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History
-------
### Monastery
The *Klooster van Sinte Maria Magdalena van Bethaniën* ("Monastery of Saint Mary Magdalene of Bethany") was founded in the 1450s and was one of a number of monastic complexes along the *oudezijde* ("old side") of town, directly beyond the [city walls](/wiki/Walls_of_Amsterdam "Walls of Amsterdam") along Kloveniersburgwal canal. In 1462, the [chapter](/wiki/Chapter_%28religion%29 "Chapter (religion)") of the *[Hofkapel](/wiki/Binnenhof "Binnenhof")* in [The Hague](/wiki/The_Hague "The Hague") granted the monastery the privilege to build its own [chapel](/wiki/Chapel "Chapel") with a churchyard and to have its own [rector](/wiki/Rector_%28ecclesiastical%29%23Roman_Catholic_hierarchies "Rector (ecclesiastical)#Roman Catholic hierarchies") or [chaplain](/wiki/Chaplain "Chaplain").["Kloosters in Amsterdam \- 18\. Bethaniënklooster", Theopas.nl](http://www.theopas.nl/index.php/amsterdam/7-kloosters-in-amsterdam?start=18) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303215749/http://www.theopas.nl/index.php/amsterdam/7\-kloosters\-in\-amsterdam?start\=18 \|date\=2016\-03\-03 }} (Dutch)
The Bethaniënklooster was a monastery of [Augustinian nuns](/wiki/Augustinian_nuns "Augustinian nuns") where "[fallen](/wiki/Fallen_woman "Fallen woman")" women could do penance. The monastery became popular with the rich elite and the poor women that originally inhabited the monastery were gradually replaced with well\-off nuns and *proveniers* (elderly women who had paid a one\-time sum for lifelong room and board). In 1462, around 220 women lived at the monastery. Their duties include raising cattle as [livestock](/wiki/Livestock "Livestock") for the meat served at banquets of the *[schutterijen](/wiki/Schutterij "Schutterij")* (citizen militia companies).
In the 16th century, the popularity of the nunnery declined and the monastery no longer had enough money to pay for its upkeep. In order to raise funds, part of the monastery complex was sold off to be used for housing. In 1506, the Bethaniënstraat was widened and houses were built along the street. In 1525 the Koestraat was constructed through the complex and houses were built along this street as well; the chapel of the monastery was now on a public street. In 1535, another section of the monastery terrain was sold off to the city, and in 1553 a large section of the building next to the monastery entrance on Oudezijds Achterburgwal canal was rented out.
### Later use
Following the *[Alteratie](/wiki/Alteratie "Alteratie")* in 1578, the monastery complex was seized by the new [Protestant](/wiki/Protestantism "Protestantism") city government, and in 1585 the order was abolished. The nine remaining nuns still living at the monastery were relocated to the [Begijnhof](/wiki/Begijnhof%2C_Amsterdam "Begijnhof, Amsterdam") and [Clarissenklooster](/wiki/Rasphuis "Rasphuis"). The monastery was rented out to various residents, including the painter and inventor [Jan van der Heyden](/wiki/Jan_van_der_Heyden "Jan van der Heyden") and the painter [Johannes van der Capelle](/wiki/Jan_van_de_Cappelle "Jan van de Cappelle"). The composer [Jan Pieterszoon Sweelinck](/wiki/Jan_Pieterszoon_Sweelinck "Jan Pieterszoon Sweelinck") lived in one of the new houses constructed on the former monastery terrain.
In 1594, the [Latin school](/wiki/Latin_school "Latin school") for the *oudezijde* ("old side") of town was relocated to the [nave](/wiki/Nave "Nave") of the former monastery chapel. The school was merged with the *nieuwezijde* ("new side") Latin school in 1678 into a single school, the predecessor of the current [Barlaeus Gymnasium](/wiki/Barlaeus_Gymnasium "Barlaeus Gymnasium").
[thumb\|240px\|The [Wijnkopersgildehuis](/wiki/Wijnkopersgildehuis_%28Amsterdam%29 "Wijnkopersgildehuis (Amsterdam)") guildhall](/wiki/File:Wijnkopersgildehuis.jpg "Wijnkopersgildehuis.jpg")
Three residences built around 1551 on Koestraat were merged into a single building in 1633 and used as a [guildhall](/wiki/Guildhall "Guildhall") for the wine buyers' guild, the [Wijnkopersgildehuis](/wiki/Wijnkopersgildehuis_%28Amsterdam%29 "Wijnkopersgildehuis (Amsterdam)"), one of the few still\-surviving guildhalls in Amsterdam.["Wijnkopershuis. Koestraat 1012", Vereniging Hendrick de Keyser](http://www.hendrickdekeyser.nl/panddetail/113/wijnkopersgildehuis.html) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110831234611/http://www.hendrickdekeyser.nl/panddetail/113/wijnkopersgildehuis.html \|date\=2011\-08\-31 }} (Dutch)
The former monastery was used for a number of years as an inn. In 1736, half of the building was torn down and replaced with three houses; the remainder of the building was sold off bit by bit. The only surviving section of the building is the northern wing in Barndesteeg alley, as well as some wall fragments on the former Huidenvetterssloot canal.
In the 18th century, the building in Barndesteeg alley was used as a [clandestine church](/wiki/Clandestine_church "Clandestine church") (*schuilkerk*) by the [Old Catholic](/wiki/Old_Catholic_Church "Old Catholic Church") parish, which purchased the building in 1705 and dedicated it to the saints Peter and Paul. The floor between the [refectory](/wiki/Refectory "Refectory") and [dormitory](/wiki/Dormitory "Dormitory") was largely demolished in order to join the two storeys into one large church space. The church was nicknamed *De Ooievaar* ("The Stork") after the [gable stone](/wiki/Gable_stone "Gable stone"), depicting a [stork](/wiki/Stork "Stork").["Het DING van ...Amsterdam", Oud\-Katholieke Kerk van Nederland](http://www.okkn.nl/?b=2585) (Dutch) The church [pulpit](/wiki/Pulpit "Pulpit") is now used in the Old Catholic church at Ruysdaelstraat 39, built in 1914 to replace the *schuilkerk* at Barndesteeg. ["Oud\-Katholieke Kerk", I Amsterdam](http://www.iamsterdam.com/nl/placestogo/oud-katholieke-kerk/79adf894-d3a4-4951-b7d9-adabd86d73ab) {{webarchive \|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100424062828/http://www.iamsterdam.com/nl/placestogo/oud\-katholieke\-kerk/79adf894\-d3a4\-4951\-b7d9\-adabd86d73ab \|date\=April 24, 2010 }}(Dutch)["Klooster van Sinte Maria Magdalena van Bethanien", Bethaniënklooster.nl](http://www.bethanienklooster.nl/historie.php) {{webarchive \|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120216060952/http://www.bethanienklooster.nl/historie.php \|date\=February 16, 2012 }} (Dutch)
During the 20th century, the building served various purposes. Around 1970 it housed a carpentry workshop. The building eventually became derelict and was condemned. The building was subsequently purchased by the city government with the intent to restore it. On the initiative of the sculptor [Geurt Brinkgreve](/wiki/Geurt_Brinkgreve "Geurt Brinkgreve") and others, a foundation was created to oversee the restoration, the Stichting Bethaniënklooster (since merged with Stichting Jan Pietersz. Huis). On the attic floor of the building, 10 rooms for music students were created. The main hall was repurposed as a concert hall.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"",
"### Monastery",
"The *Klooster van Sinte Maria Magdalena van Bethaniën* (\"Monastery of Saint Mary Magdalene of Bethany\") was founded in the 1450s and was one of a number of monastic complexes along the *oudezijde* (\"old side\") of town, directly beyond the [city walls](/wiki/Walls_of_Amsterdam \"Walls of Amsterdam\") along Kloveniersburgwal canal. In 1462, the [chapter](/wiki/Chapter_%28religion%29 \"Chapter (religion)\") of the *[Hofkapel](/wiki/Binnenhof \"Binnenhof\")* in [The Hague](/wiki/The_Hague \"The Hague\") granted the monastery the privilege to build its own [chapel](/wiki/Chapel \"Chapel\") with a churchyard and to have its own [rector](/wiki/Rector_%28ecclesiastical%29%23Roman_Catholic_hierarchies \"Rector (ecclesiastical)#Roman Catholic hierarchies\") or [chaplain](/wiki/Chaplain \"Chaplain\").[\"Kloosters in Amsterdam \\- 18\\. Bethaniënklooster\", Theopas.nl](http://www.theopas.nl/index.php/amsterdam/7-kloosters-in-amsterdam?start=18) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303215749/http://www.theopas.nl/index.php/amsterdam/7\\-kloosters\\-in\\-amsterdam?start\\=18 \\|date\\=2016\\-03\\-03 }} (Dutch)",
"The Bethaniënklooster was a monastery of [Augustinian nuns](/wiki/Augustinian_nuns \"Augustinian nuns\") where \"[fallen](/wiki/Fallen_woman \"Fallen woman\")\" women could do penance. The monastery became popular with the rich elite and the poor women that originally inhabited the monastery were gradually replaced with well\\-off nuns and *proveniers* (elderly women who had paid a one\\-time sum for lifelong room and board). In 1462, around 220 women lived at the monastery. Their duties include raising cattle as [livestock](/wiki/Livestock \"Livestock\") for the meat served at banquets of the *[schutterijen](/wiki/Schutterij \"Schutterij\")* (citizen militia companies).",
"In the 16th century, the popularity of the nunnery declined and the monastery no longer had enough money to pay for its upkeep. In order to raise funds, part of the monastery complex was sold off to be used for housing. In 1506, the Bethaniënstraat was widened and houses were built along the street. In 1525 the Koestraat was constructed through the complex and houses were built along this street as well; the chapel of the monastery was now on a public street. In 1535, another section of the monastery terrain was sold off to the city, and in 1553 a large section of the building next to the monastery entrance on Oudezijds Achterburgwal canal was rented out.",
"### Later use",
"Following the *[Alteratie](/wiki/Alteratie \"Alteratie\")* in 1578, the monastery complex was seized by the new [Protestant](/wiki/Protestantism \"Protestantism\") city government, and in 1585 the order was abolished. The nine remaining nuns still living at the monastery were relocated to the [Begijnhof](/wiki/Begijnhof%2C_Amsterdam \"Begijnhof, Amsterdam\") and [Clarissenklooster](/wiki/Rasphuis \"Rasphuis\"). The monastery was rented out to various residents, including the painter and inventor [Jan van der Heyden](/wiki/Jan_van_der_Heyden \"Jan van der Heyden\") and the painter [Johannes van der Capelle](/wiki/Jan_van_de_Cappelle \"Jan van de Cappelle\"). The composer [Jan Pieterszoon Sweelinck](/wiki/Jan_Pieterszoon_Sweelinck \"Jan Pieterszoon Sweelinck\") lived in one of the new houses constructed on the former monastery terrain.",
"In 1594, the [Latin school](/wiki/Latin_school \"Latin school\") for the *oudezijde* (\"old side\") of town was relocated to the [nave](/wiki/Nave \"Nave\") of the former monastery chapel. The school was merged with the *nieuwezijde* (\"new side\") Latin school in 1678 into a single school, the predecessor of the current [Barlaeus Gymnasium](/wiki/Barlaeus_Gymnasium \"Barlaeus Gymnasium\").",
"[thumb\\|240px\\|The [Wijnkopersgildehuis](/wiki/Wijnkopersgildehuis_%28Amsterdam%29 \"Wijnkopersgildehuis (Amsterdam)\") guildhall](/wiki/File:Wijnkopersgildehuis.jpg \"Wijnkopersgildehuis.jpg\")\nThree residences built around 1551 on Koestraat were merged into a single building in 1633 and used as a [guildhall](/wiki/Guildhall \"Guildhall\") for the wine buyers' guild, the [Wijnkopersgildehuis](/wiki/Wijnkopersgildehuis_%28Amsterdam%29 \"Wijnkopersgildehuis (Amsterdam)\"), one of the few still\\-surviving guildhalls in Amsterdam.[\"Wijnkopershuis. Koestraat 1012\", Vereniging Hendrick de Keyser](http://www.hendrickdekeyser.nl/panddetail/113/wijnkopersgildehuis.html) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110831234611/http://www.hendrickdekeyser.nl/panddetail/113/wijnkopersgildehuis.html \\|date\\=2011\\-08\\-31 }} (Dutch)",
"The former monastery was used for a number of years as an inn. In 1736, half of the building was torn down and replaced with three houses; the remainder of the building was sold off bit by bit. The only surviving section of the building is the northern wing in Barndesteeg alley, as well as some wall fragments on the former Huidenvetterssloot canal.",
"In the 18th century, the building in Barndesteeg alley was used as a [clandestine church](/wiki/Clandestine_church \"Clandestine church\") (*schuilkerk*) by the [Old Catholic](/wiki/Old_Catholic_Church \"Old Catholic Church\") parish, which purchased the building in 1705 and dedicated it to the saints Peter and Paul. The floor between the [refectory](/wiki/Refectory \"Refectory\") and [dormitory](/wiki/Dormitory \"Dormitory\") was largely demolished in order to join the two storeys into one large church space. The church was nicknamed *De Ooievaar* (\"The Stork\") after the [gable stone](/wiki/Gable_stone \"Gable stone\"), depicting a [stork](/wiki/Stork \"Stork\").[\"Het DING van ...Amsterdam\", Oud\\-Katholieke Kerk van Nederland](http://www.okkn.nl/?b=2585) (Dutch) The church [pulpit](/wiki/Pulpit \"Pulpit\") is now used in the Old Catholic church at Ruysdaelstraat 39, built in 1914 to replace the *schuilkerk* at Barndesteeg. [\"Oud\\-Katholieke Kerk\", I Amsterdam](http://www.iamsterdam.com/nl/placestogo/oud-katholieke-kerk/79adf894-d3a4-4951-b7d9-adabd86d73ab) {{webarchive \\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100424062828/http://www.iamsterdam.com/nl/placestogo/oud\\-katholieke\\-kerk/79adf894\\-d3a4\\-4951\\-b7d9\\-adabd86d73ab \\|date\\=April 24, 2010 }}(Dutch)[\"Klooster van Sinte Maria Magdalena van Bethanien\", Bethaniënklooster.nl](http://www.bethanienklooster.nl/historie.php) {{webarchive \\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120216060952/http://www.bethanienklooster.nl/historie.php \\|date\\=February 16, 2012 }} (Dutch)",
"During the 20th century, the building served various purposes. Around 1970 it housed a carpentry workshop. The building eventually became derelict and was condemned. The building was subsequently purchased by the city government with the intent to restore it. On the initiative of the sculptor [Geurt Brinkgreve](/wiki/Geurt_Brinkgreve \"Geurt Brinkgreve\") and others, a foundation was created to oversee the restoration, the Stichting Bethaniënklooster (since merged with Stichting Jan Pietersz. Huis). On the attic floor of the building, 10 rooms for music students were created. The main hall was repurposed as a concert hall.",
""
] |
Veneration and patronage
------------------------
### Eastern Orthodox liturgy
The [Eastern Orthodox Church](/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_Church "Eastern Orthodox Church") venerates Christopher of Lycea (or [Lycia](/wiki/Lycia "Lycia")) with a [Feast Day](/wiki/Feast_Day "Feast Day") on 9 May. The liturgical reading and hymns refer to his imprisonment by [Decius](/wiki/Decius_%28emperor%29 "Decius (emperor)") who tempts Christopher with [harlots](/wiki/Harlots "Harlots") before ordering his beheading.{{cite web \|url\=http://goarch.org/chapel/saints\_view?contentid\=47 \|title\=Christopher the Martyr of Lycea \|work\=Saints \|publisher\=Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of America \|date\=2013 \|access\-date\=16 April 2013}} The [Kontakion in the Fourth Tone](/wiki/Kontakion "Kontakion") (hymn) reads:
> Thou who wast terrifying both in strength and in countenance, for thy Creator's sake thou didst surrender thyself willingly to them that sought thee; for thou didst persuade both them and the women that sought to arouse in thee the fire of lust, and they followed thee in the path of martyrdom. And in torments thou didst prove to be courageous. Wherefore, we have gained thee as our great protector, O great Christopher.
### Roman Catholic liturgy
The [Roman Martyrology](/wiki/Roman_Martyrology "Roman Martyrology") remembers him on 25 July.*Martyrologium Romanum* (Libreria Editrice Vaticana, 2001 {{ISBN\|978\-88\-209\-7210\-3}}) The [Tridentine calendar](/wiki/Tridentine_calendar "Tridentine calendar") commemorates him on the same day only in private [Masses](/wiki/Mass_%28liturgy%29 "Mass (liturgy)"). By [1954](/wiki/General_Roman_Calendar_of_1954 "General Roman Calendar of 1954") his commemoration had been extended to all Masses, but it was dropped in [1970](/wiki/General_Roman_Calendar "General Roman Calendar") as part of the general reorganization of the calendar of the [Roman rite](/wiki/Roman_rite "Roman rite") as mandated by the [motu proprio](/wiki/Motu_proprio "Motu proprio"), *[Mysterii Paschalis](/wiki/Mysterii_Paschalis "Mysterii Paschalis")*. His commemoration is of Roman tradition, in view of the relatively late date (about 1550\) and limited manner in which it was accepted into the Roman calendar,*Calendarium Romanum* (Libreria Editrice Vaticana, 1969\), p. 131 but his feast continues to be observed locally.{{cite book \|last\=Butler \|first\=Alban \|title\=Butler's lives of the saints, Volume 7\|year\=2000\|publisher\=Liturgical Press \|isbn\=978\-0\-8146\-2383\-1 \|pages\=198–199 \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=umn3JEADSTQC\&pg\=PA198 \|author\-link\=Alban Butler\|editor\=Peter Doyle, Paul Burns \|access\-date\=25 October 2010}}
### Relics
The Museum of Sacred Art at Saint Justine's Church (Sveta Justina) in [Rab](/wiki/Rab_%28town%29 "Rab (town)"), [Croatia](/wiki/Croatia "Croatia") claims a gold\-plated [reliquary](/wiki/Reliquary "Reliquary") holds the skull of St. Christopher. According to church tradition, a bishop showed the relics from the city wall in 1075 in order to end a siege of the city by an [Italo\-Norman](/wiki/Italo-Norman "Italo-Norman") army.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.rab\-visit.com/en/did\-you\-know/the\-legend\-of\-st\-christopher/3125\|title\=The legend of St. Christopher\|website\=rab\-visit.com}}[Portal Grada Raba: Povijest 14\. ZAŠTITNIK RABA SV. KRISTOFOR](http://www.rab.hr/grad-rab/o-gradu-rabu/povijest/P2) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200927233143/http://www.rab.hr/grad\-rab/o\-gradu\-rabu/povijest/P2 \|date\=27 September 2020 }} Naime, Rab su 14\. 4\. 1075\. svojim lađama opkolili italski Normani. Nemoćni da se obrane od brojnog i naoružanog neprijatelja, rabljani pozvaše u pomoć svog zaštitnika, svetog Kristofora \<…\> Svečeva lubanja dospjela je u Rab i čuva se u muzeju sv. Justine, kao dragocjena relikvija.
The incorrupt leg of the saint is kept at the Cathedral of St. James in [Šibenik](/wiki/%C5%A0ibenik "Šibenik"). It was brought over in 1484 from [Constantinople](/wiki/Constantinople "Constantinople") through [Corfu](/wiki/Corfu "Corfu") and originally intended to be transferred to [Korčula](/wiki/Kor%C4%8Dula "Korčula"). The feast day of Saint Christopher is celebrated on 27 July in Šibenik.{{cite web \|title\=Danas slavimo drugog zaštitnika grada Šibenika i Šibenske biskupije sv. Kristofora. U katedrali je otvoren relikvijar sa svečevom neraspadnutom nogom. \|url\=https://www.sibenska\-biskupija.hr/danas\-slavimo\-drugog\-zastitnika\-grada\-sibenika\-i\-sibenske\-biskupije\-sv\-kristofora\-u\-katedrali\-je\-otvoren\-relikvijar\-sa\-svecevom\-neras/ \|website\=Šibenska biskupija \|access\-date\=25 July 2024 \|language\=Croatian \|date\=27 July 2022}}
Relics of the saint are also kept in Greek Orthodox churches in [Grevena](/wiki/Grevena "Grevena"), [Filothei](/wiki/Filothei-Psychiko "Filothei-Psychiko"), and [Siatista](/wiki/Siatista "Siatista").
[thumb\|upright\=0\.5\| A bronze St. Christopher medallion](/wiki/File:Saint_Christopher_Medal.png "Saint Christopher Medal.png")
#### Saint Christopher's "gigantic tooth"
In the Late Middle Ages, a claimed large tooth of St. Christopher was delivered to the church in [Vercelli](/wiki/Vercelli "Vercelli"). Pilgrims came from all over Europe to look at this relic until the end of 18th century when a naturalist determined it was a tooth of a [hippopotamus](/wiki/Hippopotamus "Hippopotamus"). Since then, the tooth has been removed from the altar and forbidden to be venerated.
### Medals
[Devotional medals](/wiki/Devotional_medal "Devotional medal") with St. Christopher's name and image are commonly worn as [pendants](/wiki/Pendant "Pendant"), especially by travelers, to show devotion and as a request for his blessing. Miniature statues are frequently displayed in [automobiles](/wiki/Automobile "Automobile"). In French a widespread phrase for such medals is {{lang\|fr\|Regarde St Christophe et va\-t\-en rassuré}} ("Look at St Christopher and go on reassured", sometimes translated as "Behold St Christopher and go your way in safety"); Saint Christopher medals and [holy cards](/wiki/Holy_card "Holy card") in Spanish have the phrase {{lang\|es\|Si en San Cristóbal confías, de accidente no morirás}} ("If you trust St. Christopher, you won't die in an accident").{{Cite book\|title\=A Year in the Life of Medieval England \|first\=Toni \|last\=Mount \|publisher\=Amberley Publishing \|year\=2016 \|isbn\=978\-1\-4456\-5240\-5 \|url\= https://books.google.com/books?id\=WcZ5DAAAQBAJ\&q\=Christopher\&pg\=PT169 \|page\=169}}
### General patronage
St. Christopher is a widely popular saint, especially revered by athletes, [mariners](/wiki/Sailor "Sailor"), [ferrymen](/wiki/Ferry "Ferry"), and travelers.Mershman, Francis (1908\). "[St. Christopher](/wiki/wikisource:Catholic_Encyclopedia_%281913%29/St._Christopher "Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/St. Christopher")". In *The Catholic Encyclopedia*. New York: Robert Appleton Company. He is revered as one of the [Fourteen Holy Helpers](/wiki/Fourteen_Holy_Helpers "Fourteen Holy Helpers"). He holds patronage of things related to travel and travelers—against [lightning](/wiki/Lightning "Lightning") and [pestilence](/wiki/Infectious_disease "Infectious disease")—and patronage for [archers](/wiki/Archery "Archery"); [bachelors](/wiki/Bachelor "Bachelor"); boatmen; soldiers; [bookbinders](/wiki/Bookbinder "Bookbinder"); [epilepsy](/wiki/Epilepsy "Epilepsy"); floods; fruit dealers; [fullers](/wiki/Fulling "Fulling"); [gardeners](/wiki/Gardener "Gardener"); a holy death; mariners; market carriers; motorists and drivers; sailors; storms; surfers;[*Dioces of Orange hosts First Annual Blessing of the Waves in Surf City*](http://www.rcbo.org/site/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=376&Itemid=100000001) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080916161951/http://www.rcbo.org/site/index.php?option\=com\_content\&task\=view\&id\=376\&Itemid\=100000001 \|date\=16 September 2008 }}, Roman Catholic Diocese of Orange, 15 September 2008 [toothache](/wiki/Toothache "Toothache"); mountaineering; and transportation workers.
[thumb\|upright\|In Eastern icons, Saint Christopher is sometimes represented with the [head of a dog](/wiki/Cynocephaly "Cynocephaly").](/wiki/File:Christopher_icon.jpg "Christopher icon.jpg")
### Patronage of places
Christopher is the patron saint of many places, including: [Baden, Germany](/wiki/Baden "Baden"); [Barga, Italy](/wiki/Barga%2C_Tuscany "Barga, Tuscany"); [Brunswick, Germany](/wiki/Braunschweig "Braunschweig"); [Mecklenburg, Germany](/wiki/Mecklenburg "Mecklenburg"); [Rab, Croatia](/wiki/Rab_%28town%29 "Rab (town)"); [Roermond, the Netherlands](/wiki/Roermond "Roermond"); Saint Christopher's Island ([Saint Kitts](/wiki/Saint_Kitts "Saint Kitts")); [Toses, Catalonia, Spain](/wiki/Toses "Toses"); [Mondim de Basto, Portugal](/wiki/Mondim_de_Basto "Mondim de Basto"); [Agrinio, Greece](/wiki/Agrinio "Agrinio"); [Vilnius, Lithuania](/wiki/Vilnius "Vilnius"); [Riga, Latvia](/wiki/Riga "Riga"); [Havana, Cuba](/wiki/Havana "Havana"); [San Cristóbal, Dominican Republic](/wiki/San_Crist%C3%B3bal%2C_Dominican_Republic "San Cristóbal, Dominican Republic"); [Paete, Laguna, Philippines](/wiki/Paete "Paete"); and [Tivim, Goa, India](/wiki/Tivim "Tivim").
#### Toponomy
Numerous places are named for the saint, including [Saint Christopher Island](/wiki/Saint_Christopher_Island "Saint Christopher Island"), the official name of the Caribbean island of Saint Kitts, and [St. Christopher Island](/wiki/St._Christopher_Island "St. Christopher Island") in [Antarctica](/wiki/Antarctica "Antarctica"). Many places are named after the saint in other languages, for example {{lang\|fr\|Saint\-Christophe}} is a common French place name; similarly, {{lang\|es\|San Cristóbal}} is a place name in many Spanish\-speaking or Spanish\-influenced countries, and the {{lang\|pt\|São Cristóvão}} is in use throughout the [Lusophone](/wiki/Lusophone "Lusophone") world.
### Iconography
Because St. Christopher offered protection to travelers and against sudden death, many churches placed images or statues of him, usually opposite the south door, so he could be easily seen. He is usually depicted as a giant, with a child on his shoulder and a staff in one hand.{{cite book\|last\=Magill\|first\=Frank Northen\|title\=Dictionary of World Biography: The ancient world\|year\=1998\|publisher\=Taylor \& Francis\|isbn\=978\-0\-89356\-313\-4\|pages\=239–244\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=wyKaVFZqbdUC\&pg\=PA242\|author2\=J. Moose \|author3\=Alison Aves \|access\-date\=25 October 2010}} In England, there are more wall paintings of St. Christopher than of any other saint; in 1904, Mrs. Collier, writing for the [British Archaeological Association](/wiki/British_Archaeological_Association "British Archaeological Association"), reported 183 paintings, statues, and other representations of the saint, outnumbering all others except for the [Virgin Mary](/wiki/Virgin_Mary "Virgin Mary").{{cite journal \|author\=Mrs. Collier \|title\=Saint Christopher and Some Representations of Him in English Churches\|journal\=\[\[British Archaeological Association\|Journal of the British Archaeological Association]]\|year\=1904\|volume\=10 \|issue\=2 \|pages\=130–145\|doi\=10\.1080/00681288\.1904\.11893754 \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=UDgNAAAAYAAJ\&pg\=PA130\|access\-date\=25 October 2010}}
In the [Eastern Orthodox Church](/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_Church "Eastern Orthodox Church"), certain icons identify Saint Christopher with the head of a dog. Such images may carry echoes of the Egyptian dog\-headed god, [Anubis](/wiki/Anubis "Anubis"). Christopher pictured with a dog's head is not generally supported by the Orthodox Church, as the icon was proscribed in the 18th century by Moscow.Pageau, Jonathan. (8 July 2013\).["Understanding The Dog\-Headed Icon of St\-Christopher"](https://www.orthodoxartsjournal.org/the-icon-of-st-christopher/), *Orthodox Arts Journal*
The roots of that iconography lie in a [hagiographic narrative](/wiki/Hagiography "Hagiography") set during the reign of the Emperor [Diocletian](/wiki/Diocletian "Diocletian"), which tells of a man named *Reprebus*, (also, *Rebrebus* or *Reprobus*; 'the reprobate' or 'scoundrel'). He was captured by Roman forces fighting against tribes dwelling to the west of [Egypt](/wiki/Egypt "Egypt") in [Cyrenaica](/wiki/Cyrenaica "Cyrenaica") and forced to join the Roman {{lang\|la\|numerus Marmaritarum}}{{efn\|Such a "Unit of the Marmaritae" suggests an otherwise\-unidentified "Marmaritae", perhaps the same as the Marmaricae \[\[Berbers\|Berber]] tribe of \[\[Cyrenaica]].}} ('Unit of the Marmaritae'). He was reported to be of enormous size, with the head of a dog instead of a man. This was in line with the cultural beliefs of the time, which held that typical Marmaritae were tall, strong, and rascally; being a [cynocephalus](/wiki/Cynocephaly "Cynocephaly") was also consistent with this image. Roman writer [Pliny the Elder](/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder "Pliny the Elder") reported that the "{{lang\|grc\|Cynamolgi}} {{lang\|grc\|cynocephali}}, of Ethiopia were men with the heads of dogs." Pliny's work, [The Natural History](/wiki/Natural_History_%28Pliny%29 "Natural History (Pliny)") was, during the first century A.D., a well\-respected compendium of Roman science. It reports accepted "knowledge" about people from [Cyrenaica](/wiki/Cyrenaica "Cyrenaica"). Pliny notes that these "dog\-headed men" resided in "Ethiopia"—a name used to encapsulate areas of Africa West and South of Alexandrian Egypt by contemporary Romans.{{cite web \|last\=Gebhart \|first\=Tim \|date\=19 May 2021 \|title\=Fantastical Humans Roamed Pliny's "Natural History" \|url\=https://medium.com/exploring\-history/fantastical\-humans\-roamed\-plinys\-natural\-history\-6e03c637d97d \|access\-date\=12 April 2022 \|website\=Exploring History }}See Pliny:
{{Cite book\|translator\=Harris Rackham \|author\=Pliny the Elder \|title\=Natural History \|location\=Cambridge, Massachusetts (USA) \|publisher\=Harvard University Press \|orig\-date\=This translation first published 1938 \|date\=1963 \|isbn\=978\-0\-674\-99388\-4\|volume\=II , la \|id\=Books 3–7}}
{{cite book \|author\=Pliny the Elder \|translator1\=John Bostock \|translator2\=Henry T. Riley \|title\=The Natural History of Pliny \|date\=18 July 2020 \|orig\-date\=This translation first published 1855 by Henry G. Bohn, London \|publisher\=Digitised and republished online by The Project Gutenberg eBooks \|chapter\-url\=https://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/60230/pg60230\-images.html \|chapter\=BOOK VII–Man, his Birth, his Organization, and the Invention of the Arts: Chapter 2\. The Wonderful Forms of Different Nations \|volume\=II (of VI)}}* + Reprebus and the unit were later transferred to Syrian [Antioch](/wiki/Antioch "Antioch"), where bishop Peter of Attalia baptised him and where he was martyred in 308\.David Woods, 'St. Christopher, Bishop Peter of Attalia, and the Cohors Marmaritarum: A Fresh Examination', *[Vigiliae Christianae](/wiki/Vigiliae_Christianae "Vigiliae Christianae")*, Vol. 48, No. 2 (June 1994\), pp. 170\-186
It has also been speculated that this Byzantine depiction of St. Christopher as dog\-headed may have resulted from a misreading of the Latin term {{lang\|la\|Cananeus}}, '[Canaanite](/wiki/Canaan "Canaan")' as {{lang\|la\|caninus}}, that is, 'canine'. Scholars judge the association with [cynocephaly](/wiki/Cynocephaly "Cynocephaly") as more likely.{{cite book \|author\=Ross, L. \|title\=Medieval Art: A Topical Dictionary \|publisher\=Westport \|date\=1996 \|page\=50}}
According to the medieval Irish Passion of St. Christopher, "This Christopher was one of the Dog\-heads, a race that had the heads of dogs and ate human flesh."{{cite web \|url\=http://www.ucc.ie/milmart/chrsirish.html \|title\=Irish Passion of St. Christopher \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130729215126/http://www.ucc.ie/milmart/chrsirish.html \|archive\-date\=29 July 2013}} It was commonly accepted at the time that there were several types of races, the Cynocephalus, or dog\-headed people, being one of many believed to populate the world. The German bishop and poet [Walter of Speyer](/wiki/Walter_of_Speyer "Walter of Speyer") portrayed St. Christopher as a giant of a cynocephalic species in the land of the Chananeans who ate human flesh and barked. Eventually, Christopher met the Christ child, regretted his former behavior, and received baptism. He, too, was rewarded with a human appearance, whereupon he devoted his life to Christian service and became an [athlete of God](/wiki/Athlete_of_God "Athlete of God"), one of the [soldier saints](/wiki/Soldier_saint "Soldier saint").[Walter of Speyer](/wiki/Walter_of_Speyer "Walter of Speyer"), *Vita et passio sancti Christopher martyris*, 75\.
### Depictions in art
{{see also\|Saint Christopher in popular culture}}
File:Westminster Psalter St Christopher.jpg\|''St. Christopher'', from the \[\[Westminster Psalter]], c. 1250
File:St Botolph, Slapton \- Wall painting \- geograph.org.uk \- 4471788 (cropped).jpg\|14th century image of St Christopher, one of the \[\[St Botolph's Church, Slapton\#The Slapton Wall Paintings\|Slapton Wall Paintings]] in \[\[Northamptonshire]], \[\[England]]
File:Saint Christopher 001\.jpg\|The earliest dated \[\[woodcut]] in Europe, 1423, \[\[Buxheim]], with hand\-colouring of Saint Christopher
File:Saint Christopher after Jan van Eyck.jpg\|''\[\[Saint Christopher (after van Eyck)\|Saint Christopher]]'', c. 1460–70, after a lost painting by \[\[Jan van Eyck]]
Hans Memling 033\.jpg\|''Saint Christopher'' by \[\[Hans Memling]], c. 1480
File:BoschSaintChrisopherCarryingTheChristChild.jpg\|''\[\[Saint Christopher Carrying the Christ Child]]'' by Hieronymus Bosch, c. 1490–1500
File:Bellini, Sts Christopher, Jerome and Louis of Toulouse.jpg\|''\[\[Saints Christopher, Jerome and Louis of Toulouse]]'' by \[\[Giovanni Bellini]], 1513
File:BStrozziCristof1\.jpg\|''St. Christopher, St. Sebastian, St. Roch'' by \[\[Bernardo Strozzi]], early 17th century; Parish of \[\[Almenno San Salvatore]], \[\[Bergamo]]
{{Clear\|left}}
|
[
"Veneration and patronage\n------------------------",
"### Eastern Orthodox liturgy",
"The [Eastern Orthodox Church](/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_Church \"Eastern Orthodox Church\") venerates Christopher of Lycea (or [Lycia](/wiki/Lycia \"Lycia\")) with a [Feast Day](/wiki/Feast_Day \"Feast Day\") on 9 May. The liturgical reading and hymns refer to his imprisonment by [Decius](/wiki/Decius_%28emperor%29 \"Decius (emperor)\") who tempts Christopher with [harlots](/wiki/Harlots \"Harlots\") before ordering his beheading.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://goarch.org/chapel/saints\\_view?contentid\\=47 \\|title\\=Christopher the Martyr of Lycea \\|work\\=Saints \\|publisher\\=Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of America \\|date\\=2013 \\|access\\-date\\=16 April 2013}} The [Kontakion in the Fourth Tone](/wiki/Kontakion \"Kontakion\") (hymn) reads:",
"> Thou who wast terrifying both in strength and in countenance, for thy Creator's sake thou didst surrender thyself willingly to them that sought thee; for thou didst persuade both them and the women that sought to arouse in thee the fire of lust, and they followed thee in the path of martyrdom. And in torments thou didst prove to be courageous. Wherefore, we have gained thee as our great protector, O great Christopher.",
"",
"### Roman Catholic liturgy",
"The [Roman Martyrology](/wiki/Roman_Martyrology \"Roman Martyrology\") remembers him on 25 July.*Martyrologium Romanum* (Libreria Editrice Vaticana, 2001 {{ISBN\\|978\\-88\\-209\\-7210\\-3}}) The [Tridentine calendar](/wiki/Tridentine_calendar \"Tridentine calendar\") commemorates him on the same day only in private [Masses](/wiki/Mass_%28liturgy%29 \"Mass (liturgy)\"). By [1954](/wiki/General_Roman_Calendar_of_1954 \"General Roman Calendar of 1954\") his commemoration had been extended to all Masses, but it was dropped in [1970](/wiki/General_Roman_Calendar \"General Roman Calendar\") as part of the general reorganization of the calendar of the [Roman rite](/wiki/Roman_rite \"Roman rite\") as mandated by the [motu proprio](/wiki/Motu_proprio \"Motu proprio\"), *[Mysterii Paschalis](/wiki/Mysterii_Paschalis \"Mysterii Paschalis\")*. His commemoration is of Roman tradition, in view of the relatively late date (about 1550\\) and limited manner in which it was accepted into the Roman calendar,*Calendarium Romanum* (Libreria Editrice Vaticana, 1969\\), p. 131 but his feast continues to be observed locally.{{cite book \\|last\\=Butler \\|first\\=Alban \\|title\\=Butler's lives of the saints, Volume 7\\|year\\=2000\\|publisher\\=Liturgical Press \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-8146\\-2383\\-1 \\|pages\\=198–199 \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=umn3JEADSTQC\\&pg\\=PA198 \\|author\\-link\\=Alban Butler\\|editor\\=Peter Doyle, Paul Burns \\|access\\-date\\=25 October 2010}}",
"### Relics",
"The Museum of Sacred Art at Saint Justine's Church (Sveta Justina) in [Rab](/wiki/Rab_%28town%29 \"Rab (town)\"), [Croatia](/wiki/Croatia \"Croatia\") claims a gold\\-plated [reliquary](/wiki/Reliquary \"Reliquary\") holds the skull of St. Christopher. According to church tradition, a bishop showed the relics from the city wall in 1075 in order to end a siege of the city by an [Italo\\-Norman](/wiki/Italo-Norman \"Italo-Norman\") army.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.rab\\-visit.com/en/did\\-you\\-know/the\\-legend\\-of\\-st\\-christopher/3125\\|title\\=The legend of St. Christopher\\|website\\=rab\\-visit.com}}[Portal Grada Raba: Povijest 14\\. ZAŠTITNIK RABA SV. KRISTOFOR](http://www.rab.hr/grad-rab/o-gradu-rabu/povijest/P2) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200927233143/http://www.rab.hr/grad\\-rab/o\\-gradu\\-rabu/povijest/P2 \\|date\\=27 September 2020 }} Naime, Rab su 14\\. 4\\. 1075\\. svojim lađama opkolili italski Normani. Nemoćni da se obrane od brojnog i naoružanog neprijatelja, rabljani pozvaše u pomoć svog zaštitnika, svetog Kristofora \\<…\\> Svečeva lubanja dospjela je u Rab i čuva se u muzeju sv. Justine, kao dragocjena relikvija.",
"The incorrupt leg of the saint is kept at the Cathedral of St. James in [Šibenik](/wiki/%C5%A0ibenik \"Šibenik\"). It was brought over in 1484 from [Constantinople](/wiki/Constantinople \"Constantinople\") through [Corfu](/wiki/Corfu \"Corfu\") and originally intended to be transferred to [Korčula](/wiki/Kor%C4%8Dula \"Korčula\"). The feast day of Saint Christopher is celebrated on 27 July in Šibenik.{{cite web \\|title\\=Danas slavimo drugog zaštitnika grada Šibenika i Šibenske biskupije sv. Kristofora. U katedrali je otvoren relikvijar sa svečevom neraspadnutom nogom. \\|url\\=https://www.sibenska\\-biskupija.hr/danas\\-slavimo\\-drugog\\-zastitnika\\-grada\\-sibenika\\-i\\-sibenske\\-biskupije\\-sv\\-kristofora\\-u\\-katedrali\\-je\\-otvoren\\-relikvijar\\-sa\\-svecevom\\-neras/ \\|website\\=Šibenska biskupija \\|access\\-date\\=25 July 2024 \\|language\\=Croatian \\|date\\=27 July 2022}}",
"Relics of the saint are also kept in Greek Orthodox churches in [Grevena](/wiki/Grevena \"Grevena\"), [Filothei](/wiki/Filothei-Psychiko \"Filothei-Psychiko\"), and [Siatista](/wiki/Siatista \"Siatista\").\n[thumb\\|upright\\=0\\.5\\| A bronze St. Christopher medallion](/wiki/File:Saint_Christopher_Medal.png \"Saint Christopher Medal.png\")",
"#### Saint Christopher's \"gigantic tooth\"",
"In the Late Middle Ages, a claimed large tooth of St. Christopher was delivered to the church in [Vercelli](/wiki/Vercelli \"Vercelli\"). Pilgrims came from all over Europe to look at this relic until the end of 18th century when a naturalist determined it was a tooth of a [hippopotamus](/wiki/Hippopotamus \"Hippopotamus\"). Since then, the tooth has been removed from the altar and forbidden to be venerated.",
"### Medals",
"[Devotional medals](/wiki/Devotional_medal \"Devotional medal\") with St. Christopher's name and image are commonly worn as [pendants](/wiki/Pendant \"Pendant\"), especially by travelers, to show devotion and as a request for his blessing. Miniature statues are frequently displayed in [automobiles](/wiki/Automobile \"Automobile\"). In French a widespread phrase for such medals is {{lang\\|fr\\|Regarde St Christophe et va\\-t\\-en rassuré}} (\"Look at St Christopher and go on reassured\", sometimes translated as \"Behold St Christopher and go your way in safety\"); Saint Christopher medals and [holy cards](/wiki/Holy_card \"Holy card\") in Spanish have the phrase {{lang\\|es\\|Si en San Cristóbal confías, de accidente no morirás}} (\"If you trust St. Christopher, you won't die in an accident\").{{Cite book\\|title\\=A Year in the Life of Medieval England \\|first\\=Toni \\|last\\=Mount \\|publisher\\=Amberley Publishing \\|year\\=2016 \\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-4456\\-5240\\-5 \\|url\\= https://books.google.com/books?id\\=WcZ5DAAAQBAJ\\&q\\=Christopher\\&pg\\=PT169 \\|page\\=169}}",
"### General patronage",
"St. Christopher is a widely popular saint, especially revered by athletes, [mariners](/wiki/Sailor \"Sailor\"), [ferrymen](/wiki/Ferry \"Ferry\"), and travelers.Mershman, Francis (1908\\). \"[St. Christopher](/wiki/wikisource:Catholic_Encyclopedia_%281913%29/St._Christopher \"Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/St. Christopher\")\". In *The Catholic Encyclopedia*. New York: Robert Appleton Company. He is revered as one of the [Fourteen Holy Helpers](/wiki/Fourteen_Holy_Helpers \"Fourteen Holy Helpers\"). He holds patronage of things related to travel and travelers—against [lightning](/wiki/Lightning \"Lightning\") and [pestilence](/wiki/Infectious_disease \"Infectious disease\")—and patronage for [archers](/wiki/Archery \"Archery\"); [bachelors](/wiki/Bachelor \"Bachelor\"); boatmen; soldiers; [bookbinders](/wiki/Bookbinder \"Bookbinder\"); [epilepsy](/wiki/Epilepsy \"Epilepsy\"); floods; fruit dealers; [fullers](/wiki/Fulling \"Fulling\"); [gardeners](/wiki/Gardener \"Gardener\"); a holy death; mariners; market carriers; motorists and drivers; sailors; storms; surfers;[*Dioces of Orange hosts First Annual Blessing of the Waves in Surf City*](http://www.rcbo.org/site/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=376&Itemid=100000001) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080916161951/http://www.rcbo.org/site/index.php?option\\=com\\_content\\&task\\=view\\&id\\=376\\&Itemid\\=100000001 \\|date\\=16 September 2008 }}, Roman Catholic Diocese of Orange, 15 September 2008 [toothache](/wiki/Toothache \"Toothache\"); mountaineering; and transportation workers.\n[thumb\\|upright\\|In Eastern icons, Saint Christopher is sometimes represented with the [head of a dog](/wiki/Cynocephaly \"Cynocephaly\").](/wiki/File:Christopher_icon.jpg \"Christopher icon.jpg\")",
"### Patronage of places",
"Christopher is the patron saint of many places, including: [Baden, Germany](/wiki/Baden \"Baden\"); [Barga, Italy](/wiki/Barga%2C_Tuscany \"Barga, Tuscany\"); [Brunswick, Germany](/wiki/Braunschweig \"Braunschweig\"); [Mecklenburg, Germany](/wiki/Mecklenburg \"Mecklenburg\"); [Rab, Croatia](/wiki/Rab_%28town%29 \"Rab (town)\"); [Roermond, the Netherlands](/wiki/Roermond \"Roermond\"); Saint Christopher's Island ([Saint Kitts](/wiki/Saint_Kitts \"Saint Kitts\")); [Toses, Catalonia, Spain](/wiki/Toses \"Toses\"); [Mondim de Basto, Portugal](/wiki/Mondim_de_Basto \"Mondim de Basto\"); [Agrinio, Greece](/wiki/Agrinio \"Agrinio\"); [Vilnius, Lithuania](/wiki/Vilnius \"Vilnius\"); [Riga, Latvia](/wiki/Riga \"Riga\"); [Havana, Cuba](/wiki/Havana \"Havana\"); [San Cristóbal, Dominican Republic](/wiki/San_Crist%C3%B3bal%2C_Dominican_Republic \"San Cristóbal, Dominican Republic\"); [Paete, Laguna, Philippines](/wiki/Paete \"Paete\"); and [Tivim, Goa, India](/wiki/Tivim \"Tivim\").",
"#### Toponomy",
"Numerous places are named for the saint, including [Saint Christopher Island](/wiki/Saint_Christopher_Island \"Saint Christopher Island\"), the official name of the Caribbean island of Saint Kitts, and [St. Christopher Island](/wiki/St._Christopher_Island \"St. Christopher Island\") in [Antarctica](/wiki/Antarctica \"Antarctica\"). Many places are named after the saint in other languages, for example {{lang\\|fr\\|Saint\\-Christophe}} is a common French place name; similarly, {{lang\\|es\\|San Cristóbal}} is a place name in many Spanish\\-speaking or Spanish\\-influenced countries, and the {{lang\\|pt\\|São Cristóvão}} is in use throughout the [Lusophone](/wiki/Lusophone \"Lusophone\") world.",
"### Iconography",
"Because St. Christopher offered protection to travelers and against sudden death, many churches placed images or statues of him, usually opposite the south door, so he could be easily seen. He is usually depicted as a giant, with a child on his shoulder and a staff in one hand.{{cite book\\|last\\=Magill\\|first\\=Frank Northen\\|title\\=Dictionary of World Biography: The ancient world\\|year\\=1998\\|publisher\\=Taylor \\& Francis\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-89356\\-313\\-4\\|pages\\=239–244\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=wyKaVFZqbdUC\\&pg\\=PA242\\|author2\\=J. Moose \\|author3\\=Alison Aves \\|access\\-date\\=25 October 2010}} In England, there are more wall paintings of St. Christopher than of any other saint; in 1904, Mrs. Collier, writing for the [British Archaeological Association](/wiki/British_Archaeological_Association \"British Archaeological Association\"), reported 183 paintings, statues, and other representations of the saint, outnumbering all others except for the [Virgin Mary](/wiki/Virgin_Mary \"Virgin Mary\").{{cite journal \\|author\\=Mrs. Collier \\|title\\=Saint Christopher and Some Representations of Him in English Churches\\|journal\\=\\[\\[British Archaeological Association\\|Journal of the British Archaeological Association]]\\|year\\=1904\\|volume\\=10 \\|issue\\=2 \\|pages\\=130–145\\|doi\\=10\\.1080/00681288\\.1904\\.11893754 \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=UDgNAAAAYAAJ\\&pg\\=PA130\\|access\\-date\\=25 October 2010}}",
"In the [Eastern Orthodox Church](/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_Church \"Eastern Orthodox Church\"), certain icons identify Saint Christopher with the head of a dog. Such images may carry echoes of the Egyptian dog\\-headed god, [Anubis](/wiki/Anubis \"Anubis\"). Christopher pictured with a dog's head is not generally supported by the Orthodox Church, as the icon was proscribed in the 18th century by Moscow.Pageau, Jonathan. (8 July 2013\\).[\"Understanding The Dog\\-Headed Icon of St\\-Christopher\"](https://www.orthodoxartsjournal.org/the-icon-of-st-christopher/), *Orthodox Arts Journal*",
"The roots of that iconography lie in a [hagiographic narrative](/wiki/Hagiography \"Hagiography\") set during the reign of the Emperor [Diocletian](/wiki/Diocletian \"Diocletian\"), which tells of a man named *Reprebus*, (also, *Rebrebus* or *Reprobus*; 'the reprobate' or 'scoundrel'). He was captured by Roman forces fighting against tribes dwelling to the west of [Egypt](/wiki/Egypt \"Egypt\") in [Cyrenaica](/wiki/Cyrenaica \"Cyrenaica\") and forced to join the Roman {{lang\\|la\\|numerus Marmaritarum}}{{efn\\|Such a \"Unit of the Marmaritae\" suggests an otherwise\\-unidentified \"Marmaritae\", perhaps the same as the Marmaricae \\[\\[Berbers\\|Berber]] tribe of \\[\\[Cyrenaica]].}} ('Unit of the Marmaritae'). He was reported to be of enormous size, with the head of a dog instead of a man. This was in line with the cultural beliefs of the time, which held that typical Marmaritae were tall, strong, and rascally; being a [cynocephalus](/wiki/Cynocephaly \"Cynocephaly\") was also consistent with this image. Roman writer [Pliny the Elder](/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder \"Pliny the Elder\") reported that the \"{{lang\\|grc\\|Cynamolgi}} {{lang\\|grc\\|cynocephali}}, of Ethiopia were men with the heads of dogs.\" Pliny's work, [The Natural History](/wiki/Natural_History_%28Pliny%29 \"Natural History (Pliny)\") was, during the first century A.D., a well\\-respected compendium of Roman science. It reports accepted \"knowledge\" about people from [Cyrenaica](/wiki/Cyrenaica \"Cyrenaica\"). Pliny notes that these \"dog\\-headed men\" resided in \"Ethiopia\"—a name used to encapsulate areas of Africa West and South of Alexandrian Egypt by contemporary Romans.{{cite web \\|last\\=Gebhart \\|first\\=Tim \\|date\\=19 May 2021 \\|title\\=Fantastical Humans Roamed Pliny's \"Natural History\" \\|url\\=https://medium.com/exploring\\-history/fantastical\\-humans\\-roamed\\-plinys\\-natural\\-history\\-6e03c637d97d \\|access\\-date\\=12 April 2022 \\|website\\=Exploring History }}See Pliny:\n {{Cite book\\|translator\\=Harris Rackham \\|author\\=Pliny the Elder \\|title\\=Natural History \\|location\\=Cambridge, Massachusetts (USA) \\|publisher\\=Harvard University Press \\|orig\\-date\\=This translation first published 1938 \\|date\\=1963 \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-674\\-99388\\-4\\|volume\\=II , la \\|id\\=Books 3–7}}\n {{cite book \\|author\\=Pliny the Elder \\|translator1\\=John Bostock \\|translator2\\=Henry T. Riley \\|title\\=The Natural History of Pliny \\|date\\=18 July 2020 \\|orig\\-date\\=This translation first published 1855 by Henry G. Bohn, London \\|publisher\\=Digitised and republished online by The Project Gutenberg eBooks \\|chapter\\-url\\=https://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/60230/pg60230\\-images.html \\|chapter\\=BOOK VII–Man, his Birth, his Organization, and the Invention of the Arts: Chapter 2\\. The Wonderful Forms of Different Nations \\|volume\\=II (of VI)}}* + Reprebus and the unit were later transferred to Syrian [Antioch](/wiki/Antioch \"Antioch\"), where bishop Peter of Attalia baptised him and where he was martyred in 308\\.David Woods, 'St. Christopher, Bishop Peter of Attalia, and the Cohors Marmaritarum: A Fresh Examination', *[Vigiliae Christianae](/wiki/Vigiliae_Christianae \"Vigiliae Christianae\")*, Vol. 48, No. 2 (June 1994\\), pp. 170\\-186",
"It has also been speculated that this Byzantine depiction of St. Christopher as dog\\-headed may have resulted from a misreading of the Latin term {{lang\\|la\\|Cananeus}}, '[Canaanite](/wiki/Canaan \"Canaan\")' as {{lang\\|la\\|caninus}}, that is, 'canine'. Scholars judge the association with [cynocephaly](/wiki/Cynocephaly \"Cynocephaly\") as more likely.{{cite book \\|author\\=Ross, L. \\|title\\=Medieval Art: A Topical Dictionary \\|publisher\\=Westport \\|date\\=1996 \\|page\\=50}}",
"According to the medieval Irish Passion of St. Christopher, \"This Christopher was one of the Dog\\-heads, a race that had the heads of dogs and ate human flesh.\"{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.ucc.ie/milmart/chrsirish.html \\|title\\=Irish Passion of St. Christopher \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130729215126/http://www.ucc.ie/milmart/chrsirish.html \\|archive\\-date\\=29 July 2013}} It was commonly accepted at the time that there were several types of races, the Cynocephalus, or dog\\-headed people, being one of many believed to populate the world. The German bishop and poet [Walter of Speyer](/wiki/Walter_of_Speyer \"Walter of Speyer\") portrayed St. Christopher as a giant of a cynocephalic species in the land of the Chananeans who ate human flesh and barked. Eventually, Christopher met the Christ child, regretted his former behavior, and received baptism. He, too, was rewarded with a human appearance, whereupon he devoted his life to Christian service and became an [athlete of God](/wiki/Athlete_of_God \"Athlete of God\"), one of the [soldier saints](/wiki/Soldier_saint \"Soldier saint\").[Walter of Speyer](/wiki/Walter_of_Speyer \"Walter of Speyer\"), *Vita et passio sancti Christopher martyris*, 75\\.",
"### Depictions in art",
"{{see also\\|Saint Christopher in popular culture}}",
"File:Westminster Psalter St Christopher.jpg\\|''St. Christopher'', from the \\[\\[Westminster Psalter]], c. 1250\nFile:St Botolph, Slapton \\- Wall painting \\- geograph.org.uk \\- 4471788 (cropped).jpg\\|14th century image of St Christopher, one of the \\[\\[St Botolph's Church, Slapton\\#The Slapton Wall Paintings\\|Slapton Wall Paintings]] in \\[\\[Northamptonshire]], \\[\\[England]]\nFile:Saint Christopher 001\\.jpg\\|The earliest dated \\[\\[woodcut]] in Europe, 1423, \\[\\[Buxheim]], with hand\\-colouring of Saint Christopher\nFile:Saint Christopher after Jan van Eyck.jpg\\|''\\[\\[Saint Christopher (after van Eyck)\\|Saint Christopher]]'', c. 1460–70, after a lost painting by \\[\\[Jan van Eyck]]\nHans Memling 033\\.jpg\\|''Saint Christopher'' by \\[\\[Hans Memling]], c. 1480\nFile:BoschSaintChrisopherCarryingTheChristChild.jpg\\|''\\[\\[Saint Christopher Carrying the Christ Child]]'' by Hieronymus Bosch, c. 1490–1500\nFile:Bellini, Sts Christopher, Jerome and Louis of Toulouse.jpg\\|''\\[\\[Saints Christopher, Jerome and Louis of Toulouse]]'' by \\[\\[Giovanni Bellini]], 1513\nFile:BStrozziCristof1\\.jpg\\|''St. Christopher, St. Sebastian, St. Roch'' by \\[\\[Bernardo Strozzi]], early 17th century; Parish of \\[\\[Almenno San Salvatore]], \\[\\[Bergamo]]\n{{Clear\\|left}}",
""
] |
History
-------
### Nikola Tesla
The history of the capacitor discharge ignition system can be traced back to the 1890s when it is believed that [Nikola Tesla](/wiki/Nikola_Tesla "Nikola Tesla") was the first to propose such an ignition system. In {{US Patent\|609250}} first filed February 17, 1897, Tesla writes 'Any suitable moving portion of the apparatus is caused to mechanically control the charging of a [condenser](/wiki/Capacitor "Capacitor") and its discharge through a [circuit](/wiki/Electrical_network "Electrical network") in inductive relation to a secondary circuit leading to the terminals between which the discharge is to occur, so that at the desired intervals the condenser may be discharged through its circuit and induce in the other circuit a current of high [potential](/wiki/Voltage "Voltage") which produces the desired discharge.' The patent also describes very generally with a drawing, a mechanical means to accomplish its purpose.
### Ford Model K
Originally invented for Henry Fords six cylinder racer in 1905, the first production use of a CDI system was put into use in 1906 as standard equipment with the Ford Model K. The Model K utilized dual ignition systems, one of which was the Holley\-Huff Magneto, or Huff System, manufactured by the Holley Brothers Company. It was designed by Edward S. Huff with US patent \#882003 filed July 1, 1905 and assigned to Henry Ford. The system used an engine driven DC generator that charged a capacitor and then discharged the capacitor through the ignition coil primary winding. An excerpt from the 'Motorway' Jan 11 1906, describes its use on Ford six cylinder cars: 'The efficiency of the Ford Magneto is shown by the fact that the instant it is switched in the car will pick up speed and, without changing the position of the ignition control lever, will run at least ten miles an hour faster.'
### Robert Bosch
It was the [Robert Bosch](/wiki/Robert_Bosch_GmbH "Robert Bosch GmbH") company which was the pioneer of the first electronic CD ignitions. (Bosch is also responsible for the invention of the high\-tension [magneto](/wiki/Ignition_magneto "Ignition magneto").) During World War Two, Bosch had fitted [thyratron](/wiki/Thyratron "Thyratron") (tube type) CD ignitions to some piston engined fighter aircraft. With a CD ignition, an aeroplane engine did not need a warm up period for reliable ignition and so a fighter aircraft could take flight more quickly as a result. This early German system used a [rotary DC converter](/wiki/Rotary_converter "Rotary converter") along with fragile tube circuitry, and was not suited to life in a fighter aircraft. Failures occurred within only a few hours. The quest for a reliable electronic means of producing a CD ignition began in earnest during the 1950s. In the mid\-1950s, the Engineering Research Institute of the [University of Michigan](/wiki/University_of_Michigan "University of Michigan") in cooperation with [Chrysler Corporation](/wiki/Chrysler_Corporation "Chrysler Corporation") in the United States worked to find a method to produce a viable solution.
### Thyratron
They were unsuccessful, but did provide much data on the advantages of such a system, should one be built. Namely; a fast [voltage](/wiki/Voltage "Voltage") rise time to fire fouled or wet [spark plugs](/wiki/Spark_plug "Spark plug"), high energy throughout the [RPM](/wiki/Revolutions_per_minute "Revolutions per minute") range resulting in better starting, more [power](/wiki/Power_%28physics%29 "Power (physics)") and economy, and lower [emissions](/wiki/Exhaust_gas "Exhaust gas"). A few engineers, scientists, and hobbyists had built CD ignitions throughout the 1950s using [thyratrons](/wiki/Thyratron "Thyratron"). However, thyratrons were unsuitable for use in automobiles for two reasons. They required a warm\-up period which was a nuisance, and were vulnerable to vibration which drastically reduced their service life. In an automotive application, the thyratron CD ignition would fail in weeks or months. The unreliability of those early thyratron CD ignitions made them unsuitable for mass production despite providing short term benefits. One company at least, [Tung\-Sol](/wiki/Tung-Sol "Tung-Sol") (a manufacturer of vacuum tubes) marketed a thyratron CD ignition, model Tung\-Sol EI\-4 in 1962, but it was expensive. Despite the failings of thyratron CD ignitions, the improved ignition that they gave made them a worthwhile addition for some drivers. For the [Wankel](/wiki/Wankel_engine "Wankel engine") powered [NSU Spider](/wiki/NSU_Spider "NSU Spider") of 1964, Bosch resurrected its thyratron method for a CD ignition and used this up until at least 1966\. It suffered the same reliability problems as the Tung\-Sol EI\-4\.
### Thyristor
It was the SCR, [Silicon\-controlled rectifier](/wiki/Silicon-controlled_rectifier "Silicon-controlled rectifier") or [thyristor](/wiki/Thyristor "Thyristor") invented in the late 1950s that replaced the troublesome thyratron, and paved the way for a reliable solid\-state CD ignition. This was thanks to Bill Gutzwiller and his team at [General Electric](/wiki/General_Electric "General Electric"). The SCR was rugged with an indefinite lifetime, but very prone to unwanted trigger impulses which would turn the SCR 'on'. Unwanted trigger impulses in early attempts at using SCRs for CD ignitions were caused by electrical interference, but the main culprit proved to be 'points bounce'. Points bounce is a feature of a points\-triggered system. In the standard system with [points](/wiki/Contact_breaker "Contact breaker"), [distributor](/wiki/Distributor "Distributor"), [ignition coil](/wiki/Ignition_coil "Ignition coil"), [ignition](/wiki/Ignition_system "Ignition system") (Kettering system) points bounce prevents the coil from saturating fully as [RPM](/wiki/Revolutions_per_minute "Revolutions per minute") increases resulting in a weak spark, thus limiting high speed potential. In a CD ignition, at least those early attempts, the points bounce created unwanted trigger pulses to the SCR (thyristor) that resulted in a series of weak, untimed sparks that caused extreme misfiring. There were two possible solutions to the problem. The first would be to develop another means of triggering the discharge of the [capacitor](/wiki/Capacitor "Capacitor") to one discharge per power stroke by replacing the points with something else. This could be done magnetically or optically, but that would necessitate more electronics and an expensive distributor. The other option was to keep the points, as they were already in use and reliable, and find a way to overcome the 'points bounce' problem. This was accomplished in April 1962 by a Canadian, [RCAF](/wiki/RCAF "RCAF") officer F.L. Winterburn working in his basement in [Ottawa](/wiki/Ottawa "Ottawa"), [Ontario](/wiki/Ontario "Ontario"). The design used an inexpensive method that would recognize only the first opening of the points and ignore subsequent openings when the points bounced.
### Hyland Electronics
[thumb\|F.L. Winterburn](/wiki/Image:RCAF_photo%2C_Spring_1964_001.jpg "RCAF photo, Spring 1964 001.jpg")
A company was formed in Ottawa in early 1963 called Hyland Electronics building CD ignitions using the Winterburn design. The discharge capacitor within the CD ignition had the ability to provide a powerful spark in excess of 4 times the spark power of the Kettering system using the same coil, with the exception that spark energy could be maintained at high rpm unlike the Kettering system. The Hyland unit consumed only four [amperes](/wiki/Ampere "Ampere") at 5000rpm (8cyl) or 10,000rpm(4cyl). [Dynamometer](/wiki/Dynamometer "Dynamometer") testing during 1963 and 1964 showed a minimum of 5% increase in [horsepower](/wiki/Horsepower "Horsepower") with the system, with 10% the norm. One example, a [Ford Falcon](/wiki/Ford_Falcon_%28North_America%29 "Ford Falcon (North America)"), had an increase in horsepower of 17%. Spark plug lifespan was increased to at least 50,000 miles and points lifespan was greatly extended from 8,000 miles to at least 60,000 miles. Points lifespan became a factor of rubbing block (cam follower) wear and the life cycle of the [spring](/wiki/Spring_%28device%29 "Spring (device)") with some lasting almost 100,000 miles.
The Hyland unit was tolerant of varied points gaps. The system could be switched back to standard [inductive discharge ignition](/wiki/Inductive_discharge_ignition "Inductive discharge ignition") by the swapping of two wires. The Hyland CD ignition was the first commercially produced solid\-state CD ignition and retailed for $39\.95 Canadian. The patents were applied for by Winterburn on September 23, 1963 (United States patent\# 3,564,581\). The design was leaked to the United States in the summer of 1963 when Hyland exposed the design to a US company in an effort to expand sales. Afterward, numerous companies started building their own throughout the 1960s and 1970s without licence. Some were direct copies of the Winterburn circuit. In 1971 Bosch bought the European patent rights (German, French, British) from Winterburn.
### Wireless World
The UK Wireless World magazine of January 1970 published a detailed Capacitor\-discharge Ignition system as an electronic hobby build project by R.M. Marston. The circuit of this system was similar to the Winterburn patent in that it used a push\-pull converted switch mode oscillator for energy transfer to a store \- discharge capacitor and conventional contact breakers to initiate a thyristor triggering discharge of the charged CD capacitor. It was stated to offer several advantages over conventional ignition. Among which: better combustion, easy starting even under subzero conditions, immunity to contactor (points) bounce and 2% \- 5% fuel economy.
Subsequent letters to Wireless World ( March \& May 1970\), with Mr. Marston's replies, further discussed aspects of the design and build. In July 1971 Mr. A.P. Harris, undergraduate of the City University London made a detailed electrical engineering analysis of the Marston design as well as automotive engine measurement trials to verify fuel economy. These confirmed the benefits of the CD ignition system. However, he found that the core ingredient of the CD design rested on careful hand winding of the switch mode transformer and appropriate selection of oscillator transistors and choice of oscillator frequency.
### Current aftermarket systems
For various reasons, probably mostly cost, the majority of currently available aftermarket ignition systems appear to be of the inductive discharge type, although in the 1970s and 1980s a variety of capacitive discharge units were readily available, some retaining the points while others provided an alternative type of timing sensor.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"### Nikola Tesla",
"The history of the capacitor discharge ignition system can be traced back to the 1890s when it is believed that [Nikola Tesla](/wiki/Nikola_Tesla \"Nikola Tesla\") was the first to propose such an ignition system. In {{US Patent\\|609250}} first filed February 17, 1897, Tesla writes 'Any suitable moving portion of the apparatus is caused to mechanically control the charging of a [condenser](/wiki/Capacitor \"Capacitor\") and its discharge through a [circuit](/wiki/Electrical_network \"Electrical network\") in inductive relation to a secondary circuit leading to the terminals between which the discharge is to occur, so that at the desired intervals the condenser may be discharged through its circuit and induce in the other circuit a current of high [potential](/wiki/Voltage \"Voltage\") which produces the desired discharge.' The patent also describes very generally with a drawing, a mechanical means to accomplish its purpose.",
"### Ford Model K",
"Originally invented for Henry Fords six cylinder racer in 1905, the first production use of a CDI system was put into use in 1906 as standard equipment with the Ford Model K. The Model K utilized dual ignition systems, one of which was the Holley\\-Huff Magneto, or Huff System, manufactured by the Holley Brothers Company. It was designed by Edward S. Huff with US patent \\#882003 filed July 1, 1905 and assigned to Henry Ford. The system used an engine driven DC generator that charged a capacitor and then discharged the capacitor through the ignition coil primary winding. An excerpt from the 'Motorway' Jan 11 1906, describes its use on Ford six cylinder cars: 'The efficiency of the Ford Magneto is shown by the fact that the instant it is switched in the car will pick up speed and, without changing the position of the ignition control lever, will run at least ten miles an hour faster.'",
"### Robert Bosch",
"It was the [Robert Bosch](/wiki/Robert_Bosch_GmbH \"Robert Bosch GmbH\") company which was the pioneer of the first electronic CD ignitions. (Bosch is also responsible for the invention of the high\\-tension [magneto](/wiki/Ignition_magneto \"Ignition magneto\").) During World War Two, Bosch had fitted [thyratron](/wiki/Thyratron \"Thyratron\") (tube type) CD ignitions to some piston engined fighter aircraft. With a CD ignition, an aeroplane engine did not need a warm up period for reliable ignition and so a fighter aircraft could take flight more quickly as a result. This early German system used a [rotary DC converter](/wiki/Rotary_converter \"Rotary converter\") along with fragile tube circuitry, and was not suited to life in a fighter aircraft. Failures occurred within only a few hours. The quest for a reliable electronic means of producing a CD ignition began in earnest during the 1950s. In the mid\\-1950s, the Engineering Research Institute of the [University of Michigan](/wiki/University_of_Michigan \"University of Michigan\") in cooperation with [Chrysler Corporation](/wiki/Chrysler_Corporation \"Chrysler Corporation\") in the United States worked to find a method to produce a viable solution.",
"### Thyratron",
"They were unsuccessful, but did provide much data on the advantages of such a system, should one be built. Namely; a fast [voltage](/wiki/Voltage \"Voltage\") rise time to fire fouled or wet [spark plugs](/wiki/Spark_plug \"Spark plug\"), high energy throughout the [RPM](/wiki/Revolutions_per_minute \"Revolutions per minute\") range resulting in better starting, more [power](/wiki/Power_%28physics%29 \"Power (physics)\") and economy, and lower [emissions](/wiki/Exhaust_gas \"Exhaust gas\"). A few engineers, scientists, and hobbyists had built CD ignitions throughout the 1950s using [thyratrons](/wiki/Thyratron \"Thyratron\"). However, thyratrons were unsuitable for use in automobiles for two reasons. They required a warm\\-up period which was a nuisance, and were vulnerable to vibration which drastically reduced their service life. In an automotive application, the thyratron CD ignition would fail in weeks or months. The unreliability of those early thyratron CD ignitions made them unsuitable for mass production despite providing short term benefits. One company at least, [Tung\\-Sol](/wiki/Tung-Sol \"Tung-Sol\") (a manufacturer of vacuum tubes) marketed a thyratron CD ignition, model Tung\\-Sol EI\\-4 in 1962, but it was expensive. Despite the failings of thyratron CD ignitions, the improved ignition that they gave made them a worthwhile addition for some drivers. For the [Wankel](/wiki/Wankel_engine \"Wankel engine\") powered [NSU Spider](/wiki/NSU_Spider \"NSU Spider\") of 1964, Bosch resurrected its thyratron method for a CD ignition and used this up until at least 1966\\. It suffered the same reliability problems as the Tung\\-Sol EI\\-4\\.",
"### Thyristor",
"It was the SCR, [Silicon\\-controlled rectifier](/wiki/Silicon-controlled_rectifier \"Silicon-controlled rectifier\") or [thyristor](/wiki/Thyristor \"Thyristor\") invented in the late 1950s that replaced the troublesome thyratron, and paved the way for a reliable solid\\-state CD ignition. This was thanks to Bill Gutzwiller and his team at [General Electric](/wiki/General_Electric \"General Electric\"). The SCR was rugged with an indefinite lifetime, but very prone to unwanted trigger impulses which would turn the SCR 'on'. Unwanted trigger impulses in early attempts at using SCRs for CD ignitions were caused by electrical interference, but the main culprit proved to be 'points bounce'. Points bounce is a feature of a points\\-triggered system. In the standard system with [points](/wiki/Contact_breaker \"Contact breaker\"), [distributor](/wiki/Distributor \"Distributor\"), [ignition coil](/wiki/Ignition_coil \"Ignition coil\"), [ignition](/wiki/Ignition_system \"Ignition system\") (Kettering system) points bounce prevents the coil from saturating fully as [RPM](/wiki/Revolutions_per_minute \"Revolutions per minute\") increases resulting in a weak spark, thus limiting high speed potential. In a CD ignition, at least those early attempts, the points bounce created unwanted trigger pulses to the SCR (thyristor) that resulted in a series of weak, untimed sparks that caused extreme misfiring. There were two possible solutions to the problem. The first would be to develop another means of triggering the discharge of the [capacitor](/wiki/Capacitor \"Capacitor\") to one discharge per power stroke by replacing the points with something else. This could be done magnetically or optically, but that would necessitate more electronics and an expensive distributor. The other option was to keep the points, as they were already in use and reliable, and find a way to overcome the 'points bounce' problem. This was accomplished in April 1962 by a Canadian, [RCAF](/wiki/RCAF \"RCAF\") officer F.L. Winterburn working in his basement in [Ottawa](/wiki/Ottawa \"Ottawa\"), [Ontario](/wiki/Ontario \"Ontario\"). The design used an inexpensive method that would recognize only the first opening of the points and ignore subsequent openings when the points bounced.",
"### Hyland Electronics",
"[thumb\\|F.L. Winterburn](/wiki/Image:RCAF_photo%2C_Spring_1964_001.jpg \"RCAF photo, Spring 1964 001.jpg\")\nA company was formed in Ottawa in early 1963 called Hyland Electronics building CD ignitions using the Winterburn design. The discharge capacitor within the CD ignition had the ability to provide a powerful spark in excess of 4 times the spark power of the Kettering system using the same coil, with the exception that spark energy could be maintained at high rpm unlike the Kettering system. The Hyland unit consumed only four [amperes](/wiki/Ampere \"Ampere\") at 5000rpm (8cyl) or 10,000rpm(4cyl). [Dynamometer](/wiki/Dynamometer \"Dynamometer\") testing during 1963 and 1964 showed a minimum of 5% increase in [horsepower](/wiki/Horsepower \"Horsepower\") with the system, with 10% the norm. One example, a [Ford Falcon](/wiki/Ford_Falcon_%28North_America%29 \"Ford Falcon (North America)\"), had an increase in horsepower of 17%. Spark plug lifespan was increased to at least 50,000 miles and points lifespan was greatly extended from 8,000 miles to at least 60,000 miles. Points lifespan became a factor of rubbing block (cam follower) wear and the life cycle of the [spring](/wiki/Spring_%28device%29 \"Spring (device)\") with some lasting almost 100,000 miles.",
"The Hyland unit was tolerant of varied points gaps. The system could be switched back to standard [inductive discharge ignition](/wiki/Inductive_discharge_ignition \"Inductive discharge ignition\") by the swapping of two wires. The Hyland CD ignition was the first commercially produced solid\\-state CD ignition and retailed for $39\\.95 Canadian. The patents were applied for by Winterburn on September 23, 1963 (United States patent\\# 3,564,581\\). The design was leaked to the United States in the summer of 1963 when Hyland exposed the design to a US company in an effort to expand sales. Afterward, numerous companies started building their own throughout the 1960s and 1970s without licence. Some were direct copies of the Winterburn circuit. In 1971 Bosch bought the European patent rights (German, French, British) from Winterburn.",
"### Wireless World",
"The UK Wireless World magazine of January 1970 published a detailed Capacitor\\-discharge Ignition system as an electronic hobby build project by R.M. Marston. The circuit of this system was similar to the Winterburn patent in that it used a push\\-pull converted switch mode oscillator for energy transfer to a store \\- discharge capacitor and conventional contact breakers to initiate a thyristor triggering discharge of the charged CD capacitor. It was stated to offer several advantages over conventional ignition. Among which: better combustion, easy starting even under subzero conditions, immunity to contactor (points) bounce and 2% \\- 5% fuel economy. \nSubsequent letters to Wireless World ( March \\& May 1970\\), with Mr. Marston's replies, further discussed aspects of the design and build. In July 1971 Mr. A.P. Harris, undergraduate of the City University London made a detailed electrical engineering analysis of the Marston design as well as automotive engine measurement trials to verify fuel economy. These confirmed the benefits of the CD ignition system. However, he found that the core ingredient of the CD design rested on careful hand winding of the switch mode transformer and appropriate selection of oscillator transistors and choice of oscillator frequency.",
"### Current aftermarket systems",
"For various reasons, probably mostly cost, the majority of currently available aftermarket ignition systems appear to be of the inductive discharge type, although in the 1970s and 1980s a variety of capacitive discharge units were readily available, some retaining the points while others provided an alternative type of timing sensor.",
""
] |
The basic principle
-------------------
Most ignition systems used in cars are [inductive discharge ignition](/wiki/Inductive_discharge_ignition "Inductive discharge ignition") (IDI) systems, which are solely relying on the electric [inductance](/wiki/Inductance "Inductance") at the coil to produce high\-[voltage](/wiki/Voltage "Voltage") [electricity](/wiki/Electricity "Electricity") to the [spark plugs](/wiki/Spark_plug "Spark plug") as the [magnetic field](/wiki/Magnetic_field "Magnetic field") collapses when the [current](/wiki/Electric_current "Electric current") to the primary coil winding is disconnected ([disruptive discharge](/wiki/Electrical_breakdown "Electrical breakdown")). In a CDI system, a [charging circuit](/wiki/Alternator "Alternator") charges a high voltage [capacitor](/wiki/Capacitor "Capacitor"), and at the instant of ignition, usually determined by a crank position sensor, the system stops charging the capacitor, allowing the capacitor to discharge its output to the ignition coil before reaching the spark plug.
### Typical CDI module
A typical CDI module consists of a small [transformer](/wiki/Transformer "Transformer"), a charging circuit, a triggering circuit and a main [capacitor](/wiki/Capacitor "Capacitor"). First, the system voltage is raised to 250 to 600 volts by a power supply inside the CDI module. Then, the electric current flows to the charging circuit and charges the capacitor. The [rectifier](/wiki/Rectifier "Rectifier") inside the charging circuit prevents capacitor discharge before the moment of ignition. When the triggering circuit receives the triggering signal, the triggering circuit stops the operation of the charging circuit, allowing the capacitor to discharge its output rapidly to the low inductance ignition coil. In a CD ignition, the ignition coil acts as a pulse transformer rather than an energy storage medium as it does in an inductive system. The voltage output to the spark plugs is highly dependent on the design of the CD ignition. Voltages exceeding the insulation capabilities of existing ignition components can lead to early failure of those components. Most CD ignitions are made to give very high output voltages but this is not always beneficial. When there is no triggering signal the charging circuit is re\-connected to charge the capacitor.
### Stored energy
The amount of energy the CDI system can store for the generation of a spark is dependent on the voltage and [capacitance](/wiki/Capacitance "Capacitance") of the capacitors used, but usually it is around 50 [mJ](/wiki/Joule "Joule"), or more. The standard points/coil/distributor ignition, more properly called the [inductive discharge ignition](/wiki/Inductive_discharge_ignition "Inductive discharge ignition") system or [Kettering ignition system](/wiki/Kettering_ignition_system "Kettering ignition system"), produces 25mJ at low speed and drops off quickly as speed increases.
One factor often not taken into consideration when discussing CDI spark energy is the actual energy provided to the spark gap versus the energy applied to the primary side of the coil. As a simple example, a typical ignition coil may have a secondary winding resistance of 4000 ohms and a secondary current of 400 milliamperes. Once a spark has struck, the voltage across the spark gap in a running engine drops to a relatively low value, in the order of 1500\-2000 volts. This, combined with the fact that the coil secondary current of 400 milliamperes loses approximately 1600 volts through the 4000 ohm secondary resistance means that fully 50% of the energy is lost in heating the coil secondary. Actual measurements show the real world efficiency to be only 35 to 38% when coil primary winding losses are included.
### Types
Most CDI modules are generally of two types:
AC\-CDI
The AC\-CDI module obtains its electricity source solely from the [alternating current](/wiki/Alternating_current "Alternating current") produced by the [alternator](/wiki/Alternator_%28auto%29 "Alternator (auto)"). The AC\-CDI system is the most basic CDI system which is widely used in small engines.
DC\-CDI
The DC\-CDI module is powered by the battery, and therefore an additional DC/AC inverter circuit is included in the CDI module to raise the 12 V DC to 400\-600 V DC, making the CDI module slightly larger. However, vehicles that use DC\-CDI systems have more precise ignition timing and the engine can be started more easily when cold.
|
[
"The basic principle\n-------------------",
"Most ignition systems used in cars are [inductive discharge ignition](/wiki/Inductive_discharge_ignition \"Inductive discharge ignition\") (IDI) systems, which are solely relying on the electric [inductance](/wiki/Inductance \"Inductance\") at the coil to produce high\\-[voltage](/wiki/Voltage \"Voltage\") [electricity](/wiki/Electricity \"Electricity\") to the [spark plugs](/wiki/Spark_plug \"Spark plug\") as the [magnetic field](/wiki/Magnetic_field \"Magnetic field\") collapses when the [current](/wiki/Electric_current \"Electric current\") to the primary coil winding is disconnected ([disruptive discharge](/wiki/Electrical_breakdown \"Electrical breakdown\")). In a CDI system, a [charging circuit](/wiki/Alternator \"Alternator\") charges a high voltage [capacitor](/wiki/Capacitor \"Capacitor\"), and at the instant of ignition, usually determined by a crank position sensor, the system stops charging the capacitor, allowing the capacitor to discharge its output to the ignition coil before reaching the spark plug.",
"### Typical CDI module",
"A typical CDI module consists of a small [transformer](/wiki/Transformer \"Transformer\"), a charging circuit, a triggering circuit and a main [capacitor](/wiki/Capacitor \"Capacitor\"). First, the system voltage is raised to 250 to 600 volts by a power supply inside the CDI module. Then, the electric current flows to the charging circuit and charges the capacitor. The [rectifier](/wiki/Rectifier \"Rectifier\") inside the charging circuit prevents capacitor discharge before the moment of ignition. When the triggering circuit receives the triggering signal, the triggering circuit stops the operation of the charging circuit, allowing the capacitor to discharge its output rapidly to the low inductance ignition coil. In a CD ignition, the ignition coil acts as a pulse transformer rather than an energy storage medium as it does in an inductive system. The voltage output to the spark plugs is highly dependent on the design of the CD ignition. Voltages exceeding the insulation capabilities of existing ignition components can lead to early failure of those components. Most CD ignitions are made to give very high output voltages but this is not always beneficial. When there is no triggering signal the charging circuit is re\\-connected to charge the capacitor.",
"### Stored energy",
"The amount of energy the CDI system can store for the generation of a spark is dependent on the voltage and [capacitance](/wiki/Capacitance \"Capacitance\") of the capacitors used, but usually it is around 50 [mJ](/wiki/Joule \"Joule\"), or more. The standard points/coil/distributor ignition, more properly called the [inductive discharge ignition](/wiki/Inductive_discharge_ignition \"Inductive discharge ignition\") system or [Kettering ignition system](/wiki/Kettering_ignition_system \"Kettering ignition system\"), produces 25mJ at low speed and drops off quickly as speed increases.",
"One factor often not taken into consideration when discussing CDI spark energy is the actual energy provided to the spark gap versus the energy applied to the primary side of the coil. As a simple example, a typical ignition coil may have a secondary winding resistance of 4000 ohms and a secondary current of 400 milliamperes. Once a spark has struck, the voltage across the spark gap in a running engine drops to a relatively low value, in the order of 1500\\-2000 volts. This, combined with the fact that the coil secondary current of 400 milliamperes loses approximately 1600 volts through the 4000 ohm secondary resistance means that fully 50% of the energy is lost in heating the coil secondary. Actual measurements show the real world efficiency to be only 35 to 38% when coil primary winding losses are included.",
"### Types",
"Most CDI modules are generally of two types:",
"AC\\-CDI\nThe AC\\-CDI module obtains its electricity source solely from the [alternating current](/wiki/Alternating_current \"Alternating current\") produced by the [alternator](/wiki/Alternator_%28auto%29 \"Alternator (auto)\"). The AC\\-CDI system is the most basic CDI system which is widely used in small engines.\nDC\\-CDI\nThe DC\\-CDI module is powered by the battery, and therefore an additional DC/AC inverter circuit is included in the CDI module to raise the 12 V DC to 400\\-600 V DC, making the CDI module slightly larger. However, vehicles that use DC\\-CDI systems have more precise ignition timing and the engine can be started more easily when cold."
] |
Professional career
-------------------
### Columbus Wardogs (af2\)
In [2004](/wiki/2004_AF2_season "2004 AF2 season"), Bergeron made the [Columbus Wardogs](/wiki/Columbus_Wardogs "Columbus Wardogs") roster and became the youngest player in [af2](/wiki/Af2 "Af2") history at 21\. He recorded 77 receptions for 1,220 yards and 26 touchdowns despite missing the team's first four games. He was only the third Wardog player to reach 1,000 yards receiving. He set a franchise single\-game record with 212 receiving yards against the [Macon Knights](/wiki/Macon_Knights "Macon Knights"). Three weeks later, he had another record\-breaking performance and set three single\-game team records with 14 receptions for 216 yards and six touchdowns against the [Louisville Fire](/wiki/Louisville_Fire "Louisville Fire"). He was twice named the af2's Offensive Player of the Week.
### Georgia Force (first stint)
In [2005](/wiki/2005_Arena_Football_League_season "2005 Arena Football League season"), Bergeron signed with the [Georgia Force](/wiki/Georgia_Force "Georgia Force") of the [Arena Football League](/wiki/Arena_Football_League "Arena Football League"). As a rookie, he was slated to be a backup, until starter and offensive specialist [Scottie Montgomery](/wiki/Scottie_Montgomery "Scottie Montgomery") was injured in the second quarter of the season opener against the [New Orleans VooDoo](/wiki/New_Orleans_VooDoo "New Orleans VooDoo"). Bergeron stepped in, tallying a team\-high 6 receptions for 116 yards, a game\-high 3 receiving touchdowns and 74 yards on three kickoff returns. He was named Offensive Player of the Game for his first AFL contest and was given the starter position.
He played in all 16 games, collecting 105 receptions for 1,372 yards, 31 touchdowns and 57 kickoff returns for 1,058 yards. He had a career\-long 51\-yard kickoff return and a career\-long 37\-yard missed field goal return against the [Grand Rapids Rampage](/wiki/Grand_Rapids_Rampage "Grand Rapids Rampage"). He was named the 2005 AFL Rookie of the Year and was selected to the 2005 AFL All\-Rookie Team. Along with rookie teammate [Derek Lee](/wiki/Derek_Lee_%28American_football%29 "Derek Lee (American football)"), the duo ended the season as the top receiving touchdown tandem in the AFL with 64 combined touchdowns (Bergeron 31 and Lee 33\).
### Atlanta Falcons (first stint)
In [2006](/wiki/2006_NFL_season "2006 NFL season"), he was signed by the [Atlanta Falcons](/wiki/Atlanta_Falcons "Atlanta Falcons") as an undrafted rookie free agent. He attended training camp and was released following the final pre\-season game.
### Buffalo Bills
On December 12, [2006](/wiki/2006_NFL_season "2006 NFL season"), he was signed to the [Buffalo Bills](/wiki/Buffalo_Bills "Buffalo Bills") [practice squad](/wiki/Practice_squad "Practice squad").{{cite news
\|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2006/12/13/sports/transactions.html \|title\=Transactions \|newspaper\=The New York Times \|date\=13 December 2006 \| access\-date\=June 14, 2020}} He was released on February 14, [2007](/wiki/2007_NFL_season "2007 NFL season").{{cite web
\|url\=https://archive.nytimes.com/query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage\-9C06EFDC173EF936A25751C0A9619C8B63\.html \|title\=Transactions \| access\-date\=June 14, 2020}}
### Georgia Force (second stint)
In February [2007](/wiki/2007_Arena_Football_League_season "2007 Arena Football League season"), Bergeron re\-joined the [Georgia Force](/wiki/Georgia_Force "Georgia Force"). He appeared in all 16 games and recorded career highs in receptions (132\), receiving yards (1,736\), touchdowns (41\), rushing attempts (10\) and rushing yards (81\), while earning Second team [All\-Arena](/wiki/All-Arena "All-Arena") honors. He and teammate [Wide receiver](/wiki/Wide_receiver "Wide receiver") [Chris Jackson](/wiki/Chris_Jackson_%28Arena_football%29 "Chris Jackson (Arena football)") became the first receiving tandem in AFL history to record at least 130 catches, 1,700 receiving yards and 40 touchdowns each.
He led the team in receptions (13\) and receiving yards (194\), he also recorded four touchdowns on the road against the [Austin Wranglers](/wiki/Austin_Wranglers "Austin Wranglers"). He also had six kickoff returns for 103 yards and one rush for 10 yards. His 194 receiving yards and 307 total yards set new single\-game franchise\-highs. He also added two tackles and one fumble recovery on special teams.
In [2008](/wiki/2008_Arena_Football_League_season "2008 Arena Football League season"), Bergeron recorded 91 receptions for 1,247 yards, 24 touchdowns, 7 carries for 62 yards and 7 tackles. He also added five kickoff returns for 71 yards. The [Arena Football League](/wiki/Arena_Football_League "Arena Football League") folded after the season.
### Columbus Lions (AIF)
In March 2009, Bergeron signed with the [Columbus Lions](/wiki/Columbus_Lions "Columbus Lions") of the [American Indoor Football Association](/wiki/American_Indoor_Football_Association "American Indoor Football Association"). He led the team in receiving yards, touchdowns and catches.{{cite web
\|url\=https://www.ledger\-enquirer.com/latest\-news/article29054107\.html \|title\=Atlanta Falcons sign receiver Troy Bergeron \|publisher\=Ledger\-Enquirer \|author\=Chris White \|date\=May 11, 2009 \| access\-date\=June 14, 2020}} He contributed to the franchise winning the SIFL championship in 2010\.
### Atlanta Falcons (second stint)
On April 28, [2009](/wiki/2009_NFL_season "2009 NFL season"), he was signed by the [Atlanta Falcons](/wiki/Atlanta_Falcons "Atlanta Falcons"), only to be released on April 29 after failing his physical with a hamstring injury.{{cite web
\|url\=https://www.espn.com/football/sampdoria/story/4113510/sampdorias\-maya\-yoshida\-remains\-focused\-on\-the\-future\-and\-not\-the\-past\-as\-serie\-a\-returns \|title\=Falcons sign former Georgia RB Verron Haynes \|date\=30 April 2009 \| access\-date\=June 14, 2020}} He was re\-signed by the team on May 10\. He was waived during final cuts on September 4, and re\-signed to the practice squad the next day.{{cite web
\|url\=https://www.ledger\-enquirer.com/sports/high\-school/valley\-preps\-blog/article29162548\.html \|title\=Former Shaw receiver Bergeron doesn't make Falcons \|publisher\=Ledger\-Enquirer \|date\=September 6, 2010 \| access\-date\=June 14, 2020}} He was then promoted to the active roster on November 14\.{{cite web
\|url\=https://www.espn.com/nfl/news/story?id\=4655615 \|title\=Jenkins listed as questionable \|date\=15 November 2009 \| access\-date\=June 14, 2020}} Bergeron was released November 16 and re\-signed to the practice squad on November 18\.
Ten days later, he was promoted to the 53\-man roster again. On December 2, he returned to the practice squad. Due to the release of [running back](/wiki/Running_back "Running back") [Verron Haynes](/wiki/Verron_Haynes "Verron Haynes"), Bergeron was promoted to the active roster on December 5\. Bergeron was waived again by the Falcons on December 7 and added to back to the practice squad on December 9\. The Falcons promoted Bergeron to the active roster again on December 15 when [wide receiver](/wiki/Wide_receiver "Wide receiver") [Brian Finneran](/wiki/Brian_Finneran "Brian Finneran") was placed on [injured reserve](/wiki/Injured_reserve "Injured reserve"). He spent a total of 6 games on the active roster. He was released on September 4, [2010](/wiki/2010_NFL_season "2010 NFL season").
### Cleveland Gladiators (AFL)
On October 3, 2010, he signed with the [Cleveland Gladiators](/wiki/Cleveland_Gladiators "Cleveland Gladiators") of the [Arena Football League](/wiki/Arena_Football_League "Arena Football League").{{cite web
\|url\=https://www.ledger\-enquirer.com/sports/high\-school/valley\-preps\-blog/article29163655\.html \|title\=Columbus Lions DB Damian Daniels, Troy Bergeron sign with AFL's Cleveland Gladiators \|publisher\=Ledger\-Enquirer \|author\=Chris White \|date\=October 4, 2010 \| access\-date\=June 14, 2020}}
### Dallas Cowboys
On December 15, [2010](/wiki/2010_NFL_season "2010 NFL season"), he was signed to the [Dallas Cowboys](/wiki/Dallas_Cowboys "Dallas Cowboys")' [practice squad](/wiki/Practice_squad "Practice squad").{{cite web
\|url\=https://www.espn.com/nfl/news/story?id\=5922642 \|title\=Marion Barber returns to practice \|date\=15 December 2010 \| access\-date\=June 14, 2020}} In March 2011, because of the NFL labor dispute and lockout decision, he signed with the [Cleveland Gladiators](/wiki/Cleveland_Gladiators "Cleveland Gladiators") of the [Arena Football League](/wiki/Arena_Football_League "Arena Football League").{{cite web
\|url\=https://www.espn.com/dallas/news/story?id\=6227522 \|title\=Two NFL WRs sign with AFL \|date\=17 March 2011 \| access\-date\=June 14, 2020}} He returned to the Cowboys after the collective bargaining agreement was signed. He was released on July 28, 2011\.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.espn.com/nfl/story/\_/id/6814188/nfl\-cuts\-roundup\|title\=NFL cuts roundup\|date\=29 July 2011 \|publisher\=ESPN\|access\-date\=June 14, 2020}}
|
[
"Professional career\n-------------------",
"### Columbus Wardogs (af2\\)",
"In [2004](/wiki/2004_AF2_season \"2004 AF2 season\"), Bergeron made the [Columbus Wardogs](/wiki/Columbus_Wardogs \"Columbus Wardogs\") roster and became the youngest player in [af2](/wiki/Af2 \"Af2\") history at 21\\. He recorded 77 receptions for 1,220 yards and 26 touchdowns despite missing the team's first four games. He was only the third Wardog player to reach 1,000 yards receiving. He set a franchise single\\-game record with 212 receiving yards against the [Macon Knights](/wiki/Macon_Knights \"Macon Knights\"). Three weeks later, he had another record\\-breaking performance and set three single\\-game team records with 14 receptions for 216 yards and six touchdowns against the [Louisville Fire](/wiki/Louisville_Fire \"Louisville Fire\"). He was twice named the af2's Offensive Player of the Week.",
"### Georgia Force (first stint)",
"In [2005](/wiki/2005_Arena_Football_League_season \"2005 Arena Football League season\"), Bergeron signed with the [Georgia Force](/wiki/Georgia_Force \"Georgia Force\") of the [Arena Football League](/wiki/Arena_Football_League \"Arena Football League\"). As a rookie, he was slated to be a backup, until starter and offensive specialist [Scottie Montgomery](/wiki/Scottie_Montgomery \"Scottie Montgomery\") was injured in the second quarter of the season opener against the [New Orleans VooDoo](/wiki/New_Orleans_VooDoo \"New Orleans VooDoo\"). Bergeron stepped in, tallying a team\\-high 6 receptions for 116 yards, a game\\-high 3 receiving touchdowns and 74 yards on three kickoff returns. He was named Offensive Player of the Game for his first AFL contest and was given the starter position.",
"He played in all 16 games, collecting 105 receptions for 1,372 yards, 31 touchdowns and 57 kickoff returns for 1,058 yards. He had a career\\-long 51\\-yard kickoff return and a career\\-long 37\\-yard missed field goal return against the [Grand Rapids Rampage](/wiki/Grand_Rapids_Rampage \"Grand Rapids Rampage\"). He was named the 2005 AFL Rookie of the Year and was selected to the 2005 AFL All\\-Rookie Team. Along with rookie teammate [Derek Lee](/wiki/Derek_Lee_%28American_football%29 \"Derek Lee (American football)\"), the duo ended the season as the top receiving touchdown tandem in the AFL with 64 combined touchdowns (Bergeron 31 and Lee 33\\).",
"### Atlanta Falcons (first stint)",
"In [2006](/wiki/2006_NFL_season \"2006 NFL season\"), he was signed by the [Atlanta Falcons](/wiki/Atlanta_Falcons \"Atlanta Falcons\") as an undrafted rookie free agent. He attended training camp and was released following the final pre\\-season game.",
"### Buffalo Bills",
"On December 12, [2006](/wiki/2006_NFL_season \"2006 NFL season\"), he was signed to the [Buffalo Bills](/wiki/Buffalo_Bills \"Buffalo Bills\") [practice squad](/wiki/Practice_squad \"Practice squad\").{{cite news \n\\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2006/12/13/sports/transactions.html \\|title\\=Transactions \\|newspaper\\=The New York Times \\|date\\=13 December 2006 \\| access\\-date\\=June 14, 2020}} He was released on February 14, [2007](/wiki/2007_NFL_season \"2007 NFL season\").{{cite web \n\\|url\\=https://archive.nytimes.com/query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage\\-9C06EFDC173EF936A25751C0A9619C8B63\\.html \\|title\\=Transactions \\| access\\-date\\=June 14, 2020}}",
"### Georgia Force (second stint)",
"In February [2007](/wiki/2007_Arena_Football_League_season \"2007 Arena Football League season\"), Bergeron re\\-joined the [Georgia Force](/wiki/Georgia_Force \"Georgia Force\"). He appeared in all 16 games and recorded career highs in receptions (132\\), receiving yards (1,736\\), touchdowns (41\\), rushing attempts (10\\) and rushing yards (81\\), while earning Second team [All\\-Arena](/wiki/All-Arena \"All-Arena\") honors. He and teammate [Wide receiver](/wiki/Wide_receiver \"Wide receiver\") [Chris Jackson](/wiki/Chris_Jackson_%28Arena_football%29 \"Chris Jackson (Arena football)\") became the first receiving tandem in AFL history to record at least 130 catches, 1,700 receiving yards and 40 touchdowns each.",
"He led the team in receptions (13\\) and receiving yards (194\\), he also recorded four touchdowns on the road against the [Austin Wranglers](/wiki/Austin_Wranglers \"Austin Wranglers\"). He also had six kickoff returns for 103 yards and one rush for 10 yards. His 194 receiving yards and 307 total yards set new single\\-game franchise\\-highs. He also added two tackles and one fumble recovery on special teams.",
"In [2008](/wiki/2008_Arena_Football_League_season \"2008 Arena Football League season\"), Bergeron recorded 91 receptions for 1,247 yards, 24 touchdowns, 7 carries for 62 yards and 7 tackles. He also added five kickoff returns for 71 yards. The [Arena Football League](/wiki/Arena_Football_League \"Arena Football League\") folded after the season.",
"### Columbus Lions (AIF)",
"In March 2009, Bergeron signed with the [Columbus Lions](/wiki/Columbus_Lions \"Columbus Lions\") of the [American Indoor Football Association](/wiki/American_Indoor_Football_Association \"American Indoor Football Association\"). He led the team in receiving yards, touchdowns and catches.{{cite web \n\\|url\\=https://www.ledger\\-enquirer.com/latest\\-news/article29054107\\.html \\|title\\=Atlanta Falcons sign receiver Troy Bergeron \\|publisher\\=Ledger\\-Enquirer \\|author\\=Chris White \\|date\\=May 11, 2009 \\| access\\-date\\=June 14, 2020}} He contributed to the franchise winning the SIFL championship in 2010\\.",
"### Atlanta Falcons (second stint)",
"On April 28, [2009](/wiki/2009_NFL_season \"2009 NFL season\"), he was signed by the [Atlanta Falcons](/wiki/Atlanta_Falcons \"Atlanta Falcons\"), only to be released on April 29 after failing his physical with a hamstring injury.{{cite web \n\\|url\\=https://www.espn.com/football/sampdoria/story/4113510/sampdorias\\-maya\\-yoshida\\-remains\\-focused\\-on\\-the\\-future\\-and\\-not\\-the\\-past\\-as\\-serie\\-a\\-returns \\|title\\=Falcons sign former Georgia RB Verron Haynes \\|date\\=30 April 2009 \\| access\\-date\\=June 14, 2020}} He was re\\-signed by the team on May 10\\. He was waived during final cuts on September 4, and re\\-signed to the practice squad the next day.{{cite web \n\\|url\\=https://www.ledger\\-enquirer.com/sports/high\\-school/valley\\-preps\\-blog/article29162548\\.html \\|title\\=Former Shaw receiver Bergeron doesn't make Falcons \\|publisher\\=Ledger\\-Enquirer \\|date\\=September 6, 2010 \\| access\\-date\\=June 14, 2020}} He was then promoted to the active roster on November 14\\.{{cite web \n\\|url\\=https://www.espn.com/nfl/news/story?id\\=4655615 \\|title\\=Jenkins listed as questionable \\|date\\=15 November 2009 \\| access\\-date\\=June 14, 2020}} Bergeron was released November 16 and re\\-signed to the practice squad on November 18\\.",
"Ten days later, he was promoted to the 53\\-man roster again. On December 2, he returned to the practice squad. Due to the release of [running back](/wiki/Running_back \"Running back\") [Verron Haynes](/wiki/Verron_Haynes \"Verron Haynes\"), Bergeron was promoted to the active roster on December 5\\. Bergeron was waived again by the Falcons on December 7 and added to back to the practice squad on December 9\\. The Falcons promoted Bergeron to the active roster again on December 15 when [wide receiver](/wiki/Wide_receiver \"Wide receiver\") [Brian Finneran](/wiki/Brian_Finneran \"Brian Finneran\") was placed on [injured reserve](/wiki/Injured_reserve \"Injured reserve\"). He spent a total of 6 games on the active roster. He was released on September 4, [2010](/wiki/2010_NFL_season \"2010 NFL season\").",
"### Cleveland Gladiators (AFL)",
"On October 3, 2010, he signed with the [Cleveland Gladiators](/wiki/Cleveland_Gladiators \"Cleveland Gladiators\") of the [Arena Football League](/wiki/Arena_Football_League \"Arena Football League\").{{cite web \n\\|url\\=https://www.ledger\\-enquirer.com/sports/high\\-school/valley\\-preps\\-blog/article29163655\\.html \\|title\\=Columbus Lions DB Damian Daniels, Troy Bergeron sign with AFL's Cleveland Gladiators \\|publisher\\=Ledger\\-Enquirer \\|author\\=Chris White \\|date\\=October 4, 2010 \\| access\\-date\\=June 14, 2020}}",
"### Dallas Cowboys",
"On December 15, [2010](/wiki/2010_NFL_season \"2010 NFL season\"), he was signed to the [Dallas Cowboys](/wiki/Dallas_Cowboys \"Dallas Cowboys\")' [practice squad](/wiki/Practice_squad \"Practice squad\").{{cite web \n\\|url\\=https://www.espn.com/nfl/news/story?id\\=5922642 \\|title\\=Marion Barber returns to practice \\|date\\=15 December 2010 \\| access\\-date\\=June 14, 2020}} In March 2011, because of the NFL labor dispute and lockout decision, he signed with the [Cleveland Gladiators](/wiki/Cleveland_Gladiators \"Cleveland Gladiators\") of the [Arena Football League](/wiki/Arena_Football_League \"Arena Football League\").{{cite web \n\\|url\\=https://www.espn.com/dallas/news/story?id\\=6227522 \\|title\\=Two NFL WRs sign with AFL \\|date\\=17 March 2011 \\| access\\-date\\=June 14, 2020}} He returned to the Cowboys after the collective bargaining agreement was signed. He was released on July 28, 2011\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.espn.com/nfl/story/\\_/id/6814188/nfl\\-cuts\\-roundup\\|title\\=NFL cuts roundup\\|date\\=29 July 2011 \\|publisher\\=ESPN\\|access\\-date\\=June 14, 2020}}",
""
] |
Demographics
------------
{{US Census population
\|1890\= 201
\|1900\= 297
\|1910\= 315
\|1920\= 265
\|1930\= 275
\|1940\= 289
\|1950\= 201
\|1960\= 132
\|1970\= 131
\|1980\= 122
\|1990\= 105
\|2000\= 103
\|2010\= 82
\|2020\= 76
\|estyear\=2021
\|estimate\=77
\|estref\=
\|footnote\=U.S. Decennial Census{{cite web\|url\=https://www.census.gov/programs\-surveys/decennial\-census.html\|title\=Census of Population and Housing\|publisher\=Census.gov\|accessdate\=June 4, 2015}}
}}
### 2010 census
As of the [census](/wiki/Census "Census"){{cite web\|title\=U.S. Census website\|url\=https://www.census.gov\|publisher\=\[\[United States Census Bureau]]\|accessdate\=June 24, 2012}} of 2010, there were 82 people, 34 households, and 23 families residing in the village. The [population density](/wiki/Population_density "Population density") was {{convert\|512\.5\|PD/sqmi\|PD/km2\|1}}. There were 45 housing units at an average density of {{convert\|281\.3\|/sqmi\|/km2\|1}}. The racial makeup of the village was 100\.0% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 "White (U.S. Census)").
There were 34 households, of which 32\.4% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 52\.9% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage "Marriage") living together, 8\.8% had a female householder with no husband present, 5\.9% had a male householder with no wife present, and 32\.4% were non\-families. 29\.4% of all households were made up of individuals, and 23\.5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\.41 and the average family size was 3\.04\.
The median age in the village was 48 years. 26\.8% of residents were under the age of 18; 7\.4% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 12\.2% were from 25 to 44; 23\.2% were from 45 to 64; and 30\.5% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the village was 46\.3% male and 53\.7% female.
### 2000 census
As of the [census](/wiki/Census "Census") of 2000, there were 103 people, 42 households, and 28 families residing in the village. The population density was {{convert\|649\.7\|PD/sqmi\|PD/km2\|sp\=us\|adj\=off}}. There were 52 housing units at an average density of {{convert\|328\.0\|/sqmi\|/km2\|sp\=us\|adj\=off}}. The racial makeup of the village was 100 [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 "White (U.S. Census)") and 3 [Asian](/wiki/Asian_%28U.S._Census%29 "Asian (U.S. Census)").
There were 42 households, out of which 14 had children under the age of 18 living with them, 26 were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage "Marriage") living together, 3 had a female householder with no husband present, and 13 were non\-families. 11 of all households were made up of individuals, and 7 had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\.45 and the average family size was 3\.03\.
In the village, the population was spread out, with 27 under the age of 18, 8 from 18 to 24, 24 from 25 to 44, 20 from 45 to 64, and 24 who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 43 years. For every 100 females, there were 74\.6 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 72\.7 males.
As of 2000 the median income for a household in the village was $30,625, and the median income for a family was $40,000\. Males had a median income of $21,250 versus $19,306 for females. The [per capita income](/wiki/Per_capita_income "Per capita income") for the village was $14,390\. There were no families and 5\.5% of the population living below the [poverty line](/wiki/Poverty_line "Poverty line"), including no under eighteens and 10\.0% of those over 64\.
|
[
"Demographics\n------------",
"{{US Census population\n\\|1890\\= 201\n\\|1900\\= 297\n\\|1910\\= 315\n\\|1920\\= 265\n\\|1930\\= 275\n\\|1940\\= 289\n\\|1950\\= 201\n\\|1960\\= 132\n\\|1970\\= 131\n\\|1980\\= 122\n\\|1990\\= 105\n\\|2000\\= 103\n\\|2010\\= 82\n\\|2020\\= 76\n\\|estyear\\=2021\n\\|estimate\\=77\n\\|estref\\=\n\\|footnote\\=U.S. Decennial Census{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.census.gov/programs\\-surveys/decennial\\-census.html\\|title\\=Census of Population and Housing\\|publisher\\=Census.gov\\|accessdate\\=June 4, 2015}}\n}}",
"### 2010 census",
"As of the [census](/wiki/Census \"Census\"){{cite web\\|title\\=U.S. Census website\\|url\\=https://www.census.gov\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[United States Census Bureau]]\\|accessdate\\=June 24, 2012}} of 2010, there were 82 people, 34 households, and 23 families residing in the village. The [population density](/wiki/Population_density \"Population density\") was {{convert\\|512\\.5\\|PD/sqmi\\|PD/km2\\|1}}. There were 45 housing units at an average density of {{convert\\|281\\.3\\|/sqmi\\|/km2\\|1}}. The racial makeup of the village was 100\\.0% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 \"White (U.S. Census)\").",
"There were 34 households, of which 32\\.4% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 52\\.9% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage \"Marriage\") living together, 8\\.8% had a female householder with no husband present, 5\\.9% had a male householder with no wife present, and 32\\.4% were non\\-families. 29\\.4% of all households were made up of individuals, and 23\\.5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\\.41 and the average family size was 3\\.04\\.",
"The median age in the village was 48 years. 26\\.8% of residents were under the age of 18; 7\\.4% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 12\\.2% were from 25 to 44; 23\\.2% were from 45 to 64; and 30\\.5% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the village was 46\\.3% male and 53\\.7% female.",
"### 2000 census",
"As of the [census](/wiki/Census \"Census\") of 2000, there were 103 people, 42 households, and 28 families residing in the village. The population density was {{convert\\|649\\.7\\|PD/sqmi\\|PD/km2\\|sp\\=us\\|adj\\=off}}. There were 52 housing units at an average density of {{convert\\|328\\.0\\|/sqmi\\|/km2\\|sp\\=us\\|adj\\=off}}. The racial makeup of the village was 100 [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 \"White (U.S. Census)\") and 3 [Asian](/wiki/Asian_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Asian (U.S. Census)\").",
"There were 42 households, out of which 14 had children under the age of 18 living with them, 26 were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage \"Marriage\") living together, 3 had a female householder with no husband present, and 13 were non\\-families. 11 of all households were made up of individuals, and 7 had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\\.45 and the average family size was 3\\.03\\.",
"In the village, the population was spread out, with 27 under the age of 18, 8 from 18 to 24, 24 from 25 to 44, 20 from 45 to 64, and 24 who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 43 years. For every 100 females, there were 74\\.6 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 72\\.7 males.",
"As of 2000 the median income for a household in the village was $30,625, and the median income for a family was $40,000\\. Males had a median income of $21,250 versus $19,306 for females. The [per capita income](/wiki/Per_capita_income \"Per capita income\") for the village was $14,390\\. There were no families and 5\\.5% of the population living below the [poverty line](/wiki/Poverty_line \"Poverty line\"), including no under eighteens and 10\\.0% of those over 64\\.",
""
] |
Plot summary
------------
Mr. Freedom ([John Abbey](/wiki/John_Abbey_%28actor%29 "John Abbey (actor)")) is a [Washington D.C.](/wiki/Washington_D.C. "Washington D.C.") police officer who drinks [Colt 45](/wiki/Colt_45_%28malt_liquor%29 "Colt 45 (malt liquor)") on duty and moonlights as a government\-sanctioned, [vigilante](/wiki/Vigilante "Vigilante") [superhero](/wiki/Superhero "Superhero"). After the [1968 Washington, D.C., riots](/wiki/1968_Washington%2C_D.C.%2C_riots "1968 Washington, D.C., riots"), he is summoned to the Freedom Tower — an [office building](/wiki/Office_building "Office building") housing the most powerful companies in the U.S. — to meet with Dr. Freedom ([Donald Pleasence](/wiki/Donald_Pleasence "Donald Pleasence")), his [handler](/wiki/Agent_handling "Agent handling"), who informs him that another superhero, Capitaine Formidable, has been killed in [France](/wiki/France "France") by operatives of the mysterious French Anti\-Freedom (FAF)A pun on the [French slang](/wiki/French_slang "French slang") term *faf* for “fascist”. organization. Warning that this could be the first salvo in a [Soviet](/wiki/Soviet_Union "Soviet Union") invasion, Dr. Freedom dispatches Mr. Freedom to investigate his death and bring France back under the sway of western capitalist influences. As a last resort, Dr. Freedom equips him with "the Big One," a portable nuclear device to destroy the country in the event that it falls to Communist influence.
In France, Mr. Freedom joins forces with Capitaine Formidable's wife, the *[femme fatale](/wiki/Femme_fatale "Femme fatale")* Marie\-Madeleine ([Delphine Seyrig](/wiki/Delphine_Seyrig "Delphine Seyrig")), to lead his own [anti\-communist](/wiki/Anti-communist "Anti-communist") Freedom organization. Marie\-Madeleine explains that she and Capitaine Formidable ran a string of state\-sponsored [brothels](/wiki/Brothel "Brothel"), using the money they earned to finance anti\-Communist activities while also gathering intelligence on the various diplomats and politicians who use their services. Arriving at a pro\-USA rally, Mr. Freedom delivers an extended speech extolling the virtues of democracy and capitalism while also espousing [white nationalist](/wiki/White_nationalist "White nationalist") sympathies and warning of the encroaching influence of [African Americans](/wiki/African_Americans "African Americans") (whom he calls "[niggers](/wiki/Nigger "Nigger")"), [Jews](/wiki/Jews "Jews"), [Asians](/wiki/Asians "Asians"), and other "undesirables" on the national stage. Assembling an army from the attendees of the rally, he expresses his intention not only to secure France against Communist influence, but also build a "white wall of freedom" around the United States.
Mr. Freedom travels to the U.S. embassy (a [supermarket](/wiki/Supermarket "Supermarket")) to meet with the American ambassador to France, who warns him of the influence that a pair of foreign superheroes — the Russian [Stalinist](/wiki/Stalinist "Stalinist") Moujik Man and Chinese [Maoist](/wiki/Maoist "Maoist") Red China Man — have been exerting in the country. Mr. Freedom meets with his French counterpart, Super French Man (an [inflatable](/wiki/Inflatable "Inflatable")), who expresses sympathies with their Communist ideologies, prompting Mr. Freedom to kill his sidekicks. Later he meets in a metro tunnel with Moujik Man and Red China Man (the latter a giant, talking [Chinese Dragon](/wiki/Chinese_Dragon "Chinese Dragon")/[lion dog](/wiki/Chinese_guardian_lions "Chinese guardian lions") (another inflatable)) and the three discuss the virtues of their various political ideologies; Moujik Man makes friendly overtures to Mr. Freedom and disavows responsibility for the death of Capitaine Formidable. After he accidentally knocks himself unconscious, Moujik Man takes Mr. Freedom back to Communist Party headquarters to recuperate; after waking up, Mr. Freedom kills Moujik Man's girlfriend, Marie\-Rouge.
Returning to Marie\-Madeleine's apartment to have sex with her, Mr. Freedom suffers a crisis of conscience when her son calls him a fascist; he later realizes that his guilt is in fact coming from Red China Man, who is broadcasting subliminal messages to a radio receiver hidden in one of his teeth. After having the tooth removed, Mr. Freedom oversees the construction of a secret base from which his operatives can carry out anti\-communist activities in France, and delivers a speech that works his followers into a violent frenzy, prompting them to begin looting, raping, and rioting. In response, the French begin holding anti\-US demonstrations. Mr. Freedom opens fire into a crowd of peaceful protestors with a machine gun, to the horror of Marie\-Madeleine, who subsequently reveals herself as an ally of Red Chinaman and a member of FAF. She further admits that she was the one who killed Capitaine Formidable. Mr. Freedom kills her, but FAF forces, demonstrators, and Moujik Man's soldiers — seeking revenge for Marie\-Rouge's death — breach his compound and kill the rest of his followers.
Convinced that France neither desired nor deserved American democracy, Mr. Freedom detonates "The Big One." In a [cutaway](/wiki/Cutaway_%28filmmaking%29 "Cutaway (filmmaking)"), Dr. Freedom reveals he'd actually supplied Mr. Freedom a "Medium One." The resulting explosion only took Mr. Freedom out, leaving everyone else unscathed. The French, meanwhile, continue their anti\-US protest unfazed.
|
[
"Plot summary\n------------",
"Mr. Freedom ([John Abbey](/wiki/John_Abbey_%28actor%29 \"John Abbey (actor)\")) is a [Washington D.C.](/wiki/Washington_D.C. \"Washington D.C.\") police officer who drinks [Colt 45](/wiki/Colt_45_%28malt_liquor%29 \"Colt 45 (malt liquor)\") on duty and moonlights as a government\\-sanctioned, [vigilante](/wiki/Vigilante \"Vigilante\") [superhero](/wiki/Superhero \"Superhero\"). After the [1968 Washington, D.C., riots](/wiki/1968_Washington%2C_D.C.%2C_riots \"1968 Washington, D.C., riots\"), he is summoned to the Freedom Tower — an [office building](/wiki/Office_building \"Office building\") housing the most powerful companies in the U.S. — to meet with Dr. Freedom ([Donald Pleasence](/wiki/Donald_Pleasence \"Donald Pleasence\")), his [handler](/wiki/Agent_handling \"Agent handling\"), who informs him that another superhero, Capitaine Formidable, has been killed in [France](/wiki/France \"France\") by operatives of the mysterious French Anti\\-Freedom (FAF)A pun on the [French slang](/wiki/French_slang \"French slang\") term *faf* for “fascist”. organization. Warning that this could be the first salvo in a [Soviet](/wiki/Soviet_Union \"Soviet Union\") invasion, Dr. Freedom dispatches Mr. Freedom to investigate his death and bring France back under the sway of western capitalist influences. As a last resort, Dr. Freedom equips him with \"the Big One,\" a portable nuclear device to destroy the country in the event that it falls to Communist influence.",
"In France, Mr. Freedom joins forces with Capitaine Formidable's wife, the *[femme fatale](/wiki/Femme_fatale \"Femme fatale\")* Marie\\-Madeleine ([Delphine Seyrig](/wiki/Delphine_Seyrig \"Delphine Seyrig\")), to lead his own [anti\\-communist](/wiki/Anti-communist \"Anti-communist\") Freedom organization. Marie\\-Madeleine explains that she and Capitaine Formidable ran a string of state\\-sponsored [brothels](/wiki/Brothel \"Brothel\"), using the money they earned to finance anti\\-Communist activities while also gathering intelligence on the various diplomats and politicians who use their services. Arriving at a pro\\-USA rally, Mr. Freedom delivers an extended speech extolling the virtues of democracy and capitalism while also espousing [white nationalist](/wiki/White_nationalist \"White nationalist\") sympathies and warning of the encroaching influence of [African Americans](/wiki/African_Americans \"African Americans\") (whom he calls \"[niggers](/wiki/Nigger \"Nigger\")\"), [Jews](/wiki/Jews \"Jews\"), [Asians](/wiki/Asians \"Asians\"), and other \"undesirables\" on the national stage. Assembling an army from the attendees of the rally, he expresses his intention not only to secure France against Communist influence, but also build a \"white wall of freedom\" around the United States.",
"Mr. Freedom travels to the U.S. embassy (a [supermarket](/wiki/Supermarket \"Supermarket\")) to meet with the American ambassador to France, who warns him of the influence that a pair of foreign superheroes — the Russian [Stalinist](/wiki/Stalinist \"Stalinist\") Moujik Man and Chinese [Maoist](/wiki/Maoist \"Maoist\") Red China Man — have been exerting in the country. Mr. Freedom meets with his French counterpart, Super French Man (an [inflatable](/wiki/Inflatable \"Inflatable\")), who expresses sympathies with their Communist ideologies, prompting Mr. Freedom to kill his sidekicks. Later he meets in a metro tunnel with Moujik Man and Red China Man (the latter a giant, talking [Chinese Dragon](/wiki/Chinese_Dragon \"Chinese Dragon\")/[lion dog](/wiki/Chinese_guardian_lions \"Chinese guardian lions\") (another inflatable)) and the three discuss the virtues of their various political ideologies; Moujik Man makes friendly overtures to Mr. Freedom and disavows responsibility for the death of Capitaine Formidable. After he accidentally knocks himself unconscious, Moujik Man takes Mr. Freedom back to Communist Party headquarters to recuperate; after waking up, Mr. Freedom kills Moujik Man's girlfriend, Marie\\-Rouge.",
"Returning to Marie\\-Madeleine's apartment to have sex with her, Mr. Freedom suffers a crisis of conscience when her son calls him a fascist; he later realizes that his guilt is in fact coming from Red China Man, who is broadcasting subliminal messages to a radio receiver hidden in one of his teeth. After having the tooth removed, Mr. Freedom oversees the construction of a secret base from which his operatives can carry out anti\\-communist activities in France, and delivers a speech that works his followers into a violent frenzy, prompting them to begin looting, raping, and rioting. In response, the French begin holding anti\\-US demonstrations. Mr. Freedom opens fire into a crowd of peaceful protestors with a machine gun, to the horror of Marie\\-Madeleine, who subsequently reveals herself as an ally of Red Chinaman and a member of FAF. She further admits that she was the one who killed Capitaine Formidable. Mr. Freedom kills her, but FAF forces, demonstrators, and Moujik Man's soldiers — seeking revenge for Marie\\-Rouge's death — breach his compound and kill the rest of his followers.",
"Convinced that France neither desired nor deserved American democracy, Mr. Freedom detonates \"The Big One.\" In a [cutaway](/wiki/Cutaway_%28filmmaking%29 \"Cutaway (filmmaking)\"), Dr. Freedom reveals he'd actually supplied Mr. Freedom a \"Medium One.\" The resulting explosion only took Mr. Freedom out, leaving everyone else unscathed. The French, meanwhile, continue their anti\\-US protest unfazed.",
""
] |
History
-------
[thumb\|Photograph of construction of RAF Andrews Field by the 819th Engineer Battalion (Aviation) of the United States Army during 1942\.](/wiki/File:RAF_Andrews_Field_-_Construction_Photo.jpg "RAF Andrews Field - Construction Photo.jpg")
Andrews Field was the first of fourteen "[Type A](/wiki/Class_A_airfield "Class A airfield")" airfields built by the United States Army Air Forces in the United Kingdom during the Second World War. Originally designated as "Great Saling", the facility was built by the United States Army 819th Engineer Battalion (Aviation), which began work on the field during July 1942\.pp: 22\-25, the Essex Bomber Airfields, Freeman, Roger A. (1994\) UK Airfields of the Ninth: Then and Now (After the Battle), {{ISBN\|0900913800}}
Andrews Field had three runways, a main of 1,830m aligned 09/27 and two crosswind secondary runways of 1,280m aligned 02/20 and 15/33\. It had an enclosing perimeter track that had three separate dispersal areas totaling 50 loop type hardstands and one "frying pan" type. Barracks facilities for about 3,000 personnel were constructed along with a technical site that had two T\-2 type hangars for aircraft maintenance. Main construction was supposed to be completed in early January 1943, and it continued until March.{{Harvnb\|Freeman\|2001\|p\=19\.}}
### United States Army Air Forces use
On 21 May 1943 the official name was changed to Andrews Field in honour of [Lieutenant General Frank M Andrews](/wiki/Frank_Maxwell_Andrews "Frank Maxwell Andrews").{{Harvnb\|Freeman\|2001\|p\=18\.}} Andrews Field was known as **USAAF Station AAF\-485** for security reasons by the USAAF during the war, by which name it was referred to instead of location. Its USAAF Station Code was "GZ". Although the name Andrews Field (or Andrewsfield) appears on RAF air maps and was widely used by that service, some USAAF agencies still referred to the airfield by the name Great Saling.
USAAF Station Units assigned to RAF Andrews Field were:{{cite web\|url\=http://www.americanairmuseum.com/place/12 \|title\=Andrews Field \|publisher\=American Air Museum in Britain\|access\-date\=1 March 2015}}
* 42d Service Group (VIII Air Force Composite Command){{cite web\|url\=http://www.americanairmuseum.com/unit/377 \|title\=42d Service Group \|publisher\=American Air Museum in Britain\|access\-date\=2 March 2015}}
356th, 361st Service Squadron, HHS, 42d Service Group
* 18th Station Complement Squadron
* 21st Weather Squadron
* 28th Mobile Reclamation and Repair Squadron
Regular Army Station Units included:
* 1020th Signal Company
* 1136th Quartermaster Company
* 1175th Military Police Company
* 1642nd Ordnance Supply \& Maintenance Company
* 2253rd Quartermaster Truck Company
* 819th Chemical Company (Air Operations)
* 878th Signal Depot Company
* 2044th Engineer Fire Fighting Platoon
* 111th Army Postal Unit
* 201st Medical Dispensary
* Weather Detachment BB, 21st Weather Squadron
#### 96th Bombardment Group (Heavy)
[thumb\|right\|Douglas\-Long Beach B\-17F\-25\-DL Fortress Serial 42\-3123 of the 96th Bomb Group at unfinished Andrews Field, 1943, Later transferred to the 381st Bomb Group at [RAF Ridgewell](/wiki/RAF_Ridgewell "RAF Ridgewell"), this aircraft crashed near Fladderlohhausen, 10\-mile SE of Quakenbruck near [Bremen](/wiki/Bremen "Bremen") Germany 8 October 1943\. Ten crew KIA.](/wiki/File:95bg-b17andrews.jpg "95bg-b17andrews.jpg")
When opened in January 1943, Andrews Field was assigned to the [VIII Bomber Command](/wiki/VIII_Bomber_Command "VIII Bomber Command") of [Eighth Air Force](/wiki/Eighth_Air_Force "Eighth Air Force"), however it didn't receive its first combat group until May, when the 4th Bombardment Wing **[96th Bombardment Group](/wiki/96th_Bombardment_Group "96th Bombardment Group") (Heavy)** flying [Boeing B\-17 Flying Fortresses](/wiki/Boeing_B-17_Flying_Fortress "Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress") arrived from [RAF Grafton Underwood](/wiki/RAF_Grafton_Underwood "RAF Grafton Underwood") (AAF\-106\) in Northamptonshire.{{sfn\|Maurer\|1983\|p\=00}}
The group consisted of the following squadrons:{{cite web\|url\=http://mighty8thaf.preller.us/php/1Unit.php?Unitkey\=96 \|title\=96th Bombardment Group (Heavy)\|publisher\=Mighty 8th Cross Reference\|access\-date\=31 May 2013}}
* [337th Bombardment Squadron](/wiki/337th_Bombardment_Squadron "337th Bombardment Squadron") (AX)
* [338th Bombardment Squadron](/wiki/338th_Bombardment_Squadron "338th Bombardment Squadron") (BX)
* [339th Bombardment Squadron](/wiki/339th_Bombardment_Squadron "339th Bombardment Squadron") (QJ)
* [413th Bombardment Squadron](/wiki/413th_Bombardment_Squadron "413th Bombardment Squadron") (MZ)Maurer, Maurer, ed. (1982\) \[1969]. Combat Squadrons of the Air Force, World War II (reprint ed.). Washington, DC: Office of Air Force History. {{ISBN\|0\-405\-12194\-6}}. LCCN 70605402\. OCLC 72556\.
The 96th appears to have only carried out one mission while posted to Andrews Field. On 29 May 1943 they took part in a raid on Rennes naval storage depot from which one B\-17 failed to return.{{Citation needed\|date\=June 2013}} The group was moved to [RAF Snetterton Heath](/wiki/RAF_Snetterton_Heath "RAF Snetterton Heath") on 12 June 1943 in a general exchange of airfields with [Martin B\-26 Marauder](/wiki/Martin_B-26_Marauder "Martin B-26 Marauder") 3d Bombardment Wing groups.
#### 322d Bombardment Group (Medium)
[thumb\|B\-26 of the 322d Medium Bomb Group on the perimeter track prior to takeoff](/wiki/File:B-26-322bg-andfld-1944.jpg "B-26-322bg-andfld-1944.jpg")
[thumb\|B\-26 Marauder of the 322d Bomb Group on a mission over enemy\-occupied territory, 1944\.](/wiki/File:322dbg-b26.jpg "322dbg-b26.jpg")
[thumb\|Farmers collect hay at Andrews Field whilst personnel of the 322nd Bomb Group work on a B\-26 Marauder (serial number 41\-31814\) nicknamed "Bag Of Bolts".](/wiki/File:RAF_Andrews_Field_-_322d_Bombardment_Group_-_Farmers.jpg "RAF Andrews Field - 322d Bombardment Group - Farmers.jpg")
Replacing the 96th was the **[322d Bombardment Group (Medium)](/wiki/322d_Air_Expeditionary_Group "322d Air Expeditionary Group")**{{cite web\|url\=http://mighty8thaf.preller.us/php/1Unit.php?Unitkey\=802 \|title\=322nd Bombardment Group (Medium) \|publisher\=Mighty 8th Cross Reference\|access\-date\=31 May 2013}} which arrived from [RAF Bury St. Edmunds](/wiki/RAF_Bury_St._Edmunds "RAF Bury St. Edmunds") on 12 June. The group was assigned to the 3d Bomb Wing{{Citation needed\|date\=June 2013}} and flew [Martin B\-26B/C Marauders](/wiki/Martin_B-26_Marauder "Martin B-26 Marauder"). Operational squadrons of the 322d were:
* [449th Bombardment Squadron](/wiki/449th_Bombardment_Squadron "449th Bombardment Squadron"){{Harvnb\|Maurer\|1980\|p\=203\.}} (PN)
* [450th Bombardment Squadron](/wiki/450th_Bombardment_Squadron "450th Bombardment Squadron") (ER)
* [451st Bombardment Squadron](/wiki/451st_Bombardment_Squadron "451st Bombardment Squadron") (SS)
* [452d Bombardment Squadron](/wiki/452d_Bombardment_Squadron "452d Bombardment Squadron") (DR)[B\-26 Fuselage Codes](http://www.markstyling.com/b26_research.06.htm)
* 1st Pathfinder Squadron (Provisional) (Attached) (1H)[Martin B\-26 Marauder in the European Theatre](http://www.historyofwar.org/articles/weapons_B-26_ETO.html)
The 322nd was the first B\-26 group to enter combat (in May 1943\) from the UK, during which its combat performance helped to prove the effectiveness of the medium bombers flying tactical combat missions.
In common with other Marauder units of the 3rd Bomb Wing, the 322d was transferred to [Ninth Air Force](/wiki/Ninth_Air_Force "Ninth Air Force") on 16 October 1943\. The group attacked enemy airfields in France, Belgium, and the [Netherlands](/wiki/Netherlands "Netherlands") attacking the principal targets but the group also attacked secondary targets such as power stations, shipyards, construction works, and marshalling yards.{{Harvnb\|Maurer\|1980\|p\=202\.}}
Beginning in March 1944 the 322nd bombed railway and highway bridges, oil tanks, and missile sites in preparation for the [invasion of Normandy](/wiki/Operation_Overlord "Operation Overlord").
On 8 May 1944, one of the 322nd aircraft, nicknamed "Mild and Bitter" (serial 41\-31819\) became the first B\-26 flying from England to complete 100 combat missions. Another B\-26, "Flak Bait" (41\-31773\) survived to the end of hostilities with 202 missions to its credit, the only US bomber involved in combat over Europe to pass the 200 mark.
On [D\-Day](/wiki/D-Day "D-Day"), 6 June 1944 the 322d Bomb Group attacked coastal defences and gun batteries. Afterwards, during the Normandy campaign, the 322nd pounded fuel and ammunition dumps, bridges, and road junctions, supporting the Allied offensive at [Caen](/wiki/Caen "Caen") and the breakthrough at [Saint\-Lô](/wiki/Saint-L%C3%B4 "Saint-Lô") in July.
From Andrews Field the 322d received a [Distinguished Unit Citation](/wiki/Distinguished_Unit_Citation "Distinguished Unit Citation") for the period 14 May 1943 – 24 July 1944\. The group moved during September 1944, transferring to [Beauvais](/wiki/Beauvais "Beauvais") (A\-61\) Airfield in northern France, and aiding the drive of Third Army across France. On the continent, the 322nd BG used the following Advanced Landing Grounds:{{sfn\|Maurer\|1983\|p\=00}}
* [Beauvais/Tille Airfield](/wiki/Beauvais/Tille_Airfield "Beauvais/Tille Airfield") (A\-61\), France September 1944
* [Le Culot Airfield](/wiki/Le_Culot_Airfield "Le Culot Airfield") (A\-89\), Belgium March 1945
* [Fritzlar Airfield](/wiki/Fritzlar_Airfield "Fritzlar Airfield") (Y\-86\), Germany June \- November 1945
The 322d flew its last mission on 24 April 1945\. After [V\-E Day](/wiki/V-E_Day "V-E Day"), the group was assigned to occupation duty in Germany beginning in June 1945, engaging in inventorying and disassembling German Air Force equipment and facilities. Returned to the Camp Kilmer, [New Jersey](/wiki/New_Jersey "New Jersey") in December 1945, and was inactivated on 15 December.
1st Pathfinder Squadron (Provisional)
[thumb\|B\-26 crew photo from the 1st Pathfinder Squadron (Provisional)](/wiki/File:1st_Pathfinder_Squadron_-_Crew_Photo.jpg "1st Pathfinder Squadron - Crew Photo.jpg")
The **1st Pathfinder Squadron (Provisional)** was formed at Andrews Field in February 1944 and equipped with B\-26s, carrying the [Oboe](/wiki/Oboe_%28navigation%29 "Oboe (navigation)") radio transponder blind\-bombing device. When the unit was formed the squadron consisted of 14 aircraft. The squadron was attached to the 322nd Bombardment Group, but provided bad weather leads for all IX Ninth Bombing Command groups.
The first B\-26 night mission was flown by the 1st Pathfinder Squadron on the night of 1 June 1944 when three B\-26's bombed gun positions at St Marie au Bois, France. This was purely a Pathfinder mission and no other unit participated. On the night of 8 July 1944, using Oboe, the 322d undertook a night mission but nine of its aircraft fell victim to [Luftwaffe](/wiki/Luftwaffe "Luftwaffe") fighters. At the end of hostilities the squadron strength was 36 B\-26's.
### RAF Fighter Command use
Unlike most of the airfields vacated by the Ninth Air Force in the area, Andrews Field was immediately returned to [RAF Fighter Command](/wiki/RAF_Fighter_Command "RAF Fighter Command") control on 7 October \- to provide an airfield for [North American Mustang](/wiki/North_American_P-51_Mustang "North American P-51 Mustang") squadrons escorting [Bomber Command](/wiki/RAF_Bomber_Command "RAF Bomber Command") daylight operations being used by 11 Group, [Air Defence of Great Britain](/wiki/Air_Defence_of_Great_Britain "Air Defence of Great Britain") (ADGB). At this time the airfield was also under consideration for extension of runways to house Very Heavy [Boeing B\-29 Superfortress](/wiki/Boeing_B-29_Superfortress "Boeing B-29 Superfortress") bombers.{{Citation needed\|date\=June 2013}}
Within a week the HQ of [No. 150 (Polish) Wing RAF](/wiki/No._150_Wing_RAF "No. 150 Wing RAF") and an advance party of [No. 19 Squadron](/wiki/No._19_Squadron_RAF "No. 19 Squadron RAF") moved in. By the middle of October 1944, Nos. 19, [65](/wiki/No._65_Squadron_RAF "No. 65 Squadron RAF") and [122](/wiki/No._122_Squadron_RAF "No. 122 Squadron RAF") Squadrons ([No. 122 Wing](/wiki/No._122_Wing_RAF "No. 122 Wing RAF")) had joined the Polish Wing consisting of Nos. [129](/wiki/No._129_Squadron_RAF "No. 129 Squadron RAF"), [306](/wiki/No._306_Polish_Fighter_Squadron "No. 306 Polish Fighter Squadron") and [315](/wiki/No._315_Polish_Fighter_Squadron "No. 315 Polish Fighter Squadron") Squadrons.
At the end of February 1945 the [Gloster Meteor](/wiki/Gloster_Meteor "Gloster Meteor") III jet fighters of [616](/wiki/No._616_Squadron_RAF "No. 616 Squadron RAF") Squadron arrived, they stayed for a month{{sfn\|Jefford\|1988\|p\=101}} before being replaced by a detachment of Meteor IIIs from [504 Squadron](/wiki/No._504_Squadron_RAF "No. 504 Squadron RAF").{{sfn\|Jefford\|1988\|p\=95}}
In addition to the combat squadrons, the Air Sea Rescue [Supermarine Walruses](/wiki/Supermarine_Walrus "Supermarine Walrus") of [276 Squadron](/wiki/No._276_Squadron_RAF "No. 276 Squadron RAF"), [RAF Coastal Command](/wiki/RAF_Coastal_Command "RAF Coastal Command") were resident from early June 1945\. They left for [Kjevik, Norway](/wiki/Kristiansand_Airport%2C_Kjevik "Kristiansand Airport, Kjevik") on 23 August.{{sfn\|Jefford\|1988\|p\=82}}
With the end of the war, [No 303 Squadron](/wiki/No._303_Polish_Fighter_Squadron "No. 303 Polish Fighter Squadron") departed in December 1945{{sfn\|Jefford\|1988\|p\=85}} and the airfield was placed under care and maintenance and became a satellite of [RAF Great Sampford](/wiki/RAF_Great_Sampford "RAF Great Sampford") in 1946\.{{Citation needed\|date\=June 2013}}
|
[
"History\n-------",
"[thumb\\|Photograph of construction of RAF Andrews Field by the 819th Engineer Battalion (Aviation) of the United States Army during 1942\\.](/wiki/File:RAF_Andrews_Field_-_Construction_Photo.jpg \"RAF Andrews Field - Construction Photo.jpg\")\nAndrews Field was the first of fourteen \"[Type A](/wiki/Class_A_airfield \"Class A airfield\")\" airfields built by the United States Army Air Forces in the United Kingdom during the Second World War. Originally designated as \"Great Saling\", the facility was built by the United States Army 819th Engineer Battalion (Aviation), which began work on the field during July 1942\\.pp: 22\\-25, the Essex Bomber Airfields, Freeman, Roger A. (1994\\) UK Airfields of the Ninth: Then and Now (After the Battle), {{ISBN\\|0900913800}}",
"Andrews Field had three runways, a main of 1,830m aligned 09/27 and two crosswind secondary runways of 1,280m aligned 02/20 and 15/33\\. It had an enclosing perimeter track that had three separate dispersal areas totaling 50 loop type hardstands and one \"frying pan\" type. Barracks facilities for about 3,000 personnel were constructed along with a technical site that had two T\\-2 type hangars for aircraft maintenance. Main construction was supposed to be completed in early January 1943, and it continued until March.{{Harvnb\\|Freeman\\|2001\\|p\\=19\\.}}",
"### United States Army Air Forces use",
"On 21 May 1943 the official name was changed to Andrews Field in honour of [Lieutenant General Frank M Andrews](/wiki/Frank_Maxwell_Andrews \"Frank Maxwell Andrews\").{{Harvnb\\|Freeman\\|2001\\|p\\=18\\.}} Andrews Field was known as **USAAF Station AAF\\-485** for security reasons by the USAAF during the war, by which name it was referred to instead of location. Its USAAF Station Code was \"GZ\". Although the name Andrews Field (or Andrewsfield) appears on RAF air maps and was widely used by that service, some USAAF agencies still referred to the airfield by the name Great Saling.",
"USAAF Station Units assigned to RAF Andrews Field were:{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.americanairmuseum.com/place/12 \\|title\\=Andrews Field \\|publisher\\=American Air Museum in Britain\\|access\\-date\\=1 March 2015}}\n* 42d Service Group (VIII Air Force Composite Command){{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.americanairmuseum.com/unit/377 \\|title\\=42d Service Group \\|publisher\\=American Air Museum in Britain\\|access\\-date\\=2 March 2015}}",
"356th, 361st Service Squadron, HHS, 42d Service Group \n* 18th Station Complement Squadron\n* 21st Weather Squadron\n* 28th Mobile Reclamation and Repair Squadron\nRegular Army Station Units included:\n* 1020th Signal Company\n* 1136th Quartermaster Company\n* 1175th Military Police Company\n* 1642nd Ordnance Supply \\& Maintenance Company\n* 2253rd Quartermaster Truck Company\n* 819th Chemical Company (Air Operations)\n* 878th Signal Depot Company\n* 2044th Engineer Fire Fighting Platoon\n* 111th Army Postal Unit\n* 201st Medical Dispensary\n* Weather Detachment BB, 21st Weather Squadron",
"#### 96th Bombardment Group (Heavy)",
"[thumb\\|right\\|Douglas\\-Long Beach B\\-17F\\-25\\-DL Fortress Serial 42\\-3123 of the 96th Bomb Group at unfinished Andrews Field, 1943, Later transferred to the 381st Bomb Group at [RAF Ridgewell](/wiki/RAF_Ridgewell \"RAF Ridgewell\"), this aircraft crashed near Fladderlohhausen, 10\\-mile SE of Quakenbruck near [Bremen](/wiki/Bremen \"Bremen\") Germany 8 October 1943\\. Ten crew KIA.](/wiki/File:95bg-b17andrews.jpg \"95bg-b17andrews.jpg\")\nWhen opened in January 1943, Andrews Field was assigned to the [VIII Bomber Command](/wiki/VIII_Bomber_Command \"VIII Bomber Command\") of [Eighth Air Force](/wiki/Eighth_Air_Force \"Eighth Air Force\"), however it didn't receive its first combat group until May, when the 4th Bombardment Wing **[96th Bombardment Group](/wiki/96th_Bombardment_Group \"96th Bombardment Group\") (Heavy)** flying [Boeing B\\-17 Flying Fortresses](/wiki/Boeing_B-17_Flying_Fortress \"Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress\") arrived from [RAF Grafton Underwood](/wiki/RAF_Grafton_Underwood \"RAF Grafton Underwood\") (AAF\\-106\\) in Northamptonshire.{{sfn\\|Maurer\\|1983\\|p\\=00}}",
"The group consisted of the following squadrons:{{cite web\\|url\\=http://mighty8thaf.preller.us/php/1Unit.php?Unitkey\\=96 \\|title\\=96th Bombardment Group (Heavy)\\|publisher\\=Mighty 8th Cross Reference\\|access\\-date\\=31 May 2013}}\n* [337th Bombardment Squadron](/wiki/337th_Bombardment_Squadron \"337th Bombardment Squadron\") (AX)\n* [338th Bombardment Squadron](/wiki/338th_Bombardment_Squadron \"338th Bombardment Squadron\") (BX)\n* [339th Bombardment Squadron](/wiki/339th_Bombardment_Squadron \"339th Bombardment Squadron\") (QJ)\n* [413th Bombardment Squadron](/wiki/413th_Bombardment_Squadron \"413th Bombardment Squadron\") (MZ)Maurer, Maurer, ed. (1982\\) \\[1969]. Combat Squadrons of the Air Force, World War II (reprint ed.). Washington, DC: Office of Air Force History. {{ISBN\\|0\\-405\\-12194\\-6}}. LCCN 70605402\\. OCLC 72556\\.",
"The 96th appears to have only carried out one mission while posted to Andrews Field. On 29 May 1943 they took part in a raid on Rennes naval storage depot from which one B\\-17 failed to return.{{Citation needed\\|date\\=June 2013}} The group was moved to [RAF Snetterton Heath](/wiki/RAF_Snetterton_Heath \"RAF Snetterton Heath\") on 12 June 1943 in a general exchange of airfields with [Martin B\\-26 Marauder](/wiki/Martin_B-26_Marauder \"Martin B-26 Marauder\") 3d Bombardment Wing groups.",
"#### 322d Bombardment Group (Medium)",
"[thumb\\|B\\-26 of the 322d Medium Bomb Group on the perimeter track prior to takeoff](/wiki/File:B-26-322bg-andfld-1944.jpg \"B-26-322bg-andfld-1944.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|B\\-26 Marauder of the 322d Bomb Group on a mission over enemy\\-occupied territory, 1944\\.](/wiki/File:322dbg-b26.jpg \"322dbg-b26.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|Farmers collect hay at Andrews Field whilst personnel of the 322nd Bomb Group work on a B\\-26 Marauder (serial number 41\\-31814\\) nicknamed \"Bag Of Bolts\".](/wiki/File:RAF_Andrews_Field_-_322d_Bombardment_Group_-_Farmers.jpg \"RAF Andrews Field - 322d Bombardment Group - Farmers.jpg\")\nReplacing the 96th was the **[322d Bombardment Group (Medium)](/wiki/322d_Air_Expeditionary_Group \"322d Air Expeditionary Group\")**{{cite web\\|url\\=http://mighty8thaf.preller.us/php/1Unit.php?Unitkey\\=802 \\|title\\=322nd Bombardment Group (Medium) \\|publisher\\=Mighty 8th Cross Reference\\|access\\-date\\=31 May 2013}} which arrived from [RAF Bury St. Edmunds](/wiki/RAF_Bury_St._Edmunds \"RAF Bury St. Edmunds\") on 12 June. The group was assigned to the 3d Bomb Wing{{Citation needed\\|date\\=June 2013}} and flew [Martin B\\-26B/C Marauders](/wiki/Martin_B-26_Marauder \"Martin B-26 Marauder\"). Operational squadrons of the 322d were:\n* [449th Bombardment Squadron](/wiki/449th_Bombardment_Squadron \"449th Bombardment Squadron\"){{Harvnb\\|Maurer\\|1980\\|p\\=203\\.}} (PN)\n* [450th Bombardment Squadron](/wiki/450th_Bombardment_Squadron \"450th Bombardment Squadron\") (ER)\n* [451st Bombardment Squadron](/wiki/451st_Bombardment_Squadron \"451st Bombardment Squadron\") (SS)\n* [452d Bombardment Squadron](/wiki/452d_Bombardment_Squadron \"452d Bombardment Squadron\") (DR)[B\\-26 Fuselage Codes](http://www.markstyling.com/b26_research.06.htm)\n* 1st Pathfinder Squadron (Provisional) (Attached) (1H)[Martin B\\-26 Marauder in the European Theatre](http://www.historyofwar.org/articles/weapons_B-26_ETO.html)",
"The 322nd was the first B\\-26 group to enter combat (in May 1943\\) from the UK, during which its combat performance helped to prove the effectiveness of the medium bombers flying tactical combat missions.",
"In common with other Marauder units of the 3rd Bomb Wing, the 322d was transferred to [Ninth Air Force](/wiki/Ninth_Air_Force \"Ninth Air Force\") on 16 October 1943\\. The group attacked enemy airfields in France, Belgium, and the [Netherlands](/wiki/Netherlands \"Netherlands\") attacking the principal targets but the group also attacked secondary targets such as power stations, shipyards, construction works, and marshalling yards.{{Harvnb\\|Maurer\\|1980\\|p\\=202\\.}}",
"Beginning in March 1944 the 322nd bombed railway and highway bridges, oil tanks, and missile sites in preparation for the [invasion of Normandy](/wiki/Operation_Overlord \"Operation Overlord\").",
"On 8 May 1944, one of the 322nd aircraft, nicknamed \"Mild and Bitter\" (serial 41\\-31819\\) became the first B\\-26 flying from England to complete 100 combat missions. Another B\\-26, \"Flak Bait\" (41\\-31773\\) survived to the end of hostilities with 202 missions to its credit, the only US bomber involved in combat over Europe to pass the 200 mark.",
"On [D\\-Day](/wiki/D-Day \"D-Day\"), 6 June 1944 the 322d Bomb Group attacked coastal defences and gun batteries. Afterwards, during the Normandy campaign, the 322nd pounded fuel and ammunition dumps, bridges, and road junctions, supporting the Allied offensive at [Caen](/wiki/Caen \"Caen\") and the breakthrough at [Saint\\-Lô](/wiki/Saint-L%C3%B4 \"Saint-Lô\") in July.",
"From Andrews Field the 322d received a [Distinguished Unit Citation](/wiki/Distinguished_Unit_Citation \"Distinguished Unit Citation\") for the period 14 May 1943 – 24 July 1944\\. The group moved during September 1944, transferring to [Beauvais](/wiki/Beauvais \"Beauvais\") (A\\-61\\) Airfield in northern France, and aiding the drive of Third Army across France. On the continent, the 322nd BG used the following Advanced Landing Grounds:{{sfn\\|Maurer\\|1983\\|p\\=00}}\n* [Beauvais/Tille Airfield](/wiki/Beauvais/Tille_Airfield \"Beauvais/Tille Airfield\") (A\\-61\\), France September 1944\n* [Le Culot Airfield](/wiki/Le_Culot_Airfield \"Le Culot Airfield\") (A\\-89\\), Belgium March 1945\n* [Fritzlar Airfield](/wiki/Fritzlar_Airfield \"Fritzlar Airfield\") (Y\\-86\\), Germany June \\- November 1945",
"The 322d flew its last mission on 24 April 1945\\. After [V\\-E Day](/wiki/V-E_Day \"V-E Day\"), the group was assigned to occupation duty in Germany beginning in June 1945, engaging in inventorying and disassembling German Air Force equipment and facilities. Returned to the Camp Kilmer, [New Jersey](/wiki/New_Jersey \"New Jersey\") in December 1945, and was inactivated on 15 December.",
"1st Pathfinder Squadron (Provisional) \n[thumb\\|B\\-26 crew photo from the 1st Pathfinder Squadron (Provisional)](/wiki/File:1st_Pathfinder_Squadron_-_Crew_Photo.jpg \"1st Pathfinder Squadron - Crew Photo.jpg\")\nThe **1st Pathfinder Squadron (Provisional)** was formed at Andrews Field in February 1944 and equipped with B\\-26s, carrying the [Oboe](/wiki/Oboe_%28navigation%29 \"Oboe (navigation)\") radio transponder blind\\-bombing device. When the unit was formed the squadron consisted of 14 aircraft. The squadron was attached to the 322nd Bombardment Group, but provided bad weather leads for all IX Ninth Bombing Command groups.\nThe first B\\-26 night mission was flown by the 1st Pathfinder Squadron on the night of 1 June 1944 when three B\\-26's bombed gun positions at St Marie au Bois, France. This was purely a Pathfinder mission and no other unit participated. On the night of 8 July 1944, using Oboe, the 322d undertook a night mission but nine of its aircraft fell victim to [Luftwaffe](/wiki/Luftwaffe \"Luftwaffe\") fighters. At the end of hostilities the squadron strength was 36 B\\-26's.",
"### RAF Fighter Command use",
"Unlike most of the airfields vacated by the Ninth Air Force in the area, Andrews Field was immediately returned to [RAF Fighter Command](/wiki/RAF_Fighter_Command \"RAF Fighter Command\") control on 7 October \\- to provide an airfield for [North American Mustang](/wiki/North_American_P-51_Mustang \"North American P-51 Mustang\") squadrons escorting [Bomber Command](/wiki/RAF_Bomber_Command \"RAF Bomber Command\") daylight operations being used by 11 Group, [Air Defence of Great Britain](/wiki/Air_Defence_of_Great_Britain \"Air Defence of Great Britain\") (ADGB). At this time the airfield was also under consideration for extension of runways to house Very Heavy [Boeing B\\-29 Superfortress](/wiki/Boeing_B-29_Superfortress \"Boeing B-29 Superfortress\") bombers.{{Citation needed\\|date\\=June 2013}}",
"Within a week the HQ of [No. 150 (Polish) Wing RAF](/wiki/No._150_Wing_RAF \"No. 150 Wing RAF\") and an advance party of [No. 19 Squadron](/wiki/No._19_Squadron_RAF \"No. 19 Squadron RAF\") moved in. By the middle of October 1944, Nos. 19, [65](/wiki/No._65_Squadron_RAF \"No. 65 Squadron RAF\") and [122](/wiki/No._122_Squadron_RAF \"No. 122 Squadron RAF\") Squadrons ([No. 122 Wing](/wiki/No._122_Wing_RAF \"No. 122 Wing RAF\")) had joined the Polish Wing consisting of Nos. [129](/wiki/No._129_Squadron_RAF \"No. 129 Squadron RAF\"), [306](/wiki/No._306_Polish_Fighter_Squadron \"No. 306 Polish Fighter Squadron\") and [315](/wiki/No._315_Polish_Fighter_Squadron \"No. 315 Polish Fighter Squadron\") Squadrons.",
"At the end of February 1945 the [Gloster Meteor](/wiki/Gloster_Meteor \"Gloster Meteor\") III jet fighters of [616](/wiki/No._616_Squadron_RAF \"No. 616 Squadron RAF\") Squadron arrived, they stayed for a month{{sfn\\|Jefford\\|1988\\|p\\=101}} before being replaced by a detachment of Meteor IIIs from [504 Squadron](/wiki/No._504_Squadron_RAF \"No. 504 Squadron RAF\").{{sfn\\|Jefford\\|1988\\|p\\=95}}",
"In addition to the combat squadrons, the Air Sea Rescue [Supermarine Walruses](/wiki/Supermarine_Walrus \"Supermarine Walrus\") of [276 Squadron](/wiki/No._276_Squadron_RAF \"No. 276 Squadron RAF\"), [RAF Coastal Command](/wiki/RAF_Coastal_Command \"RAF Coastal Command\") were resident from early June 1945\\. They left for [Kjevik, Norway](/wiki/Kristiansand_Airport%2C_Kjevik \"Kristiansand Airport, Kjevik\") on 23 August.{{sfn\\|Jefford\\|1988\\|p\\=82}}",
"With the end of the war, [No 303 Squadron](/wiki/No._303_Polish_Fighter_Squadron \"No. 303 Polish Fighter Squadron\") departed in December 1945{{sfn\\|Jefford\\|1988\\|p\\=85}} and the airfield was placed under care and maintenance and became a satellite of [RAF Great Sampford](/wiki/RAF_Great_Sampford \"RAF Great Sampford\") in 1946\\.{{Citation needed\\|date\\=June 2013}}",
""
] |
### United States Army Air Forces use
On 21 May 1943 the official name was changed to Andrews Field in honour of [Lieutenant General Frank M Andrews](/wiki/Frank_Maxwell_Andrews "Frank Maxwell Andrews").{{Harvnb\|Freeman\|2001\|p\=18\.}} Andrews Field was known as **USAAF Station AAF\-485** for security reasons by the USAAF during the war, by which name it was referred to instead of location. Its USAAF Station Code was "GZ". Although the name Andrews Field (or Andrewsfield) appears on RAF air maps and was widely used by that service, some USAAF agencies still referred to the airfield by the name Great Saling.
USAAF Station Units assigned to RAF Andrews Field were:{{cite web\|url\=http://www.americanairmuseum.com/place/12 \|title\=Andrews Field \|publisher\=American Air Museum in Britain\|access\-date\=1 March 2015}}
* 42d Service Group (VIII Air Force Composite Command){{cite web\|url\=http://www.americanairmuseum.com/unit/377 \|title\=42d Service Group \|publisher\=American Air Museum in Britain\|access\-date\=2 March 2015}}
356th, 361st Service Squadron, HHS, 42d Service Group
* 18th Station Complement Squadron
* 21st Weather Squadron
* 28th Mobile Reclamation and Repair Squadron
Regular Army Station Units included:
* 1020th Signal Company
* 1136th Quartermaster Company
* 1175th Military Police Company
* 1642nd Ordnance Supply \& Maintenance Company
* 2253rd Quartermaster Truck Company
* 819th Chemical Company (Air Operations)
* 878th Signal Depot Company
* 2044th Engineer Fire Fighting Platoon
* 111th Army Postal Unit
* 201st Medical Dispensary
* Weather Detachment BB, 21st Weather Squadron
#### 96th Bombardment Group (Heavy)
[thumb\|right\|Douglas\-Long Beach B\-17F\-25\-DL Fortress Serial 42\-3123 of the 96th Bomb Group at unfinished Andrews Field, 1943, Later transferred to the 381st Bomb Group at [RAF Ridgewell](/wiki/RAF_Ridgewell "RAF Ridgewell"), this aircraft crashed near Fladderlohhausen, 10\-mile SE of Quakenbruck near [Bremen](/wiki/Bremen "Bremen") Germany 8 October 1943\. Ten crew KIA.](/wiki/File:95bg-b17andrews.jpg "95bg-b17andrews.jpg")
When opened in January 1943, Andrews Field was assigned to the [VIII Bomber Command](/wiki/VIII_Bomber_Command "VIII Bomber Command") of [Eighth Air Force](/wiki/Eighth_Air_Force "Eighth Air Force"), however it didn't receive its first combat group until May, when the 4th Bombardment Wing **[96th Bombardment Group](/wiki/96th_Bombardment_Group "96th Bombardment Group") (Heavy)** flying [Boeing B\-17 Flying Fortresses](/wiki/Boeing_B-17_Flying_Fortress "Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress") arrived from [RAF Grafton Underwood](/wiki/RAF_Grafton_Underwood "RAF Grafton Underwood") (AAF\-106\) in Northamptonshire.{{sfn\|Maurer\|1983\|p\=00}}
The group consisted of the following squadrons:{{cite web\|url\=http://mighty8thaf.preller.us/php/1Unit.php?Unitkey\=96 \|title\=96th Bombardment Group (Heavy)\|publisher\=Mighty 8th Cross Reference\|access\-date\=31 May 2013}}
* [337th Bombardment Squadron](/wiki/337th_Bombardment_Squadron "337th Bombardment Squadron") (AX)
* [338th Bombardment Squadron](/wiki/338th_Bombardment_Squadron "338th Bombardment Squadron") (BX)
* [339th Bombardment Squadron](/wiki/339th_Bombardment_Squadron "339th Bombardment Squadron") (QJ)
* [413th Bombardment Squadron](/wiki/413th_Bombardment_Squadron "413th Bombardment Squadron") (MZ)Maurer, Maurer, ed. (1982\) \[1969]. Combat Squadrons of the Air Force, World War II (reprint ed.). Washington, DC: Office of Air Force History. {{ISBN\|0\-405\-12194\-6}}. LCCN 70605402\. OCLC 72556\.
The 96th appears to have only carried out one mission while posted to Andrews Field. On 29 May 1943 they took part in a raid on Rennes naval storage depot from which one B\-17 failed to return.{{Citation needed\|date\=June 2013}} The group was moved to [RAF Snetterton Heath](/wiki/RAF_Snetterton_Heath "RAF Snetterton Heath") on 12 June 1943 in a general exchange of airfields with [Martin B\-26 Marauder](/wiki/Martin_B-26_Marauder "Martin B-26 Marauder") 3d Bombardment Wing groups.
#### 322d Bombardment Group (Medium)
[thumb\|B\-26 of the 322d Medium Bomb Group on the perimeter track prior to takeoff](/wiki/File:B-26-322bg-andfld-1944.jpg "B-26-322bg-andfld-1944.jpg")
[thumb\|B\-26 Marauder of the 322d Bomb Group on a mission over enemy\-occupied territory, 1944\.](/wiki/File:322dbg-b26.jpg "322dbg-b26.jpg")
[thumb\|Farmers collect hay at Andrews Field whilst personnel of the 322nd Bomb Group work on a B\-26 Marauder (serial number 41\-31814\) nicknamed "Bag Of Bolts".](/wiki/File:RAF_Andrews_Field_-_322d_Bombardment_Group_-_Farmers.jpg "RAF Andrews Field - 322d Bombardment Group - Farmers.jpg")
Replacing the 96th was the **[322d Bombardment Group (Medium)](/wiki/322d_Air_Expeditionary_Group "322d Air Expeditionary Group")**{{cite web\|url\=http://mighty8thaf.preller.us/php/1Unit.php?Unitkey\=802 \|title\=322nd Bombardment Group (Medium) \|publisher\=Mighty 8th Cross Reference\|access\-date\=31 May 2013}} which arrived from [RAF Bury St. Edmunds](/wiki/RAF_Bury_St._Edmunds "RAF Bury St. Edmunds") on 12 June. The group was assigned to the 3d Bomb Wing{{Citation needed\|date\=June 2013}} and flew [Martin B\-26B/C Marauders](/wiki/Martin_B-26_Marauder "Martin B-26 Marauder"). Operational squadrons of the 322d were:
* [449th Bombardment Squadron](/wiki/449th_Bombardment_Squadron "449th Bombardment Squadron"){{Harvnb\|Maurer\|1980\|p\=203\.}} (PN)
* [450th Bombardment Squadron](/wiki/450th_Bombardment_Squadron "450th Bombardment Squadron") (ER)
* [451st Bombardment Squadron](/wiki/451st_Bombardment_Squadron "451st Bombardment Squadron") (SS)
* [452d Bombardment Squadron](/wiki/452d_Bombardment_Squadron "452d Bombardment Squadron") (DR)[B\-26 Fuselage Codes](http://www.markstyling.com/b26_research.06.htm)
* 1st Pathfinder Squadron (Provisional) (Attached) (1H)[Martin B\-26 Marauder in the European Theatre](http://www.historyofwar.org/articles/weapons_B-26_ETO.html)
The 322nd was the first B\-26 group to enter combat (in May 1943\) from the UK, during which its combat performance helped to prove the effectiveness of the medium bombers flying tactical combat missions.
In common with other Marauder units of the 3rd Bomb Wing, the 322d was transferred to [Ninth Air Force](/wiki/Ninth_Air_Force "Ninth Air Force") on 16 October 1943\. The group attacked enemy airfields in France, Belgium, and the [Netherlands](/wiki/Netherlands "Netherlands") attacking the principal targets but the group also attacked secondary targets such as power stations, shipyards, construction works, and marshalling yards.{{Harvnb\|Maurer\|1980\|p\=202\.}}
Beginning in March 1944 the 322nd bombed railway and highway bridges, oil tanks, and missile sites in preparation for the [invasion of Normandy](/wiki/Operation_Overlord "Operation Overlord").
On 8 May 1944, one of the 322nd aircraft, nicknamed "Mild and Bitter" (serial 41\-31819\) became the first B\-26 flying from England to complete 100 combat missions. Another B\-26, "Flak Bait" (41\-31773\) survived to the end of hostilities with 202 missions to its credit, the only US bomber involved in combat over Europe to pass the 200 mark.
On [D\-Day](/wiki/D-Day "D-Day"), 6 June 1944 the 322d Bomb Group attacked coastal defences and gun batteries. Afterwards, during the Normandy campaign, the 322nd pounded fuel and ammunition dumps, bridges, and road junctions, supporting the Allied offensive at [Caen](/wiki/Caen "Caen") and the breakthrough at [Saint\-Lô](/wiki/Saint-L%C3%B4 "Saint-Lô") in July.
From Andrews Field the 322d received a [Distinguished Unit Citation](/wiki/Distinguished_Unit_Citation "Distinguished Unit Citation") for the period 14 May 1943 – 24 July 1944\. The group moved during September 1944, transferring to [Beauvais](/wiki/Beauvais "Beauvais") (A\-61\) Airfield in northern France, and aiding the drive of Third Army across France. On the continent, the 322nd BG used the following Advanced Landing Grounds:{{sfn\|Maurer\|1983\|p\=00}}
* [Beauvais/Tille Airfield](/wiki/Beauvais/Tille_Airfield "Beauvais/Tille Airfield") (A\-61\), France September 1944
* [Le Culot Airfield](/wiki/Le_Culot_Airfield "Le Culot Airfield") (A\-89\), Belgium March 1945
* [Fritzlar Airfield](/wiki/Fritzlar_Airfield "Fritzlar Airfield") (Y\-86\), Germany June \- November 1945
The 322d flew its last mission on 24 April 1945\. After [V\-E Day](/wiki/V-E_Day "V-E Day"), the group was assigned to occupation duty in Germany beginning in June 1945, engaging in inventorying and disassembling German Air Force equipment and facilities. Returned to the Camp Kilmer, [New Jersey](/wiki/New_Jersey "New Jersey") in December 1945, and was inactivated on 15 December.
1st Pathfinder Squadron (Provisional)
[thumb\|B\-26 crew photo from the 1st Pathfinder Squadron (Provisional)](/wiki/File:1st_Pathfinder_Squadron_-_Crew_Photo.jpg "1st Pathfinder Squadron - Crew Photo.jpg")
The **1st Pathfinder Squadron (Provisional)** was formed at Andrews Field in February 1944 and equipped with B\-26s, carrying the [Oboe](/wiki/Oboe_%28navigation%29 "Oboe (navigation)") radio transponder blind\-bombing device. When the unit was formed the squadron consisted of 14 aircraft. The squadron was attached to the 322nd Bombardment Group, but provided bad weather leads for all IX Ninth Bombing Command groups.
The first B\-26 night mission was flown by the 1st Pathfinder Squadron on the night of 1 June 1944 when three B\-26's bombed gun positions at St Marie au Bois, France. This was purely a Pathfinder mission and no other unit participated. On the night of 8 July 1944, using Oboe, the 322d undertook a night mission but nine of its aircraft fell victim to [Luftwaffe](/wiki/Luftwaffe "Luftwaffe") fighters. At the end of hostilities the squadron strength was 36 B\-26's.
|
[
"### United States Army Air Forces use",
"On 21 May 1943 the official name was changed to Andrews Field in honour of [Lieutenant General Frank M Andrews](/wiki/Frank_Maxwell_Andrews \"Frank Maxwell Andrews\").{{Harvnb\\|Freeman\\|2001\\|p\\=18\\.}} Andrews Field was known as **USAAF Station AAF\\-485** for security reasons by the USAAF during the war, by which name it was referred to instead of location. Its USAAF Station Code was \"GZ\". Although the name Andrews Field (or Andrewsfield) appears on RAF air maps and was widely used by that service, some USAAF agencies still referred to the airfield by the name Great Saling.",
"USAAF Station Units assigned to RAF Andrews Field were:{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.americanairmuseum.com/place/12 \\|title\\=Andrews Field \\|publisher\\=American Air Museum in Britain\\|access\\-date\\=1 March 2015}}\n* 42d Service Group (VIII Air Force Composite Command){{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.americanairmuseum.com/unit/377 \\|title\\=42d Service Group \\|publisher\\=American Air Museum in Britain\\|access\\-date\\=2 March 2015}}",
"356th, 361st Service Squadron, HHS, 42d Service Group \n* 18th Station Complement Squadron\n* 21st Weather Squadron\n* 28th Mobile Reclamation and Repair Squadron\nRegular Army Station Units included:\n* 1020th Signal Company\n* 1136th Quartermaster Company\n* 1175th Military Police Company\n* 1642nd Ordnance Supply \\& Maintenance Company\n* 2253rd Quartermaster Truck Company\n* 819th Chemical Company (Air Operations)\n* 878th Signal Depot Company\n* 2044th Engineer Fire Fighting Platoon\n* 111th Army Postal Unit\n* 201st Medical Dispensary\n* Weather Detachment BB, 21st Weather Squadron",
"#### 96th Bombardment Group (Heavy)",
"[thumb\\|right\\|Douglas\\-Long Beach B\\-17F\\-25\\-DL Fortress Serial 42\\-3123 of the 96th Bomb Group at unfinished Andrews Field, 1943, Later transferred to the 381st Bomb Group at [RAF Ridgewell](/wiki/RAF_Ridgewell \"RAF Ridgewell\"), this aircraft crashed near Fladderlohhausen, 10\\-mile SE of Quakenbruck near [Bremen](/wiki/Bremen \"Bremen\") Germany 8 October 1943\\. Ten crew KIA.](/wiki/File:95bg-b17andrews.jpg \"95bg-b17andrews.jpg\")\nWhen opened in January 1943, Andrews Field was assigned to the [VIII Bomber Command](/wiki/VIII_Bomber_Command \"VIII Bomber Command\") of [Eighth Air Force](/wiki/Eighth_Air_Force \"Eighth Air Force\"), however it didn't receive its first combat group until May, when the 4th Bombardment Wing **[96th Bombardment Group](/wiki/96th_Bombardment_Group \"96th Bombardment Group\") (Heavy)** flying [Boeing B\\-17 Flying Fortresses](/wiki/Boeing_B-17_Flying_Fortress \"Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress\") arrived from [RAF Grafton Underwood](/wiki/RAF_Grafton_Underwood \"RAF Grafton Underwood\") (AAF\\-106\\) in Northamptonshire.{{sfn\\|Maurer\\|1983\\|p\\=00}}",
"The group consisted of the following squadrons:{{cite web\\|url\\=http://mighty8thaf.preller.us/php/1Unit.php?Unitkey\\=96 \\|title\\=96th Bombardment Group (Heavy)\\|publisher\\=Mighty 8th Cross Reference\\|access\\-date\\=31 May 2013}}\n* [337th Bombardment Squadron](/wiki/337th_Bombardment_Squadron \"337th Bombardment Squadron\") (AX)\n* [338th Bombardment Squadron](/wiki/338th_Bombardment_Squadron \"338th Bombardment Squadron\") (BX)\n* [339th Bombardment Squadron](/wiki/339th_Bombardment_Squadron \"339th Bombardment Squadron\") (QJ)\n* [413th Bombardment Squadron](/wiki/413th_Bombardment_Squadron \"413th Bombardment Squadron\") (MZ)Maurer, Maurer, ed. (1982\\) \\[1969]. Combat Squadrons of the Air Force, World War II (reprint ed.). Washington, DC: Office of Air Force History. {{ISBN\\|0\\-405\\-12194\\-6}}. LCCN 70605402\\. OCLC 72556\\.",
"The 96th appears to have only carried out one mission while posted to Andrews Field. On 29 May 1943 they took part in a raid on Rennes naval storage depot from which one B\\-17 failed to return.{{Citation needed\\|date\\=June 2013}} The group was moved to [RAF Snetterton Heath](/wiki/RAF_Snetterton_Heath \"RAF Snetterton Heath\") on 12 June 1943 in a general exchange of airfields with [Martin B\\-26 Marauder](/wiki/Martin_B-26_Marauder \"Martin B-26 Marauder\") 3d Bombardment Wing groups.",
"#### 322d Bombardment Group (Medium)",
"[thumb\\|B\\-26 of the 322d Medium Bomb Group on the perimeter track prior to takeoff](/wiki/File:B-26-322bg-andfld-1944.jpg \"B-26-322bg-andfld-1944.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|B\\-26 Marauder of the 322d Bomb Group on a mission over enemy\\-occupied territory, 1944\\.](/wiki/File:322dbg-b26.jpg \"322dbg-b26.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|Farmers collect hay at Andrews Field whilst personnel of the 322nd Bomb Group work on a B\\-26 Marauder (serial number 41\\-31814\\) nicknamed \"Bag Of Bolts\".](/wiki/File:RAF_Andrews_Field_-_322d_Bombardment_Group_-_Farmers.jpg \"RAF Andrews Field - 322d Bombardment Group - Farmers.jpg\")\nReplacing the 96th was the **[322d Bombardment Group (Medium)](/wiki/322d_Air_Expeditionary_Group \"322d Air Expeditionary Group\")**{{cite web\\|url\\=http://mighty8thaf.preller.us/php/1Unit.php?Unitkey\\=802 \\|title\\=322nd Bombardment Group (Medium) \\|publisher\\=Mighty 8th Cross Reference\\|access\\-date\\=31 May 2013}} which arrived from [RAF Bury St. Edmunds](/wiki/RAF_Bury_St._Edmunds \"RAF Bury St. Edmunds\") on 12 June. The group was assigned to the 3d Bomb Wing{{Citation needed\\|date\\=June 2013}} and flew [Martin B\\-26B/C Marauders](/wiki/Martin_B-26_Marauder \"Martin B-26 Marauder\"). Operational squadrons of the 322d were:\n* [449th Bombardment Squadron](/wiki/449th_Bombardment_Squadron \"449th Bombardment Squadron\"){{Harvnb\\|Maurer\\|1980\\|p\\=203\\.}} (PN)\n* [450th Bombardment Squadron](/wiki/450th_Bombardment_Squadron \"450th Bombardment Squadron\") (ER)\n* [451st Bombardment Squadron](/wiki/451st_Bombardment_Squadron \"451st Bombardment Squadron\") (SS)\n* [452d Bombardment Squadron](/wiki/452d_Bombardment_Squadron \"452d Bombardment Squadron\") (DR)[B\\-26 Fuselage Codes](http://www.markstyling.com/b26_research.06.htm)\n* 1st Pathfinder Squadron (Provisional) (Attached) (1H)[Martin B\\-26 Marauder in the European Theatre](http://www.historyofwar.org/articles/weapons_B-26_ETO.html)",
"The 322nd was the first B\\-26 group to enter combat (in May 1943\\) from the UK, during which its combat performance helped to prove the effectiveness of the medium bombers flying tactical combat missions.",
"In common with other Marauder units of the 3rd Bomb Wing, the 322d was transferred to [Ninth Air Force](/wiki/Ninth_Air_Force \"Ninth Air Force\") on 16 October 1943\\. The group attacked enemy airfields in France, Belgium, and the [Netherlands](/wiki/Netherlands \"Netherlands\") attacking the principal targets but the group also attacked secondary targets such as power stations, shipyards, construction works, and marshalling yards.{{Harvnb\\|Maurer\\|1980\\|p\\=202\\.}}",
"Beginning in March 1944 the 322nd bombed railway and highway bridges, oil tanks, and missile sites in preparation for the [invasion of Normandy](/wiki/Operation_Overlord \"Operation Overlord\").",
"On 8 May 1944, one of the 322nd aircraft, nicknamed \"Mild and Bitter\" (serial 41\\-31819\\) became the first B\\-26 flying from England to complete 100 combat missions. Another B\\-26, \"Flak Bait\" (41\\-31773\\) survived to the end of hostilities with 202 missions to its credit, the only US bomber involved in combat over Europe to pass the 200 mark.",
"On [D\\-Day](/wiki/D-Day \"D-Day\"), 6 June 1944 the 322d Bomb Group attacked coastal defences and gun batteries. Afterwards, during the Normandy campaign, the 322nd pounded fuel and ammunition dumps, bridges, and road junctions, supporting the Allied offensive at [Caen](/wiki/Caen \"Caen\") and the breakthrough at [Saint\\-Lô](/wiki/Saint-L%C3%B4 \"Saint-Lô\") in July.",
"From Andrews Field the 322d received a [Distinguished Unit Citation](/wiki/Distinguished_Unit_Citation \"Distinguished Unit Citation\") for the period 14 May 1943 – 24 July 1944\\. The group moved during September 1944, transferring to [Beauvais](/wiki/Beauvais \"Beauvais\") (A\\-61\\) Airfield in northern France, and aiding the drive of Third Army across France. On the continent, the 322nd BG used the following Advanced Landing Grounds:{{sfn\\|Maurer\\|1983\\|p\\=00}}\n* [Beauvais/Tille Airfield](/wiki/Beauvais/Tille_Airfield \"Beauvais/Tille Airfield\") (A\\-61\\), France September 1944\n* [Le Culot Airfield](/wiki/Le_Culot_Airfield \"Le Culot Airfield\") (A\\-89\\), Belgium March 1945\n* [Fritzlar Airfield](/wiki/Fritzlar_Airfield \"Fritzlar Airfield\") (Y\\-86\\), Germany June \\- November 1945",
"The 322d flew its last mission on 24 April 1945\\. After [V\\-E Day](/wiki/V-E_Day \"V-E Day\"), the group was assigned to occupation duty in Germany beginning in June 1945, engaging in inventorying and disassembling German Air Force equipment and facilities. Returned to the Camp Kilmer, [New Jersey](/wiki/New_Jersey \"New Jersey\") in December 1945, and was inactivated on 15 December.",
"1st Pathfinder Squadron (Provisional) \n[thumb\\|B\\-26 crew photo from the 1st Pathfinder Squadron (Provisional)](/wiki/File:1st_Pathfinder_Squadron_-_Crew_Photo.jpg \"1st Pathfinder Squadron - Crew Photo.jpg\")\nThe **1st Pathfinder Squadron (Provisional)** was formed at Andrews Field in February 1944 and equipped with B\\-26s, carrying the [Oboe](/wiki/Oboe_%28navigation%29 \"Oboe (navigation)\") radio transponder blind\\-bombing device. When the unit was formed the squadron consisted of 14 aircraft. The squadron was attached to the 322nd Bombardment Group, but provided bad weather leads for all IX Ninth Bombing Command groups.\nThe first B\\-26 night mission was flown by the 1st Pathfinder Squadron on the night of 1 June 1944 when three B\\-26's bombed gun positions at St Marie au Bois, France. This was purely a Pathfinder mission and no other unit participated. On the night of 8 July 1944, using Oboe, the 322d undertook a night mission but nine of its aircraft fell victim to [Luftwaffe](/wiki/Luftwaffe \"Luftwaffe\") fighters. At the end of hostilities the squadron strength was 36 B\\-26's.",
""
] |
#### 322d Bombardment Group (Medium)
[thumb\|B\-26 of the 322d Medium Bomb Group on the perimeter track prior to takeoff](/wiki/File:B-26-322bg-andfld-1944.jpg "B-26-322bg-andfld-1944.jpg")
[thumb\|B\-26 Marauder of the 322d Bomb Group on a mission over enemy\-occupied territory, 1944\.](/wiki/File:322dbg-b26.jpg "322dbg-b26.jpg")
[thumb\|Farmers collect hay at Andrews Field whilst personnel of the 322nd Bomb Group work on a B\-26 Marauder (serial number 41\-31814\) nicknamed "Bag Of Bolts".](/wiki/File:RAF_Andrews_Field_-_322d_Bombardment_Group_-_Farmers.jpg "RAF Andrews Field - 322d Bombardment Group - Farmers.jpg")
Replacing the 96th was the **[322d Bombardment Group (Medium)](/wiki/322d_Air_Expeditionary_Group "322d Air Expeditionary Group")**{{cite web\|url\=http://mighty8thaf.preller.us/php/1Unit.php?Unitkey\=802 \|title\=322nd Bombardment Group (Medium) \|publisher\=Mighty 8th Cross Reference\|access\-date\=31 May 2013}} which arrived from [RAF Bury St. Edmunds](/wiki/RAF_Bury_St._Edmunds "RAF Bury St. Edmunds") on 12 June. The group was assigned to the 3d Bomb Wing{{Citation needed\|date\=June 2013}} and flew [Martin B\-26B/C Marauders](/wiki/Martin_B-26_Marauder "Martin B-26 Marauder"). Operational squadrons of the 322d were:
* [449th Bombardment Squadron](/wiki/449th_Bombardment_Squadron "449th Bombardment Squadron"){{Harvnb\|Maurer\|1980\|p\=203\.}} (PN)
* [450th Bombardment Squadron](/wiki/450th_Bombardment_Squadron "450th Bombardment Squadron") (ER)
* [451st Bombardment Squadron](/wiki/451st_Bombardment_Squadron "451st Bombardment Squadron") (SS)
* [452d Bombardment Squadron](/wiki/452d_Bombardment_Squadron "452d Bombardment Squadron") (DR)[B\-26 Fuselage Codes](http://www.markstyling.com/b26_research.06.htm)
* 1st Pathfinder Squadron (Provisional) (Attached) (1H)[Martin B\-26 Marauder in the European Theatre](http://www.historyofwar.org/articles/weapons_B-26_ETO.html)
The 322nd was the first B\-26 group to enter combat (in May 1943\) from the UK, during which its combat performance helped to prove the effectiveness of the medium bombers flying tactical combat missions.
In common with other Marauder units of the 3rd Bomb Wing, the 322d was transferred to [Ninth Air Force](/wiki/Ninth_Air_Force "Ninth Air Force") on 16 October 1943\. The group attacked enemy airfields in France, Belgium, and the [Netherlands](/wiki/Netherlands "Netherlands") attacking the principal targets but the group also attacked secondary targets such as power stations, shipyards, construction works, and marshalling yards.{{Harvnb\|Maurer\|1980\|p\=202\.}}
Beginning in March 1944 the 322nd bombed railway and highway bridges, oil tanks, and missile sites in preparation for the [invasion of Normandy](/wiki/Operation_Overlord "Operation Overlord").
On 8 May 1944, one of the 322nd aircraft, nicknamed "Mild and Bitter" (serial 41\-31819\) became the first B\-26 flying from England to complete 100 combat missions. Another B\-26, "Flak Bait" (41\-31773\) survived to the end of hostilities with 202 missions to its credit, the only US bomber involved in combat over Europe to pass the 200 mark.
On [D\-Day](/wiki/D-Day "D-Day"), 6 June 1944 the 322d Bomb Group attacked coastal defences and gun batteries. Afterwards, during the Normandy campaign, the 322nd pounded fuel and ammunition dumps, bridges, and road junctions, supporting the Allied offensive at [Caen](/wiki/Caen "Caen") and the breakthrough at [Saint\-Lô](/wiki/Saint-L%C3%B4 "Saint-Lô") in July.
From Andrews Field the 322d received a [Distinguished Unit Citation](/wiki/Distinguished_Unit_Citation "Distinguished Unit Citation") for the period 14 May 1943 – 24 July 1944\. The group moved during September 1944, transferring to [Beauvais](/wiki/Beauvais "Beauvais") (A\-61\) Airfield in northern France, and aiding the drive of Third Army across France. On the continent, the 322nd BG used the following Advanced Landing Grounds:{{sfn\|Maurer\|1983\|p\=00}}
* [Beauvais/Tille Airfield](/wiki/Beauvais/Tille_Airfield "Beauvais/Tille Airfield") (A\-61\), France September 1944
* [Le Culot Airfield](/wiki/Le_Culot_Airfield "Le Culot Airfield") (A\-89\), Belgium March 1945
* [Fritzlar Airfield](/wiki/Fritzlar_Airfield "Fritzlar Airfield") (Y\-86\), Germany June \- November 1945
The 322d flew its last mission on 24 April 1945\. After [V\-E Day](/wiki/V-E_Day "V-E Day"), the group was assigned to occupation duty in Germany beginning in June 1945, engaging in inventorying and disassembling German Air Force equipment and facilities. Returned to the Camp Kilmer, [New Jersey](/wiki/New_Jersey "New Jersey") in December 1945, and was inactivated on 15 December.
1st Pathfinder Squadron (Provisional)
[thumb\|B\-26 crew photo from the 1st Pathfinder Squadron (Provisional)](/wiki/File:1st_Pathfinder_Squadron_-_Crew_Photo.jpg "1st Pathfinder Squadron - Crew Photo.jpg")
The **1st Pathfinder Squadron (Provisional)** was formed at Andrews Field in February 1944 and equipped with B\-26s, carrying the [Oboe](/wiki/Oboe_%28navigation%29 "Oboe (navigation)") radio transponder blind\-bombing device. When the unit was formed the squadron consisted of 14 aircraft. The squadron was attached to the 322nd Bombardment Group, but provided bad weather leads for all IX Ninth Bombing Command groups.
The first B\-26 night mission was flown by the 1st Pathfinder Squadron on the night of 1 June 1944 when three B\-26's bombed gun positions at St Marie au Bois, France. This was purely a Pathfinder mission and no other unit participated. On the night of 8 July 1944, using Oboe, the 322d undertook a night mission but nine of its aircraft fell victim to [Luftwaffe](/wiki/Luftwaffe "Luftwaffe") fighters. At the end of hostilities the squadron strength was 36 B\-26's.
|
[
"#### 322d Bombardment Group (Medium)",
"[thumb\\|B\\-26 of the 322d Medium Bomb Group on the perimeter track prior to takeoff](/wiki/File:B-26-322bg-andfld-1944.jpg \"B-26-322bg-andfld-1944.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|B\\-26 Marauder of the 322d Bomb Group on a mission over enemy\\-occupied territory, 1944\\.](/wiki/File:322dbg-b26.jpg \"322dbg-b26.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|Farmers collect hay at Andrews Field whilst personnel of the 322nd Bomb Group work on a B\\-26 Marauder (serial number 41\\-31814\\) nicknamed \"Bag Of Bolts\".](/wiki/File:RAF_Andrews_Field_-_322d_Bombardment_Group_-_Farmers.jpg \"RAF Andrews Field - 322d Bombardment Group - Farmers.jpg\")\nReplacing the 96th was the **[322d Bombardment Group (Medium)](/wiki/322d_Air_Expeditionary_Group \"322d Air Expeditionary Group\")**{{cite web\\|url\\=http://mighty8thaf.preller.us/php/1Unit.php?Unitkey\\=802 \\|title\\=322nd Bombardment Group (Medium) \\|publisher\\=Mighty 8th Cross Reference\\|access\\-date\\=31 May 2013}} which arrived from [RAF Bury St. Edmunds](/wiki/RAF_Bury_St._Edmunds \"RAF Bury St. Edmunds\") on 12 June. The group was assigned to the 3d Bomb Wing{{Citation needed\\|date\\=June 2013}} and flew [Martin B\\-26B/C Marauders](/wiki/Martin_B-26_Marauder \"Martin B-26 Marauder\"). Operational squadrons of the 322d were:\n* [449th Bombardment Squadron](/wiki/449th_Bombardment_Squadron \"449th Bombardment Squadron\"){{Harvnb\\|Maurer\\|1980\\|p\\=203\\.}} (PN)\n* [450th Bombardment Squadron](/wiki/450th_Bombardment_Squadron \"450th Bombardment Squadron\") (ER)\n* [451st Bombardment Squadron](/wiki/451st_Bombardment_Squadron \"451st Bombardment Squadron\") (SS)\n* [452d Bombardment Squadron](/wiki/452d_Bombardment_Squadron \"452d Bombardment Squadron\") (DR)[B\\-26 Fuselage Codes](http://www.markstyling.com/b26_research.06.htm)\n* 1st Pathfinder Squadron (Provisional) (Attached) (1H)[Martin B\\-26 Marauder in the European Theatre](http://www.historyofwar.org/articles/weapons_B-26_ETO.html)",
"The 322nd was the first B\\-26 group to enter combat (in May 1943\\) from the UK, during which its combat performance helped to prove the effectiveness of the medium bombers flying tactical combat missions.",
"In common with other Marauder units of the 3rd Bomb Wing, the 322d was transferred to [Ninth Air Force](/wiki/Ninth_Air_Force \"Ninth Air Force\") on 16 October 1943\\. The group attacked enemy airfields in France, Belgium, and the [Netherlands](/wiki/Netherlands \"Netherlands\") attacking the principal targets but the group also attacked secondary targets such as power stations, shipyards, construction works, and marshalling yards.{{Harvnb\\|Maurer\\|1980\\|p\\=202\\.}}",
"Beginning in March 1944 the 322nd bombed railway and highway bridges, oil tanks, and missile sites in preparation for the [invasion of Normandy](/wiki/Operation_Overlord \"Operation Overlord\").",
"On 8 May 1944, one of the 322nd aircraft, nicknamed \"Mild and Bitter\" (serial 41\\-31819\\) became the first B\\-26 flying from England to complete 100 combat missions. Another B\\-26, \"Flak Bait\" (41\\-31773\\) survived to the end of hostilities with 202 missions to its credit, the only US bomber involved in combat over Europe to pass the 200 mark.",
"On [D\\-Day](/wiki/D-Day \"D-Day\"), 6 June 1944 the 322d Bomb Group attacked coastal defences and gun batteries. Afterwards, during the Normandy campaign, the 322nd pounded fuel and ammunition dumps, bridges, and road junctions, supporting the Allied offensive at [Caen](/wiki/Caen \"Caen\") and the breakthrough at [Saint\\-Lô](/wiki/Saint-L%C3%B4 \"Saint-Lô\") in July.",
"From Andrews Field the 322d received a [Distinguished Unit Citation](/wiki/Distinguished_Unit_Citation \"Distinguished Unit Citation\") for the period 14 May 1943 – 24 July 1944\\. The group moved during September 1944, transferring to [Beauvais](/wiki/Beauvais \"Beauvais\") (A\\-61\\) Airfield in northern France, and aiding the drive of Third Army across France. On the continent, the 322nd BG used the following Advanced Landing Grounds:{{sfn\\|Maurer\\|1983\\|p\\=00}}\n* [Beauvais/Tille Airfield](/wiki/Beauvais/Tille_Airfield \"Beauvais/Tille Airfield\") (A\\-61\\), France September 1944\n* [Le Culot Airfield](/wiki/Le_Culot_Airfield \"Le Culot Airfield\") (A\\-89\\), Belgium March 1945\n* [Fritzlar Airfield](/wiki/Fritzlar_Airfield \"Fritzlar Airfield\") (Y\\-86\\), Germany June \\- November 1945",
"The 322d flew its last mission on 24 April 1945\\. After [V\\-E Day](/wiki/V-E_Day \"V-E Day\"), the group was assigned to occupation duty in Germany beginning in June 1945, engaging in inventorying and disassembling German Air Force equipment and facilities. Returned to the Camp Kilmer, [New Jersey](/wiki/New_Jersey \"New Jersey\") in December 1945, and was inactivated on 15 December.",
"1st Pathfinder Squadron (Provisional) \n[thumb\\|B\\-26 crew photo from the 1st Pathfinder Squadron (Provisional)](/wiki/File:1st_Pathfinder_Squadron_-_Crew_Photo.jpg \"1st Pathfinder Squadron - Crew Photo.jpg\")\nThe **1st Pathfinder Squadron (Provisional)** was formed at Andrews Field in February 1944 and equipped with B\\-26s, carrying the [Oboe](/wiki/Oboe_%28navigation%29 \"Oboe (navigation)\") radio transponder blind\\-bombing device. When the unit was formed the squadron consisted of 14 aircraft. The squadron was attached to the 322nd Bombardment Group, but provided bad weather leads for all IX Ninth Bombing Command groups.\nThe first B\\-26 night mission was flown by the 1st Pathfinder Squadron on the night of 1 June 1944 when three B\\-26's bombed gun positions at St Marie au Bois, France. This was purely a Pathfinder mission and no other unit participated. On the night of 8 July 1944, using Oboe, the 322d undertook a night mission but nine of its aircraft fell victim to [Luftwaffe](/wiki/Luftwaffe \"Luftwaffe\") fighters. At the end of hostilities the squadron strength was 36 B\\-26's.",
""
] |
Politics
--------
Paul Boffa entered politics when Malta was granted self\-government in 1921 and joined the [Labour Party](/wiki/Labour_Party_%28Malta%29 "Labour Party (Malta)") in 1923\. He was returned to [Legislative Assembly](/wiki/House_of_Representatives_of_Malta "House of Representatives of Malta") under the [Amery\-Milner Constitution](/wiki/Amery-Milner_Constitution "Amery-Milner Constitution") in [1924](/wiki/1924_Maltese_general_election "1924 Maltese general election"), [1927](/wiki/1927_Maltese_general_election "1927 Maltese general election") and [1932](/wiki/1932_Maltese_general_election "1932 Maltese general election") and elected Leader of the Labour Party in 1927\. The Labour and the [Constitutional](/wiki/Constitutional_Party_%28Malta%29 "Constitutional Party (Malta)") Parties formed an electoral agreement (known as the "Compact") for the [1927 elections](/wiki/1927_Maltese_general_election "1927 Maltese general election"). Thanks to this the Constitutional Party was able to form a government with the support of Labour although this was not a coalition in the true sense of the word as Labour refused to assume any ministerial portfolios. In 1932 Boffa was the only Labour Party candidate elected to the Legislative Assembly until it was dissolved in 1933\. He was nominated as a member of the Executive Council from 1936 to 1939 and was elected, again as the sole Labour representative, to the Council of Government in [1939](/wiki/1939_Maltese_general_election "1939 Maltese general election").
During the [World War II](/wiki/Siege_of_Malta_%28World_War_II%29 "Siege of Malta (World War II)"), Boffa served with distinction as district Commissioner and ARP Medical Officer in the [Cottonera](/wiki/Cottonera "Cottonera"), [Paola](/wiki/Paola%2C_Malta "Paola, Malta"), [Tarxien](/wiki/Tarxien "Tarxien") and [Luqa](/wiki/Luqa "Luqa") areas. He was awarded the [OBE](/wiki/OBE "OBE") in 1941\.
[thumb\|right\|Pawlu Boffa Monument at [Birgu](/wiki/Birgu "Birgu") entrance](/wiki/File:Pawlu_Boffa_Momumsnt%2C_Birgu.jpeg "Pawlu Boffa Momumsnt, Birgu.jpeg")
In the [1945 elections](/wiki/1945_Maltese_general_election "1945 Maltese general election"), Boffa was again elected in the Labour Party's interests. He reached the peak of his political career in [November 1947](/wiki/1947_Maltese_general_election "1947 Maltese general election"), when he became the first Labour [Prime Minister](/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Malta "Prime Minister of Malta")[Sir Paul Boffa: The doctor and politician](http://www.timesofmalta.com/articles/view/20120706/local/Sir-Paul-Boffa-The-doctor-and-politician.427390) \- Times of Malta leading a majority government of 24 Labour members. In 1949, following the Labour Party's ultimatum to Britain concerning financial help, the Labour Party split up; but Boffa continued as prime minister. He later founded and led the [Malta Workers' Party](/wiki/Malta_Workers%27_Party "Malta Workers' Party") (MWP). The MWP lost the 1950 Elections.
Boffa was re\-elected to the legislature in [1951](/wiki/1951_Maltese_general_election "1951 Maltese general election") and again in [1953](/wiki/1953_Maltese_general_election "1953 Maltese general election"). Though he never again held the Prime Minister's office, he joined a coalition government with the [Nationalist Party](/wiki/Nationalist_Party_%28Malta%29 "Nationalist Party (Malta)") led by [Giorgio Borġ Olivier](/wiki/Giorgio_Bor%C4%A1_Olivier "Giorgio Borġ Olivier"). In this cabinet, Boffa assumed the portfolio of Health and Social Services. The MWP did not contest the [1955 elections](/wiki/1955_Maltese_general_election "1955 Maltese general election") and in that year, he resigned from parliament for health reasons. He nonetheless retained an interest in politics, and was nominated Honorary President of the [Christian Workers' Party](/wiki/Christian_Workers%27_Party "Christian Workers' Party") (CWP).
Boffa was created a Knight Bachelor in the 1956 New Year's Honours List in recognition of distinguished public services. He was also awarded the 1914\-18 Star, the General Service Medal, the Victory Medal, the Coronation Medal and the Defence Medal.
Boffa was instrumental in obtaining recognition of the Maltese language in the law courts and the introduction of compulsory [primary education](/wiki/Primary_education "Primary education") and old\-age [pensions](/wiki/Pensions "Pensions") as well as the granting of the vote to women.
|
[
"Politics\n--------",
"Paul Boffa entered politics when Malta was granted self\\-government in 1921 and joined the [Labour Party](/wiki/Labour_Party_%28Malta%29 \"Labour Party (Malta)\") in 1923\\. He was returned to [Legislative Assembly](/wiki/House_of_Representatives_of_Malta \"House of Representatives of Malta\") under the [Amery\\-Milner Constitution](/wiki/Amery-Milner_Constitution \"Amery-Milner Constitution\") in [1924](/wiki/1924_Maltese_general_election \"1924 Maltese general election\"), [1927](/wiki/1927_Maltese_general_election \"1927 Maltese general election\") and [1932](/wiki/1932_Maltese_general_election \"1932 Maltese general election\") and elected Leader of the Labour Party in 1927\\. The Labour and the [Constitutional](/wiki/Constitutional_Party_%28Malta%29 \"Constitutional Party (Malta)\") Parties formed an electoral agreement (known as the \"Compact\") for the [1927 elections](/wiki/1927_Maltese_general_election \"1927 Maltese general election\"). Thanks to this the Constitutional Party was able to form a government with the support of Labour although this was not a coalition in the true sense of the word as Labour refused to assume any ministerial portfolios. In 1932 Boffa was the only Labour Party candidate elected to the Legislative Assembly until it was dissolved in 1933\\. He was nominated as a member of the Executive Council from 1936 to 1939 and was elected, again as the sole Labour representative, to the Council of Government in [1939](/wiki/1939_Maltese_general_election \"1939 Maltese general election\").",
"During the [World War II](/wiki/Siege_of_Malta_%28World_War_II%29 \"Siege of Malta (World War II)\"), Boffa served with distinction as district Commissioner and ARP Medical Officer in the [Cottonera](/wiki/Cottonera \"Cottonera\"), [Paola](/wiki/Paola%2C_Malta \"Paola, Malta\"), [Tarxien](/wiki/Tarxien \"Tarxien\") and [Luqa](/wiki/Luqa \"Luqa\") areas. He was awarded the [OBE](/wiki/OBE \"OBE\") in 1941\\.",
"[thumb\\|right\\|Pawlu Boffa Monument at [Birgu](/wiki/Birgu \"Birgu\") entrance](/wiki/File:Pawlu_Boffa_Momumsnt%2C_Birgu.jpeg \"Pawlu Boffa Momumsnt, Birgu.jpeg\")",
"In the [1945 elections](/wiki/1945_Maltese_general_election \"1945 Maltese general election\"), Boffa was again elected in the Labour Party's interests. He reached the peak of his political career in [November 1947](/wiki/1947_Maltese_general_election \"1947 Maltese general election\"), when he became the first Labour [Prime Minister](/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Malta \"Prime Minister of Malta\")[Sir Paul Boffa: The doctor and politician](http://www.timesofmalta.com/articles/view/20120706/local/Sir-Paul-Boffa-The-doctor-and-politician.427390) \\- Times of Malta leading a majority government of 24 Labour members. In 1949, following the Labour Party's ultimatum to Britain concerning financial help, the Labour Party split up; but Boffa continued as prime minister. He later founded and led the [Malta Workers' Party](/wiki/Malta_Workers%27_Party \"Malta Workers' Party\") (MWP). The MWP lost the 1950 Elections.",
"Boffa was re\\-elected to the legislature in [1951](/wiki/1951_Maltese_general_election \"1951 Maltese general election\") and again in [1953](/wiki/1953_Maltese_general_election \"1953 Maltese general election\"). Though he never again held the Prime Minister's office, he joined a coalition government with the [Nationalist Party](/wiki/Nationalist_Party_%28Malta%29 \"Nationalist Party (Malta)\") led by [Giorgio Borġ Olivier](/wiki/Giorgio_Bor%C4%A1_Olivier \"Giorgio Borġ Olivier\"). In this cabinet, Boffa assumed the portfolio of Health and Social Services. The MWP did not contest the [1955 elections](/wiki/1955_Maltese_general_election \"1955 Maltese general election\") and in that year, he resigned from parliament for health reasons. He nonetheless retained an interest in politics, and was nominated Honorary President of the [Christian Workers' Party](/wiki/Christian_Workers%27_Party \"Christian Workers' Party\") (CWP).",
"Boffa was created a Knight Bachelor in the 1956 New Year's Honours List in recognition of distinguished public services. He was also awarded the 1914\\-18 Star, the General Service Medal, the Victory Medal, the Coronation Medal and the Defence Medal.",
"Boffa was instrumental in obtaining recognition of the Maltese language in the law courts and the introduction of compulsory [primary education](/wiki/Primary_education \"Primary education\") and old\\-age [pensions](/wiki/Pensions \"Pensions\") as well as the granting of the vote to women.",
""
] |
Club career
-----------
### São Paulo
Aurélio is an academy graduate of [São Paulo](/wiki/S%C3%A3o_Paulo_FC "São Paulo FC") and made his senior debut for the club 1997, at the age of 17\. During his time at the club, he made over 50 first team appearances and represented his native Brazil at both [under\-17](/wiki/Brazil_national_under-17_football_team "Brazil national under-17 football team") and [under\-20](/wiki/Brazil_national_under-20_football_team "Brazil national under-20 football team") levels, as well as at the [2000 Sydney Olympics](/wiki/Football_at_the_2000_Summer_Olympics "Football at the 2000 Summer Olympics"). He was also part of the squads which ended as runners\-up in the [Campeonato Paulista](/wiki/Campeonato_Paulista "Campeonato Paulista") in 1996 and 1997, and as champions in 1998 and 2000\.{{cite web\|url\= http://www.espn.com.br/noticia/693958\_hoje\-dono\-de\-buffet\-infantil\-ex\-sao\-paulo\-e\-liverpool\-garante\-robben\-e\-bem\-mais\-dificil\-de\-marcar\-do\-que\-cristiano\-ronaldo\|title\=Hoje dono de buffet infantil, ex\-São Paulo e Liverpool garante: 'Robben é bem mais difícil de marcar do que Cristiano Ronaldo'\|trans\-title\=Today the owner of children's buffet, former Sao Paulo and Liverpool star guarantees: 'Robben is much harder to defend than Cristiano Ronaldo'\|website\=ESPN\|last1\=De Laurentiis\|first1\=Francisco\|last2\=Bianchini\|first2\=Vladimir\|date\=5 December 2017\|access\-date\=5 December 2017}}{{cite web\|url\=https://esporte.uol.com.br/futebol/ultimas\-noticias/2015/12/26/ex\-lateral\-da\-selecao\-revela\-magoa\-com\-gremio\-fui\-desrespeitado.htm\|title\=Ex\-lateral da seleção revela mágoa com Grêmio: "Fui desrespeitado"... \|trans\-title\=Ex\-side of the selection reveals heartache with Gremio: "I was disrespected"...\|website\=Esporte UOL\|last\=Lima\|first\=Vanderlei\|date\=26 December 2015\|access\-date\=6 March 2018\|language\=pt}}
### Valencia
Aurélio joined Spanish club [Valencia](/wiki/Valencia_CF "Valencia CF") after the 2000 Olympics on a six\-year contract. The [2001–02 season](/wiki/2001%E2%80%9302_La_Liga "2001–02 La Liga") would see his first major trophy win, when he helped [Rafael Benítez](/wiki/Rafael_Ben%C3%ADtez "Rafael Benítez")'s team to their first [La Liga](/wiki/La_Liga "La Liga") championship in 31 years.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.valenciacf.azplayers.com/history.html\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120316235619/http://www.valenciacf.azplayers.com/history.html\|archive\-date\=16 March 2012\|title\=Valencia CF History\|publisher\=valenciacf.azplayers.com\|access\-date\=28 September 2014}} The next year, Aurélio established himself as one of the league's best left\-backs after scoring eight league goals (ten in all competitions). The [2003–04 season](/wiki/2003%E2%80%9304_La_Liga "2003–04 La Liga") was another big year for Valencia, winning both the domestic La Liga championship as well as the [2003–04 UEFA Cup](/wiki/2003%E2%80%9304_UEFA_Cup "2003–04 UEFA Cup"), defeating [Marseille](/wiki/Olympique_de_Marseille "Olympique de Marseille") 2–0 in the latter competition's [final](/wiki/2004_UEFA_Cup_Final "2004 UEFA Cup Final"). Aurélio, however, missed most of the season with a broken leg, managing only two games.
### Liverpool
[thumb\|right\|Aurélio with Liverpool in August 2011\.](/wiki/File:Fabio_Aurelio_signing_autographs_Liverpool_vs_Bolton_2011.jpg "Fabio Aurelio signing autographs Liverpool vs Bolton 2011.jpg")
With his six\-year contract having expired, Aurélio left Valencia to join English [Premier League](/wiki/Premier_League "Premier League") side [Liverpool](/wiki/Liverpool_F.C. "Liverpool F.C.") on a [Bosman free transfer](/wiki/Bosman_ruling "Bosman ruling") in July 2006, becoming the first Brazilian to sign for the club. He cited the chance to rejoin former manager Rafael Benítez as a key factor in his decision, telling the *[Liverpool Echo](/wiki/Liverpool_Echo "Liverpool Echo")*:
> "I am going to a new club in which the trainer knows me, to see if I can conquer the objectives I have set myself. The most important moments I had in my career were the titles \[with Valencia] and that was with Benítez. He trusted me and he continues to trust me and that is what I value more."{{cite web\|url\=http://icliverpool.icnetwork.co.uk/0500liverpoolfc/0100news/tm\_objectid\=17324484%26method\=full%26siteid\=50061%26headline\=benitez%2dthe%2ddeciding%2dfactor%2din%2daurelio%2ddeal\-name\_page.html \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120204071733/http://icliverpool.icnetwork.co.uk/0500liverpoolfc/0100news/tm\_objectid%3D17324484%26method%3Dfull%26siteid%3D50061%26headline%3Dbenitez\-the\-deciding\-factor\-in\-aurelio\-deal\-name\_page.html \|archive\-date\= 4 February 2012 \|title\=Benitez the deciding factor in Aurelio deal \|publisher\=icnetwork.com \|access\-date\=4 July 2006 \|url\-status\=dead }}
On 5 July, the transfer was confirmed by Liverpool.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.liverpoolfc.com/news/latest\-news/reds\-confirm\-aurelio\-capture \|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20140928152215/http://www.liverpoolfc.com/news/latest\-news/reds\-confirm\-aurelio\-capture \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-date\=28 September 2014 \|title\=Reds confirm Aurelio capture \|publisher\=liverpoolfc.tv \|access\-date\=28 September 2014 }}
Aurélio made his debut for the club in the [FA Community Shield](/wiki/FA_Community_Shield "FA Community Shield") victory over [Chelsea](/wiki/Chelsea_F.C. "Chelsea F.C.") on 13 August and played a key part in Liverpool's squad during his first season, notably providing two assists for [Peter Crouch](/wiki/Peter_Crouch "Peter Crouch") and [Daniel Agger](/wiki/Daniel_Agger "Daniel Agger") in a 4–1 win over fellow title contenders [Arsenal](/wiki/Arsenal_F.C. "Arsenal F.C.") on 31 March 2007\. Aurélio, however, soon suffered a setback as he injured his [achilles tendon](/wiki/Achilles_tendon "Achilles tendon") on 3 April in a [UEFA Champions League](/wiki/UEFA_Champions_League "UEFA Champions League") first leg tie against [PSV](/wiki/PSV_Eindhoven "PSV Eindhoven"). He missed the remainder of Liverpool's [2006–07 season](/wiki/2006%E2%80%9307_Liverpool_F.C._season "2006–07 Liverpool F.C. season"), meaning that he played only 25 games in his first year on Merseyside. He returned to action the following season on 18 September, coming on as a late substitute in a 1–1 draw against [Porto](/wiki/FC_Porto "FC Porto") in the Champions League group phase.{{cite news \|title\=Porto 1–1 Liverpool \|publisher\=BBC \|url\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/europe/6996384\.stm\|access\-date\=9 January 2011 \| date\=18 September 2007 \|first\=John \|last\=Sinnott}}
Aurélio scored his first goal for Liverpool on 2 March 2008 in a [Premier League](/wiki/2007%E2%80%9308_Premier_League "2007–08 Premier League") match win against [Bolton Wanderers](/wiki/Bolton_Wanderers_F.C. "Bolton Wanderers F.C.") at [Reebok Stadium](/wiki/Reebok_Stadium "Reebok Stadium"). The final score was 3–1, with Aurélio scoring Liverpool's third with a volley from a [Xabi Alonso](/wiki/Xabi_Alonso "Xabi Alonso") corner.{{cite web\|title\=Bolton 1–3 Liverpool \|publisher\=uk.eurosport.yahoo.com \|url\=http://uk.eurosport.yahoo.com/football/premier\-league/2007\-2008/bolton\-liverpool\-195851\.html \|access\-date\=10 July 2008 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080302082814/http://uk.eurosport.yahoo.com/football/premier\-league/2007\-2008/bolton\-liverpool\-195851\.html \|archive\-date\=2 March 2008 \|url\-status\=dead}} Aurélio scored again on 7 February 2009 against [Portsmouth](/wiki/Portsmouth_F.C. "Portsmouth F.C.") at [Fratton Park](/wiki/Fratton_Park "Fratton Park") with a free\-kick into the bottom corner, getting his team back on level terms and helping Liverpool towards a 3–2 victory.{{cite news \|title\=Portsmouth 2–3 Liverpool \|publisher\=BBC \|url\= http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/eng\_prem/7867113\.stm\|access\-date\=9 January 2011 \| date\=7 February 2009 \|first\=Saj \|last\=Chowdhury}} His next goal was the third in a 4–1 victory over perennial rivals [Manchester United](/wiki/Manchester_United_F.C. "Manchester United F.C.") in March 2009\.{{cite news \|title\=Manchester United 1–4 Liverpool \|publisher\=BBC \|url\= http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/eng\_prem/7922069\.stm\|access\-date\=1 August 2010 \| date\=14 March 2009}}
Aurélio went on to establish himself as Liverpool's first choice left\-back but was again beset by injury. In the team's 1–1 draw with Chelsea in a [Champions League semi\-final](/wiki/2007%E2%80%9308_UEFA_Champions_League "2007–08 UEFA Champions League") first leg clash, Aurélio tore his [adductor muscle](/wiki/Adductor_longus_muscle "Adductor longus muscle") after a forceful impact with [Joe Cole](/wiki/Joe_Cole "Joe Cole") and as a result was ruled out for the rest of the season.{{cite web \|title\= Aurelio Blow For Reds \|publisher\=skysports.com \|url\= http://www.skysports.com/story/0,19528,11095\_3468648,00\.html \|access\-date\=10 July 2008}} In the summer of 2009, while returning from the injury, he was injured playing beach football with his children. He returned a month into the season.
Rafael Benítez confirmed on 25 May 2010 that Aurélio would leave Liverpool after rejecting a pay\-as\-you\-play offer.{{cite web\|publisher\=\[\[RTÉ Sport]] \|url\=http://www.rte.ie/sport/soccer/2010/0525/liverpool\_auerliof.html \|title\=Fabio Aurelio to leave Liverpool \|date\=25 May 2010 \|access\-date\=2 August 2010 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100528114215/http://www.rte.ie/sport/soccer/2010/0525/liverpool\_auerliof.html \|archive\-date\=28 May 2010 }} Following a change of manager, on 1 August 2010, Aurelio re\-signed for Liverpool on a two\-year deal. He made his first appearance in his second spell for the club in a pre\-season game against [Borussia Mönchengladbach](/wiki/Borussia_M%C3%B6nchengladbach "Borussia Mönchengladbach") the day after re\-signing, coming on as a substitute and wearing the captain's armband for the closing stages of the match.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.liverpoolfc.tv/news/latest\-news/reds\-re\-sign\-aurelio \|title\=Fabio Aurelio rejoined Liverpool on a 2 year deal. \|publisher\=LiverpoolFC \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100803033135/http://www.liverpoolfc.tv/news/latest\-news/reds\-re\-sign\-aurelio \|archive\-date\= 3 August 2010}} New Liverpool manager [Roy Hodgson](/wiki/Roy_Hodgson "Roy Hodgson") declared his delight at being able to re\-sign Aurélio and, during an interview with the club's [television](/wiki/Television "Television") channel, said, "I was quite surprised when I found out he was fully fit and hadn't been offered a new contract, so I think it was a bit of an obvious thing to do. I said, 'Rather than move to another Barclays Premier League club, why don't you stay with us?'"{{cite web\|url\=http://www.liverpoolfc.com/news/latest\-news/hodgson\-hails\-fabio\-u\-turn \|publisher\=Liverpool FC \|title\=Hodgson hails Fabio U\-turn \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131225015117/http://www.liverpoolfc.com/news/latest\-news/hodgson\-hails\-fabio\-u\-turn \|archive\-date\=25 December 2013}} Aurélio opted to give up the number 12 shirt he wore prior to re\-signing for the club back in July and chose the number 6 shirt instead because that is the one that he had worn when playing in Brazil; The number 12 shirt was passed to [Dani Pacheco](/wiki/Daniel_Pacheco "Daniel Pacheco").{{cite web\|url\=http://www.liverpoolfc.tv/news/latest\-news/fabio\-new\-start\-key\-to\-change \|title\=Fabio: New start key to change \|date\=10 August 2010 \|access\-date\=11 August 2010 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100818165837/http://www.liverpoolfc.tv/news/latest\-news/fabio\-new\-start\-key\-to\-change \|archive\-date\=18 August 2010}}
Of his first four games in the [2010–11 season](/wiki/2010%E2%80%9311_Liverpool_F.C._season "2010–11 Liverpool F.C. season"), three came in the [UEFA Europa League](/wiki/UEFA_Europa_League "UEFA Europa League"). He then picked up an [achilles](/wiki/Achilles_tendon "Achilles tendon") injury before making his comeback as a substitute against [West Ham United](/wiki/West_Ham_United_F.C. "West Ham United F.C.") on 20 November 2010, in a match which Liverpool won 3–0\.{{cite news\|url\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/eng\_prem/9191283\.stm\|title\=Fabio: Liverpool 3 – 0 West Ham\|date\=20 November 2010 \|access\-date\=21 November 2010\|work\=BBC News }} Aurélio played in Liverpool's [FA Cup](/wiki/2010%E2%80%9311_FA_Cup "2010–11 FA Cup") third round match that resulted in a 1–0 loss against Manchester United at [Old Trafford](/wiki/Old_Trafford "Old Trafford") on 9 January 2011\. This was [Kenny Dalglish](/wiki/Kenny_Dalglish "Kenny Dalglish")'s first match back in charge of Liverpool. On 11 April 2011, Aurélio returned from the injury to play in Liverpool's 3–0 home win over [Manchester City](/wiki/Manchester_City_F.C. "Manchester City F.C."). On 17 April 2011, he started at left back against Arsenal at [Emirates Stadium](/wiki/Emirates_Stadium "Emirates Stadium"), where he picked up a hamstring injury and was replaced by youngster [Jack Robinson](/wiki/Jack_Robinson_%28footballer%2C_born_1993%29 "Jack Robinson (footballer, born 1993)"). Aurélio started Liverpool's last game of the 2010–11 season and Liverpool's final game of the pre\-season against former club Valencia at [Anfield](/wiki/Anfield "Anfield"), which Liverpool won 2–0\. He started his first game of the [2011–12 season](/wiki/2011%E2%80%9312_Liverpool_F.C._season "2011–12 Liverpool F.C. season") with a 5–1 win against [League One](/wiki/Football_League_One "Football League One") [Oldham Athletic](/wiki/Oldham_Athletic_A.F.C. "Oldham Athletic A.F.C.") in an FA Cup tie. He played 70 minutes before being replaced by [Jon Flanagan](/wiki/Jon_Flanagan "Jon Flanagan"). He made a substitute appearance for Liverpool against [Wolverhampton Wanderers](/wiki/Wolverhampton_Wanderers_F.C. "Wolverhampton Wanderers F.C.").
On 12 May 2012, Liverpool manager Kenny Dalglish revealed that Aurélio's contract was coming to an end and he would be leaving Liverpool at the end of the 2011–12 season after six seasons at the club.
### Grêmio
On 24 May 2012, having only appeared twice in the [Premier League](/wiki/2011%E2%80%9312_Premier_League "2011–12 Premier League") the previous season, Aurélio returned to Brazil at the request of [Vanderlei Luxemburgo](/wiki/Vanderlei_Luxemburgo "Vanderlei Luxemburgo") to sign for [Grêmio](/wiki/Gr%C3%AAmio_Foot-Ball_Porto_Alegrense "Grêmio Foot-Ball Porto Alegrense") on a free transfer.{{cite web\|url\=http://soccernet.espn.go.com/news/story/\_/id/1078334/gremio\-sign\-former\-liverpool\-defender\-fabio\-aurelio?cc\=5901\|title\=Aurelio heads to Gremio\|access\-date\=24 May 2012\|archive\-date\=18 June 2012\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120618185442/http://soccernet.espn.go.com/news/story/\_/id/1078334/gremio\-sign\-former\-liverpool\-defender\-fabio\-aurelio?cc\=5901\|url\-status\=dead}} However, his time at the club was marred by a torn cruciate ligament injury which saw him miss eight months of football, and he made only five appearances before announcing his retirement on 4 April 2014\. Following his retirement, he revealed that he had been forced out of the club by chairman Fabio Koff after Luxemborgo had been sacked. Both Koff and club director, [Rui Costa](/wiki/Rui_Costa "Rui Costa") denied the allegations, alleging instead that he simply could not play anymore.
|
[
"Club career\n-----------",
"### São Paulo",
"Aurélio is an academy graduate of [São Paulo](/wiki/S%C3%A3o_Paulo_FC \"São Paulo FC\") and made his senior debut for the club 1997, at the age of 17\\. During his time at the club, he made over 50 first team appearances and represented his native Brazil at both [under\\-17](/wiki/Brazil_national_under-17_football_team \"Brazil national under-17 football team\") and [under\\-20](/wiki/Brazil_national_under-20_football_team \"Brazil national under-20 football team\") levels, as well as at the [2000 Sydney Olympics](/wiki/Football_at_the_2000_Summer_Olympics \"Football at the 2000 Summer Olympics\"). He was also part of the squads which ended as runners\\-up in the [Campeonato Paulista](/wiki/Campeonato_Paulista \"Campeonato Paulista\") in 1996 and 1997, and as champions in 1998 and 2000\\.{{cite web\\|url\\= http://www.espn.com.br/noticia/693958\\_hoje\\-dono\\-de\\-buffet\\-infantil\\-ex\\-sao\\-paulo\\-e\\-liverpool\\-garante\\-robben\\-e\\-bem\\-mais\\-dificil\\-de\\-marcar\\-do\\-que\\-cristiano\\-ronaldo\\|title\\=Hoje dono de buffet infantil, ex\\-São Paulo e Liverpool garante: 'Robben é bem mais difícil de marcar do que Cristiano Ronaldo'\\|trans\\-title\\=Today the owner of children's buffet, former Sao Paulo and Liverpool star guarantees: 'Robben is much harder to defend than Cristiano Ronaldo'\\|website\\=ESPN\\|last1\\=De Laurentiis\\|first1\\=Francisco\\|last2\\=Bianchini\\|first2\\=Vladimir\\|date\\=5 December 2017\\|access\\-date\\=5 December 2017}}{{cite web\\|url\\=https://esporte.uol.com.br/futebol/ultimas\\-noticias/2015/12/26/ex\\-lateral\\-da\\-selecao\\-revela\\-magoa\\-com\\-gremio\\-fui\\-desrespeitado.htm\\|title\\=Ex\\-lateral da seleção revela mágoa com Grêmio: \"Fui desrespeitado\"... \\|trans\\-title\\=Ex\\-side of the selection reveals heartache with Gremio: \"I was disrespected\"...\\|website\\=Esporte UOL\\|last\\=Lima\\|first\\=Vanderlei\\|date\\=26 December 2015\\|access\\-date\\=6 March 2018\\|language\\=pt}}",
"### Valencia",
"Aurélio joined Spanish club [Valencia](/wiki/Valencia_CF \"Valencia CF\") after the 2000 Olympics on a six\\-year contract. The [2001–02 season](/wiki/2001%E2%80%9302_La_Liga \"2001–02 La Liga\") would see his first major trophy win, when he helped [Rafael Benítez](/wiki/Rafael_Ben%C3%ADtez \"Rafael Benítez\")'s team to their first [La Liga](/wiki/La_Liga \"La Liga\") championship in 31 years.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.valenciacf.azplayers.com/history.html\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120316235619/http://www.valenciacf.azplayers.com/history.html\\|archive\\-date\\=16 March 2012\\|title\\=Valencia CF History\\|publisher\\=valenciacf.azplayers.com\\|access\\-date\\=28 September 2014}} The next year, Aurélio established himself as one of the league's best left\\-backs after scoring eight league goals (ten in all competitions). The [2003–04 season](/wiki/2003%E2%80%9304_La_Liga \"2003–04 La Liga\") was another big year for Valencia, winning both the domestic La Liga championship as well as the [2003–04 UEFA Cup](/wiki/2003%E2%80%9304_UEFA_Cup \"2003–04 UEFA Cup\"), defeating [Marseille](/wiki/Olympique_de_Marseille \"Olympique de Marseille\") 2–0 in the latter competition's [final](/wiki/2004_UEFA_Cup_Final \"2004 UEFA Cup Final\"). Aurélio, however, missed most of the season with a broken leg, managing only two games.",
"### Liverpool",
"[thumb\\|right\\|Aurélio with Liverpool in August 2011\\.](/wiki/File:Fabio_Aurelio_signing_autographs_Liverpool_vs_Bolton_2011.jpg \"Fabio Aurelio signing autographs Liverpool vs Bolton 2011.jpg\")\nWith his six\\-year contract having expired, Aurélio left Valencia to join English [Premier League](/wiki/Premier_League \"Premier League\") side [Liverpool](/wiki/Liverpool_F.C. \"Liverpool F.C.\") on a [Bosman free transfer](/wiki/Bosman_ruling \"Bosman ruling\") in July 2006, becoming the first Brazilian to sign for the club. He cited the chance to rejoin former manager Rafael Benítez as a key factor in his decision, telling the *[Liverpool Echo](/wiki/Liverpool_Echo \"Liverpool Echo\")*: \n> \"I am going to a new club in which the trainer knows me, to see if I can conquer the objectives I have set myself. The most important moments I had in my career were the titles \\[with Valencia] and that was with Benítez. He trusted me and he continues to trust me and that is what I value more.\"{{cite web\\|url\\=http://icliverpool.icnetwork.co.uk/0500liverpoolfc/0100news/tm\\_objectid\\=17324484%26method\\=full%26siteid\\=50061%26headline\\=benitez%2dthe%2ddeciding%2dfactor%2din%2daurelio%2ddeal\\-name\\_page.html \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120204071733/http://icliverpool.icnetwork.co.uk/0500liverpoolfc/0100news/tm\\_objectid%3D17324484%26method%3Dfull%26siteid%3D50061%26headline%3Dbenitez\\-the\\-deciding\\-factor\\-in\\-aurelio\\-deal\\-name\\_page.html \\|archive\\-date\\= 4 February 2012 \\|title\\=Benitez the deciding factor in Aurelio deal \\|publisher\\=icnetwork.com \\|access\\-date\\=4 July 2006 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}",
"On 5 July, the transfer was confirmed by Liverpool.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.liverpoolfc.com/news/latest\\-news/reds\\-confirm\\-aurelio\\-capture \\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20140928152215/http://www.liverpoolfc.com/news/latest\\-news/reds\\-confirm\\-aurelio\\-capture \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-date\\=28 September 2014 \\|title\\=Reds confirm Aurelio capture \\|publisher\\=liverpoolfc.tv \\|access\\-date\\=28 September 2014 }}",
"Aurélio made his debut for the club in the [FA Community Shield](/wiki/FA_Community_Shield \"FA Community Shield\") victory over [Chelsea](/wiki/Chelsea_F.C. \"Chelsea F.C.\") on 13 August and played a key part in Liverpool's squad during his first season, notably providing two assists for [Peter Crouch](/wiki/Peter_Crouch \"Peter Crouch\") and [Daniel Agger](/wiki/Daniel_Agger \"Daniel Agger\") in a 4–1 win over fellow title contenders [Arsenal](/wiki/Arsenal_F.C. \"Arsenal F.C.\") on 31 March 2007\\. Aurélio, however, soon suffered a setback as he injured his [achilles tendon](/wiki/Achilles_tendon \"Achilles tendon\") on 3 April in a [UEFA Champions League](/wiki/UEFA_Champions_League \"UEFA Champions League\") first leg tie against [PSV](/wiki/PSV_Eindhoven \"PSV Eindhoven\"). He missed the remainder of Liverpool's [2006–07 season](/wiki/2006%E2%80%9307_Liverpool_F.C._season \"2006–07 Liverpool F.C. season\"), meaning that he played only 25 games in his first year on Merseyside. He returned to action the following season on 18 September, coming on as a late substitute in a 1–1 draw against [Porto](/wiki/FC_Porto \"FC Porto\") in the Champions League group phase.{{cite news \\|title\\=Porto 1–1 Liverpool \\|publisher\\=BBC \\|url\\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/europe/6996384\\.stm\\|access\\-date\\=9 January 2011 \\| date\\=18 September 2007 \\|first\\=John \\|last\\=Sinnott}}",
"Aurélio scored his first goal for Liverpool on 2 March 2008 in a [Premier League](/wiki/2007%E2%80%9308_Premier_League \"2007–08 Premier League\") match win against [Bolton Wanderers](/wiki/Bolton_Wanderers_F.C. \"Bolton Wanderers F.C.\") at [Reebok Stadium](/wiki/Reebok_Stadium \"Reebok Stadium\"). The final score was 3–1, with Aurélio scoring Liverpool's third with a volley from a [Xabi Alonso](/wiki/Xabi_Alonso \"Xabi Alonso\") corner.{{cite web\\|title\\=Bolton 1–3 Liverpool \\|publisher\\=uk.eurosport.yahoo.com \\|url\\=http://uk.eurosport.yahoo.com/football/premier\\-league/2007\\-2008/bolton\\-liverpool\\-195851\\.html \\|access\\-date\\=10 July 2008 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080302082814/http://uk.eurosport.yahoo.com/football/premier\\-league/2007\\-2008/bolton\\-liverpool\\-195851\\.html \\|archive\\-date\\=2 March 2008 \\|url\\-status\\=dead}} Aurélio scored again on 7 February 2009 against [Portsmouth](/wiki/Portsmouth_F.C. \"Portsmouth F.C.\") at [Fratton Park](/wiki/Fratton_Park \"Fratton Park\") with a free\\-kick into the bottom corner, getting his team back on level terms and helping Liverpool towards a 3–2 victory.{{cite news \\|title\\=Portsmouth 2–3 Liverpool \\|publisher\\=BBC \\|url\\= http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/eng\\_prem/7867113\\.stm\\|access\\-date\\=9 January 2011 \\| date\\=7 February 2009 \\|first\\=Saj \\|last\\=Chowdhury}} His next goal was the third in a 4–1 victory over perennial rivals [Manchester United](/wiki/Manchester_United_F.C. \"Manchester United F.C.\") in March 2009\\.{{cite news \\|title\\=Manchester United 1–4 Liverpool \\|publisher\\=BBC \\|url\\= http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/eng\\_prem/7922069\\.stm\\|access\\-date\\=1 August 2010 \\| date\\=14 March 2009}}",
"Aurélio went on to establish himself as Liverpool's first choice left\\-back but was again beset by injury. In the team's 1–1 draw with Chelsea in a [Champions League semi\\-final](/wiki/2007%E2%80%9308_UEFA_Champions_League \"2007–08 UEFA Champions League\") first leg clash, Aurélio tore his [adductor muscle](/wiki/Adductor_longus_muscle \"Adductor longus muscle\") after a forceful impact with [Joe Cole](/wiki/Joe_Cole \"Joe Cole\") and as a result was ruled out for the rest of the season.{{cite web \\|title\\= Aurelio Blow For Reds \\|publisher\\=skysports.com \\|url\\= http://www.skysports.com/story/0,19528,11095\\_3468648,00\\.html \\|access\\-date\\=10 July 2008}} In the summer of 2009, while returning from the injury, he was injured playing beach football with his children. He returned a month into the season.",
"Rafael Benítez confirmed on 25 May 2010 that Aurélio would leave Liverpool after rejecting a pay\\-as\\-you\\-play offer.{{cite web\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[RTÉ Sport]] \\|url\\=http://www.rte.ie/sport/soccer/2010/0525/liverpool\\_auerliof.html \\|title\\=Fabio Aurelio to leave Liverpool \\|date\\=25 May 2010 \\|access\\-date\\=2 August 2010 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100528114215/http://www.rte.ie/sport/soccer/2010/0525/liverpool\\_auerliof.html \\|archive\\-date\\=28 May 2010 }} Following a change of manager, on 1 August 2010, Aurelio re\\-signed for Liverpool on a two\\-year deal. He made his first appearance in his second spell for the club in a pre\\-season game against [Borussia Mönchengladbach](/wiki/Borussia_M%C3%B6nchengladbach \"Borussia Mönchengladbach\") the day after re\\-signing, coming on as a substitute and wearing the captain's armband for the closing stages of the match.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.liverpoolfc.tv/news/latest\\-news/reds\\-re\\-sign\\-aurelio \\|title\\=Fabio Aurelio rejoined Liverpool on a 2 year deal. \\|publisher\\=LiverpoolFC \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100803033135/http://www.liverpoolfc.tv/news/latest\\-news/reds\\-re\\-sign\\-aurelio \\|archive\\-date\\= 3 August 2010}} New Liverpool manager [Roy Hodgson](/wiki/Roy_Hodgson \"Roy Hodgson\") declared his delight at being able to re\\-sign Aurélio and, during an interview with the club's [television](/wiki/Television \"Television\") channel, said, \"I was quite surprised when I found out he was fully fit and hadn't been offered a new contract, so I think it was a bit of an obvious thing to do. I said, 'Rather than move to another Barclays Premier League club, why don't you stay with us?'\"{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.liverpoolfc.com/news/latest\\-news/hodgson\\-hails\\-fabio\\-u\\-turn \\|publisher\\=Liverpool FC \\|title\\=Hodgson hails Fabio U\\-turn \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131225015117/http://www.liverpoolfc.com/news/latest\\-news/hodgson\\-hails\\-fabio\\-u\\-turn \\|archive\\-date\\=25 December 2013}} Aurélio opted to give up the number 12 shirt he wore prior to re\\-signing for the club back in July and chose the number 6 shirt instead because that is the one that he had worn when playing in Brazil; The number 12 shirt was passed to [Dani Pacheco](/wiki/Daniel_Pacheco \"Daniel Pacheco\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.liverpoolfc.tv/news/latest\\-news/fabio\\-new\\-start\\-key\\-to\\-change \\|title\\=Fabio: New start key to change \\|date\\=10 August 2010 \\|access\\-date\\=11 August 2010 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100818165837/http://www.liverpoolfc.tv/news/latest\\-news/fabio\\-new\\-start\\-key\\-to\\-change \\|archive\\-date\\=18 August 2010}}",
"Of his first four games in the [2010–11 season](/wiki/2010%E2%80%9311_Liverpool_F.C._season \"2010–11 Liverpool F.C. season\"), three came in the [UEFA Europa League](/wiki/UEFA_Europa_League \"UEFA Europa League\"). He then picked up an [achilles](/wiki/Achilles_tendon \"Achilles tendon\") injury before making his comeback as a substitute against [West Ham United](/wiki/West_Ham_United_F.C. \"West Ham United F.C.\") on 20 November 2010, in a match which Liverpool won 3–0\\.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/eng\\_prem/9191283\\.stm\\|title\\=Fabio: Liverpool 3 – 0 West Ham\\|date\\=20 November 2010 \\|access\\-date\\=21 November 2010\\|work\\=BBC News }} Aurélio played in Liverpool's [FA Cup](/wiki/2010%E2%80%9311_FA_Cup \"2010–11 FA Cup\") third round match that resulted in a 1–0 loss against Manchester United at [Old Trafford](/wiki/Old_Trafford \"Old Trafford\") on 9 January 2011\\. This was [Kenny Dalglish](/wiki/Kenny_Dalglish \"Kenny Dalglish\")'s first match back in charge of Liverpool. On 11 April 2011, Aurélio returned from the injury to play in Liverpool's 3–0 home win over [Manchester City](/wiki/Manchester_City_F.C. \"Manchester City F.C.\"). On 17 April 2011, he started at left back against Arsenal at [Emirates Stadium](/wiki/Emirates_Stadium \"Emirates Stadium\"), where he picked up a hamstring injury and was replaced by youngster [Jack Robinson](/wiki/Jack_Robinson_%28footballer%2C_born_1993%29 \"Jack Robinson (footballer, born 1993)\"). Aurélio started Liverpool's last game of the 2010–11 season and Liverpool's final game of the pre\\-season against former club Valencia at [Anfield](/wiki/Anfield \"Anfield\"), which Liverpool won 2–0\\. He started his first game of the [2011–12 season](/wiki/2011%E2%80%9312_Liverpool_F.C._season \"2011–12 Liverpool F.C. season\") with a 5–1 win against [League One](/wiki/Football_League_One \"Football League One\") [Oldham Athletic](/wiki/Oldham_Athletic_A.F.C. \"Oldham Athletic A.F.C.\") in an FA Cup tie. He played 70 minutes before being replaced by [Jon Flanagan](/wiki/Jon_Flanagan \"Jon Flanagan\"). He made a substitute appearance for Liverpool against [Wolverhampton Wanderers](/wiki/Wolverhampton_Wanderers_F.C. \"Wolverhampton Wanderers F.C.\").",
"On 12 May 2012, Liverpool manager Kenny Dalglish revealed that Aurélio's contract was coming to an end and he would be leaving Liverpool at the end of the 2011–12 season after six seasons at the club.",
"### Grêmio",
"On 24 May 2012, having only appeared twice in the [Premier League](/wiki/2011%E2%80%9312_Premier_League \"2011–12 Premier League\") the previous season, Aurélio returned to Brazil at the request of [Vanderlei Luxemburgo](/wiki/Vanderlei_Luxemburgo \"Vanderlei Luxemburgo\") to sign for [Grêmio](/wiki/Gr%C3%AAmio_Foot-Ball_Porto_Alegrense \"Grêmio Foot-Ball Porto Alegrense\") on a free transfer.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://soccernet.espn.go.com/news/story/\\_/id/1078334/gremio\\-sign\\-former\\-liverpool\\-defender\\-fabio\\-aurelio?cc\\=5901\\|title\\=Aurelio heads to Gremio\\|access\\-date\\=24 May 2012\\|archive\\-date\\=18 June 2012\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120618185442/http://soccernet.espn.go.com/news/story/\\_/id/1078334/gremio\\-sign\\-former\\-liverpool\\-defender\\-fabio\\-aurelio?cc\\=5901\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} However, his time at the club was marred by a torn cruciate ligament injury which saw him miss eight months of football, and he made only five appearances before announcing his retirement on 4 April 2014\\. Following his retirement, he revealed that he had been forced out of the club by chairman Fabio Koff after Luxemborgo had been sacked. Both Koff and club director, [Rui Costa](/wiki/Rui_Costa \"Rui Costa\") denied the allegations, alleging instead that he simply could not play anymore.",
""
] |
Supreme Court
-------------
### Appointment
On February 7, 1870, President [Ulysses S. Grant](/wiki/Ulysses_S._Grant "Ulysses S. Grant") nominated Bradley as an [associate justice of the Supreme Court of the United States](/wiki/Associate_justice_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States "Associate justice of the Supreme Court of the United States"),{{cite report\| last\=McMillion\| first\=Barry J.\| date\= January 28, 2022\| title\=Supreme Court Nominations, 1789 to 2020: Actions by the Senate, the Judiciary Committee, and the President\| url\=https://sgp.fas.org/crs/misc/RL33225\.pdf\| publisher\=Congressional Research Service\| location\=Washington, D.C.\| access\-date\=February 19, 2022}} to the seat created by the [Judiciary Act of 1869](/wiki/Judiciary_Act_of_1869 "Judiciary Act of 1869"). Several weeks later, on March 21, he was confirmed by the [U.S. Senate](/wiki/United_States_Senate "United States Senate") by a 46–9 vote. Bradley took the judicial oath of office on March 23, 1870, and remained on the Court until January 22, 1892\.{{cite web\| url\=https://www.supremecourt.gov/about/members\_text.aspx\| title\= Justices 1789 to Present\| publisher\=Supreme Court of the United States\| location\=Washington, D.C.\| access\-date\=February 19, 2022}} Bradley was the president's second nominee for the position. The first, [Ebenezer R. Hoar](/wiki/Ebenezer_R._Hoar "Ebenezer R. Hoar") was rejected by the Senate.
### Court jurisprudence
Bradley took a broad view of the national government's powers under the [Commerce Clause](/wiki/Commerce_Clause "Commerce Clause") but interpreted the [Fourteenth Amendment](/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution "Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution") somewhat narrowly, as did much of the rest of the court at the time. He authored the majority opinion in the [Civil Rights Cases](/wiki/Civil_Rights_Cases "Civil Rights Cases") of 1883 but was among the four dissenters in the *[Slaughter\-House Cases](/wiki/Slaughter-House_Cases "Slaughter-House Cases")* in 1873\. His interpretation of the Fourteenth Amendment in both cases remained the basis for subsequent rulings through the modern era.
Bradley concurred with the court's decision in *[Bradwell v. Illinois](/wiki/Bradwell_v._Illinois "Bradwell v. Illinois")*, which held that the right to practice law was not constitutionally protected under the [Privileges or Immunities Clause](/wiki/Privileges_or_Immunities_Clause "Privileges or Immunities Clause") of the Fourteenth Amendment. Bradley disagreed with the majority opinion, apparently because it rested on the decision in the *Slaughter\-House Cases*, but concurred in the judgment on grounds that the clause did not protect women in their choice of vocation. The concurrence is noted for Bradley's description of womanhood: "The harmony, not to say identity, of interest and views which belong, or should belong, to the family institution is repugnant to the idea of a woman adopting a distinct and independent career from that of her husband (...) The paramount destiny and mission of women are to fulfill the noble and benign offices of wife and mother. This is the law of the Creator."
It was due to Bradley's intervention that prisoners charged in the [Colfax Massacre](/wiki/Colfax_Massacre "Colfax Massacre") of 1873 were freed, after he happened to attend their trial and ruled that the federal law they were charged under was unconstitutional. This resulted in the federal government's bringing the case on appeal to the Supreme Court as *[United States v. Cruikshank](/wiki/United_States_v._Cruikshank "United States v. Cruikshank")* (1875\). The court's ruling on this case meant that the federal government would not intervene on paramilitary and group attacks on individuals. It essentially opened the door to heightened paramilitary activity in the South that forced Republicans from office, suppressed black voting, and opened the way for white Democratic takeover of state legislatures, and resulting [Jim Crow laws](/wiki/Jim_Crow_laws "Jim Crow laws") and passage of disfranchising constitutions.
Bradley dissented in *[Chicago, Milwaukee \& St. Paul Railway Co. v. Minnesota](/wiki/Chicago%2C_Milwaukee_%26_St._Paul_Railway_Co._v._Minnesota "Chicago, Milwaukee & St. Paul Railway Co. v. Minnesota")*, which, though not racially motivated, was another [due process](/wiki/Due_process "Due process") case arising from the Fourteenth Amendment. In his dissent, Bradley argued that the majority had in siding with the railroad created a situation where the reasonableness of an act of a state legislature was a judicial question, subjugating the legislature to the will of the judiciary. Bradley's opinion in this case is echoed in modern arguments regarding [judicial activism](/wiki/Judicial_activism "Judicial activism").
Bradley also wrote the opinion in *[Hans v. Louisiana](/wiki/Hans_v._Louisiana "Hans v. Louisiana")*, holding that a state could not be sued in a [federal court](/wiki/United_States_federal_courts "United States federal courts") by one of its own citizens. This is perhaps ironic in light of his dissent in the railroad case, since the *Hans* doctrine is entirely based on [judicial activism](/wiki/Judicial_activism "Judicial activism") and, as Bradley admitted in his opinion, not supported by the text of the Constitution.
As an individual Supreme Court Justice, Bradley decided *In re Guiteau*, a petition for [habeas corpus](/wiki/Habeas_corpus "Habeas corpus") filed on behalf of [Charles Guiteau](/wiki/Charles_Guiteau "Charles Guiteau"), the assassin of [President](/wiki/President_of_the_United_States "President of the United States") [James A. Garfield](/wiki/James_A._Garfield "James A. Garfield"). Guiteau's lawyers argued that he had been improperly tried in the [District of Columbia](/wiki/District_of_Columbia "District of Columbia") because, although Guiteau shot Garfield in Washington, D.C., Garfield died at his home in New Jersey. Bradley denied the petition in a lengthy opinion and Guiteau was executed.
|
[
"Supreme Court\n-------------",
"### Appointment",
"On February 7, 1870, President [Ulysses S. Grant](/wiki/Ulysses_S._Grant \"Ulysses S. Grant\") nominated Bradley as an [associate justice of the Supreme Court of the United States](/wiki/Associate_justice_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States \"Associate justice of the Supreme Court of the United States\"),{{cite report\\| last\\=McMillion\\| first\\=Barry J.\\| date\\= January 28, 2022\\| title\\=Supreme Court Nominations, 1789 to 2020: Actions by the Senate, the Judiciary Committee, and the President\\| url\\=https://sgp.fas.org/crs/misc/RL33225\\.pdf\\| publisher\\=Congressional Research Service\\| location\\=Washington, D.C.\\| access\\-date\\=February 19, 2022}} to the seat created by the [Judiciary Act of 1869](/wiki/Judiciary_Act_of_1869 \"Judiciary Act of 1869\"). Several weeks later, on March 21, he was confirmed by the [U.S. Senate](/wiki/United_States_Senate \"United States Senate\") by a 46–9 vote. Bradley took the judicial oath of office on March 23, 1870, and remained on the Court until January 22, 1892\\.{{cite web\\| url\\=https://www.supremecourt.gov/about/members\\_text.aspx\\| title\\= Justices 1789 to Present\\| publisher\\=Supreme Court of the United States\\| location\\=Washington, D.C.\\| access\\-date\\=February 19, 2022}} Bradley was the president's second nominee for the position. The first, [Ebenezer R. Hoar](/wiki/Ebenezer_R._Hoar \"Ebenezer R. Hoar\") was rejected by the Senate.",
"### Court jurisprudence",
"Bradley took a broad view of the national government's powers under the [Commerce Clause](/wiki/Commerce_Clause \"Commerce Clause\") but interpreted the [Fourteenth Amendment](/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution \"Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution\") somewhat narrowly, as did much of the rest of the court at the time. He authored the majority opinion in the [Civil Rights Cases](/wiki/Civil_Rights_Cases \"Civil Rights Cases\") of 1883 but was among the four dissenters in the *[Slaughter\\-House Cases](/wiki/Slaughter-House_Cases \"Slaughter-House Cases\")* in 1873\\. His interpretation of the Fourteenth Amendment in both cases remained the basis for subsequent rulings through the modern era.",
"Bradley concurred with the court's decision in *[Bradwell v. Illinois](/wiki/Bradwell_v._Illinois \"Bradwell v. Illinois\")*, which held that the right to practice law was not constitutionally protected under the [Privileges or Immunities Clause](/wiki/Privileges_or_Immunities_Clause \"Privileges or Immunities Clause\") of the Fourteenth Amendment. Bradley disagreed with the majority opinion, apparently because it rested on the decision in the *Slaughter\\-House Cases*, but concurred in the judgment on grounds that the clause did not protect women in their choice of vocation. The concurrence is noted for Bradley's description of womanhood: \"The harmony, not to say identity, of interest and views which belong, or should belong, to the family institution is repugnant to the idea of a woman adopting a distinct and independent career from that of her husband (...) The paramount destiny and mission of women are to fulfill the noble and benign offices of wife and mother. This is the law of the Creator.\"",
"It was due to Bradley's intervention that prisoners charged in the [Colfax Massacre](/wiki/Colfax_Massacre \"Colfax Massacre\") of 1873 were freed, after he happened to attend their trial and ruled that the federal law they were charged under was unconstitutional. This resulted in the federal government's bringing the case on appeal to the Supreme Court as *[United States v. Cruikshank](/wiki/United_States_v._Cruikshank \"United States v. Cruikshank\")* (1875\\). The court's ruling on this case meant that the federal government would not intervene on paramilitary and group attacks on individuals. It essentially opened the door to heightened paramilitary activity in the South that forced Republicans from office, suppressed black voting, and opened the way for white Democratic takeover of state legislatures, and resulting [Jim Crow laws](/wiki/Jim_Crow_laws \"Jim Crow laws\") and passage of disfranchising constitutions.",
"Bradley dissented in *[Chicago, Milwaukee \\& St. Paul Railway Co. v. Minnesota](/wiki/Chicago%2C_Milwaukee_%26_St._Paul_Railway_Co._v._Minnesota \"Chicago, Milwaukee & St. Paul Railway Co. v. Minnesota\")*, which, though not racially motivated, was another [due process](/wiki/Due_process \"Due process\") case arising from the Fourteenth Amendment. In his dissent, Bradley argued that the majority had in siding with the railroad created a situation where the reasonableness of an act of a state legislature was a judicial question, subjugating the legislature to the will of the judiciary. Bradley's opinion in this case is echoed in modern arguments regarding [judicial activism](/wiki/Judicial_activism \"Judicial activism\").",
"Bradley also wrote the opinion in *[Hans v. Louisiana](/wiki/Hans_v._Louisiana \"Hans v. Louisiana\")*, holding that a state could not be sued in a [federal court](/wiki/United_States_federal_courts \"United States federal courts\") by one of its own citizens. This is perhaps ironic in light of his dissent in the railroad case, since the *Hans* doctrine is entirely based on [judicial activism](/wiki/Judicial_activism \"Judicial activism\") and, as Bradley admitted in his opinion, not supported by the text of the Constitution.",
"As an individual Supreme Court Justice, Bradley decided *In re Guiteau*, a petition for [habeas corpus](/wiki/Habeas_corpus \"Habeas corpus\") filed on behalf of [Charles Guiteau](/wiki/Charles_Guiteau \"Charles Guiteau\"), the assassin of [President](/wiki/President_of_the_United_States \"President of the United States\") [James A. Garfield](/wiki/James_A._Garfield \"James A. Garfield\"). Guiteau's lawyers argued that he had been improperly tried in the [District of Columbia](/wiki/District_of_Columbia \"District of Columbia\") because, although Guiteau shot Garfield in Washington, D.C., Garfield died at his home in New Jersey. Bradley denied the petition in a lengthy opinion and Guiteau was executed.",
""
] |
### Court jurisprudence
Bradley took a broad view of the national government's powers under the [Commerce Clause](/wiki/Commerce_Clause "Commerce Clause") but interpreted the [Fourteenth Amendment](/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution "Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution") somewhat narrowly, as did much of the rest of the court at the time. He authored the majority opinion in the [Civil Rights Cases](/wiki/Civil_Rights_Cases "Civil Rights Cases") of 1883 but was among the four dissenters in the *[Slaughter\-House Cases](/wiki/Slaughter-House_Cases "Slaughter-House Cases")* in 1873\. His interpretation of the Fourteenth Amendment in both cases remained the basis for subsequent rulings through the modern era.
Bradley concurred with the court's decision in *[Bradwell v. Illinois](/wiki/Bradwell_v._Illinois "Bradwell v. Illinois")*, which held that the right to practice law was not constitutionally protected under the [Privileges or Immunities Clause](/wiki/Privileges_or_Immunities_Clause "Privileges or Immunities Clause") of the Fourteenth Amendment. Bradley disagreed with the majority opinion, apparently because it rested on the decision in the *Slaughter\-House Cases*, but concurred in the judgment on grounds that the clause did not protect women in their choice of vocation. The concurrence is noted for Bradley's description of womanhood: "The harmony, not to say identity, of interest and views which belong, or should belong, to the family institution is repugnant to the idea of a woman adopting a distinct and independent career from that of her husband (...) The paramount destiny and mission of women are to fulfill the noble and benign offices of wife and mother. This is the law of the Creator."
It was due to Bradley's intervention that prisoners charged in the [Colfax Massacre](/wiki/Colfax_Massacre "Colfax Massacre") of 1873 were freed, after he happened to attend their trial and ruled that the federal law they were charged under was unconstitutional. This resulted in the federal government's bringing the case on appeal to the Supreme Court as *[United States v. Cruikshank](/wiki/United_States_v._Cruikshank "United States v. Cruikshank")* (1875\). The court's ruling on this case meant that the federal government would not intervene on paramilitary and group attacks on individuals. It essentially opened the door to heightened paramilitary activity in the South that forced Republicans from office, suppressed black voting, and opened the way for white Democratic takeover of state legislatures, and resulting [Jim Crow laws](/wiki/Jim_Crow_laws "Jim Crow laws") and passage of disfranchising constitutions.
Bradley dissented in *[Chicago, Milwaukee \& St. Paul Railway Co. v. Minnesota](/wiki/Chicago%2C_Milwaukee_%26_St._Paul_Railway_Co._v._Minnesota "Chicago, Milwaukee & St. Paul Railway Co. v. Minnesota")*, which, though not racially motivated, was another [due process](/wiki/Due_process "Due process") case arising from the Fourteenth Amendment. In his dissent, Bradley argued that the majority had in siding with the railroad created a situation where the reasonableness of an act of a state legislature was a judicial question, subjugating the legislature to the will of the judiciary. Bradley's opinion in this case is echoed in modern arguments regarding [judicial activism](/wiki/Judicial_activism "Judicial activism").
Bradley also wrote the opinion in *[Hans v. Louisiana](/wiki/Hans_v._Louisiana "Hans v. Louisiana")*, holding that a state could not be sued in a [federal court](/wiki/United_States_federal_courts "United States federal courts") by one of its own citizens. This is perhaps ironic in light of his dissent in the railroad case, since the *Hans* doctrine is entirely based on [judicial activism](/wiki/Judicial_activism "Judicial activism") and, as Bradley admitted in his opinion, not supported by the text of the Constitution.
As an individual Supreme Court Justice, Bradley decided *In re Guiteau*, a petition for [habeas corpus](/wiki/Habeas_corpus "Habeas corpus") filed on behalf of [Charles Guiteau](/wiki/Charles_Guiteau "Charles Guiteau"), the assassin of [President](/wiki/President_of_the_United_States "President of the United States") [James A. Garfield](/wiki/James_A._Garfield "James A. Garfield"). Guiteau's lawyers argued that he had been improperly tried in the [District of Columbia](/wiki/District_of_Columbia "District of Columbia") because, although Guiteau shot Garfield in Washington, D.C., Garfield died at his home in New Jersey. Bradley denied the petition in a lengthy opinion and Guiteau was executed.
|
[
"### Court jurisprudence",
"Bradley took a broad view of the national government's powers under the [Commerce Clause](/wiki/Commerce_Clause \"Commerce Clause\") but interpreted the [Fourteenth Amendment](/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution \"Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution\") somewhat narrowly, as did much of the rest of the court at the time. He authored the majority opinion in the [Civil Rights Cases](/wiki/Civil_Rights_Cases \"Civil Rights Cases\") of 1883 but was among the four dissenters in the *[Slaughter\\-House Cases](/wiki/Slaughter-House_Cases \"Slaughter-House Cases\")* in 1873\\. His interpretation of the Fourteenth Amendment in both cases remained the basis for subsequent rulings through the modern era.",
"Bradley concurred with the court's decision in *[Bradwell v. Illinois](/wiki/Bradwell_v._Illinois \"Bradwell v. Illinois\")*, which held that the right to practice law was not constitutionally protected under the [Privileges or Immunities Clause](/wiki/Privileges_or_Immunities_Clause \"Privileges or Immunities Clause\") of the Fourteenth Amendment. Bradley disagreed with the majority opinion, apparently because it rested on the decision in the *Slaughter\\-House Cases*, but concurred in the judgment on grounds that the clause did not protect women in their choice of vocation. The concurrence is noted for Bradley's description of womanhood: \"The harmony, not to say identity, of interest and views which belong, or should belong, to the family institution is repugnant to the idea of a woman adopting a distinct and independent career from that of her husband (...) The paramount destiny and mission of women are to fulfill the noble and benign offices of wife and mother. This is the law of the Creator.\"",
"It was due to Bradley's intervention that prisoners charged in the [Colfax Massacre](/wiki/Colfax_Massacre \"Colfax Massacre\") of 1873 were freed, after he happened to attend their trial and ruled that the federal law they were charged under was unconstitutional. This resulted in the federal government's bringing the case on appeal to the Supreme Court as *[United States v. Cruikshank](/wiki/United_States_v._Cruikshank \"United States v. Cruikshank\")* (1875\\). The court's ruling on this case meant that the federal government would not intervene on paramilitary and group attacks on individuals. It essentially opened the door to heightened paramilitary activity in the South that forced Republicans from office, suppressed black voting, and opened the way for white Democratic takeover of state legislatures, and resulting [Jim Crow laws](/wiki/Jim_Crow_laws \"Jim Crow laws\") and passage of disfranchising constitutions.",
"Bradley dissented in *[Chicago, Milwaukee \\& St. Paul Railway Co. v. Minnesota](/wiki/Chicago%2C_Milwaukee_%26_St._Paul_Railway_Co._v._Minnesota \"Chicago, Milwaukee & St. Paul Railway Co. v. Minnesota\")*, which, though not racially motivated, was another [due process](/wiki/Due_process \"Due process\") case arising from the Fourteenth Amendment. In his dissent, Bradley argued that the majority had in siding with the railroad created a situation where the reasonableness of an act of a state legislature was a judicial question, subjugating the legislature to the will of the judiciary. Bradley's opinion in this case is echoed in modern arguments regarding [judicial activism](/wiki/Judicial_activism \"Judicial activism\").",
"Bradley also wrote the opinion in *[Hans v. Louisiana](/wiki/Hans_v._Louisiana \"Hans v. Louisiana\")*, holding that a state could not be sued in a [federal court](/wiki/United_States_federal_courts \"United States federal courts\") by one of its own citizens. This is perhaps ironic in light of his dissent in the railroad case, since the *Hans* doctrine is entirely based on [judicial activism](/wiki/Judicial_activism \"Judicial activism\") and, as Bradley admitted in his opinion, not supported by the text of the Constitution.",
"As an individual Supreme Court Justice, Bradley decided *In re Guiteau*, a petition for [habeas corpus](/wiki/Habeas_corpus \"Habeas corpus\") filed on behalf of [Charles Guiteau](/wiki/Charles_Guiteau \"Charles Guiteau\"), the assassin of [President](/wiki/President_of_the_United_States \"President of the United States\") [James A. Garfield](/wiki/James_A._Garfield \"James A. Garfield\"). Guiteau's lawyers argued that he had been improperly tried in the [District of Columbia](/wiki/District_of_Columbia \"District of Columbia\") because, although Guiteau shot Garfield in Washington, D.C., Garfield died at his home in New Jersey. Bradley denied the petition in a lengthy opinion and Guiteau was executed.",
""
] |
Plot
----
The phrase "*Shubho Mahurat*" ([Bengali](/wiki/Bengali_language "Bengali language"): শুভ মহরৎ) is associated with the beginning of shooting for a feature film. The first shot is marked by a grand reception.
An [NRI](/wiki/Non-resident_Indian_and_person_of_Indian_origin "Non-resident Indian and person of Indian origin") producer and former leading actress, Padmini Chowdhury ([Sharmila Tagore](/wiki/Sharmila_Tagore "Sharmila Tagore")), has returned to India to invest in a film. Her second husband Sambit Roy ([Sumanta Mukherjee](/wiki/Sumanta_Mukherjee "Sumanta Mukherjee")), an out\-of\-work director, is assigned to direct. Padmini insists on casting a retired actress, Kakoli Sengupta ([Kalyani Mandal](/wiki/Kalyani_Mandal "Kalyani Mandal")), in a prominent role. Covering the event are a journalist for a local magazine, Mallika Sen ([Nandita Das](/wiki/Nandita_Das "Nandita Das")), and a [freelance](/wiki/Freelancer "Freelancer") photographer, Shubhankar Chowdhury ([Anindya Chatterjee](/wiki/Anindya_Chatterjee "Anindya Chatterjee")). The production team also includes [makeup artist](/wiki/Make-up_artist "Make-up artist") Kalpana Sengupta ([Moumita Gupta](/wiki/Moumita_Gupta "Moumita Gupta")) and camera assistant Sunil Mehra ([Rajesh Sharma](/wiki/Rajesh_Sharma_%28actor%29 "Rajesh Sharma (actor)")).
At the reception, Kakoli feels unwell and leaves early. She takes Mallika home with her after agreeing to do an interview. At her house, however, Kakoli's condition deteriorates until she collapses and dies. Learning from her husband that she was a [drug addict](/wiki/Addiction "Addiction"), police suspect an overdose, but the [autopsy](/wiki/Autopsy "Autopsy") reveals [strychnine](/wiki/Strychnine "Strychnine") poisoning. Investigating officer Arindam Chatterjee ([Tota Roy Chowdhury](/wiki/Tota_Roy_Chowdhury "Tota Roy Chowdhury")) initially suspects the husband, who is in an [extramarital affair](/wiki/Infidelity "Infidelity"), but the poison is found to have entered her system while she was at the reception event. Mallika reveals that Kakoli only had a glass of [soft drink](/wiki/Soft_drink "Soft drink") at the party, and the drink was actually meant for Padmini, meaning that she was the real target. Mallika discusses all this with her paternal aunt, Ranga Pishima ([Rakhee Gulzar](/wiki/Rakhee_Gulzar "Rakhee Gulzar")), who conjectures that another murder might soon follow. Meanwhile, a mutual attraction develops between both Mallika\-Arindam and Mallika\-Shubhankar. Pishima discovers that Shubhankar is actually related to Padmini: his uncle was Padmini's first husband, and she doted on Shubhankar when he was a child.
Kalpana tells Padmini about her relationship with Sunil, who is married, and how Sunil had refused to pay for the treatment of Kalpana's daughter. Padmini promises to help her, and tells her about her own son, who died aged 16 from a [congenital disorder](/wiki/Birth_defect "Birth defect"). Kalpana then goes to Sunil's, is seen leaving after having some soft drink, and is later reported dead. Sunil is arrested.
Pishima listens to the recordings of Mallika's interview with Kakoli, questions Shubhankar further about Padmini, then asks Mallika to call up the director of Kakoli and Padmini's last film together. She then places an anonymous piece in her niece's magazine, which is about whether [infections during pregnancy](/wiki/Vertically_transmitted_infection "Vertically transmitted infection") can harm the unborn child, in the edition which is to carry Padmini's interview with Mallika. A copy is sent to Padmini with the page highlighted. This has the desired effect as Padmini rushes to Pishima and Mallika's home to enquire about the piece, and Pishima narrates to her how she has solved the mystery.
During their last film together, Padmini was pregnant and Kakoli had a [contagious disease](/wiki/Contagious_disease "Contagious disease"), which she spread to her co\-actress. This infection was transmitted to the unborn child, which would later lead to his death. Padmini poisoned Kakoli in revenge, but was seen by Kalpana, who tried to blackmail her and was silenced in turn.
Pishima tells Padmini that she is her fan and her story is safe with her. Padmini returns home and is later found to have committed suicide. As per her last promise, she sends Pishima an [autograph](/wiki/Autograph "Autograph") and a long reply to her fan mail, in which she also promises to support the treatment of Kalpana's daughter.
Conflicted between Arindam and him, Mallika asks Shubhankar if it is possible to love two people at once. Shubhankar replies that Padmini had once said the same thing before she left his uncle for Sambit. He also says that Padmini proved it herself that this was impossible: she had completely forgotten about Shubhankar after her son was born, to the point that she could not recognise him at the reception.
|
[
"Plot\n----",
"The phrase \"*Shubho Mahurat*\" ([Bengali](/wiki/Bengali_language \"Bengali language\"): শুভ মহরৎ) is associated with the beginning of shooting for a feature film. The first shot is marked by a grand reception.",
"An [NRI](/wiki/Non-resident_Indian_and_person_of_Indian_origin \"Non-resident Indian and person of Indian origin\") producer and former leading actress, Padmini Chowdhury ([Sharmila Tagore](/wiki/Sharmila_Tagore \"Sharmila Tagore\")), has returned to India to invest in a film. Her second husband Sambit Roy ([Sumanta Mukherjee](/wiki/Sumanta_Mukherjee \"Sumanta Mukherjee\")), an out\\-of\\-work director, is assigned to direct. Padmini insists on casting a retired actress, Kakoli Sengupta ([Kalyani Mandal](/wiki/Kalyani_Mandal \"Kalyani Mandal\")), in a prominent role. Covering the event are a journalist for a local magazine, Mallika Sen ([Nandita Das](/wiki/Nandita_Das \"Nandita Das\")), and a [freelance](/wiki/Freelancer \"Freelancer\") photographer, Shubhankar Chowdhury ([Anindya Chatterjee](/wiki/Anindya_Chatterjee \"Anindya Chatterjee\")). The production team also includes [makeup artist](/wiki/Make-up_artist \"Make-up artist\") Kalpana Sengupta ([Moumita Gupta](/wiki/Moumita_Gupta \"Moumita Gupta\")) and camera assistant Sunil Mehra ([Rajesh Sharma](/wiki/Rajesh_Sharma_%28actor%29 \"Rajesh Sharma (actor)\")).",
"At the reception, Kakoli feels unwell and leaves early. She takes Mallika home with her after agreeing to do an interview. At her house, however, Kakoli's condition deteriorates until she collapses and dies. Learning from her husband that she was a [drug addict](/wiki/Addiction \"Addiction\"), police suspect an overdose, but the [autopsy](/wiki/Autopsy \"Autopsy\") reveals [strychnine](/wiki/Strychnine \"Strychnine\") poisoning. Investigating officer Arindam Chatterjee ([Tota Roy Chowdhury](/wiki/Tota_Roy_Chowdhury \"Tota Roy Chowdhury\")) initially suspects the husband, who is in an [extramarital affair](/wiki/Infidelity \"Infidelity\"), but the poison is found to have entered her system while she was at the reception event. Mallika reveals that Kakoli only had a glass of [soft drink](/wiki/Soft_drink \"Soft drink\") at the party, and the drink was actually meant for Padmini, meaning that she was the real target. Mallika discusses all this with her paternal aunt, Ranga Pishima ([Rakhee Gulzar](/wiki/Rakhee_Gulzar \"Rakhee Gulzar\")), who conjectures that another murder might soon follow. Meanwhile, a mutual attraction develops between both Mallika\\-Arindam and Mallika\\-Shubhankar. Pishima discovers that Shubhankar is actually related to Padmini: his uncle was Padmini's first husband, and she doted on Shubhankar when he was a child.",
"Kalpana tells Padmini about her relationship with Sunil, who is married, and how Sunil had refused to pay for the treatment of Kalpana's daughter. Padmini promises to help her, and tells her about her own son, who died aged 16 from a [congenital disorder](/wiki/Birth_defect \"Birth defect\"). Kalpana then goes to Sunil's, is seen leaving after having some soft drink, and is later reported dead. Sunil is arrested.",
"Pishima listens to the recordings of Mallika's interview with Kakoli, questions Shubhankar further about Padmini, then asks Mallika to call up the director of Kakoli and Padmini's last film together. She then places an anonymous piece in her niece's magazine, which is about whether [infections during pregnancy](/wiki/Vertically_transmitted_infection \"Vertically transmitted infection\") can harm the unborn child, in the edition which is to carry Padmini's interview with Mallika. A copy is sent to Padmini with the page highlighted. This has the desired effect as Padmini rushes to Pishima and Mallika's home to enquire about the piece, and Pishima narrates to her how she has solved the mystery.",
"During their last film together, Padmini was pregnant and Kakoli had a [contagious disease](/wiki/Contagious_disease \"Contagious disease\"), which she spread to her co\\-actress. This infection was transmitted to the unborn child, which would later lead to his death. Padmini poisoned Kakoli in revenge, but was seen by Kalpana, who tried to blackmail her and was silenced in turn.",
"Pishima tells Padmini that she is her fan and her story is safe with her. Padmini returns home and is later found to have committed suicide. As per her last promise, she sends Pishima an [autograph](/wiki/Autograph \"Autograph\") and a long reply to her fan mail, in which she also promises to support the treatment of Kalpana's daughter.",
"Conflicted between Arindam and him, Mallika asks Shubhankar if it is possible to love two people at once. Shubhankar replies that Padmini had once said the same thing before she left his uncle for Sambit. He also says that Padmini proved it herself that this was impossible: she had completely forgotten about Shubhankar after her son was born, to the point that she could not recognise him at the reception.",
""
] |
Biography
---------
Born Marie Constance Sasse in [Oudenaarde](/wiki/Oudenaarde "Oudenaarde"), to a father who was a military band\-master,Walsh, p. 114\. she studied music at the [Ghent Conservatory](/wiki/Ghent_Conservatory "Ghent Conservatory") with [François\-Auguste Gevaert](/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois-Auguste_Gevaert "François-Auguste Gevaert") and in Milan with [Francesco Lamperti](/wiki/Francesco_Lamperti "Francesco Lamperti"),Kuhn, p. 692\. "Sass, Marie Constance". and made her debut in [Venice](/wiki/Venice "Venice") as Gilda in Verdi's *[Rigoletto](/wiki/Rigoletto "Rigoletto")* in 1852\.Chrichton, Ronald; Forbes, Elizabeth. "Sasse \[Sax, Saxe, Sass], Marie (Constance)" in Sadie (1992\) **4**: 188–189\.
### Early career at the Théâtre Lyrique
After the death of her father she found it necessary to work as a vocalist in the cafés of Brussels and Paris.Walsh, p. 114\.Pitou. "Sass, Marie\-Constance", pp. 1202–1203\. The French soprano and vocal teacher [Delphine Ugalde](/wiki/Delphine_Ugalde "Delphine Ugalde") happened to hear her at the Café Géant in Paris. Ugalde gave her singing lessons and brought her to the attention of [Léon Carvalho](/wiki/L%C3%A9on_Carvalho "Léon Carvalho"), who at that time was the director of the [Théâtre Lyrique](/wiki/Th%C3%A9%C3%A2tre_Lyrique "Théâtre Lyrique"). Sasse made her debut at that theatre using the stage name Marie Sax on 27 September 1859, performing Rosine (Countess Almaviva) in Mozart's *[Les noces de Figaro](/wiki/The_Marriage_of_Figaro "The Marriage of Figaro")*. One reviewer wrote: "Mlle Sax possesses a magnificent voice, but both as a vocalist and as an actress, she is in the state of raw material—material however of undeniable quality and extraordinary aptitude, and which will undoubtedly reward the discoverer. ... It is fortunate that Mlle Sax's talents were discovered at an early stage as her voice is still fresh, and she has not been long enough in the exercise of her calling to form any vicious habits. Everything is, therefore, in her favor, and, launched in her present school, time and experience will ere long render her a valuable acquisition to the lyrical stage."[*Dwight's Journal of Music* (5 November 1859\)](https://books.google.com/books?id=r1NNAAAAYAAJ&dq=%22Sax+possesses+a+magnificent+voice%22&pg=PA254).
#### Berlioz and Gluck's *Orphée*
[thumb\|alt\=Marie Sasse\|upright\|Sasse, c. 1855](/wiki/File:Marie_Sasse_-_Nargeot_-_Gallica1.jpg "Marie Sasse - Nargeot - Gallica1.jpg")
Sasse followed her initial success at the Théâtre Lyrique with performances as Eurydice in Gluck's *[Orphée](/wiki/Orfeo_ed_Euridice "Orfeo ed Euridice")*.Holoman, p. 496\. The version of the opera which was used in this landmark revival was especially prepared by the composer [Hector Berlioz](/wiki/Hector_Berlioz "Hector Berlioz"), who also coached and rehearsed the singers, with [Camille Saint\-Saëns](/wiki/Camille_Saint-Sa%C3%ABns "Camille Saint-Saëns") as his assistant.Holoman, p. 494\. The opera had originally been written in Italian as *Orfeo ed Euridice* for Vienna in 1762, and the role of Orfeo was performed by the [mezzo\-soprano](/wiki/Mezzo-soprano "Mezzo-soprano") [castrato](/wiki/Castrato "Castrato") [Gaetano Guadagni](/wiki/Gaetano_Guadagni "Gaetano Guadagni"). Gluck had decided to bring the opera to Paris in 1774, but castrato singers were unusual in France and sometimes objects of ridicule. Heroic lovers were generally played by high tenors, a voice type referred to in French as *[haute\-contre](/wiki/Haute-contre "Haute-contre")*, so Gluck transposed and adapted the role of Orphée for the *haute\-contre* [Joseph Legros](/wiki/Joseph_Legros "Joseph Legros").Hollis, George Truett. "*Orfeo ed Euridice*" in Sadie (1992\) **3**: 744\.Kobbé, p. 61; Rushton, p. 318\. Unfortunately, the rise in standard pitch over the years had made the French version for *haute\-contre* impractical, and the opera was rarely performed.Cairns, p. 637\.
[Giacomo Meyerbeer](/wiki/Giacomo_Meyerbeer "Giacomo Meyerbeer") suggested to the Spanish mezzo\-soprano [Pauline Viardot](/wiki/Pauline_Viardot "Pauline Viardot") that she should sing the role. Carvalho, who had heard Viardot in a concert, decided he wanted her to perform the opera in his theatre. Berlioz, a close friend of Viardot and an expert on the music of Gluck, was engaged to prepare the new adaptation. Initially Berlioz was enthusiastic, but when he heard that Carvalho was casting Mademoiselle Sax, a singer, as Berlioz described her, "from a café chantant in the other Champs\-Elysées", he suggested that Carvalho's "good intentions" could "pave the way to hell".Cairns, p. 638\. Sasse's inexperience became quite evident during the rehearsals: Berlioz thought her "ignorant as a carp of everything to do with art", although Viardot allowed she had "a beautiful voice without art".Cairns, p. 639\. Subsequently Sasse became rather famous for a question she asked Viardot at one of the rehearsals, during which in typical fashion Berlioz kept interrupting the proceedings to make suggestions: "That's Monsieur Gluck, isn't it?" "No, it's one of his friends." "Well, he's got a nerve – *in his absence*!" (At the time, Gluck had already been dead for nearly 72 years.) In the event, the performances, which began on 18 November 1859, were enormously successful, both critically and commercially, and were attended by many of the important musicians in Paris. The production received 138 representations between 1859 and 1863\. Although Viardot was the star of the show, Mlle Sax did not go entirely unnoticed, and the role proved to be the beginning of her rise to stardom.Holoman, p. 497\.
#### Final season at the Théâtre Lyrique
Sasse next appeared at the Théâtre Lyrique beginning on 18 February 1860Huebner, Steven. "Gounod, Charle\-François" in Sadie (1992\) **2**: 501\. as Bacchante in Gounod's *[Philémon et Baucis](/wiki/Phil%C3%A9mon_et_Baucis "Philémon et Baucis")*. This production was less successful: "it merely fizzled out after 13 indifferent performances."Walsh, p. 115\. Probably at least partly because of this failure, Carvalho resigned as director of the company on 1 April, and the quality of performances at the theatre began to decline. Sasse also appeared at the theatre in a revival of *Robin des bois* (*Robin Hood*), which was a renowned and highly altered French travesty of Weber's *[Der Freischütz](/wiki/Der_Freisch%C3%BCtz "Der Freischütz")*, originally translated and adapted by Sauvage and [Castil\-Blaze](/wiki/Castil-Blaze "Castil-Blaze") in 1824\.Walsh, pp. 57–58, 306\. There were also two concerts: the first a benefit for Viardot on 20 April, in which Sasse and Viardot sang an excerpt from Gluck's *[Armide](/wiki/Armide_%28Gluck%29 "Armide (Gluck)")*;Walsh, p. 118\. and the second, a benefit for Ugalde on 14 May, in which Sasse and Viardot sang in the last act of *Orphée*.Walsh, p. 126\.
### Career at the Paris Opéra
Sasse's success at the Théâtre Lyrique had been substantial, and she was engaged by the [Paris Opéra](/wiki/Paris_Op%C3%A9ra "Paris Opéra") to sing Alice in Meyerbeer's *[Robert le diable](/wiki/Robert_le_diable "Robert le diable")*, making her house debut in the role on 3 August 1860\. "Her voice was not yet mature, but it showed ample promise, and she was retained."
#### Wagner's *Tannhäuser*
[Richard Wagner](/wiki/Richard_Wagner "Richard Wagner") himself selected her to perform Elisabeth in what would become the notorious Paris premiere of *[Tannhäuser](/wiki/Tannh%C3%A4user_%28opera%29 "Tannhäuser (opera)")* on 13 March 1861 at the Opéra's [Salle Le Peletier](/wiki/Salle_Le_Peletier "Salle Le Peletier").[Haslam, p. 72](https://books.google.com/books?id=3mQSAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA72). Although the presentation was a fiasco, Wagner praised Sasse's performance. She later related that Wagner had made some alterations to the part to accommodate her vocal range. She also possessed a score of the opera inscribed in the composer's hand:
A ma courageuse amie
Mademoiselle Marie Saxe.
L'Auteur
Richard Wagner.
To my courageous friend
Mademoiselle Marie Saxe.
The author
Richard Wagner{{clear\|left}}
#### A leading soprano at the Opéra
She went on to successfully sing many of the important soprano roles in the company's repertoire at the time, including Léonore in Verdi's *Le trouvère* (the French version of *[Il trovatore](/wiki/Il_trovatore "Il trovatore")*) in 1861, Laura in Jósef Poniatowski's *Pierre de Médicis* in 1862, and Rachel in Halévy's *[La juive](/wiki/La_juive "La juive")* in 1863\.
In September 1863 Verdi decided to make a valiant attempt to resuscitate the sagging fortunes of *[Les vêpres siciliennes](/wiki/Les_v%C3%AApres_siciliennes "Les vêpres siciliennes")*. After the precipitous retirement of the soprano [Sophie Cruvelli](/wiki/Sophie_Cruvelli "Sophie Cruvelli") at the end of the first run of performances in the fall of 1855, the opera had done poorly. He pinned his hopes on casting the new stars at the Opéra: Sasse as Helène, and the tenor Villaret as Henri. The previous season Villaret had been well received in his debut, as Arnold in Rossini's *[Guillaume Tell](/wiki/Guillaume_Tell "Guillaume Tell")*. Verdi personally coached the singers, and wrote some new music, replacing Henri's "O jour de peine" with "O toi que j'ai chéri". The original aria had not satisfied Verdi when [Louis Guéymard](/wiki/Louis_Gu%C3%A9ymard "Louis Guéymard") had sung it at the premiere.Budden (1978\), p. 240\.
In her memoirs Sasse described preparing the role with Verdi:
> I have always loved working with authors and composers listening to their instructions trying to grasp their meaning ... Ah, but it was not the same as singing to Wagner or Meyerbeer! They were always patient, most careful to in no way hurt the feelings of an artiste. How different Verdi! He was exigeant hard, at times, I say it, almost cruel. Sharp words escaped him, and many times I have cried at the end of one of these hearings.
> Then the master, having cooled down would apologize for his roughness, speak kind words of encouragement, and we would begin all over again with enthusiasm.
> These lessons were of inestimable value to me, and, thanks to Verdi's counsel, my voice, still somewhat rough, became most flexible, and as a result of his teachings I achieved one of the greatest successes of my career.[Visetti, pp. 48–49](https://books.google.com/books?id=TiwWAAAAYAAJ&dq=%22marie+sasse%22+verdi+siciliennes&pg=PA48).
However, the performances had failed to generate much enthusiasm for the opera. The press reported that with the exception of Mlle Sax the singers had been "out of voice". After a few more performances the opera was replaced with *Il trovatore*. There was one more revival in 1865, after which it vanished from the repertoire of the company entirely.
[thumb\|left\|upright\|Saxe as Sélika in *L'Africaine*](/wiki/File:Marie_Sasse_as_S%C3%A9lika_in_L%27Africaine_-_Gallica8.jpg "Marie Sasse as Sélika in L'Africaine - Gallica8.jpg")
Sasse married the French bass [Armand Castelmary](/wiki/Armand_Castelmary "Armand Castelmary") in 1864, but they divorced in 1867\. In March 1865 the instrument maker [Adolphe Sax](/wiki/Adolphe_Sax "Adolphe Sax") brought suit against her demanding that she refrain from using Sax as her stage name. She complied by changing it to Saxe, prompting the periodical *Le Ménestrel* to conjecture that she might now be sued by "le Roi de Saxe, le duc de Saxe\-Coburg\-Gothe, le duc de Saxe\-Meiningen", among others, for using this esteemed surname.Walsh, p. 192\.
During this period she was selected by [Giacomo Meyerbeer](/wiki/Giacomo_Meyerbeer "Giacomo Meyerbeer") to create the role of Sélika in his new opera *[L'Africaine](/wiki/L%27Africaine "L'Africaine")*. She worked with him for three months preparing her part, and he agreed to some minor modifications to accommodate her capabilities. She sang the role at the premiere at the Paris Opéra on 28 April 1865\.[Haslam, pp. 71–72](https://books.google.com/books?id=3mQSAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA71).
In 1866 she performed Anna in *Don Juan*, a 5\-act adaptation in French by Henri Blaze de Bury (son of [Castil\-Blaze](/wiki/Castil-Blaze "Castil-Blaze")) and [Émile Deschamps](/wiki/%C3%89mile_Deschamps "Émile Deschamps") which deviated significantly from the original, Mozart's *[Don Giovanni](/wiki/Don_Giovanni "Don Giovanni")*. First performed at the Opéra in March 1834, this version was very popular and continued to be performed there up to 1934, when it was replaced with a new version by [Adolphe Boschot](/wiki/Adolphe_Boschot "Adolphe Boschot"). In the year 1866 no fewer than three productions of *Don Juan* were presented in Paris, each using a different edition: besides the one at the Opéra, there was another at the [Théâtre\-Italien](/wiki/Th%C3%A9%C3%A2tre-Italien "Théâtre-Italien") and a third at the Théâtre Lyrique.Walsh, pp. 206–210\. The year was made even more memorable for the singer, when the persistent Adolphe Sax again brought suit contesting her new stage name and insisting that his "individuality would suffer if she were allowed to continue using the name of Saxe."Walsh, p. 205\. It was at this time that she began to use the stage name Sass. Walsh speculates "she may have disliked her real name because the word sasse in French means bailing scoop."
#### Verdi's *Don Carlos*
[thumb\|{{center\|Cartoon of Marie Sasse}}{{center\|as Elisabeth in ''Don Carlos''}}](/wiki/File:Marie_Sass_as_Elisabeth_in_Don_Carlos_-_cartoon_-_Gallica15.jpg "Marie Sass as Elisabeth in Don Carlos - cartoon - Gallica15.jpg")
In the last months of 1866 Sasse was selected to create the role of Elisabeth de Valois in Verdi's *[Don Carlos](/wiki/Don_Carlos "Don Carlos")*. The Opéra's director [Émile Perrin](/wiki/%C3%89mile_Perrin "Émile Perrin") was having difficulty in casting the role of Eboli. He removed the original singer he had chosen for the part, the contralto [Rosine Bloch](/wiki/Rosine_Bloch "Rosine Bloch"), in order to spare her voice for the role of Fidès in a revival of Meyerbeer's *[Le prophète](/wiki/Le_proph%C3%A8te "Le prophète")*. He hoped to replace Bloch with the soprano [Pauline Guéymard\-Lauters](/wiki/Pauline_Gu%C3%A9ymard-Lauters "Pauline Guéymard-Lauters"), whose vocal range was exceptionally wide. In rehearsals she had proved herself capable of performing music with rather low notes. Unfortunately, Guéymard, who had sung Léonore in the 1857 revival of *Le trouvère*, was also a rival of Sasse.Budden (1981\), p. 21\.
Perrin wrote to Verdi about Guéymard: "If she commits herself firmly to undertake deep mezzo\-soprano roles you might perhaps entrust her with the part of Eboli without changing a note of the tessitura, and we should gain by having two proven artists of incomparable cast."Budden (1981\), pp. 21–22\. Verdi wrote back: "If you are not afraid of embarrassment resulting from rivalry between Mme Sass and Mme Gueymard, nothing could be better than Mme Gueymard for Eboli."
After the rehearsals began, Verdi realized he would have to make adjustments to the part of Eboli to accommodate Guéymard. Relations between the singers became strained, and Verdi stayed away at least once, on 18 October, as the librettist [Camille du Locle](/wiki/Camille_du_Locle "Camille du Locle") reported to Perrin, "mainly because he was annoyed by Mme Sass's grimacing at the alterations made for Mme Gueymard."Budden (1981\), p. 22\. [Julian Budden](/wiki/Julian_Budden "Julian Budden") suggests "this was one of the factors which led to the eventual dropping of their one duet."
The rehearsals were endless, and the preparations for *Don Carlos* kept Verdi in Paris for nearly a year.Parker, Roger. "Verdi, Giuseppe (Fortunato Francesco)" in Sadie (1992\) **4**:. 939\. By the time of the premiere on 11 March 1867, "all spontaneity had been lost." The production was not a success, although it did achieve 43 performances before disappearing from the repertoire until modern times. Some reviews specifically mentioned that the voice of Morère in the role of Don Carlos was inadequate for the part and characterized Mme Sass's portrayal as "bored" and "listless".Budden (1981\), p. 26\. Verdi later wrote to Du Locle (14 March 1868\): "Ah, if only Sasse could be persuaded that the part is better than she believes. In Italy [Stolz](/wiki/Teresa_Stolz "Teresa Stolz") turned it into the main role."[Conati, p. 66n](https://books.google.com/books?id=kRo48TDPd08C&q=%2214%20March%201868%22%20Sasse%20Stolz&pg=PA66). However, it should also be remembered that in 1867 Marie Sasse's marriage fell apart, and she divorced Armand Castelmary.
### Late career
[thumb\|left\|upright\|Marie Sasse singing the [Marseillaise](/wiki/Marseillaise "Marseillaise") (Illustration from *Le Théâtre illustré*)](/wiki/File:Marie_Sasse_chantant_la_Marseillaise_1869.jpg "Marie Sasse chantant la Marseillaise 1869.jpg")
Other roles at the Opéra included Ophélie in Ambroise Thomas' *[Hamlet](/wiki/Hamlet_%28opera%29 "Hamlet (opera)")* and Valentine in Meyerbeer's *[Les Huguenots](/wiki/Les_Huguenots "Les Huguenots")* (1868\). She appeared at [La Scala](/wiki/La_Scala "La Scala") during the 1869–1870 season, but was back in Paris when the [Franco\-Prussian War](/wiki/Franco-Prussian_War "Franco-Prussian War") broke out in the summer of 1870\. Daniel Auber's *[La muette de Portici](/wiki/La_muette_de_Portici "La muette de Portici")* was performed "with the 'Marseillaise' interpolated into the third act and sung by Mme Sass with far more conviction than she had ever brought to Verdi's Elisabeth."Budden (1981\), p. 168\. After the French [defeat at Sedan](/wiki/Battle_of_Sedan_%281870%29 "Battle of Sedan (1870)"), as Prussian troops began to approach Paris, plans were made to convert the nearly finished, but still unoccupied new opera house, the [Palais Garnier](/wiki/Palais_Garnier "Palais Garnier"), into an emergency hospital. Sasse decided to quit the Opéra and emigrated to Italy. She appeared in [Saint Petersburg](/wiki/Bolshoi_Kamenny_Theatre "Bolshoi Kamenny Theatre") during the 1870–1871 season.
[thumb\|Draneht Pasha](/wiki/File:Draneht_Pasha.jpg "Draneht Pasha.jpg")
In April 1871 [Paul Draneht](/wiki/Paul_Draneht "Paul Draneht"), the general manager of the Cairo Opera, negotiated with Sasse about the possibility of appearing as Amneris in the world premiere of Verdi's new opera *[Aida](/wiki/Aida "Aida")* which was to be performed in [Cairo](/wiki/Cairo "Cairo") later that year. He wrote about this to Verdi,Letter from [Paul Draneht](/wiki/Paul_Draneht "Paul Draneht") to Verdi (24 April 1871\). Busch, p. 153\. who then wrote to Giovanni Battista Lampugnani, the theatrical agent in Milan: "I have no use for her – either as Amneris, who is a mezzo\-soprano, or as Aida, for other reasons."Letter from Verdi to Lampugnani (4 May 1871\). Busch, pp. 155–156\. Draneht visited Verdi at his home in [Sant' Agata](/wiki/Villa_Verdi "Villa Verdi") in May, where they discussed her further. Draneht, having been unaware of Verdi's opposition, had already signed her to sing Amneris.Budden (1981\), pp. 185–186\. Verdi was adamantly opposed, not only because the part was too low, but because "I know from experience that it is in the interest of both the management and the composer to give her operas in which she is the only *soprano*, or at least an opera which has no other role equal or superior to hers."Letter from Verdi to Draneht (8 June 1871\). Busch, pp. 170–171\.
[thumb\|upright\| Marie Sasse by Paul Maurou (1881\)](/wiki/File:Marie_Sasse_1881_by_Maurou_%28l_to_r%29_-_Gallica.jpg "Marie Sasse 1881 by Maurou (l to r) - Gallica.jpg")
Draneht was in a bad position: the opera was completely cast, and, as the artist's fees had been exceptionally high, the budget for singers had been expended. In order to hire another singer for the role, Draneht would need the approval of the [Viceroy of Egypt](/wiki/Isma%27il_Pasha "Isma'il Pasha"). The Viceroy, who had hired Italian architects to build the [Cairo Opera House](/wiki/Cairo_Opera_House "Cairo Opera House") in six months in 1869, was underwriting the entire cost of the *Aida* production. His tendency to spend lavish amounts of money on inessential projects was later to drive Egypt into bankruptcy.Busch, p. 6\. Draneht tried to persuade Verdi that the mezzo\-soprano Eleonora Grossi, who was already under contract with the company, would be able to sing the role, but Verdi resisted. Eventually Verdi received good reports about Grossi from other sources and relented.
W. E. Haslam, in his 1911 book *Style in Singing*, relates that Marie Sasse later stated that she had tried to prepare the role of Aida for the Cairo production, but found that at certain points the part was too high for her range. "As she was compelled by her contract to sing the opera, she asked Verdi to make some slight changes to bring the music within her reach. But he refused absolutely to make the least alteration." In speaking of it she said: "'Why should Verdi have shown himself more unreasonable or less yielding than Meyerbeer or Wagner?' (*plus intransigent, plus intraitable que* Meyerbeer *ou* Wagner?)."
During the course of her career Sasse had also sung the title role in Donizetti's *[Lucrezia Borgia](/wiki/Lucrezia_Borgia_%28opera%29 "Lucrezia Borgia (opera)")* and Amelia in Verdi's *[Un ballo in maschera](/wiki/Un_ballo_in_maschera "Un ballo in maschera")*, and appeared in Brussels, Madrid, and Barcelona. She retired from the stage in 1877 at the age of forty\-three, tried to make a living teaching voice, and in 1902 published her memoirs under the title *Souvenirs d'une artiste* (*Recollections of an artist*). She died in Paris in "abject poverty" at the age of 73\.
|
[
"Biography\n---------",
"Born Marie Constance Sasse in [Oudenaarde](/wiki/Oudenaarde \"Oudenaarde\"), to a father who was a military band\\-master,Walsh, p. 114\\. she studied music at the [Ghent Conservatory](/wiki/Ghent_Conservatory \"Ghent Conservatory\") with [François\\-Auguste Gevaert](/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois-Auguste_Gevaert \"François-Auguste Gevaert\") and in Milan with [Francesco Lamperti](/wiki/Francesco_Lamperti \"Francesco Lamperti\"),Kuhn, p. 692\\. \"Sass, Marie Constance\". and made her debut in [Venice](/wiki/Venice \"Venice\") as Gilda in Verdi's *[Rigoletto](/wiki/Rigoletto \"Rigoletto\")* in 1852\\.Chrichton, Ronald; Forbes, Elizabeth. \"Sasse \\[Sax, Saxe, Sass], Marie (Constance)\" in Sadie (1992\\) **4**: 188–189\\.",
"### Early career at the Théâtre Lyrique",
"After the death of her father she found it necessary to work as a vocalist in the cafés of Brussels and Paris.Walsh, p. 114\\.Pitou. \"Sass, Marie\\-Constance\", pp. 1202–1203\\. The French soprano and vocal teacher [Delphine Ugalde](/wiki/Delphine_Ugalde \"Delphine Ugalde\") happened to hear her at the Café Géant in Paris. Ugalde gave her singing lessons and brought her to the attention of [Léon Carvalho](/wiki/L%C3%A9on_Carvalho \"Léon Carvalho\"), who at that time was the director of the [Théâtre Lyrique](/wiki/Th%C3%A9%C3%A2tre_Lyrique \"Théâtre Lyrique\"). Sasse made her debut at that theatre using the stage name Marie Sax on 27 September 1859, performing Rosine (Countess Almaviva) in Mozart's *[Les noces de Figaro](/wiki/The_Marriage_of_Figaro \"The Marriage of Figaro\")*. One reviewer wrote: \"Mlle Sax possesses a magnificent voice, but both as a vocalist and as an actress, she is in the state of raw material—material however of undeniable quality and extraordinary aptitude, and which will undoubtedly reward the discoverer. ... It is fortunate that Mlle Sax's talents were discovered at an early stage as her voice is still fresh, and she has not been long enough in the exercise of her calling to form any vicious habits. Everything is, therefore, in her favor, and, launched in her present school, time and experience will ere long render her a valuable acquisition to the lyrical stage.\"[*Dwight's Journal of Music* (5 November 1859\\)](https://books.google.com/books?id=r1NNAAAAYAAJ&dq=%22Sax+possesses+a+magnificent+voice%22&pg=PA254).",
"#### Berlioz and Gluck's *Orphée*",
"[thumb\\|alt\\=Marie Sasse\\|upright\\|Sasse, c. 1855](/wiki/File:Marie_Sasse_-_Nargeot_-_Gallica1.jpg \"Marie Sasse - Nargeot - Gallica1.jpg\")\nSasse followed her initial success at the Théâtre Lyrique with performances as Eurydice in Gluck's *[Orphée](/wiki/Orfeo_ed_Euridice \"Orfeo ed Euridice\")*.Holoman, p. 496\\. The version of the opera which was used in this landmark revival was especially prepared by the composer [Hector Berlioz](/wiki/Hector_Berlioz \"Hector Berlioz\"), who also coached and rehearsed the singers, with [Camille Saint\\-Saëns](/wiki/Camille_Saint-Sa%C3%ABns \"Camille Saint-Saëns\") as his assistant.Holoman, p. 494\\. The opera had originally been written in Italian as *Orfeo ed Euridice* for Vienna in 1762, and the role of Orfeo was performed by the [mezzo\\-soprano](/wiki/Mezzo-soprano \"Mezzo-soprano\") [castrato](/wiki/Castrato \"Castrato\") [Gaetano Guadagni](/wiki/Gaetano_Guadagni \"Gaetano Guadagni\"). Gluck had decided to bring the opera to Paris in 1774, but castrato singers were unusual in France and sometimes objects of ridicule. Heroic lovers were generally played by high tenors, a voice type referred to in French as *[haute\\-contre](/wiki/Haute-contre \"Haute-contre\")*, so Gluck transposed and adapted the role of Orphée for the *haute\\-contre* [Joseph Legros](/wiki/Joseph_Legros \"Joseph Legros\").Hollis, George Truett. \"*Orfeo ed Euridice*\" in Sadie (1992\\) **3**: 744\\.Kobbé, p. 61; Rushton, p. 318\\. Unfortunately, the rise in standard pitch over the years had made the French version for *haute\\-contre* impractical, and the opera was rarely performed.Cairns, p. 637\\.",
"[Giacomo Meyerbeer](/wiki/Giacomo_Meyerbeer \"Giacomo Meyerbeer\") suggested to the Spanish mezzo\\-soprano [Pauline Viardot](/wiki/Pauline_Viardot \"Pauline Viardot\") that she should sing the role. Carvalho, who had heard Viardot in a concert, decided he wanted her to perform the opera in his theatre. Berlioz, a close friend of Viardot and an expert on the music of Gluck, was engaged to prepare the new adaptation. Initially Berlioz was enthusiastic, but when he heard that Carvalho was casting Mademoiselle Sax, a singer, as Berlioz described her, \"from a café chantant in the other Champs\\-Elysées\", he suggested that Carvalho's \"good intentions\" could \"pave the way to hell\".Cairns, p. 638\\. Sasse's inexperience became quite evident during the rehearsals: Berlioz thought her \"ignorant as a carp of everything to do with art\", although Viardot allowed she had \"a beautiful voice without art\".Cairns, p. 639\\. Subsequently Sasse became rather famous for a question she asked Viardot at one of the rehearsals, during which in typical fashion Berlioz kept interrupting the proceedings to make suggestions: \"That's Monsieur Gluck, isn't it?\" \"No, it's one of his friends.\" \"Well, he's got a nerve – *in his absence*!\" (At the time, Gluck had already been dead for nearly 72 years.) In the event, the performances, which began on 18 November 1859, were enormously successful, both critically and commercially, and were attended by many of the important musicians in Paris. The production received 138 representations between 1859 and 1863\\. Although Viardot was the star of the show, Mlle Sax did not go entirely unnoticed, and the role proved to be the beginning of her rise to stardom.Holoman, p. 497\\.",
"#### Final season at the Théâtre Lyrique",
"Sasse next appeared at the Théâtre Lyrique beginning on 18 February 1860Huebner, Steven. \"Gounod, Charle\\-François\" in Sadie (1992\\) **2**: 501\\. as Bacchante in Gounod's *[Philémon et Baucis](/wiki/Phil%C3%A9mon_et_Baucis \"Philémon et Baucis\")*. This production was less successful: \"it merely fizzled out after 13 indifferent performances.\"Walsh, p. 115\\. Probably at least partly because of this failure, Carvalho resigned as director of the company on 1 April, and the quality of performances at the theatre began to decline. Sasse also appeared at the theatre in a revival of *Robin des bois* (*Robin Hood*), which was a renowned and highly altered French travesty of Weber's *[Der Freischütz](/wiki/Der_Freisch%C3%BCtz \"Der Freischütz\")*, originally translated and adapted by Sauvage and [Castil\\-Blaze](/wiki/Castil-Blaze \"Castil-Blaze\") in 1824\\.Walsh, pp. 57–58, 306\\. There were also two concerts: the first a benefit for Viardot on 20 April, in which Sasse and Viardot sang an excerpt from Gluck's *[Armide](/wiki/Armide_%28Gluck%29 \"Armide (Gluck)\")*;Walsh, p. 118\\. and the second, a benefit for Ugalde on 14 May, in which Sasse and Viardot sang in the last act of *Orphée*.Walsh, p. 126\\.",
"### Career at the Paris Opéra",
"Sasse's success at the Théâtre Lyrique had been substantial, and she was engaged by the [Paris Opéra](/wiki/Paris_Op%C3%A9ra \"Paris Opéra\") to sing Alice in Meyerbeer's *[Robert le diable](/wiki/Robert_le_diable \"Robert le diable\")*, making her house debut in the role on 3 August 1860\\. \"Her voice was not yet mature, but it showed ample promise, and she was retained.\"",
"#### Wagner's *Tannhäuser*",
"[Richard Wagner](/wiki/Richard_Wagner \"Richard Wagner\") himself selected her to perform Elisabeth in what would become the notorious Paris premiere of *[Tannhäuser](/wiki/Tannh%C3%A4user_%28opera%29 \"Tannhäuser (opera)\")* on 13 March 1861 at the Opéra's [Salle Le Peletier](/wiki/Salle_Le_Peletier \"Salle Le Peletier\").[Haslam, p. 72](https://books.google.com/books?id=3mQSAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA72). Although the presentation was a fiasco, Wagner praised Sasse's performance. She later related that Wagner had made some alterations to the part to accommodate her vocal range. She also possessed a score of the opera inscribed in the composer's hand:\nA ma courageuse amie\nMademoiselle Marie Saxe.\nL'Auteur\nRichard Wagner.",
"To my courageous friend\nMademoiselle Marie Saxe.\nThe author\nRichard Wagner{{clear\\|left}}",
"#### A leading soprano at the Opéra",
"She went on to successfully sing many of the important soprano roles in the company's repertoire at the time, including Léonore in Verdi's *Le trouvère* (the French version of *[Il trovatore](/wiki/Il_trovatore \"Il trovatore\")*) in 1861, Laura in Jósef Poniatowski's *Pierre de Médicis* in 1862, and Rachel in Halévy's *[La juive](/wiki/La_juive \"La juive\")* in 1863\\.",
"In September 1863 Verdi decided to make a valiant attempt to resuscitate the sagging fortunes of *[Les vêpres siciliennes](/wiki/Les_v%C3%AApres_siciliennes \"Les vêpres siciliennes\")*. After the precipitous retirement of the soprano [Sophie Cruvelli](/wiki/Sophie_Cruvelli \"Sophie Cruvelli\") at the end of the first run of performances in the fall of 1855, the opera had done poorly. He pinned his hopes on casting the new stars at the Opéra: Sasse as Helène, and the tenor Villaret as Henri. The previous season Villaret had been well received in his debut, as Arnold in Rossini's *[Guillaume Tell](/wiki/Guillaume_Tell \"Guillaume Tell\")*. Verdi personally coached the singers, and wrote some new music, replacing Henri's \"O jour de peine\" with \"O toi que j'ai chéri\". The original aria had not satisfied Verdi when [Louis Guéymard](/wiki/Louis_Gu%C3%A9ymard \"Louis Guéymard\") had sung it at the premiere.Budden (1978\\), p. 240\\.",
"In her memoirs Sasse described preparing the role with Verdi:",
"> I have always loved working with authors and composers listening to their instructions trying to grasp their meaning ... Ah, but it was not the same as singing to Wagner or Meyerbeer! They were always patient, most careful to in no way hurt the feelings of an artiste. How different Verdi! He was exigeant hard, at times, I say it, almost cruel. Sharp words escaped him, and many times I have cried at the end of one of these hearings.\n> Then the master, having cooled down would apologize for his roughness, speak kind words of encouragement, and we would begin all over again with enthusiasm.\n> These lessons were of inestimable value to me, and, thanks to Verdi's counsel, my voice, still somewhat rough, became most flexible, and as a result of his teachings I achieved one of the greatest successes of my career.[Visetti, pp. 48–49](https://books.google.com/books?id=TiwWAAAAYAAJ&dq=%22marie+sasse%22+verdi+siciliennes&pg=PA48).",
"",
"However, the performances had failed to generate much enthusiasm for the opera. The press reported that with the exception of Mlle Sax the singers had been \"out of voice\". After a few more performances the opera was replaced with *Il trovatore*. There was one more revival in 1865, after which it vanished from the repertoire of the company entirely.",
"[thumb\\|left\\|upright\\|Saxe as Sélika in *L'Africaine*](/wiki/File:Marie_Sasse_as_S%C3%A9lika_in_L%27Africaine_-_Gallica8.jpg \"Marie Sasse as Sélika in L'Africaine - Gallica8.jpg\")\nSasse married the French bass [Armand Castelmary](/wiki/Armand_Castelmary \"Armand Castelmary\") in 1864, but they divorced in 1867\\. In March 1865 the instrument maker [Adolphe Sax](/wiki/Adolphe_Sax \"Adolphe Sax\") brought suit against her demanding that she refrain from using Sax as her stage name. She complied by changing it to Saxe, prompting the periodical *Le Ménestrel* to conjecture that she might now be sued by \"le Roi de Saxe, le duc de Saxe\\-Coburg\\-Gothe, le duc de Saxe\\-Meiningen\", among others, for using this esteemed surname.Walsh, p. 192\\.",
"During this period she was selected by [Giacomo Meyerbeer](/wiki/Giacomo_Meyerbeer \"Giacomo Meyerbeer\") to create the role of Sélika in his new opera *[L'Africaine](/wiki/L%27Africaine \"L'Africaine\")*. She worked with him for three months preparing her part, and he agreed to some minor modifications to accommodate her capabilities. She sang the role at the premiere at the Paris Opéra on 28 April 1865\\.[Haslam, pp. 71–72](https://books.google.com/books?id=3mQSAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA71).",
"In 1866 she performed Anna in *Don Juan*, a 5\\-act adaptation in French by Henri Blaze de Bury (son of [Castil\\-Blaze](/wiki/Castil-Blaze \"Castil-Blaze\")) and [Émile Deschamps](/wiki/%C3%89mile_Deschamps \"Émile Deschamps\") which deviated significantly from the original, Mozart's *[Don Giovanni](/wiki/Don_Giovanni \"Don Giovanni\")*. First performed at the Opéra in March 1834, this version was very popular and continued to be performed there up to 1934, when it was replaced with a new version by [Adolphe Boschot](/wiki/Adolphe_Boschot \"Adolphe Boschot\"). In the year 1866 no fewer than three productions of *Don Juan* were presented in Paris, each using a different edition: besides the one at the Opéra, there was another at the [Théâtre\\-Italien](/wiki/Th%C3%A9%C3%A2tre-Italien \"Théâtre-Italien\") and a third at the Théâtre Lyrique.Walsh, pp. 206–210\\. The year was made even more memorable for the singer, when the persistent Adolphe Sax again brought suit contesting her new stage name and insisting that his \"individuality would suffer if she were allowed to continue using the name of Saxe.\"Walsh, p. 205\\. It was at this time that she began to use the stage name Sass. Walsh speculates \"she may have disliked her real name because the word sasse in French means bailing scoop.\"",
"#### Verdi's *Don Carlos*",
"[thumb\\|{{center\\|Cartoon of Marie Sasse}}{{center\\|as Elisabeth in ''Don Carlos''}}](/wiki/File:Marie_Sass_as_Elisabeth_in_Don_Carlos_-_cartoon_-_Gallica15.jpg \"Marie Sass as Elisabeth in Don Carlos - cartoon - Gallica15.jpg\")\nIn the last months of 1866 Sasse was selected to create the role of Elisabeth de Valois in Verdi's *[Don Carlos](/wiki/Don_Carlos \"Don Carlos\")*. The Opéra's director [Émile Perrin](/wiki/%C3%89mile_Perrin \"Émile Perrin\") was having difficulty in casting the role of Eboli. He removed the original singer he had chosen for the part, the contralto [Rosine Bloch](/wiki/Rosine_Bloch \"Rosine Bloch\"), in order to spare her voice for the role of Fidès in a revival of Meyerbeer's *[Le prophète](/wiki/Le_proph%C3%A8te \"Le prophète\")*. He hoped to replace Bloch with the soprano [Pauline Guéymard\\-Lauters](/wiki/Pauline_Gu%C3%A9ymard-Lauters \"Pauline Guéymard-Lauters\"), whose vocal range was exceptionally wide. In rehearsals she had proved herself capable of performing music with rather low notes. Unfortunately, Guéymard, who had sung Léonore in the 1857 revival of *Le trouvère*, was also a rival of Sasse.Budden (1981\\), p. 21\\.",
"Perrin wrote to Verdi about Guéymard: \"If she commits herself firmly to undertake deep mezzo\\-soprano roles you might perhaps entrust her with the part of Eboli without changing a note of the tessitura, and we should gain by having two proven artists of incomparable cast.\"Budden (1981\\), pp. 21–22\\. Verdi wrote back: \"If you are not afraid of embarrassment resulting from rivalry between Mme Sass and Mme Gueymard, nothing could be better than Mme Gueymard for Eboli.\"",
"After the rehearsals began, Verdi realized he would have to make adjustments to the part of Eboli to accommodate Guéymard. Relations between the singers became strained, and Verdi stayed away at least once, on 18 October, as the librettist [Camille du Locle](/wiki/Camille_du_Locle \"Camille du Locle\") reported to Perrin, \"mainly because he was annoyed by Mme Sass's grimacing at the alterations made for Mme Gueymard.\"Budden (1981\\), p. 22\\. [Julian Budden](/wiki/Julian_Budden \"Julian Budden\") suggests \"this was one of the factors which led to the eventual dropping of their one duet.\"",
"The rehearsals were endless, and the preparations for *Don Carlos* kept Verdi in Paris for nearly a year.Parker, Roger. \"Verdi, Giuseppe (Fortunato Francesco)\" in Sadie (1992\\) **4**:. 939\\. By the time of the premiere on 11 March 1867, \"all spontaneity had been lost.\" The production was not a success, although it did achieve 43 performances before disappearing from the repertoire until modern times. Some reviews specifically mentioned that the voice of Morère in the role of Don Carlos was inadequate for the part and characterized Mme Sass's portrayal as \"bored\" and \"listless\".Budden (1981\\), p. 26\\. Verdi later wrote to Du Locle (14 March 1868\\): \"Ah, if only Sasse could be persuaded that the part is better than she believes. In Italy [Stolz](/wiki/Teresa_Stolz \"Teresa Stolz\") turned it into the main role.\"[Conati, p. 66n](https://books.google.com/books?id=kRo48TDPd08C&q=%2214%20March%201868%22%20Sasse%20Stolz&pg=PA66). However, it should also be remembered that in 1867 Marie Sasse's marriage fell apart, and she divorced Armand Castelmary.",
"### Late career",
"[thumb\\|left\\|upright\\|Marie Sasse singing the [Marseillaise](/wiki/Marseillaise \"Marseillaise\") (Illustration from *Le Théâtre illustré*)](/wiki/File:Marie_Sasse_chantant_la_Marseillaise_1869.jpg \"Marie Sasse chantant la Marseillaise 1869.jpg\")\nOther roles at the Opéra included Ophélie in Ambroise Thomas' *[Hamlet](/wiki/Hamlet_%28opera%29 \"Hamlet (opera)\")* and Valentine in Meyerbeer's *[Les Huguenots](/wiki/Les_Huguenots \"Les Huguenots\")* (1868\\). She appeared at [La Scala](/wiki/La_Scala \"La Scala\") during the 1869–1870 season, but was back in Paris when the [Franco\\-Prussian War](/wiki/Franco-Prussian_War \"Franco-Prussian War\") broke out in the summer of 1870\\. Daniel Auber's *[La muette de Portici](/wiki/La_muette_de_Portici \"La muette de Portici\")* was performed \"with the 'Marseillaise' interpolated into the third act and sung by Mme Sass with far more conviction than she had ever brought to Verdi's Elisabeth.\"Budden (1981\\), p. 168\\. After the French [defeat at Sedan](/wiki/Battle_of_Sedan_%281870%29 \"Battle of Sedan (1870)\"), as Prussian troops began to approach Paris, plans were made to convert the nearly finished, but still unoccupied new opera house, the [Palais Garnier](/wiki/Palais_Garnier \"Palais Garnier\"), into an emergency hospital. Sasse decided to quit the Opéra and emigrated to Italy. She appeared in [Saint Petersburg](/wiki/Bolshoi_Kamenny_Theatre \"Bolshoi Kamenny Theatre\") during the 1870–1871 season.\n[thumb\\|Draneht Pasha](/wiki/File:Draneht_Pasha.jpg \"Draneht Pasha.jpg\")",
"In April 1871 [Paul Draneht](/wiki/Paul_Draneht \"Paul Draneht\"), the general manager of the Cairo Opera, negotiated with Sasse about the possibility of appearing as Amneris in the world premiere of Verdi's new opera *[Aida](/wiki/Aida \"Aida\")* which was to be performed in [Cairo](/wiki/Cairo \"Cairo\") later that year. He wrote about this to Verdi,Letter from [Paul Draneht](/wiki/Paul_Draneht \"Paul Draneht\") to Verdi (24 April 1871\\). Busch, p. 153\\. who then wrote to Giovanni Battista Lampugnani, the theatrical agent in Milan: \"I have no use for her – either as Amneris, who is a mezzo\\-soprano, or as Aida, for other reasons.\"Letter from Verdi to Lampugnani (4 May 1871\\). Busch, pp. 155–156\\. Draneht visited Verdi at his home in [Sant' Agata](/wiki/Villa_Verdi \"Villa Verdi\") in May, where they discussed her further. Draneht, having been unaware of Verdi's opposition, had already signed her to sing Amneris.Budden (1981\\), pp. 185–186\\. Verdi was adamantly opposed, not only because the part was too low, but because \"I know from experience that it is in the interest of both the management and the composer to give her operas in which she is the only *soprano*, or at least an opera which has no other role equal or superior to hers.\"Letter from Verdi to Draneht (8 June 1871\\). Busch, pp. 170–171\\.",
"[thumb\\|upright\\| Marie Sasse by Paul Maurou (1881\\)](/wiki/File:Marie_Sasse_1881_by_Maurou_%28l_to_r%29_-_Gallica.jpg \"Marie Sasse 1881 by Maurou (l to r) - Gallica.jpg\")\nDraneht was in a bad position: the opera was completely cast, and, as the artist's fees had been exceptionally high, the budget for singers had been expended. In order to hire another singer for the role, Draneht would need the approval of the [Viceroy of Egypt](/wiki/Isma%27il_Pasha \"Isma'il Pasha\"). The Viceroy, who had hired Italian architects to build the [Cairo Opera House](/wiki/Cairo_Opera_House \"Cairo Opera House\") in six months in 1869, was underwriting the entire cost of the *Aida* production. His tendency to spend lavish amounts of money on inessential projects was later to drive Egypt into bankruptcy.Busch, p. 6\\. Draneht tried to persuade Verdi that the mezzo\\-soprano Eleonora Grossi, who was already under contract with the company, would be able to sing the role, but Verdi resisted. Eventually Verdi received good reports about Grossi from other sources and relented.",
"W. E. Haslam, in his 1911 book *Style in Singing*, relates that Marie Sasse later stated that she had tried to prepare the role of Aida for the Cairo production, but found that at certain points the part was too high for her range. \"As she was compelled by her contract to sing the opera, she asked Verdi to make some slight changes to bring the music within her reach. But he refused absolutely to make the least alteration.\" In speaking of it she said: \"'Why should Verdi have shown himself more unreasonable or less yielding than Meyerbeer or Wagner?' (*plus intransigent, plus intraitable que* Meyerbeer *ou* Wagner?).\"",
"During the course of her career Sasse had also sung the title role in Donizetti's *[Lucrezia Borgia](/wiki/Lucrezia_Borgia_%28opera%29 \"Lucrezia Borgia (opera)\")* and Amelia in Verdi's *[Un ballo in maschera](/wiki/Un_ballo_in_maschera \"Un ballo in maschera\")*, and appeared in Brussels, Madrid, and Barcelona. She retired from the stage in 1877 at the age of forty\\-three, tried to make a living teaching voice, and in 1902 published her memoirs under the title *Souvenirs d'une artiste* (*Recollections of an artist*). She died in Paris in \"abject poverty\" at the age of 73\\.",
""
] |
### Career at the Paris Opéra
Sasse's success at the Théâtre Lyrique had been substantial, and she was engaged by the [Paris Opéra](/wiki/Paris_Op%C3%A9ra "Paris Opéra") to sing Alice in Meyerbeer's *[Robert le diable](/wiki/Robert_le_diable "Robert le diable")*, making her house debut in the role on 3 August 1860\. "Her voice was not yet mature, but it showed ample promise, and she was retained."
#### Wagner's *Tannhäuser*
[Richard Wagner](/wiki/Richard_Wagner "Richard Wagner") himself selected her to perform Elisabeth in what would become the notorious Paris premiere of *[Tannhäuser](/wiki/Tannh%C3%A4user_%28opera%29 "Tannhäuser (opera)")* on 13 March 1861 at the Opéra's [Salle Le Peletier](/wiki/Salle_Le_Peletier "Salle Le Peletier").[Haslam, p. 72](https://books.google.com/books?id=3mQSAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA72). Although the presentation was a fiasco, Wagner praised Sasse's performance. She later related that Wagner had made some alterations to the part to accommodate her vocal range. She also possessed a score of the opera inscribed in the composer's hand:
A ma courageuse amie
Mademoiselle Marie Saxe.
L'Auteur
Richard Wagner.
To my courageous friend
Mademoiselle Marie Saxe.
The author
Richard Wagner{{clear\|left}}
#### A leading soprano at the Opéra
She went on to successfully sing many of the important soprano roles in the company's repertoire at the time, including Léonore in Verdi's *Le trouvère* (the French version of *[Il trovatore](/wiki/Il_trovatore "Il trovatore")*) in 1861, Laura in Jósef Poniatowski's *Pierre de Médicis* in 1862, and Rachel in Halévy's *[La juive](/wiki/La_juive "La juive")* in 1863\.
In September 1863 Verdi decided to make a valiant attempt to resuscitate the sagging fortunes of *[Les vêpres siciliennes](/wiki/Les_v%C3%AApres_siciliennes "Les vêpres siciliennes")*. After the precipitous retirement of the soprano [Sophie Cruvelli](/wiki/Sophie_Cruvelli "Sophie Cruvelli") at the end of the first run of performances in the fall of 1855, the opera had done poorly. He pinned his hopes on casting the new stars at the Opéra: Sasse as Helène, and the tenor Villaret as Henri. The previous season Villaret had been well received in his debut, as Arnold in Rossini's *[Guillaume Tell](/wiki/Guillaume_Tell "Guillaume Tell")*. Verdi personally coached the singers, and wrote some new music, replacing Henri's "O jour de peine" with "O toi que j'ai chéri". The original aria had not satisfied Verdi when [Louis Guéymard](/wiki/Louis_Gu%C3%A9ymard "Louis Guéymard") had sung it at the premiere.Budden (1978\), p. 240\.
In her memoirs Sasse described preparing the role with Verdi:
> I have always loved working with authors and composers listening to their instructions trying to grasp their meaning ... Ah, but it was not the same as singing to Wagner or Meyerbeer! They were always patient, most careful to in no way hurt the feelings of an artiste. How different Verdi! He was exigeant hard, at times, I say it, almost cruel. Sharp words escaped him, and many times I have cried at the end of one of these hearings.
> Then the master, having cooled down would apologize for his roughness, speak kind words of encouragement, and we would begin all over again with enthusiasm.
> These lessons were of inestimable value to me, and, thanks to Verdi's counsel, my voice, still somewhat rough, became most flexible, and as a result of his teachings I achieved one of the greatest successes of my career.[Visetti, pp. 48–49](https://books.google.com/books?id=TiwWAAAAYAAJ&dq=%22marie+sasse%22+verdi+siciliennes&pg=PA48).
However, the performances had failed to generate much enthusiasm for the opera. The press reported that with the exception of Mlle Sax the singers had been "out of voice". After a few more performances the opera was replaced with *Il trovatore*. There was one more revival in 1865, after which it vanished from the repertoire of the company entirely.
[thumb\|left\|upright\|Saxe as Sélika in *L'Africaine*](/wiki/File:Marie_Sasse_as_S%C3%A9lika_in_L%27Africaine_-_Gallica8.jpg "Marie Sasse as Sélika in L'Africaine - Gallica8.jpg")
Sasse married the French bass [Armand Castelmary](/wiki/Armand_Castelmary "Armand Castelmary") in 1864, but they divorced in 1867\. In March 1865 the instrument maker [Adolphe Sax](/wiki/Adolphe_Sax "Adolphe Sax") brought suit against her demanding that she refrain from using Sax as her stage name. She complied by changing it to Saxe, prompting the periodical *Le Ménestrel* to conjecture that she might now be sued by "le Roi de Saxe, le duc de Saxe\-Coburg\-Gothe, le duc de Saxe\-Meiningen", among others, for using this esteemed surname.Walsh, p. 192\.
During this period she was selected by [Giacomo Meyerbeer](/wiki/Giacomo_Meyerbeer "Giacomo Meyerbeer") to create the role of Sélika in his new opera *[L'Africaine](/wiki/L%27Africaine "L'Africaine")*. She worked with him for three months preparing her part, and he agreed to some minor modifications to accommodate her capabilities. She sang the role at the premiere at the Paris Opéra on 28 April 1865\.[Haslam, pp. 71–72](https://books.google.com/books?id=3mQSAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA71).
In 1866 she performed Anna in *Don Juan*, a 5\-act adaptation in French by Henri Blaze de Bury (son of [Castil\-Blaze](/wiki/Castil-Blaze "Castil-Blaze")) and [Émile Deschamps](/wiki/%C3%89mile_Deschamps "Émile Deschamps") which deviated significantly from the original, Mozart's *[Don Giovanni](/wiki/Don_Giovanni "Don Giovanni")*. First performed at the Opéra in March 1834, this version was very popular and continued to be performed there up to 1934, when it was replaced with a new version by [Adolphe Boschot](/wiki/Adolphe_Boschot "Adolphe Boschot"). In the year 1866 no fewer than three productions of *Don Juan* were presented in Paris, each using a different edition: besides the one at the Opéra, there was another at the [Théâtre\-Italien](/wiki/Th%C3%A9%C3%A2tre-Italien "Théâtre-Italien") and a third at the Théâtre Lyrique.Walsh, pp. 206–210\. The year was made even more memorable for the singer, when the persistent Adolphe Sax again brought suit contesting her new stage name and insisting that his "individuality would suffer if she were allowed to continue using the name of Saxe."Walsh, p. 205\. It was at this time that she began to use the stage name Sass. Walsh speculates "she may have disliked her real name because the word sasse in French means bailing scoop."
#### Verdi's *Don Carlos*
[thumb\|{{center\|Cartoon of Marie Sasse}}{{center\|as Elisabeth in ''Don Carlos''}}](/wiki/File:Marie_Sass_as_Elisabeth_in_Don_Carlos_-_cartoon_-_Gallica15.jpg "Marie Sass as Elisabeth in Don Carlos - cartoon - Gallica15.jpg")
In the last months of 1866 Sasse was selected to create the role of Elisabeth de Valois in Verdi's *[Don Carlos](/wiki/Don_Carlos "Don Carlos")*. The Opéra's director [Émile Perrin](/wiki/%C3%89mile_Perrin "Émile Perrin") was having difficulty in casting the role of Eboli. He removed the original singer he had chosen for the part, the contralto [Rosine Bloch](/wiki/Rosine_Bloch "Rosine Bloch"), in order to spare her voice for the role of Fidès in a revival of Meyerbeer's *[Le prophète](/wiki/Le_proph%C3%A8te "Le prophète")*. He hoped to replace Bloch with the soprano [Pauline Guéymard\-Lauters](/wiki/Pauline_Gu%C3%A9ymard-Lauters "Pauline Guéymard-Lauters"), whose vocal range was exceptionally wide. In rehearsals she had proved herself capable of performing music with rather low notes. Unfortunately, Guéymard, who had sung Léonore in the 1857 revival of *Le trouvère*, was also a rival of Sasse.Budden (1981\), p. 21\.
Perrin wrote to Verdi about Guéymard: "If she commits herself firmly to undertake deep mezzo\-soprano roles you might perhaps entrust her with the part of Eboli without changing a note of the tessitura, and we should gain by having two proven artists of incomparable cast."Budden (1981\), pp. 21–22\. Verdi wrote back: "If you are not afraid of embarrassment resulting from rivalry between Mme Sass and Mme Gueymard, nothing could be better than Mme Gueymard for Eboli."
After the rehearsals began, Verdi realized he would have to make adjustments to the part of Eboli to accommodate Guéymard. Relations between the singers became strained, and Verdi stayed away at least once, on 18 October, as the librettist [Camille du Locle](/wiki/Camille_du_Locle "Camille du Locle") reported to Perrin, "mainly because he was annoyed by Mme Sass's grimacing at the alterations made for Mme Gueymard."Budden (1981\), p. 22\. [Julian Budden](/wiki/Julian_Budden "Julian Budden") suggests "this was one of the factors which led to the eventual dropping of their one duet."
The rehearsals were endless, and the preparations for *Don Carlos* kept Verdi in Paris for nearly a year.Parker, Roger. "Verdi, Giuseppe (Fortunato Francesco)" in Sadie (1992\) **4**:. 939\. By the time of the premiere on 11 March 1867, "all spontaneity had been lost." The production was not a success, although it did achieve 43 performances before disappearing from the repertoire until modern times. Some reviews specifically mentioned that the voice of Morère in the role of Don Carlos was inadequate for the part and characterized Mme Sass's portrayal as "bored" and "listless".Budden (1981\), p. 26\. Verdi later wrote to Du Locle (14 March 1868\): "Ah, if only Sasse could be persuaded that the part is better than she believes. In Italy [Stolz](/wiki/Teresa_Stolz "Teresa Stolz") turned it into the main role."[Conati, p. 66n](https://books.google.com/books?id=kRo48TDPd08C&q=%2214%20March%201868%22%20Sasse%20Stolz&pg=PA66). However, it should also be remembered that in 1867 Marie Sasse's marriage fell apart, and she divorced Armand Castelmary.
|
[
"### Career at the Paris Opéra",
"Sasse's success at the Théâtre Lyrique had been substantial, and she was engaged by the [Paris Opéra](/wiki/Paris_Op%C3%A9ra \"Paris Opéra\") to sing Alice in Meyerbeer's *[Robert le diable](/wiki/Robert_le_diable \"Robert le diable\")*, making her house debut in the role on 3 August 1860\\. \"Her voice was not yet mature, but it showed ample promise, and she was retained.\"",
"#### Wagner's *Tannhäuser*",
"[Richard Wagner](/wiki/Richard_Wagner \"Richard Wagner\") himself selected her to perform Elisabeth in what would become the notorious Paris premiere of *[Tannhäuser](/wiki/Tannh%C3%A4user_%28opera%29 \"Tannhäuser (opera)\")* on 13 March 1861 at the Opéra's [Salle Le Peletier](/wiki/Salle_Le_Peletier \"Salle Le Peletier\").[Haslam, p. 72](https://books.google.com/books?id=3mQSAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA72). Although the presentation was a fiasco, Wagner praised Sasse's performance. She later related that Wagner had made some alterations to the part to accommodate her vocal range. She also possessed a score of the opera inscribed in the composer's hand:\nA ma courageuse amie\nMademoiselle Marie Saxe.\nL'Auteur\nRichard Wagner.",
"To my courageous friend\nMademoiselle Marie Saxe.\nThe author\nRichard Wagner{{clear\\|left}}",
"#### A leading soprano at the Opéra",
"She went on to successfully sing many of the important soprano roles in the company's repertoire at the time, including Léonore in Verdi's *Le trouvère* (the French version of *[Il trovatore](/wiki/Il_trovatore \"Il trovatore\")*) in 1861, Laura in Jósef Poniatowski's *Pierre de Médicis* in 1862, and Rachel in Halévy's *[La juive](/wiki/La_juive \"La juive\")* in 1863\\.",
"In September 1863 Verdi decided to make a valiant attempt to resuscitate the sagging fortunes of *[Les vêpres siciliennes](/wiki/Les_v%C3%AApres_siciliennes \"Les vêpres siciliennes\")*. After the precipitous retirement of the soprano [Sophie Cruvelli](/wiki/Sophie_Cruvelli \"Sophie Cruvelli\") at the end of the first run of performances in the fall of 1855, the opera had done poorly. He pinned his hopes on casting the new stars at the Opéra: Sasse as Helène, and the tenor Villaret as Henri. The previous season Villaret had been well received in his debut, as Arnold in Rossini's *[Guillaume Tell](/wiki/Guillaume_Tell \"Guillaume Tell\")*. Verdi personally coached the singers, and wrote some new music, replacing Henri's \"O jour de peine\" with \"O toi que j'ai chéri\". The original aria had not satisfied Verdi when [Louis Guéymard](/wiki/Louis_Gu%C3%A9ymard \"Louis Guéymard\") had sung it at the premiere.Budden (1978\\), p. 240\\.",
"In her memoirs Sasse described preparing the role with Verdi:",
"> I have always loved working with authors and composers listening to their instructions trying to grasp their meaning ... Ah, but it was not the same as singing to Wagner or Meyerbeer! They were always patient, most careful to in no way hurt the feelings of an artiste. How different Verdi! He was exigeant hard, at times, I say it, almost cruel. Sharp words escaped him, and many times I have cried at the end of one of these hearings.\n> Then the master, having cooled down would apologize for his roughness, speak kind words of encouragement, and we would begin all over again with enthusiasm.\n> These lessons were of inestimable value to me, and, thanks to Verdi's counsel, my voice, still somewhat rough, became most flexible, and as a result of his teachings I achieved one of the greatest successes of my career.[Visetti, pp. 48–49](https://books.google.com/books?id=TiwWAAAAYAAJ&dq=%22marie+sasse%22+verdi+siciliennes&pg=PA48).",
"",
"However, the performances had failed to generate much enthusiasm for the opera. The press reported that with the exception of Mlle Sax the singers had been \"out of voice\". After a few more performances the opera was replaced with *Il trovatore*. There was one more revival in 1865, after which it vanished from the repertoire of the company entirely.",
"[thumb\\|left\\|upright\\|Saxe as Sélika in *L'Africaine*](/wiki/File:Marie_Sasse_as_S%C3%A9lika_in_L%27Africaine_-_Gallica8.jpg \"Marie Sasse as Sélika in L'Africaine - Gallica8.jpg\")\nSasse married the French bass [Armand Castelmary](/wiki/Armand_Castelmary \"Armand Castelmary\") in 1864, but they divorced in 1867\\. In March 1865 the instrument maker [Adolphe Sax](/wiki/Adolphe_Sax \"Adolphe Sax\") brought suit against her demanding that she refrain from using Sax as her stage name. She complied by changing it to Saxe, prompting the periodical *Le Ménestrel* to conjecture that she might now be sued by \"le Roi de Saxe, le duc de Saxe\\-Coburg\\-Gothe, le duc de Saxe\\-Meiningen\", among others, for using this esteemed surname.Walsh, p. 192\\.",
"During this period she was selected by [Giacomo Meyerbeer](/wiki/Giacomo_Meyerbeer \"Giacomo Meyerbeer\") to create the role of Sélika in his new opera *[L'Africaine](/wiki/L%27Africaine \"L'Africaine\")*. She worked with him for three months preparing her part, and he agreed to some minor modifications to accommodate her capabilities. She sang the role at the premiere at the Paris Opéra on 28 April 1865\\.[Haslam, pp. 71–72](https://books.google.com/books?id=3mQSAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA71).",
"In 1866 she performed Anna in *Don Juan*, a 5\\-act adaptation in French by Henri Blaze de Bury (son of [Castil\\-Blaze](/wiki/Castil-Blaze \"Castil-Blaze\")) and [Émile Deschamps](/wiki/%C3%89mile_Deschamps \"Émile Deschamps\") which deviated significantly from the original, Mozart's *[Don Giovanni](/wiki/Don_Giovanni \"Don Giovanni\")*. First performed at the Opéra in March 1834, this version was very popular and continued to be performed there up to 1934, when it was replaced with a new version by [Adolphe Boschot](/wiki/Adolphe_Boschot \"Adolphe Boschot\"). In the year 1866 no fewer than three productions of *Don Juan* were presented in Paris, each using a different edition: besides the one at the Opéra, there was another at the [Théâtre\\-Italien](/wiki/Th%C3%A9%C3%A2tre-Italien \"Théâtre-Italien\") and a third at the Théâtre Lyrique.Walsh, pp. 206–210\\. The year was made even more memorable for the singer, when the persistent Adolphe Sax again brought suit contesting her new stage name and insisting that his \"individuality would suffer if she were allowed to continue using the name of Saxe.\"Walsh, p. 205\\. It was at this time that she began to use the stage name Sass. Walsh speculates \"she may have disliked her real name because the word sasse in French means bailing scoop.\"",
"#### Verdi's *Don Carlos*",
"[thumb\\|{{center\\|Cartoon of Marie Sasse}}{{center\\|as Elisabeth in ''Don Carlos''}}](/wiki/File:Marie_Sass_as_Elisabeth_in_Don_Carlos_-_cartoon_-_Gallica15.jpg \"Marie Sass as Elisabeth in Don Carlos - cartoon - Gallica15.jpg\")\nIn the last months of 1866 Sasse was selected to create the role of Elisabeth de Valois in Verdi's *[Don Carlos](/wiki/Don_Carlos \"Don Carlos\")*. The Opéra's director [Émile Perrin](/wiki/%C3%89mile_Perrin \"Émile Perrin\") was having difficulty in casting the role of Eboli. He removed the original singer he had chosen for the part, the contralto [Rosine Bloch](/wiki/Rosine_Bloch \"Rosine Bloch\"), in order to spare her voice for the role of Fidès in a revival of Meyerbeer's *[Le prophète](/wiki/Le_proph%C3%A8te \"Le prophète\")*. He hoped to replace Bloch with the soprano [Pauline Guéymard\\-Lauters](/wiki/Pauline_Gu%C3%A9ymard-Lauters \"Pauline Guéymard-Lauters\"), whose vocal range was exceptionally wide. In rehearsals she had proved herself capable of performing music with rather low notes. Unfortunately, Guéymard, who had sung Léonore in the 1857 revival of *Le trouvère*, was also a rival of Sasse.Budden (1981\\), p. 21\\.",
"Perrin wrote to Verdi about Guéymard: \"If she commits herself firmly to undertake deep mezzo\\-soprano roles you might perhaps entrust her with the part of Eboli without changing a note of the tessitura, and we should gain by having two proven artists of incomparable cast.\"Budden (1981\\), pp. 21–22\\. Verdi wrote back: \"If you are not afraid of embarrassment resulting from rivalry between Mme Sass and Mme Gueymard, nothing could be better than Mme Gueymard for Eboli.\"",
"After the rehearsals began, Verdi realized he would have to make adjustments to the part of Eboli to accommodate Guéymard. Relations between the singers became strained, and Verdi stayed away at least once, on 18 October, as the librettist [Camille du Locle](/wiki/Camille_du_Locle \"Camille du Locle\") reported to Perrin, \"mainly because he was annoyed by Mme Sass's grimacing at the alterations made for Mme Gueymard.\"Budden (1981\\), p. 22\\. [Julian Budden](/wiki/Julian_Budden \"Julian Budden\") suggests \"this was one of the factors which led to the eventual dropping of their one duet.\"",
"The rehearsals were endless, and the preparations for *Don Carlos* kept Verdi in Paris for nearly a year.Parker, Roger. \"Verdi, Giuseppe (Fortunato Francesco)\" in Sadie (1992\\) **4**:. 939\\. By the time of the premiere on 11 March 1867, \"all spontaneity had been lost.\" The production was not a success, although it did achieve 43 performances before disappearing from the repertoire until modern times. Some reviews specifically mentioned that the voice of Morère in the role of Don Carlos was inadequate for the part and characterized Mme Sass's portrayal as \"bored\" and \"listless\".Budden (1981\\), p. 26\\. Verdi later wrote to Du Locle (14 March 1868\\): \"Ah, if only Sasse could be persuaded that the part is better than she believes. In Italy [Stolz](/wiki/Teresa_Stolz \"Teresa Stolz\") turned it into the main role.\"[Conati, p. 66n](https://books.google.com/books?id=kRo48TDPd08C&q=%2214%20March%201868%22%20Sasse%20Stolz&pg=PA66). However, it should also be remembered that in 1867 Marie Sasse's marriage fell apart, and she divorced Armand Castelmary.",
""
] |
Customs and religion
--------------------
[thumb\|left\|The Tahol Murut Cultural Center in Desa Libang, Lumbis, [Nunukan](/wiki/Nunukan_Regency "Nunukan Regency"), [North Kalimantan](/wiki/North_Kalimantan "North Kalimantan"), Indonesia](/wiki/File:Baloi_Adat_Dayak_Tahol.JPG "Baloi Adat Dayak Tahol.JPG")
{{bar box
\|title\=Religions of Muruts (Malaysians only){{cite web\|url\=http://www.statistics.gov.my/portal/download\_Population/files/census2010/Taburan\_Penduduk\_dan\_Ciri\-ciri\_Asas\_Demografi.pdf\|title\= 2010 Population and Housing Census of Malaysia\|language\=ms, en\|access\-date\=17 June 2012\|publisher\=Department of Statistics, Malaysia\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121011081938/http://www.statistics.gov.my/portal/download\_Population/files/census2010/Taburan\_Penduduk\_dan\_Ciri\-ciri\_Asas\_Demografi.pdf\|archive\-date\=11 October 2012\|url\-status\=dead}} p. 107
\|titlebar\=
\|left1\=Religion
\|right1\=Percent
\|float\=right
\|bars\=
{{bar percent\|\[\[Christianity]]\|DodgerBlue\|80\.19}}
{{bar percent\|\[\[Islam]]\|LimeGreen\|18\.04}}
{{bar percent\|\[\[Folk religion]] / Other religions\|MediumVioletRed\|0\.21}}
{{bar percent\|\[\[Irreligion\|No religion / Unknown]]\|Gray\|1\.56}}
}}
The Murut were the last of Sabah's ethnic groups to renounce [headhunting](/wiki/Headhunting "Headhunting"). As with the [Iban](/wiki/Iban_people "Iban people") of [Sarawak](/wiki/Sarawak "Sarawak"), collecting heads of enemies traditionally served a very important role in Murut spiritual beliefs. For example, a man could only get married after he presented at least one head to the family of the desired girl.
The Murut were shifting cultivators of hill [padi](/wiki/Rice "Rice") and [tapioca](/wiki/Tapioca "Tapioca"), supplementing their diet with [blowpipe](/wiki/Blowgun "Blowgun") hunting and with some [fishing](/wiki/Fishing "Fishing"). They live in communal [longhouses](/wiki/Longhouse "Longhouse"), usually near rivers, using the rivers as their highways. Most have now converted to [Christianity](/wiki/Christianity "Christianity"), with about a fifth of the population being Muslims. However, they still maintain their culture.
Traditional dress for men was a jacket made of tree bark (*[Artocarpus tamaran](/wiki/Artocarpus_tamaran "Artocarpus tamaran")*), a red [loincloth](/wiki/Loincloth "Loincloth"), and a headdress decorated with [Argus pheasant](/wiki/Argus_pheasant "Argus pheasant") feathers. Women wore a black sleeveless blouse and [sarong](/wiki/Sarong "Sarong"), which fell just below the knees. Like most of the other indigenous groups in Sabah, the Murut decorated their clothing with distinctive [beadwork](/wiki/Beadwork "Beadwork") and also made belts out of old [silver](/wiki/Silver "Silver") coins. Another belt made of reddish\-brown glass beads plus yellow and blue beads was hung loosely around the waist.
Murut wedding or funeral feasts can last several days. Ancient Chinese jars hold a prominent status in Murut customs. Jars are also a place of spirits, and larger jars were formerly used as coffins.
### Musical heritage
{{main\|Agung}}
The Murut have a musical heritage consisting of various types of [agung ensembles](/wiki/Agung%23In_agung_ensembles "Agung#In agung ensembles") – ensembles composed of large hanging, suspended or held, bossed/knobbed [gongs](/wiki/Gong "Gong") which act as a drone without any accompanying melodic instrument.{{cite web
\| last \= Mercurio
\| first \= Philip Dominguez
\| year \= 2006
\| url \= http://www.pnoyandthecity.blogspot.com
\| title \= Traditional Music of the Southern Philippines
\| work \= PnoyAndTheCity: A center for Kulintang – A home for Pasikings
\| access\-date \= 25 February 2006
}}Matusky, Patricia. "An Introduction to the Major Instruments and Forms of Traditional Malay Music." Asian Music Vol 16\. No. 2\. (Spring\-Summer 1985\), pp. 121–182\.
Murut also used bamboo as a musical instrument, by using bamboo to compose songs. Some musical instrument like tangkung (similar to that of a guitar, except it has only two strings) is made from wood. Tangkung is usually played during their leisure time.
### Ontoros Antanom/Antanum
{{main\|Antanum}}
Antanum was a famous and influential Murut warrior from Sabah who according to local oral history claimed to have supernatural powers. Because of this, he was able to receive support from the chiefs and villagers from around Keningau, Tenom, Pensiangan, and [Rundum](/wiki/Rundum "Rundum") and led the [Rundum uprising](/wiki/Rundum_uprising "Rundum uprising") against the [British North Borneo Company](/wiki/British_North_Borneo_Company "British North Borneo Company") but was killed during fighting with the company army in Sungai Selangit near Pensiangan.\*{{Cite book \|last\=Regina Lim \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=bM4HifRARgYC\&q\=%22Antanum%22\&pg\=PA29 \|title\=Federal\-State Relations in Sabah, Malaysia: The Berjaya Administration, 1976–85 \|publisher\=Institute of Southeast Asian Studies \|year\=2008 \|isbn\=9789812308122 \|page\=29}}
|
[
"Customs and religion\n--------------------",
"[thumb\\|left\\|The Tahol Murut Cultural Center in Desa Libang, Lumbis, [Nunukan](/wiki/Nunukan_Regency \"Nunukan Regency\"), [North Kalimantan](/wiki/North_Kalimantan \"North Kalimantan\"), Indonesia](/wiki/File:Baloi_Adat_Dayak_Tahol.JPG \"Baloi Adat Dayak Tahol.JPG\")\n{{bar box\n\\|title\\=Religions of Muruts (Malaysians only){{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.statistics.gov.my/portal/download\\_Population/files/census2010/Taburan\\_Penduduk\\_dan\\_Ciri\\-ciri\\_Asas\\_Demografi.pdf\\|title\\= 2010 Population and Housing Census of Malaysia\\|language\\=ms, en\\|access\\-date\\=17 June 2012\\|publisher\\=Department of Statistics, Malaysia\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121011081938/http://www.statistics.gov.my/portal/download\\_Population/files/census2010/Taburan\\_Penduduk\\_dan\\_Ciri\\-ciri\\_Asas\\_Demografi.pdf\\|archive\\-date\\=11 October 2012\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} p. 107\n\\|titlebar\\=\n\\|left1\\=Religion\n\\|right1\\=Percent\n\\|float\\=right\n\\|bars\\=\n{{bar percent\\|\\[\\[Christianity]]\\|DodgerBlue\\|80\\.19}}\n{{bar percent\\|\\[\\[Islam]]\\|LimeGreen\\|18\\.04}}\n{{bar percent\\|\\[\\[Folk religion]] / Other religions\\|MediumVioletRed\\|0\\.21}}\n{{bar percent\\|\\[\\[Irreligion\\|No religion / Unknown]]\\|Gray\\|1\\.56}}\n}}",
"The Murut were the last of Sabah's ethnic groups to renounce [headhunting](/wiki/Headhunting \"Headhunting\"). As with the [Iban](/wiki/Iban_people \"Iban people\") of [Sarawak](/wiki/Sarawak \"Sarawak\"), collecting heads of enemies traditionally served a very important role in Murut spiritual beliefs. For example, a man could only get married after he presented at least one head to the family of the desired girl.",
"The Murut were shifting cultivators of hill [padi](/wiki/Rice \"Rice\") and [tapioca](/wiki/Tapioca \"Tapioca\"), supplementing their diet with [blowpipe](/wiki/Blowgun \"Blowgun\") hunting and with some [fishing](/wiki/Fishing \"Fishing\"). They live in communal [longhouses](/wiki/Longhouse \"Longhouse\"), usually near rivers, using the rivers as their highways. Most have now converted to [Christianity](/wiki/Christianity \"Christianity\"), with about a fifth of the population being Muslims. However, they still maintain their culture.",
"Traditional dress for men was a jacket made of tree bark (*[Artocarpus tamaran](/wiki/Artocarpus_tamaran \"Artocarpus tamaran\")*), a red [loincloth](/wiki/Loincloth \"Loincloth\"), and a headdress decorated with [Argus pheasant](/wiki/Argus_pheasant \"Argus pheasant\") feathers. Women wore a black sleeveless blouse and [sarong](/wiki/Sarong \"Sarong\"), which fell just below the knees. Like most of the other indigenous groups in Sabah, the Murut decorated their clothing with distinctive [beadwork](/wiki/Beadwork \"Beadwork\") and also made belts out of old [silver](/wiki/Silver \"Silver\") coins. Another belt made of reddish\\-brown glass beads plus yellow and blue beads was hung loosely around the waist.",
"Murut wedding or funeral feasts can last several days. Ancient Chinese jars hold a prominent status in Murut customs. Jars are also a place of spirits, and larger jars were formerly used as coffins.",
"### Musical heritage",
"{{main\\|Agung}}\nThe Murut have a musical heritage consisting of various types of [agung ensembles](/wiki/Agung%23In_agung_ensembles \"Agung#In agung ensembles\") – ensembles composed of large hanging, suspended or held, bossed/knobbed [gongs](/wiki/Gong \"Gong\") which act as a drone without any accompanying melodic instrument.{{cite web\n \\| last \\= Mercurio\n \\| first \\= Philip Dominguez\n \\| year \\= 2006\n \\| url \\= http://www.pnoyandthecity.blogspot.com\n \\| title \\= Traditional Music of the Southern Philippines\n \\| work \\= PnoyAndTheCity: A center for Kulintang – A home for Pasikings\n \\| access\\-date \\= 25 February 2006\n}}Matusky, Patricia. \"An Introduction to the Major Instruments and Forms of Traditional Malay Music.\" Asian Music Vol 16\\. No. 2\\. (Spring\\-Summer 1985\\), pp. 121–182\\.",
"Murut also used bamboo as a musical instrument, by using bamboo to compose songs. Some musical instrument like tangkung (similar to that of a guitar, except it has only two strings) is made from wood. Tangkung is usually played during their leisure time.",
"### Ontoros Antanom/Antanum",
"{{main\\|Antanum}}\nAntanum was a famous and influential Murut warrior from Sabah who according to local oral history claimed to have supernatural powers. Because of this, he was able to receive support from the chiefs and villagers from around Keningau, Tenom, Pensiangan, and [Rundum](/wiki/Rundum \"Rundum\") and led the [Rundum uprising](/wiki/Rundum_uprising \"Rundum uprising\") against the [British North Borneo Company](/wiki/British_North_Borneo_Company \"British North Borneo Company\") but was killed during fighting with the company army in Sungai Selangit near Pensiangan.\\*{{Cite book \\|last\\=Regina Lim \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=bM4HifRARgYC\\&q\\=%22Antanum%22\\&pg\\=PA29 \\|title\\=Federal\\-State Relations in Sabah, Malaysia: The Berjaya Administration, 1976–85 \\|publisher\\=Institute of Southeast Asian Studies \\|year\\=2008 \\|isbn\\=9789812308122 \\|page\\=29}}",
""
] |
Politics
--------
### 2022
Jama sought the [Ontario New Democratic Party](/wiki/Ontario_New_Democratic_Party "Ontario New Democratic Party") (NDP) nomination for [member of Provincial Parliament](/wiki/Member_of_Provincial_Parliament_%28Canada%29 "Member of Provincial Parliament (Canada)") (MPP; a member of the [Legislative Assembly](/wiki/Legislative_Assembly_of_Ontario "Legislative Assembly of Ontario") of the Canadian province of [Ontario](/wiki/Ontario "Ontario")) in the [Hamilton Centre provincial by\-election](/wiki/2023_Hamilton_Centre_provincial_by-election "2023 Hamilton Centre provincial by-election"), after former MPP and NDP leader [Andrea Horwath](/wiki/Andrea_Horwath "Andrea Horwath") resigned to run for mayor.{{cite news \| url\=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/hamilton/hamilton\-centre\-mpp\-ndp\-candidate\-1\.6532314 \| title\=Disability activist Sarah Jama to seek nomination as Ontario NDP candidate for Hamilton Centre \| publisher\=CBC News \| first\=Bobby \| last\=Hristova \| date\=26 July 2022 \| accessdate\=24 October 2023}}{{Cite web\|url\=https://globalnews.ca/news/9019750/local\-activist\-sarah\-jama\-ndp\-candidate\-nomination\-hamilton/\|date\=July 27, 2022\|title\=Local activist Sarah Jama to seek nomination as NDP candidate in Hamilton Centre\|website\=Global News\|author\= Lisa Polewski }} Jama was named the NDP candidate in October 2022\.Bobby Hristova (October 16, 2022\). ["NDP candidate Jama acclaimed"](https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/hamilton/hamilton-centre-mpp-ndp-candidate-sarah-jama-acclaimed-1.6618438) CBC.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.ontariondp.ca/news/sarah\-jama\-chosen\-be\-ndp\-candidate\-hamilton\-centre\|title\=Sarah Jama chosen to be the NDP candidate in Hamilton Centre\|website\=Ontario NDP}}
### 2023
Jama's campaign drew controversy over a statement she made in 2021 that Israel is funding "the killing of people here locally and globally", for which she later apologized.{{cite news\|last\=Ferguson \|first\=Rob \|date\=March 16, 2023 \|title\=NDP candidate Sarah Jama wins provincial Hamilton Centre byelection \|url\=https://www.thestar.com/politics/provincial/ndp\-candidate\-sarah\-jama\-wins\-provincial\-hamilton\-centre\-byelection/article\_77447cd8\-7044\-53af\-bb1b\-7ebe53ce5487\.html \|access\-date\=November 29, 2023 \|work\=\[\[Toronto Star]]}}
On 16 March 2023, Jama was elected as the MPP for Hamilton Centre, garnering 9,477 votes, comprising 54% of the vote.{{cite news\|url\=https://www.chch.com/ndp\-candidate\-sarah\-jama\-elected\-as\-hamilton\-centre\-mpp/\|title\=NDP candidate Sarah Jama elected as Hamilton Centre MPP\|publisher\=\[\[CHCH\-DT]]\|last\=Pope\|first\=Amanda\|date\=16 March 2023 }}{{Cite news\|last\=Bobby \|first\=Hristova \|date\=16 March 2023 \|title\=NDP's Sarah Jama elected as next MPP for Hamilton Centre \|url\=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/hamilton/byelection\-hamilton\-centre\-results\-1\.6781562 \|publisher\=CBC News}}
#### Khader Adnan controversy
In May 2023, Jama retweeted a post about the death of Palestinian prisoner and hunger\-striker [Khader Adnan](/wiki/Khader_Adnan "Khader Adnan"), a former spokesperson for of the [Palestinian Islamic Jihad](/wiki/Palestinian_Islamic_Jihad "Palestinian Islamic Jihad"), which is listed as a [terrorist entity in Canada](/wiki/List_of_organizations_designated_as_terrorist_by_Canada "List of organizations designated as terrorist by Canada").{{cite news\|last\=Stone\|first\=Laura\|date\=3 May 2023 \|title\=Ontario NDP distances itself from newly elected MPP's Twitter repost about Palestinian hunger striker \|url\=https://www.theglobeandmail.com/canada/article\-ontario\-ndp\-distances\-itself\-from\-newly\-elected\-mpps\-twitter\-repost/ \|work\=\[\[The Globe and Mail]]\|url\-access\=subscription}} The post called him a "[martyr](/wiki/Shaheed "Shaheed") for freedom".{{cite news\|last\=Geenen \|first\=Kevin \|date\=9 May 2023 \|title\=Hamilton Centre NDP MPP Sarah Jama under fire for tweet calling convicted terrorist 'martyr of freedom' \|url\=https://hamiltonindependent.ca/hamilton\-centre\-ndp\-mpp\-sarah\-jama\-under\-fire\-for\-tweet\-calling\-convicted\-terrorist\-martyr\-of\-freedom/ \|work\=The Hamilton Independent}} Both [B’nai Brith](/wiki/B%27nai_B%27rith "B'nai B'rith") Canada and the Centre for Israel and Jewish Affairs criticized Jama for sharing the post, B'nai Brith noting that he was a convicted terrorist. Canadians for Justice and Peace in the Middle East opined that Jama was being "unfairly attacked" for retweeting the statement and noted "It would be wrong for the ONDP \[Ontario NDP] to punish their MPP for drawing attention to a powerful example of non\-violent struggle against Israeli apartheid".
#### Censure by the Legislature
On 10 October 2023, two days after the [2023 Israel–Hamas war](/wiki/2023_Israel%E2%80%93Hamas_war "2023 Israel–Hamas war") began, Jama generated controversy by posting a statement under Ontario NDP letterhead referring to what she called "apartheid" and writing about what she described as "continued violation of human rights in [Gaza](/wiki/Gaza_Strip "Gaza Strip")" by Israel, without mentioning either [Hamas](/wiki/Hamas "Hamas") or the [killing three days earlier by Hamas of 1,000 Israeli civilians](/wiki/2023_Hamas-led_attack_on_Israel "2023 Hamas-led attack on Israel").{{cite news\|url\=https://toronto.citynews.ca/2023/10/23/ontario\-ndp\-mpp\-sarah\-jama\-removed\-from\-caucus\-statement/\|title\=Ontario NDP MPP Jama removed from caucus, province passes motion to silence Hamilton legislator\|publisher\=\[\[CityNews\#CityNews Toronto\|CityNews Toronto]]\|last1\=Casaletto\|first1\=Lucas\|last2\=Ranger\|first2\=Michael}}{{cite news\|last\=DeClerq\|first\=Katherine\|date\=24 October 2023 \|title\=What to know about Sarah Jama's censure and ejection from NDP \|url\=https://toronto.ctvnews.ca/what\-to\-know\-about\-sarah\-jama\-s\-censure\-and\-ejection\-from\-ndp\-1\.6614761 \|publisher\=\[\[CFTO\-DT]]}}{{cite tweet\|user\=SarahJama\_\|number\=1711808190889746854\|title\=I'm reflecting on my role as a politician who is participating in this settler colonial system, and I ask that all politicians do the same. \#FreePalastine}}{{Cite news\|title\=MPP Sarah Jama threatens to sue Premier Doug Ford over Israel\-Hamas comments \|last1\=D'Mello\|first1\=Colin\|last2\=Callan\|first2\=Isaac\|date\=20 October 2023 \|url\=https://globalnews.ca/news/10035417/mpp\-sarah\-jama\-threatens\-suit\-doug\-ford/ \|access\-date\=2023\-10\-21 \|publisher\=\[\[Global News]]\|language\=en\-CA}} She also called for the "end \[of] all occupation of Palestinian land" and offered her sympathies to people mourning on both sides.{{cite news\|title\=MPP involved in Hamas\-Israel comments controversy to remain part of Ontario NDP\|date\=11 October 2023 \|last\=Callan\|first\=Isaac\|url\=https://globalnews.ca/news/10018386/sarah\-jama\-israel\-hamas\-comments\-ndp\-caucus/ \|access\-date\=2023\-10\-21 \|publisher\=\[\[Global News]]\|language\=en\-CA}}
Her statement was criticized by Ontario NDP leader [Marit Stiles](/wiki/Marit_Stiles "Marit Stiles"), and prompted Ontario [Liberal](/wiki/Liberal_Party_of_Canada "Liberal Party of Canada") leader [John Fraser](/wiki/John_Fraser_%28Ontario_MPP%29 "John Fraser (Ontario MPP)"), [Premier](/wiki/Premier_of_Ontario "Premier of Ontario") [Doug Ford](/wiki/Doug_Ford "Doug Ford"), and Jewish organizations such as [Holocaust](/wiki/The_Holocaust "The Holocaust") education group Friends of [Simon Wiesenthal Center](/wiki/Simon_Wiesenthal_Center "Simon Wiesenthal Center"), and the [Centre for Israel and Jewish Affairs](/wiki/Centre_for_Israel_and_Jewish_Affairs "Centre for Israel and Jewish Affairs") to call for her resignation from caucus. Ford also publicly stated that Jama had a "long and well\-documented history of [antisemitism](/wiki/Antisemitism "Antisemitism")" and "hateful views", and that she "publicly support\[ed] the rape and murder of innocent Jewish people", and called for her to resign.{{cite news\|url\=https://ca.news.yahoo.com/canadians\-react\-sarah\-jamas\-hamas\-attack\-israel\-palestine\-gaza\-235413483\.html\|title\='It's not what she said, but what she did not say': Canadians weigh in on MPP Sarah Jama's stance on Israel, Palestine\|date\=11 October 2023\|publisher\=\[\[Yahoo! News]] Canada\|last\=Joshi\|first\=Joy}}{{cite tweet\|user\=fordnation\|number\=1712140367573791125\|title\=As premier, I'm doing what @MaritStiles won't. I'm calling on Sarah Jama to resign immediately as a member of the Provincial Parliament.}} In response to Ford's statement, Jama served Ford's office a [cease and desist letter](/wiki/Cease_and_desist "Cease and desist") and threatened to sue him for [libel](/wiki/Defamation "Defamation"); she never did, however, and her timeframe to do so expired.["MPP Sarah Jama’s threat of defamation lawsuit against Doug Ford expires,"](https://www.thestar.com/politics/provincial/mpp-sarah-jamas-threat-of-defamation-lawsuit-against-doug-ford-expires/article_eb716ddc-4aa4-11ef-a123-0bdfee8c0b18.html) *The Toronto Star*. Although Jama released her statements under NDP letterhead, the party was not made aware of the pending statement, and had not endorsed Jama's positions.{{cite news\|last1\=Casaletto \|first1\=Lucas \|last2\=Ranger \|first2\=Michael \|date\=23 October 2023 \|title\=Ontario NDP MPP Sarah Jama removed from caucus \|url\=https://toronto.citynews.ca/2023/10/23/ontario\-ndp\-mpp\-sarah\-jama\-removed\-from\-caucus\-statement/ \|access\-date\=23 October 2023 \|publisher\=\[\[CityNews\#CityNews Toronto\|CityNews Toronto]]\|language\=en}} Stiles privately met with Jama asking her to remove the statement and apologize; Jama subsequently apologized for her posts in a reply to them about 24 hours later on Twitter, but refused to remove the statements and instead pinned her statement to the top of her feed on X.{{cite news\|url\=https://www.tvo.org/article/hamilton\-mpp\-kicked\-out\-of\-ndp\-caucus\-censured\-by\-legislature\|title\=Hamilton MPP kicked out of NDP caucus, censured by legislature; Sarah Jama was expelled from caucus and effectively silenced in the legislature for comments she made about the Israel\-Hamas war\|publisher\=\[\[TVO]]\|date\=October 23, 2023\|access\-date\=April 26, 2024\|location\=Toronto\|last1\=Casey\|first1\=Liam\|last2\=Jones\|first2\=Allison}}
On 23 October 2023, the legislature voted 63\-23 to [censure](/wiki/Censure "Censure") Jama in response to her comments. The NDP voted against the censure, with Stiles noting that it was an "extreme motion" and that "We do not believe the government should use its majority to strip a member of their right to speak and vote. This is an extreme step that will disenfranchise the voters of Hamilton Centre". As a result, she is banned from speaking in the chamber until and unless she retracts and deletes her original statement and formally apologizes.
On May 23, 2024, the [Ontario Superior Court of Justice](/wiki/Ontario_Superior_Court_of_Justice "Ontario Superior Court of Justice"), by way of a three\-justice panel, dismissed her request for a judicial review of her censure.["Why MPP Sarah Jama's Challenge To Dismiss Censure Was Rejected By Ontario Court,"](https://www.timesnownews.com/world/us/us-news/why-mpp-sarah-jamas-challenge-to-dismiss-censure-was-rejected-by-ontario-court-article-110543943) *Time Now News*.["Ontario court throws out request by Hamilton MPP Sarah Jama to overturn Ford government's censorship of her,"](https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/hamilton/sarah-jama-court-1.7217097) *CBC*.
#### Removal from the NDP caucus
On the day of the censure vote, Jama was removed from the NDP caucus.{{cite news\|date\=2023\-10\-23 \|title\=Ontario Premier Ford's government passes motion to silence Hamilton legislator \|url\=https://www.thestar.com/news/canada/ontario\-premier\-fords\-government\-passes\-motion\-to\-silence\-hamilton\-legislator/article\_1405dec6\-a9d0\-5942\-a855\-c88bd1580705\.html\|location\=Toronto\|last1\=Jones\|first1\=Allison\|last2\=Casey\|first2\=Liam\|access\-date\=2023\-10\-23 \|work\=\[\[Toronto Star]]\|language\=en}} In an official party statement, Stiles noted that Jama had been uncooperative with NDP colleagues, making unilateral decisions without party endorsement and endangering the work environment of NDP staff, and had broken the terms of an agreement Stiles had made with Jama, which would have kept her affiliated with the party following Jama's statements on the Israel–Hamas war.{{cite news \|last1\=Beattie \|first1\=Samantha \|last2\=Hristova \|first2\=Bobby \|date\=23 October 2023 \|title\=Ontario NDP kicks Hamilton MPP Sarah Jama from caucus after controversial Gaza comments; Party leader Marit Stiles says Jama's actions since her comments have 'broken the trust' of colleagues \|work\=CBC News \|url\=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/hamilton/jama\-ndp\-caucus\-1\.7005056 \|accessdate\=23 October 2023}} Officials said that staff had worked with Jama on a statement, but it differed from what she said instead publicly in the moments preceding her expulsion. She also had not informed the party about her intention to threaten the Premier with legal action.{{cite news \|last\=DeClerq \|first\=Katherine \|title\=What to know about Sarah Jama's censure and ejection from NDP \|url\=https://toronto.ctvnews.ca/what\-to\-know\-about\-sarah\-jama\-s\-censure\-and\-ejection\-from\-ndp\-1\.6614761 \|date\=24 October 2023 \|publisher\=\[\[CFTO\-DT]]}}
#### Letter denying rapes by Hamas
In November 2023, Jama signed an open letter denying that Israeli women were subjected to rape and sexual violence during [2023 Hamas attack on Israel](/wiki/2023_Hamas_attack_on_Israel "2023 Hamas attack on Israel").{{cite news\|url\=https://torontosun.com/news/provincial/university\-of\-alberta\-sexual\-assault\-centre\-signs\-jamas\-letter\-denying\-jewish\-rapes\|title\=U of A Sexual Assault Centre signs Jama's letter denying Jewish rapes\|newspaper\=\[\[Toronto Sun]]\|date\=18 November 2023\|orig\-date\=Originally published 17 November 2023\|access\-date\=April 26, 2024}}{{cite news\|url\=https://www.westernstandard.news/canadian/watch\-sarah\-jama\-denies\-israeli\-women\-raped\-by\-hamas/50252\|title\=WATCH: Sarah Jama denies Israeli women raped by Hamas\|first\=Jonathan\|last\=Bradley\|date\=15 November 2023\|work\=\[\[Western Standard]]}}{{cite news\|url\=https://torontosun.com/news/provincial/sarah\-jama\-calls\-oct\-7\-hamas\-attack\-on\-israeli\-women\-babies\-misinformation\|title\=Sarah Jama calls Hamas attack on Israeli women, babies misinformation\|date\= November 15, 2023\|last\=Stevenson\|first\=Jane\|newspaper\=\[\[Toronto Sun]]}}{{cite news\|url\=https://globalnews.ca/news/10101350/u\-of\-a\-fires\-director\-of\-sexual\-assault\-centre\-for\-signing\-letter\-questioning\-attacks\-on\-israeli\-women/\|title\=U of A fires director of Sexual Assault Centre for signing letter questioning attacks on Israeli women \|publisher\=\[\[Global News]]\|last\=Ivanov\|first\=Jennifer\|date\=November 18, 2023 }} On November 21, her office stated that Jama had removed her name from the letter.{{cite news\|last\=Hristova \|first\=Bobby \|date\=November 21, 2023 \|title\=Hamilton MPP Sarah Jama removes name from open letter questioning alleged Hamas sexual violence \|url\=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/hamilton/sarah\-jama\-removes\-name\-letter\-hamas\-sexual\-assault\-1\.7033960 \|publisher\=\[\[CBC News]]}}
### 2024
#### Keffiyeh controversy
In April 2024, House Speaker [Ted Arnott](/wiki/Ted_Arnott "Ted Arnott") introduced a [keffiyeh](/wiki/Keffiyeh "Keffiyeh") ban in the Ontario legislature, saying it was being worn to make an overt political statement, which is against the rules of the legislature.{{Cite web \|last\=Staff \|first\=National Post \|date\=April 19, 2024 \|title\=What to know about the Ontario legislature's keffiyeh ban \|url\=https://nationalpost.com/news/canada/ontario\-keffiyeh\-ban \|access\-date\=May 23, 2024 \|website\=National Post}} In the days following the ban, she refused to remove her keffiyeh, and Arnott ordered Jama to leave the chamber and she was subsequently banned from legislature for the rest of the day. This event repeated itself numerous times at [Queen's Park](/wiki/Ontario_Legislative_Building "Ontario Legislative Building"), and two other members of the NDP followed in her footsteps.{{Cite web \|date\=2024\-05\-06 \|title\=Ontario MPP asked again to leave Ontario legislature over keffiyeh, Speaker loosens ban \|url\=https://www.cp24\.com/news/ontario\-mpp\-asked\-again\-to\-leave\-ontario\-legislature\-over\-keffiyeh\-speaker\-loosens\-ban\-1\.6875240 \|access\-date\=2024\-05\-23 \|website\=CP24 \|language\=en}} On May 6, 2024, Ted Arnott loosened the rules surrounding the keffiyeh to allow it to be worn in the Queen's Park assembly building legislative precinct except inside the house legislative chamber and galleries.["Three Ontario lawmakers told to leave chamber for donning keffiyeh,"](https://www.dawn.com/news/1832194) *Dawn*.{{Cite web \|date\=2024\-05\-06 \|title\=Ontario legislature keffiyeh ban loosened, but not overturned \|url\=https://qpbriefing.com/news/\[object%20Object \|access\-date\=2024\-05\-23 \|website\=QP Briefing \|language\=en}} As recently as May 6, 2024, Jama was ordered to leave the chambers. Jama said she had no intention of ending her stand of solidarity with the Palestinian people.
#### Support for intifada
In May 2024, Jama speaking to a pro\-Palestine protest encampment at McMaster University yelled: "Globalize the [intifada](/wiki/Intifada "Intifada")."["Ontario MPP Sarah Jama calls to “globalize the Intifada” at McMaster University,"](https://tnc.news/2024/05/07/ontario-mpp-jama-calls-globalize-intifada/) True North. This prompted concern from a number of quarters, including B’nai Brith and the Centre for Israel and Jewish Affairs.
### Electoral record
#### [2023 Hamilton Centre provincial by\-election](/wiki/2023_Hamilton_Centre_provincial_by-election "2023 Hamilton Centre provincial by-election")
{{Canadian election result/top\|ON\|Hamilton Centre\|percent\=yes\|change\=yes\|expenditures\=yes\|by\=yes\|reason\=Resignation of \[\[Andrea Horwath]]\|prelim\=no}}
{{CANelec\|ON\|NDP\|Sarah Jama\|9,477\|54\.28\| \-2\.98}}
{{CANelec\|ON\|Liberal\|Deirdre Pike\|3,542\|20\.07\| \+7\.04}}
{{CANelec\|ON\|PC\|Pete Wiesner\|2,690\|15\.52\| \-0\.95}}
{{CANelec\|ON\|Green\|Lucia Iannantuono\|1,206\|6\.93\| \-1\.84}}
{{CANelec\|ON\|New Blue\|Lee Weiss Vassor\|148\|0\.84\| \-0\.82}}
{{CANelec\|ON\|Electoral Reform\|Peter House\|121\| 0\.69\|}}
{{CANelec\|ON\|Libertarian\|Mark Snow\|109\|0\.60\|}}
{{CANelec\|ON\|Independent\|Matthew Lingard\|98\|0\.58\|}}
{{CANelec\|ON\|Independent\|Nathalie Xian Yi Yan\|51\|0\.29\| \-0\.21}}
{{CANelec\|ON\|Independent\|\[\[John Turmel]]\|38\|0\.21\|}}
{{CANelec/total\|Total valid votes\|17,612\|\|\+}}
{{CANelec/total\|Total rejected, unmarked and declined ballots\| \|\|\-}}
{{CANelec/total\|Turnout\| \|21\.97\|\-15\.97}}
{{CANelec/total\|Eligible voters\|80,172}}
{{CANelec/hold\|ON\|NDP\|\-5\.01}}
{{CANelec/source\|Source: \[\[Elections Ontario]]{{cite web \| url\=https://www.elections.on.ca/content/dam/NGW/sitecontent/2023/results/Vote%20Totals%20Report%20From%20Official%20Tabulation%20\-%20Hamilton%20Centre%20036\.xlsx \| title\=Vote Totals Report From Official Tabulation \- Hamilton Centre \| publisher\=Elections Ontario \| date\=2023 \| accessdate\=24 October 2023}}\| }}
{{end}}
|
[
"Politics\n--------",
"### 2022",
"Jama sought the [Ontario New Democratic Party](/wiki/Ontario_New_Democratic_Party \"Ontario New Democratic Party\") (NDP) nomination for [member of Provincial Parliament](/wiki/Member_of_Provincial_Parliament_%28Canada%29 \"Member of Provincial Parliament (Canada)\") (MPP; a member of the [Legislative Assembly](/wiki/Legislative_Assembly_of_Ontario \"Legislative Assembly of Ontario\") of the Canadian province of [Ontario](/wiki/Ontario \"Ontario\")) in the [Hamilton Centre provincial by\\-election](/wiki/2023_Hamilton_Centre_provincial_by-election \"2023 Hamilton Centre provincial by-election\"), after former MPP and NDP leader [Andrea Horwath](/wiki/Andrea_Horwath \"Andrea Horwath\") resigned to run for mayor.{{cite news \\| url\\=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/hamilton/hamilton\\-centre\\-mpp\\-ndp\\-candidate\\-1\\.6532314 \\| title\\=Disability activist Sarah Jama to seek nomination as Ontario NDP candidate for Hamilton Centre \\| publisher\\=CBC News \\| first\\=Bobby \\| last\\=Hristova \\| date\\=26 July 2022 \\| accessdate\\=24 October 2023}}{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://globalnews.ca/news/9019750/local\\-activist\\-sarah\\-jama\\-ndp\\-candidate\\-nomination\\-hamilton/\\|date\\=July 27, 2022\\|title\\=Local activist Sarah Jama to seek nomination as NDP candidate in Hamilton Centre\\|website\\=Global News\\|author\\= Lisa Polewski }} Jama was named the NDP candidate in October 2022\\.Bobby Hristova (October 16, 2022\\). [\"NDP candidate Jama acclaimed\"](https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/hamilton/hamilton-centre-mpp-ndp-candidate-sarah-jama-acclaimed-1.6618438) CBC.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.ontariondp.ca/news/sarah\\-jama\\-chosen\\-be\\-ndp\\-candidate\\-hamilton\\-centre\\|title\\=Sarah Jama chosen to be the NDP candidate in Hamilton Centre\\|website\\=Ontario NDP}}",
"### 2023",
"Jama's campaign drew controversy over a statement she made in 2021 that Israel is funding \"the killing of people here locally and globally\", for which she later apologized.{{cite news\\|last\\=Ferguson \\|first\\=Rob \\|date\\=March 16, 2023 \\|title\\=NDP candidate Sarah Jama wins provincial Hamilton Centre byelection \\|url\\=https://www.thestar.com/politics/provincial/ndp\\-candidate\\-sarah\\-jama\\-wins\\-provincial\\-hamilton\\-centre\\-byelection/article\\_77447cd8\\-7044\\-53af\\-bb1b\\-7ebe53ce5487\\.html \\|access\\-date\\=November 29, 2023 \\|work\\=\\[\\[Toronto Star]]}}",
"On 16 March 2023, Jama was elected as the MPP for Hamilton Centre, garnering 9,477 votes, comprising 54% of the vote.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.chch.com/ndp\\-candidate\\-sarah\\-jama\\-elected\\-as\\-hamilton\\-centre\\-mpp/\\|title\\=NDP candidate Sarah Jama elected as Hamilton Centre MPP\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[CHCH\\-DT]]\\|last\\=Pope\\|first\\=Amanda\\|date\\=16 March 2023 }}{{Cite news\\|last\\=Bobby \\|first\\=Hristova \\|date\\=16 March 2023 \\|title\\=NDP's Sarah Jama elected as next MPP for Hamilton Centre \\|url\\=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/hamilton/byelection\\-hamilton\\-centre\\-results\\-1\\.6781562 \\|publisher\\=CBC News}}",
"#### Khader Adnan controversy",
"In May 2023, Jama retweeted a post about the death of Palestinian prisoner and hunger\\-striker [Khader Adnan](/wiki/Khader_Adnan \"Khader Adnan\"), a former spokesperson for of the [Palestinian Islamic Jihad](/wiki/Palestinian_Islamic_Jihad \"Palestinian Islamic Jihad\"), which is listed as a [terrorist entity in Canada](/wiki/List_of_organizations_designated_as_terrorist_by_Canada \"List of organizations designated as terrorist by Canada\").{{cite news\\|last\\=Stone\\|first\\=Laura\\|date\\=3 May 2023 \\|title\\=Ontario NDP distances itself from newly elected MPP's Twitter repost about Palestinian hunger striker \\|url\\=https://www.theglobeandmail.com/canada/article\\-ontario\\-ndp\\-distances\\-itself\\-from\\-newly\\-elected\\-mpps\\-twitter\\-repost/ \\|work\\=\\[\\[The Globe and Mail]]\\|url\\-access\\=subscription}} The post called him a \"[martyr](/wiki/Shaheed \"Shaheed\") for freedom\".{{cite news\\|last\\=Geenen \\|first\\=Kevin \\|date\\=9 May 2023 \\|title\\=Hamilton Centre NDP MPP Sarah Jama under fire for tweet calling convicted terrorist 'martyr of freedom' \\|url\\=https://hamiltonindependent.ca/hamilton\\-centre\\-ndp\\-mpp\\-sarah\\-jama\\-under\\-fire\\-for\\-tweet\\-calling\\-convicted\\-terrorist\\-martyr\\-of\\-freedom/ \\|work\\=The Hamilton Independent}} Both [B’nai Brith](/wiki/B%27nai_B%27rith \"B'nai B'rith\") Canada and the Centre for Israel and Jewish Affairs criticized Jama for sharing the post, B'nai Brith noting that he was a convicted terrorist. Canadians for Justice and Peace in the Middle East opined that Jama was being \"unfairly attacked\" for retweeting the statement and noted \"It would be wrong for the ONDP \\[Ontario NDP] to punish their MPP for drawing attention to a powerful example of non\\-violent struggle against Israeli apartheid\".",
"#### Censure by the Legislature",
"On 10 October 2023, two days after the [2023 Israel–Hamas war](/wiki/2023_Israel%E2%80%93Hamas_war \"2023 Israel–Hamas war\") began, Jama generated controversy by posting a statement under Ontario NDP letterhead referring to what she called \"apartheid\" and writing about what she described as \"continued violation of human rights in [Gaza](/wiki/Gaza_Strip \"Gaza Strip\")\" by Israel, without mentioning either [Hamas](/wiki/Hamas \"Hamas\") or the [killing three days earlier by Hamas of 1,000 Israeli civilians](/wiki/2023_Hamas-led_attack_on_Israel \"2023 Hamas-led attack on Israel\").{{cite news\\|url\\=https://toronto.citynews.ca/2023/10/23/ontario\\-ndp\\-mpp\\-sarah\\-jama\\-removed\\-from\\-caucus\\-statement/\\|title\\=Ontario NDP MPP Jama removed from caucus, province passes motion to silence Hamilton legislator\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[CityNews\\#CityNews Toronto\\|CityNews Toronto]]\\|last1\\=Casaletto\\|first1\\=Lucas\\|last2\\=Ranger\\|first2\\=Michael}}{{cite news\\|last\\=DeClerq\\|first\\=Katherine\\|date\\=24 October 2023 \\|title\\=What to know about Sarah Jama's censure and ejection from NDP \\|url\\=https://toronto.ctvnews.ca/what\\-to\\-know\\-about\\-sarah\\-jama\\-s\\-censure\\-and\\-ejection\\-from\\-ndp\\-1\\.6614761 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[CFTO\\-DT]]}}{{cite tweet\\|user\\=SarahJama\\_\\|number\\=1711808190889746854\\|title\\=I'm reflecting on my role as a politician who is participating in this settler colonial system, and I ask that all politicians do the same. \\#FreePalastine}}{{Cite news\\|title\\=MPP Sarah Jama threatens to sue Premier Doug Ford over Israel\\-Hamas comments \\|last1\\=D'Mello\\|first1\\=Colin\\|last2\\=Callan\\|first2\\=Isaac\\|date\\=20 October 2023 \\|url\\=https://globalnews.ca/news/10035417/mpp\\-sarah\\-jama\\-threatens\\-suit\\-doug\\-ford/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-10\\-21 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Global News]]\\|language\\=en\\-CA}} She also called for the \"end \\[of] all occupation of Palestinian land\" and offered her sympathies to people mourning on both sides.{{cite news\\|title\\=MPP involved in Hamas\\-Israel comments controversy to remain part of Ontario NDP\\|date\\=11 October 2023 \\|last\\=Callan\\|first\\=Isaac\\|url\\=https://globalnews.ca/news/10018386/sarah\\-jama\\-israel\\-hamas\\-comments\\-ndp\\-caucus/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-10\\-21 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Global News]]\\|language\\=en\\-CA}}",
"Her statement was criticized by Ontario NDP leader [Marit Stiles](/wiki/Marit_Stiles \"Marit Stiles\"), and prompted Ontario [Liberal](/wiki/Liberal_Party_of_Canada \"Liberal Party of Canada\") leader [John Fraser](/wiki/John_Fraser_%28Ontario_MPP%29 \"John Fraser (Ontario MPP)\"), [Premier](/wiki/Premier_of_Ontario \"Premier of Ontario\") [Doug Ford](/wiki/Doug_Ford \"Doug Ford\"), and Jewish organizations such as [Holocaust](/wiki/The_Holocaust \"The Holocaust\") education group Friends of [Simon Wiesenthal Center](/wiki/Simon_Wiesenthal_Center \"Simon Wiesenthal Center\"), and the [Centre for Israel and Jewish Affairs](/wiki/Centre_for_Israel_and_Jewish_Affairs \"Centre for Israel and Jewish Affairs\") to call for her resignation from caucus. Ford also publicly stated that Jama had a \"long and well\\-documented history of [antisemitism](/wiki/Antisemitism \"Antisemitism\")\" and \"hateful views\", and that she \"publicly support\\[ed] the rape and murder of innocent Jewish people\", and called for her to resign.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://ca.news.yahoo.com/canadians\\-react\\-sarah\\-jamas\\-hamas\\-attack\\-israel\\-palestine\\-gaza\\-235413483\\.html\\|title\\='It's not what she said, but what she did not say': Canadians weigh in on MPP Sarah Jama's stance on Israel, Palestine\\|date\\=11 October 2023\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Yahoo! News]] Canada\\|last\\=Joshi\\|first\\=Joy}}{{cite tweet\\|user\\=fordnation\\|number\\=1712140367573791125\\|title\\=As premier, I'm doing what @MaritStiles won't. I'm calling on Sarah Jama to resign immediately as a member of the Provincial Parliament.}} In response to Ford's statement, Jama served Ford's office a [cease and desist letter](/wiki/Cease_and_desist \"Cease and desist\") and threatened to sue him for [libel](/wiki/Defamation \"Defamation\"); she never did, however, and her timeframe to do so expired.[\"MPP Sarah Jama’s threat of defamation lawsuit against Doug Ford expires,\"](https://www.thestar.com/politics/provincial/mpp-sarah-jamas-threat-of-defamation-lawsuit-against-doug-ford-expires/article_eb716ddc-4aa4-11ef-a123-0bdfee8c0b18.html) *The Toronto Star*. Although Jama released her statements under NDP letterhead, the party was not made aware of the pending statement, and had not endorsed Jama's positions.{{cite news\\|last1\\=Casaletto \\|first1\\=Lucas \\|last2\\=Ranger \\|first2\\=Michael \\|date\\=23 October 2023 \\|title\\=Ontario NDP MPP Sarah Jama removed from caucus \\|url\\=https://toronto.citynews.ca/2023/10/23/ontario\\-ndp\\-mpp\\-sarah\\-jama\\-removed\\-from\\-caucus\\-statement/ \\|access\\-date\\=23 October 2023 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[CityNews\\#CityNews Toronto\\|CityNews Toronto]]\\|language\\=en}} Stiles privately met with Jama asking her to remove the statement and apologize; Jama subsequently apologized for her posts in a reply to them about 24 hours later on Twitter, but refused to remove the statements and instead pinned her statement to the top of her feed on X.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.tvo.org/article/hamilton\\-mpp\\-kicked\\-out\\-of\\-ndp\\-caucus\\-censured\\-by\\-legislature\\|title\\=Hamilton MPP kicked out of NDP caucus, censured by legislature; Sarah Jama was expelled from caucus and effectively silenced in the legislature for comments she made about the Israel\\-Hamas war\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[TVO]]\\|date\\=October 23, 2023\\|access\\-date\\=April 26, 2024\\|location\\=Toronto\\|last1\\=Casey\\|first1\\=Liam\\|last2\\=Jones\\|first2\\=Allison}}",
"On 23 October 2023, the legislature voted 63\\-23 to [censure](/wiki/Censure \"Censure\") Jama in response to her comments. The NDP voted against the censure, with Stiles noting that it was an \"extreme motion\" and that \"We do not believe the government should use its majority to strip a member of their right to speak and vote. This is an extreme step that will disenfranchise the voters of Hamilton Centre\". As a result, she is banned from speaking in the chamber until and unless she retracts and deletes her original statement and formally apologizes.",
"On May 23, 2024, the [Ontario Superior Court of Justice](/wiki/Ontario_Superior_Court_of_Justice \"Ontario Superior Court of Justice\"), by way of a three\\-justice panel, dismissed her request for a judicial review of her censure.[\"Why MPP Sarah Jama's Challenge To Dismiss Censure Was Rejected By Ontario Court,\"](https://www.timesnownews.com/world/us/us-news/why-mpp-sarah-jamas-challenge-to-dismiss-censure-was-rejected-by-ontario-court-article-110543943) *Time Now News*.[\"Ontario court throws out request by Hamilton MPP Sarah Jama to overturn Ford government's censorship of her,\"](https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/hamilton/sarah-jama-court-1.7217097) *CBC*.",
"#### Removal from the NDP caucus",
"On the day of the censure vote, Jama was removed from the NDP caucus.{{cite news\\|date\\=2023\\-10\\-23 \\|title\\=Ontario Premier Ford's government passes motion to silence Hamilton legislator \\|url\\=https://www.thestar.com/news/canada/ontario\\-premier\\-fords\\-government\\-passes\\-motion\\-to\\-silence\\-hamilton\\-legislator/article\\_1405dec6\\-a9d0\\-5942\\-a855\\-c88bd1580705\\.html\\|location\\=Toronto\\|last1\\=Jones\\|first1\\=Allison\\|last2\\=Casey\\|first2\\=Liam\\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-10\\-23 \\|work\\=\\[\\[Toronto Star]]\\|language\\=en}} In an official party statement, Stiles noted that Jama had been uncooperative with NDP colleagues, making unilateral decisions without party endorsement and endangering the work environment of NDP staff, and had broken the terms of an agreement Stiles had made with Jama, which would have kept her affiliated with the party following Jama's statements on the Israel–Hamas war.{{cite news \\|last1\\=Beattie \\|first1\\=Samantha \\|last2\\=Hristova \\|first2\\=Bobby \\|date\\=23 October 2023 \\|title\\=Ontario NDP kicks Hamilton MPP Sarah Jama from caucus after controversial Gaza comments; Party leader Marit Stiles says Jama's actions since her comments have 'broken the trust' of colleagues \\|work\\=CBC News \\|url\\=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/hamilton/jama\\-ndp\\-caucus\\-1\\.7005056 \\|accessdate\\=23 October 2023}} Officials said that staff had worked with Jama on a statement, but it differed from what she said instead publicly in the moments preceding her expulsion. She also had not informed the party about her intention to threaten the Premier with legal action.{{cite news \\|last\\=DeClerq \\|first\\=Katherine \\|title\\=What to know about Sarah Jama's censure and ejection from NDP \\|url\\=https://toronto.ctvnews.ca/what\\-to\\-know\\-about\\-sarah\\-jama\\-s\\-censure\\-and\\-ejection\\-from\\-ndp\\-1\\.6614761 \\|date\\=24 October 2023 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[CFTO\\-DT]]}}",
"#### Letter denying rapes by Hamas",
"In November 2023, Jama signed an open letter denying that Israeli women were subjected to rape and sexual violence during [2023 Hamas attack on Israel](/wiki/2023_Hamas_attack_on_Israel \"2023 Hamas attack on Israel\").{{cite news\\|url\\=https://torontosun.com/news/provincial/university\\-of\\-alberta\\-sexual\\-assault\\-centre\\-signs\\-jamas\\-letter\\-denying\\-jewish\\-rapes\\|title\\=U of A Sexual Assault Centre signs Jama's letter denying Jewish rapes\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[Toronto Sun]]\\|date\\=18 November 2023\\|orig\\-date\\=Originally published 17 November 2023\\|access\\-date\\=April 26, 2024}}{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.westernstandard.news/canadian/watch\\-sarah\\-jama\\-denies\\-israeli\\-women\\-raped\\-by\\-hamas/50252\\|title\\=WATCH: Sarah Jama denies Israeli women raped by Hamas\\|first\\=Jonathan\\|last\\=Bradley\\|date\\=15 November 2023\\|work\\=\\[\\[Western Standard]]}}{{cite news\\|url\\=https://torontosun.com/news/provincial/sarah\\-jama\\-calls\\-oct\\-7\\-hamas\\-attack\\-on\\-israeli\\-women\\-babies\\-misinformation\\|title\\=Sarah Jama calls Hamas attack on Israeli women, babies misinformation\\|date\\= November 15, 2023\\|last\\=Stevenson\\|first\\=Jane\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[Toronto Sun]]}}{{cite news\\|url\\=https://globalnews.ca/news/10101350/u\\-of\\-a\\-fires\\-director\\-of\\-sexual\\-assault\\-centre\\-for\\-signing\\-letter\\-questioning\\-attacks\\-on\\-israeli\\-women/\\|title\\=U of A fires director of Sexual Assault Centre for signing letter questioning attacks on Israeli women \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Global News]]\\|last\\=Ivanov\\|first\\=Jennifer\\|date\\=November 18, 2023 }} On November 21, her office stated that Jama had removed her name from the letter.{{cite news\\|last\\=Hristova \\|first\\=Bobby \\|date\\=November 21, 2023 \\|title\\=Hamilton MPP Sarah Jama removes name from open letter questioning alleged Hamas sexual violence \\|url\\=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/hamilton/sarah\\-jama\\-removes\\-name\\-letter\\-hamas\\-sexual\\-assault\\-1\\.7033960 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[CBC News]]}}",
"### 2024",
"#### Keffiyeh controversy",
"In April 2024, House Speaker [Ted Arnott](/wiki/Ted_Arnott \"Ted Arnott\") introduced a [keffiyeh](/wiki/Keffiyeh \"Keffiyeh\") ban in the Ontario legislature, saying it was being worn to make an overt political statement, which is against the rules of the legislature.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Staff \\|first\\=National Post \\|date\\=April 19, 2024 \\|title\\=What to know about the Ontario legislature's keffiyeh ban \\|url\\=https://nationalpost.com/news/canada/ontario\\-keffiyeh\\-ban \\|access\\-date\\=May 23, 2024 \\|website\\=National Post}} In the days following the ban, she refused to remove her keffiyeh, and Arnott ordered Jama to leave the chamber and she was subsequently banned from legislature for the rest of the day. This event repeated itself numerous times at [Queen's Park](/wiki/Ontario_Legislative_Building \"Ontario Legislative Building\"), and two other members of the NDP followed in her footsteps.{{Cite web \\|date\\=2024\\-05\\-06 \\|title\\=Ontario MPP asked again to leave Ontario legislature over keffiyeh, Speaker loosens ban \\|url\\=https://www.cp24\\.com/news/ontario\\-mpp\\-asked\\-again\\-to\\-leave\\-ontario\\-legislature\\-over\\-keffiyeh\\-speaker\\-loosens\\-ban\\-1\\.6875240 \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-05\\-23 \\|website\\=CP24 \\|language\\=en}} On May 6, 2024, Ted Arnott loosened the rules surrounding the keffiyeh to allow it to be worn in the Queen's Park assembly building legislative precinct except inside the house legislative chamber and galleries.[\"Three Ontario lawmakers told to leave chamber for donning keffiyeh,\"](https://www.dawn.com/news/1832194) *Dawn*.{{Cite web \\|date\\=2024\\-05\\-06 \\|title\\=Ontario legislature keffiyeh ban loosened, but not overturned \\|url\\=https://qpbriefing.com/news/\\[object%20Object \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-05\\-23 \\|website\\=QP Briefing \\|language\\=en}} As recently as May 6, 2024, Jama was ordered to leave the chambers. Jama said she had no intention of ending her stand of solidarity with the Palestinian people.",
"#### Support for intifada",
"In May 2024, Jama speaking to a pro\\-Palestine protest encampment at McMaster University yelled: \"Globalize the [intifada](/wiki/Intifada \"Intifada\").\"[\"Ontario MPP Sarah Jama calls to “globalize the Intifada” at McMaster University,\"](https://tnc.news/2024/05/07/ontario-mpp-jama-calls-globalize-intifada/) True North. This prompted concern from a number of quarters, including B’nai Brith and the Centre for Israel and Jewish Affairs.",
"### Electoral record",
"#### [2023 Hamilton Centre provincial by\\-election](/wiki/2023_Hamilton_Centre_provincial_by-election \"2023 Hamilton Centre provincial by-election\")",
"{{Canadian election result/top\\|ON\\|Hamilton Centre\\|percent\\=yes\\|change\\=yes\\|expenditures\\=yes\\|by\\=yes\\|reason\\=Resignation of \\[\\[Andrea Horwath]]\\|prelim\\=no}}\n{{CANelec\\|ON\\|NDP\\|Sarah Jama\\|9,477\\|54\\.28\\| \\-2\\.98}} \n{{CANelec\\|ON\\|Liberal\\|Deirdre Pike\\|3,542\\|20\\.07\\| \\+7\\.04}}\n{{CANelec\\|ON\\|PC\\|Pete Wiesner\\|2,690\\|15\\.52\\| \\-0\\.95}}\n{{CANelec\\|ON\\|Green\\|Lucia Iannantuono\\|1,206\\|6\\.93\\| \\-1\\.84}}\n{{CANelec\\|ON\\|New Blue\\|Lee Weiss Vassor\\|148\\|0\\.84\\| \\-0\\.82}}\n{{CANelec\\|ON\\|Electoral Reform\\|Peter House\\|121\\| 0\\.69\\|}}\n{{CANelec\\|ON\\|Libertarian\\|Mark Snow\\|109\\|0\\.60\\|}}\n{{CANelec\\|ON\\|Independent\\|Matthew Lingard\\|98\\|0\\.58\\|}}\n{{CANelec\\|ON\\|Independent\\|Nathalie Xian Yi Yan\\|51\\|0\\.29\\| \\-0\\.21}}\n{{CANelec\\|ON\\|Independent\\|\\[\\[John Turmel]]\\|38\\|0\\.21\\|}}\n{{CANelec/total\\|Total valid votes\\|17,612\\|\\|\\+}}\n{{CANelec/total\\|Total rejected, unmarked and declined ballots\\| \\|\\|\\-}}\n{{CANelec/total\\|Turnout\\| \\|21\\.97\\|\\-15\\.97}}\n{{CANelec/total\\|Eligible voters\\|80,172}}\n{{CANelec/hold\\|ON\\|NDP\\|\\-5\\.01}}\n{{CANelec/source\\|Source: \\[\\[Elections Ontario]]{{cite web \\| url\\=https://www.elections.on.ca/content/dam/NGW/sitecontent/2023/results/Vote%20Totals%20Report%20From%20Official%20Tabulation%20\\-%20Hamilton%20Centre%20036\\.xlsx \\| title\\=Vote Totals Report From Official Tabulation \\- Hamilton Centre \\| publisher\\=Elections Ontario \\| date\\=2023 \\| accessdate\\=24 October 2023}}\\| }}\n{{end}}",
""
] |
History
-------
[left\|thumb\|Flag of the Kingdom of Majorca in 1269 by James I](/wiki/File:Flag_of_the_Kingdom_of_Majorca_%281269%29.png "Flag of the Kingdom of Majorca (1269).png")
[thumb\|[Conquest of Majorca](/wiki/Conquest_of_Majorca "Conquest of Majorca") by [James I of Aragon](/wiki/James_I_of_Aragon "James I of Aragon") (1229\)](/wiki/File:Conquest_of_Mallorca_by_James_I_of_Aragon_01.jpg "Conquest of Mallorca by James I of Aragon 01.jpg")
The legacy of James I included the creation of a strategic Mediterranean enclave, including territories between two large kingdoms, the [Capetians](/wiki/House_of_Capet "House of Capet") of [France](/wiki/Kingdom_of_France "Kingdom of France") and the Crown of Aragon, which were in constant conflict at the time. Conscious of the fragility of the Kingdom of Majorca, James I undertook the conquest of Cerdanya to unify the new kingdom. He also entered into negotiations to arrange the marriage of his son James to Beatrice of [Savoy](/wiki/County_of_Savoy "County of Savoy"), daughter of [Amadeus IV, Count of Savoy](/wiki/Amadeus_IV%2C_Count_of_Savoy "Amadeus IV, Count of Savoy"). Neither plan was successful.
On the death of James I, the new King of Majorca, [James II](/wiki/James_II_of_Majorca "James II of Majorca"), decided not to pay tribute to [Peter III of Aragon](/wiki/Peter_III_of_Aragon "Peter III of Aragon"). Preoccupied with diverse problems within the realm, it was not until 1279 when the Majorcan monarch reconciled to have his states recognized as subordinate to the king of Aragon. As a consequence the Kingdom of Majorca could not hold court, and the King of Majorca was forced to go to [Catalonia](/wiki/Catalonia "Catalonia") to present tribute to the King of Aragon. By means of the [Treaty of Perpignan](/wiki/Treaty_of_Perpignan "Treaty of Perpignan") in 1279, an imbalance of power between the Crown of Aragon and the Kingdom of Majorca was created. The Aragonese king maintained the political and economic control of Aragon over the Kingdom of Majorca, reestablishing the unified jurisdiction of the Crown of Aragon, which was broken by the will of James I. This treaty would condition relations between the Kingdom of Majorca and the Crown of Aragon throughout the former's existence. The lack of a parliament later aggravated the destabilization of a kingdom already on the brink of fracture, which, besides this, lacked any common institution beyond the monarchy.
During the [Aragonese Crusade](/wiki/Aragonese_Crusade "Aragonese Crusade"), James II of Majorca allied himself with [Pope Martin IV](/wiki/Pope_Martin_IV "Pope Martin IV") and the French against his brother Peter III of Aragon. As a result, Peter's successor [Alfonso](/wiki/Alfonso_III_of_Aragon "Alfonso III of Aragon") militarily conquered the Kingdom of Majorca in 1286\. However, by the [Treaty of Anagni](/wiki/Treaty_of_Anagni "Treaty of Anagni") in 1295, the new King [James II of Aragon](/wiki/James_II_of_Aragon "James II of Aragon") was required to restore the Balearics to James II of Majorca.
On the death of James II of Majorca's son [Sancho](/wiki/Sancho_of_Majorca "Sancho of Majorca") in 1324, [James III](/wiki/James_III_of_Majorca "James III of Majorca") took the throne at the age of nine, necessitating a regency council headed by his uncle [Philip](/wiki/Philip_of_Majorca "Philip of Majorca") to govern the realm. The situation was difficult since James II of Aragon did not renounce his claim to the Majorcan throne. In 1325, Philip secured the renunciation by the Aragonese king of any claim on the rights of succession of the Majorcan throne after the repayment of a great debt incurred by Sancho during an invasion by [Sardinia](/wiki/Sardinia "Sardinia"). While the act solved the problem of succession, it also plunged the kingdom into a serious financial crisis.
James was forced to develop policies similar to that of Aragon's. To that end, he was forced to participate in the war against the [Republic of Genoa](/wiki/Republic_of_Genoa "Republic of Genoa") (1329–1336\), which resulted in the loss of various economic markets for the kingdom. Again, it was necessary to impose new taxes and fines, which were levied on the Jewish community, though this was insufficient to resolve the financial crisis. The problems of the kingdom did not appear to have an end since in 1341, [Peter IV of Aragon](/wiki/Peter_IV_of_Aragon "Peter IV of Aragon") closed relations with the Kingdom of Majorca as a prelude to invasion. In May 1343, Peter IV invaded the Balearic Islands and followed that in 1344 with the invasions of the counties of [Roussillon](/wiki/Roussillon "Roussillon") and [Cerdanya](/wiki/Cerdanya "Cerdanya"). James III was able to keep only his French possessions. After the sale of these possessions to the King of France in 1349, James III left for Majorca to reconquer his possessions, but he was defeated and killed at the [Battle of Llucmajor](/wiki/Battle_of_Llucmajor "Battle of Llucmajor") on 25 October 1349\. Then, the Kingdom of Majorca was definitively incorporated into the Crown of Aragon.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"[left\\|thumb\\|Flag of the Kingdom of Majorca in 1269 by James I](/wiki/File:Flag_of_the_Kingdom_of_Majorca_%281269%29.png \"Flag of the Kingdom of Majorca (1269).png\")\n[thumb\\|[Conquest of Majorca](/wiki/Conquest_of_Majorca \"Conquest of Majorca\") by [James I of Aragon](/wiki/James_I_of_Aragon \"James I of Aragon\") (1229\\)](/wiki/File:Conquest_of_Mallorca_by_James_I_of_Aragon_01.jpg \"Conquest of Mallorca by James I of Aragon 01.jpg\")",
"The legacy of James I included the creation of a strategic Mediterranean enclave, including territories between two large kingdoms, the [Capetians](/wiki/House_of_Capet \"House of Capet\") of [France](/wiki/Kingdom_of_France \"Kingdom of France\") and the Crown of Aragon, which were in constant conflict at the time. Conscious of the fragility of the Kingdom of Majorca, James I undertook the conquest of Cerdanya to unify the new kingdom. He also entered into negotiations to arrange the marriage of his son James to Beatrice of [Savoy](/wiki/County_of_Savoy \"County of Savoy\"), daughter of [Amadeus IV, Count of Savoy](/wiki/Amadeus_IV%2C_Count_of_Savoy \"Amadeus IV, Count of Savoy\"). Neither plan was successful.",
"On the death of James I, the new King of Majorca, [James II](/wiki/James_II_of_Majorca \"James II of Majorca\"), decided not to pay tribute to [Peter III of Aragon](/wiki/Peter_III_of_Aragon \"Peter III of Aragon\"). Preoccupied with diverse problems within the realm, it was not until 1279 when the Majorcan monarch reconciled to have his states recognized as subordinate to the king of Aragon. As a consequence the Kingdom of Majorca could not hold court, and the King of Majorca was forced to go to [Catalonia](/wiki/Catalonia \"Catalonia\") to present tribute to the King of Aragon. By means of the [Treaty of Perpignan](/wiki/Treaty_of_Perpignan \"Treaty of Perpignan\") in 1279, an imbalance of power between the Crown of Aragon and the Kingdom of Majorca was created. The Aragonese king maintained the political and economic control of Aragon over the Kingdom of Majorca, reestablishing the unified jurisdiction of the Crown of Aragon, which was broken by the will of James I. This treaty would condition relations between the Kingdom of Majorca and the Crown of Aragon throughout the former's existence. The lack of a parliament later aggravated the destabilization of a kingdom already on the brink of fracture, which, besides this, lacked any common institution beyond the monarchy.",
"During the [Aragonese Crusade](/wiki/Aragonese_Crusade \"Aragonese Crusade\"), James II of Majorca allied himself with [Pope Martin IV](/wiki/Pope_Martin_IV \"Pope Martin IV\") and the French against his brother Peter III of Aragon. As a result, Peter's successor [Alfonso](/wiki/Alfonso_III_of_Aragon \"Alfonso III of Aragon\") militarily conquered the Kingdom of Majorca in 1286\\. However, by the [Treaty of Anagni](/wiki/Treaty_of_Anagni \"Treaty of Anagni\") in 1295, the new King [James II of Aragon](/wiki/James_II_of_Aragon \"James II of Aragon\") was required to restore the Balearics to James II of Majorca.",
"On the death of James II of Majorca's son [Sancho](/wiki/Sancho_of_Majorca \"Sancho of Majorca\") in 1324, [James III](/wiki/James_III_of_Majorca \"James III of Majorca\") took the throne at the age of nine, necessitating a regency council headed by his uncle [Philip](/wiki/Philip_of_Majorca \"Philip of Majorca\") to govern the realm. The situation was difficult since James II of Aragon did not renounce his claim to the Majorcan throne. In 1325, Philip secured the renunciation by the Aragonese king of any claim on the rights of succession of the Majorcan throne after the repayment of a great debt incurred by Sancho during an invasion by [Sardinia](/wiki/Sardinia \"Sardinia\"). While the act solved the problem of succession, it also plunged the kingdom into a serious financial crisis.",
"James was forced to develop policies similar to that of Aragon's. To that end, he was forced to participate in the war against the [Republic of Genoa](/wiki/Republic_of_Genoa \"Republic of Genoa\") (1329–1336\\), which resulted in the loss of various economic markets for the kingdom. Again, it was necessary to impose new taxes and fines, which were levied on the Jewish community, though this was insufficient to resolve the financial crisis. The problems of the kingdom did not appear to have an end since in 1341, [Peter IV of Aragon](/wiki/Peter_IV_of_Aragon \"Peter IV of Aragon\") closed relations with the Kingdom of Majorca as a prelude to invasion. In May 1343, Peter IV invaded the Balearic Islands and followed that in 1344 with the invasions of the counties of [Roussillon](/wiki/Roussillon \"Roussillon\") and [Cerdanya](/wiki/Cerdanya \"Cerdanya\"). James III was able to keep only his French possessions. After the sale of these possessions to the King of France in 1349, James III left for Majorca to reconquer his possessions, but he was defeated and killed at the [Battle of Llucmajor](/wiki/Battle_of_Llucmajor \"Battle of Llucmajor\") on 25 October 1349\\. Then, the Kingdom of Majorca was definitively incorporated into the Crown of Aragon.",
""
] |
After completion of the CPR 1885–1947
-------------------------------------
From the completion of the CPR to the end of the [Exclusion Era](/wiki/Chinese_Exclusion_Act_%28Canada%29 "Chinese Exclusion Act (Canada)") (1923–1947\), Chinese in Canada lived in mainly a "bachelors of the backpack society" since most Chinese families could not pay the expensive head tax to send their daughters to Canada.
As with many other groups of immigrants, the Chinese initially found it hard to adjust and assimilate into life in Canada. As a result, they formed [ethnic enclaves](/wiki/Ethnic_enclave "Ethnic enclave") known as "[Chinatowns](/wiki/Chinatown "Chinatown")" where they could live alongside fellow Chinese immigrants, with the vast majority of Chinese Canadians lived in BC during the 1880s.CBC television reporter, Eve Savory: "The National Magazine", 27 June 1997\. Originally, the Chinese were often stereotyped as {{Wikt\-lang\|en\|sojourner\|sojourners}}, meaning temporary. Especially during the 19th century, the white society in British Columbia perceived the Chinese as people who could not be assimilated. In 1885, the [Qing Dynasty](/wiki/Qing_dynasty "Qing dynasty") Consul General [Huang Zunxian](/wiki/Huang_Zunxian "Huang Zunxian") told a [Royal Commission on Chinese Immigration](/wiki/Royal_Commission_on_Chinese_Immigration_%281885%29 "Royal Commission on Chinese Immigration (1885)"):
> \[I]t is charged that the Chinese do not emigrate to foreign countries to remain, but only to earn a sum of money and return to their homes in China. It is only about thirty years since our people commenced emigrating to other lands. A large number have gone to the Straits' Settlements, Manila, Cochin China, and the West India Islands, and are permanently settled there with their families. In Cuba, fully seventy\-five percent have married native women and adopted those Islands as their future homes. Many of those living in the Sandwich Islands have done the same... You must recollect that the Chinese immigrant coming to this country is denied all the rights and privileges extended to others in the way of citizenship; the laws compel them to remain aliens. I know a great many Chinese will be glad to remain here permanently with their families if they are allowed to be naturalized and can enjoy privileges and rights.
By 1886, the population of [Victoria Chinatown](/wiki/Chinatown%2C_Victoria "Chinatown, Victoria") had increased tenfold from the completion of the CPR to over 17,000; and at the turn of the 20th century, there were 17,312 Chinese settlers in Canada. By the 1940s, almost 50% of the Chinese\-Canadian population lived on the West Coast.
### Immigration Acts and Exclusion Era, 1885–1947
In 1885, the Government of Canada passed the *[Chinese Immigration Act, 1885](/wiki/Chinese_Immigration_Act%2C_1885 "Chinese Immigration Act, 1885")*, levying a '[Head Tax](/wiki/Head_Tax_%28Canada%29 "Head Tax (Canada)")' of $50 on any Chinese coming to Canada, thereby making Chinese people the only ethnic group to pay a tax in order to enter Canada. What's more is that, well before the 1885 Act, a series of Chinese tax acts were passed in British Columbia.{{cite web \|url\=http://central.bac\-lac.gc.ca/.redirect?app\=fonandcol\&id\=1423288⟨\=eng \|title\=List of Acts passed in British Columbia in 1873 and 1876, 1877 and 1878, 1879 including the Land Tax Act and Chinese Tax Act \|website\=Library and Archives Canada}} After the 1885 legislation failed to deter Chinese immigration, the Canadian government passed the *[Chinese Immigration Act, 1900](/wiki/Chinese_Immigration_Act%2C_1900 "Chinese Immigration Act, 1900")* to increase the tax to $100\. The Chinese had no choice but to pay it even though it was worth two years' salary of a railway worker.
#### Chinese Consolidated Benevolent Association, 1885
Soon afterward, Chinese merchants among larger Chinese communities formed the [Chinese Consolidated Benevolent Association](/wiki/Chinese_Consolidated_Benevolent_Association "Chinese Consolidated Benevolent Association") (CCBA), which was registered as a charitable organization in August 1884, but effectively served as an "internal administrative institution" in the Chinese\-Canadian community. The CCBA opened their first branch in Victoria in 1885 and a second in Vancouver in 1895\. The Association was mandatory for all Chinese in the area to join and would do everything from representing members in legal disputes to sending the remains of members who died back to their ancestral homelands in China.{{Citation needed\|date\=August 2007}}
[Huang Zunxian](/wiki/Huang_Zunxian "Huang Zunxian"), the Chinese Consulate in San\-Francisco, played an integral role in the establishment of CCBA:
> Now the Honorable Huang Zun Xian permitted to forward our case to the Chinese Ambassador to England to send again an official protest to the British Government. He also instructed that we raise funds, firstly, to hire lawyers for the case, and secondly, to be prepared for the establishment of The Chinese Consolidated Benevolent Association. This Chinese representative body could, therefore, address all the issues concerning the Westerners, and do benevolence by taking care of the sick and the poor Chinese.{{cite web \|url\=https://vault.library.uvic.ca/concern/generic\_works/eedcdddf\-ec05\-408e\-8530\-e95591b43cd2?locale\=en \|title\=Bulletin inviting contributions to the Association \|author\=Chinese Consolidated Benevolent Association \|website\=University of Victoria Libraries Digital Collections}}
With the large extent of discriminatory legislation against Chinese immigrants, CCBA worked actively in seeking external support, for instance, by sending letters to the [Chinese Ambassador to England](/wiki/Chinese_Ambassador_to_the_United_Kingdom "Chinese Ambassador to the United Kingdom") and the [Chinese Foreign Minister](/wiki/Chinese_Foreign_Minister "Chinese Foreign Minister"), as well as corresponding with the Chinese Consul in San\-Francisco. CCBA would also send petitions to local administrations. In 1909, in response to the City of Victoria's policy of segregating Chinese children in public schools, CCBA constructed the [Chinese Public School](/wiki/Chinese_Consolidated_Benevolent_Association_and_Chinese_Public_School "Chinese Consolidated Benevolent Association and Chinese Public School").
In addition, during the early 20th century, fraternal\-political associations such as the [Guomindang](/wiki/Guomindang "Guomindang") and the [Freemasons](/wiki/Freemasonry_in_Canada "Freemasonry in Canada") were involved in Chinatown politics and community issues, adjudicating disputes within the community and speaking for the community to the non\-Chinese world. After legislation in 1896 that stripped Chinese of voting rights in municipal elections in BC, Chinese people in BC became completely disenfranchised. The elector's list in federal elections came from the provincial elector's list, and the provincial ones came from the municipal one.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.collectionscanada.gc.ca/genealogy/022\-905\.002\-e.html \|title\=Canadian Genealogy Centre: Chinese \|website\=Library and Archives Canada \|access\-date\=20 March 2009 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20081207161836/http://www.collectionscanada.gc.ca/genealogy/022\-905\.002\-e.html \|archive\-date\=7 December 2008}}
#### Royal Commission and Chinese professions, 1902–07
In 1902, the federal government appointed a **Royal Commission on Chinese and Japanese Immigration**, which concluded that "the Chinese are more unhealthy as a class than the same class of white people," and that they were "unfit for full citizenship...obnoxious to a free community and dangerous to the state." Through the *[Chinese Immigration Act, 1903](/wiki/Chinese_Immigration_Act%2C_1903 "Chinese Immigration Act, 1903")*, the Government would further increase the landing fees to $500 (equivalent to [CA$](/wiki/Canadian_dollar "Canadian dollar")10,336\.27 in 2021\)Inflation data ([Consumer Price Index](/wiki/Consumer_Price_Index "Consumer Price Index")) since 1914 provided by [Statistics Canada](/wiki/Statistics_Canada "Statistics Canada") can be found e.g. at the [Bank of Canada inflation calculator](http://www.bankofcanada.ca/en/rates/inflation_calc.html) {{Webarchive \|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070510124111/http://www.bankofcanada.ca/en/rates/inflation\_calc.html \|date\=10 May 2007}} following demand by B.C. politicians. Following the 1903 legislation of $500, the number of Chinese who paid the fee in the first fiscal year dropped from 4,719 to 8\.
In addition to federal legislation, municipal ordinances restricted employment opportunities.{{cite journal \|last\=Wai\-Man \|first\=Lee \|date\=Spring–Summer 1984 \|title\=Dance No More: Chinese Hand Laundries in Toronto \|url\=http://epe.lac\-bac.gc.ca/100/205/301/ic/cdc/polyphony/labour\_art4\.html \|journal\=Polyphony \|volume\=6 \|issue\=1 \|page\=32 \|access\-date\=12 August 2013 \|archive\-date\=5 September 2013 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130905054612/http://epe.lac\-bac.gc.ca/100/205/301/ic/cdc/polyphony/labour\_art4\.html \|url\-status\=live}} In BC, Chinese professionals were prohibited from practicing such professions as law, pharmacy, and accountancy. During the next 40 years after 1885, following the completion of the CPR, Chinese persons became involved in the labor behind an [industrializing](/wiki/Industrialisation "Industrialisation") economy. With legislation banning Chinese from many professions, Chinese entered those that non\-Chinese Canadians did not want to do, such as laundry shops or salmon processing. Skilled or semi\-skilled, Chinese Canadians labored in British Columbia sawmills and canneries; others became market gardeners or grocers, pedlars, shopkeepers, and restaurateurs. A "credit\-ticket" system evolved in this time whereby Chinese lenders in China or North America would agree to pay the travel expenses of a migrant who was then bound to the lender until the debt was repaid, despite the fact that such contracts would not be legally enforceable in Canada. Chinese workers opened grocery stores and restaurants that served the whole population, including non\-Chinese, and Chinese cooks became the mainstay in the restaurant and hotel industries as well as in private service. Chinese success at market gardening led to a continuing prominent role in the produce industry in British Columbia. Ethnic discrimination was rampant during these times, as evidenced by large\-scale [Anti\-Asian Riots in Vancouver in 1907](/wiki/Anti-Oriental_Riots_%28Vancouver%29 "Anti-Oriental Riots (Vancouver)").
#### Exclusion Act, 1923
The *Chinese Immigration Act, 1923*, better known as the "Chinese Exclusion Act", replaced prohibitive fees with an outright ban on Chinese immigration to Canada with the exceptions of merchants, diplomats, students, and "special circumstances" cases. (Ethnic Chinese people [with British nationality](/wiki/British_Chinese "British Chinese") were also restricted from entering Canada.) The Chinese who entered Canada prior to 1924 had to register with the local authorities and could leave Canada only for two years or less.{{citation needed\|date\=January 2023}}
Just before the enactment of the Exclusion Act, the Chinese Association of Canada went to Ottawa to lobby against the bill. Since the Act went into effect on 1 July 1923, Chinese people at the time referred to [Dominion Day](/wiki/Canada_Day "Canada Day") as "*Humiliation Day*" and refused to celebrate Dominion Day until after the act was repealed in 1947\. [Vancouver's Chinatown](/wiki/Vancouver_Chinatown "Vancouver Chinatown") during the exclusion era became a thriving economic and social destination that was home to many Chinese Canadians on the West Coast.
The discriminatory laws also gave way to a gender imbalance among Chinese immigrants. Primarily due to the head tax, the cost of bringing a dependent, such as a wife or aged parents, to Canada became prohibitive. As such, Chinese men typically came alone, living as bachelors in Canada. In 1886, there were only 119 females among a total population of 1680;{{cite web \|url\=http://contentdm.library.uvic.ca/cdm/compoundobject/collection/collection2/id/91 \|title\=List of numbers and occupations of Chinese in British Columbia \|author\=Chinese Consolidated Benevolent Association \|website\=University of Victoria Libraries Digital Collections \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150910091807/http://contentdm.library.uvic.ca/cdm/compoundobject/collection/collection2/id/91 \|archive\-date\=10 September 2015}} in 1931, only 3,648 were women among a total Chinese population of 46,519\. A survey was done in 1922 by [Republican China](/wiki/Republic_of_China_%281912%E2%80%931949%29 "Republic of China (1912–1949)")'s Overseas Chinese Bureau showed that, among Victoria Chinatown's whole population of 3,681, only 456 were females.{{cite web \|author\=Chinese Consolidated Benevolent Association \|url\=https://vault.library.uvic.ca/concern/generic\_works/d98257d0\-8200\-4ea9\-ac33\-4d1af1d40190?locale\=en \|title\=Chinese population and their occupations in Victoria \|website\=University of Victoria Libraries Digital Collections}} In the late 1920s, it was estimated that there were only five married Chinese women in Calgary and six in Edmonton.
|
[
"After completion of the CPR 1885–1947\n-------------------------------------",
"From the completion of the CPR to the end of the [Exclusion Era](/wiki/Chinese_Exclusion_Act_%28Canada%29 \"Chinese Exclusion Act (Canada)\") (1923–1947\\), Chinese in Canada lived in mainly a \"bachelors of the backpack society\" since most Chinese families could not pay the expensive head tax to send their daughters to Canada.",
"As with many other groups of immigrants, the Chinese initially found it hard to adjust and assimilate into life in Canada. As a result, they formed [ethnic enclaves](/wiki/Ethnic_enclave \"Ethnic enclave\") known as \"[Chinatowns](/wiki/Chinatown \"Chinatown\")\" where they could live alongside fellow Chinese immigrants, with the vast majority of Chinese Canadians lived in BC during the 1880s.CBC television reporter, Eve Savory: \"The National Magazine\", 27 June 1997\\. Originally, the Chinese were often stereotyped as {{Wikt\\-lang\\|en\\|sojourner\\|sojourners}}, meaning temporary. Especially during the 19th century, the white society in British Columbia perceived the Chinese as people who could not be assimilated. In 1885, the [Qing Dynasty](/wiki/Qing_dynasty \"Qing dynasty\") Consul General [Huang Zunxian](/wiki/Huang_Zunxian \"Huang Zunxian\") told a [Royal Commission on Chinese Immigration](/wiki/Royal_Commission_on_Chinese_Immigration_%281885%29 \"Royal Commission on Chinese Immigration (1885)\"):\n> \\[I]t is charged that the Chinese do not emigrate to foreign countries to remain, but only to earn a sum of money and return to their homes in China. It is only about thirty years since our people commenced emigrating to other lands. A large number have gone to the Straits' Settlements, Manila, Cochin China, and the West India Islands, and are permanently settled there with their families. In Cuba, fully seventy\\-five percent have married native women and adopted those Islands as their future homes. Many of those living in the Sandwich Islands have done the same... You must recollect that the Chinese immigrant coming to this country is denied all the rights and privileges extended to others in the way of citizenship; the laws compel them to remain aliens. I know a great many Chinese will be glad to remain here permanently with their families if they are allowed to be naturalized and can enjoy privileges and rights.",
"By 1886, the population of [Victoria Chinatown](/wiki/Chinatown%2C_Victoria \"Chinatown, Victoria\") had increased tenfold from the completion of the CPR to over 17,000; and at the turn of the 20th century, there were 17,312 Chinese settlers in Canada. By the 1940s, almost 50% of the Chinese\\-Canadian population lived on the West Coast.",
"### Immigration Acts and Exclusion Era, 1885–1947",
"In 1885, the Government of Canada passed the *[Chinese Immigration Act, 1885](/wiki/Chinese_Immigration_Act%2C_1885 \"Chinese Immigration Act, 1885\")*, levying a '[Head Tax](/wiki/Head_Tax_%28Canada%29 \"Head Tax (Canada)\")' of $50 on any Chinese coming to Canada, thereby making Chinese people the only ethnic group to pay a tax in order to enter Canada. What's more is that, well before the 1885 Act, a series of Chinese tax acts were passed in British Columbia.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://central.bac\\-lac.gc.ca/.redirect?app\\=fonandcol\\&id\\=1423288⟨\\=eng \\|title\\=List of Acts passed in British Columbia in 1873 and 1876, 1877 and 1878, 1879 including the Land Tax Act and Chinese Tax Act \\|website\\=Library and Archives Canada}} After the 1885 legislation failed to deter Chinese immigration, the Canadian government passed the *[Chinese Immigration Act, 1900](/wiki/Chinese_Immigration_Act%2C_1900 \"Chinese Immigration Act, 1900\")* to increase the tax to $100\\. The Chinese had no choice but to pay it even though it was worth two years' salary of a railway worker.",
"#### Chinese Consolidated Benevolent Association, 1885",
"Soon afterward, Chinese merchants among larger Chinese communities formed the [Chinese Consolidated Benevolent Association](/wiki/Chinese_Consolidated_Benevolent_Association \"Chinese Consolidated Benevolent Association\") (CCBA), which was registered as a charitable organization in August 1884, but effectively served as an \"internal administrative institution\" in the Chinese\\-Canadian community. The CCBA opened their first branch in Victoria in 1885 and a second in Vancouver in 1895\\. The Association was mandatory for all Chinese in the area to join and would do everything from representing members in legal disputes to sending the remains of members who died back to their ancestral homelands in China.{{Citation needed\\|date\\=August 2007}}",
"[Huang Zunxian](/wiki/Huang_Zunxian \"Huang Zunxian\"), the Chinese Consulate in San\\-Francisco, played an integral role in the establishment of CCBA:\n> Now the Honorable Huang Zun Xian permitted to forward our case to the Chinese Ambassador to England to send again an official protest to the British Government. He also instructed that we raise funds, firstly, to hire lawyers for the case, and secondly, to be prepared for the establishment of The Chinese Consolidated Benevolent Association. This Chinese representative body could, therefore, address all the issues concerning the Westerners, and do benevolence by taking care of the sick and the poor Chinese.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://vault.library.uvic.ca/concern/generic\\_works/eedcdddf\\-ec05\\-408e\\-8530\\-e95591b43cd2?locale\\=en \\|title\\=Bulletin inviting contributions to the Association \\|author\\=Chinese Consolidated Benevolent Association \\|website\\=University of Victoria Libraries Digital Collections}}",
"With the large extent of discriminatory legislation against Chinese immigrants, CCBA worked actively in seeking external support, for instance, by sending letters to the [Chinese Ambassador to England](/wiki/Chinese_Ambassador_to_the_United_Kingdom \"Chinese Ambassador to the United Kingdom\") and the [Chinese Foreign Minister](/wiki/Chinese_Foreign_Minister \"Chinese Foreign Minister\"), as well as corresponding with the Chinese Consul in San\\-Francisco. CCBA would also send petitions to local administrations. In 1909, in response to the City of Victoria's policy of segregating Chinese children in public schools, CCBA constructed the [Chinese Public School](/wiki/Chinese_Consolidated_Benevolent_Association_and_Chinese_Public_School \"Chinese Consolidated Benevolent Association and Chinese Public School\").",
"In addition, during the early 20th century, fraternal\\-political associations such as the [Guomindang](/wiki/Guomindang \"Guomindang\") and the [Freemasons](/wiki/Freemasonry_in_Canada \"Freemasonry in Canada\") were involved in Chinatown politics and community issues, adjudicating disputes within the community and speaking for the community to the non\\-Chinese world. After legislation in 1896 that stripped Chinese of voting rights in municipal elections in BC, Chinese people in BC became completely disenfranchised. The elector's list in federal elections came from the provincial elector's list, and the provincial ones came from the municipal one.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.collectionscanada.gc.ca/genealogy/022\\-905\\.002\\-e.html \\|title\\=Canadian Genealogy Centre: Chinese \\|website\\=Library and Archives Canada \\|access\\-date\\=20 March 2009 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20081207161836/http://www.collectionscanada.gc.ca/genealogy/022\\-905\\.002\\-e.html \\|archive\\-date\\=7 December 2008}}",
"#### Royal Commission and Chinese professions, 1902–07",
"In 1902, the federal government appointed a **Royal Commission on Chinese and Japanese Immigration**, which concluded that \"the Chinese are more unhealthy as a class than the same class of white people,\" and that they were \"unfit for full citizenship...obnoxious to a free community and dangerous to the state.\" Through the *[Chinese Immigration Act, 1903](/wiki/Chinese_Immigration_Act%2C_1903 \"Chinese Immigration Act, 1903\")*, the Government would further increase the landing fees to $500 (equivalent to [CA$](/wiki/Canadian_dollar \"Canadian dollar\")10,336\\.27 in 2021\\)Inflation data ([Consumer Price Index](/wiki/Consumer_Price_Index \"Consumer Price Index\")) since 1914 provided by [Statistics Canada](/wiki/Statistics_Canada \"Statistics Canada\") can be found e.g. at the [Bank of Canada inflation calculator](http://www.bankofcanada.ca/en/rates/inflation_calc.html) {{Webarchive \\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070510124111/http://www.bankofcanada.ca/en/rates/inflation\\_calc.html \\|date\\=10 May 2007}} following demand by B.C. politicians. Following the 1903 legislation of $500, the number of Chinese who paid the fee in the first fiscal year dropped from 4,719 to 8\\.",
"In addition to federal legislation, municipal ordinances restricted employment opportunities.{{cite journal \\|last\\=Wai\\-Man \\|first\\=Lee \\|date\\=Spring–Summer 1984 \\|title\\=Dance No More: Chinese Hand Laundries in Toronto \\|url\\=http://epe.lac\\-bac.gc.ca/100/205/301/ic/cdc/polyphony/labour\\_art4\\.html \\|journal\\=Polyphony \\|volume\\=6 \\|issue\\=1 \\|page\\=32 \\|access\\-date\\=12 August 2013 \\|archive\\-date\\=5 September 2013 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130905054612/http://epe.lac\\-bac.gc.ca/100/205/301/ic/cdc/polyphony/labour\\_art4\\.html \\|url\\-status\\=live}} In BC, Chinese professionals were prohibited from practicing such professions as law, pharmacy, and accountancy. During the next 40 years after 1885, following the completion of the CPR, Chinese persons became involved in the labor behind an [industrializing](/wiki/Industrialisation \"Industrialisation\") economy. With legislation banning Chinese from many professions, Chinese entered those that non\\-Chinese Canadians did not want to do, such as laundry shops or salmon processing. Skilled or semi\\-skilled, Chinese Canadians labored in British Columbia sawmills and canneries; others became market gardeners or grocers, pedlars, shopkeepers, and restaurateurs. A \"credit\\-ticket\" system evolved in this time whereby Chinese lenders in China or North America would agree to pay the travel expenses of a migrant who was then bound to the lender until the debt was repaid, despite the fact that such contracts would not be legally enforceable in Canada. Chinese workers opened grocery stores and restaurants that served the whole population, including non\\-Chinese, and Chinese cooks became the mainstay in the restaurant and hotel industries as well as in private service. Chinese success at market gardening led to a continuing prominent role in the produce industry in British Columbia. Ethnic discrimination was rampant during these times, as evidenced by large\\-scale [Anti\\-Asian Riots in Vancouver in 1907](/wiki/Anti-Oriental_Riots_%28Vancouver%29 \"Anti-Oriental Riots (Vancouver)\").",
"#### Exclusion Act, 1923",
"The *Chinese Immigration Act, 1923*, better known as the \"Chinese Exclusion Act\", replaced prohibitive fees with an outright ban on Chinese immigration to Canada with the exceptions of merchants, diplomats, students, and \"special circumstances\" cases. (Ethnic Chinese people [with British nationality](/wiki/British_Chinese \"British Chinese\") were also restricted from entering Canada.) The Chinese who entered Canada prior to 1924 had to register with the local authorities and could leave Canada only for two years or less.{{citation needed\\|date\\=January 2023}}",
"Just before the enactment of the Exclusion Act, the Chinese Association of Canada went to Ottawa to lobby against the bill. Since the Act went into effect on 1 July 1923, Chinese people at the time referred to [Dominion Day](/wiki/Canada_Day \"Canada Day\") as \"*Humiliation Day*\" and refused to celebrate Dominion Day until after the act was repealed in 1947\\. [Vancouver's Chinatown](/wiki/Vancouver_Chinatown \"Vancouver Chinatown\") during the exclusion era became a thriving economic and social destination that was home to many Chinese Canadians on the West Coast.",
"The discriminatory laws also gave way to a gender imbalance among Chinese immigrants. Primarily due to the head tax, the cost of bringing a dependent, such as a wife or aged parents, to Canada became prohibitive. As such, Chinese men typically came alone, living as bachelors in Canada. In 1886, there were only 119 females among a total population of 1680;{{cite web \\|url\\=http://contentdm.library.uvic.ca/cdm/compoundobject/collection/collection2/id/91 \\|title\\=List of numbers and occupations of Chinese in British Columbia \\|author\\=Chinese Consolidated Benevolent Association \\|website\\=University of Victoria Libraries Digital Collections \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150910091807/http://contentdm.library.uvic.ca/cdm/compoundobject/collection/collection2/id/91 \\|archive\\-date\\=10 September 2015}} in 1931, only 3,648 were women among a total Chinese population of 46,519\\. A survey was done in 1922 by [Republican China](/wiki/Republic_of_China_%281912%E2%80%931949%29 \"Republic of China (1912–1949)\")'s Overseas Chinese Bureau showed that, among Victoria Chinatown's whole population of 3,681, only 456 were females.{{cite web \\|author\\=Chinese Consolidated Benevolent Association \\|url\\=https://vault.library.uvic.ca/concern/generic\\_works/d98257d0\\-8200\\-4ea9\\-ac33\\-4d1af1d40190?locale\\=en \\|title\\=Chinese population and their occupations in Victoria \\|website\\=University of Victoria Libraries Digital Collections}} In the late 1920s, it was estimated that there were only five married Chinese women in Calgary and six in Edmonton.",
""
] |
### Immigration Acts and Exclusion Era, 1885–1947
In 1885, the Government of Canada passed the *[Chinese Immigration Act, 1885](/wiki/Chinese_Immigration_Act%2C_1885 "Chinese Immigration Act, 1885")*, levying a '[Head Tax](/wiki/Head_Tax_%28Canada%29 "Head Tax (Canada)")' of $50 on any Chinese coming to Canada, thereby making Chinese people the only ethnic group to pay a tax in order to enter Canada. What's more is that, well before the 1885 Act, a series of Chinese tax acts were passed in British Columbia.{{cite web \|url\=http://central.bac\-lac.gc.ca/.redirect?app\=fonandcol\&id\=1423288⟨\=eng \|title\=List of Acts passed in British Columbia in 1873 and 1876, 1877 and 1878, 1879 including the Land Tax Act and Chinese Tax Act \|website\=Library and Archives Canada}} After the 1885 legislation failed to deter Chinese immigration, the Canadian government passed the *[Chinese Immigration Act, 1900](/wiki/Chinese_Immigration_Act%2C_1900 "Chinese Immigration Act, 1900")* to increase the tax to $100\. The Chinese had no choice but to pay it even though it was worth two years' salary of a railway worker.
#### Chinese Consolidated Benevolent Association, 1885
Soon afterward, Chinese merchants among larger Chinese communities formed the [Chinese Consolidated Benevolent Association](/wiki/Chinese_Consolidated_Benevolent_Association "Chinese Consolidated Benevolent Association") (CCBA), which was registered as a charitable organization in August 1884, but effectively served as an "internal administrative institution" in the Chinese\-Canadian community. The CCBA opened their first branch in Victoria in 1885 and a second in Vancouver in 1895\. The Association was mandatory for all Chinese in the area to join and would do everything from representing members in legal disputes to sending the remains of members who died back to their ancestral homelands in China.{{Citation needed\|date\=August 2007}}
[Huang Zunxian](/wiki/Huang_Zunxian "Huang Zunxian"), the Chinese Consulate in San\-Francisco, played an integral role in the establishment of CCBA:
> Now the Honorable Huang Zun Xian permitted to forward our case to the Chinese Ambassador to England to send again an official protest to the British Government. He also instructed that we raise funds, firstly, to hire lawyers for the case, and secondly, to be prepared for the establishment of The Chinese Consolidated Benevolent Association. This Chinese representative body could, therefore, address all the issues concerning the Westerners, and do benevolence by taking care of the sick and the poor Chinese.{{cite web \|url\=https://vault.library.uvic.ca/concern/generic\_works/eedcdddf\-ec05\-408e\-8530\-e95591b43cd2?locale\=en \|title\=Bulletin inviting contributions to the Association \|author\=Chinese Consolidated Benevolent Association \|website\=University of Victoria Libraries Digital Collections}}
With the large extent of discriminatory legislation against Chinese immigrants, CCBA worked actively in seeking external support, for instance, by sending letters to the [Chinese Ambassador to England](/wiki/Chinese_Ambassador_to_the_United_Kingdom "Chinese Ambassador to the United Kingdom") and the [Chinese Foreign Minister](/wiki/Chinese_Foreign_Minister "Chinese Foreign Minister"), as well as corresponding with the Chinese Consul in San\-Francisco. CCBA would also send petitions to local administrations. In 1909, in response to the City of Victoria's policy of segregating Chinese children in public schools, CCBA constructed the [Chinese Public School](/wiki/Chinese_Consolidated_Benevolent_Association_and_Chinese_Public_School "Chinese Consolidated Benevolent Association and Chinese Public School").
In addition, during the early 20th century, fraternal\-political associations such as the [Guomindang](/wiki/Guomindang "Guomindang") and the [Freemasons](/wiki/Freemasonry_in_Canada "Freemasonry in Canada") were involved in Chinatown politics and community issues, adjudicating disputes within the community and speaking for the community to the non\-Chinese world. After legislation in 1896 that stripped Chinese of voting rights in municipal elections in BC, Chinese people in BC became completely disenfranchised. The elector's list in federal elections came from the provincial elector's list, and the provincial ones came from the municipal one.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.collectionscanada.gc.ca/genealogy/022\-905\.002\-e.html \|title\=Canadian Genealogy Centre: Chinese \|website\=Library and Archives Canada \|access\-date\=20 March 2009 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20081207161836/http://www.collectionscanada.gc.ca/genealogy/022\-905\.002\-e.html \|archive\-date\=7 December 2008}}
#### Royal Commission and Chinese professions, 1902–07
In 1902, the federal government appointed a **Royal Commission on Chinese and Japanese Immigration**, which concluded that "the Chinese are more unhealthy as a class than the same class of white people," and that they were "unfit for full citizenship...obnoxious to a free community and dangerous to the state." Through the *[Chinese Immigration Act, 1903](/wiki/Chinese_Immigration_Act%2C_1903 "Chinese Immigration Act, 1903")*, the Government would further increase the landing fees to $500 (equivalent to [CA$](/wiki/Canadian_dollar "Canadian dollar")10,336\.27 in 2021\)Inflation data ([Consumer Price Index](/wiki/Consumer_Price_Index "Consumer Price Index")) since 1914 provided by [Statistics Canada](/wiki/Statistics_Canada "Statistics Canada") can be found e.g. at the [Bank of Canada inflation calculator](http://www.bankofcanada.ca/en/rates/inflation_calc.html) {{Webarchive \|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070510124111/http://www.bankofcanada.ca/en/rates/inflation\_calc.html \|date\=10 May 2007}} following demand by B.C. politicians. Following the 1903 legislation of $500, the number of Chinese who paid the fee in the first fiscal year dropped from 4,719 to 8\.
In addition to federal legislation, municipal ordinances restricted employment opportunities.{{cite journal \|last\=Wai\-Man \|first\=Lee \|date\=Spring–Summer 1984 \|title\=Dance No More: Chinese Hand Laundries in Toronto \|url\=http://epe.lac\-bac.gc.ca/100/205/301/ic/cdc/polyphony/labour\_art4\.html \|journal\=Polyphony \|volume\=6 \|issue\=1 \|page\=32 \|access\-date\=12 August 2013 \|archive\-date\=5 September 2013 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130905054612/http://epe.lac\-bac.gc.ca/100/205/301/ic/cdc/polyphony/labour\_art4\.html \|url\-status\=live}} In BC, Chinese professionals were prohibited from practicing such professions as law, pharmacy, and accountancy. During the next 40 years after 1885, following the completion of the CPR, Chinese persons became involved in the labor behind an [industrializing](/wiki/Industrialisation "Industrialisation") economy. With legislation banning Chinese from many professions, Chinese entered those that non\-Chinese Canadians did not want to do, such as laundry shops or salmon processing. Skilled or semi\-skilled, Chinese Canadians labored in British Columbia sawmills and canneries; others became market gardeners or grocers, pedlars, shopkeepers, and restaurateurs. A "credit\-ticket" system evolved in this time whereby Chinese lenders in China or North America would agree to pay the travel expenses of a migrant who was then bound to the lender until the debt was repaid, despite the fact that such contracts would not be legally enforceable in Canada. Chinese workers opened grocery stores and restaurants that served the whole population, including non\-Chinese, and Chinese cooks became the mainstay in the restaurant and hotel industries as well as in private service. Chinese success at market gardening led to a continuing prominent role in the produce industry in British Columbia. Ethnic discrimination was rampant during these times, as evidenced by large\-scale [Anti\-Asian Riots in Vancouver in 1907](/wiki/Anti-Oriental_Riots_%28Vancouver%29 "Anti-Oriental Riots (Vancouver)").
#### Exclusion Act, 1923
The *Chinese Immigration Act, 1923*, better known as the "Chinese Exclusion Act", replaced prohibitive fees with an outright ban on Chinese immigration to Canada with the exceptions of merchants, diplomats, students, and "special circumstances" cases. (Ethnic Chinese people [with British nationality](/wiki/British_Chinese "British Chinese") were also restricted from entering Canada.) The Chinese who entered Canada prior to 1924 had to register with the local authorities and could leave Canada only for two years or less.{{citation needed\|date\=January 2023}}
Just before the enactment of the Exclusion Act, the Chinese Association of Canada went to Ottawa to lobby against the bill. Since the Act went into effect on 1 July 1923, Chinese people at the time referred to [Dominion Day](/wiki/Canada_Day "Canada Day") as "*Humiliation Day*" and refused to celebrate Dominion Day until after the act was repealed in 1947\. [Vancouver's Chinatown](/wiki/Vancouver_Chinatown "Vancouver Chinatown") during the exclusion era became a thriving economic and social destination that was home to many Chinese Canadians on the West Coast.
The discriminatory laws also gave way to a gender imbalance among Chinese immigrants. Primarily due to the head tax, the cost of bringing a dependent, such as a wife or aged parents, to Canada became prohibitive. As such, Chinese men typically came alone, living as bachelors in Canada. In 1886, there were only 119 females among a total population of 1680;{{cite web \|url\=http://contentdm.library.uvic.ca/cdm/compoundobject/collection/collection2/id/91 \|title\=List of numbers and occupations of Chinese in British Columbia \|author\=Chinese Consolidated Benevolent Association \|website\=University of Victoria Libraries Digital Collections \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150910091807/http://contentdm.library.uvic.ca/cdm/compoundobject/collection/collection2/id/91 \|archive\-date\=10 September 2015}} in 1931, only 3,648 were women among a total Chinese population of 46,519\. A survey was done in 1922 by [Republican China](/wiki/Republic_of_China_%281912%E2%80%931949%29 "Republic of China (1912–1949)")'s Overseas Chinese Bureau showed that, among Victoria Chinatown's whole population of 3,681, only 456 were females.{{cite web \|author\=Chinese Consolidated Benevolent Association \|url\=https://vault.library.uvic.ca/concern/generic\_works/d98257d0\-8200\-4ea9\-ac33\-4d1af1d40190?locale\=en \|title\=Chinese population and their occupations in Victoria \|website\=University of Victoria Libraries Digital Collections}} In the late 1920s, it was estimated that there were only five married Chinese women in Calgary and six in Edmonton.
|
[
"### Immigration Acts and Exclusion Era, 1885–1947",
"In 1885, the Government of Canada passed the *[Chinese Immigration Act, 1885](/wiki/Chinese_Immigration_Act%2C_1885 \"Chinese Immigration Act, 1885\")*, levying a '[Head Tax](/wiki/Head_Tax_%28Canada%29 \"Head Tax (Canada)\")' of $50 on any Chinese coming to Canada, thereby making Chinese people the only ethnic group to pay a tax in order to enter Canada. What's more is that, well before the 1885 Act, a series of Chinese tax acts were passed in British Columbia.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://central.bac\\-lac.gc.ca/.redirect?app\\=fonandcol\\&id\\=1423288⟨\\=eng \\|title\\=List of Acts passed in British Columbia in 1873 and 1876, 1877 and 1878, 1879 including the Land Tax Act and Chinese Tax Act \\|website\\=Library and Archives Canada}} After the 1885 legislation failed to deter Chinese immigration, the Canadian government passed the *[Chinese Immigration Act, 1900](/wiki/Chinese_Immigration_Act%2C_1900 \"Chinese Immigration Act, 1900\")* to increase the tax to $100\\. The Chinese had no choice but to pay it even though it was worth two years' salary of a railway worker.",
"#### Chinese Consolidated Benevolent Association, 1885",
"Soon afterward, Chinese merchants among larger Chinese communities formed the [Chinese Consolidated Benevolent Association](/wiki/Chinese_Consolidated_Benevolent_Association \"Chinese Consolidated Benevolent Association\") (CCBA), which was registered as a charitable organization in August 1884, but effectively served as an \"internal administrative institution\" in the Chinese\\-Canadian community. The CCBA opened their first branch in Victoria in 1885 and a second in Vancouver in 1895\\. The Association was mandatory for all Chinese in the area to join and would do everything from representing members in legal disputes to sending the remains of members who died back to their ancestral homelands in China.{{Citation needed\\|date\\=August 2007}}",
"[Huang Zunxian](/wiki/Huang_Zunxian \"Huang Zunxian\"), the Chinese Consulate in San\\-Francisco, played an integral role in the establishment of CCBA:\n> Now the Honorable Huang Zun Xian permitted to forward our case to the Chinese Ambassador to England to send again an official protest to the British Government. He also instructed that we raise funds, firstly, to hire lawyers for the case, and secondly, to be prepared for the establishment of The Chinese Consolidated Benevolent Association. This Chinese representative body could, therefore, address all the issues concerning the Westerners, and do benevolence by taking care of the sick and the poor Chinese.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://vault.library.uvic.ca/concern/generic\\_works/eedcdddf\\-ec05\\-408e\\-8530\\-e95591b43cd2?locale\\=en \\|title\\=Bulletin inviting contributions to the Association \\|author\\=Chinese Consolidated Benevolent Association \\|website\\=University of Victoria Libraries Digital Collections}}",
"With the large extent of discriminatory legislation against Chinese immigrants, CCBA worked actively in seeking external support, for instance, by sending letters to the [Chinese Ambassador to England](/wiki/Chinese_Ambassador_to_the_United_Kingdom \"Chinese Ambassador to the United Kingdom\") and the [Chinese Foreign Minister](/wiki/Chinese_Foreign_Minister \"Chinese Foreign Minister\"), as well as corresponding with the Chinese Consul in San\\-Francisco. CCBA would also send petitions to local administrations. In 1909, in response to the City of Victoria's policy of segregating Chinese children in public schools, CCBA constructed the [Chinese Public School](/wiki/Chinese_Consolidated_Benevolent_Association_and_Chinese_Public_School \"Chinese Consolidated Benevolent Association and Chinese Public School\").",
"In addition, during the early 20th century, fraternal\\-political associations such as the [Guomindang](/wiki/Guomindang \"Guomindang\") and the [Freemasons](/wiki/Freemasonry_in_Canada \"Freemasonry in Canada\") were involved in Chinatown politics and community issues, adjudicating disputes within the community and speaking for the community to the non\\-Chinese world. After legislation in 1896 that stripped Chinese of voting rights in municipal elections in BC, Chinese people in BC became completely disenfranchised. The elector's list in federal elections came from the provincial elector's list, and the provincial ones came from the municipal one.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.collectionscanada.gc.ca/genealogy/022\\-905\\.002\\-e.html \\|title\\=Canadian Genealogy Centre: Chinese \\|website\\=Library and Archives Canada \\|access\\-date\\=20 March 2009 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20081207161836/http://www.collectionscanada.gc.ca/genealogy/022\\-905\\.002\\-e.html \\|archive\\-date\\=7 December 2008}}",
"#### Royal Commission and Chinese professions, 1902–07",
"In 1902, the federal government appointed a **Royal Commission on Chinese and Japanese Immigration**, which concluded that \"the Chinese are more unhealthy as a class than the same class of white people,\" and that they were \"unfit for full citizenship...obnoxious to a free community and dangerous to the state.\" Through the *[Chinese Immigration Act, 1903](/wiki/Chinese_Immigration_Act%2C_1903 \"Chinese Immigration Act, 1903\")*, the Government would further increase the landing fees to $500 (equivalent to [CA$](/wiki/Canadian_dollar \"Canadian dollar\")10,336\\.27 in 2021\\)Inflation data ([Consumer Price Index](/wiki/Consumer_Price_Index \"Consumer Price Index\")) since 1914 provided by [Statistics Canada](/wiki/Statistics_Canada \"Statistics Canada\") can be found e.g. at the [Bank of Canada inflation calculator](http://www.bankofcanada.ca/en/rates/inflation_calc.html) {{Webarchive \\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070510124111/http://www.bankofcanada.ca/en/rates/inflation\\_calc.html \\|date\\=10 May 2007}} following demand by B.C. politicians. Following the 1903 legislation of $500, the number of Chinese who paid the fee in the first fiscal year dropped from 4,719 to 8\\.",
"In addition to federal legislation, municipal ordinances restricted employment opportunities.{{cite journal \\|last\\=Wai\\-Man \\|first\\=Lee \\|date\\=Spring–Summer 1984 \\|title\\=Dance No More: Chinese Hand Laundries in Toronto \\|url\\=http://epe.lac\\-bac.gc.ca/100/205/301/ic/cdc/polyphony/labour\\_art4\\.html \\|journal\\=Polyphony \\|volume\\=6 \\|issue\\=1 \\|page\\=32 \\|access\\-date\\=12 August 2013 \\|archive\\-date\\=5 September 2013 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130905054612/http://epe.lac\\-bac.gc.ca/100/205/301/ic/cdc/polyphony/labour\\_art4\\.html \\|url\\-status\\=live}} In BC, Chinese professionals were prohibited from practicing such professions as law, pharmacy, and accountancy. During the next 40 years after 1885, following the completion of the CPR, Chinese persons became involved in the labor behind an [industrializing](/wiki/Industrialisation \"Industrialisation\") economy. With legislation banning Chinese from many professions, Chinese entered those that non\\-Chinese Canadians did not want to do, such as laundry shops or salmon processing. Skilled or semi\\-skilled, Chinese Canadians labored in British Columbia sawmills and canneries; others became market gardeners or grocers, pedlars, shopkeepers, and restaurateurs. A \"credit\\-ticket\" system evolved in this time whereby Chinese lenders in China or North America would agree to pay the travel expenses of a migrant who was then bound to the lender until the debt was repaid, despite the fact that such contracts would not be legally enforceable in Canada. Chinese workers opened grocery stores and restaurants that served the whole population, including non\\-Chinese, and Chinese cooks became the mainstay in the restaurant and hotel industries as well as in private service. Chinese success at market gardening led to a continuing prominent role in the produce industry in British Columbia. Ethnic discrimination was rampant during these times, as evidenced by large\\-scale [Anti\\-Asian Riots in Vancouver in 1907](/wiki/Anti-Oriental_Riots_%28Vancouver%29 \"Anti-Oriental Riots (Vancouver)\").",
"#### Exclusion Act, 1923",
"The *Chinese Immigration Act, 1923*, better known as the \"Chinese Exclusion Act\", replaced prohibitive fees with an outright ban on Chinese immigration to Canada with the exceptions of merchants, diplomats, students, and \"special circumstances\" cases. (Ethnic Chinese people [with British nationality](/wiki/British_Chinese \"British Chinese\") were also restricted from entering Canada.) The Chinese who entered Canada prior to 1924 had to register with the local authorities and could leave Canada only for two years or less.{{citation needed\\|date\\=January 2023}}",
"Just before the enactment of the Exclusion Act, the Chinese Association of Canada went to Ottawa to lobby against the bill. Since the Act went into effect on 1 July 1923, Chinese people at the time referred to [Dominion Day](/wiki/Canada_Day \"Canada Day\") as \"*Humiliation Day*\" and refused to celebrate Dominion Day until after the act was repealed in 1947\\. [Vancouver's Chinatown](/wiki/Vancouver_Chinatown \"Vancouver Chinatown\") during the exclusion era became a thriving economic and social destination that was home to many Chinese Canadians on the West Coast.",
"The discriminatory laws also gave way to a gender imbalance among Chinese immigrants. Primarily due to the head tax, the cost of bringing a dependent, such as a wife or aged parents, to Canada became prohibitive. As such, Chinese men typically came alone, living as bachelors in Canada. In 1886, there were only 119 females among a total population of 1680;{{cite web \\|url\\=http://contentdm.library.uvic.ca/cdm/compoundobject/collection/collection2/id/91 \\|title\\=List of numbers and occupations of Chinese in British Columbia \\|author\\=Chinese Consolidated Benevolent Association \\|website\\=University of Victoria Libraries Digital Collections \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150910091807/http://contentdm.library.uvic.ca/cdm/compoundobject/collection/collection2/id/91 \\|archive\\-date\\=10 September 2015}} in 1931, only 3,648 were women among a total Chinese population of 46,519\\. A survey was done in 1922 by [Republican China](/wiki/Republic_of_China_%281912%E2%80%931949%29 \"Republic of China (1912–1949)\")'s Overseas Chinese Bureau showed that, among Victoria Chinatown's whole population of 3,681, only 456 were females.{{cite web \\|author\\=Chinese Consolidated Benevolent Association \\|url\\=https://vault.library.uvic.ca/concern/generic\\_works/d98257d0\\-8200\\-4ea9\\-ac33\\-4d1af1d40190?locale\\=en \\|title\\=Chinese population and their occupations in Victoria \\|website\\=University of Victoria Libraries Digital Collections}} In the late 1920s, it was estimated that there were only five married Chinese women in Calgary and six in Edmonton.",
""
] |
Post\-war period, 1947–99
-------------------------
With the *Chinese Immigration Act, 1923* being repealed in 1947, the majority of immigrants in Canada emigrated from the People's Republic of China, including [Hong Kong](/wiki/Hong_Kong_Canadians "Hong Kong Canadians"), and the Republic of China ([Taiwan](/wiki/Taiwanese_Canadians "Taiwanese Canadians")). Other Chinese immigrants have come from South Asia, Southeast Asia, South Africa, the Caribbean, and South America. From 1947 to the early 1970s, Chinese immigrants to Canada came mostly from Hong Kong, Taiwan, or Southeast Asia. Chinese\-Canadians gained the vote federally and provincially in 1947\. Chinese immigration, still, was limited only to the spouse of a Chinese man who had Canadian citizenship and his dependents.
After the founding of the [People's Republic of China](/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_China "People's Republic of China") (PRC) in October 1949 and its support for the communist [North](/wiki/North_Korea "North Korea") in the [Korean War](/wiki/Korean_War "Korean War"), Chinese in Canada faced another wave of resentment, as Chinese were viewed as communist agents from the PRC. Moreover, those from mainland China who were eligible in the family reunification program had to visit the [Canadian High Commission](/wiki/Canadian_High_Commissions "Canadian High Commissions") in Hong Kong, as Canada and the PRC did not have diplomatic relations until 1970\.
### Chinese Adjustment Statement Program and other policies, 1960–73
In 1959, the [Department of Citizenship and Immigration](/wiki/Department_of_Citizenship_and_Immigration_%28Canada%29 "Department of Citizenship and Immigration (Canada)") discovered a problem with immigration papers used by Chinese immigrants to enter Canada, and the [Royal Canadian Mounted Police](/wiki/Royal_Canadian_Mounted_Police "Royal Canadian Mounted Police") were brought in to investigate. Evidently, some Chinese had been entering Canada by purchasing real or fake birth certificates of Chinese\-Canadian children bought and sold in Hong Kong. These children carrying false identity papers were referred to as *[paper sons](/wiki/Paper_sons "Paper sons")*. In response, [Minister of Citizenship and Immigration](/wiki/Minister_of_Citizenship_and_Immigration "Minister of Citizenship and Immigration") [Ellen Fairclough](/wiki/Ellen_Fairclough "Ellen Fairclough") announced the "**Chinese Adjustment Statement Program**" on 9 June 1960, which granted [amnesty](/wiki/Amnesty "Amnesty") for paper sons or daughters if they confessed to the government. As a result, about 12,000 paper sons came forward, until the amnesty period ended in October 1973\.
Independent Chinese immigration in Canada came after Canada eliminated race and the "place of origin" section from its immigration policy in 1967\. Four years later, in 1971, an official policy of [multiculturalism](/wiki/Multiculturalism "Multiculturalism") was implemented in efforts to tackle [institutional racism](/wiki/Institutional_racism "Institutional racism").
Many Chinese also enlisted in the Canadian forces, despite Ottawa and the BC government being unwilling to send Chinese\-Canadian recruits into action, since they did not want Chinese to ask for enfranchisement after the war. However, with 90,000 British troops captured in the [Battles of Malaya](/wiki/Battle_of_Malaya "Battle of Malaya") and [Singapore](/wiki/Battle_of_Singapore "Battle of Singapore") in February 1942, Ottawa decided to send Chinese\-Canadian forces in as spies to train the local guerrillas to resist the [Japanese Imperial Forces](/wiki/Japanese_Imperial_forces "Japanese Imperial forces") in 1944\. These spies were nevertheless little more than a token gesture, as the outcome of World War II had been more or less decided by that time.
### Late 1970s
A turning point for Chinese in Canada was an incident in September 1979 involving a report on a high\-profile current affairs series on commercial Canadian TV, *[W5](/wiki/W-FIVE "W-FIVE")*, which stated that foreign Chinese were taking away opportunities from Canadian citizens for university educations. In response, Chinese communities nationwide united to fight [anti\-Chinese sentiments](/wiki/Anti-Chinese_sentiment_in_Canada "Anti-Chinese sentiment in Canada").
The report, suggesting that there were 100,000 foreign students, featured a girl complaining that her high marks had not allowed her into the [University of Toronto](/wiki/University_of_Toronto "University of Toronto")'s pharmacy program because seats had been taken up by foreign students.{{cite news \|url\=http://www.cbc.ca/archives/categories/society/immigration/chinese\-immigration\-to\-canada\-a\-tale\-of\-perseverance/protesting\-racism\-on\-tv.html \|title\=Protesting racism on TV \|website\=\[\[CBC Archives]] \|access\-date\=31 July 2008 \|archive\-date\=2 July 2012 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120702005752/http://www.cbc.ca/archives/categories/society/immigration/chinese\-immigration\-to\-canada\-a\-tale\-of\-perseverance/protesting\-racism\-on\-tv.html \|url\-status\=live}}
The data used in the report, however, proved inaccurate. The Canadian Bureau for International Education revealed that there were only 55,000 foreign students in Canada at all levels of education, and only 20,000 full\-time foreign university students. Historian Anthony B. Chan devoted an entire chapter of his 1983 book *Gold Mountain* to the incident, and found that, contrary to the claims of the prospective pharmacy student, there were no foreign students in Toronto's program that year. Chan emphasized the anger that the Chinese\-Canadian community had about the images of anonymous Chinese people in the feature was because they felt the "implication was that all students of Chinese origin were foreigners, and that Canadian taxpayers were subsidizing Chinese students—regardless of citizenship."
Chinese communities nationwide staged protests against [CTV Television](/wiki/CTV_Television_Network "CTV Television Network"), the network that airs *W5*. Initially, CTV would only offer a "statement of regret" but the protests continued until an apology was made in 1980\. Network executive [Murray Chercover](/wiki/Murray_Chercover "Murray Chercover") acknowledged the inaccuracy of a great deal of the program's information, adding that the network "sincerely apologize\[s] for the fact Chinese\-Canadians were depicted as foreigners, and for whatever distress this stereotyping may have caused them in the context of our multicultural society." The protesters met in Toronto in 1980 and agreed to form the [Chinese Canadian National Council](/wiki/Chinese_Canadian_National_Council "Chinese Canadian National Council") (CCNC) to better represent Chinese Canadians on a national level.
### 1980s–90s
The 1980s saw movement of Chinese in Canada from the [ethnic enclaves](/wiki/Ethnic_enclave "Ethnic enclave") of Chinatowns to outlying suburbs of major Canadian cities. This movement was seen by some as changing the fabric of some communities with the establishment of new ethnic enclaves, commercial areas, and use of Chinese\-language signage. Carole Bell, Deputy Mayor of [Markham, Ontario](/wiki/Markham%2C_Ontario "Markham, Ontario"), expressed that the overwhelming Chinese presence in the city was causing other residents to move out of Markham. Additionally during the 1980s, local communities in Toronto and Vancouver have accused the Chinese immigrants for hyperinflating property prices.
During the mid\-1980s and early 1990s, Canada's recession and growth of the [Chinese economy](/wiki/Chinese_economy "Chinese economy") resulted in a shift in Chinese migration in Canada. Attracted by the employment opportunities back home, some newer immigrants moved back, with many retaining their Canadian citizenship.{{Citation needed\|date\=June 2017}} This resulted in the phenomenon of *[astronaut families](/wiki/Astronaut_family "Astronaut family")*, whereby the husband, being the money\-earner, would only visit Canada once or twice a year, usually during December or the summer months, but the rest of his family would live in Canada.
The Chinese community also sought redress for past injustices done against them. Since the early 1980s, there has been a campaign to redress the Head Tax paid by Chinese entering Canada from 1885 to 1923, led by the [CCNC](/wiki/Chinese_Canadian_National_Council "Chinese Canadian National Council"). However, the movement did not gather enough support to be noticed by the government until the 1990s. Still, the government was largely resistant to the calls of apologizing and refunding the head tax to the payers or their descendants. Canadian courts also ruled that while the government had no legal obligation to redress the head tax, it had a moral obligation to do so. The Liberal governments of the 1990s adopted the position of "no apology, no compensation" as the basis of negotiating with the Chinese groups and were criticized for stonewalling the Chinese community.{{Citation needed\|date\=April 2007}}
#### Immigrants from Hong Kong, late 1990s
With the political uncertainties as [Hong Kong](/wiki/Hong_Kong "Hong Kong") headed towards [1997](/wiki/Transfer_of_sovereignty_over_Hong_Kong "Transfer of sovereignty over Hong Kong"), many residents of Hong Kong chose to immigrate to Canada, as it was relatively easier for them to enter the country due to their [Commonwealth of Nations](/wiki/Commonwealth_of_Nations "Commonwealth of Nations") connections.{{Citation needed\|date\=December 2012}} It was also relatively easier for Hong Kongers to migrate to Canada than to the US, as the latter set fixed quotas for different nationalities, while Canada ran on a "points" system, allowing immigrants to arrive if they have desirable factors such as graduate degrees, training, funds to start new businesses and language abilities.
According to statistics compiled by the [Canadian Consulate in Hong Kong](/wiki/Consulate_General_of_Canada_in_Hong_Kong_and_Macao "Consulate General of Canada in Hong Kong and Macao"), from 1991 to 1996, "about 30,000 Hong Kongers emigrated annually to Canada, comprising over half of all Hong Kong emigration and about 20% of the total number of immigrants to Canada." The great majority of these people settled in the [Toronto](/wiki/Toronto "Toronto") and [Vancouver](/wiki/Vancouver "Vancouver") areas, as there are well\-established Chinese communities in those cities. After the Handover, there was a sharp decline in immigration numbers, possibly indicating a smooth transition towards political stability. In the years to come, the unemployment and underemployment of many Hong Kong immigrants in Canada prompted a stream of returning migrants.{{Citation needed\|date\=April 2007}}
|
[
"Post\\-war period, 1947–99\n-------------------------",
"With the *Chinese Immigration Act, 1923* being repealed in 1947, the majority of immigrants in Canada emigrated from the People's Republic of China, including [Hong Kong](/wiki/Hong_Kong_Canadians \"Hong Kong Canadians\"), and the Republic of China ([Taiwan](/wiki/Taiwanese_Canadians \"Taiwanese Canadians\")). Other Chinese immigrants have come from South Asia, Southeast Asia, South Africa, the Caribbean, and South America. From 1947 to the early 1970s, Chinese immigrants to Canada came mostly from Hong Kong, Taiwan, or Southeast Asia. Chinese\\-Canadians gained the vote federally and provincially in 1947\\. Chinese immigration, still, was limited only to the spouse of a Chinese man who had Canadian citizenship and his dependents.",
"After the founding of the [People's Republic of China](/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_China \"People's Republic of China\") (PRC) in October 1949 and its support for the communist [North](/wiki/North_Korea \"North Korea\") in the [Korean War](/wiki/Korean_War \"Korean War\"), Chinese in Canada faced another wave of resentment, as Chinese were viewed as communist agents from the PRC. Moreover, those from mainland China who were eligible in the family reunification program had to visit the [Canadian High Commission](/wiki/Canadian_High_Commissions \"Canadian High Commissions\") in Hong Kong, as Canada and the PRC did not have diplomatic relations until 1970\\.",
"### Chinese Adjustment Statement Program and other policies, 1960–73",
"In 1959, the [Department of Citizenship and Immigration](/wiki/Department_of_Citizenship_and_Immigration_%28Canada%29 \"Department of Citizenship and Immigration (Canada)\") discovered a problem with immigration papers used by Chinese immigrants to enter Canada, and the [Royal Canadian Mounted Police](/wiki/Royal_Canadian_Mounted_Police \"Royal Canadian Mounted Police\") were brought in to investigate. Evidently, some Chinese had been entering Canada by purchasing real or fake birth certificates of Chinese\\-Canadian children bought and sold in Hong Kong. These children carrying false identity papers were referred to as *[paper sons](/wiki/Paper_sons \"Paper sons\")*. In response, [Minister of Citizenship and Immigration](/wiki/Minister_of_Citizenship_and_Immigration \"Minister of Citizenship and Immigration\") [Ellen Fairclough](/wiki/Ellen_Fairclough \"Ellen Fairclough\") announced the \"**Chinese Adjustment Statement Program**\" on 9 June 1960, which granted [amnesty](/wiki/Amnesty \"Amnesty\") for paper sons or daughters if they confessed to the government. As a result, about 12,000 paper sons came forward, until the amnesty period ended in October 1973\\.",
"Independent Chinese immigration in Canada came after Canada eliminated race and the \"place of origin\" section from its immigration policy in 1967\\. Four years later, in 1971, an official policy of [multiculturalism](/wiki/Multiculturalism \"Multiculturalism\") was implemented in efforts to tackle [institutional racism](/wiki/Institutional_racism \"Institutional racism\").",
"Many Chinese also enlisted in the Canadian forces, despite Ottawa and the BC government being unwilling to send Chinese\\-Canadian recruits into action, since they did not want Chinese to ask for enfranchisement after the war. However, with 90,000 British troops captured in the [Battles of Malaya](/wiki/Battle_of_Malaya \"Battle of Malaya\") and [Singapore](/wiki/Battle_of_Singapore \"Battle of Singapore\") in February 1942, Ottawa decided to send Chinese\\-Canadian forces in as spies to train the local guerrillas to resist the [Japanese Imperial Forces](/wiki/Japanese_Imperial_forces \"Japanese Imperial forces\") in 1944\\. These spies were nevertheless little more than a token gesture, as the outcome of World War II had been more or less decided by that time.",
"### Late 1970s",
"A turning point for Chinese in Canada was an incident in September 1979 involving a report on a high\\-profile current affairs series on commercial Canadian TV, *[W5](/wiki/W-FIVE \"W-FIVE\")*, which stated that foreign Chinese were taking away opportunities from Canadian citizens for university educations. In response, Chinese communities nationwide united to fight [anti\\-Chinese sentiments](/wiki/Anti-Chinese_sentiment_in_Canada \"Anti-Chinese sentiment in Canada\").",
"The report, suggesting that there were 100,000 foreign students, featured a girl complaining that her high marks had not allowed her into the [University of Toronto](/wiki/University_of_Toronto \"University of Toronto\")'s pharmacy program because seats had been taken up by foreign students.{{cite news \\|url\\=http://www.cbc.ca/archives/categories/society/immigration/chinese\\-immigration\\-to\\-canada\\-a\\-tale\\-of\\-perseverance/protesting\\-racism\\-on\\-tv.html \\|title\\=Protesting racism on TV \\|website\\=\\[\\[CBC Archives]] \\|access\\-date\\=31 July 2008 \\|archive\\-date\\=2 July 2012 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120702005752/http://www.cbc.ca/archives/categories/society/immigration/chinese\\-immigration\\-to\\-canada\\-a\\-tale\\-of\\-perseverance/protesting\\-racism\\-on\\-tv.html \\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
"The data used in the report, however, proved inaccurate. The Canadian Bureau for International Education revealed that there were only 55,000 foreign students in Canada at all levels of education, and only 20,000 full\\-time foreign university students. Historian Anthony B. Chan devoted an entire chapter of his 1983 book *Gold Mountain* to the incident, and found that, contrary to the claims of the prospective pharmacy student, there were no foreign students in Toronto's program that year. Chan emphasized the anger that the Chinese\\-Canadian community had about the images of anonymous Chinese people in the feature was because they felt the \"implication was that all students of Chinese origin were foreigners, and that Canadian taxpayers were subsidizing Chinese students—regardless of citizenship.\"",
"Chinese communities nationwide staged protests against [CTV Television](/wiki/CTV_Television_Network \"CTV Television Network\"), the network that airs *W5*. Initially, CTV would only offer a \"statement of regret\" but the protests continued until an apology was made in 1980\\. Network executive [Murray Chercover](/wiki/Murray_Chercover \"Murray Chercover\") acknowledged the inaccuracy of a great deal of the program's information, adding that the network \"sincerely apologize\\[s] for the fact Chinese\\-Canadians were depicted as foreigners, and for whatever distress this stereotyping may have caused them in the context of our multicultural society.\" The protesters met in Toronto in 1980 and agreed to form the [Chinese Canadian National Council](/wiki/Chinese_Canadian_National_Council \"Chinese Canadian National Council\") (CCNC) to better represent Chinese Canadians on a national level.",
"### 1980s–90s",
"The 1980s saw movement of Chinese in Canada from the [ethnic enclaves](/wiki/Ethnic_enclave \"Ethnic enclave\") of Chinatowns to outlying suburbs of major Canadian cities. This movement was seen by some as changing the fabric of some communities with the establishment of new ethnic enclaves, commercial areas, and use of Chinese\\-language signage. Carole Bell, Deputy Mayor of [Markham, Ontario](/wiki/Markham%2C_Ontario \"Markham, Ontario\"), expressed that the overwhelming Chinese presence in the city was causing other residents to move out of Markham. Additionally during the 1980s, local communities in Toronto and Vancouver have accused the Chinese immigrants for hyperinflating property prices.",
"During the mid\\-1980s and early 1990s, Canada's recession and growth of the [Chinese economy](/wiki/Chinese_economy \"Chinese economy\") resulted in a shift in Chinese migration in Canada. Attracted by the employment opportunities back home, some newer immigrants moved back, with many retaining their Canadian citizenship.{{Citation needed\\|date\\=June 2017}} This resulted in the phenomenon of *[astronaut families](/wiki/Astronaut_family \"Astronaut family\")*, whereby the husband, being the money\\-earner, would only visit Canada once or twice a year, usually during December or the summer months, but the rest of his family would live in Canada.",
"The Chinese community also sought redress for past injustices done against them. Since the early 1980s, there has been a campaign to redress the Head Tax paid by Chinese entering Canada from 1885 to 1923, led by the [CCNC](/wiki/Chinese_Canadian_National_Council \"Chinese Canadian National Council\"). However, the movement did not gather enough support to be noticed by the government until the 1990s. Still, the government was largely resistant to the calls of apologizing and refunding the head tax to the payers or their descendants. Canadian courts also ruled that while the government had no legal obligation to redress the head tax, it had a moral obligation to do so. The Liberal governments of the 1990s adopted the position of \"no apology, no compensation\" as the basis of negotiating with the Chinese groups and were criticized for stonewalling the Chinese community.{{Citation needed\\|date\\=April 2007}}",
"#### Immigrants from Hong Kong, late 1990s",
"With the political uncertainties as [Hong Kong](/wiki/Hong_Kong \"Hong Kong\") headed towards [1997](/wiki/Transfer_of_sovereignty_over_Hong_Kong \"Transfer of sovereignty over Hong Kong\"), many residents of Hong Kong chose to immigrate to Canada, as it was relatively easier for them to enter the country due to their [Commonwealth of Nations](/wiki/Commonwealth_of_Nations \"Commonwealth of Nations\") connections.{{Citation needed\\|date\\=December 2012}} It was also relatively easier for Hong Kongers to migrate to Canada than to the US, as the latter set fixed quotas for different nationalities, while Canada ran on a \"points\" system, allowing immigrants to arrive if they have desirable factors such as graduate degrees, training, funds to start new businesses and language abilities.",
"According to statistics compiled by the [Canadian Consulate in Hong Kong](/wiki/Consulate_General_of_Canada_in_Hong_Kong_and_Macao \"Consulate General of Canada in Hong Kong and Macao\"), from 1991 to 1996, \"about 30,000 Hong Kongers emigrated annually to Canada, comprising over half of all Hong Kong emigration and about 20% of the total number of immigrants to Canada.\" The great majority of these people settled in the [Toronto](/wiki/Toronto \"Toronto\") and [Vancouver](/wiki/Vancouver \"Vancouver\") areas, as there are well\\-established Chinese communities in those cities. After the Handover, there was a sharp decline in immigration numbers, possibly indicating a smooth transition towards political stability. In the years to come, the unemployment and underemployment of many Hong Kong immigrants in Canada prompted a stream of returning migrants.{{Citation needed\\|date\\=April 2007}}",
""
] |
Biography
---------
Ito was a phenomenon in his rookie year, going 7\-2 with a 0\.91 ERA in 14 games as a starter before injuring his pitching arm in July. His rookie\-year [slider](/wiki/Slider_%28baseball%29 "Slider (baseball)") is said to be one of the best pitches ever to be thrown in Japanese baseball history, reaching the low\-90 mph range with an enormous amount of horizontal movement.{{citation needed\|date\=April 2016}} He beat [Hideki Matsui](/wiki/Hideki_Matsui "Hideki Matsui") to win the 1993 [Japanese rookie of the year award](/wiki/Nippon_Professional_Baseball_Rookie_of_the_Year_Award "Nippon Professional Baseball Rookie of the Year Award"),{{cite book\|author\=Daniel E. Johnson\|title\=Japanese Baseball: A Statistical Handbook\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=gg1eCgAAQBAJ\&pg\=PA284\|date\=5 July 2006\|publisher\=McFarland\|isbn\=978\-1\-4766\-0410\-7\|pages\=284}} even though he was only active for 3 months that year.
Despite making a brilliant debut, Ito was plagued by various injuries to his pitching arm, and did not play a single game from 1994–1995\. He had surgery on his shoulder, and spent almost three years in rehabilitation before returning in 1996\.
In 1997, he made a huge comeback as a closer, marking 19 saves with a 1\.51 ERA. He returned to the starting rotation in 1998, and marked a 2\.72 ERA in 29 starts.
He was able to pitch in the starting rotation until 2000, but sustained various other injuries to his legs and shoulder, and he had surgery on his right shoulder in October, 1999\. His 2001 season ended in April, and he had shoulder surgery for the third time in his career that year. He pitched in a minor league game in October, 2002, and struck out the first batter he faced before dislocating his shoulder against the second batter. He threw only nine pitches that day.
The team suggested he retire, but Ito refused, and made a comeback on October 24, 2003, pitching in a minor league game against the [Yomiuri Giants](/wiki/Yomiuri_Giants "Yomiuri Giants"). The fastest pitch he threw was a 67 mph (109 km/h) fastball, and he walked two of the three batters he faced. He announced his retirement five days later.
Ito's remarkable slider was enabled by a loose shoulder joint. A loose shoulder allows more arm movement, but [dislocation](/wiki/Dislocation_%28medicine%29 "Dislocation (medicine)") occurs far more frequently. Despite his short career, (he played only 127 games in the professional leagues) he is remembered as one of the most remarkable Japanese pitchers in the 1990s.
|
[
"Biography\n---------",
"Ito was a phenomenon in his rookie year, going 7\\-2 with a 0\\.91 ERA in 14 games as a starter before injuring his pitching arm in July. His rookie\\-year [slider](/wiki/Slider_%28baseball%29 \"Slider (baseball)\") is said to be one of the best pitches ever to be thrown in Japanese baseball history, reaching the low\\-90 mph range with an enormous amount of horizontal movement.{{citation needed\\|date\\=April 2016}} He beat [Hideki Matsui](/wiki/Hideki_Matsui \"Hideki Matsui\") to win the 1993 [Japanese rookie of the year award](/wiki/Nippon_Professional_Baseball_Rookie_of_the_Year_Award \"Nippon Professional Baseball Rookie of the Year Award\"),{{cite book\\|author\\=Daniel E. Johnson\\|title\\=Japanese Baseball: A Statistical Handbook\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=gg1eCgAAQBAJ\\&pg\\=PA284\\|date\\=5 July 2006\\|publisher\\=McFarland\\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-4766\\-0410\\-7\\|pages\\=284}} even though he was only active for 3 months that year.",
"Despite making a brilliant debut, Ito was plagued by various injuries to his pitching arm, and did not play a single game from 1994–1995\\. He had surgery on his shoulder, and spent almost three years in rehabilitation before returning in 1996\\.",
"In 1997, he made a huge comeback as a closer, marking 19 saves with a 1\\.51 ERA. He returned to the starting rotation in 1998, and marked a 2\\.72 ERA in 29 starts.",
"He was able to pitch in the starting rotation until 2000, but sustained various other injuries to his legs and shoulder, and he had surgery on his right shoulder in October, 1999\\. His 2001 season ended in April, and he had shoulder surgery for the third time in his career that year. He pitched in a minor league game in October, 2002, and struck out the first batter he faced before dislocating his shoulder against the second batter. He threw only nine pitches that day.",
"The team suggested he retire, but Ito refused, and made a comeback on October 24, 2003, pitching in a minor league game against the [Yomiuri Giants](/wiki/Yomiuri_Giants \"Yomiuri Giants\"). The fastest pitch he threw was a 67 mph (109 km/h) fastball, and he walked two of the three batters he faced. He announced his retirement five days later.",
"Ito's remarkable slider was enabled by a loose shoulder joint. A loose shoulder allows more arm movement, but [dislocation](/wiki/Dislocation_%28medicine%29 \"Dislocation (medicine)\") occurs far more frequently. Despite his short career, (he played only 127 games in the professional leagues) he is remembered as one of the most remarkable Japanese pitchers in the 1990s.",
""
] |
History
-------
[thumb\|In the slaughterhouse, [Lovis Corinth](/wiki/Lovis_Corinth "Lovis Corinth"), 1893](/wiki/Image:Lovis_Corinth_Im_Schlachthaus.jpg "Lovis Corinth Im Schlachthaus.jpg")
Until modern times, the slaughter of animals generally took place in a haphazard and unregulated manner in diverse places. Early maps of London show numerous [stockyards](/wiki/Meat_packing_industry "Meat packing industry") in the periphery of the city, where slaughter occurred in the open air or under cover such as [wet markets](/wiki/Wet_markets "Wet markets"). A term for such open\-air slaughterhouses was *shambles*, and there are streets named "[The Shambles](/wiki/The_Shambles "The Shambles")" in some English and Irish towns (e.g., [Worcester](/wiki/Worcester%2C_England "Worcester, England"), [York](/wiki/York "York"), [Bandon](/wiki/Bandon%2C_County_Cork "Bandon, County Cork")) which got their name from having been the site on which butchers killed and prepared animals for consumption. [Fishamble Street](/wiki/Fishamble_Street "Fishamble Street"), Dublin was formerly a *fish\-shambles*. Sheffield had 183 slaughterhouses in 1910, and it was estimated that there were 20,000 in England and Wales.{{cite book \|last1\=Otter \|first1\=Chris \|title\=Diet for a large planet \|date\=2020 \|publisher\=University of Chicago Press \|location\=US \|isbn\=978\-0\-226\-69710\-9 \|page\=36 }}
### Reform movement
The slaughterhouse emerged as a coherent institution in the 19th century.{{cite journal\|url\=http://www.humanecologyreview.org/pastissues/her171/Fitzgerald.pdf\|title\=A Social History of the Slaughterhouse\|journal\=Human Ecology Review}} A combination of health and social concerns, exacerbated by the rapid [urbanisation](/wiki/Urbanisation "Urbanisation") experienced during the [Industrial Revolution](/wiki/Industrial_Revolution "Industrial Revolution"), led [social reformers](/wiki/Social_reform "Social reform") to call for the isolation, sequester and regulation of animal slaughter. As well as the concerns raised regarding hygiene and disease, there were also criticisms of the practice on the grounds that the effect that killing had, both on the butchers and the observers, "educate\[d] the men in the practice of violence and cruelty, so that they seem to have no restraint on the use of it."{{cite journal \|last1\=Fitzgerald \|first1\=Amy \|title\=A Social History of the Slaughterhouse: From Inception to Contemporary Implications \|journal\=Human Ecology Review \|date\=2010 \|volume\=17 \|issue\=1 \|page\=60 \|jstor\=24707515 }} An additional motivation for eliminating private slaughter was to impose a careful system of regulation for the "morally dangerous" task of putting animals to death.{{citation needed\|date\=July 2014}}
[thumb\|left\|The [Smithfield Market](/wiki/Smithfield%2C_London "Smithfield, London") in 1855, before it was reconstructed](/wiki/Image:Smithfield_Last_day_of_Old_Smithfield_ILN_1855.jpg "Smithfield Last day of Old Smithfield ILN 1855.jpg")
As a result of this tension, meat markets within the city were closed and abattoirs built outside city limits. An early framework for the establishment of public slaughterhouses was put in place in Paris in 1810, under the reign of the [Emperor Napoleon](/wiki/Emperor_Napoleon "Emperor Napoleon"). Five areas were set aside on the outskirts of the city and the feudal privileges of the [guilds](/wiki/Guild "Guild") were curtailed.{{cite book\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=6hdZ2BXP2GEC\|title\=Meat, Modernity, and the Rise of the Slaughterhouse\|author\=Paula Young Lee\|year\=2008\|publisher\=UPNE\|page\=26\|isbn\=978\-1584656982}}
As the meat requirements of the growing number of residents in London steadily expanded,
the meat markets both within the city and beyond attracted increasing levels of public disapproval. Meat had been traded at [Smithfield Market](/wiki/Smithfield%2C_London "Smithfield, London") as early as the 10th century. By 1726, it was regarded as "without question, the greatest in the world", by [Daniel Defoe](/wiki/Daniel_Defoe "Daniel Defoe").{{cite book\|last\=Defoe\|first\=Daniel\|author\-link\=Daniel Defoe\|title\=A Tour Through the Whole Island of Great Britain\|year\=1726\|page\=342\|publisher\=Yale University Press \|isbn\=978\-0\-300\-04980\-0\|url\=https://archive.org/details/natureofpolitics0000mast/page/342\|url\-access\=registration}} By the middle of the 19th century, in the course of a single year 220,000 head of cattle and 1,500,000 sheep would be "violently forced into an area of five acres, in the very heart of London, through its narrowest and most crowded thoroughfares".
[thumb\|Part of the original construction of the [Smithfield Market](/wiki/Smithfield%2C_London "Smithfield, London") in 1868](/wiki/Image:Fish_market_smithfield.jpg "Fish market smithfield.jpg")
By the early 19th century, pamphlets were being circulated arguing in favor of the removal of the livestock market and its relocation outside of the city due to the extremely low hygienic conditions{{cite book\|last\=Dodd\|first\=George\|author\-link\=George Dodd (19th century writer)\|title\=The Food of London: A Sketch of the Chief Varieties, Sources of Supply, Probable Quantities, Modes of Arrival, Processes of Manufacture, Suspected Adulteration, and Machinery of Distribution, of the Food for a Community of Two Millions and a Half\|year\=1856\|publisher\=Longman, Brown, Green and Longmans\|page\=\[https://archive.org/details/foodlondonasket00doddgoog/page/n244 228]\|url\=https://archive.org/details/foodlondonasket00doddgoog}} as well as the brutal treatment of the cattle.{{cite book\|last\=Kean\|first\=Hilda\| author\-link \= Hilda Kean \|title\=Animal rights: political and social change in Britain since 1800\|publisher\=Reaktion Books\|year\=1998\|chapter\-url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=eP9PAAAAIAAJ\|page\=59\|chapter\='Wild' domestic animals and the Smithfield Market\|isbn\=978\-1\-86189\-014\-6}} In 1843, the *Farmer's Magazine* published a petition signed by bankers, salesmen, aldermen, butchers and local residents against the expansion of the livestock market.{{cite book\|title\=The Farmer's Magazine\|publisher\=Rogerson and Tuxford, 1849\|location\=London\|year\=1849\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=eP9PAAAAIAAJ\|page\=142}} The [Town Police Clauses Act 1847](/wiki/Town_Police_Clauses_Act_1847 "Town Police Clauses Act 1847") created a licensing and registration system, though few slaughter houses were closed.{{cite book \|last1\=Otter \|first1\=Chris \|title\=Diet for a large planet \|date\=2020 \|publisher\=University of Chicago Press \|location\=US \|isbn\=978\-0\-226\-69710\-9 \|page\=36 }}
An [Act of Parliament](/wiki/Act_of_Parliament "Act of Parliament") was eventually passed in 1852\. Under its provisions, a new cattle\-market was constructed in Copenhagen Fields, [Islington](/wiki/Islington "Islington"). The new [Metropolitan Cattle Market](/wiki/Metropolitan_Cattle_Market "Metropolitan Cattle Market") was also opened in 1855, and West Smithfield was left as waste ground for about a decade, until the construction of the new market began in the 1860s under the authority of the 1860 Metropolitan Meat and Poultry Market Act.{{cite book\|last\=Thornbury \| first \= Walter \| author\-link \= George Walter Thornbury \| chapter\=The Metropolitan Meat\-Market\| title \= Old and New London: Volume 2\| pages \= 491–96\|year\=1878\|chapter\-url\=http://www.british\-history.ac.uk/report.aspx?compid\=45117\|access\-date\= 2008\-02\-01}} The market was designed by [architect](/wiki/Architect "Architect") Sir [Horace Jones](/wiki/Horace_Jones_%28architect%29 "Horace Jones (architect)") and was completed in 1868\.
A [cut and cover](/wiki/Cut_and_cover "Cut and cover") railway tunnel was constructed beneath the market to create a triangular junction with the railway between [Blackfriars](/wiki/Blackfriars_railway_station "Blackfriars railway station") and [King's Cross](/wiki/London_King%27s_Cross_railway_station "London King's Cross railway station").[*Snowhill*](http://www.londonrailways.net/snowhill.htm) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130605193008/http://www.londonrailways.net/snowhill.htm \|date\=2013\-06\-05 }} (London Railways) accessed 13 April 2009 This allowed animals to be transported into the slaughterhouse by train and the subsequent transfer of animal carcasses to the Cold Store building, or direct to the meat market via lifts.
At the same time, the first large and centralized slaughterhouse in Paris was constructed in 1867 under the orders of [Napoleon III](/wiki/Napoleon_III "Napoleon III") at the [Parc de la Villette](/wiki/Parc_de_la_Villette "Parc de la Villette") and heavily influenced the subsequent development of the institution throughout Europe.
### Regulation and expansion
[thumb\|right\|Blueprint for a mechanized public abattoir, designed by slaughterhouse reformer [Benjamin Ward Richardson](/wiki/Benjamin_Ward_Richardson "Benjamin Ward Richardson")](/wiki/File:Richardson%27s_abattoir.jpg "Richardson's abattoir.jpg")
These slaughterhouses were regulated by law to ensure good standards of hygiene, the prevention of the spread of disease and the minimization of needless animal cruelty. The slaughterhouse had to be equipped with a specialized water supply system to effectively clean the operating area of blood and offal. Veterinary scientists, notably [George Fleming](/wiki/George_Fleming_%28veterinarian%29 "George Fleming (veterinarian)") and John Gamgee, campaigned for stringent levels of inspection to ensure that [epizootics](/wiki/Epizootics "Epizootics") such as [rinderpest](/wiki/Rinderpest "Rinderpest") (a devastating outbreak of the disease covered all of Britain in 1865\) would not be able to spread. By 1874, three meat inspectors were appointed for the London area, and the [Public Health Act 1875](/wiki/Public_Health_Act_1875 "Public Health Act 1875") required local authorities to provide central slaughterhouses (they were only given powers to close unsanitary slaughterhouses in 1890\).{{cite journal\|title\=The vital city: public analysis, dairies and slaughterhouses in nineteenth\-century\|author\=Chris Otter\|journal\=Cultural Geographies\|year\=2006\|url\=http://www.geog.canterbury.ac.nz/powerpoints/Otter%20%282006%29\.pdf}} Yet the appointment of slaughterhouse inspectors and the establishment of centralised abattoirs took place much earlier in the British colonies, such as the colonies of New South Wales and Victoria, and in Scotland where 80% of cattle were slaughtered in public abattoirs by 1930\.{{cite book \|last1\=Otter \|first1\=Chris \|title\=Diet for a large planet \|date\=2020 \|publisher\=University of Chicago Press \|location\=US \|isbn\=978\-0\-226\-69710\-9 \|page\=38 }} In Victoria the [*Melbourne Abattoirs Act 1850* (NSW)](http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/nsw/num_act/maa1850n17240.pdf) "confined the slaughtering of animals to prescribed public abattoirs, while at the same time prohibiting the killing of sheep, lamb, pigs or goats at any other place within the city limits".{{cite journal\|last1\=Trabsky\|first1\=Marc\|title\=Institutionalising the Public Abattoir in Nineteenth Century Colonial Society\|journal\=Australian Feminist Law Journal\|year\=2014\|volume\=40\|issue\=2\|page\=180\|doi\=10\.1080/13200968\.2014\.981357\|s2cid\=142813253}} Animals were shipped alive to British ports from Ireland, from Europe and from the colonies and slaughtered in large abattoirs at the ports. Conditions were often very poor.{{cite book \|last1\=Otter \|first1\=Chris \|title\=Diet for a large planet \|date\=2020 \|publisher\=University of Chicago Press \|location\=US \|isbn\=978\-0\-226\-69710\-9 \|page\=42 }}
Attempts were also made throughout the British Empire to reform the practice of slaughter itself, as the methods used came under increasing criticism for causing undue pain to the animals. The eminent physician, [Benjamin Ward Richardson](/wiki/Benjamin_Ward_Richardson "Benjamin Ward Richardson"), spent many years in developing more humane methods of slaughter. He brought into use no fewer than fourteen possible anesthetics for use in the slaughterhouse and even experimented with the use of electric current at the [Royal Polytechnic Institution](/wiki/Royal_Polytechnic_Institution "Royal Polytechnic Institution").{{DNBSupp\|wstitle\=Richardson, Benjamin Ward\|first\=D'Arcy\|last\= Power}} As early as 1853, he designed a lethal chamber that would gas animals to death relatively painlessly{{Citation needed\|date\=November 2023\|reason\=What evidence is there of relative painlessness?}}, and he founded the Model Abattoir Society in 1882 to investigate and campaign for humane methods of slaughter.
The invention of [refrigeration](/wiki/Refrigeration "Refrigeration") and the expansion of transportation networks by sea and rail allowed for the safe exportation of meat around the world. Additionally, meat\-packing millionaire [Philip Danforth Armour](/wiki/Philip_Danforth_Armour "Philip Danforth Armour")'s invention of the "disassembly line" greatly increased the productivity and profit margin of the [meat packing industry](/wiki/Meat_packing_industry "Meat packing industry"): "according to some, animal slaughtering became the first [mass\-production](/wiki/Mass-production "Mass-production") industry in the United States." This expansion has been accompanied by increased concern about the physical and mental conditions of the workers along with controversy over the ethical and environmental implications of slaughtering animals for meat.
The Edinburgh abattoir, which was built in 1910, had well lit laboratories, hot and cold water, gas, microscopes and equipment for cultivating organisms. The English 1924 Public Health (Meat) Regulations required notification of slaughter to enable inspection of carcasses and enabled inspected carcasses to be marked.{{cite book \|last1\=Otter \|first1\=Chris \|title\=Diet for a large planet \|date\=2020 \|publisher\=University of Chicago Press \|location\=US \|isbn\=978\-0\-226\-69710\-9 \|page\=119\-20 }}
The development of slaughterhouses was linked with industrial expansion of by\-products. By 1932 the British by\-product industry was worth about £97 million a year, employing 310,000 people. The Aberdeen slaughterhouse sent hooves to Lancashire to make glue, intestines to Glasgow for sausages and hides to the Midland tanneries.
In January 1940 the British government took over the 16,000 slaughterhouses and by 1942 there were only 779\.{{cite book \|last1\=Otter \|first1\=Chris \|title\=Diet for a large planet \|date\=2020 \|publisher\=University of Chicago Press \|location\=US \|isbn\=978\-0\-226\-69710\-9 \|page\=41, 160 }}
|
[
"History\n-------",
"[thumb\\|In the slaughterhouse, [Lovis Corinth](/wiki/Lovis_Corinth \"Lovis Corinth\"), 1893](/wiki/Image:Lovis_Corinth_Im_Schlachthaus.jpg \"Lovis Corinth Im Schlachthaus.jpg\")\nUntil modern times, the slaughter of animals generally took place in a haphazard and unregulated manner in diverse places. Early maps of London show numerous [stockyards](/wiki/Meat_packing_industry \"Meat packing industry\") in the periphery of the city, where slaughter occurred in the open air or under cover such as [wet markets](/wiki/Wet_markets \"Wet markets\"). A term for such open\\-air slaughterhouses was *shambles*, and there are streets named \"[The Shambles](/wiki/The_Shambles \"The Shambles\")\" in some English and Irish towns (e.g., [Worcester](/wiki/Worcester%2C_England \"Worcester, England\"), [York](/wiki/York \"York\"), [Bandon](/wiki/Bandon%2C_County_Cork \"Bandon, County Cork\")) which got their name from having been the site on which butchers killed and prepared animals for consumption. [Fishamble Street](/wiki/Fishamble_Street \"Fishamble Street\"), Dublin was formerly a *fish\\-shambles*. Sheffield had 183 slaughterhouses in 1910, and it was estimated that there were 20,000 in England and Wales.{{cite book \\|last1\\=Otter \\|first1\\=Chris \\|title\\=Diet for a large planet \\|date\\=2020 \\|publisher\\=University of Chicago Press \\|location\\=US \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-226\\-69710\\-9 \\|page\\=36 }}",
"### Reform movement",
"The slaughterhouse emerged as a coherent institution in the 19th century.{{cite journal\\|url\\=http://www.humanecologyreview.org/pastissues/her171/Fitzgerald.pdf\\|title\\=A Social History of the Slaughterhouse\\|journal\\=Human Ecology Review}} A combination of health and social concerns, exacerbated by the rapid [urbanisation](/wiki/Urbanisation \"Urbanisation\") experienced during the [Industrial Revolution](/wiki/Industrial_Revolution \"Industrial Revolution\"), led [social reformers](/wiki/Social_reform \"Social reform\") to call for the isolation, sequester and regulation of animal slaughter. As well as the concerns raised regarding hygiene and disease, there were also criticisms of the practice on the grounds that the effect that killing had, both on the butchers and the observers, \"educate\\[d] the men in the practice of violence and cruelty, so that they seem to have no restraint on the use of it.\"{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Fitzgerald \\|first1\\=Amy \\|title\\=A Social History of the Slaughterhouse: From Inception to Contemporary Implications \\|journal\\=Human Ecology Review \\|date\\=2010 \\|volume\\=17 \\|issue\\=1 \\|page\\=60 \\|jstor\\=24707515 }} An additional motivation for eliminating private slaughter was to impose a careful system of regulation for the \"morally dangerous\" task of putting animals to death.{{citation needed\\|date\\=July 2014}}",
"[thumb\\|left\\|The [Smithfield Market](/wiki/Smithfield%2C_London \"Smithfield, London\") in 1855, before it was reconstructed](/wiki/Image:Smithfield_Last_day_of_Old_Smithfield_ILN_1855.jpg \"Smithfield Last day of Old Smithfield ILN 1855.jpg\")\nAs a result of this tension, meat markets within the city were closed and abattoirs built outside city limits. An early framework for the establishment of public slaughterhouses was put in place in Paris in 1810, under the reign of the [Emperor Napoleon](/wiki/Emperor_Napoleon \"Emperor Napoleon\"). Five areas were set aside on the outskirts of the city and the feudal privileges of the [guilds](/wiki/Guild \"Guild\") were curtailed.{{cite book\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=6hdZ2BXP2GEC\\|title\\=Meat, Modernity, and the Rise of the Slaughterhouse\\|author\\=Paula Young Lee\\|year\\=2008\\|publisher\\=UPNE\\|page\\=26\\|isbn\\=978\\-1584656982}}",
"As the meat requirements of the growing number of residents in London steadily expanded,\nthe meat markets both within the city and beyond attracted increasing levels of public disapproval. Meat had been traded at [Smithfield Market](/wiki/Smithfield%2C_London \"Smithfield, London\") as early as the 10th century. By 1726, it was regarded as \"without question, the greatest in the world\", by [Daniel Defoe](/wiki/Daniel_Defoe \"Daniel Defoe\").{{cite book\\|last\\=Defoe\\|first\\=Daniel\\|author\\-link\\=Daniel Defoe\\|title\\=A Tour Through the Whole Island of Great Britain\\|year\\=1726\\|page\\=342\\|publisher\\=Yale University Press \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-300\\-04980\\-0\\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/natureofpolitics0000mast/page/342\\|url\\-access\\=registration}} By the middle of the 19th century, in the course of a single year 220,000 head of cattle and 1,500,000 sheep would be \"violently forced into an area of five acres, in the very heart of London, through its narrowest and most crowded thoroughfares\".",
"[thumb\\|Part of the original construction of the [Smithfield Market](/wiki/Smithfield%2C_London \"Smithfield, London\") in 1868](/wiki/Image:Fish_market_smithfield.jpg \"Fish market smithfield.jpg\")\nBy the early 19th century, pamphlets were being circulated arguing in favor of the removal of the livestock market and its relocation outside of the city due to the extremely low hygienic conditions{{cite book\\|last\\=Dodd\\|first\\=George\\|author\\-link\\=George Dodd (19th century writer)\\|title\\=The Food of London: A Sketch of the Chief Varieties, Sources of Supply, Probable Quantities, Modes of Arrival, Processes of Manufacture, Suspected Adulteration, and Machinery of Distribution, of the Food for a Community of Two Millions and a Half\\|year\\=1856\\|publisher\\=Longman, Brown, Green and Longmans\\|page\\=\\[https://archive.org/details/foodlondonasket00doddgoog/page/n244 228]\\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/foodlondonasket00doddgoog}} as well as the brutal treatment of the cattle.{{cite book\\|last\\=Kean\\|first\\=Hilda\\| author\\-link \\= Hilda Kean \\|title\\=Animal rights: political and social change in Britain since 1800\\|publisher\\=Reaktion Books\\|year\\=1998\\|chapter\\-url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=eP9PAAAAIAAJ\\|page\\=59\\|chapter\\='Wild' domestic animals and the Smithfield Market\\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-86189\\-014\\-6}} In 1843, the *Farmer's Magazine* published a petition signed by bankers, salesmen, aldermen, butchers and local residents against the expansion of the livestock market.{{cite book\\|title\\=The Farmer's Magazine\\|publisher\\=Rogerson and Tuxford, 1849\\|location\\=London\\|year\\=1849\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=eP9PAAAAIAAJ\\|page\\=142}} The [Town Police Clauses Act 1847](/wiki/Town_Police_Clauses_Act_1847 \"Town Police Clauses Act 1847\") created a licensing and registration system, though few slaughter houses were closed.{{cite book \\|last1\\=Otter \\|first1\\=Chris \\|title\\=Diet for a large planet \\|date\\=2020 \\|publisher\\=University of Chicago Press \\|location\\=US \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-226\\-69710\\-9 \\|page\\=36 }}",
"An [Act of Parliament](/wiki/Act_of_Parliament \"Act of Parliament\") was eventually passed in 1852\\. Under its provisions, a new cattle\\-market was constructed in Copenhagen Fields, [Islington](/wiki/Islington \"Islington\"). The new [Metropolitan Cattle Market](/wiki/Metropolitan_Cattle_Market \"Metropolitan Cattle Market\") was also opened in 1855, and West Smithfield was left as waste ground for about a decade, until the construction of the new market began in the 1860s under the authority of the 1860 Metropolitan Meat and Poultry Market Act.{{cite book\\|last\\=Thornbury \\| first \\= Walter \\| author\\-link \\= George Walter Thornbury \\| chapter\\=The Metropolitan Meat\\-Market\\| title \\= Old and New London: Volume 2\\| pages \\= 491–96\\|year\\=1878\\|chapter\\-url\\=http://www.british\\-history.ac.uk/report.aspx?compid\\=45117\\|access\\-date\\= 2008\\-02\\-01}} The market was designed by [architect](/wiki/Architect \"Architect\") Sir [Horace Jones](/wiki/Horace_Jones_%28architect%29 \"Horace Jones (architect)\") and was completed in 1868\\.",
"A [cut and cover](/wiki/Cut_and_cover \"Cut and cover\") railway tunnel was constructed beneath the market to create a triangular junction with the railway between [Blackfriars](/wiki/Blackfriars_railway_station \"Blackfriars railway station\") and [King's Cross](/wiki/London_King%27s_Cross_railway_station \"London King's Cross railway station\").[*Snowhill*](http://www.londonrailways.net/snowhill.htm) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130605193008/http://www.londonrailways.net/snowhill.htm \\|date\\=2013\\-06\\-05 }} (London Railways) accessed 13 April 2009 This allowed animals to be transported into the slaughterhouse by train and the subsequent transfer of animal carcasses to the Cold Store building, or direct to the meat market via lifts.",
"At the same time, the first large and centralized slaughterhouse in Paris was constructed in 1867 under the orders of [Napoleon III](/wiki/Napoleon_III \"Napoleon III\") at the [Parc de la Villette](/wiki/Parc_de_la_Villette \"Parc de la Villette\") and heavily influenced the subsequent development of the institution throughout Europe.",
"### Regulation and expansion",
"[thumb\\|right\\|Blueprint for a mechanized public abattoir, designed by slaughterhouse reformer [Benjamin Ward Richardson](/wiki/Benjamin_Ward_Richardson \"Benjamin Ward Richardson\")](/wiki/File:Richardson%27s_abattoir.jpg \"Richardson's abattoir.jpg\")\nThese slaughterhouses were regulated by law to ensure good standards of hygiene, the prevention of the spread of disease and the minimization of needless animal cruelty. The slaughterhouse had to be equipped with a specialized water supply system to effectively clean the operating area of blood and offal. Veterinary scientists, notably [George Fleming](/wiki/George_Fleming_%28veterinarian%29 \"George Fleming (veterinarian)\") and John Gamgee, campaigned for stringent levels of inspection to ensure that [epizootics](/wiki/Epizootics \"Epizootics\") such as [rinderpest](/wiki/Rinderpest \"Rinderpest\") (a devastating outbreak of the disease covered all of Britain in 1865\\) would not be able to spread. By 1874, three meat inspectors were appointed for the London area, and the [Public Health Act 1875](/wiki/Public_Health_Act_1875 \"Public Health Act 1875\") required local authorities to provide central slaughterhouses (they were only given powers to close unsanitary slaughterhouses in 1890\\).{{cite journal\\|title\\=The vital city: public analysis, dairies and slaughterhouses in nineteenth\\-century\\|author\\=Chris Otter\\|journal\\=Cultural Geographies\\|year\\=2006\\|url\\=http://www.geog.canterbury.ac.nz/powerpoints/Otter%20%282006%29\\.pdf}} Yet the appointment of slaughterhouse inspectors and the establishment of centralised abattoirs took place much earlier in the British colonies, such as the colonies of New South Wales and Victoria, and in Scotland where 80% of cattle were slaughtered in public abattoirs by 1930\\.{{cite book \\|last1\\=Otter \\|first1\\=Chris \\|title\\=Diet for a large planet \\|date\\=2020 \\|publisher\\=University of Chicago Press \\|location\\=US \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-226\\-69710\\-9 \\|page\\=38 }} In Victoria the [*Melbourne Abattoirs Act 1850* (NSW)](http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/nsw/num_act/maa1850n17240.pdf) \"confined the slaughtering of animals to prescribed public abattoirs, while at the same time prohibiting the killing of sheep, lamb, pigs or goats at any other place within the city limits\".{{cite journal\\|last1\\=Trabsky\\|first1\\=Marc\\|title\\=Institutionalising the Public Abattoir in Nineteenth Century Colonial Society\\|journal\\=Australian Feminist Law Journal\\|year\\=2014\\|volume\\=40\\|issue\\=2\\|page\\=180\\|doi\\=10\\.1080/13200968\\.2014\\.981357\\|s2cid\\=142813253}} Animals were shipped alive to British ports from Ireland, from Europe and from the colonies and slaughtered in large abattoirs at the ports. Conditions were often very poor.{{cite book \\|last1\\=Otter \\|first1\\=Chris \\|title\\=Diet for a large planet \\|date\\=2020 \\|publisher\\=University of Chicago Press \\|location\\=US \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-226\\-69710\\-9 \\|page\\=42 }}",
"Attempts were also made throughout the British Empire to reform the practice of slaughter itself, as the methods used came under increasing criticism for causing undue pain to the animals. The eminent physician, [Benjamin Ward Richardson](/wiki/Benjamin_Ward_Richardson \"Benjamin Ward Richardson\"), spent many years in developing more humane methods of slaughter. He brought into use no fewer than fourteen possible anesthetics for use in the slaughterhouse and even experimented with the use of electric current at the [Royal Polytechnic Institution](/wiki/Royal_Polytechnic_Institution \"Royal Polytechnic Institution\").{{DNBSupp\\|wstitle\\=Richardson, Benjamin Ward\\|first\\=D'Arcy\\|last\\= Power}} As early as 1853, he designed a lethal chamber that would gas animals to death relatively painlessly{{Citation needed\\|date\\=November 2023\\|reason\\=What evidence is there of relative painlessness?}}, and he founded the Model Abattoir Society in 1882 to investigate and campaign for humane methods of slaughter.",
"The invention of [refrigeration](/wiki/Refrigeration \"Refrigeration\") and the expansion of transportation networks by sea and rail allowed for the safe exportation of meat around the world. Additionally, meat\\-packing millionaire [Philip Danforth Armour](/wiki/Philip_Danforth_Armour \"Philip Danforth Armour\")'s invention of the \"disassembly line\" greatly increased the productivity and profit margin of the [meat packing industry](/wiki/Meat_packing_industry \"Meat packing industry\"): \"according to some, animal slaughtering became the first [mass\\-production](/wiki/Mass-production \"Mass-production\") industry in the United States.\" This expansion has been accompanied by increased concern about the physical and mental conditions of the workers along with controversy over the ethical and environmental implications of slaughtering animals for meat.",
"The Edinburgh abattoir, which was built in 1910, had well lit laboratories, hot and cold water, gas, microscopes and equipment for cultivating organisms. The English 1924 Public Health (Meat) Regulations required notification of slaughter to enable inspection of carcasses and enabled inspected carcasses to be marked.{{cite book \\|last1\\=Otter \\|first1\\=Chris \\|title\\=Diet for a large planet \\|date\\=2020 \\|publisher\\=University of Chicago Press \\|location\\=US \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-226\\-69710\\-9 \\|page\\=119\\-20 }}",
"The development of slaughterhouses was linked with industrial expansion of by\\-products. By 1932 the British by\\-product industry was worth about £97 million a year, employing 310,000 people. The Aberdeen slaughterhouse sent hooves to Lancashire to make glue, intestines to Glasgow for sausages and hides to the Midland tanneries. \nIn January 1940 the British government took over the 16,000 slaughterhouses and by 1942 there were only 779\\.{{cite book \\|last1\\=Otter \\|first1\\=Chris \\|title\\=Diet for a large planet \\|date\\=2020 \\|publisher\\=University of Chicago Press \\|location\\=US \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-226\\-69710\\-9 \\|page\\=41, 160 }}",
""
] |
History
-------
### Construction
After winning the right to host the [1950 FIFA World Cup](/wiki/1950_FIFA_World_Cup "1950 FIFA World Cup"), the Brazilian government sought to build a new stadium for the tournament. The construction of Maracanã was criticized by [Carlos Lacerda](/wiki/Carlos_Lacerda "Carlos Lacerda"), then Congressman and political enemy of the mayor of the city, general Ângelo Mendes de Morais, for the expense and for the chosen location of the stadium, arguing that it should be built in the West Zone neighborhood of [Jacarepaguá](/wiki/Jacarepagu%C3%A1 "Jacarepaguá"). At the time, a tennis stadium stood in the chosen area. Still it was supported by journalist [Mário Filho](/wiki/M%C3%A1rio_Filho "Mário Filho"), and Mendes de Morais was able to move the project forward. The competition for the design and construction was opened by the municipality of Rio de Janeiro in 1947, with the construction contract awarded to engineer Humberto Menescal, and the architectural contract awarded to seven Brazilian architects, Michael Feldman, Waldir Ramos, Raphael Galvão, Oscar Valdetaro, Orlando Azevedo, Pedro Paulo Bernardes Bastos, and Antônio Dias Carneiro.{{cite web \|title\= El fútbol vuelve al histórico Maracanã tras nueve meses de espera \|url\= http://www.elpais.com.uy/06/01/22/ultmo\_197140\.asp \|access\-date\= 20 October 2008 \|date\= 22 January 2006 \|language\= es \|work\= \[\[El País (Montevideo)\|El País]] \|url\-status\= dead \|archive\-url\= https://web.archive.org/web/20090109095316/http://www.elpais.com.uy/06/01/22/ultmo\_197140\.asp \|archive\-date\= 9 January 2009 \|df\= dmy\-all }}
The first cornerstone was laid at the site of the stadium on 2 August 1948\.{{cite web\|title\=Soccer Hall: 1950 FIFA World Cup \|url\=http://national.soccerhall.org/history/WorldCup\_1950\.htm \|access\-date\=23 March 2007 \|publisher\=soccerhall.org \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090330073432/http://national.soccerhall.org/history/WorldCup\_1950\.htm \|archive\-date\=30 March 2009 }} With the first World Cup game scheduled to be played on 24 June 1950, this left a little under two years to finish construction. However, work quickly fell behind schedule, prompting FIFA to send [Ottorino Barassi](/wiki/Ottorino_Barassi "Ottorino Barassi"), the head of the Italian FA, who had organized the [1934 World Cup](/wiki/1934_FIFA_World_Cup "1934 FIFA World Cup"), to help in Rio de Janeiro. A workforce of 1,500 constructed the stadium, with an additional 2,000 working in the final months. Despite the stadium having come into use in 1950, the construction was only fully completed in 1965\.
### Opening and 1950 FIFA World Cup
[thumb\|Opening game of the Maracanã Stadium, shortly before the 1950 FIFA World Cup. \|195x195px](/wiki/File:Jogo_no_Est%C3%A1dio_do_Maracan%C3%A3%2C_antes_da_Copa_do_Mundo_de_1950.tif "Jogo no Estádio do Maracanã, antes da Copa do Mundo de 1950.tif")
[thumb\|right\|[Postage stamp](/wiki/Postage_stamp "Postage stamp") featuring the Maracanã, commemorating the [1950 FIFA World Cup](/wiki/1950_FIFA_World_Cup "1950 FIFA World Cup").\|195x195px](/wiki/File:Selo_da_Copa_de_1950_Cr_1%2C20.jpg "Selo da Copa de 1950 Cr 1,20.jpg")
The opening match of the stadium took place on 16 June 1950\. Rio de Janeiro All\-Stars beat São Paulo All\-Stars 3–1; [Didi](/wiki/Valdir_Pereira "Valdir Pereira") became the player to score the first ever goal at the stadium. While the major part of the stadium was finished, it still looked like a construction site; it lacked toilet facilities and a press box. Brazilian officials claimed it could seat over 200,000 people, while the [Guinness Book of World Records](/wiki/Guinness_Book_of_World_Records "Guinness Book of World Records") estimated it could seat 180,000 and other sources pegged capacity at 155,000\. What is beyond dispute is that Maracanã overtook [Hampden Park](/wiki/Hampden_Park "Hampden Park") as the largest stadium in the world.{{cite web \|title\= Sambafoot.com: Maracanã, the largest stadium of the world \|date\= 28 November 2005 \|url\= http://www.sambafoot.com/en/articles/30\_Maracana\_the\_largest\_stadium\_of\_the\_world\_page\_1\.html \|access\-date\= 23 March 2007 \|publisher\= Sambafoot.com \|archive\-date\= 21 March 2007 \|archive\-url\= https://web.archive.org/web/20070321055227/http://www.sambafoot.com/en/articles/30\_Maracana\_the\_largest\_stadium\_of\_the\_world\_page\_1\.html \|url\-status\= live }} Despite the stadium's unfinished state, FIFA allowed matches to be played at the venue, and on 24 June 1950, the first World Cup match took place, with 81,000 spectators in attendance.
In that first match for which Maracanã had been built, [Brazil](/wiki/Brazil_national_football_team "Brazil national football team") beat [Mexico](/wiki/Mexico_national_football_team "Mexico national football team") with a final score 4–0, with [Ademir](/wiki/Ademir_Marques_de_Menezes "Ademir Marques de Menezes") becoming the first scorer of a competitive goal at the stadium with his 30th\-minute strike. Ademir had two goals in total, plus one each from [Baltasar](/wiki/Baltazar_%28footballer%2C_born_1926%29 "Baltazar (footballer, born 1926)") and [Jair](/wiki/Jair_da_Rosa_Pinto "Jair da Rosa Pinto"). The match was refereed by Englishman [George Reader](/wiki/George_Reader "George Reader"). Five of Brazil's six games at the tournament were played at Maracanã (the exception being their 2–2 draw with [Switzerland](/wiki/Switzerland_national_football_team "Switzerland national football team") in São Paulo). Eventually, Brazil progressed to the final round, facing [Uruguay](/wiki/Uruguay_national_football_team "Uruguay national football team") in the match (part of a round\-robin final phase) that turned out to be the tournament\-deciding match on 16 July 1950\. Brazil only needed a draw to finish as champion, but Uruguay won the game 2–1, shocking and silencing the massive crowd. This defeat on home soil instantly became a significant event in Brazilian history, being known popularly as the *[Maracanazo](/wiki/Uruguay_v_Brazil_%281950_FIFA_World_Cup%29 "Uruguay v Brazil (1950 FIFA World Cup)")* (roughly translated as "The Maracanã Smash"). The official attendance of the final game was 199,854, with the actual attendance estimated to be about 210,000\.{{cite web\|title\=Futebol; the Brazilian way of life \|url\=http://www.ofutebol.com/excerpt.shtml \|access\-date\=23 March 2007 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070317040832/http://www.ofutebol.com/excerpt.shtml \|archive\-date\=17 March 2007 }}{{cite web \|title\=Sambafoot.com: Maracanã, the largest stadium of the world (part 2\) \|date\=28 November 2005 \|url\=http://www.sambafoot.com/en/articles/30\_Maracana\_the\_largest\_stadium\_of\_the\_world\_page\_2\.html \|page\=2 \|access\-date\=23 March 2007 \|publisher\=sambafoot.com \|archive\-date\=13 March 2008 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080313110429/http://www.sambafoot.com/en/articles/30\_Maracana\_the\_largest\_stadium\_of\_the\_world\_page\_2\.html \|url\-status\=live }} In any case, it was the largest crowd ever to see a football game—a record that is highly unlikely to be threatened in an era when most international matches are played in all\-seater stadiums. At the time of the World Cup, the stadium was mostly grandstands with no individual seats.
### Stadium completion and post\-World Cup years
{{multiple image
\| align \= left
\| image1 \= Maracanã Stadium in Rio de Janeiro.jpg
\| width1 \= 181
\| image2 \= Maracana L.jpg
\| width2 \= 200
\| footer \= Original configuration of the Maracanã from 1950 to 2010, featuring a two\-tier bowl and solid\-color seating. (''left:'' Exterior view, 2009\. ''right:'' interior view looking towards the southern end, 2007\.)
}}
Since the World Cup in 1950, Maracanã Stadium has mainly been used for club games involving four major football clubs in [Rio](/wiki/Rio_de_Janeiro "Rio de Janeiro") — [Vasco](/wiki/CR_Vasco_da_Gama "CR Vasco da Gama"), [Botafogo](/wiki/Botafogo_de_Futebol_e_Regatas "Botafogo de Futebol e Regatas"), [Flamengo](/wiki/Clube_de_Regatas_do_Flamengo "Clube de Regatas do Flamengo") and [Fluminense](/wiki/Fluminense_Football_Club "Fluminense Football Club"). The stadium has also hosted numerous domestic football cup finals, most notably the [Copa do Brasil](/wiki/Copa_do_Brasil "Copa do Brasil") and the [Campeonato Carioca](/wiki/Campeonato_Carioca "Campeonato Carioca"). On 21 March 1954, a new official attendance record was set in the game between Brazil and [Paraguay](/wiki/Paraguay_national_football_team "Paraguay national football team"), after 183,513 spectators entered the stadium with a ticket and 194,603 (177,656 p.) in [Fla\-Flu](/wiki/Fla-Flu "Fla-Flu") (1963\). In 1963, stadium authorities replaced the square goal posts with round ones, but it was still two years before the stadium would be fully completed. In 1965, 17 years after construction began, the stadium was finally finished. In September 1966, upon the death of Mário Rodrigues Filho, the Brazilian journalist, columnist, sports figure, and prominent campaigner who was largely responsible for the stadium originally being built, the administrators of the stadium renamed the stadium after him: *Estádio Jornalista Mário Rodrigues Filho*. However, the nickname of *Maracanã* has continued to be used as the common referent. In 1969, [Pelé](/wiki/Pel%C3%A9 "Pelé") scored the 1,000th goal of his career at Maracanã, against [CR Vasco da Gama](/wiki/CR_Vasco_da_Gama "CR Vasco da Gama") in front of 65,157 spectators.\[Book Almanaque do Santos]
In 1989, the stadium hosted the games of the final round of the [Copa America](/wiki/1989_Copa_America "1989 Copa America"); in the same year, [Zico](/wiki/Zico_%28footballer%29 "Zico (footballer)") scored his final goal for [Flamengo](/wiki/Clube_de_Regatas_do_Flamengo "Clube de Regatas do Flamengo") at the Maracanã, taking his goal tally at the stadium to 333, a record that still stood as of 2021\. An upper stand in the stadium collapsed on 19 July 1992, in the second game of the finals of [1992 Campeonato Brasileiro Série A](/wiki/1992_Campeonato_Brasileiro_S%C3%A9rie_A "1992 Campeonato Brasileiro Série A"), between [Botafogo](/wiki/Botafogo_de_Futebol_e_Regatas "Botafogo de Futebol e Regatas") and [Flamengo](/wiki/Clube_de_Regatas_do_Flamengo "Clube de Regatas do Flamengo"), leading to the death of three spectators and injuring 50 others.{{cite web \|title\= Sports Disasters \|url\= http://www.emergency\-management.net/sport\_ev.htm \|access\-date\= 23 March 2007 \|archive\-date\= 5 July 2007 \|archive\-url\= https://web.archive.org/web/20070705043614/http://www.emergency\-management.net/sport\_ev.htm \|url\-status\= usurped }} Following the disaster, the stadium's capacity was greatly reduced as it was converted to an all\-seater stadium in the late 1990s. Meanwhile, the ground was classified as a national landmark in 1998, meaning that it could not be demolished.{{citation needed\|date\=May 2016}} The stadium hosted the first ever [FIFA Club World Cup final match](/wiki/2000_FIFA_Club_World_Championship "2000 FIFA Club World Championship") between [CR Vasco da Gama](/wiki/CR_Vasco_da_Gama "CR Vasco da Gama") and [Corinthians Paulista](/wiki/Sport_Club_Corinthians_Paulista "Sport Club Corinthians Paulista"), which Corinthians won on [penalties](/wiki/Penalty_shootout_%28football%29 "Penalty shootout (football)").
### 21st century, renovations and 2014 FIFA World Cup
[thumb\|Panorama from inside the stadium during the closing ceremony of the [2014 FIFA World Cup](/wiki/2014_FIFA_World_Cup "2014 FIFA World Cup")](/wiki/Image:Stadion_Rio_de_Janeiro_Finale_WM_2014_%2822117945206%29.jpg "Stadion Rio de Janeiro Finale WM 2014 (22117945206).jpg")
Following its 50th anniversary in 2000, the stadium underwent renovations which would increase its full capacity to around 103,000\. After years of planning and nine months of closure between 2005 and 2006, the stadium was reopened in January 2007 with an all\-seated capacity of 87,000\.
For the 2014 World Cup and 2016 Olympics and Paralympics, a major reconstruction project was initiated in 2010\. The original seating bowl, with a two\-tier configuration, was demolished, giving way to a new one\-tier seating bowl.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.stadiumguide.com/maracana/\|title\=Maracana – Rio de Janeiro – The Stadium Guide\|first\=Wojciech\|last\=says\|website\=stadiumguide.com\|date\=10 November 2017 \|access\-date\=13 April 2019\|archive\-date\=14 April 2019\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190414000359/https://www.stadiumguide.com/maracana/\|url\-status\=live}} The original stadium's roof in concrete was removed and replaced with a fiberglass tensioned membrane coated with [polytetra\-fluoroethylene](/wiki/Polytetrafluoroethylene "Polytetrafluoroethylene"). The new roof covers 95% of the seats inside the stadium, unlike the former design, where protection was only afforded to some seats in the upper ring and the bleachers above the gate access of each sector. The old boxes, which were installed at a level above the stands for the [2000 FIFA Club World Championship](/wiki/2000_FIFA_Club_World_Championship "2000 FIFA Club World Championship"), were dismantled in the reconstruction process. The new seats are colored yellow, blue and white, which combined with the green of the playing field form the Brazilian national colors. In addition, the grayish tone has returned as the main façade color of the stadium.
On 30 May 2013, a [friendly](/wiki/Exhibition_game "Exhibition game") game between [Brazil](/wiki/Brazil_national_football_team "Brazil national football team") and [England](/wiki/England_national_football_team "England national football team") scheduled for 2 June was called off by a local judge because of safety concerns related to the stadium. The government of Rio de Janeiro appealed the decision and the game went ahead as originally planned, the final score being a 2–2 draw.{{cite news \|title\=Brazil v England suspended over Maracanã safety concerns \|url\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/0/football/22725420 \|access\-date\=30 May 2013 \|newspaper\=\[\[BBC Sport]] \|date\=30 May 2013 \|archive\-date\=30 May 2013 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130530232853/http://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/0/football/22725420 \|url\-status\=live }} This match marked the reopening of the new Maracanã.
On 12 June 2014, the [2014 FIFA World Cup](/wiki/2014_FIFA_World_Cup "2014 FIFA World Cup") opened with host nation Brazil defeating Croatia 3–1, but that match was held at [Arena Corinthians](/wiki/Arena_Corinthians "Arena Corinthians") in São Paulo. The first game of the World Cup to be held in Maracanã was a [2–1](/wiki/2014_FIFA_World_Cup_Group_F "2014 FIFA World Cup Group F") victory by Argentina over Bosnia and Herzegovina on Sunday, 15 June 2014\. Brazil ended up never playing a match in the Maracanã during the tournament, as they failed to reach the final after [a 7–1 defeat](/wiki/Brazil_v_Germany_%282014_FIFA_World_Cup%29 "Brazil v Germany (2014 FIFA World Cup)") to Germany in the semi\-finals.{{cite web\|url\=https://bleacherreport.com/articles/2128535\-15\-biggest\-stories\-of\-the\-2014\-fifa\-world\-cup\|title\=15 Biggest Stories of the 2014 FIFA World Cup\|first\=Daniel\|last\=Fitzgerald\|website\=Bleacher Report\|access\-date\=13 April 2019\|archive\-date\=14 April 2019\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190414000405/https://bleacherreport.com/articles/2128535\-15\-biggest\-stories\-of\-the\-2014\-fifa\-world\-cup\|url\-status\=live}}
### Disrepair after the 2016 Summer Olympics
[thumb\|Aerial photograph of Maracanã's playing field in February 2017](/wiki/File:Est%C3%A1dio_Maracan%C3%A3_1_by_Diego_Baravelli.jpg "Estádio Maracanã 1 by Diego Baravelli.jpg")
The stadium lay dormant in the months after the 2016 Olympics and Paralympics, with photos surfacing in early 2017 of a dried\-up playing field covered in brown spots and missing turf, ripped\-out seats, and damage to windows and doors. A debt of R$3 million (US$939,937\) to the local energy company led to power being shut off at Maracanã. At the heart of the issue was a legal wrangling between the stadium's owner, operator, and the organizing committee for the Rio Olympics over responsibility for maintaining the grounds. Maracanã SA, the operator, charges that the Olympic committee did not return the venue in an acceptable condition, while the committee says the things that they needed to fix should not keep Maracanã from operating.{{cite web\|url\=https://edition.cnn.com/2017/02/01/football/maracana\-stadium\-rio\-2016\-olympics/index.html\|title\=How the Maracana became a 'ghost' stadium\|author1\=Flora Charner\|author2\=Shasta Darlington\|website\=CNN\|date\=February 2017\|access\-date\=13 April 2019\|archive\-date\=14 April 2019\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190414000402/https://edition.cnn.com/2017/02/01/football/maracana\-stadium\-rio\-2016\-olympics/index.html\|url\-status\=live}}
Within six months of the Olympics, daily tours of the stadium were halted due to vandalism at the stadium and violent robberies in the area. Items of value were looted from the stadium including fire extinguishers, televisions, and a bronze bust of journalist [Mário Filho](/wiki/M%C3%A1rio_Filho "Mário Filho"), for whom the stadium was named.{{cite news\|author\=Flora Charner and Shasta Darlington\|title\=How the Maracanã became a 'ghost' stadium\|url\=http://edition.cnn.com/2017/02/01/football/maracana\-stadium\-rio\-2016\-olympics/\|work\=CNN\|access\-date\=12 February 2017\|archive\-date\=13 February 2017\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170213001436/http://edition.cnn.com/2017/02/01/football/maracana\-stadium\-rio\-2016\-olympics/\|url\-status\=live}}{{cite news\|last1\=sport\|first1\=Guardian\|title\=Rio Olympic venues already falling into a state of disrepair\|url\=https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2017/feb/10/rio\-olympic\-venues\-already\-falling\-into\-a\-state\-of\-disrepair\|work\=The Guardian\|date\=9 February 2017\|access\-date\=26 March 2017\|archive\-date\=27 March 2017\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170327081852/https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2017/feb/10/rio\-olympic\-venues\-already\-falling\-into\-a\-state\-of\-disrepair\|url\-status\=live}}
[thumb\|The Maracanã Stadium during a Clássico dos Gigantes between Fluminense and Vasco da Gama in May 2023](/wiki/File:The_Maracan%C3%A3_Stadium_during_a_Cl%C3%A1ssico_dos_Gigantes_between_Fluminense_and_Vasco_da_Gama_in_May_2023.jpg "The Maracanã Stadium during a Clássico dos Gigantes between Fluminense and Vasco da Gama in May 2023.jpg")
### New managers
On 5 April 2017, the French group [Lagardère](/wiki/Lagard%C3%A8re_Group "Lagardère Group") signed an agreement to administer the Maracanã. In total, Lagardère will invest more than R$500 million by the end of the concession, won by [Odebrecht](/wiki/Odebrecht "Odebrecht") in 2013 and valid until 2048\. The *[Folha de São Paulo](/wiki/Folha_de_S%C3%A3o_Paulo "Folha de São Paulo")* newspaper informed that the group estimates that it will need to spend about R$15 million on emergency repairs to the stadium. In 2013, the former managers of Odebrecht together with [AEG](/wiki/Anschutz_Entertainment_Group "Anschutz Entertainment Group") and IMX, a company owned by Brazilian billionaire [Eike Batista](/wiki/Eike_Batista "Eike Batista"), won the bid to manage the stadium for 35 years. The company was associated with Brazilian building company OAS and the [Amsterdam Arena](/wiki/Amsterdam_Arena "Amsterdam Arena"). At the time, Lagardère was in second place in the bidding.{{cite web\|url\=https://m.folha.uol.com.br/esporte/2017/04/1873008\-grupo\-frances\-acerta\-compra\-da\-gestao\-do\-maracana.shtml?mobile\|title\=Grupo francês acerta compra da gestão do Maracanã – 05/04/2017 – Esporte – Folha de S.Paulo\|website\=m.folha.uol.com.br\|access\-date\=13 April 2019\|archive\-date\=9 March 2021\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210309055427/https://m.folha.uol.com.br/esporte/2017/04/1873008\-grupo\-frances\-acerta\-compra\-da\-gestao\-do\-maracana.shtml?mobile\|url\-status\=live}}
|
[
"History\n-------",
"### Construction",
"After winning the right to host the [1950 FIFA World Cup](/wiki/1950_FIFA_World_Cup \"1950 FIFA World Cup\"), the Brazilian government sought to build a new stadium for the tournament. The construction of Maracanã was criticized by [Carlos Lacerda](/wiki/Carlos_Lacerda \"Carlos Lacerda\"), then Congressman and political enemy of the mayor of the city, general Ângelo Mendes de Morais, for the expense and for the chosen location of the stadium, arguing that it should be built in the West Zone neighborhood of [Jacarepaguá](/wiki/Jacarepagu%C3%A1 \"Jacarepaguá\"). At the time, a tennis stadium stood in the chosen area. Still it was supported by journalist [Mário Filho](/wiki/M%C3%A1rio_Filho \"Mário Filho\"), and Mendes de Morais was able to move the project forward. The competition for the design and construction was opened by the municipality of Rio de Janeiro in 1947, with the construction contract awarded to engineer Humberto Menescal, and the architectural contract awarded to seven Brazilian architects, Michael Feldman, Waldir Ramos, Raphael Galvão, Oscar Valdetaro, Orlando Azevedo, Pedro Paulo Bernardes Bastos, and Antônio Dias Carneiro.{{cite web \\|title\\= El fútbol vuelve al histórico Maracanã tras nueve meses de espera \\|url\\= http://www.elpais.com.uy/06/01/22/ultmo\\_197140\\.asp \\|access\\-date\\= 20 October 2008 \\|date\\= 22 January 2006 \\|language\\= es \\|work\\= \\[\\[El País (Montevideo)\\|El País]] \\|url\\-status\\= dead \\|archive\\-url\\= https://web.archive.org/web/20090109095316/http://www.elpais.com.uy/06/01/22/ultmo\\_197140\\.asp \\|archive\\-date\\= 9 January 2009 \\|df\\= dmy\\-all }}",
"The first cornerstone was laid at the site of the stadium on 2 August 1948\\.{{cite web\\|title\\=Soccer Hall: 1950 FIFA World Cup \\|url\\=http://national.soccerhall.org/history/WorldCup\\_1950\\.htm \\|access\\-date\\=23 March 2007 \\|publisher\\=soccerhall.org \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090330073432/http://national.soccerhall.org/history/WorldCup\\_1950\\.htm \\|archive\\-date\\=30 March 2009 }} With the first World Cup game scheduled to be played on 24 June 1950, this left a little under two years to finish construction. However, work quickly fell behind schedule, prompting FIFA to send [Ottorino Barassi](/wiki/Ottorino_Barassi \"Ottorino Barassi\"), the head of the Italian FA, who had organized the [1934 World Cup](/wiki/1934_FIFA_World_Cup \"1934 FIFA World Cup\"), to help in Rio de Janeiro. A workforce of 1,500 constructed the stadium, with an additional 2,000 working in the final months. Despite the stadium having come into use in 1950, the construction was only fully completed in 1965\\.",
"### Opening and 1950 FIFA World Cup",
"[thumb\\|Opening game of the Maracanã Stadium, shortly before the 1950 FIFA World Cup. \\|195x195px](/wiki/File:Jogo_no_Est%C3%A1dio_do_Maracan%C3%A3%2C_antes_da_Copa_do_Mundo_de_1950.tif \"Jogo no Estádio do Maracanã, antes da Copa do Mundo de 1950.tif\")\n[thumb\\|right\\|[Postage stamp](/wiki/Postage_stamp \"Postage stamp\") featuring the Maracanã, commemorating the [1950 FIFA World Cup](/wiki/1950_FIFA_World_Cup \"1950 FIFA World Cup\").\\|195x195px](/wiki/File:Selo_da_Copa_de_1950_Cr_1%2C20.jpg \"Selo da Copa de 1950 Cr 1,20.jpg\")\nThe opening match of the stadium took place on 16 June 1950\\. Rio de Janeiro All\\-Stars beat São Paulo All\\-Stars 3–1; [Didi](/wiki/Valdir_Pereira \"Valdir Pereira\") became the player to score the first ever goal at the stadium. While the major part of the stadium was finished, it still looked like a construction site; it lacked toilet facilities and a press box. Brazilian officials claimed it could seat over 200,000 people, while the [Guinness Book of World Records](/wiki/Guinness_Book_of_World_Records \"Guinness Book of World Records\") estimated it could seat 180,000 and other sources pegged capacity at 155,000\\. What is beyond dispute is that Maracanã overtook [Hampden Park](/wiki/Hampden_Park \"Hampden Park\") as the largest stadium in the world.{{cite web \\|title\\= Sambafoot.com: Maracanã, the largest stadium of the world \\|date\\= 28 November 2005 \\|url\\= http://www.sambafoot.com/en/articles/30\\_Maracana\\_the\\_largest\\_stadium\\_of\\_the\\_world\\_page\\_1\\.html \\|access\\-date\\= 23 March 2007 \\|publisher\\= Sambafoot.com \\|archive\\-date\\= 21 March 2007 \\|archive\\-url\\= https://web.archive.org/web/20070321055227/http://www.sambafoot.com/en/articles/30\\_Maracana\\_the\\_largest\\_stadium\\_of\\_the\\_world\\_page\\_1\\.html \\|url\\-status\\= live }} Despite the stadium's unfinished state, FIFA allowed matches to be played at the venue, and on 24 June 1950, the first World Cup match took place, with 81,000 spectators in attendance.",
"In that first match for which Maracanã had been built, [Brazil](/wiki/Brazil_national_football_team \"Brazil national football team\") beat [Mexico](/wiki/Mexico_national_football_team \"Mexico national football team\") with a final score 4–0, with [Ademir](/wiki/Ademir_Marques_de_Menezes \"Ademir Marques de Menezes\") becoming the first scorer of a competitive goal at the stadium with his 30th\\-minute strike. Ademir had two goals in total, plus one each from [Baltasar](/wiki/Baltazar_%28footballer%2C_born_1926%29 \"Baltazar (footballer, born 1926)\") and [Jair](/wiki/Jair_da_Rosa_Pinto \"Jair da Rosa Pinto\"). The match was refereed by Englishman [George Reader](/wiki/George_Reader \"George Reader\"). Five of Brazil's six games at the tournament were played at Maracanã (the exception being their 2–2 draw with [Switzerland](/wiki/Switzerland_national_football_team \"Switzerland national football team\") in São Paulo). Eventually, Brazil progressed to the final round, facing [Uruguay](/wiki/Uruguay_national_football_team \"Uruguay national football team\") in the match (part of a round\\-robin final phase) that turned out to be the tournament\\-deciding match on 16 July 1950\\. Brazil only needed a draw to finish as champion, but Uruguay won the game 2–1, shocking and silencing the massive crowd. This defeat on home soil instantly became a significant event in Brazilian history, being known popularly as the *[Maracanazo](/wiki/Uruguay_v_Brazil_%281950_FIFA_World_Cup%29 \"Uruguay v Brazil (1950 FIFA World Cup)\")* (roughly translated as \"The Maracanã Smash\"). The official attendance of the final game was 199,854, with the actual attendance estimated to be about 210,000\\.{{cite web\\|title\\=Futebol; the Brazilian way of life \\|url\\=http://www.ofutebol.com/excerpt.shtml \\|access\\-date\\=23 March 2007 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070317040832/http://www.ofutebol.com/excerpt.shtml \\|archive\\-date\\=17 March 2007 }}{{cite web \\|title\\=Sambafoot.com: Maracanã, the largest stadium of the world (part 2\\) \\|date\\=28 November 2005 \\|url\\=http://www.sambafoot.com/en/articles/30\\_Maracana\\_the\\_largest\\_stadium\\_of\\_the\\_world\\_page\\_2\\.html \\|page\\=2 \\|access\\-date\\=23 March 2007 \\|publisher\\=sambafoot.com \\|archive\\-date\\=13 March 2008 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080313110429/http://www.sambafoot.com/en/articles/30\\_Maracana\\_the\\_largest\\_stadium\\_of\\_the\\_world\\_page\\_2\\.html \\|url\\-status\\=live }} In any case, it was the largest crowd ever to see a football game—a record that is highly unlikely to be threatened in an era when most international matches are played in all\\-seater stadiums. At the time of the World Cup, the stadium was mostly grandstands with no individual seats.",
"### Stadium completion and post\\-World Cup years",
"{{multiple image\n \\| align \\= left\n \\| image1 \\= Maracanã Stadium in Rio de Janeiro.jpg\n \\| width1 \\= 181\n \\| image2 \\= Maracana L.jpg\n \\| width2 \\= 200\n \\| footer \\= Original configuration of the Maracanã from 1950 to 2010, featuring a two\\-tier bowl and solid\\-color seating. (''left:'' Exterior view, 2009\\. ''right:'' interior view looking towards the southern end, 2007\\.)\n}}\nSince the World Cup in 1950, Maracanã Stadium has mainly been used for club games involving four major football clubs in [Rio](/wiki/Rio_de_Janeiro \"Rio de Janeiro\") — [Vasco](/wiki/CR_Vasco_da_Gama \"CR Vasco da Gama\"), [Botafogo](/wiki/Botafogo_de_Futebol_e_Regatas \"Botafogo de Futebol e Regatas\"), [Flamengo](/wiki/Clube_de_Regatas_do_Flamengo \"Clube de Regatas do Flamengo\") and [Fluminense](/wiki/Fluminense_Football_Club \"Fluminense Football Club\"). The stadium has also hosted numerous domestic football cup finals, most notably the [Copa do Brasil](/wiki/Copa_do_Brasil \"Copa do Brasil\") and the [Campeonato Carioca](/wiki/Campeonato_Carioca \"Campeonato Carioca\"). On 21 March 1954, a new official attendance record was set in the game between Brazil and [Paraguay](/wiki/Paraguay_national_football_team \"Paraguay national football team\"), after 183,513 spectators entered the stadium with a ticket and 194,603 (177,656 p.) in [Fla\\-Flu](/wiki/Fla-Flu \"Fla-Flu\") (1963\\). In 1963, stadium authorities replaced the square goal posts with round ones, but it was still two years before the stadium would be fully completed. In 1965, 17 years after construction began, the stadium was finally finished. In September 1966, upon the death of Mário Rodrigues Filho, the Brazilian journalist, columnist, sports figure, and prominent campaigner who was largely responsible for the stadium originally being built, the administrators of the stadium renamed the stadium after him: *Estádio Jornalista Mário Rodrigues Filho*. However, the nickname of *Maracanã* has continued to be used as the common referent. In 1969, [Pelé](/wiki/Pel%C3%A9 \"Pelé\") scored the 1,000th goal of his career at Maracanã, against [CR Vasco da Gama](/wiki/CR_Vasco_da_Gama \"CR Vasco da Gama\") in front of 65,157 spectators.\\[Book Almanaque do Santos]",
"In 1989, the stadium hosted the games of the final round of the [Copa America](/wiki/1989_Copa_America \"1989 Copa America\"); in the same year, [Zico](/wiki/Zico_%28footballer%29 \"Zico (footballer)\") scored his final goal for [Flamengo](/wiki/Clube_de_Regatas_do_Flamengo \"Clube de Regatas do Flamengo\") at the Maracanã, taking his goal tally at the stadium to 333, a record that still stood as of 2021\\. An upper stand in the stadium collapsed on 19 July 1992, in the second game of the finals of [1992 Campeonato Brasileiro Série A](/wiki/1992_Campeonato_Brasileiro_S%C3%A9rie_A \"1992 Campeonato Brasileiro Série A\"), between [Botafogo](/wiki/Botafogo_de_Futebol_e_Regatas \"Botafogo de Futebol e Regatas\") and [Flamengo](/wiki/Clube_de_Regatas_do_Flamengo \"Clube de Regatas do Flamengo\"), leading to the death of three spectators and injuring 50 others.{{cite web \\|title\\= Sports Disasters \\|url\\= http://www.emergency\\-management.net/sport\\_ev.htm \\|access\\-date\\= 23 March 2007 \\|archive\\-date\\= 5 July 2007 \\|archive\\-url\\= https://web.archive.org/web/20070705043614/http://www.emergency\\-management.net/sport\\_ev.htm \\|url\\-status\\= usurped }} Following the disaster, the stadium's capacity was greatly reduced as it was converted to an all\\-seater stadium in the late 1990s. Meanwhile, the ground was classified as a national landmark in 1998, meaning that it could not be demolished.{{citation needed\\|date\\=May 2016}} The stadium hosted the first ever [FIFA Club World Cup final match](/wiki/2000_FIFA_Club_World_Championship \"2000 FIFA Club World Championship\") between [CR Vasco da Gama](/wiki/CR_Vasco_da_Gama \"CR Vasco da Gama\") and [Corinthians Paulista](/wiki/Sport_Club_Corinthians_Paulista \"Sport Club Corinthians Paulista\"), which Corinthians won on [penalties](/wiki/Penalty_shootout_%28football%29 \"Penalty shootout (football)\").",
"### 21st century, renovations and 2014 FIFA World Cup",
"[thumb\\|Panorama from inside the stadium during the closing ceremony of the [2014 FIFA World Cup](/wiki/2014_FIFA_World_Cup \"2014 FIFA World Cup\")](/wiki/Image:Stadion_Rio_de_Janeiro_Finale_WM_2014_%2822117945206%29.jpg \"Stadion Rio de Janeiro Finale WM 2014 (22117945206).jpg\")\nFollowing its 50th anniversary in 2000, the stadium underwent renovations which would increase its full capacity to around 103,000\\. After years of planning and nine months of closure between 2005 and 2006, the stadium was reopened in January 2007 with an all\\-seated capacity of 87,000\\.",
"For the 2014 World Cup and 2016 Olympics and Paralympics, a major reconstruction project was initiated in 2010\\. The original seating bowl, with a two\\-tier configuration, was demolished, giving way to a new one\\-tier seating bowl.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.stadiumguide.com/maracana/\\|title\\=Maracana – Rio de Janeiro – The Stadium Guide\\|first\\=Wojciech\\|last\\=says\\|website\\=stadiumguide.com\\|date\\=10 November 2017 \\|access\\-date\\=13 April 2019\\|archive\\-date\\=14 April 2019\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190414000359/https://www.stadiumguide.com/maracana/\\|url\\-status\\=live}} The original stadium's roof in concrete was removed and replaced with a fiberglass tensioned membrane coated with [polytetra\\-fluoroethylene](/wiki/Polytetrafluoroethylene \"Polytetrafluoroethylene\"). The new roof covers 95% of the seats inside the stadium, unlike the former design, where protection was only afforded to some seats in the upper ring and the bleachers above the gate access of each sector. The old boxes, which were installed at a level above the stands for the [2000 FIFA Club World Championship](/wiki/2000_FIFA_Club_World_Championship \"2000 FIFA Club World Championship\"), were dismantled in the reconstruction process. The new seats are colored yellow, blue and white, which combined with the green of the playing field form the Brazilian national colors. In addition, the grayish tone has returned as the main façade color of the stadium.",
"On 30 May 2013, a [friendly](/wiki/Exhibition_game \"Exhibition game\") game between [Brazil](/wiki/Brazil_national_football_team \"Brazil national football team\") and [England](/wiki/England_national_football_team \"England national football team\") scheduled for 2 June was called off by a local judge because of safety concerns related to the stadium. The government of Rio de Janeiro appealed the decision and the game went ahead as originally planned, the final score being a 2–2 draw.{{cite news \\|title\\=Brazil v England suspended over Maracanã safety concerns \\|url\\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/0/football/22725420 \\|access\\-date\\=30 May 2013 \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[BBC Sport]] \\|date\\=30 May 2013 \\|archive\\-date\\=30 May 2013 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130530232853/http://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/0/football/22725420 \\|url\\-status\\=live }} This match marked the reopening of the new Maracanã.",
"On 12 June 2014, the [2014 FIFA World Cup](/wiki/2014_FIFA_World_Cup \"2014 FIFA World Cup\") opened with host nation Brazil defeating Croatia 3–1, but that match was held at [Arena Corinthians](/wiki/Arena_Corinthians \"Arena Corinthians\") in São Paulo. The first game of the World Cup to be held in Maracanã was a [2–1](/wiki/2014_FIFA_World_Cup_Group_F \"2014 FIFA World Cup Group F\") victory by Argentina over Bosnia and Herzegovina on Sunday, 15 June 2014\\. Brazil ended up never playing a match in the Maracanã during the tournament, as they failed to reach the final after [a 7–1 defeat](/wiki/Brazil_v_Germany_%282014_FIFA_World_Cup%29 \"Brazil v Germany (2014 FIFA World Cup)\") to Germany in the semi\\-finals.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://bleacherreport.com/articles/2128535\\-15\\-biggest\\-stories\\-of\\-the\\-2014\\-fifa\\-world\\-cup\\|title\\=15 Biggest Stories of the 2014 FIFA World Cup\\|first\\=Daniel\\|last\\=Fitzgerald\\|website\\=Bleacher Report\\|access\\-date\\=13 April 2019\\|archive\\-date\\=14 April 2019\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190414000405/https://bleacherreport.com/articles/2128535\\-15\\-biggest\\-stories\\-of\\-the\\-2014\\-fifa\\-world\\-cup\\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
"### Disrepair after the 2016 Summer Olympics",
"[thumb\\|Aerial photograph of Maracanã's playing field in February 2017](/wiki/File:Est%C3%A1dio_Maracan%C3%A3_1_by_Diego_Baravelli.jpg \"Estádio Maracanã 1 by Diego Baravelli.jpg\")\nThe stadium lay dormant in the months after the 2016 Olympics and Paralympics, with photos surfacing in early 2017 of a dried\\-up playing field covered in brown spots and missing turf, ripped\\-out seats, and damage to windows and doors. A debt of R$3 million (US$939,937\\) to the local energy company led to power being shut off at Maracanã. At the heart of the issue was a legal wrangling between the stadium's owner, operator, and the organizing committee for the Rio Olympics over responsibility for maintaining the grounds. Maracanã SA, the operator, charges that the Olympic committee did not return the venue in an acceptable condition, while the committee says the things that they needed to fix should not keep Maracanã from operating.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://edition.cnn.com/2017/02/01/football/maracana\\-stadium\\-rio\\-2016\\-olympics/index.html\\|title\\=How the Maracana became a 'ghost' stadium\\|author1\\=Flora Charner\\|author2\\=Shasta Darlington\\|website\\=CNN\\|date\\=February 2017\\|access\\-date\\=13 April 2019\\|archive\\-date\\=14 April 2019\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190414000402/https://edition.cnn.com/2017/02/01/football/maracana\\-stadium\\-rio\\-2016\\-olympics/index.html\\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
"Within six months of the Olympics, daily tours of the stadium were halted due to vandalism at the stadium and violent robberies in the area. Items of value were looted from the stadium including fire extinguishers, televisions, and a bronze bust of journalist [Mário Filho](/wiki/M%C3%A1rio_Filho \"Mário Filho\"), for whom the stadium was named.{{cite news\\|author\\=Flora Charner and Shasta Darlington\\|title\\=How the Maracanã became a 'ghost' stadium\\|url\\=http://edition.cnn.com/2017/02/01/football/maracana\\-stadium\\-rio\\-2016\\-olympics/\\|work\\=CNN\\|access\\-date\\=12 February 2017\\|archive\\-date\\=13 February 2017\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170213001436/http://edition.cnn.com/2017/02/01/football/maracana\\-stadium\\-rio\\-2016\\-olympics/\\|url\\-status\\=live}}{{cite news\\|last1\\=sport\\|first1\\=Guardian\\|title\\=Rio Olympic venues already falling into a state of disrepair\\|url\\=https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2017/feb/10/rio\\-olympic\\-venues\\-already\\-falling\\-into\\-a\\-state\\-of\\-disrepair\\|work\\=The Guardian\\|date\\=9 February 2017\\|access\\-date\\=26 March 2017\\|archive\\-date\\=27 March 2017\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170327081852/https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2017/feb/10/rio\\-olympic\\-venues\\-already\\-falling\\-into\\-a\\-state\\-of\\-disrepair\\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
"[thumb\\|The Maracanã Stadium during a Clássico dos Gigantes between Fluminense and Vasco da Gama in May 2023](/wiki/File:The_Maracan%C3%A3_Stadium_during_a_Cl%C3%A1ssico_dos_Gigantes_between_Fluminense_and_Vasco_da_Gama_in_May_2023.jpg \"The Maracanã Stadium during a Clássico dos Gigantes between Fluminense and Vasco da Gama in May 2023.jpg\")",
"### New managers",
"On 5 April 2017, the French group [Lagardère](/wiki/Lagard%C3%A8re_Group \"Lagardère Group\") signed an agreement to administer the Maracanã. In total, Lagardère will invest more than R$500 million by the end of the concession, won by [Odebrecht](/wiki/Odebrecht \"Odebrecht\") in 2013 and valid until 2048\\. The *[Folha de São Paulo](/wiki/Folha_de_S%C3%A3o_Paulo \"Folha de São Paulo\")* newspaper informed that the group estimates that it will need to spend about R$15 million on emergency repairs to the stadium. In 2013, the former managers of Odebrecht together with [AEG](/wiki/Anschutz_Entertainment_Group \"Anschutz Entertainment Group\") and IMX, a company owned by Brazilian billionaire [Eike Batista](/wiki/Eike_Batista \"Eike Batista\"), won the bid to manage the stadium for 35 years. The company was associated with Brazilian building company OAS and the [Amsterdam Arena](/wiki/Amsterdam_Arena \"Amsterdam Arena\"). At the time, Lagardère was in second place in the bidding.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://m.folha.uol.com.br/esporte/2017/04/1873008\\-grupo\\-frances\\-acerta\\-compra\\-da\\-gestao\\-do\\-maracana.shtml?mobile\\|title\\=Grupo francês acerta compra da gestão do Maracanã – 05/04/2017 – Esporte – Folha de S.Paulo\\|website\\=m.folha.uol.com.br\\|access\\-date\\=13 April 2019\\|archive\\-date\\=9 March 2021\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210309055427/https://m.folha.uol.com.br/esporte/2017/04/1873008\\-grupo\\-frances\\-acerta\\-compra\\-da\\-gestao\\-do\\-maracana.shtml?mobile\\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
"",
"",
""
] |
Plot
----
Avinash Rai Chaudhary, a reputed Zamindar of Chandangarh has a sister Saraswati, whom he loves more than his life and takes care of her as a father. One day Saraswati without informing her family, marries a muslim man Zafar Khan of Sundargarh and runs away from home. Avinash's and Saraswati's father in this grieve dies the same night which leads to riots between the populace of Chandangarh and Sundargarh and Zafar getting injured for life. Enraged he files a case against Avinash and the decision after a long span of 25 years comes in the favour of Zafar and Avinash's and Saraswati's relationship is severed.
Zafar and Saraswati's son Salman Khan promises to his mother that he would unite the two families one day.
There's another enemy of Avinash, Nayak Mardaraj and his brother Pralay Mardaraj who want to finish off the Rai Chaudhary family to become the sole powerful people of Chandangarh. Both Avinash and Zafar are unaware that the riots that followed after the death of Avinash's father and Zafar becoming injured for life was actually conspired by Nayak and Pralay's father.
The ongoing issues with Avinash's family leads his family priest Tingeswara Acharya(Tinga Nana)to advise him for performing a 9\-day Shanti Maha Yagya of the family's Ishta Devi. Avinash instructs his manager Lingaraj to arrange a priest for performing the Yagya and he requests 'Foreign Nana' to perform it. Foreign Nana advises Lingaraj to consult his son 'Giridhari Purohita' because he is abroad and Lingaraj mistakenly considers Salman as Giridhari and Salman posing as the same agrees to perform the Yagya, citing it as an opportunity to bring 2 families close.
He arrives to Avinash's mansion with expert Purohits and starts performing the Yagya but Avinash's adopted daughter Ganga notices that Giridhari Purohit mumbles his mouth and doesn't chants shlokas during Yagya and as a test asks only Salman(posing as Giridhari) to chant mantras while all others rest and he does so ultimately refuting her doubt.
She starts falling for him and at the same time Salman stays in his attempts for calming Avinash's anger towards Saraswati. Eventually he convinces Avinash to celebrate Raja festival (again after 25 years) and at the same time he reveals Ganga about his reality of he being a Muslim when Ganga without informing him decides to marry him and Ganga says she still loves him and Salman also reciprocates.
Linga Manager also gets to know about Salman but stays quiet as he fears of being punished by Avinash and on the wedding day of Salman and Ganga, Zafar Khan and his family arrive at Avinash's mansion, being informed that Salman is getting beaten up only to see Avinash and his family in danger due to Mardaraj gang.
Saraswati pleads in front of Zafar to save his brother and within the fight the families start reconciling.
Eventually Nayak is killed by Avinash and Pralay by Salman.
Avinash after getting to know about Salman, confronts him and he breaks up in front of him and says to him that how Avinash has being torturing himself and his sister for the past 25 years, Avinash forgives Saraswati, formally handing her over to Zafar and the film ends with Salman and Ganga getting married and Tinga Nana with other Brahmins performing the marriage.
|
[
"Plot\n----",
"Avinash Rai Chaudhary, a reputed Zamindar of Chandangarh has a sister Saraswati, whom he loves more than his life and takes care of her as a father. One day Saraswati without informing her family, marries a muslim man Zafar Khan of Sundargarh and runs away from home. Avinash's and Saraswati's father in this grieve dies the same night which leads to riots between the populace of Chandangarh and Sundargarh and Zafar getting injured for life. Enraged he files a case against Avinash and the decision after a long span of 25 years comes in the favour of Zafar and Avinash's and Saraswati's relationship is severed.",
"Zafar and Saraswati's son Salman Khan promises to his mother that he would unite the two families one day.",
"There's another enemy of Avinash, Nayak Mardaraj and his brother Pralay Mardaraj who want to finish off the Rai Chaudhary family to become the sole powerful people of Chandangarh. Both Avinash and Zafar are unaware that the riots that followed after the death of Avinash's father and Zafar becoming injured for life was actually conspired by Nayak and Pralay's father.",
"The ongoing issues with Avinash's family leads his family priest Tingeswara Acharya(Tinga Nana)to advise him for performing a 9\\-day Shanti Maha Yagya of the family's Ishta Devi. Avinash instructs his manager Lingaraj to arrange a priest for performing the Yagya and he requests 'Foreign Nana' to perform it. Foreign Nana advises Lingaraj to consult his son 'Giridhari Purohita' because he is abroad and Lingaraj mistakenly considers Salman as Giridhari and Salman posing as the same agrees to perform the Yagya, citing it as an opportunity to bring 2 families close.",
"He arrives to Avinash's mansion with expert Purohits and starts performing the Yagya but Avinash's adopted daughter Ganga notices that Giridhari Purohit mumbles his mouth and doesn't chants shlokas during Yagya and as a test asks only Salman(posing as Giridhari) to chant mantras while all others rest and he does so ultimately refuting her doubt.",
"She starts falling for him and at the same time Salman stays in his attempts for calming Avinash's anger towards Saraswati. Eventually he convinces Avinash to celebrate Raja festival (again after 25 years) and at the same time he reveals Ganga about his reality of he being a Muslim when Ganga without informing him decides to marry him and Ganga says she still loves him and Salman also reciprocates.",
"Linga Manager also gets to know about Salman but stays quiet as he fears of being punished by Avinash and on the wedding day of Salman and Ganga, Zafar Khan and his family arrive at Avinash's mansion, being informed that Salman is getting beaten up only to see Avinash and his family in danger due to Mardaraj gang.",
"Saraswati pleads in front of Zafar to save his brother and within the fight the families start reconciling. \nEventually Nayak is killed by Avinash and Pralay by Salman.",
"Avinash after getting to know about Salman, confronts him and he breaks up in front of him and says to him that how Avinash has being torturing himself and his sister for the past 25 years, Avinash forgives Saraswati, formally handing her over to Zafar and the film ends with Salman and Ganga getting married and Tinga Nana with other Brahmins performing the marriage.",
""
] |
River description
-----------------
Up in central north Colorado rests [North Park (Colorado basin)](/wiki/North_Park_%28Colorado_basin%29 "North Park (Colorado basin)"), a valley ringed by {{convert\|12000\|ft\|m}} mountains. The headwaters of the river is essentially all of [Jackson County, Colorado](/wiki/Jackson_County%2C_Colorado "Jackson County, Colorado") whose boundaries are the [continental divide](/wiki/Continental_divide "Continental divide") on the west and south and the mountain drainage peaks on the east—the north boundary is the state of Wyoming boundary. The rugged [Rocky Mountains](/wiki/Rocky_Mountains "Rocky Mountains") Continental Divide surrounding Jackson County have at least twelve peaks over {{convert\|11000\|ft\|m}} in height. These peaks include on the west: Mount Zirkel {{convert\|12180\|ft\|m}}, Lost ranger Peak {{convert\|11932\|ft\|m}} and Mount Ethel {{convert\|11924\|ft\|m}}; on the south: Sheep Mountain {{convert\|11819\|ft\|m}} and Parkview Mountain {{convert\|12296\|ft\|m}}—whose waters on the south or east side drain into the North Platte River drainage. On the east are: [Mount Nimbus](/wiki/Mount_Nimbus "Mount Nimbus") {{convert\|12706\|ft\|m}}, [Mount Cumulus](/wiki/Mount_Cumulus "Mount Cumulus") {{convert\|12725\|ft\|m}}, [Howard Mountain](/wiki/Howard_Mountain "Howard Mountain") {{convert\|12810\|ft\|m}}, [Mount Cirrus](/wiki/Mount_Cirrus "Mount Cirrus") {{convert\|12797\|ft\|m}}, [Mount Richthofen](/wiki/Mount_Richthofen "Mount Richthofen") {{convert\|12940\|ft\|m}}, [Lead Mountain](/wiki/Lead_Mountain_%28Grand_County%2C_Colorado%29 "Lead Mountain (Grand County, Colorado)") {{convert\|12537\|ft\|m}}, North Diamond Peak {{convert\|11852\|ft\|m}} and Clark Peak {{convert\|12951\|ft\|m}} whose eastern slope waters drain into the North Platte River.Google Earth\-\-Jackson County Colorado. Google earth shows the boundaries (the continental divide) and peaks surrounding Jackson county. August 23, 2011
[thumb\|left\|Dry [stream](/wiki/Perennial_stream "Perennial stream") channel on the North Platte River in [Goshen County, Wyoming](/wiki/Goshen_County%2C_Wyoming "Goshen County, Wyoming") during May 2002 [drought](/wiki/Drought "Drought") conditions](/wiki/Image:NorthPlatteRiverMay2002.jpg "NorthPlatteRiverMay2002.jpg")
[thumb\|right\|Seminoe Dam and reservoir from the air](/wiki/Image:SeminoeDam.jpeg "SeminoeDam.jpeg")
[thumb\|left\|The Trappers Route Special Recreation Management Area is located north of [Casper, Wyoming](/wiki/Casper%2C_Wyoming "Casper, Wyoming") along the North Platte River.](/wiki/File:Trappers_Route_Special_Recreation_Management_Area%2C_North_Platte_River.jpg "Trappers Route Special Recreation Management Area, North Platte River.jpg")
[thumb\|right\|upright\|[Pathfinder Dam](/wiki/Pathfinder_Dam "Pathfinder Dam") on the North Platte River](/wiki/Image:Pathfinder_Dam_-_Wyoming.jpg "Pathfinder Dam - Wyoming.jpg")
In Jackson county the North Platte is joined by several other small streams draining the mountains around the county. Some of these creeks are: Arapaho Creek, Colorado Creek, East Branch Illinois River, Jack Creek, Jewell Lake Trib., Grizzly Creek, Little Grizzly Creek, Norris Creek, North Fork of North Platte River, Rock Creek (Little Willow Ck), South Fork Canadian River, South Fork Michigan River, Willow Creek and in Wyoming the [Encampment River](/wiki/Encampment_River "Encampment River").Google earth shows\-\-Jackson county satellite views of rivers and streams reasonably well as long as they are reasonably large. To get names of rivers and streams use the free wilderness.net Western Preservation topographic maps (topo option)[http://www.wilderness.net/index.cfm?fuse\=NWPS](http://www.wilderness.net/index.cfm?fuse=NWPS) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120316021404/http://www.wilderness.net/index.cfm?fuse\=NWPS\|date\=2012\-03\-16}} Accessed 23 Aug 2011 All these streams are draining the snow melt form the mountains surrounding Jackson County. The North Platte River flows northward from Colorado into Wyoming through the popular rafting site – [Northgate Canyon](/wiki/Northgate_Canyon "Northgate Canyon")[Northgate Canyon](https://www.inaraft.com/rivers/north-platte/northgate-canyon/map/) Accessed January 18, 2023 which is along the western side of the [Medicine Bow Mountains](/wiki/Medicine_Bow_Mountains "Medicine Bow Mountains").
In Colorado and Wyoming, the river is narrower and much swifter flowing than it is in Nebraska, where it becomes a slow flowing, shallow [braided stream](/wiki/Braided_stream "Braided stream"). The upper reaches of the river in the Rockies in Colorado and Wyoming are popular for recreation rafting and [fly fishing](/wiki/Fly_fishing "Fly fishing") on the river and its many tributaries for [rainbow trout](/wiki/Rainbow_trout "Rainbow trout") and other sport fish. In western Nebraska, the banks and riverbed of the North Platte provide a green oasis amid an otherwise semi\-arid region of North America.
The river has been dammed several times to form several reservoirs along its course. On the north end of the Park range it is joined by the [Medicine Bow River](/wiki/Medicine_Bow_River "Medicine Bow River") in the Seminoe Reservoir formed by [Seminoe Dam](/wiki/Seminoe_Dam "Seminoe Dam"), further downstream is the [Kortes Reservoir](/wiki/Kortes_Reservoir "Kortes Reservoir").[Kortes Reservoir/Miracle Mile Area](https://publiclands.org/pages/site?=1594) Accessed January 18, 2023 Still further downstream about {{convert\|50\|mi\|km}} above Casper the North Platte is joined by the Sweetwater River to form the [Pathfinder Reservoir](/wiki/Pathfinder_Reservoir "Pathfinder Reservoir"). Northeast of the Pathfinder Reservoir it passes through the Alcova[Alcova Reservoir](http://www.recreation.gov/recAreaDetails.do?recAreaId=1228) Accessed January 18, 2023 and Gray Reef{{Cite web \|url\=http://www.satelliteviews.net/cgi\-bin/g.cgi?fid\=1608023\&state\=WY\&ftype\=reservoir \|title\=Gray Reef Reservoir \|publisher\=SatelliteViews.net \|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20120908\-113053/http://www.satelliteviews.net/cgi\-bin/g.cgi?fid\=1608023\&state\=WY\&ftype\=reservoir \|archive\-date\=2012\-09\-08 \|url\-status\=dead \|access\-date\=2023\-01\-18}} reservoirs before it hits Casper. Casper was established in 1888 east of the former site of [Fort Caspar](/wiki/Fort_Caspar "Fort Caspar"), which was built about 1859 during the mass migration along the Oregon, California, Mormon and [Bozeman](/wiki/Bozeman%2C_Montana "Bozeman, Montana") trails.{{Cite book\|title\=Wyoming's Historic Forts\|last\=Fifer\|first\=Barbera\|publisher\=Farcountry Press\|pages\=59–68}} Near what is now Casper was the location of several ferries that offered passage across the North Platte River during the summer "Trail season" starting about 1847\. In 1847, during the first Mormon emigration, [Brigham Young](/wiki/Brigham_Young "Brigham Young") leading the Mormon settlers to [Salt Lake City, Utah](/wiki/Salt_Lake_City%2C_Utah "Salt Lake City, Utah") established a ferry near present\-day Casper known as the Mormon Ferry.[Mormon Ferry](https://newsroom.churchofjesuschrist.org/article/pioneer-trek) Accessed January 18, 2023 The next year the ferry was moved a few miles down river. Soon competing ferries were built. In 1859, Louis Guinard built a toll bridge across the North Platte and a trading post near the original ferry's locations.{{Cite web\|url\=http://wyoshpo.state.wy.us/trailsdemo/platteriverfords.htm\|title\=Platte River Fords\|publisher\=Wyoming State Historic Preservation Office\|access\-date\=August 23, 2011\|archive\-date\=February 28, 2008\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080228134553/http://wyoshpo.state.wy.us/trailsdemo/platteriverfords.htm\|url\-status\=dead}} Before reaching Casper the river turns and flows northeast between the [Granite Mountains](/wiki/Granite_Mountains_%28Wyoming%29 "Granite Mountains (Wyoming)") to the west and the [Laramie Mountains](/wiki/Laramie_Mountains "Laramie Mountains") to the east.
The North Platte emerges from the mountains near Casper, where it turns and flows east\-southeast, along the northern edge of the Laramie Mountains onto the [Great Plains](/wiki/Great_Plains "Great Plains"). The North Platte flows east\-southeast across the plains of eastern Wyoming, past the town of [Douglas, Wyoming](/wiki/Douglas%2C_Wyoming "Douglas, Wyoming") and through [Glendo](/wiki/Glendo_Reservoir "Glendo Reservoir") and Guernsey Reservoirs.{{Cite web \|url\=http://findlakes.com/guernsey\_reservoir\_wyoming\_vacation.htm \|title\=Guernsey Reservoir Vacation and Resort Properties \|publisher\=FindLakes \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20111011072351/http://findlakes.com/guernsey\_reservoir\_wyoming\_vacation.htm \|archive\-date\=2011\-10\-11 \|url\-status\=dead \|access\-date\=2023\-01\-18}} It then flows past the [Fort Laramie National Historic Site](/wiki/Fort_Laramie_National_Historic_Site "Fort Laramie National Historic Site") (the former site of Fort Laramie), where it is joined by the [Laramie River](/wiki/Laramie_River "Laramie River"). The North Platte is joined by Horse Creek flowing in from Wyoming near the Wyoming\-Nebraska border as its last significant addition. It crosses into western Nebraska, flowing east\-southeast between the cities of [Scottsbluff, Nebraska](/wiki/Scottsbluff%2C_Nebraska "Scottsbluff, Nebraska") and [Gering, Nebraska](/wiki/Gering%2C_Nebraska "Gering, Nebraska"). In [Keith County, Nebraska](/wiki/Keith_County%2C_Nebraska "Keith County, Nebraska"), the [Kingsley Dam](/wiki/Kingsley_Dam "Kingsley Dam") forms [Lake C.W. McConaughy](/wiki/Lake_C.W._McConaughy "Lake C.W. McConaughy"), the largest reservoir in Nebraska and a significant [irrigation](/wiki/Irrigation "Irrigation") and recreation facility for the region. Kingsley Dam, constructed in 1935 to 1941, is located on the east side of [Lake McConaughy](/wiki/Lake_McConaughy "Lake McConaughy") in central Keith County, Nebraska, and is the second largest hydraulic fill dam in the world.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.lakemcconaughy.com/about\_historyfacts.html \|title\=History and Facts about Lake McConaughy \|work\=Official Website of the Ogallala/Keith County Chamber of Commerce \|access\-date\= September 5, 2009}} East of the Kingsley dam the North Platte River flows nearly parallel to the [South Platte River](/wiki/South_Platte_River "South Platte River"). In many places they are separated by only about 5 mi (8 km) for a stretch of about 50 mi (80 km) before they join to form the Platte River just east of the city of [North Platte, Nebraska](/wiki/North_Platte%2C_Nebraska "North Platte, Nebraska").
The wagon trails following the south side of the Platte/North Platte River ferried or waded in low water years across the South Platte River in several places to stay on the south side of the North Platte River where the trails were located. Those who later went on to [Denver, Colorado](/wiki/Denver%2C_Colorado "Denver, Colorado") followed the South Platte River trail into Colorado. Historically, the North Platte River used to be up to a mile wide (1\.6 km) in many places as evidenced by the old streambed and written records. Today, by the time the North Platte reaches [Paxton, Nebraska](/wiki/Paxton%2C_Nebraska "Paxton, Nebraska") it is much smaller due to the extensive water taken from it for irrigation.
|
[
"River description\n-----------------",
"Up in central north Colorado rests [North Park (Colorado basin)](/wiki/North_Park_%28Colorado_basin%29 \"North Park (Colorado basin)\"), a valley ringed by {{convert\\|12000\\|ft\\|m}} mountains. The headwaters of the river is essentially all of [Jackson County, Colorado](/wiki/Jackson_County%2C_Colorado \"Jackson County, Colorado\") whose boundaries are the [continental divide](/wiki/Continental_divide \"Continental divide\") on the west and south and the mountain drainage peaks on the east—the north boundary is the state of Wyoming boundary. The rugged [Rocky Mountains](/wiki/Rocky_Mountains \"Rocky Mountains\") Continental Divide surrounding Jackson County have at least twelve peaks over {{convert\\|11000\\|ft\\|m}} in height. These peaks include on the west: Mount Zirkel {{convert\\|12180\\|ft\\|m}}, Lost ranger Peak {{convert\\|11932\\|ft\\|m}} and Mount Ethel {{convert\\|11924\\|ft\\|m}}; on the south: Sheep Mountain {{convert\\|11819\\|ft\\|m}} and Parkview Mountain {{convert\\|12296\\|ft\\|m}}—whose waters on the south or east side drain into the North Platte River drainage. On the east are: [Mount Nimbus](/wiki/Mount_Nimbus \"Mount Nimbus\") {{convert\\|12706\\|ft\\|m}}, [Mount Cumulus](/wiki/Mount_Cumulus \"Mount Cumulus\") {{convert\\|12725\\|ft\\|m}}, [Howard Mountain](/wiki/Howard_Mountain \"Howard Mountain\") {{convert\\|12810\\|ft\\|m}}, [Mount Cirrus](/wiki/Mount_Cirrus \"Mount Cirrus\") {{convert\\|12797\\|ft\\|m}}, [Mount Richthofen](/wiki/Mount_Richthofen \"Mount Richthofen\") {{convert\\|12940\\|ft\\|m}}, [Lead Mountain](/wiki/Lead_Mountain_%28Grand_County%2C_Colorado%29 \"Lead Mountain (Grand County, Colorado)\") {{convert\\|12537\\|ft\\|m}}, North Diamond Peak {{convert\\|11852\\|ft\\|m}} and Clark Peak {{convert\\|12951\\|ft\\|m}} whose eastern slope waters drain into the North Platte River.Google Earth\\-\\-Jackson County Colorado. Google earth shows the boundaries (the continental divide) and peaks surrounding Jackson county. August 23, 2011\n[thumb\\|left\\|Dry [stream](/wiki/Perennial_stream \"Perennial stream\") channel on the North Platte River in [Goshen County, Wyoming](/wiki/Goshen_County%2C_Wyoming \"Goshen County, Wyoming\") during May 2002 [drought](/wiki/Drought \"Drought\") conditions](/wiki/Image:NorthPlatteRiverMay2002.jpg \"NorthPlatteRiverMay2002.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|right\\|Seminoe Dam and reservoir from the air](/wiki/Image:SeminoeDam.jpeg \"SeminoeDam.jpeg\")\n[thumb\\|left\\|The Trappers Route Special Recreation Management Area is located north of [Casper, Wyoming](/wiki/Casper%2C_Wyoming \"Casper, Wyoming\") along the North Platte River.](/wiki/File:Trappers_Route_Special_Recreation_Management_Area%2C_North_Platte_River.jpg \"Trappers Route Special Recreation Management Area, North Platte River.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|right\\|upright\\|[Pathfinder Dam](/wiki/Pathfinder_Dam \"Pathfinder Dam\") on the North Platte River](/wiki/Image:Pathfinder_Dam_-_Wyoming.jpg \"Pathfinder Dam - Wyoming.jpg\")",
"In Jackson county the North Platte is joined by several other small streams draining the mountains around the county. Some of these creeks are: Arapaho Creek, Colorado Creek, East Branch Illinois River, Jack Creek, Jewell Lake Trib., Grizzly Creek, Little Grizzly Creek, Norris Creek, North Fork of North Platte River, Rock Creek (Little Willow Ck), South Fork Canadian River, South Fork Michigan River, Willow Creek and in Wyoming the [Encampment River](/wiki/Encampment_River \"Encampment River\").Google earth shows\\-\\-Jackson county satellite views of rivers and streams reasonably well as long as they are reasonably large. To get names of rivers and streams use the free wilderness.net Western Preservation topographic maps (topo option)[http://www.wilderness.net/index.cfm?fuse\\=NWPS](http://www.wilderness.net/index.cfm?fuse=NWPS) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120316021404/http://www.wilderness.net/index.cfm?fuse\\=NWPS\\|date\\=2012\\-03\\-16}} Accessed 23 Aug 2011 All these streams are draining the snow melt form the mountains surrounding Jackson County. The North Platte River flows northward from Colorado into Wyoming through the popular rafting site – [Northgate Canyon](/wiki/Northgate_Canyon \"Northgate Canyon\")[Northgate Canyon](https://www.inaraft.com/rivers/north-platte/northgate-canyon/map/) Accessed January 18, 2023 which is along the western side of the [Medicine Bow Mountains](/wiki/Medicine_Bow_Mountains \"Medicine Bow Mountains\").",
"In Colorado and Wyoming, the river is narrower and much swifter flowing than it is in Nebraska, where it becomes a slow flowing, shallow [braided stream](/wiki/Braided_stream \"Braided stream\"). The upper reaches of the river in the Rockies in Colorado and Wyoming are popular for recreation rafting and [fly fishing](/wiki/Fly_fishing \"Fly fishing\") on the river and its many tributaries for [rainbow trout](/wiki/Rainbow_trout \"Rainbow trout\") and other sport fish. In western Nebraska, the banks and riverbed of the North Platte provide a green oasis amid an otherwise semi\\-arid region of North America.",
"The river has been dammed several times to form several reservoirs along its course. On the north end of the Park range it is joined by the [Medicine Bow River](/wiki/Medicine_Bow_River \"Medicine Bow River\") in the Seminoe Reservoir formed by [Seminoe Dam](/wiki/Seminoe_Dam \"Seminoe Dam\"), further downstream is the [Kortes Reservoir](/wiki/Kortes_Reservoir \"Kortes Reservoir\").[Kortes Reservoir/Miracle Mile Area](https://publiclands.org/pages/site?=1594) Accessed January 18, 2023 Still further downstream about {{convert\\|50\\|mi\\|km}} above Casper the North Platte is joined by the Sweetwater River to form the [Pathfinder Reservoir](/wiki/Pathfinder_Reservoir \"Pathfinder Reservoir\"). Northeast of the Pathfinder Reservoir it passes through the Alcova[Alcova Reservoir](http://www.recreation.gov/recAreaDetails.do?recAreaId=1228) Accessed January 18, 2023 and Gray Reef{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://www.satelliteviews.net/cgi\\-bin/g.cgi?fid\\=1608023\\&state\\=WY\\&ftype\\=reservoir \\|title\\=Gray Reef Reservoir \\|publisher\\=SatelliteViews.net \\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20120908\\-113053/http://www.satelliteviews.net/cgi\\-bin/g.cgi?fid\\=1608023\\&state\\=WY\\&ftype\\=reservoir \\|archive\\-date\\=2012\\-09\\-08 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-01\\-18}} reservoirs before it hits Casper. Casper was established in 1888 east of the former site of [Fort Caspar](/wiki/Fort_Caspar \"Fort Caspar\"), which was built about 1859 during the mass migration along the Oregon, California, Mormon and [Bozeman](/wiki/Bozeman%2C_Montana \"Bozeman, Montana\") trails.{{Cite book\\|title\\=Wyoming's Historic Forts\\|last\\=Fifer\\|first\\=Barbera\\|publisher\\=Farcountry Press\\|pages\\=59–68}} Near what is now Casper was the location of several ferries that offered passage across the North Platte River during the summer \"Trail season\" starting about 1847\\. In 1847, during the first Mormon emigration, [Brigham Young](/wiki/Brigham_Young \"Brigham Young\") leading the Mormon settlers to [Salt Lake City, Utah](/wiki/Salt_Lake_City%2C_Utah \"Salt Lake City, Utah\") established a ferry near present\\-day Casper known as the Mormon Ferry.[Mormon Ferry](https://newsroom.churchofjesuschrist.org/article/pioneer-trek) Accessed January 18, 2023 The next year the ferry was moved a few miles down river. Soon competing ferries were built. In 1859, Louis Guinard built a toll bridge across the North Platte and a trading post near the original ferry's locations.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://wyoshpo.state.wy.us/trailsdemo/platteriverfords.htm\\|title\\=Platte River Fords\\|publisher\\=Wyoming State Historic Preservation Office\\|access\\-date\\=August 23, 2011\\|archive\\-date\\=February 28, 2008\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080228134553/http://wyoshpo.state.wy.us/trailsdemo/platteriverfords.htm\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} Before reaching Casper the river turns and flows northeast between the [Granite Mountains](/wiki/Granite_Mountains_%28Wyoming%29 \"Granite Mountains (Wyoming)\") to the west and the [Laramie Mountains](/wiki/Laramie_Mountains \"Laramie Mountains\") to the east.",
"The North Platte emerges from the mountains near Casper, where it turns and flows east\\-southeast, along the northern edge of the Laramie Mountains onto the [Great Plains](/wiki/Great_Plains \"Great Plains\"). The North Platte flows east\\-southeast across the plains of eastern Wyoming, past the town of [Douglas, Wyoming](/wiki/Douglas%2C_Wyoming \"Douglas, Wyoming\") and through [Glendo](/wiki/Glendo_Reservoir \"Glendo Reservoir\") and Guernsey Reservoirs.{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://findlakes.com/guernsey\\_reservoir\\_wyoming\\_vacation.htm \\|title\\=Guernsey Reservoir Vacation and Resort Properties \\|publisher\\=FindLakes \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20111011072351/http://findlakes.com/guernsey\\_reservoir\\_wyoming\\_vacation.htm \\|archive\\-date\\=2011\\-10\\-11 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-01\\-18}} It then flows past the [Fort Laramie National Historic Site](/wiki/Fort_Laramie_National_Historic_Site \"Fort Laramie National Historic Site\") (the former site of Fort Laramie), where it is joined by the [Laramie River](/wiki/Laramie_River \"Laramie River\"). The North Platte is joined by Horse Creek flowing in from Wyoming near the Wyoming\\-Nebraska border as its last significant addition. It crosses into western Nebraska, flowing east\\-southeast between the cities of [Scottsbluff, Nebraska](/wiki/Scottsbluff%2C_Nebraska \"Scottsbluff, Nebraska\") and [Gering, Nebraska](/wiki/Gering%2C_Nebraska \"Gering, Nebraska\"). In [Keith County, Nebraska](/wiki/Keith_County%2C_Nebraska \"Keith County, Nebraska\"), the [Kingsley Dam](/wiki/Kingsley_Dam \"Kingsley Dam\") forms [Lake C.W. McConaughy](/wiki/Lake_C.W._McConaughy \"Lake C.W. McConaughy\"), the largest reservoir in Nebraska and a significant [irrigation](/wiki/Irrigation \"Irrigation\") and recreation facility for the region. Kingsley Dam, constructed in 1935 to 1941, is located on the east side of [Lake McConaughy](/wiki/Lake_McConaughy \"Lake McConaughy\") in central Keith County, Nebraska, and is the second largest hydraulic fill dam in the world.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.lakemcconaughy.com/about\\_historyfacts.html \\|title\\=History and Facts about Lake McConaughy \\|work\\=Official Website of the Ogallala/Keith County Chamber of Commerce \\|access\\-date\\= September 5, 2009}} East of the Kingsley dam the North Platte River flows nearly parallel to the [South Platte River](/wiki/South_Platte_River \"South Platte River\"). In many places they are separated by only about 5 mi (8 km) for a stretch of about 50 mi (80 km) before they join to form the Platte River just east of the city of [North Platte, Nebraska](/wiki/North_Platte%2C_Nebraska \"North Platte, Nebraska\").",
"The wagon trails following the south side of the Platte/North Platte River ferried or waded in low water years across the South Platte River in several places to stay on the south side of the North Platte River where the trails were located. Those who later went on to [Denver, Colorado](/wiki/Denver%2C_Colorado \"Denver, Colorado\") followed the South Platte River trail into Colorado. Historically, the North Platte River used to be up to a mile wide (1\\.6 km) in many places as evidenced by the old streambed and written records. Today, by the time the North Platte reaches [Paxton, Nebraska](/wiki/Paxton%2C_Nebraska \"Paxton, Nebraska\") it is much smaller due to the extensive water taken from it for irrigation.",
""
] |
Composer for Hollywood films
----------------------------
### *A Midsummer Night's Dream* (1935\)
After Max Reinhardt's success in producing [Shakespeare's](/wiki/William_Shakespeare "William Shakespeare") *[A Midsummer Night's Dream](/wiki/A_Midsummer_Night%27s_Dream "A Midsummer Night's Dream")* for the stage, using [incidental music](/wiki/A_Midsummer_Night%27s_Dream_%28Mendelssohn%29 "A Midsummer Night's Dream (Mendelssohn)") by [Felix Mendelssohn](/wiki/Felix_Mendelssohn "Felix Mendelssohn"), he invited Korngold to Hollywood in 1934 to adapt Mendelssohn's score for his planned film version.Thomas, Tony. *Korngold: Vienna to Hollywood*, Turner Entertainment (1996\){{rp\|8}} Korngold would also enlarge and conduct the score.
[The film](/wiki/A_Midsummer_Night%27s_Dream_%281935_film%29 "A Midsummer Night's Dream (1935 film)"), which was released in 1935, was a first for [Warner Brothers](/wiki/Warner_Brothers "Warner Brothers") studio in producing a film based on a 400\-year\-old work of literary art. The studio assigned almost every star or character actor under contract to take part in the film, with the filming taking over six months.{{rp\|8}} The studio also allowed Korngold to devote more attention to the score than it had to any of its previous films; he could prerecord certain parts of the film for the benefit of actors, whom he then had act to the rhythm and tempo of the music.{{rp\|8}} As a result of the score's elaborate tailoring, the film and Korngold's music left a strong impression on the film industry.{{rp\|8}}
Korngold returned to Austria to finish *[Die Kathrin](/wiki/Die_Kathrin "Die Kathrin")*. He came back to Hollywood to score the film *[Give Us This Night](/wiki/Give_Us_This_Night "Give Us This Night")*, with lyricist [Oscar Hammerstein II](/wiki/Oscar_Hammerstein_II "Oscar Hammerstein II"), a film which introduced mezzo\-soprano [Gladys Swarthout](/wiki/Gladys_Swarthout "Gladys Swarthout") and the Polish\-born tenor [Jan Kiepura](/wiki/Jan_Kiepura "Jan Kiepura"), who had starred in several Korngold operas in Europe.{{rp\|9}}
### *Captain Blood* (1935\)
In 1935 Warners asked Korngold if he was interested in writing an original dramatic score for *Captain Blood*. He at first declined, feeling that a story about pirates was outside his range of interest. However, after watching the filming, with a dynamic new star, Errol Flynn, in a heroic role alongside [Olivia de Havilland](/wiki/Olivia_de_Havilland "Olivia de Havilland"), who had her debut in *A Midsummer Night's Dream*, he changed his mind.
{{quote box\|align\=right\|width\=25em\|bgcolor\=Cornsilk\|quote\=Korngold not only had the background but also had the gift of melody, an innate sense of theater, and the skills to manipulate sentiment, emotion, humor, and excitement. In short, if \[\[Jack L. Warner]] had been praying for such a composer, then his prayers had been answered.\|source\=film historian \[\[Tony Thomas (film historian)\|Tony Thomas]]{{rp\|10}}}}
After he accepted, however, he learned that he needed to compose over an hour of symphonic music in only three weeks. The short time frame forced him to use bits of symphonic poems by [Franz Liszt](/wiki/Franz_Liszt "Franz Liszt"), and a couple of engaging cues were written by Korngold orchestrator Milan Roder. In the end, Korngold insisted he be credited only with musical adaptations, even though he scored nearly the entire film with original music.{{Cite web\|title\=KORNGOLD, E.W.: Captain Blood / STEINER, M.: The Three Musketeers / YOUNG, V.: Scaramouche (Brandenburg Philharmonic, Kaufman)\|url\=https://www.naxos.com/mainsite/blurbs\_reviews.asp?item\_code\=8\.557704\&catNum\=557704\&filetype\=About%20this%20Recording\&language\=English\|access\-date\=October 19, 2021\|website\=www.naxos.com\|archive\-date\=October 20, 2021\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20211020030336/https://www.naxos.com/mainsite/blurbs\_reviews.asp?item\_code\=8\.557704\&catNum\=557704\&filetype\=About%20this%20Recording\&language\=English\|url\-status\=live}}{{Cite web\|date\=March 30, 2020\|title\=CAPTAIN BLOOD – Erich Wolfgang Korngold\|url\=https://moviemusicuk.us/2020/03/30/captain\-blood\-erich\-wolfgang\-korngold/\|access\-date\=October 19, 2021\|website\=MOVIE MUSIC UK\|language\=en\|archive\-date\=October 19, 2021\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20211019215105/https://moviemusicuk.us/2020/03/30/captain\-blood\-erich\-wolfgang\-korngold/\|url\-status\=live}}{{rp\|8}}
*Captain Blood* became an immediate hit, with an Oscar nomination for the score.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.oscars.org/oscars/ceremonies/1936\|title\=The 8th Academy Awards – 1936\|access\-date\=October 14, 2017\|archive\-date\=July 6, 2011\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110706093707/http://www.oscars.org/awards/academyawards/legacy/ceremony/8th\-winners.html\|url\-status\=live}} As Korngold's first fully symphonic film score, it marked a milestone in his career, as he became the first composer of international stature to sign a contract with a film studio.{{rp\|10}}Woodstra, Chris, Brennan, Gerald, Schrott, Allen, editors. *All Music Guide to Classical Music: The Definitive Guide to Classical Music*, Hal Leonard Corp. (2005\) p. 701 It also launched the career of Flynn and gave a major boost to that of de Havilland, who did another seven movies with Flynn. Korngold scored six more films starring Flynn.{{rp\|21}} In addition, *Captain Blood* opened the way for other costumed romantic adventures, which hadn't been seen since the silent era.{{rp\|9}}
### *Anthony Adverse* (1936\)
After scoring *Anthony Adverse*, another Warners picture, this one starring [Fredric March](/wiki/Fredric_March "Fredric March") and Olivia de Havilland, Korngold's career in Hollywood developed quickly. He finally became convinced that dramatic scoring went well with certain types of films.{{rp\|23}} The film, which is set in mid\-18th century Italy, the Alps, and France, received an expensive treatment from Warners, which pleased him greatly.{{rp\|23}}
Korngold was awarded his first Academy Award for the *Anthony Adverse* score. In this film, the first half hour contains continuous scoring{{rp\|23}} and proved to be a major step forward in the art of film scoring. Korngold conceived his film scores as "operas without singing."{{cite book \|last\=Parker\|first\=Joshua \|publisher\=LIT Verlag Münster\|title\=Austria and America: Cross\-Cultural Encounters 1865–1933 \|year\=2014 \|page\=104 \|isbn\=9783643905765 \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=VIi8BAAAQBAJ}}
### *The Adventures of Robin Hood* (1938\)
In 1938, Korngold was conducting opera in Austria when he was asked by [Warner Brothers](/wiki/Warner_Bros. "Warner Bros.") to return to Hollywood and compose a score for *[The Adventures of Robin Hood](/wiki/The_Adventures_of_Robin_Hood "The Adventures of Robin Hood")* (1938\), starring Errol Flynn and Olivia de Havilland. The film, based on a largely fictional English legend, is considered the finest of its kind, with a continuous series of romantic and adventurous sequences propelled by Korngold's dynamic score.{{rp\|27}} Music historian Laurence E. MacDonald notes that there were many factors which made the film a success, including its cast, its Technicolor photography and fast\-paced direction by [Michael Curtiz](/wiki/Michael_Curtiz "Michael Curtiz"), but "most of all, there is Korngold's glorious music."MacDonald, Laurence E. *The Invisible Art of Film Music: A Comprehensive History*, Scarecrow Press (1998\){{rp\|49}} And film historian [Rudy Behlmer](/wiki/Rudy_Behlmer "Rudy Behlmer") describes Korngold's contribution to this and his other films:
{{quote\|Korngold's score was a splendid added dimension. His style for the Flynn swashbucklers resembled that of the creators of late nineteenth\-century and early twentieth\-century German symphonic tone poems. It incorporated chromatic harmonies, lush instrumental effects, passionate climaxes{{mdash}}all performed in a generally romantic manner. Korngold's original and distinctive style was influenced by the Wagnerian \[\[leitmotif]], the orchestral virtuosity of Richard Strauss, the delicacy and broad melodic sweep of \[\[Puccini]], and the long\-line development of Gustav Mahler.Behlmer, Rudy. ''The Adventures of Robin Hood'', Univ. of Wisconsin Press (1979\){{rp\|38}}}}
Before Korngold began composing the score, Austria was invaded by Germany and [annexed by the Nazis](/wiki/Anschluss "Anschluss"). His home in Vienna was confiscated by the Nazis.{{rp\|35}} And because it meant that all Jews in Austria were now at risk, Korngold stayed in America until the end of [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II"). He later said, "We thought of ourselves as Viennese; [Hitler](/wiki/Hitler "Hitler") made us Jewish."Bernardi, Daniel. *Hollywood's Chosen People: The Jewish Experience in American Cinema*, [Wayne State University Press](/wiki/Wayne_State_University_Press "Wayne State University Press") (2013\) p. 48 Korngold noted that the opportunity to compose the score for *Robin Hood* saved his life.
It also gave him his second [Academy Award for Best Original Score](/wiki/Academy_Award_for_Best_Original_Score "Academy Award for Best Original Score") and established the symphonic style that would later be used in action films during Hollywood's Golden Age.{{rp\|50}} Modern day epics such as the *Star Wars* and *Indiana Jones* trilogies similarly included original symphonic scores.{{rp\|50}} Composer [John Williams](/wiki/John_Williams "John Williams") has cited Korngold as his inspiration in scoring the *Star Wars* series.{{rp\|717}}
### *Juarez* (1939\)
Korngold was interested in writing a score for [*Juarez*](/wiki/Juarez_%28film%29 "Juarez (film)"), as it involved historical figures from Mexico and Austria. It dealt with the Mexican politician [Benito Juarez](/wiki/Benito_Juarez "Benito Juarez") but also involved the story of Archduke [Maximilian von Habsburg](/wiki/Maximilian_von_Habsburg "Maximilian von Habsburg") and his wife, [Carlotta](/wiki/Carlota_of_Mexico "Carlota of Mexico"). Korngold was moved by the true\-life story of how [Louis Napoleon](/wiki/Louis_Napoleon "Louis Napoleon"), seeing America engulfed by [Civil War](/wiki/American_Civil_War "American Civil War"), took advantage of that fact and attempted, in 1864, to control Mexico. He appointed Maximilian as its emperor.{{rp\|29}}
{{quote box\|align\=right\|width\=25em\|bgcolor\=Cornsilk\|quote\=All of the music written at that time was strictly Viennese. The European influence was so strong in Mexico during that time that native composers, either consciously or in an unconscious effort to court the favor of the rulers, abandoned their native style and copied that of \[\[Johann Strauss II\|\[Johann] Strauss]].\|source\=Erich Korngold"Korngold Makes Interesting Music Discovery," ''Los Angeles Times'', June 22, 1939 p. 10}}
After the United States demanded that France divest itself of its interests in Mexico, the Austrian aristocrat was left to his fate, and he was executed by the Juarez government. The dramatic accent of the film leaned in favor of Maximilian and Carlotta, however, aided greatly by Korngold's poignant themes for them.{{rp\|29}}
Korngold researched the music popular in Mexico at the time and realized it was not Mexican but "unmistakenly [Viennese](/wiki/Vienna "Vienna")." He composed 3,000 bars of music for the score, at times emulating the rhythms of [Frédéric Chopin](/wiki/Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Chopin "Frédéric Chopin") and [Franz Schubert](/wiki/Franz_Schubert "Franz Schubert"), and the second theme of the first movement of his [Violin Concerto](/wiki/Violin_Concerto_%28Korngold%29 "Violin Concerto (Korngold)") was drawn from his work for the film.Stine, Whitney, and Davis, Bette, *Mother Goddam: The Story of the Career of Bette Davis*. New York: Hawthorn Books 1974\. {{ISBN\|0\-8015\-5184\-6}}, pp. 101–104 Maximilian and Carlotta loved the Mexican song "[La Paloma](/wiki/La_Paloma "La Paloma")," and Korngold used it effectively during the score.{{rp\|29}}
### *The Private Lives of Elizabeth and Essex* (1939\)
Korngold was again nominated for his score of *[The Private Lives of Elizabeth and Essex](/wiki/The_Private_Lives_of_Elizabeth_and_Essex "The Private Lives of Elizabeth and Essex")*. The score is essentially operatic, with lush background music throughout, a rousing march theme for Essex (Errol Flynn), and one of his "most noble and heroic melodies" for
the theme "Elizabeth, The Queen", Elizabeth (Bette Davis){{rp\|59}} An hour of the hour and half long film is supported by the score, composed of rich dramatic and romantic themes.
He chose not to use any period music or to approximate 16th\-century musical sounds, explaining:
{{quote\|The loves and hates of the two main characters, the ideas expressed by the playwright generally, while taken from history, are symbolic. It is a play of eternally true principles and motives of love and ambition, as recurrent today as three hundred years ago.{{rp\|30}}}}
The score concentrates on the regal Main Title, the triumphal entry march of Essex into London, the Queen's theme, and the recapitulation of that theme in the End Titles.{{rp\|30}}
### *The Sea Hawk* (1940\)
*[The Sea Hawk](/wiki/The_Sea_Hawk_%281940_film%29 "The Sea Hawk (1940 film)")* was Korngold's last score for swashbuckler films, all of which had starred Errol Flynn. It is widely regarded as one of Korngold's best.{{rp\|39}} The film ran two hours and six minutes and was one of the longest films he ever worked on.{{rp\|67}} It includes symphonic score in all but twenty minutes.{{rp\|67}} It was also his tenth original score in less than six years.{{rp\|67}}
Of the final duel between Thorpe ([Errol Flynn](/wiki/Errol_Flynn "Errol Flynn")) and Wolfingham ([Henry Daniell](/wiki/Henry_Daniell "Henry Daniell")), MacDonald states that "Korngold's breathlessly fast\-paced music helps to make this one of the most exciting swordfights in cinema history",{{rp\|68}} while Behlmer describes the duel scene as a "*tour de force* of rhythmic energy and exactitude."{{rp\|39}}
### *The Sea Wolf* (1941\)
In scoring [*The Sea Wolf*](/wiki/The_Sea_Wolf_%281941_film%29 "The Sea Wolf (1941 film)"), based on a novel by [Jack London](/wiki/Jack_London "Jack London"), Korngold's film career went in a different direction. In this film, the score reflects an evil atmosphere, dark images, and the tense emotions of its crew during an unfortunate voyage. [Edward G. Robinson](/wiki/Edward_G._Robinson "Edward G. Robinson"), as Wolf Larsen, plays a tormented and brutal captain of a sealing schooner, which gets crippled by a rival ship.
To support the complex atmosphere, with its scenes of the fog\-shrouded voyage, Korngold created a score that was understated, which was very different from his swashbucklers.Reid, John Howard. *Hollywood Gold: Films of the Forties and Fifties*, LuLu (2005\) p. 120 He often used sharp brass chords with swirling configurations, along with a love theme voiced by a harmonica. Music historian Thomas S. Hischak notes some aspects of the score:
{{quote\|Korngold's score for ''The Sea Wolf'' is not only quieter but actually somber and, at times, dissonant. The opening theme captures the chaos of the wilderness in the North but soon the score seems to be enveloped in a fog (as are the characters) and everything becomes morose and haunting.Hischak, Thomas S. ''The Encyclopedia of Film Composers'', Rowman \& Littlefield (2015\){{rp\|410}}}}
### *Kings Row* (1942\)
The score for *[Kings Row](/wiki/Kings_Row "Kings Row")* (1942\) has been compared to those of films like *Gone with the Wind* and *Anthony Adverse*, which also had powerful theme motifs. Those stories were based on recent best\-selling novels, as was *Kings Row*.Franklin, Peter. *Seeing Through Music: Gender and Modernism in Classic Hollywood Film Scores*, Oxford Univ. Press (2011\) pp. 108–109 In this score, Korngold moved even further away from his previous romantic and swashbuckler styles. This was Korngold's most Gothic film score, and a film which film historian Tony Thomas has called a "true American classic."{{rp\|36}} He adds that the score "might well have been the basis for an opera or a grandly scaled symphonic poem."{{rp\|36}}
The story is set in a Midwestern US town (Kings Row), where the characters portray a wide range of psychological emotions, from loves and hates, bitterness, tenderness and torment. Combined with Korngold's score, which some{{who\|date\=April 2017}} claim is among his finest, the film drew an unusually high level of public interest and acclaim. Its costar, future President [Ronald Reagan](/wiki/Ronald_Reagan "Ronald Reagan"), considered his performance the best of his career.Dick, Bernard F. *The President's Ladies: Jane Wyman and Nancy Davis*, Univ. Press of Mississippi (2014\) p. 109
The score contains a main theme which is varied throughout the film, depending on the how each scene develops. MacDonald states that the main theme is a "majestic and noble melody that immediately grabs the viewer's attention" when the film begins.{{rp\|80}} By using this motif, the theme connects the entire score, which often left a strong impact on viewers.
British composer [Harold Truscott](/wiki/Harold_Truscott "Harold Truscott"), for example, who saw the film when he was 28, wrote to Korngold admiring the score. He also saw the film more than thirty times just to hear the score, sometimes with his eyes completely closed. Like *Gone with the Wind*, *Kings Row* concludes with the main theme hymned operatically by an unseen chorus.
### Later scores: 1943–1956
*Kings Row* was followed by seven film scores in four years – *[The Constant Nymph](/wiki/The_Constant_Nymph_%281943_film%29 "The Constant Nymph (1943 film)")* (1943\), *[Between Two Worlds](/wiki/Between_Two_Worlds_%281944_film%29 "Between Two Worlds (1944 film)")* (1944\), *[Devotion](/wiki/Devotion_%281946_film%29 "Devotion (1946 film)")* (1946\), *[Of Human Bondage](/wiki/Of_Human_Bondage_%281946_film%29 "Of Human Bondage (1946 film)")* (1946\), *[*Deception*](/wiki/Deception_%281946_film%29 "Deception (1946 film)")* (1946\), *[Escape Me Never](/wiki/Escape_Me_Never_%281947_film%29 "Escape Me Never (1947 film)")* (1947\), and *[Adventures of Don Juan](/wiki/Adventures_of_Don_Juan "Adventures of Don Juan")* (1948\) (unused score).
World War II prevented Korngold from returning to Europe. He became an American citizen in 1943 and remained in the US after retiring from film composing in 1947\.
He spent the last ten years of his life composing concert pieces, including a [Violin Concerto](/wiki/Violin_Concerto_%28Korngold%29 "Violin Concerto (Korngold)"), a Symphonic Serenade for strings, a Cello Concerto and a [Symphony](/wiki/Symphony_in_F-sharp_major_%28Korngold%29 "Symphony in F-sharp major (Korngold)"). The Violin Concerto has become particularly successful, with many recordings and performances following [Jascha Heifetz](/wiki/Jascha_Heifetz "Jascha Heifetz")'s initial version.
He returned to film scoring one more time, shortly before his death, for *[Magic Fire](/wiki/Magic_Fire "Magic Fire")* (1955\), a film biography of the composer [Richard Wagner](/wiki/Richard_Wagner "Richard Wagner"). He was asked to adapt the music of Wagner for most of the film, but Korngold also wrote some original music for it. He is seen during the final scenes in an unbilled cameo as the conductor [Hans Richter](/wiki/Hans_Richter_%28conductor%29 "Hans Richter (conductor)").
At the time of his death at age 60, he was working on his sixth opera.
|
[
"Composer for Hollywood films\n----------------------------",
"### *A Midsummer Night's Dream* (1935\\)",
"After Max Reinhardt's success in producing [Shakespeare's](/wiki/William_Shakespeare \"William Shakespeare\") *[A Midsummer Night's Dream](/wiki/A_Midsummer_Night%27s_Dream \"A Midsummer Night's Dream\")* for the stage, using [incidental music](/wiki/A_Midsummer_Night%27s_Dream_%28Mendelssohn%29 \"A Midsummer Night's Dream (Mendelssohn)\") by [Felix Mendelssohn](/wiki/Felix_Mendelssohn \"Felix Mendelssohn\"), he invited Korngold to Hollywood in 1934 to adapt Mendelssohn's score for his planned film version.Thomas, Tony. *Korngold: Vienna to Hollywood*, Turner Entertainment (1996\\){{rp\\|8}} Korngold would also enlarge and conduct the score.",
"[The film](/wiki/A_Midsummer_Night%27s_Dream_%281935_film%29 \"A Midsummer Night's Dream (1935 film)\"), which was released in 1935, was a first for [Warner Brothers](/wiki/Warner_Brothers \"Warner Brothers\") studio in producing a film based on a 400\\-year\\-old work of literary art. The studio assigned almost every star or character actor under contract to take part in the film, with the filming taking over six months.{{rp\\|8}} The studio also allowed Korngold to devote more attention to the score than it had to any of its previous films; he could prerecord certain parts of the film for the benefit of actors, whom he then had act to the rhythm and tempo of the music.{{rp\\|8}} As a result of the score's elaborate tailoring, the film and Korngold's music left a strong impression on the film industry.{{rp\\|8}}",
"Korngold returned to Austria to finish *[Die Kathrin](/wiki/Die_Kathrin \"Die Kathrin\")*. He came back to Hollywood to score the film *[Give Us This Night](/wiki/Give_Us_This_Night \"Give Us This Night\")*, with lyricist [Oscar Hammerstein II](/wiki/Oscar_Hammerstein_II \"Oscar Hammerstein II\"), a film which introduced mezzo\\-soprano [Gladys Swarthout](/wiki/Gladys_Swarthout \"Gladys Swarthout\") and the Polish\\-born tenor [Jan Kiepura](/wiki/Jan_Kiepura \"Jan Kiepura\"), who had starred in several Korngold operas in Europe.{{rp\\|9}}",
"### *Captain Blood* (1935\\)",
"In 1935 Warners asked Korngold if he was interested in writing an original dramatic score for *Captain Blood*. He at first declined, feeling that a story about pirates was outside his range of interest. However, after watching the filming, with a dynamic new star, Errol Flynn, in a heroic role alongside [Olivia de Havilland](/wiki/Olivia_de_Havilland \"Olivia de Havilland\"), who had her debut in *A Midsummer Night's Dream*, he changed his mind.",
"{{quote box\\|align\\=right\\|width\\=25em\\|bgcolor\\=Cornsilk\\|quote\\=Korngold not only had the background but also had the gift of melody, an innate sense of theater, and the skills to manipulate sentiment, emotion, humor, and excitement. In short, if \\[\\[Jack L. Warner]] had been praying for such a composer, then his prayers had been answered.\\|source\\=film historian \\[\\[Tony Thomas (film historian)\\|Tony Thomas]]{{rp\\|10}}}}",
"After he accepted, however, he learned that he needed to compose over an hour of symphonic music in only three weeks. The short time frame forced him to use bits of symphonic poems by [Franz Liszt](/wiki/Franz_Liszt \"Franz Liszt\"), and a couple of engaging cues were written by Korngold orchestrator Milan Roder. In the end, Korngold insisted he be credited only with musical adaptations, even though he scored nearly the entire film with original music.{{Cite web\\|title\\=KORNGOLD, E.W.: Captain Blood / STEINER, M.: The Three Musketeers / YOUNG, V.: Scaramouche (Brandenburg Philharmonic, Kaufman)\\|url\\=https://www.naxos.com/mainsite/blurbs\\_reviews.asp?item\\_code\\=8\\.557704\\&catNum\\=557704\\&filetype\\=About%20this%20Recording\\&language\\=English\\|access\\-date\\=October 19, 2021\\|website\\=www.naxos.com\\|archive\\-date\\=October 20, 2021\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20211020030336/https://www.naxos.com/mainsite/blurbs\\_reviews.asp?item\\_code\\=8\\.557704\\&catNum\\=557704\\&filetype\\=About%20this%20Recording\\&language\\=English\\|url\\-status\\=live}}{{Cite web\\|date\\=March 30, 2020\\|title\\=CAPTAIN BLOOD – Erich Wolfgang Korngold\\|url\\=https://moviemusicuk.us/2020/03/30/captain\\-blood\\-erich\\-wolfgang\\-korngold/\\|access\\-date\\=October 19, 2021\\|website\\=MOVIE MUSIC UK\\|language\\=en\\|archive\\-date\\=October 19, 2021\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20211019215105/https://moviemusicuk.us/2020/03/30/captain\\-blood\\-erich\\-wolfgang\\-korngold/\\|url\\-status\\=live}}{{rp\\|8}}",
"*Captain Blood* became an immediate hit, with an Oscar nomination for the score.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.oscars.org/oscars/ceremonies/1936\\|title\\=The 8th Academy Awards – 1936\\|access\\-date\\=October 14, 2017\\|archive\\-date\\=July 6, 2011\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110706093707/http://www.oscars.org/awards/academyawards/legacy/ceremony/8th\\-winners.html\\|url\\-status\\=live}} As Korngold's first fully symphonic film score, it marked a milestone in his career, as he became the first composer of international stature to sign a contract with a film studio.{{rp\\|10}}Woodstra, Chris, Brennan, Gerald, Schrott, Allen, editors. *All Music Guide to Classical Music: The Definitive Guide to Classical Music*, Hal Leonard Corp. (2005\\) p. 701 It also launched the career of Flynn and gave a major boost to that of de Havilland, who did another seven movies with Flynn. Korngold scored six more films starring Flynn.{{rp\\|21}} In addition, *Captain Blood* opened the way for other costumed romantic adventures, which hadn't been seen since the silent era.{{rp\\|9}}",
"### *Anthony Adverse* (1936\\)",
"After scoring *Anthony Adverse*, another Warners picture, this one starring [Fredric March](/wiki/Fredric_March \"Fredric March\") and Olivia de Havilland, Korngold's career in Hollywood developed quickly. He finally became convinced that dramatic scoring went well with certain types of films.{{rp\\|23}} The film, which is set in mid\\-18th century Italy, the Alps, and France, received an expensive treatment from Warners, which pleased him greatly.{{rp\\|23}}",
"Korngold was awarded his first Academy Award for the *Anthony Adverse* score. In this film, the first half hour contains continuous scoring{{rp\\|23}} and proved to be a major step forward in the art of film scoring. Korngold conceived his film scores as \"operas without singing.\"{{cite book \\|last\\=Parker\\|first\\=Joshua \\|publisher\\=LIT Verlag Münster\\|title\\=Austria and America: Cross\\-Cultural Encounters 1865–1933 \\|year\\=2014 \\|page\\=104 \\|isbn\\=9783643905765 \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=VIi8BAAAQBAJ}}",
"### *The Adventures of Robin Hood* (1938\\)",
"In 1938, Korngold was conducting opera in Austria when he was asked by [Warner Brothers](/wiki/Warner_Bros. \"Warner Bros.\") to return to Hollywood and compose a score for *[The Adventures of Robin Hood](/wiki/The_Adventures_of_Robin_Hood \"The Adventures of Robin Hood\")* (1938\\), starring Errol Flynn and Olivia de Havilland. The film, based on a largely fictional English legend, is considered the finest of its kind, with a continuous series of romantic and adventurous sequences propelled by Korngold's dynamic score.{{rp\\|27}} Music historian Laurence E. MacDonald notes that there were many factors which made the film a success, including its cast, its Technicolor photography and fast\\-paced direction by [Michael Curtiz](/wiki/Michael_Curtiz \"Michael Curtiz\"), but \"most of all, there is Korngold's glorious music.\"MacDonald, Laurence E. *The Invisible Art of Film Music: A Comprehensive History*, Scarecrow Press (1998\\){{rp\\|49}} And film historian [Rudy Behlmer](/wiki/Rudy_Behlmer \"Rudy Behlmer\") describes Korngold's contribution to this and his other films:\n{{quote\\|Korngold's score was a splendid added dimension. His style for the Flynn swashbucklers resembled that of the creators of late nineteenth\\-century and early twentieth\\-century German symphonic tone poems. It incorporated chromatic harmonies, lush instrumental effects, passionate climaxes{{mdash}}all performed in a generally romantic manner. Korngold's original and distinctive style was influenced by the Wagnerian \\[\\[leitmotif]], the orchestral virtuosity of Richard Strauss, the delicacy and broad melodic sweep of \\[\\[Puccini]], and the long\\-line development of Gustav Mahler.Behlmer, Rudy. ''The Adventures of Robin Hood'', Univ. of Wisconsin Press (1979\\){{rp\\|38}}}}",
"Before Korngold began composing the score, Austria was invaded by Germany and [annexed by the Nazis](/wiki/Anschluss \"Anschluss\"). His home in Vienna was confiscated by the Nazis.{{rp\\|35}} And because it meant that all Jews in Austria were now at risk, Korngold stayed in America until the end of [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\"). He later said, \"We thought of ourselves as Viennese; [Hitler](/wiki/Hitler \"Hitler\") made us Jewish.\"Bernardi, Daniel. *Hollywood's Chosen People: The Jewish Experience in American Cinema*, [Wayne State University Press](/wiki/Wayne_State_University_Press \"Wayne State University Press\") (2013\\) p. 48 Korngold noted that the opportunity to compose the score for *Robin Hood* saved his life.",
"It also gave him his second [Academy Award for Best Original Score](/wiki/Academy_Award_for_Best_Original_Score \"Academy Award for Best Original Score\") and established the symphonic style that would later be used in action films during Hollywood's Golden Age.{{rp\\|50}} Modern day epics such as the *Star Wars* and *Indiana Jones* trilogies similarly included original symphonic scores.{{rp\\|50}} Composer [John Williams](/wiki/John_Williams \"John Williams\") has cited Korngold as his inspiration in scoring the *Star Wars* series.{{rp\\|717}}",
"### *Juarez* (1939\\)",
"Korngold was interested in writing a score for [*Juarez*](/wiki/Juarez_%28film%29 \"Juarez (film)\"), as it involved historical figures from Mexico and Austria. It dealt with the Mexican politician [Benito Juarez](/wiki/Benito_Juarez \"Benito Juarez\") but also involved the story of Archduke [Maximilian von Habsburg](/wiki/Maximilian_von_Habsburg \"Maximilian von Habsburg\") and his wife, [Carlotta](/wiki/Carlota_of_Mexico \"Carlota of Mexico\"). Korngold was moved by the true\\-life story of how [Louis Napoleon](/wiki/Louis_Napoleon \"Louis Napoleon\"), seeing America engulfed by [Civil War](/wiki/American_Civil_War \"American Civil War\"), took advantage of that fact and attempted, in 1864, to control Mexico. He appointed Maximilian as its emperor.{{rp\\|29}}",
"{{quote box\\|align\\=right\\|width\\=25em\\|bgcolor\\=Cornsilk\\|quote\\=All of the music written at that time was strictly Viennese. The European influence was so strong in Mexico during that time that native composers, either consciously or in an unconscious effort to court the favor of the rulers, abandoned their native style and copied that of \\[\\[Johann Strauss II\\|\\[Johann] Strauss]].\\|source\\=Erich Korngold\"Korngold Makes Interesting Music Discovery,\" ''Los Angeles Times'', June 22, 1939 p. 10}}",
"After the United States demanded that France divest itself of its interests in Mexico, the Austrian aristocrat was left to his fate, and he was executed by the Juarez government. The dramatic accent of the film leaned in favor of Maximilian and Carlotta, however, aided greatly by Korngold's poignant themes for them.{{rp\\|29}}",
"Korngold researched the music popular in Mexico at the time and realized it was not Mexican but \"unmistakenly [Viennese](/wiki/Vienna \"Vienna\").\" He composed 3,000 bars of music for the score, at times emulating the rhythms of [Frédéric Chopin](/wiki/Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Chopin \"Frédéric Chopin\") and [Franz Schubert](/wiki/Franz_Schubert \"Franz Schubert\"), and the second theme of the first movement of his [Violin Concerto](/wiki/Violin_Concerto_%28Korngold%29 \"Violin Concerto (Korngold)\") was drawn from his work for the film.Stine, Whitney, and Davis, Bette, *Mother Goddam: The Story of the Career of Bette Davis*. New York: Hawthorn Books 1974\\. {{ISBN\\|0\\-8015\\-5184\\-6}}, pp. 101–104 Maximilian and Carlotta loved the Mexican song \"[La Paloma](/wiki/La_Paloma \"La Paloma\"),\" and Korngold used it effectively during the score.{{rp\\|29}}",
"### *The Private Lives of Elizabeth and Essex* (1939\\)",
"Korngold was again nominated for his score of *[The Private Lives of Elizabeth and Essex](/wiki/The_Private_Lives_of_Elizabeth_and_Essex \"The Private Lives of Elizabeth and Essex\")*. The score is essentially operatic, with lush background music throughout, a rousing march theme for Essex (Errol Flynn), and one of his \"most noble and heroic melodies\" for \nthe theme \"Elizabeth, The Queen\", Elizabeth (Bette Davis){{rp\\|59}} An hour of the hour and half long film is supported by the score, composed of rich dramatic and romantic themes.",
"He chose not to use any period music or to approximate 16th\\-century musical sounds, explaining:\n{{quote\\|The loves and hates of the two main characters, the ideas expressed by the playwright generally, while taken from history, are symbolic. It is a play of eternally true principles and motives of love and ambition, as recurrent today as three hundred years ago.{{rp\\|30}}}}",
"The score concentrates on the regal Main Title, the triumphal entry march of Essex into London, the Queen's theme, and the recapitulation of that theme in the End Titles.{{rp\\|30}}",
"### *The Sea Hawk* (1940\\)",
"*[The Sea Hawk](/wiki/The_Sea_Hawk_%281940_film%29 \"The Sea Hawk (1940 film)\")* was Korngold's last score for swashbuckler films, all of which had starred Errol Flynn. It is widely regarded as one of Korngold's best.{{rp\\|39}} The film ran two hours and six minutes and was one of the longest films he ever worked on.{{rp\\|67}} It includes symphonic score in all but twenty minutes.{{rp\\|67}} It was also his tenth original score in less than six years.{{rp\\|67}}",
"Of the final duel between Thorpe ([Errol Flynn](/wiki/Errol_Flynn \"Errol Flynn\")) and Wolfingham ([Henry Daniell](/wiki/Henry_Daniell \"Henry Daniell\")), MacDonald states that \"Korngold's breathlessly fast\\-paced music helps to make this one of the most exciting swordfights in cinema history\",{{rp\\|68}} while Behlmer describes the duel scene as a \"*tour de force* of rhythmic energy and exactitude.\"{{rp\\|39}}",
"### *The Sea Wolf* (1941\\)",
"In scoring [*The Sea Wolf*](/wiki/The_Sea_Wolf_%281941_film%29 \"The Sea Wolf (1941 film)\"), based on a novel by [Jack London](/wiki/Jack_London \"Jack London\"), Korngold's film career went in a different direction. In this film, the score reflects an evil atmosphere, dark images, and the tense emotions of its crew during an unfortunate voyage. [Edward G. Robinson](/wiki/Edward_G._Robinson \"Edward G. Robinson\"), as Wolf Larsen, plays a tormented and brutal captain of a sealing schooner, which gets crippled by a rival ship.",
"To support the complex atmosphere, with its scenes of the fog\\-shrouded voyage, Korngold created a score that was understated, which was very different from his swashbucklers.Reid, John Howard. *Hollywood Gold: Films of the Forties and Fifties*, LuLu (2005\\) p. 120 He often used sharp brass chords with swirling configurations, along with a love theme voiced by a harmonica. Music historian Thomas S. Hischak notes some aspects of the score:\n{{quote\\|Korngold's score for ''The Sea Wolf'' is not only quieter but actually somber and, at times, dissonant. The opening theme captures the chaos of the wilderness in the North but soon the score seems to be enveloped in a fog (as are the characters) and everything becomes morose and haunting.Hischak, Thomas S. ''The Encyclopedia of Film Composers'', Rowman \\& Littlefield (2015\\){{rp\\|410}}}}",
"### *Kings Row* (1942\\)",
"The score for *[Kings Row](/wiki/Kings_Row \"Kings Row\")* (1942\\) has been compared to those of films like *Gone with the Wind* and *Anthony Adverse*, which also had powerful theme motifs. Those stories were based on recent best\\-selling novels, as was *Kings Row*.Franklin, Peter. *Seeing Through Music: Gender and Modernism in Classic Hollywood Film Scores*, Oxford Univ. Press (2011\\) pp. 108–109 In this score, Korngold moved even further away from his previous romantic and swashbuckler styles. This was Korngold's most Gothic film score, and a film which film historian Tony Thomas has called a \"true American classic.\"{{rp\\|36}} He adds that the score \"might well have been the basis for an opera or a grandly scaled symphonic poem.\"{{rp\\|36}}",
"The story is set in a Midwestern US town (Kings Row), where the characters portray a wide range of psychological emotions, from loves and hates, bitterness, tenderness and torment. Combined with Korngold's score, which some{{who\\|date\\=April 2017}} claim is among his finest, the film drew an unusually high level of public interest and acclaim. Its costar, future President [Ronald Reagan](/wiki/Ronald_Reagan \"Ronald Reagan\"), considered his performance the best of his career.Dick, Bernard F. *The President's Ladies: Jane Wyman and Nancy Davis*, Univ. Press of Mississippi (2014\\) p. 109",
"The score contains a main theme which is varied throughout the film, depending on the how each scene develops. MacDonald states that the main theme is a \"majestic and noble melody that immediately grabs the viewer's attention\" when the film begins.{{rp\\|80}} By using this motif, the theme connects the entire score, which often left a strong impact on viewers.",
"British composer [Harold Truscott](/wiki/Harold_Truscott \"Harold Truscott\"), for example, who saw the film when he was 28, wrote to Korngold admiring the score. He also saw the film more than thirty times just to hear the score, sometimes with his eyes completely closed. Like *Gone with the Wind*, *Kings Row* concludes with the main theme hymned operatically by an unseen chorus.",
"### Later scores: 1943–1956",
"*Kings Row* was followed by seven film scores in four years – *[The Constant Nymph](/wiki/The_Constant_Nymph_%281943_film%29 \"The Constant Nymph (1943 film)\")* (1943\\), *[Between Two Worlds](/wiki/Between_Two_Worlds_%281944_film%29 \"Between Two Worlds (1944 film)\")* (1944\\), *[Devotion](/wiki/Devotion_%281946_film%29 \"Devotion (1946 film)\")* (1946\\), *[Of Human Bondage](/wiki/Of_Human_Bondage_%281946_film%29 \"Of Human Bondage (1946 film)\")* (1946\\), *[*Deception*](/wiki/Deception_%281946_film%29 \"Deception (1946 film)\")* (1946\\), *[Escape Me Never](/wiki/Escape_Me_Never_%281947_film%29 \"Escape Me Never (1947 film)\")* (1947\\), and *[Adventures of Don Juan](/wiki/Adventures_of_Don_Juan \"Adventures of Don Juan\")* (1948\\) (unused score).",
"World War II prevented Korngold from returning to Europe. He became an American citizen in 1943 and remained in the US after retiring from film composing in 1947\\.",
"He spent the last ten years of his life composing concert pieces, including a [Violin Concerto](/wiki/Violin_Concerto_%28Korngold%29 \"Violin Concerto (Korngold)\"), a Symphonic Serenade for strings, a Cello Concerto and a [Symphony](/wiki/Symphony_in_F-sharp_major_%28Korngold%29 \"Symphony in F-sharp major (Korngold)\"). The Violin Concerto has become particularly successful, with many recordings and performances following [Jascha Heifetz](/wiki/Jascha_Heifetz \"Jascha Heifetz\")'s initial version.",
"He returned to film scoring one more time, shortly before his death, for *[Magic Fire](/wiki/Magic_Fire \"Magic Fire\")* (1955\\), a film biography of the composer [Richard Wagner](/wiki/Richard_Wagner \"Richard Wagner\"). He was asked to adapt the music of Wagner for most of the film, but Korngold also wrote some original music for it. He is seen during the final scenes in an unbilled cameo as the conductor [Hans Richter](/wiki/Hans_Richter_%28conductor%29 \"Hans Richter (conductor)\").",
"At the time of his death at age 60, he was working on his sixth opera.",
""
] |
Plot
----
When [Marge](/wiki/Marge_Simpson "Marge Simpson") tires of [Lisa](/wiki/Lisa_Simpson "Lisa Simpson")'s complaints about Springfield, she decides to have Lisa accompany [Patty and Selma](/wiki/Patty_and_Selma "Patty and Selma") to Capital City for the weekend.
In the city, Lisa wants to see the *Fearless Girl* statue and says there is an artist balloon parade tomorrow that she wants to see. They dine at Patty and Selma's favorite restaurant and encounter Patty's artist friends Julian and Katya who invite them to a party in their loft. They decline because they are going to a musical that Lisa is reluctant to see. Later, Patty and Selma get food poisoning and go to sleep, so Lisa decides to join Patty's friends by herself.
Lisa is impressed by the art at the party and bonds with Katya. She helps the artists move the art to a gallery for a showing. At 1 AM, she encounters [Superintendent Chalmers](/wiki/Superintendent_Chalmers "Superintendent Chalmers"), who is having a romantic getaway with [Lunchlady Dora](/wiki/Lunchlady_Dora "Lunchlady Dora"). Lisa and the artists see a play about a man, who becomes a cockroach, and his abusive father. Lisa defends the cockroach. The play's author, [Tracy Letts](/wiki/Tracy_Letts "Tracy Letts"), is impressed that Lisa interrupted the play and offers Lisa a place at an expensive fine arts academy. Because Lisa's family cannot afford the tuition, the artists suggest going to a senile rich woman who can offer a scholarship.
At 3:30 AM, she interviews Lisa and writes a check for her. Back at the loft, she notices a photo of the artists with [Martin Prince](/wiki/Martin_Prince "Martin Prince"), and they reveal that they used her to steal money from the woman to fund themselves. She threatens to report them to the police, but they already framed her as a thief when she moved the art earlier. She takes the check and runs.
She encounters Chalmers, who is now on a romantic getaway with [Elizabeth Hoover](/wiki/Elizabeth_Hoover "Elizabeth Hoover"), so Lisa forces him to hide her. When Dora finds them, Chalmers and Lisa escape with Chalmers riding his bicycle into the river. Lisa can't contact her family as they are busy watching a ringtone documentary.
At 6:30 AM, she finds the *Fearless Girl* statue but declares that she hates the city when she sees it was donated by [Goldman Sachs](/wiki/Goldman_Sachs "Goldman Sachs"). As the artists catch up with her, Lisa hides under an uninflated balloon from the artist parade. She becomes trapped on the balloon when she accidentally inflates it. Lisa tears apart the check, so Julian tells Katya to use a knife to deflate the balloon to retrieve her. Instead, she cuts the balloon loose, allowing Lisa to float home to Springfield where her lack of sleep has her hearing the balloon talk.
Arriving back in Springfield, Lisa enters Springfield Elementary School and addresses a saddened Superintendent Chalmers as an angered Elizabeth and Dora walk by him.
During the credits, Lisa and her classmates read a story about a firecracker that was afraid of noise.
|
[
"Plot\n----",
"When [Marge](/wiki/Marge_Simpson \"Marge Simpson\") tires of [Lisa](/wiki/Lisa_Simpson \"Lisa Simpson\")'s complaints about Springfield, she decides to have Lisa accompany [Patty and Selma](/wiki/Patty_and_Selma \"Patty and Selma\") to Capital City for the weekend.",
"In the city, Lisa wants to see the *Fearless Girl* statue and says there is an artist balloon parade tomorrow that she wants to see. They dine at Patty and Selma's favorite restaurant and encounter Patty's artist friends Julian and Katya who invite them to a party in their loft. They decline because they are going to a musical that Lisa is reluctant to see. Later, Patty and Selma get food poisoning and go to sleep, so Lisa decides to join Patty's friends by herself.",
"Lisa is impressed by the art at the party and bonds with Katya. She helps the artists move the art to a gallery for a showing. At 1 AM, she encounters [Superintendent Chalmers](/wiki/Superintendent_Chalmers \"Superintendent Chalmers\"), who is having a romantic getaway with [Lunchlady Dora](/wiki/Lunchlady_Dora \"Lunchlady Dora\"). Lisa and the artists see a play about a man, who becomes a cockroach, and his abusive father. Lisa defends the cockroach. The play's author, [Tracy Letts](/wiki/Tracy_Letts \"Tracy Letts\"), is impressed that Lisa interrupted the play and offers Lisa a place at an expensive fine arts academy. Because Lisa's family cannot afford the tuition, the artists suggest going to a senile rich woman who can offer a scholarship.",
"At 3:30 AM, she interviews Lisa and writes a check for her. Back at the loft, she notices a photo of the artists with [Martin Prince](/wiki/Martin_Prince \"Martin Prince\"), and they reveal that they used her to steal money from the woman to fund themselves. She threatens to report them to the police, but they already framed her as a thief when she moved the art earlier. She takes the check and runs.",
"She encounters Chalmers, who is now on a romantic getaway with [Elizabeth Hoover](/wiki/Elizabeth_Hoover \"Elizabeth Hoover\"), so Lisa forces him to hide her. When Dora finds them, Chalmers and Lisa escape with Chalmers riding his bicycle into the river. Lisa can't contact her family as they are busy watching a ringtone documentary.",
"At 6:30 AM, she finds the *Fearless Girl* statue but declares that she hates the city when she sees it was donated by [Goldman Sachs](/wiki/Goldman_Sachs \"Goldman Sachs\"). As the artists catch up with her, Lisa hides under an uninflated balloon from the artist parade. She becomes trapped on the balloon when she accidentally inflates it. Lisa tears apart the check, so Julian tells Katya to use a knife to deflate the balloon to retrieve her. Instead, she cuts the balloon loose, allowing Lisa to float home to Springfield where her lack of sleep has her hearing the balloon talk.",
"Arriving back in Springfield, Lisa enters Springfield Elementary School and addresses a saddened Superintendent Chalmers as an angered Elizabeth and Dora walk by him.",
"During the credits, Lisa and her classmates read a story about a firecracker that was afraid of noise.",
""
] |
History
-------
[thumb\|235px\|left\|The Roman bridge of Sacavém, drawn by [Francisco de Holanda](/wiki/Francisco_de_Holanda "Francisco de Holanda") (c.1571\) in *Da fábrica que falece a cidade de Lisboa*](/wiki/File:Ponte_de_Sacav%C3%A9m_%28Francisco_de_Holanda%29.jpg "Ponte de Sacavém (Francisco de Holanda).jpg"){{Main\|History of Sacavém}}
Due to its strategic location, at the intersection of several roads from the north and east connecting to Lisbon, Sacavém was an important settlement during periods of [Portuguese History](/wiki/History_of_Portugal "History of Portugal"), with some evidence extending back to pre\-history. The Portuguese historian Pinho Leal wrote, in his [chorography](/wiki/Chorography "Chorography") *Portugal Antigo \& Moderno* (*Ancient \& Modern Portugal*), that "*Sacavém is incontestably a very old settlement, and already existed in the time of the [Romans](/wiki/Ancient_Rome "Ancient Rome")*".Pinho Leal (1990\), p.310 The oldest\-known references date back to the [Neolithic](/wiki/Neolithic "Neolithic") and [Chalcolithic](/wiki/Chalcolithic "Chalcolithic"): three polished stone [axes](/wiki/Axe "Axe") were discovered from the [Bronze Age](/wiki/Bronze_Age "Bronze Age"), and in the mid\-1980s, excavations in the historical centre of the city revealed a cave with similar artifacts from this period.
By the first century, Sacavém was already crossed by two major [Roman roads](/wiki/Roman_roads "Roman roads") that connected the region with the interior of the [Iberian Peninsula](/wiki/Iberian_Peninsula "Iberian Peninsula"):
* *Via XV*, connecting *Olissipona* ([Lisbon](/wiki/Lisbon "Lisbon")) and *Emerita Augusta* ([Mérida](/wiki/M%C3%A9rida%2C_Spain "Mérida, Spain")), by way of the important administrative centre of *Scalabicastrum*, today [Santarém](/wiki/Santar%C3%A9m%2C_Portugal "Santarém, Portugal"); and
* *Via XVI*, which connected *Olissipona* to *Bracara Augusta* ([Braga](/wiki/Braga "Braga")), capital of the *[Conventus](/wiki/Conventus "Conventus") bracarensis* in the province of *[Gallaecia](/wiki/Gallaecia "Gallaecia")*).
Remnants of these two Roman *viæ* still exist under the modern roads *Rua do António Ricardo Rodrigues* and *Rua do José Luís de Morais* (the town's two main streets during the [Middle Ages](/wiki/Middle_Ages "Middle Ages"), which connected the upper and lower districts of Sacavém). Even during this period Sacavém was an important river\-crossing; the Romans built a bridge that remained active until the 17th century (according to several sources, such as [Francisco de Holanda](/wiki/Francisco_de_Holanda "Francisco de Holanda") or Miguel Leitão de Andrade).{{cite web\|url\=http://www.portugalromano.com/?p\=215\|title\=A Ponte Romana de Sacavém\|publisher\=Portugal Romano: Arqueologia Romana em Portugal\|year\=2011\|access\-date\=8 June 2011\|language\=pt}} This bridge was a natural continuation of the roads and connected Sacavém with the northern river bank; therefore indirectly included in the famous [Antonine Itinerary](/wiki/Antonine_Itinerary "Antonine Itinerary"). The parish's coat\-of\-arms includes a symbolic depiction of the Roman bridge. Also in the vicinity, an epigraphic inscription is said to have existed (nowadays unknown), but referred to in the [Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum](/wiki/Corpus_Inscriptionum_Latinarum "Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum")). Various [epigraphs](/wiki/Epigraphy "Epigraphy") have suggested that this totem identified the Roman magisterial administration of the rural locality.Luís da Silva Fernandes (2003\), p.44\-45
The Roman colony, which was centred on the bridge, was eventually succeeded by barbarians from south\-eastern peninsula. The [Alans](/wiki/Alans "Alans") were the first to occupy these lands (but left few remnants), and later the [Visigoths](/wiki/Visigoths "Visigoths"), who constructed a chapel dedicated to *Nossa Senhora dos Prazeres*, on the sight of the medieval\-era Chapel of *Nossa Senhora da Vitória* (*Our Lady of Victory*).Pinho Leal (1990\), p.313
### Moorish rule
After 711, the [Moors](/wiki/Moors "Moors") occupied the Iberian peninsula; Lisbon ({{lang\-ar\|al\-Ušbuna}}) is taken in 716 by [Berbers](/wiki/Berbers "Berbers") under the command of [Abd al\-Aziz ibn Musa](/wiki/Abd_al-Aziz_ibn_Musa "Abd al-Aziz ibn Musa") (who received the governorship of [Al\-Andalus](/wiki/Al-Andalus "Al-Andalus"), in the name of the [Umayyad Caliphate](/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate "Umayyad Caliphate") of Damascus), who also captured the region of Sacavém. Much like other areas of the [Al\-Garb Al\-Andalus](/wiki/Al-Garb_Al-Andalus "Al-Garb Al-Andalus") (much of ancient Roman [Lusitania](/wiki/Lusitania "Lusitania")), the peoples under Moorish dominion became bi\-lingual, while maintaining their Christian faith (not converting until much later). In Sacavém the community that circled the Church of Nossa Senhora dos Prazeres maintained their faith and culture (under the bishop of Lisbon), something that was possible due to the religious tolerance of the invaders to the *Ahl al\-Kitāb* (or *[People of the Book](/wiki/People_of_the_Book "People of the Book")*). It is likely that the medieval tower in Sacavém de Cima, in the *Largo do Terreirinho*, fronting the Chapel of *Senhora da Saúde* (in the historic centre of the settlement) originated during this Muslim period, when the local Christians were required to pay [jizya](/wiki/Jizya "Jizya").Pinho Leal (1990\), p.311
The modern name *Sacavém* might have come from the [Arabic](/wiki/Arabic "Arabic") language; for many years experts believed that it came from the word *šagabi* (*next* or *in the neighbourhood* – in this case, of Lisbon, an important city even during [Moorish](/wiki/Moorish "Moorish") period) [latinised](/wiki/Latin "Latin") to *sacabis, \-is*, becoming *sacabem* in the [accusative case](/wiki/Accusative_case "Accusative case"), and hence, by phonetic modifications during the centuries, *Sacavém*. Recent investigations, from Arabic sources (namely [Yaqut's](/wiki/Yaqut_al-Hamawi "Yaqut al-Hamawi") *[Kitab](/wiki/wikt:Kitab "Kitab") [Mu'jam Al\-Buldan](/wiki/Mu%27jam_Al-Buldan "Mu'jam Al-Buldan")*), indicate that the Muslims used the word *Šaqabān* ({{lang\-ar\|شقبان}}), incredibly similar to the modern Portuguese pronunciation.
During Al\-Andalus, Sacavém was considered a *qarya* (one of the settlements of al\-Ušbuna), but it was administratively integrated into the larger settlement (geographically limited by the Roman *[conventus](/wiki/Conventus "Conventus")*), which was governed by the military governor in [Cordova](/wiki/C%C3%B3rdoba%2C_Andalusia "Córdoba, Andalusia"), later by the [emirs](/wiki/Emir "Emir") (756–929\) and [caliphs](/wiki/Caliph "Caliph") (929–1031\) that governed Al\-Andalus. Various seditions against the [Umayyad Caliphate](/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate "Umayyad Caliphate") rose\-up in the emirs and caliphates of Al\-Garb Al\-Andalus; the revolts of [Ibn Marwan](/wiki/Ibn_Marwan "Ibn Marwan") of [Mérida](/wiki/M%C3%A9rida%2C_Spain "Mérida, Spain")/[Badajoz](/wiki/Badajoz "Badajoz") or Umār ibn Hafsūn of Bobastro corresponds to a period of weak central government, when the Al Garb was a nominal extension of the Caliphate, an autonomous principality with its seat in Batalyaws ([Badajoz](/wiki/Badajoz "Badajoz")).
It was in the period of turmoil preceding the fall of the Caliphates (in 1031\) that Sacavém was integrated into the Kingdom of Badajoz (except for a decade around 1020 when it was a part of al\-Ušbuna, under ʿAbd al\-ʿAziz ibn Sabūr and ʿAbd al\-Malik ibn Sabūr (sons of Sabūr al\-Saqlabi, a [Slavic](/wiki/Slavs "Slavs") [serf](/wiki/Serf "Serf") who sparked a revolt in against Caliph [Al\-Hakam II](/wiki/Al-Hakam_II "Al-Hakam II")). This would last until the [Aftasids](/wiki/Aftasid_dynasty "Aftasid dynasty") conquered the region. In 1093, in a trade for aid against the [Almoravids](/wiki/Almoravid_dynasty "Almoravid dynasty") (from the [Maghreb](/wiki/Maghreb "Maghreb")), the emir of Badajoz ceded to the *imperator totius Hispaniæ* [Alfonso VI of León and Castile](/wiki/Alfonso_VI_of_Le%C3%B3n_and_Castile "Alfonso VI of León and Castile") the castles of al\-Ušbuna and aš\-Šantaryin ([Santarém](/wiki/Santar%C3%A9m%2C_Portugal "Santarém, Portugal")), along with the territory of Sacavém. But the regions return to Christianity lasted for a short time; in 1095, with the advance of the Almoravid forces, led by [Yusuf ibn Tashfin](/wiki/Yusuf_ibn_Tashfin "Yusuf ibn Tashfin"), Count [Raymond of Galicia](/wiki/Raymond_of_Burgundy "Raymond of Burgundy") was defeated in battle, resulting in the Arab\-Christian frontier advancing from the [Tagus River](/wiki/Tagus_River "Tagus River") to the [Mondego](/wiki/Mondego_River "Mondego River"). By 1144, the Al\-Garb led by Ibn Qasi revolted against the Almoravids. Although the Almoravids were dominant in the first few years, they were in decline when [Afonso I of Portugal](/wiki/Afonso_I_of_Portugal "Afonso I of Portugal") definitively [captured Lisbon](/wiki/Siege_of_Lisbon "Siege of Lisbon") (al\-Ušbuna) in October 1147\.
### Middle Ages
[thumb\|left\|235px\|[Afonso Henriques](/wiki/Afonso_Henriques "Afonso Henriques") in battle, near the Roman bridge in Sacavém](/wiki/File:Batalha_de_D._Afonso_Henriques_junto_%C3%A0ponte_romana_em_Sacav%C3%A9m.jpg "Batalha de D. Afonso Henriques junto àponte romana em Sacavém.jpg")
According to an old legend, it was near the [bank](/wiki/Bank "Bank") of the [Trancão](/wiki/Tranc%C3%A3o "Trancão") that the mythical [battle of Sacavém river](/wiki/Battle_of_Sacav%C3%A9m_river "Battle of Sacavém river") took place, between King Afonso I of Portugal and the Moors, in October 1147\. The tradition (fixed probably in the 16th century) says that the Moorish people had gathered around 5,000 men from all [Estremadura](/wiki/Estremadura_Province_%28historical%29 "Estremadura Province (historical)") ([Alenquer](/wiki/Alenquer_Municipality%2C_Portugal "Alenquer Municipality, Portugal"), [Óbidos](/wiki/%C3%93bidos%2C_Portugal "Óbidos, Portugal"), [Tomar](/wiki/Tomar "Tomar"), [Torres Novas](/wiki/Torres_Novas "Torres Novas") and [Torres Vedras](/wiki/Torres_Vedras "Torres Vedras")) to fight against only 1,500 Christians, but the latter defeated the Muslims in a large blood bath, with this wondrous victory personally attributed to the intervention of the [Holy Virgin](/wiki/Blessed_Virgin_Mary "Blessed Virgin Mary"), which brought many Christians speaking strange languages (this is, the [crusades](/wiki/Crusades "Crusades") that took [Lisbon](/wiki/Lisbon "Lisbon") that same year).
The legend says also that the Moorish leader Bezai Zaide had even converted to [Christianity](/wiki/Christianity "Christianity") and became the first priest at the *Chapel of Our Lady of Martyrs* ({{lang\-pt\|Capela de Nossa Senhora de Mártires}}) that Afonso Henriques ordered to be built just a few days after the clash. On the other hand, the first Portuguese monarch had also ordered the rebuilding of the old Visigoth *Chapel of Our Lady of Pleasures* ({{lang\-pt\|Capela de Nossa Senhora de Prazeres}}), ruined during the Moorish rule (although Christian faith in [Al\-Andaluz](/wiki/Al-Andaluz "Al-Andaluz") was allowed by the emirs against the payment of a tribute). This church was dedicated to *Our Lady of Victory* ({{lang\-pt\|Nossa Senhora da Vítoria}}), and became the seat of the ecclesiastical parish.
However, the first documented mention of Sacavém is in 1191 (forty\-four years after the conquest), in a paper signed by King [Sancho I of Portugal](/wiki/Sancho_I_of_Portugal "Sancho I of Portugal").
Pinho Leal reported that in the 12th century Sacavém was a parish with 900 houses, but this number is, however, is regarded today as too high for that time. During the 13th century, it seems that in Sacavém there existed an important [Jewish](/wiki/Jewish "Jewish") community, living in a [ghetto](/wiki/Ghetto "Ghetto") outside the parish.
In 1288, the [priest](/wiki/Priest "Priest") of Sacavém was one of the signatories of a letter requesting that the [Pope Nicholas IV](/wiki/Pope_Nicholas_IV "Pope Nicholas IV") install a [university](/wiki/University "University") in [Lisbon](/wiki/Lisbon "Lisbon").
At the end of the 14th century, king [Ferdinand I of Portugal](/wiki/Ferdinand_I_of_Portugal "Ferdinand I of Portugal") donated Sacavém to his wife [Leonor Telles de Menezes](/wiki/Leonor_Telles_de_Menezes "Leonor Telles de Menezes"). Although the place belonged at that time thus to the sphere of influence of the queen\-consort, it supported the later King [John I of Portugal](/wiki/John_I_of_Portugal "John I of Portugal") in his [struggle for power](/wiki/1383-1385_Crisis "1383-1385 Crisis"). Therefore, after his triumph in 1385, Sacavém was administratively included in [Lisbon](/wiki/Lisbon "Lisbon"), but donated to the major supporter of the new king, [Nuno Álvares Pereira](/wiki/Nuno_%C3%81lvares_Pereira "Nuno Álvares Pereira"). Later, by the wedding of his daughter to the first [Duke of Braganza](/wiki/Duke_of_Braganza "Duke of Braganza"), Sacavém became a property of the powerful [House of Braganza](/wiki/Duke_of_Braganza "Duke of Braganza").
[São João da Talha](/wiki/S%C3%A3o_Jo%C3%A3o_da_Talha "São João da Talha"), until then known as *Sacavém Extra\-Muros* (*Sacavém outside the walls*) became an independent parish, split from Sacavém in 1387\.
In the [Late Middle Ages](/wiki/Late_Middle_Ages "Late Middle Ages"), several chronicles (such as those of [Duarte Nunes de Leão](/wiki/Duarte_Nunes_de_Le%C3%A3o "Duarte Nunes de Leão") and [Rui de Pina](/wiki/Rui_de_Pina "Rui de Pina")) mentioned Sacavém. These two [chroniclers](/wiki/Chronicler "Chronicler") stated that the royal family, before the [conquest of Ceuta](/wiki/Conquest_of_Ceuta "Conquest of Ceuta") in 1415, fled to Sacavém, in order to escape from the [plague](/wiki/Pandemic "Pandemic") that arose in [Lisbon](/wiki/Lisbon "Lisbon"). There the queen\-consort [Philippa of Lancaster](/wiki/Philippa_of_Lancaster "Philippa of Lancaster") died of the plague, her body was carried to [Batalha Monastery](/wiki/Batalha_Monastery "Batalha Monastery") where her remains were buried. However, another chronicler, [Gomes Eanes de Zurara](/wiki/Gomes_Eanes_de_Zurara "Gomes Eanes de Zurara") reports that the royal family fled to [Odivelas](/wiki/Odivelas "Odivelas") (and therefore not to Sacavém), and that the queen died there.
### The Modern Era
The [Fort of Sacavém](/wiki/Fort_of_Sacav%C3%A9m "Fort of Sacavém") was built in 1892 as the easternmost of a line of forts designed to circle Lisbon, known as the "Entrenched Field of Lisbon" (*Campo Entrincheirado de Lisboa*). It now houses important government archives. Taking advantage of its proximity to the River [Tagus](/wiki/Tagus "Tagus") and opportunities presented by the opening of a railway line to the north of Lisbon, Sacavém became an important area for Portugal's industrial development from the middle of the 19th century. The first significant factory, the *Fábrica da Loiça*, produced crockery and ceramics. Now closed, it is now celebrated at the [Ceramics Museum of Sacavém](/wiki/Ceramics_Museum_of_Sacav%C3%A9m "Ceramics Museum of Sacavém"), which also has a documentation centre covering the industrial development of the town.
Sacavém was the site of Portugal's first fatal aviation accident on June 13, 1913\. Giovanni Manio lost control of his [Blériot](/wiki/Bl%C3%A9riot_A%C3%A9ronautique "Blériot Aéronautique") monoplane at 450 feet during a display flight, being thrown from the cockpit and fatally striking his propeller before he hit the ground. The plane was written off.{{Cite web \|title\=Accident Bleriot Monoplane , \|url\=https://aviation\-safety.net/wikibase/233611 \|access\-date\=2023\-10\-04 \|website\=aviation\-safety.net}}
|
[
"History\n-------",
"[thumb\\|235px\\|left\\|The Roman bridge of Sacavém, drawn by [Francisco de Holanda](/wiki/Francisco_de_Holanda \"Francisco de Holanda\") (c.1571\\) in *Da fábrica que falece a cidade de Lisboa*](/wiki/File:Ponte_de_Sacav%C3%A9m_%28Francisco_de_Holanda%29.jpg \"Ponte de Sacavém (Francisco de Holanda).jpg\"){{Main\\|History of Sacavém}}\nDue to its strategic location, at the intersection of several roads from the north and east connecting to Lisbon, Sacavém was an important settlement during periods of [Portuguese History](/wiki/History_of_Portugal \"History of Portugal\"), with some evidence extending back to pre\\-history. The Portuguese historian Pinho Leal wrote, in his [chorography](/wiki/Chorography \"Chorography\") *Portugal Antigo \\& Moderno* (*Ancient \\& Modern Portugal*), that \"*Sacavém is incontestably a very old settlement, and already existed in the time of the [Romans](/wiki/Ancient_Rome \"Ancient Rome\")*\".Pinho Leal (1990\\), p.310 The oldest\\-known references date back to the [Neolithic](/wiki/Neolithic \"Neolithic\") and [Chalcolithic](/wiki/Chalcolithic \"Chalcolithic\"): three polished stone [axes](/wiki/Axe \"Axe\") were discovered from the [Bronze Age](/wiki/Bronze_Age \"Bronze Age\"), and in the mid\\-1980s, excavations in the historical centre of the city revealed a cave with similar artifacts from this period.",
"By the first century, Sacavém was already crossed by two major [Roman roads](/wiki/Roman_roads \"Roman roads\") that connected the region with the interior of the [Iberian Peninsula](/wiki/Iberian_Peninsula \"Iberian Peninsula\"):\n* *Via XV*, connecting *Olissipona* ([Lisbon](/wiki/Lisbon \"Lisbon\")) and *Emerita Augusta* ([Mérida](/wiki/M%C3%A9rida%2C_Spain \"Mérida, Spain\")), by way of the important administrative centre of *Scalabicastrum*, today [Santarém](/wiki/Santar%C3%A9m%2C_Portugal \"Santarém, Portugal\"); and\n* *Via XVI*, which connected *Olissipona* to *Bracara Augusta* ([Braga](/wiki/Braga \"Braga\")), capital of the *[Conventus](/wiki/Conventus \"Conventus\") bracarensis* in the province of *[Gallaecia](/wiki/Gallaecia \"Gallaecia\")*).\nRemnants of these two Roman *viæ* still exist under the modern roads *Rua do António Ricardo Rodrigues* and *Rua do José Luís de Morais* (the town's two main streets during the [Middle Ages](/wiki/Middle_Ages \"Middle Ages\"), which connected the upper and lower districts of Sacavém). Even during this period Sacavém was an important river\\-crossing; the Romans built a bridge that remained active until the 17th century (according to several sources, such as [Francisco de Holanda](/wiki/Francisco_de_Holanda \"Francisco de Holanda\") or Miguel Leitão de Andrade).{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.portugalromano.com/?p\\=215\\|title\\=A Ponte Romana de Sacavém\\|publisher\\=Portugal Romano: Arqueologia Romana em Portugal\\|year\\=2011\\|access\\-date\\=8 June 2011\\|language\\=pt}} This bridge was a natural continuation of the roads and connected Sacavém with the northern river bank; therefore indirectly included in the famous [Antonine Itinerary](/wiki/Antonine_Itinerary \"Antonine Itinerary\"). The parish's coat\\-of\\-arms includes a symbolic depiction of the Roman bridge. Also in the vicinity, an epigraphic inscription is said to have existed (nowadays unknown), but referred to in the [Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum](/wiki/Corpus_Inscriptionum_Latinarum \"Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum\")). Various [epigraphs](/wiki/Epigraphy \"Epigraphy\") have suggested that this totem identified the Roman magisterial administration of the rural locality.Luís da Silva Fernandes (2003\\), p.44\\-45",
"The Roman colony, which was centred on the bridge, was eventually succeeded by barbarians from south\\-eastern peninsula. The [Alans](/wiki/Alans \"Alans\") were the first to occupy these lands (but left few remnants), and later the [Visigoths](/wiki/Visigoths \"Visigoths\"), who constructed a chapel dedicated to *Nossa Senhora dos Prazeres*, on the sight of the medieval\\-era Chapel of *Nossa Senhora da Vitória* (*Our Lady of Victory*).Pinho Leal (1990\\), p.313",
"### Moorish rule",
"After 711, the [Moors](/wiki/Moors \"Moors\") occupied the Iberian peninsula; Lisbon ({{lang\\-ar\\|al\\-Ušbuna}}) is taken in 716 by [Berbers](/wiki/Berbers \"Berbers\") under the command of [Abd al\\-Aziz ibn Musa](/wiki/Abd_al-Aziz_ibn_Musa \"Abd al-Aziz ibn Musa\") (who received the governorship of [Al\\-Andalus](/wiki/Al-Andalus \"Al-Andalus\"), in the name of the [Umayyad Caliphate](/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate \"Umayyad Caliphate\") of Damascus), who also captured the region of Sacavém. Much like other areas of the [Al\\-Garb Al\\-Andalus](/wiki/Al-Garb_Al-Andalus \"Al-Garb Al-Andalus\") (much of ancient Roman [Lusitania](/wiki/Lusitania \"Lusitania\")), the peoples under Moorish dominion became bi\\-lingual, while maintaining their Christian faith (not converting until much later). In Sacavém the community that circled the Church of Nossa Senhora dos Prazeres maintained their faith and culture (under the bishop of Lisbon), something that was possible due to the religious tolerance of the invaders to the *Ahl al\\-Kitāb* (or *[People of the Book](/wiki/People_of_the_Book \"People of the Book\")*). It is likely that the medieval tower in Sacavém de Cima, in the *Largo do Terreirinho*, fronting the Chapel of *Senhora da Saúde* (in the historic centre of the settlement) originated during this Muslim period, when the local Christians were required to pay [jizya](/wiki/Jizya \"Jizya\").Pinho Leal (1990\\), p.311",
"The modern name *Sacavém* might have come from the [Arabic](/wiki/Arabic \"Arabic\") language; for many years experts believed that it came from the word *šagabi* (*next* or *in the neighbourhood* – in this case, of Lisbon, an important city even during [Moorish](/wiki/Moorish \"Moorish\") period) [latinised](/wiki/Latin \"Latin\") to *sacabis, \\-is*, becoming *sacabem* in the [accusative case](/wiki/Accusative_case \"Accusative case\"), and hence, by phonetic modifications during the centuries, *Sacavém*. Recent investigations, from Arabic sources (namely [Yaqut's](/wiki/Yaqut_al-Hamawi \"Yaqut al-Hamawi\") *[Kitab](/wiki/wikt:Kitab \"Kitab\") [Mu'jam Al\\-Buldan](/wiki/Mu%27jam_Al-Buldan \"Mu'jam Al-Buldan\")*), indicate that the Muslims used the word *Šaqabān* ({{lang\\-ar\\|شقبان}}), incredibly similar to the modern Portuguese pronunciation.",
"During Al\\-Andalus, Sacavém was considered a *qarya* (one of the settlements of al\\-Ušbuna), but it was administratively integrated into the larger settlement (geographically limited by the Roman *[conventus](/wiki/Conventus \"Conventus\")*), which was governed by the military governor in [Cordova](/wiki/C%C3%B3rdoba%2C_Andalusia \"Córdoba, Andalusia\"), later by the [emirs](/wiki/Emir \"Emir\") (756–929\\) and [caliphs](/wiki/Caliph \"Caliph\") (929–1031\\) that governed Al\\-Andalus. Various seditions against the [Umayyad Caliphate](/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate \"Umayyad Caliphate\") rose\\-up in the emirs and caliphates of Al\\-Garb Al\\-Andalus; the revolts of [Ibn Marwan](/wiki/Ibn_Marwan \"Ibn Marwan\") of [Mérida](/wiki/M%C3%A9rida%2C_Spain \"Mérida, Spain\")/[Badajoz](/wiki/Badajoz \"Badajoz\") or Umār ibn Hafsūn of Bobastro corresponds to a period of weak central government, when the Al Garb was a nominal extension of the Caliphate, an autonomous principality with its seat in Batalyaws ([Badajoz](/wiki/Badajoz \"Badajoz\")).",
"It was in the period of turmoil preceding the fall of the Caliphates (in 1031\\) that Sacavém was integrated into the Kingdom of Badajoz (except for a decade around 1020 when it was a part of al\\-Ušbuna, under ʿAbd al\\-ʿAziz ibn Sabūr and ʿAbd al\\-Malik ibn Sabūr (sons of Sabūr al\\-Saqlabi, a [Slavic](/wiki/Slavs \"Slavs\") [serf](/wiki/Serf \"Serf\") who sparked a revolt in against Caliph [Al\\-Hakam II](/wiki/Al-Hakam_II \"Al-Hakam II\")). This would last until the [Aftasids](/wiki/Aftasid_dynasty \"Aftasid dynasty\") conquered the region. In 1093, in a trade for aid against the [Almoravids](/wiki/Almoravid_dynasty \"Almoravid dynasty\") (from the [Maghreb](/wiki/Maghreb \"Maghreb\")), the emir of Badajoz ceded to the *imperator totius Hispaniæ* [Alfonso VI of León and Castile](/wiki/Alfonso_VI_of_Le%C3%B3n_and_Castile \"Alfonso VI of León and Castile\") the castles of al\\-Ušbuna and aš\\-Šantaryin ([Santarém](/wiki/Santar%C3%A9m%2C_Portugal \"Santarém, Portugal\")), along with the territory of Sacavém. But the regions return to Christianity lasted for a short time; in 1095, with the advance of the Almoravid forces, led by [Yusuf ibn Tashfin](/wiki/Yusuf_ibn_Tashfin \"Yusuf ibn Tashfin\"), Count [Raymond of Galicia](/wiki/Raymond_of_Burgundy \"Raymond of Burgundy\") was defeated in battle, resulting in the Arab\\-Christian frontier advancing from the [Tagus River](/wiki/Tagus_River \"Tagus River\") to the [Mondego](/wiki/Mondego_River \"Mondego River\"). By 1144, the Al\\-Garb led by Ibn Qasi revolted against the Almoravids. Although the Almoravids were dominant in the first few years, they were in decline when [Afonso I of Portugal](/wiki/Afonso_I_of_Portugal \"Afonso I of Portugal\") definitively [captured Lisbon](/wiki/Siege_of_Lisbon \"Siege of Lisbon\") (al\\-Ušbuna) in October 1147\\.",
"### Middle Ages",
"[thumb\\|left\\|235px\\|[Afonso Henriques](/wiki/Afonso_Henriques \"Afonso Henriques\") in battle, near the Roman bridge in Sacavém](/wiki/File:Batalha_de_D._Afonso_Henriques_junto_%C3%A0ponte_romana_em_Sacav%C3%A9m.jpg \"Batalha de D. Afonso Henriques junto àponte romana em Sacavém.jpg\")\nAccording to an old legend, it was near the [bank](/wiki/Bank \"Bank\") of the [Trancão](/wiki/Tranc%C3%A3o \"Trancão\") that the mythical [battle of Sacavém river](/wiki/Battle_of_Sacav%C3%A9m_river \"Battle of Sacavém river\") took place, between King Afonso I of Portugal and the Moors, in October 1147\\. The tradition (fixed probably in the 16th century) says that the Moorish people had gathered around 5,000 men from all [Estremadura](/wiki/Estremadura_Province_%28historical%29 \"Estremadura Province (historical)\") ([Alenquer](/wiki/Alenquer_Municipality%2C_Portugal \"Alenquer Municipality, Portugal\"), [Óbidos](/wiki/%C3%93bidos%2C_Portugal \"Óbidos, Portugal\"), [Tomar](/wiki/Tomar \"Tomar\"), [Torres Novas](/wiki/Torres_Novas \"Torres Novas\") and [Torres Vedras](/wiki/Torres_Vedras \"Torres Vedras\")) to fight against only 1,500 Christians, but the latter defeated the Muslims in a large blood bath, with this wondrous victory personally attributed to the intervention of the [Holy Virgin](/wiki/Blessed_Virgin_Mary \"Blessed Virgin Mary\"), which brought many Christians speaking strange languages (this is, the [crusades](/wiki/Crusades \"Crusades\") that took [Lisbon](/wiki/Lisbon \"Lisbon\") that same year).",
"The legend says also that the Moorish leader Bezai Zaide had even converted to [Christianity](/wiki/Christianity \"Christianity\") and became the first priest at the *Chapel of Our Lady of Martyrs* ({{lang\\-pt\\|Capela de Nossa Senhora de Mártires}}) that Afonso Henriques ordered to be built just a few days after the clash. On the other hand, the first Portuguese monarch had also ordered the rebuilding of the old Visigoth *Chapel of Our Lady of Pleasures* ({{lang\\-pt\\|Capela de Nossa Senhora de Prazeres}}), ruined during the Moorish rule (although Christian faith in [Al\\-Andaluz](/wiki/Al-Andaluz \"Al-Andaluz\") was allowed by the emirs against the payment of a tribute). This church was dedicated to *Our Lady of Victory* ({{lang\\-pt\\|Nossa Senhora da Vítoria}}), and became the seat of the ecclesiastical parish.",
"However, the first documented mention of Sacavém is in 1191 (forty\\-four years after the conquest), in a paper signed by King [Sancho I of Portugal](/wiki/Sancho_I_of_Portugal \"Sancho I of Portugal\").",
"Pinho Leal reported that in the 12th century Sacavém was a parish with 900 houses, but this number is, however, is regarded today as too high for that time. During the 13th century, it seems that in Sacavém there existed an important [Jewish](/wiki/Jewish \"Jewish\") community, living in a [ghetto](/wiki/Ghetto \"Ghetto\") outside the parish.",
"In 1288, the [priest](/wiki/Priest \"Priest\") of Sacavém was one of the signatories of a letter requesting that the [Pope Nicholas IV](/wiki/Pope_Nicholas_IV \"Pope Nicholas IV\") install a [university](/wiki/University \"University\") in [Lisbon](/wiki/Lisbon \"Lisbon\").",
"At the end of the 14th century, king [Ferdinand I of Portugal](/wiki/Ferdinand_I_of_Portugal \"Ferdinand I of Portugal\") donated Sacavém to his wife [Leonor Telles de Menezes](/wiki/Leonor_Telles_de_Menezes \"Leonor Telles de Menezes\"). Although the place belonged at that time thus to the sphere of influence of the queen\\-consort, it supported the later King [John I of Portugal](/wiki/John_I_of_Portugal \"John I of Portugal\") in his [struggle for power](/wiki/1383-1385_Crisis \"1383-1385 Crisis\"). Therefore, after his triumph in 1385, Sacavém was administratively included in [Lisbon](/wiki/Lisbon \"Lisbon\"), but donated to the major supporter of the new king, [Nuno Álvares Pereira](/wiki/Nuno_%C3%81lvares_Pereira \"Nuno Álvares Pereira\"). Later, by the wedding of his daughter to the first [Duke of Braganza](/wiki/Duke_of_Braganza \"Duke of Braganza\"), Sacavém became a property of the powerful [House of Braganza](/wiki/Duke_of_Braganza \"Duke of Braganza\").",
"[São João da Talha](/wiki/S%C3%A3o_Jo%C3%A3o_da_Talha \"São João da Talha\"), until then known as *Sacavém Extra\\-Muros* (*Sacavém outside the walls*) became an independent parish, split from Sacavém in 1387\\.",
"In the [Late Middle Ages](/wiki/Late_Middle_Ages \"Late Middle Ages\"), several chronicles (such as those of [Duarte Nunes de Leão](/wiki/Duarte_Nunes_de_Le%C3%A3o \"Duarte Nunes de Leão\") and [Rui de Pina](/wiki/Rui_de_Pina \"Rui de Pina\")) mentioned Sacavém. These two [chroniclers](/wiki/Chronicler \"Chronicler\") stated that the royal family, before the [conquest of Ceuta](/wiki/Conquest_of_Ceuta \"Conquest of Ceuta\") in 1415, fled to Sacavém, in order to escape from the [plague](/wiki/Pandemic \"Pandemic\") that arose in [Lisbon](/wiki/Lisbon \"Lisbon\"). There the queen\\-consort [Philippa of Lancaster](/wiki/Philippa_of_Lancaster \"Philippa of Lancaster\") died of the plague, her body was carried to [Batalha Monastery](/wiki/Batalha_Monastery \"Batalha Monastery\") where her remains were buried. However, another chronicler, [Gomes Eanes de Zurara](/wiki/Gomes_Eanes_de_Zurara \"Gomes Eanes de Zurara\") reports that the royal family fled to [Odivelas](/wiki/Odivelas \"Odivelas\") (and therefore not to Sacavém), and that the queen died there.",
"### The Modern Era",
"The [Fort of Sacavém](/wiki/Fort_of_Sacav%C3%A9m \"Fort of Sacavém\") was built in 1892 as the easternmost of a line of forts designed to circle Lisbon, known as the \"Entrenched Field of Lisbon\" (*Campo Entrincheirado de Lisboa*). It now houses important government archives. Taking advantage of its proximity to the River [Tagus](/wiki/Tagus \"Tagus\") and opportunities presented by the opening of a railway line to the north of Lisbon, Sacavém became an important area for Portugal's industrial development from the middle of the 19th century. The first significant factory, the *Fábrica da Loiça*, produced crockery and ceramics. Now closed, it is now celebrated at the [Ceramics Museum of Sacavém](/wiki/Ceramics_Museum_of_Sacav%C3%A9m \"Ceramics Museum of Sacavém\"), which also has a documentation centre covering the industrial development of the town.",
"Sacavém was the site of Portugal's first fatal aviation accident on June 13, 1913\\. Giovanni Manio lost control of his [Blériot](/wiki/Bl%C3%A9riot_A%C3%A9ronautique \"Blériot Aéronautique\") monoplane at 450 feet during a display flight, being thrown from the cockpit and fatally striking his propeller before he hit the ground. The plane was written off.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Accident Bleriot Monoplane , \\|url\\=https://aviation\\-safety.net/wikibase/233611 \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-10\\-04 \\|website\\=aviation\\-safety.net}}",
""
] |
### Middle Ages
[thumb\|left\|235px\|[Afonso Henriques](/wiki/Afonso_Henriques "Afonso Henriques") in battle, near the Roman bridge in Sacavém](/wiki/File:Batalha_de_D._Afonso_Henriques_junto_%C3%A0ponte_romana_em_Sacav%C3%A9m.jpg "Batalha de D. Afonso Henriques junto àponte romana em Sacavém.jpg")
According to an old legend, it was near the [bank](/wiki/Bank "Bank") of the [Trancão](/wiki/Tranc%C3%A3o "Trancão") that the mythical [battle of Sacavém river](/wiki/Battle_of_Sacav%C3%A9m_river "Battle of Sacavém river") took place, between King Afonso I of Portugal and the Moors, in October 1147\. The tradition (fixed probably in the 16th century) says that the Moorish people had gathered around 5,000 men from all [Estremadura](/wiki/Estremadura_Province_%28historical%29 "Estremadura Province (historical)") ([Alenquer](/wiki/Alenquer_Municipality%2C_Portugal "Alenquer Municipality, Portugal"), [Óbidos](/wiki/%C3%93bidos%2C_Portugal "Óbidos, Portugal"), [Tomar](/wiki/Tomar "Tomar"), [Torres Novas](/wiki/Torres_Novas "Torres Novas") and [Torres Vedras](/wiki/Torres_Vedras "Torres Vedras")) to fight against only 1,500 Christians, but the latter defeated the Muslims in a large blood bath, with this wondrous victory personally attributed to the intervention of the [Holy Virgin](/wiki/Blessed_Virgin_Mary "Blessed Virgin Mary"), which brought many Christians speaking strange languages (this is, the [crusades](/wiki/Crusades "Crusades") that took [Lisbon](/wiki/Lisbon "Lisbon") that same year).
The legend says also that the Moorish leader Bezai Zaide had even converted to [Christianity](/wiki/Christianity "Christianity") and became the first priest at the *Chapel of Our Lady of Martyrs* ({{lang\-pt\|Capela de Nossa Senhora de Mártires}}) that Afonso Henriques ordered to be built just a few days after the clash. On the other hand, the first Portuguese monarch had also ordered the rebuilding of the old Visigoth *Chapel of Our Lady of Pleasures* ({{lang\-pt\|Capela de Nossa Senhora de Prazeres}}), ruined during the Moorish rule (although Christian faith in [Al\-Andaluz](/wiki/Al-Andaluz "Al-Andaluz") was allowed by the emirs against the payment of a tribute). This church was dedicated to *Our Lady of Victory* ({{lang\-pt\|Nossa Senhora da Vítoria}}), and became the seat of the ecclesiastical parish.
However, the first documented mention of Sacavém is in 1191 (forty\-four years after the conquest), in a paper signed by King [Sancho I of Portugal](/wiki/Sancho_I_of_Portugal "Sancho I of Portugal").
Pinho Leal reported that in the 12th century Sacavém was a parish with 900 houses, but this number is, however, is regarded today as too high for that time. During the 13th century, it seems that in Sacavém there existed an important [Jewish](/wiki/Jewish "Jewish") community, living in a [ghetto](/wiki/Ghetto "Ghetto") outside the parish.
In 1288, the [priest](/wiki/Priest "Priest") of Sacavém was one of the signatories of a letter requesting that the [Pope Nicholas IV](/wiki/Pope_Nicholas_IV "Pope Nicholas IV") install a [university](/wiki/University "University") in [Lisbon](/wiki/Lisbon "Lisbon").
At the end of the 14th century, king [Ferdinand I of Portugal](/wiki/Ferdinand_I_of_Portugal "Ferdinand I of Portugal") donated Sacavém to his wife [Leonor Telles de Menezes](/wiki/Leonor_Telles_de_Menezes "Leonor Telles de Menezes"). Although the place belonged at that time thus to the sphere of influence of the queen\-consort, it supported the later King [John I of Portugal](/wiki/John_I_of_Portugal "John I of Portugal") in his [struggle for power](/wiki/1383-1385_Crisis "1383-1385 Crisis"). Therefore, after his triumph in 1385, Sacavém was administratively included in [Lisbon](/wiki/Lisbon "Lisbon"), but donated to the major supporter of the new king, [Nuno Álvares Pereira](/wiki/Nuno_%C3%81lvares_Pereira "Nuno Álvares Pereira"). Later, by the wedding of his daughter to the first [Duke of Braganza](/wiki/Duke_of_Braganza "Duke of Braganza"), Sacavém became a property of the powerful [House of Braganza](/wiki/Duke_of_Braganza "Duke of Braganza").
[São João da Talha](/wiki/S%C3%A3o_Jo%C3%A3o_da_Talha "São João da Talha"), until then known as *Sacavém Extra\-Muros* (*Sacavém outside the walls*) became an independent parish, split from Sacavém in 1387\.
In the [Late Middle Ages](/wiki/Late_Middle_Ages "Late Middle Ages"), several chronicles (such as those of [Duarte Nunes de Leão](/wiki/Duarte_Nunes_de_Le%C3%A3o "Duarte Nunes de Leão") and [Rui de Pina](/wiki/Rui_de_Pina "Rui de Pina")) mentioned Sacavém. These two [chroniclers](/wiki/Chronicler "Chronicler") stated that the royal family, before the [conquest of Ceuta](/wiki/Conquest_of_Ceuta "Conquest of Ceuta") in 1415, fled to Sacavém, in order to escape from the [plague](/wiki/Pandemic "Pandemic") that arose in [Lisbon](/wiki/Lisbon "Lisbon"). There the queen\-consort [Philippa of Lancaster](/wiki/Philippa_of_Lancaster "Philippa of Lancaster") died of the plague, her body was carried to [Batalha Monastery](/wiki/Batalha_Monastery "Batalha Monastery") where her remains were buried. However, another chronicler, [Gomes Eanes de Zurara](/wiki/Gomes_Eanes_de_Zurara "Gomes Eanes de Zurara") reports that the royal family fled to [Odivelas](/wiki/Odivelas "Odivelas") (and therefore not to Sacavém), and that the queen died there.
|
[
"### Middle Ages",
"[thumb\\|left\\|235px\\|[Afonso Henriques](/wiki/Afonso_Henriques \"Afonso Henriques\") in battle, near the Roman bridge in Sacavém](/wiki/File:Batalha_de_D._Afonso_Henriques_junto_%C3%A0ponte_romana_em_Sacav%C3%A9m.jpg \"Batalha de D. Afonso Henriques junto àponte romana em Sacavém.jpg\")\nAccording to an old legend, it was near the [bank](/wiki/Bank \"Bank\") of the [Trancão](/wiki/Tranc%C3%A3o \"Trancão\") that the mythical [battle of Sacavém river](/wiki/Battle_of_Sacav%C3%A9m_river \"Battle of Sacavém river\") took place, between King Afonso I of Portugal and the Moors, in October 1147\\. The tradition (fixed probably in the 16th century) says that the Moorish people had gathered around 5,000 men from all [Estremadura](/wiki/Estremadura_Province_%28historical%29 \"Estremadura Province (historical)\") ([Alenquer](/wiki/Alenquer_Municipality%2C_Portugal \"Alenquer Municipality, Portugal\"), [Óbidos](/wiki/%C3%93bidos%2C_Portugal \"Óbidos, Portugal\"), [Tomar](/wiki/Tomar \"Tomar\"), [Torres Novas](/wiki/Torres_Novas \"Torres Novas\") and [Torres Vedras](/wiki/Torres_Vedras \"Torres Vedras\")) to fight against only 1,500 Christians, but the latter defeated the Muslims in a large blood bath, with this wondrous victory personally attributed to the intervention of the [Holy Virgin](/wiki/Blessed_Virgin_Mary \"Blessed Virgin Mary\"), which brought many Christians speaking strange languages (this is, the [crusades](/wiki/Crusades \"Crusades\") that took [Lisbon](/wiki/Lisbon \"Lisbon\") that same year).",
"The legend says also that the Moorish leader Bezai Zaide had even converted to [Christianity](/wiki/Christianity \"Christianity\") and became the first priest at the *Chapel of Our Lady of Martyrs* ({{lang\\-pt\\|Capela de Nossa Senhora de Mártires}}) that Afonso Henriques ordered to be built just a few days after the clash. On the other hand, the first Portuguese monarch had also ordered the rebuilding of the old Visigoth *Chapel of Our Lady of Pleasures* ({{lang\\-pt\\|Capela de Nossa Senhora de Prazeres}}), ruined during the Moorish rule (although Christian faith in [Al\\-Andaluz](/wiki/Al-Andaluz \"Al-Andaluz\") was allowed by the emirs against the payment of a tribute). This church was dedicated to *Our Lady of Victory* ({{lang\\-pt\\|Nossa Senhora da Vítoria}}), and became the seat of the ecclesiastical parish.",
"However, the first documented mention of Sacavém is in 1191 (forty\\-four years after the conquest), in a paper signed by King [Sancho I of Portugal](/wiki/Sancho_I_of_Portugal \"Sancho I of Portugal\").",
"Pinho Leal reported that in the 12th century Sacavém was a parish with 900 houses, but this number is, however, is regarded today as too high for that time. During the 13th century, it seems that in Sacavém there existed an important [Jewish](/wiki/Jewish \"Jewish\") community, living in a [ghetto](/wiki/Ghetto \"Ghetto\") outside the parish.",
"In 1288, the [priest](/wiki/Priest \"Priest\") of Sacavém was one of the signatories of a letter requesting that the [Pope Nicholas IV](/wiki/Pope_Nicholas_IV \"Pope Nicholas IV\") install a [university](/wiki/University \"University\") in [Lisbon](/wiki/Lisbon \"Lisbon\").",
"At the end of the 14th century, king [Ferdinand I of Portugal](/wiki/Ferdinand_I_of_Portugal \"Ferdinand I of Portugal\") donated Sacavém to his wife [Leonor Telles de Menezes](/wiki/Leonor_Telles_de_Menezes \"Leonor Telles de Menezes\"). Although the place belonged at that time thus to the sphere of influence of the queen\\-consort, it supported the later King [John I of Portugal](/wiki/John_I_of_Portugal \"John I of Portugal\") in his [struggle for power](/wiki/1383-1385_Crisis \"1383-1385 Crisis\"). Therefore, after his triumph in 1385, Sacavém was administratively included in [Lisbon](/wiki/Lisbon \"Lisbon\"), but donated to the major supporter of the new king, [Nuno Álvares Pereira](/wiki/Nuno_%C3%81lvares_Pereira \"Nuno Álvares Pereira\"). Later, by the wedding of his daughter to the first [Duke of Braganza](/wiki/Duke_of_Braganza \"Duke of Braganza\"), Sacavém became a property of the powerful [House of Braganza](/wiki/Duke_of_Braganza \"Duke of Braganza\").",
"[São João da Talha](/wiki/S%C3%A3o_Jo%C3%A3o_da_Talha \"São João da Talha\"), until then known as *Sacavém Extra\\-Muros* (*Sacavém outside the walls*) became an independent parish, split from Sacavém in 1387\\.",
"In the [Late Middle Ages](/wiki/Late_Middle_Ages \"Late Middle Ages\"), several chronicles (such as those of [Duarte Nunes de Leão](/wiki/Duarte_Nunes_de_Le%C3%A3o \"Duarte Nunes de Leão\") and [Rui de Pina](/wiki/Rui_de_Pina \"Rui de Pina\")) mentioned Sacavém. These two [chroniclers](/wiki/Chronicler \"Chronicler\") stated that the royal family, before the [conquest of Ceuta](/wiki/Conquest_of_Ceuta \"Conquest of Ceuta\") in 1415, fled to Sacavém, in order to escape from the [plague](/wiki/Pandemic \"Pandemic\") that arose in [Lisbon](/wiki/Lisbon \"Lisbon\"). There the queen\\-consort [Philippa of Lancaster](/wiki/Philippa_of_Lancaster \"Philippa of Lancaster\") died of the plague, her body was carried to [Batalha Monastery](/wiki/Batalha_Monastery \"Batalha Monastery\") where her remains were buried. However, another chronicler, [Gomes Eanes de Zurara](/wiki/Gomes_Eanes_de_Zurara \"Gomes Eanes de Zurara\") reports that the royal family fled to [Odivelas](/wiki/Odivelas \"Odivelas\") (and therefore not to Sacavém), and that the queen died there.",
""
] |
Professional career
-------------------
### Houston Astros organization (2001–2003\)
After completing his 2001 season with [Sonoma State University](/wiki/Sonoma_State_University "Sonoma State University"), Lentini was signed by the [Houston Astros](/wiki/Houston_Astros "Houston Astros") as an amateur [free agent](/wiki/Free_agent "Free agent"). In 2001, he played at three different levels of the Astros [minor league](/wiki/Minor_League_Baseball "Minor League Baseball") organization. First with the [rookie\-level](/wiki/Rookie_League "Rookie League") [Martinsville Astros](/wiki/Martinsville_Astros "Martinsville Astros") of the [Appalachian League](/wiki/Appalachian_League "Appalachian League"), he [batted](/wiki/Batting_average_%28baseball%29 "Batting average (baseball)") .283 with eight [runs scored](/wiki/Run_%28baseball%29 "Run (baseball)"), 13 [hits](/wiki/Hit_%28baseball%29 "Hit (baseball)"), one [double](/wiki/Double_%28baseball%29 "Double (baseball)"), one [triple](/wiki/Triple_%28baseball%29 "Triple (baseball)"), one [home run](/wiki/Home_run "Home run"), four [runs batted in](/wiki/Runs_batted_in "Runs batted in") (RBIs) and 11 [stolen bases](/wiki/Stolen_base "Stolen base") in 12 [games played](/wiki/Games_played "Games played"). Lentini was then promoted to the [Pittsfield Astros](/wiki/Pittsfield_Astros "Pittsfield Astros"), who were member of the [Class A Short Season](/wiki/Class_A_Short_Season "Class A Short Season") [New York–Penn League](/wiki/New_York%E2%80%93Penn_League "New York–Penn League"). With Pittsfield, he batted .346 with 13 runs scored, 18 hits, three doubles, one triple, eight RBIs and eight stolen bases in 15 games played. His final team in 2001 was the [Class\-A](/wiki/Class_A_%28baseball%29 "Class A (baseball)") [Lexington Legends](/wiki/Lexington_Legends "Lexington Legends") of the [South Atlantic League](/wiki/South_Atlantic_League "South Atlantic League"). In 29 games with the Legends, Lentini batted .295 with 27 runs scored, 36 hits, 11 doubles, two triples, one home run, 21 RBIs and 10 stolen bases. Combined between the three clubs that season, Lentini batted .305 with 48 runs scored, 67 hits, 15 doubles, four triples, two home runs, 33 RBIs and 29 stolen bases in 56 games played. On defense, played all of his 54 games in the [outfield](/wiki/Outfield "Outfield"), committing no [errors](/wiki/Error_%28baseball%29 "Error (baseball)"), seven [assists](/wiki/Assist_%28baseball%29 "Assist (baseball)") and 78 [putouts](/wiki/Putout "Putout").
Lentini spent the entire 2002 season with the [Michigan Battle Cats](/wiki/Michigan_Battle_Cats "Michigan Battle Cats") of the Class\-A [Midwest League](/wiki/Midwest_League "Midwest League"). On the season, he batted .289 with 41 runs scored, 71 hits, 12 doubles, three triples, one home run, 35 RBIs, 25 stolen bases and 29 [walks](/wiki/Base_on_balls "Base on balls") in 71 games played. In the field, Lentini played all of his 64 games as an outfielder, committing four errors, eight assists and 93 putouts in 105\. In 2003, he played with two different teams in the Astros organization. First, with the [Class\-A Advanced](/wiki/Class_A-Advanced "Class A-Advanced") [Salem Avalanche](/wiki/Salem_Avalanche "Salem Avalanche") of the [Carolina League](/wiki/Carolina_League "Carolina League"), he batted .279 with 45 runs scored, 103 hits, 21 doubles, four triples, three home runs, 48 RBIs and 19 stolen bases in 100 games played. Lentini's second team that season were the [Round Rock Express](/wiki/Round_Rock_Express "Round Rock Express") of the [Double\-A](/wiki/Double-A_%28baseball%29 "Double-A (baseball)") [Texas League](/wiki/Texas_League "Texas League"). With Round Rock, he batted .217 with four runs scored, five hits, one double, one triple and one RBI in 17 games played. Combined between the two teams, he batted .276 with 108 hits, 22 doubles, five triples, three home runs and 49 RBIs in 117 games played. On defense between the two clubs, Lentini played 78 games in the outfield, committing two errors, eight assists and 151 putouts. The 2003 season would be his last in affiliated minor league baseball.
### Kalamazoo Kings (2004\)
In 2004, at the age of 26, Lentini began his career in [independent league baseball](/wiki/Independent_league_baseball "Independent league baseball") after he signed with the [Kalamazoo Kings](/wiki/Kalamazoo_Kings "Kalamazoo Kings"), who were members of the [Frontier League](/wiki/Frontier_League "Frontier League"). Lentini was selected to play on the 2004 Frontier League All\-Star team.{{cite web\|title\=Fehlandt Lentini Awards\|url\=http://www.thebaseballcube.com/Awards/L/Fehlandt\-Lentini.shtml\|work\=The Baseball Cube\|accessdate\=15 September 2010}} On the season, he batted .310 with 57 runs scored, 106 hits, 16 doubles, nine triples, seven home runs, 60 RBIs and 28 stolen bases in 90 games played. In the field, he played all of his 85 defensive games as an outfielder, committing three errors, 11 assists and 167 putouts. Amongst league batters that season, Lentini led in triples, was sixth in stolen bases and was tied for tenth in hits.{{cite web\|title\=2004 Frontier League Batting Leaders\|url\=https://www.baseball\-reference.com/minors/leader.cgi?type\=bat\&id\=11620\&sort\_by\=SB\|work\=Baseball\-Reference.com\|accessdate\=15 September 2010}} He led the Kings in hits, triples, RBIs, stolen bases, [total bases](/wiki/Total_base "Total base") (161\) and [sacrifice flies](/wiki/Sacrifice_flies "Sacrifice flies") (9\).{{cite web\|title\=2004 Kalamazoo Kings\|url\=https://www.baseball\-reference.com/minors/team.cgi?id\=21603\|work\=Baseball\-Reference.com\|accessdate\=15 September 2010}} During the next season, he signed with the Sioux Falls team, but was released before the start of the season.
### Calgary Vipers and Gary Southshore Railcats (2005\)
Before the 2005 season, Lentini signed with the [Calgary Vipers](/wiki/Calgary_Vipers "Calgary Vipers") of the independent [Northern League](/wiki/Northern_League_%28baseball%2C_1993%E2%80%932010%29 "Northern League (baseball, 1993–2010)"). With Calgary, he batted .342 with 59 runs scored, 96 hits, 20 doubles, six triples, six home runs 42 RBIs and 22 stolen bases in 67 games played. In August 2005, the Vipers traded Lentini to the [Gary Southshore Railcats](/wiki/Gary_Southshore_Railcats "Gary Southshore Railcats"), also of the Northern League, in exchange for Quintin Oldenburg and Jason Colson.{{cite web\|last\=Wazny\|first\=Adam\|title\='Cats pulls off major trade\|url\=http://slam.canoe.ca/Slam/Baseball/News/2005/08/14/1172906\-sun.html\|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20130115085940/http://slam.canoe.ca/Slam/Baseball/News/2005/08/14/1172906\-sun.html\|url\-status\=usurped\|archive\-date\=January 15, 2013\|work\=Slam! Sports\|publisher\=Canoe, Inc\|accessdate\=15 September 2010}} Slam! Sports described the trade as "perhaps the biggest trade of the 2005 Northern League season". On August 30, 2005, Lentini won the Northern League Player of the Week Award for the week of August 22 to August 28\.{{cite web\|title\=RailCats Lentini Wins Northern League Player of the Week Award\|url\=http://www.oursportscentral.com/services/releases/?id\=3217725\|work\=OurSports Central\|date \= 30 August 2005\|accessdate\=15 September 2010}} During that week, Lentini batted .469 with three home runs and eight RBIs. With the Southshore Railcats that season, he batted .333 with 20 runs scored, 34 hits, seven doubles, two triples, four home runs, 15 RBIs and seven stolen bases in 23 games played. Combined between the two teams that season, Lentini batted .339 with 79 runs scored, 130 hits, 27 doubles, eight triples, 10 home runs, 57 RBIs and 29 stolen bases in 90 games played. On defense, he played all of his 89 combined games in the outfield, committing four errors, 10 assists and 227 putouts. As a member of the Railcats, Lentini was a second half co\-league champion.{{cite web\|title\=Railcats finish season as second half co\-champions of the Northern League\|url\=http://www.oursportscentral.com/services/releases/?id\=3220309\|work\=OurSports Central\|date \= 4 September 2005\|accessdate\=15 September 2010}} Amongst league batters, Lentini was third in triples; fourth in stolen bases, runs scored and hits; tied for fourth in [caught stealing](/wiki/Caught_stealing "Caught stealing") (9\); sixth in batting average; tied for sixth in total bases (203\); and seventh in [at\-bats](/wiki/At-bat "At-bat") (383\).{{cite web\|title\=2005 Northern League Batting Leaders\|url\=https://www.baseball\-reference.com/minors/leader.cgi?type\=bat\&id\=13172\&sort\_by\=H\|work\=Baseball\-Reference.com\|accessdate\=15 September 2010}} Before the 2006 season, the Railcats re\-signed Lentini.{{cite web\|title\=RailCats Retain Rights to 23 Players; Samuels Becomes Free Agent\|url\=http://www.oursportscentral.com/services/releases/?id\=3236678\|work\=OurSports Central\|date \= 2 November 2005\|accessdate\=15 September 2010}}
### Winnipeg Goldeyes (2006–2008\)
Before the 2006 season, the Gary Southshore Railcats traded Lentini to the [Winnipeg Goldeyes](/wiki/Winnipeg_Goldeyes "Winnipeg Goldeyes"), also of the Northern League.{{cite web\|last\=Wazny\|first\=Adam\|title\=Lentini time for the Fish\|url\=http://slam.canoe.ca/Slam/Baseball/News/2006/05/06/1567436\-sun.html\|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20130115060653/http://slam.canoe.ca/Slam/Baseball/News/2006/05/06/1567436\-sun.html\|url\-status\=usurped\|archive\-date\=January 15, 2013\|work\=Slam! Sports\|accessdate\=15 September 2010}} Winnipeg [manager](/wiki/Manager_%28baseball%29 "Manager (baseball)") Rick Forney was convinced to trade for Lentini by the team's [bench coach](/wiki/Bench_coach "Bench coach") Steve Maddock. He was selected for the 2006 Northern League All\-Star Game.{{cite web\|title\=Northern League Awards\|url\=http://www.northernleague.com/internal.php?code\=7\|work\=Northern League\|accessdate\=15 September 2010}} On the season, he batted .325 with 93 runs scored, 136 hits, 32 doubles, 13 triples, six home runs, 49 RBIs and 57 stolen bases in 96 games played. Lentini played all of his 96 games as an outfielder, committing six errors, five assists and 269 putouts. He led the league at\-bats (418\), triples and stolen bases; was second in [plate appearances](/wiki/Plate_appearances "Plate appearances") (452\) runs scored, hits, doubles and total bases (212\); and eighth in batting average.{{cite web\|title\=2006 Northern League Batting Leaders\|url\=https://www.baseball\-reference.com/minors/leader.cgi?type\=bat\&id\=13173\&sort\_by\=TB\|work\=Baseball\-Reference.com\|accessdate\=15 September 2010}} His 13 triples was a Northern League single\-season record, breaking the previous record of 12 set by Justin Foust in 2005\.{{cite web\|title\=Top 10 Batting\|url\=http://www.northernleague.com/internal.php?code\=83\|work\=Northern League\|accessdate\=15 September 2010}} He also holds the league record for the second most stolen bases in a single\-season. After the season, Lentini was named to *[Baseball America](/wiki/Baseball_America "Baseball America")'s* All\-Independent League Second Team. In 2007, for the second straight season, Lentini was named to the Northern League All\-Star Game. In May, he sprained his [ankle](/wiki/Sprained_ankle "Sprained ankle") while playing a pick\-up [basketball](/wiki/Basketball "Basketball") game with a teammate while the game they were playing was under a [rain delay](/wiki/Rain_delay "Rain delay").{{cite web\|last\=Wazny\|first\=Adam\|title\=Lentini hobbled: Hoops horse play leads to twisted ankle for Goldeyes centre\-fielder\|url\=http://slam.canoe.ca/Slam/Baseball/News/2007/05/23/4201752\-sun.html\|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20120722105739/http://slam.canoe.ca/Slam/Baseball/News/2007/05/23/4201752\-sun.html\|url\-status\=usurped\|archive\-date\=July 22, 2012\|work\=Sun Media\|publisher\=Slam! Sports\|accessdate\=15 September 2010\|date\=23 May 2007}} During the season, he batted .321 with 86 runs scored, 130 hits, 36 doubles, seven triples, 10 home runs, 54 RBIs and 42 stolen bases in 92 games played. He led the league in at\-bats (405\) and stolen bases, was second in runs scored and triples, fourth in total bases (210\), and sixth in hits.{{cite web\|title\=2007 Northern League Batting Leaders\|url\=https://www.baseball\-reference.com/minors/leader.cgi?type\=bat\&id\=13174\&sort\_by\=TB\|work\=Baseball\-Reference.com\|accessdate\=15 September 2010}}
Lentini started the 2008 season with the [Potros de Tijuana](/wiki/Potros_de_Tijuana "Potros de Tijuana") of the [Triple\-A](/wiki/Triple-A_%28baseball%29 "Triple-A (baseball)") [Mexican League](/wiki/Mexican_League "Mexican League"). After just 10 games, he batted .268 with four runs scored, 11 hits, four doubles and five RBIs. Tijuana then released him.{{cite web\|last\=Cariou\|first\=Chris\|title\=Lentini glad to trade Mexico for Fish\|url\=http://findarticles.com/p/news\-articles/winnipeg\-free\-press/mi\_8029/is\_20080405/lentini\-glad\-trade\-mexico\-fish/ai\_n42615679/\|work\=Winnipeg Free Press\|publisher\=CBS Interactive\|accessdate\=15 September 2010\|date\=5 April 2008}} {{Dead link\|date\=October 2010\|bot\=H3llBot}} Scheduled to return to Winnipeg for the start of the Northern League season, Lentini was forced to stay in [Mexico](/wiki/Mexico "Mexico") until Potros de Tijuana paid him his salary. He later returned to the Winnipeg Goldeyes in time for the start of the 2008 Northern League campaign. For the third straight season, Lentini was selected to play in the Northern League All\-Star Game. With the Goldeyes that season, Lentini batted .298 with 71 runs scored, 125 hits, 27 doubles, eight triples, nine home runs, 39 RBIs and 37 stolen bases in 96 games played. Between the two clubs he played for in 2007, Lentini batted .295 with 75 runs scored, 136 hits, 31 doubles, eight triples, nine home runs, 44 RBIs and 38 stolen bases 106 games played. In the field between the two teams, he played all 106 games as an outfielder, committing 11 errors, four assists and 224 putouts. Lentini led the league that season in at\-bats (451\), triples and stolen basesp; was second in plate appearances (451\) and hits; third in runs scored; and tied for seventh in doubles.{{cite web\|title\=2008 Northern League Batting Leaders\|url\=https://www.baseball\-reference.com/minors/leader.cgi?type\=bat\&id\=14907\&sort\_by\=SB\|work\=Baseball\-Reference.com\|accessdate\=15 September 2010}}
### Calgary Vipers, second tenure (2009\)
Lentini began the 2009 season with the [Tecolotes de Nuevo Laredo](/wiki/Tecolotes_de_Nuevo_Laredo "Tecolotes de Nuevo Laredo") of the Triple\-A Mexican League. In 22 games Nuevo Laredo, he batted .266 with 14 runs scored, 25 hits, six doubles, two triples, two home runs, 11 RBIs and four stolen bases. On May 17, 2009, the Lentini signed with the [Calgary Vipers](/wiki/Calgary_Vipers "Calgary Vipers"), who he had played with in 2005\.{{cite web\|title\=Transactions\|url\=http://www.goldenbaseball.com/subcontent.aspx?SecID\=849\|work\=Golden Baseball League\|accessdate\=16 September 2010\|url\-status\=dead\|archiveurl\=https://web.archive.org/web/20101125210150/http://www.goldenbaseball.com/subcontent.aspx?SecID\=849\|archivedate\=25 November 2010}} This time, the Vipers were members of the [Golden Baseball League](/wiki/Golden_Baseball_League "Golden Baseball League"). On June 11, it was announced that Lentini was the Golden Baseball League's Player of the Week for the week of June 1 to June 7 after batting .545 in five games.{{cite web\|title\=Fehlandt Lentini Named GBL Player of the Week\|url\=http://www.oursportscentral.com/services/releases/?id\=3840059\|work\=OurSports Central\|date \= 11 June 2009\|accessdate\=16 September 2010}} He was selected to the Golden Baseball League's All\-Star Game that season. As a member of the North team, Lentini beat [Jim Rushford](/wiki/Jim_Rushford "Jim Rushford") of the South in the league's [home run derby](/wiki/Home_run_derby "Home run derby").{{cite web\|title\=North Wins GBL All\-Star Game as Two Players are Signed by MLB Teams\|url\=http://www.oursportscentral.com/services/releases/?id\=3864120\|work\=OurSports Central\|date \= 15 July 2009\|accessdate\=16 September 2010}} Lentini was the [leadoff hitter](/wiki/Leadoff_hitter "Leadoff hitter") in the all\-star game. During his first at\-bat of that game, he hit a home run off of South pitcher [José Lima](/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Lima "José Lima").{{cite web\|last\=Weiler\|first\=Ron\|title\=North wins GBL All\-Star game, Scorps have good showing\|url\=http://www.yumasun.com/sports/north\-51472\-game\-star.html\|work\=YumaSun.com\|publisher\=Freedom Communications, Inc\|accessdate\=16 September 2010\|date\=14 July 2009\|url\-status\=dead\|archiveurl\=http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20090716034128/http://www.yumasun.com/sports/north\-51472\-game\-star.html\|archivedate\=16 July 2009}} On the season with the Vipers, Lentini batted .366 with 98 runs scored, 122 hits, 33 doubles, three triples, 11 home runs, 57 RBIs and 33 stolen bases in 74 games played. The Vipers won the Golden Baseball League championship that season.
### Na Koa Ikaika Maui (2010\)
On February 24, 2010, Lentini signed with the [Na Koa Ikaika Maui](/wiki/Na_Koa_Ikaika_Maui "Na Koa Ikaika Maui"), who like his last team were members of the Golden Baseball League. On his 33{{sup\|rd}} birthday, Lentini hit his tenth home run of the season.{{cite web\|last\=Collias\|first\=Robert\|title\=Brandt picks up 10th win as Maui downs Yuma 6\-1\|url\=http://www.mauinews.com/page/content.detail/id/534378\.html?nav\=11\|work\=The Maui News\|accessdate\=16 September 2010\|date\=13 August 2010}} On the season, he batted .299 with 70 runs scored, 86 hits, 24 doubles, four triples, 13 home runs, 30 RBIs and 28 walks in 74 games played. Lentini also pitched a game, giving\-up two [hits](/wiki/Hit_%28baseball%29 "Hit (baseball)") and no runs in one [inning pitched](/wiki/Innings_pitched "Innings pitched"). During the Golden Baseball League playoffs, he batted .303 with 10 runs scored, 10 hits, four doubles, one triple and two RBIs in eight games played.
### Amarillo Sox and Winnipeg Goldeyes (2011\)
Lentini signed with the [Amarillo Sox](/wiki/Amarillo_Sox "Amarillo Sox") of the [American Association](/wiki/American_Association_of_Independent_Professional_Baseball "American Association of Independent Professional Baseball") for the 2011 season. Over 71 games for the Sox, Lentini hit .324 with four home runs, seven triples and 30 doubles while driving in 56 runs. Lentini finished the season with the [Winnipeg Goldeyes](/wiki/Winnipeg_Goldeyes "Winnipeg Goldeyes") after signing with them in early August.
### Lancaster Barnstomers (2012\)
In 2012, Lentini made his [Atlantic League](/wiki/Atlantic_League_of_Professional_Baseball "Atlantic League of Professional Baseball") for the [Lancaster Barnstormers](/wiki/Lancaster_Barnstormers "Lancaster Barnstormers"). Lentini would log 136 games played with Barnstormers, where he placed among many of the Atlantic League league leaders. The Santa Rosa native led the Atlantic League in runs scored (98\), at bats (539\) and plate appearances (583\). Lentini placed second in runs batted (92\), third in doubles (36\)and stolen bases (32\). He also placed fifth in batting with a .319 average. With the Barnstormers, he also hit a career high 19 home runs. Lentini was also named 2012 Atlantic League All\-Star game Most Valuable player after going two\-for\-threewith a walk and scoring the winning run when the Freedom Division ralied for six runs in the ninth inning to beat the Liberty Division 9–5\.{{cite web\|title\=Lentini Atlantic League All\-Star MVP\|url\=https://lancasteronline.com/sports/lentini\-atlantic\-league\-all\-star\-mvp/article\_262c595d\-e5a3\-5cbb\-b991\-04199bba3049\.html\|work\=lancasteronline.com\|date \= 12 July 2012}}
### Winnipeg Goldeyes (2013\)
Lentini would return to the Goldeyes in 2013 where he would play 97 games holding a .271 average while hitting seven home runs, 26 doubles and driving in 45 runs.
### Long Island Ducks (2014\)
In 2014, Lentini would make his [Long Island Ducks](/wiki/Long_Island_Ducks "Long Island Ducks") debut where he would lead the Atlantic League in plate appearances (649\) and at bats (593\). The 36\-year\-old would place second in hits (172\) and (46\)stolen bases with a perfect 46\-for\-46 ratio. He also placed third in games played (137\), runs scored (96\) and fourth in doubles with (36\).
### Sonoma Stompers (2015\)
On February 15, Lentini was named player manager of the [Sonoma Stompers](/wiki/Sonoma_Stompers "Sonoma Stompers") of the [Pacific Association](/wiki/Pacific_Association "Pacific Association").{{cite web\|title\=Stompers Sign Fehlandt Lentini as player\-manager\|url\=http://www.stompersbaseball.com/news/stompers\-sign\-sonoma\-high\-grad\-fehlandt\-lentini\-as\-player\-manager\|work\=stompersbaseball.com\|date \= 19 February 2015}} After winning the first half of the season, Lentini was let go. Lentini logged 32 games played with the Stompers and a .289 average while driving in 27 runs and scoring 26 of his own.
### Return to Long Island Ducks (2015\-2017\)
In late July, Lentini signed with the Ducks for the remainder of the 2015 season. In 48 games played, Lentini batted .291 with 21 rbis in 213 at bats.
In 2016, Lentini led the Atlantic League with (630\) plate appearances, (571\) at bats, (179\) hits, runs (108\), (42\) doubles and tied for first with (140\) games played. He'd also place top five in total bases (260\), runs batted in (85\), stolen bases (51\), hit by pitches (10\) and triples (6\). On July 13, Lentini would play for the Liberty Division for the 2016 ALPB All\-Star game, and nearly winning the league’s MVP award
In the 2017 season, Lentini was inserted as the starting right fielder and remained so for the first half of the season but was unable to repeat last years success and struggled batting .234 with three home runs and 15 runs batted in with 28 steals in 69 games played before being benched for younger players. Accustomed to starting and playing everyday, Lentini immediately demanded a trade or release in order find a starting job elsewhere. The Ducks refused and instead placed him on the teams inactive list. Lentini then went to the ballpark before the Ducks next home game and handed out fliers to fans asking them to demand his release. This resulted in his immediate suspension from the Ducks and the Atlantic League. He has not played professionally in any league since.
### Foreign Leagues
Lentini spent five seasons playing in the [Mexican League](/wiki/Mexican_League "Mexican League"), [Puerto Rican Winter League](/wiki/Puerto_Rican_Winter_League "Puerto Rican Winter League") and [Venezuelan Winter League](/wiki/Venezuelan_Winter_League "Venezuelan Winter League"). Over 107 games in the combined three leagues, Lentini batted .279 with 51 runs batted in, 59 runs scored, 26 doubles, 10 triples, four home runs and 16 stolen bases.
### Career milestones
Over 17 professional seasons, Lentini had 2,111 hits, 486 doubles, 97 triples, 134 home runs and 916 runs batted in. In 1,713 career games played, Lentini held a .303 average and had 576 stolen bases with a career stolen base percentage of 84\.2%.
### Coaching
From 2018 to 2021, Lentini was the hitting and bench coach for the [Medicine Hat Mavericks](/wiki/Medicine_Hat_Mavericks "Medicine Hat Mavericks") of the [Western Canadian Baseball League](/wiki/Western_Canadian_Baseball_League "Western Canadian Baseball League").
|
[
"Professional career\n-------------------",
"### Houston Astros organization (2001–2003\\)",
"After completing his 2001 season with [Sonoma State University](/wiki/Sonoma_State_University \"Sonoma State University\"), Lentini was signed by the [Houston Astros](/wiki/Houston_Astros \"Houston Astros\") as an amateur [free agent](/wiki/Free_agent \"Free agent\"). In 2001, he played at three different levels of the Astros [minor league](/wiki/Minor_League_Baseball \"Minor League Baseball\") organization. First with the [rookie\\-level](/wiki/Rookie_League \"Rookie League\") [Martinsville Astros](/wiki/Martinsville_Astros \"Martinsville Astros\") of the [Appalachian League](/wiki/Appalachian_League \"Appalachian League\"), he [batted](/wiki/Batting_average_%28baseball%29 \"Batting average (baseball)\") .283 with eight [runs scored](/wiki/Run_%28baseball%29 \"Run (baseball)\"), 13 [hits](/wiki/Hit_%28baseball%29 \"Hit (baseball)\"), one [double](/wiki/Double_%28baseball%29 \"Double (baseball)\"), one [triple](/wiki/Triple_%28baseball%29 \"Triple (baseball)\"), one [home run](/wiki/Home_run \"Home run\"), four [runs batted in](/wiki/Runs_batted_in \"Runs batted in\") (RBIs) and 11 [stolen bases](/wiki/Stolen_base \"Stolen base\") in 12 [games played](/wiki/Games_played \"Games played\"). Lentini was then promoted to the [Pittsfield Astros](/wiki/Pittsfield_Astros \"Pittsfield Astros\"), who were member of the [Class A Short Season](/wiki/Class_A_Short_Season \"Class A Short Season\") [New York–Penn League](/wiki/New_York%E2%80%93Penn_League \"New York–Penn League\"). With Pittsfield, he batted .346 with 13 runs scored, 18 hits, three doubles, one triple, eight RBIs and eight stolen bases in 15 games played. His final team in 2001 was the [Class\\-A](/wiki/Class_A_%28baseball%29 \"Class A (baseball)\") [Lexington Legends](/wiki/Lexington_Legends \"Lexington Legends\") of the [South Atlantic League](/wiki/South_Atlantic_League \"South Atlantic League\"). In 29 games with the Legends, Lentini batted .295 with 27 runs scored, 36 hits, 11 doubles, two triples, one home run, 21 RBIs and 10 stolen bases. Combined between the three clubs that season, Lentini batted .305 with 48 runs scored, 67 hits, 15 doubles, four triples, two home runs, 33 RBIs and 29 stolen bases in 56 games played. On defense, played all of his 54 games in the [outfield](/wiki/Outfield \"Outfield\"), committing no [errors](/wiki/Error_%28baseball%29 \"Error (baseball)\"), seven [assists](/wiki/Assist_%28baseball%29 \"Assist (baseball)\") and 78 [putouts](/wiki/Putout \"Putout\").",
"Lentini spent the entire 2002 season with the [Michigan Battle Cats](/wiki/Michigan_Battle_Cats \"Michigan Battle Cats\") of the Class\\-A [Midwest League](/wiki/Midwest_League \"Midwest League\"). On the season, he batted .289 with 41 runs scored, 71 hits, 12 doubles, three triples, one home run, 35 RBIs, 25 stolen bases and 29 [walks](/wiki/Base_on_balls \"Base on balls\") in 71 games played. In the field, Lentini played all of his 64 games as an outfielder, committing four errors, eight assists and 93 putouts in 105\\. In 2003, he played with two different teams in the Astros organization. First, with the [Class\\-A Advanced](/wiki/Class_A-Advanced \"Class A-Advanced\") [Salem Avalanche](/wiki/Salem_Avalanche \"Salem Avalanche\") of the [Carolina League](/wiki/Carolina_League \"Carolina League\"), he batted .279 with 45 runs scored, 103 hits, 21 doubles, four triples, three home runs, 48 RBIs and 19 stolen bases in 100 games played. Lentini's second team that season were the [Round Rock Express](/wiki/Round_Rock_Express \"Round Rock Express\") of the [Double\\-A](/wiki/Double-A_%28baseball%29 \"Double-A (baseball)\") [Texas League](/wiki/Texas_League \"Texas League\"). With Round Rock, he batted .217 with four runs scored, five hits, one double, one triple and one RBI in 17 games played. Combined between the two teams, he batted .276 with 108 hits, 22 doubles, five triples, three home runs and 49 RBIs in 117 games played. On defense between the two clubs, Lentini played 78 games in the outfield, committing two errors, eight assists and 151 putouts. The 2003 season would be his last in affiliated minor league baseball.",
"### Kalamazoo Kings (2004\\)",
"In 2004, at the age of 26, Lentini began his career in [independent league baseball](/wiki/Independent_league_baseball \"Independent league baseball\") after he signed with the [Kalamazoo Kings](/wiki/Kalamazoo_Kings \"Kalamazoo Kings\"), who were members of the [Frontier League](/wiki/Frontier_League \"Frontier League\"). Lentini was selected to play on the 2004 Frontier League All\\-Star team.{{cite web\\|title\\=Fehlandt Lentini Awards\\|url\\=http://www.thebaseballcube.com/Awards/L/Fehlandt\\-Lentini.shtml\\|work\\=The Baseball Cube\\|accessdate\\=15 September 2010}} On the season, he batted .310 with 57 runs scored, 106 hits, 16 doubles, nine triples, seven home runs, 60 RBIs and 28 stolen bases in 90 games played. In the field, he played all of his 85 defensive games as an outfielder, committing three errors, 11 assists and 167 putouts. Amongst league batters that season, Lentini led in triples, was sixth in stolen bases and was tied for tenth in hits.{{cite web\\|title\\=2004 Frontier League Batting Leaders\\|url\\=https://www.baseball\\-reference.com/minors/leader.cgi?type\\=bat\\&id\\=11620\\&sort\\_by\\=SB\\|work\\=Baseball\\-Reference.com\\|accessdate\\=15 September 2010}} He led the Kings in hits, triples, RBIs, stolen bases, [total bases](/wiki/Total_base \"Total base\") (161\\) and [sacrifice flies](/wiki/Sacrifice_flies \"Sacrifice flies\") (9\\).{{cite web\\|title\\=2004 Kalamazoo Kings\\|url\\=https://www.baseball\\-reference.com/minors/team.cgi?id\\=21603\\|work\\=Baseball\\-Reference.com\\|accessdate\\=15 September 2010}} During the next season, he signed with the Sioux Falls team, but was released before the start of the season.",
"### Calgary Vipers and Gary Southshore Railcats (2005\\)",
"Before the 2005 season, Lentini signed with the [Calgary Vipers](/wiki/Calgary_Vipers \"Calgary Vipers\") of the independent [Northern League](/wiki/Northern_League_%28baseball%2C_1993%E2%80%932010%29 \"Northern League (baseball, 1993–2010)\"). With Calgary, he batted .342 with 59 runs scored, 96 hits, 20 doubles, six triples, six home runs 42 RBIs and 22 stolen bases in 67 games played. In August 2005, the Vipers traded Lentini to the [Gary Southshore Railcats](/wiki/Gary_Southshore_Railcats \"Gary Southshore Railcats\"), also of the Northern League, in exchange for Quintin Oldenburg and Jason Colson.{{cite web\\|last\\=Wazny\\|first\\=Adam\\|title\\='Cats pulls off major trade\\|url\\=http://slam.canoe.ca/Slam/Baseball/News/2005/08/14/1172906\\-sun.html\\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20130115085940/http://slam.canoe.ca/Slam/Baseball/News/2005/08/14/1172906\\-sun.html\\|url\\-status\\=usurped\\|archive\\-date\\=January 15, 2013\\|work\\=Slam! Sports\\|publisher\\=Canoe, Inc\\|accessdate\\=15 September 2010}} Slam! Sports described the trade as \"perhaps the biggest trade of the 2005 Northern League season\". On August 30, 2005, Lentini won the Northern League Player of the Week Award for the week of August 22 to August 28\\.{{cite web\\|title\\=RailCats Lentini Wins Northern League Player of the Week Award\\|url\\=http://www.oursportscentral.com/services/releases/?id\\=3217725\\|work\\=OurSports Central\\|date \\= 30 August 2005\\|accessdate\\=15 September 2010}} During that week, Lentini batted .469 with three home runs and eight RBIs. With the Southshore Railcats that season, he batted .333 with 20 runs scored, 34 hits, seven doubles, two triples, four home runs, 15 RBIs and seven stolen bases in 23 games played. Combined between the two teams that season, Lentini batted .339 with 79 runs scored, 130 hits, 27 doubles, eight triples, 10 home runs, 57 RBIs and 29 stolen bases in 90 games played. On defense, he played all of his 89 combined games in the outfield, committing four errors, 10 assists and 227 putouts. As a member of the Railcats, Lentini was a second half co\\-league champion.{{cite web\\|title\\=Railcats finish season as second half co\\-champions of the Northern League\\|url\\=http://www.oursportscentral.com/services/releases/?id\\=3220309\\|work\\=OurSports Central\\|date \\= 4 September 2005\\|accessdate\\=15 September 2010}} Amongst league batters, Lentini was third in triples; fourth in stolen bases, runs scored and hits; tied for fourth in [caught stealing](/wiki/Caught_stealing \"Caught stealing\") (9\\); sixth in batting average; tied for sixth in total bases (203\\); and seventh in [at\\-bats](/wiki/At-bat \"At-bat\") (383\\).{{cite web\\|title\\=2005 Northern League Batting Leaders\\|url\\=https://www.baseball\\-reference.com/minors/leader.cgi?type\\=bat\\&id\\=13172\\&sort\\_by\\=H\\|work\\=Baseball\\-Reference.com\\|accessdate\\=15 September 2010}} Before the 2006 season, the Railcats re\\-signed Lentini.{{cite web\\|title\\=RailCats Retain Rights to 23 Players; Samuels Becomes Free Agent\\|url\\=http://www.oursportscentral.com/services/releases/?id\\=3236678\\|work\\=OurSports Central\\|date \\= 2 November 2005\\|accessdate\\=15 September 2010}}",
"### Winnipeg Goldeyes (2006–2008\\)",
"Before the 2006 season, the Gary Southshore Railcats traded Lentini to the [Winnipeg Goldeyes](/wiki/Winnipeg_Goldeyes \"Winnipeg Goldeyes\"), also of the Northern League.{{cite web\\|last\\=Wazny\\|first\\=Adam\\|title\\=Lentini time for the Fish\\|url\\=http://slam.canoe.ca/Slam/Baseball/News/2006/05/06/1567436\\-sun.html\\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20130115060653/http://slam.canoe.ca/Slam/Baseball/News/2006/05/06/1567436\\-sun.html\\|url\\-status\\=usurped\\|archive\\-date\\=January 15, 2013\\|work\\=Slam! Sports\\|accessdate\\=15 September 2010}} Winnipeg [manager](/wiki/Manager_%28baseball%29 \"Manager (baseball)\") Rick Forney was convinced to trade for Lentini by the team's [bench coach](/wiki/Bench_coach \"Bench coach\") Steve Maddock. He was selected for the 2006 Northern League All\\-Star Game.{{cite web\\|title\\=Northern League Awards\\|url\\=http://www.northernleague.com/internal.php?code\\=7\\|work\\=Northern League\\|accessdate\\=15 September 2010}} On the season, he batted .325 with 93 runs scored, 136 hits, 32 doubles, 13 triples, six home runs, 49 RBIs and 57 stolen bases in 96 games played. Lentini played all of his 96 games as an outfielder, committing six errors, five assists and 269 putouts. He led the league at\\-bats (418\\), triples and stolen bases; was second in [plate appearances](/wiki/Plate_appearances \"Plate appearances\") (452\\) runs scored, hits, doubles and total bases (212\\); and eighth in batting average.{{cite web\\|title\\=2006 Northern League Batting Leaders\\|url\\=https://www.baseball\\-reference.com/minors/leader.cgi?type\\=bat\\&id\\=13173\\&sort\\_by\\=TB\\|work\\=Baseball\\-Reference.com\\|accessdate\\=15 September 2010}} His 13 triples was a Northern League single\\-season record, breaking the previous record of 12 set by Justin Foust in 2005\\.{{cite web\\|title\\=Top 10 Batting\\|url\\=http://www.northernleague.com/internal.php?code\\=83\\|work\\=Northern League\\|accessdate\\=15 September 2010}} He also holds the league record for the second most stolen bases in a single\\-season. After the season, Lentini was named to *[Baseball America](/wiki/Baseball_America \"Baseball America\")'s* All\\-Independent League Second Team. In 2007, for the second straight season, Lentini was named to the Northern League All\\-Star Game. In May, he sprained his [ankle](/wiki/Sprained_ankle \"Sprained ankle\") while playing a pick\\-up [basketball](/wiki/Basketball \"Basketball\") game with a teammate while the game they were playing was under a [rain delay](/wiki/Rain_delay \"Rain delay\").{{cite web\\|last\\=Wazny\\|first\\=Adam\\|title\\=Lentini hobbled: Hoops horse play leads to twisted ankle for Goldeyes centre\\-fielder\\|url\\=http://slam.canoe.ca/Slam/Baseball/News/2007/05/23/4201752\\-sun.html\\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20120722105739/http://slam.canoe.ca/Slam/Baseball/News/2007/05/23/4201752\\-sun.html\\|url\\-status\\=usurped\\|archive\\-date\\=July 22, 2012\\|work\\=Sun Media\\|publisher\\=Slam! Sports\\|accessdate\\=15 September 2010\\|date\\=23 May 2007}} During the season, he batted .321 with 86 runs scored, 130 hits, 36 doubles, seven triples, 10 home runs, 54 RBIs and 42 stolen bases in 92 games played. He led the league in at\\-bats (405\\) and stolen bases, was second in runs scored and triples, fourth in total bases (210\\), and sixth in hits.{{cite web\\|title\\=2007 Northern League Batting Leaders\\|url\\=https://www.baseball\\-reference.com/minors/leader.cgi?type\\=bat\\&id\\=13174\\&sort\\_by\\=TB\\|work\\=Baseball\\-Reference.com\\|accessdate\\=15 September 2010}}",
"Lentini started the 2008 season with the [Potros de Tijuana](/wiki/Potros_de_Tijuana \"Potros de Tijuana\") of the [Triple\\-A](/wiki/Triple-A_%28baseball%29 \"Triple-A (baseball)\") [Mexican League](/wiki/Mexican_League \"Mexican League\"). After just 10 games, he batted .268 with four runs scored, 11 hits, four doubles and five RBIs. Tijuana then released him.{{cite web\\|last\\=Cariou\\|first\\=Chris\\|title\\=Lentini glad to trade Mexico for Fish\\|url\\=http://findarticles.com/p/news\\-articles/winnipeg\\-free\\-press/mi\\_8029/is\\_20080405/lentini\\-glad\\-trade\\-mexico\\-fish/ai\\_n42615679/\\|work\\=Winnipeg Free Press\\|publisher\\=CBS Interactive\\|accessdate\\=15 September 2010\\|date\\=5 April 2008}} {{Dead link\\|date\\=October 2010\\|bot\\=H3llBot}} Scheduled to return to Winnipeg for the start of the Northern League season, Lentini was forced to stay in [Mexico](/wiki/Mexico \"Mexico\") until Potros de Tijuana paid him his salary. He later returned to the Winnipeg Goldeyes in time for the start of the 2008 Northern League campaign. For the third straight season, Lentini was selected to play in the Northern League All\\-Star Game. With the Goldeyes that season, Lentini batted .298 with 71 runs scored, 125 hits, 27 doubles, eight triples, nine home runs, 39 RBIs and 37 stolen bases in 96 games played. Between the two clubs he played for in 2007, Lentini batted .295 with 75 runs scored, 136 hits, 31 doubles, eight triples, nine home runs, 44 RBIs and 38 stolen bases 106 games played. In the field between the two teams, he played all 106 games as an outfielder, committing 11 errors, four assists and 224 putouts. Lentini led the league that season in at\\-bats (451\\), triples and stolen basesp; was second in plate appearances (451\\) and hits; third in runs scored; and tied for seventh in doubles.{{cite web\\|title\\=2008 Northern League Batting Leaders\\|url\\=https://www.baseball\\-reference.com/minors/leader.cgi?type\\=bat\\&id\\=14907\\&sort\\_by\\=SB\\|work\\=Baseball\\-Reference.com\\|accessdate\\=15 September 2010}}",
"### Calgary Vipers, second tenure (2009\\)",
"Lentini began the 2009 season with the [Tecolotes de Nuevo Laredo](/wiki/Tecolotes_de_Nuevo_Laredo \"Tecolotes de Nuevo Laredo\") of the Triple\\-A Mexican League. In 22 games Nuevo Laredo, he batted .266 with 14 runs scored, 25 hits, six doubles, two triples, two home runs, 11 RBIs and four stolen bases. On May 17, 2009, the Lentini signed with the [Calgary Vipers](/wiki/Calgary_Vipers \"Calgary Vipers\"), who he had played with in 2005\\.{{cite web\\|title\\=Transactions\\|url\\=http://www.goldenbaseball.com/subcontent.aspx?SecID\\=849\\|work\\=Golden Baseball League\\|accessdate\\=16 September 2010\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archiveurl\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20101125210150/http://www.goldenbaseball.com/subcontent.aspx?SecID\\=849\\|archivedate\\=25 November 2010}} This time, the Vipers were members of the [Golden Baseball League](/wiki/Golden_Baseball_League \"Golden Baseball League\"). On June 11, it was announced that Lentini was the Golden Baseball League's Player of the Week for the week of June 1 to June 7 after batting .545 in five games.{{cite web\\|title\\=Fehlandt Lentini Named GBL Player of the Week\\|url\\=http://www.oursportscentral.com/services/releases/?id\\=3840059\\|work\\=OurSports Central\\|date \\= 11 June 2009\\|accessdate\\=16 September 2010}} He was selected to the Golden Baseball League's All\\-Star Game that season. As a member of the North team, Lentini beat [Jim Rushford](/wiki/Jim_Rushford \"Jim Rushford\") of the South in the league's [home run derby](/wiki/Home_run_derby \"Home run derby\").{{cite web\\|title\\=North Wins GBL All\\-Star Game as Two Players are Signed by MLB Teams\\|url\\=http://www.oursportscentral.com/services/releases/?id\\=3864120\\|work\\=OurSports Central\\|date \\= 15 July 2009\\|accessdate\\=16 September 2010}} Lentini was the [leadoff hitter](/wiki/Leadoff_hitter \"Leadoff hitter\") in the all\\-star game. During his first at\\-bat of that game, he hit a home run off of South pitcher [José Lima](/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Lima \"José Lima\").{{cite web\\|last\\=Weiler\\|first\\=Ron\\|title\\=North wins GBL All\\-Star game, Scorps have good showing\\|url\\=http://www.yumasun.com/sports/north\\-51472\\-game\\-star.html\\|work\\=YumaSun.com\\|publisher\\=Freedom Communications, Inc\\|accessdate\\=16 September 2010\\|date\\=14 July 2009\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archiveurl\\=http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20090716034128/http://www.yumasun.com/sports/north\\-51472\\-game\\-star.html\\|archivedate\\=16 July 2009}} On the season with the Vipers, Lentini batted .366 with 98 runs scored, 122 hits, 33 doubles, three triples, 11 home runs, 57 RBIs and 33 stolen bases in 74 games played. The Vipers won the Golden Baseball League championship that season.",
"### Na Koa Ikaika Maui (2010\\)",
"On February 24, 2010, Lentini signed with the [Na Koa Ikaika Maui](/wiki/Na_Koa_Ikaika_Maui \"Na Koa Ikaika Maui\"), who like his last team were members of the Golden Baseball League. On his 33{{sup\\|rd}} birthday, Lentini hit his tenth home run of the season.{{cite web\\|last\\=Collias\\|first\\=Robert\\|title\\=Brandt picks up 10th win as Maui downs Yuma 6\\-1\\|url\\=http://www.mauinews.com/page/content.detail/id/534378\\.html?nav\\=11\\|work\\=The Maui News\\|accessdate\\=16 September 2010\\|date\\=13 August 2010}} On the season, he batted .299 with 70 runs scored, 86 hits, 24 doubles, four triples, 13 home runs, 30 RBIs and 28 walks in 74 games played. Lentini also pitched a game, giving\\-up two [hits](/wiki/Hit_%28baseball%29 \"Hit (baseball)\") and no runs in one [inning pitched](/wiki/Innings_pitched \"Innings pitched\"). During the Golden Baseball League playoffs, he batted .303 with 10 runs scored, 10 hits, four doubles, one triple and two RBIs in eight games played.",
"### Amarillo Sox and Winnipeg Goldeyes (2011\\)",
"Lentini signed with the [Amarillo Sox](/wiki/Amarillo_Sox \"Amarillo Sox\") of the [American Association](/wiki/American_Association_of_Independent_Professional_Baseball \"American Association of Independent Professional Baseball\") for the 2011 season. Over 71 games for the Sox, Lentini hit .324 with four home runs, seven triples and 30 doubles while driving in 56 runs. Lentini finished the season with the [Winnipeg Goldeyes](/wiki/Winnipeg_Goldeyes \"Winnipeg Goldeyes\") after signing with them in early August.",
"### Lancaster Barnstomers (2012\\)",
"In 2012, Lentini made his [Atlantic League](/wiki/Atlantic_League_of_Professional_Baseball \"Atlantic League of Professional Baseball\") for the [Lancaster Barnstormers](/wiki/Lancaster_Barnstormers \"Lancaster Barnstormers\"). Lentini would log 136 games played with Barnstormers, where he placed among many of the Atlantic League league leaders. The Santa Rosa native led the Atlantic League in runs scored (98\\), at bats (539\\) and plate appearances (583\\). Lentini placed second in runs batted (92\\), third in doubles (36\\)and stolen bases (32\\). He also placed fifth in batting with a .319 average. With the Barnstormers, he also hit a career high 19 home runs. Lentini was also named 2012 Atlantic League All\\-Star game Most Valuable player after going two\\-for\\-threewith a walk and scoring the winning run when the Freedom Division ralied for six runs in the ninth inning to beat the Liberty Division 9–5\\.{{cite web\\|title\\=Lentini Atlantic League All\\-Star MVP\\|url\\=https://lancasteronline.com/sports/lentini\\-atlantic\\-league\\-all\\-star\\-mvp/article\\_262c595d\\-e5a3\\-5cbb\\-b991\\-04199bba3049\\.html\\|work\\=lancasteronline.com\\|date \\= 12 July 2012}}",
"### Winnipeg Goldeyes (2013\\)",
"Lentini would return to the Goldeyes in 2013 where he would play 97 games holding a .271 average while hitting seven home runs, 26 doubles and driving in 45 runs.",
"### Long Island Ducks (2014\\)",
"In 2014, Lentini would make his [Long Island Ducks](/wiki/Long_Island_Ducks \"Long Island Ducks\") debut where he would lead the Atlantic League in plate appearances (649\\) and at bats (593\\). The 36\\-year\\-old would place second in hits (172\\) and (46\\)stolen bases with a perfect 46\\-for\\-46 ratio. He also placed third in games played (137\\), runs scored (96\\) and fourth in doubles with (36\\).",
"### Sonoma Stompers (2015\\)",
"On February 15, Lentini was named player manager of the [Sonoma Stompers](/wiki/Sonoma_Stompers \"Sonoma Stompers\") of the [Pacific Association](/wiki/Pacific_Association \"Pacific Association\").{{cite web\\|title\\=Stompers Sign Fehlandt Lentini as player\\-manager\\|url\\=http://www.stompersbaseball.com/news/stompers\\-sign\\-sonoma\\-high\\-grad\\-fehlandt\\-lentini\\-as\\-player\\-manager\\|work\\=stompersbaseball.com\\|date \\= 19 February 2015}} After winning the first half of the season, Lentini was let go. Lentini logged 32 games played with the Stompers and a .289 average while driving in 27 runs and scoring 26 of his own.",
"### Return to Long Island Ducks (2015\\-2017\\)",
"In late July, Lentini signed with the Ducks for the remainder of the 2015 season. In 48 games played, Lentini batted .291 with 21 rbis in 213 at bats.",
"In 2016, Lentini led the Atlantic League with (630\\) plate appearances, (571\\) at bats, (179\\) hits, runs (108\\), (42\\) doubles and tied for first with (140\\) games played. He'd also place top five in total bases (260\\), runs batted in (85\\), stolen bases (51\\), hit by pitches (10\\) and triples (6\\). On July 13, Lentini would play for the Liberty Division for the 2016 ALPB All\\-Star game, and nearly winning the league’s MVP award",
"In the 2017 season, Lentini was inserted as the starting right fielder and remained so for the first half of the season but was unable to repeat last years success and struggled batting .234 with three home runs and 15 runs batted in with 28 steals in 69 games played before being benched for younger players. Accustomed to starting and playing everyday, Lentini immediately demanded a trade or release in order find a starting job elsewhere. The Ducks refused and instead placed him on the teams inactive list. Lentini then went to the ballpark before the Ducks next home game and handed out fliers to fans asking them to demand his release. This resulted in his immediate suspension from the Ducks and the Atlantic League. He has not played professionally in any league since.",
"### Foreign Leagues",
"Lentini spent five seasons playing in the [Mexican League](/wiki/Mexican_League \"Mexican League\"), [Puerto Rican Winter League](/wiki/Puerto_Rican_Winter_League \"Puerto Rican Winter League\") and [Venezuelan Winter League](/wiki/Venezuelan_Winter_League \"Venezuelan Winter League\"). Over 107 games in the combined three leagues, Lentini batted .279 with 51 runs batted in, 59 runs scored, 26 doubles, 10 triples, four home runs and 16 stolen bases.",
"### Career milestones",
"Over 17 professional seasons, Lentini had 2,111 hits, 486 doubles, 97 triples, 134 home runs and 916 runs batted in. In 1,713 career games played, Lentini held a .303 average and had 576 stolen bases with a career stolen base percentage of 84\\.2%.",
"### Coaching",
"From 2018 to 2021, Lentini was the hitting and bench coach for the [Medicine Hat Mavericks](/wiki/Medicine_Hat_Mavericks \"Medicine Hat Mavericks\") of the [Western Canadian Baseball League](/wiki/Western_Canadian_Baseball_League \"Western Canadian Baseball League\").",
""
] |
Biography
---------
He studied at the Lycée impérial de [Limoges](/wiki/Limoges "Limoges"){{Cite book\|language\=fr \|author\=Société d'hygiène publique, industrielle et sociale \|title\=Annales d'hygiène publique, industrielle et sociale \|publisher\=J.\-B. Baillière et fils \|location\=Paris \|date\=1866 \|volume\=75 \|pages\=463–475 \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=dOE0rapfhFQC \|access\-date\=2020\-10\-27}} and then at the Hôpital Saint\-Alexis de Limoges, where he was appointed a resident in 1815\.{{Cite web\|language\=fr \|url\=https://cths.fr/an/savant.php?id\=570\# \|title\=François Mêlier \|author\=Jules Bergeron, Alexandre Wauthier \|website\=cths.fr \|publisher\= Comité des travaux historiques et scientifiques \|access\-date\=2020\-10\-27}}
In 1817, he enrolled in the [Faculté de médecine de Paris](/wiki/Facult%C3%A9_de_m%C3%A9decine_de_Paris "Faculté de médecine de Paris") where he obtained the double title of [intern](/wiki/Internship_%28medicine%29 "Internship (medicine)") and hospital laureate. He passed his thesis on 19 June 1823\. In 1827, he opened a course in political or public medicine at the [Athénée](/wiki/Atheneum_%28school%29 "Atheneum (school)") royal de Paris, a title under which he combined [public hygiene](/wiki/Public_hygiene "Public hygiene") and [forensic medicine](/wiki/Forensic_medicine "Forensic medicine"). He combined the notions of [contagion](/wiki/Contagious_disease "Contagious disease") and [contamination](/wiki/Contamination "Contamination") as well as [prevention](/wiki/Prevention_science "Prevention science") with [isolation](/wiki/Isolation_%28health_care%29 "Isolation (health care)") and [hygiene](/wiki/Hygiene "Hygiene") rules. The Mêlier course was a great success and on 2 May 1843, he was elected to the [Académie Nationale de Médecine](/wiki/Acad%C3%A9mie_Nationale_de_M%C3%A9decine "Académie Nationale de Médecine").
In 1845, under the threat of a [plague](/wiki/Plague_%28disease%29 "Plague (disease)") epidemic, Mêlier was asked by the Académie to publish a report in order to prevent the epidemic from reaching France. In August 1848, Mêlier was appointed a full member of the Higher Hygiene Committee and [Charles Gilbert Tourret](/wiki/Charles_Gilbert_Tourret "Charles Gilbert Tourret"), Minister of Agriculture and Trade, entrusted him with the task of organising health councils in the [departments](/wiki/Department_%28administrative_division%29 "Department (administrative division)"). He went to [Roubaix](/wiki/Roubaix "Roubaix"), then to [Dunkirk](/wiki/Dunkirk "Dunkirk") where there was an epidemic of [typhoid fever](/wiki/Typhoid_fever "Typhoid fever"); in 1849, he went to the [Somme](/wiki/Somme_%28department%29 "Somme (department)") to follow an epidemic of [suet](/wiki/Suet "Suet"); called back to Paris by the outbreak of [cholera](/wiki/Cholera "Cholera"), he received a mission from the minister to visit hospitals every day and report to him on the situation. He went to [Roubaix](/wiki/Roubaix "Roubaix"), then to [Dunkirk](/wiki/Dunkirk "Dunkirk") where there was an epidemic of [typhoid fever](/wiki/Typhoid_fever "Typhoid fever"); in 1849, he went to the [Somme](/wiki/Somme_%28department%29 "Somme (department)") to follow an epidemic of [suet](/wiki/Suet "Suet"); called back to Paris by the outbreak of [cholera](/wiki/Cholera "Cholera"), he received a mission from the minister to visit hospitals and penitentiaries every day and report to him on the situation.
In 1850, following a local conflict, [Dumas](/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Dumas "Jean-Baptiste Dumas"), Minister of Agriculture and Trade, appointed Mêlier as extraordinary Commissioner of the health service of [Marseille](/wiki/Marseille "Marseille") and the entire Mediterranean coast,{{cite web \|language\=fr \|title\=L'Hôpital Caroline par le Professeur Georges François\|url\=http://patrimoinemedical.univmed.fr/articles/article\_hopitalcaroline\_v2\.pdf \|agency\=Association des Amis du Patrimoine Médical de Marseille (A.A.P.M.M.) \|website\= patrimoinemedical.univmed.fr \|access\-date\=27 October 2020 }} then in 1854, Inspector General of Sanitary Services. He had a new [Lazaret](/wiki/Lazaret "Lazaret") installed on the [Frioul archipelago](/wiki/Frioul_archipelago "Frioul archipelago"), in the old hospital of [Ratonneau](/wiki/Ratonneau "Ratonneau").
Mêlier was at the origin of the first International Health Conference, of which he was reserved the right to take the top leadership. The first meeting of the conference took place on 27 July 1851; twelve countries had responded to the call of the French government.
In 1864, Mêlier was sent to [Turin](/wiki/Turin "Turin") to prepare a health convention between France and Italy. In 1866, when cholera broke out in [Amiens](/wiki/Amiens "Amiens"), he went there with the minister to organise relief. Finally, in August 1866, he left for [Corsica](/wiki/Corsica "Corsica") with a mission to inspect the island's health service. On 2 September 1866 he returned to Marseille and found the minister there, to whom he reported on his mission. On 6 September, accompanied by the Director of Health, he went to the lazaret of Ratonneau in the oppressive heat; on the morning of the 7th he suffered a [stroke](/wiki/Stroke "Stroke") and after regaining consciousness for a few days, on 14 September, his condition worsened and on 16 September Mêlier died.
|
[
"Biography\n---------",
"He studied at the Lycée impérial de [Limoges](/wiki/Limoges \"Limoges\"){{Cite book\\|language\\=fr \\|author\\=Société d'hygiène publique, industrielle et sociale \\|title\\=Annales d'hygiène publique, industrielle et sociale \\|publisher\\=J.\\-B. Baillière et fils \\|location\\=Paris \\|date\\=1866 \\|volume\\=75 \\|pages\\=463–475 \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=dOE0rapfhFQC \\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-10\\-27}} and then at the Hôpital Saint\\-Alexis de Limoges, where he was appointed a resident in 1815\\.{{Cite web\\|language\\=fr \\|url\\=https://cths.fr/an/savant.php?id\\=570\\# \\|title\\=François Mêlier \\|author\\=Jules Bergeron, Alexandre Wauthier \\|website\\=cths.fr \\|publisher\\= Comité des travaux historiques et scientifiques \\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-10\\-27}}",
"In 1817, he enrolled in the [Faculté de médecine de Paris](/wiki/Facult%C3%A9_de_m%C3%A9decine_de_Paris \"Faculté de médecine de Paris\") where he obtained the double title of [intern](/wiki/Internship_%28medicine%29 \"Internship (medicine)\") and hospital laureate. He passed his thesis on 19 June 1823\\. In 1827, he opened a course in political or public medicine at the [Athénée](/wiki/Atheneum_%28school%29 \"Atheneum (school)\") royal de Paris, a title under which he combined [public hygiene](/wiki/Public_hygiene \"Public hygiene\") and [forensic medicine](/wiki/Forensic_medicine \"Forensic medicine\"). He combined the notions of [contagion](/wiki/Contagious_disease \"Contagious disease\") and [contamination](/wiki/Contamination \"Contamination\") as well as [prevention](/wiki/Prevention_science \"Prevention science\") with [isolation](/wiki/Isolation_%28health_care%29 \"Isolation (health care)\") and [hygiene](/wiki/Hygiene \"Hygiene\") rules. The Mêlier course was a great success and on 2 May 1843, he was elected to the [Académie Nationale de Médecine](/wiki/Acad%C3%A9mie_Nationale_de_M%C3%A9decine \"Académie Nationale de Médecine\").",
"In 1845, under the threat of a [plague](/wiki/Plague_%28disease%29 \"Plague (disease)\") epidemic, Mêlier was asked by the Académie to publish a report in order to prevent the epidemic from reaching France. In August 1848, Mêlier was appointed a full member of the Higher Hygiene Committee and [Charles Gilbert Tourret](/wiki/Charles_Gilbert_Tourret \"Charles Gilbert Tourret\"), Minister of Agriculture and Trade, entrusted him with the task of organising health councils in the [departments](/wiki/Department_%28administrative_division%29 \"Department (administrative division)\"). He went to [Roubaix](/wiki/Roubaix \"Roubaix\"), then to [Dunkirk](/wiki/Dunkirk \"Dunkirk\") where there was an epidemic of [typhoid fever](/wiki/Typhoid_fever \"Typhoid fever\"); in 1849, he went to the [Somme](/wiki/Somme_%28department%29 \"Somme (department)\") to follow an epidemic of [suet](/wiki/Suet \"Suet\"); called back to Paris by the outbreak of [cholera](/wiki/Cholera \"Cholera\"), he received a mission from the minister to visit hospitals every day and report to him on the situation. He went to [Roubaix](/wiki/Roubaix \"Roubaix\"), then to [Dunkirk](/wiki/Dunkirk \"Dunkirk\") where there was an epidemic of [typhoid fever](/wiki/Typhoid_fever \"Typhoid fever\"); in 1849, he went to the [Somme](/wiki/Somme_%28department%29 \"Somme (department)\") to follow an epidemic of [suet](/wiki/Suet \"Suet\"); called back to Paris by the outbreak of [cholera](/wiki/Cholera \"Cholera\"), he received a mission from the minister to visit hospitals and penitentiaries every day and report to him on the situation.",
"In 1850, following a local conflict, [Dumas](/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Dumas \"Jean-Baptiste Dumas\"), Minister of Agriculture and Trade, appointed Mêlier as extraordinary Commissioner of the health service of [Marseille](/wiki/Marseille \"Marseille\") and the entire Mediterranean coast,{{cite web \\|language\\=fr \\|title\\=L'Hôpital Caroline par le Professeur Georges François\\|url\\=http://patrimoinemedical.univmed.fr/articles/article\\_hopitalcaroline\\_v2\\.pdf \\|agency\\=Association des Amis du Patrimoine Médical de Marseille (A.A.P.M.M.) \\|website\\= patrimoinemedical.univmed.fr \\|access\\-date\\=27 October 2020 }} then in 1854, Inspector General of Sanitary Services. He had a new [Lazaret](/wiki/Lazaret \"Lazaret\") installed on the [Frioul archipelago](/wiki/Frioul_archipelago \"Frioul archipelago\"), in the old hospital of [Ratonneau](/wiki/Ratonneau \"Ratonneau\").",
"Mêlier was at the origin of the first International Health Conference, of which he was reserved the right to take the top leadership. The first meeting of the conference took place on 27 July 1851; twelve countries had responded to the call of the French government.",
"In 1864, Mêlier was sent to [Turin](/wiki/Turin \"Turin\") to prepare a health convention between France and Italy. In 1866, when cholera broke out in [Amiens](/wiki/Amiens \"Amiens\"), he went there with the minister to organise relief. Finally, in August 1866, he left for [Corsica](/wiki/Corsica \"Corsica\") with a mission to inspect the island's health service. On 2 September 1866 he returned to Marseille and found the minister there, to whom he reported on his mission. On 6 September, accompanied by the Director of Health, he went to the lazaret of Ratonneau in the oppressive heat; on the morning of the 7th he suffered a [stroke](/wiki/Stroke \"Stroke\") and after regaining consciousness for a few days, on 14 September, his condition worsened and on 16 September Mêlier died.",
""
] |
History
-------
{{pic\|MIPS Computer Systems logo color.svg\|Logo of MIPS Computer Systems}}
MIPS Computer Systems Inc. was founded in 1984Junko Yoshida, EE Times. "[New CEO Sandeep Vij forms 'Team MIPS'](https://web.archive.org/web/20160822230314/http://www.eetimes.com/document.asp?doc_id=1172974)." February 7, 2010\. Retrieved June 2, 2020\. by a group of researchers from [Stanford University](/wiki/Stanford_University "Stanford University") including [John L. Hennessy](/wiki/John_L._Hennessy "John L. Hennessy") and [Chris Rowen](/wiki/Chris_Rowen "Chris Rowen"). These researchers had worked on a project called [MIPS](/wiki/Stanford_MIPS "Stanford MIPS") (for *Microprocessor without Interlocked Pipeline Stages*), one of the projects that pioneered the RISC concept. Other principal founders were Skip Stritter, formerly a Motorola technologist, and John Moussouris, formerly of IBM.James DeTar, Investors Business Daily. "[Panel: Information Technology Still Early Stage](http://blogs.investors.com/click/index.php/home/60-tech/2037-panel-information-technology-still-early-stage) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120401051611/http://blogs.investors.com/click/index.php/home/60\-tech/2037\-panel\-information\-technology\-still\-early\-stage \|date\=April 1, 2012 }}." October 6, 2010\. Retrieved September 16, 2011\.
The initial CEO was Vaemond Crane, formerly President and CEO of [Computer Consoles Inc.](/wiki/Computer_Consoles_Inc. "Computer Consoles Inc."), who arrived in February 1985 and departed in June 1989\. He was replaced by Bob Miller, a former senior IBM and Data General executive. Miller ran the company through its IPO and subsequent sale to Silicon Graphics.
In 1986, MIPS Computer Systems designs were noticed by companies such as Cadnetix, [Prime Computer](/wiki/Prime_Computer "Prime Computer") and [Silicon Graphics](/wiki/Silicon_Graphics "Silicon Graphics") (SGI), these adopting the [R2000](/wiki/R2000_%28microprocessor%29 "R2000 (microprocessor)") for new products, with SGI adopting the MIPS architecture for its computers having noted that the Motorola 68000 series of processors was "at the end of its price\-performance curve".{{ cite magazine \| url\=https://archive.org/details/sim\_electronic\-business\_1986\-11\-15\_12\_22/page/110/mode/2up \| title\=MIPS Computer targets RISC chips for workstations \| magazine\=Electronic Business \| last1\=Hayashi \| first1\=Alden M. \| date\=15 November 1986 \| access\-date\=22 June 2022 \| pages\=110–111 }} Identifying the "time\-to\-market issues" of companies introducing workstation products, MIPS introduced a range of component kits, processor boards and memory boards, intended as "building blocks" for such companies to build into systems. Additionally, development systems such as the M/500 were sold, intended to support software development at systems vendors building MIPS\-based hardware products.{{ cite magazine \| url\=https://archive.org/details/sim\_unix\-review\_1986\-05\_4\_5/page/6/mode/1up \| title\=The Monthly Report \| magazine\=UNIX Review \| date\=May 1986 \| access\-date\=25 June 2022 \| last1\=Chandler \| first1\=David \| pages\=6,9,11\-15 }} In December 1989, MIPS held its first [IPO](/wiki/Initial_public_offering "Initial public offering"). That year, [Digital Equipment Corporation](/wiki/Digital_Equipment_Corporation "Digital Equipment Corporation") (DEC) released a [Unix workstation](/wiki/Unix_workstation "Unix workstation") based on the MIPS design.
After developing the R2000 and [R3000](/wiki/R3000 "R3000") microprocessors, a management change brought along the larger dreams of being a computer vendor. The company found itself unable to compete in the computer market against much larger companies and was struggling to support the costs of developing both the chips and the systems ([MIPS Magnum](/wiki/MIPS_Magnum "MIPS Magnum")). To secure the supply of future generations of MIPS microprocessors (the 64\-bit [R4000](/wiki/R4000 "R4000")), SGI acquired the company in 1992PC Magazine. "[SGI](https://www.pcmag.com/encyclopedia_term/0,2542,t=SGI&i=51221,00.asp)." Retrieved September 19, 2011\. for $333 millionComputer History Museum. "[Silicon Graphics Professional IRIS 4D/50GT](http://www.computerhistory.org/revolution/story/219)." Retrieved September 19, 2011\.{{cite magazine\|first\=Cate \|last\=Corcoran \|date\=March 16, 1992 \|title\=MIPS, Silicon merger could kill ACE/ARC \|magazine\=InfoWorld \|pages\=1,107 \|access\-date\=September 19, 2011 \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=3D0EAAAAMBAJ\&pg\=PA1 \|volume\=14 \|issue\=11}} and renamed it as MIPS Technologies Inc., a wholly owned subsidiary of SGI.
{{pic\|MIPS RISC Certified Power logo.svg\|upright\=0\.5\|caption\=MIPS RISC Certified Power emblem}}
During SGI's ownership of MIPS, the company introduced the [R8000](/wiki/R8000 "R8000") in 1994 and the [R10000](/wiki/R10000 "R10000")Linley Gwenapp, Microprocessor Report. "[MIPS R10000 Uses Decoupled Architecture](https://www.cs.cmu.edu/afs/cs.cmu.edu/academic/class/15740-f97/public/platform/r10000.pdf)." Vol. 8, No. 14, October 24, 1994\. Retrieved September 19, 2011\. in 1996 and a follow\-up the [R12000](/wiki/R12000 "R12000") in 1997\.Linley Gwenapp, Microprocessor Report. "[MIPS R12000 to Hit 300 MHz](http://studies.ac.upc.edu/ETSETB/SEGPAR/microprocessors/r12000%20(mpr).pdf)." Vol. 11, No. 13, October 6, 1997\. Retrieved September 19, 2011\. During this time, two future microprocessors code\-named *The Beast* and *Capitan* were in development; these were cancelled after SGI decided to migrate to the [Itanium](/wiki/Itanium "Itanium") architectureStephen Shankland, ZDNet. "[Itanium: A cautionary tale](https://web.archive.org/web/20080209211056/http://news.zdnet.com/2100-9584-5984747.html)." December 7, 2005\. Retrieved September 19, 2011\. in 1998\.Michael Kanellos and Dawn Kawamoto, CNET. "[Silicon Graphics scraps MIPS plans](http://news.cnet.com/Silicon-Graphics-scraps-MIPS-plans/2100-1001_3-210024.html)." April 9, 1998\. Retrieved September 19, 2011\. As a result, MIPS was spun out as an intellectual property licensing company, offering licences to the MIPS architecture as well as microprocessor core designs.
On June 30, 1998, MIPS held an IPO after raising about {{US$\|long\=no\|16\.3 million}} with an offering price of {{US$\|long\=no\|14}} a share.{{cite news\|first\=Om \|last\=Malik \|newspaper\=Forbes \|url\=https://www.forbes.com/1998/12/02/feat.html \|title\=Can MIPS beat ARM? \|date\=December 2, 1998 \|access\-date\=September 19, 2011}}Debora Vrana, Los Angeles Times. "[June IPOs Were Not so Hot, but Summer Is Still Young](https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1998-jul-06-fi-1209-story.html)." July 6, 1998\. Retrieved September 20, 2011\.Crag Bicknell, WIRED. "[MIPS Slips in IPO](https://www.wired.com/techbiz/media/news/1998/07/13376)." July 1, 1998\. Retrieved September 19, 2011\. In 1999, SGI announced it would overhaul its operations; it planned to continue introducing new MIPS processors until 2002, but its server business would include Intel's processor architectures as well.Margaret Quan, EE Times. "[SGI to shed Cray, shift OS focus to Linux](http://www.eetimes.com/electronics-news/4038666/SGI-to-shed-Cray-shift-OS-focus-to-Linux)." August 10, 1999\. Retrieved September 20, 2011\. SGI spun MIPS out completely on June 20, 2000 by distributing all its interest as stock dividend to the stockholders.
In early 2008 MIPS laid off 28 employees from its processor business group. On August 13, 2008, MIPS announced a loss of $108\.5 million for their fiscal fourth\-quarter and that they would lay off another 15% of their workforce. At the time MIPS had 512 employees.Suzanne Deffree, EDN News, "[MIPS plans 15% layoff on $108\.5M loss](https://archive.today/20130121210558/http://www.edn.com/article/472148-MIPS_plans_15_layoff_on_108_5M_loss.php)." August 14, 2008\. Retrieved March 4, 2012\. In May 2018, according to the company's presence on LinkedIn, there may be less than 50 employees.
### Notable Contributors
Notable people who have worked at MIPS include [James Billmaier](/wiki/James_Billmaier "James Billmaier"),VentureBeat Profiles. "[Jim Billmaier](http://venturebeatprofiles.com/person/profile/jim-billmaier)." Retrieved September 20, 2011\. [Steve Blank](/wiki/Steve_Blank "Steve Blank"),UC Berkeley Haas School of Business. "[Steve G. Blank](http://www2.haas.berkeley.edu/Faculty/blank_steve.aspx) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110904152650/http://www2\.haas.berkeley.edu/Faculty/blank\_steve.aspx \|date\=September 4, 2011 }}." Retrieved September 20, 2011\. Joseph DiNucci,VentureBeat Profiles. "[Joe DiNucci](http://widget.venturebeatprofiles.com/person/profile/joe-dinucci)." Retrieved September 20, 2011\. [John L. Hennessy](/wiki/John_L._Hennessy "John L. Hennessy"),IEEE Computer Society. "[John L. Hennessy: 2001 Eckert\-Mauchly Award Recipient](http://www.computer.org/portal/web/awards/eckerthennesy) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110815212900/http://www.computer.org/portal/web/awards/eckerthennesy \|date\=August 15, 2011 }}." Retrieved September 20, 2011\.
[Todd Bezenek](/wiki/Todd_Bezenek "Todd Bezenek"),ARM Finance Overseas Ltd. "[System and method for managing the design and configuration of an integrated circuit semiconductor design](https://patents.google.com/patent/US20080222580A1/en)" 2017\.
[David Hitz](/wiki/David_Hitz "David Hitz"),Joe Kovar, CRN. "[2010 Storage Superstars](http://www.crn.com/news/storage/225700751/2010-storage-superstars.htm;jsessionid=eV3HAPom6qv7wkAid6EACg**.ecappj03?pgno=2) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120922010817/http://www.crn.com/news/storage/225700751/2010\-storage\-superstars.htm;jsessionid\=eV3HAPom6qv7wkAid6EACg\*\*.ecappj03?pgno\=2 \|date\=September 22, 2012 }}." June 21, 2010\. Retrieved September 20, 2011\. Earl Killian,{{cite news\|url\=http://www.paravirtual.com/content/company/advisory\_board.htm\|title\=Earl Killian\|date\=November 26, 2010\|access\-date\=November 26, 2010\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120213131715/http://www.paravirtual.com/content/company/advisory\_board.htm\|archive\-date\=February 13, 2012\|publisher\=Paravirtual}}{{cite news\|url\=http://www.cs.clemson.edu/\~mark/s1\_alumni.html\|title\=S\-1 Supercomputer Alumni: Earl Killian\|date\=June 28, 2005\|access\-date\=November 26, 2010\|publisher\=Clemson University\|quote\=Earl Killian's ... MIPS's Director of Architecture ...}} Dan Levin,BusinessWeek Profiles. "[Dan Levin](https://web.archive.org/web/20121015221051/http://investing.businessweek.com/research/stocks/private/person.asp?personId=591174&privcapId=127144850&previousCapId=127144850&previousTitle=Campus%20Sponsorship,%20Inc.)." Retrieved September 20, 2011\. [John Mashey](/wiki/John_Mashey "John Mashey"),Computer History Museum. "[John Mashey](http://www.computerhistory.org/trustee/John,Mashey/) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20111113021428/http://www.computerhistory.org/trustee/John,Mashey/ \|date\=November 13, 2011 }}." Retrieved September 20, 2011\. John P. McCaskey, Bob Miller,Computer History Museum. "[Bob Miller](http://www.computerhistory.org/events/bio/Bob,Miller)." Retrieved September 20, 2011\. [Stratton Sclavos](/wiki/Stratton_Sclavos "Stratton Sclavos"),Forbes. "[Stratton D. Sclavos](https://web.archive.org/web/20111102160930/http://people.forbes.com/profile/stratton-d-sclavos/45146)." Retrieved September 20, 2011\. and [Skip Stritter](/wiki/Skip_Stritter "Skip Stritter").Computer History Museum. "[Skip Stritter](http://www.computerhistory.org/events/bio/Skip,Stritter)." Retrieved September 20, 2011\.
In 2010, Sandeep Vij was named CEO of MIPS Technologies.Junko Yoshida, EE Times. "[New CEO Sandeep Vij forms ‘Team MIPS’](http://www.eetimes.com/electronics-news/4087512/New-CEO-Sandeep-Vij-forms-Team-MIPS-)." February 7, 2010\. Retrieved September 20, 2011\. Vij studied under John Hennessy as a Stanford University graduate student. Prior to taking over at MIPS, Vij was an executive at [Cavium Networks](/wiki/Cavium_Networks "Cavium Networks"), [Xilinx](/wiki/Xilinx "Xilinx") and [Altera](/wiki/Altera "Altera").Peter Clarke, EE Times. "[MIPS Appoints Former Cavium Exec as CEO MIPS](http://www.eetimes.com/electronics-news/4087161/MIPS-appoints-former-Cavium-exec-as-CEO)." January 25, 2010\. Retrieved September 20, 2011\.
*EE Times* reported that MIPS had 150 employees as of November 1, 2010\.Junko Yoshida, EE Times, "[MIPS CEO: Companies need to have a soul](http://www.eetimes.com/electronics-news/4210278/MIPS-CEO---Companies-need-to-have-a-soul-)". November 1, 2010\. Retrieved March 4, 2012\. If the August 14, 2008 EDN article was accurate about MIPS having over 500 employees at the time, then MIPS reduced their total workforce by 70% between 2008 and 2010\.
{{pic\|MIPS by Imagination logo.jpg\|upright\=0\.5\|MIPS branding as used by \[\[Imagination Technologies]]}}
In addition to its main [R\&D](/wiki/R%26D "R&D") center in [Sunnyvale, California](/wiki/Sunnyvale%2C_California "Sunnyvale, California"),Hoovers. "[MIPS Technologies](http://www.hoovers.com/company/MIPS_Technologies_Inc/hjxfci-1.html)." Retrieved September 20, 2011\. MIPS has engineering facilities in [Shanghai](/wiki/Shanghai "Shanghai"), [China](/wiki/China "China"), [Beaverton, Oregon](/wiki/Beaverton%2C_Oregon "Beaverton, Oregon"), [Bristol](/wiki/Bristol "Bristol") and [Kings Langley](/wiki/Kings_Langley "Kings Langley"), both in [England](/wiki/England "England").Colleen Taylor, EDN. "[MIPS plans HQ in Silicon Forest](https://archive.today/20120728122159/http://www.edn.com/article/459759-MIPS_plans_HQ_in_Silicon_Forest.php)." March 13, 2007\. Retrieved September 20, 2011\. It also has offices in Hsin\-chu, [Taiwan](/wiki/Taiwan "Taiwan"); [Tokyo, Japan](/wiki/Tokyo%2C_Japan "Tokyo, Japan"); Remscheid, [Germany](/wiki/Germany "Germany") and [Haifa, Israel](/wiki/Haifa%2C_Israel "Haifa, Israel").Company Press Release. "[Synopsys Acquires Analog Business Group of MIPS Technologies](http://news.prnewswire.com/DisplayReleaseContent.aspx?ACCT=104&STORY=/www/story/05-08-2009/0005022377)." May 8, 2009\. Retrieved May 8, 2009\.
During the first quarter of 2013, 498 out of 580 of MIPS patents were sold to Bridge Crossing which was created by [Allied Security Trust](/wiki/Allied_Security_Trust "Allied Security Trust"), with all processor\-specific patents and the other parts of the company sold to [Imagination Technologies](/wiki/Imagination_Technologies "Imagination Technologies").[MIPS Selling All Assets For Combined $7\.31/Shr In Cash](https://www.forbes.com/sites/ericsavitz/2012/11/06/mips-selling-all-assets-for-combined-7-31shr-in-cash/). Forbes. Retrieved on May 23, 2014\. Imagination had outbid [Ceva Inc](/wiki/Ceva_%28semiconductor_company%29 "Ceva (semiconductor company)") to buy MIPS with an offer of $100 million,{{cite news\|url\=http://www.businessweek.com/ap/2012\-12\-17/imagination\-tech\-to\-buy\-mips\-tech\-for\-100m\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121222005943/http://www.businessweek.com/ap/2012\-12\-17/imagination\-tech\-to\-buy\-mips\-tech\-for\-100m\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-date\=December 22, 2012\|title\=Imagination Tech to buy MIPS Tech for $100M\|agency\=Associated Press\|date\=December 17, 2012\|access\-date\=December 18, 2012}} and was investing to develop the architecture for the embedded processor market.
In 2017, under financial pressure itself, Imagination Technologies sold the MIPS processor business to a California\-based investment company, Tallwood Venture Capital. Tallwood in turn sold the business to Wave Computing in 2018, both of these companies reportedly having their origins with, or ownership links to, a co\-founder of [Chips and Technologies](/wiki/Chips_and_Technologies "Chips and Technologies") and [S3 Graphics](/wiki/S3_Graphics "S3 Graphics").{{ cite web \| url\=https://www.eejournal.com/article/loose\-lips\-sink\-mips/ \| title\=Loose Lips Sink MIPS \| website\=Electronic Engineering Journal \| date\=7 September 2020 \| access\-date\=5 September 2022 }} Despite the regulatory obstacles that had forced Imagination to divest itself of the MIPS business prior to its own acquisition by Canyon Bridge, bankruptcy proceedings for Wave Computing indicated that the company had in 2018 and 2019 transferred full licensing rights for the MIPS architecture for China, Hong Kong and Macau to CIP United, a Shanghai\-based company.{{ cite news \| url\=https://www.reuters.com/article/us\-usa\-china\-tech\-insight/tech\-war\-chronicles\-how\-a\-silicon\-valley\-chip\-pioneer\-landed\-in\-china\-idUSKBN25L15U \| title\=Tech war chronicles: How a Silicon Valley chip pioneer landed in China \| date\=15 August 2020 \| access\-date\=5 September 2022 \| last1\=Lee \| first1\=Jane Lanhee }}
In 2021, MIPS announced it would begin making chips based on the [RISC\-V](/wiki/RISC-V "RISC-V") architecture.{{Cite web \|date\=2021\-03\-08 \|title\=Wait, What? MIPS Becomes RISC\-V \|url\=https://www.eejournal.com/article/wait\-what\-mips\-becomes\-risc\-v/ \|access\-date\=2023\-08\-08 \|website\=EEJournal \|language\=en\-US}} In 2022, the company announced availability of its first RISC\-V CPU IP core, the eVocore P8700\.
In September 2023, MIPS named former [Texas Instruments](/wiki/Texas_Instruments "Texas Instruments") (TI) executive Sameer Wasson CEO. Wasson spent 18 years at TI, most recently as vice president, Business Unit (BU) Manager, Processors.{{Cite web \|last\=Hettinga \|first\=Wisse \|date\=2023\-09\-07 \|title\=MIPS to Drive RISC\-V Market Penetration and Innovation \|url\=https://www.eenewseurope.com/en/mips\-to\-drive\-risc\-v\-market\-penetration\-and\-innovation/ \|access\-date\=2023\-09\-08 \|website\=eeNews Europe \|language\=en\-US}}
### Company timeline
| Year | |
| --- | --- |
| 1981 | Dr. John Hennessy at Stanford University founds and leads [Stanford MIPS](/wiki/Stanford_MIPS "Stanford MIPS"), a research program aimed at building a microprocessor using RISC principles. |
| 1984 | MIPS Computer Systems, Inc. co\-founded by Dr. John Hennessy, [Skip Stritter](/wiki/Edward_P._Stritter "Edward P. Stritter"), and Dr. John Moussouris{{Cite web \|url\=http://silicongenesis.stanford.edu/transcripts/hennessy.htm \|title\=John Hennessy \|access\-date\=April 15, 2008 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120211143447/http://silicongenesis.stanford.edu/transcripts/hennessy.htm \|archive\-date\=February 11, 2012 \|url\-status\=dead }} |
| 1986 | First product ships: [R2000](/wiki/R2000_%28microprocessor%29 "R2000 (microprocessor)") microprocessor, Unix workstation, and optimizing compilers |
| 1988 | [R3000](/wiki/R3000 "R3000") microprocessor |
| 1989 | First IPO in November as MIPS Computer Systems with Bob Miller as CEO |
| 1991 | [R4000](/wiki/R4000 "R4000") microprocessor |
| 1992 | [SGI](/wiki/Silicon_Graphics "Silicon Graphics") acquires MIPS Computer Systems. Transforms it into internal MIPS Group, and then incorporates and renames it to MIPS Technologies, Inc. (a wholly owned subsidiary of SGI) |
| 1994 | [R8000](/wiki/R8000 "R8000") microprocessor |
| 1994 | Sony [PlayStation](/wiki/PlayStation_%28console%29 "PlayStation (console)") released, using an [R3000](/wiki/R3000 "R3000") CPU with custom GTE [coprocessor](/wiki/Coprocessor "Coprocessor") |
| 1996 | [R10000](/wiki/R10000 "R10000") microprocessor; [Nintendo 64](/wiki/Nintendo_64 "Nintendo 64") released, incorporating a cut down [R4300](/wiki/R4300 "R4300") processor. |
| 1998 | [Re\-IPO](/wiki/Reverse_IPO "Reverse IPO") as MIPS Technologies, Inc. |
| 1999 | Sony [PlayStation 2](/wiki/PlayStation_2 "PlayStation 2") released, using an [R5900](/wiki/R5900 "R5900") CPU with custom vector co\-processors |
| 2002 | Acquires Algorithmics Ltd, a UK\-based MIPS development hardware/software and consultancy company. |
| September 6, 2005 | Acquires First Silicon Solutions (FS2\), a Lake Oswego, Oregon company as a wholly owned subsidiary. FS2 specializes in silicon IP, design services and OCI (On\-Chip Instrumentation) development tools for programming, testing, debug and trace of embedded systems in SoC, SOPC, FPGA, ASSP and ASIC devices. |
| 2007 | MIPS Technologies acquires Portugal\-based mixed\-signal intellectual property company [Chipidea](/wiki/Chipidea "Chipidea") |
| February 2009 | MIPS Joins [Linux Foundation](/wiki/Linux_Foundation "Linux Foundation")TheLinuxFoundation.org. "[MIPS Technologies Joins Linux Foundation](http://www.linuxfoundation.org/news-media/announcements/2009/02/mips-technologies-joins-linux-foundation) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20101228111414/http://www.linuxfoundation.org/news\-media/announcements/2009/02/mips\-technologies\-joins\-linux\-foundation \|date\=December 28, 2010 }}." Retrieved August 12, 2011\. |
| May 8, 2009 | [Chipidea](/wiki/Chipidea "Chipidea") is sold to [Synopsys](/wiki/Synopsys "Synopsys"). |
| June 2009 | Android is ported to MIPSSteve Bush, ElectronicsWeekly.com. "[Google's Android marches onto MIPS processors](https://archive.today/20130123171000/http://www.electronicsweekly.com/Articles/2010/08/13/46204/googles-android-marches-onto-mips-processors.htm)." Retrieved August 12, 2011\. |
| September 30, 2009 | MIPS Technologies joins the [Open Handset Alliance](/wiki/Open_Handset_Alliance "Open Handset Alliance"){{cite web\|url\=http://www.mips.com/news\-events/newsroom/release\-archive\-2009/9\_30\_09\.dot\|title\=MIPS Technologies Joins the Open Handset Alliance\|date\=September 30, 2009\|publisher\=MIPS Technologies, Inc.}} |
| January 2010 | Sandeep Vij appointed as CEOPeter Clarke, EE Times. "[MIPS Appoints Former Cavium Exec as CEO MIPS](http://www.eetimes.com/electronics-news/4087161/MIPS-appoints-former-Cavium-exec-as-CEO)." January 25, 2010\. Retrieved August 12, 2011\. |
| January 2011 | MIPS introduces the first Android\-MIPS based Set top box at CES.Raphael Savina, AndroidGuys. "[CES 2010: First Android Set Top Boxes](http://www.androidguys.com/2010/01/06/ces-2010-first-android-set-top-boxes/)." January 6, 2010\. Retrieved September 21, 2011\. |
| April 2011 | MIPS Technologies ports Google's Android 3\.0, "Honeycomb", to the MIPS architectureMark LaPedus, EE Times. "[Update: MIPS gets sweet with Honeycomb](http://www.eetimes.com/electronics-news/4215490/MIPS-gets-sweet-with-Honeycomb)." April 26, 2011\. Retrieved November 4, 2011\.Peter Clarke, EE Times. "[MIPS: Android remains processor neutral](http://www.eetimes.com/electronics-news/4214677/Android-remains-processor-neutral--says-MIPS)." April 1, 2011\. Retrieved November 4, 2011\. |
| August 2012 | MIPS Technologies ports Google's Android 4\.1, "Jelly Bean". With Indian company [Karbonn Mobiles](/wiki/Karbonn_Mobiles "Karbonn Mobiles") announces world's second tablet running Android 4\.1\.{{cite web \|website\=\[\[PC World]] \|url\=http://www.pcworld.com/article/260181/second\_tablet\_with\_googles\_android\_41\_ships\_for\_around\_125\.html \|title\=New Google Jelly Bean 7\-inch Tablet Sells for $125 Overseas \|first\=Agam \|last\=Shah \|date\=1 August 2012}} |
| February 8, 2013 | MIPS Technologies is sold to Imagination Technologies for $100 million.Imagination Technologies "[Acquisition of MIPS Technologies completed](http://www.imgtec.com/news/release/index.asp?NewsID=724) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131002214436/http://www.imgtec.com/news/Release/index.asp?NewsID\=724 \|date\=October 2, 2013 }}." February 8, 2013\. Retrieved October 25, 2013\. |
| September 22, 2017 | MIPS business is sold by Imagination Technologies to Tallwood Venture Capital as Tallwood MIPS Inc. for $65 million.{{ cite news \| url\=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2017\-09\-22/imagination\-technologies\-agrees\-to\-takeover\-by\-canyon\-bridge \| title\=Imagination Technologies Agrees to Takeover by Canyon Bridge \| date\=22 September 2017 \| access\-date\=3 October 2017 }} |
| June 2018 | MIPS Tech Inc. is acquired by Wave Computing.{{ cite web \| url\=https://www.top500\.org/news/mips\-acquired\-by\-ai\-startup\-wave\-computing/ \| title\=MIPS Acquired by AI Startup Wave Computing \| date\=16 June 2018 \| access\-date\=4 August 2019 }} |
| May 2019 | Art Swift is appointed CEO of Wave Computing.{{Cite web\|last\=Computing\|first\=Wave\|date\=2019\-05\-08\|title\=Wave Computing® Appoints Industry Veteran Art Swift as CEO\|url\=https://www.globenewswire.com/en/news\-release/2019/05/08/1819603/0/en/Wave\-Computing\-Appoints\-Industry\-Veteran\-Art\-Swift\-as\-CEO.html\|access\-date\=2021\-12\-31\|website\=GlobeNewswire News Room\|language\=en}} |
| September 2019 | After Swift quietly leaves Wave Computing after four months, [Sanjai Kohli](/wiki/Sanjai_Kohli "Sanjai Kohli") is appointed as the new CEO.{{Cite web\|date\=2019\-10\-01\|title\=MIPS' Future in Doubt After CEO Leaves Wave\|url\=https://www.eetindia.co.in/mips\-future\-in\-doubt\-after\-ceo\-leaves\-wave/\|access\-date\=2021\-12\-31\|website\=EE Times India\|language\=en}} |
| April 2020 | Wave Computing files for bankruptcy.[Wave Computing and MIPS waves goodbye](https://semiwiki.com/ip/284876-wave-computing-and-mips-waves-goodbye/) April 19, 2020\. Retrieved March 11, 2021\. |
| March 2021 | Wave Computing emerges from bankruptcy, renames itself as "MIPS" and joins [RISC\-V](/wiki/RISC-V "RISC-V") International. Development of the MIPS architecture ceases. All future designs are announced to be based on the [RISC\-V](/wiki/RISC-V "RISC-V") architecture.[MIPS becomes RISC\-V](https://www.eejournal.com/article/wait-what-mips-becomes-risc-v/) March 8, 2021\. Retrieved March 11, 2021\.{{ cite press release \| url\=https://www.prnewswire.com/news\-releases/wave\-computing\-and\-mips\-emerge\-from\-chapter\-11\-bankruptcy\-301237051\.html \| title\=Wave Computing and MIPS emerge from chapter 11 bankruptcy \| date\=1 March 2021 \| access\-date\=11 March 2021 }} Sanjai Kohli continues as MIPS CEO. |
| May 2022 | MIPS announced its first RISC\-V CPU IP cores, the eVocore P8700 and I8500 multiprocessors. |
| September 2023 | Sameer Wasson is appointed MIPS CEO. |
| January 2024 | MIPS adds two former [SiFive](/wiki/SiFive "SiFive") executives to its executive team, appointing Drew Barbier as VP of products and Brad Burgess as chief architect.{{Cite web \|last\=Robinson \|first\=Dan \|title\=MIPS picks up former SiFive execs in RISC\-V drive \|url\=https://www.theregister.com/2024/01/03/mips\_sifive\_hires/ \|access\-date\=2024\-01\-04 \|website\=www.theregister.com \|language\=en}} |
|
[
"History\n-------",
"{{pic\\|MIPS Computer Systems logo color.svg\\|Logo of MIPS Computer Systems}}\nMIPS Computer Systems Inc. was founded in 1984Junko Yoshida, EE Times. \"[New CEO Sandeep Vij forms 'Team MIPS'](https://web.archive.org/web/20160822230314/http://www.eetimes.com/document.asp?doc_id=1172974).\" February 7, 2010\\. Retrieved June 2, 2020\\. by a group of researchers from [Stanford University](/wiki/Stanford_University \"Stanford University\") including [John L. Hennessy](/wiki/John_L._Hennessy \"John L. Hennessy\") and [Chris Rowen](/wiki/Chris_Rowen \"Chris Rowen\"). These researchers had worked on a project called [MIPS](/wiki/Stanford_MIPS \"Stanford MIPS\") (for *Microprocessor without Interlocked Pipeline Stages*), one of the projects that pioneered the RISC concept. Other principal founders were Skip Stritter, formerly a Motorola technologist, and John Moussouris, formerly of IBM.James DeTar, Investors Business Daily. \"[Panel: Information Technology Still Early Stage](http://blogs.investors.com/click/index.php/home/60-tech/2037-panel-information-technology-still-early-stage) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120401051611/http://blogs.investors.com/click/index.php/home/60\\-tech/2037\\-panel\\-information\\-technology\\-still\\-early\\-stage \\|date\\=April 1, 2012 }}.\" October 6, 2010\\. Retrieved September 16, 2011\\.",
"The initial CEO was Vaemond Crane, formerly President and CEO of [Computer Consoles Inc.](/wiki/Computer_Consoles_Inc. \"Computer Consoles Inc.\"), who arrived in February 1985 and departed in June 1989\\. He was replaced by Bob Miller, a former senior IBM and Data General executive. Miller ran the company through its IPO and subsequent sale to Silicon Graphics.",
"In 1986, MIPS Computer Systems designs were noticed by companies such as Cadnetix, [Prime Computer](/wiki/Prime_Computer \"Prime Computer\") and [Silicon Graphics](/wiki/Silicon_Graphics \"Silicon Graphics\") (SGI), these adopting the [R2000](/wiki/R2000_%28microprocessor%29 \"R2000 (microprocessor)\") for new products, with SGI adopting the MIPS architecture for its computers having noted that the Motorola 68000 series of processors was \"at the end of its price\\-performance curve\".{{ cite magazine \\| url\\=https://archive.org/details/sim\\_electronic\\-business\\_1986\\-11\\-15\\_12\\_22/page/110/mode/2up \\| title\\=MIPS Computer targets RISC chips for workstations \\| magazine\\=Electronic Business \\| last1\\=Hayashi \\| first1\\=Alden M. \\| date\\=15 November 1986 \\| access\\-date\\=22 June 2022 \\| pages\\=110–111 }} Identifying the \"time\\-to\\-market issues\" of companies introducing workstation products, MIPS introduced a range of component kits, processor boards and memory boards, intended as \"building blocks\" for such companies to build into systems. Additionally, development systems such as the M/500 were sold, intended to support software development at systems vendors building MIPS\\-based hardware products.{{ cite magazine \\| url\\=https://archive.org/details/sim\\_unix\\-review\\_1986\\-05\\_4\\_5/page/6/mode/1up \\| title\\=The Monthly Report \\| magazine\\=UNIX Review \\| date\\=May 1986 \\| access\\-date\\=25 June 2022 \\| last1\\=Chandler \\| first1\\=David \\| pages\\=6,9,11\\-15 }} In December 1989, MIPS held its first [IPO](/wiki/Initial_public_offering \"Initial public offering\"). That year, [Digital Equipment Corporation](/wiki/Digital_Equipment_Corporation \"Digital Equipment Corporation\") (DEC) released a [Unix workstation](/wiki/Unix_workstation \"Unix workstation\") based on the MIPS design.",
"After developing the R2000 and [R3000](/wiki/R3000 \"R3000\") microprocessors, a management change brought along the larger dreams of being a computer vendor. The company found itself unable to compete in the computer market against much larger companies and was struggling to support the costs of developing both the chips and the systems ([MIPS Magnum](/wiki/MIPS_Magnum \"MIPS Magnum\")). To secure the supply of future generations of MIPS microprocessors (the 64\\-bit [R4000](/wiki/R4000 \"R4000\")), SGI acquired the company in 1992PC Magazine. \"[SGI](https://www.pcmag.com/encyclopedia_term/0,2542,t=SGI&i=51221,00.asp).\" Retrieved September 19, 2011\\. for $333 millionComputer History Museum. \"[Silicon Graphics Professional IRIS 4D/50GT](http://www.computerhistory.org/revolution/story/219).\" Retrieved September 19, 2011\\.{{cite magazine\\|first\\=Cate \\|last\\=Corcoran \\|date\\=March 16, 1992 \\|title\\=MIPS, Silicon merger could kill ACE/ARC \\|magazine\\=InfoWorld \\|pages\\=1,107 \\|access\\-date\\=September 19, 2011 \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=3D0EAAAAMBAJ\\&pg\\=PA1 \\|volume\\=14 \\|issue\\=11}} and renamed it as MIPS Technologies Inc., a wholly owned subsidiary of SGI.\n{{pic\\|MIPS RISC Certified Power logo.svg\\|upright\\=0\\.5\\|caption\\=MIPS RISC Certified Power emblem}}\nDuring SGI's ownership of MIPS, the company introduced the [R8000](/wiki/R8000 \"R8000\") in 1994 and the [R10000](/wiki/R10000 \"R10000\")Linley Gwenapp, Microprocessor Report. \"[MIPS R10000 Uses Decoupled Architecture](https://www.cs.cmu.edu/afs/cs.cmu.edu/academic/class/15740-f97/public/platform/r10000.pdf).\" Vol. 8, No. 14, October 24, 1994\\. Retrieved September 19, 2011\\. in 1996 and a follow\\-up the [R12000](/wiki/R12000 \"R12000\") in 1997\\.Linley Gwenapp, Microprocessor Report. \"[MIPS R12000 to Hit 300 MHz](http://studies.ac.upc.edu/ETSETB/SEGPAR/microprocessors/r12000%20(mpr).pdf).\" Vol. 11, No. 13, October 6, 1997\\. Retrieved September 19, 2011\\. During this time, two future microprocessors code\\-named *The Beast* and *Capitan* were in development; these were cancelled after SGI decided to migrate to the [Itanium](/wiki/Itanium \"Itanium\") architectureStephen Shankland, ZDNet. \"[Itanium: A cautionary tale](https://web.archive.org/web/20080209211056/http://news.zdnet.com/2100-9584-5984747.html).\" December 7, 2005\\. Retrieved September 19, 2011\\. in 1998\\.Michael Kanellos and Dawn Kawamoto, CNET. \"[Silicon Graphics scraps MIPS plans](http://news.cnet.com/Silicon-Graphics-scraps-MIPS-plans/2100-1001_3-210024.html).\" April 9, 1998\\. Retrieved September 19, 2011\\. As a result, MIPS was spun out as an intellectual property licensing company, offering licences to the MIPS architecture as well as microprocessor core designs.",
"On June 30, 1998, MIPS held an IPO after raising about {{US$\\|long\\=no\\|16\\.3 million}} with an offering price of {{US$\\|long\\=no\\|14}} a share.{{cite news\\|first\\=Om \\|last\\=Malik \\|newspaper\\=Forbes \\|url\\=https://www.forbes.com/1998/12/02/feat.html \\|title\\=Can MIPS beat ARM? \\|date\\=December 2, 1998 \\|access\\-date\\=September 19, 2011}}Debora Vrana, Los Angeles Times. \"[June IPOs Were Not so Hot, but Summer Is Still Young](https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1998-jul-06-fi-1209-story.html).\" July 6, 1998\\. Retrieved September 20, 2011\\.Crag Bicknell, WIRED. \"[MIPS Slips in IPO](https://www.wired.com/techbiz/media/news/1998/07/13376).\" July 1, 1998\\. Retrieved September 19, 2011\\. In 1999, SGI announced it would overhaul its operations; it planned to continue introducing new MIPS processors until 2002, but its server business would include Intel's processor architectures as well.Margaret Quan, EE Times. \"[SGI to shed Cray, shift OS focus to Linux](http://www.eetimes.com/electronics-news/4038666/SGI-to-shed-Cray-shift-OS-focus-to-Linux).\" August 10, 1999\\. Retrieved September 20, 2011\\. SGI spun MIPS out completely on June 20, 2000 by distributing all its interest as stock dividend to the stockholders.",
"In early 2008 MIPS laid off 28 employees from its processor business group. On August 13, 2008, MIPS announced a loss of $108\\.5 million for their fiscal fourth\\-quarter and that they would lay off another 15% of their workforce. At the time MIPS had 512 employees.Suzanne Deffree, EDN News, \"[MIPS plans 15% layoff on $108\\.5M loss](https://archive.today/20130121210558/http://www.edn.com/article/472148-MIPS_plans_15_layoff_on_108_5M_loss.php).\" August 14, 2008\\. Retrieved March 4, 2012\\. In May 2018, according to the company's presence on LinkedIn, there may be less than 50 employees.",
"### Notable Contributors",
"Notable people who have worked at MIPS include [James Billmaier](/wiki/James_Billmaier \"James Billmaier\"),VentureBeat Profiles. \"[Jim Billmaier](http://venturebeatprofiles.com/person/profile/jim-billmaier).\" Retrieved September 20, 2011\\. [Steve Blank](/wiki/Steve_Blank \"Steve Blank\"),UC Berkeley Haas School of Business. \"[Steve G. Blank](http://www2.haas.berkeley.edu/Faculty/blank_steve.aspx) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110904152650/http://www2\\.haas.berkeley.edu/Faculty/blank\\_steve.aspx \\|date\\=September 4, 2011 }}.\" Retrieved September 20, 2011\\. Joseph DiNucci,VentureBeat Profiles. \"[Joe DiNucci](http://widget.venturebeatprofiles.com/person/profile/joe-dinucci).\" Retrieved September 20, 2011\\. [John L. Hennessy](/wiki/John_L._Hennessy \"John L. Hennessy\"),IEEE Computer Society. \"[John L. Hennessy: 2001 Eckert\\-Mauchly Award Recipient](http://www.computer.org/portal/web/awards/eckerthennesy) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110815212900/http://www.computer.org/portal/web/awards/eckerthennesy \\|date\\=August 15, 2011 }}.\" Retrieved September 20, 2011\\.\n[Todd Bezenek](/wiki/Todd_Bezenek \"Todd Bezenek\"),ARM Finance Overseas Ltd. \"[System and method for managing the design and configuration of an integrated circuit semiconductor design](https://patents.google.com/patent/US20080222580A1/en)\" 2017\\.",
"[David Hitz](/wiki/David_Hitz \"David Hitz\"),Joe Kovar, CRN. \"[2010 Storage Superstars](http://www.crn.com/news/storage/225700751/2010-storage-superstars.htm;jsessionid=eV3HAPom6qv7wkAid6EACg**.ecappj03?pgno=2) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120922010817/http://www.crn.com/news/storage/225700751/2010\\-storage\\-superstars.htm;jsessionid\\=eV3HAPom6qv7wkAid6EACg\\*\\*.ecappj03?pgno\\=2 \\|date\\=September 22, 2012 }}.\" June 21, 2010\\. Retrieved September 20, 2011\\. Earl Killian,{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.paravirtual.com/content/company/advisory\\_board.htm\\|title\\=Earl Killian\\|date\\=November 26, 2010\\|access\\-date\\=November 26, 2010\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120213131715/http://www.paravirtual.com/content/company/advisory\\_board.htm\\|archive\\-date\\=February 13, 2012\\|publisher\\=Paravirtual}}{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.cs.clemson.edu/\\~mark/s1\\_alumni.html\\|title\\=S\\-1 Supercomputer Alumni: Earl Killian\\|date\\=June 28, 2005\\|access\\-date\\=November 26, 2010\\|publisher\\=Clemson University\\|quote\\=Earl Killian's ... MIPS's Director of Architecture ...}} Dan Levin,BusinessWeek Profiles. \"[Dan Levin](https://web.archive.org/web/20121015221051/http://investing.businessweek.com/research/stocks/private/person.asp?personId=591174&privcapId=127144850&previousCapId=127144850&previousTitle=Campus%20Sponsorship,%20Inc.).\" Retrieved September 20, 2011\\. [John Mashey](/wiki/John_Mashey \"John Mashey\"),Computer History Museum. \"[John Mashey](http://www.computerhistory.org/trustee/John,Mashey/) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20111113021428/http://www.computerhistory.org/trustee/John,Mashey/ \\|date\\=November 13, 2011 }}.\" Retrieved September 20, 2011\\. John P. McCaskey, Bob Miller,Computer History Museum. \"[Bob Miller](http://www.computerhistory.org/events/bio/Bob,Miller).\" Retrieved September 20, 2011\\. [Stratton Sclavos](/wiki/Stratton_Sclavos \"Stratton Sclavos\"),Forbes. \"[Stratton D. Sclavos](https://web.archive.org/web/20111102160930/http://people.forbes.com/profile/stratton-d-sclavos/45146).\" Retrieved September 20, 2011\\. and [Skip Stritter](/wiki/Skip_Stritter \"Skip Stritter\").Computer History Museum. \"[Skip Stritter](http://www.computerhistory.org/events/bio/Skip,Stritter).\" Retrieved September 20, 2011\\.",
"In 2010, Sandeep Vij was named CEO of MIPS Technologies.Junko Yoshida, EE Times. \"[New CEO Sandeep Vij forms ‘Team MIPS’](http://www.eetimes.com/electronics-news/4087512/New-CEO-Sandeep-Vij-forms-Team-MIPS-).\" February 7, 2010\\. Retrieved September 20, 2011\\. Vij studied under John Hennessy as a Stanford University graduate student. Prior to taking over at MIPS, Vij was an executive at [Cavium Networks](/wiki/Cavium_Networks \"Cavium Networks\"), [Xilinx](/wiki/Xilinx \"Xilinx\") and [Altera](/wiki/Altera \"Altera\").Peter Clarke, EE Times. \"[MIPS Appoints Former Cavium Exec as CEO MIPS](http://www.eetimes.com/electronics-news/4087161/MIPS-appoints-former-Cavium-exec-as-CEO).\" January 25, 2010\\. Retrieved September 20, 2011\\.",
"*EE Times* reported that MIPS had 150 employees as of November 1, 2010\\.Junko Yoshida, EE Times, \"[MIPS CEO: Companies need to have a soul](http://www.eetimes.com/electronics-news/4210278/MIPS-CEO---Companies-need-to-have-a-soul-)\". November 1, 2010\\. Retrieved March 4, 2012\\. If the August 14, 2008 EDN article was accurate about MIPS having over 500 employees at the time, then MIPS reduced their total workforce by 70% between 2008 and 2010\\.",
"{{pic\\|MIPS by Imagination logo.jpg\\|upright\\=0\\.5\\|MIPS branding as used by \\[\\[Imagination Technologies]]}}",
"In addition to its main [R\\&D](/wiki/R%26D \"R&D\") center in [Sunnyvale, California](/wiki/Sunnyvale%2C_California \"Sunnyvale, California\"),Hoovers. \"[MIPS Technologies](http://www.hoovers.com/company/MIPS_Technologies_Inc/hjxfci-1.html).\" Retrieved September 20, 2011\\. MIPS has engineering facilities in [Shanghai](/wiki/Shanghai \"Shanghai\"), [China](/wiki/China \"China\"), [Beaverton, Oregon](/wiki/Beaverton%2C_Oregon \"Beaverton, Oregon\"), [Bristol](/wiki/Bristol \"Bristol\") and [Kings Langley](/wiki/Kings_Langley \"Kings Langley\"), both in [England](/wiki/England \"England\").Colleen Taylor, EDN. \"[MIPS plans HQ in Silicon Forest](https://archive.today/20120728122159/http://www.edn.com/article/459759-MIPS_plans_HQ_in_Silicon_Forest.php).\" March 13, 2007\\. Retrieved September 20, 2011\\. It also has offices in Hsin\\-chu, [Taiwan](/wiki/Taiwan \"Taiwan\"); [Tokyo, Japan](/wiki/Tokyo%2C_Japan \"Tokyo, Japan\"); Remscheid, [Germany](/wiki/Germany \"Germany\") and [Haifa, Israel](/wiki/Haifa%2C_Israel \"Haifa, Israel\").Company Press Release. \"[Synopsys Acquires Analog Business Group of MIPS Technologies](http://news.prnewswire.com/DisplayReleaseContent.aspx?ACCT=104&STORY=/www/story/05-08-2009/0005022377).\" May 8, 2009\\. Retrieved May 8, 2009\\.",
"During the first quarter of 2013, 498 out of 580 of MIPS patents were sold to Bridge Crossing which was created by [Allied Security Trust](/wiki/Allied_Security_Trust \"Allied Security Trust\"), with all processor\\-specific patents and the other parts of the company sold to [Imagination Technologies](/wiki/Imagination_Technologies \"Imagination Technologies\").[MIPS Selling All Assets For Combined $7\\.31/Shr In Cash](https://www.forbes.com/sites/ericsavitz/2012/11/06/mips-selling-all-assets-for-combined-7-31shr-in-cash/). Forbes. Retrieved on May 23, 2014\\. Imagination had outbid [Ceva Inc](/wiki/Ceva_%28semiconductor_company%29 \"Ceva (semiconductor company)\") to buy MIPS with an offer of $100 million,{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.businessweek.com/ap/2012\\-12\\-17/imagination\\-tech\\-to\\-buy\\-mips\\-tech\\-for\\-100m\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121222005943/http://www.businessweek.com/ap/2012\\-12\\-17/imagination\\-tech\\-to\\-buy\\-mips\\-tech\\-for\\-100m\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-date\\=December 22, 2012\\|title\\=Imagination Tech to buy MIPS Tech for $100M\\|agency\\=Associated Press\\|date\\=December 17, 2012\\|access\\-date\\=December 18, 2012}} and was investing to develop the architecture for the embedded processor market.",
"In 2017, under financial pressure itself, Imagination Technologies sold the MIPS processor business to a California\\-based investment company, Tallwood Venture Capital. Tallwood in turn sold the business to Wave Computing in 2018, both of these companies reportedly having their origins with, or ownership links to, a co\\-founder of [Chips and Technologies](/wiki/Chips_and_Technologies \"Chips and Technologies\") and [S3 Graphics](/wiki/S3_Graphics \"S3 Graphics\").{{ cite web \\| url\\=https://www.eejournal.com/article/loose\\-lips\\-sink\\-mips/ \\| title\\=Loose Lips Sink MIPS \\| website\\=Electronic Engineering Journal \\| date\\=7 September 2020 \\| access\\-date\\=5 September 2022 }} Despite the regulatory obstacles that had forced Imagination to divest itself of the MIPS business prior to its own acquisition by Canyon Bridge, bankruptcy proceedings for Wave Computing indicated that the company had in 2018 and 2019 transferred full licensing rights for the MIPS architecture for China, Hong Kong and Macau to CIP United, a Shanghai\\-based company.{{ cite news \\| url\\=https://www.reuters.com/article/us\\-usa\\-china\\-tech\\-insight/tech\\-war\\-chronicles\\-how\\-a\\-silicon\\-valley\\-chip\\-pioneer\\-landed\\-in\\-china\\-idUSKBN25L15U \\| title\\=Tech war chronicles: How a Silicon Valley chip pioneer landed in China \\| date\\=15 August 2020 \\| access\\-date\\=5 September 2022 \\| last1\\=Lee \\| first1\\=Jane Lanhee }}",
"In 2021, MIPS announced it would begin making chips based on the [RISC\\-V](/wiki/RISC-V \"RISC-V\") architecture.{{Cite web \\|date\\=2021\\-03\\-08 \\|title\\=Wait, What? MIPS Becomes RISC\\-V \\|url\\=https://www.eejournal.com/article/wait\\-what\\-mips\\-becomes\\-risc\\-v/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-08\\-08 \\|website\\=EEJournal \\|language\\=en\\-US}} In 2022, the company announced availability of its first RISC\\-V CPU IP core, the eVocore P8700\\.",
"In September 2023, MIPS named former [Texas Instruments](/wiki/Texas_Instruments \"Texas Instruments\") (TI) executive Sameer Wasson CEO. Wasson spent 18 years at TI, most recently as vice president, Business Unit (BU) Manager, Processors.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Hettinga \\|first\\=Wisse \\|date\\=2023\\-09\\-07 \\|title\\=MIPS to Drive RISC\\-V Market Penetration and Innovation \\|url\\=https://www.eenewseurope.com/en/mips\\-to\\-drive\\-risc\\-v\\-market\\-penetration\\-and\\-innovation/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-09\\-08 \\|website\\=eeNews Europe \\|language\\=en\\-US}}",
"### Company timeline",
"",
"| Year | |\n| --- | --- |\n| 1981 | Dr. John Hennessy at Stanford University founds and leads [Stanford MIPS](/wiki/Stanford_MIPS \"Stanford MIPS\"), a research program aimed at building a microprocessor using RISC principles. |\n| 1984 | MIPS Computer Systems, Inc. co\\-founded by Dr. John Hennessy, [Skip Stritter](/wiki/Edward_P._Stritter \"Edward P. Stritter\"), and Dr. John Moussouris{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://silicongenesis.stanford.edu/transcripts/hennessy.htm \\|title\\=John Hennessy \\|access\\-date\\=April 15, 2008 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120211143447/http://silicongenesis.stanford.edu/transcripts/hennessy.htm \\|archive\\-date\\=February 11, 2012 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }} |\n| 1986 | First product ships: [R2000](/wiki/R2000_%28microprocessor%29 \"R2000 (microprocessor)\") microprocessor, Unix workstation, and optimizing compilers |\n| 1988 | [R3000](/wiki/R3000 \"R3000\") microprocessor |\n| 1989 | First IPO in November as MIPS Computer Systems with Bob Miller as CEO |\n| 1991 | [R4000](/wiki/R4000 \"R4000\") microprocessor |\n| 1992 | [SGI](/wiki/Silicon_Graphics \"Silicon Graphics\") acquires MIPS Computer Systems. Transforms it into internal MIPS Group, and then incorporates and renames it to MIPS Technologies, Inc. (a wholly owned subsidiary of SGI) |\n| 1994 | [R8000](/wiki/R8000 \"R8000\") microprocessor |\n| 1994 | Sony [PlayStation](/wiki/PlayStation_%28console%29 \"PlayStation (console)\") released, using an [R3000](/wiki/R3000 \"R3000\") CPU with custom GTE [coprocessor](/wiki/Coprocessor \"Coprocessor\") |\n| 1996 | [R10000](/wiki/R10000 \"R10000\") microprocessor; [Nintendo 64](/wiki/Nintendo_64 \"Nintendo 64\") released, incorporating a cut down [R4300](/wiki/R4300 \"R4300\") processor. |\n| 1998 | [Re\\-IPO](/wiki/Reverse_IPO \"Reverse IPO\") as MIPS Technologies, Inc. |\n| 1999 | Sony [PlayStation 2](/wiki/PlayStation_2 \"PlayStation 2\") released, using an [R5900](/wiki/R5900 \"R5900\") CPU with custom vector co\\-processors |\n| 2002 | Acquires Algorithmics Ltd, a UK\\-based MIPS development hardware/software and consultancy company. |\n| September 6, 2005 | Acquires First Silicon Solutions (FS2\\), a Lake Oswego, Oregon company as a wholly owned subsidiary. FS2 specializes in silicon IP, design services and OCI (On\\-Chip Instrumentation) development tools for programming, testing, debug and trace of embedded systems in SoC, SOPC, FPGA, ASSP and ASIC devices. |\n| 2007 | MIPS Technologies acquires Portugal\\-based mixed\\-signal intellectual property company [Chipidea](/wiki/Chipidea \"Chipidea\") |\n| February 2009 | MIPS Joins [Linux Foundation](/wiki/Linux_Foundation \"Linux Foundation\")TheLinuxFoundation.org. \"[MIPS Technologies Joins Linux Foundation](http://www.linuxfoundation.org/news-media/announcements/2009/02/mips-technologies-joins-linux-foundation) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20101228111414/http://www.linuxfoundation.org/news\\-media/announcements/2009/02/mips\\-technologies\\-joins\\-linux\\-foundation \\|date\\=December 28, 2010 }}.\" Retrieved August 12, 2011\\. |\n| May 8, 2009 | [Chipidea](/wiki/Chipidea \"Chipidea\") is sold to [Synopsys](/wiki/Synopsys \"Synopsys\"). |\n| June 2009 | Android is ported to MIPSSteve Bush, ElectronicsWeekly.com. \"[Google's Android marches onto MIPS processors](https://archive.today/20130123171000/http://www.electronicsweekly.com/Articles/2010/08/13/46204/googles-android-marches-onto-mips-processors.htm).\" Retrieved August 12, 2011\\. |\n| September 30, 2009 | MIPS Technologies joins the [Open Handset Alliance](/wiki/Open_Handset_Alliance \"Open Handset Alliance\"){{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.mips.com/news\\-events/newsroom/release\\-archive\\-2009/9\\_30\\_09\\.dot\\|title\\=MIPS Technologies Joins the Open Handset Alliance\\|date\\=September 30, 2009\\|publisher\\=MIPS Technologies, Inc.}} |\n| January 2010 | Sandeep Vij appointed as CEOPeter Clarke, EE Times. \"[MIPS Appoints Former Cavium Exec as CEO MIPS](http://www.eetimes.com/electronics-news/4087161/MIPS-appoints-former-Cavium-exec-as-CEO).\" January 25, 2010\\. Retrieved August 12, 2011\\. |\n| January 2011 | MIPS introduces the first Android\\-MIPS based Set top box at CES.Raphael Savina, AndroidGuys. \"[CES 2010: First Android Set Top Boxes](http://www.androidguys.com/2010/01/06/ces-2010-first-android-set-top-boxes/).\" January 6, 2010\\. Retrieved September 21, 2011\\. |\n| April 2011 | MIPS Technologies ports Google's Android 3\\.0, \"Honeycomb\", to the MIPS architectureMark LaPedus, EE Times. \"[Update: MIPS gets sweet with Honeycomb](http://www.eetimes.com/electronics-news/4215490/MIPS-gets-sweet-with-Honeycomb).\" April 26, 2011\\. Retrieved November 4, 2011\\.Peter Clarke, EE Times. \"[MIPS: Android remains processor neutral](http://www.eetimes.com/electronics-news/4214677/Android-remains-processor-neutral--says-MIPS).\" April 1, 2011\\. Retrieved November 4, 2011\\. |\n| August 2012 | MIPS Technologies ports Google's Android 4\\.1, \"Jelly Bean\". With Indian company [Karbonn Mobiles](/wiki/Karbonn_Mobiles \"Karbonn Mobiles\") announces world's second tablet running Android 4\\.1\\.{{cite web \\|website\\=\\[\\[PC World]] \\|url\\=http://www.pcworld.com/article/260181/second\\_tablet\\_with\\_googles\\_android\\_41\\_ships\\_for\\_around\\_125\\.html \\|title\\=New Google Jelly Bean 7\\-inch Tablet Sells for $125 Overseas \\|first\\=Agam \\|last\\=Shah \\|date\\=1 August 2012}} |\n| February 8, 2013 | MIPS Technologies is sold to Imagination Technologies for $100 million.Imagination Technologies \"[Acquisition of MIPS Technologies completed](http://www.imgtec.com/news/release/index.asp?NewsID=724) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131002214436/http://www.imgtec.com/news/Release/index.asp?NewsID\\=724 \\|date\\=October 2, 2013 }}.\" February 8, 2013\\. Retrieved October 25, 2013\\. |\n| September 22, 2017 | MIPS business is sold by Imagination Technologies to Tallwood Venture Capital as Tallwood MIPS Inc. for $65 million.{{ cite news \\| url\\=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2017\\-09\\-22/imagination\\-technologies\\-agrees\\-to\\-takeover\\-by\\-canyon\\-bridge \\| title\\=Imagination Technologies Agrees to Takeover by Canyon Bridge \\| date\\=22 September 2017 \\| access\\-date\\=3 October 2017 }} |\n| June 2018 | MIPS Tech Inc. is acquired by Wave Computing.{{ cite web \\| url\\=https://www.top500\\.org/news/mips\\-acquired\\-by\\-ai\\-startup\\-wave\\-computing/ \\| title\\=MIPS Acquired by AI Startup Wave Computing \\| date\\=16 June 2018 \\| access\\-date\\=4 August 2019 }} |\n| May 2019 | Art Swift is appointed CEO of Wave Computing.{{Cite web\\|last\\=Computing\\|first\\=Wave\\|date\\=2019\\-05\\-08\\|title\\=Wave Computing® Appoints Industry Veteran Art Swift as CEO\\|url\\=https://www.globenewswire.com/en/news\\-release/2019/05/08/1819603/0/en/Wave\\-Computing\\-Appoints\\-Industry\\-Veteran\\-Art\\-Swift\\-as\\-CEO.html\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-12\\-31\\|website\\=GlobeNewswire News Room\\|language\\=en}} |\n| September 2019 | After Swift quietly leaves Wave Computing after four months, [Sanjai Kohli](/wiki/Sanjai_Kohli \"Sanjai Kohli\") is appointed as the new CEO.{{Cite web\\|date\\=2019\\-10\\-01\\|title\\=MIPS' Future in Doubt After CEO Leaves Wave\\|url\\=https://www.eetindia.co.in/mips\\-future\\-in\\-doubt\\-after\\-ceo\\-leaves\\-wave/\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-12\\-31\\|website\\=EE Times India\\|language\\=en}} |\n| April 2020 | Wave Computing files for bankruptcy.[Wave Computing and MIPS waves goodbye](https://semiwiki.com/ip/284876-wave-computing-and-mips-waves-goodbye/) April 19, 2020\\. Retrieved March 11, 2021\\. |\n| March 2021 | Wave Computing emerges from bankruptcy, renames itself as \"MIPS\" and joins [RISC\\-V](/wiki/RISC-V \"RISC-V\") International. Development of the MIPS architecture ceases. All future designs are announced to be based on the [RISC\\-V](/wiki/RISC-V \"RISC-V\") architecture.[MIPS becomes RISC\\-V](https://www.eejournal.com/article/wait-what-mips-becomes-risc-v/) March 8, 2021\\. Retrieved March 11, 2021\\.{{ cite press release \\| url\\=https://www.prnewswire.com/news\\-releases/wave\\-computing\\-and\\-mips\\-emerge\\-from\\-chapter\\-11\\-bankruptcy\\-301237051\\.html \\| title\\=Wave Computing and MIPS emerge from chapter 11 bankruptcy \\| date\\=1 March 2021 \\| access\\-date\\=11 March 2021 }} Sanjai Kohli continues as MIPS CEO. |\n| May 2022 | MIPS announced its first RISC\\-V CPU IP cores, the eVocore P8700 and I8500 multiprocessors. |\n| September 2023 | Sameer Wasson is appointed MIPS CEO. |\n| January 2024 | MIPS adds two former [SiFive](/wiki/SiFive \"SiFive\") executives to its executive team, appointing Drew Barbier as VP of products and Brad Burgess as chief architect.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Robinson \\|first\\=Dan \\|title\\=MIPS picks up former SiFive execs in RISC\\-V drive \\|url\\=https://www.theregister.com/2024/01/03/mips\\_sifive\\_hires/ \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-01\\-04 \\|website\\=www.theregister.com \\|language\\=en}} |",
""
] |
### Notable Contributors
Notable people who have worked at MIPS include [James Billmaier](/wiki/James_Billmaier "James Billmaier"),VentureBeat Profiles. "[Jim Billmaier](http://venturebeatprofiles.com/person/profile/jim-billmaier)." Retrieved September 20, 2011\. [Steve Blank](/wiki/Steve_Blank "Steve Blank"),UC Berkeley Haas School of Business. "[Steve G. Blank](http://www2.haas.berkeley.edu/Faculty/blank_steve.aspx) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110904152650/http://www2\.haas.berkeley.edu/Faculty/blank\_steve.aspx \|date\=September 4, 2011 }}." Retrieved September 20, 2011\. Joseph DiNucci,VentureBeat Profiles. "[Joe DiNucci](http://widget.venturebeatprofiles.com/person/profile/joe-dinucci)." Retrieved September 20, 2011\. [John L. Hennessy](/wiki/John_L._Hennessy "John L. Hennessy"),IEEE Computer Society. "[John L. Hennessy: 2001 Eckert\-Mauchly Award Recipient](http://www.computer.org/portal/web/awards/eckerthennesy) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110815212900/http://www.computer.org/portal/web/awards/eckerthennesy \|date\=August 15, 2011 }}." Retrieved September 20, 2011\.
[Todd Bezenek](/wiki/Todd_Bezenek "Todd Bezenek"),ARM Finance Overseas Ltd. "[System and method for managing the design and configuration of an integrated circuit semiconductor design](https://patents.google.com/patent/US20080222580A1/en)" 2017\.
[David Hitz](/wiki/David_Hitz "David Hitz"),Joe Kovar, CRN. "[2010 Storage Superstars](http://www.crn.com/news/storage/225700751/2010-storage-superstars.htm;jsessionid=eV3HAPom6qv7wkAid6EACg**.ecappj03?pgno=2) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120922010817/http://www.crn.com/news/storage/225700751/2010\-storage\-superstars.htm;jsessionid\=eV3HAPom6qv7wkAid6EACg\*\*.ecappj03?pgno\=2 \|date\=September 22, 2012 }}." June 21, 2010\. Retrieved September 20, 2011\. Earl Killian,{{cite news\|url\=http://www.paravirtual.com/content/company/advisory\_board.htm\|title\=Earl Killian\|date\=November 26, 2010\|access\-date\=November 26, 2010\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120213131715/http://www.paravirtual.com/content/company/advisory\_board.htm\|archive\-date\=February 13, 2012\|publisher\=Paravirtual}}{{cite news\|url\=http://www.cs.clemson.edu/\~mark/s1\_alumni.html\|title\=S\-1 Supercomputer Alumni: Earl Killian\|date\=June 28, 2005\|access\-date\=November 26, 2010\|publisher\=Clemson University\|quote\=Earl Killian's ... MIPS's Director of Architecture ...}} Dan Levin,BusinessWeek Profiles. "[Dan Levin](https://web.archive.org/web/20121015221051/http://investing.businessweek.com/research/stocks/private/person.asp?personId=591174&privcapId=127144850&previousCapId=127144850&previousTitle=Campus%20Sponsorship,%20Inc.)." Retrieved September 20, 2011\. [John Mashey](/wiki/John_Mashey "John Mashey"),Computer History Museum. "[John Mashey](http://www.computerhistory.org/trustee/John,Mashey/) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20111113021428/http://www.computerhistory.org/trustee/John,Mashey/ \|date\=November 13, 2011 }}." Retrieved September 20, 2011\. John P. McCaskey, Bob Miller,Computer History Museum. "[Bob Miller](http://www.computerhistory.org/events/bio/Bob,Miller)." Retrieved September 20, 2011\. [Stratton Sclavos](/wiki/Stratton_Sclavos "Stratton Sclavos"),Forbes. "[Stratton D. Sclavos](https://web.archive.org/web/20111102160930/http://people.forbes.com/profile/stratton-d-sclavos/45146)." Retrieved September 20, 2011\. and [Skip Stritter](/wiki/Skip_Stritter "Skip Stritter").Computer History Museum. "[Skip Stritter](http://www.computerhistory.org/events/bio/Skip,Stritter)." Retrieved September 20, 2011\.
In 2010, Sandeep Vij was named CEO of MIPS Technologies.Junko Yoshida, EE Times. "[New CEO Sandeep Vij forms ‘Team MIPS’](http://www.eetimes.com/electronics-news/4087512/New-CEO-Sandeep-Vij-forms-Team-MIPS-)." February 7, 2010\. Retrieved September 20, 2011\. Vij studied under John Hennessy as a Stanford University graduate student. Prior to taking over at MIPS, Vij was an executive at [Cavium Networks](/wiki/Cavium_Networks "Cavium Networks"), [Xilinx](/wiki/Xilinx "Xilinx") and [Altera](/wiki/Altera "Altera").Peter Clarke, EE Times. "[MIPS Appoints Former Cavium Exec as CEO MIPS](http://www.eetimes.com/electronics-news/4087161/MIPS-appoints-former-Cavium-exec-as-CEO)." January 25, 2010\. Retrieved September 20, 2011\.
*EE Times* reported that MIPS had 150 employees as of November 1, 2010\.Junko Yoshida, EE Times, "[MIPS CEO: Companies need to have a soul](http://www.eetimes.com/electronics-news/4210278/MIPS-CEO---Companies-need-to-have-a-soul-)". November 1, 2010\. Retrieved March 4, 2012\. If the August 14, 2008 EDN article was accurate about MIPS having over 500 employees at the time, then MIPS reduced their total workforce by 70% between 2008 and 2010\.
{{pic\|MIPS by Imagination logo.jpg\|upright\=0\.5\|MIPS branding as used by \[\[Imagination Technologies]]}}
In addition to its main [R\&D](/wiki/R%26D "R&D") center in [Sunnyvale, California](/wiki/Sunnyvale%2C_California "Sunnyvale, California"),Hoovers. "[MIPS Technologies](http://www.hoovers.com/company/MIPS_Technologies_Inc/hjxfci-1.html)." Retrieved September 20, 2011\. MIPS has engineering facilities in [Shanghai](/wiki/Shanghai "Shanghai"), [China](/wiki/China "China"), [Beaverton, Oregon](/wiki/Beaverton%2C_Oregon "Beaverton, Oregon"), [Bristol](/wiki/Bristol "Bristol") and [Kings Langley](/wiki/Kings_Langley "Kings Langley"), both in [England](/wiki/England "England").Colleen Taylor, EDN. "[MIPS plans HQ in Silicon Forest](https://archive.today/20120728122159/http://www.edn.com/article/459759-MIPS_plans_HQ_in_Silicon_Forest.php)." March 13, 2007\. Retrieved September 20, 2011\. It also has offices in Hsin\-chu, [Taiwan](/wiki/Taiwan "Taiwan"); [Tokyo, Japan](/wiki/Tokyo%2C_Japan "Tokyo, Japan"); Remscheid, [Germany](/wiki/Germany "Germany") and [Haifa, Israel](/wiki/Haifa%2C_Israel "Haifa, Israel").Company Press Release. "[Synopsys Acquires Analog Business Group of MIPS Technologies](http://news.prnewswire.com/DisplayReleaseContent.aspx?ACCT=104&STORY=/www/story/05-08-2009/0005022377)." May 8, 2009\. Retrieved May 8, 2009\.
During the first quarter of 2013, 498 out of 580 of MIPS patents were sold to Bridge Crossing which was created by [Allied Security Trust](/wiki/Allied_Security_Trust "Allied Security Trust"), with all processor\-specific patents and the other parts of the company sold to [Imagination Technologies](/wiki/Imagination_Technologies "Imagination Technologies").[MIPS Selling All Assets For Combined $7\.31/Shr In Cash](https://www.forbes.com/sites/ericsavitz/2012/11/06/mips-selling-all-assets-for-combined-7-31shr-in-cash/). Forbes. Retrieved on May 23, 2014\. Imagination had outbid [Ceva Inc](/wiki/Ceva_%28semiconductor_company%29 "Ceva (semiconductor company)") to buy MIPS with an offer of $100 million,{{cite news\|url\=http://www.businessweek.com/ap/2012\-12\-17/imagination\-tech\-to\-buy\-mips\-tech\-for\-100m\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121222005943/http://www.businessweek.com/ap/2012\-12\-17/imagination\-tech\-to\-buy\-mips\-tech\-for\-100m\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-date\=December 22, 2012\|title\=Imagination Tech to buy MIPS Tech for $100M\|agency\=Associated Press\|date\=December 17, 2012\|access\-date\=December 18, 2012}} and was investing to develop the architecture for the embedded processor market.
In 2017, under financial pressure itself, Imagination Technologies sold the MIPS processor business to a California\-based investment company, Tallwood Venture Capital. Tallwood in turn sold the business to Wave Computing in 2018, both of these companies reportedly having their origins with, or ownership links to, a co\-founder of [Chips and Technologies](/wiki/Chips_and_Technologies "Chips and Technologies") and [S3 Graphics](/wiki/S3_Graphics "S3 Graphics").{{ cite web \| url\=https://www.eejournal.com/article/loose\-lips\-sink\-mips/ \| title\=Loose Lips Sink MIPS \| website\=Electronic Engineering Journal \| date\=7 September 2020 \| access\-date\=5 September 2022 }} Despite the regulatory obstacles that had forced Imagination to divest itself of the MIPS business prior to its own acquisition by Canyon Bridge, bankruptcy proceedings for Wave Computing indicated that the company had in 2018 and 2019 transferred full licensing rights for the MIPS architecture for China, Hong Kong and Macau to CIP United, a Shanghai\-based company.{{ cite news \| url\=https://www.reuters.com/article/us\-usa\-china\-tech\-insight/tech\-war\-chronicles\-how\-a\-silicon\-valley\-chip\-pioneer\-landed\-in\-china\-idUSKBN25L15U \| title\=Tech war chronicles: How a Silicon Valley chip pioneer landed in China \| date\=15 August 2020 \| access\-date\=5 September 2022 \| last1\=Lee \| first1\=Jane Lanhee }}
In 2021, MIPS announced it would begin making chips based on the [RISC\-V](/wiki/RISC-V "RISC-V") architecture.{{Cite web \|date\=2021\-03\-08 \|title\=Wait, What? MIPS Becomes RISC\-V \|url\=https://www.eejournal.com/article/wait\-what\-mips\-becomes\-risc\-v/ \|access\-date\=2023\-08\-08 \|website\=EEJournal \|language\=en\-US}} In 2022, the company announced availability of its first RISC\-V CPU IP core, the eVocore P8700\.
In September 2023, MIPS named former [Texas Instruments](/wiki/Texas_Instruments "Texas Instruments") (TI) executive Sameer Wasson CEO. Wasson spent 18 years at TI, most recently as vice president, Business Unit (BU) Manager, Processors.{{Cite web \|last\=Hettinga \|first\=Wisse \|date\=2023\-09\-07 \|title\=MIPS to Drive RISC\-V Market Penetration and Innovation \|url\=https://www.eenewseurope.com/en/mips\-to\-drive\-risc\-v\-market\-penetration\-and\-innovation/ \|access\-date\=2023\-09\-08 \|website\=eeNews Europe \|language\=en\-US}}
|
[
"### Notable Contributors",
"Notable people who have worked at MIPS include [James Billmaier](/wiki/James_Billmaier \"James Billmaier\"),VentureBeat Profiles. \"[Jim Billmaier](http://venturebeatprofiles.com/person/profile/jim-billmaier).\" Retrieved September 20, 2011\\. [Steve Blank](/wiki/Steve_Blank \"Steve Blank\"),UC Berkeley Haas School of Business. \"[Steve G. Blank](http://www2.haas.berkeley.edu/Faculty/blank_steve.aspx) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110904152650/http://www2\\.haas.berkeley.edu/Faculty/blank\\_steve.aspx \\|date\\=September 4, 2011 }}.\" Retrieved September 20, 2011\\. Joseph DiNucci,VentureBeat Profiles. \"[Joe DiNucci](http://widget.venturebeatprofiles.com/person/profile/joe-dinucci).\" Retrieved September 20, 2011\\. [John L. Hennessy](/wiki/John_L._Hennessy \"John L. Hennessy\"),IEEE Computer Society. \"[John L. Hennessy: 2001 Eckert\\-Mauchly Award Recipient](http://www.computer.org/portal/web/awards/eckerthennesy) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110815212900/http://www.computer.org/portal/web/awards/eckerthennesy \\|date\\=August 15, 2011 }}.\" Retrieved September 20, 2011\\.\n[Todd Bezenek](/wiki/Todd_Bezenek \"Todd Bezenek\"),ARM Finance Overseas Ltd. \"[System and method for managing the design and configuration of an integrated circuit semiconductor design](https://patents.google.com/patent/US20080222580A1/en)\" 2017\\.",
"[David Hitz](/wiki/David_Hitz \"David Hitz\"),Joe Kovar, CRN. \"[2010 Storage Superstars](http://www.crn.com/news/storage/225700751/2010-storage-superstars.htm;jsessionid=eV3HAPom6qv7wkAid6EACg**.ecappj03?pgno=2) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120922010817/http://www.crn.com/news/storage/225700751/2010\\-storage\\-superstars.htm;jsessionid\\=eV3HAPom6qv7wkAid6EACg\\*\\*.ecappj03?pgno\\=2 \\|date\\=September 22, 2012 }}.\" June 21, 2010\\. Retrieved September 20, 2011\\. Earl Killian,{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.paravirtual.com/content/company/advisory\\_board.htm\\|title\\=Earl Killian\\|date\\=November 26, 2010\\|access\\-date\\=November 26, 2010\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120213131715/http://www.paravirtual.com/content/company/advisory\\_board.htm\\|archive\\-date\\=February 13, 2012\\|publisher\\=Paravirtual}}{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.cs.clemson.edu/\\~mark/s1\\_alumni.html\\|title\\=S\\-1 Supercomputer Alumni: Earl Killian\\|date\\=June 28, 2005\\|access\\-date\\=November 26, 2010\\|publisher\\=Clemson University\\|quote\\=Earl Killian's ... MIPS's Director of Architecture ...}} Dan Levin,BusinessWeek Profiles. \"[Dan Levin](https://web.archive.org/web/20121015221051/http://investing.businessweek.com/research/stocks/private/person.asp?personId=591174&privcapId=127144850&previousCapId=127144850&previousTitle=Campus%20Sponsorship,%20Inc.).\" Retrieved September 20, 2011\\. [John Mashey](/wiki/John_Mashey \"John Mashey\"),Computer History Museum. \"[John Mashey](http://www.computerhistory.org/trustee/John,Mashey/) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20111113021428/http://www.computerhistory.org/trustee/John,Mashey/ \\|date\\=November 13, 2011 }}.\" Retrieved September 20, 2011\\. John P. McCaskey, Bob Miller,Computer History Museum. \"[Bob Miller](http://www.computerhistory.org/events/bio/Bob,Miller).\" Retrieved September 20, 2011\\. [Stratton Sclavos](/wiki/Stratton_Sclavos \"Stratton Sclavos\"),Forbes. \"[Stratton D. Sclavos](https://web.archive.org/web/20111102160930/http://people.forbes.com/profile/stratton-d-sclavos/45146).\" Retrieved September 20, 2011\\. and [Skip Stritter](/wiki/Skip_Stritter \"Skip Stritter\").Computer History Museum. \"[Skip Stritter](http://www.computerhistory.org/events/bio/Skip,Stritter).\" Retrieved September 20, 2011\\.",
"In 2010, Sandeep Vij was named CEO of MIPS Technologies.Junko Yoshida, EE Times. \"[New CEO Sandeep Vij forms ‘Team MIPS’](http://www.eetimes.com/electronics-news/4087512/New-CEO-Sandeep-Vij-forms-Team-MIPS-).\" February 7, 2010\\. Retrieved September 20, 2011\\. Vij studied under John Hennessy as a Stanford University graduate student. Prior to taking over at MIPS, Vij was an executive at [Cavium Networks](/wiki/Cavium_Networks \"Cavium Networks\"), [Xilinx](/wiki/Xilinx \"Xilinx\") and [Altera](/wiki/Altera \"Altera\").Peter Clarke, EE Times. \"[MIPS Appoints Former Cavium Exec as CEO MIPS](http://www.eetimes.com/electronics-news/4087161/MIPS-appoints-former-Cavium-exec-as-CEO).\" January 25, 2010\\. Retrieved September 20, 2011\\.",
"*EE Times* reported that MIPS had 150 employees as of November 1, 2010\\.Junko Yoshida, EE Times, \"[MIPS CEO: Companies need to have a soul](http://www.eetimes.com/electronics-news/4210278/MIPS-CEO---Companies-need-to-have-a-soul-)\". November 1, 2010\\. Retrieved March 4, 2012\\. If the August 14, 2008 EDN article was accurate about MIPS having over 500 employees at the time, then MIPS reduced their total workforce by 70% between 2008 and 2010\\.",
"{{pic\\|MIPS by Imagination logo.jpg\\|upright\\=0\\.5\\|MIPS branding as used by \\[\\[Imagination Technologies]]}}",
"In addition to its main [R\\&D](/wiki/R%26D \"R&D\") center in [Sunnyvale, California](/wiki/Sunnyvale%2C_California \"Sunnyvale, California\"),Hoovers. \"[MIPS Technologies](http://www.hoovers.com/company/MIPS_Technologies_Inc/hjxfci-1.html).\" Retrieved September 20, 2011\\. MIPS has engineering facilities in [Shanghai](/wiki/Shanghai \"Shanghai\"), [China](/wiki/China \"China\"), [Beaverton, Oregon](/wiki/Beaverton%2C_Oregon \"Beaverton, Oregon\"), [Bristol](/wiki/Bristol \"Bristol\") and [Kings Langley](/wiki/Kings_Langley \"Kings Langley\"), both in [England](/wiki/England \"England\").Colleen Taylor, EDN. \"[MIPS plans HQ in Silicon Forest](https://archive.today/20120728122159/http://www.edn.com/article/459759-MIPS_plans_HQ_in_Silicon_Forest.php).\" March 13, 2007\\. Retrieved September 20, 2011\\. It also has offices in Hsin\\-chu, [Taiwan](/wiki/Taiwan \"Taiwan\"); [Tokyo, Japan](/wiki/Tokyo%2C_Japan \"Tokyo, Japan\"); Remscheid, [Germany](/wiki/Germany \"Germany\") and [Haifa, Israel](/wiki/Haifa%2C_Israel \"Haifa, Israel\").Company Press Release. \"[Synopsys Acquires Analog Business Group of MIPS Technologies](http://news.prnewswire.com/DisplayReleaseContent.aspx?ACCT=104&STORY=/www/story/05-08-2009/0005022377).\" May 8, 2009\\. Retrieved May 8, 2009\\.",
"During the first quarter of 2013, 498 out of 580 of MIPS patents were sold to Bridge Crossing which was created by [Allied Security Trust](/wiki/Allied_Security_Trust \"Allied Security Trust\"), with all processor\\-specific patents and the other parts of the company sold to [Imagination Technologies](/wiki/Imagination_Technologies \"Imagination Technologies\").[MIPS Selling All Assets For Combined $7\\.31/Shr In Cash](https://www.forbes.com/sites/ericsavitz/2012/11/06/mips-selling-all-assets-for-combined-7-31shr-in-cash/). Forbes. Retrieved on May 23, 2014\\. Imagination had outbid [Ceva Inc](/wiki/Ceva_%28semiconductor_company%29 \"Ceva (semiconductor company)\") to buy MIPS with an offer of $100 million,{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.businessweek.com/ap/2012\\-12\\-17/imagination\\-tech\\-to\\-buy\\-mips\\-tech\\-for\\-100m\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121222005943/http://www.businessweek.com/ap/2012\\-12\\-17/imagination\\-tech\\-to\\-buy\\-mips\\-tech\\-for\\-100m\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-date\\=December 22, 2012\\|title\\=Imagination Tech to buy MIPS Tech for $100M\\|agency\\=Associated Press\\|date\\=December 17, 2012\\|access\\-date\\=December 18, 2012}} and was investing to develop the architecture for the embedded processor market.",
"In 2017, under financial pressure itself, Imagination Technologies sold the MIPS processor business to a California\\-based investment company, Tallwood Venture Capital. Tallwood in turn sold the business to Wave Computing in 2018, both of these companies reportedly having their origins with, or ownership links to, a co\\-founder of [Chips and Technologies](/wiki/Chips_and_Technologies \"Chips and Technologies\") and [S3 Graphics](/wiki/S3_Graphics \"S3 Graphics\").{{ cite web \\| url\\=https://www.eejournal.com/article/loose\\-lips\\-sink\\-mips/ \\| title\\=Loose Lips Sink MIPS \\| website\\=Electronic Engineering Journal \\| date\\=7 September 2020 \\| access\\-date\\=5 September 2022 }} Despite the regulatory obstacles that had forced Imagination to divest itself of the MIPS business prior to its own acquisition by Canyon Bridge, bankruptcy proceedings for Wave Computing indicated that the company had in 2018 and 2019 transferred full licensing rights for the MIPS architecture for China, Hong Kong and Macau to CIP United, a Shanghai\\-based company.{{ cite news \\| url\\=https://www.reuters.com/article/us\\-usa\\-china\\-tech\\-insight/tech\\-war\\-chronicles\\-how\\-a\\-silicon\\-valley\\-chip\\-pioneer\\-landed\\-in\\-china\\-idUSKBN25L15U \\| title\\=Tech war chronicles: How a Silicon Valley chip pioneer landed in China \\| date\\=15 August 2020 \\| access\\-date\\=5 September 2022 \\| last1\\=Lee \\| first1\\=Jane Lanhee }}",
"In 2021, MIPS announced it would begin making chips based on the [RISC\\-V](/wiki/RISC-V \"RISC-V\") architecture.{{Cite web \\|date\\=2021\\-03\\-08 \\|title\\=Wait, What? MIPS Becomes RISC\\-V \\|url\\=https://www.eejournal.com/article/wait\\-what\\-mips\\-becomes\\-risc\\-v/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-08\\-08 \\|website\\=EEJournal \\|language\\=en\\-US}} In 2022, the company announced availability of its first RISC\\-V CPU IP core, the eVocore P8700\\.",
"In September 2023, MIPS named former [Texas Instruments](/wiki/Texas_Instruments \"Texas Instruments\") (TI) executive Sameer Wasson CEO. Wasson spent 18 years at TI, most recently as vice president, Business Unit (BU) Manager, Processors.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Hettinga \\|first\\=Wisse \\|date\\=2023\\-09\\-07 \\|title\\=MIPS to Drive RISC\\-V Market Penetration and Innovation \\|url\\=https://www.eenewseurope.com/en/mips\\-to\\-drive\\-risc\\-v\\-market\\-penetration\\-and\\-innovation/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-09\\-08 \\|website\\=eeNews Europe \\|language\\=en\\-US}}",
""
] |
Products
--------
{{main\|List of MIPS architecture processors}}
MIPS Technologies created the processor architecture that is licensed to chip makers.Agam Shah, IDG. "[MIPS Porting Google's Android 3\.0 OS for Its Processors](http://www.pcworld.com/article/226355/mips_porting_googles_android_30_os_for_its_processors.html)." April 26, 2011\. Retrieved October 3, 2011\.Dean Takahashi, VentureBeat. "[MIPS breaks into Android mobile phones with latest chips](https://venturebeat.com/2011/01/04/mips-breaks-into-android-mobile-phones-with-latest-chips/)." January 4, 2011\. Retrieved October 5, 2011\. Before the acquisition, the company had 125\+ licensees who ship more than 500 million MIPS\-based processors each year.Brian Caufield, Forbes. "[For MIPS, Less is More](https://archive.today/20120918193811/http://www.forbes.com/forbes/2011/0509/technology-mips-sandeep-vij-dvd-micro-chips-less-more.html)." April 20, 2011\. Retrieved September 26, 2011\.
MIPS processor architectures and cores are used in home entertainment,Dean Takahashi, VentureBeat. "[MIPS bets big on Google Android systems for the digital home](https://venturebeat.com/2010/01/05/mips-bets-big-on-google-android-systems-for-the-digital-home/)." January 5, 2010\. Retrieved September 30, 2011\. networkingJunko Yoshida, EE Times. "[‘Blow\-out quarter’ highlights MIPS comeback](http://www.eetimes.com/electronics-news/4205942/Blow-out-quarter-highlights-MIPS-comeback)." August 5, 2010\. Retrieved October 1, 2011\. and communications products. The company licensed its 32\- and 64\-bit architectures as well as 32\-bit cores.John Spooner, CNET. "[MIPS nips new licenses for chips](http://news.cnet.com/MIPS-nips-new-licenses-for-chips/2100-1040_3-255785.html)." April 12, 2001\. Retrieved October 3, 2011\.
The MIPS32 architecture is a high\-performance 32\-bit instruction set architecture (ISA) that is used in applications such as 32\-bit microcontrollers, home entertainment, home networking devices and mobile designs.Robert Cravotta, Embedded Insights. "[M14K](http://www.embeddedinsights.com/epd/mips/mips-m14k.php)." Retrieved October 3, 2011\. MIPS customers license the architecture to develop their own processors or license off\-the\-shelf cores from MIPS that are based on the architecture.Zewde Yeraswork, CRN. "[MIPS Prepares 64\-Bit Prodigy CPU Core Architecture](http://www.crn.com/news/components-peripherals/229400564/mips-prepares-64-bit-prodigy-cpu-core-architecture.htm;jsessionid=SA1gndox1OEtiWTx6V9Eig**.ecappj01)." March 29, 2011\. Retrieved October 2, 2011\.
The MIPS64 architecture is a high performance 64\-bit instruction set architecture that is widely used in networking infrastructure equipment through MIPS licensees such as Cavium NetworksDoug Mohney, The Inquirer. "[Cavium Hotrods MIPS architecture](https://web.archive.org/web/20110121015142/http://www.theinquirer.net/inquirer/news/1048558/cavium-hotrods-mips-architecture)." June 25, 2007\. Retrieved October 5, 2011\. and Broadcom.Eric Brown, LinuxForDevices. "{{cite web\|url\=http://www.linuxfordevices.com/c/a/News/Enea\-and\-NetLogic\-Microsystems\-Linux\-development\-build\-system/ \|title\=Enea, NetLogic ship Linux development platform for MIPS \|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20130104014216/http://www.linuxfordevices.com/c/a/News/Enea\-and\-NetLogic\-Microsystems\-Linux\-development\-build\-system/ \|archive\-date\=January 4, 2013 \|url\-status\=dead }}." September 20, 2010\. Retrieved September 30, 2011\.
SmartCE (Connected Entertainment) is a reference platform that integrates [Android](/wiki/Android_%28operating_system%29 "Android (operating system)"), [Adobe Flash](/wiki/Adobe_Flash "Adobe Flash") platform for TV, [Skype](/wiki/Skype "Skype"), the Home Jinni ConnecTV application and other applications.Dean Takahashi, VentureBeat. "[MIPS aims to drive into consumer electronics gear](https://venturebeat.com/2011/01/05/mips-aims-to-drive-android-into-consumer-electronics-gear/)."January 5, 2010\. Retrieved October 5, 2011\.Janko Roettgers, GigaOm. "[Next Up for Android: Your Cable Box?](http://gigaom.com/video/next-up-for-android-your-cable-box/) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110918081942/http://gigaom.com/video/next\-up\-for\-android\-your\-cable\-box/ \|date\=September 18, 2011 }}." January 5, 2011\. Retrieved September 30, 2011\. SmartCE lets OEM customers create integrated products more quickly.
### MIPS processor core families
The MIPS processor cores are divided by Imagination into three major families:Imagination Technologies. "[MIPS Processors](http://www.imgtec.com/mips/)." Retrieved June 20, 2015\.
* Warrior: hardware virtualization, hardware multi\-threading, and SIMDImagination Technologies. "[MIPS Warrior Processor Cores](http://www.imgtec.com/mips/warrior/)." Retrieved June 20, 2015\.
+ M\-class: M5100 and M5150,{{Cite web\|url\=https://imgtec.com/mips/warrior/m\-class\-m51xx\-core\-family/\|title\=M\-Class M51xx Core Family \- Imagination Technologies\|website\=Imagination Technologies\|language\=en\-GB\|access\-date\=June 22, 2016}} M6200 and M6250{{Cite web\|url\=https://imgtec.com/mips/warrior/m\-class\-m6200\-and\-m6250\-processor\-cores/\|title\=M\-Class M6200 and M6250 Processor Cores \- Imagination Technologies\|website\=Imagination Technologies\|language\=en\-GB\|access\-date\=June 22, 2016}}
+ I\-class: I6400,{{Cite web\|url\=https://imgtec.com/mips/warrior/i\-class\-i6400\-multiprocessor\-core/\|title\=I\-Class I6400 Multiprocessor Core \- Imagination Technologies\|website\=Imagination Technologies\|language\=en\-GB\|access\-date\=June 22, 2016}} I7200{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.anandtech.com/show/12699/mips\-announces\-i7200\-32bit\-cpu\-with\-new\-nanomips\-isa\|title\=MIPS Announces I7200 32\-bit CPU With New nanoMIPS ISA}}
+ P\-class: P5600,{{Cite web\|url\=https://imgtec.com/mips/warrior/p\-class\-p5600\-multiprocessor\-core/\|title\=P\-Class P5600 Multiprocessor Core \- Imagination Technologies\|website\=Imagination Technologies\|language\=en\-GB\|access\-date\=June 22, 2016}} P6600
* Aptiv: *microAptiv* (compact, real\-time embedded processor core), *interAptiv* (multiprocessor, multi\-threaded core with a nine\-stage pipeline), *proAptiv* (super\-scalar, deeply out\-of\-order processor core with high CoreMark/MHz score)Imagination Technologies. "[MIPS Aptiv Processor Cores](http://www.imgtec.com/mips/aptiv/)." Retrieved June 20, 2015\.
* Classic. 4K, M14K, 24K,Robert Cravotta, Embedded Insights. "[24K](http://www.embeddedinsights.com/epd/mips/mips-24k.php)." Retrieved October 6, 2011\. 34K,Robert Cravotta, Embedded Insights. "[34K](http://www.embeddedinsights.com/epd/mips/mips-34k.php)." Retrieved October 6, 2011\. 74K,Robert Cravotta, Embedded Insights. "[74K](http://www.embeddedinsights.com/epd/mips/mips-74k.php)." Retrieved October 2, 2011\. 1004KRobert Cravotta, Embedded Insights. "[1004K](http://www.embeddedinsights.com/epd/mips/mips-1004k.php)." Retrieved October 2, 2011\. (multicore and multithreaded) and 1074K (superscalar and multithreaded) families.
### MIPS eVocore RISC\-V CPU IP cores
The MIPS eVocore CPUs are the first RISC\-V CPU IP cores from MIPS. Both cores provide support for privileged hardware virtualization, user defined custom extensions, multi\-threading, hybrid debug, and functional safety. They include:
* **eVocore P8700:** multiprocessing system combining a deep pipeline with multi\-issue out\-of\-order (OOO) execution and multi\-threading. It can scale up to 64 clusters, 512 cores and 1,024 harts/threads.
* **eVocore I8500:** in\-order multiprocessing system. Each core combines multi\-threading and a triple\-issue pipeline.
|
[
"Products\n--------",
"{{main\\|List of MIPS architecture processors}}\nMIPS Technologies created the processor architecture that is licensed to chip makers.Agam Shah, IDG. \"[MIPS Porting Google's Android 3\\.0 OS for Its Processors](http://www.pcworld.com/article/226355/mips_porting_googles_android_30_os_for_its_processors.html).\" April 26, 2011\\. Retrieved October 3, 2011\\.Dean Takahashi, VentureBeat. \"[MIPS breaks into Android mobile phones with latest chips](https://venturebeat.com/2011/01/04/mips-breaks-into-android-mobile-phones-with-latest-chips/).\" January 4, 2011\\. Retrieved October 5, 2011\\. Before the acquisition, the company had 125\\+ licensees who ship more than 500 million MIPS\\-based processors each year.Brian Caufield, Forbes. \"[For MIPS, Less is More](https://archive.today/20120918193811/http://www.forbes.com/forbes/2011/0509/technology-mips-sandeep-vij-dvd-micro-chips-less-more.html).\" April 20, 2011\\. Retrieved September 26, 2011\\.",
"MIPS processor architectures and cores are used in home entertainment,Dean Takahashi, VentureBeat. \"[MIPS bets big on Google Android systems for the digital home](https://venturebeat.com/2010/01/05/mips-bets-big-on-google-android-systems-for-the-digital-home/).\" January 5, 2010\\. Retrieved September 30, 2011\\. networkingJunko Yoshida, EE Times. \"[‘Blow\\-out quarter’ highlights MIPS comeback](http://www.eetimes.com/electronics-news/4205942/Blow-out-quarter-highlights-MIPS-comeback).\" August 5, 2010\\. Retrieved October 1, 2011\\. and communications products. The company licensed its 32\\- and 64\\-bit architectures as well as 32\\-bit cores.John Spooner, CNET. \"[MIPS nips new licenses for chips](http://news.cnet.com/MIPS-nips-new-licenses-for-chips/2100-1040_3-255785.html).\" April 12, 2001\\. Retrieved October 3, 2011\\.",
"The MIPS32 architecture is a high\\-performance 32\\-bit instruction set architecture (ISA) that is used in applications such as 32\\-bit microcontrollers, home entertainment, home networking devices and mobile designs.Robert Cravotta, Embedded Insights. \"[M14K](http://www.embeddedinsights.com/epd/mips/mips-m14k.php).\" Retrieved October 3, 2011\\. MIPS customers license the architecture to develop their own processors or license off\\-the\\-shelf cores from MIPS that are based on the architecture.Zewde Yeraswork, CRN. \"[MIPS Prepares 64\\-Bit Prodigy CPU Core Architecture](http://www.crn.com/news/components-peripherals/229400564/mips-prepares-64-bit-prodigy-cpu-core-architecture.htm;jsessionid=SA1gndox1OEtiWTx6V9Eig**.ecappj01).\" March 29, 2011\\. Retrieved October 2, 2011\\.",
"The MIPS64 architecture is a high performance 64\\-bit instruction set architecture that is widely used in networking infrastructure equipment through MIPS licensees such as Cavium NetworksDoug Mohney, The Inquirer. \"[Cavium Hotrods MIPS architecture](https://web.archive.org/web/20110121015142/http://www.theinquirer.net/inquirer/news/1048558/cavium-hotrods-mips-architecture).\" June 25, 2007\\. Retrieved October 5, 2011\\. and Broadcom.Eric Brown, LinuxForDevices. \"{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.linuxfordevices.com/c/a/News/Enea\\-and\\-NetLogic\\-Microsystems\\-Linux\\-development\\-build\\-system/ \\|title\\=Enea, NetLogic ship Linux development platform for MIPS \\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20130104014216/http://www.linuxfordevices.com/c/a/News/Enea\\-and\\-NetLogic\\-Microsystems\\-Linux\\-development\\-build\\-system/ \\|archive\\-date\\=January 4, 2013 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}.\" September 20, 2010\\. Retrieved September 30, 2011\\.",
"SmartCE (Connected Entertainment) is a reference platform that integrates [Android](/wiki/Android_%28operating_system%29 \"Android (operating system)\"), [Adobe Flash](/wiki/Adobe_Flash \"Adobe Flash\") platform for TV, [Skype](/wiki/Skype \"Skype\"), the Home Jinni ConnecTV application and other applications.Dean Takahashi, VentureBeat. \"[MIPS aims to drive into consumer electronics gear](https://venturebeat.com/2011/01/05/mips-aims-to-drive-android-into-consumer-electronics-gear/).\"January 5, 2010\\. Retrieved October 5, 2011\\.Janko Roettgers, GigaOm. \"[Next Up for Android: Your Cable Box?](http://gigaom.com/video/next-up-for-android-your-cable-box/) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110918081942/http://gigaom.com/video/next\\-up\\-for\\-android\\-your\\-cable\\-box/ \\|date\\=September 18, 2011 }}.\" January 5, 2011\\. Retrieved September 30, 2011\\. SmartCE lets OEM customers create integrated products more quickly.",
"### MIPS processor core families",
"The MIPS processor cores are divided by Imagination into three major families:Imagination Technologies. \"[MIPS Processors](http://www.imgtec.com/mips/).\" Retrieved June 20, 2015\\.\n* Warrior: hardware virtualization, hardware multi\\-threading, and SIMDImagination Technologies. \"[MIPS Warrior Processor Cores](http://www.imgtec.com/mips/warrior/).\" Retrieved June 20, 2015\\.\n\t+ M\\-class: M5100 and M5150,{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://imgtec.com/mips/warrior/m\\-class\\-m51xx\\-core\\-family/\\|title\\=M\\-Class M51xx Core Family \\- Imagination Technologies\\|website\\=Imagination Technologies\\|language\\=en\\-GB\\|access\\-date\\=June 22, 2016}} M6200 and M6250{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://imgtec.com/mips/warrior/m\\-class\\-m6200\\-and\\-m6250\\-processor\\-cores/\\|title\\=M\\-Class M6200 and M6250 Processor Cores \\- Imagination Technologies\\|website\\=Imagination Technologies\\|language\\=en\\-GB\\|access\\-date\\=June 22, 2016}}\n\t+ I\\-class: I6400,{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://imgtec.com/mips/warrior/i\\-class\\-i6400\\-multiprocessor\\-core/\\|title\\=I\\-Class I6400 Multiprocessor Core \\- Imagination Technologies\\|website\\=Imagination Technologies\\|language\\=en\\-GB\\|access\\-date\\=June 22, 2016}} I7200{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.anandtech.com/show/12699/mips\\-announces\\-i7200\\-32bit\\-cpu\\-with\\-new\\-nanomips\\-isa\\|title\\=MIPS Announces I7200 32\\-bit CPU With New nanoMIPS ISA}}\n\t+ P\\-class: P5600,{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://imgtec.com/mips/warrior/p\\-class\\-p5600\\-multiprocessor\\-core/\\|title\\=P\\-Class P5600 Multiprocessor Core \\- Imagination Technologies\\|website\\=Imagination Technologies\\|language\\=en\\-GB\\|access\\-date\\=June 22, 2016}} P6600\n* Aptiv: *microAptiv* (compact, real\\-time embedded processor core), *interAptiv* (multiprocessor, multi\\-threaded core with a nine\\-stage pipeline), *proAptiv* (super\\-scalar, deeply out\\-of\\-order processor core with high CoreMark/MHz score)Imagination Technologies. \"[MIPS Aptiv Processor Cores](http://www.imgtec.com/mips/aptiv/).\" Retrieved June 20, 2015\\.\n* Classic. 4K, M14K, 24K,Robert Cravotta, Embedded Insights. \"[24K](http://www.embeddedinsights.com/epd/mips/mips-24k.php).\" Retrieved October 6, 2011\\. 34K,Robert Cravotta, Embedded Insights. \"[34K](http://www.embeddedinsights.com/epd/mips/mips-34k.php).\" Retrieved October 6, 2011\\. 74K,Robert Cravotta, Embedded Insights. \"[74K](http://www.embeddedinsights.com/epd/mips/mips-74k.php).\" Retrieved October 2, 2011\\. 1004KRobert Cravotta, Embedded Insights. \"[1004K](http://www.embeddedinsights.com/epd/mips/mips-1004k.php).\" Retrieved October 2, 2011\\. (multicore and multithreaded) and 1074K (superscalar and multithreaded) families.",
"### MIPS eVocore RISC\\-V CPU IP cores",
"The MIPS eVocore CPUs are the first RISC\\-V CPU IP cores from MIPS. Both cores provide support for privileged hardware virtualization, user defined custom extensions, multi\\-threading, hybrid debug, and functional safety. They include:",
"* **eVocore P8700:** multiprocessing system combining a deep pipeline with multi\\-issue out\\-of\\-order (OOO) execution and multi\\-threading. It can scale up to 64 clusters, 512 cores and 1,024 harts/threads.\n* **eVocore I8500:** in\\-order multiprocessing system. Each core combines multi\\-threading and a triple\\-issue pipeline."
] |
Late antiquity
--------------
### Visual arts
Artworks in late antiquity commonly depicted Alexander with horns. Examples of these are found in a gold penchant stored at the [Walters Art Museum](/wiki/Walters_Art_Museum "Walters Art Museum"), [Baltimore](/wiki/Baltimore "Baltimore") in addition to a cameo at the [British Museum](/wiki/British_Museum "British Museum") in [London](/wiki/London "London") that has been dated to between the fourth to seventh centuries.{{Cite book \|last\=Stewart \|first\=Charles \|title\=A Byzantine Image of Alexander: Literature Manifested in Stone \|date\=2018 \|pages\=147–148, 188}} In addition, a sculpture depicting a two\-horned Alexander has been discovered at a transept basilica at the site of [Katalymata ton Plakoton](/wiki/Katalymata_ton_Plakoton "Katalymata ton Plakoton") on [Cyprus](/wiki/Cyprus "Cyprus") from the reign of the Byzantine emperor [Heraclius](/wiki/Heraclius "Heraclius") during the seventh century.{{Cite book \|last\=Tesei \|first\=Tommaso \|title\=The Syriac Legend of Alexander's Gate \|date\=2023 \|publisher\=Oxford University Press \|pages\=91–92, 139}}
### Literature
#### *Alexander Romances*
In the α recension of the [Alexander Romance](/wiki/Alexander_Romance "Alexander Romance"), Alexander's father is an Egyptian priest named Nechtanebus who sports a set of ram horns. After his death, Alexander is described as "the horned king" (βασιλέα κερασφόρον) by an oracle instructing Ptolemy, a general of Alexander, on where to bury him. This statement was repeated in the [Armenian recension](/wiki/Armenian_Alexander_Romance "Armenian Alexander Romance") of the Alexander Romance in the 5th century as well as in the seventh\-century [Syriac Pseudo\-Callisthenes](/wiki/Syriac_Pseudo-Callisthenes "Syriac Pseudo-Callisthenes").
#### *Syriac Alexander Legend*
At some point in late antiquity, Alexander the Great would come to be depicted as a Christian. This is figured prominently in the [Syriac Alexander Legend](/wiki/Syriac_Alexander_Legend "Syriac Alexander Legend"). The horns of Alexander are referenced twice in this text. The first appears in a prayer on Alexander's part{{Cite book \|last\=Budge \|first\=Ernest \|title\=The History of Alexander the Great: Being the Syriac Version of the Pseudo\-Callisthenes \|date\=1889 \|publisher\=Cambridge University Press \|pages\=257}};
> King Alexander bowed, and worshipping said: “Oh God, master of kings and judges, you who raise up kings and dismiss their power, I perceive with my mind that you made me great among all kings, and that you caused horns to grow on my head, so that I may gore with them the kingdoms of the world. Give me the power from the heavens of your sanctity so that I may receive strength greater than the kingdoms of the world, and I will humiliate them and glorify your name forever, oh Lord!
The second reference occurs later, as God speaks to Alexander and tells him that he gave him two horns to use them as a weapon against other worldly kingdoms;
> I made you great among all kings, and I caused horns of iron to grow on your head, so that you may gore with them the kingdoms of the world.
The two\-horned imagery of the Syriac Alexander Legend draws together elements from the [Peshitta](/wiki/Peshitta "Peshitta") of 1 Kings 22:11/2 Chronicles 18:10, Micah 4:13, and the two\-horned ram in Daniel 8\.
#### Quran
In Surah [Al\-Kahf](/wiki/Al-Kahf "Al-Kahf") (18\) in the [Quran](/wiki/Quran "Quran"), a figure by the name of [Dhu al\-Qarnayn](/wiki/Dhu_al-Qarnayn "Dhu al-Qarnayn") appears, which literally means "The Two Horned One". Islamic commentators most commonly [associated Dhu al\-Qarnayn with Alexander the Great](/wiki/Alexander_the_Great_in_Muslim_tradition "Alexander the Great in Muslim tradition").{{Cite book \|last\=Daneshgar \|first\=Majid \|title\=Studying the Qur'ān in the Muslim Academy \|date\=2020 \|publisher\=Oxford University Press \|isbn\=978\-0\-19\-006754\-0 \|series\=AAR reflection and theory in the study of religion \|location\=New York (N.Y.) \|pages\=77}}{{Cite journal \|last\=Griffith \|first\=Sidney \|date\=2022\-03\-15 \|title\=Narratives of "the Companions of the Cave," Moses and His Servant, and Dhū 'l\-Qarnayn in Sūrat al\-Kahf \|url\=http://dx.doi.org/10\.5913/jiqsa.6\.2021\.a005 \|journal\=Journal of the International Qur'anic Studies Association \|volume\=6 \|issue\=1 \|pages\=146–147 \|doi\=10\.5913/jiqsa.6\.2021\.a005 \|s2cid\=251486595 \|issn\=2474\-8420}} Second most frequently tied to Dhu al\-Qarnayn was a figure named [Sa'b Dhu Marathid](/wiki/Sa%27b_Dhu_Marathid "Sa'b Dhu Marathid"), a fictional [Himyarite king](/wiki/Himyarite_Kingdom "Himyarite Kingdom") whose biography was also derivative from that of Alexander's.{{Cite book \|title\=Empires and scriptural authorities in medieval Christian, Islamic and Buddhist communities \|date\=2020 \|publisher\=De Gruyter Oldenbourg \|isbn\=978\-3\-11\-059774\-5 \|editor\-last\=Wieser \|editor\-first\=Veronika \|series\=Cultures of Eschatology / edited by Veronika Wieser, Vincent Eltschinger and Johann Heiss \|location\=Berlin \|pages\=637–639 \|editor\-last2\=Eltschinger \|editor\-first2\=Vincent \|editor\-last3\=Heiss \|editor\-first3\=Johann}}{{Cite book \|last\=Zadeh \|first\=Travis \|title\=Mapping frontiers across medieval Islam: geography, translation, and the ʿAbbāsid Empire \|date\=2017 \|publisher\=I.B. Tauris \|isbn\=978\-1\-78453\-739\-5 \|edition\= \|location\=London New York \|pages\=97–98}} Contemporary scholars also view Dhu al\-Qarnayn as Alexander the Great.{{Cite journal \|last\=Tesei \|first\=Tommaso \|date\=2011 \|title\=The Chronological Problems of the Qur'ān: The Case of the Story of Ḏū L\-Qarnayn (q 18:83\-102\) \|url\=https://www.jstor.org/stable/43927288 \|journal\=Rivista degli studi orientali \|volume\=84 \|issue\=1/4 \|pages\=457–464 \|jstor\=43927288 \|issn\=0392\-4866}} The choice of name for Alexander as the Two Horned One draws on motifs depicting Alexander as being two\-horned in late antiquity.
|
[
"Late antiquity\n--------------",
"### Visual arts",
"Artworks in late antiquity commonly depicted Alexander with horns. Examples of these are found in a gold penchant stored at the [Walters Art Museum](/wiki/Walters_Art_Museum \"Walters Art Museum\"), [Baltimore](/wiki/Baltimore \"Baltimore\") in addition to a cameo at the [British Museum](/wiki/British_Museum \"British Museum\") in [London](/wiki/London \"London\") that has been dated to between the fourth to seventh centuries.{{Cite book \\|last\\=Stewart \\|first\\=Charles \\|title\\=A Byzantine Image of Alexander: Literature Manifested in Stone \\|date\\=2018 \\|pages\\=147–148, 188}} In addition, a sculpture depicting a two\\-horned Alexander has been discovered at a transept basilica at the site of [Katalymata ton Plakoton](/wiki/Katalymata_ton_Plakoton \"Katalymata ton Plakoton\") on [Cyprus](/wiki/Cyprus \"Cyprus\") from the reign of the Byzantine emperor [Heraclius](/wiki/Heraclius \"Heraclius\") during the seventh century.{{Cite book \\|last\\=Tesei \\|first\\=Tommaso \\|title\\=The Syriac Legend of Alexander's Gate \\|date\\=2023 \\|publisher\\=Oxford University Press \\|pages\\=91–92, 139}}",
"### Literature",
"#### *Alexander Romances*",
"In the α recension of the [Alexander Romance](/wiki/Alexander_Romance \"Alexander Romance\"), Alexander's father is an Egyptian priest named Nechtanebus who sports a set of ram horns. After his death, Alexander is described as \"the horned king\" (βασιλέα κερασφόρον) by an oracle instructing Ptolemy, a general of Alexander, on where to bury him. This statement was repeated in the [Armenian recension](/wiki/Armenian_Alexander_Romance \"Armenian Alexander Romance\") of the Alexander Romance in the 5th century as well as in the seventh\\-century [Syriac Pseudo\\-Callisthenes](/wiki/Syriac_Pseudo-Callisthenes \"Syriac Pseudo-Callisthenes\").",
"#### *Syriac Alexander Legend*",
"At some point in late antiquity, Alexander the Great would come to be depicted as a Christian. This is figured prominently in the [Syriac Alexander Legend](/wiki/Syriac_Alexander_Legend \"Syriac Alexander Legend\"). The horns of Alexander are referenced twice in this text. The first appears in a prayer on Alexander's part{{Cite book \\|last\\=Budge \\|first\\=Ernest \\|title\\=The History of Alexander the Great: Being the Syriac Version of the Pseudo\\-Callisthenes \\|date\\=1889 \\|publisher\\=Cambridge University Press \\|pages\\=257}};\n> King Alexander bowed, and worshipping said: “Oh God, master of kings and judges, you who raise up kings and dismiss their power, I perceive with my mind that you made me great among all kings, and that you caused horns to grow on my head, so that I may gore with them the kingdoms of the world. Give me the power from the heavens of your sanctity so that I may receive strength greater than the kingdoms of the world, and I will humiliate them and glorify your name forever, oh Lord!",
"The second reference occurs later, as God speaks to Alexander and tells him that he gave him two horns to use them as a weapon against other worldly kingdoms;\n> I made you great among all kings, and I caused horns of iron to grow on your head, so that you may gore with them the kingdoms of the world.",
"The two\\-horned imagery of the Syriac Alexander Legend draws together elements from the [Peshitta](/wiki/Peshitta \"Peshitta\") of 1 Kings 22:11/2 Chronicles 18:10, Micah 4:13, and the two\\-horned ram in Daniel 8\\.",
"#### Quran",
"In Surah [Al\\-Kahf](/wiki/Al-Kahf \"Al-Kahf\") (18\\) in the [Quran](/wiki/Quran \"Quran\"), a figure by the name of [Dhu al\\-Qarnayn](/wiki/Dhu_al-Qarnayn \"Dhu al-Qarnayn\") appears, which literally means \"The Two Horned One\". Islamic commentators most commonly [associated Dhu al\\-Qarnayn with Alexander the Great](/wiki/Alexander_the_Great_in_Muslim_tradition \"Alexander the Great in Muslim tradition\").{{Cite book \\|last\\=Daneshgar \\|first\\=Majid \\|title\\=Studying the Qur'ān in the Muslim Academy \\|date\\=2020 \\|publisher\\=Oxford University Press \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-19\\-006754\\-0 \\|series\\=AAR reflection and theory in the study of religion \\|location\\=New York (N.Y.) \\|pages\\=77}}{{Cite journal \\|last\\=Griffith \\|first\\=Sidney \\|date\\=2022\\-03\\-15 \\|title\\=Narratives of \"the Companions of the Cave,\" Moses and His Servant, and Dhū 'l\\-Qarnayn in Sūrat al\\-Kahf \\|url\\=http://dx.doi.org/10\\.5913/jiqsa.6\\.2021\\.a005 \\|journal\\=Journal of the International Qur'anic Studies Association \\|volume\\=6 \\|issue\\=1 \\|pages\\=146–147 \\|doi\\=10\\.5913/jiqsa.6\\.2021\\.a005 \\|s2cid\\=251486595 \\|issn\\=2474\\-8420}} Second most frequently tied to Dhu al\\-Qarnayn was a figure named [Sa'b Dhu Marathid](/wiki/Sa%27b_Dhu_Marathid \"Sa'b Dhu Marathid\"), a fictional [Himyarite king](/wiki/Himyarite_Kingdom \"Himyarite Kingdom\") whose biography was also derivative from that of Alexander's.{{Cite book \\|title\\=Empires and scriptural authorities in medieval Christian, Islamic and Buddhist communities \\|date\\=2020 \\|publisher\\=De Gruyter Oldenbourg \\|isbn\\=978\\-3\\-11\\-059774\\-5 \\|editor\\-last\\=Wieser \\|editor\\-first\\=Veronika \\|series\\=Cultures of Eschatology / edited by Veronika Wieser, Vincent Eltschinger and Johann Heiss \\|location\\=Berlin \\|pages\\=637–639 \\|editor\\-last2\\=Eltschinger \\|editor\\-first2\\=Vincent \\|editor\\-last3\\=Heiss \\|editor\\-first3\\=Johann}}{{Cite book \\|last\\=Zadeh \\|first\\=Travis \\|title\\=Mapping frontiers across medieval Islam: geography, translation, and the ʿAbbāsid Empire \\|date\\=2017 \\|publisher\\=I.B. Tauris \\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-78453\\-739\\-5 \\|edition\\= \\|location\\=London New York \\|pages\\=97–98}} Contemporary scholars also view Dhu al\\-Qarnayn as Alexander the Great.{{Cite journal \\|last\\=Tesei \\|first\\=Tommaso \\|date\\=2011 \\|title\\=The Chronological Problems of the Qur'ān: The Case of the Story of Ḏū L\\-Qarnayn (q 18:83\\-102\\) \\|url\\=https://www.jstor.org/stable/43927288 \\|journal\\=Rivista degli studi orientali \\|volume\\=84 \\|issue\\=1/4 \\|pages\\=457–464 \\|jstor\\=43927288 \\|issn\\=0392\\-4866}} The choice of name for Alexander as the Two Horned One draws on motifs depicting Alexander as being two\\-horned in late antiquity.",
""
] |
### Literature
#### *Alexander Romances*
In the α recension of the [Alexander Romance](/wiki/Alexander_Romance "Alexander Romance"), Alexander's father is an Egyptian priest named Nechtanebus who sports a set of ram horns. After his death, Alexander is described as "the horned king" (βασιλέα κερασφόρον) by an oracle instructing Ptolemy, a general of Alexander, on where to bury him. This statement was repeated in the [Armenian recension](/wiki/Armenian_Alexander_Romance "Armenian Alexander Romance") of the Alexander Romance in the 5th century as well as in the seventh\-century [Syriac Pseudo\-Callisthenes](/wiki/Syriac_Pseudo-Callisthenes "Syriac Pseudo-Callisthenes").
#### *Syriac Alexander Legend*
At some point in late antiquity, Alexander the Great would come to be depicted as a Christian. This is figured prominently in the [Syriac Alexander Legend](/wiki/Syriac_Alexander_Legend "Syriac Alexander Legend"). The horns of Alexander are referenced twice in this text. The first appears in a prayer on Alexander's part{{Cite book \|last\=Budge \|first\=Ernest \|title\=The History of Alexander the Great: Being the Syriac Version of the Pseudo\-Callisthenes \|date\=1889 \|publisher\=Cambridge University Press \|pages\=257}};
> King Alexander bowed, and worshipping said: “Oh God, master of kings and judges, you who raise up kings and dismiss their power, I perceive with my mind that you made me great among all kings, and that you caused horns to grow on my head, so that I may gore with them the kingdoms of the world. Give me the power from the heavens of your sanctity so that I may receive strength greater than the kingdoms of the world, and I will humiliate them and glorify your name forever, oh Lord!
The second reference occurs later, as God speaks to Alexander and tells him that he gave him two horns to use them as a weapon against other worldly kingdoms;
> I made you great among all kings, and I caused horns of iron to grow on your head, so that you may gore with them the kingdoms of the world.
The two\-horned imagery of the Syriac Alexander Legend draws together elements from the [Peshitta](/wiki/Peshitta "Peshitta") of 1 Kings 22:11/2 Chronicles 18:10, Micah 4:13, and the two\-horned ram in Daniel 8\.
#### Quran
In Surah [Al\-Kahf](/wiki/Al-Kahf "Al-Kahf") (18\) in the [Quran](/wiki/Quran "Quran"), a figure by the name of [Dhu al\-Qarnayn](/wiki/Dhu_al-Qarnayn "Dhu al-Qarnayn") appears, which literally means "The Two Horned One". Islamic commentators most commonly [associated Dhu al\-Qarnayn with Alexander the Great](/wiki/Alexander_the_Great_in_Muslim_tradition "Alexander the Great in Muslim tradition").{{Cite book \|last\=Daneshgar \|first\=Majid \|title\=Studying the Qur'ān in the Muslim Academy \|date\=2020 \|publisher\=Oxford University Press \|isbn\=978\-0\-19\-006754\-0 \|series\=AAR reflection and theory in the study of religion \|location\=New York (N.Y.) \|pages\=77}}{{Cite journal \|last\=Griffith \|first\=Sidney \|date\=2022\-03\-15 \|title\=Narratives of "the Companions of the Cave," Moses and His Servant, and Dhū 'l\-Qarnayn in Sūrat al\-Kahf \|url\=http://dx.doi.org/10\.5913/jiqsa.6\.2021\.a005 \|journal\=Journal of the International Qur'anic Studies Association \|volume\=6 \|issue\=1 \|pages\=146–147 \|doi\=10\.5913/jiqsa.6\.2021\.a005 \|s2cid\=251486595 \|issn\=2474\-8420}} Second most frequently tied to Dhu al\-Qarnayn was a figure named [Sa'b Dhu Marathid](/wiki/Sa%27b_Dhu_Marathid "Sa'b Dhu Marathid"), a fictional [Himyarite king](/wiki/Himyarite_Kingdom "Himyarite Kingdom") whose biography was also derivative from that of Alexander's.{{Cite book \|title\=Empires and scriptural authorities in medieval Christian, Islamic and Buddhist communities \|date\=2020 \|publisher\=De Gruyter Oldenbourg \|isbn\=978\-3\-11\-059774\-5 \|editor\-last\=Wieser \|editor\-first\=Veronika \|series\=Cultures of Eschatology / edited by Veronika Wieser, Vincent Eltschinger and Johann Heiss \|location\=Berlin \|pages\=637–639 \|editor\-last2\=Eltschinger \|editor\-first2\=Vincent \|editor\-last3\=Heiss \|editor\-first3\=Johann}}{{Cite book \|last\=Zadeh \|first\=Travis \|title\=Mapping frontiers across medieval Islam: geography, translation, and the ʿAbbāsid Empire \|date\=2017 \|publisher\=I.B. Tauris \|isbn\=978\-1\-78453\-739\-5 \|edition\= \|location\=London New York \|pages\=97–98}} Contemporary scholars also view Dhu al\-Qarnayn as Alexander the Great.{{Cite journal \|last\=Tesei \|first\=Tommaso \|date\=2011 \|title\=The Chronological Problems of the Qur'ān: The Case of the Story of Ḏū L\-Qarnayn (q 18:83\-102\) \|url\=https://www.jstor.org/stable/43927288 \|journal\=Rivista degli studi orientali \|volume\=84 \|issue\=1/4 \|pages\=457–464 \|jstor\=43927288 \|issn\=0392\-4866}} The choice of name for Alexander as the Two Horned One draws on motifs depicting Alexander as being two\-horned in late antiquity.
|
[
"### Literature",
"#### *Alexander Romances*",
"In the α recension of the [Alexander Romance](/wiki/Alexander_Romance \"Alexander Romance\"), Alexander's father is an Egyptian priest named Nechtanebus who sports a set of ram horns. After his death, Alexander is described as \"the horned king\" (βασιλέα κερασφόρον) by an oracle instructing Ptolemy, a general of Alexander, on where to bury him. This statement was repeated in the [Armenian recension](/wiki/Armenian_Alexander_Romance \"Armenian Alexander Romance\") of the Alexander Romance in the 5th century as well as in the seventh\\-century [Syriac Pseudo\\-Callisthenes](/wiki/Syriac_Pseudo-Callisthenes \"Syriac Pseudo-Callisthenes\").",
"#### *Syriac Alexander Legend*",
"At some point in late antiquity, Alexander the Great would come to be depicted as a Christian. This is figured prominently in the [Syriac Alexander Legend](/wiki/Syriac_Alexander_Legend \"Syriac Alexander Legend\"). The horns of Alexander are referenced twice in this text. The first appears in a prayer on Alexander's part{{Cite book \\|last\\=Budge \\|first\\=Ernest \\|title\\=The History of Alexander the Great: Being the Syriac Version of the Pseudo\\-Callisthenes \\|date\\=1889 \\|publisher\\=Cambridge University Press \\|pages\\=257}};\n> King Alexander bowed, and worshipping said: “Oh God, master of kings and judges, you who raise up kings and dismiss their power, I perceive with my mind that you made me great among all kings, and that you caused horns to grow on my head, so that I may gore with them the kingdoms of the world. Give me the power from the heavens of your sanctity so that I may receive strength greater than the kingdoms of the world, and I will humiliate them and glorify your name forever, oh Lord!",
"The second reference occurs later, as God speaks to Alexander and tells him that he gave him two horns to use them as a weapon against other worldly kingdoms;\n> I made you great among all kings, and I caused horns of iron to grow on your head, so that you may gore with them the kingdoms of the world.",
"The two\\-horned imagery of the Syriac Alexander Legend draws together elements from the [Peshitta](/wiki/Peshitta \"Peshitta\") of 1 Kings 22:11/2 Chronicles 18:10, Micah 4:13, and the two\\-horned ram in Daniel 8\\.",
"#### Quran",
"In Surah [Al\\-Kahf](/wiki/Al-Kahf \"Al-Kahf\") (18\\) in the [Quran](/wiki/Quran \"Quran\"), a figure by the name of [Dhu al\\-Qarnayn](/wiki/Dhu_al-Qarnayn \"Dhu al-Qarnayn\") appears, which literally means \"The Two Horned One\". Islamic commentators most commonly [associated Dhu al\\-Qarnayn with Alexander the Great](/wiki/Alexander_the_Great_in_Muslim_tradition \"Alexander the Great in Muslim tradition\").{{Cite book \\|last\\=Daneshgar \\|first\\=Majid \\|title\\=Studying the Qur'ān in the Muslim Academy \\|date\\=2020 \\|publisher\\=Oxford University Press \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-19\\-006754\\-0 \\|series\\=AAR reflection and theory in the study of religion \\|location\\=New York (N.Y.) \\|pages\\=77}}{{Cite journal \\|last\\=Griffith \\|first\\=Sidney \\|date\\=2022\\-03\\-15 \\|title\\=Narratives of \"the Companions of the Cave,\" Moses and His Servant, and Dhū 'l\\-Qarnayn in Sūrat al\\-Kahf \\|url\\=http://dx.doi.org/10\\.5913/jiqsa.6\\.2021\\.a005 \\|journal\\=Journal of the International Qur'anic Studies Association \\|volume\\=6 \\|issue\\=1 \\|pages\\=146–147 \\|doi\\=10\\.5913/jiqsa.6\\.2021\\.a005 \\|s2cid\\=251486595 \\|issn\\=2474\\-8420}} Second most frequently tied to Dhu al\\-Qarnayn was a figure named [Sa'b Dhu Marathid](/wiki/Sa%27b_Dhu_Marathid \"Sa'b Dhu Marathid\"), a fictional [Himyarite king](/wiki/Himyarite_Kingdom \"Himyarite Kingdom\") whose biography was also derivative from that of Alexander's.{{Cite book \\|title\\=Empires and scriptural authorities in medieval Christian, Islamic and Buddhist communities \\|date\\=2020 \\|publisher\\=De Gruyter Oldenbourg \\|isbn\\=978\\-3\\-11\\-059774\\-5 \\|editor\\-last\\=Wieser \\|editor\\-first\\=Veronika \\|series\\=Cultures of Eschatology / edited by Veronika Wieser, Vincent Eltschinger and Johann Heiss \\|location\\=Berlin \\|pages\\=637–639 \\|editor\\-last2\\=Eltschinger \\|editor\\-first2\\=Vincent \\|editor\\-last3\\=Heiss \\|editor\\-first3\\=Johann}}{{Cite book \\|last\\=Zadeh \\|first\\=Travis \\|title\\=Mapping frontiers across medieval Islam: geography, translation, and the ʿAbbāsid Empire \\|date\\=2017 \\|publisher\\=I.B. Tauris \\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-78453\\-739\\-5 \\|edition\\= \\|location\\=London New York \\|pages\\=97–98}} Contemporary scholars also view Dhu al\\-Qarnayn as Alexander the Great.{{Cite journal \\|last\\=Tesei \\|first\\=Tommaso \\|date\\=2011 \\|title\\=The Chronological Problems of the Qur'ān: The Case of the Story of Ḏū L\\-Qarnayn (q 18:83\\-102\\) \\|url\\=https://www.jstor.org/stable/43927288 \\|journal\\=Rivista degli studi orientali \\|volume\\=84 \\|issue\\=1/4 \\|pages\\=457–464 \\|jstor\\=43927288 \\|issn\\=0392\\-4866}} The choice of name for Alexander as the Two Horned One draws on motifs depicting Alexander as being two\\-horned in late antiquity.",
""
] |
Demographics
------------
{{US Census population
\|1900\= 259
\|1910\= 562
\|1920\= 649
\|1930\= 604
\|1940\= 676
\|1950\= 669
\|1960\= 661
\|1970\= 615
\|1980\= 647
\|1990\= 589
\|2000\= 649
\|2010\= 743
\|2020\= 626
\|estyear\=2022
\|estimate\=641
\|estref\={{cite web\|url\=https://www.census.gov/data/tables/time\-series/demo/popest/2020s\-total\-cities\-and\-towns.html \|date\=February 19, 2024\|title\=City and Town Population Totals: 2020–2022\|publisher\=United States Census Bureau\|accessdate\=February 19, 2024}}
\|align\-fn\=center
\|footnote\=U.S. Decennial Census{{cite web\|url\=https://www.census.gov/programs\-surveys/decennial\-census.html\|title\=Census of Population and Housing\|publisher\=United States Census Bureau\|accessdate\=June 4, 2015}}
2020 Census
}}
### 2010 census
As of the [2010 census](/wiki/2010_United_States_census "2010 United States census"), there were 743 people, 294 households, and 167 families living in the city. The [population density](/wiki/Population_density "Population density") was {{convert\|473\.2\|PD/sqmi\|PD/km2\|1}}. There were 320 housing units at an average density of {{convert\|203\.8\|/sqmi\|/km2\|1}}. The racial makeup of the city was 98\.7% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 "White (U.S. Census)"), 0\.3% [African American](/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29 "African American (U.S. Census)"), 0\.1% [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 "Native American (U.S. Census)"), 0\.1% [Asian](/wiki/Asian_%28U.S._Census%29 "Asian (U.S. Census)"), 0\.3% from [other races](/wiki/Race_%28U.S._Census%29 "Race (U.S. Census)"), and 0\.5% from two or more races. [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 "Hispanic (U.S. Census)") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 "Latino (U.S. Census)") of any race were 2\.6% of the population.
There were 294 households, of which 27\.6% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 41\.8% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage "Marriage") living together, 10\.5% had a female householder with no husband present, 4\.4% had a male householder with no wife present, and 43\.2% were non\-families. 38\.4% of all households were made up of individuals, and 22\.1% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\.28 and the average family size was 3\.00\.
The median age in the city was 43\.9 years. 22\.9% of residents were under the age of 18; 6\.8% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 22% were from 25 to 44; 20\.5% were from 45 to 64; and 27\.7% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 49\.3% male and 50\.7% female.
### 2000 census
As of the [2000 census](/wiki/2000_United_States_census "2000 United States census"), there were 649 people, 278 households, and 167 families living in the city. The population density was {{convert\|446\.7\|PD/sqmi\|PD/km2\|sp\=us\|adj\=off}}. There were 338 housing units at an average density of {{convert\|232\.7\|/sqmi\|/km2\|sp\=us\|adj\=off}}. The racial makeup of the city was 99\.38% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 "White (U.S. Census)"), 0\.15% [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 "Native American (U.S. Census)"), 0\.15% [Pacific Islander](/wiki/Pacific_Islander_%28U.S._Census%29 "Pacific Islander (U.S. Census)"), 0\.15% from [other races](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 "Race (United States Census)"), and 0\.15% from two or more races. [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 "Hispanic (U.S. Census)") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 "Latino (U.S. Census)") of any race were 2\.93% of the population.
There were 278 households, out of which 30\.6% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 51\.8% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage "Marriage") living together, 5\.4% had a female householder with no husband present, and 39\.6% were non\-families. 34\.5% of all households were made up of individuals, and 20\.5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\.33 and the average family size was 3\.03\.
In the city, the population was spread out, with 27\.7% under the age of 18, 5\.2% from 18 to 24, 24\.3% from 25 to 44, 21\.0% from 45 to 64, and 21\.7% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 39 years. For every 100 females, there were 89\.2 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 87\.6 males.
The median income for a household in the city was $35,625, and the median income for a family was $43,083\. Males had a median income of $26,250 versus $20,156 for females. The [per capita income](/wiki/Per_capita_income "Per capita income") for the city was $17,048\. About 8\.1% of families and 12\.9% of the population were below the [poverty line](/wiki/Poverty_line "Poverty line"), including 16\.0% of those under age 18 and 19\.5% of those age 65 or over.
|
[
"Demographics\n------------",
"{{US Census population\n\\|1900\\= 259\n\\|1910\\= 562\n\\|1920\\= 649\n\\|1930\\= 604\n\\|1940\\= 676\n\\|1950\\= 669\n\\|1960\\= 661\n\\|1970\\= 615\n\\|1980\\= 647\n\\|1990\\= 589\n\\|2000\\= 649\n\\|2010\\= 743\n\\|2020\\= 626\n\\|estyear\\=2022\n\\|estimate\\=641\n\\|estref\\={{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.census.gov/data/tables/time\\-series/demo/popest/2020s\\-total\\-cities\\-and\\-towns.html \\|date\\=February 19, 2024\\|title\\=City and Town Population Totals: 2020–2022\\|publisher\\=United States Census Bureau\\|accessdate\\=February 19, 2024}}\n\\|align\\-fn\\=center\n\\|footnote\\=U.S. Decennial Census{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.census.gov/programs\\-surveys/decennial\\-census.html\\|title\\=Census of Population and Housing\\|publisher\\=United States Census Bureau\\|accessdate\\=June 4, 2015}} \n2020 Census\n}}",
"### 2010 census",
"As of the [2010 census](/wiki/2010_United_States_census \"2010 United States census\"), there were 743 people, 294 households, and 167 families living in the city. The [population density](/wiki/Population_density \"Population density\") was {{convert\\|473\\.2\\|PD/sqmi\\|PD/km2\\|1}}. There were 320 housing units at an average density of {{convert\\|203\\.8\\|/sqmi\\|/km2\\|1}}. The racial makeup of the city was 98\\.7% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 \"White (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.3% [African American](/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"African American (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.1% [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Native American (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.1% [Asian](/wiki/Asian_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Asian (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.3% from [other races](/wiki/Race_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Race (U.S. Census)\"), and 0\\.5% from two or more races. [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Hispanic (U.S. Census)\") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Latino (U.S. Census)\") of any race were 2\\.6% of the population.",
"There were 294 households, of which 27\\.6% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 41\\.8% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage \"Marriage\") living together, 10\\.5% had a female householder with no husband present, 4\\.4% had a male householder with no wife present, and 43\\.2% were non\\-families. 38\\.4% of all households were made up of individuals, and 22\\.1% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\\.28 and the average family size was 3\\.00\\.",
"The median age in the city was 43\\.9 years. 22\\.9% of residents were under the age of 18; 6\\.8% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 22% were from 25 to 44; 20\\.5% were from 45 to 64; and 27\\.7% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 49\\.3% male and 50\\.7% female.",
"### 2000 census",
"As of the [2000 census](/wiki/2000_United_States_census \"2000 United States census\"), there were 649 people, 278 households, and 167 families living in the city. The population density was {{convert\\|446\\.7\\|PD/sqmi\\|PD/km2\\|sp\\=us\\|adj\\=off}}. There were 338 housing units at an average density of {{convert\\|232\\.7\\|/sqmi\\|/km2\\|sp\\=us\\|adj\\=off}}. The racial makeup of the city was 99\\.38% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 \"White (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.15% [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Native American (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.15% [Pacific Islander](/wiki/Pacific_Islander_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Pacific Islander (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.15% from [other races](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 \"Race (United States Census)\"), and 0\\.15% from two or more races. [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Hispanic (U.S. Census)\") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Latino (U.S. Census)\") of any race were 2\\.93% of the population.",
"There were 278 households, out of which 30\\.6% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 51\\.8% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage \"Marriage\") living together, 5\\.4% had a female householder with no husband present, and 39\\.6% were non\\-families. 34\\.5% of all households were made up of individuals, and 20\\.5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\\.33 and the average family size was 3\\.03\\.",
"In the city, the population was spread out, with 27\\.7% under the age of 18, 5\\.2% from 18 to 24, 24\\.3% from 25 to 44, 21\\.0% from 45 to 64, and 21\\.7% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 39 years. For every 100 females, there were 89\\.2 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 87\\.6 males.",
"The median income for a household in the city was $35,625, and the median income for a family was $43,083\\. Males had a median income of $26,250 versus $20,156 for females. The [per capita income](/wiki/Per_capita_income \"Per capita income\") for the city was $17,048\\. About 8\\.1% of families and 12\\.9% of the population were below the [poverty line](/wiki/Poverty_line \"Poverty line\"), including 16\\.0% of those under age 18 and 19\\.5% of those age 65 or over.",
""
] |
Republic\-era impeachments and related proceedings
--------------------------------------------------
### Expulsion of John Abbot and Daniel Martin (representatives) in 1781
On June 28, 1781, John Abbot and Daniel Martin, both members of the General Assembly, were "impeached" and removed from office. While this was termed an "impeachment", the entire process occurred in only one legislative chamber, the General Assembly.{{cite web \|title\=Impeachment of State Officials \|url\=https://www.cga.ct.gov/2004/rpt/2004\-r\-0184\.htm \|website\=www.cga.ct.gov \|publisher\=ORL Research \|access\-date\=28 December 2022 \|date\=February 9, 2004}} This was despite the Republic's constitution requiring that impeachments be tried before the Council of Censors and the governor or lieutenant governor.{{cite web \|title\=Representatives John Abbot and Daniel Martin, "Impeached," Tried, Convicted and Punished, 1781 \|url\=http://vermont\-archives.org/governance/impeach/abbot.htm \|publisher\=Office of the Vermont Secretary of State/Vermont State Archives \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20030309154909/http://vermont\-archives.org/governance/impeach/abbot.htm \|archive\-date\=March 9, 2003}} A more accurate descriptor by modern standards would perhaps be "expulsion" and "reprimand". Martin's removal ended later that day, as he was restored to his seat after showing "sorrow and repentance" before the General Assembly. Abbot was a representative from the town of Hoosack and Martin was a representative from the town of [Putney](/wiki/Putney%2C_Vermont "Putney, Vermont"). The impeachment resolution alleged that Martin had sold Abbott discounted Vermont bills of credit at one\-fourth their face value in exchange for hard currency. This action took place during a financial crisis in Vermont.
### John Barrett (Windsor County justice of the peace) in 1783–1785
On October 16, 1783, the General Assembly received a petition from residents of [Springfield](/wiki/Springfield%2C_Vermont "Springfield, Vermont") requesting John Barrett (alternatively spelled Barret), [justice of the peace](/wiki/Justice_of_the_peace "Justice of the peace") of [Windsor County](/wiki/Windsor_County%2C_Vermont "Windsor County, Vermont") be impeached for maladministration. Several complaints had already been received by the General Assembly by individuals that had received judgement and writs from Barrett in 1781\. Action was not immediately taken by the legislature, however, and the impeachment process would ultimately last until 1785\.
On March 2, 1784, the General Assembly moved to issue an impeachment order against Berrett form maladministration in effect, "virtually suspends him from officiating in his office of justice of the peace" and ordering that [Stephen R. Bradley](/wiki/Stephen_R._Bradley "Stephen R. Bradley") act as prosecutor in the impeachment trial. On October 25, 1784, after receiving another petition in regards to Barrett, made a finding that "no impeachment was ever made before the Governor and Council in pursuance of said order" and that Barrett had never received official notice about the impeachment order, judging that Barrett was therefore not "virtually" suspended from "officiating in his said office." On October 27, 1784, the General Assembly authorized and impeachment and moved that [Samuel Knight](/wiki/Samuel_Knight_%28judge%29 "Samuel Knight (judge)") would also prosecute impeachment against Barrett. Knight and Stephen R. Bradley prosecuted in the impeachment trial.
On June 9, 1785, Bradley presented the charges against Barrett to the Governor and Council. Barrett defended himself, and plead not guilty. Barrett's impeachment charges alleged that he had, "excited and encouraged many needless \& vexatious Law suits to enhance bills of Costs to the oppression of the People, to the great injury of the Common Weal and against the Peace and dignity of the freemen of the State of Vermont." One accusation that Bradley made was that Barrett had issued a judgement in a case that he knew had already been [settled](/wiki/Settlement_%28litigation%29 "Settlement (litigation)") by its parties. Another allegation was that he issued a ruling in a case despite knowing that the defendant had been deceased for three years. On June 11, 1785, the Governor and Council found Barrett guilty of maladministration, suspending him from office for six months and ordering him to pay the expenses of the prosecution.
On Barrett's behalf, [Stephen Jacob](/wiki/Stephen_Jacob "Stephen Jacob") requested that the "cause of his impeachment before the Council" be reviewed. The Council, however, said such a review could not occur, "without order of the Legislature." On June 16, 1785, the General Assembly moved to authorize a new hearing before the Governor and Council. Additionally, Barret acknowledged that he owed fifty pounds of the debt to the State Treasurer to pay for the expenses of the prosecution of his first impeachment trial. The Governor and Council heard Barrett's impeachment for a second time on October 20 and 21, 1785\. They again found him guilty of maladministration and again handed him a six\-month suspension and ordered him to pay the expenses of the prosecution.{{cite web \|title\=Impeachment of State Officials \|url\=https://www.cga.ct.gov/2004/rpt/2004\-r\-0184\.htm \|website\=www.cga.ct.gov \|publisher\=ORL Research \|access\-date\=28 December 2022 \|date\=February 9, 2004}}{{cite web \|title\=John Barrett or Barret, Impeached, Tried and Convicted, 1783–1785 \|url\=http://vermont\-archives.org/governance/impeach/barrett.htm \|website\=vermont\-archives.org \|publisher\=Vermont State Archives/Office of Vermont Secretary of State \|access\-date\=17 June 2023 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20030309155028/http://vermont\-archives.org/governance/impeach/barrett.htm \|archive\-date\=March 9, 2003 \|date\=9 March 2003 \|url\-status\=dead}}
### Matthew Lyon (clerk of the Court of Confiscation) in 1785
[thumb\|Portrait of Lyon](/wiki/File:Lyon-Matthew-610x812.webp "Lyon-Matthew-610x812.webp")
On October 15, 1785, Clerk of the Court of Confiscation [Matthew Lyon](/wiki/Matthew_Lyon "Matthew Lyon") was impeached for his failure to provide the state with records of the Court of Confiscation. The impeachment resolution also appointed three of the Court of Confiscation's members as [impeachment managers](/wiki/Impeachment_manager "Impeachment manager"). Three days later, after an [impeachment trial](/wiki/Impeachment_trial "Impeachment trial") before both the Governor and Council, Lyon was reprimanded and ordered by the court of impeachment to pay the expenses of the prosecution. It was additionally ordered by the court of impeachment that Lyon be fined 500 pounds if he failed to comply by delivering the documents. Lyon requested a new trial, and the Governor's Council obliged. This was despite having told John Barrett months earlier that they believed such a second trial could only be authorized by the General Assembly.{{cite web \|title\=Matthew Lyon, Impeached, Tried, and Convicted, 1785 \|url\=http://vermont\-archives.org/governance/impeach/lyon2\.htm \|website\=vermont\-archives.org \|publisher\=Vermont Archives/Office of Vermont Secretary of State \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20030309154837/http://vermont\-archives.org/governance/impeach/lyon2\.htm \|archive\-date\=March 9, 2003 \|date\=9 March 2003}} In the new trial they again found against him.{{cite journal \|last1\=Gillies \|first1\=Paul S. \|title\=Ruminations Impeachment in Vermont \|journal\=The Vermont Bar Journal \|date\=Spring 2020 \|volume\=46 \|issue\=1 \|pages\=14–18 \|url\=https://www.vtbar.org/wp\-content/uploads/2021/03/2020VBASpringJournal\-webrevisedreduced.pdf}} There are no records that suggest that Lyon paid any of the fines he was ordered to, however.
### Expulsion of Jonathan Fassett (representative) in 1787
Similar to Abbot and Martin before him, Vermont General Assembly member Jonathan Fassett was handed an expulsion in an action that was referred to as an "impeachment".
Fassett had played a role in leading the November 1786 Rutland Court Riots in which a mob acted to prevent the [Rutland County](/wiki/Rutland_County%2C_Vermont "Rutland County, Vermont") Court from sitting.{{cite web \|last1\=Sanford \|first1\=Gregory \|title\=The Rutland Court Riots of 1786 \|url\=https://sos.vermont.gov/media/fxviatgf/tlkcourt3\.pdf \|website\=sos.vermont.gov \|publisher\=Office of the Vermont Secretary of State/Vermont State Archivist \|access\-date\=16 June 2023 \|date\=May 25, 1999}} On February 19, 1789 he was ordered by the General Assembly to be suspended pending consideration of a petition brought against him for this offense. After evidence was considered, the General Assembly suspended him and then on February 28, 1787 unanimously voted to expel him.{{cite web \|title\=Jonathan Fassett, "impeached" and expelled from the General Assembly, 1787 \|url\=http://vermont\-archives.org/governance/impeach/fassett.htm \|website\=vermont\-archives.org \|publisher\=Vermont State Archives/Office of Vermont Secretary of State Deb Markowitz – Archives \|access\-date\=17 June 2023 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20030309154554/http://vermont\-archives.org/governance/impeach/fassett.htm \|archive\-date\=March 9, 2003 \|date\=9 March 2003 \|url\-status\=dead}} The legislature also ordered him to pay the expenses of Rutland County State's Attorney Darius Chipman, who had prosecuted the case against him.
|
[
"Republic\\-era impeachments and related proceedings\n--------------------------------------------------",
"### Expulsion of John Abbot and Daniel Martin (representatives) in 1781",
"On June 28, 1781, John Abbot and Daniel Martin, both members of the General Assembly, were \"impeached\" and removed from office. While this was termed an \"impeachment\", the entire process occurred in only one legislative chamber, the General Assembly.{{cite web \\|title\\=Impeachment of State Officials \\|url\\=https://www.cga.ct.gov/2004/rpt/2004\\-r\\-0184\\.htm \\|website\\=www.cga.ct.gov \\|publisher\\=ORL Research \\|access\\-date\\=28 December 2022 \\|date\\=February 9, 2004}} This was despite the Republic's constitution requiring that impeachments be tried before the Council of Censors and the governor or lieutenant governor.{{cite web \\|title\\=Representatives John Abbot and Daniel Martin, \"Impeached,\" Tried, Convicted and Punished, 1781 \\|url\\=http://vermont\\-archives.org/governance/impeach/abbot.htm \\|publisher\\=Office of the Vermont Secretary of State/Vermont State Archives \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20030309154909/http://vermont\\-archives.org/governance/impeach/abbot.htm \\|archive\\-date\\=March 9, 2003}} A more accurate descriptor by modern standards would perhaps be \"expulsion\" and \"reprimand\". Martin's removal ended later that day, as he was restored to his seat after showing \"sorrow and repentance\" before the General Assembly. Abbot was a representative from the town of Hoosack and Martin was a representative from the town of [Putney](/wiki/Putney%2C_Vermont \"Putney, Vermont\"). The impeachment resolution alleged that Martin had sold Abbott discounted Vermont bills of credit at one\\-fourth their face value in exchange for hard currency. This action took place during a financial crisis in Vermont.",
"### John Barrett (Windsor County justice of the peace) in 1783–1785",
"On October 16, 1783, the General Assembly received a petition from residents of [Springfield](/wiki/Springfield%2C_Vermont \"Springfield, Vermont\") requesting John Barrett (alternatively spelled Barret), [justice of the peace](/wiki/Justice_of_the_peace \"Justice of the peace\") of [Windsor County](/wiki/Windsor_County%2C_Vermont \"Windsor County, Vermont\") be impeached for maladministration. Several complaints had already been received by the General Assembly by individuals that had received judgement and writs from Barrett in 1781\\. Action was not immediately taken by the legislature, however, and the impeachment process would ultimately last until 1785\\.",
"On March 2, 1784, the General Assembly moved to issue an impeachment order against Berrett form maladministration in effect, \"virtually suspends him from officiating in his office of justice of the peace\" and ordering that [Stephen R. Bradley](/wiki/Stephen_R._Bradley \"Stephen R. Bradley\") act as prosecutor in the impeachment trial. On October 25, 1784, after receiving another petition in regards to Barrett, made a finding that \"no impeachment was ever made before the Governor and Council in pursuance of said order\" and that Barrett had never received official notice about the impeachment order, judging that Barrett was therefore not \"virtually\" suspended from \"officiating in his said office.\" On October 27, 1784, the General Assembly authorized and impeachment and moved that [Samuel Knight](/wiki/Samuel_Knight_%28judge%29 \"Samuel Knight (judge)\") would also prosecute impeachment against Barrett. Knight and Stephen R. Bradley prosecuted in the impeachment trial.",
"On June 9, 1785, Bradley presented the charges against Barrett to the Governor and Council. Barrett defended himself, and plead not guilty. Barrett's impeachment charges alleged that he had, \"excited and encouraged many needless \\& vexatious Law suits to enhance bills of Costs to the oppression of the People, to the great injury of the Common Weal and against the Peace and dignity of the freemen of the State of Vermont.\" One accusation that Bradley made was that Barrett had issued a judgement in a case that he knew had already been [settled](/wiki/Settlement_%28litigation%29 \"Settlement (litigation)\") by its parties. Another allegation was that he issued a ruling in a case despite knowing that the defendant had been deceased for three years. On June 11, 1785, the Governor and Council found Barrett guilty of maladministration, suspending him from office for six months and ordering him to pay the expenses of the prosecution.",
"On Barrett's behalf, [Stephen Jacob](/wiki/Stephen_Jacob \"Stephen Jacob\") requested that the \"cause of his impeachment before the Council\" be reviewed. The Council, however, said such a review could not occur, \"without order of the Legislature.\" On June 16, 1785, the General Assembly moved to authorize a new hearing before the Governor and Council. Additionally, Barret acknowledged that he owed fifty pounds of the debt to the State Treasurer to pay for the expenses of the prosecution of his first impeachment trial. The Governor and Council heard Barrett's impeachment for a second time on October 20 and 21, 1785\\. They again found him guilty of maladministration and again handed him a six\\-month suspension and ordered him to pay the expenses of the prosecution.{{cite web \\|title\\=Impeachment of State Officials \\|url\\=https://www.cga.ct.gov/2004/rpt/2004\\-r\\-0184\\.htm \\|website\\=www.cga.ct.gov \\|publisher\\=ORL Research \\|access\\-date\\=28 December 2022 \\|date\\=February 9, 2004}}{{cite web \\|title\\=John Barrett or Barret, Impeached, Tried and Convicted, 1783–1785 \\|url\\=http://vermont\\-archives.org/governance/impeach/barrett.htm \\|website\\=vermont\\-archives.org \\|publisher\\=Vermont State Archives/Office of Vermont Secretary of State \\|access\\-date\\=17 June 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20030309155028/http://vermont\\-archives.org/governance/impeach/barrett.htm \\|archive\\-date\\=March 9, 2003 \\|date\\=9 March 2003 \\|url\\-status\\=dead}}",
"### Matthew Lyon (clerk of the Court of Confiscation) in 1785",
"[thumb\\|Portrait of Lyon](/wiki/File:Lyon-Matthew-610x812.webp \"Lyon-Matthew-610x812.webp\")",
"On October 15, 1785, Clerk of the Court of Confiscation [Matthew Lyon](/wiki/Matthew_Lyon \"Matthew Lyon\") was impeached for his failure to provide the state with records of the Court of Confiscation. The impeachment resolution also appointed three of the Court of Confiscation's members as [impeachment managers](/wiki/Impeachment_manager \"Impeachment manager\"). Three days later, after an [impeachment trial](/wiki/Impeachment_trial \"Impeachment trial\") before both the Governor and Council, Lyon was reprimanded and ordered by the court of impeachment to pay the expenses of the prosecution. It was additionally ordered by the court of impeachment that Lyon be fined 500 pounds if he failed to comply by delivering the documents. Lyon requested a new trial, and the Governor's Council obliged. This was despite having told John Barrett months earlier that they believed such a second trial could only be authorized by the General Assembly.{{cite web \\|title\\=Matthew Lyon, Impeached, Tried, and Convicted, 1785 \\|url\\=http://vermont\\-archives.org/governance/impeach/lyon2\\.htm \\|website\\=vermont\\-archives.org \\|publisher\\=Vermont Archives/Office of Vermont Secretary of State \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20030309154837/http://vermont\\-archives.org/governance/impeach/lyon2\\.htm \\|archive\\-date\\=March 9, 2003 \\|date\\=9 March 2003}} In the new trial they again found against him.{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Gillies \\|first1\\=Paul S. \\|title\\=Ruminations Impeachment in Vermont \\|journal\\=The Vermont Bar Journal \\|date\\=Spring 2020 \\|volume\\=46 \\|issue\\=1 \\|pages\\=14–18 \\|url\\=https://www.vtbar.org/wp\\-content/uploads/2021/03/2020VBASpringJournal\\-webrevisedreduced.pdf}} There are no records that suggest that Lyon paid any of the fines he was ordered to, however.",
"### Expulsion of Jonathan Fassett (representative) in 1787",
"Similar to Abbot and Martin before him, Vermont General Assembly member Jonathan Fassett was handed an expulsion in an action that was referred to as an \"impeachment\".",
"Fassett had played a role in leading the November 1786 Rutland Court Riots in which a mob acted to prevent the [Rutland County](/wiki/Rutland_County%2C_Vermont \"Rutland County, Vermont\") Court from sitting.{{cite web \\|last1\\=Sanford \\|first1\\=Gregory \\|title\\=The Rutland Court Riots of 1786 \\|url\\=https://sos.vermont.gov/media/fxviatgf/tlkcourt3\\.pdf \\|website\\=sos.vermont.gov \\|publisher\\=Office of the Vermont Secretary of State/Vermont State Archivist \\|access\\-date\\=16 June 2023 \\|date\\=May 25, 1999}} On February 19, 1789 he was ordered by the General Assembly to be suspended pending consideration of a petition brought against him for this offense. After evidence was considered, the General Assembly suspended him and then on February 28, 1787 unanimously voted to expel him.{{cite web \\|title\\=Jonathan Fassett, \"impeached\" and expelled from the General Assembly, 1787 \\|url\\=http://vermont\\-archives.org/governance/impeach/fassett.htm \\|website\\=vermont\\-archives.org \\|publisher\\=Vermont State Archives/Office of Vermont Secretary of State Deb Markowitz – Archives \\|access\\-date\\=17 June 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20030309154554/http://vermont\\-archives.org/governance/impeach/fassett.htm \\|archive\\-date\\=March 9, 2003 \\|date\\=9 March 2003 \\|url\\-status\\=dead}} The legislature also ordered him to pay the expenses of Rutland County State's Attorney Darius Chipman, who had prosecuted the case against him.",
""
] |
Statehood\-era impeachments
---------------------------
### William Coley (Bennington County high sheriff) in 1799
In 1799, the Council of Censors adopted [articles of impeachment](/wiki/Articles_of_impeachment "Articles of impeachment") against [Bennington County](/wiki/Bennington_County%2C_Vermont "Bennington County, Vermont") High Sheriff William Coley for maladministration. On October 21, 1799 an order was sent by the Council of Censors to the General Assembly for them to prosecute the impeachment before them.{{cite web \|title\=William Coley (Cooley), Impeachment Ordered, Dismissed, 1799 \|url\=http://vermont\-archives.org/governance/impeach/coley.htm \|website\=vermont\-archives.org \|publisher\=Vermont State Archives/Office of Vermont Secretary \|access\-date\=17 June 2023 \|date\=9 March 2003 }}
On October 26, 1779, after discussion, adopted measures to carry out this order. On October 30, the General Assembly voted both the accept the report of the Council of Censors and to establish a special committee with one member from each of the state's counties "to state the facts in detail and make a report to the house". On November 2, 1779 the committee reported to the full house its belief that the charges against Coley were "wholly unsupported". The General Assembly concurred with the committee and, acting beyond their authority, voted to rule that the impeachment invalid. The General Assembly effectively dismissed the charges. While this created a dispute between the House of Censors and the General Assembly, the impeachment was ultimately never tried. The House of Censors continued to hold that the General Assembly had no such authority to dismiss an impeachment.
### John Chipman (Addison County sheriff) and Prince Hall (Franklin County sheriff) in 1800
[thumb\|Portrait of Chipman](/wiki/File:John_Chipman.png "John Chipman.png")
In 1800, the Council of Censors adopted impeachment orders against two sheriffs: Addison County Sheriff John Chipman and [Franklin County](/wiki/Franklin_County%2C_Vermont "Franklin County, Vermont") Sheriff Prince Hall.{{cite web \|title\=John Chipman and Prince Hall, Impeachment Ordered. Dismissed, 1800 \|url\=http://vermont\-archives.org/governance/impeach/jchipman.htm \|website\=vermont\-archives.org \|publisher\=Vermont State Archives/Vermont Secretary of State \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20030309160026/http://vermont\-archives.org/governance/impeach/jchipman.htm \|archive\-date\=March 9, 2003 \|date\=9 March 2003 \|url\-status\=dead}} The General assembly impeachment held inquiries into the charges, appointing a committee on October 16 to investigate the charges against Chipman and another on October 20 to investigate the charges against Hall.
The committee holding inquiry into Hall on October 22, 1800 proposed a resolution to dismiss the charges The resolution was rejected by a vote of 31–132\. Stephen R. Bradley then offered a resolution to support an impeachment, which was tabled. On October 23, the General Assembly accepted reports from both committees arguing for the dismissal of charges. The Council of Censors had already let it be known after the General Assembly's earlier dismissal of the impeachment of William Coley that it did not believe that the General Assembly had the authority to dismiss impeachments. However, ignoring this argument, the General Assembly then resolved for their to be no other action on impeachment.
### Mike Mayo (Washington County sheriff) in 1976
Malcolm "Mike" Mayo, [Washington County](/wiki/Washington_County%2C_Vermont "Washington County, Vermont") sheriff, was impeached in 1976\.{{cite web \|title\=Malcolm Mayo, Impeached, Tried, Acquitted, 1976 \|url\=http://vermont\-archives.org/governance/Impeach/mayo.htm \|website\=vermont\-archives.org \|publisher\=Vermont State Archives/Office of Vermont Secretary of State \|access\-date\=17 June 2023 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20030309155223/http://vermont\-archives.org/governance/impeach/mayo.htm \|archive\-date\=March 9, 2003 \|date\=9 March 2003}} Mayo had faced allegations of questionable conduct, which drove the push for his impeachment.
On January 16, 1976, the House of Representatives voted to authorize the House Judiciary Committee to run an [impeachment inquiry](/wiki/Impeachment_inquiry_in_the_United_States "Impeachment inquiry in the United States") to see whether grounds existed to impeach Mayo. On January 30, 1976, the committee adopted rules for the inquiry. The state's commissioner of public safety was requested to provide them with an investigator. On February 4, 1976, former judge Don O'Brien was appointed to serve alongside legislative staff member William Russell as co\-counsel for the committee's inquiry. [Witnesses](/wiki/Witnesses "Witnesses") were [subpoenaed](/wiki/Subpoena "Subpoena"). Much of the inquiry was conducted in closed session "in order to protect the sheriff and to prevent the premature hearing of the case by the Senate".
On March 4, 1976, the House Judiciary Committee took straw votes on possible [impeachment articles](/wiki/Impeachment_articles "Impeachment articles"), and on March 8 they rewrote the wording of the articles. On March 9, 1976, in a vote of 7–4, articles of impeachment were adopted.
In his impeachment trial before the Senate, Mayo was acquitted on the on all three articles of his impeachment. The third article came close to a conviction. The first two, resting on the testimony of two sheriff deputies whose credibility had been questioned, received fewer votes.{{cite web \|title\=Who Oversees Vermont's County Sheriffs? \|url\=https://www.vermontpublic.org/programs/2018\-02\-02/who\-oversees\-vermonts\-county\-sheriffs \|website\=Vermont Public \|access\-date\=28 December 2022 \|language\=en \|date\=2 February 2018}}
|
[
"Statehood\\-era impeachments\n---------------------------",
"### William Coley (Bennington County high sheriff) in 1799",
"In 1799, the Council of Censors adopted [articles of impeachment](/wiki/Articles_of_impeachment \"Articles of impeachment\") against [Bennington County](/wiki/Bennington_County%2C_Vermont \"Bennington County, Vermont\") High Sheriff William Coley for maladministration. On October 21, 1799 an order was sent by the Council of Censors to the General Assembly for them to prosecute the impeachment before them.{{cite web \\|title\\=William Coley (Cooley), Impeachment Ordered, Dismissed, 1799 \\|url\\=http://vermont\\-archives.org/governance/impeach/coley.htm \\|website\\=vermont\\-archives.org \\|publisher\\=Vermont State Archives/Office of Vermont Secretary \\|access\\-date\\=17 June 2023 \\|date\\=9 March 2003 }}",
"On October 26, 1779, after discussion, adopted measures to carry out this order. On October 30, the General Assembly voted both the accept the report of the Council of Censors and to establish a special committee with one member from each of the state's counties \"to state the facts in detail and make a report to the house\". On November 2, 1779 the committee reported to the full house its belief that the charges against Coley were \"wholly unsupported\". The General Assembly concurred with the committee and, acting beyond their authority, voted to rule that the impeachment invalid. The General Assembly effectively dismissed the charges. While this created a dispute between the House of Censors and the General Assembly, the impeachment was ultimately never tried. The House of Censors continued to hold that the General Assembly had no such authority to dismiss an impeachment.",
"### John Chipman (Addison County sheriff) and Prince Hall (Franklin County sheriff) in 1800",
"[thumb\\|Portrait of Chipman](/wiki/File:John_Chipman.png \"John Chipman.png\")",
"In 1800, the Council of Censors adopted impeachment orders against two sheriffs: Addison County Sheriff John Chipman and [Franklin County](/wiki/Franklin_County%2C_Vermont \"Franklin County, Vermont\") Sheriff Prince Hall.{{cite web \\|title\\=John Chipman and Prince Hall, Impeachment Ordered. Dismissed, 1800 \\|url\\=http://vermont\\-archives.org/governance/impeach/jchipman.htm \\|website\\=vermont\\-archives.org \\|publisher\\=Vermont State Archives/Vermont Secretary of State \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20030309160026/http://vermont\\-archives.org/governance/impeach/jchipman.htm \\|archive\\-date\\=March 9, 2003 \\|date\\=9 March 2003 \\|url\\-status\\=dead}} The General assembly impeachment held inquiries into the charges, appointing a committee on October 16 to investigate the charges against Chipman and another on October 20 to investigate the charges against Hall.",
"The committee holding inquiry into Hall on October 22, 1800 proposed a resolution to dismiss the charges The resolution was rejected by a vote of 31–132\\. Stephen R. Bradley then offered a resolution to support an impeachment, which was tabled. On October 23, the General Assembly accepted reports from both committees arguing for the dismissal of charges. The Council of Censors had already let it be known after the General Assembly's earlier dismissal of the impeachment of William Coley that it did not believe that the General Assembly had the authority to dismiss impeachments. However, ignoring this argument, the General Assembly then resolved for their to be no other action on impeachment.",
"### Mike Mayo (Washington County sheriff) in 1976",
"Malcolm \"Mike\" Mayo, [Washington County](/wiki/Washington_County%2C_Vermont \"Washington County, Vermont\") sheriff, was impeached in 1976\\.{{cite web \\|title\\=Malcolm Mayo, Impeached, Tried, Acquitted, 1976 \\|url\\=http://vermont\\-archives.org/governance/Impeach/mayo.htm \\|website\\=vermont\\-archives.org \\|publisher\\=Vermont State Archives/Office of Vermont Secretary of State \\|access\\-date\\=17 June 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20030309155223/http://vermont\\-archives.org/governance/impeach/mayo.htm \\|archive\\-date\\=March 9, 2003 \\|date\\=9 March 2003}} Mayo had faced allegations of questionable conduct, which drove the push for his impeachment.",
"On January 16, 1976, the House of Representatives voted to authorize the House Judiciary Committee to run an [impeachment inquiry](/wiki/Impeachment_inquiry_in_the_United_States \"Impeachment inquiry in the United States\") to see whether grounds existed to impeach Mayo. On January 30, 1976, the committee adopted rules for the inquiry. The state's commissioner of public safety was requested to provide them with an investigator. On February 4, 1976, former judge Don O'Brien was appointed to serve alongside legislative staff member William Russell as co\\-counsel for the committee's inquiry. [Witnesses](/wiki/Witnesses \"Witnesses\") were [subpoenaed](/wiki/Subpoena \"Subpoena\"). Much of the inquiry was conducted in closed session \"in order to protect the sheriff and to prevent the premature hearing of the case by the Senate\".",
"On March 4, 1976, the House Judiciary Committee took straw votes on possible [impeachment articles](/wiki/Impeachment_articles \"Impeachment articles\"), and on March 8 they rewrote the wording of the articles. On March 9, 1976, in a vote of 7–4, articles of impeachment were adopted.",
"In his impeachment trial before the Senate, Mayo was acquitted on the on all three articles of his impeachment. The third article came close to a conviction. The first two, resting on the testimony of two sheriff deputies whose credibility had been questioned, received fewer votes.{{cite web \\|title\\=Who Oversees Vermont's County Sheriffs? \\|url\\=https://www.vermontpublic.org/programs/2018\\-02\\-02/who\\-oversees\\-vermonts\\-county\\-sheriffs \\|website\\=Vermont Public \\|access\\-date\\=28 December 2022 \\|language\\=en \\|date\\=2 February 2018}}",
""
] |
Description
-----------
### Location
[thumb\|left\|Regional railway lines, operated by [Arriva](/wiki/Arriva "Arriva"), in the provinces of [Friesland](/wiki/Friesland "Friesland") and [Groningen](/wiki/Groningen_%28province%29 "Groningen (province)") (main lines not included on this map).](/wiki/File:NoordelijkeNevenlijnen.JPG "NoordelijkeNevenlijnen.JPG")
The railway station is located at the Stationsplein in the city of [Groningen](/wiki/Groningen "Groningen") in the southwest of the province of [Groningen](/wiki/Groningen_%28province%29 "Groningen (province)") in the northeast of the [Netherlands](/wiki/Netherlands "Netherlands").
Groningen is situated on the [Harlingen–Nieuweschans railway](/wiki/Harlingen%E2%80%93Nieuweschans_railway "Harlingen–Nieuweschans railway"), also called [Staatslijn](/wiki/Staatslijn "Staatslijn") B, between the railway stations of [Zuidhorn](/wiki/Zuidhorn_railway_station "Zuidhorn railway station") and [Groningen Europapark](/wiki/Groningen_Europapark_railway_station "Groningen Europapark railway station"). The distance from Groningen westward to railway terminus [Harlingen Haven](/wiki/Harlingen_Haven_railway_station "Harlingen Haven railway station") is {{convert\|80\.4\|km\|mi\|abbr\=on}}, [Leeuwarden](/wiki/Leeuwarden_railway_station "Leeuwarden railway station") {{convert\|55\.5\|km\|mi\|abbr\=on}}, and Zuidhorn {{convert\|11\.7\|km\|mi\|abbr\=on}}, and eastward to Groningen Europapark is {{convert\|1\.6\|km\|mi\|abbr\=on}}, [Winschoten](/wiki/Winschoten_railway_station "Winschoten railway station") {{convert\|34\|km\|mi\|abbr\=on}}, and railway terminus [Bad Nieuweschans](/wiki/Bad_Nieuweschans_railway_station "Bad Nieuweschans railway station") {{convert\|46\.4\|km\|mi\|abbr\=on}}.{{in lang\|nl}} [Overzicht van de spoorlijn Harlingen\-Leeuwarden\-Groningen\-Nieuweschans](http://www.stationsweb.nl/lijnlijst.asp?lijn=60), Stationsweb. Retrieved on 8 May 2015\.
Groningen is the terminus station of the [Meppel–Groningen railway](/wiki/Meppel%E2%80%93Groningen_railway "Meppel–Groningen railway"), also called Staatslijn C, after the railway station Groningen Europapark. The distance from Groningen southward to the railway station Groningen Europapark is {{convert\|1\.6\|km\|mi\|abbr\=on}}, [Assen](/wiki/Assen_railway_station "Assen railway station") {{convert\|27\.6\|km\|mi\|abbr\=on}}, and the railway terminus [Meppel](/wiki/Meppel_railway_station "Meppel railway station") {{convert\|76\.9\|km\|mi\|abbr\=on}}.{{in lang\|nl}} [Overzicht van de spoorlijn Groningen\-Meppel](http://www.stationsweb.nl/lijnlijst.asp?lijn=61), Stationsweb. Retrieved on 8 May 2015\.
Groningen is also the terminus station of the [Groningen–Delfzijl railway](/wiki/Groningen%E2%80%93Delfzijl_railway "Groningen–Delfzijl railway") before the railway station [Groningen Noord](/wiki/Groningen_Noord_railway_station "Groningen Noord railway station"). The distance from Groningen northward to the railway station Groningen Noord is {{convert\|3\.9\|km\|mi\|abbr\=on}}
and the railway terminus [Delfzijl](/wiki/Delfzijl_railway_station "Delfzijl railway station") {{convert\|37\.8\|km\|mi\|abbr\=on}}.{{in lang\|nl}} [Overzicht van de spoorlijn Groningen\-Delfzijl](http://www.stationsweb.nl/lijnlijst.asp?lijn=81), Stationsweb. Retrieved on 8 May 2015\.
The station connects the non\-electrified railways in the province of Groningen to the rest of the [Dutch railway network](/wiki/Train_routes_in_the_Netherlands "Train routes in the Netherlands") in the south.
Under the entry plaza is a bicycle parking garage with space for 4,150 bicycles. Combined with other nearby facilities, there is space for parking over 10,000 bicycles in the station area, as of 2010, with an estimated increase of 500 per year.{{cite web\|last1\=Hembrow\|first1\=David\|title\=Groningen Railway Station Cycle Parking\|url\=http://www.aviewfromthecyclepath.com/2008/10/groningen\-railway\-station\-cycle\-parking.html\|website\=A View from the Cycle Path\|access\-date\=18 January 2016}}
{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.fietsen.123\.nl/fietsnieuws/ruimtetekort\-voor\-fietsen\-in\-groningen\|title \= Dreigend ruimtetekort voor fietsen in Groningen}}
{{stack\|\[\[File:GronigenStationHallPassengersWating.JPG\|thumb\|Entrance Hall of the railway station]]}}
### Building
The station building was designed by Izaak Gosschalk and combines [Neo\-Gothic](/wiki/Gothic_Revival_architecture "Gothic Revival architecture") and [Neo\-Renaissance](/wiki/Renaissance_Revival_architecture "Renaissance Revival architecture") elements.
### Layout
The station has nine platforms and behind the station is a stabling point for many trains.
### Future revamp
Plans have been announced to drastically change the station layout. The stabling yard behind the station will be moved towards Haren, yielding space for more platforms and a new bus station.{{cite web\|title\=Spoorzone: Hoofdstation\|url\=http://www.groningenbereikbaar.nl/spoorzone/deelprojecten/project/detail/hoofdstation/\|website\=Groningen Spoorzone\|access\-date\=28 May 2015\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150308115425/http://www.groningenbereikbaar.nl/spoorzone/deelprojecten/project/detail/hoofdstation/\|archive\-date\=8 March 2015\|url\-status\=dead}}
File:Groningen (stad), station Groningen. 13\-06\-2022\. (actm.) 01\.jpg\| Main building (North North West side)
File:Groningen (stad), station Groningen. 13\-06\-2022\. (actm.) 03\.jpg\| Detail of the main building
File:Groningen (stad), station Groningen. 13\-06\-2022\. (actm.) 08\.jpg\| Right building
File:Groningen (stad), station Groningen. 13\-06\-2022\. (actm.) 05\.jpg\|Detail of right building
File:Groningen (stad), station Groningen. 13\-06\-2022\. (actm.) 06\.jpg\|Detail gallery
|
[
"Description\n-----------",
"### Location",
"[thumb\\|left\\|Regional railway lines, operated by [Arriva](/wiki/Arriva \"Arriva\"), in the provinces of [Friesland](/wiki/Friesland \"Friesland\") and [Groningen](/wiki/Groningen_%28province%29 \"Groningen (province)\") (main lines not included on this map).](/wiki/File:NoordelijkeNevenlijnen.JPG \"NoordelijkeNevenlijnen.JPG\")",
"The railway station is located at the Stationsplein in the city of [Groningen](/wiki/Groningen \"Groningen\") in the southwest of the province of [Groningen](/wiki/Groningen_%28province%29 \"Groningen (province)\") in the northeast of the [Netherlands](/wiki/Netherlands \"Netherlands\").",
"Groningen is situated on the [Harlingen–Nieuweschans railway](/wiki/Harlingen%E2%80%93Nieuweschans_railway \"Harlingen–Nieuweschans railway\"), also called [Staatslijn](/wiki/Staatslijn \"Staatslijn\") B, between the railway stations of [Zuidhorn](/wiki/Zuidhorn_railway_station \"Zuidhorn railway station\") and [Groningen Europapark](/wiki/Groningen_Europapark_railway_station \"Groningen Europapark railway station\"). The distance from Groningen westward to railway terminus [Harlingen Haven](/wiki/Harlingen_Haven_railway_station \"Harlingen Haven railway station\") is {{convert\\|80\\.4\\|km\\|mi\\|abbr\\=on}}, [Leeuwarden](/wiki/Leeuwarden_railway_station \"Leeuwarden railway station\") {{convert\\|55\\.5\\|km\\|mi\\|abbr\\=on}}, and Zuidhorn {{convert\\|11\\.7\\|km\\|mi\\|abbr\\=on}}, and eastward to Groningen Europapark is {{convert\\|1\\.6\\|km\\|mi\\|abbr\\=on}}, [Winschoten](/wiki/Winschoten_railway_station \"Winschoten railway station\") {{convert\\|34\\|km\\|mi\\|abbr\\=on}}, and railway terminus [Bad Nieuweschans](/wiki/Bad_Nieuweschans_railway_station \"Bad Nieuweschans railway station\") {{convert\\|46\\.4\\|km\\|mi\\|abbr\\=on}}.{{in lang\\|nl}} [Overzicht van de spoorlijn Harlingen\\-Leeuwarden\\-Groningen\\-Nieuweschans](http://www.stationsweb.nl/lijnlijst.asp?lijn=60), Stationsweb. Retrieved on 8 May 2015\\.",
"Groningen is the terminus station of the [Meppel–Groningen railway](/wiki/Meppel%E2%80%93Groningen_railway \"Meppel–Groningen railway\"), also called Staatslijn C, after the railway station Groningen Europapark. The distance from Groningen southward to the railway station Groningen Europapark is {{convert\\|1\\.6\\|km\\|mi\\|abbr\\=on}}, [Assen](/wiki/Assen_railway_station \"Assen railway station\") {{convert\\|27\\.6\\|km\\|mi\\|abbr\\=on}}, and the railway terminus [Meppel](/wiki/Meppel_railway_station \"Meppel railway station\") {{convert\\|76\\.9\\|km\\|mi\\|abbr\\=on}}.{{in lang\\|nl}} [Overzicht van de spoorlijn Groningen\\-Meppel](http://www.stationsweb.nl/lijnlijst.asp?lijn=61), Stationsweb. Retrieved on 8 May 2015\\.",
"Groningen is also the terminus station of the [Groningen–Delfzijl railway](/wiki/Groningen%E2%80%93Delfzijl_railway \"Groningen–Delfzijl railway\") before the railway station [Groningen Noord](/wiki/Groningen_Noord_railway_station \"Groningen Noord railway station\"). The distance from Groningen northward to the railway station Groningen Noord is {{convert\\|3\\.9\\|km\\|mi\\|abbr\\=on}}\nand the railway terminus [Delfzijl](/wiki/Delfzijl_railway_station \"Delfzijl railway station\") {{convert\\|37\\.8\\|km\\|mi\\|abbr\\=on}}.{{in lang\\|nl}} [Overzicht van de spoorlijn Groningen\\-Delfzijl](http://www.stationsweb.nl/lijnlijst.asp?lijn=81), Stationsweb. Retrieved on 8 May 2015\\.",
"The station connects the non\\-electrified railways in the province of Groningen to the rest of the [Dutch railway network](/wiki/Train_routes_in_the_Netherlands \"Train routes in the Netherlands\") in the south.",
"Under the entry plaza is a bicycle parking garage with space for 4,150 bicycles. Combined with other nearby facilities, there is space for parking over 10,000 bicycles in the station area, as of 2010, with an estimated increase of 500 per year.{{cite web\\|last1\\=Hembrow\\|first1\\=David\\|title\\=Groningen Railway Station Cycle Parking\\|url\\=http://www.aviewfromthecyclepath.com/2008/10/groningen\\-railway\\-station\\-cycle\\-parking.html\\|website\\=A View from the Cycle Path\\|access\\-date\\=18 January 2016}}\n{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.fietsen.123\\.nl/fietsnieuws/ruimtetekort\\-voor\\-fietsen\\-in\\-groningen\\|title \\= Dreigend ruimtetekort voor fietsen in Groningen}}",
"{{stack\\|\\[\\[File:GronigenStationHallPassengersWating.JPG\\|thumb\\|Entrance Hall of the railway station]]}}",
"### Building",
"The station building was designed by Izaak Gosschalk and combines [Neo\\-Gothic](/wiki/Gothic_Revival_architecture \"Gothic Revival architecture\") and [Neo\\-Renaissance](/wiki/Renaissance_Revival_architecture \"Renaissance Revival architecture\") elements.",
"### Layout",
"The station has nine platforms and behind the station is a stabling point for many trains.",
"### Future revamp",
"Plans have been announced to drastically change the station layout. The stabling yard behind the station will be moved towards Haren, yielding space for more platforms and a new bus station.{{cite web\\|title\\=Spoorzone: Hoofdstation\\|url\\=http://www.groningenbereikbaar.nl/spoorzone/deelprojecten/project/detail/hoofdstation/\\|website\\=Groningen Spoorzone\\|access\\-date\\=28 May 2015\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150308115425/http://www.groningenbereikbaar.nl/spoorzone/deelprojecten/project/detail/hoofdstation/\\|archive\\-date\\=8 March 2015\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}",
"File:Groningen (stad), station Groningen. 13\\-06\\-2022\\. (actm.) 01\\.jpg\\| Main building (North North West side)\nFile:Groningen (stad), station Groningen. 13\\-06\\-2022\\. (actm.) 03\\.jpg\\| Detail of the main building\nFile:Groningen (stad), station Groningen. 13\\-06\\-2022\\. (actm.) 08\\.jpg\\| Right building\nFile:Groningen (stad), station Groningen. 13\\-06\\-2022\\. (actm.) 05\\.jpg\\|Detail of right building\nFile:Groningen (stad), station Groningen. 13\\-06\\-2022\\. (actm.) 06\\.jpg\\|Detail gallery",
"",
""
] |
### Location
[thumb\|left\|Regional railway lines, operated by [Arriva](/wiki/Arriva "Arriva"), in the provinces of [Friesland](/wiki/Friesland "Friesland") and [Groningen](/wiki/Groningen_%28province%29 "Groningen (province)") (main lines not included on this map).](/wiki/File:NoordelijkeNevenlijnen.JPG "NoordelijkeNevenlijnen.JPG")
The railway station is located at the Stationsplein in the city of [Groningen](/wiki/Groningen "Groningen") in the southwest of the province of [Groningen](/wiki/Groningen_%28province%29 "Groningen (province)") in the northeast of the [Netherlands](/wiki/Netherlands "Netherlands").
Groningen is situated on the [Harlingen–Nieuweschans railway](/wiki/Harlingen%E2%80%93Nieuweschans_railway "Harlingen–Nieuweschans railway"), also called [Staatslijn](/wiki/Staatslijn "Staatslijn") B, between the railway stations of [Zuidhorn](/wiki/Zuidhorn_railway_station "Zuidhorn railway station") and [Groningen Europapark](/wiki/Groningen_Europapark_railway_station "Groningen Europapark railway station"). The distance from Groningen westward to railway terminus [Harlingen Haven](/wiki/Harlingen_Haven_railway_station "Harlingen Haven railway station") is {{convert\|80\.4\|km\|mi\|abbr\=on}}, [Leeuwarden](/wiki/Leeuwarden_railway_station "Leeuwarden railway station") {{convert\|55\.5\|km\|mi\|abbr\=on}}, and Zuidhorn {{convert\|11\.7\|km\|mi\|abbr\=on}}, and eastward to Groningen Europapark is {{convert\|1\.6\|km\|mi\|abbr\=on}}, [Winschoten](/wiki/Winschoten_railway_station "Winschoten railway station") {{convert\|34\|km\|mi\|abbr\=on}}, and railway terminus [Bad Nieuweschans](/wiki/Bad_Nieuweschans_railway_station "Bad Nieuweschans railway station") {{convert\|46\.4\|km\|mi\|abbr\=on}}.{{in lang\|nl}} [Overzicht van de spoorlijn Harlingen\-Leeuwarden\-Groningen\-Nieuweschans](http://www.stationsweb.nl/lijnlijst.asp?lijn=60), Stationsweb. Retrieved on 8 May 2015\.
Groningen is the terminus station of the [Meppel–Groningen railway](/wiki/Meppel%E2%80%93Groningen_railway "Meppel–Groningen railway"), also called Staatslijn C, after the railway station Groningen Europapark. The distance from Groningen southward to the railway station Groningen Europapark is {{convert\|1\.6\|km\|mi\|abbr\=on}}, [Assen](/wiki/Assen_railway_station "Assen railway station") {{convert\|27\.6\|km\|mi\|abbr\=on}}, and the railway terminus [Meppel](/wiki/Meppel_railway_station "Meppel railway station") {{convert\|76\.9\|km\|mi\|abbr\=on}}.{{in lang\|nl}} [Overzicht van de spoorlijn Groningen\-Meppel](http://www.stationsweb.nl/lijnlijst.asp?lijn=61), Stationsweb. Retrieved on 8 May 2015\.
Groningen is also the terminus station of the [Groningen–Delfzijl railway](/wiki/Groningen%E2%80%93Delfzijl_railway "Groningen–Delfzijl railway") before the railway station [Groningen Noord](/wiki/Groningen_Noord_railway_station "Groningen Noord railway station"). The distance from Groningen northward to the railway station Groningen Noord is {{convert\|3\.9\|km\|mi\|abbr\=on}}
and the railway terminus [Delfzijl](/wiki/Delfzijl_railway_station "Delfzijl railway station") {{convert\|37\.8\|km\|mi\|abbr\=on}}.{{in lang\|nl}} [Overzicht van de spoorlijn Groningen\-Delfzijl](http://www.stationsweb.nl/lijnlijst.asp?lijn=81), Stationsweb. Retrieved on 8 May 2015\.
The station connects the non\-electrified railways in the province of Groningen to the rest of the [Dutch railway network](/wiki/Train_routes_in_the_Netherlands "Train routes in the Netherlands") in the south.
Under the entry plaza is a bicycle parking garage with space for 4,150 bicycles. Combined with other nearby facilities, there is space for parking over 10,000 bicycles in the station area, as of 2010, with an estimated increase of 500 per year.{{cite web\|last1\=Hembrow\|first1\=David\|title\=Groningen Railway Station Cycle Parking\|url\=http://www.aviewfromthecyclepath.com/2008/10/groningen\-railway\-station\-cycle\-parking.html\|website\=A View from the Cycle Path\|access\-date\=18 January 2016}}
{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.fietsen.123\.nl/fietsnieuws/ruimtetekort\-voor\-fietsen\-in\-groningen\|title \= Dreigend ruimtetekort voor fietsen in Groningen}}
{{stack\|\[\[File:GronigenStationHallPassengersWating.JPG\|thumb\|Entrance Hall of the railway station]]}}
|
[
"### Location",
"[thumb\\|left\\|Regional railway lines, operated by [Arriva](/wiki/Arriva \"Arriva\"), in the provinces of [Friesland](/wiki/Friesland \"Friesland\") and [Groningen](/wiki/Groningen_%28province%29 \"Groningen (province)\") (main lines not included on this map).](/wiki/File:NoordelijkeNevenlijnen.JPG \"NoordelijkeNevenlijnen.JPG\")",
"The railway station is located at the Stationsplein in the city of [Groningen](/wiki/Groningen \"Groningen\") in the southwest of the province of [Groningen](/wiki/Groningen_%28province%29 \"Groningen (province)\") in the northeast of the [Netherlands](/wiki/Netherlands \"Netherlands\").",
"Groningen is situated on the [Harlingen–Nieuweschans railway](/wiki/Harlingen%E2%80%93Nieuweschans_railway \"Harlingen–Nieuweschans railway\"), also called [Staatslijn](/wiki/Staatslijn \"Staatslijn\") B, between the railway stations of [Zuidhorn](/wiki/Zuidhorn_railway_station \"Zuidhorn railway station\") and [Groningen Europapark](/wiki/Groningen_Europapark_railway_station \"Groningen Europapark railway station\"). The distance from Groningen westward to railway terminus [Harlingen Haven](/wiki/Harlingen_Haven_railway_station \"Harlingen Haven railway station\") is {{convert\\|80\\.4\\|km\\|mi\\|abbr\\=on}}, [Leeuwarden](/wiki/Leeuwarden_railway_station \"Leeuwarden railway station\") {{convert\\|55\\.5\\|km\\|mi\\|abbr\\=on}}, and Zuidhorn {{convert\\|11\\.7\\|km\\|mi\\|abbr\\=on}}, and eastward to Groningen Europapark is {{convert\\|1\\.6\\|km\\|mi\\|abbr\\=on}}, [Winschoten](/wiki/Winschoten_railway_station \"Winschoten railway station\") {{convert\\|34\\|km\\|mi\\|abbr\\=on}}, and railway terminus [Bad Nieuweschans](/wiki/Bad_Nieuweschans_railway_station \"Bad Nieuweschans railway station\") {{convert\\|46\\.4\\|km\\|mi\\|abbr\\=on}}.{{in lang\\|nl}} [Overzicht van de spoorlijn Harlingen\\-Leeuwarden\\-Groningen\\-Nieuweschans](http://www.stationsweb.nl/lijnlijst.asp?lijn=60), Stationsweb. Retrieved on 8 May 2015\\.",
"Groningen is the terminus station of the [Meppel–Groningen railway](/wiki/Meppel%E2%80%93Groningen_railway \"Meppel–Groningen railway\"), also called Staatslijn C, after the railway station Groningen Europapark. The distance from Groningen southward to the railway station Groningen Europapark is {{convert\\|1\\.6\\|km\\|mi\\|abbr\\=on}}, [Assen](/wiki/Assen_railway_station \"Assen railway station\") {{convert\\|27\\.6\\|km\\|mi\\|abbr\\=on}}, and the railway terminus [Meppel](/wiki/Meppel_railway_station \"Meppel railway station\") {{convert\\|76\\.9\\|km\\|mi\\|abbr\\=on}}.{{in lang\\|nl}} [Overzicht van de spoorlijn Groningen\\-Meppel](http://www.stationsweb.nl/lijnlijst.asp?lijn=61), Stationsweb. Retrieved on 8 May 2015\\.",
"Groningen is also the terminus station of the [Groningen–Delfzijl railway](/wiki/Groningen%E2%80%93Delfzijl_railway \"Groningen–Delfzijl railway\") before the railway station [Groningen Noord](/wiki/Groningen_Noord_railway_station \"Groningen Noord railway station\"). The distance from Groningen northward to the railway station Groningen Noord is {{convert\\|3\\.9\\|km\\|mi\\|abbr\\=on}}\nand the railway terminus [Delfzijl](/wiki/Delfzijl_railway_station \"Delfzijl railway station\") {{convert\\|37\\.8\\|km\\|mi\\|abbr\\=on}}.{{in lang\\|nl}} [Overzicht van de spoorlijn Groningen\\-Delfzijl](http://www.stationsweb.nl/lijnlijst.asp?lijn=81), Stationsweb. Retrieved on 8 May 2015\\.",
"The station connects the non\\-electrified railways in the province of Groningen to the rest of the [Dutch railway network](/wiki/Train_routes_in_the_Netherlands \"Train routes in the Netherlands\") in the south.",
"Under the entry plaza is a bicycle parking garage with space for 4,150 bicycles. Combined with other nearby facilities, there is space for parking over 10,000 bicycles in the station area, as of 2010, with an estimated increase of 500 per year.{{cite web\\|last1\\=Hembrow\\|first1\\=David\\|title\\=Groningen Railway Station Cycle Parking\\|url\\=http://www.aviewfromthecyclepath.com/2008/10/groningen\\-railway\\-station\\-cycle\\-parking.html\\|website\\=A View from the Cycle Path\\|access\\-date\\=18 January 2016}}\n{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.fietsen.123\\.nl/fietsnieuws/ruimtetekort\\-voor\\-fietsen\\-in\\-groningen\\|title \\= Dreigend ruimtetekort voor fietsen in Groningen}}",
"{{stack\\|\\[\\[File:GronigenStationHallPassengersWating.JPG\\|thumb\\|Entrance Hall of the railway station]]}}",
""
] |
Services
--------
### Trains
[thumb\|[NS](/wiki/Nederlandse_Spoorwegen "Nederlandse Spoorwegen") intercity trains at the station](/wiki/File:2012_Hoofdstation_Groningen.JPG "2012 Hoofdstation Groningen.JPG")
[thumb\|[Arriva](/wiki/Arriva "Arriva") train at the station](/wiki/File:GTW_Arriva.jpg "GTW Arriva.jpg")
From Groningen you can directly travel to places such as: [Assen](/wiki/Assen "Assen"), [Zwolle](/wiki/Zwolle "Zwolle"), [Amersfoort](/wiki/Amersfoort "Amersfoort"), [Utrecht](/wiki/Utrecht_%28city%29 "Utrecht (city)"), [Gouda](/wiki/Gouda%2C_South_Holland "Gouda, South Holland"), [Rotterdam](/wiki/Rotterdam "Rotterdam"), [The Hague](/wiki/The_Hague "The Hague"), [Amsterdam Airport (Schiphol)](/wiki/Amsterdam_Airport_Schiphol "Amsterdam Airport Schiphol"), [Hoogeveen](/wiki/Hoogeveen "Hoogeveen"), [Leeuwarden](/wiki/Leeuwarden "Leeuwarden"), [Roodeschool](/wiki/Roodeschool "Roodeschool") ([Eemsahven](/wiki/Eemshaven_railway_station "Eemshaven railway station")), [Delfzijl](/wiki/Delfzijl "Delfzijl"), [Winschoten](/wiki/Winschoten "Winschoten"), [Nieuweschans](/wiki/Nieuweschans "Nieuweschans") and [Leer](/wiki/Leer%2C_Lower_Saxony "Leer, Lower Saxony") (Germany).
Groningen is now the most northerly station that [Nederlandse Spoorwegen](/wiki/Nederlandse_Spoorwegen "Nederlandse Spoorwegen") operates, with all services further north operated by [Arriva](/wiki/Arriva "Arriva").
The following services operated by the Nederlandse Spoorwegen call at Groningen:
* 1× per hour [intercity](/wiki/InterCity%23Netherlands "InterCity#Netherlands") service Rotterdam – Utrecht – Amersfoort – Zwolle – Groningen
* 1× per hour intercity service The Hague – Schiphol – Almere – Lelystad – Zwolle – Groningen
* 2× per hour local service (*[sprinter](/wiki/Nederlandse_Spoorwegen%23Types_of_train_service "Nederlandse Spoorwegen#Types of train service")*) Zwolle – Assen – Groningen
* 2× per hour local service (*sprinter*) Groningen – Assen (Rush hour only)
On Saturday and Sunday the early train to The Hague is merged with series 2600 (Lelystad Centrum – Vlissingen) to [Vlissingen railway station](/wiki/Vlissingen_railway_station "Vlissingen railway station"), not calling at The Hague Central Station, continuing to [Hollands Spoor](/wiki/Den_Haag_Hollands_Spoor_railway_station "Den Haag Hollands Spoor railway station") instead, thereafter running further to Delft, Rotterdam, Dordrecht, Roosendaal and Vlissingen. This service also calls at Amsterdam Central station, Amsterdam Sloterdijk and Lelylaan instead of Duivendrecht and Amsterdam Zuid.
The same happens for the late services on all other days, per hour decreasing in length (starts with Dordrecht, then Rotterdam, Den Haag Hollands Spoor, and lastly Amsterdam Central. The stations Roosendaal and Leiden Centraal are in the same situation, but from station Leeuwarden, not Groningen.). Thereafter, the Intercity services are suspended and replaced by Sprinters. At that time, there is no connection with these cities anymore.
The following services operated by [Arriva](/wiki/Arriva "Arriva") call at Groningen:
* 1× per hour express service (*sneltrein*) Leeuwarden – Buitenpost – Groningen
* 2× per hour local service (*stoptrein*) Leeuwarden – Buitenpost \-Groningen
* 2× per hour local service (*stoptrein*) Groningen – Zuidbroek – Veendam
* 1× per hour local service (*stoptrein*) Groningen – Zuidbroek – Winschoten – Bad Nieuweschans – Leer
* 1× per hour local service (*stoptrein*) Groningen – Zuidbroek – Winschoten
* 2× per hour local service (*stoptrein*) Groningen – Sauwerd – Roodeschool (a few times a day: Eemshaven)
* 2× per hour local service (*stoptrein*) Groningen – Sauwerd – Delfzijl
### Buses
[thumb\|Buses northeast of the railway station in 2013](/wiki/File:Buslijn_2_Groningen.JPG "Buslijn 2 Groningen.JPG")
There are 41 local and regional bus services at the station operated by [Qbuzz](/wiki/Qbuzz "Qbuzz").{{in lang\|nl}} [Halte: Groningen, Hoofdstation](http://qbuzz.nl/GD/halte/groningen--bushalte-centraal-station), [Qbuzz](/wiki/Qbuzz "Qbuzz"). Retrieved on 8 May 2015\.
|
[
"Services\n--------",
"### Trains",
"[thumb\\|[NS](/wiki/Nederlandse_Spoorwegen \"Nederlandse Spoorwegen\") intercity trains at the station](/wiki/File:2012_Hoofdstation_Groningen.JPG \"2012 Hoofdstation Groningen.JPG\")\n[thumb\\|[Arriva](/wiki/Arriva \"Arriva\") train at the station](/wiki/File:GTW_Arriva.jpg \"GTW Arriva.jpg\")",
"From Groningen you can directly travel to places such as: [Assen](/wiki/Assen \"Assen\"), [Zwolle](/wiki/Zwolle \"Zwolle\"), [Amersfoort](/wiki/Amersfoort \"Amersfoort\"), [Utrecht](/wiki/Utrecht_%28city%29 \"Utrecht (city)\"), [Gouda](/wiki/Gouda%2C_South_Holland \"Gouda, South Holland\"), [Rotterdam](/wiki/Rotterdam \"Rotterdam\"), [The Hague](/wiki/The_Hague \"The Hague\"), [Amsterdam Airport (Schiphol)](/wiki/Amsterdam_Airport_Schiphol \"Amsterdam Airport Schiphol\"), [Hoogeveen](/wiki/Hoogeveen \"Hoogeveen\"), [Leeuwarden](/wiki/Leeuwarden \"Leeuwarden\"), [Roodeschool](/wiki/Roodeschool \"Roodeschool\") ([Eemsahven](/wiki/Eemshaven_railway_station \"Eemshaven railway station\")), [Delfzijl](/wiki/Delfzijl \"Delfzijl\"), [Winschoten](/wiki/Winschoten \"Winschoten\"), [Nieuweschans](/wiki/Nieuweschans \"Nieuweschans\") and [Leer](/wiki/Leer%2C_Lower_Saxony \"Leer, Lower Saxony\") (Germany).",
"Groningen is now the most northerly station that [Nederlandse Spoorwegen](/wiki/Nederlandse_Spoorwegen \"Nederlandse Spoorwegen\") operates, with all services further north operated by [Arriva](/wiki/Arriva \"Arriva\").",
"The following services operated by the Nederlandse Spoorwegen call at Groningen:\n* 1× per hour [intercity](/wiki/InterCity%23Netherlands \"InterCity#Netherlands\") service Rotterdam – Utrecht – Amersfoort – Zwolle – Groningen\n* 1× per hour intercity service The Hague – Schiphol – Almere – Lelystad – Zwolle – Groningen\n* 2× per hour local service (*[sprinter](/wiki/Nederlandse_Spoorwegen%23Types_of_train_service \"Nederlandse Spoorwegen#Types of train service\")*) Zwolle – Assen – Groningen\n* 2× per hour local service (*sprinter*) Groningen – Assen (Rush hour only)",
"On Saturday and Sunday the early train to The Hague is merged with series 2600 (Lelystad Centrum – Vlissingen) to [Vlissingen railway station](/wiki/Vlissingen_railway_station \"Vlissingen railway station\"), not calling at The Hague Central Station, continuing to [Hollands Spoor](/wiki/Den_Haag_Hollands_Spoor_railway_station \"Den Haag Hollands Spoor railway station\") instead, thereafter running further to Delft, Rotterdam, Dordrecht, Roosendaal and Vlissingen. This service also calls at Amsterdam Central station, Amsterdam Sloterdijk and Lelylaan instead of Duivendrecht and Amsterdam Zuid.",
"The same happens for the late services on all other days, per hour decreasing in length (starts with Dordrecht, then Rotterdam, Den Haag Hollands Spoor, and lastly Amsterdam Central. The stations Roosendaal and Leiden Centraal are in the same situation, but from station Leeuwarden, not Groningen.). Thereafter, the Intercity services are suspended and replaced by Sprinters. At that time, there is no connection with these cities anymore.",
"The following services operated by [Arriva](/wiki/Arriva \"Arriva\") call at Groningen:\n* 1× per hour express service (*sneltrein*) Leeuwarden – Buitenpost – Groningen\n* 2× per hour local service (*stoptrein*) Leeuwarden – Buitenpost \\-Groningen\n* 2× per hour local service (*stoptrein*) Groningen – Zuidbroek – Veendam\n* 1× per hour local service (*stoptrein*) Groningen – Zuidbroek – Winschoten – Bad Nieuweschans – Leer\n* 1× per hour local service (*stoptrein*) Groningen – Zuidbroek – Winschoten\n* 2× per hour local service (*stoptrein*) Groningen – Sauwerd – Roodeschool (a few times a day: Eemshaven)\n* 2× per hour local service (*stoptrein*) Groningen – Sauwerd – Delfzijl",
"### Buses",
"[thumb\\|Buses northeast of the railway station in 2013](/wiki/File:Buslijn_2_Groningen.JPG \"Buslijn 2 Groningen.JPG\")",
"There are 41 local and regional bus services at the station operated by [Qbuzz](/wiki/Qbuzz \"Qbuzz\").{{in lang\\|nl}} [Halte: Groningen, Hoofdstation](http://qbuzz.nl/GD/halte/groningen--bushalte-centraal-station), [Qbuzz](/wiki/Qbuzz \"Qbuzz\"). Retrieved on 8 May 2015\\.",
""
] |
Background
----------
The "thrift" or "building" or "savings and loans associations" industry has its origins in the British [building society](/wiki/Building_society "Building society") movement that emerged in the late 18th century. American thrifts (also known as "building and loans" or "B\&Ls"){{cite web\|url\=https://www.law.cornell.edu/wex/building\_and\_loan\_association \|title\= Building and Loan Association definition\| publisher\=Cornell Law School \|author \= Wex Legal Dictionary\|access\-date \=March 30, 2018}} shared many of the same basic goals: to help the [working class](/wiki/Working_class "Working class") save for the future and purchase homes. Thrifts were not\-for\-profit cooperative organizations that were typically managed by the membership and local institutions that served well\-defined groups of aspiring homeowners. While banks offered a wide array of products to individuals and businesses, thrifts often made only home mortgages primarily to working\-class men and women. Thrift leaders believed they were part of a broader social reform effort and not a financial industry. According to thrift leaders, B\&Ls not only helped people become better citizens by making it easier to buy a home, but also taught the habits of systematic savings and mutual cooperation which strengthened personal morals.{{cite news\|title\=Savings and Loan Industry, US \|url\=http://eh.net/encyclopedia/article/mason.savings.loan.industry.us \|date\=June 10, 2003 \|publisher\=EH.Net Encyclopedia, edited by Robert Whaples \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131020002106/http://eh.net/encyclopedia/article/mason.savings.loan.industry.us \|archive\-date\=20 October 2013 }}
The thrift associations and their ideals were famously portrayed in the 1946 film *[It's a Wonderful Life](/wiki/It%27s_a_Wonderful_Life "It's a Wonderful Life")*.
The first thrift was formed in 1831, and for 40 years there were few B\&Ls, found in only a handful of [Midwestern](/wiki/Midwestern_United_States "Midwestern United States") and [Eastern](/wiki/East_Coast_of_the_United_States "East Coast of the United States") states. This situation changed in the late 19th century as urban growth and the demand for housing related to the [Second Industrial Revolution](/wiki/Second_Industrial_Revolution "Second Industrial Revolution") caused the number of thrifts to explode. The popularity of B\&Ls led to the creation of a new type of thrift in the 1880s called the "national" B\&L. The "nationals" were often for\-profit businesses formed by bankers or industrialists that employed promoters to form local branches to sell shares to prospective members. The "nationals" promised to pay savings rates up to four times greater than any other financial institution.
The Depression of 1893 (resulting from the financial [Panic of 1893](/wiki/Panic_of_1893 "Panic of 1893"), which lasted for several years) caused a sharp decline in members, and so "nationals" experienced a sudden reversal of fortunes. Because a steady stream of new members was critical for a "national" to pay both the interest on savings and the hefty [salaries](/wiki/Salary "Salary") for the organizers, the falloff in payments caused dozens of "nationals" to fail. By the end of the 19th century, nearly all the "nationals" were out of business (National Building and Loans Crisis). This led to the creation of the first state regulations governing B\&Ls, to make thrift operations more uniform, and the formation of a national trade association to not only protect B\&L interests, but also promote business growth. The trade association led efforts to create more uniform accounting, appraisal, and lending procedures. It also spearheaded the drive to have all thrifts refer to themselves as "savings and loans", not B\&Ls, and to convince managers of the need to assume more professional roles as financiers.
In the 20th century, the two decades that followed the end of [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II") were the most successful period in the history of the thrift industry. The return of millions of servicemen eager to take up their prewar lives led to an unprecedented post\-war housing crisis and boom with a dramatic increase in new families, and this so\-called "[baby boom](/wiki/Baby_boom "Baby boom")" caused a surge in new mostly suburban home construction, and vast expansion beyond the central core cities with additional commercial development on radiating spoke roads and highways plus the additional construction by 1956, during the [Eisenhower](/wiki/Dwight_D._Eisenhower "Dwight D. Eisenhower") administration of the [Interstate Highways](/wiki/Interstate_Highways "Interstate Highways") system throughout the country allowed the explosion of suburban communities in formerly rural surrounding counties. By the 1940s S\&Ls (the name change for many associations occurred gradually after the late 1930s) provided most of the financing for this expansion, which now had some sort of state regulation which predated the later similar regulation of banks instituted after the 1929 [Stock Market "Crash"](/wiki/Stock_Market_Crash_of_1929 "Stock Market Crash of 1929") and the later "[bank holiday](/wiki/Emergency_Banking_Act "Emergency Banking Act")" of the beginning of the administration of 32nd President [Franklin D. Roosevelt](/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt "Franklin D. Roosevelt") in March 1933, and the subsequent requirements and regulations in the "[New Deal](/wiki/New_Deal "New Deal")" programs to combat the [Great Depression](/wiki/Great_Depression "Great Depression"). The result was strong industry expansion that lasted through the early 1960s.
An important trend involved raising rates paid on savings to lure deposits, a practice that resulted in periodic rate wars between thrifts and even commercial banks. These wars became so severe that in 1966, the [United States Congress](/wiki/United_States_Congress "United States Congress") took the highly unusual move of setting limits on savings rates for both commercial banks and S\&Ls. From 1966 to 1979, the enactment of rate controls presented thrifts with a number of unprecedented challenges, chief of which was finding ways to continue to expand in an economy characterized by slow growth, high interest rates and inflation. These conditions, which came to be known as [stagflation](/wiki/Stagflation "Stagflation"), wreaked havoc with thrift finances for a variety of reasons. Because regulators controlled the rates that thrifts could pay on savings, when interest rates rose depositors often withdrew their funds and placed them in accounts that earned market rates, a process known as [disintermediation](/wiki/Disintermediation "Disintermediation"). At the same time, rising loan rates and a slow growth economy made it harder for people to qualify for [mortgages](/wiki/Mortgage_loan "Mortgage loan") that in turn limited the ability of the S\&Ls to generate income.
In response to these complex economic conditions, thrift managers resorted to several innovations, such as alternative mortgage instruments and interest\-bearing checking accounts, as a way to retain funds and generate lending business. Such actions allowed the industry to continue to record steady asset growth and profitability during the 1970s even though the actual number of thrifts was falling. Despite such growth, there were still clear signs that the industry was chafing under the constraints of regulation. This was especially true with the large S\&Ls in the [Western United States](/wiki/Western_United_States "Western United States") that yearned for additional lending powers to ensure continued growth. Despite several efforts to modernize these laws in the 1970s, few substantive changes were enacted.
In 1979, the financial health of the thrift industry was again challenged by a return of high interest rates and inflation, sparked this time by a doubling of oil prices and exacerbated by dwindling resources of the [Federal Savings and Loan Insurance Corporation](/wiki/Federal_Savings_and_Loan_Insurance_Corporation "Federal Savings and Loan Insurance Corporation") (FSLIC). It was not a small problem: In 1980 there were more than 4,000 savings \& loans institutions with assets of $600 billion, of which $480 billion were mortgage loans, many of them made at low interest rates fixed in an earlier era. In the United States, this was 50 percent of the entire home mortgage market. In 1983, the FSLIC's reserves for failures amounted to around $6 billion, whereas, according to Robinson (footnoted), the cost of paying off insured depositors in failed institutions would have been around $25 billion. Hence, regulators were forced into "forbearance"—allowing insolvent institutions to remain open—and to hope that they could grow out of their problems.
|
[
"Background\n----------",
"The \"thrift\" or \"building\" or \"savings and loans associations\" industry has its origins in the British [building society](/wiki/Building_society \"Building society\") movement that emerged in the late 18th century. American thrifts (also known as \"building and loans\" or \"B\\&Ls\"){{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.law.cornell.edu/wex/building\\_and\\_loan\\_association \\|title\\= Building and Loan Association definition\\| publisher\\=Cornell Law School \\|author \\= Wex Legal Dictionary\\|access\\-date \\=March 30, 2018}} shared many of the same basic goals: to help the [working class](/wiki/Working_class \"Working class\") save for the future and purchase homes. Thrifts were not\\-for\\-profit cooperative organizations that were typically managed by the membership and local institutions that served well\\-defined groups of aspiring homeowners. While banks offered a wide array of products to individuals and businesses, thrifts often made only home mortgages primarily to working\\-class men and women. Thrift leaders believed they were part of a broader social reform effort and not a financial industry. According to thrift leaders, B\\&Ls not only helped people become better citizens by making it easier to buy a home, but also taught the habits of systematic savings and mutual cooperation which strengthened personal morals.{{cite news\\|title\\=Savings and Loan Industry, US \\|url\\=http://eh.net/encyclopedia/article/mason.savings.loan.industry.us \\|date\\=June 10, 2003 \\|publisher\\=EH.Net Encyclopedia, edited by Robert Whaples \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131020002106/http://eh.net/encyclopedia/article/mason.savings.loan.industry.us \\|archive\\-date\\=20 October 2013 }}",
"The thrift associations and their ideals were famously portrayed in the 1946 film *[It's a Wonderful Life](/wiki/It%27s_a_Wonderful_Life \"It's a Wonderful Life\")*.",
"The first thrift was formed in 1831, and for 40 years there were few B\\&Ls, found in only a handful of [Midwestern](/wiki/Midwestern_United_States \"Midwestern United States\") and [Eastern](/wiki/East_Coast_of_the_United_States \"East Coast of the United States\") states. This situation changed in the late 19th century as urban growth and the demand for housing related to the [Second Industrial Revolution](/wiki/Second_Industrial_Revolution \"Second Industrial Revolution\") caused the number of thrifts to explode. The popularity of B\\&Ls led to the creation of a new type of thrift in the 1880s called the \"national\" B\\&L. The \"nationals\" were often for\\-profit businesses formed by bankers or industrialists that employed promoters to form local branches to sell shares to prospective members. The \"nationals\" promised to pay savings rates up to four times greater than any other financial institution.",
"The Depression of 1893 (resulting from the financial [Panic of 1893](/wiki/Panic_of_1893 \"Panic of 1893\"), which lasted for several years) caused a sharp decline in members, and so \"nationals\" experienced a sudden reversal of fortunes. Because a steady stream of new members was critical for a \"national\" to pay both the interest on savings and the hefty [salaries](/wiki/Salary \"Salary\") for the organizers, the falloff in payments caused dozens of \"nationals\" to fail. By the end of the 19th century, nearly all the \"nationals\" were out of business (National Building and Loans Crisis). This led to the creation of the first state regulations governing B\\&Ls, to make thrift operations more uniform, and the formation of a national trade association to not only protect B\\&L interests, but also promote business growth. The trade association led efforts to create more uniform accounting, appraisal, and lending procedures. It also spearheaded the drive to have all thrifts refer to themselves as \"savings and loans\", not B\\&Ls, and to convince managers of the need to assume more professional roles as financiers.",
"In the 20th century, the two decades that followed the end of [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\") were the most successful period in the history of the thrift industry. The return of millions of servicemen eager to take up their prewar lives led to an unprecedented post\\-war housing crisis and boom with a dramatic increase in new families, and this so\\-called \"[baby boom](/wiki/Baby_boom \"Baby boom\")\" caused a surge in new mostly suburban home construction, and vast expansion beyond the central core cities with additional commercial development on radiating spoke roads and highways plus the additional construction by 1956, during the [Eisenhower](/wiki/Dwight_D._Eisenhower \"Dwight D. Eisenhower\") administration of the [Interstate Highways](/wiki/Interstate_Highways \"Interstate Highways\") system throughout the country allowed the explosion of suburban communities in formerly rural surrounding counties. By the 1940s S\\&Ls (the name change for many associations occurred gradually after the late 1930s) provided most of the financing for this expansion, which now had some sort of state regulation which predated the later similar regulation of banks instituted after the 1929 [Stock Market \"Crash\"](/wiki/Stock_Market_Crash_of_1929 \"Stock Market Crash of 1929\") and the later \"[bank holiday](/wiki/Emergency_Banking_Act \"Emergency Banking Act\")\" of the beginning of the administration of 32nd President [Franklin D. Roosevelt](/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt \"Franklin D. Roosevelt\") in March 1933, and the subsequent requirements and regulations in the \"[New Deal](/wiki/New_Deal \"New Deal\")\" programs to combat the [Great Depression](/wiki/Great_Depression \"Great Depression\"). The result was strong industry expansion that lasted through the early 1960s.",
"An important trend involved raising rates paid on savings to lure deposits, a practice that resulted in periodic rate wars between thrifts and even commercial banks. These wars became so severe that in 1966, the [United States Congress](/wiki/United_States_Congress \"United States Congress\") took the highly unusual move of setting limits on savings rates for both commercial banks and S\\&Ls. From 1966 to 1979, the enactment of rate controls presented thrifts with a number of unprecedented challenges, chief of which was finding ways to continue to expand in an economy characterized by slow growth, high interest rates and inflation. These conditions, which came to be known as [stagflation](/wiki/Stagflation \"Stagflation\"), wreaked havoc with thrift finances for a variety of reasons. Because regulators controlled the rates that thrifts could pay on savings, when interest rates rose depositors often withdrew their funds and placed them in accounts that earned market rates, a process known as [disintermediation](/wiki/Disintermediation \"Disintermediation\"). At the same time, rising loan rates and a slow growth economy made it harder for people to qualify for [mortgages](/wiki/Mortgage_loan \"Mortgage loan\") that in turn limited the ability of the S\\&Ls to generate income.",
"In response to these complex economic conditions, thrift managers resorted to several innovations, such as alternative mortgage instruments and interest\\-bearing checking accounts, as a way to retain funds and generate lending business. Such actions allowed the industry to continue to record steady asset growth and profitability during the 1970s even though the actual number of thrifts was falling. Despite such growth, there were still clear signs that the industry was chafing under the constraints of regulation. This was especially true with the large S\\&Ls in the [Western United States](/wiki/Western_United_States \"Western United States\") that yearned for additional lending powers to ensure continued growth. Despite several efforts to modernize these laws in the 1970s, few substantive changes were enacted.",
"In 1979, the financial health of the thrift industry was again challenged by a return of high interest rates and inflation, sparked this time by a doubling of oil prices and exacerbated by dwindling resources of the [Federal Savings and Loan Insurance Corporation](/wiki/Federal_Savings_and_Loan_Insurance_Corporation \"Federal Savings and Loan Insurance Corporation\") (FSLIC). It was not a small problem: In 1980 there were more than 4,000 savings \\& loans institutions with assets of $600 billion, of which $480 billion were mortgage loans, many of them made at low interest rates fixed in an earlier era. In the United States, this was 50 percent of the entire home mortgage market. In 1983, the FSLIC's reserves for failures amounted to around $6 billion, whereas, according to Robinson (footnoted), the cost of paying off insured depositors in failed institutions would have been around $25 billion. Hence, regulators were forced into \"forbearance\"—allowing insolvent institutions to remain open—and to hope that they could grow out of their problems.",
""
] |
Failures
--------
[thumb\|280px\|[President Ronald Reagan](/wiki/Ronald_Reagan "Ronald Reagan") signs the [Economic Recovery Tax Act of 1981](/wiki/Economic_Recovery_Tax_Act_of_1981 "Economic Recovery Tax Act of 1981") (ERTA) bill at *[Rancho del Cielo](/wiki/Rancho_del_Cielo "Rancho del Cielo")* in 1981](/wiki/File:President_Ronald_Reagan_meets_with_the_Press_after_signing_the_1981_Tax_Reconciliation_Bill_Rancho_Del_Cielo.jpg "President Ronald Reagan meets with the Press after signing the 1981 Tax Reconciliation Bill Rancho Del Cielo.jpg")
In 1980, the [United States Congress](/wiki/United_States_Congress "United States Congress") granted all thrifts, including savings and loan associations, the power to make consumer and commercial loans and to issue transaction accounts. Designed to help the thrift industry retain its deposit base and to improve its profitability, the [Depository Institutions Deregulation and Monetary Control Act](/wiki/Depository_Institutions_Deregulation_and_Monetary_Control_Act "Depository Institutions Deregulation and Monetary Control Act") (DIDMCA) of 1980 allowed thrifts to make consumer loans up to 20 percent of their assets, issue credit cards, accept [negotiable order of withdrawal](/wiki/Negotiable_order_of_withdrawal "Negotiable order of withdrawal") accounts from individuals and nonprofit organizations, and invest up to 20 percent of their assets in commercial real estate loans.
The damage to S\&L operations led Congress to act, passing the [Economic Recovery Tax Act of 1981](/wiki/Economic_Recovery_Tax_Act_of_1981 "Economic Recovery Tax Act of 1981") (ERTA) in August 1981 and initiating the regulatory changes by the [Federal Home Loan Bank Board](/wiki/Federal_Home_Loan_Bank_Board "Federal Home Loan Bank Board") allowing S\&Ls to sell their mortgage loans and use the cash generated to seek better returns soon after enactment;[The S\&L Crisis: A Chrono\-Bibliography](http://www.fdic.gov/bank/Historical/s&l/), FDIC. the losses created by the sales were to be amortized over the life of the loan, and any losses could also be offset against taxes paid over the preceding ten years.{{USPL\|97\|34}}, [Economic Recovery Tax Act of 1981](/wiki/Economic_Recovery_Tax_Act_of_1981 "Economic Recovery Tax Act of 1981"), 95 Stat. 172, {{USBill\|97\|H.R.\|4242}}, 13 August 1981, Title II, [97th Congress](/wiki/97th_Congress "97th Congress"). This all made S\&Ls eager to sell their loans. The buyers – major Wall Street firms – were quick to take advantage of the S\&Ls' lack of expertise, buying at 60% to 90% of value and then transforming the loans by bundling them as, effectively, government\-backed bonds by virtue of [Ginnie Mae](/wiki/GNMA "GNMA"), [Freddie Mac](/wiki/FHLMC "FHLMC"), or [Fannie Mae](/wiki/FNMA "FNMA") guarantees. S\&Ls were one group buying these bonds, holding $150 billion by 1986, and being charged substantial fees for the transactions.
In 1982, the Garn\-St Germain Depository Institutions Act was passed and increased the proportion of assets that thrifts could hold in consumer and commercial real estate loans and allowed thrifts to invest 5 percent of their assets in commercial loans until January 1, 1984, when this percentage increased to 10 percent.{{cite book \|last1\=Mishler \|first1\=Lon \|last2\=Cole \|first2\=Robert E. \|title\=Consumer and Business Credit Management \|publisher\=Irwin \|location\=Homewood, Ill \|year\=1995 \|pages\=123–124 \|isbn\=0\-256\-13948\-2}}
These policies had the effect of prolonging the crisis, and a large number of S\&L customers defaulted and [bankruptcies](/wiki/Bankruptcy "Bankruptcy") ensued. This led to many S\&Ls being forced into insolvency proceedings themselves.
The [Federal Savings and Loan Insurance Corporation](/wiki/Federal_Savings_and_Loan_Insurance_Corporation "Federal Savings and Loan Insurance Corporation") (FSLIC), a federal government agency that insured S\&L accounts in the same way the [Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation](/wiki/Federal_Deposit_Insurance_Corporation "Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation") insures commercial bank accounts, was obligated to repay all the depositors who lost their money. Between 1986 and 1989, FSLIC closed or otherwise resolved 296 institutions with total assets of $125 billion. An even more traumatic period followed, with the creation of the [Resolution Trust Corporation](/wiki/Resolution_Trust_Corporation "Resolution Trust Corporation") in 1989 and that agency's resolution by mid\-1995 of an additional 747 thrifts.Curry, Timothy; Shibut, Lynn. "[The Cost of the Savings and Loan Crisis: Truth and Consequences](http://www.fdic.gov/bank/analytical/banking/2000dec/brv13n2_2.pdf)." *FDIC Banking Review*. Dec. 2000\. pp. 26–34\.
A Federal Reserve Bank panel stated the resulting taxpayer bailout ended up being even larger than it would have been because [moral hazard](/wiki/Moral_hazard "Moral hazard") and [adverse selection](/wiki/Adverse_selection "Adverse selection") incentives that compounded the system's losses.{{cite journal \|last1\=Emmons \|first1\=William R. \|first2\=Anthony N. M. \|last2\=Pennington\-Cross \| title\=Lessons for Federal Pension Insurance from the Savings and Loan Crisis \|url\=http://research.stlouisfed.org/publications/review/06/07/Emmons.pdf \|date\=Jul–Aug 2006 \|journal\= Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Review}}
There also were state\-chartered S\&Ls that failed. Some state insurance funds failed, requiring more state taxpayer bailouts.{{Citation needed\|date\=March 2023}}
### Home State Savings Bank
In March 1985, it came to public knowledge that the large [Cincinnati, Ohio](/wiki/Cincinnati%2C_Ohio "Cincinnati, Ohio")\-based [Home State Savings Bank](/wiki/Home_State_Savings_Bank "Home State Savings Bank") was about to collapse. [Ohio](/wiki/Ohio "Ohio") Governor [Dick Celeste](/wiki/Dick_Celeste "Dick Celeste") declared a bank holiday in the state as Home State depositors lined up in a "run" on the bank's branches to withdraw their deposits. Celeste ordered the closure of all the state's S\&Ls. Only those that were able to qualify for membership in the [Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation](/wiki/Federal_Deposit_Insurance_Corporation "Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation") were allowed to reopen.[Home State Savings Bank's Failure](http://www.ohiohistorycentral.org/entry.php?rec=1636), Ohio History Central website Claims by Ohio S\&L depositors drained the state's deposit insurance funds. A similar event involving [Old Court Savings and Loans](/wiki/Old_Court_Savings_and_Loans "Old Court Savings and Loans") took place in [Maryland](/wiki/Maryland "Maryland").
### Midwest Federal Savings \& Loan
[Midwest Federal Savings \& Loan](/wiki/Midwest_Federal_Savings_%26_Loan "Midwest Federal Savings & Loan") was a federally chartered savings and loan based in [Minneapolis](/wiki/Minneapolis "Minneapolis"), [Minnesota](/wiki/Minnesota "Minnesota"), until its failure in 1990\.*[Anderson v. Resolution Trust Corp.](http://bulk.resource.org/courts.gov/c/F3/66/66.F3d.956.html) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20111226082122/http://bulk.resource.org/courts.gov/c/F3/66/66\.F3d.956\.html \|date\=2011\-12\-26 }}*, 66 F.3d 956 (8th Cir. 1995\). The *[St. Paul Pioneer Press](/wiki/St._Paul_Pioneer_Press "St. Paul Pioneer Press")* called the bank's failure the "largest financial disaster in Minnesota history".{{Citation needed\|date\=June 2009}}
The chairman, Hal Greenwood Jr., his daughter, Susan Greenwood Olson, and two former executives, Robert A. Mampel, and Charlotte E. Masica, were convicted of [racketeering](/wiki/Racketeering "Racketeering") that led to the institution's collapse. The failure cost taxpayers $1\.2 billion.{{cite news \|title\=S.\& L. Case Convictions \|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/1991/08/31/business/s\-l\-case\-convictions.html \|work\=\[\[The New York Times]] \|date\=August 31, 1991 }}
The [Megadeth](/wiki/Megadeth "Megadeth") song "[Foreclosure of a Dream](/wiki/Foreclosure_of_a_Dream "Foreclosure of a Dream")" is presumed to have been written about this particular failure. Megadeth's then bassist [Dave Ellefson](/wiki/Dave_Ellefson "Dave Ellefson") contributed lyrics to the song after his family's Minnesota farm was in jeopardy as a result of the S\&L financial crisis.
### Lincoln Savings and Loan
The [Lincoln Savings](/wiki/Lincoln_Savings_and_Loan_Association "Lincoln Savings and Loan Association") collapse led to the [Keating Five](/wiki/Keating_Five "Keating Five") political scandal, in which five U.S. senators were implicated in an influence\-peddling scheme. It was named for [Charles Keating](/wiki/Charles_Keating "Charles Keating"), who headed Lincoln Savings and made $300,000 as political contributions to them in the 1980s. Three of those senators, [Alan Cranston](/wiki/Alan_Cranston "Alan Cranston") (D–CA), [Don Riegle](/wiki/Donald_Wayne_Riegle_Jr. "Donald Wayne Riegle Jr.") (D–MI), and [Dennis DeConcini](/wiki/Dennis_DeConcini "Dennis DeConcini") (D–AZ), found their political careers cut short as a result. Two others, [John Glenn](/wiki/John_Glenn "John Glenn") (D–OH) and [John McCain](/wiki/John_McCain "John McCain") (R–AZ), were rebuked by the Senate Ethics Committee for exercising "poor judgment" for intervening with the federal regulators on behalf of Keating.
Lincoln Savings and Loan collapsed in 1989, at a cost of $3\.4 billion to the federal government (and thus taxpayers). Some 23,000 Lincoln bondholders were defrauded and many investors lost their life savings.{{cite news \|url\=https://www.azcentral.com/news/specials/mccain/articles/0301mccainbio\-chapter7\.html \|title\=John McCain Report: The Keating Five \|author\=Dan Nowicki, Bill Muller \|publisher\=\[\[The Arizona Republic]] \|date\=2007\-03\-01 \|access\-date\=2007\-11\-23 \|archive\-date\=2014\-10\-11 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141011225847/http://www.azcentral.com/news/specials/mccain/articles/0301mccainbio\-chapter7\.html \|url\-status\=dead }}
### Silverado Savings and Loan
[thumb\|[Neil Bush](/wiki/Neil_Bush "Neil Bush")](/wiki/File:Neil_Bush_%285817515972%29.jpg "Neil Bush (5817515972).jpg")
Silverado Savings and Loan collapsed in 1988, costing taxpayers $1\.3 billion. [Neil Bush](/wiki/Neil_Bush "Neil Bush"), the son of then [Vice President of the United States](/wiki/Vice_President_of_the_United_States "Vice President of the United States") [George H. W. Bush](/wiki/George_H._W._Bush "George H. W. Bush"), was on the Board of Directors of Silverado at the time. Neil Bush was accused of granting loans that benefitted himself, but he denied all wrongdoing.{{cite news \|first\=Martin \|last\=Tolchin \|title\=Legal Scholars Clash Over Neil Bush Actions \|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/1990/09/27/business/legal\-scholars\-clash\-over\-neil\-bush\-actions.html \|work\=\[\[The New York Times]] \|date\=September 27, 1990 }} With the collapse in world oil prices beginning on 13 September 1985 when Saudi Arabia's Minister of Petroleum [Sheikh Yamani](/wiki/Sheikh_Yamani "Sheikh Yamani") announced a new oil policy and that Saudi Arabia would increase its production and which, over the next six months, oil production in Saudi Arabia rose tremendously, Neil Bush's Denver based J.N.B. Exploration Company and George W. Bush's Midland based Spectrum 7 Energy Corporation encountered enormous financial difficulties.{{cite news \|last\=Reinhold \|first\=Robert \|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/1986/04/30/us/in\-troubled\-oil\-business\-it\-matters\-little\-if\-your\-name\-is\-bush\-sons\-find.html \|title\=IN TROUBLED OIL BUSINESS, IT MATTERS LITTLE IF YOUR NAME IS BUSH, SONS FIND \|work\=\[\[The New York Times]] \|date\=30 April 1986 \|access\-date\=1 April 2022}}{{cite web \|last\=Илларионов \|first\=Андрей \|author\-link\=Andrey Illarionov \|url\=https://aillarionov.livejournal.com/388133\.html?noscroll \|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20220326003625/https://aillarionov.livejournal.com/388133\.html?noscroll \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-date\=2022\-03\-26 \|title\=Падение нефтяных цен и академических репутаций: Краткая биография одной дезинформации (page 1\) \|trans\-title\=Falling oil prices and academic reputations: Brief biography of one disinformation (page 1\) \|language\=ru \|date\=12 February 2012 \|access\-date\=1 April 2022}}{{cite web \|last\=Илларионов \|first\=Андрей \|author\-link\=Andrey Illarionov \|url\=https://aillarionov.livejournal.com/388133\.html?page\=2 \|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20220326012630/https://aillarionov.livejournal.com/388133\.html?page\=2 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-date\=2022\-03\-26 \|title\=Падение нефтяных цен и академических репутаций: Краткая биография одной дезинформации (page 2\) \|trans\-title\=Falling oil prices and academic reputations: Brief biography of one disinformation (page 2\) \|language\=ru \|date\=12 February 2012 \|access\-date\=1 April 2022}}
The U.S. Office of Thrift Supervision investigated Silverado's failure and determined that Neil Bush had engaged in numerous "breaches of his fiduciary duties involving multiple [conflicts of interest](/wiki/Conflicts_of_interest "Conflicts of interest")". Although Bush was not indicted on criminal charges, a civil action was brought against him and the other Silverado directors by the [Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation](/wiki/Federal_Deposit_Insurance_Corporation "Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation"); it was eventually settled out of court, with Bush paying $50,000 as part of the settlement, *[The Washington Post](/wiki/The_Washington_Post "The Washington Post")* reported.{{cite news \|first\=Peter \|last\=Carlson \|title\=The Relatively Charmed Life Of Neil Bush: Despite Silverado and Voodoo, Fortune Still Smiles on the President's Brother \|url\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/ac2/wp\-dyn/A35297\-2003Dec27 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110604174235/http://www.washingtonpost.com/ac2/wp\-dyn/A35297\-2003Dec27 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-date\=June 4, 2011 \|newspaper\=\[\[The Washington Post]] \|date\=December 28, 2003 }} According to journalist [Pete Brewton](/wiki/Pete_Brewton "Pete Brewton"), the Federal Government knew Silverado was ready to collapse in September 1988 but was ordered not to take action until two weeks after the November 1988 Presidential election.{{cite book \|last1\=Brewton \|first1\=Pete \|title\=The Mafia, the CIA, and George Bush: the untold story of America's greatest Financial Debacle \|date\=January 1, 1992 \|publisher\=SPI Books \|isbn\=978\-1561712038}}
As a director of a failing thrift, Neil Bush voted to approve $100 million in what were ultimately bad loans to two of his business partners. And in voting for the loans, he failed to inform fellow board members at Silverado Savings \& Loan that the loan applicants were his business partners.{{Cite news\| url \= https://www.latimes.com/archives/la\-xpm\-1990\-12\-19\-fi\-6343\-story.html\|title\=Neil Bush Broke Conflict Rules, Official Decides : Thrifts: An administrative law judge says the President's son failed to disclose his business ties to two big borrowers of a failed Denver thrift\|author\= Douglas Frantz \|work\=\[\[Los Angeles Times]] \|date \= December 19, 1990}}
Neil Bush paid a $50,000 fine, paid for him by Republican supporters,"[O, Brother! Where Art Thou?: Like Hugh Rodham, the Bush Bros. Have Capitalized on Family Ties](http://www.austinchronicle.com/gyrobase/Issue/story?oid=oid%3A81085)" *The Austin Chronicle*. and was banned from banking activities for his role in taking down Silverado, which cost taxpayers $1\.3 billion. An RTC suit against Bush and other Silverado officers was settled in 1991 for $26\.5 million.
|
[
"Failures\n--------",
"[thumb\\|280px\\|[President Ronald Reagan](/wiki/Ronald_Reagan \"Ronald Reagan\") signs the [Economic Recovery Tax Act of 1981](/wiki/Economic_Recovery_Tax_Act_of_1981 \"Economic Recovery Tax Act of 1981\") (ERTA) bill at *[Rancho del Cielo](/wiki/Rancho_del_Cielo \"Rancho del Cielo\")* in 1981](/wiki/File:President_Ronald_Reagan_meets_with_the_Press_after_signing_the_1981_Tax_Reconciliation_Bill_Rancho_Del_Cielo.jpg \"President Ronald Reagan meets with the Press after signing the 1981 Tax Reconciliation Bill Rancho Del Cielo.jpg\")\nIn 1980, the [United States Congress](/wiki/United_States_Congress \"United States Congress\") granted all thrifts, including savings and loan associations, the power to make consumer and commercial loans and to issue transaction accounts. Designed to help the thrift industry retain its deposit base and to improve its profitability, the [Depository Institutions Deregulation and Monetary Control Act](/wiki/Depository_Institutions_Deregulation_and_Monetary_Control_Act \"Depository Institutions Deregulation and Monetary Control Act\") (DIDMCA) of 1980 allowed thrifts to make consumer loans up to 20 percent of their assets, issue credit cards, accept [negotiable order of withdrawal](/wiki/Negotiable_order_of_withdrawal \"Negotiable order of withdrawal\") accounts from individuals and nonprofit organizations, and invest up to 20 percent of their assets in commercial real estate loans.",
"The damage to S\\&L operations led Congress to act, passing the [Economic Recovery Tax Act of 1981](/wiki/Economic_Recovery_Tax_Act_of_1981 \"Economic Recovery Tax Act of 1981\") (ERTA) in August 1981 and initiating the regulatory changes by the [Federal Home Loan Bank Board](/wiki/Federal_Home_Loan_Bank_Board \"Federal Home Loan Bank Board\") allowing S\\&Ls to sell their mortgage loans and use the cash generated to seek better returns soon after enactment;[The S\\&L Crisis: A Chrono\\-Bibliography](http://www.fdic.gov/bank/Historical/s&l/), FDIC. the losses created by the sales were to be amortized over the life of the loan, and any losses could also be offset against taxes paid over the preceding ten years.{{USPL\\|97\\|34}}, [Economic Recovery Tax Act of 1981](/wiki/Economic_Recovery_Tax_Act_of_1981 \"Economic Recovery Tax Act of 1981\"), 95 Stat. 172, {{USBill\\|97\\|H.R.\\|4242}}, 13 August 1981, Title II, [97th Congress](/wiki/97th_Congress \"97th Congress\"). This all made S\\&Ls eager to sell their loans. The buyers – major Wall Street firms – were quick to take advantage of the S\\&Ls' lack of expertise, buying at 60% to 90% of value and then transforming the loans by bundling them as, effectively, government\\-backed bonds by virtue of [Ginnie Mae](/wiki/GNMA \"GNMA\"), [Freddie Mac](/wiki/FHLMC \"FHLMC\"), or [Fannie Mae](/wiki/FNMA \"FNMA\") guarantees. S\\&Ls were one group buying these bonds, holding $150 billion by 1986, and being charged substantial fees for the transactions.",
"In 1982, the Garn\\-St Germain Depository Institutions Act was passed and increased the proportion of assets that thrifts could hold in consumer and commercial real estate loans and allowed thrifts to invest 5 percent of their assets in commercial loans until January 1, 1984, when this percentage increased to 10 percent.{{cite book \\|last1\\=Mishler \\|first1\\=Lon \\|last2\\=Cole \\|first2\\=Robert E. \\|title\\=Consumer and Business Credit Management \\|publisher\\=Irwin \\|location\\=Homewood, Ill \\|year\\=1995 \\|pages\\=123–124 \\|isbn\\=0\\-256\\-13948\\-2}}",
"These policies had the effect of prolonging the crisis, and a large number of S\\&L customers defaulted and [bankruptcies](/wiki/Bankruptcy \"Bankruptcy\") ensued. This led to many S\\&Ls being forced into insolvency proceedings themselves.",
"The [Federal Savings and Loan Insurance Corporation](/wiki/Federal_Savings_and_Loan_Insurance_Corporation \"Federal Savings and Loan Insurance Corporation\") (FSLIC), a federal government agency that insured S\\&L accounts in the same way the [Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation](/wiki/Federal_Deposit_Insurance_Corporation \"Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation\") insures commercial bank accounts, was obligated to repay all the depositors who lost their money. Between 1986 and 1989, FSLIC closed or otherwise resolved 296 institutions with total assets of $125 billion. An even more traumatic period followed, with the creation of the [Resolution Trust Corporation](/wiki/Resolution_Trust_Corporation \"Resolution Trust Corporation\") in 1989 and that agency's resolution by mid\\-1995 of an additional 747 thrifts.Curry, Timothy; Shibut, Lynn. \"[The Cost of the Savings and Loan Crisis: Truth and Consequences](http://www.fdic.gov/bank/analytical/banking/2000dec/brv13n2_2.pdf).\" *FDIC Banking Review*. Dec. 2000\\. pp. 26–34\\.",
"A Federal Reserve Bank panel stated the resulting taxpayer bailout ended up being even larger than it would have been because [moral hazard](/wiki/Moral_hazard \"Moral hazard\") and [adverse selection](/wiki/Adverse_selection \"Adverse selection\") incentives that compounded the system's losses.{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Emmons \\|first1\\=William R. \\|first2\\=Anthony N. M. \\|last2\\=Pennington\\-Cross \\| title\\=Lessons for Federal Pension Insurance from the Savings and Loan Crisis \\|url\\=http://research.stlouisfed.org/publications/review/06/07/Emmons.pdf \\|date\\=Jul–Aug 2006 \\|journal\\= Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Review}}",
"There also were state\\-chartered S\\&Ls that failed. Some state insurance funds failed, requiring more state taxpayer bailouts.{{Citation needed\\|date\\=March 2023}}",
"### Home State Savings Bank",
"In March 1985, it came to public knowledge that the large [Cincinnati, Ohio](/wiki/Cincinnati%2C_Ohio \"Cincinnati, Ohio\")\\-based [Home State Savings Bank](/wiki/Home_State_Savings_Bank \"Home State Savings Bank\") was about to collapse. [Ohio](/wiki/Ohio \"Ohio\") Governor [Dick Celeste](/wiki/Dick_Celeste \"Dick Celeste\") declared a bank holiday in the state as Home State depositors lined up in a \"run\" on the bank's branches to withdraw their deposits. Celeste ordered the closure of all the state's S\\&Ls. Only those that were able to qualify for membership in the [Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation](/wiki/Federal_Deposit_Insurance_Corporation \"Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation\") were allowed to reopen.[Home State Savings Bank's Failure](http://www.ohiohistorycentral.org/entry.php?rec=1636), Ohio History Central website Claims by Ohio S\\&L depositors drained the state's deposit insurance funds. A similar event involving [Old Court Savings and Loans](/wiki/Old_Court_Savings_and_Loans \"Old Court Savings and Loans\") took place in [Maryland](/wiki/Maryland \"Maryland\").",
"### Midwest Federal Savings \\& Loan",
"[Midwest Federal Savings \\& Loan](/wiki/Midwest_Federal_Savings_%26_Loan \"Midwest Federal Savings & Loan\") was a federally chartered savings and loan based in [Minneapolis](/wiki/Minneapolis \"Minneapolis\"), [Minnesota](/wiki/Minnesota \"Minnesota\"), until its failure in 1990\\.*[Anderson v. Resolution Trust Corp.](http://bulk.resource.org/courts.gov/c/F3/66/66.F3d.956.html) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20111226082122/http://bulk.resource.org/courts.gov/c/F3/66/66\\.F3d.956\\.html \\|date\\=2011\\-12\\-26 }}*, 66 F.3d 956 (8th Cir. 1995\\). The *[St. Paul Pioneer Press](/wiki/St._Paul_Pioneer_Press \"St. Paul Pioneer Press\")* called the bank's failure the \"largest financial disaster in Minnesota history\".{{Citation needed\\|date\\=June 2009}}",
"The chairman, Hal Greenwood Jr., his daughter, Susan Greenwood Olson, and two former executives, Robert A. Mampel, and Charlotte E. Masica, were convicted of [racketeering](/wiki/Racketeering \"Racketeering\") that led to the institution's collapse. The failure cost taxpayers $1\\.2 billion.{{cite news \\|title\\=S.\\& L. Case Convictions \\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/1991/08/31/business/s\\-l\\-case\\-convictions.html \\|work\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]] \\|date\\=August 31, 1991 }}",
"The [Megadeth](/wiki/Megadeth \"Megadeth\") song \"[Foreclosure of a Dream](/wiki/Foreclosure_of_a_Dream \"Foreclosure of a Dream\")\" is presumed to have been written about this particular failure. Megadeth's then bassist [Dave Ellefson](/wiki/Dave_Ellefson \"Dave Ellefson\") contributed lyrics to the song after his family's Minnesota farm was in jeopardy as a result of the S\\&L financial crisis.",
"### Lincoln Savings and Loan",
"The [Lincoln Savings](/wiki/Lincoln_Savings_and_Loan_Association \"Lincoln Savings and Loan Association\") collapse led to the [Keating Five](/wiki/Keating_Five \"Keating Five\") political scandal, in which five U.S. senators were implicated in an influence\\-peddling scheme. It was named for [Charles Keating](/wiki/Charles_Keating \"Charles Keating\"), who headed Lincoln Savings and made $300,000 as political contributions to them in the 1980s. Three of those senators, [Alan Cranston](/wiki/Alan_Cranston \"Alan Cranston\") (D–CA), [Don Riegle](/wiki/Donald_Wayne_Riegle_Jr. \"Donald Wayne Riegle Jr.\") (D–MI), and [Dennis DeConcini](/wiki/Dennis_DeConcini \"Dennis DeConcini\") (D–AZ), found their political careers cut short as a result. Two others, [John Glenn](/wiki/John_Glenn \"John Glenn\") (D–OH) and [John McCain](/wiki/John_McCain \"John McCain\") (R–AZ), were rebuked by the Senate Ethics Committee for exercising \"poor judgment\" for intervening with the federal regulators on behalf of Keating.",
"Lincoln Savings and Loan collapsed in 1989, at a cost of $3\\.4 billion to the federal government (and thus taxpayers). Some 23,000 Lincoln bondholders were defrauded and many investors lost their life savings.{{cite news \\|url\\=https://www.azcentral.com/news/specials/mccain/articles/0301mccainbio\\-chapter7\\.html \\|title\\=John McCain Report: The Keating Five \\|author\\=Dan Nowicki, Bill Muller \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[The Arizona Republic]] \\|date\\=2007\\-03\\-01 \\|access\\-date\\=2007\\-11\\-23 \\|archive\\-date\\=2014\\-10\\-11 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141011225847/http://www.azcentral.com/news/specials/mccain/articles/0301mccainbio\\-chapter7\\.html \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}",
"### Silverado Savings and Loan",
"[thumb\\|[Neil Bush](/wiki/Neil_Bush \"Neil Bush\")](/wiki/File:Neil_Bush_%285817515972%29.jpg \"Neil Bush (5817515972).jpg\")\nSilverado Savings and Loan collapsed in 1988, costing taxpayers $1\\.3 billion. [Neil Bush](/wiki/Neil_Bush \"Neil Bush\"), the son of then [Vice President of the United States](/wiki/Vice_President_of_the_United_States \"Vice President of the United States\") [George H. W. Bush](/wiki/George_H._W._Bush \"George H. W. Bush\"), was on the Board of Directors of Silverado at the time. Neil Bush was accused of granting loans that benefitted himself, but he denied all wrongdoing.{{cite news \\|first\\=Martin \\|last\\=Tolchin \\|title\\=Legal Scholars Clash Over Neil Bush Actions \\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/1990/09/27/business/legal\\-scholars\\-clash\\-over\\-neil\\-bush\\-actions.html \\|work\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]] \\|date\\=September 27, 1990 }} With the collapse in world oil prices beginning on 13 September 1985 when Saudi Arabia's Minister of Petroleum [Sheikh Yamani](/wiki/Sheikh_Yamani \"Sheikh Yamani\") announced a new oil policy and that Saudi Arabia would increase its production and which, over the next six months, oil production in Saudi Arabia rose tremendously, Neil Bush's Denver based J.N.B. Exploration Company and George W. Bush's Midland based Spectrum 7 Energy Corporation encountered enormous financial difficulties.{{cite news \\|last\\=Reinhold \\|first\\=Robert \\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/1986/04/30/us/in\\-troubled\\-oil\\-business\\-it\\-matters\\-little\\-if\\-your\\-name\\-is\\-bush\\-sons\\-find.html \\|title\\=IN TROUBLED OIL BUSINESS, IT MATTERS LITTLE IF YOUR NAME IS BUSH, SONS FIND \\|work\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]] \\|date\\=30 April 1986 \\|access\\-date\\=1 April 2022}}{{cite web \\|last\\=Илларионов \\|first\\=Андрей \\|author\\-link\\=Andrey Illarionov \\|url\\=https://aillarionov.livejournal.com/388133\\.html?noscroll \\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20220326003625/https://aillarionov.livejournal.com/388133\\.html?noscroll \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-date\\=2022\\-03\\-26 \\|title\\=Падение нефтяных цен и академических репутаций: Краткая биография одной дезинформации (page 1\\) \\|trans\\-title\\=Falling oil prices and academic reputations: Brief biography of one disinformation (page 1\\) \\|language\\=ru \\|date\\=12 February 2012 \\|access\\-date\\=1 April 2022}}{{cite web \\|last\\=Илларионов \\|first\\=Андрей \\|author\\-link\\=Andrey Illarionov \\|url\\=https://aillarionov.livejournal.com/388133\\.html?page\\=2 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20220326012630/https://aillarionov.livejournal.com/388133\\.html?page\\=2 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-date\\=2022\\-03\\-26 \\|title\\=Падение нефтяных цен и академических репутаций: Краткая биография одной дезинформации (page 2\\) \\|trans\\-title\\=Falling oil prices and academic reputations: Brief biography of one disinformation (page 2\\) \\|language\\=ru \\|date\\=12 February 2012 \\|access\\-date\\=1 April 2022}}",
"The U.S. Office of Thrift Supervision investigated Silverado's failure and determined that Neil Bush had engaged in numerous \"breaches of his fiduciary duties involving multiple [conflicts of interest](/wiki/Conflicts_of_interest \"Conflicts of interest\")\". Although Bush was not indicted on criminal charges, a civil action was brought against him and the other Silverado directors by the [Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation](/wiki/Federal_Deposit_Insurance_Corporation \"Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation\"); it was eventually settled out of court, with Bush paying $50,000 as part of the settlement, *[The Washington Post](/wiki/The_Washington_Post \"The Washington Post\")* reported.{{cite news \\|first\\=Peter \\|last\\=Carlson \\|title\\=The Relatively Charmed Life Of Neil Bush: Despite Silverado and Voodoo, Fortune Still Smiles on the President's Brother \\|url\\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/ac2/wp\\-dyn/A35297\\-2003Dec27 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110604174235/http://www.washingtonpost.com/ac2/wp\\-dyn/A35297\\-2003Dec27 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-date\\=June 4, 2011 \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The Washington Post]] \\|date\\=December 28, 2003 }} According to journalist [Pete Brewton](/wiki/Pete_Brewton \"Pete Brewton\"), the Federal Government knew Silverado was ready to collapse in September 1988 but was ordered not to take action until two weeks after the November 1988 Presidential election.{{cite book \\|last1\\=Brewton \\|first1\\=Pete \\|title\\=The Mafia, the CIA, and George Bush: the untold story of America's greatest Financial Debacle \\|date\\=January 1, 1992 \\|publisher\\=SPI Books \\|isbn\\=978\\-1561712038}}",
"As a director of a failing thrift, Neil Bush voted to approve $100 million in what were ultimately bad loans to two of his business partners. And in voting for the loans, he failed to inform fellow board members at Silverado Savings \\& Loan that the loan applicants were his business partners.{{Cite news\\| url \\= https://www.latimes.com/archives/la\\-xpm\\-1990\\-12\\-19\\-fi\\-6343\\-story.html\\|title\\=Neil Bush Broke Conflict Rules, Official Decides : Thrifts: An administrative law judge says the President's son failed to disclose his business ties to two big borrowers of a failed Denver thrift\\|author\\= Douglas Frantz \\|work\\=\\[\\[Los Angeles Times]] \\|date \\= December 19, 1990}}",
"Neil Bush paid a $50,000 fine, paid for him by Republican supporters,\"[O, Brother! Where Art Thou?: Like Hugh Rodham, the Bush Bros. Have Capitalized on Family Ties](http://www.austinchronicle.com/gyrobase/Issue/story?oid=oid%3A81085)\" *The Austin Chronicle*. and was banned from banking activities for his role in taking down Silverado, which cost taxpayers $1\\.3 billion. An RTC suit against Bush and other Silverado officers was settled in 1991 for $26\\.5 million.",
""
] |
History
-------
IBOPE was created in 1942 by the radio broadcaster [Auricélio Penteado](/wiki/Auric%C3%A9lio_Penteado "Auricélio Penteado"), owner of Radio Kosmos in [São Paulo](/wiki/S%C3%A3o_Paulo "São Paulo"). In that year, he decided to apply research methodologies he had learned while studying in the [United States](/wiki/United_States "United States") under [George Gallup](/wiki/George_Gallup "George Gallup"), the founder of the [American Institute of Public Opinion](/wiki/American_Institute_of_Public_Opinion "American Institute of Public Opinion"), in order to quantify the size of the audience of his broadcast in Brazil.
When he measured the radio audience in São Paulo, Auricélio proved that Radio Kosmos wasn't among the most listened to stations. Therefore, he would dedicate himself exclusively to research. In 1950, Penteado leaves the presidency of the company in charge to a group of directors.
In 1977, Paulo de Tarso Montenegro became the president of the company. One year later, he invited his children, Carlos Augusto Montenegro and Luís Paulo Montenegro, to join the company. IBOPE carried out the first voting intention polls, anticipating with extreme precision the outcome of electoral contests in the late 1970s.
In the 1990s, IBOPE partners with entrepreneurs in [Mexico](/wiki/Mexico "Mexico"), [Colombia](/wiki/Colombia "Colombia"), [Venezuela](/wiki/Venezuela "Venezuela"), [Ecuador](/wiki/Ecuador "Ecuador"), [Peru](/wiki/Peru "Peru"), [Chile](/wiki/Chile "Chile") and [Argentina](/wiki/Argentina "Argentina"). From these partnerships, the company begins to supply consolidated data for [Latin America](/wiki/Latin_America "Latin America") [cable TV](/wiki/Cable_TV "Cable TV"). Currently, in addition to Brazil, the company has offices in 14 countries.
In 2014, the IBOPE Media division (measuring media audience and advertising investment) was sold to the [Kantar Group](/wiki/Kantar_Group "Kantar Group"), which changed its name to Kantar Ibope Media.
In January 2021, when the rights to use the IBOPE name expired, the institute founders and directors founded the [Inteligência em Pesquisa e Consultoria Estratégica](/wiki/Intelig%C3%AAncia_em_Pesquisa_e_Consultoria_Estrat%C3%A9gica "Inteligência em Pesquisa e Consultoria Estratégica") (Ipec) group,.{{Cite web \|date\=2022\-11\-06 \|title\=Ipec realiza pesquisas eleitorais em domicílio: entenda a metodologia usada pelo instituto \|url\=https://www.infomoney.com.br/guias/pesquisa\-ipec\-metodologia\-eleicoes\-2022/ \|access\-date\=2023\-10\-25 \|website\=InfoMoney}}
|
[
"History\n-------",
"IBOPE was created in 1942 by the radio broadcaster [Auricélio Penteado](/wiki/Auric%C3%A9lio_Penteado \"Auricélio Penteado\"), owner of Radio Kosmos in [São Paulo](/wiki/S%C3%A3o_Paulo \"São Paulo\"). In that year, he decided to apply research methodologies he had learned while studying in the [United States](/wiki/United_States \"United States\") under [George Gallup](/wiki/George_Gallup \"George Gallup\"), the founder of the [American Institute of Public Opinion](/wiki/American_Institute_of_Public_Opinion \"American Institute of Public Opinion\"), in order to quantify the size of the audience of his broadcast in Brazil.",
"When he measured the radio audience in São Paulo, Auricélio proved that Radio Kosmos wasn't among the most listened to stations. Therefore, he would dedicate himself exclusively to research. In 1950, Penteado leaves the presidency of the company in charge to a group of directors.",
"In 1977, Paulo de Tarso Montenegro became the president of the company. One year later, he invited his children, Carlos Augusto Montenegro and Luís Paulo Montenegro, to join the company. IBOPE carried out the first voting intention polls, anticipating with extreme precision the outcome of electoral contests in the late 1970s.",
"In the 1990s, IBOPE partners with entrepreneurs in [Mexico](/wiki/Mexico \"Mexico\"), [Colombia](/wiki/Colombia \"Colombia\"), [Venezuela](/wiki/Venezuela \"Venezuela\"), [Ecuador](/wiki/Ecuador \"Ecuador\"), [Peru](/wiki/Peru \"Peru\"), [Chile](/wiki/Chile \"Chile\") and [Argentina](/wiki/Argentina \"Argentina\"). From these partnerships, the company begins to supply consolidated data for [Latin America](/wiki/Latin_America \"Latin America\") [cable TV](/wiki/Cable_TV \"Cable TV\"). Currently, in addition to Brazil, the company has offices in 14 countries.",
"In 2014, the IBOPE Media division (measuring media audience and advertising investment) was sold to the [Kantar Group](/wiki/Kantar_Group \"Kantar Group\"), which changed its name to Kantar Ibope Media.",
"In January 2021, when the rights to use the IBOPE name expired, the institute founders and directors founded the [Inteligência em Pesquisa e Consultoria Estratégica](/wiki/Intelig%C3%AAncia_em_Pesquisa_e_Consultoria_Estrat%C3%A9gica \"Inteligência em Pesquisa e Consultoria Estratégica\") (Ipec) group,.{{Cite web \\|date\\=2022\\-11\\-06 \\|title\\=Ipec realiza pesquisas eleitorais em domicílio: entenda a metodologia usada pelo instituto \\|url\\=https://www.infomoney.com.br/guias/pesquisa\\-ipec\\-metodologia\\-eleicoes\\-2022/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-10\\-25 \\|website\\=InfoMoney}}",
""
] |
Divisions
---------
IBOPE Group is composed of four major businesses: IBOPE Media, IBOPE Inteligência, IBOPE Educação and IBOPE Ambiental. Additionally, IBOPE Group works together with partners through strategic partnerships. IBOPE Media is responsible for media research, advertising investment and consumption habits and offers a broad product line that meets the needs of media, advertising agencies and advertisers in 14 Latin American countries.
IBOPE Inteligência provides market, behavior, brand, public opinion{{cite news
\|newspaper\=\[\[The New York Times]]
\|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/1984/04/15/world/brazilians\-turn\-to\-lynchings\-to\-fight\-soaring\-crime\-rate.html
\|title\=Brazilians turn to lynchings to fight soaring crime rate
\|author\=Alan Riding \|date\=April 15, 1984}} and internet research, used by clients to develop business strategies in organization, marketing and products development. Additionally, many organizations use research to broaden innovation. Research by IBOPE Inteligência gets at the root of issues, offering clients customized and attractive solutions to any business challenge. In addition to Brazil, the company has offices in Argentina, Chile, México, Puerto Rico and the United States, where IBOPE acquired the American company [Zogby International](/wiki/Zogby_International "Zogby International"), based in [Utica, New York](/wiki/Utica%2C_New_York "Utica, New York"). IBOPE [Zogby](/wiki/Zogby_International "Zogby International") was subsequently closed at the end of 2012\.{{cite news \| author\=Steve Hughes \| title\=IBOPE Zogby Utica office closing \| url\=http://www.uticaod.com/news/x1978601071/IBOPE\-Zogby\-Utica\-office\-closing \| archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20130217002745/http://www.uticaod.com/news/x1978601071/IBOPE\-Zogby\-Utica\-office\-closing \| url\-status\=dead \| archive\-date\=17 February 2013 \| work\=Observer\-Dispatc \| date\=13 November 2012 \| access\-date\=22 March 2013 }}
IBOPE Educação is in the market of executive education, training professionals involved in strategic decision making. It integrates in its academic content current and exclusive information from the Group, maximizing the potential of contributions to achieving results.
And IBOPE Ambiental is a business unit performing in the environmental area with services aimed at environmental sustainability, was recently launched. The company’s headquarters is in Brazil, but it works in countries in Latin America and Africa.
Moreover, IBOPE has major stakes in two companies: IBOPE Nielsen Online and Millward Brown do Brasil. IBOPE Nielsen Online is a joint venture between IBOPE Media and Nielsen, that details the behavior of internet users. Millward Brown do Brasil is a partnership between IBOPE and Millward Brown, Inc., a WPP Group company, the world leader in advertising, branding and marketing. Millward Brown do Brasil expertise is on demand research for building and maintaining strong brand identity.
The Group is a collaborator with Instituto Paulo Montenegro, created in 2000 in honor of one of the founders of IBOPE. The Institute develops and runs educational projects, using the knowledge gathered through research in the 69\-year history of IBOPE.
|
[
"Divisions\n---------",
"IBOPE Group is composed of four major businesses: IBOPE Media, IBOPE Inteligência, IBOPE Educação and IBOPE Ambiental. Additionally, IBOPE Group works together with partners through strategic partnerships. IBOPE Media is responsible for media research, advertising investment and consumption habits and offers a broad product line that meets the needs of media, advertising agencies and advertisers in 14 Latin American countries.",
"IBOPE Inteligência provides market, behavior, brand, public opinion{{cite news\n \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]]\n \\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/1984/04/15/world/brazilians\\-turn\\-to\\-lynchings\\-to\\-fight\\-soaring\\-crime\\-rate.html\n \\|title\\=Brazilians turn to lynchings to fight soaring crime rate\n \\|author\\=Alan Riding \\|date\\=April 15, 1984}} and internet research, used by clients to develop business strategies in organization, marketing and products development. Additionally, many organizations use research to broaden innovation. Research by IBOPE Inteligência gets at the root of issues, offering clients customized and attractive solutions to any business challenge. In addition to Brazil, the company has offices in Argentina, Chile, México, Puerto Rico and the United States, where IBOPE acquired the American company [Zogby International](/wiki/Zogby_International \"Zogby International\"), based in [Utica, New York](/wiki/Utica%2C_New_York \"Utica, New York\"). IBOPE [Zogby](/wiki/Zogby_International \"Zogby International\") was subsequently closed at the end of 2012\\.{{cite news \\| author\\=Steve Hughes \\| title\\=IBOPE Zogby Utica office closing \\| url\\=http://www.uticaod.com/news/x1978601071/IBOPE\\-Zogby\\-Utica\\-office\\-closing \\| archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20130217002745/http://www.uticaod.com/news/x1978601071/IBOPE\\-Zogby\\-Utica\\-office\\-closing \\| url\\-status\\=dead \\| archive\\-date\\=17 February 2013 \\| work\\=Observer\\-Dispatc \\| date\\=13 November 2012 \\| access\\-date\\=22 March 2013 }}",
"IBOPE Educação is in the market of executive education, training professionals involved in strategic decision making. It integrates in its academic content current and exclusive information from the Group, maximizing the potential of contributions to achieving results.",
"And IBOPE Ambiental is a business unit performing in the environmental area with services aimed at environmental sustainability, was recently launched. The company’s headquarters is in Brazil, but it works in countries in Latin America and Africa.",
"Moreover, IBOPE has major stakes in two companies: IBOPE Nielsen Online and Millward Brown do Brasil. IBOPE Nielsen Online is a joint venture between IBOPE Media and Nielsen, that details the behavior of internet users. Millward Brown do Brasil is a partnership between IBOPE and Millward Brown, Inc., a WPP Group company, the world leader in advertising, branding and marketing. Millward Brown do Brasil expertise is on demand research for building and maintaining strong brand identity.",
"The Group is a collaborator with Instituto Paulo Montenegro, created in 2000 in honor of one of the founders of IBOPE. The Institute develops and runs educational projects, using the knowledge gathered through research in the 69\\-year history of IBOPE.",
""
] |
Career
------
### Huddersfield Town
Having joined up with [Huddersfield Town](/wiki/Huddersfield_Town_A.F.C. "Huddersfield Town A.F.C.") at the age of nine, Hunt went through the club's academy system, starting in May 2008{{cite news\|title\=Eight to join academy\|url\=http://www.examiner.co.uk/sport/football/news/eight\-to\-join\-academy\-5037323\|publisher\=The Huddersfield Examiner\|date\=12 May 2008\|access\-date\=2 July 2016}} and signed his first professional contract with the club in April 2009\.{{cite news\|title\=Lee Clark urges juniors: "Prove yourself"\|url\=http://www.examiner.co.uk/sport/football/news/lee\-clark\-urges\-juniors\-prove\-5022110\|publisher\=The Huddersfield Examiner\|date\=23 April 2009\|access\-date\=2 July 2016}}
Having previously appeared as an unused substitute for [Lee Clark](/wiki/Lee_Clark_%28footballer%29 "Lee Clark (footballer)")'s first team on four occasions throughout the 2009–10 season at Huddersfield Town,{{cite news\|title\=Huddersfield Town's young guns will get chance says Lee Clark\|url\=http://www.examiner.co.uk/sport/football/news/huddersfield\-towns\-young\-guns\-chance\-5008041\|publisher\=The Huddersfield Examiner\|date\=16 December 2009\|access\-date\=2 July 2016}} Hunt signed a contract extension with Huddersfield Town in March 2010\.{{cite news\|title\=Young trio earn new Huddersfield Town deals as Liverpool FC starlet returns\|url\=http://www.examiner.co.uk/sport/football/news/young\-trio\-earn\-new\-huddersfield\-5003436\|publisher\=The Huddersfield Examiner\|date\=30 March 2010\|access\-date\=2 July 2016}}
After his loan spell at Chesterfield came to an end, Hunt made his Huddersfield debut as a substitute in the 0–0 draw against [Colchester United](/wiki/Colchester_United_F.C. "Colchester United F.C.") at the [Galpharm Stadium](/wiki/Galpharm_Stadium "Galpharm Stadium") on 22 January 2011\.{{cite news\|title\=Huddersfield Town 0 – 0 Colchester United\|url\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/eng\_div\_2/9362033\.stm\|publisher\=BBC Sport\|date\=22 January 2011\|access\-date\=2 July 2016}} He then made his first start for the club in their 2–1 defeat to [Arsenal](/wiki/Arsenal_F.C. "Arsenal F.C.") at the [Emirates Stadium](/wiki/Emirates_Stadium "Emirates Stadium") in the Fourth Round of the [FA Cup](/wiki/FA_Cup "FA Cup") on 30 January 2011,{{cite news\|title\=Arsenal 2 – 1 Huddersfield Town\|url\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/fa\_cup/9379082\.stm\|publisher\=BBC Sport\|date\=30 January 2011\|access\-date\=2 July 2016}} which was then followed by his first league start in the 2–0 win over [Carlisle United](/wiki/Carlisle_United_F.C. "Carlisle United F.C.") on 1 February 2011\.{{cite news\|title\=Huddersfield Town 2 – 0 Carlisle United\|url\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/eng\_div\_2/9377236\.stm\|publisher\=BBC Sport\|date\=1 February 2011\|access\-date\=2 July 2016}} He scored his first goal for the club against [Peterborough United](/wiki/Peterborough_United_F.C. "Peterborough United F.C.") on 9 April 2011, in the last minute to salvage a 1–1 draw.{{cite news\| url\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/12945077\.stm \| work\=BBC News \| title\=Huddersfield Town 1–1 Peterborough United}} Hunt finished the 2010–11 season, making twenty appearances for the club.
Hunt's first start in the 2011–12 season came against [Port Vale](/wiki/Port_Vale_F.C. "Port Vale F.C.") in the [League Cup](/wiki/Football_League_Cup "Football League Cup") on 9 August 2011\. He scored with a 25\-yard shot to put Huddersfield 3–1 up – they won 4–2 on the night.{{cite news\| url\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/14368459\.stm \| work\=BBC News \| title\=Port Vale 2–4 Huddersfield Town}} His first league start of the season came four days later in a 2–2 draw away at [Rochdale](/wiki/Rochdale_AFC "Rochdale AFC") on 13 August 2011\.{{cite news\| url\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/eng\_div\_2/14429706\.stm \| work\=BBC News \| title\=Rochdale 2–2 Huddersfield Town \| date\=13 August 2011}} He scored his first league goal of the 2011–12 season against [Leyton Orient](/wiki/Leyton_Orient_F.C. "Leyton Orient F.C.") on 24 September, he made the score 2–0 with a shot from 20 yards – the game ended 2–2\.{{cite news\| url\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/eng\_div\_2/14957990\.stm \| work\=BBC News \| title\=Huddersfield Town 2–2 Leyton Orient \| date\=24 September 2011}} Due to his overall performance of the course of the season, Hunt, along with his teammate [Jordan Rhodes](/wiki/Jordan_Rhodes "Jordan Rhodes"), were voted into the PFA League 1 Team of the Year.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.htafc.com/page/NewsDetail/0,,10312\~2744944,00\.html \|title\=RHODES \& HUNT NAMED IN PFA TEAM \|publisher\=Huddersfield Town A.F.C. \|date\=23 April 2012 \|access\-date\=21 July 2016 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120425214342/http://www.htafc.com/page/NewsDetail/0%2C%2C10312\~2744944%2C00\.html \|archive\-date\=25 April 2012 \|url\-status\=dead }} Hunt scored his third goal of the season on 12 May 2012, in Huddersfield's play\-off semi\-final away victory over [Milton Keynes Dons](/wiki/Milton_Keynes_Dons_F.C. "Milton Keynes Dons F.C.") at [Stadium MK](/wiki/Stadium_MK "Stadium MK") giving Huddersfield a 2–0 win going into the second leg.{{cite news\| url\=http://www.skysports.com/football/match\_report/0,,11065\_3511754,00\.html \| work\=Sky Sports \| title\=Town down Dons to take charge \| date\=12 May 2012}} He then played the full 90minutes plus extra time in the final as Huddersfield Town went on to win promotion after an 8–7 penalty shoot\-out win over fellow Yorkshire club [Sheffield United](/wiki/Sheffield_United_F.C. "Sheffield United F.C.") with Hunt scoring the 17th penalty of the shootout.{{cite web\|last\=Begley \|first\=Emlyn \|url\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/0/football/18127853 \|title\=Huddersfield promoted after epic shoot\-out win over Sheffield United \|publisher\=BBC Sport \|date\=26 May 2012 \|access\-date\=2 July 2016}} Following the club's promotion to the [Championship](/wiki/Football_League_Championship "Football League Championship"), Hunt signed a one\-year contract extension.{{cite news\|title\=Huddersfield Town star Jack Hunt signs contract extension at newly\-promoted Championship club\|url\=http://www.examiner.co.uk/sport/football/news/huddersfield\-town\-star\-jack\-hunt\-4953494\|publisher\=The Huddersfield Examiner\|date\=31 May 2012\|access\-date\=2 July 2016}}
Ahead of the 2012–13 season, Hunt began to attracted interests from clubs, such as, [Fulham](/wiki/Fulham_F.C. "Fulham F.C.").{{cite news\|title\=Fulham interested in Huddersfield Town's PFA Team of the Year star Jack Hunt say reports\|url\=http://www.examiner.co.uk/sport/football/transfer\-news/fulham\-interested\-huddersfield\-towns\-pfa\-5070832\|publisher\=The Huddersfield Examiner\|date\=25 April 2012\|access\-date\=2 July 2016}} Hunt made his first start of the season in the opening round of the [League Cup](/wiki/Football_League_Cup "Football League Cup") in the 2–0 away deft at Preston North End on Monday 13 August 2012, this was then followed by his first league game of the season away at Cardiff in Huddersfield's first game in the [Football League Championship](/wiki/Football_League_Championship "Football League Championship") for 11 years in a 1–0 away loss.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.htafc.com/news/article/first\-team\-news\-preston\-match\-report\-310225\.aspx\|title\=MATCH REPORT: PRESTON NORTH END 2 HUDDERSFIELD TOWN 0\|publisher\=Huddersfield Town A.F.C.\|date\=13 August 2012\|access\-date\=21 July 2016\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160721183007/http://www.htafc.com/news/article/first\-team\-news\-preston\-match\-report\-310225\.aspx\|archive\-date\=21 July 2016\|url\-status\=live}} Hunt gave an impressive display in his first home game of 2012–13 winning an injury time penalty which [Jordan Rhodes](/wiki/Jordan_Rhodes "Jordan Rhodes") scored to give Huddersfield a 1–1 draw on 21 August 2012\.{{cite news\|title\=Huddersfield Town 1 – 1 Nottingham Forest\|url\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/0/football/19252459\|publisher\=BBC Sport\|date\=21 August 2012}} Hunt was also named in Sky Sports team of the week on 23 August for his performance in Huddersfield first two games of the league campaign.{{cite news\|title\=Team of the Week\|url\=http://www1\.skysports.com/football/news/11096/8011432/Team\-of\-the\-Week? \| work\=Sky Sports\|date\=23 August 2012}} Then, Hunt was given a straight red card and an abusive language towards referee Graham Scott during a 4–0 loss against [Millwall](/wiki/Millwall_F.C. "Millwall F.C."){{cite news\|title\=Joel Lynch believes Huddersfield Town teammate Jack Hunt will learn from red card\|url\=http://www.examiner.co.uk/sport/football/news/joel\-lynch\-believes\-huddersfield\-town\-4938262\|publisher\=The Huddersfield Examiner\|date\=3 November 2012\|access\-date\=21 July 2016}} and injured his hamstring during a match against [Bolton Wanderers](/wiki/Bolton_Wanderers_F.C. "Bolton Wanderers F.C.") on 2 April 2013\.{{cite web \|title\=Robins hopeful over key duo \|url\=https://www.foxsports.com/stories/soccer/robins\-hopeful\-over\-key\-duo \|website\=FOX Sports \|access\-date\=7 October 2020 \|date\=8 April 2013}} After undergoing a successful scan,{{cite news\|title\=Good news for Huddersfield Town defender Jack Hunt after scan\|url\=http://www.examiner.co.uk/sport/football/news/good\-news\-huddersfield\-town\-defender\-4928652\|publisher\=The Huddersfield Examiner\|date\=5 April 2013\|access\-date\=21 July 2016}} Hunt returned to the first team and managed to regain in the first team for the 2012–13 season, playing in the left–back position, where he made forty appearances.
The 2013–14 season saw Hunt being linked with a move to [Premier League](/wiki/Premier_League "Premier League") side [Sunderland](/wiki/Sunderland_AFC "Sunderland AFC"){{cite news\|title\=Huddersfield Town stand firm on highly\-rated Jack Hunt with Sunderland the latest to be linked\|url\=http://www.examiner.co.uk/sport/football/news/huddersfield\-town\-stand\-firm\-highly\-rated\-4936181\|publisher\=The Huddersfield Examiner\|date\=29 January 2013\|access\-date\=21 July 2016}} and [Swansea City](/wiki/Swansea_City_A.F.C. "Swansea City A.F.C.").{{cite news \|last1\=Thomson \|first1\=Doug \|title\=Huddersfield Town;s Jack Hunt on Swansea City's transfer radar \|url\=https://www.examinerlive.co.uk/sport/football/transfer\-news/huddersfield\-towns\-jack\-hunt\-swansea\-4922188 \|access\-date\=23 January 2021 \|work\=YorkshireLive \|date\=10 July 2013}} Also tracking Hunt were [Reading](/wiki/Reading_F.C. "Reading F.C."), [Wigan Athletic](/wiki/Wigan_Athletic_F.C. "Wigan Athletic F.C.") and [Cardiff City](/wiki/Cardiff_City_F.C. "Cardiff City F.C.").{{cite news\|title\=Huddersfield Town aim to hold onto £3m Jack Hunt as Reading, Swansea City, Wigan and Cardiff City circle\|url\=http://www.examiner.co.uk/sport/football/news/huddersfield\-town\-aim\-hold\-onto\-4935276\|publisher\=The Huddersfield Examiner\|date\=15 January 2013\|access\-date\=21 July 2016}} However, Huddersfield Town revealed there were no enquiries to sign Hunt.{{cite news\|title\=No enquiries about Jack Hunt this summer say Huddersfield Town\|url\=http://www.examiner.co.uk/sport/football/transfer\-news/huddersfield\-town\-turned\-down\-2m\-5065750\|publisher\=The Huddersfield Examiner\|date\=11 July 2013\|access\-date\=21 July 2016}} Despite this, Hunt remained in the first regular, where he began to play wide right at the start of the season{{cite news\|title\=Huddersfield Town defender Jack Hunt happy with fresh approach\|url\=http://www.examiner.co.uk/sport/football/news/huddersfield\-town\-defender\-jack\-hunt\-5742737\|publisher\=The Huddersfield Examiner\|date\=17 August 2013\|access\-date\=21 July 2016}} and provided assist one of [James Vaughan](/wiki/James_Vaughan_%28footballer%2C_born_1988%29 "James Vaughan (footballer, born 1988)") goals in a 2–1 win over [Bradford City](/wiki/Bradford_City_A.F.C. "Bradford City A.F.C.") in the first round of the League Cup.{{cite news\|title\=Huddersfield Town 2 – 1 Bradford City\|url\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/football/23499407\|publisher\=BBC Sport\|date\=6 August 2013\|access\-date\=21 July 2016}} Once again, Hunt found himself in the transfer speculation, as Crystal Palace made a £2 million bid for Hunt.{{cite news\|title\=Crystal Palace to sign Jack Hunt from Huddersfield Town\|url\=http://www.examiner.co.uk/sport/football/news/crystal\-palace\-sign\-jack\-hunt\-5818963\|publisher\=The Huddersfield Examiner\|date\=2 September 2013\|access\-date\=21 July 2016}}
### Loan spells
In the [2009–10](/wiki/2009%E2%80%9310_in_English_football "2009–10 in English football") season, he was sent on loan to [Conference National](/wiki/Conference_National "Conference National") side [Grays Athletic](/wiki/Grays_Athletic_F.C. "Grays Athletic F.C.").{{cite news\|title\=Huddersfield Town's Preston loannee Trotman: I'm here to do the simple things\|url\=http://www.examiner.co.uk/sport/football/news/huddersfield\-towns\-preston\-loannee\-trotman\-5006543\|publisher\=The Huddersfield Examiner\|date\=22 January 2010\|access\-date\=2 July 2016}} Hunt made four appearances for Grays Athletic before returning to his parent club.
In the [2010–11](/wiki/2010%E2%80%9311_in_English_football "2010–11 in English football") season, Huddersfield manager Lee Clark sent Hunt out on loan to [Football League Two](/wiki/Football_League_Two "Football League Two") side [Chesterfield](/wiki/Chesterfield_F.C. "Chesterfield F.C.") for six months, which lasted until January.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.chesterfield\-fc.co.uk/page/ProfilesDetail/0,,10435\~47251,00\.html \|title\=Chesterfield Team Profiles Jack Hunt \|publisher\=Chesterfield FC Official website \|date\=19 August 2010 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100925021332/http://www.chesterfield\-fc.co.uk/page/ProfilesDetail/0%2C%2C10435\~47251%2C00\.html \|archive\-date\=25 September 2010 \|url\-status\=dead }}{{cite news\|title\=Chesterfield sign Huddersfield Town defender Jack Hunt\|url\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/teams/c/chesterfield/8867043\.stm\|publisher\=BBC Sport\|date\=29 July 2010\|access\-date\=2 July 2016}} Hunt made his debut in the 2–1 win over [Barnet](/wiki/Barnet_F.C. "Barnet F.C.") on 7 August 2010\.{{cite news\|title\=Chesterfield 2 – 1 Barnet\|url\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/eng\_div\_3/8842782\.stm\|publisher\=BBC Sport\|date\=7 August 2010\|access\-date\=2 July 2016}} Then on 11 September 2010, Hunt provided an assist for [Scott Boden](/wiki/Scott_Boden "Scott Boden") to score the equaliser, in a 1–1 draw against [Morecambe](/wiki/Morecambe_F.C. "Morecambe F.C.").{{cite news\|title\=Morecambe 1 – 1 Chesterfield\|url\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/eng\_div\_3/8967923\.stm\|publisher\=BBC Sport\|date\=11 September 2010\|access\-date\=2 July 2016}} Hunt became a first team regular, playing as a right–back, making 20 appearances and returned to the Galpharm after his loan expired in early January 2011\.{{cite news\|title\=Posh player Griffiths back at the B2net\|url\=http://www.derbyshiretimes.co.uk/sport/football/chesterfield\-fc/posh\-player\-griffiths\-back\-at\-the\-b2net\-1\-2929252\|publisher\=Derbyshire Times\|date\=14 January 2011\|access\-date\=2 July 2016\|archive\-date\=21 August 2016\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160821192031/http://www.derbyshiretimes.co.uk/sport/football/chesterfield\-fc/posh\-player\-griffiths\-back\-at\-the\-b2net\-1\-2929252\|url\-status\=dead}}{{cite news\|title\=Huddersfield Town's Jack Hunt under the microscope after Chesterfield loan\|url\=http://www.examiner.co.uk/sport/football/news/huddersfield\-towns\-jack\-hunt\-under\-4982974\|publisher\=The Huddersfield Examiner\|date\=8 January 2011\|access\-date\=2 July 2016}}
### Crystal Palace
[Premier League](/wiki/Premier_League "Premier League") side [Crystal Palace](/wiki/Crystal_Palace_F.C. "Crystal Palace F.C.") signed Hunt on a four\-year deal, from Huddersfield Town, on 2 September 2013\.{{cite web \|last1\=Fisher \|first1\=Alex \|title\=Crystal Palace sign Jack Hunt from Huddersfield Town \|url\=https://www.goal.com/en\-gb/news/2892/transfer\-zone/2013/09/02/4231869/crystal\-palace\-sign\-jack\-hunt\-from\-huddersfield\-town \|website\=Goal \|access\-date\=7 October 2020 \|date\=2 September 2013}} Upon joining Crystal Palace, Hunt said on the move, quoting: "The interest from Crystal Palace filled me with a lot of confidence. Obviously the Premier is the best league in the world and I jumped at the chance to go to Palace. I spoke to the manager for a good hour, hour\-and\-a\-half and the chat was brilliant, he is a brilliant man and very honest. I can't wait to play for him and you can see why he has such a good team spirit there, and that was only after one conversation with him".{{cite news\|title\=Former Huddersfield Town defender Jack Hunt on his move to Premiership club Crystal Palace\|url\=http://www.examiner.co.uk/sport/football/news/former\-huddersfield\-town\-defender\-jack\-5850435\|publisher\=The Huddersfield Examiner\|date\=5 September 2013\|access\-date\=21 July 2016}}
However, before he could make his début, Hunt broke his ankle in training on 9 September, ruling him out for up to four months.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/0/football/24047784\|title\= Crystal Palace's Jack Hunt breaks ankle, faces up to four months out\|date\=11 September 2013\|access\-date\=13 September 2013\|publisher\=BBC Sport}} By January, Hunt returned to training after being told by the club's medical that he was given all\-clear.{{cite news\|title\=Premier League: Crystal Palace defender Jack Hunt given all\-clear to return to training\|url\=http://www.skysports.com/football/news/11706/9117331/premier\-league\-crystal\-palace\-defender\-jack\-hunt\-given\-all\-clear\-to\-return\-to\-training\|publisher\=Sky Sports\|date\=11 January 2014\|access\-date\=2 July 2016}}
After his transfer to Sheffield Wednesday, Hunt said he stood by his decision over signing for Crystal Palace.{{cite news\|title\=I will never regret signing for Crystal Palace'\|url\=http://www.croydonadvertiser.co.uk/regret\-signing\-crystal\-palace/story\-28528000\-detail/story.html\|publisher\=Croydon Advertiser\|date\=14 January 2016\|access\-date\=21 July 2016}}{{Dead link\|date\=September 2019 \|bot\=InternetArchiveBot \|fix\-attempted\=yes }} *[The Croydon Advertiser](/wiki/The_Croydon_Advertiser "The Croydon Advertiser")* later listed Hunt as among eleven players to never live up to expectations.{{cite news\|title\=The 11 Crystal Palace players (and one manager) who DIDN'T live up to expectations\|url\=http://www.croydonadvertiser.co.uk/11\-crystal\-palace\-players\-manager\-didn\-t\-live/story\-28084926\-detail/story.html\|date\=30 October 2015\|access\-date\=21 July 2016\|work\=\[\[The Croydon Advertiser]]\|publisher\=\[\[Local World]]\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151031134554/http://www.croydonadvertiser.co.uk/11\-Crystal\-Palace\-players\-manager\-DIDN\-T\-live/story\-28084926\-detail/story.html\|archive\-date\=31 October 2015\|url\-status\=dead}}
### Loan spells
On 29 January 2014, Hunt joined Championship side [Barnsley](/wiki/Barnsley_F.C. "Barnsley F.C.") on loan for the remainder of the [2013–14](/wiki/2013%E2%80%9314_Football_League_Championship "2013–14 Football League Championship") season.{{Cite web \|title\=Jack Hunt Joins Reds On Loan \|url\=http://www.barnsleyfc.co.uk/news/article/jack\-hunt\-joins\-reds\-on\-loan\-29012014\-1325789\.aspx \|work\=Barnsley FC \|date\=29 January 2014 \|archive\-url\= https://web.archive.org/web/20160304121425/http://www.barnsleyfc.co.uk/news/article/jack\-hunt\-joins\-reds\-on\-loan\-29012014\-1325789\.aspx \|archive\-date\=4 March 2016 \|url\-status\=live}} Three days later, on 1 February 2014, Hunt made his Barnsley debut, in a 1–0 against [Sheffield Wednesday](/wiki/Sheffield_Wednesday_F.C. "Sheffield Wednesday F.C."){{cite news\|title\=Sheffield Wednesday 1 – 0 Barnsley\|url\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/football/25891683 \|publisher\=BBC Sport\|date\=1 February 2014\|access\-date\=21 July 2016}} and provided an assist in the next game on 8 February 2014, Hunt provided an assist for [Chris O'Grady](/wiki/Chris_O%27Grady "Chris O'Grady") to score the first goal of the season, in a 2–2 draw against [Ipswich Town](/wiki/Ipswich_Town_F.C. "Ipswich Town F.C.").{{cite news\|title\=Barnsley 2 – 2 Ipswich Town\|url\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/football/25994216 \|publisher\=BBC Sport\|date\=8 February 2014\|access\-date\=21 July 2016}} However, Hunt was restricted to 10 appearances for the club, due to match fitness{{cite web\|url\=http://www.barnsleyfc.co.uk/news/article/we\-head\-to\-wigan\-with\-no\-fear\-wilson\-1366573\.aspx\|title\= We Head to Wigan With No Fear – Wilson\|publisher\=Barnsley F.C.\|date\=18 February 2014\|access\-date\=21 July 2016\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160721195150/http://www.barnsleyfc.co.uk/news/article/we\-head\-to\-wigan\-with\-no\-fear\-wilson\-1366573\.aspx\|archive\-date\=21 July 2016\|url\-status\=live}}{{cite web\|url\=http://www.barnsleyfc.co.uk/news/article/yeovil\-v\-reds\-match\-preview\-1452530\.aspx\|title\=Yeovil v Reds: Match Preview\|publisher\=Barnsley F.C.\|date\=28 March 2014\|access\-date\=21 July 2016\|archive\-url\= https://web.archive.org/web/20140330085710/http://www.barnsleyfc.co.uk/news/article/yeovil\-v\-reds\-match\-preview\-1452530\.aspx\|archive\-date\=30 March 2014 \|url\-status\=live}} and injury that kept him out for the rest of the season.{{cite news\|title\=Crystal Palace defender lasts just 28 minutes at Charlton\|url\=http://www.croydonadvertiser.co.uk/crystal\-palace\-defender\-lasts\-just\-28\-minutes/story\-20961460\-detail/story.html\|publisher\=Croydon Advertiser\|date\=16 April 2014\|access\-date\=21 July 2016\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140417042003/http://www.croydonadvertiser.co.uk/Crystal\-Palace\-defender\-lasts\-just\-28\-minutes/story\-20961460\-detail/story.html\|archive\-date\=17 April 2014\|url\-status\=dead}} As a result, Hunt was unable to help the club survive relegation, as they were relegated to League One.
On 22 July 2014, Hunt joined [Nottingham Forest](/wiki/Nottingham_Forest_F.C. "Nottingham Forest F.C.") on loan until 1 January 2015\.{{cite news\|title\=Nottingham Forest complete loan signing of defender Jack Hunt\|url\=http://www.nottinghampost.com/Nottingham\-Forest\-complete\-loan\-signing\-defender/story\-21741749\-detail/story.html\|publisher\=Nottingham Post\|date\=22 July 2014\|access\-date\=22 July 2014\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140810023924/http://www.nottinghampost.com/Nottingham\-Forest\-complete\-loan\-signing\-defender/story\-21741749\-detail/story.html\|archive\-date\=10 August 2014\|url\-status\=dead}} Upon joining Nottingham Forest, Hunt was given number 17 shirt.{{cite news\|title\=Mackie move confirmed – and Forest announce squad numbers\|url\=http://www.nottinghampost.com/mackie\-confirmed\-forest\-announce\-squad\-numbers/story\-22275875\-detail/story.html\|publisher\=Nottingham Post\|date\=8 August 2014\|access\-date\=21 July 2016\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140810072242/http://www.nottinghampost.com/Mackie\-confirmed\-Forest\-announce\-squad\-numbers/story\-22275875\-detail/story.html\|archive\-date\=10 August 2014\|url\-status\=dead}} On his first day at the club, Hunt appeared at training, but ended up having a head wound, resulting in eight stitches.{{cite news\|title\=Jack Hunt has tough first day at Nottingham Forest\|url\=http://www.nottinghampost.com/jack\-hunt\-tough\-day\-nottingham\-forest/story\-21742094\-detail/story.html\|publisher\=Nottingham Post\|date\=22 July 2014\|access\-date\=21 July 2016}}{{Dead link\|date\=September 2019 \|bot\=InternetArchiveBot \|fix\-attempted\=yes }} Hunt made his Nottingham Forest in the opening game of the season against [Blackpool](/wiki/Blackpool_F.C. "Blackpool F.C."), where he provided an assist for [Chris Burke](/wiki/Chris_Burke_%28footballer%29 "Chris Burke (footballer)"), in a 2–0 win.{{cite news\|title\=Nottingham Forest 2 – 0 Blackpool\|url\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/football/28646431\|publisher\=BBC Sport\|date\=9 August 2014\|access\-date\=21 July 2016}} Hunt made an impact at the end of August when he provided an assist for [Matty Fryatt](/wiki/Matty_Fryatt "Matty Fryatt") to score the winning goal, in a 2–1 win over Bournemouth,{{cite news\|title\=Bournemouth 1 – 2 Nottingham Forest\|url\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/football/28749886\|publisher\=BBC Sport\|date\=19 August 2014\|access\-date\=21 July 2016}} and followed up, providing another assist, in a 4–0 win over Reading.{{cite news\|title\=Nottingham Forest 4 – 0 Reading\|url\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/football/28815166\|publisher\=BBC Sport\|date\=23 August 2014\|access\-date\=21 July 2016}}{{cite news\|title\=Jack Hunt pledges to maintain his attacking philosophy for Nottingham Forest\|url\=http://www.nottinghampost.com/jack\-hunt\-pledges\-maintain\-attacking\-philosophy/story\-22908501\-detail/story.html\|publisher\=Nottingham Post\|date\=11 September 2014\|access\-date\=21 July 2016\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141003034551/http://www.nottinghampost.com/Jack\-Hunt\-pledges\-maintain\-attacking\-philosophy/story\-22908501\-detail/story.html\|archive\-date\=3 October 2014\|url\-status\=dead}} Hunt's impact at Nottingham Forest with nineteen appearances had convinced the club's management to express interest in signing him permanently.{{cite news\|title\=Nottingham Forest working to sign Jack Hunt permanently\|url\=http://www.nottinghampost.com/nottingham\-forest\-working\-sign\-jack\-hunt/story\-23013796\-detail/story.html\|publisher\=Nottingham Post\|date\=29 September 2014\|access\-date\=21 July 2016\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150323225615/http://www.nottinghampost.com/Nottingham\-Forest\-working\-sign\-Jack\-Hunt/story\-23013796\-detail/story.html\|archive\-date\=23 March 2015\|url\-status\=dead}} However, Crystal Palace asked Nottingham Forest to increase their bid for him.{{cite news\|title\=Nottingham Forest see permanent move for Jack Hunt stall as Crystal Palace double the price\|url\=http://www.nottinghampost.com/nottingham\-forest\-permanent\-jack\-hunt\-stall/story\-23049201\-detail/story.html\|publisher\=Nottingham Post\|date\=6 October 2014\|access\-date\=21 July 2016\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150323235425/http://www.nottinghampost.com/Nottingham\-Forest\-permanent\-Jack\-Hunt\-stall/story\-23049201\-detail/story.html\|archive\-date\=23 March 2015\|url\-status\=dead}} This was later confirmed by Palace owner Steve Parish, who stated the club should have signed him permanently and revealed their decision to increase the price to sign Hunt.{{cite news\|title\=Crystal Palace co\-chairman Steve Parish says Nottingham Forest missed a chance to sign Jack Hunt for less after upping asking price\|url\=http://www.nottinghampost.com/crystal\-palace\-chairman\-steve\-parish\-says/story\-23153185\-detail/story.html\|publisher\=Nottingham Post\|date\=14 October 2014\|access\-date\=21 July 2016\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150613152441/http://www.nottinghampost.com/Crystal\-Palace\-chairman\-Steve\-Parish\-says/story\-23153185\-detail/story.html\|archive\-date\=13 June 2015\|url\-status\=dead}} Hunt's loan spell at Nottingham Forest came to an end on 31 December 2014 and he returned to his parent club.{{cite news\|title\=Jack Hunt all set for Crystal Palace return from Nottingham Forest\|url\=http://www.croydonadvertiser.co.uk/jack\-hunt\-set\-crystal\-palace\-return\-nottingham/story\-25778372\-detail/story.html\|publisher\=Nottingham Post\|date\=29 December 2014\|access\-date\=21 July 2016}}{{Dead link\|date\=September 2019 \|bot\=InternetArchiveBot \|fix\-attempted\=yes }} After this, Hunt stated his gratitude to the club, stating the club helped him fall in love with football again.{{cite news\|title\=Sheffield Wednesday: Why Hunt owes a debt of gratitude to Forest\|url\=http://www.thestar.co.uk/sport/football/sheffield\-wednesday/sheffield\-wednesday\-why\-hunt\-owes\-a\-debt\-of\-gratitude\-to\-forest\-1\-7545292\|work\=The Star\|date\=31 October 2015\|access\-date\=21 July 2016}}
Despite being linked with a move to [Blackburn Rovers](/wiki/Blackburn_Rovers_F.C. "Blackburn Rovers F.C."),{{cite news\|title\=Transfer Talk: Crystal Palace defender wanted by Championship duo\|url\=http://www.croydonadvertiser.co.uk/crystal\-palace\-defender\-wanted\-championship\-duo/story\-25929249\-detail/story.html\|publisher\=Croydon Advertiser\|date\=27 January 2015\|access\-date\=21 July 2016}}{{Dead link\|date\=September 2019 \|bot\=InternetArchiveBot \|fix\-attempted\=yes }} it was announced on 30 January 2015, that Hunt had opted to join [Championship](/wiki/Football_League_Championship "Football League Championship") club [Rotherham United](/wiki/Rotherham_United_F.C. "Rotherham United F.C.") on loan until 2 May 2015\.{{cite web\|title\=Hunt Joins Rotherham On Loan\|website\=cpfc.co.uk\|publisher\=Crystal Palace Official Website\|url\=https://www.cpfc.co.uk/news/2015/january/hunt\-joins\-rotherham\-on\-loan/\|date\=30 January 2015\|access\-date\=30 January 2015\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304003501/https://www.cpfc.co.uk/news/2015/january/hunt\-joins\-rotherham\-on\-loan/\|archive\-date\=4 March 2016 \|url\-status\=live}} The next day, Hunt made his Rotherham United debut, playing 90 minutes, in a 1–1 draw against Charlton Athletic.{{cite news\|title\=Charlton Athletic 1 – 1 Rotherham United\|url\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/football/30963016\|publisher\=BBC Sport\|date\=31 January 2015\|access\-date\=21 July 2016}} Hunt then provided an assist for [Kári Árnason](/wiki/K%C3%A1ri_%C3%81rnason_%28footballer%2C_born_1982%29 "Kári Árnason (footballer, born 1982)") to score the first goal of the game, in a 2–0 win over his former club, Huddersfield Town on 7 March 2015\.{{cite news\|title\=Huddersfield Town 0 – 2 Rotherham United\|url\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/0/football/31669820\|publisher\=BBC Sport\|date\=7 March 2015\|access\-date\=21 July 2016}} Hunt made ten appearances for the club, as he helped them survive relegation in the Championship to ensure playing in the second season.
### Sheffield Wednesday
On 3 July 2015, Hunt joined [Championship](/wiki/Football_League_Championship "Football League Championship") club [Sheffield Wednesday](/wiki/Sheffield_Wednesday_F.C. "Sheffield Wednesday F.C.") on loan for the duration of the 2015–16 season.{{cite web\|title\=Hunt Joins Wednesday On Loan\|date\=3 July 2015\|website\=cpfc.co.uk\|url\=https://www.cpfc.co.uk/news/2015/july/hunt\-joins\-wednesday\-on\-loan/\|access\-date\=3 July 2015\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304114211/https://www.cpfc.co.uk/news/2015/july/hunt\-joins\-wednesday\-on\-loan/\|archive\-date\=4 March 2016 \|url\-status\=live}} Upon joining the club, Hunt was given the number 32 shirt ahead of the new season.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.swfc.co.uk/news/article/sheffield\-wednesday\-squad\-numbers\-revealed\-for\-201516\-2584509\.aspx\|title\=Sheffield Wednesday squad numbers revealed for 2015/16\|publisher\=Sheffield Wednesday F.C.\|date\=31 July 2015\|access\-date\=21 July 2016\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160721204857/http://www.swfc.co.uk/news/article/sheffield\-wednesday\-squad\-numbers\-revealed\-for\-201516\-2584509\.aspx \|archive\-date\=21 July 2016\|url\-status\=live}}
Hunt made his Sheffield Wednesday debut in the opening game of the season, where he played at right\-back and for the full 90 minutes, in a 2–0 win over [Bristol City](/wiki/Bristol_City_F.C. "Bristol City F.C.").{{cite news\|title\=Sheffield Wednesday 2 – 0 Bristol City\|url\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/0/football/33744206\|publisher\=BBC Sport\|date\=8 August 2015\|access\-date\=21 July 2016}} Hunt found himself competing at right\-back with [Liam Palmer](/wiki/Liam_Palmer "Liam Palmer"), but managed to retain the position{{cite news\|title\=Sheffield Wednesday: Owls ace out to prove a point\|url\=http://www.thestar.co.uk/sport/football/sheffield\-wednesday/sheffield\-wednesday\-owls\-ace\-out\-to\-prove\-a\-point\-1\-7528476\|work\=The Star\|date\=22 October 2015\|access\-date\=21 July 2016}}{{cite news\|title\=Sheffield Wednesday: Midfield blow for Owls\|url\=http://www.thestar.co.uk/sport/football/sheffield\-wednesday/sheffield\-wednesday\-midfield\-blow\-for\-owls\-1\-7569241\|work\=The Star\|date\=13 November 2015\|access\-date\=21 July 2016}} despite suffering from a knee injury.{{cite news\|title\=VIDEO: Injury problems pile up for Owls boss\|url\=http://www.thestar.co.uk/sport/football/sheffield\-wednesday/video\-injury\-problems\-pile\-up\-for\-owls\-boss\-1\-7601768\|work\=The Star\|date\=2 December 2015\|access\-date\=21 July 2016}}
On 13 January 2016, after playing 22 games as part of his season long loan, Hunt joined Sheffield Wednesday on a three\-and\-a\-half\-year deal, signing for an undisclosed fee.{{cite web\|title\=Hunt Makes Permanent Wednesday Move\|url\=https://www.cpfc.co.uk/news/2016/january/hunt\-makes\-permanent\-wednesday\-move/\|website\=cpfc.co.uk\|date\=13 January 2016\|access\-date\=14 January 2016\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160302124516/http://www.cpfc.co.uk//news/article/jack\-hunt\-has\-signed\-for\-sheffield\-wednesday\-on\-a\-permanent\-deal\-from\-crystal\-palace.\-2899838\.aspx\|archive\-date\=2 March 2016 \|url\-status\=live}} Hunt's first game after signing for the club on a permanent basis came on 16 January 2016, in a 2–0 win over [Leeds United](/wiki/Leeds_United_F.C. "Leeds United F.C.").{{cite news\|title\=Sheffield Wednesday 2 – 0 Leeds United\|url\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/0/football/35271146\|publisher\=BBC Sport\|date\=16 January 2016\|access\-date\=21 July 2016}} A month after joining the club permanently, Hunt provided an assist for [Lucas João](/wiki/Lucas_Jo%C3%A3o "Lucas João") to score the fourth goal of the season, in a 4–0 win over [Brentford](/wiki/Brentford_F.C. "Brentford F.C.") on 13 February 2016\.{{cite news\|title\=Sheffield Wednesday 4 – 0 Brentford\|url\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/football/35509350\|publisher\=BBC Sport\|date\=13 February 2016\|access\-date\=21 July 2016}} Hunt would later help the club reach the play\-offs and in the second leg, Hunt provided the assist for [Ross Wallace](/wiki/Ross_Wallace "Ross Wallace"), in a 1–1 draw against [Brighton \& Hove Albion](/wiki/Brighton_%26_Hove_Albion_F.C. "Brighton & Hove Albion F.C.").{{cite news\|title\=Brighton \& Hove Albion 1 – 1 (1 – 3 agg) Sheffield Wednesday\|url\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/football/36244725\|publisher\=BBC Sport\|date\=16 May 2016\|access\-date\=21 July 2016}} Hunt started as a right\-back in [the play\-off Championship Final](/wiki/2016_Football_League_Championship_play-off_Final "2016 Football League Championship play-off Final") against [Hull City](/wiki/Hull_City_A.F.C. "Hull City A.F.C."), playing 90 minutes, but lost 1–0\.{{cite news\|title\=Hull City 1 – 0 Sheffield Wednesday\|url\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/football/36348885\|publisher\=BBC Sport\|date\=28 May 2016\|access\-date\=21 July 2016}} In his first season at the club, Hunt made 40 appearances in all competitions.
### Bristol City
On 6 July 2018, it was announced that Hunt had joined fellow [Championship](/wiki/EFL_Championship "EFL Championship") side [Bristol City](/wiki/Bristol_City_F.C. "Bristol City F.C."). He joined the Robins for an undisclosed fee, signing a three\-year contract.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.bcfc.co.uk/news/this\-is\-a\-club\-on\-the\-up\-hunt/\|title\=This is a club on the up \- Hunt\|website\=Bristol City\|language\=en\|access\-date\=6 July 2018}}
on 14 May 2021, Hunt left Bristol City following the expiration of his contract thus making him a free agent.
### Return to Sheffield Wednesday
On 22 July 2021, Hunt sealed a return to Sheffield Wednesday.{{cite web \|title\= Jack Hunt seals Wednesday return!\|url\= https://www.swfc.co.uk/news/2021/july/jack\-hunt\-returns\-to\-hillsborough/ \|publisher\=\[\[Sheffield Wednesday F.C.]] \|access\-date\=22 July 2021}} Hunt would confirm he signed a one\-year deal with a one\-year option based on promotion back to the [Championship](/wiki/EFL_Championship "EFL Championship").{{cite web \|title\= Jack Hunt contract details revealed as he confirms he rejected Championship interest to join Sheffield Wednesday\|date\= 23 July 2021\|url\= https://www.thestar.co.uk/sport/football/sheffield\-wednesday/jack\-hunt\-contract\-details\-revealed\-as\-he\-confirms\-he\-rejected\-championship\-interest\-to\-join\-sheffield\-wednesday\-3320096\|publisher\=Sheffield Star \|access\-date\=23 July 2021}} He would make his second competitive debut for Sheffield Wednesday on 1 August 2021, at home to former club [Huddersfield Town](/wiki/Huddersfield_Town_A.F.C. "Huddersfield Town A.F.C.").{{cite web \|title\=Report: Wednesday 0\-0 (2\-4p) Huddersfield\|url\=https://www.swfc.co.uk/matches/fixtures/first\-team/2021222/august/sheffield\-wednesday\-vs\-huddersfield\-town\-on\-10\-aug\-21/\|publisher\=Sheffield Wednesday F.C. \|access\-date\=1 August 2021}} Hunt would score his first goal for Wednesday across both spells at the club on 26 March 2022 against [Cheltenham Town](/wiki/Cheltenham_Town_F.C. "Cheltenham Town F.C.").{{cite web \|title\=Hunt delighted with first Owls goal! \|url\=https://www.swfc.co.uk/news/2022/march/hunt\-delighted\-with\-first\-owls\-goal/ \|publisher\=Sheffield Wednesday F.C. \|access\-date\=26 March 2022}} After missing out on promotion during the playoffs, the club would offer him a new contract following the end of the [2021–22 season](/wiki/2021-22_Sheffield_Wednesday_F.C._season "2021-22 Sheffield Wednesday F.C. season"), {{Cite web\|url\=https://www.swfc.co.uk/news/2022/may/owls\-confirm\-retained\-list/\|title\=Owls confirm retained list\|website\=www.swfc.co.uk\|date\=21 May 2022}} signing a new contract in June 2022\. {{cite web\|url\=https://www.swfc.co.uk/news/2022/june/jack\-hunt\-signs\-contract\-extension/\|title\=Jack Hunt signs contract extension\|website\=www.swfc.co.uk\|date\=17 June 2022\|accessdate\=17 June 2022}}
On 19 May 2023, Hunt scored the winning penalty to send Sheffield Wednesday to the [2023 EFL League One play\-off final](/wiki/2023_EFL_League_One_play-off_final "2023 EFL League One play-off final").{{cite web \|title\=Sheffield Wednesday heroes Cameron Dawson and Jack Hunt on historic play\-off victory \|date\=19 May 2023 \|url\=https://www.yorkshirepost.co.uk/sport/football/sheffield\-wednesday/sheffield\-wednesday\-heroes\-cameron\-dawson\-and\-jack\-hunt\-on\-historic\-play\-off\-victory\-4149139 \|publisher\=Yorkshire Post \|access\-date\=19 May 2023}} Following promotion back to the [EFL Championship](/wiki/EFL_Championship "EFL Championship") it was confirmed that Hunt would be released following the end of his contract.{{cite web\|title\=Owls retained list confirmed\|url\=https://www.swfc.co.uk/news/2023/june/owls\-retained\-list\-confirmed/\|publisher\=Sheffield Wednesday FC\|access\-date\=2 June 2023}}
### Bristol Rovers
On 17 August 2023, Hunt signed for League One club [Bristol Rovers](/wiki/Bristol_Rovers_F.C. "Bristol Rovers F.C.") on a two\-year deal. {{cite web\|url\=https://www.bristolrovers.co.uk/news/2023/august/Jack\-hunt\-joins\-Rovers/\|title\=Jack Hunt Joins Rovers!\|website\=www.bristolrovers.co.uk\|date\=17 August 2023\|accessdate\=17 August 2023}} On 23 September 2023, he scored his first goal for the club with the second in a 4–1 victory over [Wigan Athletic](/wiki/Wigan_Athletic_F.C. "Wigan Athletic F.C."), {{cite web\|url\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/football/66828693\|title\=Bristol Rovers 4–1 Wigan Athletic\|publisher\=BBC Sport\|date\=23 September 2023\|accessdate\=24 September 2023}} a performance rated 9/10 by local journalists. {{cite web\|url\=https://www.bristolpost.co.uk/sport/football/football\-news/bristol\-rovers\-player\-ratings\-9\-8774715\|title\=Bristol Rovers player ratings: 9 for fine Hunt display as Collins scores again in Wigan thumping\|publisher\=Bristol Post\|last1\=Hargraves\|first1\=Daniel\|date\=23 September 2023\|accessdate\=24 September 2023}}
|
[
"Career\n------",
"### Huddersfield Town",
"Having joined up with [Huddersfield Town](/wiki/Huddersfield_Town_A.F.C. \"Huddersfield Town A.F.C.\") at the age of nine, Hunt went through the club's academy system, starting in May 2008{{cite news\\|title\\=Eight to join academy\\|url\\=http://www.examiner.co.uk/sport/football/news/eight\\-to\\-join\\-academy\\-5037323\\|publisher\\=The Huddersfield Examiner\\|date\\=12 May 2008\\|access\\-date\\=2 July 2016}} and signed his first professional contract with the club in April 2009\\.{{cite news\\|title\\=Lee Clark urges juniors: \"Prove yourself\"\\|url\\=http://www.examiner.co.uk/sport/football/news/lee\\-clark\\-urges\\-juniors\\-prove\\-5022110\\|publisher\\=The Huddersfield Examiner\\|date\\=23 April 2009\\|access\\-date\\=2 July 2016}}",
"Having previously appeared as an unused substitute for [Lee Clark](/wiki/Lee_Clark_%28footballer%29 \"Lee Clark (footballer)\")'s first team on four occasions throughout the 2009–10 season at Huddersfield Town,{{cite news\\|title\\=Huddersfield Town's young guns will get chance says Lee Clark\\|url\\=http://www.examiner.co.uk/sport/football/news/huddersfield\\-towns\\-young\\-guns\\-chance\\-5008041\\|publisher\\=The Huddersfield Examiner\\|date\\=16 December 2009\\|access\\-date\\=2 July 2016}} Hunt signed a contract extension with Huddersfield Town in March 2010\\.{{cite news\\|title\\=Young trio earn new Huddersfield Town deals as Liverpool FC starlet returns\\|url\\=http://www.examiner.co.uk/sport/football/news/young\\-trio\\-earn\\-new\\-huddersfield\\-5003436\\|publisher\\=The Huddersfield Examiner\\|date\\=30 March 2010\\|access\\-date\\=2 July 2016}}",
"After his loan spell at Chesterfield came to an end, Hunt made his Huddersfield debut as a substitute in the 0–0 draw against [Colchester United](/wiki/Colchester_United_F.C. \"Colchester United F.C.\") at the [Galpharm Stadium](/wiki/Galpharm_Stadium \"Galpharm Stadium\") on 22 January 2011\\.{{cite news\\|title\\=Huddersfield Town 0 – 0 Colchester United\\|url\\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/eng\\_div\\_2/9362033\\.stm\\|publisher\\=BBC Sport\\|date\\=22 January 2011\\|access\\-date\\=2 July 2016}} He then made his first start for the club in their 2–1 defeat to [Arsenal](/wiki/Arsenal_F.C. \"Arsenal F.C.\") at the [Emirates Stadium](/wiki/Emirates_Stadium \"Emirates Stadium\") in the Fourth Round of the [FA Cup](/wiki/FA_Cup \"FA Cup\") on 30 January 2011,{{cite news\\|title\\=Arsenal 2 – 1 Huddersfield Town\\|url\\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/fa\\_cup/9379082\\.stm\\|publisher\\=BBC Sport\\|date\\=30 January 2011\\|access\\-date\\=2 July 2016}} which was then followed by his first league start in the 2–0 win over [Carlisle United](/wiki/Carlisle_United_F.C. \"Carlisle United F.C.\") on 1 February 2011\\.{{cite news\\|title\\=Huddersfield Town 2 – 0 Carlisle United\\|url\\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/eng\\_div\\_2/9377236\\.stm\\|publisher\\=BBC Sport\\|date\\=1 February 2011\\|access\\-date\\=2 July 2016}} He scored his first goal for the club against [Peterborough United](/wiki/Peterborough_United_F.C. \"Peterborough United F.C.\") on 9 April 2011, in the last minute to salvage a 1–1 draw.{{cite news\\| url\\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/12945077\\.stm \\| work\\=BBC News \\| title\\=Huddersfield Town 1–1 Peterborough United}} Hunt finished the 2010–11 season, making twenty appearances for the club.",
"Hunt's first start in the 2011–12 season came against [Port Vale](/wiki/Port_Vale_F.C. \"Port Vale F.C.\") in the [League Cup](/wiki/Football_League_Cup \"Football League Cup\") on 9 August 2011\\. He scored with a 25\\-yard shot to put Huddersfield 3–1 up – they won 4–2 on the night.{{cite news\\| url\\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/14368459\\.stm \\| work\\=BBC News \\| title\\=Port Vale 2–4 Huddersfield Town}} His first league start of the season came four days later in a 2–2 draw away at [Rochdale](/wiki/Rochdale_AFC \"Rochdale AFC\") on 13 August 2011\\.{{cite news\\| url\\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/eng\\_div\\_2/14429706\\.stm \\| work\\=BBC News \\| title\\=Rochdale 2–2 Huddersfield Town \\| date\\=13 August 2011}} He scored his first league goal of the 2011–12 season against [Leyton Orient](/wiki/Leyton_Orient_F.C. \"Leyton Orient F.C.\") on 24 September, he made the score 2–0 with a shot from 20 yards – the game ended 2–2\\.{{cite news\\| url\\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/eng\\_div\\_2/14957990\\.stm \\| work\\=BBC News \\| title\\=Huddersfield Town 2–2 Leyton Orient \\| date\\=24 September 2011}} Due to his overall performance of the course of the season, Hunt, along with his teammate [Jordan Rhodes](/wiki/Jordan_Rhodes \"Jordan Rhodes\"), were voted into the PFA League 1 Team of the Year.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.htafc.com/page/NewsDetail/0,,10312\\~2744944,00\\.html \\|title\\=RHODES \\& HUNT NAMED IN PFA TEAM \\|publisher\\=Huddersfield Town A.F.C. \\|date\\=23 April 2012 \\|access\\-date\\=21 July 2016 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120425214342/http://www.htafc.com/page/NewsDetail/0%2C%2C10312\\~2744944%2C00\\.html \\|archive\\-date\\=25 April 2012 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }} Hunt scored his third goal of the season on 12 May 2012, in Huddersfield's play\\-off semi\\-final away victory over [Milton Keynes Dons](/wiki/Milton_Keynes_Dons_F.C. \"Milton Keynes Dons F.C.\") at [Stadium MK](/wiki/Stadium_MK \"Stadium MK\") giving Huddersfield a 2–0 win going into the second leg.{{cite news\\| url\\=http://www.skysports.com/football/match\\_report/0,,11065\\_3511754,00\\.html \\| work\\=Sky Sports \\| title\\=Town down Dons to take charge \\| date\\=12 May 2012}} He then played the full 90minutes plus extra time in the final as Huddersfield Town went on to win promotion after an 8–7 penalty shoot\\-out win over fellow Yorkshire club [Sheffield United](/wiki/Sheffield_United_F.C. \"Sheffield United F.C.\") with Hunt scoring the 17th penalty of the shootout.{{cite web\\|last\\=Begley \\|first\\=Emlyn \\|url\\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/0/football/18127853 \\|title\\=Huddersfield promoted after epic shoot\\-out win over Sheffield United \\|publisher\\=BBC Sport \\|date\\=26 May 2012 \\|access\\-date\\=2 July 2016}} Following the club's promotion to the [Championship](/wiki/Football_League_Championship \"Football League Championship\"), Hunt signed a one\\-year contract extension.{{cite news\\|title\\=Huddersfield Town star Jack Hunt signs contract extension at newly\\-promoted Championship club\\|url\\=http://www.examiner.co.uk/sport/football/news/huddersfield\\-town\\-star\\-jack\\-hunt\\-4953494\\|publisher\\=The Huddersfield Examiner\\|date\\=31 May 2012\\|access\\-date\\=2 July 2016}}",
"Ahead of the 2012–13 season, Hunt began to attracted interests from clubs, such as, [Fulham](/wiki/Fulham_F.C. \"Fulham F.C.\").{{cite news\\|title\\=Fulham interested in Huddersfield Town's PFA Team of the Year star Jack Hunt say reports\\|url\\=http://www.examiner.co.uk/sport/football/transfer\\-news/fulham\\-interested\\-huddersfield\\-towns\\-pfa\\-5070832\\|publisher\\=The Huddersfield Examiner\\|date\\=25 April 2012\\|access\\-date\\=2 July 2016}} Hunt made his first start of the season in the opening round of the [League Cup](/wiki/Football_League_Cup \"Football League Cup\") in the 2–0 away deft at Preston North End on Monday 13 August 2012, this was then followed by his first league game of the season away at Cardiff in Huddersfield's first game in the [Football League Championship](/wiki/Football_League_Championship \"Football League Championship\") for 11 years in a 1–0 away loss.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.htafc.com/news/article/first\\-team\\-news\\-preston\\-match\\-report\\-310225\\.aspx\\|title\\=MATCH REPORT: PRESTON NORTH END 2 HUDDERSFIELD TOWN 0\\|publisher\\=Huddersfield Town A.F.C.\\|date\\=13 August 2012\\|access\\-date\\=21 July 2016\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160721183007/http://www.htafc.com/news/article/first\\-team\\-news\\-preston\\-match\\-report\\-310225\\.aspx\\|archive\\-date\\=21 July 2016\\|url\\-status\\=live}} Hunt gave an impressive display in his first home game of 2012–13 winning an injury time penalty which [Jordan Rhodes](/wiki/Jordan_Rhodes \"Jordan Rhodes\") scored to give Huddersfield a 1–1 draw on 21 August 2012\\.{{cite news\\|title\\=Huddersfield Town 1 – 1 Nottingham Forest\\|url\\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/0/football/19252459\\|publisher\\=BBC Sport\\|date\\=21 August 2012}} Hunt was also named in Sky Sports team of the week on 23 August for his performance in Huddersfield first two games of the league campaign.{{cite news\\|title\\=Team of the Week\\|url\\=http://www1\\.skysports.com/football/news/11096/8011432/Team\\-of\\-the\\-Week? \\| work\\=Sky Sports\\|date\\=23 August 2012}} Then, Hunt was given a straight red card and an abusive language towards referee Graham Scott during a 4–0 loss against [Millwall](/wiki/Millwall_F.C. \"Millwall F.C.\"){{cite news\\|title\\=Joel Lynch believes Huddersfield Town teammate Jack Hunt will learn from red card\\|url\\=http://www.examiner.co.uk/sport/football/news/joel\\-lynch\\-believes\\-huddersfield\\-town\\-4938262\\|publisher\\=The Huddersfield Examiner\\|date\\=3 November 2012\\|access\\-date\\=21 July 2016}} and injured his hamstring during a match against [Bolton Wanderers](/wiki/Bolton_Wanderers_F.C. \"Bolton Wanderers F.C.\") on 2 April 2013\\.{{cite web \\|title\\=Robins hopeful over key duo \\|url\\=https://www.foxsports.com/stories/soccer/robins\\-hopeful\\-over\\-key\\-duo \\|website\\=FOX Sports \\|access\\-date\\=7 October 2020 \\|date\\=8 April 2013}} After undergoing a successful scan,{{cite news\\|title\\=Good news for Huddersfield Town defender Jack Hunt after scan\\|url\\=http://www.examiner.co.uk/sport/football/news/good\\-news\\-huddersfield\\-town\\-defender\\-4928652\\|publisher\\=The Huddersfield Examiner\\|date\\=5 April 2013\\|access\\-date\\=21 July 2016}} Hunt returned to the first team and managed to regain in the first team for the 2012–13 season, playing in the left–back position, where he made forty appearances.",
"The 2013–14 season saw Hunt being linked with a move to [Premier League](/wiki/Premier_League \"Premier League\") side [Sunderland](/wiki/Sunderland_AFC \"Sunderland AFC\"){{cite news\\|title\\=Huddersfield Town stand firm on highly\\-rated Jack Hunt with Sunderland the latest to be linked\\|url\\=http://www.examiner.co.uk/sport/football/news/huddersfield\\-town\\-stand\\-firm\\-highly\\-rated\\-4936181\\|publisher\\=The Huddersfield Examiner\\|date\\=29 January 2013\\|access\\-date\\=21 July 2016}} and [Swansea City](/wiki/Swansea_City_A.F.C. \"Swansea City A.F.C.\").{{cite news \\|last1\\=Thomson \\|first1\\=Doug \\|title\\=Huddersfield Town;s Jack Hunt on Swansea City's transfer radar \\|url\\=https://www.examinerlive.co.uk/sport/football/transfer\\-news/huddersfield\\-towns\\-jack\\-hunt\\-swansea\\-4922188 \\|access\\-date\\=23 January 2021 \\|work\\=YorkshireLive \\|date\\=10 July 2013}} Also tracking Hunt were [Reading](/wiki/Reading_F.C. \"Reading F.C.\"), [Wigan Athletic](/wiki/Wigan_Athletic_F.C. \"Wigan Athletic F.C.\") and [Cardiff City](/wiki/Cardiff_City_F.C. \"Cardiff City F.C.\").{{cite news\\|title\\=Huddersfield Town aim to hold onto £3m Jack Hunt as Reading, Swansea City, Wigan and Cardiff City circle\\|url\\=http://www.examiner.co.uk/sport/football/news/huddersfield\\-town\\-aim\\-hold\\-onto\\-4935276\\|publisher\\=The Huddersfield Examiner\\|date\\=15 January 2013\\|access\\-date\\=21 July 2016}} However, Huddersfield Town revealed there were no enquiries to sign Hunt.{{cite news\\|title\\=No enquiries about Jack Hunt this summer say Huddersfield Town\\|url\\=http://www.examiner.co.uk/sport/football/transfer\\-news/huddersfield\\-town\\-turned\\-down\\-2m\\-5065750\\|publisher\\=The Huddersfield Examiner\\|date\\=11 July 2013\\|access\\-date\\=21 July 2016}} Despite this, Hunt remained in the first regular, where he began to play wide right at the start of the season{{cite news\\|title\\=Huddersfield Town defender Jack Hunt happy with fresh approach\\|url\\=http://www.examiner.co.uk/sport/football/news/huddersfield\\-town\\-defender\\-jack\\-hunt\\-5742737\\|publisher\\=The Huddersfield Examiner\\|date\\=17 August 2013\\|access\\-date\\=21 July 2016}} and provided assist one of [James Vaughan](/wiki/James_Vaughan_%28footballer%2C_born_1988%29 \"James Vaughan (footballer, born 1988)\") goals in a 2–1 win over [Bradford City](/wiki/Bradford_City_A.F.C. \"Bradford City A.F.C.\") in the first round of the League Cup.{{cite news\\|title\\=Huddersfield Town 2 – 1 Bradford City\\|url\\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/football/23499407\\|publisher\\=BBC Sport\\|date\\=6 August 2013\\|access\\-date\\=21 July 2016}} Once again, Hunt found himself in the transfer speculation, as Crystal Palace made a £2 million bid for Hunt.{{cite news\\|title\\=Crystal Palace to sign Jack Hunt from Huddersfield Town\\|url\\=http://www.examiner.co.uk/sport/football/news/crystal\\-palace\\-sign\\-jack\\-hunt\\-5818963\\|publisher\\=The Huddersfield Examiner\\|date\\=2 September 2013\\|access\\-date\\=21 July 2016}}",
"### Loan spells",
"In the [2009–10](/wiki/2009%E2%80%9310_in_English_football \"2009–10 in English football\") season, he was sent on loan to [Conference National](/wiki/Conference_National \"Conference National\") side [Grays Athletic](/wiki/Grays_Athletic_F.C. \"Grays Athletic F.C.\").{{cite news\\|title\\=Huddersfield Town's Preston loannee Trotman: I'm here to do the simple things\\|url\\=http://www.examiner.co.uk/sport/football/news/huddersfield\\-towns\\-preston\\-loannee\\-trotman\\-5006543\\|publisher\\=The Huddersfield Examiner\\|date\\=22 January 2010\\|access\\-date\\=2 July 2016}} Hunt made four appearances for Grays Athletic before returning to his parent club.",
"In the [2010–11](/wiki/2010%E2%80%9311_in_English_football \"2010–11 in English football\") season, Huddersfield manager Lee Clark sent Hunt out on loan to [Football League Two](/wiki/Football_League_Two \"Football League Two\") side [Chesterfield](/wiki/Chesterfield_F.C. \"Chesterfield F.C.\") for six months, which lasted until January.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.chesterfield\\-fc.co.uk/page/ProfilesDetail/0,,10435\\~47251,00\\.html \\|title\\=Chesterfield Team Profiles Jack Hunt \\|publisher\\=Chesterfield FC Official website \\|date\\=19 August 2010 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100925021332/http://www.chesterfield\\-fc.co.uk/page/ProfilesDetail/0%2C%2C10435\\~47251%2C00\\.html \\|archive\\-date\\=25 September 2010 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}{{cite news\\|title\\=Chesterfield sign Huddersfield Town defender Jack Hunt\\|url\\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/teams/c/chesterfield/8867043\\.stm\\|publisher\\=BBC Sport\\|date\\=29 July 2010\\|access\\-date\\=2 July 2016}} Hunt made his debut in the 2–1 win over [Barnet](/wiki/Barnet_F.C. \"Barnet F.C.\") on 7 August 2010\\.{{cite news\\|title\\=Chesterfield 2 – 1 Barnet\\|url\\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/eng\\_div\\_3/8842782\\.stm\\|publisher\\=BBC Sport\\|date\\=7 August 2010\\|access\\-date\\=2 July 2016}} Then on 11 September 2010, Hunt provided an assist for [Scott Boden](/wiki/Scott_Boden \"Scott Boden\") to score the equaliser, in a 1–1 draw against [Morecambe](/wiki/Morecambe_F.C. \"Morecambe F.C.\").{{cite news\\|title\\=Morecambe 1 – 1 Chesterfield\\|url\\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/eng\\_div\\_3/8967923\\.stm\\|publisher\\=BBC Sport\\|date\\=11 September 2010\\|access\\-date\\=2 July 2016}} Hunt became a first team regular, playing as a right–back, making 20 appearances and returned to the Galpharm after his loan expired in early January 2011\\.{{cite news\\|title\\=Posh player Griffiths back at the B2net\\|url\\=http://www.derbyshiretimes.co.uk/sport/football/chesterfield\\-fc/posh\\-player\\-griffiths\\-back\\-at\\-the\\-b2net\\-1\\-2929252\\|publisher\\=Derbyshire Times\\|date\\=14 January 2011\\|access\\-date\\=2 July 2016\\|archive\\-date\\=21 August 2016\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160821192031/http://www.derbyshiretimes.co.uk/sport/football/chesterfield\\-fc/posh\\-player\\-griffiths\\-back\\-at\\-the\\-b2net\\-1\\-2929252\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}{{cite news\\|title\\=Huddersfield Town's Jack Hunt under the microscope after Chesterfield loan\\|url\\=http://www.examiner.co.uk/sport/football/news/huddersfield\\-towns\\-jack\\-hunt\\-under\\-4982974\\|publisher\\=The Huddersfield Examiner\\|date\\=8 January 2011\\|access\\-date\\=2 July 2016}}",
"### Crystal Palace",
"[Premier League](/wiki/Premier_League \"Premier League\") side [Crystal Palace](/wiki/Crystal_Palace_F.C. \"Crystal Palace F.C.\") signed Hunt on a four\\-year deal, from Huddersfield Town, on 2 September 2013\\.{{cite web \\|last1\\=Fisher \\|first1\\=Alex \\|title\\=Crystal Palace sign Jack Hunt from Huddersfield Town \\|url\\=https://www.goal.com/en\\-gb/news/2892/transfer\\-zone/2013/09/02/4231869/crystal\\-palace\\-sign\\-jack\\-hunt\\-from\\-huddersfield\\-town \\|website\\=Goal \\|access\\-date\\=7 October 2020 \\|date\\=2 September 2013}} Upon joining Crystal Palace, Hunt said on the move, quoting: \"The interest from Crystal Palace filled me with a lot of confidence. Obviously the Premier is the best league in the world and I jumped at the chance to go to Palace. I spoke to the manager for a good hour, hour\\-and\\-a\\-half and the chat was brilliant, he is a brilliant man and very honest. I can't wait to play for him and you can see why he has such a good team spirit there, and that was only after one conversation with him\".{{cite news\\|title\\=Former Huddersfield Town defender Jack Hunt on his move to Premiership club Crystal Palace\\|url\\=http://www.examiner.co.uk/sport/football/news/former\\-huddersfield\\-town\\-defender\\-jack\\-5850435\\|publisher\\=The Huddersfield Examiner\\|date\\=5 September 2013\\|access\\-date\\=21 July 2016}}",
"However, before he could make his début, Hunt broke his ankle in training on 9 September, ruling him out for up to four months.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/0/football/24047784\\|title\\= Crystal Palace's Jack Hunt breaks ankle, faces up to four months out\\|date\\=11 September 2013\\|access\\-date\\=13 September 2013\\|publisher\\=BBC Sport}} By January, Hunt returned to training after being told by the club's medical that he was given all\\-clear.{{cite news\\|title\\=Premier League: Crystal Palace defender Jack Hunt given all\\-clear to return to training\\|url\\=http://www.skysports.com/football/news/11706/9117331/premier\\-league\\-crystal\\-palace\\-defender\\-jack\\-hunt\\-given\\-all\\-clear\\-to\\-return\\-to\\-training\\|publisher\\=Sky Sports\\|date\\=11 January 2014\\|access\\-date\\=2 July 2016}}",
"After his transfer to Sheffield Wednesday, Hunt said he stood by his decision over signing for Crystal Palace.{{cite news\\|title\\=I will never regret signing for Crystal Palace'\\|url\\=http://www.croydonadvertiser.co.uk/regret\\-signing\\-crystal\\-palace/story\\-28528000\\-detail/story.html\\|publisher\\=Croydon Advertiser\\|date\\=14 January 2016\\|access\\-date\\=21 July 2016}}{{Dead link\\|date\\=September 2019 \\|bot\\=InternetArchiveBot \\|fix\\-attempted\\=yes }} *[The Croydon Advertiser](/wiki/The_Croydon_Advertiser \"The Croydon Advertiser\")* later listed Hunt as among eleven players to never live up to expectations.{{cite news\\|title\\=The 11 Crystal Palace players (and one manager) who DIDN'T live up to expectations\\|url\\=http://www.croydonadvertiser.co.uk/11\\-crystal\\-palace\\-players\\-manager\\-didn\\-t\\-live/story\\-28084926\\-detail/story.html\\|date\\=30 October 2015\\|access\\-date\\=21 July 2016\\|work\\=\\[\\[The Croydon Advertiser]]\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Local World]]\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151031134554/http://www.croydonadvertiser.co.uk/11\\-Crystal\\-Palace\\-players\\-manager\\-DIDN\\-T\\-live/story\\-28084926\\-detail/story.html\\|archive\\-date\\=31 October 2015\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}",
"### Loan spells",
"On 29 January 2014, Hunt joined Championship side [Barnsley](/wiki/Barnsley_F.C. \"Barnsley F.C.\") on loan for the remainder of the [2013–14](/wiki/2013%E2%80%9314_Football_League_Championship \"2013–14 Football League Championship\") season.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Jack Hunt Joins Reds On Loan \\|url\\=http://www.barnsleyfc.co.uk/news/article/jack\\-hunt\\-joins\\-reds\\-on\\-loan\\-29012014\\-1325789\\.aspx \\|work\\=Barnsley FC \\|date\\=29 January 2014 \\|archive\\-url\\= https://web.archive.org/web/20160304121425/http://www.barnsleyfc.co.uk/news/article/jack\\-hunt\\-joins\\-reds\\-on\\-loan\\-29012014\\-1325789\\.aspx \\|archive\\-date\\=4 March 2016 \\|url\\-status\\=live}} Three days later, on 1 February 2014, Hunt made his Barnsley debut, in a 1–0 against [Sheffield Wednesday](/wiki/Sheffield_Wednesday_F.C. \"Sheffield Wednesday F.C.\"){{cite news\\|title\\=Sheffield Wednesday 1 – 0 Barnsley\\|url\\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/football/25891683 \\|publisher\\=BBC Sport\\|date\\=1 February 2014\\|access\\-date\\=21 July 2016}} and provided an assist in the next game on 8 February 2014, Hunt provided an assist for [Chris O'Grady](/wiki/Chris_O%27Grady \"Chris O'Grady\") to score the first goal of the season, in a 2–2 draw against [Ipswich Town](/wiki/Ipswich_Town_F.C. \"Ipswich Town F.C.\").{{cite news\\|title\\=Barnsley 2 – 2 Ipswich Town\\|url\\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/football/25994216 \\|publisher\\=BBC Sport\\|date\\=8 February 2014\\|access\\-date\\=21 July 2016}} However, Hunt was restricted to 10 appearances for the club, due to match fitness{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.barnsleyfc.co.uk/news/article/we\\-head\\-to\\-wigan\\-with\\-no\\-fear\\-wilson\\-1366573\\.aspx\\|title\\= We Head to Wigan With No Fear – Wilson\\|publisher\\=Barnsley F.C.\\|date\\=18 February 2014\\|access\\-date\\=21 July 2016\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160721195150/http://www.barnsleyfc.co.uk/news/article/we\\-head\\-to\\-wigan\\-with\\-no\\-fear\\-wilson\\-1366573\\.aspx\\|archive\\-date\\=21 July 2016\\|url\\-status\\=live}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.barnsleyfc.co.uk/news/article/yeovil\\-v\\-reds\\-match\\-preview\\-1452530\\.aspx\\|title\\=Yeovil v Reds: Match Preview\\|publisher\\=Barnsley F.C.\\|date\\=28 March 2014\\|access\\-date\\=21 July 2016\\|archive\\-url\\= https://web.archive.org/web/20140330085710/http://www.barnsleyfc.co.uk/news/article/yeovil\\-v\\-reds\\-match\\-preview\\-1452530\\.aspx\\|archive\\-date\\=30 March 2014 \\|url\\-status\\=live}} and injury that kept him out for the rest of the season.{{cite news\\|title\\=Crystal Palace defender lasts just 28 minutes at Charlton\\|url\\=http://www.croydonadvertiser.co.uk/crystal\\-palace\\-defender\\-lasts\\-just\\-28\\-minutes/story\\-20961460\\-detail/story.html\\|publisher\\=Croydon Advertiser\\|date\\=16 April 2014\\|access\\-date\\=21 July 2016\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140417042003/http://www.croydonadvertiser.co.uk/Crystal\\-Palace\\-defender\\-lasts\\-just\\-28\\-minutes/story\\-20961460\\-detail/story.html\\|archive\\-date\\=17 April 2014\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} As a result, Hunt was unable to help the club survive relegation, as they were relegated to League One.",
"On 22 July 2014, Hunt joined [Nottingham Forest](/wiki/Nottingham_Forest_F.C. \"Nottingham Forest F.C.\") on loan until 1 January 2015\\.{{cite news\\|title\\=Nottingham Forest complete loan signing of defender Jack Hunt\\|url\\=http://www.nottinghampost.com/Nottingham\\-Forest\\-complete\\-loan\\-signing\\-defender/story\\-21741749\\-detail/story.html\\|publisher\\=Nottingham Post\\|date\\=22 July 2014\\|access\\-date\\=22 July 2014\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140810023924/http://www.nottinghampost.com/Nottingham\\-Forest\\-complete\\-loan\\-signing\\-defender/story\\-21741749\\-detail/story.html\\|archive\\-date\\=10 August 2014\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} Upon joining Nottingham Forest, Hunt was given number 17 shirt.{{cite news\\|title\\=Mackie move confirmed – and Forest announce squad numbers\\|url\\=http://www.nottinghampost.com/mackie\\-confirmed\\-forest\\-announce\\-squad\\-numbers/story\\-22275875\\-detail/story.html\\|publisher\\=Nottingham Post\\|date\\=8 August 2014\\|access\\-date\\=21 July 2016\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140810072242/http://www.nottinghampost.com/Mackie\\-confirmed\\-Forest\\-announce\\-squad\\-numbers/story\\-22275875\\-detail/story.html\\|archive\\-date\\=10 August 2014\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} On his first day at the club, Hunt appeared at training, but ended up having a head wound, resulting in eight stitches.{{cite news\\|title\\=Jack Hunt has tough first day at Nottingham Forest\\|url\\=http://www.nottinghampost.com/jack\\-hunt\\-tough\\-day\\-nottingham\\-forest/story\\-21742094\\-detail/story.html\\|publisher\\=Nottingham Post\\|date\\=22 July 2014\\|access\\-date\\=21 July 2016}}{{Dead link\\|date\\=September 2019 \\|bot\\=InternetArchiveBot \\|fix\\-attempted\\=yes }} Hunt made his Nottingham Forest in the opening game of the season against [Blackpool](/wiki/Blackpool_F.C. \"Blackpool F.C.\"), where he provided an assist for [Chris Burke](/wiki/Chris_Burke_%28footballer%29 \"Chris Burke (footballer)\"), in a 2–0 win.{{cite news\\|title\\=Nottingham Forest 2 – 0 Blackpool\\|url\\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/football/28646431\\|publisher\\=BBC Sport\\|date\\=9 August 2014\\|access\\-date\\=21 July 2016}} Hunt made an impact at the end of August when he provided an assist for [Matty Fryatt](/wiki/Matty_Fryatt \"Matty Fryatt\") to score the winning goal, in a 2–1 win over Bournemouth,{{cite news\\|title\\=Bournemouth 1 – 2 Nottingham Forest\\|url\\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/football/28749886\\|publisher\\=BBC Sport\\|date\\=19 August 2014\\|access\\-date\\=21 July 2016}} and followed up, providing another assist, in a 4–0 win over Reading.{{cite news\\|title\\=Nottingham Forest 4 – 0 Reading\\|url\\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/football/28815166\\|publisher\\=BBC Sport\\|date\\=23 August 2014\\|access\\-date\\=21 July 2016}}{{cite news\\|title\\=Jack Hunt pledges to maintain his attacking philosophy for Nottingham Forest\\|url\\=http://www.nottinghampost.com/jack\\-hunt\\-pledges\\-maintain\\-attacking\\-philosophy/story\\-22908501\\-detail/story.html\\|publisher\\=Nottingham Post\\|date\\=11 September 2014\\|access\\-date\\=21 July 2016\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141003034551/http://www.nottinghampost.com/Jack\\-Hunt\\-pledges\\-maintain\\-attacking\\-philosophy/story\\-22908501\\-detail/story.html\\|archive\\-date\\=3 October 2014\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} Hunt's impact at Nottingham Forest with nineteen appearances had convinced the club's management to express interest in signing him permanently.{{cite news\\|title\\=Nottingham Forest working to sign Jack Hunt permanently\\|url\\=http://www.nottinghampost.com/nottingham\\-forest\\-working\\-sign\\-jack\\-hunt/story\\-23013796\\-detail/story.html\\|publisher\\=Nottingham Post\\|date\\=29 September 2014\\|access\\-date\\=21 July 2016\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150323225615/http://www.nottinghampost.com/Nottingham\\-Forest\\-working\\-sign\\-Jack\\-Hunt/story\\-23013796\\-detail/story.html\\|archive\\-date\\=23 March 2015\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} However, Crystal Palace asked Nottingham Forest to increase their bid for him.{{cite news\\|title\\=Nottingham Forest see permanent move for Jack Hunt stall as Crystal Palace double the price\\|url\\=http://www.nottinghampost.com/nottingham\\-forest\\-permanent\\-jack\\-hunt\\-stall/story\\-23049201\\-detail/story.html\\|publisher\\=Nottingham Post\\|date\\=6 October 2014\\|access\\-date\\=21 July 2016\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150323235425/http://www.nottinghampost.com/Nottingham\\-Forest\\-permanent\\-Jack\\-Hunt\\-stall/story\\-23049201\\-detail/story.html\\|archive\\-date\\=23 March 2015\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} This was later confirmed by Palace owner Steve Parish, who stated the club should have signed him permanently and revealed their decision to increase the price to sign Hunt.{{cite news\\|title\\=Crystal Palace co\\-chairman Steve Parish says Nottingham Forest missed a chance to sign Jack Hunt for less after upping asking price\\|url\\=http://www.nottinghampost.com/crystal\\-palace\\-chairman\\-steve\\-parish\\-says/story\\-23153185\\-detail/story.html\\|publisher\\=Nottingham Post\\|date\\=14 October 2014\\|access\\-date\\=21 July 2016\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150613152441/http://www.nottinghampost.com/Crystal\\-Palace\\-chairman\\-Steve\\-Parish\\-says/story\\-23153185\\-detail/story.html\\|archive\\-date\\=13 June 2015\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} Hunt's loan spell at Nottingham Forest came to an end on 31 December 2014 and he returned to his parent club.{{cite news\\|title\\=Jack Hunt all set for Crystal Palace return from Nottingham Forest\\|url\\=http://www.croydonadvertiser.co.uk/jack\\-hunt\\-set\\-crystal\\-palace\\-return\\-nottingham/story\\-25778372\\-detail/story.html\\|publisher\\=Nottingham Post\\|date\\=29 December 2014\\|access\\-date\\=21 July 2016}}{{Dead link\\|date\\=September 2019 \\|bot\\=InternetArchiveBot \\|fix\\-attempted\\=yes }} After this, Hunt stated his gratitude to the club, stating the club helped him fall in love with football again.{{cite news\\|title\\=Sheffield Wednesday: Why Hunt owes a debt of gratitude to Forest\\|url\\=http://www.thestar.co.uk/sport/football/sheffield\\-wednesday/sheffield\\-wednesday\\-why\\-hunt\\-owes\\-a\\-debt\\-of\\-gratitude\\-to\\-forest\\-1\\-7545292\\|work\\=The Star\\|date\\=31 October 2015\\|access\\-date\\=21 July 2016}}",
"Despite being linked with a move to [Blackburn Rovers](/wiki/Blackburn_Rovers_F.C. \"Blackburn Rovers F.C.\"),{{cite news\\|title\\=Transfer Talk: Crystal Palace defender wanted by Championship duo\\|url\\=http://www.croydonadvertiser.co.uk/crystal\\-palace\\-defender\\-wanted\\-championship\\-duo/story\\-25929249\\-detail/story.html\\|publisher\\=Croydon Advertiser\\|date\\=27 January 2015\\|access\\-date\\=21 July 2016}}{{Dead link\\|date\\=September 2019 \\|bot\\=InternetArchiveBot \\|fix\\-attempted\\=yes }} it was announced on 30 January 2015, that Hunt had opted to join [Championship](/wiki/Football_League_Championship \"Football League Championship\") club [Rotherham United](/wiki/Rotherham_United_F.C. \"Rotherham United F.C.\") on loan until 2 May 2015\\.{{cite web\\|title\\=Hunt Joins Rotherham On Loan\\|website\\=cpfc.co.uk\\|publisher\\=Crystal Palace Official Website\\|url\\=https://www.cpfc.co.uk/news/2015/january/hunt\\-joins\\-rotherham\\-on\\-loan/\\|date\\=30 January 2015\\|access\\-date\\=30 January 2015\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304003501/https://www.cpfc.co.uk/news/2015/january/hunt\\-joins\\-rotherham\\-on\\-loan/\\|archive\\-date\\=4 March 2016 \\|url\\-status\\=live}} The next day, Hunt made his Rotherham United debut, playing 90 minutes, in a 1–1 draw against Charlton Athletic.{{cite news\\|title\\=Charlton Athletic 1 – 1 Rotherham United\\|url\\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/football/30963016\\|publisher\\=BBC Sport\\|date\\=31 January 2015\\|access\\-date\\=21 July 2016}} Hunt then provided an assist for [Kári Árnason](/wiki/K%C3%A1ri_%C3%81rnason_%28footballer%2C_born_1982%29 \"Kári Árnason (footballer, born 1982)\") to score the first goal of the game, in a 2–0 win over his former club, Huddersfield Town on 7 March 2015\\.{{cite news\\|title\\=Huddersfield Town 0 – 2 Rotherham United\\|url\\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/0/football/31669820\\|publisher\\=BBC Sport\\|date\\=7 March 2015\\|access\\-date\\=21 July 2016}} Hunt made ten appearances for the club, as he helped them survive relegation in the Championship to ensure playing in the second season.",
"### Sheffield Wednesday",
"On 3 July 2015, Hunt joined [Championship](/wiki/Football_League_Championship \"Football League Championship\") club [Sheffield Wednesday](/wiki/Sheffield_Wednesday_F.C. \"Sheffield Wednesday F.C.\") on loan for the duration of the 2015–16 season.{{cite web\\|title\\=Hunt Joins Wednesday On Loan\\|date\\=3 July 2015\\|website\\=cpfc.co.uk\\|url\\=https://www.cpfc.co.uk/news/2015/july/hunt\\-joins\\-wednesday\\-on\\-loan/\\|access\\-date\\=3 July 2015\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304114211/https://www.cpfc.co.uk/news/2015/july/hunt\\-joins\\-wednesday\\-on\\-loan/\\|archive\\-date\\=4 March 2016 \\|url\\-status\\=live}} Upon joining the club, Hunt was given the number 32 shirt ahead of the new season.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.swfc.co.uk/news/article/sheffield\\-wednesday\\-squad\\-numbers\\-revealed\\-for\\-201516\\-2584509\\.aspx\\|title\\=Sheffield Wednesday squad numbers revealed for 2015/16\\|publisher\\=Sheffield Wednesday F.C.\\|date\\=31 July 2015\\|access\\-date\\=21 July 2016\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160721204857/http://www.swfc.co.uk/news/article/sheffield\\-wednesday\\-squad\\-numbers\\-revealed\\-for\\-201516\\-2584509\\.aspx \\|archive\\-date\\=21 July 2016\\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
"Hunt made his Sheffield Wednesday debut in the opening game of the season, where he played at right\\-back and for the full 90 minutes, in a 2–0 win over [Bristol City](/wiki/Bristol_City_F.C. \"Bristol City F.C.\").{{cite news\\|title\\=Sheffield Wednesday 2 – 0 Bristol City\\|url\\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/0/football/33744206\\|publisher\\=BBC Sport\\|date\\=8 August 2015\\|access\\-date\\=21 July 2016}} Hunt found himself competing at right\\-back with [Liam Palmer](/wiki/Liam_Palmer \"Liam Palmer\"), but managed to retain the position{{cite news\\|title\\=Sheffield Wednesday: Owls ace out to prove a point\\|url\\=http://www.thestar.co.uk/sport/football/sheffield\\-wednesday/sheffield\\-wednesday\\-owls\\-ace\\-out\\-to\\-prove\\-a\\-point\\-1\\-7528476\\|work\\=The Star\\|date\\=22 October 2015\\|access\\-date\\=21 July 2016}}{{cite news\\|title\\=Sheffield Wednesday: Midfield blow for Owls\\|url\\=http://www.thestar.co.uk/sport/football/sheffield\\-wednesday/sheffield\\-wednesday\\-midfield\\-blow\\-for\\-owls\\-1\\-7569241\\|work\\=The Star\\|date\\=13 November 2015\\|access\\-date\\=21 July 2016}} despite suffering from a knee injury.{{cite news\\|title\\=VIDEO: Injury problems pile up for Owls boss\\|url\\=http://www.thestar.co.uk/sport/football/sheffield\\-wednesday/video\\-injury\\-problems\\-pile\\-up\\-for\\-owls\\-boss\\-1\\-7601768\\|work\\=The Star\\|date\\=2 December 2015\\|access\\-date\\=21 July 2016}}",
"On 13 January 2016, after playing 22 games as part of his season long loan, Hunt joined Sheffield Wednesday on a three\\-and\\-a\\-half\\-year deal, signing for an undisclosed fee.{{cite web\\|title\\=Hunt Makes Permanent Wednesday Move\\|url\\=https://www.cpfc.co.uk/news/2016/january/hunt\\-makes\\-permanent\\-wednesday\\-move/\\|website\\=cpfc.co.uk\\|date\\=13 January 2016\\|access\\-date\\=14 January 2016\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160302124516/http://www.cpfc.co.uk//news/article/jack\\-hunt\\-has\\-signed\\-for\\-sheffield\\-wednesday\\-on\\-a\\-permanent\\-deal\\-from\\-crystal\\-palace.\\-2899838\\.aspx\\|archive\\-date\\=2 March 2016 \\|url\\-status\\=live}} Hunt's first game after signing for the club on a permanent basis came on 16 January 2016, in a 2–0 win over [Leeds United](/wiki/Leeds_United_F.C. \"Leeds United F.C.\").{{cite news\\|title\\=Sheffield Wednesday 2 – 0 Leeds United\\|url\\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/0/football/35271146\\|publisher\\=BBC Sport\\|date\\=16 January 2016\\|access\\-date\\=21 July 2016}} A month after joining the club permanently, Hunt provided an assist for [Lucas João](/wiki/Lucas_Jo%C3%A3o \"Lucas João\") to score the fourth goal of the season, in a 4–0 win over [Brentford](/wiki/Brentford_F.C. \"Brentford F.C.\") on 13 February 2016\\.{{cite news\\|title\\=Sheffield Wednesday 4 – 0 Brentford\\|url\\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/football/35509350\\|publisher\\=BBC Sport\\|date\\=13 February 2016\\|access\\-date\\=21 July 2016}} Hunt would later help the club reach the play\\-offs and in the second leg, Hunt provided the assist for [Ross Wallace](/wiki/Ross_Wallace \"Ross Wallace\"), in a 1–1 draw against [Brighton \\& Hove Albion](/wiki/Brighton_%26_Hove_Albion_F.C. \"Brighton & Hove Albion F.C.\").{{cite news\\|title\\=Brighton \\& Hove Albion 1 – 1 (1 – 3 agg) Sheffield Wednesday\\|url\\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/football/36244725\\|publisher\\=BBC Sport\\|date\\=16 May 2016\\|access\\-date\\=21 July 2016}} Hunt started as a right\\-back in [the play\\-off Championship Final](/wiki/2016_Football_League_Championship_play-off_Final \"2016 Football League Championship play-off Final\") against [Hull City](/wiki/Hull_City_A.F.C. \"Hull City A.F.C.\"), playing 90 minutes, but lost 1–0\\.{{cite news\\|title\\=Hull City 1 – 0 Sheffield Wednesday\\|url\\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/football/36348885\\|publisher\\=BBC Sport\\|date\\=28 May 2016\\|access\\-date\\=21 July 2016}} In his first season at the club, Hunt made 40 appearances in all competitions.",
"### Bristol City",
"On 6 July 2018, it was announced that Hunt had joined fellow [Championship](/wiki/EFL_Championship \"EFL Championship\") side [Bristol City](/wiki/Bristol_City_F.C. \"Bristol City F.C.\"). He joined the Robins for an undisclosed fee, signing a three\\-year contract.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.bcfc.co.uk/news/this\\-is\\-a\\-club\\-on\\-the\\-up\\-hunt/\\|title\\=This is a club on the up \\- Hunt\\|website\\=Bristol City\\|language\\=en\\|access\\-date\\=6 July 2018}}",
"on 14 May 2021, Hunt left Bristol City following the expiration of his contract thus making him a free agent.",
"### Return to Sheffield Wednesday",
"On 22 July 2021, Hunt sealed a return to Sheffield Wednesday.{{cite web \\|title\\= Jack Hunt seals Wednesday return!\\|url\\= https://www.swfc.co.uk/news/2021/july/jack\\-hunt\\-returns\\-to\\-hillsborough/ \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Sheffield Wednesday F.C.]] \\|access\\-date\\=22 July 2021}} Hunt would confirm he signed a one\\-year deal with a one\\-year option based on promotion back to the [Championship](/wiki/EFL_Championship \"EFL Championship\").{{cite web \\|title\\= Jack Hunt contract details revealed as he confirms he rejected Championship interest to join Sheffield Wednesday\\|date\\= 23 July 2021\\|url\\= https://www.thestar.co.uk/sport/football/sheffield\\-wednesday/jack\\-hunt\\-contract\\-details\\-revealed\\-as\\-he\\-confirms\\-he\\-rejected\\-championship\\-interest\\-to\\-join\\-sheffield\\-wednesday\\-3320096\\|publisher\\=Sheffield Star \\|access\\-date\\=23 July 2021}} He would make his second competitive debut for Sheffield Wednesday on 1 August 2021, at home to former club [Huddersfield Town](/wiki/Huddersfield_Town_A.F.C. \"Huddersfield Town A.F.C.\").{{cite web \\|title\\=Report: Wednesday 0\\-0 (2\\-4p) Huddersfield\\|url\\=https://www.swfc.co.uk/matches/fixtures/first\\-team/2021222/august/sheffield\\-wednesday\\-vs\\-huddersfield\\-town\\-on\\-10\\-aug\\-21/\\|publisher\\=Sheffield Wednesday F.C. \\|access\\-date\\=1 August 2021}} Hunt would score his first goal for Wednesday across both spells at the club on 26 March 2022 against [Cheltenham Town](/wiki/Cheltenham_Town_F.C. \"Cheltenham Town F.C.\").{{cite web \\|title\\=Hunt delighted with first Owls goal! \\|url\\=https://www.swfc.co.uk/news/2022/march/hunt\\-delighted\\-with\\-first\\-owls\\-goal/ \\|publisher\\=Sheffield Wednesday F.C. \\|access\\-date\\=26 March 2022}} After missing out on promotion during the playoffs, the club would offer him a new contract following the end of the [2021–22 season](/wiki/2021-22_Sheffield_Wednesday_F.C._season \"2021-22 Sheffield Wednesday F.C. season\"), {{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.swfc.co.uk/news/2022/may/owls\\-confirm\\-retained\\-list/\\|title\\=Owls confirm retained list\\|website\\=www.swfc.co.uk\\|date\\=21 May 2022}} signing a new contract in June 2022\\. {{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.swfc.co.uk/news/2022/june/jack\\-hunt\\-signs\\-contract\\-extension/\\|title\\=Jack Hunt signs contract extension\\|website\\=www.swfc.co.uk\\|date\\=17 June 2022\\|accessdate\\=17 June 2022}}",
"On 19 May 2023, Hunt scored the winning penalty to send Sheffield Wednesday to the [2023 EFL League One play\\-off final](/wiki/2023_EFL_League_One_play-off_final \"2023 EFL League One play-off final\").{{cite web \\|title\\=Sheffield Wednesday heroes Cameron Dawson and Jack Hunt on historic play\\-off victory \\|date\\=19 May 2023 \\|url\\=https://www.yorkshirepost.co.uk/sport/football/sheffield\\-wednesday/sheffield\\-wednesday\\-heroes\\-cameron\\-dawson\\-and\\-jack\\-hunt\\-on\\-historic\\-play\\-off\\-victory\\-4149139 \\|publisher\\=Yorkshire Post \\|access\\-date\\=19 May 2023}} Following promotion back to the [EFL Championship](/wiki/EFL_Championship \"EFL Championship\") it was confirmed that Hunt would be released following the end of his contract.{{cite web\\|title\\=Owls retained list confirmed\\|url\\=https://www.swfc.co.uk/news/2023/june/owls\\-retained\\-list\\-confirmed/\\|publisher\\=Sheffield Wednesday FC\\|access\\-date\\=2 June 2023}}",
"### Bristol Rovers",
"On 17 August 2023, Hunt signed for League One club [Bristol Rovers](/wiki/Bristol_Rovers_F.C. \"Bristol Rovers F.C.\") on a two\\-year deal. {{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.bristolrovers.co.uk/news/2023/august/Jack\\-hunt\\-joins\\-Rovers/\\|title\\=Jack Hunt Joins Rovers!\\|website\\=www.bristolrovers.co.uk\\|date\\=17 August 2023\\|accessdate\\=17 August 2023}} On 23 September 2023, he scored his first goal for the club with the second in a 4–1 victory over [Wigan Athletic](/wiki/Wigan_Athletic_F.C. \"Wigan Athletic F.C.\"), {{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/football/66828693\\|title\\=Bristol Rovers 4–1 Wigan Athletic\\|publisher\\=BBC Sport\\|date\\=23 September 2023\\|accessdate\\=24 September 2023}} a performance rated 9/10 by local journalists. {{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.bristolpost.co.uk/sport/football/football\\-news/bristol\\-rovers\\-player\\-ratings\\-9\\-8774715\\|title\\=Bristol Rovers player ratings: 9 for fine Hunt display as Collins scores again in Wigan thumping\\|publisher\\=Bristol Post\\|last1\\=Hargraves\\|first1\\=Daniel\\|date\\=23 September 2023\\|accessdate\\=24 September 2023}}",
""
] |
Family and personal life
------------------------
Konig married in 1906, Baroness Gerda (Gertrude) von Chappuis, born in [Saxony](/wiki/Saxony "Saxony"), Germany, around 1874\.[New York Passenger Lists \& Arrivals Image.](http://search.findmypast.co.uk/record?id=https%3a%2f%2ffamilysearch.org%2fpal%3a%2fmm9.3.1%2fth-1951-22051-9149-51&parentid=us%2fpass%2fny%2f011981232788) Retrieved 24 May 2016\. {{subscription required}} Gerda Konig was a [Lady\-in\-Waiting](/wiki/Lady-in-Waiting "Lady-in-Waiting") to Princess Marie Louise.[Memorials of the Great War: War memorial of the month – October 2014 Tyringham, Buckinghamshire.](http://www.lutyenstrustexhibitions1.org.uk/october-2014/4586711102) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160429061839/http://www.lutyenstrustexhibitions1\.org.uk/october\-2014/4586711102 \|date\=29 April 2016 }} The Lutyens Trust. Retrieved 24 May 2016\. She was painted by [John Lavery](/wiki/John_Lavery "John Lavery") in around 1910 on a canvas designed to fit into a recess above one of the mantlepieces at Tyringham Hall.
The Konigs had two sons, Kilian Louis de Chappuis (born 1910\) and Marcus Louis de Chappuis (1913–1966\).
Konig financed the construction of a school and reading room at [Filgrave](/wiki/Filgrave "Filgrave"), near Tyringham, to commemorate the coronation of [King George V](/wiki/King_George_V_of_the_United_Kingdom "King George V of the United Kingdom") in 1911\. The school and reading room still exists but the school was closed in the 1980s and in 2012 was in use as a nursery.{{cite web \| url\=http://hscharityride.blogspot.co.uk/2012/09/a\-hop\-skip\-and\-jump\-to\-filgrave\-reading.html \| title\=A Hop, Skip and a Jump to Filgrave Reading Room \| publisher\=The High Sheriff's Charity Ride, 16th–23rd September 2012 \| access\-date\=30 June 2017}} The building is maintained by the De Chappuis Konig Charities whose trustees include Caroline Konig and Alistair Konig.[The De Chappuis Konig Charities.](http://beta.charitycommission.gov.uk/charity-details/?regid=310506&subid=0) gov.uk Retrieved 25 May 2016\.
Anna Konig his relative , is in line for Tyringham house. Anna herself has been but never lived there. Anna was born in 2014 \-June.Anna was born in Germany.
In 1930, the Konigs donated an [Albrecht Dürer](/wiki/Albrecht_D%C3%BCrer "Albrecht Dürer") print of [Saint George](/wiki/Saint_George "Saint George") to [Yale University Art Gallery](/wiki/Yale_University_Art_Gallery "Yale University Art Gallery") in memory of their nephew [Frederic George Achelis](/wiki/Frederic_George_Achelis "Frederic George Achelis").[Artist: Albrecht Dürer, German, 1471–1528 Saint George.](http://artgallery.yale.edu/collections/objects/4408) Yale University Art Gallery. Retrieved 24 May 2016\.
Konig also had a home at 44 [Rutland Gate](/wiki/Rutland_Gate "Rutland Gate"), London. He was a member of the [Carlton Club](/wiki/Carlton_Club "Carlton Club").[Fox\-Davies, Arthur Charles](/wiki/Arthur_Charles_Fox-Davies "Arthur Charles Fox-Davies"). (1929\) [*Armorial families: A directory of gentlemen of coat\-armour.*](https://archive.org/stream/armorialfamilies02foxd#page/1116/mode/2up) 7th edition. London: Hurst \& Blackett.
|
[
"Family and personal life\n------------------------",
"Konig married in 1906, Baroness Gerda (Gertrude) von Chappuis, born in [Saxony](/wiki/Saxony \"Saxony\"), Germany, around 1874\\.[New York Passenger Lists \\& Arrivals Image.](http://search.findmypast.co.uk/record?id=https%3a%2f%2ffamilysearch.org%2fpal%3a%2fmm9.3.1%2fth-1951-22051-9149-51&parentid=us%2fpass%2fny%2f011981232788) Retrieved 24 May 2016\\. {{subscription required}} Gerda Konig was a [Lady\\-in\\-Waiting](/wiki/Lady-in-Waiting \"Lady-in-Waiting\") to Princess Marie Louise.[Memorials of the Great War: War memorial of the month – October 2014 Tyringham, Buckinghamshire.](http://www.lutyenstrustexhibitions1.org.uk/october-2014/4586711102) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160429061839/http://www.lutyenstrustexhibitions1\\.org.uk/october\\-2014/4586711102 \\|date\\=29 April 2016 }} The Lutyens Trust. Retrieved 24 May 2016\\. She was painted by [John Lavery](/wiki/John_Lavery \"John Lavery\") in around 1910 on a canvas designed to fit into a recess above one of the mantlepieces at Tyringham Hall.",
"The Konigs had two sons, Kilian Louis de Chappuis (born 1910\\) and Marcus Louis de Chappuis (1913–1966\\).",
"Konig financed the construction of a school and reading room at [Filgrave](/wiki/Filgrave \"Filgrave\"), near Tyringham, to commemorate the coronation of [King George V](/wiki/King_George_V_of_the_United_Kingdom \"King George V of the United Kingdom\") in 1911\\. The school and reading room still exists but the school was closed in the 1980s and in 2012 was in use as a nursery.{{cite web \\| url\\=http://hscharityride.blogspot.co.uk/2012/09/a\\-hop\\-skip\\-and\\-jump\\-to\\-filgrave\\-reading.html \\| title\\=A Hop, Skip and a Jump to Filgrave Reading Room \\| publisher\\=The High Sheriff's Charity Ride, 16th–23rd September 2012 \\| access\\-date\\=30 June 2017}} The building is maintained by the De Chappuis Konig Charities whose trustees include Caroline Konig and Alistair Konig.[The De Chappuis Konig Charities.](http://beta.charitycommission.gov.uk/charity-details/?regid=310506&subid=0) gov.uk Retrieved 25 May 2016\\.",
"",
"Anna Konig his relative , is in line for Tyringham house. Anna herself has been but never lived there. Anna was born in 2014 \\-June.Anna was born in Germany.",
"In 1930, the Konigs donated an [Albrecht Dürer](/wiki/Albrecht_D%C3%BCrer \"Albrecht Dürer\") print of [Saint George](/wiki/Saint_George \"Saint George\") to [Yale University Art Gallery](/wiki/Yale_University_Art_Gallery \"Yale University Art Gallery\") in memory of their nephew [Frederic George Achelis](/wiki/Frederic_George_Achelis \"Frederic George Achelis\").[Artist: Albrecht Dürer, German, 1471–1528 Saint George.](http://artgallery.yale.edu/collections/objects/4408) Yale University Art Gallery. Retrieved 24 May 2016\\.",
"Konig also had a home at 44 [Rutland Gate](/wiki/Rutland_Gate \"Rutland Gate\"), London. He was a member of the [Carlton Club](/wiki/Carlton_Club \"Carlton Club\").[Fox\\-Davies, Arthur Charles](/wiki/Arthur_Charles_Fox-Davies \"Arthur Charles Fox-Davies\"). (1929\\) [*Armorial families: A directory of gentlemen of coat\\-armour.*](https://archive.org/stream/armorialfamilies02foxd#page/1116/mode/2up) 7th edition. London: Hurst \\& Blackett.",
""
] |
Career
------
In June 1999, Lidsky founded an internet advertising technology startup with Joe Zawadzki. Originally named "ru4\.com," the company eventually became \[x\+1] and was acquired in 2015 for $230 million.{{Cite web\|title \= Rocket Fuel Buys X\+1 For $230 Million\|url \= http://adage.com/article/digital/rocket\-fuel\-buys\-x\-1\-230\-million/294479/\|website \= adage.com\|date \= 5 August 2014\|access\-date \= 2016\-02\-24}} Lidsky left the company after two years to attend Harvard Law School.
After law school, Lidsky clerked for Judge [Thomas L. Ambro](/wiki/Thomas_L._Ambro "Thomas L. Ambro") on the [United States Court of Appeal for the Third Circuit](/wiki/United_States_Court_of_Appeal_for_the_Third_Circuit "United States Court of Appeal for the Third Circuit").{{Cite web\|title \= Supreme Foresight: Issac Lidsky '04, U.S. Supreme Court clerk \- Harvard Law TodayHarvard Law Today\|url \= http://today.law.harvard.edu/supreme\-foresight\-issac\-lidsky\-04\-u\-s\-supreme\-court\-clerk/\|website \= Harvard Law Today\|access\-date \= 2016\-02\-24}} He then joined the appellate staff of the Civil Division of the [Justice Department](/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Justice "United States Department of Justice"). In two and a half years in that position, Lidsky argued more than twelve cases on behalf of the U.S. government in federal courts of appeal.
In 2008, Lidsky served as a law clerk for U.S. Supreme Court Justices [Sandra Day O'Connor](/wiki/Sandra_Day_O%27Connor "Sandra Day O'Connor"){{Cite web\|title \= Former Child Actor, Now Blind, Will Begin Stint as O'Connor Law Clerk\|url \= http://www.abajournal.com/news/article/former\_child\_actor\_now\_blind\_will\_begin\_stint\_as\_oconnor\_law\_clerk\|website \= ABA Journal\|access\-date \= 2016\-02\-24\|first \= ABA\|last \= Journal}} and [Ruth Bader Ginsburg](/wiki/Ruth_Bader_Ginsburg "Ruth Bader Ginsburg"). He is the first blind person to clerk for the court.
After a brief stint practicing law for a large international law firm, in 2011 Lidsky partnered with Harvard College roommate Zac Merriman to acquire a small business. They purchased the assets of Orlando Decorative Concrete, Inc. and created ODC Construction, LLC.{{Cite web\|title \= The Incredibly Inspiring Journey of a Blind Entrepreneur Who Built a $70 Million Company\|url \= http://www.inc.com/leigh\-buchanan/orlando\-decorative\-concretes\-founder\-built\-a\-70\-million\-dollar\-empire\-he\-will\-never\-see.html\|website \= Inc.com\|date \= 2015\-10\-05\|access\-date \= 2016\-02\-24}}{{cite web \|url \= https://www.tampabay.com/news/business/realestate/local\-home\-builder\-isaac\-lidsky\-sees\-life\-business\-through\-different\-lens/2155626/\|title \= Local home builder Isaac Lidsky sees life, business through different lens\|last \= Harwell\|first \= Drew\|work \= Tampa Bay Times\|date \= December 9, 2013\|access\-date \= 2013\-12\-09}} ODC Construction is a residential shell contractor. It builds the structural envelope of new homes, including the foundations, masonry, framing and trusses. In 2014, the company had $70 million in revenue.{{cite news\|last1\=Buchannan\|first1\=Leigh\|title\=The Incredibly Inspiring Journey of a Blind Entrepreneur Who Built a $70 Million Company\|url\=http://www.inc.com/leigh\-buchanan/orlando\-decorative\-concretes\-founder\-built\-a\-70\-million\-dollar\-empire\-he\-will\-never\-see.html\|access\-date\=6 October 2015\|work\=\[\[Inc. (magazine)\|Inc.]]\|date\=5 October 2015}}
In 2014, Lidsky began speaking publicly about his experiences to corporations and organizations. In 2015, he sold his first book, *Eyes Wide Open: Overcoming Obstacles and Recognizing Opportunities In A World That Can't See Clearly*, to [Penguin Random House](/wiki/Penguin_Random_House "Penguin Random House").{{Cite web\|title \= Isaac Lidsky\|url \= http://www.lidsky.com\|website \= www.lidsky.com\|access\-date \= 2016\-02\-24}} The book was listed on the *[Washington Post](/wiki/Washington_Post "Washington Post")*{{'s}} 10 books on leadership to read in 2017\.{{Cite news\|url\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/on\-leadership/wp/2016/12/22/10\-books\-on\-leadership\-to\-read\-in\-2017/\|title\=10 books on leadership to read in 2017\|newspaper\=Washington Post\|access\-date\=2017\-02\-24}} The book was published on March 14, 2017\.
In 2016, [TED](/wiki/TED_%28conference%29 "TED (conference)") invited Lidsky to present a main stage TED Talk at TEDSUMMIT 2016 in Banff, Canada.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.ted.com/speakers/isaac\_lidsky\|title\=Isaac Lidsky : Speaker\|date\=June 27, 2016\|publisher\=\[\[TED (conference)\|TED]]\|access\-date\=26 February 2017}} The talk received a standing ovation.
Lidsky is a member of the Young President's Organization (YPO), the Chapter Chair for the Orlando Chapter and a member of the Regional Executive Committee for the Southeast U.S. and Caribbean Region. He is also a member of the Young Entrepreneurs Council.
|
[
"Career\n------",
"In June 1999, Lidsky founded an internet advertising technology startup with Joe Zawadzki. Originally named \"ru4\\.com,\" the company eventually became \\[x\\+1] and was acquired in 2015 for $230 million.{{Cite web\\|title \\= Rocket Fuel Buys X\\+1 For $230 Million\\|url \\= http://adage.com/article/digital/rocket\\-fuel\\-buys\\-x\\-1\\-230\\-million/294479/\\|website \\= adage.com\\|date \\= 5 August 2014\\|access\\-date \\= 2016\\-02\\-24}} Lidsky left the company after two years to attend Harvard Law School.",
"After law school, Lidsky clerked for Judge [Thomas L. Ambro](/wiki/Thomas_L._Ambro \"Thomas L. Ambro\") on the [United States Court of Appeal for the Third Circuit](/wiki/United_States_Court_of_Appeal_for_the_Third_Circuit \"United States Court of Appeal for the Third Circuit\").{{Cite web\\|title \\= Supreme Foresight: Issac Lidsky '04, U.S. Supreme Court clerk \\- Harvard Law TodayHarvard Law Today\\|url \\= http://today.law.harvard.edu/supreme\\-foresight\\-issac\\-lidsky\\-04\\-u\\-s\\-supreme\\-court\\-clerk/\\|website \\= Harvard Law Today\\|access\\-date \\= 2016\\-02\\-24}} He then joined the appellate staff of the Civil Division of the [Justice Department](/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Justice \"United States Department of Justice\"). In two and a half years in that position, Lidsky argued more than twelve cases on behalf of the U.S. government in federal courts of appeal.",
"In 2008, Lidsky served as a law clerk for U.S. Supreme Court Justices [Sandra Day O'Connor](/wiki/Sandra_Day_O%27Connor \"Sandra Day O'Connor\"){{Cite web\\|title \\= Former Child Actor, Now Blind, Will Begin Stint as O'Connor Law Clerk\\|url \\= http://www.abajournal.com/news/article/former\\_child\\_actor\\_now\\_blind\\_will\\_begin\\_stint\\_as\\_oconnor\\_law\\_clerk\\|website \\= ABA Journal\\|access\\-date \\= 2016\\-02\\-24\\|first \\= ABA\\|last \\= Journal}} and [Ruth Bader Ginsburg](/wiki/Ruth_Bader_Ginsburg \"Ruth Bader Ginsburg\"). He is the first blind person to clerk for the court.",
"After a brief stint practicing law for a large international law firm, in 2011 Lidsky partnered with Harvard College roommate Zac Merriman to acquire a small business. They purchased the assets of Orlando Decorative Concrete, Inc. and created ODC Construction, LLC.{{Cite web\\|title \\= The Incredibly Inspiring Journey of a Blind Entrepreneur Who Built a $70 Million Company\\|url \\= http://www.inc.com/leigh\\-buchanan/orlando\\-decorative\\-concretes\\-founder\\-built\\-a\\-70\\-million\\-dollar\\-empire\\-he\\-will\\-never\\-see.html\\|website \\= Inc.com\\|date \\= 2015\\-10\\-05\\|access\\-date \\= 2016\\-02\\-24}}{{cite web \\|url \\= https://www.tampabay.com/news/business/realestate/local\\-home\\-builder\\-isaac\\-lidsky\\-sees\\-life\\-business\\-through\\-different\\-lens/2155626/\\|title \\= Local home builder Isaac Lidsky sees life, business through different lens\\|last \\= Harwell\\|first \\= Drew\\|work \\= Tampa Bay Times\\|date \\= December 9, 2013\\|access\\-date \\= 2013\\-12\\-09}} ODC Construction is a residential shell contractor. It builds the structural envelope of new homes, including the foundations, masonry, framing and trusses. In 2014, the company had $70 million in revenue.{{cite news\\|last1\\=Buchannan\\|first1\\=Leigh\\|title\\=The Incredibly Inspiring Journey of a Blind Entrepreneur Who Built a $70 Million Company\\|url\\=http://www.inc.com/leigh\\-buchanan/orlando\\-decorative\\-concretes\\-founder\\-built\\-a\\-70\\-million\\-dollar\\-empire\\-he\\-will\\-never\\-see.html\\|access\\-date\\=6 October 2015\\|work\\=\\[\\[Inc. (magazine)\\|Inc.]]\\|date\\=5 October 2015}}",
"In 2014, Lidsky began speaking publicly about his experiences to corporations and organizations. In 2015, he sold his first book, *Eyes Wide Open: Overcoming Obstacles and Recognizing Opportunities In A World That Can't See Clearly*, to [Penguin Random House](/wiki/Penguin_Random_House \"Penguin Random House\").{{Cite web\\|title \\= Isaac Lidsky\\|url \\= http://www.lidsky.com\\|website \\= www.lidsky.com\\|access\\-date \\= 2016\\-02\\-24}} The book was listed on the *[Washington Post](/wiki/Washington_Post \"Washington Post\")*{{'s}} 10 books on leadership to read in 2017\\.{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/on\\-leadership/wp/2016/12/22/10\\-books\\-on\\-leadership\\-to\\-read\\-in\\-2017/\\|title\\=10 books on leadership to read in 2017\\|newspaper\\=Washington Post\\|access\\-date\\=2017\\-02\\-24}} The book was published on March 14, 2017\\.",
"In 2016, [TED](/wiki/TED_%28conference%29 \"TED (conference)\") invited Lidsky to present a main stage TED Talk at TEDSUMMIT 2016 in Banff, Canada.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.ted.com/speakers/isaac\\_lidsky\\|title\\=Isaac Lidsky : Speaker\\|date\\=June 27, 2016\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[TED (conference)\\|TED]]\\|access\\-date\\=26 February 2017}} The talk received a standing ovation.",
"Lidsky is a member of the Young President's Organization (YPO), the Chapter Chair for the Orlando Chapter and a member of the Regional Executive Committee for the Southeast U.S. and Caribbean Region. He is also a member of the Young Entrepreneurs Council.",
""
] |
Coaching career
---------------
Sajh began his coaching career in 1978 for FC Dobrova who were runners\-up in the 1978/1979 season. He was then from 1992 to 1993 technical advisor for [FC Asmaral](/wiki/FC_Asmaral "FC Asmaral"). In 1994, he returned to Slovenia and signed for [FC Potrosnik Beltinci](/wiki/ND_Beltinci "ND Beltinci"), during his time with FC Potrosnik Beltinci he coached the team to 6th place of the [PrvaLiga Telekom Slovenije](/wiki/PrvaLiga_Telekom_Slovenije "PrvaLiga Telekom Slovenije"), the best result in the history of the club.
Before his work as the technical director/ national coach of all Indian national teams, he issued a book named *Technical\- Tactical preparation of Footballer* and *Technical\- Tactical preparation of the Team*.
During his time with the [Myanmar Football Federation](/wiki/Myanmar_Football_Federation "Myanmar Football Federation") between 2000 and 2001 he lost just one match.
In the year 2001 he prepared a six\- year development program for the [Asian Football Confederation](/wiki/Asian_Football_Confederation "Asian Football Confederation"). In the same period in Asia he prepared and guided coaching seminars for local coaches.
He took over as coach of [Al Tahaddy](/wiki/Al_Tahaddy_Sports_Club "Al Tahaddy Sports Club"), a football team from [Benghazi](/wiki/Benghazi "Benghazi") where he qualified them for the [2002 CAF Cup](/wiki/2002_CAF_Cup "2002 CAF Cup") but eventually lost to [FUS Rabat](/wiki/FUS_de_Rabat "FUS de Rabat") at the first round.
In 2005, he was in charge of Romanian club [FCM Targoviste](/wiki/FCM_Targoviste "FCM Targoviste") where for more than three months he did not lose any league or cup match; a feat he repeated with Libyan side [Olympic Azzaweya](/wiki/Olympic_Azzaweya_SC "Olympic Azzaweya SC") three years later.
FIFA awarded him for his contribution in the development of football in Asia and his native country Slovenia.
### Nigeria Internationals
His boys, [Theophilus Afelokhai](/wiki/Theophilus_Afelokhai "Theophilus Afelokhai"), [Gabriel Ikechukwu](/wiki/Gabriel_Ikechukwu "Gabriel Ikechukwu"), [Abdulwasiu Showemimo](/wiki/Abdulwasiu_Showemimo "Abdulwasiu Showemimo"), [Solomon Okpako](/wiki/Solomon_Okpako "Solomon Okpako"), [Muhammad Shagari](/wiki/Muhammad_Shagari "Muhammad Shagari"), [Ali Rabiu](/wiki/Ali_Rabiu "Ali Rabiu"), [Bello Musa Kofarmata](/wiki/Bello_Musa_Kofarmata "Bello Musa Kofarmata"), [Mohammad Gambo](/wiki/Mohammad_Gambo "Mohammad Gambo") and [Ahmed Musa](/wiki/Ahmed_Musa "Ahmed Musa") have played for [Nigeria](/wiki/Nigeria_national_football_team "Nigeria national football team") at various levels at the [African Nations Cup](/wiki/African_Nations_Cup "African Nations Cup"), [FIFA Confederations Cup](/wiki/FIFA_Confederations_Cup "FIFA Confederations Cup") and the [FIFA World Cup](/wiki/FIFA_World_Cup "FIFA World Cup").
### CAF Champions League semi\-final
He led Nigerian side [Kano Pillars](/wiki/Kano_Pillars "Kano Pillars") to the semifinal of the [CAF Champions League](/wiki/CAF_Champions_League "CAF Champions League") where they lost to another Nigerian club, [Heartland](/wiki/Heartland_FC "Heartland FC"). He was named African Coach of the Year that year.
### Pattern
He is the first coach to use a new playing system (1\-2\-2\-1\-1\-1\-2 in defense, 2\-2\-2\-1\-3 in attack). The system could only be used efficiently by teams with excellent skills. He named his system *Pahljača* which means "fan" in his native [Slovenian](/wiki/Slovenian_language "Slovenian language").
### Tuvalu and the Oceania Football Confederation
His last job was in [Tuvalu](/wiki/Tuvalu "Tuvalu") where he educated local coaches on several coaching seminars and where he was also the national football team coach.{{Cite web\|url\=https://footballski.fr/on\-a\-discute\-avec\-coach\-ivo\-un\-slovene\-a\-tuvalu\|title\=Interview with Ivo Sajh\|publisher\=footballski.fr}} During his stay in Tuvalu, he helped the [Tuvalu Islands Football Association](/wiki/Tuvalu_Islands_Football_Association "Tuvalu Islands Football Association") to prepare documents for admission of Tuvalu as members of [FIFA](/wiki/FIFA "FIFA") and the [OFC](/wiki/Oceania_Football_Confederation "Oceania Football Confederation").
|
[
"Coaching career\n---------------",
"Sajh began his coaching career in 1978 for FC Dobrova who were runners\\-up in the 1978/1979 season. He was then from 1992 to 1993 technical advisor for [FC Asmaral](/wiki/FC_Asmaral \"FC Asmaral\"). In 1994, he returned to Slovenia and signed for [FC Potrosnik Beltinci](/wiki/ND_Beltinci \"ND Beltinci\"), during his time with FC Potrosnik Beltinci he coached the team to 6th place of the [PrvaLiga Telekom Slovenije](/wiki/PrvaLiga_Telekom_Slovenije \"PrvaLiga Telekom Slovenije\"), the best result in the history of the club.",
"Before his work as the technical director/ national coach of all Indian national teams, he issued a book named *Technical\\- Tactical preparation of Footballer* and *Technical\\- Tactical preparation of the Team*.",
"During his time with the [Myanmar Football Federation](/wiki/Myanmar_Football_Federation \"Myanmar Football Federation\") between 2000 and 2001 he lost just one match.",
"In the year 2001 he prepared a six\\- year development program for the [Asian Football Confederation](/wiki/Asian_Football_Confederation \"Asian Football Confederation\"). In the same period in Asia he prepared and guided coaching seminars for local coaches.",
"He took over as coach of [Al Tahaddy](/wiki/Al_Tahaddy_Sports_Club \"Al Tahaddy Sports Club\"), a football team from [Benghazi](/wiki/Benghazi \"Benghazi\") where he qualified them for the [2002 CAF Cup](/wiki/2002_CAF_Cup \"2002 CAF Cup\") but eventually lost to [FUS Rabat](/wiki/FUS_de_Rabat \"FUS de Rabat\") at the first round.",
"In 2005, he was in charge of Romanian club [FCM Targoviste](/wiki/FCM_Targoviste \"FCM Targoviste\") where for more than three months he did not lose any league or cup match; a feat he repeated with Libyan side [Olympic Azzaweya](/wiki/Olympic_Azzaweya_SC \"Olympic Azzaweya SC\") three years later.\nFIFA awarded him for his contribution in the development of football in Asia and his native country Slovenia.",
"### Nigeria Internationals",
"His boys, [Theophilus Afelokhai](/wiki/Theophilus_Afelokhai \"Theophilus Afelokhai\"), [Gabriel Ikechukwu](/wiki/Gabriel_Ikechukwu \"Gabriel Ikechukwu\"), [Abdulwasiu Showemimo](/wiki/Abdulwasiu_Showemimo \"Abdulwasiu Showemimo\"), [Solomon Okpako](/wiki/Solomon_Okpako \"Solomon Okpako\"), [Muhammad Shagari](/wiki/Muhammad_Shagari \"Muhammad Shagari\"), [Ali Rabiu](/wiki/Ali_Rabiu \"Ali Rabiu\"), [Bello Musa Kofarmata](/wiki/Bello_Musa_Kofarmata \"Bello Musa Kofarmata\"), [Mohammad Gambo](/wiki/Mohammad_Gambo \"Mohammad Gambo\") and [Ahmed Musa](/wiki/Ahmed_Musa \"Ahmed Musa\") have played for [Nigeria](/wiki/Nigeria_national_football_team \"Nigeria national football team\") at various levels at the [African Nations Cup](/wiki/African_Nations_Cup \"African Nations Cup\"), [FIFA Confederations Cup](/wiki/FIFA_Confederations_Cup \"FIFA Confederations Cup\") and the [FIFA World Cup](/wiki/FIFA_World_Cup \"FIFA World Cup\").",
"### CAF Champions League semi\\-final",
"He led Nigerian side [Kano Pillars](/wiki/Kano_Pillars \"Kano Pillars\") to the semifinal of the [CAF Champions League](/wiki/CAF_Champions_League \"CAF Champions League\") where they lost to another Nigerian club, [Heartland](/wiki/Heartland_FC \"Heartland FC\"). He was named African Coach of the Year that year.",
"### Pattern",
"He is the first coach to use a new playing system (1\\-2\\-2\\-1\\-1\\-1\\-2 in defense, 2\\-2\\-2\\-1\\-3 in attack). The system could only be used efficiently by teams with excellent skills. He named his system *Pahljača* which means \"fan\" in his native [Slovenian](/wiki/Slovenian_language \"Slovenian language\").",
"### Tuvalu and the Oceania Football Confederation",
"His last job was in [Tuvalu](/wiki/Tuvalu \"Tuvalu\") where he educated local coaches on several coaching seminars and where he was also the national football team coach.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://footballski.fr/on\\-a\\-discute\\-avec\\-coach\\-ivo\\-un\\-slovene\\-a\\-tuvalu\\|title\\=Interview with Ivo Sajh\\|publisher\\=footballski.fr}} During his stay in Tuvalu, he helped the [Tuvalu Islands Football Association](/wiki/Tuvalu_Islands_Football_Association \"Tuvalu Islands Football Association\") to prepare documents for admission of Tuvalu as members of [FIFA](/wiki/FIFA \"FIFA\") and the [OFC](/wiki/Oceania_Football_Confederation \"Oceania Football Confederation\").",
""
] |
Rugby playing career
--------------------
Educated at [St Bede's College](/wiki/St_Bede%27s_College%2C_Christchurch "St Bede's College, Christchurch") in [Christchurch](/wiki/Christchurch "Christchurch"), Nutbrown played as a [Half\-back/Scrum Half](/wiki/Rugby_union_positions%239._Scrum-half "Rugby union positions#9. Scrum-half").
He started his rugby career for [Belfast Rugby Club](/wiki/Belfast%2C_New_Zealand "Belfast, New Zealand") in 1986 at the age of five. He played for the [New Zealand national under\-19 rugby union team](/wiki/New_Zealand_national_under-19_rugby_union_team "New Zealand national under-19 rugby union team") in 2000 and the [New Zealand Colts](/wiki/New_Zealand_Colts "New Zealand Colts") in 2001 and 2002\.
Nutbrown played for [Canterbury](/wiki/Canterbury_Rugby_Football_Union "Canterbury Rugby Football Union") in the [Air New Zealand Cup](/wiki/Air_New_Zealand_Cup "Air New Zealand Cup") from 2003 to 2005, before moving to [Bay of Plenty](/wiki/Bay_of_Plenty_Rugby_Union "Bay of Plenty Rugby Union") in a swap with [Kevin Senio](/wiki/Kevin_Senio "Kevin Senio"). He became one of Bay of Plenty's top players alongside New Zealand sevens representatives Solomon King, [Nigel Hunt](/wiki/Nigel_Hunt "Nigel Hunt") and [Zar Lawrence](/wiki/Zar_Lawrence "Zar Lawrence"). Nutbrown was selected for an All Black trial in 2005 and in 2006 played for the [Junior All Blacks](/wiki/Junior_All_Blacks "Junior All Blacks") in the [Pacific Nations Cup](/wiki/Pacific_Nations_Cup "Pacific Nations Cup").
In 2006, he was selected to play for the [Chiefs](/wiki/Chiefs_%28Super_rugby_franchise%29 "Chiefs (Super rugby franchise)") until 2007 and became their second choice Half\-back behind All Black [Byron Kelleher](/wiki/Byron_Kelleher "Byron Kelleher"). When Kelleher left for Europe, Nutbrown was set to become the Chiefs first choice Half\-back, but an injury forced him to miss 2007 and the spot was filled by future All Black [Brendon Leonard](/wiki/Brendon_Leonard "Brendon Leonard").
Following former All Black [Justin Marshall](/wiki/Justin_Marshall "Justin Marshall")'s departure to [Montpellier Hérault RC](/wiki/Montpellier_H%C3%A9rault_RC "Montpellier Hérault RC"), Ospreys needed a backup to [Mike Phillips](/wiki/Mike_Phillips_%28rugby_union%29 "Mike Phillips (rugby union)"). In August 2008 halfway through the Air New Zealand Cup, Nutbrown left Bay of Plenty for Ospreys.{{cite news\|url\=http://www.walesonline.co.uk/rugbynation/rugby\-news/2008/08/07/kiwi\-jamie\-nutbrown\-poised\-to\-join\-ospreys\-91466\-21480141/\|title\=Kiwi Jamie Nutbrown poised to join Ospreys\|date\=7 August 2008\|publisher\=walesoneline.co.uk\|access\-date\=11 July 2012}} After Phillips suffered an early season [knee ligament](/wiki/Knee%23Ligaments "Knee#Ligaments") injury, Nutbrown developed, until Phillips returned from injury in late 2008\.
In May 2011 Nutbrown was released by Ospreys and returned to New Zealand signing a three\-year deal with the [Steamers](/wiki/Bay_of_Plenty_Rugby_Union "Bay of Plenty Rugby Union").{{cite news \|url\=http://www.walesonline.co.uk/rugbynation/rugby\-news/2011/05/27/jamie\-nutbrown\-joins\-jerry\-collins\-and\-marty\-holah\-in\-the\-exodus\-from\-the\-ospreys\-91466\-28770997/\|title\=Jamie Nutbrown joins Jerry Collins and Marty Holah in the exodus from the Ospreys\|date\=27 May 2011\|publisher\=walesoneline.co.uk\|access\-date\=11 July 2012}} Nutbrown was named in the Chiefs 'A' Development Squad 2012 which played matches against Samoan and Fijian 'A' teams{{cite news\|url\=http://www.chiefs.co.nz/news/chiefs\-development\-squad\-and\-programme\-announced.html \|title\=Chiefs Development Squad and programme announced \|date\=16 February 2012 \|publisher\=chiefs.co.nz \|access\-date\=11 July 2012 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120626015659/http://www.chiefs.co.nz/news/chiefs\-development\-squad\-and\-programme\-announced.html \|archive\-date\=26 June 2012 }} Nutbrown was bracketed on the bench for the [Hurricanes](/wiki/Hurricanes_%28Super_rugby_franchise%29 "Hurricanes (Super rugby franchise)") in their final round robin game versus the [Chiefs](/wiki/Chiefs_%28Super_rugby_franchise%29 "Chiefs (Super rugby franchise)") in [Super Rugby](/wiki/Super_Rugby "Super Rugby") on 13 July 2012\.{{cite news\|url\=http://www.allblacks.com/index.cfm?layout\=displayNews\&newsarticle\=19865 \|title\=Hurricanes named for blockbuster against Chiefs \|date\=11 July 2012 \|publisher\=allblacks.com \|access\-date\=11 July 2012 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120712114728/http://www.allblacks.com/index.cfm?layout\=displayNews\&newsarticle\=19865\&utm\_source\=dlvr.it\&utm\_medium\=twitter \|archive\-date\=12 July 2012 }}
|
[
"Rugby playing career\n--------------------",
"Educated at [St Bede's College](/wiki/St_Bede%27s_College%2C_Christchurch \"St Bede's College, Christchurch\") in [Christchurch](/wiki/Christchurch \"Christchurch\"), Nutbrown played as a [Half\\-back/Scrum Half](/wiki/Rugby_union_positions%239._Scrum-half \"Rugby union positions#9. Scrum-half\").",
"He started his rugby career for [Belfast Rugby Club](/wiki/Belfast%2C_New_Zealand \"Belfast, New Zealand\") in 1986 at the age of five. He played for the [New Zealand national under\\-19 rugby union team](/wiki/New_Zealand_national_under-19_rugby_union_team \"New Zealand national under-19 rugby union team\") in 2000 and the [New Zealand Colts](/wiki/New_Zealand_Colts \"New Zealand Colts\") in 2001 and 2002\\.",
"Nutbrown played for [Canterbury](/wiki/Canterbury_Rugby_Football_Union \"Canterbury Rugby Football Union\") in the [Air New Zealand Cup](/wiki/Air_New_Zealand_Cup \"Air New Zealand Cup\") from 2003 to 2005, before moving to [Bay of Plenty](/wiki/Bay_of_Plenty_Rugby_Union \"Bay of Plenty Rugby Union\") in a swap with [Kevin Senio](/wiki/Kevin_Senio \"Kevin Senio\"). He became one of Bay of Plenty's top players alongside New Zealand sevens representatives Solomon King, [Nigel Hunt](/wiki/Nigel_Hunt \"Nigel Hunt\") and [Zar Lawrence](/wiki/Zar_Lawrence \"Zar Lawrence\"). Nutbrown was selected for an All Black trial in 2005 and in 2006 played for the [Junior All Blacks](/wiki/Junior_All_Blacks \"Junior All Blacks\") in the [Pacific Nations Cup](/wiki/Pacific_Nations_Cup \"Pacific Nations Cup\").",
"In 2006, he was selected to play for the [Chiefs](/wiki/Chiefs_%28Super_rugby_franchise%29 \"Chiefs (Super rugby franchise)\") until 2007 and became their second choice Half\\-back behind All Black [Byron Kelleher](/wiki/Byron_Kelleher \"Byron Kelleher\"). When Kelleher left for Europe, Nutbrown was set to become the Chiefs first choice Half\\-back, but an injury forced him to miss 2007 and the spot was filled by future All Black [Brendon Leonard](/wiki/Brendon_Leonard \"Brendon Leonard\").",
"Following former All Black [Justin Marshall](/wiki/Justin_Marshall \"Justin Marshall\")'s departure to [Montpellier Hérault RC](/wiki/Montpellier_H%C3%A9rault_RC \"Montpellier Hérault RC\"), Ospreys needed a backup to [Mike Phillips](/wiki/Mike_Phillips_%28rugby_union%29 \"Mike Phillips (rugby union)\"). In August 2008 halfway through the Air New Zealand Cup, Nutbrown left Bay of Plenty for Ospreys.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.walesonline.co.uk/rugbynation/rugby\\-news/2008/08/07/kiwi\\-jamie\\-nutbrown\\-poised\\-to\\-join\\-ospreys\\-91466\\-21480141/\\|title\\=Kiwi Jamie Nutbrown poised to join Ospreys\\|date\\=7 August 2008\\|publisher\\=walesoneline.co.uk\\|access\\-date\\=11 July 2012}} After Phillips suffered an early season [knee ligament](/wiki/Knee%23Ligaments \"Knee#Ligaments\") injury, Nutbrown developed, until Phillips returned from injury in late 2008\\.",
"In May 2011 Nutbrown was released by Ospreys and returned to New Zealand signing a three\\-year deal with the [Steamers](/wiki/Bay_of_Plenty_Rugby_Union \"Bay of Plenty Rugby Union\").{{cite news \\|url\\=http://www.walesonline.co.uk/rugbynation/rugby\\-news/2011/05/27/jamie\\-nutbrown\\-joins\\-jerry\\-collins\\-and\\-marty\\-holah\\-in\\-the\\-exodus\\-from\\-the\\-ospreys\\-91466\\-28770997/\\|title\\=Jamie Nutbrown joins Jerry Collins and Marty Holah in the exodus from the Ospreys\\|date\\=27 May 2011\\|publisher\\=walesoneline.co.uk\\|access\\-date\\=11 July 2012}} Nutbrown was named in the Chiefs 'A' Development Squad 2012 which played matches against Samoan and Fijian 'A' teams{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.chiefs.co.nz/news/chiefs\\-development\\-squad\\-and\\-programme\\-announced.html \\|title\\=Chiefs Development Squad and programme announced \\|date\\=16 February 2012 \\|publisher\\=chiefs.co.nz \\|access\\-date\\=11 July 2012 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120626015659/http://www.chiefs.co.nz/news/chiefs\\-development\\-squad\\-and\\-programme\\-announced.html \\|archive\\-date\\=26 June 2012 }} Nutbrown was bracketed on the bench for the [Hurricanes](/wiki/Hurricanes_%28Super_rugby_franchise%29 \"Hurricanes (Super rugby franchise)\") in their final round robin game versus the [Chiefs](/wiki/Chiefs_%28Super_rugby_franchise%29 \"Chiefs (Super rugby franchise)\") in [Super Rugby](/wiki/Super_Rugby \"Super Rugby\") on 13 July 2012\\.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.allblacks.com/index.cfm?layout\\=displayNews\\&newsarticle\\=19865 \\|title\\=Hurricanes named for blockbuster against Chiefs \\|date\\=11 July 2012 \\|publisher\\=allblacks.com \\|access\\-date\\=11 July 2012 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120712114728/http://www.allblacks.com/index.cfm?layout\\=displayNews\\&newsarticle\\=19865\\&utm\\_source\\=dlvr.it\\&utm\\_medium\\=twitter \\|archive\\-date\\=12 July 2012 }}",
""
] |
Arrival of the squadron
-----------------------
Under the command of Captain [John James Onslow](/wiki/John_James_Onslow "John James Onslow"), the [brig\-sloop](/wiki/Brig-sloop "Brig-sloop") [HMS *Clio*](/wiki/HMS_Clio_%281807%29 "HMS Clio (1807)"), previously stationed at [Rio de Janeiro](/wiki/Rio_de_Janeiro "Rio de Janeiro"), reached Port Egmont on 20 December 1832\. It was later joined by [HMS *Tyne*](/wiki/HMS_Tyne_%281826%29 "HMS Tyne (1826)"). Their first actions were to repair the fort at Port Egmont and affix a notice of possession.
Onslow arrived at [Puerto Louis](/wiki/Port_Louis%2C_Falkland_Islands "Port Louis, Falkland Islands") on 2 January 1833\. Pinedo sent an officer to the British ship, where he was presented with the following written request to replace the Argentine flag with the British one, and leave the location.
{{quote\|I have to direct you that I have received directions from His Excellency and Commander\-in\-Chief of His Britannic Majesty's ships and vessels of war, South America station, in the name of His Britannic Majesty, to exercise the rights of sovereignty over these Islands.
It is my intention to hoist to\-morrow the national flag of Great Britain on shore when I request you will be pleased to haul down your flag on shore and withdraw your force, taking all stores belonging to your Government.{{harvnb\|Cawkell\|Maling\|Cawkell\|1960\|p\=43}}}}
Pinedo entertained plans for resisting, but finally desisted because of his obvious numerical inferiority and the want of enough nationals among his crew (approximately 80% of his forces were British mercenaries who refused to fight their countrymen).{{Citation needed\|date\=March 2012}} The British forces disembarked on 3 January and switched the flags, delivering the Argentine one to Pinedo, who left on 5 January.
Recognising Vernet's settlement had British permission, Onslow set about ensuring the continuation of that settlement for the replenishment of passing ships. The [gauchos](/wiki/Gaucho "Gaucho") had not been paid since Vernet's departure and were anxious to return to the mainland. Onslow persuaded them to stay by paying them in silver for provisions and promising that in the absence of Vernet's authority they could earn their living from the feral cattle on the islands.
The British vessels did not stay long and departed two days later, leaving [William Dickson](/wiki/William_Dickson_%28Falklands%29 "William Dickson (Falklands)") (Vernet's storekeeper) in charge of the settlement. Dickson was provided with a flagpole and instructed to fly the British flag whenever a vessel was in harbour.
Argentina claims that the population of the islands was expelled in 1833;[Secretaría de Relaciones Exteriores – the Malvinas Islands](http://www.cancilleria.gov.ar/portal/seree/malvinas/homeing.html) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110531174231/http://www.cancilleria.gov.ar/portal/seree/malvinas/homeing.html \|date\=31 May 2011 }} however, both British and Argentine sources from the time, including the log of the ARA *Sarandí*, suggest that the colonists were encouraged to remain under Vernet's deputy, Matthew Brisbane.[Fitzroy, R., *Voyages of the Adventure and Eagle. Volume II*](http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F10.2&viewtype=text&pageseq=326&keywords=brisbane). Accessed 2 October 2007
|
[
"Arrival of the squadron\n-----------------------",
"Under the command of Captain [John James Onslow](/wiki/John_James_Onslow \"John James Onslow\"), the [brig\\-sloop](/wiki/Brig-sloop \"Brig-sloop\") [HMS *Clio*](/wiki/HMS_Clio_%281807%29 \"HMS Clio (1807)\"), previously stationed at [Rio de Janeiro](/wiki/Rio_de_Janeiro \"Rio de Janeiro\"), reached Port Egmont on 20 December 1832\\. It was later joined by [HMS *Tyne*](/wiki/HMS_Tyne_%281826%29 \"HMS Tyne (1826)\"). Their first actions were to repair the fort at Port Egmont and affix a notice of possession.",
"Onslow arrived at [Puerto Louis](/wiki/Port_Louis%2C_Falkland_Islands \"Port Louis, Falkland Islands\") on 2 January 1833\\. Pinedo sent an officer to the British ship, where he was presented with the following written request to replace the Argentine flag with the British one, and leave the location.",
"{{quote\\|I have to direct you that I have received directions from His Excellency and Commander\\-in\\-Chief of His Britannic Majesty's ships and vessels of war, South America station, in the name of His Britannic Majesty, to exercise the rights of sovereignty over these Islands.",
"It is my intention to hoist to\\-morrow the national flag of Great Britain on shore when I request you will be pleased to haul down your flag on shore and withdraw your force, taking all stores belonging to your Government.{{harvnb\\|Cawkell\\|Maling\\|Cawkell\\|1960\\|p\\=43}}}}",
"Pinedo entertained plans for resisting, but finally desisted because of his obvious numerical inferiority and the want of enough nationals among his crew (approximately 80% of his forces were British mercenaries who refused to fight their countrymen).{{Citation needed\\|date\\=March 2012}} The British forces disembarked on 3 January and switched the flags, delivering the Argentine one to Pinedo, who left on 5 January.",
"Recognising Vernet's settlement had British permission, Onslow set about ensuring the continuation of that settlement for the replenishment of passing ships. The [gauchos](/wiki/Gaucho \"Gaucho\") had not been paid since Vernet's departure and were anxious to return to the mainland. Onslow persuaded them to stay by paying them in silver for provisions and promising that in the absence of Vernet's authority they could earn their living from the feral cattle on the islands.",
"The British vessels did not stay long and departed two days later, leaving [William Dickson](/wiki/William_Dickson_%28Falklands%29 \"William Dickson (Falklands)\") (Vernet's storekeeper) in charge of the settlement. Dickson was provided with a flagpole and instructed to fly the British flag whenever a vessel was in harbour.",
"Argentina claims that the population of the islands was expelled in 1833;[Secretaría de Relaciones Exteriores – the Malvinas Islands](http://www.cancilleria.gov.ar/portal/seree/malvinas/homeing.html) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110531174231/http://www.cancilleria.gov.ar/portal/seree/malvinas/homeing.html \\|date\\=31 May 2011 }} however, both British and Argentine sources from the time, including the log of the ARA *Sarandí*, suggest that the colonists were encouraged to remain under Vernet's deputy, Matthew Brisbane.[Fitzroy, R., *Voyages of the Adventure and Eagle. Volume II*](http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F10.2&viewtype=text&pageseq=326&keywords=brisbane). Accessed 2 October 2007",
""
] |
History
-------
Blood on the Saddle began as a musical idea in 1981 while Greg Davis was playing guitar in a Hollywood punk rock band called Dead Hippie. He saw Gun Club play with the Cramps and X and was inspired by their intense fusion of Delta blues with punk rock. He met [Annette Zilinskas](/wiki/Annette_Zilinskas "Annette Zilinskas") at a Blasters gig and they began singing Johnny Cash\-June Carter style duets together. Annette was playing bass in a 1960s band called the Bangs and they used to listen to DJ Rodney Bingenheimer play their respective bands on his KROQ radio show. In 1982, Davis moved to New Orleans and played dobro in a bluegrass duo on Bourbon Street while Zilinskas continued to play bass in the ever more successful Bangs. Davis then stayed in Nashville for awhile absorbing traditional country music in the lower Broad district before moving back to Hollywood, to form a band whose purpose was to violently fuse traditional American music with punk rock.
In early 1983, Davis began rehearsing at Hully Gully studio with Ron Botelho on upright bass and Hermann Senac on drums and vocals. It was Senac's idea to name the band after the traditional cowboy song that an animatronic bear named Big Al sang in the [Country Bear Jamboree](/wiki/Country_Bear_Jamboree "Country Bear Jamboree") at [Disneyland](/wiki/Disneyland "Disneyland"). They started playing shows as a trio while Zilinskas was on tour in the re\-named [Bangles](/wiki/The_Bangles "The Bangles"). When she returned she joined Davis singing in the band. In summer 1983, the Bangles signed to CBS, while Zilinskas chose to sing and also play guitar and harmonica in Blood on the Saddle. They played more and more shows around Los Angeles, while KROQ played their songs on the radio.
In early 1984, the band contributed two songs to the Enigma Records compilation album *[Hell Comes To Your House](/wiki/Blood_On_The_Saddle_%28album%29 "Blood On The Saddle (album)")*. This was followed by their self\-titled debut album *[Blood On The Saddle](/wiki/Blood_On_The_Saddle_%28album%29 "Blood On The Saddle (album)")*{{cite web \| url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=CBAN\_GTP9B4C\&q\=blood%20on%20the%20saddle\&pg\=PA34 \| title\=SPIN \| date\=December 1985 }} on the Minutemen's New Alliance label, produced in part by Chris D. of the Flesheaters. Davis and Zilinskas signed a publishing deal with Peer/Southern and the band spent the rest of the year touring America and Canada.
In 1985, Blood on the Saddle was provisionally signed to [MCA Records](/wiki/MCA_Records "MCA Records"), but after six months their demo was rejected. The band continued playing shows in California while recording their second album *[Poison Love](/wiki/Blood_On_The_Saddle_%28album%29 "Blood On The Saddle (album)")*. This was released in early 1986 on Chameleon in North America, Stiff and New Rose Records in the UK and Europe, respectively. This was followed by tours of America, Canada, the UK and Europe for the rest of 1986\. *Poison Love*, was finally released in early 1986, on the US based [Chameleon](/wiki/Chameleon_%28label%29 "Chameleon (label)") label and the [New Rose](/wiki/New_Rose_%28label%29 "New Rose (label)") label in Europe.
In early 1987, the band recorded with engineer/producer [Dan Matovina](/wiki/Dan_Matovina "Dan Matovina") and [Ethan James](/wiki/Ethan_James_%28producer%29 "Ethan James (producer)") what was to be the original line\-up's third and last album *[Fresh Blood](/wiki/Blood_On_The_Saddle_%28album%29 "Blood On The Saddle (album)")*. This was released in North America and on New Rose in Europe, but the band had broken up by that time. Disappointing sales led to the band breaking up, with Davis forming a new band The Drivers and Senac joining The Loafin' Hyenas followed by [Crowbar Salvation](/wiki/Crowbar_Salvation "Crowbar Salvation") and The Guilty Hearts. Botelho next worked with [Bobbi Bratt](/wiki/Bobbi_Bratt "Bobbi Bratt").Hochman, Steve \& Spurrier, Jeff (1987\). "Local Heroes Do Their Anti\-Nuke Bits", *[Los Angeles Times](/wiki/Los_Angeles_Times "Los Angeles Times")*, November 29, 1987, p. 92\.
Davis continued to perform with Blood on the Saddle, bringing in varying lineups of musicians, including former [Stains](/wiki/DC3_%28band%29 "DC3 (band)")/DC3 bassist Ceasar Viscarra and drummer Dave Shollenbarger (Steve Jones), with the band splitting in late 1988\. Blood on the Saddle was on hiatus in 1989 and 1990 while Davis played as a tour guitar player for So Cal punk rock band The Vandals, then a run with country\-swing singer, [Candye Kane](/wiki/Candye_Kane "Candye Kane").
In 1990, Davis formed a new line\-up of Blood on the Saddle with Chris Engel (bass) and Danny Rickard (drums). Engel died in 1991\. In 1992, Davis recruited drummer John Stephenson (Nip Drivers) and then Michael Hately on bass. In 1992, bass player Caeser Viscarra re\-joined the band for shows in Los Angeles.
In 1993, with drummer Eric Davis and bassist Billy Koepke (Legal Weapon, Tex and the Horseheads) the band recorded their fourth album *[More Blood](/wiki/Blood_On_The_Saddle_%28album%29 "Blood On The Saddle (album)")*. It was released in Europe on Schemer Records/ a subsidiary label of Semaphore Records. The band toured in Europe to promote it.
In 1994, bassist John Stephenson and drummer Dave Frappier rejoined the band and they spent several months touring in Europe. An EP of songs was recorded in Los Angeles and released as *[4 Song 7](/wiki/Blood_On_The_Saddle_%28EP%29 "Blood On The Saddle (EP)")* [EP](/wiki/Extended_play "Extended play") followed by the songs on the *[Some Songs](/wiki/Blood_On_The_Saddle_%28EP%29 "Blood On The Saddle (EP)")* various artists compilation, both released on the [Kill Rock Stars](/wiki/Kill_Rock_Stars "Kill Rock Stars") label. In August 1994, while in Europe, they recorded in Amsterdam what was to be their fifth album titled *[New Blood](/wiki/Blood_On_The_Saddle_%28album%29 "Blood On The Saddle (album)")* with the EP songs added. In 1995, this was released and distributed in Europe by Last Call Records along with a release by Rebel Records in Germany. The line\-up then toured Europe again in late 1994 and 1995\.
In 1997, bassist Ed Marshall joined the band and they contributed four songs to the German label One Million Dollar Records compilation album entitled *It Came From the Barn*. Jose Levato (Top Jimmy and the Rhythm Pigs) played bass live for the remainder of 1998 and 1999\.
In 1999, an album *[Flesh \& Blood](/wiki/Blood_On_The_Saddle_%28album%29 "Blood On The Saddle (album)")* was recorded by the line\-up of Greg Davis, Dave Frappier and Ed Marshall; released in 2001 on CD and vinyl by One Million Dollar Records out of Germany. In 2001 and 2002, Blood on the Saddle toured Europe again with new bassist/vocalist Kevin Keller. In 2002, original vocalist Annette Zilinskas did several shows with the band in the U.S. In 2005, the band recorded tracks for a currently unreleased album *Blood Alcohol*, with a planned digital release in 2020\.
In 2006, original vocalist Zilinskas did more shows with the band in the U.S.
In 2007 bassist Al Garcia joined the band and in 2008 they toured the West Coast to Canada and back and in 2008 they recorded an album *[The Mud, the Blood and the Beer](/wiki/Blood_On_The_Saddle_%28album%29 "Blood On The Saddle (album)")*, but it was unreleased at the time. In 2009, there was no band activity. In 2010, Davis re\-constituted the band with bassist/vocalist Robby Tavares and drummer Eddie Rojas.{{cite web \| url\=https://www.sandiegoreader.com/bands/blood\-on\-the\-saddle/ \| title\=Blood on the Saddle \| San Diego Reader }}
In 2012, new drummer Keith Comey joined the band and, in 2013, they recorded their ninth album, *[True Blood](/wiki/Blood_On_The_Saddle_%28album%29 "Blood On The Saddle (album)")*, in Oceanside California with Thomas Yearsley (the Paladins) producing. It was officially released on all digital platforms in 2019\. In 2018, the band was re\-constituted with former drummer David Frappier and former bassist John Stephenson. Bassist Ceaser Viscarra then returned in 2019 to be followed by bassist Al Garcia at present.
In 2019, the first three Blood on the Saddle albums; the 1995 album *[New Blood](/wiki/Blood_On_The_Saddle_%28album%29 "Blood On The Saddle (album)")* and the latest recording from 2012 *True Blood* were all released on all digital platforms. In 2020, the previously unreleased album *The Mud, the Blood \& the Beer* was released on all digital platforms.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"Blood on the Saddle began as a musical idea in 1981 while Greg Davis was playing guitar in a Hollywood punk rock band called Dead Hippie. He saw Gun Club play with the Cramps and X and was inspired by their intense fusion of Delta blues with punk rock. He met [Annette Zilinskas](/wiki/Annette_Zilinskas \"Annette Zilinskas\") at a Blasters gig and they began singing Johnny Cash\\-June Carter style duets together. Annette was playing bass in a 1960s band called the Bangs and they used to listen to DJ Rodney Bingenheimer play their respective bands on his KROQ radio show. In 1982, Davis moved to New Orleans and played dobro in a bluegrass duo on Bourbon Street while Zilinskas continued to play bass in the ever more successful Bangs. Davis then stayed in Nashville for awhile absorbing traditional country music in the lower Broad district before moving back to Hollywood, to form a band whose purpose was to violently fuse traditional American music with punk rock.",
"In early 1983, Davis began rehearsing at Hully Gully studio with Ron Botelho on upright bass and Hermann Senac on drums and vocals. It was Senac's idea to name the band after the traditional cowboy song that an animatronic bear named Big Al sang in the [Country Bear Jamboree](/wiki/Country_Bear_Jamboree \"Country Bear Jamboree\") at [Disneyland](/wiki/Disneyland \"Disneyland\"). They started playing shows as a trio while Zilinskas was on tour in the re\\-named [Bangles](/wiki/The_Bangles \"The Bangles\"). When she returned she joined Davis singing in the band. In summer 1983, the Bangles signed to CBS, while Zilinskas chose to sing and also play guitar and harmonica in Blood on the Saddle. They played more and more shows around Los Angeles, while KROQ played their songs on the radio.",
"In early 1984, the band contributed two songs to the Enigma Records compilation album *[Hell Comes To Your House](/wiki/Blood_On_The_Saddle_%28album%29 \"Blood On The Saddle (album)\")*. This was followed by their self\\-titled debut album *[Blood On The Saddle](/wiki/Blood_On_The_Saddle_%28album%29 \"Blood On The Saddle (album)\")*{{cite web \\| url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=CBAN\\_GTP9B4C\\&q\\=blood%20on%20the%20saddle\\&pg\\=PA34 \\| title\\=SPIN \\| date\\=December 1985 }} on the Minutemen's New Alliance label, produced in part by Chris D. of the Flesheaters. Davis and Zilinskas signed a publishing deal with Peer/Southern and the band spent the rest of the year touring America and Canada.",
"In 1985, Blood on the Saddle was provisionally signed to [MCA Records](/wiki/MCA_Records \"MCA Records\"), but after six months their demo was rejected. The band continued playing shows in California while recording their second album *[Poison Love](/wiki/Blood_On_The_Saddle_%28album%29 \"Blood On The Saddle (album)\")*. This was released in early 1986 on Chameleon in North America, Stiff and New Rose Records in the UK and Europe, respectively. This was followed by tours of America, Canada, the UK and Europe for the rest of 1986\\. *Poison Love*, was finally released in early 1986, on the US based [Chameleon](/wiki/Chameleon_%28label%29 \"Chameleon (label)\") label and the [New Rose](/wiki/New_Rose_%28label%29 \"New Rose (label)\") label in Europe.",
"In early 1987, the band recorded with engineer/producer [Dan Matovina](/wiki/Dan_Matovina \"Dan Matovina\") and [Ethan James](/wiki/Ethan_James_%28producer%29 \"Ethan James (producer)\") what was to be the original line\\-up's third and last album *[Fresh Blood](/wiki/Blood_On_The_Saddle_%28album%29 \"Blood On The Saddle (album)\")*. This was released in North America and on New Rose in Europe, but the band had broken up by that time. Disappointing sales led to the band breaking up, with Davis forming a new band The Drivers and Senac joining The Loafin' Hyenas followed by [Crowbar Salvation](/wiki/Crowbar_Salvation \"Crowbar Salvation\") and The Guilty Hearts. Botelho next worked with [Bobbi Bratt](/wiki/Bobbi_Bratt \"Bobbi Bratt\").Hochman, Steve \\& Spurrier, Jeff (1987\\). \"Local Heroes Do Their Anti\\-Nuke Bits\", *[Los Angeles Times](/wiki/Los_Angeles_Times \"Los Angeles Times\")*, November 29, 1987, p. 92\\.",
"Davis continued to perform with Blood on the Saddle, bringing in varying lineups of musicians, including former [Stains](/wiki/DC3_%28band%29 \"DC3 (band)\")/DC3 bassist Ceasar Viscarra and drummer Dave Shollenbarger (Steve Jones), with the band splitting in late 1988\\. Blood on the Saddle was on hiatus in 1989 and 1990 while Davis played as a tour guitar player for So Cal punk rock band The Vandals, then a run with country\\-swing singer, [Candye Kane](/wiki/Candye_Kane \"Candye Kane\").",
"In 1990, Davis formed a new line\\-up of Blood on the Saddle with Chris Engel (bass) and Danny Rickard (drums). Engel died in 1991\\. In 1992, Davis recruited drummer John Stephenson (Nip Drivers) and then Michael Hately on bass. In 1992, bass player Caeser Viscarra re\\-joined the band for shows in Los Angeles.",
"In 1993, with drummer Eric Davis and bassist Billy Koepke (Legal Weapon, Tex and the Horseheads) the band recorded their fourth album *[More Blood](/wiki/Blood_On_The_Saddle_%28album%29 \"Blood On The Saddle (album)\")*. It was released in Europe on Schemer Records/ a subsidiary label of Semaphore Records. The band toured in Europe to promote it.",
"In 1994, bassist John Stephenson and drummer Dave Frappier rejoined the band and they spent several months touring in Europe. An EP of songs was recorded in Los Angeles and released as *[4 Song 7](/wiki/Blood_On_The_Saddle_%28EP%29 \"Blood On The Saddle (EP)\")* [EP](/wiki/Extended_play \"Extended play\") followed by the songs on the *[Some Songs](/wiki/Blood_On_The_Saddle_%28EP%29 \"Blood On The Saddle (EP)\")* various artists compilation, both released on the [Kill Rock Stars](/wiki/Kill_Rock_Stars \"Kill Rock Stars\") label. In August 1994, while in Europe, they recorded in Amsterdam what was to be their fifth album titled *[New Blood](/wiki/Blood_On_The_Saddle_%28album%29 \"Blood On The Saddle (album)\")* with the EP songs added. In 1995, this was released and distributed in Europe by Last Call Records along with a release by Rebel Records in Germany. The line\\-up then toured Europe again in late 1994 and 1995\\.",
"In 1997, bassist Ed Marshall joined the band and they contributed four songs to the German label One Million Dollar Records compilation album entitled *It Came From the Barn*. Jose Levato (Top Jimmy and the Rhythm Pigs) played bass live for the remainder of 1998 and 1999\\.",
"In 1999, an album *[Flesh \\& Blood](/wiki/Blood_On_The_Saddle_%28album%29 \"Blood On The Saddle (album)\")* was recorded by the line\\-up of Greg Davis, Dave Frappier and Ed Marshall; released in 2001 on CD and vinyl by One Million Dollar Records out of Germany. In 2001 and 2002, Blood on the Saddle toured Europe again with new bassist/vocalist Kevin Keller. In 2002, original vocalist Annette Zilinskas did several shows with the band in the U.S. In 2005, the band recorded tracks for a currently unreleased album *Blood Alcohol*, with a planned digital release in 2020\\.",
"In 2006, original vocalist Zilinskas did more shows with the band in the U.S.",
"In 2007 bassist Al Garcia joined the band and in 2008 they toured the West Coast to Canada and back and in 2008 they recorded an album *[The Mud, the Blood and the Beer](/wiki/Blood_On_The_Saddle_%28album%29 \"Blood On The Saddle (album)\")*, but it was unreleased at the time. In 2009, there was no band activity. In 2010, Davis re\\-constituted the band with bassist/vocalist Robby Tavares and drummer Eddie Rojas.{{cite web \\| url\\=https://www.sandiegoreader.com/bands/blood\\-on\\-the\\-saddle/ \\| title\\=Blood on the Saddle \\| San Diego Reader }}",
"In 2012, new drummer Keith Comey joined the band and, in 2013, they recorded their ninth album, *[True Blood](/wiki/Blood_On_The_Saddle_%28album%29 \"Blood On The Saddle (album)\")*, in Oceanside California with Thomas Yearsley (the Paladins) producing. It was officially released on all digital platforms in 2019\\. In 2018, the band was re\\-constituted with former drummer David Frappier and former bassist John Stephenson. Bassist Ceaser Viscarra then returned in 2019 to be followed by bassist Al Garcia at present.",
"In 2019, the first three Blood on the Saddle albums; the 1995 album *[New Blood](/wiki/Blood_On_The_Saddle_%28album%29 \"Blood On The Saddle (album)\")* and the latest recording from 2012 *True Blood* were all released on all digital platforms. In 2020, the previously unreleased album *The Mud, the Blood \\& the Beer* was released on all digital platforms.",
""
] |
Career
------
Barreda Bort made his Dakar debut in [2011](/wiki/2011_Dakar_Rally "2011 Dakar Rally"), riding an [Aprilia](/wiki/Aprilia "Aprilia"), but was forced to retire during the second stage of the event due to a fall. Switching to [Husqvarna](/wiki/Husqvarna_Motorcycles "Husqvarna Motorcycles") machinery for [2012](/wiki/2012_Dakar_Rally "2012 Dakar Rally"), Barreda Bort had a promising start \- finishing third during the second stage of the rally \- before losing significant time to mechanical problems.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.dakar.com/dakar/2013/us/rider/005\.html\|title\=Joan Barreda Bort\|publisher\=\[\[Amaury Sport Organisation\|ASO]] \|accessdate\=2013\-02\-08}} Nonetheless, he continued to show strong pace for the remainder of the rally, winning the tenth stage, and ultimately finished in 11th overall, three hours and 37 minutes down on the winning time of [Cyril Despres](/wiki/Cyril_Despres "Cyril Despres"). Later that year, Barreda Bort won the motorcycle category of the [Egyptian](/wiki/Egypt "Egypt")\-based [Pharaons Rally](/wiki/Rallye_des_Pharaons "Rallye des Pharaons") for Husqvarna, winning the first, third and fourth stages.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.enduro360\.com/2012/10/02/gone\-racing/husqvarna\-riders\-lead\-pharaons\-rally/\|title\=Husqvarna Riders Lead Pharaons Rally\|publisher\=enduro360\.com\|accessdate\=2013\-02\-08\|archive\-date\=2012\-11\-09\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121109115615/http://www.enduro360\.com/2012/10/02/gone\-racing/husqvarna\-riders\-lead\-pharaons\-rally/\|url\-status\=dead}}{{cite web\|url\=http://www.enduro360\.com/2012/10/04/gone\-racing/stage\-3\-pharaons\-rally\-all\-husky/\|title\=Stage 3 Pharaons Rally All Husky\|publisher\=enduro360\.com\|accessdate\=2013\-02\-08\|archive\-date\=2012\-11\-09\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121109115650/http://www.enduro360\.com/2012/10/04/gone\-racing/stage\-3\-pharaons\-rally\-all\-husky/\|url\-status\=dead}}{{cite web\|url\=http://www.enduro360\.com/2012/10/05/gone\-racing/2012\-pharaons\-rally\-stage\-4\-results/\|title\=2012 Pharaons Rally Stage 4 Results\|publisher\=enduro360\.com\|accessdate\=2013\-02\-08\|archive\-date\=2012\-11\-09\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121109115644/http://www.enduro360\.com/2012/10/05/gone\-racing/2012\-pharaons\-rally\-stage\-4\-results/\|url\-status\=dead}} In addition, Barreda Bort won the [Spanish Baja](/wiki/Spanish_Baja "Spanish Baja"), once again aboard a Husqvarna.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.bajaspain.com/files/LIBRO\_DE\_RESULTADOS\_MOTOS\_QUADS.pdf\|title\=Final Official Classification\|publisher\=bajaspain.com \|accessdate\=2013\-02\-08}}
Continuing with Husqvarna for [2013](/wiki/2013_Dakar_Rally "2013 Dakar Rally"), Barreda Bort took the lead of the overall classification with victory in the second stage. However, navigation problems in the third stage{{cite news\|title\=Stage 3 Stage Report\|url\=http://www.dakar.com/dakar/2013/us/stage\-3/stage\-report.html\|work\=dakar.com\|publisher\=\[\[Amaury Sport Organisation\|ASO]]\|date\=7 January 2013\|accessdate\=20 January 2013\|url\-status\=dead\|archiveurl\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130111065215/http://www.dakar.com/dakar/2013/us/stage\-3/stage\-report.html\|archivedate\=11 January 2013}} and fuel pump problems in the fifth stage {{cite news\|title\=Stage 5 Stage Report\|url\=http://www.dakar.com/dakar/2013/us/stage\-5/stage\-report.html\|work\=dakar.com\|publisher\=\[\[Amaury Sport Organisation\|ASO]]\|date\=9 January 2013\|accessdate\=20 January 2013\|url\-status\=dead\|archiveurl\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130112145128/http://www.dakar.com/dakar/2013/us/stage\-5/stage\-report.html\|archivedate\=12 January 2013}} restricted him to 17th place overall, in spite of three additional victories in the fourth, eighth and tenth stages of the rally. His time was just over three hours shy of that of the winner, Despres.
In [2014](/wiki/2014_Dakar_Rally "2014 Dakar Rally"), Barreda led early on after winning two of the first three stages, only to drop back behind [Marc Coma](/wiki/Marc_Coma "Marc Coma") after navigation problems on stages four and five. He was on course to finish a comfortable second to Coma before suffering electrical failure on the penultimate stage, relegating him to seventh place at the finish despite taking the most stage wins of anybody (five). The same year, Barreda contested four rounds of the [FIM Cross\-Country Rallies championship](/wiki/2014_FIM_Cross-Country_Rallies_World_Championship_season "2014 FIM Cross-Country Rallies World Championship season"), winning the [Qatar](/wiki/Qatar "Qatar")\-based Sealine Rally en route to finishing third in that year's standings.
In the following years, Barreda became one of the favourites to win the [Dakar Rally](/wiki/Dakar_Rally "Dakar Rally") in bikes, specially after the retirement of [Marc Coma](/wiki/Marc_Coma "Marc Coma") and [Cyril Despres](/wiki/Cyril_Despres "Cyril Despres") from such category. After touching the podium on several occasions, Barreda arrived to the [2017 Dakar Rally](/wiki/2017_Dakar_Rally "2017 Dakar Rally") with high hopes after a good year of preparation. When he was leading the category by more than 12 minutes after the 3 first stages, Barreda was penalized with one hour for refueling in an illegal zone. Barreda finished in 5th place and 43 minutes behind the winner.
Barreda finished 7th overall in [2020 Dakar Rally](/wiki/2020_Dakar_Rally "2020 Dakar Rally").
In [2021 Dakar Rally](/wiki/2021_Dakar_Rally "2021 Dakar Rally"), Barreda equaled [Jordi Arcarons](/wiki/Jordi_Arcarons "Jordi Arcarons") as the third rider with the most stages won in the bike category, with a total of 27\.
Joan finished the [2022 Dakar Rally](/wiki/2022_Dakar_Rally "2022 Dakar Rally") in 5th place. After losing about 40 minutes in the first leg of the rally, Barreda tried to close the gap for the following days. With a win in the second stage, and another one in the forth, Barreda became as the third bike rider with most stages won. Despite falling in stage five and getting heavily injured, Barreda was fighting for the final podium until the last days of the race, finally finishing in the top 5\.
|
[
"Career\n------",
"Barreda Bort made his Dakar debut in [2011](/wiki/2011_Dakar_Rally \"2011 Dakar Rally\"), riding an [Aprilia](/wiki/Aprilia \"Aprilia\"), but was forced to retire during the second stage of the event due to a fall. Switching to [Husqvarna](/wiki/Husqvarna_Motorcycles \"Husqvarna Motorcycles\") machinery for [2012](/wiki/2012_Dakar_Rally \"2012 Dakar Rally\"), Barreda Bort had a promising start \\- finishing third during the second stage of the rally \\- before losing significant time to mechanical problems.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.dakar.com/dakar/2013/us/rider/005\\.html\\|title\\=Joan Barreda Bort\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Amaury Sport Organisation\\|ASO]] \\|accessdate\\=2013\\-02\\-08}} Nonetheless, he continued to show strong pace for the remainder of the rally, winning the tenth stage, and ultimately finished in 11th overall, three hours and 37 minutes down on the winning time of [Cyril Despres](/wiki/Cyril_Despres \"Cyril Despres\"). Later that year, Barreda Bort won the motorcycle category of the [Egyptian](/wiki/Egypt \"Egypt\")\\-based [Pharaons Rally](/wiki/Rallye_des_Pharaons \"Rallye des Pharaons\") for Husqvarna, winning the first, third and fourth stages.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.enduro360\\.com/2012/10/02/gone\\-racing/husqvarna\\-riders\\-lead\\-pharaons\\-rally/\\|title\\=Husqvarna Riders Lead Pharaons Rally\\|publisher\\=enduro360\\.com\\|accessdate\\=2013\\-02\\-08\\|archive\\-date\\=2012\\-11\\-09\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121109115615/http://www.enduro360\\.com/2012/10/02/gone\\-racing/husqvarna\\-riders\\-lead\\-pharaons\\-rally/\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.enduro360\\.com/2012/10/04/gone\\-racing/stage\\-3\\-pharaons\\-rally\\-all\\-husky/\\|title\\=Stage 3 Pharaons Rally All Husky\\|publisher\\=enduro360\\.com\\|accessdate\\=2013\\-02\\-08\\|archive\\-date\\=2012\\-11\\-09\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121109115650/http://www.enduro360\\.com/2012/10/04/gone\\-racing/stage\\-3\\-pharaons\\-rally\\-all\\-husky/\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.enduro360\\.com/2012/10/05/gone\\-racing/2012\\-pharaons\\-rally\\-stage\\-4\\-results/\\|title\\=2012 Pharaons Rally Stage 4 Results\\|publisher\\=enduro360\\.com\\|accessdate\\=2013\\-02\\-08\\|archive\\-date\\=2012\\-11\\-09\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121109115644/http://www.enduro360\\.com/2012/10/05/gone\\-racing/2012\\-pharaons\\-rally\\-stage\\-4\\-results/\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} In addition, Barreda Bort won the [Spanish Baja](/wiki/Spanish_Baja \"Spanish Baja\"), once again aboard a Husqvarna.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.bajaspain.com/files/LIBRO\\_DE\\_RESULTADOS\\_MOTOS\\_QUADS.pdf\\|title\\=Final Official Classification\\|publisher\\=bajaspain.com \\|accessdate\\=2013\\-02\\-08}}",
"Continuing with Husqvarna for [2013](/wiki/2013_Dakar_Rally \"2013 Dakar Rally\"), Barreda Bort took the lead of the overall classification with victory in the second stage. However, navigation problems in the third stage{{cite news\\|title\\=Stage 3 Stage Report\\|url\\=http://www.dakar.com/dakar/2013/us/stage\\-3/stage\\-report.html\\|work\\=dakar.com\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Amaury Sport Organisation\\|ASO]]\\|date\\=7 January 2013\\|accessdate\\=20 January 2013\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archiveurl\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130111065215/http://www.dakar.com/dakar/2013/us/stage\\-3/stage\\-report.html\\|archivedate\\=11 January 2013}} and fuel pump problems in the fifth stage {{cite news\\|title\\=Stage 5 Stage Report\\|url\\=http://www.dakar.com/dakar/2013/us/stage\\-5/stage\\-report.html\\|work\\=dakar.com\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Amaury Sport Organisation\\|ASO]]\\|date\\=9 January 2013\\|accessdate\\=20 January 2013\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archiveurl\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130112145128/http://www.dakar.com/dakar/2013/us/stage\\-5/stage\\-report.html\\|archivedate\\=12 January 2013}} restricted him to 17th place overall, in spite of three additional victories in the fourth, eighth and tenth stages of the rally. His time was just over three hours shy of that of the winner, Despres.",
"In [2014](/wiki/2014_Dakar_Rally \"2014 Dakar Rally\"), Barreda led early on after winning two of the first three stages, only to drop back behind [Marc Coma](/wiki/Marc_Coma \"Marc Coma\") after navigation problems on stages four and five. He was on course to finish a comfortable second to Coma before suffering electrical failure on the penultimate stage, relegating him to seventh place at the finish despite taking the most stage wins of anybody (five). The same year, Barreda contested four rounds of the [FIM Cross\\-Country Rallies championship](/wiki/2014_FIM_Cross-Country_Rallies_World_Championship_season \"2014 FIM Cross-Country Rallies World Championship season\"), winning the [Qatar](/wiki/Qatar \"Qatar\")\\-based Sealine Rally en route to finishing third in that year's standings.",
"In the following years, Barreda became one of the favourites to win the [Dakar Rally](/wiki/Dakar_Rally \"Dakar Rally\") in bikes, specially after the retirement of [Marc Coma](/wiki/Marc_Coma \"Marc Coma\") and [Cyril Despres](/wiki/Cyril_Despres \"Cyril Despres\") from such category. After touching the podium on several occasions, Barreda arrived to the [2017 Dakar Rally](/wiki/2017_Dakar_Rally \"2017 Dakar Rally\") with high hopes after a good year of preparation. When he was leading the category by more than 12 minutes after the 3 first stages, Barreda was penalized with one hour for refueling in an illegal zone. Barreda finished in 5th place and 43 minutes behind the winner.",
"Barreda finished 7th overall in [2020 Dakar Rally](/wiki/2020_Dakar_Rally \"2020 Dakar Rally\").",
"In [2021 Dakar Rally](/wiki/2021_Dakar_Rally \"2021 Dakar Rally\"), Barreda equaled [Jordi Arcarons](/wiki/Jordi_Arcarons \"Jordi Arcarons\") as the third rider with the most stages won in the bike category, with a total of 27\\.",
"Joan finished the [2022 Dakar Rally](/wiki/2022_Dakar_Rally \"2022 Dakar Rally\") in 5th place. After losing about 40 minutes in the first leg of the rally, Barreda tried to close the gap for the following days. With a win in the second stage, and another one in the forth, Barreda became as the third bike rider with most stages won. Despite falling in stage five and getting heavily injured, Barreda was fighting for the final podium until the last days of the race, finally finishing in the top 5\\.",
""
] |
Military operators
------------------
### Angola
[Angolan Air Force](/wiki/Angolan_Air_Force "Angolan Air Force")
The Angolan Air Force operated two B\-26 from the six inherited from the [Portuguese Air Force](/wiki/Portuguese_Air_Force "Portuguese Air Force"). Until then, these aircraft were operated by the Squadron 91 of the Portuguese Air Force in [Angola](/wiki/Portuguese_Angola "Portuguese Angola"), based at [Luanda Air Base](/wiki/Luanda_Airport "Luanda Airport"). When the independence of Angola in 1975, Portugal offered the aircraft to the new country.
### Biafra
[Biafran Air Force](/wiki/Biafran_Air_Force "Biafran Air Force")
Biafra acquired and used (at least) two provisionally armed B\-26s during the [Nigerian Civil War](/wiki/Nigerian_Civil_War "Nigerian Civil War"). Former French Air Force (of the CEV test centre) B\-26R, USAAF serial 41\-39531, put up for sale, 11 July 1966\. Registered to [Pan Eurasian Trading Company](/wiki/Pan_Eurasian_Trading_Company "Pan Eurasian Trading Company"), [Luxembourg](/wiki/Luxembourg "Luxembourg"), 2 August 1966 (N64Y?) as "an investment," never operated; "resold to a Mr [Ernest A. Koenig](/wiki/Ernest_A._Koenig "Ernest A. Koenig") – a German\-American residing in [Luxembourg](/wiki/Luxembourg "Luxembourg")." It seems very likely that Mr Koenig acted as an agent for Eastern Nigeria, and one source claims that the real buyer was a "French company, which paid good money for the aircraft." It has been claimed that the Biafrans (who had purchasing agents in France) ended up paying as much as $320,000 for it. Although there is no direct evidence for contacts between Mr Koenig and the Eastern Nigerians at this stage, it should be mentioned that he was later also involved in the sale of [C\-47s](/wiki/C-47_Skytrain "C-47 Skytrain") to [Biafra](/wiki/Biafra "Biafra").Hagedorn and Hellström 1994, p. 105\.
In late October, Koenig had the Invader placed on the U.S. register as N12756, the airframe stored at [Courtrai\-Wevelghem](/wiki/Kortrijk-Wevelgem_International_Airport "Kortrijk-Wevelgem International Airport") in [Belgium](/wiki/Belgium "Belgium"). Taken out of storage and prepped for delivery to Africa in early June 1967\. Ferried to [Lisbon](/wiki/Lisbon "Lisbon") by Belgian pilot in mid\-June. Departed Lisbon 26 June, flown by former French CEV pilot and ex\-Polish squadron co\-pilot, arriving at Biafran capital Enugu on 29 June 1967\. Known as "The Shark" with a crudely applied shark's mouth and a single nose\-mounted machine gun, it was abandoned at Enugu on 4 October 1967 in a damaged condition.
A second former French Invader, RB\-26P, USAAF 44\-34312, registered F\-BMJR, one of five sold to aerial survey company [Société Carta](/wiki/Soci%C3%A9t%C3%A9_Carta "Société Carta") by the [Armée de l'Air](/wiki/Arm%C3%A9e_de_l%27Air "Armée de l'Air") in 1966, and last seen at [Creil](/wiki/Creil "Creil") near [Paris](/wiki/Paris "Paris") in June 1967, was flown to Biafra in August 1967 by two American pilots. "It was sold to Biafra through the French arms dealer [Pierre Laureys](/wiki/Pierre_Laureys "Pierre Laureys"), who had also been involved in the sale of the first Invader." (Some reports claim that an Invader carrying the bogus registration N1888T was delivered to Biafra. There might be possibly some connection with this RB\-26P.) Hagedorn and Hellström 1994, p. 108\.
It was painted in a similar camouflage scheme to the first B\-26, but with no shark's mouth. It commenced operations using locally produced ordnance until damaged in accident 2 December 1967 and grounded. Abandoned at [Port Harcourt](/wiki/Port_Harcourt "Port Harcourt") in damaged condition due to a lack of spares. Captured by Nigerian forces 18 May 1968, it damaged sufficiently by BAF commandos on 19 May 1968 to prevent operation.
Neither Invader received a BAF serial.Hagedorn and Hellström 1994, p. 75\.
### Brazil
[Brazilian Air Force](/wiki/Brazilian_Air_Force "Brazilian Air Force")
* B\-26B FAB 5145, 41\-39246, taken on charge September 1957, refurbished 1968, withdrawn from use, stricken 1975\.
* B\-26B FAB 5146, 43\-22469, taken on charge September 1957, struck off charge 14 July 1967, crashed on T\-O at [Natal](/wiki/Natal%2C_Rio_Grande_do_Norte "Natal, Rio Grande do Norte").
* B\-26B FAB 5147, 43\-22496, taken on charge September 1957, refurbished 1968, withdrawn from use, struck off charge 1975\.
* B\-26B FAB 5148, 43\-22597, taken on charge September 1957, struck off charge 5 August 1965, written\-off at [Natal](/wiki/Natal%2C_Rio_Grande_do_Norte "Natal, Rio Grande do Norte").
* B\-26B FAB 5149, B\-26C FAB 5149, 44\-34163, taken on charge 1957, refurbished 1968 into B\-26C, withdrawn from use, struck off charge April 1974\.
* B\-26B FAB 5150, 44\-34196, taken on charge 1957, refurbished 1968, withdrawn from use, struck off charge 1975\.
* B\-26B FAB 5151, 44\-34207, taken on charge 1957, written off at [Natal](/wiki/Natal%2C_Rio_Grande_do_Norte "Natal, Rio Grande do Norte"), struck off charge, 9 August 1965\.
* B\-26B FAB 5152, 44\-34208, taken on charge 1957, withdrawn from use and struck off charge January 1975\.
* B\-26B FAB 5153, 44\-35235, taken on charge 1957, refurbished 1968, withdrawn from use, struck off charge 1975\.
* B\-26B FAB 5154, 44\-35405, taken on charge 1957, written off 13 June 1958, [São José de Mipibu](/wiki/S%C3%A3o_Jos%C3%A9_de_Mipibu "São José de Mipibu"), SP state.
* B\-26B FAB 5155, 44\-35415, taken on charge 1957, written off 28 September 1965, [Niquelândia](/wiki/Niquel%C3%A2ndia "Niquelândia"), GO state.
* B\-26B FAB 5156, 44\-35586, taken on charge 1957, refurbished 1968, withdrawn from use, struck off charge December 1975\. Was displayed at FAB Academy in 1 o/ 10 o GAv markings. Transferred to [Parnamirim](/wiki/Parnamirim "Parnamirim") in 1987\.
* B\-26B FAB 5157, 44\-35610, taken on charge 1957, refurbished 1968, withdrawn from use, struck off charge December 1973\.
* B\-26B FAB 5158, 44\-35713, taken on charge 1957, refurbished 1968, withdrawn from use, struck off charge August 1972\.
* B\-26C FAB 5159, B\-26B FAB 5159, 41\-39288, taken on charge 1957, refurbished 1968 into B\-26B. Withdrawn from use, now displayed at [Museu Aeroespacial](/wiki/Museu_Aeroespacial "Museu Aeroespacial"), Campo dos Afonsos, near [Rio de Janeiro](/wiki/Rio_de_Janeiro "Rio de Janeiro").
* B\-26C FAB 5160, B\-26B FAB 5160, 43\-22271, taken on charge 1957, refurbished 1968 into B\-26B. Withdrawn from use, struck off charge December 1975\.
* B\-26C FAB 5161, 43\-22415, taken on charge 1958, to have been refurbished 1968 but found to be too badly corroded. Withdrawn from use, struck off charge June 1968\.
* B\-26C FAB 5162, 43\-22456, taken on charge 1958, refurbished 1968, withdrawn from use, struck off charge 1975\.
* B\-26C FAB 5163, 43\-22457, taken on charge 1958, withdrawn from use, struck of charge October 1967\.
* B\-26C FAB 5164, 43\-22461, taken on charge 1958, withdrawn from use, struck off charge June 1968\.
* B\-26C FAB 5165, 43\-22472, taken on charge 1958, withdrawn from use, struck off charge October 1967\.
* B\-26C FAB 5166, 43\-22477, taken on charge 1958, withdrawn from use, struck off charge June 1968\.
* B\-26C FAB 5167, 43\-22605, taken on charge 1958, written off at [Caravelas](/wiki/Caravelas "Caravelas"), BA state, 10 June 1963\.
* B\-26C FAB 5168, 44\-34120, taken on charge 1958, withdrawn from use, struck off charge June 1968\.
* B\-26C FAB 5169, 44\-34329, taken on charge 1958, withdrawn from use, struck off charge June 1968\.
* B\-26C FAB 5170, B\-26B FAB 5170, 44\-35264, taken on charge February 1958, refurbished 1969 into B\-26B. Withdrawn from use, struck off charge December 1975\.
* B\-26C FAB 5171, B\-26B FAB 5171, 44\-35790, taken on charge February 1958, refurbished 1968 still as B\-26C, but later reconfigured into B\-26B in Brazil. Withdrawn from use, struck off charge December 1975\.
* B\-26C FAB 5172, 44\-35902, taken on charge February 1958, refurbished 1968, withdrawn from use, struck off charge December 1975\.
* B\-26C FAB 5173, 44\-34615, N4817E, taken on charge June 1969, withdrawn from use between 1973 and 1975, struck off charge circa 1974\.
* B\-26C FAB 5174, 44\-34749, N4823E, taken on charge June 1969, withdrawn from use, struck off charge December 1975, originally preserved at ESPAer near [São Paulo](/wiki/S%C3%A3o_Paulo "São Paulo") but sold back to USA as N4823E circa 1984\.
* B\-26C FAB 5175, 44\-35969, N8628E, taken on charge June 1969, withdrawn from use, struck off charge December 1975\.
* CB\-26 FAB 5176, later C\-26 FAB 5176, 44\-34134, N115RG, N4974N, civilian aircraft impounded 21 June 1966, taken on charge 1970, used as a transport, withdrawn from use, struck off charge January 1975, preserved with [Museu de Armas e Veiculos Motorizidos Antigos](/wiki/Museu_de_Armas_e_Veiculos_Motorizidos_Antigos "Museu de Armas e Veiculos Motorizidos Antigos"), [Bebedouro](/wiki/Bebedouro "Bebedouro"), SP state.
FAB Invaders were redesignated from B\-26 to A\-26 in 1970, FAB 5176 being the exception.
### Chile
[Chilean Air Force](/wiki/Chilean_Air_Force "Chilean Air Force")
### Colombia
[Colombian Air Force](/wiki/Colombian_Air_Force "Colombian Air Force")
### Cuba
[Cuban Air Force](/wiki/Cuban_Air_Force "Cuban Air Force")
### Democratic Republic of the Congo
[Air Force of the Democratic Republic of the Congo](/wiki/Air_Force_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo "Air Force of the Democratic Republic of the Congo")
### Dominican Republic
[Dominican Republic Air Force](/wiki/Dominican_Republic_Air_Force "Dominican Republic Air Force")
### El Salvador
[El Salvador Air Force](/wiki/El_Salvador_Air_Force "El Salvador Air Force")
### France
[French Air Force](/wiki/French_Air_Force "French Air Force")
### Guatemala
[Guatemalan Air Force](/wiki/Guatemalan_Air_Force "Guatemalan Air Force")
### Honduras
[Honduran Air Force](/wiki/Honduran_Air_Force "Honduran Air Force")
"The last Latin American air arm to acquire a B\-26, and place the type in active combat\-configured service, Honduras also holds the distinction of being the very last air arm to operate the type anywhere."Hagedorn and Hellström 1994, p. 116\.
### Indonesia
[Indonesian Air Force](/wiki/Indonesian_Air_Force "Indonesian Air Force")
### Mexico
[Mexican Air Force](/wiki/Mexican_Air_Force "Mexican Air Force")
A single A\-26 was purchased on behalf of the President of Mexico in 1949 for operation as a presidential transport. Although maintained by the Mexican Air Force, it had a civil [Aircraft registration](/wiki/Aircraft_registration "Aircraft registration"). In 1962, it was replaced as a presidential aircraft, and was used by the commander of the Mexican Air Force, with full military markings and registration.Hagedorn and Hellström 1994, pp. 19–20\.
### Nicaragua
[Nicaraguan Air Force](/wiki/Nicaraguan_Air_Force "Nicaraguan Air Force")
### Peru
[Peruvian Air Force](/wiki/Peruvian_Air_Force "Peruvian Air Force")
### Portugal
[Portuguese Air Force](/wiki/Portuguese_Air_Force "Portuguese Air Force")
The need for a replacement for the [bomber](/wiki/Bomber "Bomber") and close air support fleet in Africa during the [Colonial War](/wiki/Portuguese_Colonial_War "Portuguese Colonial War"), composed of the [PV\-2 Harpoon](/wiki/PV-2_Harpoon "PV-2 Harpoon") and of the [F\-84G Thunderjet](/wiki/F-84_Thunderjet "F-84 Thunderjet"), led to the procurement by the [Portuguese Air Force](/wiki/Portuguese_Air_Force "Portuguese Air Force") of a new bomber in the mid\-sixties. But it would prove difficult to acquire new aircraft because of the [United Nations](/wiki/United_Nations "United Nations") arms embargo then in force against Portugal, so special methods had to be used. In late 1964, with the decision made to acquire the [B\-26 Invader](/wiki/A-26_Invader "A-26 Invader") a contact was established with an arms broker in order to try to obtain 20 B\-26 Invader aircraft. [Portuguese Military Aviation \- The Douglas B\-26B/B\-26C Invader](https://web.archive.org/web/20000302161718/http://www.geocities.com/CapeCanaveral/Hangar/9376/B26.htm)
The arms dealer, Luber SA in [Geneva](/wiki/Geneva "Geneva"), signed an agreement with Aero Associates of Arizona to supply 20 aircraft that would be refurbished by Hamilton Aircraft. The first B\-26 would be delivered by 30 April 1965 and the last one by January 1966\. Besides the aircraft, a lot of spare parts and accessories would also be included in the purchase.
It is not clear how the export licenses were obtained, but in May 1965 the first aircraft, piloted by [John Hawke](/wiki/John_Hawke_%28pilot%29 "John Hawke (pilot)"), was ferried from [Tucson](/wiki/Tucson%2C_Arizona "Tucson, Arizona") to Tancos, Portugal, through Rochester, Torbay, Canada, and [Santa Maria](/wiki/Santa_Maria_Island_%28Azores%29 "Santa Maria Island (Azores)"), Azores. By August 1965, seven aircraft had already been delivered.
In September the [U.S. Customs](/wiki/United_States_Customs "United States Customs") arrested Hawke and other people involved in the arms deal and prevented a C\-46 transporting spare parts to Portugal from leaving the United States.
In December 1966, with only seven B\-26 bombers and their provisions for armament, although without armament, the decision was made to equip the aircraft with the following: six .50 cal [Browning M2 machine guns](/wiki/M2_Browning_machine_gun "M2 Browning machine gun") on the nose; two suspension points 50 or 200 kg bombs, and equipment for releasing 15 kg bombs, on the bomb\-bay; and two suspension points per wing, allowing the alternate or combined use of two 200 kg bombs or six 50 kg bombs.
The installation of rocket launchers under the wings was also possible, thus allowing the use of four rockets of 2\.5", 18 rockets of 37 mm, or 36 of 37 mm per point.
Until 1970 it was very difficult to start operating all the seven aircraft due to the lack of spare parts, however, at least it was possible to begin operational testing with three aircraft. That same year these three first B\-26 were sent to [Guinea\-Bissau](/wiki/Guinea-Bissau "Guinea-Bissau") as a detachment to test the aircraft in a tropical climate.
Meanwhile, efforts to try to obtain the spare parts and armament continued. Many contacts and visits were made with other countries operating the B\-26, including at least one visit to Brazil that was also operating the A\-26 at the time. In September 1967, one of the first contacts took place with a visit to Chateaudun, [France](/wiki/France "France"), during which 13 former\-[French Air Force](/wiki/French_Air_Force "French Air Force") were offered for sale, including seven aircraft equipped with radar. All of the aircraft had between 3,000 and 8,000 flight hours in total. The offer was rejected, probably due to the state of the aircraft.
Other spontaneous offers were also received; one of them was the proposal of six former\-[Guatemalan Air Force](/wiki/Guatemalan_Air_Force "Guatemalan Air Force") B\-26 in January 1971, by US$950,000 each. Mentioned was also the possibility of obtaining former\-[Nicaraguan](/wiki/Nicaragua "Nicaragua") B\-26\. These offers were also rejected.
In 1971 the complete refurbishment of the seven aircraft started at the [OGMA](/wiki/OGMA "OGMA") workshops with spare parts obtained from France. The bombers were completely stripped down, the wing\-spars reinforced and the armament installed. In addition the read windows were covered. By November 1971, all aircraft had been refurbished except for the 7104 that was scrapped due to heavy corrosion found when the stripping started.
The next year, 1972, many testing trips were made to [Azores](/wiki/Azores "Azores"), [Madeira](/wiki/Madeira "Madeira") and [Canary Islands](/wiki/Canary_Islands "Canary Islands"). In 1973 all the six aircraft were sent to [Angola](/wiki/Angola "Angola") to replace F\-84G fighters of [93 Squadron](/wiki/93_Squadron_%28PoAF%29 "93 Squadron (PoAF)").
The aircraft operated until 1975, mainly for armed reconnaissance. After the war all six were left in Angola. Later one B\-26 was taken to Cuba, [reportedly 7101](/wiki/List_of_surviving_A-26_Invader_airframes "List of surviving A-26 Invader airframes").
| Designation | USAAF Serial | PoAF Serial | Delivery | Retired | In Service | Notes |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| B\-26B\-60/61\-DL | 44\-34535 | 7101 | May 1965 | 1975 | 26 April 1971 | Solid nose |
| B\-26B\-55/65\-DL | 44\-34328 | 7102 | 1965 | 1975 | January 1972 | Equipped with Plexiglas nose |
| B\-26C\-40\-DT | 44\-35631 | 7103 | 1965 | 1975 | November 1971 | Solid nose |
| B\-26B\-66\-DL | 44\-34726 | 7104 | 1965 | 1973 | 26 September 1967 | Scrapped by decision of March 1973\. Some parts preserved for the Air Force Air Museum |
| B\-26B\-20\-DT | 43\-22427 | 7105 | 1965 | 1975 | September 1971 | |
| B\-26B\-40\-DL | 41\-39517 | 7106 | 1965 | 1975 | 28 July 1969 |
| B\-26C\-35\-DT | 44\-35363 | 7107 | 1965 | 1975 | 9 September 1970 | |
|
[Portuguese Air Force](/wiki/Portuguese_Air_Force "Portuguese Air Force")
* "*Diabos*", testing detachment located in Portugal and at [Bissau](/wiki/Bissau "Bissau"), [Portuguese Guinea](/wiki/Portuguese_Guinea "Portuguese Guinea")
* [91 Squadron](/wiki/91_Squadron_%28PoAF%29 "91 Squadron (PoAF)"), bomber and close air support squadron based at [Luanda](/wiki/Luanda "Luanda"), [Angola](/wiki/Angola "Angola")
### Saudi Arabia
[Royal Saudi Air Force](/wiki/Royal_Saudi_Air_Force "Royal Saudi Air Force")
[right\|thumb\|B\-26K/A\-26A Counter Invader (64\-17675\)](/wiki/Image:Douglas_B-26K_Counter_Invader_USAF.jpg "Douglas B-26K Counter Invader USAF.jpg")
### South Vietnam
[Republic of Vietnam Air Force](/wiki/Republic_of_Vietnam_Air_Force "Republic of Vietnam Air Force")
B\-26 aircraft operated in Vietnamese markings were actually part of the US Air Force and crewed by Americans.
### Turkey
[Turkish Air Force](/wiki/Turkish_Air_Force "Turkish Air Force")
### United Kingdom
[Royal Air Force](/wiki/Royal_Air_Force "Royal Air Force")
Three A\-26s were evaluated by the [Aeroplane and Armament Experimental Establishment](/wiki/Aeroplane_and_Armament_Experimental_Establishment "Aeroplane and Armament Experimental Establishment") in 1944–45\. While it was planned for Britain to acquire 140 Invaders under [Lend\-Lease](/wiki/Lend-Lease "Lend-Lease"), these plans were abandoned in April 1945, owing to the imminent end to the war in Europe.O'Leary 2002, pp. 52–53\.
### United States
[United States Army Air Forces](/wiki/United_States_Army_Air_Forces "United States Army Air Forces")
[United States Air Force](/wiki/United_States_Air_Force "United States Air Force")
[United States Navy](/wiki/United_States_Navy "United States Navy")
{{sectstub\|date\=April 2022}}
|
[
"Military operators\n------------------",
"### Angola",
"[Angolan Air Force](/wiki/Angolan_Air_Force \"Angolan Air Force\")\nThe Angolan Air Force operated two B\\-26 from the six inherited from the [Portuguese Air Force](/wiki/Portuguese_Air_Force \"Portuguese Air Force\"). Until then, these aircraft were operated by the Squadron 91 of the Portuguese Air Force in [Angola](/wiki/Portuguese_Angola \"Portuguese Angola\"), based at [Luanda Air Base](/wiki/Luanda_Airport \"Luanda Airport\"). When the independence of Angola in 1975, Portugal offered the aircraft to the new country.\n### Biafra",
"[Biafran Air Force](/wiki/Biafran_Air_Force \"Biafran Air Force\")\nBiafra acquired and used (at least) two provisionally armed B\\-26s during the [Nigerian Civil War](/wiki/Nigerian_Civil_War \"Nigerian Civil War\"). Former French Air Force (of the CEV test centre) B\\-26R, USAAF serial 41\\-39531, put up for sale, 11 July 1966\\. Registered to [Pan Eurasian Trading Company](/wiki/Pan_Eurasian_Trading_Company \"Pan Eurasian Trading Company\"), [Luxembourg](/wiki/Luxembourg \"Luxembourg\"), 2 August 1966 (N64Y?) as \"an investment,\" never operated; \"resold to a Mr [Ernest A. Koenig](/wiki/Ernest_A._Koenig \"Ernest A. Koenig\") – a German\\-American residing in [Luxembourg](/wiki/Luxembourg \"Luxembourg\").\" It seems very likely that Mr Koenig acted as an agent for Eastern Nigeria, and one source claims that the real buyer was a \"French company, which paid good money for the aircraft.\" It has been claimed that the Biafrans (who had purchasing agents in France) ended up paying as much as $320,000 for it. Although there is no direct evidence for contacts between Mr Koenig and the Eastern Nigerians at this stage, it should be mentioned that he was later also involved in the sale of [C\\-47s](/wiki/C-47_Skytrain \"C-47 Skytrain\") to [Biafra](/wiki/Biafra \"Biafra\").Hagedorn and Hellström 1994, p. 105\\.\nIn late October, Koenig had the Invader placed on the U.S. register as N12756, the airframe stored at [Courtrai\\-Wevelghem](/wiki/Kortrijk-Wevelgem_International_Airport \"Kortrijk-Wevelgem International Airport\") in [Belgium](/wiki/Belgium \"Belgium\"). Taken out of storage and prepped for delivery to Africa in early June 1967\\. Ferried to [Lisbon](/wiki/Lisbon \"Lisbon\") by Belgian pilot in mid\\-June. Departed Lisbon 26 June, flown by former French CEV pilot and ex\\-Polish squadron co\\-pilot, arriving at Biafran capital Enugu on 29 June 1967\\. Known as \"The Shark\" with a crudely applied shark's mouth and a single nose\\-mounted machine gun, it was abandoned at Enugu on 4 October 1967 in a damaged condition.",
"A second former French Invader, RB\\-26P, USAAF 44\\-34312, registered F\\-BMJR, one of five sold to aerial survey company [Société Carta](/wiki/Soci%C3%A9t%C3%A9_Carta \"Société Carta\") by the [Armée de l'Air](/wiki/Arm%C3%A9e_de_l%27Air \"Armée de l'Air\") in 1966, and last seen at [Creil](/wiki/Creil \"Creil\") near [Paris](/wiki/Paris \"Paris\") in June 1967, was flown to Biafra in August 1967 by two American pilots. \"It was sold to Biafra through the French arms dealer [Pierre Laureys](/wiki/Pierre_Laureys \"Pierre Laureys\"), who had also been involved in the sale of the first Invader.\" (Some reports claim that an Invader carrying the bogus registration N1888T was delivered to Biafra. There might be possibly some connection with this RB\\-26P.) Hagedorn and Hellström 1994, p. 108\\.",
"It was painted in a similar camouflage scheme to the first B\\-26, but with no shark's mouth. It commenced operations using locally produced ordnance until damaged in accident 2 December 1967 and grounded. Abandoned at [Port Harcourt](/wiki/Port_Harcourt \"Port Harcourt\") in damaged condition due to a lack of spares. Captured by Nigerian forces 18 May 1968, it damaged sufficiently by BAF commandos on 19 May 1968 to prevent operation.",
"Neither Invader received a BAF serial.Hagedorn and Hellström 1994, p. 75\\.",
"### Brazil",
"[Brazilian Air Force](/wiki/Brazilian_Air_Force \"Brazilian Air Force\")\n* B\\-26B FAB 5145, 41\\-39246, taken on charge September 1957, refurbished 1968, withdrawn from use, stricken 1975\\.\n* B\\-26B FAB 5146, 43\\-22469, taken on charge September 1957, struck off charge 14 July 1967, crashed on T\\-O at [Natal](/wiki/Natal%2C_Rio_Grande_do_Norte \"Natal, Rio Grande do Norte\").\n* B\\-26B FAB 5147, 43\\-22496, taken on charge September 1957, refurbished 1968, withdrawn from use, struck off charge 1975\\.\n* B\\-26B FAB 5148, 43\\-22597, taken on charge September 1957, struck off charge 5 August 1965, written\\-off at [Natal](/wiki/Natal%2C_Rio_Grande_do_Norte \"Natal, Rio Grande do Norte\").\n* B\\-26B FAB 5149, B\\-26C FAB 5149, 44\\-34163, taken on charge 1957, refurbished 1968 into B\\-26C, withdrawn from use, struck off charge April 1974\\.\n* B\\-26B FAB 5150, 44\\-34196, taken on charge 1957, refurbished 1968, withdrawn from use, struck off charge 1975\\.\n* B\\-26B FAB 5151, 44\\-34207, taken on charge 1957, written off at [Natal](/wiki/Natal%2C_Rio_Grande_do_Norte \"Natal, Rio Grande do Norte\"), struck off charge, 9 August 1965\\.\n* B\\-26B FAB 5152, 44\\-34208, taken on charge 1957, withdrawn from use and struck off charge January 1975\\.\n* B\\-26B FAB 5153, 44\\-35235, taken on charge 1957, refurbished 1968, withdrawn from use, struck off charge 1975\\.\n* B\\-26B FAB 5154, 44\\-35405, taken on charge 1957, written off 13 June 1958, [São José de Mipibu](/wiki/S%C3%A3o_Jos%C3%A9_de_Mipibu \"São José de Mipibu\"), SP state.\n* B\\-26B FAB 5155, 44\\-35415, taken on charge 1957, written off 28 September 1965, [Niquelândia](/wiki/Niquel%C3%A2ndia \"Niquelândia\"), GO state.\n* B\\-26B FAB 5156, 44\\-35586, taken on charge 1957, refurbished 1968, withdrawn from use, struck off charge December 1975\\. Was displayed at FAB Academy in 1 o/ 10 o GAv markings. Transferred to [Parnamirim](/wiki/Parnamirim \"Parnamirim\") in 1987\\.\n* B\\-26B FAB 5157, 44\\-35610, taken on charge 1957, refurbished 1968, withdrawn from use, struck off charge December 1973\\.\n* B\\-26B FAB 5158, 44\\-35713, taken on charge 1957, refurbished 1968, withdrawn from use, struck off charge August 1972\\.\n* B\\-26C FAB 5159, B\\-26B FAB 5159, 41\\-39288, taken on charge 1957, refurbished 1968 into B\\-26B. Withdrawn from use, now displayed at [Museu Aeroespacial](/wiki/Museu_Aeroespacial \"Museu Aeroespacial\"), Campo dos Afonsos, near [Rio de Janeiro](/wiki/Rio_de_Janeiro \"Rio de Janeiro\").\n* B\\-26C FAB 5160, B\\-26B FAB 5160, 43\\-22271, taken on charge 1957, refurbished 1968 into B\\-26B. Withdrawn from use, struck off charge December 1975\\.\n* B\\-26C FAB 5161, 43\\-22415, taken on charge 1958, to have been refurbished 1968 but found to be too badly corroded. Withdrawn from use, struck off charge June 1968\\.\n* B\\-26C FAB 5162, 43\\-22456, taken on charge 1958, refurbished 1968, withdrawn from use, struck off charge 1975\\.\n* B\\-26C FAB 5163, 43\\-22457, taken on charge 1958, withdrawn from use, struck of charge October 1967\\.\n* B\\-26C FAB 5164, 43\\-22461, taken on charge 1958, withdrawn from use, struck off charge June 1968\\.\n* B\\-26C FAB 5165, 43\\-22472, taken on charge 1958, withdrawn from use, struck off charge October 1967\\.\n* B\\-26C FAB 5166, 43\\-22477, taken on charge 1958, withdrawn from use, struck off charge June 1968\\.\n* B\\-26C FAB 5167, 43\\-22605, taken on charge 1958, written off at [Caravelas](/wiki/Caravelas \"Caravelas\"), BA state, 10 June 1963\\.\n* B\\-26C FAB 5168, 44\\-34120, taken on charge 1958, withdrawn from use, struck off charge June 1968\\.\n* B\\-26C FAB 5169, 44\\-34329, taken on charge 1958, withdrawn from use, struck off charge June 1968\\.\n* B\\-26C FAB 5170, B\\-26B FAB 5170, 44\\-35264, taken on charge February 1958, refurbished 1969 into B\\-26B. Withdrawn from use, struck off charge December 1975\\.\n* B\\-26C FAB 5171, B\\-26B FAB 5171, 44\\-35790, taken on charge February 1958, refurbished 1968 still as B\\-26C, but later reconfigured into B\\-26B in Brazil. Withdrawn from use, struck off charge December 1975\\.\n* B\\-26C FAB 5172, 44\\-35902, taken on charge February 1958, refurbished 1968, withdrawn from use, struck off charge December 1975\\.\n* B\\-26C FAB 5173, 44\\-34615, N4817E, taken on charge June 1969, withdrawn from use between 1973 and 1975, struck off charge circa 1974\\.\n* B\\-26C FAB 5174, 44\\-34749, N4823E, taken on charge June 1969, withdrawn from use, struck off charge December 1975, originally preserved at ESPAer near [São Paulo](/wiki/S%C3%A3o_Paulo \"São Paulo\") but sold back to USA as N4823E circa 1984\\.\n* B\\-26C FAB 5175, 44\\-35969, N8628E, taken on charge June 1969, withdrawn from use, struck off charge December 1975\\.\n* CB\\-26 FAB 5176, later C\\-26 FAB 5176, 44\\-34134, N115RG, N4974N, civilian aircraft impounded 21 June 1966, taken on charge 1970, used as a transport, withdrawn from use, struck off charge January 1975, preserved with [Museu de Armas e Veiculos Motorizidos Antigos](/wiki/Museu_de_Armas_e_Veiculos_Motorizidos_Antigos \"Museu de Armas e Veiculos Motorizidos Antigos\"), [Bebedouro](/wiki/Bebedouro \"Bebedouro\"), SP state.",
"FAB Invaders were redesignated from B\\-26 to A\\-26 in 1970, FAB 5176 being the exception.",
"### Chile",
"[Chilean Air Force](/wiki/Chilean_Air_Force \"Chilean Air Force\")\n### Colombia",
"[Colombian Air Force](/wiki/Colombian_Air_Force \"Colombian Air Force\")\n### Cuba",
"[Cuban Air Force](/wiki/Cuban_Air_Force \"Cuban Air Force\")\n### Democratic Republic of the Congo",
"[Air Force of the Democratic Republic of the Congo](/wiki/Air_Force_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo \"Air Force of the Democratic Republic of the Congo\")\n### Dominican Republic",
"[Dominican Republic Air Force](/wiki/Dominican_Republic_Air_Force \"Dominican Republic Air Force\")\n### El Salvador",
"[El Salvador Air Force](/wiki/El_Salvador_Air_Force \"El Salvador Air Force\")\n### France",
"[French Air Force](/wiki/French_Air_Force \"French Air Force\")\n### Guatemala",
"[Guatemalan Air Force](/wiki/Guatemalan_Air_Force \"Guatemalan Air Force\")\n### Honduras",
"[Honduran Air Force](/wiki/Honduran_Air_Force \"Honduran Air Force\")\n\"The last Latin American air arm to acquire a B\\-26, and place the type in active combat\\-configured service, Honduras also holds the distinction of being the very last air arm to operate the type anywhere.\"Hagedorn and Hellström 1994, p. 116\\.",
"### Indonesia",
"[Indonesian Air Force](/wiki/Indonesian_Air_Force \"Indonesian Air Force\")\n### Mexico",
"[Mexican Air Force](/wiki/Mexican_Air_Force \"Mexican Air Force\")\nA single A\\-26 was purchased on behalf of the President of Mexico in 1949 for operation as a presidential transport. Although maintained by the Mexican Air Force, it had a civil [Aircraft registration](/wiki/Aircraft_registration \"Aircraft registration\"). In 1962, it was replaced as a presidential aircraft, and was used by the commander of the Mexican Air Force, with full military markings and registration.Hagedorn and Hellström 1994, pp. 19–20\\.\n### Nicaragua",
"[Nicaraguan Air Force](/wiki/Nicaraguan_Air_Force \"Nicaraguan Air Force\")\n### Peru",
"[Peruvian Air Force](/wiki/Peruvian_Air_Force \"Peruvian Air Force\")\n### Portugal",
"[Portuguese Air Force](/wiki/Portuguese_Air_Force \"Portuguese Air Force\")\nThe need for a replacement for the [bomber](/wiki/Bomber \"Bomber\") and close air support fleet in Africa during the [Colonial War](/wiki/Portuguese_Colonial_War \"Portuguese Colonial War\"), composed of the [PV\\-2 Harpoon](/wiki/PV-2_Harpoon \"PV-2 Harpoon\") and of the [F\\-84G Thunderjet](/wiki/F-84_Thunderjet \"F-84 Thunderjet\"), led to the procurement by the [Portuguese Air Force](/wiki/Portuguese_Air_Force \"Portuguese Air Force\") of a new bomber in the mid\\-sixties. But it would prove difficult to acquire new aircraft because of the [United Nations](/wiki/United_Nations \"United Nations\") arms embargo then in force against Portugal, so special methods had to be used. In late 1964, with the decision made to acquire the [B\\-26 Invader](/wiki/A-26_Invader \"A-26 Invader\") a contact was established with an arms broker in order to try to obtain 20 B\\-26 Invader aircraft. [Portuguese Military Aviation \\- The Douglas B\\-26B/B\\-26C Invader](https://web.archive.org/web/20000302161718/http://www.geocities.com/CapeCanaveral/Hangar/9376/B26.htm)\nThe arms dealer, Luber SA in [Geneva](/wiki/Geneva \"Geneva\"), signed an agreement with Aero Associates of Arizona to supply 20 aircraft that would be refurbished by Hamilton Aircraft. The first B\\-26 would be delivered by 30 April 1965 and the last one by January 1966\\. Besides the aircraft, a lot of spare parts and accessories would also be included in the purchase.",
"It is not clear how the export licenses were obtained, but in May 1965 the first aircraft, piloted by [John Hawke](/wiki/John_Hawke_%28pilot%29 \"John Hawke (pilot)\"), was ferried from [Tucson](/wiki/Tucson%2C_Arizona \"Tucson, Arizona\") to Tancos, Portugal, through Rochester, Torbay, Canada, and [Santa Maria](/wiki/Santa_Maria_Island_%28Azores%29 \"Santa Maria Island (Azores)\"), Azores. By August 1965, seven aircraft had already been delivered.",
"In September the [U.S. Customs](/wiki/United_States_Customs \"United States Customs\") arrested Hawke and other people involved in the arms deal and prevented a C\\-46 transporting spare parts to Portugal from leaving the United States.",
"In December 1966, with only seven B\\-26 bombers and their provisions for armament, although without armament, the decision was made to equip the aircraft with the following: six .50 cal [Browning M2 machine guns](/wiki/M2_Browning_machine_gun \"M2 Browning machine gun\") on the nose; two suspension points 50 or 200 kg bombs, and equipment for releasing 15 kg bombs, on the bomb\\-bay; and two suspension points per wing, allowing the alternate or combined use of two 200 kg bombs or six 50 kg bombs.",
"The installation of rocket launchers under the wings was also possible, thus allowing the use of four rockets of 2\\.5\", 18 rockets of 37 mm, or 36 of 37 mm per point.",
"Until 1970 it was very difficult to start operating all the seven aircraft due to the lack of spare parts, however, at least it was possible to begin operational testing with three aircraft. That same year these three first B\\-26 were sent to [Guinea\\-Bissau](/wiki/Guinea-Bissau \"Guinea-Bissau\") as a detachment to test the aircraft in a tropical climate.",
"Meanwhile, efforts to try to obtain the spare parts and armament continued. Many contacts and visits were made with other countries operating the B\\-26, including at least one visit to Brazil that was also operating the A\\-26 at the time. In September 1967, one of the first contacts took place with a visit to Chateaudun, [France](/wiki/France \"France\"), during which 13 former\\-[French Air Force](/wiki/French_Air_Force \"French Air Force\") were offered for sale, including seven aircraft equipped with radar. All of the aircraft had between 3,000 and 8,000 flight hours in total. The offer was rejected, probably due to the state of the aircraft.",
"Other spontaneous offers were also received; one of them was the proposal of six former\\-[Guatemalan Air Force](/wiki/Guatemalan_Air_Force \"Guatemalan Air Force\") B\\-26 in January 1971, by US$950,000 each. Mentioned was also the possibility of obtaining former\\-[Nicaraguan](/wiki/Nicaragua \"Nicaragua\") B\\-26\\. These offers were also rejected.",
"In 1971 the complete refurbishment of the seven aircraft started at the [OGMA](/wiki/OGMA \"OGMA\") workshops with spare parts obtained from France. The bombers were completely stripped down, the wing\\-spars reinforced and the armament installed. In addition the read windows were covered. By November 1971, all aircraft had been refurbished except for the 7104 that was scrapped due to heavy corrosion found when the stripping started.",
"The next year, 1972, many testing trips were made to [Azores](/wiki/Azores \"Azores\"), [Madeira](/wiki/Madeira \"Madeira\") and [Canary Islands](/wiki/Canary_Islands \"Canary Islands\"). In 1973 all the six aircraft were sent to [Angola](/wiki/Angola \"Angola\") to replace F\\-84G fighters of [93 Squadron](/wiki/93_Squadron_%28PoAF%29 \"93 Squadron (PoAF)\").",
"The aircraft operated until 1975, mainly for armed reconnaissance. After the war all six were left in Angola. Later one B\\-26 was taken to Cuba, [reportedly 7101](/wiki/List_of_surviving_A-26_Invader_airframes \"List of surviving A-26 Invader airframes\").",
"",
"| Designation | USAAF Serial | PoAF Serial | Delivery | Retired | In Service | Notes |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| B\\-26B\\-60/61\\-DL | 44\\-34535 | 7101 | May 1965 | 1975 | 26 April 1971 | Solid nose |\n| B\\-26B\\-55/65\\-DL | 44\\-34328 | 7102 | 1965 | 1975 | January 1972 | Equipped with Plexiglas nose |\n| B\\-26C\\-40\\-DT | 44\\-35631 | 7103 | 1965 | 1975 | November 1971 | Solid nose |\n| B\\-26B\\-66\\-DL | 44\\-34726 | 7104 | 1965 | 1973 | 26 September 1967 | Scrapped by decision of March 1973\\. Some parts preserved for the Air Force Air Museum |\n| B\\-26B\\-20\\-DT | 43\\-22427 | 7105 | 1965 | 1975 | September 1971 | |\n| B\\-26B\\-40\\-DL | 41\\-39517 | 7106 | 1965 | 1975 | 28 July 1969 |\n| B\\-26C\\-35\\-DT | 44\\-35363 | 7107 | 1965 | 1975 | 9 September 1970 | |\n|",
"[Portuguese Air Force](/wiki/Portuguese_Air_Force \"Portuguese Air Force\")\n* \"*Diabos*\", testing detachment located in Portugal and at [Bissau](/wiki/Bissau \"Bissau\"), [Portuguese Guinea](/wiki/Portuguese_Guinea \"Portuguese Guinea\")\n* [91 Squadron](/wiki/91_Squadron_%28PoAF%29 \"91 Squadron (PoAF)\"), bomber and close air support squadron based at [Luanda](/wiki/Luanda \"Luanda\"), [Angola](/wiki/Angola \"Angola\")",
"### Saudi Arabia",
"[Royal Saudi Air Force](/wiki/Royal_Saudi_Air_Force \"Royal Saudi Air Force\")\n[right\\|thumb\\|B\\-26K/A\\-26A Counter Invader (64\\-17675\\)](/wiki/Image:Douglas_B-26K_Counter_Invader_USAF.jpg \"Douglas B-26K Counter Invader USAF.jpg\")\n### South Vietnam",
"[Republic of Vietnam Air Force](/wiki/Republic_of_Vietnam_Air_Force \"Republic of Vietnam Air Force\")\nB\\-26 aircraft operated in Vietnamese markings were actually part of the US Air Force and crewed by Americans.\n### Turkey",
"[Turkish Air Force](/wiki/Turkish_Air_Force \"Turkish Air Force\")\n### United Kingdom",
"[Royal Air Force](/wiki/Royal_Air_Force \"Royal Air Force\")\n Three A\\-26s were evaluated by the [Aeroplane and Armament Experimental Establishment](/wiki/Aeroplane_and_Armament_Experimental_Establishment \"Aeroplane and Armament Experimental Establishment\") in 1944–45\\. While it was planned for Britain to acquire 140 Invaders under [Lend\\-Lease](/wiki/Lend-Lease \"Lend-Lease\"), these plans were abandoned in April 1945, owing to the imminent end to the war in Europe.O'Leary 2002, pp. 52–53\\.\n### United States",
"[United States Army Air Forces](/wiki/United_States_Army_Air_Forces \"United States Army Air Forces\")\n[United States Air Force](/wiki/United_States_Air_Force \"United States Air Force\")\n[United States Navy](/wiki/United_States_Navy \"United States Navy\")\n{{sectstub\\|date\\=April 2022}}",
""
] |
### Portugal
[Portuguese Air Force](/wiki/Portuguese_Air_Force "Portuguese Air Force")
The need for a replacement for the [bomber](/wiki/Bomber "Bomber") and close air support fleet in Africa during the [Colonial War](/wiki/Portuguese_Colonial_War "Portuguese Colonial War"), composed of the [PV\-2 Harpoon](/wiki/PV-2_Harpoon "PV-2 Harpoon") and of the [F\-84G Thunderjet](/wiki/F-84_Thunderjet "F-84 Thunderjet"), led to the procurement by the [Portuguese Air Force](/wiki/Portuguese_Air_Force "Portuguese Air Force") of a new bomber in the mid\-sixties. But it would prove difficult to acquire new aircraft because of the [United Nations](/wiki/United_Nations "United Nations") arms embargo then in force against Portugal, so special methods had to be used. In late 1964, with the decision made to acquire the [B\-26 Invader](/wiki/A-26_Invader "A-26 Invader") a contact was established with an arms broker in order to try to obtain 20 B\-26 Invader aircraft. [Portuguese Military Aviation \- The Douglas B\-26B/B\-26C Invader](https://web.archive.org/web/20000302161718/http://www.geocities.com/CapeCanaveral/Hangar/9376/B26.htm)
The arms dealer, Luber SA in [Geneva](/wiki/Geneva "Geneva"), signed an agreement with Aero Associates of Arizona to supply 20 aircraft that would be refurbished by Hamilton Aircraft. The first B\-26 would be delivered by 30 April 1965 and the last one by January 1966\. Besides the aircraft, a lot of spare parts and accessories would also be included in the purchase.
It is not clear how the export licenses were obtained, but in May 1965 the first aircraft, piloted by [John Hawke](/wiki/John_Hawke_%28pilot%29 "John Hawke (pilot)"), was ferried from [Tucson](/wiki/Tucson%2C_Arizona "Tucson, Arizona") to Tancos, Portugal, through Rochester, Torbay, Canada, and [Santa Maria](/wiki/Santa_Maria_Island_%28Azores%29 "Santa Maria Island (Azores)"), Azores. By August 1965, seven aircraft had already been delivered.
In September the [U.S. Customs](/wiki/United_States_Customs "United States Customs") arrested Hawke and other people involved in the arms deal and prevented a C\-46 transporting spare parts to Portugal from leaving the United States.
In December 1966, with only seven B\-26 bombers and their provisions for armament, although without armament, the decision was made to equip the aircraft with the following: six .50 cal [Browning M2 machine guns](/wiki/M2_Browning_machine_gun "M2 Browning machine gun") on the nose; two suspension points 50 or 200 kg bombs, and equipment for releasing 15 kg bombs, on the bomb\-bay; and two suspension points per wing, allowing the alternate or combined use of two 200 kg bombs or six 50 kg bombs.
The installation of rocket launchers under the wings was also possible, thus allowing the use of four rockets of 2\.5", 18 rockets of 37 mm, or 36 of 37 mm per point.
Until 1970 it was very difficult to start operating all the seven aircraft due to the lack of spare parts, however, at least it was possible to begin operational testing with three aircraft. That same year these three first B\-26 were sent to [Guinea\-Bissau](/wiki/Guinea-Bissau "Guinea-Bissau") as a detachment to test the aircraft in a tropical climate.
Meanwhile, efforts to try to obtain the spare parts and armament continued. Many contacts and visits were made with other countries operating the B\-26, including at least one visit to Brazil that was also operating the A\-26 at the time. In September 1967, one of the first contacts took place with a visit to Chateaudun, [France](/wiki/France "France"), during which 13 former\-[French Air Force](/wiki/French_Air_Force "French Air Force") were offered for sale, including seven aircraft equipped with radar. All of the aircraft had between 3,000 and 8,000 flight hours in total. The offer was rejected, probably due to the state of the aircraft.
Other spontaneous offers were also received; one of them was the proposal of six former\-[Guatemalan Air Force](/wiki/Guatemalan_Air_Force "Guatemalan Air Force") B\-26 in January 1971, by US$950,000 each. Mentioned was also the possibility of obtaining former\-[Nicaraguan](/wiki/Nicaragua "Nicaragua") B\-26\. These offers were also rejected.
In 1971 the complete refurbishment of the seven aircraft started at the [OGMA](/wiki/OGMA "OGMA") workshops with spare parts obtained from France. The bombers were completely stripped down, the wing\-spars reinforced and the armament installed. In addition the read windows were covered. By November 1971, all aircraft had been refurbished except for the 7104 that was scrapped due to heavy corrosion found when the stripping started.
The next year, 1972, many testing trips were made to [Azores](/wiki/Azores "Azores"), [Madeira](/wiki/Madeira "Madeira") and [Canary Islands](/wiki/Canary_Islands "Canary Islands"). In 1973 all the six aircraft were sent to [Angola](/wiki/Angola "Angola") to replace F\-84G fighters of [93 Squadron](/wiki/93_Squadron_%28PoAF%29 "93 Squadron (PoAF)").
The aircraft operated until 1975, mainly for armed reconnaissance. After the war all six were left in Angola. Later one B\-26 was taken to Cuba, [reportedly 7101](/wiki/List_of_surviving_A-26_Invader_airframes "List of surviving A-26 Invader airframes").
| Designation | USAAF Serial | PoAF Serial | Delivery | Retired | In Service | Notes |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| B\-26B\-60/61\-DL | 44\-34535 | 7101 | May 1965 | 1975 | 26 April 1971 | Solid nose |
| B\-26B\-55/65\-DL | 44\-34328 | 7102 | 1965 | 1975 | January 1972 | Equipped with Plexiglas nose |
| B\-26C\-40\-DT | 44\-35631 | 7103 | 1965 | 1975 | November 1971 | Solid nose |
| B\-26B\-66\-DL | 44\-34726 | 7104 | 1965 | 1973 | 26 September 1967 | Scrapped by decision of March 1973\. Some parts preserved for the Air Force Air Museum |
| B\-26B\-20\-DT | 43\-22427 | 7105 | 1965 | 1975 | September 1971 | |
| B\-26B\-40\-DL | 41\-39517 | 7106 | 1965 | 1975 | 28 July 1969 |
| B\-26C\-35\-DT | 44\-35363 | 7107 | 1965 | 1975 | 9 September 1970 | |
|
[Portuguese Air Force](/wiki/Portuguese_Air_Force "Portuguese Air Force")
* "*Diabos*", testing detachment located in Portugal and at [Bissau](/wiki/Bissau "Bissau"), [Portuguese Guinea](/wiki/Portuguese_Guinea "Portuguese Guinea")
* [91 Squadron](/wiki/91_Squadron_%28PoAF%29 "91 Squadron (PoAF)"), bomber and close air support squadron based at [Luanda](/wiki/Luanda "Luanda"), [Angola](/wiki/Angola "Angola")
|
[
"### Portugal",
"[Portuguese Air Force](/wiki/Portuguese_Air_Force \"Portuguese Air Force\")\nThe need for a replacement for the [bomber](/wiki/Bomber \"Bomber\") and close air support fleet in Africa during the [Colonial War](/wiki/Portuguese_Colonial_War \"Portuguese Colonial War\"), composed of the [PV\\-2 Harpoon](/wiki/PV-2_Harpoon \"PV-2 Harpoon\") and of the [F\\-84G Thunderjet](/wiki/F-84_Thunderjet \"F-84 Thunderjet\"), led to the procurement by the [Portuguese Air Force](/wiki/Portuguese_Air_Force \"Portuguese Air Force\") of a new bomber in the mid\\-sixties. But it would prove difficult to acquire new aircraft because of the [United Nations](/wiki/United_Nations \"United Nations\") arms embargo then in force against Portugal, so special methods had to be used. In late 1964, with the decision made to acquire the [B\\-26 Invader](/wiki/A-26_Invader \"A-26 Invader\") a contact was established with an arms broker in order to try to obtain 20 B\\-26 Invader aircraft. [Portuguese Military Aviation \\- The Douglas B\\-26B/B\\-26C Invader](https://web.archive.org/web/20000302161718/http://www.geocities.com/CapeCanaveral/Hangar/9376/B26.htm)\nThe arms dealer, Luber SA in [Geneva](/wiki/Geneva \"Geneva\"), signed an agreement with Aero Associates of Arizona to supply 20 aircraft that would be refurbished by Hamilton Aircraft. The first B\\-26 would be delivered by 30 April 1965 and the last one by January 1966\\. Besides the aircraft, a lot of spare parts and accessories would also be included in the purchase.",
"It is not clear how the export licenses were obtained, but in May 1965 the first aircraft, piloted by [John Hawke](/wiki/John_Hawke_%28pilot%29 \"John Hawke (pilot)\"), was ferried from [Tucson](/wiki/Tucson%2C_Arizona \"Tucson, Arizona\") to Tancos, Portugal, through Rochester, Torbay, Canada, and [Santa Maria](/wiki/Santa_Maria_Island_%28Azores%29 \"Santa Maria Island (Azores)\"), Azores. By August 1965, seven aircraft had already been delivered.",
"In September the [U.S. Customs](/wiki/United_States_Customs \"United States Customs\") arrested Hawke and other people involved in the arms deal and prevented a C\\-46 transporting spare parts to Portugal from leaving the United States.",
"In December 1966, with only seven B\\-26 bombers and their provisions for armament, although without armament, the decision was made to equip the aircraft with the following: six .50 cal [Browning M2 machine guns](/wiki/M2_Browning_machine_gun \"M2 Browning machine gun\") on the nose; two suspension points 50 or 200 kg bombs, and equipment for releasing 15 kg bombs, on the bomb\\-bay; and two suspension points per wing, allowing the alternate or combined use of two 200 kg bombs or six 50 kg bombs.",
"The installation of rocket launchers under the wings was also possible, thus allowing the use of four rockets of 2\\.5\", 18 rockets of 37 mm, or 36 of 37 mm per point.",
"Until 1970 it was very difficult to start operating all the seven aircraft due to the lack of spare parts, however, at least it was possible to begin operational testing with three aircraft. That same year these three first B\\-26 were sent to [Guinea\\-Bissau](/wiki/Guinea-Bissau \"Guinea-Bissau\") as a detachment to test the aircraft in a tropical climate.",
"Meanwhile, efforts to try to obtain the spare parts and armament continued. Many contacts and visits were made with other countries operating the B\\-26, including at least one visit to Brazil that was also operating the A\\-26 at the time. In September 1967, one of the first contacts took place with a visit to Chateaudun, [France](/wiki/France \"France\"), during which 13 former\\-[French Air Force](/wiki/French_Air_Force \"French Air Force\") were offered for sale, including seven aircraft equipped with radar. All of the aircraft had between 3,000 and 8,000 flight hours in total. The offer was rejected, probably due to the state of the aircraft.",
"Other spontaneous offers were also received; one of them was the proposal of six former\\-[Guatemalan Air Force](/wiki/Guatemalan_Air_Force \"Guatemalan Air Force\") B\\-26 in January 1971, by US$950,000 each. Mentioned was also the possibility of obtaining former\\-[Nicaraguan](/wiki/Nicaragua \"Nicaragua\") B\\-26\\. These offers were also rejected.",
"In 1971 the complete refurbishment of the seven aircraft started at the [OGMA](/wiki/OGMA \"OGMA\") workshops with spare parts obtained from France. The bombers were completely stripped down, the wing\\-spars reinforced and the armament installed. In addition the read windows were covered. By November 1971, all aircraft had been refurbished except for the 7104 that was scrapped due to heavy corrosion found when the stripping started.",
"The next year, 1972, many testing trips were made to [Azores](/wiki/Azores \"Azores\"), [Madeira](/wiki/Madeira \"Madeira\") and [Canary Islands](/wiki/Canary_Islands \"Canary Islands\"). In 1973 all the six aircraft were sent to [Angola](/wiki/Angola \"Angola\") to replace F\\-84G fighters of [93 Squadron](/wiki/93_Squadron_%28PoAF%29 \"93 Squadron (PoAF)\").",
"The aircraft operated until 1975, mainly for armed reconnaissance. After the war all six were left in Angola. Later one B\\-26 was taken to Cuba, [reportedly 7101](/wiki/List_of_surviving_A-26_Invader_airframes \"List of surviving A-26 Invader airframes\").",
"",
"| Designation | USAAF Serial | PoAF Serial | Delivery | Retired | In Service | Notes |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| B\\-26B\\-60/61\\-DL | 44\\-34535 | 7101 | May 1965 | 1975 | 26 April 1971 | Solid nose |\n| B\\-26B\\-55/65\\-DL | 44\\-34328 | 7102 | 1965 | 1975 | January 1972 | Equipped with Plexiglas nose |\n| B\\-26C\\-40\\-DT | 44\\-35631 | 7103 | 1965 | 1975 | November 1971 | Solid nose |\n| B\\-26B\\-66\\-DL | 44\\-34726 | 7104 | 1965 | 1973 | 26 September 1967 | Scrapped by decision of March 1973\\. Some parts preserved for the Air Force Air Museum |\n| B\\-26B\\-20\\-DT | 43\\-22427 | 7105 | 1965 | 1975 | September 1971 | |\n| B\\-26B\\-40\\-DL | 41\\-39517 | 7106 | 1965 | 1975 | 28 July 1969 |\n| B\\-26C\\-35\\-DT | 44\\-35363 | 7107 | 1965 | 1975 | 9 September 1970 | |\n|",
"[Portuguese Air Force](/wiki/Portuguese_Air_Force \"Portuguese Air Force\")\n* \"*Diabos*\", testing detachment located in Portugal and at [Bissau](/wiki/Bissau \"Bissau\"), [Portuguese Guinea](/wiki/Portuguese_Guinea \"Portuguese Guinea\")\n* [91 Squadron](/wiki/91_Squadron_%28PoAF%29 \"91 Squadron (PoAF)\"), bomber and close air support squadron based at [Luanda](/wiki/Luanda \"Luanda\"), [Angola](/wiki/Angola \"Angola\")"
] |
Career
------
He commenced his acting career in Western Australia when he and his friend signed up for acting classes hosted by the Patch Theatre Company, which began his career as a stage actor. His first role was a doctor who said two words, but he was soon playing the lead in subsequent productions.
Cassell became heavily involved with promoting theatre in Perth and helped establish a theatre called “The Hole in the Wall". When [Edgar Metcalfe](/wiki/Edgar_Metcalfe "Edgar Metcalfe") was brought out to Australia to run [The Playhouse Theatre](/wiki/The_Playhouse_Theatre_%28Perth%29 "The Playhouse Theatre (Perth)"), he began casting Cassell and the two became good friends.
He won "Best Actor of the Year" for his role in *[A Day in the Death of Joe Egg](/wiki/A_Day_in_the_Death_of_Joe_Egg "A Day in the Death of Joe Egg")*. He later worked for the [Sydney Theatre Company](/wiki/Sydney_Theatre_Company "Sydney Theatre Company") and the [Melbourne Theatre Company](/wiki/Melbourne_Theatre_Company "Melbourne Theatre Company"). He was in the original cast of *[Away](/wiki/Away_%28play%29 "Away (play)")*, which toured to New York.
Cassell also played Boss Finley in *[Sweet Bird of Youth](/wiki/Sweet_Bird_of_Youth "Sweet Bird of Youth")* with [Lauren Bacall](/wiki/Lauren_Bacall "Lauren Bacall") for the Sydney Theatre Company, accepting the role after the actor originally cast in it, [Frank Wilson](/wiki/Frank_Wilson_%28Australian_actor%29 "Frank Wilson (Australian actor)"), suffered a heart attack.
Cassell was one of the actors who worked in Beresford's early Australian films after moving to the eastern states to audition for Beresford and [Hector Crawford](/wiki/Hector_Crawford "Hector Crawford").
His film credits included: *[Money Movers](/wiki/Money_Movers "Money Movers")*, *[Cathy's Child](/wiki/Cathy%27s_Child "Cathy's Child")* (for which he was nominated for Best Actor at the 1979 [Australian Film Institute Awards](/wiki/Australian_Film_Institute_Awards "Australian Film Institute Awards")), *[Squizzy Taylor](/wiki/Squizzy_Taylor_%28film%29 "Squizzy Taylor (film)")*, *[Breaker Morant](/wiki/Breaker_Morant_%28film%29 "Breaker Morant (film)")*, *[Puberty Blues](/wiki/Puberty_Blues_%28film%29 "Puberty Blues (film)")*, *[The Club](/wiki/The_Club_%281980_film%29 "The Club (1980 film)")*, *[The Honourable Wally Norman](/wiki/The_Honourable_Wally_Norman "The Honourable Wally Norman")* and *[Strange Bedfellows](/wiki/Strange_Bedfellows_%282004_film%29 "Strange Bedfellows (2004 film)")*.
Cassell's television roles included: *[The Drifter](/wiki/The_Drifter_%28TV_series%29 "The Drifter (TV series)")*, *[Falcon Island](/wiki/Falcon_Island_%28TV_series%29 "Falcon Island (TV series)")*, *[Taurus Rising](/wiki/Taurus_Rising "Taurus Rising")*, *[Special Squad](/wiki/Special_Squad_%281984%29 "Special Squad (1984)")*, *[The Flying Doctors](/wiki/The_Flying_Doctors "The Flying Doctors")*, *[The Power, The Passion](/wiki/The_Power%2C_The_Passion "The Power, The Passion")*, *[Blue Heelers](/wiki/Blue_Heelers "Blue Heelers")*, *[SeaChange](/wiki/SeaChange "SeaChange")*, *[Stingers](/wiki/Stingers_%28TV_series%29 "Stingers (TV series)")* and *[MDA](/wiki/MDA_%28TV_series%29 "MDA (TV series)")*.{{cite news \|last1\=Flynn\|first1\=Greg\|last2\=Adams\|first2\=Clay\|date\=1 September 1982\|title\=Meet the stars of 'Taurus Rising'\|url\=https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/48081386\|work\=The Australian Women's Weekly\|location\= \|access\-date\=21 July 2022}}
Cassell was recognised at the [1979 Sammy Awards](/wiki/Sammy_Awards%231979 "Sammy Awards#1979") for his role in *Cathy's Child*.{{cite news \|author\= \|date\=18 October 1979\|title\=Hines, Walsh awarded gold Sammys\|url\=https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/110606548\|work\=The Canberra Times\|location\= \|access\-date\=21 July 2022}}
|
[
"Career\n------",
"He commenced his acting career in Western Australia when he and his friend signed up for acting classes hosted by the Patch Theatre Company, which began his career as a stage actor. His first role was a doctor who said two words, but he was soon playing the lead in subsequent productions.",
"Cassell became heavily involved with promoting theatre in Perth and helped establish a theatre called “The Hole in the Wall\". When [Edgar Metcalfe](/wiki/Edgar_Metcalfe \"Edgar Metcalfe\") was brought out to Australia to run [The Playhouse Theatre](/wiki/The_Playhouse_Theatre_%28Perth%29 \"The Playhouse Theatre (Perth)\"), he began casting Cassell and the two became good friends.",
"He won \"Best Actor of the Year\" for his role in *[A Day in the Death of Joe Egg](/wiki/A_Day_in_the_Death_of_Joe_Egg \"A Day in the Death of Joe Egg\")*. He later worked for the [Sydney Theatre Company](/wiki/Sydney_Theatre_Company \"Sydney Theatre Company\") and the [Melbourne Theatre Company](/wiki/Melbourne_Theatre_Company \"Melbourne Theatre Company\"). He was in the original cast of *[Away](/wiki/Away_%28play%29 \"Away (play)\")*, which toured to New York.",
"Cassell also played Boss Finley in *[Sweet Bird of Youth](/wiki/Sweet_Bird_of_Youth \"Sweet Bird of Youth\")* with [Lauren Bacall](/wiki/Lauren_Bacall \"Lauren Bacall\") for the Sydney Theatre Company, accepting the role after the actor originally cast in it, [Frank Wilson](/wiki/Frank_Wilson_%28Australian_actor%29 \"Frank Wilson (Australian actor)\"), suffered a heart attack.",
"Cassell was one of the actors who worked in Beresford's early Australian films after moving to the eastern states to audition for Beresford and [Hector Crawford](/wiki/Hector_Crawford \"Hector Crawford\").",
"His film credits included: *[Money Movers](/wiki/Money_Movers \"Money Movers\")*, *[Cathy's Child](/wiki/Cathy%27s_Child \"Cathy's Child\")* (for which he was nominated for Best Actor at the 1979 [Australian Film Institute Awards](/wiki/Australian_Film_Institute_Awards \"Australian Film Institute Awards\")), *[Squizzy Taylor](/wiki/Squizzy_Taylor_%28film%29 \"Squizzy Taylor (film)\")*, *[Breaker Morant](/wiki/Breaker_Morant_%28film%29 \"Breaker Morant (film)\")*, *[Puberty Blues](/wiki/Puberty_Blues_%28film%29 \"Puberty Blues (film)\")*, *[The Club](/wiki/The_Club_%281980_film%29 \"The Club (1980 film)\")*, *[The Honourable Wally Norman](/wiki/The_Honourable_Wally_Norman \"The Honourable Wally Norman\")* and *[Strange Bedfellows](/wiki/Strange_Bedfellows_%282004_film%29 \"Strange Bedfellows (2004 film)\")*.",
"Cassell's television roles included: *[The Drifter](/wiki/The_Drifter_%28TV_series%29 \"The Drifter (TV series)\")*, *[Falcon Island](/wiki/Falcon_Island_%28TV_series%29 \"Falcon Island (TV series)\")*, *[Taurus Rising](/wiki/Taurus_Rising \"Taurus Rising\")*, *[Special Squad](/wiki/Special_Squad_%281984%29 \"Special Squad (1984)\")*, *[The Flying Doctors](/wiki/The_Flying_Doctors \"The Flying Doctors\")*, *[The Power, The Passion](/wiki/The_Power%2C_The_Passion \"The Power, The Passion\")*, *[Blue Heelers](/wiki/Blue_Heelers \"Blue Heelers\")*, *[SeaChange](/wiki/SeaChange \"SeaChange\")*, *[Stingers](/wiki/Stingers_%28TV_series%29 \"Stingers (TV series)\")* and *[MDA](/wiki/MDA_%28TV_series%29 \"MDA (TV series)\")*.{{cite news \\|last1\\=Flynn\\|first1\\=Greg\\|last2\\=Adams\\|first2\\=Clay\\|date\\=1 September 1982\\|title\\=Meet the stars of 'Taurus Rising'\\|url\\=https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/48081386\\|work\\=The Australian Women's Weekly\\|location\\= \\|access\\-date\\=21 July 2022}}",
"Cassell was recognised at the [1979 Sammy Awards](/wiki/Sammy_Awards%231979 \"Sammy Awards#1979\") for his role in *Cathy's Child*.{{cite news \\|author\\= \\|date\\=18 October 1979\\|title\\=Hines, Walsh awarded gold Sammys\\|url\\=https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/110606548\\|work\\=The Canberra Times\\|location\\= \\|access\\-date\\=21 July 2022}}",
""
] |
History
-------
### Overview
The founding members, who had all worked together in a band called Barbie, were [Alexander Bard](/wiki/Alexander_Bard "Alexander Bard"), [Jean\-Pierre Barda](/wiki/Jean-Pierre_Barda "Jean-Pierre Barda"), and [Camilla Henemark](/wiki/Camilla_Henemark "Camilla Henemark") (aka La Camilla).
Army of Lovers had many top 10 hits on the [Eurochart](/wiki/Eurochart_Hot_100_Singles "Eurochart Hot 100 Singles"), the biggest being "[Crucified](/wiki/Crucified_%28Army_of_Lovers_song%29 "Crucified (Army of Lovers song)")", which was one of the biggest\-selling European singles of 1991\. Their total album sales were seven million copies worldwide.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.armyoflovers.net/information/sales\-charts\-awards/ \|title\=Sales, Charts \& Awards \- Army Of Lovers . net \|publisher\=Armyoflovers.net \|access\-date\=21 February 2013 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120309100312/http://www.armyoflovers.net/information/sales\-charts\-awards/ \|archive\-date\=9 March 2012 \|url\-status\=dead }}
The band became famous for their outlandish visual appearance (many of their costumes were created by [Camilla Thulin](/wiki/Camilla_Thulin "Camilla Thulin")), and their high camp music videos directed by Fredrik Boklund.
While [Alexander Bard](/wiki/Alexander_Bard "Alexander Bard") was the brain behind the band,{{Cite web \|last\=Rambarran \|first\=Shara \|date\=6 July 2022 \|title\=Alexander Bard: The "King Midas" of Scandipop? \|url\=https://medium.com/@shararambarran/alexander\-bard\-the\-king\-midas\-of\-scandipop\-ab035ef89dab \|access\-date\=9 July 2022 \|website\=Medium \|language\=en}} [Jean\-Pierre Barda](/wiki/Jean-Pierre_Barda "Jean-Pierre Barda") was the lead vocalist on hits such as "[Crucified](/wiki/Crucified_%28Army_of_Lovers_song%29 "Crucified (Army of Lovers song)")" and "[Israelism](/wiki/Israelism_%28song%29 "Israelism (song)")". Bard and Barda were the only two band members who were present throughout all of the band's various line\-ups. When La Camilla left in 1991, she was replaced by Michaela de la Cour. In 1992, [Dominika Peczynski](/wiki/Dominika_Peczynski "Dominika Peczynski") joined, making the band a four\-piece. In 1995, De la Cour left and Henemark returned.
### Early success and breakup: 1987–1996
Although both "[Obsession](/wiki/Obsession_%28Army_of_Lovers_song%29 "Obsession (Army of Lovers song)")" and "[Ride the Bullet](/wiki/Ride_the_Bullet "Ride the Bullet")" reached the top spot of the European charts, the group's presence in the US and the UK was limited to club chart successes (though "Crucified" reached the [Top 40](/wiki/Top_40 "Top 40") in the [UK Singles Chart](/wiki/UK_Singles_Chart "UK Singles Chart") in February 1992\).{{cite book\| first\=David\| last\=Roberts\| year\=2006\| title\=British Hit Singles \& Albums\| edition\=19th\| publisher\=Guinness World Records Limited\| location\=London\| isbn\=1\-904994\-10\-5\| page\=29}}
While they focused on experimenting with various club sounds and samples on their first album, *Disco Extravaganza* (later re\-issued as *Army of Lovers* in the US), the artists released a proper pop/dance album with *[Massive Luxury Overdose](/wiki/Massive_Luxury_Overdose "Massive Luxury Overdose")*. The record spawned their biggest hits ("[Crucified](/wiki/Crucified_%28Army_of_Lovers_song%29 "Crucified (Army of Lovers song)")", "[Ride the Bullet](/wiki/Ride_the_Bullet "Ride the Bullet")", and "[Obsession](/wiki/Obsession_%28Army_of_Lovers_song%29 "Obsession (Army of Lovers song)")") and managed to sell 250,000 copies in Germany alone. *[Massive Luxury Overdose](/wiki/Massive_Luxury_Overdose "Massive Luxury Overdose")* was later re\-issued for the US market, featuring a new cover and four brand new tracks. Their fourth album, *The Gods of Earth and Heaven*, was never released in the US. The first single from the album, "[Israelism](/wiki/Israelism_%28song%29 "Israelism (song)")", received radio airplay in several European countries and topped the charts in [Israel](/wiki/Israel "Israel") despite being subject to criticism. Their fifth album, *Glory, Glamour and Gold* (1994\), was supported by a club tour across Germany, where the band promoted same\-sex marriage. In 1995, Army of Lovers released their first best\-of compilation entitled *Les Greatest Hits*, which included three new songs. One year later, it was re\-released with one additional new song called "[King Midas](/wiki/King_Midas_%28Army_of_Lovers_song%29 "King Midas (Army of Lovers song)")", which replaced "Stand up for Myself". It was written by [Jonas Berggren](/wiki/Jonas_Berggren "Jonas Berggren") from [Ace of Base](/wiki/Ace_of_Base "Ace of Base").
By this point, they had released five studio albums, made over twenty music videos, and become successful across Eastern Europe before Bard disbanded the group to concentrate on his new group [Vacuum](/wiki/Vacuum_%28band%29 "Vacuum (band)") in 1996\.
### Reunion: 2001–2009
Army of Lovers reformed briefly in 2001 to celebrate the 10th anniversary since their breakthrough with the release of another best\-of compilation called *Le Grand Docu\-Soap*. The compilation contained three covers, including "[Let the Sunshine In](/wiki/Hair_%28musical%29%23Songs "Hair (musical)#Songs")" and "Hands Up".
### Further reunions, releases, and shows: 2011–present
Two members of Army of Lovers (La Camilla and Dominika) reunited in June 2011 and appeared as guest vocalists on "Don't Try to Steal My Limelight", a single by Swedish drag artist and blogger Miss Inga.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.aftonbladet.se/webbtv/noje/article13263464\.ab \|title\=Exklusivt: 90\-talsikonernas comeback \| Nöjesbladet \| Webbtv \| Aftonbladet \|publisher\=Aftonbladet.se \|access\-date\=1 May 2012}} The three later formed the band Happy Hoes and released "We Rule the World",{{cite web\|url\=http://www.armyoflovers.net/2012/06/25/happy\-hoes\-getting\-the\-ball\-rolling/ \|title\=Happy Hoes: Getting the ball rolling \- armyoflovers.net \|publisher\=army\-of\-lovers.net \|access\-date\=8 August 2012 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304035704/http://www.armyoflovers.net/2012/06/25/happy\-hoes\-getting\-the\-ball\-rolling/ \|archive\-date\=4 March 2016 }} followed by a Christmas song entitled "Happy Ho Ho Ho". Happy Hoes performed at Pride 2012\. Army of Lovers reformed with [Alexander Bard](/wiki/Alexander_Bard "Alexander Bard"), [Camilla Henemark](/wiki/Camilla_Henemark "Camilla Henemark"), and [Jean\-Pierre Barda](/wiki/Jean-Pierre_Barda "Jean-Pierre Barda") in late 2012 to enter the [Melodifestivalen 2013](/wiki/Melodifestivalen_2013 "Melodifestivalen 2013") with the song "Rockin' the Ride", in hopes of representing Sweden in the [Eurovision Song Contest 2013](/wiki/Eurovision_Song_Contest_2013 "Eurovision Song Contest 2013") in [Malmö](/wiki/Malm%C3%B6 "Malmö").{{cite web \|url\=http://www.armyoflovers.net/2012/11/26/its\-official\-army\-of\-lovers\-announced\-for\-melodifestivalen\-2013/ \|title\=It's official: Army of Lovers announced for Melodifestivalen 2013 \|publisher\=Armyoflovers.net \|access\-date\=21 February 2013 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130217041846/http://www.armyoflovers.net/2012/11/26/its\-official\-army\-of\-lovers\-announced\-for\-melodifestivalen\-2013/ \|archive\-date\=17 February 2013 \|url\-status\=dead }}{{cite web \|url\=http://europecrazy.blogspot.de/2013/03/army\-of\-lovers\-you\-wanted\-drama\-you\-got.html \|title\=EuropeCrazy \|date\=3 March 2013 \|access\-date\=2 July 2013}} Their entry did not reach the finals of the Melodifestivalen. Just a few days after their performance, Bard explained to the press that [Camilla Henemark](/wiki/Camilla_Henemark "Camilla Henemark") had been kicked out once again and that [Dominika Peczynski](/wiki/Dominika_Peczynski "Dominika Peczynski") had returned. This was followed by a public fight between Bard and Peczynski against Henemark.{{cite web\|url\=http://12points.tv/more\-nationals\-13/item/1718\-army\-of\-lovers\-la\-camilla\-says\-love\-forgive\-forget \|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20130702113336/http://12points.tv/more\-nationals\-13/item/1718\-army\-of\-lovers\-la\-camilla\-says\-love\-forgive\-forget \|archive\-date\=2 July 2013 \|title\=Army of Lovers' La Camilla says: love, forgive, forget \|url\-status\=dead \|access\-date\=2 July 2013 }}
A new best\-of compilation, with four new songs, called *Big Battle of Egos*, was announced for release on 27 March 2013, to be followed by a single and video called "Signed on My Tattoo", a duet between Army of Lovers and Alexander Bard with his other pop group [Gravitonas](/wiki/Gravitonas "Gravitonas").
In June 2013, an EP called *Scandinavian Crime* was released, which included re\-recorded versions of "Rockin' The Ride" and "Tragedy", originally from their CD *Big Battle of Egos*. These new versions featured new vocals by [Dominika Peczynski](/wiki/Dominika_Peczynski "Dominika Peczynski") and [Jean\-Pierre Barda](/wiki/Jean-Pierre_Barda "Jean-Pierre Barda"), replacing the parts originally sung by Camilla Henemark. On 1 July 2013, the video for "Crucified 2013" premiered on Expressen TV. The song was a revamped version of the band's breakthrough hit from 1991 and was chosen as the official anthem for [Copenhagen Pride](/wiki/Copenhagen_Pride "Copenhagen Pride") 2013\.{{citation needed\|date\=January 2020}}
In November 2023, the band released the album *Sexodus*.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"### Overview",
"The founding members, who had all worked together in a band called Barbie, were [Alexander Bard](/wiki/Alexander_Bard \"Alexander Bard\"), [Jean\\-Pierre Barda](/wiki/Jean-Pierre_Barda \"Jean-Pierre Barda\"), and [Camilla Henemark](/wiki/Camilla_Henemark \"Camilla Henemark\") (aka La Camilla).",
"Army of Lovers had many top 10 hits on the [Eurochart](/wiki/Eurochart_Hot_100_Singles \"Eurochart Hot 100 Singles\"), the biggest being \"[Crucified](/wiki/Crucified_%28Army_of_Lovers_song%29 \"Crucified (Army of Lovers song)\")\", which was one of the biggest\\-selling European singles of 1991\\. Their total album sales were seven million copies worldwide.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.armyoflovers.net/information/sales\\-charts\\-awards/ \\|title\\=Sales, Charts \\& Awards \\- Army Of Lovers . net \\|publisher\\=Armyoflovers.net \\|access\\-date\\=21 February 2013 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120309100312/http://www.armyoflovers.net/information/sales\\-charts\\-awards/ \\|archive\\-date\\=9 March 2012 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}",
"The band became famous for their outlandish visual appearance (many of their costumes were created by [Camilla Thulin](/wiki/Camilla_Thulin \"Camilla Thulin\")), and their high camp music videos directed by Fredrik Boklund.",
"While [Alexander Bard](/wiki/Alexander_Bard \"Alexander Bard\") was the brain behind the band,{{Cite web \\|last\\=Rambarran \\|first\\=Shara \\|date\\=6 July 2022 \\|title\\=Alexander Bard: The \"King Midas\" of Scandipop? \\|url\\=https://medium.com/@shararambarran/alexander\\-bard\\-the\\-king\\-midas\\-of\\-scandipop\\-ab035ef89dab \\|access\\-date\\=9 July 2022 \\|website\\=Medium \\|language\\=en}} [Jean\\-Pierre Barda](/wiki/Jean-Pierre_Barda \"Jean-Pierre Barda\") was the lead vocalist on hits such as \"[Crucified](/wiki/Crucified_%28Army_of_Lovers_song%29 \"Crucified (Army of Lovers song)\")\" and \"[Israelism](/wiki/Israelism_%28song%29 \"Israelism (song)\")\". Bard and Barda were the only two band members who were present throughout all of the band's various line\\-ups. When La Camilla left in 1991, she was replaced by Michaela de la Cour. In 1992, [Dominika Peczynski](/wiki/Dominika_Peczynski \"Dominika Peczynski\") joined, making the band a four\\-piece. In 1995, De la Cour left and Henemark returned.",
"### Early success and breakup: 1987–1996",
"Although both \"[Obsession](/wiki/Obsession_%28Army_of_Lovers_song%29 \"Obsession (Army of Lovers song)\")\" and \"[Ride the Bullet](/wiki/Ride_the_Bullet \"Ride the Bullet\")\" reached the top spot of the European charts, the group's presence in the US and the UK was limited to club chart successes (though \"Crucified\" reached the [Top 40](/wiki/Top_40 \"Top 40\") in the [UK Singles Chart](/wiki/UK_Singles_Chart \"UK Singles Chart\") in February 1992\\).{{cite book\\| first\\=David\\| last\\=Roberts\\| year\\=2006\\| title\\=British Hit Singles \\& Albums\\| edition\\=19th\\| publisher\\=Guinness World Records Limited\\| location\\=London\\| isbn\\=1\\-904994\\-10\\-5\\| page\\=29}}",
"While they focused on experimenting with various club sounds and samples on their first album, *Disco Extravaganza* (later re\\-issued as *Army of Lovers* in the US), the artists released a proper pop/dance album with *[Massive Luxury Overdose](/wiki/Massive_Luxury_Overdose \"Massive Luxury Overdose\")*. The record spawned their biggest hits (\"[Crucified](/wiki/Crucified_%28Army_of_Lovers_song%29 \"Crucified (Army of Lovers song)\")\", \"[Ride the Bullet](/wiki/Ride_the_Bullet \"Ride the Bullet\")\", and \"[Obsession](/wiki/Obsession_%28Army_of_Lovers_song%29 \"Obsession (Army of Lovers song)\")\") and managed to sell 250,000 copies in Germany alone. *[Massive Luxury Overdose](/wiki/Massive_Luxury_Overdose \"Massive Luxury Overdose\")* was later re\\-issued for the US market, featuring a new cover and four brand new tracks. Their fourth album, *The Gods of Earth and Heaven*, was never released in the US. The first single from the album, \"[Israelism](/wiki/Israelism_%28song%29 \"Israelism (song)\")\", received radio airplay in several European countries and topped the charts in [Israel](/wiki/Israel \"Israel\") despite being subject to criticism. Their fifth album, *Glory, Glamour and Gold* (1994\\), was supported by a club tour across Germany, where the band promoted same\\-sex marriage. In 1995, Army of Lovers released their first best\\-of compilation entitled *Les Greatest Hits*, which included three new songs. One year later, it was re\\-released with one additional new song called \"[King Midas](/wiki/King_Midas_%28Army_of_Lovers_song%29 \"King Midas (Army of Lovers song)\")\", which replaced \"Stand up for Myself\". It was written by [Jonas Berggren](/wiki/Jonas_Berggren \"Jonas Berggren\") from [Ace of Base](/wiki/Ace_of_Base \"Ace of Base\").",
"By this point, they had released five studio albums, made over twenty music videos, and become successful across Eastern Europe before Bard disbanded the group to concentrate on his new group [Vacuum](/wiki/Vacuum_%28band%29 \"Vacuum (band)\") in 1996\\.",
"### Reunion: 2001–2009",
"Army of Lovers reformed briefly in 2001 to celebrate the 10th anniversary since their breakthrough with the release of another best\\-of compilation called *Le Grand Docu\\-Soap*. The compilation contained three covers, including \"[Let the Sunshine In](/wiki/Hair_%28musical%29%23Songs \"Hair (musical)#Songs\")\" and \"Hands Up\".",
"### Further reunions, releases, and shows: 2011–present",
"Two members of Army of Lovers (La Camilla and Dominika) reunited in June 2011 and appeared as guest vocalists on \"Don't Try to Steal My Limelight\", a single by Swedish drag artist and blogger Miss Inga.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.aftonbladet.se/webbtv/noje/article13263464\\.ab \\|title\\=Exklusivt: 90\\-talsikonernas comeback \\| Nöjesbladet \\| Webbtv \\| Aftonbladet \\|publisher\\=Aftonbladet.se \\|access\\-date\\=1 May 2012}} The three later formed the band Happy Hoes and released \"We Rule the World\",{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.armyoflovers.net/2012/06/25/happy\\-hoes\\-getting\\-the\\-ball\\-rolling/ \\|title\\=Happy Hoes: Getting the ball rolling \\- armyoflovers.net \\|publisher\\=army\\-of\\-lovers.net \\|access\\-date\\=8 August 2012 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304035704/http://www.armyoflovers.net/2012/06/25/happy\\-hoes\\-getting\\-the\\-ball\\-rolling/ \\|archive\\-date\\=4 March 2016 }} followed by a Christmas song entitled \"Happy Ho Ho Ho\". Happy Hoes performed at Pride 2012\\. Army of Lovers reformed with [Alexander Bard](/wiki/Alexander_Bard \"Alexander Bard\"), [Camilla Henemark](/wiki/Camilla_Henemark \"Camilla Henemark\"), and [Jean\\-Pierre Barda](/wiki/Jean-Pierre_Barda \"Jean-Pierre Barda\") in late 2012 to enter the [Melodifestivalen 2013](/wiki/Melodifestivalen_2013 \"Melodifestivalen 2013\") with the song \"Rockin' the Ride\", in hopes of representing Sweden in the [Eurovision Song Contest 2013](/wiki/Eurovision_Song_Contest_2013 \"Eurovision Song Contest 2013\") in [Malmö](/wiki/Malm%C3%B6 \"Malmö\").{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.armyoflovers.net/2012/11/26/its\\-official\\-army\\-of\\-lovers\\-announced\\-for\\-melodifestivalen\\-2013/ \\|title\\=It's official: Army of Lovers announced for Melodifestivalen 2013 \\|publisher\\=Armyoflovers.net \\|access\\-date\\=21 February 2013 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130217041846/http://www.armyoflovers.net/2012/11/26/its\\-official\\-army\\-of\\-lovers\\-announced\\-for\\-melodifestivalen\\-2013/ \\|archive\\-date\\=17 February 2013 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}{{cite web \\|url\\=http://europecrazy.blogspot.de/2013/03/army\\-of\\-lovers\\-you\\-wanted\\-drama\\-you\\-got.html \\|title\\=EuropeCrazy \\|date\\=3 March 2013 \\|access\\-date\\=2 July 2013}} Their entry did not reach the finals of the Melodifestivalen. Just a few days after their performance, Bard explained to the press that [Camilla Henemark](/wiki/Camilla_Henemark \"Camilla Henemark\") had been kicked out once again and that [Dominika Peczynski](/wiki/Dominika_Peczynski \"Dominika Peczynski\") had returned. This was followed by a public fight between Bard and Peczynski against Henemark.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://12points.tv/more\\-nationals\\-13/item/1718\\-army\\-of\\-lovers\\-la\\-camilla\\-says\\-love\\-forgive\\-forget \\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20130702113336/http://12points.tv/more\\-nationals\\-13/item/1718\\-army\\-of\\-lovers\\-la\\-camilla\\-says\\-love\\-forgive\\-forget \\|archive\\-date\\=2 July 2013 \\|title\\=Army of Lovers' La Camilla says: love, forgive, forget \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|access\\-date\\=2 July 2013 }}",
"A new best\\-of compilation, with four new songs, called *Big Battle of Egos*, was announced for release on 27 March 2013, to be followed by a single and video called \"Signed on My Tattoo\", a duet between Army of Lovers and Alexander Bard with his other pop group [Gravitonas](/wiki/Gravitonas \"Gravitonas\").",
"In June 2013, an EP called *Scandinavian Crime* was released, which included re\\-recorded versions of \"Rockin' The Ride\" and \"Tragedy\", originally from their CD *Big Battle of Egos*. These new versions featured new vocals by [Dominika Peczynski](/wiki/Dominika_Peczynski \"Dominika Peczynski\") and [Jean\\-Pierre Barda](/wiki/Jean-Pierre_Barda \"Jean-Pierre Barda\"), replacing the parts originally sung by Camilla Henemark. On 1 July 2013, the video for \"Crucified 2013\" premiered on Expressen TV. The song was a revamped version of the band's breakthrough hit from 1991 and was chosen as the official anthem for [Copenhagen Pride](/wiki/Copenhagen_Pride \"Copenhagen Pride\") 2013\\.{{citation needed\\|date\\=January 2020}}",
"In November 2023, the band released the album *Sexodus*.",
""
] |
History
-------
8TV began as a local TV channel in Barcelona in 2001\. In its early years, the station used the [Citytv](/wiki/Citytv "Citytv") name and brand identity, similar to the Citytv system of television stations in Canada and licensed to Grupo Godó by then\-owner of the brand, [CHUM Television International](/wiki/CHUM_Limited "CHUM Limited"). Officially limited to inner Barcelona, it slowly expanded its coverage to the suburbs of the city, as well as other important places such as [Girona](/wiki/Girona "Girona") or [Lleida](/wiki/Lleida "Lleida").
In 2003, [Emissions Digitals de Catalunya](/wiki/Emissions_Digitals_de_Catalunya "Emissions Digitals de Catalunya") (Digital Broadcasting of Catalonia), won a bid for a digital license to broadcast in all [Catalonia](/wiki/Catalonia "Catalonia"), ([DVB\-T](/wiki/DVB-T "DVB-T")). As the Godó group was part of this commercial bid, Citytv could (by law) broadcast as a *de facto* Catalonia\-wide station, but only in digital.
As the first launch of [Digital terrestrial television](/wiki/Digital_terrestrial_television "Digital terrestrial television") in Catalan Countries in 2003 did not succeed, most television channels decided to postpone any further plans to broadcast in digital. Consequently, Citytv continued to expand its analogue coverage in the following years. For all this, it was not until March 2005 that Citytv began broadcasting in DVB\-T in March 2005 (restricted to Barcelona).
With a steady relaunch of Digital terrestrial television in November 2005, the channel's owners decided to rename Citytv to 8TV and become a private Catalan broadcaster.
On 27 February 2006, the channel was renamed TD8 (*Televisió Digital 8* "Digital Television 8"), and began broadcasting to all Catalonia (in analogue). Initial digital coverage was limited to Barcelona, but on 4 April 2006 TD8 was also available in [Tarragona](/wiki/Tarragona "Tarragona"), [Girona](/wiki/Girona "Girona") and [Lleida](/wiki/Lleida "Lleida"). Later that year, TD8 was once again renamed 8TV\- *vuit televisió* (eight television).
As of 2007, the channel began to reduce the percentage of its own production, which is why only some entertainment and information programs were kept, in addition to increasing the programming of series and movies, while some of its journalists left the channel.{{cite web \|title\=El Grupo Godó cambia la dirección de su radio y televisión \|url\=http://www2\.elplural.com/politica/detail.php?id\=15465 \|website\=El Plural \|access\-date\=20 March 2023 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20071115133100/http://www2\.elplural.com/politica/detail.php?id\=15465 \|archive\-date\=15 November 2007 \|language\=es \|date\=15 November 2007}} Since that period, the channel increased its synergy with [RAC 1](/wiki/RAC_1 "RAC 1"), which is why some radio programs began to be broadcast on TV.
In 2015, Grupo Godó and [Mediaset España](/wiki/Mediaset_Espa%C3%B1a "Mediaset España") entered into an alliance to improve the situation of the channel, for which Mediaset bought 40% of the shares of Emissions Digitals de Catalunya, the company that owned 8TV, which came to reinforce spaces like *Arucitys* (entertainment) and *8 al día* (news and debates), which were the main programs on 8TV.{{cite web \|title\=Grupo Godó y Mediaset establecen una alianza para impulsar 8tv \|url\=https://www.lavanguardia.com/comunicacion/20150521/54431362555/grupo\-godo\-mediaset\-8tv.html \|website\=La Vanguardia \|access\-date\=20 March 2023 \|language\=es \|date\=21 May 2015}} In 2018 the channel stopped broadcasting Arucitys because its presenter, Alfonso Arús, was hired by [LaSexta](/wiki/LaSexta "LaSexta") to do a similar program nationwide. Subsequently, the channel also stopped broadcasting *8 al día*, so it returned to programming based on series, films, contests and documentaries, some of them broadcast by [TV3](/wiki/TV3_%28Catalonia%29 "TV3 (Catalonia)") in previous years.{{cite web \|title\=8tv apuesta por los contenidos de ficción \|url\=https://www.grupogodo.com/8tv\-apuesta\-por\-los\-contenidos\-de\-ficcion/ \|website\=Grupo Godó \|access\-date\=20 March 2023 \|language\=es}}
In 2021, Emissions Digitals de Catalunya was bought by the company OC 2022,{{cite web \|last1\=Buesa \|first1\=Jokin \|title\=EL CAC autoriza la venta: la nueva 8tv tiene luz verde \|url\=https://www.elnacional.cat/enblau/es/television/nova\-8tv\-cac\-autoriza\-venta\-nicola\-pedrazzoli\-godo\-logos\_629312\_102\.html \|website\=En Blau \|publisher\=El Nacional.cat \|access\-date\=20 March 2023 \|language\=es \|date\=15 July 2021}} which is why it began a process to reform the channel so that it would once again be occupied mostly by its own programming with the aim of competing with TV3\.{{cite web \|last1\=Buesa \|first1\=Jokin \|title\=La nueva 8tv se estrena en redes con un claro mensaje desafiando a TV3 \|url\=https://www.elnacional.cat/enblau/es/television/nueva\-8tv\-mensaje\-desafio\-tv3\-estais\-preparados\-estreno\-30\-agosto\_638951\_102\.html \|website\=En Blau \|publisher\=El Nacional.cat \|access\-date\=20 March 2023 \|language\=es \|date\=24 August 2021}} The programming was once again based on news and entertainment programs produced live, in addition, the channel hired some figures from Catalan politics and TV3 to present some programs this with the aim of capturing viewers who are dissatisfied with [Catalan public television](/wiki/TV3_%28Catalonia%29 "TV3 (Catalonia)") and looking the support of some political parties.{{cite web \|last1\=Anguera de Sojo \|first1\=Ivá \|title\=Junts busca en 8TV su espacio en los medios tras abandonar el Govern \|url\=https://www.elindependiente.com/espana/2022/10/16/junts\-busca\-en\-8tv\-su\-espacio\-en\-los\-medios\-tras\-abandonar\-el\-govern/ \|website\=elindependiente.com \|access\-date\=22 March 2023 \|language\=es \|date\=16 October 2022}}
On June 2, 2023, the company managing the channel, Emissions Digitals de Catalunya, declared a [debt moratorium](/wiki/Debt_moratorium "Debt moratorium"), starting a 3\-month period to renegotiate the debt with its creditors.{{Cite web \|date\=2023\-06\-02 \|title\=8TV es declara en preconcurs de creditors \|url\=https://elmon.cat/comunicacio/8tv\-preconcurs\-creditors\-677971/ \|access\-date\=2023\-10\-16 \|website\=El Món \- Notícies i actualitat d'última hora en Català \|language\=ca}} After having obtained an overtime concession from the [Catalan government](/wiki/Generalitat_de_Catalunya "Generalitat de Catalunya"), the company filed for bankruptcy and the channel was due to cease broadcasting at midnight on 15 October 2023\.{{Cite web \|last\=Gutiérrez \|first\=Àlex \|date\=2023\-10\-01 \|title\=8TV aconsegueix 'in extremis' una pròrroga de quinze dies abans d'anar a negre \|url\=https://www.ara.cat/media/8tv\-ja\-hora\-imminent\-d\-negre\_1\_4815231\.html \|access\-date\=2023\-10\-16 \|website\=Ara.cat \|language\=ca}} The broadcast finally ended on 17 October 2023 at 00:03 CEST.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"8TV began as a local TV channel in Barcelona in 2001\\. In its early years, the station used the [Citytv](/wiki/Citytv \"Citytv\") name and brand identity, similar to the Citytv system of television stations in Canada and licensed to Grupo Godó by then\\-owner of the brand, [CHUM Television International](/wiki/CHUM_Limited \"CHUM Limited\"). Officially limited to inner Barcelona, it slowly expanded its coverage to the suburbs of the city, as well as other important places such as [Girona](/wiki/Girona \"Girona\") or [Lleida](/wiki/Lleida \"Lleida\").",
"In 2003, [Emissions Digitals de Catalunya](/wiki/Emissions_Digitals_de_Catalunya \"Emissions Digitals de Catalunya\") (Digital Broadcasting of Catalonia), won a bid for a digital license to broadcast in all [Catalonia](/wiki/Catalonia \"Catalonia\"), ([DVB\\-T](/wiki/DVB-T \"DVB-T\")). As the Godó group was part of this commercial bid, Citytv could (by law) broadcast as a *de facto* Catalonia\\-wide station, but only in digital.",
"As the first launch of [Digital terrestrial television](/wiki/Digital_terrestrial_television \"Digital terrestrial television\") in Catalan Countries in 2003 did not succeed, most television channels decided to postpone any further plans to broadcast in digital. Consequently, Citytv continued to expand its analogue coverage in the following years. For all this, it was not until March 2005 that Citytv began broadcasting in DVB\\-T in March 2005 (restricted to Barcelona).",
"With a steady relaunch of Digital terrestrial television in November 2005, the channel's owners decided to rename Citytv to 8TV and become a private Catalan broadcaster.",
"On 27 February 2006, the channel was renamed TD8 (*Televisió Digital 8* \"Digital Television 8\"), and began broadcasting to all Catalonia (in analogue). Initial digital coverage was limited to Barcelona, but on 4 April 2006 TD8 was also available in [Tarragona](/wiki/Tarragona \"Tarragona\"), [Girona](/wiki/Girona \"Girona\") and [Lleida](/wiki/Lleida \"Lleida\"). Later that year, TD8 was once again renamed 8TV\\- *vuit televisió* (eight television).",
"As of 2007, the channel began to reduce the percentage of its own production, which is why only some entertainment and information programs were kept, in addition to increasing the programming of series and movies, while some of its journalists left the channel.{{cite web \\|title\\=El Grupo Godó cambia la dirección de su radio y televisión \\|url\\=http://www2\\.elplural.com/politica/detail.php?id\\=15465 \\|website\\=El Plural \\|access\\-date\\=20 March 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20071115133100/http://www2\\.elplural.com/politica/detail.php?id\\=15465 \\|archive\\-date\\=15 November 2007 \\|language\\=es \\|date\\=15 November 2007}} Since that period, the channel increased its synergy with [RAC 1](/wiki/RAC_1 \"RAC 1\"), which is why some radio programs began to be broadcast on TV.",
"In 2015, Grupo Godó and [Mediaset España](/wiki/Mediaset_Espa%C3%B1a \"Mediaset España\") entered into an alliance to improve the situation of the channel, for which Mediaset bought 40% of the shares of Emissions Digitals de Catalunya, the company that owned 8TV, which came to reinforce spaces like *Arucitys* (entertainment) and *8 al día* (news and debates), which were the main programs on 8TV.{{cite web \\|title\\=Grupo Godó y Mediaset establecen una alianza para impulsar 8tv \\|url\\=https://www.lavanguardia.com/comunicacion/20150521/54431362555/grupo\\-godo\\-mediaset\\-8tv.html \\|website\\=La Vanguardia \\|access\\-date\\=20 March 2023 \\|language\\=es \\|date\\=21 May 2015}} In 2018 the channel stopped broadcasting Arucitys because its presenter, Alfonso Arús, was hired by [LaSexta](/wiki/LaSexta \"LaSexta\") to do a similar program nationwide. Subsequently, the channel also stopped broadcasting *8 al día*, so it returned to programming based on series, films, contests and documentaries, some of them broadcast by [TV3](/wiki/TV3_%28Catalonia%29 \"TV3 (Catalonia)\") in previous years.{{cite web \\|title\\=8tv apuesta por los contenidos de ficción \\|url\\=https://www.grupogodo.com/8tv\\-apuesta\\-por\\-los\\-contenidos\\-de\\-ficcion/ \\|website\\=Grupo Godó \\|access\\-date\\=20 March 2023 \\|language\\=es}}",
"In 2021, Emissions Digitals de Catalunya was bought by the company OC 2022,{{cite web \\|last1\\=Buesa \\|first1\\=Jokin \\|title\\=EL CAC autoriza la venta: la nueva 8tv tiene luz verde \\|url\\=https://www.elnacional.cat/enblau/es/television/nova\\-8tv\\-cac\\-autoriza\\-venta\\-nicola\\-pedrazzoli\\-godo\\-logos\\_629312\\_102\\.html \\|website\\=En Blau \\|publisher\\=El Nacional.cat \\|access\\-date\\=20 March 2023 \\|language\\=es \\|date\\=15 July 2021}} which is why it began a process to reform the channel so that it would once again be occupied mostly by its own programming with the aim of competing with TV3\\.{{cite web \\|last1\\=Buesa \\|first1\\=Jokin \\|title\\=La nueva 8tv se estrena en redes con un claro mensaje desafiando a TV3 \\|url\\=https://www.elnacional.cat/enblau/es/television/nueva\\-8tv\\-mensaje\\-desafio\\-tv3\\-estais\\-preparados\\-estreno\\-30\\-agosto\\_638951\\_102\\.html \\|website\\=En Blau \\|publisher\\=El Nacional.cat \\|access\\-date\\=20 March 2023 \\|language\\=es \\|date\\=24 August 2021}} The programming was once again based on news and entertainment programs produced live, in addition, the channel hired some figures from Catalan politics and TV3 to present some programs this with the aim of capturing viewers who are dissatisfied with [Catalan public television](/wiki/TV3_%28Catalonia%29 \"TV3 (Catalonia)\") and looking the support of some political parties.{{cite web \\|last1\\=Anguera de Sojo \\|first1\\=Ivá \\|title\\=Junts busca en 8TV su espacio en los medios tras abandonar el Govern \\|url\\=https://www.elindependiente.com/espana/2022/10/16/junts\\-busca\\-en\\-8tv\\-su\\-espacio\\-en\\-los\\-medios\\-tras\\-abandonar\\-el\\-govern/ \\|website\\=elindependiente.com \\|access\\-date\\=22 March 2023 \\|language\\=es \\|date\\=16 October 2022}}",
"On June 2, 2023, the company managing the channel, Emissions Digitals de Catalunya, declared a [debt moratorium](/wiki/Debt_moratorium \"Debt moratorium\"), starting a 3\\-month period to renegotiate the debt with its creditors.{{Cite web \\|date\\=2023\\-06\\-02 \\|title\\=8TV es declara en preconcurs de creditors \\|url\\=https://elmon.cat/comunicacio/8tv\\-preconcurs\\-creditors\\-677971/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-10\\-16 \\|website\\=El Món \\- Notícies i actualitat d'última hora en Català \\|language\\=ca}} After having obtained an overtime concession from the [Catalan government](/wiki/Generalitat_de_Catalunya \"Generalitat de Catalunya\"), the company filed for bankruptcy and the channel was due to cease broadcasting at midnight on 15 October 2023\\.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Gutiérrez \\|first\\=Àlex \\|date\\=2023\\-10\\-01 \\|title\\=8TV aconsegueix 'in extremis' una pròrroga de quinze dies abans d'anar a negre \\|url\\=https://www.ara.cat/media/8tv\\-ja\\-hora\\-imminent\\-d\\-negre\\_1\\_4815231\\.html \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-10\\-16 \\|website\\=Ara.cat \\|language\\=ca}} The broadcast finally ended on 17 October 2023 at 00:03 CEST.",
""
] |
History
-------
{{see also\|Timeline of Kharkiv}}
{{main\|History of Kharkiv}}
{{Quote box \|width\=23em \|align\=left \|bgcolor\=GhostWhite
\| title \= Historical affiliations
\| fontsize \= 90%
\| quote \= '''De\-jure:'''{{flagicon image\|Flag of Oryol (variant).svg}}{{flagicon image\|Flag of Russia.svg}} \[\[Tsardom of Russia\|RT]]/\[\[Russian Empire\|RI]] 1654–1789
'''De\-facto:'''{{flagicon image\|Kharkiv\_Regiment.svg}} \[\[Kharkiv Regiment]] 1654–1789
{{flagicon image\|Flag of Russia.svg}} \[\[Russian Empire]] 1789–1917
'''Beginning of 1917\-–1921 Revolution'''
{{flagicon image\|Flag of Russia.svg}} \[\[Russian Provisional Government]] Mar–Nov 1917
{{flagicon image\|Flag\_of\_Ukraine\_(1917–1921\).svg}} \[\[Ukrainian People's Republic\|UPR]] Nov\-–Dec 1917
{{flagicon image\|Flag\_of\_Ukrainian\_People's\_Republic\_of\_the\_Soviets.svg}} \[\[Ukrainian People's Republic of Soviets\|UPRS]] Dec 1917 – Apr 1918
{{flagicon image\|Flag\_of\_Ukraine\_(1917–1921\).svg}} \[\[Ukrainian People's Republic]]/\[\[Ukrainian State]] Apr 1918 – Jan 1919
{{flagicon image\|Socialist\_red\_flag.svg}} \[\[Provisional Workers' and Peasants' Government of Ukraine\|PWPGU]]/{{flagicon image\|Flag\_of\_Ukrainian\_People's\_Republic\_of\_the\_Soviets.svg}} \[\[Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic\|UkSSR]] 1919 Jan–Jun
{{flagicon image\|Flag\_of\_Russia.svg}} \[\[Armed Forces of South Russia\|ARSR]] 1919 Jun–Dec
{{flagicon image\|Flag\_of\_Ukrainian\_People's\_Republic\_of\_the\_Soviets.svg}} \[\[Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic\|UkSSR]] Dec 1919 – Dec 1922
'''End of 1917\-–1921 Revolution'''
{{flagicon image\|Flag\_of\_the\_Soviet\_Union\_(1924\).svg}} \[\[USSR]] 1922–1941
{{flagicon image\|Flag\_of\_Germany\_(1935–1945\).svg}} \[\[Third Reich]] 1941–1943
{{flagicon image\|Flag\_of\_the\_USSR\_(1936\-1955\).svg}} \[\[USSR]] Feb–Mar 1943
{{flagicon image\|Flag\_of\_Germany\_(1935–1945\).svg}} \[\[Third Reich]] Mar–Sep 1943
{{flagicon image\|Flag\_of\_the\_Soviet\_Union.svg}} \[\[USSR]] 1943–1991
{{flagicon image\|Flag\_of\_Ukraine.svg}} \[\[Ukraine]] 1991–present
}}
### Early history
[thumb\|A depiction of the legendary founder "Khariton or Kharko" (postcard of the Russian imperial period, c. 1890s).](/wiki/File:Kharko.jpg "Kharko.jpg")
The earliest historical references to the region are to [Scythian](/wiki/Scythians "Scythians") and [Sarmatian](/wiki/Sarmatians "Sarmatians") settlement in the 2nd century BC. Between the 2nd to the 6th centuries AD there is evidence of [Chernyakhov culture](/wiki/Chernyakhov_culture "Chernyakhov culture"), a multiethnic mix of the [Geto](/wiki/Getae "Getae")\-[Dacian](/wiki/Dacians "Dacians"), [Sarmatian](/wiki/Sarmatians "Sarmatians"), and [Gothic](/wiki/Goths "Goths") populations.
{{cite book \|last1\= Eiddon \|first1\=Iorwerth \|last2\= Edwards \|first2\=Stephen \|last3\= Heather \|first3\=Peter \|year\= 1998 \|title\=The Late Empire \|volume\=13 \|publisher\=Cambridge University Press \|series\=The Cambridge Ancient History \|chapter\=Goths \& Huns \|isbn\=0\-521\-30200\-5 \|page\=488}} In the 8th to 10th centuries the [Khazar](/wiki/Khazar "Khazar") fortress of *Verkhneye Saltovo* stood about {{convert\|25\|miles}} east of the modern city, near [Staryi Saltiv](/wiki/Staryi_Saltiv "Staryi Saltiv").Kevin Alan Brook, *The Jews of Khazaria* (2006\), [p. 34](https://books.google.com/books?id=hEuIveNl9kcC&pg=PA34) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405180157/https://books.google.com/books?id\=hEuIveNl9kcC\&pg\=PA34 \|date\=5 April 2023 }}. During the 12th century, the area was part of the territory of the [Cumans](/wiki/Cumans "Cumans"), and then from the mid 13th century of the [Mongol](/wiki/Mongol_Empire "Mongol Empire")/[Tartar](/wiki/Tatars "Tatars") [Golden Horde](/wiki/Golden_Horde "Golden Horde").
By the early 17th century the area was a contested frontier region with renegade populations that had begun to organise in [Cossack](/wiki/Cossacks "Cossacks") formations and communities defined by a common determination to resist both [Tatar](/wiki/Tatars "Tatars") slavery, and Polish\-Lithuanian and Russian [serfdom](/wiki/Serfdom "Serfdom"). Mid\-century, the [Khmelnytsky uprising](/wiki/Khmelnytsky_uprising "Khmelnytsky uprising") against the [Polish\-Lithuanian Commonwealth](/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth "Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth") saw the brief establishment of an independent [Cossack Hetmanate](/wiki/Cossack_Hetmanate "Cossack Hetmanate").{{cite book \|author\=Roman Solchanyk \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=LNvTSDQXFXgC\&pg\=PA6 \|title\=Ukraine and Russia: The Post\-Soviet Transition \|date\=January 2001 \|publisher\=Rowman \& Littlefield \|isbn\=978\-0\-7425\-1018\-0 \|page\=6 \|access\-date\=31 March 2015 \|archive\-date\=2 October 2023 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20231002071000/https://books.google.com/books?id\=LNvTSDQXFXgC\&pg\=PA6\#v\=onepage\&q\&f\=false \|url\-status\=live }}
### Kharkiv Fortress
In 1654 in the midst of this period of turmoil for [Right\-bank Ukraine](/wiki/Right-bank_Ukraine "Right-bank Ukraine"), groups of people came onto the banks of [Lopan](/wiki/Lopan_River "Lopan River") and [Kharkiv](/wiki/Kharkiv_River "Kharkiv River") rivers where they resurrected and fortified an abandoned settlement.{{Cite web \|script\-title\=uk:Живий Харків. Нічна екскурсія містом\-господарем \|trans\-title\=Living Kharkiv. Nightly excursion through the host\-city \|url\=https://www.istpravda.com.ua/articles/2012/06/8/88316/ \|access\-date\=2023\-07\-01 \|website\=\[\[Ukrainska Pravda]] \|archive\-date\=7 May 2021 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210507102527/https://www.istpravda.com.ua/articles/2012/06/8/88316/ \|url\-status\=live }} There is a folk etymology that connects the name of both the settlement and the river to a legendary [Cossack founder named *Kharko*](/wiki/Zakhary_Chepiha "Zakhary Chepiha")Ivan Katchanovski et al. (eds.), *Historical Dictionary of Ukraine* (2013\), [p. 253](https://books.google.com/books?id=-h6r57lDC4QC&pg=PA253) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405180150/https://books.google.com/books?id\=\-h6r57lDC4QC\&pg\=PA253\|date\=5 April 2023}} (a diminutive form of the Greek name [Chariton](/wiki/Chariton_%28name%29 "Chariton (name)"), {{langx\|uk\|Харитон\|translit\=Kharyton}}, or [Zechariah](/wiki/Zechariah_%28given_name%29 "Zechariah (given name)"), {{langx\|uk\|Захарій\|translit\=Zakharii}}).{{cite web\|url\=https://uk.wikisource.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%96%D0%BD%D0%BA%D0%B0:%D0%9A%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%BB%D1%8F%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B2%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9\.\_%D0%95%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%B8%D0%B4%D0%B0\_%D0%BD%D0%B0\_%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%81%D1%96%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D1%96%D0%B9\_%D1%8F%D0%B7%D1%8B%D0%BA%D1%8A\_%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%86%D1%97%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F.\_1798\.pdf/175\|publisher\=uk.wikisource.org\|title\=Сторінка:Котляревський. Енеида на малороссійскій языкъ перелицїованная. 1798\.pdf/175 — Вікіджерела\|access\-date\=18 June 2017\|archive\-date\=19 October 2017\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171019082952/https://uk.wikisource.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%96%D0%BD%D0%BA%D0%B0:%D0%9A%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%BB%D1%8F%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B2%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9\.\_%D0%95%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%B8%D0%B4%D0%B0\_%D0%BD%D0%B0\_%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%81%D1%96%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D1%96%D0%B9\_%D1%8F%D0%B7%D1%8B%D0%BA%D1%8A\_%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%86%D1%97%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F.\_1798\.pdf/175\|url\-status\=live}} But the river's name is attested earlier than the foundation of the fortress.Slavs in Canada, vol. 2, Inter\-university Committee on Canadian Slavs (1968\), p. 255\.
The settlement reluctantly accepted the protection and authority of a Russian [voivode](/wiki/Voivode "Voivode") from [Chuhuiv](/wiki/Chuhuiv "Chuhuiv") {{convert\|40\|km\|mi}} to the east. The first appointed voivode from Moscow was Voyin Selifontov in 1656, who began to build a local [ostrog](/wiki/Ostrog_%28fortress%29 "Ostrog (fortress)") (fort). In 1658, a new voivode, Ivan Ofrosimov, commanded the locals to kiss the cross in a demonstration of loyalty to [Tsar Alexis](/wiki/Alexis_of_Russia "Alexis of Russia"). Led by their [otaman](/wiki/Otaman "Otaman") Ivan Kryvoshlyk, they refused. However, with the election of a new otaman, Tymish Lavrynov, relations appear to have been repaired, the Tsar in Moscow granting the community's request (signed by the [deans](/wiki/Dean_%28Christianity%29 "Dean (Christianity)") of the new [Assumption Cathedral](/wiki/Assumption_Cathedral%2C_Kharkiv "Assumption Cathedral, Kharkiv") and parish churches of Annunciation and Trinity) to establish a local market.
At that time the population of Kharkiv was just over 1000, half of whom were local Cossacks. Selifontov had brought with him a Moscow garrison of only 70 soldiers. Defence rested with a local Sloboda Cossack regiment under the jurisdiction of the Razryad [Prikaz](/wiki/Prikaz "Prikaz"), a military agency commanded from [Belgorod](/wiki/Belgorod "Belgorod").[thumb\|The Intercession Cathedral with bell tower and Ozerianska church (right) built in Kharkiv in 1689](/wiki/File:%D0%A5%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B2._%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%BA%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%BE%D1%80_%D0%B8_%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%85%D0%B8%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BC.jpg "Харьков. Покровский собор и архиерейский дом.jpg")
The original walls of Kharkiv enclosed today's streets: vulytsia Kvitky\-Osnovianenko, Constitution Square, Rose Luxemburg Square, Proletarian Square, and Cathedral Descent. There were 10 towers of which the tallest, Vestovska, was some {{convert\|16\|m\|ft}} high. In 1689 the fortress was expanded to include the Intercession Cathedral and Monastery, which became a seat of a local church hierarch, the [Protopope](/wiki/Protopope "Protopope").
### Russian Empire
[thumb\|The first railway station in Kharkiv was built in 1869](/wiki/File:Kursk_Kharkov_1869.jpg "Kursk Kharkov 1869.jpg")
[thumb\|A 19th\-century view of Kharkiv, with the belltower of the [Assumption Cathedral](/wiki/Assumption_Cathedral%2C_Kharkiv "Assumption Cathedral, Kharkiv") dominating the skyline](/wiki/File:Charkow.jpg "Charkow.jpg")
Administrative reforms led to Kharkiv being governed from 1708 from [Kyiv](/wiki/Kyiv_Governorate "Kyiv Governorate"),{{cite web\|url\=http://constitution.garant.ru/history/act1600\-1918/2005/\|script\-title\=ru:Указ об учреждении губерний и о росписании к ним городов, 1708 г., декабря 18\|trans\-title\=Decree on the establishment of Provinces and cities assigned to them, December 18, 1708\|language\=ru\|website\=constitution.garant.ru\|access\-date\=31 March 2015\|archive\-date\=28 July 2017\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170728200403/http://constitution.garant.ru/history/act1600\-1918/2005/\|url\-status\=live}} and from 1727 from Belgorod. In 1765 Kharkiv was established as the seat of a separate [Sloboda Ukraine Governorate](/wiki/Sloboda_Ukraine_Governorate "Sloboda Ukraine Governorate").{{cite web\|url\=http://arsvo.ru/arkhivnaya\-sluzhba/istoriya\-administrativno\-territorialnogo\-deleniya\-voronezhskogo\-kraya\-2\-voronezhs\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130525173851/http://arsvo.ru/arkhivnaya\-sluzhba/istoriya\-administrativno\-territorialnogo\-deleniya\-voronezhskogo\-kraya\-2\-voronezhs\|archive\-date\=25 May 2013\|script\-title\=ru:История административно\-территориального деления воронежского края. 2\. Воронежская губерния\|trans\-title\=History of the Administrative\-Territorial Division of the Voronezh Region. 2\. Voronezh Province.\|publisher\=Archive service of Voronezh Oblast\|language\=ru\|access\-date\=10 June 2012}}
[Kharkiv University](/wiki/Kharkiv_University "Kharkiv University") was established in 1805 in the Palace of [Governorate\-General](/wiki/Governorate-General "Governorate-General"). Alexander Mikolajewicz Mickiewicz, brother of the Polish national poet [Adam Mickiewicz](/wiki/Adam_Mickiewicz "Adam Mickiewicz"), was a professor of law in the university, while another celebrity, [Goethe](/wiki/Goethe "Goethe"), searched for instructors for the school. One of its later graduates was In [Ivan Franko](/wiki/Ivan_Franko "Ivan Franko"), to whom it awarded a doctorate in Russian linguistics in 1906\.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.istpravda.com.ua/short/2011/08/23/53238/\|script\-title\=uk:У Харкові відкрили меморіальну дошку Івану Франку\|trans\-title\=A memorial plaque to Ivan Franko was unveiled in Kharkiv\|language\=uk\|publisher\=Istpravda.com.ua\|date\=23 August 2011\|access\-date\=21 July 2012\|archive\-date\=10 November 2012\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121110182137/http://www.istpravda.com.ua/short/2011/08/23/53238/\|url\-status\=live}}
The streets were first cobbled in the city centre in 1830\.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.istpravda.com.ua/artefacts/2011/01/24/17847/\|script\-title\=uk:Харків і харків'яни XIX\-го сторіччя\|trans\-title\=Kharkiv and Kharkiv denizens in 19th century photos\|language\=uk\|publisher\=Istpravda.com.ua\|date\=24 January 2011\|access\-date\=21 July 2012\|archive\-date\=22 June 2012\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120622033200/http://www.istpravda.com.ua/artefacts/2011/01/24/17847/\|url\-status\=live}} In 1844 the {{convert\|90\|m\|ft}} tall Alexander Bell Tower, commemorating the victory over [Napoleon I](/wiki/Napoleon "Napoleon") in 1812, was built next to the first [Assumption Cathedral](/wiki/Assumption_Cathedral%2C_Kharkiv "Assumption Cathedral, Kharkiv") (later to be transformed by the Soviet authorities into a [radio tower](/wiki/Radio_tower "Radio tower")). A system of running water was established in 1870\.
In the course of the 19th century, although predominantly Russian speaking, Kharkiv became a centre of Ukrainian culture.{{cite web \|title\=Hromadas \|url\=http://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath\=pages%5CH%5CR%5CHromadas.htm \|access\-date\=14 January 2016 \|publisher\=\[\[Encyclopedia of Ukraine]] \|archive\-date\=27 December 2015 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151227030724/http://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath\=pages%5CH%5CR%5CHromadas.htm \|url\-status\=live }} The first Ukrainian newspaper was published in the city in 1812\. Soon after the [Crimean War](/wiki/Crimean_War "Crimean War"), in 1860–61, a [hromada](/wiki/Hromada_%28secret_society%29 "Hromada (secret society)") was established in the city, one of a network of secret societies that laid the groundwork for the appearance of a Ukrainian national movement. Its most prominent member was the philosopher, linguist and pan\-slavist activist [Oleksandr Potebnia](/wiki/Alexander_Potebnja "Alexander Potebnja"). Members of a student hromada in the city included the future national leaders [Borys Martos](/wiki/Borys_Martos "Borys Martos") and [Dmytro Antonovych](/wiki/Dmytro_Antonovych "Dmytro Antonovych"), and reputedly were the first to employ the slogan "Glory to Ukraine!" and its response "Glory on all of earth!".{{Cite web \|title\="Glory to Ukraine!": Who and when was the slogan created? \|url\=https://www.istpravda.com.ua/eng/articles/2018/10/4/153036/ \|access\-date\=2022\-08\-14 \|website\=www.istpravda.com.ua \|archive\-date\=25 February 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220225103647/https://www.istpravda.com.ua/eng/articles/2018/10/4/153036/ \|url\-status\=live }}
In 1900, the student hromada founded the Revolutionary Ukrainian Party (RUP), which sought to unite all Ukrainian national elements, including the growing number of socialists.{{Cite web \|title\=Revolutionary Ukrainian party \|url\=http://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath\=pages%5CR%5CE%5CRevolutionaryUkrainianparty.htm \|access\-date\=2022\-08\-14 \|website\=www.encyclopediaofukraine.com \|archive\-date\=15 August 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220815103758/http://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath\=pages%5CR%5CE%5CRevolutionaryUkrainianparty.htm \|url\-status\=live }} Following the [revolutionary events 1905](/wiki/1905_Russian_Revolution "1905 Russian Revolution") in which Kharkiv distinguished itself by avoiding a [reactionary pogrom](/wiki/Pogroms_in_the_Russian_Empire "Pogroms in the Russian Empire") against its Jewish population,{{Citation \|last\=HAMM \|first\=MICHAEL F. \|editor\-first1\=Anthony J \|editor\-first2\=Jonathan D \|editor\-last1\=Heywood \|editor\-last2\=Smele \|title\=Jews and revolution in Kharkiv: how one Ukrainian city escaped a pogrom in 1905 \|url\=https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10\.4324/9780203002087\-15/jews\-revolution\-kharkiv\-one\-ukrainian\-city\-escaped\-pogrom\-1905\-michael\-hamm?context\=ubx \|work\=The Russian Revolution of 1905 \|year\=2013 \|doi\=10\.4324/9780203002087 \|isbn\=9780203002087 \|access\-date\=2022\-08\-14 \|archive\-date\=14 August 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220814112242/https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10\.4324/9780203002087\-15/jews\-revolution\-kharkiv\-one\-ukrainian\-city\-escaped\-pogrom\-1905\-michael\-hamm?context\=ubx \|url\-status\=live }} the RUP in Kharkiv, [Poltava](/wiki/Poltava "Poltava"), [Kyiv](/wiki/Kyiv "Kyiv"), [Nizhyn](/wiki/Nizhyn "Nizhyn"), [Lubny](/wiki/Lubny "Lubny"), and [Yekaterinodar](/wiki/Krasnodar "Krasnodar") repudiated the more extreme elements of Ukrainian nationalism. Adopting the [Erfurt Program](/wiki/Erfurt_Program "Erfurt Program") of [German Social Democracy](/wiki/Social_Democratic_Party_of_Germany "Social Democratic Party of Germany"), they restyled themselves the [Ukrainian Social Democratic Labour Party](/wiki/Ukrainian_Social_Democratic_Labour_Party "Ukrainian Social Democratic Labour Party") (USDLP). This was to remain independent of, and opposed by, the [Bolshevik](/wiki/Bolsheviks "Bolsheviks") faction of the [Russian SDLP](/wiki/Russian_Social_Democratic_Labour_Party "Russian Social Democratic Labour Party").{{Cite web \|title\=УКРАЇНСЬКА СОЦІАЛ\-ДЕМОКРАТИЧНА РОБІТНИЧА ПАРТІЯ, Ukrainian Soviet Encyclopedia \|url\=https://leksika.com.ua/11580826/ure/ukrayinska\_sotsial\-demokratichna\_robitnicha\_partiya \|access\-date\=2022\-08\-14 \|website\=leksika.com.ua \|archive\-date\=25 January 2021 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210125001434/https://leksika.com.ua/11580826/ure/ukrayinska\_sotsial\-demokratichna\_robitnicha\_partiya \|url\-status\=live }}{{Cite web \|last1\=Senkus \|first1\=Roman \|last2\=Zhukovsky \|first2\=Arkadii \|date\=1993 \|title\=Ukrainian Social Democratic Workers' party \|url\=http://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath\=pages%5CU%5CK%5CUkrainianSocialDemocraticWorkersparty.htm \|access\-date\=2022\-08\-14 \|website\=www.encyclopediaofukraine.com \|archive\-date\=22 September 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220922030327/http://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath\=pages%5CU%5CK%5CUkrainianSocialDemocraticWorkersparty.htm \|url\-status\=live }}
After the [February Revolution](/wiki/February_Revolution "February Revolution") of 1917, the USDLP was the main party in the first Ukrainian government, the [General Secretariat of Ukraine](/wiki/General_Secretariat_of_Ukraine "General Secretariat of Ukraine"). The [Tsentralna Rada](/wiki/Tsentralna_Rada "Tsentralna Rada") (central council) of Ukrainian parties in *Kyiv* authorised the Secretariat to negotiate national autonomy with the [Russian Provisional Government](/wiki/Russian_Provisional_Government "Russian Provisional Government"). In the succeeding months, as wartime conditions deteriorated, the USDLP lost support in Kharkiv and elsewhere to the [Ukrainian Socialist Revolutionary Party](/wiki/Ukrainian_Socialist_Revolutionary_Party "Ukrainian Socialist Revolutionary Party") (SR) which organised both in peasant communities and in disaffected military units.
### Soviet era
#### Capital of Soviet Ukraine
[thumb\|200px\|The Derzhprom building in the late 1920s.](/wiki/Image:Palace_of_industry.jpg "Palace of industry.jpg")
In the [Russian Constituent Assembly election](/wiki/1917_Russian_Constituent_Assembly_election "1917 Russian Constituent Assembly election") held in November 1917, the [Bolsheviks](/wiki/Bolsheviks "Bolsheviks") who had seized power in [Petrograd](/wiki/Saint_Petersburg "Saint Petersburg") and Moscow received just 10\.5 percent of the vote in the [Governorate](/wiki/Kherson_Governorate "Kherson Governorate"), compared to 73 percent for a bloc of Russian and Ukrainian Socialist Revolutionaries. Commanding worker, rather than peasant, votes, within the city itself the Bolsheviks won a plurality.{{cite book \|author\=Oliver Henry Radkey \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=gXINAQAAMAAJ \|title\=Russia goes to the polls: the election to the all\-Russian Constituent Assembly, 1917 \|publisher\=Cornell University Press \|year\=1989 \|isbn\=978\-0\-8014\-2360\-4 \|pages\=115, 117 \|access\-date\=11 August 2022 \|archive\-date\=2 October 2023 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20231002071000/https://books.google.com/books?id\=gXINAQAAMAAJ \|url\-status\=live }}
When in [Petrograd](/wiki/Saint_Petersburg "Saint Petersburg") Lenin's [Council of People's Commissars](/wiki/Council_of_People%27s_Commissars "Council of People's Commissars") disbanded the [Constituent Assembly](/wiki/Russian_Constituent_Assembly "Russian Constituent Assembly") after its first sitting, the [Tsentralna Rada](/wiki/Tsentralna_Rada "Tsentralna Rada") in [Kyiv](/wiki/Kyiv "Kyiv") proclaimed the independence of the [Ukrainian People's Republic](/wiki/Ukrainian_People%27s_Republic "Ukrainian People's Republic") (UPR). [Bolsheviks](/wiki/Bolsheviks "Bolsheviks") withdrew from Tsentralna Rada and formed their own Rada (national council) in Kharkiv.[Historical Dictionary of Ukraine (Historical Dictionaries of Europe)](https://books.google.com/books?id=-h6r57lDC4QC&dq=kharkiv+antonov+1917&pg=PA713) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405224823/https://books.google.com/books?id\=\-h6r57lDC4QC\&dq\=kharkiv\+antonov\+1917\&pg\=PA713\|date\=5 April 2023}} by Ivan Katchanovski, Scarecrow Press (Publication date: 11 July 2013\), {{ISBN\|0810878453}} (page 713\)[Literary Politics in Soviet Ukraine, 1917–1934](https://books.google.com/books?id=CuLpivm5lDsC&dq=bolsheviks+moved+to+Kharkiv&pg=PA7) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405180152/https://books.google.com/books?id\=CuLpivm5lDsC\&dq\=bolsheviks\+moved\+to\+Kharkiv\&pg\=PA7 \|date\=5 April 2023 }}. Durham and London: Duke University Press. {{ISBN\|0\-8223\-1099\-6}} (page 7\) By February 1918 their forces had [captured much of Ukraine](/wiki/Russian_Civil_War "Russian Civil War").[World War I: A Student Encyclopedia](https://books.google.com/books?id=2YqjfHLyyj8C&dq=bolsheviks+moved+to+Kharkiv+soviet+Ukraine&pg=PA1195) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230411071742/https://books.google.com/books?id\=2YqjfHLyyj8C\&dq\=bolsheviks\+moved\+to\+Kharkiv\+soviet\+Ukraine\&pg\=PA1195 \|date\=11 April 2023 }}. [ABC\-CLIO](/wiki/ABC-CLIO "ABC-CLIO"). p. 1195\. {{ISBN\|978\-1\-85109\-879\-8}}
They made Kharkiv the capital of the [Donetsk\-Krivoy Rog Soviet Republic](/wiki/Donetsk-Krivoy_Rog_Soviet_Republic "Donetsk-Krivoy Rog Soviet Republic").[Ukraine: The Phony War?](http://www.nybooks.com/articles/2014/05/22/ukraine-phony-war/) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160113023301/http://www.nybooks.com/articles/2014/05/22/ukraine\-phony\-war/ \|date\=13 January 2016 }}, [The New York Review of Books](/wiki/The_New_York_Review_of_Books "The New York Review of Books") (27 April 2014\) Six weeks later, under the treaty terms agreed with the [Central Powers](/wiki/Central_Powers "Central Powers") at [Brest\-Litovsk](/wiki/Treaty_of_Brest-Litovsk "Treaty of Brest-Litovsk"), they abandoned the city and ceded the territory to the German\-occupied [Ukrainian State](/wiki/Ukrainian_State "Ukrainian State").[Borderlands into Bordered Lands: Geopolitics of Identity in Post\-Soviet Ukraine (Soviet and Post\-Soviet Politics and Society, Vol. 98\) (Volume 98\)](https://books.google.com/books?id=pt03BAAAQBAJ&dq=Kharkiv+German+1918&pg=PA205) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405224824/https://books.google.com/books?id\=pt03BAAAQBAJ\&dq\=Kharkiv\+German\+1918\&pg\=PA205 \|date\=5 April 2023 }}, Ibidem Verlag, 2010, {{ISBN\|383820042X}} (page 24\)
After the German withdrawal, the [Red Army](/wiki/Red_Army "Red Army") returned but, in June 1919, withdrew again before the advancing forces of [Anton Denikin](/wiki/Anton_Denikin "Anton Denikin")'s [White movement](/wiki/White_movement "White movement") [Volunteer](/wiki/Volunteer_Army "Volunteer Army").[The Black Book of Communism: Crimes, Terror, Repression](https://books.google.com/books?id=H1jsgYCoRioC&dq=Denikin+Kharkiv&pg=PA97) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230411071747/https://books.google.com/books?id\=H1jsgYCoRioC\&dq\=Denikin\+Kharkiv\&pg\=PA97 \|date\=11 April 2023 }}, [Harvard University Press](/wiki/Harvard_University_Press "Harvard University Press"), 858 pages, {{ISBN\|0\-674\-07608\-7}}, page 97 By December 1919 Soviet authority was restored.[The A to Z of the Russo\-Japanese War](https://books.google.com/books?id=hV1h0_iMrE4C&dq=Denikin+December+1919+Kharkiv&pg=PA101) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405180153/https://books.google.com/books?id\=hV1h0\_iMrE4C\&dq\=Denikin\+December\+1919\+Kharkiv\&pg\=PA101\|date\=5 April 2023}}. Scarecrow Press Inc. {{ISBN\|978\-0\-8108\-6841\-0}} (page 101\) The Bolsheviks established Kharkiv as [the capital](/wiki/Capital_%28political%29 "Capital (political)") of the [Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic](/wiki/Ukrainian_SSR "Ukrainian SSR") and, in 1922, this was formally incorporated as a constituent republic of the [Soviet Union](/wiki/Soviet_Union "Soviet Union").{{cite web \|url\=http://www.istpravda.com.ua/articles/2012/01/25/69897/ \|title\=Донбас і Україна (з історії революційної боротьби 1917–18 рр.) (Donbas and Ukraine. (From articles and declarations of Mykola Skrypnyk)) \|publisher\=Istpravda.com.ua \|access\-date\=21 July 2012 \|archive\-date\=27 August 2012 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120827145101/http://www.istpravda.com.ua/articles/2012/01/25/69897/ \|url\-status\=live }}
A number of prestige construction projects in new officially\-approved [Constructivist style](/wiki/Constructivist_architecture "Constructivist architecture") were completed,{{Cite journal \|last\=HEWRYK \|first\=TITUS D. \|date\=1992 \|title\=Planning of the Capital in Kharkiv \|url\=https://www.jstor.org/stable/41036482 \|journal\=Harvard Ukrainian Studies \|volume\=16 \|issue\=3/4 \|pages\=325–359 \|jstor\=41036482 \|issn\=0363\-5570 \|access\-date\=14 August 2022 \|archive\-date\=14 August 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220814133659/https://www.jstor.org/stable/41036482 \|url\-status\=live }} among them [Derzhprom](/wiki/Derzhprom "Derzhprom") (Palace of Industry) then the tallest building in the Soviet Union (and the second tallest in Europe),{{cite web \|url\=http://www.kharkov.ua/culture/2b.html \|title\=Derzhprom statistics \|publisher\=Kharkov.ua \|access\-date\=21 July 2012 \|archive\-date\=29 November 2009 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20091129213053/http://www.kharkov.ua/culture/2b.html \|url\-status\=live }} the Red Army Building, the Ukrainian Polytechnic Institute of Distance Learning (UZPI), the City Council building, with its massive asymmetric tower, and the central department store that was opened on the 15th Anniversary of the [October Revolution](/wiki/October_Revolution "October Revolution"). As new buildings were going up, many of city's historic architectural monuments were being torn down. These included most of the baroque churches: Saint Nicholas's Cathedral of the Ukrainian Autocephalous Orthodox church, the Church of the Myrrhophores, Saint Demetrius's Church, and the Cossack fortified Church of the Nativity.{{Cite web \|title\=Kharkiv \|url\=http://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath\=pages%5CK%5CH%5CKharkiv.htm \|access\-date\=2022\-08\-12 \|website\=www.encyclopediaofukraine.com \|archive\-date\=22 September 2015 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150922153340/http://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath\=pages%5CK%5CH%5CKharkiv.htm \|url\-status\=live }}
Under [Stalin](/wiki/Joseph_Stalin "Joseph Stalin")'s [First Five Year Plan](/wiki/First_five-year_plan "First five-year plan"), the city underwent intensified industrialisation, led by a number of national projects. Chief among these were the [Kharkiv Tractor Factory (HTZ)](/wiki/Kharkiv_Tractor_Plant "Kharkiv Tractor Plant"), described by Stalin as "a steel bastion of the [collectivisation of agriculture](/wiki/Collectivization_of_agriculture "Collectivization of agriculture") in the Ukraine",{{Cite journal \|last\=Stalin \|first\=Joseph \|date\=1931 \|title\=To the Workers and the Administrative and Technical personnel of Kharkov Tractor Works Project \|url\=https://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/stalin/works/1931/10/x01\.htm \|journal\=Stalin Collected Works \|volume\=13 \|access\-date\=12 August 2022 \|archive\-date\=10 July 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220710125822/https://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/stalin/works/1931/10/x01\.htm \|url\-status\=live }} and the [Malyshev Factory](/wiki/Malyshev_Factory "Malyshev Factory"), an enlargement of the old Kharkiv Locomotive Factory, which at its height employed 60,000 workers in the production of heavy equipment.[Tank factory workers decry war that pits Ukrainian against Ukrainian](http://america.aljazeera.com/multimedia/2015/2/kharkiv-tank-factory.html) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220626174542/http://america.aljazeera.com/multimedia/2015/2/kharkiv\-tank\-factory.html \|date\=26 June 2022 }}, [Al Jazeera America](/wiki/Al_Jazeera_America "Al Jazeera America") (27 February 2015\) By 1937 the output of Kharkiv's industries was reported as being 35 times greater than in 1913\.
Since the turn of the century, the influx of new workers from the countryside changed the ethnic composition of Kharkiv. According to census returns, by 1939 the Russian share of the population had fallen from almost two\-thirds to one third, while the Ukrainian share rose from a quarter to almost half. The Jewish population rose from under 6 percent of the total, to over 15 percent (sustaining a [Hebrew](/wiki/Hebrew_language "Hebrew language") secondary school, a popular Jewish university and extensive publication in [Yiddish](/wiki/Yiddish "Yiddish") and Hebrew).[thumb\|Starved peasants on the street during the [Holodomor](/wiki/Holodomor "Holodomor") in Kharkiv, 1933\.](/wiki/File:GolodomorKharkiv.jpg "GolodomorKharkiv.jpg")
[alt\=Plan of Kharkov, 1930\|thumb\|Plan of Kharkiv, 1930](/wiki/File:MapKharkov-1930-1823.jpg "MapKharkov-1930-1823.jpg")
In the 1920s, the [Ukrainian SSR](/wiki/Ukrainian_SSR "Ukrainian SSR") promoted the use of the [Ukrainian language](/wiki/Ukrainian_language "Ukrainian language"), mandating it for all schools. In practice the share of secondary schools teaching in the [Ukrainian language](/wiki/Ukrainian_language "Ukrainian language") remained lower than the ethnic [Ukrainian](/wiki/Ukrainians "Ukrainians") share of the [Kharkiv Oblast](/wiki/Kharkiv_Oblast "Kharkiv Oblast")'s population.[Games from the Past: The continuity and change of the identity dynamic in Donbas from a historical perspective](http://balticworlds.com/games-from-the-past/) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140827095731/http://balticworlds.com/games\-from\-the\-past/ \|date\=27 August 2014 }}, [Södertörn University](/wiki/S%C3%B6dert%C3%B6rn_University "Södertörn University") (19 May 2014\) The [Ukrainization](/wiki/Ukrainization "Ukrainization") policy was reversed, with the prosecution in Kharkiv in 1930 of the [Union for the Freedom of Ukraine](/wiki/Union_for_the_Freedom_of_Ukraine_process "Union for the Freedom of Ukraine process"). Hundreds of Ukrainian intellectuals were arrested and deported.[Language Policy in the Soviet Union](https://books.google.com/books?id=Nn3xDTiL0PQC&q=%22official+language%22&pg=PA1) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230922165542/https://books.google.com/books?id\=Nn3xDTiL0PQC\&q\=%22official\+language%22\&pg\=PA1 \|date\=22 September 2023 }} by [Lenore Grenoble](/wiki/Lenore_Grenoble "Lenore Grenoble"), [Springer Science\+Business Media](/wiki/Springer_Science%2BBusiness_Media "Springer Science+Business Media"), 2003, {{ISBN\|978\-1\-4020\-1298\-3}} (page 84\)
In 1932 and 1933, the combination of grain seizures and the forced collectivisation of peasant holdings created famine conditions, the [Holodomor](/wiki/Holodomor "Holodomor"), driving people off the land and into Kharkiv, and other cities, in search of food.{{cite journal \|last1\=Leonavičius \|first1\=Vylius \|last2\=Ozolinčiūtė \|first2\=Eglė \|date\=1 December 2019 \|title\=The Transformation of the Soviet Agriculture \|journal\=Sociologija: Mintis Ir Veiksmas \|volume\=44 \|issue\=1 \|pages\=93–131 \|doi\=10\.15388/SocMintVei.2019\.1\.10 \|doi\-access\=free \|s2cid\=213399789}}{{cite journal \|last1\=Ellman \|first1\=Michael \|author\-link\=Michael Ellman \|date\=June 2007 \|title\=Stalin and the Soviet Famine of 1932–33 Revisited \|journal\=\[\[Europe\-Asia Studies]] \|publisher\=\[\[Routledge]] \|volume\=59 \|issue\=4 \|pages\=663–693 \|doi\=10\.1080/09668130701291899 \|s2cid\=53655536}} Eye\-witness accounts by westerners—among them those of [American Communist](/wiki/Communist_Party_USA "Communist Party USA") [Fred Beal](/wiki/Fred_Beal "Fred Beal") employed in the [Kharkiv Tractor Factory](/wiki/Kharkiv_Tractor_Plant "Kharkiv Tractor Plant"){{cite book \|last\=Beal \|first\=Fred Erwin \|url\=https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id\=uc1\.$b332369\&view\=1up\&seq\=11\&skin\=2021 \|title\=Proletarian journey: New England, Gastonia, Moscow. \|date\=1937 \|publisher\=Hillman\-Curl \|location\=New York \|pages\=283–284, 289–291 \|access\-date\=11 August 2022 \|archive\-date\=10 August 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220810014224/https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id\=uc1\.$b332369\&view\=1up\&seq\=11\&skin\=2021 \|url\-status\=live }} —were cited in the international press but, until the era of *[Glasnost](/wiki/Glasnost "Glasnost")* were consistently [denounced in the Soviet Union as fabrications](/wiki/Holodomor_denial "Holodomor denial").{{cite news \|last1\=Levy \|first1\=Clifford J. \|date\=16 March 2009 \|title\=A New View of a Famine That Killed Millions \|work\=The New York Times \|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2009/03/16/world/europe/16kiev.html \|access\-date\=11 August 2022 \|archive\-date\=4 August 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220804005058/https://www.nytimes.com/2009/03/16/world/europe/16kiev.html \|url\-status\=live }}{{Cite Q\|Q108386870\|pages\=96}}Boriak, Hennadii (Fall 2001\). "The publication of sources on the history of the 1932–1933 famine\-genocide: history, current state, and prospects". *Harvard Ukrainian Studies* **25** (3–4\): 167–186\.
In 1934 hundreds of Ukrainian writers, intellectuals and cultural workers were arrested and executed in the attempt to eradicate all vestiges of Ukrainian nationalism. The purges continued into 1938\. Blind Ukrainian street musicians [Kobzars](/wiki/Kobzars "Kobzars") were also rounded up in Kharkiv and murdered by the NKVD.[Ukrainian minstrels: and the blind shall sing](https://books.google.com/books?id=CFqB2_OX_oQC&dq=Stalin+Ukrainian+minstrels+Kharkiv&pg=PA116) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405224825/https://books.google.com/books?id\=CFqB2\_OX\_oQC\&dq\=Stalin\+Ukrainian\+minstrels\+Kharkiv\&pg\=PA116 \|date\=5 April 2023 }} by Natalie Kononenko, M.E. Sharp, {{ISBN\|0\-7656\-0144\-3}}/{{ISBN\|978\-0\-7656\-0144\-5}}, page 116 Confident in his control over Ukraine, in January 1934 Stalin had the capital of the Ukrainian SSR moved from Kharkiv to Kyiv.{{cite book \|last\=Liber \|first\=George \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=2oqThmrFCfwC\&pg\=PA160 \|title\=Soviet Nationality Policy, Urban Growth, and Identity Change in the Ukrainian SSR, 1923–1934 \|publisher\=Cambridge University Press \|year\=1992 \|isbn\=978\-0521522434 \|access\-date\=2 September 2017 \|archive\-date\=2 October 2023 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20231002071001/https://books.google.com/books?id\=2oqThmrFCfwC\&pg\=PA160 \|url\-status\=live }}
During April and May 1940 about 3,900 Polish prisoners of [Starobilsk](/wiki/Starobilsk "Starobilsk") camp were executed in the Kharkiv [NKVD](/wiki/NKVD "NKVD") building, later secretly buried on the grounds of an NKVD pansionat in [Piatykhatky](/wiki/Piatykhatky%2C_Kharkiv_Oblast "Piatykhatky, Kharkiv Oblast") forest (part of the [Katyn massacre](/wiki/Katyn_massacre "Katyn massacre")) on the outskirts of Kharkiv.[Fischer, Benjamin B.](/wiki/Benjamin_Fischer_%28historian%29 "Benjamin Fischer (historian)"), "[The Katyn Controversy: Stalin's Killing Field](https://web.archive.org/web/20000816221054/http://www.cia.gov/csi/studies/winter99-00/art6.html)", *[Studies in Intelligence](/wiki/Studies_in_Intelligence "Studies in Intelligence")*, Winter 1999–2000, last accessed on 10 December 2005{{Cite web \|date\=15 August 2016 \|title\=Records Relating to the Katyn Forest Massacre at the National Archives \|url\=https://www.archives.gov/research/foreign\-policy/katyn\-massacre \|access\-date\=2022\-08\-12 \|website\=National Archives \|language\=en \|archive\-date\=8 April 2017 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170408082201/https://www.archives.gov/research/foreign\-policy/katyn\-massacre \|url\-status\=live }} The site also contains the numerous bodies of Ukrainian cultural workers who were arrested and shot in the [1937–38 Stalinist purges](/wiki/Great_Purge "Great Purge").
#### German occupation
During [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II"), Kharkiv was the focus of major battles. The city [was captured](/wiki/First_Battle_of_Kharkov "First Battle of Kharkov") by [Nazi Germany](/wiki/Nazi_Germany "Nazi Germany") on 24 October 1941\.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.istpravda.com.ua/artefacts/2011/04/3/34315/ \|title\=Харків часів "дорослого дитинства" Людмили Гурченко (Kharkiv at times of "matured childhood" of Lyudmila Gurchenko) \|publisher\=Istpravda.com.ua \|access\-date\=21 July 2012 \|archive\-date\=22 June 2012 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120622051343/http://www.istpravda.com.ua/artefacts/2011/04/3/34315/ \|url\-status\=live }}{{cite web \|url\=http://www.andersval.nl/index.php?option\=com\_content\&task\=view\&id\=6267\&Itemid\=190 \|title\=Kharkiv through the eyes of Lyudmila Gurchenko \|publisher\=Andersval.nl \|date\=31 March 2011 \|access\-date\=15 July 2012 \|archive\-date\=6 September 2012 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120906070121/http://www.andersval.nl/index.php?option\=com\_content\&task\=view\&id\=6267\&Itemid\=190 \|url\-status\=live }} A disastrous [Red Army](/wiki/Red_Army "Red Army") [offensive](/wiki/Second_Battle_of_Kharkov "Second Battle of Kharkov") failed to recover the city in May 1942\.The Red Army committed 765,300 men to this offensive, suffering 277,190 casualties (170,958 killed/missing/PoW, 106,232 wounded) and losing 652 tanks, and 4,924 guns and mortars. {{cite book \|last\=Glantz \|first\=David M. \|title\=Kharkov 1942, anatomy of a military disaster through Soviet eyes \|publisher\=\[\[Ian Allan Publishing]] \|year\=1998 \|isbn\=0\-7110\-2562\-2 \|page\=218}}per [Robert M. Citino](/wiki/Robert_M._Citino "Robert M. Citino"), author of "Death of the Wehrmacht", and other sources, the Red Army came to within a few miles of Kharkiv on 14 May 1942 by Soviet forces under [Marshal Timoshenko](/wiki/Semyon_Timoshenko "Semyon Timoshenko") before being driven back by German forces under Field Marshal [Fedor von Bock](/wiki/Fedor_von_Bock "Fedor von Bock"), p. 100 It was retaken ([Operation Star](/wiki/Operation_Star "Operation Star")) on 16 February 1943, but [lost again to the Germans](/wiki/Third_Battle_of_Kharkov "Third Battle of Kharkov") on 15 March 1943\. 23 August 1943 saw a final [liberation](/wiki/Fourth_battle_of_kharkov "Fourth battle of kharkov").{{Cite book \|author\=Ukrainian Institute of National Remembrance \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=joX\_CwAAQBAJ\&pg\=PA26 \|title\=Ukraine in World War II \|publisher\=Ukrainian Institute of National Remembrance \|year\=2015 \|location\=Ukraine \|page\=26 \|language\=en \|access\-date\=31 July 2023 \|archive\-date\=31 July 2023 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230731153225/https://books.google.com/books?id\=joX\_CwAAQBAJ\&pg\=PA26 \|url\-status\=live }}
[thumb\|200px\|A memorial to 23 August 1943, the end of German occupation during World War II](/wiki/File:23_August_Lane_Kharkov.JPG "23 August Lane Kharkov.JPG")
On the eve of the occupation, Kharkiv's prewar population of 700,000 had been doubled by the influx of refugees.{{Cite web \|title\=Харьков в годы Великой Отечественной войны \| Вечерний Харьков \|url\=https://vecherniy.kharkov.ua/news/14899/ \|website\=Evening Kharkiv \|access\-date\=12 August 2022 \|archive\-date\=12 August 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220812154336/https://vecherniy.kharkov.ua/news/14899/ \|url\-status\=live }} What remained of the pre\-war Jewish population of 130,000, were slated by the Germans for "special treatment": between December 1941 and January 1942, they massacred and buried an estimated 15,000 Jews in a ravine outside of town named [Drobytsky Yar](/wiki/Drobytsky_Yar "Drobytsky Yar").{{Citation \|last1\=Karpyuk \|first1\=Gennady \|date\=23–29 December 2006 \|url\=http://www.dt.ua/3000/3150/55411/ \|volume\=49 \|issue\=628 \|trans\-title\=A tragedy that not everyone wanted to know about \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20081209085420/http://www.dt.ua/3000/3150/55411/ \|access\-date\=16 December 2011 \|archive\-date\=9 December 2008 \|script\-work\=uk:Дзеркало Тижня \|script\-title\=uk:Трагедія, про яку дехто не дуже хотів знати}} Over their 22 months occupation they executed a further 30,000 residents, among them suspected Soviet partisans and, after a brief period of toleration, Ukrainian nationalists. 80,000 people died of hunger, cold and disease. 60,000 were forcibly transported to Germany as slave workers ([Ostarbeiter](/wiki/Ostarbeiter "Ostarbeiter")).{{cite book \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=ktyM07I9HXwC\&dq\=Kharkiv\+German\+November\+1918\&pg\=PT338 \|title\=Ukraine: A History \|edition\=4th \|first\=Orest \|last\=Subtelny \|author\-link\=Orest Subtelny \|publisher\=\[\[University of Toronto Press]] \|year\=2009 \|isbn\=978\-1442609914 \|page\=338 \|access\-date\=13 March 2023 \|archive\-date\=11 April 2023 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230411071745/https://books.google.com/books?id\=ktyM07I9HXwC\&dq\=Kharkiv\+German\+November\+1918\&pg\=PT338 \|url\-status\=live }} Among these was [Boris Romanchenko](/wiki/Borys_Romanchenko "Borys Romanchenko"). The 96\-year\-old survivor of forced labor at the [Buchenwald](/wiki/Buchenwald_concentration_camp "Buchenwald concentration camp"), [Peenemünde](/wiki/Peenem%C3%BCnde "Peenemünde"), [Dora](/wiki/Mittelbau-Dora_concentration_camp "Mittelbau-Dora concentration camp") and [Bergen Belsen](/wiki/Bergen-Belsen_concentration_camp "Bergen-Belsen concentration camp") [concentration camps](/wiki/Nazi_concentration_camps "Nazi concentration camps") was killed when Russian fire hit his apartment bloc on 18 March 2022\.{{Cite news \|last\=Kelly \|first\=Lidia \|date\=22 March 2022 \|title\=WWII Holocaust survivor killed in Ukraine's Kharkiv \|language\=en \|work\=Reuters \|url\=https://www.reuters.com/world/wwii\-holocaust\-survivor\-killed\-ukraines\-kharkiv\-2022\-03\-22/ \|access\-date\=2022\-08\-13 \|archive\-date\=12 May 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220512204700/https://www.reuters.com/world/wwii\-holocaust\-survivor\-killed\-ukraines\-kharkiv\-2022\-03\-22/ \|url\-status\=live }}{{Cite web \|title\=96\-year\-old Holocaust survivor said killed in Russian shelling of his Kharkiv home \|url\=https://www.timesofisrael.com/liveblog\_entry/96\-year\-old\-holocaust\-survivor\-said\-killed\-in\-russian\-shelling\-of\-his\-kharkiv\-home/ \|access\-date\=2022\-08\-13 \|date\=21 March 2022 \|website\=\[\[Times of Israel]] \|language\=en\-US \|archive\-date\=13 August 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220813165954/https://www.timesofisrael.com/liveblog\_entry/96\-year\-old\-holocaust\-survivor\-said\-killed\-in\-russian\-shelling\-of\-his\-kharkiv\-home/ \|url\-status\=live }}
By the time of Kharkiv's liberation in August 1943, the surviving population had been reduced to under 200,000\. Seventy percent of the city had been destroyed. According to a New York Time's piece, "The city was more battered than perhaps any other in the Soviet Union save Stalingrad."{{Cite news \|last\=Verini \|first\=James \|date\=19 May 2022 \|title\=Surviving the Siege of Kharkiv \|language\=en\-US \|work\=The New York Times \|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2022/05/19/magazine/kharkiv\-siege.html \|access\-date\=2023\-08\-14 \|issn\=0362\-4331 \|archive\-date\=5 July 2023 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230705011709/https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2022/05/19/magazine/kharkiv\-siege.html \|url\-status\=live }}
#### Post\-World War II
Before the occupation, Kharkiv's [tank industries](/wiki/Malyshev_Factory "Malyshev Factory") had been evacuated to the [Urals](/wiki/Urals "Urals") with all their equipment, and became the heart of [Red Army](/wiki/Red_Army "Red Army")'s tank programs (particularly, producing the [T\-34](/wiki/T-34 "T-34") tank earlier designed in Kharkiv). These enterprises returned to Kharkiv after the war, and became central elements of the post\-war Soviet [military industrial complex](/wiki/Military%E2%80%93industrial_complex "Military–industrial complex"). Houses and factories were rebuilt, and much of the city's center was reconstructed in the style of [Stalinist Classicism](/wiki/Stalinist_architecture "Stalinist architecture"). [Kharkiv's Jewish community](/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Kharkiv "History of the Jews in Kharkiv") revived after World War II: by 1959 there were 84,000 Jews living in the city. However, [Soviet anti\-Zionism](/wiki/Soviet_anti-Zionism "Soviet anti-Zionism") restricted expressions of Jewish religion and culture, and was sustained until the final Gorbachev years (the confiscated [Kharkiv Choral Synagogue](/wiki/Kharkiv_Choral_Synagogue "Kharkiv Choral Synagogue") reopened as a synagogue in 1990\).{{Cite web \|title\=Kharkov, Ukraine Virtual Jewish History Tour \|url\=https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/kharkov\-ukraine\-virtual\-jewish\-history\-tour \|access\-date\=2022\-08\-15 \|website\=www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org \|archive\-date\=5 April 2023 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405180150/https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/kharkov\-ukraine\-virtual\-jewish\-history\-tour \|url\-status\=live }}
[thumb\|170px\|[Mirror Stream](/wiki/Zerkal%CA%B9naya_struya "Zerkalʹnaya struya") fountain](/wiki/File:IMG_2428_zerk.jpg "IMG 2428 zerk.jpg")
[thumb\|Kharkiv in 1981](/wiki/File:Kharkov0060.jpg "Kharkov0060.jpg")
In the [Brezhnev\-era](/wiki/Brezhnev_era "Brezhnev era"), Kharkiv was promoted as a "model Soviet city". Propaganda made much of its "youthfulness", a designation broadly used to suggest the relative absence in the city of "material and spiritual relics" from the pre\-revolutionary era, and its commitment to the new frontiers of Soviet industry and science. The city's machine\-and\-weapons building prowess was attributed to a forward\-looking collaboration between its large\-scale industrial enterprises and new research institutes and laboratories.{{Cite journal \|last\=Studenna\-Skrukwa \|first\=Marta \|date\=2020 \|title\=Model Soviet City of the Brezhnev Era: The Image of Kharkiv in Selected Propaganda Texts \|url\=http://cejsh.icm.edu.pl/cejsh/element/bwmeta1\.element.ojs\-doi\-10\_12775\_HiP\_2020\_015 \|journal\=Historia i Polityka \|volume\=32 \|language\=EN \|issue\=39 \|page\=67 \|doi\=10\.12775/HiP.2020\.015 \|s2cid\=229566527 \|issn\=1899\-5160 \|doi\-access\=free \|access\-date\=12 August 2022 \|archive\-date\=12 August 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220812134517/http://cejsh.icm.edu.pl/cejsh/element/bwmeta1\.element.ojs\-doi\-10\_12775\_HiP\_2020\_015 \|url\-status\=live }}
The last [Communist Party chief of Ukraine](/wiki/First_Secretary_of_the_Communist_Party_of_Ukraine "First Secretary of the Communist Party of Ukraine"), [Vladimir Ivashko](/wiki/Vladimir_Ivashko "Vladimir Ivashko"), appointed in 1989, trained as a mining engineer and served as a party functionary in Kharkiv.{{Cite news \|last\=Remnick \|first\=David \|date\=29 September 1989 \|title\=SHCHERBITSKY DISMISSED AS COMMUNIST PARTY BOSS IN UKRAINE \|language\=en\-US \|newspaper\=Washington Post \|url\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1989/09/29/shcherbitsky\-dismissed\-as\-communist\-party\-boss\-in\-ukraine/f903ba8a\-bece\-4493\-894e\-9a3b28e87d81/ \|access\-date\=2022\-08\-14 \|issn\=0190\-8286 \|archive\-date\=28 August 2017 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170828011513/https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1989/09/29/shcherbitsky\-dismissed\-as\-communist\-party\-boss\-in\-ukraine/f903ba8a\-bece\-4493\-894e\-9a3b28e87d81/ \|url\-status\=live }} He led the Communists to victory in Kharkiv and across the country in the [parliamentary election](/wiki/1990_Ukrainian_parliamentary_election "1990 Ukrainian parliamentary election") held in the Ukrainian SSR in March 1990\.{{cite web \|script\-title\=uk:КАЛІНІЧЕНКО В.В., РИБАЛКА І.К. ІСТОРІЯ УКРАЇНИ. ЧАСТИНА ІІІ: 1917–2003 рр. \|url\=http://www\-history.univer.kharkov.ua/e\-library/kalinichenko\_textbook/Kalinichenko\_10\.2\.htm \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080512070738/http://www\-history.univer.kharkov.ua/e\-library/kalinichenko\_textbook/Kalinichenko\_10\.2\.htm \|archive\-date\=2008\-05\-12 \|language\=uk}} The election was relatively free, but occurred well before organised political parties had time to form, and did not arrest the decline in the CPSU's legitimacy.{{Cite book \|last\=McFaul \|first\=Michael \|url\=http://archive.org/details/postcommunistpol0000mcfa \|title\=Post\-communist politics : democratic prospects in Russia and Eastern Europe \|date\=1993 \|publisher\=Washington, D.C. : Center for Strategic and International Studies \|others\=Internet Archive \|isbn\=978\-0\-89206\-208\-9 \|pages\=17–19}} This was accelerated by the intra\-party coup attempt against President [Mikhail Gorbachev](/wiki/Mikhail_Gorbachev "Mikhail Gorbachev") and his reforms on 18 August 1991, during which Ivashko temporarily replaced Gorbachev as [CPSU General Secretary.](/wiki/General_Secretary_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union "General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union"){{Cite book \|last1\=Perrie \|first1\=Maureen \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=KAPxOl\_mh4YC \|title\=The Cambridge History of Russia: Volume 3, The Twentieth Century \|last2\=Lieven \|first2\=D. C. B. \|last3\=Suny \|first3\=Ronald Grigor \|date\=2 November 2006 \|publisher\=\[\[Cambridge University Press]] \|isbn\=978\-0\-521\-81144\-6 \|pages\=344–349 \|language\=en \|chapter\=The Gorbachev Era}}
[The National University of Kharkiv](/wiki/National_University_of_Kharkiv "National University of Kharkiv") was at the forefront of democratic agitation. In October 1991, a call from Kyiv for an all\-Ukrainian university strike to protest Gorbachev's [new](/wiki/Union_of_Sovereign_States%23Development "Union of Sovereign States#Development") [Union Treaty](/wiki/New_Union_Treaty "New Union Treaty") and to call for new multi\-party elections was met with a rally at the entrance to the university attended not only by students and university teachers, but also by a range of public and cultural figures.{{Cite web \|title\=Революція на граніті: Як харківські студенти змінили історію держави 30 років тому – новини Харкова \|url\=https://kh.depo.ua/ukr/kh/revolyutsiya\-na\-graniti\-yak\-kharkivski\-studenti\-zminili\-istoriyu\-derzhavi\-30\-rokiv\-tomu\-202010231230205 \|access\-date\=2022\-08\-14 \|website\=www.depo.ua \|language\=uk \|archive\-date\=14 August 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220814231233/https://kh.depo.ua/ukr/kh/revolyutsiya\-na\-graniti\-yak\-kharkivski\-studenti\-zminili\-istoriyu\-derzhavi\-30\-rokiv\-tomu\-202010231230205 \|url\-status\=live }} The protests—the so\-called [Revolution on Granite](/wiki/Revolution_on_Granite "Revolution on Granite")[The lesson of the Revolution on Granite](http://m.day.kyiv.ua/en/article/day-after-day/lesson-revolution-granite) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210415162522/http://m.day.kyiv.ua/en/article/day\-after\-day/lesson\-revolution\-granite \|date\=15 April 2021 }}, *[Den](/wiki/Den_%28newspaper%29 "Den (newspaper)")* (4 October 2016\)—ended on 17 October with a resolution of the [Verkhovna Rada](/wiki/Verkhovna_Rada "Verkhovna Rada") of the Ukrainian SSR promising further democratic reform. In the event, the only demand fulfilled was the removal of the Communist Prime Minister.{{Cite web \|last\=Zhyshko \|first\=Serhii \|date\=2016 \|title\=The lesson of the Revolution on Granite \|url\=https://m.day.kyiv.ua/en/article/day\-after\-day/lesson\-revolution\-granite \|access\-date\=2022\-08\-14 \|website\=«Антидот» і «детокс» від «Дня» \|archive\-date\=14 August 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220814231233/https://m.day.kyiv.ua/en/article/day\-after\-day/lesson\-revolution\-granite \|url\-status\=live }}
### Independent Ukraine
In the 1 December 1991 [Referendum on the Act of Declaration of Independence](/wiki/1991_Ukrainian_independence_referendum "1991 Ukrainian independence referendum"), on a turnout of 76 percent 86 percent of the [Kharkiv Oblast](/wiki/Kharkiv_Oblast "Kharkiv Oblast") approved separate Ukrainian statehood.{{Cite web \|date\=28 September 2015 \|title\=Ukrainian Independence Referendum \|url\=https://soviethistory.msu.edu/1991\-2/the\-end\-of\-the\-soviet\-union/the\-end\-of\-the\-soviet\-union\-texts/ukrainian\-independence\-declaration/ \|access\-date\=2022\-08\-12 \|website\=Seventeen Moments in Soviet History \|language\=en\-US \|archive\-date\=14 April 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220414065531/https://soviethistory.msu.edu/1991\-2/the\-end\-of\-the\-soviet\-union/the\-end\-of\-the\-soviet\-union\-texts/ukrainian\-independence\-declaration/ \|url\-status\=live }}
During the [1990s post\-Soviet aliyah](/wiki/1990s_post-Soviet_aliyah "1990s post-Soviet aliyah"), many Jews from Kharkiv emigrated to Israel or to Western countries.{{cite web \|title\=Virtual Jewish World: Kharkov, Ukraine \|url\=https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/kharkov\-ukraine\-virtual\-jewish\-history\-tour \|access\-date\=2022\-03\-15 \|publisher\=\[\[Jewish Virtual Library]] \|archive\-date\=5 April 2023 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405180150/https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/kharkov\-ukraine\-virtual\-jewish\-history\-tour \|url\-status\=live }} The city's Jewish population, 62,800 in 1970, dropped to 50,000 by the end of the century.{{cite web \|title\=Khar'kiv \|url\=https://yivoencyclopedia.org/article.aspx/kharkiv \|access\-date\=2022\-03\-15 \|publisher\=\[\[YIVO]] \|archive\-date\=12 May 2023 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230512011725/https://yivoencyclopedia.org/article.aspx/Kharkiv \|url\-status\=live }}
[thumb\|New Year's decoration of [Freedom Square](/wiki/Freedom_Square_%28Kharkiv%29 "Freedom Square (Kharkiv)") in Kharkiv in 2018](/wiki/File:%D0%9D%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%96%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%B5_%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8F_%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%83_%D0%A1%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B8%2C_%D0%BC._%D0%A5%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BA%D1%96%D0%B2.jpg "Новорічне оформлення майдану Свободи, м. Харків.jpg")
[thumb\|A monument to the [persecuted kobzars](/wiki/Persecuted_bandurists "Persecuted bandurists") in Kharkiv](/wiki/File:Pamiatnyk.jpg "Pamiatnyk.jpg")
The [collapse of the Soviet Union](/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Soviet_Union "Dissolution of the Soviet Union") disrupted, but did not sever, the ties that bound Kharkiv's heavy industries to the integrated Soviet market and supply chains, and did not diminish dependency on Russian oil, minerals, and gas.{{Cite web \|last1\=Sutela \|first1\=Pekka \|title\=The Underachiever: Ukraine's Economy Since 1991 \|url\=https://carnegieendowment.org/2012/03/09/underachiever\-ukraine\-s\-economy\-since\-1991\-pub\-47451 \|access\-date\=2022\-08\-14 \|website\=Carnegie Endowment for International Peace \|language\=en \|archive\-date\=29 July 2020 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200729100406/https://carnegieendowment.org/2012/03/09/underachiever\-ukraine\-s\-economy\-since\-1991\-pub\-47451 \|url\-status\=live }} In Kharkiv and elsewhere in eastern Ukraine, the limited prospects for securing new economic partners in the West, and concern for the rights of Russian\-speakers in the new national state, combined to promote the interests of political parties and candidates emphasising understanding and cooperation with the [Russian Federation](/wiki/Russian_Federation "Russian Federation"). In the new century, these were represented by the [Party of Regions](/wiki/Party_of_Regions "Party of Regions") and by the presidential ambitions of [Victor Yanukovych](/wiki/Viktor_Yanukovych "Viktor Yanukovych"),{{Cite web \|date\=29 September 2010 \|title\=The Party of Regions monopolises power in Ukraine \|url\=https://www.osw.waw.pl/en/publikacje/osw\-commentary/2010\-09\-29/party\-regions\-monopolises\-power\-ukraine \|access\-date\=2022\-08\-14 \|website\=OSW Centre for Eastern Studies \|language\=en \|archive\-date\=14 August 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220814133452/https://www.osw.waw.pl/en/publikacje/osw\-commentary/2010\-09\-29/party\-regions\-monopolises\-power\-ukraine \|url\-status\=live }} which in Kharkiv triumphed in the city council elections of 2006, in the parliamentary elections of 2007 and in the presidential elections of 2010\.{{Cite book \|last\=Platonova \|first\=Daria \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=01E\_EAAAQBAJ\&pg\=PP27 \|title\=The Donbas Conflict in Ukraine: Elites, Protest, and Partition \|publisher\=Routledge \|year\=2021 \|isbn\=978\-1\-000\-45326\-3 \|pages\=27 \|language\=en \|access\-date\=22 August 2022 \|archive\-date\=2 October 2023 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20231002071002/https://books.google.com/books?id\=01E\_EAAAQBAJ\&pg\=PP27\#v\=onepage\&q\&f\=false \|url\-status\=live }}
Although never attaining the level of protest witnessed in Kyiv and in communities further west, following the disputed [2012 Parliamentary elections](/wiki/2012_Ukrainian_parliamentary_election "2012 Ukrainian parliamentary election") public opposition to [President Yanukovych](/wiki/Viktor_Yanukovych "Viktor Yanukovych") and his party surfaced in Kharkiv amid accusations of systematic corruption and of sabotaging prospects for new ties to the European Union.[Ukraine opposition protests election results](http://www.kyivpost.com/content/ukraine/ukraine-opposition-protests-election-results-316008.html) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150920002302/http://www.kyivpost.com/content/ukraine/ukraine\-opposition\-protests\-election\-results\-316008\.html \|date\=20 September 2015 }}, [Kyiv Post](/wiki/Kyiv_Post "Kyiv Post") (1 November 2012\)
#### 2014 pro\-Russian unrest
{{main\|2014 pro\-Russian unrest in Ukraine\#Kharkiv Oblast}}
The [Euromaidan](/wiki/Euromaidan "Euromaidan") protests in the winter of 2013–2014 against then president [Viktor Yanukovych](/wiki/Viktor_Yanukovych "Viktor Yanukovych") consisted of daily gatherings of about 200 protestors near the statue of Taras Shevchenko and were predominantly peaceful. Disappointed at the turnout, an activist at Kharkiv University suggested that his fellow students "proved to be as much of an inert, grey and cowed mass as Kharkiv’s ‘*biudzhetniki*’ " (those whose income derives from the state budget, mostly public servants).{{Cite web \|title\=Kharkiv Talks in a Viennese Kitchen – On Revolution, War and Literature in Ukraine \|url\=https://www.iwm.at/transit\-online/kharkiv\-talks\-in\-a\-viennese\-kitchen\-on\-revolution\-war\-and\-literature\-in \|access\-date\=2022\-08\-15 \|website\=IWM WEBSITE \|language\=en \|archive\-date\=15 August 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220815200538/https://www.iwm.at/transit\-online/kharkiv\-talks\-in\-a\-viennese\-kitchen\-on\-revolution\-war\-and\-literature\-in \|url\-status\=live }} But Pro\-Yanukovych demonstrations, held near the [statue of Lenin](/wiki/Statue_of_Lenin_in_Kharkiv "Statue of Lenin in Kharkiv") in [Freedom (previously Dzerzhinsky) Square](/wiki/Freedom_Square_%28Kharkiv%29 "Freedom Square (Kharkiv)"), were similarly small.
In the wake of Yanukovych's ouster in February, there were attempts in Kharkiv to follow the example of separatists in neighbouring [Donbas](/wiki/Donbas "Donbas").{{cite web\|url\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world\-middle\-east\-26248275\|title\=Ukraine crisis: Timeline\|work\=BBC News\|date\=13 November 2014\|access\-date\=22 March 2015\|archive\-date\=3 June 2014\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140603193226/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world\-middle\-east\-26248275\|url\-status\=live}} On 2 March 2014, a Russian "tourist" from Moscow replaced the [Ukrainian flag](/wiki/Ukrainian_flag "Ukrainian flag") with a [Russian flag](/wiki/Russian_flag "Russian flag") on the Kharkiv Regional State Administration Building.{{cite news \| url \= https://www.nytimes.com/2014/03/04/world/europe/russias\-hand\-can\-be\-seen\-in\-the\-protests.html \| title \= From Russia, 'Tourists' Stir the Protests \| first \= Andrew \| last \= Roth \| work \= The New York Times \| date \= 4 March 2014 \| access\-date \= 27 February 2017 \| archive\-date \= 4 March 2014 \| archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20140304074020/http://www.nytimes.com/2014/03/04/world/europe/russias\-hand\-can\-be\-seen\-in\-the\-protests.html \| url\-status \= live }}
{{cite news \| url \= https://www.bbc.com/news/blogs\-trending\-26435333 \| title \= Russian site recruits 'volunteers' for Ukraine \| work \= BBC News \| date \= 4 March 2014 \| access\-date \= 21 June 2018 \| archive\-date \= 22 July 2018 \| archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20180722074502/https://www.bbc.com/news/blogs\-trending\-26435333 \| url\-status \= live }} On 6 April 2014 pro\-Russian protestors occupied the building and unilaterally declared independence from Ukraine as the "[Kharkiv People's Republic](/wiki/Kharkiv_People%27s_Republic "Kharkiv People's Republic")".[Ukraine Authorities Clear Kharkiv Building, Arrest Scores Of 'Separatists'](https://www.rferl.org/a/kharkiv-operation-ukraine-terrorism-separatist-arrests/25324984.html) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20211111211046/https://www.rferl.org/a/kharkiv\-operation\-ukraine\-terrorism\-separatist\-arrests/25324984\.html \|date\=11 November 2021 }}, [Radio Free Europe](/wiki/Radio_Free_Europe "Radio Free Europe") (8 April 2014\)
[How Eastern Ukraine Is Adapting and Surviving: The Case of Kharkiv](https://carnegieeurope.eu/2018/09/12/how-eastern-ukraine-is-adapting-and-surviving-case-of-kharkiv-pub-77216) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220308154832/https://www.rferl.org/a/kharkiv\-operation\-ukraine\-terrorism\-separatist\-arrests/25324984\.html \|date\=8 March 2022 }}, [Carnegie Europe](/wiki/Carnegie_Europe "Carnegie Europe") (12 September 2018\){{cite web \| url\=http://www.focus\-fen.net/news/2014/04/07/332351/pro\-russia\-activists\-declare\-establishment\-of\-kharkiv\-peoples\-republic.html \| title\=Pro\-Russia activists declare establishment of 'Kharkiv people's republic' \| work\=Focus Information Agency \| date\=7 April 2014 \| access\-date\=13 April 2014 \| archive\-date\=9 April 2014 \| archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140409121553/http://www.focus\-fen.net/news/2014/04/07/332351/pro\-russia\-activists\-declare\-establishment\-of\-kharkiv\-peoples\-republic.html \| url\-status\=dead }} Doubts arose about their local origin as they had initially targeted the city's [Opera and Ballet Theatre](/wiki/Kharkiv_National_Academic_Opera_and_Ballet_Theatre "Kharkiv National Academic Opera and Ballet Theatre") before recognising their mistake.{{Cite web \|date\=8 April 2014 \|title\=Protesters Storm Kharkiv Theater Thinking It Was City Hall \|url\=https://www.themoscowtimes.com/2014/04/08/protesters\-storm\-kharkiv\-theater\-thinking\-it\-was\-city\-hall\-a33739 \|access\-date\=2022\-08\-15 \|website\=The Moscow Times \|language\=en \|archive\-date\=15 August 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220815112502/https://www.themoscowtimes.com/2014/04/08/protesters\-storm\-kharkiv\-theater\-thinking\-it\-was\-city\-hall\-a33739 \|url\-status\=live }}
Kharkiv's mayor, [Hennadiy "Gepa" Kernes](/wiki/Hennadiy_Kernes "Hennadiy Kernes"), elected in 2010 as the nominee of the [Party of Regions](/wiki/Party_of_Regions "Party of Regions"), was placed under house arrest. Claiming to have been "prisoner of Yanukovych's system",["Kharkiv's Kernes justifies his 180\-degree political turn by saying he was 'prisoner' of Yanukovych system"](http://mymedia.org.ua/en/articles/revolution/kharkiv_s_kernes_justifies_his_180-degree_political_turn_by_saying_he_was_prisoner_of_yanukovych_sys.html) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20211206195542/https://mymedia.org.ua/en/articles/revolution/kharkiv\_s\_kernes\_justifies\_his\_180\-degree\_political\_turn\_by\_saying\_he\_was\_prisoner\_of\_yanukovych\_sys.html\|date\=6 December 2021}}, [MY\-MEDIA](/wiki/MY-MEDIA "MY-MEDIA"), 6 March 2014; accessed 28 August 2014\. he now declared his loyalty to acting President [Oleksandr Turchynov](/wiki/Oleksandr_Turchynov "Oleksandr Turchynov"). In a televised address on 7 April, Turchynov had announced that "a second wave of the Russian Federation's special operation against Ukraine \[has] started" with the "goal of destabilising the situation in the country, toppling Ukrainian authorities, disrupting the elections, and tearing our country apart".{{Cite news \|title\=Authorities Clear Occupied Kharkiv Building \|url\=https://www.rferl.org/a/kharkiv\-operation\-ukraine\-terrorism\-separatist\-arrests/25324984\.html \|access\-date\=2022\-08\-15 \|newspaper\=Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty \|date\=8 April 2014 \|language\=en \|archive\-date\=11 November 2021 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20211111211046/https://www.rferl.org/a/kharkiv\-operation\-ukraine\-terrorism\-separatist\-arrests/25324984\.html \|url\-status\=live }} Kernes persuaded the police to storm the regional administration building and push out the separatists. He was allowed to return to his mayoral duties.{{Cite web \|last\=Loiko \|first\=Sergei \|date\=28 April 2014 \|title\=Ukraine mayor in critical condition after he was shot in the back \|url\=https://www.latimes.com/world/worldnow/la\-fg\-wn\-ukraine\-mayor\-shot\-20140428\-story.html \|access\-date\=2022\-08\-15 \|website\=Los Angeles Times \|language\=en\-US \|archive\-date\=15 August 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220815112502/https://www.latimes.com/world/worldnow/la\-fg\-wn\-ukraine\-mayor\-shot\-20140428\-story.html \|url\-status\=live }}
Police action against the separatists was reinforced by a special forces unit from [Vinnytsia](/wiki/Vinnytsia "Vinnytsia") directed by Ukrainian Interior Minister [Arsen Avakov](/wiki/Arsen_Avakov "Arsen Avakov") and [Stepan Poltorak](/wiki/Stepan_Poltorak "Stepan Poltorak") the acting commander of the [Ukrainian Internal Forces](/wiki/Internal_Troops_of_Ukraine "Internal Troops of Ukraine").{{cite news \| url\=http://www.kyivpost.com/content/ukraine/kharkiv\-settles\-down\-while\-pro\-russian\-separatists\-still\-hold\-buildings\-in\-luhansk\-donetsk\-342517\.html \| title\=Kharkiv settles down, while pro\-Russian separatists still hold buildings in Luhansk, Donetsk \| work\=Kyiv Post \| date\=8 April 2014 \| access\-date\=13 April 2014 \| archive\-date\=13 January 2016 \| archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160113023301/http://www.kyivpost.com/content/ukraine/kharkiv\-settles\-down\-while\-pro\-russian\-separatists\-still\-hold\-buildings\-in\-luhansk\-donetsk\-342517\.html \| url\-status\=live }} On 13 April, some pro\-Russian protesters again made it inside the Kharkiv regional state administration building, but were quickly evicted.{{cite news \|date\=13 April 2014 \|title\=Kharkiv city government building infiltrated by pro\-Russian protesters \|work\=Kyiv Post \|url\=http://www.kyivpost.com/content/ukraine/pro\-russian\-militants\-attack\-pro\-ukrainian\-demonstrators\-in\-kharkiv\-including\-at\-least\-three\-severely\-343292\.html \|access\-date\=13 April 2014 \|archive\-date\=13 January 2016 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160113023301/http://www.kyivpost.com/content/ukraine/pro\-russian\-militants\-attack\-pro\-ukrainian\-demonstrators\-in\-kharkiv\-including\-at\-least\-three\-severely\-343292\.html \|url\-status\=live }}{{cite web \|url\=http://www.unian.net/politics/907771\-posle\-napadeniya\-antimaydanovtsev\-na\-miting\-evromaydana\-v\-harkove\-postradalo\-50\-chelovek.html \|title\=После нападения антимайдановцев на митинг Евромайдана в Харькове пострадало 50 человек : Новости УНИАН \|publisher\=Unian.net \|date\=14 April 2014 \|access\-date\=28 April 2014 \|archive\-date\=19 May 2014 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140519144043/http://www.unian.net/politics/907771\-posle\-napadeniya\-antimaydanovtsev\-na\-miting\-evromaydana\-v\-harkove\-postradalo\-50\-chelovek.html \|url\-status\=live }} Violent clashes resulted in the severe beating of at least 50 pro\-Ukrainian protesters in attacks by pro\-Russian protesters. On 28 April, [Kernes](/wiki/Hennadiy_Kernes "Hennadiy Kernes") was shot by a sniper,{{cite news \|date\=28 April 2014 \|title\=Ukraine crisis: US and EU to intensify Russia sanctions \|work\=BBC \|url\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world\-europe\-27183591 \|access\-date\=28 April 2014 \|archive\-date\=1 March 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220301222721/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world\-europe\-27183591 \|url\-status\=live }}[Ukraine mayor in critical condition after he was shot in the back](http://www.latimes.com/world/worldnow/la-fg-wn-ukraine-mayor-shot-20140428,0,1011902.story?track=rss#axzz30JGhcEHC) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140505011013/http://www.latimes.com/world/worldnow/la\-fg\-wn\-ukraine\-mayor\-shot\-20140428,0,1011902\.story?track\=rss\#axzz30JGhcEHC \|date\=5 May 2014 }}, *[Los Angeles Times](/wiki/Los_Angeles_Times "Los Angeles Times")* (28 April 2014\) a victim, commentators suggested, of his former pro\-Russian allies.
Relatively peaceful demonstrations continued to be held, with "pro\-Russian" rallies gradually diminishing and "pro\-Ukrainian unity" demonstrations growing in numbers.{{cite press release\|url\=http://www.osce.org/ukraine\-smm/120113\|title\=Latest from the Special Monitoring Mission in Ukraine based on information received until 23 June 2014\|publisher\=Organization for Security and Co\-operation in Europe\|date\=24 June 2014\|access\-date\=22 August 2014\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151122133303/http://www.osce.org/ukraine\-smm/120113\|archive\-date\=22 November 2015}}{{cite press release\|url\=http://www.osce.org/ukraine\-smm/121790\|title\=Latest from the Special Monitoring Mission (SMM) in Ukraine based on information received until 18:00 hrs, 23 July\|publisher\=Organization for Security and Co\-operation in Europe\|date\=24 July 2014\|access\-date\=25 July 2014\|archive\-date\=11 November 2021\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20211111212651/https://www.osce.org/ukraine\-smm/121790\|url\-status\=live}}{{in lang\|uk}} [Two liberty square rally](http://www.sq.com.ua/rus/news/obschestvo/17.08.2014/na_ploschadi_svobody_proshli_dva_mitinga/) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220320011916/https://www.sq.com.ua/rus/news/obschestvo/17\.08\.2014/na\_ploschadi\_svobody\_proshli\_dva\_mitinga \|date\=20 March 2022 }}, Status quo (17 August 2014\) On 28 September, activists dismantled Ukraine's largest monument to Lenin at a pro\-Ukrainian rally in the central square.[Ukrainian Crowds Topple Lenin Statue (Again)](https://www.forbes.com/sites/katyasoldak/2014/09/28/ukrainian-crowds-topple-lenin-statue-again/) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171020132743/https://www.forbes.com/sites/katyasoldak/2014/09/28/ukrainian\-crowds\-topple\-lenin\-statue\-again/ \|date\=20 October 2017 }}. Retrieved 29 September 2014\. Polls conducted from September to December 2014 found little support in Kharkiv for joining Russia.{{r\|Navalny140923}}{{r\|DT150103}}
From early November until mid\-December, Kharkiv was struck by seven non\-lethal bomb blasts. Targets of these attacks included a rock pub known for raising money for Ukrainian forces, a hospital for Ukrainian forces, a military recruiting centre, and a [National Guard](/wiki/National_Guard_of_Ukraine "National Guard of Ukraine") base.[Seven recent blasts in Ukraine city stir fear of new Russian menace](http://www.latimes.com/world/europe/la-fg-ukraine-russia-kharkiv-bombs-20141210-story.html) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220320012623/https://www.latimes.com/world/europe/la\-fg\-ukraine\-russia\-kharkiv\-bombs\-20141210\-story.html \|date\=20 March 2022 }}, [Los Angeles Times](/wiki/Los_Angeles_Times "Los Angeles Times") (11 December 2014\)
[Mysterious spate of bombings hit Ukraine military hub](https://news.yahoo.com/mysterious-spate-bombings-hit-ukraine-military-hub-114452090.html#) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160315155646/http://news.yahoo.com/mysterious\-spate\-bombings\-hit\-ukraine\-military\-hub\-114452090\.html \|date\=15 March 2016 }}, [Agence France\-Presse](/wiki/Agence_France-Presse "Agence France-Presse") (10 December 2014\) According to [SBU](/wiki/Security_Service_of_Ukraine "Security Service of Ukraine") investigator Vasyliy Vovk, [Russian covert forces](/wiki/Foreign_Intelligence_Service_%28Russia%29 "Foreign Intelligence Service (Russia)") were behind the attacks, and had intended to destabilise the otherwise calm city of Kharkiv.[SBU: Russian special services target Kharkiv, Odesa, situation difficult to control](http://www.unian.info/society/1020077-sbu-russian-special-services-target-kharkiv-odesa-situation-difficult-to-control.html) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141214215037/http://www.unian.info/society/1020077\-sbu\-russian\-special\-services\-target\-kharkiv\-odesa\-situation\-difficult\-to\-control.html \|date\=14 December 2014 }}, [Ukrainian Independent Information Agency](/wiki/Ukrainian_Independent_Information_Agency "Ukrainian Independent Information Agency") (10 December 2014\) On 8 January 2015 five men wearing [balaclavas](/wiki/Balaclava_%28clothing%29 "Balaclava (clothing)") broke into an office of Station Kharkiv, a volunteer group aiding refugees from [Donbas](/wiki/Donbas "Donbas").{{cite web \|date\=9 January 2015 \|script\-title\=uk:Міліція з ясовує, хто напав на волонтерську "Станцію Харків" \|trans\-title\=Police finds out who attacked the volunteer\-run "Station Kharkiv" \|url\=http://www.ukrinform.ua/rubric\-iac/1801796\-militsiya\_zyasovue\_\_hto\_napav\_na\_volontersku\_stantsiyu\_harkiv\_2008697\.html \|access\-date\=22 March 2015 \|publisher\=ukrinform.ua \|language\=uk \|archive\-date\=7 October 2015 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151007213937/http://www.ukrinform.ua/rubric\-iac/1801796\-militsiya\_zyasovue\_\_hto\_napav\_na\_volontersku\_stantsiyu\_harkiv\_2008697\.html \|url\-status\=live }}{{cite web \|date\=25 October 2014 \|script\-title\=ru:"Станция Харьков" — первый пункт помощи переселенцам из зоны АТО \|trans\-title\="Station Kharkiv" – the first point of assistance for displaced persons from the Donbas zone \|url\=http://24tv.ua/ru/stantsiya\_harkov\_\_perviy\_punkt\_pomoshhi\_pereselentsam\_iz\_zoni\_ato\_n500974 \|access\-date\=22 March 2015 \|publisher\=24tv.ua \|language\=ru \|archive\-date\=14 January 2016 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160114041233/http://24tv.ua/ru/stantsiya\_harkov\_\_perviy\_punkt\_pomoshhi\_pereselentsam\_iz\_zoni\_ato\_n500974 \|url\-status\=live }} On 22 February an [improvised explosive device](/wiki/Improvised_explosive_device "Improvised explosive device") killed four people and wounded nine during a march commemorating the [Euromaidan victims](/wiki/List_of_people_killed_during_the_2014_Ukrainian_revolution "List of people killed during the 2014 Ukrainian revolution"). The authorities launched an 'anti\-terrorist operation'.[UNIAN](http://www.unian.info/politics/1047081-anti-terrorist-operation-launched-in-kharkiv-due-to-fatal-blast-on-sunday-turchynov.html) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150224202600/http://www.unian.info/politics/1047081\-anti\-terrorist\-operation\-launched\-in\-kharkiv\-due\-to\-fatal\-blast\-on\-sunday\-turchynov.html \|date\=24 February 2015 }} *Anti\-terrorist operation launched in Kharkiv due to fatal blast on Sunday – Turchynov*, 22 February 2015\.
[En.Censor.Net](http://en.censor.net.ua/news/325751/antiterrorist_operation_started_in_kharkiv_four_participants_on_the_explosion_detained) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150225022520/http://en.censor.net.ua/news/325751/antiterrorist\_operation\_started\_in\_kharkiv\_four\_participants\_on\_the\_explosion\_detained \|date\=25 February 2015 }}, *Anti\-terrorist operation started in Kharkiv: four participants on the explosion detained*, 22 February 2015\.
[Novorossia.Today](http://novorossia.today/turchinov-announced-start-of-the-ato-in-kharkov-the-highest-level-of-terrorist-threat-had-been-introduced-in-the-city/) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150225030318/http://novorossia.today/turchinov\-announced\-start\-of\-the\-ato\-in\-kharkov\-the\-highest\-level\-of\-terrorist\-threat\-had\-been\-introduced\-in\-the\-city/ \|date\=25 February 2015 }}, Turchinov announced start of the ATO in Kharkov. The highest level of terrorist threat had been introduced in the city, 23 February 2015\. Further bombings targeted army fuel tanks, an unoccupied passenger train and a [Ukrainian flag](/wiki/Ukrainian_flag "Ukrainian flag") in the city centre.[Bomb Attacks Increase In Ukraine's Second\-Largest City, Kharkiv](https://www.npr.org/2015/04/06/397774803/despite-tenuous-truce-in-eastern-ukraine-bomb-attacks-increase-in-kharkiv) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171019082853/http://www.npr.org/2015/04/06/397774803/despite\-tenuous\-truce\-in\-eastern\-ukraine\-bomb\-attacks\-increase\-in\-kharkiv \|date\=19 October 2017 }}, [NPR](/wiki/NPR "NPR") (6 April 2015\)
[Kharkiv explosion targeting Ukrainian flag classified as 'terrorist act'](http://uatoday.tv/politics/kharkiv-explosion-targets-ukrainian-flag-419957.html) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150414190720/http://uatoday.tv/politics/kharkiv\-explosion\-targets\-ukrainian\-flag\-419957\.html \|date\=14 April 2015 }}, [Ukraine Today](/wiki/Ukraine_Today "Ukraine Today") (7 April 2015\)
[Explosion In Ukraine's Kharkiv Targets National Flag Memorial](http://www.rferl.org/content/explosion-in-ukraine-kharkiv-targets-national-flag-memorial/26942551.html) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150407094223/http://www.rferl.org/content/explosion\-in\-ukraine\-kharkiv\-targets\-national\-flag\-memorial/26942551\.html \|date\=7 April 2015 }}, [Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty](/wiki/Radio_Free_Europe/Radio_Liberty "Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty") (7 April 2015\)
On 23 September 2015, 200 people in balaclavas and camouflage picketed the house of former governor [Mykhailo Dobkin](/wiki/Mykhailo_Dobkin "Mykhailo Dobkin"), and then went to Kharkiv town hall, where they tried to force their way through the police cordon. At least one tear gas grenade was used. The rioters asked the mayor, [Hennadiy Kernes](/wiki/Hennadiy_Kernes "Hennadiy Kernes"), a supporter of the president, to come out.[Unian](http://www.unian.info/society/1131951-over-200-men-in-balaclavas-brawls-in-kharkiv-town-hall-clash-with-police.html) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150925093245/http://www.unian.info/society/1131951\-over\-200\-men\-in\-balaclavas\-brawls\-in\-kharkiv\-town\-hall\-clash\-with\-police.html \|date\=25 September 2015 }}, *Over 200 men in balaclavas brawl at Kharkiv town hall, clash with police*, 23 September 2015, 14:10\.{{Cite web \|script\-title\=ru:Появилось видео столкновений у горсовета Харькова \|trans\-title\=Video of riot at Kharkiv City Council \|url\=https://korrespondent.net/ukraine/3567072\-poiavylos\-vydeo\-stolknovenyi\-u\-horsoveta\-kharkova \|access\-date\=2023\-07\-01 \|website\=korrespondent.net \|language\=ru \|archive\-date\=1 July 2023 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230701072227/https://korrespondent.net/ukraine/3567072\-poiavylos\-vydeo\-stolknovenyi\-u\-horsoveta\-kharkova \|url\-status\=live }} Following recovery from his wounds, Kernes had been re\-elected mayor, and was so again in 2020\. He died of COVID\-19 related complication in December 2020\.[Kharkiv mayor Kernes dies](https://www.ukrinform.net/rubric-polytics/3156284-kharkiv-mayor-kernes-dies.html) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20211111214322/https://www.ukrinform.net/rubric\-polytics/3156284\-kharkiv\-mayor\-kernes\-dies.html \|date\=11 November 2021 }}, [Ukrinform](/wiki/Ukrinform "Ukrinform") (17 December 2020\)
[Помер Геннадій Кернес: мер Харкова, який виграв вибори з реанімації](https://www.bbc.com/ukrainian/features-54502494) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201217074508/https://www.bbc.com/ukrainian/features\-54502494 \|date\=17 December 2020 }}, [BBC Ukrainian](/wiki/BBC_Ukrainian "BBC Ukrainian") (17 December 2020\) {{in lang\|uk}}{{in lang\|uk}} [Keys to cities. What is the secret of longevity of mayors](https://m.tyzhden.ua/publication/246371) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20211111214335/https://m.tyzhden.ua/publication/246371 \|date\=11 November 2021 }}, [The Ukrainian Week](/wiki/The_Ukrainian_Week "The Ukrainian Week") (10 August 2020\) He was succeeded by [Ihor Terekhov](/wiki/Ihor_Terekhov "Ihor Terekhov") of the "[Kernes Bloc — Successful Kharkiv](/wiki/Kernes_Bloc_%E2%80%94_Successful_Kharkiv "Kernes Bloc — Successful Kharkiv")".
After the Euromaidan events and Russian [actions in the Crimea](/wiki/Annexation_of_Crimea_by_the_Russian_Federation "Annexation of Crimea by the Russian Federation") and [Donbas](/wiki/War_in_Donbas_%282014%E2%80%932022%29 "War in Donbas (2014–2022)") ruptured relations with Moscow, the Kharkiv region experienced a sharp fall in output and employment. Once a hub of cross border trade, Kharkiv was turned into a border fortress. A reorientation to new international markets, increased defense contracts (after Kyiv, the region contains the second\-largest number of military\-related enterprises) and export growth in the economy's services sector helped fuel a recovery, but people's incomes did not return to pre\-2014 levels.{{Cite web \|last\=Jarábik \|first\=Natalia Shapovalova, Balázs \|title\=How Eastern Ukraine Is Adapting and Surviving: The Case of Kharkiv \|url\=https://carnegieeurope.eu/2018/09/12/how\-eastern\-ukraine\-is\-adapting\-and\-surviving\-case\-of\-kharkiv\-pub\-77216 \|access\-date\=2022\-08\-13 \|website\=Carnegie Europe \|language\=en \|archive\-date\=8 March 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220308154832/https://www.rferl.org/a/kharkiv\-operation\-ukraine\-terrorism\-separatist\-arrests/25324984\.html \|url\-status\=live }}
By 2018 Kharkiv officially has the lowest unemployment rate in Ukraine, 6 percent. But in part this reflected labor shortages caused by the steady outflow of young and skilled workers to Poland and other European countries.
Until 18 July 2020, Kharkiv was incorporated as a [city of oblast significance](/wiki/City_of_regional_significance_%28Ukraine%29 "City of regional significance (Ukraine)") and served as the administrative center of Kharkiv Raion though it did not belong to the raion. In July 2020, as part of the administrative reform of Ukraine, which reduced the number of raions of Kharkiv Oblast to seven, the city of Kharkiv was merged into Kharkiv Raion.{{Cite news\|title\=Про утворення та ліквідацію районів. Постанова Верховної Ради України № 807\-ІХ.\|url\=http://www.golos.com.ua/article/333466\|access\-date\=2020\-10\-03\|date\=18 July 2020\|website\=Голос України\|language\=uk}}{{cite web \|title\=Нові райони: карти \+ склад \|url\=https://www.minregion.gov.ua/press/news/novi\-rajony\-karty\-sklad/ \|publisher\=Міністерство розвитку громад та територій України \|language\=Ukrainian}}
#### 2022 Russian invasion
{{main\|Battle of Kharkiv (2022\)\|Kharkiv strikes (2022–present)}}During the [2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine](/wiki/2022_Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine "2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine"), Kharkiv [was the site of heavy fighting between the Ukrainian and Russian forces](/wiki/Battle_of_Kharkiv_%282022%29 "Battle of Kharkiv (2022)").{{Cite news \|last\=Schwirtz \|first\=Michael \|date\=25 February 2022 \|title\=Scenes from Kharkiv: Battle wreckage, the boom of artillery, and people sheltering in the subway. \|language\=en\-US \|work\=The New York Times \|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2022/02/25/world/europe/kharkiv\-ukraine\-military.html \|access\-date\=26 February 2022 \|issn\=0362\-4331 \|archive\-date\=25 February 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220225173613/https://www.nytimes.com/2022/02/25/world/europe/kharkiv\-ukraine\-military.html \|url\-status\=live }} On 27 February, the governor of Kharkiv Oblast [Oleh Synyehubov](/wiki/Oleh_Synyehubov "Oleh Synyehubov") claimed that Russian troops were repelled from Kharkiv.{{cite web \|url\=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/feb/27/kharkiv\-fighting\-russia\-ukraine\-invasion \|website\=\[\[The Guardian]] \|title\=Kharkiv governor claims Russian troops repelled from city \|date\=27 February 2022 \|access\-date\=27 February 2022 \|last\=Harding \|first\=Luke \|archive\-date\=27 February 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220227162935/https://apple.news/AaXq70KfATu2dJIxsVdW9vw \|url\-status\=live }}
According to a 28 February 2022, report from Agroportal 24h, the [Kharkiv Tractor Plant (KhTZ)](/wiki/Kharkiv_Tractor_Plant "Kharkiv Tractor Plant"), in the south east of the city, was destroyed and "engulfed in fire" by "massive shelling" from Russian forces.{{cite web \|title\=Ukrainian Tractor Factory Destroyed in Bombing \|url\=https://www.agequipmentintelligence.com/articles/5369\-ukrainian\-tractor\-factory\-destroyed\-in\-bombing \|access\-date\=14 March 2022 \|website\=www.agequipmentintelligence.com \|language\=en \|archive\-date\=16 March 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220316120452/https://www.agequipmentintelligence.com/articles/5369\-ukrainian\-tractor\-factory\-destroyed\-in\-bombing \|url\-status\=live }} Video purported to record explosions and fire at the plant on 25 and 27 February 2022\.{{cite web \|title\=Реальная Война Новости Украина \|url\=https://t.me/voynareal/10377 \|access\-date\=14 March 2022 \|website\=Telegram \|archive\-date\=14 March 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220314111604/https://t.me/voynareal/10377 \|url\-status\=live }}{{Citation \|title\=video of the fire reportedly at the Kharkiv Tractor Plant \|url\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\=oY5kGPtCGTo \|language\=en \|access\-date\=14 March 2022 \|archive\-date\=14 March 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220314111609/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\=oY5kGPtCGTo\&feature\=youtu.be \|url\-status\=live }} UNESCO has confirmed that in the first three weeks of bombardment the city experienced the loss or damage of at least 27 major historical buildings.{{Cite web \|date\=5 May 2022 \|title\=Kharkiv catalogues war's toll on its architectural gems \|url\=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/may/05/kharkiv\-catalogues\-war\-toll\-on\-architectural\-gems\-historic\-buildings\-ukraine \|access\-date\=2022\-08\-15 \|website\=The Guardian \|language\=en \|archive\-date\=24 July 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220724091916/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/may/05/kharkiv\-catalogues\-war\-toll\-on\-architectural\-gems\-historic\-buildings\-ukraine \|url\-status\=live }}
On 4 March 2022, Human Rights Watch reported that on the fourth day of the [invasion of Ukraine by the Russian Federation](/wiki/2022_Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine "2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine"), 28 February 2022, Federation forces used cluster munitions in the [KhTZ](/wiki/Industrialnyi_District%2C_Kharkiv "Industrialnyi District, Kharkiv"), the [Saltivskyi](/wiki/Saltivskyi_District "Saltivskyi District") and [Shevchenkivskyi](/wiki/Shevchenkivskyi_District%2C_Kharkiv "Shevchenkivskyi District, Kharkiv") districts of the city. The rights group—which noted the "inherently indiscriminate nature of cluster munitions and their foreseeable effects on civilians"—based its assessment on interviews and an analysis of 40 videos and photographs.{{cite web \|date\=4 March 2022 \|title\=Ukraine: Cluster Munitions Launched Into Kharkiv Neighborhoods \|url\=https://www.hrw.org/news/2022/03/04/ukraine\-cluster\-munitions\-launched\-kharkiv\-neighborhoods \|access\-date\=13 March 2022 \|website\=Human Rights Watch \|language\=en \|archive\-date\=13 March 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220313140732/https://www.hrw.org/news/2022/03/04/ukraine\-cluster\-munitions\-launched\-kharkiv\-neighborhoods \|url\-status\=live }} In March 2022, during the [Battle of Kharkiv](/wiki/Battle_of_Kharkiv_%282022%29 "Battle of Kharkiv (2022)"), the city was designated as a [Hero City of Ukraine](/wiki/Hero_City_of_Ukraine "Hero City of Ukraine").{{cite news \|last\=Богданьок \|first\=Олена \|date\=6 March 2022 \|title\=Харків, Чернігів, Маріуполь, Херсон, Гостомель і Волноваха тепер міста\-герої \|language\=uk \|newspaper\=Суспільне \| Новини \|url\=https://suspilne.media/214620\-harkiv\-cernigiv\-mariupol\-herson\-gostomel\-i\-volnovaha\-otrimali\-zvanna\-misto\-geroj\-prezident/ \|access\-date\=13 March 2022 \|archive\-date\=13 March 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220313224944/https://suspilne.media/214620\-harkiv\-cernigiv\-mariupol\-herson\-gostomel\-i\-volnovaha\-otrimali\-zvanna\-misto\-geroj\-prezident/ \|url\-status\=dead }}
In May 2022, Ukrainian forces began a counter\-offensive to drive Russian forces away from the city and towards the international border. By 12 May, the United Kingdom Ministry of Defence reported that Russia had withdrawn units from the Kharkiv area.{{cite news \|last\=Norman \|first\=Greg \|date\=12 May 2022 \|title\=Russia withdrawing troops after 'heavy losses', proving 'inability to capture key Ukrainian cities,' UK says \|newspaper\=Fox News \|url\=https://www.foxnews.com/world/russia\-withdrawing\-troops\-kharkiv\-ukraine\-war\-uk\-says \|access\-date\=14 May 2022 \|archive\-date\=15 May 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220515230813/https://www.foxnews.com/world/russia\-withdrawing\-troops\-kharkiv\-ukraine\-war\-uk\-says \|url\-status\=live }} Russian artillery and rockets remain within range of the city, and it [continues to suffer shelling](/wiki/Bombing_of_Kharkiv_%282022%E2%80%93present%29 "Bombing of Kharkiv (2022–present)"){{Cite web \|title\=Enemy shell falls near apartment building in Kharkiv region \|url\=https://www.ukrinform.net/rubric\-ato/3550225\-enemy\-shell\-falls\-near\-apartment\-building\-in\-kharkiv\-region.html \|access\-date\=2022\-08\-14 \|website\=www.ukrinform.net \|date\=14 August 2022 \|language\=en \|archive\-date\=14 August 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220814192811/https://www.ukrinform.net/rubric\-ato/3550225\-enemy\-shell\-falls\-near\-apartment\-building\-in\-kharkiv\-region.html \|url\-status\=live }} and missile strikes.{{Cite web \|title\=Russians fire missiles at Kharkiv Region's Zmiiv community, three civilians injured \|url\=https://www.ukrinform.net/rubric\-ato/3550022\-russians\-fire\-missiles\-at\-kharkiv\-regions\-zmiiv\-community\-three\-civilians\-injured.html \|access\-date\=2022\-08\-14 \|website\=www.ukrinform.net \|date\=14 August 2022 \|language\=en \|archive\-date\=14 August 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220814080545/https://www.ukrinform.net/rubric\-ato/3550022\-russians\-fire\-missiles\-at\-kharkiv\-regions\-zmiiv\-community\-three\-civilians\-injured.html \|url\-status\=live }}{{cite web \|date\=31 December 2023 \|title\=Ukraine war: Russia hits back after Kyiv attack on border city \|url\=https://www.bbc.com/news/world\-europe\-67851431 \|access\-date\=31 December 2023 \|work\=\[\[BBC News]]}}
{{Cite web \|date\=29 December 2023 \|title\=Russia launches largest air attack on Ukraine since start of full\-scale war \|url\=https://kyivindependent.com/russian\-strikes\-injure\-at\-least\-7\-in\-kyiv\-casualties\-reported\-in\-lviv\-dnipro\-kharkiv/ \|access\-date\=2023\-12\-30 \|website\=The Kyiv Independent \|language\=en}}
{{main\|2024 northeastern Ukraine offensive}}
In May 2024, after two weeks intensive fighting, and the loss of a number of border villages, Ukrainian forces halted a renewed Russian advance toward Kharkiv. The Ukrainian defence was assisted by American\-supplied Himar missiles, and by US permission to fire these across the border at military targets within Russian territory.{{Cite news \|last\=Farmer \|first\=Ben \|date\=8 June 2024 \|title\=Russia thwarted over Kharkiv after cross\-border Himars strikes \|url\=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/world\-news/2024/06/08/russia\-ukraine\-kharkiv\-key\-missile\-launch\-sites\-counter\-att/ \|access\-date\=2024\-06\-17 \|work\=The Telegraph \|language\=en\-GB \|issn\=0307\-1235}}
|
[
"History\n-------",
"{{see also\\|Timeline of Kharkiv}}\n{{main\\|History of Kharkiv}}\n{{Quote box \\|width\\=23em \\|align\\=left \\|bgcolor\\=GhostWhite\n\\| title \\= Historical affiliations\n\\| fontsize \\= 90%\n\\| quote \\= '''De\\-jure:'''{{flagicon image\\|Flag of Oryol (variant).svg}}{{flagicon image\\|Flag of Russia.svg}} \\[\\[Tsardom of Russia\\|RT]]/\\[\\[Russian Empire\\|RI]] 1654–1789 \n'''De\\-facto:'''{{flagicon image\\|Kharkiv\\_Regiment.svg}} \\[\\[Kharkiv Regiment]] 1654–1789 \n {{flagicon image\\|Flag of Russia.svg}} \\[\\[Russian Empire]] 1789–1917 \n'''Beginning of 1917\\-–1921 Revolution''' \n{{flagicon image\\|Flag of Russia.svg}} \\[\\[Russian Provisional Government]] Mar–Nov 1917 \n{{flagicon image\\|Flag\\_of\\_Ukraine\\_(1917–1921\\).svg}} \\[\\[Ukrainian People's Republic\\|UPR]] Nov\\-–Dec 1917 \n{{flagicon image\\|Flag\\_of\\_Ukrainian\\_People's\\_Republic\\_of\\_the\\_Soviets.svg}} \\[\\[Ukrainian People's Republic of Soviets\\|UPRS]] Dec 1917 – Apr 1918 \n{{flagicon image\\|Flag\\_of\\_Ukraine\\_(1917–1921\\).svg}} \\[\\[Ukrainian People's Republic]]/\\[\\[Ukrainian State]] Apr 1918 – Jan 1919 \n{{flagicon image\\|Socialist\\_red\\_flag.svg}} \\[\\[Provisional Workers' and Peasants' Government of Ukraine\\|PWPGU]]/{{flagicon image\\|Flag\\_of\\_Ukrainian\\_People's\\_Republic\\_of\\_the\\_Soviets.svg}} \\[\\[Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic\\|UkSSR]] 1919 Jan–Jun \n{{flagicon image\\|Flag\\_of\\_Russia.svg}} \\[\\[Armed Forces of South Russia\\|ARSR]] 1919 Jun–Dec \n{{flagicon image\\|Flag\\_of\\_Ukrainian\\_People's\\_Republic\\_of\\_the\\_Soviets.svg}} \\[\\[Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic\\|UkSSR]] Dec 1919 – Dec 1922 \n'''End of 1917\\-–1921 Revolution''' \n{{flagicon image\\|Flag\\_of\\_the\\_Soviet\\_Union\\_(1924\\).svg}} \\[\\[USSR]] 1922–1941 \n{{flagicon image\\|Flag\\_of\\_Germany\\_(1935–1945\\).svg}} \\[\\[Third Reich]] 1941–1943 \n{{flagicon image\\|Flag\\_of\\_the\\_USSR\\_(1936\\-1955\\).svg}} \\[\\[USSR]] Feb–Mar 1943 \n{{flagicon image\\|Flag\\_of\\_Germany\\_(1935–1945\\).svg}} \\[\\[Third Reich]] Mar–Sep 1943 \n{{flagicon image\\|Flag\\_of\\_the\\_Soviet\\_Union.svg}} \\[\\[USSR]] 1943–1991 \n{{flagicon image\\|Flag\\_of\\_Ukraine.svg}} \\[\\[Ukraine]] 1991–present",
"}}",
"### Early history",
"[thumb\\|A depiction of the legendary founder \"Khariton or Kharko\" (postcard of the Russian imperial period, c. 1890s).](/wiki/File:Kharko.jpg \"Kharko.jpg\")\nThe earliest historical references to the region are to [Scythian](/wiki/Scythians \"Scythians\") and [Sarmatian](/wiki/Sarmatians \"Sarmatians\") settlement in the 2nd century BC. Between the 2nd to the 6th centuries AD there is evidence of [Chernyakhov culture](/wiki/Chernyakhov_culture \"Chernyakhov culture\"), a multiethnic mix of the [Geto](/wiki/Getae \"Getae\")\\-[Dacian](/wiki/Dacians \"Dacians\"), [Sarmatian](/wiki/Sarmatians \"Sarmatians\"), and [Gothic](/wiki/Goths \"Goths\") populations.\n{{cite book \\|last1\\= Eiddon \\|first1\\=Iorwerth \\|last2\\= Edwards \\|first2\\=Stephen \\|last3\\= Heather \\|first3\\=Peter \\|year\\= 1998 \\|title\\=The Late Empire \\|volume\\=13 \\|publisher\\=Cambridge University Press \\|series\\=The Cambridge Ancient History \\|chapter\\=Goths \\& Huns \\|isbn\\=0\\-521\\-30200\\-5 \\|page\\=488}} In the 8th to 10th centuries the [Khazar](/wiki/Khazar \"Khazar\") fortress of *Verkhneye Saltovo* stood about {{convert\\|25\\|miles}} east of the modern city, near [Staryi Saltiv](/wiki/Staryi_Saltiv \"Staryi Saltiv\").Kevin Alan Brook, *The Jews of Khazaria* (2006\\), [p. 34](https://books.google.com/books?id=hEuIveNl9kcC&pg=PA34) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405180157/https://books.google.com/books?id\\=hEuIveNl9kcC\\&pg\\=PA34 \\|date\\=5 April 2023 }}. During the 12th century, the area was part of the territory of the [Cumans](/wiki/Cumans \"Cumans\"), and then from the mid 13th century of the [Mongol](/wiki/Mongol_Empire \"Mongol Empire\")/[Tartar](/wiki/Tatars \"Tatars\") [Golden Horde](/wiki/Golden_Horde \"Golden Horde\").",
"By the early 17th century the area was a contested frontier region with renegade populations that had begun to organise in [Cossack](/wiki/Cossacks \"Cossacks\") formations and communities defined by a common determination to resist both [Tatar](/wiki/Tatars \"Tatars\") slavery, and Polish\\-Lithuanian and Russian [serfdom](/wiki/Serfdom \"Serfdom\"). Mid\\-century, the [Khmelnytsky uprising](/wiki/Khmelnytsky_uprising \"Khmelnytsky uprising\") against the [Polish\\-Lithuanian Commonwealth](/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth \"Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth\") saw the brief establishment of an independent [Cossack Hetmanate](/wiki/Cossack_Hetmanate \"Cossack Hetmanate\").{{cite book \\|author\\=Roman Solchanyk \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=LNvTSDQXFXgC\\&pg\\=PA6 \\|title\\=Ukraine and Russia: The Post\\-Soviet Transition \\|date\\=January 2001 \\|publisher\\=Rowman \\& Littlefield \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-7425\\-1018\\-0 \\|page\\=6 \\|access\\-date\\=31 March 2015 \\|archive\\-date\\=2 October 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20231002071000/https://books.google.com/books?id\\=LNvTSDQXFXgC\\&pg\\=PA6\\#v\\=onepage\\&q\\&f\\=false \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"### Kharkiv Fortress",
"In 1654 in the midst of this period of turmoil for [Right\\-bank Ukraine](/wiki/Right-bank_Ukraine \"Right-bank Ukraine\"), groups of people came onto the banks of [Lopan](/wiki/Lopan_River \"Lopan River\") and [Kharkiv](/wiki/Kharkiv_River \"Kharkiv River\") rivers where they resurrected and fortified an abandoned settlement.{{Cite web \\|script\\-title\\=uk:Живий Харків. Нічна екскурсія містом\\-господарем \\|trans\\-title\\=Living Kharkiv. Nightly excursion through the host\\-city \\|url\\=https://www.istpravda.com.ua/articles/2012/06/8/88316/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-07\\-01 \\|website\\=\\[\\[Ukrainska Pravda]] \\|archive\\-date\\=7 May 2021 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210507102527/https://www.istpravda.com.ua/articles/2012/06/8/88316/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }} There is a folk etymology that connects the name of both the settlement and the river to a legendary [Cossack founder named *Kharko*](/wiki/Zakhary_Chepiha \"Zakhary Chepiha\")Ivan Katchanovski et al. (eds.), *Historical Dictionary of Ukraine* (2013\\), [p. 253](https://books.google.com/books?id=-h6r57lDC4QC&pg=PA253) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405180150/https://books.google.com/books?id\\=\\-h6r57lDC4QC\\&pg\\=PA253\\|date\\=5 April 2023}} (a diminutive form of the Greek name [Chariton](/wiki/Chariton_%28name%29 \"Chariton (name)\"), {{langx\\|uk\\|Харитон\\|translit\\=Kharyton}}, or [Zechariah](/wiki/Zechariah_%28given_name%29 \"Zechariah (given name)\"), {{langx\\|uk\\|Захарій\\|translit\\=Zakharii}}).{{cite web\\|url\\=https://uk.wikisource.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%96%D0%BD%D0%BA%D0%B0:%D0%9A%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%BB%D1%8F%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B2%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9\\.\\_%D0%95%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%B8%D0%B4%D0%B0\\_%D0%BD%D0%B0\\_%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%81%D1%96%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D1%96%D0%B9\\_%D1%8F%D0%B7%D1%8B%D0%BA%D1%8A\\_%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%86%D1%97%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F.\\_1798\\.pdf/175\\|publisher\\=uk.wikisource.org\\|title\\=Сторінка:Котляревський. Енеида на малороссійскій языкъ перелицїованная. 1798\\.pdf/175 — Вікіджерела\\|access\\-date\\=18 June 2017\\|archive\\-date\\=19 October 2017\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171019082952/https://uk.wikisource.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%96%D0%BD%D0%BA%D0%B0:%D0%9A%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%BB%D1%8F%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B2%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9\\.\\_%D0%95%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%B8%D0%B4%D0%B0\\_%D0%BD%D0%B0\\_%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%81%D1%96%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D1%96%D0%B9\\_%D1%8F%D0%B7%D1%8B%D0%BA%D1%8A\\_%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%86%D1%97%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F.\\_1798\\.pdf/175\\|url\\-status\\=live}} But the river's name is attested earlier than the foundation of the fortress.Slavs in Canada, vol. 2, Inter\\-university Committee on Canadian Slavs (1968\\), p. 255\\.",
"The settlement reluctantly accepted the protection and authority of a Russian [voivode](/wiki/Voivode \"Voivode\") from [Chuhuiv](/wiki/Chuhuiv \"Chuhuiv\") {{convert\\|40\\|km\\|mi}} to the east. The first appointed voivode from Moscow was Voyin Selifontov in 1656, who began to build a local [ostrog](/wiki/Ostrog_%28fortress%29 \"Ostrog (fortress)\") (fort). In 1658, a new voivode, Ivan Ofrosimov, commanded the locals to kiss the cross in a demonstration of loyalty to [Tsar Alexis](/wiki/Alexis_of_Russia \"Alexis of Russia\"). Led by their [otaman](/wiki/Otaman \"Otaman\") Ivan Kryvoshlyk, they refused. However, with the election of a new otaman, Tymish Lavrynov, relations appear to have been repaired, the Tsar in Moscow granting the community's request (signed by the [deans](/wiki/Dean_%28Christianity%29 \"Dean (Christianity)\") of the new [Assumption Cathedral](/wiki/Assumption_Cathedral%2C_Kharkiv \"Assumption Cathedral, Kharkiv\") and parish churches of Annunciation and Trinity) to establish a local market.",
"At that time the population of Kharkiv was just over 1000, half of whom were local Cossacks. Selifontov had brought with him a Moscow garrison of only 70 soldiers. Defence rested with a local Sloboda Cossack regiment under the jurisdiction of the Razryad [Prikaz](/wiki/Prikaz \"Prikaz\"), a military agency commanded from [Belgorod](/wiki/Belgorod \"Belgorod\").[thumb\\|The Intercession Cathedral with bell tower and Ozerianska church (right) built in Kharkiv in 1689](/wiki/File:%D0%A5%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B2._%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%BA%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%BE%D1%80_%D0%B8_%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%85%D0%B8%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BC.jpg \"Харьков. Покровский собор и архиерейский дом.jpg\")\nThe original walls of Kharkiv enclosed today's streets: vulytsia Kvitky\\-Osnovianenko, Constitution Square, Rose Luxemburg Square, Proletarian Square, and Cathedral Descent. There were 10 towers of which the tallest, Vestovska, was some {{convert\\|16\\|m\\|ft}} high. In 1689 the fortress was expanded to include the Intercession Cathedral and Monastery, which became a seat of a local church hierarch, the [Protopope](/wiki/Protopope \"Protopope\").",
"### Russian Empire",
"[thumb\\|The first railway station in Kharkiv was built in 1869](/wiki/File:Kursk_Kharkov_1869.jpg \"Kursk Kharkov 1869.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|A 19th\\-century view of Kharkiv, with the belltower of the [Assumption Cathedral](/wiki/Assumption_Cathedral%2C_Kharkiv \"Assumption Cathedral, Kharkiv\") dominating the skyline](/wiki/File:Charkow.jpg \"Charkow.jpg\")\nAdministrative reforms led to Kharkiv being governed from 1708 from [Kyiv](/wiki/Kyiv_Governorate \"Kyiv Governorate\"),{{cite web\\|url\\=http://constitution.garant.ru/history/act1600\\-1918/2005/\\|script\\-title\\=ru:Указ об учреждении губерний и о росписании к ним городов, 1708 г., декабря 18\\|trans\\-title\\=Decree on the establishment of Provinces and cities assigned to them, December 18, 1708\\|language\\=ru\\|website\\=constitution.garant.ru\\|access\\-date\\=31 March 2015\\|archive\\-date\\=28 July 2017\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170728200403/http://constitution.garant.ru/history/act1600\\-1918/2005/\\|url\\-status\\=live}} and from 1727 from Belgorod. In 1765 Kharkiv was established as the seat of a separate [Sloboda Ukraine Governorate](/wiki/Sloboda_Ukraine_Governorate \"Sloboda Ukraine Governorate\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://arsvo.ru/arkhivnaya\\-sluzhba/istoriya\\-administrativno\\-territorialnogo\\-deleniya\\-voronezhskogo\\-kraya\\-2\\-voronezhs\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130525173851/http://arsvo.ru/arkhivnaya\\-sluzhba/istoriya\\-administrativno\\-territorialnogo\\-deleniya\\-voronezhskogo\\-kraya\\-2\\-voronezhs\\|archive\\-date\\=25 May 2013\\|script\\-title\\=ru:История административно\\-территориального деления воронежского края. 2\\. Воронежская губерния\\|trans\\-title\\=History of the Administrative\\-Territorial Division of the Voronezh Region. 2\\. Voronezh Province.\\|publisher\\=Archive service of Voronezh Oblast\\|language\\=ru\\|access\\-date\\=10 June 2012}}",
"[Kharkiv University](/wiki/Kharkiv_University \"Kharkiv University\") was established in 1805 in the Palace of [Governorate\\-General](/wiki/Governorate-General \"Governorate-General\"). Alexander Mikolajewicz Mickiewicz, brother of the Polish national poet [Adam Mickiewicz](/wiki/Adam_Mickiewicz \"Adam Mickiewicz\"), was a professor of law in the university, while another celebrity, [Goethe](/wiki/Goethe \"Goethe\"), searched for instructors for the school. One of its later graduates was In [Ivan Franko](/wiki/Ivan_Franko \"Ivan Franko\"), to whom it awarded a doctorate in Russian linguistics in 1906\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.istpravda.com.ua/short/2011/08/23/53238/\\|script\\-title\\=uk:У Харкові відкрили меморіальну дошку Івану Франку\\|trans\\-title\\=A memorial plaque to Ivan Franko was unveiled in Kharkiv\\|language\\=uk\\|publisher\\=Istpravda.com.ua\\|date\\=23 August 2011\\|access\\-date\\=21 July 2012\\|archive\\-date\\=10 November 2012\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121110182137/http://www.istpravda.com.ua/short/2011/08/23/53238/\\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
"The streets were first cobbled in the city centre in 1830\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.istpravda.com.ua/artefacts/2011/01/24/17847/\\|script\\-title\\=uk:Харків і харків'яни XIX\\-го сторіччя\\|trans\\-title\\=Kharkiv and Kharkiv denizens in 19th century photos\\|language\\=uk\\|publisher\\=Istpravda.com.ua\\|date\\=24 January 2011\\|access\\-date\\=21 July 2012\\|archive\\-date\\=22 June 2012\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120622033200/http://www.istpravda.com.ua/artefacts/2011/01/24/17847/\\|url\\-status\\=live}} In 1844 the {{convert\\|90\\|m\\|ft}} tall Alexander Bell Tower, commemorating the victory over [Napoleon I](/wiki/Napoleon \"Napoleon\") in 1812, was built next to the first [Assumption Cathedral](/wiki/Assumption_Cathedral%2C_Kharkiv \"Assumption Cathedral, Kharkiv\") (later to be transformed by the Soviet authorities into a [radio tower](/wiki/Radio_tower \"Radio tower\")). A system of running water was established in 1870\\.",
"In the course of the 19th century, although predominantly Russian speaking, Kharkiv became a centre of Ukrainian culture.{{cite web \\|title\\=Hromadas \\|url\\=http://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath\\=pages%5CH%5CR%5CHromadas.htm \\|access\\-date\\=14 January 2016 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Encyclopedia of Ukraine]] \\|archive\\-date\\=27 December 2015 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151227030724/http://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath\\=pages%5CH%5CR%5CHromadas.htm \\|url\\-status\\=live }} The first Ukrainian newspaper was published in the city in 1812\\. Soon after the [Crimean War](/wiki/Crimean_War \"Crimean War\"), in 1860–61, a [hromada](/wiki/Hromada_%28secret_society%29 \"Hromada (secret society)\") was established in the city, one of a network of secret societies that laid the groundwork for the appearance of a Ukrainian national movement. Its most prominent member was the philosopher, linguist and pan\\-slavist activist [Oleksandr Potebnia](/wiki/Alexander_Potebnja \"Alexander Potebnja\"). Members of a student hromada in the city included the future national leaders [Borys Martos](/wiki/Borys_Martos \"Borys Martos\") and [Dmytro Antonovych](/wiki/Dmytro_Antonovych \"Dmytro Antonovych\"), and reputedly were the first to employ the slogan \"Glory to Ukraine!\" and its response \"Glory on all of earth!\".{{Cite web \\|title\\=\"Glory to Ukraine!\": Who and when was the slogan created? \\|url\\=https://www.istpravda.com.ua/eng/articles/2018/10/4/153036/ \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-08\\-14 \\|website\\=www.istpravda.com.ua \\|archive\\-date\\=25 February 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220225103647/https://www.istpravda.com.ua/eng/articles/2018/10/4/153036/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"In 1900, the student hromada founded the Revolutionary Ukrainian Party (RUP), which sought to unite all Ukrainian national elements, including the growing number of socialists.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Revolutionary Ukrainian party \\|url\\=http://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath\\=pages%5CR%5CE%5CRevolutionaryUkrainianparty.htm \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-08\\-14 \\|website\\=www.encyclopediaofukraine.com \\|archive\\-date\\=15 August 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220815103758/http://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath\\=pages%5CR%5CE%5CRevolutionaryUkrainianparty.htm \\|url\\-status\\=live }} Following the [revolutionary events 1905](/wiki/1905_Russian_Revolution \"1905 Russian Revolution\") in which Kharkiv distinguished itself by avoiding a [reactionary pogrom](/wiki/Pogroms_in_the_Russian_Empire \"Pogroms in the Russian Empire\") against its Jewish population,{{Citation \\|last\\=HAMM \\|first\\=MICHAEL F. \\|editor\\-first1\\=Anthony J \\|editor\\-first2\\=Jonathan D \\|editor\\-last1\\=Heywood \\|editor\\-last2\\=Smele \\|title\\=Jews and revolution in Kharkiv: how one Ukrainian city escaped a pogrom in 1905 \\|url\\=https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10\\.4324/9780203002087\\-15/jews\\-revolution\\-kharkiv\\-one\\-ukrainian\\-city\\-escaped\\-pogrom\\-1905\\-michael\\-hamm?context\\=ubx \\|work\\=The Russian Revolution of 1905 \\|year\\=2013 \\|doi\\=10\\.4324/9780203002087 \\|isbn\\=9780203002087 \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-08\\-14 \\|archive\\-date\\=14 August 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220814112242/https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10\\.4324/9780203002087\\-15/jews\\-revolution\\-kharkiv\\-one\\-ukrainian\\-city\\-escaped\\-pogrom\\-1905\\-michael\\-hamm?context\\=ubx \\|url\\-status\\=live }} the RUP in Kharkiv, [Poltava](/wiki/Poltava \"Poltava\"), [Kyiv](/wiki/Kyiv \"Kyiv\"), [Nizhyn](/wiki/Nizhyn \"Nizhyn\"), [Lubny](/wiki/Lubny \"Lubny\"), and [Yekaterinodar](/wiki/Krasnodar \"Krasnodar\") repudiated the more extreme elements of Ukrainian nationalism. Adopting the [Erfurt Program](/wiki/Erfurt_Program \"Erfurt Program\") of [German Social Democracy](/wiki/Social_Democratic_Party_of_Germany \"Social Democratic Party of Germany\"), they restyled themselves the [Ukrainian Social Democratic Labour Party](/wiki/Ukrainian_Social_Democratic_Labour_Party \"Ukrainian Social Democratic Labour Party\") (USDLP). This was to remain independent of, and opposed by, the [Bolshevik](/wiki/Bolsheviks \"Bolsheviks\") faction of the [Russian SDLP](/wiki/Russian_Social_Democratic_Labour_Party \"Russian Social Democratic Labour Party\").{{Cite web \\|title\\=УКРАЇНСЬКА СОЦІАЛ\\-ДЕМОКРАТИЧНА РОБІТНИЧА ПАРТІЯ, Ukrainian Soviet Encyclopedia \\|url\\=https://leksika.com.ua/11580826/ure/ukrayinska\\_sotsial\\-demokratichna\\_robitnicha\\_partiya \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-08\\-14 \\|website\\=leksika.com.ua \\|archive\\-date\\=25 January 2021 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210125001434/https://leksika.com.ua/11580826/ure/ukrayinska\\_sotsial\\-demokratichna\\_robitnicha\\_partiya \\|url\\-status\\=live }}{{Cite web \\|last1\\=Senkus \\|first1\\=Roman \\|last2\\=Zhukovsky \\|first2\\=Arkadii \\|date\\=1993 \\|title\\=Ukrainian Social Democratic Workers' party \\|url\\=http://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath\\=pages%5CU%5CK%5CUkrainianSocialDemocraticWorkersparty.htm \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-08\\-14 \\|website\\=www.encyclopediaofukraine.com \\|archive\\-date\\=22 September 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220922030327/http://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath\\=pages%5CU%5CK%5CUkrainianSocialDemocraticWorkersparty.htm \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"After the [February Revolution](/wiki/February_Revolution \"February Revolution\") of 1917, the USDLP was the main party in the first Ukrainian government, the [General Secretariat of Ukraine](/wiki/General_Secretariat_of_Ukraine \"General Secretariat of Ukraine\"). The [Tsentralna Rada](/wiki/Tsentralna_Rada \"Tsentralna Rada\") (central council) of Ukrainian parties in *Kyiv* authorised the Secretariat to negotiate national autonomy with the [Russian Provisional Government](/wiki/Russian_Provisional_Government \"Russian Provisional Government\"). In the succeeding months, as wartime conditions deteriorated, the USDLP lost support in Kharkiv and elsewhere to the [Ukrainian Socialist Revolutionary Party](/wiki/Ukrainian_Socialist_Revolutionary_Party \"Ukrainian Socialist Revolutionary Party\") (SR) which organised both in peasant communities and in disaffected military units.",
"### Soviet era",
"#### Capital of Soviet Ukraine",
"[thumb\\|200px\\|The Derzhprom building in the late 1920s.](/wiki/Image:Palace_of_industry.jpg \"Palace of industry.jpg\")\nIn the [Russian Constituent Assembly election](/wiki/1917_Russian_Constituent_Assembly_election \"1917 Russian Constituent Assembly election\") held in November 1917, the [Bolsheviks](/wiki/Bolsheviks \"Bolsheviks\") who had seized power in [Petrograd](/wiki/Saint_Petersburg \"Saint Petersburg\") and Moscow received just 10\\.5 percent of the vote in the [Governorate](/wiki/Kherson_Governorate \"Kherson Governorate\"), compared to 73 percent for a bloc of Russian and Ukrainian Socialist Revolutionaries. Commanding worker, rather than peasant, votes, within the city itself the Bolsheviks won a plurality.{{cite book \\|author\\=Oliver Henry Radkey \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=gXINAQAAMAAJ \\|title\\=Russia goes to the polls: the election to the all\\-Russian Constituent Assembly, 1917 \\|publisher\\=Cornell University Press \\|year\\=1989 \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-8014\\-2360\\-4 \\|pages\\=115, 117 \\|access\\-date\\=11 August 2022 \\|archive\\-date\\=2 October 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20231002071000/https://books.google.com/books?id\\=gXINAQAAMAAJ \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"When in [Petrograd](/wiki/Saint_Petersburg \"Saint Petersburg\") Lenin's [Council of People's Commissars](/wiki/Council_of_People%27s_Commissars \"Council of People's Commissars\") disbanded the [Constituent Assembly](/wiki/Russian_Constituent_Assembly \"Russian Constituent Assembly\") after its first sitting, the [Tsentralna Rada](/wiki/Tsentralna_Rada \"Tsentralna Rada\") in [Kyiv](/wiki/Kyiv \"Kyiv\") proclaimed the independence of the [Ukrainian People's Republic](/wiki/Ukrainian_People%27s_Republic \"Ukrainian People's Republic\") (UPR). [Bolsheviks](/wiki/Bolsheviks \"Bolsheviks\") withdrew from Tsentralna Rada and formed their own Rada (national council) in Kharkiv.[Historical Dictionary of Ukraine (Historical Dictionaries of Europe)](https://books.google.com/books?id=-h6r57lDC4QC&dq=kharkiv+antonov+1917&pg=PA713) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405224823/https://books.google.com/books?id\\=\\-h6r57lDC4QC\\&dq\\=kharkiv\\+antonov\\+1917\\&pg\\=PA713\\|date\\=5 April 2023}} by Ivan Katchanovski, Scarecrow Press (Publication date: 11 July 2013\\), {{ISBN\\|0810878453}} (page 713\\)[Literary Politics in Soviet Ukraine, 1917–1934](https://books.google.com/books?id=CuLpivm5lDsC&dq=bolsheviks+moved+to+Kharkiv&pg=PA7) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405180152/https://books.google.com/books?id\\=CuLpivm5lDsC\\&dq\\=bolsheviks\\+moved\\+to\\+Kharkiv\\&pg\\=PA7 \\|date\\=5 April 2023 }}. Durham and London: Duke University Press. {{ISBN\\|0\\-8223\\-1099\\-6}} (page 7\\) By February 1918 their forces had [captured much of Ukraine](/wiki/Russian_Civil_War \"Russian Civil War\").[World War I: A Student Encyclopedia](https://books.google.com/books?id=2YqjfHLyyj8C&dq=bolsheviks+moved+to+Kharkiv+soviet+Ukraine&pg=PA1195) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230411071742/https://books.google.com/books?id\\=2YqjfHLyyj8C\\&dq\\=bolsheviks\\+moved\\+to\\+Kharkiv\\+soviet\\+Ukraine\\&pg\\=PA1195 \\|date\\=11 April 2023 }}. [ABC\\-CLIO](/wiki/ABC-CLIO \"ABC-CLIO\"). p. 1195\\. {{ISBN\\|978\\-1\\-85109\\-879\\-8}}",
"They made Kharkiv the capital of the [Donetsk\\-Krivoy Rog Soviet Republic](/wiki/Donetsk-Krivoy_Rog_Soviet_Republic \"Donetsk-Krivoy Rog Soviet Republic\").[Ukraine: The Phony War?](http://www.nybooks.com/articles/2014/05/22/ukraine-phony-war/) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160113023301/http://www.nybooks.com/articles/2014/05/22/ukraine\\-phony\\-war/ \\|date\\=13 January 2016 }}, [The New York Review of Books](/wiki/The_New_York_Review_of_Books \"The New York Review of Books\") (27 April 2014\\) Six weeks later, under the treaty terms agreed with the [Central Powers](/wiki/Central_Powers \"Central Powers\") at [Brest\\-Litovsk](/wiki/Treaty_of_Brest-Litovsk \"Treaty of Brest-Litovsk\"), they abandoned the city and ceded the territory to the German\\-occupied [Ukrainian State](/wiki/Ukrainian_State \"Ukrainian State\").[Borderlands into Bordered Lands: Geopolitics of Identity in Post\\-Soviet Ukraine (Soviet and Post\\-Soviet Politics and Society, Vol. 98\\) (Volume 98\\)](https://books.google.com/books?id=pt03BAAAQBAJ&dq=Kharkiv+German+1918&pg=PA205) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405224824/https://books.google.com/books?id\\=pt03BAAAQBAJ\\&dq\\=Kharkiv\\+German\\+1918\\&pg\\=PA205 \\|date\\=5 April 2023 }}, Ibidem Verlag, 2010, {{ISBN\\|383820042X}} (page 24\\)",
"After the German withdrawal, the [Red Army](/wiki/Red_Army \"Red Army\") returned but, in June 1919, withdrew again before the advancing forces of [Anton Denikin](/wiki/Anton_Denikin \"Anton Denikin\")'s [White movement](/wiki/White_movement \"White movement\") [Volunteer](/wiki/Volunteer_Army \"Volunteer Army\").[The Black Book of Communism: Crimes, Terror, Repression](https://books.google.com/books?id=H1jsgYCoRioC&dq=Denikin+Kharkiv&pg=PA97) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230411071747/https://books.google.com/books?id\\=H1jsgYCoRioC\\&dq\\=Denikin\\+Kharkiv\\&pg\\=PA97 \\|date\\=11 April 2023 }}, [Harvard University Press](/wiki/Harvard_University_Press \"Harvard University Press\"), 858 pages, {{ISBN\\|0\\-674\\-07608\\-7}}, page 97 By December 1919 Soviet authority was restored.[The A to Z of the Russo\\-Japanese War](https://books.google.com/books?id=hV1h0_iMrE4C&dq=Denikin+December+1919+Kharkiv&pg=PA101) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405180153/https://books.google.com/books?id\\=hV1h0\\_iMrE4C\\&dq\\=Denikin\\+December\\+1919\\+Kharkiv\\&pg\\=PA101\\|date\\=5 April 2023}}. Scarecrow Press Inc. {{ISBN\\|978\\-0\\-8108\\-6841\\-0}} (page 101\\) The Bolsheviks established Kharkiv as [the capital](/wiki/Capital_%28political%29 \"Capital (political)\") of the [Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic](/wiki/Ukrainian_SSR \"Ukrainian SSR\") and, in 1922, this was formally incorporated as a constituent republic of the [Soviet Union](/wiki/Soviet_Union \"Soviet Union\").{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.istpravda.com.ua/articles/2012/01/25/69897/ \\|title\\=Донбас і Україна (з історії революційної боротьби 1917–18 рр.) (Donbas and Ukraine. (From articles and declarations of Mykola Skrypnyk)) \\|publisher\\=Istpravda.com.ua \\|access\\-date\\=21 July 2012 \\|archive\\-date\\=27 August 2012 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120827145101/http://www.istpravda.com.ua/articles/2012/01/25/69897/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"A number of prestige construction projects in new officially\\-approved [Constructivist style](/wiki/Constructivist_architecture \"Constructivist architecture\") were completed,{{Cite journal \\|last\\=HEWRYK \\|first\\=TITUS D. \\|date\\=1992 \\|title\\=Planning of the Capital in Kharkiv \\|url\\=https://www.jstor.org/stable/41036482 \\|journal\\=Harvard Ukrainian Studies \\|volume\\=16 \\|issue\\=3/4 \\|pages\\=325–359 \\|jstor\\=41036482 \\|issn\\=0363\\-5570 \\|access\\-date\\=14 August 2022 \\|archive\\-date\\=14 August 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220814133659/https://www.jstor.org/stable/41036482 \\|url\\-status\\=live }} among them [Derzhprom](/wiki/Derzhprom \"Derzhprom\") (Palace of Industry) then the tallest building in the Soviet Union (and the second tallest in Europe),{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.kharkov.ua/culture/2b.html \\|title\\=Derzhprom statistics \\|publisher\\=Kharkov.ua \\|access\\-date\\=21 July 2012 \\|archive\\-date\\=29 November 2009 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20091129213053/http://www.kharkov.ua/culture/2b.html \\|url\\-status\\=live }} the Red Army Building, the Ukrainian Polytechnic Institute of Distance Learning (UZPI), the City Council building, with its massive asymmetric tower, and the central department store that was opened on the 15th Anniversary of the [October Revolution](/wiki/October_Revolution \"October Revolution\"). As new buildings were going up, many of city's historic architectural monuments were being torn down. These included most of the baroque churches: Saint Nicholas's Cathedral of the Ukrainian Autocephalous Orthodox church, the Church of the Myrrhophores, Saint Demetrius's Church, and the Cossack fortified Church of the Nativity.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Kharkiv \\|url\\=http://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath\\=pages%5CK%5CH%5CKharkiv.htm \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-08\\-12 \\|website\\=www.encyclopediaofukraine.com \\|archive\\-date\\=22 September 2015 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150922153340/http://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath\\=pages%5CK%5CH%5CKharkiv.htm \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"Under [Stalin](/wiki/Joseph_Stalin \"Joseph Stalin\")'s [First Five Year Plan](/wiki/First_five-year_plan \"First five-year plan\"), the city underwent intensified industrialisation, led by a number of national projects. Chief among these were the [Kharkiv Tractor Factory (HTZ)](/wiki/Kharkiv_Tractor_Plant \"Kharkiv Tractor Plant\"), described by Stalin as \"a steel bastion of the [collectivisation of agriculture](/wiki/Collectivization_of_agriculture \"Collectivization of agriculture\") in the Ukraine\",{{Cite journal \\|last\\=Stalin \\|first\\=Joseph \\|date\\=1931 \\|title\\=To the Workers and the Administrative and Technical personnel of Kharkov Tractor Works Project \\|url\\=https://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/stalin/works/1931/10/x01\\.htm \\|journal\\=Stalin Collected Works \\|volume\\=13 \\|access\\-date\\=12 August 2022 \\|archive\\-date\\=10 July 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220710125822/https://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/stalin/works/1931/10/x01\\.htm \\|url\\-status\\=live }} and the [Malyshev Factory](/wiki/Malyshev_Factory \"Malyshev Factory\"), an enlargement of the old Kharkiv Locomotive Factory, which at its height employed 60,000 workers in the production of heavy equipment.[Tank factory workers decry war that pits Ukrainian against Ukrainian](http://america.aljazeera.com/multimedia/2015/2/kharkiv-tank-factory.html) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220626174542/http://america.aljazeera.com/multimedia/2015/2/kharkiv\\-tank\\-factory.html \\|date\\=26 June 2022 }}, [Al Jazeera America](/wiki/Al_Jazeera_America \"Al Jazeera America\") (27 February 2015\\) By 1937 the output of Kharkiv's industries was reported as being 35 times greater than in 1913\\.",
"Since the turn of the century, the influx of new workers from the countryside changed the ethnic composition of Kharkiv. According to census returns, by 1939 the Russian share of the population had fallen from almost two\\-thirds to one third, while the Ukrainian share rose from a quarter to almost half. The Jewish population rose from under 6 percent of the total, to over 15 percent (sustaining a [Hebrew](/wiki/Hebrew_language \"Hebrew language\") secondary school, a popular Jewish university and extensive publication in [Yiddish](/wiki/Yiddish \"Yiddish\") and Hebrew).[thumb\\|Starved peasants on the street during the [Holodomor](/wiki/Holodomor \"Holodomor\") in Kharkiv, 1933\\.](/wiki/File:GolodomorKharkiv.jpg \"GolodomorKharkiv.jpg\")\n[alt\\=Plan of Kharkov, 1930\\|thumb\\|Plan of Kharkiv, 1930](/wiki/File:MapKharkov-1930-1823.jpg \"MapKharkov-1930-1823.jpg\")\nIn the 1920s, the [Ukrainian SSR](/wiki/Ukrainian_SSR \"Ukrainian SSR\") promoted the use of the [Ukrainian language](/wiki/Ukrainian_language \"Ukrainian language\"), mandating it for all schools. In practice the share of secondary schools teaching in the [Ukrainian language](/wiki/Ukrainian_language \"Ukrainian language\") remained lower than the ethnic [Ukrainian](/wiki/Ukrainians \"Ukrainians\") share of the [Kharkiv Oblast](/wiki/Kharkiv_Oblast \"Kharkiv Oblast\")'s population.[Games from the Past: The continuity and change of the identity dynamic in Donbas from a historical perspective](http://balticworlds.com/games-from-the-past/) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140827095731/http://balticworlds.com/games\\-from\\-the\\-past/ \\|date\\=27 August 2014 }}, [Södertörn University](/wiki/S%C3%B6dert%C3%B6rn_University \"Södertörn University\") (19 May 2014\\) The [Ukrainization](/wiki/Ukrainization \"Ukrainization\") policy was reversed, with the prosecution in Kharkiv in 1930 of the [Union for the Freedom of Ukraine](/wiki/Union_for_the_Freedom_of_Ukraine_process \"Union for the Freedom of Ukraine process\"). Hundreds of Ukrainian intellectuals were arrested and deported.[Language Policy in the Soviet Union](https://books.google.com/books?id=Nn3xDTiL0PQC&q=%22official+language%22&pg=PA1) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230922165542/https://books.google.com/books?id\\=Nn3xDTiL0PQC\\&q\\=%22official\\+language%22\\&pg\\=PA1 \\|date\\=22 September 2023 }} by [Lenore Grenoble](/wiki/Lenore_Grenoble \"Lenore Grenoble\"), [Springer Science\\+Business Media](/wiki/Springer_Science%2BBusiness_Media \"Springer Science+Business Media\"), 2003, {{ISBN\\|978\\-1\\-4020\\-1298\\-3}} (page 84\\)",
"In 1932 and 1933, the combination of grain seizures and the forced collectivisation of peasant holdings created famine conditions, the [Holodomor](/wiki/Holodomor \"Holodomor\"), driving people off the land and into Kharkiv, and other cities, in search of food.{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Leonavičius \\|first1\\=Vylius \\|last2\\=Ozolinčiūtė \\|first2\\=Eglė \\|date\\=1 December 2019 \\|title\\=The Transformation of the Soviet Agriculture \\|journal\\=Sociologija: Mintis Ir Veiksmas \\|volume\\=44 \\|issue\\=1 \\|pages\\=93–131 \\|doi\\=10\\.15388/SocMintVei.2019\\.1\\.10 \\|doi\\-access\\=free \\|s2cid\\=213399789}}{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Ellman \\|first1\\=Michael \\|author\\-link\\=Michael Ellman \\|date\\=June 2007 \\|title\\=Stalin and the Soviet Famine of 1932–33 Revisited \\|journal\\=\\[\\[Europe\\-Asia Studies]] \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Routledge]] \\|volume\\=59 \\|issue\\=4 \\|pages\\=663–693 \\|doi\\=10\\.1080/09668130701291899 \\|s2cid\\=53655536}} Eye\\-witness accounts by westerners—among them those of [American Communist](/wiki/Communist_Party_USA \"Communist Party USA\") [Fred Beal](/wiki/Fred_Beal \"Fred Beal\") employed in the [Kharkiv Tractor Factory](/wiki/Kharkiv_Tractor_Plant \"Kharkiv Tractor Plant\"){{cite book \\|last\\=Beal \\|first\\=Fred Erwin \\|url\\=https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id\\=uc1\\.$b332369\\&view\\=1up\\&seq\\=11\\&skin\\=2021 \\|title\\=Proletarian journey: New England, Gastonia, Moscow. \\|date\\=1937 \\|publisher\\=Hillman\\-Curl \\|location\\=New York \\|pages\\=283–284, 289–291 \\|access\\-date\\=11 August 2022 \\|archive\\-date\\=10 August 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220810014224/https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id\\=uc1\\.$b332369\\&view\\=1up\\&seq\\=11\\&skin\\=2021 \\|url\\-status\\=live }} —were cited in the international press but, until the era of *[Glasnost](/wiki/Glasnost \"Glasnost\")* were consistently [denounced in the Soviet Union as fabrications](/wiki/Holodomor_denial \"Holodomor denial\").{{cite news \\|last1\\=Levy \\|first1\\=Clifford J. \\|date\\=16 March 2009 \\|title\\=A New View of a Famine That Killed Millions \\|work\\=The New York Times \\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2009/03/16/world/europe/16kiev.html \\|access\\-date\\=11 August 2022 \\|archive\\-date\\=4 August 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220804005058/https://www.nytimes.com/2009/03/16/world/europe/16kiev.html \\|url\\-status\\=live }}{{Cite Q\\|Q108386870\\|pages\\=96}}Boriak, Hennadii (Fall 2001\\). \"The publication of sources on the history of the 1932–1933 famine\\-genocide: history, current state, and prospects\". *Harvard Ukrainian Studies* **25** (3–4\\): 167–186\\.",
"In 1934 hundreds of Ukrainian writers, intellectuals and cultural workers were arrested and executed in the attempt to eradicate all vestiges of Ukrainian nationalism. The purges continued into 1938\\. Blind Ukrainian street musicians [Kobzars](/wiki/Kobzars \"Kobzars\") were also rounded up in Kharkiv and murdered by the NKVD.[Ukrainian minstrels: and the blind shall sing](https://books.google.com/books?id=CFqB2_OX_oQC&dq=Stalin+Ukrainian+minstrels+Kharkiv&pg=PA116) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405224825/https://books.google.com/books?id\\=CFqB2\\_OX\\_oQC\\&dq\\=Stalin\\+Ukrainian\\+minstrels\\+Kharkiv\\&pg\\=PA116 \\|date\\=5 April 2023 }} by Natalie Kononenko, M.E. Sharp, {{ISBN\\|0\\-7656\\-0144\\-3}}/{{ISBN\\|978\\-0\\-7656\\-0144\\-5}}, page 116 Confident in his control over Ukraine, in January 1934 Stalin had the capital of the Ukrainian SSR moved from Kharkiv to Kyiv.{{cite book \\|last\\=Liber \\|first\\=George \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=2oqThmrFCfwC\\&pg\\=PA160 \\|title\\=Soviet Nationality Policy, Urban Growth, and Identity Change in the Ukrainian SSR, 1923–1934 \\|publisher\\=Cambridge University Press \\|year\\=1992 \\|isbn\\=978\\-0521522434 \\|access\\-date\\=2 September 2017 \\|archive\\-date\\=2 October 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20231002071001/https://books.google.com/books?id\\=2oqThmrFCfwC\\&pg\\=PA160 \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"During April and May 1940 about 3,900 Polish prisoners of [Starobilsk](/wiki/Starobilsk \"Starobilsk\") camp were executed in the Kharkiv [NKVD](/wiki/NKVD \"NKVD\") building, later secretly buried on the grounds of an NKVD pansionat in [Piatykhatky](/wiki/Piatykhatky%2C_Kharkiv_Oblast \"Piatykhatky, Kharkiv Oblast\") forest (part of the [Katyn massacre](/wiki/Katyn_massacre \"Katyn massacre\")) on the outskirts of Kharkiv.[Fischer, Benjamin B.](/wiki/Benjamin_Fischer_%28historian%29 \"Benjamin Fischer (historian)\"), \"[The Katyn Controversy: Stalin's Killing Field](https://web.archive.org/web/20000816221054/http://www.cia.gov/csi/studies/winter99-00/art6.html)\", *[Studies in Intelligence](/wiki/Studies_in_Intelligence \"Studies in Intelligence\")*, Winter 1999–2000, last accessed on 10 December 2005{{Cite web \\|date\\=15 August 2016 \\|title\\=Records Relating to the Katyn Forest Massacre at the National Archives \\|url\\=https://www.archives.gov/research/foreign\\-policy/katyn\\-massacre \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-08\\-12 \\|website\\=National Archives \\|language\\=en \\|archive\\-date\\=8 April 2017 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170408082201/https://www.archives.gov/research/foreign\\-policy/katyn\\-massacre \\|url\\-status\\=live }} The site also contains the numerous bodies of Ukrainian cultural workers who were arrested and shot in the [1937–38 Stalinist purges](/wiki/Great_Purge \"Great Purge\").",
"#### German occupation",
"During [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\"), Kharkiv was the focus of major battles. The city [was captured](/wiki/First_Battle_of_Kharkov \"First Battle of Kharkov\") by [Nazi Germany](/wiki/Nazi_Germany \"Nazi Germany\") on 24 October 1941\\.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.istpravda.com.ua/artefacts/2011/04/3/34315/ \\|title\\=Харків часів \"дорослого дитинства\" Людмили Гурченко (Kharkiv at times of \"matured childhood\" of Lyudmila Gurchenko) \\|publisher\\=Istpravda.com.ua \\|access\\-date\\=21 July 2012 \\|archive\\-date\\=22 June 2012 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120622051343/http://www.istpravda.com.ua/artefacts/2011/04/3/34315/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }}{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.andersval.nl/index.php?option\\=com\\_content\\&task\\=view\\&id\\=6267\\&Itemid\\=190 \\|title\\=Kharkiv through the eyes of Lyudmila Gurchenko \\|publisher\\=Andersval.nl \\|date\\=31 March 2011 \\|access\\-date\\=15 July 2012 \\|archive\\-date\\=6 September 2012 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120906070121/http://www.andersval.nl/index.php?option\\=com\\_content\\&task\\=view\\&id\\=6267\\&Itemid\\=190 \\|url\\-status\\=live }} A disastrous [Red Army](/wiki/Red_Army \"Red Army\") [offensive](/wiki/Second_Battle_of_Kharkov \"Second Battle of Kharkov\") failed to recover the city in May 1942\\.The Red Army committed 765,300 men to this offensive, suffering 277,190 casualties (170,958 killed/missing/PoW, 106,232 wounded) and losing 652 tanks, and 4,924 guns and mortars. {{cite book \\|last\\=Glantz \\|first\\=David M. \\|title\\=Kharkov 1942, anatomy of a military disaster through Soviet eyes \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Ian Allan Publishing]] \\|year\\=1998 \\|isbn\\=0\\-7110\\-2562\\-2 \\|page\\=218}}per [Robert M. Citino](/wiki/Robert_M._Citino \"Robert M. Citino\"), author of \"Death of the Wehrmacht\", and other sources, the Red Army came to within a few miles of Kharkiv on 14 May 1942 by Soviet forces under [Marshal Timoshenko](/wiki/Semyon_Timoshenko \"Semyon Timoshenko\") before being driven back by German forces under Field Marshal [Fedor von Bock](/wiki/Fedor_von_Bock \"Fedor von Bock\"), p. 100 It was retaken ([Operation Star](/wiki/Operation_Star \"Operation Star\")) on 16 February 1943, but [lost again to the Germans](/wiki/Third_Battle_of_Kharkov \"Third Battle of Kharkov\") on 15 March 1943\\. 23 August 1943 saw a final [liberation](/wiki/Fourth_battle_of_kharkov \"Fourth battle of kharkov\").{{Cite book \\|author\\=Ukrainian Institute of National Remembrance \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=joX\\_CwAAQBAJ\\&pg\\=PA26 \\|title\\=Ukraine in World War II \\|publisher\\=Ukrainian Institute of National Remembrance \\|year\\=2015 \\|location\\=Ukraine \\|page\\=26 \\|language\\=en \\|access\\-date\\=31 July 2023 \\|archive\\-date\\=31 July 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230731153225/https://books.google.com/books?id\\=joX\\_CwAAQBAJ\\&pg\\=PA26 \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"[thumb\\|200px\\|A memorial to 23 August 1943, the end of German occupation during World War II](/wiki/File:23_August_Lane_Kharkov.JPG \"23 August Lane Kharkov.JPG\")\nOn the eve of the occupation, Kharkiv's prewar population of 700,000 had been doubled by the influx of refugees.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Харьков в годы Великой Отечественной войны \\| Вечерний Харьков \\|url\\=https://vecherniy.kharkov.ua/news/14899/ \\|website\\=Evening Kharkiv \\|access\\-date\\=12 August 2022 \\|archive\\-date\\=12 August 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220812154336/https://vecherniy.kharkov.ua/news/14899/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }} What remained of the pre\\-war Jewish population of 130,000, were slated by the Germans for \"special treatment\": between December 1941 and January 1942, they massacred and buried an estimated 15,000 Jews in a ravine outside of town named [Drobytsky Yar](/wiki/Drobytsky_Yar \"Drobytsky Yar\").{{Citation \\|last1\\=Karpyuk \\|first1\\=Gennady \\|date\\=23–29 December 2006 \\|url\\=http://www.dt.ua/3000/3150/55411/ \\|volume\\=49 \\|issue\\=628 \\|trans\\-title\\=A tragedy that not everyone wanted to know about \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20081209085420/http://www.dt.ua/3000/3150/55411/ \\|access\\-date\\=16 December 2011 \\|archive\\-date\\=9 December 2008 \\|script\\-work\\=uk:Дзеркало Тижня \\|script\\-title\\=uk:Трагедія, про яку дехто не дуже хотів знати}} Over their 22 months occupation they executed a further 30,000 residents, among them suspected Soviet partisans and, after a brief period of toleration, Ukrainian nationalists. 80,000 people died of hunger, cold and disease. 60,000 were forcibly transported to Germany as slave workers ([Ostarbeiter](/wiki/Ostarbeiter \"Ostarbeiter\")).{{cite book \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=ktyM07I9HXwC\\&dq\\=Kharkiv\\+German\\+November\\+1918\\&pg\\=PT338 \\|title\\=Ukraine: A History \\|edition\\=4th \\|first\\=Orest \\|last\\=Subtelny \\|author\\-link\\=Orest Subtelny \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[University of Toronto Press]] \\|year\\=2009 \\|isbn\\=978\\-1442609914 \\|page\\=338 \\|access\\-date\\=13 March 2023 \\|archive\\-date\\=11 April 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230411071745/https://books.google.com/books?id\\=ktyM07I9HXwC\\&dq\\=Kharkiv\\+German\\+November\\+1918\\&pg\\=PT338 \\|url\\-status\\=live }} Among these was [Boris Romanchenko](/wiki/Borys_Romanchenko \"Borys Romanchenko\"). The 96\\-year\\-old survivor of forced labor at the [Buchenwald](/wiki/Buchenwald_concentration_camp \"Buchenwald concentration camp\"), [Peenemünde](/wiki/Peenem%C3%BCnde \"Peenemünde\"), [Dora](/wiki/Mittelbau-Dora_concentration_camp \"Mittelbau-Dora concentration camp\") and [Bergen Belsen](/wiki/Bergen-Belsen_concentration_camp \"Bergen-Belsen concentration camp\") [concentration camps](/wiki/Nazi_concentration_camps \"Nazi concentration camps\") was killed when Russian fire hit his apartment bloc on 18 March 2022\\.{{Cite news \\|last\\=Kelly \\|first\\=Lidia \\|date\\=22 March 2022 \\|title\\=WWII Holocaust survivor killed in Ukraine's Kharkiv \\|language\\=en \\|work\\=Reuters \\|url\\=https://www.reuters.com/world/wwii\\-holocaust\\-survivor\\-killed\\-ukraines\\-kharkiv\\-2022\\-03\\-22/ \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-08\\-13 \\|archive\\-date\\=12 May 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220512204700/https://www.reuters.com/world/wwii\\-holocaust\\-survivor\\-killed\\-ukraines\\-kharkiv\\-2022\\-03\\-22/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }}{{Cite web \\|title\\=96\\-year\\-old Holocaust survivor said killed in Russian shelling of his Kharkiv home \\|url\\=https://www.timesofisrael.com/liveblog\\_entry/96\\-year\\-old\\-holocaust\\-survivor\\-said\\-killed\\-in\\-russian\\-shelling\\-of\\-his\\-kharkiv\\-home/ \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-08\\-13 \\|date\\=21 March 2022 \\|website\\=\\[\\[Times of Israel]] \\|language\\=en\\-US \\|archive\\-date\\=13 August 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220813165954/https://www.timesofisrael.com/liveblog\\_entry/96\\-year\\-old\\-holocaust\\-survivor\\-said\\-killed\\-in\\-russian\\-shelling\\-of\\-his\\-kharkiv\\-home/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"By the time of Kharkiv's liberation in August 1943, the surviving population had been reduced to under 200,000\\. Seventy percent of the city had been destroyed. According to a New York Time's piece, \"The city was more battered than perhaps any other in the Soviet Union save Stalingrad.\"{{Cite news \\|last\\=Verini \\|first\\=James \\|date\\=19 May 2022 \\|title\\=Surviving the Siege of Kharkiv \\|language\\=en\\-US \\|work\\=The New York Times \\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2022/05/19/magazine/kharkiv\\-siege.html \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-08\\-14 \\|issn\\=0362\\-4331 \\|archive\\-date\\=5 July 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230705011709/https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2022/05/19/magazine/kharkiv\\-siege.html \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"#### Post\\-World War II",
"Before the occupation, Kharkiv's [tank industries](/wiki/Malyshev_Factory \"Malyshev Factory\") had been evacuated to the [Urals](/wiki/Urals \"Urals\") with all their equipment, and became the heart of [Red Army](/wiki/Red_Army \"Red Army\")'s tank programs (particularly, producing the [T\\-34](/wiki/T-34 \"T-34\") tank earlier designed in Kharkiv). These enterprises returned to Kharkiv after the war, and became central elements of the post\\-war Soviet [military industrial complex](/wiki/Military%E2%80%93industrial_complex \"Military–industrial complex\"). Houses and factories were rebuilt, and much of the city's center was reconstructed in the style of [Stalinist Classicism](/wiki/Stalinist_architecture \"Stalinist architecture\"). [Kharkiv's Jewish community](/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Kharkiv \"History of the Jews in Kharkiv\") revived after World War II: by 1959 there were 84,000 Jews living in the city. However, [Soviet anti\\-Zionism](/wiki/Soviet_anti-Zionism \"Soviet anti-Zionism\") restricted expressions of Jewish religion and culture, and was sustained until the final Gorbachev years (the confiscated [Kharkiv Choral Synagogue](/wiki/Kharkiv_Choral_Synagogue \"Kharkiv Choral Synagogue\") reopened as a synagogue in 1990\\).{{Cite web \\|title\\=Kharkov, Ukraine Virtual Jewish History Tour \\|url\\=https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/kharkov\\-ukraine\\-virtual\\-jewish\\-history\\-tour \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-08\\-15 \\|website\\=www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org \\|archive\\-date\\=5 April 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405180150/https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/kharkov\\-ukraine\\-virtual\\-jewish\\-history\\-tour \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"[thumb\\|170px\\|[Mirror Stream](/wiki/Zerkal%CA%B9naya_struya \"Zerkalʹnaya struya\") fountain](/wiki/File:IMG_2428_zerk.jpg \"IMG 2428 zerk.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|Kharkiv in 1981](/wiki/File:Kharkov0060.jpg \"Kharkov0060.jpg\")",
"In the [Brezhnev\\-era](/wiki/Brezhnev_era \"Brezhnev era\"), Kharkiv was promoted as a \"model Soviet city\". Propaganda made much of its \"youthfulness\", a designation broadly used to suggest the relative absence in the city of \"material and spiritual relics\" from the pre\\-revolutionary era, and its commitment to the new frontiers of Soviet industry and science. The city's machine\\-and\\-weapons building prowess was attributed to a forward\\-looking collaboration between its large\\-scale industrial enterprises and new research institutes and laboratories.{{Cite journal \\|last\\=Studenna\\-Skrukwa \\|first\\=Marta \\|date\\=2020 \\|title\\=Model Soviet City of the Brezhnev Era: The Image of Kharkiv in Selected Propaganda Texts \\|url\\=http://cejsh.icm.edu.pl/cejsh/element/bwmeta1\\.element.ojs\\-doi\\-10\\_12775\\_HiP\\_2020\\_015 \\|journal\\=Historia i Polityka \\|volume\\=32 \\|language\\=EN \\|issue\\=39 \\|page\\=67 \\|doi\\=10\\.12775/HiP.2020\\.015 \\|s2cid\\=229566527 \\|issn\\=1899\\-5160 \\|doi\\-access\\=free \\|access\\-date\\=12 August 2022 \\|archive\\-date\\=12 August 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220812134517/http://cejsh.icm.edu.pl/cejsh/element/bwmeta1\\.element.ojs\\-doi\\-10\\_12775\\_HiP\\_2020\\_015 \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"The last [Communist Party chief of Ukraine](/wiki/First_Secretary_of_the_Communist_Party_of_Ukraine \"First Secretary of the Communist Party of Ukraine\"), [Vladimir Ivashko](/wiki/Vladimir_Ivashko \"Vladimir Ivashko\"), appointed in 1989, trained as a mining engineer and served as a party functionary in Kharkiv.{{Cite news \\|last\\=Remnick \\|first\\=David \\|date\\=29 September 1989 \\|title\\=SHCHERBITSKY DISMISSED AS COMMUNIST PARTY BOSS IN UKRAINE \\|language\\=en\\-US \\|newspaper\\=Washington Post \\|url\\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1989/09/29/shcherbitsky\\-dismissed\\-as\\-communist\\-party\\-boss\\-in\\-ukraine/f903ba8a\\-bece\\-4493\\-894e\\-9a3b28e87d81/ \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-08\\-14 \\|issn\\=0190\\-8286 \\|archive\\-date\\=28 August 2017 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170828011513/https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1989/09/29/shcherbitsky\\-dismissed\\-as\\-communist\\-party\\-boss\\-in\\-ukraine/f903ba8a\\-bece\\-4493\\-894e\\-9a3b28e87d81/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }} He led the Communists to victory in Kharkiv and across the country in the [parliamentary election](/wiki/1990_Ukrainian_parliamentary_election \"1990 Ukrainian parliamentary election\") held in the Ukrainian SSR in March 1990\\.{{cite web \\|script\\-title\\=uk:КАЛІНІЧЕНКО В.В., РИБАЛКА І.К. ІСТОРІЯ УКРАЇНИ. ЧАСТИНА ІІІ: 1917–2003 рр. \\|url\\=http://www\\-history.univer.kharkov.ua/e\\-library/kalinichenko\\_textbook/Kalinichenko\\_10\\.2\\.htm \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080512070738/http://www\\-history.univer.kharkov.ua/e\\-library/kalinichenko\\_textbook/Kalinichenko\\_10\\.2\\.htm \\|archive\\-date\\=2008\\-05\\-12 \\|language\\=uk}} The election was relatively free, but occurred well before organised political parties had time to form, and did not arrest the decline in the CPSU's legitimacy.{{Cite book \\|last\\=McFaul \\|first\\=Michael \\|url\\=http://archive.org/details/postcommunistpol0000mcfa \\|title\\=Post\\-communist politics : democratic prospects in Russia and Eastern Europe \\|date\\=1993 \\|publisher\\=Washington, D.C. : Center for Strategic and International Studies \\|others\\=Internet Archive \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-89206\\-208\\-9 \\|pages\\=17–19}} This was accelerated by the intra\\-party coup attempt against President [Mikhail Gorbachev](/wiki/Mikhail_Gorbachev \"Mikhail Gorbachev\") and his reforms on 18 August 1991, during which Ivashko temporarily replaced Gorbachev as [CPSU General Secretary.](/wiki/General_Secretary_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union \"General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union\"){{Cite book \\|last1\\=Perrie \\|first1\\=Maureen \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=KAPxOl\\_mh4YC \\|title\\=The Cambridge History of Russia: Volume 3, The Twentieth Century \\|last2\\=Lieven \\|first2\\=D. C. B. \\|last3\\=Suny \\|first3\\=Ronald Grigor \\|date\\=2 November 2006 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Cambridge University Press]] \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-521\\-81144\\-6 \\|pages\\=344–349 \\|language\\=en \\|chapter\\=The Gorbachev Era}}",
"[The National University of Kharkiv](/wiki/National_University_of_Kharkiv \"National University of Kharkiv\") was at the forefront of democratic agitation. In October 1991, a call from Kyiv for an all\\-Ukrainian university strike to protest Gorbachev's [new](/wiki/Union_of_Sovereign_States%23Development \"Union of Sovereign States#Development\") [Union Treaty](/wiki/New_Union_Treaty \"New Union Treaty\") and to call for new multi\\-party elections was met with a rally at the entrance to the university attended not only by students and university teachers, but also by a range of public and cultural figures.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Революція на граніті: Як харківські студенти змінили історію держави 30 років тому – новини Харкова \\|url\\=https://kh.depo.ua/ukr/kh/revolyutsiya\\-na\\-graniti\\-yak\\-kharkivski\\-studenti\\-zminili\\-istoriyu\\-derzhavi\\-30\\-rokiv\\-tomu\\-202010231230205 \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-08\\-14 \\|website\\=www.depo.ua \\|language\\=uk \\|archive\\-date\\=14 August 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220814231233/https://kh.depo.ua/ukr/kh/revolyutsiya\\-na\\-graniti\\-yak\\-kharkivski\\-studenti\\-zminili\\-istoriyu\\-derzhavi\\-30\\-rokiv\\-tomu\\-202010231230205 \\|url\\-status\\=live }} The protests—the so\\-called [Revolution on Granite](/wiki/Revolution_on_Granite \"Revolution on Granite\")[The lesson of the Revolution on Granite](http://m.day.kyiv.ua/en/article/day-after-day/lesson-revolution-granite) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210415162522/http://m.day.kyiv.ua/en/article/day\\-after\\-day/lesson\\-revolution\\-granite \\|date\\=15 April 2021 }}, *[Den](/wiki/Den_%28newspaper%29 \"Den (newspaper)\")* (4 October 2016\\)—ended on 17 October with a resolution of the [Verkhovna Rada](/wiki/Verkhovna_Rada \"Verkhovna Rada\") of the Ukrainian SSR promising further democratic reform. In the event, the only demand fulfilled was the removal of the Communist Prime Minister.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Zhyshko \\|first\\=Serhii \\|date\\=2016 \\|title\\=The lesson of the Revolution on Granite \\|url\\=https://m.day.kyiv.ua/en/article/day\\-after\\-day/lesson\\-revolution\\-granite \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-08\\-14 \\|website\\=«Антидот» і «детокс» від «Дня» \\|archive\\-date\\=14 August 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220814231233/https://m.day.kyiv.ua/en/article/day\\-after\\-day/lesson\\-revolution\\-granite \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"### Independent Ukraine",
"In the 1 December 1991 [Referendum on the Act of Declaration of Independence](/wiki/1991_Ukrainian_independence_referendum \"1991 Ukrainian independence referendum\"), on a turnout of 76 percent 86 percent of the [Kharkiv Oblast](/wiki/Kharkiv_Oblast \"Kharkiv Oblast\") approved separate Ukrainian statehood.{{Cite web \\|date\\=28 September 2015 \\|title\\=Ukrainian Independence Referendum \\|url\\=https://soviethistory.msu.edu/1991\\-2/the\\-end\\-of\\-the\\-soviet\\-union/the\\-end\\-of\\-the\\-soviet\\-union\\-texts/ukrainian\\-independence\\-declaration/ \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-08\\-12 \\|website\\=Seventeen Moments in Soviet History \\|language\\=en\\-US \\|archive\\-date\\=14 April 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220414065531/https://soviethistory.msu.edu/1991\\-2/the\\-end\\-of\\-the\\-soviet\\-union/the\\-end\\-of\\-the\\-soviet\\-union\\-texts/ukrainian\\-independence\\-declaration/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"During the [1990s post\\-Soviet aliyah](/wiki/1990s_post-Soviet_aliyah \"1990s post-Soviet aliyah\"), many Jews from Kharkiv emigrated to Israel or to Western countries.{{cite web \\|title\\=Virtual Jewish World: Kharkov, Ukraine \\|url\\=https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/kharkov\\-ukraine\\-virtual\\-jewish\\-history\\-tour \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-03\\-15 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Jewish Virtual Library]] \\|archive\\-date\\=5 April 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405180150/https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/kharkov\\-ukraine\\-virtual\\-jewish\\-history\\-tour \\|url\\-status\\=live }} The city's Jewish population, 62,800 in 1970, dropped to 50,000 by the end of the century.{{cite web \\|title\\=Khar'kiv \\|url\\=https://yivoencyclopedia.org/article.aspx/kharkiv \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-03\\-15 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[YIVO]] \\|archive\\-date\\=12 May 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230512011725/https://yivoencyclopedia.org/article.aspx/Kharkiv \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"[thumb\\|New Year's decoration of [Freedom Square](/wiki/Freedom_Square_%28Kharkiv%29 \"Freedom Square (Kharkiv)\") in Kharkiv in 2018](/wiki/File:%D0%9D%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%96%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%B5_%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8F_%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%83_%D0%A1%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B8%2C_%D0%BC._%D0%A5%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BA%D1%96%D0%B2.jpg \"Новорічне оформлення майдану Свободи, м. Харків.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|A monument to the [persecuted kobzars](/wiki/Persecuted_bandurists \"Persecuted bandurists\") in Kharkiv](/wiki/File:Pamiatnyk.jpg \"Pamiatnyk.jpg\")",
"The [collapse of the Soviet Union](/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Soviet_Union \"Dissolution of the Soviet Union\") disrupted, but did not sever, the ties that bound Kharkiv's heavy industries to the integrated Soviet market and supply chains, and did not diminish dependency on Russian oil, minerals, and gas.{{Cite web \\|last1\\=Sutela \\|first1\\=Pekka \\|title\\=The Underachiever: Ukraine's Economy Since 1991 \\|url\\=https://carnegieendowment.org/2012/03/09/underachiever\\-ukraine\\-s\\-economy\\-since\\-1991\\-pub\\-47451 \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-08\\-14 \\|website\\=Carnegie Endowment for International Peace \\|language\\=en \\|archive\\-date\\=29 July 2020 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200729100406/https://carnegieendowment.org/2012/03/09/underachiever\\-ukraine\\-s\\-economy\\-since\\-1991\\-pub\\-47451 \\|url\\-status\\=live }} In Kharkiv and elsewhere in eastern Ukraine, the limited prospects for securing new economic partners in the West, and concern for the rights of Russian\\-speakers in the new national state, combined to promote the interests of political parties and candidates emphasising understanding and cooperation with the [Russian Federation](/wiki/Russian_Federation \"Russian Federation\"). In the new century, these were represented by the [Party of Regions](/wiki/Party_of_Regions \"Party of Regions\") and by the presidential ambitions of [Victor Yanukovych](/wiki/Viktor_Yanukovych \"Viktor Yanukovych\"),{{Cite web \\|date\\=29 September 2010 \\|title\\=The Party of Regions monopolises power in Ukraine \\|url\\=https://www.osw.waw.pl/en/publikacje/osw\\-commentary/2010\\-09\\-29/party\\-regions\\-monopolises\\-power\\-ukraine \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-08\\-14 \\|website\\=OSW Centre for Eastern Studies \\|language\\=en \\|archive\\-date\\=14 August 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220814133452/https://www.osw.waw.pl/en/publikacje/osw\\-commentary/2010\\-09\\-29/party\\-regions\\-monopolises\\-power\\-ukraine \\|url\\-status\\=live }} which in Kharkiv triumphed in the city council elections of 2006, in the parliamentary elections of 2007 and in the presidential elections of 2010\\.{{Cite book \\|last\\=Platonova \\|first\\=Daria \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=01E\\_EAAAQBAJ\\&pg\\=PP27 \\|title\\=The Donbas Conflict in Ukraine: Elites, Protest, and Partition \\|publisher\\=Routledge \\|year\\=2021 \\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-000\\-45326\\-3 \\|pages\\=27 \\|language\\=en \\|access\\-date\\=22 August 2022 \\|archive\\-date\\=2 October 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20231002071002/https://books.google.com/books?id\\=01E\\_EAAAQBAJ\\&pg\\=PP27\\#v\\=onepage\\&q\\&f\\=false \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"Although never attaining the level of protest witnessed in Kyiv and in communities further west, following the disputed [2012 Parliamentary elections](/wiki/2012_Ukrainian_parliamentary_election \"2012 Ukrainian parliamentary election\") public opposition to [President Yanukovych](/wiki/Viktor_Yanukovych \"Viktor Yanukovych\") and his party surfaced in Kharkiv amid accusations of systematic corruption and of sabotaging prospects for new ties to the European Union.[Ukraine opposition protests election results](http://www.kyivpost.com/content/ukraine/ukraine-opposition-protests-election-results-316008.html) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150920002302/http://www.kyivpost.com/content/ukraine/ukraine\\-opposition\\-protests\\-election\\-results\\-316008\\.html \\|date\\=20 September 2015 }}, [Kyiv Post](/wiki/Kyiv_Post \"Kyiv Post\") (1 November 2012\\)",
"#### 2014 pro\\-Russian unrest",
"{{main\\|2014 pro\\-Russian unrest in Ukraine\\#Kharkiv Oblast}}\nThe [Euromaidan](/wiki/Euromaidan \"Euromaidan\") protests in the winter of 2013–2014 against then president [Viktor Yanukovych](/wiki/Viktor_Yanukovych \"Viktor Yanukovych\") consisted of daily gatherings of about 200 protestors near the statue of Taras Shevchenko and were predominantly peaceful. Disappointed at the turnout, an activist at Kharkiv University suggested that his fellow students \"proved to be as much of an inert, grey and cowed mass as Kharkiv’s ‘*biudzhetniki*’ \" (those whose income derives from the state budget, mostly public servants).{{Cite web \\|title\\=Kharkiv Talks in a Viennese Kitchen – On Revolution, War and Literature in Ukraine \\|url\\=https://www.iwm.at/transit\\-online/kharkiv\\-talks\\-in\\-a\\-viennese\\-kitchen\\-on\\-revolution\\-war\\-and\\-literature\\-in \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-08\\-15 \\|website\\=IWM WEBSITE \\|language\\=en \\|archive\\-date\\=15 August 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220815200538/https://www.iwm.at/transit\\-online/kharkiv\\-talks\\-in\\-a\\-viennese\\-kitchen\\-on\\-revolution\\-war\\-and\\-literature\\-in \\|url\\-status\\=live }} But Pro\\-Yanukovych demonstrations, held near the [statue of Lenin](/wiki/Statue_of_Lenin_in_Kharkiv \"Statue of Lenin in Kharkiv\") in [Freedom (previously Dzerzhinsky) Square](/wiki/Freedom_Square_%28Kharkiv%29 \"Freedom Square (Kharkiv)\"), were similarly small.",
"In the wake of Yanukovych's ouster in February, there were attempts in Kharkiv to follow the example of separatists in neighbouring [Donbas](/wiki/Donbas \"Donbas\").{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world\\-middle\\-east\\-26248275\\|title\\=Ukraine crisis: Timeline\\|work\\=BBC News\\|date\\=13 November 2014\\|access\\-date\\=22 March 2015\\|archive\\-date\\=3 June 2014\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140603193226/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world\\-middle\\-east\\-26248275\\|url\\-status\\=live}} On 2 March 2014, a Russian \"tourist\" from Moscow replaced the [Ukrainian flag](/wiki/Ukrainian_flag \"Ukrainian flag\") with a [Russian flag](/wiki/Russian_flag \"Russian flag\") on the Kharkiv Regional State Administration Building.{{cite news \\| url \\= https://www.nytimes.com/2014/03/04/world/europe/russias\\-hand\\-can\\-be\\-seen\\-in\\-the\\-protests.html \\| title \\= From Russia, 'Tourists' Stir the Protests \\| first \\= Andrew \\| last \\= Roth \\| work \\= The New York Times \\| date \\= 4 March 2014 \\| access\\-date \\= 27 February 2017 \\| archive\\-date \\= 4 March 2014 \\| archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20140304074020/http://www.nytimes.com/2014/03/04/world/europe/russias\\-hand\\-can\\-be\\-seen\\-in\\-the\\-protests.html \\| url\\-status \\= live }} \n{{cite news \\| url \\= https://www.bbc.com/news/blogs\\-trending\\-26435333 \\| title \\= Russian site recruits 'volunteers' for Ukraine \\| work \\= BBC News \\| date \\= 4 March 2014 \\| access\\-date \\= 21 June 2018 \\| archive\\-date \\= 22 July 2018 \\| archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20180722074502/https://www.bbc.com/news/blogs\\-trending\\-26435333 \\| url\\-status \\= live }} On 6 April 2014 pro\\-Russian protestors occupied the building and unilaterally declared independence from Ukraine as the \"[Kharkiv People's Republic](/wiki/Kharkiv_People%27s_Republic \"Kharkiv People's Republic\")\".[Ukraine Authorities Clear Kharkiv Building, Arrest Scores Of 'Separatists'](https://www.rferl.org/a/kharkiv-operation-ukraine-terrorism-separatist-arrests/25324984.html) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20211111211046/https://www.rferl.org/a/kharkiv\\-operation\\-ukraine\\-terrorism\\-separatist\\-arrests/25324984\\.html \\|date\\=11 November 2021 }}, [Radio Free Europe](/wiki/Radio_Free_Europe \"Radio Free Europe\") (8 April 2014\\) \n[How Eastern Ukraine Is Adapting and Surviving: The Case of Kharkiv](https://carnegieeurope.eu/2018/09/12/how-eastern-ukraine-is-adapting-and-surviving-case-of-kharkiv-pub-77216) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220308154832/https://www.rferl.org/a/kharkiv\\-operation\\-ukraine\\-terrorism\\-separatist\\-arrests/25324984\\.html \\|date\\=8 March 2022 }}, [Carnegie Europe](/wiki/Carnegie_Europe \"Carnegie Europe\") (12 September 2018\\){{cite web \\| url\\=http://www.focus\\-fen.net/news/2014/04/07/332351/pro\\-russia\\-activists\\-declare\\-establishment\\-of\\-kharkiv\\-peoples\\-republic.html \\| title\\=Pro\\-Russia activists declare establishment of 'Kharkiv people's republic' \\| work\\=Focus Information Agency \\| date\\=7 April 2014 \\| access\\-date\\=13 April 2014 \\| archive\\-date\\=9 April 2014 \\| archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140409121553/http://www.focus\\-fen.net/news/2014/04/07/332351/pro\\-russia\\-activists\\-declare\\-establishment\\-of\\-kharkiv\\-peoples\\-republic.html \\| url\\-status\\=dead }} Doubts arose about their local origin as they had initially targeted the city's [Opera and Ballet Theatre](/wiki/Kharkiv_National_Academic_Opera_and_Ballet_Theatre \"Kharkiv National Academic Opera and Ballet Theatre\") before recognising their mistake.{{Cite web \\|date\\=8 April 2014 \\|title\\=Protesters Storm Kharkiv Theater Thinking It Was City Hall \\|url\\=https://www.themoscowtimes.com/2014/04/08/protesters\\-storm\\-kharkiv\\-theater\\-thinking\\-it\\-was\\-city\\-hall\\-a33739 \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-08\\-15 \\|website\\=The Moscow Times \\|language\\=en \\|archive\\-date\\=15 August 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220815112502/https://www.themoscowtimes.com/2014/04/08/protesters\\-storm\\-kharkiv\\-theater\\-thinking\\-it\\-was\\-city\\-hall\\-a33739 \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"Kharkiv's mayor, [Hennadiy \"Gepa\" Kernes](/wiki/Hennadiy_Kernes \"Hennadiy Kernes\"), elected in 2010 as the nominee of the [Party of Regions](/wiki/Party_of_Regions \"Party of Regions\"), was placed under house arrest. Claiming to have been \"prisoner of Yanukovych's system\",[\"Kharkiv's Kernes justifies his 180\\-degree political turn by saying he was 'prisoner' of Yanukovych system\"](http://mymedia.org.ua/en/articles/revolution/kharkiv_s_kernes_justifies_his_180-degree_political_turn_by_saying_he_was_prisoner_of_yanukovych_sys.html) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20211206195542/https://mymedia.org.ua/en/articles/revolution/kharkiv\\_s\\_kernes\\_justifies\\_his\\_180\\-degree\\_political\\_turn\\_by\\_saying\\_he\\_was\\_prisoner\\_of\\_yanukovych\\_sys.html\\|date\\=6 December 2021}}, [MY\\-MEDIA](/wiki/MY-MEDIA \"MY-MEDIA\"), 6 March 2014; accessed 28 August 2014\\. he now declared his loyalty to acting President [Oleksandr Turchynov](/wiki/Oleksandr_Turchynov \"Oleksandr Turchynov\"). In a televised address on 7 April, Turchynov had announced that \"a second wave of the Russian Federation's special operation against Ukraine \\[has] started\" with the \"goal of destabilising the situation in the country, toppling Ukrainian authorities, disrupting the elections, and tearing our country apart\".{{Cite news \\|title\\=Authorities Clear Occupied Kharkiv Building \\|url\\=https://www.rferl.org/a/kharkiv\\-operation\\-ukraine\\-terrorism\\-separatist\\-arrests/25324984\\.html \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-08\\-15 \\|newspaper\\=Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty \\|date\\=8 April 2014 \\|language\\=en \\|archive\\-date\\=11 November 2021 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20211111211046/https://www.rferl.org/a/kharkiv\\-operation\\-ukraine\\-terrorism\\-separatist\\-arrests/25324984\\.html \\|url\\-status\\=live }} Kernes persuaded the police to storm the regional administration building and push out the separatists. He was allowed to return to his mayoral duties.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Loiko \\|first\\=Sergei \\|date\\=28 April 2014 \\|title\\=Ukraine mayor in critical condition after he was shot in the back \\|url\\=https://www.latimes.com/world/worldnow/la\\-fg\\-wn\\-ukraine\\-mayor\\-shot\\-20140428\\-story.html \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-08\\-15 \\|website\\=Los Angeles Times \\|language\\=en\\-US \\|archive\\-date\\=15 August 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220815112502/https://www.latimes.com/world/worldnow/la\\-fg\\-wn\\-ukraine\\-mayor\\-shot\\-20140428\\-story.html \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"Police action against the separatists was reinforced by a special forces unit from [Vinnytsia](/wiki/Vinnytsia \"Vinnytsia\") directed by Ukrainian Interior Minister [Arsen Avakov](/wiki/Arsen_Avakov \"Arsen Avakov\") and [Stepan Poltorak](/wiki/Stepan_Poltorak \"Stepan Poltorak\") the acting commander of the [Ukrainian Internal Forces](/wiki/Internal_Troops_of_Ukraine \"Internal Troops of Ukraine\").{{cite news \\| url\\=http://www.kyivpost.com/content/ukraine/kharkiv\\-settles\\-down\\-while\\-pro\\-russian\\-separatists\\-still\\-hold\\-buildings\\-in\\-luhansk\\-donetsk\\-342517\\.html \\| title\\=Kharkiv settles down, while pro\\-Russian separatists still hold buildings in Luhansk, Donetsk \\| work\\=Kyiv Post \\| date\\=8 April 2014 \\| access\\-date\\=13 April 2014 \\| archive\\-date\\=13 January 2016 \\| archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160113023301/http://www.kyivpost.com/content/ukraine/kharkiv\\-settles\\-down\\-while\\-pro\\-russian\\-separatists\\-still\\-hold\\-buildings\\-in\\-luhansk\\-donetsk\\-342517\\.html \\| url\\-status\\=live }} On 13 April, some pro\\-Russian protesters again made it inside the Kharkiv regional state administration building, but were quickly evicted.{{cite news \\|date\\=13 April 2014 \\|title\\=Kharkiv city government building infiltrated by pro\\-Russian protesters \\|work\\=Kyiv Post \\|url\\=http://www.kyivpost.com/content/ukraine/pro\\-russian\\-militants\\-attack\\-pro\\-ukrainian\\-demonstrators\\-in\\-kharkiv\\-including\\-at\\-least\\-three\\-severely\\-343292\\.html \\|access\\-date\\=13 April 2014 \\|archive\\-date\\=13 January 2016 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160113023301/http://www.kyivpost.com/content/ukraine/pro\\-russian\\-militants\\-attack\\-pro\\-ukrainian\\-demonstrators\\-in\\-kharkiv\\-including\\-at\\-least\\-three\\-severely\\-343292\\.html \\|url\\-status\\=live }}{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.unian.net/politics/907771\\-posle\\-napadeniya\\-antimaydanovtsev\\-na\\-miting\\-evromaydana\\-v\\-harkove\\-postradalo\\-50\\-chelovek.html \\|title\\=После нападения антимайдановцев на митинг Евромайдана в Харькове пострадало 50 человек : Новости УНИАН \\|publisher\\=Unian.net \\|date\\=14 April 2014 \\|access\\-date\\=28 April 2014 \\|archive\\-date\\=19 May 2014 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140519144043/http://www.unian.net/politics/907771\\-posle\\-napadeniya\\-antimaydanovtsev\\-na\\-miting\\-evromaydana\\-v\\-harkove\\-postradalo\\-50\\-chelovek.html \\|url\\-status\\=live }} Violent clashes resulted in the severe beating of at least 50 pro\\-Ukrainian protesters in attacks by pro\\-Russian protesters. On 28 April, [Kernes](/wiki/Hennadiy_Kernes \"Hennadiy Kernes\") was shot by a sniper,{{cite news \\|date\\=28 April 2014 \\|title\\=Ukraine crisis: US and EU to intensify Russia sanctions \\|work\\=BBC \\|url\\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world\\-europe\\-27183591 \\|access\\-date\\=28 April 2014 \\|archive\\-date\\=1 March 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220301222721/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world\\-europe\\-27183591 \\|url\\-status\\=live }}[Ukraine mayor in critical condition after he was shot in the back](http://www.latimes.com/world/worldnow/la-fg-wn-ukraine-mayor-shot-20140428,0,1011902.story?track=rss#axzz30JGhcEHC) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140505011013/http://www.latimes.com/world/worldnow/la\\-fg\\-wn\\-ukraine\\-mayor\\-shot\\-20140428,0,1011902\\.story?track\\=rss\\#axzz30JGhcEHC \\|date\\=5 May 2014 }}, *[Los Angeles Times](/wiki/Los_Angeles_Times \"Los Angeles Times\")* (28 April 2014\\) a victim, commentators suggested, of his former pro\\-Russian allies.",
"Relatively peaceful demonstrations continued to be held, with \"pro\\-Russian\" rallies gradually diminishing and \"pro\\-Ukrainian unity\" demonstrations growing in numbers.{{cite press release\\|url\\=http://www.osce.org/ukraine\\-smm/120113\\|title\\=Latest from the Special Monitoring Mission in Ukraine based on information received until 23 June 2014\\|publisher\\=Organization for Security and Co\\-operation in Europe\\|date\\=24 June 2014\\|access\\-date\\=22 August 2014\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151122133303/http://www.osce.org/ukraine\\-smm/120113\\|archive\\-date\\=22 November 2015}}{{cite press release\\|url\\=http://www.osce.org/ukraine\\-smm/121790\\|title\\=Latest from the Special Monitoring Mission (SMM) in Ukraine based on information received until 18:00 hrs, 23 July\\|publisher\\=Organization for Security and Co\\-operation in Europe\\|date\\=24 July 2014\\|access\\-date\\=25 July 2014\\|archive\\-date\\=11 November 2021\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20211111212651/https://www.osce.org/ukraine\\-smm/121790\\|url\\-status\\=live}}{{in lang\\|uk}} [Two liberty square rally](http://www.sq.com.ua/rus/news/obschestvo/17.08.2014/na_ploschadi_svobody_proshli_dva_mitinga/) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220320011916/https://www.sq.com.ua/rus/news/obschestvo/17\\.08\\.2014/na\\_ploschadi\\_svobody\\_proshli\\_dva\\_mitinga \\|date\\=20 March 2022 }}, Status quo (17 August 2014\\) On 28 September, activists dismantled Ukraine's largest monument to Lenin at a pro\\-Ukrainian rally in the central square.[Ukrainian Crowds Topple Lenin Statue (Again)](https://www.forbes.com/sites/katyasoldak/2014/09/28/ukrainian-crowds-topple-lenin-statue-again/) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171020132743/https://www.forbes.com/sites/katyasoldak/2014/09/28/ukrainian\\-crowds\\-topple\\-lenin\\-statue\\-again/ \\|date\\=20 October 2017 }}. Retrieved 29 September 2014\\. Polls conducted from September to December 2014 found little support in Kharkiv for joining Russia.{{r\\|Navalny140923}}{{r\\|DT150103}}",
"From early November until mid\\-December, Kharkiv was struck by seven non\\-lethal bomb blasts. Targets of these attacks included a rock pub known for raising money for Ukrainian forces, a hospital for Ukrainian forces, a military recruiting centre, and a [National Guard](/wiki/National_Guard_of_Ukraine \"National Guard of Ukraine\") base.[Seven recent blasts in Ukraine city stir fear of new Russian menace](http://www.latimes.com/world/europe/la-fg-ukraine-russia-kharkiv-bombs-20141210-story.html) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220320012623/https://www.latimes.com/world/europe/la\\-fg\\-ukraine\\-russia\\-kharkiv\\-bombs\\-20141210\\-story.html \\|date\\=20 March 2022 }}, [Los Angeles Times](/wiki/Los_Angeles_Times \"Los Angeles Times\") (11 December 2014\\) \n[Mysterious spate of bombings hit Ukraine military hub](https://news.yahoo.com/mysterious-spate-bombings-hit-ukraine-military-hub-114452090.html#) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160315155646/http://news.yahoo.com/mysterious\\-spate\\-bombings\\-hit\\-ukraine\\-military\\-hub\\-114452090\\.html \\|date\\=15 March 2016 }}, [Agence France\\-Presse](/wiki/Agence_France-Presse \"Agence France-Presse\") (10 December 2014\\) According to [SBU](/wiki/Security_Service_of_Ukraine \"Security Service of Ukraine\") investigator Vasyliy Vovk, [Russian covert forces](/wiki/Foreign_Intelligence_Service_%28Russia%29 \"Foreign Intelligence Service (Russia)\") were behind the attacks, and had intended to destabilise the otherwise calm city of Kharkiv.[SBU: Russian special services target Kharkiv, Odesa, situation difficult to control](http://www.unian.info/society/1020077-sbu-russian-special-services-target-kharkiv-odesa-situation-difficult-to-control.html) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141214215037/http://www.unian.info/society/1020077\\-sbu\\-russian\\-special\\-services\\-target\\-kharkiv\\-odesa\\-situation\\-difficult\\-to\\-control.html \\|date\\=14 December 2014 }}, [Ukrainian Independent Information Agency](/wiki/Ukrainian_Independent_Information_Agency \"Ukrainian Independent Information Agency\") (10 December 2014\\) On 8 January 2015 five men wearing [balaclavas](/wiki/Balaclava_%28clothing%29 \"Balaclava (clothing)\") broke into an office of Station Kharkiv, a volunteer group aiding refugees from [Donbas](/wiki/Donbas \"Donbas\").{{cite web \\|date\\=9 January 2015 \\|script\\-title\\=uk:Міліція з ясовує, хто напав на волонтерську \"Станцію Харків\" \\|trans\\-title\\=Police finds out who attacked the volunteer\\-run \"Station Kharkiv\" \\|url\\=http://www.ukrinform.ua/rubric\\-iac/1801796\\-militsiya\\_zyasovue\\_\\_hto\\_napav\\_na\\_volontersku\\_stantsiyu\\_harkiv\\_2008697\\.html \\|access\\-date\\=22 March 2015 \\|publisher\\=ukrinform.ua \\|language\\=uk \\|archive\\-date\\=7 October 2015 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151007213937/http://www.ukrinform.ua/rubric\\-iac/1801796\\-militsiya\\_zyasovue\\_\\_hto\\_napav\\_na\\_volontersku\\_stantsiyu\\_harkiv\\_2008697\\.html \\|url\\-status\\=live }}{{cite web \\|date\\=25 October 2014 \\|script\\-title\\=ru:\"Станция Харьков\" — первый пункт помощи переселенцам из зоны АТО \\|trans\\-title\\=\"Station Kharkiv\" – the first point of assistance for displaced persons from the Donbas zone \\|url\\=http://24tv.ua/ru/stantsiya\\_harkov\\_\\_perviy\\_punkt\\_pomoshhi\\_pereselentsam\\_iz\\_zoni\\_ato\\_n500974 \\|access\\-date\\=22 March 2015 \\|publisher\\=24tv.ua \\|language\\=ru \\|archive\\-date\\=14 January 2016 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160114041233/http://24tv.ua/ru/stantsiya\\_harkov\\_\\_perviy\\_punkt\\_pomoshhi\\_pereselentsam\\_iz\\_zoni\\_ato\\_n500974 \\|url\\-status\\=live }} On 22 February an [improvised explosive device](/wiki/Improvised_explosive_device \"Improvised explosive device\") killed four people and wounded nine during a march commemorating the [Euromaidan victims](/wiki/List_of_people_killed_during_the_2014_Ukrainian_revolution \"List of people killed during the 2014 Ukrainian revolution\"). The authorities launched an 'anti\\-terrorist operation'.[UNIAN](http://www.unian.info/politics/1047081-anti-terrorist-operation-launched-in-kharkiv-due-to-fatal-blast-on-sunday-turchynov.html) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150224202600/http://www.unian.info/politics/1047081\\-anti\\-terrorist\\-operation\\-launched\\-in\\-kharkiv\\-due\\-to\\-fatal\\-blast\\-on\\-sunday\\-turchynov.html \\|date\\=24 February 2015 }} *Anti\\-terrorist operation launched in Kharkiv due to fatal blast on Sunday – Turchynov*, 22 February 2015\\. \n[En.Censor.Net](http://en.censor.net.ua/news/325751/antiterrorist_operation_started_in_kharkiv_four_participants_on_the_explosion_detained) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150225022520/http://en.censor.net.ua/news/325751/antiterrorist\\_operation\\_started\\_in\\_kharkiv\\_four\\_participants\\_on\\_the\\_explosion\\_detained \\|date\\=25 February 2015 }}, *Anti\\-terrorist operation started in Kharkiv: four participants on the explosion detained*, 22 February 2015\\. \n[Novorossia.Today](http://novorossia.today/turchinov-announced-start-of-the-ato-in-kharkov-the-highest-level-of-terrorist-threat-had-been-introduced-in-the-city/) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150225030318/http://novorossia.today/turchinov\\-announced\\-start\\-of\\-the\\-ato\\-in\\-kharkov\\-the\\-highest\\-level\\-of\\-terrorist\\-threat\\-had\\-been\\-introduced\\-in\\-the\\-city/ \\|date\\=25 February 2015 }}, Turchinov announced start of the ATO in Kharkov. The highest level of terrorist threat had been introduced in the city, 23 February 2015\\. Further bombings targeted army fuel tanks, an unoccupied passenger train and a [Ukrainian flag](/wiki/Ukrainian_flag \"Ukrainian flag\") in the city centre.[Bomb Attacks Increase In Ukraine's Second\\-Largest City, Kharkiv](https://www.npr.org/2015/04/06/397774803/despite-tenuous-truce-in-eastern-ukraine-bomb-attacks-increase-in-kharkiv) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171019082853/http://www.npr.org/2015/04/06/397774803/despite\\-tenuous\\-truce\\-in\\-eastern\\-ukraine\\-bomb\\-attacks\\-increase\\-in\\-kharkiv \\|date\\=19 October 2017 }}, [NPR](/wiki/NPR \"NPR\") (6 April 2015\\) \n[Kharkiv explosion targeting Ukrainian flag classified as 'terrorist act'](http://uatoday.tv/politics/kharkiv-explosion-targets-ukrainian-flag-419957.html) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150414190720/http://uatoday.tv/politics/kharkiv\\-explosion\\-targets\\-ukrainian\\-flag\\-419957\\.html \\|date\\=14 April 2015 }}, [Ukraine Today](/wiki/Ukraine_Today \"Ukraine Today\") (7 April 2015\\) \n[Explosion In Ukraine's Kharkiv Targets National Flag Memorial](http://www.rferl.org/content/explosion-in-ukraine-kharkiv-targets-national-flag-memorial/26942551.html) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150407094223/http://www.rferl.org/content/explosion\\-in\\-ukraine\\-kharkiv\\-targets\\-national\\-flag\\-memorial/26942551\\.html \\|date\\=7 April 2015 }}, [Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty](/wiki/Radio_Free_Europe/Radio_Liberty \"Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty\") (7 April 2015\\)",
"On 23 September 2015, 200 people in balaclavas and camouflage picketed the house of former governor [Mykhailo Dobkin](/wiki/Mykhailo_Dobkin \"Mykhailo Dobkin\"), and then went to Kharkiv town hall, where they tried to force their way through the police cordon. At least one tear gas grenade was used. The rioters asked the mayor, [Hennadiy Kernes](/wiki/Hennadiy_Kernes \"Hennadiy Kernes\"), a supporter of the president, to come out.[Unian](http://www.unian.info/society/1131951-over-200-men-in-balaclavas-brawls-in-kharkiv-town-hall-clash-with-police.html) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150925093245/http://www.unian.info/society/1131951\\-over\\-200\\-men\\-in\\-balaclavas\\-brawls\\-in\\-kharkiv\\-town\\-hall\\-clash\\-with\\-police.html \\|date\\=25 September 2015 }}, *Over 200 men in balaclavas brawl at Kharkiv town hall, clash with police*, 23 September 2015, 14:10\\.{{Cite web \\|script\\-title\\=ru:Появилось видео столкновений у горсовета Харькова \\|trans\\-title\\=Video of riot at Kharkiv City Council \\|url\\=https://korrespondent.net/ukraine/3567072\\-poiavylos\\-vydeo\\-stolknovenyi\\-u\\-horsoveta\\-kharkova \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-07\\-01 \\|website\\=korrespondent.net \\|language\\=ru \\|archive\\-date\\=1 July 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230701072227/https://korrespondent.net/ukraine/3567072\\-poiavylos\\-vydeo\\-stolknovenyi\\-u\\-horsoveta\\-kharkova \\|url\\-status\\=live }} Following recovery from his wounds, Kernes had been re\\-elected mayor, and was so again in 2020\\. He died of COVID\\-19 related complication in December 2020\\.[Kharkiv mayor Kernes dies](https://www.ukrinform.net/rubric-polytics/3156284-kharkiv-mayor-kernes-dies.html) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20211111214322/https://www.ukrinform.net/rubric\\-polytics/3156284\\-kharkiv\\-mayor\\-kernes\\-dies.html \\|date\\=11 November 2021 }}, [Ukrinform](/wiki/Ukrinform \"Ukrinform\") (17 December 2020\\) \n[Помер Геннадій Кернес: мер Харкова, який виграв вибори з реанімації](https://www.bbc.com/ukrainian/features-54502494) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201217074508/https://www.bbc.com/ukrainian/features\\-54502494 \\|date\\=17 December 2020 }}, [BBC Ukrainian](/wiki/BBC_Ukrainian \"BBC Ukrainian\") (17 December 2020\\) {{in lang\\|uk}}{{in lang\\|uk}} [Keys to cities. What is the secret of longevity of mayors](https://m.tyzhden.ua/publication/246371) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20211111214335/https://m.tyzhden.ua/publication/246371 \\|date\\=11 November 2021 }}, [The Ukrainian Week](/wiki/The_Ukrainian_Week \"The Ukrainian Week\") (10 August 2020\\) He was succeeded by [Ihor Terekhov](/wiki/Ihor_Terekhov \"Ihor Terekhov\") of the \"[Kernes Bloc — Successful Kharkiv](/wiki/Kernes_Bloc_%E2%80%94_Successful_Kharkiv \"Kernes Bloc — Successful Kharkiv\")\".",
"After the Euromaidan events and Russian [actions in the Crimea](/wiki/Annexation_of_Crimea_by_the_Russian_Federation \"Annexation of Crimea by the Russian Federation\") and [Donbas](/wiki/War_in_Donbas_%282014%E2%80%932022%29 \"War in Donbas (2014–2022)\") ruptured relations with Moscow, the Kharkiv region experienced a sharp fall in output and employment. Once a hub of cross border trade, Kharkiv was turned into a border fortress. A reorientation to new international markets, increased defense contracts (after Kyiv, the region contains the second\\-largest number of military\\-related enterprises) and export growth in the economy's services sector helped fuel a recovery, but people's incomes did not return to pre\\-2014 levels.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Jarábik \\|first\\=Natalia Shapovalova, Balázs \\|title\\=How Eastern Ukraine Is Adapting and Surviving: The Case of Kharkiv \\|url\\=https://carnegieeurope.eu/2018/09/12/how\\-eastern\\-ukraine\\-is\\-adapting\\-and\\-surviving\\-case\\-of\\-kharkiv\\-pub\\-77216 \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-08\\-13 \\|website\\=Carnegie Europe \\|language\\=en \\|archive\\-date\\=8 March 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220308154832/https://www.rferl.org/a/kharkiv\\-operation\\-ukraine\\-terrorism\\-separatist\\-arrests/25324984\\.html \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"By 2018 Kharkiv officially has the lowest unemployment rate in Ukraine, 6 percent. But in part this reflected labor shortages caused by the steady outflow of young and skilled workers to Poland and other European countries.",
"Until 18 July 2020, Kharkiv was incorporated as a [city of oblast significance](/wiki/City_of_regional_significance_%28Ukraine%29 \"City of regional significance (Ukraine)\") and served as the administrative center of Kharkiv Raion though it did not belong to the raion. In July 2020, as part of the administrative reform of Ukraine, which reduced the number of raions of Kharkiv Oblast to seven, the city of Kharkiv was merged into Kharkiv Raion.{{Cite news\\|title\\=Про утворення та ліквідацію районів. Постанова Верховної Ради України № 807\\-ІХ.\\|url\\=http://www.golos.com.ua/article/333466\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-10\\-03\\|date\\=18 July 2020\\|website\\=Голос України\\|language\\=uk}}{{cite web \\|title\\=Нові райони: карти \\+ склад \\|url\\=https://www.minregion.gov.ua/press/news/novi\\-rajony\\-karty\\-sklad/ \\|publisher\\=Міністерство розвитку громад та територій України \\|language\\=Ukrainian}}",
"#### 2022 Russian invasion",
"{{main\\|Battle of Kharkiv (2022\\)\\|Kharkiv strikes (2022–present)}}During the [2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine](/wiki/2022_Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine \"2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine\"), Kharkiv [was the site of heavy fighting between the Ukrainian and Russian forces](/wiki/Battle_of_Kharkiv_%282022%29 \"Battle of Kharkiv (2022)\").{{Cite news \\|last\\=Schwirtz \\|first\\=Michael \\|date\\=25 February 2022 \\|title\\=Scenes from Kharkiv: Battle wreckage, the boom of artillery, and people sheltering in the subway. \\|language\\=en\\-US \\|work\\=The New York Times \\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2022/02/25/world/europe/kharkiv\\-ukraine\\-military.html \\|access\\-date\\=26 February 2022 \\|issn\\=0362\\-4331 \\|archive\\-date\\=25 February 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220225173613/https://www.nytimes.com/2022/02/25/world/europe/kharkiv\\-ukraine\\-military.html \\|url\\-status\\=live }} On 27 February, the governor of Kharkiv Oblast [Oleh Synyehubov](/wiki/Oleh_Synyehubov \"Oleh Synyehubov\") claimed that Russian troops were repelled from Kharkiv.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/feb/27/kharkiv\\-fighting\\-russia\\-ukraine\\-invasion \\|website\\=\\[\\[The Guardian]] \\|title\\=Kharkiv governor claims Russian troops repelled from city \\|date\\=27 February 2022 \\|access\\-date\\=27 February 2022 \\|last\\=Harding \\|first\\=Luke \\|archive\\-date\\=27 February 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220227162935/https://apple.news/AaXq70KfATu2dJIxsVdW9vw \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"According to a 28 February 2022, report from Agroportal 24h, the [Kharkiv Tractor Plant (KhTZ)](/wiki/Kharkiv_Tractor_Plant \"Kharkiv Tractor Plant\"), in the south east of the city, was destroyed and \"engulfed in fire\" by \"massive shelling\" from Russian forces.{{cite web \\|title\\=Ukrainian Tractor Factory Destroyed in Bombing \\|url\\=https://www.agequipmentintelligence.com/articles/5369\\-ukrainian\\-tractor\\-factory\\-destroyed\\-in\\-bombing \\|access\\-date\\=14 March 2022 \\|website\\=www.agequipmentintelligence.com \\|language\\=en \\|archive\\-date\\=16 March 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220316120452/https://www.agequipmentintelligence.com/articles/5369\\-ukrainian\\-tractor\\-factory\\-destroyed\\-in\\-bombing \\|url\\-status\\=live }} Video purported to record explosions and fire at the plant on 25 and 27 February 2022\\.{{cite web \\|title\\=Реальная Война Новости Украина \\|url\\=https://t.me/voynareal/10377 \\|access\\-date\\=14 March 2022 \\|website\\=Telegram \\|archive\\-date\\=14 March 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220314111604/https://t.me/voynareal/10377 \\|url\\-status\\=live }}{{Citation \\|title\\=video of the fire reportedly at the Kharkiv Tractor Plant \\|url\\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\\=oY5kGPtCGTo \\|language\\=en \\|access\\-date\\=14 March 2022 \\|archive\\-date\\=14 March 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220314111609/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\\=oY5kGPtCGTo\\&feature\\=youtu.be \\|url\\-status\\=live }} UNESCO has confirmed that in the first three weeks of bombardment the city experienced the loss or damage of at least 27 major historical buildings.{{Cite web \\|date\\=5 May 2022 \\|title\\=Kharkiv catalogues war's toll on its architectural gems \\|url\\=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/may/05/kharkiv\\-catalogues\\-war\\-toll\\-on\\-architectural\\-gems\\-historic\\-buildings\\-ukraine \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-08\\-15 \\|website\\=The Guardian \\|language\\=en \\|archive\\-date\\=24 July 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220724091916/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/may/05/kharkiv\\-catalogues\\-war\\-toll\\-on\\-architectural\\-gems\\-historic\\-buildings\\-ukraine \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"On 4 March 2022, Human Rights Watch reported that on the fourth day of the [invasion of Ukraine by the Russian Federation](/wiki/2022_Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine \"2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine\"), 28 February 2022, Federation forces used cluster munitions in the [KhTZ](/wiki/Industrialnyi_District%2C_Kharkiv \"Industrialnyi District, Kharkiv\"), the [Saltivskyi](/wiki/Saltivskyi_District \"Saltivskyi District\") and [Shevchenkivskyi](/wiki/Shevchenkivskyi_District%2C_Kharkiv \"Shevchenkivskyi District, Kharkiv\") districts of the city. The rights group—which noted the \"inherently indiscriminate nature of cluster munitions and their foreseeable effects on civilians\"—based its assessment on interviews and an analysis of 40 videos and photographs.{{cite web \\|date\\=4 March 2022 \\|title\\=Ukraine: Cluster Munitions Launched Into Kharkiv Neighborhoods \\|url\\=https://www.hrw.org/news/2022/03/04/ukraine\\-cluster\\-munitions\\-launched\\-kharkiv\\-neighborhoods \\|access\\-date\\=13 March 2022 \\|website\\=Human Rights Watch \\|language\\=en \\|archive\\-date\\=13 March 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220313140732/https://www.hrw.org/news/2022/03/04/ukraine\\-cluster\\-munitions\\-launched\\-kharkiv\\-neighborhoods \\|url\\-status\\=live }} In March 2022, during the [Battle of Kharkiv](/wiki/Battle_of_Kharkiv_%282022%29 \"Battle of Kharkiv (2022)\"), the city was designated as a [Hero City of Ukraine](/wiki/Hero_City_of_Ukraine \"Hero City of Ukraine\").{{cite news \\|last\\=Богданьок \\|first\\=Олена \\|date\\=6 March 2022 \\|title\\=Харків, Чернігів, Маріуполь, Херсон, Гостомель і Волноваха тепер міста\\-герої \\|language\\=uk \\|newspaper\\=Суспільне \\| Новини \\|url\\=https://suspilne.media/214620\\-harkiv\\-cernigiv\\-mariupol\\-herson\\-gostomel\\-i\\-volnovaha\\-otrimali\\-zvanna\\-misto\\-geroj\\-prezident/ \\|access\\-date\\=13 March 2022 \\|archive\\-date\\=13 March 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220313224944/https://suspilne.media/214620\\-harkiv\\-cernigiv\\-mariupol\\-herson\\-gostomel\\-i\\-volnovaha\\-otrimali\\-zvanna\\-misto\\-geroj\\-prezident/ \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}",
"In May 2022, Ukrainian forces began a counter\\-offensive to drive Russian forces away from the city and towards the international border. By 12 May, the United Kingdom Ministry of Defence reported that Russia had withdrawn units from the Kharkiv area.{{cite news \\|last\\=Norman \\|first\\=Greg \\|date\\=12 May 2022 \\|title\\=Russia withdrawing troops after 'heavy losses', proving 'inability to capture key Ukrainian cities,' UK says \\|newspaper\\=Fox News \\|url\\=https://www.foxnews.com/world/russia\\-withdrawing\\-troops\\-kharkiv\\-ukraine\\-war\\-uk\\-says \\|access\\-date\\=14 May 2022 \\|archive\\-date\\=15 May 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220515230813/https://www.foxnews.com/world/russia\\-withdrawing\\-troops\\-kharkiv\\-ukraine\\-war\\-uk\\-says \\|url\\-status\\=live }} Russian artillery and rockets remain within range of the city, and it [continues to suffer shelling](/wiki/Bombing_of_Kharkiv_%282022%E2%80%93present%29 \"Bombing of Kharkiv (2022–present)\"){{Cite web \\|title\\=Enemy shell falls near apartment building in Kharkiv region \\|url\\=https://www.ukrinform.net/rubric\\-ato/3550225\\-enemy\\-shell\\-falls\\-near\\-apartment\\-building\\-in\\-kharkiv\\-region.html \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-08\\-14 \\|website\\=www.ukrinform.net \\|date\\=14 August 2022 \\|language\\=en \\|archive\\-date\\=14 August 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220814192811/https://www.ukrinform.net/rubric\\-ato/3550225\\-enemy\\-shell\\-falls\\-near\\-apartment\\-building\\-in\\-kharkiv\\-region.html \\|url\\-status\\=live }} and missile strikes.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Russians fire missiles at Kharkiv Region's Zmiiv community, three civilians injured \\|url\\=https://www.ukrinform.net/rubric\\-ato/3550022\\-russians\\-fire\\-missiles\\-at\\-kharkiv\\-regions\\-zmiiv\\-community\\-three\\-civilians\\-injured.html \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-08\\-14 \\|website\\=www.ukrinform.net \\|date\\=14 August 2022 \\|language\\=en \\|archive\\-date\\=14 August 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220814080545/https://www.ukrinform.net/rubric\\-ato/3550022\\-russians\\-fire\\-missiles\\-at\\-kharkiv\\-regions\\-zmiiv\\-community\\-three\\-civilians\\-injured.html \\|url\\-status\\=live }}{{cite web \\|date\\=31 December 2023 \\|title\\=Ukraine war: Russia hits back after Kyiv attack on border city \\|url\\=https://www.bbc.com/news/world\\-europe\\-67851431 \\|access\\-date\\=31 December 2023 \\|work\\=\\[\\[BBC News]]}} \n{{Cite web \\|date\\=29 December 2023 \\|title\\=Russia launches largest air attack on Ukraine since start of full\\-scale war \\|url\\=https://kyivindependent.com/russian\\-strikes\\-injure\\-at\\-least\\-7\\-in\\-kyiv\\-casualties\\-reported\\-in\\-lviv\\-dnipro\\-kharkiv/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-12\\-30 \\|website\\=The Kyiv Independent \\|language\\=en}}",
"{{main\\|2024 northeastern Ukraine offensive}}",
"In May 2024, after two weeks intensive fighting, and the loss of a number of border villages, Ukrainian forces halted a renewed Russian advance toward Kharkiv. The Ukrainian defence was assisted by American\\-supplied Himar missiles, and by US permission to fire these across the border at military targets within Russian territory.{{Cite news \\|last\\=Farmer \\|first\\=Ben \\|date\\=8 June 2024 \\|title\\=Russia thwarted over Kharkiv after cross\\-border Himars strikes \\|url\\=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/world\\-news/2024/06/08/russia\\-ukraine\\-kharkiv\\-key\\-missile\\-launch\\-sites\\-counter\\-att/ \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-06\\-17 \\|work\\=The Telegraph \\|language\\=en\\-GB \\|issn\\=0307\\-1235}}",
""
] |
Science and education
---------------------
{{multiple image
\| align \= right
\| direction \= vertical
\| image1 \= (39\)\_V\_N\_KARAZIN\_KHARKIV\_NATIONAL\_UNIVERSITY\_MAIN\_BUILDING\_IN\_CITY\_OF\_KHARKIV\_STATE\_OF\_UKRAINE\_PHOTOGRAPH\_BY\_VIKTOR\_O\_LEDENYOV\_20160621\.jpg
\| width1 \= 190
\| caption1 \= Main building of \[\[University of Kharkiv\|V. N. Karazin Kharkiv National University]].
\| image2 \= Будинок кооперації, Харків DJI 0050\.jpg
\| width2 \= 190
\| caption2 \= Northern building of \[\[University of Kharkiv\|V. N. Karazin Kharkiv National University]].
\| image3 \= (41\)\_MECHNIKOV\_LANDAU\_KUZNETS\_MONUMENTS\_AT\_V\_N\_KARAZIN\_KHARKIV\_NATIONAL\_UNIVERSITY\_IN\_CITY\_OF\_KHARKIV\_STATE\_OF\_UKRAINE\_PHOTOGRAPH\_BY\_VIKTOR\_O\_LEDENYOV\_20160621\.jpg
\| width3 \= 190
\| caption3 \= Il'ya I. Mechnikov, Lev D. Landau, Simon A. Kuznets Nobel Laureates Monuments at \[\[University of Kharkiv\|V. N. Karazin Kharkiv National University]].
}}
### Higher education
The [Vasyl N. Karazin Kharkiv National University](/wiki/Kharkiv_National_University "Kharkiv National University") is the most prestigious reputable classic university, which was founded due to the efforts by [Vasily Karazin](/wiki/Vasily_Karazin "Vasily Karazin") in Kharkiv in 1804–1805\.{{cite web\|url\=https://karazin.ua/en\|publisher\=karazin.ua\|title\=V. N. Karazin Kharkiv National University\|access\-date\=2023\-07\-01\|archive\-date\=6 June 2023\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230606070237/https://karazin.ua/en/\|url\-status\=live}}{{cite web\|url\=http://www.vnz.univ.kiev.ua/content/school/37\|publisher\=vnz.univ.kiev.ua\|title\=Харківський національний університет імені В.Н. Каразіна\|access\-date\=18 June 2017\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160827151112/http://www.vnz.univ.kiev.ua/content/school/37\|archive\-date\=27 August 2016}} On {{OldStyleDate\|29 January\|1805\|17 January}}, the Decree on the Opening of the Imperial University in Kharkiv came into force.
The Roentgen Institute opened in 1931\. It was a specialist cancer treatment facility with 87 research workers, 20 professors, and specialist medical staff. The facilities included chemical, physiology, and bacteriology experimental treatment laboratories. It produced x\-ray apparatus for the whole country.{{cite news \|last1\=Khwaja \|first1\=Barbara \|date\=26 May 2017 \|title\=Health Reform in Revolutionary Russia \|publisher\=Socialist Health Association \|url\=https://www.sochealth.co.uk/2017/05/26/health\-reform\-revolutionary\-russia/ \|access\-date\=26 May 2017 \|archive\-date\=30 August 2017 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170830101010/https://www.sochealth.co.uk/2017/05/26/health\-reform\-revolutionary\-russia/ \|url\-status\=live }}
The city has 13 national universities and numerous professional, technical and private higher education institutions, offering its students a wide range of disciplines. These universities include [Kharkiv National University](/wiki/Kharkiv_National_University "Kharkiv National University") (12,000 students), [National Technical University "KhPI"](/wiki/Kharkiv_Polytechnical_Institute "Kharkiv Polytechnical Institute") (20,000 students), [Kharkiv National University of Radioelectronics](/wiki/Kharkiv_National_University_of_Radioelectronics "Kharkiv National University of Radioelectronics") (12,000 students), [Yaroslav Mudryi National Law University](/wiki/Yaroslav_Mudryi_National_Law_University "Yaroslav Mudryi National Law University"), [Kharkiv National Aerospace University "KhAI"](/wiki/Kharkiv_National_Aerospace_University_%22KhAI%22 "Kharkiv National Aerospace University "), [Kharkiv National University of Economics](/wiki/Kharkiv_National_University_of_Economics "Kharkiv National University of Economics"), [Kharkiv National University of Pharmacy](/wiki/Ukrainian_Academy_of_Pharmacy "Ukrainian Academy of Pharmacy"), and [Kharkiv National Medical University](/wiki/Kharkiv_National_Medical_University "Kharkiv National Medical University").
More than 17,000 faculty and research staff are employed in the institutions of higher education in Kharkiv.
### Scientific research
The city has a high concentration of research institutions, which are independent or loosely connected with the universities. Among them are three national science centres: [Kharkiv Institute of Physics and Technology](/wiki/Kharkiv_Institute_of_Physics_and_Technology "Kharkiv Institute of Physics and Technology"), Institute of Meteorology, Institute for Experimental and Clinical Veterinary Medicine and 20 national research institutions of the [National Academy of Science of Ukraine](/wiki/National_Academy_of_Science_of_Ukraine "National Academy of Science of Ukraine"), such as the [B Verkin Institute for Low Temperature Physics and Engineering](/wiki/B_Verkin_Institute_for_Low_Temperature_Physics_and_Engineering "B Verkin Institute for Low Temperature Physics and Engineering"), [Institute for Problems of Cryobiology and Cryomedicine](/wiki/Institute_for_Problems_of_Cryobiology_and_Cryomedicine "Institute for Problems of Cryobiology and Cryomedicine"), State Scientific Institution "Institute for Single Crystals", Usikov Institute of Radiophysics and Electronics (IRE), Institute of Radio Astronomy (IRA), and others. A total number of 26,000 scientists are working in research and development.
A number of world\-renowned scientific schools appeared in Kharkiv, such as the [theoretical physics school](/wiki/Kharkiv_Theoretical_Physics_School "Kharkiv Theoretical Physics School") and the [mathematical school](/wiki/Kharkiv_Mathematical_School "Kharkiv Mathematical School").
There is the Kharkiv Scientists House in the city, which was built by A. N. Beketov, architect in Kharkiv in 1900\. All the scientists like to meet and discuss various scientific topics at the Kharkiv Scientists House in Kharkiv.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.khdu.org/house.php\|publisher\=khdu.org\|title\=house\|access\-date\=18 June 2017\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160727204436/http://www.khdu.org/house.php\|archive\-date\=27 July 2016}}
### Public libraries
[thumb\|Students in the library of the National University of Pharmacy in Kharkiv](/wiki/File:%D0%A7%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B9_%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BB_%D0%9D%D0%B0%D1%83%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B9_%D0%B1%D0%B8%D0%B1%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D0%9D%D0%A4%D0%B0%D0%A3.jpg "Читальный зал Научной библиотеки НФаУ.jpg")
In addition to the libraries affiliated with the various universities and research institutions, the Kharkiv State Scientific V. Korolenko\-library is a major research library.
### Secondary schools
Kharkiv has 212 (secondary education) schools, including 10 [lyceums](/wiki/Lyceum "Lyceum") and 20 [gymnasiums](/wiki/Gymnasium_%28school%29 "Gymnasium (school)").{{citation needed\|date\=October 2016}} In May 2024 the first of a scatter of underground schools in Kharkiv was opened in [Industrialnyi District](/wiki/Industrialnyi_District%2C_Kharkiv "Industrialnyi District, Kharkiv"), so children could continue their education amidst the [missile strikes in Kharkiv](/wiki/Kharkiv_strikes_%282022%E2%80%93present%29 "Kharkiv strikes (2022–present)") by the [Russian Armed Forces](/wiki/Russian_Armed_Forces "Russian Armed Forces") during the [Russian invasion of Ukraine](/wiki/Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine "Russian invasion of Ukraine").{{cite news \|title\=Trial lessons held in underground school in Kharkiv – photo\|url\=https://www.pravda.com.ua/eng/news/2024/05/12/7455435/\|access\-date\=13 May 2024\|work\=\[\[Ukrainska Pravda]] \|date\=12 May 2024\|language\=English}}
### Education centers
There is the educational "Landau Center", which is named after L.D. Landau, Nobel laureate in Kharkiv.{{cite web\|url\=http://landaucentre.org/about/\|publisher\=landaucentre.org\|title\=ПРО "ЛАНДАУЦЕНТР" {{pipe}}\|access\-date\=18 June 2017\|archive\-date\=18 July 2016\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160718192333/http://landaucentre.org/about/\|url\-status\=live}}
|
[
"Science and education\n---------------------",
"{{multiple image\n\\| align \\= right\n\\| direction \\= vertical\n\\| image1 \\= (39\\)\\_V\\_N\\_KARAZIN\\_KHARKIV\\_NATIONAL\\_UNIVERSITY\\_MAIN\\_BUILDING\\_IN\\_CITY\\_OF\\_KHARKIV\\_STATE\\_OF\\_UKRAINE\\_PHOTOGRAPH\\_BY\\_VIKTOR\\_O\\_LEDENYOV\\_20160621\\.jpg\n\\| width1 \\= 190\n\\| caption1 \\= Main building of \\[\\[University of Kharkiv\\|V. N. Karazin Kharkiv National University]].\n\\| image2 \\= Будинок кооперації, Харків DJI 0050\\.jpg\n\\| width2 \\= 190\n\\| caption2 \\= Northern building of \\[\\[University of Kharkiv\\|V. N. Karazin Kharkiv National University]].\n\\| image3 \\= (41\\)\\_MECHNIKOV\\_LANDAU\\_KUZNETS\\_MONUMENTS\\_AT\\_V\\_N\\_KARAZIN\\_KHARKIV\\_NATIONAL\\_UNIVERSITY\\_IN\\_CITY\\_OF\\_KHARKIV\\_STATE\\_OF\\_UKRAINE\\_PHOTOGRAPH\\_BY\\_VIKTOR\\_O\\_LEDENYOV\\_20160621\\.jpg\n\\| width3 \\= 190\n\\| caption3 \\= Il'ya I. Mechnikov, Lev D. Landau, Simon A. Kuznets Nobel Laureates Monuments at \\[\\[University of Kharkiv\\|V. N. Karazin Kharkiv National University]].\n}}",
"### Higher education",
"The [Vasyl N. Karazin Kharkiv National University](/wiki/Kharkiv_National_University \"Kharkiv National University\") is the most prestigious reputable classic university, which was founded due to the efforts by [Vasily Karazin](/wiki/Vasily_Karazin \"Vasily Karazin\") in Kharkiv in 1804–1805\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://karazin.ua/en\\|publisher\\=karazin.ua\\|title\\=V. N. Karazin Kharkiv National University\\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-07\\-01\\|archive\\-date\\=6 June 2023\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230606070237/https://karazin.ua/en/\\|url\\-status\\=live}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.vnz.univ.kiev.ua/content/school/37\\|publisher\\=vnz.univ.kiev.ua\\|title\\=Харківський національний університет імені В.Н. Каразіна\\|access\\-date\\=18 June 2017\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160827151112/http://www.vnz.univ.kiev.ua/content/school/37\\|archive\\-date\\=27 August 2016}} On {{OldStyleDate\\|29 January\\|1805\\|17 January}}, the Decree on the Opening of the Imperial University in Kharkiv came into force.",
"The Roentgen Institute opened in 1931\\. It was a specialist cancer treatment facility with 87 research workers, 20 professors, and specialist medical staff. The facilities included chemical, physiology, and bacteriology experimental treatment laboratories. It produced x\\-ray apparatus for the whole country.{{cite news \\|last1\\=Khwaja \\|first1\\=Barbara \\|date\\=26 May 2017 \\|title\\=Health Reform in Revolutionary Russia \\|publisher\\=Socialist Health Association \\|url\\=https://www.sochealth.co.uk/2017/05/26/health\\-reform\\-revolutionary\\-russia/ \\|access\\-date\\=26 May 2017 \\|archive\\-date\\=30 August 2017 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170830101010/https://www.sochealth.co.uk/2017/05/26/health\\-reform\\-revolutionary\\-russia/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"The city has 13 national universities and numerous professional, technical and private higher education institutions, offering its students a wide range of disciplines. These universities include [Kharkiv National University](/wiki/Kharkiv_National_University \"Kharkiv National University\") (12,000 students), [National Technical University \"KhPI\"](/wiki/Kharkiv_Polytechnical_Institute \"Kharkiv Polytechnical Institute\") (20,000 students), [Kharkiv National University of Radioelectronics](/wiki/Kharkiv_National_University_of_Radioelectronics \"Kharkiv National University of Radioelectronics\") (12,000 students), [Yaroslav Mudryi National Law University](/wiki/Yaroslav_Mudryi_National_Law_University \"Yaroslav Mudryi National Law University\"), [Kharkiv National Aerospace University \"KhAI\"](/wiki/Kharkiv_National_Aerospace_University_%22KhAI%22 \"Kharkiv National Aerospace University \"), [Kharkiv National University of Economics](/wiki/Kharkiv_National_University_of_Economics \"Kharkiv National University of Economics\"), [Kharkiv National University of Pharmacy](/wiki/Ukrainian_Academy_of_Pharmacy \"Ukrainian Academy of Pharmacy\"), and [Kharkiv National Medical University](/wiki/Kharkiv_National_Medical_University \"Kharkiv National Medical University\").",
"More than 17,000 faculty and research staff are employed in the institutions of higher education in Kharkiv.",
"### Scientific research",
"The city has a high concentration of research institutions, which are independent or loosely connected with the universities. Among them are three national science centres: [Kharkiv Institute of Physics and Technology](/wiki/Kharkiv_Institute_of_Physics_and_Technology \"Kharkiv Institute of Physics and Technology\"), Institute of Meteorology, Institute for Experimental and Clinical Veterinary Medicine and 20 national research institutions of the [National Academy of Science of Ukraine](/wiki/National_Academy_of_Science_of_Ukraine \"National Academy of Science of Ukraine\"), such as the [B Verkin Institute for Low Temperature Physics and Engineering](/wiki/B_Verkin_Institute_for_Low_Temperature_Physics_and_Engineering \"B Verkin Institute for Low Temperature Physics and Engineering\"), [Institute for Problems of Cryobiology and Cryomedicine](/wiki/Institute_for_Problems_of_Cryobiology_and_Cryomedicine \"Institute for Problems of Cryobiology and Cryomedicine\"), State Scientific Institution \"Institute for Single Crystals\", Usikov Institute of Radiophysics and Electronics (IRE), Institute of Radio Astronomy (IRA), and others. A total number of 26,000 scientists are working in research and development.",
"A number of world\\-renowned scientific schools appeared in Kharkiv, such as the [theoretical physics school](/wiki/Kharkiv_Theoretical_Physics_School \"Kharkiv Theoretical Physics School\") and the [mathematical school](/wiki/Kharkiv_Mathematical_School \"Kharkiv Mathematical School\").",
"There is the Kharkiv Scientists House in the city, which was built by A. N. Beketov, architect in Kharkiv in 1900\\. All the scientists like to meet and discuss various scientific topics at the Kharkiv Scientists House in Kharkiv.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.khdu.org/house.php\\|publisher\\=khdu.org\\|title\\=house\\|access\\-date\\=18 June 2017\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160727204436/http://www.khdu.org/house.php\\|archive\\-date\\=27 July 2016}}",
"### Public libraries",
"[thumb\\|Students in the library of the National University of Pharmacy in Kharkiv](/wiki/File:%D0%A7%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B9_%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BB_%D0%9D%D0%B0%D1%83%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B9_%D0%B1%D0%B8%D0%B1%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D0%9D%D0%A4%D0%B0%D0%A3.jpg \"Читальный зал Научной библиотеки НФаУ.jpg\") \nIn addition to the libraries affiliated with the various universities and research institutions, the Kharkiv State Scientific V. Korolenko\\-library is a major research library.",
"### Secondary schools",
"Kharkiv has 212 (secondary education) schools, including 10 [lyceums](/wiki/Lyceum \"Lyceum\") and 20 [gymnasiums](/wiki/Gymnasium_%28school%29 \"Gymnasium (school)\").{{citation needed\\|date\\=October 2016}} In May 2024 the first of a scatter of underground schools in Kharkiv was opened in [Industrialnyi District](/wiki/Industrialnyi_District%2C_Kharkiv \"Industrialnyi District, Kharkiv\"), so children could continue their education amidst the [missile strikes in Kharkiv](/wiki/Kharkiv_strikes_%282022%E2%80%93present%29 \"Kharkiv strikes (2022–present)\") by the [Russian Armed Forces](/wiki/Russian_Armed_Forces \"Russian Armed Forces\") during the [Russian invasion of Ukraine](/wiki/Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine \"Russian invasion of Ukraine\").{{cite news \\|title\\=Trial lessons held in underground school in Kharkiv – photo\\|url\\=https://www.pravda.com.ua/eng/news/2024/05/12/7455435/\\|access\\-date\\=13 May 2024\\|work\\=\\[\\[Ukrainska Pravda]] \\|date\\=12 May 2024\\|language\\=English}}",
"### Education centers",
"There is the educational \"Landau Center\", which is named after L.D. Landau, Nobel laureate in Kharkiv.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://landaucentre.org/about/\\|publisher\\=landaucentre.org\\|title\\=ПРО \"ЛАНДАУЦЕНТР\" {{pipe}}\\|access\\-date\\=18 June 2017\\|archive\\-date\\=18 July 2016\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160718192333/http://landaucentre.org/about/\\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
""
] |
Culture
-------
Kharkiv is one of the main cultural centres in Ukraine. It is home to 20 museums, over 10 theatres {{citation needed\|date\=February 2020}} and a number of art galleries. Large music and cinema festivals are hosted in Kharkiv almost every year.
### Theatres
[thumb\|The [Kharkiv Ukrainian Drama Theatre](/wiki/Kharkiv_Ukrainian_Drama_Theatre "Kharkiv Ukrainian Drama Theatre")](/wiki/File:%D0%94%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%80.jpg "Драматичний театр.jpg")
The Kharkiv National Academic Opera and Ballet Theatre named after N. V. Lysenko is the biggest theatre in Kharkiv.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.hatob.com.ua/ukr/\|publisher\=hatob.com.ua\|script\-title\=uk:Головна – ХАТОБ, ХНАТОБ\|access\-date\=18 June 2017\|archive\-date\=16 July 2016\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160716084951/http://hatob.com.ua/ukr/\|url\-status\=live}}{{cite web\|url\=http://www.hatob.com.ua/eng\|publisher\=hatob.com.ua\|title\=Home\|access\-date\=18 June 2017\|archive\-date\=19 May 2017\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170519044728/http://hatob.com.ua/eng\|url\-status\=live}}
In 2017 the [Kharkiv Ukrainian Drama Theatre](/wiki/Kharkiv_Ukrainian_Drama_Theatre "Kharkiv Ukrainian Drama Theatre") named after T. G. Shevchenko was especially popular among theater audiences more prone to speak Ukrainian in daily life.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.theatre\-shevchenko.com.ua/\|publisher\=theatre\-shevchenko.com.ua\|title\=Харківський Державний Академічний Драматичний Театр ім. Т.Г.Шевченка\|access\-date\=18 June 2017\|archive\-date\=15 June 2017\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170615113628/http://www.theatre\-shevchenko.com.ua/\|url\-status\=live}}
The Kharkiv Academic Drama Theatre was recently renovated, and it is quite popular among locals.{{cite web\|url\=http://rusdrama.kh.ua/\|publisher\=rusdrama.kh.ua\|title\=rusdrama.kh.ua/\|access\-date\=18 June 2017\|archive\-date\=27 June 2016\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160627181840/http://rusdrama.kh.ua/\|url\-status\=live}} Until October 2023 this theater was named after Russian poet [Alexander Pushkin](/wiki/Alexander_Pushkin "Alexander Pushkin"); the [derussification of Ukraine campaign](/wiki/Derussification_in_Ukraine "Derussification in Ukraine") of that area led to its renaming that also meant the removal of (the word) "[Russian](/wiki/List_of_Russian-language_playwrights "List of Russian-language playwrights")" from the name.{{cite web\|title\=Kharkiv got rid of the Pushkin Theater\|url\=https://www.sq.com.ua/ukr/novini/24\.12\.2022/xarkiv\-pozbavivsya\-teatru\-puskina\|date\=23 October 2023\|access\-date\=26 January 2024\|language\=Ukrainian\|website\=Status Quo}}
The Kharkiv Theatre of the Young Spectator (now the Theatre for Children and Youth) is one of the oldest theatres for children.{{cite web\|url\=http://tyz.kharkov.ua/\|title\=Харьковский театр для детей и юношества\|trans\-title\=Theatre for Children and Youth\|access\-date\=6 August 2018\|archive\-date\=21 November 2015\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151121154431/http://tyz.kharkov.ua/\|url\-status\=live}}
The Kharkiv Puppet Theatre (The Kharkiv State Academic Puppet Theatre named after VA Afanasyev) is the first puppet theatre in the territory of Kharkiv. It was created in 1935\.
The Kharkiv Academic Theatre of Musical Comedy is a theatre founded on 1 November 1929 in Kharkiv.
### Literature
[thumb\|The Kharkiv Academic Drama Theatre](/wiki/File:Pushkin_Theater_in_Khark%D1%96v_%2808%29.jpg "Pushkin Theater in Kharkіv (08).jpg")
In the 1930s Kharkiv was referred to as a Literary [Klondike](/wiki/Klondike_Gold_Rush "Klondike Gold Rush").{{citation needed\|date\=May 2012}} It was the centre for the work of literary figures such as: [Les Kurbas](/wiki/Les_Kurbas "Les Kurbas"), [Mykola Kulish](/wiki/Mykola_Kulish "Mykola Kulish"), [Mykola Khvylovy](/wiki/Mykola_Khvylovy "Mykola Khvylovy"), [Mykola Zerov](/wiki/Mykola_Zerov "Mykola Zerov"), [Valerian Pidmohylny](/wiki/Valerian_Pidmohylny "Valerian Pidmohylny"), Pavlo Filipovych, Marko Voronny, Oleksa Slisarenko. Over 100 of these writers were repressed during the Stalinist purges of the 1930s. This tragic event in Ukrainian history is called the "Executed Renaissance" (Rozstrilene vidrodzhennia). Today, a literary museum located on Frunze Street marks their work and achievements.
Today, Kharkiv is often referred to as the "capital city" of Ukrainian science fiction and fantasy.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.uefa.com/news/newsid\=934426\.html\|title\=Kharkiv city guide\|date\=25 January 2010\|work\=uefa.com\|access\-date\=22 March 2015\|archive\-date\=2 October 2023\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20231002071042/https://www.uefa.com/uefaeuro/history/news/0254\-0d7c95ba4d13\-654f63b539a3\-1000\-\-kharkiv\-city\-guide/\|url\-status\=live}}{{cite web\|url\=http://www.ukrainetravel.co/kharkiv\|title\=Ukraine Travel Guide: Kharkiv, Ukraine\|work\=ukrainetravel.co\|access\-date\=22 March 2015\|archive\-date\=2 April 2015\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402100753/http://www.ukrainetravel.co/kharkiv\|url\-status\=live}} It is home to a number of popular writers, such as [H. L. Oldie](/wiki/H._L._Oldie "H. L. Oldie"), [Alexander Zorich](/wiki/Alexander_Zorich "Alexander Zorich"), [Andrey Dashkov](/wiki/Andrey_Dashkov "Andrey Dashkov"), [Yuri Nikitin](/wiki/Yuri_Nikitin_%28author%29 "Yuri Nikitin (author)") and [Andrey Valentinov](/wiki/Andrey_Valentinov "Andrey Valentinov"); most of them [write in Russian](/wiki/Russian_language_in_Ukraine "Russian language in Ukraine") and are popular in both Russia and Ukraine. The annual [science fiction convention](/wiki/Science_fiction_convention "Science fiction convention") "Star Bridge" (Звёздный мост) has been held in Kharkiv since 1999\.{{cite web\|url\=https://old.karazin.ua/en/general/univer\_today/news?news\_id\=63\|title\=Kharkiv International Festival of Science Fiction "Star Bridge – 2011"\|work\=V. N. Karazin Kharkiv National University\|date\=September 2011\|access\-date\=2023\-07\-01\|archive\-date\=1 July 2023\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230701075808/https://old.karazin.ua/en/general/univer\_today/news?news\_id\=63\|url\-status\=live}}
### Music
[thumb\|Academic choir of Kharkiv Philharmonic named after V. Palkin and chief leader of choir, prize winner of the all\-Ukrainian choir masters contest, Andriy Syrotenko.](/wiki/Image:Academic_Chorus_of_Kharkov_Philharmonic.jpg "Academic Chorus of Kharkov Philharmonic.jpg")
There is the [Kharkiv Philharmonic Society](/wiki/Kharkiv_Philharmonic_Society "Kharkiv Philharmonic Society") in the city. The leading group active in the Philharmonic is the Academic Symphony Orchestra. It has 100 musicians of a high professional level, many of whom are prize\-winners in international and national competitions.
There is the Organ Music Hall in the city.{{cite web\|url\=http://filarmonia.kh.ua/filarmonia/dom\-organnoj\-i\-kamernoj\-muzyki/\|publisher\=filarmonia.kh.ua\|title\=Органный зал, Харьков – концерты, камерная и органная музыка {{pipe}} Харьковская филармония\|date\=28 October 2015\|access\-date\=18 June 2017\|archive\-date\=6 July 2017\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170706155923/http://filarmonia.kh.ua/filarmonia/dom\-organnoj\-i\-kamernoj\-muzyki/\|url\-status\=live}} The Organ Music Hall is situated at the [Assumption Cathedral](/wiki/Dormition_Cathedral%2C_Kharkiv "Dormition Cathedral, Kharkiv") presently. The [Rieger–Kloss](/wiki/Rieger%E2%80%93Kloss "Rieger–Kloss") organ was installed in the building of the Organ Music Hall back in 1986\. The new Organ Music Hall will be opened at the extensively renovated building of [Kharkiv Philharmonic Society](/wiki/Kharkiv_Philharmonic_Society "Kharkiv Philharmonic Society") in Kharkiv in November 2016\.
The [Kharkiv Conservatory](/wiki/Kharkiv_Conservatory "Kharkiv Conservatory") is in the city.
The [Kharkiv National University of Arts named after I.P. Kotlyarevsky](/wiki/Kharkiv_National_Kotlyarevsky_University_of_Arts "Kharkiv National Kotlyarevsky University of Arts") is situated in the city.{{cite web\|url\=http://num.kharkiv.ua/en/\|publisher\=num.kharkiv.ua\|title\=Kharkiv I.P. Kotlyarevsky National University of Arts\|access\-date\=2023\-07\-01\|archive\-date\=1 July 2023\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230701190717/https://num.kharkiv.ua/en/\|url\-status\=live}}
Kharkiv sponsors the prestigious [Hnat Khotkevych](/wiki/Hnat_Khotkevych "Hnat Khotkevych") International Music Competition of Performers of Ukrainian Folk Instruments, which takes place every three years. Since 1997 four tri\-annual competitions have taken place. The 2010 competition was cancelled by the Ukrainian Ministry of Culture two days before its opening.{{cite web\|url\=http://comments.ua/life/183366\-Minkulturi\-zapretil\-Harkovu.html\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131228232703/http://comments.ua/life/183366\-Minkulturi\-zapretil\-Harkovu.html\|archive\-date\=28 December 2013 \|title\=Минкультуры запретил Харькову проводить конкурс им. Гната Хоткевича – Комментарии \|publisher\=Proua.com \|date\=16 April 2010 \|access\-date\=15 July 2012}}
The music festival: "Kharkiv – City of Kind Hopes" is conducted in Kharkiv.{{cite web\|url\=http://filarmonia.kh.ua/festival\-harkiv\-misto\-dobrih\-nadij\-informatsiya\-dlya\-uchastnikov/\|publisher\=filarmonia.kh.ua\|title\=Фестиваль "Харків – місто добрих надій". Информация для участников {{pipe}} Харьковская филармония\|date\=28 October 2015\|access\-date\=18 June 2017\|archive\-date\=27 May 2017\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170527073822/http://filarmonia.kh.ua/festival\-harkiv\-misto\-dobrih\-nadij\-informatsiya\-dlya\-uchastnikov/\|url\-status\=live}}
From Kharkiv comes also [black metal](/wiki/Black_metal "Black metal") band [Drudkh](/wiki/Drudkh "Drudkh").
### Films
From 1907 to 2008, at least 86 feature films were shot in the city's territory and its region. The most famous is *[Fragment of an Empire](/wiki/Fragment_of_an_Empire "Fragment of an Empire")* (1929\). Arriving in Leningrad, the main character, in addition to the usual pre\-revolutionary buildings, sees the [Derzhprom](/wiki/Derzhprom "Derzhprom") – a symbol of a new era.
### Film festivals
The Kharkiv Lilacs international film festival is very popular among movie stars, makers and producers in Ukraine, Eastern Europe, Western Europe and North America.{{cite web\|url\=http://sirenfest.net.ua/en/\|publisher\=sirenfest.net.ua\|title\=Харьковская сирень – Главная\|access\-date\=18 June 2017\|archive\-date\=27 September 2014\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140927013951/http://sirenfest.net.ua/en/\|url\-status\=dead}}{{cite web\|url\=http://times.kh.ua/news/fresh/kharkovskaya\_siren\_2016\_novye\_ladoni\_znamenitykh\_akterov\_na\_allee\_zvezd\_foto/158954/\|publisher\=times.kh.ua\|title\=times.kh.ua/news/fresh/kharkovskaya\_siren\_2016\_novye\_ladoni\_znamenitykh\_akterov\_na\_allee\_zvezd\_foto/158954/\|access\-date\=18 June 2017\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161024232504/http://times.kh.ua/news/fresh/kharkovskaya\_siren\_2016\_novye\_ladoni\_znamenitykh\_akterov\_na\_allee\_zvezd\_foto/158954/\|archive\-date\=24 October 2016\|url\-status\=dead}}
The annual festival is usually conducted in May.
There is a special alley with metal hand prints by popular movies actors at Shevchenko park in Kharkiv.
{{Cite web \|script\-title\=ru:Возвращение «Харьковской сирени»: новые ладони знаменитых актеров на Аллее звезд (ФОТО) \|trans\-title\=Return of "Kharkiv Lilac": new palms of famous actors on the Avenue of Stars (PHOTO) \|url\=https://dozor.com.ua/news/tabloid/1205509\.html \|access\-date\=2023\-06\-29 \|website\=Дозор.UA \|archive\-date\=29 June 2023 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230629091728/https://dozor.com.ua/news/tabloid/1205509\.html \|url\-status\=live }}
### Visual arts
Kharkiv has been a home for many famous painters, including [Ilya Repin](/wiki/Ilya_Repin "Ilya Repin"), [Zinaida Serebryakova](/wiki/Zinaida_Serebryakova "Zinaida Serebryakova"), [Henryk Siemiradzki](/wiki/Henryk_Siemiradzki "Henryk Siemiradzki"), and [Vasyl Yermilov](/wiki/Vasyl_Yermilov "Vasyl Yermilov"). There are many modern arts galleries in the city: the Yermilov Centre, Lilacs Gallery, the Kharkiv Art Museum, the Kharkiv Municipal Gallery, the AC Gallery, Palladium Gallery, the Semiradsky Gallery, AVEK Gallery, and Arts of Slobozhanshyna Gallery among others.
### Museums
[thumb\|M. F. Sumtsov Kharkiv Historical Museum](/wiki/File:%D0%92%D0%B8%D0%B4_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%B1%D1%83%D0%B4%D1%96%D0%B2%D0%BB%D1%8E_%D0%A5%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BA%D1%96%D0%B2%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE_%D1%96%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE_%D0%BC%D1%83%D0%B7%D0%B5%D1%8E_%D0%B7_%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%83_%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%82%D1%83%D1%86%D1%96%D1%97.jpg "Вид на будівлю Харківського історичного музею з майдану Конституції.jpg")
[thumb\|[Kharkiv Art Museum](/wiki/Kharkiv_Art_Museum "Kharkiv Art Museum")](/wiki/File:Xud-muzej.jpg "Xud-muzej.jpg")
There are around 147 museums in the Kharkiv's region.{{cite web \|title\=Музеї Харківщини \|url\=http://museums.kh.ua/ \|access\-date\=18 June 2017 \|publisher\=museums.kh.ua \|archive\-date\=8 September 2016 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160908163751/http://museums.kh.ua/ \|url\-status\=dead }} Museums in the city include:
* The [M. F. Sumtsov Kharkiv Historical Museum](/wiki/M._F._Sumtsov_Kharkiv_Historical_Museum "M. F. Sumtsov Kharkiv Historical Museum"){{cite web\|url\=http://museum.kh.ua/eng.html\|publisher\=museum.kh.ua\|title\=Information in English – Харківський історичний музей імені М.Ф.Сумцова\|access\-date\=18 June 2017\|archive\-date\=1 August 2016\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160801125455/http://museum.kh.ua/eng.html\|url\-status\=dead}}
* The [Kharkiv Art Museum](/wiki/Kharkiv_Art_Museum "Kharkiv Art Museum"){{cite web\|url\=https://artmuseum.kh.ua/en/\|title\=Kharkiv Art Museum\|website\=artmuseum.kh.ua\|access\-date\=12 March 2023\|archive\-date\=11 March 2023\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230311075637/https://artmuseum.kh.ua/en/\|url\-status\=live}}
* The Natural History Museum at V. N. Karazin Kharkiv National University was founded in Kharkiv on 2 April 1807\. The museum is visited by 40000 visitors every year.{{cite web\|url\=https://karazin.ua/en/kultura/muzei\-prirodi/\|publisher\=karazin.ua\|title\=Museum of Nature {{!}} Karazin University\|access\-date\=18 June 2017\|archive\-date\=24 March 2022\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220324052205/https://karazin.ua/en/kultura/muzei\-prirodi/\|url\-status\=live}}{{Cite web \|script\-title\=uk:Державний Музей природи Харківського національного університету імені В.Н. Каразіна \|url\=https://zvo.knu.ua/ua/museums/category/7/79\-derzhavniy\-muzey\-prirodi\-harkivskogo\-nacionalnogo\-universitetu\-imeni\-vn\-karazina \|access\-date\=2023\-07\-01 \|website\=zvo.knu.ua \|archive\-date\=1 July 2023 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230701072232/https://zvo.knu.ua/ua/museums/category/7/79\-derzhavniy\-muzey\-prirodi\-harkivskogo\-nacionalnogo\-universitetu\-imeni\-vn\-karazina \|url\-status\=live }}
* The V. N. Karazin Kharkiv National University History Museum was established in Kharkiv in 1972\.{{cite web\|url\=http://www\-museum.univer.kharkov.ua/\|publisher\=History Museum of Kharkiv National University\|script\-title\=uk:Музей історії Харківського національного університету – Головна\|trans\-title\=History Museum of Kharkiv National University – Main\|access\-date\=18 June 2017\|archive\-date\=28 November 2020\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201128185327/http://www\-museum.univer.kharkov.ua/\|url\-status\=live}}{{Cite web \|title\=University History Museum \|url\=https://karazin.ua/en/kultura/muzei\-istoriyi\-universitetu/ \|access\-date\=2023\-06\-29 \|website\=karazin.ua \|archive\-date\=29 June 2023 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230629091728/https://karazin.ua/en/kultura/muzei\-istoriyi\-universitetu/ \|url\-status\=live }}{{Cite web \|script\-title\=uk:Музей історії Харківського національного університету імені В.Н. Каразіна \|url\=https://zvo.knu.ua/ua/museums/category/7/78\-muzey\-istorii\-harkivskogo\-nacionalnogo\-universitetu\-imeni\-vn\-karazina \|access\-date\=2023\-06\-29 \|website\=zvo.knu.ua \|archive\-date\=29 June 2023 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230629091726/https://zvo.knu.ua/ua/museums/category/7/78\-muzey\-istorii\-harkivskogo\-nacionalnogo\-universitetu\-imeni\-vn\-karazina \|url\-status\=live }}
* The V. N. Karazin Kharkiv National University Archeology Museum was founded in Kharkiv on 20 March 1998\.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.maesu.org/\|publisher\=maesu.org\|title\=www.maesu.org/\|access\-date\=18 June 2017\|archive\-date\=21 June 2012\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120621061534/http://maesu.org/\|url\-status\=live}}{{Cite web \|script\-title\=uk:Музей археології та етнографії Слобідської України \|trans\-title\=Museum of Archeology and Ethnography of Slobid Ukraine \|url\=https://zvo.knu.ua/ua/museums/category/7/77\-muzey\-arheologii\-ta\-etnografii\-slobidskoi\-ukraini \|access\-date\=2023\-07\-01 \|website\=zvo.knu.ua \|archive\-date\=1 July 2023 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230701072229/https://zvo.knu.ua/ua/museums/category/7/77\-muzey\-arheologii\-ta\-etnografii\-slobidskoi\-ukraini \|url\-status\=live }}
* The National Technical University "Kharkiv Polytechnical Institute" Museum was created in Kharkiv on 29 December 1972\.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.kpi.kharkov.ua/ru/home/muzeum/\|publisher\=kpi.kharkov.ua\|title\=www.kpi.kharkov.ua/ru/home/muzeum/\|access\-date\=18 June 2017\|archive\-date\=16 April 2016\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160416134911/http://www.kpi.kharkov.ua/ru/home/muzeum/\|url\-status\=dead}}{{cite web\|url\=http://web.kpi.kharkov.ua/museum/\|publisher\=web.kpi.kharkov.ua\|title\=Музей НТУ "ХПI"\|access\-date\=18 June 2017\|archive\-date\=21 June 2017\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170621095623/http://web.kpi.kharkov.ua/museum/\|url\-status\=live}}{{cite web\|url\=http://web.kpi.kharkov.ua/museum/arhiv\-sobytij/\|publisher\=web.kpi.kharkov.ua\|title\=Архів подій {{pipe}} Музей НТУ "ХПI"\|access\-date\=18 June 2017\|archive\-date\=26 April 2017\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170426022132/http://web.kpi.kharkov.ua/museum/arhiv\-sobytij/\|url\-status\=live}}{{cite web\|url\=http://web.kpi.kharkov.ua/museum/kontakti/\|publisher\=web.kpi.kharkov.ua\|title\=Фотогалерея {{pipe}} Музей НТУ "ХПI"\|access\-date\=18 June 2017\|archive\-date\=29 May 2017\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170529180600/http://web.kpi.kharkov.ua/museum/kontakti/\|url\-status\=live}}{{Cite web \|script\-title\=uk:Музей історії Національного технічного університету «Харківський політехнічний інститут» \|trans\-title\=Museum of History of the National Technical University "Kharkiv Polytechnic Institute" \|url\=https://zvo.knu.ua/ua/museums/category/7/115\-muzey\-istorii\-nacionalnogo\-tehnichnogo\-universitetu\-harkivskiy\-politehnichniy\-institut \|access\-date\=2023\-07\-01 \|website\=zvo.knu.ua \|archive\-date\=1 July 2023 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230701072228/https://zvo.knu.ua/ua/museums/category/7/115\-muzey\-istorii\-nacionalnogo\-tehnichnogo\-universitetu\-harkivskiy\-politehnichniy\-institut \|url\-status\=live }}
* The National Aerospace University "Kharkiv Aviation Institute" Museum was founded on 29 May 1992\.{{Cite web \|script\-title\=uk:Музей Національного аерокосмічного університету «ХАІ» \|trans\-title\=Museum of the National Aerospace University "KHAI" \|url\=https://zvo.knu.ua/ua/museums/category/7/2\-muzey\-nacionalnogo\-aerokosmichnogo\-universitetu\-hai \|access\-date\=2023\-07\-01 \|website\=zvo.knu.ua \|archive\-date\=1 July 2023 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230701072230/https://zvo.knu.ua/ua/museums/category/7/2\-muzey\-nacionalnogo\-aerokosmichnogo\-universitetu\-hai \|url\-status\=live }}
* The "National University of Pharmacy" Museum was founded in Kharkiv on 15 September 2010\.{{cite web\|url\=https://nuph.edu.ua/muzejj\-istoriji\-farmaciji\-ukrajini/\|publisher\=nuph.edu.ua\|title\=Музей истории Национального фармацевтического университета – Національний фармацевтичний університет (НФаУ)\|access\-date\=18 June 2017\|archive\-date\=28 April 2017\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170428051243/http://nuph.edu.ua/ru/muzejj\-istorii\-farmacii\-ukrainy/\|url\-status\=dead}}{{cite web\|url\=https://nuph.edu.ua/ekspoziciya\-muzeyu\-istorii\-nfau/\|publisher\=nuph.edu.ua\|title\=Экспозиционные залы музея – Національний фармацевтичний університет (НФаУ)\|access\-date\=18 June 2017\|archive\-date\=19 October 2017\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171019085802/http://nuph.edu.ua/ru/e\-kspozitsionny\-e\-zaly\-muzeya/\|url\-status\=live}}{{Cite web \|script\-title\=uk:Музей історії фармації України \|trans\-title\=Museum of the History of Pharmacy of Ukraine \|url\=https://zvo.knu.ua/ua/museums/category/7/51\-muzey\-istorii\-farmacii\-ukraini \|access\-date\=2023\-07\-01 \|website\=zvo.knu.ua \|archive\-date\=1 July 2023 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230701072231/https://zvo.knu.ua/ua/museums/category/7/51\-muzey\-istorii\-farmacii\-ukraini \|url\-status\=live }}
* The Kharkiv Maritime Museum – a museum dedicated to the history of shipbuilding and navigation.{{cite web\|url\=http://morskojmuzej.kh.ua/\|title\=The Kharkiv Maritime Museum\|access\-date\=13 November 2017\|archive\-date\=18 June 2012\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120618135607/http://morskojmuzej.kh.ua/\|url\-status\=dead}}
* The Kharkiv Puppet Museum is the oldest museum of dolls in Ukraine.{{Citation needed\|date\=March 2022}}
* Memorial museum\-apartment of the family Grizodubov.{{Citation needed\|date\=March 2022}}
* Club\-Museum of Claudia Shulzhenko.{{cite web\|url\=http://artcross.com.ua/museum\_shuljenko\|title\=The KI City Museum. Shulzhenko\|access\-date\=1 December 2017\|archive\-date\=4 October 2013\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131004230206/http://artcross.com.ua/museum\_shuljenko\|url\-status\=dead}}
* The Museum of "First Aid".{{Citation needed\|date\=March 2022}}
* The Museum of Urban Transport.{{Citation needed\|date\=March 2022}}
* The [Museum of Sexual Cultures](/wiki/Museum_of_Sexual_Cultures "Museum of Sexual Cultures").{{cite web \|last\=moygorod.ua \|title\=Музей секса и сексуальных культур мира \|url\=https://kharkov.moygorod.ua/ru/museum/muzej\-seksualnykh\-kultur\-mira/ \|access\-date\=9 March 2022 \|website\=Музей секса и сексуальных культур мира \|language\=ru \|archive\-date\=9 April 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220409233145/https://kharkov.moygorod.ua/ru/museum/muzej\-seksualnykh\-kultur\-mira/ \|url\-status\=live }}
### Landmarks
[thumb\|[Derzhprom](/wiki/Derzhprom "Derzhprom")](/wiki/File:%D0%91%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BA_%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B6%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D1%96%2C_%D0%A5%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BA%D1%96%D0%B2_DJI_0057.jpg "Будинок держпромисловості, Харків DJI 0057.jpg")
The city is famous for its churches as well as [Art Nouveau](/wiki/Art_Nouveau "Art Nouveau") and [constructivist](/wiki/Constructivist_architecture "Constructivist architecture") architecture:
* [Dormition Cathedral](/wiki/Assumption_Cathedral%2C_Kharkiv "Assumption Cathedral, Kharkiv"), built in 17th century in Baroque style and rebuilt in 18th and 19th centuries
* [Pokrovskyi Monastery](/wiki/Pokrovskyi_Monastery%2C_Kharkiv "Pokrovskyi Monastery, Kharkiv"), built in 18th century in Baroque style
* [Annunciation Cathedral](/wiki/Annunciation_Cathedral%2C_Kharkiv "Annunciation Cathedral, Kharkiv"), built in 1887–1901 in Neo\-Byzantine style
* [Kharkiv Ukrainian Drama Theatre](/wiki/Kharkiv_Ukrainian_Drama_Theatre "Kharkiv Ukrainian Drama Theatre"), built in 1841
* [Kharkiv Puppet Theatre](/wiki/Kharkiv_Puppet_Theatre "Kharkiv Puppet Theatre"), former [Volga\-Kama Commercial Bank](/wiki/Volga-Kama_Commercial_Bank "Volga-Kama Commercial Bank"), built in 1907 in [Art Nouveau](/wiki/Art_Nouveau "Art Nouveau") style
* [Kharkiv State Academy of Design and Arts](/wiki/Kharkiv_State_Academy_of_Design_and_Arts "Kharkiv State Academy of Design and Arts"), built in 1912 in [Art Nouveau](/wiki/Art_Nouveau "Art Nouveau") style
* [Choral Synagogue](/wiki/Kharkiv_Choral_Synagogue "Kharkiv Choral Synagogue"), built in 1909–1913
* Central Market Hall, built 1912–1914
* [Derzhprom](/wiki/Derzhprom "Derzhprom") building, built in 1925–1928 in [constructivist](/wiki/Constructivist_architecture "Constructivist architecture") style
* [Freedom Square](/wiki/Freedom_Square%2C_Kharkiv "Freedom Square, Kharkiv")
* Railway Pochtamt (post office), built 1927–29 in [constructivist](/wiki/Constructivist_architecture "Constructivist architecture") style
* Palace of Culture of Railway Workers, built 1928–31 in [constructivist](/wiki/Constructivist_architecture "Constructivist architecture") style
* [Kharkiv railway station](/wiki/Kharkiv_railway_station "Kharkiv railway station"), rebuilt in socialist\-realist style in 1952
* [Kharkiv Opera](/wiki/Kharkiv_State_Academic_Opera_and_Ballet_Theatre_named_after_Mykola_Lysenko "Kharkiv State Academic Opera and Ballet Theatre named after Mykola Lysenko"), built in 1970–1990 in [brutalist](/wiki/Brutalist_architecture "Brutalist architecture") style
Other attractions include: [Taras Shevchenko](/wiki/Taras_Shevchenko "Taras Shevchenko") Monument, Mirror Stream, Historical Museum, T. Shevchenko Gardens, Zoo, Children's narrow\-gauge railroad, World War I Tank Mk V, Memorial Complex, and many more.
After the [2014 Russian annexation of Crimea](/wiki/2014_Russian_annexation_of_Crimea "2014 Russian annexation of Crimea") the monument to [Petro Konashevych\-Sahaidachny](/wiki/Petro_Konashevych-Sahaidachny "Petro Konashevych-Sahaidachny") in [Sevastopol](/wiki/Sevastopol "Sevastopol") was removed and handed over to Kharkiv.{{Cite web \|date\=24 June 2023 \|script\-title\=uk:В Харькове появится памятник Сагайдачному \|trans\-title\=A monument to Sahaidachny in Kharkiv \|url\=https://www.sq.com.ua/rus/news/obschestvo/23\.08\.2014/v\_harkove\_poyavitsya\_pamyatnik\_sagajdachnomu \|access\-date\=2023\-06\-29 \|website\=Status Quo \|language\=ru\-UA \|archive\-date\=2 June 2023 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230602024948/https://www.sq.com.ua/rus/news/obschestvo/23\.08\.2014/v\_harkove\_poyavitsya\_pamyatnik\_sagajdachnomu \|url\-status\=live }}
File:Uspensky Cathedral03\.jpg\|\[\[Dormition Cathedral, Kharkiv\|Dormition Cathedral]]
File:Intercession Cathedral, Kharkiv 2010 \- 03\.jpg\|\[\[Pokrovskyi Monastery, Kharkiv\|Pokrovskyi Monastery]]
File:Annunciation Cathedral in Kharkiv \- 2017\.jpg\|\[\[Annunciation Cathedral, Kharkiv\|Annunciation Cathedral]]
File:Shevchenko Drama Theatre in Kharkiv 2020 \- 01\.jpg\|\[\[Kharkiv Ukrainian Drama Theatre]]
File:Constitution Square 24\.jpg\|Kharkiv Puppet Theatre (former Volga\-Kama Bank)
File:Художнє училище 1913р., вул. Червонопрапорна, 8, м.Харків.JPG\|\[\[Kharkiv State Academy of Design and Arts]]
File:Kharkiv Central Market (01\).jpg\|Kharkiv Central Market Hall
File:Kharkov Synagogue2\.JPG\|\[\[Kharkiv Choral Synagogue]]
File:Здание почтамта. Харьков.jpg\|Railway Pochtamt (post office)
File:Палац робiтника, вул.Котлова, 83, Харків.JPG\|Palace of Culture of Railway Workers
File:CentralRailwayStKharkov2\.JPG\|\[\[Kharkiv railway station]]
### Parks
[thumb\|[Central Park](/wiki/Central_Park_%28Kharkiv%29 "Central Park (Kharkiv)") is one of the main family attractions in Kharkiv.](/wiki/File:Altana_-_Kharkiv_Gorky_Park.jpg "Altana - Kharkiv Gorky Park.jpg")
[thumb\|Fountains in [Taras Shevchenko](/wiki/Taras_Shevchenko "Taras Shevchenko")'s garden](/wiki/File:Shevchenko_Garden%2C_Kharkiv_2020_-07.jpg "Shevchenko Garden, Kharkiv 2020 -07.jpg")
Kharkiv contains numerous parks and gardens such as the Central Park, Shevchenko park, Hydro park, Strelka park, Sarzhyn Yar and Feldman ecopark. The Central Park is a common place for recreation activities among visitors and local people.{{citation needed\|date\=March 2019}} The Shevchenko park is situated in close proximity to the V.N. Karazin National University. It is also a common place for recreation activities among the students, professors, locals and foreigners.
The Ecopark is situated at circle highway around Kharkiv. It attracts kids, parents, students, professors, locals and foreigners to undertake recreation activities. Sarzhyn Yar is a natural ravine three minutes walk from "Botanichniy Sad" station. It is an old girder that now – is a modern park zone more than 12 km in length. There is also a mineral water source with cupel and a sporting court.{{cite web\|title\=The Spring\|url\=http://www.kharkovinfo.com/the\-spring.html\|last\=FlexKit\|website\=www.kharkovinfo.com\|language\=en\|access\-date\=2 May 2020\|archive\-date\=10 May 2020\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200510125520/http://www.kharkovinfo.com/the\-spring.html\|url\-status\=live}}
|
[
"Culture\n-------",
"Kharkiv is one of the main cultural centres in Ukraine. It is home to 20 museums, over 10 theatres {{citation needed\\|date\\=February 2020}} and a number of art galleries. Large music and cinema festivals are hosted in Kharkiv almost every year.",
"### Theatres",
"[thumb\\|The [Kharkiv Ukrainian Drama Theatre](/wiki/Kharkiv_Ukrainian_Drama_Theatre \"Kharkiv Ukrainian Drama Theatre\")](/wiki/File:%D0%94%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%80.jpg \"Драматичний театр.jpg\")\nThe Kharkiv National Academic Opera and Ballet Theatre named after N. V. Lysenko is the biggest theatre in Kharkiv.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.hatob.com.ua/ukr/\\|publisher\\=hatob.com.ua\\|script\\-title\\=uk:Головна – ХАТОБ, ХНАТОБ\\|access\\-date\\=18 June 2017\\|archive\\-date\\=16 July 2016\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160716084951/http://hatob.com.ua/ukr/\\|url\\-status\\=live}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.hatob.com.ua/eng\\|publisher\\=hatob.com.ua\\|title\\=Home\\|access\\-date\\=18 June 2017\\|archive\\-date\\=19 May 2017\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170519044728/http://hatob.com.ua/eng\\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
"In 2017 the [Kharkiv Ukrainian Drama Theatre](/wiki/Kharkiv_Ukrainian_Drama_Theatre \"Kharkiv Ukrainian Drama Theatre\") named after T. G. Shevchenko was especially popular among theater audiences more prone to speak Ukrainian in daily life.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.theatre\\-shevchenko.com.ua/\\|publisher\\=theatre\\-shevchenko.com.ua\\|title\\=Харківський Державний Академічний Драматичний Театр ім. Т.Г.Шевченка\\|access\\-date\\=18 June 2017\\|archive\\-date\\=15 June 2017\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170615113628/http://www.theatre\\-shevchenko.com.ua/\\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
"The Kharkiv Academic Drama Theatre was recently renovated, and it is quite popular among locals.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://rusdrama.kh.ua/\\|publisher\\=rusdrama.kh.ua\\|title\\=rusdrama.kh.ua/\\|access\\-date\\=18 June 2017\\|archive\\-date\\=27 June 2016\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160627181840/http://rusdrama.kh.ua/\\|url\\-status\\=live}} Until October 2023 this theater was named after Russian poet [Alexander Pushkin](/wiki/Alexander_Pushkin \"Alexander Pushkin\"); the [derussification of Ukraine campaign](/wiki/Derussification_in_Ukraine \"Derussification in Ukraine\") of that area led to its renaming that also meant the removal of (the word) \"[Russian](/wiki/List_of_Russian-language_playwrights \"List of Russian-language playwrights\")\" from the name.{{cite web\\|title\\=Kharkiv got rid of the Pushkin Theater\\|url\\=https://www.sq.com.ua/ukr/novini/24\\.12\\.2022/xarkiv\\-pozbavivsya\\-teatru\\-puskina\\|date\\=23 October 2023\\|access\\-date\\=26 January 2024\\|language\\=Ukrainian\\|website\\=Status Quo}}",
"The Kharkiv Theatre of the Young Spectator (now the Theatre for Children and Youth) is one of the oldest theatres for children.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://tyz.kharkov.ua/\\|title\\=Харьковский театр для детей и юношества\\|trans\\-title\\=Theatre for Children and Youth\\|access\\-date\\=6 August 2018\\|archive\\-date\\=21 November 2015\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151121154431/http://tyz.kharkov.ua/\\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
"The Kharkiv Puppet Theatre (The Kharkiv State Academic Puppet Theatre named after VA Afanasyev) is the first puppet theatre in the territory of Kharkiv. It was created in 1935\\.",
"The Kharkiv Academic Theatre of Musical Comedy is a theatre founded on 1 November 1929 in Kharkiv.",
"### Literature",
"[thumb\\|The Kharkiv Academic Drama Theatre](/wiki/File:Pushkin_Theater_in_Khark%D1%96v_%2808%29.jpg \"Pushkin Theater in Kharkіv (08).jpg\")\nIn the 1930s Kharkiv was referred to as a Literary [Klondike](/wiki/Klondike_Gold_Rush \"Klondike Gold Rush\").{{citation needed\\|date\\=May 2012}} It was the centre for the work of literary figures such as: [Les Kurbas](/wiki/Les_Kurbas \"Les Kurbas\"), [Mykola Kulish](/wiki/Mykola_Kulish \"Mykola Kulish\"), [Mykola Khvylovy](/wiki/Mykola_Khvylovy \"Mykola Khvylovy\"), [Mykola Zerov](/wiki/Mykola_Zerov \"Mykola Zerov\"), [Valerian Pidmohylny](/wiki/Valerian_Pidmohylny \"Valerian Pidmohylny\"), Pavlo Filipovych, Marko Voronny, Oleksa Slisarenko. Over 100 of these writers were repressed during the Stalinist purges of the 1930s. This tragic event in Ukrainian history is called the \"Executed Renaissance\" (Rozstrilene vidrodzhennia). Today, a literary museum located on Frunze Street marks their work and achievements.",
"Today, Kharkiv is often referred to as the \"capital city\" of Ukrainian science fiction and fantasy.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.uefa.com/news/newsid\\=934426\\.html\\|title\\=Kharkiv city guide\\|date\\=25 January 2010\\|work\\=uefa.com\\|access\\-date\\=22 March 2015\\|archive\\-date\\=2 October 2023\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20231002071042/https://www.uefa.com/uefaeuro/history/news/0254\\-0d7c95ba4d13\\-654f63b539a3\\-1000\\-\\-kharkiv\\-city\\-guide/\\|url\\-status\\=live}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.ukrainetravel.co/kharkiv\\|title\\=Ukraine Travel Guide: Kharkiv, Ukraine\\|work\\=ukrainetravel.co\\|access\\-date\\=22 March 2015\\|archive\\-date\\=2 April 2015\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402100753/http://www.ukrainetravel.co/kharkiv\\|url\\-status\\=live}} It is home to a number of popular writers, such as [H. L. Oldie](/wiki/H._L._Oldie \"H. L. Oldie\"), [Alexander Zorich](/wiki/Alexander_Zorich \"Alexander Zorich\"), [Andrey Dashkov](/wiki/Andrey_Dashkov \"Andrey Dashkov\"), [Yuri Nikitin](/wiki/Yuri_Nikitin_%28author%29 \"Yuri Nikitin (author)\") and [Andrey Valentinov](/wiki/Andrey_Valentinov \"Andrey Valentinov\"); most of them [write in Russian](/wiki/Russian_language_in_Ukraine \"Russian language in Ukraine\") and are popular in both Russia and Ukraine. The annual [science fiction convention](/wiki/Science_fiction_convention \"Science fiction convention\") \"Star Bridge\" (Звёздный мост) has been held in Kharkiv since 1999\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://old.karazin.ua/en/general/univer\\_today/news?news\\_id\\=63\\|title\\=Kharkiv International Festival of Science Fiction \"Star Bridge – 2011\"\\|work\\=V. N. Karazin Kharkiv National University\\|date\\=September 2011\\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-07\\-01\\|archive\\-date\\=1 July 2023\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230701075808/https://old.karazin.ua/en/general/univer\\_today/news?news\\_id\\=63\\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
"### Music",
"[thumb\\|Academic choir of Kharkiv Philharmonic named after V. Palkin and chief leader of choir, prize winner of the all\\-Ukrainian choir masters contest, Andriy Syrotenko.](/wiki/Image:Academic_Chorus_of_Kharkov_Philharmonic.jpg \"Academic Chorus of Kharkov Philharmonic.jpg\")",
"There is the [Kharkiv Philharmonic Society](/wiki/Kharkiv_Philharmonic_Society \"Kharkiv Philharmonic Society\") in the city. The leading group active in the Philharmonic is the Academic Symphony Orchestra. It has 100 musicians of a high professional level, many of whom are prize\\-winners in international and national competitions.",
"There is the Organ Music Hall in the city.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://filarmonia.kh.ua/filarmonia/dom\\-organnoj\\-i\\-kamernoj\\-muzyki/\\|publisher\\=filarmonia.kh.ua\\|title\\=Органный зал, Харьков – концерты, камерная и органная музыка {{pipe}} Харьковская филармония\\|date\\=28 October 2015\\|access\\-date\\=18 June 2017\\|archive\\-date\\=6 July 2017\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170706155923/http://filarmonia.kh.ua/filarmonia/dom\\-organnoj\\-i\\-kamernoj\\-muzyki/\\|url\\-status\\=live}} The Organ Music Hall is situated at the [Assumption Cathedral](/wiki/Dormition_Cathedral%2C_Kharkiv \"Dormition Cathedral, Kharkiv\") presently. The [Rieger–Kloss](/wiki/Rieger%E2%80%93Kloss \"Rieger–Kloss\") organ was installed in the building of the Organ Music Hall back in 1986\\. The new Organ Music Hall will be opened at the extensively renovated building of [Kharkiv Philharmonic Society](/wiki/Kharkiv_Philharmonic_Society \"Kharkiv Philharmonic Society\") in Kharkiv in November 2016\\.",
"The [Kharkiv Conservatory](/wiki/Kharkiv_Conservatory \"Kharkiv Conservatory\") is in the city.",
"The [Kharkiv National University of Arts named after I.P. Kotlyarevsky](/wiki/Kharkiv_National_Kotlyarevsky_University_of_Arts \"Kharkiv National Kotlyarevsky University of Arts\") is situated in the city.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://num.kharkiv.ua/en/\\|publisher\\=num.kharkiv.ua\\|title\\=Kharkiv I.P. Kotlyarevsky National University of Arts\\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-07\\-01\\|archive\\-date\\=1 July 2023\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230701190717/https://num.kharkiv.ua/en/\\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
"Kharkiv sponsors the prestigious [Hnat Khotkevych](/wiki/Hnat_Khotkevych \"Hnat Khotkevych\") International Music Competition of Performers of Ukrainian Folk Instruments, which takes place every three years. Since 1997 four tri\\-annual competitions have taken place. The 2010 competition was cancelled by the Ukrainian Ministry of Culture two days before its opening.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://comments.ua/life/183366\\-Minkulturi\\-zapretil\\-Harkovu.html\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131228232703/http://comments.ua/life/183366\\-Minkulturi\\-zapretil\\-Harkovu.html\\|archive\\-date\\=28 December 2013 \\|title\\=Минкультуры запретил Харькову проводить конкурс им. Гната Хоткевича – Комментарии \\|publisher\\=Proua.com \\|date\\=16 April 2010 \\|access\\-date\\=15 July 2012}}",
"The music festival: \"Kharkiv – City of Kind Hopes\" is conducted in Kharkiv.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://filarmonia.kh.ua/festival\\-harkiv\\-misto\\-dobrih\\-nadij\\-informatsiya\\-dlya\\-uchastnikov/\\|publisher\\=filarmonia.kh.ua\\|title\\=Фестиваль \"Харків – місто добрих надій\". Информация для участников {{pipe}} Харьковская филармония\\|date\\=28 October 2015\\|access\\-date\\=18 June 2017\\|archive\\-date\\=27 May 2017\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170527073822/http://filarmonia.kh.ua/festival\\-harkiv\\-misto\\-dobrih\\-nadij\\-informatsiya\\-dlya\\-uchastnikov/\\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
"From Kharkiv comes also [black metal](/wiki/Black_metal \"Black metal\") band [Drudkh](/wiki/Drudkh \"Drudkh\").",
"### Films",
"From 1907 to 2008, at least 86 feature films were shot in the city's territory and its region. The most famous is *[Fragment of an Empire](/wiki/Fragment_of_an_Empire \"Fragment of an Empire\")* (1929\\). Arriving in Leningrad, the main character, in addition to the usual pre\\-revolutionary buildings, sees the [Derzhprom](/wiki/Derzhprom \"Derzhprom\") – a symbol of a new era.",
"### Film festivals",
"The Kharkiv Lilacs international film festival is very popular among movie stars, makers and producers in Ukraine, Eastern Europe, Western Europe and North America.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://sirenfest.net.ua/en/\\|publisher\\=sirenfest.net.ua\\|title\\=Харьковская сирень – Главная\\|access\\-date\\=18 June 2017\\|archive\\-date\\=27 September 2014\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140927013951/http://sirenfest.net.ua/en/\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://times.kh.ua/news/fresh/kharkovskaya\\_siren\\_2016\\_novye\\_ladoni\\_znamenitykh\\_akterov\\_na\\_allee\\_zvezd\\_foto/158954/\\|publisher\\=times.kh.ua\\|title\\=times.kh.ua/news/fresh/kharkovskaya\\_siren\\_2016\\_novye\\_ladoni\\_znamenitykh\\_akterov\\_na\\_allee\\_zvezd\\_foto/158954/\\|access\\-date\\=18 June 2017\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161024232504/http://times.kh.ua/news/fresh/kharkovskaya\\_siren\\_2016\\_novye\\_ladoni\\_znamenitykh\\_akterov\\_na\\_allee\\_zvezd\\_foto/158954/\\|archive\\-date\\=24 October 2016\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}",
"The annual festival is usually conducted in May.",
"There is a special alley with metal hand prints by popular movies actors at Shevchenko park in Kharkiv.\n{{Cite web \\|script\\-title\\=ru:Возвращение «Харьковской сирени»: новые ладони знаменитых актеров на Аллее звезд (ФОТО) \\|trans\\-title\\=Return of \"Kharkiv Lilac\": new palms of famous actors on the Avenue of Stars (PHOTO) \\|url\\=https://dozor.com.ua/news/tabloid/1205509\\.html \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-06\\-29 \\|website\\=Дозор.UA \\|archive\\-date\\=29 June 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230629091728/https://dozor.com.ua/news/tabloid/1205509\\.html \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"### Visual arts",
"Kharkiv has been a home for many famous painters, including [Ilya Repin](/wiki/Ilya_Repin \"Ilya Repin\"), [Zinaida Serebryakova](/wiki/Zinaida_Serebryakova \"Zinaida Serebryakova\"), [Henryk Siemiradzki](/wiki/Henryk_Siemiradzki \"Henryk Siemiradzki\"), and [Vasyl Yermilov](/wiki/Vasyl_Yermilov \"Vasyl Yermilov\"). There are many modern arts galleries in the city: the Yermilov Centre, Lilacs Gallery, the Kharkiv Art Museum, the Kharkiv Municipal Gallery, the AC Gallery, Palladium Gallery, the Semiradsky Gallery, AVEK Gallery, and Arts of Slobozhanshyna Gallery among others.",
"### Museums",
"[thumb\\|M. F. Sumtsov Kharkiv Historical Museum](/wiki/File:%D0%92%D0%B8%D0%B4_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%B1%D1%83%D0%B4%D1%96%D0%B2%D0%BB%D1%8E_%D0%A5%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BA%D1%96%D0%B2%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE_%D1%96%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE_%D0%BC%D1%83%D0%B7%D0%B5%D1%8E_%D0%B7_%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%83_%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%82%D1%83%D1%86%D1%96%D1%97.jpg \"Вид на будівлю Харківського історичного музею з майдану Конституції.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|[Kharkiv Art Museum](/wiki/Kharkiv_Art_Museum \"Kharkiv Art Museum\")](/wiki/File:Xud-muzej.jpg \"Xud-muzej.jpg\")\nThere are around 147 museums in the Kharkiv's region.{{cite web \\|title\\=Музеї Харківщини \\|url\\=http://museums.kh.ua/ \\|access\\-date\\=18 June 2017 \\|publisher\\=museums.kh.ua \\|archive\\-date\\=8 September 2016 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160908163751/http://museums.kh.ua/ \\|url\\-status\\=dead }} Museums in the city include:",
"* The [M. F. Sumtsov Kharkiv Historical Museum](/wiki/M._F._Sumtsov_Kharkiv_Historical_Museum \"M. F. Sumtsov Kharkiv Historical Museum\"){{cite web\\|url\\=http://museum.kh.ua/eng.html\\|publisher\\=museum.kh.ua\\|title\\=Information in English – Харківський історичний музей імені М.Ф.Сумцова\\|access\\-date\\=18 June 2017\\|archive\\-date\\=1 August 2016\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160801125455/http://museum.kh.ua/eng.html\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}\n* The [Kharkiv Art Museum](/wiki/Kharkiv_Art_Museum \"Kharkiv Art Museum\"){{cite web\\|url\\=https://artmuseum.kh.ua/en/\\|title\\=Kharkiv Art Museum\\|website\\=artmuseum.kh.ua\\|access\\-date\\=12 March 2023\\|archive\\-date\\=11 March 2023\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230311075637/https://artmuseum.kh.ua/en/\\|url\\-status\\=live}}\n* The Natural History Museum at V. N. Karazin Kharkiv National University was founded in Kharkiv on 2 April 1807\\. The museum is visited by 40000 visitors every year.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://karazin.ua/en/kultura/muzei\\-prirodi/\\|publisher\\=karazin.ua\\|title\\=Museum of Nature {{!}} Karazin University\\|access\\-date\\=18 June 2017\\|archive\\-date\\=24 March 2022\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220324052205/https://karazin.ua/en/kultura/muzei\\-prirodi/\\|url\\-status\\=live}}{{Cite web \\|script\\-title\\=uk:Державний Музей природи Харківського національного університету імені В.Н. Каразіна \\|url\\=https://zvo.knu.ua/ua/museums/category/7/79\\-derzhavniy\\-muzey\\-prirodi\\-harkivskogo\\-nacionalnogo\\-universitetu\\-imeni\\-vn\\-karazina \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-07\\-01 \\|website\\=zvo.knu.ua \\|archive\\-date\\=1 July 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230701072232/https://zvo.knu.ua/ua/museums/category/7/79\\-derzhavniy\\-muzey\\-prirodi\\-harkivskogo\\-nacionalnogo\\-universitetu\\-imeni\\-vn\\-karazina \\|url\\-status\\=live }}\n* The V. N. Karazin Kharkiv National University History Museum was established in Kharkiv in 1972\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www\\-museum.univer.kharkov.ua/\\|publisher\\=History Museum of Kharkiv National University\\|script\\-title\\=uk:Музей історії Харківського національного університету – Головна\\|trans\\-title\\=History Museum of Kharkiv National University – Main\\|access\\-date\\=18 June 2017\\|archive\\-date\\=28 November 2020\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201128185327/http://www\\-museum.univer.kharkov.ua/\\|url\\-status\\=live}}{{Cite web \\|title\\=University History Museum \\|url\\=https://karazin.ua/en/kultura/muzei\\-istoriyi\\-universitetu/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-06\\-29 \\|website\\=karazin.ua \\|archive\\-date\\=29 June 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230629091728/https://karazin.ua/en/kultura/muzei\\-istoriyi\\-universitetu/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }}{{Cite web \\|script\\-title\\=uk:Музей історії Харківського національного університету імені В.Н. Каразіна \\|url\\=https://zvo.knu.ua/ua/museums/category/7/78\\-muzey\\-istorii\\-harkivskogo\\-nacionalnogo\\-universitetu\\-imeni\\-vn\\-karazina \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-06\\-29 \\|website\\=zvo.knu.ua \\|archive\\-date\\=29 June 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230629091726/https://zvo.knu.ua/ua/museums/category/7/78\\-muzey\\-istorii\\-harkivskogo\\-nacionalnogo\\-universitetu\\-imeni\\-vn\\-karazina \\|url\\-status\\=live }}\n* The V. N. Karazin Kharkiv National University Archeology Museum was founded in Kharkiv on 20 March 1998\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.maesu.org/\\|publisher\\=maesu.org\\|title\\=www.maesu.org/\\|access\\-date\\=18 June 2017\\|archive\\-date\\=21 June 2012\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120621061534/http://maesu.org/\\|url\\-status\\=live}}{{Cite web \\|script\\-title\\=uk:Музей археології та етнографії Слобідської України \\|trans\\-title\\=Museum of Archeology and Ethnography of Slobid Ukraine \\|url\\=https://zvo.knu.ua/ua/museums/category/7/77\\-muzey\\-arheologii\\-ta\\-etnografii\\-slobidskoi\\-ukraini \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-07\\-01 \\|website\\=zvo.knu.ua \\|archive\\-date\\=1 July 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230701072229/https://zvo.knu.ua/ua/museums/category/7/77\\-muzey\\-arheologii\\-ta\\-etnografii\\-slobidskoi\\-ukraini \\|url\\-status\\=live }}\n* The National Technical University \"Kharkiv Polytechnical Institute\" Museum was created in Kharkiv on 29 December 1972\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.kpi.kharkov.ua/ru/home/muzeum/\\|publisher\\=kpi.kharkov.ua\\|title\\=www.kpi.kharkov.ua/ru/home/muzeum/\\|access\\-date\\=18 June 2017\\|archive\\-date\\=16 April 2016\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160416134911/http://www.kpi.kharkov.ua/ru/home/muzeum/\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://web.kpi.kharkov.ua/museum/\\|publisher\\=web.kpi.kharkov.ua\\|title\\=Музей НТУ \"ХПI\"\\|access\\-date\\=18 June 2017\\|archive\\-date\\=21 June 2017\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170621095623/http://web.kpi.kharkov.ua/museum/\\|url\\-status\\=live}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://web.kpi.kharkov.ua/museum/arhiv\\-sobytij/\\|publisher\\=web.kpi.kharkov.ua\\|title\\=Архів подій {{pipe}} Музей НТУ \"ХПI\"\\|access\\-date\\=18 June 2017\\|archive\\-date\\=26 April 2017\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170426022132/http://web.kpi.kharkov.ua/museum/arhiv\\-sobytij/\\|url\\-status\\=live}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://web.kpi.kharkov.ua/museum/kontakti/\\|publisher\\=web.kpi.kharkov.ua\\|title\\=Фотогалерея {{pipe}} Музей НТУ \"ХПI\"\\|access\\-date\\=18 June 2017\\|archive\\-date\\=29 May 2017\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170529180600/http://web.kpi.kharkov.ua/museum/kontakti/\\|url\\-status\\=live}}{{Cite web \\|script\\-title\\=uk:Музей історії Національного технічного університету «Харківський політехнічний інститут» \\|trans\\-title\\=Museum of History of the National Technical University \"Kharkiv Polytechnic Institute\" \\|url\\=https://zvo.knu.ua/ua/museums/category/7/115\\-muzey\\-istorii\\-nacionalnogo\\-tehnichnogo\\-universitetu\\-harkivskiy\\-politehnichniy\\-institut \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-07\\-01 \\|website\\=zvo.knu.ua \\|archive\\-date\\=1 July 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230701072228/https://zvo.knu.ua/ua/museums/category/7/115\\-muzey\\-istorii\\-nacionalnogo\\-tehnichnogo\\-universitetu\\-harkivskiy\\-politehnichniy\\-institut \\|url\\-status\\=live }}\n* The National Aerospace University \"Kharkiv Aviation Institute\" Museum was founded on 29 May 1992\\.{{Cite web \\|script\\-title\\=uk:Музей Національного аерокосмічного університету «ХАІ» \\|trans\\-title\\=Museum of the National Aerospace University \"KHAI\" \\|url\\=https://zvo.knu.ua/ua/museums/category/7/2\\-muzey\\-nacionalnogo\\-aerokosmichnogo\\-universitetu\\-hai \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-07\\-01 \\|website\\=zvo.knu.ua \\|archive\\-date\\=1 July 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230701072230/https://zvo.knu.ua/ua/museums/category/7/2\\-muzey\\-nacionalnogo\\-aerokosmichnogo\\-universitetu\\-hai \\|url\\-status\\=live }}\n* The \"National University of Pharmacy\" Museum was founded in Kharkiv on 15 September 2010\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://nuph.edu.ua/muzejj\\-istoriji\\-farmaciji\\-ukrajini/\\|publisher\\=nuph.edu.ua\\|title\\=Музей истории Национального фармацевтического университета – Національний фармацевтичний університет (НФаУ)\\|access\\-date\\=18 June 2017\\|archive\\-date\\=28 April 2017\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170428051243/http://nuph.edu.ua/ru/muzejj\\-istorii\\-farmacii\\-ukrainy/\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}{{cite web\\|url\\=https://nuph.edu.ua/ekspoziciya\\-muzeyu\\-istorii\\-nfau/\\|publisher\\=nuph.edu.ua\\|title\\=Экспозиционные залы музея – Національний фармацевтичний університет (НФаУ)\\|access\\-date\\=18 June 2017\\|archive\\-date\\=19 October 2017\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171019085802/http://nuph.edu.ua/ru/e\\-kspozitsionny\\-e\\-zaly\\-muzeya/\\|url\\-status\\=live}}{{Cite web \\|script\\-title\\=uk:Музей історії фармації України \\|trans\\-title\\=Museum of the History of Pharmacy of Ukraine \\|url\\=https://zvo.knu.ua/ua/museums/category/7/51\\-muzey\\-istorii\\-farmacii\\-ukraini \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-07\\-01 \\|website\\=zvo.knu.ua \\|archive\\-date\\=1 July 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230701072231/https://zvo.knu.ua/ua/museums/category/7/51\\-muzey\\-istorii\\-farmacii\\-ukraini \\|url\\-status\\=live }}\n* The Kharkiv Maritime Museum – a museum dedicated to the history of shipbuilding and navigation.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://morskojmuzej.kh.ua/\\|title\\=The Kharkiv Maritime Museum\\|access\\-date\\=13 November 2017\\|archive\\-date\\=18 June 2012\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120618135607/http://morskojmuzej.kh.ua/\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}\n* The Kharkiv Puppet Museum is the oldest museum of dolls in Ukraine.{{Citation needed\\|date\\=March 2022}}\n* Memorial museum\\-apartment of the family Grizodubov.{{Citation needed\\|date\\=March 2022}}\n* Club\\-Museum of Claudia Shulzhenko.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://artcross.com.ua/museum\\_shuljenko\\|title\\=The KI City Museum. Shulzhenko\\|access\\-date\\=1 December 2017\\|archive\\-date\\=4 October 2013\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131004230206/http://artcross.com.ua/museum\\_shuljenko\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}\n* The Museum of \"First Aid\".{{Citation needed\\|date\\=March 2022}}\n* The Museum of Urban Transport.{{Citation needed\\|date\\=March 2022}}\n* The [Museum of Sexual Cultures](/wiki/Museum_of_Sexual_Cultures \"Museum of Sexual Cultures\").{{cite web \\|last\\=moygorod.ua \\|title\\=Музей секса и сексуальных культур мира \\|url\\=https://kharkov.moygorod.ua/ru/museum/muzej\\-seksualnykh\\-kultur\\-mira/ \\|access\\-date\\=9 March 2022 \\|website\\=Музей секса и сексуальных культур мира \\|language\\=ru \\|archive\\-date\\=9 April 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220409233145/https://kharkov.moygorod.ua/ru/museum/muzej\\-seksualnykh\\-kultur\\-mira/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"### Landmarks",
"[thumb\\|[Derzhprom](/wiki/Derzhprom \"Derzhprom\")](/wiki/File:%D0%91%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BA_%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B6%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D1%96%2C_%D0%A5%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BA%D1%96%D0%B2_DJI_0057.jpg \"Будинок держпромисловості, Харків DJI 0057.jpg\")",
"The city is famous for its churches as well as [Art Nouveau](/wiki/Art_Nouveau \"Art Nouveau\") and [constructivist](/wiki/Constructivist_architecture \"Constructivist architecture\") architecture:\n* [Dormition Cathedral](/wiki/Assumption_Cathedral%2C_Kharkiv \"Assumption Cathedral, Kharkiv\"), built in 17th century in Baroque style and rebuilt in 18th and 19th centuries\n* [Pokrovskyi Monastery](/wiki/Pokrovskyi_Monastery%2C_Kharkiv \"Pokrovskyi Monastery, Kharkiv\"), built in 18th century in Baroque style\n* [Annunciation Cathedral](/wiki/Annunciation_Cathedral%2C_Kharkiv \"Annunciation Cathedral, Kharkiv\"), built in 1887–1901 in Neo\\-Byzantine style\n* [Kharkiv Ukrainian Drama Theatre](/wiki/Kharkiv_Ukrainian_Drama_Theatre \"Kharkiv Ukrainian Drama Theatre\"), built in 1841\n* [Kharkiv Puppet Theatre](/wiki/Kharkiv_Puppet_Theatre \"Kharkiv Puppet Theatre\"), former [Volga\\-Kama Commercial Bank](/wiki/Volga-Kama_Commercial_Bank \"Volga-Kama Commercial Bank\"), built in 1907 in [Art Nouveau](/wiki/Art_Nouveau \"Art Nouveau\") style\n* [Kharkiv State Academy of Design and Arts](/wiki/Kharkiv_State_Academy_of_Design_and_Arts \"Kharkiv State Academy of Design and Arts\"), built in 1912 in [Art Nouveau](/wiki/Art_Nouveau \"Art Nouveau\") style\n* [Choral Synagogue](/wiki/Kharkiv_Choral_Synagogue \"Kharkiv Choral Synagogue\"), built in 1909–1913\n* Central Market Hall, built 1912–1914\n* [Derzhprom](/wiki/Derzhprom \"Derzhprom\") building, built in 1925–1928 in [constructivist](/wiki/Constructivist_architecture \"Constructivist architecture\") style\n* [Freedom Square](/wiki/Freedom_Square%2C_Kharkiv \"Freedom Square, Kharkiv\")\n* Railway Pochtamt (post office), built 1927–29 in [constructivist](/wiki/Constructivist_architecture \"Constructivist architecture\") style\n* Palace of Culture of Railway Workers, built 1928–31 in [constructivist](/wiki/Constructivist_architecture \"Constructivist architecture\") style\n* [Kharkiv railway station](/wiki/Kharkiv_railway_station \"Kharkiv railway station\"), rebuilt in socialist\\-realist style in 1952\n* [Kharkiv Opera](/wiki/Kharkiv_State_Academic_Opera_and_Ballet_Theatre_named_after_Mykola_Lysenko \"Kharkiv State Academic Opera and Ballet Theatre named after Mykola Lysenko\"), built in 1970–1990 in [brutalist](/wiki/Brutalist_architecture \"Brutalist architecture\") style",
"Other attractions include: [Taras Shevchenko](/wiki/Taras_Shevchenko \"Taras Shevchenko\") Monument, Mirror Stream, Historical Museum, T. Shevchenko Gardens, Zoo, Children's narrow\\-gauge railroad, World War I Tank Mk V, Memorial Complex, and many more.",
"After the [2014 Russian annexation of Crimea](/wiki/2014_Russian_annexation_of_Crimea \"2014 Russian annexation of Crimea\") the monument to [Petro Konashevych\\-Sahaidachny](/wiki/Petro_Konashevych-Sahaidachny \"Petro Konashevych-Sahaidachny\") in [Sevastopol](/wiki/Sevastopol \"Sevastopol\") was removed and handed over to Kharkiv.{{Cite web \\|date\\=24 June 2023 \\|script\\-title\\=uk:В Харькове появится памятник Сагайдачному \\|trans\\-title\\=A monument to Sahaidachny in Kharkiv \\|url\\=https://www.sq.com.ua/rus/news/obschestvo/23\\.08\\.2014/v\\_harkove\\_poyavitsya\\_pamyatnik\\_sagajdachnomu \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-06\\-29 \\|website\\=Status Quo \\|language\\=ru\\-UA \\|archive\\-date\\=2 June 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230602024948/https://www.sq.com.ua/rus/news/obschestvo/23\\.08\\.2014/v\\_harkove\\_poyavitsya\\_pamyatnik\\_sagajdachnomu \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"",
"File:Uspensky Cathedral03\\.jpg\\|\\[\\[Dormition Cathedral, Kharkiv\\|Dormition Cathedral]]\nFile:Intercession Cathedral, Kharkiv 2010 \\- 03\\.jpg\\|\\[\\[Pokrovskyi Monastery, Kharkiv\\|Pokrovskyi Monastery]]\nFile:Annunciation Cathedral in Kharkiv \\- 2017\\.jpg\\|\\[\\[Annunciation Cathedral, Kharkiv\\|Annunciation Cathedral]]\nFile:Shevchenko Drama Theatre in Kharkiv 2020 \\- 01\\.jpg\\|\\[\\[Kharkiv Ukrainian Drama Theatre]]\nFile:Constitution Square 24\\.jpg\\|Kharkiv Puppet Theatre (former Volga\\-Kama Bank)\nFile:Художнє училище 1913р., вул. Червонопрапорна, 8, м.Харків.JPG\\|\\[\\[Kharkiv State Academy of Design and Arts]]\nFile:Kharkiv Central Market (01\\).jpg\\|Kharkiv Central Market Hall\nFile:Kharkov Synagogue2\\.JPG\\|\\[\\[Kharkiv Choral Synagogue]]\nFile:Здание почтамта. Харьков.jpg\\|Railway Pochtamt (post office)\nFile:Палац робiтника, вул.Котлова, 83, Харків.JPG\\|Palace of Culture of Railway Workers\nFile:CentralRailwayStKharkov2\\.JPG\\|\\[\\[Kharkiv railway station]]",
"",
"### Parks",
"[thumb\\|[Central Park](/wiki/Central_Park_%28Kharkiv%29 \"Central Park (Kharkiv)\") is one of the main family attractions in Kharkiv.](/wiki/File:Altana_-_Kharkiv_Gorky_Park.jpg \"Altana - Kharkiv Gorky Park.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|Fountains in [Taras Shevchenko](/wiki/Taras_Shevchenko \"Taras Shevchenko\")'s garden](/wiki/File:Shevchenko_Garden%2C_Kharkiv_2020_-07.jpg \"Shevchenko Garden, Kharkiv 2020 -07.jpg\")\nKharkiv contains numerous parks and gardens such as the Central Park, Shevchenko park, Hydro park, Strelka park, Sarzhyn Yar and Feldman ecopark. The Central Park is a common place for recreation activities among visitors and local people.{{citation needed\\|date\\=March 2019}} The Shevchenko park is situated in close proximity to the V.N. Karazin National University. It is also a common place for recreation activities among the students, professors, locals and foreigners.",
"The Ecopark is situated at circle highway around Kharkiv. It attracts kids, parents, students, professors, locals and foreigners to undertake recreation activities. Sarzhyn Yar is a natural ravine three minutes walk from \"Botanichniy Sad\" station. It is an old girder that now – is a modern park zone more than 12 km in length. There is also a mineral water source with cupel and a sporting court.{{cite web\\|title\\=The Spring\\|url\\=http://www.kharkovinfo.com/the\\-spring.html\\|last\\=FlexKit\\|website\\=www.kharkovinfo.com\\|language\\=en\\|access\\-date\\=2 May 2020\\|archive\\-date\\=10 May 2020\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200510125520/http://www.kharkovinfo.com/the\\-spring.html\\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
""
] |
Sport
-----
### Kharkiv International Marathon
The Kharkiv International Marathon is considered as a prime international sportive event, attracting many thousands of professional sportsmen, young people, students, professors, locals and tourists to travel to Kharkiv and to participate in the international event.{{cite web\|url\=http://kharkivmarathon.com/en/\|publisher\=kharkivmarathon.com\|title\=Main {{pipe}} 5th Kharkiv International Marathon\|access\-date\=18 June 2017\|archive\-date\=22 November 2016\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161122142340/http://kharkivmarathon.com/en/\|url\-status\=live}}{{cite web\|url\=http://www.marathonrunnersdiary.com/races/europe\-marathons/kharkiv\-international\-marathon.php\|publisher\=marathonrunnersdiary.com\|title\=Kharkiv International Marathon 2017 – Race Details – Marathon Runners Diary\|access\-date\=18 June 2017\|archive\-date\=28 June 2017\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170628005150/http://www.marathonrunnersdiary.com/races/europe\-marathons/kharkiv\-international\-marathon.php\|url\-status\=live}}{{cite web\|url\=http://sportevent.com.ua/events/kharkivmarathon2016/\|publisher\=sportevent.com.ua\|title\=Ukraine Sport Events – Спортивные мероприятия Украины\|access\-date\=18 June 2017\|archive\-date\=19 October 2017\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171019083206/https://sportevent.com.ua/events/kharkivmarathon2016/\|url\-status\=live}}{{cite web\|url\=http://blogs.kpi.kharkov.ua/v2/rmv/2016/04/09/kharkiv\-international\-marathon\-2016/\|publisher\=blogs.kpi.kharkov.ua\|title\=Kharkiv International Marathon 2016 « СОВЕТ МОЛОДЫХ УЧЁНЫХ\|access\-date\=18 June 2017\|archive\-date\=19 October 2017\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171019082905/http://blogs.kpi.kharkov.ua/v2/rmv/2016/04/09/kharkiv\-international\-marathon\-2016/\|url\-status\=dead}}
### Football (soccer)
[thumb\|150px\|left\|Kharkiv EURO 2012 host city emblem](/wiki/File:KharkovEuro2012.jpg "KharkovEuro2012.jpg")
[thumb\|[Metalist Stadium](/wiki/Metalist_Oblast_Sports_Complex "Metalist Oblast Sports Complex")](/wiki/File:Metalist_Stadium_Kharkiv.jpg "Metalist Stadium Kharkiv.jpg")
The most popular sport is [football](/wiki/Association_football "Association football"). The city has several football clubs playing in the Ukrainian national competitions. The most successful is *[FC Dynamo Kharkiv](/wiki/FC_Dynamo_Kharkiv "FC Dynamo Kharkiv")* that won eight national titles back in the 1920s–1930s.
* [FC Metalist Kharkiv](/wiki/FC_Metalist_Kharkiv "FC Metalist Kharkiv"), which plays at the [Metalist Stadium](/wiki/Metalist_Stadium "Metalist Stadium")
* [FC Metalist 1925 Kharkiv](/wiki/FC_Metalist_1925_Kharkiv "FC Metalist 1925 Kharkiv"), which plays at the [Metalist Stadium](/wiki/Metalist_Stadium "Metalist Stadium")
* [FC Helios Kharkiv](/wiki/FC_Helios_Kharkiv "FC Helios Kharkiv"), a defunct club, which played at the [Helios Arena](/wiki/Helios_Arena_%28Kharkiv%29 "Helios Arena (Kharkiv)")
* [FC Kharkiv](/wiki/FC_Kharkiv "FC Kharkiv"), a defunct club, which played at the [Dynamo Stadium](/wiki/Dynamo_Stadium_%28Kharkiv%29 "Dynamo Stadium (Kharkiv)")
* [FC Arsenal Kharkiv](/wiki/FC_Arsenal_Kharkiv "FC Arsenal Kharkiv"), which played at the [Arsenal\-Spartak Stadium](/wiki/Arsenal-Spartak_Stadium "Arsenal-Spartak Stadium") (participates in regional competitions)
* [FC Shakhtar Donetsk](/wiki/FC_Shakhtar_Donetsk "FC Shakhtar Donetsk") also play at the [Metalist Stadium](/wiki/Metalist_Stadium "Metalist Stadium") since 2017, due to the [war in Donbas](/wiki/War_in_Donbas_%282014%E2%80%932022%29 "War in Donbas (2014–2022)")
There is also a female football club [WFC Zhytlobud\-1 Kharkiv](/wiki/WFC_Zhytlobud-1_Kharkiv "WFC Zhytlobud-1 Kharkiv"), which represented Ukraine in the European competitions and constantly is the main contender for the national title.
[Metalist Stadium](/wiki/Metalist_Stadium "Metalist Stadium") hosted three group matches at [UEFA Euro 2012](/wiki/UEFA_Euro_2012 "UEFA Euro 2012").
### Other sports
[thumb\|Bicycles racing competition in Kharkiv at Bicycle Day on 9 July 2016\.](/wiki/File:%2879%29_BYCICLE_COMPETITION_AT_BYCICLE_DAY_IN_CITY_OF_KHARKIV_STATE_OF_UKRAINE_PHOTOGRAPH_BY_VIKTOR_O_LEDENYOV_20160709.jpg "(79) BYCICLE COMPETITION AT BYCICLE DAY IN CITY OF KHARKIV STATE OF UKRAINE PHOTOGRAPH BY VIKTOR O LEDENYOV 20160709.jpg")
Kharkiv also had some [ice hockey](/wiki/Ice_hockey "Ice hockey") clubs, [MHC Dynamo Kharkiv](/wiki/MHC_Dynamo_Kharkiv "MHC Dynamo Kharkiv"), [Vityaz Kharkiv](/wiki/HK_Vityaz_Kharkiv "HK Vityaz Kharkiv"), [Yunost Kharkiv](/wiki/Yunost_Kharkiv "Yunost Kharkiv"), [HC Kharkiv](/wiki/HC_Kharkiv "HC Kharkiv"), who competed in the [Ukrainian Hockey Championship](/wiki/Ukrainian_Hockey_Championship "Ukrainian Hockey Championship").
[Avangard Budy](/wiki/Avangard_Budy "Avangard Budy") is a [bandy](/wiki/Bandy "Bandy") club from Kharkiv, which won the Ukrainian championship in 2013\.
There are a men's volleyball teams, [Lokomotyv Kharkiv](/wiki/VC_Lokomotyv_Kharkiv "VC Lokomotyv Kharkiv") and [Yurydychna Akademiya Kharkiv](/wiki/VC_Yurydychna_Akademiya_Kharkiv "VC Yurydychna Akademiya Kharkiv"), which performed in Ukraine and in European competitions.
[RC Olymp](/wiki/RC_Olymp "RC Olymp") is the city's [rugby union](/wiki/Rugby_union "Rugby union") club. They provide many players for the [national team](/wiki/Ukraine_national_rugby_union_team "Ukraine national rugby union team").
Tennis is also a popular sport in Kharkiv. There are many professional tennis courts in the city. [Elina Svitolina](/wiki/Elina_Svitolina "Elina Svitolina") is a tennis player from Kharkiv.
There is a golf club in Kharkiv.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.superiorresort.com/\|publisher\=superiorresort.com\|title\=гольф\-курорт Superior Golf \& Spa Resort в Харькове\|access\-date\=18 June 2017\|archive\-date\=17 June 2017\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170617091522/http://www.superiorresort.com/\|url\-status\=live}}
Horseriding as a sport is also popular among locals.{{cite web\|url\=http://zabytki.in.ua/ru/430/kharkovskii\-ippodrom\|publisher\=zabytki.in.ua\|title\=zabytki.in.ua/ru/430/kharkovskii\-ippodrom\|access\-date\=18 June 2017\|archive\-date\=12 March 2012\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120312171957/http://zabytki.in.ua/ru/430/kharkovskii\-ippodrom\|url\-status\=live}}{{cite web\|url\=http://ippodrom.pp.ua/publ/kharkovskij\_ippodrom/28\-1\-0\-2\|publisher\=ippodrom.pp.ua\|title\=Харьковский ипподром\|access\-date\=18 June 2017\|archive\-date\=9 July 2016\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160709055305/http://ippodrom.pp.ua/publ/kharkovskij\_ippodrom/28\-1\-0\-2\|url\-status\=live}}{{cite web\|url\=http://ippodrom.pp.ua/\|publisher\=ippodrom.pp.ua\|title\=Конный спорт\|access\-date\=18 June 2017\|archive\-date\=16 June 2016\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160616102405/http://ippodrom.pp.ua/\|url\-status\=live}}{{cite web\|url\=http://konezavod.com/\|publisher\=konezavod.com\|title\=Харьковский Конный Завод – продажа лошадей в Украине\|access\-date\=18 June 2017\|archive\-date\=20 June 2017\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170620072959/http://konezavod.com/\|url\-status\=live}} There are large stables and horse riding facilities at Feldman Ecopark in Kharkiv.{{cite web\|url\=http://feldman\-ecopark.com/en.html\#\|publisher\=feldman\-ecopark.com\|title\=feldman\-ecopark.com/en.html\#\|access\-date\=18 June 2017\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161225191520/http://www.feldman\-ecopark.com/en.html\|archive\-date\=25 December 2016\|url\-status\=dead}}
There is a growing interest in cycling among locals.{{cite web\|url\=http://vesti\-ukr.com/harkov/100881\-v\-harkove\-ustanovili\-velosipednyj\-rekord\|publisher\=vesti\-ukr.com\|title\=В Харькове установили велосипедный рекорд. Любители двухколесного транспорта выстроились в огромную фигуру велосипеда {{pipe}} Харьков {{pipe}} Вести\|date\=24 May 2015\|access\-date\=18 June 2017\|archive\-date\=19 October 2017\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171019082903/http://vesti\-ukr.com/harkov/100881\-v\-harkove\-ustanovili\-velosipednyj\-rekord\|url\-status\=live}}{{cite web\|url\=http://kharkov.nezabarom.ua/Muzei\-Vystavki\-Galerei/blogs/entry/3128/\|publisher\=kharkov.nezabarom.ua\|title\=Веложизнь в Харькове – Харьков на Незабаром\|access\-date\=18 June 2017\|archive\-date\=19 October 2017\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171019082905/http://kharkov.nezabarom.ua/Muzei\-Vystavki\-Galerei/blogs/entry/3128/\|url\-status\=live}} There is a large bicycles producer, [Kharkiv Bicycle Plant](/wiki/Kharkiv_Bicycle_Plant "Kharkiv Bicycle Plant") within the city.{{cite web\|url\=http://usi.ua/velo/index.php?st\=38\|publisher\=usi.ua\|title\=Харьковский Велосипедный Завод им.Петровского – велосипеды, тележки, санки, товары для отдыха.\|access\-date\=18 June 2017\|archive\-date\=20 June 2017\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170620013231/http://usi.ua/velo/index.php?st\=38\|url\-status\=live}} Presently, the modern bicycle highway is under construction at the "Leso park" (Лісопарк) district in Kharkiv.
|
[
"Sport\n-----",
"### Kharkiv International Marathon",
"The Kharkiv International Marathon is considered as a prime international sportive event, attracting many thousands of professional sportsmen, young people, students, professors, locals and tourists to travel to Kharkiv and to participate in the international event.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://kharkivmarathon.com/en/\\|publisher\\=kharkivmarathon.com\\|title\\=Main {{pipe}} 5th Kharkiv International Marathon\\|access\\-date\\=18 June 2017\\|archive\\-date\\=22 November 2016\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161122142340/http://kharkivmarathon.com/en/\\|url\\-status\\=live}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.marathonrunnersdiary.com/races/europe\\-marathons/kharkiv\\-international\\-marathon.php\\|publisher\\=marathonrunnersdiary.com\\|title\\=Kharkiv International Marathon 2017 – Race Details – Marathon Runners Diary\\|access\\-date\\=18 June 2017\\|archive\\-date\\=28 June 2017\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170628005150/http://www.marathonrunnersdiary.com/races/europe\\-marathons/kharkiv\\-international\\-marathon.php\\|url\\-status\\=live}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://sportevent.com.ua/events/kharkivmarathon2016/\\|publisher\\=sportevent.com.ua\\|title\\=Ukraine Sport Events – Спортивные мероприятия Украины\\|access\\-date\\=18 June 2017\\|archive\\-date\\=19 October 2017\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171019083206/https://sportevent.com.ua/events/kharkivmarathon2016/\\|url\\-status\\=live}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://blogs.kpi.kharkov.ua/v2/rmv/2016/04/09/kharkiv\\-international\\-marathon\\-2016/\\|publisher\\=blogs.kpi.kharkov.ua\\|title\\=Kharkiv International Marathon 2016 « СОВЕТ МОЛОДЫХ УЧЁНЫХ\\|access\\-date\\=18 June 2017\\|archive\\-date\\=19 October 2017\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171019082905/http://blogs.kpi.kharkov.ua/v2/rmv/2016/04/09/kharkiv\\-international\\-marathon\\-2016/\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}",
"### Football (soccer)",
"[thumb\\|150px\\|left\\|Kharkiv EURO 2012 host city emblem](/wiki/File:KharkovEuro2012.jpg \"KharkovEuro2012.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|[Metalist Stadium](/wiki/Metalist_Oblast_Sports_Complex \"Metalist Oblast Sports Complex\")](/wiki/File:Metalist_Stadium_Kharkiv.jpg \"Metalist Stadium Kharkiv.jpg\")\nThe most popular sport is [football](/wiki/Association_football \"Association football\"). The city has several football clubs playing in the Ukrainian national competitions. The most successful is *[FC Dynamo Kharkiv](/wiki/FC_Dynamo_Kharkiv \"FC Dynamo Kharkiv\")* that won eight national titles back in the 1920s–1930s.",
"* [FC Metalist Kharkiv](/wiki/FC_Metalist_Kharkiv \"FC Metalist Kharkiv\"), which plays at the [Metalist Stadium](/wiki/Metalist_Stadium \"Metalist Stadium\")\n* [FC Metalist 1925 Kharkiv](/wiki/FC_Metalist_1925_Kharkiv \"FC Metalist 1925 Kharkiv\"), which plays at the [Metalist Stadium](/wiki/Metalist_Stadium \"Metalist Stadium\")\n* [FC Helios Kharkiv](/wiki/FC_Helios_Kharkiv \"FC Helios Kharkiv\"), a defunct club, which played at the [Helios Arena](/wiki/Helios_Arena_%28Kharkiv%29 \"Helios Arena (Kharkiv)\")\n* [FC Kharkiv](/wiki/FC_Kharkiv \"FC Kharkiv\"), a defunct club, which played at the [Dynamo Stadium](/wiki/Dynamo_Stadium_%28Kharkiv%29 \"Dynamo Stadium (Kharkiv)\")\n* [FC Arsenal Kharkiv](/wiki/FC_Arsenal_Kharkiv \"FC Arsenal Kharkiv\"), which played at the [Arsenal\\-Spartak Stadium](/wiki/Arsenal-Spartak_Stadium \"Arsenal-Spartak Stadium\") (participates in regional competitions)\n* [FC Shakhtar Donetsk](/wiki/FC_Shakhtar_Donetsk \"FC Shakhtar Donetsk\") also play at the [Metalist Stadium](/wiki/Metalist_Stadium \"Metalist Stadium\") since 2017, due to the [war in Donbas](/wiki/War_in_Donbas_%282014%E2%80%932022%29 \"War in Donbas (2014–2022)\")",
"There is also a female football club [WFC Zhytlobud\\-1 Kharkiv](/wiki/WFC_Zhytlobud-1_Kharkiv \"WFC Zhytlobud-1 Kharkiv\"), which represented Ukraine in the European competitions and constantly is the main contender for the national title.",
"[Metalist Stadium](/wiki/Metalist_Stadium \"Metalist Stadium\") hosted three group matches at [UEFA Euro 2012](/wiki/UEFA_Euro_2012 \"UEFA Euro 2012\").",
"### Other sports",
"[thumb\\|Bicycles racing competition in Kharkiv at Bicycle Day on 9 July 2016\\.](/wiki/File:%2879%29_BYCICLE_COMPETITION_AT_BYCICLE_DAY_IN_CITY_OF_KHARKIV_STATE_OF_UKRAINE_PHOTOGRAPH_BY_VIKTOR_O_LEDENYOV_20160709.jpg \"(79) BYCICLE COMPETITION AT BYCICLE DAY IN CITY OF KHARKIV STATE OF UKRAINE PHOTOGRAPH BY VIKTOR O LEDENYOV 20160709.jpg\")",
"Kharkiv also had some [ice hockey](/wiki/Ice_hockey \"Ice hockey\") clubs, [MHC Dynamo Kharkiv](/wiki/MHC_Dynamo_Kharkiv \"MHC Dynamo Kharkiv\"), [Vityaz Kharkiv](/wiki/HK_Vityaz_Kharkiv \"HK Vityaz Kharkiv\"), [Yunost Kharkiv](/wiki/Yunost_Kharkiv \"Yunost Kharkiv\"), [HC Kharkiv](/wiki/HC_Kharkiv \"HC Kharkiv\"), who competed in the [Ukrainian Hockey Championship](/wiki/Ukrainian_Hockey_Championship \"Ukrainian Hockey Championship\").",
"[Avangard Budy](/wiki/Avangard_Budy \"Avangard Budy\") is a [bandy](/wiki/Bandy \"Bandy\") club from Kharkiv, which won the Ukrainian championship in 2013\\.",
"There are a men's volleyball teams, [Lokomotyv Kharkiv](/wiki/VC_Lokomotyv_Kharkiv \"VC Lokomotyv Kharkiv\") and [Yurydychna Akademiya Kharkiv](/wiki/VC_Yurydychna_Akademiya_Kharkiv \"VC Yurydychna Akademiya Kharkiv\"), which performed in Ukraine and in European competitions.",
"[RC Olymp](/wiki/RC_Olymp \"RC Olymp\") is the city's [rugby union](/wiki/Rugby_union \"Rugby union\") club. They provide many players for the [national team](/wiki/Ukraine_national_rugby_union_team \"Ukraine national rugby union team\").",
"Tennis is also a popular sport in Kharkiv. There are many professional tennis courts in the city. [Elina Svitolina](/wiki/Elina_Svitolina \"Elina Svitolina\") is a tennis player from Kharkiv.",
"There is a golf club in Kharkiv.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.superiorresort.com/\\|publisher\\=superiorresort.com\\|title\\=гольф\\-курорт Superior Golf \\& Spa Resort в Харькове\\|access\\-date\\=18 June 2017\\|archive\\-date\\=17 June 2017\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170617091522/http://www.superiorresort.com/\\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
"Horseriding as a sport is also popular among locals.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://zabytki.in.ua/ru/430/kharkovskii\\-ippodrom\\|publisher\\=zabytki.in.ua\\|title\\=zabytki.in.ua/ru/430/kharkovskii\\-ippodrom\\|access\\-date\\=18 June 2017\\|archive\\-date\\=12 March 2012\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120312171957/http://zabytki.in.ua/ru/430/kharkovskii\\-ippodrom\\|url\\-status\\=live}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://ippodrom.pp.ua/publ/kharkovskij\\_ippodrom/28\\-1\\-0\\-2\\|publisher\\=ippodrom.pp.ua\\|title\\=Харьковский ипподром\\|access\\-date\\=18 June 2017\\|archive\\-date\\=9 July 2016\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160709055305/http://ippodrom.pp.ua/publ/kharkovskij\\_ippodrom/28\\-1\\-0\\-2\\|url\\-status\\=live}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://ippodrom.pp.ua/\\|publisher\\=ippodrom.pp.ua\\|title\\=Конный спорт\\|access\\-date\\=18 June 2017\\|archive\\-date\\=16 June 2016\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160616102405/http://ippodrom.pp.ua/\\|url\\-status\\=live}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://konezavod.com/\\|publisher\\=konezavod.com\\|title\\=Харьковский Конный Завод – продажа лошадей в Украине\\|access\\-date\\=18 June 2017\\|archive\\-date\\=20 June 2017\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170620072959/http://konezavod.com/\\|url\\-status\\=live}} There are large stables and horse riding facilities at Feldman Ecopark in Kharkiv.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://feldman\\-ecopark.com/en.html\\#\\|publisher\\=feldman\\-ecopark.com\\|title\\=feldman\\-ecopark.com/en.html\\#\\|access\\-date\\=18 June 2017\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161225191520/http://www.feldman\\-ecopark.com/en.html\\|archive\\-date\\=25 December 2016\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}",
"There is a growing interest in cycling among locals.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://vesti\\-ukr.com/harkov/100881\\-v\\-harkove\\-ustanovili\\-velosipednyj\\-rekord\\|publisher\\=vesti\\-ukr.com\\|title\\=В Харькове установили велосипедный рекорд. Любители двухколесного транспорта выстроились в огромную фигуру велосипеда {{pipe}} Харьков {{pipe}} Вести\\|date\\=24 May 2015\\|access\\-date\\=18 June 2017\\|archive\\-date\\=19 October 2017\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171019082903/http://vesti\\-ukr.com/harkov/100881\\-v\\-harkove\\-ustanovili\\-velosipednyj\\-rekord\\|url\\-status\\=live}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://kharkov.nezabarom.ua/Muzei\\-Vystavki\\-Galerei/blogs/entry/3128/\\|publisher\\=kharkov.nezabarom.ua\\|title\\=Веложизнь в Харькове – Харьков на Незабаром\\|access\\-date\\=18 June 2017\\|archive\\-date\\=19 October 2017\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171019082905/http://kharkov.nezabarom.ua/Muzei\\-Vystavki\\-Galerei/blogs/entry/3128/\\|url\\-status\\=live}} There is a large bicycles producer, [Kharkiv Bicycle Plant](/wiki/Kharkiv_Bicycle_Plant \"Kharkiv Bicycle Plant\") within the city.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://usi.ua/velo/index.php?st\\=38\\|publisher\\=usi.ua\\|title\\=Харьковский Велосипедный Завод им.Петровского – велосипеды, тележки, санки, товары для отдыха.\\|access\\-date\\=18 June 2017\\|archive\\-date\\=20 June 2017\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170620013231/http://usi.ua/velo/index.php?st\\=38\\|url\\-status\\=live}} Presently, the modern bicycle highway is under construction at the \"Leso park\" (Лісопарк) district in Kharkiv.",
""
] |
History
-------
In the 1920s, *Supermercados Amigo* was opened by Jose Marti Fuentes. During the company's formative years, it operated small supermarkets across the island; these would be located at small strip malls. Many towns in [Puerto Rico](/wiki/Puerto_Rico "Puerto Rico") had multiple *Supermercados Amigo* locations.
### The transformation
After the [Grand Union](/wiki/Grand_Union_%28supermarket%29 "Grand Union (supermarket)") and [Coop Supermarkets](/wiki/COOP_%28Puerto_Rico%29 "COOP (Puerto Rico)") companies ceased operations in Puerto Rico, *Amigo* began plans to become a major player in Puerto Rico's supermarket industry. In 1989, they opened their first major store, located at [Plaza del Carmen Mall](/wiki/Plaza_del_Carmen_Mall "Plaza del Carmen Mall"), in [Caguas](/wiki/Caguas%2C_Puerto_Rico "Caguas, Puerto Rico"). Subsequently, many other major stores were opened across Puerto Rico. A massive [television](/wiki/Television "Television") campaign began, and their slogan, *Amigo, lo mejor al mejor precio* (*Amigo, the best at the best prices*) became a household phrase in Puerto Rico.
### Economic problems
Amigo ran into serious economic problems in the 1990s, most of them having to do with employee salary. As a consequence, the company began losing money. There were several [strikes](/wiki/Strike_action "Strike action"), and these received wide media attention.
### Walmart acquisition
In July 2002, [American](/wiki/United_States "United States") retail giant [Walmart](/wiki/Walmart "Walmart") purchased Supermercados Amigo,{{Cite web\|url\=https://progressivegrocer.com/wal\-mart\-puerto\-rico\-acquires\-supermercados\-amigo\|title\=Wal\-Mart Puerto Rico Acquires Supermercados Amigo\|website\=Progressive Grocer\|date\=6 February 2002 }}{{cite news \|title\=Federal Register :: Request Access \|url\=https://www.federalregister.gov/documents/2002/11/27/02\-30084/wal\-mart\-stores\-inc\-and\-supermercados\-amigo\-inc\-analysis\-to\-aid\-public\-comment \|access\-date\=13 October 2022 \|work\=Federal Register \|date\=November 27, 2002}}{{cite news \|title\=Preserving Competition, FTC Requires Divestitures Before Allowing Wal\-Mart's Acquisition of Supermercados Amigo In Puerto Rico \|url\=https://www.ftc.gov/news\-events/news/press\-releases/2002/11/preserving\-competition\-ftc\-requires\-divestitures\-allowing\-wal\-marts\-acquisition\-supermercados\-amigo \|access\-date\=13 October 2022 \|work\=Federal Trade Commission \|date\=21 November 2002 \|language\=en}} in what became a controversial business move. Claims of [unfair competition](/wiki/Unfair_competition "Unfair competition") and monopoly were instantly made by smaller supermarkets, because Amigo would be backed by the strong assets of Walmart. As part of the agreement made in order for the purchase to take place, various supermarket locations had to be closed (specifically if there was a Walmart or Sam's Club nearby). The closed Amigos became part of a new (at the time) supermarkets company known as "SuperMax" and "Pitusa Markets".
The structure of the supermarkets themselves was not changed because of the purchase, the only exception being that now customers may pay for their purchases with their respective Sam's Club or Walmart Credit Cards.
In January 2016, Walmart announced it would close four Amigo stores (plus all three Super Ahorros stores) located throughout the island, as part of a larger wave of store closures.
### 2019 renovations
On November 5, 2019, Amigo Supermarkets announced a renovation plan on its stores nationwide that would cost $7\.8 million [US dollars](/wiki/US_dollar "US dollar").{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.elnuevodia.com/negocios/empresas\-comercios/notas/supermercados\-amigo\-invierte\-8\-millones\-en\-su\-remodelacion/\|title\=Supermercados Amigo invierte $8 millones en su remodelación\|date\=5 November 2019}}
### Supermercados Pueblo acquisition
In July 2022, Walmart announced that it would sell the Amigo chain to Pueblo.{{cite web \| title\=Walmart vende a Supermercados Amigo \| website\=El Nuevo Día\|url\-access\=subscription\| date\=July 1, 2022 \| url\=https://www.elnuevodia.com/negocios/empresas\-comercios/notas/walmart\-vende\-a\-supermercados\-amigo/ \| language\=es \| access\-date\=July 4, 2022}}{{cite news \|last1\=Ramírez\-Santos \|first1\=Hernando \|title\=Walmart Puerto Rico to Sell its 11 Amigo Stores to Supermercados Pueblo \|url\=https://abasto.com/en/news/walmart\-puerto\-rico\-to\-sell\-its\-11\-amigo\-stores\-to\-supermercados\-pueblo/ \|access\-date\=13 October 2022 \|work\=Abasto \|date\=5 July 2022}}{{cite news \|last1\=James \|first1\=Chandler \|title\=Walmart Sells Amigo Chain and Invests $57 Million in Puerto Rico; Iván Báez Shares \|url\=https://m.andnowuknow.com/buyside\-news/walmart\-sells\-amigo\-chain\-and\-invests\-57\-million\-puerto\-rico\-ivan\-baez/chandler\-james/79245 \|access\-date\=13 October 2022 \|work\=AndNowUKnow \|date\=July 5, 2022}}
In June 2022, the closing of the last Amigo supermarket by Walmart was announced, this was located in [Dorado](/wiki/Dorado%2C_Puerto_Rico "Dorado, Puerto Rico") and the sale of the remaining 11 Amigo Supermarkets to Pueblo Supermarkets was announced, the brand name will remain and the 1,100 employees They will keep their jobs. On August 26, 2022, the Amigo supermarkets closed their doors at 6pm to begin the transition of Matrix companies from Walmart to Pueblo, the reopening of Amigo scheduled for September 1\.
As of December 2023, when one Amigo supermarket at [Las Catalinas Mall](/wiki/Las_Catalinas_Mall "Las Catalinas Mall") in Caguas was affected by a minor fire,{{cite web \| url\=https://www.primerahora.com/noticias/policia\-tribunales/notas/se\-incendia\-supermercado\-en\-caguas/ \| title\=Se incendia supermercado en Caguas \| date\=23 December 2023 }} Amigo supermarkets remained open.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"In the 1920s, *Supermercados Amigo* was opened by Jose Marti Fuentes. During the company's formative years, it operated small supermarkets across the island; these would be located at small strip malls. Many towns in [Puerto Rico](/wiki/Puerto_Rico \"Puerto Rico\") had multiple *Supermercados Amigo* locations.",
"### The transformation",
"After the [Grand Union](/wiki/Grand_Union_%28supermarket%29 \"Grand Union (supermarket)\") and [Coop Supermarkets](/wiki/COOP_%28Puerto_Rico%29 \"COOP (Puerto Rico)\") companies ceased operations in Puerto Rico, *Amigo* began plans to become a major player in Puerto Rico's supermarket industry. In 1989, they opened their first major store, located at [Plaza del Carmen Mall](/wiki/Plaza_del_Carmen_Mall \"Plaza del Carmen Mall\"), in [Caguas](/wiki/Caguas%2C_Puerto_Rico \"Caguas, Puerto Rico\"). Subsequently, many other major stores were opened across Puerto Rico. A massive [television](/wiki/Television \"Television\") campaign began, and their slogan, *Amigo, lo mejor al mejor precio* (*Amigo, the best at the best prices*) became a household phrase in Puerto Rico.",
"### Economic problems",
"Amigo ran into serious economic problems in the 1990s, most of them having to do with employee salary. As a consequence, the company began losing money. There were several [strikes](/wiki/Strike_action \"Strike action\"), and these received wide media attention.",
"### Walmart acquisition",
"In July 2002, [American](/wiki/United_States \"United States\") retail giant [Walmart](/wiki/Walmart \"Walmart\") purchased Supermercados Amigo,{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://progressivegrocer.com/wal\\-mart\\-puerto\\-rico\\-acquires\\-supermercados\\-amigo\\|title\\=Wal\\-Mart Puerto Rico Acquires Supermercados Amigo\\|website\\=Progressive Grocer\\|date\\=6 February 2002 }}{{cite news \\|title\\=Federal Register :: Request Access \\|url\\=https://www.federalregister.gov/documents/2002/11/27/02\\-30084/wal\\-mart\\-stores\\-inc\\-and\\-supermercados\\-amigo\\-inc\\-analysis\\-to\\-aid\\-public\\-comment \\|access\\-date\\=13 October 2022 \\|work\\=Federal Register \\|date\\=November 27, 2002}}{{cite news \\|title\\=Preserving Competition, FTC Requires Divestitures Before Allowing Wal\\-Mart's Acquisition of Supermercados Amigo In Puerto Rico \\|url\\=https://www.ftc.gov/news\\-events/news/press\\-releases/2002/11/preserving\\-competition\\-ftc\\-requires\\-divestitures\\-allowing\\-wal\\-marts\\-acquisition\\-supermercados\\-amigo \\|access\\-date\\=13 October 2022 \\|work\\=Federal Trade Commission \\|date\\=21 November 2002 \\|language\\=en}} in what became a controversial business move. Claims of [unfair competition](/wiki/Unfair_competition \"Unfair competition\") and monopoly were instantly made by smaller supermarkets, because Amigo would be backed by the strong assets of Walmart. As part of the agreement made in order for the purchase to take place, various supermarket locations had to be closed (specifically if there was a Walmart or Sam's Club nearby). The closed Amigos became part of a new (at the time) supermarkets company known as \"SuperMax\" and \"Pitusa Markets\".",
"The structure of the supermarkets themselves was not changed because of the purchase, the only exception being that now customers may pay for their purchases with their respective Sam's Club or Walmart Credit Cards.",
"In January 2016, Walmart announced it would close four Amigo stores (plus all three Super Ahorros stores) located throughout the island, as part of a larger wave of store closures.",
"### 2019 renovations",
"On November 5, 2019, Amigo Supermarkets announced a renovation plan on its stores nationwide that would cost $7\\.8 million [US dollars](/wiki/US_dollar \"US dollar\").{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.elnuevodia.com/negocios/empresas\\-comercios/notas/supermercados\\-amigo\\-invierte\\-8\\-millones\\-en\\-su\\-remodelacion/\\|title\\=Supermercados Amigo invierte $8 millones en su remodelación\\|date\\=5 November 2019}}",
"### Supermercados Pueblo acquisition",
"In July 2022, Walmart announced that it would sell the Amigo chain to Pueblo.{{cite web \\| title\\=Walmart vende a Supermercados Amigo \\| website\\=El Nuevo Día\\|url\\-access\\=subscription\\| date\\=July 1, 2022 \\| url\\=https://www.elnuevodia.com/negocios/empresas\\-comercios/notas/walmart\\-vende\\-a\\-supermercados\\-amigo/ \\| language\\=es \\| access\\-date\\=July 4, 2022}}{{cite news \\|last1\\=Ramírez\\-Santos \\|first1\\=Hernando \\|title\\=Walmart Puerto Rico to Sell its 11 Amigo Stores to Supermercados Pueblo \\|url\\=https://abasto.com/en/news/walmart\\-puerto\\-rico\\-to\\-sell\\-its\\-11\\-amigo\\-stores\\-to\\-supermercados\\-pueblo/ \\|access\\-date\\=13 October 2022 \\|work\\=Abasto \\|date\\=5 July 2022}}{{cite news \\|last1\\=James \\|first1\\=Chandler \\|title\\=Walmart Sells Amigo Chain and Invests $57 Million in Puerto Rico; Iván Báez Shares \\|url\\=https://m.andnowuknow.com/buyside\\-news/walmart\\-sells\\-amigo\\-chain\\-and\\-invests\\-57\\-million\\-puerto\\-rico\\-ivan\\-baez/chandler\\-james/79245 \\|access\\-date\\=13 October 2022 \\|work\\=AndNowUKnow \\|date\\=July 5, 2022}}",
"In June 2022, the closing of the last Amigo supermarket by Walmart was announced, this was located in [Dorado](/wiki/Dorado%2C_Puerto_Rico \"Dorado, Puerto Rico\") and the sale of the remaining 11 Amigo Supermarkets to Pueblo Supermarkets was announced, the brand name will remain and the 1,100 employees They will keep their jobs. On August 26, 2022, the Amigo supermarkets closed their doors at 6pm to begin the transition of Matrix companies from Walmart to Pueblo, the reopening of Amigo scheduled for September 1\\.",
"As of December 2023, when one Amigo supermarket at [Las Catalinas Mall](/wiki/Las_Catalinas_Mall \"Las Catalinas Mall\") in Caguas was affected by a minor fire,{{cite web \\| url\\=https://www.primerahora.com/noticias/policia\\-tribunales/notas/se\\-incendia\\-supermercado\\-en\\-caguas/ \\| title\\=Se incendia supermercado en Caguas \\| date\\=23 December 2023 }} Amigo supermarkets remained open.",
""
] |
Biography
---------
Nur al\-Din Muhammad, surnamed Ala, also called Ala Muhammad or Muhammad bin Hasan, was born around 550/1155 or 553/1158 in Alamut. He is also known as Muhammad II, and sometimes as Ziaruddin Muhammad. His mother related to the [Buwahid family](/wiki/Buwayhids "Buwayhids"). Immediately upon his accession, he arrested Hasan bin Namavar and his relatives and sentenced them to death.
[Bernard Lewis](/wiki/Bernard_Lewis "Bernard Lewis") writes in "The Assassins" (London, 1967, p. 95\) that, "Hassan was succeeded by his son Muhammad, who proceeded to confirm that his father and therefore he himself were descendants of Nizar, and subsequent Imams. He is said to have been a prolific writer, and during his long reign, the doctrine of the Resurrection was developed and elaborated." B. Hourcade writes that, "Hassan's son, Nur al\-din Mohammad II (d. 607/1210\), consolidated the work of his father, whom he pronounced the true Imam, the secret son of a descendant of Nizar who had hidden at Alamut." (cf. "Encyclopaedia of Iran and Islam" ed. by Yarshater, London, 1982, p. 800\).
Ala Muhammad was greatly engaged in his interest on philosophy and esoteric doctrines. His literary output was voluminous and had compiled several books on Koranic exegesis to broach the doctrines of the Ismailis. He was well steeped in Arabic and composed many proverbs and poetry in Arabic, whose fragments had been into the memories of the Muslims in Qazwin. Few misconception had started among the Muslims during his period about the qiyama in Iran and Syria, therefore, Ala Muhammad wrote several tracts to justify the doctrines of qiyama. In his elaboration of the doctrine of qiyama, he also assigned as usual a central role to the Imam. It further implied a complete personal transformation of the Ismailis who henceforth were expected to see nothing but the Imam and the manifestation of the divine truth in him. The Imam was defined in his essence as the epiphany (mazhar) of God on earth.
The period of Ala Muhammad was longer, in which there had been no war between the Ismailis and neighbouring rulers. It is possible that the Abbasid and Seljuq powers were at their downfall, and were incapable to attack the Ismaili castles.
Meanwhile, an important political change took place in Iran and other eastern lands. The Seljuqs disintegrated after Sanjar's death in 552/1157, being replaced by the Turkish amirs and generals. It must be remembered that Tughril Beg (d. 455/1063\) had founded the Seljuqid empire in 447/1055 and was declined in 590/1194\. This dynasty produced 15 rulers belonging to seven generations.
Towards the end of the twelfth century a new power emerged in the east. South of the Aral sea lay the land of Khawaraz in Central Asia, the seat of an old civilization, whose hereditary rulers assumed the old title of the kings as the Khwarazmshahs. In about 586/1190, the Khawarazmshah Alauddin Tekish (d. 596/1200\) occupied Khorasan, thus becoming master of eastern Iran. The Khawarazmians soon came to have an impressive empire of their own, stretching from the borders of India to Anatolia. The Seljuq dynasty came to an end everywhere except in Anatolia when Alauddin Tekish defeated Tughril III at Ray in 590/1194\. The triumphant Khawarazmshah was the obvious ruler to fill the vacancy created by the Seljuqs, and in the following year, the Abbasid caliph Nasir (d. 622/1225\) invested Alauddin Tekish with the sultanate of western Iran, Khorasan and Turkistan.
We come across an instance of Ustandar Hazarasf bin Shahrnush (560\-586/1164\-1190\), the Baduspanid ruler of [Rustamdar](/wiki/Rustamdar "Rustamdar") and [Ruyan](/wiki/Ruyan_%28district%29 "Ruyan (district)"), who had harboured himself at Alamut. According to "Jamiut\-Tawarikh" (pp. 170–173\), Hazarasf had cemented his close relation with the Ismailis residing at Rudhbar and granted them few castles in his territories. When his relation deteriorated with his superior, Husam ad\-Dawla Ardashir (567\-602/1172\-1206\), the Bawandid Ispahbad of Mazandarn, he took refuge at Alamut as a result. In due course, Hazarasf raided his former territories with the help of the Ismaili fidais and killed an Alid ruler of Daylaman. He was at last arrested and killed by Ardashir in 586/1190\.
The hostile Sunni rulers had maintained the tradition of occasionally massacring the Ismailis. It is reported, for instance, according to Ibn Athir (12th vol., pp. 76–7\) that a bulk of people accused of Ismailism were killed in lower Iraq in the year 600/1204\.
{{main\|Alamūt\|Alamut Castle\|Nizārī Ismā'īlī state}}
### Succession
Nūr ad\-Dīn Muḥammad II was born in [Alamut Castle](/wiki/Alamut_Castle "Alamut Castle"). When he ascended to leadership of Alamūt, he immediately avenged his father's death by executing his father's killer, Hasan ibn Namawar (who apparently could not tolerate the reforms and claims of [Hassan Ala Dhikrihi's Salam](/wiki/Hassan_Ala_Dhikrihi%27s_Salam "Hassan Ala Dhikrihi's Salam") and wanted to reinstate shari'ah) and the latter's relatives upon succeeding his father at nineteen years old. This act put to rest all of the remaining members of the [Buyids](/wiki/Buyid_dynasty "Buyid dynasty").{{cite book\|last\=Hodgson\|first\=Marshall\|title\=The Secret Order of the Assassins: The Struggle of the Early \[\[Nizārī Ismā'īlī]]s Against the Islamic World\|date\=1955\|publisher\=Mouton and Co's Gravenhage\|page\=159}}
### Doctrinal development and elaboration
Muhammad II is known to have been a prolific writer, and he developed and elaborated on his father's doctrine of the *Qiyāma*. He explicitly confirmed that his father had been in fact a [Nizārī Ismā'īlī](/wiki/Niz%C4%81r%C4%AB_Ism%C4%81%27%C4%ABl%C4%AB "Nizārī Ismā'īlī") [Imām](/wiki/Im%C4%81m "Imām"), and that he himself was an [Imām](/wiki/Im%C4%81m "Imām") as well. Whereas the founder of the *"Qiyāma" doctrine* [Hassan Ala Dhikrihi's Salam](/wiki/Hassan_Ala_Dhikrihi%27s_Salam "Hassan Ala Dhikrihi's Salam") is believed to have only claimed to have been *an "[Imām](/wiki/Im%C4%81m "Imām") in hāqiqā" and in the "[batin](/wiki/Batin_%28Islam%29 "Batin (Islam)") at most",* not claiming to be *the "[zahir](/wiki/Zahir_%28Islam%29 "Zahir (Islam)") [Imām](/wiki/Im%C4%81m "Imām")"* actually descended from [Ali](/wiki/Ali "Ali") and the [Nizārī Ismā'īlī](/wiki/Niz%C4%81r%C4%AB_Ism%C4%81%27%C4%ABl%C4%AB "Nizārī Ismā'īlī") [Imāms](/wiki/Im%C4%81m "Imām")*.*{{cite book\|last\=Hodgson\|first\=Marshall\|title\=The Secret Order of the Assassins: The Struggle of the Early \[\[Nizārī Ismā'īlī]]s Against the Islamic World\|date\=1955\|publisher\=Mouton and Co's Gravenhage\|pages\=160–161}} Nūr ad\-Dīn Muḥammad II claimed an alternate genealogy for his father and himself which denied descent from [Muhammad b. Buzurg\-Ummid](/wiki/Buzurg-Ummid "Buzurg-Ummid"), who was only an apparent father, but rather insisted that his father was "the son of a descendant of Nizar who had secretly found refuge in a village near [Alamūt](/wiki/Alam%C5%ABt "Alamūt")."{{cite book\|last\=Daftary\|first\=Farhad\|title\=The Ismailis: Their History and Doctrines\|date\=2007\|publisher\=Cambridge University Press\|page\=363}} The [Nizārī Ismā'īlīs](/wiki/Niz%C4%81r%C4%AB_Ism%C4%81%27%C4%ABl%C4%AB "Nizārī Ismā'īlī") accepted the line of [Imāms](/wiki/Im%C4%81m "Imām") starting with [Hassan Ala Dhikrihi's Salam](/wiki/Hassan_Ala_Dhikrihi%27s_Salam "Hassan Ala Dhikrihi's Salam") *(in retrospect)* and understood them as having come out in the open once again after seventy years (as their [Imām](/wiki/Im%C4%81m "Imām") was in concealment since the time of Nizar). One of the most important things that *Qiyāma* meant on a practical level was the nullification of Islamic law, since the *batin* (inner reality) had been unveiled by the [Nizārī Ismā'īlī](/wiki/Niz%C4%81r%C4%AB_Ism%C4%81%27%C4%ABl%C4%AB "Nizārī Ismā'īlī") [Imāms](/wiki/Im%C4%81m "Imām"), and the true "meanings hidden behind" the law had become manifest. The early chroniclers of this period (meaning Sunni historians decades after the event) cite this overturning of the law as the main reason that the [Nizārī Ismā'īlīs](/wiki/Niz%C4%81r%C4%AB_Ism%C4%81%27%C4%ABl%C4%AB "Nizārī Ismā'īlī") were further condemned and considered *[malāhīda](/wiki/Mulhid "Mulhid"),* a condemnatory term that could mean heretic or non\-believer, for instance.{{cite book\|last\=Daftary\|first\=Farhad\|title\=The Assassin Legends\|date\=1994\|publisher\=IB Taurus and Co. Ltd\|location\=London; New York\|page\=41}}
It is claimed that [Nūru](/wiki/N%C5%ABr_%28Islam%29 "Nūr (Islam)")\-d\-[Dīn](/wiki/D%C4%ABn "Dīn") Muḥammad II insisted that the Ismaili believers could see [Allah](/wiki/Allah "Allah") in the [Imām](/wiki/Im%C4%81m "Imām") (as if their seeing God in paradise was actually seeing the [Imām](/wiki/Im%C4%81m "Imām")).{{cite book\|last\=Hodgson\|first\=Marshall\|title\=The Secret Order of the Assassins: The Struggle of the Early \[\[Nizārī Ismā'īlī]]s Against the Islamic World\|date\=1955\|publisher\=Mouton and Co's Gravenhage\|pages\=159–160}} In other words, "the present [Imām](/wiki/Im%C4%81m "Imām") became the manifestation of the divine word or order to create, that is to say the cause of the spiritual world" and the Ismailis, through viewing the universe through the [Imām](/wiki/Im%C4%81m "Imām"), could in fact reach "a third level of being", seeing the *batin* of the *batin*, or the *haqiqa*, "a realm of spiritual life and awareness".{{cite book\|last\=Daftary\|first\=Farhad\|title\=The Ismailis: Their History and Doctrines\|date\=2007\|publisher\=Cambridge University Press\|page\=363}} Moreover, the [Imām](/wiki/Im%C4%81m "Imām") became known as identical to [Ali](/wiki/Ali "Ali"), with every believer being associated in the spiritual relationship as roughly equivalent to [Salman the Persian](/wiki/Salman_the_Persian "Salman the Persian").{{cite book\|last\=Daftary\|first\=Farhad\|title\=The Ismailis: Their History and Doctrines\|date\=2007\|publisher\=Cambridge University Press\|page\=364}} Thus, he took Ismaili doctrine to a more esoteric place by expanding on the doctrines of his father [Hassan Ala Dhikrihi's Salam](/wiki/Hassan_Ala_Dhikrihi%27s_Salam "Hassan Ala Dhikrihi's Salam"). It is tough to definitively distinguish what [Hassan Ala Dhikrihi's Salam](/wiki/Hassan_Ala_Dhikrihi%27s_Salam "Hassan Ala Dhikrihi's Salam") proclaimed compared to his son [Nūru](/wiki/N%C5%ABr_%28Islam%29 "Nūr (Islam)")\-d\-[Dīn](/wiki/D%C4%ABn "Dīn") Muḥammad II because the latter only began to rule a year and a half after he Festival of *Qiyāma*, and we do not have a source about this from [Hassan Ala Dhikrihi's Salam](/wiki/Hassan_Ala_Dhikrihi%27s_Salam "Hassan Ala Dhikrihi's Salam") with which to compare the words of [Nūru](/wiki/N%C5%ABr_%28Islam%29 "Nūr (Islam)")\-d\-Dīn Muḥammad II.
### Outside impact
The doctrine of *Qiyāma* was not observed by outside groups apparently, and politically Lewis claims that the period of Muhammad II was relatively uneventful, other than the assassination of a vizier of the caliph in Baghdad.{{cite book\|last\=Lewis\|first\=Bernard\|title\=The Assassins\|year\=1980 \|orig\-year\=1968 \|publisher\=Octagon Books\|location\=New York\|page\=75}} The [Nizārī Ismā'īlīs](/wiki/Niz%C4%81r%C4%AB_Ism%C4%81%27%C4%ABl%C4%AB "Nizārī Ismā'īlī") did not mix with the rest of Muslim society much at all during this period and were isolated in their mountain strongholds. This may have been in a sense because of the perception resulting from their Qiyāma doctrine, which viewed the [Nizārī Ismā'īlīs](/wiki/Niz%C4%81r%C4%AB_Ism%C4%81%27%C4%ABl%C4%AB "Nizārī Ismā'īlī") as the sole custodians of the truth and only community that had the truth unveiled for them, resulting in a sort of paradise on earth for them to the exclusion of other Muslims and non\-Muslims.{{cite book\|last\=Daftary\|first\=Farhad\|title\=The Assassin Legends\|date\=1994\|publisher\=IB Taurus and Co. Ltd\|location\=London; New York\|page\=41}} There was more interaction with and knowledge of the Syrian [Nizārī Ismā'īlī](/wiki/Niz%C4%81r%C4%AB_Ism%C4%81%27%C4%ABl%C4%AB "Nizārī Ismā'īlī") community during this period, which was led the da'i [Rashid al\-Din Sinan](/wiki/Rashid_al-Din_Sinan "Rashid al-Din Sinan"), famously known as "the Old Man of the Mountain" from Crusader sources.{{cite book\|last\=Daftary\|first\=Farhad\|title\=Historical Dictionary of the Ismailis\|date\=2012\|publisher\=The Scarecrow Press\|location\=Lanham, MD\|pages\=xxix–xxx}}
|
[
"Biography\n---------",
"Nur al\\-Din Muhammad, surnamed Ala, also called Ala Muhammad or Muhammad bin Hasan, was born around 550/1155 or 553/1158 in Alamut. He is also known as Muhammad II, and sometimes as Ziaruddin Muhammad. His mother related to the [Buwahid family](/wiki/Buwayhids \"Buwayhids\"). Immediately upon his accession, he arrested Hasan bin Namavar and his relatives and sentenced them to death.",
"[Bernard Lewis](/wiki/Bernard_Lewis \"Bernard Lewis\") writes in \"The Assassins\" (London, 1967, p. 95\\) that, \"Hassan was succeeded by his son Muhammad, who proceeded to confirm that his father and therefore he himself were descendants of Nizar, and subsequent Imams. He is said to have been a prolific writer, and during his long reign, the doctrine of the Resurrection was developed and elaborated.\" B. Hourcade writes that, \"Hassan's son, Nur al\\-din Mohammad II (d. 607/1210\\), consolidated the work of his father, whom he pronounced the true Imam, the secret son of a descendant of Nizar who had hidden at Alamut.\" (cf. \"Encyclopaedia of Iran and Islam\" ed. by Yarshater, London, 1982, p. 800\\).",
"Ala Muhammad was greatly engaged in his interest on philosophy and esoteric doctrines. His literary output was voluminous and had compiled several books on Koranic exegesis to broach the doctrines of the Ismailis. He was well steeped in Arabic and composed many proverbs and poetry in Arabic, whose fragments had been into the memories of the Muslims in Qazwin. Few misconception had started among the Muslims during his period about the qiyama in Iran and Syria, therefore, Ala Muhammad wrote several tracts to justify the doctrines of qiyama. In his elaboration of the doctrine of qiyama, he also assigned as usual a central role to the Imam. It further implied a complete personal transformation of the Ismailis who henceforth were expected to see nothing but the Imam and the manifestation of the divine truth in him. The Imam was defined in his essence as the epiphany (mazhar) of God on earth.",
"The period of Ala Muhammad was longer, in which there had been no war between the Ismailis and neighbouring rulers. It is possible that the Abbasid and Seljuq powers were at their downfall, and were incapable to attack the Ismaili castles.",
"Meanwhile, an important political change took place in Iran and other eastern lands. The Seljuqs disintegrated after Sanjar's death in 552/1157, being replaced by the Turkish amirs and generals. It must be remembered that Tughril Beg (d. 455/1063\\) had founded the Seljuqid empire in 447/1055 and was declined in 590/1194\\. This dynasty produced 15 rulers belonging to seven generations.",
"Towards the end of the twelfth century a new power emerged in the east. South of the Aral sea lay the land of Khawaraz in Central Asia, the seat of an old civilization, whose hereditary rulers assumed the old title of the kings as the Khwarazmshahs. In about 586/1190, the Khawarazmshah Alauddin Tekish (d. 596/1200\\) occupied Khorasan, thus becoming master of eastern Iran. The Khawarazmians soon came to have an impressive empire of their own, stretching from the borders of India to Anatolia. The Seljuq dynasty came to an end everywhere except in Anatolia when Alauddin Tekish defeated Tughril III at Ray in 590/1194\\. The triumphant Khawarazmshah was the obvious ruler to fill the vacancy created by the Seljuqs, and in the following year, the Abbasid caliph Nasir (d. 622/1225\\) invested Alauddin Tekish with the sultanate of western Iran, Khorasan and Turkistan.",
"We come across an instance of Ustandar Hazarasf bin Shahrnush (560\\-586/1164\\-1190\\), the Baduspanid ruler of [Rustamdar](/wiki/Rustamdar \"Rustamdar\") and [Ruyan](/wiki/Ruyan_%28district%29 \"Ruyan (district)\"), who had harboured himself at Alamut. According to \"Jamiut\\-Tawarikh\" (pp. 170–173\\), Hazarasf had cemented his close relation with the Ismailis residing at Rudhbar and granted them few castles in his territories. When his relation deteriorated with his superior, Husam ad\\-Dawla Ardashir (567\\-602/1172\\-1206\\), the Bawandid Ispahbad of Mazandarn, he took refuge at Alamut as a result. In due course, Hazarasf raided his former territories with the help of the Ismaili fidais and killed an Alid ruler of Daylaman. He was at last arrested and killed by Ardashir in 586/1190\\.",
"The hostile Sunni rulers had maintained the tradition of occasionally massacring the Ismailis. It is reported, for instance, according to Ibn Athir (12th vol., pp. 76–7\\) that a bulk of people accused of Ismailism were killed in lower Iraq in the year 600/1204\\. \n{{main\\|Alamūt\\|Alamut Castle\\|Nizārī Ismā'īlī state}}",
"### Succession",
"Nūr ad\\-Dīn Muḥammad II was born in [Alamut Castle](/wiki/Alamut_Castle \"Alamut Castle\"). When he ascended to leadership of Alamūt, he immediately avenged his father's death by executing his father's killer, Hasan ibn Namawar (who apparently could not tolerate the reforms and claims of [Hassan Ala Dhikrihi's Salam](/wiki/Hassan_Ala_Dhikrihi%27s_Salam \"Hassan Ala Dhikrihi's Salam\") and wanted to reinstate shari'ah) and the latter's relatives upon succeeding his father at nineteen years old. This act put to rest all of the remaining members of the [Buyids](/wiki/Buyid_dynasty \"Buyid dynasty\").{{cite book\\|last\\=Hodgson\\|first\\=Marshall\\|title\\=The Secret Order of the Assassins: The Struggle of the Early \\[\\[Nizārī Ismā'īlī]]s Against the Islamic World\\|date\\=1955\\|publisher\\=Mouton and Co's Gravenhage\\|page\\=159}}",
"### Doctrinal development and elaboration",
"Muhammad II is known to have been a prolific writer, and he developed and elaborated on his father's doctrine of the *Qiyāma*. He explicitly confirmed that his father had been in fact a [Nizārī Ismā'īlī](/wiki/Niz%C4%81r%C4%AB_Ism%C4%81%27%C4%ABl%C4%AB \"Nizārī Ismā'īlī\") [Imām](/wiki/Im%C4%81m \"Imām\"), and that he himself was an [Imām](/wiki/Im%C4%81m \"Imām\") as well. Whereas the founder of the *\"Qiyāma\" doctrine* [Hassan Ala Dhikrihi's Salam](/wiki/Hassan_Ala_Dhikrihi%27s_Salam \"Hassan Ala Dhikrihi's Salam\") is believed to have only claimed to have been *an \"[Imām](/wiki/Im%C4%81m \"Imām\") in hāqiqā\" and in the \"[batin](/wiki/Batin_%28Islam%29 \"Batin (Islam)\") at most\",* not claiming to be *the \"[zahir](/wiki/Zahir_%28Islam%29 \"Zahir (Islam)\") [Imām](/wiki/Im%C4%81m \"Imām\")\"* actually descended from [Ali](/wiki/Ali \"Ali\") and the [Nizārī Ismā'īlī](/wiki/Niz%C4%81r%C4%AB_Ism%C4%81%27%C4%ABl%C4%AB \"Nizārī Ismā'īlī\") [Imāms](/wiki/Im%C4%81m \"Imām\")*.*{{cite book\\|last\\=Hodgson\\|first\\=Marshall\\|title\\=The Secret Order of the Assassins: The Struggle of the Early \\[\\[Nizārī Ismā'īlī]]s Against the Islamic World\\|date\\=1955\\|publisher\\=Mouton and Co's Gravenhage\\|pages\\=160–161}} Nūr ad\\-Dīn Muḥammad II claimed an alternate genealogy for his father and himself which denied descent from [Muhammad b. Buzurg\\-Ummid](/wiki/Buzurg-Ummid \"Buzurg-Ummid\"), who was only an apparent father, but rather insisted that his father was \"the son of a descendant of Nizar who had secretly found refuge in a village near [Alamūt](/wiki/Alam%C5%ABt \"Alamūt\").\"{{cite book\\|last\\=Daftary\\|first\\=Farhad\\|title\\=The Ismailis: Their History and Doctrines\\|date\\=2007\\|publisher\\=Cambridge University Press\\|page\\=363}} The [Nizārī Ismā'īlīs](/wiki/Niz%C4%81r%C4%AB_Ism%C4%81%27%C4%ABl%C4%AB \"Nizārī Ismā'īlī\") accepted the line of [Imāms](/wiki/Im%C4%81m \"Imām\") starting with [Hassan Ala Dhikrihi's Salam](/wiki/Hassan_Ala_Dhikrihi%27s_Salam \"Hassan Ala Dhikrihi's Salam\") *(in retrospect)* and understood them as having come out in the open once again after seventy years (as their [Imām](/wiki/Im%C4%81m \"Imām\") was in concealment since the time of Nizar). One of the most important things that *Qiyāma* meant on a practical level was the nullification of Islamic law, since the *batin* (inner reality) had been unveiled by the [Nizārī Ismā'īlī](/wiki/Niz%C4%81r%C4%AB_Ism%C4%81%27%C4%ABl%C4%AB \"Nizārī Ismā'īlī\") [Imāms](/wiki/Im%C4%81m \"Imām\"), and the true \"meanings hidden behind\" the law had become manifest. The early chroniclers of this period (meaning Sunni historians decades after the event) cite this overturning of the law as the main reason that the [Nizārī Ismā'īlīs](/wiki/Niz%C4%81r%C4%AB_Ism%C4%81%27%C4%ABl%C4%AB \"Nizārī Ismā'īlī\") were further condemned and considered *[malāhīda](/wiki/Mulhid \"Mulhid\"),* a condemnatory term that could mean heretic or non\\-believer, for instance.{{cite book\\|last\\=Daftary\\|first\\=Farhad\\|title\\=The Assassin Legends\\|date\\=1994\\|publisher\\=IB Taurus and Co. Ltd\\|location\\=London; New York\\|page\\=41}}",
"It is claimed that [Nūru](/wiki/N%C5%ABr_%28Islam%29 \"Nūr (Islam)\")\\-d\\-[Dīn](/wiki/D%C4%ABn \"Dīn\") Muḥammad II insisted that the Ismaili believers could see [Allah](/wiki/Allah \"Allah\") in the [Imām](/wiki/Im%C4%81m \"Imām\") (as if their seeing God in paradise was actually seeing the [Imām](/wiki/Im%C4%81m \"Imām\")).{{cite book\\|last\\=Hodgson\\|first\\=Marshall\\|title\\=The Secret Order of the Assassins: The Struggle of the Early \\[\\[Nizārī Ismā'īlī]]s Against the Islamic World\\|date\\=1955\\|publisher\\=Mouton and Co's Gravenhage\\|pages\\=159–160}} In other words, \"the present [Imām](/wiki/Im%C4%81m \"Imām\") became the manifestation of the divine word or order to create, that is to say the cause of the spiritual world\" and the Ismailis, through viewing the universe through the [Imām](/wiki/Im%C4%81m \"Imām\"), could in fact reach \"a third level of being\", seeing the *batin* of the *batin*, or the *haqiqa*, \"a realm of spiritual life and awareness\".{{cite book\\|last\\=Daftary\\|first\\=Farhad\\|title\\=The Ismailis: Their History and Doctrines\\|date\\=2007\\|publisher\\=Cambridge University Press\\|page\\=363}} Moreover, the [Imām](/wiki/Im%C4%81m \"Imām\") became known as identical to [Ali](/wiki/Ali \"Ali\"), with every believer being associated in the spiritual relationship as roughly equivalent to [Salman the Persian](/wiki/Salman_the_Persian \"Salman the Persian\").{{cite book\\|last\\=Daftary\\|first\\=Farhad\\|title\\=The Ismailis: Their History and Doctrines\\|date\\=2007\\|publisher\\=Cambridge University Press\\|page\\=364}} Thus, he took Ismaili doctrine to a more esoteric place by expanding on the doctrines of his father [Hassan Ala Dhikrihi's Salam](/wiki/Hassan_Ala_Dhikrihi%27s_Salam \"Hassan Ala Dhikrihi's Salam\"). It is tough to definitively distinguish what [Hassan Ala Dhikrihi's Salam](/wiki/Hassan_Ala_Dhikrihi%27s_Salam \"Hassan Ala Dhikrihi's Salam\") proclaimed compared to his son [Nūru](/wiki/N%C5%ABr_%28Islam%29 \"Nūr (Islam)\")\\-d\\-[Dīn](/wiki/D%C4%ABn \"Dīn\") Muḥammad II because the latter only began to rule a year and a half after he Festival of *Qiyāma*, and we do not have a source about this from [Hassan Ala Dhikrihi's Salam](/wiki/Hassan_Ala_Dhikrihi%27s_Salam \"Hassan Ala Dhikrihi's Salam\") with which to compare the words of [Nūru](/wiki/N%C5%ABr_%28Islam%29 \"Nūr (Islam)\")\\-d\\-Dīn Muḥammad II.",
"### Outside impact",
"The doctrine of *Qiyāma* was not observed by outside groups apparently, and politically Lewis claims that the period of Muhammad II was relatively uneventful, other than the assassination of a vizier of the caliph in Baghdad.{{cite book\\|last\\=Lewis\\|first\\=Bernard\\|title\\=The Assassins\\|year\\=1980 \\|orig\\-year\\=1968 \\|publisher\\=Octagon Books\\|location\\=New York\\|page\\=75}} The [Nizārī Ismā'īlīs](/wiki/Niz%C4%81r%C4%AB_Ism%C4%81%27%C4%ABl%C4%AB \"Nizārī Ismā'īlī\") did not mix with the rest of Muslim society much at all during this period and were isolated in their mountain strongholds. This may have been in a sense because of the perception resulting from their Qiyāma doctrine, which viewed the [Nizārī Ismā'īlīs](/wiki/Niz%C4%81r%C4%AB_Ism%C4%81%27%C4%ABl%C4%AB \"Nizārī Ismā'īlī\") as the sole custodians of the truth and only community that had the truth unveiled for them, resulting in a sort of paradise on earth for them to the exclusion of other Muslims and non\\-Muslims.{{cite book\\|last\\=Daftary\\|first\\=Farhad\\|title\\=The Assassin Legends\\|date\\=1994\\|publisher\\=IB Taurus and Co. Ltd\\|location\\=London; New York\\|page\\=41}} There was more interaction with and knowledge of the Syrian [Nizārī Ismā'īlī](/wiki/Niz%C4%81r%C4%AB_Ism%C4%81%27%C4%ABl%C4%AB \"Nizārī Ismā'īlī\") community during this period, which was led the da'i [Rashid al\\-Din Sinan](/wiki/Rashid_al-Din_Sinan \"Rashid al-Din Sinan\"), famously known as \"the Old Man of the Mountain\" from Crusader sources.{{cite book\\|last\\=Daftary\\|first\\=Farhad\\|title\\=Historical Dictionary of the Ismailis\\|date\\=2012\\|publisher\\=The Scarecrow Press\\|location\\=Lanham, MD\\|pages\\=xxix–xxx}}",
""
] |
Functional levels
-----------------
The [SS7](/wiki/Signaling_System_7 "Signaling System 7") stack can be separated into four functional levels:[ITU\-T Recommendation Q.700](http://www.itu.int/rec/T-REC-Q.700-199303-I/en/), Figure 3/Q.700, *SS No. 7 functional levels*, p. 8\.
Level 1 through Level 3 comprise the *MTP*, and Level 4 the *MTP user*. *MTP Level 3* is sometimes abbreviated *MTP3*; *MTP Level 2*, *MTP2*.See for example, RFC 3331 and RFC 3332 for the usage *MTP2* and *MTP3*. MTP and [SCCP](/wiki/Signalling_Connection_Control_Part "Signalling Connection Control Part") are together referred to as the *Network Service Part (NSP)*.[ITU\-T Recommendation Q.711 (03/2001\)](http://www.itu.int/rec/T-REC-Q.711-200103-I/en/), Figure 1/Q.711, *Functional diagram for the SCCP in Signalling System No. 7*, p. 2\.
There is no one\-to\-one mapping of MTP Levels 1 through 3 onto the [OSI model](/wiki/OSI_model "OSI model").[ITU\-T Recommendation Q.700 (03/1993\)](http://www.itu.int/rec/T-REC-Q.700-199303-I/en/), Clause 4, *OSI layering and SS No. 7*, p. 9\. Instead, MTP provides the functionality of [layers 1](/wiki/Layer_1 "Layer 1"), [2](/wiki/Layer_2 "Layer 2") and part of [layer 3](/wiki/Layer_3 "Layer 3") in the [OSI model](/wiki/OSI_model "OSI model").[ITU\-T Recommendation Q.700 (03/1993\)](http://www.itu.int/rec/T-REC-Q.700-199303-I/en/), Figure 2/Q.700, *Architecture of SS No. 7*, p. 7\. The part of layer 3 of the [OSI model](/wiki/OSI_model "OSI model") that MTP does not provide, is provided by [SCCP](/wiki/Signalling_Connection_Control_Part "Signalling Connection Control Part") or other Level 4 parts (MTP users).[ITU\-T Recommendation Q.1400 (03/1993\)](http://www.itu.int/rec/T-REC-Q.1400-199303-I/en/), Clause 2\.2, *OSI layering and SS No. 7*, p. 4\.[ITU\-T Recommendation Q.1400 (03/1993\)](http://www.itu.int/rec/T-REC-Q.1400-199303-I/en/), Figure 1/Q.1400, *Relationship between SS No. 7 Functional Levels and OSI Layering*, p. 5\.
### Signalling Data Link Functional Level
*MTP Level 1* is described in [ITU\-T Recommendation Q.702](http://www.itu.int/rec/T-REC-Q.702/en/), and provides the *Signalling Data Link* functional level for narrowband signalling links. For broadband signalling links,
[ITU\-T Recommendation Q.2110](http://www.itu.int/rec/T-REC-Q.2110/en/) or
[Q.2111](http://www.itu.int/rec/T-REC-Q.2111/en/) describe the signalling data link function.
MTP1 represents the physical layer. That is, the layer that is responsible for the connection of SS7 Signaling Points into the transmission network over which they communicate with each other. Primarily, this involves the conversion of messaging into electrical signal and the maintenance of the physical links through which these pass. In this way, it is analogous to the Layer 1 of ISDN or other, perhaps more familiar, protocols.
MTP1 normally uses a timeslot in an [E\-carrier](/wiki/E-carrier "E-carrier") or [T\-carrier](/wiki/T-carrier "T-carrier"). The Physical interfaces defined include E\-1 (2048 kbit/s; 32 64 kbit/s channels), DS\-1 (1544 kbit/s; 24 64 kbit/s channels), V.35 (64 kbit/s), DS\-0 (64 kbit/s), and DS\-0A (56 kbit/s).
### Signalling Link Functional Level
*MTP Level 2* is described in [ITU\-T Recommendation Q.703](http://www.itu.int/rec/T-REC-Q.703/en/), and provides the *Signalling Link* functional level for narrowband signalling links. For broadband signalling links,
[ITU\-T Recommendation Q.2140](http://www.itu.int/rec/T-REC-Q.2140/en/) and
[Q.2210](http://www.itu.int/rec/T-REC-Q.2210/en/) describe the signalling link function referred to as *MTP3b*. The signalling link functional level may also be provided using the [SIGTRAN](/wiki/SIGTRAN "SIGTRAN") protocol [M2PA](/wiki/M2PA "M2PA") described in RFC 4165\.
*MTP Level 2* ensures accurate end\-to\-end transmission of a message
across a signaling link.
MTP2 provides flow control, error detection and sequence checking, and retransmits unacknowledged messages. MTP2 uses packets called *signal units* to transmit SS7 messages. There are three types of signal units: [Fill\-in Signal Unit](/wiki/Fill-in_Signal_Unit "Fill-in Signal Unit") (FISU), [Link Status Signal Unit](/wiki/Link_Status_Signal_Unit "Link Status Signal Unit") (LSSU), [Message Signal Unit](/wiki/Message_Signal_Unit "Message Signal Unit") (MSU).
Access to the signalling link functional level's service interface can be provided over [SCTP](/wiki/Stream_Control_Transmission_Protocol "Stream Control Transmission Protocol") by the [SIGTRAN](/wiki/SIGTRAN "SIGTRAN") protocol [M2UA](/wiki/M2UA "M2UA"), described in RFC 3331\.
MTP Level 2 is tested using the protocol tester and test specifications described in
[Q.755](http://www.itu.int/rec/T-REC-Q.755/en/),
[Q.755\.1](http://www.itu.int/rec/T-REC-Q.755.1/en/),
[Q.780](http://www.itu.int/rec/T-REC-Q.780/en/) and
[Q.781](http://www.itu.int/rec/T-REC-Q.781/en/).
### Signalling Network Functional Level
*MTP Level 3* is described in [ITU\-T Recommendation Q.704](http://www.itu.int/rec/T-REC-Q.704/en/), and provides the *Signalling Network* functional level for narrowband signalling links and, with only minor modifications described in
[ITU\-T Recommendation Q.2210](http://www.itu.int/rec/T-REC-Q.2210/en/), for broadband signalling links. The functions of *MTP Level 3* may also be replaced with the *Generic Signalling Transport Service* described in [ITU\-T Recommendation Q.2150\.0](http://www.itu.int/rec/T-REC-Q.2150.0/en/) as provided by *MTP3b* ([Q.2150\.1](http://www.itu.int/rec/T-REC-Q.2150.1/en/)), *SSCOP or SSCOPMCE* ([Q.2150\.2](http://www.itu.int/rec/T-REC-Q.2150.2/en/)) or [SCTP](/wiki/Stream_Control_Transmission_Protocol "Stream Control Transmission Protocol") ([Q.2150\.3](http://www.itu.int/rec/T-REC-Q.2150.3/en/)). *MTP Level 3* functions can also be provided by using the [IETF](/wiki/IETF "IETF") [SIGTRAN](/wiki/SIGTRAN "SIGTRAN") [M3UA](/wiki/M3UA "M3UA") protocol, described in RFC 4666, in [IPSP](/wiki/IP_Signalling_Point "IP Signalling Point") mode.
MTP3 provides routing functionality to transport signaling messages through the SS7 network to the requested endpoint. Each network element in the SS7 network has a unique address, the [Point Code](/wiki/Point_Code "Point Code") (PC). Message routing is performed according to this address. A distinction is made between a [Signaling Transfer Point](/wiki/Signaling_Transfer_Point "Signaling Transfer Point") (STP) which only performs MTP message routing functionalities and a Signaling End Point (SEP) which uses MTP to communicate with other SEPs (that is, telecom switches). MTP3 is also responsible for network management; when the availability of MTP2 data links changes. MTP3 establishes alternative links and re\-routes traffic away from failed links and signaling points and propagates information about route availability through the network. Also controls traffic when congestion occurs.
Access to the signalling network functional level's service interface (as described in [Q.701](http://www.itu.int/rec/T-REC-Q.701/en/)) can be provided over [SCTP](/wiki/Stream_Control_Transmission_Protocol "Stream Control Transmission Protocol") by the [SIGTRAN](/wiki/SIGTRAN "SIGTRAN") protocol [M3UA](/wiki/M3UA "M3UA"), described in RFC 4666\.
MTP Level 3 is tested using the protocol tester and test specifications described in
[Q.755](http://www.itu.int/rec/T-REC-Q.755/en/),
[Q.755\.1](http://www.itu.int/rec/T-REC-Q.755.1/en/),
[Q.780](http://www.itu.int/rec/T-REC-Q.780/en/) and
[Q.782](http://www.itu.int/rec/T-REC-Q.782/en/).
### MTP Users
*Level 4* consists of *MTP Users*.
The remaining components of the [SS7](/wiki/Signaling_System_7 "Signaling System 7") stack are all directly, or indirectly, *MTP Users*. Some examples of parts at *Level 4* are [SCCP](/wiki/Signalling_Connection_Control_Part "Signalling Connection Control Part"), [ISUP](/wiki/ISDN_User_Part "ISDN User Part"), [TUP](/wiki/Telephone_User_Part "Telephone User Part"), and, in the UK, [IUP](/wiki/Interconnect_User_Part "Interconnect User Part"). The services provided to *MTP Level 4* by the *MTP* (that is, MTP to MTP Users) is described in [ITU\-T Recommendation Q.701](http://www.itu.int/rec/T-REC-Q.701/en/).775148760
|
[
"Functional levels\n-----------------",
"The [SS7](/wiki/Signaling_System_7 \"Signaling System 7\") stack can be separated into four functional levels:[ITU\\-T Recommendation Q.700](http://www.itu.int/rec/T-REC-Q.700-199303-I/en/), Figure 3/Q.700, *SS No. 7 functional levels*, p. 8\\.\nLevel 1 through Level 3 comprise the *MTP*, and Level 4 the *MTP user*. *MTP Level 3* is sometimes abbreviated *MTP3*; *MTP Level 2*, *MTP2*.See for example, RFC 3331 and RFC 3332 for the usage *MTP2* and *MTP3*. MTP and [SCCP](/wiki/Signalling_Connection_Control_Part \"Signalling Connection Control Part\") are together referred to as the *Network Service Part (NSP)*.[ITU\\-T Recommendation Q.711 (03/2001\\)](http://www.itu.int/rec/T-REC-Q.711-200103-I/en/), Figure 1/Q.711, *Functional diagram for the SCCP in Signalling System No. 7*, p. 2\\.",
"There is no one\\-to\\-one mapping of MTP Levels 1 through 3 onto the [OSI model](/wiki/OSI_model \"OSI model\").[ITU\\-T Recommendation Q.700 (03/1993\\)](http://www.itu.int/rec/T-REC-Q.700-199303-I/en/), Clause 4, *OSI layering and SS No. 7*, p. 9\\. Instead, MTP provides the functionality of [layers 1](/wiki/Layer_1 \"Layer 1\"), [2](/wiki/Layer_2 \"Layer 2\") and part of [layer 3](/wiki/Layer_3 \"Layer 3\") in the [OSI model](/wiki/OSI_model \"OSI model\").[ITU\\-T Recommendation Q.700 (03/1993\\)](http://www.itu.int/rec/T-REC-Q.700-199303-I/en/), Figure 2/Q.700, *Architecture of SS No. 7*, p. 7\\. The part of layer 3 of the [OSI model](/wiki/OSI_model \"OSI model\") that MTP does not provide, is provided by [SCCP](/wiki/Signalling_Connection_Control_Part \"Signalling Connection Control Part\") or other Level 4 parts (MTP users).[ITU\\-T Recommendation Q.1400 (03/1993\\)](http://www.itu.int/rec/T-REC-Q.1400-199303-I/en/), Clause 2\\.2, *OSI layering and SS No. 7*, p. 4\\.[ITU\\-T Recommendation Q.1400 (03/1993\\)](http://www.itu.int/rec/T-REC-Q.1400-199303-I/en/), Figure 1/Q.1400, *Relationship between SS No. 7 Functional Levels and OSI Layering*, p. 5\\.",
"### Signalling Data Link Functional Level",
"*MTP Level 1* is described in [ITU\\-T Recommendation Q.702](http://www.itu.int/rec/T-REC-Q.702/en/), and provides the *Signalling Data Link* functional level for narrowband signalling links. For broadband signalling links,\n[ITU\\-T Recommendation Q.2110](http://www.itu.int/rec/T-REC-Q.2110/en/) or\n[Q.2111](http://www.itu.int/rec/T-REC-Q.2111/en/) describe the signalling data link function.",
"MTP1 represents the physical layer. That is, the layer that is responsible for the connection of SS7 Signaling Points into the transmission network over which they communicate with each other. Primarily, this involves the conversion of messaging into electrical signal and the maintenance of the physical links through which these pass. In this way, it is analogous to the Layer 1 of ISDN or other, perhaps more familiar, protocols.",
"MTP1 normally uses a timeslot in an [E\\-carrier](/wiki/E-carrier \"E-carrier\") or [T\\-carrier](/wiki/T-carrier \"T-carrier\"). The Physical interfaces defined include E\\-1 (2048 kbit/s; 32 64 kbit/s channels), DS\\-1 (1544 kbit/s; 24 64 kbit/s channels), V.35 (64 kbit/s), DS\\-0 (64 kbit/s), and DS\\-0A (56 kbit/s).",
"### Signalling Link Functional Level",
"*MTP Level 2* is described in [ITU\\-T Recommendation Q.703](http://www.itu.int/rec/T-REC-Q.703/en/), and provides the *Signalling Link* functional level for narrowband signalling links. For broadband signalling links,\n[ITU\\-T Recommendation Q.2140](http://www.itu.int/rec/T-REC-Q.2140/en/) and\n[Q.2210](http://www.itu.int/rec/T-REC-Q.2210/en/) describe the signalling link function referred to as *MTP3b*. The signalling link functional level may also be provided using the [SIGTRAN](/wiki/SIGTRAN \"SIGTRAN\") protocol [M2PA](/wiki/M2PA \"M2PA\") described in RFC 4165\\.",
"*MTP Level 2* ensures accurate end\\-to\\-end transmission of a message\nacross a signaling link.",
"MTP2 provides flow control, error detection and sequence checking, and retransmits unacknowledged messages. MTP2 uses packets called *signal units* to transmit SS7 messages. There are three types of signal units: [Fill\\-in Signal Unit](/wiki/Fill-in_Signal_Unit \"Fill-in Signal Unit\") (FISU), [Link Status Signal Unit](/wiki/Link_Status_Signal_Unit \"Link Status Signal Unit\") (LSSU), [Message Signal Unit](/wiki/Message_Signal_Unit \"Message Signal Unit\") (MSU).",
"Access to the signalling link functional level's service interface can be provided over [SCTP](/wiki/Stream_Control_Transmission_Protocol \"Stream Control Transmission Protocol\") by the [SIGTRAN](/wiki/SIGTRAN \"SIGTRAN\") protocol [M2UA](/wiki/M2UA \"M2UA\"), described in RFC 3331\\.",
"MTP Level 2 is tested using the protocol tester and test specifications described in\n[Q.755](http://www.itu.int/rec/T-REC-Q.755/en/),\n[Q.755\\.1](http://www.itu.int/rec/T-REC-Q.755.1/en/),\n[Q.780](http://www.itu.int/rec/T-REC-Q.780/en/) and\n[Q.781](http://www.itu.int/rec/T-REC-Q.781/en/).",
"### Signalling Network Functional Level",
"*MTP Level 3* is described in [ITU\\-T Recommendation Q.704](http://www.itu.int/rec/T-REC-Q.704/en/), and provides the *Signalling Network* functional level for narrowband signalling links and, with only minor modifications described in\n[ITU\\-T Recommendation Q.2210](http://www.itu.int/rec/T-REC-Q.2210/en/), for broadband signalling links. The functions of *MTP Level 3* may also be replaced with the *Generic Signalling Transport Service* described in [ITU\\-T Recommendation Q.2150\\.0](http://www.itu.int/rec/T-REC-Q.2150.0/en/) as provided by *MTP3b* ([Q.2150\\.1](http://www.itu.int/rec/T-REC-Q.2150.1/en/)), *SSCOP or SSCOPMCE* ([Q.2150\\.2](http://www.itu.int/rec/T-REC-Q.2150.2/en/)) or [SCTP](/wiki/Stream_Control_Transmission_Protocol \"Stream Control Transmission Protocol\") ([Q.2150\\.3](http://www.itu.int/rec/T-REC-Q.2150.3/en/)). *MTP Level 3* functions can also be provided by using the [IETF](/wiki/IETF \"IETF\") [SIGTRAN](/wiki/SIGTRAN \"SIGTRAN\") [M3UA](/wiki/M3UA \"M3UA\") protocol, described in RFC 4666, in [IPSP](/wiki/IP_Signalling_Point \"IP Signalling Point\") mode.",
"MTP3 provides routing functionality to transport signaling messages through the SS7 network to the requested endpoint. Each network element in the SS7 network has a unique address, the [Point Code](/wiki/Point_Code \"Point Code\") (PC). Message routing is performed according to this address. A distinction is made between a [Signaling Transfer Point](/wiki/Signaling_Transfer_Point \"Signaling Transfer Point\") (STP) which only performs MTP message routing functionalities and a Signaling End Point (SEP) which uses MTP to communicate with other SEPs (that is, telecom switches). MTP3 is also responsible for network management; when the availability of MTP2 data links changes. MTP3 establishes alternative links and re\\-routes traffic away from failed links and signaling points and propagates information about route availability through the network. Also controls traffic when congestion occurs.",
"Access to the signalling network functional level's service interface (as described in [Q.701](http://www.itu.int/rec/T-REC-Q.701/en/)) can be provided over [SCTP](/wiki/Stream_Control_Transmission_Protocol \"Stream Control Transmission Protocol\") by the [SIGTRAN](/wiki/SIGTRAN \"SIGTRAN\") protocol [M3UA](/wiki/M3UA \"M3UA\"), described in RFC 4666\\.",
"MTP Level 3 is tested using the protocol tester and test specifications described in\n[Q.755](http://www.itu.int/rec/T-REC-Q.755/en/),\n[Q.755\\.1](http://www.itu.int/rec/T-REC-Q.755.1/en/),\n[Q.780](http://www.itu.int/rec/T-REC-Q.780/en/) and\n[Q.782](http://www.itu.int/rec/T-REC-Q.782/en/).",
"### MTP Users",
"*Level 4* consists of *MTP Users*.\nThe remaining components of the [SS7](/wiki/Signaling_System_7 \"Signaling System 7\") stack are all directly, or indirectly, *MTP Users*. Some examples of parts at *Level 4* are [SCCP](/wiki/Signalling_Connection_Control_Part \"Signalling Connection Control Part\"), [ISUP](/wiki/ISDN_User_Part \"ISDN User Part\"), [TUP](/wiki/Telephone_User_Part \"Telephone User Part\"), and, in the UK, [IUP](/wiki/Interconnect_User_Part \"Interconnect User Part\"). The services provided to *MTP Level 4* by the *MTP* (that is, MTP to MTP Users) is described in [ITU\\-T Recommendation Q.701](http://www.itu.int/rec/T-REC-Q.701/en/).775148760",
""
] |
Biography
---------
### Early years
Travers Clement lived in [Los Gatos, California](/wiki/Los_Gatos%2C_California "Los Gatos, California") during the 1930s, where he was active in the local organization of the [Socialist Party of America](/wiki/Socialist_Party_of_America "Socialist Party of America").
Clement was an active member of the [Newspaper Guild](/wiki/Newspaper_Guild "Newspaper Guild") and the [Sailor's Union](/wiki/Sailor%27s_Union "Sailor's Union") during the 1930s."Travers Clement Named National Secretary of SP," *The Socialist Call,* vol. 5, no. 7, whole no. 200 (April 29, 1939\), pg. 3\.
### Political career
In 1928, Clement was named the national publicity director of the [American Civil Liberties Union](/wiki/American_Civil_Liberties_Union "American Civil Liberties Union") (ACLU), a position which he retained through 1929\. In that year, he became secretary of the National [Mooney](/wiki/Tom_Mooney "Tom Mooney")\-[Billings](/wiki/Warren_K._Billings "Warren K. Billings") Committee. He remained an active member of the executive board of the ACLU's local committee in [San Francisco](/wiki/San_Francisco "San Francisco").
Clement was the author of several pamphlets for the ACLU, as well as material dealing with the Mooney\-Billings case and the Maritime Union. He was also a periodic contributor to *[The New Republic](/wiki/The_New_Republic "The New Republic")* magazine.
Clement was elected to the governing National Executive Committee of the Socialist Party at the April 1938 convention of the organization held in [Kenosha, Wisconsin](/wiki/Kenosha%2C_Wisconsin "Kenosha, Wisconsin"). When Executive Secretary [Roy E. Burt](/wiki/Roy_E._Burt "Roy E. Burt") resigned early in April 1939, the NEC named Clement as the new head of day\-to\-day operations of the organization.
|
[
"Biography\n---------",
"### Early years",
"Travers Clement lived in [Los Gatos, California](/wiki/Los_Gatos%2C_California \"Los Gatos, California\") during the 1930s, where he was active in the local organization of the [Socialist Party of America](/wiki/Socialist_Party_of_America \"Socialist Party of America\").",
"Clement was an active member of the [Newspaper Guild](/wiki/Newspaper_Guild \"Newspaper Guild\") and the [Sailor's Union](/wiki/Sailor%27s_Union \"Sailor's Union\") during the 1930s.\"Travers Clement Named National Secretary of SP,\" *The Socialist Call,* vol. 5, no. 7, whole no. 200 (April 29, 1939\\), pg. 3\\.",
"### Political career",
"In 1928, Clement was named the national publicity director of the [American Civil Liberties Union](/wiki/American_Civil_Liberties_Union \"American Civil Liberties Union\") (ACLU), a position which he retained through 1929\\. In that year, he became secretary of the National [Mooney](/wiki/Tom_Mooney \"Tom Mooney\")\\-[Billings](/wiki/Warren_K._Billings \"Warren K. Billings\") Committee. He remained an active member of the executive board of the ACLU's local committee in [San Francisco](/wiki/San_Francisco \"San Francisco\").",
"Clement was the author of several pamphlets for the ACLU, as well as material dealing with the Mooney\\-Billings case and the Maritime Union. He was also a periodic contributor to *[The New Republic](/wiki/The_New_Republic \"The New Republic\")* magazine.",
"Clement was elected to the governing National Executive Committee of the Socialist Party at the April 1938 convention of the organization held in [Kenosha, Wisconsin](/wiki/Kenosha%2C_Wisconsin \"Kenosha, Wisconsin\"). When Executive Secretary [Roy E. Burt](/wiki/Roy_E._Burt \"Roy E. Burt\") resigned early in April 1939, the NEC named Clement as the new head of day\\-to\\-day operations of the organization.",
""
] |
Amateur boxing career
---------------------
Bowe was training at the Bedford\-Stuyvesant Boxing Association Gym or the "Bed\-Stuy BA" for short. As an [amateur](/wiki/Amateur_boxing "Amateur boxing"), Bowe won the prestigious New York Golden Gloves Championship and other tournaments. In 1984, age 17, he knocked out opponent James Smith in just 4 seconds. In 1985, at the National Golden Gloves championships, he lost to Fort Worth heavyweight Donald Stephens. Apart from boxing he attended [Kingsborough Community College](/wiki/Kingsborough_Community_College "Kingsborough Community College"), where he studied [drama](/wiki/Drama_%28the_modern_genre%29 "Drama (the modern genre)") — in hopes of an acting career after boxing — also he took up a [business administration](/wiki/Business_administration "Business administration") study.[Bowe mixture of three’ greats](https://newspaperarchive.com/colorado-springs-gazette-telegraph-jul-31-1987-p-26/), *Colorado Springs Gazette Telegraph*, July 31, 1987, p. 26\.
His friends called him "[Don King](/wiki/Don_King_%28boxing_promoter%29 "Don King (boxing promoter)")" because of his hairstyle. Bowe said he was emulating [Mark Breland](/wiki/Mark_Breland "Mark Breland"), "I got a majority of my experience with Mark, I'm inspired by what he's accomplished. It makes it possible for me to do the same," said Bowe in an interview.[Mark Breland](https://www.newspapers.com/newspage/487172043/) by Tommy Hanrahan, *Daily News from New York*, February 10, 1985, p. 226\.
### New York Golden Gloves Championships
Bowe won four [New York Golden Gloves](/wiki/New_York_Golden_Gloves "New York Golden Gloves") Championships. He won two bouts as a 178\-pounder in 1984 before failing to show for a third bout.[Big night at Felt Forum](https://www.newspapers.com/newspage/465474795/) by Bill Travers, *Daily News from New York*, July 22, 1988, p. 94\. He won the 1985 178 lb Novice Championship, 1986 178 lb Open Championship and the 1987 and 1988 Super Heavyweight Open Championship. Already in 1985 Bowe was ranked \#1 light heavyweight in the United States.[Atlas can't shrug off 'poor' quality of many trainers](https://www.newspapers.com/newspage/489273386/) by Tommy Hanrahan, *Daily News from New York*, December 2, 1985, p. 57\.
### 1986 Goodwill Games
He was a light heavyweight runner\-up for the [1986 World Championships](/wiki/1986_World_Amateur_Boxing_Championships "1986 World Amateur Boxing Championships") and [1986 Goodwill Games](/wiki/1986_Goodwill_Games "1986 Goodwill Games") but for some reason didn't qualify.[Bent, Garcia score upsets. BEAUMONT, Texas (UPI)](https://newspaperarchive.com/defiance-crescent-news-apr-07-1986-p-25/), *Defiance Crescent News* , April 7, 1986\. {{Citation\| year \= 1986 \| title \= Michael Bent from Cambria Heights, N.Y., and Alex Garcia \| url \= https://www.upi.com/Archives/1986/04/05/Michael\-Bent\-from\-Cambria\-Heights\-NY\-and\-Alex\-Garcia/1687513061200/}} Meanwhile, during the year\-and\-a\-half hiatus he gained well above thirty pounds and jumped from light heavyweight to super heavyweight, coming back for the 1987 United States Olympic Festival.
### 1987 Pan Am
Prior to 1987 Pan American Games, Bowe said he had suffered a hairline fracture in his right hand during one of his two fights at the Olympic Festival in July 1987\. The injury, he said, was revealed in X\-rays he had taken at home. Roosevelt Sanders, the head coach, said he was aware that Bowe's hand was being treated, but had not known it was broken. Bowe said he kept those injuries secret from the U.S. team coaching staff for fear of being kept out of the tournament.*Moran, Malcolm*. [Mixed Results for U.S. Boxers](https://www.nytimes.com/1987/08/20/sports/mixed-results-for-us-boxers.html), *The New York Times*, August 20, 1987, p. 24\.
### Olympic qualifiers
At first, Bowe was dismissed from the Olympic\-year training camp, because U.S. Olympic boxing Coach Ken Adams didn't like him.[Riddick Bowe Is Back, and He's a Heavy Favorite](https://www.newspapers.com/newspage/404203093/) by Earl Gustkey, *The Los Angeles Times*, March 30, 1988, p. 8\.
U.S. Army superheavyweight Robert Salters, a Brooklyn\-born 25\-year\-old artilleryman of [Fort Bragg, NC](/wiki/Fort_Bragg%2C_NC "Fort Bragg, NC"), who took up boxing in 1986, and had less than twenty amateur fights in his 16\-months\-long record before they first met at the 1988 AAU National finals, where Salters floored Bowe twice before ref stopped the fight,[High School Junior, Soldier Pull Major Upsets](https://www.newspapers.com/newspage/404139996/) by Earl Gustkey, *The Los Angeles Times*, April 1, 1988, p. 34\. became a real nemesis for Bowe during his amateur career, as they fought each other to nearly a draw in the 1988 Olympic Box\-offs at [Caesars Palace](/wiki/Caesars_Palace "Caesars Palace"), after Bowe lost to Salters in the Olympic Trials (Bowe came in at 231 lbs, Salters at 247\.[Cole and Salters Allow Army's Four Horsemen to Ride Again](https://www.newspapers.com/newspage/404779922/) by Earl Gustkey, *The Los Angeles Times*, July 11, 1988, p. 29\.[Army fighters laying down the boom](https://newspaperarchive.com/lowell-sun-jul-11-1988-p-23/) by Tim Dahlberg, Associated Press Sports Writer.). "He was talking' trash about me, and that helped me mentally," Salters said. Bowe had been boxing reportedly with ligament damage on the middle knuckle of his right hand, which he got the day before the Box\-offs, and with a damaged right ankle, eventually managed to win, for the judges had to pick up a winner despite the even 58–58 score.[Bowe defeats Salters to earn spot on boxing team](http://209.212.22.88/Data/RBR/1980-1989/1988/1988.07.18.pdf) by Ed Schuyler Jr. (Associated Press), *The Register*, July 18, 1988, p. 58\.[Maynard, Bowe, Banks Make It the Hard Way](https://www.newspapers.com/newspage/404953769/) by Earl Gustkey, *The Los Angeles Times*, July 18, 1988, p. 7\. The fifth unidentified judge, who scored the bout 58–58, gave it to Bowe on unidentified subjective grounds.[Brooklyn's Bowe's gonna go!](https://www.newspapers.com/newspage/465421234/) by [Michael Katz](/wiki/Michael_Katz_%28journalist%29 "Michael Katz (journalist)"), *Daily News from New York*, July 18, 1988, p. 59\. Despite giving Bowe a hard time on four occasions in a row, Salters never turned pro.
### 1988 Olympics
Bowe won the silver medal in the 1988 [Seoul Olympics](/wiki/Seoul_Olympics "Seoul Olympics"), outpointing Soviet [Alex Miroshnichenko](/wiki/Alex_Miroshnichenko "Alex Miroshnichenko") in the semifinals,[Sports of The Times; Green to Gold, Now Green Again](https://www.nytimes.com/1988/10/02/sports/sports-of-the-times-green-to-gold-now-green-again.html), [The New York Times](/wiki/The_New_York_Times "The New York Times"). and losing a controversial match in the finals to future world heavyweight champion [Lennox Lewis](/wiki/Lennox_Lewis "Lennox Lewis"). Bowe had a dominant first round, landing 33 of 94 punches thrown (34%) while Lewis landed 14 of 67 (21%). In the first round the referee from [East Germany](/wiki/East_Germany "East Germany") gave Bowe two cautions for headbutts and deducted a point for a third headbutt, although replay clearly showed there was no headbutt. Commentator [Ferdie Pacheco](/wiki/Ferdie_Pacheco "Ferdie Pacheco") disagreed with the deduction, saying they did not hit heads. In the second round, Lewis landed several hard punches. The referee gave Bowe two [standing eight counts](/wiki/Standing_eight_count "Standing eight count") and waved the fight off after the second one, even though Bowe seemed able to continue. Pacheco disagreed with the stoppage, calling it "very strange," but [Marv Albert](/wiki/Marv_Albert "Marv Albert") said Bowe took "a pounding."
Archived at [Ghostarchive](https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211211/K39AbwNl3QU){{cbignore}} and the [Wayback Machine](https://web.archive.org/web/20120329145415/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=K39AbwNl3QU){{cbignore}}:
{{cite web\|title\=Lennox Lewis vs Riddick Bowe 88 Olympic Final\| website\=\[\[YouTube]] \| date\=April 13, 2009 \|url\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\=K39AbwNl3QU\|access\-date\=3 May 2017}}{{cbignore}}
### Highlights
{{Col\-begin}}
{{Col\-2}}
United States Junior Championships (middleweight), 1983:
* Lost to [Adolpho Washington](/wiki/Adolpho_Washington "Adolpho Washington") RSC 2
[New York Golden Gloves](/wiki/New_York_Golden_Gloves "New York Golden Gloves") (light heavyweight), [New York City](/wiki/New_York_City "New York City"), February 1984:
* 1/16: Defeated Richard Newton RSC 1 {{small\|(1:29\)}}
* 1/8: Defeated Hezekiah Salone
* 1/4: Lost to ? by walkover
{{gold1}} [New York Golden Gloves](/wiki/New_York_Golden_Gloves "New York Golden Gloves") (light heavyweight), Elks Club, [Queens, New York](/wiki/Queens%2C_New_York "Queens, New York"), and [Madison Square Garden](/wiki/Madison_Square_Garden "Madison Square Garden"), [New York City](/wiki/New_York_City "New York City"), February 1985:
* 1/4: Defeated Alonzo Knowles KO 1 {{small\|(1:33\)}}
* 1/2: Defeated Jose Guzman KO 3 {{small\|(1:06\)}}
* Finals: Defeated Alfred Walcott KO 1 {{small\|(0:24\)}}
{{gold1}} New York State Golden Gloves, novice division (light heavyweight), [Madison Square Garden](/wiki/Madison_Square_Garden "Madison Square Garden"), [New York City](/wiki/New_York_City "New York City"), March 1985:
* 1/2: Defeated Gil Walden KO 1 {{small\|(1:14\)}}
* Finals: Defeated n/a {{small\|(Bowe won the Dr. Herbert Cassidy Memorial Cup as 1985's top novice boxer)}}
[National Golden Gloves](/wiki/National_Golden_Gloves "National Golden Gloves") (light heavyweight), [Little Rock, Arkansas](/wiki/Little_Rock%2C_Arkansas "Little Rock, Arkansas"), March 1985:
* 1/16: Defeated Keith Sudduth KO
* 1/8: Defeated [Odell Jones](/wiki/Odell_Jones "Odell Jones") by decision
* 1/4: Defeated Cornell Harris RSC 1
* 1/2: Defeated Gregory Everett RSC 3 {{small\|(1:25\)}}
* Finals: Lost to Donald Stephens by split decision, 2–3
Junior World box\-offs (light heavyweight), [El Paso Civic Center](/wiki/Williams_Convention_Center "Williams Convention Center"), [El Paso, Texas](/wiki/El_Paso%2C_Texas "El Paso, Texas"), August 1985:
* Defeated Razz Chapin KO 1
{{gold1}} [Junior World Championships](/wiki/World_Junior_Boxing_Championships "World Junior Boxing Championships") (light heavyweight), [Bucharest, Romania](/wiki/Bucharest%2C_Romania "Bucharest, Romania"), September 1985:
* 1/4: Defeated Mikhail Sadovsky (Soviet Union) RSC 1
* 1/2: Defeated Damian Vasile (Romania) RSC 1
* Finals: Defeated Péter Hart (Hungary) RSC 1
[World Cup](/wiki/Boxing_World_Cup "Boxing World Cup") (light heavyweight), [Seoul, South Korea](/wiki/Seoul%2C_South_Korea "Seoul, South Korea"), November 1985:
* 1/4: Lost to [Nurmagomed Shanavazov](/wiki/Nurmagomed_Shanavazov "Nurmagomed Shanavazov") (Soviet Union) by unanimous decision, 0–5
U.S. Olympic Festival Eastern Qualifier (super heavyweight), [Lake Placid, New York](/wiki/Lake_Placid%2C_New_York "Lake Placid, New York"), May 1987:
* 1/4: Defeated Bryant Farris RSCH 1 {{small\|(2:54\)}}
* 1/2: Defeated Mark Anthony by walkover
* Finals: Defeated George Kilbert Pierce by unanimous decision, 5–0
{{Col\-2}}
{{gold1}} [U.S. Olympic Festival](/wiki/U.S._Olympic_Festival "U.S. Olympic Festival") (super heavyweight), [Raleigh, North Carolina](/wiki/Raleigh%2C_North_Carolina "Raleigh, North Carolina"), July 1987:
* 1/2: Defeated [Nathaniel Fitch](/wiki/Nathaniel_Fitch "Nathaniel Fitch") RSC 2 {{small\|(1:27\)}}
* Finals: Defeated [Kevin Ford](/wiki/Kevin_Ford_%28boxer%29 "Kevin Ford (boxer)") RSC 3 {{small\|(1:43\)}}
Pan Am Box\-offs (super heavyweight), [International Center of the Broadmoor](/wiki/Broadmoor_World_Arena_%281938%29 "Broadmoor World Arena (1938)"), [Colorado Springs, Colorado](/wiki/Colorado_Springs%2C_Colorado "Colorado Springs, Colorado"), July 1987:
* Defeated Carlton Hollis
{{bronze3}} [Pan American Games](/wiki/Boxing_at_the_1987_Pan_American_Games "Boxing at the 1987 Pan American Games") (super heavyweight), [Indianapolis, Indiana](/wiki/Indianapolis%2C_Indiana "Indianapolis, Indiana"), August 1987:
* 1/2: Lost to [Jorge Luis González](/wiki/Jorge_Luis_Gonz%C3%A1lez "Jorge Luis González") (Cuba) by split decision, 2–3 {{small\|(Bowe knocked down in the 1st rd; González was given a standing eight count in the 3rd rd)}}
USSR−USA Duals (super heavyweight), [Moscow, Soviet Union](/wiki/Moscow%2C_Soviet_Union "Moscow, Soviet Union"), 1988:
* Lost to [Alex Miroshnichenko](/wiki/Alex_Miroshnichenko "Alex Miroshnichenko") (Soviet Union) by decision
[United States National Championships](/wiki/United_States_National_Boxing_Championships "United States National Boxing Championships") (heavyweight), [Colorado Springs, Colorado](/wiki/Colorado_Springs%2C_Colorado "Colorado Springs, Colorado"), March–April 1988:
* 1/16: Defeated James Ernst RSCH 1 {{small\|(2:37\)}}
* 1/8: Defeated Tevin George RSCH 2 {{small\|(1:20\)}}
* 1/4: Defeated [Kevin Ford](/wiki/Kevin_Ford_%28boxer%29 "Kevin Ford (boxer)")
* 1/2: Lost to Robert Salters RSCH 2 {{small\|(Bowe knocked down at 2:50 of the 1st rd, and at 2:00 of the 2nd rd; after referee Jerry Dusenberry stopped the bout at 2:00, Bowe protested violently, and as the decision was announced attacked Salters verbally and physically, the two fighters had to be pulled apart)}}
Olympic Trials (super heavyweight), [Concord Pavilion](/wiki/Concord_Pavilion "Concord Pavilion"), [Concord, California](/wiki/Concord%2C_California "Concord, California"), July 1988:
* 1/4: Defeated [Nathaniel Fitch](/wiki/Nathaniel_Fitch "Nathaniel Fitch") by unanimous decision, 5–0
* 1/2: Defeated [Louis Savarese](/wiki/Lou_Savarese "Lou Savarese") DQ 2 {{small\|(Savarese disqualified for holding at 2:15\)}}
* Finals: Lost to Robert Salters by majority decision, 1–4 {{small\|(Salters knocked down at 0:30 of the 1st rd)}}
Olympic Box\-offs (super heavyweight), [Caesars Palace](/wiki/Caesars_Palace "Caesars Palace"), [Las Vegas, Nevada](/wiki/Las_Vegas%2C_Nevada "Las Vegas, Nevada"), July 1988:
* Day 1: Defeated Robert Salters by split decision, 3–2
* Day 2: Defeated Robert Salters by split decision, 3–2
{{silver2}} [Summer Olympics](/wiki/Boxing_at_the_1988_Summer_Olympics_%E2%80%93_Super_heavyweight "Boxing at the 1988 Summer Olympics – Super heavyweight") (super heavyweight), [Seoul, South Korea](/wiki/Seoul%2C_South_Korea "Seoul, South Korea"), September–October 1988:
* 1/8: Defeated [Biko Botowamungu](/wiki/Biko_Botowamungu "Biko Botowamungu") (Austria) KO 2 {{small\|(2:53\)}}
* 1/4: Defeated [Peter Hrivnák](/wiki/Peter_Hrivn%C3%A1k "Peter Hrivnák") (Czechoslovakia) RSCH 1 {{small\|(2:34\)}}
* 1/2: Defeated [Alex Miroshnichenko](/wiki/Alex_Miroshnichenko "Alex Miroshnichenko") (Soviet Union) by unanimous decision, 5–0 {{small\|(Bowe knocked down at 2:16 of the 1st rd; Bowe was given a standing eight count at 2:35 of the 1st rd; Miroshnichenko had his mouthpiece knocked off at 0:30 of the 3rd rd; Miroshnichenko was given a standing eight count at 1:10, and 1:35 of the 3rd rd)}}
* Finals: Lost to [Lennox Lewis](/wiki/Lennox_Lewis "Lennox Lewis") (Canada) RSC 2 {{small\|(0:43\)}}
{{Col\-end}}
Bowe finished his amateur career with a record of 104 wins, 18 losses.
|
[
"Amateur boxing career\n---------------------",
"Bowe was training at the Bedford\\-Stuyvesant Boxing Association Gym or the \"Bed\\-Stuy BA\" for short. As an [amateur](/wiki/Amateur_boxing \"Amateur boxing\"), Bowe won the prestigious New York Golden Gloves Championship and other tournaments. In 1984, age 17, he knocked out opponent James Smith in just 4 seconds. In 1985, at the National Golden Gloves championships, he lost to Fort Worth heavyweight Donald Stephens. Apart from boxing he attended [Kingsborough Community College](/wiki/Kingsborough_Community_College \"Kingsborough Community College\"), where he studied [drama](/wiki/Drama_%28the_modern_genre%29 \"Drama (the modern genre)\") — in hopes of an acting career after boxing — also he took up a [business administration](/wiki/Business_administration \"Business administration\") study.[Bowe mixture of three’ greats](https://newspaperarchive.com/colorado-springs-gazette-telegraph-jul-31-1987-p-26/), *Colorado Springs Gazette Telegraph*, July 31, 1987, p. 26\\.",
"His friends called him \"[Don King](/wiki/Don_King_%28boxing_promoter%29 \"Don King (boxing promoter)\")\" because of his hairstyle. Bowe said he was emulating [Mark Breland](/wiki/Mark_Breland \"Mark Breland\"), \"I got a majority of my experience with Mark, I'm inspired by what he's accomplished. It makes it possible for me to do the same,\" said Bowe in an interview.[Mark Breland](https://www.newspapers.com/newspage/487172043/) by Tommy Hanrahan, *Daily News from New York*, February 10, 1985, p. 226\\.",
"### New York Golden Gloves Championships",
"Bowe won four [New York Golden Gloves](/wiki/New_York_Golden_Gloves \"New York Golden Gloves\") Championships. He won two bouts as a 178\\-pounder in 1984 before failing to show for a third bout.[Big night at Felt Forum](https://www.newspapers.com/newspage/465474795/) by Bill Travers, *Daily News from New York*, July 22, 1988, p. 94\\. He won the 1985 178 lb Novice Championship, 1986 178 lb Open Championship and the 1987 and 1988 Super Heavyweight Open Championship. Already in 1985 Bowe was ranked \\#1 light heavyweight in the United States.[Atlas can't shrug off 'poor' quality of many trainers](https://www.newspapers.com/newspage/489273386/) by Tommy Hanrahan, *Daily News from New York*, December 2, 1985, p. 57\\.",
"### 1986 Goodwill Games",
"He was a light heavyweight runner\\-up for the [1986 World Championships](/wiki/1986_World_Amateur_Boxing_Championships \"1986 World Amateur Boxing Championships\") and [1986 Goodwill Games](/wiki/1986_Goodwill_Games \"1986 Goodwill Games\") but for some reason didn't qualify.[Bent, Garcia score upsets. BEAUMONT, Texas (UPI)](https://newspaperarchive.com/defiance-crescent-news-apr-07-1986-p-25/), *Defiance Crescent News* , April 7, 1986\\. {{Citation\\| year \\= 1986 \\| title \\= Michael Bent from Cambria Heights, N.Y., and Alex Garcia \\| url \\= https://www.upi.com/Archives/1986/04/05/Michael\\-Bent\\-from\\-Cambria\\-Heights\\-NY\\-and\\-Alex\\-Garcia/1687513061200/}} Meanwhile, during the year\\-and\\-a\\-half hiatus he gained well above thirty pounds and jumped from light heavyweight to super heavyweight, coming back for the 1987 United States Olympic Festival.",
"### 1987 Pan Am",
"Prior to 1987 Pan American Games, Bowe said he had suffered a hairline fracture in his right hand during one of his two fights at the Olympic Festival in July 1987\\. The injury, he said, was revealed in X\\-rays he had taken at home. Roosevelt Sanders, the head coach, said he was aware that Bowe's hand was being treated, but had not known it was broken. Bowe said he kept those injuries secret from the U.S. team coaching staff for fear of being kept out of the tournament.*Moran, Malcolm*. [Mixed Results for U.S. Boxers](https://www.nytimes.com/1987/08/20/sports/mixed-results-for-us-boxers.html), *The New York Times*, August 20, 1987, p. 24\\.",
"### Olympic qualifiers",
"At first, Bowe was dismissed from the Olympic\\-year training camp, because U.S. Olympic boxing Coach Ken Adams didn't like him.[Riddick Bowe Is Back, and He's a Heavy Favorite](https://www.newspapers.com/newspage/404203093/) by Earl Gustkey, *The Los Angeles Times*, March 30, 1988, p. 8\\.\nU.S. Army superheavyweight Robert Salters, a Brooklyn\\-born 25\\-year\\-old artilleryman of [Fort Bragg, NC](/wiki/Fort_Bragg%2C_NC \"Fort Bragg, NC\"), who took up boxing in 1986, and had less than twenty amateur fights in his 16\\-months\\-long record before they first met at the 1988 AAU National finals, where Salters floored Bowe twice before ref stopped the fight,[High School Junior, Soldier Pull Major Upsets](https://www.newspapers.com/newspage/404139996/) by Earl Gustkey, *The Los Angeles Times*, April 1, 1988, p. 34\\. became a real nemesis for Bowe during his amateur career, as they fought each other to nearly a draw in the 1988 Olympic Box\\-offs at [Caesars Palace](/wiki/Caesars_Palace \"Caesars Palace\"), after Bowe lost to Salters in the Olympic Trials (Bowe came in at 231 lbs, Salters at 247\\.[Cole and Salters Allow Army's Four Horsemen to Ride Again](https://www.newspapers.com/newspage/404779922/) by Earl Gustkey, *The Los Angeles Times*, July 11, 1988, p. 29\\.[Army fighters laying down the boom](https://newspaperarchive.com/lowell-sun-jul-11-1988-p-23/) by Tim Dahlberg, Associated Press Sports Writer.). \"He was talking' trash about me, and that helped me mentally,\" Salters said. Bowe had been boxing reportedly with ligament damage on the middle knuckle of his right hand, which he got the day before the Box\\-offs, and with a damaged right ankle, eventually managed to win, for the judges had to pick up a winner despite the even 58–58 score.[Bowe defeats Salters to earn spot on boxing team](http://209.212.22.88/Data/RBR/1980-1989/1988/1988.07.18.pdf) by Ed Schuyler Jr. (Associated Press), *The Register*, July 18, 1988, p. 58\\.[Maynard, Bowe, Banks Make It the Hard Way](https://www.newspapers.com/newspage/404953769/) by Earl Gustkey, *The Los Angeles Times*, July 18, 1988, p. 7\\. The fifth unidentified judge, who scored the bout 58–58, gave it to Bowe on unidentified subjective grounds.[Brooklyn's Bowe's gonna go!](https://www.newspapers.com/newspage/465421234/) by [Michael Katz](/wiki/Michael_Katz_%28journalist%29 \"Michael Katz (journalist)\"), *Daily News from New York*, July 18, 1988, p. 59\\. Despite giving Bowe a hard time on four occasions in a row, Salters never turned pro.",
"### 1988 Olympics",
"Bowe won the silver medal in the 1988 [Seoul Olympics](/wiki/Seoul_Olympics \"Seoul Olympics\"), outpointing Soviet [Alex Miroshnichenko](/wiki/Alex_Miroshnichenko \"Alex Miroshnichenko\") in the semifinals,[Sports of The Times; Green to Gold, Now Green Again](https://www.nytimes.com/1988/10/02/sports/sports-of-the-times-green-to-gold-now-green-again.html), [The New York Times](/wiki/The_New_York_Times \"The New York Times\"). and losing a controversial match in the finals to future world heavyweight champion [Lennox Lewis](/wiki/Lennox_Lewis \"Lennox Lewis\"). Bowe had a dominant first round, landing 33 of 94 punches thrown (34%) while Lewis landed 14 of 67 (21%). In the first round the referee from [East Germany](/wiki/East_Germany \"East Germany\") gave Bowe two cautions for headbutts and deducted a point for a third headbutt, although replay clearly showed there was no headbutt. Commentator [Ferdie Pacheco](/wiki/Ferdie_Pacheco \"Ferdie Pacheco\") disagreed with the deduction, saying they did not hit heads. In the second round, Lewis landed several hard punches. The referee gave Bowe two [standing eight counts](/wiki/Standing_eight_count \"Standing eight count\") and waved the fight off after the second one, even though Bowe seemed able to continue. Pacheco disagreed with the stoppage, calling it \"very strange,\" but [Marv Albert](/wiki/Marv_Albert \"Marv Albert\") said Bowe took \"a pounding.\"\nArchived at [Ghostarchive](https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211211/K39AbwNl3QU){{cbignore}} and the [Wayback Machine](https://web.archive.org/web/20120329145415/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=K39AbwNl3QU){{cbignore}}: \n{{cite web\\|title\\=Lennox Lewis vs Riddick Bowe 88 Olympic Final\\| website\\=\\[\\[YouTube]] \\| date\\=April 13, 2009 \\|url\\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\\=K39AbwNl3QU\\|access\\-date\\=3 May 2017}}{{cbignore}}",
"### Highlights",
"{{Col\\-begin}}\n{{Col\\-2}}\nUnited States Junior Championships (middleweight), 1983:\n* Lost to [Adolpho Washington](/wiki/Adolpho_Washington \"Adolpho Washington\") RSC 2\n[New York Golden Gloves](/wiki/New_York_Golden_Gloves \"New York Golden Gloves\") (light heavyweight), [New York City](/wiki/New_York_City \"New York City\"), February 1984:\n* 1/16: Defeated Richard Newton RSC 1 {{small\\|(1:29\\)}}\n* 1/8: Defeated Hezekiah Salone\n* 1/4: Lost to ? by walkover\n{{gold1}} [New York Golden Gloves](/wiki/New_York_Golden_Gloves \"New York Golden Gloves\") (light heavyweight), Elks Club, [Queens, New York](/wiki/Queens%2C_New_York \"Queens, New York\"), and [Madison Square Garden](/wiki/Madison_Square_Garden \"Madison Square Garden\"), [New York City](/wiki/New_York_City \"New York City\"), February 1985:\n* 1/4: Defeated Alonzo Knowles KO 1 {{small\\|(1:33\\)}}\n* 1/2: Defeated Jose Guzman KO 3 {{small\\|(1:06\\)}}\n* Finals: Defeated Alfred Walcott KO 1 {{small\\|(0:24\\)}}\n{{gold1}} New York State Golden Gloves, novice division (light heavyweight), [Madison Square Garden](/wiki/Madison_Square_Garden \"Madison Square Garden\"), [New York City](/wiki/New_York_City \"New York City\"), March 1985:\n* 1/2: Defeated Gil Walden KO 1 {{small\\|(1:14\\)}}\n* Finals: Defeated n/a {{small\\|(Bowe won the Dr. Herbert Cassidy Memorial Cup as 1985's top novice boxer)}}\n[National Golden Gloves](/wiki/National_Golden_Gloves \"National Golden Gloves\") (light heavyweight), [Little Rock, Arkansas](/wiki/Little_Rock%2C_Arkansas \"Little Rock, Arkansas\"), March 1985:\n* 1/16: Defeated Keith Sudduth KO\n* 1/8: Defeated [Odell Jones](/wiki/Odell_Jones \"Odell Jones\") by decision\n* 1/4: Defeated Cornell Harris RSC 1\n* 1/2: Defeated Gregory Everett RSC 3 {{small\\|(1:25\\)}}\n* Finals: Lost to Donald Stephens by split decision, 2–3\nJunior World box\\-offs (light heavyweight), [El Paso Civic Center](/wiki/Williams_Convention_Center \"Williams Convention Center\"), [El Paso, Texas](/wiki/El_Paso%2C_Texas \"El Paso, Texas\"), August 1985:\n* Defeated Razz Chapin KO 1\n{{gold1}} [Junior World Championships](/wiki/World_Junior_Boxing_Championships \"World Junior Boxing Championships\") (light heavyweight), [Bucharest, Romania](/wiki/Bucharest%2C_Romania \"Bucharest, Romania\"), September 1985:\n* 1/4: Defeated Mikhail Sadovsky (Soviet Union) RSC 1\n* 1/2: Defeated Damian Vasile (Romania) RSC 1\n* Finals: Defeated Péter Hart (Hungary) RSC 1\n[World Cup](/wiki/Boxing_World_Cup \"Boxing World Cup\") (light heavyweight), [Seoul, South Korea](/wiki/Seoul%2C_South_Korea \"Seoul, South Korea\"), November 1985:\n* 1/4: Lost to [Nurmagomed Shanavazov](/wiki/Nurmagomed_Shanavazov \"Nurmagomed Shanavazov\") (Soviet Union) by unanimous decision, 0–5\nU.S. Olympic Festival Eastern Qualifier (super heavyweight), [Lake Placid, New York](/wiki/Lake_Placid%2C_New_York \"Lake Placid, New York\"), May 1987:\n* 1/4: Defeated Bryant Farris RSCH 1 {{small\\|(2:54\\)}}\n* 1/2: Defeated Mark Anthony by walkover\n* Finals: Defeated George Kilbert Pierce by unanimous decision, 5–0\n{{Col\\-2}}\n{{gold1}} [U.S. Olympic Festival](/wiki/U.S._Olympic_Festival \"U.S. Olympic Festival\") (super heavyweight), [Raleigh, North Carolina](/wiki/Raleigh%2C_North_Carolina \"Raleigh, North Carolina\"), July 1987:\n* 1/2: Defeated [Nathaniel Fitch](/wiki/Nathaniel_Fitch \"Nathaniel Fitch\") RSC 2 {{small\\|(1:27\\)}}\n* Finals: Defeated [Kevin Ford](/wiki/Kevin_Ford_%28boxer%29 \"Kevin Ford (boxer)\") RSC 3 {{small\\|(1:43\\)}}\nPan Am Box\\-offs (super heavyweight), [International Center of the Broadmoor](/wiki/Broadmoor_World_Arena_%281938%29 \"Broadmoor World Arena (1938)\"), [Colorado Springs, Colorado](/wiki/Colorado_Springs%2C_Colorado \"Colorado Springs, Colorado\"), July 1987:\n* Defeated Carlton Hollis\n{{bronze3}} [Pan American Games](/wiki/Boxing_at_the_1987_Pan_American_Games \"Boxing at the 1987 Pan American Games\") (super heavyweight), [Indianapolis, Indiana](/wiki/Indianapolis%2C_Indiana \"Indianapolis, Indiana\"), August 1987:\n* 1/2: Lost to [Jorge Luis González](/wiki/Jorge_Luis_Gonz%C3%A1lez \"Jorge Luis González\") (Cuba) by split decision, 2–3 {{small\\|(Bowe knocked down in the 1st rd; González was given a standing eight count in the 3rd rd)}}\nUSSR−USA Duals (super heavyweight), [Moscow, Soviet Union](/wiki/Moscow%2C_Soviet_Union \"Moscow, Soviet Union\"), 1988:\n* Lost to [Alex Miroshnichenko](/wiki/Alex_Miroshnichenko \"Alex Miroshnichenko\") (Soviet Union) by decision\n[United States National Championships](/wiki/United_States_National_Boxing_Championships \"United States National Boxing Championships\") (heavyweight), [Colorado Springs, Colorado](/wiki/Colorado_Springs%2C_Colorado \"Colorado Springs, Colorado\"), March–April 1988:\n* 1/16: Defeated James Ernst RSCH 1 {{small\\|(2:37\\)}}\n* 1/8: Defeated Tevin George RSCH 2 {{small\\|(1:20\\)}}\n* 1/4: Defeated [Kevin Ford](/wiki/Kevin_Ford_%28boxer%29 \"Kevin Ford (boxer)\")\n* 1/2: Lost to Robert Salters RSCH 2 {{small\\|(Bowe knocked down at 2:50 of the 1st rd, and at 2:00 of the 2nd rd; after referee Jerry Dusenberry stopped the bout at 2:00, Bowe protested violently, and as the decision was announced attacked Salters verbally and physically, the two fighters had to be pulled apart)}}\nOlympic Trials (super heavyweight), [Concord Pavilion](/wiki/Concord_Pavilion \"Concord Pavilion\"), [Concord, California](/wiki/Concord%2C_California \"Concord, California\"), July 1988:\n* 1/4: Defeated [Nathaniel Fitch](/wiki/Nathaniel_Fitch \"Nathaniel Fitch\") by unanimous decision, 5–0\n* 1/2: Defeated [Louis Savarese](/wiki/Lou_Savarese \"Lou Savarese\") DQ 2 {{small\\|(Savarese disqualified for holding at 2:15\\)}}\n* Finals: Lost to Robert Salters by majority decision, 1–4 {{small\\|(Salters knocked down at 0:30 of the 1st rd)}}\nOlympic Box\\-offs (super heavyweight), [Caesars Palace](/wiki/Caesars_Palace \"Caesars Palace\"), [Las Vegas, Nevada](/wiki/Las_Vegas%2C_Nevada \"Las Vegas, Nevada\"), July 1988:\n* Day 1: Defeated Robert Salters by split decision, 3–2\n* Day 2: Defeated Robert Salters by split decision, 3–2\n{{silver2}} [Summer Olympics](/wiki/Boxing_at_the_1988_Summer_Olympics_%E2%80%93_Super_heavyweight \"Boxing at the 1988 Summer Olympics – Super heavyweight\") (super heavyweight), [Seoul, South Korea](/wiki/Seoul%2C_South_Korea \"Seoul, South Korea\"), September–October 1988:\n* 1/8: Defeated [Biko Botowamungu](/wiki/Biko_Botowamungu \"Biko Botowamungu\") (Austria) KO 2 {{small\\|(2:53\\)}}\n* 1/4: Defeated [Peter Hrivnák](/wiki/Peter_Hrivn%C3%A1k \"Peter Hrivnák\") (Czechoslovakia) RSCH 1 {{small\\|(2:34\\)}}\n* 1/2: Defeated [Alex Miroshnichenko](/wiki/Alex_Miroshnichenko \"Alex Miroshnichenko\") (Soviet Union) by unanimous decision, 5–0 {{small\\|(Bowe knocked down at 2:16 of the 1st rd; Bowe was given a standing eight count at 2:35 of the 1st rd; Miroshnichenko had his mouthpiece knocked off at 0:30 of the 3rd rd; Miroshnichenko was given a standing eight count at 1:10, and 1:35 of the 3rd rd)}}\n* Finals: Lost to [Lennox Lewis](/wiki/Lennox_Lewis \"Lennox Lewis\") (Canada) RSC 2 {{small\\|(0:43\\)}}\n{{Col\\-end}}\nBowe finished his amateur career with a record of 104 wins, 18 losses.",
""
] |
Professional boxing career
--------------------------
Bowe turned [professional](/wiki/Professional_boxing "Professional boxing") after his Olympic loss. Highly regarded trainer [Eddie Futch](/wiki/Eddie_Futch "Eddie Futch") took on the job of developing Bowe, as he saw the talent. Eddie would say that Bowe had more potential than any boxer he had ever trained.
Bowe turned professional in March 1989 and knocked out [Lionel Butler](/wiki/Lionel_Butler "Lionel Butler"). His then manager, Rock Newman, kept Bowe active, fighting 13 times in 1989, beating journeymen — the most notable being Garing Lane, whom he beat twice. In September 1990, Bowe made his first step up in class, fighting faded ex\-champion [Pinklon Thomas](/wiki/Pinklon_Thomas "Pinklon Thomas"), whom he dominated until Thomas gave up after eight rounds. The following month, Bowe knocked out [Bert Cooper](/wiki/Bert_Cooper "Bert Cooper") in two rounds, which added to his reputation and high ranking.
In March 1991, Bowe knocked out 1984 Olympic Super Heavyweight Gold medalist [Tyrell Biggs](/wiki/Tyrell_Biggs "Tyrell Biggs"). In Bowe's next fight, ex\-champion [Tony Tubbs](/wiki/Tony_Tubbs "Tony Tubbs") appeared to outbox and outsmart Bowe in a close bout, only to have the judges award Bowe a unanimous decision. In August 1991, Bowe knocked out future world heavyweight champion [Bruce Seldon](/wiki/Bruce_Seldon "Bruce Seldon") in one round. In July 1992, he knocked out South African [Pierre Coetzer](/wiki/Pierre_Coetzer "Pierre Coetzer") in the seventh round of a world title eliminator.
### Fights against Elijah Tillery
Bowe fought two interesting bouts against [Elijah Tillery](/wiki/Elijah_Tillery "Elijah Tillery") in 1991\. Their first fight, at the [Washington Convention Center](/wiki/Washington_Convention_Center "Washington Convention Center"), drew attention for its bizarre conclusion. Bowe dominated the first round and dropped Tillery. After the round ended, Tillery walked toward Bowe and taunted him, and Bowe responded by punching Tillery. Tillery then threw several low kicks at Bowe, who then unleashed a flurry of punches on Tillery as he lay on the ropes. Bowe's trainer Rock Newman grabbed Tillery from behind on the ring apron and pulled him over the ropes as Bowe continued to throw punches. Tillery somersaulted over the ropes, and was quickly detained by security.{{cite news \| url \= https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res\=9D0CE6D91F3FF933A05753C1A967958260 \| title \= BOXING; Bowe Gets the Boot, but Wins \| newspaper \= \[\[The New York Times]] \| first \= Phil \| last \= Berger \| date \= October 30, 1991 \| access\-date \= May 22, 2010}} After order was restored and the fighters returned to the ring, Tillery and Bowe continued a war of words, and minor incidents continued until the ring was cleared. Tillery was controversially disqualified for kicking Bowe, with Bowe getting the win, much to the surprise of the television announcers. The referee, Karl Milligan, had stepped between the two fighters to separate them and stepped forward as he did so, inadvertently missing the action behind him after the bell between the combatants. The fighters fought a rematch two months later at Convention Hall in Atlantic City, with Bowe dominating and stopping Tillery in four rounds.
### World heavyweight champion
{{Main\|Evander Holyfield vs. Riddick Bowe\|Riddick Bowe vs. Michael Dokes\|Riddick Bowe vs. Jesse Ferguson\|Riddick Bowe vs. Evander Holyfield II}}
In November 1992 he fought reigning champ [Evander Holyfield](/wiki/Evander_Holyfield "Evander Holyfield") for the undisputed heavyweight title. Bowe won a unanimous decision in an entertaining fight, flooring Holyfield in the 11th round. However, it was the tenth round most boxing fans will remember. The epic brutal back and forth exchanges helped make it [Ring Magazine](/wiki/Ring_Magazine "Ring Magazine")'s "[Round of the Year](/wiki/Ring_Magazine_round_of_the_year "Ring Magazine round of the year")." Commentator Al Bernstein exclaimed, "That was one of the greatest rounds in heavyweight history. Period!"
A couple of weeks earlier in London, Bowe's old Olympic rival, [Lennox Lewis](/wiki/Lennox_Lewis "Lennox Lewis"), knocked out Canadian [Donovan "Razor" Ruddock](/wiki/Donovan_Ruddock "Donovan Ruddock") in two rounds, establishing himself as the World Boxing Council's number one contender. The Bowe\-Holyfield and Lewis\-Ruddock fights were part of a mini\-tournament, whereby all four fighters agreed the two winners would meet each other for the undisputed world heavyweight championship. Bowe's manager Rock Newman made a proposal: the $32 million purse HBO was offering should be split 90–10 in Bowe's favor, an 'absurd' offer which Lennox Lewis rejected.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.boxinginsider.com/headlines/memory\-lane\-when\-bowe\-ducked\-lewis/\|title\=Memory Lane: When Bowe Ducked Lewis \- BoxingInsider.com\|work\=BoxingInsider.com\|date\=June 2010 }} Lewis's manager, [Kellie Maloney](/wiki/Kellie_Maloney "Kellie Maloney") (known as Frank Maloney at the time), rejected another offer of two million for Lewis to fight on a Bowe undercard, citing his distrust of the Bowe camp after the aforementioned financial negotiations. Bowe responded by holding a press conference in which he dumped the WBC world heavyweight championship belt into a trash can and relinquished it in order to protest the actions of the WBC and WBC President [José Sulaimán](/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Sulaim%C3%A1n "José Sulaimán") concerning the fight payoff.{{cite web\|title\=BOXING; Bowe Trashes His W.B.C. Title Belt\|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/1992/12/15/sports/boxing\-bowe\-trashes\-his\-wbc\-title\-belt.html\|work\=The New York Times\|date\=15 December 1992\|access\-date\=3 May 2017}}{{cite web\|url\=https://www.espn.com/sports/boxing/columns/story?columnist\=rafael\_dan\&id\=3727811\|title\=Lennox Lewis lays rumors of return to rest once and for all\|work\=ESPN.com\|date\=November 26, 2008 }}
Bowe's first defense of his remaining titles came on February 6, 1993, when he fought 34\-year\-old former champion [Michael Dokes](/wiki/Michael_Dokes "Michael Dokes") at [Madison Square Garden](/wiki/Madison_Square_Garden "Madison Square Garden") and knocked him out in the first round. In February 1993, Bowe met Pope [John Paul II](/wiki/John_Paul_II "John Paul II") during the pope's general audience at the [Vatican](/wiki/Vatican_City "Vatican City"), a day after Bowe completed a goodwill mission to [Somalia](/wiki/Somalia "Somalia"). In Bowe's next fight, May 22, 1993, at [RFK Stadium](/wiki/RFK_Stadium "RFK Stadium") in Washington, D.C., Bowe knocked out [Jesse Ferguson](/wiki/Jesse_Ferguson "Jesse Ferguson") in the second round to retain the title. This set up a rematch with Evander Holyfield.
In the rematch with Holyfield, Bowe looked overweight. He had entered training camp at a 266 lbs and weighed in at 246 lbs, eleven pounds heavier than in the first fight with Holyfield.{{cite news \| url \= http://vault.sportsillustrated.cnn.com/vault/article/magazine/MAG1137895/2/index.htm \| archive\-url \= https://archive.today/20121203024845/http://vault.sportsillustrated.cnn.com/vault/article/magazine/MAG1137895/2/index.htm \| url\-status \= dead \| archive\-date \= December 3, 2012 \| title \= Video \| publisher \= CNN \| date \= November 15, 1993 \| access\-date \= May 22, 2010}}
Bowe and Holyfield exchanged hard punches. Bowe ended up losing the belts to Holyfield by a majority decision. This fight was also known for a bizarre stunt in which parachutist [James "Fan Man" Miller](/wiki/James_Miller_%28parachutist%29 "James Miller (parachutist)") dropped into the open air arena, landing in the ropes by Bowe's corner. This surreal scene delayed the fight in the seventh round by nearly a half\-hour. Bowe stated afterwards he thought the bout should have declared a 'technical draw' or a 'no contest' owing to the unfair delay.
### After title loss
{{Main\|Riddick Bowe vs. Buster Mathis Jr.\|Riddick Bowe vs. Larry Donald}}
In August 1994, Bowe fought two comeback fights. He faced the much smaller [Buster Mathis Jr](/wiki/Buster_Mathis_Jr "Buster Mathis Jr") and, after struggling to connect with his bobbing and weaving target, hit Mathis while he was down with what was ruled an accidental blow, and the bout was ruled a 'No Contest' by referee [Arthur Mercante, Sr.](/wiki/Arthur_Mercante%2C_Sr. "Arthur Mercante, Sr.") In December 1994, Bowe punched [Larry Donald](/wiki/Larry_Donald "Larry Donald") at a prefight press conference, later beating him by 12 round unanimous decision for the WBC Continental Americas Heavyweight title, giving the 16\-0 heavyweight contender Donald his first loss.
### WBO heavyweight champion and Holyfield rubber match
{{Main\|Herbie Hide vs. Riddick Bowe\|Riddick Bowe vs. Jorge Luis González\|Riddick Bowe vs. Evander Holyfield III}}
In March 1995, Bowe won the [WBO](/wiki/World_Boxing_Organization "World Boxing Organization") version of the world heavyweight championship by knocking down England's [Herbie Hide](/wiki/Herbie_Hide "Herbie Hide") six times en route to scoring a sixth\-round knockout.
In June 1995, after a heated build up, Bowe defended the WBO heavyweight title against his archrival in the amateurs, [Jorge Luis González](/wiki/Jorge_Luis_Gonz%C3%A1lez "Jorge Luis González"), At the MGM Grand in Las Vegas. The prefight hype contained bizarre trash talk, which included Gonzalez declaring a desire to eat Bowe's heart and likening himself to a [lion](/wiki/Lion "Lion") while making Bowe out to be a [hyena](/wiki/Hyena "Hyena"). Bowe won by sixth\-round knockout over Gonzalez. He vacated the WBO championship soon after.
After the Gonzales fight, Bowe fought a rubber match with Evander Holyfield, their third and final meeting. Holyfield knocked Bowe down during the fight, but Bowe maintained his composure, and persevered to score an eighth round stoppage victory.
On January 11, 1996 Bowe was officially no longer the WBO champion.
### Bowe vs. Golota I and II
{{Main\|Riddick Bowe vs. Andrew Golota\|Riddick Bowe vs. Andrew Golota II}}
After defeating Holyfield in the third bout of their trilogy, Bowe was matched against undefeated heavyweight contender [Andrew Golota](/wiki/Andrew_Golota "Andrew Golota") at the [Madison Square Garden](/wiki/Madison_Square_Garden "Madison Square Garden") in an [HBO Boxing](/wiki/HBO_Boxing "HBO Boxing") event. Bowe's weight problem again resurfaced, as the favorite entered the ring at a career high of 252 lbs.{{cite news \| url \= http://vault.sportsillustrated.cnn.com/vault/article/magazine/MAG1008582/2/index.htm \| archive\-url \= https://archive.today/20120717162754/http://vault.sportsillustrated.cnn.com/vault/article/magazine/MAG1008582/2/index.htm \| url\-status \= dead \| archive\-date \= July 17, 2012 \| title \= Video \| publisher \= CNN \| date \= August 19, 1996 \| access\-date \= May 22, 2010}} Though ahead on points, Golota was penalized several times for low blows to the testes, and was finally disqualified in the seventh round after a combination of punches to Bowe's testicles. Seconds after Golota was disqualified, Bowe's entourage rushed the ring, attacked Golota with a two way radio (Golota traded punches with one of them, requiring 11 stitches to close the wound caused by the radio) and assaulted Golota's 74\-year\-old trainer [Lou Duva](/wiki/Lou_Duva "Lou Duva"), who collapsed in the ring and was taken out of The Garden on a stretcher. The entourage began rioting, fighting with spectators, staff and policemen alike, resulting in a number of injuries before they were forced out of the arena in what evolved into a lengthy televised ring spectacle.
The fight made many sports shows, including *[SportsCenter](/wiki/SportsCenter "SportsCenter")*, and there was a good amount of public interest in a rematch. The rematch was on [Pay Per View](/wiki/Pay_Per_View "Pay Per View"). Golota, after dropping Bowe in the second round, and being dropped himself later, was leading on the scorecards, only to be disqualified in the ninth round, once again for deliberately punching Bowe repeatedly in the testes.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.espn.com/sports/boxing/news/story?id\=2977591\|title\=Oldies trying to prove they're still good\|work\=ESPN.com\|date\=August 16, 2007 }} Despite not having another riot, this fight also proved to be controversial, with an unsuccessful protest filed by Golota's camp to try to overturn the fight's result.
This fight was featured on [HBO](/wiki/Home_Box_Office "Home Box Office")'s documentary *Legendary Nights: The Tale of Bowe\-Golota*.
### Return to boxing
[thumb\|250px\|right\|Bowe in 2008](/wiki/File:Riddick_Bowe.jpg "Riddick Bowe.jpg")
On September 25, 2004, after seven and a half years away from boxing, Bowe returned with a second\-round knockout over Marcus Rhode. In a second comeback fight, in April 2005, an overweight Bowe narrowly defeated journeyman Billy Zumbrun by ten round split decision.
Bowe declared bankruptcy in 2005\.{{cite news \| url \= http://www.theage.com.au/news/sport/exchamp\-bowe\-seeks\-bankruptcy\-protection/2005/10/18/1129401254509\.html \| title \= Ex\-champ Bowe seeks bankruptcy protection – Sport \| work \= The Age \| last \= Greenbelt \| first \= Maryland \| location \= Melbourne \| date \= October 19, 2005 \| access\-date \= 2008\-06\-24}}
On December 13, 2008, with the help of new manager Bob Bain, Bowe, 41, returned to the ring for the first time in over three and a half years on the undercard of the [Wladimir Klitschko](/wiki/Wladimir_Klitschko "Wladimir Klitschko") versus [Hasim Rahman](/wiki/Hasim_Rahman "Hasim Rahman") world heavyweight title bout in [Mannheim](/wiki/Mannheim "Mannheim"), [Germany](/wiki/Germany "Germany") and won an eight\-round unanimous decision over [Gene Pukall](/wiki/Gene_Pukall "Gene Pukall").
### Legacy and reputation
{{BLP sources section\|date\=June 2017}}
Riddick Bowe's boxing record stands at 43 wins and 1 loss, with 33 knockouts. In the autobiography of veteran former referee [Mills Lane](/wiki/Mills_Lane "Mills Lane"), *Let's Get It On*, who had officiated at some of Bowe's fights, he professed that Bowe could have been one of boxing's greatest boxers but foolishly squandered the opportunity through immaturity and lack of discipline.
[BoxRec](/wiki/BoxRec "BoxRec") ranks Bowe as the 28th greatest fighter among boxers that had their last professional boxing match at heavyweight.[BoxRec](/wiki/BoxRec "BoxRec")\| Noted for his [in\-fighting](/wiki/Pressure_fighter "Pressure fighter") skills, [jab](/wiki/Jab "Jab") and [combination](/wiki/Striking_combination "Striking combination") punching, Bowe's first fight with [Evander Holyfield](/wiki/Evander_Holyfield "Evander Holyfield") is considered one of the greatest world heavyweight title fights of all time. Following this victory, he met [Nelson Mandela](/wiki/Nelson_Mandela "Nelson Mandela") during a visit to South Africa. Bowe's trainer at the time, [Eddie Futch](/wiki/Eddie_Futch "Eddie Futch"), lamented that upon his return, Bowe failed to ever achieve the same physical condition for his subsequent fights.
In 2017, [*The Ring* magazine](/wiki/The_Ring_%28magazine%29 "The Ring (magazine)") ranked Bowe as the 19th best heavyweight of all time in a poll of a panel of 30 trainers, matchmakers and members of the boxing media. The consensus was that Bowe, described as both a "super talent" and a "super waste", only had one great fight, when winning the title from Holyfield, and ultimately disappointed in squandering his obvious natural ability due to laziness.[The Ring](/wiki/The_Ring_%28magazine%29 "The Ring (magazine)")
Bowe's reputation suffered because of the weak challengers he faced as champion (an aging [Michael Dokes](/wiki/Michael_Dokes "Michael Dokes") and also [Jesse Ferguson](/wiki/Jesse_Ferguson "Jesse Ferguson")) before losing the title to Holyfield in their rematch. He is also widely criticized for relinquishing the WBC title rather than defending it against [mandatory challenger](/wiki/Mandatory_challenger "Mandatory challenger") [Lennox Lewis](/wiki/Lennox_Lewis "Lennox Lewis"), thus fracturing the undisputed championship until Lewis unified the titles in 1999\.
Bowe is the first boxer in any division to hold all four major versions of the world championship ([WBA](/wiki/World_Boxing_Association "World Boxing Association"), [WBC](/wiki/World_Boxing_Council "World Boxing Council"), [IBF](/wiki/International_Boxing_Federation "International Boxing Federation"), and [WBO](/wiki/World_Boxing_Organization "World Boxing Organization")) during his career, an accomplishment emulated in the heavyweight division only by [Tyson Fury](/wiki/Tyson_Fury "Tyson Fury") and [Oleksandr Usyk](/wiki/Oleksandr_Usyk "Oleksandr Usyk").
Bowe's sole loss, to [Evander Holyfield](/wiki/Evander_Holyfield "Evander Holyfield") in 1993, was avenged in 1995, meaning that he finished their trilogy 2\-1 ahead. With the exception of a 1994 no\-contest with [Buster Mathis Jr.](/wiki/Buster_Mathis_Jr. "Buster Mathis Jr."), Bowe defeated every opponent he faced as a professional.
Alongside [Gene Tunney](/wiki/Gene_Tunney "Gene Tunney"), [Rocky Marciano](/wiki/Rocky_Marciano "Rocky Marciano"), [Sultan Ibragimov](/wiki/Sultan_Ibragimov "Sultan Ibragimov") and [Nikolai Valuev](/wiki/Nikolai_Valuev "Nikolai Valuev"), Bowe is one of five former heavyweight champions to have never suffered a stoppage defeat during his career.
|
[
"Professional boxing career\n--------------------------",
"Bowe turned [professional](/wiki/Professional_boxing \"Professional boxing\") after his Olympic loss. Highly regarded trainer [Eddie Futch](/wiki/Eddie_Futch \"Eddie Futch\") took on the job of developing Bowe, as he saw the talent. Eddie would say that Bowe had more potential than any boxer he had ever trained.",
"Bowe turned professional in March 1989 and knocked out [Lionel Butler](/wiki/Lionel_Butler \"Lionel Butler\"). His then manager, Rock Newman, kept Bowe active, fighting 13 times in 1989, beating journeymen — the most notable being Garing Lane, whom he beat twice. In September 1990, Bowe made his first step up in class, fighting faded ex\\-champion [Pinklon Thomas](/wiki/Pinklon_Thomas \"Pinklon Thomas\"), whom he dominated until Thomas gave up after eight rounds. The following month, Bowe knocked out [Bert Cooper](/wiki/Bert_Cooper \"Bert Cooper\") in two rounds, which added to his reputation and high ranking.",
"In March 1991, Bowe knocked out 1984 Olympic Super Heavyweight Gold medalist [Tyrell Biggs](/wiki/Tyrell_Biggs \"Tyrell Biggs\"). In Bowe's next fight, ex\\-champion [Tony Tubbs](/wiki/Tony_Tubbs \"Tony Tubbs\") appeared to outbox and outsmart Bowe in a close bout, only to have the judges award Bowe a unanimous decision. In August 1991, Bowe knocked out future world heavyweight champion [Bruce Seldon](/wiki/Bruce_Seldon \"Bruce Seldon\") in one round. In July 1992, he knocked out South African [Pierre Coetzer](/wiki/Pierre_Coetzer \"Pierre Coetzer\") in the seventh round of a world title eliminator.",
"### Fights against Elijah Tillery",
"Bowe fought two interesting bouts against [Elijah Tillery](/wiki/Elijah_Tillery \"Elijah Tillery\") in 1991\\. Their first fight, at the [Washington Convention Center](/wiki/Washington_Convention_Center \"Washington Convention Center\"), drew attention for its bizarre conclusion. Bowe dominated the first round and dropped Tillery. After the round ended, Tillery walked toward Bowe and taunted him, and Bowe responded by punching Tillery. Tillery then threw several low kicks at Bowe, who then unleashed a flurry of punches on Tillery as he lay on the ropes. Bowe's trainer Rock Newman grabbed Tillery from behind on the ring apron and pulled him over the ropes as Bowe continued to throw punches. Tillery somersaulted over the ropes, and was quickly detained by security.{{cite news \\| url \\= https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res\\=9D0CE6D91F3FF933A05753C1A967958260 \\| title \\= BOXING; Bowe Gets the Boot, but Wins \\| newspaper \\= \\[\\[The New York Times]] \\| first \\= Phil \\| last \\= Berger \\| date \\= October 30, 1991 \\| access\\-date \\= May 22, 2010}} After order was restored and the fighters returned to the ring, Tillery and Bowe continued a war of words, and minor incidents continued until the ring was cleared. Tillery was controversially disqualified for kicking Bowe, with Bowe getting the win, much to the surprise of the television announcers. The referee, Karl Milligan, had stepped between the two fighters to separate them and stepped forward as he did so, inadvertently missing the action behind him after the bell between the combatants. The fighters fought a rematch two months later at Convention Hall in Atlantic City, with Bowe dominating and stopping Tillery in four rounds.",
"### World heavyweight champion",
"{{Main\\|Evander Holyfield vs. Riddick Bowe\\|Riddick Bowe vs. Michael Dokes\\|Riddick Bowe vs. Jesse Ferguson\\|Riddick Bowe vs. Evander Holyfield II}}\nIn November 1992 he fought reigning champ [Evander Holyfield](/wiki/Evander_Holyfield \"Evander Holyfield\") for the undisputed heavyweight title. Bowe won a unanimous decision in an entertaining fight, flooring Holyfield in the 11th round. However, it was the tenth round most boxing fans will remember. The epic brutal back and forth exchanges helped make it [Ring Magazine](/wiki/Ring_Magazine \"Ring Magazine\")'s \"[Round of the Year](/wiki/Ring_Magazine_round_of_the_year \"Ring Magazine round of the year\").\" Commentator Al Bernstein exclaimed, \"That was one of the greatest rounds in heavyweight history. Period!\"",
"A couple of weeks earlier in London, Bowe's old Olympic rival, [Lennox Lewis](/wiki/Lennox_Lewis \"Lennox Lewis\"), knocked out Canadian [Donovan \"Razor\" Ruddock](/wiki/Donovan_Ruddock \"Donovan Ruddock\") in two rounds, establishing himself as the World Boxing Council's number one contender. The Bowe\\-Holyfield and Lewis\\-Ruddock fights were part of a mini\\-tournament, whereby all four fighters agreed the two winners would meet each other for the undisputed world heavyweight championship. Bowe's manager Rock Newman made a proposal: the $32 million purse HBO was offering should be split 90–10 in Bowe's favor, an 'absurd' offer which Lennox Lewis rejected.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.boxinginsider.com/headlines/memory\\-lane\\-when\\-bowe\\-ducked\\-lewis/\\|title\\=Memory Lane: When Bowe Ducked Lewis \\- BoxingInsider.com\\|work\\=BoxingInsider.com\\|date\\=June 2010 }} Lewis's manager, [Kellie Maloney](/wiki/Kellie_Maloney \"Kellie Maloney\") (known as Frank Maloney at the time), rejected another offer of two million for Lewis to fight on a Bowe undercard, citing his distrust of the Bowe camp after the aforementioned financial negotiations. Bowe responded by holding a press conference in which he dumped the WBC world heavyweight championship belt into a trash can and relinquished it in order to protest the actions of the WBC and WBC President [José Sulaimán](/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Sulaim%C3%A1n \"José Sulaimán\") concerning the fight payoff.{{cite web\\|title\\=BOXING; Bowe Trashes His W.B.C. Title Belt\\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/1992/12/15/sports/boxing\\-bowe\\-trashes\\-his\\-wbc\\-title\\-belt.html\\|work\\=The New York Times\\|date\\=15 December 1992\\|access\\-date\\=3 May 2017}}{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.espn.com/sports/boxing/columns/story?columnist\\=rafael\\_dan\\&id\\=3727811\\|title\\=Lennox Lewis lays rumors of return to rest once and for all\\|work\\=ESPN.com\\|date\\=November 26, 2008 }}",
"Bowe's first defense of his remaining titles came on February 6, 1993, when he fought 34\\-year\\-old former champion [Michael Dokes](/wiki/Michael_Dokes \"Michael Dokes\") at [Madison Square Garden](/wiki/Madison_Square_Garden \"Madison Square Garden\") and knocked him out in the first round. In February 1993, Bowe met Pope [John Paul II](/wiki/John_Paul_II \"John Paul II\") during the pope's general audience at the [Vatican](/wiki/Vatican_City \"Vatican City\"), a day after Bowe completed a goodwill mission to [Somalia](/wiki/Somalia \"Somalia\"). In Bowe's next fight, May 22, 1993, at [RFK Stadium](/wiki/RFK_Stadium \"RFK Stadium\") in Washington, D.C., Bowe knocked out [Jesse Ferguson](/wiki/Jesse_Ferguson \"Jesse Ferguson\") in the second round to retain the title. This set up a rematch with Evander Holyfield.",
"In the rematch with Holyfield, Bowe looked overweight. He had entered training camp at a 266 lbs and weighed in at 246 lbs, eleven pounds heavier than in the first fight with Holyfield.{{cite news \\| url \\= http://vault.sportsillustrated.cnn.com/vault/article/magazine/MAG1137895/2/index.htm \\| archive\\-url \\= https://archive.today/20121203024845/http://vault.sportsillustrated.cnn.com/vault/article/magazine/MAG1137895/2/index.htm \\| url\\-status \\= dead \\| archive\\-date \\= December 3, 2012 \\| title \\= Video \\| publisher \\= CNN \\| date \\= November 15, 1993 \\| access\\-date \\= May 22, 2010}}",
"Bowe and Holyfield exchanged hard punches. Bowe ended up losing the belts to Holyfield by a majority decision. This fight was also known for a bizarre stunt in which parachutist [James \"Fan Man\" Miller](/wiki/James_Miller_%28parachutist%29 \"James Miller (parachutist)\") dropped into the open air arena, landing in the ropes by Bowe's corner. This surreal scene delayed the fight in the seventh round by nearly a half\\-hour. Bowe stated afterwards he thought the bout should have declared a 'technical draw' or a 'no contest' owing to the unfair delay.",
"### After title loss",
"{{Main\\|Riddick Bowe vs. Buster Mathis Jr.\\|Riddick Bowe vs. Larry Donald}}\nIn August 1994, Bowe fought two comeback fights. He faced the much smaller [Buster Mathis Jr](/wiki/Buster_Mathis_Jr \"Buster Mathis Jr\") and, after struggling to connect with his bobbing and weaving target, hit Mathis while he was down with what was ruled an accidental blow, and the bout was ruled a 'No Contest' by referee [Arthur Mercante, Sr.](/wiki/Arthur_Mercante%2C_Sr. \"Arthur Mercante, Sr.\") In December 1994, Bowe punched [Larry Donald](/wiki/Larry_Donald \"Larry Donald\") at a prefight press conference, later beating him by 12 round unanimous decision for the WBC Continental Americas Heavyweight title, giving the 16\\-0 heavyweight contender Donald his first loss.",
"### WBO heavyweight champion and Holyfield rubber match",
"{{Main\\|Herbie Hide vs. Riddick Bowe\\|Riddick Bowe vs. Jorge Luis González\\|Riddick Bowe vs. Evander Holyfield III}}\nIn March 1995, Bowe won the [WBO](/wiki/World_Boxing_Organization \"World Boxing Organization\") version of the world heavyweight championship by knocking down England's [Herbie Hide](/wiki/Herbie_Hide \"Herbie Hide\") six times en route to scoring a sixth\\-round knockout.",
"In June 1995, after a heated build up, Bowe defended the WBO heavyweight title against his archrival in the amateurs, [Jorge Luis González](/wiki/Jorge_Luis_Gonz%C3%A1lez \"Jorge Luis González\"), At the MGM Grand in Las Vegas. The prefight hype contained bizarre trash talk, which included Gonzalez declaring a desire to eat Bowe's heart and likening himself to a [lion](/wiki/Lion \"Lion\") while making Bowe out to be a [hyena](/wiki/Hyena \"Hyena\"). Bowe won by sixth\\-round knockout over Gonzalez. He vacated the WBO championship soon after.\nAfter the Gonzales fight, Bowe fought a rubber match with Evander Holyfield, their third and final meeting. Holyfield knocked Bowe down during the fight, but Bowe maintained his composure, and persevered to score an eighth round stoppage victory.",
"On January 11, 1996 Bowe was officially no longer the WBO champion.",
"### Bowe vs. Golota I and II",
"{{Main\\|Riddick Bowe vs. Andrew Golota\\|Riddick Bowe vs. Andrew Golota II}}\nAfter defeating Holyfield in the third bout of their trilogy, Bowe was matched against undefeated heavyweight contender [Andrew Golota](/wiki/Andrew_Golota \"Andrew Golota\") at the [Madison Square Garden](/wiki/Madison_Square_Garden \"Madison Square Garden\") in an [HBO Boxing](/wiki/HBO_Boxing \"HBO Boxing\") event. Bowe's weight problem again resurfaced, as the favorite entered the ring at a career high of 252 lbs.{{cite news \\| url \\= http://vault.sportsillustrated.cnn.com/vault/article/magazine/MAG1008582/2/index.htm \\| archive\\-url \\= https://archive.today/20120717162754/http://vault.sportsillustrated.cnn.com/vault/article/magazine/MAG1008582/2/index.htm \\| url\\-status \\= dead \\| archive\\-date \\= July 17, 2012 \\| title \\= Video \\| publisher \\= CNN \\| date \\= August 19, 1996 \\| access\\-date \\= May 22, 2010}} Though ahead on points, Golota was penalized several times for low blows to the testes, and was finally disqualified in the seventh round after a combination of punches to Bowe's testicles. Seconds after Golota was disqualified, Bowe's entourage rushed the ring, attacked Golota with a two way radio (Golota traded punches with one of them, requiring 11 stitches to close the wound caused by the radio) and assaulted Golota's 74\\-year\\-old trainer [Lou Duva](/wiki/Lou_Duva \"Lou Duva\"), who collapsed in the ring and was taken out of The Garden on a stretcher. The entourage began rioting, fighting with spectators, staff and policemen alike, resulting in a number of injuries before they were forced out of the arena in what evolved into a lengthy televised ring spectacle.",
"The fight made many sports shows, including *[SportsCenter](/wiki/SportsCenter \"SportsCenter\")*, and there was a good amount of public interest in a rematch. The rematch was on [Pay Per View](/wiki/Pay_Per_View \"Pay Per View\"). Golota, after dropping Bowe in the second round, and being dropped himself later, was leading on the scorecards, only to be disqualified in the ninth round, once again for deliberately punching Bowe repeatedly in the testes.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.espn.com/sports/boxing/news/story?id\\=2977591\\|title\\=Oldies trying to prove they're still good\\|work\\=ESPN.com\\|date\\=August 16, 2007 }} Despite not having another riot, this fight also proved to be controversial, with an unsuccessful protest filed by Golota's camp to try to overturn the fight's result.",
"This fight was featured on [HBO](/wiki/Home_Box_Office \"Home Box Office\")'s documentary *Legendary Nights: The Tale of Bowe\\-Golota*.",
"### Return to boxing",
"[thumb\\|250px\\|right\\|Bowe in 2008](/wiki/File:Riddick_Bowe.jpg \"Riddick Bowe.jpg\")\nOn September 25, 2004, after seven and a half years away from boxing, Bowe returned with a second\\-round knockout over Marcus Rhode. In a second comeback fight, in April 2005, an overweight Bowe narrowly defeated journeyman Billy Zumbrun by ten round split decision.",
"Bowe declared bankruptcy in 2005\\.{{cite news \\| url \\= http://www.theage.com.au/news/sport/exchamp\\-bowe\\-seeks\\-bankruptcy\\-protection/2005/10/18/1129401254509\\.html \\| title \\= Ex\\-champ Bowe seeks bankruptcy protection – Sport \\| work \\= The Age \\| last \\= Greenbelt \\| first \\= Maryland \\| location \\= Melbourne \\| date \\= October 19, 2005 \\| access\\-date \\= 2008\\-06\\-24}} \nOn December 13, 2008, with the help of new manager Bob Bain, Bowe, 41, returned to the ring for the first time in over three and a half years on the undercard of the [Wladimir Klitschko](/wiki/Wladimir_Klitschko \"Wladimir Klitschko\") versus [Hasim Rahman](/wiki/Hasim_Rahman \"Hasim Rahman\") world heavyweight title bout in [Mannheim](/wiki/Mannheim \"Mannheim\"), [Germany](/wiki/Germany \"Germany\") and won an eight\\-round unanimous decision over [Gene Pukall](/wiki/Gene_Pukall \"Gene Pukall\").",
"### Legacy and reputation",
"{{BLP sources section\\|date\\=June 2017}}\nRiddick Bowe's boxing record stands at 43 wins and 1 loss, with 33 knockouts. In the autobiography of veteran former referee [Mills Lane](/wiki/Mills_Lane \"Mills Lane\"), *Let's Get It On*, who had officiated at some of Bowe's fights, he professed that Bowe could have been one of boxing's greatest boxers but foolishly squandered the opportunity through immaturity and lack of discipline.",
"[BoxRec](/wiki/BoxRec \"BoxRec\") ranks Bowe as the 28th greatest fighter among boxers that had their last professional boxing match at heavyweight.[BoxRec](/wiki/BoxRec \"BoxRec\")\\| Noted for his [in\\-fighting](/wiki/Pressure_fighter \"Pressure fighter\") skills, [jab](/wiki/Jab \"Jab\") and [combination](/wiki/Striking_combination \"Striking combination\") punching, Bowe's first fight with [Evander Holyfield](/wiki/Evander_Holyfield \"Evander Holyfield\") is considered one of the greatest world heavyweight title fights of all time. Following this victory, he met [Nelson Mandela](/wiki/Nelson_Mandela \"Nelson Mandela\") during a visit to South Africa. Bowe's trainer at the time, [Eddie Futch](/wiki/Eddie_Futch \"Eddie Futch\"), lamented that upon his return, Bowe failed to ever achieve the same physical condition for his subsequent fights.",
"In 2017, [*The Ring* magazine](/wiki/The_Ring_%28magazine%29 \"The Ring (magazine)\") ranked Bowe as the 19th best heavyweight of all time in a poll of a panel of 30 trainers, matchmakers and members of the boxing media. The consensus was that Bowe, described as both a \"super talent\" and a \"super waste\", only had one great fight, when winning the title from Holyfield, and ultimately disappointed in squandering his obvious natural ability due to laziness.[The Ring](/wiki/The_Ring_%28magazine%29 \"The Ring (magazine)\")",
"Bowe's reputation suffered because of the weak challengers he faced as champion (an aging [Michael Dokes](/wiki/Michael_Dokes \"Michael Dokes\") and also [Jesse Ferguson](/wiki/Jesse_Ferguson \"Jesse Ferguson\")) before losing the title to Holyfield in their rematch. He is also widely criticized for relinquishing the WBC title rather than defending it against [mandatory challenger](/wiki/Mandatory_challenger \"Mandatory challenger\") [Lennox Lewis](/wiki/Lennox_Lewis \"Lennox Lewis\"), thus fracturing the undisputed championship until Lewis unified the titles in 1999\\.",
"Bowe is the first boxer in any division to hold all four major versions of the world championship ([WBA](/wiki/World_Boxing_Association \"World Boxing Association\"), [WBC](/wiki/World_Boxing_Council \"World Boxing Council\"), [IBF](/wiki/International_Boxing_Federation \"International Boxing Federation\"), and [WBO](/wiki/World_Boxing_Organization \"World Boxing Organization\")) during his career, an accomplishment emulated in the heavyweight division only by [Tyson Fury](/wiki/Tyson_Fury \"Tyson Fury\") and [Oleksandr Usyk](/wiki/Oleksandr_Usyk \"Oleksandr Usyk\").",
"Bowe's sole loss, to [Evander Holyfield](/wiki/Evander_Holyfield \"Evander Holyfield\") in 1993, was avenged in 1995, meaning that he finished their trilogy 2\\-1 ahead. With the exception of a 1994 no\\-contest with [Buster Mathis Jr.](/wiki/Buster_Mathis_Jr. \"Buster Mathis Jr.\"), Bowe defeated every opponent he faced as a professional.",
"Alongside [Gene Tunney](/wiki/Gene_Tunney \"Gene Tunney\"), [Rocky Marciano](/wiki/Rocky_Marciano \"Rocky Marciano\"), [Sultan Ibragimov](/wiki/Sultan_Ibragimov \"Sultan Ibragimov\") and [Nikolai Valuev](/wiki/Nikolai_Valuev \"Nikolai Valuev\"), Bowe is one of five former heavyweight champions to have never suffered a stoppage defeat during his career.",
""
] |
Life outside of boxing
----------------------
### Joining the Marine Corps
After the Golota fights, Bowe retired from boxing and decided to join the [United States Marine Corps Reserve](/wiki/United_States_Marine_Corps_Reserve "United States Marine Corps Reserve"). He said he made the decision both to make his mother proud and to rededicate himself to training, with the intention of returning to boxing shortly after.{{cite news \| url \= https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res\=9804E4D8143DF932A05752C0A961958260 \| title \= Hut, 2, 3, 4! Bowe Is Joining U.S. Marine Corps \| newspaper \= \[\[The New York Times]] \| first \= Richard \| last \= Sandomir \| date \= January 31, 1996 \| access\-date \= May 22, 2010}}
Bowe arrived at [Marine Corps Recruit Depot Parris Island](/wiki/Marine_Corps_Recruit_Depot_Parris_Island "Marine Corps Recruit Depot Parris Island") on February 10, 1997\.{{cite news \|last\=Goldstein \|first\=Alan \|url\=https://www.baltimoresun.com/1997/02/22/after\-11\-days\-marine\-life\-too\-much\-for\-boxer\-bowe\-former\-champion\-quits\-boot\-camp/ \|title\=After 11 days, Marine life too much for boxer Bowe Former champion quits boot camp \|work\=\[\[The Baltimore Sun]] \|date\=1997\-02\-22 \|access\-date\=2018\-12\-05 }} On his first day of [recruit training](/wiki/United_States_Marine_Corps_Recruit_Training "United States Marine Corps Recruit Training"), Bowe discussed leaving the Corps with Marine commanders, and quit after three days of heavy physical training with his platoon in [Parris Island, South Carolina](/wiki/Parris_Island%2C_South_Carolina "Parris Island, South Carolina"), on February 21, 1997\.
### Humanitarian Activities
Shortly after winning his first title against Evander Holyfield, Bowe saw a news story on television that revealed a million dollars worth of medicines donated to the Somali refugees and orphans were not able to be transported to the war\-torn region due to a lack of funds to pay for the charter aircraft needed. Bowe immediately had his representatives contact [AmeriCares](/wiki/AmeriCares "AmeriCares"), the NGO leading the effort, and pledged the 100,000 dollars needed to fund the trip{{cite news\|title\=Sports People: Boxing: Bowe Visits Somalia\|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/1993/02/23/sports/sports\-people\-boxing\-bowe\-visits\-somalia.html\|access\-date\=6 August 2015\|newspaper\=\[\[The New York Times]]\|date\=Feb 23, 1993}} \- on the condition he could go to the country with the goods, and make sure they got to their intended recipients.{{cite web\|last1\=Blockus\|first1\=Gary\|title\=Bowe Hopes to Feed World a New Breed\|url\=https://www.mcall.com/1993/01/15/bowe\-hopes\-to\-feed\-world\-a\-new\-breed/\|website\=Morning Call\|access\-date\=6 August 2015\|date\=Jan 15, 1993}} While in Somalia, he visited U.S. Marines and an orphanage on the Kenyan border. He was accompanied by several members of his management team, including manager Rock Newman and Head of International Sales Alexis Denny (CEO of an independent media distributor).
Bowe also took action when he heard news of other tragedies. In 1995, when Alexis Denny was in Indonesia on other business, she read Asian news coverage of Rodolfo Yap, a young man in the Philippines who was electrocuted while positioning his antenna so his family could watch a Riddick Bowe fight. She relayed this news to Bowe, and explained to the media at the time 'The heavyweight champion was very moved by the story and having lost a brother and a sister earlier in life, decided to make a financial contribution to the family of Mr. Yap."{{cite news\|title\=Gift for Dead Philippines Boxing Fan\|url\=http://www.upi.com/Archives/1995/06/28/Gift\-for\-dead\-Philippines\-boxing\-fan/3818804312000/\|access\-date\=6 August 2015\|agency\=UPI\|date\=June 28, 1995}}
Bowe authorized her to fly to the Philippines and try to locate the man's family, make a contribution to their expenses, and also provide funds to support the Philippine boxing Team training for the Olympics (in the name of the deceased).
### Prison
Bowe was convicted of the February 1998 kidnapping of his estranged wife Judy, and their five children.{{cite news \| url \= https://abcnews.go.com/Sports/story?id\=99725\&page\=1 \| title \= Riddick Bowe Facing 2 Years in Prison \| publisher \= ABC News \| date \= 2001\-07\-13 \| access\-date \= 2013\-04\-30}} Thinking it would reconcile his marriage, Bowe went to his wife's [Cornelius, North Carolina](/wiki/Cornelius%2C_North_Carolina "Cornelius, North Carolina"), home and threatened her with a knife, handcuffs, duct tape, and [pepper spray](/wiki/Pepper_spray "Pepper spray"). He forced her and their children into a vehicle and set out for his [Fort Washington, Maryland](/wiki/Fort_Washington%2C_Maryland "Fort Washington, Maryland"), home. During the kidnapping, Bowe stabbed his wife in the chest. Police captured Bowe in South Hill, Virginia, freeing his family. Bowe agreed to a plea bargain of guilty to "interstate domestic violence", and was sentenced to 18 to 24 months in prison. Despite the agreed sentence, on February 29, 2000, the judge sentenced Bowe to only 30 days, due to a claim of brain damage by Bowe's defense.{{cite news \| url \= https://www.nytimes.com/2000/03/01/sports/plus\-court\-news\-boxing\-bowe\-sentenced\-to\-30\-days.html?ref\=riddickbowe \| title \= PLUS: COURT NEWS \-\- BOXING; Bowe Sentenced To 30 Days \| newspaper \= \[\[The New York Times]] \| date \= 2000\-03\-01 \| access\-date \= 2013\-04\-30}}{{cite news \| url \= http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/boxing/news/2001/02/08/bowe\_arrested\_ap/ \| archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20100526024042/http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/boxing/news/2001/02/08/bowe\_arrested\_ap/ \| url\-status \= dead \| archive\-date \= May 26, 2010 \| title \= Bowe arrested for assault after domestic dispute \| publisher \= CNN \| date \= 2001\-02\-08 \| access\-date \= 2010\-05\-22}} This sentence, counter to the plea agreement, was later overturned. Bowe served 17 months in Federal prison.{{cite web \| url \= http://boxing.about.com/b/2005/10/17/riddick\-bowe\-files\-for\-bankruptcy.htm \| title \= Riddick Bowe Files for Bankruptcy \| publisher \= boxing.about.com \| last \= Eisele \| first \= Andrew \| access\-date \= 2008\-06\-24 \| archive\-date \= August 7, 2011 \| archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20110807191044/http://boxing.about.com/b/2005/10/17/riddick\-bowe\-files\-for\-bankruptcy.htm \| url\-status \= dead }} On February 8, 2001, Bowe was arrested in [Long Island](/wiki/Long_Island "Long Island") after a domestic dispute with his new wife. Bowe allegedly dragged his wife and left her with cuts on her knees and elbows.
### Attempted professional wrestling debut
In 2013, Riddick Bowe announced his intentions to start training to be a professional wrestler. He was to make his debut for the UK\-based [Preston City Wrestling](/wiki/Preston_City_Wrestling "Preston City Wrestling") organization on March 1, 2014\.{{cite web\|url\=http://prestoncitywrestling.com/news/2013/09/14/making\-his\-pro\-wresting\-debut\-in\-2014 \|access\-date\=September 15, 2013 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130918110902/http://www.prestoncitywrestling.com/news/2013/09/14/making\-his\-pro\-wresting\-debut\-in\-2014 \|archive\-date\=September 18, 2013 \|title\=Making His Pro Wresting Debut in 2014\... — Preston City Wrestling }} On December 14, 2013, Preston City Wrestling announced on their Facebook Page that Bowe would no longer be appearing due to a disagreement with Bowe's new agent.
|
[
"Life outside of boxing\n----------------------",
"### Joining the Marine Corps",
"After the Golota fights, Bowe retired from boxing and decided to join the [United States Marine Corps Reserve](/wiki/United_States_Marine_Corps_Reserve \"United States Marine Corps Reserve\"). He said he made the decision both to make his mother proud and to rededicate himself to training, with the intention of returning to boxing shortly after.{{cite news \\| url \\= https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res\\=9804E4D8143DF932A05752C0A961958260 \\| title \\= Hut, 2, 3, 4! Bowe Is Joining U.S. Marine Corps \\| newspaper \\= \\[\\[The New York Times]] \\| first \\= Richard \\| last \\= Sandomir \\| date \\= January 31, 1996 \\| access\\-date \\= May 22, 2010}}",
"Bowe arrived at [Marine Corps Recruit Depot Parris Island](/wiki/Marine_Corps_Recruit_Depot_Parris_Island \"Marine Corps Recruit Depot Parris Island\") on February 10, 1997\\.{{cite news \\|last\\=Goldstein \\|first\\=Alan \\|url\\=https://www.baltimoresun.com/1997/02/22/after\\-11\\-days\\-marine\\-life\\-too\\-much\\-for\\-boxer\\-bowe\\-former\\-champion\\-quits\\-boot\\-camp/ \\|title\\=After 11 days, Marine life too much for boxer Bowe Former champion quits boot camp \\|work\\=\\[\\[The Baltimore Sun]] \\|date\\=1997\\-02\\-22 \\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-12\\-05 }} On his first day of [recruit training](/wiki/United_States_Marine_Corps_Recruit_Training \"United States Marine Corps Recruit Training\"), Bowe discussed leaving the Corps with Marine commanders, and quit after three days of heavy physical training with his platoon in [Parris Island, South Carolina](/wiki/Parris_Island%2C_South_Carolina \"Parris Island, South Carolina\"), on February 21, 1997\\.",
"### Humanitarian Activities",
"Shortly after winning his first title against Evander Holyfield, Bowe saw a news story on television that revealed a million dollars worth of medicines donated to the Somali refugees and orphans were not able to be transported to the war\\-torn region due to a lack of funds to pay for the charter aircraft needed. Bowe immediately had his representatives contact [AmeriCares](/wiki/AmeriCares \"AmeriCares\"), the NGO leading the effort, and pledged the 100,000 dollars needed to fund the trip{{cite news\\|title\\=Sports People: Boxing: Bowe Visits Somalia\\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/1993/02/23/sports/sports\\-people\\-boxing\\-bowe\\-visits\\-somalia.html\\|access\\-date\\=6 August 2015\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]]\\|date\\=Feb 23, 1993}} \\- on the condition he could go to the country with the goods, and make sure they got to their intended recipients.{{cite web\\|last1\\=Blockus\\|first1\\=Gary\\|title\\=Bowe Hopes to Feed World a New Breed\\|url\\=https://www.mcall.com/1993/01/15/bowe\\-hopes\\-to\\-feed\\-world\\-a\\-new\\-breed/\\|website\\=Morning Call\\|access\\-date\\=6 August 2015\\|date\\=Jan 15, 1993}} While in Somalia, he visited U.S. Marines and an orphanage on the Kenyan border. He was accompanied by several members of his management team, including manager Rock Newman and Head of International Sales Alexis Denny (CEO of an independent media distributor).",
"Bowe also took action when he heard news of other tragedies. In 1995, when Alexis Denny was in Indonesia on other business, she read Asian news coverage of Rodolfo Yap, a young man in the Philippines who was electrocuted while positioning his antenna so his family could watch a Riddick Bowe fight. She relayed this news to Bowe, and explained to the media at the time 'The heavyweight champion was very moved by the story and having lost a brother and a sister earlier in life, decided to make a financial contribution to the family of Mr. Yap.\"{{cite news\\|title\\=Gift for Dead Philippines Boxing Fan\\|url\\=http://www.upi.com/Archives/1995/06/28/Gift\\-for\\-dead\\-Philippines\\-boxing\\-fan/3818804312000/\\|access\\-date\\=6 August 2015\\|agency\\=UPI\\|date\\=June 28, 1995}}\nBowe authorized her to fly to the Philippines and try to locate the man's family, make a contribution to their expenses, and also provide funds to support the Philippine boxing Team training for the Olympics (in the name of the deceased).",
"### Prison",
"Bowe was convicted of the February 1998 kidnapping of his estranged wife Judy, and their five children.{{cite news \\| url \\= https://abcnews.go.com/Sports/story?id\\=99725\\&page\\=1 \\| title \\= Riddick Bowe Facing 2 Years in Prison \\| publisher \\= ABC News \\| date \\= 2001\\-07\\-13 \\| access\\-date \\= 2013\\-04\\-30}} Thinking it would reconcile his marriage, Bowe went to his wife's [Cornelius, North Carolina](/wiki/Cornelius%2C_North_Carolina \"Cornelius, North Carolina\"), home and threatened her with a knife, handcuffs, duct tape, and [pepper spray](/wiki/Pepper_spray \"Pepper spray\"). He forced her and their children into a vehicle and set out for his [Fort Washington, Maryland](/wiki/Fort_Washington%2C_Maryland \"Fort Washington, Maryland\"), home. During the kidnapping, Bowe stabbed his wife in the chest. Police captured Bowe in South Hill, Virginia, freeing his family. Bowe agreed to a plea bargain of guilty to \"interstate domestic violence\", and was sentenced to 18 to 24 months in prison. Despite the agreed sentence, on February 29, 2000, the judge sentenced Bowe to only 30 days, due to a claim of brain damage by Bowe's defense.{{cite news \\| url \\= https://www.nytimes.com/2000/03/01/sports/plus\\-court\\-news\\-boxing\\-bowe\\-sentenced\\-to\\-30\\-days.html?ref\\=riddickbowe \\| title \\= PLUS: COURT NEWS \\-\\- BOXING; Bowe Sentenced To 30 Days \\| newspaper \\= \\[\\[The New York Times]] \\| date \\= 2000\\-03\\-01 \\| access\\-date \\= 2013\\-04\\-30}}{{cite news \\| url \\= http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/boxing/news/2001/02/08/bowe\\_arrested\\_ap/ \\| archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20100526024042/http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/boxing/news/2001/02/08/bowe\\_arrested\\_ap/ \\| url\\-status \\= dead \\| archive\\-date \\= May 26, 2010 \\| title \\= Bowe arrested for assault after domestic dispute \\| publisher \\= CNN \\| date \\= 2001\\-02\\-08 \\| access\\-date \\= 2010\\-05\\-22}} This sentence, counter to the plea agreement, was later overturned. Bowe served 17 months in Federal prison.{{cite web \\| url \\= http://boxing.about.com/b/2005/10/17/riddick\\-bowe\\-files\\-for\\-bankruptcy.htm \\| title \\= Riddick Bowe Files for Bankruptcy \\| publisher \\= boxing.about.com \\| last \\= Eisele \\| first \\= Andrew \\| access\\-date \\= 2008\\-06\\-24 \\| archive\\-date \\= August 7, 2011 \\| archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20110807191044/http://boxing.about.com/b/2005/10/17/riddick\\-bowe\\-files\\-for\\-bankruptcy.htm \\| url\\-status \\= dead }} On February 8, 2001, Bowe was arrested in [Long Island](/wiki/Long_Island \"Long Island\") after a domestic dispute with his new wife. Bowe allegedly dragged his wife and left her with cuts on her knees and elbows.",
"### Attempted professional wrestling debut",
"In 2013, Riddick Bowe announced his intentions to start training to be a professional wrestler. He was to make his debut for the UK\\-based [Preston City Wrestling](/wiki/Preston_City_Wrestling \"Preston City Wrestling\") organization on March 1, 2014\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://prestoncitywrestling.com/news/2013/09/14/making\\-his\\-pro\\-wresting\\-debut\\-in\\-2014 \\|access\\-date\\=September 15, 2013 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130918110902/http://www.prestoncitywrestling.com/news/2013/09/14/making\\-his\\-pro\\-wresting\\-debut\\-in\\-2014 \\|archive\\-date\\=September 18, 2013 \\|title\\=Making His Pro Wresting Debut in 2014\\... — Preston City Wrestling }} On December 14, 2013, Preston City Wrestling announced on their Facebook Page that Bowe would no longer be appearing due to a disagreement with Bowe's new agent.",
""
] |
Special Air Service
-------------------
### Africa
Wiseman joined up with the SAS in their training base in Kabrit, Egypt. Wiseman saw action across [North Africa](/wiki/North_Africa "North Africa") in SAS / [Long Range Desert Group](/wiki/Long_Range_Desert_Group "Long Range Desert Group") joint operations raiding [Axis](/wiki/Axis_Powers "Axis Powers") airfields and transport/communications infrastructure.
### Sicily and Italy
Wiseman earned his Military Cross in action in the [Allied invasion of Sicily](/wiki/Allied_invasion_of_Sicily "Allied invasion of Sicily"), as commander of a section in the Special Raiding Squadron (SRS) under [Paddy Mayne](/wiki/Paddy_Mayne "Paddy Mayne"). Wiseman's unit scaled the cliffs of [Cape Murro di Porco](/wiki/Cape_Murro_di_Porco "Cape Murro di Porco") on the morning of 10 July 1943, in order to assault a [coastal battery](/wiki/Coastal_battery "Coastal battery") defending the beaches to be landed by the main Allied force. Achieving surprise, his small force killed, captured or wounded 40 of the enemy, while suffering no casualties themselves. In all, in 17 hours the SRS, in support of the [British XIII Corps](/wiki/XIII_Corps_%28United_Kingdom%29 "XIII Corps (United Kingdom)"), had killed over 200 Italians, captured a further 450, and silenced three batteries of guns.
By the time of the Allied operations in Italy, Wiseman was a [lieutenant](/wiki/Lieutenant "Lieutenant") and a [section](/wiki/Section_%28military_unit%29 "Section (military unit)") commander within 1 Troop. During a German counterattack on [Termoli](/wiki/Termoli "Termoli") on the east coast of southern Italy, Wiseman was the only survivor after a German shell killed 17 of his men in a direct hit on their truck, with Wiseman leaning out the window in the passenger seat talking to a [runner](/wiki/Runner_%28war%29 "Runner (war)"). The shell, probably a stray shot, had caused the single biggest loss of the SAS, and had likely been exacerbated by the fact many of the men had been carrying armed [Hawkins grenades](/wiki/Hawkins_grenade "Hawkins grenade") as they had been about to depart to shore up a defensive line.
### Normandy
By the time of the [Normandy landings](/wiki/Normandy_landings "Normandy landings"), Wiseman had reached the rank of [captain](/wiki/Captain_%28British_Army_and_Royal_Marines%29 "Captain (British Army and Royal Marines)") commanding 1 Troop, A Squadron, 1 SAS. Wiseman was one of three troop commanders in A Squadron, which as the direct descendant of [L Detachment](/wiki/History_of_the_Special_Air_Service "History of the Special Air Service"), considered itself the [crème de la crème](/wiki/wikt:Cr%C3%A8me_de_la_cr%C3%A8me "Crème de la crème") in the inter\-rivalry of the SAS, which by now numbered 4 Regiments of various nationalities and levels of experience. In June 1944 Wiseman took part in [Operation Houndsworth](/wiki/Operation_Houndsworth "Operation Houndsworth"), conducting operations behind the German lines in France, near [Dijon](/wiki/Dijon "Dijon"), disrupting the German's reinforcement of their forces in Normandy, assisted by the [French Maquis](/wiki/Maquis_%28World_War_II%29 "Maquis (World War II)").
### HQ
On withdrawal of A Squadron back to England in September 1944, Wiseman was awarded the [Croix de guerre](/wiki/Croix_de_guerre_1939%E2%80%931945_%28France%29 "Croix de guerre 1939–1945 (France)"), and on promotion to [major](/wiki/Major_%28United_Kingdom%29 "Major (United Kingdom)") was given command of SAS [Headquarters](/wiki/Headquarters "Headquarters").
|
[
"Special Air Service\n-------------------",
"### Africa",
"Wiseman joined up with the SAS in their training base in Kabrit, Egypt. Wiseman saw action across [North Africa](/wiki/North_Africa \"North Africa\") in SAS / [Long Range Desert Group](/wiki/Long_Range_Desert_Group \"Long Range Desert Group\") joint operations raiding [Axis](/wiki/Axis_Powers \"Axis Powers\") airfields and transport/communications infrastructure.",
"### Sicily and Italy",
"Wiseman earned his Military Cross in action in the [Allied invasion of Sicily](/wiki/Allied_invasion_of_Sicily \"Allied invasion of Sicily\"), as commander of a section in the Special Raiding Squadron (SRS) under [Paddy Mayne](/wiki/Paddy_Mayne \"Paddy Mayne\"). Wiseman's unit scaled the cliffs of [Cape Murro di Porco](/wiki/Cape_Murro_di_Porco \"Cape Murro di Porco\") on the morning of 10 July 1943, in order to assault a [coastal battery](/wiki/Coastal_battery \"Coastal battery\") defending the beaches to be landed by the main Allied force. Achieving surprise, his small force killed, captured or wounded 40 of the enemy, while suffering no casualties themselves. In all, in 17 hours the SRS, in support of the [British XIII Corps](/wiki/XIII_Corps_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"XIII Corps (United Kingdom)\"), had killed over 200 Italians, captured a further 450, and silenced three batteries of guns.",
"By the time of the Allied operations in Italy, Wiseman was a [lieutenant](/wiki/Lieutenant \"Lieutenant\") and a [section](/wiki/Section_%28military_unit%29 \"Section (military unit)\") commander within 1 Troop. During a German counterattack on [Termoli](/wiki/Termoli \"Termoli\") on the east coast of southern Italy, Wiseman was the only survivor after a German shell killed 17 of his men in a direct hit on their truck, with Wiseman leaning out the window in the passenger seat talking to a [runner](/wiki/Runner_%28war%29 \"Runner (war)\"). The shell, probably a stray shot, had caused the single biggest loss of the SAS, and had likely been exacerbated by the fact many of the men had been carrying armed [Hawkins grenades](/wiki/Hawkins_grenade \"Hawkins grenade\") as they had been about to depart to shore up a defensive line.",
"### Normandy",
"By the time of the [Normandy landings](/wiki/Normandy_landings \"Normandy landings\"), Wiseman had reached the rank of [captain](/wiki/Captain_%28British_Army_and_Royal_Marines%29 \"Captain (British Army and Royal Marines)\") commanding 1 Troop, A Squadron, 1 SAS. Wiseman was one of three troop commanders in A Squadron, which as the direct descendant of [L Detachment](/wiki/History_of_the_Special_Air_Service \"History of the Special Air Service\"), considered itself the [crème de la crème](/wiki/wikt:Cr%C3%A8me_de_la_cr%C3%A8me \"Crème de la crème\") in the inter\\-rivalry of the SAS, which by now numbered 4 Regiments of various nationalities and levels of experience. In June 1944 Wiseman took part in [Operation Houndsworth](/wiki/Operation_Houndsworth \"Operation Houndsworth\"), conducting operations behind the German lines in France, near [Dijon](/wiki/Dijon \"Dijon\"), disrupting the German's reinforcement of their forces in Normandy, assisted by the [French Maquis](/wiki/Maquis_%28World_War_II%29 \"Maquis (World War II)\").",
"### HQ",
"On withdrawal of A Squadron back to England in September 1944, Wiseman was awarded the [Croix de guerre](/wiki/Croix_de_guerre_1939%E2%80%931945_%28France%29 \"Croix de guerre 1939–1945 (France)\"), and on promotion to [major](/wiki/Major_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"Major (United Kingdom)\") was given command of SAS [Headquarters](/wiki/Headquarters \"Headquarters\").",
""
] |
Home video
----------
The original Japanese version of the series was released in its entirety in a [LaserDisc\-box](/wiki/LaserDisc "LaserDisc") in 1993 and by [Pioneer LDC](/wiki/NBCUniversal_Entertainment_Japan "NBCUniversal Entertainment Japan") in a [DVD\-box set](/wiki/DVD "DVD") in {{start date\|2002\|11\|29}}.{{cite web
\| url \= https://www.amazon.co.jp/dp/B00006JL7J
\| title \= Xボンバー DVD\-BOX
\| date \= November 29, 2002
\| access\-date \= 2009\-12\-21
\| location \= Japan
\| language \= ja
\|trans\-title\=X Bomber DVD\-box
}}{{cite web
\| url \= http://db.geneonuniversal.jp/search/detail.php?softid\=142178
\| title \= Xボンバー DVD\-BOX ＜初回限定生産＞
\| access\-date \= 2009\-12\-21
\| publisher \= Geneon Universal Entertainment
\| location \= Japan
\| language \= ja
\|trans\-title\=X Bomber DVD\-box (First time limited production)
}} Both sets also contained one of two compilation movies created from *Star Fleet*, in English with Japanese subtitles. Both sets have since gone out of print. On April 24, 2013, [Bandai Visual](/wiki/Bandai_Visual "Bandai Visual") released a Remastered DVD\-Box of the series featuring enhanced and remastered scenes.
In Bulgaria *The Thalian Space Wars* and *Space Quest For F\-01* tapes were released by Multi Video Center with Bulgarian dub.
In the US, eight video tapes were released which also contained compilations of the series' episodes, albeit in a less\-drastically edited format.
In the UK, only three *Star Fleet* video tapes were ever released. The first and rarest contained episodes 4 and 5 of the series. The other two were compilation movies entitled *The Thalian Space Wars* and *Space Quest For F\-01*. The series has not been repeated on UK television since the late 1980s.
A DVD set of *Star Fleet* was released in the UK on {{start date\|2009\|02\|09}} by [Fabulous Films](/wiki/Fabulous_Films "Fabulous Films").{{cite web
\| url \= https://www.amazon.co.uk/dp/B00171EE9E
\| title \= Star Fleet \- The Complete Series \[DVD]
\| website \= Amazon UK
\| date \= February 9, 2009
\| access\-date \= 2009\-12\-21
\| location \= United kingdom
}}{{cite web
\| url \= http://www.fabulousfilms.co.uk/site/Catalogue/TV\_1\.htm
\| title \= TV
\| access\-date \= 2009\-12\-21
\| work \= Catalogue
\| publisher \= Fabulous Films
\| location \= United kingdom
}} Included in the DVD set are all 24 episodes, remastered, and restored to their original UK broadcast format. Beyond the episodes, the set also includes stills and a double\-sided poster, as well as a comicbook and a comprehensive 'making of' documentary, which includes contributions from series creator Go Nagai, Dr Benn voice artist Peter Marinker, Brian May, Paul Bliss and Gerry Anderson.
Further to the DVD release, Paul Bliss' soundtrack has been released on CD and is available via mail order.
[Discotek Media](/wiki/Discotek_Media "Discotek Media") announced in June 2016 that they will release the dubbed series on DVD in the United States on December 20, 2016\. It was later delayed for a February 2017 release. They later announced in January 2019 that they will release both that version and the original version on SD Blu\-ray in the United States on March 26, 2019\.
|
[
"Home video\n----------",
"The original Japanese version of the series was released in its entirety in a [LaserDisc\\-box](/wiki/LaserDisc \"LaserDisc\") in 1993 and by [Pioneer LDC](/wiki/NBCUniversal_Entertainment_Japan \"NBCUniversal Entertainment Japan\") in a [DVD\\-box set](/wiki/DVD \"DVD\") in {{start date\\|2002\\|11\\|29}}.{{cite web\n\\| url \\= https://www.amazon.co.jp/dp/B00006JL7J\n\\| title \\= Xボンバー DVD\\-BOX\n\\| date \\= November 29, 2002\n\\| access\\-date \\= 2009\\-12\\-21\n\\| location \\= Japan\n\\| language \\= ja\n\\|trans\\-title\\=X Bomber DVD\\-box\n}}{{cite web\n\\| url \\= http://db.geneonuniversal.jp/search/detail.php?softid\\=142178\n\\| title \\= Xボンバー DVD\\-BOX ＜初回限定生産＞\n\\| access\\-date \\= 2009\\-12\\-21\n\\| publisher \\= Geneon Universal Entertainment\n\\| location \\= Japan\n\\| language \\= ja\n\\|trans\\-title\\=X Bomber DVD\\-box (First time limited production)\n}} Both sets also contained one of two compilation movies created from *Star Fleet*, in English with Japanese subtitles. Both sets have since gone out of print. On April 24, 2013, [Bandai Visual](/wiki/Bandai_Visual \"Bandai Visual\") released a Remastered DVD\\-Box of the series featuring enhanced and remastered scenes.",
"In Bulgaria *The Thalian Space Wars* and *Space Quest For F\\-01* tapes were released by Multi Video Center with Bulgarian dub.",
"In the US, eight video tapes were released which also contained compilations of the series' episodes, albeit in a less\\-drastically edited format.",
"In the UK, only three *Star Fleet* video tapes were ever released. The first and rarest contained episodes 4 and 5 of the series. The other two were compilation movies entitled *The Thalian Space Wars* and *Space Quest For F\\-01*. The series has not been repeated on UK television since the late 1980s.",
"A DVD set of *Star Fleet* was released in the UK on {{start date\\|2009\\|02\\|09}} by [Fabulous Films](/wiki/Fabulous_Films \"Fabulous Films\").{{cite web\n\\| url \\= https://www.amazon.co.uk/dp/B00171EE9E\n\\| title \\= Star Fleet \\- The Complete Series \\[DVD]\n\\| website \\= Amazon UK\n\\| date \\= February 9, 2009\n\\| access\\-date \\= 2009\\-12\\-21\n\\| location \\= United kingdom\n}}{{cite web\n\\| url \\= http://www.fabulousfilms.co.uk/site/Catalogue/TV\\_1\\.htm\n\\| title \\= TV\n\\| access\\-date \\= 2009\\-12\\-21\n\\| work \\= Catalogue\n\\| publisher \\= Fabulous Films\n\\| location \\= United kingdom\n}} Included in the DVD set are all 24 episodes, remastered, and restored to their original UK broadcast format. Beyond the episodes, the set also includes stills and a double\\-sided poster, as well as a comicbook and a comprehensive 'making of' documentary, which includes contributions from series creator Go Nagai, Dr Benn voice artist Peter Marinker, Brian May, Paul Bliss and Gerry Anderson.",
"Further to the DVD release, Paul Bliss' soundtrack has been released on CD and is available via mail order.",
"[Discotek Media](/wiki/Discotek_Media \"Discotek Media\") announced in June 2016 that they will release the dubbed series on DVD in the United States on December 20, 2016\\. It was later delayed for a February 2017 release. They later announced in January 2019 that they will release both that version and the original version on SD Blu\\-ray in the United States on March 26, 2019\\.",
""
] |
History
-------
### Soviet Union and Russia
In the 1920s and 1930s, similar processions took place in the Soviet Union. For example, there was a carnival demonstration in defense of beneficial birds. The participants of this procession carried banners like "The [tit](/wiki/Tit_%28bird%29 "Tit (bird)") exterminates 6500 caterpillars a year". But basically these actions were of anti\-religious content.{{cite web \|url\=https://sibkray.ru/news/1/881151/ \|title\=Кресты и «партия фортепиано»: с чего начиналась «Монстрация» \|website\=Сибкрай.ru \|date\=22 April 2016 \|access\-date\=15 November 2022}}
#### Novosibirsk
In 1933, an anti\-religious demonstration took place in Novosibirsk on Christmas Eve. Costumed [Komsomol](/wiki/Komsomol "Komsomol") members marched around the city with [effigies](/wiki/Effigy "Effigy") of priests and crosses and completed the action by burning a Christmas tree near the [Lenin House](/wiki/House_of_Lenin "House of Lenin").
In the 1960s and 1980s, absurdist demonstrations were held by the youth of [Novosibirsk Akademgorodok](/wiki/Akademgorodok "Akademgorodok"). In the 1960s, these actions were organized by the *Integral Club*.
In November 1995, a march of artists and poets was held, also known as the *Styobius Strip* (*Лента стёбиуса*).
In 2004, [Artyom Loskutov](/wiki/Artyom_Loskutov "Artyom Loskutov") and members of the *Contemporary Art Terrorism* group in [Novosibirsk](/wiki/Novosibirsk "Novosibirsk") joined the annual [May Day demonstration](/wiki/International_Workers%27_Day "International Workers' Day"). They were carrying posters with deliberately absurd slogans in an attempt to shake up a boring political procession and to make fun.
Fellow Siberian artist Ivan Dyrkin named the march "Monstration," a demonstration without the prefix *de,* which he considered a negative connotation as in [deconstruction](/wiki/Deconstruction "Deconstruction") or [degradation](/wiki/Biodegradation "Biodegradation").{{cite news\|last\=Liesowska\|first\=Anna\|title\= The Siberian phenomenon of 'Monstrating'\|url\=http://siberiantimes.com/other/others/news/the\-siberian\-phenomenon\-of\-monstrating/\|accessdate\=1 May 2013\|newspaper\=The Siberian Times\|date\=1 May 2013}}
#### Other cities
The modern monstration incorporates signs and messages that are deliberately absurd, nonsensical and apolitical that indirectly defy the government and express a conceptual paradox. Although monstrations are apolitical, participants have been arrested for [political agitation](/wiki/Anti-Soviet_agitation%23Post-Soviet_Russia "Anti-Soviet agitation#Post-Soviet Russia"). In 2010, Monstrations took place in 20 cities like Moscow, Saint Petersburg, and [Vladivostok](/wiki/Vladivostok "Vladivostok").{{cite news\|title\= Russian youths invent absurd way to by\-pass demonstration ban\|url\=https://observers.france24\.com/en/20110517\-russian\-youths\-invent\-absurd\-way\-pass\-demonstration\-ban\|newspaper\=France 24\|date\=17 May 2011}}
The first monstration in [Kursk](/wiki/Kursk "Kursk") took place on 1 May 2014\.
About 30 people went with the main slogan "For the rights of [butterflies in the stomach](/wiki/Butterflies_in_the_stomach "Butterflies in the stomach")".[46tv.ru, В Курске прошла "Монстрация" (фото)](http://www.46tv.ru/new/society/002757/)
Za prava babochek v zhivote.JPG\|"For the rights of \[\[butterflies in the stomach]]"
Ulibni svoi ulibalnik.JPG\|"Smile your smiler!"
Na temnoi storone.JPG\|"\[\[Death Star]] for rent" and "Dark side has no cookies"
Zhigulam litie diski.JPG\|"\[\[Alloy wheel]]s to \[\[Zhiguli\_(car\_brand)\|Zhiguli]]\<ref\>{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.musixmatch.com/lyrics/Ленинград/Любит\-наш\-народ\|title \= Ленинград \- Любит наш народ Lyrics}}\</ref\>".
In 2015, the main slogan was "We did not watch *[Fifty Shades](/wiki/Fifty_Shades_of_Grey_%28film%29 "Fifty Shades of Grey (film)")*".
### Poland
[Orange Alternative](/wiki/Orange_Alternative "Orange Alternative") ({{lang\-pl\|link\=no\|Pomarańczowa Alternatywa}}) was a Polish [anti\-communist](/wiki/Anti-communist "Anti-communist") underground movement, started in [Wrocław](/wiki/Wroc%C5%82aw "Wrocław"), a city in south\-west Poland, in the 1980s.{{cite journal\|date\=March 1992\|title\=Between the State and Solidarity\|journal\=The British Journal of Sociology\|volume\=43\|issue\=1\|pages\=55–78\|doi\=10\.2307/591201\|author\=Bronislaw Misztal\|jstor\=591201}} Its main purpose was to offer a wider group of citizens an alternative way of opposition against the [authoritarian](/wiki/Authoritarian "Authoritarian") regime by means of peaceful street protests that used absurd and nonsensical elements.
### Alytus, Lithuania
From 2009 to 2017 a series of [Art strike](/wiki/Art_strike "Art strike") Biennales were held at the [Alytus](/wiki/Alytus "Alytus") art school. Organised by [Redas Diržys](/wiki/Redas_Dir%C5%BEys "Redas Diržys") and the [psychic workers](/wiki/Psychic_workers "Psychic workers") union.{{cite journal \|last1\=Michelkevičė \|first1\=Lina \|title\=Starting from School: Contemporary Art Projects Involving Educational Institutions (2017\) \|journal\=Acta Academiae Artium Vilnensis \|date\=2017 \|volume\=84 \|issue\=Education in, for and through Art / Edukacija mene, menui, per meną \|page\=134 \|url\=https://www.academia.edu/36806404/Starting\_from\_School\_Contemporary\_Art\_Projects\_Involving\_Educational\_Institutions\_2017\_}}
Alytus Biennial 2009 Monstration \- Artist United Will Never Be Divided.png\|"Alytus Biennial 2009 Monstration \- Artist United Will Never Be Divided"
Alytus Biennial 2011 Monstration q.jpg\|"Alytus Biennial 2011 Monstration"
Alytus Psychic Strike 2011 Monstration.jpg\|"Alytus Psychic Strike 2013 Monstration"
ALYTAUS 6\-OJI PSICHO\-MENO\-STREIKO BIENALE KJHNLKJB.jpg\|"Alytus Psychic Strike 2015 Monstration"
|
[
"History\n-------",
"### Soviet Union and Russia",
"In the 1920s and 1930s, similar processions took place in the Soviet Union. For example, there was a carnival demonstration in defense of beneficial birds. The participants of this procession carried banners like \"The [tit](/wiki/Tit_%28bird%29 \"Tit (bird)\") exterminates 6500 caterpillars a year\". But basically these actions were of anti\\-religious content.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://sibkray.ru/news/1/881151/ \\|title\\=Кресты и «партия фортепиано»: с чего начиналась «Монстрация» \\|website\\=Сибкрай.ru \\|date\\=22 April 2016 \\|access\\-date\\=15 November 2022}}",
"#### Novosibirsk",
"In 1933, an anti\\-religious demonstration took place in Novosibirsk on Christmas Eve. Costumed [Komsomol](/wiki/Komsomol \"Komsomol\") members marched around the city with [effigies](/wiki/Effigy \"Effigy\") of priests and crosses and completed the action by burning a Christmas tree near the [Lenin House](/wiki/House_of_Lenin \"House of Lenin\").",
"In the 1960s and 1980s, absurdist demonstrations were held by the youth of [Novosibirsk Akademgorodok](/wiki/Akademgorodok \"Akademgorodok\"). In the 1960s, these actions were organized by the *Integral Club*.",
"In November 1995, a march of artists and poets was held, also known as the *Styobius Strip* (*Лента стёбиуса*).",
"In 2004, [Artyom Loskutov](/wiki/Artyom_Loskutov \"Artyom Loskutov\") and members of the *Contemporary Art Terrorism* group in [Novosibirsk](/wiki/Novosibirsk \"Novosibirsk\") joined the annual [May Day demonstration](/wiki/International_Workers%27_Day \"International Workers' Day\"). They were carrying posters with deliberately absurd slogans in an attempt to shake up a boring political procession and to make fun. \nFellow Siberian artist Ivan Dyrkin named the march \"Monstration,\" a demonstration without the prefix *de,* which he considered a negative connotation as in [deconstruction](/wiki/Deconstruction \"Deconstruction\") or [degradation](/wiki/Biodegradation \"Biodegradation\").{{cite news\\|last\\=Liesowska\\|first\\=Anna\\|title\\= The Siberian phenomenon of 'Monstrating'\\|url\\=http://siberiantimes.com/other/others/news/the\\-siberian\\-phenomenon\\-of\\-monstrating/\\|accessdate\\=1 May 2013\\|newspaper\\=The Siberian Times\\|date\\=1 May 2013}}",
"#### Other cities",
"The modern monstration incorporates signs and messages that are deliberately absurd, nonsensical and apolitical that indirectly defy the government and express a conceptual paradox. Although monstrations are apolitical, participants have been arrested for [political agitation](/wiki/Anti-Soviet_agitation%23Post-Soviet_Russia \"Anti-Soviet agitation#Post-Soviet Russia\"). In 2010, Monstrations took place in 20 cities like Moscow, Saint Petersburg, and [Vladivostok](/wiki/Vladivostok \"Vladivostok\").{{cite news\\|title\\= Russian youths invent absurd way to by\\-pass demonstration ban\\|url\\=https://observers.france24\\.com/en/20110517\\-russian\\-youths\\-invent\\-absurd\\-way\\-pass\\-demonstration\\-ban\\|newspaper\\=France 24\\|date\\=17 May 2011}}",
"The first monstration in [Kursk](/wiki/Kursk \"Kursk\") took place on 1 May 2014\\.\nAbout 30 people went with the main slogan \"For the rights of [butterflies in the stomach](/wiki/Butterflies_in_the_stomach \"Butterflies in the stomach\")\".[46tv.ru, В Курске прошла \"Монстрация\" (фото)](http://www.46tv.ru/new/society/002757/)",
"",
"Za prava babochek v zhivote.JPG\\|\"For the rights of \\[\\[butterflies in the stomach]]\"\nUlibni svoi ulibalnik.JPG\\|\"Smile your smiler!\"\nNa temnoi storone.JPG\\|\"\\[\\[Death Star]] for rent\" and \"Dark side has no cookies\"\nZhigulam litie diski.JPG\\|\"\\[\\[Alloy wheel]]s to \\[\\[Zhiguli\\_(car\\_brand)\\|Zhiguli]]\\<ref\\>{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.musixmatch.com/lyrics/Ленинград/Любит\\-наш\\-народ\\|title \\= Ленинград \\- Любит наш народ Lyrics}}\\</ref\\>\".",
"",
"In 2015, the main slogan was \"We did not watch *[Fifty Shades](/wiki/Fifty_Shades_of_Grey_%28film%29 \"Fifty Shades of Grey (film)\")*\".",
"### Poland",
"[Orange Alternative](/wiki/Orange_Alternative \"Orange Alternative\") ({{lang\\-pl\\|link\\=no\\|Pomarańczowa Alternatywa}}) was a Polish [anti\\-communist](/wiki/Anti-communist \"Anti-communist\") underground movement, started in [Wrocław](/wiki/Wroc%C5%82aw \"Wrocław\"), a city in south\\-west Poland, in the 1980s.{{cite journal\\|date\\=March 1992\\|title\\=Between the State and Solidarity\\|journal\\=The British Journal of Sociology\\|volume\\=43\\|issue\\=1\\|pages\\=55–78\\|doi\\=10\\.2307/591201\\|author\\=Bronislaw Misztal\\|jstor\\=591201}} Its main purpose was to offer a wider group of citizens an alternative way of opposition against the [authoritarian](/wiki/Authoritarian \"Authoritarian\") regime by means of peaceful street protests that used absurd and nonsensical elements.",
"### Alytus, Lithuania",
"From 2009 to 2017 a series of [Art strike](/wiki/Art_strike \"Art strike\") Biennales were held at the [Alytus](/wiki/Alytus \"Alytus\") art school. Organised by [Redas Diržys](/wiki/Redas_Dir%C5%BEys \"Redas Diržys\") and the [psychic workers](/wiki/Psychic_workers \"Psychic workers\") union.{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Michelkevičė \\|first1\\=Lina \\|title\\=Starting from School: Contemporary Art Projects Involving Educational Institutions (2017\\) \\|journal\\=Acta Academiae Artium Vilnensis \\|date\\=2017 \\|volume\\=84 \\|issue\\=Education in, for and through Art / Edukacija mene, menui, per meną \\|page\\=134 \\|url\\=https://www.academia.edu/36806404/Starting\\_from\\_School\\_Contemporary\\_Art\\_Projects\\_Involving\\_Educational\\_Institutions\\_2017\\_}}",
"Alytus Biennial 2009 Monstration \\- Artist United Will Never Be Divided.png\\|\"Alytus Biennial 2009 Monstration \\- Artist United Will Never Be Divided\"\nAlytus Biennial 2011 Monstration q.jpg\\|\"Alytus Biennial 2011 Monstration\"\nAlytus Psychic Strike 2011 Monstration.jpg\\|\"Alytus Psychic Strike 2013 Monstration\"\nALYTAUS 6\\-OJI PSICHO\\-MENO\\-STREIKO BIENALE KJHNLKJB.jpg\\|\"Alytus Psychic Strike 2015 Monstration\"",
"",
""
] |
### Soviet Union and Russia
In the 1920s and 1930s, similar processions took place in the Soviet Union. For example, there was a carnival demonstration in defense of beneficial birds. The participants of this procession carried banners like "The [tit](/wiki/Tit_%28bird%29 "Tit (bird)") exterminates 6500 caterpillars a year". But basically these actions were of anti\-religious content.{{cite web \|url\=https://sibkray.ru/news/1/881151/ \|title\=Кресты и «партия фортепиано»: с чего начиналась «Монстрация» \|website\=Сибкрай.ru \|date\=22 April 2016 \|access\-date\=15 November 2022}}
#### Novosibirsk
In 1933, an anti\-religious demonstration took place in Novosibirsk on Christmas Eve. Costumed [Komsomol](/wiki/Komsomol "Komsomol") members marched around the city with [effigies](/wiki/Effigy "Effigy") of priests and crosses and completed the action by burning a Christmas tree near the [Lenin House](/wiki/House_of_Lenin "House of Lenin").
In the 1960s and 1980s, absurdist demonstrations were held by the youth of [Novosibirsk Akademgorodok](/wiki/Akademgorodok "Akademgorodok"). In the 1960s, these actions were organized by the *Integral Club*.
In November 1995, a march of artists and poets was held, also known as the *Styobius Strip* (*Лента стёбиуса*).
In 2004, [Artyom Loskutov](/wiki/Artyom_Loskutov "Artyom Loskutov") and members of the *Contemporary Art Terrorism* group in [Novosibirsk](/wiki/Novosibirsk "Novosibirsk") joined the annual [May Day demonstration](/wiki/International_Workers%27_Day "International Workers' Day"). They were carrying posters with deliberately absurd slogans in an attempt to shake up a boring political procession and to make fun.
Fellow Siberian artist Ivan Dyrkin named the march "Monstration," a demonstration without the prefix *de,* which he considered a negative connotation as in [deconstruction](/wiki/Deconstruction "Deconstruction") or [degradation](/wiki/Biodegradation "Biodegradation").{{cite news\|last\=Liesowska\|first\=Anna\|title\= The Siberian phenomenon of 'Monstrating'\|url\=http://siberiantimes.com/other/others/news/the\-siberian\-phenomenon\-of\-monstrating/\|accessdate\=1 May 2013\|newspaper\=The Siberian Times\|date\=1 May 2013}}
#### Other cities
The modern monstration incorporates signs and messages that are deliberately absurd, nonsensical and apolitical that indirectly defy the government and express a conceptual paradox. Although monstrations are apolitical, participants have been arrested for [political agitation](/wiki/Anti-Soviet_agitation%23Post-Soviet_Russia "Anti-Soviet agitation#Post-Soviet Russia"). In 2010, Monstrations took place in 20 cities like Moscow, Saint Petersburg, and [Vladivostok](/wiki/Vladivostok "Vladivostok").{{cite news\|title\= Russian youths invent absurd way to by\-pass demonstration ban\|url\=https://observers.france24\.com/en/20110517\-russian\-youths\-invent\-absurd\-way\-pass\-demonstration\-ban\|newspaper\=France 24\|date\=17 May 2011}}
The first monstration in [Kursk](/wiki/Kursk "Kursk") took place on 1 May 2014\.
About 30 people went with the main slogan "For the rights of [butterflies in the stomach](/wiki/Butterflies_in_the_stomach "Butterflies in the stomach")".[46tv.ru, В Курске прошла "Монстрация" (фото)](http://www.46tv.ru/new/society/002757/)
Za prava babochek v zhivote.JPG\|"For the rights of \[\[butterflies in the stomach]]"
Ulibni svoi ulibalnik.JPG\|"Smile your smiler!"
Na temnoi storone.JPG\|"\[\[Death Star]] for rent" and "Dark side has no cookies"
Zhigulam litie diski.JPG\|"\[\[Alloy wheel]]s to \[\[Zhiguli\_(car\_brand)\|Zhiguli]]\<ref\>{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.musixmatch.com/lyrics/Ленинград/Любит\-наш\-народ\|title \= Ленинград \- Любит наш народ Lyrics}}\</ref\>".
In 2015, the main slogan was "We did not watch *[Fifty Shades](/wiki/Fifty_Shades_of_Grey_%28film%29 "Fifty Shades of Grey (film)")*".
|
[
"### Soviet Union and Russia",
"In the 1920s and 1930s, similar processions took place in the Soviet Union. For example, there was a carnival demonstration in defense of beneficial birds. The participants of this procession carried banners like \"The [tit](/wiki/Tit_%28bird%29 \"Tit (bird)\") exterminates 6500 caterpillars a year\". But basically these actions were of anti\\-religious content.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://sibkray.ru/news/1/881151/ \\|title\\=Кресты и «партия фортепиано»: с чего начиналась «Монстрация» \\|website\\=Сибкрай.ru \\|date\\=22 April 2016 \\|access\\-date\\=15 November 2022}}",
"#### Novosibirsk",
"In 1933, an anti\\-religious demonstration took place in Novosibirsk on Christmas Eve. Costumed [Komsomol](/wiki/Komsomol \"Komsomol\") members marched around the city with [effigies](/wiki/Effigy \"Effigy\") of priests and crosses and completed the action by burning a Christmas tree near the [Lenin House](/wiki/House_of_Lenin \"House of Lenin\").",
"In the 1960s and 1980s, absurdist demonstrations were held by the youth of [Novosibirsk Akademgorodok](/wiki/Akademgorodok \"Akademgorodok\"). In the 1960s, these actions were organized by the *Integral Club*.",
"In November 1995, a march of artists and poets was held, also known as the *Styobius Strip* (*Лента стёбиуса*).",
"In 2004, [Artyom Loskutov](/wiki/Artyom_Loskutov \"Artyom Loskutov\") and members of the *Contemporary Art Terrorism* group in [Novosibirsk](/wiki/Novosibirsk \"Novosibirsk\") joined the annual [May Day demonstration](/wiki/International_Workers%27_Day \"International Workers' Day\"). They were carrying posters with deliberately absurd slogans in an attempt to shake up a boring political procession and to make fun. \nFellow Siberian artist Ivan Dyrkin named the march \"Monstration,\" a demonstration without the prefix *de,* which he considered a negative connotation as in [deconstruction](/wiki/Deconstruction \"Deconstruction\") or [degradation](/wiki/Biodegradation \"Biodegradation\").{{cite news\\|last\\=Liesowska\\|first\\=Anna\\|title\\= The Siberian phenomenon of 'Monstrating'\\|url\\=http://siberiantimes.com/other/others/news/the\\-siberian\\-phenomenon\\-of\\-monstrating/\\|accessdate\\=1 May 2013\\|newspaper\\=The Siberian Times\\|date\\=1 May 2013}}",
"#### Other cities",
"The modern monstration incorporates signs and messages that are deliberately absurd, nonsensical and apolitical that indirectly defy the government and express a conceptual paradox. Although monstrations are apolitical, participants have been arrested for [political agitation](/wiki/Anti-Soviet_agitation%23Post-Soviet_Russia \"Anti-Soviet agitation#Post-Soviet Russia\"). In 2010, Monstrations took place in 20 cities like Moscow, Saint Petersburg, and [Vladivostok](/wiki/Vladivostok \"Vladivostok\").{{cite news\\|title\\= Russian youths invent absurd way to by\\-pass demonstration ban\\|url\\=https://observers.france24\\.com/en/20110517\\-russian\\-youths\\-invent\\-absurd\\-way\\-pass\\-demonstration\\-ban\\|newspaper\\=France 24\\|date\\=17 May 2011}}",
"The first monstration in [Kursk](/wiki/Kursk \"Kursk\") took place on 1 May 2014\\.\nAbout 30 people went with the main slogan \"For the rights of [butterflies in the stomach](/wiki/Butterflies_in_the_stomach \"Butterflies in the stomach\")\".[46tv.ru, В Курске прошла \"Монстрация\" (фото)](http://www.46tv.ru/new/society/002757/)",
"",
"Za prava babochek v zhivote.JPG\\|\"For the rights of \\[\\[butterflies in the stomach]]\"\nUlibni svoi ulibalnik.JPG\\|\"Smile your smiler!\"\nNa temnoi storone.JPG\\|\"\\[\\[Death Star]] for rent\" and \"Dark side has no cookies\"\nZhigulam litie diski.JPG\\|\"\\[\\[Alloy wheel]]s to \\[\\[Zhiguli\\_(car\\_brand)\\|Zhiguli]]\\<ref\\>{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.musixmatch.com/lyrics/Ленинград/Любит\\-наш\\-народ\\|title \\= Ленинград \\- Любит наш народ Lyrics}}\\</ref\\>\".",
"",
"In 2015, the main slogan was \"We did not watch *[Fifty Shades](/wiki/Fifty_Shades_of_Grey_%28film%29 \"Fifty Shades of Grey (film)\")*\".",
""
] |
Events
------
May
* 9 – [Paul Kruger](/wiki/Paul_Kruger "Paul Kruger") becomes President of the [South African Republic](/wiki/South_African_Republic "South African Republic").
* 28 – Two ships, the Agnes (94 tonne) and the Christina (196 tonne), run ashore at [Plettenberg Bay](/wiki/Plettenberg_Bay "Plettenberg Bay").
July
* 26 – The [Stellaland](/wiki/Stellaland "Stellaland") Republic is declared, founding [Vryburg](/wiki/Vryburg "Vryburg") as capital.
September
* 2 – [Kimberley](/wiki/Kimberley%2C_South_Africa "Kimberley, South Africa") becomes the first town in the [southern hemisphere](/wiki/Southern_hemisphere "Southern hemisphere") to install [electric](/wiki/Electricity "Electricity") [street lighting](/wiki/Street_lighting "Street lighting").
* 7 – [W.H. Finlay](/wiki/William_Henry_Finlay "William Henry Finlay") of Cape Town's Royal Observatory is first to record observations of the [Great Comet of 1882](/wiki/Great_Comet_of_1882 "Great Comet of 1882").{{Citation \| last \= Gill \| first \= David \| author\-link \= David Gill (astronomer) \| title \= On Mr. Finlay's pre\-perihelion observations of the Great Comet 1882 II \| journal \= \[\[Astronomische Nachrichten]] \| date \= 1883a \| volume \= 105 \| issue \= 5 \| page \= 71 \| bibcode \= 1883AN....105\...71G \| doi\=10\.1002/asna.18831050505\| url \= https://zenodo.org/record/1424715 }}{{Citation \| last \= Tebbutt \| first \= John \| author\-link \= John Tebbutt \| title \= The great comet of 1882 \| journal \= The Observatory \| date \= March 1904 \| volume \= 27 \| pages \= 133–134 \| bibcode \= 1904Obs....27\..133T}}
* 29 – 229 Norwegians settle at the mouth of the [Umzimkulu River](/wiki/Umzimkulu_River "Umzimkulu River"), founding [Port Shepstone](/wiki/Port_Shepstone "Port Shepstone").
November
* 21 – The [Goshen Republic](/wiki/State_of_Goshen "State of Goshen") is established with its capital [Rooigrond](/wiki/Rooigrond "Rooigrond") near [Mafeking](/wiki/Mahikeng "Mahikeng").
Unknown date
* [Zulu](/wiki/Zulu_people "Zulu people") king [Cetshwayo](/wiki/Cetshwayo_kaMpande "Cetshwayo kaMpande") returns to South Africa.
* In the [Cape Colony](/wiki/Cape_Colony "Cape Colony"), the [Dutch language](/wiki/Dutch_language "Dutch language") is once again admitted as an official language alongside [English](/wiki/English_language "English language").
|
[
"Events\n------",
"May\n* 9 – [Paul Kruger](/wiki/Paul_Kruger \"Paul Kruger\") becomes President of the [South African Republic](/wiki/South_African_Republic \"South African Republic\").\n* 28 – Two ships, the Agnes (94 tonne) and the Christina (196 tonne), run ashore at [Plettenberg Bay](/wiki/Plettenberg_Bay \"Plettenberg Bay\").",
"July\n* 26 – The [Stellaland](/wiki/Stellaland \"Stellaland\") Republic is declared, founding [Vryburg](/wiki/Vryburg \"Vryburg\") as capital.",
"September\n* 2 – [Kimberley](/wiki/Kimberley%2C_South_Africa \"Kimberley, South Africa\") becomes the first town in the [southern hemisphere](/wiki/Southern_hemisphere \"Southern hemisphere\") to install [electric](/wiki/Electricity \"Electricity\") [street lighting](/wiki/Street_lighting \"Street lighting\").\n* 7 – [W.H. Finlay](/wiki/William_Henry_Finlay \"William Henry Finlay\") of Cape Town's Royal Observatory is first to record observations of the [Great Comet of 1882](/wiki/Great_Comet_of_1882 \"Great Comet of 1882\").{{Citation \\| last \\= Gill \\| first \\= David \\| author\\-link \\= David Gill (astronomer) \\| title \\= On Mr. Finlay's pre\\-perihelion observations of the Great Comet 1882 II \\| journal \\= \\[\\[Astronomische Nachrichten]] \\| date \\= 1883a \\| volume \\= 105 \\| issue \\= 5 \\| page \\= 71 \\| bibcode \\= 1883AN....105\\...71G \\| doi\\=10\\.1002/asna.18831050505\\| url \\= https://zenodo.org/record/1424715 }}{{Citation \\| last \\= Tebbutt \\| first \\= John \\| author\\-link \\= John Tebbutt \\| title \\= The great comet of 1882 \\| journal \\= The Observatory \\| date \\= March 1904 \\| volume \\= 27 \\| pages \\= 133–134 \\| bibcode \\= 1904Obs....27\\..133T}}\n* 29 – 229 Norwegians settle at the mouth of the [Umzimkulu River](/wiki/Umzimkulu_River \"Umzimkulu River\"), founding [Port Shepstone](/wiki/Port_Shepstone \"Port Shepstone\").",
"November\n* 21 – The [Goshen Republic](/wiki/State_of_Goshen \"State of Goshen\") is established with its capital [Rooigrond](/wiki/Rooigrond \"Rooigrond\") near [Mafeking](/wiki/Mahikeng \"Mahikeng\").",
"Unknown date\n* [Zulu](/wiki/Zulu_people \"Zulu people\") king [Cetshwayo](/wiki/Cetshwayo_kaMpande \"Cetshwayo kaMpande\") returns to South Africa.\n* In the [Cape Colony](/wiki/Cape_Colony \"Cape Colony\"), the [Dutch language](/wiki/Dutch_language \"Dutch language\") is once again admitted as an official language alongside [English](/wiki/English_language \"English language\")."
] |
Electoral system
----------------
The electoral system had been last reformed by Law no. 270, 21 December 2005\.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.parlamento.it/parlam/leggi/05270l.htm\|title\=L 270/2005}}
### Chamber of Deputies
For the election of the lower house,{{Cite web \|url\=http://www.senato.it/Leg17/1013?testo\_generico\=4\&voce\_sommario\=58 \|title \= senato.it \- Il Senato nel sistema bicamerale \- La normativa vigente dopo la legge n. 270 del 2005 \|access\-date\=14 December 2016 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161220082840/http://www.senato.it/Leg17/1013?testo\_generico\=4\&voce\_sommario\=58 \|archive\-date\=20 December 2016 \|url\-status\=dead}} all seats in the Chamber of Deputies (excluding one deputy for the region of [Aosta Valley](/wiki/Aosta_Valley "Aosta Valley") and twelve deputies for [Italians residing abroad](/wiki/Overseas_constituencies_of_Italian_Parliament "Overseas constituencies of Italian Parliament")) are allocated based on the national vote in a form of [party\-list proportional representation](/wiki/Party-list_proportional_representation "Party-list proportional representation") with a series of [thresholds](/wiki/Election_threshold "Election threshold") to encourage parties to form coalitions. Voters cast one vote for a [closed list](/wiki/Closed_list "Closed list"), meaning they cannot express a preference for individual candidates.
Parties can choose to run in coalitions. Seats are first allocated based on coalition votes, then divided among parties belonging to the same coalition by the [largest remainder method](/wiki/Largest_remainder_method "Largest remainder method"). To guarantee a working majority, the coalition or party that obtains a [plurality](/wiki/Plurality_%28voting%29 "Plurality (voting)") of the vote, but fewer than 340 seats, is assigned additional seats to reach that number, which is roughly 54% of all seats.
The autonomous region of [Aosta Valley](/wiki/Aosta_Valley "Aosta Valley") elects one deputy through a [first\-past\-the\-post](/wiki/First-past-the-post "First-past-the-post") system. Italians abroad are divided into four constituencies, which elect a total of twelve seats based on [proportional representation](/wiki/Proportional_representation "Proportional representation").
### Senate
For the election of the upper house, a similar system is used. However, the results are based on regional, rather than national, vote. This means the coalition or party that wins a plurality of votes in each region is guaranteed a majority of the seats assigned to that region. As this mechanism is region\-based, opposing parties or coalitions may benefit from the [majority bonus](/wiki/Majority_bonus "Majority bonus") in different regions. It therefore does not guarantee any party or coalition a majority in the Senate.
Three regions have exceptions to the system detailed above. In the region of [Molise](/wiki/Molise "Molise"), that is granted two seats in the Senate, seats are allocated proportionally, with no majority bonus. The region of [Aosta Valley](/wiki/Aosta_Valley "Aosta Valley"), which elects one senator, uses a [first\-past\-the\-post](/wiki/First-past-the-post "First-past-the-post") system. Finally, the region of [Trentino\-South Tyrol](/wiki/Trentino-South_Tyrol "Trentino-South Tyrol") elects seven senators with a limited [compensatory system](/wiki/Compensatory_system "Compensatory system"): six senators are elected in six [single\-member constituencies](/wiki/Single-member_district "Single-member district"), while the seventh is allocated to the most underrepresented list based on the regional votes.
Six seats in the Senate are assigned to Italians living abroad and are allocated using the same system used for the Chamber of Deputies.
|
[
"Electoral system\n----------------",
"The electoral system had been last reformed by Law no. 270, 21 December 2005\\.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.parlamento.it/parlam/leggi/05270l.htm\\|title\\=L 270/2005}}",
"### Chamber of Deputies",
"For the election of the lower house,{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://www.senato.it/Leg17/1013?testo\\_generico\\=4\\&voce\\_sommario\\=58 \\|title \\= senato.it \\- Il Senato nel sistema bicamerale \\- La normativa vigente dopo la legge n. 270 del 2005 \\|access\\-date\\=14 December 2016 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161220082840/http://www.senato.it/Leg17/1013?testo\\_generico\\=4\\&voce\\_sommario\\=58 \\|archive\\-date\\=20 December 2016 \\|url\\-status\\=dead}} all seats in the Chamber of Deputies (excluding one deputy for the region of [Aosta Valley](/wiki/Aosta_Valley \"Aosta Valley\") and twelve deputies for [Italians residing abroad](/wiki/Overseas_constituencies_of_Italian_Parliament \"Overseas constituencies of Italian Parliament\")) are allocated based on the national vote in a form of [party\\-list proportional representation](/wiki/Party-list_proportional_representation \"Party-list proportional representation\") with a series of [thresholds](/wiki/Election_threshold \"Election threshold\") to encourage parties to form coalitions. Voters cast one vote for a [closed list](/wiki/Closed_list \"Closed list\"), meaning they cannot express a preference for individual candidates.",
"Parties can choose to run in coalitions. Seats are first allocated based on coalition votes, then divided among parties belonging to the same coalition by the [largest remainder method](/wiki/Largest_remainder_method \"Largest remainder method\"). To guarantee a working majority, the coalition or party that obtains a [plurality](/wiki/Plurality_%28voting%29 \"Plurality (voting)\") of the vote, but fewer than 340 seats, is assigned additional seats to reach that number, which is roughly 54% of all seats.",
"The autonomous region of [Aosta Valley](/wiki/Aosta_Valley \"Aosta Valley\") elects one deputy through a [first\\-past\\-the\\-post](/wiki/First-past-the-post \"First-past-the-post\") system. Italians abroad are divided into four constituencies, which elect a total of twelve seats based on [proportional representation](/wiki/Proportional_representation \"Proportional representation\").",
"### Senate",
"For the election of the upper house, a similar system is used. However, the results are based on regional, rather than national, vote. This means the coalition or party that wins a plurality of votes in each region is guaranteed a majority of the seats assigned to that region. As this mechanism is region\\-based, opposing parties or coalitions may benefit from the [majority bonus](/wiki/Majority_bonus \"Majority bonus\") in different regions. It therefore does not guarantee any party or coalition a majority in the Senate.",
"Three regions have exceptions to the system detailed above. In the region of [Molise](/wiki/Molise \"Molise\"), that is granted two seats in the Senate, seats are allocated proportionally, with no majority bonus. The region of [Aosta Valley](/wiki/Aosta_Valley \"Aosta Valley\"), which elects one senator, uses a [first\\-past\\-the\\-post](/wiki/First-past-the-post \"First-past-the-post\") system. Finally, the region of [Trentino\\-South Tyrol](/wiki/Trentino-South_Tyrol \"Trentino-South Tyrol\") elects seven senators with a limited [compensatory system](/wiki/Compensatory_system \"Compensatory system\"): six senators are elected in six [single\\-member constituencies](/wiki/Single-member_district \"Single-member district\"), while the seventh is allocated to the most underrepresented list based on the regional votes.",
"Six seats in the Senate are assigned to Italians living abroad and are allocated using the same system used for the Chamber of Deputies.",
""
] |
Events leading to the revolt
----------------------------
On September 17, 1922, the [Puerto Rican Nationalist Party](/wiki/Puerto_Rican_Nationalist_Party "Puerto Rican Nationalist Party") was formed. [José Coll y Cuchí](/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Coll_y_Cuch%C3%AD "José Coll y Cuchí"), a former member of the Union Party, was elected its first president. He wanted radical changes within the economy and social welfare programs of Puerto Rico. In 1924, [Pedro Albizu Campos](/wiki/Pedro_Albizu_Campos "Pedro Albizu Campos"), a [lawyer](/wiki/Lawyer "Lawyer"), joined the party and was named its vice president.
[200 px\|thumb\|left\|Don Pedro Albizu Campos, leader of the Puerto Rican Nationalist Party](/wiki/File:Pedro_Albizu_Campos_raising_his_hat_to_a_crowd%2C_1936.jpg "Pedro Albizu Campos raising his hat to a crowd, 1936.jpg")
Albizu Campos was the first Puerto Rican graduate of [Harvard Law School](/wiki/Harvard_Law_School "Harvard Law School"). He served as a [Second Lieutenant](/wiki/Second_Lieutenant "Second Lieutenant") in the [U.S. Army](/wiki/U.S._Army "U.S. Army") during World War I, and believed that Puerto Rico should be an independent nation \- even if that required an armed confrontation. By 1930, Coll y Cuchi departed from the party because of his disagreements with Albizu Campos as to how the party should be run. On May 11, 1930, Albizu Campos was elected president of the Nationalist Party.
In the 1930s, the U.S.\-appointed governor of Puerto Rico, [Blanton Winship](/wiki/Blanton_Winship "Blanton Winship"), and police colonel Riggs applied harsh repressive measures against the Nationalist Party."Puerto Rico" By Kurt Pitzer, Tara Stevens, page 224, Published by Hunter Publishing, Inc, 2001, {{ISBN\|1\-58843\-116\-9}}, {{ISBN\|978\-1\-58843\-116\-5}} In 1936, Albizu Campos and the leaders of the party were arrested and jailed at the *La Princesa* prison in [San Juan](/wiki/San_Juan%2C_Puerto_Rico "San Juan, Puerto Rico"), and later sent to the Federal Prison at [Atlanta](/wiki/Atlanta "Atlanta").
On March 21, 1937, the Nationalists held a parade in [Ponce](/wiki/Ponce%2C_Puerto_Rico "Ponce, Puerto Rico") and the police opened fire on the crowd, in what was to become known as the [Ponce massacre](/wiki/Ponce_massacre "Ponce massacre"). 19 people were killed, including two police officers and 17 unarmed Puerto Ricans \- including a 7\-year\-old girl, who was shot in the back. Although *the police* shot the 18 people, Albizu Campos was arrested, and sentenced to ten years in a U.S. federal prison. Campos finally returned to Puerto Rico on December 15, 1947, after completing his ten\-year sentence.
On May 21, 1948, a bill was introduced before the [Puerto Rican Senate](/wiki/Puerto_Rican_Senate "Puerto Rican Senate") which would restrain the rights of the independence and Nationalist movements on the island. The Senate, controlled by the *Partido Popular Democrático* ([PPD](/wiki/Popular_Democratic_Party_%28Puerto_Rico%29 "Popular Democratic Party (Puerto Rico)")) and presided by [Luis Muñoz Marín](/wiki/Luis_Mu%C3%B1oz_Mar%C3%ADn "Luis Muñoz Marín"), approved the bill that day.["La obra jurídica del Profesor David M. Helfeld (1948\-2008\)'; by: Dr. Carmelo Delgado Cintrón](http://academiajurisprudenciapr.org/en/revistas/volumen-vii/) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120327121629/http://academiajurisprudenciapr.org/en/revistas/volumen\-vii/ \|date\=2012\-03\-27 }} This bill, which resembled the anti\-communist [Smith Act](/wiki/Smith_Act "Smith Act") passed in the United States in 1940, became known as the *Ley de la Mordaza* ([Gag Law](/wiki/Gag_Law_%28Puerto_Rico%29 "Gag Law (Puerto Rico)")) when the U.S.\-appointed governor of Puerto Rico, [Jesús T. Piñero](/wiki/Jes%C3%BAs_T._Pi%C3%B1ero "Jesús T. Piñero"), signed it into law on June 10, 1948\.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.topuertorico.org/history5\.shtml \|title\=Puerto Rican History \|publisher\=Topuertorico.org \|date\=January 13, 1941 \|access\-date\=November 20, 2011}}
Under this new law it would be a crime to print, publish, sell, or exhibit any material intended to paralyze or destroy the insular government; or to organize any society, group or assembly of people with a similar destructive intent. It made it illegal to sing a patriotic song, and reinforced the 1898 law that had made it illegal to display the [Flag of Puerto Rico](/wiki/Flag_of_Puerto_Rico "Flag of Puerto Rico"), with anyone found guilty of disobeying the law in any way being subject to a sentence of up to ten years imprisonment, a fine of up to US$10,000 ({{Inflation\|US\|10000\|1948\|r\=\-3\|fmt\=eq}}), or both.
According to Dr. [Leopoldo Figueroa](/wiki/Leopoldo_Figueroa "Leopoldo Figueroa"), member of the *Partido Estadista Puertorriqueño* (Puerto Rican Statehood Party) and the only member of the Puerto Rico House of Representatives who did not belong to the PPD,{{cite web\|url\=http://www.lexjuris.com/lexlex/leyes2006/lexl2006282\.htm\|title\=Ley Núm. 282 de 2006 \-Para declarar el día 21 de septiembre como el Díadel Natalicio de Leopoldo Figueroa Carreras.\|access\-date\=25 April 2016}} the law was repressive and in violation of the First Amendment of the [US Constitution](/wiki/US_Constitution "US Constitution") which guarantees [Freedom of Speech](/wiki/Freedom_of_Speech "Freedom of Speech").{{cite web\|url\=http://issuu.com/jaimepartsch/docs/jes\_s\_t.\_pi\_ero\_y\_la\_guerra\_fria?mode\=a\_p\|title\=Jesús T. Piñero y la Guerra Fria\|work\=Issuu\|access\-date\=25 April 2016}}
On June 21, 1948, Albizu Campos gave a speech in the town of [Manatí](/wiki/Manat%C3%AD%2C_Puerto_Rico "Manatí, Puerto Rico"), which explained how this Gag Law violated the [First Amendment](/wiki/First_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution "First Amendment to the United States Constitution") of the U.S. Constitution. Nationalists from all over the island had gathered \- to hear Campos's speech, and to prevent the police from arresting him.
|
[
"Events leading to the revolt\n----------------------------",
"On September 17, 1922, the [Puerto Rican Nationalist Party](/wiki/Puerto_Rican_Nationalist_Party \"Puerto Rican Nationalist Party\") was formed. [José Coll y Cuchí](/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Coll_y_Cuch%C3%AD \"José Coll y Cuchí\"), a former member of the Union Party, was elected its first president. He wanted radical changes within the economy and social welfare programs of Puerto Rico. In 1924, [Pedro Albizu Campos](/wiki/Pedro_Albizu_Campos \"Pedro Albizu Campos\"), a [lawyer](/wiki/Lawyer \"Lawyer\"), joined the party and was named its vice president.",
"[200 px\\|thumb\\|left\\|Don Pedro Albizu Campos, leader of the Puerto Rican Nationalist Party](/wiki/File:Pedro_Albizu_Campos_raising_his_hat_to_a_crowd%2C_1936.jpg \"Pedro Albizu Campos raising his hat to a crowd, 1936.jpg\")",
"Albizu Campos was the first Puerto Rican graduate of [Harvard Law School](/wiki/Harvard_Law_School \"Harvard Law School\"). He served as a [Second Lieutenant](/wiki/Second_Lieutenant \"Second Lieutenant\") in the [U.S. Army](/wiki/U.S._Army \"U.S. Army\") during World War I, and believed that Puerto Rico should be an independent nation \\- even if that required an armed confrontation. By 1930, Coll y Cuchi departed from the party because of his disagreements with Albizu Campos as to how the party should be run. On May 11, 1930, Albizu Campos was elected president of the Nationalist Party.",
"In the 1930s, the U.S.\\-appointed governor of Puerto Rico, [Blanton Winship](/wiki/Blanton_Winship \"Blanton Winship\"), and police colonel Riggs applied harsh repressive measures against the Nationalist Party.\"Puerto Rico\" By Kurt Pitzer, Tara Stevens, page 224, Published by Hunter Publishing, Inc, 2001, {{ISBN\\|1\\-58843\\-116\\-9}}, {{ISBN\\|978\\-1\\-58843\\-116\\-5}} In 1936, Albizu Campos and the leaders of the party were arrested and jailed at the *La Princesa* prison in [San Juan](/wiki/San_Juan%2C_Puerto_Rico \"San Juan, Puerto Rico\"), and later sent to the Federal Prison at [Atlanta](/wiki/Atlanta \"Atlanta\").",
"On March 21, 1937, the Nationalists held a parade in [Ponce](/wiki/Ponce%2C_Puerto_Rico \"Ponce, Puerto Rico\") and the police opened fire on the crowd, in what was to become known as the [Ponce massacre](/wiki/Ponce_massacre \"Ponce massacre\"). 19 people were killed, including two police officers and 17 unarmed Puerto Ricans \\- including a 7\\-year\\-old girl, who was shot in the back. Although *the police* shot the 18 people, Albizu Campos was arrested, and sentenced to ten years in a U.S. federal prison. Campos finally returned to Puerto Rico on December 15, 1947, after completing his ten\\-year sentence.",
"On May 21, 1948, a bill was introduced before the [Puerto Rican Senate](/wiki/Puerto_Rican_Senate \"Puerto Rican Senate\") which would restrain the rights of the independence and Nationalist movements on the island. The Senate, controlled by the *Partido Popular Democrático* ([PPD](/wiki/Popular_Democratic_Party_%28Puerto_Rico%29 \"Popular Democratic Party (Puerto Rico)\")) and presided by [Luis Muñoz Marín](/wiki/Luis_Mu%C3%B1oz_Mar%C3%ADn \"Luis Muñoz Marín\"), approved the bill that day.[\"La obra jurídica del Profesor David M. Helfeld (1948\\-2008\\)'; by: Dr. Carmelo Delgado Cintrón](http://academiajurisprudenciapr.org/en/revistas/volumen-vii/) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120327121629/http://academiajurisprudenciapr.org/en/revistas/volumen\\-vii/ \\|date\\=2012\\-03\\-27 }} This bill, which resembled the anti\\-communist [Smith Act](/wiki/Smith_Act \"Smith Act\") passed in the United States in 1940, became known as the *Ley de la Mordaza* ([Gag Law](/wiki/Gag_Law_%28Puerto_Rico%29 \"Gag Law (Puerto Rico)\")) when the U.S.\\-appointed governor of Puerto Rico, [Jesús T. Piñero](/wiki/Jes%C3%BAs_T._Pi%C3%B1ero \"Jesús T. Piñero\"), signed it into law on June 10, 1948\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.topuertorico.org/history5\\.shtml \\|title\\=Puerto Rican History \\|publisher\\=Topuertorico.org \\|date\\=January 13, 1941 \\|access\\-date\\=November 20, 2011}}",
"Under this new law it would be a crime to print, publish, sell, or exhibit any material intended to paralyze or destroy the insular government; or to organize any society, group or assembly of people with a similar destructive intent. It made it illegal to sing a patriotic song, and reinforced the 1898 law that had made it illegal to display the [Flag of Puerto Rico](/wiki/Flag_of_Puerto_Rico \"Flag of Puerto Rico\"), with anyone found guilty of disobeying the law in any way being subject to a sentence of up to ten years imprisonment, a fine of up to US$10,000 ({{Inflation\\|US\\|10000\\|1948\\|r\\=\\-3\\|fmt\\=eq}}), or both.",
"According to Dr. [Leopoldo Figueroa](/wiki/Leopoldo_Figueroa \"Leopoldo Figueroa\"), member of the *Partido Estadista Puertorriqueño* (Puerto Rican Statehood Party) and the only member of the Puerto Rico House of Representatives who did not belong to the PPD,{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.lexjuris.com/lexlex/leyes2006/lexl2006282\\.htm\\|title\\=Ley Núm. 282 de 2006 \\-Para declarar el día 21 de septiembre como el Díadel Natalicio de Leopoldo Figueroa Carreras.\\|access\\-date\\=25 April 2016}} the law was repressive and in violation of the First Amendment of the [US Constitution](/wiki/US_Constitution \"US Constitution\") which guarantees [Freedom of Speech](/wiki/Freedom_of_Speech \"Freedom of Speech\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://issuu.com/jaimepartsch/docs/jes\\_s\\_t.\\_pi\\_ero\\_y\\_la\\_guerra\\_fria?mode\\=a\\_p\\|title\\=Jesús T. Piñero y la Guerra Fria\\|work\\=Issuu\\|access\\-date\\=25 April 2016}}",
"On June 21, 1948, Albizu Campos gave a speech in the town of [Manatí](/wiki/Manat%C3%AD%2C_Puerto_Rico \"Manatí, Puerto Rico\"), which explained how this Gag Law violated the [First Amendment](/wiki/First_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution \"First Amendment to the United States Constitution\") of the U.S. Constitution. Nationalists from all over the island had gathered \\- to hear Campos's speech, and to prevent the police from arresting him.",
""
] |
Events by country
-----------------
### Brazil
{{See also\|Cannabis in Brazil}}
On June 15, 2011, the eight ministers of [Brazil](/wiki/Brazil "Brazil")'s [Supreme Court](/wiki/Supreme_Federal_Court "Supreme Federal Court") (STF) that participated in the trial were unanimous in free demonstrations for the legalization of drugs, such as the ***Marcha da Maconha*** ({{IPA\|pt\|ˈmaʁʃɐ da mɐˈkõɲɐ}}, *Marijuana Walk*) in Brazil, in which they decided that the demonstrations are an exercise of freedom of expression and not incitement to [crime](/wiki/Crime_in_Brazil "Crime in Brazil"), as argued judges who have banned the march in the past. The discussion of the *Marcha da Maconha* reached the Supreme Court in June 2009 when the Deputy Attorney General of the Republic Deborah Duprat filed the claim of breach of fundamental precept, [ADPF 187](/wiki/ADPF_187 "ADPF 187"). In the lawsuit, the attorney states that the legal prohibition of the demonstrations in favor of marijuana and other narcotics have been based on misinterpretation of the [Criminal Code](/wiki/Law_of_Brazil "Law of Brazil"). She said that it is "wrong" to say that the realization of these events are an "apology to crime".{{cite web\|url\=http://www.stf.jus.br/portal/cms/verNoticiaDetalhe.asp?idConteudo\=182124 \|title\=Notícias STF :: STF \- Supremo Tribunal Federal \|publisher\=STF \|access\-date\=2014\-05\-12}}{{cite web\|url\=http://noticias.uol.com.br/cotidiano/ultimas\-noticias/2011/06/15/stf\-decide\-que\-ato\-por\-legalizacao\-de\-drogas\-e\-liberdade\-de\-expressao\-e\-libera\-marcha\-da\-maconha.htm \|title\=STF decide que ato por legalização de drogas é liberdade de expressão e libera Marcha da Maconha \- Notícias \- Cotidiano \|publisher\=Noticias.uol.com.br \|access\-date\=2014\-05\-12}}
Marijuana was brought to Brazil by its [African slaves](/wiki/Slavery_in_Brazil "Slavery in Brazil"), and with the [eugenic](/wiki/Eugenics "Eugenics") [positivist](/wiki/Positivism "Positivism") intellectual and political status quo of the [Western civilization](/wiki/Western_world "Western world") in the early 20th century, its use was deemed as a signal of decadence by its stigmatized use as a [recreational drug](/wiki/Recreational_drug_use "Recreational drug use") of the poor, the rural people and the [Afro\-Brazilian](/wiki/Afro-Brazilian "Afro-Brazilian"). Its association with the [counterculture](/wiki/Counterculture "Counterculture") and [left\-wing](/wiki/Left-wing_politics "Left-wing politics") [youths](/wiki/Youth "Youth") during the highly [anti\-Communist](/wiki/Anti-Communism "Anti-Communism") [military dictatorship](/wiki/History_of_Brazil_%281964-1985%29 "History of Brazil (1964-1985)"), initially a strong ally of the United States' government, fortified its negative perceptions both by the authorities and the masses. Nevertheless, since the [neoliberal](/wiki/Neoliberalism "Neoliberalism") centre\-right government of [Fernando Henrique Cardoso](/wiki/Fernando_Henrique_Cardoso "Fernando Henrique Cardoso") (1994–2002\), position strengthened in the so\-called *Era [Lula](/wiki/Luiz_In%C3%A1cio_Lula_da_Silva "Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva")* (2003–2010\), individual marijuana use by adults started to have no major importance to police and government instances – though not (since the country has major crime problems with [drug dealers](/wiki/Illegal_drug_trade "Illegal drug trade")) its domestic cultivation for own consumption. One can see and smell people smoking the so\-called *maconha* openly in Brazil's [Centre\-Southern half](/wiki/Centro-Sul "Centro-Sul") as well as in the [Northeastern states](/wiki/Northeast_Region%2C_Brazil "Northeast Region, Brazil"), and recreational use of cannabis in private became more accepted among large sectors of the middle classes since the early 1990s. The academic milieu is no exception and, today, a sizeable minority of Brazilian University lecturers, students and researchers smoke marijuana.{{cite web\|title\=Prohibitionist Drug Policies and the Subculture of Cannabis Use in Two Brazilian Middle Class Urban Settings\|url\=http://www.encod.org/info/Cannabis\-and\-Prohibition\-in\-Brazil.html\|date\=September 28, 2007\|access\-date\=May 10, 2012\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120610030007/http://www.encod.org/info/Cannabis\-and\-Prohibition\-in\-Brazil.html\|archive\-date\=June 10, 2012\|url\-status\=dead}}
### Canada
{{See also\|Cannabis in Canada}}
[thumb\|[Calgary, Alberta](/wiki/Calgary "Calgary"), Canada. May 5, 2007\. Global Marijuana March.](/wiki/File:Calgary%2C_Alberta%2C_Canada._May_5%2C_2007_Global_Marijuana_March.jpg "Calgary, Alberta, Canada. May 5, 2007 Global Marijuana March.jpg")
#### Toronto, Ontario
The rally at [Queen's Park](/wiki/Queen%27s_Park_%28Toronto%29 "Queen's Park (Toronto)") in [Toronto, Ontario](/wiki/Toronto "Toronto"), Canada has been held since 1999\.["Pot fans rally in Big Smoke"](https://www.thestar.com/article/421228). By Paul Irish. May 4, 2008\. *[Toronto Star](/wiki/Toronto_Star "Toronto Star").*[globalmarijuanamarch.ca](http://www.globalmarijuanamarch.ca) \- Toronto Global Marijuana March.[Toronto Marijuana March a.k.a. Toronto Freedom Festival](http://www.torontofreedomfestival.com){{Cite web \|url\=http://gallery.marihemp.com/toronto2006mmm \|title\=Toronto GMM 2006 photos and videos. \|access\-date\=2006\-08\-09 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070509011508/http://gallery.marihemp.com/toronto2006mmm \|archive\-date\=2007\-05\-09 \|url\-status\=dead }} 20,000 people participated in 2007,
["Marijuana march in Toronto draws 20,000"](https://www.theglobeandmail.com/servlet/story/RTGAM.20070505.wpotprotest0505/BNStory/National/){{dead link\|date\=January 2018 \|bot\=InternetArchiveBot \|fix\-attempted\=yes }}. May 5, 2007\. *[The Globe and Mail](/wiki/The_Globe_and_Mail "The Globe and Mail").* and 15,000 in 2008\.[T.F.F. 2008 \- A Huge Success! \| Toronto Freedom Festival](http://www.torontofreedomfestival.com/2-days-and-counting) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090208144525/http://www.torontofreedomfestival.com/2\-days\-and\-counting/ \|date\=2009\-02\-08 }}. For the May 2, 2009 event the *[Toronto Star](/wiki/Toronto_Star "Toronto Star")* reported: "*Police estimate roughly 12,000 people filled the north lawns of Queen's Park yesterday afternoon, with about 5,000 participating in a 2 p.m. march to decriminalize marijuana.*"["High times at Freedom fest"](https://www.thestar.com/News/GTA/article/628182). May 3, 2009\. By Trish Crawford. *[Toronto Star](/wiki/Toronto_Star "Toronto Star").* In 2011 the *[Toronto Star](/wiki/Toronto_Star "Toronto Star")* reported 25,000 at Queen's Park, and 20,000 on the march through downtown.[Peaceful ‘pot heads’ march for marijuana \- thestar.com](https://www.thestar.com/news/article/987688--peaceful-pot-heads-march-for-marijuana). By Moira Welsh. May 7, 2011\. *[Toronto Star](/wiki/Toronto_Star "Toronto Star")*. *[CTV News](/wiki/CTV_News "CTV News")* reported "Tens of thousands march".[CTV Toronto \- Tens of thousands march in favour of legalizing marijuana](https://toronto.ctvnews.ca/tens-of-thousands-march-in-favour-of-legalizing-marijuana-1.640936). 2011 May 7 article. *[CTV News](/wiki/CTV_News "CTV News")* article, photos, and video. Video for Toronto and some of the other Canadian cities that held 2011 GMM events.
#### Regina, Saskatchewan
Held in [Regina](/wiki/Regina%2C_Saskatchewan "Regina, Saskatchewan") on the first Saturday of May since 1999, originally at the Saskatchewan Legislature. Starting in 2001, it was held in Victoria Park, in the center of Regina's downtown, until 2008 when changes to the city's permit policy forced organizers to change the location to Central Park.
The event features live music mixed with speakers on various topics, sometimes with only an incidental connection to marijuana.
#### Vancouver, British Columbia
Held in [Vancouver, British Columbia](/wiki/Vancouver%2C_British_Columbia "Vancouver, British Columbia"), on the first Saturday of May. People gather at the fountain at the Vancouver Art Gallery at or before 2:00 pm for a marijuana legalization parade through the streets of downtown Vancouver.{{cite web\|title\=Global Marijuana March 2016\|url\=http://www.cannabisculture.com/content/2016/05/07/today\-global\-marijuana\-march\-2016\|website\=Cannabis Culture Magazine\|date\=7 May 2016 \|access\-date\=21 August 2016}} The parade route is different every year.{{cite web\|title\=Global Marijuana March\|url\=http://www.pot.tv/video/tag/global\-marijuana\-march/\|website\=Pot\-TV\|access\-date\=21 August 2016}}
### France
{{See also\|Cannabis in France}}
In [France](/wiki/France "France") the so\-called [Marche Mondiale pour le Cannabis](/wiki/Marche_mondiale_pour_le_cannabis "Marche mondiale pour le cannabis") is celebrated in [Paris](/wiki/Paris "Paris"), [Lyon](/wiki/Lyon "Lyon"), [Toulouse](/wiki/Toulouse "Toulouse"), [Marseille](/wiki/Marseille "Marseille"), [Rennes](/wiki/Rennes "Rennes"), [Lille](/wiki/Lille "Lille"), [Saint\-Denis\-de\-la\-Réunion](/wiki/Saint-Denis_de_la_R%C3%A9union "Saint-Denis de la Réunion"), [Cognac](/wiki/Cognac_%28Charente%29 "Cognac (Charente)"), and some other minor cities in the country.
### New Zealand
{{See also\|Cannabis in New Zealand}}
In [New Zealand](/wiki/New_Zealand "New Zealand") J Day is celebrated in some of the major cities.
#### Dunedin
J\-Day in [Dunedin](/wiki/Dunedin "Dunedin"), is celebrated in the city's centre of town, [The Octagon](/wiki/The_Octagon%2C_Dunedin "The Octagon, Dunedin"), on the first Saturday of May from 'High Noon' until 4:20 pm.
Dunedin is arguably chronologically the first city in the world to host any GMM event. Named '4:20 Extreme', local participants climb the famous [Baldwin Street](/wiki/Baldwin_Street "Baldwin Street") to meet at the top by 4:20 am. Locally J\-Day coincides with The [University of Otago](/wiki/University_of_Otago "University of Otago") Capping Parade, in which a multitude of ceremony\-attending graduates parade down the [main street](/wiki/George_Street%2C_Dunedin "George Street, Dunedin") on their way to the Town Hall ceremony, and also the University Hall Parade, in which University of Otago dormitory\-student decorated themed floats parade down the main street, stopping in the Octagon typically armed with many water balloons, and collectively shouting chants of dormitory\-specific pride.
Dunedin became famous for its JDay festivities in 2003 when around 50 activists marched to the Central Dunedin Police Station, where they planted cannabis plants and smoked [cannabis](/wiki/Cannabis_%28drug%29 "Cannabis (drug)") in the main foyer as acts of protest.\[Otago Daily Times, May 5, 2003] The event was given considerable national and international media attention as no arrests were made.\[Otago Daily Times, May 6, 2003] The Central Dunedin Police Station was hot\-boxed again on JDay in 2004 by over 100 activists, again with no arrests. This second incident was also covered by the media, resulting in the Dunedin Area Police Commander, Dave Campbell, justifying the fact that no arrests were made with the quote, "We had more important things to do" in the [Otago Daily Times](/wiki/Otago_Daily_Times "Otago Daily Times").
The 2007 International J\-Day in Dunedin featured political speakers and music provided by local DJs and counted 170 people at mid\-day. In the lead up to J\-Day 2008, NORML NZ's Maryjane the Cannabus toured 42 towns between [Auckland](/wiki/Auckland "Auckland") and [Dunedin](/wiki/Dunedin "Dunedin") in 42 days for daily law reform rallies. The Cannabus arrived in Dunedin, New Zealand's most cannabis friendly city, on April 25 for a week\-long 'Cannabis Awareness Week'{{cite web \|url\=http://www.otagonorml.com/node/10 \|title\=Otago NORML presents Cannabis Awareness Week : April 25 \- May 3, 2008 \|publisher\=Otagonorml.com \|date\=2008\-03\-13 \|access\-date\=2014\-05\-12 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140512225315/http://www.otagonorml.com/node/10 \|archive\-date\=May 12, 2014 }} which was planned by [Otago NORML](/wiki/Otago_NORML "Otago NORML") and featured public workshops, informational lectures at [Otago University](/wiki/Otago_University "Otago University"), and a round\-table discussion featuring university academics, [MPs](/wiki/Member_of_Parliament%23New_Zealand "Member of Parliament#New Zealand"), and policy researchers. Cannabis Awareness Week culminated with J\-Day on May 3, 2008\.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.scoop.co.nz/stories/HL0802/S00178\.htm \|title\=Public Pot Protests Set For National Road Tour \|publisher\=Scoop.co.nz \|date\=2008\-02\-18 \|access\-date\=2014\-05\-12}}
The 2008 J\-Day in Dunedin was well attended despite sleet and hail early in the day. Over 500 supporters participated in the event, enjoying games, prizes, political speeches and music from Bushmaster and Ashes of Eden.
### Denmark
{{See also\|Cannabis in Denmark}}
**Copenhagen**
In [Copenhagen](/wiki/Copenhagen "Copenhagen") the Marijuana march has been an annual tradition for more than 15 years. The march takes places on the first Saturday of may and departs from The [Freetown Christiania](/wiki/Freetown_Christiania "Freetown Christiania"), walks through central Copenhagen and ends at the city hall square. Klaus Trier Tuxen from Danish the Hampepartiet has had a prominent role in organizing the event in recent years.
Cannabis smoking is illegal in Denmark, but during the march the police do not enforce this regulation and smoking is de facto allowed during the demonstration.
### United States
{{See also\|Cannabis in the United States\|Legality of cannabis by U.S. jurisdiction}}
#### Los Angeles Million Marijuana March 2011
As of 2011, the [Moorish Science Temple of America](/wiki/Moorish_Science_Temple_of_America "Moorish Science Temple of America") has been doing the [Los Angeles](/wiki/Los_Angeles "Los Angeles") Million Marijuana March for 13 years at [Leimert park](/wiki/Leimert_Park%2C_Los_Angeles "Leimert Park, Los Angeles") in Los Angeles, California. The 2\-day 2011 celebration marks the first time bands have filled the 2 days. Leimert Park is a famed free speech arena, which has also held [Black Panther](/wiki/Black_Panther_Party "Black Panther Party") rallies and more since its inception. Acclaimed rap artist Ditch headlined both days, and was in charge of band booking and advertising. The event went off well with over 2,000 people attending over the 2 days. Ditch was honored for being able to bring unity to that area among so many different races and types of people. Ditch also honored jailed freedom fighter Eddy Lepp at the event. Eddy then called in live to the audience from Federal prison in which he is serving 10 years for cultivation of marijuana. Eddy's wife Linda Lepp was on hand to receive the award. This marks the third time so far that Eddy Lepp has spoken to a live concert audience from prison. Rapper RBX also performed at the Los Angeles march marking the first time in years he has performed in South Central Los Angeles.
#### New York City
[thumb\|Senate Majority Leader [Chuck Schumer](/wiki/Chuck_Schumer "Chuck Schumer") speaking at the NYC Cannabis Parade \& Rally in 2022](/wiki/File:Chuck_Schumer_cannabis_rally_2022.jpg "Chuck Schumer cannabis rally 2022.jpg")
In 1999, during the first worldwide Million Marijuana March New York City held another of its annual marijuana marches. The *[Village Voice](/wiki/Village_Voice "Village Voice")* reported on the police and organizer [estimates of the crowd size](/wiki/Crowd_size_estimation "Crowd size estimation"): "*the police claim it was 4,000 people while organizers say 20,000*".
In 2009, the event organizer, [Dana Beal](/wiki/Dana_Beal "Dana Beal"), along with Chris Ryan, and Jay Stetzer on their way back from the NORML Conference in San Francisco all three men were charged with possession with intent to distribute and possession with intent to deliver 150 lbs. of marijuana.{{cite web\|title\=Help Free Dana Beal\|url\=http://freedanabeal.blogspot.com/2009/10/help\-free\-dana\-beal.html\|website\=Free Dana Beal\|date\=4 October 2009 \|publisher\=WordPress\|access\-date\=24 April 2015\|ref\=Reflist2}}
In 2010, the event began to be organized by a new group of activists poised to take on New York city. It was after this that the NYC Event was renamed to, NYC Cannabis Parade.{{cite web\|title\=NYC Cannabis Parade\|url\=http://www.CannabisParade.org\|website\=NYC Cannabis Parade\|access\-date\=24 April 2015}} The NYC Cannabis Parade, organized by a steering committee of activists, have turned the event into a celebration of cannabis culture in NYC with a nearly 20 block parade and 4 hour rally preceding it, there has not been a recorded arrest for possession or use for over 4 years now. "'We have zero arrests, and we don’t plan on having any,' one sergeant told a Post reporter. Advocates praised the cops’ mellow take on toking as the latest sign New York was inching toward decriminalization."{{cite news\|last1\=Hagen, Laura\|first1\=Elizabeth, Italiano\|title\=Cops turn blind eye to pot smokers at legalization rally\|url\=https://nypost.com/2014/05/04/cops\-turn\-blind\-eye\-to\-pot\-smokers\-at\-cannabis\-parade/\|access\-date\=24 April 2015\|agency\=New York Post\|issue\=Online\|publisher\=New York Post\|date\=2014\-05\-04}}
|
[
"Events by country\n-----------------",
"### Brazil",
"{{See also\\|Cannabis in Brazil}}\nOn June 15, 2011, the eight ministers of [Brazil](/wiki/Brazil \"Brazil\")'s [Supreme Court](/wiki/Supreme_Federal_Court \"Supreme Federal Court\") (STF) that participated in the trial were unanimous in free demonstrations for the legalization of drugs, such as the ***Marcha da Maconha*** ({{IPA\\|pt\\|ˈmaʁʃɐ da mɐˈkõɲɐ}}, *Marijuana Walk*) in Brazil, in which they decided that the demonstrations are an exercise of freedom of expression and not incitement to [crime](/wiki/Crime_in_Brazil \"Crime in Brazil\"), as argued judges who have banned the march in the past. The discussion of the *Marcha da Maconha* reached the Supreme Court in June 2009 when the Deputy Attorney General of the Republic Deborah Duprat filed the claim of breach of fundamental precept, [ADPF 187](/wiki/ADPF_187 \"ADPF 187\"). In the lawsuit, the attorney states that the legal prohibition of the demonstrations in favor of marijuana and other narcotics have been based on misinterpretation of the [Criminal Code](/wiki/Law_of_Brazil \"Law of Brazil\"). She said that it is \"wrong\" to say that the realization of these events are an \"apology to crime\".{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.stf.jus.br/portal/cms/verNoticiaDetalhe.asp?idConteudo\\=182124 \\|title\\=Notícias STF :: STF \\- Supremo Tribunal Federal \\|publisher\\=STF \\|access\\-date\\=2014\\-05\\-12}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://noticias.uol.com.br/cotidiano/ultimas\\-noticias/2011/06/15/stf\\-decide\\-que\\-ato\\-por\\-legalizacao\\-de\\-drogas\\-e\\-liberdade\\-de\\-expressao\\-e\\-libera\\-marcha\\-da\\-maconha.htm \\|title\\=STF decide que ato por legalização de drogas é liberdade de expressão e libera Marcha da Maconha \\- Notícias \\- Cotidiano \\|publisher\\=Noticias.uol.com.br \\|access\\-date\\=2014\\-05\\-12}}",
"Marijuana was brought to Brazil by its [African slaves](/wiki/Slavery_in_Brazil \"Slavery in Brazil\"), and with the [eugenic](/wiki/Eugenics \"Eugenics\") [positivist](/wiki/Positivism \"Positivism\") intellectual and political status quo of the [Western civilization](/wiki/Western_world \"Western world\") in the early 20th century, its use was deemed as a signal of decadence by its stigmatized use as a [recreational drug](/wiki/Recreational_drug_use \"Recreational drug use\") of the poor, the rural people and the [Afro\\-Brazilian](/wiki/Afro-Brazilian \"Afro-Brazilian\"). Its association with the [counterculture](/wiki/Counterculture \"Counterculture\") and [left\\-wing](/wiki/Left-wing_politics \"Left-wing politics\") [youths](/wiki/Youth \"Youth\") during the highly [anti\\-Communist](/wiki/Anti-Communism \"Anti-Communism\") [military dictatorship](/wiki/History_of_Brazil_%281964-1985%29 \"History of Brazil (1964-1985)\"), initially a strong ally of the United States' government, fortified its negative perceptions both by the authorities and the masses. Nevertheless, since the [neoliberal](/wiki/Neoliberalism \"Neoliberalism\") centre\\-right government of [Fernando Henrique Cardoso](/wiki/Fernando_Henrique_Cardoso \"Fernando Henrique Cardoso\") (1994–2002\\), position strengthened in the so\\-called *Era [Lula](/wiki/Luiz_In%C3%A1cio_Lula_da_Silva \"Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva\")* (2003–2010\\), individual marijuana use by adults started to have no major importance to police and government instances – though not (since the country has major crime problems with [drug dealers](/wiki/Illegal_drug_trade \"Illegal drug trade\")) its domestic cultivation for own consumption. One can see and smell people smoking the so\\-called *maconha* openly in Brazil's [Centre\\-Southern half](/wiki/Centro-Sul \"Centro-Sul\") as well as in the [Northeastern states](/wiki/Northeast_Region%2C_Brazil \"Northeast Region, Brazil\"), and recreational use of cannabis in private became more accepted among large sectors of the middle classes since the early 1990s. The academic milieu is no exception and, today, a sizeable minority of Brazilian University lecturers, students and researchers smoke marijuana.{{cite web\\|title\\=Prohibitionist Drug Policies and the Subculture of Cannabis Use in Two Brazilian Middle Class Urban Settings\\|url\\=http://www.encod.org/info/Cannabis\\-and\\-Prohibition\\-in\\-Brazil.html\\|date\\=September 28, 2007\\|access\\-date\\=May 10, 2012\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120610030007/http://www.encod.org/info/Cannabis\\-and\\-Prohibition\\-in\\-Brazil.html\\|archive\\-date\\=June 10, 2012\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}",
"### Canada",
"{{See also\\|Cannabis in Canada}}\n[thumb\\|[Calgary, Alberta](/wiki/Calgary \"Calgary\"), Canada. May 5, 2007\\. Global Marijuana March.](/wiki/File:Calgary%2C_Alberta%2C_Canada._May_5%2C_2007_Global_Marijuana_March.jpg \"Calgary, Alberta, Canada. May 5, 2007 Global Marijuana March.jpg\")",
"#### Toronto, Ontario",
"The rally at [Queen's Park](/wiki/Queen%27s_Park_%28Toronto%29 \"Queen's Park (Toronto)\") in [Toronto, Ontario](/wiki/Toronto \"Toronto\"), Canada has been held since 1999\\.[\"Pot fans rally in Big Smoke\"](https://www.thestar.com/article/421228). By Paul Irish. May 4, 2008\\. *[Toronto Star](/wiki/Toronto_Star \"Toronto Star\").*[globalmarijuanamarch.ca](http://www.globalmarijuanamarch.ca) \\- Toronto Global Marijuana March.[Toronto Marijuana March a.k.a. Toronto Freedom Festival](http://www.torontofreedomfestival.com){{Cite web \\|url\\=http://gallery.marihemp.com/toronto2006mmm \\|title\\=Toronto GMM 2006 photos and videos. \\|access\\-date\\=2006\\-08\\-09 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070509011508/http://gallery.marihemp.com/toronto2006mmm \\|archive\\-date\\=2007\\-05\\-09 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }} 20,000 people participated in 2007,\n[\"Marijuana march in Toronto draws 20,000\"](https://www.theglobeandmail.com/servlet/story/RTGAM.20070505.wpotprotest0505/BNStory/National/){{dead link\\|date\\=January 2018 \\|bot\\=InternetArchiveBot \\|fix\\-attempted\\=yes }}. May 5, 2007\\. *[The Globe and Mail](/wiki/The_Globe_and_Mail \"The Globe and Mail\").* and 15,000 in 2008\\.[T.F.F. 2008 \\- A Huge Success! \\| Toronto Freedom Festival](http://www.torontofreedomfestival.com/2-days-and-counting) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090208144525/http://www.torontofreedomfestival.com/2\\-days\\-and\\-counting/ \\|date\\=2009\\-02\\-08 }}. For the May 2, 2009 event the *[Toronto Star](/wiki/Toronto_Star \"Toronto Star\")* reported: \"*Police estimate roughly 12,000 people filled the north lawns of Queen's Park yesterday afternoon, with about 5,000 participating in a 2 p.m. march to decriminalize marijuana.*\"[\"High times at Freedom fest\"](https://www.thestar.com/News/GTA/article/628182). May 3, 2009\\. By Trish Crawford. *[Toronto Star](/wiki/Toronto_Star \"Toronto Star\").* In 2011 the *[Toronto Star](/wiki/Toronto_Star \"Toronto Star\")* reported 25,000 at Queen's Park, and 20,000 on the march through downtown.[Peaceful ‘pot heads’ march for marijuana \\- thestar.com](https://www.thestar.com/news/article/987688--peaceful-pot-heads-march-for-marijuana). By Moira Welsh. May 7, 2011\\. *[Toronto Star](/wiki/Toronto_Star \"Toronto Star\")*. *[CTV News](/wiki/CTV_News \"CTV News\")* reported \"Tens of thousands march\".[CTV Toronto \\- Tens of thousands march in favour of legalizing marijuana](https://toronto.ctvnews.ca/tens-of-thousands-march-in-favour-of-legalizing-marijuana-1.640936). 2011 May 7 article. *[CTV News](/wiki/CTV_News \"CTV News\")* article, photos, and video. Video for Toronto and some of the other Canadian cities that held 2011 GMM events.",
"#### Regina, Saskatchewan",
"Held in [Regina](/wiki/Regina%2C_Saskatchewan \"Regina, Saskatchewan\") on the first Saturday of May since 1999, originally at the Saskatchewan Legislature. Starting in 2001, it was held in Victoria Park, in the center of Regina's downtown, until 2008 when changes to the city's permit policy forced organizers to change the location to Central Park.\nThe event features live music mixed with speakers on various topics, sometimes with only an incidental connection to marijuana.",
"#### Vancouver, British Columbia",
"Held in [Vancouver, British Columbia](/wiki/Vancouver%2C_British_Columbia \"Vancouver, British Columbia\"), on the first Saturday of May. People gather at the fountain at the Vancouver Art Gallery at or before 2:00 pm for a marijuana legalization parade through the streets of downtown Vancouver.{{cite web\\|title\\=Global Marijuana March 2016\\|url\\=http://www.cannabisculture.com/content/2016/05/07/today\\-global\\-marijuana\\-march\\-2016\\|website\\=Cannabis Culture Magazine\\|date\\=7 May 2016 \\|access\\-date\\=21 August 2016}} The parade route is different every year.{{cite web\\|title\\=Global Marijuana March\\|url\\=http://www.pot.tv/video/tag/global\\-marijuana\\-march/\\|website\\=Pot\\-TV\\|access\\-date\\=21 August 2016}}",
"### France",
"{{See also\\|Cannabis in France}}\nIn [France](/wiki/France \"France\") the so\\-called [Marche Mondiale pour le Cannabis](/wiki/Marche_mondiale_pour_le_cannabis \"Marche mondiale pour le cannabis\") is celebrated in [Paris](/wiki/Paris \"Paris\"), [Lyon](/wiki/Lyon \"Lyon\"), [Toulouse](/wiki/Toulouse \"Toulouse\"), [Marseille](/wiki/Marseille \"Marseille\"), [Rennes](/wiki/Rennes \"Rennes\"), [Lille](/wiki/Lille \"Lille\"), [Saint\\-Denis\\-de\\-la\\-Réunion](/wiki/Saint-Denis_de_la_R%C3%A9union \"Saint-Denis de la Réunion\"), [Cognac](/wiki/Cognac_%28Charente%29 \"Cognac (Charente)\"), and some other minor cities in the country.",
"### New Zealand",
"{{See also\\|Cannabis in New Zealand}}\nIn [New Zealand](/wiki/New_Zealand \"New Zealand\") J Day is celebrated in some of the major cities.",
"#### Dunedin",
"J\\-Day in [Dunedin](/wiki/Dunedin \"Dunedin\"), is celebrated in the city's centre of town, [The Octagon](/wiki/The_Octagon%2C_Dunedin \"The Octagon, Dunedin\"), on the first Saturday of May from 'High Noon' until 4:20 pm.\nDunedin is arguably chronologically the first city in the world to host any GMM event. Named '4:20 Extreme', local participants climb the famous [Baldwin Street](/wiki/Baldwin_Street \"Baldwin Street\") to meet at the top by 4:20 am. Locally J\\-Day coincides with The [University of Otago](/wiki/University_of_Otago \"University of Otago\") Capping Parade, in which a multitude of ceremony\\-attending graduates parade down the [main street](/wiki/George_Street%2C_Dunedin \"George Street, Dunedin\") on their way to the Town Hall ceremony, and also the University Hall Parade, in which University of Otago dormitory\\-student decorated themed floats parade down the main street, stopping in the Octagon typically armed with many water balloons, and collectively shouting chants of dormitory\\-specific pride.",
"Dunedin became famous for its JDay festivities in 2003 when around 50 activists marched to the Central Dunedin Police Station, where they planted cannabis plants and smoked [cannabis](/wiki/Cannabis_%28drug%29 \"Cannabis (drug)\") in the main foyer as acts of protest.\\[Otago Daily Times, May 5, 2003] The event was given considerable national and international media attention as no arrests were made.\\[Otago Daily Times, May 6, 2003] The Central Dunedin Police Station was hot\\-boxed again on JDay in 2004 by over 100 activists, again with no arrests. This second incident was also covered by the media, resulting in the Dunedin Area Police Commander, Dave Campbell, justifying the fact that no arrests were made with the quote, \"We had more important things to do\" in the [Otago Daily Times](/wiki/Otago_Daily_Times \"Otago Daily Times\").",
"The 2007 International J\\-Day in Dunedin featured political speakers and music provided by local DJs and counted 170 people at mid\\-day. In the lead up to J\\-Day 2008, NORML NZ's Maryjane the Cannabus toured 42 towns between [Auckland](/wiki/Auckland \"Auckland\") and [Dunedin](/wiki/Dunedin \"Dunedin\") in 42 days for daily law reform rallies. The Cannabus arrived in Dunedin, New Zealand's most cannabis friendly city, on April 25 for a week\\-long 'Cannabis Awareness Week'{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.otagonorml.com/node/10 \\|title\\=Otago NORML presents Cannabis Awareness Week : April 25 \\- May 3, 2008 \\|publisher\\=Otagonorml.com \\|date\\=2008\\-03\\-13 \\|access\\-date\\=2014\\-05\\-12 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140512225315/http://www.otagonorml.com/node/10 \\|archive\\-date\\=May 12, 2014 }} which was planned by [Otago NORML](/wiki/Otago_NORML \"Otago NORML\") and featured public workshops, informational lectures at [Otago University](/wiki/Otago_University \"Otago University\"), and a round\\-table discussion featuring university academics, [MPs](/wiki/Member_of_Parliament%23New_Zealand \"Member of Parliament#New Zealand\"), and policy researchers. Cannabis Awareness Week culminated with J\\-Day on May 3, 2008\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.scoop.co.nz/stories/HL0802/S00178\\.htm \\|title\\=Public Pot Protests Set For National Road Tour \\|publisher\\=Scoop.co.nz \\|date\\=2008\\-02\\-18 \\|access\\-date\\=2014\\-05\\-12}}",
"The 2008 J\\-Day in Dunedin was well attended despite sleet and hail early in the day. Over 500 supporters participated in the event, enjoying games, prizes, political speeches and music from Bushmaster and Ashes of Eden.",
"### Denmark",
"{{See also\\|Cannabis in Denmark}}\n**Copenhagen**\nIn [Copenhagen](/wiki/Copenhagen \"Copenhagen\") the Marijuana march has been an annual tradition for more than 15 years. The march takes places on the first Saturday of may and departs from The [Freetown Christiania](/wiki/Freetown_Christiania \"Freetown Christiania\"), walks through central Copenhagen and ends at the city hall square. Klaus Trier Tuxen from Danish the Hampepartiet has had a prominent role in organizing the event in recent years.\nCannabis smoking is illegal in Denmark, but during the march the police do not enforce this regulation and smoking is de facto allowed during the demonstration.",
"### United States",
"{{See also\\|Cannabis in the United States\\|Legality of cannabis by U.S. jurisdiction}}\n#### Los Angeles Million Marijuana March 2011",
"As of 2011, the [Moorish Science Temple of America](/wiki/Moorish_Science_Temple_of_America \"Moorish Science Temple of America\") has been doing the [Los Angeles](/wiki/Los_Angeles \"Los Angeles\") Million Marijuana March for 13 years at [Leimert park](/wiki/Leimert_Park%2C_Los_Angeles \"Leimert Park, Los Angeles\") in Los Angeles, California. The 2\\-day 2011 celebration marks the first time bands have filled the 2 days. Leimert Park is a famed free speech arena, which has also held [Black Panther](/wiki/Black_Panther_Party \"Black Panther Party\") rallies and more since its inception. Acclaimed rap artist Ditch headlined both days, and was in charge of band booking and advertising. The event went off well with over 2,000 people attending over the 2 days. Ditch was honored for being able to bring unity to that area among so many different races and types of people. Ditch also honored jailed freedom fighter Eddy Lepp at the event. Eddy then called in live to the audience from Federal prison in which he is serving 10 years for cultivation of marijuana. Eddy's wife Linda Lepp was on hand to receive the award. This marks the third time so far that Eddy Lepp has spoken to a live concert audience from prison. Rapper RBX also performed at the Los Angeles march marking the first time in years he has performed in South Central Los Angeles.",
"#### New York City",
"[thumb\\|Senate Majority Leader [Chuck Schumer](/wiki/Chuck_Schumer \"Chuck Schumer\") speaking at the NYC Cannabis Parade \\& Rally in 2022](/wiki/File:Chuck_Schumer_cannabis_rally_2022.jpg \"Chuck Schumer cannabis rally 2022.jpg\")\nIn 1999, during the first worldwide Million Marijuana March New York City held another of its annual marijuana marches. The *[Village Voice](/wiki/Village_Voice \"Village Voice\")* reported on the police and organizer [estimates of the crowd size](/wiki/Crowd_size_estimation \"Crowd size estimation\"): \"*the police claim it was 4,000 people while organizers say 20,000*\".",
"In 2009, the event organizer, [Dana Beal](/wiki/Dana_Beal \"Dana Beal\"), along with Chris Ryan, and Jay Stetzer on their way back from the NORML Conference in San Francisco all three men were charged with possession with intent to distribute and possession with intent to deliver 150 lbs. of marijuana.{{cite web\\|title\\=Help Free Dana Beal\\|url\\=http://freedanabeal.blogspot.com/2009/10/help\\-free\\-dana\\-beal.html\\|website\\=Free Dana Beal\\|date\\=4 October 2009 \\|publisher\\=WordPress\\|access\\-date\\=24 April 2015\\|ref\\=Reflist2}}",
"In 2010, the event began to be organized by a new group of activists poised to take on New York city. It was after this that the NYC Event was renamed to, NYC Cannabis Parade.{{cite web\\|title\\=NYC Cannabis Parade\\|url\\=http://www.CannabisParade.org\\|website\\=NYC Cannabis Parade\\|access\\-date\\=24 April 2015}} The NYC Cannabis Parade, organized by a steering committee of activists, have turned the event into a celebration of cannabis culture in NYC with a nearly 20 block parade and 4 hour rally preceding it, there has not been a recorded arrest for possession or use for over 4 years now. \"'We have zero arrests, and we don’t plan on having any,' one sergeant told a Post reporter. Advocates praised the cops’ mellow take on toking as the latest sign New York was inching toward decriminalization.\"{{cite news\\|last1\\=Hagen, Laura\\|first1\\=Elizabeth, Italiano\\|title\\=Cops turn blind eye to pot smokers at legalization rally\\|url\\=https://nypost.com/2014/05/04/cops\\-turn\\-blind\\-eye\\-to\\-pot\\-smokers\\-at\\-cannabis\\-parade/\\|access\\-date\\=24 April 2015\\|agency\\=New York Post\\|issue\\=Online\\|publisher\\=New York Post\\|date\\=2014\\-05\\-04}}",
""
] |
Font types
----------
### {{anchor\|BITMAP}}Bitmap fonts
[thumb\|An assortment of bitmap fonts from the first version of the [Macintosh operating system](/wiki/Classic_Mac_OS "Classic Mac OS")](/wiki/File:Original_Mac_fonts.png "Original Mac fonts.png")
A bitmap font is one that stores each [glyph](/wiki/Glyph "Glyph") as an array of [pixels](/wiki/Pixels "Pixels") (that is, a [bitmap](/wiki/Bitmap "Bitmap")). It is less commonly known as a **{{visible anchor\|raster font}}** or a pixel font. Bitmap fonts are simply collections of [raster images](/wiki/Raster_graphics "Raster graphics") of glyphs. For each variant of the font, there is a complete set of glyph images, with each set containing an image for each character. For example, if a font has three sizes, and any combination of bold and italic, then there must be 12 complete sets of images.
Advantages of bitmap fonts include:
* Extremely fast and simple to render
* Easier to create than other kinds.
* Unscaled bitmap fonts always give exactly the same output when displayed on the same specification display
* Best for very low\-quality or small\-size displays where the font needs to be fine\-tuned to display clearly
The primary disadvantage of bitmap fonts is that the visual quality tends to be poor when scaled or otherwise transformed, compared to outline and stroke fonts, and providing many optimized and purpose\-made sizes of the same font dramatically increases memory usage. The earliest bitmap fonts were only available in certain optimized sizes such as 8, 9, 10, 12, 14, 18, 24, 36, 48, 72, and 96 points (assuming a resolution of 96 [DPI](/wiki/Dots_per_inch "Dots per inch")), with custom fonts often available in only one specific size, such as a headline font at only 72 points.
The limited processing power and memory of early computer systems forced the exclusive use of bitmap fonts. Improvements in hardware have allowed them to be replaced with outline or stroke fonts in cases where arbitrary scaling is desirable, but bitmap fonts are still in common use in embedded systems and other places where speed and simplicity are considered important.
Bitmap fonts are used in the [Linux](/wiki/Linux "Linux") console, the [Windows](/wiki/Microsoft_Windows "Microsoft Windows") [recovery console](/wiki/Recovery_Console "Recovery Console"), and [embedded systems](/wiki/Embedded_systems "Embedded systems"). Older [dot matrix printers](/wiki/Dot_matrix_printer "Dot matrix printer") used bitmap fonts; often stored in the memory of the printer and addressed by the computer's [print driver](/wiki/Print_driver "Print driver"). Bitmap fonts may be used in [cross\-stitch](/wiki/Cross-stitch "Cross-stitch").
To draw a string using a bitmap font means to successively output bitmaps of each character that the string comprises, performing per\-character indentation.
#### Monochrome fonts vis\-à\-vis fonts with shades of gray
[frame\|A bitmap color font for the [Amiga OS](/wiki/Amiga_OS "Amiga OS")](/wiki/File:AmigaColorFont.png "AmigaColorFont.png")
Digital bitmap fonts (and the [final rendering of vector fonts](/wiki/Font_rasterization "Font rasterization")) may use [monochrome](/wiki/Monochrome "Monochrome") or [shades of gray](/wiki/Grayscale "Grayscale"). The latter is [anti\-aliased](/wiki/Spatial_anti-aliasing "Spatial anti-aliasing"). When displaying a text, typically an operating system properly represents the "shades of gray" as intermediate colors between the color of the font and that of the background. However, if the text is represented as an *image* with [transparent](/wiki/Transparency_in_graphic_files "Transparency in graphic files") background, "shades of gray" require an image format allowing [partial transparency](/wiki/Alpha_compositing "Alpha compositing").
#### Scaling
Bitmap fonts look best at their native [pixel](/wiki/Pixel "Pixel") size. Some systems using bitmap fonts can create some font variants algorithmically. For example, the original [Apple Macintosh](/wiki/Apple_Macintosh "Apple Macintosh") computer could produce bold by widening vertical strokes and oblique by [shearing](/wiki/Shear_mapping "Shear mapping") the image. At non\-native sizes, many text rendering systems perform [nearest\-neighbor resampling](/wiki/Nearest-neighbor_interpolation "Nearest-neighbor interpolation"), introducing rough jagged edges. More advanced systems perform [anti\-aliasing](/wiki/Spatial_anti-aliasing "Spatial anti-aliasing") on bitmap fonts whose size does not match the size that the application requests. This technique works well for making the font smaller but not as well for increasing the size, as it tends to blur the edges. Some graphics systems that use bitmap fonts, especially those of [emulators](/wiki/Emulator "Emulator"), apply curve\-sensitive [nonlinear resampling](/wiki/Nonlinear_resampling "Nonlinear resampling") algorithms such as [2xSaI](/wiki/2xSaI "2xSaI") or [hq3x](/wiki/Hq3x "Hq3x") on fonts and other bitmaps, which avoids blurring the font while introducing little objectionable distortion at moderate increases in size.
The difference between bitmap fonts and outline fonts is similar to the difference between bitmap and vector image file formats. Bitmap fonts are like image formats such as *[Windows Bitmap](/wiki/Windows_bitmap "Windows bitmap")* (.bmp), *[Portable Network Graphics](/wiki/Portable_Network_Graphics "Portable Network Graphics")* (.png) and *[Tagged Image Format](/wiki/TIF "TIF")* (.tif or .tiff), which store the image data as a grid of pixels, in some cases with compression. Outline or stroke image formats such as *[Windows Metafile](/wiki/Windows_Metafile "Windows Metafile")* format (.wmf) and *[Scalable Vector Graphics](/wiki/Scalable_Vector_Graphics "Scalable Vector Graphics")* format (.svg), store instructions in the form of lines and curves of how to draw the image rather than storing the image itself.
A "trace" program can follow the outline of a high\-resolution bitmap font and create an initial outline that a font designer uses to create an [outline font](/wiki/Outline_font "Outline font") useful in systems such as [PostScript](/wiki/PostScript "PostScript") or [TrueType](/wiki/TrueType "TrueType"). Outline fonts scale easily without jagged edges or blurriness.
### {{anchor\|OUTLINE}}Outline fonts
*Outline fonts* or *vector fonts* are collections of [vector images](/wiki/Vector_graphics "Vector graphics"), consisting of lines and curves defining the boundary of [glyphs](/wiki/Glyphs "Glyphs"). Early vector fonts were used by [vector monitors](/wiki/Vector_monitor "Vector monitor") and [vector plotters](/wiki/Plotter "Plotter") using their own internal fonts, usually with thin single strokes instead of thickly outlined glyphs. The advent of desktop publishing brought the need for a common standard to integrate the [graphical user interface](/wiki/Graphical_user_interface "Graphical user interface") of the first [Macintosh](/wiki/Macintosh "Macintosh") and [laser printers](/wiki/Laser_printer "Laser printer"). The term to describe the integration technology was [WYSIWYG](/wiki/WYSIWYG "WYSIWYG") (What You See Is What You Get). This common standard was (and still is{{when\|date\=September 2021}}) Adobe [PostScript](/wiki/PostScript "PostScript").{{citation needed\|date\=September 2021}} Examples of outline fonts include: PostScript [Type 1 and Type 3 fonts](/wiki/Type_1_and_Type_3_fonts "Type 1 and Type 3 fonts"), [TrueType](/wiki/TrueType "TrueType"), [OpenType](/wiki/OpenType "OpenType") and [Compugraphic](/wiki/Compugraphic "Compugraphic").
The primary advantage of outline fonts is that, unlike [bitmap fonts](/wiki/Bitmap_fonts "Bitmap fonts"), they are a set of lines and curves instead of pixels; they can be scaled without causing [pixelation](/wiki/Pixelation "Pixelation"). Therefore, outline font characters can be scaled to any size and otherwise transformed with more attractive results than bitmap fonts, but require considerably more processing and may yield undesirable rendering, depending on the font, rendering software, and output size. Even so, outline fonts can be transformed into bitmap fonts beforehand if necessary. The converse transformation is considerably harder since bitmap fonts require a [heuristic algorithm](/wiki/Heuristic_algorithm "Heuristic algorithm") to guess and approximate the corresponding curves if the pixels do not make a straight line.
Outline fonts have a major problem, in that the [Bézier curves](/wiki/B%C3%A9zier_curve "Bézier curve") used by them cannot be rendered accurately onto a raster display (such as most computer monitors and printers), and their rendering can change shape depending on the desired size and position.{{cite web \|title \= The raster tragedy at low resolution \|url \= http://www.microsoft.com/typography/tools/trtalr.aspx \|author \= Stamm, Beat \|website \= \[\[Microsoft]] \|date \= 1998\-03\-25 \|access\-date \= 2015\-08\-10 \|archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20160219231632/http://www.microsoft.com/typography/tools/trtalr.aspx \|archive\-date \= 2016\-02\-19 \|url\-status \= dead }} Measures such as [font hinting](/wiki/Font_hinting "Font hinting") have to be used to reduce the visual impact of this problem, which requires sophisticated software that is difficult to implement correctly. Many modern desktop computer systems include software to do this, but they use considerably more processing power than bitmap fonts, and there can be minor rendering defects, particularly at small font sizes. Despite this, they are frequently used because people often consider the ability to freely scale fonts, without incurring any pixelation, to be important enough to justify the defects and increased [computational complexity](/wiki/Computational_complexity "Computational complexity").
### Stroke\-based fonts
[thumb\|With stroke\-based fonts, the same stroke paths can be filled with different stroke profiles resulting in different visual shapes without the need to specify the vertex positions of each outline, as is the case with outline fonts.](/wiki/File:Metafont_pens.png "Metafont pens.png")
A glyph's outline is defined by the vertices of individual stroke paths, and the corresponding stroke profiles. The stroke paths are a kind of [topological skeleton](/wiki/Topological_skeleton "Topological skeleton") of the glyph. The advantages of stroke\-based fonts over outline fonts include reducing the number of vertices needed to define a glyph, allowing the same vertices to be used to generate a font with a different weight, glyph width, or serifs using different stroke rules, and the associated size savings. For a font developer, editing a glyph by stroke is easier and less prone to error than editing outlines. A stroke\-based system also allows scaling glyphs in height or width without altering stroke thickness of the base glyphs. Stroke\-based fonts are heavily marketed for East Asian markets for use on embedded devices, but the technology is not limited to [ideograms](/wiki/Ideogram "Ideogram").
Commercial developers include [Agfa Monotype](/wiki/Agfa_Monotype "Agfa Monotype") ({{Proper name\|iType}}) and Type Solutions, Inc. (owned by [Bitstream Inc.](/wiki/Bitstream_Inc. "Bitstream Inc.")) have independently developed stroke\-based font types and font engines.
Although Monotype and Bitstream have claimed tremendous space saving using stroke\-based fonts on East Asian character sets, most of the space saving comes from building composite glyphs, which is part of the TrueType specification and does not require a stroke\-based approach.
|
[
"Font types\n----------",
"### {{anchor\\|BITMAP}}Bitmap fonts",
"[thumb\\|An assortment of bitmap fonts from the first version of the [Macintosh operating system](/wiki/Classic_Mac_OS \"Classic Mac OS\")](/wiki/File:Original_Mac_fonts.png \"Original Mac fonts.png\")",
"A bitmap font is one that stores each [glyph](/wiki/Glyph \"Glyph\") as an array of [pixels](/wiki/Pixels \"Pixels\") (that is, a [bitmap](/wiki/Bitmap \"Bitmap\")). It is less commonly known as a **{{visible anchor\\|raster font}}** or a pixel font. Bitmap fonts are simply collections of [raster images](/wiki/Raster_graphics \"Raster graphics\") of glyphs. For each variant of the font, there is a complete set of glyph images, with each set containing an image for each character. For example, if a font has three sizes, and any combination of bold and italic, then there must be 12 complete sets of images.",
"Advantages of bitmap fonts include:\n* Extremely fast and simple to render\n* Easier to create than other kinds.\n* Unscaled bitmap fonts always give exactly the same output when displayed on the same specification display\n* Best for very low\\-quality or small\\-size displays where the font needs to be fine\\-tuned to display clearly",
"The primary disadvantage of bitmap fonts is that the visual quality tends to be poor when scaled or otherwise transformed, compared to outline and stroke fonts, and providing many optimized and purpose\\-made sizes of the same font dramatically increases memory usage. The earliest bitmap fonts were only available in certain optimized sizes such as 8, 9, 10, 12, 14, 18, 24, 36, 48, 72, and 96 points (assuming a resolution of 96 [DPI](/wiki/Dots_per_inch \"Dots per inch\")), with custom fonts often available in only one specific size, such as a headline font at only 72 points.",
"The limited processing power and memory of early computer systems forced the exclusive use of bitmap fonts. Improvements in hardware have allowed them to be replaced with outline or stroke fonts in cases where arbitrary scaling is desirable, but bitmap fonts are still in common use in embedded systems and other places where speed and simplicity are considered important.",
"Bitmap fonts are used in the [Linux](/wiki/Linux \"Linux\") console, the [Windows](/wiki/Microsoft_Windows \"Microsoft Windows\") [recovery console](/wiki/Recovery_Console \"Recovery Console\"), and [embedded systems](/wiki/Embedded_systems \"Embedded systems\"). Older [dot matrix printers](/wiki/Dot_matrix_printer \"Dot matrix printer\") used bitmap fonts; often stored in the memory of the printer and addressed by the computer's [print driver](/wiki/Print_driver \"Print driver\"). Bitmap fonts may be used in [cross\\-stitch](/wiki/Cross-stitch \"Cross-stitch\").",
"To draw a string using a bitmap font means to successively output bitmaps of each character that the string comprises, performing per\\-character indentation.",
"#### Monochrome fonts vis\\-à\\-vis fonts with shades of gray",
"[frame\\|A bitmap color font for the [Amiga OS](/wiki/Amiga_OS \"Amiga OS\")](/wiki/File:AmigaColorFont.png \"AmigaColorFont.png\")",
"Digital bitmap fonts (and the [final rendering of vector fonts](/wiki/Font_rasterization \"Font rasterization\")) may use [monochrome](/wiki/Monochrome \"Monochrome\") or [shades of gray](/wiki/Grayscale \"Grayscale\"). The latter is [anti\\-aliased](/wiki/Spatial_anti-aliasing \"Spatial anti-aliasing\"). When displaying a text, typically an operating system properly represents the \"shades of gray\" as intermediate colors between the color of the font and that of the background. However, if the text is represented as an *image* with [transparent](/wiki/Transparency_in_graphic_files \"Transparency in graphic files\") background, \"shades of gray\" require an image format allowing [partial transparency](/wiki/Alpha_compositing \"Alpha compositing\").",
"#### Scaling",
"Bitmap fonts look best at their native [pixel](/wiki/Pixel \"Pixel\") size. Some systems using bitmap fonts can create some font variants algorithmically. For example, the original [Apple Macintosh](/wiki/Apple_Macintosh \"Apple Macintosh\") computer could produce bold by widening vertical strokes and oblique by [shearing](/wiki/Shear_mapping \"Shear mapping\") the image. At non\\-native sizes, many text rendering systems perform [nearest\\-neighbor resampling](/wiki/Nearest-neighbor_interpolation \"Nearest-neighbor interpolation\"), introducing rough jagged edges. More advanced systems perform [anti\\-aliasing](/wiki/Spatial_anti-aliasing \"Spatial anti-aliasing\") on bitmap fonts whose size does not match the size that the application requests. This technique works well for making the font smaller but not as well for increasing the size, as it tends to blur the edges. Some graphics systems that use bitmap fonts, especially those of [emulators](/wiki/Emulator \"Emulator\"), apply curve\\-sensitive [nonlinear resampling](/wiki/Nonlinear_resampling \"Nonlinear resampling\") algorithms such as [2xSaI](/wiki/2xSaI \"2xSaI\") or [hq3x](/wiki/Hq3x \"Hq3x\") on fonts and other bitmaps, which avoids blurring the font while introducing little objectionable distortion at moderate increases in size.",
"The difference between bitmap fonts and outline fonts is similar to the difference between bitmap and vector image file formats. Bitmap fonts are like image formats such as *[Windows Bitmap](/wiki/Windows_bitmap \"Windows bitmap\")* (.bmp), *[Portable Network Graphics](/wiki/Portable_Network_Graphics \"Portable Network Graphics\")* (.png) and *[Tagged Image Format](/wiki/TIF \"TIF\")* (.tif or .tiff), which store the image data as a grid of pixels, in some cases with compression. Outline or stroke image formats such as *[Windows Metafile](/wiki/Windows_Metafile \"Windows Metafile\")* format (.wmf) and *[Scalable Vector Graphics](/wiki/Scalable_Vector_Graphics \"Scalable Vector Graphics\")* format (.svg), store instructions in the form of lines and curves of how to draw the image rather than storing the image itself.",
"A \"trace\" program can follow the outline of a high\\-resolution bitmap font and create an initial outline that a font designer uses to create an [outline font](/wiki/Outline_font \"Outline font\") useful in systems such as [PostScript](/wiki/PostScript \"PostScript\") or [TrueType](/wiki/TrueType \"TrueType\"). Outline fonts scale easily without jagged edges or blurriness.",
"### {{anchor\\|OUTLINE}}Outline fonts",
"*Outline fonts* or *vector fonts* are collections of [vector images](/wiki/Vector_graphics \"Vector graphics\"), consisting of lines and curves defining the boundary of [glyphs](/wiki/Glyphs \"Glyphs\"). Early vector fonts were used by [vector monitors](/wiki/Vector_monitor \"Vector monitor\") and [vector plotters](/wiki/Plotter \"Plotter\") using their own internal fonts, usually with thin single strokes instead of thickly outlined glyphs. The advent of desktop publishing brought the need for a common standard to integrate the [graphical user interface](/wiki/Graphical_user_interface \"Graphical user interface\") of the first [Macintosh](/wiki/Macintosh \"Macintosh\") and [laser printers](/wiki/Laser_printer \"Laser printer\"). The term to describe the integration technology was [WYSIWYG](/wiki/WYSIWYG \"WYSIWYG\") (What You See Is What You Get). This common standard was (and still is{{when\\|date\\=September 2021}}) Adobe [PostScript](/wiki/PostScript \"PostScript\").{{citation needed\\|date\\=September 2021}} Examples of outline fonts include: PostScript [Type 1 and Type 3 fonts](/wiki/Type_1_and_Type_3_fonts \"Type 1 and Type 3 fonts\"), [TrueType](/wiki/TrueType \"TrueType\"), [OpenType](/wiki/OpenType \"OpenType\") and [Compugraphic](/wiki/Compugraphic \"Compugraphic\").",
"The primary advantage of outline fonts is that, unlike [bitmap fonts](/wiki/Bitmap_fonts \"Bitmap fonts\"), they are a set of lines and curves instead of pixels; they can be scaled without causing [pixelation](/wiki/Pixelation \"Pixelation\"). Therefore, outline font characters can be scaled to any size and otherwise transformed with more attractive results than bitmap fonts, but require considerably more processing and may yield undesirable rendering, depending on the font, rendering software, and output size. Even so, outline fonts can be transformed into bitmap fonts beforehand if necessary. The converse transformation is considerably harder since bitmap fonts require a [heuristic algorithm](/wiki/Heuristic_algorithm \"Heuristic algorithm\") to guess and approximate the corresponding curves if the pixels do not make a straight line.",
"Outline fonts have a major problem, in that the [Bézier curves](/wiki/B%C3%A9zier_curve \"Bézier curve\") used by them cannot be rendered accurately onto a raster display (such as most computer monitors and printers), and their rendering can change shape depending on the desired size and position.{{cite web \\|title \\= The raster tragedy at low resolution \\|url \\= http://www.microsoft.com/typography/tools/trtalr.aspx \\|author \\= Stamm, Beat \\|website \\= \\[\\[Microsoft]] \\|date \\= 1998\\-03\\-25 \\|access\\-date \\= 2015\\-08\\-10 \\|archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20160219231632/http://www.microsoft.com/typography/tools/trtalr.aspx \\|archive\\-date \\= 2016\\-02\\-19 \\|url\\-status \\= dead }} Measures such as [font hinting](/wiki/Font_hinting \"Font hinting\") have to be used to reduce the visual impact of this problem, which requires sophisticated software that is difficult to implement correctly. Many modern desktop computer systems include software to do this, but they use considerably more processing power than bitmap fonts, and there can be minor rendering defects, particularly at small font sizes. Despite this, they are frequently used because people often consider the ability to freely scale fonts, without incurring any pixelation, to be important enough to justify the defects and increased [computational complexity](/wiki/Computational_complexity \"Computational complexity\").",
"### Stroke\\-based fonts",
"[thumb\\|With stroke\\-based fonts, the same stroke paths can be filled with different stroke profiles resulting in different visual shapes without the need to specify the vertex positions of each outline, as is the case with outline fonts.](/wiki/File:Metafont_pens.png \"Metafont pens.png\")",
"A glyph's outline is defined by the vertices of individual stroke paths, and the corresponding stroke profiles. The stroke paths are a kind of [topological skeleton](/wiki/Topological_skeleton \"Topological skeleton\") of the glyph. The advantages of stroke\\-based fonts over outline fonts include reducing the number of vertices needed to define a glyph, allowing the same vertices to be used to generate a font with a different weight, glyph width, or serifs using different stroke rules, and the associated size savings. For a font developer, editing a glyph by stroke is easier and less prone to error than editing outlines. A stroke\\-based system also allows scaling glyphs in height or width without altering stroke thickness of the base glyphs. Stroke\\-based fonts are heavily marketed for East Asian markets for use on embedded devices, but the technology is not limited to [ideograms](/wiki/Ideogram \"Ideogram\").",
"Commercial developers include [Agfa Monotype](/wiki/Agfa_Monotype \"Agfa Monotype\") ({{Proper name\\|iType}}) and Type Solutions, Inc. (owned by [Bitstream Inc.](/wiki/Bitstream_Inc. \"Bitstream Inc.\")) have independently developed stroke\\-based font types and font engines.",
"Although Monotype and Bitstream have claimed tremendous space saving using stroke\\-based fonts on East Asian character sets, most of the space saving comes from building composite glyphs, which is part of the TrueType specification and does not require a stroke\\-based approach.",
""
] |
### {{anchor\|BITMAP}}Bitmap fonts
[thumb\|An assortment of bitmap fonts from the first version of the [Macintosh operating system](/wiki/Classic_Mac_OS "Classic Mac OS")](/wiki/File:Original_Mac_fonts.png "Original Mac fonts.png")
A bitmap font is one that stores each [glyph](/wiki/Glyph "Glyph") as an array of [pixels](/wiki/Pixels "Pixels") (that is, a [bitmap](/wiki/Bitmap "Bitmap")). It is less commonly known as a **{{visible anchor\|raster font}}** or a pixel font. Bitmap fonts are simply collections of [raster images](/wiki/Raster_graphics "Raster graphics") of glyphs. For each variant of the font, there is a complete set of glyph images, with each set containing an image for each character. For example, if a font has three sizes, and any combination of bold and italic, then there must be 12 complete sets of images.
Advantages of bitmap fonts include:
* Extremely fast and simple to render
* Easier to create than other kinds.
* Unscaled bitmap fonts always give exactly the same output when displayed on the same specification display
* Best for very low\-quality or small\-size displays where the font needs to be fine\-tuned to display clearly
The primary disadvantage of bitmap fonts is that the visual quality tends to be poor when scaled or otherwise transformed, compared to outline and stroke fonts, and providing many optimized and purpose\-made sizes of the same font dramatically increases memory usage. The earliest bitmap fonts were only available in certain optimized sizes such as 8, 9, 10, 12, 14, 18, 24, 36, 48, 72, and 96 points (assuming a resolution of 96 [DPI](/wiki/Dots_per_inch "Dots per inch")), with custom fonts often available in only one specific size, such as a headline font at only 72 points.
The limited processing power and memory of early computer systems forced the exclusive use of bitmap fonts. Improvements in hardware have allowed them to be replaced with outline or stroke fonts in cases where arbitrary scaling is desirable, but bitmap fonts are still in common use in embedded systems and other places where speed and simplicity are considered important.
Bitmap fonts are used in the [Linux](/wiki/Linux "Linux") console, the [Windows](/wiki/Microsoft_Windows "Microsoft Windows") [recovery console](/wiki/Recovery_Console "Recovery Console"), and [embedded systems](/wiki/Embedded_systems "Embedded systems"). Older [dot matrix printers](/wiki/Dot_matrix_printer "Dot matrix printer") used bitmap fonts; often stored in the memory of the printer and addressed by the computer's [print driver](/wiki/Print_driver "Print driver"). Bitmap fonts may be used in [cross\-stitch](/wiki/Cross-stitch "Cross-stitch").
To draw a string using a bitmap font means to successively output bitmaps of each character that the string comprises, performing per\-character indentation.
#### Monochrome fonts vis\-à\-vis fonts with shades of gray
[frame\|A bitmap color font for the [Amiga OS](/wiki/Amiga_OS "Amiga OS")](/wiki/File:AmigaColorFont.png "AmigaColorFont.png")
Digital bitmap fonts (and the [final rendering of vector fonts](/wiki/Font_rasterization "Font rasterization")) may use [monochrome](/wiki/Monochrome "Monochrome") or [shades of gray](/wiki/Grayscale "Grayscale"). The latter is [anti\-aliased](/wiki/Spatial_anti-aliasing "Spatial anti-aliasing"). When displaying a text, typically an operating system properly represents the "shades of gray" as intermediate colors between the color of the font and that of the background. However, if the text is represented as an *image* with [transparent](/wiki/Transparency_in_graphic_files "Transparency in graphic files") background, "shades of gray" require an image format allowing [partial transparency](/wiki/Alpha_compositing "Alpha compositing").
#### Scaling
Bitmap fonts look best at their native [pixel](/wiki/Pixel "Pixel") size. Some systems using bitmap fonts can create some font variants algorithmically. For example, the original [Apple Macintosh](/wiki/Apple_Macintosh "Apple Macintosh") computer could produce bold by widening vertical strokes and oblique by [shearing](/wiki/Shear_mapping "Shear mapping") the image. At non\-native sizes, many text rendering systems perform [nearest\-neighbor resampling](/wiki/Nearest-neighbor_interpolation "Nearest-neighbor interpolation"), introducing rough jagged edges. More advanced systems perform [anti\-aliasing](/wiki/Spatial_anti-aliasing "Spatial anti-aliasing") on bitmap fonts whose size does not match the size that the application requests. This technique works well for making the font smaller but not as well for increasing the size, as it tends to blur the edges. Some graphics systems that use bitmap fonts, especially those of [emulators](/wiki/Emulator "Emulator"), apply curve\-sensitive [nonlinear resampling](/wiki/Nonlinear_resampling "Nonlinear resampling") algorithms such as [2xSaI](/wiki/2xSaI "2xSaI") or [hq3x](/wiki/Hq3x "Hq3x") on fonts and other bitmaps, which avoids blurring the font while introducing little objectionable distortion at moderate increases in size.
The difference between bitmap fonts and outline fonts is similar to the difference between bitmap and vector image file formats. Bitmap fonts are like image formats such as *[Windows Bitmap](/wiki/Windows_bitmap "Windows bitmap")* (.bmp), *[Portable Network Graphics](/wiki/Portable_Network_Graphics "Portable Network Graphics")* (.png) and *[Tagged Image Format](/wiki/TIF "TIF")* (.tif or .tiff), which store the image data as a grid of pixels, in some cases with compression. Outline or stroke image formats such as *[Windows Metafile](/wiki/Windows_Metafile "Windows Metafile")* format (.wmf) and *[Scalable Vector Graphics](/wiki/Scalable_Vector_Graphics "Scalable Vector Graphics")* format (.svg), store instructions in the form of lines and curves of how to draw the image rather than storing the image itself.
A "trace" program can follow the outline of a high\-resolution bitmap font and create an initial outline that a font designer uses to create an [outline font](/wiki/Outline_font "Outline font") useful in systems such as [PostScript](/wiki/PostScript "PostScript") or [TrueType](/wiki/TrueType "TrueType"). Outline fonts scale easily without jagged edges or blurriness.
|
[
"### {{anchor\\|BITMAP}}Bitmap fonts",
"[thumb\\|An assortment of bitmap fonts from the first version of the [Macintosh operating system](/wiki/Classic_Mac_OS \"Classic Mac OS\")](/wiki/File:Original_Mac_fonts.png \"Original Mac fonts.png\")",
"A bitmap font is one that stores each [glyph](/wiki/Glyph \"Glyph\") as an array of [pixels](/wiki/Pixels \"Pixels\") (that is, a [bitmap](/wiki/Bitmap \"Bitmap\")). It is less commonly known as a **{{visible anchor\\|raster font}}** or a pixel font. Bitmap fonts are simply collections of [raster images](/wiki/Raster_graphics \"Raster graphics\") of glyphs. For each variant of the font, there is a complete set of glyph images, with each set containing an image for each character. For example, if a font has three sizes, and any combination of bold and italic, then there must be 12 complete sets of images.",
"Advantages of bitmap fonts include:\n* Extremely fast and simple to render\n* Easier to create than other kinds.\n* Unscaled bitmap fonts always give exactly the same output when displayed on the same specification display\n* Best for very low\\-quality or small\\-size displays where the font needs to be fine\\-tuned to display clearly",
"The primary disadvantage of bitmap fonts is that the visual quality tends to be poor when scaled or otherwise transformed, compared to outline and stroke fonts, and providing many optimized and purpose\\-made sizes of the same font dramatically increases memory usage. The earliest bitmap fonts were only available in certain optimized sizes such as 8, 9, 10, 12, 14, 18, 24, 36, 48, 72, and 96 points (assuming a resolution of 96 [DPI](/wiki/Dots_per_inch \"Dots per inch\")), with custom fonts often available in only one specific size, such as a headline font at only 72 points.",
"The limited processing power and memory of early computer systems forced the exclusive use of bitmap fonts. Improvements in hardware have allowed them to be replaced with outline or stroke fonts in cases where arbitrary scaling is desirable, but bitmap fonts are still in common use in embedded systems and other places where speed and simplicity are considered important.",
"Bitmap fonts are used in the [Linux](/wiki/Linux \"Linux\") console, the [Windows](/wiki/Microsoft_Windows \"Microsoft Windows\") [recovery console](/wiki/Recovery_Console \"Recovery Console\"), and [embedded systems](/wiki/Embedded_systems \"Embedded systems\"). Older [dot matrix printers](/wiki/Dot_matrix_printer \"Dot matrix printer\") used bitmap fonts; often stored in the memory of the printer and addressed by the computer's [print driver](/wiki/Print_driver \"Print driver\"). Bitmap fonts may be used in [cross\\-stitch](/wiki/Cross-stitch \"Cross-stitch\").",
"To draw a string using a bitmap font means to successively output bitmaps of each character that the string comprises, performing per\\-character indentation.",
"#### Monochrome fonts vis\\-à\\-vis fonts with shades of gray",
"[frame\\|A bitmap color font for the [Amiga OS](/wiki/Amiga_OS \"Amiga OS\")](/wiki/File:AmigaColorFont.png \"AmigaColorFont.png\")",
"Digital bitmap fonts (and the [final rendering of vector fonts](/wiki/Font_rasterization \"Font rasterization\")) may use [monochrome](/wiki/Monochrome \"Monochrome\") or [shades of gray](/wiki/Grayscale \"Grayscale\"). The latter is [anti\\-aliased](/wiki/Spatial_anti-aliasing \"Spatial anti-aliasing\"). When displaying a text, typically an operating system properly represents the \"shades of gray\" as intermediate colors between the color of the font and that of the background. However, if the text is represented as an *image* with [transparent](/wiki/Transparency_in_graphic_files \"Transparency in graphic files\") background, \"shades of gray\" require an image format allowing [partial transparency](/wiki/Alpha_compositing \"Alpha compositing\").",
"#### Scaling",
"Bitmap fonts look best at their native [pixel](/wiki/Pixel \"Pixel\") size. Some systems using bitmap fonts can create some font variants algorithmically. For example, the original [Apple Macintosh](/wiki/Apple_Macintosh \"Apple Macintosh\") computer could produce bold by widening vertical strokes and oblique by [shearing](/wiki/Shear_mapping \"Shear mapping\") the image. At non\\-native sizes, many text rendering systems perform [nearest\\-neighbor resampling](/wiki/Nearest-neighbor_interpolation \"Nearest-neighbor interpolation\"), introducing rough jagged edges. More advanced systems perform [anti\\-aliasing](/wiki/Spatial_anti-aliasing \"Spatial anti-aliasing\") on bitmap fonts whose size does not match the size that the application requests. This technique works well for making the font smaller but not as well for increasing the size, as it tends to blur the edges. Some graphics systems that use bitmap fonts, especially those of [emulators](/wiki/Emulator \"Emulator\"), apply curve\\-sensitive [nonlinear resampling](/wiki/Nonlinear_resampling \"Nonlinear resampling\") algorithms such as [2xSaI](/wiki/2xSaI \"2xSaI\") or [hq3x](/wiki/Hq3x \"Hq3x\") on fonts and other bitmaps, which avoids blurring the font while introducing little objectionable distortion at moderate increases in size.",
"The difference between bitmap fonts and outline fonts is similar to the difference between bitmap and vector image file formats. Bitmap fonts are like image formats such as *[Windows Bitmap](/wiki/Windows_bitmap \"Windows bitmap\")* (.bmp), *[Portable Network Graphics](/wiki/Portable_Network_Graphics \"Portable Network Graphics\")* (.png) and *[Tagged Image Format](/wiki/TIF \"TIF\")* (.tif or .tiff), which store the image data as a grid of pixels, in some cases with compression. Outline or stroke image formats such as *[Windows Metafile](/wiki/Windows_Metafile \"Windows Metafile\")* format (.wmf) and *[Scalable Vector Graphics](/wiki/Scalable_Vector_Graphics \"Scalable Vector Graphics\")* format (.svg), store instructions in the form of lines and curves of how to draw the image rather than storing the image itself.",
"A \"trace\" program can follow the outline of a high\\-resolution bitmap font and create an initial outline that a font designer uses to create an [outline font](/wiki/Outline_font \"Outline font\") useful in systems such as [PostScript](/wiki/PostScript \"PostScript\") or [TrueType](/wiki/TrueType \"TrueType\"). Outline fonts scale easily without jagged edges or blurriness.",
""
] |
Viking expedition to Courland
-----------------------------
The [Curonians](/wiki/Curonians "Curonians") in [Latvia](/wiki/Latvia "Latvia") had once been under the Swedish realm. However, they had rebelled against the Swedes a long time ago and refused to pay them [tribute](/wiki/Tribute "Tribute"). The Danes, being aware of this, saw the opportunity to take over the Swedish dominions in [Courland](/wiki/Courland "Courland"). At the time of Ansgar's second visit to Birka, They marshalled a great fleet and sailed to Courland in order to take over their goods and to make the [Curonians](/wiki/Curonians "Curonians") pay tribute to the [Danes](/wiki/Denmark "Denmark") instead. The Curonians gathered forces from all five of their towns and butchered half the Danish army, after which they plundered the Danish ships, gaining a great deal of [gold](/wiki/Gold "Gold"), [silver](/wiki/Silver "Silver"), and other valuables.
When the Swedes and King Olof heard of the Danish failure, they decided to win the reputation that the Swedes could do what the Danes could not and to make the Curonians pay tribute again. Consequently, the Swedes gathered an enormous army and attacked Curland. The first town they attacked was called [Seeburg](/wiki/Grobin "Grobin"). It had 7,000 armed men, but the town was pillaged, ravaged, and burnt by the Swedes. The Swedes left their ships at the coast and started out on a five\-day expedition into the hinterland. They reached the town of *Apulia* (probably modern [Apuole](/wiki/Apuole "Apuole")). The town had as many as 15,000 armed men.
The Swedes stormed the town but it was ferociously defended, and after eight days of battle many men had fallen without result. By the ninth day, the Swedes were weary of the battle and discussed whether to pursue it. They decided to cast lots with [runes](/wiki/Runes "Runes"), but without results. [Rimbert](/wiki/Rimbert "Rimbert") then relates that some of the Swedes had heard of the [Christian](/wiki/Christianity "Christianity") faith and they decided to cast lots asking the Christian god about how to proceed. They interpreted the results as full support from the Christian god and decided to attack the town once again.
When the Curonians saw that the Swedes were about to resume their attack, they gave up and offered to the Swedes all the gold, silver, and weapons that they had taken from the Danes the previous year. They also offered to pay half a pound of silver for every man in the town and to resume paying tribute to the Swedes and to give hostages as a warrant for paying. They declared that they wished to be the subjects of the Swedish kings as in former times.
King Olof granted their request, and the Swedes returned home with treasures beyond count and thirty [hostages](/wiki/Hostage "Hostage") as a security for the Curonians' future loyalty.[Vita Ansgari, Chapter 30](https://sourcebooks.fordham.edu/halsall/basis/anskar.asp)
The information in the *Vita* has been tentatively combined with archaeological findings in Latvia. According to the archaeologist [Birger Nerman](/wiki/Birger_Nerman "Birger Nerman") these indicate Swedish presence in the region in c. 650\-800\. Moreover, Nerman discovered arrows and other traces of a 9th century battle in [Apuole](/wiki/Apuole "Apuole"), while Seeburg was identified with [Grobiņa](/wiki/Grobi%C5%86a "Grobiņa") at the coast which has graves which indicate connections with [Gotland](/wiki/Gotland "Gotland") and the [Mälaren Valley](/wiki/M%C3%A4laren_Valley "Mälaren Valley").Nerman, Birger (1945\) *När Sverige kristnades*. Skoglunds. There are nevertheless other interpretations of the place names mentioned in the *Vita*; Apulia might be Pilten at [Ventspils](/wiki/Ventspils "Ventspils") which was also known as Ampule, while Seeburg could be Seleburg at the [Daugava](/wiki/Daugava "Daugava") River.Ansgar (1986\) *Boken om Ansgar*. Stockholm: Proprius, p. 106\.
|
[
"Viking expedition to Courland\n-----------------------------",
"The [Curonians](/wiki/Curonians \"Curonians\") in [Latvia](/wiki/Latvia \"Latvia\") had once been under the Swedish realm. However, they had rebelled against the Swedes a long time ago and refused to pay them [tribute](/wiki/Tribute \"Tribute\"). The Danes, being aware of this, saw the opportunity to take over the Swedish dominions in [Courland](/wiki/Courland \"Courland\"). At the time of Ansgar's second visit to Birka, They marshalled a great fleet and sailed to Courland in order to take over their goods and to make the [Curonians](/wiki/Curonians \"Curonians\") pay tribute to the [Danes](/wiki/Denmark \"Denmark\") instead. The Curonians gathered forces from all five of their towns and butchered half the Danish army, after which they plundered the Danish ships, gaining a great deal of [gold](/wiki/Gold \"Gold\"), [silver](/wiki/Silver \"Silver\"), and other valuables.",
"When the Swedes and King Olof heard of the Danish failure, they decided to win the reputation that the Swedes could do what the Danes could not and to make the Curonians pay tribute again. Consequently, the Swedes gathered an enormous army and attacked Curland. The first town they attacked was called [Seeburg](/wiki/Grobin \"Grobin\"). It had 7,000 armed men, but the town was pillaged, ravaged, and burnt by the Swedes. The Swedes left their ships at the coast and started out on a five\\-day expedition into the hinterland. They reached the town of *Apulia* (probably modern [Apuole](/wiki/Apuole \"Apuole\")). The town had as many as 15,000 armed men.",
"The Swedes stormed the town but it was ferociously defended, and after eight days of battle many men had fallen without result. By the ninth day, the Swedes were weary of the battle and discussed whether to pursue it. They decided to cast lots with [runes](/wiki/Runes \"Runes\"), but without results. [Rimbert](/wiki/Rimbert \"Rimbert\") then relates that some of the Swedes had heard of the [Christian](/wiki/Christianity \"Christianity\") faith and they decided to cast lots asking the Christian god about how to proceed. They interpreted the results as full support from the Christian god and decided to attack the town once again.",
"When the Curonians saw that the Swedes were about to resume their attack, they gave up and offered to the Swedes all the gold, silver, and weapons that they had taken from the Danes the previous year. They also offered to pay half a pound of silver for every man in the town and to resume paying tribute to the Swedes and to give hostages as a warrant for paying. They declared that they wished to be the subjects of the Swedish kings as in former times.",
"King Olof granted their request, and the Swedes returned home with treasures beyond count and thirty [hostages](/wiki/Hostage \"Hostage\") as a security for the Curonians' future loyalty.[Vita Ansgari, Chapter 30](https://sourcebooks.fordham.edu/halsall/basis/anskar.asp)",
"The information in the *Vita* has been tentatively combined with archaeological findings in Latvia. According to the archaeologist [Birger Nerman](/wiki/Birger_Nerman \"Birger Nerman\") these indicate Swedish presence in the region in c. 650\\-800\\. Moreover, Nerman discovered arrows and other traces of a 9th century battle in [Apuole](/wiki/Apuole \"Apuole\"), while Seeburg was identified with [Grobiņa](/wiki/Grobi%C5%86a \"Grobiņa\") at the coast which has graves which indicate connections with [Gotland](/wiki/Gotland \"Gotland\") and the [Mälaren Valley](/wiki/M%C3%A4laren_Valley \"Mälaren Valley\").Nerman, Birger (1945\\) *När Sverige kristnades*. Skoglunds. There are nevertheless other interpretations of the place names mentioned in the *Vita*; Apulia might be Pilten at [Ventspils](/wiki/Ventspils \"Ventspils\") which was also known as Ampule, while Seeburg could be Seleburg at the [Daugava](/wiki/Daugava \"Daugava\") River.Ansgar (1986\\) *Boken om Ansgar*. Stockholm: Proprius, p. 106\\.",
""
] |
Janis Roth
----------
[right\|thumb\|Beacon Rock, where Janis Roth fell to her death](/wiki/File:Beacon_rock.jpg "Beacon rock.jpg")
In early 1981, Randy Roth met Janis Miranda, also a divorced single parent, and they married that March. She had come from an impoverished upbringing in Texas, raised by a mother who labored to support her several children after their alcoholic father abandoned them. Marrying a serviceman, she gave birth to a daughter Jalina while stationed in Germany, but the marriage ended in divorce and Janis took her infant child to the West Coast seeking to begin a new life. Randy insisted on ample life insurance for his new wife as they were buying a house together and he told her he wanted to be able to pay the mortgage if the worst should come to pass. Janis had been extremely excited about her new husband, but after a few months, her friends started to notice that she was acting very strange and wary of everything. Shortly after the wedding, her [Ford Pinto](/wiki/Ford_Pinto "Ford Pinto") vanished and was later discovered in a field with its engine missing. She and Randy collected insurance money from the incident.
On the day after [Thanksgiving](/wiki/Thanksgiving_%28United_States%29 "Thanksgiving (United States)") 1981, Randy Roth took Janis hiking at [Beacon Rock](/wiki/Beacon_Rock_State_Park "Beacon Rock State Park"), where she plummeted to her death. There were no witnesses to the fall besides Roth and the stories he told to others about the incident were contradictory. Police and rescue workers were unable to locate the body for several hours after the fall, and it was later determined that it would have been virtually impossible for her to have fallen from where Roth claimed the accident occurred. Although some suspicion was raised at the time that Roth had pushed his wife, there did not seem to be sufficient evidence to proceed with an arrest and trial. A police detective interviewed Roth in his home two months after Janis's death, but failed to obtain any meaningful information.Richard Seven, ["The Undoing Of Randy Roth – How Detectives Built Their Case Against Killer"](http://community.seattletimes.nwsource.com/archive/?date=19920425&slug=1488350) *The Seattle Times* (April 25, 1992\) Roth arranged the same day to have his wife cremated and filed a claim on her life insurance policy early the next morning, while failing to contact her friends and family and inform them of her death. He also planned to adopt her daughter Jalina, however Janis had already arranged that the girl was to be raised by her family in Texas should something happen to her.
For the next {{frac\|2\|1\|2}} years after Janis's death, Randy Roth devoted himself to working as a mechanic and raising his son. He moved to a new house in Mountlake Terrace, where he befriended his neighbor Ben Goodwin and his family. The Roths and Goodwins remained good friends for most of the following six years, but Randy secretly seduced their teenage daughter, Brittany, with the promise of eventually marrying her when she was 18\. Roth also told numerous fictitious tales of serving in Vietnam, making his brief stint as a Marine Corps file clerk appear as if he had been in action similar to movies like *[Hamburger Hill](/wiki/Hamburger_Hill "Hamburger Hill")*. Ben Goodwin, who was a Vietnam vet, became suspicious of Roth's stories. The latter never told his age to anyone, but Goodwin was skeptical that he'd really served in Vietnam.
Roth also upset the Goodwins with his harsh discipline of Gregg and after their son Ryan informed school counselors, he was put on probation by Child Protective Services for six months.
In 1985, Roth married twenty\-one\-year old Donna Clift, another divorced mother with a small child. Donna had gotten pregnant with her daughter, Brittany, while still in high school. Donna and Brittany's father married, but the marriage fell apart, and she moved from her native Arizona to Washington. Randy quickly talked her into marrying him, but as usual didn't tell her his age or much about his life beyond various contradictory stories. He upset Donna by playing various mean\-spirited jokes on her 3\-year\-old daughter and becoming cold and aloof after the honeymoon. When Roth proposed adopting Brittany and becoming her legal guardian, Donna refused. While he wasn't home, she looked at some of his personal documents and tax returns in an effort to find out whatever secrets he was keeping from her. After only three months, their marriage ended when a family rafting trip on the Skykomish River ended in disaster. Randy went out with Donna alone on an inflatable raft, which he attempted to steer through the rapids into sharp rocks. A terrified Donna immediately filed for divorce afterwards.
Not long afterwards, he befriended Mary Jo Phillips, a divorced mother of three children. Roth became engaged to her, but abruptly broke it off when he found that she'd been treated for cancer once before and wasn't insurable.
|
[
"Janis Roth\n----------",
"[right\\|thumb\\|Beacon Rock, where Janis Roth fell to her death](/wiki/File:Beacon_rock.jpg \"Beacon rock.jpg\")\nIn early 1981, Randy Roth met Janis Miranda, also a divorced single parent, and they married that March. She had come from an impoverished upbringing in Texas, raised by a mother who labored to support her several children after their alcoholic father abandoned them. Marrying a serviceman, she gave birth to a daughter Jalina while stationed in Germany, but the marriage ended in divorce and Janis took her infant child to the West Coast seeking to begin a new life. Randy insisted on ample life insurance for his new wife as they were buying a house together and he told her he wanted to be able to pay the mortgage if the worst should come to pass. Janis had been extremely excited about her new husband, but after a few months, her friends started to notice that she was acting very strange and wary of everything. Shortly after the wedding, her [Ford Pinto](/wiki/Ford_Pinto \"Ford Pinto\") vanished and was later discovered in a field with its engine missing. She and Randy collected insurance money from the incident.",
"On the day after [Thanksgiving](/wiki/Thanksgiving_%28United_States%29 \"Thanksgiving (United States)\") 1981, Randy Roth took Janis hiking at [Beacon Rock](/wiki/Beacon_Rock_State_Park \"Beacon Rock State Park\"), where she plummeted to her death. There were no witnesses to the fall besides Roth and the stories he told to others about the incident were contradictory. Police and rescue workers were unable to locate the body for several hours after the fall, and it was later determined that it would have been virtually impossible for her to have fallen from where Roth claimed the accident occurred. Although some suspicion was raised at the time that Roth had pushed his wife, there did not seem to be sufficient evidence to proceed with an arrest and trial. A police detective interviewed Roth in his home two months after Janis's death, but failed to obtain any meaningful information.Richard Seven, [\"The Undoing Of Randy Roth – How Detectives Built Their Case Against Killer\"](http://community.seattletimes.nwsource.com/archive/?date=19920425&slug=1488350) *The Seattle Times* (April 25, 1992\\) Roth arranged the same day to have his wife cremated and filed a claim on her life insurance policy early the next morning, while failing to contact her friends and family and inform them of her death. He also planned to adopt her daughter Jalina, however Janis had already arranged that the girl was to be raised by her family in Texas should something happen to her.",
"For the next {{frac\\|2\\|1\\|2}} years after Janis's death, Randy Roth devoted himself to working as a mechanic and raising his son. He moved to a new house in Mountlake Terrace, where he befriended his neighbor Ben Goodwin and his family. The Roths and Goodwins remained good friends for most of the following six years, but Randy secretly seduced their teenage daughter, Brittany, with the promise of eventually marrying her when she was 18\\. Roth also told numerous fictitious tales of serving in Vietnam, making his brief stint as a Marine Corps file clerk appear as if he had been in action similar to movies like *[Hamburger Hill](/wiki/Hamburger_Hill \"Hamburger Hill\")*. Ben Goodwin, who was a Vietnam vet, became suspicious of Roth's stories. The latter never told his age to anyone, but Goodwin was skeptical that he'd really served in Vietnam.",
"Roth also upset the Goodwins with his harsh discipline of Gregg and after their son Ryan informed school counselors, he was put on probation by Child Protective Services for six months.",
"In 1985, Roth married twenty\\-one\\-year old Donna Clift, another divorced mother with a small child. Donna had gotten pregnant with her daughter, Brittany, while still in high school. Donna and Brittany's father married, but the marriage fell apart, and she moved from her native Arizona to Washington. Randy quickly talked her into marrying him, but as usual didn't tell her his age or much about his life beyond various contradictory stories. He upset Donna by playing various mean\\-spirited jokes on her 3\\-year\\-old daughter and becoming cold and aloof after the honeymoon. When Roth proposed adopting Brittany and becoming her legal guardian, Donna refused. While he wasn't home, she looked at some of his personal documents and tax returns in an effort to find out whatever secrets he was keeping from her. After only three months, their marriage ended when a family rafting trip on the Skykomish River ended in disaster. Randy went out with Donna alone on an inflatable raft, which he attempted to steer through the rapids into sharp rocks. A terrified Donna immediately filed for divorce afterwards.",
"Not long afterwards, he befriended Mary Jo Phillips, a divorced mother of three children. Roth became engaged to her, but abruptly broke it off when he found that she'd been treated for cancer once before and wasn't insurable.",
""
] |
Investigation
-------------
[thumb\|right\|Investigators for both the prosecution and the defense repeatedly visited Lake Sammamish and recorded multiple attempts to recreate the conditions described by Roth's account of the drowning. Both sides used their own videotaped recreations during the trial.](/wiki/File:Lake_Sammamish_from_Marymoor_Park.jpg "Lake Sammamish from Marymoor Park.jpg")
Detectives and prosecutors assigned to the case knew from the beginning it would be difficult to secure a conviction. There was no physical evidence that Roth had forcibly drowned his wife and no eyewitnesses who actually saw him do so. They proceeded methodically, interviewing the families of his previous wives along with former friends and neighbors. They began to uncover evidence that Roth's motive was primarily financial, and that he had repeatedly attempted to defraud insurance companies and had stolen from his employers and nearly every job he had ever held. The investigators came to the conclusion that Randy Roth wanted a much more lavish lifestyle than he could afford on a mechanic's income, with expensive homes, multiple cars, and various other expensive toys for himself and his son. Roth's tax returns over the last decade showed that he typically averaged $20,000\-$30,000 in annual income, well below what was needed for his lifestyle and that most of his money had come from insurance payments. He had discovered a talent for seducing single mothers with money, then disposing of them to fund his lifestyle. Lori Baker, a long time friend of Cynthia's, discovered that her will and other possessions were missing from her safe deposit box, and that Randy Roth was the last person to have accessed the box, two days after Cynthia's death. A second copy of the will was discovered in the county recording office. Roth had planned to adopt Cynthia's sons and raise them as his own while also collecting survivor's benefits for them and he was surprised and outraged to learn that she'd named Lori Baker as the legal guardian of them in the event of her death. When Baker came to collect the children's belongings, Roth let them into the house only reluctantly, would not let them take some of their possessions and proceeded to rant about how they'd "ruined" his scenario and he wouldn't have enough money to keep up his house payments. Had his scheme worked, he would have been financially set for life, collecting a huge insurance payment from Cynthia's death, plus survivor's benefits for both her sons, and would likely never need to work again. He could spend all his free time buying, selling, and fixing cars, and racing.
Shortly after Tyson and Rylie went to live with Lori Baker, Roth put the Woodinville home back on the market at a lower price than he'd paid for it, in an apparent desire to unload it as quickly as possible.
Speaking to investigators, Lori Baker talked about the safe deposit box and Cynthia's depressed, diminished personality in the final months of her life. She talked of divorcing Roth, but Baker said she would have never carried through on it because of her religious beliefs. After Tyson and Rylie moved in with her, she also learned for the first time about Roth's shockingly harsh parenting tactics, which Cynthia had never told her about. He regularly spanked the boys and Gregg with a belt, or would force them to perform dozens of squat thrusts if they misbehaved, even making them stand outside in their underwear during wintertime and kneel on gravel. He also had them watch graphic war movies like *[Hamburger Hill](/wiki/Hamburger_Hill "Hamburger Hill")* and *[Full Metal Jacket](/wiki/Full_Metal_Jacket "Full Metal Jacket")*.
When the investigators talked to the boys themselves, they confirmed Roth's harsh punishments and also admitted that they'd seen him stealing items from Bill Pierre Ford numerous times. They said that he had sometimes been good to them and did fun things, but if given a choice, they really didn't want to continue living with him and that he'd not shown much of any emotion at their mother's death. He also started getting rid of Cynthia's belongings the day after her death and urged them to not be upset over anything.
Roth was not happy at learning that he wouldn't get custody of Tyson and Rylie and when the latter showed up with Lori Baker to collect theirs and Cynthia's belongings, he only grudgingly let them into the house. He became angrier and angrier as their visit progressed and wouldn't let the boys take some of their things. Whatever they did get from Roth had been jammed into trash bags and in many cases crushed and damaged.
Meanwhile, the Goodwins told investigators about Roth's having seduced their daughter and of a staged burglary he'd conducted on his own house in 1988 for insurance money, but had told nobody about this before because they were afraid of him. Roth had also carried on an affair with his son's babysitter for years, but her husband did nothing either for the same reason.
Talks with Roth's co\-workers from Bill Pierre Ford found that he'd been in the habit of telling them exceptionally cruel things about Cynthia and that he referred to their marriage as merely a "contract" he planned to do away with on their first anniversary.
Investigators also revisited the death of Janis Roth ten years earlier and met with the detectives on that case, who had basically found themselves in the same situation. Roth's story had not quite made sense, he had not seemed like he was particularly upset that his wife was dead, but there was no direct evidence of foul play and the body had been speedily cremated.
Given the apparent pattern and the volume of witnesses to other criminal behaviors they were able to convince a judge to issue warrants for the arrest of Roth and a search of his home in [Woodinville](/wiki/Woodinville%2C_Washington "Woodinville, Washington"). While conducting the search [King County](/wiki/King_County%2C_Washington "King County, Washington") detectives uncovered numerous pieces of evidence of several crimes and other dishonest acts. There were large amounts of equipment and materials belonging to the automotive dealership where Roth was employed. He had a large collection of military uniforms, plaques, medals, magazines, and books about the Vietnam War, some of which had fresh receipts from stores where he'd purchased them. A [wetsuit](/wiki/Wetsuit "Wetsuit") was found in a closet, an odd item for someone claiming to be a weak swimmer to possess. There were no firearms in the house, but Roth had a closet full of Japanese throwing stars, nunchucks, knives, and homemade weapons such as baseball bats with nails driven into them. Although he'd often told women he had a vasectomy and found sex painful, the investigative team found several packages of condoms and sex\-themed magazines. Cynthia's belongings had been stuffed in trash bags, including various family photos. Most of her decorative touches were removed from the house and thrown away as well. A poem written by Cynthia Roth was found in the garage. It began with the words "Randy does not 'love' Cindy, Randy hates Cindy" and went on to detail 44 complaints and criticisms Roth had directed at her regarding her appearance, appetite and sense of style. There was also a note she'd written to remind Roth of a local clinic holding PTSD therapy sessions for veterans, as she, like all of his wives, believed that he was suffering psychological distress from serving in Vietnam.Richard Seven, ["Cynthia Roth Spilled Marriage Frustration In Note – Entries Include 44 Things Husband \`Hated' About Her"](http://community.seattletimes.nwsource.com/archive/?date=19920418&slug=1487092) *The Seattle Times* (April 18, 1992\) Investigators also discovered that Roth had telephoned a friend just after being arrested and the friend had already removed further evidence at his behest.
Several reenactments undertaken at Lake Sammamish determined that it was virtually impossible to generate sufficient [wake](/wiki/Wake_%28physics%29 "Wake (physics)") to flip the raft used by the Roths with type of powerboat used on the day of the drowning. They also found that the items Roth claimed to have recovered from the lake after the drowning but before heading to shore would have sunk rapidly if they had actually fallen from the boat. They learned about his brother David's murder conviction and they found out about Roth's previous conviction for robbery in 1973\. They discovered that he had tried to claim survivors' benefits for Janis' daughter although she was not living with him and that he had tried to "double dip", to claim benefits for his own son after Cynthia's death, even though he was already receiving them on behalf of Janis. He had lied to the interviewer at the Social Security office about Cynthia, claiming she had divorced her first husband. All of these inconsistencies and dishonest acts would be of use to prosecutors at the trial.Richard Seven, ["Roth's Credibility Under Attack – Cross\-Examination Begins In Murder Trial"](http://community.seattletimes.nwsource.com/archive/?date=19920414&slug=1486330) *The Seattle Times* (April 14, 1992\)
|
[
"Investigation\n-------------",
"[thumb\\|right\\|Investigators for both the prosecution and the defense repeatedly visited Lake Sammamish and recorded multiple attempts to recreate the conditions described by Roth's account of the drowning. Both sides used their own videotaped recreations during the trial.](/wiki/File:Lake_Sammamish_from_Marymoor_Park.jpg \"Lake Sammamish from Marymoor Park.jpg\")\nDetectives and prosecutors assigned to the case knew from the beginning it would be difficult to secure a conviction. There was no physical evidence that Roth had forcibly drowned his wife and no eyewitnesses who actually saw him do so. They proceeded methodically, interviewing the families of his previous wives along with former friends and neighbors. They began to uncover evidence that Roth's motive was primarily financial, and that he had repeatedly attempted to defraud insurance companies and had stolen from his employers and nearly every job he had ever held. The investigators came to the conclusion that Randy Roth wanted a much more lavish lifestyle than he could afford on a mechanic's income, with expensive homes, multiple cars, and various other expensive toys for himself and his son. Roth's tax returns over the last decade showed that he typically averaged $20,000\\-$30,000 in annual income, well below what was needed for his lifestyle and that most of his money had come from insurance payments. He had discovered a talent for seducing single mothers with money, then disposing of them to fund his lifestyle. Lori Baker, a long time friend of Cynthia's, discovered that her will and other possessions were missing from her safe deposit box, and that Randy Roth was the last person to have accessed the box, two days after Cynthia's death. A second copy of the will was discovered in the county recording office. Roth had planned to adopt Cynthia's sons and raise them as his own while also collecting survivor's benefits for them and he was surprised and outraged to learn that she'd named Lori Baker as the legal guardian of them in the event of her death. When Baker came to collect the children's belongings, Roth let them into the house only reluctantly, would not let them take some of their possessions and proceeded to rant about how they'd \"ruined\" his scenario and he wouldn't have enough money to keep up his house payments. Had his scheme worked, he would have been financially set for life, collecting a huge insurance payment from Cynthia's death, plus survivor's benefits for both her sons, and would likely never need to work again. He could spend all his free time buying, selling, and fixing cars, and racing.",
"Shortly after Tyson and Rylie went to live with Lori Baker, Roth put the Woodinville home back on the market at a lower price than he'd paid for it, in an apparent desire to unload it as quickly as possible.",
"Speaking to investigators, Lori Baker talked about the safe deposit box and Cynthia's depressed, diminished personality in the final months of her life. She talked of divorcing Roth, but Baker said she would have never carried through on it because of her religious beliefs. After Tyson and Rylie moved in with her, she also learned for the first time about Roth's shockingly harsh parenting tactics, which Cynthia had never told her about. He regularly spanked the boys and Gregg with a belt, or would force them to perform dozens of squat thrusts if they misbehaved, even making them stand outside in their underwear during wintertime and kneel on gravel. He also had them watch graphic war movies like *[Hamburger Hill](/wiki/Hamburger_Hill \"Hamburger Hill\")* and *[Full Metal Jacket](/wiki/Full_Metal_Jacket \"Full Metal Jacket\")*.",
"When the investigators talked to the boys themselves, they confirmed Roth's harsh punishments and also admitted that they'd seen him stealing items from Bill Pierre Ford numerous times. They said that he had sometimes been good to them and did fun things, but if given a choice, they really didn't want to continue living with him and that he'd not shown much of any emotion at their mother's death. He also started getting rid of Cynthia's belongings the day after her death and urged them to not be upset over anything.",
"Roth was not happy at learning that he wouldn't get custody of Tyson and Rylie and when the latter showed up with Lori Baker to collect theirs and Cynthia's belongings, he only grudgingly let them into the house. He became angrier and angrier as their visit progressed and wouldn't let the boys take some of their things. Whatever they did get from Roth had been jammed into trash bags and in many cases crushed and damaged.",
"Meanwhile, the Goodwins told investigators about Roth's having seduced their daughter and of a staged burglary he'd conducted on his own house in 1988 for insurance money, but had told nobody about this before because they were afraid of him. Roth had also carried on an affair with his son's babysitter for years, but her husband did nothing either for the same reason.",
"Talks with Roth's co\\-workers from Bill Pierre Ford found that he'd been in the habit of telling them exceptionally cruel things about Cynthia and that he referred to their marriage as merely a \"contract\" he planned to do away with on their first anniversary.",
"Investigators also revisited the death of Janis Roth ten years earlier and met with the detectives on that case, who had basically found themselves in the same situation. Roth's story had not quite made sense, he had not seemed like he was particularly upset that his wife was dead, but there was no direct evidence of foul play and the body had been speedily cremated.",
"Given the apparent pattern and the volume of witnesses to other criminal behaviors they were able to convince a judge to issue warrants for the arrest of Roth and a search of his home in [Woodinville](/wiki/Woodinville%2C_Washington \"Woodinville, Washington\"). While conducting the search [King County](/wiki/King_County%2C_Washington \"King County, Washington\") detectives uncovered numerous pieces of evidence of several crimes and other dishonest acts. There were large amounts of equipment and materials belonging to the automotive dealership where Roth was employed. He had a large collection of military uniforms, plaques, medals, magazines, and books about the Vietnam War, some of which had fresh receipts from stores where he'd purchased them. A [wetsuit](/wiki/Wetsuit \"Wetsuit\") was found in a closet, an odd item for someone claiming to be a weak swimmer to possess. There were no firearms in the house, but Roth had a closet full of Japanese throwing stars, nunchucks, knives, and homemade weapons such as baseball bats with nails driven into them. Although he'd often told women he had a vasectomy and found sex painful, the investigative team found several packages of condoms and sex\\-themed magazines. Cynthia's belongings had been stuffed in trash bags, including various family photos. Most of her decorative touches were removed from the house and thrown away as well. A poem written by Cynthia Roth was found in the garage. It began with the words \"Randy does not 'love' Cindy, Randy hates Cindy\" and went on to detail 44 complaints and criticisms Roth had directed at her regarding her appearance, appetite and sense of style. There was also a note she'd written to remind Roth of a local clinic holding PTSD therapy sessions for veterans, as she, like all of his wives, believed that he was suffering psychological distress from serving in Vietnam.Richard Seven, [\"Cynthia Roth Spilled Marriage Frustration In Note – Entries Include 44 Things Husband \\`Hated' About Her\"](http://community.seattletimes.nwsource.com/archive/?date=19920418&slug=1487092) *The Seattle Times* (April 18, 1992\\) Investigators also discovered that Roth had telephoned a friend just after being arrested and the friend had already removed further evidence at his behest.",
"Several reenactments undertaken at Lake Sammamish determined that it was virtually impossible to generate sufficient [wake](/wiki/Wake_%28physics%29 \"Wake (physics)\") to flip the raft used by the Roths with type of powerboat used on the day of the drowning. They also found that the items Roth claimed to have recovered from the lake after the drowning but before heading to shore would have sunk rapidly if they had actually fallen from the boat. They learned about his brother David's murder conviction and they found out about Roth's previous conviction for robbery in 1973\\. They discovered that he had tried to claim survivors' benefits for Janis' daughter although she was not living with him and that he had tried to \"double dip\", to claim benefits for his own son after Cynthia's death, even though he was already receiving them on behalf of Janis. He had lied to the interviewer at the Social Security office about Cynthia, claiming she had divorced her first husband. All of these inconsistencies and dishonest acts would be of use to prosecutors at the trial.Richard Seven, [\"Roth's Credibility Under Attack – Cross\\-Examination Begins In Murder Trial\"](http://community.seattletimes.nwsource.com/archive/?date=19920414&slug=1486330) *The Seattle Times* (April 14, 1992\\)",
""
] |
Demographics
------------
About 73% of the city's inhabitants are ethnically non\-Hispanic white;{{Cite web \|title\=U.S. Census Bureau QuickFacts: Atherton town, California \|url\=https://www.census.gov/quickfacts/athertontowncalifornia \|access\-date\=October 16, 2022 \|website\=www.census.gov \|language\=en}} this makes it among the least ethnically diverse cities in Silicon Valley.{{r\|TMN 2022\-08\-19}}{{US Census population
\|1930\= 1324
\|1940\= 1908
\|1950\= 3630
\|1960\= 7717
\|1970\= 8085
\|1980\= 7797
\|1990\= 7163
\|2000\= 7194
\|2010\= 6914
\|2020\= 7188
\|footnote\=U.S. Decennial Census{{cite web\|url\=https://www.census.gov/programs\-surveys/decennial\-census.html\|title\=Census of Population and Housing\|publisher\=Census.gov\|access\-date\=June 4, 2015 }}
}}
### 2010
At the [2010 census](/wiki/2010_United_States_Census "2010 United States Census") Atherton had a population of 6,914\. The population density was {{convert\|1,369\.5\|PD/sqmi\|PD/km2\|sp\=us\|adj\=off}}. The racial makeup of Atherton was 5,565 (80\.5%) White, 75 (1\.1%) African American, 7 (0\.1%) Native American, 911 (13\.2%) Asian, 45 (0\.7%) Pacific Islander, 95 (1\.4%) from other races, and 216 (3\.1%) from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 268 people (3\.9%).{{cite web\|url\=http://www.census.gov/2010census/popmap/ipmtext.php?fl\=06:0603092\|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20140715023338/http://www.census.gov/2010census/popmap/ipmtext.php?fl\=06:0603092\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-date\=July 15, 2014\|title\=2010 Census Interactive Population Search: CA \- Atherton town\|publisher\=U.S. Census Bureau\|access\-date\=July 12, 2014}}
The census reported that 6,529 people (94\.4% of the population) lived in households, 385 (5\.6%) lived in non\-institutionalized group quarters, and no one was institutionalized.
There were 2,330 households, 787 (33\.8%) had children under the age of 18 living in them, 1,755 (75\.3%) were [opposite\-sex married couples](/wiki/Marriage "Marriage") living together, 109 (4\.7%) had a female householder with no husband present, 48 (2\.1%) had a male householder with no wife present. There were 34 (1\.5%) [unmarried opposite\-sex partnerships](/wiki/POSSLQ "POSSLQ"), and 15 (0\.6%) [same\-sex married couples or partnerships](/wiki/Same-sex_partnerships "Same-sex partnerships"). 321 households (13\.8%) were one person and 178 (7\.6%) had someone living alone who was 65 or older. The average household size was 2\.80\. There were 1,912 families (82\.1% of households); the average family size was 3\.03\.
The age distribution was 1,543 people (22\.3%) under the age of 18, 579 people (8\.4%) aged 18 to 24, 966 people (14\.0%) aged 25 to 44, 2,264 people (32\.7%) aged 45 to 64, and 1,562 people (22\.6%) who were 65 or older. The median age was 48\.2 years. For every 100 females, there were 96\.6 males. For every 100 women age 18 and over, there were 95\.3 men.
The median household income was in excess of $250,000, the highest of any place in the United States.{{cite web \| title\= Highest Income Per Household In The United States By City \| url\= http://www.biggestuscities.com/demographics/us/income\-per\-household\-by\-city \| access\-date\= November 2, 2013 \| archive\-url\= https://web.archive.org/web/20140627050346/http://www.biggestuscities.com/demographics/us/income\-per\-household\-by\-city \| archive\-date\= June 27, 2014 \| url\-status\= dead }} The per capita income for the town was $128,816\. About 2\.9% of families and 5\.1% of the population were below the [poverty line](/wiki/Poverty_line "Poverty line"), including 5\.6% of those under age 18 and 5\.4% of those age 65 or over.
There were 2,530 housing units at an average density of 501\.1 per square mile, of the occupied units 2,116 (90\.8%) were owner\-occupied and 214 (9\.2%) were rented. The homeowner vacancy rate was 1\.6%; the rental vacancy rate was 3\.9%. 5,921 people (85\.6% of the population) lived in owner\-occupied housing units and 608 people (8\.8%) lived in rental housing units.
*[Forbes](/wiki/Forbes "Forbes")* ranked Atherton as second on its list of America's Most Expensive ZIP Codes in 2010, listing median house price as over $2,000,000\.{{cite news \|last\=Levy \|first\=Francesca \|date\=September 27, 2010 \|title\=America's Most Expensive ZIP Codes \|work\=Forbes \|url\=https://www.forbes.com/2010/09/27/most\-expensive\-zip\-codes\-2010\-lifestyle\-real\-estate\-zip\-codes\-10\-intro\_slide\_3\.html}}
### 2020
At the [2020 census](/wiki/2020_United_States_Census "2020 United States Census"), Atherton had a population of 7,193 and 2,252 households, and the homeowner vacancy rate was 0%. The population density was {{convert\|1424\.3\|PD/sqmi\|PD/km2\|sp\=us\|adj\=off}}.
There was an average 2\.94 people per household, 89\.2% of homes were owner occupied and 10\.8% were renter occupied. The racial makeup of Atherton was 5,403 (75%) White, 1,655 (23%) Asian, 124 (1\.7%) African American, 18 (0\.3%) Native American, 107 (1\.5%) Pacific Islander, 3\.2% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 540 (7\.5%) people.
The median age was 49\. For every 100 females there were 100\.1 men.
The age distribution was 1,472 people (20\.5%) under the age of 18, 862 people (5\.6%) aged 18 to 24, 932 people (12\.9%) aged 25 to 44, 2,123 (29\.5%) aged 45–64 and 1,813 people (25\.2%) over the age of 65\.
Median income for a household was over $250,000\. Males had a median income $102,192 versus $53,882 for females. About 1\.1% of families and 2\.6% of the population were below the poverty line, including 0\.5% of those under the age of 18 and 1\.1% of those 65 years or over.{{cite web \|title\=QuickFacts: Atherton town, California \|url\=https://www.census.gov/quickfacts/athertontowncalifornia \|publisher\=\[\[United States Census]] \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220818224211/https://www.census.gov/quickfacts/athertontowncalifornia \|archive\-date\=August 18, 2022}}{{cite web \|title\=Explore Census Data \|url\=https://data.census.gov/table?q\=94027\&y\=2020\&tid\=ACSDP5Y2020\.DP05 \|website\=data.census.gov \|publisher\=United States Census \|access\-date\=November 23, 2022}}
Property Shark ranked Atherton first for the fourth year in a row as the most expensive ZIP code in the United States in 2022, with the median home price at $7,900,000\.{{cite web \|last1\=Richardson \|first1\=Brenda \|title\=The 10 Most Expensive Zip Codes For Buying A Home \|url\=https://www.forbes.com/sites/brendarichardson/2020/11/29/the\-10\-most\-expensive\-zip\-codes\-for\-buying\-a\-home/?sh\=35eb73982a92 \|website\=Forbes \|access\-date\=November 23, 2022 \|language\=en}}{{cite web \|title\=Top 100 Most Expensive U.S. Zip Codes: 2022 Shatters Last Year's Records with 14 Zip Codes Surpassing $4 Million Median \|url\=https://www.propertyshark.com/Real\-Estate\-Reports/most\-expensive\-zip\-codes\-in\-the\-us/\#For\_the\_full\_list\_of\_2022s\_top\_100\_most\_expensive\_zip\_codes\_in\_the\_US\_explore\_the\_interactive\_table\_below \|website\=PropertyShark Real Estate Blog \|access\-date\=November 23, 2022 \|date\=November 15, 2022}}
|
[
"Demographics\n------------",
"About 73% of the city's inhabitants are ethnically non\\-Hispanic white;{{Cite web \\|title\\=U.S. Census Bureau QuickFacts: Atherton town, California \\|url\\=https://www.census.gov/quickfacts/athertontowncalifornia \\|access\\-date\\=October 16, 2022 \\|website\\=www.census.gov \\|language\\=en}} this makes it among the least ethnically diverse cities in Silicon Valley.{{r\\|TMN 2022\\-08\\-19}}{{US Census population\n\\|1930\\= 1324\n\\|1940\\= 1908\n\\|1950\\= 3630\n\\|1960\\= 7717\n\\|1970\\= 8085\n\\|1980\\= 7797\n\\|1990\\= 7163\n\\|2000\\= 7194\n\\|2010\\= 6914\n\\|2020\\= 7188\n\\|footnote\\=U.S. Decennial Census{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.census.gov/programs\\-surveys/decennial\\-census.html\\|title\\=Census of Population and Housing\\|publisher\\=Census.gov\\|access\\-date\\=June 4, 2015 }}\n}}",
"### 2010",
"At the [2010 census](/wiki/2010_United_States_Census \"2010 United States Census\") Atherton had a population of 6,914\\. The population density was {{convert\\|1,369\\.5\\|PD/sqmi\\|PD/km2\\|sp\\=us\\|adj\\=off}}. The racial makeup of Atherton was 5,565 (80\\.5%) White, 75 (1\\.1%) African American, 7 (0\\.1%) Native American, 911 (13\\.2%) Asian, 45 (0\\.7%) Pacific Islander, 95 (1\\.4%) from other races, and 216 (3\\.1%) from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 268 people (3\\.9%).{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.census.gov/2010census/popmap/ipmtext.php?fl\\=06:0603092\\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20140715023338/http://www.census.gov/2010census/popmap/ipmtext.php?fl\\=06:0603092\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-date\\=July 15, 2014\\|title\\=2010 Census Interactive Population Search: CA \\- Atherton town\\|publisher\\=U.S. Census Bureau\\|access\\-date\\=July 12, 2014}}",
"The census reported that 6,529 people (94\\.4% of the population) lived in households, 385 (5\\.6%) lived in non\\-institutionalized group quarters, and no one was institutionalized.",
"There were 2,330 households, 787 (33\\.8%) had children under the age of 18 living in them, 1,755 (75\\.3%) were [opposite\\-sex married couples](/wiki/Marriage \"Marriage\") living together, 109 (4\\.7%) had a female householder with no husband present, 48 (2\\.1%) had a male householder with no wife present. There were 34 (1\\.5%) [unmarried opposite\\-sex partnerships](/wiki/POSSLQ \"POSSLQ\"), and 15 (0\\.6%) [same\\-sex married couples or partnerships](/wiki/Same-sex_partnerships \"Same-sex partnerships\"). 321 households (13\\.8%) were one person and 178 (7\\.6%) had someone living alone who was 65 or older. The average household size was 2\\.80\\. There were 1,912 families (82\\.1% of households); the average family size was 3\\.03\\.",
"The age distribution was 1,543 people (22\\.3%) under the age of 18, 579 people (8\\.4%) aged 18 to 24, 966 people (14\\.0%) aged 25 to 44, 2,264 people (32\\.7%) aged 45 to 64, and 1,562 people (22\\.6%) who were 65 or older. The median age was 48\\.2 years. For every 100 females, there were 96\\.6 males. For every 100 women age 18 and over, there were 95\\.3 men.",
"The median household income was in excess of $250,000, the highest of any place in the United States.{{cite web \\| title\\= Highest Income Per Household In The United States By City \\| url\\= http://www.biggestuscities.com/demographics/us/income\\-per\\-household\\-by\\-city \\| access\\-date\\= November 2, 2013 \\| archive\\-url\\= https://web.archive.org/web/20140627050346/http://www.biggestuscities.com/demographics/us/income\\-per\\-household\\-by\\-city \\| archive\\-date\\= June 27, 2014 \\| url\\-status\\= dead }} The per capita income for the town was $128,816\\. About 2\\.9% of families and 5\\.1% of the population were below the [poverty line](/wiki/Poverty_line \"Poverty line\"), including 5\\.6% of those under age 18 and 5\\.4% of those age 65 or over.",
"There were 2,530 housing units at an average density of 501\\.1 per square mile, of the occupied units 2,116 (90\\.8%) were owner\\-occupied and 214 (9\\.2%) were rented. The homeowner vacancy rate was 1\\.6%; the rental vacancy rate was 3\\.9%. 5,921 people (85\\.6% of the population) lived in owner\\-occupied housing units and 608 people (8\\.8%) lived in rental housing units.",
"*[Forbes](/wiki/Forbes \"Forbes\")* ranked Atherton as second on its list of America's Most Expensive ZIP Codes in 2010, listing median house price as over $2,000,000\\.{{cite news \\|last\\=Levy \\|first\\=Francesca \\|date\\=September 27, 2010 \\|title\\=America's Most Expensive ZIP Codes \\|work\\=Forbes \\|url\\=https://www.forbes.com/2010/09/27/most\\-expensive\\-zip\\-codes\\-2010\\-lifestyle\\-real\\-estate\\-zip\\-codes\\-10\\-intro\\_slide\\_3\\.html}}",
"### 2020",
"At the [2020 census](/wiki/2020_United_States_Census \"2020 United States Census\"), Atherton had a population of 7,193 and 2,252 households, and the homeowner vacancy rate was 0%. The population density was {{convert\\|1424\\.3\\|PD/sqmi\\|PD/km2\\|sp\\=us\\|adj\\=off}}.",
"There was an average 2\\.94 people per household, 89\\.2% of homes were owner occupied and 10\\.8% were renter occupied. The racial makeup of Atherton was 5,403 (75%) White, 1,655 (23%) Asian, 124 (1\\.7%) African American, 18 (0\\.3%) Native American, 107 (1\\.5%) Pacific Islander, 3\\.2% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 540 (7\\.5%) people. \nThe median age was 49\\. For every 100 females there were 100\\.1 men.",
"The age distribution was 1,472 people (20\\.5%) under the age of 18, 862 people (5\\.6%) aged 18 to 24, 932 people (12\\.9%) aged 25 to 44, 2,123 (29\\.5%) aged 45–64 and 1,813 people (25\\.2%) over the age of 65\\.",
"Median income for a household was over $250,000\\. Males had a median income $102,192 versus $53,882 for females. About 1\\.1% of families and 2\\.6% of the population were below the poverty line, including 0\\.5% of those under the age of 18 and 1\\.1% of those 65 years or over.{{cite web \\|title\\=QuickFacts: Atherton town, California \\|url\\=https://www.census.gov/quickfacts/athertontowncalifornia \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[United States Census]] \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220818224211/https://www.census.gov/quickfacts/athertontowncalifornia \\|archive\\-date\\=August 18, 2022}}{{cite web \\|title\\=Explore Census Data \\|url\\=https://data.census.gov/table?q\\=94027\\&y\\=2020\\&tid\\=ACSDP5Y2020\\.DP05 \\|website\\=data.census.gov \\|publisher\\=United States Census \\|access\\-date\\=November 23, 2022}}",
"Property Shark ranked Atherton first for the fourth year in a row as the most expensive ZIP code in the United States in 2022, with the median home price at $7,900,000\\.{{cite web \\|last1\\=Richardson \\|first1\\=Brenda \\|title\\=The 10 Most Expensive Zip Codes For Buying A Home \\|url\\=https://www.forbes.com/sites/brendarichardson/2020/11/29/the\\-10\\-most\\-expensive\\-zip\\-codes\\-for\\-buying\\-a\\-home/?sh\\=35eb73982a92 \\|website\\=Forbes \\|access\\-date\\=November 23, 2022 \\|language\\=en}}{{cite web \\|title\\=Top 100 Most Expensive U.S. Zip Codes: 2022 Shatters Last Year's Records with 14 Zip Codes Surpassing $4 Million Median \\|url\\=https://www.propertyshark.com/Real\\-Estate\\-Reports/most\\-expensive\\-zip\\-codes\\-in\\-the\\-us/\\#For\\_the\\_full\\_list\\_of\\_2022s\\_top\\_100\\_most\\_expensive\\_zip\\_codes\\_in\\_the\\_US\\_explore\\_the\\_interactive\\_table\\_below \\|website\\=PropertyShark Real Estate Blog \\|access\\-date\\=November 23, 2022 \\|date\\=November 15, 2022}}",
""
] |
### 2010
At the [2010 census](/wiki/2010_United_States_Census "2010 United States Census") Atherton had a population of 6,914\. The population density was {{convert\|1,369\.5\|PD/sqmi\|PD/km2\|sp\=us\|adj\=off}}. The racial makeup of Atherton was 5,565 (80\.5%) White, 75 (1\.1%) African American, 7 (0\.1%) Native American, 911 (13\.2%) Asian, 45 (0\.7%) Pacific Islander, 95 (1\.4%) from other races, and 216 (3\.1%) from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 268 people (3\.9%).{{cite web\|url\=http://www.census.gov/2010census/popmap/ipmtext.php?fl\=06:0603092\|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20140715023338/http://www.census.gov/2010census/popmap/ipmtext.php?fl\=06:0603092\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-date\=July 15, 2014\|title\=2010 Census Interactive Population Search: CA \- Atherton town\|publisher\=U.S. Census Bureau\|access\-date\=July 12, 2014}}
The census reported that 6,529 people (94\.4% of the population) lived in households, 385 (5\.6%) lived in non\-institutionalized group quarters, and no one was institutionalized.
There were 2,330 households, 787 (33\.8%) had children under the age of 18 living in them, 1,755 (75\.3%) were [opposite\-sex married couples](/wiki/Marriage "Marriage") living together, 109 (4\.7%) had a female householder with no husband present, 48 (2\.1%) had a male householder with no wife present. There were 34 (1\.5%) [unmarried opposite\-sex partnerships](/wiki/POSSLQ "POSSLQ"), and 15 (0\.6%) [same\-sex married couples or partnerships](/wiki/Same-sex_partnerships "Same-sex partnerships"). 321 households (13\.8%) were one person and 178 (7\.6%) had someone living alone who was 65 or older. The average household size was 2\.80\. There were 1,912 families (82\.1% of households); the average family size was 3\.03\.
The age distribution was 1,543 people (22\.3%) under the age of 18, 579 people (8\.4%) aged 18 to 24, 966 people (14\.0%) aged 25 to 44, 2,264 people (32\.7%) aged 45 to 64, and 1,562 people (22\.6%) who were 65 or older. The median age was 48\.2 years. For every 100 females, there were 96\.6 males. For every 100 women age 18 and over, there were 95\.3 men.
The median household income was in excess of $250,000, the highest of any place in the United States.{{cite web \| title\= Highest Income Per Household In The United States By City \| url\= http://www.biggestuscities.com/demographics/us/income\-per\-household\-by\-city \| access\-date\= November 2, 2013 \| archive\-url\= https://web.archive.org/web/20140627050346/http://www.biggestuscities.com/demographics/us/income\-per\-household\-by\-city \| archive\-date\= June 27, 2014 \| url\-status\= dead }} The per capita income for the town was $128,816\. About 2\.9% of families and 5\.1% of the population were below the [poverty line](/wiki/Poverty_line "Poverty line"), including 5\.6% of those under age 18 and 5\.4% of those age 65 or over.
There were 2,530 housing units at an average density of 501\.1 per square mile, of the occupied units 2,116 (90\.8%) were owner\-occupied and 214 (9\.2%) were rented. The homeowner vacancy rate was 1\.6%; the rental vacancy rate was 3\.9%. 5,921 people (85\.6% of the population) lived in owner\-occupied housing units and 608 people (8\.8%) lived in rental housing units.
*[Forbes](/wiki/Forbes "Forbes")* ranked Atherton as second on its list of America's Most Expensive ZIP Codes in 2010, listing median house price as over $2,000,000\.{{cite news \|last\=Levy \|first\=Francesca \|date\=September 27, 2010 \|title\=America's Most Expensive ZIP Codes \|work\=Forbes \|url\=https://www.forbes.com/2010/09/27/most\-expensive\-zip\-codes\-2010\-lifestyle\-real\-estate\-zip\-codes\-10\-intro\_slide\_3\.html}}
|
[
"### 2010",
"At the [2010 census](/wiki/2010_United_States_Census \"2010 United States Census\") Atherton had a population of 6,914\\. The population density was {{convert\\|1,369\\.5\\|PD/sqmi\\|PD/km2\\|sp\\=us\\|adj\\=off}}. The racial makeup of Atherton was 5,565 (80\\.5%) White, 75 (1\\.1%) African American, 7 (0\\.1%) Native American, 911 (13\\.2%) Asian, 45 (0\\.7%) Pacific Islander, 95 (1\\.4%) from other races, and 216 (3\\.1%) from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 268 people (3\\.9%).{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.census.gov/2010census/popmap/ipmtext.php?fl\\=06:0603092\\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20140715023338/http://www.census.gov/2010census/popmap/ipmtext.php?fl\\=06:0603092\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-date\\=July 15, 2014\\|title\\=2010 Census Interactive Population Search: CA \\- Atherton town\\|publisher\\=U.S. Census Bureau\\|access\\-date\\=July 12, 2014}}",
"The census reported that 6,529 people (94\\.4% of the population) lived in households, 385 (5\\.6%) lived in non\\-institutionalized group quarters, and no one was institutionalized.",
"There were 2,330 households, 787 (33\\.8%) had children under the age of 18 living in them, 1,755 (75\\.3%) were [opposite\\-sex married couples](/wiki/Marriage \"Marriage\") living together, 109 (4\\.7%) had a female householder with no husband present, 48 (2\\.1%) had a male householder with no wife present. There were 34 (1\\.5%) [unmarried opposite\\-sex partnerships](/wiki/POSSLQ \"POSSLQ\"), and 15 (0\\.6%) [same\\-sex married couples or partnerships](/wiki/Same-sex_partnerships \"Same-sex partnerships\"). 321 households (13\\.8%) were one person and 178 (7\\.6%) had someone living alone who was 65 or older. The average household size was 2\\.80\\. There were 1,912 families (82\\.1% of households); the average family size was 3\\.03\\.",
"The age distribution was 1,543 people (22\\.3%) under the age of 18, 579 people (8\\.4%) aged 18 to 24, 966 people (14\\.0%) aged 25 to 44, 2,264 people (32\\.7%) aged 45 to 64, and 1,562 people (22\\.6%) who were 65 or older. The median age was 48\\.2 years. For every 100 females, there were 96\\.6 males. For every 100 women age 18 and over, there were 95\\.3 men.",
"The median household income was in excess of $250,000, the highest of any place in the United States.{{cite web \\| title\\= Highest Income Per Household In The United States By City \\| url\\= http://www.biggestuscities.com/demographics/us/income\\-per\\-household\\-by\\-city \\| access\\-date\\= November 2, 2013 \\| archive\\-url\\= https://web.archive.org/web/20140627050346/http://www.biggestuscities.com/demographics/us/income\\-per\\-household\\-by\\-city \\| archive\\-date\\= June 27, 2014 \\| url\\-status\\= dead }} The per capita income for the town was $128,816\\. About 2\\.9% of families and 5\\.1% of the population were below the [poverty line](/wiki/Poverty_line \"Poverty line\"), including 5\\.6% of those under age 18 and 5\\.4% of those age 65 or over.",
"There were 2,530 housing units at an average density of 501\\.1 per square mile, of the occupied units 2,116 (90\\.8%) were owner\\-occupied and 214 (9\\.2%) were rented. The homeowner vacancy rate was 1\\.6%; the rental vacancy rate was 3\\.9%. 5,921 people (85\\.6% of the population) lived in owner\\-occupied housing units and 608 people (8\\.8%) lived in rental housing units.",
"*[Forbes](/wiki/Forbes \"Forbes\")* ranked Atherton as second on its list of America's Most Expensive ZIP Codes in 2010, listing median house price as over $2,000,000\\.{{cite news \\|last\\=Levy \\|first\\=Francesca \\|date\\=September 27, 2010 \\|title\\=America's Most Expensive ZIP Codes \\|work\\=Forbes \\|url\\=https://www.forbes.com/2010/09/27/most\\-expensive\\-zip\\-codes\\-2010\\-lifestyle\\-real\\-estate\\-zip\\-codes\\-10\\-intro\\_slide\\_3\\.html}}",
""
] |
Regular season
--------------
The Giants won their first two games of the season, against [the Arizona Cardinals](/wiki/2005_Arizona_Cardinals_season "2005 Arizona Cardinals season") (42–19\)[2005 New York Giants](http://www.databasefootball.com/teams/teamyear.htm?tm=NYG&lg=NFL&yr=2005) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070209050624/http://www.databasefootball.com/teams/teamyear.htm?tm\=NYG≶\=NFL\&yr\=2005 \|date\=2007\-02\-09 }}, databasefootball.com, accessed March 16, 2007\. and a second game at the Meadowlands against [the New Orleans Saints](/wiki/2005_New_Orleans_Saints_season "2005 New Orleans Saints season"). The game was originally slated to be a home game for the Saints but had to be moved since the city of [New Orleans](/wiki/New_Orleans "New Orleans") was still recovering from [Hurricane Katrina](/wiki/Hurricane_Katrina "Hurricane Katrina"), and the [Louisiana Superdome](/wiki/Louisiana_Superdome "Louisiana Superdome") was untenable after being used as an emergency shelter for locals displaced by the hurricane.Maske, Mark. [Saints to Play Home Opener at Giants Stadium](http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0NTQ/is_2005_Sept_3/ai_n15342629), *[The Washington Post](/wiki/The_Washington_Post "The Washington Post")*, September 3, 2005, accessed March 23, 2007\. Despite the Saints wearing their home colors and the Saints colors and logo being painted in one of the end zones, the game was a de facto home game for the Giants who won easily, 27–10\. The Giants lost to the Chargers the following week, 45–23, in a game which was marked by Chargers fans booing and jeering [Eli Manning](/wiki/Eli_Manning "Eli Manning") for refusing to play for the Chargers. Manning and the Giants rebounded the following week however, and beat [the St. Louis Rams](/wiki/2005_St._Louis_Rams_season "2005 St. Louis Rams season") by a score of 44–24\.
Through eight games, Burress, in a bid to become the first Giant wideout to make the Pro Bowl in 37 years, had 45 catches and five scores. Jeremy Shockey, who had not been as effective as he was in his rookie season, also was beginning to re\-emerge with 32 catches and over 500 yards receiving after eight weeks.
[thumb\|left\|200px\| [Wellington Mara](/wiki/Wellington_Mara "Wellington Mara")'s gravesite](/wiki/Image:Grave_of_Wellington_Mara_in_Gate_of_Heaven_Cemetery.jpg "Grave of Wellington Mara in Gate of Heaven Cemetery.jpg")
On October 25, 2005, beloved Giants patriarch [Wellington Mara](/wiki/Wellington_Mara "Wellington Mara") died after a brief illness, at the age of 89\.Goldstein, Richard. [Wellington Mara, the Patriarch of the N.F.L., Dies at 89](https://www.nytimes.com/2005/10/26/sports/football/26mara.html?pagewanted=1&ei=5090&en=49d8f1309ac476c1&ex=1287982800), *The New York Times*, October 26, 2005, accessed April 17, 2007\. Mara had been involved with the Giants since he was 9 years old, when he was a [ball boy](/wiki/Ball_boy "Ball boy") for the Giants. Except a tour of duty in the military during [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II"), Mara spent his entire adult life with the Giants. The New York Giants dedicated their next game to Mara, and shut out [the Washington Redskins](/wiki/2005_Washington_Redskins_season "2005 Washington Redskins season") 36–0\. Afterwards, the Giants went on the road and defeated [the San Francisco 49ers](/wiki/2005_San_Francisco_49ers_season "2005 San Francisco 49ers season") 24–6, but when they got home, lost to [the Minnesota Vikings](/wiki/2005_Minnesota_Vikings_season "2005 Minnesota Vikings season") 24–21\. Just twenty days after Mara's death, on November 15, 2005, the other Giants Executive Officer and well\-known businessman [Bob Tisch](/wiki/Preston_Robert_Tisch "Preston Robert Tisch") died at the age of 79\. He was diagnosed in 2004 with inoperable brain cancer. Tisch was a philanthropist all his life and donated considerable sums of money to charitable causes. After his diagnosis, he donated money to institutions aimed towards the research of drugs and treatments to control brain tumors.
[thumb\|200px\|[Tiki Barber](/wiki/Tiki_Barber "Tiki Barber") set Giants single season and single game rushing records in 2005\.](/wiki/Image:TikiBarber.jpg "TikiBarber.jpg")
The Giants then travelled to Seattle to play the Seahawks. With the score tied at 21, kicker [Jay Feely](/wiki/Jay_Feely "Jay Feely") missed three field goals that would have given the Giants the lead.*Associated Press*, [Three missed FGs doom Giants in OT loss to Seahawks](http://sports.espn.go.com/nfl/recap?gameId=251127026), November 27, 2005, accessed March 21, 2007\. The Giants lost 24–21 when Seahawks kicker [Josh Brown](/wiki/Josh_Brown_%28American_football%29 "Josh Brown (American football)") kicked a 36\-yard field goal. The Giants then defeated the Cowboys 17–10\.*Associated Press*, [Giants alone atop NFC East after narrow win vs. 'Boys](http://sports.espn.go.com/nfl/recap?gameId=251204019), December 4, 2005, accessed March 21, 2007\. the Giants defense made opposing QB [Drew Bledsoe](/wiki/Drew_Bledsoe "Drew Bledsoe") go 15 of 39 for 146 yards with only one touchdown pass and two interceptions. The Giants then traveled to [Philadelphia, Pennsylvania](/wiki/Philadelphia%2C_Pennsylvania "Philadelphia, Pennsylvania") and defeated the defending NFC champion Eagles 26–23\.
During the season, the Giants and their stadium mates, [the New York Jets](/wiki/History_of_the_New_York_Jets "History of the New York Jets"), announced plans for a new stadium to replace Giants Stadium for both teams. Construction of said stadium began in 2007 and continued for two years, and the venue opened in 2010 as [New Meadowlands Stadium](/wiki/MetLife_Stadium "MetLife Stadium"). In 2011 naming rights would be bought by [MetLife](/wiki/MetLife "MetLife").
On December 17, 2005, in their 27–17 home victory against [the Kansas City Chiefs](/wiki/2005_Kansas_City_Chiefs_season "2005 Kansas City Chiefs season"), Tiki Barber set the team's single game rushing yard record with 220 yards, breaking the previous record of 218 yards, which had been set by Gene Roberts on November 12, 1950\.*Associated Press*, [Tiki torches Chiefs in Giants’ win](http://sports.espn.go.com/nfl/recap?gameId=251217019), December 17, 2005, accessed March 21, 2007\.
The Giants were able to clinch at least a wild card berth without playing when [the Minnesota Vikings](/wiki/2005_Minnesota_Vikings_season "2005 Minnesota Vikings season") fell to the Baltimore Ravens 30–23 in week 16\. The Giants then won the NFC East title for the first time since 2000 with a 30–21 win against [the Oakland Raiders](/wiki/2005_Oakland_Raiders_season "2005 Oakland Raiders season"). The team's appearance in the 2005 postseason was their 27th, tied with [the Cowboys](/wiki/List_of_Dallas_Cowboys_seasons "List of Dallas Cowboys seasons") and [the Rams](/wiki/List_of_Los_Angeles_Rams_seasons "List of Los Angeles Rams seasons") for the most ever by an NFL team.
|
[
"Regular season\n--------------",
"The Giants won their first two games of the season, against [the Arizona Cardinals](/wiki/2005_Arizona_Cardinals_season \"2005 Arizona Cardinals season\") (42–19\\)[2005 New York Giants](http://www.databasefootball.com/teams/teamyear.htm?tm=NYG&lg=NFL&yr=2005) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070209050624/http://www.databasefootball.com/teams/teamyear.htm?tm\\=NYG≶\\=NFL\\&yr\\=2005 \\|date\\=2007\\-02\\-09 }}, databasefootball.com, accessed March 16, 2007\\. and a second game at the Meadowlands against [the New Orleans Saints](/wiki/2005_New_Orleans_Saints_season \"2005 New Orleans Saints season\"). The game was originally slated to be a home game for the Saints but had to be moved since the city of [New Orleans](/wiki/New_Orleans \"New Orleans\") was still recovering from [Hurricane Katrina](/wiki/Hurricane_Katrina \"Hurricane Katrina\"), and the [Louisiana Superdome](/wiki/Louisiana_Superdome \"Louisiana Superdome\") was untenable after being used as an emergency shelter for locals displaced by the hurricane.Maske, Mark. [Saints to Play Home Opener at Giants Stadium](http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0NTQ/is_2005_Sept_3/ai_n15342629), *[The Washington Post](/wiki/The_Washington_Post \"The Washington Post\")*, September 3, 2005, accessed March 23, 2007\\. Despite the Saints wearing their home colors and the Saints colors and logo being painted in one of the end zones, the game was a de facto home game for the Giants who won easily, 27–10\\. The Giants lost to the Chargers the following week, 45–23, in a game which was marked by Chargers fans booing and jeering [Eli Manning](/wiki/Eli_Manning \"Eli Manning\") for refusing to play for the Chargers. Manning and the Giants rebounded the following week however, and beat [the St. Louis Rams](/wiki/2005_St._Louis_Rams_season \"2005 St. Louis Rams season\") by a score of 44–24\\.",
"Through eight games, Burress, in a bid to become the first Giant wideout to make the Pro Bowl in 37 years, had 45 catches and five scores. Jeremy Shockey, who had not been as effective as he was in his rookie season, also was beginning to re\\-emerge with 32 catches and over 500 yards receiving after eight weeks.\n[thumb\\|left\\|200px\\| [Wellington Mara](/wiki/Wellington_Mara \"Wellington Mara\")'s gravesite](/wiki/Image:Grave_of_Wellington_Mara_in_Gate_of_Heaven_Cemetery.jpg \"Grave of Wellington Mara in Gate of Heaven Cemetery.jpg\")",
"On October 25, 2005, beloved Giants patriarch [Wellington Mara](/wiki/Wellington_Mara \"Wellington Mara\") died after a brief illness, at the age of 89\\.Goldstein, Richard. [Wellington Mara, the Patriarch of the N.F.L., Dies at 89](https://www.nytimes.com/2005/10/26/sports/football/26mara.html?pagewanted=1&ei=5090&en=49d8f1309ac476c1&ex=1287982800), *The New York Times*, October 26, 2005, accessed April 17, 2007\\. Mara had been involved with the Giants since he was 9 years old, when he was a [ball boy](/wiki/Ball_boy \"Ball boy\") for the Giants. Except a tour of duty in the military during [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\"), Mara spent his entire adult life with the Giants. The New York Giants dedicated their next game to Mara, and shut out [the Washington Redskins](/wiki/2005_Washington_Redskins_season \"2005 Washington Redskins season\") 36–0\\. Afterwards, the Giants went on the road and defeated [the San Francisco 49ers](/wiki/2005_San_Francisco_49ers_season \"2005 San Francisco 49ers season\") 24–6, but when they got home, lost to [the Minnesota Vikings](/wiki/2005_Minnesota_Vikings_season \"2005 Minnesota Vikings season\") 24–21\\. Just twenty days after Mara's death, on November 15, 2005, the other Giants Executive Officer and well\\-known businessman [Bob Tisch](/wiki/Preston_Robert_Tisch \"Preston Robert Tisch\") died at the age of 79\\. He was diagnosed in 2004 with inoperable brain cancer. Tisch was a philanthropist all his life and donated considerable sums of money to charitable causes. After his diagnosis, he donated money to institutions aimed towards the research of drugs and treatments to control brain tumors.\n[thumb\\|200px\\|[Tiki Barber](/wiki/Tiki_Barber \"Tiki Barber\") set Giants single season and single game rushing records in 2005\\.](/wiki/Image:TikiBarber.jpg \"TikiBarber.jpg\")\nThe Giants then travelled to Seattle to play the Seahawks. With the score tied at 21, kicker [Jay Feely](/wiki/Jay_Feely \"Jay Feely\") missed three field goals that would have given the Giants the lead.*Associated Press*, [Three missed FGs doom Giants in OT loss to Seahawks](http://sports.espn.go.com/nfl/recap?gameId=251127026), November 27, 2005, accessed March 21, 2007\\. The Giants lost 24–21 when Seahawks kicker [Josh Brown](/wiki/Josh_Brown_%28American_football%29 \"Josh Brown (American football)\") kicked a 36\\-yard field goal. The Giants then defeated the Cowboys 17–10\\.*Associated Press*, [Giants alone atop NFC East after narrow win vs. 'Boys](http://sports.espn.go.com/nfl/recap?gameId=251204019), December 4, 2005, accessed March 21, 2007\\. the Giants defense made opposing QB [Drew Bledsoe](/wiki/Drew_Bledsoe \"Drew Bledsoe\") go 15 of 39 for 146 yards with only one touchdown pass and two interceptions. The Giants then traveled to [Philadelphia, Pennsylvania](/wiki/Philadelphia%2C_Pennsylvania \"Philadelphia, Pennsylvania\") and defeated the defending NFC champion Eagles 26–23\\.",
"During the season, the Giants and their stadium mates, [the New York Jets](/wiki/History_of_the_New_York_Jets \"History of the New York Jets\"), announced plans for a new stadium to replace Giants Stadium for both teams. Construction of said stadium began in 2007 and continued for two years, and the venue opened in 2010 as [New Meadowlands Stadium](/wiki/MetLife_Stadium \"MetLife Stadium\"). In 2011 naming rights would be bought by [MetLife](/wiki/MetLife \"MetLife\").",
"On December 17, 2005, in their 27–17 home victory against [the Kansas City Chiefs](/wiki/2005_Kansas_City_Chiefs_season \"2005 Kansas City Chiefs season\"), Tiki Barber set the team's single game rushing yard record with 220 yards, breaking the previous record of 218 yards, which had been set by Gene Roberts on November 12, 1950\\.*Associated Press*, [Tiki torches Chiefs in Giants’ win](http://sports.espn.go.com/nfl/recap?gameId=251217019), December 17, 2005, accessed March 21, 2007\\.",
"The Giants were able to clinch at least a wild card berth without playing when [the Minnesota Vikings](/wiki/2005_Minnesota_Vikings_season \"2005 Minnesota Vikings season\") fell to the Baltimore Ravens 30–23 in week 16\\. The Giants then won the NFC East title for the first time since 2000 with a 30–21 win against [the Oakland Raiders](/wiki/2005_Oakland_Raiders_season \"2005 Oakland Raiders season\"). The team's appearance in the 2005 postseason was their 27th, tied with [the Cowboys](/wiki/List_of_Dallas_Cowboys_seasons \"List of Dallas Cowboys seasons\") and [the Rams](/wiki/List_of_Los_Angeles_Rams_seasons \"List of Los Angeles Rams seasons\") for the most ever by an NFL team.",
""
] |
History
-------
{{Unreferenced section\|date\=June 2020}}
The Spaniards arrived in Antique in 1581\. With them came [Augustinian](/wiki/Order_of_Saint_Augustine "Order of Saint Augustine") friars who Christianized the inhabitants. Its original name was **Tubigon**, being still a part of the municipality of [Hamtic](/wiki/Hamtic "Hamtic").
In 1733, it was renamed San José and in 1790 it acquired its municipality through land grants issued by Philippine Governor General [Félix Berenguer de Marquina](/wiki/F%C3%A9lix_Berenguer_de_Marquina "Félix Berenguer de Marquina"). Later, it became a [parish](/wiki/Parish "Parish") with its first [parish priest](/wiki/Parish_priest "Parish priest"), Father Manuel Ibáñez.
Some two hundred years ago, the site now occupied by San José de Buenavista was a dense jungle and a favorite landing place for pirates to raid the area.
In 1802, by popular demand, San José de Buenavista became the capital of the province of Antique and Agustín Sumandi was appointed as its first [Gobernadorcillo](/wiki/Gobernadorcillo "Gobernadorcillo"), a sort of local governor during the [Spanish Colonial Era](/wiki/Spanish_Colonial_Era_%28Philippines%29 "Spanish Colonial Era (Philippines)").
On November 24, 1898, San Jose de Buenavista was captured by Philippine Revolutionary Expeditionary Forces led by Gen. Leandro Fullon from Cavite during the [Battle of Antique](/wiki/Battle_of_San_Jose_de_Buenavista "Battle of San Jose de Buenavista") after a 2\-day struggle. The rest of the Antique province under Spanish authority surrendered to the revolutionary forces.
In 1954, by the virtue of Executive Order No. 3 of the President of the Philippines, the southern portion of San Jose de Buenavista was formed into an independent municipality under the name of Hamtic. The boundary was described to be "From a point on the south bank of the mouth of [Malandog River](/wiki/Malandog_River "Malandog River") running northeasterly in a straight imaginary line to a point on the northeast side of the San Jose\-Hamtic provincial road ten meters west of the intersection of this northeast side of said road with the northwest side of the Sibalom\-Piapi\-Malandog provincial road; thence following approximately the same direction in an imaginary line that is parallel to, and ten meters distant from the said Sibalom\-Piapi\-Malandog provincial road until it touches the present boundary between San Jose and Sibalom."{{cite web \| url\=http://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/1954/01/05/executive\-order\-no\-3\-s\-1954/ \| title\=Executive Order No. 3, s. 1954 \| GOVPH }}
The [Evelio B. Javier Airport](/wiki/Evelio_B._Javier_Airport "Evelio B. Javier Airport"), the only airport serving commercial flights in the province of Antique, is located in San Jose.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"{{Unreferenced section\\|date\\=June 2020}}",
"The Spaniards arrived in Antique in 1581\\. With them came [Augustinian](/wiki/Order_of_Saint_Augustine \"Order of Saint Augustine\") friars who Christianized the inhabitants. Its original name was **Tubigon**, being still a part of the municipality of [Hamtic](/wiki/Hamtic \"Hamtic\").",
"In 1733, it was renamed San José and in 1790 it acquired its municipality through land grants issued by Philippine Governor General [Félix Berenguer de Marquina](/wiki/F%C3%A9lix_Berenguer_de_Marquina \"Félix Berenguer de Marquina\"). Later, it became a [parish](/wiki/Parish \"Parish\") with its first [parish priest](/wiki/Parish_priest \"Parish priest\"), Father Manuel Ibáñez.",
"Some two hundred years ago, the site now occupied by San José de Buenavista was a dense jungle and a favorite landing place for pirates to raid the area.",
"In 1802, by popular demand, San José de Buenavista became the capital of the province of Antique and Agustín Sumandi was appointed as its first [Gobernadorcillo](/wiki/Gobernadorcillo \"Gobernadorcillo\"), a sort of local governor during the [Spanish Colonial Era](/wiki/Spanish_Colonial_Era_%28Philippines%29 \"Spanish Colonial Era (Philippines)\").",
"On November 24, 1898, San Jose de Buenavista was captured by Philippine Revolutionary Expeditionary Forces led by Gen. Leandro Fullon from Cavite during the [Battle of Antique](/wiki/Battle_of_San_Jose_de_Buenavista \"Battle of San Jose de Buenavista\") after a 2\\-day struggle. The rest of the Antique province under Spanish authority surrendered to the revolutionary forces.",
"In 1954, by the virtue of Executive Order No. 3 of the President of the Philippines, the southern portion of San Jose de Buenavista was formed into an independent municipality under the name of Hamtic. The boundary was described to be \"From a point on the south bank of the mouth of [Malandog River](/wiki/Malandog_River \"Malandog River\") running northeasterly in a straight imaginary line to a point on the northeast side of the San Jose\\-Hamtic provincial road ten meters west of the intersection of this northeast side of said road with the northwest side of the Sibalom\\-Piapi\\-Malandog provincial road; thence following approximately the same direction in an imaginary line that is parallel to, and ten meters distant from the said Sibalom\\-Piapi\\-Malandog provincial road until it touches the present boundary between San Jose and Sibalom.\"{{cite web \\| url\\=http://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/1954/01/05/executive\\-order\\-no\\-3\\-s\\-1954/ \\| title\\=Executive Order No. 3, s. 1954 \\| GOVPH }}",
"The [Evelio B. Javier Airport](/wiki/Evelio_B._Javier_Airport \"Evelio B. Javier Airport\"), the only airport serving commercial flights in the province of Antique, is located in San Jose.",
""
] |
History
-------
The Orlyonok Young Pioneer camp was established on July 12, 1960 by the decision of the [Council of Ministers of the Russian SFSR](/wiki/Council_of_Ministers_of_the_Russian_SFSR "Council of Ministers of the Russian SFSR") (March 27, 1959\).{{Citation/make link\|https://center\-orlyonok.ru/RU/Content/HistoryEagletPage\|Official Orlyonok Page – History (russian)}} Similar to [Artek](/wiki/Artek_%28camp%29 "Artek (camp)"), Orlyonok was intended for [Russian](/wiki/Russian_SFSR "Russian SFSR") children who were notable for excellent study, prize winners at various [Student Olympiads](/wiki/Soviet_Student_Olympiads "Soviet Student Olympiads"), contests, or sports competitions, decorated or notable members of [Komsomol](/wiki/Komsomol "Komsomol") or Young Pioneer organization [activists](/wiki/Youth_activism "Youth activism").
In 1962 Orlyonok welcomed 50 representatives of the then\-experimental Communard Movement, including kids from the famous Leningrad Frunze Community organization (now dismissed) led by [Igor Ivanov](/wiki/Igor_Ivanov_%28educationist%29 "Igor Ivanov (educationist)"). During this time, Orlyonok acquired some of its laws and traditions and adopted what has become known as the creative team effort methodology.
After the successful experience of the previous year, in 1963 Orlyonok hosted the first all\-USSR gathering of young communards.
In the beginning, the 1960 Orlyonok camp hosted 520 children, and by 1973 the annual attendance increased to nearly 17,000\. By then Orlyonok had grown to an area of 3 square kilometers, with 60 buildings, including the dormitories, the "[Young Pioneer Palace](/wiki/Young_Pioneer_Palace "Young Pioneer Palace")" (with a winter swimming pool filled with sea water, and a cinema), secondary school, medical building, Museum of Aircraft and Cosmonautics, astronomical [observatory](/wiki/Observatory "Observatory"), sports stadium, playgrounds and a winter sports hall. There were more than 200 hobby groups of 50 different kinds, mostly in polytechnics, sports, and aesthetics. Orlyonok had its own [passenger ship](/wiki/Passenger_ship "Passenger ship"), 45 [yachts](/wiki/Yacht "Yacht"), and many [motor boats](/wiki/Motor_boat "Motor boat") and [rowboats](/wiki/Rowboat "Rowboat").
In the early 1990s, when the [Young Pioneer organization of the Soviet Union](/wiki/Young_Pioneer_organization_of_the_Soviet_Union "Young Pioneer organization of the Soviet Union") was dismantled, the camp attendance in Orlyonok was greatly decreased; however, attendance has increased since 2000, as the camp was nostalgically associated with the [Young Pioneer camps](/wiki/Young_Pioneer_camp "Young Pioneer camp") of the past. It is believed that between the years 1960 and 2010 Orlyonok hosted over 800,000 children.
On July 12, 2010, Orlyonok celebrated their 50th anniversary. It welcomed guests from all over Russia and abroad, all ages and walks of life, whose life was connected with Orlyonok. The celebration culminated with a special [concert](/wiki/Concert "Concert") and [fireworks](/wiki/Fireworks "Fireworks") at the central stadium.{{Citation/make link\|http://center\-orlyonok.ru/orlyonok/history/newhistory/\|Official Orlyonok Page – History (russian)}}
In 2011 Orlyonok hosted a delegation from [UNESCO](/wiki/UNESCO "UNESCO") reviewing Orlyonok admission to the [UNESCO Associated Schools Project Network](/wiki/UNESCO_ASPNet "UNESCO ASPNet").{{Citation/make link\|http://center\-orlyonok.ru/press/releases/2011/10/20/press\_76\.html\|Official Orlyonok Page – Press Release 10/20/2010 (russian)}} In 2012 Orlyonok was admitted to the UNESCO ASPNet.
On February 5, 2014, Orlyonok hosted the final part of the 2014 Winter Olympics torch relay. A relay torch was lit with the Olympic flame next to the Memorial Stone, from where it was carried throughout Orlyonok by 15 torchbearers covering a distance of approximately 3 kilometers.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"The Orlyonok Young Pioneer camp was established on July 12, 1960 by the decision of the [Council of Ministers of the Russian SFSR](/wiki/Council_of_Ministers_of_the_Russian_SFSR \"Council of Ministers of the Russian SFSR\") (March 27, 1959\\).{{Citation/make link\\|https://center\\-orlyonok.ru/RU/Content/HistoryEagletPage\\|Official Orlyonok Page – History (russian)}} Similar to [Artek](/wiki/Artek_%28camp%29 \"Artek (camp)\"), Orlyonok was intended for [Russian](/wiki/Russian_SFSR \"Russian SFSR\") children who were notable for excellent study, prize winners at various [Student Olympiads](/wiki/Soviet_Student_Olympiads \"Soviet Student Olympiads\"), contests, or sports competitions, decorated or notable members of [Komsomol](/wiki/Komsomol \"Komsomol\") or Young Pioneer organization [activists](/wiki/Youth_activism \"Youth activism\").",
"In 1962 Orlyonok welcomed 50 representatives of the then\\-experimental Communard Movement, including kids from the famous Leningrad Frunze Community organization (now dismissed) led by [Igor Ivanov](/wiki/Igor_Ivanov_%28educationist%29 \"Igor Ivanov (educationist)\"). During this time, Orlyonok acquired some of its laws and traditions and adopted what has become known as the creative team effort methodology.",
"After the successful experience of the previous year, in 1963 Orlyonok hosted the first all\\-USSR gathering of young communards.",
"In the beginning, the 1960 Orlyonok camp hosted 520 children, and by 1973 the annual attendance increased to nearly 17,000\\. By then Orlyonok had grown to an area of 3 square kilometers, with 60 buildings, including the dormitories, the \"[Young Pioneer Palace](/wiki/Young_Pioneer_Palace \"Young Pioneer Palace\")\" (with a winter swimming pool filled with sea water, and a cinema), secondary school, medical building, Museum of Aircraft and Cosmonautics, astronomical [observatory](/wiki/Observatory \"Observatory\"), sports stadium, playgrounds and a winter sports hall. There were more than 200 hobby groups of 50 different kinds, mostly in polytechnics, sports, and aesthetics. Orlyonok had its own [passenger ship](/wiki/Passenger_ship \"Passenger ship\"), 45 [yachts](/wiki/Yacht \"Yacht\"), and many [motor boats](/wiki/Motor_boat \"Motor boat\") and [rowboats](/wiki/Rowboat \"Rowboat\").",
"In the early 1990s, when the [Young Pioneer organization of the Soviet Union](/wiki/Young_Pioneer_organization_of_the_Soviet_Union \"Young Pioneer organization of the Soviet Union\") was dismantled, the camp attendance in Orlyonok was greatly decreased; however, attendance has increased since 2000, as the camp was nostalgically associated with the [Young Pioneer camps](/wiki/Young_Pioneer_camp \"Young Pioneer camp\") of the past. It is believed that between the years 1960 and 2010 Orlyonok hosted over 800,000 children.",
"On July 12, 2010, Orlyonok celebrated their 50th anniversary. It welcomed guests from all over Russia and abroad, all ages and walks of life, whose life was connected with Orlyonok. The celebration culminated with a special [concert](/wiki/Concert \"Concert\") and [fireworks](/wiki/Fireworks \"Fireworks\") at the central stadium.{{Citation/make link\\|http://center\\-orlyonok.ru/orlyonok/history/newhistory/\\|Official Orlyonok Page – History (russian)}}",
"In 2011 Orlyonok hosted a delegation from [UNESCO](/wiki/UNESCO \"UNESCO\") reviewing Orlyonok admission to the [UNESCO Associated Schools Project Network](/wiki/UNESCO_ASPNet \"UNESCO ASPNet\").{{Citation/make link\\|http://center\\-orlyonok.ru/press/releases/2011/10/20/press\\_76\\.html\\|Official Orlyonok Page – Press Release 10/20/2010 (russian)}} In 2012 Orlyonok was admitted to the UNESCO ASPNet.",
"On February 5, 2014, Orlyonok hosted the final part of the 2014 Winter Olympics torch relay. A relay torch was lit with the Olympic flame next to the Memorial Stone, from where it was carried throughout Orlyonok by 15 torchbearers covering a distance of approximately 3 kilometers.",
""
] |
Orlyonok culture
----------------
Orlyonok has its own history and traditions, one of the most important among them – respect for people, their work, their personality, and experience ... This requires future "Eaglets" to have a certain culture of communication and interaction with peers and adults. Furthermore, almost everything is planned and done by the kids themselves, as part of joint activities performed together with teachers and peers. For example, self\-help is the rule of the day: from simple things like making one's bed in the morning and self\-care, to collectively serving a rotating duty around the camp and in the dining rooms.
Though having a lot in common with the world\-wide [Scouts](/wiki/Scouts "Scouts") youth, the Eaglets' culture has a few notable points distinguishing them, one of them – not being separated into groups based on gender. Eaglets, too, enjoy camping and hiking, they place great emphasis on being self\-reliant, responsible and trustworthy when asked for help. It is also stressed that merely accumulating a history of achievements is secondary to the goal of self\-development and growth, with everyone's input helping to grow all together as a team.
**Eaglet Circle**
The Eaglet Circle is the smallest stable self\-governing, self\-regulating unit, usually under 35 kids, unlike Boy Scouts, of both genders, directed by two or more Eaglet Circle Leaders. Initially members of the Eaglet Circle are called "Eaglet Candidates", and the actual "Eaglet" title has to be earned by successfully completing tasks assigned, while displaying a positive attitude. The processes of officially establishing the Eaglet Circle and assigning individual Eaglet titles happens during the second and third weeks of camp.
The Eaglet Circle, while supervised and directed by one or more Eaglet Circle Leaders, is also governed by the Eaglet Circle Captain (elected permanently for the duration of the camp) and the Eaglet Circle Captain of the Day (elected daily during the evening meeting). There are sometimes more than one Captain that addresses different aspects of the Eaglet Circle (for example, for the duration of a trip there could be the Trip Captain in addition to the main one), but they all work together with the Eaglet Circle, with the Eaglet Circle meeting having the final say on things that affect everybody.
Throughout the day, there could be multiple smaller units formed, Task Committees. The smallest Task Committee may be 3–4 kids that will work on assignments. For example, an entire Eaglet Circle may have to come up with a stage performance, and to make the task easier, will break into smaller Task Committees addressing various parts: stage setup, choreography, music, script, troop, etc. etc. Once work commences, results are reported at the Eaglet Circle meeting.
Eaglet Circles obey five Eaglet Circle laws and follow about a dozen traditions. Each Eaglet Circle is also supposed to have some kind of signature, distinguishing it from other circles, and this is where creativity and improvisation plays an important part; simply copying what others have done before is viewed as below the Eaglet Circle's self\-respect. The Eaglet Circle's signature could be a song, a T\-shirt, a name, a talisman or a mascot, or the combination of all of these, but altogether it should have some form of meaning for the particular Eaglet Circle that it represents.
The original laws and traditions brought by Communards in 1962 and 1963 now became these:
**Eaglet Circle Laws**
* **The Zero\-Zero Law** – Be on time with attendance and tasks; respect others' time. This law also calls to be brief and eloquent when talking to others, picking up the correct words to avoiding bombarding listeners with meaningless words or phrases.
* **The Territory Law** – Stay within the camp grounds unless you are part of a Task Committee or an Eaglet Circle working on a task; also, obtain permission to do so when working on an individual task. Try not to trespass other Eaglet Circle's territory when they are busy with something, unless you can offer help. This law also marks the limits of acceptable behavior (positive territory); bad habits and destructive/offensive deeds (negative territory), are to be left outside.
* **The Green Law** – Respect our environment, local and global, don't litter, and pick up trash even if it is not yours. Do something good all the time, plant trees or flowers, clean up what you can and help others, even when not asked to. There is no Earth B if we trash this Earth A.
* **The Sea Law** – Respect the Black Sea and know that it does not like recklessness. While it is beautiful and playful at one hour, it can unexpectedly turn cruel and deadly at another. This law extends to any entity that is dangerous and unpredictable: don't overestimate your strengths and know your limitations.
* **The Raised Hand Law** – When one raises a hand, one speaks, everyone listens without interrupting. It is also understood that he or she is brief in what has to be said and will not be wasting others' time. This also means – before raising your hand, think through what you have to say. If it is a question, than maybe it has been answered already. If it is a statement, what value will it add?
**Eaglet Circle traditions**
* **Tradition of Kindness** – Every morning starts with a "Good Morning!" no matter how bad the weather may be, wishing all to have a good day. Every evening ends with the Eaglet Circle meeting closing on a positive note and wishing for all to have a good night. Unexpected and nice surprises are the norm of almost every day, i.e., maybe a post card congratulating the passing of dark clouds in the sky, or a photo/painting of a flower, or anything small but nice, passed between Eaglets and Eaglet Circles as tokens of comradeship.
* **Everybody is equal in the Eaglet Circle**, everybody has the same rights and responsibilities; one can be either within the Circle or outside, and nobody is above or below the Circle and the laws that govern it. All discussions held give opportunity for everyone's opinion to be said (see The Raised Hand Law).
* **Nobody steps in the interior of the Eaglet Circle** during the meeting or a song, because it is similar to stepping on the invisible "Circle's Heart" (the only exception – during the goodbyes when the Camp is over, Eaglets put their bags in the center of the circle).
* **If it is not you, then who** – when something has to be done, pick it up and get it done (if needed permissions and approvals, do that, too); there are no passive people, there are people who simply have not found something positive or useful to do that would appeal to them.
* **If it is not creative, then why bother at all** – all tasks are done not just by following step after step, but also with a creative flair, like a kind of "signature" that makes it different from similar tasks done by others before. A task done creatively is worth three done out of necessity.
* **When criticizing, be prepared to offer something better**, otherwise be quiet and at least don't interfere with others working out a solution. Blanket negative statements are also off limits.
* **Write down what has been said** – a thought not written down is lost forever. Eaglets are encouraged to keep brief daily diaries where they would match achievements with goals set and note everything else that goes with that.
* **Self\-governing, self\-regulation, self\-improvement** – starting from the first day, "Let's think how to make things better and more interesting to all" and never stop adding new, fixing/improving existing things that maybe need to be fixed or improved; non\-stop seeking of ideas and ways of doing it all better, maybe even the way nobody ever has done it before.
* **Tradition of volunteering** – Volunteering does not have to be top\-down planned; some tasks, like cleaning up a nearby creek or planting trees destroyed during a recent winter storm, only needs some collective thinking and active participation.
* **There are no negative people, there are negative deeds** – nobody is born into being bad, people do make mistakes and sometimes do something bad; those bad deeds are what gets discussed, not personalities or characters. It also means that quite a great deal of credit is given to be trusted, but it, too, may run out when abused regularly.
* **Tradition of songs** – Singing a song together in an Eaglet Circle is a sacred moment, and it cannot be just any song. Songs are picked to be bonding and positive; not like a choir, but like a circle of friends and comrades, with everyone's voice heard. An Eaglet song can be started by anyone, but once it is started it has to be sung by everybody from the beginning to the end. This tradition also extends to any tasks done; similarly to singing, tasks have to be done from the beginning to the end. (Exception to this tradition is when someone is sad and does not feel like joining in – he or she can be present, but quiet, and it is understood to be a sign of sorrow). Most Eaglet Circle meetings end with a song sang standing in a circle with everyone's hands on the shoulders of the Eaglets to the left and to the right.
* **Tradition of Eaglet Circle evening meetings** – every evening before retiring for the night is a meeting that has three questions, "What went well throughout the day and how can it be continued? What went wrong throughout the day and what to do about it? What's next?". Good deeds and successful completion of tasks are noted, awards and tokens of appreciation are given to those deserving of them. Mistakes and errors are discussed and ways to avoid these in the future are suggested. The next day's plan is worked out and elections take place (for example, a new Captain of the Day is elected).
* **Tradition of Eaglets' Code of Honor** – the "Eaglet" title can be lost by doing negative deeds (it is called "neglecting The Eaglets' Code of Honor") or by being passive and/or destructive toward what others are trying to do. The title will have to be regained again, if one wants his voice to be heard during the Eaglet Circle meetings.
|
[
"Orlyonok culture\n----------------",
"Orlyonok has its own history and traditions, one of the most important among them – respect for people, their work, their personality, and experience ... This requires future \"Eaglets\" to have a certain culture of communication and interaction with peers and adults. Furthermore, almost everything is planned and done by the kids themselves, as part of joint activities performed together with teachers and peers. For example, self\\-help is the rule of the day: from simple things like making one's bed in the morning and self\\-care, to collectively serving a rotating duty around the camp and in the dining rooms.",
"Though having a lot in common with the world\\-wide [Scouts](/wiki/Scouts \"Scouts\") youth, the Eaglets' culture has a few notable points distinguishing them, one of them – not being separated into groups based on gender. Eaglets, too, enjoy camping and hiking, they place great emphasis on being self\\-reliant, responsible and trustworthy when asked for help. It is also stressed that merely accumulating a history of achievements is secondary to the goal of self\\-development and growth, with everyone's input helping to grow all together as a team.",
"**Eaglet Circle**",
"The Eaglet Circle is the smallest stable self\\-governing, self\\-regulating unit, usually under 35 kids, unlike Boy Scouts, of both genders, directed by two or more Eaglet Circle Leaders. Initially members of the Eaglet Circle are called \"Eaglet Candidates\", and the actual \"Eaglet\" title has to be earned by successfully completing tasks assigned, while displaying a positive attitude. The processes of officially establishing the Eaglet Circle and assigning individual Eaglet titles happens during the second and third weeks of camp.",
"The Eaglet Circle, while supervised and directed by one or more Eaglet Circle Leaders, is also governed by the Eaglet Circle Captain (elected permanently for the duration of the camp) and the Eaglet Circle Captain of the Day (elected daily during the evening meeting). There are sometimes more than one Captain that addresses different aspects of the Eaglet Circle (for example, for the duration of a trip there could be the Trip Captain in addition to the main one), but they all work together with the Eaglet Circle, with the Eaglet Circle meeting having the final say on things that affect everybody.",
"Throughout the day, there could be multiple smaller units formed, Task Committees. The smallest Task Committee may be 3–4 kids that will work on assignments. For example, an entire Eaglet Circle may have to come up with a stage performance, and to make the task easier, will break into smaller Task Committees addressing various parts: stage setup, choreography, music, script, troop, etc. etc. Once work commences, results are reported at the Eaglet Circle meeting.",
"Eaglet Circles obey five Eaglet Circle laws and follow about a dozen traditions. Each Eaglet Circle is also supposed to have some kind of signature, distinguishing it from other circles, and this is where creativity and improvisation plays an important part; simply copying what others have done before is viewed as below the Eaglet Circle's self\\-respect. The Eaglet Circle's signature could be a song, a T\\-shirt, a name, a talisman or a mascot, or the combination of all of these, but altogether it should have some form of meaning for the particular Eaglet Circle that it represents.",
"The original laws and traditions brought by Communards in 1962 and 1963 now became these:",
"**Eaglet Circle Laws**",
"* **The Zero\\-Zero Law** – Be on time with attendance and tasks; respect others' time. This law also calls to be brief and eloquent when talking to others, picking up the correct words to avoiding bombarding listeners with meaningless words or phrases.\n* **The Territory Law** – Stay within the camp grounds unless you are part of a Task Committee or an Eaglet Circle working on a task; also, obtain permission to do so when working on an individual task. Try not to trespass other Eaglet Circle's territory when they are busy with something, unless you can offer help. This law also marks the limits of acceptable behavior (positive territory); bad habits and destructive/offensive deeds (negative territory), are to be left outside.\n* **The Green Law** – Respect our environment, local and global, don't litter, and pick up trash even if it is not yours. Do something good all the time, plant trees or flowers, clean up what you can and help others, even when not asked to. There is no Earth B if we trash this Earth A.\n* **The Sea Law** – Respect the Black Sea and know that it does not like recklessness. While it is beautiful and playful at one hour, it can unexpectedly turn cruel and deadly at another. This law extends to any entity that is dangerous and unpredictable: don't overestimate your strengths and know your limitations.\n* **The Raised Hand Law** – When one raises a hand, one speaks, everyone listens without interrupting. It is also understood that he or she is brief in what has to be said and will not be wasting others' time. This also means – before raising your hand, think through what you have to say. If it is a question, than maybe it has been answered already. If it is a statement, what value will it add?",
"**Eaglet Circle traditions**",
"* **Tradition of Kindness** – Every morning starts with a \"Good Morning!\" no matter how bad the weather may be, wishing all to have a good day. Every evening ends with the Eaglet Circle meeting closing on a positive note and wishing for all to have a good night. Unexpected and nice surprises are the norm of almost every day, i.e., maybe a post card congratulating the passing of dark clouds in the sky, or a photo/painting of a flower, or anything small but nice, passed between Eaglets and Eaglet Circles as tokens of comradeship.\n* **Everybody is equal in the Eaglet Circle**, everybody has the same rights and responsibilities; one can be either within the Circle or outside, and nobody is above or below the Circle and the laws that govern it. All discussions held give opportunity for everyone's opinion to be said (see The Raised Hand Law).\n* **Nobody steps in the interior of the Eaglet Circle** during the meeting or a song, because it is similar to stepping on the invisible \"Circle's Heart\" (the only exception – during the goodbyes when the Camp is over, Eaglets put their bags in the center of the circle).\n* **If it is not you, then who** – when something has to be done, pick it up and get it done (if needed permissions and approvals, do that, too); there are no passive people, there are people who simply have not found something positive or useful to do that would appeal to them.\n* **If it is not creative, then why bother at all** – all tasks are done not just by following step after step, but also with a creative flair, like a kind of \"signature\" that makes it different from similar tasks done by others before. A task done creatively is worth three done out of necessity.\n* **When criticizing, be prepared to offer something better**, otherwise be quiet and at least don't interfere with others working out a solution. Blanket negative statements are also off limits.\n* **Write down what has been said** – a thought not written down is lost forever. Eaglets are encouraged to keep brief daily diaries where they would match achievements with goals set and note everything else that goes with that.\n* **Self\\-governing, self\\-regulation, self\\-improvement** – starting from the first day, \"Let's think how to make things better and more interesting to all\" and never stop adding new, fixing/improving existing things that maybe need to be fixed or improved; non\\-stop seeking of ideas and ways of doing it all better, maybe even the way nobody ever has done it before.\n* **Tradition of volunteering** – Volunteering does not have to be top\\-down planned; some tasks, like cleaning up a nearby creek or planting trees destroyed during a recent winter storm, only needs some collective thinking and active participation.\n* **There are no negative people, there are negative deeds** – nobody is born into being bad, people do make mistakes and sometimes do something bad; those bad deeds are what gets discussed, not personalities or characters. It also means that quite a great deal of credit is given to be trusted, but it, too, may run out when abused regularly.\n* **Tradition of songs** – Singing a song together in an Eaglet Circle is a sacred moment, and it cannot be just any song. Songs are picked to be bonding and positive; not like a choir, but like a circle of friends and comrades, with everyone's voice heard. An Eaglet song can be started by anyone, but once it is started it has to be sung by everybody from the beginning to the end. This tradition also extends to any tasks done; similarly to singing, tasks have to be done from the beginning to the end. (Exception to this tradition is when someone is sad and does not feel like joining in – he or she can be present, but quiet, and it is understood to be a sign of sorrow). Most Eaglet Circle meetings end with a song sang standing in a circle with everyone's hands on the shoulders of the Eaglets to the left and to the right.\n* **Tradition of Eaglet Circle evening meetings** – every evening before retiring for the night is a meeting that has three questions, \"What went well throughout the day and how can it be continued? What went wrong throughout the day and what to do about it? What's next?\". Good deeds and successful completion of tasks are noted, awards and tokens of appreciation are given to those deserving of them. Mistakes and errors are discussed and ways to avoid these in the future are suggested. The next day's plan is worked out and elections take place (for example, a new Captain of the Day is elected).\n* **Tradition of Eaglets' Code of Honor** – the \"Eaglet\" title can be lost by doing negative deeds (it is called \"neglecting The Eaglets' Code of Honor\") or by being passive and/or destructive toward what others are trying to do. The title will have to be regained again, if one wants his voice to be heard during the Eaglet Circle meetings."
] |
Background
----------
### Ineffective assistance of counsel
{{main\|Ineffective assistance of counsel}}
The [Assistance of Counsel Clause](/wiki/Assistance_of_Counsel_Clause "Assistance of Counsel Clause") of the [Sixth Amendment to the United States Constitution](/wiki/Sixth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution "Sixth Amendment to the United States Constitution") provides that:
> In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right ... to have the Assistance of Counsel for his defence."U.S. Const. Amend. VI.
The Supreme Court has interpreted the clause to require states to provide indigent criminal defendants with counsel. In *[Strickland v. Washington](/wiki/Strickland_v._Washington "Strickland v. Washington")*, the controlling Supreme Court decision on ineffective assistance of counsel,{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.law.cornell.edu/wex/ineffective\_assistance\_of\_counsel\|title\=Ineffective Assistance of Counsel\|last\=Hashmall\|first\=Mr. Joe\|date\=2009\-09\-22\|website\=LII / Legal Information Institute\|language\=en\|access\-date\=2018\-06\-27}}{{Cite journal\|last\=Gabriel\|first\=Richard L.\|date\=1986\|title\=The Strickland Standard for Claims of Ineffective Assistance of Counsel: Emasculating the Sixth Amendment in the Guise of Due Process\|jstor\=3312010\|journal\=University of Pennsylvania Law Review\|volume\=134\|issue\=5\|pages\=1259–1289\|doi\=10\.2307/3312010}} the Court ruled that simply having "a person who happens to be a lawyer \[...] present at trial alongside the accused \[...] is not enough to satisfy the constitutional command".{{ussc\|466\|668\|1984\|pin\=685\|name\=Strickland v. Washington}}. The *Strickland* Court determined that a conviction may be reversed for ineffective assistance of counsel if the defendant shows that:
* Counsel's performance was "deficient," such that counsel's errors were "so serious that counsel was not functioning as the 'counsel' guaranteed the defendant by the Sixth Amendment" (the *performance prong*); and
* Counsel's performance gives rise to a reasonable probability that if counsel had performed adequately, the result would have been different (the *prejudice prong*).*Strickland*, 466 U.S. at 693–694\.
### Michigan trial court
On March 25, 2003, Anthony Cooper shot Kali Mundy repeatedly under the waist, injuring (but not killing) her. Cooper was charged with assault with intent to murder, possession of a firearm by a felon, possession of a firearm in the commission of a felony, misdemeanor possession of marijuana, and for being a habitual offender. Before trial, the prosecution offered Cooper a [plea bargain](/wiki/Plea_bargain "Plea bargain") to dismiss two charges and recommend a sentence of 51 to 85 months on the other two in exchange for a guilty plea. Cooper expressed willingness to accept the deal and plead guilty, but later rejected the offer and went to trial. At trial, Cooper was convicted on all counts and received a sentence of 185 to 360 months' imprisonment.*Lafler v. Cooper*, {{ussc\|566\|156\|2012\|pin\=161}}.
Cooper later gave evidence his attorney had inaccurately advised him that he could not be convicted of assault with intent to murder because he shot the victim below the waist. The state trial court heard and rejected Cooper's motion for resentencing, not finding that his attorney's defective advice, to reject the plea agreement, constituted ineffective assistance of counsel.
### State court appeals
Cooper [appealed](/wiki/Appeal "Appeal") to the [Michigan Court of Appeals](/wiki/Michigan_Court_of_Appeals "Michigan Court of Appeals"), renewing his claim that his attorney's incorrect advice during plea bargaining constituted ineffective assistance of counsel. In a *[per curiam](/wiki/Per_curiam "Per curiam")* opinion issued on March 15, 2005, the Court of Appeals affirmed the rejection of the claim on the grounds that Cooper had "knowingly and intelligently rejected two plea offers and chose to go to trial".*People v. Cooper*, No. 250583, 2005 WL 599740 (March 15, 2005\) (per curiam). Cooper applied to the [Michigan Supreme Court](/wiki/Michigan_Supreme_Court "Michigan Supreme Court") for leave to file an appeal, which it denied on October 31, 2005, "because we are not persuaded that the questions presented should be reviewed by this Court".*People v. Cooper*, 474 Mich. 905, 705 N. W. 2d 118 (2005\).
### Federal habeas proceedings
Cooper filed a petition for a writ of *habeas corpus* in the [United States District Court for the Eastern District of Michigan](/wiki/United_States_District_Court_for_the_Eastern_District_of_Michigan "United States District Court for the Eastern District of Michigan"), again renewing his claim that his attorney's advice to reject the plea agreement constituted ineffective assistance of counsel. On March 26, 2009, [U.S. District Judge](/wiki/U.S._district_judge "U.S. district judge") [Denise Page Hood](/wiki/Denise_Page_Hood "Denise Page Hood") granted the petition, issuing a writ of habeas corpus "ordering specific performance of Petitioner’s original plea agreement, for a minimum sentence in the range of fifty\-one to eighty\-five months, the plea Petitioner would have accepted if counsel had been competent".*[Cooper v. Lafler](https://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/USCOURTS-mied-2_06-cv-11068/pdf/USCOURTS-mied-2_06-cv-11068-0.pdf)*, No. 06–11068, 2009 WL 817712, \*9 (ED Mich., March 26, 2009\).
The State of Michigan appealed to the [United States Court of Appeals for the Sixth Circuit](/wiki/United_States_Court_of_Appeals_for_the_Sixth_Circuit "United States Court of Appeals for the Sixth Circuit"), arguing that Cooper's lawyer had not provided deficient advice, that there was no prejudice because Cooper received a fair trial, and that the District Court's "specific performance" remedy was unlawful. The Sixth Circuit affirmed the District Court's order, holding that Cooper had established a *Strickland* violation and that the remedy of specific performance was proper.*Cooper v. Lafler*, 376 F.Appx. 563 (6th Cir. 2010\).
|
[
"Background\n----------",
"### Ineffective assistance of counsel",
"{{main\\|Ineffective assistance of counsel}}\nThe [Assistance of Counsel Clause](/wiki/Assistance_of_Counsel_Clause \"Assistance of Counsel Clause\") of the [Sixth Amendment to the United States Constitution](/wiki/Sixth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution \"Sixth Amendment to the United States Constitution\") provides that:",
"> In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right ... to have the Assistance of Counsel for his defence.\"U.S. Const. Amend. VI.",
"The Supreme Court has interpreted the clause to require states to provide indigent criminal defendants with counsel. In *[Strickland v. Washington](/wiki/Strickland_v._Washington \"Strickland v. Washington\")*, the controlling Supreme Court decision on ineffective assistance of counsel,{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.law.cornell.edu/wex/ineffective\\_assistance\\_of\\_counsel\\|title\\=Ineffective Assistance of Counsel\\|last\\=Hashmall\\|first\\=Mr. Joe\\|date\\=2009\\-09\\-22\\|website\\=LII / Legal Information Institute\\|language\\=en\\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-06\\-27}}{{Cite journal\\|last\\=Gabriel\\|first\\=Richard L.\\|date\\=1986\\|title\\=The Strickland Standard for Claims of Ineffective Assistance of Counsel: Emasculating the Sixth Amendment in the Guise of Due Process\\|jstor\\=3312010\\|journal\\=University of Pennsylvania Law Review\\|volume\\=134\\|issue\\=5\\|pages\\=1259–1289\\|doi\\=10\\.2307/3312010}} the Court ruled that simply having \"a person who happens to be a lawyer \\[...] present at trial alongside the accused \\[...] is not enough to satisfy the constitutional command\".{{ussc\\|466\\|668\\|1984\\|pin\\=685\\|name\\=Strickland v. Washington}}. The *Strickland* Court determined that a conviction may be reversed for ineffective assistance of counsel if the defendant shows that:",
"* Counsel's performance was \"deficient,\" such that counsel's errors were \"so serious that counsel was not functioning as the 'counsel' guaranteed the defendant by the Sixth Amendment\" (the *performance prong*); and\n* Counsel's performance gives rise to a reasonable probability that if counsel had performed adequately, the result would have been different (the *prejudice prong*).*Strickland*, 466 U.S. at 693–694\\.",
"### Michigan trial court",
"On March 25, 2003, Anthony Cooper shot Kali Mundy repeatedly under the waist, injuring (but not killing) her. Cooper was charged with assault with intent to murder, possession of a firearm by a felon, possession of a firearm in the commission of a felony, misdemeanor possession of marijuana, and for being a habitual offender. Before trial, the prosecution offered Cooper a [plea bargain](/wiki/Plea_bargain \"Plea bargain\") to dismiss two charges and recommend a sentence of 51 to 85 months on the other two in exchange for a guilty plea. Cooper expressed willingness to accept the deal and plead guilty, but later rejected the offer and went to trial. At trial, Cooper was convicted on all counts and received a sentence of 185 to 360 months' imprisonment.*Lafler v. Cooper*, {{ussc\\|566\\|156\\|2012\\|pin\\=161}}.",
"Cooper later gave evidence his attorney had inaccurately advised him that he could not be convicted of assault with intent to murder because he shot the victim below the waist. The state trial court heard and rejected Cooper's motion for resentencing, not finding that his attorney's defective advice, to reject the plea agreement, constituted ineffective assistance of counsel.",
"### State court appeals",
"Cooper [appealed](/wiki/Appeal \"Appeal\") to the [Michigan Court of Appeals](/wiki/Michigan_Court_of_Appeals \"Michigan Court of Appeals\"), renewing his claim that his attorney's incorrect advice during plea bargaining constituted ineffective assistance of counsel. In a *[per curiam](/wiki/Per_curiam \"Per curiam\")* opinion issued on March 15, 2005, the Court of Appeals affirmed the rejection of the claim on the grounds that Cooper had \"knowingly and intelligently rejected two plea offers and chose to go to trial\".*People v. Cooper*, No. 250583, 2005 WL 599740 (March 15, 2005\\) (per curiam). Cooper applied to the [Michigan Supreme Court](/wiki/Michigan_Supreme_Court \"Michigan Supreme Court\") for leave to file an appeal, which it denied on October 31, 2005, \"because we are not persuaded that the questions presented should be reviewed by this Court\".*People v. Cooper*, 474 Mich. 905, 705 N. W. 2d 118 (2005\\).",
"### Federal habeas proceedings",
"Cooper filed a petition for a writ of *habeas corpus* in the [United States District Court for the Eastern District of Michigan](/wiki/United_States_District_Court_for_the_Eastern_District_of_Michigan \"United States District Court for the Eastern District of Michigan\"), again renewing his claim that his attorney's advice to reject the plea agreement constituted ineffective assistance of counsel. On March 26, 2009, [U.S. District Judge](/wiki/U.S._district_judge \"U.S. district judge\") [Denise Page Hood](/wiki/Denise_Page_Hood \"Denise Page Hood\") granted the petition, issuing a writ of habeas corpus \"ordering specific performance of Petitioner’s original plea agreement, for a minimum sentence in the range of fifty\\-one to eighty\\-five months, the plea Petitioner would have accepted if counsel had been competent\".*[Cooper v. Lafler](https://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/USCOURTS-mied-2_06-cv-11068/pdf/USCOURTS-mied-2_06-cv-11068-0.pdf)*, No. 06–11068, 2009 WL 817712, \\*9 (ED Mich., March 26, 2009\\).",
"The State of Michigan appealed to the [United States Court of Appeals for the Sixth Circuit](/wiki/United_States_Court_of_Appeals_for_the_Sixth_Circuit \"United States Court of Appeals for the Sixth Circuit\"), arguing that Cooper's lawyer had not provided deficient advice, that there was no prejudice because Cooper received a fair trial, and that the District Court's \"specific performance\" remedy was unlawful. The Sixth Circuit affirmed the District Court's order, holding that Cooper had established a *Strickland* violation and that the remedy of specific performance was proper.*Cooper v. Lafler*, 376 F.Appx. 563 (6th Cir. 2010\\).",
""
] |
Description of the garden
-------------------------
The space between the water reservoir and the wall was used for a public garden, inaugurated in 1925 and named *della Rotonda*. To enter the garden one cross a stepped path starting from Vicolo Mazzini and continuing parallel to Viale della Rotonda. The path is characterized by five balconies with a circular fountain in the centre and each balcony is framed by a simple ring of grass. The presence of many fountains is due to the presence of the water reservoir. In every fountain there are many water\-lilies which fill the visitors with a sense of pleasure and serenity.
Every terrace is separated from the next by gardens and gravel paths shaped like a circular geometric garden with an axis perpendicular to the water reservoir. The style of the Rotonda Garden is a mixture of [Liberty](/wiki/Liberty_architecture "Liberty architecture") and [Classicism](/wiki/Classical_architecture "Classical architecture") but it also presents features of the 20th century. The architectural style recalls the late [baroque](/wiki/Baroque "Baroque"), but it is also rich in classical references, for example the flower urns and the tower mausoleum are carried out with a secessionist taste, while the shape of the flower beds, (round elliptic and drop\-like), are typically liberty. In the flower beds are low bushes that are reminiscent of palms and agaves. At first the garden was apparently meant to hold few shrubby plants to be exposed to the light so as to put the main elements in contact with the water of the garden.
At present the garden is being neglected and the trees that live here have no intrinsic value. These trees represent a serious problem for the masonry banks because their roots push on them.
The main entrance is characterized by an imposing wrought\-iron railing in liberty style. The garden has and overturned\- L\-shape which proceeds long and narrow in the balcony and terraces and widens at the end of these, where the water reservoir is situated. On it there are geometric elements in the lower part, floral decorations in the central park and Padua coat of arms in the upper part.
At the bottom of the garden there is the stately water reservoir; its main fountain, which has a temple form, is close to a strong [terraced wall](/wiki/Terraced_wall "Terraced wall") structure. Inside there are some circular pilasters connected to each other by means of perimeterl and radial concrete arches, disposed on two overlapping floors because they have to support the suspended water reservoir properly.
The story of the aqueduct started on 26 August 1875, when the Mayor said
> “water is so vital to man and society, like air and light, that an abundance of water distribution and a regular distribution to the whole city, deserve to be fully kept alive in the citizens’ memories”.
Following study, water from the Brenta and Bacchiglione rivers was excluded owing to their torpidity and bacterial counts, instead water of Dueville source was chosen. On 17 February 1886, the Padua town hall granted the management of the new aqueduct to *Società Veneta per Imprese* and *Costruzioni Pubbliche*. On 13 1888 in *Unità d’ Italia* Square, the much expected event took place: in front of an exulting crowd of Paduans the first pure water flow was raised. The water transport from Dueville was carried out by means of an underground supply {{convert\|42\|km\|mi\|abbr\=on}} long made of concrete and bricks, thoroughly plastered in order to ensure the complete isolation from external agents; this supply is still working. The reservoir, however, did not slacken the use of wells by Paduans, who avoided the costly aqueduct water. This bankrupted the *Società Veneta* administration. Accordingly, the commune, in 1892, decided to manage the service on its own through a special town hall authority.
This office ceased its activity in 1904 when the town hall administration decided to combine the water and the gas service. Two Municipal Companies were set up and these merged into one in 1984, when the AMAG or *Azienda Municipalizzata Acqua\-Gas* of Padua was established.
|
[
"Description of the garden\n-------------------------",
"The space between the water reservoir and the wall was used for a public garden, inaugurated in 1925 and named *della Rotonda*. To enter the garden one cross a stepped path starting from Vicolo Mazzini and continuing parallel to Viale della Rotonda. The path is characterized by five balconies with a circular fountain in the centre and each balcony is framed by a simple ring of grass. The presence of many fountains is due to the presence of the water reservoir. In every fountain there are many water\\-lilies which fill the visitors with a sense of pleasure and serenity.",
"Every terrace is separated from the next by gardens and gravel paths shaped like a circular geometric garden with an axis perpendicular to the water reservoir. The style of the Rotonda Garden is a mixture of [Liberty](/wiki/Liberty_architecture \"Liberty architecture\") and [Classicism](/wiki/Classical_architecture \"Classical architecture\") but it also presents features of the 20th century. The architectural style recalls the late [baroque](/wiki/Baroque \"Baroque\"), but it is also rich in classical references, for example the flower urns and the tower mausoleum are carried out with a secessionist taste, while the shape of the flower beds, (round elliptic and drop\\-like), are typically liberty. In the flower beds are low bushes that are reminiscent of palms and agaves. At first the garden was apparently meant to hold few shrubby plants to be exposed to the light so as to put the main elements in contact with the water of the garden.\nAt present the garden is being neglected and the trees that live here have no intrinsic value. These trees represent a serious problem for the masonry banks because their roots push on them. \nThe main entrance is characterized by an imposing wrought\\-iron railing in liberty style. The garden has and overturned\\- L\\-shape which proceeds long and narrow in the balcony and terraces and widens at the end of these, where the water reservoir is situated. On it there are geometric elements in the lower part, floral decorations in the central park and Padua coat of arms in the upper part.",
"At the bottom of the garden there is the stately water reservoir; its main fountain, which has a temple form, is close to a strong [terraced wall](/wiki/Terraced_wall \"Terraced wall\") structure. Inside there are some circular pilasters connected to each other by means of perimeterl and radial concrete arches, disposed on two overlapping floors because they have to support the suspended water reservoir properly.",
"The story of the aqueduct started on 26 August 1875, when the Mayor said",
"> “water is so vital to man and society, like air and light, that an abundance of water distribution and a regular distribution to the whole city, deserve to be fully kept alive in the citizens’ memories”.",
"",
"Following study, water from the Brenta and Bacchiglione rivers was excluded owing to their torpidity and bacterial counts, instead water of Dueville source was chosen. On 17 February 1886, the Padua town hall granted the management of the new aqueduct to *Società Veneta per Imprese* and *Costruzioni Pubbliche*. On 13 1888 in *Unità d’ Italia* Square, the much expected event took place: in front of an exulting crowd of Paduans the first pure water flow was raised. The water transport from Dueville was carried out by means of an underground supply {{convert\\|42\\|km\\|mi\\|abbr\\=on}} long made of concrete and bricks, thoroughly plastered in order to ensure the complete isolation from external agents; this supply is still working. The reservoir, however, did not slacken the use of wells by Paduans, who avoided the costly aqueduct water. This bankrupted the *Società Veneta* administration. Accordingly, the commune, in 1892, decided to manage the service on its own through a special town hall authority.",
"This office ceased its activity in 1904 when the town hall administration decided to combine the water and the gas service. Two Municipal Companies were set up and these merged into one in 1984, when the AMAG or *Azienda Municipalizzata Acqua\\-Gas* of Padua was established.",
""
] |
History
-------
### Creation
From the mid\-1930s, the Greater London area comprised four types of local government authorities. There were [county boroughs](/wiki/County_borough "County borough"), [municipal boroughs](/wiki/Municipal_borough "Municipal borough"), [urban districts](/wiki/Urban_district_%28Great_Britain_and_Ireland%29 "Urban district (Great Britain and Ireland)") and [metropolitan boroughs](/wiki/Metropolitan_boroughs_of_the_County_of_London "Metropolitan boroughs of the County of London"). The large county boroughs provided all local government services and held the powers usually invested in county councils. The municipal borough and urban district authorities had fewer powers. The situation was made more complex because county councils could delegate functions such as elementary education and library provision to the municipal borough and district councils, and this was implemented piecemeal. Reform of London local government sought to regularise this arrangement.
The [Royal Commission on Local Government in Greater London](/wiki/Royal_Commission_on_Local_Government_in_Greater_London "Royal Commission on Local Government in Greater London") was established in 1957 and the report was published on 19 October 1960\. It proposed 52 "Greater London Boroughs" with a population range of 100,000 to 250,000\.{{cite book \|title \= The Report of The Royal Commission on Local Government in Greater London \|year \= 1961 \|last \= Sharpe \|first \= LJ }} This was made up of a mixture of whole existing units, mergers of two or three areas, and two boroughs formed as the result of a split. In December 1961 the government proposed that there would be 34 boroughs rather than 52, and detailed their boundaries. The proposed number was further reduced to 32 in 1962\.
On 1 April 1965, the 32 London boroughs and [Greater London](/wiki/Greater_London "Greater London") were created by the *[London Government Act 1963](/wiki/London_Government_Act_1963 "London Government Act 1963")*. Twelve boroughs in the former County of London area were designated [Inner London](/wiki/Inner_London "Inner London") boroughs and the 20 others were designated [Outer London](/wiki/Outer_London "Outer London") boroughs. Outer London borough councils were [local education authorities](/wiki/Local_education_authority "Local education authority"), but Inner London borough councils were so designated primarily to continue the existence of an [Inner London Education Authority](/wiki/Inner_London_Education_Authority "Inner London Education Authority"), praised by official Opposition and government who further noted that unusually the former County of London's many small local authorities had no history of providing education. The [City of London](/wiki/City_of_London "City of London") continued to be administered by the [City of London Corporation](/wiki/City_of_London_Corporation "City of London Corporation"), and the [Inner](/wiki/Inner_Temple "Inner Temple") and [Middle](/wiki/Middle_Temple "Middle Temple") Temples continued to govern their own areas.{{NoteTag\|Local government legislation makes special provision for the City of London Corporation, Inner Temple and Middle Temple to perform the functions of London borough councils in their areas.}}
Elections were held on [7 May 1964](/wiki/1964_London_local_elections "1964 London local elections"), with the new councils acting as shadow authorities before coming into their powers the following year.
### Former authorities
The boroughs were created as follows. Some relatively minor changes have been made to the boundaries of boroughs since 1965, and two have changed their names.
[600px\|thumb\|center\|Former local authorities in the Greater London area
[County boroughs](/wiki/County_borough "County borough")
[Metropolitan boroughs](/wiki/Metropolitan_boroughs_of_the_County_of_London "Metropolitan boroughs of the County of London")
[Municipal boroughs](/wiki/Municipal_borough "Municipal borough")
[Urban districts](/wiki/Urban_district_%28Great_Britain_and_Ireland%29 "Urban district (Great Britain and Ireland)")](/wiki/File:Greater_London_composite_parts.PNG "Greater London composite parts.PNG")
| London borough | Designation | Former areas | | | | |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| [Camden](/wiki/London_Borough_of_Camden "London Borough of Camden") | Inner | [Hampstead](/wiki/Metropolitan_Borough_of_Hampstead "Metropolitan Borough of Hampstead") (11a) | [St Pancras](/wiki/Metropolitan_Borough_of_St_Pancras "Metropolitan Borough of St Pancras") (11b) | [Holborn](/wiki/Metropolitan_Borough_of_Holborn "Metropolitan Borough of Holborn") (11c) | | |
| [Greenwich](/wiki/Royal_Borough_of_Greenwich "Royal Borough of Greenwich") | Inner | [Greenwich](/wiki/Metropolitan_Borough_of_Greenwich "Metropolitan Borough of Greenwich") (22a) | [Woolwich](/wiki/Metropolitan_Borough_of_Woolwich "Metropolitan Borough of Woolwich") (part) (22b) | | | |
| [Hackney](/wiki/London_Borough_of_Hackney "London Borough of Hackney") | Inner | [Hackney](/wiki/Metropolitan_Borough_of_Hackney "Metropolitan Borough of Hackney") (9a) | [Shoreditch](/wiki/Metropolitan_Borough_of_Shoreditch "Metropolitan Borough of Shoreditch") (9b) | [Stoke Newington](/wiki/Metropolitan_Borough_of_Stoke_Newington "Metropolitan Borough of Stoke Newington") (9c) | | |
| [Hammersmith](/wiki/London_Borough_of_Hammersmith_and_Fulham "London Borough of Hammersmith and Fulham"){{NoteTag\|Later renamed Hammersmith and Fulham.}} | Inner | [Hammersmith](/wiki/Metropolitan_Borough_of_Hammersmith "Metropolitan Borough of Hammersmith") (4a) | [Fulham](/wiki/Metropolitan_Borough_of_Fulham "Metropolitan Borough of Fulham") (4b) | | | |
| [Islington](/wiki/London_Borough_of_Islington "London Borough of Islington") | Inner | [Islington](/wiki/Metropolitan_Borough_of_Islington "Metropolitan Borough of Islington") (10a) | [Finsbury](/wiki/Metropolitan_Borough_of_Finsbury "Metropolitan Borough of Finsbury") (10b) | | | |
| [Kensington and Chelsea](/wiki/Royal_Borough_of_Kensington_and_Chelsea "Royal Borough of Kensington and Chelsea") | Inner | [Kensington](/wiki/Metropolitan_Borough_of_Kensington "Metropolitan Borough of Kensington") (3a) | [Chelsea](/wiki/Metropolitan_Borough_of_Chelsea "Metropolitan Borough of Chelsea") (3b) | | | |
| [Lambeth](/wiki/London_Borough_of_Lambeth "London Borough of Lambeth") | Inner | [Lambeth](/wiki/Metropolitan_Borough_of_Lambeth "Metropolitan Borough of Lambeth") (6a) | [Wandsworth](/wiki/Metropolitan_Borough_of_Wandsworth "Metropolitan Borough of Wandsworth") (part) (6b) | | | |
| [Lewisham](/wiki/London_Borough_of_Lewisham "London Borough of Lewisham") | Inner | [Lewisham](/wiki/Metropolitan_Borough_of_Lewisham "Metropolitan Borough of Lewisham") (21a) | [Deptford](/wiki/Metropolitan_Borough_of_Deptford "Metropolitan Borough of Deptford") (21b) | | | |
| [Southwark](/wiki/London_Borough_of_Southwark "London Borough of Southwark") | Inner | [Bermondsey](/wiki/Metropolitan_Borough_of_Bermondsey "Metropolitan Borough of Bermondsey") (7b) | [Camberwell](/wiki/Metropolitan_Borough_of_Camberwell "Metropolitan Borough of Camberwell") (7c) | [Southwark](/wiki/Metropolitan_Borough_of_Southwark "Metropolitan Borough of Southwark") (7a) | | |
| [Tower Hamlets](/wiki/London_Borough_of_Tower_Hamlets "London Borough of Tower Hamlets") | Inner | [Bethnal Green](/wiki/Metropolitan_Borough_of_Bethnal_Green "Metropolitan Borough of Bethnal Green") (8a) | [Poplar](/wiki/Metropolitan_Borough_of_Poplar "Metropolitan Borough of Poplar") (8c) | [Stepney](/wiki/Metropolitan_Borough_of_Stepney "Metropolitan Borough of Stepney") (8b) | | |
| [Wandsworth](/wiki/London_Borough_of_Wandsworth "London Borough of Wandsworth") | Inner | [Battersea](/wiki/Metropolitan_Borough_of_Battersea "Metropolitan Borough of Battersea") (5b) | [Wandsworth](/wiki/Metropolitan_Borough_of_Wandsworth "Metropolitan Borough of Wandsworth") (part) (5a) | | | |
| [Westminster](/wiki/City_of_Westminster "City of Westminster") | Inner | [Paddington](/wiki/Metropolitan_Borough_of_Paddington "Metropolitan Borough of Paddington") (2c) | [St Marylebone](/wiki/Metropolitan_Borough_of_St_Marylebone "Metropolitan Borough of St Marylebone") (2b) | [Westminster](/wiki/Metropolitan_Borough_of_Westminster "Metropolitan Borough of Westminster") (2a) | | |
| [Barking](/wiki/London_Borough_of_Barking_and_Dagenham "London Borough of Barking and Dagenham"){{NoteTag\|Renamed Barking and Dagenham in 1980\.}} | Outer | [Barking](/wiki/Municipal_Borough_of_Barking "Municipal Borough of Barking") (part) (25a) | [Dagenham](/wiki/Municipal_Borough_of_Dagenham "Municipal Borough of Dagenham") (part) (25b) | | | |
| [Barnet](/wiki/London_Borough_of_Barnet "London Borough of Barnet") | Outer | [Barnet](/wiki/Barnet_Urban_District "Barnet Urban District") (31a) | [East Barnet](/wiki/East_Barnet_Urban_District "East Barnet Urban District") (31b) | [Finchley](/wiki/Municipal_Borough_of_Finchley "Municipal Borough of Finchley") (31d) | [Hendon](/wiki/Municipal_Borough_of_Hendon "Municipal Borough of Hendon") (31c) | [Friern Barnet](/wiki/Friern_Barnet_Urban_District "Friern Barnet Urban District") (31e) |
| [Bexley](/wiki/London_Borough_of_Bexley "London Borough of Bexley") | Outer | [Bexley](/wiki/Municipal_Borough_of_Bexley "Municipal Borough of Bexley") (23b) | [Erith](/wiki/Municipal_Borough_of_Erith "Municipal Borough of Erith") (23a) | [Crayford](/wiki/Crayford_Urban_District "Crayford Urban District") (23c) | [Chislehurst and Sidcup](/wiki/Chislehurst_and_Sidcup_Urban_District "Chislehurst and Sidcup Urban District") (part) (23d) | |
| [Brent](/wiki/London_Borough_of_Brent "London Borough of Brent") | Outer | [Wembley](/wiki/Municipal_Borough_of_Wembley "Municipal Borough of Wembley") (12a) | [Willesden](/wiki/Municipal_Borough_of_Willesden "Municipal Borough of Willesden") (12b) | | | |
| [Bromley](/wiki/London_Borough_of_Bromley "London Borough of Bromley") | Outer | [Bromley](/wiki/Municipal_Borough_of_Bromley "Municipal Borough of Bromley") (20c) | [Beckenham](/wiki/Municipal_Borough_of_Beckenham "Municipal Borough of Beckenham") (20b) | [Orpington](/wiki/Orpington_Urban_District "Orpington Urban District") (20e) | [Penge](/wiki/Penge_Urban_District "Penge Urban District") (20a) | [Chislehurst and Sidcup](/wiki/Chislehurst_and_Sidcup_Urban_District "Chislehurst and Sidcup Urban District") (part) (20d) |
| [Croydon](/wiki/London_Borough_of_Croydon "London Borough of Croydon") | Outer | [Croydon](/wiki/County_Borough_of_Croydon "County Borough of Croydon") (19a) | [Coulsdon and Purley](/wiki/Coulsdon_and_Purley_Urban_District "Coulsdon and Purley Urban District") (19b) | | | |
| [Ealing](/wiki/London_Borough_of_Ealing "London Borough of Ealing") | Outer | [Acton](/wiki/Municipal_Borough_of_Acton "Municipal Borough of Acton") (13b) | [Ealing](/wiki/Municipal_Borough_of_Ealing "Municipal Borough of Ealing") (13a) | [Southall](/wiki/Municipal_Borough_of_Southall "Municipal Borough of Southall") (13c) | | |
| [Enfield](/wiki/London_Borough_of_Enfield "London Borough of Enfield") | Outer | [Edmonton](/wiki/Municipal_Borough_of_Edmonton "Municipal Borough of Edmonton") (30c) | [Enfield](/wiki/Municipal_Borough_of_Enfield "Municipal Borough of Enfield") (30a) | [Southgate](/wiki/Municipal_Borough_of_Southgate "Municipal Borough of Southgate") (30b) | | |
| [Haringey](/wiki/London_Borough_of_Haringey "London Borough of Haringey") | Outer | [Hornsey](/wiki/Municipal_Borough_of_Hornsey "Municipal Borough of Hornsey") (29b) | [Tottenham](/wiki/Municipal_Borough_of_Tottenham "Municipal Borough of Tottenham") (29c) | [Wood Green](/wiki/Municipal_Borough_of_Wood_Green "Municipal Borough of Wood Green") (29a) | | |
| [Harrow](/wiki/London_Borough_of_Harrow "London Borough of Harrow") | Outer | [Harrow](/wiki/Municipal_Borough_of_Harrow "Municipal Borough of Harrow") (32\) | | | | |
| [Havering](/wiki/London_Borough_of_Havering "London Borough of Havering") | Outer | [Romford](/wiki/Municipal_Borough_of_Romford "Municipal Borough of Romford") (24a) | [Hornchurch](/wiki/Hornchurch_Urban_District "Hornchurch Urban District") (24b) | | | |
| [Hillingdon](/wiki/London_Borough_of_Hillingdon "London Borough of Hillingdon") | Outer | [Hayes and Harlington](/wiki/Hayes_and_Harlington_Urban_District "Hayes and Harlington Urban District") (33c) | [Ruislip Northwood](/wiki/Ruislip_Northwood_Urban_District "Ruislip Northwood Urban District") (33b) | [Uxbridge](/wiki/Municipal_Borough_of_Uxbridge "Municipal Borough of Uxbridge") (33a) | [Yiewsley and West Drayton](/wiki/Yiewsley_and_West_Drayton_Urban_District "Yiewsley and West Drayton Urban District") (33d) | |
| [Hounslow](/wiki/London_Borough_of_Hounslow "London Borough of Hounslow") | Outer | [Brentford and Chiswick](/wiki/Municipal_Borough_of_Brentford_and_Chiswick "Municipal Borough of Brentford and Chiswick") (14c) | [Feltham](/wiki/Feltham_Urban_District "Feltham Urban District") (14a) | [Heston and Isleworth](/wiki/Municipal_Borough_of_Heston_and_Isleworth "Municipal Borough of Heston and Isleworth") (14b) | | |
| [Kingston upon Thames](/wiki/Royal_Borough_of_Kingston_upon_Thames "Royal Borough of Kingston upon Thames") | Outer | [Kingston upon Thames](/wiki/Municipal_Borough_of_Kingston_upon_Thames "Municipal Borough of Kingston upon Thames") (16a) | [Malden and Coombe](/wiki/Municipal_Borough_of_Malden_and_Coombe "Municipal Borough of Malden and Coombe") (16b) | [Surbiton](/wiki/Municipal_Borough_of_Surbiton "Municipal Borough of Surbiton") (16c) | | |
| [Merton](/wiki/London_Borough_of_Merton "London Borough of Merton") | Outer | [Mitcham](/wiki/Municipal_Borough_of_Mitcham "Municipal Borough of Mitcham") (17c) | [Merton and Morden](/wiki/Merton_and_Morden_Urban_District "Merton and Morden Urban District") (17b) | [Wimbledon](/wiki/Municipal_Borough_of_Wimbledon "Municipal Borough of Wimbledon") (17a) | | |
| [Newham](/wiki/London_Borough_of_Newham "London Borough of Newham") | Outer | [West Ham](/wiki/County_Borough_of_West_Ham "County Borough of West Ham") (27a) | [East Ham](/wiki/County_Borough_of_East_Ham "County Borough of East Ham") (27b) | [Barking](/wiki/Municipal_Borough_of_Barking "Municipal Borough of Barking") (part) (27c) | [Woolwich](/wiki/Metropolitan_Borough_of_Woolwich "Metropolitan Borough of Woolwich") (part) (27d) | |
| [Redbridge](/wiki/London_Borough_of_Redbridge "London Borough of Redbridge") | Outer | [Ilford](/wiki/Municipal_Borough_of_Ilford "Municipal Borough of Ilford") (26a) | [Wanstead and Woodford](/wiki/Municipal_Borough_of_Wanstead_and_Woodford "Municipal Borough of Wanstead and Woodford") (26b) | [Dagenham](/wiki/Municipal_Borough_of_Dagenham "Municipal Borough of Dagenham") (part) (26c) | [Chigwell](/wiki/Chigwell_Urban_District "Chigwell Urban District") (part) (26d) | |
| [Richmond upon Thames](/wiki/London_Borough_of_Richmond_upon_Thames "London Borough of Richmond upon Thames") | Outer | [Barnes](/wiki/Municipal_Borough_of_Barnes "Municipal Borough of Barnes") (15a) | [Richmond](/wiki/Municipal_Borough_of_Richmond_%28Surrey%29 "Municipal Borough of Richmond (Surrey)") (15b) | [Twickenham](/wiki/Municipal_Borough_of_Twickenham "Municipal Borough of Twickenham") (15c) | | |
| [Sutton](/wiki/London_Borough_of_Sutton "London Borough of Sutton") | Outer | [Beddington](/wiki/Municipal_Borough_of_Beddington "Municipal Borough of Beddington") (18c) | [Carshalton](/wiki/Carshalton_Urban_District "Carshalton Urban District") (18b) | [Sutton and Cheam](/wiki/Municipal_Borough_of_Sutton_and_Cheam "Municipal Borough of Sutton and Cheam") (18a) | | |
| [Waltham Forest](/wiki/London_Borough_of_Waltham_Forest "London Borough of Waltham Forest") | Outer | [Chingford](/wiki/Municipal_Borough_of_Chingford "Municipal Borough of Chingford") (28a) | [Leyton](/wiki/Municipal_Borough_of_Leyton "Municipal Borough of Leyton") (28c) | [Walthamstow](/wiki/Municipal_Borough_of_Walthamstow "Municipal Borough of Walthamstow") (28b) | | |
### Greater London Council
* + - * Between 1965 and 1986 the boroughs were part of a two\-tier system of government and shared power with the [Greater London Council](/wiki/Greater_London_Council "Greater London Council") (GLC). The split of powers and functions meant that the Greater London Council was responsible for "wide area" services such as fire, ambulance, flood prevention, and refuse disposal; with the London borough councils responsible for "personal" services such as social care, libraries, cemeteries and refuse collection. Several London borough councils and the GLC were involved in the [rate\-capping rebellion](/wiki/Rate-capping_rebellion "Rate-capping rebellion") of 1985\. On 1 April 1986 the GLC was abolished and the borough councils gained responsibility for some services that had been provided by the Greater London Council, such as [waste disposal](/wiki/Waste_disposal_authorities_in_London "Waste disposal authorities in London"). The [Inner London Education Authority](/wiki/Inner_London_Education_Authority "Inner London Education Authority") continued to exist as an {{Lang\|la\|ad hoc}} authority. In 1990 it was abolished and the Inner London borough councils also became local education authorities.
### Name and boundary changes
The [Local Government Act 1972](/wiki/Local_Government_Act_1972 "Local Government Act 1972") provided a mechanism for the name of a London borough and its council to be changed. This was used by the London Borough of Hammersmith (changed to Hammersmith and Fulham) on 1 April 1979 and the London Borough of Barking (changed to Barking and Dagenham) on 1 January 1980\. Borough names formed by combining two locality names had been discouraged when the boroughs were created.
The London boroughs were created by combining whole existing units of local government and it was realised that this might provide arbitrary boundaries in some places. The London Government Act 1963 provided a mechanism for communities on the edge of Greater London to petition for transfer from London boroughs to a neighbouring county district.London Government Act 1963 Section 6 (4\) This was used in 1969 in the transfers of [Knockholt](/wiki/Knockholt "Knockholt") in Bromley to Kent, and of [Farleigh](/wiki/Farleigh%2C_Surrey "Farleigh, Surrey") and [Hooley](/wiki/Hooley "Hooley") in Croydon to Surrey. The Act also provided for transfers between London boroughs and neighbouring counties where there was consensus for the change between all the relevant local authorities. This provision was used to exchange two islands on the [River Thames](/wiki/River_Thames "River Thames") between Richmond upon Thames and Surrey. (See [List of Greater London boundary changes](/wiki/List_of_Greater_London_boundary_changes "List of Greater London boundary changes").)
The [Local Government Boundary Commission for England](/wiki/Local_Government_Boundary_Commission_for_England "Local Government Boundary Commission for England") was established by the Local Government Act 1972 to review periodically the boundaries of Greater London and the London boroughs. The first review of boundaries commenced on 1 April 1987 and reported in 1992\.{{cite web \|title \= The Local Government Boundary Commission for England, The Boundaries of Greater London and The London Borough, Report 627 \|date \= 1992 \|url \= https://www.lgbce.org.uk/\_\_data/assets/pdf\_file/0016/11419/627\-the\-boundaries\-of\-greater\-london\-and\-the\-london\-boroughs.pdf \|website\=Lgbce.org.uk \|access\-date\=21 December 2017 }} Following the review a series of relatively minor adjustments were made to borough boundaries, for example uniting the whole of the [Becontree](/wiki/Becontree "Becontree") estate in [Barking and Dagenham](/wiki/London_Borough_of_Barking_and_Dagenham "London Borough of Barking and Dagenham"). The commission noted that many of its recommendations were strongly opposed and were not implemented. The boundary of the City of London with adjacent boroughs was adjusted to remove some anomalies.{{cite web \|url \= http://www.legislation.gov.uk/uksi/1993/1445/made \|title \= The City and London Borough Boundaries Order 1993 \|website \= Legislation.gov.uk \|access\-date \= 22 December 2017 }}
The London boroughs were incorporated using the provisions of the [Municipal Corporations Act 1882](/wiki/Municipal_Corporations_Act_1882 "Municipal Corporations Act 1882").{{cite web \|title\=London Government Act 1963 (as amended) \|url\=https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/1963/33 \|website\=legislation.gov.uk \|access\-date\=15 February 2024 \|quote\=The Municipal Corporations Act 1882 shall apply to every London borough}} In the London boroughs the legal entity is not the council, as elsewhere in the country, but the inhabitants incorporated as a legal entity by [royal charter](/wiki/Royal_charter "Royal charter") (a process abolished elsewhere in England and Wales under the [Local Government Act 1972](/wiki/Local_Government_Act_1972 "Local Government Act 1972")). Thus, a London authority's official legal title is "The Mayor and [Burgesses](/wiki/Burgess_%28title%29 "Burgess (title)") of the London Borough of X" (or "The Lord Mayor and Citizens of the City of Westminster").{{cite web \|title\=Local Government Act 1933 \|url\=https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/1933/51/pdfs/ukpga\_19330051\_en.pdf \|website\=legislation.gov.uk \|access\-date\=15 February 2024 \|quote\=The municipal corporation of a borough shall \[...] (a) in the case of a borough being a city, the mayor of which is entitled to bear the title of lord mayor, bear the name of the lord mayor, aldermen and citizens of the city; (b) in the case of any other borough being a city, bear the name of the mayor, aldermen and citizens of the city; and (c) in the case of any other borough, bear the name of the mayor,' aldermen and burgesses of the borough.}}
### Greater London Authority
In 2000 the [Greater London Authority](/wiki/Greater_London_Authority "Greater London Authority") was created, comprising the [Mayor of London](/wiki/Mayor_of_London "Mayor of London") and the [London Assembly](/wiki/London_Assembly "London Assembly"). As a strategic authority, it absorbed only limited powers, such as major highways and planning strategy, from the borough councils.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"### Creation",
"From the mid\\-1930s, the Greater London area comprised four types of local government authorities. There were [county boroughs](/wiki/County_borough \"County borough\"), [municipal boroughs](/wiki/Municipal_borough \"Municipal borough\"), [urban districts](/wiki/Urban_district_%28Great_Britain_and_Ireland%29 \"Urban district (Great Britain and Ireland)\") and [metropolitan boroughs](/wiki/Metropolitan_boroughs_of_the_County_of_London \"Metropolitan boroughs of the County of London\"). The large county boroughs provided all local government services and held the powers usually invested in county councils. The municipal borough and urban district authorities had fewer powers. The situation was made more complex because county councils could delegate functions such as elementary education and library provision to the municipal borough and district councils, and this was implemented piecemeal. Reform of London local government sought to regularise this arrangement.",
"The [Royal Commission on Local Government in Greater London](/wiki/Royal_Commission_on_Local_Government_in_Greater_London \"Royal Commission on Local Government in Greater London\") was established in 1957 and the report was published on 19 October 1960\\. It proposed 52 \"Greater London Boroughs\" with a population range of 100,000 to 250,000\\.{{cite book \\|title \\= The Report of The Royal Commission on Local Government in Greater London \\|year \\= 1961 \\|last \\= Sharpe \\|first \\= LJ }} This was made up of a mixture of whole existing units, mergers of two or three areas, and two boroughs formed as the result of a split. In December 1961 the government proposed that there would be 34 boroughs rather than 52, and detailed their boundaries. The proposed number was further reduced to 32 in 1962\\.",
"On 1 April 1965, the 32 London boroughs and [Greater London](/wiki/Greater_London \"Greater London\") were created by the *[London Government Act 1963](/wiki/London_Government_Act_1963 \"London Government Act 1963\")*. Twelve boroughs in the former County of London area were designated [Inner London](/wiki/Inner_London \"Inner London\") boroughs and the 20 others were designated [Outer London](/wiki/Outer_London \"Outer London\") boroughs. Outer London borough councils were [local education authorities](/wiki/Local_education_authority \"Local education authority\"), but Inner London borough councils were so designated primarily to continue the existence of an [Inner London Education Authority](/wiki/Inner_London_Education_Authority \"Inner London Education Authority\"), praised by official Opposition and government who further noted that unusually the former County of London's many small local authorities had no history of providing education. The [City of London](/wiki/City_of_London \"City of London\") continued to be administered by the [City of London Corporation](/wiki/City_of_London_Corporation \"City of London Corporation\"), and the [Inner](/wiki/Inner_Temple \"Inner Temple\") and [Middle](/wiki/Middle_Temple \"Middle Temple\") Temples continued to govern their own areas.{{NoteTag\\|Local government legislation makes special provision for the City of London Corporation, Inner Temple and Middle Temple to perform the functions of London borough councils in their areas.}}",
"Elections were held on [7 May 1964](/wiki/1964_London_local_elections \"1964 London local elections\"), with the new councils acting as shadow authorities before coming into their powers the following year.",
"### Former authorities",
"The boroughs were created as follows. Some relatively minor changes have been made to the boundaries of boroughs since 1965, and two have changed their names.",
"[600px\\|thumb\\|center\\|Former local authorities in the Greater London area\n [County boroughs](/wiki/County_borough \"County borough\")\n[Metropolitan boroughs](/wiki/Metropolitan_boroughs_of_the_County_of_London \"Metropolitan boroughs of the County of London\")\n[Municipal boroughs](/wiki/Municipal_borough \"Municipal borough\")\n[Urban districts](/wiki/Urban_district_%28Great_Britain_and_Ireland%29 \"Urban district (Great Britain and Ireland)\")](/wiki/File:Greater_London_composite_parts.PNG \"Greater London composite parts.PNG\")",
"",
"| London borough | Designation | Former areas | | | | |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| [Camden](/wiki/London_Borough_of_Camden \"London Borough of Camden\") | Inner | [Hampstead](/wiki/Metropolitan_Borough_of_Hampstead \"Metropolitan Borough of Hampstead\") (11a) | [St Pancras](/wiki/Metropolitan_Borough_of_St_Pancras \"Metropolitan Borough of St Pancras\") (11b) | [Holborn](/wiki/Metropolitan_Borough_of_Holborn \"Metropolitan Borough of Holborn\") (11c) | | |\n| [Greenwich](/wiki/Royal_Borough_of_Greenwich \"Royal Borough of Greenwich\") | Inner | [Greenwich](/wiki/Metropolitan_Borough_of_Greenwich \"Metropolitan Borough of Greenwich\") (22a) | [Woolwich](/wiki/Metropolitan_Borough_of_Woolwich \"Metropolitan Borough of Woolwich\") (part) (22b) | | | |\n| [Hackney](/wiki/London_Borough_of_Hackney \"London Borough of Hackney\") | Inner | [Hackney](/wiki/Metropolitan_Borough_of_Hackney \"Metropolitan Borough of Hackney\") (9a) | [Shoreditch](/wiki/Metropolitan_Borough_of_Shoreditch \"Metropolitan Borough of Shoreditch\") (9b) | [Stoke Newington](/wiki/Metropolitan_Borough_of_Stoke_Newington \"Metropolitan Borough of Stoke Newington\") (9c) | | |\n| [Hammersmith](/wiki/London_Borough_of_Hammersmith_and_Fulham \"London Borough of Hammersmith and Fulham\"){{NoteTag\\|Later renamed Hammersmith and Fulham.}} | Inner | [Hammersmith](/wiki/Metropolitan_Borough_of_Hammersmith \"Metropolitan Borough of Hammersmith\") (4a) | [Fulham](/wiki/Metropolitan_Borough_of_Fulham \"Metropolitan Borough of Fulham\") (4b) | | | |\n| [Islington](/wiki/London_Borough_of_Islington \"London Borough of Islington\") | Inner | [Islington](/wiki/Metropolitan_Borough_of_Islington \"Metropolitan Borough of Islington\") (10a) | [Finsbury](/wiki/Metropolitan_Borough_of_Finsbury \"Metropolitan Borough of Finsbury\") (10b) | | | |\n| [Kensington and Chelsea](/wiki/Royal_Borough_of_Kensington_and_Chelsea \"Royal Borough of Kensington and Chelsea\") | Inner | [Kensington](/wiki/Metropolitan_Borough_of_Kensington \"Metropolitan Borough of Kensington\") (3a) | [Chelsea](/wiki/Metropolitan_Borough_of_Chelsea \"Metropolitan Borough of Chelsea\") (3b) | | | |\n| [Lambeth](/wiki/London_Borough_of_Lambeth \"London Borough of Lambeth\") | Inner | [Lambeth](/wiki/Metropolitan_Borough_of_Lambeth \"Metropolitan Borough of Lambeth\") (6a) | [Wandsworth](/wiki/Metropolitan_Borough_of_Wandsworth \"Metropolitan Borough of Wandsworth\") (part) (6b) | | | |\n| [Lewisham](/wiki/London_Borough_of_Lewisham \"London Borough of Lewisham\") | Inner | [Lewisham](/wiki/Metropolitan_Borough_of_Lewisham \"Metropolitan Borough of Lewisham\") (21a) | [Deptford](/wiki/Metropolitan_Borough_of_Deptford \"Metropolitan Borough of Deptford\") (21b) | | | |\n| [Southwark](/wiki/London_Borough_of_Southwark \"London Borough of Southwark\") | Inner | [Bermondsey](/wiki/Metropolitan_Borough_of_Bermondsey \"Metropolitan Borough of Bermondsey\") (7b) | [Camberwell](/wiki/Metropolitan_Borough_of_Camberwell \"Metropolitan Borough of Camberwell\") (7c) | [Southwark](/wiki/Metropolitan_Borough_of_Southwark \"Metropolitan Borough of Southwark\") (7a) | | |\n| [Tower Hamlets](/wiki/London_Borough_of_Tower_Hamlets \"London Borough of Tower Hamlets\") | Inner | [Bethnal Green](/wiki/Metropolitan_Borough_of_Bethnal_Green \"Metropolitan Borough of Bethnal Green\") (8a) | [Poplar](/wiki/Metropolitan_Borough_of_Poplar \"Metropolitan Borough of Poplar\") (8c) | [Stepney](/wiki/Metropolitan_Borough_of_Stepney \"Metropolitan Borough of Stepney\") (8b) | | |\n| [Wandsworth](/wiki/London_Borough_of_Wandsworth \"London Borough of Wandsworth\") | Inner | [Battersea](/wiki/Metropolitan_Borough_of_Battersea \"Metropolitan Borough of Battersea\") (5b) | [Wandsworth](/wiki/Metropolitan_Borough_of_Wandsworth \"Metropolitan Borough of Wandsworth\") (part) (5a) | | | |\n| [Westminster](/wiki/City_of_Westminster \"City of Westminster\") | Inner | [Paddington](/wiki/Metropolitan_Borough_of_Paddington \"Metropolitan Borough of Paddington\") (2c) | [St Marylebone](/wiki/Metropolitan_Borough_of_St_Marylebone \"Metropolitan Borough of St Marylebone\") (2b) | [Westminster](/wiki/Metropolitan_Borough_of_Westminster \"Metropolitan Borough of Westminster\") (2a) | | |\n| [Barking](/wiki/London_Borough_of_Barking_and_Dagenham \"London Borough of Barking and Dagenham\"){{NoteTag\\|Renamed Barking and Dagenham in 1980\\.}} | Outer | [Barking](/wiki/Municipal_Borough_of_Barking \"Municipal Borough of Barking\") (part) (25a) | [Dagenham](/wiki/Municipal_Borough_of_Dagenham \"Municipal Borough of Dagenham\") (part) (25b) | | | |\n| [Barnet](/wiki/London_Borough_of_Barnet \"London Borough of Barnet\") | Outer | [Barnet](/wiki/Barnet_Urban_District \"Barnet Urban District\") (31a) | [East Barnet](/wiki/East_Barnet_Urban_District \"East Barnet Urban District\") (31b) | [Finchley](/wiki/Municipal_Borough_of_Finchley \"Municipal Borough of Finchley\") (31d) | [Hendon](/wiki/Municipal_Borough_of_Hendon \"Municipal Borough of Hendon\") (31c) | [Friern Barnet](/wiki/Friern_Barnet_Urban_District \"Friern Barnet Urban District\") (31e) |\n| [Bexley](/wiki/London_Borough_of_Bexley \"London Borough of Bexley\") | Outer | [Bexley](/wiki/Municipal_Borough_of_Bexley \"Municipal Borough of Bexley\") (23b) | [Erith](/wiki/Municipal_Borough_of_Erith \"Municipal Borough of Erith\") (23a) | [Crayford](/wiki/Crayford_Urban_District \"Crayford Urban District\") (23c) | [Chislehurst and Sidcup](/wiki/Chislehurst_and_Sidcup_Urban_District \"Chislehurst and Sidcup Urban District\") (part) (23d) | |\n| [Brent](/wiki/London_Borough_of_Brent \"London Borough of Brent\") | Outer | [Wembley](/wiki/Municipal_Borough_of_Wembley \"Municipal Borough of Wembley\") (12a) | [Willesden](/wiki/Municipal_Borough_of_Willesden \"Municipal Borough of Willesden\") (12b) | | | |\n| [Bromley](/wiki/London_Borough_of_Bromley \"London Borough of Bromley\") | Outer | [Bromley](/wiki/Municipal_Borough_of_Bromley \"Municipal Borough of Bromley\") (20c) | [Beckenham](/wiki/Municipal_Borough_of_Beckenham \"Municipal Borough of Beckenham\") (20b) | [Orpington](/wiki/Orpington_Urban_District \"Orpington Urban District\") (20e) | [Penge](/wiki/Penge_Urban_District \"Penge Urban District\") (20a) | [Chislehurst and Sidcup](/wiki/Chislehurst_and_Sidcup_Urban_District \"Chislehurst and Sidcup Urban District\") (part) (20d) |\n| [Croydon](/wiki/London_Borough_of_Croydon \"London Borough of Croydon\") | Outer | [Croydon](/wiki/County_Borough_of_Croydon \"County Borough of Croydon\") (19a) | [Coulsdon and Purley](/wiki/Coulsdon_and_Purley_Urban_District \"Coulsdon and Purley Urban District\") (19b) | | | |\n| [Ealing](/wiki/London_Borough_of_Ealing \"London Borough of Ealing\") | Outer | [Acton](/wiki/Municipal_Borough_of_Acton \"Municipal Borough of Acton\") (13b) | [Ealing](/wiki/Municipal_Borough_of_Ealing \"Municipal Borough of Ealing\") (13a) | [Southall](/wiki/Municipal_Borough_of_Southall \"Municipal Borough of Southall\") (13c) | | |\n| [Enfield](/wiki/London_Borough_of_Enfield \"London Borough of Enfield\") | Outer | [Edmonton](/wiki/Municipal_Borough_of_Edmonton \"Municipal Borough of Edmonton\") (30c) | [Enfield](/wiki/Municipal_Borough_of_Enfield \"Municipal Borough of Enfield\") (30a) | [Southgate](/wiki/Municipal_Borough_of_Southgate \"Municipal Borough of Southgate\") (30b) | | |\n| [Haringey](/wiki/London_Borough_of_Haringey \"London Borough of Haringey\") | Outer | [Hornsey](/wiki/Municipal_Borough_of_Hornsey \"Municipal Borough of Hornsey\") (29b) | [Tottenham](/wiki/Municipal_Borough_of_Tottenham \"Municipal Borough of Tottenham\") (29c) | [Wood Green](/wiki/Municipal_Borough_of_Wood_Green \"Municipal Borough of Wood Green\") (29a) | | |\n| [Harrow](/wiki/London_Borough_of_Harrow \"London Borough of Harrow\") | Outer | [Harrow](/wiki/Municipal_Borough_of_Harrow \"Municipal Borough of Harrow\") (32\\) | | | | |\n| [Havering](/wiki/London_Borough_of_Havering \"London Borough of Havering\") | Outer | [Romford](/wiki/Municipal_Borough_of_Romford \"Municipal Borough of Romford\") (24a) | [Hornchurch](/wiki/Hornchurch_Urban_District \"Hornchurch Urban District\") (24b) | | | |\n| [Hillingdon](/wiki/London_Borough_of_Hillingdon \"London Borough of Hillingdon\") | Outer | [Hayes and Harlington](/wiki/Hayes_and_Harlington_Urban_District \"Hayes and Harlington Urban District\") (33c) | [Ruislip Northwood](/wiki/Ruislip_Northwood_Urban_District \"Ruislip Northwood Urban District\") (33b) | [Uxbridge](/wiki/Municipal_Borough_of_Uxbridge \"Municipal Borough of Uxbridge\") (33a) | [Yiewsley and West Drayton](/wiki/Yiewsley_and_West_Drayton_Urban_District \"Yiewsley and West Drayton Urban District\") (33d) | |\n| [Hounslow](/wiki/London_Borough_of_Hounslow \"London Borough of Hounslow\") | Outer | [Brentford and Chiswick](/wiki/Municipal_Borough_of_Brentford_and_Chiswick \"Municipal Borough of Brentford and Chiswick\") (14c) | [Feltham](/wiki/Feltham_Urban_District \"Feltham Urban District\") (14a) | [Heston and Isleworth](/wiki/Municipal_Borough_of_Heston_and_Isleworth \"Municipal Borough of Heston and Isleworth\") (14b) | | |\n| [Kingston upon Thames](/wiki/Royal_Borough_of_Kingston_upon_Thames \"Royal Borough of Kingston upon Thames\") | Outer | [Kingston upon Thames](/wiki/Municipal_Borough_of_Kingston_upon_Thames \"Municipal Borough of Kingston upon Thames\") (16a) | [Malden and Coombe](/wiki/Municipal_Borough_of_Malden_and_Coombe \"Municipal Borough of Malden and Coombe\") (16b) | [Surbiton](/wiki/Municipal_Borough_of_Surbiton \"Municipal Borough of Surbiton\") (16c) | | |\n| [Merton](/wiki/London_Borough_of_Merton \"London Borough of Merton\") | Outer | [Mitcham](/wiki/Municipal_Borough_of_Mitcham \"Municipal Borough of Mitcham\") (17c) | [Merton and Morden](/wiki/Merton_and_Morden_Urban_District \"Merton and Morden Urban District\") (17b) | [Wimbledon](/wiki/Municipal_Borough_of_Wimbledon \"Municipal Borough of Wimbledon\") (17a) | | |\n| [Newham](/wiki/London_Borough_of_Newham \"London Borough of Newham\") | Outer | [West Ham](/wiki/County_Borough_of_West_Ham \"County Borough of West Ham\") (27a) | [East Ham](/wiki/County_Borough_of_East_Ham \"County Borough of East Ham\") (27b) | [Barking](/wiki/Municipal_Borough_of_Barking \"Municipal Borough of Barking\") (part) (27c) | [Woolwich](/wiki/Metropolitan_Borough_of_Woolwich \"Metropolitan Borough of Woolwich\") (part) (27d) | |\n| [Redbridge](/wiki/London_Borough_of_Redbridge \"London Borough of Redbridge\") | Outer | [Ilford](/wiki/Municipal_Borough_of_Ilford \"Municipal Borough of Ilford\") (26a) | [Wanstead and Woodford](/wiki/Municipal_Borough_of_Wanstead_and_Woodford \"Municipal Borough of Wanstead and Woodford\") (26b) | [Dagenham](/wiki/Municipal_Borough_of_Dagenham \"Municipal Borough of Dagenham\") (part) (26c) | [Chigwell](/wiki/Chigwell_Urban_District \"Chigwell Urban District\") (part) (26d) | |\n| [Richmond upon Thames](/wiki/London_Borough_of_Richmond_upon_Thames \"London Borough of Richmond upon Thames\") | Outer | [Barnes](/wiki/Municipal_Borough_of_Barnes \"Municipal Borough of Barnes\") (15a) | [Richmond](/wiki/Municipal_Borough_of_Richmond_%28Surrey%29 \"Municipal Borough of Richmond (Surrey)\") (15b) | [Twickenham](/wiki/Municipal_Borough_of_Twickenham \"Municipal Borough of Twickenham\") (15c) | | |\n| [Sutton](/wiki/London_Borough_of_Sutton \"London Borough of Sutton\") | Outer | [Beddington](/wiki/Municipal_Borough_of_Beddington \"Municipal Borough of Beddington\") (18c) | [Carshalton](/wiki/Carshalton_Urban_District \"Carshalton Urban District\") (18b) | [Sutton and Cheam](/wiki/Municipal_Borough_of_Sutton_and_Cheam \"Municipal Borough of Sutton and Cheam\") (18a) | | |\n| [Waltham Forest](/wiki/London_Borough_of_Waltham_Forest \"London Borough of Waltham Forest\") | Outer | [Chingford](/wiki/Municipal_Borough_of_Chingford \"Municipal Borough of Chingford\") (28a) | [Leyton](/wiki/Municipal_Borough_of_Leyton \"Municipal Borough of Leyton\") (28c) | [Walthamstow](/wiki/Municipal_Borough_of_Walthamstow \"Municipal Borough of Walthamstow\") (28b) | | |",
"### Greater London Council",
"* + - * Between 1965 and 1986 the boroughs were part of a two\\-tier system of government and shared power with the [Greater London Council](/wiki/Greater_London_Council \"Greater London Council\") (GLC). The split of powers and functions meant that the Greater London Council was responsible for \"wide area\" services such as fire, ambulance, flood prevention, and refuse disposal; with the London borough councils responsible for \"personal\" services such as social care, libraries, cemeteries and refuse collection. Several London borough councils and the GLC were involved in the [rate\\-capping rebellion](/wiki/Rate-capping_rebellion \"Rate-capping rebellion\") of 1985\\. On 1 April 1986 the GLC was abolished and the borough councils gained responsibility for some services that had been provided by the Greater London Council, such as [waste disposal](/wiki/Waste_disposal_authorities_in_London \"Waste disposal authorities in London\"). The [Inner London Education Authority](/wiki/Inner_London_Education_Authority \"Inner London Education Authority\") continued to exist as an {{Lang\\|la\\|ad hoc}} authority. In 1990 it was abolished and the Inner London borough councils also became local education authorities.",
"### Name and boundary changes",
"The [Local Government Act 1972](/wiki/Local_Government_Act_1972 \"Local Government Act 1972\") provided a mechanism for the name of a London borough and its council to be changed. This was used by the London Borough of Hammersmith (changed to Hammersmith and Fulham) on 1 April 1979 and the London Borough of Barking (changed to Barking and Dagenham) on 1 January 1980\\. Borough names formed by combining two locality names had been discouraged when the boroughs were created.",
"The London boroughs were created by combining whole existing units of local government and it was realised that this might provide arbitrary boundaries in some places. The London Government Act 1963 provided a mechanism for communities on the edge of Greater London to petition for transfer from London boroughs to a neighbouring county district.London Government Act 1963 Section 6 (4\\) This was used in 1969 in the transfers of [Knockholt](/wiki/Knockholt \"Knockholt\") in Bromley to Kent, and of [Farleigh](/wiki/Farleigh%2C_Surrey \"Farleigh, Surrey\") and [Hooley](/wiki/Hooley \"Hooley\") in Croydon to Surrey. The Act also provided for transfers between London boroughs and neighbouring counties where there was consensus for the change between all the relevant local authorities. This provision was used to exchange two islands on the [River Thames](/wiki/River_Thames \"River Thames\") between Richmond upon Thames and Surrey. (See [List of Greater London boundary changes](/wiki/List_of_Greater_London_boundary_changes \"List of Greater London boundary changes\").)",
"The [Local Government Boundary Commission for England](/wiki/Local_Government_Boundary_Commission_for_England \"Local Government Boundary Commission for England\") was established by the Local Government Act 1972 to review periodically the boundaries of Greater London and the London boroughs. The first review of boundaries commenced on 1 April 1987 and reported in 1992\\.{{cite web \\|title \\= The Local Government Boundary Commission for England, The Boundaries of Greater London and The London Borough, Report 627 \\|date \\= 1992 \\|url \\= https://www.lgbce.org.uk/\\_\\_data/assets/pdf\\_file/0016/11419/627\\-the\\-boundaries\\-of\\-greater\\-london\\-and\\-the\\-london\\-boroughs.pdf \\|website\\=Lgbce.org.uk \\|access\\-date\\=21 December 2017 }} Following the review a series of relatively minor adjustments were made to borough boundaries, for example uniting the whole of the [Becontree](/wiki/Becontree \"Becontree\") estate in [Barking and Dagenham](/wiki/London_Borough_of_Barking_and_Dagenham \"London Borough of Barking and Dagenham\"). The commission noted that many of its recommendations were strongly opposed and were not implemented. The boundary of the City of London with adjacent boroughs was adjusted to remove some anomalies.{{cite web \\|url \\= http://www.legislation.gov.uk/uksi/1993/1445/made \\|title \\= The City and London Borough Boundaries Order 1993 \\|website \\= Legislation.gov.uk \\|access\\-date \\= 22 December 2017 }}",
"The London boroughs were incorporated using the provisions of the [Municipal Corporations Act 1882](/wiki/Municipal_Corporations_Act_1882 \"Municipal Corporations Act 1882\").{{cite web \\|title\\=London Government Act 1963 (as amended) \\|url\\=https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/1963/33 \\|website\\=legislation.gov.uk \\|access\\-date\\=15 February 2024 \\|quote\\=The Municipal Corporations Act 1882 shall apply to every London borough}} In the London boroughs the legal entity is not the council, as elsewhere in the country, but the inhabitants incorporated as a legal entity by [royal charter](/wiki/Royal_charter \"Royal charter\") (a process abolished elsewhere in England and Wales under the [Local Government Act 1972](/wiki/Local_Government_Act_1972 \"Local Government Act 1972\")). Thus, a London authority's official legal title is \"The Mayor and [Burgesses](/wiki/Burgess_%28title%29 \"Burgess (title)\") of the London Borough of X\" (or \"The Lord Mayor and Citizens of the City of Westminster\").{{cite web \\|title\\=Local Government Act 1933 \\|url\\=https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/1933/51/pdfs/ukpga\\_19330051\\_en.pdf \\|website\\=legislation.gov.uk \\|access\\-date\\=15 February 2024 \\|quote\\=The municipal corporation of a borough shall \\[...] (a) in the case of a borough being a city, the mayor of which is entitled to bear the title of lord mayor, bear the name of the lord mayor, aldermen and citizens of the city; (b) in the case of any other borough being a city, bear the name of the mayor, aldermen and citizens of the city; and (c) in the case of any other borough, bear the name of the mayor,' aldermen and burgesses of the borough.}}",
"### Greater London Authority",
"In 2000 the [Greater London Authority](/wiki/Greater_London_Authority \"Greater London Authority\") was created, comprising the [Mayor of London](/wiki/Mayor_of_London \"Mayor of London\") and the [London Assembly](/wiki/London_Assembly \"London Assembly\"). As a strategic authority, it absorbed only limited powers, such as major highways and planning strategy, from the borough councils.",
""
] |
Military career
---------------
Pavel Kurochkin was born in the village of [Gornevo](/wiki/Vyazemsky_District%2C_Smolensk_Oblast "Vyazemsky District, Smolensk Oblast"), [Smolensk Governorate](/wiki/Smolensk_Governorate "Smolensk Governorate"). He joined the [Red Army](/wiki/Red_Army "Red Army") in 1918\. Kurochkin completed cavalry courses in [Petrograd](/wiki/Petrograd "Petrograd") in 1920, the year when he also joined the [Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks)](/wiki/Bolshevik_Party "Bolshevik Party"). He graduated from the Red Army High Cavalry school in 1923, the [Frunze Military Academy](/wiki/Frunze_Military_Academy "Frunze Military Academy") in 1932 and the [General Staff Academy](/wiki/General_Staff_Academy_%28Russia%29 "General Staff Academy (Russia)") in 1940\.
### Russian Civil War
During the Civil War, Kurochkin saw action against General [Pyotr Krasnov](/wiki/Pyotr_Krasnov "Pyotr Krasnov") near [Gatchina](/wiki/Gatchina "Gatchina"), the [British\-American intervention](/wiki/Triple_Entente "Triple Entente") in the north and General [Nikolai Yudenich](/wiki/Nikolai_Nikolaevich_Yudenich "Nikolai Nikolaevich Yudenich") in 1919\. He commanded a cavalry regiment in the [Polish\-Soviet war](/wiki/Polish-Soviet_war "Polish-Soviet war") and was involved in the suppression of the [Tambov Rebellion](/wiki/Tambov_Rebellion "Tambov Rebellion") in 1921\.
### Inter\-war period
In 1935 he was promoted to chief commander of a cavalry division. After the [Soviet\-Finnish war](/wiki/Soviet-Finnish_war "Soviet-Finnish war") broke out, he took over as the commanding officer of [23rd Rifle Corps](/wiki/23rd_Rifle_Corps "23rd Rifle Corps"). From 1940 to 1941, he served as commander\-in\-chief of the 1st Army Group in [Mongolia](/wiki/Mongolia "Mongolia"), commanding officer of the [17th Army](/wiki/17th_Army_%28Soviet_Union%29 "17th Army (Soviet Union)") in Mongolia, commander\-in\-chief of the [Transbaikal Military District](/wiki/Transbaikal_Military_District "Transbaikal Military District") and commander\-in\-chief of the [Orel Military District](/wiki/Orel_Military_District "Orel Military District").
### World War II
In July 1941 he was given command of the [20th Army](/wiki/20th_Army_%28Soviet_Union%29 "20th Army (Soviet Union)") which participated in the unsuccessful [defense](/wiki/Battle_of_Smolensk_%281941%29 "Battle of Smolensk (1941)") of [Smolensk](/wiki/Smolensk "Smolensk").
He briefly held the command of the [43rd Army](/wiki/43rd_Army_%28Soviet_Union%29 "43rd Army (Soviet Union)") in August 1941 until his promotion to commander\-in\-chief of the [North\-Western Front](/wiki/North-Western_Front "North-Western Front"). He held that post until October 1942, when he was moved to command the [Soviet 11th Army](/wiki/Soviet_11th_Army "Soviet 11th Army") and then the [34th Army](/wiki/34th_Army_%28Soviet_Union%29 "34th Army (Soviet Union)"). He was again placed in command of the [North\-Western Front](/wiki/North-Western_Front "North-Western Front") from July to November 1943\. It was during this time that Kurochkin commanded the [Toropets\-Kholm Operation](/wiki/Toropets-Kholm_Operation "Toropets-Kholm Operation").
From December 1943 until February 1944, he was the first deputy commander\-in\-chief of the [First Ukrainian Front](/wiki/1st_Ukrainian_Front "1st Ukrainian Front") under Marshal [Konev](/wiki/Konev "Konev") and was remembered for his planning of the bloody [Korsun–Shevchenkovsky Offensive](/wiki/Korsun%E2%80%93Shevchenkovsky_Offensive "Korsun–Shevchenkovsky Offensive").
From February to April 1944, he commanded the units of the [Second Belorussian Front](/wiki/2nd_Belorussian_Front "2nd Belorussian Front"). His last assignment of the war would be commanding the [60th Army](/wiki/60th_Army_%28Soviet_Union%29 "60th Army (Soviet Union)") from April 1944 through May 1945 which took part in the [Lvov\-Sandomierz operation](/wiki/Lvov-Sandomierz_Offensive "Lvov-Sandomierz Offensive") and fought in [Central Europe](/wiki/Central_Europe "Central Europe"). For all his merits and achievements, Kurochkin was awarded with the highest Soviet honor, [Hero of the Soviet Union](/wiki/Hero_of_the_Soviet_Union "Hero of the Soviet Union").
### Post\-war career
Immediately after the war, Kurochkin briefly headed the [Kuban Military District](/wiki/Kuban_Military_District "Kuban Military District") until his appointment in 1946 as first deputy commander\-in\-chief of the [Soviet Military Administration in Germany](/wiki/Soviet_Military_Administration_in_Germany "Soviet Military Administration in Germany"). After his tour in East Germany ended in 1947, he took over as an assistant commander\-in\-chief of the [Far Eastern Military District](/wiki/Far_Eastern_Military_District "Far Eastern Military District").
From 1951 to 1968, Kurochkin served in military academies, first at the Military Academy of the General Staff and later as the Commandant of the [Frunze Military Academy](/wiki/Frunze_Military_Academy "Frunze Military Academy"). In 1968, he became the chairman of the Supreme Command of the United Military Forces of the [Warsaw Pact](/wiki/Warsaw_Pact "Warsaw Pact"). Kurochkin finished his military career as a general inspector of the Ministry of Defense. He went on to become a deputy of the [Supreme Soviet of the USSR](/wiki/Supreme_Soviet_of_the_USSR "Supreme Soviet of the USSR") and was awarded with the [Order of Lenin](/wiki/Order_of_Lenin "Order of Lenin") in 1980\. Kurochkin died in [Moscow](/wiki/Moscow "Moscow") in 1989\.
|
[
"Military career\n---------------",
"Pavel Kurochkin was born in the village of [Gornevo](/wiki/Vyazemsky_District%2C_Smolensk_Oblast \"Vyazemsky District, Smolensk Oblast\"), [Smolensk Governorate](/wiki/Smolensk_Governorate \"Smolensk Governorate\"). He joined the [Red Army](/wiki/Red_Army \"Red Army\") in 1918\\. Kurochkin completed cavalry courses in [Petrograd](/wiki/Petrograd \"Petrograd\") in 1920, the year when he also joined the [Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks)](/wiki/Bolshevik_Party \"Bolshevik Party\"). He graduated from the Red Army High Cavalry school in 1923, the [Frunze Military Academy](/wiki/Frunze_Military_Academy \"Frunze Military Academy\") in 1932 and the [General Staff Academy](/wiki/General_Staff_Academy_%28Russia%29 \"General Staff Academy (Russia)\") in 1940\\.",
"### Russian Civil War",
"During the Civil War, Kurochkin saw action against General [Pyotr Krasnov](/wiki/Pyotr_Krasnov \"Pyotr Krasnov\") near [Gatchina](/wiki/Gatchina \"Gatchina\"), the [British\\-American intervention](/wiki/Triple_Entente \"Triple Entente\") in the north and General [Nikolai Yudenich](/wiki/Nikolai_Nikolaevich_Yudenich \"Nikolai Nikolaevich Yudenich\") in 1919\\. He commanded a cavalry regiment in the [Polish\\-Soviet war](/wiki/Polish-Soviet_war \"Polish-Soviet war\") and was involved in the suppression of the [Tambov Rebellion](/wiki/Tambov_Rebellion \"Tambov Rebellion\") in 1921\\.",
"### Inter\\-war period",
"In 1935 he was promoted to chief commander of a cavalry division. After the [Soviet\\-Finnish war](/wiki/Soviet-Finnish_war \"Soviet-Finnish war\") broke out, he took over as the commanding officer of [23rd Rifle Corps](/wiki/23rd_Rifle_Corps \"23rd Rifle Corps\"). From 1940 to 1941, he served as commander\\-in\\-chief of the 1st Army Group in [Mongolia](/wiki/Mongolia \"Mongolia\"), commanding officer of the [17th Army](/wiki/17th_Army_%28Soviet_Union%29 \"17th Army (Soviet Union)\") in Mongolia, commander\\-in\\-chief of the [Transbaikal Military District](/wiki/Transbaikal_Military_District \"Transbaikal Military District\") and commander\\-in\\-chief of the [Orel Military District](/wiki/Orel_Military_District \"Orel Military District\").",
"### World War II",
"In July 1941 he was given command of the [20th Army](/wiki/20th_Army_%28Soviet_Union%29 \"20th Army (Soviet Union)\") which participated in the unsuccessful [defense](/wiki/Battle_of_Smolensk_%281941%29 \"Battle of Smolensk (1941)\") of [Smolensk](/wiki/Smolensk \"Smolensk\").",
"He briefly held the command of the [43rd Army](/wiki/43rd_Army_%28Soviet_Union%29 \"43rd Army (Soviet Union)\") in August 1941 until his promotion to commander\\-in\\-chief of the [North\\-Western Front](/wiki/North-Western_Front \"North-Western Front\"). He held that post until October 1942, when he was moved to command the [Soviet 11th Army](/wiki/Soviet_11th_Army \"Soviet 11th Army\") and then the [34th Army](/wiki/34th_Army_%28Soviet_Union%29 \"34th Army (Soviet Union)\"). He was again placed in command of the [North\\-Western Front](/wiki/North-Western_Front \"North-Western Front\") from July to November 1943\\. It was during this time that Kurochkin commanded the [Toropets\\-Kholm Operation](/wiki/Toropets-Kholm_Operation \"Toropets-Kholm Operation\").",
"From December 1943 until February 1944, he was the first deputy commander\\-in\\-chief of the [First Ukrainian Front](/wiki/1st_Ukrainian_Front \"1st Ukrainian Front\") under Marshal [Konev](/wiki/Konev \"Konev\") and was remembered for his planning of the bloody [Korsun–Shevchenkovsky Offensive](/wiki/Korsun%E2%80%93Shevchenkovsky_Offensive \"Korsun–Shevchenkovsky Offensive\").",
"From February to April 1944, he commanded the units of the [Second Belorussian Front](/wiki/2nd_Belorussian_Front \"2nd Belorussian Front\"). His last assignment of the war would be commanding the [60th Army](/wiki/60th_Army_%28Soviet_Union%29 \"60th Army (Soviet Union)\") from April 1944 through May 1945 which took part in the [Lvov\\-Sandomierz operation](/wiki/Lvov-Sandomierz_Offensive \"Lvov-Sandomierz Offensive\") and fought in [Central Europe](/wiki/Central_Europe \"Central Europe\"). For all his merits and achievements, Kurochkin was awarded with the highest Soviet honor, [Hero of the Soviet Union](/wiki/Hero_of_the_Soviet_Union \"Hero of the Soviet Union\").",
"### Post\\-war career",
"Immediately after the war, Kurochkin briefly headed the [Kuban Military District](/wiki/Kuban_Military_District \"Kuban Military District\") until his appointment in 1946 as first deputy commander\\-in\\-chief of the [Soviet Military Administration in Germany](/wiki/Soviet_Military_Administration_in_Germany \"Soviet Military Administration in Germany\"). After his tour in East Germany ended in 1947, he took over as an assistant commander\\-in\\-chief of the [Far Eastern Military District](/wiki/Far_Eastern_Military_District \"Far Eastern Military District\").",
"From 1951 to 1968, Kurochkin served in military academies, first at the Military Academy of the General Staff and later as the Commandant of the [Frunze Military Academy](/wiki/Frunze_Military_Academy \"Frunze Military Academy\"). In 1968, he became the chairman of the Supreme Command of the United Military Forces of the [Warsaw Pact](/wiki/Warsaw_Pact \"Warsaw Pact\"). Kurochkin finished his military career as a general inspector of the Ministry of Defense. He went on to become a deputy of the [Supreme Soviet of the USSR](/wiki/Supreme_Soviet_of_the_USSR \"Supreme Soviet of the USSR\") and was awarded with the [Order of Lenin](/wiki/Order_of_Lenin \"Order of Lenin\") in 1980\\. Kurochkin died in [Moscow](/wiki/Moscow \"Moscow\") in 1989\\.",
""
] |
Translation
-----------
The first edition of a text found at Nag Hammadi was from the Jung Codex, a partial translation of which appeared in Cairo in 1956, and a single extensive facsimile edition was planned. Due to the [difficult political circumstances](/wiki/Suez_Crisis "Suez Crisis") in Egypt, individual tracts followed from the Cairo and Zurich collections only slowly.
This state of affairs did not change until 1966, with the holding of the Messina Congress in [Italy](/wiki/Italy "Italy"). At this conference, intended to allow scholars to arrive at a group consensus concerning the definition of Gnosticism, [James M. Robinson](/wiki/James_M._Robinson "James M. Robinson") assembled a group of editors and translators whose express task was to publish a [bilingual](/wiki/Bilingual "Bilingual") edition of the Nag Hammadi codices in English, in collaboration with the Institute for Antiquity and Christianity at the [Claremont Graduate University](/wiki/Claremont_Graduate_University "Claremont Graduate University") in [Claremont, California](/wiki/Claremont%2C_California "Claremont, California"), where Robinson was a faculty member.
Robinson was elected secretary of the International Committee for the Nag Hammadi Codices, which had been formed in 1970 by [UNESCO](/wiki/UNESCO "UNESCO") and the Egyptian Ministry of Culture; it was in this capacity that he oversaw the project. A facsimile edition in twelve volumes was published between 1972 and 1977, with subsequent additions in 1979 and 1984 from the publisher [Brill Publishers](/wiki/Brill_Publishers "Brill Publishers") in [Leiden](/wiki/Leiden "Leiden"), entitled, *The Facsimile Edition of the Nag Hammadi Codices.* This made all the texts available for all interested parties to study in some form.
At the same time, in the [German Democratic Republic](/wiki/German_Democratic_Republic "German Democratic Republic"), a group of scholars—including Alexander Böhlig, [Martin Krause](/wiki/Martin_Krause "Martin Krause") and [New Testament](/wiki/New_Testament "New Testament") scholars Gesine Schenke, [Hans\-Martin Schenke](/wiki/Hans-Martin_Schenke "Hans-Martin Schenke") and Hans\-Gebhard Bethge—were preparing the first German language translation of the find. The last three scholars prepared a complete scholarly translation under the auspices of the [Berlin](/wiki/Berlin "Berlin") [Humboldt University](/wiki/Humboldt_University "Humboldt University"), which was published in 2001\.
The [James M. Robinson](/wiki/James_M._Robinson "James M. Robinson") translation was first published in 1977, with the name *The Nag Hammadi Library in English*, in collaboration between [E.J. Brill](/wiki/E.J._Brill "E.J. Brill") and [Harper \& Row](/wiki/Harper_%26_Row "Harper & Row"). The single\-volume publication, according to Robinson, 'marked the end of one stage of Nag Hammadi scholarship and the beginning of another' (from the Preface to the third revised edition). Paperback editions followed in 1981 and 1984, from E.J. Brill and Harper, respectively. A third, completely revised, edition was published in 1988\. This marks the final stage in the gradual dispersal of gnostic texts into the wider public arena—the full complement of codices was finally available in unadulterated form to people around the world, in a variety of languages. A [cross\-reference](/wiki/Cross-reference "Cross-reference") apparatus for Robinson's translation and the Biblical canon also exists.Clontz, T.E. and J., *The Comprehensive New Testament*, Cornerstone Publications (2008\), {{ISBN\|978\-0\-9778737\-1\-5}}
Another English edition was published in 1987, by [Yale](/wiki/Yale "Yale") scholar [Bentley Layton](/wiki/Bentley_Layton "Bentley Layton"), called *The Gnostic Scriptures: A New Translation with Annotations* (Garden City: Doubleday \& Co., 1987\). The volume included new translations from the Nag Hammadi Library, together with extracts from the [heresiological](/wiki/Heresiology "Heresiology") writers, and other gnostic material. It remains, along with *The Nag Hammadi Library in English,* one of the more accessible volumes of translations of the Nag Hammadi find. It includes extensive historical introductions to individual gnostic groups, notes on translation, annotations to the text, and the organization of tracts into clearly defined movements.
Not all scholars agree that the entire library should be considered Gnostic. Paterson Brown has argued that the three Nag Hammadi Gospels of Thomas, Philip and Truth cannot be so labeled, since each, in his opinion, may explicitly affirm the basic reality and sanctity of incarnate life, which Gnosticism by definition considers illusory.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.metalog.org/ \|title\=Metalogos: The Gospels of Thomas, Philip and Truth \|website\=Ecumenical Coptic Project \|access\-date\=April 15, 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20101227104649/http://www.metalog.org/ \|archive\-date\=December 27, 2010}}
|
[
"Translation\n-----------",
"The first edition of a text found at Nag Hammadi was from the Jung Codex, a partial translation of which appeared in Cairo in 1956, and a single extensive facsimile edition was planned. Due to the [difficult political circumstances](/wiki/Suez_Crisis \"Suez Crisis\") in Egypt, individual tracts followed from the Cairo and Zurich collections only slowly.",
"This state of affairs did not change until 1966, with the holding of the Messina Congress in [Italy](/wiki/Italy \"Italy\"). At this conference, intended to allow scholars to arrive at a group consensus concerning the definition of Gnosticism, [James M. Robinson](/wiki/James_M._Robinson \"James M. Robinson\") assembled a group of editors and translators whose express task was to publish a [bilingual](/wiki/Bilingual \"Bilingual\") edition of the Nag Hammadi codices in English, in collaboration with the Institute for Antiquity and Christianity at the [Claremont Graduate University](/wiki/Claremont_Graduate_University \"Claremont Graduate University\") in [Claremont, California](/wiki/Claremont%2C_California \"Claremont, California\"), where Robinson was a faculty member.",
"Robinson was elected secretary of the International Committee for the Nag Hammadi Codices, which had been formed in 1970 by [UNESCO](/wiki/UNESCO \"UNESCO\") and the Egyptian Ministry of Culture; it was in this capacity that he oversaw the project. A facsimile edition in twelve volumes was published between 1972 and 1977, with subsequent additions in 1979 and 1984 from the publisher [Brill Publishers](/wiki/Brill_Publishers \"Brill Publishers\") in [Leiden](/wiki/Leiden \"Leiden\"), entitled, *The Facsimile Edition of the Nag Hammadi Codices.* This made all the texts available for all interested parties to study in some form.",
"At the same time, in the [German Democratic Republic](/wiki/German_Democratic_Republic \"German Democratic Republic\"), a group of scholars—including Alexander Böhlig, [Martin Krause](/wiki/Martin_Krause \"Martin Krause\") and [New Testament](/wiki/New_Testament \"New Testament\") scholars Gesine Schenke, [Hans\\-Martin Schenke](/wiki/Hans-Martin_Schenke \"Hans-Martin Schenke\") and Hans\\-Gebhard Bethge—were preparing the first German language translation of the find. The last three scholars prepared a complete scholarly translation under the auspices of the [Berlin](/wiki/Berlin \"Berlin\") [Humboldt University](/wiki/Humboldt_University \"Humboldt University\"), which was published in 2001\\.",
"The [James M. Robinson](/wiki/James_M._Robinson \"James M. Robinson\") translation was first published in 1977, with the name *The Nag Hammadi Library in English*, in collaboration between [E.J. Brill](/wiki/E.J._Brill \"E.J. Brill\") and [Harper \\& Row](/wiki/Harper_%26_Row \"Harper & Row\"). The single\\-volume publication, according to Robinson, 'marked the end of one stage of Nag Hammadi scholarship and the beginning of another' (from the Preface to the third revised edition). Paperback editions followed in 1981 and 1984, from E.J. Brill and Harper, respectively. A third, completely revised, edition was published in 1988\\. This marks the final stage in the gradual dispersal of gnostic texts into the wider public arena—the full complement of codices was finally available in unadulterated form to people around the world, in a variety of languages. A [cross\\-reference](/wiki/Cross-reference \"Cross-reference\") apparatus for Robinson's translation and the Biblical canon also exists.Clontz, T.E. and J., *The Comprehensive New Testament*, Cornerstone Publications (2008\\), {{ISBN\\|978\\-0\\-9778737\\-1\\-5}}",
"Another English edition was published in 1987, by [Yale](/wiki/Yale \"Yale\") scholar [Bentley Layton](/wiki/Bentley_Layton \"Bentley Layton\"), called *The Gnostic Scriptures: A New Translation with Annotations* (Garden City: Doubleday \\& Co., 1987\\). The volume included new translations from the Nag Hammadi Library, together with extracts from the [heresiological](/wiki/Heresiology \"Heresiology\") writers, and other gnostic material. It remains, along with *The Nag Hammadi Library in English,* one of the more accessible volumes of translations of the Nag Hammadi find. It includes extensive historical introductions to individual gnostic groups, notes on translation, annotations to the text, and the organization of tracts into clearly defined movements.",
"Not all scholars agree that the entire library should be considered Gnostic. Paterson Brown has argued that the three Nag Hammadi Gospels of Thomas, Philip and Truth cannot be so labeled, since each, in his opinion, may explicitly affirm the basic reality and sanctity of incarnate life, which Gnosticism by definition considers illusory.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.metalog.org/ \\|title\\=Metalogos: The Gospels of Thomas, Philip and Truth \\|website\\=Ecumenical Coptic Project \\|access\\-date\\=April 15, 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20101227104649/http://www.metalog.org/ \\|archive\\-date\\=December 27, 2010}}",
""
] |
10/25
-----
{{Infobox automobile
\| image \= File:Rover 10 Fabric Saloon (1928\) (15228126979\).jpg
\| caption \= ''Weymann'' 4\-door sports saloon
with ''Riviera'' folding roof registered July 1928
\| name \= Rover 10/25
Rover Family Ten
\| manufacturer \= \[\[Rover (car)\|Rover]] at \[\[Tyseley]]
\| production \= 1927–1933"The Motor Show". ''The Times'', Friday, 14 October 1927; pg. 10; Issue 44712 15,000 approx made{{cite book \|last\=Sedgwick \|first\=M. \|title\=A\-Z of Cars of the 1930s\|year\=1989 \|publisher\=Bay View Books \|location\=Devon, UK \|isbn\=1\-870979\-38\-9}}
\| body\_style \= {{unbulleted list\|open 2\-seater\|open 4\-seater tourer\|''Weymann'' saloon\|open 2\-seater semi\-sports\|open 4\-seater semi\-sports\|chassis only}}
\| engine \= 1185 cc ohv straight 4
\| transmission \= dry plate clutch; gearbox 3\-speeds and reverse with central control, enclosed drive shaft, worm final drive
\| wheelbase \= {{unbulleted list\|{{convert\|104\|in\|mm\|0\|abbr\=on}}\|'''Track''' {{convert\|48\|in\|mm\|0\|abbr\=on}}\|'''Track''' {{convert\|50\|in\|mm\|0\|abbr\=on}}Cars Of 1931\. ''The Times,'' Monday, 1 Sep 1930; pg. 15; Issue 45606\.}}
\| length \= {{convert\|156\|in\|mm\|0\|abbr\=on}}{{cite book \|last\=Culshaw \|author2\=Horrobin \|title\=Complete Catalogue of British Cars \|year\=1974 \|publisher\=Macmillan \|location\=London \|isbn\=0\-333\-16689\-2}} without bumpers
\| width \= {{convert\|62\|in\|mm\|0\|abbr\=on}}
\| weight \=
\| predecessor \= \[\[Rover 9\|Rover 9/20]]
\| designer \=
}}
{{Infobox automobile engine
\| name \= Rover 10/25
\| image \=
\| manufacturer \= Rover
\| aka \=
\| production \=
\| predecessor \= \[\[Rover 9\|Rover 9/20]]
\| successor \= Rover 10
\| configuration \= straight fourCars Of To\-Day. ''The Times'', Tuesday, 12 Aug 1924; pg. 7; Issue 43728
\| displacement \= {{convert\|1185\|cc\|cuin\|0\|abbr\=on}}
\| bore \= {{convert\|63\|mm\|in\|abbr\=on}}
\| stroke \= {{convert\|95\|mm\|in\|abbr\=on}}
\| head \= aluminium alloy crankcase
\| valvetrain \= overhead valves by ''Duralumin'' pushrods, chain\-driven camshaft
\| compression \=
\| supercharger \=
\| turbocharger \=
\| fuelsystem \=
\| management \=
\| fueltype \=
\| oilsystem \= forced lubrication by a gear pump in the sump
\| coolingsystem \= water pumped through radiator, no fan
\| power \= {{convert\|25\|bhp\|kW PS\|abbr\=on}}
Tax horsepower 9\.84
\| specpower \=
\| torque \=
\| length \=
\| width \=
\| height \=
\| diameter \=
\| weight \=
}}
The **Rover 10/25** was a small car built by Rover from mid 1927\. Some time between March and September 1927 Rover increased the bore of their [9/20hp](/wiki/Rover_9 "Rover 9") by 3 mm and renamed the model 10/25 hp to indicate the engine's 10 per cent increased capacity but 25 per cent increase in claimed output. The drive shaft was also enclosed. The Rover 9/20 remained available in showrooms.Motor\-Cars For 1928\. *The Times*, Monday, 5 Sep 1927; pg. 7; Issue 44678
### Chassis
With the Rover 8 and Rover 9/20 chassis and enlarged 9/20 engine the 10/25 chassis was conventional with rigid axles and leaf spring suspension all round, half elliptic at the front and quarter elliptic behind. The four cylinder, overhead valve engine's capacity had been increased by ten per cent to 1185 cc. Drive was to the rear wheels through a three speed gearbox. There were internally expanding brakes on all four wheels. Its magneto ignition was replaced by coil ignition in 1929\.
#### Weymann body
Available bodies either 2\-seater or 4\-seater were: open tourer or semi\-sports tourer or as a 4\-seater saloon.
The 4\-seater saloons were provided with a [*Weymann*](/wiki/Weymann_Fabric_Bodies "Weymann Fabric Bodies") fabric body built by Rover under licence at Parkside. A standard *Paris* body with a folding roof was rebranded *Riviera*. The saloon windows were given double sliding panels for ventilation.
Equipment in the *Paris* body included: leather upholstery, five lamps, two electric horns, eight\-day clock, automatic screen wiper, roof ventilator and lamp, companions, rear blind controllable from the driver’s seat, folding luggage grid etc. The *Riviera* model had the same fittings but in addition the roof was flexible. It folded back like an ordinary hood over about two\-thirds of its length.
In October 1928 the bonnet was lengthened and a *Weymann* Sportsman's Coupé was added to the range. Seating four it had two 40 inch doors.The Motor Show. *The Times*, Friday, 12 Oct 1928; pg. 8; Issue 45022\.
| [thumb\|1928 open 4\-seater tourer](/wiki/File:1928_Rover_10-25_tourer_%288572259933%29.jpg "1928 Rover 10-25 tourer (8572259933).jpg") | [thumb](/wiki/File:1929_Rover_10-25_4-seat_Open_Tourer_-_Radiator_script_%286924669130%29.jpg "1929 Rover 10-25 4-seat Open Tourer - Radiator script (6924669130).jpg") |
| --- | --- |
| [thumb](/wiki/File:1928_Rover_10_Tourer_%285747588252%29.jpg "1928 Rover 10 Tourer (5747588252).jpg") | [thumb\|](/wiki/File:1928_Rover_10_Tourer_%286069877332%29.jpg "1928 Rover 10 Tourer (6069877332).jpg") |
| --- | --- |
| [thumb\|1928 open 4\-seater Sports tourer](/wiki/File:1929_Rover_10_Open_4-seater_Sports_Tourer_%2821483391134%29.jpg "1929 Rover 10 Open 4-seater Sports Tourer (21483391134).jpg") | [thumb\|](/wiki/File:1929_Rover_10_25_Sports_Tourer_2.1_%284387330375%29.jpg "1929 Rover 10 25 Sports Tourer 2.1 (4387330375).jpg") |
| --- | --- |
A high\-line *Regal* model available on all bodies was introduced in 1928\. Priced at a 12 per cent premium it came with a sliding roof, bumpers (buffers) front and rear, safety glass, vacuum servo braking, two spare wheels and special mats.Motor Show. *The Times*, 13 Oct 1928; pg. 6; Issue 45023
#### All\-steel body
The existing Weymann bodied Riviera and Sportsman's Coupé models were joined in August 1930 by a "coachbuilt" model. [Pressed Steel](/wiki/Pressed_Steel_Company "Pressed Steel Company") supplied these all\-steel bodies to Rover, painted and trimmed, for a much lower price than the cost of Rover's in\-house Weymann bodies but Rover charged the same price for the three models fully equipped with safety glass windscreen, an electric windscreen wiper and a luggage grid. The bodies were new, roomier and they had a new shape. Wire wheels were £5 extra.
| [thumb\|1931 10/25 *Regal* 6\-light saloon. The chromed disc between headlamps is an electric horn fitted to all 1931 Rovers](/wiki/File:Rover_10_25_registered_November_1930_mfd_1929_per_owner.JPG "Rover 10 25 registered November 1930 mfd 1929 per owner.JPG") | [thumb\|*Regal* profile *Magna* wheels, bumpers, pressed steel body by [Pressed Steel](/wiki/Pressed_Steel_Company "Pressed Steel Company"). A grille of shutter\-type stone guards protects the radiator](/wiki/File:Rover_10_25_registered_November_1930_mfd_1929_per_owner_in_profile.JPG "Rover 10 25 registered November 1930 mfd 1929 per owner in profile.JPG") |
| --- | --- |
Unacknowledged relatives
File:Rover 10 Special (1933\) (20743184623\).jpg\|Rover
File:Hillman possibly Minx built 1935 according to DVLA database photo 2008 Castle Hedingham.JPG\|Hillman
File:BSA 10 1185cc October 1933\.JPG\|BSA / Lanchester\<ref group\=note\>John Bullock, a long\-term Rootes employee, in his book ''The Rootes Brothers'', Patrick Stephens, Sparkford Somerset {{ISBN\|1852604549}} says that Pressed Steel were so upset by the Rootes brothers' hard bargaining they sold the same body to Lanchester. The Rover version is said to come from Maurice Wilks' association with Pressed Steel in his (long before Minx) Hillman days\</ref\>
{{clear}}
#### Family 10
Announced in August 1930 the steel safety saloon, with safety glass windscreen, continued alongside the *Weymann* saloon and *Weymann* Sportsman's Coupé all given a new name but still the same car on the same old Rover 8 chassis though with improved rear suspension. Its half\-elliptic springs replaced the previous car's quarter\-elliptics.Display advertisement. *The Times,* Monday, 1 Sep 1930; pg. 7; Issue 45606\. The Family Ten would continue after July 1932 alongside the new redesigned\-under\-the\-skin 10 Special. Sliding roof, cam steering and a new type radiator stone guard of improved appearance were improvements the Family 10 shared with the new Special. The 10 Special's 4\-speed gearbox was available as an optional extra.Cars Of 1933\. *The Times*, Thursday, 21 Jul 1932; pg. 7; Issue 46191
Road test
The correspondent of *The Times* reported the smooth and quiet steel saloon would reach 46 mph on the straight. Once under way the acceleration was satisfying. The large bonnet and small engine made for easy access to components. The controls were good, the steering light and steady, the brakes effective. There were one or two body squeaks.Cars Of To\-Day. *The Times*, Tuesday, 3 Feb 1931; pg. 12; Issue 45737\.
In February 1932 "following a reorganisation of the company's management"At the end of 1931 [managing director Frank Searle](/wiki/Frank_Searle_%28businessman%29 "Frank Searle (businessman)") went to New Zealand to oversee the completion of a new Rover plant and Spencer Wilks took charge of Rover. The New Zealand plant at Petone opened 17 February 1932\. It made Rover 10\-25 cars from local materials and used imported steel panels and hide for the upholstery. Searle did not return to Rover. Rover announced strengthening of the Family Ten chassis by using heavier gauge material and re\-designed cross members to improve torsional rigidity. These improvements were, they said, the outcome of lengthy testing on New Zealand's and Australia's roughest roads carried out to make the cars suitable for overseas use. Petrol was now supplied from the tank by *[Autovac](/wiki/Autovac "Autovac")*. A four\-speed gearbox with quiet third was standard on the de luxe car and optional on the others. Brakes and springing had also been improved. There were detail improvements in the de luxe car now trimmed in hide.Crossley Motors, *The Times*, Friday, 5 Feb 1932; pg. 10; Issue 46049
{{Infobox automobile
\| name \= Rover Ten Special
\| image \= Rover 10 Special (1933\) (20743182973\).jpg
\| caption \= 1933 6\-light all\-steel saloon
\| manufacturer \= Rover
\| aka \=
\| production \=
\| model\_years \= 1932\-1938
\| assembly \=
\| designer \= Maurice Wilks
\| class \=
\| body\_style \= 4\-door all steel saloon or coupé
\| layout \=
\| platform \=
\| related \=
\| engine \= in\-line 4 as in Family Ten but output 27 bhp @ 3,800 rpm
\| transmission \= automatic clutch optional, freewheel, 4\-speed gearbox\-2nd and 3rd constant mesh double\-helical, enclosed propellor shaft, spiral bevel final drive
\| wheelbase \= {{unbulleted list\|{{convert\|104\|in\|mm\|0\|abbr\=on}}\|'''Track''' {{convert\|51\|in\|mm\|0\|abbr\=on}}}}
\| length \=
\| width \=
\| height \=
\| weight \= {{convert\|2380\|lb\|kg\|0\|abbr\=on}}
\| predecessor \=
\| successor \=
\| sp \= uk
}}
### 10 Special—new chassis
An all new chassis with four speed gearbox, freewheel, automatic restart, bigger brakes, automatic clutch spiral bevel final drive and other facilities for the driver but bearing the same Pressed Steel body and, for the moment, the same engine was announced in July 1932\. It was sold alongside the Family Ten for a 17 per cent premium.
The engine was now supported at just three not four points using special rubber insulation to control noise and vibration. Rover's—as it was promoted— *Easy\-free gear change* was a new 4\-speed gearbox with constant mesh double\-helical gears for 2nd and 3rd and a freewheel device with its control beside the driver. A further convenience was an optional extra power\-controlled or automatic clutch. A *[Startix](/wiki/Startix "Startix")* automatic engine starter was fitted. Startix was activated when the ignition was switched on and, in addition, operated automatically if the engine stalled. The new change\-speed system meant gears might be changed after a slight easing of the accelerator without using the clutch yet making no noise. A knob on the instrument panel switched of the freewheel and returned the gearbox to orthodox. The half\-elliptic spring on both axles are controlled by hydraulic shock\-absorbers. The freewheel was to remain a feature of Rovers for more than 20 years.
The freewheel transmission placed more reliance on the braking system. The new brakes were *[Lockheed](/wiki/Automotive_Products "Automotive Products")* hydraulic with large diameter drums, they were self\-compensating and self\-lubricating. Rover's "silent coachwork". Special plant was installed at Rover's works to spray the inside of all body panels with asbestos to ensure quietness fire\-proofing etc and insulation from extremes of heat and cold.
The body was mounted on a sub\-frame with ample insulating material between frame and body. Body joints received treatment to avoid squeaks and the doors were fitted with silencersCars Of To\-Day. *The Times*, Tuesday, 21 Feb 1933; pg. 21; Issue 46374
| [thumb\|left\|1933 coupé Tickford by [Salmons](/wiki/Tickford "Tickford")](/wiki/File:1933_Rover_10_515151719.jpg "1933 Rover 10 515151719.jpg") | [thumb\|left\|1933 6\-light saloon](/wiki/File:1933_Rover_10_Special_1925_%283017369975%29_%28cropped%29.jpg "1933 Rover 10 Special 1925 (3017369975) (cropped).jpg") |
| --- | --- |
"Specialised bodies by leading coach builders" available on all chassis, ordered from The Rover Company
* [Carbodies](/wiki/Carbodies "Carbodies") *Nizam* semi\-sports 2\-seater
* [Whittingham \& Mitchel](/wiki/Whittingham_%26_Mitchel "Whittingham & Mitchel") *Rajah* semi\-sports 4\-seater
* [Grose](/wiki/Grose "Grose") *Grose* drophead coupé
* [Geo Maddox \& Sons](/wiki/Geo_Maddox_%26_Sons "Geo Maddox & Sons") *Ranee* foursome coupé drophead
* [Charlesworth Bodies](/wiki/Charlesworth_Bodies "Charlesworth Bodies") *Pirate* fixed head foursome coupé
* [Weymann Motor Bodies](/wiki/Weymann_Fabric_Bodies "Weymann Fabric Bodies") *Maharajah* 4\-door semi\-sports saloon
* [Salmons \& Sons](/wiki/Tickford "Tickford") *Tickford* saloon
* [Swallow Bodies](/wiki/Swallow_Sidecar_Company "Swallow Sidecar Company") *Swallow* four\-door saloon
* [Pressed Steel](/wiki/Pressed_Steel_Company "Pressed Steel Company") *PSC Special*Hough \& Frostick, *Rover Memories*, Allen \& Unwin, 1966, London
{{clear}}
|
[
"10/25\n-----",
"{{Infobox automobile\n\\| image \\= File:Rover 10 Fabric Saloon (1928\\) (15228126979\\).jpg\n\\| caption \\= ''Weymann'' 4\\-door sports saloon \nwith ''Riviera'' folding roof registered July 1928\n\\| name \\= Rover 10/25 \nRover Family Ten\n\\| manufacturer \\= \\[\\[Rover (car)\\|Rover]] at \\[\\[Tyseley]]\n\\| production \\= 1927–1933\"The Motor Show\". ''The Times'', Friday, 14 October 1927; pg. 10; Issue 44712 15,000 approx made{{cite book \\|last\\=Sedgwick \\|first\\=M. \\|title\\=A\\-Z of Cars of the 1930s\\|year\\=1989 \\|publisher\\=Bay View Books \\|location\\=Devon, UK \\|isbn\\=1\\-870979\\-38\\-9}}\n\\| body\\_style \\= {{unbulleted list\\|open 2\\-seater\\|open 4\\-seater tourer\\|''Weymann'' saloon\\|open 2\\-seater semi\\-sports\\|open 4\\-seater semi\\-sports\\|chassis only}}\n\\| engine \\= 1185 cc ohv straight 4\n\\| transmission \\= dry plate clutch; gearbox 3\\-speeds and reverse with central control, enclosed drive shaft, worm final drive\n\\| wheelbase \\= {{unbulleted list\\|{{convert\\|104\\|in\\|mm\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}}\\|'''Track''' {{convert\\|48\\|in\\|mm\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}}\\|'''Track''' {{convert\\|50\\|in\\|mm\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}}Cars Of 1931\\. ''The Times,'' Monday, 1 Sep 1930; pg. 15; Issue 45606\\.}}\n\\| length \\= {{convert\\|156\\|in\\|mm\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}}{{cite book \\|last\\=Culshaw \\|author2\\=Horrobin \\|title\\=Complete Catalogue of British Cars \\|year\\=1974 \\|publisher\\=Macmillan \\|location\\=London \\|isbn\\=0\\-333\\-16689\\-2}} without bumpers\n\\| width \\= {{convert\\|62\\|in\\|mm\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}}\n\\| weight \\= \n\\| predecessor \\= \\[\\[Rover 9\\|Rover 9/20]]\n\\| designer \\= \n}}\n{{Infobox automobile engine\n\\| name \\= Rover 10/25\n\\| image \\= \n\\| manufacturer \\= Rover\n\\| aka \\= \n\\| production \\= \n\\| predecessor \\= \\[\\[Rover 9\\|Rover 9/20]]\n\\| successor \\= Rover 10\n\\| configuration \\= straight fourCars Of To\\-Day. ''The Times'', Tuesday, 12 Aug 1924; pg. 7; Issue 43728\n\\| displacement \\= {{convert\\|1185\\|cc\\|cuin\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}}\n\\| bore \\= {{convert\\|63\\|mm\\|in\\|abbr\\=on}}\n\\| stroke \\= {{convert\\|95\\|mm\\|in\\|abbr\\=on}}\n\\| head \\= aluminium alloy crankcase\n\\| valvetrain \\= overhead valves by ''Duralumin'' pushrods, chain\\-driven camshaft\n\\| compression \\= \n\\| supercharger \\= \n\\| turbocharger \\= \n\\| fuelsystem \\= \n\\| management \\= \n\\| fueltype \\= \n\\| oilsystem \\= forced lubrication by a gear pump in the sump\n\\| coolingsystem \\= water pumped through radiator, no fan\n\\| power \\= {{convert\\|25\\|bhp\\|kW PS\\|abbr\\=on}} \nTax horsepower 9\\.84\n\\| specpower \\= \n\\| torque \\= \n\\| length \\= \n\\| width \\= \n\\| height \\= \n\\| diameter \\= \n\\| weight \\= \n}}",
"The **Rover 10/25** was a small car built by Rover from mid 1927\\. Some time between March and September 1927 Rover increased the bore of their [9/20hp](/wiki/Rover_9 \"Rover 9\") by 3 mm and renamed the model 10/25 hp to indicate the engine's 10 per cent increased capacity but 25 per cent increase in claimed output. The drive shaft was also enclosed. The Rover 9/20 remained available in showrooms.Motor\\-Cars For 1928\\. *The Times*, Monday, 5 Sep 1927; pg. 7; Issue 44678",
"### Chassis",
"With the Rover 8 and Rover 9/20 chassis and enlarged 9/20 engine the 10/25 chassis was conventional with rigid axles and leaf spring suspension all round, half elliptic at the front and quarter elliptic behind. The four cylinder, overhead valve engine's capacity had been increased by ten per cent to 1185 cc. Drive was to the rear wheels through a three speed gearbox. There were internally expanding brakes on all four wheels. Its magneto ignition was replaced by coil ignition in 1929\\.",
"#### Weymann body",
"Available bodies either 2\\-seater or 4\\-seater were: open tourer or semi\\-sports tourer or as a 4\\-seater saloon.",
"The 4\\-seater saloons were provided with a [*Weymann*](/wiki/Weymann_Fabric_Bodies \"Weymann Fabric Bodies\") fabric body built by Rover under licence at Parkside. A standard *Paris* body with a folding roof was rebranded *Riviera*. The saloon windows were given double sliding panels for ventilation.",
"Equipment in the *Paris* body included: leather upholstery, five lamps, two electric horns, eight\\-day clock, automatic screen wiper, roof ventilator and lamp, companions, rear blind controllable from the driver’s seat, folding luggage grid etc. The *Riviera* model had the same fittings but in addition the roof was flexible. It folded back like an ordinary hood over about two\\-thirds of its length.",
"In October 1928 the bonnet was lengthened and a *Weymann* Sportsman's Coupé was added to the range. Seating four it had two 40 inch doors.The Motor Show. *The Times*, Friday, 12 Oct 1928; pg. 8; Issue 45022\\.",
"| [thumb\\|1928 open 4\\-seater tourer](/wiki/File:1928_Rover_10-25_tourer_%288572259933%29.jpg \"1928 Rover 10-25 tourer (8572259933).jpg\") | [thumb](/wiki/File:1929_Rover_10-25_4-seat_Open_Tourer_-_Radiator_script_%286924669130%29.jpg \"1929 Rover 10-25 4-seat Open Tourer - Radiator script (6924669130).jpg\") |\n| --- | --- |",
"",
"| [thumb](/wiki/File:1928_Rover_10_Tourer_%285747588252%29.jpg \"1928 Rover 10 Tourer (5747588252).jpg\") | [thumb\\|](/wiki/File:1928_Rover_10_Tourer_%286069877332%29.jpg \"1928 Rover 10 Tourer (6069877332).jpg\") |\n| --- | --- |",
"",
"| [thumb\\|1928 open 4\\-seater Sports tourer](/wiki/File:1929_Rover_10_Open_4-seater_Sports_Tourer_%2821483391134%29.jpg \"1929 Rover 10 Open 4-seater Sports Tourer (21483391134).jpg\") | [thumb\\|](/wiki/File:1929_Rover_10_25_Sports_Tourer_2.1_%284387330375%29.jpg \"1929 Rover 10 25 Sports Tourer 2.1 (4387330375).jpg\") |\n| --- | --- |",
"A high\\-line *Regal* model available on all bodies was introduced in 1928\\. Priced at a 12 per cent premium it came with a sliding roof, bumpers (buffers) front and rear, safety glass, vacuum servo braking, two spare wheels and special mats.Motor Show. *The Times*, 13 Oct 1928; pg. 6; Issue 45023",
"#### All\\-steel body",
"The existing Weymann bodied Riviera and Sportsman's Coupé models were joined in August 1930 by a \"coachbuilt\" model. [Pressed Steel](/wiki/Pressed_Steel_Company \"Pressed Steel Company\") supplied these all\\-steel bodies to Rover, painted and trimmed, for a much lower price than the cost of Rover's in\\-house Weymann bodies but Rover charged the same price for the three models fully equipped with safety glass windscreen, an electric windscreen wiper and a luggage grid. The bodies were new, roomier and they had a new shape. Wire wheels were £5 extra.",
"| [thumb\\|1931 10/25 *Regal* 6\\-light saloon. The chromed disc between headlamps is an electric horn fitted to all 1931 Rovers](/wiki/File:Rover_10_25_registered_November_1930_mfd_1929_per_owner.JPG \"Rover 10 25 registered November 1930 mfd 1929 per owner.JPG\") | [thumb\\|*Regal* profile *Magna* wheels, bumpers, pressed steel body by [Pressed Steel](/wiki/Pressed_Steel_Company \"Pressed Steel Company\"). A grille of shutter\\-type stone guards protects the radiator](/wiki/File:Rover_10_25_registered_November_1930_mfd_1929_per_owner_in_profile.JPG \"Rover 10 25 registered November 1930 mfd 1929 per owner in profile.JPG\") |\n| --- | --- |",
"Unacknowledged relatives",
"File:Rover 10 Special (1933\\) (20743184623\\).jpg\\|Rover\nFile:Hillman possibly Minx built 1935 according to DVLA database photo 2008 Castle Hedingham.JPG\\|Hillman\nFile:BSA 10 1185cc October 1933\\.JPG\\|BSA / Lanchester\\<ref group\\=note\\>John Bullock, a long\\-term Rootes employee, in his book ''The Rootes Brothers'', Patrick Stephens, Sparkford Somerset {{ISBN\\|1852604549}} says that Pressed Steel were so upset by the Rootes brothers' hard bargaining they sold the same body to Lanchester. The Rover version is said to come from Maurice Wilks' association with Pressed Steel in his (long before Minx) Hillman days\\</ref\\>",
"{{clear}}",
"#### Family 10",
"Announced in August 1930 the steel safety saloon, with safety glass windscreen, continued alongside the *Weymann* saloon and *Weymann* Sportsman's Coupé all given a new name but still the same car on the same old Rover 8 chassis though with improved rear suspension. Its half\\-elliptic springs replaced the previous car's quarter\\-elliptics.Display advertisement. *The Times,* Monday, 1 Sep 1930; pg. 7; Issue 45606\\. The Family Ten would continue after July 1932 alongside the new redesigned\\-under\\-the\\-skin 10 Special. Sliding roof, cam steering and a new type radiator stone guard of improved appearance were improvements the Family 10 shared with the new Special. The 10 Special's 4\\-speed gearbox was available as an optional extra.Cars Of 1933\\. *The Times*, Thursday, 21 Jul 1932; pg. 7; Issue 46191",
"Road test\nThe correspondent of *The Times* reported the smooth and quiet steel saloon would reach 46 mph on the straight. Once under way the acceleration was satisfying. The large bonnet and small engine made for easy access to components. The controls were good, the steering light and steady, the brakes effective. There were one or two body squeaks.Cars Of To\\-Day. *The Times*, Tuesday, 3 Feb 1931; pg. 12; Issue 45737\\.\nIn February 1932 \"following a reorganisation of the company's management\"At the end of 1931 [managing director Frank Searle](/wiki/Frank_Searle_%28businessman%29 \"Frank Searle (businessman)\") went to New Zealand to oversee the completion of a new Rover plant and Spencer Wilks took charge of Rover. The New Zealand plant at Petone opened 17 February 1932\\. It made Rover 10\\-25 cars from local materials and used imported steel panels and hide for the upholstery. Searle did not return to Rover. Rover announced strengthening of the Family Ten chassis by using heavier gauge material and re\\-designed cross members to improve torsional rigidity. These improvements were, they said, the outcome of lengthy testing on New Zealand's and Australia's roughest roads carried out to make the cars suitable for overseas use. Petrol was now supplied from the tank by *[Autovac](/wiki/Autovac \"Autovac\")*. A four\\-speed gearbox with quiet third was standard on the de luxe car and optional on the others. Brakes and springing had also been improved. There were detail improvements in the de luxe car now trimmed in hide.Crossley Motors, *The Times*, Friday, 5 Feb 1932; pg. 10; Issue 46049",
"{{Infobox automobile\n\\| name \\= Rover Ten Special\n\\| image \\= Rover 10 Special (1933\\) (20743182973\\).jpg\n\\| caption \\= 1933 6\\-light all\\-steel saloon\n\\| manufacturer \\= Rover\n\\| aka \\= \n\\| production \\= \n\\| model\\_years \\= 1932\\-1938\n\\| assembly \\= \n\\| designer \\= Maurice Wilks\n\\| class \\= \n\\| body\\_style \\= 4\\-door all steel saloon or coupé\n\\| layout \\= \n\\| platform \\= \n\\| related \\= \n\\| engine \\= in\\-line 4 as in Family Ten but output 27 bhp @ 3,800 rpm\n\\| transmission \\= automatic clutch optional, freewheel, 4\\-speed gearbox\\-2nd and 3rd constant mesh double\\-helical, enclosed propellor shaft, spiral bevel final drive\n\\| wheelbase \\= {{unbulleted list\\|{{convert\\|104\\|in\\|mm\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}}\\|'''Track''' {{convert\\|51\\|in\\|mm\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}}}}\n\\| length \\=\n\\| width \\= \n\\| height \\= \n\\| weight \\= {{convert\\|2380\\|lb\\|kg\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}}\n\\| predecessor \\= \n\\| successor \\= \n\\| sp \\= uk\n}}",
"### 10 Special—new chassis",
"An all new chassis with four speed gearbox, freewheel, automatic restart, bigger brakes, automatic clutch spiral bevel final drive and other facilities for the driver but bearing the same Pressed Steel body and, for the moment, the same engine was announced in July 1932\\. It was sold alongside the Family Ten for a 17 per cent premium.",
"The engine was now supported at just three not four points using special rubber insulation to control noise and vibration. Rover's—as it was promoted— *Easy\\-free gear change* was a new 4\\-speed gearbox with constant mesh double\\-helical gears for 2nd and 3rd and a freewheel device with its control beside the driver. A further convenience was an optional extra power\\-controlled or automatic clutch. A *[Startix](/wiki/Startix \"Startix\")* automatic engine starter was fitted. Startix was activated when the ignition was switched on and, in addition, operated automatically if the engine stalled. The new change\\-speed system meant gears might be changed after a slight easing of the accelerator without using the clutch yet making no noise. A knob on the instrument panel switched of the freewheel and returned the gearbox to orthodox. The half\\-elliptic spring on both axles are controlled by hydraulic shock\\-absorbers. The freewheel was to remain a feature of Rovers for more than 20 years.",
"The freewheel transmission placed more reliance on the braking system. The new brakes were *[Lockheed](/wiki/Automotive_Products \"Automotive Products\")* hydraulic with large diameter drums, they were self\\-compensating and self\\-lubricating. Rover's \"silent coachwork\". Special plant was installed at Rover's works to spray the inside of all body panels with asbestos to ensure quietness fire\\-proofing etc and insulation from extremes of heat and cold.",
"The body was mounted on a sub\\-frame with ample insulating material between frame and body. Body joints received treatment to avoid squeaks and the doors were fitted with silencersCars Of To\\-Day. *The Times*, Tuesday, 21 Feb 1933; pg. 21; Issue 46374",
"| [thumb\\|left\\|1933 coupé Tickford by [Salmons](/wiki/Tickford \"Tickford\")](/wiki/File:1933_Rover_10_515151719.jpg \"1933 Rover 10 515151719.jpg\") | [thumb\\|left\\|1933 6\\-light saloon](/wiki/File:1933_Rover_10_Special_1925_%283017369975%29_%28cropped%29.jpg \"1933 Rover 10 Special 1925 (3017369975) (cropped).jpg\") |\n| --- | --- |",
"\"Specialised bodies by leading coach builders\" available on all chassis, ordered from The Rover Company\n* [Carbodies](/wiki/Carbodies \"Carbodies\") *Nizam* semi\\-sports 2\\-seater\n* [Whittingham \\& Mitchel](/wiki/Whittingham_%26_Mitchel \"Whittingham & Mitchel\") *Rajah* semi\\-sports 4\\-seater\n* [Grose](/wiki/Grose \"Grose\") *Grose* drophead coupé\n* [Geo Maddox \\& Sons](/wiki/Geo_Maddox_%26_Sons \"Geo Maddox & Sons\") *Ranee* foursome coupé drophead\n* [Charlesworth Bodies](/wiki/Charlesworth_Bodies \"Charlesworth Bodies\") *Pirate* fixed head foursome coupé\n* [Weymann Motor Bodies](/wiki/Weymann_Fabric_Bodies \"Weymann Fabric Bodies\") *Maharajah* 4\\-door semi\\-sports saloon\n* [Salmons \\& Sons](/wiki/Tickford \"Tickford\") *Tickford* saloon\n* [Swallow Bodies](/wiki/Swallow_Sidecar_Company \"Swallow Sidecar Company\") *Swallow* four\\-door saloon\n* [Pressed Steel](/wiki/Pressed_Steel_Company \"Pressed Steel Company\") *PSC Special*Hough \\& Frostick, *Rover Memories*, Allen \\& Unwin, 1966, London",
"{{clear}}",
""
] |
### Chassis
With the Rover 8 and Rover 9/20 chassis and enlarged 9/20 engine the 10/25 chassis was conventional with rigid axles and leaf spring suspension all round, half elliptic at the front and quarter elliptic behind. The four cylinder, overhead valve engine's capacity had been increased by ten per cent to 1185 cc. Drive was to the rear wheels through a three speed gearbox. There were internally expanding brakes on all four wheels. Its magneto ignition was replaced by coil ignition in 1929\.
#### Weymann body
Available bodies either 2\-seater or 4\-seater were: open tourer or semi\-sports tourer or as a 4\-seater saloon.
The 4\-seater saloons were provided with a [*Weymann*](/wiki/Weymann_Fabric_Bodies "Weymann Fabric Bodies") fabric body built by Rover under licence at Parkside. A standard *Paris* body with a folding roof was rebranded *Riviera*. The saloon windows were given double sliding panels for ventilation.
Equipment in the *Paris* body included: leather upholstery, five lamps, two electric horns, eight\-day clock, automatic screen wiper, roof ventilator and lamp, companions, rear blind controllable from the driver’s seat, folding luggage grid etc. The *Riviera* model had the same fittings but in addition the roof was flexible. It folded back like an ordinary hood over about two\-thirds of its length.
In October 1928 the bonnet was lengthened and a *Weymann* Sportsman's Coupé was added to the range. Seating four it had two 40 inch doors.The Motor Show. *The Times*, Friday, 12 Oct 1928; pg. 8; Issue 45022\.
| [thumb\|1928 open 4\-seater tourer](/wiki/File:1928_Rover_10-25_tourer_%288572259933%29.jpg "1928 Rover 10-25 tourer (8572259933).jpg") | [thumb](/wiki/File:1929_Rover_10-25_4-seat_Open_Tourer_-_Radiator_script_%286924669130%29.jpg "1929 Rover 10-25 4-seat Open Tourer - Radiator script (6924669130).jpg") |
| --- | --- |
| [thumb](/wiki/File:1928_Rover_10_Tourer_%285747588252%29.jpg "1928 Rover 10 Tourer (5747588252).jpg") | [thumb\|](/wiki/File:1928_Rover_10_Tourer_%286069877332%29.jpg "1928 Rover 10 Tourer (6069877332).jpg") |
| --- | --- |
| [thumb\|1928 open 4\-seater Sports tourer](/wiki/File:1929_Rover_10_Open_4-seater_Sports_Tourer_%2821483391134%29.jpg "1929 Rover 10 Open 4-seater Sports Tourer (21483391134).jpg") | [thumb\|](/wiki/File:1929_Rover_10_25_Sports_Tourer_2.1_%284387330375%29.jpg "1929 Rover 10 25 Sports Tourer 2.1 (4387330375).jpg") |
| --- | --- |
A high\-line *Regal* model available on all bodies was introduced in 1928\. Priced at a 12 per cent premium it came with a sliding roof, bumpers (buffers) front and rear, safety glass, vacuum servo braking, two spare wheels and special mats.Motor Show. *The Times*, 13 Oct 1928; pg. 6; Issue 45023
#### All\-steel body
The existing Weymann bodied Riviera and Sportsman's Coupé models were joined in August 1930 by a "coachbuilt" model. [Pressed Steel](/wiki/Pressed_Steel_Company "Pressed Steel Company") supplied these all\-steel bodies to Rover, painted and trimmed, for a much lower price than the cost of Rover's in\-house Weymann bodies but Rover charged the same price for the three models fully equipped with safety glass windscreen, an electric windscreen wiper and a luggage grid. The bodies were new, roomier and they had a new shape. Wire wheels were £5 extra.
| [thumb\|1931 10/25 *Regal* 6\-light saloon. The chromed disc between headlamps is an electric horn fitted to all 1931 Rovers](/wiki/File:Rover_10_25_registered_November_1930_mfd_1929_per_owner.JPG "Rover 10 25 registered November 1930 mfd 1929 per owner.JPG") | [thumb\|*Regal* profile *Magna* wheels, bumpers, pressed steel body by [Pressed Steel](/wiki/Pressed_Steel_Company "Pressed Steel Company"). A grille of shutter\-type stone guards protects the radiator](/wiki/File:Rover_10_25_registered_November_1930_mfd_1929_per_owner_in_profile.JPG "Rover 10 25 registered November 1930 mfd 1929 per owner in profile.JPG") |
| --- | --- |
Unacknowledged relatives
File:Rover 10 Special (1933\) (20743184623\).jpg\|Rover
File:Hillman possibly Minx built 1935 according to DVLA database photo 2008 Castle Hedingham.JPG\|Hillman
File:BSA 10 1185cc October 1933\.JPG\|BSA / Lanchester\<ref group\=note\>John Bullock, a long\-term Rootes employee, in his book ''The Rootes Brothers'', Patrick Stephens, Sparkford Somerset {{ISBN\|1852604549}} says that Pressed Steel were so upset by the Rootes brothers' hard bargaining they sold the same body to Lanchester. The Rover version is said to come from Maurice Wilks' association with Pressed Steel in his (long before Minx) Hillman days\</ref\>
{{clear}}
#### Family 10
Announced in August 1930 the steel safety saloon, with safety glass windscreen, continued alongside the *Weymann* saloon and *Weymann* Sportsman's Coupé all given a new name but still the same car on the same old Rover 8 chassis though with improved rear suspension. Its half\-elliptic springs replaced the previous car's quarter\-elliptics.Display advertisement. *The Times,* Monday, 1 Sep 1930; pg. 7; Issue 45606\. The Family Ten would continue after July 1932 alongside the new redesigned\-under\-the\-skin 10 Special. Sliding roof, cam steering and a new type radiator stone guard of improved appearance were improvements the Family 10 shared with the new Special. The 10 Special's 4\-speed gearbox was available as an optional extra.Cars Of 1933\. *The Times*, Thursday, 21 Jul 1932; pg. 7; Issue 46191
Road test
The correspondent of *The Times* reported the smooth and quiet steel saloon would reach 46 mph on the straight. Once under way the acceleration was satisfying. The large bonnet and small engine made for easy access to components. The controls were good, the steering light and steady, the brakes effective. There were one or two body squeaks.Cars Of To\-Day. *The Times*, Tuesday, 3 Feb 1931; pg. 12; Issue 45737\.
In February 1932 "following a reorganisation of the company's management"At the end of 1931 [managing director Frank Searle](/wiki/Frank_Searle_%28businessman%29 "Frank Searle (businessman)") went to New Zealand to oversee the completion of a new Rover plant and Spencer Wilks took charge of Rover. The New Zealand plant at Petone opened 17 February 1932\. It made Rover 10\-25 cars from local materials and used imported steel panels and hide for the upholstery. Searle did not return to Rover. Rover announced strengthening of the Family Ten chassis by using heavier gauge material and re\-designed cross members to improve torsional rigidity. These improvements were, they said, the outcome of lengthy testing on New Zealand's and Australia's roughest roads carried out to make the cars suitable for overseas use. Petrol was now supplied from the tank by *[Autovac](/wiki/Autovac "Autovac")*. A four\-speed gearbox with quiet third was standard on the de luxe car and optional on the others. Brakes and springing had also been improved. There were detail improvements in the de luxe car now trimmed in hide.Crossley Motors, *The Times*, Friday, 5 Feb 1932; pg. 10; Issue 46049
{{Infobox automobile
\| name \= Rover Ten Special
\| image \= Rover 10 Special (1933\) (20743182973\).jpg
\| caption \= 1933 6\-light all\-steel saloon
\| manufacturer \= Rover
\| aka \=
\| production \=
\| model\_years \= 1932\-1938
\| assembly \=
\| designer \= Maurice Wilks
\| class \=
\| body\_style \= 4\-door all steel saloon or coupé
\| layout \=
\| platform \=
\| related \=
\| engine \= in\-line 4 as in Family Ten but output 27 bhp @ 3,800 rpm
\| transmission \= automatic clutch optional, freewheel, 4\-speed gearbox\-2nd and 3rd constant mesh double\-helical, enclosed propellor shaft, spiral bevel final drive
\| wheelbase \= {{unbulleted list\|{{convert\|104\|in\|mm\|0\|abbr\=on}}\|'''Track''' {{convert\|51\|in\|mm\|0\|abbr\=on}}}}
\| length \=
\| width \=
\| height \=
\| weight \= {{convert\|2380\|lb\|kg\|0\|abbr\=on}}
\| predecessor \=
\| successor \=
\| sp \= uk
}}
|
[
"### Chassis",
"With the Rover 8 and Rover 9/20 chassis and enlarged 9/20 engine the 10/25 chassis was conventional with rigid axles and leaf spring suspension all round, half elliptic at the front and quarter elliptic behind. The four cylinder, overhead valve engine's capacity had been increased by ten per cent to 1185 cc. Drive was to the rear wheels through a three speed gearbox. There were internally expanding brakes on all four wheels. Its magneto ignition was replaced by coil ignition in 1929\\.",
"#### Weymann body",
"Available bodies either 2\\-seater or 4\\-seater were: open tourer or semi\\-sports tourer or as a 4\\-seater saloon.",
"The 4\\-seater saloons were provided with a [*Weymann*](/wiki/Weymann_Fabric_Bodies \"Weymann Fabric Bodies\") fabric body built by Rover under licence at Parkside. A standard *Paris* body with a folding roof was rebranded *Riviera*. The saloon windows were given double sliding panels for ventilation.",
"Equipment in the *Paris* body included: leather upholstery, five lamps, two electric horns, eight\\-day clock, automatic screen wiper, roof ventilator and lamp, companions, rear blind controllable from the driver’s seat, folding luggage grid etc. The *Riviera* model had the same fittings but in addition the roof was flexible. It folded back like an ordinary hood over about two\\-thirds of its length.",
"In October 1928 the bonnet was lengthened and a *Weymann* Sportsman's Coupé was added to the range. Seating four it had two 40 inch doors.The Motor Show. *The Times*, Friday, 12 Oct 1928; pg. 8; Issue 45022\\.",
"| [thumb\\|1928 open 4\\-seater tourer](/wiki/File:1928_Rover_10-25_tourer_%288572259933%29.jpg \"1928 Rover 10-25 tourer (8572259933).jpg\") | [thumb](/wiki/File:1929_Rover_10-25_4-seat_Open_Tourer_-_Radiator_script_%286924669130%29.jpg \"1929 Rover 10-25 4-seat Open Tourer - Radiator script (6924669130).jpg\") |\n| --- | --- |",
"",
"| [thumb](/wiki/File:1928_Rover_10_Tourer_%285747588252%29.jpg \"1928 Rover 10 Tourer (5747588252).jpg\") | [thumb\\|](/wiki/File:1928_Rover_10_Tourer_%286069877332%29.jpg \"1928 Rover 10 Tourer (6069877332).jpg\") |\n| --- | --- |",
"",
"| [thumb\\|1928 open 4\\-seater Sports tourer](/wiki/File:1929_Rover_10_Open_4-seater_Sports_Tourer_%2821483391134%29.jpg \"1929 Rover 10 Open 4-seater Sports Tourer (21483391134).jpg\") | [thumb\\|](/wiki/File:1929_Rover_10_25_Sports_Tourer_2.1_%284387330375%29.jpg \"1929 Rover 10 25 Sports Tourer 2.1 (4387330375).jpg\") |\n| --- | --- |",
"A high\\-line *Regal* model available on all bodies was introduced in 1928\\. Priced at a 12 per cent premium it came with a sliding roof, bumpers (buffers) front and rear, safety glass, vacuum servo braking, two spare wheels and special mats.Motor Show. *The Times*, 13 Oct 1928; pg. 6; Issue 45023",
"#### All\\-steel body",
"The existing Weymann bodied Riviera and Sportsman's Coupé models were joined in August 1930 by a \"coachbuilt\" model. [Pressed Steel](/wiki/Pressed_Steel_Company \"Pressed Steel Company\") supplied these all\\-steel bodies to Rover, painted and trimmed, for a much lower price than the cost of Rover's in\\-house Weymann bodies but Rover charged the same price for the three models fully equipped with safety glass windscreen, an electric windscreen wiper and a luggage grid. The bodies were new, roomier and they had a new shape. Wire wheels were £5 extra.",
"| [thumb\\|1931 10/25 *Regal* 6\\-light saloon. The chromed disc between headlamps is an electric horn fitted to all 1931 Rovers](/wiki/File:Rover_10_25_registered_November_1930_mfd_1929_per_owner.JPG \"Rover 10 25 registered November 1930 mfd 1929 per owner.JPG\") | [thumb\\|*Regal* profile *Magna* wheels, bumpers, pressed steel body by [Pressed Steel](/wiki/Pressed_Steel_Company \"Pressed Steel Company\"). A grille of shutter\\-type stone guards protects the radiator](/wiki/File:Rover_10_25_registered_November_1930_mfd_1929_per_owner_in_profile.JPG \"Rover 10 25 registered November 1930 mfd 1929 per owner in profile.JPG\") |\n| --- | --- |",
"Unacknowledged relatives",
"File:Rover 10 Special (1933\\) (20743184623\\).jpg\\|Rover\nFile:Hillman possibly Minx built 1935 according to DVLA database photo 2008 Castle Hedingham.JPG\\|Hillman\nFile:BSA 10 1185cc October 1933\\.JPG\\|BSA / Lanchester\\<ref group\\=note\\>John Bullock, a long\\-term Rootes employee, in his book ''The Rootes Brothers'', Patrick Stephens, Sparkford Somerset {{ISBN\\|1852604549}} says that Pressed Steel were so upset by the Rootes brothers' hard bargaining they sold the same body to Lanchester. The Rover version is said to come from Maurice Wilks' association with Pressed Steel in his (long before Minx) Hillman days\\</ref\\>",
"{{clear}}",
"#### Family 10",
"Announced in August 1930 the steel safety saloon, with safety glass windscreen, continued alongside the *Weymann* saloon and *Weymann* Sportsman's Coupé all given a new name but still the same car on the same old Rover 8 chassis though with improved rear suspension. Its half\\-elliptic springs replaced the previous car's quarter\\-elliptics.Display advertisement. *The Times,* Monday, 1 Sep 1930; pg. 7; Issue 45606\\. The Family Ten would continue after July 1932 alongside the new redesigned\\-under\\-the\\-skin 10 Special. Sliding roof, cam steering and a new type radiator stone guard of improved appearance were improvements the Family 10 shared with the new Special. The 10 Special's 4\\-speed gearbox was available as an optional extra.Cars Of 1933\\. *The Times*, Thursday, 21 Jul 1932; pg. 7; Issue 46191",
"Road test\nThe correspondent of *The Times* reported the smooth and quiet steel saloon would reach 46 mph on the straight. Once under way the acceleration was satisfying. The large bonnet and small engine made for easy access to components. The controls were good, the steering light and steady, the brakes effective. There were one or two body squeaks.Cars Of To\\-Day. *The Times*, Tuesday, 3 Feb 1931; pg. 12; Issue 45737\\.\nIn February 1932 \"following a reorganisation of the company's management\"At the end of 1931 [managing director Frank Searle](/wiki/Frank_Searle_%28businessman%29 \"Frank Searle (businessman)\") went to New Zealand to oversee the completion of a new Rover plant and Spencer Wilks took charge of Rover. The New Zealand plant at Petone opened 17 February 1932\\. It made Rover 10\\-25 cars from local materials and used imported steel panels and hide for the upholstery. Searle did not return to Rover. Rover announced strengthening of the Family Ten chassis by using heavier gauge material and re\\-designed cross members to improve torsional rigidity. These improvements were, they said, the outcome of lengthy testing on New Zealand's and Australia's roughest roads carried out to make the cars suitable for overseas use. Petrol was now supplied from the tank by *[Autovac](/wiki/Autovac \"Autovac\")*. A four\\-speed gearbox with quiet third was standard on the de luxe car and optional on the others. Brakes and springing had also been improved. There were detail improvements in the de luxe car now trimmed in hide.Crossley Motors, *The Times*, Friday, 5 Feb 1932; pg. 10; Issue 46049",
"{{Infobox automobile\n\\| name \\= Rover Ten Special\n\\| image \\= Rover 10 Special (1933\\) (20743182973\\).jpg\n\\| caption \\= 1933 6\\-light all\\-steel saloon\n\\| manufacturer \\= Rover\n\\| aka \\= \n\\| production \\= \n\\| model\\_years \\= 1932\\-1938\n\\| assembly \\= \n\\| designer \\= Maurice Wilks\n\\| class \\= \n\\| body\\_style \\= 4\\-door all steel saloon or coupé\n\\| layout \\= \n\\| platform \\= \n\\| related \\= \n\\| engine \\= in\\-line 4 as in Family Ten but output 27 bhp @ 3,800 rpm\n\\| transmission \\= automatic clutch optional, freewheel, 4\\-speed gearbox\\-2nd and 3rd constant mesh double\\-helical, enclosed propellor shaft, spiral bevel final drive\n\\| wheelbase \\= {{unbulleted list\\|{{convert\\|104\\|in\\|mm\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}}\\|'''Track''' {{convert\\|51\\|in\\|mm\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}}}}\n\\| length \\=\n\\| width \\= \n\\| height \\= \n\\| weight \\= {{convert\\|2380\\|lb\\|kg\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}}\n\\| predecessor \\= \n\\| successor \\= \n\\| sp \\= uk\n}}",
""
] |
Plot
----
Texas bartender Ray and housewife Abby drive through a downpour at night, discussing Abby's bad marriage to Ray's boss Julian Marty. They have sex at a motel. Private detective Loren Visser takes photos of the tryst and delivers them to Marty. When a caller informs the couple they are being watched, Abby grabs some belongings, including a pistol Marty gave her. Ray goes to the bar to demand his back pay from Marty, who tells Ray that Abby will betray him as she did Marty, and when confronted will say, "I haven't done anything funny."
After a botched attempt to kidnap Abby, Marty offers Visser $10,000 to kill Abby and Ray. Visser tells Marty to go fishing and he will call him when it is done. Visser breaks into Ray's home and steals Abby's gun. Visser shows Marty photos of the murdered couple, one of which Marty secretes in the safe while retrieving the $10,000\. Visser shoots Marty with Abby's gun, drops the gun and grabs the money but forgets his cigarette lighter as he leaves.
It is revealed that Visser doctored photos of the sleeping couple to appear that they had been shot. Ray discovers Marty's body, accidentally discharging Abby's gun when he steps on it. He puts the gun in Marty's pocket and the body in his car. Marty is still alive, albeit barely. Ray begins to bury Marty in a shallow grave when Marty aims the gun and pulls the trigger three times, falling on an empty chamber each time. Marty screams as Ray takes the gun and finishes burying him.
Ray tries to explain to Abby that he "cleaned it all up." Abby says, "I haven't done anything funny," which leads to an argument. Visser telephones but does not speak when Abby picks up; she assumes and tells Ray that it was Marty. Ray places her gun on a table as he leaves. Bartender Meurice tells Ray about a phone message Marty left regarding money stolen from the safe \- Marty's cover for the $10,000 he paid Visser.
While burning the doctored photos, Visser realizes that Marty kept one, and that he left his lighter. His attempt to break into the safe is thwarted by Abby, who thinks Ray damaged the safe and realizes Marty might be dead. She has a nightmare of Marty warning her that Ray will kill her as well. She confronts Ray, who tells her Marty was still alive when he buried him.
Ray opens the safe and discovers the doctored photo. He goes to Abby's apartment to warn her. Visser kills Ray with a rifle shot from a rooftop across the street. Abby smashes the lightbulb and hides in the bathroom.
Visser enters the apartment and searches Ray for the lighter, and finds Abby has climbed out of the window into the next apartment. She stabs him with Ray's knife, pinning his hand to the sill. As she backs away, Visser empties his gun into the wall, then punches through it to remove the knife. Returning to her apartment, Abby picks up her gun and shoots Visser through the bathroom door. She says, "I'm not afraid of you, Marty," and Visser, lying wounded, laughs and responds, "Well, ma'am, if I see him, I'll sure give him the message."
|
[
"Plot\n----",
"Texas bartender Ray and housewife Abby drive through a downpour at night, discussing Abby's bad marriage to Ray's boss Julian Marty. They have sex at a motel. Private detective Loren Visser takes photos of the tryst and delivers them to Marty. When a caller informs the couple they are being watched, Abby grabs some belongings, including a pistol Marty gave her. Ray goes to the bar to demand his back pay from Marty, who tells Ray that Abby will betray him as she did Marty, and when confronted will say, \"I haven't done anything funny.\"",
"After a botched attempt to kidnap Abby, Marty offers Visser $10,000 to kill Abby and Ray. Visser tells Marty to go fishing and he will call him when it is done. Visser breaks into Ray's home and steals Abby's gun. Visser shows Marty photos of the murdered couple, one of which Marty secretes in the safe while retrieving the $10,000\\. Visser shoots Marty with Abby's gun, drops the gun and grabs the money but forgets his cigarette lighter as he leaves.",
"It is revealed that Visser doctored photos of the sleeping couple to appear that they had been shot. Ray discovers Marty's body, accidentally discharging Abby's gun when he steps on it. He puts the gun in Marty's pocket and the body in his car. Marty is still alive, albeit barely. Ray begins to bury Marty in a shallow grave when Marty aims the gun and pulls the trigger three times, falling on an empty chamber each time. Marty screams as Ray takes the gun and finishes burying him.",
"Ray tries to explain to Abby that he \"cleaned it all up.\" Abby says, \"I haven't done anything funny,\" which leads to an argument. Visser telephones but does not speak when Abby picks up; she assumes and tells Ray that it was Marty. Ray places her gun on a table as he leaves. Bartender Meurice tells Ray about a phone message Marty left regarding money stolen from the safe \\- Marty's cover for the $10,000 he paid Visser.",
"While burning the doctored photos, Visser realizes that Marty kept one, and that he left his lighter. His attempt to break into the safe is thwarted by Abby, who thinks Ray damaged the safe and realizes Marty might be dead. She has a nightmare of Marty warning her that Ray will kill her as well. She confronts Ray, who tells her Marty was still alive when he buried him.",
"Ray opens the safe and discovers the doctored photo. He goes to Abby's apartment to warn her. Visser kills Ray with a rifle shot from a rooftop across the street. Abby smashes the lightbulb and hides in the bathroom.",
"Visser enters the apartment and searches Ray for the lighter, and finds Abby has climbed out of the window into the next apartment. She stabs him with Ray's knife, pinning his hand to the sill. As she backs away, Visser empties his gun into the wall, then punches through it to remove the knife. Returning to her apartment, Abby picks up her gun and shoots Visser through the bathroom door. She says, \"I'm not afraid of you, Marty,\" and Visser, lying wounded, laughs and responds, \"Well, ma'am, if I see him, I'll sure give him the message.\"",
""
] |
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