Make It or Break It\")*. The band launched their \"Hey! Hey! (That's Freedom You Hear)\" Tour on April 3, 2009\\.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.jesusfreakhideout.com/news/2009/03/30\\.SUPERCHICK%20RALLIES%20FANS%20FOR%20HEY!%20HEY!%20TOUR.asp \\|title\\=Superchick Rallies Fans For \"Hey! Hey! (That's Freedom You Hear)\" Tour \\|access\\-date\\=April 5, 2009 \\|publisher\\=Jesus Freak Hideout \\|date\\=March 30, 2009}}",
"### 2010s: Temporary hiatus and death of Lovelace",
"On June 7, 2011, lead singer Tricia Brock released her debut solo album entitled *The Road*.",
"The group announced that former member Chase Lovelace had died. The memorial took place on May 11, 2013\\. Matt Dally confirmed that \"he \\[Lovelace] is on the new record\".{{cite web \\| url\\=https://twitter.com/Superchickmatt/status/333350720252301312 \\| title\\=@LABcrab he is on the new record \\| last1\\=Dally \\| first1\\=Matt \\| publisher\\=Twitter \\| date\\=May 11, 2013 \\| access\\-date\\=May 11, 2013}} On May 28, 2013, the band posted \"This is the Time\" written in memory of Lovelace.{{cite web \\| url\\=http://christianmusiczine.com/superchick\\-post\\-new\\-song\\-note\\-about\\-chases\\-passing/ \\| archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130905142339/http://christianmusiczine.com/superchick\\-post\\-new\\-song\\-note\\-about\\-chases\\-passing/ \\| url\\-status\\=usurped \\| archive\\-date\\=September 5, 2013 \\| last1\\=Andre \\| first1\\=Joshua \\| title \\= Superchick Post New Song; Note About Chase's Passing \\| date \\= May 28, 2013 \\| access\\-date \\= June 7, 2013}}",
"### 2013: Disbandment",
"On August 11, 2013, Superchick announced on their Facebook page{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.facebook.com/superchick/posts/10151800418995540 \\|title\\=Superchick's closing chapter post \\|publisher\\=(Max Hsu) Superchick \\|via\\=\\[\\[Facebook]] \\|date\\=August 11, 2013 \\|access\\-date\\=August 11, 2013 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20130812030701/https://www.facebook.com/superchick/posts/10151800418995540 \\|archivedate\\=August 12, 2013 \\|url\\-status\\=live }} that the band had reached its closing chapter.",
"In the post, Max Hsu stated: \"Everyone has new stories to write: Tricia has another solo record coming out, Dave is touring with [Audio Adrenaline](/wiki/Audio_Adrenaline \"Audio Adrenaline\"), Melissa started Rosebuds East, Matt is busy being a realtor/songwriter/daddy daycare and I've got plenty of projects to finish up, including a ThumpMonks record years in the making\". He also confirmed the release of five new tracks in the future featuring Chase Lovelace.",
"### 2016: Reunion",
"On June 27, 2016, a photo was posted of the band rehearsing for an upcoming reunion show.{{cite web \\| url\\=https://web.facebook.com/superchick/photos/a.153862065539\\.150988\\.21446340539/10154173155675540/?type\\=3\\&theater \\|archive\\-url\\=https://ghostarchive.org/iarchive/facebook/21446340539/10154173155675540 \\|archive\\-date\\=2022\\-02\\-26 \\|url\\-access\\=limited\\| title\\=Getting the band back together?!... \\| publisher\\=Superchick via \\[\\[Facebook]] \\| date\\=June 28, 2016 \\| access\\-date\\=December 2, 2016}}{{cbignore}} The band then performed at [Lifest](/wiki/Lifest \"Lifest\") on July 9, 2016, which featured the line\\-up of Tricia Brock, Max Hsu, Dave Ghazarian, Matt Dally, Andy Vegas and Brandon Estelle.{{citation needed\\|date\\=February 2017}} In an interview at the show posted on [YouTube](/wiki/YouTube \"YouTube\"), Brock said that they were asked to perform one last show at the site of their first show.{{cite web\\|title\\=Superchick interview\\| date\\=July 10, 2016 \\|url\\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\\=QS9KpFrjj8o \\|archive\\-url\\=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211222/QS9KpFrjj8o \\|archive\\-date\\=2021\\-12\\-22 \\|url\\-status\\=live\\|publisher\\=snyderrob\\|access\\-date\\=December 5, 2017}}{{cbignore}} The show was a one\\-off and also considered as a final concert for the band. It was later posted on Facebook Live.{{cite web \\| url\\=https://web.facebook.com/superchick/videos/10154202200985540/\\| title\\=Reunion show! \\| publisher\\=Superchick via \\[\\[Facebook]] \\| date\\=July 9, 2016 \\| access\\-date\\=December 2, 2016}}",
""
] |
19th century
------------
### 1817 to 1819: The Draisine or Velocipede
[left\|thumb\|Wooden *[draisine](/wiki/Dandy_horse "Dandy horse")* (around 1820\), the earliest two\-wheeler](/wiki/File:Draisine_or_Laufmaschine%2C_around_1820._Archetype_of_the_Bicycle._Pic_01.jpg "Draisine or Laufmaschine, around 1820. Archetype of the Bicycle. Pic 01.jpg")
[thumb\|Drais's 1817 design made to measure](/wiki/File:Draisine1817.jpg "Draisine1817.jpg")
The first verifiable claim for a practically used bicycle belongs to German [Baron](/wiki/Freiherr "Freiherr") [Karl von Drais Sauerbronn](/wiki/Karl_Drais "Karl Drais"), a civil servant to the Grand Duke of [Baden](/wiki/Baden_Germany "Baden Germany") in [Germany](/wiki/Germany "Germany"). Drais invented his [Laufmaschine](/wiki/Laufmaschine "Laufmaschine") ([German](/wiki/German_language "German language") for "running machine") in 1817, that was called *Draisine* (English) or *draisienne* (French) by the press. Karl von Drais patented this design in 1818, which was the first commercially successful two\-wheeled, steerable, human\-propelled machine, commonly called a [velocipede](/wiki/Velocipede "Velocipede"), and nicknamed hobby\-horse or [dandy horse](/wiki/Dandy_horse "Dandy horse").{{cite web
\| url \= http://www.sciencetech.technomuses.ca/english/collection/cycles3\.cfm
\| title \= Canada Science and Technology Museum: from Draisienne to Dandyhorse
\| access\-date \= 2008\-12\-31
\| archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20120205045249/http://www.sciencetech.technomuses.ca/english/collection/cycles3\.cfm
\| archive\-date \= 2012\-02\-05
}}
```
It was initially manufactured in Germany and France.
```
Hans\-Erhard Lessing (Drais's biographer) found from circumstantial evidence that Drais's interest in finding an alternative to the horse was the starvation and death of horses caused by crop failure in 1816, the [Year Without a Summer](/wiki/Year_Without_a_Summer "Year Without a Summer") (following the [volcanic eruption of Tambora](/wiki/1815_eruption_of_Mount_Tambora "1815 eruption of Mount Tambora") in 1815\).{{cite web\|url\=https://www.newscientist.com/channel/being\-human/mg18524841\.900\.html\|title\=Lessing, Hans\-Erhard: "What Led to the Invention of the Early Bicycle?" ''Cycle History'' 11, San Francisco 2001, pp. 28–36 }}
On his first reported ride from [Mannheim](/wiki/Mannheim "Mannheim") on June 12, 1817, he covered 13 km (eight miles) in less than an hour."LODA, eine neuerfundene Fahrmaschine" in: *Badwochenblatt für die Großherzogliche Stadt Baden* of 29th of July 1817 Constructed almost entirely of wood, the draisine weighed 22 kg (48 pounds), had brass bushings within the wheel bearings, iron shod wheels, a rear\-wheel brake and 152 mm (6 inches) of trail of the front\-wheel for a self\-centering [caster](/wiki/Caster_angle "Caster angle") effect. This design was welcomed by mechanically minded men daring to balance, and several thousand copies were built and used, primarily in Western Europe and in North America. Its popularity rapidly faded when, partly due to increasing numbers of accidents, some city authorities began to prohibit its use. However, in 1866 Paris a Chinese visitor named Bin Chun could still observe foot\-pushed velocipedes.Eesfehani, Amir Moghaddaas: "The Bicycle's Long Way to China", *Cycle History* 13, San Francisco 2003, pp. 94–102 The Draisine is regarded as the first bicycle{{cite news\|url\=https://www.irishtimes.com/culture/heritage/world\-s\-first\-bicycle\-ride\-took\-place\-200\-years\-ago\-1\.3112354\|title\=World's first bicycle ride took place 200 years ago\|last\=Scally\|first\=Derek\|date\=10 June 2017\|newspaper\=The Irish Times\|language\=en\|access\-date\=29 March 2020}}{{cite web\|url\=http://www.exploratorium.edu/cycling/frames1\.html\|title\=Frames \& Materials\|website\=Science of Cycling\|access\-date\=29 March 2020}}{{cite web\|url\=https://www.bikecitizens.net/200th\-anniversary\-bicycle\-changed\-society/\|title\=200th anniversary: How the bicycle changed society\|last\=Gliemann\|first\=Jennifer\|date\=21 March 2017\|website\=Bike Citizens\|language\=en\-US\|access\-date\=29 March 2020}}{{Cite book\|last1\=Limebeer\|first1\=D. J. N.\|title\=Dynamics and Optimal Control of Road Vehicles\|last2\=Massaro\|first2\=Matteo\|publisher\=Oxford University Press\|year\=2018\|isbn\=978\-0\-19\-255981\-4\|pages\=13–15}} and Karl von Drais is seen as the "father of the bicycle".{{cite web \| url\=https://www.cyclinguk.org/cycle/draisienne\-1817\-2017\-200\-years\-cycling\-innovation\-design \| title\=200 years since the father of the bicycle Baron Karl von Drais invented the 'running machine' \| Cycling UK }}{{cite web \| url\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\=BEB4GYtmW\-w \| title\=Karl von Drais "Father of Bicycles" \| website\=\[\[YouTube]] \| date\=17 November 2021 }}{{cite web \| url\=https://www.dpma.de/english/our\_office/publications/background/worlddayofthebicycle/index.html \| title\=DPMA \| World Day of the Bicycle }}{{cite web \| url\=http://scihi.org/karl\-drais\-mechanical\-horse/ \| title\=Karl Drais and the Mechanical Horse \| SciHi Blog \| date\=29 April 2018 }}
[left\|thumb\|Denis Johnson's son riding a velocipede, depicted in a [lithograph](/wiki/Lithograph "Lithograph") (1819\)](/wiki/File:Johnson-london.jpg "Johnson-london.jpg")
The concept was picked up by a number of British [cartwrights](/wiki/Wainwright_%28occupation%29 "Wainwright (occupation)"); the most notable was [Denis Johnson of London](/wiki/Denis_Johnson_of_London "Denis Johnson of London") announcing in late 1818 that he would sell an improved model.{{cite book
\| last \= Herlihy
\| first \= David
\| author\-link \= David V. Herlihy
\| title \= Bicycle: the History
\| publisher \= Yale University Press
\| year \= 2004
\| pages \= \[https://archive.org/details/bicyclehistory0000herl/page/31 31, 62]
\| url \= https://archive.org/details/bicyclehistory0000herl/page/31
\| isbn \= 0\-300\-10418\-9
\| access\-date \= 2009\-09\-29
}} Johnson called his machine as a [pedestrian curricle](/wiki/Pedestrian_curricle "Pedestrian curricle") or [velocipede](/wiki/Velocipede "Velocipede"), but the public preferred nicknames like "hobby\-horse," after the children's toy or, worse still, "dandyhorse," after the [foppish](/wiki/Fop "Fop") men, then called [dandies](/wiki/Dandy "Dandy"), who often rode them. Johnson's machine was an improvement on Drais's, being notably more elegant: his wooden frame had a [serpentine shape](/wiki/Serpentine_shape "Serpentine shape") instead of Drais's straight one, allowing the use of larger wheels without raising the rider's seat, but was still the same design.
During the summer of 1819, the "hobby\-horse", thanks in part to Johnson's marketing skills and better patent protection, became the craze and fashion in London society. The dandies, the [Corinthians](/wiki/First_Epistle_to_the_Corinthians "First Epistle to the Corinthians") of the [Regency](/wiki/Regency_era "Regency era"), adopted it, and therefore the poet [John Keats](/wiki/John_Keats "John Keats") referred to it as "the nothing" of the day. Riders wore out their boots surprisingly rapidly, and the fashion ended within the year, after riders on pavements (sidewalks) were fined two pounds.{{Citation needed\|date\=October 2023}}
### 1820s to 1850s: An Era of 3 and 4\-Wheelers
[thumb\|A couple seated on an 1886 Coventry Rotary [Quadracycle](/wiki/Quadracycle_%28human-powered_vehicle%29 "Quadracycle (human-powered vehicle)") for two](/wiki/File:Bicycle_two_1886.jpg "Bicycle two 1886.jpg")
[thumb\|[McCall](/wiki/Thomas_McCall_%28inventor%29 "Thomas McCall (inventor)")'s first (top) and improved velocipede of 1869 – later predated to 1839 and attributed to MacMillan](/wiki/File:Mccallvelos.jpg "Mccallvelos.jpg")
The intervening decades of the 1820s–1850s witnessed many developments concerning [human\-powered vehicles](/wiki/Human-powered_transport "Human-powered transport") often using technologies similar to the draisine, even if the idea of a workable two\-wheel design, requiring the rider to balance, had been dismissed. These new machines had three wheels ([tricycles](/wiki/Tricycles "Tricycles")) or four ([quadracycles](/wiki/Quadracycle_%28human-powered_vehicle%29 "Quadracycle (human-powered vehicle)")) and came in a very wide variety of designs, using pedals, treadles, and hand\-cranks, but these designs often suffered from high weight and high rolling resistance. However, Willard Sawyer in [Dover](/wiki/Dover "Dover") successfully manufactured a range of treadle\-operated 4\-wheel vehicles and exported them worldwide in the 1850s.
### 1830s: The Reported Scottish Inventions
The first mechanically propelled two\-wheel vehicle is believed by some to have been built by [Kirkpatrick Macmillan](/wiki/Kirkpatrick_Macmillan "Kirkpatrick Macmillan"), a Scottish blacksmith, in 1839\. A nephew later claimed that his uncle developed a rear\-wheel\-drive design using mid\-mounted [treadles](/wiki/Treadles "Treadles") connected by rods to a rear crank, similar to the transmission of a [steam locomotive](/wiki/Steam_locomotive "Steam locomotive"). Proponents associate him with the first recorded instance of a bicycling traffic offense, when a [Glasgow](/wiki/Glasgow "Glasgow") newspaper reported in 1842 an accident in which an anonymous "gentleman from Dumfries\-shire... bestride a velocipede... of ingenious design" knocked over a pedestrian in the Gorbals and was fined five shillings. However, the evidence connecting this with Macmillan is weak, since it is unlikely that the artisan Macmillan would have been termed a [gentleman](/wiki/Gentleman "Gentleman"), nor is the report clear on how many wheels the vehicle had. {{Citation needed\|date\=October 2023}}
A similar machine was said to have been produced by Gavin Dalzell of Lesmahagow, circa 1845\. There is no record of Dalzell ever having laid claim to inventing the machine. It is believed that he copied the idea having recognized the potential to help him with his local drapery business and there is some evidence that he used the contraption to take his wares into the rural community around his home. A replica still exists today in the [Riverside Museum](/wiki/Riverside_Museum "Riverside Museum") in Glasgow. The museum holds the honor of exhibiting the oldest bike in existence today. The first documented producer of rod\-driven two\-wheelers, [treadle bicycles](/wiki/Treadle_bicycle "Treadle bicycle"), was [Thomas McCall](/wiki/Thomas_McCall_%28inventor%29 "Thomas McCall (inventor)"), of [Kilmarnock](/wiki/Kilmarnock "Kilmarnock") in 1869\. The design was inspired by the French front\-crank velocipede of the Lallement/Michaux type.
### 1853 and the invention of the first bicycle with pedal crank "Tretkurbelfahrrad" by Philipp Moritz Fischer
Philipp Moritz Fischer, who used the draisine to get to school from the age of 9, invented the pedal crank in 1853\. After years of living all over Europe, he left London to go back to his native town of [Schweinfurt](/wiki/Schweinfurt "Schweinfurt"), Bavaria, when his first son died at a young age. He built the very first bicycle with pedals in 1853; however, he did not make the invention public. The Tretkurbelfahrrad from 1853 is still sustained and is on public display in the municipality museum in Schweinfurt.Franz Maria Feldhaus: Die Technik. Ein Lexikon der Vorzeit, der geschichtlichen Zeit und der Naturvölker. Engelmann, Leipzig und Berlin 1914\. page 274{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.schweinfurtfuehrer.de/museen/stadtgeschichtliches\-museum/\|title\=Schweinfurt Stadtgeschichtliches Museum}}
### 1860s and the Michaux "Velocipede", aka "Boneshaker"
The first widespread and commercially successful design was French. An example is at the [Canada Science and Technology Museum](/wiki/Canada_Science_and_Technology_Museum "Canada Science and Technology Museum"), in [Ottawa](/wiki/Ottawa "Ottawa"), [Ontario](/wiki/Ontario "Ontario").{{cite web\|url\=http://www.sciencetech.technomuses.ca/english/collection/cycles5\.cfm\|title\=The Velocipede \- Pierre Michaux puts pedals to work\|website\=\[\[Canada Science and Technology Museum]]\|access\-date\=29 March 2018\|archive\-date\=6 October 2014\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006065758/http://www.sciencetech.technomuses.ca/english/collection/cycles5\.cfm }} Initially developed around 1863, it sparked a fashionable craze briefly during 1868–70\. Its design was simpler than the Macmillan bicycle; it used rotary cranks and pedals mounted to the front wheel hub. Pedaling made it easier for riders to propel the machine at speed, but the rotational speed limitation of this design created stability and comfort concerns which would lead to the large front wheel of the "penny farthing". It was difficult to pedal the wheel that was used for steering. The use of metal frames reduced the weight and provided sleeker, more elegant designs, and also allowed [mass\-production](/wiki/Mass-production "Mass-production"). Different braking mechanisms were used depending on the manufacturer. In England, the velocipede earned the name of "[bone\-shaker](/wiki/Boneshaker_%28bicycle%29 "Boneshaker (bicycle)")" because of its rigid frame and iron\-banded wheels that resulted in a "bone\-shaking experience for riders".
The velocipede's renaissance began in [Paris](/wiki/Paris "Paris") during the late 1860s. Its early history is complex and has been shrouded in some mystery, not least because of conflicting patent claims: all that has been stated for sure is that a French metalworker attached pedals to the front wheel; at present, the earliest year bicycle historians agree on is 1864\. The identity of the person who attached cranks is still an open question at [International Cycling History Conferences](/wiki/International_Cycling_History_Conference "International Cycling History Conference") (ICHC). The claims of [Ernest Michaux](/wiki/Ernest_Michaux "Ernest Michaux") and of [Pierre Lallement](/wiki/Pierre_Lallement "Pierre Lallement"), and the lesser claims of rear\-pedaling Alexandre Lefebvre, have their supporters within the ICHC community.
[thumb\|The original pedal\-bicycle, with the serpentine frame, from Pierre Lallement's US Patent No. 59,915 [drawing](/wiki/Patent_drawing "Patent drawing"), 1866](/wiki/File:Lallement-serpentine-velocipede.gif "Lallement-serpentine-velocipede.gif")
[thumb\|New York company Pickering and Davis invented this pedal\-bicycle for ladies in 1869\.{{cite book\|last\=Goddard\|first\=J. T.\|title\=The velocipede: its history, varieties, and practice \|year\=1869\|publisher\=Hurd and Houghton \|location\=New York \|page\=85\|oclc\=12320845\|id\=OCOLC 659342545\|via\=\[\[HathiTrust]]\|url\=https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id\=njp.32101045301353\&seq\=93 }}{{cite news\|title\=VELOCIPEDES.; Their Introduction, Use and Manufacture—Riding Schools—Rival Claims of the Patent.\|date\=1869\-03\-08\|work\=\[\[The New York Times]]\|quote\=Pickering \& Davis have recently brought out a ladies' bicycle which has a comfortable willow seat}}](/wiki/File:Velocipede_for_Ladies.png "Velocipede for Ladies.png")
Bicycle historian David V. Herlihy documents that Lallement claimed to have created the pedal bicycle in Paris in 1863\. He had seen someone riding a draisine in 1862 then originally came up with the idea to add pedals to it. It is a fact that he filed the earliest and only patent for a pedal\-driven bicycle, in the US in 1866\. Lallement's [patent drawing](/wiki/Patent_drawing "Patent drawing") shows a machine which looks exactly like Johnson's draisine, but with the pedals and rotary cranks attached to the front wheel hub, and a thin piece of iron over the top of the frame to act as a spring supporting the seat, for a slightly more comfortable ride.
By the early 1860s, the blacksmith [Pierre Michaux](/wiki/Pierre_Michaux "Pierre Michaux"), besides producing parts for the [carriage](/wiki/Carriage "Carriage") trade, was producing *"vélocipède à pédales"* on a small scale. The wealthy [Olivier brothers](/wiki/Olivier_brothers "Olivier brothers") Aimé and René were students in Paris at this time, and these shrewd young [entrepreneurs](/wiki/Entrepreneur "Entrepreneur") adopted the new machine. In 1865 they travelled from Paris to Avignon on a velocipede in only eight days. They recognized the potential profitability of producing and selling the new machine. Together with their friend [Georges de la Bouglise](/wiki/Georges_de_la_Bouglise "Georges de la Bouglise"), they formed a partnership with [Pierre Michaux](/wiki/Pierre_Michaux "Pierre Michaux"), Michaux et Cie ("Michaux and company"), in 1868, avoiding use of the Olivier family name and staying behind the scenes, lest the venture prove to be a failure. This was the first company which [mass\-produced](/wiki/Mass-produced "Mass-produced") bicycles, replacing the early wooden [frame](/wiki/Bicycle_frame "Bicycle frame") with one made of two pieces of [cast iron](/wiki/Cast_iron "Cast iron") bolted together—otherwise, the early Michaux machines look exactly like Lallement's patent drawing. Together with a mechanic named Gabert in his hometown of Lyon, Aimé Olivier created a diagonal single\-piece frame made of [wrought iron](/wiki/Wrought_iron "Wrought iron") which was much stronger, and as the first [bicycle craze](/wiki/Bicycle_craze "Bicycle craze") took hold, many other blacksmiths began forming companies to make bicycles using the new design. Velocipedes were expensive, and when customers soon began to complain about the Michaux [serpentine](/wiki/Serpentine_shape "Serpentine shape") cast\-iron frames breaking, the Oliviers realized by 1868 that they needed to replace that design with the diagonal one which their competitors were already using, and the Michaux company continued to dominate the industry in its first years.
On the new [macadam](/wiki/Macadam "Macadam") paved boulevards of Paris it was easy riding, although initially still using what was essentially [horse coach](/wiki/Carriage "Carriage") technology. It was still called "velocipede" in France, but in the United States, the machine was commonly called the "bone\-shaker". Later improvements included solid [rubber](/wiki/Rubber "Rubber") tires and [ball bearings](/wiki/Ball_bearing "Ball bearing"). Lallement had left Paris in July 1865, crossed the Atlantic, settled in Connecticut and patented the velocipede, and the number of associated inventions and patents soared in the US. The popularity of the machine grew on both sides of the Atlantic and by 1868–69 the [velocipede craze](/wiki/Bicycle_craze "Bicycle craze") was strong in rural areas as well. Even in a relatively small city such as [Halifax](/wiki/City_of_Halifax "City of Halifax"), Nova Scotia, Canada, there were five velocipede rinks, and riding schools began opening in many major urban centers. Essentially, the velocipede was a stepping stone that created a market for bicycles that led to the development of more advanced and efficient machines.
However, the [Franco\-Prussian war](/wiki/Franco-Prussian_war "Franco-Prussian war") of 1870 destroyed the velocipede market in France, and the "bone\-shaker" enjoyed only a brief period of popularity in the United States, which ended by 1870\. There is debate among bicycle historians about why it failed in the United States, but one explanation is that American road surfaces were much worse than European ones, and riding the machine on these roads was simply too difficult. Certainly another factor was that Calvin Witty had purchased Lallement's patent, and his royalty demands soon crippled the industry. The [UK](/wiki/UK "UK") was the only place where the bicycle never fell completely out of favour.{{Citation needed\|date\=April 2024}}
In 1869, William Van Anden of Poughkeepsie, New York, USA, invented the freewheel for the [bicycle](/wiki/Bicycle "Bicycle").Anden, William van ["Improvement in velocipedes"](http://pdfpiw.uspto.gov/.piw?Docid=00088238) U.S. patent no. 88,238 (issued: 23 March 1869\). His design placed a ratchet device in the [hub](/wiki/Bicycle_hub "Bicycle hub") of the front wheel (the driven wheel on the '[velocipede](/wiki/Velocipede "Velocipede")' designs of the time), which allowed the rider to propel himself forward without pedaling constantly.{{cite web \|title\=Van Anden Dexter Velocipede, 1869 \|url\=http://amhistory.si.edu/onthemove/collection/object\_269\.html\|publisher\=\[\[National Museum of American History]] \|access\-date\=8 April 2013\|archive\-date\=8 November 2014\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141108124345/http://amhistory.si.edu/onthemove/collection/object\_269\.html }} Initially, bicycle enthusiasts rejected the idea of a freewheel because they believed it would complicate the mechanical functions of the bicycle.{{cite book\|last\=Herilihy\|first\=David\|title\=Bicycle: The History\|year\=2004\|publisher\=Yale University Press\|location\=New Haven and London\|page\=136}} Bicycle enthusiasts believed that the bicycle was supposed to remain as simple as possible without any additional mechanisms, such as the freewheel.{{cite book\|last\=Herilihy\|first\=David\|title\=Bicycle: The History\|year\=2004\|publisher\=Yale University Press\|location\=New Haven and London\|page\=311}}
### 1870s: the high\-wheel bicycle
{{Main\|Penny\-farthing}}
The high\-bicycle was the logical extension of the boneshaker, the front wheel enlarging to enable higher speeds (limited by the inside leg measurement of the rider),{{cite web
\|url \= http://www.thewheelmen.org/sections/faq/faq.asp\#16
\|title \= The Wheelmen FAQ
\|access\-date \= 2008\-05\-15
\|archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20090207062050/http://thewheelmen.org/sections/faq/faq.asp\#16
\|archive\-date \= 2009\-02\-07
}}{{cite web
\|url \= https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/64721/bicycle/230024/The\-ordinary\-bicycle
\|title \= Britannica Online
\|access\-date \= 2008\-05\-15}}{{cite web
\|url \= http://www.exploratorium.edu/cycling/wheel1\.html
\|title \= Exploratorium
\|access\-date \= 2008\-05\-15}}{{cite web
\|url \= http://www.sheldonbrown.com/gloss\_ha\-i.html\#highwheel
\|title \= Sheldon Brown Glossary High Wheeler
\|access\-date \= 2008\-05\-15}} the rear wheel shrinking and the frame being made lighter. Frenchman [Eugène Meyer](/wiki/Eug%C3%A8ne_Meyer_%28inventor%29 "Eugène Meyer (inventor)") is now regarded as the father of the high bicycle{{cite book
\| title \= Bicycle Design, an Illustrated History
\| author \= Tony Hadland and Hans\-Erhard Lessing
\| date \= 2014
\| publisher \= MIT Press
\| quote \= Eugène Meyer ... gets the credit for making the high\-wheeler feasible and making it known.
\| page \= 92}} by the [ICHC](/wiki/International_Cycling_History_Conference "International Cycling History Conference") in place of [James Starley](/wiki/James_Starley "James Starley"). Meyer invented the [wire\-spoke tension wheel](/wiki/Wire_wheel "Wire wheel") in 1869 and produced a classic high bicycle design until the 1880s.
[thumb\|left\|A *[penny\-farthing](/wiki/Penny-farthing "Penny-farthing")* or *ordinary* bicycle photographed in the [Škoda museum](/wiki/%C5%A0koda_museum "Škoda museum") in the [Czech Republic](/wiki/Czech_Republic "Czech Republic")](/wiki/File:Ordinary_bicycle01.jpg "Ordinary bicycle01.jpg")
[James Starley](/wiki/James_Starley "James Starley") in [Coventry](/wiki/Coventry "Coventry") added the tangent spokes and the mounting step to his famous bicycle named "Ariel". He is regarded as the father of the British cycling industry. [Ball bearings](/wiki/Ball_bearing "Ball bearing"), solid rubber tires and hollow\-section steel frames became standard, reducing weight and making the ride much smoother. Depending on the rider's leg length, the front wheel could now have a diameter up to 60 in (1\.5 m).
[thumb\|Starley's "Royal Salvo" tricycle, as owned by Queen Victoria](/wiki/File:Starley_Royal_Salvo_Tricycle_Rev.JPG "Starley Royal Salvo Tricycle Rev.JPG")
Much later, when this type of bicycle was beginning to be replaced by a later design, it came to be referred to as the "ordinary bicycle". (While it was in common use [no such distinguishing adjective](/wiki/Retronym "Retronym") was used, since there was then no other kind.)Norcliffe, Glen. *The Ride to Modernity: The Bicycle in Canada, 1869–1900* (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2001\), p.47\. and was later nicknamed "[penny\-farthing](/wiki/Penny-farthing "Penny-farthing")" in England (a penny representing the front wheel, and a coin smaller in size and value, the [farthing](/wiki/Farthing_%28British_coin%29 "Farthing (British coin)"), representing the rear). They were fast, but unsafe. The rider was high up in the air and traveling at a great speed. If he hit a bad spot in the road he could easily be thrown over the front wheel and be seriously injured (two broken wrists were common, in attempts to break a fall)Norcliffe, p.50 cap. or even killed. "Taking a header" (also known as "coming a cropper"), was not at all uncommon.
The rider's legs were often caught underneath the handlebars, so falling free of the machine was often not possible. The dangerous nature of these bicycles (as well as [Victorian](/wiki/Victorian_age "Victorian age") mores) made cycling the preserve of adventurous young men. The risk averse, such as elderly gentlemen, preferred the more stable [tricycles](/wiki/Tricycle "Tricycle") or [quadracycles](/wiki/Quadracycle_%28human-powered_vehicle%29 "Quadracycle (human-powered vehicle)"). In addition, women's fashion of the day made the "ordinary" bicycle inaccessible. [Queen Victoria](/wiki/Queen_Victoria "Queen Victoria") owned Starley's "Royal Salvo" tricycle, though there is no evidence she actually rode it.
Although French and English inventors modified the velocipede into the high\-wheel bicycle, the French were still recovering from the Franco\-Prussian war, so English entrepreneurs put the high\-wheeler on the English market, and the machine became very popular there, [Coventry](/wiki/Coventry "Coventry"), [Oxford](/wiki/Oxford "Oxford"), [Birmingham](/wiki/Birmingham "Birmingham") and [Manchester](/wiki/Manchester "Manchester") being the centers of the English bicycle industry (and of the arms or [sewing machine](/wiki/Sewing_machine "Sewing machine") industries, which had the necessary metalworking and engineering skills for bicycle manufacturing, as in [Paris](/wiki/Paris "Paris") and [St. Etienne](/wiki/St._Etienne "St. Etienne"), and in [New England](/wiki/New_England "New England")).Norcliffe, p.44\. Soon bicycles found their way across the [English Channel](/wiki/English_Channel "English Channel"). By 1875, high\-wheel bicycles were becoming popular in France, though ridership expanded slowly.
In the United States, Bostonians such as Frank Weston started importing bicycles in 1877 and 1878, and [Albert Augustus Pope](/wiki/Albert_Augustus_Pope "Albert Augustus Pope") started production of his ["Columbia"](/wiki/Pope_Manufacturing_Company "Pope Manufacturing Company") high\-wheelers in 1878, and gained control of nearly all applicable patents, starting with Lallement's 1866 patent. Pope lowered the royalty (licensing fee) previous patent owners charged, and took his competitors to court over the patents. The courts supported him, and competitors either paid royalties ($10 per bicycle), or he forced them out of business. There seems to have been no patent issue in France, where English bicycles still dominated the market. In 1880, G.W. Pressey invented the high\-wheeler [American Star Bicycle](/wiki/American_Star_Bicycle "American Star Bicycle"), whose smaller front wheel was designed to decrease the frequency of "headers". By 1884 high\-wheelers and tricycles were relatively popular among a small group of upper\-middle\-class people in all three countries, the largest group being in England. Their use also spread to the rest of the world, chiefly because of the extent of the [British Empire](/wiki/British_Empire "British Empire").
Pope also introduced mechanization and mass production (later copied and adopted by [Ford](/wiki/Ford_Motor_Company "Ford Motor Company") and [General Motors](/wiki/General_Motors "General Motors")),Norcliffe, pp.106 \& 108\. GM's practise of sharing chassis, bodies, and other parts is exactly what Pope was doing. vertically integrated,Norcliffe, p.106\. (also later copied and adopted by Ford), advertised aggressivelyNorcliffe, pp.142–7\. (as much as ten percent of all advertising in U.S. periodicals in 1898 was by bicycle makers),Norcliffe, p.145\. promoted the [Good Roads Movement](/wiki/Good_Roads_Movement "Good Roads Movement") (which had the side benefit of acting as advertising, and of improving sales by providing more places to ride),Norcliffe, p.108\. and litigated on behalf of cyclists (It would, however, be [Western Wheel Works](/wiki/Western_Wheel_Works "Western Wheel Works") of [Chicago](/wiki/Chicago "Chicago") which would drastically reduce production costs by introducing [stamping](/wiki/Metal_stamping "Metal stamping") to the production process in place of machining, significantly reducing costs, and thus prices.)Norcliffe, p.107\. In addition, bicycle makers adopted the annual model changeBabaian, Sharon. *The Most Benevolent Machine: A Historical Assessment of Cycles in Canada* (Ottawa: National Museum of Science and Technology, 1998\), p.97\. (later derided as [planned obsolescence](/wiki/Planned_obsolescence "Planned obsolescence"), and usually credited to General Motors), which proved very successful.Babaian, p.98\.
Even so, bicycling remained the province of the urban well\-to\-do, and mainly men, until the 1890s,Norcliffe, pp.31–2 \& 124\. and was an example of [conspicuous consumption](/wiki/Conspicuous_consumption "Conspicuous consumption").Norcliffe, pp.31–2, 35, 124, \& 243–6\.
### The safety bicycle and the bike bubble: 1880s and 1890s
[thumb\|right\|An 1884 [McCammon](/wiki/John_McCammon "John McCammon") safety bicycle{{cite web
\|url \= http://objectwiki.sciencemuseum.org.uk/wiki/McCammon\_Safety\_Bicycle.html
\|title \= McCammon Safety Bicycle
\|publisher \= \[\[Science Museum, London\|The Science Museum]]
\|access\-date \= 2015\-01\-03
\|archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20120515165247/http://objectwiki.sciencemuseum.org.uk/wiki/McCammon\_Safety\_Bicycle.html
\|archive\-date \= 2012\-05\-15
}}](/wiki/File:McCammon_Safety_Bicycle.jpg "McCammon Safety Bicycle.jpg")
[thumb\|right\|An 1885 [Whippet](/wiki/Whippet_%28bicycle%29 "Whippet (bicycle)") safety bicycle{{cite web
\| url \= http://objectwiki.sciencemuseum.org.uk/wiki/Whippet\_Safety\_Bicycle.html
\| title \= Whippet Safety Bicycle
\| publisher \= \[\[Science Museum, London\|The Science Museum]]
\| access\-date \= 2015\-01\-03
\| archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20150526184436/http://objectwiki.sciencemuseum.org.uk/wiki/Whippet\_Safety\_Bicycle.html
\| archive\-date \= 2015\-05\-26
}}](/wiki/File:Whippet_Safety_Bicycle.jpg "Whippet Safety Bicycle.jpg")
[thumb\|An 1889 Lady's safety bicycle](/wiki/File:Ladies_safety_bicycles1889.gif "Ladies safety bicycles1889.gif"){{More citations needed section\|date\=August 2021}}
The development of the [safety bicycle](/wiki/Safety_bicycle "Safety bicycle") was arguably the most important change in the history of the bicycle. It shifted their use and public perception from being a dangerous toy for sporting young men to being an everyday transport tool for men and women of all ages.
Aside from the obvious safety problems, the high\-wheeler's direct front wheel drive limited its top speed. One attempt to solve both problems with a chain\-driven front wheel was the dwarf bicycle, exemplified by the [Kangaroo](/wiki/Kangaroo_bicycle "Kangaroo bicycle"). Inventors also tried a rear wheel [chain drive](/wiki/Chain_drive "Chain drive"). Although [Harry John Lawson](/wiki/Harry_John_Lawson "Harry John Lawson") invented a rear\-chain\-drive bicycle in 1879 with his "bicyclette", it still had a huge front wheel and a small rear wheel. Detractors called it "The Crocodile", and it failed in the market.
[John Kemp Starley](/wiki/John_Kemp_Starley "John Kemp Starley"), James Starley's nephew, produced the first successful "safety bicycle", the "Rover," in 1885, which he never patented. It featured a steerable front wheel that had significant [caster](/wiki/Bicycle_and_motorcycle_geometry%23Steering_axis_angle "Bicycle and motorcycle geometry#Steering axis angle"), equally sized wheels and a [chain drive](/wiki/Chain_drive "Chain drive") to the rear wheel.Early chain\-driven bikes used a heavy one\-inch (25\.4 mm) block chain, compared to the modern half\-inch (12\.7 mm) [roller type](/wiki/Roller_chain "Roller chain"). Northcliffe, p.53\.
Widely imitated, the safety bicycle completely replaced the high\-wheeler in North America and Western Europe by 1890\. Meanwhile, [John Dunlop](/wiki/John_Boyd_Dunlop "John Boyd Dunlop")'s reinvention of the pneumatic [bicycle tire](/wiki/Bicycle_tire "Bicycle tire") in 1888 had made for a much smoother ride on paved streets; the previous type were quite smooth\-riding, when used on the dirt roads common at the time.Northcliffe, p.49 cap. As with the original velocipede, safety bicycles had been much less comfortable than high\-wheelers precisely because of the smaller wheel size, and frames were often buttressed with complicated [bicycle suspension](/wiki/Bicycle_suspension "Bicycle suspension") spring assemblies. The [pneumatic tire](/wiki/Pneumatic_tire "Pneumatic tire") made all of these obsolete, and frame designers found a diamond pattern to be the strongest and most efficient design.
On 10 October 1899, Isaac R Johnson, an African\-American inventor, lodged his patent for a [folding bicycle](/wiki/Folding_bicycle "Folding bicycle") – the first with a recognisably modern [diamond frame](/wiki/Diamond_frame "Diamond frame"), the pattern still used in 21st\-century bicycles.{{Cite patent\|number\=US634823A\|title\=Bicycle\-frame\|gdate\=1899\-10\-10\|invent1\=Johnson\|inventor1\-first\=Isaac R.\|url\=https://patents.google.com/patent/US634823A/en}}
The chain drive improved comfort and speed, as the drive was transferred to the non\-steering rear wheel and allowed for smooth, relaxed and injury free pedaling (earlier designs that required pedalling the steering front wheel were difficult to pedal while turning, due to the misalignment of rotational planes of leg and pedal). With easier pedaling, the rider more easily turned corners.
The pneumatic tire and the diamond frame improved rider comfort but do not form a crucial design or safety feature. A hard rubber tire on a bicycle is just as rideable but is bone jarring. The frame design allows for a lighter weight, and more simple construction and maintenance, hence lower price.{{Citation needed\|date\=August 2021}}
Most likely the first [electric bicycle](/wiki/Electric_bicycle "Electric bicycle") was built in 1897 by Hosea W. Libbey.[Electric Bicycle History](https://www.electric-bicycle-guide.com/electric-bicycle-history.html)
[thumb\|a ca. 1887 color print](/wiki/File:Bicycling-ca1887-bigwheelers.jpg "Bicycling-ca1887-bigwheelers.jpg")
In the middle of the decade, bicycle sales were one of the few areas of the economy where sales were growing despite a severe economic depression, leading hundreds of manufacturers to enter business. This resulted in a downward spiral of market saturation, over\-supply and intense price competition, eventually leading to the collapse of many manufacturers as the [bicycle bubble burst](/wiki/Bike_boom%231890s "Bike boom#1890s").
|
[
"19th century\n------------",
"### 1817 to 1819: The Draisine or Velocipede",
"[left\\|thumb\\|Wooden *[draisine](/wiki/Dandy_horse \"Dandy horse\")* (around 1820\\), the earliest two\\-wheeler](/wiki/File:Draisine_or_Laufmaschine%2C_around_1820._Archetype_of_the_Bicycle._Pic_01.jpg \"Draisine or Laufmaschine, around 1820. Archetype of the Bicycle. Pic 01.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|Drais's 1817 design made to measure](/wiki/File:Draisine1817.jpg \"Draisine1817.jpg\")",
"The first verifiable claim for a practically used bicycle belongs to German [Baron](/wiki/Freiherr \"Freiherr\") [Karl von Drais Sauerbronn](/wiki/Karl_Drais \"Karl Drais\"), a civil servant to the Grand Duke of [Baden](/wiki/Baden_Germany \"Baden Germany\") in [Germany](/wiki/Germany \"Germany\"). Drais invented his [Laufmaschine](/wiki/Laufmaschine \"Laufmaschine\") ([German](/wiki/German_language \"German language\") for \"running machine\") in 1817, that was called *Draisine* (English) or *draisienne* (French) by the press. Karl von Drais patented this design in 1818, which was the first commercially successful two\\-wheeled, steerable, human\\-propelled machine, commonly called a [velocipede](/wiki/Velocipede \"Velocipede\"), and nicknamed hobby\\-horse or [dandy horse](/wiki/Dandy_horse \"Dandy horse\").{{cite web\n\\| url \\= http://www.sciencetech.technomuses.ca/english/collection/cycles3\\.cfm\n\\| title \\= Canada Science and Technology Museum: from Draisienne to Dandyhorse\n\\| access\\-date \\= 2008\\-12\\-31\n\\| archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20120205045249/http://www.sciencetech.technomuses.ca/english/collection/cycles3\\.cfm\n\\| archive\\-date \\= 2012\\-02\\-05",
"}}\n```\nIt was initially manufactured in Germany and France.",
"```",
"Hans\\-Erhard Lessing (Drais's biographer) found from circumstantial evidence that Drais's interest in finding an alternative to the horse was the starvation and death of horses caused by crop failure in 1816, the [Year Without a Summer](/wiki/Year_Without_a_Summer \"Year Without a Summer\") (following the [volcanic eruption of Tambora](/wiki/1815_eruption_of_Mount_Tambora \"1815 eruption of Mount Tambora\") in 1815\\).{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.newscientist.com/channel/being\\-human/mg18524841\\.900\\.html\\|title\\=Lessing, Hans\\-Erhard: \"What Led to the Invention of the Early Bicycle?\" ''Cycle History'' 11, San Francisco 2001, pp. 28–36 }}",
"On his first reported ride from [Mannheim](/wiki/Mannheim \"Mannheim\") on June 12, 1817, he covered 13 km (eight miles) in less than an hour.\"LODA, eine neuerfundene Fahrmaschine\" in: *Badwochenblatt für die Großherzogliche Stadt Baden* of 29th of July 1817 Constructed almost entirely of wood, the draisine weighed 22 kg (48 pounds), had brass bushings within the wheel bearings, iron shod wheels, a rear\\-wheel brake and 152 mm (6 inches) of trail of the front\\-wheel for a self\\-centering [caster](/wiki/Caster_angle \"Caster angle\") effect. This design was welcomed by mechanically minded men daring to balance, and several thousand copies were built and used, primarily in Western Europe and in North America. Its popularity rapidly faded when, partly due to increasing numbers of accidents, some city authorities began to prohibit its use. However, in 1866 Paris a Chinese visitor named Bin Chun could still observe foot\\-pushed velocipedes.Eesfehani, Amir Moghaddaas: \"The Bicycle's Long Way to China\", *Cycle History* 13, San Francisco 2003, pp. 94–102 The Draisine is regarded as the first bicycle{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.irishtimes.com/culture/heritage/world\\-s\\-first\\-bicycle\\-ride\\-took\\-place\\-200\\-years\\-ago\\-1\\.3112354\\|title\\=World's first bicycle ride took place 200 years ago\\|last\\=Scally\\|first\\=Derek\\|date\\=10 June 2017\\|newspaper\\=The Irish Times\\|language\\=en\\|access\\-date\\=29 March 2020}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.exploratorium.edu/cycling/frames1\\.html\\|title\\=Frames \\& Materials\\|website\\=Science of Cycling\\|access\\-date\\=29 March 2020}}{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.bikecitizens.net/200th\\-anniversary\\-bicycle\\-changed\\-society/\\|title\\=200th anniversary: How the bicycle changed society\\|last\\=Gliemann\\|first\\=Jennifer\\|date\\=21 March 2017\\|website\\=Bike Citizens\\|language\\=en\\-US\\|access\\-date\\=29 March 2020}}{{Cite book\\|last1\\=Limebeer\\|first1\\=D. J. N.\\|title\\=Dynamics and Optimal Control of Road Vehicles\\|last2\\=Massaro\\|first2\\=Matteo\\|publisher\\=Oxford University Press\\|year\\=2018\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-19\\-255981\\-4\\|pages\\=13–15}} and Karl von Drais is seen as the \"father of the bicycle\".{{cite web \\| url\\=https://www.cyclinguk.org/cycle/draisienne\\-1817\\-2017\\-200\\-years\\-cycling\\-innovation\\-design \\| title\\=200 years since the father of the bicycle Baron Karl von Drais invented the 'running machine' \\| Cycling UK }}{{cite web \\| url\\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\\=BEB4GYtmW\\-w \\| title\\=Karl von Drais \"Father of Bicycles\" \\| website\\=\\[\\[YouTube]] \\| date\\=17 November 2021 }}{{cite web \\| url\\=https://www.dpma.de/english/our\\_office/publications/background/worlddayofthebicycle/index.html \\| title\\=DPMA \\| World Day of the Bicycle }}{{cite web \\| url\\=http://scihi.org/karl\\-drais\\-mechanical\\-horse/ \\| title\\=Karl Drais and the Mechanical Horse \\| SciHi Blog \\| date\\=29 April 2018 }}",
"[left\\|thumb\\|Denis Johnson's son riding a velocipede, depicted in a [lithograph](/wiki/Lithograph \"Lithograph\") (1819\\)](/wiki/File:Johnson-london.jpg \"Johnson-london.jpg\")",
"The concept was picked up by a number of British [cartwrights](/wiki/Wainwright_%28occupation%29 \"Wainwright (occupation)\"); the most notable was [Denis Johnson of London](/wiki/Denis_Johnson_of_London \"Denis Johnson of London\") announcing in late 1818 that he would sell an improved model.{{cite book\n \\| last \\= Herlihy\n \\| first \\= David\n \\| author\\-link \\= David V. Herlihy\n \\| title \\= Bicycle: the History\n \\| publisher \\= Yale University Press\n \\| year \\= 2004\n \\| pages \\= \\[https://archive.org/details/bicyclehistory0000herl/page/31 31, 62]\n \\| url \\= https://archive.org/details/bicyclehistory0000herl/page/31\n \\| isbn \\= 0\\-300\\-10418\\-9\n \\| access\\-date \\= 2009\\-09\\-29\n }} Johnson called his machine as a [pedestrian curricle](/wiki/Pedestrian_curricle \"Pedestrian curricle\") or [velocipede](/wiki/Velocipede \"Velocipede\"), but the public preferred nicknames like \"hobby\\-horse,\" after the children's toy or, worse still, \"dandyhorse,\" after the [foppish](/wiki/Fop \"Fop\") men, then called [dandies](/wiki/Dandy \"Dandy\"), who often rode them. Johnson's machine was an improvement on Drais's, being notably more elegant: his wooden frame had a [serpentine shape](/wiki/Serpentine_shape \"Serpentine shape\") instead of Drais's straight one, allowing the use of larger wheels without raising the rider's seat, but was still the same design.",
"During the summer of 1819, the \"hobby\\-horse\", thanks in part to Johnson's marketing skills and better patent protection, became the craze and fashion in London society. The dandies, the [Corinthians](/wiki/First_Epistle_to_the_Corinthians \"First Epistle to the Corinthians\") of the [Regency](/wiki/Regency_era \"Regency era\"), adopted it, and therefore the poet [John Keats](/wiki/John_Keats \"John Keats\") referred to it as \"the nothing\" of the day. Riders wore out their boots surprisingly rapidly, and the fashion ended within the year, after riders on pavements (sidewalks) were fined two pounds.{{Citation needed\\|date\\=October 2023}}",
"### 1820s to 1850s: An Era of 3 and 4\\-Wheelers",
"[thumb\\|A couple seated on an 1886 Coventry Rotary [Quadracycle](/wiki/Quadracycle_%28human-powered_vehicle%29 \"Quadracycle (human-powered vehicle)\") for two](/wiki/File:Bicycle_two_1886.jpg \"Bicycle two 1886.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|[McCall](/wiki/Thomas_McCall_%28inventor%29 \"Thomas McCall (inventor)\")'s first (top) and improved velocipede of 1869 – later predated to 1839 and attributed to MacMillan](/wiki/File:Mccallvelos.jpg \"Mccallvelos.jpg\")",
"The intervening decades of the 1820s–1850s witnessed many developments concerning [human\\-powered vehicles](/wiki/Human-powered_transport \"Human-powered transport\") often using technologies similar to the draisine, even if the idea of a workable two\\-wheel design, requiring the rider to balance, had been dismissed. These new machines had three wheels ([tricycles](/wiki/Tricycles \"Tricycles\")) or four ([quadracycles](/wiki/Quadracycle_%28human-powered_vehicle%29 \"Quadracycle (human-powered vehicle)\")) and came in a very wide variety of designs, using pedals, treadles, and hand\\-cranks, but these designs often suffered from high weight and high rolling resistance. However, Willard Sawyer in [Dover](/wiki/Dover \"Dover\") successfully manufactured a range of treadle\\-operated 4\\-wheel vehicles and exported them worldwide in the 1850s.",
"### 1830s: The Reported Scottish Inventions",
"The first mechanically propelled two\\-wheel vehicle is believed by some to have been built by [Kirkpatrick Macmillan](/wiki/Kirkpatrick_Macmillan \"Kirkpatrick Macmillan\"), a Scottish blacksmith, in 1839\\. A nephew later claimed that his uncle developed a rear\\-wheel\\-drive design using mid\\-mounted [treadles](/wiki/Treadles \"Treadles\") connected by rods to a rear crank, similar to the transmission of a [steam locomotive](/wiki/Steam_locomotive \"Steam locomotive\"). Proponents associate him with the first recorded instance of a bicycling traffic offense, when a [Glasgow](/wiki/Glasgow \"Glasgow\") newspaper reported in 1842 an accident in which an anonymous \"gentleman from Dumfries\\-shire... bestride a velocipede... of ingenious design\" knocked over a pedestrian in the Gorbals and was fined five shillings. However, the evidence connecting this with Macmillan is weak, since it is unlikely that the artisan Macmillan would have been termed a [gentleman](/wiki/Gentleman \"Gentleman\"), nor is the report clear on how many wheels the vehicle had. {{Citation needed\\|date\\=October 2023}}",
"A similar machine was said to have been produced by Gavin Dalzell of Lesmahagow, circa 1845\\. There is no record of Dalzell ever having laid claim to inventing the machine. It is believed that he copied the idea having recognized the potential to help him with his local drapery business and there is some evidence that he used the contraption to take his wares into the rural community around his home. A replica still exists today in the [Riverside Museum](/wiki/Riverside_Museum \"Riverside Museum\") in Glasgow. The museum holds the honor of exhibiting the oldest bike in existence today. The first documented producer of rod\\-driven two\\-wheelers, [treadle bicycles](/wiki/Treadle_bicycle \"Treadle bicycle\"), was [Thomas McCall](/wiki/Thomas_McCall_%28inventor%29 \"Thomas McCall (inventor)\"), of [Kilmarnock](/wiki/Kilmarnock \"Kilmarnock\") in 1869\\. The design was inspired by the French front\\-crank velocipede of the Lallement/Michaux type.",
"### 1853 and the invention of the first bicycle with pedal crank \"Tretkurbelfahrrad\" by Philipp Moritz Fischer",
"Philipp Moritz Fischer, who used the draisine to get to school from the age of 9, invented the pedal crank in 1853\\. After years of living all over Europe, he left London to go back to his native town of [Schweinfurt](/wiki/Schweinfurt \"Schweinfurt\"), Bavaria, when his first son died at a young age. He built the very first bicycle with pedals in 1853; however, he did not make the invention public. The Tretkurbelfahrrad from 1853 is still sustained and is on public display in the municipality museum in Schweinfurt.Franz Maria Feldhaus: Die Technik. Ein Lexikon der Vorzeit, der geschichtlichen Zeit und der Naturvölker. Engelmann, Leipzig und Berlin 1914\\. page 274{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.schweinfurtfuehrer.de/museen/stadtgeschichtliches\\-museum/\\|title\\=Schweinfurt Stadtgeschichtliches Museum}}",
"### 1860s and the Michaux \"Velocipede\", aka \"Boneshaker\"",
"The first widespread and commercially successful design was French. An example is at the [Canada Science and Technology Museum](/wiki/Canada_Science_and_Technology_Museum \"Canada Science and Technology Museum\"), in [Ottawa](/wiki/Ottawa \"Ottawa\"), [Ontario](/wiki/Ontario \"Ontario\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.sciencetech.technomuses.ca/english/collection/cycles5\\.cfm\\|title\\=The Velocipede \\- Pierre Michaux puts pedals to work\\|website\\=\\[\\[Canada Science and Technology Museum]]\\|access\\-date\\=29 March 2018\\|archive\\-date\\=6 October 2014\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006065758/http://www.sciencetech.technomuses.ca/english/collection/cycles5\\.cfm }} Initially developed around 1863, it sparked a fashionable craze briefly during 1868–70\\. Its design was simpler than the Macmillan bicycle; it used rotary cranks and pedals mounted to the front wheel hub. Pedaling made it easier for riders to propel the machine at speed, but the rotational speed limitation of this design created stability and comfort concerns which would lead to the large front wheel of the \"penny farthing\". It was difficult to pedal the wheel that was used for steering. The use of metal frames reduced the weight and provided sleeker, more elegant designs, and also allowed [mass\\-production](/wiki/Mass-production \"Mass-production\"). Different braking mechanisms were used depending on the manufacturer. In England, the velocipede earned the name of \"[bone\\-shaker](/wiki/Boneshaker_%28bicycle%29 \"Boneshaker (bicycle)\")\" because of its rigid frame and iron\\-banded wheels that resulted in a \"bone\\-shaking experience for riders\".",
"The velocipede's renaissance began in [Paris](/wiki/Paris \"Paris\") during the late 1860s. Its early history is complex and has been shrouded in some mystery, not least because of conflicting patent claims: all that has been stated for sure is that a French metalworker attached pedals to the front wheel; at present, the earliest year bicycle historians agree on is 1864\\. The identity of the person who attached cranks is still an open question at [International Cycling History Conferences](/wiki/International_Cycling_History_Conference \"International Cycling History Conference\") (ICHC). The claims of [Ernest Michaux](/wiki/Ernest_Michaux \"Ernest Michaux\") and of [Pierre Lallement](/wiki/Pierre_Lallement \"Pierre Lallement\"), and the lesser claims of rear\\-pedaling Alexandre Lefebvre, have their supporters within the ICHC community.",
"[thumb\\|The original pedal\\-bicycle, with the serpentine frame, from Pierre Lallement's US Patent No. 59,915 [drawing](/wiki/Patent_drawing \"Patent drawing\"), 1866](/wiki/File:Lallement-serpentine-velocipede.gif \"Lallement-serpentine-velocipede.gif\")\n[thumb\\|New York company Pickering and Davis invented this pedal\\-bicycle for ladies in 1869\\.{{cite book\\|last\\=Goddard\\|first\\=J. T.\\|title\\=The velocipede: its history, varieties, and practice \\|year\\=1869\\|publisher\\=Hurd and Houghton \\|location\\=New York \\|page\\=85\\|oclc\\=12320845\\|id\\=OCOLC 659342545\\|via\\=\\[\\[HathiTrust]]\\|url\\=https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id\\=njp.32101045301353\\&seq\\=93 }}{{cite news\\|title\\=VELOCIPEDES.; Their Introduction, Use and Manufacture—Riding Schools—Rival Claims of the Patent.\\|date\\=1869\\-03\\-08\\|work\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]]\\|quote\\=Pickering \\& Davis have recently brought out a ladies' bicycle which has a comfortable willow seat}}](/wiki/File:Velocipede_for_Ladies.png \"Velocipede for Ladies.png\")",
"Bicycle historian David V. Herlihy documents that Lallement claimed to have created the pedal bicycle in Paris in 1863\\. He had seen someone riding a draisine in 1862 then originally came up with the idea to add pedals to it. It is a fact that he filed the earliest and only patent for a pedal\\-driven bicycle, in the US in 1866\\. Lallement's [patent drawing](/wiki/Patent_drawing \"Patent drawing\") shows a machine which looks exactly like Johnson's draisine, but with the pedals and rotary cranks attached to the front wheel hub, and a thin piece of iron over the top of the frame to act as a spring supporting the seat, for a slightly more comfortable ride.",
"By the early 1860s, the blacksmith [Pierre Michaux](/wiki/Pierre_Michaux \"Pierre Michaux\"), besides producing parts for the [carriage](/wiki/Carriage \"Carriage\") trade, was producing *\"vélocipède à pédales\"* on a small scale. The wealthy [Olivier brothers](/wiki/Olivier_brothers \"Olivier brothers\") Aimé and René were students in Paris at this time, and these shrewd young [entrepreneurs](/wiki/Entrepreneur \"Entrepreneur\") adopted the new machine. In 1865 they travelled from Paris to Avignon on a velocipede in only eight days. They recognized the potential profitability of producing and selling the new machine. Together with their friend [Georges de la Bouglise](/wiki/Georges_de_la_Bouglise \"Georges de la Bouglise\"), they formed a partnership with [Pierre Michaux](/wiki/Pierre_Michaux \"Pierre Michaux\"), Michaux et Cie (\"Michaux and company\"), in 1868, avoiding use of the Olivier family name and staying behind the scenes, lest the venture prove to be a failure. This was the first company which [mass\\-produced](/wiki/Mass-produced \"Mass-produced\") bicycles, replacing the early wooden [frame](/wiki/Bicycle_frame \"Bicycle frame\") with one made of two pieces of [cast iron](/wiki/Cast_iron \"Cast iron\") bolted together—otherwise, the early Michaux machines look exactly like Lallement's patent drawing. Together with a mechanic named Gabert in his hometown of Lyon, Aimé Olivier created a diagonal single\\-piece frame made of [wrought iron](/wiki/Wrought_iron \"Wrought iron\") which was much stronger, and as the first [bicycle craze](/wiki/Bicycle_craze \"Bicycle craze\") took hold, many other blacksmiths began forming companies to make bicycles using the new design. Velocipedes were expensive, and when customers soon began to complain about the Michaux [serpentine](/wiki/Serpentine_shape \"Serpentine shape\") cast\\-iron frames breaking, the Oliviers realized by 1868 that they needed to replace that design with the diagonal one which their competitors were already using, and the Michaux company continued to dominate the industry in its first years.",
"On the new [macadam](/wiki/Macadam \"Macadam\") paved boulevards of Paris it was easy riding, although initially still using what was essentially [horse coach](/wiki/Carriage \"Carriage\") technology. It was still called \"velocipede\" in France, but in the United States, the machine was commonly called the \"bone\\-shaker\". Later improvements included solid [rubber](/wiki/Rubber \"Rubber\") tires and [ball bearings](/wiki/Ball_bearing \"Ball bearing\"). Lallement had left Paris in July 1865, crossed the Atlantic, settled in Connecticut and patented the velocipede, and the number of associated inventions and patents soared in the US. The popularity of the machine grew on both sides of the Atlantic and by 1868–69 the [velocipede craze](/wiki/Bicycle_craze \"Bicycle craze\") was strong in rural areas as well. Even in a relatively small city such as [Halifax](/wiki/City_of_Halifax \"City of Halifax\"), Nova Scotia, Canada, there were five velocipede rinks, and riding schools began opening in many major urban centers. Essentially, the velocipede was a stepping stone that created a market for bicycles that led to the development of more advanced and efficient machines.",
"However, the [Franco\\-Prussian war](/wiki/Franco-Prussian_war \"Franco-Prussian war\") of 1870 destroyed the velocipede market in France, and the \"bone\\-shaker\" enjoyed only a brief period of popularity in the United States, which ended by 1870\\. There is debate among bicycle historians about why it failed in the United States, but one explanation is that American road surfaces were much worse than European ones, and riding the machine on these roads was simply too difficult. Certainly another factor was that Calvin Witty had purchased Lallement's patent, and his royalty demands soon crippled the industry. The [UK](/wiki/UK \"UK\") was the only place where the bicycle never fell completely out of favour.{{Citation needed\\|date\\=April 2024}}",
"In 1869, William Van Anden of Poughkeepsie, New York, USA, invented the freewheel for the [bicycle](/wiki/Bicycle \"Bicycle\").Anden, William van [\"Improvement in velocipedes\"](http://pdfpiw.uspto.gov/.piw?Docid=00088238) U.S. patent no. 88,238 (issued: 23 March 1869\\). His design placed a ratchet device in the [hub](/wiki/Bicycle_hub \"Bicycle hub\") of the front wheel (the driven wheel on the '[velocipede](/wiki/Velocipede \"Velocipede\")' designs of the time), which allowed the rider to propel himself forward without pedaling constantly.{{cite web \\|title\\=Van Anden Dexter Velocipede, 1869 \\|url\\=http://amhistory.si.edu/onthemove/collection/object\\_269\\.html\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[National Museum of American History]] \\|access\\-date\\=8 April 2013\\|archive\\-date\\=8 November 2014\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141108124345/http://amhistory.si.edu/onthemove/collection/object\\_269\\.html }} Initially, bicycle enthusiasts rejected the idea of a freewheel because they believed it would complicate the mechanical functions of the bicycle.{{cite book\\|last\\=Herilihy\\|first\\=David\\|title\\=Bicycle: The History\\|year\\=2004\\|publisher\\=Yale University Press\\|location\\=New Haven and London\\|page\\=136}} Bicycle enthusiasts believed that the bicycle was supposed to remain as simple as possible without any additional mechanisms, such as the freewheel.{{cite book\\|last\\=Herilihy\\|first\\=David\\|title\\=Bicycle: The History\\|year\\=2004\\|publisher\\=Yale University Press\\|location\\=New Haven and London\\|page\\=311}}",
"### 1870s: the high\\-wheel bicycle",
"{{Main\\|Penny\\-farthing}}",
"The high\\-bicycle was the logical extension of the boneshaker, the front wheel enlarging to enable higher speeds (limited by the inside leg measurement of the rider),{{cite web\n\\|url \\= http://www.thewheelmen.org/sections/faq/faq.asp\\#16\n\\|title \\= The Wheelmen FAQ\n\\|access\\-date \\= 2008\\-05\\-15\n\\|archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20090207062050/http://thewheelmen.org/sections/faq/faq.asp\\#16\n\\|archive\\-date \\= 2009\\-02\\-07",
"}}{{cite web\n\\|url \\= https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/64721/bicycle/230024/The\\-ordinary\\-bicycle\n\\|title \\= Britannica Online\n\\|access\\-date \\= 2008\\-05\\-15}}{{cite web\n\\|url \\= http://www.exploratorium.edu/cycling/wheel1\\.html\n\\|title \\= Exploratorium\n\\|access\\-date \\= 2008\\-05\\-15}}{{cite web\n\\|url \\= http://www.sheldonbrown.com/gloss\\_ha\\-i.html\\#highwheel\n\\|title \\= Sheldon Brown Glossary High Wheeler\n\\|access\\-date \\= 2008\\-05\\-15}} the rear wheel shrinking and the frame being made lighter. Frenchman [Eugène Meyer](/wiki/Eug%C3%A8ne_Meyer_%28inventor%29 \"Eugène Meyer (inventor)\") is now regarded as the father of the high bicycle{{cite book\n\\| title \\= Bicycle Design, an Illustrated History\n\\| author \\= Tony Hadland and Hans\\-Erhard Lessing\n\\| date \\= 2014\n\\| publisher \\= MIT Press\n\\| quote \\= Eugène Meyer ... gets the credit for making the high\\-wheeler feasible and making it known.\n\\| page \\= 92}} by the [ICHC](/wiki/International_Cycling_History_Conference \"International Cycling History Conference\") in place of [James Starley](/wiki/James_Starley \"James Starley\"). Meyer invented the [wire\\-spoke tension wheel](/wiki/Wire_wheel \"Wire wheel\") in 1869 and produced a classic high bicycle design until the 1880s.",
"[thumb\\|left\\|A *[penny\\-farthing](/wiki/Penny-farthing \"Penny-farthing\")* or *ordinary* bicycle photographed in the [Škoda museum](/wiki/%C5%A0koda_museum \"Škoda museum\") in the [Czech Republic](/wiki/Czech_Republic \"Czech Republic\")](/wiki/File:Ordinary_bicycle01.jpg \"Ordinary bicycle01.jpg\")",
"[James Starley](/wiki/James_Starley \"James Starley\") in [Coventry](/wiki/Coventry \"Coventry\") added the tangent spokes and the mounting step to his famous bicycle named \"Ariel\". He is regarded as the father of the British cycling industry. [Ball bearings](/wiki/Ball_bearing \"Ball bearing\"), solid rubber tires and hollow\\-section steel frames became standard, reducing weight and making the ride much smoother. Depending on the rider's leg length, the front wheel could now have a diameter up to 60 in (1\\.5 m).",
"[thumb\\|Starley's \"Royal Salvo\" tricycle, as owned by Queen Victoria](/wiki/File:Starley_Royal_Salvo_Tricycle_Rev.JPG \"Starley Royal Salvo Tricycle Rev.JPG\")\nMuch later, when this type of bicycle was beginning to be replaced by a later design, it came to be referred to as the \"ordinary bicycle\". (While it was in common use [no such distinguishing adjective](/wiki/Retronym \"Retronym\") was used, since there was then no other kind.)Norcliffe, Glen. *The Ride to Modernity: The Bicycle in Canada, 1869–1900* (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2001\\), p.47\\. and was later nicknamed \"[penny\\-farthing](/wiki/Penny-farthing \"Penny-farthing\")\" in England (a penny representing the front wheel, and a coin smaller in size and value, the [farthing](/wiki/Farthing_%28British_coin%29 \"Farthing (British coin)\"), representing the rear). They were fast, but unsafe. The rider was high up in the air and traveling at a great speed. If he hit a bad spot in the road he could easily be thrown over the front wheel and be seriously injured (two broken wrists were common, in attempts to break a fall)Norcliffe, p.50 cap. or even killed. \"Taking a header\" (also known as \"coming a cropper\"), was not at all uncommon.",
"The rider's legs were often caught underneath the handlebars, so falling free of the machine was often not possible. The dangerous nature of these bicycles (as well as [Victorian](/wiki/Victorian_age \"Victorian age\") mores) made cycling the preserve of adventurous young men. The risk averse, such as elderly gentlemen, preferred the more stable [tricycles](/wiki/Tricycle \"Tricycle\") or [quadracycles](/wiki/Quadracycle_%28human-powered_vehicle%29 \"Quadracycle (human-powered vehicle)\"). In addition, women's fashion of the day made the \"ordinary\" bicycle inaccessible. [Queen Victoria](/wiki/Queen_Victoria \"Queen Victoria\") owned Starley's \"Royal Salvo\" tricycle, though there is no evidence she actually rode it.",
"Although French and English inventors modified the velocipede into the high\\-wheel bicycle, the French were still recovering from the Franco\\-Prussian war, so English entrepreneurs put the high\\-wheeler on the English market, and the machine became very popular there, [Coventry](/wiki/Coventry \"Coventry\"), [Oxford](/wiki/Oxford \"Oxford\"), [Birmingham](/wiki/Birmingham \"Birmingham\") and [Manchester](/wiki/Manchester \"Manchester\") being the centers of the English bicycle industry (and of the arms or [sewing machine](/wiki/Sewing_machine \"Sewing machine\") industries, which had the necessary metalworking and engineering skills for bicycle manufacturing, as in [Paris](/wiki/Paris \"Paris\") and [St. Etienne](/wiki/St._Etienne \"St. Etienne\"), and in [New England](/wiki/New_England \"New England\")).Norcliffe, p.44\\. Soon bicycles found their way across the [English Channel](/wiki/English_Channel \"English Channel\"). By 1875, high\\-wheel bicycles were becoming popular in France, though ridership expanded slowly.",
"In the United States, Bostonians such as Frank Weston started importing bicycles in 1877 and 1878, and [Albert Augustus Pope](/wiki/Albert_Augustus_Pope \"Albert Augustus Pope\") started production of his [\"Columbia\"](/wiki/Pope_Manufacturing_Company \"Pope Manufacturing Company\") high\\-wheelers in 1878, and gained control of nearly all applicable patents, starting with Lallement's 1866 patent. Pope lowered the royalty (licensing fee) previous patent owners charged, and took his competitors to court over the patents. The courts supported him, and competitors either paid royalties ($10 per bicycle), or he forced them out of business. There seems to have been no patent issue in France, where English bicycles still dominated the market. In 1880, G.W. Pressey invented the high\\-wheeler [American Star Bicycle](/wiki/American_Star_Bicycle \"American Star Bicycle\"), whose smaller front wheel was designed to decrease the frequency of \"headers\". By 1884 high\\-wheelers and tricycles were relatively popular among a small group of upper\\-middle\\-class people in all three countries, the largest group being in England. Their use also spread to the rest of the world, chiefly because of the extent of the [British Empire](/wiki/British_Empire \"British Empire\").",
"Pope also introduced mechanization and mass production (later copied and adopted by [Ford](/wiki/Ford_Motor_Company \"Ford Motor Company\") and [General Motors](/wiki/General_Motors \"General Motors\")),Norcliffe, pp.106 \\& 108\\. GM's practise of sharing chassis, bodies, and other parts is exactly what Pope was doing. vertically integrated,Norcliffe, p.106\\. (also later copied and adopted by Ford), advertised aggressivelyNorcliffe, pp.142–7\\. (as much as ten percent of all advertising in U.S. periodicals in 1898 was by bicycle makers),Norcliffe, p.145\\. promoted the [Good Roads Movement](/wiki/Good_Roads_Movement \"Good Roads Movement\") (which had the side benefit of acting as advertising, and of improving sales by providing more places to ride),Norcliffe, p.108\\. and litigated on behalf of cyclists (It would, however, be [Western Wheel Works](/wiki/Western_Wheel_Works \"Western Wheel Works\") of [Chicago](/wiki/Chicago \"Chicago\") which would drastically reduce production costs by introducing [stamping](/wiki/Metal_stamping \"Metal stamping\") to the production process in place of machining, significantly reducing costs, and thus prices.)Norcliffe, p.107\\. In addition, bicycle makers adopted the annual model changeBabaian, Sharon. *The Most Benevolent Machine: A Historical Assessment of Cycles in Canada* (Ottawa: National Museum of Science and Technology, 1998\\), p.97\\. (later derided as [planned obsolescence](/wiki/Planned_obsolescence \"Planned obsolescence\"), and usually credited to General Motors), which proved very successful.Babaian, p.98\\.",
"Even so, bicycling remained the province of the urban well\\-to\\-do, and mainly men, until the 1890s,Norcliffe, pp.31–2 \\& 124\\. and was an example of [conspicuous consumption](/wiki/Conspicuous_consumption \"Conspicuous consumption\").Norcliffe, pp.31–2, 35, 124, \\& 243–6\\.",
"### The safety bicycle and the bike bubble: 1880s and 1890s",
"[thumb\\|right\\|An 1884 [McCammon](/wiki/John_McCammon \"John McCammon\") safety bicycle{{cite web\n \\|url \\= http://objectwiki.sciencemuseum.org.uk/wiki/McCammon\\_Safety\\_Bicycle.html\n \\|title \\= McCammon Safety Bicycle\n \\|publisher \\= \\[\\[Science Museum, London\\|The Science Museum]]\n \\|access\\-date \\= 2015\\-01\\-03\n \n \\|archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20120515165247/http://objectwiki.sciencemuseum.org.uk/wiki/McCammon\\_Safety\\_Bicycle.html\n \\|archive\\-date \\= 2012\\-05\\-15\n}}](/wiki/File:McCammon_Safety_Bicycle.jpg \"McCammon Safety Bicycle.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|right\\|An 1885 [Whippet](/wiki/Whippet_%28bicycle%29 \"Whippet (bicycle)\") safety bicycle{{cite web\n\\| url \\= http://objectwiki.sciencemuseum.org.uk/wiki/Whippet\\_Safety\\_Bicycle.html\n\\| title \\= Whippet Safety Bicycle\n\\| publisher \\= \\[\\[Science Museum, London\\|The Science Museum]]\n\\| access\\-date \\= 2015\\-01\\-03\n\\| archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20150526184436/http://objectwiki.sciencemuseum.org.uk/wiki/Whippet\\_Safety\\_Bicycle.html\n\\| archive\\-date \\= 2015\\-05\\-26",
"}}](/wiki/File:Whippet_Safety_Bicycle.jpg \"Whippet Safety Bicycle.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|An 1889 Lady's safety bicycle](/wiki/File:Ladies_safety_bicycles1889.gif \"Ladies safety bicycles1889.gif\"){{More citations needed section\\|date\\=August 2021}}\nThe development of the [safety bicycle](/wiki/Safety_bicycle \"Safety bicycle\") was arguably the most important change in the history of the bicycle. It shifted their use and public perception from being a dangerous toy for sporting young men to being an everyday transport tool for men and women of all ages.",
"Aside from the obvious safety problems, the high\\-wheeler's direct front wheel drive limited its top speed. One attempt to solve both problems with a chain\\-driven front wheel was the dwarf bicycle, exemplified by the [Kangaroo](/wiki/Kangaroo_bicycle \"Kangaroo bicycle\"). Inventors also tried a rear wheel [chain drive](/wiki/Chain_drive \"Chain drive\"). Although [Harry John Lawson](/wiki/Harry_John_Lawson \"Harry John Lawson\") invented a rear\\-chain\\-drive bicycle in 1879 with his \"bicyclette\", it still had a huge front wheel and a small rear wheel. Detractors called it \"The Crocodile\", and it failed in the market.",
"[John Kemp Starley](/wiki/John_Kemp_Starley \"John Kemp Starley\"), James Starley's nephew, produced the first successful \"safety bicycle\", the \"Rover,\" in 1885, which he never patented. It featured a steerable front wheel that had significant [caster](/wiki/Bicycle_and_motorcycle_geometry%23Steering_axis_angle \"Bicycle and motorcycle geometry#Steering axis angle\"), equally sized wheels and a [chain drive](/wiki/Chain_drive \"Chain drive\") to the rear wheel.Early chain\\-driven bikes used a heavy one\\-inch (25\\.4 mm) block chain, compared to the modern half\\-inch (12\\.7 mm) [roller type](/wiki/Roller_chain \"Roller chain\"). Northcliffe, p.53\\.",
"Widely imitated, the safety bicycle completely replaced the high\\-wheeler in North America and Western Europe by 1890\\. Meanwhile, [John Dunlop](/wiki/John_Boyd_Dunlop \"John Boyd Dunlop\")'s reinvention of the pneumatic [bicycle tire](/wiki/Bicycle_tire \"Bicycle tire\") in 1888 had made for a much smoother ride on paved streets; the previous type were quite smooth\\-riding, when used on the dirt roads common at the time.Northcliffe, p.49 cap. As with the original velocipede, safety bicycles had been much less comfortable than high\\-wheelers precisely because of the smaller wheel size, and frames were often buttressed with complicated [bicycle suspension](/wiki/Bicycle_suspension \"Bicycle suspension\") spring assemblies. The [pneumatic tire](/wiki/Pneumatic_tire \"Pneumatic tire\") made all of these obsolete, and frame designers found a diamond pattern to be the strongest and most efficient design.",
"On 10 October 1899, Isaac R Johnson, an African\\-American inventor, lodged his patent for a [folding bicycle](/wiki/Folding_bicycle \"Folding bicycle\") – the first with a recognisably modern [diamond frame](/wiki/Diamond_frame \"Diamond frame\"), the pattern still used in 21st\\-century bicycles.{{Cite patent\\|number\\=US634823A\\|title\\=Bicycle\\-frame\\|gdate\\=1899\\-10\\-10\\|invent1\\=Johnson\\|inventor1\\-first\\=Isaac R.\\|url\\=https://patents.google.com/patent/US634823A/en}}",
"The chain drive improved comfort and speed, as the drive was transferred to the non\\-steering rear wheel and allowed for smooth, relaxed and injury free pedaling (earlier designs that required pedalling the steering front wheel were difficult to pedal while turning, due to the misalignment of rotational planes of leg and pedal). With easier pedaling, the rider more easily turned corners.",
"The pneumatic tire and the diamond frame improved rider comfort but do not form a crucial design or safety feature. A hard rubber tire on a bicycle is just as rideable but is bone jarring. The frame design allows for a lighter weight, and more simple construction and maintenance, hence lower price.{{Citation needed\\|date\\=August 2021}}",
"Most likely the first [electric bicycle](/wiki/Electric_bicycle \"Electric bicycle\") was built in 1897 by Hosea W. Libbey.[Electric Bicycle History](https://www.electric-bicycle-guide.com/electric-bicycle-history.html)\n[thumb\\|a ca. 1887 color print](/wiki/File:Bicycling-ca1887-bigwheelers.jpg \"Bicycling-ca1887-bigwheelers.jpg\")",
"In the middle of the decade, bicycle sales were one of the few areas of the economy where sales were growing despite a severe economic depression, leading hundreds of manufacturers to enter business. This resulted in a downward spiral of market saturation, over\\-supply and intense price competition, eventually leading to the collapse of many manufacturers as the [bicycle bubble burst](/wiki/Bike_boom%231890s \"Bike boom#1890s\").",
"",
"",
"",
"",
""
] |
### 1860s and the Michaux "Velocipede", aka "Boneshaker"
The first widespread and commercially successful design was French. An example is at the [Canada Science and Technology Museum](/wiki/Canada_Science_and_Technology_Museum "Canada Science and Technology Museum"), in [Ottawa](/wiki/Ottawa "Ottawa"), [Ontario](/wiki/Ontario "Ontario").{{cite web\|url\=http://www.sciencetech.technomuses.ca/english/collection/cycles5\.cfm\|title\=The Velocipede \- Pierre Michaux puts pedals to work\|website\=\[\[Canada Science and Technology Museum]]\|access\-date\=29 March 2018\|archive\-date\=6 October 2014\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006065758/http://www.sciencetech.technomuses.ca/english/collection/cycles5\.cfm }} Initially developed around 1863, it sparked a fashionable craze briefly during 1868–70\. Its design was simpler than the Macmillan bicycle; it used rotary cranks and pedals mounted to the front wheel hub. Pedaling made it easier for riders to propel the machine at speed, but the rotational speed limitation of this design created stability and comfort concerns which would lead to the large front wheel of the "penny farthing". It was difficult to pedal the wheel that was used for steering. The use of metal frames reduced the weight and provided sleeker, more elegant designs, and also allowed [mass\-production](/wiki/Mass-production "Mass-production"). Different braking mechanisms were used depending on the manufacturer. In England, the velocipede earned the name of "[bone\-shaker](/wiki/Boneshaker_%28bicycle%29 "Boneshaker (bicycle)")" because of its rigid frame and iron\-banded wheels that resulted in a "bone\-shaking experience for riders".
The velocipede's renaissance began in [Paris](/wiki/Paris "Paris") during the late 1860s. Its early history is complex and has been shrouded in some mystery, not least because of conflicting patent claims: all that has been stated for sure is that a French metalworker attached pedals to the front wheel; at present, the earliest year bicycle historians agree on is 1864\. The identity of the person who attached cranks is still an open question at [International Cycling History Conferences](/wiki/International_Cycling_History_Conference "International Cycling History Conference") (ICHC). The claims of [Ernest Michaux](/wiki/Ernest_Michaux "Ernest Michaux") and of [Pierre Lallement](/wiki/Pierre_Lallement "Pierre Lallement"), and the lesser claims of rear\-pedaling Alexandre Lefebvre, have their supporters within the ICHC community.
[thumb\|The original pedal\-bicycle, with the serpentine frame, from Pierre Lallement's US Patent No. 59,915 [drawing](/wiki/Patent_drawing "Patent drawing"), 1866](/wiki/File:Lallement-serpentine-velocipede.gif "Lallement-serpentine-velocipede.gif")
[thumb\|New York company Pickering and Davis invented this pedal\-bicycle for ladies in 1869\.{{cite book\|last\=Goddard\|first\=J. T.\|title\=The velocipede: its history, varieties, and practice \|year\=1869\|publisher\=Hurd and Houghton \|location\=New York \|page\=85\|oclc\=12320845\|id\=OCOLC 659342545\|via\=\[\[HathiTrust]]\|url\=https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id\=njp.32101045301353\&seq\=93 }}{{cite news\|title\=VELOCIPEDES.; Their Introduction, Use and Manufacture—Riding Schools—Rival Claims of the Patent.\|date\=1869\-03\-08\|work\=\[\[The New York Times]]\|quote\=Pickering \& Davis have recently brought out a ladies' bicycle which has a comfortable willow seat}}](/wiki/File:Velocipede_for_Ladies.png "Velocipede for Ladies.png")
Bicycle historian David V. Herlihy documents that Lallement claimed to have created the pedal bicycle in Paris in 1863\. He had seen someone riding a draisine in 1862 then originally came up with the idea to add pedals to it. It is a fact that he filed the earliest and only patent for a pedal\-driven bicycle, in the US in 1866\. Lallement's [patent drawing](/wiki/Patent_drawing "Patent drawing") shows a machine which looks exactly like Johnson's draisine, but with the pedals and rotary cranks attached to the front wheel hub, and a thin piece of iron over the top of the frame to act as a spring supporting the seat, for a slightly more comfortable ride.
By the early 1860s, the blacksmith [Pierre Michaux](/wiki/Pierre_Michaux "Pierre Michaux"), besides producing parts for the [carriage](/wiki/Carriage "Carriage") trade, was producing *"vélocipède à pédales"* on a small scale. The wealthy [Olivier brothers](/wiki/Olivier_brothers "Olivier brothers") Aimé and René were students in Paris at this time, and these shrewd young [entrepreneurs](/wiki/Entrepreneur "Entrepreneur") adopted the new machine. In 1865 they travelled from Paris to Avignon on a velocipede in only eight days. They recognized the potential profitability of producing and selling the new machine. Together with their friend [Georges de la Bouglise](/wiki/Georges_de_la_Bouglise "Georges de la Bouglise"), they formed a partnership with [Pierre Michaux](/wiki/Pierre_Michaux "Pierre Michaux"), Michaux et Cie ("Michaux and company"), in 1868, avoiding use of the Olivier family name and staying behind the scenes, lest the venture prove to be a failure. This was the first company which [mass\-produced](/wiki/Mass-produced "Mass-produced") bicycles, replacing the early wooden [frame](/wiki/Bicycle_frame "Bicycle frame") with one made of two pieces of [cast iron](/wiki/Cast_iron "Cast iron") bolted together—otherwise, the early Michaux machines look exactly like Lallement's patent drawing. Together with a mechanic named Gabert in his hometown of Lyon, Aimé Olivier created a diagonal single\-piece frame made of [wrought iron](/wiki/Wrought_iron "Wrought iron") which was much stronger, and as the first [bicycle craze](/wiki/Bicycle_craze "Bicycle craze") took hold, many other blacksmiths began forming companies to make bicycles using the new design. Velocipedes were expensive, and when customers soon began to complain about the Michaux [serpentine](/wiki/Serpentine_shape "Serpentine shape") cast\-iron frames breaking, the Oliviers realized by 1868 that they needed to replace that design with the diagonal one which their competitors were already using, and the Michaux company continued to dominate the industry in its first years.
On the new [macadam](/wiki/Macadam "Macadam") paved boulevards of Paris it was easy riding, although initially still using what was essentially [horse coach](/wiki/Carriage "Carriage") technology. It was still called "velocipede" in France, but in the United States, the machine was commonly called the "bone\-shaker". Later improvements included solid [rubber](/wiki/Rubber "Rubber") tires and [ball bearings](/wiki/Ball_bearing "Ball bearing"). Lallement had left Paris in July 1865, crossed the Atlantic, settled in Connecticut and patented the velocipede, and the number of associated inventions and patents soared in the US. The popularity of the machine grew on both sides of the Atlantic and by 1868–69 the [velocipede craze](/wiki/Bicycle_craze "Bicycle craze") was strong in rural areas as well. Even in a relatively small city such as [Halifax](/wiki/City_of_Halifax "City of Halifax"), Nova Scotia, Canada, there were five velocipede rinks, and riding schools began opening in many major urban centers. Essentially, the velocipede was a stepping stone that created a market for bicycles that led to the development of more advanced and efficient machines.
However, the [Franco\-Prussian war](/wiki/Franco-Prussian_war "Franco-Prussian war") of 1870 destroyed the velocipede market in France, and the "bone\-shaker" enjoyed only a brief period of popularity in the United States, which ended by 1870\. There is debate among bicycle historians about why it failed in the United States, but one explanation is that American road surfaces were much worse than European ones, and riding the machine on these roads was simply too difficult. Certainly another factor was that Calvin Witty had purchased Lallement's patent, and his royalty demands soon crippled the industry. The [UK](/wiki/UK "UK") was the only place where the bicycle never fell completely out of favour.{{Citation needed\|date\=April 2024}}
In 1869, William Van Anden of Poughkeepsie, New York, USA, invented the freewheel for the [bicycle](/wiki/Bicycle "Bicycle").Anden, William van ["Improvement in velocipedes"](http://pdfpiw.uspto.gov/.piw?Docid=00088238) U.S. patent no. 88,238 (issued: 23 March 1869\). His design placed a ratchet device in the [hub](/wiki/Bicycle_hub "Bicycle hub") of the front wheel (the driven wheel on the '[velocipede](/wiki/Velocipede "Velocipede")' designs of the time), which allowed the rider to propel himself forward without pedaling constantly.{{cite web \|title\=Van Anden Dexter Velocipede, 1869 \|url\=http://amhistory.si.edu/onthemove/collection/object\_269\.html\|publisher\=\[\[National Museum of American History]] \|access\-date\=8 April 2013\|archive\-date\=8 November 2014\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141108124345/http://amhistory.si.edu/onthemove/collection/object\_269\.html }} Initially, bicycle enthusiasts rejected the idea of a freewheel because they believed it would complicate the mechanical functions of the bicycle.{{cite book\|last\=Herilihy\|first\=David\|title\=Bicycle: The History\|year\=2004\|publisher\=Yale University Press\|location\=New Haven and London\|page\=136}} Bicycle enthusiasts believed that the bicycle was supposed to remain as simple as possible without any additional mechanisms, such as the freewheel.{{cite book\|last\=Herilihy\|first\=David\|title\=Bicycle: The History\|year\=2004\|publisher\=Yale University Press\|location\=New Haven and London\|page\=311}}
|
[
"### 1860s and the Michaux \"Velocipede\", aka \"Boneshaker\"",
"The first widespread and commercially successful design was French. An example is at the [Canada Science and Technology Museum](/wiki/Canada_Science_and_Technology_Museum \"Canada Science and Technology Museum\"), in [Ottawa](/wiki/Ottawa \"Ottawa\"), [Ontario](/wiki/Ontario \"Ontario\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.sciencetech.technomuses.ca/english/collection/cycles5\\.cfm\\|title\\=The Velocipede \\- Pierre Michaux puts pedals to work\\|website\\=\\[\\[Canada Science and Technology Museum]]\\|access\\-date\\=29 March 2018\\|archive\\-date\\=6 October 2014\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006065758/http://www.sciencetech.technomuses.ca/english/collection/cycles5\\.cfm }} Initially developed around 1863, it sparked a fashionable craze briefly during 1868–70\\. Its design was simpler than the Macmillan bicycle; it used rotary cranks and pedals mounted to the front wheel hub. Pedaling made it easier for riders to propel the machine at speed, but the rotational speed limitation of this design created stability and comfort concerns which would lead to the large front wheel of the \"penny farthing\". It was difficult to pedal the wheel that was used for steering. The use of metal frames reduced the weight and provided sleeker, more elegant designs, and also allowed [mass\\-production](/wiki/Mass-production \"Mass-production\"). Different braking mechanisms were used depending on the manufacturer. In England, the velocipede earned the name of \"[bone\\-shaker](/wiki/Boneshaker_%28bicycle%29 \"Boneshaker (bicycle)\")\" because of its rigid frame and iron\\-banded wheels that resulted in a \"bone\\-shaking experience for riders\".",
"The velocipede's renaissance began in [Paris](/wiki/Paris \"Paris\") during the late 1860s. Its early history is complex and has been shrouded in some mystery, not least because of conflicting patent claims: all that has been stated for sure is that a French metalworker attached pedals to the front wheel; at present, the earliest year bicycle historians agree on is 1864\\. The identity of the person who attached cranks is still an open question at [International Cycling History Conferences](/wiki/International_Cycling_History_Conference \"International Cycling History Conference\") (ICHC). The claims of [Ernest Michaux](/wiki/Ernest_Michaux \"Ernest Michaux\") and of [Pierre Lallement](/wiki/Pierre_Lallement \"Pierre Lallement\"), and the lesser claims of rear\\-pedaling Alexandre Lefebvre, have their supporters within the ICHC community.",
"[thumb\\|The original pedal\\-bicycle, with the serpentine frame, from Pierre Lallement's US Patent No. 59,915 [drawing](/wiki/Patent_drawing \"Patent drawing\"), 1866](/wiki/File:Lallement-serpentine-velocipede.gif \"Lallement-serpentine-velocipede.gif\")\n[thumb\\|New York company Pickering and Davis invented this pedal\\-bicycle for ladies in 1869\\.{{cite book\\|last\\=Goddard\\|first\\=J. T.\\|title\\=The velocipede: its history, varieties, and practice \\|year\\=1869\\|publisher\\=Hurd and Houghton \\|location\\=New York \\|page\\=85\\|oclc\\=12320845\\|id\\=OCOLC 659342545\\|via\\=\\[\\[HathiTrust]]\\|url\\=https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id\\=njp.32101045301353\\&seq\\=93 }}{{cite news\\|title\\=VELOCIPEDES.; Their Introduction, Use and Manufacture—Riding Schools—Rival Claims of the Patent.\\|date\\=1869\\-03\\-08\\|work\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]]\\|quote\\=Pickering \\& Davis have recently brought out a ladies' bicycle which has a comfortable willow seat}}](/wiki/File:Velocipede_for_Ladies.png \"Velocipede for Ladies.png\")",
"Bicycle historian David V. Herlihy documents that Lallement claimed to have created the pedal bicycle in Paris in 1863\\. He had seen someone riding a draisine in 1862 then originally came up with the idea to add pedals to it. It is a fact that he filed the earliest and only patent for a pedal\\-driven bicycle, in the US in 1866\\. Lallement's [patent drawing](/wiki/Patent_drawing \"Patent drawing\") shows a machine which looks exactly like Johnson's draisine, but with the pedals and rotary cranks attached to the front wheel hub, and a thin piece of iron over the top of the frame to act as a spring supporting the seat, for a slightly more comfortable ride.",
"By the early 1860s, the blacksmith [Pierre Michaux](/wiki/Pierre_Michaux \"Pierre Michaux\"), besides producing parts for the [carriage](/wiki/Carriage \"Carriage\") trade, was producing *\"vélocipède à pédales\"* on a small scale. The wealthy [Olivier brothers](/wiki/Olivier_brothers \"Olivier brothers\") Aimé and René were students in Paris at this time, and these shrewd young [entrepreneurs](/wiki/Entrepreneur \"Entrepreneur\") adopted the new machine. In 1865 they travelled from Paris to Avignon on a velocipede in only eight days. They recognized the potential profitability of producing and selling the new machine. Together with their friend [Georges de la Bouglise](/wiki/Georges_de_la_Bouglise \"Georges de la Bouglise\"), they formed a partnership with [Pierre Michaux](/wiki/Pierre_Michaux \"Pierre Michaux\"), Michaux et Cie (\"Michaux and company\"), in 1868, avoiding use of the Olivier family name and staying behind the scenes, lest the venture prove to be a failure. This was the first company which [mass\\-produced](/wiki/Mass-produced \"Mass-produced\") bicycles, replacing the early wooden [frame](/wiki/Bicycle_frame \"Bicycle frame\") with one made of two pieces of [cast iron](/wiki/Cast_iron \"Cast iron\") bolted together—otherwise, the early Michaux machines look exactly like Lallement's patent drawing. Together with a mechanic named Gabert in his hometown of Lyon, Aimé Olivier created a diagonal single\\-piece frame made of [wrought iron](/wiki/Wrought_iron \"Wrought iron\") which was much stronger, and as the first [bicycle craze](/wiki/Bicycle_craze \"Bicycle craze\") took hold, many other blacksmiths began forming companies to make bicycles using the new design. Velocipedes were expensive, and when customers soon began to complain about the Michaux [serpentine](/wiki/Serpentine_shape \"Serpentine shape\") cast\\-iron frames breaking, the Oliviers realized by 1868 that they needed to replace that design with the diagonal one which their competitors were already using, and the Michaux company continued to dominate the industry in its first years.",
"On the new [macadam](/wiki/Macadam \"Macadam\") paved boulevards of Paris it was easy riding, although initially still using what was essentially [horse coach](/wiki/Carriage \"Carriage\") technology. It was still called \"velocipede\" in France, but in the United States, the machine was commonly called the \"bone\\-shaker\". Later improvements included solid [rubber](/wiki/Rubber \"Rubber\") tires and [ball bearings](/wiki/Ball_bearing \"Ball bearing\"). Lallement had left Paris in July 1865, crossed the Atlantic, settled in Connecticut and patented the velocipede, and the number of associated inventions and patents soared in the US. The popularity of the machine grew on both sides of the Atlantic and by 1868–69 the [velocipede craze](/wiki/Bicycle_craze \"Bicycle craze\") was strong in rural areas as well. Even in a relatively small city such as [Halifax](/wiki/City_of_Halifax \"City of Halifax\"), Nova Scotia, Canada, there were five velocipede rinks, and riding schools began opening in many major urban centers. Essentially, the velocipede was a stepping stone that created a market for bicycles that led to the development of more advanced and efficient machines.",
"However, the [Franco\\-Prussian war](/wiki/Franco-Prussian_war \"Franco-Prussian war\") of 1870 destroyed the velocipede market in France, and the \"bone\\-shaker\" enjoyed only a brief period of popularity in the United States, which ended by 1870\\. There is debate among bicycle historians about why it failed in the United States, but one explanation is that American road surfaces were much worse than European ones, and riding the machine on these roads was simply too difficult. Certainly another factor was that Calvin Witty had purchased Lallement's patent, and his royalty demands soon crippled the industry. The [UK](/wiki/UK \"UK\") was the only place where the bicycle never fell completely out of favour.{{Citation needed\\|date\\=April 2024}}",
"In 1869, William Van Anden of Poughkeepsie, New York, USA, invented the freewheel for the [bicycle](/wiki/Bicycle \"Bicycle\").Anden, William van [\"Improvement in velocipedes\"](http://pdfpiw.uspto.gov/.piw?Docid=00088238) U.S. patent no. 88,238 (issued: 23 March 1869\\). His design placed a ratchet device in the [hub](/wiki/Bicycle_hub \"Bicycle hub\") of the front wheel (the driven wheel on the '[velocipede](/wiki/Velocipede \"Velocipede\")' designs of the time), which allowed the rider to propel himself forward without pedaling constantly.{{cite web \\|title\\=Van Anden Dexter Velocipede, 1869 \\|url\\=http://amhistory.si.edu/onthemove/collection/object\\_269\\.html\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[National Museum of American History]] \\|access\\-date\\=8 April 2013\\|archive\\-date\\=8 November 2014\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141108124345/http://amhistory.si.edu/onthemove/collection/object\\_269\\.html }} Initially, bicycle enthusiasts rejected the idea of a freewheel because they believed it would complicate the mechanical functions of the bicycle.{{cite book\\|last\\=Herilihy\\|first\\=David\\|title\\=Bicycle: The History\\|year\\=2004\\|publisher\\=Yale University Press\\|location\\=New Haven and London\\|page\\=136}} Bicycle enthusiasts believed that the bicycle was supposed to remain as simple as possible without any additional mechanisms, such as the freewheel.{{cite book\\|last\\=Herilihy\\|first\\=David\\|title\\=Bicycle: The History\\|year\\=2004\\|publisher\\=Yale University Press\\|location\\=New Haven and London\\|page\\=311}}",
""
] |
### 1870s: the high\-wheel bicycle
{{Main\|Penny\-farthing}}
The high\-bicycle was the logical extension of the boneshaker, the front wheel enlarging to enable higher speeds (limited by the inside leg measurement of the rider),{{cite web
\|url \= http://www.thewheelmen.org/sections/faq/faq.asp\#16
\|title \= The Wheelmen FAQ
\|access\-date \= 2008\-05\-15
\|archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20090207062050/http://thewheelmen.org/sections/faq/faq.asp\#16
\|archive\-date \= 2009\-02\-07
}}{{cite web
\|url \= https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/64721/bicycle/230024/The\-ordinary\-bicycle
\|title \= Britannica Online
\|access\-date \= 2008\-05\-15}}{{cite web
\|url \= http://www.exploratorium.edu/cycling/wheel1\.html
\|title \= Exploratorium
\|access\-date \= 2008\-05\-15}}{{cite web
\|url \= http://www.sheldonbrown.com/gloss\_ha\-i.html\#highwheel
\|title \= Sheldon Brown Glossary High Wheeler
\|access\-date \= 2008\-05\-15}} the rear wheel shrinking and the frame being made lighter. Frenchman [Eugène Meyer](/wiki/Eug%C3%A8ne_Meyer_%28inventor%29 "Eugène Meyer (inventor)") is now regarded as the father of the high bicycle{{cite book
\| title \= Bicycle Design, an Illustrated History
\| author \= Tony Hadland and Hans\-Erhard Lessing
\| date \= 2014
\| publisher \= MIT Press
\| quote \= Eugène Meyer ... gets the credit for making the high\-wheeler feasible and making it known.
\| page \= 92}} by the [ICHC](/wiki/International_Cycling_History_Conference "International Cycling History Conference") in place of [James Starley](/wiki/James_Starley "James Starley"). Meyer invented the [wire\-spoke tension wheel](/wiki/Wire_wheel "Wire wheel") in 1869 and produced a classic high bicycle design until the 1880s.
[thumb\|left\|A *[penny\-farthing](/wiki/Penny-farthing "Penny-farthing")* or *ordinary* bicycle photographed in the [Škoda museum](/wiki/%C5%A0koda_museum "Škoda museum") in the [Czech Republic](/wiki/Czech_Republic "Czech Republic")](/wiki/File:Ordinary_bicycle01.jpg "Ordinary bicycle01.jpg")
[James Starley](/wiki/James_Starley "James Starley") in [Coventry](/wiki/Coventry "Coventry") added the tangent spokes and the mounting step to his famous bicycle named "Ariel". He is regarded as the father of the British cycling industry. [Ball bearings](/wiki/Ball_bearing "Ball bearing"), solid rubber tires and hollow\-section steel frames became standard, reducing weight and making the ride much smoother. Depending on the rider's leg length, the front wheel could now have a diameter up to 60 in (1\.5 m).
[thumb\|Starley's "Royal Salvo" tricycle, as owned by Queen Victoria](/wiki/File:Starley_Royal_Salvo_Tricycle_Rev.JPG "Starley Royal Salvo Tricycle Rev.JPG")
Much later, when this type of bicycle was beginning to be replaced by a later design, it came to be referred to as the "ordinary bicycle". (While it was in common use [no such distinguishing adjective](/wiki/Retronym "Retronym") was used, since there was then no other kind.)Norcliffe, Glen. *The Ride to Modernity: The Bicycle in Canada, 1869–1900* (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2001\), p.47\. and was later nicknamed "[penny\-farthing](/wiki/Penny-farthing "Penny-farthing")" in England (a penny representing the front wheel, and a coin smaller in size and value, the [farthing](/wiki/Farthing_%28British_coin%29 "Farthing (British coin)"), representing the rear). They were fast, but unsafe. The rider was high up in the air and traveling at a great speed. If he hit a bad spot in the road he could easily be thrown over the front wheel and be seriously injured (two broken wrists were common, in attempts to break a fall)Norcliffe, p.50 cap. or even killed. "Taking a header" (also known as "coming a cropper"), was not at all uncommon.
The rider's legs were often caught underneath the handlebars, so falling free of the machine was often not possible. The dangerous nature of these bicycles (as well as [Victorian](/wiki/Victorian_age "Victorian age") mores) made cycling the preserve of adventurous young men. The risk averse, such as elderly gentlemen, preferred the more stable [tricycles](/wiki/Tricycle "Tricycle") or [quadracycles](/wiki/Quadracycle_%28human-powered_vehicle%29 "Quadracycle (human-powered vehicle)"). In addition, women's fashion of the day made the "ordinary" bicycle inaccessible. [Queen Victoria](/wiki/Queen_Victoria "Queen Victoria") owned Starley's "Royal Salvo" tricycle, though there is no evidence she actually rode it.
Although French and English inventors modified the velocipede into the high\-wheel bicycle, the French were still recovering from the Franco\-Prussian war, so English entrepreneurs put the high\-wheeler on the English market, and the machine became very popular there, [Coventry](/wiki/Coventry "Coventry"), [Oxford](/wiki/Oxford "Oxford"), [Birmingham](/wiki/Birmingham "Birmingham") and [Manchester](/wiki/Manchester "Manchester") being the centers of the English bicycle industry (and of the arms or [sewing machine](/wiki/Sewing_machine "Sewing machine") industries, which had the necessary metalworking and engineering skills for bicycle manufacturing, as in [Paris](/wiki/Paris "Paris") and [St. Etienne](/wiki/St._Etienne "St. Etienne"), and in [New England](/wiki/New_England "New England")).Norcliffe, p.44\. Soon bicycles found their way across the [English Channel](/wiki/English_Channel "English Channel"). By 1875, high\-wheel bicycles were becoming popular in France, though ridership expanded slowly.
In the United States, Bostonians such as Frank Weston started importing bicycles in 1877 and 1878, and [Albert Augustus Pope](/wiki/Albert_Augustus_Pope "Albert Augustus Pope") started production of his ["Columbia"](/wiki/Pope_Manufacturing_Company "Pope Manufacturing Company") high\-wheelers in 1878, and gained control of nearly all applicable patents, starting with Lallement's 1866 patent. Pope lowered the royalty (licensing fee) previous patent owners charged, and took his competitors to court over the patents. The courts supported him, and competitors either paid royalties ($10 per bicycle), or he forced them out of business. There seems to have been no patent issue in France, where English bicycles still dominated the market. In 1880, G.W. Pressey invented the high\-wheeler [American Star Bicycle](/wiki/American_Star_Bicycle "American Star Bicycle"), whose smaller front wheel was designed to decrease the frequency of "headers". By 1884 high\-wheelers and tricycles were relatively popular among a small group of upper\-middle\-class people in all three countries, the largest group being in England. Their use also spread to the rest of the world, chiefly because of the extent of the [British Empire](/wiki/British_Empire "British Empire").
Pope also introduced mechanization and mass production (later copied and adopted by [Ford](/wiki/Ford_Motor_Company "Ford Motor Company") and [General Motors](/wiki/General_Motors "General Motors")),Norcliffe, pp.106 \& 108\. GM's practise of sharing chassis, bodies, and other parts is exactly what Pope was doing. vertically integrated,Norcliffe, p.106\. (also later copied and adopted by Ford), advertised aggressivelyNorcliffe, pp.142–7\. (as much as ten percent of all advertising in U.S. periodicals in 1898 was by bicycle makers),Norcliffe, p.145\. promoted the [Good Roads Movement](/wiki/Good_Roads_Movement "Good Roads Movement") (which had the side benefit of acting as advertising, and of improving sales by providing more places to ride),Norcliffe, p.108\. and litigated on behalf of cyclists (It would, however, be [Western Wheel Works](/wiki/Western_Wheel_Works "Western Wheel Works") of [Chicago](/wiki/Chicago "Chicago") which would drastically reduce production costs by introducing [stamping](/wiki/Metal_stamping "Metal stamping") to the production process in place of machining, significantly reducing costs, and thus prices.)Norcliffe, p.107\. In addition, bicycle makers adopted the annual model changeBabaian, Sharon. *The Most Benevolent Machine: A Historical Assessment of Cycles in Canada* (Ottawa: National Museum of Science and Technology, 1998\), p.97\. (later derided as [planned obsolescence](/wiki/Planned_obsolescence "Planned obsolescence"), and usually credited to General Motors), which proved very successful.Babaian, p.98\.
Even so, bicycling remained the province of the urban well\-to\-do, and mainly men, until the 1890s,Norcliffe, pp.31–2 \& 124\. and was an example of [conspicuous consumption](/wiki/Conspicuous_consumption "Conspicuous consumption").Norcliffe, pp.31–2, 35, 124, \& 243–6\.
|
[
"### 1870s: the high\\-wheel bicycle",
"{{Main\\|Penny\\-farthing}}",
"The high\\-bicycle was the logical extension of the boneshaker, the front wheel enlarging to enable higher speeds (limited by the inside leg measurement of the rider),{{cite web\n\\|url \\= http://www.thewheelmen.org/sections/faq/faq.asp\\#16\n\\|title \\= The Wheelmen FAQ\n\\|access\\-date \\= 2008\\-05\\-15\n\\|archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20090207062050/http://thewheelmen.org/sections/faq/faq.asp\\#16\n\\|archive\\-date \\= 2009\\-02\\-07",
"}}{{cite web\n\\|url \\= https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/64721/bicycle/230024/The\\-ordinary\\-bicycle\n\\|title \\= Britannica Online\n\\|access\\-date \\= 2008\\-05\\-15}}{{cite web\n\\|url \\= http://www.exploratorium.edu/cycling/wheel1\\.html\n\\|title \\= Exploratorium\n\\|access\\-date \\= 2008\\-05\\-15}}{{cite web\n\\|url \\= http://www.sheldonbrown.com/gloss\\_ha\\-i.html\\#highwheel\n\\|title \\= Sheldon Brown Glossary High Wheeler\n\\|access\\-date \\= 2008\\-05\\-15}} the rear wheel shrinking and the frame being made lighter. Frenchman [Eugène Meyer](/wiki/Eug%C3%A8ne_Meyer_%28inventor%29 \"Eugène Meyer (inventor)\") is now regarded as the father of the high bicycle{{cite book\n\\| title \\= Bicycle Design, an Illustrated History\n\\| author \\= Tony Hadland and Hans\\-Erhard Lessing\n\\| date \\= 2014\n\\| publisher \\= MIT Press\n\\| quote \\= Eugène Meyer ... gets the credit for making the high\\-wheeler feasible and making it known.\n\\| page \\= 92}} by the [ICHC](/wiki/International_Cycling_History_Conference \"International Cycling History Conference\") in place of [James Starley](/wiki/James_Starley \"James Starley\"). Meyer invented the [wire\\-spoke tension wheel](/wiki/Wire_wheel \"Wire wheel\") in 1869 and produced a classic high bicycle design until the 1880s.",
"[thumb\\|left\\|A *[penny\\-farthing](/wiki/Penny-farthing \"Penny-farthing\")* or *ordinary* bicycle photographed in the [Škoda museum](/wiki/%C5%A0koda_museum \"Škoda museum\") in the [Czech Republic](/wiki/Czech_Republic \"Czech Republic\")](/wiki/File:Ordinary_bicycle01.jpg \"Ordinary bicycle01.jpg\")",
"[James Starley](/wiki/James_Starley \"James Starley\") in [Coventry](/wiki/Coventry \"Coventry\") added the tangent spokes and the mounting step to his famous bicycle named \"Ariel\". He is regarded as the father of the British cycling industry. [Ball bearings](/wiki/Ball_bearing \"Ball bearing\"), solid rubber tires and hollow\\-section steel frames became standard, reducing weight and making the ride much smoother. Depending on the rider's leg length, the front wheel could now have a diameter up to 60 in (1\\.5 m).",
"[thumb\\|Starley's \"Royal Salvo\" tricycle, as owned by Queen Victoria](/wiki/File:Starley_Royal_Salvo_Tricycle_Rev.JPG \"Starley Royal Salvo Tricycle Rev.JPG\")\nMuch later, when this type of bicycle was beginning to be replaced by a later design, it came to be referred to as the \"ordinary bicycle\". (While it was in common use [no such distinguishing adjective](/wiki/Retronym \"Retronym\") was used, since there was then no other kind.)Norcliffe, Glen. *The Ride to Modernity: The Bicycle in Canada, 1869–1900* (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2001\\), p.47\\. and was later nicknamed \"[penny\\-farthing](/wiki/Penny-farthing \"Penny-farthing\")\" in England (a penny representing the front wheel, and a coin smaller in size and value, the [farthing](/wiki/Farthing_%28British_coin%29 \"Farthing (British coin)\"), representing the rear). They were fast, but unsafe. The rider was high up in the air and traveling at a great speed. If he hit a bad spot in the road he could easily be thrown over the front wheel and be seriously injured (two broken wrists were common, in attempts to break a fall)Norcliffe, p.50 cap. or even killed. \"Taking a header\" (also known as \"coming a cropper\"), was not at all uncommon.",
"The rider's legs were often caught underneath the handlebars, so falling free of the machine was often not possible. The dangerous nature of these bicycles (as well as [Victorian](/wiki/Victorian_age \"Victorian age\") mores) made cycling the preserve of adventurous young men. The risk averse, such as elderly gentlemen, preferred the more stable [tricycles](/wiki/Tricycle \"Tricycle\") or [quadracycles](/wiki/Quadracycle_%28human-powered_vehicle%29 \"Quadracycle (human-powered vehicle)\"). In addition, women's fashion of the day made the \"ordinary\" bicycle inaccessible. [Queen Victoria](/wiki/Queen_Victoria \"Queen Victoria\") owned Starley's \"Royal Salvo\" tricycle, though there is no evidence she actually rode it.",
"Although French and English inventors modified the velocipede into the high\\-wheel bicycle, the French were still recovering from the Franco\\-Prussian war, so English entrepreneurs put the high\\-wheeler on the English market, and the machine became very popular there, [Coventry](/wiki/Coventry \"Coventry\"), [Oxford](/wiki/Oxford \"Oxford\"), [Birmingham](/wiki/Birmingham \"Birmingham\") and [Manchester](/wiki/Manchester \"Manchester\") being the centers of the English bicycle industry (and of the arms or [sewing machine](/wiki/Sewing_machine \"Sewing machine\") industries, which had the necessary metalworking and engineering skills for bicycle manufacturing, as in [Paris](/wiki/Paris \"Paris\") and [St. Etienne](/wiki/St._Etienne \"St. Etienne\"), and in [New England](/wiki/New_England \"New England\")).Norcliffe, p.44\\. Soon bicycles found their way across the [English Channel](/wiki/English_Channel \"English Channel\"). By 1875, high\\-wheel bicycles were becoming popular in France, though ridership expanded slowly.",
"In the United States, Bostonians such as Frank Weston started importing bicycles in 1877 and 1878, and [Albert Augustus Pope](/wiki/Albert_Augustus_Pope \"Albert Augustus Pope\") started production of his [\"Columbia\"](/wiki/Pope_Manufacturing_Company \"Pope Manufacturing Company\") high\\-wheelers in 1878, and gained control of nearly all applicable patents, starting with Lallement's 1866 patent. Pope lowered the royalty (licensing fee) previous patent owners charged, and took his competitors to court over the patents. The courts supported him, and competitors either paid royalties ($10 per bicycle), or he forced them out of business. There seems to have been no patent issue in France, where English bicycles still dominated the market. In 1880, G.W. Pressey invented the high\\-wheeler [American Star Bicycle](/wiki/American_Star_Bicycle \"American Star Bicycle\"), whose smaller front wheel was designed to decrease the frequency of \"headers\". By 1884 high\\-wheelers and tricycles were relatively popular among a small group of upper\\-middle\\-class people in all three countries, the largest group being in England. Their use also spread to the rest of the world, chiefly because of the extent of the [British Empire](/wiki/British_Empire \"British Empire\").",
"Pope also introduced mechanization and mass production (later copied and adopted by [Ford](/wiki/Ford_Motor_Company \"Ford Motor Company\") and [General Motors](/wiki/General_Motors \"General Motors\")),Norcliffe, pp.106 \\& 108\\. GM's practise of sharing chassis, bodies, and other parts is exactly what Pope was doing. vertically integrated,Norcliffe, p.106\\. (also later copied and adopted by Ford), advertised aggressivelyNorcliffe, pp.142–7\\. (as much as ten percent of all advertising in U.S. periodicals in 1898 was by bicycle makers),Norcliffe, p.145\\. promoted the [Good Roads Movement](/wiki/Good_Roads_Movement \"Good Roads Movement\") (which had the side benefit of acting as advertising, and of improving sales by providing more places to ride),Norcliffe, p.108\\. and litigated on behalf of cyclists (It would, however, be [Western Wheel Works](/wiki/Western_Wheel_Works \"Western Wheel Works\") of [Chicago](/wiki/Chicago \"Chicago\") which would drastically reduce production costs by introducing [stamping](/wiki/Metal_stamping \"Metal stamping\") to the production process in place of machining, significantly reducing costs, and thus prices.)Norcliffe, p.107\\. In addition, bicycle makers adopted the annual model changeBabaian, Sharon. *The Most Benevolent Machine: A Historical Assessment of Cycles in Canada* (Ottawa: National Museum of Science and Technology, 1998\\), p.97\\. (later derided as [planned obsolescence](/wiki/Planned_obsolescence \"Planned obsolescence\"), and usually credited to General Motors), which proved very successful.Babaian, p.98\\.",
"Even so, bicycling remained the province of the urban well\\-to\\-do, and mainly men, until the 1890s,Norcliffe, pp.31–2 \\& 124\\. and was an example of [conspicuous consumption](/wiki/Conspicuous_consumption \"Conspicuous consumption\").Norcliffe, pp.31–2, 35, 124, \\& 243–6\\.",
"",
""
] |
20th century
------------
### The roadster
{{main\|Roadster (bicycle)}}
[thumb\|left\|Bicycle in Plymouth, England at the start of the 20th century](/wiki/File:BicyclePlymouth.jpg "BicyclePlymouth.jpg")
The ladies' version of the roadster's design was very much in place by the 1890s. It had a [step\-through frame](/wiki/Step-through_frame "Step-through frame") rather than the diamond frame of the gentlemen's model so that ladies, with their dresses and skirts, could easily mount and ride their bicycles, and commonly came with a skirt guard to prevent skirts and dresses becoming entangled in the rear wheel and spokes. As with the gents' roadster, the frame was of steel construction and the positioning of the frame and handlebars gave the rider a very upright riding position. Though they originally came with front spoon\-brakes, technological advancements meant that later models were equipped with the much\-improved coaster brakes or rod\-actuated rim or drum\-brakes.
> The Dutch cycle industry grew rapidly from the 1890s onwards. Since by then it was the British who had the strongest and best\-developed market in bike design, Dutch framemakers either copied them or imported them from England. In 1895, 85 percent of all bikes bought in the Netherlands were from Britain; the vestiges of that influence can still be seen in the solid, gentlemanly shape of a traditional Dutch bike even now.Bathurst, Bella *The Bicycle Book* (Harperpress, 2012\)
[thumb\|1897](/wiki/File:Ellimans-Universal-Embrocation-Slough-1897-Ad.png "Ellimans-Universal-Embrocation-Slough-1897-Ad.png")
Though the ladies' version of the roadster largely fell out of fashion in England and many other Western nations as the 20th century progressed, it remains popular in the Netherlands; this is why some people refer to bicycles of this design as Dutch bikes. In Dutch the name of these bicycles is Omafiets ("grandma's bike").
### Popularity in Europe, decline in US
Cycling steadily became more important in Europe over the first half of the twentieth century, but it dropped off dramatically in the United States between 1900 and 1910\. Automobiles became the preferred means of transportation. Over the 1920s, bicycles gradually became considered children's toys, and by 1940 most bicycles in the United States were made for children. In Europe cycling remained an adult activity, and bicycle racing, commuting, and "[cyclotouring](/wiki/Bicycle_touring "Bicycle touring")" were all popular activities. In addition, specialist bicycles for children appeared before 1916\.It is unlikely CCM's 1916 model was the first. Babaian, Sharon. *The Most Benevolent Machine* (Ottawa: Museum of Science and Technology, 1998\), p.71\.
From the early 20th century until after World War II, the roadster constituted most adult bicycles sold in the United Kingdom and in many parts of the British Empire. For many years after the advent of the motorcycle and automobile, they remained a primary means of adult transport. Major manufacturers in England were Raleigh and BSA, though Carlton, Phillips, Triumph, Rudge\-Whitworth, Hercules, and Elswick Hopper also made them.
### Technical innovations
Bicycles continued to evolve to suit the varied needs of riders. The [derailleur](/wiki/Derailleur "Derailleur") developed in France between 1900 and 1910 among cyclotourists, and was improved over time. Only in the 1930s did European racing organizations allow racers to use [gearing](/wiki/Bicycle_gearing "Bicycle gearing"); until then they were forced to use a two\-speed bicycle. The rear wheel had a sprocket on either side of the hub. To change gears, the rider had to stop, remove the wheel, flip it around, and remount the wheel. When racers were allowed to use derailleurs, racing times immediately dropped.
### World War II
[thumb\|German *[Wehrmacht](/wiki/Wehrmacht "Wehrmacht")* [bicycle troops](/wiki/Bicycle_infantry "Bicycle infantry").](/wiki/File:Wehrmacht_Radfahrtruppe_Military_bicycles_troops.jpeg "Wehrmacht Radfahrtruppe Military bicycles troops.jpeg")
Although multiple\-speed bicycles were widely known by this time, most or all [military bicycles](/wiki/Military_bicycle "Military bicycle") used in the Second World War were single\-speed. Bicycles were used by [paratroopers](/wiki/Paratroopers "Paratroopers") during the war to help them with transportation, creating the term "bomber bikes" to refer to US planes dropping bikes for troops to use.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.bergerwerke.com/historyG519\.html\|title\=History\|website\=www.bergerwerke.com \|access\-date\=December 3, 2019 }} The German *[Volksgrenadier](/wiki/Volksgrenadier "Volksgrenadier")* units each had a battalion of bicycle infantry attached. The [Invasion of Poland](/wiki/Invasion_of_Poland "Invasion of Poland") saw many bicycle\-riding scouts in use, with each bicycle company using 196 bicycles and 1 motorcycle. By September 1939, there were 41 bicycle companies mobilized.{{cite journal \|last\=Trusow \|first\=Anatol \|language\=pl \|title\=Wojna na rowerach w 1939 r. \|trans\-title\=War with Bicycles in 1939 \|journal\=Military Historical Review (Wojskowy Przegląd Historyczny) \|location\=Warsaw \|year\=1981 \|issue\=1 \|volume\=95 \|pages\=126–147 }}{{cite web \|work\=culture.pl \|first\=Marek \|last\=Kępa \|date\=December 21, 2017 \|url\=https://culture.pl/en/article/fighting\-a\-war\-on\-bicycles\-a\-secret\-polish\-history \|title\=Fighting a War on Bicycles \|access\-date\=April 24, 2023 }}
During the [Second Sino\-Japanese War](/wiki/Second_Sino-Japanese_War "Second Sino-Japanese War"), Japan used around 50,000 bicycle troops. The [Malayan Campaign](/wiki/Malayan_Campaign "Malayan Campaign") saw many bicycles used. The Japanese confiscated bicycles from civilians due to the abundance of bicycles among the civilian population.{{cite web \|url\=https://www.welovecycling.com/wide/2019/06/28/japanese\-style\-bicycle\-blitzkrieg/ \|title\=Japanese\-style Bicycle Blitzkrieg \|date\=28 June 2019 \|access\-date\=December 3, 2019 }} Japanese bicycle troops were efficient in both speed and carrying capacity, as they could carry {{convert\|36\|kg}} of equipment compared to a normal British soldier, who could carry {{convert\|18\|kg}}.{{cite web \|last\=Headrick \|first\=Alan C. \|url\=https://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/PTO/RisingSun/BicycleBlitz/index.html \|title\=Bicycle Blitzkrieg: The Malayan Campaign and the Fall of Singapore \|work\=ibiblio.org \|access\-date\=24 April 2023 }}
### China and the Flying Pigeon
{{More citations needed\|date\=April 2024}}
The [Flying Pigeon](/wiki/Flying_Pigeon "Flying Pigeon") was at the forefront of the bicycle phenomenon in the [People's Republic of China](/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_China "People's Republic of China"). The vehicle was the government approved form of transport, and the nation became known as *zixingche wang guo* (自行车王国) {{mdash}} the 'Kingdom of Bicycles'. A bicycle was regarded as one of the three "must\-haves" of every citizen, alongside a sewing machine and watch – essential items in life that also offered a hint of wealth. The Flying Pigeon bicycle became a symbol of an egalitarian social system that promised little comfort but a reliable ride through life.
Throughout the 1960s and 1970s, the logo became synonymous with almost all bicycles in the country. The Flying Pigeon became the single most popular mechanized vehicle on the planet, becoming so ubiquitous that Deng [Xiaoping](/wiki/Deng_Xiaoping "Deng Xiaoping") — the post\-[Mao](/wiki/Mao_Zedong "Mao Zedong") leader who launched China's economic reforms in the 1970s — defined prosperity as "a Flying Pigeon in every household".
In the early 1980s, Flying Pigeon was the country's biggest bike manufacturer, selling 3 million cycles in 1986\. Its 20\-kilo black single\-speed models were popular with workers, and there was a waiting list of several years to get one, and even then buyers needed good *[guanxi](/wiki/Guanxi "Guanxi")* (relationship) in addition to the purchase cost, which was about four months' wages for most workers.
### North America: Cruiser vs. racer
At mid\-century there were two predominant bicycle styles for recreational cyclists in North America. Heavyweight [cruiser bicycles](/wiki/Cruiser_bicycle "Cruiser bicycle"), preferred by the typical (hobby) cyclist,Babaian, p.71\. featuring balloon tires, pedal\-driven "coaster" brakes and only one gear, were popular for their durability, comfort, streamlined appearance, and a significant array of accessories (lights, bells, [springer forks](/wiki/Springer_fork "Springer fork"), speedometers, *etc.*). Lighter cycles, with hand brakes, narrower tires, and a three\-speed [hub gearing](/wiki/Hub_gear "Hub gear") system, often imported from England, first became popular in the United States in the late 1950s. These comfortable, practical bicycles usually offered generator\-powered headlamps, safety reflectors, kickstands, and frame\-mounted tire pumps. In the United Kingdom, like the rest of Europe, cycling was seen as less of a hobby, and lightweight but durable bikes had been preferred for decades.
In the United States, the sports roadster was imported after World War II, and was known as the "English racer". It quickly became popular with adult cyclists seeking an alternative to the traditional youth\-oriented cruiser bicycle. While the English racer was no racing bike, it was faster and better for climbing hills than the cruiser, thanks to its lighter weight, tall wheels, narrow tires, and internally geared rear hubs. In the late 1950s, U.S. manufacturers such as Schwinn began producing their own "lightweight" version of the English racer.
[thumb\|This *[racing bicycle](/wiki/Racing_bicycle "Racing bicycle")* has aluminum tubing, [carbon fiber](/wiki/Graphite-reinforced_plastic "Graphite-reinforced plastic") stays and forks, a drop handlebar, and narrow tires and wheels.](/wiki/File:Kusuma_bike_large.jpg "Kusuma bike large.jpg")
In the late 1960s, Americans' increasing consciousness of the value of exercise and later the advantage of [energy efficient](/wiki/Efficient_energy_use "Efficient energy use") transportation led to the American [bike boom of the 1970s](/wiki/Bike_boom%2320th_century "Bike boom#20th century"). Annual U.S. sales of adult bicycles doubled between 1960 and 1970, and doubled again between 1971 and 1975, the peak years of the adult cycling boom in the United States, eventually reaching nearly 17 million units.Ballantine, Richard, *Richard's Bicycle Book*, New York: Ballantine Books, rev. ed. (1978\), p.1
Most of these sales were to new cyclists, who overwhelmingly preferred models imitating popular European derailleur\-equipped [racing bikes](/wiki/Racing_bicycle "Racing bicycle"){{mdash}}variously called *sports* models, *sport/tourers*, or simply *ten\-speeds*{{mdash}}to the older *roadsters* with [hub gears](/wiki/Hub_gears "Hub gears") which remained much the same as they had been since the 1930s.Ballantine, Richard, *Richard's 21st Century Bicycle Book*, New York: Overlook Press (2001\), {{ISBN\|1\-58567\-112\-6}}, pp. introduction, 20, 25, 33–39 These lighter bicycles, long used by serious cyclists and by racers, featured dropped handlebars, narrow tires, [derailleur gears](/wiki/Derailleur_gears "Derailleur gears"), five to fifteen speeds, and a narrow 'racing' type saddle. By 1980, racing and sport/touring derailleur bikes dominated the market in North America.Ballantine, Richard, *Richard's 21st Century Bicycle Book*, New York: Overlook Press (2001\), pp. 20–25 [Fatbike](/wiki/Fatbike "Fatbike") was invented for off\-road usage in 1980\.
### Europe
In Britain, the utility roadster declined noticeably in popularity during the early 1970s, as a boom in recreational cycling caused manufacturers to concentrate on lightweight ({{convert\|23\|\-\|30\|lb\|kg\|1\|abbr\=on\|order\=flip\|disp\=or}}), affordable derailleur sport bikes, actually slightly\-modified versions of the [racing bicycle](/wiki/Racing_bicycle "Racing bicycle") of the era.{{cite book\|title\=The 21st Century Bicycle Book\|year\=2000\|publisher\=Overlook Press\|location\=New York\|page\=23\|author\=Richard Ballantine\|author\-link\=Richard Ballantine\|quote\=Sales of sport and road racing bikes constituted the major part of new bike sales from 1972, when annual U.K. sales went from just 700,000 per year to 1\.6 million per year in 1980\.}}
In the early 1980s, [Swedish](/wiki/Sweden "Sweden") company *Itera* invented a [new type](/wiki/Itera_plastic_bicycle "Itera plastic bicycle") of bicycle, made entirely of plastic. It was a commercial failure.
In the 1980s, UK cyclists began to shift from road\-only bicycles to all\-terrain models such as the mountain bike. The mountain bike's sturdy frame and load\-carrying ability gave it additional versatility as a utility bike, usurping the role previously filled by the roadster. By 1990, the roadster was almost dead; while annual UK bicycle sales reached an all\-time record of 2\.8 million, almost all of them were mountain and road/sport models.
### BMX bikes
[BMX bikes](/wiki/BMX_bike "BMX bike") are specially designed bicycles that usually have 16 to 24\-inch wheels (the norm being the 20\-inch wheel), which originated in the state of [California](/wiki/California "California") in the early 1970s when teenagers imitated their [motocross](/wiki/Motocross "Motocross") heroes on their bicycles.{{cite web\| title \=History of BMX\| url \=http://www.ababmx.com/index.php?page\=home\_history\| access\-date \=2007\-10\-14\| archive\-url \=https://web.archive.org/web/20071020001118/http://ababmx.com/index.php?page\=home\_history\| archive\-date \=2007\-10\-20}} Children were racing standard road bikes off\-road, around purpose\-built tracks in the [Netherlands](/wiki/Netherlands "Netherlands").{{cite web\| title \=University of BMX: BMX in Holland\| url \=http://www.fatbmx.com/modules/news/article.php?storyid\=2372\| access\-date \=2007\-10\-14\| archive\-url \=https://web.archive.org/web/20071019210834/http://fatbmx.com/modules/news/article.php?storyid\=2372\| archive\-date \=2007\-10\-19}} The 1971 motorcycle racing documentary *[On Any Sunday](/wiki/On_Any_Sunday "On Any Sunday")* is generally credited with inspiring the movement nationally in the US. In the opening scene, kids are shown riding their [Schwinn Sting\-Rays](/wiki/Schwinn_Sting-Ray "Schwinn Sting-Ray") off\-road. It was not until the middle of the decade the sport achieved critical mass, and manufacturers began creating bicycles designed specially for the sport.
It has grown into an international sport with several different disciplines such as Freestyle, Racing, Street, and Flatland.
### Mountain bikes
{{Main\|History of the mountain bike and mountain biking}}
In 1981, the first mass\-produced [mountain bike](/wiki/Mountain_bike "Mountain bike") appeared, intended for use off\-pavement over a variety of surfaces. It was an immediate success, and examples flew off retailers' shelves during the 1980s, their popularity spurred by the novelty of all\-terrain cycling and the increasing desire of urban dwellers to escape their surroundings *via* mountain biking and other [extreme sports](/wiki/Extreme_sports "Extreme sports"). These cycles featured sturdier frames, wider tires with large knobs for increased traction, a more upright seating position (to allow better visibility and shifting of body weight), and increasingly, various front and rear suspension designs.Ballantine, Richard, *Richard's 21st Century Bicycle Book*, New York: Overlook Press (2001\), pp.33–39 By 2000, mountain bike sales had far outstripped that of racing, sport/racer, and touring bicycles.{{Citation needed\|date\=November 2008}}
|
[
"20th century\n------------",
"### The roadster",
"{{main\\|Roadster (bicycle)}}\n[thumb\\|left\\|Bicycle in Plymouth, England at the start of the 20th century](/wiki/File:BicyclePlymouth.jpg \"BicyclePlymouth.jpg\")\nThe ladies' version of the roadster's design was very much in place by the 1890s. It had a [step\\-through frame](/wiki/Step-through_frame \"Step-through frame\") rather than the diamond frame of the gentlemen's model so that ladies, with their dresses and skirts, could easily mount and ride their bicycles, and commonly came with a skirt guard to prevent skirts and dresses becoming entangled in the rear wheel and spokes. As with the gents' roadster, the frame was of steel construction and the positioning of the frame and handlebars gave the rider a very upright riding position. Though they originally came with front spoon\\-brakes, technological advancements meant that later models were equipped with the much\\-improved coaster brakes or rod\\-actuated rim or drum\\-brakes.",
"> The Dutch cycle industry grew rapidly from the 1890s onwards. Since by then it was the British who had the strongest and best\\-developed market in bike design, Dutch framemakers either copied them or imported them from England. In 1895, 85 percent of all bikes bought in the Netherlands were from Britain; the vestiges of that influence can still be seen in the solid, gentlemanly shape of a traditional Dutch bike even now.Bathurst, Bella *The Bicycle Book* (Harperpress, 2012\\)",
"[thumb\\|1897](/wiki/File:Ellimans-Universal-Embrocation-Slough-1897-Ad.png \"Ellimans-Universal-Embrocation-Slough-1897-Ad.png\")\nThough the ladies' version of the roadster largely fell out of fashion in England and many other Western nations as the 20th century progressed, it remains popular in the Netherlands; this is why some people refer to bicycles of this design as Dutch bikes. In Dutch the name of these bicycles is Omafiets (\"grandma's bike\").",
"### Popularity in Europe, decline in US",
"Cycling steadily became more important in Europe over the first half of the twentieth century, but it dropped off dramatically in the United States between 1900 and 1910\\. Automobiles became the preferred means of transportation. Over the 1920s, bicycles gradually became considered children's toys, and by 1940 most bicycles in the United States were made for children. In Europe cycling remained an adult activity, and bicycle racing, commuting, and \"[cyclotouring](/wiki/Bicycle_touring \"Bicycle touring\")\" were all popular activities. In addition, specialist bicycles for children appeared before 1916\\.It is unlikely CCM's 1916 model was the first. Babaian, Sharon. *The Most Benevolent Machine* (Ottawa: Museum of Science and Technology, 1998\\), p.71\\.",
"From the early 20th century until after World War II, the roadster constituted most adult bicycles sold in the United Kingdom and in many parts of the British Empire. For many years after the advent of the motorcycle and automobile, they remained a primary means of adult transport. Major manufacturers in England were Raleigh and BSA, though Carlton, Phillips, Triumph, Rudge\\-Whitworth, Hercules, and Elswick Hopper also made them.",
"### Technical innovations",
"Bicycles continued to evolve to suit the varied needs of riders. The [derailleur](/wiki/Derailleur \"Derailleur\") developed in France between 1900 and 1910 among cyclotourists, and was improved over time. Only in the 1930s did European racing organizations allow racers to use [gearing](/wiki/Bicycle_gearing \"Bicycle gearing\"); until then they were forced to use a two\\-speed bicycle. The rear wheel had a sprocket on either side of the hub. To change gears, the rider had to stop, remove the wheel, flip it around, and remount the wheel. When racers were allowed to use derailleurs, racing times immediately dropped.",
"### World War II",
"[thumb\\|German *[Wehrmacht](/wiki/Wehrmacht \"Wehrmacht\")* [bicycle troops](/wiki/Bicycle_infantry \"Bicycle infantry\").](/wiki/File:Wehrmacht_Radfahrtruppe_Military_bicycles_troops.jpeg \"Wehrmacht Radfahrtruppe Military bicycles troops.jpeg\")\nAlthough multiple\\-speed bicycles were widely known by this time, most or all [military bicycles](/wiki/Military_bicycle \"Military bicycle\") used in the Second World War were single\\-speed. Bicycles were used by [paratroopers](/wiki/Paratroopers \"Paratroopers\") during the war to help them with transportation, creating the term \"bomber bikes\" to refer to US planes dropping bikes for troops to use.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.bergerwerke.com/historyG519\\.html\\|title\\=History\\|website\\=www.bergerwerke.com \\|access\\-date\\=December 3, 2019 }} The German *[Volksgrenadier](/wiki/Volksgrenadier \"Volksgrenadier\")* units each had a battalion of bicycle infantry attached. The [Invasion of Poland](/wiki/Invasion_of_Poland \"Invasion of Poland\") saw many bicycle\\-riding scouts in use, with each bicycle company using 196 bicycles and 1 motorcycle. By September 1939, there were 41 bicycle companies mobilized.{{cite journal \\|last\\=Trusow \\|first\\=Anatol \\|language\\=pl \\|title\\=Wojna na rowerach w 1939 r. \\|trans\\-title\\=War with Bicycles in 1939 \\|journal\\=Military Historical Review (Wojskowy Przegląd Historyczny) \\|location\\=Warsaw \\|year\\=1981 \\|issue\\=1 \\|volume\\=95 \\|pages\\=126–147 }}{{cite web \\|work\\=culture.pl \\|first\\=Marek \\|last\\=Kępa \\|date\\=December 21, 2017 \\|url\\=https://culture.pl/en/article/fighting\\-a\\-war\\-on\\-bicycles\\-a\\-secret\\-polish\\-history \\|title\\=Fighting a War on Bicycles \\|access\\-date\\=April 24, 2023 }}",
"During the [Second Sino\\-Japanese War](/wiki/Second_Sino-Japanese_War \"Second Sino-Japanese War\"), Japan used around 50,000 bicycle troops. The [Malayan Campaign](/wiki/Malayan_Campaign \"Malayan Campaign\") saw many bicycles used. The Japanese confiscated bicycles from civilians due to the abundance of bicycles among the civilian population.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.welovecycling.com/wide/2019/06/28/japanese\\-style\\-bicycle\\-blitzkrieg/ \\|title\\=Japanese\\-style Bicycle Blitzkrieg \\|date\\=28 June 2019 \\|access\\-date\\=December 3, 2019 }} Japanese bicycle troops were efficient in both speed and carrying capacity, as they could carry {{convert\\|36\\|kg}} of equipment compared to a normal British soldier, who could carry {{convert\\|18\\|kg}}.{{cite web \\|last\\=Headrick \\|first\\=Alan C. \\|url\\=https://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/PTO/RisingSun/BicycleBlitz/index.html \\|title\\=Bicycle Blitzkrieg: The Malayan Campaign and the Fall of Singapore \\|work\\=ibiblio.org \\|access\\-date\\=24 April 2023 }}",
"### China and the Flying Pigeon",
"{{More citations needed\\|date\\=April 2024}}\nThe [Flying Pigeon](/wiki/Flying_Pigeon \"Flying Pigeon\") was at the forefront of the bicycle phenomenon in the [People's Republic of China](/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_China \"People's Republic of China\"). The vehicle was the government approved form of transport, and the nation became known as *zixingche wang guo* (自行车王国) {{mdash}} the 'Kingdom of Bicycles'. A bicycle was regarded as one of the three \"must\\-haves\" of every citizen, alongside a sewing machine and watch – essential items in life that also offered a hint of wealth. The Flying Pigeon bicycle became a symbol of an egalitarian social system that promised little comfort but a reliable ride through life.",
"Throughout the 1960s and 1970s, the logo became synonymous with almost all bicycles in the country. The Flying Pigeon became the single most popular mechanized vehicle on the planet, becoming so ubiquitous that Deng [Xiaoping](/wiki/Deng_Xiaoping \"Deng Xiaoping\") — the post\\-[Mao](/wiki/Mao_Zedong \"Mao Zedong\") leader who launched China's economic reforms in the 1970s — defined prosperity as \"a Flying Pigeon in every household\".",
"In the early 1980s, Flying Pigeon was the country's biggest bike manufacturer, selling 3 million cycles in 1986\\. Its 20\\-kilo black single\\-speed models were popular with workers, and there was a waiting list of several years to get one, and even then buyers needed good *[guanxi](/wiki/Guanxi \"Guanxi\")* (relationship) in addition to the purchase cost, which was about four months' wages for most workers.",
"### North America: Cruiser vs. racer",
"At mid\\-century there were two predominant bicycle styles for recreational cyclists in North America. Heavyweight [cruiser bicycles](/wiki/Cruiser_bicycle \"Cruiser bicycle\"), preferred by the typical (hobby) cyclist,Babaian, p.71\\. featuring balloon tires, pedal\\-driven \"coaster\" brakes and only one gear, were popular for their durability, comfort, streamlined appearance, and a significant array of accessories (lights, bells, [springer forks](/wiki/Springer_fork \"Springer fork\"), speedometers, *etc.*). Lighter cycles, with hand brakes, narrower tires, and a three\\-speed [hub gearing](/wiki/Hub_gear \"Hub gear\") system, often imported from England, first became popular in the United States in the late 1950s. These comfortable, practical bicycles usually offered generator\\-powered headlamps, safety reflectors, kickstands, and frame\\-mounted tire pumps. In the United Kingdom, like the rest of Europe, cycling was seen as less of a hobby, and lightweight but durable bikes had been preferred for decades.",
"In the United States, the sports roadster was imported after World War II, and was known as the \"English racer\". It quickly became popular with adult cyclists seeking an alternative to the traditional youth\\-oriented cruiser bicycle. While the English racer was no racing bike, it was faster and better for climbing hills than the cruiser, thanks to its lighter weight, tall wheels, narrow tires, and internally geared rear hubs. In the late 1950s, U.S. manufacturers such as Schwinn began producing their own \"lightweight\" version of the English racer.",
"[thumb\\|This *[racing bicycle](/wiki/Racing_bicycle \"Racing bicycle\")* has aluminum tubing, [carbon fiber](/wiki/Graphite-reinforced_plastic \"Graphite-reinforced plastic\") stays and forks, a drop handlebar, and narrow tires and wheels.](/wiki/File:Kusuma_bike_large.jpg \"Kusuma bike large.jpg\")\nIn the late 1960s, Americans' increasing consciousness of the value of exercise and later the advantage of [energy efficient](/wiki/Efficient_energy_use \"Efficient energy use\") transportation led to the American [bike boom of the 1970s](/wiki/Bike_boom%2320th_century \"Bike boom#20th century\"). Annual U.S. sales of adult bicycles doubled between 1960 and 1970, and doubled again between 1971 and 1975, the peak years of the adult cycling boom in the United States, eventually reaching nearly 17 million units.Ballantine, Richard, *Richard's Bicycle Book*, New York: Ballantine Books, rev. ed. (1978\\), p.1",
"Most of these sales were to new cyclists, who overwhelmingly preferred models imitating popular European derailleur\\-equipped [racing bikes](/wiki/Racing_bicycle \"Racing bicycle\"){{mdash}}variously called *sports* models, *sport/tourers*, or simply *ten\\-speeds*{{mdash}}to the older *roadsters* with [hub gears](/wiki/Hub_gears \"Hub gears\") which remained much the same as they had been since the 1930s.Ballantine, Richard, *Richard's 21st Century Bicycle Book*, New York: Overlook Press (2001\\), {{ISBN\\|1\\-58567\\-112\\-6}}, pp. introduction, 20, 25, 33–39 These lighter bicycles, long used by serious cyclists and by racers, featured dropped handlebars, narrow tires, [derailleur gears](/wiki/Derailleur_gears \"Derailleur gears\"), five to fifteen speeds, and a narrow 'racing' type saddle. By 1980, racing and sport/touring derailleur bikes dominated the market in North America.Ballantine, Richard, *Richard's 21st Century Bicycle Book*, New York: Overlook Press (2001\\), pp. 20–25 [Fatbike](/wiki/Fatbike \"Fatbike\") was invented for off\\-road usage in 1980\\.",
"### Europe",
"In Britain, the utility roadster declined noticeably in popularity during the early 1970s, as a boom in recreational cycling caused manufacturers to concentrate on lightweight ({{convert\\|23\\|\\-\\|30\\|lb\\|kg\\|1\\|abbr\\=on\\|order\\=flip\\|disp\\=or}}), affordable derailleur sport bikes, actually slightly\\-modified versions of the [racing bicycle](/wiki/Racing_bicycle \"Racing bicycle\") of the era.{{cite book\\|title\\=The 21st Century Bicycle Book\\|year\\=2000\\|publisher\\=Overlook Press\\|location\\=New York\\|page\\=23\\|author\\=Richard Ballantine\\|author\\-link\\=Richard Ballantine\\|quote\\=Sales of sport and road racing bikes constituted the major part of new bike sales from 1972, when annual U.K. sales went from just 700,000 per year to 1\\.6 million per year in 1980\\.}}",
"In the early 1980s, [Swedish](/wiki/Sweden \"Sweden\") company *Itera* invented a [new type](/wiki/Itera_plastic_bicycle \"Itera plastic bicycle\") of bicycle, made entirely of plastic. It was a commercial failure.",
"In the 1980s, UK cyclists began to shift from road\\-only bicycles to all\\-terrain models such as the mountain bike. The mountain bike's sturdy frame and load\\-carrying ability gave it additional versatility as a utility bike, usurping the role previously filled by the roadster. By 1990, the roadster was almost dead; while annual UK bicycle sales reached an all\\-time record of 2\\.8 million, almost all of them were mountain and road/sport models.",
"### BMX bikes",
"[BMX bikes](/wiki/BMX_bike \"BMX bike\") are specially designed bicycles that usually have 16 to 24\\-inch wheels (the norm being the 20\\-inch wheel), which originated in the state of [California](/wiki/California \"California\") in the early 1970s when teenagers imitated their [motocross](/wiki/Motocross \"Motocross\") heroes on their bicycles.{{cite web\\| title \\=History of BMX\\| url \\=http://www.ababmx.com/index.php?page\\=home\\_history\\| access\\-date \\=2007\\-10\\-14\\| archive\\-url \\=https://web.archive.org/web/20071020001118/http://ababmx.com/index.php?page\\=home\\_history\\| archive\\-date \\=2007\\-10\\-20}} Children were racing standard road bikes off\\-road, around purpose\\-built tracks in the [Netherlands](/wiki/Netherlands \"Netherlands\").{{cite web\\| title \\=University of BMX: BMX in Holland\\| url \\=http://www.fatbmx.com/modules/news/article.php?storyid\\=2372\\| access\\-date \\=2007\\-10\\-14\\| archive\\-url \\=https://web.archive.org/web/20071019210834/http://fatbmx.com/modules/news/article.php?storyid\\=2372\\| archive\\-date \\=2007\\-10\\-19}} The 1971 motorcycle racing documentary *[On Any Sunday](/wiki/On_Any_Sunday \"On Any Sunday\")* is generally credited with inspiring the movement nationally in the US. In the opening scene, kids are shown riding their [Schwinn Sting\\-Rays](/wiki/Schwinn_Sting-Ray \"Schwinn Sting-Ray\") off\\-road. It was not until the middle of the decade the sport achieved critical mass, and manufacturers began creating bicycles designed specially for the sport.",
"It has grown into an international sport with several different disciplines such as Freestyle, Racing, Street, and Flatland.",
"### Mountain bikes",
"{{Main\\|History of the mountain bike and mountain biking}}\nIn 1981, the first mass\\-produced [mountain bike](/wiki/Mountain_bike \"Mountain bike\") appeared, intended for use off\\-pavement over a variety of surfaces. It was an immediate success, and examples flew off retailers' shelves during the 1980s, their popularity spurred by the novelty of all\\-terrain cycling and the increasing desire of urban dwellers to escape their surroundings *via* mountain biking and other [extreme sports](/wiki/Extreme_sports \"Extreme sports\"). These cycles featured sturdier frames, wider tires with large knobs for increased traction, a more upright seating position (to allow better visibility and shifting of body weight), and increasingly, various front and rear suspension designs.Ballantine, Richard, *Richard's 21st Century Bicycle Book*, New York: Overlook Press (2001\\), pp.33–39 By 2000, mountain bike sales had far outstripped that of racing, sport/racer, and touring bicycles.{{Citation needed\\|date\\=November 2008}}",
""
] |
Career
------
Maze is the most successful Slovenian ski racer in history with a career that culminated with two gold medals at the [2014 Winter Olympics](/wiki/Slovenia_at_the_2014_Winter_Olympics "Slovenia at the 2014 Winter Olympics").{{cite news \|last\=Herman \|first\=Martyn \|date\=12 February 2014 \|title\=Maze amazes as she wins Slovenia's first gold \|url\=https://www.reuters.com/article/us\-olympics\-alpineskiing\-maze\-idUSBREA1B0VD20140212 \|work\=\[\[Reuters]] \|location\=\[\[Rosa Khutor]], \[\[Russia]] \|access\-date\=12 February 2014 }} She was awarded the title of the [Slovenian Sportswoman of the Year](/wiki/Slovenian_Sportswoman_of_the_Year "Slovenian Sportswoman of the Year") in 2005, 2010, 2011, 2013, 2014 and 2015, and with her four medals she is the most decorated Slovenian athlete at the Winter Olympics.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.sports\-reference.com/olympics/countries/SLO/\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200417093058/https://www.sports\-reference.com/olympics/countries/SLO/\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-date\=17 April 2020\|title\=Slovenia\|work\=Olympics at Sports\-Reference.com\|access\-date\=22 February 2015}}
Maze started her career as a [giant slalom](/wiki/Giant_slalom "Giant slalom") specialist, but later competed in all five alpine skiing disciplines. She is one of seven female racers who has [won in all five World Cup](/wiki/FIS_Alpine_Ski_World_Cup%23All-event_winners "FIS Alpine Ski World Cup#All-event winners") disciplines and one of three to do so in a single season. Maze is the 2014 Olympic champion in downhill and giant slalom and the 2015 [world champion](/wiki/List_of_Alpine_Skiing_world_champions "List of Alpine Skiing world champions") in downhill and combined. She was also the world champion in [giant slalom](/wiki/FIS_Alpine_World_Ski_Championships_2011_%E2%80%93_Women%27s_giant_slalom "FIS Alpine World Ski Championships 2011 – Women's giant slalom") in [2011](/wiki/FIS_Alpine_World_Ski_Championships_2011 "FIS Alpine World Ski Championships 2011"){{cite news \| title \=Skiing: Maze Takes G\-Slalom Gold (I) \| url \=http://www.sta.si/en/vest.php?s\=a\&id\=1607162 \| publisher \=STA \| date \=17 February 2011 \| access\-date \=17 February 2011 \| archive\-date \=25 March 2012 \| archive\-url \=https://web.archive.org/web/20120325095018/http://www.sta.si/en/vest.php?s\=a\&id\=1607162 \| url\-status \=dead }} and [super\-G](/wiki/FIS_Alpine_World_Ski_Championships_2013_%E2%80%93_Women%27s_super-G "FIS Alpine World Ski Championships 2013 – Women's super-G") in [2013](/wiki/FIS_Alpine_World_Ski_Championships_2013 "FIS Alpine World Ski Championships 2013").
Maze won a total of 26 World Cup races during her career,{{FIS alpine skier\|38837}} and won the World Cup overall title in [2013](/wiki/2013_Alpine_Skiing_World_Cup "2013 Alpine Skiing World Cup").{{cite news \| url \= http://www.rtvslo.si/sport/zimski\-sporti/mazejeva\-osvojila\-veliki\-kristalni\-globus/303097 \| title \= Mazejeva osvojila veliki kristalni globus! \| author \= Ž. K., M. R. \| publisher \= \[\[Radiotelevizija Slovenija\|RTV Slovenija]] \| language \= sl \| date \= 24 February 2013 \| access\-date \= 24 February 2013}} In that season, she won 11 races and tallied a record number of World Cup points – 2414,{{cite web\|url\=http://www.rtvslo.si/sport/zimski\-sporti/tina\-maze\-z\-11\-zmago\-postavila\-piko\-na\-i\-nori\-sezoni/304639\|title\=Šampionka, kot je še ni bilo: 11\. zmaga sezone in 2\.414 točk!\|work\=Prvi interaktivni multimedijski portal, MMC RTV Slovenija}} beating the previous record of [Hermann Maier](/wiki/Hermann_Maier "Hermann Maier") of 2000 points from the [2000](/wiki/2000_Alpine_Skiing_World_Cup "2000 Alpine Skiing World Cup") season.New York Daily News, ["Tina Maze is the Slovenian beauty who'll be Lindsey Vonn's biggest adversary at the Sochi Winter Olympics in 2014"](http://www.nydailynews.com/sports/more-sports/zone-slovenian-beauty-a-maze-ing-racer-article-1.1290723), Nathaniel Vinton, 16 March 2013\. She also won the super\-G and giant slalom titles, and finished first in the combined event (although no globe was awarded) and finished second in slalom and downhill. Maze also improved Maier's previous record of podium finishes in a single season (22\) with 24 podiums.
### Early years
Maze made her World Cup debut at age 15 in Slovenia in January [1999](/wiki/1999_Alpine_Skiing_World_Cup "1999 Alpine Skiing World Cup"), in a giant slalom race at [Maribor](/wiki/Mariborsko_Pohorje_Ski_Resort "Mariborsko Pohorje Ski Resort"). During her early World Cup seasons, Maze competed in slalom, giant slalom, and super\-G, but scored World Cup points only in the first two disciplines. At the [2001 World Championships](/wiki/FIS_Alpine_World_Ski_Championships_2001 "FIS Alpine World Ski Championships 2001"), Maze's best result was a 16th place in slalom. In January 2002, Maze won her first podium, a second place in giant slalom in Maribor. At the [2002 Winter Olympics](/wiki/Alpine_skiing_at_the_2002_Winter_Olympics "Alpine skiing at the 2002 Winter Olympics") in the [United States](/wiki/United_States "United States"), Maze finished twelfth in the [giant slalom](/wiki/Alpine_skiing_at_the_2002_Winter_Olympics_%E2%80%93_Women%27s_giant_slalom "Alpine skiing at the 2002 Winter Olympics – Women's giant slalom") in her Olympic debut at [Park City](/wiki/Park_City_Mountain_Resort "Park City Mountain Resort"), [Utah](/wiki/Utah "Utah").{{Cite web\|url\=http://library.la84\.org/6oic/OfficialReports/2002/SLC2002Results1\.pdf\|title\=CONTENTdm}}
### 2003–2004 seasons
On 26 October [2002](/wiki/2003_Alpine_Skiing_World_Cup "2003 Alpine Skiing World Cup"), Maze won her first World Cup race at the season opener in [Sölden](/wiki/S%C3%B6lden "Sölden"), Austria. She shared the giant slalom win with [Nicole Hosp](/wiki/Nicole_Hosp "Nicole Hosp") of Austria and [Andrine Flemmen](/wiki/Andrine_Flemmen "Andrine Flemmen") of Norway in the first\-ever a three\-way tie in a World Cup race.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.sochi2014\.com/en/athlete\-tina\-maze \|title\=Tina MAZE \| Alpine Skiing \| Slovenia \|website\=Sochi2014\.com \|publisher\=\[\[Organizing Committee of the XXII Olympic Winter Games and XI Paralympic Winter Games of 2014 in Sochi]] \|date\=2014\-02\-23 \|access\-date\=2014\-03\-04 \|archive\-date\=1 March 2014 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140301185032/http://www.sochi2014\.com/en/athlete\-tina\-maze \|url\-status\=dead }} Maze finished the [2003 season](/wiki/2003_Alpine_Skiing_World_Cup "2003 Alpine Skiing World Cup") on the 38th place in the overall standings with 190 points, all in giant slalom. At the [2003 World Championships](/wiki/FIS_Alpine_World_Ski_Championships_2003 "FIS Alpine World Ski Championships 2003"), she finished 5th in giant slalom.{{cite web\|url\=http://data.fis\-ski.com/dynamic/athlete\-biography.html?sector\=AL\&competitorid\=38837\&type\=result\&category\=WC\&season\=2004\&sort\=\&discipline\=ALL\&position\=\&place\=\&Submit\=Search\&limit\=50 \|title\=MAZE Tina \- Biographie \|publisher\=Data.fis\-ski.com \|access\-date\=2014\-03\-04}}
In the [2004 season](/wiki/2004_Alpine_Skiing_World_Cup "2004 Alpine Skiing World Cup"), Maze scored one podium, a runner\-up position in giant slalom, and finished 33rd in the overall standings with 244 points. She scored her first points in super\-G and started competing in downhill races.
### 2005–2008 seasons
The [2005 season](/wiki/2005_Alpine_Skiing_World_Cup "2005 Alpine Skiing World Cup") was a successful season for Maze as she won 3 giant slalom races and scored two super\-G podiums, both 3rd places. She finished the season 10th in the overall standings with 650 points: 366 in giant slalom, where she finished fourth. At the [2005 World Championships](/wiki/FIS_Alpine_World_Ski_Championships_2005 "FIS Alpine World Ski Championships 2005") Maze finished sixth in super\-G and 10th in the combined.
In the [2006 season](/wiki/2006_Alpine_Skiing_World_Cup "2006 Alpine Skiing World Cup"), Maze won one giant slalom race and two more podiums, a third place in giant slalom and a runner\-up position in super\-G. She finished the season 14th in the overall standings with 525 points and scored World Cup points in all disciplines for the first time. At the [2006 Winter Olympics](/wiki/Alpine_skiing_at_the_2006_Winter_Olympics "Alpine skiing at the 2006 Winter Olympics"), Maze competed in the [giant slalom](/wiki/Alpine_skiing_at_the_2006_Winter_Olympics_%E2%80%93_Women%27s_giant_slalom "Alpine skiing at the 2006 Winter Olympics – Women's giant slalom") and [super\-G](/wiki/Alpine_skiing_at_the_2006_Winter_Olympics_%E2%80%93_Women%27s_super-G "Alpine skiing at the 2006 Winter Olympics – Women's super-G") events, where she finished 12th and 39th, respectively.{{Cite web\|url\=http://library.la84\.org/6oic/OfficialReports/2006/Results/AlpineSkiing.pdf\|title \= Official Results 2006 page 1}}
The [2007](/wiki/2007_Alpine_Skiing_World_Cup "2007 Alpine Skiing World Cup") season was not as successful for her as the previous two seasons, with only 3 top 10 finishes. She finished the season 30th in the overall standings with 268 points. At the [2007 World Championships](/wiki/FIS_Alpine_World_Ski_Championships_2007 "FIS Alpine World Ski Championships 2007"), Maze's best result was a 14th place in super\-G.
In February 2008, Maze won her first downhill in [St. Moritz](/wiki/St._Moritz "St. Moritz"), Switzerland, which was the first downhill victory won by a Slovenian female skier. It was also her first non\-giant slalom victory. She finished the [2008](/wiki/2008_Alpine_Skiing_World_Cup "2008 Alpine Skiing World Cup") season 28th overall with 287 points.
### 2009–2010 seasons: The breakthrough
[right\|thumb\|180px\|Maze with her silver medal
at the [2010 Olympics](/wiki/Alpine_skiing_at_the_2010_Winter_Olympics "Alpine skiing at the 2010 Winter Olympics")](/wiki/File:Tina_Maze_with_Olympic_silver_medal_2010.jpg "Tina Maze with Olympic silver medal 2010.jpg")
Following the declining results in the 2007 and 2008 seasons, Maze decided to break with the national ski team and founded her personal "Team to aMAZE" with her coach and partner Andrea Massi.{{cite encyclopedia\|url\=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/1745294/Tina\-Maze\|title\=Tina Maze\|encyclopedia\=Encyclopædia Britannica\|access\-date\=22 February 2015}} This move turned out to be a decisive step in Maze's career as her results began to improve significantly. In the [2009 Alpine Skiing World Cup](/wiki/2009_Alpine_Skiing_World_Cup "2009 Alpine Skiing World Cup"), Maze scored two wins, both in giant slalom, in [Maribor](/wiki/Mariborsko_Pohorje_Ski_Resort "Mariborsko Pohorje Ski Resort"), Slovenia, and in [Åre](/wiki/%C3%85re_Ski_Area "Åre Ski Area"), Sweden. She also won three more podiums, finishing second in downhill and was third twice in super\-G. At the [2009 World Championships](/wiki/FIS_Alpine_World_Ski_Championships_2009 "FIS Alpine World Ski Championships 2009") in [Val\-d'Isère](/wiki/Val-d%27Is%C3%A8re "Val-d'Isère"), France, Maze won a silver medal in [giant slalom](/wiki/FIS_Alpine_World_Ski_Championships_2009_%E2%80%93_Women%27s_giant_slalom "FIS Alpine World Ski Championships 2009 – Women's giant slalom"), her first medal in a "big competition." In that race, she was only 15th after the first run but excelled in the second, "because she was angry." In addition to the silver medal, Maze finished 14th in the [downhill](/wiki/FIS_Alpine_World_Ski_Championships_2009_%E2%80%93_Women%27s_downhill "FIS Alpine World Ski Championships 2009 – Women's downhill") and fifth in the [super\-G](/wiki/FIS_Alpine_World_Ski_Championships_2009_%E2%80%93_Women%27s_super-G "FIS Alpine World Ski Championships 2009 – Women's super-G"). Maze concluded the 2009 season sixth in the overall standings with 852 points, her best result to that date. She also finished third in the giant slalom standings.
In the [2010](/wiki/2010_Alpine_Skiing_World_Cup "2010 Alpine Skiing World Cup") season, Maze won one giant slalom race and had runner\-up finishes in slalom and giant slalom. That season, Maze had fifteen top 10 results and finished fourth in the overall standings. Again, she finished third in the giant slalom standings.
Maze was the [flag bearer](/wiki/2010_Winter_Olympics_national_flag_bearers "2010 Winter Olympics national flag bearers") for Slovenia at the [opening ceremony](/wiki/2010_Winter_Olympics_opening_ceremony "2010 Winter Olympics opening ceremony") of the [2010 Winter Olympic Games](/wiki/2010_Winter_Olympic_Games "2010 Winter Olympic Games") in [Vancouver, British Columbia](/wiki/Vancouver%2C_British_Columbia "Vancouver, British Columbia"), Canada. She won two silver medals – in [super\-G](/wiki/Alpine_skiing_at_the_2010_Winter_Olympics_%E2%80%93_Women%27s_super-G "Alpine skiing at the 2010 Winter Olympics – Women's super-G") and [giant slalom](/wiki/Alpine_skiing_at_the_2010_Winter_Olympics_%E2%80%93_Women%27s_giant_slalom "Alpine skiing at the 2010 Winter Olympics – Women's giant slalom") at [Whistler](/wiki/Whistler_Blackcomb "Whistler Blackcomb"). These were the first silver medals at Winter Olympics for independent Slovenia (athletes only won bronze medals before 2010\). Maze was fifth in the [super combined](/wiki/Alpine_skiing_at_the_2010_Winter_Olympics_%E2%80%93_Women%27s_combined "Alpine skiing at the 2010 Winter Olympics – Women's combined"), ninth in [slalom](/wiki/Alpine_skiing_at_the_2010_Winter_Olympics_%E2%80%93_Women%27s_slalom "Alpine skiing at the 2010 Winter Olympics – Women's slalom"), and 18th in [downhill](/wiki/Alpine_skiing_at_the_2010_Winter_Olympics_%E2%80%93_Women%27s_downhill "Alpine skiing at the 2010 Winter Olympics – Women's downhill").{{cite news \|title\=Two Times Silver Tina Maze Arrives Home \|url\=http://www.dax\-photo.com/newstories/two\-times\-silver\-tina\-maze\-arrives\-home \|publisher\=dax\-photo.com \|date\=28 February 2010 \|access\-date\=17 February 2011 \|archive\-date\=20 March 2012 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120320142123/http://www.dax\-photo.com/newstories/two\-times\-silver\-tina\-maze\-arrives\-home \|url\-status\=dead }}
### 2011–2012 seasons
Maze began the [2011 season](/wiki/2011_Alpine_Skiing_World_Cup "2011 Alpine Skiing World Cup") strong with several good results and podiums. That season, she won the first races in her career in super combined ([Tarvisio](/wiki/Tarvisio "Tarvisio"), Italy) and slalom ([Lenzerheide](/wiki/Lenzerheide "Lenzerheide"), Switzerland). She finished on podium six more times. Maze finished the 2011 season third in the overall standings with 1139 points.
At the [2011 World Championships](/wiki/FIS_Alpine_World_Ski_Championships_2011 "FIS Alpine World Ski Championships 2011") in [Garmisch\-Partenkirchen](/wiki/Garmisch-Partenkirchen "Garmisch-Partenkirchen"), Germany, Maze won the silver medal in the [super combined](/wiki/FIS_Alpine_World_Ski_Championships_2011_%E2%80%93_Women%27s_super_combined "FIS Alpine World Ski Championships 2011 – Women's super combined") and the gold medal in the [giant slalom](/wiki/FIS_Alpine_World_Ski_Championships_2011_%E2%80%93_Women%27s_giant_slalom "FIS Alpine World Ski Championships 2011 – Women's giant slalom"). She finished 5th in the [slalom](/wiki/FIS_Alpine_World_Ski_Championships_2011_%E2%80%93_Women%27s_slalom "FIS Alpine World Ski Championships 2011 – Women's slalom") and [downhill](/wiki/FIS_Alpine_World_Ski_Championships_2011_%E2%80%93_Women%27s_downhill "FIS Alpine World Ski Championships 2011 – Women's downhill"), and 11th in the [super\-G](/wiki/FIS_Alpine_World_Ski_Championships_2011_%E2%80%93_Women%27s_super-G "FIS Alpine World Ski Championships 2011 – Women's super-G").
The [2012 season](/wiki/2012_Alpine_Skiing_World_Cup "2012 Alpine Skiing World Cup") was a very interesting one as Maze had no victories but had ten podium finishes. She finished the season second in the overall standings with 1402 points, behind [Lindsey Vonn](/wiki/Lindsey_Vonn "Lindsey Vonn") of United States.
### 2013: The record breaking season
[thumb\|left\|Maze at a press conference, 2014](/wiki/File:Tina_Maze%2C_novinarska_konferenca_05.09.2014.webm "Tina Maze, novinarska konferenca 05.09.2014.webm")
Maze started the [2013 season](/wiki/2013_Alpine_Skiing_World_Cup "2013 Alpine Skiing World Cup") with a win in giant slalom in [Sölden](/wiki/S%C3%B6lden "Sölden"), Austria. She then won the 2nd giant slalom in [Aspen](/wiki/Aspen%2C_Colorado "Aspen, Colorado"), United States, followed by two wins in [St.Moritz](/wiki/St.Moritz "St.Moritz"), Switzerland, both in giant slalom and super combined. She then won again in giant slalom in [Courchevel](/wiki/Courchevel "Courchevel"), France making it 4 wins out of the first 4 races in this discipline. She collected 11 podiums till the New Year, with five wins, two 2nd and four 3rd places, gaining a sizable lead in the overall standings. She also broke the records for most points in a calendar year (2,180\) and most podiums (19\) in a calendar year. Her first victory in super\-G on 13 January 2013 in [St. Anton](/wiki/St._Anton_am_Arlberg "St. Anton am Arlberg") made her a member of the small group of [all\-event winners](/wiki/FIS_Alpine_Ski_World_Cup%23All-event_winners "FIS Alpine Ski World Cup#All-event winners") in alpine skiing. On 26 January, Maze finished second in giant slalom in Maribor to clinch her first World Cup title in GS, then won the slalom the following day.
On 24 February, she won the second super combined of the season in [Méribel](/wiki/M%C3%A9ribel "Méribel"), France, and secured the overall World Cup title with nine races remaining.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.rtvslo.si/sport/zimski\-sporti/mazejeva\-osvojila\-veliki\-kristalni\-globus/303097\|title\=Video: Mazejeva osvojila veliki kristalni globus!\|work\=Prvi interaktivni multimedijski portal, MMC RTV Slovenija}} Despite having the most points in super combined standings, the crystal globe for this discipline is no longer awarded due to a lack of events.{{cite news \| title \= In favor of super combined (crystal globe not awarded), stepping back only in slalom \|url \= http://www.fisalpine.com/news/favor\-super\-combined\-stepping\-back\-only\-slalom,1915\.html \| publisher \= fisalpine.com \| date \=13 June 2012 \| access\-date \= 25 February 2013}}
On 1 March, Maze finished second in super\-G in Garmisch, her 19th podium of the season, breaking the previous ladies' record. The next day, she won the downhill to record a win in all disciplines in a single season, previously accomplished by only two female skiers. In this race, Maze also surpassed 2,000 World Cup points in a single season and therefore broke [Hermann Maier](/wiki/Hermann_Maier "Hermann Maier")'s record from the [2000 season](/wiki/2000_Alpine_Skiing_World_Cup "2000 Alpine Skiing World Cup"), which was exactly 2,000 points. The last downhill race of the season at the World Cup finals was cancelled, so Maze finished as runner\-up in the downhill standings, a single point behind [Lindsey Vonn](/wiki/Lindsey_Vonn "Lindsey Vonn"), whose season had ended in February after a knee injury at the World Championships. The last super\-G race was also cancelled and Maze won the super\-G title. In the last race, a giant slalom on 17 March, she gained her eleventh victory of the season and finished with a record 2,414 points.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.fis\-ski.com/uk/disciplines/alpine\-skiing/cupstandings.html?suchen\=true\&suchcompetitorid\=\&suchseason\=2013\§or\=AL\&suchgender\=L\&suchcup\=WC\&suchnation\=\&discipline\=ALL\&search\=Search\|title\=Alpine Skiing\|work\=FIS\-SKI\|access\-date\=17 March 2013\|archive\-date\=21 March 2013\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130321002444/http://www.fis\-ski.com/uk/disciplines/alpine\-skiing/cupstandings.html?suchen\=true\&suchcompetitorid\=\&suchseason\=2013\§or\=AL\&suchgender\=L\&suchcup\=WC\&suchnation\=\&discipline\=ALL\&search\=Search\|url\-status\=dead}}
Maze broke various statistical records in this season. They include the highest number of podiums in a single season (24, record previously held by Hermann Maier (22\) and by [Hanni Wenzel](/wiki/Hanni_Wenzel "Hanni Wenzel") and [Pernilla Wiberg](/wiki/Pernilla_Wiberg "Pernilla Wiberg") for ladies (18\)), highest number of top 5 finishes (31, previously Hermann Maier and Pernilla Wiberg (24\)), highest number of points after first 10 races (677, previously [Katja Seizinger](/wiki/Katja_Seizinger "Katja Seizinger"), 643\), highest percent of possible points won (69%, previously 61% by Pernilla Wiberg), and the highest point difference to the second\-placed skier (1313, compared to 743 for Hermann Maier and 578 for [Lindsey Vonn](/wiki/Lindsey_Vonn "Lindsey Vonn")). In fact, Maze collected more World Cup points than second and third skier combined.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.rtvslo.si/sport/zimski\-sporti/vsi\-rekordi\-in\-obrazi\-tine\-maze/304695\|title\=Vsi rekordi in obrazi Tine Maze\|work\=Prvi interaktivni multimedijski portal, MMC RTV Slovenija}} Maze finished on podium in all Giant slalom events of the season, a feature previously achieved only by [Vreni Schneider](/wiki/Vreni_Schneider "Vreni Schneider") in the [1989 season](/wiki/1989_Alpine_Skiing_World_Cup "1989 Alpine Skiing World Cup"). She is also the only woman to remain at the top of the overall ranking throughout the season – a feature only achieved at men's Cup by [Bode Miller](/wiki/Bode_Miller "Bode Miller"). In addition to the overall title, Maze won the super\-G and giant slalom titles, finished at the top of the combined list by winning both races in the season, and finished second in the downhill and slalom listing. The titles went to Lindsey Vonn and [Mikaela Shiffrin](/wiki/Mikaela_Shiffrin "Mikaela Shiffrin"), respectively. She also came extremely close to sweeping all 6 titles, losing the downhill title to Vonn by a mere 1 point with the seasons final race cancelled due to bad weather, and where Maze would have needed only a top 15 finish to pass the injured Vonn. Shiffrin needed to beat Maze in the seasons final slalom race to steal away the season slalom title from points leader Maze, and overcome an over second deficit on Maze after the first run to do so.
Maze came to the [2013 World Championships](/wiki/FIS_Alpine_World_Ski_Championships_2013 "FIS Alpine World Ski Championships 2013") in [Schladming](/wiki/Schladming "Schladming"), Austria, as a favorite. At the time, she was the leader in the World Cup standings in three of the five disciplines (giant slalom, super\-G, and super combined), second in slalom and third in downhill. Several former alpine skiers stated that she is capable of winning a medal in every single discipline.[http://www.dnevnik.si/sport/zimski\-sporti/alpsko\-smucanje/porocevalec\-iz\-schladminga\-glavna\-tema\-je\-moznost\-osvojitve\-petih\-kolajn\-tine\-maze\-](http://www.dnevnik.si/sport/zimski-sporti/alpsko-smucanje/porocevalec-iz-schladminga-glavna-tema-je-moznost-osvojitve-petih-kolajn-tine-maze-) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130206235552/http://www.dnevnik.si/sport/zimski\-sporti/alpsko\-smucanje/porocevalec\-iz\-schladminga\-glavna\-tema\-je\-moznost\-osvojitve\-petih\-kolajn\-tine\-maze\-\|date\=6 February 2013}}{{cite web\|url\=http://www.zurnal24\.si/riesch\-tina\-lahko\-osvoji\-pet\-kolajn\-clanek\-181425\|title\=Riescheva: Tina lahko zmaga v vseh disciplinah\|work\=zurnal24}} In the first race at [Planai](/wiki/Planai "Planai"), Maze won the gold medal in [super\-G](/wiki/FIS_Alpine_World_Ski_Championships_2013_%E2%80%93_Women%27s_super-G "FIS Alpine World Ski Championships 2013 – Women's super-G"){{cite web\|url\=http://www.siol.net/sportal/zimski\_sporti/schladming\_2013/novice/2013/02/schladming\_superveleslalom\_zenske.aspx\|title\=Super Tina Maze do prvega zlata\|work\=Planet Siol.net}} and three days later won the silver medal in [super combined](/wiki/FIS_Alpine_World_Ski_Championships_2013_%E2%80%93_Women%27s_super_combined "FIS Alpine World Ski Championships 2013 – Women's super combined").{{cite web\|url\=http://www.delo.si/sport/sp\-v\-smucanju/tina\-maze\-svetovna\-podprvakinja\-v\-superkombinaciji\-zlato\-rieschevi.html\|title\=Tina Maze svetovna podprvakinja v superkombinaciji, zlato Rieschevi\|work\=delo.si}} She then finished seventh in [downhill](/wiki/FIS_Alpine_World_Ski_Championships_2013_%E2%80%93_Women%27s_downhill "FIS Alpine World Ski Championships 2013 – Women's downhill"), won another silver medal in [giant slalom](/wiki/FIS_Alpine_World_Ski_Championships_2013_%E2%80%93_Women%27s_giant_slalom "FIS Alpine World Ski Championships 2013 – Women's giant slalom"), and took fifth in [slalom](/wiki/FIS_Alpine_World_Ski_Championships_2013_%E2%80%93_Women%27s_slalom "FIS Alpine World Ski Championships 2013 – Women's slalom").
In October 2013, Maze was awarded the Skieur d'Or Award by members of the International Association of Ski Journalists for her record\-breaking performances during the previous season, thereby becoming the first Slovenian skier to receive the honour since its inception in 1963\.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.snowkings.co.uk/skiracing/awards/skieurdor/skieur\-dor\-award.htm\#2013 \|title\=Snow Kings Ski Site – Ski Racing – Skieur d'Or Award \|publisher\=Snowkings.co.uk \|access\-date\=26 October 2013 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100919025443/http://www.snowkings.co.uk/skiracing/awards/skieurdor/skieur\-dor\-award.htm \|archive\-date\=19 September 2010 }}
### 2014 season
[thumbnail\|Maze, [Gisin](/wiki/Dominique_Gisin "Dominique Gisin"), and [Gut](/wiki/Lara_Gut "Lara Gut") at [Rosa Khutor](/wiki/Rosa_Khutor_Alpine_Resort "Rosa Khutor Alpine Resort")
after the [2014 Olympic downhill](/wiki/Alpine_skiing_at_the_2014_Winter_Olympics_%E2%80%93_Women%27s_downhill "Alpine skiing at the 2014 Winter Olympics – Women's downhill")](/wiki/File:Women%27s_downhill%2C_2014_WOG_cropped.jpg "Women's downhill, 2014 WOG cropped.jpg")
Maze started the [2014](/wiki/2014_Alpine_Skiing_World_Cup "2014 Alpine Skiing World Cup") season less successfully, with one victory and three more podiums before the [Winter Olympics](/wiki/Alpine_skiing_at_the_2014_Winter_Olympics "Alpine skiing at the 2014 Winter Olympics") in February. The decline in results was partially attributed to the change of the coach from the previous season, when Walter Ronconi replaced Livio Magoni. In January 2014, Ronconi was replaced by Mauro Pini, who, according to Maze's team, brought a positive change to the team.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.delo.si/sport/zimski\-sporti/z\-novim\-trenerjem\-je\-v\-ekipo\-tine\-maze\-prisla\-tudi\-dobra\-volja.html\|title\=Z novim trenerjem je v ekipo Tine Maze prišla tudi dobra volja\|work\=delo.si}}
Following the Olympics, Maze won two more podiums, two third places. At the end of the season, she was completely exhausted and finished the last races with difficulties, having fulfilled her goals with two Olympic gold medals.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.rtvslo.si/sport/zimski\-sporti/fenningerjevi\-se\-zmaga\-v\-veleslalomskem\-sestevku/332229 \|title\=Fenningerjevi še zmaga v veleslalomskem seštevku :: Prvi interaktivni multimedijski portal, MMC RTV Slovenija \|publisher\=Rtvslo.si \|access\-date\=2014\-03\-16}} She won a third place in the downhill standings and finished 4th overall.
At the [2014 Winter Olympics](/wiki/Alpine_skiing_at_the_2014_Winter_Olympics "Alpine skiing at the 2014 Winter Olympics") in [Sochi](/wiki/Sochi "Sochi"), [Russia](/wiki/Russia "Russia"), Maze finished fourth in the [super combined](/wiki/Alpine_skiing_at_the_2014_Winter_Olympics_%E2%80%93_Women%27s_combined "Alpine skiing at the 2014 Winter Olympics – Women's combined") at [Rosa Khutor](/wiki/Rosa_Khutor_Alpine_Resort "Rosa Khutor Alpine Resort"). The second event was the [downhill](/wiki/Alpine_skiing_at_the_2014_Winter_Olympics_%E2%80%93_Women%27s_downhill "Alpine skiing at the 2014 Winter Olympics – Women's downhill"), where Maze tied for first place with [Dominique Gisin](/wiki/Dominique_Gisin "Dominique Gisin") of [Switzerland](/wiki/Switzerland "Switzerland"). This was the first gold medal for Slovenia at any Winter Olympics and the first time that a gold medal was shared at an Olympic alpine skiing event.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.rtvslo.si/sport/oi\-2014/alpsko\-smucanje/video\-tina\-maze\-sloveniji\-prinesla\-prvo\-zlato\-olimpijsko\-medaljo/329689 \|title\=Video: Tina Maze Sloveniji prinesla prvo zlato olimpijsko medaljo :: Prvi interaktivni multimedijski portal, MMC RTV Slovenija \|publisher\=Rtvslo.si \|access\-date\=2014\-03\-04}} Maze finished fifth in [super\-G](/wiki/Alpine_skiing_at_the_2014_Winter_Olympics_%E2%80%93_Women%27s_super-G "Alpine skiing at the 2014 Winter Olympics – Women's super-G"), won another gold in the [giant slalom](/wiki/Alpine_skiing_at_the_2014_Winter_Olympics_%E2%80%93_Women%27s_giant_slalom "Alpine skiing at the 2014 Winter Olympics – Women's giant slalom"),{{cite news \| url \= http://www.rtvslo.si/sport/oi\-2014/alpsko\-smucanje/nov\-zlati\-kamencek\-v\-kroni\-smucarske\-kraljice\-tine\-maze/330140 \| title \= Nov zlati kamenček v kroni smučarske kraljice Tine Maze! \| author \= R.K. \| publisher \= \[\[Radiotelevizija Slovenija\|RTV Slovenija]] \| date \= 18 February 2014 \| access\-date \= 18 February 2014 \| language \= sl }} and was eighth in the [slalom](/wiki/Alpine_skiing_at_the_2014_Winter_Olympics_%E2%80%93_Women%27s_slalom "Alpine skiing at the 2014 Winter Olympics – Women's slalom"). Following her Olympic success, Maze was nominated for the Laureus Award for the second year in a row.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.laureus.com/news/biggest\-names\-sport\-celebrate\-nomination\-2015\-laureus\-world\-sports\-awards\-0\|title\=Biggest names in Sport celebrate Nomination for 2015 Laureus World Sports Awards\|work\=laureus.com\|access\-date\=22 February 2015\|archive\-date\=22 February 2015\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150222224534/http://www.laureus.com/news/biggest\-names\-sport\-celebrate\-nomination\-2015\-laureus\-world\-sports\-awards\-0\|url\-status\=dead}}
### 2015 season
[thumb\|right\|Maze in 2017, shortly before her retirement](/wiki/File:Tina_Maze_%2831295567724%29.jpg "Tina Maze (31295567724).jpg")
The start of the [2015 season](/wiki/2015_Alpine_Skiing_World_Cup "2015 Alpine Skiing World Cup") was stronger than the previous year's for Maze. Winning three races and four additional podiums, Maze came to the [2015 World Championships](/wiki/FIS_Alpine_World_Ski_Championships_2015 "FIS Alpine World Ski Championships 2015") in [Vail](/wiki/Vail%2C_Colorado "Vail, Colorado") / [Beaver Creek](/wiki/Beaver_Creek_Resort "Beaver Creek Resort"), [Colorado](/wiki/Colorado "Colorado"), United States, as the overall World Cup leader{{cite news\|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2015/02/10/sports/skiing/slovenias\-maze\-wins\-the\-alpine\-combined\-and\-basks\-atop\-the\-skiing\-world.html\|title\=Tina Maze Wins the Alpine Combined and Basks Atop the Skiing World \|work\=The New York Times\|date\=10 February 2015 \|access\-date\=22 February 2015\|last1\=McMillan \|first1\=Kelley }} and was, as in 2013, seen as a potential candidate to win a medal in all five disciplines.{{cite news\|url\=https://www.reuters.com/article/us\-alpineskiing\-worlds\-kjus\-idUSKBN0LF2JK20150212\|title\=Kjus ready to welcome Maze to five\-medal club\|work\=Reuters\|date\=12 February 2015\|access\-date\=22 February 2015\|last1\=Keating\|first1\=Steve}} She took silver in the [super\-G race](/wiki/FIS_Alpine_World_Ski_Championships_2015_%E2%80%93_Women%27s_super-G "FIS Alpine World Ski Championships 2015 – Women's super-G"), continued with winning gold both in [downhill](/wiki/FIS_Alpine_World_Ski_Championships_2015_%E2%80%93_Women%27s_downhill "FIS Alpine World Ski Championships 2015 – Women's downhill") and [super\-combined](/wiki/FIS_Alpine_World_Ski_Championships_2015_%E2%80%93_Women%27s_super_combined "FIS Alpine World Ski Championships 2015 – Women's super combined") and then finished 5th in giant slalom and 8th in slalom, what was her best overall performance at World Championships.
Following the World Championships, Maze was tired and did not finish any of the two races in Maribor, which meant that she started to lose advantage over Anna Fenninger.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.rtvslo.si/sport/zimski\-sporti/tina\-vs\-anna\-obeta\-se\-razburljiv\-finis\-sezone/358973\|title\=Tina vs. Anna \- obeta se razburljiv finiš sezone\|work\=Prvi interaktivni multimedijski portal, MMC RTV Slovenija}} Final races of the season were a close battle between Maze and Fenninger. Maze won six more podiums until the end of the season and was leading 18 points in the overall standings before the last race but Fenninger won the last giant slalom and defended her overall title from the 2014 season.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.rtvslo.si/sport/zimski\-sporti/kljub\-odlicnemu\-nastopu\-tina\-maze\-izgubila\-bitko\-za\-globus/361073\|title\=Kljub odličnemu nastopu Tina Maze izgubila bitko za globus\|work\=Prvi interaktivni multimedijski portal, MMC RTV Slovenija}} Maze finished the season second, with her second\-highest number of season points. She also finished third in the slalom, super\-G, and downhill standings. At the end of the season, Maze hinted that she may retire from competitive sport in the following months.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.rtvslo.si/sport/zimski\-sporti/sklepno\-tinino\-dejanje\-odgovor\-bomo\-dobili\-julija/361157\|title\=Sklepno Tinino dejanje? Odgovor bomo dobili julija\|work\=Prvi interaktivni multimedijski portal, MMC RTV Slovenija}}
### Retirement
In May 2015, Maze announced that she would take a break from the sport for a year, not competing in the 2015–16 season and focusing on her studies instead.{{cite news\|url\=http://www.rtvslo.si/sport/zimski\-sporti/tina\-maze\-prekinila\-kariero\-a\-vrat\-povsem\-se\-ni\-zaprla/364490\|title\=Tina Maze prekinila kariero, a vrat povsem še ni zaprla\|language\=sl\|date\=7 May 2015\|access\-date\=1 February 2017\|publisher\=\[\[RTV Slovenija]]\|author\=R. K.}} On 20 October 2016 in Sölden, Maze announced her retirement from competitive skiing.{{cite news\|url\=http://www.delo.si/sport/zimski/tina\-maze\-bo\-v\-mariboru\-zakljucila\-bogato\-kariero.html\|title\=Tina Maze bo v Mariboru zaključila bogato kariero\|language\=sl\|date\=20 October 2016\|access\-date\=1 February 2017\|publisher\=\[\[Delo (Slovenia)\|Delo]]\|author\=M. Ž.}} She officially concluded her career on 7 January 2017 at the giant slalom race in Maribor, at the venue where she made her World Cup debut in 1999\.{{cite news\|url\=http://www.rtvslo.si/sport/zimski\-sporti/maze\-zivim\-za\-trenutek\-in\-ta\-trenutek\-je\-moj\-najpomembnejsi/411864\|title\=Maze: Živim za trenutek, in ta trenutek je moj najpomembnejši\|language\=sl\|date\=7 January 2017\|access\-date\=1 February 2017\|publisher\=\[\[RTV Slovenija]]\|author\=Mitja Lisjak}}
|
[
"Career\n------",
"Maze is the most successful Slovenian ski racer in history with a career that culminated with two gold medals at the [2014 Winter Olympics](/wiki/Slovenia_at_the_2014_Winter_Olympics \"Slovenia at the 2014 Winter Olympics\").{{cite news \\|last\\=Herman \\|first\\=Martyn \\|date\\=12 February 2014 \\|title\\=Maze amazes as she wins Slovenia's first gold \\|url\\=https://www.reuters.com/article/us\\-olympics\\-alpineskiing\\-maze\\-idUSBREA1B0VD20140212 \\|work\\=\\[\\[Reuters]] \\|location\\=\\[\\[Rosa Khutor]], \\[\\[Russia]] \\|access\\-date\\=12 February 2014 }} She was awarded the title of the [Slovenian Sportswoman of the Year](/wiki/Slovenian_Sportswoman_of_the_Year \"Slovenian Sportswoman of the Year\") in 2005, 2010, 2011, 2013, 2014 and 2015, and with her four medals she is the most decorated Slovenian athlete at the Winter Olympics.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.sports\\-reference.com/olympics/countries/SLO/\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200417093058/https://www.sports\\-reference.com/olympics/countries/SLO/\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-date\\=17 April 2020\\|title\\=Slovenia\\|work\\=Olympics at Sports\\-Reference.com\\|access\\-date\\=22 February 2015}}",
"Maze started her career as a [giant slalom](/wiki/Giant_slalom \"Giant slalom\") specialist, but later competed in all five alpine skiing disciplines. She is one of seven female racers who has [won in all five World Cup](/wiki/FIS_Alpine_Ski_World_Cup%23All-event_winners \"FIS Alpine Ski World Cup#All-event winners\") disciplines and one of three to do so in a single season. Maze is the 2014 Olympic champion in downhill and giant slalom and the 2015 [world champion](/wiki/List_of_Alpine_Skiing_world_champions \"List of Alpine Skiing world champions\") in downhill and combined. She was also the world champion in [giant slalom](/wiki/FIS_Alpine_World_Ski_Championships_2011_%E2%80%93_Women%27s_giant_slalom \"FIS Alpine World Ski Championships 2011 – Women's giant slalom\") in [2011](/wiki/FIS_Alpine_World_Ski_Championships_2011 \"FIS Alpine World Ski Championships 2011\"){{cite news \\| title \\=Skiing: Maze Takes G\\-Slalom Gold (I) \\| url \\=http://www.sta.si/en/vest.php?s\\=a\\&id\\=1607162 \\| publisher \\=STA \\| date \\=17 February 2011 \\| access\\-date \\=17 February 2011 \\| archive\\-date \\=25 March 2012 \\| archive\\-url \\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120325095018/http://www.sta.si/en/vest.php?s\\=a\\&id\\=1607162 \\| url\\-status \\=dead }} and [super\\-G](/wiki/FIS_Alpine_World_Ski_Championships_2013_%E2%80%93_Women%27s_super-G \"FIS Alpine World Ski Championships 2013 – Women's super-G\") in [2013](/wiki/FIS_Alpine_World_Ski_Championships_2013 \"FIS Alpine World Ski Championships 2013\").",
"Maze won a total of 26 World Cup races during her career,{{FIS alpine skier\\|38837}} and won the World Cup overall title in [2013](/wiki/2013_Alpine_Skiing_World_Cup \"2013 Alpine Skiing World Cup\").{{cite news \\| url \\= http://www.rtvslo.si/sport/zimski\\-sporti/mazejeva\\-osvojila\\-veliki\\-kristalni\\-globus/303097 \\| title \\= Mazejeva osvojila veliki kristalni globus! \\| author \\= Ž. K., M. R. \\| publisher \\= \\[\\[Radiotelevizija Slovenija\\|RTV Slovenija]] \\| language \\= sl \\| date \\= 24 February 2013 \\| access\\-date \\= 24 February 2013}} In that season, she won 11 races and tallied a record number of World Cup points – 2414,{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.rtvslo.si/sport/zimski\\-sporti/tina\\-maze\\-z\\-11\\-zmago\\-postavila\\-piko\\-na\\-i\\-nori\\-sezoni/304639\\|title\\=Šampionka, kot je še ni bilo: 11\\. zmaga sezone in 2\\.414 točk!\\|work\\=Prvi interaktivni multimedijski portal, MMC RTV Slovenija}} beating the previous record of [Hermann Maier](/wiki/Hermann_Maier \"Hermann Maier\") of 2000 points from the [2000](/wiki/2000_Alpine_Skiing_World_Cup \"2000 Alpine Skiing World Cup\") season.New York Daily News, [\"Tina Maze is the Slovenian beauty who'll be Lindsey Vonn's biggest adversary at the Sochi Winter Olympics in 2014\"](http://www.nydailynews.com/sports/more-sports/zone-slovenian-beauty-a-maze-ing-racer-article-1.1290723), Nathaniel Vinton, 16 March 2013\\. She also won the super\\-G and giant slalom titles, and finished first in the combined event (although no globe was awarded) and finished second in slalom and downhill. Maze also improved Maier's previous record of podium finishes in a single season (22\\) with 24 podiums.",
"### Early years",
"Maze made her World Cup debut at age 15 in Slovenia in January [1999](/wiki/1999_Alpine_Skiing_World_Cup \"1999 Alpine Skiing World Cup\"), in a giant slalom race at [Maribor](/wiki/Mariborsko_Pohorje_Ski_Resort \"Mariborsko Pohorje Ski Resort\"). During her early World Cup seasons, Maze competed in slalom, giant slalom, and super\\-G, but scored World Cup points only in the first two disciplines. At the [2001 World Championships](/wiki/FIS_Alpine_World_Ski_Championships_2001 \"FIS Alpine World Ski Championships 2001\"), Maze's best result was a 16th place in slalom. In January 2002, Maze won her first podium, a second place in giant slalom in Maribor. At the [2002 Winter Olympics](/wiki/Alpine_skiing_at_the_2002_Winter_Olympics \"Alpine skiing at the 2002 Winter Olympics\") in the [United States](/wiki/United_States \"United States\"), Maze finished twelfth in the [giant slalom](/wiki/Alpine_skiing_at_the_2002_Winter_Olympics_%E2%80%93_Women%27s_giant_slalom \"Alpine skiing at the 2002 Winter Olympics – Women's giant slalom\") in her Olympic debut at [Park City](/wiki/Park_City_Mountain_Resort \"Park City Mountain Resort\"), [Utah](/wiki/Utah \"Utah\").{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://library.la84\\.org/6oic/OfficialReports/2002/SLC2002Results1\\.pdf\\|title\\=CONTENTdm}}",
"### 2003–2004 seasons",
"On 26 October [2002](/wiki/2003_Alpine_Skiing_World_Cup \"2003 Alpine Skiing World Cup\"), Maze won her first World Cup race at the season opener in [Sölden](/wiki/S%C3%B6lden \"Sölden\"), Austria. She shared the giant slalom win with [Nicole Hosp](/wiki/Nicole_Hosp \"Nicole Hosp\") of Austria and [Andrine Flemmen](/wiki/Andrine_Flemmen \"Andrine Flemmen\") of Norway in the first\\-ever a three\\-way tie in a World Cup race.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.sochi2014\\.com/en/athlete\\-tina\\-maze \\|title\\=Tina MAZE \\| Alpine Skiing \\| Slovenia \\|website\\=Sochi2014\\.com \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Organizing Committee of the XXII Olympic Winter Games and XI Paralympic Winter Games of 2014 in Sochi]] \\|date\\=2014\\-02\\-23 \\|access\\-date\\=2014\\-03\\-04 \\|archive\\-date\\=1 March 2014 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140301185032/http://www.sochi2014\\.com/en/athlete\\-tina\\-maze \\|url\\-status\\=dead }} Maze finished the [2003 season](/wiki/2003_Alpine_Skiing_World_Cup \"2003 Alpine Skiing World Cup\") on the 38th place in the overall standings with 190 points, all in giant slalom. At the [2003 World Championships](/wiki/FIS_Alpine_World_Ski_Championships_2003 \"FIS Alpine World Ski Championships 2003\"), she finished 5th in giant slalom.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://data.fis\\-ski.com/dynamic/athlete\\-biography.html?sector\\=AL\\&competitorid\\=38837\\&type\\=result\\&category\\=WC\\&season\\=2004\\&sort\\=\\&discipline\\=ALL\\&position\\=\\&place\\=\\&Submit\\=Search\\&limit\\=50 \\|title\\=MAZE Tina \\- Biographie \\|publisher\\=Data.fis\\-ski.com \\|access\\-date\\=2014\\-03\\-04}}",
"In the [2004 season](/wiki/2004_Alpine_Skiing_World_Cup \"2004 Alpine Skiing World Cup\"), Maze scored one podium, a runner\\-up position in giant slalom, and finished 33rd in the overall standings with 244 points. She scored her first points in super\\-G and started competing in downhill races.",
"### 2005–2008 seasons",
"The [2005 season](/wiki/2005_Alpine_Skiing_World_Cup \"2005 Alpine Skiing World Cup\") was a successful season for Maze as she won 3 giant slalom races and scored two super\\-G podiums, both 3rd places. She finished the season 10th in the overall standings with 650 points: 366 in giant slalom, where she finished fourth. At the [2005 World Championships](/wiki/FIS_Alpine_World_Ski_Championships_2005 \"FIS Alpine World Ski Championships 2005\") Maze finished sixth in super\\-G and 10th in the combined.",
"In the [2006 season](/wiki/2006_Alpine_Skiing_World_Cup \"2006 Alpine Skiing World Cup\"), Maze won one giant slalom race and two more podiums, a third place in giant slalom and a runner\\-up position in super\\-G. She finished the season 14th in the overall standings with 525 points and scored World Cup points in all disciplines for the first time. At the [2006 Winter Olympics](/wiki/Alpine_skiing_at_the_2006_Winter_Olympics \"Alpine skiing at the 2006 Winter Olympics\"), Maze competed in the [giant slalom](/wiki/Alpine_skiing_at_the_2006_Winter_Olympics_%E2%80%93_Women%27s_giant_slalom \"Alpine skiing at the 2006 Winter Olympics – Women's giant slalom\") and [super\\-G](/wiki/Alpine_skiing_at_the_2006_Winter_Olympics_%E2%80%93_Women%27s_super-G \"Alpine skiing at the 2006 Winter Olympics – Women's super-G\") events, where she finished 12th and 39th, respectively.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://library.la84\\.org/6oic/OfficialReports/2006/Results/AlpineSkiing.pdf\\|title \\= Official Results 2006 page 1}}",
"The [2007](/wiki/2007_Alpine_Skiing_World_Cup \"2007 Alpine Skiing World Cup\") season was not as successful for her as the previous two seasons, with only 3 top 10 finishes. She finished the season 30th in the overall standings with 268 points. At the [2007 World Championships](/wiki/FIS_Alpine_World_Ski_Championships_2007 \"FIS Alpine World Ski Championships 2007\"), Maze's best result was a 14th place in super\\-G.",
"In February 2008, Maze won her first downhill in [St. Moritz](/wiki/St._Moritz \"St. Moritz\"), Switzerland, which was the first downhill victory won by a Slovenian female skier. It was also her first non\\-giant slalom victory. She finished the [2008](/wiki/2008_Alpine_Skiing_World_Cup \"2008 Alpine Skiing World Cup\") season 28th overall with 287 points.",
"### 2009–2010 seasons: The breakthrough",
"[right\\|thumb\\|180px\\|Maze with her silver medal \nat the [2010 Olympics](/wiki/Alpine_skiing_at_the_2010_Winter_Olympics \"Alpine skiing at the 2010 Winter Olympics\")](/wiki/File:Tina_Maze_with_Olympic_silver_medal_2010.jpg \"Tina Maze with Olympic silver medal 2010.jpg\")\nFollowing the declining results in the 2007 and 2008 seasons, Maze decided to break with the national ski team and founded her personal \"Team to aMAZE\" with her coach and partner Andrea Massi.{{cite encyclopedia\\|url\\=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/1745294/Tina\\-Maze\\|title\\=Tina Maze\\|encyclopedia\\=Encyclopædia Britannica\\|access\\-date\\=22 February 2015}} This move turned out to be a decisive step in Maze's career as her results began to improve significantly. In the [2009 Alpine Skiing World Cup](/wiki/2009_Alpine_Skiing_World_Cup \"2009 Alpine Skiing World Cup\"), Maze scored two wins, both in giant slalom, in [Maribor](/wiki/Mariborsko_Pohorje_Ski_Resort \"Mariborsko Pohorje Ski Resort\"), Slovenia, and in [Åre](/wiki/%C3%85re_Ski_Area \"Åre Ski Area\"), Sweden. She also won three more podiums, finishing second in downhill and was third twice in super\\-G. At the [2009 World Championships](/wiki/FIS_Alpine_World_Ski_Championships_2009 \"FIS Alpine World Ski Championships 2009\") in [Val\\-d'Isère](/wiki/Val-d%27Is%C3%A8re \"Val-d'Isère\"), France, Maze won a silver medal in [giant slalom](/wiki/FIS_Alpine_World_Ski_Championships_2009_%E2%80%93_Women%27s_giant_slalom \"FIS Alpine World Ski Championships 2009 – Women's giant slalom\"), her first medal in a \"big competition.\" In that race, she was only 15th after the first run but excelled in the second, \"because she was angry.\" In addition to the silver medal, Maze finished 14th in the [downhill](/wiki/FIS_Alpine_World_Ski_Championships_2009_%E2%80%93_Women%27s_downhill \"FIS Alpine World Ski Championships 2009 – Women's downhill\") and fifth in the [super\\-G](/wiki/FIS_Alpine_World_Ski_Championships_2009_%E2%80%93_Women%27s_super-G \"FIS Alpine World Ski Championships 2009 – Women's super-G\"). Maze concluded the 2009 season sixth in the overall standings with 852 points, her best result to that date. She also finished third in the giant slalom standings.",
"In the [2010](/wiki/2010_Alpine_Skiing_World_Cup \"2010 Alpine Skiing World Cup\") season, Maze won one giant slalom race and had runner\\-up finishes in slalom and giant slalom. That season, Maze had fifteen top 10 results and finished fourth in the overall standings. Again, she finished third in the giant slalom standings.",
"Maze was the [flag bearer](/wiki/2010_Winter_Olympics_national_flag_bearers \"2010 Winter Olympics national flag bearers\") for Slovenia at the [opening ceremony](/wiki/2010_Winter_Olympics_opening_ceremony \"2010 Winter Olympics opening ceremony\") of the [2010 Winter Olympic Games](/wiki/2010_Winter_Olympic_Games \"2010 Winter Olympic Games\") in [Vancouver, British Columbia](/wiki/Vancouver%2C_British_Columbia \"Vancouver, British Columbia\"), Canada. She won two silver medals – in [super\\-G](/wiki/Alpine_skiing_at_the_2010_Winter_Olympics_%E2%80%93_Women%27s_super-G \"Alpine skiing at the 2010 Winter Olympics – Women's super-G\") and [giant slalom](/wiki/Alpine_skiing_at_the_2010_Winter_Olympics_%E2%80%93_Women%27s_giant_slalom \"Alpine skiing at the 2010 Winter Olympics – Women's giant slalom\") at [Whistler](/wiki/Whistler_Blackcomb \"Whistler Blackcomb\"). These were the first silver medals at Winter Olympics for independent Slovenia (athletes only won bronze medals before 2010\\). Maze was fifth in the [super combined](/wiki/Alpine_skiing_at_the_2010_Winter_Olympics_%E2%80%93_Women%27s_combined \"Alpine skiing at the 2010 Winter Olympics – Women's combined\"), ninth in [slalom](/wiki/Alpine_skiing_at_the_2010_Winter_Olympics_%E2%80%93_Women%27s_slalom \"Alpine skiing at the 2010 Winter Olympics – Women's slalom\"), and 18th in [downhill](/wiki/Alpine_skiing_at_the_2010_Winter_Olympics_%E2%80%93_Women%27s_downhill \"Alpine skiing at the 2010 Winter Olympics – Women's downhill\").{{cite news \\|title\\=Two Times Silver Tina Maze Arrives Home \\|url\\=http://www.dax\\-photo.com/newstories/two\\-times\\-silver\\-tina\\-maze\\-arrives\\-home \\|publisher\\=dax\\-photo.com \\|date\\=28 February 2010 \\|access\\-date\\=17 February 2011 \\|archive\\-date\\=20 March 2012 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120320142123/http://www.dax\\-photo.com/newstories/two\\-times\\-silver\\-tina\\-maze\\-arrives\\-home \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}",
"### 2011–2012 seasons",
"Maze began the [2011 season](/wiki/2011_Alpine_Skiing_World_Cup \"2011 Alpine Skiing World Cup\") strong with several good results and podiums. That season, she won the first races in her career in super combined ([Tarvisio](/wiki/Tarvisio \"Tarvisio\"), Italy) and slalom ([Lenzerheide](/wiki/Lenzerheide \"Lenzerheide\"), Switzerland). She finished on podium six more times. Maze finished the 2011 season third in the overall standings with 1139 points.",
"At the [2011 World Championships](/wiki/FIS_Alpine_World_Ski_Championships_2011 \"FIS Alpine World Ski Championships 2011\") in [Garmisch\\-Partenkirchen](/wiki/Garmisch-Partenkirchen \"Garmisch-Partenkirchen\"), Germany, Maze won the silver medal in the [super combined](/wiki/FIS_Alpine_World_Ski_Championships_2011_%E2%80%93_Women%27s_super_combined \"FIS Alpine World Ski Championships 2011 – Women's super combined\") and the gold medal in the [giant slalom](/wiki/FIS_Alpine_World_Ski_Championships_2011_%E2%80%93_Women%27s_giant_slalom \"FIS Alpine World Ski Championships 2011 – Women's giant slalom\"). She finished 5th in the [slalom](/wiki/FIS_Alpine_World_Ski_Championships_2011_%E2%80%93_Women%27s_slalom \"FIS Alpine World Ski Championships 2011 – Women's slalom\") and [downhill](/wiki/FIS_Alpine_World_Ski_Championships_2011_%E2%80%93_Women%27s_downhill \"FIS Alpine World Ski Championships 2011 – Women's downhill\"), and 11th in the [super\\-G](/wiki/FIS_Alpine_World_Ski_Championships_2011_%E2%80%93_Women%27s_super-G \"FIS Alpine World Ski Championships 2011 – Women's super-G\").",
"The [2012 season](/wiki/2012_Alpine_Skiing_World_Cup \"2012 Alpine Skiing World Cup\") was a very interesting one as Maze had no victories but had ten podium finishes. She finished the season second in the overall standings with 1402 points, behind [Lindsey Vonn](/wiki/Lindsey_Vonn \"Lindsey Vonn\") of United States.",
"### 2013: The record breaking season",
"[thumb\\|left\\|Maze at a press conference, 2014](/wiki/File:Tina_Maze%2C_novinarska_konferenca_05.09.2014.webm \"Tina Maze, novinarska konferenca 05.09.2014.webm\")\nMaze started the [2013 season](/wiki/2013_Alpine_Skiing_World_Cup \"2013 Alpine Skiing World Cup\") with a win in giant slalom in [Sölden](/wiki/S%C3%B6lden \"Sölden\"), Austria. She then won the 2nd giant slalom in [Aspen](/wiki/Aspen%2C_Colorado \"Aspen, Colorado\"), United States, followed by two wins in [St.Moritz](/wiki/St.Moritz \"St.Moritz\"), Switzerland, both in giant slalom and super combined. She then won again in giant slalom in [Courchevel](/wiki/Courchevel \"Courchevel\"), France making it 4 wins out of the first 4 races in this discipline. She collected 11 podiums till the New Year, with five wins, two 2nd and four 3rd places, gaining a sizable lead in the overall standings. She also broke the records for most points in a calendar year (2,180\\) and most podiums (19\\) in a calendar year. Her first victory in super\\-G on 13 January 2013 in [St. Anton](/wiki/St._Anton_am_Arlberg \"St. Anton am Arlberg\") made her a member of the small group of [all\\-event winners](/wiki/FIS_Alpine_Ski_World_Cup%23All-event_winners \"FIS Alpine Ski World Cup#All-event winners\") in alpine skiing. On 26 January, Maze finished second in giant slalom in Maribor to clinch her first World Cup title in GS, then won the slalom the following day.",
"On 24 February, she won the second super combined of the season in [Méribel](/wiki/M%C3%A9ribel \"Méribel\"), France, and secured the overall World Cup title with nine races remaining.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.rtvslo.si/sport/zimski\\-sporti/mazejeva\\-osvojila\\-veliki\\-kristalni\\-globus/303097\\|title\\=Video: Mazejeva osvojila veliki kristalni globus!\\|work\\=Prvi interaktivni multimedijski portal, MMC RTV Slovenija}} Despite having the most points in super combined standings, the crystal globe for this discipline is no longer awarded due to a lack of events.{{cite news \\| title \\= In favor of super combined (crystal globe not awarded), stepping back only in slalom \\|url \\= http://www.fisalpine.com/news/favor\\-super\\-combined\\-stepping\\-back\\-only\\-slalom,1915\\.html \\| publisher \\= fisalpine.com \\| date \\=13 June 2012 \\| access\\-date \\= 25 February 2013}}",
"On 1 March, Maze finished second in super\\-G in Garmisch, her 19th podium of the season, breaking the previous ladies' record. The next day, she won the downhill to record a win in all disciplines in a single season, previously accomplished by only two female skiers. In this race, Maze also surpassed 2,000 World Cup points in a single season and therefore broke [Hermann Maier](/wiki/Hermann_Maier \"Hermann Maier\")'s record from the [2000 season](/wiki/2000_Alpine_Skiing_World_Cup \"2000 Alpine Skiing World Cup\"), which was exactly 2,000 points. The last downhill race of the season at the World Cup finals was cancelled, so Maze finished as runner\\-up in the downhill standings, a single point behind [Lindsey Vonn](/wiki/Lindsey_Vonn \"Lindsey Vonn\"), whose season had ended in February after a knee injury at the World Championships. The last super\\-G race was also cancelled and Maze won the super\\-G title. In the last race, a giant slalom on 17 March, she gained her eleventh victory of the season and finished with a record 2,414 points.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.fis\\-ski.com/uk/disciplines/alpine\\-skiing/cupstandings.html?suchen\\=true\\&suchcompetitorid\\=\\&suchseason\\=2013\\§or\\=AL\\&suchgender\\=L\\&suchcup\\=WC\\&suchnation\\=\\&discipline\\=ALL\\&search\\=Search\\|title\\=Alpine Skiing\\|work\\=FIS\\-SKI\\|access\\-date\\=17 March 2013\\|archive\\-date\\=21 March 2013\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130321002444/http://www.fis\\-ski.com/uk/disciplines/alpine\\-skiing/cupstandings.html?suchen\\=true\\&suchcompetitorid\\=\\&suchseason\\=2013\\§or\\=AL\\&suchgender\\=L\\&suchcup\\=WC\\&suchnation\\=\\&discipline\\=ALL\\&search\\=Search\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}",
"Maze broke various statistical records in this season. They include the highest number of podiums in a single season (24, record previously held by Hermann Maier (22\\) and by [Hanni Wenzel](/wiki/Hanni_Wenzel \"Hanni Wenzel\") and [Pernilla Wiberg](/wiki/Pernilla_Wiberg \"Pernilla Wiberg\") for ladies (18\\)), highest number of top 5 finishes (31, previously Hermann Maier and Pernilla Wiberg (24\\)), highest number of points after first 10 races (677, previously [Katja Seizinger](/wiki/Katja_Seizinger \"Katja Seizinger\"), 643\\), highest percent of possible points won (69%, previously 61% by Pernilla Wiberg), and the highest point difference to the second\\-placed skier (1313, compared to 743 for Hermann Maier and 578 for [Lindsey Vonn](/wiki/Lindsey_Vonn \"Lindsey Vonn\")). In fact, Maze collected more World Cup points than second and third skier combined.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.rtvslo.si/sport/zimski\\-sporti/vsi\\-rekordi\\-in\\-obrazi\\-tine\\-maze/304695\\|title\\=Vsi rekordi in obrazi Tine Maze\\|work\\=Prvi interaktivni multimedijski portal, MMC RTV Slovenija}} Maze finished on podium in all Giant slalom events of the season, a feature previously achieved only by [Vreni Schneider](/wiki/Vreni_Schneider \"Vreni Schneider\") in the [1989 season](/wiki/1989_Alpine_Skiing_World_Cup \"1989 Alpine Skiing World Cup\"). She is also the only woman to remain at the top of the overall ranking throughout the season – a feature only achieved at men's Cup by [Bode Miller](/wiki/Bode_Miller \"Bode Miller\"). In addition to the overall title, Maze won the super\\-G and giant slalom titles, finished at the top of the combined list by winning both races in the season, and finished second in the downhill and slalom listing. The titles went to Lindsey Vonn and [Mikaela Shiffrin](/wiki/Mikaela_Shiffrin \"Mikaela Shiffrin\"), respectively. She also came extremely close to sweeping all 6 titles, losing the downhill title to Vonn by a mere 1 point with the seasons final race cancelled due to bad weather, and where Maze would have needed only a top 15 finish to pass the injured Vonn. Shiffrin needed to beat Maze in the seasons final slalom race to steal away the season slalom title from points leader Maze, and overcome an over second deficit on Maze after the first run to do so.",
"Maze came to the [2013 World Championships](/wiki/FIS_Alpine_World_Ski_Championships_2013 \"FIS Alpine World Ski Championships 2013\") in [Schladming](/wiki/Schladming \"Schladming\"), Austria, as a favorite. At the time, she was the leader in the World Cup standings in three of the five disciplines (giant slalom, super\\-G, and super combined), second in slalom and third in downhill. Several former alpine skiers stated that she is capable of winning a medal in every single discipline.[http://www.dnevnik.si/sport/zimski\\-sporti/alpsko\\-smucanje/porocevalec\\-iz\\-schladminga\\-glavna\\-tema\\-je\\-moznost\\-osvojitve\\-petih\\-kolajn\\-tine\\-maze\\-](http://www.dnevnik.si/sport/zimski-sporti/alpsko-smucanje/porocevalec-iz-schladminga-glavna-tema-je-moznost-osvojitve-petih-kolajn-tine-maze-) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130206235552/http://www.dnevnik.si/sport/zimski\\-sporti/alpsko\\-smucanje/porocevalec\\-iz\\-schladminga\\-glavna\\-tema\\-je\\-moznost\\-osvojitve\\-petih\\-kolajn\\-tine\\-maze\\-\\|date\\=6 February 2013}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.zurnal24\\.si/riesch\\-tina\\-lahko\\-osvoji\\-pet\\-kolajn\\-clanek\\-181425\\|title\\=Riescheva: Tina lahko zmaga v vseh disciplinah\\|work\\=zurnal24}} In the first race at [Planai](/wiki/Planai \"Planai\"), Maze won the gold medal in [super\\-G](/wiki/FIS_Alpine_World_Ski_Championships_2013_%E2%80%93_Women%27s_super-G \"FIS Alpine World Ski Championships 2013 – Women's super-G\"){{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.siol.net/sportal/zimski\\_sporti/schladming\\_2013/novice/2013/02/schladming\\_superveleslalom\\_zenske.aspx\\|title\\=Super Tina Maze do prvega zlata\\|work\\=Planet Siol.net}} and three days later won the silver medal in [super combined](/wiki/FIS_Alpine_World_Ski_Championships_2013_%E2%80%93_Women%27s_super_combined \"FIS Alpine World Ski Championships 2013 – Women's super combined\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.delo.si/sport/sp\\-v\\-smucanju/tina\\-maze\\-svetovna\\-podprvakinja\\-v\\-superkombinaciji\\-zlato\\-rieschevi.html\\|title\\=Tina Maze svetovna podprvakinja v superkombinaciji, zlato Rieschevi\\|work\\=delo.si}} She then finished seventh in [downhill](/wiki/FIS_Alpine_World_Ski_Championships_2013_%E2%80%93_Women%27s_downhill \"FIS Alpine World Ski Championships 2013 – Women's downhill\"), won another silver medal in [giant slalom](/wiki/FIS_Alpine_World_Ski_Championships_2013_%E2%80%93_Women%27s_giant_slalom \"FIS Alpine World Ski Championships 2013 – Women's giant slalom\"), and took fifth in [slalom](/wiki/FIS_Alpine_World_Ski_Championships_2013_%E2%80%93_Women%27s_slalom \"FIS Alpine World Ski Championships 2013 – Women's slalom\").",
"In October 2013, Maze was awarded the Skieur d'Or Award by members of the International Association of Ski Journalists for her record\\-breaking performances during the previous season, thereby becoming the first Slovenian skier to receive the honour since its inception in 1963\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.snowkings.co.uk/skiracing/awards/skieurdor/skieur\\-dor\\-award.htm\\#2013 \\|title\\=Snow Kings Ski Site – Ski Racing – Skieur d'Or Award \\|publisher\\=Snowkings.co.uk \\|access\\-date\\=26 October 2013 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100919025443/http://www.snowkings.co.uk/skiracing/awards/skieurdor/skieur\\-dor\\-award.htm \\|archive\\-date\\=19 September 2010 }}",
"### 2014 season",
"[thumbnail\\|Maze, [Gisin](/wiki/Dominique_Gisin \"Dominique Gisin\"), and [Gut](/wiki/Lara_Gut \"Lara Gut\") at [Rosa Khutor](/wiki/Rosa_Khutor_Alpine_Resort \"Rosa Khutor Alpine Resort\") \nafter the [2014 Olympic downhill](/wiki/Alpine_skiing_at_the_2014_Winter_Olympics_%E2%80%93_Women%27s_downhill \"Alpine skiing at the 2014 Winter Olympics – Women's downhill\")](/wiki/File:Women%27s_downhill%2C_2014_WOG_cropped.jpg \"Women's downhill, 2014 WOG cropped.jpg\")\nMaze started the [2014](/wiki/2014_Alpine_Skiing_World_Cup \"2014 Alpine Skiing World Cup\") season less successfully, with one victory and three more podiums before the [Winter Olympics](/wiki/Alpine_skiing_at_the_2014_Winter_Olympics \"Alpine skiing at the 2014 Winter Olympics\") in February. The decline in results was partially attributed to the change of the coach from the previous season, when Walter Ronconi replaced Livio Magoni. In January 2014, Ronconi was replaced by Mauro Pini, who, according to Maze's team, brought a positive change to the team.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.delo.si/sport/zimski\\-sporti/z\\-novim\\-trenerjem\\-je\\-v\\-ekipo\\-tine\\-maze\\-prisla\\-tudi\\-dobra\\-volja.html\\|title\\=Z novim trenerjem je v ekipo Tine Maze prišla tudi dobra volja\\|work\\=delo.si}}\nFollowing the Olympics, Maze won two more podiums, two third places. At the end of the season, she was completely exhausted and finished the last races with difficulties, having fulfilled her goals with two Olympic gold medals.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.rtvslo.si/sport/zimski\\-sporti/fenningerjevi\\-se\\-zmaga\\-v\\-veleslalomskem\\-sestevku/332229 \\|title\\=Fenningerjevi še zmaga v veleslalomskem seštevku :: Prvi interaktivni multimedijski portal, MMC RTV Slovenija \\|publisher\\=Rtvslo.si \\|access\\-date\\=2014\\-03\\-16}} She won a third place in the downhill standings and finished 4th overall.",
"At the [2014 Winter Olympics](/wiki/Alpine_skiing_at_the_2014_Winter_Olympics \"Alpine skiing at the 2014 Winter Olympics\") in [Sochi](/wiki/Sochi \"Sochi\"), [Russia](/wiki/Russia \"Russia\"), Maze finished fourth in the [super combined](/wiki/Alpine_skiing_at_the_2014_Winter_Olympics_%E2%80%93_Women%27s_combined \"Alpine skiing at the 2014 Winter Olympics – Women's combined\") at [Rosa Khutor](/wiki/Rosa_Khutor_Alpine_Resort \"Rosa Khutor Alpine Resort\"). The second event was the [downhill](/wiki/Alpine_skiing_at_the_2014_Winter_Olympics_%E2%80%93_Women%27s_downhill \"Alpine skiing at the 2014 Winter Olympics – Women's downhill\"), where Maze tied for first place with [Dominique Gisin](/wiki/Dominique_Gisin \"Dominique Gisin\") of [Switzerland](/wiki/Switzerland \"Switzerland\"). This was the first gold medal for Slovenia at any Winter Olympics and the first time that a gold medal was shared at an Olympic alpine skiing event.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.rtvslo.si/sport/oi\\-2014/alpsko\\-smucanje/video\\-tina\\-maze\\-sloveniji\\-prinesla\\-prvo\\-zlato\\-olimpijsko\\-medaljo/329689 \\|title\\=Video: Tina Maze Sloveniji prinesla prvo zlato olimpijsko medaljo :: Prvi interaktivni multimedijski portal, MMC RTV Slovenija \\|publisher\\=Rtvslo.si \\|access\\-date\\=2014\\-03\\-04}} Maze finished fifth in [super\\-G](/wiki/Alpine_skiing_at_the_2014_Winter_Olympics_%E2%80%93_Women%27s_super-G \"Alpine skiing at the 2014 Winter Olympics – Women's super-G\"), won another gold in the [giant slalom](/wiki/Alpine_skiing_at_the_2014_Winter_Olympics_%E2%80%93_Women%27s_giant_slalom \"Alpine skiing at the 2014 Winter Olympics – Women's giant slalom\"),{{cite news \\| url \\= http://www.rtvslo.si/sport/oi\\-2014/alpsko\\-smucanje/nov\\-zlati\\-kamencek\\-v\\-kroni\\-smucarske\\-kraljice\\-tine\\-maze/330140 \\| title \\= Nov zlati kamenček v kroni smučarske kraljice Tine Maze! \\| author \\= R.K. \\| publisher \\= \\[\\[Radiotelevizija Slovenija\\|RTV Slovenija]] \\| date \\= 18 February 2014 \\| access\\-date \\= 18 February 2014 \\| language \\= sl }} and was eighth in the [slalom](/wiki/Alpine_skiing_at_the_2014_Winter_Olympics_%E2%80%93_Women%27s_slalom \"Alpine skiing at the 2014 Winter Olympics – Women's slalom\"). Following her Olympic success, Maze was nominated for the Laureus Award for the second year in a row.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.laureus.com/news/biggest\\-names\\-sport\\-celebrate\\-nomination\\-2015\\-laureus\\-world\\-sports\\-awards\\-0\\|title\\=Biggest names in Sport celebrate Nomination for 2015 Laureus World Sports Awards\\|work\\=laureus.com\\|access\\-date\\=22 February 2015\\|archive\\-date\\=22 February 2015\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150222224534/http://www.laureus.com/news/biggest\\-names\\-sport\\-celebrate\\-nomination\\-2015\\-laureus\\-world\\-sports\\-awards\\-0\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}",
"### 2015 season",
"[thumb\\|right\\|Maze in 2017, shortly before her retirement](/wiki/File:Tina_Maze_%2831295567724%29.jpg \"Tina Maze (31295567724).jpg\")\nThe start of the [2015 season](/wiki/2015_Alpine_Skiing_World_Cup \"2015 Alpine Skiing World Cup\") was stronger than the previous year's for Maze. Winning three races and four additional podiums, Maze came to the [2015 World Championships](/wiki/FIS_Alpine_World_Ski_Championships_2015 \"FIS Alpine World Ski Championships 2015\") in [Vail](/wiki/Vail%2C_Colorado \"Vail, Colorado\") / [Beaver Creek](/wiki/Beaver_Creek_Resort \"Beaver Creek Resort\"), [Colorado](/wiki/Colorado \"Colorado\"), United States, as the overall World Cup leader{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2015/02/10/sports/skiing/slovenias\\-maze\\-wins\\-the\\-alpine\\-combined\\-and\\-basks\\-atop\\-the\\-skiing\\-world.html\\|title\\=Tina Maze Wins the Alpine Combined and Basks Atop the Skiing World \\|work\\=The New York Times\\|date\\=10 February 2015 \\|access\\-date\\=22 February 2015\\|last1\\=McMillan \\|first1\\=Kelley }} and was, as in 2013, seen as a potential candidate to win a medal in all five disciplines.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.reuters.com/article/us\\-alpineskiing\\-worlds\\-kjus\\-idUSKBN0LF2JK20150212\\|title\\=Kjus ready to welcome Maze to five\\-medal club\\|work\\=Reuters\\|date\\=12 February 2015\\|access\\-date\\=22 February 2015\\|last1\\=Keating\\|first1\\=Steve}} She took silver in the [super\\-G race](/wiki/FIS_Alpine_World_Ski_Championships_2015_%E2%80%93_Women%27s_super-G \"FIS Alpine World Ski Championships 2015 – Women's super-G\"), continued with winning gold both in [downhill](/wiki/FIS_Alpine_World_Ski_Championships_2015_%E2%80%93_Women%27s_downhill \"FIS Alpine World Ski Championships 2015 – Women's downhill\") and [super\\-combined](/wiki/FIS_Alpine_World_Ski_Championships_2015_%E2%80%93_Women%27s_super_combined \"FIS Alpine World Ski Championships 2015 – Women's super combined\") and then finished 5th in giant slalom and 8th in slalom, what was her best overall performance at World Championships.",
"Following the World Championships, Maze was tired and did not finish any of the two races in Maribor, which meant that she started to lose advantage over Anna Fenninger.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.rtvslo.si/sport/zimski\\-sporti/tina\\-vs\\-anna\\-obeta\\-se\\-razburljiv\\-finis\\-sezone/358973\\|title\\=Tina vs. Anna \\- obeta se razburljiv finiš sezone\\|work\\=Prvi interaktivni multimedijski portal, MMC RTV Slovenija}} Final races of the season were a close battle between Maze and Fenninger. Maze won six more podiums until the end of the season and was leading 18 points in the overall standings before the last race but Fenninger won the last giant slalom and defended her overall title from the 2014 season.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.rtvslo.si/sport/zimski\\-sporti/kljub\\-odlicnemu\\-nastopu\\-tina\\-maze\\-izgubila\\-bitko\\-za\\-globus/361073\\|title\\=Kljub odličnemu nastopu Tina Maze izgubila bitko za globus\\|work\\=Prvi interaktivni multimedijski portal, MMC RTV Slovenija}} Maze finished the season second, with her second\\-highest number of season points. She also finished third in the slalom, super\\-G, and downhill standings. At the end of the season, Maze hinted that she may retire from competitive sport in the following months.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.rtvslo.si/sport/zimski\\-sporti/sklepno\\-tinino\\-dejanje\\-odgovor\\-bomo\\-dobili\\-julija/361157\\|title\\=Sklepno Tinino dejanje? Odgovor bomo dobili julija\\|work\\=Prvi interaktivni multimedijski portal, MMC RTV Slovenija}}",
"### Retirement",
"In May 2015, Maze announced that she would take a break from the sport for a year, not competing in the 2015–16 season and focusing on her studies instead.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.rtvslo.si/sport/zimski\\-sporti/tina\\-maze\\-prekinila\\-kariero\\-a\\-vrat\\-povsem\\-se\\-ni\\-zaprla/364490\\|title\\=Tina Maze prekinila kariero, a vrat povsem še ni zaprla\\|language\\=sl\\|date\\=7 May 2015\\|access\\-date\\=1 February 2017\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[RTV Slovenija]]\\|author\\=R. K.}} On 20 October 2016 in Sölden, Maze announced her retirement from competitive skiing.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.delo.si/sport/zimski/tina\\-maze\\-bo\\-v\\-mariboru\\-zakljucila\\-bogato\\-kariero.html\\|title\\=Tina Maze bo v Mariboru zaključila bogato kariero\\|language\\=sl\\|date\\=20 October 2016\\|access\\-date\\=1 February 2017\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Delo (Slovenia)\\|Delo]]\\|author\\=M. Ž.}} She officially concluded her career on 7 January 2017 at the giant slalom race in Maribor, at the venue where she made her World Cup debut in 1999\\.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.rtvslo.si/sport/zimski\\-sporti/maze\\-zivim\\-za\\-trenutek\\-in\\-ta\\-trenutek\\-je\\-moj\\-najpomembnejsi/411864\\|title\\=Maze: Živim za trenutek, in ta trenutek je moj najpomembnejši\\|language\\=sl\\|date\\=7 January 2017\\|access\\-date\\=1 February 2017\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[RTV Slovenija]]\\|author\\=Mitja Lisjak}}",
""
] |
Applications
------------
There are many applications for plasmonic\-enhanced solar cells. The need for cheaper and more efficient solar cells is considerable. In order for solar cells to be considered cost\-effective, they need to provide energy for a smaller price than that of traditional power sources such as [coal](/wiki/Coal "Coal") and [gasoline](/wiki/Gasoline "Gasoline"). The movement toward a more green world has helped to spark research in the area of plasmonic\-enhanced solar cells. Currently, solar cells cannot exceed efficiencies of about 30% (first generation). With new technologies (third generation), efficiencies of up to 40\-60% can be expected. With a reduction of materials through the use of thin film technology (second Generation), prices can be driven lower.
Certain applications for plasmonic\-enhanced solar cells would be for [space exploration](/wiki/Space_exploration "Space exploration") vehicles. A main contribution for this would be the reduced weight of the solar cells. An external fuel source would also not be needed if enough power could be generated from the solar cells. This would drastically help to reduce the weight as well.
Solar cells have a great potential to help rural [electrification](/wiki/Electrification "Electrification"). An estimated two million villages near the equator have limited access to electricity and fossil fuels, and approximately 25%{{Cite web \| url\=http://www.globalissues.org/article/26/poverty\-facts\-and\-stats \| title\=Poverty Facts and Stats — Global Issues}} of people in the world do not have access to electricity. When the cost of extending [power grids](/wiki/Power_grid "Power grid"), running rural electricity and using diesel generators is compared with the cost of solar cells, in many cases the solar cells are superior. If the efficiency and cost of the current solar cell technology is decreased even further, then many rural communities and villages around the world could obtain electricity when current methods are out of the question. Specific applications for rural communities would be water pumping systems, residential electric supply and street lights. A particularly interesting application would be for health systems in countries where motorized vehicles are not overly abundant. Solar cells could be used to provide the power to refrigerate [medications](/wiki/Medication "Medication") in coolers during transport.
Solar cells could also provide power to [lighthouses](/wiki/Lighthouse "Lighthouse"), [buoys](/wiki/Buoy "Buoy"), or even [battleships](/wiki/Battleship "Battleship") out in the ocean. Industrial companies could use them to power [telecommunications](/wiki/Telecommunications "Telecommunications") systems or monitoring and control systems along pipelines.
If the solar cells could be produced on a large scale and be cost effective, then entire [power stations](/wiki/Power_station "Power station") could be built in order to provide power to the electrical grids. With a reduction in size, they could be implemented on both commercial and residential buildings with a much smaller footprint.
[http://www.soton.ac.uk/\~solar/intro/appso.htm](http://www.soton.ac.uk/~solar/intro/appso.htm)
Other applications are in hybrid systems. The solar cells could help to power high\-consumption devices such as [automobiles](/wiki/Automobile "Automobile") in order to reduce the amount of fossil fuels used.
In consumer electronics devices, solar cells could be used to replace batteries for low\-power electronics. This would save money and it would also reduce the amount of waste going into [landfills](/wiki/Landfill "Landfill").[http://blog.coolerplanet.com/2009/01/23/the\-4\-basic\-types\-of\-solar\-cell\-applications/](http://blog.coolerplanet.com/2009/01/23/the-4-basic-types-of-solar-cell-applications/)
|
[
"Applications\n------------",
"There are many applications for plasmonic\\-enhanced solar cells. The need for cheaper and more efficient solar cells is considerable. In order for solar cells to be considered cost\\-effective, they need to provide energy for a smaller price than that of traditional power sources such as [coal](/wiki/Coal \"Coal\") and [gasoline](/wiki/Gasoline \"Gasoline\"). The movement toward a more green world has helped to spark research in the area of plasmonic\\-enhanced solar cells. Currently, solar cells cannot exceed efficiencies of about 30% (first generation). With new technologies (third generation), efficiencies of up to 40\\-60% can be expected. With a reduction of materials through the use of thin film technology (second Generation), prices can be driven lower.",
"Certain applications for plasmonic\\-enhanced solar cells would be for [space exploration](/wiki/Space_exploration \"Space exploration\") vehicles. A main contribution for this would be the reduced weight of the solar cells. An external fuel source would also not be needed if enough power could be generated from the solar cells. This would drastically help to reduce the weight as well.",
"Solar cells have a great potential to help rural [electrification](/wiki/Electrification \"Electrification\"). An estimated two million villages near the equator have limited access to electricity and fossil fuels, and approximately 25%{{Cite web \\| url\\=http://www.globalissues.org/article/26/poverty\\-facts\\-and\\-stats \\| title\\=Poverty Facts and Stats — Global Issues}} of people in the world do not have access to electricity. When the cost of extending [power grids](/wiki/Power_grid \"Power grid\"), running rural electricity and using diesel generators is compared with the cost of solar cells, in many cases the solar cells are superior. If the efficiency and cost of the current solar cell technology is decreased even further, then many rural communities and villages around the world could obtain electricity when current methods are out of the question. Specific applications for rural communities would be water pumping systems, residential electric supply and street lights. A particularly interesting application would be for health systems in countries where motorized vehicles are not overly abundant. Solar cells could be used to provide the power to refrigerate [medications](/wiki/Medication \"Medication\") in coolers during transport.",
"Solar cells could also provide power to [lighthouses](/wiki/Lighthouse \"Lighthouse\"), [buoys](/wiki/Buoy \"Buoy\"), or even [battleships](/wiki/Battleship \"Battleship\") out in the ocean. Industrial companies could use them to power [telecommunications](/wiki/Telecommunications \"Telecommunications\") systems or monitoring and control systems along pipelines.",
"If the solar cells could be produced on a large scale and be cost effective, then entire [power stations](/wiki/Power_station \"Power station\") could be built in order to provide power to the electrical grids. With a reduction in size, they could be implemented on both commercial and residential buildings with a much smaller footprint.\n[http://www.soton.ac.uk/\\~solar/intro/appso.htm](http://www.soton.ac.uk/~solar/intro/appso.htm)",
"Other applications are in hybrid systems. The solar cells could help to power high\\-consumption devices such as [automobiles](/wiki/Automobile \"Automobile\") in order to reduce the amount of fossil fuels used.",
"In consumer electronics devices, solar cells could be used to replace batteries for low\\-power electronics. This would save money and it would also reduce the amount of waste going into [landfills](/wiki/Landfill \"Landfill\").[http://blog.coolerplanet.com/2009/01/23/the\\-4\\-basic\\-types\\-of\\-solar\\-cell\\-applications/](http://blog.coolerplanet.com/2009/01/23/the-4-basic-types-of-solar-cell-applications/)",
""
] |
Recent advancements
-------------------
### Choice of plasmonic metal nano\-particles
Proper choice of plasmatic metal nanoparticles is crucial for the maximum light absorption in the active layer. Front surface located nanoparticles of silver and gold (Ag and Au) are the most widely used materials due to their surface plasmon resonances being located in the visible range, therefore interacting more strongly with the peak solar intensity. However, such noble metal nanoparticles always introduce reduced light coupling into Si at the short wavelengths below the surface plasmon resonance due to the detrimental Fano effect, i.e. the destructive interference between the scattered and unscattered light. Moreover, the noble metal nano\-particles are impractical to use for large\-scale solar cell manufacture due to their high cost and scarcity in the Earth's crust. Recently, Zhang et al. demonstrated that low\-cost and earth\-abundant aluminium (Al) nano\-particles can outperform the widely used Ag and Au nanoparticles. Al nanoparticles, with their surface plasmon resonances located in the UV region below the desired solar spectrum edge at 300 nm, can avoid the reduction and introduce extra enhancement in the shorter wavelength range.{{cite journal\| title\=Low cost and high performance Al nanoparticles for broadband light trapping in Si wafer solar cells\| year\=2012 \| last1\=Yinan \| first1\=Zhang\| journal\=Applied Physics Letters \| volume\=100 \| issue\=12 \| pages\=151101 \|bibcode \= 2012ApPhL.100b1101N \|doi \= 10\.1063/1\.3675451 \| s2cid\=15114028 \|display\-authors\=etal}}{{cite journal\| title\=Improved multicrystalline Si solar cells by light trapping from Al nanoparticle enhanced antireflection coating\| year\=2013 \| last1\=Yinan \| first1\=Zhang\| journal\= Optical Materials Express\| volume\=3 \| issue\=4 \| pages\=489 \|display\-authors\=etal\| doi\=10\.1364/OME.3\.000489 \| hdl\=1959\.3/314433 \| bibcode\=2013OMExp...3\..489Z \| hdl\-access\=free }}
#### Shape choice of nano\-particles
| Shape | Ref. |
| --- | --- |
| Nanosphere | {{Cite journal\|last1\=Nakayama\|first1\=Keisuke\|last2\=Tanabe\|first2\=Katsuaki\|last3\=Atwater\|first3\=Harry A.\|date\=2008\-09\-22\|title\=Plasmonic nanoparticle enhanced light absorption in GaAs solar cells\|journal\=Applied Physics Letters\|volume\=93\|issue\=12\|pages\=121904\|doi\=10\.1063/1\.2988288\|issn\=0003\-6951\|bibcode\=2008ApPhL..93l1904N\|url\=https://authors.library.caltech.edu/11799/1/NAKapl08\.pdf}} |
| Nanostar | {{Cite journal\|last1\=Wu\|first1\=Jiang\|last2\=Yu\|first2\=Peng\|last3\=Susha\|first3\=Andrei S.\|last4\=Sablon\|first4\=Kimberly A.\|last5\=Chen\|first5\=Haiyuan\|last6\=Zhou\|first6\=Zhihua\|last7\=Li\|first7\=Handong\|last8\=Ji\|first8\=Haining\|last9\=Niu\|first9\=Xiaobin\|date\=2015\-04\-01\|title\=Broadband efficiency enhancement in quantum dot solar cells coupled with multispiked plasmonic nanostars\|journal\=Nano Energy\|volume\=13\|pages\=827–835\|doi\=10\.1016/j.nanoen.2015\.02\.012\|bibcode\=2015NEne...13\..827W \|s2cid\=98282021 }} |
| Core\-shell nanoparticle | |
| Nanodisk | {{Cite journal\|last1\=Hägglund\|first1\=Carl\|last2\=Zäch\|first2\=Michael\|last3\=Petersson\|first3\=Göran\|last4\=Kasemo\|first4\=Bengt\|date\=2008\-02\-04\|title\=Electromagnetic coupling of light into a silicon solar cell by nanodisk plasmons\|journal\=Applied Physics Letters\|volume\=92\|issue\=5\|pages\=053110\|doi\=10\.1063/1\.2840676\|issn\=0003\-6951\|bibcode\=2008ApPhL..92e3110H}} |
| Nanocavity | {{Cite journal\|last1\=Lindquist\|first1\=Nathan C.\|last2\=Luhman\|first2\=Wade A.\|last3\=Oh\|first3\=Sang\-Hyun\|last4\=Holmes\|first4\=Russell J.\|date\=2008\-09\-22\|title\=Plasmonic nanocavity arrays for enhanced efficiency in organic photovoltaic cells\|journal\=Applied Physics Letters\|volume\=93\|issue\=12\|pages\=123308\|doi\=10\.1063/1\.2988287\|issn\=0003\-6951\|bibcode\=2008ApPhL..93l3308L\|s2cid\=30614030\|doi\-access\=free}} |
| Nanovoid | {{Cite journal\|last1\=Lal\|first1\=N. N.\|last2\=Soares\|first2\=B. F.\|last3\=Sinha\|first3\=J. K.\|last4\=Huang\|first4\=F.\|last5\=Mahajan\|first5\=S.\|last6\=Bartlett\|first6\=P. N.\|last7\=Greenham\|first7\=N. C.\|last8\=Baumberg\|first8\=J. J.\|date\=2011\-06\-06\|title\=Enhancing solar cells with localized plasmons in nanovoids\|journal\=Optics Express\|language\=EN\|volume\=19\|issue\=12\|pages\=11256–11263\|doi\=10\.1364/OE.19\.011256\|pmid\=21716355\|issn\=1094\-4087\|bibcode\=2011OExpr..1911256L\|doi\-access\=free}} |
| Nucleated nanoparticle | {{Cite journal\|last1\=Chen\|first1\=Xi\|last2\=Jia\|first2\=Baohua\|author2\-link\= Baohua Jia \|last3\=Saha\|first3\=Jhantu K.\|last4\=Cai\|first4\=Boyuan\|last5\=Stokes\|first5\=Nicholas\|last6\=Qiao\|first6\=Qi\|last7\=Wang\|first7\=Yongqian\|last8\=Shi\|first8\=Zhengrong\|last9\=Gu\|first9\=Min\|date\=2012\-05\-09\|title\=Broadband Enhancement in Thin\-Film Amorphous Silicon Solar Cells Enabled by Nucleated Silver Nanoparticles\|journal\=Nano Letters\|volume\=12\|issue\=5\|pages\=2187–2192\|doi\=10\.1021/nl203463z\|pmid\=22300399\|issn\=1530\-6984\|bibcode\=2012NanoL..12\.2187C}} |
| Nanocage | {{Cite journal\|last1\=Song\|first1\=Kwang Hyun\|last2\=Kim\|first2\=Chulhong\|last3\=Cobley\|first3\=Claire M.\|last4\=Xia\|first4\=Younan\|last5\=Wang\|first5\=Lihong V.\|date\=2009\-01\-14\|title\=Near\-Infrared Gold Nanocages as a New Class of Tracers for Photoacoustic Sentinel Lymph Node Mapping on a Rat Model\|journal\=Nano Letters\|volume\=9\|issue\=1\|pages\=183–188\|doi\=10\.1021/nl802746w\|pmid\=19072058\|issn\=1530\-6984\|bibcode\=2009NanoL...9\..183S\|pmc\=6986311}} |
| Core\-shell nanoparticle | |
### Light trapping for absorption enhancement
As discussed earlier, being able to concentrate and scatter light from the surface or the back side of the plasmonic\-enhanced solar cell will help to increase efficiencies, particularly when employing thin photovoltaic materials.{{Cite journal \|last1\=Morawiec \|first1\=S. \|last2\=Mendes \|first2\=M. J. \|last3\=Priolo \|first3\=F. \|last4\=Crupi \|first4\=I. \|date\=2019\-03\-15 \|title\=Plasmonic nanostructures for light trapping in thin\-film solar cells \|url\=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1369800118301288 \|journal\=Materials Science in Semiconductor Processing \|series\=Material processing of optical devices and their applications \|language\=en \|volume\=92 \|pages\=10–18 \|doi\=10\.1016/j.mssp.2018\.04\.035 \|hdl\=10362/98685 \|s2cid\=102694821 \|issn\=1369\-8001\|hdl\-access\=free }}
Recently, research at [Sandia National Laboratories](/wiki/Sandia_National_Laboratories "Sandia National Laboratories") has discovered a photonic waveguide which collects light at a certain wavelength and traps it within the structure. This new structure can contain 95% of the light that enters it compared to 30% for other traditional waveguides. It can also direct the light within one wavelength which is ten times greater than traditional waveguides. The wavelength this device captures can be selected by changing the structure of the lattice which comprises the structure. If this structure is used to trap light and keep it in the structure until the solar cell can absorb it, the efficiency of the solar cell could be increased dramatically.{{Cite web \| url\=http://www.sandia.gov/media/photonic.htm \| title\=Photonic lattice}}
Another recent advancement in plasmonic\-enhanced solar cells is using other methods to aid in the absorption of light. One method being researched is the use of metal wires on top of the substrate to scatter the light. This would help by utilizing a larger area of the surface of the solar cell for light scattering and absorption. The danger in using lines instead of dots would be creating a reflective layer which would reject light from the system. This is very undesirable for solar cells. This would be very similar to the thin metal film approach, but it also utilizes the scattering effect of the nano\-particles.
{{cite journal \| doi \= 10\.1002/adma.200900331 \| title \= Design of Plasmonic Thin\-Film Solar Cells with Broadband Absorption Enhancements \| year \= 2009 \| last1 \= Pala \| first1 \= Ragip A. \| last2 \= White \| first2 \= Justin \| last3 \= Barnard \| first3 \= Edward \| last4 \= Liu \| first4 \= John \| last5 \= Brongersma \| first5 \= Mark L. \| journal \= Advanced Materials \| volume \= 21 \| issue \= 34 \| pages \= 3504–3509 \| bibcode \= 2009AdM....21\.3504P \| s2cid \= 137622291 }} Yue et al. used a type of new materials, called topological insulators, to increase the absorption of ultrathin a\-Si solar cells. The topological insulator nanostructure has intrinsically core\-shell configuration. The core is dielectric and has ultrahigh refractive index. The shell is metallic and support surface plasmon resonances. Through integrating the nanocone arrays into a\-Si thin film solar cells, up to 15% enhancement of light absorption was predicted in the ultraviolet and visible ranges.{{Cite journal\|last1\=Yue\|first1\=Zengji\|last2\=Cai\|first2\=Boyuan\|last3\=Wang\|first3\=Lan\|last4\=Wang\|first4\=Xiaolin\|last5\=Gu\|first5\=Min\|date\=2016\-03\-01\|title\=Intrinsically core\-shell plasmonic dielectric nanostructures with ultrahigh refractive index\|journal\=Science Advances\|language\=en\|volume\=2\|issue\=3\|pages\=e1501536\|doi\=10\.1126/sciadv.1501536\|issn\=2375\-2548\|pmc\=4820380\|pmid\=27051869\|bibcode\=2016SciA....2E1536Y}}
### Third generation
The goal of third generation solar cells is to increase the efficiency using second generation solar cells (thin film) and using materials that are found abundantly on earth. This has also been a goal of the thin film solar cells. With the use of common and safe materials, third generation solar cells should be able to be manufactured in mass quantities, further reducing the costs. The initial costs would be high in order to produce the manufacturing processes, but after that they should be cheap. The way third generation solar cells will be able to improve efficiency is to absorb a wider range of frequencies. The current thin film technology has been limited to one frequency due to the use of single band gap devices.
#### Multiple energy levels
The idea for multiple energy level solar cells is to basically stack thin film solar cells on top of each other. Each thin film solar cell would have a different band gap which means that if part of the solar spectrum was not absorbed by the first cell then the one just below would be able to absorb part of the spectrum. These can be stacked and an optimal band gap can be used for each cell in order to produce the maximum amount of power. There are multiple options for how each cell can be connected, such as serial or parallel. The serial connection is desired because the output of the solar cell would just be two leads.
The lattice structure in each of the thin film cells needs to be the same. If it is not then there will be losses. The processes used for depositing the layers are complex. They include Molecular Beam Epitaxy and Metal Organic Vapour Phase Epitaxy. The current efficiency record is made with this process but doesn't have exact matching lattice constants. The losses due to this are not as effective because the differences in lattices allows for more optimal band gap material for the first two cells. This type of cell is expected to be able to be 50% efficient.
Lower\-quality materials that use cheaper deposition processes are being researched as well. These devices are not as efficient, but the price, size and power combined allow them to be just as cost effective. Since the processes are simpler and the materials are more readily available, the mass production of these devices is more economical.
#### Hot carrier cells
A problem with solar cells is that the high energy photons that hit the surface are converted to heat. This is a loss for the cell because the incoming photons are not converted into usable energy. The idea behind the hot carrier cell is to utilize some of that incoming energy which is converted to heat. If the electrons and holes can be collected while hot, a higher voltage can be obtained from the cell. The problem with doing this is that the contacts which collect the electrons and holes will cool the material. Thus far, keeping the contacts from cooling the cell has been theoretical. Another way of improving the efficiency of the solar cell using the heat generated is to have a cell which allows lower energy photons to excite electron and hole pairs. This requires a small bandgap. Using a selective contact, the lower energy electrons and holes can be collected while allowing the higher energy ones to continue moving through the cell. The selective contacts are made using a double barrier resonant tunneling structure. The carriers are cooled which they scatter with phonons. If a material has a large bandgap of phonons then the carriers will carry more of the heat to the contact and it won't be lost in the lattice structure. One material which has a large bandgap of phonons is indium nitride. The hot carrier cells are in their infancy but are beginning to move toward the experimental stage.
#### Plasmonic\-electrical solar cells
Having unique features of tunable resonances and unprecedented near\-field enhancement, [plasmon](/wiki/Plasmon "Plasmon") is an enabling technique for light management. Recently, performances of [thin\-film solar cells](/wiki/Thin-film_solar_cells "Thin-film solar cells") have been pronouncedly improved by introducing metallic nanostructures. The improvements are mainly attributed to the plasmonic\-optical effects for manipulating light propagation, absorption, and scattering. The plasmonic\-optical effects could: (1\) boost optical absorption of active materials; (2\) spatially redistribute light absorption at the active layer due to the localized near\-field enhancement around metallic nanostructures. Except for the plasmonic\-optical effects, the effects of plasmonically modified [recombination](/wiki/Genetic_recombination "Genetic recombination"), transport and collection of photocarriers (electrons and holes), hereafter named plasmonic\-electrical effects, have been proposed by Sha, etal.{{cite journal \| doi \= 10\.1038/srep06236 \| title \= Breaking the Space Charge Limit in Organic Solar Cells by a Novel Plasmonic\-Electrical Concept \| year \= 2014 \| last1 \= Sha \| first1 \= Wei E. I. \| last2 \= Li \| first2 \= Xuanhua \| last3 \= Choy \| first3 \= Wallace C. H. \| journal \= Scientific Reports \| volume \= 4 \| issue \= 1 \| pages\=6236 \|bibcode \= 2014NatSR...4E6236S \| pmid\=25168122 \| pmc\=4148652}}{{cite journal \| doi \= 10\.1038/srep08525 \| title \= A General Design Rule to Manipulate Photocarrier Transport Path in Solar Cells and Its Realization by the Plasmonic\-Electrical Effect \| year \= 2015 \| last1 \= Sha \| first1 \= Wei E. I. \| last2 \= Zhu \| first2 \= Hugh L. \| last3 \= Chen \| first3 \= Luzhou \| last4 \= Chew \| first4 \= Weng Cho \| last5 \= Choy \| first5 \= Wallace C. H. \| journal \= Scientific Reports \| volume \= 5 \| issue \= 1 \| pages\=8525\|bibcode \= 2015NatSR...5E8525S \| pmid\=25686578 \| pmc\=4330524}} For boosting device performance, they conceived a general design rule, tailored to arbitrary electron to hole mobility ratio, to decide the transport paths of photocarriers. The design rule suggests that electron to hole transport length ratio should be balanced with electron to hole mobility ratio. In other words, the transport time of electrons and holes (from initial generation sites to corresponding electrodes) should be the same. The general design rule can be realized by spatially redistributing light absorption at the active layer of devices (with the plasmonic\-electrical effect). They also demonstrated the breaking of [space charge](/wiki/Space_charge "Space charge") limit in plasmonic\-electrical organic solar cell.
Recently, the plasmonic asymmetric modes of nano particles have found to favor the broadband optical absorption and promote the electrical properties of solar cells. The simultaneously plasmon\-optical and plasmon\-electrical effects of nanoparticles reveal a promising feature of nanoparticle plasmon.{{Cite journal\|last1\=Choy\|first1\=W. C. H.\|last2\=Ren\|first2\=X.\|date\=2016\-01\-01\|title\=Plasmon\-Electrical Effects on Organic Solar Cells by Incorporation of Metal Nanostructures\|journal\=IEEE Journal of Selected Topics in Quantum Electronics\|volume\=22\|issue\=1\|pages\=2442679\|doi\=10\.1109/JSTQE.2015\.2442679\|issn\=1077\-260X\|bibcode\=2016IJSTQ..2242679C\|s2cid\=20818468}}
#### Ultra\-thin plasmonic wafer solar cells
Reducing the silicon wafer thickness at a minimized efficiency loss represents a mainstream trend in increasing the cost\-effectiveness of wafer\-based solar cells. Recently, Zhang et al. have demonstrated that, using the advanced light trapping strategy with a properly designed nano\-particle architecture, the wafer thickness can be dramatically reduced to only around 1/10 of the current thickness (180 μm) without any solar cell efficiency loss at 18\.2%. Nano\-particle integrated ultra\-thin solar cells with only 3% of the current wafer thickness can potentially achieve 15\.3% efficiency combining the absorption enhancement with the benefit of thinner wafer induced open circuit voltage increase. This represents a 97% material saving with only 15% relative efficiency loss. These results demonstrate the feasibility and prospect of achieving high\-efficiency ultra\-thin silicon wafer cells with plasmonic light trapping.{{cite journal\| title\=Towards ultra\-thin plasmonic silicon wafer solar cells with minimized efficiency loss\| year\=2014 \| last1\=Yinan \| first1\=Zhang\| journal\=Scientific Reports \| volume\=4 \| issue\=1 \| pages\=4939 \|doi\=10\.1038/srep04939\|bibcode \= 2014NatSR...4E4939Z \|display\-authors\=etal \| pmid\=24820403 \| pmc\=4018607}}
### Direct plasmonic solar cells
The development of direct plasmonic solar cells that use plasmonic nanoparticles directly as light absorbers is much more recent than plasmonic\-enhanced cells.
In 2013 it was confirmed that hot carriers in plasmonic nanoparticles can be generated by excitation of localized surface plasmon resonance.{{Cite journal\|last1\=Sigg\|first1\=Hans\|last2\=Milne\|first2\=Christopher J.\|last3\=Santomauro\|first3\=Fabio G.\|last4\=Rittmann\-Frank\|first4\=Mercedes H.\|last5\=Szlachetko\|first5\=Jakub\|last6\=Friedli\|first6\=Peter\|last7\=Tagliabue\|first7\=Giulia\|last8\=Sá\|first8\=Jacinto\|date\=2013\-11\-14\|title\=Direct observation of charge separation on Au localized surface plasmons\|journal\=Energy \& Environmental Science\|language\=en\|volume\=6\|issue\=12\|pages\=3584–3588\|doi\=10\.1039/C3EE42731E\|issn\=1754\-5706}} The hot electrons were shown to be injected into a TiO2 conduction band, confirming their usability for light conversion to electricity. In 2019 another article was published describing how the hot electrons counterpart, the hot holes, can also be injected into a p\-type semiconductor.{{Cite journal\|last1\=Hattori\|first1\=Yocefu\|last2\=Abdellah\|first2\=Mohamed\|last3\=Meng\|first3\=Jie\|last4\=Zheng\|first4\=Kaibo\|last5\=Sá\|first5\=Jacinto\|date\=2019\-05\-22\|title\=Simultaneous Hot Electron and Hole Injection upon Excitation of Gold Surface Plasmon\|journal\=The Journal of Physical Chemistry Letters\|volume\=10\|issue\=11\|pages\=3140–3146\|doi\=10\.1021/acs.jpclett.9b01085\|pmid\=31117685\|issn\=1948\-7185\|doi\-access\=free}} This separation of charges enables direct use of plasmonic nanoparticles as light absorbers in photovoltaic cells.
A spin\-off company from Uppsala university, Peafowl Solar Power, is developing direct plasmonic solar cell technology for commercial applications such as transparent solar cells for dynamic glass.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.nyteknik.se/premium/smarta\-fonster\-drivs\-av\-egen\-el\-6948178\|title\=Smarta fönster drivs av egen el\|last\=Nohrstedt\|first\=Linda\|website\=Ny Teknik\|language\=sv\|access\-date\=2019\-06\-04}}{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.breakit.se/artikel/20237\|title\=Fula solceller kan bli minne blott – svensk startup ska ta fram en "osynlig" solcell\|website\=Breakit\|language\=sv\|access\-date\=2019\-06\-04}}
|
[
"Recent advancements\n-------------------",
"### Choice of plasmonic metal nano\\-particles",
"Proper choice of plasmatic metal nanoparticles is crucial for the maximum light absorption in the active layer. Front surface located nanoparticles of silver and gold (Ag and Au) are the most widely used materials due to their surface plasmon resonances being located in the visible range, therefore interacting more strongly with the peak solar intensity. However, such noble metal nanoparticles always introduce reduced light coupling into Si at the short wavelengths below the surface plasmon resonance due to the detrimental Fano effect, i.e. the destructive interference between the scattered and unscattered light. Moreover, the noble metal nano\\-particles are impractical to use for large\\-scale solar cell manufacture due to their high cost and scarcity in the Earth's crust. Recently, Zhang et al. demonstrated that low\\-cost and earth\\-abundant aluminium (Al) nano\\-particles can outperform the widely used Ag and Au nanoparticles. Al nanoparticles, with their surface plasmon resonances located in the UV region below the desired solar spectrum edge at 300 nm, can avoid the reduction and introduce extra enhancement in the shorter wavelength range.{{cite journal\\| title\\=Low cost and high performance Al nanoparticles for broadband light trapping in Si wafer solar cells\\| year\\=2012 \\| last1\\=Yinan \\| first1\\=Zhang\\| journal\\=Applied Physics Letters \\| volume\\=100 \\| issue\\=12 \\| pages\\=151101 \\|bibcode \\= 2012ApPhL.100b1101N \\|doi \\= 10\\.1063/1\\.3675451 \\| s2cid\\=15114028 \\|display\\-authors\\=etal}}{{cite journal\\| title\\=Improved multicrystalline Si solar cells by light trapping from Al nanoparticle enhanced antireflection coating\\| year\\=2013 \\| last1\\=Yinan \\| first1\\=Zhang\\| journal\\= Optical Materials Express\\| volume\\=3 \\| issue\\=4 \\| pages\\=489 \\|display\\-authors\\=etal\\| doi\\=10\\.1364/OME.3\\.000489 \\| hdl\\=1959\\.3/314433 \\| bibcode\\=2013OMExp...3\\..489Z \\| hdl\\-access\\=free }}",
"#### Shape choice of nano\\-particles",
"",
"| Shape | Ref. |\n| --- | --- |\n| Nanosphere | {{Cite journal\\|last1\\=Nakayama\\|first1\\=Keisuke\\|last2\\=Tanabe\\|first2\\=Katsuaki\\|last3\\=Atwater\\|first3\\=Harry A.\\|date\\=2008\\-09\\-22\\|title\\=Plasmonic nanoparticle enhanced light absorption in GaAs solar cells\\|journal\\=Applied Physics Letters\\|volume\\=93\\|issue\\=12\\|pages\\=121904\\|doi\\=10\\.1063/1\\.2988288\\|issn\\=0003\\-6951\\|bibcode\\=2008ApPhL..93l1904N\\|url\\=https://authors.library.caltech.edu/11799/1/NAKapl08\\.pdf}} |\n| Nanostar | {{Cite journal\\|last1\\=Wu\\|first1\\=Jiang\\|last2\\=Yu\\|first2\\=Peng\\|last3\\=Susha\\|first3\\=Andrei S.\\|last4\\=Sablon\\|first4\\=Kimberly A.\\|last5\\=Chen\\|first5\\=Haiyuan\\|last6\\=Zhou\\|first6\\=Zhihua\\|last7\\=Li\\|first7\\=Handong\\|last8\\=Ji\\|first8\\=Haining\\|last9\\=Niu\\|first9\\=Xiaobin\\|date\\=2015\\-04\\-01\\|title\\=Broadband efficiency enhancement in quantum dot solar cells coupled with multispiked plasmonic nanostars\\|journal\\=Nano Energy\\|volume\\=13\\|pages\\=827–835\\|doi\\=10\\.1016/j.nanoen.2015\\.02\\.012\\|bibcode\\=2015NEne...13\\..827W \\|s2cid\\=98282021 }} |\n| Core\\-shell nanoparticle | |\n| Nanodisk | {{Cite journal\\|last1\\=Hägglund\\|first1\\=Carl\\|last2\\=Zäch\\|first2\\=Michael\\|last3\\=Petersson\\|first3\\=Göran\\|last4\\=Kasemo\\|first4\\=Bengt\\|date\\=2008\\-02\\-04\\|title\\=Electromagnetic coupling of light into a silicon solar cell by nanodisk plasmons\\|journal\\=Applied Physics Letters\\|volume\\=92\\|issue\\=5\\|pages\\=053110\\|doi\\=10\\.1063/1\\.2840676\\|issn\\=0003\\-6951\\|bibcode\\=2008ApPhL..92e3110H}} |\n| Nanocavity | {{Cite journal\\|last1\\=Lindquist\\|first1\\=Nathan C.\\|last2\\=Luhman\\|first2\\=Wade A.\\|last3\\=Oh\\|first3\\=Sang\\-Hyun\\|last4\\=Holmes\\|first4\\=Russell J.\\|date\\=2008\\-09\\-22\\|title\\=Plasmonic nanocavity arrays for enhanced efficiency in organic photovoltaic cells\\|journal\\=Applied Physics Letters\\|volume\\=93\\|issue\\=12\\|pages\\=123308\\|doi\\=10\\.1063/1\\.2988287\\|issn\\=0003\\-6951\\|bibcode\\=2008ApPhL..93l3308L\\|s2cid\\=30614030\\|doi\\-access\\=free}} |\n| Nanovoid | {{Cite journal\\|last1\\=Lal\\|first1\\=N. N.\\|last2\\=Soares\\|first2\\=B. F.\\|last3\\=Sinha\\|first3\\=J. K.\\|last4\\=Huang\\|first4\\=F.\\|last5\\=Mahajan\\|first5\\=S.\\|last6\\=Bartlett\\|first6\\=P. N.\\|last7\\=Greenham\\|first7\\=N. C.\\|last8\\=Baumberg\\|first8\\=J. J.\\|date\\=2011\\-06\\-06\\|title\\=Enhancing solar cells with localized plasmons in nanovoids\\|journal\\=Optics Express\\|language\\=EN\\|volume\\=19\\|issue\\=12\\|pages\\=11256–11263\\|doi\\=10\\.1364/OE.19\\.011256\\|pmid\\=21716355\\|issn\\=1094\\-4087\\|bibcode\\=2011OExpr..1911256L\\|doi\\-access\\=free}} |\n| Nucleated nanoparticle | {{Cite journal\\|last1\\=Chen\\|first1\\=Xi\\|last2\\=Jia\\|first2\\=Baohua\\|author2\\-link\\= Baohua Jia \\|last3\\=Saha\\|first3\\=Jhantu K.\\|last4\\=Cai\\|first4\\=Boyuan\\|last5\\=Stokes\\|first5\\=Nicholas\\|last6\\=Qiao\\|first6\\=Qi\\|last7\\=Wang\\|first7\\=Yongqian\\|last8\\=Shi\\|first8\\=Zhengrong\\|last9\\=Gu\\|first9\\=Min\\|date\\=2012\\-05\\-09\\|title\\=Broadband Enhancement in Thin\\-Film Amorphous Silicon Solar Cells Enabled by Nucleated Silver Nanoparticles\\|journal\\=Nano Letters\\|volume\\=12\\|issue\\=5\\|pages\\=2187–2192\\|doi\\=10\\.1021/nl203463z\\|pmid\\=22300399\\|issn\\=1530\\-6984\\|bibcode\\=2012NanoL..12\\.2187C}} |\n| Nanocage | {{Cite journal\\|last1\\=Song\\|first1\\=Kwang Hyun\\|last2\\=Kim\\|first2\\=Chulhong\\|last3\\=Cobley\\|first3\\=Claire M.\\|last4\\=Xia\\|first4\\=Younan\\|last5\\=Wang\\|first5\\=Lihong V.\\|date\\=2009\\-01\\-14\\|title\\=Near\\-Infrared Gold Nanocages as a New Class of Tracers for Photoacoustic Sentinel Lymph Node Mapping on a Rat Model\\|journal\\=Nano Letters\\|volume\\=9\\|issue\\=1\\|pages\\=183–188\\|doi\\=10\\.1021/nl802746w\\|pmid\\=19072058\\|issn\\=1530\\-6984\\|bibcode\\=2009NanoL...9\\..183S\\|pmc\\=6986311}} |\n| Core\\-shell nanoparticle | |",
"### Light trapping for absorption enhancement",
"As discussed earlier, being able to concentrate and scatter light from the surface or the back side of the plasmonic\\-enhanced solar cell will help to increase efficiencies, particularly when employing thin photovoltaic materials.{{Cite journal \\|last1\\=Morawiec \\|first1\\=S. \\|last2\\=Mendes \\|first2\\=M. J. \\|last3\\=Priolo \\|first3\\=F. \\|last4\\=Crupi \\|first4\\=I. \\|date\\=2019\\-03\\-15 \\|title\\=Plasmonic nanostructures for light trapping in thin\\-film solar cells \\|url\\=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1369800118301288 \\|journal\\=Materials Science in Semiconductor Processing \\|series\\=Material processing of optical devices and their applications \\|language\\=en \\|volume\\=92 \\|pages\\=10–18 \\|doi\\=10\\.1016/j.mssp.2018\\.04\\.035 \\|hdl\\=10362/98685 \\|s2cid\\=102694821 \\|issn\\=1369\\-8001\\|hdl\\-access\\=free }}",
"Recently, research at [Sandia National Laboratories](/wiki/Sandia_National_Laboratories \"Sandia National Laboratories\") has discovered a photonic waveguide which collects light at a certain wavelength and traps it within the structure. This new structure can contain 95% of the light that enters it compared to 30% for other traditional waveguides. It can also direct the light within one wavelength which is ten times greater than traditional waveguides. The wavelength this device captures can be selected by changing the structure of the lattice which comprises the structure. If this structure is used to trap light and keep it in the structure until the solar cell can absorb it, the efficiency of the solar cell could be increased dramatically.{{Cite web \\| url\\=http://www.sandia.gov/media/photonic.htm \\| title\\=Photonic lattice}}",
"Another recent advancement in plasmonic\\-enhanced solar cells is using other methods to aid in the absorption of light. One method being researched is the use of metal wires on top of the substrate to scatter the light. This would help by utilizing a larger area of the surface of the solar cell for light scattering and absorption. The danger in using lines instead of dots would be creating a reflective layer which would reject light from the system. This is very undesirable for solar cells. This would be very similar to the thin metal film approach, but it also utilizes the scattering effect of the nano\\-particles.\n{{cite journal \\| doi \\= 10\\.1002/adma.200900331 \\| title \\= Design of Plasmonic Thin\\-Film Solar Cells with Broadband Absorption Enhancements \\| year \\= 2009 \\| last1 \\= Pala \\| first1 \\= Ragip A. \\| last2 \\= White \\| first2 \\= Justin \\| last3 \\= Barnard \\| first3 \\= Edward \\| last4 \\= Liu \\| first4 \\= John \\| last5 \\= Brongersma \\| first5 \\= Mark L. \\| journal \\= Advanced Materials \\| volume \\= 21 \\| issue \\= 34 \\| pages \\= 3504–3509 \\| bibcode \\= 2009AdM....21\\.3504P \\| s2cid \\= 137622291 }} Yue et al. used a type of new materials, called topological insulators, to increase the absorption of ultrathin a\\-Si solar cells. The topological insulator nanostructure has intrinsically core\\-shell configuration. The core is dielectric and has ultrahigh refractive index. The shell is metallic and support surface plasmon resonances. Through integrating the nanocone arrays into a\\-Si thin film solar cells, up to 15% enhancement of light absorption was predicted in the ultraviolet and visible ranges.{{Cite journal\\|last1\\=Yue\\|first1\\=Zengji\\|last2\\=Cai\\|first2\\=Boyuan\\|last3\\=Wang\\|first3\\=Lan\\|last4\\=Wang\\|first4\\=Xiaolin\\|last5\\=Gu\\|first5\\=Min\\|date\\=2016\\-03\\-01\\|title\\=Intrinsically core\\-shell plasmonic dielectric nanostructures with ultrahigh refractive index\\|journal\\=Science Advances\\|language\\=en\\|volume\\=2\\|issue\\=3\\|pages\\=e1501536\\|doi\\=10\\.1126/sciadv.1501536\\|issn\\=2375\\-2548\\|pmc\\=4820380\\|pmid\\=27051869\\|bibcode\\=2016SciA....2E1536Y}}",
"### Third generation",
"The goal of third generation solar cells is to increase the efficiency using second generation solar cells (thin film) and using materials that are found abundantly on earth. This has also been a goal of the thin film solar cells. With the use of common and safe materials, third generation solar cells should be able to be manufactured in mass quantities, further reducing the costs. The initial costs would be high in order to produce the manufacturing processes, but after that they should be cheap. The way third generation solar cells will be able to improve efficiency is to absorb a wider range of frequencies. The current thin film technology has been limited to one frequency due to the use of single band gap devices.",
"#### Multiple energy levels",
"The idea for multiple energy level solar cells is to basically stack thin film solar cells on top of each other. Each thin film solar cell would have a different band gap which means that if part of the solar spectrum was not absorbed by the first cell then the one just below would be able to absorb part of the spectrum. These can be stacked and an optimal band gap can be used for each cell in order to produce the maximum amount of power. There are multiple options for how each cell can be connected, such as serial or parallel. The serial connection is desired because the output of the solar cell would just be two leads.",
"The lattice structure in each of the thin film cells needs to be the same. If it is not then there will be losses. The processes used for depositing the layers are complex. They include Molecular Beam Epitaxy and Metal Organic Vapour Phase Epitaxy. The current efficiency record is made with this process but doesn't have exact matching lattice constants. The losses due to this are not as effective because the differences in lattices allows for more optimal band gap material for the first two cells. This type of cell is expected to be able to be 50% efficient.",
"Lower\\-quality materials that use cheaper deposition processes are being researched as well. These devices are not as efficient, but the price, size and power combined allow them to be just as cost effective. Since the processes are simpler and the materials are more readily available, the mass production of these devices is more economical.",
"#### Hot carrier cells",
"A problem with solar cells is that the high energy photons that hit the surface are converted to heat. This is a loss for the cell because the incoming photons are not converted into usable energy. The idea behind the hot carrier cell is to utilize some of that incoming energy which is converted to heat. If the electrons and holes can be collected while hot, a higher voltage can be obtained from the cell. The problem with doing this is that the contacts which collect the electrons and holes will cool the material. Thus far, keeping the contacts from cooling the cell has been theoretical. Another way of improving the efficiency of the solar cell using the heat generated is to have a cell which allows lower energy photons to excite electron and hole pairs. This requires a small bandgap. Using a selective contact, the lower energy electrons and holes can be collected while allowing the higher energy ones to continue moving through the cell. The selective contacts are made using a double barrier resonant tunneling structure. The carriers are cooled which they scatter with phonons. If a material has a large bandgap of phonons then the carriers will carry more of the heat to the contact and it won't be lost in the lattice structure. One material which has a large bandgap of phonons is indium nitride. The hot carrier cells are in their infancy but are beginning to move toward the experimental stage.",
"#### Plasmonic\\-electrical solar cells",
"Having unique features of tunable resonances and unprecedented near\\-field enhancement, [plasmon](/wiki/Plasmon \"Plasmon\") is an enabling technique for light management. Recently, performances of [thin\\-film solar cells](/wiki/Thin-film_solar_cells \"Thin-film solar cells\") have been pronouncedly improved by introducing metallic nanostructures. The improvements are mainly attributed to the plasmonic\\-optical effects for manipulating light propagation, absorption, and scattering. The plasmonic\\-optical effects could: (1\\) boost optical absorption of active materials; (2\\) spatially redistribute light absorption at the active layer due to the localized near\\-field enhancement around metallic nanostructures. Except for the plasmonic\\-optical effects, the effects of plasmonically modified [recombination](/wiki/Genetic_recombination \"Genetic recombination\"), transport and collection of photocarriers (electrons and holes), hereafter named plasmonic\\-electrical effects, have been proposed by Sha, etal.{{cite journal \\| doi \\= 10\\.1038/srep06236 \\| title \\= Breaking the Space Charge Limit in Organic Solar Cells by a Novel Plasmonic\\-Electrical Concept \\| year \\= 2014 \\| last1 \\= Sha \\| first1 \\= Wei E. I. \\| last2 \\= Li \\| first2 \\= Xuanhua \\| last3 \\= Choy \\| first3 \\= Wallace C. H. \\| journal \\= Scientific Reports \\| volume \\= 4 \\| issue \\= 1 \\| pages\\=6236 \\|bibcode \\= 2014NatSR...4E6236S \\| pmid\\=25168122 \\| pmc\\=4148652}}{{cite journal \\| doi \\= 10\\.1038/srep08525 \\| title \\= A General Design Rule to Manipulate Photocarrier Transport Path in Solar Cells and Its Realization by the Plasmonic\\-Electrical Effect \\| year \\= 2015 \\| last1 \\= Sha \\| first1 \\= Wei E. I. \\| last2 \\= Zhu \\| first2 \\= Hugh L. \\| last3 \\= Chen \\| first3 \\= Luzhou \\| last4 \\= Chew \\| first4 \\= Weng Cho \\| last5 \\= Choy \\| first5 \\= Wallace C. H. \\| journal \\= Scientific Reports \\| volume \\= 5 \\| issue \\= 1 \\| pages\\=8525\\|bibcode \\= 2015NatSR...5E8525S \\| pmid\\=25686578 \\| pmc\\=4330524}} For boosting device performance, they conceived a general design rule, tailored to arbitrary electron to hole mobility ratio, to decide the transport paths of photocarriers. The design rule suggests that electron to hole transport length ratio should be balanced with electron to hole mobility ratio. In other words, the transport time of electrons and holes (from initial generation sites to corresponding electrodes) should be the same. The general design rule can be realized by spatially redistributing light absorption at the active layer of devices (with the plasmonic\\-electrical effect). They also demonstrated the breaking of [space charge](/wiki/Space_charge \"Space charge\") limit in plasmonic\\-electrical organic solar cell.\nRecently, the plasmonic asymmetric modes of nano particles have found to favor the broadband optical absorption and promote the electrical properties of solar cells. The simultaneously plasmon\\-optical and plasmon\\-electrical effects of nanoparticles reveal a promising feature of nanoparticle plasmon.{{Cite journal\\|last1\\=Choy\\|first1\\=W. C. H.\\|last2\\=Ren\\|first2\\=X.\\|date\\=2016\\-01\\-01\\|title\\=Plasmon\\-Electrical Effects on Organic Solar Cells by Incorporation of Metal Nanostructures\\|journal\\=IEEE Journal of Selected Topics in Quantum Electronics\\|volume\\=22\\|issue\\=1\\|pages\\=2442679\\|doi\\=10\\.1109/JSTQE.2015\\.2442679\\|issn\\=1077\\-260X\\|bibcode\\=2016IJSTQ..2242679C\\|s2cid\\=20818468}}",
"#### Ultra\\-thin plasmonic wafer solar cells",
"Reducing the silicon wafer thickness at a minimized efficiency loss represents a mainstream trend in increasing the cost\\-effectiveness of wafer\\-based solar cells. Recently, Zhang et al. have demonstrated that, using the advanced light trapping strategy with a properly designed nano\\-particle architecture, the wafer thickness can be dramatically reduced to only around 1/10 of the current thickness (180 μm) without any solar cell efficiency loss at 18\\.2%. Nano\\-particle integrated ultra\\-thin solar cells with only 3% of the current wafer thickness can potentially achieve 15\\.3% efficiency combining the absorption enhancement with the benefit of thinner wafer induced open circuit voltage increase. This represents a 97% material saving with only 15% relative efficiency loss. These results demonstrate the feasibility and prospect of achieving high\\-efficiency ultra\\-thin silicon wafer cells with plasmonic light trapping.{{cite journal\\| title\\=Towards ultra\\-thin plasmonic silicon wafer solar cells with minimized efficiency loss\\| year\\=2014 \\| last1\\=Yinan \\| first1\\=Zhang\\| journal\\=Scientific Reports \\| volume\\=4 \\| issue\\=1 \\| pages\\=4939 \\|doi\\=10\\.1038/srep04939\\|bibcode \\= 2014NatSR...4E4939Z \\|display\\-authors\\=etal \\| pmid\\=24820403 \\| pmc\\=4018607}}",
"### Direct plasmonic solar cells",
"The development of direct plasmonic solar cells that use plasmonic nanoparticles directly as light absorbers is much more recent than plasmonic\\-enhanced cells.",
"In 2013 it was confirmed that hot carriers in plasmonic nanoparticles can be generated by excitation of localized surface plasmon resonance.{{Cite journal\\|last1\\=Sigg\\|first1\\=Hans\\|last2\\=Milne\\|first2\\=Christopher J.\\|last3\\=Santomauro\\|first3\\=Fabio G.\\|last4\\=Rittmann\\-Frank\\|first4\\=Mercedes H.\\|last5\\=Szlachetko\\|first5\\=Jakub\\|last6\\=Friedli\\|first6\\=Peter\\|last7\\=Tagliabue\\|first7\\=Giulia\\|last8\\=Sá\\|first8\\=Jacinto\\|date\\=2013\\-11\\-14\\|title\\=Direct observation of charge separation on Au localized surface plasmons\\|journal\\=Energy \\& Environmental Science\\|language\\=en\\|volume\\=6\\|issue\\=12\\|pages\\=3584–3588\\|doi\\=10\\.1039/C3EE42731E\\|issn\\=1754\\-5706}} The hot electrons were shown to be injected into a TiO2 conduction band, confirming their usability for light conversion to electricity. In 2019 another article was published describing how the hot electrons counterpart, the hot holes, can also be injected into a p\\-type semiconductor.{{Cite journal\\|last1\\=Hattori\\|first1\\=Yocefu\\|last2\\=Abdellah\\|first2\\=Mohamed\\|last3\\=Meng\\|first3\\=Jie\\|last4\\=Zheng\\|first4\\=Kaibo\\|last5\\=Sá\\|first5\\=Jacinto\\|date\\=2019\\-05\\-22\\|title\\=Simultaneous Hot Electron and Hole Injection upon Excitation of Gold Surface Plasmon\\|journal\\=The Journal of Physical Chemistry Letters\\|volume\\=10\\|issue\\=11\\|pages\\=3140–3146\\|doi\\=10\\.1021/acs.jpclett.9b01085\\|pmid\\=31117685\\|issn\\=1948\\-7185\\|doi\\-access\\=free}} This separation of charges enables direct use of plasmonic nanoparticles as light absorbers in photovoltaic cells.",
"A spin\\-off company from Uppsala university, Peafowl Solar Power, is developing direct plasmonic solar cell technology for commercial applications such as transparent solar cells for dynamic glass.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.nyteknik.se/premium/smarta\\-fonster\\-drivs\\-av\\-egen\\-el\\-6948178\\|title\\=Smarta fönster drivs av egen el\\|last\\=Nohrstedt\\|first\\=Linda\\|website\\=Ny Teknik\\|language\\=sv\\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-06\\-04}}{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.breakit.se/artikel/20237\\|title\\=Fula solceller kan bli minne blott – svensk startup ska ta fram en \"osynlig\" solcell\\|website\\=Breakit\\|language\\=sv\\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-06\\-04}}",
""
] |
### Third generation
The goal of third generation solar cells is to increase the efficiency using second generation solar cells (thin film) and using materials that are found abundantly on earth. This has also been a goal of the thin film solar cells. With the use of common and safe materials, third generation solar cells should be able to be manufactured in mass quantities, further reducing the costs. The initial costs would be high in order to produce the manufacturing processes, but after that they should be cheap. The way third generation solar cells will be able to improve efficiency is to absorb a wider range of frequencies. The current thin film technology has been limited to one frequency due to the use of single band gap devices.
#### Multiple energy levels
The idea for multiple energy level solar cells is to basically stack thin film solar cells on top of each other. Each thin film solar cell would have a different band gap which means that if part of the solar spectrum was not absorbed by the first cell then the one just below would be able to absorb part of the spectrum. These can be stacked and an optimal band gap can be used for each cell in order to produce the maximum amount of power. There are multiple options for how each cell can be connected, such as serial or parallel. The serial connection is desired because the output of the solar cell would just be two leads.
The lattice structure in each of the thin film cells needs to be the same. If it is not then there will be losses. The processes used for depositing the layers are complex. They include Molecular Beam Epitaxy and Metal Organic Vapour Phase Epitaxy. The current efficiency record is made with this process but doesn't have exact matching lattice constants. The losses due to this are not as effective because the differences in lattices allows for more optimal band gap material for the first two cells. This type of cell is expected to be able to be 50% efficient.
Lower\-quality materials that use cheaper deposition processes are being researched as well. These devices are not as efficient, but the price, size and power combined allow them to be just as cost effective. Since the processes are simpler and the materials are more readily available, the mass production of these devices is more economical.
#### Hot carrier cells
A problem with solar cells is that the high energy photons that hit the surface are converted to heat. This is a loss for the cell because the incoming photons are not converted into usable energy. The idea behind the hot carrier cell is to utilize some of that incoming energy which is converted to heat. If the electrons and holes can be collected while hot, a higher voltage can be obtained from the cell. The problem with doing this is that the contacts which collect the electrons and holes will cool the material. Thus far, keeping the contacts from cooling the cell has been theoretical. Another way of improving the efficiency of the solar cell using the heat generated is to have a cell which allows lower energy photons to excite electron and hole pairs. This requires a small bandgap. Using a selective contact, the lower energy electrons and holes can be collected while allowing the higher energy ones to continue moving through the cell. The selective contacts are made using a double barrier resonant tunneling structure. The carriers are cooled which they scatter with phonons. If a material has a large bandgap of phonons then the carriers will carry more of the heat to the contact and it won't be lost in the lattice structure. One material which has a large bandgap of phonons is indium nitride. The hot carrier cells are in their infancy but are beginning to move toward the experimental stage.
#### Plasmonic\-electrical solar cells
Having unique features of tunable resonances and unprecedented near\-field enhancement, [plasmon](/wiki/Plasmon "Plasmon") is an enabling technique for light management. Recently, performances of [thin\-film solar cells](/wiki/Thin-film_solar_cells "Thin-film solar cells") have been pronouncedly improved by introducing metallic nanostructures. The improvements are mainly attributed to the plasmonic\-optical effects for manipulating light propagation, absorption, and scattering. The plasmonic\-optical effects could: (1\) boost optical absorption of active materials; (2\) spatially redistribute light absorption at the active layer due to the localized near\-field enhancement around metallic nanostructures. Except for the plasmonic\-optical effects, the effects of plasmonically modified [recombination](/wiki/Genetic_recombination "Genetic recombination"), transport and collection of photocarriers (electrons and holes), hereafter named plasmonic\-electrical effects, have been proposed by Sha, etal.{{cite journal \| doi \= 10\.1038/srep06236 \| title \= Breaking the Space Charge Limit in Organic Solar Cells by a Novel Plasmonic\-Electrical Concept \| year \= 2014 \| last1 \= Sha \| first1 \= Wei E. I. \| last2 \= Li \| first2 \= Xuanhua \| last3 \= Choy \| first3 \= Wallace C. H. \| journal \= Scientific Reports \| volume \= 4 \| issue \= 1 \| pages\=6236 \|bibcode \= 2014NatSR...4E6236S \| pmid\=25168122 \| pmc\=4148652}}{{cite journal \| doi \= 10\.1038/srep08525 \| title \= A General Design Rule to Manipulate Photocarrier Transport Path in Solar Cells and Its Realization by the Plasmonic\-Electrical Effect \| year \= 2015 \| last1 \= Sha \| first1 \= Wei E. I. \| last2 \= Zhu \| first2 \= Hugh L. \| last3 \= Chen \| first3 \= Luzhou \| last4 \= Chew \| first4 \= Weng Cho \| last5 \= Choy \| first5 \= Wallace C. H. \| journal \= Scientific Reports \| volume \= 5 \| issue \= 1 \| pages\=8525\|bibcode \= 2015NatSR...5E8525S \| pmid\=25686578 \| pmc\=4330524}} For boosting device performance, they conceived a general design rule, tailored to arbitrary electron to hole mobility ratio, to decide the transport paths of photocarriers. The design rule suggests that electron to hole transport length ratio should be balanced with electron to hole mobility ratio. In other words, the transport time of electrons and holes (from initial generation sites to corresponding electrodes) should be the same. The general design rule can be realized by spatially redistributing light absorption at the active layer of devices (with the plasmonic\-electrical effect). They also demonstrated the breaking of [space charge](/wiki/Space_charge "Space charge") limit in plasmonic\-electrical organic solar cell.
Recently, the plasmonic asymmetric modes of nano particles have found to favor the broadband optical absorption and promote the electrical properties of solar cells. The simultaneously plasmon\-optical and plasmon\-electrical effects of nanoparticles reveal a promising feature of nanoparticle plasmon.{{Cite journal\|last1\=Choy\|first1\=W. C. H.\|last2\=Ren\|first2\=X.\|date\=2016\-01\-01\|title\=Plasmon\-Electrical Effects on Organic Solar Cells by Incorporation of Metal Nanostructures\|journal\=IEEE Journal of Selected Topics in Quantum Electronics\|volume\=22\|issue\=1\|pages\=2442679\|doi\=10\.1109/JSTQE.2015\.2442679\|issn\=1077\-260X\|bibcode\=2016IJSTQ..2242679C\|s2cid\=20818468}}
#### Ultra\-thin plasmonic wafer solar cells
Reducing the silicon wafer thickness at a minimized efficiency loss represents a mainstream trend in increasing the cost\-effectiveness of wafer\-based solar cells. Recently, Zhang et al. have demonstrated that, using the advanced light trapping strategy with a properly designed nano\-particle architecture, the wafer thickness can be dramatically reduced to only around 1/10 of the current thickness (180 μm) without any solar cell efficiency loss at 18\.2%. Nano\-particle integrated ultra\-thin solar cells with only 3% of the current wafer thickness can potentially achieve 15\.3% efficiency combining the absorption enhancement with the benefit of thinner wafer induced open circuit voltage increase. This represents a 97% material saving with only 15% relative efficiency loss. These results demonstrate the feasibility and prospect of achieving high\-efficiency ultra\-thin silicon wafer cells with plasmonic light trapping.{{cite journal\| title\=Towards ultra\-thin plasmonic silicon wafer solar cells with minimized efficiency loss\| year\=2014 \| last1\=Yinan \| first1\=Zhang\| journal\=Scientific Reports \| volume\=4 \| issue\=1 \| pages\=4939 \|doi\=10\.1038/srep04939\|bibcode \= 2014NatSR...4E4939Z \|display\-authors\=etal \| pmid\=24820403 \| pmc\=4018607}}
|
[
"### Third generation",
"The goal of third generation solar cells is to increase the efficiency using second generation solar cells (thin film) and using materials that are found abundantly on earth. This has also been a goal of the thin film solar cells. With the use of common and safe materials, third generation solar cells should be able to be manufactured in mass quantities, further reducing the costs. The initial costs would be high in order to produce the manufacturing processes, but after that they should be cheap. The way third generation solar cells will be able to improve efficiency is to absorb a wider range of frequencies. The current thin film technology has been limited to one frequency due to the use of single band gap devices.",
"#### Multiple energy levels",
"The idea for multiple energy level solar cells is to basically stack thin film solar cells on top of each other. Each thin film solar cell would have a different band gap which means that if part of the solar spectrum was not absorbed by the first cell then the one just below would be able to absorb part of the spectrum. These can be stacked and an optimal band gap can be used for each cell in order to produce the maximum amount of power. There are multiple options for how each cell can be connected, such as serial or parallel. The serial connection is desired because the output of the solar cell would just be two leads.",
"The lattice structure in each of the thin film cells needs to be the same. If it is not then there will be losses. The processes used for depositing the layers are complex. They include Molecular Beam Epitaxy and Metal Organic Vapour Phase Epitaxy. The current efficiency record is made with this process but doesn't have exact matching lattice constants. The losses due to this are not as effective because the differences in lattices allows for more optimal band gap material for the first two cells. This type of cell is expected to be able to be 50% efficient.",
"Lower\\-quality materials that use cheaper deposition processes are being researched as well. These devices are not as efficient, but the price, size and power combined allow them to be just as cost effective. Since the processes are simpler and the materials are more readily available, the mass production of these devices is more economical.",
"#### Hot carrier cells",
"A problem with solar cells is that the high energy photons that hit the surface are converted to heat. This is a loss for the cell because the incoming photons are not converted into usable energy. The idea behind the hot carrier cell is to utilize some of that incoming energy which is converted to heat. If the electrons and holes can be collected while hot, a higher voltage can be obtained from the cell. The problem with doing this is that the contacts which collect the electrons and holes will cool the material. Thus far, keeping the contacts from cooling the cell has been theoretical. Another way of improving the efficiency of the solar cell using the heat generated is to have a cell which allows lower energy photons to excite electron and hole pairs. This requires a small bandgap. Using a selective contact, the lower energy electrons and holes can be collected while allowing the higher energy ones to continue moving through the cell. The selective contacts are made using a double barrier resonant tunneling structure. The carriers are cooled which they scatter with phonons. If a material has a large bandgap of phonons then the carriers will carry more of the heat to the contact and it won't be lost in the lattice structure. One material which has a large bandgap of phonons is indium nitride. The hot carrier cells are in their infancy but are beginning to move toward the experimental stage.",
"#### Plasmonic\\-electrical solar cells",
"Having unique features of tunable resonances and unprecedented near\\-field enhancement, [plasmon](/wiki/Plasmon \"Plasmon\") is an enabling technique for light management. Recently, performances of [thin\\-film solar cells](/wiki/Thin-film_solar_cells \"Thin-film solar cells\") have been pronouncedly improved by introducing metallic nanostructures. The improvements are mainly attributed to the plasmonic\\-optical effects for manipulating light propagation, absorption, and scattering. The plasmonic\\-optical effects could: (1\\) boost optical absorption of active materials; (2\\) spatially redistribute light absorption at the active layer due to the localized near\\-field enhancement around metallic nanostructures. Except for the plasmonic\\-optical effects, the effects of plasmonically modified [recombination](/wiki/Genetic_recombination \"Genetic recombination\"), transport and collection of photocarriers (electrons and holes), hereafter named plasmonic\\-electrical effects, have been proposed by Sha, etal.{{cite journal \\| doi \\= 10\\.1038/srep06236 \\| title \\= Breaking the Space Charge Limit in Organic Solar Cells by a Novel Plasmonic\\-Electrical Concept \\| year \\= 2014 \\| last1 \\= Sha \\| first1 \\= Wei E. I. \\| last2 \\= Li \\| first2 \\= Xuanhua \\| last3 \\= Choy \\| first3 \\= Wallace C. H. \\| journal \\= Scientific Reports \\| volume \\= 4 \\| issue \\= 1 \\| pages\\=6236 \\|bibcode \\= 2014NatSR...4E6236S \\| pmid\\=25168122 \\| pmc\\=4148652}}{{cite journal \\| doi \\= 10\\.1038/srep08525 \\| title \\= A General Design Rule to Manipulate Photocarrier Transport Path in Solar Cells and Its Realization by the Plasmonic\\-Electrical Effect \\| year \\= 2015 \\| last1 \\= Sha \\| first1 \\= Wei E. I. \\| last2 \\= Zhu \\| first2 \\= Hugh L. \\| last3 \\= Chen \\| first3 \\= Luzhou \\| last4 \\= Chew \\| first4 \\= Weng Cho \\| last5 \\= Choy \\| first5 \\= Wallace C. H. \\| journal \\= Scientific Reports \\| volume \\= 5 \\| issue \\= 1 \\| pages\\=8525\\|bibcode \\= 2015NatSR...5E8525S \\| pmid\\=25686578 \\| pmc\\=4330524}} For boosting device performance, they conceived a general design rule, tailored to arbitrary electron to hole mobility ratio, to decide the transport paths of photocarriers. The design rule suggests that electron to hole transport length ratio should be balanced with electron to hole mobility ratio. In other words, the transport time of electrons and holes (from initial generation sites to corresponding electrodes) should be the same. The general design rule can be realized by spatially redistributing light absorption at the active layer of devices (with the plasmonic\\-electrical effect). They also demonstrated the breaking of [space charge](/wiki/Space_charge \"Space charge\") limit in plasmonic\\-electrical organic solar cell.\nRecently, the plasmonic asymmetric modes of nano particles have found to favor the broadband optical absorption and promote the electrical properties of solar cells. The simultaneously plasmon\\-optical and plasmon\\-electrical effects of nanoparticles reveal a promising feature of nanoparticle plasmon.{{Cite journal\\|last1\\=Choy\\|first1\\=W. C. H.\\|last2\\=Ren\\|first2\\=X.\\|date\\=2016\\-01\\-01\\|title\\=Plasmon\\-Electrical Effects on Organic Solar Cells by Incorporation of Metal Nanostructures\\|journal\\=IEEE Journal of Selected Topics in Quantum Electronics\\|volume\\=22\\|issue\\=1\\|pages\\=2442679\\|doi\\=10\\.1109/JSTQE.2015\\.2442679\\|issn\\=1077\\-260X\\|bibcode\\=2016IJSTQ..2242679C\\|s2cid\\=20818468}}",
"#### Ultra\\-thin plasmonic wafer solar cells",
"Reducing the silicon wafer thickness at a minimized efficiency loss represents a mainstream trend in increasing the cost\\-effectiveness of wafer\\-based solar cells. Recently, Zhang et al. have demonstrated that, using the advanced light trapping strategy with a properly designed nano\\-particle architecture, the wafer thickness can be dramatically reduced to only around 1/10 of the current thickness (180 μm) without any solar cell efficiency loss at 18\\.2%. Nano\\-particle integrated ultra\\-thin solar cells with only 3% of the current wafer thickness can potentially achieve 15\\.3% efficiency combining the absorption enhancement with the benefit of thinner wafer induced open circuit voltage increase. This represents a 97% material saving with only 15% relative efficiency loss. These results demonstrate the feasibility and prospect of achieving high\\-efficiency ultra\\-thin silicon wafer cells with plasmonic light trapping.{{cite journal\\| title\\=Towards ultra\\-thin plasmonic silicon wafer solar cells with minimized efficiency loss\\| year\\=2014 \\| last1\\=Yinan \\| first1\\=Zhang\\| journal\\=Scientific Reports \\| volume\\=4 \\| issue\\=1 \\| pages\\=4939 \\|doi\\=10\\.1038/srep04939\\|bibcode \\= 2014NatSR...4E4939Z \\|display\\-authors\\=etal \\| pmid\\=24820403 \\| pmc\\=4018607}}",
""
] |
Geography
---------
It is made up of several *[frazioni](/wiki/Frazione "Frazione")* (locally officially called *hameaux*, in [French](/wiki/French_language "French language")), the two major ones being Antagnod which holds the town hall and the main parish, and Champoluc. All the *frazioni* of Ayas were combined under the one jurisdictional parish of Saint\-Martin d'Antagnod in 1761\. They remained combined in this way until the new parish of Sainte\-Anne of [Champoluc](/wiki/Champoluc "Champoluc") was built in 1946\.Aosta Valley: Tourist Guide and Road Map, 1:100,000\. Litografia Artistica Cartografica. The comune of Ayas lies up the Ayas valley from [Brusson](/wiki/Brusson%2C_Aosta_Valley "Brusson, Aosta Valley").
### Physical geography
The comune of Ayas occupies the upper part of the [homonymous valley](/wiki/Val_d%27Ayas "Val d'Ayas") at the feet of the great peaks of the [Pennine Alps](/wiki/Pennine_Alps "Pennine Alps"), which separate it from [Zermatt](/wiki/Zermatt "Zermatt") in the [Mattertal](/wiki/Mattertal "Mattertal") ([Switzerland](/wiki/Switzerland "Switzerland")) and mark the border between Italy and Switzerland. The most notable of these peaks are [Castor](/wiki/Castor_%28mountain%29 "Castor (mountain)") (4,226 m), [Pollux](/wiki/Pollux_%28mountain%29 "Pollux (mountain)") (4,091 m) and the [Breithorn](/wiki/Breithorn "Breithorn") (4,165 m).
Another important glacier is the [Grand Glacier of Verra](/wiki/Grand_Glacier_of_Verra "Grand Glacier of Verra"). It is the principal source of the [Évançon](/wiki/%C3%89van%C3%A7on "Évançon"), which flows down the Val d'Ayas and empties into the [Dora Baltea](/wiki/Dora_Baltea "Dora Baltea") ({{lang\-fr\|Doire baltée}}).
In the opposite direction from the Monte Rosa Massif is [Dzerbion](/wiki/Dzerbion "Dzerbion"), a 2,720 metre mountain in the shape of a pyramid, which separated the comune of Ayas from that of [Saint\-Vincent](/wiki/Saint-Vincent%2C_Aosta_Valley "Saint-Vincent, Aosta Valley").
* [Seismic classification](/wiki/Seismic_classification_of_Italy "Seismic classification of Italy"): zone 4 (very low seismicity)[The seismic zones of Italy: Aosta Valley](http://www.abspace.it/TripSpace/zoneSismiche_Valle-Aosta.asp), statistics 2006, www.abspace.it
### Flora and fauna
With respect to [flora](/wiki/Flora "Flora"), the landscape of Ayas is dominated by various [species](/wiki/Species "Species") of [Alpine plant](/wiki/Flora_of_the_Alps "Flora of the Alps"), such as the cowberry (*[Vaccinium vitis\-idaea](/wiki/Vaccinium_vitis-idaea "Vaccinium vitis-idaea")*), the gentian (*[Gentiana acaulis](/wiki/Gentiana_acaulis "Gentiana acaulis")*) and the spring pasque flower (*[Pulsatilla vernalis](/wiki/Pulsatilla_vernalis "Pulsatilla vernalis")*). The main trees in the woods are the European spruce (*[Picea abies](/wiki/Picea_abies "Picea abies")*), the Swiss pine (*[Pinus cembra](/wiki/Pinus_cembra "Pinus cembra")*) and the European larch (*[Larix decidua](/wiki/Larix_decidua "Larix decidua")*).
The [fauna](/wiki/Fauna "Fauna") which inhabits the area of Ayas is very varied too. There are [marmots](/wiki/Marmot "Marmot") in the remote parts of the territory, [squirrels](/wiki/Tree_squirrel "Tree squirrel") and [foxes](/wiki/Fox "Fox") in the woods, and [golden eagles](/wiki/Golden_eagle "Golden eagle") in the sky. The rivers and lakes are characterised by freshwater fish, like the [marble trout](/wiki/Salmo_marmoratus "Salmo marmoratus").
|
[
"Geography\n---------",
"It is made up of several *[frazioni](/wiki/Frazione \"Frazione\")* (locally officially called *hameaux*, in [French](/wiki/French_language \"French language\")), the two major ones being Antagnod which holds the town hall and the main parish, and Champoluc. All the *frazioni* of Ayas were combined under the one jurisdictional parish of Saint\\-Martin d'Antagnod in 1761\\. They remained combined in this way until the new parish of Sainte\\-Anne of [Champoluc](/wiki/Champoluc \"Champoluc\") was built in 1946\\.Aosta Valley: Tourist Guide and Road Map, 1:100,000\\. Litografia Artistica Cartografica. The comune of Ayas lies up the Ayas valley from [Brusson](/wiki/Brusson%2C_Aosta_Valley \"Brusson, Aosta Valley\").",
"### Physical geography",
"The comune of Ayas occupies the upper part of the [homonymous valley](/wiki/Val_d%27Ayas \"Val d'Ayas\") at the feet of the great peaks of the [Pennine Alps](/wiki/Pennine_Alps \"Pennine Alps\"), which separate it from [Zermatt](/wiki/Zermatt \"Zermatt\") in the [Mattertal](/wiki/Mattertal \"Mattertal\") ([Switzerland](/wiki/Switzerland \"Switzerland\")) and mark the border between Italy and Switzerland. The most notable of these peaks are [Castor](/wiki/Castor_%28mountain%29 \"Castor (mountain)\") (4,226 m), [Pollux](/wiki/Pollux_%28mountain%29 \"Pollux (mountain)\") (4,091 m) and the [Breithorn](/wiki/Breithorn \"Breithorn\") (4,165 m).",
"Another important glacier is the [Grand Glacier of Verra](/wiki/Grand_Glacier_of_Verra \"Grand Glacier of Verra\"). It is the principal source of the [Évançon](/wiki/%C3%89van%C3%A7on \"Évançon\"), which flows down the Val d'Ayas and empties into the [Dora Baltea](/wiki/Dora_Baltea \"Dora Baltea\") ({{lang\\-fr\\|Doire baltée}}).",
"In the opposite direction from the Monte Rosa Massif is [Dzerbion](/wiki/Dzerbion \"Dzerbion\"), a 2,720 metre mountain in the shape of a pyramid, which separated the comune of Ayas from that of [Saint\\-Vincent](/wiki/Saint-Vincent%2C_Aosta_Valley \"Saint-Vincent, Aosta Valley\").",
"* [Seismic classification](/wiki/Seismic_classification_of_Italy \"Seismic classification of Italy\"): zone 4 (very low seismicity)[The seismic zones of Italy: Aosta Valley](http://www.abspace.it/TripSpace/zoneSismiche_Valle-Aosta.asp), statistics 2006, www.abspace.it",
"### Flora and fauna",
"With respect to [flora](/wiki/Flora \"Flora\"), the landscape of Ayas is dominated by various [species](/wiki/Species \"Species\") of [Alpine plant](/wiki/Flora_of_the_Alps \"Flora of the Alps\"), such as the cowberry (*[Vaccinium vitis\\-idaea](/wiki/Vaccinium_vitis-idaea \"Vaccinium vitis-idaea\")*), the gentian (*[Gentiana acaulis](/wiki/Gentiana_acaulis \"Gentiana acaulis\")*) and the spring pasque flower (*[Pulsatilla vernalis](/wiki/Pulsatilla_vernalis \"Pulsatilla vernalis\")*). The main trees in the woods are the European spruce (*[Picea abies](/wiki/Picea_abies \"Picea abies\")*), the Swiss pine (*[Pinus cembra](/wiki/Pinus_cembra \"Pinus cembra\")*) and the European larch (*[Larix decidua](/wiki/Larix_decidua \"Larix decidua\")*).",
"The [fauna](/wiki/Fauna \"Fauna\") which inhabits the area of Ayas is very varied too. There are [marmots](/wiki/Marmot \"Marmot\") in the remote parts of the territory, [squirrels](/wiki/Tree_squirrel \"Tree squirrel\") and [foxes](/wiki/Fox \"Fox\") in the woods, and [golden eagles](/wiki/Golden_eagle \"Golden eagle\") in the sky. The rivers and lakes are characterised by freshwater fish, like the [marble trout](/wiki/Salmo_marmoratus \"Salmo marmoratus\").",
""
] |
History
-------
The [Latin](/wiki/Latin "Latin") name is Agatius*Vallée d'Aoste autrefois*, [Robert Berton](/wiki/Robert_Berton "Robert Berton"), 1981, Sagep ed., Genova. which seems to be the name of the first [Roman colony](/wiki/Roman_colony "Roman colony"). However, the etymology of the name is uncertain \- there are many opinions. For example, Ayas could be cognate with the river Ayasse in the [Champorcher Valley](/wiki/Champorcher_Valley "Champorcher Valley"), deriving from the Latin adjective *aquatica*. Another theory is that it might derive from *giàs*, [Piedmontese](/wiki/Piedmontese "Piedmontese") for "livestock pen".Renzo Ambrogio et al. (ed.), *[Nomi d'Italia](https://web.archive.org/web/20201127024048/https://stealth-prod-files.s3.amazonaws.com/previews/9788851115722_preview.pdf?AWSAccessKeyId=AKIAI5TBINYBVNOTNYYQ&Expires=1643931516&Signature=Al29NtaZ6QsRuz0IhlQ%2B17FMybo%3D)*, De Agostini, Novara, 2006, p.58\.
As for the earliest human settlement in the valley, it is thought that Ayas was initially populated by the [Salassi](/wiki/Salassi "Salassi"). These people practiced agriculture, pastoralism, hunting and fishing up to the Roman conquest in around 25 BC. The Val d'Ayas became an important route to other territories of the Empire. Later this role was consolidated and the connections with [Valais](/wiki/Valais "Valais") were expanded. As a result of these connections, Ayas later became known as *Krämertal* (Merchant Valley).
Around 515, the territory of Ayas became part of the fief controlled by the monks of [Saint\-Maurice d'Agaune](/wiki/Saint-Maurice_d%27Agaune "Saint-Maurice d'Agaune"), of [Burgundian](/wiki/Burgundians "Burgundians") origin. This group imposed Christianity on the peasantry of Ayas. This is the period when the first churches were built and the roads connecting the villages were expanded. Later the control of the Church over Ayas was strengthened, until the Pope gave total control of the valley to the [Bishop of Aosta](/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Diocese_of_Aosta "Roman Catholic Diocese of Aosta"), Aymon of Quart in a [Papal bull](/wiki/Papal_bull "Papal bull") of 1776\.
At the same time as the arrival of the [Burgundians](/wiki/Burgundians "Burgundians") in the sixth century, came a migration of [Walsers](/wiki/Walser "Walser") (a group of Germanic origin) into the valley, in particular to Saint\-Jacques which is locally known as the *Canton des Allemands* (French for "Canton of the Germans"). A second migration occurred in the twelfth century. This migration has left traces in the architecture, which is similar to that of Valais and of the upper [Lys Valley](/wiki/Lys_Valley "Lys Valley"), and in the language of the upper val d'Ayas, which is very different from the other varieties of [Valdôtain](/wiki/Vald%C3%B4tain "Valdôtain") in phonology and vocabulary.
Around 1200 the land of the family of [Graines](/wiki/Graines_Castle "Graines Castle"), which then controlled Ayas, was sold to the [Challant](/wiki/Challant_%28family%29 "Challant (family)") family, viscounts of Aosta. A good portion of the val d'Ayas thus came into the possession of the Challant family and received the name "Vallée de Challant\-Ayas". However the valley was not completely controlled by this powerful feudal family \- the Abbey of St Maurice had ultimate sovereignty over the land. The Challant family governed the Val d'Ayas until the eighteenth century when their weakened members lost control of it. Thereafter the valley became part of the [Duchy of Savoy](/wiki/Duchy_of_Savoy "Duchy of Savoy") and was administered by the church, which controlled many parishes along the whole valley.
Like all the other comuni of the Aosta Valley, Ayas suffered from high emigration at the end of the nineteenth and beginning of the twentieth centuries. The main destinations were [France](/wiki/France "France") and [Switzerland](/wiki/Switzerland "Switzerland").
During the two world wars, many men of Ayas were conscripted into the armed forces. In the [fascist period](/wiki/Italian_fascism "Italian fascism"), a hostile attitude developed towards the regime and in 1944 a small partisan action took place. The Germans also came to Ayas. In 1939 the place name was Italianised as "Aiàs".[Royal Decree of 22 July 1939, n. 1442](https://it.wikisource.org/wiki/R.D._22_luglio_1939,_n._1442_-_Riduzione_in_forma_italiana_delle_denominazioni_di_trentadue_Comuni_della_provincia_di_Aosta)
After the wars there was an economic revival as a result of tourist activities in Ayas, which led to the construction of hotels, houses, streets and to economic changes.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"The [Latin](/wiki/Latin \"Latin\") name is Agatius*Vallée d'Aoste autrefois*, [Robert Berton](/wiki/Robert_Berton \"Robert Berton\"), 1981, Sagep ed., Genova. which seems to be the name of the first [Roman colony](/wiki/Roman_colony \"Roman colony\"). However, the etymology of the name is uncertain \\- there are many opinions. For example, Ayas could be cognate with the river Ayasse in the [Champorcher Valley](/wiki/Champorcher_Valley \"Champorcher Valley\"), deriving from the Latin adjective *aquatica*. Another theory is that it might derive from *giàs*, [Piedmontese](/wiki/Piedmontese \"Piedmontese\") for \"livestock pen\".Renzo Ambrogio et al. (ed.), *[Nomi d'Italia](https://web.archive.org/web/20201127024048/https://stealth-prod-files.s3.amazonaws.com/previews/9788851115722_preview.pdf?AWSAccessKeyId=AKIAI5TBINYBVNOTNYYQ&Expires=1643931516&Signature=Al29NtaZ6QsRuz0IhlQ%2B17FMybo%3D)*, De Agostini, Novara, 2006, p.58\\.",
"As for the earliest human settlement in the valley, it is thought that Ayas was initially populated by the [Salassi](/wiki/Salassi \"Salassi\"). These people practiced agriculture, pastoralism, hunting and fishing up to the Roman conquest in around 25 BC. The Val d'Ayas became an important route to other territories of the Empire. Later this role was consolidated and the connections with [Valais](/wiki/Valais \"Valais\") were expanded. As a result of these connections, Ayas later became known as *Krämertal* (Merchant Valley).",
"Around 515, the territory of Ayas became part of the fief controlled by the monks of [Saint\\-Maurice d'Agaune](/wiki/Saint-Maurice_d%27Agaune \"Saint-Maurice d'Agaune\"), of [Burgundian](/wiki/Burgundians \"Burgundians\") origin. This group imposed Christianity on the peasantry of Ayas. This is the period when the first churches were built and the roads connecting the villages were expanded. Later the control of the Church over Ayas was strengthened, until the Pope gave total control of the valley to the [Bishop of Aosta](/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Diocese_of_Aosta \"Roman Catholic Diocese of Aosta\"), Aymon of Quart in a [Papal bull](/wiki/Papal_bull \"Papal bull\") of 1776\\.",
"At the same time as the arrival of the [Burgundians](/wiki/Burgundians \"Burgundians\") in the sixth century, came a migration of [Walsers](/wiki/Walser \"Walser\") (a group of Germanic origin) into the valley, in particular to Saint\\-Jacques which is locally known as the *Canton des Allemands* (French for \"Canton of the Germans\"). A second migration occurred in the twelfth century. This migration has left traces in the architecture, which is similar to that of Valais and of the upper [Lys Valley](/wiki/Lys_Valley \"Lys Valley\"), and in the language of the upper val d'Ayas, which is very different from the other varieties of [Valdôtain](/wiki/Vald%C3%B4tain \"Valdôtain\") in phonology and vocabulary.",
"Around 1200 the land of the family of [Graines](/wiki/Graines_Castle \"Graines Castle\"), which then controlled Ayas, was sold to the [Challant](/wiki/Challant_%28family%29 \"Challant (family)\") family, viscounts of Aosta. A good portion of the val d'Ayas thus came into the possession of the Challant family and received the name \"Vallée de Challant\\-Ayas\". However the valley was not completely controlled by this powerful feudal family \\- the Abbey of St Maurice had ultimate sovereignty over the land. The Challant family governed the Val d'Ayas until the eighteenth century when their weakened members lost control of it. Thereafter the valley became part of the [Duchy of Savoy](/wiki/Duchy_of_Savoy \"Duchy of Savoy\") and was administered by the church, which controlled many parishes along the whole valley.",
"Like all the other comuni of the Aosta Valley, Ayas suffered from high emigration at the end of the nineteenth and beginning of the twentieth centuries. The main destinations were [France](/wiki/France \"France\") and [Switzerland](/wiki/Switzerland \"Switzerland\").",
"During the two world wars, many men of Ayas were conscripted into the armed forces. In the [fascist period](/wiki/Italian_fascism \"Italian fascism\"), a hostile attitude developed towards the regime and in 1944 a small partisan action took place. The Germans also came to Ayas. In 1939 the place name was Italianised as \"Aiàs\".[Royal Decree of 22 July 1939, n. 1442](https://it.wikisource.org/wiki/R.D._22_luglio_1939,_n._1442_-_Riduzione_in_forma_italiana_delle_denominazioni_di_trentadue_Comuni_della_provincia_di_Aosta)",
"After the wars there was an economic revival as a result of tourist activities in Ayas, which led to the construction of hotels, houses, streets and to economic changes.",
""
] |
Life
----
Hans Wolfgang Steinecke was born in [Essen](/wiki/Essen "Essen"), to Käthe and Hugo Wolfram Steinecke. His father was a full\-time Reichsbahn inspector, a [music critic](/wiki/Music_critic "Music critic") for well\-known Essen daily newspapers, and a choral conductor. Already as a child, Steinecke wrote poems and a play. He attended a gymnasium in his home town. At the age of 17 he wrote his first composition. From 1927, he wrote [incidental music](/wiki/Incidental_music "Incidental music") for school theatre performances as well as for productions of the Kiel Student Theatre. Steinecke first completed practical music studies at the [Folkwangschule](/wiki/Folkwangschule "Folkwangschule") in Essen with Ludwig Riemann (1863–1927\) and [Felix Wolfes](/wiki/Felix_Wolfes "Felix Wolfes"). He then studied musicology with [Ernst Bücken](/wiki/Ernst_B%C3%BCcken "Ernst Bücken"), art history, theatre and literature and philosophy at the [University of Cologne](/wiki/University_of_Cologne "University of Cologne") and the [University of Kiel](/wiki/University_of_Kiel "University of Kiel"). In 1928, he completed a seventy\-page music aesthetic, incorporating ideas by Ferruccio Busoni and [Hans Mersmann](/wiki/Hans_Mersmann "Hans Mersmann").
In addition to his studies, he worked as an assistant at the theatre with {{ill\|Georg Hartmann (director)\|de\|Georg Hartmann (Intendant)\|lt\=Georg Hartmann}} at the [Städtische Bühnen Kiel](/wiki/Theater_Kiel "Theater Kiel"). In 1934 he received his doctorate under [Friedrich Blume](/wiki/Friedrich_Blume "Friedrich Blume") in Cologne. The title of the dissertation was "The Parody in Music".
During the Nazi regime, Steinecke was related to numerous influential musicians and musicologists, including his doctoral advisor Friedrich Blume, but also [Fritz Stein](/wiki/Fritz_Stein "Fritz Stein"). He worked as a music and theatre critic for the *Rheinisch\-Westfälische Zeitung* in Essen until 1939\. He then moved to Darmstadt to work as the editor for southwestern Germany for the Düsseldorf theatre newspaper *Der Mittag*. He also worked as a correspondent for several daily newspapers. Due to the closure of the German theatres on 1 September 1944, he became unemployed.
After the end of the Second World War he applied in Darmstadt for a job in the new cultural administration of the city of Darmstadt under Mayor {{Ill\|Ludwig Metzger\|de}}. On his application he stated that he was politically unencumbered and made no statements about his activities in the NS time. Also at a later time Steinecke was not subjected to a denazification procedure. On 1 August 1945 he was given a temporary contract of employment as cultural advisor. On 1 December 1945, the American Military Government agreed to employ Steinecke. The employment contract was regularly extended in the following period. He received a salary in the rank of a government councillor. During his time as cultural advisor until 1948 Steinecke rebuilt the cultural administration in the heavily destroyed city of Darmstadt. This included the opening of the municipal library, the Academy of Musical Arts and the [Volkshochschule](/wiki/Volkshochschule "Volkshochschule"). He also founded a municipal [chamber music](/wiki/Chamber_music "Chamber music") series and organized the first art exhibitions.
Steinecke is particularly remembered for initiating the [Darmstädter Ferienkurse](/wiki/Darmst%C3%A4dter_Ferienkurse "Darmstädter Ferienkurse"), which began in 1946 as International Summer Courses for New Music, and which were later managed by the Kranichstein Music Institute. They connected Germany again to the in international scene of [contemporary classical music](/wiki/Contemporary_classical_music "Contemporary classical music") which had been cut by the Nazis. The programs was in the early years influenced by musicians and composers such as [Hugo Distler](/wiki/Hugo_Distler "Hugo Distler"), [Wolfgang Fortner](/wiki/Wolfgang_Fortner "Wolfgang Fortner"), {{ill\|Gerhard Frommel\|de}} and [Hermann Reutter](/wiki/Hermann_Reutter "Hermann Reutter"). From 1950, Steinecke devoted himself exclusively to the Darmstädter Ferienkurse. He succeeded in bringing many composers, performers and philosophers to meeting in Darmstadt, where the [Darmstadt School](/wiki/Darmstadt_School "Darmstadt School") was born. [Theodor Adorno](/wiki/Theodor_Adorno "Theodor Adorno"), in an obituary for Steinecke, draws attention to the important bridges he built at Darmstadt between the new generation and the pre\-War generation of [Schoenberg](/wiki/Schoenberg "Schoenberg"), [Alban Berg](/wiki/Alban_Berg "Alban Berg"), and [Anton Webern](/wiki/Anton_Webern "Anton Webern"). and He also worked as a music critic for various newspapers and magazines, including again *Der Mittag*.
Steinecke was married to the photographer Hella Steinecke née Dahm (1921–1982\). The marriage remained childless. Steinecke died as a result of a car accident in Darmstadt on 23 December 1961 at the age of 51\. A street in Kranichstein was named after him.
|
[
"Life\n----",
"Hans Wolfgang Steinecke was born in [Essen](/wiki/Essen \"Essen\"), to Käthe and Hugo Wolfram Steinecke. His father was a full\\-time Reichsbahn inspector, a [music critic](/wiki/Music_critic \"Music critic\") for well\\-known Essen daily newspapers, and a choral conductor. Already as a child, Steinecke wrote poems and a play. He attended a gymnasium in his home town. At the age of 17 he wrote his first composition. From 1927, he wrote [incidental music](/wiki/Incidental_music \"Incidental music\") for school theatre performances as well as for productions of the Kiel Student Theatre. Steinecke first completed practical music studies at the [Folkwangschule](/wiki/Folkwangschule \"Folkwangschule\") in Essen with Ludwig Riemann (1863–1927\\) and [Felix Wolfes](/wiki/Felix_Wolfes \"Felix Wolfes\"). He then studied musicology with [Ernst Bücken](/wiki/Ernst_B%C3%BCcken \"Ernst Bücken\"), art history, theatre and literature and philosophy at the [University of Cologne](/wiki/University_of_Cologne \"University of Cologne\") and the [University of Kiel](/wiki/University_of_Kiel \"University of Kiel\"). In 1928, he completed a seventy\\-page music aesthetic, incorporating ideas by Ferruccio Busoni and [Hans Mersmann](/wiki/Hans_Mersmann \"Hans Mersmann\").",
"In addition to his studies, he worked as an assistant at the theatre with {{ill\\|Georg Hartmann (director)\\|de\\|Georg Hartmann (Intendant)\\|lt\\=Georg Hartmann}} at the [Städtische Bühnen Kiel](/wiki/Theater_Kiel \"Theater Kiel\"). In 1934 he received his doctorate under [Friedrich Blume](/wiki/Friedrich_Blume \"Friedrich Blume\") in Cologne. The title of the dissertation was \"The Parody in Music\".",
"During the Nazi regime, Steinecke was related to numerous influential musicians and musicologists, including his doctoral advisor Friedrich Blume, but also [Fritz Stein](/wiki/Fritz_Stein \"Fritz Stein\"). He worked as a music and theatre critic for the *Rheinisch\\-Westfälische Zeitung* in Essen until 1939\\. He then moved to Darmstadt to work as the editor for southwestern Germany for the Düsseldorf theatre newspaper *Der Mittag*. He also worked as a correspondent for several daily newspapers. Due to the closure of the German theatres on 1 September 1944, he became unemployed.",
"After the end of the Second World War he applied in Darmstadt for a job in the new cultural administration of the city of Darmstadt under Mayor {{Ill\\|Ludwig Metzger\\|de}}. On his application he stated that he was politically unencumbered and made no statements about his activities in the NS time. Also at a later time Steinecke was not subjected to a denazification procedure. On 1 August 1945 he was given a temporary contract of employment as cultural advisor. On 1 December 1945, the American Military Government agreed to employ Steinecke. The employment contract was regularly extended in the following period. He received a salary in the rank of a government councillor. During his time as cultural advisor until 1948 Steinecke rebuilt the cultural administration in the heavily destroyed city of Darmstadt. This included the opening of the municipal library, the Academy of Musical Arts and the [Volkshochschule](/wiki/Volkshochschule \"Volkshochschule\"). He also founded a municipal [chamber music](/wiki/Chamber_music \"Chamber music\") series and organized the first art exhibitions.",
"Steinecke is particularly remembered for initiating the [Darmstädter Ferienkurse](/wiki/Darmst%C3%A4dter_Ferienkurse \"Darmstädter Ferienkurse\"), which began in 1946 as International Summer Courses for New Music, and which were later managed by the Kranichstein Music Institute. They connected Germany again to the in international scene of [contemporary classical music](/wiki/Contemporary_classical_music \"Contemporary classical music\") which had been cut by the Nazis. The programs was in the early years influenced by musicians and composers such as [Hugo Distler](/wiki/Hugo_Distler \"Hugo Distler\"), [Wolfgang Fortner](/wiki/Wolfgang_Fortner \"Wolfgang Fortner\"), {{ill\\|Gerhard Frommel\\|de}} and [Hermann Reutter](/wiki/Hermann_Reutter \"Hermann Reutter\"). From 1950, Steinecke devoted himself exclusively to the Darmstädter Ferienkurse. He succeeded in bringing many composers, performers and philosophers to meeting in Darmstadt, where the [Darmstadt School](/wiki/Darmstadt_School \"Darmstadt School\") was born. [Theodor Adorno](/wiki/Theodor_Adorno \"Theodor Adorno\"), in an obituary for Steinecke, draws attention to the important bridges he built at Darmstadt between the new generation and the pre\\-War generation of [Schoenberg](/wiki/Schoenberg \"Schoenberg\"), [Alban Berg](/wiki/Alban_Berg \"Alban Berg\"), and [Anton Webern](/wiki/Anton_Webern \"Anton Webern\"). and He also worked as a music critic for various newspapers and magazines, including again *Der Mittag*.",
"Steinecke was married to the photographer Hella Steinecke née Dahm (1921–1982\\). The marriage remained childless. Steinecke died as a result of a car accident in Darmstadt on 23 December 1961 at the age of 51\\. A street in Kranichstein was named after him.",
""
] |
History
-------
### Settlement and founding (1795–1859\)
[thumb\|left\|upright\|[Lucas Sullivant](/wiki/Lucas_Sullivant "Lucas Sullivant"), founder of Franklinton](/wiki/File:Lucas_Sullivant.jpg "Lucas Sullivant.jpg")
In 1795 [Lucas Sullivant](/wiki/Lucas_Sullivant "Lucas Sullivant") was employed by the Commonwealth of [Virginia](/wiki/Virginia "Virginia") to survey the Central Ohio portion of the [Virginia Military District](/wiki/Virginia_Military_District "Virginia Military District"). Sullivant, along with approximately 20 men surveyed the western side of the [Scioto River](/wiki/Scioto_River "Scioto River") at the confluence of the [Olentangy](/wiki/Olentangy_River "Olentangy River") and Scioto Rivers. As payment for his work, Sullivant was given 6,000 acres in the [Refugee Tract](/wiki/Refugee_Tract "Refugee Tract") reserved for those who aided the [American Revolution](/wiki/American_Revolution "American Revolution").{{cite web\|last\=Motz\|first\=Doug\|url\=http://www.columbusunderground.com/history\-lesson\-lucas\-sullivant\-pioneer\-of\-franklinton \|title\=History Lesson: Lucas Sullivant, Pioneer of Franklinton\|website\=Columbus Underground\|date\=17 January 2012\|access\-date\=2019\-05\-06}}
Sullivant, after surveying the land, returned to [Kentucky](/wiki/Kentucky "Kentucky") where he courted Sarah Starling, the daughter of his mentor Colonel William Starling. In 1797, Sullivant returned to the Ohio and laid out a village of 220 lots in [Franklin County](/wiki/Franklin_County%2C_Ohio "Franklin County, Ohio"), which he named Franklinton in honor of the recently deceased [Benjamin Franklin](/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin "Benjamin Franklin"). This original settlement fronted the forks of the rivers. In 1798, a year later, a flood submerged most of the town. Sullivant then relocated the settlement to an adjacent space, simply on a higher elevation off of the riverbank.{{cite book\|title\=History of the City of Columbus, Capital of Ohio\|volume\=1\|page\=139\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=CLECAAAAMAAJ\|date\=1892\|access\-date\=October 28, 2020\|last1\=Lee\|first1\=Alfred Emory}}
[thumb\|Original Franklinton [plat](/wiki/Plat "Plat") map](/wiki/File:Platting_Map.jpg "Platting Map.jpg")
[thumb\|[Gen. William Henry Harrison Headquarters](/wiki/Gen._William_Henry_Harrison_Headquarters "Gen. William Henry Harrison Headquarters") in Franklinton](/wiki/File:Harrison_House_in_Franklinton_23.jpg "Harrison House in Franklinton 23.jpg")
The replatted town was laid out in blocks that contained four lots in a square, with each lot measuring 99' wide by 115' deep. To encourage people to move to the new settlement, Sullivant offered free land for anyone willing to build a house along Gift Street, near the eastern edge of his plat. Along with platting and settling the town, Sullivant also built several structures out of brick and glass from [Philadelphia](/wiki/Philadelphia "Philadelphia"). These buildings included a courthouse, a brick home to impress Starling (who was wed to Sullivant in 1801\), a brick church and the first bridge across the Scioto River.
The town of Franklinton was then made the [county seat](/wiki/County_seat "County seat") of Franklin County in 1803, when Franklin County was created from [Ross County](/wiki/Ross_County%2C_Ohio "Ross County, Ohio"). The population and town grew during the [War of 1812](/wiki/War_of_1812 "War of 1812"), as Franklinton served as a staging point for General [William Henry Harrison](/wiki/William_Henry_Harrison "William Henry Harrison")'s [Army of the Northwest](/wiki/Army_of_the_Northwest_%28United_States%29 "Army of the Northwest (United States)"). Following the war, the community continued to grow with the expansion of the country's railway system along with the construction of a new state capital, Columbus, on the opposite side of the Scioto River. Columbus's growth eventually led to it being named county seat in 1824 and Franklinton was annexed by the city in 1859\.
In 1846, traveler [Henry Howe](/wiki/Henry_Howe "Henry Howe") had this to say about Franklinton:
"Franklinton lies on the west side of the Scioto, opposite Columbus. It was the first town laid off in the Scioto valley north of Chillicothe. From the formation of the county, in 1803, it remained its seat of justice until 1824, when it was removed to Columbus. During the late war, it was a place of general rendezvous for the northwestern army, and sometimes from one to three thousand troops were stationed there. In those days, it was a place of considerable note; it is now a small village, containing, by the [census of 1840](/wiki/1840_United_States_Census "1840 United States Census"), 394 inhabitants."{{cite book\|last\=Howe\|first\=Henry\|author\-link\=Henry Howe\|chapter\-url\=https://archive.org/details/historicalcollec01inhowe/page/613\|chapter\=Franklin County\|title\=\[\[Historical Collections of Ohio]]\|place\=Cincinnati, OH\|publisher\=State of Ohio\|volume\=I\|year\=1907\|page\=613}}
He visited again in 1886, writing:
"Franklinton now is included in the city of Columbus. It has changed less than any part of the city so near the centre, and preserves to this day many of its old style village features. It is a quiet spot, but cannot much longer so remain in the rapid progress of improvements."
### Post\-annexation (1860–1899\)
[thumb\|[Engine House No. 6](/wiki/Engine_House_No._6_%28Columbus%2C_Ohio%29 "Engine House No. 6 (Columbus, Ohio)"), a city fire station from 1892 to 1966](/wiki/File:Columbus_Engine_House_No._6.jpg "Columbus Engine House No. 6.jpg")
During the last half of the nineteenth century, four railroads were established in Franklinton and brought commercial and industrial growth. In 1850, the Columbus and [Xenia Railroad Company](/wiki/Little_Miami_Railroad "Little Miami Railroad") was chartered to build and operate a railroad that ran from Columbus, Ohio to [Xenia, Ohio](/wiki/Xenia%2C_Ohio "Xenia, Ohio"). This railroad was the first to run through Columbus and into central Franklinton.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.neighborhoodlink.com/Franklinton/info\|title\=Franklinton\|website\=Neighborhood Link\|access\-date\=2019\-05\-06}} The growth of local railroads and governmental action in the United States, including [Abraham Lincoln](/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln "Abraham Lincoln")'s [Pacific Railroad Acts](/wiki/Pacific_Railroad_Acts "Pacific Railroad Acts"), caused railroads to become a major form of transportation in the twentieth century. By 1902, the popularity of the railroads forced Ohio canals into retirement. The need for interurban travel created Columbus interurban railways.{{cite web\|url\=https://ksacommunity.osu.edu/course/larch367/exploration/haywood37osuedu/columbus\-railways\-0\|title\=The Columbus Railways\|website\=ksacommunity.osu.edu\|publisher\=The Ohio State University – Knowlton School of Architecture Community\|date\=6 March 2011\|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20140501123644/https://ksacommunity.osu.edu/course/larch367/exploration/haywood37osuedu/columbus\-railways\-0\|archive\-date\=2014\-05\-01}}
Franklinton quickly transformed from a farming based community to an urban society known for its railroad cars and horse\-drawn buggies. The railroad service and industrial development drew people from the southwest part of the state and [West Virginia](/wiki/West_Virginia "West Virginia"). Many of these people chose to reside in the East Franklinton area to be closer to the industrial activity. Although Franklinton continued to grow as an industrial center, the frequent flooding near most of the industrial development proved to be problematic. Franklinton experienced multiple minor floods, which ravaged the west side in 1798, 1832, 1834, 1847, 1852, 1859, 1860, 1862, 1866 (the river rose 12 feet that year), 1868, 1869, 1870, 1875, 1881, and 1883\.{{cite web\|last\=Motz\|first\=Doug \|url\=http://www.columbusunderground.com/history\-lesson\-flood\-dm1\|title\=History Lesson: The 100th anniversary of the flood that destroyed Franklinton\|website\=Columbus Underground\|date\=25 March 2013\|access\-date\=2019\-05\-06}}
In 1889, the city spent $50,000 to construct massive levees along the banks of the Scioto.{{Cite book\|chapter\-url\=https://archive.org/details/historyofcolumbu00fitz/page/28\|chapter\=Chapter III. The First Day—Official Program\|title\=History of Columbus Celebration, Franklinton Centennial\|last1\=Fitzpatrick\|first1\=Stephen A.\|last2\=Morris\|first2\=Ulysses S.\|year\=1897\|place\=Columbus, OH\|publisher\=New Franklin Printing Co.\|page\=28}} The majority of the current houses in Franklinton were built after the completion of these levees.
On September 14, 1897, Columbus held a three day сentennial celebration for Franklinton. Local and notable guests were invited to speak at the celebration. Though the speeches praised Lucas Sullivant's courage and hard work, many agreed that, in retrospect, the flood\-prone area had been unfit for settlement. Also, the original neighborhood design had not included alleys.
### 20th century
{{See also\|Great Flood of 1913 in Columbus, Ohio}}
Franklinton experienced extreme flooding in the [Great Flood of 1913](/wiki/Great_Flood_of_1913 "Great Flood of 1913"). After two days of steady rain, the wooden levees holding the Scioto River collapsed on March 25, 1913\. The flood engulfed the neighborhood of Franklinton with 7–17 feet of water. Police officers in horse\-drawn carriages traveled the flooded streets, warning residents to head to the higher ground of the adjacent [Hilltop](/wiki/Hilltop%2C_Columbus%2C_Ohio "Hilltop, Columbus, Ohio") neighborhood. While recording the devastation of the flooding, [Robert F. Wolfe](/wiki/Robert_F._Wolfe "Robert F. Wolfe"), publisher of *[The Columbus Evening Dispatch](/wiki/The_Columbus_Dispatch "The Columbus Dispatch")*, chartered an interurban train from Columbus to [Buckeye Lake](/wiki/Buckeye_Lake "Buckeye Lake") and took nine motorboats and 20 rowboats with him to the river's edge. From Rich \& Scioto Street he was able to help residents who could not get to higher ground. The rising of the waters swept 93 people to their deaths and left 20,000 people homeless. It also destroyed nearly 500 buildings and every bridge in the downtown area. A large number of residents relocated to the Hilltop. As a result, property values dropped as much as 50 percent. Early estimates of the flood damage to homes and businesses came in at $5 million dollars with the eventual total climbing to $22 million. The damages from the Great Flood of 1913 led to some the first watershed planning and flood\-control measures.{{cite web\|last\=Lentz\|first\=Ed \|url\=http://www.thisweeknews.com/content/stories/2013/03/26/as\-it\-were.html\|title\=1913 flood changed Columbus\|website\=ThisWeek Community News\|date\=26 March 2013\|access\-date\=2019\-05\-06}}{{cite news\|last\=Ludlow\|first\=Randy\|url\=http://www.dispatch.com/content/stories/local/2013/03/24/floodcentury.html\|title\=1913 Flood: Hundreds killed and thousands of buildings damaged in Columbus\|work\=\[\[The Columbus Dispatch]]\|date\=24 March 2013\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161207215630/http://www.dispatch.com/content/stories/local/2013/03/24/floodcentury.html\|archive\-date\=2016\-12\-07}}{{cite news\|url\=http://www.columbusalive.com/content/stories/2011/08/25/franklinton\-on\-the\-verge\-up\-from\-the\-bottoms.html\|title\=Franklinton on the Verge: Up from The Bottoms\|work\=\[\[Columbus Alive]]\|date\=25 August 2011\|access\-date\=2019\-05\-06}}
In 1943, B \& T Metals in East Franklinton was involved in producing uranium reactor fuel for the [Manhattan Project](/wiki/Manhattan_Project "Manhattan Project"). Between March and August of that year, the company was contracted to extrude about 50 tons of uranium for the [Hanford reactor](/wiki/B_Reactor "B Reactor"), in the early stages of the U.S. nuclear weapons program during [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II"). Workers were given no protection from radiation, though were given physicals every week.{{Cite web\|url\=https://614now.com/2019/614\-live/adventures/throwback\-thursday\-franklintons\-chromedge\-studios\-radioactive\-past\|title \= Throwback Thursday: Franklinton's Chromedge Studios' radioactive past\|date \= 7 February 2019}} The site was remediated in 2001, and most of the building was demolished in 2011\.{{cite web \| url\=https://www.dispatch.com/article/20110513/blogs/305139675 \| title\=B\&T Metals finally coming down in Franklinton }} The northwest corner of the building remains standing, at 435 W. Town St., where most of the contamination was centered.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.wsj.com/graphics/waste\-lands/site/45\-b\-t\-metals/\|title\=B \& T Metals — Columbus, Ohio — Waste Lands}}
[thumb\|A rescue boat during the 1913 flood](/wiki/File:Flood_1913.jpg "Flood 1913.jpg")
The 1959 Flood was the last major flood to hit the Franklinton area. On January 22, 1959, the Frank Road crest on the Scioto River came and was 27\.22 ft. above the flood stage level. The frozen ground throughout the area was partly responsible for the large volume and rapid rate of runoff of the heavy rain.{{cite report\|last\=Hendricks\|first\=E. L.\|year\=1964\|url\= http://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1750a/report.pdf\|title\=Floods of January–February 1959 in Ohio and Adjacent States\|series\=Geological Survey Water\-Supply Paper 1750\-A\|place\=Washington, D.C.\|publisher\=United States Government Publishing Office\|page\=A140}}
From 1977 to 1985, the gay club Rudely Elegant operated on West Broad Street in Franklinton, in the art\-deco Avondale Theatre. The club was notable for its street presence, at a time when Midwest gay clubs would be unmarked and accessed from alleyways. The club was open to straight people as well, and became known for its themed costume parties; some called it the [Studio 54](/wiki/Studio_54 "Studio 54") of the Midwest. It was operated by Corbett Reynolds, a leading figure in the city's LGBT community, and now stands as a Lev's pawn shop.{{cite news\|title\=Man in the Moon\|work\=Columbus Monthly\|url\=https://www.columbusmonthly.com/article/20140206/NEWS/302068936\|date\=January 6, 2017\|access\-date\=September 8, 2020}} The club and its owner were featured in a [Columbus Museum of Art](/wiki/Columbus_Museum_of_Art "Columbus Museum of Art") exhibition in 2019\-20\.{{Cite web\|url\=https://614now.com/2020/614\-live/adventures/art\-after\-stonewall\-showcases\-defining\-work\-by\-lbgtq\-artists\|title\=Art After Stonewall showcases defining work by LBGTQ artists\|first\=Melissa\|last\=Braithwaite\|date\=February 28, 2020}}
In 1983, The [Federal Emergency Management Agency](/wiki/Federal_Emergency_Management_Agency "Federal Emergency Management Agency") determined almost all of Franklinton to be in a [floodplain](/wiki/Floodplain "Floodplain") and at risk from a flood with a 1% chance of annual occurrence. As a community that participates in the [National Flood Insurance Program](/wiki/National_Flood_Insurance_Program "National Flood Insurance Program"), the City Council adopted an ordinance that restricted new construction in the area. All construction in the area was to meet the minimum criteria of the National Flood Insurance Program. These restrictions caused Franklinton to have a gradual population decline.
During the latter half of the twentieth century, the construction of the [Interstate Highway System](/wiki/Interstate_Highway_System "Interstate Highway System") had a major effect on Franklinton. The inner belt construction of the 1960s removed several buildings along Sandusky Street, resulting in lowered property values and driving families out of East Franklinton. In addition to the land use and population changes that occurred, the inner belt formed a barrier which sealed off the side of East Franklinton that was not bordered by the Scioto River. This isolation was reinforced with the construction of West [Interstate 70](/wiki/Interstate_70 "Interstate 70").
### 21st century
[thumb\|Franklinton branch of the [Columbus Metropolitan Library](/wiki/Columbus_Metropolitan_Library "Columbus Metropolitan Library")](/wiki/File:Columbus%2C_Ohio_JJ_03-crop.jpg "Columbus, Ohio JJ 03-crop.jpg")
[thumb\|Columbus Karma Thegsum Chöling, a Buddhist temple reconstructed in 2022](/wiki/File:Columbus_Karma_Thegsum_Choling.jpg "Columbus Karma Thegsum Choling.jpg")
Today, Franklinton is an urban neighborhood consisting of about 36,000 residents. Though recent redevelopment efforts have improved the area, 56% of Franklinton residents lack a high school diploma, over 60% of residents live below the poverty line, and 93% of students at the school's public elementary school are eligible for free or reduced lunch.{{cite web\|url\=http://bcec.osu.edu/get\-involved/franklinton\-neighborhood/ \|title\=Franklinton Neighborhood\|website\=bcec.osu.edu\|publisher\=The Ohio State University – Buckeye Civic Engagement Connection\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140502005816/http://bcec.osu.edu/get\-involved/franklinton\-neighborhood/\|archive\-date\=2014\-05\-02}}
The Franklinton Floodwall, completed in 2004, is 7 miles long, cost $134 million, and is able to protect the area to crests of up to 30\.9 ft. The wall's completion released the area from being considered a floodplain, as well as releasing the previous building restrictions that often prevented development in the past. As a result, commercial and industrial activities are starting to grow in the East Franklinton Area. This resurgence is evidenced through multiple community plans, as well as the creation of the Franklinton Area Commission.
Between 2009 and 2011, the Columbus Metropolitan Housing Authority demolished three housing projects in the East Franklinton area. Two high rises, Sunshine Annex and Sunshine Terrace, and a 127 unit apartment complex, Riverside Bradley. The population in East Franklinton was greatly reduced as a result.
During this time, the city of Columbus rehabbed 16 homes through a program called Home Again.
Also during this time, Franklinton benefited from the [Housing and Economic Recovery Act of 2008](/wiki/Housing_and_Economic_Recovery_Act_of_2008 "Housing and Economic Recovery Act of 2008") (signed into law by [George W. Bush](/wiki/George_W._Bush "George W. Bush")) and its follow up, the [American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009](/wiki/American_Recovery_and_Reinvestment_Act_of_2009 "American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009") (signed into law by [Barack Obama](/wiki/Barack_Obama "Barack Obama")). The funds from these acts passed through the Neighborhood Stabilization Program, and led to the building, rehabilitation, or demolition of over 100 houses in Franklinton, through organizations like [Habitat for Humanity](/wiki/Habitat_for_Humanity "Habitat for Humanity") and the Franklinton Development Association.{{cite news\|last\=Ferenchik \|first\=Mark\|url\=https://www.dispatch.com/content/stories/local/2015/05/28/pricey\-fix\-ups\-built\-in\-problem.html\|title\=Houses sell for far less than taxpayers' rehab costs\|work\=The Columbus Dispatch\|date\=28 May 2015\|archive\-url\= https://web.archive.org/web/20150821114253/https://www.dispatch.com/content/stories/local/2015/05/28/pricey\-fix\-ups\-built\-in\-problem.html \|archive\-date\=2015\-08\-21}}
The City of Columbus is focusing on creating a new [Short North](/wiki/Short_North "Short North") style neighborhood in Franklinton through developing an urban creative district. This new neighborhood is now centered between Gift, Town, Lucas, and Rich Streets, with hope to expand to East Franklinton. The developers have purchased existing buildings and are working to refurbish some existing buildings to retain the character of the neighborhood.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"### Settlement and founding (1795–1859\\)",
"[thumb\\|left\\|upright\\|[Lucas Sullivant](/wiki/Lucas_Sullivant \"Lucas Sullivant\"), founder of Franklinton](/wiki/File:Lucas_Sullivant.jpg \"Lucas Sullivant.jpg\")",
"In 1795 [Lucas Sullivant](/wiki/Lucas_Sullivant \"Lucas Sullivant\") was employed by the Commonwealth of [Virginia](/wiki/Virginia \"Virginia\") to survey the Central Ohio portion of the [Virginia Military District](/wiki/Virginia_Military_District \"Virginia Military District\"). Sullivant, along with approximately 20 men surveyed the western side of the [Scioto River](/wiki/Scioto_River \"Scioto River\") at the confluence of the [Olentangy](/wiki/Olentangy_River \"Olentangy River\") and Scioto Rivers. As payment for his work, Sullivant was given 6,000 acres in the [Refugee Tract](/wiki/Refugee_Tract \"Refugee Tract\") reserved for those who aided the [American Revolution](/wiki/American_Revolution \"American Revolution\").{{cite web\\|last\\=Motz\\|first\\=Doug\\|url\\=http://www.columbusunderground.com/history\\-lesson\\-lucas\\-sullivant\\-pioneer\\-of\\-franklinton \\|title\\=History Lesson: Lucas Sullivant, Pioneer of Franklinton\\|website\\=Columbus Underground\\|date\\=17 January 2012\\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-05\\-06}}",
"Sullivant, after surveying the land, returned to [Kentucky](/wiki/Kentucky \"Kentucky\") where he courted Sarah Starling, the daughter of his mentor Colonel William Starling. In 1797, Sullivant returned to the Ohio and laid out a village of 220 lots in [Franklin County](/wiki/Franklin_County%2C_Ohio \"Franklin County, Ohio\"), which he named Franklinton in honor of the recently deceased [Benjamin Franklin](/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin \"Benjamin Franklin\"). This original settlement fronted the forks of the rivers. In 1798, a year later, a flood submerged most of the town. Sullivant then relocated the settlement to an adjacent space, simply on a higher elevation off of the riverbank.{{cite book\\|title\\=History of the City of Columbus, Capital of Ohio\\|volume\\=1\\|page\\=139\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=CLECAAAAMAAJ\\|date\\=1892\\|access\\-date\\=October 28, 2020\\|last1\\=Lee\\|first1\\=Alfred Emory}}",
"[thumb\\|Original Franklinton [plat](/wiki/Plat \"Plat\") map](/wiki/File:Platting_Map.jpg \"Platting Map.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|[Gen. William Henry Harrison Headquarters](/wiki/Gen._William_Henry_Harrison_Headquarters \"Gen. William Henry Harrison Headquarters\") in Franklinton](/wiki/File:Harrison_House_in_Franklinton_23.jpg \"Harrison House in Franklinton 23.jpg\")",
"The replatted town was laid out in blocks that contained four lots in a square, with each lot measuring 99' wide by 115' deep. To encourage people to move to the new settlement, Sullivant offered free land for anyone willing to build a house along Gift Street, near the eastern edge of his plat. Along with platting and settling the town, Sullivant also built several structures out of brick and glass from [Philadelphia](/wiki/Philadelphia \"Philadelphia\"). These buildings included a courthouse, a brick home to impress Starling (who was wed to Sullivant in 1801\\), a brick church and the first bridge across the Scioto River.",
"The town of Franklinton was then made the [county seat](/wiki/County_seat \"County seat\") of Franklin County in 1803, when Franklin County was created from [Ross County](/wiki/Ross_County%2C_Ohio \"Ross County, Ohio\"). The population and town grew during the [War of 1812](/wiki/War_of_1812 \"War of 1812\"), as Franklinton served as a staging point for General [William Henry Harrison](/wiki/William_Henry_Harrison \"William Henry Harrison\")'s [Army of the Northwest](/wiki/Army_of_the_Northwest_%28United_States%29 \"Army of the Northwest (United States)\"). Following the war, the community continued to grow with the expansion of the country's railway system along with the construction of a new state capital, Columbus, on the opposite side of the Scioto River. Columbus's growth eventually led to it being named county seat in 1824 and Franklinton was annexed by the city in 1859\\.",
"In 1846, traveler [Henry Howe](/wiki/Henry_Howe \"Henry Howe\") had this to say about Franklinton:\n\"Franklinton lies on the west side of the Scioto, opposite Columbus. It was the first town laid off in the Scioto valley north of Chillicothe. From the formation of the county, in 1803, it remained its seat of justice until 1824, when it was removed to Columbus. During the late war, it was a place of general rendezvous for the northwestern army, and sometimes from one to three thousand troops were stationed there. In those days, it was a place of considerable note; it is now a small village, containing, by the [census of 1840](/wiki/1840_United_States_Census \"1840 United States Census\"), 394 inhabitants.\"{{cite book\\|last\\=Howe\\|first\\=Henry\\|author\\-link\\=Henry Howe\\|chapter\\-url\\=https://archive.org/details/historicalcollec01inhowe/page/613\\|chapter\\=Franklin County\\|title\\=\\[\\[Historical Collections of Ohio]]\\|place\\=Cincinnati, OH\\|publisher\\=State of Ohio\\|volume\\=I\\|year\\=1907\\|page\\=613}}",
"He visited again in 1886, writing:\n\"Franklinton now is included in the city of Columbus. It has changed less than any part of the city so near the centre, and preserves to this day many of its old style village features. It is a quiet spot, but cannot much longer so remain in the rapid progress of improvements.\"",
"### Post\\-annexation (1860–1899\\)",
"[thumb\\|[Engine House No. 6](/wiki/Engine_House_No._6_%28Columbus%2C_Ohio%29 \"Engine House No. 6 (Columbus, Ohio)\"), a city fire station from 1892 to 1966](/wiki/File:Columbus_Engine_House_No._6.jpg \"Columbus Engine House No. 6.jpg\")\nDuring the last half of the nineteenth century, four railroads were established in Franklinton and brought commercial and industrial growth. In 1850, the Columbus and [Xenia Railroad Company](/wiki/Little_Miami_Railroad \"Little Miami Railroad\") was chartered to build and operate a railroad that ran from Columbus, Ohio to [Xenia, Ohio](/wiki/Xenia%2C_Ohio \"Xenia, Ohio\"). This railroad was the first to run through Columbus and into central Franklinton.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.neighborhoodlink.com/Franklinton/info\\|title\\=Franklinton\\|website\\=Neighborhood Link\\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-05\\-06}} The growth of local railroads and governmental action in the United States, including [Abraham Lincoln](/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln \"Abraham Lincoln\")'s [Pacific Railroad Acts](/wiki/Pacific_Railroad_Acts \"Pacific Railroad Acts\"), caused railroads to become a major form of transportation in the twentieth century. By 1902, the popularity of the railroads forced Ohio canals into retirement. The need for interurban travel created Columbus interurban railways.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://ksacommunity.osu.edu/course/larch367/exploration/haywood37osuedu/columbus\\-railways\\-0\\|title\\=The Columbus Railways\\|website\\=ksacommunity.osu.edu\\|publisher\\=The Ohio State University – Knowlton School of Architecture Community\\|date\\=6 March 2011\\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20140501123644/https://ksacommunity.osu.edu/course/larch367/exploration/haywood37osuedu/columbus\\-railways\\-0\\|archive\\-date\\=2014\\-05\\-01}}",
"Franklinton quickly transformed from a farming based community to an urban society known for its railroad cars and horse\\-drawn buggies. The railroad service and industrial development drew people from the southwest part of the state and [West Virginia](/wiki/West_Virginia \"West Virginia\"). Many of these people chose to reside in the East Franklinton area to be closer to the industrial activity. Although Franklinton continued to grow as an industrial center, the frequent flooding near most of the industrial development proved to be problematic. Franklinton experienced multiple minor floods, which ravaged the west side in 1798, 1832, 1834, 1847, 1852, 1859, 1860, 1862, 1866 (the river rose 12 feet that year), 1868, 1869, 1870, 1875, 1881, and 1883\\.{{cite web\\|last\\=Motz\\|first\\=Doug \\|url\\=http://www.columbusunderground.com/history\\-lesson\\-flood\\-dm1\\|title\\=History Lesson: The 100th anniversary of the flood that destroyed Franklinton\\|website\\=Columbus Underground\\|date\\=25 March 2013\\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-05\\-06}}",
"In 1889, the city spent $50,000 to construct massive levees along the banks of the Scioto.{{Cite book\\|chapter\\-url\\=https://archive.org/details/historyofcolumbu00fitz/page/28\\|chapter\\=Chapter III. The First Day—Official Program\\|title\\=History of Columbus Celebration, Franklinton Centennial\\|last1\\=Fitzpatrick\\|first1\\=Stephen A.\\|last2\\=Morris\\|first2\\=Ulysses S.\\|year\\=1897\\|place\\=Columbus, OH\\|publisher\\=New Franklin Printing Co.\\|page\\=28}} The majority of the current houses in Franklinton were built after the completion of these levees.",
"On September 14, 1897, Columbus held a three day сentennial celebration for Franklinton. Local and notable guests were invited to speak at the celebration. Though the speeches praised Lucas Sullivant's courage and hard work, many agreed that, in retrospect, the flood\\-prone area had been unfit for settlement. Also, the original neighborhood design had not included alleys.",
"### 20th century",
"{{See also\\|Great Flood of 1913 in Columbus, Ohio}}\nFranklinton experienced extreme flooding in the [Great Flood of 1913](/wiki/Great_Flood_of_1913 \"Great Flood of 1913\"). After two days of steady rain, the wooden levees holding the Scioto River collapsed on March 25, 1913\\. The flood engulfed the neighborhood of Franklinton with 7–17 feet of water. Police officers in horse\\-drawn carriages traveled the flooded streets, warning residents to head to the higher ground of the adjacent [Hilltop](/wiki/Hilltop%2C_Columbus%2C_Ohio \"Hilltop, Columbus, Ohio\") neighborhood. While recording the devastation of the flooding, [Robert F. Wolfe](/wiki/Robert_F._Wolfe \"Robert F. Wolfe\"), publisher of *[The Columbus Evening Dispatch](/wiki/The_Columbus_Dispatch \"The Columbus Dispatch\")*, chartered an interurban train from Columbus to [Buckeye Lake](/wiki/Buckeye_Lake \"Buckeye Lake\") and took nine motorboats and 20 rowboats with him to the river's edge. From Rich \\& Scioto Street he was able to help residents who could not get to higher ground. The rising of the waters swept 93 people to their deaths and left 20,000 people homeless. It also destroyed nearly 500 buildings and every bridge in the downtown area. A large number of residents relocated to the Hilltop. As a result, property values dropped as much as 50 percent. Early estimates of the flood damage to homes and businesses came in at $5 million dollars with the eventual total climbing to $22 million. The damages from the Great Flood of 1913 led to some the first watershed planning and flood\\-control measures.{{cite web\\|last\\=Lentz\\|first\\=Ed \\|url\\=http://www.thisweeknews.com/content/stories/2013/03/26/as\\-it\\-were.html\\|title\\=1913 flood changed Columbus\\|website\\=ThisWeek Community News\\|date\\=26 March 2013\\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-05\\-06}}{{cite news\\|last\\=Ludlow\\|first\\=Randy\\|url\\=http://www.dispatch.com/content/stories/local/2013/03/24/floodcentury.html\\|title\\=1913 Flood: Hundreds killed and thousands of buildings damaged in Columbus\\|work\\=\\[\\[The Columbus Dispatch]]\\|date\\=24 March 2013\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161207215630/http://www.dispatch.com/content/stories/local/2013/03/24/floodcentury.html\\|archive\\-date\\=2016\\-12\\-07}}{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.columbusalive.com/content/stories/2011/08/25/franklinton\\-on\\-the\\-verge\\-up\\-from\\-the\\-bottoms.html\\|title\\=Franklinton on the Verge: Up from The Bottoms\\|work\\=\\[\\[Columbus Alive]]\\|date\\=25 August 2011\\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-05\\-06}}",
"In 1943, B \\& T Metals in East Franklinton was involved in producing uranium reactor fuel for the [Manhattan Project](/wiki/Manhattan_Project \"Manhattan Project\"). Between March and August of that year, the company was contracted to extrude about 50 tons of uranium for the [Hanford reactor](/wiki/B_Reactor \"B Reactor\"), in the early stages of the U.S. nuclear weapons program during [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\"). Workers were given no protection from radiation, though were given physicals every week.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://614now.com/2019/614\\-live/adventures/throwback\\-thursday\\-franklintons\\-chromedge\\-studios\\-radioactive\\-past\\|title \\= Throwback Thursday: Franklinton's Chromedge Studios' radioactive past\\|date \\= 7 February 2019}} The site was remediated in 2001, and most of the building was demolished in 2011\\.{{cite web \\| url\\=https://www.dispatch.com/article/20110513/blogs/305139675 \\| title\\=B\\&T Metals finally coming down in Franklinton }} The northwest corner of the building remains standing, at 435 W. Town St., where most of the contamination was centered.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.wsj.com/graphics/waste\\-lands/site/45\\-b\\-t\\-metals/\\|title\\=B \\& T Metals — Columbus, Ohio — Waste Lands}}",
"[thumb\\|A rescue boat during the 1913 flood](/wiki/File:Flood_1913.jpg \"Flood 1913.jpg\")\nThe 1959 Flood was the last major flood to hit the Franklinton area. On January 22, 1959, the Frank Road crest on the Scioto River came and was 27\\.22 ft. above the flood stage level. The frozen ground throughout the area was partly responsible for the large volume and rapid rate of runoff of the heavy rain.{{cite report\\|last\\=Hendricks\\|first\\=E. L.\\|year\\=1964\\|url\\= http://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1750a/report.pdf\\|title\\=Floods of January–February 1959 in Ohio and Adjacent States\\|series\\=Geological Survey Water\\-Supply Paper 1750\\-A\\|place\\=Washington, D.C.\\|publisher\\=United States Government Publishing Office\\|page\\=A140}}",
"From 1977 to 1985, the gay club Rudely Elegant operated on West Broad Street in Franklinton, in the art\\-deco Avondale Theatre. The club was notable for its street presence, at a time when Midwest gay clubs would be unmarked and accessed from alleyways. The club was open to straight people as well, and became known for its themed costume parties; some called it the [Studio 54](/wiki/Studio_54 \"Studio 54\") of the Midwest. It was operated by Corbett Reynolds, a leading figure in the city's LGBT community, and now stands as a Lev's pawn shop.{{cite news\\|title\\=Man in the Moon\\|work\\=Columbus Monthly\\|url\\=https://www.columbusmonthly.com/article/20140206/NEWS/302068936\\|date\\=January 6, 2017\\|access\\-date\\=September 8, 2020}} The club and its owner were featured in a [Columbus Museum of Art](/wiki/Columbus_Museum_of_Art \"Columbus Museum of Art\") exhibition in 2019\\-20\\.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://614now.com/2020/614\\-live/adventures/art\\-after\\-stonewall\\-showcases\\-defining\\-work\\-by\\-lbgtq\\-artists\\|title\\=Art After Stonewall showcases defining work by LBGTQ artists\\|first\\=Melissa\\|last\\=Braithwaite\\|date\\=February 28, 2020}}",
"In 1983, The [Federal Emergency Management Agency](/wiki/Federal_Emergency_Management_Agency \"Federal Emergency Management Agency\") determined almost all of Franklinton to be in a [floodplain](/wiki/Floodplain \"Floodplain\") and at risk from a flood with a 1% chance of annual occurrence. As a community that participates in the [National Flood Insurance Program](/wiki/National_Flood_Insurance_Program \"National Flood Insurance Program\"), the City Council adopted an ordinance that restricted new construction in the area. All construction in the area was to meet the minimum criteria of the National Flood Insurance Program. These restrictions caused Franklinton to have a gradual population decline.",
"During the latter half of the twentieth century, the construction of the [Interstate Highway System](/wiki/Interstate_Highway_System \"Interstate Highway System\") had a major effect on Franklinton. The inner belt construction of the 1960s removed several buildings along Sandusky Street, resulting in lowered property values and driving families out of East Franklinton. In addition to the land use and population changes that occurred, the inner belt formed a barrier which sealed off the side of East Franklinton that was not bordered by the Scioto River. This isolation was reinforced with the construction of West [Interstate 70](/wiki/Interstate_70 \"Interstate 70\").",
"### 21st century",
"[thumb\\|Franklinton branch of the [Columbus Metropolitan Library](/wiki/Columbus_Metropolitan_Library \"Columbus Metropolitan Library\")](/wiki/File:Columbus%2C_Ohio_JJ_03-crop.jpg \"Columbus, Ohio JJ 03-crop.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|Columbus Karma Thegsum Chöling, a Buddhist temple reconstructed in 2022](/wiki/File:Columbus_Karma_Thegsum_Choling.jpg \"Columbus Karma Thegsum Choling.jpg\")\nToday, Franklinton is an urban neighborhood consisting of about 36,000 residents. Though recent redevelopment efforts have improved the area, 56% of Franklinton residents lack a high school diploma, over 60% of residents live below the poverty line, and 93% of students at the school's public elementary school are eligible for free or reduced lunch.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://bcec.osu.edu/get\\-involved/franklinton\\-neighborhood/ \\|title\\=Franklinton Neighborhood\\|website\\=bcec.osu.edu\\|publisher\\=The Ohio State University – Buckeye Civic Engagement Connection\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140502005816/http://bcec.osu.edu/get\\-involved/franklinton\\-neighborhood/\\|archive\\-date\\=2014\\-05\\-02}}",
"The Franklinton Floodwall, completed in 2004, is 7 miles long, cost $134 million, and is able to protect the area to crests of up to 30\\.9 ft. The wall's completion released the area from being considered a floodplain, as well as releasing the previous building restrictions that often prevented development in the past. As a result, commercial and industrial activities are starting to grow in the East Franklinton Area. This resurgence is evidenced through multiple community plans, as well as the creation of the Franklinton Area Commission.",
"Between 2009 and 2011, the Columbus Metropolitan Housing Authority demolished three housing projects in the East Franklinton area. Two high rises, Sunshine Annex and Sunshine Terrace, and a 127 unit apartment complex, Riverside Bradley. The population in East Franklinton was greatly reduced as a result.",
"During this time, the city of Columbus rehabbed 16 homes through a program called Home Again.",
"Also during this time, Franklinton benefited from the [Housing and Economic Recovery Act of 2008](/wiki/Housing_and_Economic_Recovery_Act_of_2008 \"Housing and Economic Recovery Act of 2008\") (signed into law by [George W. Bush](/wiki/George_W._Bush \"George W. Bush\")) and its follow up, the [American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009](/wiki/American_Recovery_and_Reinvestment_Act_of_2009 \"American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009\") (signed into law by [Barack Obama](/wiki/Barack_Obama \"Barack Obama\")). The funds from these acts passed through the Neighborhood Stabilization Program, and led to the building, rehabilitation, or demolition of over 100 houses in Franklinton, through organizations like [Habitat for Humanity](/wiki/Habitat_for_Humanity \"Habitat for Humanity\") and the Franklinton Development Association.{{cite news\\|last\\=Ferenchik \\|first\\=Mark\\|url\\=https://www.dispatch.com/content/stories/local/2015/05/28/pricey\\-fix\\-ups\\-built\\-in\\-problem.html\\|title\\=Houses sell for far less than taxpayers' rehab costs\\|work\\=The Columbus Dispatch\\|date\\=28 May 2015\\|archive\\-url\\= https://web.archive.org/web/20150821114253/https://www.dispatch.com/content/stories/local/2015/05/28/pricey\\-fix\\-ups\\-built\\-in\\-problem.html \\|archive\\-date\\=2015\\-08\\-21}}",
"The City of Columbus is focusing on creating a new [Short North](/wiki/Short_North \"Short North\") style neighborhood in Franklinton through developing an urban creative district. This new neighborhood is now centered between Gift, Town, Lucas, and Rich Streets, with hope to expand to East Franklinton. The developers have purchased existing buildings and are working to refurbish some existing buildings to retain the character of the neighborhood.",
""
] |
Career
------
### Early career
In a professional capacity, Beyle taught economics, statistics and finance at universities in [Saudi Arabia](/wiki/Saudi_Arabia "Saudi Arabia") and the [United States](/wiki/United_States "United States").
He later accepted a position at the [African Development Bank](/wiki/African_Development_Bank "African Development Bank") (AfDB), where he worked as a finance officer. He served as an economist, manager and director in various AfDB departments, including agriculture and rural development, water, and operations policies and procedures. His last appointment at the institution was as the head of the AfDB's Department of Agriculture and Agro\-Industry. In this new leadership role, Beyle oversaw around 135 projects and investments valued at $3\.5 billion, as well as managed a staff of over 100 and supervised special funds.
Besides diplomacy, teaching and economics, Beyle has also engaged in philanthropic work. To this end, he helped fund and establish a school in the Awdal region.
### Minister of Foreign Affairs and International Cooperation
[thumb\|right\|Minister of Foreign Affairs of Somalia Abdirahman Duale Beyle meeting with the UAE Ambassador to Somalia Mohamed Al\-Osmani in [Mogadishu](/wiki/Mogadishu "Mogadishu").](/wiki/File:Adualbhd18.png "Adualbhd18.png")
#### Appointment
On 17 January 2014, Beyle was named Somalia's new Minister of Foreign Affairs and International Cooperation by Prime Minister [Abdiweli Sheikh Ahmed](/wiki/Abdiweli_Sheikh_Ahmed "Abdiweli Sheikh Ahmed").{{cite news\|title\=SOMALIA PM Said "Cabinet will work tirelessly for the people of Somalia"\|url\=http://www.midnimo.com/2014/01/17/somalia\-pm\-said\-cabinet\-will\-work\-tirelessly\-people\-somalia/\|accessdate\=17 January 2014\|newspaper\=Midnimo\|date\=17 January 2014\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140203025315/http://www.midnimo.com/2014/01/17/somalia\-pm\-said\-cabinet\-will\-work\-tirelessly\-people\-somalia/\|archive\-date\=3 February 2014\|url\-status\=dead}} He succeeded [Fowziya Yusuf Haji Adan](/wiki/Fowziya_Yusuf_Haji_Adan "Fowziya Yusuf Haji Adan") at the position.
#### Institute of Diplomacy
In February 2014, Foreign Minister Beyle announced that the federal government was slated to reopen the former Institute of Diplomacy in [Mogadishu](/wiki/Mogadishu "Mogadishu"), Somalia's capital. The center historically served as one of the most important national institutions for diplomacy and international relations. Beyle also pledged to reestablish the institute's diplomacy department, its information and broadcasting department, as well as its library.{{cite news\|title\=Somalia: Somali Govt to Revive Former Institute of Diplomacy\|url\=http://allafrica.com/stories/201402140064\.html\|accessdate\=1 March 2014\|newspaper\=Dalsan Radio\|date\=13 February 2014}}
#### Somalia\-Ethiopia cooperative agreements
In February 2014, Beyle was part of a Somali government delegation in [Addis Ababa](/wiki/Addis_Ababa "Addis Ababa") led by Prime Minister Abdiweli Sheikh Ahmed, where the visiting officials met with Ethiopian Prime Minister [Hailemariam Desalegn](/wiki/Hailemariam_Desalegn "Hailemariam Desalegn") to discuss strengthening bilateral relations between Somalia and [Ethiopia](/wiki/Ethiopia "Ethiopia"). The meeting concluded with a tripartite Memorandum of Understanding agreeing to promote partnership and cooperation, including a cooperative agreement signed by Beyle and the Ethiopian Minister of Federal Affairs Dr. Shiferaw Teklemariam to develop the police force, a second cooperative agreement covering information matters, and a third cooperative agreement on the aviation sector.{{cite web\|title\=Ethiopia: The Prime Minister of Somalia On a Visit to Ethiopia\|url\=http://allafrica.com/stories/201402170065\.html\|publisher\=Government of Ethiopia\|accessdate\=17 February 2014}}
#### Somalia\-UN cooperative agreement
In February 2014, Beyle and UN Special Representative for Somalia [Nicholas Kay](/wiki/Nicholas_Kay "Nicholas Kay") signed a bilateral agreement outlining the terms of future cooperation between the Somali federal government and the United Nations. According to Beyle, the pact came after extensive consultations between both parties. Along with attorneys, President [Hassan Sheikh Mohamud](/wiki/Hassan_Sheikh_Mohamud "Hassan Sheikh Mohamud") attended the signing of the agreement, which he commended for helping to strengthen cooperation between the Somali authorities and the UN.{{cite news\|title\=Somalia, UN sign agreement to strengthen co\-operation\|url\=http://sabahionline.com/en\_GB/articles/hoa/articles/newsbriefs/2014/02/27/newsbrief\-04\|accessdate\=3 March 2014\|newspaper\=Sabahi\|date\=27 February 2014}}
#### Somalia\-Japan bilateral cooperation
In March 2014, Beyle and a Somali government delegation including President Hassan Sheikh Mohamud, Minister of Public Works and Reconstruction [Nadifo Mohamed Osman](/wiki/Nadifo_Mohamed_Osman "Nadifo Mohamed Osman") and Minister of Planning [Said Abdullahi Mohamed](/wiki/Said_Abdullahi_Mohamed "Said Abdullahi Mohamed") made a four\-day visit to [Tokyo](/wiki/Tokyo "Tokyo"), where they met with Ambassador Tatsushi Terada and other senior Japanese government officials. President Mohamud and his delegation also conferred with [Prime Minister](/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Japan "Prime Minister of Japan") [Shinzo Abe](/wiki/Shinzo_Abe "Shinzo Abe") to discuss strengthening bilateral relations, as well as capacity training for Somali livestock and agricultural development professionals.{{cite news\|title\=Somalia: Pres Hassan Sheikh \- "We Are Here in Japan to Strengthen Bilateral Relations\|url\=http://allafrica.com/stories/201403121237\.html\|accessdate\=12 March 2014\|date\=12 March 2014}} The visit concluded with an announcement by Japanese Prime Minister Abe that his administration would put forth a $40 million funding package for the rehabilitation of Somalia's police forces, relief services, and job creation opportunities. Mohamud commended the Japanese government for intensifying its bilateral support, and suggested that the development initiatives would be centered on vocational training for youth and women, maritime and fisheries training, fisheries and agricultural infrastructure development, and communication and information technology support.{{cite news\|title\=Japan Pledges $40m for Humanitarian Assistance to Somalia\|url\=http://horseedmedia.net/2014/03/13/japan\-pledges\-40m\-humanitarian\-assistance\-somalia/\|accessdate\=14 March 2014\|newspaper\=Horseed Media\|date\=13 March 2014}}
#### Somalia, AfDB and Tunisian development cooperation
In May 2014, Foreign Minister Beyle led a high level Somali federal government delegation to the [African Development Bank](/wiki/African_Development_Bank "African Development Bank") headquarters in [Tunis](/wiki/Tunis "Tunis"), which included Finance Minister Hussein Abdi Halane and other top officials. The visiting parties are slated to meet with the AfDB president [Donald Kaberuka](/wiki/Donald_Kaberuka "Donald Kaberuka") to discuss implementation of previous reconstruction development plans and financial pledges made to Somalia. Beyle and his delegation are then scheduled to confer with Tunisian government officials over potential investment programs in Somalia.{{cite news\|title\=Somali foreign Minister and delegates meets with the president of African development bank \|url\=http://goobjoog.com/en/index.php?option\=com\_content\&view\=article\&id\=2270:somali\-foreign\-minister\-and\-delegates\-meets\-with\-the\-president\-of\-african\-development\-bank\&catid\=127\&Itemid\=631 \|accessdate\=15 May 2014 \|newspaper\=Goobjoog \|date\=28 April 2014 \|url\-status\=dead \|archiveurl\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140517121618/http://goobjoog.com/en/index.php?option\=com\_content\&view\=article\&id\=2270%3Asomali\-foreign\-minister\-and\-delegates\-meets\-with\-the\-president\-of\-african\-development\-bank\&catid\=127\&Itemid\=631 \|archivedate\=17 May 2014 }}
#### Arab\-China Summit
In June 2014, Beyle led a federal government delegation to represent Somalia at the Arab\-China Summit in [Beijing](/wiki/Beijing "Beijing"). According to the minister, the international conference was an opportunity for the Somali authorities to attract foreign investment as part of the post\-conflict reconstruction process.{{cite news\|title\=SOMALIA: Foreign Minister travels to attend Arab\-China Summit\|url\=http://www.raxanreeb.com/2014/06/somalia\-foreign\-minister\-travels\-to\-attend\-arab\-china\-summit/\|accessdate\=2 June 2014\|agency\=Raxanreeb\|date\=1 June 2014\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140603115253/http://www.raxanreeb.com/2014/06/somalia\-foreign\-minister\-travels\-to\-attend\-arab\-china\-summit/\|archive\-date\=3 June 2014\|url\-status\=dead\|df\=dmy\-all}} Beyle concurrently met his Chinese counterpart [Wang Yi](/wiki/Wang_Yi_%28politician%29 "Wang Yi (politician)") to discuss bilateral cooperation between Somalia and [China](/wiki/China "China"). The meeting was held at the Chinese foreign ministry center and focused on trade, security and reconstruction. Among the issues discussed were the various Chinese development projects that are in the process of being implemented in Somalia. Beyle also indicated that the Chinese authorities are slated to broaden their support for Somalia, which would serve to create new employment opportunities. Additionally, Wang commended the Somali federal government on its peace\-building efforts. He likewise reaffirmed the historically close diplomatic ties between both territories, recalling China's recognition of the nascent [Somali Republic](/wiki/Somali_Republic "Somali Republic") in 1960 and Somalia's subsequent campaigning which helped China obtain a permanent seat in the [United Nations Security Council](/wiki/United_Nations_Security_Council "United Nations Security Council").{{cite news\|title\=Foreign affairs minister meets his Chinese counterpart \|url\=http://goobjoog.com/en/index.php?option\=com\_content\&view\=article\&id\=2652:foreign\-affairs\-minister\-meets\-his\-chinese\-counterpart\&catid\=124:local\-news\&Itemid\=653 \|accessdate\=6 June 2014 \|agency\=Goobjoog \|date\=6 June 2014 \|url\-status\=dead \|archiveurl\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140607005429/http://goobjoog.com/en/index.php?option\=com\_content\&view\=article\&id\=2652%3Aforeign\-affairs\-minister\-meets\-his\-chinese\-counterpart\&catid\=124%3Alocal\-news\&Itemid\=653 \|archivedate\=7 June 2014 }}
Beyle also indicated that the delegation would subsequently attend another key conference in [Greece](/wiki/Greece "Greece"), where the foreign ministers of Arab states would meet with [European Union](/wiki/European_Union "European Union") foreign ministers.
#### Somalia, Turkey and UN development cooperation
In June 2014, Beyle led a Somali government delegation at a diplomatic conference in [Turkey](/wiki/Turkey "Turkey"). The gathering was also attended by Turkish state officials and United Nations representatives. As part of a commitment by the Somali Foreign Ministry to accelerate the reconstruction process in Somalia and highlight local investment opportunities, Beyle briefed the attendees on the nation's commercial potential, including its extensive coastline and livestock and agricultural resources. Additionally, the Minister held a special meeting with [United Nations Development Program](/wiki/United_Nations_Development_Program "United Nations Development Program") officials on the progress and challenges of the rebuilding process. Beyle thanked the UNDP and other UN agencies for their developmental engagement in Somalia, and the UNDP in turn pledged to implement various development projects in the country.{{cite news\|title\=Somali Foreign ministry to speed up investment opportunities\|url\=http://goobjoog.com/en/index.php?option\=com\_content\&view\=article\&id\=2800:somali\-foreign\-ministry\-to\-speed\-up\-investment\-opportunities\&catid\=127\&Itemid\=631\|accessdate\=29 June 2014\|agency\=Goobjoog\|date\=21 June 2014}}
#### Embassy of China
On 30 June 2014, Chinese Foreign Ministry spokesman Hong Lei announced that China would dispatch a diplomatic team on 1 July to reopen the Chinese embassy in Mogadishu. He described the move as both recognition that the Somali authorities were making progress in their national reconstruction efforts and a symbol of the importance that the Chinese government attaches to its bilateral relations with Somalia.{{cite news\|title\=China to reopen Somalia embassy, sees strong ties\|url\=https://af.reuters.com/article/topNews/idAFKBN0F50W420140630\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140707163025/http://af.reuters.com/article/topNews/idAFKBN0F50W420140630\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-date\=7 July 2014\|accessdate\=30 June 2014\|agency\=Reuters\|date\=20 June 2014}} On 3 July 2014, Chargé d'Affaires of the Embassy of the People's Republic of China [Wei Hongtian](/wiki/Wei_Hongtian "Wei Hongtian") presented his credentials to Foreign Minister of Somalia Beyle at an event in the Somali capital. Beyle similarly hailed the appointment as a sign of the nation's strengthening security and foreign diplomatic relations.{{cite news\|title\=China reopens embassy in Somalia \|url\=http://www.sbrchina.com/sbr/2014\-07\-02/china\_reopens\_embassy\_in\_somalia.html \|accessdate\=5 July 2014 \|agency\=Shanghai Business Review \|date\=3 July 2014 \|url\-status\=dead \|archiveurl\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714205841/http://www.sbrchina.com/sbr/2014\-07\-02/china\_reopens\_embassy\_in\_somalia.html \|archivedate\=14 July 2014 }}
On 15 December 2014, Wei Hongtian presented his credentials to President Hassan Sheikh Mohamud as the newly appointed Chinese Ambassador to Somalia. He is the first such envoy after the reopening of the Chinese embassy in Mogadishu.{{cite web\|title\=Ambassador Wei Hongtian Presented the Letter of Credence to the President of Somalia\|url\=http://www.focac.org/eng/zxxx/t1220947\.htm\|publisher\=Forum On China\-Africa Cooperation\|accessdate\=20 December 2013\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141221004331/http://www.focac.org/eng/zxxx/t1220947\.htm\|archive\-date\=2014\-12\-21\|url\-status\=dead}} Foreign Minister Beyle and Ambassador Wei subsequently held a joint press conference, wherein the officials pledged to further strengthen bilateral ties. As part of the local reconstruction process, Wei also indicated that the Chinese authorities were slated to implement various development projects in Somalia.{{cite news\|title\=Weekly Press Conference on the Progress of the Government\|url\=http://goobjoog.com/english/?p\=7421\|accessdate\=20 December 2014\|newspaper\=Goobjoog\|date\=20 December 2014}}
#### Somalia\-Spain bilateral cooperation
In July 2014, Beyle led a Somali government delegation to [Madrid](/wiki/Madrid "Madrid") to discuss with Spanish Foreign Minister [José Manuel García\-Margallo](/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Manuel_Garc%C3%ADa-Margallo "José Manuel García-Margallo") ways of strengthening bilateral relations between Somalia and [Spain](/wiki/Spain "Spain"). The two leaders touched on issues of mutual interest, including security cooperation, stabilization initiatives, and support for the Somali federal government. Beyle also held a separate meeting with Alberto Virella, Director of the Spanish government's Africa, Asia and Western European agency for development and co\-operation, which centered on the post\-conflict reconstruction process in Somalia and establishing new development projects in the country.{{cite news\|title\=Federal government foreign minister meets his counterpart in Madrid\|url\=http://goobjoog.net/english/?p\=1188\|accessdate\=15 July 2014\|agency\=Goobjoog\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140719220248/http://goobjoog.net/english/?p\=1188\|archive\-date\=19 July 2014\|url\-status\=dead\|df\=dmy\-all}}
#### Somalia\-Qatar bilateral cooperation
In July 2014, Foreign Affairs Minister of Somalia Beyle held a special meeting in Mogadishu with acting Ambassador of [Qatar](/wiki/Qatar "Qatar") Hassan Hamza. The representatives discussed reviving official diplomatic ties between both countries and opening a Qatari embassy in the Somali capital, among other issues of mutual interest. Additionally, Hamza pledged to support the Federal Government of Somalia and strengthen bilateral relations.{{cite news\|title\=Somalia: foreign minister receives acting Qatarian ambassador in his office\|url\=http://goobjoog.com/english/?p\=1515\|accessdate\=8 August 2014\|agency\=Goobjoog\|date\=19 July 2014}}
#### Ambassador of India
In August 2014, Beyle met in Mogadishu with the newly appointed Ambassador of India to Somalia, Yogeshwar Varma. The officials discussed diplomatic relations between the two nations, with Varma presenting his credentials to Beyle. The minister and ambassador also conferred with President of Somalia Hassan Sheikh Mohamud at the presidential compound.{{cite news\|title\=Somalia: Foreign minister welcomes Indian ambassador in Mogadishu\|url\=http://goobjoog.com/english/?p\=2994\|accessdate\=10 September 2014\|agency\=Goobjoog\|date\=24 August 2014}}
#### Foreign embassy reform
In October 2014, Somalia's Ministry of Foreign Affairs temporarily closed down nine of its overseas embassies.{{cite news\|title\=Somalia closes dozen embassies overseas \|url\=http://www.qurbejoog.com/2014/10/10/somalia\-closes\-dozen\-embassies\-overseas/ \|accessdate\=12 October 2014 \|agency\=AP \|date\=10 October 2014 \|url\-status\=dead \|archiveurl\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141012132215/http://www.qurbejoog.com/2014/10/10/somalia\-closes\-dozen\-embassies\-overseas/ \|archivedate\=12 October 2014 }} The move came after Beyle had pledged to minimize the number of such diplomatic missions abroad. According to the Minister, the decision was motivated by financial considerations, and was reached after consultations between federal government officials.{{cite news\|title\=SOMALIA: Somali foreign ministry closes dozen Somali embassies overseas\|url\=http://www.raxanreeb.com/2014/10/somalia\-somali\-foreign\-ministry\-closes\-close\-to\-dozen\-somali\-embassies\-abroad/\|accessdate\=8 October 2014\|agency\=Raxanreeb\|date\=8 October 2014\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141011021633/http://www.raxanreeb.com/2014/10/somalia\-somali\-foreign\-ministry\-closes\-close\-to\-dozen\-somali\-embassies\-abroad/\|archive\-date\=11 October 2014\|url\-status\=dead\|df\=dmy\-all}} The closed embassies included those in Libya, Syria, Burundi, Rwanda, Tanzania, South Sudan, Germany, England and Malaysia.
#### Somalia\-Egypt bilateral cooperation
In October 2014, Beyle met with [Egypt](/wiki/Egypt "Egypt")'s Charge D'affaires in Somalia, Mohamed Mandour, at his office in Mogadishu. The two officials discussed various issues of mutual interest, including supporting the Federal Government of Somalia's post\-conflict reconstruction initiatives and fully re\-establishing bilateral ties between both countries. According to Beyle, Egypt is a longstanding ally and current partner of the Somali government.{{cite news\|title\=Somalia: foreign minister receives Egypt’s Charge D’affaires in his office\|url\=http://goobjoog.com/english/?p\=5208\|accessdate\=24 October 2014\|agency\=Goobjoog\|date\=22 October 2014}}
In December 2014, Beyle, President Hassan Sheikh Mohamud, and a Somali federal government delegation including the acting ministers for Finance, Justice, Interior, and Higher Education traveled to [Cairo](/wiki/Cairo "Cairo") to confer with the Egyptian authorities. The trip was prompted by an official invitation from the new President of Egypt, [Abdel Fattah el\-Sisi](/wiki/Abdel_Fattah_el-Sisi "Abdel Fattah el-Sisi"). The visiting officials were received at the [Cairo International Airport](/wiki/Cairo_International_Airport "Cairo International Airport") by the Egyptian Minister of Education Mahmoud Mohamed Mahmoud Abo El Nasr and Somalia's Ambassador to Egypt Abdullahi Hassan Mohamud.{{cite news\|title\=Somali president due to meet his Egyptian counterpart in Cairo\|url\=http://goobjoog.com/english/?p\=7791\|accessdate\=1 January 2015\|newspaper\=Goobjoog\|date\=29 December 2014}}{{cite news\|title\=Somalia: President Hassan in Egypt on official visit\|url\=http://www.garoweonline.com/page/show/post/1344/somalia\-president\-hassan\-in\-egypt\-on\-official\-visit\|accessdate\=1 January 2015\|newspaper\=Garowe Online\|date\=29 December 2014}} Mohamud subsequently met with the Secretary\-General of the [Arab League](/wiki/Arab_League "Arab League"), [Nabil Elaraby](/wiki/Nabil_Elaraby "Nabil Elaraby"). According to Ambassador Hassan, the leaders touched on various matters pertaining to the Federal Government of Somalia, including facilitating development and financial support by other Arab states for the Somalian government's ongoing reconstruction initiatives.{{cite news\|title\=Somali president meets Arab league secretary general in Cairo\|url\=http://goobjoog.com/english/?p\=7815\|accessdate\=1 January 2015\|newspaper\=Goobjoog\|date\=29 December 2014}} Additionally, Mohamud and delegates from both administrations conferred with the Grand Imam of [Al\-Azhar University](/wiki/Al-Azhar_University "Al-Azhar University"), [Ahmed el\-Tayeb](/wiki/Ahmed_el-Tayeb "Ahmed el-Tayeb"). The officials discussed bilateral cooperation in the education, medicine and justice sectors, among others, with the rector emphasizing his preparedness to assist in these fields and urging stronger commitment toward the reconstruction process in Somalia. Mohamud in turn highlighted Al\-Azhar's historic Muslim and educational work in Somalia, and underlined the institution's continued potential to provide accurate guidance on Islamic tenets.{{cite news\|title\=Somali President meets with the rector Of Al\-Azhar In Cairo\|url\=http://goobjoog.com/english/?p\=7894\|accessdate\=1 January 2015\|newspaper\=Goobjoog\|date\=30 December 2014}} Mohamud and the other visiting delegates finally held a closed door meeting with President El\-Sisi, wherein the officials touched on strengthening bilateral ties between the two countries. The gathering concluded with pledges to collaborate in the economic, educational and military sectors, including training of Somali forces by Egyptian security personnel.{{cite news\|title\=Government : Egypt Will Train Somali Forces\|url\=http://goobjoog.com/english/?p\=7935\|accessdate\=1 January 2015\|newspaper\=Goobjoog\|date\=31 December 2014}}
#### Somalia\-Sudan bilateral cooperation
In October 2014, Foreign Minister Beyle along with President Hassan Sheikh Mohamud met in Mogadishu with the new Ambassador of Sudan to Somalia, Mohamed Yusuf Osman. The Ambassador was received at the [Villa Somalia](/wiki/Villa_Somalia "Villa Somalia") presidential compound, where he presented his credentials to the federal officials. Mohamud and Osman subsequently discussed strengthening bilateral ties between the two nations, educational support, and various other issues of mutual interest. Additionally, Beyle indicated at a press conference following the meeting that the Sudanese embassy had been shut down for a number of years, and that the federal officials welcomed the new Sudanese Ambassador. Osman also passed on greetings on behalf of the President of Sudan [Omar al\-Bashir](/wiki/Omar_al-Bashir "Omar al-Bashir").{{cite news\|title\=SOMALIA: President Mohamud receives credentials from new Sudan Ambassador to Somalia\|url\=http://www.raxanreeb.com/2014/10/somalia\-president\-mohamud\-receives\-credentials\-from\-new\-sudan\-ambassador\-to\-somalia/\|accessdate\=26 October 2014\|agency\=Raxanreeb\|date\=25 October 2014\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141025173328/http://www.raxanreeb.com/2014/10/somalia\-president\-mohamud\-receives\-credentials\-from\-new\-sudan\-ambassador\-to\-somalia/\|archive\-date\=25 October 2014\|url\-status\=dead\|df\=dmy\-all}}
#### Islamic Development Bank and Organisation of Islamic Cooperation
In November 2014, Beyle met with [Islamic Development Bank](/wiki/Islamic_Development_Bank "Islamic Development Bank") President [Ahmad Mohamed Ali Al\-Madani](/wiki/Ahmad_Mohamed_Ali_Al-Madani "Ahmad Mohamed Ali Al-Madani") at the latter's office in [Jeddah](/wiki/Jeddah "Jeddah"), [Saudi Arabia](/wiki/Saudi_Arabia "Saudi Arabia"). The officials touched on various development projects in the areas of education, water resources and livelihood, as well as matters related to the Federal Government of Somalia. Additionally, Beyle held a special meeting with the Secretary\-General of the [Organisation of Islamic Cooperation](/wiki/Organisation_of_Islamic_Cooperation "Organisation of Islamic Cooperation"), [Iyad bin Amin Madani](/wiki/Iyad_bin_Amin_Madani "Iyad bin Amin Madani"). According to Beyle, he also took the opportunity to reconfirm earlier pledges that the institutions had made to the Somali federal government after President Hassan Sheikh Mohamud had conferred with the two secretaries\-general.{{cite news\|title\=Somalia: Foreign minister returns home after official trip to Jeddah\|url\=http://goobjoog.com/english/?p\=6005\|accessdate\=13 November 2014\|agency\=Goobjoog\|date\=12 November 2014}}
#### Ambassador of Egypt
In November 2014, Beyle and President Hassan Sheikh Mohamud met in Mogadishu with Egypt's new Ambassador to Somalia, Mowlid Ismail. Ismail concurrently presented his credentials to Mohamud at the Villa Somalia compound, with Beyle in attendance. The officials subsequently held a closed door meeting in which they discussed various ways to strengthen the historic bilateral ties between the two nations. According to Beyle, Ismail also indicated that his administration would double its development assistance to Somalia in the education sector.{{cite news\|title\=SOMALIA: President Mohamud receive New Egyptian ambassador to Somalia\|url\=http://www.raxanreeb.com/2014/11/somalia\-president\-mohamud\-receive\-new\-egyptian\-ambassador\-to\-somalia/\|accessdate\=17 November 2014\|agency\=Raxanreeb\|date\=15 November 2014\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141129012158/http://www.raxanreeb.com/2014/11/somalia\-president\-mohamud\-receive\-new\-egyptian\-ambassador\-to\-somalia/\|archive\-date\=2014\-11\-29\|url\-status\=dead}}
#### New Deal Compact for Reconstruction and Development
In November 2014, Foreign Minister Beyle along with over eight federal ministers and representatives from Somalia's [Puntland](/wiki/Puntland "Puntland"), [Jubaland](/wiki/Jubaland "Jubaland"), [Galmudug](/wiki/Galmudug "Galmudug") and [Southwestern](/wiki/Southwestern_Somalia "Southwestern Somalia") regional states took part in an international conference in [Copenhagen](/wiki/Copenhagen "Copenhagen") on the New Deal Compact for Reconstruction and Development. The summit was co\-chaired by President Hassan Sheikh Mohamud along with UN Under\-Secretary for Political Affairs [Jeffrey D. Feltman](/wiki/Jeffrey_D._Feltman "Jeffrey D. Feltman"), and was attended by delegations from over 140 countries. According to Beyle, the federal officials took the opportunity to present the Somali government's priorities and successes. Mohamud indicated therein that the New Deal Compact was a Somali\-led initiative, through which the Federal Government of Somalia developed legal frameworks, initiated state and political reform, re\-structured key institutions, and established a foundation for allocating international development assistance toward the central authorities' priority areas. Additionally, Minister of Foreign Affairs of Egypt [Sameh Shoukry](/wiki/Sameh_Shoukry "Sameh Shoukry") reaffirmed his administration's support for Somalia's social and security sectors, and noted the Egyptian government's various political brokering efforts.{{cite news\|title\=Somalia: Donor summit underway in Denmark amid political deadlock\|url\=http://www.garoweonline.com/page/show/post/964/somalia\-donor\-summit\-underway\-in\-denmark\-amid\-political\-deadlock\|accessdate\=20 November 2014\|agency\=Garowe Online\|date\=19 November 2014}}{{cite news\|title\=SOMALIA: President’s delegation return to Mogadishu after attending the Copenhagen conference\|url\=http://www.raxanreeb.com/2014/11/somalia\-presidents\-delegation\-return\-to\-mogadishu\-after\-attending\-the\-copenhagen\-conference/\|accessdate\=21 November 2014\|agency\=Raxanreeb\|date\=21 November 2014\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141129022802/http://www.raxanreeb.com/2014/11/somalia\-presidents\-delegation\-return\-to\-mogadishu\-after\-attending\-the\-copenhagen\-conference/\|archive\-date\=29 November 2014\|url\-status\=dead\|df\=dmy\-all}}
#### Somalia\-Yemen bilateral cooperation
In November 2014, Beyle met in [Sana'a](/wiki/Sana%27a "Sana'a") with the Foreign Minister of Yemen Abdalla Mohamed. According to the Consular of the Embassy of Somalia in Yemen Ahmed Sudani, the two ministers discussed various issues of bilateral interest, including Somali government ships stored in Yemen, maritime security and expatriates. Beyle also sought additional scholarship seats for Somali students so as to further develop the educational sector.{{cite news\|title\=Somalia: foreign affairs minister meets his Yemen counterpart in Sana’a\|url\=http://goobjoog.com/english/?p\=6551\|accessdate\=24 November 2014\|agency\=Goobjoog\|date\=24 November 2014}} Additionally, Beyle held a meeting with the President of Yemen [Abd Rabbuh Mansur Hadi](/wiki/Abd_Rabbuh_Mansur_Hadi "Abd Rabbuh Mansur Hadi") and the newly appointed Prime Minister of Yemen, [Khaled Bahah](/wiki/Khaled_Bahah "Khaled Bahah"). The officials touched on various other bilateral matters, including strengthening cooperation in the trade, security and development sectors. Beyle likewise conferred with the Minister of Fisheries and paid a visit to the Sana'a Chamber of Commerce, where he met with Yemeni business leaders and gave a keynote speech.{{cite news\|title\=Yemen: Foreign Minister meets Yemen Prime minister in Sana’a\|url\=http://goobjoog.com/english/?p\=6639\|accessdate\=27 November 2014\|agency\=Goobjoog\|date\=26 November 2014}}{{cite news\|title\=Somalia’s foreign Minister meets his Germany counterpart in Rome\|url\=http://goobjoog.com/english/?p\=6676\|accessdate\=29 November 2014\|agency\=Goobjoog\|date\=29 November 2014}}
#### Somalia\-Germany bilateral cooperation
In November 2014, Beyle traveled to [Rome](/wiki/Rome "Rome") to attend an international migration summit, where he met with the Foreign Minister of [Germany](/wiki/Germany "Germany"), [Frank\-Walter Steinmeier](/wiki/Frank-Walter_Steinmeier "Frank-Walter Steinmeier"). The two officials discussed various bilateral issues, including diplomatic relations and cooperation between the governments of Somalia and Germany, as well as the Somali federal government's counterinsurgency operations. Additionally, Steinmeier emphasized the importance of solidarity and collaboration, and applauded the federal government's reconstruction and stabilization initiatives.
Beyle also discussed bilateral development cooperation in Nairobi with the Ambassador of Germany to Somalia, Andreas Peschke. Peschke reaffirmed the German government's commitment to Somalia's New Deal Compact initiative launched in 2013, when his administration pledged 95 million Euros for associated reconstruction projects. In parallel with the development initiatives, the Ambassador likewise stressed the importance of maintaining security and stabilization measures.{{cite news\|title\=SOMALIA: Foreign Minister meets with German Ambassador to Somalia in Nairobi\|url\=http://www.raxanreeb.com/2014/12/somalia\-foreign\-minister\-meets\-with\-german\-ambassador\-to\-somalia\-in\-nairobi/\|accessdate\=2 December 2014\|agency\=Raxanreeb\|date\=1 December 2014\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150318062737/http://www.raxanreeb.com/2014/12/somalia\-foreign\-minister\-meets\-with\-german\-ambassador\-to\-somalia\-in\-nairobi/\|archive\-date\=18 March 2015\|url\-status\=dead\|df\=dmy\-all}}
#### Somalia\-Oman bilateral cooperation
In January 2015, Beyle met with the Omani Foreign Affairs Minister Yousuf bin Alawi bin Abdullah at his office in [Oman](/wiki/Oman "Oman"). Undersecretary for Diplomatic Affairs Ahmed bin Yousuf al Harthy also took part in the gathering. The officials discussed various political matters, including domestic, regional and international affairs. They also touched on existing bilateral ties between both nations and ways to further strengthen them.{{cite news\|title\=Minister Responsible for Foreign Affairs of Oman meets Somali counterpart\|url\=http://goobjoog.com/english/?p\=8990\|accessdate\=19 January 2015\|agency\=Goobjoog\|date\=18 January 2015}}
#### Somalia\-Turkey bilateral cooperation
In January 2015, Foreign Affairs Minister Beyle, President Hassan Sheikh Mohamud, and other senior Somali federal government officials received a large Turkish delegation led by newly elected President of Turkey [Recep Tayyip Erdoğan](/wiki/Recep_Tayyip_Erdo%C4%9Fan "Recep Tayyip Erdoğan") at the [Aden Adde International Airport](/wiki/Aden_Adde_International_Airport "Aden Adde International Airport") in Mogadishu. The delegates included various cabinet ministers and entrepreneurs.{{cite news\|title\=Press Release: Erdogan’s Somalia Visit\|url\=http://goobjoog.com/english/?p\=9308\|accessdate\=26 January 2015\|agency\=Goobjoog\|date\=25 January 2015}}{{cite news\|title\=Turkey’s president pledges to construct 10 thousand new houses in Mogadishu\|url\=http://goobjoog.com/english/?p\=9339\|accessdate\=26 January 2015\|agency\=Goobjoog\|date\=25 January 2015}} Mohamud and Erdoğan concurrently inaugurated a number of Turkish\-built development projects in Somalia, including the Somalia\-Turkey Education and Research Hospital in the capital and a new terminal at the Aden Adde International Airport. Beyle and the Turkish delegates in turn signed a bilateral treaty on new developmental projects that are scheduled to be implemented in Somalia. Among the agreements was a protocol stating that the new Digfer Hospital in Mogadishu would be jointly operated. The accord stipulates that the institution will be funded for its first five years by the Turkish Ministry of Health, which will likewise provide professional specialists. Per the protocol, the hospital will thereafter be fully managed by the Somalian authorities.{{cite news\|title\=Turkish president inaugurates hospital in Somalia\|url\=http://www.worldbulletin.net/servisler/haberYazdir/153747/haber\|accessdate\=25 January 2015\|agency\=World Bulletin\|date\=25 January 2015}} Further development agreements were signed pertaining to military and security cooperation, police support and coordination, marine transportation, youth and sports projects, and cooperation between [Somali National Television](/wiki/Somali_National_Television "Somali National Television") and the [Turkish National Radio](/wiki/Turkish_Radio_and_Television_Corporation "Turkish Radio and Television Corporation").
#### OIC embassy treaty
In February 2015, interim Foreign Affairs Minister Beyle signed a joint agreement with representatives of the [Organization of Islamic Cooperation](/wiki/Organization_of_Islamic_Cooperation "Organization of Islamic Cooperation") for the renovation of Somalia's various foreign embassies. According to Beyle, the accord encompasses a number of such state\-owned premises, which require refurbishment. During the initiative's first phase, the OIC will conduct a survey of the infrastructure's general condition as well as the necessary expenditure.{{cite news\|title\=OIC signs to renovate Somali foreign embassies\|url\=http://goobjoog.com/english/?p\=9708\|accessdate\=4 February 2015\|agency\=Goobjoog\|date\=2 February 2015}}
#### End of term
On 27 January 2015, Beyle's term as Minister of Foreign Affairs and International Cooperation of Somalia ended, when Prime Minister [Omar Abdirashid Ali Sharmarke](/wiki/Omar_Abdirashid_Ali_Sharmarke "Omar Abdirashid Ali Sharmarke") appointed a new Cabinet. He was succeeded in office by [Abdisalam Omer](/wiki/Abdisalam_Omer "Abdisalam Omer").{{cite news\|title\=Nominated Ministers and Their Clans\|url\=http://goobjoog.com/english/?p\=9446\|accessdate\=28 January 2015\|agency\=Goobjoog\|date\=28 January 2015}}
On 14 February, Beyle's term as Foreign Minister formally ended at an official handover ceremony at the foreign ministry compound in Mogadishu. The event was attended by his successor Omer, new Deputy Prime Minister [Mohamed Omar Arte](/wiki/Mohamed_Omar_Arte "Mohamed Omar Arte"), and other senior federal government officials. Beyle therein noted his various accomplishments during his tenure, and enjoined the foreign ministry personnel to assist the incoming minister. Omer in turn commended Beyle for the latter's diplomatic work, and pledged to fulfill his own duties in accordance with the constitution.{{cite news\|title\=Former Foreign minister hands over office\|url\=http://goobjoog.com/english/?p\=10242\|accessdate\=15 February 2015\|agency\=Goobjoog\|date\=14 February 2015\|url\-status\=dead\|archiveurl\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150215213549/http://goobjoog.com/english/?p\=10242\|archivedate\=15 February 2015}}
### Arts works
Apart from his Academic and professional career, Dr Beileh is distinguished artist. He is song writer, and poet. His works covers on wide surface of topics. He has written over 75 songs and poems over that covers over variety of subjects; mainly on Somali Nationalism and patriotism. His enrichment of Somali language and culture; and growing up in a basic Somali tradition gave him the grip and power to effortlessly articulate a multi dimensional piece that carries both cultural dilemma as well as metaphored conclusion. his Master pieces includes; Qiiro Calan (the Flag Grieves), Dhalinyaro (Youth), Ardo and Jameson, Mogadishu, 'Somalia Waa Mashruuc' (Somalia (crisis) is project), 'Ina Jicimbir' (Ji'imbir's Son), 'Lugtay Wax I Jiidayaan' (Something Holds Me Back).
|
[
"Career\n------",
"### Early career",
"In a professional capacity, Beyle taught economics, statistics and finance at universities in [Saudi Arabia](/wiki/Saudi_Arabia \"Saudi Arabia\") and the [United States](/wiki/United_States \"United States\").",
"He later accepted a position at the [African Development Bank](/wiki/African_Development_Bank \"African Development Bank\") (AfDB), where he worked as a finance officer. He served as an economist, manager and director in various AfDB departments, including agriculture and rural development, water, and operations policies and procedures. His last appointment at the institution was as the head of the AfDB's Department of Agriculture and Agro\\-Industry. In this new leadership role, Beyle oversaw around 135 projects and investments valued at $3\\.5 billion, as well as managed a staff of over 100 and supervised special funds.",
"Besides diplomacy, teaching and economics, Beyle has also engaged in philanthropic work. To this end, he helped fund and establish a school in the Awdal region.",
"### Minister of Foreign Affairs and International Cooperation",
"[thumb\\|right\\|Minister of Foreign Affairs of Somalia Abdirahman Duale Beyle meeting with the UAE Ambassador to Somalia Mohamed Al\\-Osmani in [Mogadishu](/wiki/Mogadishu \"Mogadishu\").](/wiki/File:Adualbhd18.png \"Adualbhd18.png\")",
"#### Appointment",
"On 17 January 2014, Beyle was named Somalia's new Minister of Foreign Affairs and International Cooperation by Prime Minister [Abdiweli Sheikh Ahmed](/wiki/Abdiweli_Sheikh_Ahmed \"Abdiweli Sheikh Ahmed\").{{cite news\\|title\\=SOMALIA PM Said \"Cabinet will work tirelessly for the people of Somalia\"\\|url\\=http://www.midnimo.com/2014/01/17/somalia\\-pm\\-said\\-cabinet\\-will\\-work\\-tirelessly\\-people\\-somalia/\\|accessdate\\=17 January 2014\\|newspaper\\=Midnimo\\|date\\=17 January 2014\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140203025315/http://www.midnimo.com/2014/01/17/somalia\\-pm\\-said\\-cabinet\\-will\\-work\\-tirelessly\\-people\\-somalia/\\|archive\\-date\\=3 February 2014\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} He succeeded [Fowziya Yusuf Haji Adan](/wiki/Fowziya_Yusuf_Haji_Adan \"Fowziya Yusuf Haji Adan\") at the position.",
"#### Institute of Diplomacy",
"In February 2014, Foreign Minister Beyle announced that the federal government was slated to reopen the former Institute of Diplomacy in [Mogadishu](/wiki/Mogadishu \"Mogadishu\"), Somalia's capital. The center historically served as one of the most important national institutions for diplomacy and international relations. Beyle also pledged to reestablish the institute's diplomacy department, its information and broadcasting department, as well as its library.{{cite news\\|title\\=Somalia: Somali Govt to Revive Former Institute of Diplomacy\\|url\\=http://allafrica.com/stories/201402140064\\.html\\|accessdate\\=1 March 2014\\|newspaper\\=Dalsan Radio\\|date\\=13 February 2014}}",
"#### Somalia\\-Ethiopia cooperative agreements",
"In February 2014, Beyle was part of a Somali government delegation in [Addis Ababa](/wiki/Addis_Ababa \"Addis Ababa\") led by Prime Minister Abdiweli Sheikh Ahmed, where the visiting officials met with Ethiopian Prime Minister [Hailemariam Desalegn](/wiki/Hailemariam_Desalegn \"Hailemariam Desalegn\") to discuss strengthening bilateral relations between Somalia and [Ethiopia](/wiki/Ethiopia \"Ethiopia\"). The meeting concluded with a tripartite Memorandum of Understanding agreeing to promote partnership and cooperation, including a cooperative agreement signed by Beyle and the Ethiopian Minister of Federal Affairs Dr. Shiferaw Teklemariam to develop the police force, a second cooperative agreement covering information matters, and a third cooperative agreement on the aviation sector.{{cite web\\|title\\=Ethiopia: The Prime Minister of Somalia On a Visit to Ethiopia\\|url\\=http://allafrica.com/stories/201402170065\\.html\\|publisher\\=Government of Ethiopia\\|accessdate\\=17 February 2014}}",
"#### Somalia\\-UN cooperative agreement",
"In February 2014, Beyle and UN Special Representative for Somalia [Nicholas Kay](/wiki/Nicholas_Kay \"Nicholas Kay\") signed a bilateral agreement outlining the terms of future cooperation between the Somali federal government and the United Nations. According to Beyle, the pact came after extensive consultations between both parties. Along with attorneys, President [Hassan Sheikh Mohamud](/wiki/Hassan_Sheikh_Mohamud \"Hassan Sheikh Mohamud\") attended the signing of the agreement, which he commended for helping to strengthen cooperation between the Somali authorities and the UN.{{cite news\\|title\\=Somalia, UN sign agreement to strengthen co\\-operation\\|url\\=http://sabahionline.com/en\\_GB/articles/hoa/articles/newsbriefs/2014/02/27/newsbrief\\-04\\|accessdate\\=3 March 2014\\|newspaper\\=Sabahi\\|date\\=27 February 2014}}",
"#### Somalia\\-Japan bilateral cooperation",
"In March 2014, Beyle and a Somali government delegation including President Hassan Sheikh Mohamud, Minister of Public Works and Reconstruction [Nadifo Mohamed Osman](/wiki/Nadifo_Mohamed_Osman \"Nadifo Mohamed Osman\") and Minister of Planning [Said Abdullahi Mohamed](/wiki/Said_Abdullahi_Mohamed \"Said Abdullahi Mohamed\") made a four\\-day visit to [Tokyo](/wiki/Tokyo \"Tokyo\"), where they met with Ambassador Tatsushi Terada and other senior Japanese government officials. President Mohamud and his delegation also conferred with [Prime Minister](/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Japan \"Prime Minister of Japan\") [Shinzo Abe](/wiki/Shinzo_Abe \"Shinzo Abe\") to discuss strengthening bilateral relations, as well as capacity training for Somali livestock and agricultural development professionals.{{cite news\\|title\\=Somalia: Pres Hassan Sheikh \\- \"We Are Here in Japan to Strengthen Bilateral Relations\\|url\\=http://allafrica.com/stories/201403121237\\.html\\|accessdate\\=12 March 2014\\|date\\=12 March 2014}} The visit concluded with an announcement by Japanese Prime Minister Abe that his administration would put forth a $40 million funding package for the rehabilitation of Somalia's police forces, relief services, and job creation opportunities. Mohamud commended the Japanese government for intensifying its bilateral support, and suggested that the development initiatives would be centered on vocational training for youth and women, maritime and fisheries training, fisheries and agricultural infrastructure development, and communication and information technology support.{{cite news\\|title\\=Japan Pledges $40m for Humanitarian Assistance to Somalia\\|url\\=http://horseedmedia.net/2014/03/13/japan\\-pledges\\-40m\\-humanitarian\\-assistance\\-somalia/\\|accessdate\\=14 March 2014\\|newspaper\\=Horseed Media\\|date\\=13 March 2014}}",
"#### Somalia, AfDB and Tunisian development cooperation",
"In May 2014, Foreign Minister Beyle led a high level Somali federal government delegation to the [African Development Bank](/wiki/African_Development_Bank \"African Development Bank\") headquarters in [Tunis](/wiki/Tunis \"Tunis\"), which included Finance Minister Hussein Abdi Halane and other top officials. The visiting parties are slated to meet with the AfDB president [Donald Kaberuka](/wiki/Donald_Kaberuka \"Donald Kaberuka\") to discuss implementation of previous reconstruction development plans and financial pledges made to Somalia. Beyle and his delegation are then scheduled to confer with Tunisian government officials over potential investment programs in Somalia.{{cite news\\|title\\=Somali foreign Minister and delegates meets with the president of African development bank \\|url\\=http://goobjoog.com/en/index.php?option\\=com\\_content\\&view\\=article\\&id\\=2270:somali\\-foreign\\-minister\\-and\\-delegates\\-meets\\-with\\-the\\-president\\-of\\-african\\-development\\-bank\\&catid\\=127\\&Itemid\\=631 \\|accessdate\\=15 May 2014 \\|newspaper\\=Goobjoog \\|date\\=28 April 2014 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archiveurl\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140517121618/http://goobjoog.com/en/index.php?option\\=com\\_content\\&view\\=article\\&id\\=2270%3Asomali\\-foreign\\-minister\\-and\\-delegates\\-meets\\-with\\-the\\-president\\-of\\-african\\-development\\-bank\\&catid\\=127\\&Itemid\\=631 \\|archivedate\\=17 May 2014 }}",
"#### Arab\\-China Summit",
"In June 2014, Beyle led a federal government delegation to represent Somalia at the Arab\\-China Summit in [Beijing](/wiki/Beijing \"Beijing\"). According to the minister, the international conference was an opportunity for the Somali authorities to attract foreign investment as part of the post\\-conflict reconstruction process.{{cite news\\|title\\=SOMALIA: Foreign Minister travels to attend Arab\\-China Summit\\|url\\=http://www.raxanreeb.com/2014/06/somalia\\-foreign\\-minister\\-travels\\-to\\-attend\\-arab\\-china\\-summit/\\|accessdate\\=2 June 2014\\|agency\\=Raxanreeb\\|date\\=1 June 2014\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140603115253/http://www.raxanreeb.com/2014/06/somalia\\-foreign\\-minister\\-travels\\-to\\-attend\\-arab\\-china\\-summit/\\|archive\\-date\\=3 June 2014\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|df\\=dmy\\-all}} Beyle concurrently met his Chinese counterpart [Wang Yi](/wiki/Wang_Yi_%28politician%29 \"Wang Yi (politician)\") to discuss bilateral cooperation between Somalia and [China](/wiki/China \"China\"). The meeting was held at the Chinese foreign ministry center and focused on trade, security and reconstruction. Among the issues discussed were the various Chinese development projects that are in the process of being implemented in Somalia. Beyle also indicated that the Chinese authorities are slated to broaden their support for Somalia, which would serve to create new employment opportunities. Additionally, Wang commended the Somali federal government on its peace\\-building efforts. He likewise reaffirmed the historically close diplomatic ties between both territories, recalling China's recognition of the nascent [Somali Republic](/wiki/Somali_Republic \"Somali Republic\") in 1960 and Somalia's subsequent campaigning which helped China obtain a permanent seat in the [United Nations Security Council](/wiki/United_Nations_Security_Council \"United Nations Security Council\").{{cite news\\|title\\=Foreign affairs minister meets his Chinese counterpart \\|url\\=http://goobjoog.com/en/index.php?option\\=com\\_content\\&view\\=article\\&id\\=2652:foreign\\-affairs\\-minister\\-meets\\-his\\-chinese\\-counterpart\\&catid\\=124:local\\-news\\&Itemid\\=653 \\|accessdate\\=6 June 2014 \\|agency\\=Goobjoog \\|date\\=6 June 2014 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archiveurl\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140607005429/http://goobjoog.com/en/index.php?option\\=com\\_content\\&view\\=article\\&id\\=2652%3Aforeign\\-affairs\\-minister\\-meets\\-his\\-chinese\\-counterpart\\&catid\\=124%3Alocal\\-news\\&Itemid\\=653 \\|archivedate\\=7 June 2014 }}",
"Beyle also indicated that the delegation would subsequently attend another key conference in [Greece](/wiki/Greece \"Greece\"), where the foreign ministers of Arab states would meet with [European Union](/wiki/European_Union \"European Union\") foreign ministers.",
"#### Somalia, Turkey and UN development cooperation",
"In June 2014, Beyle led a Somali government delegation at a diplomatic conference in [Turkey](/wiki/Turkey \"Turkey\"). The gathering was also attended by Turkish state officials and United Nations representatives. As part of a commitment by the Somali Foreign Ministry to accelerate the reconstruction process in Somalia and highlight local investment opportunities, Beyle briefed the attendees on the nation's commercial potential, including its extensive coastline and livestock and agricultural resources. Additionally, the Minister held a special meeting with [United Nations Development Program](/wiki/United_Nations_Development_Program \"United Nations Development Program\") officials on the progress and challenges of the rebuilding process. Beyle thanked the UNDP and other UN agencies for their developmental engagement in Somalia, and the UNDP in turn pledged to implement various development projects in the country.{{cite news\\|title\\=Somali Foreign ministry to speed up investment opportunities\\|url\\=http://goobjoog.com/en/index.php?option\\=com\\_content\\&view\\=article\\&id\\=2800:somali\\-foreign\\-ministry\\-to\\-speed\\-up\\-investment\\-opportunities\\&catid\\=127\\&Itemid\\=631\\|accessdate\\=29 June 2014\\|agency\\=Goobjoog\\|date\\=21 June 2014}}",
"#### Embassy of China",
"On 30 June 2014, Chinese Foreign Ministry spokesman Hong Lei announced that China would dispatch a diplomatic team on 1 July to reopen the Chinese embassy in Mogadishu. He described the move as both recognition that the Somali authorities were making progress in their national reconstruction efforts and a symbol of the importance that the Chinese government attaches to its bilateral relations with Somalia.{{cite news\\|title\\=China to reopen Somalia embassy, sees strong ties\\|url\\=https://af.reuters.com/article/topNews/idAFKBN0F50W420140630\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140707163025/http://af.reuters.com/article/topNews/idAFKBN0F50W420140630\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-date\\=7 July 2014\\|accessdate\\=30 June 2014\\|agency\\=Reuters\\|date\\=20 June 2014}} On 3 July 2014, Chargé d'Affaires of the Embassy of the People's Republic of China [Wei Hongtian](/wiki/Wei_Hongtian \"Wei Hongtian\") presented his credentials to Foreign Minister of Somalia Beyle at an event in the Somali capital. Beyle similarly hailed the appointment as a sign of the nation's strengthening security and foreign diplomatic relations.{{cite news\\|title\\=China reopens embassy in Somalia \\|url\\=http://www.sbrchina.com/sbr/2014\\-07\\-02/china\\_reopens\\_embassy\\_in\\_somalia.html \\|accessdate\\=5 July 2014 \\|agency\\=Shanghai Business Review \\|date\\=3 July 2014 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archiveurl\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714205841/http://www.sbrchina.com/sbr/2014\\-07\\-02/china\\_reopens\\_embassy\\_in\\_somalia.html \\|archivedate\\=14 July 2014 }}",
"On 15 December 2014, Wei Hongtian presented his credentials to President Hassan Sheikh Mohamud as the newly appointed Chinese Ambassador to Somalia. He is the first such envoy after the reopening of the Chinese embassy in Mogadishu.{{cite web\\|title\\=Ambassador Wei Hongtian Presented the Letter of Credence to the President of Somalia\\|url\\=http://www.focac.org/eng/zxxx/t1220947\\.htm\\|publisher\\=Forum On China\\-Africa Cooperation\\|accessdate\\=20 December 2013\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141221004331/http://www.focac.org/eng/zxxx/t1220947\\.htm\\|archive\\-date\\=2014\\-12\\-21\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} Foreign Minister Beyle and Ambassador Wei subsequently held a joint press conference, wherein the officials pledged to further strengthen bilateral ties. As part of the local reconstruction process, Wei also indicated that the Chinese authorities were slated to implement various development projects in Somalia.{{cite news\\|title\\=Weekly Press Conference on the Progress of the Government\\|url\\=http://goobjoog.com/english/?p\\=7421\\|accessdate\\=20 December 2014\\|newspaper\\=Goobjoog\\|date\\=20 December 2014}}",
"#### Somalia\\-Spain bilateral cooperation",
"In July 2014, Beyle led a Somali government delegation to [Madrid](/wiki/Madrid \"Madrid\") to discuss with Spanish Foreign Minister [José Manuel García\\-Margallo](/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Manuel_Garc%C3%ADa-Margallo \"José Manuel García-Margallo\") ways of strengthening bilateral relations between Somalia and [Spain](/wiki/Spain \"Spain\"). The two leaders touched on issues of mutual interest, including security cooperation, stabilization initiatives, and support for the Somali federal government. Beyle also held a separate meeting with Alberto Virella, Director of the Spanish government's Africa, Asia and Western European agency for development and co\\-operation, which centered on the post\\-conflict reconstruction process in Somalia and establishing new development projects in the country.{{cite news\\|title\\=Federal government foreign minister meets his counterpart in Madrid\\|url\\=http://goobjoog.net/english/?p\\=1188\\|accessdate\\=15 July 2014\\|agency\\=Goobjoog\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140719220248/http://goobjoog.net/english/?p\\=1188\\|archive\\-date\\=19 July 2014\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|df\\=dmy\\-all}}",
"#### Somalia\\-Qatar bilateral cooperation",
"In July 2014, Foreign Affairs Minister of Somalia Beyle held a special meeting in Mogadishu with acting Ambassador of [Qatar](/wiki/Qatar \"Qatar\") Hassan Hamza. The representatives discussed reviving official diplomatic ties between both countries and opening a Qatari embassy in the Somali capital, among other issues of mutual interest. Additionally, Hamza pledged to support the Federal Government of Somalia and strengthen bilateral relations.{{cite news\\|title\\=Somalia: foreign minister receives acting Qatarian ambassador in his office\\|url\\=http://goobjoog.com/english/?p\\=1515\\|accessdate\\=8 August 2014\\|agency\\=Goobjoog\\|date\\=19 July 2014}}",
"#### Ambassador of India",
"In August 2014, Beyle met in Mogadishu with the newly appointed Ambassador of India to Somalia, Yogeshwar Varma. The officials discussed diplomatic relations between the two nations, with Varma presenting his credentials to Beyle. The minister and ambassador also conferred with President of Somalia Hassan Sheikh Mohamud at the presidential compound.{{cite news\\|title\\=Somalia: Foreign minister welcomes Indian ambassador in Mogadishu\\|url\\=http://goobjoog.com/english/?p\\=2994\\|accessdate\\=10 September 2014\\|agency\\=Goobjoog\\|date\\=24 August 2014}}",
"#### Foreign embassy reform",
"In October 2014, Somalia's Ministry of Foreign Affairs temporarily closed down nine of its overseas embassies.{{cite news\\|title\\=Somalia closes dozen embassies overseas \\|url\\=http://www.qurbejoog.com/2014/10/10/somalia\\-closes\\-dozen\\-embassies\\-overseas/ \\|accessdate\\=12 October 2014 \\|agency\\=AP \\|date\\=10 October 2014 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archiveurl\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141012132215/http://www.qurbejoog.com/2014/10/10/somalia\\-closes\\-dozen\\-embassies\\-overseas/ \\|archivedate\\=12 October 2014 }} The move came after Beyle had pledged to minimize the number of such diplomatic missions abroad. According to the Minister, the decision was motivated by financial considerations, and was reached after consultations between federal government officials.{{cite news\\|title\\=SOMALIA: Somali foreign ministry closes dozen Somali embassies overseas\\|url\\=http://www.raxanreeb.com/2014/10/somalia\\-somali\\-foreign\\-ministry\\-closes\\-close\\-to\\-dozen\\-somali\\-embassies\\-abroad/\\|accessdate\\=8 October 2014\\|agency\\=Raxanreeb\\|date\\=8 October 2014\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141011021633/http://www.raxanreeb.com/2014/10/somalia\\-somali\\-foreign\\-ministry\\-closes\\-close\\-to\\-dozen\\-somali\\-embassies\\-abroad/\\|archive\\-date\\=11 October 2014\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|df\\=dmy\\-all}} The closed embassies included those in Libya, Syria, Burundi, Rwanda, Tanzania, South Sudan, Germany, England and Malaysia.",
"#### Somalia\\-Egypt bilateral cooperation",
"In October 2014, Beyle met with [Egypt](/wiki/Egypt \"Egypt\")'s Charge D'affaires in Somalia, Mohamed Mandour, at his office in Mogadishu. The two officials discussed various issues of mutual interest, including supporting the Federal Government of Somalia's post\\-conflict reconstruction initiatives and fully re\\-establishing bilateral ties between both countries. According to Beyle, Egypt is a longstanding ally and current partner of the Somali government.{{cite news\\|title\\=Somalia: foreign minister receives Egypt’s Charge D’affaires in his office\\|url\\=http://goobjoog.com/english/?p\\=5208\\|accessdate\\=24 October 2014\\|agency\\=Goobjoog\\|date\\=22 October 2014}}",
"In December 2014, Beyle, President Hassan Sheikh Mohamud, and a Somali federal government delegation including the acting ministers for Finance, Justice, Interior, and Higher Education traveled to [Cairo](/wiki/Cairo \"Cairo\") to confer with the Egyptian authorities. The trip was prompted by an official invitation from the new President of Egypt, [Abdel Fattah el\\-Sisi](/wiki/Abdel_Fattah_el-Sisi \"Abdel Fattah el-Sisi\"). The visiting officials were received at the [Cairo International Airport](/wiki/Cairo_International_Airport \"Cairo International Airport\") by the Egyptian Minister of Education Mahmoud Mohamed Mahmoud Abo El Nasr and Somalia's Ambassador to Egypt Abdullahi Hassan Mohamud.{{cite news\\|title\\=Somali president due to meet his Egyptian counterpart in Cairo\\|url\\=http://goobjoog.com/english/?p\\=7791\\|accessdate\\=1 January 2015\\|newspaper\\=Goobjoog\\|date\\=29 December 2014}}{{cite news\\|title\\=Somalia: President Hassan in Egypt on official visit\\|url\\=http://www.garoweonline.com/page/show/post/1344/somalia\\-president\\-hassan\\-in\\-egypt\\-on\\-official\\-visit\\|accessdate\\=1 January 2015\\|newspaper\\=Garowe Online\\|date\\=29 December 2014}} Mohamud subsequently met with the Secretary\\-General of the [Arab League](/wiki/Arab_League \"Arab League\"), [Nabil Elaraby](/wiki/Nabil_Elaraby \"Nabil Elaraby\"). According to Ambassador Hassan, the leaders touched on various matters pertaining to the Federal Government of Somalia, including facilitating development and financial support by other Arab states for the Somalian government's ongoing reconstruction initiatives.{{cite news\\|title\\=Somali president meets Arab league secretary general in Cairo\\|url\\=http://goobjoog.com/english/?p\\=7815\\|accessdate\\=1 January 2015\\|newspaper\\=Goobjoog\\|date\\=29 December 2014}} Additionally, Mohamud and delegates from both administrations conferred with the Grand Imam of [Al\\-Azhar University](/wiki/Al-Azhar_University \"Al-Azhar University\"), [Ahmed el\\-Tayeb](/wiki/Ahmed_el-Tayeb \"Ahmed el-Tayeb\"). The officials discussed bilateral cooperation in the education, medicine and justice sectors, among others, with the rector emphasizing his preparedness to assist in these fields and urging stronger commitment toward the reconstruction process in Somalia. Mohamud in turn highlighted Al\\-Azhar's historic Muslim and educational work in Somalia, and underlined the institution's continued potential to provide accurate guidance on Islamic tenets.{{cite news\\|title\\=Somali President meets with the rector Of Al\\-Azhar In Cairo\\|url\\=http://goobjoog.com/english/?p\\=7894\\|accessdate\\=1 January 2015\\|newspaper\\=Goobjoog\\|date\\=30 December 2014}} Mohamud and the other visiting delegates finally held a closed door meeting with President El\\-Sisi, wherein the officials touched on strengthening bilateral ties between the two countries. The gathering concluded with pledges to collaborate in the economic, educational and military sectors, including training of Somali forces by Egyptian security personnel.{{cite news\\|title\\=Government : Egypt Will Train Somali Forces\\|url\\=http://goobjoog.com/english/?p\\=7935\\|accessdate\\=1 January 2015\\|newspaper\\=Goobjoog\\|date\\=31 December 2014}}",
"#### Somalia\\-Sudan bilateral cooperation",
"In October 2014, Foreign Minister Beyle along with President Hassan Sheikh Mohamud met in Mogadishu with the new Ambassador of Sudan to Somalia, Mohamed Yusuf Osman. The Ambassador was received at the [Villa Somalia](/wiki/Villa_Somalia \"Villa Somalia\") presidential compound, where he presented his credentials to the federal officials. Mohamud and Osman subsequently discussed strengthening bilateral ties between the two nations, educational support, and various other issues of mutual interest. Additionally, Beyle indicated at a press conference following the meeting that the Sudanese embassy had been shut down for a number of years, and that the federal officials welcomed the new Sudanese Ambassador. Osman also passed on greetings on behalf of the President of Sudan [Omar al\\-Bashir](/wiki/Omar_al-Bashir \"Omar al-Bashir\").{{cite news\\|title\\=SOMALIA: President Mohamud receives credentials from new Sudan Ambassador to Somalia\\|url\\=http://www.raxanreeb.com/2014/10/somalia\\-president\\-mohamud\\-receives\\-credentials\\-from\\-new\\-sudan\\-ambassador\\-to\\-somalia/\\|accessdate\\=26 October 2014\\|agency\\=Raxanreeb\\|date\\=25 October 2014\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141025173328/http://www.raxanreeb.com/2014/10/somalia\\-president\\-mohamud\\-receives\\-credentials\\-from\\-new\\-sudan\\-ambassador\\-to\\-somalia/\\|archive\\-date\\=25 October 2014\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|df\\=dmy\\-all}}",
"#### Islamic Development Bank and Organisation of Islamic Cooperation",
"In November 2014, Beyle met with [Islamic Development Bank](/wiki/Islamic_Development_Bank \"Islamic Development Bank\") President [Ahmad Mohamed Ali Al\\-Madani](/wiki/Ahmad_Mohamed_Ali_Al-Madani \"Ahmad Mohamed Ali Al-Madani\") at the latter's office in [Jeddah](/wiki/Jeddah \"Jeddah\"), [Saudi Arabia](/wiki/Saudi_Arabia \"Saudi Arabia\"). The officials touched on various development projects in the areas of education, water resources and livelihood, as well as matters related to the Federal Government of Somalia. Additionally, Beyle held a special meeting with the Secretary\\-General of the [Organisation of Islamic Cooperation](/wiki/Organisation_of_Islamic_Cooperation \"Organisation of Islamic Cooperation\"), [Iyad bin Amin Madani](/wiki/Iyad_bin_Amin_Madani \"Iyad bin Amin Madani\"). According to Beyle, he also took the opportunity to reconfirm earlier pledges that the institutions had made to the Somali federal government after President Hassan Sheikh Mohamud had conferred with the two secretaries\\-general.{{cite news\\|title\\=Somalia: Foreign minister returns home after official trip to Jeddah\\|url\\=http://goobjoog.com/english/?p\\=6005\\|accessdate\\=13 November 2014\\|agency\\=Goobjoog\\|date\\=12 November 2014}}",
"#### Ambassador of Egypt",
"In November 2014, Beyle and President Hassan Sheikh Mohamud met in Mogadishu with Egypt's new Ambassador to Somalia, Mowlid Ismail. Ismail concurrently presented his credentials to Mohamud at the Villa Somalia compound, with Beyle in attendance. The officials subsequently held a closed door meeting in which they discussed various ways to strengthen the historic bilateral ties between the two nations. According to Beyle, Ismail also indicated that his administration would double its development assistance to Somalia in the education sector.{{cite news\\|title\\=SOMALIA: President Mohamud receive New Egyptian ambassador to Somalia\\|url\\=http://www.raxanreeb.com/2014/11/somalia\\-president\\-mohamud\\-receive\\-new\\-egyptian\\-ambassador\\-to\\-somalia/\\|accessdate\\=17 November 2014\\|agency\\=Raxanreeb\\|date\\=15 November 2014\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141129012158/http://www.raxanreeb.com/2014/11/somalia\\-president\\-mohamud\\-receive\\-new\\-egyptian\\-ambassador\\-to\\-somalia/\\|archive\\-date\\=2014\\-11\\-29\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}",
"#### New Deal Compact for Reconstruction and Development",
"In November 2014, Foreign Minister Beyle along with over eight federal ministers and representatives from Somalia's [Puntland](/wiki/Puntland \"Puntland\"), [Jubaland](/wiki/Jubaland \"Jubaland\"), [Galmudug](/wiki/Galmudug \"Galmudug\") and [Southwestern](/wiki/Southwestern_Somalia \"Southwestern Somalia\") regional states took part in an international conference in [Copenhagen](/wiki/Copenhagen \"Copenhagen\") on the New Deal Compact for Reconstruction and Development. The summit was co\\-chaired by President Hassan Sheikh Mohamud along with UN Under\\-Secretary for Political Affairs [Jeffrey D. Feltman](/wiki/Jeffrey_D._Feltman \"Jeffrey D. Feltman\"), and was attended by delegations from over 140 countries. According to Beyle, the federal officials took the opportunity to present the Somali government's priorities and successes. Mohamud indicated therein that the New Deal Compact was a Somali\\-led initiative, through which the Federal Government of Somalia developed legal frameworks, initiated state and political reform, re\\-structured key institutions, and established a foundation for allocating international development assistance toward the central authorities' priority areas. Additionally, Minister of Foreign Affairs of Egypt [Sameh Shoukry](/wiki/Sameh_Shoukry \"Sameh Shoukry\") reaffirmed his administration's support for Somalia's social and security sectors, and noted the Egyptian government's various political brokering efforts.{{cite news\\|title\\=Somalia: Donor summit underway in Denmark amid political deadlock\\|url\\=http://www.garoweonline.com/page/show/post/964/somalia\\-donor\\-summit\\-underway\\-in\\-denmark\\-amid\\-political\\-deadlock\\|accessdate\\=20 November 2014\\|agency\\=Garowe Online\\|date\\=19 November 2014}}{{cite news\\|title\\=SOMALIA: President’s delegation return to Mogadishu after attending the Copenhagen conference\\|url\\=http://www.raxanreeb.com/2014/11/somalia\\-presidents\\-delegation\\-return\\-to\\-mogadishu\\-after\\-attending\\-the\\-copenhagen\\-conference/\\|accessdate\\=21 November 2014\\|agency\\=Raxanreeb\\|date\\=21 November 2014\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141129022802/http://www.raxanreeb.com/2014/11/somalia\\-presidents\\-delegation\\-return\\-to\\-mogadishu\\-after\\-attending\\-the\\-copenhagen\\-conference/\\|archive\\-date\\=29 November 2014\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|df\\=dmy\\-all}}",
"#### Somalia\\-Yemen bilateral cooperation",
"In November 2014, Beyle met in [Sana'a](/wiki/Sana%27a \"Sana'a\") with the Foreign Minister of Yemen Abdalla Mohamed. According to the Consular of the Embassy of Somalia in Yemen Ahmed Sudani, the two ministers discussed various issues of bilateral interest, including Somali government ships stored in Yemen, maritime security and expatriates. Beyle also sought additional scholarship seats for Somali students so as to further develop the educational sector.{{cite news\\|title\\=Somalia: foreign affairs minister meets his Yemen counterpart in Sana’a\\|url\\=http://goobjoog.com/english/?p\\=6551\\|accessdate\\=24 November 2014\\|agency\\=Goobjoog\\|date\\=24 November 2014}} Additionally, Beyle held a meeting with the President of Yemen [Abd Rabbuh Mansur Hadi](/wiki/Abd_Rabbuh_Mansur_Hadi \"Abd Rabbuh Mansur Hadi\") and the newly appointed Prime Minister of Yemen, [Khaled Bahah](/wiki/Khaled_Bahah \"Khaled Bahah\"). The officials touched on various other bilateral matters, including strengthening cooperation in the trade, security and development sectors. Beyle likewise conferred with the Minister of Fisheries and paid a visit to the Sana'a Chamber of Commerce, where he met with Yemeni business leaders and gave a keynote speech.{{cite news\\|title\\=Yemen: Foreign Minister meets Yemen Prime minister in Sana’a\\|url\\=http://goobjoog.com/english/?p\\=6639\\|accessdate\\=27 November 2014\\|agency\\=Goobjoog\\|date\\=26 November 2014}}{{cite news\\|title\\=Somalia’s foreign Minister meets his Germany counterpart in Rome\\|url\\=http://goobjoog.com/english/?p\\=6676\\|accessdate\\=29 November 2014\\|agency\\=Goobjoog\\|date\\=29 November 2014}}",
"#### Somalia\\-Germany bilateral cooperation",
"In November 2014, Beyle traveled to [Rome](/wiki/Rome \"Rome\") to attend an international migration summit, where he met with the Foreign Minister of [Germany](/wiki/Germany \"Germany\"), [Frank\\-Walter Steinmeier](/wiki/Frank-Walter_Steinmeier \"Frank-Walter Steinmeier\"). The two officials discussed various bilateral issues, including diplomatic relations and cooperation between the governments of Somalia and Germany, as well as the Somali federal government's counterinsurgency operations. Additionally, Steinmeier emphasized the importance of solidarity and collaboration, and applauded the federal government's reconstruction and stabilization initiatives.",
"Beyle also discussed bilateral development cooperation in Nairobi with the Ambassador of Germany to Somalia, Andreas Peschke. Peschke reaffirmed the German government's commitment to Somalia's New Deal Compact initiative launched in 2013, when his administration pledged 95 million Euros for associated reconstruction projects. In parallel with the development initiatives, the Ambassador likewise stressed the importance of maintaining security and stabilization measures.{{cite news\\|title\\=SOMALIA: Foreign Minister meets with German Ambassador to Somalia in Nairobi\\|url\\=http://www.raxanreeb.com/2014/12/somalia\\-foreign\\-minister\\-meets\\-with\\-german\\-ambassador\\-to\\-somalia\\-in\\-nairobi/\\|accessdate\\=2 December 2014\\|agency\\=Raxanreeb\\|date\\=1 December 2014\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150318062737/http://www.raxanreeb.com/2014/12/somalia\\-foreign\\-minister\\-meets\\-with\\-german\\-ambassador\\-to\\-somalia\\-in\\-nairobi/\\|archive\\-date\\=18 March 2015\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|df\\=dmy\\-all}}",
"#### Somalia\\-Oman bilateral cooperation",
"In January 2015, Beyle met with the Omani Foreign Affairs Minister Yousuf bin Alawi bin Abdullah at his office in [Oman](/wiki/Oman \"Oman\"). Undersecretary for Diplomatic Affairs Ahmed bin Yousuf al Harthy also took part in the gathering. The officials discussed various political matters, including domestic, regional and international affairs. They also touched on existing bilateral ties between both nations and ways to further strengthen them.{{cite news\\|title\\=Minister Responsible for Foreign Affairs of Oman meets Somali counterpart\\|url\\=http://goobjoog.com/english/?p\\=8990\\|accessdate\\=19 January 2015\\|agency\\=Goobjoog\\|date\\=18 January 2015}}",
"#### Somalia\\-Turkey bilateral cooperation",
"In January 2015, Foreign Affairs Minister Beyle, President Hassan Sheikh Mohamud, and other senior Somali federal government officials received a large Turkish delegation led by newly elected President of Turkey [Recep Tayyip Erdoğan](/wiki/Recep_Tayyip_Erdo%C4%9Fan \"Recep Tayyip Erdoğan\") at the [Aden Adde International Airport](/wiki/Aden_Adde_International_Airport \"Aden Adde International Airport\") in Mogadishu. The delegates included various cabinet ministers and entrepreneurs.{{cite news\\|title\\=Press Release: Erdogan’s Somalia Visit\\|url\\=http://goobjoog.com/english/?p\\=9308\\|accessdate\\=26 January 2015\\|agency\\=Goobjoog\\|date\\=25 January 2015}}{{cite news\\|title\\=Turkey’s president pledges to construct 10 thousand new houses in Mogadishu\\|url\\=http://goobjoog.com/english/?p\\=9339\\|accessdate\\=26 January 2015\\|agency\\=Goobjoog\\|date\\=25 January 2015}} Mohamud and Erdoğan concurrently inaugurated a number of Turkish\\-built development projects in Somalia, including the Somalia\\-Turkey Education and Research Hospital in the capital and a new terminal at the Aden Adde International Airport. Beyle and the Turkish delegates in turn signed a bilateral treaty on new developmental projects that are scheduled to be implemented in Somalia. Among the agreements was a protocol stating that the new Digfer Hospital in Mogadishu would be jointly operated. The accord stipulates that the institution will be funded for its first five years by the Turkish Ministry of Health, which will likewise provide professional specialists. Per the protocol, the hospital will thereafter be fully managed by the Somalian authorities.{{cite news\\|title\\=Turkish president inaugurates hospital in Somalia\\|url\\=http://www.worldbulletin.net/servisler/haberYazdir/153747/haber\\|accessdate\\=25 January 2015\\|agency\\=World Bulletin\\|date\\=25 January 2015}} Further development agreements were signed pertaining to military and security cooperation, police support and coordination, marine transportation, youth and sports projects, and cooperation between [Somali National Television](/wiki/Somali_National_Television \"Somali National Television\") and the [Turkish National Radio](/wiki/Turkish_Radio_and_Television_Corporation \"Turkish Radio and Television Corporation\").",
"#### OIC embassy treaty",
"In February 2015, interim Foreign Affairs Minister Beyle signed a joint agreement with representatives of the [Organization of Islamic Cooperation](/wiki/Organization_of_Islamic_Cooperation \"Organization of Islamic Cooperation\") for the renovation of Somalia's various foreign embassies. According to Beyle, the accord encompasses a number of such state\\-owned premises, which require refurbishment. During the initiative's first phase, the OIC will conduct a survey of the infrastructure's general condition as well as the necessary expenditure.{{cite news\\|title\\=OIC signs to renovate Somali foreign embassies\\|url\\=http://goobjoog.com/english/?p\\=9708\\|accessdate\\=4 February 2015\\|agency\\=Goobjoog\\|date\\=2 February 2015}}",
"#### End of term",
"On 27 January 2015, Beyle's term as Minister of Foreign Affairs and International Cooperation of Somalia ended, when Prime Minister [Omar Abdirashid Ali Sharmarke](/wiki/Omar_Abdirashid_Ali_Sharmarke \"Omar Abdirashid Ali Sharmarke\") appointed a new Cabinet. He was succeeded in office by [Abdisalam Omer](/wiki/Abdisalam_Omer \"Abdisalam Omer\").{{cite news\\|title\\=Nominated Ministers and Their Clans\\|url\\=http://goobjoog.com/english/?p\\=9446\\|accessdate\\=28 January 2015\\|agency\\=Goobjoog\\|date\\=28 January 2015}}",
"On 14 February, Beyle's term as Foreign Minister formally ended at an official handover ceremony at the foreign ministry compound in Mogadishu. The event was attended by his successor Omer, new Deputy Prime Minister [Mohamed Omar Arte](/wiki/Mohamed_Omar_Arte \"Mohamed Omar Arte\"), and other senior federal government officials. Beyle therein noted his various accomplishments during his tenure, and enjoined the foreign ministry personnel to assist the incoming minister. Omer in turn commended Beyle for the latter's diplomatic work, and pledged to fulfill his own duties in accordance with the constitution.{{cite news\\|title\\=Former Foreign minister hands over office\\|url\\=http://goobjoog.com/english/?p\\=10242\\|accessdate\\=15 February 2015\\|agency\\=Goobjoog\\|date\\=14 February 2015\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archiveurl\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150215213549/http://goobjoog.com/english/?p\\=10242\\|archivedate\\=15 February 2015}}",
"### Arts works",
"Apart from his Academic and professional career, Dr Beileh is distinguished artist. He is song writer, and poet. His works covers on wide surface of topics. He has written over 75 songs and poems over that covers over variety of subjects; mainly on Somali Nationalism and patriotism. His enrichment of Somali language and culture; and growing up in a basic Somali tradition gave him the grip and power to effortlessly articulate a multi dimensional piece that carries both cultural dilemma as well as metaphored conclusion. his Master pieces includes; Qiiro Calan (the Flag Grieves), Dhalinyaro (Youth), Ardo and Jameson, Mogadishu, 'Somalia Waa Mashruuc' (Somalia (crisis) is project), 'Ina Jicimbir' (Ji'imbir's Son), 'Lugtay Wax I Jiidayaan' (Something Holds Me Back).",
""
] |
### Minister of Foreign Affairs and International Cooperation
[thumb\|right\|Minister of Foreign Affairs of Somalia Abdirahman Duale Beyle meeting with the UAE Ambassador to Somalia Mohamed Al\-Osmani in [Mogadishu](/wiki/Mogadishu "Mogadishu").](/wiki/File:Adualbhd18.png "Adualbhd18.png")
#### Appointment
On 17 January 2014, Beyle was named Somalia's new Minister of Foreign Affairs and International Cooperation by Prime Minister [Abdiweli Sheikh Ahmed](/wiki/Abdiweli_Sheikh_Ahmed "Abdiweli Sheikh Ahmed").{{cite news\|title\=SOMALIA PM Said "Cabinet will work tirelessly for the people of Somalia"\|url\=http://www.midnimo.com/2014/01/17/somalia\-pm\-said\-cabinet\-will\-work\-tirelessly\-people\-somalia/\|accessdate\=17 January 2014\|newspaper\=Midnimo\|date\=17 January 2014\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140203025315/http://www.midnimo.com/2014/01/17/somalia\-pm\-said\-cabinet\-will\-work\-tirelessly\-people\-somalia/\|archive\-date\=3 February 2014\|url\-status\=dead}} He succeeded [Fowziya Yusuf Haji Adan](/wiki/Fowziya_Yusuf_Haji_Adan "Fowziya Yusuf Haji Adan") at the position.
#### Institute of Diplomacy
In February 2014, Foreign Minister Beyle announced that the federal government was slated to reopen the former Institute of Diplomacy in [Mogadishu](/wiki/Mogadishu "Mogadishu"), Somalia's capital. The center historically served as one of the most important national institutions for diplomacy and international relations. Beyle also pledged to reestablish the institute's diplomacy department, its information and broadcasting department, as well as its library.{{cite news\|title\=Somalia: Somali Govt to Revive Former Institute of Diplomacy\|url\=http://allafrica.com/stories/201402140064\.html\|accessdate\=1 March 2014\|newspaper\=Dalsan Radio\|date\=13 February 2014}}
#### Somalia\-Ethiopia cooperative agreements
In February 2014, Beyle was part of a Somali government delegation in [Addis Ababa](/wiki/Addis_Ababa "Addis Ababa") led by Prime Minister Abdiweli Sheikh Ahmed, where the visiting officials met with Ethiopian Prime Minister [Hailemariam Desalegn](/wiki/Hailemariam_Desalegn "Hailemariam Desalegn") to discuss strengthening bilateral relations between Somalia and [Ethiopia](/wiki/Ethiopia "Ethiopia"). The meeting concluded with a tripartite Memorandum of Understanding agreeing to promote partnership and cooperation, including a cooperative agreement signed by Beyle and the Ethiopian Minister of Federal Affairs Dr. Shiferaw Teklemariam to develop the police force, a second cooperative agreement covering information matters, and a third cooperative agreement on the aviation sector.{{cite web\|title\=Ethiopia: The Prime Minister of Somalia On a Visit to Ethiopia\|url\=http://allafrica.com/stories/201402170065\.html\|publisher\=Government of Ethiopia\|accessdate\=17 February 2014}}
#### Somalia\-UN cooperative agreement
In February 2014, Beyle and UN Special Representative for Somalia [Nicholas Kay](/wiki/Nicholas_Kay "Nicholas Kay") signed a bilateral agreement outlining the terms of future cooperation between the Somali federal government and the United Nations. According to Beyle, the pact came after extensive consultations between both parties. Along with attorneys, President [Hassan Sheikh Mohamud](/wiki/Hassan_Sheikh_Mohamud "Hassan Sheikh Mohamud") attended the signing of the agreement, which he commended for helping to strengthen cooperation between the Somali authorities and the UN.{{cite news\|title\=Somalia, UN sign agreement to strengthen co\-operation\|url\=http://sabahionline.com/en\_GB/articles/hoa/articles/newsbriefs/2014/02/27/newsbrief\-04\|accessdate\=3 March 2014\|newspaper\=Sabahi\|date\=27 February 2014}}
#### Somalia\-Japan bilateral cooperation
In March 2014, Beyle and a Somali government delegation including President Hassan Sheikh Mohamud, Minister of Public Works and Reconstruction [Nadifo Mohamed Osman](/wiki/Nadifo_Mohamed_Osman "Nadifo Mohamed Osman") and Minister of Planning [Said Abdullahi Mohamed](/wiki/Said_Abdullahi_Mohamed "Said Abdullahi Mohamed") made a four\-day visit to [Tokyo](/wiki/Tokyo "Tokyo"), where they met with Ambassador Tatsushi Terada and other senior Japanese government officials. President Mohamud and his delegation also conferred with [Prime Minister](/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Japan "Prime Minister of Japan") [Shinzo Abe](/wiki/Shinzo_Abe "Shinzo Abe") to discuss strengthening bilateral relations, as well as capacity training for Somali livestock and agricultural development professionals.{{cite news\|title\=Somalia: Pres Hassan Sheikh \- "We Are Here in Japan to Strengthen Bilateral Relations\|url\=http://allafrica.com/stories/201403121237\.html\|accessdate\=12 March 2014\|date\=12 March 2014}} The visit concluded with an announcement by Japanese Prime Minister Abe that his administration would put forth a $40 million funding package for the rehabilitation of Somalia's police forces, relief services, and job creation opportunities. Mohamud commended the Japanese government for intensifying its bilateral support, and suggested that the development initiatives would be centered on vocational training for youth and women, maritime and fisheries training, fisheries and agricultural infrastructure development, and communication and information technology support.{{cite news\|title\=Japan Pledges $40m for Humanitarian Assistance to Somalia\|url\=http://horseedmedia.net/2014/03/13/japan\-pledges\-40m\-humanitarian\-assistance\-somalia/\|accessdate\=14 March 2014\|newspaper\=Horseed Media\|date\=13 March 2014}}
#### Somalia, AfDB and Tunisian development cooperation
In May 2014, Foreign Minister Beyle led a high level Somali federal government delegation to the [African Development Bank](/wiki/African_Development_Bank "African Development Bank") headquarters in [Tunis](/wiki/Tunis "Tunis"), which included Finance Minister Hussein Abdi Halane and other top officials. The visiting parties are slated to meet with the AfDB president [Donald Kaberuka](/wiki/Donald_Kaberuka "Donald Kaberuka") to discuss implementation of previous reconstruction development plans and financial pledges made to Somalia. Beyle and his delegation are then scheduled to confer with Tunisian government officials over potential investment programs in Somalia.{{cite news\|title\=Somali foreign Minister and delegates meets with the president of African development bank \|url\=http://goobjoog.com/en/index.php?option\=com\_content\&view\=article\&id\=2270:somali\-foreign\-minister\-and\-delegates\-meets\-with\-the\-president\-of\-african\-development\-bank\&catid\=127\&Itemid\=631 \|accessdate\=15 May 2014 \|newspaper\=Goobjoog \|date\=28 April 2014 \|url\-status\=dead \|archiveurl\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140517121618/http://goobjoog.com/en/index.php?option\=com\_content\&view\=article\&id\=2270%3Asomali\-foreign\-minister\-and\-delegates\-meets\-with\-the\-president\-of\-african\-development\-bank\&catid\=127\&Itemid\=631 \|archivedate\=17 May 2014 }}
#### Arab\-China Summit
In June 2014, Beyle led a federal government delegation to represent Somalia at the Arab\-China Summit in [Beijing](/wiki/Beijing "Beijing"). According to the minister, the international conference was an opportunity for the Somali authorities to attract foreign investment as part of the post\-conflict reconstruction process.{{cite news\|title\=SOMALIA: Foreign Minister travels to attend Arab\-China Summit\|url\=http://www.raxanreeb.com/2014/06/somalia\-foreign\-minister\-travels\-to\-attend\-arab\-china\-summit/\|accessdate\=2 June 2014\|agency\=Raxanreeb\|date\=1 June 2014\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140603115253/http://www.raxanreeb.com/2014/06/somalia\-foreign\-minister\-travels\-to\-attend\-arab\-china\-summit/\|archive\-date\=3 June 2014\|url\-status\=dead\|df\=dmy\-all}} Beyle concurrently met his Chinese counterpart [Wang Yi](/wiki/Wang_Yi_%28politician%29 "Wang Yi (politician)") to discuss bilateral cooperation between Somalia and [China](/wiki/China "China"). The meeting was held at the Chinese foreign ministry center and focused on trade, security and reconstruction. Among the issues discussed were the various Chinese development projects that are in the process of being implemented in Somalia. Beyle also indicated that the Chinese authorities are slated to broaden their support for Somalia, which would serve to create new employment opportunities. Additionally, Wang commended the Somali federal government on its peace\-building efforts. He likewise reaffirmed the historically close diplomatic ties between both territories, recalling China's recognition of the nascent [Somali Republic](/wiki/Somali_Republic "Somali Republic") in 1960 and Somalia's subsequent campaigning which helped China obtain a permanent seat in the [United Nations Security Council](/wiki/United_Nations_Security_Council "United Nations Security Council").{{cite news\|title\=Foreign affairs minister meets his Chinese counterpart \|url\=http://goobjoog.com/en/index.php?option\=com\_content\&view\=article\&id\=2652:foreign\-affairs\-minister\-meets\-his\-chinese\-counterpart\&catid\=124:local\-news\&Itemid\=653 \|accessdate\=6 June 2014 \|agency\=Goobjoog \|date\=6 June 2014 \|url\-status\=dead \|archiveurl\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140607005429/http://goobjoog.com/en/index.php?option\=com\_content\&view\=article\&id\=2652%3Aforeign\-affairs\-minister\-meets\-his\-chinese\-counterpart\&catid\=124%3Alocal\-news\&Itemid\=653 \|archivedate\=7 June 2014 }}
Beyle also indicated that the delegation would subsequently attend another key conference in [Greece](/wiki/Greece "Greece"), where the foreign ministers of Arab states would meet with [European Union](/wiki/European_Union "European Union") foreign ministers.
#### Somalia, Turkey and UN development cooperation
In June 2014, Beyle led a Somali government delegation at a diplomatic conference in [Turkey](/wiki/Turkey "Turkey"). The gathering was also attended by Turkish state officials and United Nations representatives. As part of a commitment by the Somali Foreign Ministry to accelerate the reconstruction process in Somalia and highlight local investment opportunities, Beyle briefed the attendees on the nation's commercial potential, including its extensive coastline and livestock and agricultural resources. Additionally, the Minister held a special meeting with [United Nations Development Program](/wiki/United_Nations_Development_Program "United Nations Development Program") officials on the progress and challenges of the rebuilding process. Beyle thanked the UNDP and other UN agencies for their developmental engagement in Somalia, and the UNDP in turn pledged to implement various development projects in the country.{{cite news\|title\=Somali Foreign ministry to speed up investment opportunities\|url\=http://goobjoog.com/en/index.php?option\=com\_content\&view\=article\&id\=2800:somali\-foreign\-ministry\-to\-speed\-up\-investment\-opportunities\&catid\=127\&Itemid\=631\|accessdate\=29 June 2014\|agency\=Goobjoog\|date\=21 June 2014}}
#### Embassy of China
On 30 June 2014, Chinese Foreign Ministry spokesman Hong Lei announced that China would dispatch a diplomatic team on 1 July to reopen the Chinese embassy in Mogadishu. He described the move as both recognition that the Somali authorities were making progress in their national reconstruction efforts and a symbol of the importance that the Chinese government attaches to its bilateral relations with Somalia.{{cite news\|title\=China to reopen Somalia embassy, sees strong ties\|url\=https://af.reuters.com/article/topNews/idAFKBN0F50W420140630\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140707163025/http://af.reuters.com/article/topNews/idAFKBN0F50W420140630\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-date\=7 July 2014\|accessdate\=30 June 2014\|agency\=Reuters\|date\=20 June 2014}} On 3 July 2014, Chargé d'Affaires of the Embassy of the People's Republic of China [Wei Hongtian](/wiki/Wei_Hongtian "Wei Hongtian") presented his credentials to Foreign Minister of Somalia Beyle at an event in the Somali capital. Beyle similarly hailed the appointment as a sign of the nation's strengthening security and foreign diplomatic relations.{{cite news\|title\=China reopens embassy in Somalia \|url\=http://www.sbrchina.com/sbr/2014\-07\-02/china\_reopens\_embassy\_in\_somalia.html \|accessdate\=5 July 2014 \|agency\=Shanghai Business Review \|date\=3 July 2014 \|url\-status\=dead \|archiveurl\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714205841/http://www.sbrchina.com/sbr/2014\-07\-02/china\_reopens\_embassy\_in\_somalia.html \|archivedate\=14 July 2014 }}
On 15 December 2014, Wei Hongtian presented his credentials to President Hassan Sheikh Mohamud as the newly appointed Chinese Ambassador to Somalia. He is the first such envoy after the reopening of the Chinese embassy in Mogadishu.{{cite web\|title\=Ambassador Wei Hongtian Presented the Letter of Credence to the President of Somalia\|url\=http://www.focac.org/eng/zxxx/t1220947\.htm\|publisher\=Forum On China\-Africa Cooperation\|accessdate\=20 December 2013\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141221004331/http://www.focac.org/eng/zxxx/t1220947\.htm\|archive\-date\=2014\-12\-21\|url\-status\=dead}} Foreign Minister Beyle and Ambassador Wei subsequently held a joint press conference, wherein the officials pledged to further strengthen bilateral ties. As part of the local reconstruction process, Wei also indicated that the Chinese authorities were slated to implement various development projects in Somalia.{{cite news\|title\=Weekly Press Conference on the Progress of the Government\|url\=http://goobjoog.com/english/?p\=7421\|accessdate\=20 December 2014\|newspaper\=Goobjoog\|date\=20 December 2014}}
#### Somalia\-Spain bilateral cooperation
In July 2014, Beyle led a Somali government delegation to [Madrid](/wiki/Madrid "Madrid") to discuss with Spanish Foreign Minister [José Manuel García\-Margallo](/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Manuel_Garc%C3%ADa-Margallo "José Manuel García-Margallo") ways of strengthening bilateral relations between Somalia and [Spain](/wiki/Spain "Spain"). The two leaders touched on issues of mutual interest, including security cooperation, stabilization initiatives, and support for the Somali federal government. Beyle also held a separate meeting with Alberto Virella, Director of the Spanish government's Africa, Asia and Western European agency for development and co\-operation, which centered on the post\-conflict reconstruction process in Somalia and establishing new development projects in the country.{{cite news\|title\=Federal government foreign minister meets his counterpart in Madrid\|url\=http://goobjoog.net/english/?p\=1188\|accessdate\=15 July 2014\|agency\=Goobjoog\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140719220248/http://goobjoog.net/english/?p\=1188\|archive\-date\=19 July 2014\|url\-status\=dead\|df\=dmy\-all}}
#### Somalia\-Qatar bilateral cooperation
In July 2014, Foreign Affairs Minister of Somalia Beyle held a special meeting in Mogadishu with acting Ambassador of [Qatar](/wiki/Qatar "Qatar") Hassan Hamza. The representatives discussed reviving official diplomatic ties between both countries and opening a Qatari embassy in the Somali capital, among other issues of mutual interest. Additionally, Hamza pledged to support the Federal Government of Somalia and strengthen bilateral relations.{{cite news\|title\=Somalia: foreign minister receives acting Qatarian ambassador in his office\|url\=http://goobjoog.com/english/?p\=1515\|accessdate\=8 August 2014\|agency\=Goobjoog\|date\=19 July 2014}}
#### Ambassador of India
In August 2014, Beyle met in Mogadishu with the newly appointed Ambassador of India to Somalia, Yogeshwar Varma. The officials discussed diplomatic relations between the two nations, with Varma presenting his credentials to Beyle. The minister and ambassador also conferred with President of Somalia Hassan Sheikh Mohamud at the presidential compound.{{cite news\|title\=Somalia: Foreign minister welcomes Indian ambassador in Mogadishu\|url\=http://goobjoog.com/english/?p\=2994\|accessdate\=10 September 2014\|agency\=Goobjoog\|date\=24 August 2014}}
#### Foreign embassy reform
In October 2014, Somalia's Ministry of Foreign Affairs temporarily closed down nine of its overseas embassies.{{cite news\|title\=Somalia closes dozen embassies overseas \|url\=http://www.qurbejoog.com/2014/10/10/somalia\-closes\-dozen\-embassies\-overseas/ \|accessdate\=12 October 2014 \|agency\=AP \|date\=10 October 2014 \|url\-status\=dead \|archiveurl\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141012132215/http://www.qurbejoog.com/2014/10/10/somalia\-closes\-dozen\-embassies\-overseas/ \|archivedate\=12 October 2014 }} The move came after Beyle had pledged to minimize the number of such diplomatic missions abroad. According to the Minister, the decision was motivated by financial considerations, and was reached after consultations between federal government officials.{{cite news\|title\=SOMALIA: Somali foreign ministry closes dozen Somali embassies overseas\|url\=http://www.raxanreeb.com/2014/10/somalia\-somali\-foreign\-ministry\-closes\-close\-to\-dozen\-somali\-embassies\-abroad/\|accessdate\=8 October 2014\|agency\=Raxanreeb\|date\=8 October 2014\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141011021633/http://www.raxanreeb.com/2014/10/somalia\-somali\-foreign\-ministry\-closes\-close\-to\-dozen\-somali\-embassies\-abroad/\|archive\-date\=11 October 2014\|url\-status\=dead\|df\=dmy\-all}} The closed embassies included those in Libya, Syria, Burundi, Rwanda, Tanzania, South Sudan, Germany, England and Malaysia.
#### Somalia\-Egypt bilateral cooperation
In October 2014, Beyle met with [Egypt](/wiki/Egypt "Egypt")'s Charge D'affaires in Somalia, Mohamed Mandour, at his office in Mogadishu. The two officials discussed various issues of mutual interest, including supporting the Federal Government of Somalia's post\-conflict reconstruction initiatives and fully re\-establishing bilateral ties between both countries. According to Beyle, Egypt is a longstanding ally and current partner of the Somali government.{{cite news\|title\=Somalia: foreign minister receives Egypt’s Charge D’affaires in his office\|url\=http://goobjoog.com/english/?p\=5208\|accessdate\=24 October 2014\|agency\=Goobjoog\|date\=22 October 2014}}
In December 2014, Beyle, President Hassan Sheikh Mohamud, and a Somali federal government delegation including the acting ministers for Finance, Justice, Interior, and Higher Education traveled to [Cairo](/wiki/Cairo "Cairo") to confer with the Egyptian authorities. The trip was prompted by an official invitation from the new President of Egypt, [Abdel Fattah el\-Sisi](/wiki/Abdel_Fattah_el-Sisi "Abdel Fattah el-Sisi"). The visiting officials were received at the [Cairo International Airport](/wiki/Cairo_International_Airport "Cairo International Airport") by the Egyptian Minister of Education Mahmoud Mohamed Mahmoud Abo El Nasr and Somalia's Ambassador to Egypt Abdullahi Hassan Mohamud.{{cite news\|title\=Somali president due to meet his Egyptian counterpart in Cairo\|url\=http://goobjoog.com/english/?p\=7791\|accessdate\=1 January 2015\|newspaper\=Goobjoog\|date\=29 December 2014}}{{cite news\|title\=Somalia: President Hassan in Egypt on official visit\|url\=http://www.garoweonline.com/page/show/post/1344/somalia\-president\-hassan\-in\-egypt\-on\-official\-visit\|accessdate\=1 January 2015\|newspaper\=Garowe Online\|date\=29 December 2014}} Mohamud subsequently met with the Secretary\-General of the [Arab League](/wiki/Arab_League "Arab League"), [Nabil Elaraby](/wiki/Nabil_Elaraby "Nabil Elaraby"). According to Ambassador Hassan, the leaders touched on various matters pertaining to the Federal Government of Somalia, including facilitating development and financial support by other Arab states for the Somalian government's ongoing reconstruction initiatives.{{cite news\|title\=Somali president meets Arab league secretary general in Cairo\|url\=http://goobjoog.com/english/?p\=7815\|accessdate\=1 January 2015\|newspaper\=Goobjoog\|date\=29 December 2014}} Additionally, Mohamud and delegates from both administrations conferred with the Grand Imam of [Al\-Azhar University](/wiki/Al-Azhar_University "Al-Azhar University"), [Ahmed el\-Tayeb](/wiki/Ahmed_el-Tayeb "Ahmed el-Tayeb"). The officials discussed bilateral cooperation in the education, medicine and justice sectors, among others, with the rector emphasizing his preparedness to assist in these fields and urging stronger commitment toward the reconstruction process in Somalia. Mohamud in turn highlighted Al\-Azhar's historic Muslim and educational work in Somalia, and underlined the institution's continued potential to provide accurate guidance on Islamic tenets.{{cite news\|title\=Somali President meets with the rector Of Al\-Azhar In Cairo\|url\=http://goobjoog.com/english/?p\=7894\|accessdate\=1 January 2015\|newspaper\=Goobjoog\|date\=30 December 2014}} Mohamud and the other visiting delegates finally held a closed door meeting with President El\-Sisi, wherein the officials touched on strengthening bilateral ties between the two countries. The gathering concluded with pledges to collaborate in the economic, educational and military sectors, including training of Somali forces by Egyptian security personnel.{{cite news\|title\=Government : Egypt Will Train Somali Forces\|url\=http://goobjoog.com/english/?p\=7935\|accessdate\=1 January 2015\|newspaper\=Goobjoog\|date\=31 December 2014}}
#### Somalia\-Sudan bilateral cooperation
In October 2014, Foreign Minister Beyle along with President Hassan Sheikh Mohamud met in Mogadishu with the new Ambassador of Sudan to Somalia, Mohamed Yusuf Osman. The Ambassador was received at the [Villa Somalia](/wiki/Villa_Somalia "Villa Somalia") presidential compound, where he presented his credentials to the federal officials. Mohamud and Osman subsequently discussed strengthening bilateral ties between the two nations, educational support, and various other issues of mutual interest. Additionally, Beyle indicated at a press conference following the meeting that the Sudanese embassy had been shut down for a number of years, and that the federal officials welcomed the new Sudanese Ambassador. Osman also passed on greetings on behalf of the President of Sudan [Omar al\-Bashir](/wiki/Omar_al-Bashir "Omar al-Bashir").{{cite news\|title\=SOMALIA: President Mohamud receives credentials from new Sudan Ambassador to Somalia\|url\=http://www.raxanreeb.com/2014/10/somalia\-president\-mohamud\-receives\-credentials\-from\-new\-sudan\-ambassador\-to\-somalia/\|accessdate\=26 October 2014\|agency\=Raxanreeb\|date\=25 October 2014\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141025173328/http://www.raxanreeb.com/2014/10/somalia\-president\-mohamud\-receives\-credentials\-from\-new\-sudan\-ambassador\-to\-somalia/\|archive\-date\=25 October 2014\|url\-status\=dead\|df\=dmy\-all}}
#### Islamic Development Bank and Organisation of Islamic Cooperation
In November 2014, Beyle met with [Islamic Development Bank](/wiki/Islamic_Development_Bank "Islamic Development Bank") President [Ahmad Mohamed Ali Al\-Madani](/wiki/Ahmad_Mohamed_Ali_Al-Madani "Ahmad Mohamed Ali Al-Madani") at the latter's office in [Jeddah](/wiki/Jeddah "Jeddah"), [Saudi Arabia](/wiki/Saudi_Arabia "Saudi Arabia"). The officials touched on various development projects in the areas of education, water resources and livelihood, as well as matters related to the Federal Government of Somalia. Additionally, Beyle held a special meeting with the Secretary\-General of the [Organisation of Islamic Cooperation](/wiki/Organisation_of_Islamic_Cooperation "Organisation of Islamic Cooperation"), [Iyad bin Amin Madani](/wiki/Iyad_bin_Amin_Madani "Iyad bin Amin Madani"). According to Beyle, he also took the opportunity to reconfirm earlier pledges that the institutions had made to the Somali federal government after President Hassan Sheikh Mohamud had conferred with the two secretaries\-general.{{cite news\|title\=Somalia: Foreign minister returns home after official trip to Jeddah\|url\=http://goobjoog.com/english/?p\=6005\|accessdate\=13 November 2014\|agency\=Goobjoog\|date\=12 November 2014}}
#### Ambassador of Egypt
In November 2014, Beyle and President Hassan Sheikh Mohamud met in Mogadishu with Egypt's new Ambassador to Somalia, Mowlid Ismail. Ismail concurrently presented his credentials to Mohamud at the Villa Somalia compound, with Beyle in attendance. The officials subsequently held a closed door meeting in which they discussed various ways to strengthen the historic bilateral ties between the two nations. According to Beyle, Ismail also indicated that his administration would double its development assistance to Somalia in the education sector.{{cite news\|title\=SOMALIA: President Mohamud receive New Egyptian ambassador to Somalia\|url\=http://www.raxanreeb.com/2014/11/somalia\-president\-mohamud\-receive\-new\-egyptian\-ambassador\-to\-somalia/\|accessdate\=17 November 2014\|agency\=Raxanreeb\|date\=15 November 2014\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141129012158/http://www.raxanreeb.com/2014/11/somalia\-president\-mohamud\-receive\-new\-egyptian\-ambassador\-to\-somalia/\|archive\-date\=2014\-11\-29\|url\-status\=dead}}
#### New Deal Compact for Reconstruction and Development
In November 2014, Foreign Minister Beyle along with over eight federal ministers and representatives from Somalia's [Puntland](/wiki/Puntland "Puntland"), [Jubaland](/wiki/Jubaland "Jubaland"), [Galmudug](/wiki/Galmudug "Galmudug") and [Southwestern](/wiki/Southwestern_Somalia "Southwestern Somalia") regional states took part in an international conference in [Copenhagen](/wiki/Copenhagen "Copenhagen") on the New Deal Compact for Reconstruction and Development. The summit was co\-chaired by President Hassan Sheikh Mohamud along with UN Under\-Secretary for Political Affairs [Jeffrey D. Feltman](/wiki/Jeffrey_D._Feltman "Jeffrey D. Feltman"), and was attended by delegations from over 140 countries. According to Beyle, the federal officials took the opportunity to present the Somali government's priorities and successes. Mohamud indicated therein that the New Deal Compact was a Somali\-led initiative, through which the Federal Government of Somalia developed legal frameworks, initiated state and political reform, re\-structured key institutions, and established a foundation for allocating international development assistance toward the central authorities' priority areas. Additionally, Minister of Foreign Affairs of Egypt [Sameh Shoukry](/wiki/Sameh_Shoukry "Sameh Shoukry") reaffirmed his administration's support for Somalia's social and security sectors, and noted the Egyptian government's various political brokering efforts.{{cite news\|title\=Somalia: Donor summit underway in Denmark amid political deadlock\|url\=http://www.garoweonline.com/page/show/post/964/somalia\-donor\-summit\-underway\-in\-denmark\-amid\-political\-deadlock\|accessdate\=20 November 2014\|agency\=Garowe Online\|date\=19 November 2014}}{{cite news\|title\=SOMALIA: President’s delegation return to Mogadishu after attending the Copenhagen conference\|url\=http://www.raxanreeb.com/2014/11/somalia\-presidents\-delegation\-return\-to\-mogadishu\-after\-attending\-the\-copenhagen\-conference/\|accessdate\=21 November 2014\|agency\=Raxanreeb\|date\=21 November 2014\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141129022802/http://www.raxanreeb.com/2014/11/somalia\-presidents\-delegation\-return\-to\-mogadishu\-after\-attending\-the\-copenhagen\-conference/\|archive\-date\=29 November 2014\|url\-status\=dead\|df\=dmy\-all}}
#### Somalia\-Yemen bilateral cooperation
In November 2014, Beyle met in [Sana'a](/wiki/Sana%27a "Sana'a") with the Foreign Minister of Yemen Abdalla Mohamed. According to the Consular of the Embassy of Somalia in Yemen Ahmed Sudani, the two ministers discussed various issues of bilateral interest, including Somali government ships stored in Yemen, maritime security and expatriates. Beyle also sought additional scholarship seats for Somali students so as to further develop the educational sector.{{cite news\|title\=Somalia: foreign affairs minister meets his Yemen counterpart in Sana’a\|url\=http://goobjoog.com/english/?p\=6551\|accessdate\=24 November 2014\|agency\=Goobjoog\|date\=24 November 2014}} Additionally, Beyle held a meeting with the President of Yemen [Abd Rabbuh Mansur Hadi](/wiki/Abd_Rabbuh_Mansur_Hadi "Abd Rabbuh Mansur Hadi") and the newly appointed Prime Minister of Yemen, [Khaled Bahah](/wiki/Khaled_Bahah "Khaled Bahah"). The officials touched on various other bilateral matters, including strengthening cooperation in the trade, security and development sectors. Beyle likewise conferred with the Minister of Fisheries and paid a visit to the Sana'a Chamber of Commerce, where he met with Yemeni business leaders and gave a keynote speech.{{cite news\|title\=Yemen: Foreign Minister meets Yemen Prime minister in Sana’a\|url\=http://goobjoog.com/english/?p\=6639\|accessdate\=27 November 2014\|agency\=Goobjoog\|date\=26 November 2014}}{{cite news\|title\=Somalia’s foreign Minister meets his Germany counterpart in Rome\|url\=http://goobjoog.com/english/?p\=6676\|accessdate\=29 November 2014\|agency\=Goobjoog\|date\=29 November 2014}}
#### Somalia\-Germany bilateral cooperation
In November 2014, Beyle traveled to [Rome](/wiki/Rome "Rome") to attend an international migration summit, where he met with the Foreign Minister of [Germany](/wiki/Germany "Germany"), [Frank\-Walter Steinmeier](/wiki/Frank-Walter_Steinmeier "Frank-Walter Steinmeier"). The two officials discussed various bilateral issues, including diplomatic relations and cooperation between the governments of Somalia and Germany, as well as the Somali federal government's counterinsurgency operations. Additionally, Steinmeier emphasized the importance of solidarity and collaboration, and applauded the federal government's reconstruction and stabilization initiatives.
Beyle also discussed bilateral development cooperation in Nairobi with the Ambassador of Germany to Somalia, Andreas Peschke. Peschke reaffirmed the German government's commitment to Somalia's New Deal Compact initiative launched in 2013, when his administration pledged 95 million Euros for associated reconstruction projects. In parallel with the development initiatives, the Ambassador likewise stressed the importance of maintaining security and stabilization measures.{{cite news\|title\=SOMALIA: Foreign Minister meets with German Ambassador to Somalia in Nairobi\|url\=http://www.raxanreeb.com/2014/12/somalia\-foreign\-minister\-meets\-with\-german\-ambassador\-to\-somalia\-in\-nairobi/\|accessdate\=2 December 2014\|agency\=Raxanreeb\|date\=1 December 2014\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150318062737/http://www.raxanreeb.com/2014/12/somalia\-foreign\-minister\-meets\-with\-german\-ambassador\-to\-somalia\-in\-nairobi/\|archive\-date\=18 March 2015\|url\-status\=dead\|df\=dmy\-all}}
#### Somalia\-Oman bilateral cooperation
In January 2015, Beyle met with the Omani Foreign Affairs Minister Yousuf bin Alawi bin Abdullah at his office in [Oman](/wiki/Oman "Oman"). Undersecretary for Diplomatic Affairs Ahmed bin Yousuf al Harthy also took part in the gathering. The officials discussed various political matters, including domestic, regional and international affairs. They also touched on existing bilateral ties between both nations and ways to further strengthen them.{{cite news\|title\=Minister Responsible for Foreign Affairs of Oman meets Somali counterpart\|url\=http://goobjoog.com/english/?p\=8990\|accessdate\=19 January 2015\|agency\=Goobjoog\|date\=18 January 2015}}
#### Somalia\-Turkey bilateral cooperation
In January 2015, Foreign Affairs Minister Beyle, President Hassan Sheikh Mohamud, and other senior Somali federal government officials received a large Turkish delegation led by newly elected President of Turkey [Recep Tayyip Erdoğan](/wiki/Recep_Tayyip_Erdo%C4%9Fan "Recep Tayyip Erdoğan") at the [Aden Adde International Airport](/wiki/Aden_Adde_International_Airport "Aden Adde International Airport") in Mogadishu. The delegates included various cabinet ministers and entrepreneurs.{{cite news\|title\=Press Release: Erdogan’s Somalia Visit\|url\=http://goobjoog.com/english/?p\=9308\|accessdate\=26 January 2015\|agency\=Goobjoog\|date\=25 January 2015}}{{cite news\|title\=Turkey’s president pledges to construct 10 thousand new houses in Mogadishu\|url\=http://goobjoog.com/english/?p\=9339\|accessdate\=26 January 2015\|agency\=Goobjoog\|date\=25 January 2015}} Mohamud and Erdoğan concurrently inaugurated a number of Turkish\-built development projects in Somalia, including the Somalia\-Turkey Education and Research Hospital in the capital and a new terminal at the Aden Adde International Airport. Beyle and the Turkish delegates in turn signed a bilateral treaty on new developmental projects that are scheduled to be implemented in Somalia. Among the agreements was a protocol stating that the new Digfer Hospital in Mogadishu would be jointly operated. The accord stipulates that the institution will be funded for its first five years by the Turkish Ministry of Health, which will likewise provide professional specialists. Per the protocol, the hospital will thereafter be fully managed by the Somalian authorities.{{cite news\|title\=Turkish president inaugurates hospital in Somalia\|url\=http://www.worldbulletin.net/servisler/haberYazdir/153747/haber\|accessdate\=25 January 2015\|agency\=World Bulletin\|date\=25 January 2015}} Further development agreements were signed pertaining to military and security cooperation, police support and coordination, marine transportation, youth and sports projects, and cooperation between [Somali National Television](/wiki/Somali_National_Television "Somali National Television") and the [Turkish National Radio](/wiki/Turkish_Radio_and_Television_Corporation "Turkish Radio and Television Corporation").
#### OIC embassy treaty
In February 2015, interim Foreign Affairs Minister Beyle signed a joint agreement with representatives of the [Organization of Islamic Cooperation](/wiki/Organization_of_Islamic_Cooperation "Organization of Islamic Cooperation") for the renovation of Somalia's various foreign embassies. According to Beyle, the accord encompasses a number of such state\-owned premises, which require refurbishment. During the initiative's first phase, the OIC will conduct a survey of the infrastructure's general condition as well as the necessary expenditure.{{cite news\|title\=OIC signs to renovate Somali foreign embassies\|url\=http://goobjoog.com/english/?p\=9708\|accessdate\=4 February 2015\|agency\=Goobjoog\|date\=2 February 2015}}
#### End of term
On 27 January 2015, Beyle's term as Minister of Foreign Affairs and International Cooperation of Somalia ended, when Prime Minister [Omar Abdirashid Ali Sharmarke](/wiki/Omar_Abdirashid_Ali_Sharmarke "Omar Abdirashid Ali Sharmarke") appointed a new Cabinet. He was succeeded in office by [Abdisalam Omer](/wiki/Abdisalam_Omer "Abdisalam Omer").{{cite news\|title\=Nominated Ministers and Their Clans\|url\=http://goobjoog.com/english/?p\=9446\|accessdate\=28 January 2015\|agency\=Goobjoog\|date\=28 January 2015}}
On 14 February, Beyle's term as Foreign Minister formally ended at an official handover ceremony at the foreign ministry compound in Mogadishu. The event was attended by his successor Omer, new Deputy Prime Minister [Mohamed Omar Arte](/wiki/Mohamed_Omar_Arte "Mohamed Omar Arte"), and other senior federal government officials. Beyle therein noted his various accomplishments during his tenure, and enjoined the foreign ministry personnel to assist the incoming minister. Omer in turn commended Beyle for the latter's diplomatic work, and pledged to fulfill his own duties in accordance with the constitution.{{cite news\|title\=Former Foreign minister hands over office\|url\=http://goobjoog.com/english/?p\=10242\|accessdate\=15 February 2015\|agency\=Goobjoog\|date\=14 February 2015\|url\-status\=dead\|archiveurl\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150215213549/http://goobjoog.com/english/?p\=10242\|archivedate\=15 February 2015}}
|
[
"### Minister of Foreign Affairs and International Cooperation",
"[thumb\\|right\\|Minister of Foreign Affairs of Somalia Abdirahman Duale Beyle meeting with the UAE Ambassador to Somalia Mohamed Al\\-Osmani in [Mogadishu](/wiki/Mogadishu \"Mogadishu\").](/wiki/File:Adualbhd18.png \"Adualbhd18.png\")",
"#### Appointment",
"On 17 January 2014, Beyle was named Somalia's new Minister of Foreign Affairs and International Cooperation by Prime Minister [Abdiweli Sheikh Ahmed](/wiki/Abdiweli_Sheikh_Ahmed \"Abdiweli Sheikh Ahmed\").{{cite news\\|title\\=SOMALIA PM Said \"Cabinet will work tirelessly for the people of Somalia\"\\|url\\=http://www.midnimo.com/2014/01/17/somalia\\-pm\\-said\\-cabinet\\-will\\-work\\-tirelessly\\-people\\-somalia/\\|accessdate\\=17 January 2014\\|newspaper\\=Midnimo\\|date\\=17 January 2014\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140203025315/http://www.midnimo.com/2014/01/17/somalia\\-pm\\-said\\-cabinet\\-will\\-work\\-tirelessly\\-people\\-somalia/\\|archive\\-date\\=3 February 2014\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} He succeeded [Fowziya Yusuf Haji Adan](/wiki/Fowziya_Yusuf_Haji_Adan \"Fowziya Yusuf Haji Adan\") at the position.",
"#### Institute of Diplomacy",
"In February 2014, Foreign Minister Beyle announced that the federal government was slated to reopen the former Institute of Diplomacy in [Mogadishu](/wiki/Mogadishu \"Mogadishu\"), Somalia's capital. The center historically served as one of the most important national institutions for diplomacy and international relations. Beyle also pledged to reestablish the institute's diplomacy department, its information and broadcasting department, as well as its library.{{cite news\\|title\\=Somalia: Somali Govt to Revive Former Institute of Diplomacy\\|url\\=http://allafrica.com/stories/201402140064\\.html\\|accessdate\\=1 March 2014\\|newspaper\\=Dalsan Radio\\|date\\=13 February 2014}}",
"#### Somalia\\-Ethiopia cooperative agreements",
"In February 2014, Beyle was part of a Somali government delegation in [Addis Ababa](/wiki/Addis_Ababa \"Addis Ababa\") led by Prime Minister Abdiweli Sheikh Ahmed, where the visiting officials met with Ethiopian Prime Minister [Hailemariam Desalegn](/wiki/Hailemariam_Desalegn \"Hailemariam Desalegn\") to discuss strengthening bilateral relations between Somalia and [Ethiopia](/wiki/Ethiopia \"Ethiopia\"). The meeting concluded with a tripartite Memorandum of Understanding agreeing to promote partnership and cooperation, including a cooperative agreement signed by Beyle and the Ethiopian Minister of Federal Affairs Dr. Shiferaw Teklemariam to develop the police force, a second cooperative agreement covering information matters, and a third cooperative agreement on the aviation sector.{{cite web\\|title\\=Ethiopia: The Prime Minister of Somalia On a Visit to Ethiopia\\|url\\=http://allafrica.com/stories/201402170065\\.html\\|publisher\\=Government of Ethiopia\\|accessdate\\=17 February 2014}}",
"#### Somalia\\-UN cooperative agreement",
"In February 2014, Beyle and UN Special Representative for Somalia [Nicholas Kay](/wiki/Nicholas_Kay \"Nicholas Kay\") signed a bilateral agreement outlining the terms of future cooperation between the Somali federal government and the United Nations. According to Beyle, the pact came after extensive consultations between both parties. Along with attorneys, President [Hassan Sheikh Mohamud](/wiki/Hassan_Sheikh_Mohamud \"Hassan Sheikh Mohamud\") attended the signing of the agreement, which he commended for helping to strengthen cooperation between the Somali authorities and the UN.{{cite news\\|title\\=Somalia, UN sign agreement to strengthen co\\-operation\\|url\\=http://sabahionline.com/en\\_GB/articles/hoa/articles/newsbriefs/2014/02/27/newsbrief\\-04\\|accessdate\\=3 March 2014\\|newspaper\\=Sabahi\\|date\\=27 February 2014}}",
"#### Somalia\\-Japan bilateral cooperation",
"In March 2014, Beyle and a Somali government delegation including President Hassan Sheikh Mohamud, Minister of Public Works and Reconstruction [Nadifo Mohamed Osman](/wiki/Nadifo_Mohamed_Osman \"Nadifo Mohamed Osman\") and Minister of Planning [Said Abdullahi Mohamed](/wiki/Said_Abdullahi_Mohamed \"Said Abdullahi Mohamed\") made a four\\-day visit to [Tokyo](/wiki/Tokyo \"Tokyo\"), where they met with Ambassador Tatsushi Terada and other senior Japanese government officials. President Mohamud and his delegation also conferred with [Prime Minister](/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Japan \"Prime Minister of Japan\") [Shinzo Abe](/wiki/Shinzo_Abe \"Shinzo Abe\") to discuss strengthening bilateral relations, as well as capacity training for Somali livestock and agricultural development professionals.{{cite news\\|title\\=Somalia: Pres Hassan Sheikh \\- \"We Are Here in Japan to Strengthen Bilateral Relations\\|url\\=http://allafrica.com/stories/201403121237\\.html\\|accessdate\\=12 March 2014\\|date\\=12 March 2014}} The visit concluded with an announcement by Japanese Prime Minister Abe that his administration would put forth a $40 million funding package for the rehabilitation of Somalia's police forces, relief services, and job creation opportunities. Mohamud commended the Japanese government for intensifying its bilateral support, and suggested that the development initiatives would be centered on vocational training for youth and women, maritime and fisheries training, fisheries and agricultural infrastructure development, and communication and information technology support.{{cite news\\|title\\=Japan Pledges $40m for Humanitarian Assistance to Somalia\\|url\\=http://horseedmedia.net/2014/03/13/japan\\-pledges\\-40m\\-humanitarian\\-assistance\\-somalia/\\|accessdate\\=14 March 2014\\|newspaper\\=Horseed Media\\|date\\=13 March 2014}}",
"#### Somalia, AfDB and Tunisian development cooperation",
"In May 2014, Foreign Minister Beyle led a high level Somali federal government delegation to the [African Development Bank](/wiki/African_Development_Bank \"African Development Bank\") headquarters in [Tunis](/wiki/Tunis \"Tunis\"), which included Finance Minister Hussein Abdi Halane and other top officials. The visiting parties are slated to meet with the AfDB president [Donald Kaberuka](/wiki/Donald_Kaberuka \"Donald Kaberuka\") to discuss implementation of previous reconstruction development plans and financial pledges made to Somalia. Beyle and his delegation are then scheduled to confer with Tunisian government officials over potential investment programs in Somalia.{{cite news\\|title\\=Somali foreign Minister and delegates meets with the president of African development bank \\|url\\=http://goobjoog.com/en/index.php?option\\=com\\_content\\&view\\=article\\&id\\=2270:somali\\-foreign\\-minister\\-and\\-delegates\\-meets\\-with\\-the\\-president\\-of\\-african\\-development\\-bank\\&catid\\=127\\&Itemid\\=631 \\|accessdate\\=15 May 2014 \\|newspaper\\=Goobjoog \\|date\\=28 April 2014 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archiveurl\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140517121618/http://goobjoog.com/en/index.php?option\\=com\\_content\\&view\\=article\\&id\\=2270%3Asomali\\-foreign\\-minister\\-and\\-delegates\\-meets\\-with\\-the\\-president\\-of\\-african\\-development\\-bank\\&catid\\=127\\&Itemid\\=631 \\|archivedate\\=17 May 2014 }}",
"#### Arab\\-China Summit",
"In June 2014, Beyle led a federal government delegation to represent Somalia at the Arab\\-China Summit in [Beijing](/wiki/Beijing \"Beijing\"). According to the minister, the international conference was an opportunity for the Somali authorities to attract foreign investment as part of the post\\-conflict reconstruction process.{{cite news\\|title\\=SOMALIA: Foreign Minister travels to attend Arab\\-China Summit\\|url\\=http://www.raxanreeb.com/2014/06/somalia\\-foreign\\-minister\\-travels\\-to\\-attend\\-arab\\-china\\-summit/\\|accessdate\\=2 June 2014\\|agency\\=Raxanreeb\\|date\\=1 June 2014\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140603115253/http://www.raxanreeb.com/2014/06/somalia\\-foreign\\-minister\\-travels\\-to\\-attend\\-arab\\-china\\-summit/\\|archive\\-date\\=3 June 2014\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|df\\=dmy\\-all}} Beyle concurrently met his Chinese counterpart [Wang Yi](/wiki/Wang_Yi_%28politician%29 \"Wang Yi (politician)\") to discuss bilateral cooperation between Somalia and [China](/wiki/China \"China\"). The meeting was held at the Chinese foreign ministry center and focused on trade, security and reconstruction. Among the issues discussed were the various Chinese development projects that are in the process of being implemented in Somalia. Beyle also indicated that the Chinese authorities are slated to broaden their support for Somalia, which would serve to create new employment opportunities. Additionally, Wang commended the Somali federal government on its peace\\-building efforts. He likewise reaffirmed the historically close diplomatic ties between both territories, recalling China's recognition of the nascent [Somali Republic](/wiki/Somali_Republic \"Somali Republic\") in 1960 and Somalia's subsequent campaigning which helped China obtain a permanent seat in the [United Nations Security Council](/wiki/United_Nations_Security_Council \"United Nations Security Council\").{{cite news\\|title\\=Foreign affairs minister meets his Chinese counterpart \\|url\\=http://goobjoog.com/en/index.php?option\\=com\\_content\\&view\\=article\\&id\\=2652:foreign\\-affairs\\-minister\\-meets\\-his\\-chinese\\-counterpart\\&catid\\=124:local\\-news\\&Itemid\\=653 \\|accessdate\\=6 June 2014 \\|agency\\=Goobjoog \\|date\\=6 June 2014 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archiveurl\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140607005429/http://goobjoog.com/en/index.php?option\\=com\\_content\\&view\\=article\\&id\\=2652%3Aforeign\\-affairs\\-minister\\-meets\\-his\\-chinese\\-counterpart\\&catid\\=124%3Alocal\\-news\\&Itemid\\=653 \\|archivedate\\=7 June 2014 }}",
"Beyle also indicated that the delegation would subsequently attend another key conference in [Greece](/wiki/Greece \"Greece\"), where the foreign ministers of Arab states would meet with [European Union](/wiki/European_Union \"European Union\") foreign ministers.",
"#### Somalia, Turkey and UN development cooperation",
"In June 2014, Beyle led a Somali government delegation at a diplomatic conference in [Turkey](/wiki/Turkey \"Turkey\"). The gathering was also attended by Turkish state officials and United Nations representatives. As part of a commitment by the Somali Foreign Ministry to accelerate the reconstruction process in Somalia and highlight local investment opportunities, Beyle briefed the attendees on the nation's commercial potential, including its extensive coastline and livestock and agricultural resources. Additionally, the Minister held a special meeting with [United Nations Development Program](/wiki/United_Nations_Development_Program \"United Nations Development Program\") officials on the progress and challenges of the rebuilding process. Beyle thanked the UNDP and other UN agencies for their developmental engagement in Somalia, and the UNDP in turn pledged to implement various development projects in the country.{{cite news\\|title\\=Somali Foreign ministry to speed up investment opportunities\\|url\\=http://goobjoog.com/en/index.php?option\\=com\\_content\\&view\\=article\\&id\\=2800:somali\\-foreign\\-ministry\\-to\\-speed\\-up\\-investment\\-opportunities\\&catid\\=127\\&Itemid\\=631\\|accessdate\\=29 June 2014\\|agency\\=Goobjoog\\|date\\=21 June 2014}}",
"#### Embassy of China",
"On 30 June 2014, Chinese Foreign Ministry spokesman Hong Lei announced that China would dispatch a diplomatic team on 1 July to reopen the Chinese embassy in Mogadishu. He described the move as both recognition that the Somali authorities were making progress in their national reconstruction efforts and a symbol of the importance that the Chinese government attaches to its bilateral relations with Somalia.{{cite news\\|title\\=China to reopen Somalia embassy, sees strong ties\\|url\\=https://af.reuters.com/article/topNews/idAFKBN0F50W420140630\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140707163025/http://af.reuters.com/article/topNews/idAFKBN0F50W420140630\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-date\\=7 July 2014\\|accessdate\\=30 June 2014\\|agency\\=Reuters\\|date\\=20 June 2014}} On 3 July 2014, Chargé d'Affaires of the Embassy of the People's Republic of China [Wei Hongtian](/wiki/Wei_Hongtian \"Wei Hongtian\") presented his credentials to Foreign Minister of Somalia Beyle at an event in the Somali capital. Beyle similarly hailed the appointment as a sign of the nation's strengthening security and foreign diplomatic relations.{{cite news\\|title\\=China reopens embassy in Somalia \\|url\\=http://www.sbrchina.com/sbr/2014\\-07\\-02/china\\_reopens\\_embassy\\_in\\_somalia.html \\|accessdate\\=5 July 2014 \\|agency\\=Shanghai Business Review \\|date\\=3 July 2014 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archiveurl\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714205841/http://www.sbrchina.com/sbr/2014\\-07\\-02/china\\_reopens\\_embassy\\_in\\_somalia.html \\|archivedate\\=14 July 2014 }}",
"On 15 December 2014, Wei Hongtian presented his credentials to President Hassan Sheikh Mohamud as the newly appointed Chinese Ambassador to Somalia. He is the first such envoy after the reopening of the Chinese embassy in Mogadishu.{{cite web\\|title\\=Ambassador Wei Hongtian Presented the Letter of Credence to the President of Somalia\\|url\\=http://www.focac.org/eng/zxxx/t1220947\\.htm\\|publisher\\=Forum On China\\-Africa Cooperation\\|accessdate\\=20 December 2013\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141221004331/http://www.focac.org/eng/zxxx/t1220947\\.htm\\|archive\\-date\\=2014\\-12\\-21\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} Foreign Minister Beyle and Ambassador Wei subsequently held a joint press conference, wherein the officials pledged to further strengthen bilateral ties. As part of the local reconstruction process, Wei also indicated that the Chinese authorities were slated to implement various development projects in Somalia.{{cite news\\|title\\=Weekly Press Conference on the Progress of the Government\\|url\\=http://goobjoog.com/english/?p\\=7421\\|accessdate\\=20 December 2014\\|newspaper\\=Goobjoog\\|date\\=20 December 2014}}",
"#### Somalia\\-Spain bilateral cooperation",
"In July 2014, Beyle led a Somali government delegation to [Madrid](/wiki/Madrid \"Madrid\") to discuss with Spanish Foreign Minister [José Manuel García\\-Margallo](/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Manuel_Garc%C3%ADa-Margallo \"José Manuel García-Margallo\") ways of strengthening bilateral relations between Somalia and [Spain](/wiki/Spain \"Spain\"). The two leaders touched on issues of mutual interest, including security cooperation, stabilization initiatives, and support for the Somali federal government. Beyle also held a separate meeting with Alberto Virella, Director of the Spanish government's Africa, Asia and Western European agency for development and co\\-operation, which centered on the post\\-conflict reconstruction process in Somalia and establishing new development projects in the country.{{cite news\\|title\\=Federal government foreign minister meets his counterpart in Madrid\\|url\\=http://goobjoog.net/english/?p\\=1188\\|accessdate\\=15 July 2014\\|agency\\=Goobjoog\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140719220248/http://goobjoog.net/english/?p\\=1188\\|archive\\-date\\=19 July 2014\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|df\\=dmy\\-all}}",
"#### Somalia\\-Qatar bilateral cooperation",
"In July 2014, Foreign Affairs Minister of Somalia Beyle held a special meeting in Mogadishu with acting Ambassador of [Qatar](/wiki/Qatar \"Qatar\") Hassan Hamza. The representatives discussed reviving official diplomatic ties between both countries and opening a Qatari embassy in the Somali capital, among other issues of mutual interest. Additionally, Hamza pledged to support the Federal Government of Somalia and strengthen bilateral relations.{{cite news\\|title\\=Somalia: foreign minister receives acting Qatarian ambassador in his office\\|url\\=http://goobjoog.com/english/?p\\=1515\\|accessdate\\=8 August 2014\\|agency\\=Goobjoog\\|date\\=19 July 2014}}",
"#### Ambassador of India",
"In August 2014, Beyle met in Mogadishu with the newly appointed Ambassador of India to Somalia, Yogeshwar Varma. The officials discussed diplomatic relations between the two nations, with Varma presenting his credentials to Beyle. The minister and ambassador also conferred with President of Somalia Hassan Sheikh Mohamud at the presidential compound.{{cite news\\|title\\=Somalia: Foreign minister welcomes Indian ambassador in Mogadishu\\|url\\=http://goobjoog.com/english/?p\\=2994\\|accessdate\\=10 September 2014\\|agency\\=Goobjoog\\|date\\=24 August 2014}}",
"#### Foreign embassy reform",
"In October 2014, Somalia's Ministry of Foreign Affairs temporarily closed down nine of its overseas embassies.{{cite news\\|title\\=Somalia closes dozen embassies overseas \\|url\\=http://www.qurbejoog.com/2014/10/10/somalia\\-closes\\-dozen\\-embassies\\-overseas/ \\|accessdate\\=12 October 2014 \\|agency\\=AP \\|date\\=10 October 2014 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archiveurl\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141012132215/http://www.qurbejoog.com/2014/10/10/somalia\\-closes\\-dozen\\-embassies\\-overseas/ \\|archivedate\\=12 October 2014 }} The move came after Beyle had pledged to minimize the number of such diplomatic missions abroad. According to the Minister, the decision was motivated by financial considerations, and was reached after consultations between federal government officials.{{cite news\\|title\\=SOMALIA: Somali foreign ministry closes dozen Somali embassies overseas\\|url\\=http://www.raxanreeb.com/2014/10/somalia\\-somali\\-foreign\\-ministry\\-closes\\-close\\-to\\-dozen\\-somali\\-embassies\\-abroad/\\|accessdate\\=8 October 2014\\|agency\\=Raxanreeb\\|date\\=8 October 2014\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141011021633/http://www.raxanreeb.com/2014/10/somalia\\-somali\\-foreign\\-ministry\\-closes\\-close\\-to\\-dozen\\-somali\\-embassies\\-abroad/\\|archive\\-date\\=11 October 2014\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|df\\=dmy\\-all}} The closed embassies included those in Libya, Syria, Burundi, Rwanda, Tanzania, South Sudan, Germany, England and Malaysia.",
"#### Somalia\\-Egypt bilateral cooperation",
"In October 2014, Beyle met with [Egypt](/wiki/Egypt \"Egypt\")'s Charge D'affaires in Somalia, Mohamed Mandour, at his office in Mogadishu. The two officials discussed various issues of mutual interest, including supporting the Federal Government of Somalia's post\\-conflict reconstruction initiatives and fully re\\-establishing bilateral ties between both countries. According to Beyle, Egypt is a longstanding ally and current partner of the Somali government.{{cite news\\|title\\=Somalia: foreign minister receives Egypt’s Charge D’affaires in his office\\|url\\=http://goobjoog.com/english/?p\\=5208\\|accessdate\\=24 October 2014\\|agency\\=Goobjoog\\|date\\=22 October 2014}}",
"In December 2014, Beyle, President Hassan Sheikh Mohamud, and a Somali federal government delegation including the acting ministers for Finance, Justice, Interior, and Higher Education traveled to [Cairo](/wiki/Cairo \"Cairo\") to confer with the Egyptian authorities. The trip was prompted by an official invitation from the new President of Egypt, [Abdel Fattah el\\-Sisi](/wiki/Abdel_Fattah_el-Sisi \"Abdel Fattah el-Sisi\"). The visiting officials were received at the [Cairo International Airport](/wiki/Cairo_International_Airport \"Cairo International Airport\") by the Egyptian Minister of Education Mahmoud Mohamed Mahmoud Abo El Nasr and Somalia's Ambassador to Egypt Abdullahi Hassan Mohamud.{{cite news\\|title\\=Somali president due to meet his Egyptian counterpart in Cairo\\|url\\=http://goobjoog.com/english/?p\\=7791\\|accessdate\\=1 January 2015\\|newspaper\\=Goobjoog\\|date\\=29 December 2014}}{{cite news\\|title\\=Somalia: President Hassan in Egypt on official visit\\|url\\=http://www.garoweonline.com/page/show/post/1344/somalia\\-president\\-hassan\\-in\\-egypt\\-on\\-official\\-visit\\|accessdate\\=1 January 2015\\|newspaper\\=Garowe Online\\|date\\=29 December 2014}} Mohamud subsequently met with the Secretary\\-General of the [Arab League](/wiki/Arab_League \"Arab League\"), [Nabil Elaraby](/wiki/Nabil_Elaraby \"Nabil Elaraby\"). According to Ambassador Hassan, the leaders touched on various matters pertaining to the Federal Government of Somalia, including facilitating development and financial support by other Arab states for the Somalian government's ongoing reconstruction initiatives.{{cite news\\|title\\=Somali president meets Arab league secretary general in Cairo\\|url\\=http://goobjoog.com/english/?p\\=7815\\|accessdate\\=1 January 2015\\|newspaper\\=Goobjoog\\|date\\=29 December 2014}} Additionally, Mohamud and delegates from both administrations conferred with the Grand Imam of [Al\\-Azhar University](/wiki/Al-Azhar_University \"Al-Azhar University\"), [Ahmed el\\-Tayeb](/wiki/Ahmed_el-Tayeb \"Ahmed el-Tayeb\"). The officials discussed bilateral cooperation in the education, medicine and justice sectors, among others, with the rector emphasizing his preparedness to assist in these fields and urging stronger commitment toward the reconstruction process in Somalia. Mohamud in turn highlighted Al\\-Azhar's historic Muslim and educational work in Somalia, and underlined the institution's continued potential to provide accurate guidance on Islamic tenets.{{cite news\\|title\\=Somali President meets with the rector Of Al\\-Azhar In Cairo\\|url\\=http://goobjoog.com/english/?p\\=7894\\|accessdate\\=1 January 2015\\|newspaper\\=Goobjoog\\|date\\=30 December 2014}} Mohamud and the other visiting delegates finally held a closed door meeting with President El\\-Sisi, wherein the officials touched on strengthening bilateral ties between the two countries. The gathering concluded with pledges to collaborate in the economic, educational and military sectors, including training of Somali forces by Egyptian security personnel.{{cite news\\|title\\=Government : Egypt Will Train Somali Forces\\|url\\=http://goobjoog.com/english/?p\\=7935\\|accessdate\\=1 January 2015\\|newspaper\\=Goobjoog\\|date\\=31 December 2014}}",
"#### Somalia\\-Sudan bilateral cooperation",
"In October 2014, Foreign Minister Beyle along with President Hassan Sheikh Mohamud met in Mogadishu with the new Ambassador of Sudan to Somalia, Mohamed Yusuf Osman. The Ambassador was received at the [Villa Somalia](/wiki/Villa_Somalia \"Villa Somalia\") presidential compound, where he presented his credentials to the federal officials. Mohamud and Osman subsequently discussed strengthening bilateral ties between the two nations, educational support, and various other issues of mutual interest. Additionally, Beyle indicated at a press conference following the meeting that the Sudanese embassy had been shut down for a number of years, and that the federal officials welcomed the new Sudanese Ambassador. Osman also passed on greetings on behalf of the President of Sudan [Omar al\\-Bashir](/wiki/Omar_al-Bashir \"Omar al-Bashir\").{{cite news\\|title\\=SOMALIA: President Mohamud receives credentials from new Sudan Ambassador to Somalia\\|url\\=http://www.raxanreeb.com/2014/10/somalia\\-president\\-mohamud\\-receives\\-credentials\\-from\\-new\\-sudan\\-ambassador\\-to\\-somalia/\\|accessdate\\=26 October 2014\\|agency\\=Raxanreeb\\|date\\=25 October 2014\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141025173328/http://www.raxanreeb.com/2014/10/somalia\\-president\\-mohamud\\-receives\\-credentials\\-from\\-new\\-sudan\\-ambassador\\-to\\-somalia/\\|archive\\-date\\=25 October 2014\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|df\\=dmy\\-all}}",
"#### Islamic Development Bank and Organisation of Islamic Cooperation",
"In November 2014, Beyle met with [Islamic Development Bank](/wiki/Islamic_Development_Bank \"Islamic Development Bank\") President [Ahmad Mohamed Ali Al\\-Madani](/wiki/Ahmad_Mohamed_Ali_Al-Madani \"Ahmad Mohamed Ali Al-Madani\") at the latter's office in [Jeddah](/wiki/Jeddah \"Jeddah\"), [Saudi Arabia](/wiki/Saudi_Arabia \"Saudi Arabia\"). The officials touched on various development projects in the areas of education, water resources and livelihood, as well as matters related to the Federal Government of Somalia. Additionally, Beyle held a special meeting with the Secretary\\-General of the [Organisation of Islamic Cooperation](/wiki/Organisation_of_Islamic_Cooperation \"Organisation of Islamic Cooperation\"), [Iyad bin Amin Madani](/wiki/Iyad_bin_Amin_Madani \"Iyad bin Amin Madani\"). According to Beyle, he also took the opportunity to reconfirm earlier pledges that the institutions had made to the Somali federal government after President Hassan Sheikh Mohamud had conferred with the two secretaries\\-general.{{cite news\\|title\\=Somalia: Foreign minister returns home after official trip to Jeddah\\|url\\=http://goobjoog.com/english/?p\\=6005\\|accessdate\\=13 November 2014\\|agency\\=Goobjoog\\|date\\=12 November 2014}}",
"#### Ambassador of Egypt",
"In November 2014, Beyle and President Hassan Sheikh Mohamud met in Mogadishu with Egypt's new Ambassador to Somalia, Mowlid Ismail. Ismail concurrently presented his credentials to Mohamud at the Villa Somalia compound, with Beyle in attendance. The officials subsequently held a closed door meeting in which they discussed various ways to strengthen the historic bilateral ties between the two nations. According to Beyle, Ismail also indicated that his administration would double its development assistance to Somalia in the education sector.{{cite news\\|title\\=SOMALIA: President Mohamud receive New Egyptian ambassador to Somalia\\|url\\=http://www.raxanreeb.com/2014/11/somalia\\-president\\-mohamud\\-receive\\-new\\-egyptian\\-ambassador\\-to\\-somalia/\\|accessdate\\=17 November 2014\\|agency\\=Raxanreeb\\|date\\=15 November 2014\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141129012158/http://www.raxanreeb.com/2014/11/somalia\\-president\\-mohamud\\-receive\\-new\\-egyptian\\-ambassador\\-to\\-somalia/\\|archive\\-date\\=2014\\-11\\-29\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}",
"#### New Deal Compact for Reconstruction and Development",
"In November 2014, Foreign Minister Beyle along with over eight federal ministers and representatives from Somalia's [Puntland](/wiki/Puntland \"Puntland\"), [Jubaland](/wiki/Jubaland \"Jubaland\"), [Galmudug](/wiki/Galmudug \"Galmudug\") and [Southwestern](/wiki/Southwestern_Somalia \"Southwestern Somalia\") regional states took part in an international conference in [Copenhagen](/wiki/Copenhagen \"Copenhagen\") on the New Deal Compact for Reconstruction and Development. The summit was co\\-chaired by President Hassan Sheikh Mohamud along with UN Under\\-Secretary for Political Affairs [Jeffrey D. Feltman](/wiki/Jeffrey_D._Feltman \"Jeffrey D. Feltman\"), and was attended by delegations from over 140 countries. According to Beyle, the federal officials took the opportunity to present the Somali government's priorities and successes. Mohamud indicated therein that the New Deal Compact was a Somali\\-led initiative, through which the Federal Government of Somalia developed legal frameworks, initiated state and political reform, re\\-structured key institutions, and established a foundation for allocating international development assistance toward the central authorities' priority areas. Additionally, Minister of Foreign Affairs of Egypt [Sameh Shoukry](/wiki/Sameh_Shoukry \"Sameh Shoukry\") reaffirmed his administration's support for Somalia's social and security sectors, and noted the Egyptian government's various political brokering efforts.{{cite news\\|title\\=Somalia: Donor summit underway in Denmark amid political deadlock\\|url\\=http://www.garoweonline.com/page/show/post/964/somalia\\-donor\\-summit\\-underway\\-in\\-denmark\\-amid\\-political\\-deadlock\\|accessdate\\=20 November 2014\\|agency\\=Garowe Online\\|date\\=19 November 2014}}{{cite news\\|title\\=SOMALIA: President’s delegation return to Mogadishu after attending the Copenhagen conference\\|url\\=http://www.raxanreeb.com/2014/11/somalia\\-presidents\\-delegation\\-return\\-to\\-mogadishu\\-after\\-attending\\-the\\-copenhagen\\-conference/\\|accessdate\\=21 November 2014\\|agency\\=Raxanreeb\\|date\\=21 November 2014\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141129022802/http://www.raxanreeb.com/2014/11/somalia\\-presidents\\-delegation\\-return\\-to\\-mogadishu\\-after\\-attending\\-the\\-copenhagen\\-conference/\\|archive\\-date\\=29 November 2014\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|df\\=dmy\\-all}}",
"#### Somalia\\-Yemen bilateral cooperation",
"In November 2014, Beyle met in [Sana'a](/wiki/Sana%27a \"Sana'a\") with the Foreign Minister of Yemen Abdalla Mohamed. According to the Consular of the Embassy of Somalia in Yemen Ahmed Sudani, the two ministers discussed various issues of bilateral interest, including Somali government ships stored in Yemen, maritime security and expatriates. Beyle also sought additional scholarship seats for Somali students so as to further develop the educational sector.{{cite news\\|title\\=Somalia: foreign affairs minister meets his Yemen counterpart in Sana’a\\|url\\=http://goobjoog.com/english/?p\\=6551\\|accessdate\\=24 November 2014\\|agency\\=Goobjoog\\|date\\=24 November 2014}} Additionally, Beyle held a meeting with the President of Yemen [Abd Rabbuh Mansur Hadi](/wiki/Abd_Rabbuh_Mansur_Hadi \"Abd Rabbuh Mansur Hadi\") and the newly appointed Prime Minister of Yemen, [Khaled Bahah](/wiki/Khaled_Bahah \"Khaled Bahah\"). The officials touched on various other bilateral matters, including strengthening cooperation in the trade, security and development sectors. Beyle likewise conferred with the Minister of Fisheries and paid a visit to the Sana'a Chamber of Commerce, where he met with Yemeni business leaders and gave a keynote speech.{{cite news\\|title\\=Yemen: Foreign Minister meets Yemen Prime minister in Sana’a\\|url\\=http://goobjoog.com/english/?p\\=6639\\|accessdate\\=27 November 2014\\|agency\\=Goobjoog\\|date\\=26 November 2014}}{{cite news\\|title\\=Somalia’s foreign Minister meets his Germany counterpart in Rome\\|url\\=http://goobjoog.com/english/?p\\=6676\\|accessdate\\=29 November 2014\\|agency\\=Goobjoog\\|date\\=29 November 2014}}",
"#### Somalia\\-Germany bilateral cooperation",
"In November 2014, Beyle traveled to [Rome](/wiki/Rome \"Rome\") to attend an international migration summit, where he met with the Foreign Minister of [Germany](/wiki/Germany \"Germany\"), [Frank\\-Walter Steinmeier](/wiki/Frank-Walter_Steinmeier \"Frank-Walter Steinmeier\"). The two officials discussed various bilateral issues, including diplomatic relations and cooperation between the governments of Somalia and Germany, as well as the Somali federal government's counterinsurgency operations. Additionally, Steinmeier emphasized the importance of solidarity and collaboration, and applauded the federal government's reconstruction and stabilization initiatives.",
"Beyle also discussed bilateral development cooperation in Nairobi with the Ambassador of Germany to Somalia, Andreas Peschke. Peschke reaffirmed the German government's commitment to Somalia's New Deal Compact initiative launched in 2013, when his administration pledged 95 million Euros for associated reconstruction projects. In parallel with the development initiatives, the Ambassador likewise stressed the importance of maintaining security and stabilization measures.{{cite news\\|title\\=SOMALIA: Foreign Minister meets with German Ambassador to Somalia in Nairobi\\|url\\=http://www.raxanreeb.com/2014/12/somalia\\-foreign\\-minister\\-meets\\-with\\-german\\-ambassador\\-to\\-somalia\\-in\\-nairobi/\\|accessdate\\=2 December 2014\\|agency\\=Raxanreeb\\|date\\=1 December 2014\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150318062737/http://www.raxanreeb.com/2014/12/somalia\\-foreign\\-minister\\-meets\\-with\\-german\\-ambassador\\-to\\-somalia\\-in\\-nairobi/\\|archive\\-date\\=18 March 2015\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|df\\=dmy\\-all}}",
"#### Somalia\\-Oman bilateral cooperation",
"In January 2015, Beyle met with the Omani Foreign Affairs Minister Yousuf bin Alawi bin Abdullah at his office in [Oman](/wiki/Oman \"Oman\"). Undersecretary for Diplomatic Affairs Ahmed bin Yousuf al Harthy also took part in the gathering. The officials discussed various political matters, including domestic, regional and international affairs. They also touched on existing bilateral ties between both nations and ways to further strengthen them.{{cite news\\|title\\=Minister Responsible for Foreign Affairs of Oman meets Somali counterpart\\|url\\=http://goobjoog.com/english/?p\\=8990\\|accessdate\\=19 January 2015\\|agency\\=Goobjoog\\|date\\=18 January 2015}}",
"#### Somalia\\-Turkey bilateral cooperation",
"In January 2015, Foreign Affairs Minister Beyle, President Hassan Sheikh Mohamud, and other senior Somali federal government officials received a large Turkish delegation led by newly elected President of Turkey [Recep Tayyip Erdoğan](/wiki/Recep_Tayyip_Erdo%C4%9Fan \"Recep Tayyip Erdoğan\") at the [Aden Adde International Airport](/wiki/Aden_Adde_International_Airport \"Aden Adde International Airport\") in Mogadishu. The delegates included various cabinet ministers and entrepreneurs.{{cite news\\|title\\=Press Release: Erdogan’s Somalia Visit\\|url\\=http://goobjoog.com/english/?p\\=9308\\|accessdate\\=26 January 2015\\|agency\\=Goobjoog\\|date\\=25 January 2015}}{{cite news\\|title\\=Turkey’s president pledges to construct 10 thousand new houses in Mogadishu\\|url\\=http://goobjoog.com/english/?p\\=9339\\|accessdate\\=26 January 2015\\|agency\\=Goobjoog\\|date\\=25 January 2015}} Mohamud and Erdoğan concurrently inaugurated a number of Turkish\\-built development projects in Somalia, including the Somalia\\-Turkey Education and Research Hospital in the capital and a new terminal at the Aden Adde International Airport. Beyle and the Turkish delegates in turn signed a bilateral treaty on new developmental projects that are scheduled to be implemented in Somalia. Among the agreements was a protocol stating that the new Digfer Hospital in Mogadishu would be jointly operated. The accord stipulates that the institution will be funded for its first five years by the Turkish Ministry of Health, which will likewise provide professional specialists. Per the protocol, the hospital will thereafter be fully managed by the Somalian authorities.{{cite news\\|title\\=Turkish president inaugurates hospital in Somalia\\|url\\=http://www.worldbulletin.net/servisler/haberYazdir/153747/haber\\|accessdate\\=25 January 2015\\|agency\\=World Bulletin\\|date\\=25 January 2015}} Further development agreements were signed pertaining to military and security cooperation, police support and coordination, marine transportation, youth and sports projects, and cooperation between [Somali National Television](/wiki/Somali_National_Television \"Somali National Television\") and the [Turkish National Radio](/wiki/Turkish_Radio_and_Television_Corporation \"Turkish Radio and Television Corporation\").",
"#### OIC embassy treaty",
"In February 2015, interim Foreign Affairs Minister Beyle signed a joint agreement with representatives of the [Organization of Islamic Cooperation](/wiki/Organization_of_Islamic_Cooperation \"Organization of Islamic Cooperation\") for the renovation of Somalia's various foreign embassies. According to Beyle, the accord encompasses a number of such state\\-owned premises, which require refurbishment. During the initiative's first phase, the OIC will conduct a survey of the infrastructure's general condition as well as the necessary expenditure.{{cite news\\|title\\=OIC signs to renovate Somali foreign embassies\\|url\\=http://goobjoog.com/english/?p\\=9708\\|accessdate\\=4 February 2015\\|agency\\=Goobjoog\\|date\\=2 February 2015}}",
"#### End of term",
"On 27 January 2015, Beyle's term as Minister of Foreign Affairs and International Cooperation of Somalia ended, when Prime Minister [Omar Abdirashid Ali Sharmarke](/wiki/Omar_Abdirashid_Ali_Sharmarke \"Omar Abdirashid Ali Sharmarke\") appointed a new Cabinet. He was succeeded in office by [Abdisalam Omer](/wiki/Abdisalam_Omer \"Abdisalam Omer\").{{cite news\\|title\\=Nominated Ministers and Their Clans\\|url\\=http://goobjoog.com/english/?p\\=9446\\|accessdate\\=28 January 2015\\|agency\\=Goobjoog\\|date\\=28 January 2015}}",
"On 14 February, Beyle's term as Foreign Minister formally ended at an official handover ceremony at the foreign ministry compound in Mogadishu. The event was attended by his successor Omer, new Deputy Prime Minister [Mohamed Omar Arte](/wiki/Mohamed_Omar_Arte \"Mohamed Omar Arte\"), and other senior federal government officials. Beyle therein noted his various accomplishments during his tenure, and enjoined the foreign ministry personnel to assist the incoming minister. Omer in turn commended Beyle for the latter's diplomatic work, and pledged to fulfill his own duties in accordance with the constitution.{{cite news\\|title\\=Former Foreign minister hands over office\\|url\\=http://goobjoog.com/english/?p\\=10242\\|accessdate\\=15 February 2015\\|agency\\=Goobjoog\\|date\\=14 February 2015\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archiveurl\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150215213549/http://goobjoog.com/english/?p\\=10242\\|archivedate\\=15 February 2015}}",
""
] |
Geography
---------
The states mining phosphate rock as of early 2016 were, in descending order of tonnage mined: Florida, North Carolina, Idaho, and Utah. In 2016, 65 percent of US phosphate was mined in Florida.
### Central Florida / Bone Valley / Florida Land\-Pebble
The [Bone Valley](/wiki/Bone_Valley "Bone Valley") mining district, also known as the Central Florida district, or the Florida Land\-Pebble district, is centered in [Polk County, Florida](/wiki/Polk_County%2C_Florida "Polk County, Florida"), and extends into [Hardee](/wiki/Hardee_County%2C_Florida "Hardee County, Florida"), [Hillsborough](/wiki/Hillsborough_County%2C_Florida "Hillsborough County, Florida"), and [Manatee](/wiki/Manatee_County%2C_Florida "Manatee County, Florida") counties. As of 2013, phosphate was being extracted from five mines in the district, all operated by Mosaic.[Phosphate production locations](http://www.mosaicco.com/Who_We_Are/locations_directory_locations_by_facility_type_phosphate_production.htm), Mosaic website, accessed 1 July 2016\.
### Florida Hard Rock
The Florida Hard Rock district mines phosphate from a belt up to {{convert\|30\|mi}} wide and {{convert\|150\|mi}} long, extending from Tallahassee on the west to Pasco County on the east. Phosphate deposits occur in [Bradford County](/wiki/Bradford_County%2C_Florida "Bradford County, Florida"), [Hamilton](/wiki/Hamilton_County%2C_Florida "Hamilton County, Florida"), and [Union](/wiki/Union_County%2C_Florida "Union County, Florida") counties.
One mine is currently operating in the Hard Rock district: The Swift Creek mine, operated by Nutrien Ltd, in [Hamilton County, Florida](/wiki/Hamilton_County%2C_Florida "Hamilton County, Florida").
### Beaufort County, North Carolina
The North Carolina phosphate deposit was discovered in 1955\.[NC mineral resources \- an overview](https://deq.nc.gov/about/divisions/energy-mineral-land-resources/north-carolina-geological-survey/mineral-resources/mineral-resources-faq), North Carolina Department of Environmental Quality, accessed 1 July 2016\. Phosphate is currently being extracted at the [Aurora mine](/wiki/Aurora_mine "Aurora mine"), operated by [Nutrien Ltd](/wiki/Nutrien "Nutrien").
### South Carolina
The first large\-scale phosphate mining in the US were in the vicinity of [Charleston, South Carolina](/wiki/Charleston%2C_South_Carolina "Charleston, South Carolina"), in [Charleston](/wiki/Charleston_County%2C_South_Carolina "Charleston County, South Carolina"), [Colleton](/wiki/Colleton_County%2C_South_Carolina "Colleton County, South Carolina"), and [Beaufort](/wiki/Beaufort_County%2C_South_Carolina "Beaufort County, South Carolina") counties. Mining started in 1868 and continued until 1938\.Kristin A. Shuler and Ralph Baily Jr., ["A History of the Phosphate Mining Industry in the Lowlands of South Carolina"](http://nationalregister.sc.gov/SurveyReports/hyphosphatesindustryLowcountry2SM.pdf), South Carolina State Historic Preservation Office, 2004\.
### Tennessee
Mining started in the central [Tennessee](/wiki/Tennessee "Tennessee") phosphate district in 1896\. Counties where mining took place included [Giles](/wiki/Giles_County%2C_Tennessee "Giles County, Tennessee"), [Hickman](/wiki/Hickman_County%2C_Tennessee "Hickman County, Tennessee"), [Maury](/wiki/Maury_County%2C_Tennessee "Maury County, Tennessee"), and [Williamson](/wiki/Williamson_County%2C_Tennessee "Williamson County, Tennessee"). The district has been inactive since 1991\.US Geological Survey, ["Phosphate"](http://digicoll.library.wisc.edu/cgi-bin/EcoNatRes/EcoNatRes-idx?type=turn&entity=EcoNatRes.MinYB1991v1.p1152&id=EcoNatRes.MinYB1991v1&isize=M), *Minerals Yearbook*, 1991\. It is regarded as largely exhausted.
### Western region, Phosphoria Formation
[thumb\|500px\|Phosphate mine near [Flaming Gorge, Utah](/wiki/Flaming_Gorge%2C_Utah "Flaming Gorge, Utah"), 2008](/wiki/File:Phosphate_Mine_Panorama.jpg "Phosphate Mine Panorama.jpg")
Parts of the [Phosphoria Formation](/wiki/Phosphoria_Formation "Phosphoria Formation") of the western United States carry economic grades of phosphorus. The Phosphoria has been mined in a wide area stretching north\-south from southwest [Montana](/wiki/Montana "Montana"), through western [Wyoming](/wiki/Wyoming "Wyoming") and southeast [Idaho](/wiki/Idaho "Idaho"), and into northeast [Utah](/wiki/Utah "Utah").["Phosphate mining on public lands in Idaho"](http://www.blm.gov/id/st/en/prog/energy___minerals/minerals/phosphate.html), US Bureau of Land Management, accessed 1 July 2016\.
There are currently four active mines in [Caribou County, Idaho](/wiki/Caribou_County%2C_Idaho "Caribou County, Idaho"), and one being permitted in [Bear Lake County, Idaho](/wiki/Bear_Lake_County%2C_Idaho "Bear Lake County, Idaho").
Phosphate rock from the JR Simplot mine near [Vernal, Utah](/wiki/Vernal%2C_Utah "Vernal, Utah"), is crushed at the mine, then transferred in a [slurry](/wiki/Slurry "Slurry") pipeline to the company's processing plant at [Rock Springs, Wyoming](/wiki/Rock_Springs%2C_Wyoming "Rock Springs, Wyoming").["Wyoming Geological Survey: Simplot facility could be the key to Wyoming phosphate"](http://sweetwaternow.com/wyoming-state-geological-survey-says-rock-springs-could-process-wyomings-phosphate-rock-reserves/), *Sweetwater Now*, 25 Nov. 2015\.["Phosphate"](http://utahrails.net/industries/phosphate.php), *Utah Raile*, accessed 1 July 2016\.
Phosphate rock was formerly mined in [Beaverhead](/wiki/Beaverhead_County%2C_Montana "Beaverhead County, Montana"), [Granite](/wiki/Granite_County%2C_Montana "Granite County, Montana"), [Powell](/wiki/Powell_County%2C_Montana "Powell County, Montana"), and [Silver Bow](/wiki/Silver_Bow_County%2C_Montana "Silver Bow County, Montana") counties in southwest Montana. The last operating phosphate mine in Montana, at [Garrison](/wiki/Garrison%2C_Montana "Garrison, Montana"), shut down in 1993\. Phosphate was also formerly mined in [Lincoln County, Wyoming](/wiki/Lincoln_County%2C_Wyoming "Lincoln County, Wyoming").
|
[
"Geography\n---------",
"The states mining phosphate rock as of early 2016 were, in descending order of tonnage mined: Florida, North Carolina, Idaho, and Utah. In 2016, 65 percent of US phosphate was mined in Florida.",
"### Central Florida / Bone Valley / Florida Land\\-Pebble",
"The [Bone Valley](/wiki/Bone_Valley \"Bone Valley\") mining district, also known as the Central Florida district, or the Florida Land\\-Pebble district, is centered in [Polk County, Florida](/wiki/Polk_County%2C_Florida \"Polk County, Florida\"), and extends into [Hardee](/wiki/Hardee_County%2C_Florida \"Hardee County, Florida\"), [Hillsborough](/wiki/Hillsborough_County%2C_Florida \"Hillsborough County, Florida\"), and [Manatee](/wiki/Manatee_County%2C_Florida \"Manatee County, Florida\") counties. As of 2013, phosphate was being extracted from five mines in the district, all operated by Mosaic.[Phosphate production locations](http://www.mosaicco.com/Who_We_Are/locations_directory_locations_by_facility_type_phosphate_production.htm), Mosaic website, accessed 1 July 2016\\.",
"### Florida Hard Rock",
"The Florida Hard Rock district mines phosphate from a belt up to {{convert\\|30\\|mi}} wide and {{convert\\|150\\|mi}} long, extending from Tallahassee on the west to Pasco County on the east. Phosphate deposits occur in [Bradford County](/wiki/Bradford_County%2C_Florida \"Bradford County, Florida\"), [Hamilton](/wiki/Hamilton_County%2C_Florida \"Hamilton County, Florida\"), and [Union](/wiki/Union_County%2C_Florida \"Union County, Florida\") counties.",
"One mine is currently operating in the Hard Rock district: The Swift Creek mine, operated by Nutrien Ltd, in [Hamilton County, Florida](/wiki/Hamilton_County%2C_Florida \"Hamilton County, Florida\").",
"### Beaufort County, North Carolina",
"The North Carolina phosphate deposit was discovered in 1955\\.[NC mineral resources \\- an overview](https://deq.nc.gov/about/divisions/energy-mineral-land-resources/north-carolina-geological-survey/mineral-resources/mineral-resources-faq), North Carolina Department of Environmental Quality, accessed 1 July 2016\\. Phosphate is currently being extracted at the [Aurora mine](/wiki/Aurora_mine \"Aurora mine\"), operated by [Nutrien Ltd](/wiki/Nutrien \"Nutrien\").",
"### South Carolina",
"The first large\\-scale phosphate mining in the US were in the vicinity of [Charleston, South Carolina](/wiki/Charleston%2C_South_Carolina \"Charleston, South Carolina\"), in [Charleston](/wiki/Charleston_County%2C_South_Carolina \"Charleston County, South Carolina\"), [Colleton](/wiki/Colleton_County%2C_South_Carolina \"Colleton County, South Carolina\"), and [Beaufort](/wiki/Beaufort_County%2C_South_Carolina \"Beaufort County, South Carolina\") counties. Mining started in 1868 and continued until 1938\\.Kristin A. Shuler and Ralph Baily Jr., [\"A History of the Phosphate Mining Industry in the Lowlands of South Carolina\"](http://nationalregister.sc.gov/SurveyReports/hyphosphatesindustryLowcountry2SM.pdf), South Carolina State Historic Preservation Office, 2004\\.",
"### Tennessee",
"Mining started in the central [Tennessee](/wiki/Tennessee \"Tennessee\") phosphate district in 1896\\. Counties where mining took place included [Giles](/wiki/Giles_County%2C_Tennessee \"Giles County, Tennessee\"), [Hickman](/wiki/Hickman_County%2C_Tennessee \"Hickman County, Tennessee\"), [Maury](/wiki/Maury_County%2C_Tennessee \"Maury County, Tennessee\"), and [Williamson](/wiki/Williamson_County%2C_Tennessee \"Williamson County, Tennessee\"). The district has been inactive since 1991\\.US Geological Survey, [\"Phosphate\"](http://digicoll.library.wisc.edu/cgi-bin/EcoNatRes/EcoNatRes-idx?type=turn&entity=EcoNatRes.MinYB1991v1.p1152&id=EcoNatRes.MinYB1991v1&isize=M), *Minerals Yearbook*, 1991\\. It is regarded as largely exhausted.",
"### Western region, Phosphoria Formation",
"[thumb\\|500px\\|Phosphate mine near [Flaming Gorge, Utah](/wiki/Flaming_Gorge%2C_Utah \"Flaming Gorge, Utah\"), 2008](/wiki/File:Phosphate_Mine_Panorama.jpg \"Phosphate Mine Panorama.jpg\")\nParts of the [Phosphoria Formation](/wiki/Phosphoria_Formation \"Phosphoria Formation\") of the western United States carry economic grades of phosphorus. The Phosphoria has been mined in a wide area stretching north\\-south from southwest [Montana](/wiki/Montana \"Montana\"), through western [Wyoming](/wiki/Wyoming \"Wyoming\") and southeast [Idaho](/wiki/Idaho \"Idaho\"), and into northeast [Utah](/wiki/Utah \"Utah\").[\"Phosphate mining on public lands in Idaho\"](http://www.blm.gov/id/st/en/prog/energy___minerals/minerals/phosphate.html), US Bureau of Land Management, accessed 1 July 2016\\.",
"There are currently four active mines in [Caribou County, Idaho](/wiki/Caribou_County%2C_Idaho \"Caribou County, Idaho\"), and one being permitted in [Bear Lake County, Idaho](/wiki/Bear_Lake_County%2C_Idaho \"Bear Lake County, Idaho\").",
"Phosphate rock from the JR Simplot mine near [Vernal, Utah](/wiki/Vernal%2C_Utah \"Vernal, Utah\"), is crushed at the mine, then transferred in a [slurry](/wiki/Slurry \"Slurry\") pipeline to the company's processing plant at [Rock Springs, Wyoming](/wiki/Rock_Springs%2C_Wyoming \"Rock Springs, Wyoming\").[\"Wyoming Geological Survey: Simplot facility could be the key to Wyoming phosphate\"](http://sweetwaternow.com/wyoming-state-geological-survey-says-rock-springs-could-process-wyomings-phosphate-rock-reserves/), *Sweetwater Now*, 25 Nov. 2015\\.[\"Phosphate\"](http://utahrails.net/industries/phosphate.php), *Utah Raile*, accessed 1 July 2016\\.",
"Phosphate rock was formerly mined in [Beaverhead](/wiki/Beaverhead_County%2C_Montana \"Beaverhead County, Montana\"), [Granite](/wiki/Granite_County%2C_Montana \"Granite County, Montana\"), [Powell](/wiki/Powell_County%2C_Montana \"Powell County, Montana\"), and [Silver Bow](/wiki/Silver_Bow_County%2C_Montana \"Silver Bow County, Montana\") counties in southwest Montana. The last operating phosphate mine in Montana, at [Garrison](/wiki/Garrison%2C_Montana \"Garrison, Montana\"), shut down in 1993\\. Phosphate was also formerly mined in [Lincoln County, Wyoming](/wiki/Lincoln_County%2C_Wyoming \"Lincoln County, Wyoming\").",
""
] |
Geology
-------
Although some [igneous rocks](/wiki/Igneous_rock "Igneous rock") have economic grades of phosphate, no igneous phosphate rock is mined in the US. Small amounts of phosphate were mined from igneous [apatite](/wiki/Apatite "Apatite") deposits in [Virginia](/wiki/Virginia "Virginia"), [New Jersey](/wiki/New_Jersey "New Jersey"), and [New York](/wiki/New_York_%28state%29 "New York (state)"). But since 1948, all phosphate deposits mined in the US have been [sedimentary](/wiki/Sedimentary_rock "Sedimentary rock") deposits. However, a small amount of phosphate was produced in the 1970s, as a byproduct of iron mining in [Missouri](/wiki/Missouri "Missouri").Waldemar M. Dressel and James A. Martin, "The mineral industry of Missouri," US Bureau of Mines, *Minerals Yearbook 1975*, v.2 p.444\.
Most phosphate mining is of sedimentary [phosphorite](/wiki/Phosphorite "Phosphorite"), a phosphorus\-rich deposit formed under shallow marine conditions. However, a number of US phosphate deposits occur where the original marine\-deposited phosphate minerals have been concentrated by weathering and redeposition, often under nonmarine conditions.
### Bone Valley, Florida
The largest source of US phosphate is the [Bone Valley](/wiki/Bone_Valley "Bone Valley"), or Central Florida mining district, which produces from the [Pliocene](/wiki/Pliocene "Pliocene")\-age [Bone Valley Formation](/wiki/Bone_Valley_Formation "Bone Valley Formation").V. E. McKelvey and others, ["Domestic Phosphate Deposits"](https://pubs.er.usgs.gov/publication/ofr53165), US Geological Survey, Open\-File Report 53\-165, 1953\.
### Florida Hard Rock
The Florida Hard Rock district mines phosphate from the [Alachua Formation](/wiki/Alachua_Formation "Alachua Formation") of Pliocene age. The Alachua Formation is nonmarine and consists of sediments rich in phosphate that was weathered from the Hawthorne Formation of [Miocene](/wiki/Miocene "Miocene") age.
### North Carolina
The North Carolina phosphate deposit occurs in the [Pungo River Formation](/wiki/Pungo_River_Formation "Pungo River Formation") of [Miocene](/wiki/Miocene "Miocene") age.["NC Mineral Resources \- An Overview"](https://deq.nc.gov/about/divisions/energy-mineral-land-resources/north-carolina-geological-survey/mineral-resources/mineral-resources-faq), North Carolina Department of Environmental Quality, accessed 1 July 2016\. The phosphate was deposited under shallow marine conditions.James A. Miller, ["Stratigraphy, structure and phosphate deposits of the Pungo River formation of North Carolina"](http://digital.ncdcr.gov/cdm/ref/collection/p16062coll9/id/13551), North Carolina Geological Survey, 1982\.
### South Carolina
The South Carolina river\-pebble deposits formed along modern rivers which reworked and concentrated lower\-grade phosphate deposits.
### Tennessee
Three classes of phosphate deposits have been mined in central Tennessee; in order of decreasing importance: brown phosphate rock, blue phosphate rock, and white phosphate rock.Frank K. Cameron, "Fertilizer Resources of the United States", US Dept. of Agriculture, 1912\.
The most important phosphate deposits were the so\-called brown phosphate rock, mined from [Ordovician](/wiki/Ordovician "Ordovician") [limestones](/wiki/Limestone "Limestone"), some parts of which are rich in phosphate. The highest\-grade deposits were found where weathering or shallow groundwater had preferentially dissolved away the [calcium carbonate](/wiki/Calcium_carbonate "Calcium carbonate"). The last mine in Tennessee, which produced phosphate rock from the Bigby\-Cannon formation, closed in 1991\.
The blue phosphate rock was found in the [Devonian](/wiki/Devonian "Devonian")\-age [Chattanooga Shale](/wiki/Chattanooga_Shale "Chattanooga Shale").
Minor phosphate production was mined from white phosphate rock, which formed in [karsted](/wiki/Karst "Karst") [Silurian](/wiki/Silurian "Silurian") limestones.
### Western US, Phosphoria
The western deposits, in Utah, Wyoming, Idaho, and Montana, are in the [Phosphoria Formation](/wiki/Phosphoria_Formation "Phosphoria Formation") of [Permian](/wiki/Permian "Permian") age. The phosphate deposits occur in two members of the Phosphoria: the Retort phosphatic shale member in the upper part of the formation, and the Meade Peak phosphatic shale member in the lower part of the formation.
### Northeast Utah Mississippian
Although not presently mined, phosphate deposits occur in the [Brazer limestone](/wiki/Brazer_Dolomite "Brazer Dolomite") of [Mississippian](/wiki/Mississippian_%28geology%29 "Mississippian (geology)") age in Utah.
|
[
"Geology\n-------",
"Although some [igneous rocks](/wiki/Igneous_rock \"Igneous rock\") have economic grades of phosphate, no igneous phosphate rock is mined in the US. Small amounts of phosphate were mined from igneous [apatite](/wiki/Apatite \"Apatite\") deposits in [Virginia](/wiki/Virginia \"Virginia\"), [New Jersey](/wiki/New_Jersey \"New Jersey\"), and [New York](/wiki/New_York_%28state%29 \"New York (state)\"). But since 1948, all phosphate deposits mined in the US have been [sedimentary](/wiki/Sedimentary_rock \"Sedimentary rock\") deposits. However, a small amount of phosphate was produced in the 1970s, as a byproduct of iron mining in [Missouri](/wiki/Missouri \"Missouri\").Waldemar M. Dressel and James A. Martin, \"The mineral industry of Missouri,\" US Bureau of Mines, *Minerals Yearbook 1975*, v.2 p.444\\.",
"Most phosphate mining is of sedimentary [phosphorite](/wiki/Phosphorite \"Phosphorite\"), a phosphorus\\-rich deposit formed under shallow marine conditions. However, a number of US phosphate deposits occur where the original marine\\-deposited phosphate minerals have been concentrated by weathering and redeposition, often under nonmarine conditions.",
"### Bone Valley, Florida",
"The largest source of US phosphate is the [Bone Valley](/wiki/Bone_Valley \"Bone Valley\"), or Central Florida mining district, which produces from the [Pliocene](/wiki/Pliocene \"Pliocene\")\\-age [Bone Valley Formation](/wiki/Bone_Valley_Formation \"Bone Valley Formation\").V. E. McKelvey and others, [\"Domestic Phosphate Deposits\"](https://pubs.er.usgs.gov/publication/ofr53165), US Geological Survey, Open\\-File Report 53\\-165, 1953\\.",
"### Florida Hard Rock",
"The Florida Hard Rock district mines phosphate from the [Alachua Formation](/wiki/Alachua_Formation \"Alachua Formation\") of Pliocene age. The Alachua Formation is nonmarine and consists of sediments rich in phosphate that was weathered from the Hawthorne Formation of [Miocene](/wiki/Miocene \"Miocene\") age.",
"### North Carolina",
"The North Carolina phosphate deposit occurs in the [Pungo River Formation](/wiki/Pungo_River_Formation \"Pungo River Formation\") of [Miocene](/wiki/Miocene \"Miocene\") age.[\"NC Mineral Resources \\- An Overview\"](https://deq.nc.gov/about/divisions/energy-mineral-land-resources/north-carolina-geological-survey/mineral-resources/mineral-resources-faq), North Carolina Department of Environmental Quality, accessed 1 July 2016\\. The phosphate was deposited under shallow marine conditions.James A. Miller, [\"Stratigraphy, structure and phosphate deposits of the Pungo River formation of North Carolina\"](http://digital.ncdcr.gov/cdm/ref/collection/p16062coll9/id/13551), North Carolina Geological Survey, 1982\\.",
"### South Carolina",
"The South Carolina river\\-pebble deposits formed along modern rivers which reworked and concentrated lower\\-grade phosphate deposits.",
"### Tennessee",
"Three classes of phosphate deposits have been mined in central Tennessee; in order of decreasing importance: brown phosphate rock, blue phosphate rock, and white phosphate rock.Frank K. Cameron, \"Fertilizer Resources of the United States\", US Dept. of Agriculture, 1912\\.",
"The most important phosphate deposits were the so\\-called brown phosphate rock, mined from [Ordovician](/wiki/Ordovician \"Ordovician\") [limestones](/wiki/Limestone \"Limestone\"), some parts of which are rich in phosphate. The highest\\-grade deposits were found where weathering or shallow groundwater had preferentially dissolved away the [calcium carbonate](/wiki/Calcium_carbonate \"Calcium carbonate\"). The last mine in Tennessee, which produced phosphate rock from the Bigby\\-Cannon formation, closed in 1991\\.",
"The blue phosphate rock was found in the [Devonian](/wiki/Devonian \"Devonian\")\\-age [Chattanooga Shale](/wiki/Chattanooga_Shale \"Chattanooga Shale\").",
"Minor phosphate production was mined from white phosphate rock, which formed in [karsted](/wiki/Karst \"Karst\") [Silurian](/wiki/Silurian \"Silurian\") limestones.",
"### Western US, Phosphoria",
"The western deposits, in Utah, Wyoming, Idaho, and Montana, are in the [Phosphoria Formation](/wiki/Phosphoria_Formation \"Phosphoria Formation\") of [Permian](/wiki/Permian \"Permian\") age. The phosphate deposits occur in two members of the Phosphoria: the Retort phosphatic shale member in the upper part of the formation, and the Meade Peak phosphatic shale member in the lower part of the formation.",
"### Northeast Utah Mississippian",
"Although not presently mined, phosphate deposits occur in the [Brazer limestone](/wiki/Brazer_Dolomite \"Brazer Dolomite\") of [Mississippian](/wiki/Mississippian_%28geology%29 \"Mississippian (geology)\") age in Utah.",
""
] |
Byproducts
----------
### Fluoride
Phosphorite typically contains more than 3% [fluoride](/wiki/Fluoride "Fluoride"), in the mineral [fluorapatite](/wiki/Fluorapatite "Fluorapatite"). Only a small amount is recovered.
In 2015, [fluorosilicic acid](/wiki/Fluorosilicic_acid "Fluorosilicic acid") equivalent to 114,000 tons of [fluorite](/wiki/Fluorite "Fluorite") (fluorspar) was produced as a byproduct of phosphate rock processing. This material represented nearly all the US production of fluoride, which is subsequently converted to fluorine. The produced fluorine is used to prepare polymers, pharmaceuticals, etc.
### Uranium
The phosphorite deposits of Florida and of the western states contain from 0\.005 to 0\.02 percent [uranium](/wiki/Uranium "Uranium"). Phosphorite deposits contain sufficient uranium to be an economic source when the
[price of uranium](/wiki/Uranium_market "Uranium market") is high.
Uranium was extracted at two phosphate plants in the central Florida district from 1952 to 1961, and at seven plants during the period 1976\-1998\. The average uranium recovery was about {{convert\|0\.9\|lbs}} [U3O8](/wiki/Triuranium_octoxide "Triuranium octoxide") per metric ton of P2O5.Sharon Squassoni and others, [Governing Uranium in the United States](https://books.google.com/books?id=gMQ0AwAAQBAJ&dq=uranium+phosphate+recovery&pg=PA16), Center for Strategic and International Studies, Lanham, UK, Mar. 2014\. However, uranium recovery is feasible only from the process that produces double superphosphate;{{why\|date\=April 2022}} most phosphate is processed into normal [superphosphate](/wiki/Superphosphate "Superphosphate"), a process not amenable to uranium recovery.["Production of Uranium as by\-product of phosphate fertilizer industry making steady progress"](http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/jf60004a615?journalCode=jafcau), *Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry*, May 1953, v.1 n.4 p.292\.
Although no uranium has been recovered from US phosphate plants since 1998, the Central Florida phosphate deposits remain North America's largest uranium resource, containing an estimated one million tons of uranium.Warren I. Finch (1996\) [*Uranium provinces of North America\-their definition, distribution, and models*](http://pubs.usgs.gov/bul/b2141/b2141.pdf), US Geological Survey, Bulletin 2141\.
### Vanadium
Some parts of the [Phosphoria Formation](/wiki/Phosphoria_Formation "Phosphoria Formation"), which is mined for phosphate in the western US, contain potentially economic concentrations of [vanadium](/wiki/Vanadium "Vanadium"). In 2008, Rocky Mountain Resources announced that they had defined 6\.7 million tons of ore containing 0\.88 percent V2O5, at its Paris Hills prospect. The vanadium occurred in an {{convert\|11\|ft\|m\|adj\=mid\|\-thick}} bed in the [Meade Peak shale member](/wiki/Meade_Peak_Formation "Meade Peak Formation") of the Phosphoria, immediately below a {{convert\|15\|ft\|adj\=on}} bed of ore\-grade phosphate rock.Rocky Mountain Resources Corp., "Rocky Mountain announces phosphate and vanadium project at Paris, Idaho," 3 Sept. 2008\. The property has since been sold to Stonegate Agricom, and as of mid\-2016 was still in permitting and development status.["Rocky Mountain to sell Paris Hills phosphate/vanadium property in Idaho"](http://www.proactiveinvestors.com/companies/news/71232/rocky-mountain-to-sell-paris-hills-phosphatevanadium-property-in-idaho-2671.html), *Proactive Investors*, 12 Oct. 2009\.
As of 2015, no vanadium was being recovered from US phosphate operations.["Vanadium"](http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/vanadium/mcs-2016-vanad.pdf), US Geological Survey, *Mineral Commodity Summary*, 2016\.
|
[
"Byproducts\n----------",
"### Fluoride",
"Phosphorite typically contains more than 3% [fluoride](/wiki/Fluoride \"Fluoride\"), in the mineral [fluorapatite](/wiki/Fluorapatite \"Fluorapatite\"). Only a small amount is recovered.",
"In 2015, [fluorosilicic acid](/wiki/Fluorosilicic_acid \"Fluorosilicic acid\") equivalent to 114,000 tons of [fluorite](/wiki/Fluorite \"Fluorite\") (fluorspar) was produced as a byproduct of phosphate rock processing. This material represented nearly all the US production of fluoride, which is subsequently converted to fluorine. The produced fluorine is used to prepare polymers, pharmaceuticals, etc.",
"### Uranium",
"The phosphorite deposits of Florida and of the western states contain from 0\\.005 to 0\\.02 percent [uranium](/wiki/Uranium \"Uranium\"). Phosphorite deposits contain sufficient uranium to be an economic source when the \n[price of uranium](/wiki/Uranium_market \"Uranium market\") is high.",
"Uranium was extracted at two phosphate plants in the central Florida district from 1952 to 1961, and at seven plants during the period 1976\\-1998\\. The average uranium recovery was about {{convert\\|0\\.9\\|lbs}} [U3O8](/wiki/Triuranium_octoxide \"Triuranium octoxide\") per metric ton of P2O5.Sharon Squassoni and others, [Governing Uranium in the United States](https://books.google.com/books?id=gMQ0AwAAQBAJ&dq=uranium+phosphate+recovery&pg=PA16), Center for Strategic and International Studies, Lanham, UK, Mar. 2014\\. However, uranium recovery is feasible only from the process that produces double superphosphate;{{why\\|date\\=April 2022}} most phosphate is processed into normal [superphosphate](/wiki/Superphosphate \"Superphosphate\"), a process not amenable to uranium recovery.[\"Production of Uranium as by\\-product of phosphate fertilizer industry making steady progress\"](http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/jf60004a615?journalCode=jafcau), *Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry*, May 1953, v.1 n.4 p.292\\.",
"Although no uranium has been recovered from US phosphate plants since 1998, the Central Florida phosphate deposits remain North America's largest uranium resource, containing an estimated one million tons of uranium.Warren I. Finch (1996\\) [*Uranium provinces of North America\\-their definition, distribution, and models*](http://pubs.usgs.gov/bul/b2141/b2141.pdf), US Geological Survey, Bulletin 2141\\.",
"### Vanadium",
"Some parts of the [Phosphoria Formation](/wiki/Phosphoria_Formation \"Phosphoria Formation\"), which is mined for phosphate in the western US, contain potentially economic concentrations of [vanadium](/wiki/Vanadium \"Vanadium\"). In 2008, Rocky Mountain Resources announced that they had defined 6\\.7 million tons of ore containing 0\\.88 percent V2O5, at its Paris Hills prospect. The vanadium occurred in an {{convert\\|11\\|ft\\|m\\|adj\\=mid\\|\\-thick}} bed in the [Meade Peak shale member](/wiki/Meade_Peak_Formation \"Meade Peak Formation\") of the Phosphoria, immediately below a {{convert\\|15\\|ft\\|adj\\=on}} bed of ore\\-grade phosphate rock.Rocky Mountain Resources Corp., \"Rocky Mountain announces phosphate and vanadium project at Paris, Idaho,\" 3 Sept. 2008\\. The property has since been sold to Stonegate Agricom, and as of mid\\-2016 was still in permitting and development status.[\"Rocky Mountain to sell Paris Hills phosphate/vanadium property in Idaho\"](http://www.proactiveinvestors.com/companies/news/71232/rocky-mountain-to-sell-paris-hills-phosphatevanadium-property-in-idaho-2671.html), *Proactive Investors*, 12 Oct. 2009\\.",
"As of 2015, no vanadium was being recovered from US phosphate operations.[\"Vanadium\"](http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/vanadium/mcs-2016-vanad.pdf), US Geological Survey, *Mineral Commodity Summary*, 2016\\.",
""
] |
Unicode
-------
In Unicode, **Meteg** and **Silluq** (when it occurs before punctuation [Sof passuk](/wiki/Sof_passuk "Sof passuk") at end of verses) are unified.
|Glyph
[Unicode](/wiki/Unicode "Unicode")[Unicode Character 'Hebrew Point Meteg' (U\+05BD)](https://www.fileformat.info/info/unicode/char/5BD/index.htm)
Name
| {{script/Hebrew\| ֽ}}
U\+05BD |
Hebrew Point Meteg |
Unicode also does not distinguish between the different placements of Meteg. And because Meteg has a distinctive combining class, its encoding order relative to other diacritics is not significant (because of canonical equivalence). Consequently, the Meteg may be freely reordered during [Unicode normalization](/wiki/Unicode_normalization "Unicode normalization") when it appears in sequences with other combining diacritics, without affecting its interpretation or rendering.
Where the relative placement of Meteg is significant and does not match the standard order of combining classes of Hebrew diacritics (where the Meteg should appear after Hebrew vowel points but before Hebrew cantillation marks in normalized texts), a [combining grapheme joiner](/wiki/Combining_grapheme_joiner "Combining grapheme joiner") (CGJ, U\+034F) should be added between Meteg and other diacritics before or after it, to fix its rendering placement and intended meaning.
In the most frequent use of Meteg, it should follow the vowel mark, but the canonical ordering of combining classes swaps them during standard normalizations: the canonical combining class of Meteg is 22, higher than the canonical combining classes 10 to 20 assigned to Hebrew vowel points; it is also higher than the canonical combining class 21 assigned to the combining [Dagesh](/wiki/Dagesh "Dagesh") (or Mapiq) consonant modifier, but this generally causes no problem.[Derived combining classes](https://www.unicode.org/Public/6.2.0/ucd/extracted/DerivedCombiningClass.txt) in the Unicode character database.
In the most frequent cases of use in modern Hebrew, the Meteg should only follow a vowel point and cantillation marks are not used; but in Biblical Hebrew it must sometimes be encoded with an additional CGJ after it before a vowel point, so that it remains interpreted first (and rendered to the right) before the niqqud after it (to the left); Meteg must also be preceded by a CGJ if it must appear after (to the left) a cantillation accent (whose combining class is 220 or more).
Additionally, the special placements of meteg with the three [hataf](/wiki/Hataf "Hataf") vowels (whose canonical combinal classes are between 11 and 13\) requires encoding it after the hataf vowel point, separated by a [zero\-width joiner](/wiki/Zero-width_joiner "Zero-width joiner") control (ZWJ, U\+200D) for the medial position (between the two parts of the hataf vowel), or by a [zero\-width non\-joiner](/wiki/Zero-width_non-joiner "Zero-width non-joiner") control (ZWNJ, U\+200C) for the final position (to the left of the hataf vowel); some encoded texts use CGJ instead of ZWNJ for the later case.
The three controls CGJ, ZWJ and ZWNJ (which have canonical combining class 0\) are all blocking the canonical reordering of meteg with vowels points, and only ZWJ is needed for the special placement of meteg (combining class) in the middle of an hataf vowel. But in the cases where the encoding of CGJ is optional but not needed, or for the case where ZWNJ is replaced by CGJ, the presence or absence of this CGJ control creates texts that are not visually distinctive, but they are still not canonically equivalent. This may create difficulties for plain\-text search, unless it uses a conforming [Unicode collation algorithm](/wiki/Unicode_collation_algorithm "Unicode collation algorithm") (UCA) with the appropriate tailoring for the Hebrew script, where these controls are assigned ignorable weights after the initial normalization.
|
[
"Unicode\n-------",
"In Unicode, **Meteg** and **Silluq** (when it occurs before punctuation [Sof passuk](/wiki/Sof_passuk \"Sof passuk\") at end of verses) are unified.",
"",
"|Glyph",
"[Unicode](/wiki/Unicode \"Unicode\")[Unicode Character 'Hebrew Point Meteg' (U\\+05BD)](https://www.fileformat.info/info/unicode/char/5BD/index.htm)",
"Name",
"| {{script/Hebrew\\| ֽ}}",
"U\\+05BD |\n Hebrew Point Meteg |",
"Unicode also does not distinguish between the different placements of Meteg. And because Meteg has a distinctive combining class, its encoding order relative to other diacritics is not significant (because of canonical equivalence). Consequently, the Meteg may be freely reordered during [Unicode normalization](/wiki/Unicode_normalization \"Unicode normalization\") when it appears in sequences with other combining diacritics, without affecting its interpretation or rendering.",
"Where the relative placement of Meteg is significant and does not match the standard order of combining classes of Hebrew diacritics (where the Meteg should appear after Hebrew vowel points but before Hebrew cantillation marks in normalized texts), a [combining grapheme joiner](/wiki/Combining_grapheme_joiner \"Combining grapheme joiner\") (CGJ, U\\+034F) should be added between Meteg and other diacritics before or after it, to fix its rendering placement and intended meaning.",
"In the most frequent use of Meteg, it should follow the vowel mark, but the canonical ordering of combining classes swaps them during standard normalizations: the canonical combining class of Meteg is 22, higher than the canonical combining classes 10 to 20 assigned to Hebrew vowel points; it is also higher than the canonical combining class 21 assigned to the combining [Dagesh](/wiki/Dagesh \"Dagesh\") (or Mapiq) consonant modifier, but this generally causes no problem.[Derived combining classes](https://www.unicode.org/Public/6.2.0/ucd/extracted/DerivedCombiningClass.txt) in the Unicode character database.",
"In the most frequent cases of use in modern Hebrew, the Meteg should only follow a vowel point and cantillation marks are not used; but in Biblical Hebrew it must sometimes be encoded with an additional CGJ after it before a vowel point, so that it remains interpreted first (and rendered to the right) before the niqqud after it (to the left); Meteg must also be preceded by a CGJ if it must appear after (to the left) a cantillation accent (whose combining class is 220 or more).",
"Additionally, the special placements of meteg with the three [hataf](/wiki/Hataf \"Hataf\") vowels (whose canonical combinal classes are between 11 and 13\\) requires encoding it after the hataf vowel point, separated by a [zero\\-width joiner](/wiki/Zero-width_joiner \"Zero-width joiner\") control (ZWJ, U\\+200D) for the medial position (between the two parts of the hataf vowel), or by a [zero\\-width non\\-joiner](/wiki/Zero-width_non-joiner \"Zero-width non-joiner\") control (ZWNJ, U\\+200C) for the final position (to the left of the hataf vowel); some encoded texts use CGJ instead of ZWNJ for the later case.",
"The three controls CGJ, ZWJ and ZWNJ (which have canonical combining class 0\\) are all blocking the canonical reordering of meteg with vowels points, and only ZWJ is needed for the special placement of meteg (combining class) in the middle of an hataf vowel. But in the cases where the encoding of CGJ is optional but not needed, or for the case where ZWNJ is replaced by CGJ, the presence or absence of this CGJ control creates texts that are not visually distinctive, but they are still not canonically equivalent. This may create difficulties for plain\\-text search, unless it uses a conforming [Unicode collation algorithm](/wiki/Unicode_collation_algorithm \"Unicode collation algorithm\") (UCA) with the appropriate tailoring for the Hebrew script, where these controls are assigned ignorable weights after the initial normalization.",
""
] |
Broadcasting career
-------------------
In 2000, Laurie co\-hosted *Enough Rope* on [3RRR](/wiki/3RRR "3RRR") with Josh Kinal.[Interview with](http://standanddeliver.blogs.com/dombo/andrew_denton/) [Andrew Denton](/wiki/Andrew_Denton "Andrew Denton") referencing the use of the "Enough Rope" name before his tv show This was a weekly programme about comedy that included the comedy tracks, a look at the comedy industry and interviews with numerous guests including: [Wil Anderson](/wiki/Wil_Anderson "Wil Anderson"), [Daniel Kitson](/wiki/Daniel_Kitson "Daniel Kitson"), [Simon Munnery](/wiki/Simon_Munnery "Simon Munnery"), [Rachel Berger](/wiki/Rachel_Berger "Rachel Berger"). Regular segments featured [Adam Richard](/wiki/Adam_Richard "Adam Richard") and Toby Sullivan. The show was controversially cancelled at the end of 2002\.
In 2004, Laurie hosted *Stand Up!*,{{cite web\|last\=Keough\|first\=Laurelle\|title\=Media Room \- Programming 2004 \|url\=http://www.abc.net.au/corp/pubs/media/s1039177\.htm\|work\=About the ABC\|publisher\=Australian Broadcasting Corporation}} a comedy show on ABC TV. She was also a regular on national variety show *[Rove Live](/wiki/Rove_%28TV_series%29 "Rove (TV series)")*.[Sydney Morning Herald review of Stand Up!](http://www.smh.com.au/articles/2004/03/16/1079199228052.html) Laurie has also appeared on *[The Glass House](/wiki/The_Glass_House_%282001_TV_series%29 "The Glass House (2001 TV series)")*, *[Spicks and Specks](/wiki/Spicks_and_Specks_%28TV_series%29 "Spicks and Specks (TV series)")*, *[Good News Week](/wiki/Good_News_Week "Good News Week")*, *[ADbc](/wiki/ADbc "ADbc")*,<http://www.sbs.com.au/adbc/> SBS website for ADbc *[The Circle](/wiki/The_Circle_%28TV_program%29 "The Circle (TV program)")*, *[Studio 10](/wiki/Studio_10 "Studio 10")*, *[The Project](/wiki/The_Project_%28Australian_TV_program%29 "The Project (Australian TV program)")* and *[Hughesy, We Have a Problem](/wiki/Hughesy%2C_We_Have_a_Problem "Hughesy, We Have a Problem")*.
In 2005, Laurie joined [Nova 106\.9](/wiki/Nova_106.9 "Nova 106.9") in Brisbane as a founding breakfast presenter on *Meshel, [Ash, Kip and Luttsy](/wiki/Ash%2C_Kip_and_Luttsy "Ash, Kip and Luttsy")* \- it became the highest rating breakfast show in Brisbane. Over the years Ash, Kip and Luttsy resigned with other presenters joining Laurie including Tim Blackwell and [Marty Sheargold](/wiki/Marty_Sheargold "Marty Sheargold"). *[Meshel, Tim and Marty](/wiki/Meshel%2C_Tim_and_Marty "Meshel, Tim and Marty")* remained in breakfast until August 2011 when the show was moved to Melbourne to broadcast live nationally on Drive on [Nova FM](/wiki/Nova_%28radio_network%29 "Nova (radio network)").[Brisbane Courier Mail](http://www.news.com.au/couriermail/story/0,23739,21899110-7642,00.html)
In 2013, Laurie co\-hosted *[This Week Live](/wiki/This_Week_Live "This Week Live")*, alongside [Dave Thornton](/wiki/Dave_Thornton "Dave Thornton"), [Tommy Little](/wiki/Tommy_Little_%28comedian%29 "Tommy Little (comedian)") and [Tom Gleeson](/wiki/Tom_Gleeson "Tom Gleeson").
In October 2013, [Nova 100](/wiki/Nova_100 "Nova 100") announced that she would join Tommy Little to host *[Meshel \& Tommy](/wiki/Meshel_%26_Tommy "Meshel & Tommy")* replacing *[Hughesy \& Kate](/wiki/Hughesy_%26_Kate "Hughesy & Kate")*. The show started in December 2013\. In January 2014, Laurie was replaced by [Kate Ritchie](/wiki/Kate_Ritchie "Kate Ritchie") on drive joining Tim Blackwell and Marty Sheargold. In October 2015, Meshel announced that she would be leaving Nova 100 at the end of the year to host *Matt \& Meshel* on [KIIS 101\.1](/wiki/KIIS_101.1 "KIIS 101.1") with [Matt Tilley](/wiki/Matt_Tilley "Matt Tilley"). She also hosted the [3PM Pick\-Up](/wiki/3PM_Pick-Up "3PM Pick-Up") with Katie 'Monty' Dimond on the [KIIS Network](/wiki/KIIS_Network "KIIS Network").{{Cite web\|title \= Meshel \& Monty: 3pm Pick\-Up\|url \= http://www.radiotoday.com.au/news/whats\-new/8167\-meshel\-monty\-3pm\-pick\-up.html\|website \= Radio Today\| date\=10 December 2015 \|access\-date \= 2015\-12\-12}} In October 2017 Australian Radio Network announced that *Matt \& Meshel* would not be renewed in 2018\.
In 2015, Laurie began an interview podcast called *Nitty Gritty Committee*. In November 2016, in conjunction with author and journalist Emily Webb, she began producing and hosting *Australian True Crime Podcast*.{{Cite web\|title\=Australian True Crime \- When Meshel Met Emily \- \#83 on Stitcher\|url\=https://www.stitcher.com/show/undefined/episode/when\-meshel\-met\-emily\-83\-57683167\|access\-date\=2021\-01\-22\|website\=Stitcher}} In September 2018, she travelled to South Sudan for a season 4 episode of SBS's *[Go Back To Where You Came From](/wiki/Go_Back_to_Where_You_Came_From "Go Back to Where You Came From")*.
In January 2021, Laurie returned to radio hosting Breakfast with Adam Straney and Damien Leith on Wave FM in Wollongong whilst Jade Tonta is on maternity leave. A book, *CSI Told You Lies:Giving victims a voice through forensics*, was published by Laurie in August 2021\.{{Cite web \|title\=CSI Told You Lies by Meshel Laurie \|url\=https://www.penguin.com.au/books/csi\-told\-you\-lies\-9781760898007 \|access\-date\=2022\-08\-01 \|website\=www.penguin.com.au \|language\=en}}
|
[
"Broadcasting career\n-------------------",
"In 2000, Laurie co\\-hosted *Enough Rope* on [3RRR](/wiki/3RRR \"3RRR\") with Josh Kinal.[Interview with](http://standanddeliver.blogs.com/dombo/andrew_denton/) [Andrew Denton](/wiki/Andrew_Denton \"Andrew Denton\") referencing the use of the \"Enough Rope\" name before his tv show This was a weekly programme about comedy that included the comedy tracks, a look at the comedy industry and interviews with numerous guests including: [Wil Anderson](/wiki/Wil_Anderson \"Wil Anderson\"), [Daniel Kitson](/wiki/Daniel_Kitson \"Daniel Kitson\"), [Simon Munnery](/wiki/Simon_Munnery \"Simon Munnery\"), [Rachel Berger](/wiki/Rachel_Berger \"Rachel Berger\"). Regular segments featured [Adam Richard](/wiki/Adam_Richard \"Adam Richard\") and Toby Sullivan. The show was controversially cancelled at the end of 2002\\.",
"In 2004, Laurie hosted *Stand Up!*,{{cite web\\|last\\=Keough\\|first\\=Laurelle\\|title\\=Media Room \\- Programming 2004 \\|url\\=http://www.abc.net.au/corp/pubs/media/s1039177\\.htm\\|work\\=About the ABC\\|publisher\\=Australian Broadcasting Corporation}} a comedy show on ABC TV. She was also a regular on national variety show *[Rove Live](/wiki/Rove_%28TV_series%29 \"Rove (TV series)\")*.[Sydney Morning Herald review of Stand Up!](http://www.smh.com.au/articles/2004/03/16/1079199228052.html) Laurie has also appeared on *[The Glass House](/wiki/The_Glass_House_%282001_TV_series%29 \"The Glass House (2001 TV series)\")*, *[Spicks and Specks](/wiki/Spicks_and_Specks_%28TV_series%29 \"Spicks and Specks (TV series)\")*, *[Good News Week](/wiki/Good_News_Week \"Good News Week\")*, *[ADbc](/wiki/ADbc \"ADbc\")*,<http://www.sbs.com.au/adbc/> SBS website for ADbc *[The Circle](/wiki/The_Circle_%28TV_program%29 \"The Circle (TV program)\")*, *[Studio 10](/wiki/Studio_10 \"Studio 10\")*, *[The Project](/wiki/The_Project_%28Australian_TV_program%29 \"The Project (Australian TV program)\")* and *[Hughesy, We Have a Problem](/wiki/Hughesy%2C_We_Have_a_Problem \"Hughesy, We Have a Problem\")*.",
"In 2005, Laurie joined [Nova 106\\.9](/wiki/Nova_106.9 \"Nova 106.9\") in Brisbane as a founding breakfast presenter on *Meshel, [Ash, Kip and Luttsy](/wiki/Ash%2C_Kip_and_Luttsy \"Ash, Kip and Luttsy\")* \\- it became the highest rating breakfast show in Brisbane. Over the years Ash, Kip and Luttsy resigned with other presenters joining Laurie including Tim Blackwell and [Marty Sheargold](/wiki/Marty_Sheargold \"Marty Sheargold\"). *[Meshel, Tim and Marty](/wiki/Meshel%2C_Tim_and_Marty \"Meshel, Tim and Marty\")* remained in breakfast until August 2011 when the show was moved to Melbourne to broadcast live nationally on Drive on [Nova FM](/wiki/Nova_%28radio_network%29 \"Nova (radio network)\").[Brisbane Courier Mail](http://www.news.com.au/couriermail/story/0,23739,21899110-7642,00.html)",
"In 2013, Laurie co\\-hosted *[This Week Live](/wiki/This_Week_Live \"This Week Live\")*, alongside [Dave Thornton](/wiki/Dave_Thornton \"Dave Thornton\"), [Tommy Little](/wiki/Tommy_Little_%28comedian%29 \"Tommy Little (comedian)\") and [Tom Gleeson](/wiki/Tom_Gleeson \"Tom Gleeson\").",
"In October 2013, [Nova 100](/wiki/Nova_100 \"Nova 100\") announced that she would join Tommy Little to host *[Meshel \\& Tommy](/wiki/Meshel_%26_Tommy \"Meshel & Tommy\")* replacing *[Hughesy \\& Kate](/wiki/Hughesy_%26_Kate \"Hughesy & Kate\")*. The show started in December 2013\\. In January 2014, Laurie was replaced by [Kate Ritchie](/wiki/Kate_Ritchie \"Kate Ritchie\") on drive joining Tim Blackwell and Marty Sheargold. In October 2015, Meshel announced that she would be leaving Nova 100 at the end of the year to host *Matt \\& Meshel* on [KIIS 101\\.1](/wiki/KIIS_101.1 \"KIIS 101.1\") with [Matt Tilley](/wiki/Matt_Tilley \"Matt Tilley\"). She also hosted the [3PM Pick\\-Up](/wiki/3PM_Pick-Up \"3PM Pick-Up\") with Katie 'Monty' Dimond on the [KIIS Network](/wiki/KIIS_Network \"KIIS Network\").{{Cite web\\|title \\= Meshel \\& Monty: 3pm Pick\\-Up\\|url \\= http://www.radiotoday.com.au/news/whats\\-new/8167\\-meshel\\-monty\\-3pm\\-pick\\-up.html\\|website \\= Radio Today\\| date\\=10 December 2015 \\|access\\-date \\= 2015\\-12\\-12}} In October 2017 Australian Radio Network announced that *Matt \\& Meshel* would not be renewed in 2018\\.",
"In 2015, Laurie began an interview podcast called *Nitty Gritty Committee*. In November 2016, in conjunction with author and journalist Emily Webb, she began producing and hosting *Australian True Crime Podcast*.{{Cite web\\|title\\=Australian True Crime \\- When Meshel Met Emily \\- \\#83 on Stitcher\\|url\\=https://www.stitcher.com/show/undefined/episode/when\\-meshel\\-met\\-emily\\-83\\-57683167\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-01\\-22\\|website\\=Stitcher}} In September 2018, she travelled to South Sudan for a season 4 episode of SBS's *[Go Back To Where You Came From](/wiki/Go_Back_to_Where_You_Came_From \"Go Back to Where You Came From\")*.",
"In January 2021, Laurie returned to radio hosting Breakfast with Adam Straney and Damien Leith on Wave FM in Wollongong whilst Jade Tonta is on maternity leave. A book, *CSI Told You Lies:Giving victims a voice through forensics*, was published by Laurie in August 2021\\.{{Cite web \\|title\\=CSI Told You Lies by Meshel Laurie \\|url\\=https://www.penguin.com.au/books/csi\\-told\\-you\\-lies\\-9781760898007 \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-08\\-01 \\|website\\=www.penguin.com.au \\|language\\=en}}",
""
] |
Biography
---------
### Education
Barnick was born in 1917 in Max, North Dakota. His parent were John and Stacy(Kankovsky)Barnick, both Russian immigrants. In 1934, he graduated from Max High School and entered [North Dakota State College](/wiki/North_Dakota_State_College "North Dakota State College"). There he received a Bachelor of Science degree in mathematics and chemistry in June 1938\.
Upon graduation from college, he joined the [United States Army Air Corps](/wiki/United_States_Army_Air_Corps "United States Army Air Corps") as an aviation cadet. He was awarded [pilot's wings](/wiki/Pilot%27s_wings "Pilot's wings") and commissioned a second lieutenant in 1939 at Kelly Field, Texas.
### Early career and World War II
His first assignment after Kelly was the Philippine Islands. In Manila, he commanded the Headquarters Squadron, [Far East Air Service Command](/wiki/Far_East_Air_Service_Command "Far East Air Service Command"). After the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, he took his squadron to Bataan. When Bataan fell, Barnick flew General [Carlos Romulo](/wiki/Carlos_Romulo "Carlos Romulo") to safety in Mindanao aboard the last plane to leave. For this feat, he was awarded the Silver Star.
Following the fall of Bataan, Barnick continued to serve in the Southwest Pacific and was soon promoted to captain. In May 1942, he returned to the United States to command a B\-17 squadron in Boise, Idaho. Shortly thereafter he was assigned as commander of a B\-17 provisional group, training for combat duty. The B\-17 group deployed to England under his command. Upon return to the United States, he was appointed commander of a B\-24 training group at Tonopah, Nevada. During this assignment, he was promoted to lieutenant colonel and became deputy commander of a B\-29 group. Later, as the commander of the B\-29 group, he went to the Southwest Pacific and led his unit in bombardment activities against the Japanese homeland. Barnick was awarded the Bronze Star for his service during this period.
### After World War II
At the end of World War II, he served in Japan with a troop carrier group flying C\-54 aircraft. Following duty in Japan, he became professor of air science at the [University of Wyoming](/wiki/University_of_Wyoming "University of Wyoming"), where he remained until 1950\. On July 3, he was promoted to colonel.
When the [Korean War](/wiki/Korean_War "Korean War") began, Barnick was assigned to Headquarters [Continental Air Command](/wiki/Continental_Air_Command "Continental Air Command") at [Mitchel Air Force Base](/wiki/Mitchel_Air_Force_Base "Mitchel Air Force Base"), New York, as chief of the Mobilization Branch. In this capacity, he was responsible for the mobilization of a large number of Air Force reservists who served in the Korean War.
In 1953, he was appointed director of military personnel for [U.S. Air Forces in Europe](/wiki/U.S._Air_Forces_in_Europe "U.S. Air Forces in Europe") at Wiesbaden, Germany. After three years in this assignment, Barnick was selected to attend the Industrial College of the Armed Forces, in Washington, D.C., for a year.
### 63rd Troop Carrier Group
Barnick was assigned as commander of the 63rd Troop Carrier Group at [Donaldson Air Force Base](/wiki/Donaldson_Air_Force_Base "Donaldson Air Force Base"), S.C. in June 1957, after completing studies at the [Industrial College of the Armed Forces](/wiki/Industrial_College_of_the_Armed_Forces "Industrial College of the Armed Forces"). His group executed many successful missions of international significance. History was made at the South Pole when unprecedented paradrops of supplies and equipment were completed to the American Scientific Station. During the Lebanon crisis in 1958, his Task Force airlifted military units and equipment to the troubled area to help preserve the peace. His aircraft and crews established records throughout the world by moving tons of cargo and passengers on short notice in support of national policy.
After two and one\-half years as commander of the 63rd Troop Carrier Group, he was assigned to Headquarters [Military Air Transport Service](/wiki/Military_Air_Transport_Service "Military Air Transport Service") as inspector general. He served in this capacity from June 1960 until July 1961, when he was appointed chief of staff of the Military Air Transport Service.
Reassigned to Donaldson in September 1961, Barnick became commander of the 63rd Troop Carrier Wing. The organization was moved from Donaldson Air Force Base, S.C., to [Hunter Air Force Base](/wiki/Hunter_Air_Force_Base "Hunter Air Force Base"), Georgia. in April 1963\. During the period of this movement, Barnick's organization maintained normally heavy commitments, even though operating from two separate bases. He assumed this position in June 1964\.
Following his assignment to McGuire, Barnick was nominated for promotion to brigadier general by President [Lyndon B. Johnson](/wiki/Lyndon_B._Johnson "Lyndon B. Johnson") in August 1964\. On Sept. 16, the promotion became effective.
On 1 August 1967, he retired from active service as a general and command pilot, having logged more than 5,000 hours.
|
[
"Biography\n---------",
"### Education",
"Barnick was born in 1917 in Max, North Dakota. His parent were John and Stacy(Kankovsky)Barnick, both Russian immigrants. In 1934, he graduated from Max High School and entered [North Dakota State College](/wiki/North_Dakota_State_College \"North Dakota State College\"). There he received a Bachelor of Science degree in mathematics and chemistry in June 1938\\.",
"Upon graduation from college, he joined the [United States Army Air Corps](/wiki/United_States_Army_Air_Corps \"United States Army Air Corps\") as an aviation cadet. He was awarded [pilot's wings](/wiki/Pilot%27s_wings \"Pilot's wings\") and commissioned a second lieutenant in 1939 at Kelly Field, Texas.",
"### Early career and World War II",
"His first assignment after Kelly was the Philippine Islands. In Manila, he commanded the Headquarters Squadron, [Far East Air Service Command](/wiki/Far_East_Air_Service_Command \"Far East Air Service Command\"). After the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, he took his squadron to Bataan. When Bataan fell, Barnick flew General [Carlos Romulo](/wiki/Carlos_Romulo \"Carlos Romulo\") to safety in Mindanao aboard the last plane to leave. For this feat, he was awarded the Silver Star.",
"Following the fall of Bataan, Barnick continued to serve in the Southwest Pacific and was soon promoted to captain. In May 1942, he returned to the United States to command a B\\-17 squadron in Boise, Idaho. Shortly thereafter he was assigned as commander of a B\\-17 provisional group, training for combat duty. The B\\-17 group deployed to England under his command. Upon return to the United States, he was appointed commander of a B\\-24 training group at Tonopah, Nevada. During this assignment, he was promoted to lieutenant colonel and became deputy commander of a B\\-29 group. Later, as the commander of the B\\-29 group, he went to the Southwest Pacific and led his unit in bombardment activities against the Japanese homeland. Barnick was awarded the Bronze Star for his service during this period.",
"### After World War II",
"At the end of World War II, he served in Japan with a troop carrier group flying C\\-54 aircraft. Following duty in Japan, he became professor of air science at the [University of Wyoming](/wiki/University_of_Wyoming \"University of Wyoming\"), where he remained until 1950\\. On July 3, he was promoted to colonel.",
"When the [Korean War](/wiki/Korean_War \"Korean War\") began, Barnick was assigned to Headquarters [Continental Air Command](/wiki/Continental_Air_Command \"Continental Air Command\") at [Mitchel Air Force Base](/wiki/Mitchel_Air_Force_Base \"Mitchel Air Force Base\"), New York, as chief of the Mobilization Branch. In this capacity, he was responsible for the mobilization of a large number of Air Force reservists who served in the Korean War.",
"In 1953, he was appointed director of military personnel for [U.S. Air Forces in Europe](/wiki/U.S._Air_Forces_in_Europe \"U.S. Air Forces in Europe\") at Wiesbaden, Germany. After three years in this assignment, Barnick was selected to attend the Industrial College of the Armed Forces, in Washington, D.C., for a year.",
"### 63rd Troop Carrier Group",
"Barnick was assigned as commander of the 63rd Troop Carrier Group at [Donaldson Air Force Base](/wiki/Donaldson_Air_Force_Base \"Donaldson Air Force Base\"), S.C. in June 1957, after completing studies at the [Industrial College of the Armed Forces](/wiki/Industrial_College_of_the_Armed_Forces \"Industrial College of the Armed Forces\"). His group executed many successful missions of international significance. History was made at the South Pole when unprecedented paradrops of supplies and equipment were completed to the American Scientific Station. During the Lebanon crisis in 1958, his Task Force airlifted military units and equipment to the troubled area to help preserve the peace. His aircraft and crews established records throughout the world by moving tons of cargo and passengers on short notice in support of national policy.",
"After two and one\\-half years as commander of the 63rd Troop Carrier Group, he was assigned to Headquarters [Military Air Transport Service](/wiki/Military_Air_Transport_Service \"Military Air Transport Service\") as inspector general. He served in this capacity from June 1960 until July 1961, when he was appointed chief of staff of the Military Air Transport Service.",
"Reassigned to Donaldson in September 1961, Barnick became commander of the 63rd Troop Carrier Wing. The organization was moved from Donaldson Air Force Base, S.C., to [Hunter Air Force Base](/wiki/Hunter_Air_Force_Base \"Hunter Air Force Base\"), Georgia. in April 1963\\. During the period of this movement, Barnick's organization maintained normally heavy commitments, even though operating from two separate bases. He assumed this position in June 1964\\.",
"Following his assignment to McGuire, Barnick was nominated for promotion to brigadier general by President [Lyndon B. Johnson](/wiki/Lyndon_B._Johnson \"Lyndon B. Johnson\") in August 1964\\. On Sept. 16, the promotion became effective.",
"On 1 August 1967, he retired from active service as a general and command pilot, having logged more than 5,000 hours.",
""
] |
### 63rd Troop Carrier Group
Barnick was assigned as commander of the 63rd Troop Carrier Group at [Donaldson Air Force Base](/wiki/Donaldson_Air_Force_Base "Donaldson Air Force Base"), S.C. in June 1957, after completing studies at the [Industrial College of the Armed Forces](/wiki/Industrial_College_of_the_Armed_Forces "Industrial College of the Armed Forces"). His group executed many successful missions of international significance. History was made at the South Pole when unprecedented paradrops of supplies and equipment were completed to the American Scientific Station. During the Lebanon crisis in 1958, his Task Force airlifted military units and equipment to the troubled area to help preserve the peace. His aircraft and crews established records throughout the world by moving tons of cargo and passengers on short notice in support of national policy.
After two and one\-half years as commander of the 63rd Troop Carrier Group, he was assigned to Headquarters [Military Air Transport Service](/wiki/Military_Air_Transport_Service "Military Air Transport Service") as inspector general. He served in this capacity from June 1960 until July 1961, when he was appointed chief of staff of the Military Air Transport Service.
Reassigned to Donaldson in September 1961, Barnick became commander of the 63rd Troop Carrier Wing. The organization was moved from Donaldson Air Force Base, S.C., to [Hunter Air Force Base](/wiki/Hunter_Air_Force_Base "Hunter Air Force Base"), Georgia. in April 1963\. During the period of this movement, Barnick's organization maintained normally heavy commitments, even though operating from two separate bases. He assumed this position in June 1964\.
Following his assignment to McGuire, Barnick was nominated for promotion to brigadier general by President [Lyndon B. Johnson](/wiki/Lyndon_B._Johnson "Lyndon B. Johnson") in August 1964\. On Sept. 16, the promotion became effective.
On 1 August 1967, he retired from active service as a general and command pilot, having logged more than 5,000 hours.
|
[
"### 63rd Troop Carrier Group",
"Barnick was assigned as commander of the 63rd Troop Carrier Group at [Donaldson Air Force Base](/wiki/Donaldson_Air_Force_Base \"Donaldson Air Force Base\"), S.C. in June 1957, after completing studies at the [Industrial College of the Armed Forces](/wiki/Industrial_College_of_the_Armed_Forces \"Industrial College of the Armed Forces\"). His group executed many successful missions of international significance. History was made at the South Pole when unprecedented paradrops of supplies and equipment were completed to the American Scientific Station. During the Lebanon crisis in 1958, his Task Force airlifted military units and equipment to the troubled area to help preserve the peace. His aircraft and crews established records throughout the world by moving tons of cargo and passengers on short notice in support of national policy.",
"After two and one\\-half years as commander of the 63rd Troop Carrier Group, he was assigned to Headquarters [Military Air Transport Service](/wiki/Military_Air_Transport_Service \"Military Air Transport Service\") as inspector general. He served in this capacity from June 1960 until July 1961, when he was appointed chief of staff of the Military Air Transport Service.",
"Reassigned to Donaldson in September 1961, Barnick became commander of the 63rd Troop Carrier Wing. The organization was moved from Donaldson Air Force Base, S.C., to [Hunter Air Force Base](/wiki/Hunter_Air_Force_Base \"Hunter Air Force Base\"), Georgia. in April 1963\\. During the period of this movement, Barnick's organization maintained normally heavy commitments, even though operating from two separate bases. He assumed this position in June 1964\\.",
"Following his assignment to McGuire, Barnick was nominated for promotion to brigadier general by President [Lyndon B. Johnson](/wiki/Lyndon_B._Johnson \"Lyndon B. Johnson\") in August 1964\\. On Sept. 16, the promotion became effective.",
"On 1 August 1967, he retired from active service as a general and command pilot, having logged more than 5,000 hours.",
""
] |
History
-------
[thumb\|left\|The F Street House with the headquarters of the [International Monetary Fund](/wiki/International_Monetary_Fund "International Monetary Fund") (IMF) behind it.](/wiki/File:1925_F_Street_President%27s_Residence_GWU.JPG "1925 F Street President's Residence GWU.JPG")
[thumb\|left\|The mansion, circa 1865\.](/wiki/File:Clerks_in_front_of_office_of_Commissary_General_of_Prisoners_03858v_%28cropped%29.jpg "Clerks in front of office of Commissary General of Prisoners 03858v (cropped).jpg")
The [Greek Revival](/wiki/Greek_Revival "Greek Revival") building was constructed for U.S. Navy Captain [Alexander Ray](/wiki/Alexander_Ray_%28U.S._Navy_officer%29 "Alexander Ray (U.S. Navy officer)") (1799–1878\) in 1849\.
It was purchased by [American University](/wiki/American_University "American University") in 1920 and served as the "Downtown Campus" for many years.[Downtown campus : 20th and F Streets (1921\)](http://www.aladin.wrlc.org/gsdl/cgi-bin/library?e=d-00000-00---off-0auhist--00-1--0-10-0---0---0prompt-10---4-------0-1l--11-en-600---20-home---01-3-1-00-0-0-11-0-0utfZz-8-00&a=d&c=auhist&cl=CL2.1.22&d=HASH4af6e8ee0185d0007baa2e)
Laura Curtis, wife of New York lawyer James Freeman Curtis, rented the home in the 1920s.{{Cite web \|url\=http://neighborhood.gwu.edu/campusdev/docs/1925%20F%20St/FINAL\_F%20St.pdf \|title\=1925 F Street, NW, A Rich History and Tradition in Washington, D.C. \|access\-date\=2007\-11\-15 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100612212528/http://www.neighborhood.gwu.edu/campusdev/docs/1925%20F%20St/FINAL\_F%20St.pdf \|archive\-date\=2010\-06\-12 \|url\-status\=dead }}
In 1935, the 1925 F Street Club, Inc. purchased the property and operated a private members' club from the building, started by Laura M. Gross.
{{ cite web
\| title \= Paid Notice: Deaths CURTIS, LAURA E.
\| url \= https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res\=9E03E2DF1E3FF937A25753C1A9659C8B63\&sec\=\&spon\=
\| work \= New York Times
\| access\-date \= 2007\-11\-15
\| date \= 2003\-10\-13 }}{{cite web
\|title \= 1925 F Street, NW
\|url \= http://neighborhood.gwu.edu/campusdev/docs/1925%20F%20St/FINAL\_F%20St.pdf
\|access\-date \= 2007\-11\-15
\|publisher \= George Washington University
\|archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20100612212528/http://www.neighborhood.gwu.edu/campusdev/docs/1925%20F%20St/FINAL\_F%20St.pdf
\|archive\-date \= 2010\-06\-12
\|url\-status \= dead
}} The Club counted many well known and influential men as regular guests, including Presidents [Harry Truman](/wiki/Harry_Truman "Harry Truman"), [John F. Kennedy](/wiki/John_F._Kennedy "John F. Kennedy"), [George H. W. Bush](/wiki/George_H._W._Bush "George H. W. Bush") and members of their respective Administrations. The Clubhouse's popularity was boosted by being only a few blocks away from the [White House](/wiki/White_House "White House").
The Clubhouse also served as a popular meeting place of the East Coast elite (in particular those who held powerful positions in the [C.I.A.](/wiki/C.I.A. "C.I.A.") and the [Department of State](/wiki/Department_of_State "Department of State")); and who hold informal meetings at the club. It was once labelled as "...the most difficult door to open in Washington D.C.". Indeed, the club was so exclusive that not even its members knew exactly who else belonged entirely. It was the place where men of power and influence dined, drank and socialized as they charted America's course according to Collier Magazine.Collier's January 24, 1953
It was managed by a Board of Directors consisting of ten members. They were the "Old Guard," from prominent Washington, D.C., families who carefully guarded all operational aspects of the club.
### Contemporary
The club hosted members of the most prominent families in the United States, as well as senior officials from around [Washington, D.C.](/wiki/Washington_D.C. "Washington D.C."), and beyond including the [President of the World Bank Group](/wiki/President_of_the_World_Bank_Group "President of the World Bank Group"), The Governor of the [Bank of England](/wiki/Bank_of_England "Bank of England") and the Chairman and CEO of [Goldman Sachs](/wiki/Goldman_Sachs "Goldman Sachs").
The membership totaled about 850 socialites from their era according to Richard Casiano, the General Manager from 1982 until his retirement in 1997\. Richard was first hired as a bartender on January 1, 1981, and became the General Manager of the club on July 1, 1982\.
The Club was operated the same as a well staffed English country manor, which included male staff wearing traditional white\-tie uniforms. There was no menu and guests were served whatever was prepared for the day; however, members could order special meals in advance and for their special parties.
The F Street Club closed in 1999\.
From 2000 to 2008, the mansion served as the Alumni House of The George Washington University. In July 2008, the Alumni House officially became the official residence of the [President of the George Washington University](/wiki/President_of_the_George_Washington_University "President of the George Washington University").{{Cite web \|url\=http://media.www.gwhatchet.com/media/storage/paper332/news/2007/06/20/News/Web\-Update.PresidentElect.Knapp.To.Live.In.Alumni.House\-2922796\.shtml \|title\=President\-elect Knapp to live in Alumni House \- News \|access\-date\=2008\-07\-07 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070810024525/http://media.www.gwhatchet.com/media/storage/paper332/news/2007/06/20/News/Web\-Update.PresidentElect.Knapp.To.Live.In.Alumni.House\-2922796\.shtml \|archive\-date\=2007\-08\-10 \|url\-status\=dead }}
|
[
"History\n-------",
"[thumb\\|left\\|The F Street House with the headquarters of the [International Monetary Fund](/wiki/International_Monetary_Fund \"International Monetary Fund\") (IMF) behind it.](/wiki/File:1925_F_Street_President%27s_Residence_GWU.JPG \"1925 F Street President's Residence GWU.JPG\")\n[thumb\\|left\\|The mansion, circa 1865\\.](/wiki/File:Clerks_in_front_of_office_of_Commissary_General_of_Prisoners_03858v_%28cropped%29.jpg \"Clerks in front of office of Commissary General of Prisoners 03858v (cropped).jpg\")\nThe [Greek Revival](/wiki/Greek_Revival \"Greek Revival\") building was constructed for U.S. Navy Captain [Alexander Ray](/wiki/Alexander_Ray_%28U.S._Navy_officer%29 \"Alexander Ray (U.S. Navy officer)\") (1799–1878\\) in 1849\\.",
"It was purchased by [American University](/wiki/American_University \"American University\") in 1920 and served as the \"Downtown Campus\" for many years.[Downtown campus : 20th and F Streets (1921\\)](http://www.aladin.wrlc.org/gsdl/cgi-bin/library?e=d-00000-00---off-0auhist--00-1--0-10-0---0---0prompt-10---4-------0-1l--11-en-600---20-home---01-3-1-00-0-0-11-0-0utfZz-8-00&a=d&c=auhist&cl=CL2.1.22&d=HASH4af6e8ee0185d0007baa2e)\nLaura Curtis, wife of New York lawyer James Freeman Curtis, rented the home in the 1920s.{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://neighborhood.gwu.edu/campusdev/docs/1925%20F%20St/FINAL\\_F%20St.pdf \\|title\\=1925 F Street, NW, A Rich History and Tradition in Washington, D.C. \\|access\\-date\\=2007\\-11\\-15 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100612212528/http://www.neighborhood.gwu.edu/campusdev/docs/1925%20F%20St/FINAL\\_F%20St.pdf \\|archive\\-date\\=2010\\-06\\-12 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}",
"In 1935, the 1925 F Street Club, Inc. purchased the property and operated a private members' club from the building, started by Laura M. Gross.\n{{ cite web\n\\| title \\= Paid Notice: Deaths CURTIS, LAURA E. \n\\| url \\= https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res\\=9E03E2DF1E3FF937A25753C1A9659C8B63\\&sec\\=\\&spon\\=\n\\| work \\= New York Times\n\\| access\\-date \\= 2007\\-11\\-15\n\\| date \\= 2003\\-10\\-13 }}{{cite web\n \\|title \\= 1925 F Street, NW\n \\|url \\= http://neighborhood.gwu.edu/campusdev/docs/1925%20F%20St/FINAL\\_F%20St.pdf\n \\|access\\-date \\= 2007\\-11\\-15\n \\|publisher \\= George Washington University\n \\|archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20100612212528/http://www.neighborhood.gwu.edu/campusdev/docs/1925%20F%20St/FINAL\\_F%20St.pdf\n \\|archive\\-date \\= 2010\\-06\\-12\n \\|url\\-status \\= dead\n}} The Club counted many well known and influential men as regular guests, including Presidents [Harry Truman](/wiki/Harry_Truman \"Harry Truman\"), [John F. Kennedy](/wiki/John_F._Kennedy \"John F. Kennedy\"), [George H. W. Bush](/wiki/George_H._W._Bush \"George H. W. Bush\") and members of their respective Administrations. The Clubhouse's popularity was boosted by being only a few blocks away from the [White House](/wiki/White_House \"White House\").",
"The Clubhouse also served as a popular meeting place of the East Coast elite (in particular those who held powerful positions in the [C.I.A.](/wiki/C.I.A. \"C.I.A.\") and the [Department of State](/wiki/Department_of_State \"Department of State\")); and who hold informal meetings at the club. It was once labelled as \"...the most difficult door to open in Washington D.C.\". Indeed, the club was so exclusive that not even its members knew exactly who else belonged entirely. It was the place where men of power and influence dined, drank and socialized as they charted America's course according to Collier Magazine.Collier's January 24, 1953",
"It was managed by a Board of Directors consisting of ten members. They were the \"Old Guard,\" from prominent Washington, D.C., families who carefully guarded all operational aspects of the club.",
"### Contemporary",
"The club hosted members of the most prominent families in the United States, as well as senior officials from around [Washington, D.C.](/wiki/Washington_D.C. \"Washington D.C.\"), and beyond including the [President of the World Bank Group](/wiki/President_of_the_World_Bank_Group \"President of the World Bank Group\"), The Governor of the [Bank of England](/wiki/Bank_of_England \"Bank of England\") and the Chairman and CEO of [Goldman Sachs](/wiki/Goldman_Sachs \"Goldman Sachs\").",
"The membership totaled about 850 socialites from their era according to Richard Casiano, the General Manager from 1982 until his retirement in 1997\\. Richard was first hired as a bartender on January 1, 1981, and became the General Manager of the club on July 1, 1982\\.",
"The Club was operated the same as a well staffed English country manor, which included male staff wearing traditional white\\-tie uniforms. There was no menu and guests were served whatever was prepared for the day; however, members could order special meals in advance and for their special parties.",
"The F Street Club closed in 1999\\.",
"From 2000 to 2008, the mansion served as the Alumni House of The George Washington University. In July 2008, the Alumni House officially became the official residence of the [President of the George Washington University](/wiki/President_of_the_George_Washington_University \"President of the George Washington University\").{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://media.www.gwhatchet.com/media/storage/paper332/news/2007/06/20/News/Web\\-Update.PresidentElect.Knapp.To.Live.In.Alumni.House\\-2922796\\.shtml \\|title\\=President\\-elect Knapp to live in Alumni House \\- News \\|access\\-date\\=2008\\-07\\-07 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070810024525/http://media.www.gwhatchet.com/media/storage/paper332/news/2007/06/20/News/Web\\-Update.PresidentElect.Knapp.To.Live.In.Alumni.House\\-2922796\\.shtml \\|archive\\-date\\=2007\\-08\\-10 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}",
""
] |
Biography
---------
### Early years
As a teenager in Connecticut, D'Avino traded an old [hunting rifle](/wiki/Rifle "Rifle") for a Kodak [movie camera](/wiki/Movie_camera "Movie camera"). The swap was life\-altering and the beginning of D'Avino's adventurous, lifelong journey into the world of art.
Beginning in the late 1930s with his studies at the Art Students League in New York City, and influenced by his teachers [Robert Brackman](/wiki/Robert_Brackman "Robert Brackman") and Andre l'Hote, D'Avino gravitated toward films and painting. His work with film led to his World War II assignment as a combat photographer with the Fourth Infantry Division of the US Army that climaxed with his filming the [Normandy Invasion](/wiki/Normandy_Invasion "Normandy Invasion") and the [Liberation of Paris](/wiki/Liberation_of_Paris "Liberation of Paris").
D'Avino remained in Paris after the war and was the first American to use the [GI Bill](/wiki/GI_Bill "GI Bill") to study abroad. He enrolled at the [École nationale supérieure des Beaux\-Arts](/wiki/%C3%89cole_nationale_sup%C3%A9rieure_des_Beaux-Arts "École nationale supérieure des Beaux-Arts") in Paris.
While studying [oil painting](/wiki/Oil_painting "Oil painting"), D'Avino was stimulated by film shorts, especially [Alain Resnais](/wiki/Alain_Resnais "Alain Resnais")'s 1948 film *Van Gogh*, which he saw in cine\-clubs in Paris. He began to experiment with film, documenting the experiences of postwar France.
D'Avino met his future wife, Helena Elfing of Finland in 1947, and in 1948, after an extended tour hitchhiking together across Italy, he followed her to India where she had accepted the position of tutor to the son of the newly posted French Ambassador to India.
D'Avino had hoped to continue his art studies in India under the GI Bill, but was unable to find a suitable school. His time in India proved to be extremely educational, nonetheless. [Henri Cartier\-Bresson](/wiki/Henri_Cartier-Bresson "Henri Cartier-Bresson") became one of his companions, and their conversations about photography were both enlivened and enlightening. D'Avino also had the opportunity to meet and discuss film with [Jean Renoir](/wiki/Jean_Renoir "Jean Renoir") who was in Delhi to film *[The River](/wiki/The_River_%281951_film%29 "The River (1951 film)")*. Their conversations centered on the future possibilities of short films.
He continued his painting and exhibited twice, once in Delhi and once in Bombay. The contrast of strong colors found in D'Avino's work comes out of his time spent in India. He was influenced by Indian miniature paintings, most of all from their ornamental elements and areas covered in pure colors. The same style is apparent in his film animations of the 1960s and 1970s. The contrast of colors remains always lively in his films, where red, orange and yellow details are presented together as a contrast with the cold colors, green and blue. After a stay in India of 18 months, D'Avino returned to Paris.
In the spring of 1950, the sculptor Robert Rosenwald left his small studio at number 8, rue St. Julian le Pauvre, located directly across the street from one of the oldest churches in Paris, and diagonally across the Seine from the towers of Notre Dame, and turned it over to his friend [Haywood "Bill" Rivers](/wiki/African_American_art "African American art"). Rivers in turn invited a number of his artist friends to join him in turning the studio into a gallery, the only gallery in Paris run by Americans essentially to show the work of U.S. painters, though some others were also shown. The opening of the gallery created considerable excitement and was reported both in the [English language](/wiki/English_language "English language") press as well as in a number of French papers. Even [Pablo Picasso](/wiki/Pablo_Picasso "Pablo Picasso") is said to have stopped by to see what was going on. In its slightly more than two years of existence more than 50 painters and sculptors exhibited at [Galerie Huit](/wiki/Galerie_Huit "Galerie Huit"), including Carmen D'Avino, [Shinkichi Tajiri](/wiki/Shinkichi_Tajiri "Shinkichi Tajiri"), [Harold Tovish](http://www.boston.com/bostonglobe/obituaries/articles/2008/03/16/harold_tovish_86_sculptor_was_ambitious_for_excellence/?page=full), [Oscar Chelimsky](http://www.aaa.si.edu/collections/interviews/oral-history-interview-oscar-chelimsky-12248), [Sydney Geist](https://www.nytimes.com/2005/10/21/arts/design/21geist.html), [Al Held](/wiki/Al_Held "Al Held"), [Burt Hasan](https://www.nytimes.com/2007/09/13/arts/design/13hasen.html), [George Earl Ortman](/wiki/George_Earl_Ortman "George Earl Ortman"), [Raymond Hendler](http://www.raymondhendler.com/), [Robert Rosenwald](https://web.archive.org/web/20101218235941/http://newhopepa.com/artists/rosenwald/about.htm).
D'Avino continued his art studies by enrolling at the [Academie de la Grand Chaumiere](/wiki/Academie_de_la_Grand_Chaumiere "Academie de la Grand Chaumiere"), and in 1951 returned to North America, and eventually to New York City. He bought himself a 16 mm Pathe camera and made a short film called *Sunday Afternoon*, which won first prize in a competition sponsored by the Creative Film Foundation. The honor of receiving a Creative Film Award was significantly enhanced when [Salvador Dalí](/wiki/Salvador_Dal%C3%AD "Salvador Dalí") presented it to D'Avino, who was now embarking on a career in film that would last the rest of his life.
### Mid\-career
D'Avino's film making flourished during the personally, politically, and artistically liberating years of the 1960s. His films were shown and awarded honors at film festivals in New York, San Francisco, [Montevideo, Uruguay](/wiki/Montevideo "Montevideo"); [London, England](/wiki/London "London"); [Oberhausen, Germany](/wiki/Oberhausen "Oberhausen"); Annecy,[Annecy \> About \> Archives \> 1965 \> Official Selection \> Film Index](https://www.annecy.org/about/archives/1965/official-selection/film-index:film-650081) France; Mamaia, Rumania; [Kraków, Poland](/wiki/Krak%C3%B3w "Kraków"); [Edinburgh, Scotland](/wiki/Edinburgh "Edinburgh"); and [Melbourne, Australia](/wiki/Melbourne "Melbourne").
His 1963 animated short film [*Pianissimo*](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IcHCdg5uBd0)[FILMS FOR CHILDREN on MoMA.org](https://www.moma.org/momaorg/shared/pdfs/docs/press_archives/4784/releases/MOMA_1972_0013_11.pdf)[THE ACADEMY PRESENTS 'RESTORED ANIMATED RARITIES'\|AFA: Animation for Adults](https://www.animationforadults.com/2017/11/the-academy-presents-restored-animated.html) was selected to open the first night of performances at the first international film festival of New York's newly constructed [Lincoln Center](/wiki/Lincoln_Center "Lincoln Center") in 1963\. *Pianissimo* was nominated for an [Academy Award](/wiki/Academy_Award "Academy Award") for [Best Animated Short Subject](/wiki/Academy_Award_for_Best_Animated_Short_Film "Academy Award for Best Animated Short Film"), in 1964\.{{cite web\|url\=http://cartoonresearch.com/index.php/cartoons\-considered\-for\-the\-academy\-award\-1963/\|title\=Cartoons Considered For the Academy Award – 1963 \-\|website\=cartoonresearch.com}}[Shirley MacLaine presents Short Film Oscars® in 1964](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gDl1ALuijlE)[1964\|Oscars.org](https://www.oscars.org/oscars/ceremonies/1964) D'Avino received an Academy nomination for [Best Documentary Short](/wiki/Academy_Award_for_Best_Documentary_Short_Subject "Academy Award for Best Documentary Short Subject") for his film *[Background](/wiki/Background_%281973_film%29 "Background (1973 film)")* in 1974\.[1974\|Oscars.org](https://www.oscars.org/oscars/ceremonies/1974)[Documentary Winners: 1974 Oscars](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ndnY9aU85Mo)[The Films of Carmen D'Avino\|Cartoon Brew](https://www.cartoonbrew.com/animators/the-films-of-carmen-davino-1698.html) In 1983, when Lincoln Center's film festival celebrated its 20th anniversary, D'Avino was honored once more when the festival again began with his film, *Pianissimo*.
D'Avino's body of work includes films for corporations including IBM, [Time\-Life](/wiki/Time-Life "Time-Life"), and [the New York Stock Exchange](/wiki/New_York_Stock_Exchange "New York Stock Exchange"). He completed a series of short, fully animated films for the [Children's Television Workshop](/wiki/Children%27s_Television_Workshop "Children's Television Workshop") including *[Happy](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nRjNpOCNzLo)*, *[Freak](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lRFDT5RAfEE)* , *[Funny](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2e2liDpmWfo)*, *[Library](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LMCgLb_FIkg)*, *[Flower](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4a-Enbw6c2U)*, and *[Hydrant](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mrRzeYG76uI)* alongside the trailer for the 1974 French film *[Going Places](/wiki/Going_Places_%281974_film%29 "Going Places (1974 film)")*.[Carmen D'Avino Movie Trailer by nadderlago on YouTube](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8xOB_6PTcC8)
### Later years
As he grew older, D'Avino challenged himself by working in new and, to him, yet untried materials. The sculptures in wood gave way to carvings of stone blocks weighing many tons. Marble led to limestone and then to granite.
[thumb\|right\|D'Avino standing next to his sculpture, "St. Francis", in Hammond, New York.](/wiki/File:Kar_and_St_Francis.jpg "Kar and St Francis.jpg")
When in his 80s he began to produce films on his newly acquired [Apple computer](/wiki/Apple_Computer "Apple Computer") and he marveled at the relative ease and affordability that today's film makers enjoyed: "When I think of all the images I didn't record because I couldn't afford the film, and see how cheaply it can be accomplished today, I am amazed and somewhat saddened that it came too late for me. I know, though, that some young person will use this new medium in a unique and exciting way."
No matter the medium, D'Avino transports viewers of his art to a whimsical, non\-threatening, yet distracting place where eyes and minds are never at rest. What they see is pleasing, sometimes comical, but disturbing, with the ability to agitate. With the grain of wood or his palette of vivid colors, D'Avino can engulf people in a tapestry of intricate designs, rich with detail and texture, which grow with organic vitality.
His success at invigorating those who view his work comes from the energy D'Avino transfers from himself to each piece. In order to sculpt, he first needs to get the wood ... chop the tree, cut the log, carve, file, sand ... and through the sweat of toil he converts his energy into the sculpture. It is the same way with his painting and his film and his life. D'Avino transfuses his art with his spirit and it is a symbiotic relationship. It is the doing that is the real art and when creativity is nourished, it can sustain as well. It is all part of the process he would say.
D'Avino believed all you need is food, work and love. "To keep busy is a marvelous answer to some dull existence. Life is a great adventure no matter what you do. Life is a joy".
Several of D'Avino's films have been preserved by the [Academy Film Archive](/wiki/Academy_Film_Archive "Academy Film Archive"), including *Pianissimo* (1963\), *The Room* (1959\), and *A Trip* (1960\), in 2007, and *Background* (1973\), in 2012\.{{cite web\|title\=Preserved Projects\|url\=http://www.oscars.org/academy\-film\-archive/preserved\-projects?title\=\&filmmaker\=carmen\+d%27avino\&category\=All\&collection\=All\|website\=Academy Film Archive}}
|
[
"Biography\n---------",
"### Early years",
"As a teenager in Connecticut, D'Avino traded an old [hunting rifle](/wiki/Rifle \"Rifle\") for a Kodak [movie camera](/wiki/Movie_camera \"Movie camera\"). The swap was life\\-altering and the beginning of D'Avino's adventurous, lifelong journey into the world of art.",
"Beginning in the late 1930s with his studies at the Art Students League in New York City, and influenced by his teachers [Robert Brackman](/wiki/Robert_Brackman \"Robert Brackman\") and Andre l'Hote, D'Avino gravitated toward films and painting. His work with film led to his World War II assignment as a combat photographer with the Fourth Infantry Division of the US Army that climaxed with his filming the [Normandy Invasion](/wiki/Normandy_Invasion \"Normandy Invasion\") and the [Liberation of Paris](/wiki/Liberation_of_Paris \"Liberation of Paris\").",
"D'Avino remained in Paris after the war and was the first American to use the [GI Bill](/wiki/GI_Bill \"GI Bill\") to study abroad. He enrolled at the [École nationale supérieure des Beaux\\-Arts](/wiki/%C3%89cole_nationale_sup%C3%A9rieure_des_Beaux-Arts \"École nationale supérieure des Beaux-Arts\") in Paris.",
"While studying [oil painting](/wiki/Oil_painting \"Oil painting\"), D'Avino was stimulated by film shorts, especially [Alain Resnais](/wiki/Alain_Resnais \"Alain Resnais\")'s 1948 film *Van Gogh*, which he saw in cine\\-clubs in Paris. He began to experiment with film, documenting the experiences of postwar France.",
"D'Avino met his future wife, Helena Elfing of Finland in 1947, and in 1948, after an extended tour hitchhiking together across Italy, he followed her to India where she had accepted the position of tutor to the son of the newly posted French Ambassador to India.",
"D'Avino had hoped to continue his art studies in India under the GI Bill, but was unable to find a suitable school. His time in India proved to be extremely educational, nonetheless. [Henri Cartier\\-Bresson](/wiki/Henri_Cartier-Bresson \"Henri Cartier-Bresson\") became one of his companions, and their conversations about photography were both enlivened and enlightening. D'Avino also had the opportunity to meet and discuss film with [Jean Renoir](/wiki/Jean_Renoir \"Jean Renoir\") who was in Delhi to film *[The River](/wiki/The_River_%281951_film%29 \"The River (1951 film)\")*. Their conversations centered on the future possibilities of short films.",
"He continued his painting and exhibited twice, once in Delhi and once in Bombay. The contrast of strong colors found in D'Avino's work comes out of his time spent in India. He was influenced by Indian miniature paintings, most of all from their ornamental elements and areas covered in pure colors. The same style is apparent in his film animations of the 1960s and 1970s. The contrast of colors remains always lively in his films, where red, orange and yellow details are presented together as a contrast with the cold colors, green and blue. After a stay in India of 18 months, D'Avino returned to Paris.",
"In the spring of 1950, the sculptor Robert Rosenwald left his small studio at number 8, rue St. Julian le Pauvre, located directly across the street from one of the oldest churches in Paris, and diagonally across the Seine from the towers of Notre Dame, and turned it over to his friend [Haywood \"Bill\" Rivers](/wiki/African_American_art \"African American art\"). Rivers in turn invited a number of his artist friends to join him in turning the studio into a gallery, the only gallery in Paris run by Americans essentially to show the work of U.S. painters, though some others were also shown. The opening of the gallery created considerable excitement and was reported both in the [English language](/wiki/English_language \"English language\") press as well as in a number of French papers. Even [Pablo Picasso](/wiki/Pablo_Picasso \"Pablo Picasso\") is said to have stopped by to see what was going on. In its slightly more than two years of existence more than 50 painters and sculptors exhibited at [Galerie Huit](/wiki/Galerie_Huit \"Galerie Huit\"), including Carmen D'Avino, [Shinkichi Tajiri](/wiki/Shinkichi_Tajiri \"Shinkichi Tajiri\"), [Harold Tovish](http://www.boston.com/bostonglobe/obituaries/articles/2008/03/16/harold_tovish_86_sculptor_was_ambitious_for_excellence/?page=full), [Oscar Chelimsky](http://www.aaa.si.edu/collections/interviews/oral-history-interview-oscar-chelimsky-12248), [Sydney Geist](https://www.nytimes.com/2005/10/21/arts/design/21geist.html), [Al Held](/wiki/Al_Held \"Al Held\"), [Burt Hasan](https://www.nytimes.com/2007/09/13/arts/design/13hasen.html), [George Earl Ortman](/wiki/George_Earl_Ortman \"George Earl Ortman\"), [Raymond Hendler](http://www.raymondhendler.com/), [Robert Rosenwald](https://web.archive.org/web/20101218235941/http://newhopepa.com/artists/rosenwald/about.htm).",
"D'Avino continued his art studies by enrolling at the [Academie de la Grand Chaumiere](/wiki/Academie_de_la_Grand_Chaumiere \"Academie de la Grand Chaumiere\"), and in 1951 returned to North America, and eventually to New York City. He bought himself a 16 mm Pathe camera and made a short film called *Sunday Afternoon*, which won first prize in a competition sponsored by the Creative Film Foundation. The honor of receiving a Creative Film Award was significantly enhanced when [Salvador Dalí](/wiki/Salvador_Dal%C3%AD \"Salvador Dalí\") presented it to D'Avino, who was now embarking on a career in film that would last the rest of his life.",
"### Mid\\-career",
"D'Avino's film making flourished during the personally, politically, and artistically liberating years of the 1960s. His films were shown and awarded honors at film festivals in New York, San Francisco, [Montevideo, Uruguay](/wiki/Montevideo \"Montevideo\"); [London, England](/wiki/London \"London\"); [Oberhausen, Germany](/wiki/Oberhausen \"Oberhausen\"); Annecy,[Annecy \\> About \\> Archives \\> 1965 \\> Official Selection \\> Film Index](https://www.annecy.org/about/archives/1965/official-selection/film-index:film-650081) France; Mamaia, Rumania; [Kraków, Poland](/wiki/Krak%C3%B3w \"Kraków\"); [Edinburgh, Scotland](/wiki/Edinburgh \"Edinburgh\"); and [Melbourne, Australia](/wiki/Melbourne \"Melbourne\").",
"His 1963 animated short film [*Pianissimo*](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IcHCdg5uBd0)[FILMS FOR CHILDREN on MoMA.org](https://www.moma.org/momaorg/shared/pdfs/docs/press_archives/4784/releases/MOMA_1972_0013_11.pdf)[THE ACADEMY PRESENTS 'RESTORED ANIMATED RARITIES'\\|AFA: Animation for Adults](https://www.animationforadults.com/2017/11/the-academy-presents-restored-animated.html) was selected to open the first night of performances at the first international film festival of New York's newly constructed [Lincoln Center](/wiki/Lincoln_Center \"Lincoln Center\") in 1963\\. *Pianissimo* was nominated for an [Academy Award](/wiki/Academy_Award \"Academy Award\") for [Best Animated Short Subject](/wiki/Academy_Award_for_Best_Animated_Short_Film \"Academy Award for Best Animated Short Film\"), in 1964\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://cartoonresearch.com/index.php/cartoons\\-considered\\-for\\-the\\-academy\\-award\\-1963/\\|title\\=Cartoons Considered For the Academy Award – 1963 \\-\\|website\\=cartoonresearch.com}}[Shirley MacLaine presents Short Film Oscars® in 1964](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gDl1ALuijlE)[1964\\|Oscars.org](https://www.oscars.org/oscars/ceremonies/1964) D'Avino received an Academy nomination for [Best Documentary Short](/wiki/Academy_Award_for_Best_Documentary_Short_Subject \"Academy Award for Best Documentary Short Subject\") for his film *[Background](/wiki/Background_%281973_film%29 \"Background (1973 film)\")* in 1974\\.[1974\\|Oscars.org](https://www.oscars.org/oscars/ceremonies/1974)[Documentary Winners: 1974 Oscars](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ndnY9aU85Mo)[The Films of Carmen D'Avino\\|Cartoon Brew](https://www.cartoonbrew.com/animators/the-films-of-carmen-davino-1698.html) In 1983, when Lincoln Center's film festival celebrated its 20th anniversary, D'Avino was honored once more when the festival again began with his film, *Pianissimo*.",
"D'Avino's body of work includes films for corporations including IBM, [Time\\-Life](/wiki/Time-Life \"Time-Life\"), and [the New York Stock Exchange](/wiki/New_York_Stock_Exchange \"New York Stock Exchange\"). He completed a series of short, fully animated films for the [Children's Television Workshop](/wiki/Children%27s_Television_Workshop \"Children's Television Workshop\") including *[Happy](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nRjNpOCNzLo)*, *[Freak](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lRFDT5RAfEE)* , *[Funny](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2e2liDpmWfo)*, *[Library](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LMCgLb_FIkg)*, *[Flower](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4a-Enbw6c2U)*, and *[Hydrant](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mrRzeYG76uI)* alongside the trailer for the 1974 French film *[Going Places](/wiki/Going_Places_%281974_film%29 \"Going Places (1974 film)\")*.[Carmen D'Avino Movie Trailer by nadderlago on YouTube](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8xOB_6PTcC8)",
"### Later years",
"As he grew older, D'Avino challenged himself by working in new and, to him, yet untried materials. The sculptures in wood gave way to carvings of stone blocks weighing many tons. Marble led to limestone and then to granite. \n[thumb\\|right\\|D'Avino standing next to his sculpture, \"St. Francis\", in Hammond, New York.](/wiki/File:Kar_and_St_Francis.jpg \"Kar and St Francis.jpg\")",
"When in his 80s he began to produce films on his newly acquired [Apple computer](/wiki/Apple_Computer \"Apple Computer\") and he marveled at the relative ease and affordability that today's film makers enjoyed: \"When I think of all the images I didn't record because I couldn't afford the film, and see how cheaply it can be accomplished today, I am amazed and somewhat saddened that it came too late for me. I know, though, that some young person will use this new medium in a unique and exciting way.\"",
"No matter the medium, D'Avino transports viewers of his art to a whimsical, non\\-threatening, yet distracting place where eyes and minds are never at rest. What they see is pleasing, sometimes comical, but disturbing, with the ability to agitate. With the grain of wood or his palette of vivid colors, D'Avino can engulf people in a tapestry of intricate designs, rich with detail and texture, which grow with organic vitality.",
"His success at invigorating those who view his work comes from the energy D'Avino transfers from himself to each piece. In order to sculpt, he first needs to get the wood ... chop the tree, cut the log, carve, file, sand ... and through the sweat of toil he converts his energy into the sculpture. It is the same way with his painting and his film and his life. D'Avino transfuses his art with his spirit and it is a symbiotic relationship. It is the doing that is the real art and when creativity is nourished, it can sustain as well. It is all part of the process he would say.",
"D'Avino believed all you need is food, work and love. \"To keep busy is a marvelous answer to some dull existence. Life is a great adventure no matter what you do. Life is a joy\".",
"Several of D'Avino's films have been preserved by the [Academy Film Archive](/wiki/Academy_Film_Archive \"Academy Film Archive\"), including *Pianissimo* (1963\\), *The Room* (1959\\), and *A Trip* (1960\\), in 2007, and *Background* (1973\\), in 2012\\.{{cite web\\|title\\=Preserved Projects\\|url\\=http://www.oscars.org/academy\\-film\\-archive/preserved\\-projects?title\\=\\&filmmaker\\=carmen\\+d%27avino\\&category\\=All\\&collection\\=All\\|website\\=Academy Film Archive}}",
""
] |
### Early years
As a teenager in Connecticut, D'Avino traded an old [hunting rifle](/wiki/Rifle "Rifle") for a Kodak [movie camera](/wiki/Movie_camera "Movie camera"). The swap was life\-altering and the beginning of D'Avino's adventurous, lifelong journey into the world of art.
Beginning in the late 1930s with his studies at the Art Students League in New York City, and influenced by his teachers [Robert Brackman](/wiki/Robert_Brackman "Robert Brackman") and Andre l'Hote, D'Avino gravitated toward films and painting. His work with film led to his World War II assignment as a combat photographer with the Fourth Infantry Division of the US Army that climaxed with his filming the [Normandy Invasion](/wiki/Normandy_Invasion "Normandy Invasion") and the [Liberation of Paris](/wiki/Liberation_of_Paris "Liberation of Paris").
D'Avino remained in Paris after the war and was the first American to use the [GI Bill](/wiki/GI_Bill "GI Bill") to study abroad. He enrolled at the [École nationale supérieure des Beaux\-Arts](/wiki/%C3%89cole_nationale_sup%C3%A9rieure_des_Beaux-Arts "École nationale supérieure des Beaux-Arts") in Paris.
While studying [oil painting](/wiki/Oil_painting "Oil painting"), D'Avino was stimulated by film shorts, especially [Alain Resnais](/wiki/Alain_Resnais "Alain Resnais")'s 1948 film *Van Gogh*, which he saw in cine\-clubs in Paris. He began to experiment with film, documenting the experiences of postwar France.
D'Avino met his future wife, Helena Elfing of Finland in 1947, and in 1948, after an extended tour hitchhiking together across Italy, he followed her to India where she had accepted the position of tutor to the son of the newly posted French Ambassador to India.
D'Avino had hoped to continue his art studies in India under the GI Bill, but was unable to find a suitable school. His time in India proved to be extremely educational, nonetheless. [Henri Cartier\-Bresson](/wiki/Henri_Cartier-Bresson "Henri Cartier-Bresson") became one of his companions, and their conversations about photography were both enlivened and enlightening. D'Avino also had the opportunity to meet and discuss film with [Jean Renoir](/wiki/Jean_Renoir "Jean Renoir") who was in Delhi to film *[The River](/wiki/The_River_%281951_film%29 "The River (1951 film)")*. Their conversations centered on the future possibilities of short films.
He continued his painting and exhibited twice, once in Delhi and once in Bombay. The contrast of strong colors found in D'Avino's work comes out of his time spent in India. He was influenced by Indian miniature paintings, most of all from their ornamental elements and areas covered in pure colors. The same style is apparent in his film animations of the 1960s and 1970s. The contrast of colors remains always lively in his films, where red, orange and yellow details are presented together as a contrast with the cold colors, green and blue. After a stay in India of 18 months, D'Avino returned to Paris.
In the spring of 1950, the sculptor Robert Rosenwald left his small studio at number 8, rue St. Julian le Pauvre, located directly across the street from one of the oldest churches in Paris, and diagonally across the Seine from the towers of Notre Dame, and turned it over to his friend [Haywood "Bill" Rivers](/wiki/African_American_art "African American art"). Rivers in turn invited a number of his artist friends to join him in turning the studio into a gallery, the only gallery in Paris run by Americans essentially to show the work of U.S. painters, though some others were also shown. The opening of the gallery created considerable excitement and was reported both in the [English language](/wiki/English_language "English language") press as well as in a number of French papers. Even [Pablo Picasso](/wiki/Pablo_Picasso "Pablo Picasso") is said to have stopped by to see what was going on. In its slightly more than two years of existence more than 50 painters and sculptors exhibited at [Galerie Huit](/wiki/Galerie_Huit "Galerie Huit"), including Carmen D'Avino, [Shinkichi Tajiri](/wiki/Shinkichi_Tajiri "Shinkichi Tajiri"), [Harold Tovish](http://www.boston.com/bostonglobe/obituaries/articles/2008/03/16/harold_tovish_86_sculptor_was_ambitious_for_excellence/?page=full), [Oscar Chelimsky](http://www.aaa.si.edu/collections/interviews/oral-history-interview-oscar-chelimsky-12248), [Sydney Geist](https://www.nytimes.com/2005/10/21/arts/design/21geist.html), [Al Held](/wiki/Al_Held "Al Held"), [Burt Hasan](https://www.nytimes.com/2007/09/13/arts/design/13hasen.html), [George Earl Ortman](/wiki/George_Earl_Ortman "George Earl Ortman"), [Raymond Hendler](http://www.raymondhendler.com/), [Robert Rosenwald](https://web.archive.org/web/20101218235941/http://newhopepa.com/artists/rosenwald/about.htm).
D'Avino continued his art studies by enrolling at the [Academie de la Grand Chaumiere](/wiki/Academie_de_la_Grand_Chaumiere "Academie de la Grand Chaumiere"), and in 1951 returned to North America, and eventually to New York City. He bought himself a 16 mm Pathe camera and made a short film called *Sunday Afternoon*, which won first prize in a competition sponsored by the Creative Film Foundation. The honor of receiving a Creative Film Award was significantly enhanced when [Salvador Dalí](/wiki/Salvador_Dal%C3%AD "Salvador Dalí") presented it to D'Avino, who was now embarking on a career in film that would last the rest of his life.
|
[
"### Early years",
"As a teenager in Connecticut, D'Avino traded an old [hunting rifle](/wiki/Rifle \"Rifle\") for a Kodak [movie camera](/wiki/Movie_camera \"Movie camera\"). The swap was life\\-altering and the beginning of D'Avino's adventurous, lifelong journey into the world of art.",
"Beginning in the late 1930s with his studies at the Art Students League in New York City, and influenced by his teachers [Robert Brackman](/wiki/Robert_Brackman \"Robert Brackman\") and Andre l'Hote, D'Avino gravitated toward films and painting. His work with film led to his World War II assignment as a combat photographer with the Fourth Infantry Division of the US Army that climaxed with his filming the [Normandy Invasion](/wiki/Normandy_Invasion \"Normandy Invasion\") and the [Liberation of Paris](/wiki/Liberation_of_Paris \"Liberation of Paris\").",
"D'Avino remained in Paris after the war and was the first American to use the [GI Bill](/wiki/GI_Bill \"GI Bill\") to study abroad. He enrolled at the [École nationale supérieure des Beaux\\-Arts](/wiki/%C3%89cole_nationale_sup%C3%A9rieure_des_Beaux-Arts \"École nationale supérieure des Beaux-Arts\") in Paris.",
"While studying [oil painting](/wiki/Oil_painting \"Oil painting\"), D'Avino was stimulated by film shorts, especially [Alain Resnais](/wiki/Alain_Resnais \"Alain Resnais\")'s 1948 film *Van Gogh*, which he saw in cine\\-clubs in Paris. He began to experiment with film, documenting the experiences of postwar France.",
"D'Avino met his future wife, Helena Elfing of Finland in 1947, and in 1948, after an extended tour hitchhiking together across Italy, he followed her to India where she had accepted the position of tutor to the son of the newly posted French Ambassador to India.",
"D'Avino had hoped to continue his art studies in India under the GI Bill, but was unable to find a suitable school. His time in India proved to be extremely educational, nonetheless. [Henri Cartier\\-Bresson](/wiki/Henri_Cartier-Bresson \"Henri Cartier-Bresson\") became one of his companions, and their conversations about photography were both enlivened and enlightening. D'Avino also had the opportunity to meet and discuss film with [Jean Renoir](/wiki/Jean_Renoir \"Jean Renoir\") who was in Delhi to film *[The River](/wiki/The_River_%281951_film%29 \"The River (1951 film)\")*. Their conversations centered on the future possibilities of short films.",
"He continued his painting and exhibited twice, once in Delhi and once in Bombay. The contrast of strong colors found in D'Avino's work comes out of his time spent in India. He was influenced by Indian miniature paintings, most of all from their ornamental elements and areas covered in pure colors. The same style is apparent in his film animations of the 1960s and 1970s. The contrast of colors remains always lively in his films, where red, orange and yellow details are presented together as a contrast with the cold colors, green and blue. After a stay in India of 18 months, D'Avino returned to Paris.",
"In the spring of 1950, the sculptor Robert Rosenwald left his small studio at number 8, rue St. Julian le Pauvre, located directly across the street from one of the oldest churches in Paris, and diagonally across the Seine from the towers of Notre Dame, and turned it over to his friend [Haywood \"Bill\" Rivers](/wiki/African_American_art \"African American art\"). Rivers in turn invited a number of his artist friends to join him in turning the studio into a gallery, the only gallery in Paris run by Americans essentially to show the work of U.S. painters, though some others were also shown. The opening of the gallery created considerable excitement and was reported both in the [English language](/wiki/English_language \"English language\") press as well as in a number of French papers. Even [Pablo Picasso](/wiki/Pablo_Picasso \"Pablo Picasso\") is said to have stopped by to see what was going on. In its slightly more than two years of existence more than 50 painters and sculptors exhibited at [Galerie Huit](/wiki/Galerie_Huit \"Galerie Huit\"), including Carmen D'Avino, [Shinkichi Tajiri](/wiki/Shinkichi_Tajiri \"Shinkichi Tajiri\"), [Harold Tovish](http://www.boston.com/bostonglobe/obituaries/articles/2008/03/16/harold_tovish_86_sculptor_was_ambitious_for_excellence/?page=full), [Oscar Chelimsky](http://www.aaa.si.edu/collections/interviews/oral-history-interview-oscar-chelimsky-12248), [Sydney Geist](https://www.nytimes.com/2005/10/21/arts/design/21geist.html), [Al Held](/wiki/Al_Held \"Al Held\"), [Burt Hasan](https://www.nytimes.com/2007/09/13/arts/design/13hasen.html), [George Earl Ortman](/wiki/George_Earl_Ortman \"George Earl Ortman\"), [Raymond Hendler](http://www.raymondhendler.com/), [Robert Rosenwald](https://web.archive.org/web/20101218235941/http://newhopepa.com/artists/rosenwald/about.htm).",
"D'Avino continued his art studies by enrolling at the [Academie de la Grand Chaumiere](/wiki/Academie_de_la_Grand_Chaumiere \"Academie de la Grand Chaumiere\"), and in 1951 returned to North America, and eventually to New York City. He bought himself a 16 mm Pathe camera and made a short film called *Sunday Afternoon*, which won first prize in a competition sponsored by the Creative Film Foundation. The honor of receiving a Creative Film Award was significantly enhanced when [Salvador Dalí](/wiki/Salvador_Dal%C3%AD \"Salvador Dalí\") presented it to D'Avino, who was now embarking on a career in film that would last the rest of his life.",
""
] |
Frames
------
The Raleigh Burner range was split into six different frames:
* Mk1 Burner
* MK1 Pro Burner
* Mk2 Burner
* MK2 Aero Pro Burner
* Team Frame
### Mk1 Burner
This can be identified by the loop tail frame and gusset with two holes in it.
This first version (1982–1983\) was originally available in three variants:
The basic model was available with either a blue or red frame. It had conventional [wire\-spoked wheels](/wiki/Wire-spoked_wheels "Wire-spoked wheels"), matt black front [forks](/wiki/Bicycle_fork "Bicycle fork"), red or blue saddle depending on the frame colour and yellow frame pads, and gold\-coloured [brake calipers](/wiki/Bicycle_brake%23Caliper_brakes "Bicycle brake#Caliper brakes") and levers. Typical UK retail price of the basic model in 1982 was £120\.
Red/yellow Tuff Burner: Red frame, red saddle, yellow grips, Gold Anodised brake levers and brake calipers, yellow pads, yellow Skyway Tuff 2 Mag wheels with red tires.
Blue/Yellow Tuff Burner: Blue frame, blue saddle, blue grips, blue anodised brake levers and brake calipers, yellow pads, yellow Skyway Tuff 2 Mag wheels with Blue tires.
During this period, the next model up was the Tuff Burner. As per the basic model, the Tuff Burner was available with either red or blue frames, and accompanied by matt black forks, red or blue saddle and frame pads, and gold\-coloured brake levers and calipers, the Tuff Burner was distinguished from the basic model by its yellow, Five\-spoke Skyway Tuff II 'Mag' (nylon) wheels (Not to be confused with the later inferior "Mag burner" wheels). Typical UK retail price of the red or blue Tuff Burner in 1982 was £130\.
The top\-of\-the\-line model in the years 1982–1983 was the Super Burner, which was distinguished by its apparently gold paintwork (In fact, the bike's frame was chrome plated and then covered with a transparent, gold\-tinted film). It had black frame pads with gold coloured script. In the years 1982–1983 the Mark 1 Super Burner was available only with conventional wire\-spoked wheels that had gold\-painted rims, although a variant with five\-spoke mag wheels (in black) became available for the 1984 model year. This later 'Mag' version of the Super Burner was known as the Super Tuff Burner. The typical UK retail price of a Super Burner in 1982 was £140\. Also available was an Ultra Burner, available in two colour combinations – silver and blue, and black and gold. In 2019, Raleigh re\-released the Super Tuff Burner as a limited edition product, where it retailed at £600\.
### Mk1\.2 Burner \- AKA Model B
These Burners still had round tubing but several key features changed, among them: plastic pedals replaced the original metal "rat\-traps", rubber grips with two\-tone coloring replaced the foam ones, and tubing was deemed Carbospec 23 with stickers in key locations such as the fork, replacing the regular Raleigh logo with "Competition 23" etc.
### Mk2 Burner
This has an oval profile rather than round as per Mk1\.The looptail was ditched and the frame made longer. A letter 'R' was cut out in the front and rear wheel spindle drop outs.
There were also some Burners built using Japanese Tange or Kozumi frames. These were the Cromo Burner, the Aero Pro and the Team Aero Pro. These were top\-class bikes with quality wheels and brakes.
### MK3 Burner
In 2007 Raleigh started to release anniversary models in limited numbers. Raleigh joined forces with Burner fans to re\-create what was deemed the most memorable Burner (the Aero pro burner in the Raleigh team colours). Mag burners have followed since.
{{Raleigh bicycles}}
[Burner](/wiki/Category:Raleigh_bicycles "Raleigh bicycles")
[Category:Bicycles](/wiki/Category:Bicycles "Bicycles")
|
[
"Frames\n------",
"The Raleigh Burner range was split into six different frames:\n* Mk1 Burner\n* MK1 Pro Burner\n* Mk2 Burner\n* MK2 Aero Pro Burner\n* Team Frame",
"### Mk1 Burner",
"This can be identified by the loop tail frame and gusset with two holes in it.\nThis first version (1982–1983\\) was originally available in three variants: \nThe basic model was available with either a blue or red frame. It had conventional [wire\\-spoked wheels](/wiki/Wire-spoked_wheels \"Wire-spoked wheels\"), matt black front [forks](/wiki/Bicycle_fork \"Bicycle fork\"), red or blue saddle depending on the frame colour and yellow frame pads, and gold\\-coloured [brake calipers](/wiki/Bicycle_brake%23Caliper_brakes \"Bicycle brake#Caliper brakes\") and levers. Typical UK retail price of the basic model in 1982 was £120\\.",
"Red/yellow Tuff Burner: Red frame, red saddle, yellow grips, Gold Anodised brake levers and brake calipers, yellow pads, yellow Skyway Tuff 2 Mag wheels with red tires.",
"Blue/Yellow Tuff Burner: Blue frame, blue saddle, blue grips, blue anodised brake levers and brake calipers, yellow pads, yellow Skyway Tuff 2 Mag wheels with Blue tires.",
"During this period, the next model up was the Tuff Burner. As per the basic model, the Tuff Burner was available with either red or blue frames, and accompanied by matt black forks, red or blue saddle and frame pads, and gold\\-coloured brake levers and calipers, the Tuff Burner was distinguished from the basic model by its yellow, Five\\-spoke Skyway Tuff II 'Mag' (nylon) wheels (Not to be confused with the later inferior \"Mag burner\" wheels). Typical UK retail price of the red or blue Tuff Burner in 1982 was £130\\.",
"The top\\-of\\-the\\-line model in the years 1982–1983 was the Super Burner, which was distinguished by its apparently gold paintwork (In fact, the bike's frame was chrome plated and then covered with a transparent, gold\\-tinted film). It had black frame pads with gold coloured script. In the years 1982–1983 the Mark 1 Super Burner was available only with conventional wire\\-spoked wheels that had gold\\-painted rims, although a variant with five\\-spoke mag wheels (in black) became available for the 1984 model year. This later 'Mag' version of the Super Burner was known as the Super Tuff Burner. The typical UK retail price of a Super Burner in 1982 was £140\\. Also available was an Ultra Burner, available in two colour combinations – silver and blue, and black and gold. In 2019, Raleigh re\\-released the Super Tuff Burner as a limited edition product, where it retailed at £600\\.",
"### Mk1\\.2 Burner \\- AKA Model B",
"These Burners still had round tubing but several key features changed, among them: plastic pedals replaced the original metal \"rat\\-traps\", rubber grips with two\\-tone coloring replaced the foam ones, and tubing was deemed Carbospec 23 with stickers in key locations such as the fork, replacing the regular Raleigh logo with \"Competition 23\" etc.",
"### Mk2 Burner",
"This has an oval profile rather than round as per Mk1\\.The looptail was ditched and the frame made longer. A letter 'R' was cut out in the front and rear wheel spindle drop outs.",
"There were also some Burners built using Japanese Tange or Kozumi frames. These were the Cromo Burner, the Aero Pro and the Team Aero Pro. These were top\\-class bikes with quality wheels and brakes.",
"### MK3 Burner",
"In 2007 Raleigh started to release anniversary models in limited numbers. Raleigh joined forces with Burner fans to re\\-create what was deemed the most memorable Burner (the Aero pro burner in the Raleigh team colours). Mag burners have followed since.",
"{{Raleigh bicycles}}",
"[Burner](/wiki/Category:Raleigh_bicycles \"Raleigh bicycles\")\n[Category:Bicycles](/wiki/Category:Bicycles \"Bicycles\")",
""
] |
### Mk1 Burner
This can be identified by the loop tail frame and gusset with two holes in it.
This first version (1982–1983\) was originally available in three variants:
The basic model was available with either a blue or red frame. It had conventional [wire\-spoked wheels](/wiki/Wire-spoked_wheels "Wire-spoked wheels"), matt black front [forks](/wiki/Bicycle_fork "Bicycle fork"), red or blue saddle depending on the frame colour and yellow frame pads, and gold\-coloured [brake calipers](/wiki/Bicycle_brake%23Caliper_brakes "Bicycle brake#Caliper brakes") and levers. Typical UK retail price of the basic model in 1982 was £120\.
Red/yellow Tuff Burner: Red frame, red saddle, yellow grips, Gold Anodised brake levers and brake calipers, yellow pads, yellow Skyway Tuff 2 Mag wheels with red tires.
Blue/Yellow Tuff Burner: Blue frame, blue saddle, blue grips, blue anodised brake levers and brake calipers, yellow pads, yellow Skyway Tuff 2 Mag wheels with Blue tires.
During this period, the next model up was the Tuff Burner. As per the basic model, the Tuff Burner was available with either red or blue frames, and accompanied by matt black forks, red or blue saddle and frame pads, and gold\-coloured brake levers and calipers, the Tuff Burner was distinguished from the basic model by its yellow, Five\-spoke Skyway Tuff II 'Mag' (nylon) wheels (Not to be confused with the later inferior "Mag burner" wheels). Typical UK retail price of the red or blue Tuff Burner in 1982 was £130\.
The top\-of\-the\-line model in the years 1982–1983 was the Super Burner, which was distinguished by its apparently gold paintwork (In fact, the bike's frame was chrome plated and then covered with a transparent, gold\-tinted film). It had black frame pads with gold coloured script. In the years 1982–1983 the Mark 1 Super Burner was available only with conventional wire\-spoked wheels that had gold\-painted rims, although a variant with five\-spoke mag wheels (in black) became available for the 1984 model year. This later 'Mag' version of the Super Burner was known as the Super Tuff Burner. The typical UK retail price of a Super Burner in 1982 was £140\. Also available was an Ultra Burner, available in two colour combinations – silver and blue, and black and gold. In 2019, Raleigh re\-released the Super Tuff Burner as a limited edition product, where it retailed at £600\.
|
[
"### Mk1 Burner",
"This can be identified by the loop tail frame and gusset with two holes in it.\nThis first version (1982–1983\\) was originally available in three variants: \nThe basic model was available with either a blue or red frame. It had conventional [wire\\-spoked wheels](/wiki/Wire-spoked_wheels \"Wire-spoked wheels\"), matt black front [forks](/wiki/Bicycle_fork \"Bicycle fork\"), red or blue saddle depending on the frame colour and yellow frame pads, and gold\\-coloured [brake calipers](/wiki/Bicycle_brake%23Caliper_brakes \"Bicycle brake#Caliper brakes\") and levers. Typical UK retail price of the basic model in 1982 was £120\\.",
"Red/yellow Tuff Burner: Red frame, red saddle, yellow grips, Gold Anodised brake levers and brake calipers, yellow pads, yellow Skyway Tuff 2 Mag wheels with red tires.",
"Blue/Yellow Tuff Burner: Blue frame, blue saddle, blue grips, blue anodised brake levers and brake calipers, yellow pads, yellow Skyway Tuff 2 Mag wheels with Blue tires.",
"During this period, the next model up was the Tuff Burner. As per the basic model, the Tuff Burner was available with either red or blue frames, and accompanied by matt black forks, red or blue saddle and frame pads, and gold\\-coloured brake levers and calipers, the Tuff Burner was distinguished from the basic model by its yellow, Five\\-spoke Skyway Tuff II 'Mag' (nylon) wheels (Not to be confused with the later inferior \"Mag burner\" wheels). Typical UK retail price of the red or blue Tuff Burner in 1982 was £130\\.",
"The top\\-of\\-the\\-line model in the years 1982–1983 was the Super Burner, which was distinguished by its apparently gold paintwork (In fact, the bike's frame was chrome plated and then covered with a transparent, gold\\-tinted film). It had black frame pads with gold coloured script. In the years 1982–1983 the Mark 1 Super Burner was available only with conventional wire\\-spoked wheels that had gold\\-painted rims, although a variant with five\\-spoke mag wheels (in black) became available for the 1984 model year. This later 'Mag' version of the Super Burner was known as the Super Tuff Burner. The typical UK retail price of a Super Burner in 1982 was £140\\. Also available was an Ultra Burner, available in two colour combinations – silver and blue, and black and gold. In 2019, Raleigh re\\-released the Super Tuff Burner as a limited edition product, where it retailed at £600\\.",
""
] |
Background
----------
In the summer and fall of 1868, continuing their annual seasonal raiding activities between the [Arkansas](/wiki/Arkansas_River "Arkansas River") and [Platte Rivers](/wiki/Platte_River "Platte River") in what was also the region of their best buffalo hunting, bands of [Cheyenne](/wiki/Cheyenne "Cheyenne") and [Arapaho](/wiki/Arapaho "Arapaho") Indians conducted raids against whites throughout the western [Great Plains](/wiki/Great_Plains "Great Plains") in [Kansas](/wiki/Kansas "Kansas"). In addition, they found incentive in the warfare that had been waged specifically against their clans by the military in 1867 and by memories of such atrocities as the [Sand Creek massacre](/wiki/Sand_Creek_massacre "Sand Creek massacre"). Finally, the westward movement of the [transcontinental railroad](/wiki/Transcontinental_railroad "Transcontinental railroad") had stretched all the way across Kansas, bringing with it many permanent white settlements.
During the period 1867–1868, the Cheyenne were in schism, with those advocating peace (possibly a majority) retreating south out of Kansas and the younger, intractable warrior societies continuing to raid. The latter during the summer of 1867 had successfully avoided a large expedition commanded by Maj. Gen. [Winfield S. Hancock](/wiki/Winfield_S._Hancock "Winfield S. Hancock") and in the process had garnered sympathy from Americans in the East who supported peaceful negotiations after Hancock attempted to force the Cheyenne to submit and burned their abandoned villages when they did not.
In August 1868, General [Philip Sheridan](/wiki/Philip_Sheridan "Philip Sheridan") replaced Hancock in command of the [Department of the Missouri](/wiki/Department_of_the_Missouri "Department of the Missouri") and was asked by acting Governor Frank Hall of [Colorado](/wiki/Colorado "Colorado") for assistance after 79 settlers were killed in repeated attacks on farms, ranches, way stations, and travel routes. Sheridan's main effort was to be made south of the Arkansas during a winter campaign in the [Indian Territory](/wiki/Indian_Territory "Indian Territory"), but he remained active in Kansas during the warmer weather, patrolling the Arkansas with the [7th Cavalry](/wiki/7th_Cavalry_Regiment_%28United_States%29 "7th Cavalry Regiment (United States)") and the area between the [Republican](/wiki/Republican_River "Republican River") and [Smoky Hill Rivers](/wiki/Smoky_Hill_River "Smoky Hill River") using the [10th Cavalry](/wiki/10th_Cavalry_Regiment_%28United_States%29 "10th Cavalry Regiment (United States)").
### Unit formation
As the Indians fought dispersed battles composed of small bands of warriors all over the frontier, U.S. Army troops and units were at a premium. General Sheridan decided to try an unusual tactic. He ordered his aide, Major [George Alexander Forsyth](/wiki/George_Alexander_Forsyth "George Alexander Forsyth") of the [9th Cavalry](/wiki/9th_Cavalry_Regiment_%28United_States%29 "9th Cavalry Regiment (United States)"), a [Civil War](/wiki/American_Civil_War "American Civil War") veteran, to raise a company of "fifty first\-class hardy frontiersmen, to be used as scouts against the hostile Indians."{{cite book\|url\=http://www.history.army.mil/books/AMH\-V1/index.htm\|title\=American Military History Volume 1\|publisher\=\[\[United States Army Center of Military History]]\|year\=2005\|editor\=Richard W. Stewart\|series\=Army Lineage Series\|chapter\=Winning the West: The Army in the Indian Wars 1865–1890\|id\=CMH Pub 30\-21\|chapter\-url\=http://www.history.army.mil/books/AMH\-V1/ch14\.htm\|access\-date\=15 July 2010\|archive\-date\=6 July 2014\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140706132423/http://www.history.army.mil/books/AMH\-V1/index.htm\|url\-status\=dead}} They were to seek out and engage the marauders using their tactics, rather than those of the traditional Army. As the scouts were civilians, Forsyth's orders authorized him to "enter into such articles of agreement with these men as will compel obedience."{{cite web \|title\= Forsyth Scouts, Beecher Island 17\-25 September 1868, Yuma County, Colorado \|url\= https://abuffalosoldier.com/forsyth.htm \|website\= The New Buffalo Soldiers \|access\-date\= 2024\-08\-31 }}
At [Fort Harker](/wiki/Fort_Harker_%28Kansas%29 "Fort Harker (Kansas)"), [Fort Hays](/wiki/Fort_Hays "Fort Hays"), and Fort Wallace, Forsyth recruited over 50 civilian scouts, "selected from the best marksmen and hunters on the plains,"{{cite book \|title\=Ups and Downs of an Army Officer \|last\=Armes \|first\=George Augustus \|year\=1900 \|publisher\=C. L. Taylor Publishing \|location\=Washington D. C. \|page\= \[https://archive.org/details/upsanddownsanar00armegoog/page/272/mode/2up?q\=forsyth 272] \|url\=https://archive.org/details/upsanddownsanar00armegoog \|quote\= \|access\-date\= 2024\-08\-31}} and armed them with [Spencer repeating rifles](/wiki/Spencer_repeating_rifle "Spencer repeating rifle"). Forsyth's executive officer was Lieutenant Fredrick H. Beecher of the [3rd Infantry](/wiki/3rd_Infantry_Regiment_%28United_States%29 "3rd Infantry Regiment (United States)"), a decorated veteran of the [Battle of Gettysburg](/wiki/Battle_of_Gettysburg "Battle of Gettysburg"). Also attached was Acting Assistant Surgeon J. H. Mooers, a civilian contract surgeon with a practice in [Hays City](/wiki/Hays%2C_Kansas "Hays, Kansas").
Forsyth's company rode northwest nearly to Nebraska, then turned southwest and reached [Fort Wallace](/wiki/Fort_Wallace "Fort Wallace") the night of 5 September without finding any trace of Indians.
|
[
"Background\n----------",
"In the summer and fall of 1868, continuing their annual seasonal raiding activities between the [Arkansas](/wiki/Arkansas_River \"Arkansas River\") and [Platte Rivers](/wiki/Platte_River \"Platte River\") in what was also the region of their best buffalo hunting, bands of [Cheyenne](/wiki/Cheyenne \"Cheyenne\") and [Arapaho](/wiki/Arapaho \"Arapaho\") Indians conducted raids against whites throughout the western [Great Plains](/wiki/Great_Plains \"Great Plains\") in [Kansas](/wiki/Kansas \"Kansas\"). In addition, they found incentive in the warfare that had been waged specifically against their clans by the military in 1867 and by memories of such atrocities as the [Sand Creek massacre](/wiki/Sand_Creek_massacre \"Sand Creek massacre\"). Finally, the westward movement of the [transcontinental railroad](/wiki/Transcontinental_railroad \"Transcontinental railroad\") had stretched all the way across Kansas, bringing with it many permanent white settlements.",
"During the period 1867–1868, the Cheyenne were in schism, with those advocating peace (possibly a majority) retreating south out of Kansas and the younger, intractable warrior societies continuing to raid. The latter during the summer of 1867 had successfully avoided a large expedition commanded by Maj. Gen. [Winfield S. Hancock](/wiki/Winfield_S._Hancock \"Winfield S. Hancock\") and in the process had garnered sympathy from Americans in the East who supported peaceful negotiations after Hancock attempted to force the Cheyenne to submit and burned their abandoned villages when they did not.",
"In August 1868, General [Philip Sheridan](/wiki/Philip_Sheridan \"Philip Sheridan\") replaced Hancock in command of the [Department of the Missouri](/wiki/Department_of_the_Missouri \"Department of the Missouri\") and was asked by acting Governor Frank Hall of [Colorado](/wiki/Colorado \"Colorado\") for assistance after 79 settlers were killed in repeated attacks on farms, ranches, way stations, and travel routes. Sheridan's main effort was to be made south of the Arkansas during a winter campaign in the [Indian Territory](/wiki/Indian_Territory \"Indian Territory\"), but he remained active in Kansas during the warmer weather, patrolling the Arkansas with the [7th Cavalry](/wiki/7th_Cavalry_Regiment_%28United_States%29 \"7th Cavalry Regiment (United States)\") and the area between the [Republican](/wiki/Republican_River \"Republican River\") and [Smoky Hill Rivers](/wiki/Smoky_Hill_River \"Smoky Hill River\") using the [10th Cavalry](/wiki/10th_Cavalry_Regiment_%28United_States%29 \"10th Cavalry Regiment (United States)\").",
"### Unit formation",
"As the Indians fought dispersed battles composed of small bands of warriors all over the frontier, U.S. Army troops and units were at a premium. General Sheridan decided to try an unusual tactic. He ordered his aide, Major [George Alexander Forsyth](/wiki/George_Alexander_Forsyth \"George Alexander Forsyth\") of the [9th Cavalry](/wiki/9th_Cavalry_Regiment_%28United_States%29 \"9th Cavalry Regiment (United States)\"), a [Civil War](/wiki/American_Civil_War \"American Civil War\") veteran, to raise a company of \"fifty first\\-class hardy frontiersmen, to be used as scouts against the hostile Indians.\"{{cite book\\|url\\=http://www.history.army.mil/books/AMH\\-V1/index.htm\\|title\\=American Military History Volume 1\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[United States Army Center of Military History]]\\|year\\=2005\\|editor\\=Richard W. Stewart\\|series\\=Army Lineage Series\\|chapter\\=Winning the West: The Army in the Indian Wars 1865–1890\\|id\\=CMH Pub 30\\-21\\|chapter\\-url\\=http://www.history.army.mil/books/AMH\\-V1/ch14\\.htm\\|access\\-date\\=15 July 2010\\|archive\\-date\\=6 July 2014\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140706132423/http://www.history.army.mil/books/AMH\\-V1/index.htm\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} They were to seek out and engage the marauders using their tactics, rather than those of the traditional Army. As the scouts were civilians, Forsyth's orders authorized him to \"enter into such articles of agreement with these men as will compel obedience.\"{{cite web \\|title\\= Forsyth Scouts, Beecher Island 17\\-25 September 1868, Yuma County, Colorado \\|url\\= https://abuffalosoldier.com/forsyth.htm \\|website\\= The New Buffalo Soldiers \\|access\\-date\\= 2024\\-08\\-31 }}",
"At [Fort Harker](/wiki/Fort_Harker_%28Kansas%29 \"Fort Harker (Kansas)\"), [Fort Hays](/wiki/Fort_Hays \"Fort Hays\"), and Fort Wallace, Forsyth recruited over 50 civilian scouts, \"selected from the best marksmen and hunters on the plains,\"{{cite book \\|title\\=Ups and Downs of an Army Officer \\|last\\=Armes \\|first\\=George Augustus \\|year\\=1900 \\|publisher\\=C. L. Taylor Publishing \\|location\\=Washington D. C. \\|page\\= \\[https://archive.org/details/upsanddownsanar00armegoog/page/272/mode/2up?q\\=forsyth 272] \\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/upsanddownsanar00armegoog \\|quote\\= \\|access\\-date\\= 2024\\-08\\-31}} and armed them with [Spencer repeating rifles](/wiki/Spencer_repeating_rifle \"Spencer repeating rifle\"). Forsyth's executive officer was Lieutenant Fredrick H. Beecher of the [3rd Infantry](/wiki/3rd_Infantry_Regiment_%28United_States%29 \"3rd Infantry Regiment (United States)\"), a decorated veteran of the [Battle of Gettysburg](/wiki/Battle_of_Gettysburg \"Battle of Gettysburg\"). Also attached was Acting Assistant Surgeon J. H. Mooers, a civilian contract surgeon with a practice in [Hays City](/wiki/Hays%2C_Kansas \"Hays, Kansas\").",
"Forsyth's company rode northwest nearly to Nebraska, then turned southwest and reached [Fort Wallace](/wiki/Fort_Wallace \"Fort Wallace\") the night of 5 September without finding any trace of Indians.",
""
] |
The engagement
--------------
During the morning of 10 September, the troops at Fort Wallace received information that Indians had attacked a freighter's train {{convert\|13\|mi}} east of Ft. Wallace, near the railhead (at that time) of the [Kansas Pacific Railroad](/wiki/Kansas_Pacific_Railway "Kansas Pacific Railway"), which was the since\-abandoned town of [Sheridan](/wiki/List_of_ghost_towns_in_Kansas "List of ghost towns in Kansas") in [Logan County, Kansas](/wiki/Logan_County%2C_Kansas "Logan County, Kansas").{{cite web\|last\=Kansas Pacific Railway\|title\=Hand Book for the Kansas Pacific Railway\|url\=http://www.kansasmemory.org/item/209739/page/16\|year\=1870\|access\-date\=29 May 2012}} [Brevet](/wiki/Brevet_%28military%29 "Brevet (military)") [Colonel](/wiki/Colonel "Colonel") Forsyth and his group of scouts departed Fort Wallace with orders to counter the raid. Col. Forsyth took his command to investigate. They learned that a force of about 25 Indians had taken part in the attack. They followed their trail into what is now [Yuma County, Colorado](/wiki/Yuma_County%2C_Colorado "Yuma County, Colorado").{{cite web\|last\=Zion\|first\=Lee C.\|title\=Forsyth Scouts, Beecher Island 17–25 September 1868\|url\=http://abuffalosoldier.com/forsyth.htm\|work\=History of the Regiment\|access\-date\=14 May 2011}}{{Better source needed\|date\=June 2021}}
The trail was heavily beaten, indicating that the opposing force considerably outnumbered the scouts, but the unit nonetheless pressed on.{{Sfn\|Nevin\|1973\|p\=19}} Around dusk on the 16th, Forsyth and his men arrived in the vicinity of the "Dry Fork of the Republican River" (reported at the time as "Delaware Creek"—now the [Arikaree River](/wiki/Arikaree_River "Arikaree River")) and made camp on the south bank. They camped only {{convert\|12\|mi}} downstream from a large encampment of two Lakota villages, one of [Cheyenne](/wiki/Cheyenne "Cheyenne") [Dog Soldiers](/wiki/Dog_Soldiers "Dog Soldiers") (led by [Roman Nose](/wiki/Roman_Nose "Roman Nose")) and a few lodges of [Arapaho](/wiki/Arapaho_people "Arapaho people").{{cite web\|last\=Smallbone\|first\=Chris\|title\=1865\-9 Clearing the Central Plains for the Railroad\|url\=http://www.nativeamerican.co.uk/fullmedicine.html\|date\=March 2006\|access\-date\=14 May 2011}}{{Sfn\|Nevin\|1973\|pp\=19, 21}} A group of Sioux warriors soon announced the arrival of Forsyth's men.{{Sfn\|Nevin\|1973\|p\=21}}
### Indian surprise thwarted
By the morning of the 17th, hundreds of Indians (variously estimated to number 200, 600, or 1,000\){{cite web\|last\=Sheldon\|first\=Addison Erwin\|year\=1913\|title\=The Battle of Beecher Island\|url\=http://www.legendsofamerica.com/OZ\-BeecherIsland.html\|url\-status\=live\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090527191622/http://www.legendsofamerica.com/OZ\-BeecherIsland.html\|archive\-date\=27 May 2009\|access\-date\=11 May 2011}}{{cite journal\|last\=Lockard\|first\=F. M.\|date\=September 1927\|title\=A Version of a Famous Battle\|url\=http://digital.library.okstate.edu/chronicles/v005/v005p297\.html\|url\-status\=live\|publisher\=Chronicles of Oklahoma\|volume\=5\|issue\=3\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110523213059/http://digital.library.okstate.edu/Chronicles/v005/v005p297\.html\|archive\-date\=23 May 2011\|access\-date\=14 May 2011}} had positioned themselves among the bluffs around Forsyth's camp. A group of eight tried to stampede the soldiers' horses, and Forsyth heard their war cries.{{Sfn\|Nevin\|1973\|p\=21}} Soldiers thwarted them, while the rest mounted their horses. Dozens of Indians galloped towards Forsyth on the riverbed opposite the way he and his men had entered it.{{Sfn\|Nevin\|1973\|p\=21}} These were driven back and Forsyth directed his men to cross the river's shallows to [a sandbar](/wiki/Beecher_Island "Beecher Island"), where they tied their horses to bushes to form a barricade.{{Sfn\|Nevin\|1973\|p\=21}}
The initial assault by the Indians was cut down by the accurate, quick\-firing [Spencer rifles](/wiki/Spencer_repeating_rifle "Spencer repeating rifle"). The combined force of [Oglala Sioux](/wiki/Lakota_people "Lakota people") and Cheyenne Indians were surprised and changed their tactics.
During the early morning of the first day of battle, small parties of Indians dashed up to the sand bar on horseback several times, but they did little damage to the scouts. The scouts killed their horses for [breastworks](/wiki/Breastwork_%28fortification%29 "Breastwork (fortification)") and dug pits into the soft sand behind them.{{cite web\|title\=The Old Trail Town Cemetery\|url\=http://www.ultimatewyoming.com/sectionpages/sec2/extras/oldtrailtowncemetery.html\|publisher\=Ultimate Wyoming Historical Site\|access\-date\=14 May 2011\|archive\-date\=24 July 2011\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110724093021/http://www.ultimatewyoming.com/sectionpages/sec2/extras/oldtrailtowncemetery.html\|url\-status\=dead}} When the scouts opened fire, the Indians attacked the island on both sides. Later they crawled through the grass and shot through the grass. Several scouts who were killed or wounded were hit by the Indian snipers hidden in the grass. The Indians surrounded the island and repeatedly attacked the scouts. Three scouts hidden in hole on the riverbank shot several Indians from the shore.
[thumb\|Roman nose is shot (from an 1895 book)](/wiki/File:The_death_of_Roman_Nose.jpg "The death of Roman Nose.jpg")
Roman Nose initially abstained from the battle, believing he would die if he fought that day because he had violated a protective taboo. After another Indian accused him of cowardice, he decided to lead the next attack.{{Sfn\|Nevin\|1973\|p\=21}} When Forsyth saw the charge coming, he ordered his men to hold their fire until the Indians were 50 yards away.{{Sfn\|Nevin\|1973\|pp\=21–22}} After several [volleys](/wiki/Volley_fire "Volley fire"), Roman Nose was shot in the back{{Sfn\|Nevin\|1973\|p\=22}} on the riverbank at the west end of the sand bar. He jumped back into the grass where other warriors retrieved him. He died at 10 pm that night.
Many other warriors fell, while four of the scouts including Beecher, Acting Surgeon J.H. Mooers, George W. Culver, and William Wilson were killed. Another 15 scouts were wounded, including Colonel Forsyth. Forsyth had received three gunshot wounds: one glancing his head, another shattering his left shin, and a ball was lodged against his right [femoral artery](/wiki/Femoral_artery "Femoral artery").{{Sfn\|Nevin\|1973\|p\=22}}
### Scouts sent for relief
Before dawn on the second day, Forsyth said, "Some one must go to [Wallace](/wiki/Fort_Wallace "Fort Wallace") for assistance." Sharp Grover, who was chief of scouts, said "It is impossible to get out." Then Stilwell came forward and said, "Let me choose the man to go with me and I will go." Grover said, "Jack is too young and inexperienced, he can't get through." Ft. Wallace was about {{convert\|70\|mi}} to the south east. But Forsyth tore off the fly leaf out of his daybook, wrote a note to Col. Bankhead at Ft. Wallace, and gave it to [Simpson "Jack" Stilwell](/wiki/Simpson_E._Stilwell "Simpson E. Stilwell").{{cite web\|last\=Ahlquist\|first\=Diron Lacina\|title\=Simpson Everett "Jack" Stilwell\|url\=http://www.usgennet.org/usa/ok/topic/lawmen/outlaws/stilwell.htm\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100607121237/http://www.usgennet.org/usa/ok/topic/lawmen/outlaws/stilwell.htm\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-date\=7 June 2010\|publisher\=Lawmen \& Outlaws\|access\-date\=12 May 2011\|year\=2003}}
Stilwell chose Pierre Trudeau to come with him. They crawled for {{convert\|3\|mi}} the first day before they took cover in the daylight. They were forced to evade Indians for four days during their journey.{{cite book\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=NCObM3OAPuwC \|last\=Thrapp\|first\=Dan L.\|title\=Encyclopedia of Frontier Biography, Volume 3: P\-Z\|year\=1991\|publisher\=University of Nebraska Press\|location\=Lincoln, Nebraska\|isbn\=978\-0\-8032\-9420\-2\|edition\= Bison Book print}}{{rp\|1370}} They had only horse meat for food and when it spoiled they got sick. Trudeau was so weak he could only stand with assistance, but after resting and traveling for four days they reached Fort Wallace. Two nights after Stilwell and Trudeau left, Scouts John J. Donovan and Allison J. Pliley left the island to seek relief. It was unknown if Scouts Stilwell and Trudeau had made it through the Indian lines. On the fourth day of the battle, Forsyth asked his men to extract the bullet; when they refused, he used his own razor to remove it.{{Sfn\|Nevin\|1973\|pp\=22, 24}} Others thought Forsyth would die of his wounds before they would be rescued.
File:The Battle of Beecher Island.jpg\|''Defending the Island''\<br/\> One soldier and three horses have fallen, while others continue to wage the battle.
File:U. S. Cavalry soldiers during the Battle of Beecher Island.jpg\|''In the pits''\<br/\> An officer hands a wounded soldier water as another man drinks from a pool, while a third prepares to fire his rifle.
File:Roman Nose.jpg\|''Chief Roman Nose''\<br/\> Roman Nose, on horseback, taunts the U.S. soldiers as a group of spectators on horseback cheer him on.
File:The Rescue.jpg\|''The Rescue''\<br/\> A soldier offers aid to his wounded comrade after the Battle of Beecher Island. The Harper's article states that this is Bvt. Col. \[\[Louis H. Carpenter]] greeting Lt. Col. G. A. Forsyth who was twice wounded. Notice officer shoulder boards.
### Relieved
Three rescue parties departed following different routes due to the uncertainty of the Scout's location. The first was [Lieutenant Colonel](/wiki/Lieutenant_Colonel "Lieutenant Colonel") [Louis H. Carpenter](/wiki/Louis_H._Carpenter "Louis H. Carpenter") leading Troop H \& I of the [10th Cavalry Regiment](/wiki/10th_Cavalry_Regiment_%28United_States%29 "10th Cavalry Regiment (United States)") ([Buffalo Soldiers](/wiki/Buffalo_Soldiers "Buffalo Soldiers")) with Captain Baldwin. Major Brisbin in command of two troops of the [2nd Cavalry](/wiki/2d_Stryker_Cavalry_Regiment "2d Stryker Cavalry Regiment") took another route. Captain Bankhead, went from Fort Wallace with about 100 men of the [5th Infantry](/wiki/5th_Infantry_Regiment_%28United_States%29 "5th Infantry Regiment (United States)"), took a third route.{{Cite book \|last\=Carpenter \|first\=Louis Henry, Brig. Gen, retired \|title\=Carpenter's Recollections: The Battle of Beecher Island \|publisher\=Kansas State Historical Society \|access\-date\=1 August 2009 \|year\=1912 \|url\=http://abuffalosoldier.com/carpenterreco.htm }} Letter written in 1912 from Carpenter to Mr. George Martin of the Kansas State Historical Society.
About daybreak on 25 September, Lt.Col. Carpenter's Troops H \& I were intercepted on the plains by Scout John Donovan and four riders he had recruited after reaching Fort Wallace and starting back for the battlefield. They were the first to arrive and relieve Forsyth's unit. Carpenter later received the [Medal of Honor](/wiki/Medal_of_Honor "Medal of Honor") for his relief of Forsyth's command and for his actions during the [battle on Beaver Creek.](/wiki/Louis_H._Carpenter%23Battle_of_Beaver_Creek "Louis H. Carpenter#Battle of Beaver Creek")
Over fifty dead horses greeted them with their putrid smell. Forsyth's command had been out of rations and forced to survive on the decaying horse flesh.{{Sfn\|Nevin\|1973\|p\=24}} The air around Forsyth was completely filled with a great stench and was swarming with black flies feasting on the rotting defensive line of dead horses. The square sandy hole, where Forsyth was lying was half encircled by dead mounts and would have become his grave if help had not arrived when it did. Other gun pits, interconnected, contained the living and the dead of his unit.
Carpenter immediately secured the area and pitched a number of tents up wind nearby. The wounded men were carefully carried there for more healthy air and the dead men were buried to reduce the stench and possibility of disease. Twenty\-six hours later, Carpenter sent a detachment to look for Bankhead's unit. They found Stilwell and Trudeau several miles in advance of Bankhead. Captain Bankhead followed bringing with him the two troops of the 2nd Cavalry.
The following day, a fifth scout died of his wounds and was buried on the battlefield with the other four scouts. Walter Armstrong died in a hospital later. Beecher, Culver, Farley, Wilson and Doctor Mooers were buried on the island. Sixteen others were wounded. On 27 September, the Forsyth Scouts departed for Fort Wallace, escorted by the 10th Cavalry.
|
[
"The engagement\n--------------",
"During the morning of 10 September, the troops at Fort Wallace received information that Indians had attacked a freighter's train {{convert\\|13\\|mi}} east of Ft. Wallace, near the railhead (at that time) of the [Kansas Pacific Railroad](/wiki/Kansas_Pacific_Railway \"Kansas Pacific Railway\"), which was the since\\-abandoned town of [Sheridan](/wiki/List_of_ghost_towns_in_Kansas \"List of ghost towns in Kansas\") in [Logan County, Kansas](/wiki/Logan_County%2C_Kansas \"Logan County, Kansas\").{{cite web\\|last\\=Kansas Pacific Railway\\|title\\=Hand Book for the Kansas Pacific Railway\\|url\\=http://www.kansasmemory.org/item/209739/page/16\\|year\\=1870\\|access\\-date\\=29 May 2012}} [Brevet](/wiki/Brevet_%28military%29 \"Brevet (military)\") [Colonel](/wiki/Colonel \"Colonel\") Forsyth and his group of scouts departed Fort Wallace with orders to counter the raid. Col. Forsyth took his command to investigate. They learned that a force of about 25 Indians had taken part in the attack. They followed their trail into what is now [Yuma County, Colorado](/wiki/Yuma_County%2C_Colorado \"Yuma County, Colorado\").{{cite web\\|last\\=Zion\\|first\\=Lee C.\\|title\\=Forsyth Scouts, Beecher Island 17–25 September 1868\\|url\\=http://abuffalosoldier.com/forsyth.htm\\|work\\=History of the Regiment\\|access\\-date\\=14 May 2011}}{{Better source needed\\|date\\=June 2021}}",
"The trail was heavily beaten, indicating that the opposing force considerably outnumbered the scouts, but the unit nonetheless pressed on.{{Sfn\\|Nevin\\|1973\\|p\\=19}} Around dusk on the 16th, Forsyth and his men arrived in the vicinity of the \"Dry Fork of the Republican River\" (reported at the time as \"Delaware Creek\"—now the [Arikaree River](/wiki/Arikaree_River \"Arikaree River\")) and made camp on the south bank. They camped only {{convert\\|12\\|mi}} downstream from a large encampment of two Lakota villages, one of [Cheyenne](/wiki/Cheyenne \"Cheyenne\") [Dog Soldiers](/wiki/Dog_Soldiers \"Dog Soldiers\") (led by [Roman Nose](/wiki/Roman_Nose \"Roman Nose\")) and a few lodges of [Arapaho](/wiki/Arapaho_people \"Arapaho people\").{{cite web\\|last\\=Smallbone\\|first\\=Chris\\|title\\=1865\\-9 Clearing the Central Plains for the Railroad\\|url\\=http://www.nativeamerican.co.uk/fullmedicine.html\\|date\\=March 2006\\|access\\-date\\=14 May 2011}}{{Sfn\\|Nevin\\|1973\\|pp\\=19, 21}} A group of Sioux warriors soon announced the arrival of Forsyth's men.{{Sfn\\|Nevin\\|1973\\|p\\=21}}",
"### Indian surprise thwarted",
"By the morning of the 17th, hundreds of Indians (variously estimated to number 200, 600, or 1,000\\){{cite web\\|last\\=Sheldon\\|first\\=Addison Erwin\\|year\\=1913\\|title\\=The Battle of Beecher Island\\|url\\=http://www.legendsofamerica.com/OZ\\-BeecherIsland.html\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090527191622/http://www.legendsofamerica.com/OZ\\-BeecherIsland.html\\|archive\\-date\\=27 May 2009\\|access\\-date\\=11 May 2011}}{{cite journal\\|last\\=Lockard\\|first\\=F. M.\\|date\\=September 1927\\|title\\=A Version of a Famous Battle\\|url\\=http://digital.library.okstate.edu/chronicles/v005/v005p297\\.html\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|publisher\\=Chronicles of Oklahoma\\|volume\\=5\\|issue\\=3\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110523213059/http://digital.library.okstate.edu/Chronicles/v005/v005p297\\.html\\|archive\\-date\\=23 May 2011\\|access\\-date\\=14 May 2011}} had positioned themselves among the bluffs around Forsyth's camp. A group of eight tried to stampede the soldiers' horses, and Forsyth heard their war cries.{{Sfn\\|Nevin\\|1973\\|p\\=21}} Soldiers thwarted them, while the rest mounted their horses. Dozens of Indians galloped towards Forsyth on the riverbed opposite the way he and his men had entered it.{{Sfn\\|Nevin\\|1973\\|p\\=21}} These were driven back and Forsyth directed his men to cross the river's shallows to [a sandbar](/wiki/Beecher_Island \"Beecher Island\"), where they tied their horses to bushes to form a barricade.{{Sfn\\|Nevin\\|1973\\|p\\=21}}",
"The initial assault by the Indians was cut down by the accurate, quick\\-firing [Spencer rifles](/wiki/Spencer_repeating_rifle \"Spencer repeating rifle\"). The combined force of [Oglala Sioux](/wiki/Lakota_people \"Lakota people\") and Cheyenne Indians were surprised and changed their tactics.",
"During the early morning of the first day of battle, small parties of Indians dashed up to the sand bar on horseback several times, but they did little damage to the scouts. The scouts killed their horses for [breastworks](/wiki/Breastwork_%28fortification%29 \"Breastwork (fortification)\") and dug pits into the soft sand behind them.{{cite web\\|title\\=The Old Trail Town Cemetery\\|url\\=http://www.ultimatewyoming.com/sectionpages/sec2/extras/oldtrailtowncemetery.html\\|publisher\\=Ultimate Wyoming Historical Site\\|access\\-date\\=14 May 2011\\|archive\\-date\\=24 July 2011\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110724093021/http://www.ultimatewyoming.com/sectionpages/sec2/extras/oldtrailtowncemetery.html\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} When the scouts opened fire, the Indians attacked the island on both sides. Later they crawled through the grass and shot through the grass. Several scouts who were killed or wounded were hit by the Indian snipers hidden in the grass. The Indians surrounded the island and repeatedly attacked the scouts. Three scouts hidden in hole on the riverbank shot several Indians from the shore.\n[thumb\\|Roman nose is shot (from an 1895 book)](/wiki/File:The_death_of_Roman_Nose.jpg \"The death of Roman Nose.jpg\")\nRoman Nose initially abstained from the battle, believing he would die if he fought that day because he had violated a protective taboo. After another Indian accused him of cowardice, he decided to lead the next attack.{{Sfn\\|Nevin\\|1973\\|p\\=21}} When Forsyth saw the charge coming, he ordered his men to hold their fire until the Indians were 50 yards away.{{Sfn\\|Nevin\\|1973\\|pp\\=21–22}} After several [volleys](/wiki/Volley_fire \"Volley fire\"), Roman Nose was shot in the back{{Sfn\\|Nevin\\|1973\\|p\\=22}} on the riverbank at the west end of the sand bar. He jumped back into the grass where other warriors retrieved him. He died at 10 pm that night.",
"Many other warriors fell, while four of the scouts including Beecher, Acting Surgeon J.H. Mooers, George W. Culver, and William Wilson were killed. Another 15 scouts were wounded, including Colonel Forsyth. Forsyth had received three gunshot wounds: one glancing his head, another shattering his left shin, and a ball was lodged against his right [femoral artery](/wiki/Femoral_artery \"Femoral artery\").{{Sfn\\|Nevin\\|1973\\|p\\=22}}",
"### Scouts sent for relief",
"Before dawn on the second day, Forsyth said, \"Some one must go to [Wallace](/wiki/Fort_Wallace \"Fort Wallace\") for assistance.\" Sharp Grover, who was chief of scouts, said \"It is impossible to get out.\" Then Stilwell came forward and said, \"Let me choose the man to go with me and I will go.\" Grover said, \"Jack is too young and inexperienced, he can't get through.\" Ft. Wallace was about {{convert\\|70\\|mi}} to the south east. But Forsyth tore off the fly leaf out of his daybook, wrote a note to Col. Bankhead at Ft. Wallace, and gave it to [Simpson \"Jack\" Stilwell](/wiki/Simpson_E._Stilwell \"Simpson E. Stilwell\").{{cite web\\|last\\=Ahlquist\\|first\\=Diron Lacina\\|title\\=Simpson Everett \"Jack\" Stilwell\\|url\\=http://www.usgennet.org/usa/ok/topic/lawmen/outlaws/stilwell.htm\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100607121237/http://www.usgennet.org/usa/ok/topic/lawmen/outlaws/stilwell.htm\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-date\\=7 June 2010\\|publisher\\=Lawmen \\& Outlaws\\|access\\-date\\=12 May 2011\\|year\\=2003}}",
"Stilwell chose Pierre Trudeau to come with him. They crawled for {{convert\\|3\\|mi}} the first day before they took cover in the daylight. They were forced to evade Indians for four days during their journey.{{cite book\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=NCObM3OAPuwC \\|last\\=Thrapp\\|first\\=Dan L.\\|title\\=Encyclopedia of Frontier Biography, Volume 3: P\\-Z\\|year\\=1991\\|publisher\\=University of Nebraska Press\\|location\\=Lincoln, Nebraska\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-8032\\-9420\\-2\\|edition\\= Bison Book print}}{{rp\\|1370}} They had only horse meat for food and when it spoiled they got sick. Trudeau was so weak he could only stand with assistance, but after resting and traveling for four days they reached Fort Wallace. Two nights after Stilwell and Trudeau left, Scouts John J. Donovan and Allison J. Pliley left the island to seek relief. It was unknown if Scouts Stilwell and Trudeau had made it through the Indian lines. On the fourth day of the battle, Forsyth asked his men to extract the bullet; when they refused, he used his own razor to remove it.{{Sfn\\|Nevin\\|1973\\|pp\\=22, 24}} Others thought Forsyth would die of his wounds before they would be rescued.",
"File:The Battle of Beecher Island.jpg\\|''Defending the Island''\\<br/\\> One soldier and three horses have fallen, while others continue to wage the battle.\nFile:U. S. Cavalry soldiers during the Battle of Beecher Island.jpg\\|''In the pits''\\<br/\\> An officer hands a wounded soldier water as another man drinks from a pool, while a third prepares to fire his rifle.\nFile:Roman Nose.jpg\\|''Chief Roman Nose''\\<br/\\> Roman Nose, on horseback, taunts the U.S. soldiers as a group of spectators on horseback cheer him on.\nFile:The Rescue.jpg\\|''The Rescue''\\<br/\\> A soldier offers aid to his wounded comrade after the Battle of Beecher Island. The Harper's article states that this is Bvt. Col. \\[\\[Louis H. Carpenter]] greeting Lt. Col. G. A. Forsyth who was twice wounded. Notice officer shoulder boards.",
"",
"### Relieved",
"Three rescue parties departed following different routes due to the uncertainty of the Scout's location. The first was [Lieutenant Colonel](/wiki/Lieutenant_Colonel \"Lieutenant Colonel\") [Louis H. Carpenter](/wiki/Louis_H._Carpenter \"Louis H. Carpenter\") leading Troop H \\& I of the [10th Cavalry Regiment](/wiki/10th_Cavalry_Regiment_%28United_States%29 \"10th Cavalry Regiment (United States)\") ([Buffalo Soldiers](/wiki/Buffalo_Soldiers \"Buffalo Soldiers\")) with Captain Baldwin. Major Brisbin in command of two troops of the [2nd Cavalry](/wiki/2d_Stryker_Cavalry_Regiment \"2d Stryker Cavalry Regiment\") took another route. Captain Bankhead, went from Fort Wallace with about 100 men of the [5th Infantry](/wiki/5th_Infantry_Regiment_%28United_States%29 \"5th Infantry Regiment (United States)\"), took a third route.{{Cite book \\|last\\=Carpenter \\|first\\=Louis Henry, Brig. Gen, retired \\|title\\=Carpenter's Recollections: The Battle of Beecher Island \\|publisher\\=Kansas State Historical Society \\|access\\-date\\=1 August 2009 \\|year\\=1912 \\|url\\=http://abuffalosoldier.com/carpenterreco.htm }} Letter written in 1912 from Carpenter to Mr. George Martin of the Kansas State Historical Society.",
"About daybreak on 25 September, Lt.Col. Carpenter's Troops H \\& I were intercepted on the plains by Scout John Donovan and four riders he had recruited after reaching Fort Wallace and starting back for the battlefield. They were the first to arrive and relieve Forsyth's unit. Carpenter later received the [Medal of Honor](/wiki/Medal_of_Honor \"Medal of Honor\") for his relief of Forsyth's command and for his actions during the [battle on Beaver Creek.](/wiki/Louis_H._Carpenter%23Battle_of_Beaver_Creek \"Louis H. Carpenter#Battle of Beaver Creek\")",
"Over fifty dead horses greeted them with their putrid smell. Forsyth's command had been out of rations and forced to survive on the decaying horse flesh.{{Sfn\\|Nevin\\|1973\\|p\\=24}} The air around Forsyth was completely filled with a great stench and was swarming with black flies feasting on the rotting defensive line of dead horses. The square sandy hole, where Forsyth was lying was half encircled by dead mounts and would have become his grave if help had not arrived when it did. Other gun pits, interconnected, contained the living and the dead of his unit.",
"Carpenter immediately secured the area and pitched a number of tents up wind nearby. The wounded men were carefully carried there for more healthy air and the dead men were buried to reduce the stench and possibility of disease. Twenty\\-six hours later, Carpenter sent a detachment to look for Bankhead's unit. They found Stilwell and Trudeau several miles in advance of Bankhead. Captain Bankhead followed bringing with him the two troops of the 2nd Cavalry.",
"The following day, a fifth scout died of his wounds and was buried on the battlefield with the other four scouts. Walter Armstrong died in a hospital later. Beecher, Culver, Farley, Wilson and Doctor Mooers were buried on the island. Sixteen others were wounded. On 27 September, the Forsyth Scouts departed for Fort Wallace, escorted by the 10th Cavalry.",
""
] |
History
-------
The TN was founded on 30 September 1919 by {{ill\|Otto Lummitzsch\|de}} with the stated purpose to protect and maintain vital and strategic facilities (e.g., gas works, water works, power stations, railways, post offices, agriculture concerns and food production activities). At the time (1919–1923\), these vital infrastructure facilities were under threat from [sabotage](/wiki/Sabotage "Sabotage") and attack during a period bordering on [civil war](/wiki/Civil_war "Civil war"), which was caused by the collapse of German economy following the end of [World War I](/wiki/World_War_I "World War I") and exacerbated by a spate of politically motivated [wildcat strikes](/wiki/Wildcat_strikes "Wildcat strikes"), usually by left\-wing elements. In effect they were strike\-breakers.
The organization was formed from primarily post World War I army engineering/technical unit members, and transitioned into a volunteer civilian organization which was registered by the Department of the Interior. The change was required by the [demilitarisation](/wiki/Demilitarisation "Demilitarisation") requirements of the [Treaty of Versailles](/wiki/Treaty_of_Versailles "Treaty of Versailles"), in order that the TN would not be classified as a military organization. Based on the nature of its operations, the background of its personnel was mainly conservative middle class, but included a large number of students, especially those in technical studies. In the [Weimar Republic](/wiki/Weimar_Republic "Weimar Republic") period, the TN was seen as a threat by the working class and thus aroused the animosity of trade unionists, and more particularly the [Communist Party of Germany](/wiki/Communist_Party_of_Germany "Communist Party of Germany"). The TN intervened as a volunteer aide organization, when strikes could not be avoided, and when the public welfare was endangered as in strikes of electricity, food service and railroad workers.
As economic conditions improved (after about 1925\) and strikes became less common and less aggressive, the TN was able to shift its activities into public welfare areas such as disaster relief ({{lang\|de\|Katastrophendienst}}), with respect to floods, fires, industrial accidents, bridge and railway collapses; as well as responding to motor vehicle accidents in the countryside. A mobile {{lang\|de\|Bereitschaftdienst}} (BD; literally ‘Call Service’) was set up, in order to be able to more readily respond. Clandestine air raid protection activities also began in the late 1920s – early 1930s as the {{lang\|de\|Luftschutzdienst}} (LD; ‘Air Protection Service’). From 1931 to 1934, the TN also became involved in the {{lang\|de\|Freiwilligen Arbeitsdienst}} (FAD; 'Volunteer Labour Service') and supervised training at over 12,000 locations. The FAD was later morphed into the {{lang\|de\|\[\[Reichsarbeitsdienst]]}} (RAD).
Throughout the *[Third Reich](/wiki/Third_Reich "Third Reich")* the TN, within Germany, focused on [civil defence](/wiki/Civil_defence "Civil defence") — air raid rescue, general disaster response, and relief work. From 1936 the TN was gradually absorbed into *[Ordnungspolizei](/wiki/Ordnungspolizei "Ordnungspolizei")* as an auxiliary police organization and it came under the ultimate control of [Heinrich Himmler](/wiki/Heinrich_Himmler "Heinrich Himmler"), as the head of the police, and ultimately the SS. From June 1, 1943, the TN members, serving outside of the *Reich*, wore the green uniform of the Police and were referred to as the TN\-Police. In addition to working within Germany, the TN was active in Nazi\-occupied countries from September 1, 1939 as *Einsatzgruppen*, which followed the *Wehrmacht* and restored vital services and functions in Poland, France, Belgium, Netherlands, Luxembourg, and Norway. Local TN branch organisations were formed in some occupied countries, notably as the *Technische Noodhulp* in the Netherlands and as the *Teknisk Nødhjelp* in [Norway](/wiki/Norway "Norway").
The TN *Einsatzgruppen* participated in the occupation of the Saar, Austria, Sudetenland, Poland and then in the Western Campaigns of 1940\. Their purpose was to secure vital industries, prevent or repair sabotage, rebuild the infrastructure (bridges, power plants, drinking water facilities, wastewater facilities, etc.) TN units were taken into *[Luftwaffe](/wiki/Luftwaffe "Luftwaffe")* (air force) service early on and other TN units into [*Heer*](/wiki/German_Army_%28Wehrmacht%29 "German Army (Wehrmacht)") (land army) service in mid 1941\. Those in Army were named the *Technische Truppen*, which was commanded by [Erich Hampe](/wiki/Erich_Hampe "Erich Hampe"), the long term *Stellv. Chef der TN* \[\#2 TN man from 1919 to 1940]. Also, some TN units served in the *[Kriegsmarine](/wiki/Kriegsmarine "Kriegsmarine")* (Navy), although it is poorly documented. Other TN units, under the control of the TN Headquarters (*Reichsamt Technische Nothilfe*), remained in service until the end of World War II.
In 1945, the victorious [Allies](/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_II "Allies of World War II") dissolved the TN. Its functions were assumed again in 1950 when Otto Lummitzsch was requested by the [West German](/wiki/West_Germany "West Germany") government to form the {{Lang\|de\|\[\[Technisches Hilfswerk]]}} (literally: 'Technical Relief') which exists to the present day with civil defence responsibilities and also participates in worldwide disaster relief responses.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"The TN was founded on 30 September 1919 by {{ill\\|Otto Lummitzsch\\|de}} with the stated purpose to protect and maintain vital and strategic facilities (e.g., gas works, water works, power stations, railways, post offices, agriculture concerns and food production activities). At the time (1919–1923\\), these vital infrastructure facilities were under threat from [sabotage](/wiki/Sabotage \"Sabotage\") and attack during a period bordering on [civil war](/wiki/Civil_war \"Civil war\"), which was caused by the collapse of German economy following the end of [World War I](/wiki/World_War_I \"World War I\") and exacerbated by a spate of politically motivated [wildcat strikes](/wiki/Wildcat_strikes \"Wildcat strikes\"), usually by left\\-wing elements. In effect they were strike\\-breakers.",
"The organization was formed from primarily post World War I army engineering/technical unit members, and transitioned into a volunteer civilian organization which was registered by the Department of the Interior. The change was required by the [demilitarisation](/wiki/Demilitarisation \"Demilitarisation\") requirements of the [Treaty of Versailles](/wiki/Treaty_of_Versailles \"Treaty of Versailles\"), in order that the TN would not be classified as a military organization. Based on the nature of its operations, the background of its personnel was mainly conservative middle class, but included a large number of students, especially those in technical studies. In the [Weimar Republic](/wiki/Weimar_Republic \"Weimar Republic\") period, the TN was seen as a threat by the working class and thus aroused the animosity of trade unionists, and more particularly the [Communist Party of Germany](/wiki/Communist_Party_of_Germany \"Communist Party of Germany\"). The TN intervened as a volunteer aide organization, when strikes could not be avoided, and when the public welfare was endangered as in strikes of electricity, food service and railroad workers.",
"As economic conditions improved (after about 1925\\) and strikes became less common and less aggressive, the TN was able to shift its activities into public welfare areas such as disaster relief ({{lang\\|de\\|Katastrophendienst}}), with respect to floods, fires, industrial accidents, bridge and railway collapses; as well as responding to motor vehicle accidents in the countryside. A mobile {{lang\\|de\\|Bereitschaftdienst}} (BD; literally ‘Call Service’) was set up, in order to be able to more readily respond. Clandestine air raid protection activities also began in the late 1920s – early 1930s as the {{lang\\|de\\|Luftschutzdienst}} (LD; ‘Air Protection Service’). From 1931 to 1934, the TN also became involved in the {{lang\\|de\\|Freiwilligen Arbeitsdienst}} (FAD; 'Volunteer Labour Service') and supervised training at over 12,000 locations. The FAD was later morphed into the {{lang\\|de\\|\\[\\[Reichsarbeitsdienst]]}} (RAD).\nThroughout the *[Third Reich](/wiki/Third_Reich \"Third Reich\")* the TN, within Germany, focused on [civil defence](/wiki/Civil_defence \"Civil defence\") — air raid rescue, general disaster response, and relief work. From 1936 the TN was gradually absorbed into *[Ordnungspolizei](/wiki/Ordnungspolizei \"Ordnungspolizei\")* as an auxiliary police organization and it came under the ultimate control of [Heinrich Himmler](/wiki/Heinrich_Himmler \"Heinrich Himmler\"), as the head of the police, and ultimately the SS. From June 1, 1943, the TN members, serving outside of the *Reich*, wore the green uniform of the Police and were referred to as the TN\\-Police. In addition to working within Germany, the TN was active in Nazi\\-occupied countries from September 1, 1939 as *Einsatzgruppen*, which followed the *Wehrmacht* and restored vital services and functions in Poland, France, Belgium, Netherlands, Luxembourg, and Norway. Local TN branch organisations were formed in some occupied countries, notably as the *Technische Noodhulp* in the Netherlands and as the *Teknisk Nødhjelp* in [Norway](/wiki/Norway \"Norway\").",
"The TN *Einsatzgruppen* participated in the occupation of the Saar, Austria, Sudetenland, Poland and then in the Western Campaigns of 1940\\. Their purpose was to secure vital industries, prevent or repair sabotage, rebuild the infrastructure (bridges, power plants, drinking water facilities, wastewater facilities, etc.) TN units were taken into *[Luftwaffe](/wiki/Luftwaffe \"Luftwaffe\")* (air force) service early on and other TN units into [*Heer*](/wiki/German_Army_%28Wehrmacht%29 \"German Army (Wehrmacht)\") (land army) service in mid 1941\\. Those in Army were named the *Technische Truppen*, which was commanded by [Erich Hampe](/wiki/Erich_Hampe \"Erich Hampe\"), the long term *Stellv. Chef der TN* \\[\\#2 TN man from 1919 to 1940]. Also, some TN units served in the *[Kriegsmarine](/wiki/Kriegsmarine \"Kriegsmarine\")* (Navy), although it is poorly documented. Other TN units, under the control of the TN Headquarters (*Reichsamt Technische Nothilfe*), remained in service until the end of World War II.",
"In 1945, the victorious [Allies](/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_II \"Allies of World War II\") dissolved the TN. Its functions were assumed again in 1950 when Otto Lummitzsch was requested by the [West German](/wiki/West_Germany \"West Germany\") government to form the {{Lang\\|de\\|\\[\\[Technisches Hilfswerk]]}} (literally: 'Technical Relief') which exists to the present day with civil defence responsibilities and also participates in worldwide disaster relief responses.",
""
] |
History
-------
The school first opened in 1975 to provide more [secondary school](/wiki/Secondary_school "Secondary school") places for the growing population in the area.
Many new buildings have been added to the school site since it first opened to accommodate increasing numbers of students and to provide more specialist classrooms for each subject. These additions include: a canteen, a music block (M block), a library and computer rooms (L block), a sixth form and languages block (C block), outdoor changing rooms, and outdoor sports areas, equipment and pitches.
### 2018/20 Renovations
In 2018/20 the school underwent substantial renovations to improve and replace learning areas and equipment and to increase the capacity of the school.
#### F Block
In October 2018, work started on the building of a new three storey block, to provide new classrooms and facilities for humanities, science and art. The building was completed in time to be used for the 2019/20 school year.
#### Other renovations
Other work on the site included, the building of new drama and dance facilities, a larger car park, a new "superloo" toilet area, refurbishment of the existing science block (S block), refurbishment of the existing technology classrooms, moving of the main reception and admin offices, an extension to the outdoor changing rooms, and upgrades to some existing classrooms and facilities.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"The school first opened in 1975 to provide more [secondary school](/wiki/Secondary_school \"Secondary school\") places for the growing population in the area.",
"Many new buildings have been added to the school site since it first opened to accommodate increasing numbers of students and to provide more specialist classrooms for each subject. These additions include: a canteen, a music block (M block), a library and computer rooms (L block), a sixth form and languages block (C block), outdoor changing rooms, and outdoor sports areas, equipment and pitches.",
"### 2018/20 Renovations",
"In 2018/20 the school underwent substantial renovations to improve and replace learning areas and equipment and to increase the capacity of the school.",
"#### F Block",
"In October 2018, work started on the building of a new three storey block, to provide new classrooms and facilities for humanities, science and art. The building was completed in time to be used for the 2019/20 school year.",
"#### Other renovations",
"Other work on the site included, the building of new drama and dance facilities, a larger car park, a new \"superloo\" toilet area, refurbishment of the existing science block (S block), refurbishment of the existing technology classrooms, moving of the main reception and admin offices, an extension to the outdoor changing rooms, and upgrades to some existing classrooms and facilities.",
""
] |
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