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Professional career
-------------------
### Cincinnati Bengals
After going undrafted in the [1996 NFL draft](/wiki/1996_NFL_draft "1996 NFL draft"), Huard was signed by the [Cincinnati Bengals](/wiki/1996_Cincinnati_Bengals_season "1996 Cincinnati Bengals season") as an [undrafted free agent](/wiki/Undrafted_free_agent "Undrafted free agent"), but was waived on August 19\.
### Miami Dolphins
After spending the 1996 season out of football, Huard signed with the [Miami Dolphins](/wiki/Miami_Dolphins "Miami Dolphins") on April 24, [1997](/wiki/1997_Miami_Dolphins_season "1997 Miami Dolphins season"). He was released during final cuts on August 24, but was re\-signed to the team's [practice squad](/wiki/Practice_squad "Practice squad") two days later. He was promoted to the active roster on September 6 and spent the remainder of the season as the Dolphins' third quarterback. Following the season, Huard played in [NFL Europe](/wiki/NFL_Europa "NFL Europa") for the [Frankfurt Galaxy](/wiki/Frankfurt_Galaxy_%28NFL_Europe%29 "Frankfurt Galaxy (NFL Europe)"). In [1998](/wiki/1998_Miami_Dolphins_season "1998 Miami Dolphins season"), Huard saw action in two games for the Dolphins as a reserve, while acting as the team's third quarterback in eight games. He finished the season six\-of\-nine for 85 yards and an interception.
Huard began the [1999](/wiki/1999_Miami_Dolphins_season "1999 Miami Dolphins season") season as the Dolphins' holder on the field goal unit, but following an injury to starter [Dan Marino](/wiki/Dan_Marino "Dan Marino"), in the future [Hall of Famer](/wiki/Pro_Football_Hall_of_Fame "Pro Football Hall of Fame")'s final season, Huard started his first NFL game on October 24 after replacing Marino on October 17\. He won his first three games that he started, tying a Dolphins record set by [Earl Morrall](/wiki/Earl_Morrall "Earl Morrall") in [1972](/wiki/1972_Miami_Dolphins_season "1972 Miami Dolphins season"). Huard posted a {{nowrap\|4–1}} record before Marino returned in November, finishing the regular season with eight touchdowns, four interceptions, and 1,288 passing yards. Huard also saw time in the [playoffs](/wiki/1999%E2%80%932000_NFL_playoffs "1999–2000 NFL playoffs"), replacing Marino for the second half of a {{nowrap\|62–7}} loss to the [Jacksonville Jaguars](/wiki/1999_Jacksonville_Jaguars_season "1999 Jacksonville Jaguars season"). Several weeks earlier on December 3, he signed a two\-year contract extension with the Dolphins.
Despite Huard's performance in 1999, [Jay Fiedler](/wiki/Jay_Fiedler "Jay Fiedler") was signed to be the Dolphins' starter in [2000](/wiki/2000_Miami_Dolphins_season "2000 Miami Dolphins season"). Huard started one game in Fiedler's place, a {{nowrap\|17–14}} win over the [Colts](/wiki/2000_Indianapolis_Colts_season "2000 Indianapolis Colts season") on November 26\. On that day, Damon and his brother Brock became the NFL's first set of brothers to start at QB on the same weekend in league history. Damon made his only start that year against the Colts, while Brock started against the Denver Broncos for the Seahawks.
### New England Patriots
A free agent after the 2000 season, Huard signed with the [New England Patriots](/wiki/2001_New_England_Patriots_season "2001 New England Patriots season"). At training camp, he competed with second\-year [Tom Brady](/wiki/Tom_Brady "Tom Brady") and third\-year [Michael Bishop](/wiki/Michael_Bishop_%28gridiron_football%29 "Michael Bishop (gridiron football)") for the backup job behind long\-time starter [Drew Bledsoe](/wiki/Drew_Bledsoe "Drew Bledsoe"); In 2001 Brady became the team's second quarterback and Huard the third for the start of the season. When Bledsoe was injured in Week 2, Brady became the Patriots' starter for the remainder of the season, while Huard was the backup until Bledsoe returned in Week 10\. As the third quarterback, Huard won his first [Super Bowl](/wiki/Super_Bowl_XXXVI "Super Bowl XXXVI") ring in February 2002 when the Patriots beat the [St. Louis Rams](/wiki/2001_St._Louis_Rams_season "2001 St. Louis Rams season").
Huard appeared in his first game as a Patriot in [2002](/wiki/2002_New_England_Patriots_season "2002 New England Patriots season"), leading a touchdown drive in a blowout win over the [New York Jets](/wiki/2002_New_York_Jets_season "2002 New York Jets season") on September 15\. Later in the season, he entered a game in a punt formation and ran a successful quarterback sneak for a first down.
While a backup for the Patriots in [2003](/wiki/2003_New_England_Patriots_season "2003 New England Patriots season"), Huard saw time in two more games while also seeing time on the team's scout team during practice. Before the [AFC Championship game](/wiki/2003%E2%80%9304_NFL_playoffs%23AFC_Championship:New_England_Patriots_24%2C_Indianapolis_Colts_14 "New England Patriots 24, Indianapolis Colts 14") against the [Indianapolis Colts](/wiki/2003_Indianapolis_Colts_season "2003 Indianapolis Colts season"), he mimicked the line calls and audibles of Colts quarterback [Peyton Manning](/wiki/Peyton_Manning "Peyton Manning") for the Patriots' defense during practice.
### Kansas City Chiefs
[thumb\|left\|160px\|Leading the Chiefs against the [Steelers](/wiki/2006_Pittsburgh_Steelers_season "2006 Pittsburgh Steelers season") in [2006](/wiki/2006_Kansas_City_Chiefs_season "2006 Kansas City Chiefs season")](/wiki/File:Chiefs_and_Steelers_lineup.jpg "Chiefs and Steelers lineup.jpg")
After 2003, Huard signed with the [Kansas City Chiefs](/wiki/Kansas_City_Chiefs "Kansas City Chiefs") as a free agent. As the team's third quarterback, he did not see any action for his first two seasons ([2004](/wiki/2004_Kansas_City_Chiefs_season "2004 Kansas City Chiefs season") and [2005](/wiki/2005_Kansas_City_Chiefs_season "2005 Kansas City Chiefs season")). In the [2006](/wiki/2006_Kansas_City_Chiefs_season "2006 Kansas City Chiefs season") opener, starter [Trent Green](/wiki/Trent_Green "Trent Green") suffered a [concussion](/wiki/Concussion "Concussion") and was replaced by Huard. He started the next seven games, posting a {{nowrap\|5–3}} record until suffering a groin injury. Green returned and started the remainder of the season and the team's [playoff](/wiki/2006%E2%80%9307_NFL_playoffs "2006–07 NFL playoffs") game against the [Indianapolis Colts](/wiki/2006_Indianapolis_Colts_season "2006 Indianapolis Colts season").
After the season, the Chiefs signed Huard to a three\-year contract extension, and Green was traded to the [Miami Dolphins](/wiki/2007_Miami_Dolphins_season "2007 Miami Dolphins season"). During the 2006 season, Huard set the NFL record for lowest percentage passes intercepted in a season among qualified players, with only one of his 244 attempts being intercepted.{{cite book \|title\=Official 2015 National Football League Record \& Fact Book \|year\=2015 \|publisher\=\[\[National Football League]] \|location\=New York \|url\=https://nflcommunications.com/Documents/2015%20NFL%20Record%20and%20Fact%20Book.pdf \|editor1\-last\=Lee \|editor1\-first\=Brenden \|editor2\-last\=Gellerman \|editor2\-first\=Jacob \|editor3\-last\=King \|editor3\-first\=Robert \|access\-date\=October 6, 2015 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151001192546/http://www.nfl.com/static/content/public/photo/2015/07/21/0ap3000000502939\.pdf \|archive\-date\=October 1, 2015 \|url\-status\=live}}
In the Chiefs' [2007](/wiki/2007_Kansas_City_Chiefs_season "2007 Kansas City Chiefs season") training camp, Huard competed with second\-year [Brodie Croyle](/wiki/Brodie_Croyle "Brodie Croyle"), the team's third\-round draft choice in [2006](/wiki/2006_NFL_draft "2006 NFL draft"). Huard was named the starter on August 25, and started the first nine games of the season, going {{nowrap\|4–5\.}} In his final start, Huard suffered a back injury and was replaced by Croyle, but Croyle himself was injured after his second start, both losses, and Huard returned as the starter in Week 13\. He suffered a hand injury in the game and Croyle started the Chiefs' next two games. In Week 16, Croyle was injured again and Huard saw time in a reserve before Croyle returned to start the last game of the season. The Chiefs ended the season on a nine\-game losing streak.
Croyle started the opener in [2008](/wiki/2008_Kansas_City_Chiefs_season "2008 Kansas City Chiefs season"), but again suffered an injury and was replaced by Huard. In Week 2, Huard started but suffered a concussion and was replaced by [Tyler Thigpen](/wiki/Tyler_Thigpen "Tyler Thigpen"), a seventh\-round draft pick in [2007](/wiki/2007_NFL_draft "2007 NFL draft"). Thigpen started the Chiefs' Week 3 game before Huard returned for Weeks 4 and 5\. Croyle returned after the bye week in Week 7 to start, was injured again, and replaced by Huard, who suffered a thumb injury. He was placed on [injured reserve](/wiki/Injured_reserve "Injured reserve") the next week, ending his season. The same week, Croyle was also placed on injured reserve, leaving Thigpen as the Chiefs' starter for the remainder of the season.
Following the season, [Scott Pioli](/wiki/Scott_Pioli "Scott Pioli"), the Patriots' director of player personnel during Huard's tenure in New England, was hired to be the Chiefs' [general manager](/wiki/General_manager "General manager"). Huard was released by the Chiefs on February 24, roughly a week before Pioli traded for [Matt Cassel](/wiki/Matt_Cassel "Matt Cassel"), a Patriots backup who replaced an injured Brady in [2008](/wiki/2008_New_England_Patriots_season "2008 New England Patriots season"), to be the Chiefs' starter in [2009](/wiki/2009_Kansas_City_Chiefs_season "2009 Kansas City Chiefs season").
### San Francisco 49ers
Huard signed with the [San Francisco 49ers](/wiki/San_Francisco_49ers "San Francisco 49ers") on March 4, [2009](/wiki/2009_San_Francisco_49ers_season "2009 San Francisco 49ers season"), and competed for a job behind [Alex Smith](/wiki/Alex_Smith "Alex Smith") with [Shaun Hill](/wiki/Shaun_Hill "Shaun Hill") and [2009](/wiki/2009_NFL_draft "2009 NFL draft") fifth\-round pick [Nate Davis](/wiki/Nate_Davis_%28quarterback%29 "Nate Davis (quarterback)"); he was released on September 1,{{cite web\|url\=http://www.sfgate.com/cgi\-bin/article.cgi?f\=/c/a/2009/09/02/SP7719H38F.DTL\&type\=49ers\|title\=Davis gets nod as 3rd\-string QB\|website\=sfgate.com\|date\=September 2, 2009 }} and retired.
|
[
"Professional career\n-------------------",
"### Cincinnati Bengals",
"After going undrafted in the [1996 NFL draft](/wiki/1996_NFL_draft \"1996 NFL draft\"), Huard was signed by the [Cincinnati Bengals](/wiki/1996_Cincinnati_Bengals_season \"1996 Cincinnati Bengals season\") as an [undrafted free agent](/wiki/Undrafted_free_agent \"Undrafted free agent\"), but was waived on August 19\\.",
"### Miami Dolphins",
"After spending the 1996 season out of football, Huard signed with the [Miami Dolphins](/wiki/Miami_Dolphins \"Miami Dolphins\") on April 24, [1997](/wiki/1997_Miami_Dolphins_season \"1997 Miami Dolphins season\"). He was released during final cuts on August 24, but was re\\-signed to the team's [practice squad](/wiki/Practice_squad \"Practice squad\") two days later. He was promoted to the active roster on September 6 and spent the remainder of the season as the Dolphins' third quarterback. Following the season, Huard played in [NFL Europe](/wiki/NFL_Europa \"NFL Europa\") for the [Frankfurt Galaxy](/wiki/Frankfurt_Galaxy_%28NFL_Europe%29 \"Frankfurt Galaxy (NFL Europe)\"). In [1998](/wiki/1998_Miami_Dolphins_season \"1998 Miami Dolphins season\"), Huard saw action in two games for the Dolphins as a reserve, while acting as the team's third quarterback in eight games. He finished the season six\\-of\\-nine for 85 yards and an interception.",
"Huard began the [1999](/wiki/1999_Miami_Dolphins_season \"1999 Miami Dolphins season\") season as the Dolphins' holder on the field goal unit, but following an injury to starter [Dan Marino](/wiki/Dan_Marino \"Dan Marino\"), in the future [Hall of Famer](/wiki/Pro_Football_Hall_of_Fame \"Pro Football Hall of Fame\")'s final season, Huard started his first NFL game on October 24 after replacing Marino on October 17\\. He won his first three games that he started, tying a Dolphins record set by [Earl Morrall](/wiki/Earl_Morrall \"Earl Morrall\") in [1972](/wiki/1972_Miami_Dolphins_season \"1972 Miami Dolphins season\"). Huard posted a {{nowrap\\|4–1}} record before Marino returned in November, finishing the regular season with eight touchdowns, four interceptions, and 1,288 passing yards. Huard also saw time in the [playoffs](/wiki/1999%E2%80%932000_NFL_playoffs \"1999–2000 NFL playoffs\"), replacing Marino for the second half of a {{nowrap\\|62–7}} loss to the [Jacksonville Jaguars](/wiki/1999_Jacksonville_Jaguars_season \"1999 Jacksonville Jaguars season\"). Several weeks earlier on December 3, he signed a two\\-year contract extension with the Dolphins.",
"Despite Huard's performance in 1999, [Jay Fiedler](/wiki/Jay_Fiedler \"Jay Fiedler\") was signed to be the Dolphins' starter in [2000](/wiki/2000_Miami_Dolphins_season \"2000 Miami Dolphins season\"). Huard started one game in Fiedler's place, a {{nowrap\\|17–14}} win over the [Colts](/wiki/2000_Indianapolis_Colts_season \"2000 Indianapolis Colts season\") on November 26\\. On that day, Damon and his brother Brock became the NFL's first set of brothers to start at QB on the same weekend in league history. Damon made his only start that year against the Colts, while Brock started against the Denver Broncos for the Seahawks.",
"### New England Patriots",
"A free agent after the 2000 season, Huard signed with the [New England Patriots](/wiki/2001_New_England_Patriots_season \"2001 New England Patriots season\"). At training camp, he competed with second\\-year [Tom Brady](/wiki/Tom_Brady \"Tom Brady\") and third\\-year [Michael Bishop](/wiki/Michael_Bishop_%28gridiron_football%29 \"Michael Bishop (gridiron football)\") for the backup job behind long\\-time starter [Drew Bledsoe](/wiki/Drew_Bledsoe \"Drew Bledsoe\"); In 2001 Brady became the team's second quarterback and Huard the third for the start of the season. When Bledsoe was injured in Week 2, Brady became the Patriots' starter for the remainder of the season, while Huard was the backup until Bledsoe returned in Week 10\\. As the third quarterback, Huard won his first [Super Bowl](/wiki/Super_Bowl_XXXVI \"Super Bowl XXXVI\") ring in February 2002 when the Patriots beat the [St. Louis Rams](/wiki/2001_St._Louis_Rams_season \"2001 St. Louis Rams season\").",
"Huard appeared in his first game as a Patriot in [2002](/wiki/2002_New_England_Patriots_season \"2002 New England Patriots season\"), leading a touchdown drive in a blowout win over the [New York Jets](/wiki/2002_New_York_Jets_season \"2002 New York Jets season\") on September 15\\. Later in the season, he entered a game in a punt formation and ran a successful quarterback sneak for a first down.",
"While a backup for the Patriots in [2003](/wiki/2003_New_England_Patriots_season \"2003 New England Patriots season\"), Huard saw time in two more games while also seeing time on the team's scout team during practice. Before the [AFC Championship game](/wiki/2003%E2%80%9304_NFL_playoffs%23AFC_Championship:New_England_Patriots_24%2C_Indianapolis_Colts_14 \"New England Patriots 24, Indianapolis Colts 14\") against the [Indianapolis Colts](/wiki/2003_Indianapolis_Colts_season \"2003 Indianapolis Colts season\"), he mimicked the line calls and audibles of Colts quarterback [Peyton Manning](/wiki/Peyton_Manning \"Peyton Manning\") for the Patriots' defense during practice.",
"### Kansas City Chiefs",
"[thumb\\|left\\|160px\\|Leading the Chiefs against the [Steelers](/wiki/2006_Pittsburgh_Steelers_season \"2006 Pittsburgh Steelers season\") in [2006](/wiki/2006_Kansas_City_Chiefs_season \"2006 Kansas City Chiefs season\")](/wiki/File:Chiefs_and_Steelers_lineup.jpg \"Chiefs and Steelers lineup.jpg\")\nAfter 2003, Huard signed with the [Kansas City Chiefs](/wiki/Kansas_City_Chiefs \"Kansas City Chiefs\") as a free agent. As the team's third quarterback, he did not see any action for his first two seasons ([2004](/wiki/2004_Kansas_City_Chiefs_season \"2004 Kansas City Chiefs season\") and [2005](/wiki/2005_Kansas_City_Chiefs_season \"2005 Kansas City Chiefs season\")). In the [2006](/wiki/2006_Kansas_City_Chiefs_season \"2006 Kansas City Chiefs season\") opener, starter [Trent Green](/wiki/Trent_Green \"Trent Green\") suffered a [concussion](/wiki/Concussion \"Concussion\") and was replaced by Huard. He started the next seven games, posting a {{nowrap\\|5–3}} record until suffering a groin injury. Green returned and started the remainder of the season and the team's [playoff](/wiki/2006%E2%80%9307_NFL_playoffs \"2006–07 NFL playoffs\") game against the [Indianapolis Colts](/wiki/2006_Indianapolis_Colts_season \"2006 Indianapolis Colts season\").",
"After the season, the Chiefs signed Huard to a three\\-year contract extension, and Green was traded to the [Miami Dolphins](/wiki/2007_Miami_Dolphins_season \"2007 Miami Dolphins season\"). During the 2006 season, Huard set the NFL record for lowest percentage passes intercepted in a season among qualified players, with only one of his 244 attempts being intercepted.{{cite book \\|title\\=Official 2015 National Football League Record \\& Fact Book \\|year\\=2015 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[National Football League]] \\|location\\=New York \\|url\\=https://nflcommunications.com/Documents/2015%20NFL%20Record%20and%20Fact%20Book.pdf \\|editor1\\-last\\=Lee \\|editor1\\-first\\=Brenden \\|editor2\\-last\\=Gellerman \\|editor2\\-first\\=Jacob \\|editor3\\-last\\=King \\|editor3\\-first\\=Robert \\|access\\-date\\=October 6, 2015 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151001192546/http://www.nfl.com/static/content/public/photo/2015/07/21/0ap3000000502939\\.pdf \\|archive\\-date\\=October 1, 2015 \\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
"In the Chiefs' [2007](/wiki/2007_Kansas_City_Chiefs_season \"2007 Kansas City Chiefs season\") training camp, Huard competed with second\\-year [Brodie Croyle](/wiki/Brodie_Croyle \"Brodie Croyle\"), the team's third\\-round draft choice in [2006](/wiki/2006_NFL_draft \"2006 NFL draft\"). Huard was named the starter on August 25, and started the first nine games of the season, going {{nowrap\\|4–5\\.}} In his final start, Huard suffered a back injury and was replaced by Croyle, but Croyle himself was injured after his second start, both losses, and Huard returned as the starter in Week 13\\. He suffered a hand injury in the game and Croyle started the Chiefs' next two games. In Week 16, Croyle was injured again and Huard saw time in a reserve before Croyle returned to start the last game of the season. The Chiefs ended the season on a nine\\-game losing streak.",
"Croyle started the opener in [2008](/wiki/2008_Kansas_City_Chiefs_season \"2008 Kansas City Chiefs season\"), but again suffered an injury and was replaced by Huard. In Week 2, Huard started but suffered a concussion and was replaced by [Tyler Thigpen](/wiki/Tyler_Thigpen \"Tyler Thigpen\"), a seventh\\-round draft pick in [2007](/wiki/2007_NFL_draft \"2007 NFL draft\"). Thigpen started the Chiefs' Week 3 game before Huard returned for Weeks 4 and 5\\. Croyle returned after the bye week in Week 7 to start, was injured again, and replaced by Huard, who suffered a thumb injury. He was placed on [injured reserve](/wiki/Injured_reserve \"Injured reserve\") the next week, ending his season. The same week, Croyle was also placed on injured reserve, leaving Thigpen as the Chiefs' starter for the remainder of the season.",
"Following the season, [Scott Pioli](/wiki/Scott_Pioli \"Scott Pioli\"), the Patriots' director of player personnel during Huard's tenure in New England, was hired to be the Chiefs' [general manager](/wiki/General_manager \"General manager\"). Huard was released by the Chiefs on February 24, roughly a week before Pioli traded for [Matt Cassel](/wiki/Matt_Cassel \"Matt Cassel\"), a Patriots backup who replaced an injured Brady in [2008](/wiki/2008_New_England_Patriots_season \"2008 New England Patriots season\"), to be the Chiefs' starter in [2009](/wiki/2009_Kansas_City_Chiefs_season \"2009 Kansas City Chiefs season\").",
"### San Francisco 49ers",
"Huard signed with the [San Francisco 49ers](/wiki/San_Francisco_49ers \"San Francisco 49ers\") on March 4, [2009](/wiki/2009_San_Francisco_49ers_season \"2009 San Francisco 49ers season\"), and competed for a job behind [Alex Smith](/wiki/Alex_Smith \"Alex Smith\") with [Shaun Hill](/wiki/Shaun_Hill \"Shaun Hill\") and [2009](/wiki/2009_NFL_draft \"2009 NFL draft\") fifth\\-round pick [Nate Davis](/wiki/Nate_Davis_%28quarterback%29 \"Nate Davis (quarterback)\"); he was released on September 1,{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.sfgate.com/cgi\\-bin/article.cgi?f\\=/c/a/2009/09/02/SP7719H38F.DTL\\&type\\=49ers\\|title\\=Davis gets nod as 3rd\\-string QB\\|website\\=sfgate.com\\|date\\=September 2, 2009 }} and retired.",
""
] |
Plot
----
In the world of magic, the young Mark Marakson is obsessed with devices, building water wheels and later, steam engines. He does not understand why the people on the farms and villages rely on magicians rather than using the machinery he creates. Young Pol, meanwhile, grows up a poet, musician and singer, marked by the white streak in his dark hair. He is a great disappointment to the man he regards as his father, who is an engineer. From time to time he sees glowing strands in the air which he can touch to make things happen.
Mark is ostracised by the people around him and wanders in the hills until he finds a graveyard of machines, left from the ancient war between magic and technology. Able to restart them, he returns in triumph on a flying machine to claim his childhood sweetheart in the village, only to be assaulted by the villagers, losing an eye. Fleeing back to the graveyard he creates an army of machines to take revenge.
Mor, realizing that he has disturbed the balance of the world, goes to retrieve Pol to counter Mark, revealing Pol's heritage and powers to him. To return Pol, the elderly Mor has to remain in the technology world to balance out the transfer. He dies in a park where every tree, bird and insect is artificial.
Pol must find his way around Castle Rondoval. The strands he can use to perform magic are everywhere around him. Soon he finds a thief who was in the castle when Mor cast a sleep spell over it. Revived, the thief becomes his helper. He also discovers Det's dragons asleep in the dungeons. Reviving the mightiest one, who recognizes him as his former master's son, he then has to set out on a quest to find the three segments of his father's magical staff, scattered across the world by Mor. On the journey, he is accompanied by Mark's former sweetheart, thus creating a romantic triangle.
The quest requires him to defeat several magical traps and guardians. Completing it, he is able to take on and defeat Mark Marakson, restoring the balance of his world. In doing so, he loses the affections of the girl. He is left to seek his future in Rondoval, among the old magics left by his father. The next part of his story is told in the novel *[Madwand](/wiki/Madwand "Madwand")*.
|
[
"Plot\n----",
"In the world of magic, the young Mark Marakson is obsessed with devices, building water wheels and later, steam engines. He does not understand why the people on the farms and villages rely on magicians rather than using the machinery he creates. Young Pol, meanwhile, grows up a poet, musician and singer, marked by the white streak in his dark hair. He is a great disappointment to the man he regards as his father, who is an engineer. From time to time he sees glowing strands in the air which he can touch to make things happen.",
"Mark is ostracised by the people around him and wanders in the hills until he finds a graveyard of machines, left from the ancient war between magic and technology. Able to restart them, he returns in triumph on a flying machine to claim his childhood sweetheart in the village, only to be assaulted by the villagers, losing an eye. Fleeing back to the graveyard he creates an army of machines to take revenge.",
"Mor, realizing that he has disturbed the balance of the world, goes to retrieve Pol to counter Mark, revealing Pol's heritage and powers to him. To return Pol, the elderly Mor has to remain in the technology world to balance out the transfer. He dies in a park where every tree, bird and insect is artificial.",
"Pol must find his way around Castle Rondoval. The strands he can use to perform magic are everywhere around him. Soon he finds a thief who was in the castle when Mor cast a sleep spell over it. Revived, the thief becomes his helper. He also discovers Det's dragons asleep in the dungeons. Reviving the mightiest one, who recognizes him as his former master's son, he then has to set out on a quest to find the three segments of his father's magical staff, scattered across the world by Mor. On the journey, he is accompanied by Mark's former sweetheart, thus creating a romantic triangle.",
"The quest requires him to defeat several magical traps and guardians. Completing it, he is able to take on and defeat Mark Marakson, restoring the balance of his world. In doing so, he loses the affections of the girl. He is left to seek his future in Rondoval, among the old magics left by his father. The next part of his story is told in the novel *[Madwand](/wiki/Madwand \"Madwand\")*.",
""
] |
Design
------
### Components
The design of Yarrow consists of four major components: an [entropy](/wiki/Entropy_%28computing%29 "Entropy (computing)") accumulator, a [reseed](/wiki/Random_seed "Random seed") mechanism, a generation mechanism, and reseed control.
Yarrow accumulates entropy into two pools: the fast pool, which provides frequent reseeds of the [key](/wiki/Unique_key "Unique key") to keep the duration of key compromises as short as possible; the slow pool, which provides rare but conservative reseeds of the key. This makes sure that the reseed is secured even when the entropy estimates are very optimistic.
The reseed mechanism connects the entropy accumulator to the generating mechanism. Reseeding from the fast pool uses the current key and the [hash](/wiki/Hash_value "Hash value") of all inputs to the fast pool since startup to generate a new key; reseeding from the slow pool behaves similarly, except it also uses the hash of all inputs to the slow pool to generate a new key. Both of the reseedings reset the entropy estimation of the fast pool to zero, but the last one also sets the estimation of the slow pool to zero. The reseeding mechanism updates the key constantly, so that even if the key of pool information is known to the attacker before the reseed, they will be unknown to the attacker after the reseed.
The reseed control component is leveraging between frequent reseeding, which is desirable but might allow [iterative guessing attacks](/wiki/%23Iterative_guessing_attack "#Iterative guessing attack"), and infrequent reseeding, which compromises more information for an attacker who has the key. Yarrow uses the fast pool to reseed whenever the source passes some threshold values, and uses the slow pool to reseed whenever at least two of its sources pass some other threshold value. The specific threshold values are mentioned in the [Yarrow\-160](/wiki/%23Yarrow-160 "#Yarrow-160") section.
### Design philosophy
Yarrow assumes that enough entropy can be accumulated to ensure that the PRNG is in an unpredictable state. The designers accumulate entropy in the purpose of keeping the ability to recover the PRNG even when the key is compromised. Similar design philosophy is taken by RSAREF, DSA and ANSI X9\.17 PRNGs.
### Yarrow\-160
The Yarrow uses two important algorithms: a [one\-way hash function](/wiki/Cryptographic_hash_function "Cryptographic hash function") and a [block cipher](/wiki/Block_cipher "Block cipher"). The specific description and properties are listed in the table below.
| Algorithms | Properties | What Yarrow\-160 uses |
| --- | --- | --- |
| Hash function h(x) | One\-way m\-bit output size collision intractable Given {{var\|M}} input values, the \|M\| selections of output values are uniformly distributed over *m*\-bit values. | [SHA\-1](/wiki/SHA-1 "SHA-1") hash function |
| Block cipher E() | Resistant to known\-plaintext and chosen\-plaintext attacks High statistical performance of outputs when given highly patterned inputs. | Three\-key [Triple DES](/wiki/Triple_DES "Triple DES") |
#### Generation
* + - * [thumb\|Functions for generation mechanism](/wiki/File:Functions_for_Generation_Mechanism.png "Functions for Generation Mechanism.png")
Yarrow\-160 uses three\-key [Triple DES](/wiki/Triple_DES "Triple DES") in counter mode to generate outputs. *{{math\|C}}* is an *n*\-bit counter value; *{{math\|K}}* is the key. In order to generate the next output block, Yarrow follows the functions shown here.
Yarrow keeps count of the output block, because once the key is compromised, the leak of the old output before the compromised one can be stopped immediately. Once some system security parameter *{{math\|Pg}}* is reached, the algorithm will generate *{{math\|k}}* bits of PRNG output and use them as the new key. In Yarrow\-160, the system security parameter is set to be *10*, which means *{{math\|Pg {{\=}} 10}}*. The parameter is intentionally set to be low to minimize the number of outputs that can be backtracked.
#### Reseed
The reseed mechanism of Yarrow\-160 uses SHA\-1 and Triple DES as the hash function and block cipher. The details steps are in the original paper.
#### Implementation of Yarrow\-160
Yarrow\-160 has been implemented in [Java](/wiki/Java_%28programming_language%29 "Java (programming language)"), and for [FreeBSD](/wiki/FreeBSD "FreeBSD"). The examples can be found in "An implementation of the Yarrow PRNG for FreeBSD"{{cite web\|url\=https://www.usenix.org/legacy/events/bsdcon02/full\_papers/murray/murray\_html/\|title\=An implementation of the Yarrow PRNG for FreeBSD\|access\-date\=18 October 2016}} by Mark R. V. Murray.
|
[
"Design\n------",
"### Components",
"The design of Yarrow consists of four major components: an [entropy](/wiki/Entropy_%28computing%29 \"Entropy (computing)\") accumulator, a [reseed](/wiki/Random_seed \"Random seed\") mechanism, a generation mechanism, and reseed control.",
"Yarrow accumulates entropy into two pools: the fast pool, which provides frequent reseeds of the [key](/wiki/Unique_key \"Unique key\") to keep the duration of key compromises as short as possible; the slow pool, which provides rare but conservative reseeds of the key. This makes sure that the reseed is secured even when the entropy estimates are very optimistic.",
"The reseed mechanism connects the entropy accumulator to the generating mechanism. Reseeding from the fast pool uses the current key and the [hash](/wiki/Hash_value \"Hash value\") of all inputs to the fast pool since startup to generate a new key; reseeding from the slow pool behaves similarly, except it also uses the hash of all inputs to the slow pool to generate a new key. Both of the reseedings reset the entropy estimation of the fast pool to zero, but the last one also sets the estimation of the slow pool to zero. The reseeding mechanism updates the key constantly, so that even if the key of pool information is known to the attacker before the reseed, they will be unknown to the attacker after the reseed.",
"The reseed control component is leveraging between frequent reseeding, which is desirable but might allow [iterative guessing attacks](/wiki/%23Iterative_guessing_attack \"#Iterative guessing attack\"), and infrequent reseeding, which compromises more information for an attacker who has the key. Yarrow uses the fast pool to reseed whenever the source passes some threshold values, and uses the slow pool to reseed whenever at least two of its sources pass some other threshold value. The specific threshold values are mentioned in the [Yarrow\\-160](/wiki/%23Yarrow-160 \"#Yarrow-160\") section.",
"### Design philosophy",
"Yarrow assumes that enough entropy can be accumulated to ensure that the PRNG is in an unpredictable state. The designers accumulate entropy in the purpose of keeping the ability to recover the PRNG even when the key is compromised. Similar design philosophy is taken by RSAREF, DSA and ANSI X9\\.17 PRNGs.",
"### Yarrow\\-160",
"The Yarrow uses two important algorithms: a [one\\-way hash function](/wiki/Cryptographic_hash_function \"Cryptographic hash function\") and a [block cipher](/wiki/Block_cipher \"Block cipher\"). The specific description and properties are listed in the table below.",
"| Algorithms | Properties | What Yarrow\\-160 uses |\n| --- | --- | --- |\n| Hash function h(x) | One\\-way m\\-bit output size collision intractable Given {{var\\|M}} input values, the \\|M\\| selections of output values are uniformly distributed over *m*\\-bit values. | [SHA\\-1](/wiki/SHA-1 \"SHA-1\") hash function |\n| Block cipher E() | Resistant to known\\-plaintext and chosen\\-plaintext attacks High statistical performance of outputs when given highly patterned inputs. | Three\\-key [Triple DES](/wiki/Triple_DES \"Triple DES\") |",
"",
"#### Generation",
"* + - * [thumb\\|Functions for generation mechanism](/wiki/File:Functions_for_Generation_Mechanism.png \"Functions for Generation Mechanism.png\")\n\t\t\tYarrow\\-160 uses three\\-key [Triple DES](/wiki/Triple_DES \"Triple DES\") in counter mode to generate outputs. *{{math\\|C}}* is an *n*\\-bit counter value; *{{math\\|K}}* is the key. In order to generate the next output block, Yarrow follows the functions shown here.",
"Yarrow keeps count of the output block, because once the key is compromised, the leak of the old output before the compromised one can be stopped immediately. Once some system security parameter *{{math\\|Pg}}* is reached, the algorithm will generate *{{math\\|k}}* bits of PRNG output and use them as the new key. In Yarrow\\-160, the system security parameter is set to be *10*, which means *{{math\\|Pg {{\\=}} 10}}*. The parameter is intentionally set to be low to minimize the number of outputs that can be backtracked.",
"#### Reseed",
"The reseed mechanism of Yarrow\\-160 uses SHA\\-1 and Triple DES as the hash function and block cipher. The details steps are in the original paper.",
"#### Implementation of Yarrow\\-160",
"Yarrow\\-160 has been implemented in [Java](/wiki/Java_%28programming_language%29 \"Java (programming language)\"), and for [FreeBSD](/wiki/FreeBSD \"FreeBSD\"). The examples can be found in \"An implementation of the Yarrow PRNG for FreeBSD\"{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.usenix.org/legacy/events/bsdcon02/full\\_papers/murray/murray\\_html/\\|title\\=An implementation of the Yarrow PRNG for FreeBSD\\|access\\-date\\=18 October 2016}} by Mark R. V. Murray.",
""
] |
Demographics
------------
{{US Census population
\|footnote\=U.S. Decennial Census{{cite web\|url\=https://www.census.gov/programs\-surveys/decennial\-census.html\|title\=Census of Population and Housing\|publisher\=Census.gov\|access\-date\=June 4, 2016}}
}}
### 2010
At the [2010 census](/wiki/2010_United_States_Census "2010 United States Census") Iron Horse had a population of 297\. The population density was {{convert\|38\.3\|PD/sqmi\|PD/km2\|sp\=us\|adj\=off}}. The racial makeup of Iron Horse was 276 (92\.9%) White, 0 (0\.0%) African American, 0 (0\.0%) Native American, 1 (0\.3%) Asian, 0 (0\.0%) Pacific Islander, 12 (4\.0%) from other races, and 8 (2\.7%) from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 17 people (5\.7%).{{cite web\|url\=http://www.census.gov/2010census/popmap/ipmtext.php?fl\=06:0636735\|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20140715025800/http://www.census.gov/2010census/popmap/ipmtext.php?fl\=06:0636735\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-date\=July 15, 2014\|title\=2010 Census Interactive Population Search: CA \- Iron Horse CDP\|publisher\=U.S. Census Bureau\|access\-date\=July 12, 2014}}
The whole population lived in households, no one lived in non\-institutionalized group quarters and no one was institutionalized.
There were 126 households, 30 (23\.8%) had children under the age of 18 living in them, 79 (62\.7%) were [opposite\-sex married couples](/wiki/Marriage "Marriage") living together, 5 (4\.0%) had a female householder with no husband present, 4 (3\.2%) had a male householder with no wife present. There were 12 (9\.5%) [unmarried opposite\-sex partnerships](/wiki/POSSLQ "POSSLQ"), and 0 (0%) [same\-sex married couples or partnerships](/wiki/Same-sex_partnerships "Same-sex partnerships"). 26 households (20\.6%) were one person and 7 (5\.6%) had someone living alone who was 65 or older. The average household size was 2\.36\. There were 88 families (69\.8% of households); the average family size was 2\.75\.
The age distribution was 51 people (17\.2%) under the age of 18, 23 people (7\.7%) aged 18 to 24, 53 people (17\.8%) aged 25 to 44, 115 people (38\.7%) aged 45 to 64, and 55 people (18\.5%) who were 65 or older. The median age was 49\.0 years. For every 100 females, there were 96\.7 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 108\.5 males.
There were 168 housing units at an average density of 21\.7 per square mile, of the occupied units 101 (80\.2%) were owner\-occupied and 25 (19\.8%) were rented. The homeowner vacancy rate was 7\.3%; the rental vacancy rate was 16\.7%. 242 people (81\.5% of the population) lived in owner\-occupied housing units and 55 people (18\.5%) lived in rental housing units.
### 2000
At the [2000 census](/wiki/2000_United_States_Census "2000 United States Census") there were 321 people, 122 households, and 96 families in the CDP. The population density was {{convert\|35\.0\|PD/sqmi\|PD/km2\|sp\=us\|adj\=off}}. There were 148 housing units at an average density of 16\.1 per square mile (6\.2/km{{sup\|2}}). The [racial makeup](/wiki/Race_and_ethnicity_in_the_United_States_Census%232000_census "Race and ethnicity in the United States Census#2000 census") of the CDP was 92\.83% White, 0\.62% Black or African American, 0\.62% Native American, 2\.18% from other races, and 3\.74% from two or more races. 5\.61% of the population were [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanics_in_the_United_States "Hispanics in the United States") or Latino of any race.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.census.gov\|publisher\=\[\[United States Census Bureau]]\|access\-date\=2008\-01\-31\|title\=U.S. Census website}}
Of the 122 households 33\.6% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 69\.7% were married couples living together, 7\.4% had a female householder with no husband present, and 21\.3% were non\-families. 18\.0% of households were one person and 6\.6% were one person aged 65 or older. The average household size was 2\.63 and the average family size was 2\.94\.
The age distribution was 24\.9% under the age of 18, 5\.0% from 18 to 24, 26\.8% from 25 to 44, 27\.1% from 45 to 64, and 16\.2% 65 or older. The median age was 41 years. For every 100 females, there were 85\.5 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 94\.4 males.
The median household income was $30,208 and the median family income was $30,000\. Males had a median income of $29,091 versus $25,938 for females. The per capita income for the CDP was $11,732\. About 14\.0% of families and 9\.8% of the population were below the [poverty line](/wiki/Poverty_line "Poverty line"), including none of those under age 18 and 22\.2% of those age 65 or over.
|
[
"Demographics\n------------",
"{{US Census population\n\\|footnote\\=U.S. Decennial Census{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.census.gov/programs\\-surveys/decennial\\-census.html\\|title\\=Census of Population and Housing\\|publisher\\=Census.gov\\|access\\-date\\=June 4, 2016}}\n}}",
"### 2010",
"At the [2010 census](/wiki/2010_United_States_Census \"2010 United States Census\") Iron Horse had a population of 297\\. The population density was {{convert\\|38\\.3\\|PD/sqmi\\|PD/km2\\|sp\\=us\\|adj\\=off}}. The racial makeup of Iron Horse was 276 (92\\.9%) White, 0 (0\\.0%) African American, 0 (0\\.0%) Native American, 1 (0\\.3%) Asian, 0 (0\\.0%) Pacific Islander, 12 (4\\.0%) from other races, and 8 (2\\.7%) from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 17 people (5\\.7%).{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.census.gov/2010census/popmap/ipmtext.php?fl\\=06:0636735\\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20140715025800/http://www.census.gov/2010census/popmap/ipmtext.php?fl\\=06:0636735\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-date\\=July 15, 2014\\|title\\=2010 Census Interactive Population Search: CA \\- Iron Horse CDP\\|publisher\\=U.S. Census Bureau\\|access\\-date\\=July 12, 2014}}",
"The whole population lived in households, no one lived in non\\-institutionalized group quarters and no one was institutionalized.",
"There were 126 households, 30 (23\\.8%) had children under the age of 18 living in them, 79 (62\\.7%) were [opposite\\-sex married couples](/wiki/Marriage \"Marriage\") living together, 5 (4\\.0%) had a female householder with no husband present, 4 (3\\.2%) had a male householder with no wife present. There were 12 (9\\.5%) [unmarried opposite\\-sex partnerships](/wiki/POSSLQ \"POSSLQ\"), and 0 (0%) [same\\-sex married couples or partnerships](/wiki/Same-sex_partnerships \"Same-sex partnerships\"). 26 households (20\\.6%) were one person and 7 (5\\.6%) had someone living alone who was 65 or older. The average household size was 2\\.36\\. There were 88 families (69\\.8% of households); the average family size was 2\\.75\\.",
"The age distribution was 51 people (17\\.2%) under the age of 18, 23 people (7\\.7%) aged 18 to 24, 53 people (17\\.8%) aged 25 to 44, 115 people (38\\.7%) aged 45 to 64, and 55 people (18\\.5%) who were 65 or older. The median age was 49\\.0 years. For every 100 females, there were 96\\.7 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 108\\.5 males.",
"There were 168 housing units at an average density of 21\\.7 per square mile, of the occupied units 101 (80\\.2%) were owner\\-occupied and 25 (19\\.8%) were rented. The homeowner vacancy rate was 7\\.3%; the rental vacancy rate was 16\\.7%. 242 people (81\\.5% of the population) lived in owner\\-occupied housing units and 55 people (18\\.5%) lived in rental housing units.",
"### 2000",
"At the [2000 census](/wiki/2000_United_States_Census \"2000 United States Census\") there were 321 people, 122 households, and 96 families in the CDP. The population density was {{convert\\|35\\.0\\|PD/sqmi\\|PD/km2\\|sp\\=us\\|adj\\=off}}. There were 148 housing units at an average density of 16\\.1 per square mile (6\\.2/km{{sup\\|2}}). The [racial makeup](/wiki/Race_and_ethnicity_in_the_United_States_Census%232000_census \"Race and ethnicity in the United States Census#2000 census\") of the CDP was 92\\.83% White, 0\\.62% Black or African American, 0\\.62% Native American, 2\\.18% from other races, and 3\\.74% from two or more races. 5\\.61% of the population were [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanics_in_the_United_States \"Hispanics in the United States\") or Latino of any race.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.census.gov\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[United States Census Bureau]]\\|access\\-date\\=2008\\-01\\-31\\|title\\=U.S. Census website}}\nOf the 122 households 33\\.6% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 69\\.7% were married couples living together, 7\\.4% had a female householder with no husband present, and 21\\.3% were non\\-families. 18\\.0% of households were one person and 6\\.6% were one person aged 65 or older. The average household size was 2\\.63 and the average family size was 2\\.94\\.",
"The age distribution was 24\\.9% under the age of 18, 5\\.0% from 18 to 24, 26\\.8% from 25 to 44, 27\\.1% from 45 to 64, and 16\\.2% 65 or older. The median age was 41 years. For every 100 females, there were 85\\.5 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 94\\.4 males.",
"The median household income was $30,208 and the median family income was $30,000\\. Males had a median income of $29,091 versus $25,938 for females. The per capita income for the CDP was $11,732\\. About 14\\.0% of families and 9\\.8% of the population were below the [poverty line](/wiki/Poverty_line \"Poverty line\"), including none of those under age 18 and 22\\.2% of those age 65 or over.",
""
] |
Biography
---------
Craig Duehring was educated at [Minnesota State University, Mankato](/wiki/Minnesota_State_University%2C_Mankato "Minnesota State University, Mankato"), receiving a [B.A.](/wiki/Bachelor_of_Arts "Bachelor of Arts") in [history](/wiki/History "History") and [sociology](/wiki/Sociology "Sociology") in 1967\. After college, he joined the [United States Air Force](/wiki/United_States_Air_Force "United States Air Force"). He spent 1968\-69 completing undergraduate [pilot](/wiki/Aviator "Aviator") training at [Craig Air Force Base](/wiki/Craig_Air_Force_Base "Craig Air Force Base"). Duehring saw service during the [Vietnam War](/wiki/Vietnam_War "Vietnam War") in 1969–70, as a [forward air controller](/wiki/Forward_air_controller "Forward air controller") with the [22nd Tactical Air Support Squadron](/wiki/22nd_Tactical_Air_Support_Squadron "22nd Tactical Air Support Squadron"). He participated in over 800 combat missions, flying the [Cessna O\-1](/wiki/Cessna_O-1_Bird_Dog "Cessna O-1 Bird Dog") and [AT\-28](/wiki/North_American_T-28_Trojan%23Variants "North American T-28 Trojan#Variants") over Vietnam and [Laos](/wiki/Laos "Laos").{{cite web \|url\=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/intelligence\-history/stories\-of\-sacrifice\-dedication/sacrifice\-and\-dedication.pdf \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150908014240/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/intelligence\-history/stories\-of\-sacrifice\-dedication/sacrifice\-and\-dedication.pdf \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-date\=September 8, 2015 \|title\=Stories of Sacrifice and Dedication: Civil Air Transport, Air America and the CIA \|date\=June 2, 2011 \|publisher\=Central Intelligence Agency \|accessdate\=2020\-08\-01}} Duehring was awarded the [Silver Star](/wiki/Silver_Star "Silver Star"), two [Distinguished Flying Crosses](/wiki/Distinguished_Flying_Cross_%28United_States%29 "Distinguished Flying Cross (United States)"),{{cite web \|url\=https://valor.militarytimes.com/hero/46727 \|title\=Craig W. Duehring \|publisher\=Military Times \|accessdate\=2020\-07\-31}} 27 [Air Medals](/wiki/Air_Medal "Air Medal") and the [Republic of Vietnam Gallantry Cross](/wiki/Gallantry_Cross_%28South_Vietnam%29 "Gallantry Cross (South Vietnam)").
In 1970–71, he was a [Raven Forward Air Controller](/wiki/Raven_Forward_Air_Controllers "Raven Forward Air Controllers") based at [Udorn Royal Thai Air Force Base](/wiki/Udorn_Royal_Thai_Air_Force_Base "Udorn Royal Thai Air Force Base"). He then returned to Craig Air Force Base 1971–75, as a [Cessna T\-37 Tweet](/wiki/Cessna_T-37_Tweet "Cessna T-37 Tweet") instructor pilot with the [43d Flying Training Squadron](/wiki/43d_Flying_Training_Squadron "43d Flying Training Squadron"). He also earned a [master's degree](/wiki/Master%27s_degree "Master's degree") in counseling and guidance from [Troy State University](/wiki/Troy_University "Troy University") in 1975\.[https://www.af.mil/About\-Us/Biographies/Display/Article/108063/craig\-w\-duehring/](https://www.af.mil/About-Us/Biographies/Display/Article/108063/craig-w-duehring/)
From 1975 to 1978, he was base fuels management officer with the [1st Fighter Wing](/wiki/1st_Fighter_Wing "1st Fighter Wing") at [Langley Air Force Base](/wiki/Langley_Air_Force_Base "Langley Air Force Base"). He was posted at [RAF Bentwaters](/wiki/RAF_Bentwaters "RAF Bentwaters") from 1978 to 1981, serving as Chief of Training of the [81st Training Wing](/wiki/81st_Training_Wing "81st Training Wing"). From 1981 to 1984, he was action officer of the Tactical Fighter Operations Division at the Headquarters of the [United States Air Forces in Europe](/wiki/United_States_Air_Forces_in_Europe "United States Air Forces in Europe") at [Ramstein Air Base](/wiki/Ramstein_Air_Base "Ramstein Air Base") in [West Germany](/wiki/West_Germany "West Germany"). He returned to RAF Bentwaters in 1984, first as assistant [operations officer](/wiki/Operations_officer "Operations officer") of the [510th Fighter Squadron](/wiki/510th_Fighter_Squadron "510th Fighter Squadron"), then as Director of Operations Training for the [81st Training Wing](/wiki/81st_Training_Wing "81st Training Wing"). During his time in Europe, he recorded over 1200 flight hours in the [A\-10 Thunderbolt II](/wiki/Fairchild_Republic_A-10_Thunderbolt_II "Fairchild Republic A-10 Thunderbolt II").
He returned to West Germany in 1986, and was stationed at [Nörvenich](/wiki/N%C3%B6rvenich "Nörvenich") Air Base as American Community Commander and Commander of the 7502nd Munitions Support Squadron. In 1987, he received the Lance P. Sijan Leadership Award as the top leader in the USAF in the Senior Officer category. He was then Assistant Deputy Commander of Operations of the [406th Tactical Fighter Training Wing](/wiki/406th_Tactical_Fighter_Training_Wing "406th Tactical Fighter Training Wing") at [Zaragoza Air Base](/wiki/Zaragoza_Air_Base "Zaragoza Air Base") from 1989–90, and Deputy Commander of Operations from 1990–91\. He then spent 1992\-93 studying at the [Foreign Service Institute](/wiki/Foreign_Service_Institute "Foreign Service Institute") in [Washington, D.C.](/wiki/Washington%2C_D.C. "Washington, D.C.") From 1993 to 1995, he was United States [Air Attaché](/wiki/Air_Attach%C3%A9 "Air Attaché") to [Indonesia](/wiki/Indonesia "Indonesia"). Duehring retired from the Air Force in 1996, having attained the rank of [colonel](/wiki/Colonel_%28United_States%29 "Colonel (United States)").
In 1998 he was the unsuccessful [Republican](/wiki/Republican_Party_%28United_States%29 "Republican Party (United States)") nominee for the [United States House of Representatives](/wiki/United_States_House_of_Representatives "United States House of Representatives") for [Minnesota's 2nd congressional district](/wiki/Minnesota%27s_2nd_congressional_district "Minnesota's 2nd congressional district"). In 1999, Duehring served as Executive Director of the Patrick Henry Center for Individual Liberty (founded by [Gary Aldrich](/wiki/Gary_Aldrich "Gary Aldrich")). During the [2000 U.S. presidential election campaign](/wiki/2000_United_States_presidential_election "2000 United States presidential election"), he campaigned for [George W. Bush](/wiki/George_W._Bush "George W. Bush"), and was later a part of Bush's [presidential transition](/wiki/United_States_presidential_transition "United States presidential transition") team.
Duehring joined the [United States Department of Defense](/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Defense "United States Department of Defense"), becoming Principal Deputy [Assistant Secretary of Defense for Reserve Affairs](/wiki/Assistant_Secretary_of_Defense_for_Reserve_Affairs "Assistant Secretary of Defense for Reserve Affairs"). As there was no Assistant Secretary of Defense for Reserve Affairs from May 31, 2001 to October 9, 2002, Duehring was performing the duties of the assistant secretary in the period immediately following the [September 11 attacks](/wiki/September_11_attacks "September 11 attacks").
Following the resignation of [Michael L. Dominguez](/wiki/Michael_L._Dominguez "Michael L. Dominguez") as [Assistant Secretary of the Air Force (Manpower \& Reserve Affairs)](/wiki/Assistant_Secretary_of_the_Air_Force_%28Manpower_%26_Reserve_Affairs%29 "Assistant Secretary of the Air Force (Manpower & Reserve Affairs)") in July 2006, Duehring became Acting Assistant Secretary of the Air Force (Manpower \& Reserve Affairs) at that time. In November 2007, [President of the United States](/wiki/President_of_the_United_States "President of the United States") [George W. Bush](/wiki/George_W._Bush "George W. Bush") nominated Duehring to be Assistant Secretary of the Air Force (Manpower \& Reserve Affairs), and Duehring subsequently held this office until retiring from public service on April 30, 2009\.
In July 2020, Duehring was nominated by President [Donald Trump](/wiki/Donald_Trump "Donald Trump") to be the Principal Deputy [Under Secretary of Defense for Personnel and Readiness](/wiki/Under_Secretary_of_Defense_for_Personnel_and_Readiness "Under Secretary of Defense for Personnel and Readiness").{{cite web \|url\=https://www.congress.gov/nomination/116th\-congress/2149 \|title\=PN2149 — Craig Duehring — Department of Defense \|date\=July 29, 2020 \|website\=U.S. Congress \|accessdate\=2020\-07\-31}} On January 3, 2021, his nomination was returned to the President under [Rule XXXI, Paragraph 6](/wiki/Standing_Rules_of_the_United_States_Senate%2C_Rule_XXXI "Standing Rules of the United States Senate, Rule XXXI") of the [United States Senate](/wiki/United_States_Senate "United States Senate").
|
[
"Biography\n---------",
"Craig Duehring was educated at [Minnesota State University, Mankato](/wiki/Minnesota_State_University%2C_Mankato \"Minnesota State University, Mankato\"), receiving a [B.A.](/wiki/Bachelor_of_Arts \"Bachelor of Arts\") in [history](/wiki/History \"History\") and [sociology](/wiki/Sociology \"Sociology\") in 1967\\. After college, he joined the [United States Air Force](/wiki/United_States_Air_Force \"United States Air Force\"). He spent 1968\\-69 completing undergraduate [pilot](/wiki/Aviator \"Aviator\") training at [Craig Air Force Base](/wiki/Craig_Air_Force_Base \"Craig Air Force Base\"). Duehring saw service during the [Vietnam War](/wiki/Vietnam_War \"Vietnam War\") in 1969–70, as a [forward air controller](/wiki/Forward_air_controller \"Forward air controller\") with the [22nd Tactical Air Support Squadron](/wiki/22nd_Tactical_Air_Support_Squadron \"22nd Tactical Air Support Squadron\"). He participated in over 800 combat missions, flying the [Cessna O\\-1](/wiki/Cessna_O-1_Bird_Dog \"Cessna O-1 Bird Dog\") and [AT\\-28](/wiki/North_American_T-28_Trojan%23Variants \"North American T-28 Trojan#Variants\") over Vietnam and [Laos](/wiki/Laos \"Laos\").{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/intelligence\\-history/stories\\-of\\-sacrifice\\-dedication/sacrifice\\-and\\-dedication.pdf \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150908014240/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/intelligence\\-history/stories\\-of\\-sacrifice\\-dedication/sacrifice\\-and\\-dedication.pdf \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-date\\=September 8, 2015 \\|title\\=Stories of Sacrifice and Dedication: Civil Air Transport, Air America and the CIA \\|date\\=June 2, 2011 \\|publisher\\=Central Intelligence Agency \\|accessdate\\=2020\\-08\\-01}} Duehring was awarded the [Silver Star](/wiki/Silver_Star \"Silver Star\"), two [Distinguished Flying Crosses](/wiki/Distinguished_Flying_Cross_%28United_States%29 \"Distinguished Flying Cross (United States)\"),{{cite web \\|url\\=https://valor.militarytimes.com/hero/46727 \\|title\\=Craig W. Duehring \\|publisher\\=Military Times \\|accessdate\\=2020\\-07\\-31}} 27 [Air Medals](/wiki/Air_Medal \"Air Medal\") and the [Republic of Vietnam Gallantry Cross](/wiki/Gallantry_Cross_%28South_Vietnam%29 \"Gallantry Cross (South Vietnam)\").",
"In 1970–71, he was a [Raven Forward Air Controller](/wiki/Raven_Forward_Air_Controllers \"Raven Forward Air Controllers\") based at [Udorn Royal Thai Air Force Base](/wiki/Udorn_Royal_Thai_Air_Force_Base \"Udorn Royal Thai Air Force Base\"). He then returned to Craig Air Force Base 1971–75, as a [Cessna T\\-37 Tweet](/wiki/Cessna_T-37_Tweet \"Cessna T-37 Tweet\") instructor pilot with the [43d Flying Training Squadron](/wiki/43d_Flying_Training_Squadron \"43d Flying Training Squadron\"). He also earned a [master's degree](/wiki/Master%27s_degree \"Master's degree\") in counseling and guidance from [Troy State University](/wiki/Troy_University \"Troy University\") in 1975\\.[https://www.af.mil/About\\-Us/Biographies/Display/Article/108063/craig\\-w\\-duehring/](https://www.af.mil/About-Us/Biographies/Display/Article/108063/craig-w-duehring/)",
"From 1975 to 1978, he was base fuels management officer with the [1st Fighter Wing](/wiki/1st_Fighter_Wing \"1st Fighter Wing\") at [Langley Air Force Base](/wiki/Langley_Air_Force_Base \"Langley Air Force Base\"). He was posted at [RAF Bentwaters](/wiki/RAF_Bentwaters \"RAF Bentwaters\") from 1978 to 1981, serving as Chief of Training of the [81st Training Wing](/wiki/81st_Training_Wing \"81st Training Wing\"). From 1981 to 1984, he was action officer of the Tactical Fighter Operations Division at the Headquarters of the [United States Air Forces in Europe](/wiki/United_States_Air_Forces_in_Europe \"United States Air Forces in Europe\") at [Ramstein Air Base](/wiki/Ramstein_Air_Base \"Ramstein Air Base\") in [West Germany](/wiki/West_Germany \"West Germany\"). He returned to RAF Bentwaters in 1984, first as assistant [operations officer](/wiki/Operations_officer \"Operations officer\") of the [510th Fighter Squadron](/wiki/510th_Fighter_Squadron \"510th Fighter Squadron\"), then as Director of Operations Training for the [81st Training Wing](/wiki/81st_Training_Wing \"81st Training Wing\"). During his time in Europe, he recorded over 1200 flight hours in the [A\\-10 Thunderbolt II](/wiki/Fairchild_Republic_A-10_Thunderbolt_II \"Fairchild Republic A-10 Thunderbolt II\").",
"He returned to West Germany in 1986, and was stationed at [Nörvenich](/wiki/N%C3%B6rvenich \"Nörvenich\") Air Base as American Community Commander and Commander of the 7502nd Munitions Support Squadron. In 1987, he received the Lance P. Sijan Leadership Award as the top leader in the USAF in the Senior Officer category. He was then Assistant Deputy Commander of Operations of the [406th Tactical Fighter Training Wing](/wiki/406th_Tactical_Fighter_Training_Wing \"406th Tactical Fighter Training Wing\") at [Zaragoza Air Base](/wiki/Zaragoza_Air_Base \"Zaragoza Air Base\") from 1989–90, and Deputy Commander of Operations from 1990–91\\. He then spent 1992\\-93 studying at the [Foreign Service Institute](/wiki/Foreign_Service_Institute \"Foreign Service Institute\") in [Washington, D.C.](/wiki/Washington%2C_D.C. \"Washington, D.C.\") From 1993 to 1995, he was United States [Air Attaché](/wiki/Air_Attach%C3%A9 \"Air Attaché\") to [Indonesia](/wiki/Indonesia \"Indonesia\"). Duehring retired from the Air Force in 1996, having attained the rank of [colonel](/wiki/Colonel_%28United_States%29 \"Colonel (United States)\").",
"In 1998 he was the unsuccessful [Republican](/wiki/Republican_Party_%28United_States%29 \"Republican Party (United States)\") nominee for the [United States House of Representatives](/wiki/United_States_House_of_Representatives \"United States House of Representatives\") for [Minnesota's 2nd congressional district](/wiki/Minnesota%27s_2nd_congressional_district \"Minnesota's 2nd congressional district\"). In 1999, Duehring served as Executive Director of the Patrick Henry Center for Individual Liberty (founded by [Gary Aldrich](/wiki/Gary_Aldrich \"Gary Aldrich\")). During the [2000 U.S. presidential election campaign](/wiki/2000_United_States_presidential_election \"2000 United States presidential election\"), he campaigned for [George W. Bush](/wiki/George_W._Bush \"George W. Bush\"), and was later a part of Bush's [presidential transition](/wiki/United_States_presidential_transition \"United States presidential transition\") team.",
"Duehring joined the [United States Department of Defense](/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Defense \"United States Department of Defense\"), becoming Principal Deputy [Assistant Secretary of Defense for Reserve Affairs](/wiki/Assistant_Secretary_of_Defense_for_Reserve_Affairs \"Assistant Secretary of Defense for Reserve Affairs\"). As there was no Assistant Secretary of Defense for Reserve Affairs from May 31, 2001 to October 9, 2002, Duehring was performing the duties of the assistant secretary in the period immediately following the [September 11 attacks](/wiki/September_11_attacks \"September 11 attacks\").",
"Following the resignation of [Michael L. Dominguez](/wiki/Michael_L._Dominguez \"Michael L. Dominguez\") as [Assistant Secretary of the Air Force (Manpower \\& Reserve Affairs)](/wiki/Assistant_Secretary_of_the_Air_Force_%28Manpower_%26_Reserve_Affairs%29 \"Assistant Secretary of the Air Force (Manpower & Reserve Affairs)\") in July 2006, Duehring became Acting Assistant Secretary of the Air Force (Manpower \\& Reserve Affairs) at that time. In November 2007, [President of the United States](/wiki/President_of_the_United_States \"President of the United States\") [George W. Bush](/wiki/George_W._Bush \"George W. Bush\") nominated Duehring to be Assistant Secretary of the Air Force (Manpower \\& Reserve Affairs), and Duehring subsequently held this office until retiring from public service on April 30, 2009\\.",
"In July 2020, Duehring was nominated by President [Donald Trump](/wiki/Donald_Trump \"Donald Trump\") to be the Principal Deputy [Under Secretary of Defense for Personnel and Readiness](/wiki/Under_Secretary_of_Defense_for_Personnel_and_Readiness \"Under Secretary of Defense for Personnel and Readiness\").{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.congress.gov/nomination/116th\\-congress/2149 \\|title\\=PN2149 — Craig Duehring — Department of Defense \\|date\\=July 29, 2020 \\|website\\=U.S. Congress \\|accessdate\\=2020\\-07\\-31}} On January 3, 2021, his nomination was returned to the President under [Rule XXXI, Paragraph 6](/wiki/Standing_Rules_of_the_United_States_Senate%2C_Rule_XXXI \"Standing Rules of the United States Senate, Rule XXXI\") of the [United States Senate](/wiki/United_States_Senate \"United States Senate\").",
""
] |
Possibility
-----------
Barbour recounts that he read a newspaper article about Dirac's work in which he was quoted as saying: "This result has led me to doubt how fundamental the four\-dimensional requirement in physics is".Dirac P., ["The Evolution of the Physicist’s Picture of Nature"](http://blogs.scientificamerican.com/guest-blog/2010/06/25/the-evolution-of-the-physicists-picture-of-nature/), *[Scientific American](/wiki/Scientific_American "Scientific American")*, May 1963\. The nature of time as a fourth dimension or something else became the topic of research.
Cognisant of the counter\-intuitive nature of his fundamental claim, Barbour eases the reader into the topic by first endeavouring to persuade the reader that our experiences are, at the very least, consistent with a timeless universe, leaving aside the question as to why one would hold such a view.
Barbour points out that some sciences have long done away with the "[I](/wiki/Person "Person")" as a persisting identity. To take [atomic theory](/wiki/Atom "Atom") seriously is to deny that the cat that jumps is the cat that lands, to use an illustration of Barbour's.Barbour J., p. 46; the example reappears p. 310\. The seething nebula of molecules of which we, cats, and all matter are made is ceaselessly rearranging at incomprehensibly fast speeds. The microcosm metamorphoses constantly, therefore one must deny there is any sense to say a cat or a person persists through time.
Early on, Barbour addresses the charge that writing with tensed verbs disproves his proposal. The next revolution in physics will undermine speaking in terms of time, he says, but there is no alternative.
If a universe is composed of timeless instants in the sense of configurations of matter that do not endure, one could nonetheless have the impression that [time flows](/wiki/Arrow_of_time "Arrow of time"), Barbour asserts. The [stream of consciousness](/wiki/Stream_of_consciousness_%28psychology%29 "Stream of consciousness (psychology)") and the sensation of the present, lasting about a second, is all in our heads, literally. In our brains is information about the recent past, but not as a result of a causal chain leading back to earlier instants. Rather, it is a property of thinking things, perhaps a necessary one to become thinking in the first place, that this information is present. In Barbour's words, brains are "time\-capsules".
In order to explain away the widely shared stance about past events, Barbour analyses in detail how (historical) 'records' are created. His prime example are traces in a [cloud chamber](/wiki/Cloud_chamber "Cloud chamber") to which he devotes the penultimate chapter of the book. Except for the inexistence of time, he admits that John Bell had already solved most difficulties.Commenting on his "Quantum mechanics for cosmologists", Barbour writes that "his proposal is very close to mine in two of its three main elements. He may have believed in time, but his emphasis on memories and records and their rather natural occurrence in the quantum context are valuable support for me. So are his views on ontology and psychophysical parallelism. This is the third common element" (p. 301\). See also Bell J., *Speakable and Unspeakable in Quantum Mechanics*, Cambridge University Press, 1988, {{ISBN\|978\-0521368698}}.
He investigates [configuration spaces](/wiki/Configuration_space_%28physics%29 "Configuration space (physics)") and best\-matching mathematics, fleshing out how fundamental physics might deal with different instants in a timeless scheme. He calls his universe without time and only relative positions "Platonia" after [Plato's](/wiki/Plato "Plato") world of eternal [forms](/wiki/Platonic_forms "Platonic forms").
|
[
"Possibility\n-----------",
"Barbour recounts that he read a newspaper article about Dirac's work in which he was quoted as saying: \"This result has led me to doubt how fundamental the four\\-dimensional requirement in physics is\".Dirac P., [\"The Evolution of the Physicist’s Picture of Nature\"](http://blogs.scientificamerican.com/guest-blog/2010/06/25/the-evolution-of-the-physicists-picture-of-nature/), *[Scientific American](/wiki/Scientific_American \"Scientific American\")*, May 1963\\. The nature of time as a fourth dimension or something else became the topic of research.",
"Cognisant of the counter\\-intuitive nature of his fundamental claim, Barbour eases the reader into the topic by first endeavouring to persuade the reader that our experiences are, at the very least, consistent with a timeless universe, leaving aside the question as to why one would hold such a view.",
"Barbour points out that some sciences have long done away with the \"[I](/wiki/Person \"Person\")\" as a persisting identity. To take [atomic theory](/wiki/Atom \"Atom\") seriously is to deny that the cat that jumps is the cat that lands, to use an illustration of Barbour's.Barbour J., p. 46; the example reappears p. 310\\. The seething nebula of molecules of which we, cats, and all matter are made is ceaselessly rearranging at incomprehensibly fast speeds. The microcosm metamorphoses constantly, therefore one must deny there is any sense to say a cat or a person persists through time.",
"Early on, Barbour addresses the charge that writing with tensed verbs disproves his proposal. The next revolution in physics will undermine speaking in terms of time, he says, but there is no alternative.",
"If a universe is composed of timeless instants in the sense of configurations of matter that do not endure, one could nonetheless have the impression that [time flows](/wiki/Arrow_of_time \"Arrow of time\"), Barbour asserts. The [stream of consciousness](/wiki/Stream_of_consciousness_%28psychology%29 \"Stream of consciousness (psychology)\") and the sensation of the present, lasting about a second, is all in our heads, literally. In our brains is information about the recent past, but not as a result of a causal chain leading back to earlier instants. Rather, it is a property of thinking things, perhaps a necessary one to become thinking in the first place, that this information is present. In Barbour's words, brains are \"time\\-capsules\".",
"In order to explain away the widely shared stance about past events, Barbour analyses in detail how (historical) 'records' are created. His prime example are traces in a [cloud chamber](/wiki/Cloud_chamber \"Cloud chamber\") to which he devotes the penultimate chapter of the book. Except for the inexistence of time, he admits that John Bell had already solved most difficulties.Commenting on his \"Quantum mechanics for cosmologists\", Barbour writes that \"his proposal is very close to mine in two of its three main elements. He may have believed in time, but his emphasis on memories and records and their rather natural occurrence in the quantum context are valuable support for me. So are his views on ontology and psychophysical parallelism. This is the third common element\" (p. 301\\). See also Bell J., *Speakable and Unspeakable in Quantum Mechanics*, Cambridge University Press, 1988, {{ISBN\\|978\\-0521368698}}.",
"He investigates [configuration spaces](/wiki/Configuration_space_%28physics%29 \"Configuration space (physics)\") and best\\-matching mathematics, fleshing out how fundamental physics might deal with different instants in a timeless scheme. He calls his universe without time and only relative positions \"Platonia\" after [Plato's](/wiki/Plato \"Plato\") world of eternal [forms](/wiki/Platonic_forms \"Platonic forms\").",
""
] |
Career
------
Tolley began his career as a trainee with [Shrewsbury Town](/wiki/Shrewsbury_Town_F.C. "Shrewsbury Town F.C."), and made his début for the club on 20 November 1999 in a 2–2 draw with [Oxford United](/wiki/Oxford_United_F.C. "Oxford United F.C."). Aged just 16 years 193 days, he became the youngest player in Shrewsbury's history.
By the end of the [2005–06 season](/wiki/2005%E2%80%9306_in_English_football "2005–06 in English football") Tolley had allowed his contract to expire. After failing to receive the interest he had hoped for, Tolley eventually joined [Macclesfield Town](/wiki/Macclesfield_Town_F.C. "Macclesfield Town F.C."), a week into the [2006–07 season](/wiki/2006%E2%80%9307_in_English_football "2006–07 in English football"). Although he was out\-of\-contract, as he was under 24 and spent his development years at Shrewsbury, a transfer fee had to be paid. This was revealed to be a five\-figure sum that did not meet Shrewsbury's valuation, but Tolley was allowed to leave in the best interests of both the club and the player, according to manager [Gary Peters](/wiki/Gary_Peters_%28footballer%29 "Gary Peters (footballer)").{{cite web\|title\=Midfield Moves On \|publisher\=Shrewsbury Town F.C.\|url\-access\=registration \|url\=http://www.shrewsburytown.premiumtv.co.uk/page/NewsDetail/0,,10443\~880055,00\.html \|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20120805131747/http://www.shrewsburytown.premiumtv.co.uk/page/NewsDetail/0,,10443\~880055,00\.html \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-date\=5 August 2012 \|accessdate\=13 August 2006 }}
Tolley made his Macclesfield debut in their 2–1 defeat at home to [Milton Keynes Dons](/wiki/Milton_Keynes_Dons_F.C. "Milton Keynes Dons F.C.") on 12 August 2006, having signed for the club two days earlier.
At the end of the [2007–08](/wiki/2007%E2%80%9308_in_English_football "2007–08 in English football") season, Tolley rejected the offer of a new contract with the Silkmen. He trialled with [Luton Town](/wiki/Luton_Town_F.C. "Luton Town F.C."), but returned to Macclesfield later that summer, signing a six\-month contract.{{cite web\|title\=Breaking news \|work\=Macclesfield Town official website \|url\=http://www.mtfc.premiumtv.co.uk/page/NewsDetail/0,,10393\~1355109,00\.html \|accessdate\=9 August 2008 \|url\-status\=dead \|archiveurl\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080923125057/http://www.mtfc.premiumtv.co.uk/page/NewsDetail/0%2C%2C10393\~1355109%2C00\.html \|archivedate\=23 September 2008 }} Tolley was offered an additional 6\-month contract in January 2009 to help the Silkmen cover the sale of Terry Dunfield. However, further injuries and ineffective performances in the period resulted in Tolley being released by manager Keith Alexander at the end of the 2008–09 season.
At the start of the 2009–10 season Tolley signed a years contract at League Two side [Hereford United](/wiki/Hereford_United_F.C. "Hereford United F.C."), however a disappointing season which only saw 10 appearances ended with his contract termination by mutual consent in March 2010\.{{Cite news\|url\=http://www.herefordunited.co.uk/page/NewsDetail/0,,10835\~2002590,00\.html \|title\=Tolley Leaves Bulls \|publisher\=Hereford United F.C. \|date\=24 March 2010 \|accessdate\=2 August 2010 \|url\-status\=dead \|archiveurl\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120229230323/http://www.herefordunited.co.uk/page/NewsDetail/0%2C%2C10835\~2002590%2C00\.html \|archivedate\=29 February 2012 }}
In July 2010, Tolley joined Conference side [Wrexham](/wiki/Wrexham_A.F.C. "Wrexham A.F.C.") on trial,{{cite web\|title\=Brown Goes From Green To Red \|work\=Wrexham FC official website \|url\=http://www.wrexhamafc.co.uk/page/NewsDetail/0,,10311\~2085018,00\.html \|accessdate\=6 July 2010 \|url\-status\=dead \|archiveurl\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225170416/http://www.wrexhamafc.co.uk/page/NewsDetail/0%2C%2C10311\~2085018%2C00\.html \|archivedate\=25 February 2012 }} featuring in several pre\-season friendlies before signing a short\-term deal with the club in an attempt to prove his fitness to manager [Dean Saunders](/wiki/Dean_Saunders "Dean Saunders").{{Cite news\|url\=http://www.wrexhamafc.co.uk/page/NewsDetail/0,,10311\~2109144,00\.html \|title\=Tolley gets short\-term deal \|publisher\=Wrexham F.C. \|date\=2 August 2010 \|accessdate\=2 August 2010 \|url\-status\=dead \|archiveurl\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120310191854/http://www.wrexhamafc.co.uk/page/NewsDetail/0%2C%2C10311\~2109144%2C00\.html \|archivedate\=10 March 2012 }} He made his debut for the club on the opening day of the 2010–11 season as a substitute in place of [David Brown](/wiki/David_Brown_%28footballer_born_1978%29 "David Brown (footballer born 1978)") during a 1–0 win over [Cambridge United](/wiki/Cambridge_United_F.C. "Cambridge United F.C.").
He stayed at [Wrexham](/wiki/Wrexham_A.F.C. "Wrexham A.F.C.") for 2 seasons before turning down a new contract to stay with the dragons and signing for divisional rivals [Mansfield Town](/wiki/Mansfield_Town_F.C. "Mansfield Town F.C.") during the summer of 2012\.{{cite web \| title\=Jamie Tolley turns down Wrexham \| work\=Daily Post\| date\=June 2012\| url\=http://www.dailypost.co.uk/sport/football/football\-news/jamie\-tolley\-turns\-down\-wrexham\-2657662 \| accessdate\=1 July 2012 }}
After an unsuccessful year at the Stags, he was released having made only 2 first team appearances, but soon linked up with [Kidderminster Harriers](/wiki/Kidderminster_Harriers_F.C. "Kidderminster Harriers F.C.") on a one\-year deal.{{cite news \| title\=Kidderminster Harriers: Jamie Tolley signs following Stags exit \| publisher\=BBC Sport\| url\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/0/football/22850952\| accessdate\=10 June 2013 }} His contract with Harriers was cancelled midway through the season and he left the club after only 4 minutes of first team action, joining up with [Frank Sinclair](/wiki/Frank_Sinclair "Frank Sinclair"), a former [Wrexham](/wiki/Wrexham_A.F.C. "Wrexham A.F.C.") teammate, at [Colwyn Bay](/wiki/Colwyn_Bay_F.C. "Colwyn Bay F.C.").{{cite web\| title\=Seagulls sign Tolley\| work\=Colwyn Bay official\| url\=http://www.colwynbayfc.co.uk/2014/01/seagulls\-sign\-tolley/\| accessdate\=12 January 2014\| url\-status\=dead\| archiveurl\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140903113300/http://www.colwynbayfc.co.uk/2014/01/seagulls\-sign\-tolley/\| archivedate\=3 September 2014}}
Tolley joined [Welsh Premier League](/wiki/Welsh_Premier_League "Welsh Premier League") side [Newtown](/wiki/Newtown_A.F.C. "Newtown A.F.C.") in January 2016\.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.newtownafc.co.uk/news/robins\-sign\-former\-shrews\-star.html\|title\=Robins sign former Shrews star\|work\=Newtown AFC\|date\=13 January 2016\|accessdate\=13 January 2016\|archive\-date\=22 August 2016\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160822112801/http://www.newtownafc.co.uk/news/robins\-sign\-former\-shrews\-star.html\|url\-status\=dead}} He made his debut against [Aberystwyth](/wiki/Aberystwyth_Town_F.C. "Aberystwyth Town F.C.") on Saturday 16 January 2016\.
|
[
"Career\n------",
"Tolley began his career as a trainee with [Shrewsbury Town](/wiki/Shrewsbury_Town_F.C. \"Shrewsbury Town F.C.\"), and made his début for the club on 20 November 1999 in a 2–2 draw with [Oxford United](/wiki/Oxford_United_F.C. \"Oxford United F.C.\"). Aged just 16 years 193 days, he became the youngest player in Shrewsbury's history.",
"By the end of the [2005–06 season](/wiki/2005%E2%80%9306_in_English_football \"2005–06 in English football\") Tolley had allowed his contract to expire. After failing to receive the interest he had hoped for, Tolley eventually joined [Macclesfield Town](/wiki/Macclesfield_Town_F.C. \"Macclesfield Town F.C.\"), a week into the [2006–07 season](/wiki/2006%E2%80%9307_in_English_football \"2006–07 in English football\"). Although he was out\\-of\\-contract, as he was under 24 and spent his development years at Shrewsbury, a transfer fee had to be paid. This was revealed to be a five\\-figure sum that did not meet Shrewsbury's valuation, but Tolley was allowed to leave in the best interests of both the club and the player, according to manager [Gary Peters](/wiki/Gary_Peters_%28footballer%29 \"Gary Peters (footballer)\").{{cite web\\|title\\=Midfield Moves On \\|publisher\\=Shrewsbury Town F.C.\\|url\\-access\\=registration \\|url\\=http://www.shrewsburytown.premiumtv.co.uk/page/NewsDetail/0,,10443\\~880055,00\\.html \\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20120805131747/http://www.shrewsburytown.premiumtv.co.uk/page/NewsDetail/0,,10443\\~880055,00\\.html \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-date\\=5 August 2012 \\|accessdate\\=13 August 2006 }}",
"Tolley made his Macclesfield debut in their 2–1 defeat at home to [Milton Keynes Dons](/wiki/Milton_Keynes_Dons_F.C. \"Milton Keynes Dons F.C.\") on 12 August 2006, having signed for the club two days earlier.",
"At the end of the [2007–08](/wiki/2007%E2%80%9308_in_English_football \"2007–08 in English football\") season, Tolley rejected the offer of a new contract with the Silkmen. He trialled with [Luton Town](/wiki/Luton_Town_F.C. \"Luton Town F.C.\"), but returned to Macclesfield later that summer, signing a six\\-month contract.{{cite web\\|title\\=Breaking news \\|work\\=Macclesfield Town official website \\|url\\=http://www.mtfc.premiumtv.co.uk/page/NewsDetail/0,,10393\\~1355109,00\\.html \\|accessdate\\=9 August 2008 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archiveurl\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080923125057/http://www.mtfc.premiumtv.co.uk/page/NewsDetail/0%2C%2C10393\\~1355109%2C00\\.html \\|archivedate\\=23 September 2008 }} Tolley was offered an additional 6\\-month contract in January 2009 to help the Silkmen cover the sale of Terry Dunfield. However, further injuries and ineffective performances in the period resulted in Tolley being released by manager Keith Alexander at the end of the 2008–09 season.",
"At the start of the 2009–10 season Tolley signed a years contract at League Two side [Hereford United](/wiki/Hereford_United_F.C. \"Hereford United F.C.\"), however a disappointing season which only saw 10 appearances ended with his contract termination by mutual consent in March 2010\\.{{Cite news\\|url\\=http://www.herefordunited.co.uk/page/NewsDetail/0,,10835\\~2002590,00\\.html \\|title\\=Tolley Leaves Bulls \\|publisher\\=Hereford United F.C. \\|date\\=24 March 2010 \\|accessdate\\=2 August 2010 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archiveurl\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120229230323/http://www.herefordunited.co.uk/page/NewsDetail/0%2C%2C10835\\~2002590%2C00\\.html \\|archivedate\\=29 February 2012 }}",
"In July 2010, Tolley joined Conference side [Wrexham](/wiki/Wrexham_A.F.C. \"Wrexham A.F.C.\") on trial,{{cite web\\|title\\=Brown Goes From Green To Red \\|work\\=Wrexham FC official website \\|url\\=http://www.wrexhamafc.co.uk/page/NewsDetail/0,,10311\\~2085018,00\\.html \\|accessdate\\=6 July 2010 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archiveurl\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225170416/http://www.wrexhamafc.co.uk/page/NewsDetail/0%2C%2C10311\\~2085018%2C00\\.html \\|archivedate\\=25 February 2012 }} featuring in several pre\\-season friendlies before signing a short\\-term deal with the club in an attempt to prove his fitness to manager [Dean Saunders](/wiki/Dean_Saunders \"Dean Saunders\").{{Cite news\\|url\\=http://www.wrexhamafc.co.uk/page/NewsDetail/0,,10311\\~2109144,00\\.html \\|title\\=Tolley gets short\\-term deal \\|publisher\\=Wrexham F.C. \\|date\\=2 August 2010 \\|accessdate\\=2 August 2010 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archiveurl\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120310191854/http://www.wrexhamafc.co.uk/page/NewsDetail/0%2C%2C10311\\~2109144%2C00\\.html \\|archivedate\\=10 March 2012 }} He made his debut for the club on the opening day of the 2010–11 season as a substitute in place of [David Brown](/wiki/David_Brown_%28footballer_born_1978%29 \"David Brown (footballer born 1978)\") during a 1–0 win over [Cambridge United](/wiki/Cambridge_United_F.C. \"Cambridge United F.C.\").",
"He stayed at [Wrexham](/wiki/Wrexham_A.F.C. \"Wrexham A.F.C.\") for 2 seasons before turning down a new contract to stay with the dragons and signing for divisional rivals [Mansfield Town](/wiki/Mansfield_Town_F.C. \"Mansfield Town F.C.\") during the summer of 2012\\.{{cite web \\| title\\=Jamie Tolley turns down Wrexham \\| work\\=Daily Post\\| date\\=June 2012\\| url\\=http://www.dailypost.co.uk/sport/football/football\\-news/jamie\\-tolley\\-turns\\-down\\-wrexham\\-2657662 \\| accessdate\\=1 July 2012 }}",
"After an unsuccessful year at the Stags, he was released having made only 2 first team appearances, but soon linked up with [Kidderminster Harriers](/wiki/Kidderminster_Harriers_F.C. \"Kidderminster Harriers F.C.\") on a one\\-year deal.{{cite news \\| title\\=Kidderminster Harriers: Jamie Tolley signs following Stags exit \\| publisher\\=BBC Sport\\| url\\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/0/football/22850952\\| accessdate\\=10 June 2013 }} His contract with Harriers was cancelled midway through the season and he left the club after only 4 minutes of first team action, joining up with [Frank Sinclair](/wiki/Frank_Sinclair \"Frank Sinclair\"), a former [Wrexham](/wiki/Wrexham_A.F.C. \"Wrexham A.F.C.\") teammate, at [Colwyn Bay](/wiki/Colwyn_Bay_F.C. \"Colwyn Bay F.C.\").{{cite web\\| title\\=Seagulls sign Tolley\\| work\\=Colwyn Bay official\\| url\\=http://www.colwynbayfc.co.uk/2014/01/seagulls\\-sign\\-tolley/\\| accessdate\\=12 January 2014\\| url\\-status\\=dead\\| archiveurl\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140903113300/http://www.colwynbayfc.co.uk/2014/01/seagulls\\-sign\\-tolley/\\| archivedate\\=3 September 2014}}",
"Tolley joined [Welsh Premier League](/wiki/Welsh_Premier_League \"Welsh Premier League\") side [Newtown](/wiki/Newtown_A.F.C. \"Newtown A.F.C.\") in January 2016\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.newtownafc.co.uk/news/robins\\-sign\\-former\\-shrews\\-star.html\\|title\\=Robins sign former Shrews star\\|work\\=Newtown AFC\\|date\\=13 January 2016\\|accessdate\\=13 January 2016\\|archive\\-date\\=22 August 2016\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160822112801/http://www.newtownafc.co.uk/news/robins\\-sign\\-former\\-shrews\\-star.html\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} He made his debut against [Aberystwyth](/wiki/Aberystwyth_Town_F.C. \"Aberystwyth Town F.C.\") on Saturday 16 January 2016\\.",
""
] |
Political career
----------------
During his youth, Ayrault was a member of a movement of young Christians in rural areas. He joined the [Socialist Party](/wiki/Socialist_Party_%28France%29 "Socialist Party (France)") (PS) after the 1971 [Epinay Congress](/wiki/Epinay_Congress "Epinay Congress") during which [François Mitterrand](/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Mitterrand "François Mitterrand") took the party leadership. Ayrault was affiliated to [Jean Poperen](/wiki/Jean_Poperen "Jean Poperen")'s faction, one of the left\-wing groups in the party. Elected in 1976 to the General Council of [Loire\-Atlantique](/wiki/Loire-Atlantique "Loire-Atlantique") *[département](/wiki/Departments_of_France "Departments of France")*, he subsequently became [Mayor](/wiki/Mayor_%28France%29 "Mayor (France)") of [Saint\-Herblain](/wiki/Saint-Herblain "Saint-Herblain"), located in the western suburbs of [Nantes](/wiki/Nantes "Nantes"), in 1977\. At 27, he was the youngest mayor of a French city of more than 30,000 inhabitants. He left the General Council in 1982\.
He reached the PS national committee in 1979, then the executive of the party in 1981\. He was first elected to the National Assembly in 1986, as representative of Loire Atlantique *department*, and he was consistently re\-elected in subsequent elections. In 1989, he was chosen by the PS to conquer the mayoralty of Nantes, held by the [Rally for the Republic](/wiki/Rally_for_the_Republic "Rally for the Republic") (RPR) party, and he won. Re\-elected in 1995, 2001 and 2008, he was also president of the [Urban Community of Nantes Métropole](/wiki/Urban_Community_of_Nantes_M%C3%A9tropole "Urban Community of Nantes Métropole") since 2002\. He was an important "local baron" of the Socialist Party.
After the surprising victory of the "[Plural Left](/wiki/Plural_Left "Plural Left")" in the [1997 legislative election](/wiki/1997_French_legislative_election "1997 French legislative election"), he was not appointed to the government but was instead designated as president of the Socialist parliamentary group in the National Assembly, a position he held for the next 15 years. Ayrault was a supporter of [François Hollande](/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Hollande "François Hollande") during the Socialist Party's [2011 primary election](/wiki/French_Socialist_Party_presidential_primary%2C_2011 "French Socialist Party presidential primary, 2011") to choose its presidential candidate. Hollande was ultimately elected president in the [2012 presidential election](/wiki/2012_French_presidential_election "2012 French presidential election"), and he appointed Ayrault as [prime minister](/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_France "Prime Minister of France") when he took office on 15 May 2012\.
### Prime minister
[thumb\|left\|Ayrault during a meeting in his constituency in Nantes with François Hollande](/wiki/File:Nantes_-_Meeting_Francois_Hollande_%283%29.jpg "Nantes - Meeting Francois Hollande (3).jpg")
Following [François Hollande](/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Hollande "François Hollande")'s victory in the [2012 presidential election](/wiki/2012_French_presidential_election "2012 French presidential election"), Ayrault was appointed [Prime Minister of France](/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_France "Prime Minister of France") replacing [François Fillon](/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Fillon "François Fillon"). The following day, Ayrault unveiled his [Cabinet](/wiki/Ayrault_Cabinet "Ayrault Cabinet"). In response to the [Greek government\-debt crisis](/wiki/Greek_government-debt_crisis "Greek government-debt crisis") he asked the [European Commission](/wiki/European_Commission "European Commission") to put unused structural funds towards helping the Greek economy return to growth and said "We waited too long before helping Greece. This has been going on for two years now and only gets worse..."{{cite web \|last\=Wearden \|first\=Graeme \|url\=https://www.theguardian.com/business/2012/may/18/eurozone\-crisis\-stock\-markets\-greece\-spain \|title\=Eurozone crisis live: Greek and Spanish fears hit markets again \|work\=The Guardian \|date\=22 March 2011 \|access\-date\=18 May 2012 \|archive\-date\=4 January 2014 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140104074213/http://www.theguardian.com/business/2012/may/18/eurozone\-crisis\-stock\-markets\-greece\-spain \|url\-status\=live }} During his time in office, same\-sex marriage was also legalized.
Ayrault's appointment to the country's [head of government](/wiki/Head_of_government "Head of government") prompted discussion within Arabic language mass media as to how to pronounce his surname. When his name is pronounced properly in French, it sounds "very much like a moderately rude Lebanese \[slang] term" for a [phallus](/wiki/Phallus "Phallus"). [Al\-Arabiya](/wiki/Al-Arabiya "Al-Arabiya") decided to pronounce the name properly and write its Arabic [transliteration](/wiki/Transliteration "Transliteration") "in a way that makes clear it is not the offensive word"; [CNN Arabic](/wiki/CNN_Arabic "CNN Arabic") decided to pronounce Ayrault's surname by "voicing the last two letters in the written word."{{cite web\| title\= New French PM's name causes Arab giggles\| url\= http://www.cnn.com/2012/05/17/world/meast/france\-pm\-name\-embarrassment/\| date\= 18 May 2012\| first\= Kindah\| last\= Shair\| publisher\= CNN\| access\-date\= 18 May 2012\| archive\-date\= 23 May 2012\| archive\-url\= https://web.archive.org/web/20120523143936/http://www.cnn.com/2012/05/17/world/meast/france\-pm\-name\-embarrassment\| url\-status\= live}}
During his time in office, Ayrault and his ministers introduced a raft of progressive measures, including a reduction in the retirement age from 62 to 60 for some categories of workers, cuts in ministerial salaries of up to 30%,["hollande\-tipped\-majority\-france\-vote"](https://news.yahoo.com/hollande-tipped-majority-france-vote-032539639.html) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120618214706/http://news.yahoo.com/hollande\-tipped\-majority\-france\-vote\-032539639\.html \|date\=18 June 2012 }}, Yahoo! News. a rise in the minimum wage, the introduction of a 36\-month rent freeze on new contracts in some urban areas, an extension of social rebates on energy, increased educational support for low\-income families,{{cite web\|url\=http://www.policy\-network.net/publications/4381/Fran%C3%A7ois\-Hollande\-after\-One\-Year\|title\=Policy Network – Publications\|publisher\=policy\-network.net\|access\-date\=15 May 2013\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924075257/http://www.policy\-network.net/publications/4381/Fran%C3%A7ois\-Hollande\-after\-One\-Year\|archive\-date\=24 September 2015\|url\-status\=dead}} the introduction of a system of subsidised employment for young people between 16 and 25,{{cite web\|url\=http://www.projects.aegee.org/yue/?p\=258\|title\=Youth Employment developments: France\|publisher\=\[\[Association des États Généraux des Étudiants de l'Europe]]}} and the extension of an entitlement to free health care to an additional 500,000 people.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.lefigaro.fr/assurance/2012/12/11/05005\-20121211ARTFIG00560\-la\-cmu\-pour\-500000\-personnes\-de\-plus.php\|title\=La CMU pour 500\.000 personnes de plus\|work\=Le Figaro\|date\=11 December 2012 \|access\-date\=5 June 2014\|archive\-date\=20 June 2014\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140620160851/http://www.lefigaro.fr/assurance/2012/12/11/05005\-20121211ARTFIG00560\-la\-cmu\-pour\-500000\-personnes\-de\-plus.php\|url\-status\=live}}
Ayrault resigned on 31 March 2014, the day after the "Socialists suffered heavy losses in [nationwide municipal elections](/wiki/2014_French_municipal_elections "2014 French municipal elections")",Craggs, Ryan, ["French Prime Minister Resigns: Jean\-Marc Ayrault Tenders Resignation"](http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2014/03/31/french-prime-minister-resigns_n_5063387.html) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140403070720/http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2014/03/31/french\-prime\-minister\-resigns\_n\_5063387\.html \|date\=3 April 2014 }}, *[The Huffington Post](/wiki/The_Huffington_Post "The Huffington Post")*, 31 March 2014\. Retrieved 31 March 2014\. and formally handed over to his successor [Manuel Valls](/wiki/Manuel_Valls "Manuel Valls") at the prime ministerial residence, the [Hotel Matignon](/wiki/Hotel_Matignon "Hotel Matignon"), on 1 April 2014\.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.bfmtv.com/politique/direct\-manuel\-valls\-a\-matignon\-passation\-ayrault\-mardi\-745157\.html\|title\=Remaniement: retour sur une journée de tractations\|publisher\=BFMTV\|access\-date\=1 April 2014\|archive\-date\=3 April 2014\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140403181918/http://www.bfmtv.com/politique/direct\-manuel\-valls\-a\-matignon\-passation\-ayrault\-mardi\-745157\.html\|url\-status\=live}}
### Minister of Foreign Affairs
As part of a 2016 cabinet reshuffle, Hollande appointed Ayrault as foreign minister, replacing [Laurent Fabius](/wiki/Laurent_Fabius "Laurent Fabius").Anne\-Sylvaine Chassany (11 February 2016\), [Hollande attempts to rally the left with reshuffle](https://www.ft.com/content/f78ec5de-d0d6-11e5-831d-09f7778e7377) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170305062419/https://www.ft.com/content/f78ec5de\-d0d6\-11e5\-831d\-09f7778e7377 \|date\=5 March 2017 }} *[Financial Times](/wiki/Financial_Times "Financial Times")*.
Under Ayrault's leadership, the French foreign ministry summoned Vincent Mertens de Wilmars, Belgium's ambassador in Paris, in September 2016 after detaining two Belgian police officers on French territory for allegedly depositing migrants across the countries' border.Matthew Dalton and Gabriele Steinhauser (22 September 2016\), [France Summons Belgium’s Ambassador in Migrant Spat](https://www.wsj.com/articles/france-summons-belgiums-ambassador-in-migrant-spat-1474551826) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170305144300/https://www.wsj.com/articles/france\-summons\-belgiums\-ambassador\-in\-migrant\-spat\-1474551826 \|date\=5 March 2017 }} *[The Wall Street Journal](/wiki/The_Wall_Street_Journal "The Wall Street Journal")*.
In September 2016, Ayrault took part in the formal signing ceremony for the [Hinkley Point C nuclear power station](/wiki/Hinkley_Point_C_nuclear_power_station "Hinkley Point C nuclear power station"), a controversial $24\-billion Franco\-Chinese investment project.Kate Holton and Karolin Schaps (29 September 2016\), [UK signs long\-awaited Franco\-Chinese nuclear project behind closed doors](https://www.reuters.com/article/uk-britain-nuclear-hinkley-ayrault-idUKKCN11Z1Z2?il=0) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170305001557/http://www.reuters.com/article/uk\-britain\-nuclear\-hinkley\-ayrault\-idUKKCN11Z1Z2?il\=0 \|date\=5 March 2017 }} *[Reuters](/wiki/Reuters "Reuters")*
|
[
"Political career\n----------------",
"During his youth, Ayrault was a member of a movement of young Christians in rural areas. He joined the [Socialist Party](/wiki/Socialist_Party_%28France%29 \"Socialist Party (France)\") (PS) after the 1971 [Epinay Congress](/wiki/Epinay_Congress \"Epinay Congress\") during which [François Mitterrand](/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Mitterrand \"François Mitterrand\") took the party leadership. Ayrault was affiliated to [Jean Poperen](/wiki/Jean_Poperen \"Jean Poperen\")'s faction, one of the left\\-wing groups in the party. Elected in 1976 to the General Council of [Loire\\-Atlantique](/wiki/Loire-Atlantique \"Loire-Atlantique\") *[département](/wiki/Departments_of_France \"Departments of France\")*, he subsequently became [Mayor](/wiki/Mayor_%28France%29 \"Mayor (France)\") of [Saint\\-Herblain](/wiki/Saint-Herblain \"Saint-Herblain\"), located in the western suburbs of [Nantes](/wiki/Nantes \"Nantes\"), in 1977\\. At 27, he was the youngest mayor of a French city of more than 30,000 inhabitants. He left the General Council in 1982\\.",
"He reached the PS national committee in 1979, then the executive of the party in 1981\\. He was first elected to the National Assembly in 1986, as representative of Loire Atlantique *department*, and he was consistently re\\-elected in subsequent elections. In 1989, he was chosen by the PS to conquer the mayoralty of Nantes, held by the [Rally for the Republic](/wiki/Rally_for_the_Republic \"Rally for the Republic\") (RPR) party, and he won. Re\\-elected in 1995, 2001 and 2008, he was also president of the [Urban Community of Nantes Métropole](/wiki/Urban_Community_of_Nantes_M%C3%A9tropole \"Urban Community of Nantes Métropole\") since 2002\\. He was an important \"local baron\" of the Socialist Party.",
"After the surprising victory of the \"[Plural Left](/wiki/Plural_Left \"Plural Left\")\" in the [1997 legislative election](/wiki/1997_French_legislative_election \"1997 French legislative election\"), he was not appointed to the government but was instead designated as president of the Socialist parliamentary group in the National Assembly, a position he held for the next 15 years. Ayrault was a supporter of [François Hollande](/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Hollande \"François Hollande\") during the Socialist Party's [2011 primary election](/wiki/French_Socialist_Party_presidential_primary%2C_2011 \"French Socialist Party presidential primary, 2011\") to choose its presidential candidate. Hollande was ultimately elected president in the [2012 presidential election](/wiki/2012_French_presidential_election \"2012 French presidential election\"), and he appointed Ayrault as [prime minister](/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_France \"Prime Minister of France\") when he took office on 15 May 2012\\.",
"### Prime minister",
"[thumb\\|left\\|Ayrault during a meeting in his constituency in Nantes with François Hollande](/wiki/File:Nantes_-_Meeting_Francois_Hollande_%283%29.jpg \"Nantes - Meeting Francois Hollande (3).jpg\")\nFollowing [François Hollande](/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Hollande \"François Hollande\")'s victory in the [2012 presidential election](/wiki/2012_French_presidential_election \"2012 French presidential election\"), Ayrault was appointed [Prime Minister of France](/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_France \"Prime Minister of France\") replacing [François Fillon](/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Fillon \"François Fillon\"). The following day, Ayrault unveiled his [Cabinet](/wiki/Ayrault_Cabinet \"Ayrault Cabinet\"). In response to the [Greek government\\-debt crisis](/wiki/Greek_government-debt_crisis \"Greek government-debt crisis\") he asked the [European Commission](/wiki/European_Commission \"European Commission\") to put unused structural funds towards helping the Greek economy return to growth and said \"We waited too long before helping Greece. This has been going on for two years now and only gets worse...\"{{cite web \\|last\\=Wearden \\|first\\=Graeme \\|url\\=https://www.theguardian.com/business/2012/may/18/eurozone\\-crisis\\-stock\\-markets\\-greece\\-spain \\|title\\=Eurozone crisis live: Greek and Spanish fears hit markets again \\|work\\=The Guardian \\|date\\=22 March 2011 \\|access\\-date\\=18 May 2012 \\|archive\\-date\\=4 January 2014 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140104074213/http://www.theguardian.com/business/2012/may/18/eurozone\\-crisis\\-stock\\-markets\\-greece\\-spain \\|url\\-status\\=live }} During his time in office, same\\-sex marriage was also legalized.",
"Ayrault's appointment to the country's [head of government](/wiki/Head_of_government \"Head of government\") prompted discussion within Arabic language mass media as to how to pronounce his surname. When his name is pronounced properly in French, it sounds \"very much like a moderately rude Lebanese \\[slang] term\" for a [phallus](/wiki/Phallus \"Phallus\"). [Al\\-Arabiya](/wiki/Al-Arabiya \"Al-Arabiya\") decided to pronounce the name properly and write its Arabic [transliteration](/wiki/Transliteration \"Transliteration\") \"in a way that makes clear it is not the offensive word\"; [CNN Arabic](/wiki/CNN_Arabic \"CNN Arabic\") decided to pronounce Ayrault's surname by \"voicing the last two letters in the written word.\"{{cite web\\| title\\= New French PM's name causes Arab giggles\\| url\\= http://www.cnn.com/2012/05/17/world/meast/france\\-pm\\-name\\-embarrassment/\\| date\\= 18 May 2012\\| first\\= Kindah\\| last\\= Shair\\| publisher\\= CNN\\| access\\-date\\= 18 May 2012\\| archive\\-date\\= 23 May 2012\\| archive\\-url\\= https://web.archive.org/web/20120523143936/http://www.cnn.com/2012/05/17/world/meast/france\\-pm\\-name\\-embarrassment\\| url\\-status\\= live}}",
"During his time in office, Ayrault and his ministers introduced a raft of progressive measures, including a reduction in the retirement age from 62 to 60 for some categories of workers, cuts in ministerial salaries of up to 30%,[\"hollande\\-tipped\\-majority\\-france\\-vote\"](https://news.yahoo.com/hollande-tipped-majority-france-vote-032539639.html) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120618214706/http://news.yahoo.com/hollande\\-tipped\\-majority\\-france\\-vote\\-032539639\\.html \\|date\\=18 June 2012 }}, Yahoo! News. a rise in the minimum wage, the introduction of a 36\\-month rent freeze on new contracts in some urban areas, an extension of social rebates on energy, increased educational support for low\\-income families,{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.policy\\-network.net/publications/4381/Fran%C3%A7ois\\-Hollande\\-after\\-One\\-Year\\|title\\=Policy Network – Publications\\|publisher\\=policy\\-network.net\\|access\\-date\\=15 May 2013\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924075257/http://www.policy\\-network.net/publications/4381/Fran%C3%A7ois\\-Hollande\\-after\\-One\\-Year\\|archive\\-date\\=24 September 2015\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} the introduction of a system of subsidised employment for young people between 16 and 25,{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.projects.aegee.org/yue/?p\\=258\\|title\\=Youth Employment developments: France\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Association des États Généraux des Étudiants de l'Europe]]}} and the extension of an entitlement to free health care to an additional 500,000 people.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.lefigaro.fr/assurance/2012/12/11/05005\\-20121211ARTFIG00560\\-la\\-cmu\\-pour\\-500000\\-personnes\\-de\\-plus.php\\|title\\=La CMU pour 500\\.000 personnes de plus\\|work\\=Le Figaro\\|date\\=11 December 2012 \\|access\\-date\\=5 June 2014\\|archive\\-date\\=20 June 2014\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140620160851/http://www.lefigaro.fr/assurance/2012/12/11/05005\\-20121211ARTFIG00560\\-la\\-cmu\\-pour\\-500000\\-personnes\\-de\\-plus.php\\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
"Ayrault resigned on 31 March 2014, the day after the \"Socialists suffered heavy losses in [nationwide municipal elections](/wiki/2014_French_municipal_elections \"2014 French municipal elections\")\",Craggs, Ryan, [\"French Prime Minister Resigns: Jean\\-Marc Ayrault Tenders Resignation\"](http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2014/03/31/french-prime-minister-resigns_n_5063387.html) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140403070720/http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2014/03/31/french\\-prime\\-minister\\-resigns\\_n\\_5063387\\.html \\|date\\=3 April 2014 }}, *[The Huffington Post](/wiki/The_Huffington_Post \"The Huffington Post\")*, 31 March 2014\\. Retrieved 31 March 2014\\. and formally handed over to his successor [Manuel Valls](/wiki/Manuel_Valls \"Manuel Valls\") at the prime ministerial residence, the [Hotel Matignon](/wiki/Hotel_Matignon \"Hotel Matignon\"), on 1 April 2014\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.bfmtv.com/politique/direct\\-manuel\\-valls\\-a\\-matignon\\-passation\\-ayrault\\-mardi\\-745157\\.html\\|title\\=Remaniement: retour sur une journée de tractations\\|publisher\\=BFMTV\\|access\\-date\\=1 April 2014\\|archive\\-date\\=3 April 2014\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140403181918/http://www.bfmtv.com/politique/direct\\-manuel\\-valls\\-a\\-matignon\\-passation\\-ayrault\\-mardi\\-745157\\.html\\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
"### Minister of Foreign Affairs",
"As part of a 2016 cabinet reshuffle, Hollande appointed Ayrault as foreign minister, replacing [Laurent Fabius](/wiki/Laurent_Fabius \"Laurent Fabius\").Anne\\-Sylvaine Chassany (11 February 2016\\), [Hollande attempts to rally the left with reshuffle](https://www.ft.com/content/f78ec5de-d0d6-11e5-831d-09f7778e7377) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170305062419/https://www.ft.com/content/f78ec5de\\-d0d6\\-11e5\\-831d\\-09f7778e7377 \\|date\\=5 March 2017 }} *[Financial Times](/wiki/Financial_Times \"Financial Times\")*.",
"Under Ayrault's leadership, the French foreign ministry summoned Vincent Mertens de Wilmars, Belgium's ambassador in Paris, in September 2016 after detaining two Belgian police officers on French territory for allegedly depositing migrants across the countries' border.Matthew Dalton and Gabriele Steinhauser (22 September 2016\\), [France Summons Belgium’s Ambassador in Migrant Spat](https://www.wsj.com/articles/france-summons-belgiums-ambassador-in-migrant-spat-1474551826) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170305144300/https://www.wsj.com/articles/france\\-summons\\-belgiums\\-ambassador\\-in\\-migrant\\-spat\\-1474551826 \\|date\\=5 March 2017 }} *[The Wall Street Journal](/wiki/The_Wall_Street_Journal \"The Wall Street Journal\")*.",
"In September 2016, Ayrault took part in the formal signing ceremony for the [Hinkley Point C nuclear power station](/wiki/Hinkley_Point_C_nuclear_power_station \"Hinkley Point C nuclear power station\"), a controversial $24\\-billion Franco\\-Chinese investment project.Kate Holton and Karolin Schaps (29 September 2016\\), [UK signs long\\-awaited Franco\\-Chinese nuclear project behind closed doors](https://www.reuters.com/article/uk-britain-nuclear-hinkley-ayrault-idUKKCN11Z1Z2?il=0) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170305001557/http://www.reuters.com/article/uk\\-britain\\-nuclear\\-hinkley\\-ayrault\\-idUKKCN11Z1Z2?il\\=0 \\|date\\=5 March 2017 }} *[Reuters](/wiki/Reuters \"Reuters\")*",
""
] |
*Terminator* film series
------------------------
[thumb\|upright\|left\|Michael Edwards as the adult John Connor in *Terminator 2: Judgment Day*.](/wiki/File:John_Connor_%28Michael_Edwards%29.jpg "John Connor (Michael Edwards).jpg")
In the [fictional universe](/wiki/Fictional_universe "Fictional universe")'s [narrative](/wiki/Narrative "Narrative"), John Connor is a [messianic figure](/wiki/Messiah "Messiah") (born on February 28, 1985\) who will lead the Resistance to defeat an empire of [robotic Terminators](/wiki/Terminator_%28character_concept%29 "Terminator (character concept)") amassed by the rogue military AI [Skynet](/wiki/Skynet_%28Terminator%29 "Skynet (Terminator)") following a [cybernetic revolt](/wiki/Cybernetic_revolt "Cybernetic revolt") [doomsday event](/wiki/Doomsday_event "Doomsday event") known as Judgment Day. When his mother, [Sarah Connor](/wiki/Sarah_Connor_%28Terminator%29 "Sarah Connor (Terminator)"), is the target of a [time traveling](/wiki/Time_travel_in_fiction "Time travel in fiction") Terminator unit ([Model 101](/wiki/Terminator_%28character%29 "Terminator (character)")) in the first film, John sends resistance fighter [Kyle Reese](/wiki/Kyle_Reese "Kyle Reese") (depicted in certain continuities as his adoptive son) to protect Sarah, knowing Kyle and Sarah would later conceive him. With foreknowledge from his parents, John fends off Terminator assassination attempts in the second and third films before Judgment Day. In the fourth film, John fights with the Resistance in a [postapocalyptic setting](/wiki/Apocalyptic_and_post-apocalyptic_fiction "Apocalyptic and post-apocalyptic fiction") after Skynet has taken over.
As the series' central plot heavily involves time travel, the story of the character is often non\-linear and portrays many possible outcomes, for example *Terminator 3: Rise of the Machines* and television series *Terminator: The Sarah Connor Chronicles* continue from the ending of *Terminator 2* but are depicted as taking place in [alternate timelines](/wiki/Parallel_universe_%28fiction%29 "Parallel universe (fiction)"),{{Cite web \|last\=Goldman \|first\=Eric \|date\=22 June 2007 \|title\=Guiding the Sarah Connor Chronicles \|url\=http://tv.ign.com/articles/798/798086p1\.html \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20071027154106/http://tv.ign.com/articles/798/798086p1\.html \|archive\-date\=27 October 2007 \|access\-date\=22 June 2007 \|website\=\[\[IGN.com]] \|publisher\=\[\[Pythian]] Remote DBA}}{{Cite web \|title\=Sarah Connor Chronicles To Create New T Timeline \|url\=http://www.terminatorchronicles.com/sarah\-connor\-chronicles\-to\-create\-new\-t3\-timeline \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20071027154106/http://www.terminatorchronicles.com/sarah\-connor\-chronicles\-to\-create\-new\-t3\-timeline \|archive\-date\=27 October 2007 \|access\-date\=18 February 2019 \|website\=Terminator Chronicles}} while *Terminator Genisys* (2015\) revisits and [changes the events](/wiki/Reboot_%28fiction%29 "Reboot (fiction)") of the first film. *[Terminator: Dark Fate](/wiki/Terminator:Dark_Fate "Dark Fate")* also continues from the events of *Terminator 2* in another alternate timeline.
### *The Terminator*
In *[The Terminator](/wiki/The_Terminator "The Terminator")*, John is mentioned and is the basis of the film. The Terminator ([Arnold Schwarzenegger](/wiki/Arnold_Schwarzenegger "Arnold Schwarzenegger")) is attempting to kill [Sarah Connor](/wiki/Sarah_Connor_%28Terminator%29 "Sarah Connor (Terminator)") ([Linda Hamilton](/wiki/Linda_Hamilton "Linda Hamilton")) because the latter will be his mother, but John does not make a physical appearance. At the film's end, Sarah is shown to be [pregnant](/wiki/Pregnant "Pregnant") with John.
### *Terminator 2: Judgment Day*
In his first appearance in *[Terminator 2: Judgment Day](/wiki/Terminator_2:Judgment_Day "Judgment Day")* (a sequel to the first film), John is a 10\-year\-old child and a juvenile delinquentIn the film, the [T\-1000](/wiki/T-1000 "T-1000") accesses a police computer which states that John is 10 years old.{{Cite web \|date\=June 19, 2003 \|title\=Interview : Jonathan Mostow \|url\=https://moviehole.net/interview\-jonathan\-mostow/ \|access\-date\=September 23, 2020 \|website\=Moviehole}} living with foster parents ([Jenette Goldstein](/wiki/Jenette_Goldstein "Jenette Goldstein") and [Xander Berkeley](/wiki/Xander_Berkeley "Xander Berkeley")) while [Sarah Connor](/wiki/Sarah_Connor_%28Terminator%29 "Sarah Connor (Terminator)") is in a prison [hospital](/wiki/Psychiatric_hospital "Psychiatric hospital") for the criminally insane. Though he is informed of his destiny—namely, his future conflict with Skynet—young John is skeptical of his mother's claims about his fate as humanity's leader. While in an arcade with a friend, the Model 101 (Schwarzenegger), a reprogrammed android sent by John's future self, and the [T\-1000](/wiki/T-1000 "T-1000") ([Robert Patrick](/wiki/Robert_Patrick "Robert Patrick")) fight over him. This starts a chase sequence where the Model 101 and John try to lose the T\-1000; the event validates Sarah's warning to John about Skynet.
Later that night, Sarah puts an escape plan into action just as John and the Model 101 arrive to save her, and the three escape. John instructs the Model 101 on how to behave like a human being, teaching it sayings such as "[*Hasta la vista, baby!*](/wiki/Hasta_la_vista%2C_baby "Hasta la vista, baby")" He forms an emotional bond with the Terminator, coming to regard it as a father figure. John later helps avert Skynet's creation and assists in the destruction of Cyberdyne Systems. With the help of Skynet's creator, Miles Dyson, he breaks into a safe to retrieve the first Terminator's damaged arm and CPU, which Dyson—unaware of what it would lead to—was using to create the new technology. After Cyberdyne is destroyed and the T\-1000 is melted in a steel mill, John throws the remnants of the first Terminator into the molten steel. He begs the Terminator not to destroy itself as well, despite the Terminator's warning that allowing it to continue existing creates a risk of Skynet being [recreated](/wiki/Reverse_engineering "Reverse engineering") at some future date. John ultimately bids his friend farewell with a hug, and watches as the Terminator is lowered into molten steel.
In a flash\-forward at the beginning of the film, John is briefly seen as an adult played by [Michael Edwards](/wiki/Michael_Edwards_%28actor%29 "Michael Edwards (actor)"). Dalton Abbot (Linda Hamilton's real\-life son) portrays the character as a toddler in a dream sequence. An alternate ending takes place in 2027, in which John is a U.S. senator and father to a daughter in a world where Skynet was never able to start its war on humanity.
### *Terminator 3: Rise of the Machines*
[thumb\|left\|[Nick Stahl](/wiki/Nick_Stahl "Nick Stahl") as John Connor in *[Terminator 3: Rise of the Machines](/wiki/Terminator_3:Rise_of_the_Machines "Rise of the Machines")*](/wiki/File:John_Connor_%28Nick_Stahl%29.jpg "John Connor (Nick Stahl).jpg")
John is portrayed by [Nick Stahl](/wiki/Nick_Stahl "Nick Stahl") in *[Terminator 3: Rise of the Machines](/wiki/Terminator_3:Rise_of_the_Machines "Rise of the Machines")* (set 10 years after the second film). Now a young adult, John has been living [off\-the\-grid](/wiki/Off-the-grid "Off-the-grid") after the second film's events, even as the original Judgment Day deadline in 1997 came to pass without incident. His mother Sarah eventually developed [leukemia](/wiki/Leukemia "Leukemia") and died before the events of the film. In the film, John crosses paths with Katherine "Kate" Brewster ([Claire Danes](/wiki/Claire_Danes "Claire Danes")), a former classmate from when he was living with his foster parents. He is attacked by a [T\-X](/wiki/T-X "T-X") Terminator ([Kristanna Loken](/wiki/Kristanna_Loken "Kristanna Loken")), which was sent from the future. Unlike predecessors, the T\-X's objective is to terminate his future Resistance officers as secondary targets because John's location is unknown. When the T\-X encounters John, the T\-X changes priority to focus entirely on him and Kate. Because of this Terminator being dominant and feminine, John personally coins the T\-X as "Terminatrix."
A protector T\-850 (Schwarzenegger), a doppelgänger of John's previous protector, is also sent back in time to protect him, explaining that Judgment Day had only been delayed and is now only hours away. The T\-850 also states being sent from the future by Kate, John’s future wife and second\-in\-command; John had actually been killed by that very Terminator on July 4, 2032, as [Skynet](/wiki/Skynet_%28Terminator%29 "Skynet (Terminator)") believed to be the most suitable for such a mission due to John's emotional attachment to said model. John and Kate intend to halt Skynet's launching. The two mistakenly believe Skynet's core is in a facility, only to find themselves locked and protected in a secure bunker as the first nuclear assault is launched on the United States as a result of Skynet's manipulations. Skynet is pure software and has already spread to every server worldwide, making it impossible to shut down. It is via the radios in this bunker that John begins to broadcast messages to lay the groundwork to help survivors and organize the Resistance.
### *Terminator Salvation*
[thumb\|right\|[Christian Bale](/wiki/Christian_Bale "Christian Bale") as John Connor in *[Terminator Salvation](/wiki/Terminator_Salvation "Terminator Salvation")*](/wiki/File:John_Connor_T4.JPG "John Connor T4.JPG")
John is portrayed by [Christian Bale](/wiki/Christian_Bale "Christian Bale") in *[Terminator Salvation](/wiki/Terminator_Salvation "Terminator Salvation")* (which is set in 2018\), now an older, battle\-experienced Resistance soldier. Kate Brewster ([Bryce Dallas Howard](/wiki/Bryce_Dallas_Howard "Bryce Dallas Howard")), who serves as a medic, is now pregnant with his child. Kate also assists command with her Tech\-Com unit. Since Judgment Day, John has been broadcasting radio messages to both the Resistance forces and surviving refugees in an effort to maintain morale and hope. The story also features new character Marcus Wright ([Sam Worthington](/wiki/Sam_Worthington "Sam Worthington")), and the teenage Kyle Reese ([Anton Yelchin](/wiki/Anton_Yelchin "Anton Yelchin")). John starts as one of the many foot soldiers who make up the Resistance movement based in California.
Despite having extensive prior knowledge of the machines and Skynet's capabilities, John is largely dismissed by General Hugh Ashdown ([Michael Ironside](/wiki/Michael_Ironside "Michael Ironside")), who runs the resistance organization, considering Connor a delusional false prophet at best and a dangerous liability to their operations at worst. Nonetheless, there are pockets of people within the Resistance who have come to believe in John's experiences and judgment based on their own firsthand experiences serving with him. In addition, the Resistance's majority is gradually losing faith in the Resistance Command due to Ashdown's ruthless and vicious tactics that cost many of his own soldiers and civilians' lives. Toward the middle of the film, John learns that Kyle has been placed in a detention center by Skynet, which is aware of Kyle's future role as John's father, classifying Kyle as its primary target and John as its secondary objective even over the Resistance's current leaders, and sets out to rescue Kyle, with Marcus leading him to the base. Upon arrival, John faces off with a T\-800 crafted in the unit's image that he and his family have encountered previously. John is hurt during his encounter with the T\-800 and receives multiple cuts to the face, mirroring the same scars seen on John's face in the opening scenes of *Terminator 2: Judgment Day* and *Terminator 3: Rise of the Machines*. Marcus helps him destroy the T\-800 but John's heart is too badly damaged due to injury and Marcus offers his own to John. In addition, after the Resistance Command is caught in Skynet's trap, John's Tech\-Com unit takes over the authority with no opposition. John's ending statement is that though this battle has been won, the war is far from over.
### *Terminator Genisys*
[thumb\|left\|[Jason Clarke](/wiki/Jason_Clarke_%28actor%29 "Jason Clarke (actor)") as John Connor in *[Terminator Genisys](/wiki/Terminator_Genisys "Terminator Genisys")*](/wiki/File:John_Connor_%28Jason_Clarke%29.jpg "John Connor (Jason Clarke).jpg")
{{see also\|T\-3000}}
John is portrayed by [Jason Clarke](/wiki/Jason_Clarke_%28actor%29 "Jason Clarke (actor)") in *[Terminator Genisys](/wiki/Terminator_Genisys "Terminator Genisys")* (which alters the events of the four Terminator films that had been released prior). Following a confrontation with a T\-5000 ([Matt Smith](/wiki/Matt_Smith_%28actor%29 "Matt Smith (actor)")) on the war's seemingly final day, just as [Kyle Reese](/wiki/Kyle_Reese "Kyle Reese") ([Jai Courtney](/wiki/Jai_Courtney "Jai Courtney")) is being sent back to save [Sarah Connor](/wiki/Sarah_Connor_%28Terminator%29 "Sarah Connor (Terminator)") ([Emilia Clarke](/wiki/Emilia_Clarke "Emilia Clarke")), John is forcibly transformed into the [T\-3000](/wiki/T-3000 "T-3000") cyborg as a result of a Skynet program to use nanites to convert living flesh into machine matter. Although all other recorded test subjects for this process were left irreversibly insane and then died during the transformation, John came through the process reasonably intact, albeit now a sociopath dedicated to ensuring Skynet's rise at humanity's cost.
Skynet then sends the T\-3000 back in time to ensure its creation in the altered timeline, John now believing that the future requires [man and machine to come together](/wiki/Technological_singularity "Technological singularity") like he has. He travels back in time to 2014 and joins [Cyberdyne Systems](/wiki/Cyberdyne_Systems "Cyberdyne Systems") to help create a new version of Skynet, working with Miles Dyson and Danny Dyson to perfect development of the new Genisys system, turning Skynet into a massive digital network rather than a single computer system. Three years later, despite his superior physical strength, he was destroyed by "Pops" (Schwarzenegger), a T\-800 reprogrammed and sent into the past by an unknown party to protect Sarah, when both of them were trapped inside a prototype time machine. With the machine just capable of generating the electromagnetic energy that prevented non\-living tissue travelling through time without actually generating a temporal portal, Connor is ripped apart while trapped at the heart of the machine after earlier battle\-damage disrupted his ability to maintain his organic shell. It is ambiguous as to whether a version of the character will exist in the altered timeline, with John himself stating that his existence is a paradox that is no longer tied to Sarah and Kyle conceiving him.
### *Terminator: Dark Fate*
[thumb\|upright\|Body double Jude Collie as John Connor in *[Terminator: Dark Fate](/wiki/Terminator:Dark_Fate "Dark Fate")*, using facial motion capture from [Edward Furlong](/wiki/Edward_Furlong "Edward Furlong").](/wiki/File:John_Connor_%28Terminator_Dark_Fate%29.jpg "John Connor (Terminator Dark Fate).jpg")
John appears briefly in *[Terminator: Dark Fate](/wiki/Terminator:Dark_Fate "Dark Fate")*, which serves as a direct sequel to *Terminator 2: Judgment Day*, portrayed by Jude Collie with CGI facial capture performed by Furlong, ignoring previous sequels without creator James Cameron's involvement. In the opening scene, set three years after the events of *Judgment Day*, it is revealed that even though Skynet was erased from existence with Cyberdyne's destruction, it had sent multiple Terminators back to different points in time to kill John. He and Sarah are found in Guatemala by a T\-800, which then shoots John dead in front of Sarah.
Though dead and gone, John's legacy continues to play a crucial role in the story. In the following years, with its mission fulfilled, the same T\-800 develops a form of conscience and takes the name "Carl". It atones for John's death by sending Sarah encrypted messages revealing the location of Skynet's future arriving Terminators, while Sarah takes it upon herself to track down and destroy them to avenge John and ensure that their technology will not be used to rebuild Skynet and John's sacrifice will not be in vain. Carl later joins the fight against the [Rev\-9](/wiki/Rev-9 "Rev-9"), a Terminator built by a new A.I. known as Legion. The Rev\-9 is sent from the future to kill Daniella "Dani" Ramos, who will take John's place as the future leader of the human resistance against machines. In the future, Dani tells her army, "There is no fate but what we make for ourselves," as John said to Kyle Reese before sending him back to 1984\. As Carl and the Rev\-9 are destroyed, Carl's final words to Sarah are "for John", therefore atoning for John's death by sacrificing itself. Like she did with John, Sarah plans to prepare Dani for the coming battles against Legion, explaining her similar role and quotes to John's in the future.
|
[
"*Terminator* film series\n------------------------",
"[thumb\\|upright\\|left\\|Michael Edwards as the adult John Connor in *Terminator 2: Judgment Day*.](/wiki/File:John_Connor_%28Michael_Edwards%29.jpg \"John Connor (Michael Edwards).jpg\")\nIn the [fictional universe](/wiki/Fictional_universe \"Fictional universe\")'s [narrative](/wiki/Narrative \"Narrative\"), John Connor is a [messianic figure](/wiki/Messiah \"Messiah\") (born on February 28, 1985\\) who will lead the Resistance to defeat an empire of [robotic Terminators](/wiki/Terminator_%28character_concept%29 \"Terminator (character concept)\") amassed by the rogue military AI [Skynet](/wiki/Skynet_%28Terminator%29 \"Skynet (Terminator)\") following a [cybernetic revolt](/wiki/Cybernetic_revolt \"Cybernetic revolt\") [doomsday event](/wiki/Doomsday_event \"Doomsday event\") known as Judgment Day. When his mother, [Sarah Connor](/wiki/Sarah_Connor_%28Terminator%29 \"Sarah Connor (Terminator)\"), is the target of a [time traveling](/wiki/Time_travel_in_fiction \"Time travel in fiction\") Terminator unit ([Model 101](/wiki/Terminator_%28character%29 \"Terminator (character)\")) in the first film, John sends resistance fighter [Kyle Reese](/wiki/Kyle_Reese \"Kyle Reese\") (depicted in certain continuities as his adoptive son) to protect Sarah, knowing Kyle and Sarah would later conceive him. With foreknowledge from his parents, John fends off Terminator assassination attempts in the second and third films before Judgment Day. In the fourth film, John fights with the Resistance in a [postapocalyptic setting](/wiki/Apocalyptic_and_post-apocalyptic_fiction \"Apocalyptic and post-apocalyptic fiction\") after Skynet has taken over.",
"As the series' central plot heavily involves time travel, the story of the character is often non\\-linear and portrays many possible outcomes, for example *Terminator 3: Rise of the Machines* and television series *Terminator: The Sarah Connor Chronicles* continue from the ending of *Terminator 2* but are depicted as taking place in [alternate timelines](/wiki/Parallel_universe_%28fiction%29 \"Parallel universe (fiction)\"),{{Cite web \\|last\\=Goldman \\|first\\=Eric \\|date\\=22 June 2007 \\|title\\=Guiding the Sarah Connor Chronicles \\|url\\=http://tv.ign.com/articles/798/798086p1\\.html \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20071027154106/http://tv.ign.com/articles/798/798086p1\\.html \\|archive\\-date\\=27 October 2007 \\|access\\-date\\=22 June 2007 \\|website\\=\\[\\[IGN.com]] \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Pythian]] Remote DBA}}{{Cite web \\|title\\=Sarah Connor Chronicles To Create New T Timeline \\|url\\=http://www.terminatorchronicles.com/sarah\\-connor\\-chronicles\\-to\\-create\\-new\\-t3\\-timeline \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20071027154106/http://www.terminatorchronicles.com/sarah\\-connor\\-chronicles\\-to\\-create\\-new\\-t3\\-timeline \\|archive\\-date\\=27 October 2007 \\|access\\-date\\=18 February 2019 \\|website\\=Terminator Chronicles}} while *Terminator Genisys* (2015\\) revisits and [changes the events](/wiki/Reboot_%28fiction%29 \"Reboot (fiction)\") of the first film. *[Terminator: Dark Fate](/wiki/Terminator:Dark_Fate \"Dark Fate\")* also continues from the events of *Terminator 2* in another alternate timeline.",
"### *The Terminator*",
"In *[The Terminator](/wiki/The_Terminator \"The Terminator\")*, John is mentioned and is the basis of the film. The Terminator ([Arnold Schwarzenegger](/wiki/Arnold_Schwarzenegger \"Arnold Schwarzenegger\")) is attempting to kill [Sarah Connor](/wiki/Sarah_Connor_%28Terminator%29 \"Sarah Connor (Terminator)\") ([Linda Hamilton](/wiki/Linda_Hamilton \"Linda Hamilton\")) because the latter will be his mother, but John does not make a physical appearance. At the film's end, Sarah is shown to be [pregnant](/wiki/Pregnant \"Pregnant\") with John.",
"### *Terminator 2: Judgment Day*",
"In his first appearance in *[Terminator 2: Judgment Day](/wiki/Terminator_2:Judgment_Day \"Judgment Day\")* (a sequel to the first film), John is a 10\\-year\\-old child and a juvenile delinquentIn the film, the [T\\-1000](/wiki/T-1000 \"T-1000\") accesses a police computer which states that John is 10 years old.{{Cite web \\|date\\=June 19, 2003 \\|title\\=Interview : Jonathan Mostow \\|url\\=https://moviehole.net/interview\\-jonathan\\-mostow/ \\|access\\-date\\=September 23, 2020 \\|website\\=Moviehole}} living with foster parents ([Jenette Goldstein](/wiki/Jenette_Goldstein \"Jenette Goldstein\") and [Xander Berkeley](/wiki/Xander_Berkeley \"Xander Berkeley\")) while [Sarah Connor](/wiki/Sarah_Connor_%28Terminator%29 \"Sarah Connor (Terminator)\") is in a prison [hospital](/wiki/Psychiatric_hospital \"Psychiatric hospital\") for the criminally insane. Though he is informed of his destiny—namely, his future conflict with Skynet—young John is skeptical of his mother's claims about his fate as humanity's leader. While in an arcade with a friend, the Model 101 (Schwarzenegger), a reprogrammed android sent by John's future self, and the [T\\-1000](/wiki/T-1000 \"T-1000\") ([Robert Patrick](/wiki/Robert_Patrick \"Robert Patrick\")) fight over him. This starts a chase sequence where the Model 101 and John try to lose the T\\-1000; the event validates Sarah's warning to John about Skynet.",
"Later that night, Sarah puts an escape plan into action just as John and the Model 101 arrive to save her, and the three escape. John instructs the Model 101 on how to behave like a human being, teaching it sayings such as \"[*Hasta la vista, baby!*](/wiki/Hasta_la_vista%2C_baby \"Hasta la vista, baby\")\" He forms an emotional bond with the Terminator, coming to regard it as a father figure. John later helps avert Skynet's creation and assists in the destruction of Cyberdyne Systems. With the help of Skynet's creator, Miles Dyson, he breaks into a safe to retrieve the first Terminator's damaged arm and CPU, which Dyson—unaware of what it would lead to—was using to create the new technology. After Cyberdyne is destroyed and the T\\-1000 is melted in a steel mill, John throws the remnants of the first Terminator into the molten steel. He begs the Terminator not to destroy itself as well, despite the Terminator's warning that allowing it to continue existing creates a risk of Skynet being [recreated](/wiki/Reverse_engineering \"Reverse engineering\") at some future date. John ultimately bids his friend farewell with a hug, and watches as the Terminator is lowered into molten steel.",
"In a flash\\-forward at the beginning of the film, John is briefly seen as an adult played by [Michael Edwards](/wiki/Michael_Edwards_%28actor%29 \"Michael Edwards (actor)\"). Dalton Abbot (Linda Hamilton's real\\-life son) portrays the character as a toddler in a dream sequence. An alternate ending takes place in 2027, in which John is a U.S. senator and father to a daughter in a world where Skynet was never able to start its war on humanity.",
"### *Terminator 3: Rise of the Machines*",
"[thumb\\|left\\|[Nick Stahl](/wiki/Nick_Stahl \"Nick Stahl\") as John Connor in *[Terminator 3: Rise of the Machines](/wiki/Terminator_3:Rise_of_the_Machines \"Rise of the Machines\")*](/wiki/File:John_Connor_%28Nick_Stahl%29.jpg \"John Connor (Nick Stahl).jpg\")\nJohn is portrayed by [Nick Stahl](/wiki/Nick_Stahl \"Nick Stahl\") in *[Terminator 3: Rise of the Machines](/wiki/Terminator_3:Rise_of_the_Machines \"Rise of the Machines\")* (set 10 years after the second film). Now a young adult, John has been living [off\\-the\\-grid](/wiki/Off-the-grid \"Off-the-grid\") after the second film's events, even as the original Judgment Day deadline in 1997 came to pass without incident. His mother Sarah eventually developed [leukemia](/wiki/Leukemia \"Leukemia\") and died before the events of the film. In the film, John crosses paths with Katherine \"Kate\" Brewster ([Claire Danes](/wiki/Claire_Danes \"Claire Danes\")), a former classmate from when he was living with his foster parents. He is attacked by a [T\\-X](/wiki/T-X \"T-X\") Terminator ([Kristanna Loken](/wiki/Kristanna_Loken \"Kristanna Loken\")), which was sent from the future. Unlike predecessors, the T\\-X's objective is to terminate his future Resistance officers as secondary targets because John's location is unknown. When the T\\-X encounters John, the T\\-X changes priority to focus entirely on him and Kate. Because of this Terminator being dominant and feminine, John personally coins the T\\-X as \"Terminatrix.\"",
"A protector T\\-850 (Schwarzenegger), a doppelgänger of John's previous protector, is also sent back in time to protect him, explaining that Judgment Day had only been delayed and is now only hours away. The T\\-850 also states being sent from the future by Kate, John’s future wife and second\\-in\\-command; John had actually been killed by that very Terminator on July 4, 2032, as [Skynet](/wiki/Skynet_%28Terminator%29 \"Skynet (Terminator)\") believed to be the most suitable for such a mission due to John's emotional attachment to said model. John and Kate intend to halt Skynet's launching. The two mistakenly believe Skynet's core is in a facility, only to find themselves locked and protected in a secure bunker as the first nuclear assault is launched on the United States as a result of Skynet's manipulations. Skynet is pure software and has already spread to every server worldwide, making it impossible to shut down. It is via the radios in this bunker that John begins to broadcast messages to lay the groundwork to help survivors and organize the Resistance.",
"### *Terminator Salvation*",
"[thumb\\|right\\|[Christian Bale](/wiki/Christian_Bale \"Christian Bale\") as John Connor in *[Terminator Salvation](/wiki/Terminator_Salvation \"Terminator Salvation\")*](/wiki/File:John_Connor_T4.JPG \"John Connor T4.JPG\")\nJohn is portrayed by [Christian Bale](/wiki/Christian_Bale \"Christian Bale\") in *[Terminator Salvation](/wiki/Terminator_Salvation \"Terminator Salvation\")* (which is set in 2018\\), now an older, battle\\-experienced Resistance soldier. Kate Brewster ([Bryce Dallas Howard](/wiki/Bryce_Dallas_Howard \"Bryce Dallas Howard\")), who serves as a medic, is now pregnant with his child. Kate also assists command with her Tech\\-Com unit. Since Judgment Day, John has been broadcasting radio messages to both the Resistance forces and surviving refugees in an effort to maintain morale and hope. The story also features new character Marcus Wright ([Sam Worthington](/wiki/Sam_Worthington \"Sam Worthington\")), and the teenage Kyle Reese ([Anton Yelchin](/wiki/Anton_Yelchin \"Anton Yelchin\")). John starts as one of the many foot soldiers who make up the Resistance movement based in California.",
"Despite having extensive prior knowledge of the machines and Skynet's capabilities, John is largely dismissed by General Hugh Ashdown ([Michael Ironside](/wiki/Michael_Ironside \"Michael Ironside\")), who runs the resistance organization, considering Connor a delusional false prophet at best and a dangerous liability to their operations at worst. Nonetheless, there are pockets of people within the Resistance who have come to believe in John's experiences and judgment based on their own firsthand experiences serving with him. In addition, the Resistance's majority is gradually losing faith in the Resistance Command due to Ashdown's ruthless and vicious tactics that cost many of his own soldiers and civilians' lives. Toward the middle of the film, John learns that Kyle has been placed in a detention center by Skynet, which is aware of Kyle's future role as John's father, classifying Kyle as its primary target and John as its secondary objective even over the Resistance's current leaders, and sets out to rescue Kyle, with Marcus leading him to the base. Upon arrival, John faces off with a T\\-800 crafted in the unit's image that he and his family have encountered previously. John is hurt during his encounter with the T\\-800 and receives multiple cuts to the face, mirroring the same scars seen on John's face in the opening scenes of *Terminator 2: Judgment Day* and *Terminator 3: Rise of the Machines*. Marcus helps him destroy the T\\-800 but John's heart is too badly damaged due to injury and Marcus offers his own to John. In addition, after the Resistance Command is caught in Skynet's trap, John's Tech\\-Com unit takes over the authority with no opposition. John's ending statement is that though this battle has been won, the war is far from over.",
"### *Terminator Genisys*",
"[thumb\\|left\\|[Jason Clarke](/wiki/Jason_Clarke_%28actor%29 \"Jason Clarke (actor)\") as John Connor in *[Terminator Genisys](/wiki/Terminator_Genisys \"Terminator Genisys\")*](/wiki/File:John_Connor_%28Jason_Clarke%29.jpg \"John Connor (Jason Clarke).jpg\")\n{{see also\\|T\\-3000}}\nJohn is portrayed by [Jason Clarke](/wiki/Jason_Clarke_%28actor%29 \"Jason Clarke (actor)\") in *[Terminator Genisys](/wiki/Terminator_Genisys \"Terminator Genisys\")* (which alters the events of the four Terminator films that had been released prior). Following a confrontation with a T\\-5000 ([Matt Smith](/wiki/Matt_Smith_%28actor%29 \"Matt Smith (actor)\")) on the war's seemingly final day, just as [Kyle Reese](/wiki/Kyle_Reese \"Kyle Reese\") ([Jai Courtney](/wiki/Jai_Courtney \"Jai Courtney\")) is being sent back to save [Sarah Connor](/wiki/Sarah_Connor_%28Terminator%29 \"Sarah Connor (Terminator)\") ([Emilia Clarke](/wiki/Emilia_Clarke \"Emilia Clarke\")), John is forcibly transformed into the [T\\-3000](/wiki/T-3000 \"T-3000\") cyborg as a result of a Skynet program to use nanites to convert living flesh into machine matter. Although all other recorded test subjects for this process were left irreversibly insane and then died during the transformation, John came through the process reasonably intact, albeit now a sociopath dedicated to ensuring Skynet's rise at humanity's cost.",
"Skynet then sends the T\\-3000 back in time to ensure its creation in the altered timeline, John now believing that the future requires [man and machine to come together](/wiki/Technological_singularity \"Technological singularity\") like he has. He travels back in time to 2014 and joins [Cyberdyne Systems](/wiki/Cyberdyne_Systems \"Cyberdyne Systems\") to help create a new version of Skynet, working with Miles Dyson and Danny Dyson to perfect development of the new Genisys system, turning Skynet into a massive digital network rather than a single computer system. Three years later, despite his superior physical strength, he was destroyed by \"Pops\" (Schwarzenegger), a T\\-800 reprogrammed and sent into the past by an unknown party to protect Sarah, when both of them were trapped inside a prototype time machine. With the machine just capable of generating the electromagnetic energy that prevented non\\-living tissue travelling through time without actually generating a temporal portal, Connor is ripped apart while trapped at the heart of the machine after earlier battle\\-damage disrupted his ability to maintain his organic shell. It is ambiguous as to whether a version of the character will exist in the altered timeline, with John himself stating that his existence is a paradox that is no longer tied to Sarah and Kyle conceiving him.",
"### *Terminator: Dark Fate*",
"[thumb\\|upright\\|Body double Jude Collie as John Connor in *[Terminator: Dark Fate](/wiki/Terminator:Dark_Fate \"Dark Fate\")*, using facial motion capture from [Edward Furlong](/wiki/Edward_Furlong \"Edward Furlong\").](/wiki/File:John_Connor_%28Terminator_Dark_Fate%29.jpg \"John Connor (Terminator Dark Fate).jpg\")\nJohn appears briefly in *[Terminator: Dark Fate](/wiki/Terminator:Dark_Fate \"Dark Fate\")*, which serves as a direct sequel to *Terminator 2: Judgment Day*, portrayed by Jude Collie with CGI facial capture performed by Furlong, ignoring previous sequels without creator James Cameron's involvement. In the opening scene, set three years after the events of *Judgment Day*, it is revealed that even though Skynet was erased from existence with Cyberdyne's destruction, it had sent multiple Terminators back to different points in time to kill John. He and Sarah are found in Guatemala by a T\\-800, which then shoots John dead in front of Sarah.",
"Though dead and gone, John's legacy continues to play a crucial role in the story. In the following years, with its mission fulfilled, the same T\\-800 develops a form of conscience and takes the name \"Carl\". It atones for John's death by sending Sarah encrypted messages revealing the location of Skynet's future arriving Terminators, while Sarah takes it upon herself to track down and destroy them to avenge John and ensure that their technology will not be used to rebuild Skynet and John's sacrifice will not be in vain. Carl later joins the fight against the [Rev\\-9](/wiki/Rev-9 \"Rev-9\"), a Terminator built by a new A.I. known as Legion. The Rev\\-9 is sent from the future to kill Daniella \"Dani\" Ramos, who will take John's place as the future leader of the human resistance against machines. In the future, Dani tells her army, \"There is no fate but what we make for ourselves,\" as John said to Kyle Reese before sending him back to 1984\\. As Carl and the Rev\\-9 are destroyed, Carl's final words to Sarah are \"for John\", therefore atoning for John's death by sacrificing itself. Like she did with John, Sarah plans to prepare Dani for the coming battles against Legion, explaining her similar role and quotes to John's in the future.",
""
] |
Museums
-------
### Archaeology Museum
The Archaeology Museum opened on March 25, 2009\. Essentially educational, it presents evidence of the material culture of immemorial human groups who lived in the area, along with banners with texts and photos explaining "archaeological activity" in the field. Visitors are introduced to some of the techniques used in an excavation and get to see how cultural evidence of extinct peoples is found by archaeologists, as well as some of the equipment used by them in the field.
Evidence of archaeological material culture from archaeological sites in the state of Amazonas can also be found. The main objective is to show the visiting public a little of the [pre\-colonial](/wiki/Pre-Columbian_history_of_Brazil "Pre-Columbian history of Brazil") knowledge, from an anthropological and artistic perspective, of the peoples who lived in the region and bequeathed the most diverse forms of cultural expression. The exhibition includes the Anthropozoormorphic Statuette, given to the Museum by the [Historic and Geographic Institute of Amazonas](/wiki/Historic_and_Geographic_Institute_of_Amazonas "Historic and Geographic Institute of Amazonas") (IGHA).
### Amazonas Museum of Image and Sound (MISAM)
Inaugurated on November 6, 2000, its collections are composed of donations from several organizations and collectors, as well as direct acquisitions from the State Department of Culture, which keeps institutional documents produced by the agency itself. The museum houses material relating to cinema, photography, music, television, radio and other types of visual arts technology.{{Cite web \|date\=2013\-06\-10 \|title\=Museu da Imagem e do Som do Amazonas recebe 116 novos títulos \|url\=https://g1\.globo.com/am/amazonas/noticia/2013/06/museu\-da\-imagem\-e\-do\-som\-do\-amazonas\-recebe\-116\-novos\-titulos.html \|access\-date\=2018\-10\-25 \|website\=G1}}{{Cite web \|date\=2017\-11\-03 \|title\=MUSEU DA IMAGEM E DO SOM DO AMAZONAS COMPLETA 17 ANOS COM ATIVIDADES DE CINEMA \|url\=https://www.cineset.com.br/museu\-da\-imagem\-e\-do\-som\-do\-amazonas\-completa\-17\-anos\-com\-atividades\-de\-cinema/ \|access\-date\=2023\-09\-05 \|website\=CineSet}}
### Bernardo Ramos Museum of Numismatics
It includes more than 17,000 items from [Bernardo de Azevedo da Silva Ramos](/wiki/Bernardo_de_Azevedo_da_Silva_Ramos "Bernardo de Azevedo da Silva Ramos")' personal collection, including coins, banknotes, medals and national and international decorations.{{Cite web \|last\=Medeiros \|first\=Girlene \|date\=2011\-10\-24 \|title\=Conheça os museus de Manaus \|url\=https://g1\.globo.com/am/amazonas/noticia/2011/10/conheca\-os\-museus\-de\-manaus.html \|access\-date\=2018\-10\-25 \|website\=G1}}
### Tiradentes Museum
[thumb\|Heliodoro Balbi Square, better known as Police Square.](/wiki/File:PalacioProvincialManaus_04.JPG "PalacioProvincialManaus 04.JPG")
[thumb\|The Provincial Palace and the Police Square.](/wiki/File:Pal%C3%A1cio_Provincial-03.JPG "Palácio Provincial-03.JPG")
It presents the history of the Amazonas Military Police, with original furniture from the time, as well as an integrated archive with individual notebooks of members of the organization, along with weapons, uniforms, armor from the 16th century and equipment used by the State Fire Department. In the "Flagrant of History" exhibition, visitors will be able to watch videos of festive events and hear the sound of some weapons.{{Cite web \|title\=MUSEU TIRADENTES INSTALADO NO PALACETE PROVINCIAL \|url\=https://idd.org.br/iconografia/museu\-tiradentes\-instalado\-no\-palacete\-provincial/ \|access\-date\=2018\-09\-26 \|website\=IDD}}{{Cite web \|date\=2022\-04\-21 \|title\=Conheça o museu em Manaus que homenageia Tiradentes, patrono das polícias militares no Brasil \|url\=https://portalamazonia.com/estados/amazonas/conheca\-o\-museu\-em\-manaus\-que\-homenageia\-tiradentes\-patrono\-das\-policias\-militares\-no\-brasil \|access\-date\=2023\-09\-05 \|website\=Portal Amazonia}}
#### History
It was organized and inaugurated in 1984 on the initiative of the then commander\-in\-chief of the Amazonas Military Police, Colonel Elcio Motta, under the technical guidance of the [Joaquim Nabuco Foundation](/wiki/Joaquim_Nabuco_Foundation "Joaquim Nabuco Foundation"). Its first headquarters were in a room on the first floor of the General Command of the Military Police in Heliodoro Balbi Square, in Manaus; in 2009, the museum was reinstalled in the Provincial Palace. It represents an important part of the [history of the state of Amazonas](/wiki/History_of_Amazonas "History of Amazonas") and the corporation to which it belongs, preserving and providing society with the entity's historical collection, which consists of dozens of objects, such as: old weapons, Fire Department equipment, uniforms, badges and decorations, documents, photographs and more.
### Pinacoteca do Estado do Amazonas
The Pinacoteca do Estado do Amazonas is a state public institution, subordinate to the Amazonas Secretariat of Culture. It was officially established on July 18, 1965, during the government of Artur César Ferreira Reis, as the result of an initiative that had been nurtured since the 1950s by a group of intellectuals linked to the Clube da Madrugada, specifically Moacir de Andrade. In the following decades, it stood out for its didactic work in the formation of a whole generation of contemporary artists of regional expression.{{Cite web \|title\=PINACOTECA DO ESTADO DO AMAZONAS \|url\=https://idd.org.br/iconografia/pinacoteca\-do\-estado\-do\-amazonas/ \|access\-date\=2023\-09\-05 \|website\=IDD}}
The Pinacoteca has a collection of more than a thousand pieces of different techniques that cover [Brazilian artistic production](/wiki/Brazilian_art "Brazilian art") between the 19th and 20th centuries, with a special focus on artists from Amazonas. It also keeps a teaching collection of copies of famous works of universal art, promotes permanent and temporary exhibitions and organizes several cultural events.
[center\|thumb\|1000x1000px\|Panorama of the Provincial Palace.](/wiki/File:Panoramica_do_Palacete_Provincial_em_Manaus.jpg "Panoramica do Palacete Provincial em Manaus.jpg")
#### Collection
The Pinacoteca preserves a collection of approximately 1,000 works, including paintings, sculptures, drawings and engravings, created by around 300 artists from Amazonas, [Brazil](/wiki/Brazil "Brazil") and abroad. The collection offers a panorama of Brazilian artistic production between the 19th and 20th centuries, illustrated especially by works from regional artists.
19th century [academism](/wiki/Brazilian_academic_art "Brazilian academic art") and the transition phase from the 19th to the 20th century is represented by works by painters who were very significant for Brazilian art. The canvas *O último baile da Ilha Fiscal*, by [Aurélio de Figueiredo](/wiki/Aur%C3%A9lio_de_Figueiredo "Aurélio de Figueiredo"), a preliminary version of the work of the same name preserved in the [National Historical Museum](/wiki/National_Historical_Museum_%28Brazil%29 "National Historical Museum (Brazil)") in [Rio de Janeiro](/wiki/Rio_de_Janeiro "Rio de Janeiro"), is noteworthy. *O banho de Ceci*, also by Figueiredo, is an example of [Indianism](/wiki/Indianism_%28arts%29 "Indianism (arts)"). The collection includes some of the most famous historical paintings by [Joaquim Fernandes Machado](/wiki/Fernandes_Machado "Fernandes Machado"), such as *A Glória coroando Gonçalves Dias* and *Primeiro voo de Santos Dumont*. By [Antônio Parreiras](/wiki/Ant%C3%B4nio_Parreiras "Antônio Parreiras"), the museum preserves the oils *Quarta\-feira de cinzas* and *Caçador furtivo*, probably acquired by the state government during the artist's exhibition at the [Rio Negro Palace](/wiki/Pal%C3%A1cio_Rio_Negro "Palácio Rio Negro") in 1905\. There are also works by [Eliseu Visconti](/wiki/Eliseu_Visconti "Eliseu Visconti"), Sólon Botelho and Darkir Parreiras, among others.{{Cite web \|date\=2022\-02\-14 \|title\=Cinco obras modernistas imperdíveis da Pinacoteca do Amazonas \|url\=https://informemanaus.com/2022/cinco\-obras\-modernistas\-imperdiveis\-da\-pinacoteca\-do\-amazonas/ \|access\-date\=2023\-09\-05 \|website\=Informe Manaus}}
[Modernism](/wiki/Modernism_in_Brazil "Modernism in Brazil") is represented by a group of works by [Alfredo Volpi](/wiki/Alfredo_Volpi "Alfredo Volpi"), [Cícero Dias](/wiki/C%C3%ADcero_Dias "Cícero Dias"), [Inimá de Paula](/wiki/Inim%C3%A1_de_Paula "Inimá de Paula"), [Aldemir Martins](/wiki/Aldemir_Martins "Aldemir Martins") and [Burle Marx](/wiki/Roberto_Burle_Marx "Roberto Burle Marx"), as well as the oil *Curupira*, by Manoel Santiago, from Amazonas, representative of the nationalist painting of the 1930s. The works of Oscar Ramos, Álvaro Páscoa, Anísio Mello and Hahnemann Bacelar exemplify the assimilation of the legacy of the [Modern Art Week](/wiki/Modern_Art_Week "Modern Art Week") in Manaus in the 50s and 60s. Among the representatives of [*naïve* art](/wiki/Na%C3%AFve_art "Naïve art"), Francisco da Silva from [Acre](/wiki/Acre_%28state%29 "Acre (state)") and Rita Loureiro from Manaus deserve a mention. [Anna Letycia Quadros](/wiki/Anna_Letycia_Quadros "Anna Letycia Quadros"), Dirso José de Oliveira and Roberto De Lamonica also stand out.
In the contemporary art segment, there are works by artists of national expression (Adhemar Guerra, Acácio Sobral, Antônio Dias, [Emmanuel Nassar](/wiki/Emmanuel_Nassar "Emmanuel Nassar"), Dora Basílio, etc.) and regional expression (Afrânio de Araújo Castro, Eli Bacelar da Silva, Jefferson Rebelo, Sebastião Alves, Cristóvão Coutinho, Oscar Ramos, Claudson Mota de Ouro, Manoel Borges, etc.).
The Pinacoteca do Estado also has a teaching collection of copies of famous works of universal art. There are 70 paintings and 20 sculptures, currently on display at the Casa da Cultura on Instalação Street, which cover various periods and important authors in the history of art.
File:Biblioteca Pública do Amazonas.jpg\|Building of the Amazonas Public Library, first headquarters of the Pinacoteca do Estado.
File:Antônio Parreiras \- Quarta\-feira de cinzas.JPG\|Antônio Parreiras \- ''Quarta\-feira de cinzas'' (1904\). Collection of the Pinacoteca do Amazonas.
File:Aurélio de Figueiredo \- O Último baile da Ilha Fiscal (Manaus).JPG\|Aurélio de Figueiredo \- ''O último baile da Ilha Fiscal'' (1905\). Collection of the Pinacoteca do Amazonas.
File:Joaquim Fernandes Machado \- O primeiro vôo de Santos Dumont, c. 1906\.JPG\|Joaquim Fernandes Machado \- ''O primeiro voo de Santos Dumont'' (c. 1906\). Collection of the Pinacoteca do Amazonas.
|
[
"Museums\n-------",
"### Archaeology Museum",
"The Archaeology Museum opened on March 25, 2009\\. Essentially educational, it presents evidence of the material culture of immemorial human groups who lived in the area, along with banners with texts and photos explaining \"archaeological activity\" in the field. Visitors are introduced to some of the techniques used in an excavation and get to see how cultural evidence of extinct peoples is found by archaeologists, as well as some of the equipment used by them in the field.",
"Evidence of archaeological material culture from archaeological sites in the state of Amazonas can also be found. The main objective is to show the visiting public a little of the [pre\\-colonial](/wiki/Pre-Columbian_history_of_Brazil \"Pre-Columbian history of Brazil\") knowledge, from an anthropological and artistic perspective, of the peoples who lived in the region and bequeathed the most diverse forms of cultural expression. The exhibition includes the Anthropozoormorphic Statuette, given to the Museum by the [Historic and Geographic Institute of Amazonas](/wiki/Historic_and_Geographic_Institute_of_Amazonas \"Historic and Geographic Institute of Amazonas\") (IGHA).",
"### Amazonas Museum of Image and Sound (MISAM)",
"Inaugurated on November 6, 2000, its collections are composed of donations from several organizations and collectors, as well as direct acquisitions from the State Department of Culture, which keeps institutional documents produced by the agency itself. The museum houses material relating to cinema, photography, music, television, radio and other types of visual arts technology.{{Cite web \\|date\\=2013\\-06\\-10 \\|title\\=Museu da Imagem e do Som do Amazonas recebe 116 novos títulos \\|url\\=https://g1\\.globo.com/am/amazonas/noticia/2013/06/museu\\-da\\-imagem\\-e\\-do\\-som\\-do\\-amazonas\\-recebe\\-116\\-novos\\-titulos.html \\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-10\\-25 \\|website\\=G1}}{{Cite web \\|date\\=2017\\-11\\-03 \\|title\\=MUSEU DA IMAGEM E DO SOM DO AMAZONAS COMPLETA 17 ANOS COM ATIVIDADES DE CINEMA \\|url\\=https://www.cineset.com.br/museu\\-da\\-imagem\\-e\\-do\\-som\\-do\\-amazonas\\-completa\\-17\\-anos\\-com\\-atividades\\-de\\-cinema/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-09\\-05 \\|website\\=CineSet}}",
"### Bernardo Ramos Museum of Numismatics",
"It includes more than 17,000 items from [Bernardo de Azevedo da Silva Ramos](/wiki/Bernardo_de_Azevedo_da_Silva_Ramos \"Bernardo de Azevedo da Silva Ramos\")' personal collection, including coins, banknotes, medals and national and international decorations.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Medeiros \\|first\\=Girlene \\|date\\=2011\\-10\\-24 \\|title\\=Conheça os museus de Manaus \\|url\\=https://g1\\.globo.com/am/amazonas/noticia/2011/10/conheca\\-os\\-museus\\-de\\-manaus.html \\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-10\\-25 \\|website\\=G1}}",
"### Tiradentes Museum",
"[thumb\\|Heliodoro Balbi Square, better known as Police Square.](/wiki/File:PalacioProvincialManaus_04.JPG \"PalacioProvincialManaus 04.JPG\")\n[thumb\\|The Provincial Palace and the Police Square.](/wiki/File:Pal%C3%A1cio_Provincial-03.JPG \"Palácio Provincial-03.JPG\")\nIt presents the history of the Amazonas Military Police, with original furniture from the time, as well as an integrated archive with individual notebooks of members of the organization, along with weapons, uniforms, armor from the 16th century and equipment used by the State Fire Department. In the \"Flagrant of History\" exhibition, visitors will be able to watch videos of festive events and hear the sound of some weapons.{{Cite web \\|title\\=MUSEU TIRADENTES INSTALADO NO PALACETE PROVINCIAL \\|url\\=https://idd.org.br/iconografia/museu\\-tiradentes\\-instalado\\-no\\-palacete\\-provincial/ \\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-09\\-26 \\|website\\=IDD}}{{Cite web \\|date\\=2022\\-04\\-21 \\|title\\=Conheça o museu em Manaus que homenageia Tiradentes, patrono das polícias militares no Brasil \\|url\\=https://portalamazonia.com/estados/amazonas/conheca\\-o\\-museu\\-em\\-manaus\\-que\\-homenageia\\-tiradentes\\-patrono\\-das\\-policias\\-militares\\-no\\-brasil \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-09\\-05 \\|website\\=Portal Amazonia}}",
"#### History",
"It was organized and inaugurated in 1984 on the initiative of the then commander\\-in\\-chief of the Amazonas Military Police, Colonel Elcio Motta, under the technical guidance of the [Joaquim Nabuco Foundation](/wiki/Joaquim_Nabuco_Foundation \"Joaquim Nabuco Foundation\"). Its first headquarters were in a room on the first floor of the General Command of the Military Police in Heliodoro Balbi Square, in Manaus; in 2009, the museum was reinstalled in the Provincial Palace. It represents an important part of the [history of the state of Amazonas](/wiki/History_of_Amazonas \"History of Amazonas\") and the corporation to which it belongs, preserving and providing society with the entity's historical collection, which consists of dozens of objects, such as: old weapons, Fire Department equipment, uniforms, badges and decorations, documents, photographs and more.",
"### Pinacoteca do Estado do Amazonas",
"The Pinacoteca do Estado do Amazonas is a state public institution, subordinate to the Amazonas Secretariat of Culture. It was officially established on July 18, 1965, during the government of Artur César Ferreira Reis, as the result of an initiative that had been nurtured since the 1950s by a group of intellectuals linked to the Clube da Madrugada, specifically Moacir de Andrade. In the following decades, it stood out for its didactic work in the formation of a whole generation of contemporary artists of regional expression.{{Cite web \\|title\\=PINACOTECA DO ESTADO DO AMAZONAS \\|url\\=https://idd.org.br/iconografia/pinacoteca\\-do\\-estado\\-do\\-amazonas/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-09\\-05 \\|website\\=IDD}}",
"The Pinacoteca has a collection of more than a thousand pieces of different techniques that cover [Brazilian artistic production](/wiki/Brazilian_art \"Brazilian art\") between the 19th and 20th centuries, with a special focus on artists from Amazonas. It also keeps a teaching collection of copies of famous works of universal art, promotes permanent and temporary exhibitions and organizes several cultural events.\n[center\\|thumb\\|1000x1000px\\|Panorama of the Provincial Palace.](/wiki/File:Panoramica_do_Palacete_Provincial_em_Manaus.jpg \"Panoramica do Palacete Provincial em Manaus.jpg\")",
"#### Collection",
"The Pinacoteca preserves a collection of approximately 1,000 works, including paintings, sculptures, drawings and engravings, created by around 300 artists from Amazonas, [Brazil](/wiki/Brazil \"Brazil\") and abroad. The collection offers a panorama of Brazilian artistic production between the 19th and 20th centuries, illustrated especially by works from regional artists.",
"19th century [academism](/wiki/Brazilian_academic_art \"Brazilian academic art\") and the transition phase from the 19th to the 20th century is represented by works by painters who were very significant for Brazilian art. The canvas *O último baile da Ilha Fiscal*, by [Aurélio de Figueiredo](/wiki/Aur%C3%A9lio_de_Figueiredo \"Aurélio de Figueiredo\"), a preliminary version of the work of the same name preserved in the [National Historical Museum](/wiki/National_Historical_Museum_%28Brazil%29 \"National Historical Museum (Brazil)\") in [Rio de Janeiro](/wiki/Rio_de_Janeiro \"Rio de Janeiro\"), is noteworthy. *O banho de Ceci*, also by Figueiredo, is an example of [Indianism](/wiki/Indianism_%28arts%29 \"Indianism (arts)\"). The collection includes some of the most famous historical paintings by [Joaquim Fernandes Machado](/wiki/Fernandes_Machado \"Fernandes Machado\"), such as *A Glória coroando Gonçalves Dias* and *Primeiro voo de Santos Dumont*. By [Antônio Parreiras](/wiki/Ant%C3%B4nio_Parreiras \"Antônio Parreiras\"), the museum preserves the oils *Quarta\\-feira de cinzas* and *Caçador furtivo*, probably acquired by the state government during the artist's exhibition at the [Rio Negro Palace](/wiki/Pal%C3%A1cio_Rio_Negro \"Palácio Rio Negro\") in 1905\\. There are also works by [Eliseu Visconti](/wiki/Eliseu_Visconti \"Eliseu Visconti\"), Sólon Botelho and Darkir Parreiras, among others.{{Cite web \\|date\\=2022\\-02\\-14 \\|title\\=Cinco obras modernistas imperdíveis da Pinacoteca do Amazonas \\|url\\=https://informemanaus.com/2022/cinco\\-obras\\-modernistas\\-imperdiveis\\-da\\-pinacoteca\\-do\\-amazonas/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-09\\-05 \\|website\\=Informe Manaus}}",
"[Modernism](/wiki/Modernism_in_Brazil \"Modernism in Brazil\") is represented by a group of works by [Alfredo Volpi](/wiki/Alfredo_Volpi \"Alfredo Volpi\"), [Cícero Dias](/wiki/C%C3%ADcero_Dias \"Cícero Dias\"), [Inimá de Paula](/wiki/Inim%C3%A1_de_Paula \"Inimá de Paula\"), [Aldemir Martins](/wiki/Aldemir_Martins \"Aldemir Martins\") and [Burle Marx](/wiki/Roberto_Burle_Marx \"Roberto Burle Marx\"), as well as the oil *Curupira*, by Manoel Santiago, from Amazonas, representative of the nationalist painting of the 1930s. The works of Oscar Ramos, Álvaro Páscoa, Anísio Mello and Hahnemann Bacelar exemplify the assimilation of the legacy of the [Modern Art Week](/wiki/Modern_Art_Week \"Modern Art Week\") in Manaus in the 50s and 60s. Among the representatives of [*naïve* art](/wiki/Na%C3%AFve_art \"Naïve art\"), Francisco da Silva from [Acre](/wiki/Acre_%28state%29 \"Acre (state)\") and Rita Loureiro from Manaus deserve a mention. [Anna Letycia Quadros](/wiki/Anna_Letycia_Quadros \"Anna Letycia Quadros\"), Dirso José de Oliveira and Roberto De Lamonica also stand out.",
"In the contemporary art segment, there are works by artists of national expression (Adhemar Guerra, Acácio Sobral, Antônio Dias, [Emmanuel Nassar](/wiki/Emmanuel_Nassar \"Emmanuel Nassar\"), Dora Basílio, etc.) and regional expression (Afrânio de Araújo Castro, Eli Bacelar da Silva, Jefferson Rebelo, Sebastião Alves, Cristóvão Coutinho, Oscar Ramos, Claudson Mota de Ouro, Manoel Borges, etc.).",
"The Pinacoteca do Estado also has a teaching collection of copies of famous works of universal art. There are 70 paintings and 20 sculptures, currently on display at the Casa da Cultura on Instalação Street, which cover various periods and important authors in the history of art.",
"File:Biblioteca Pública do Amazonas.jpg\\|Building of the Amazonas Public Library, first headquarters of the Pinacoteca do Estado.\nFile:Antônio Parreiras \\- Quarta\\-feira de cinzas.JPG\\|Antônio Parreiras \\- ''Quarta\\-feira de cinzas'' (1904\\). Collection of the Pinacoteca do Amazonas.\nFile:Aurélio de Figueiredo \\- O Último baile da Ilha Fiscal (Manaus).JPG\\|Aurélio de Figueiredo \\- ''O último baile da Ilha Fiscal'' (1905\\). Collection of the Pinacoteca do Amazonas.\nFile:Joaquim Fernandes Machado \\- O primeiro vôo de Santos Dumont, c. 1906\\.JPG\\|Joaquim Fernandes Machado \\- ''O primeiro voo de Santos Dumont'' (c. 1906\\). Collection of the Pinacoteca do Amazonas.",
"",
""
] |
Other rural sports in Punjab with cultural and social importance
----------------------------------------------------------------
In villages which formed the first habitation of civilised man rural sports grew out of sheer necessity. The need for cultivating individual strength for labour on the fields, the interdependence within the community and need of defence, joint defence against onslaughts of a common foe and dangerous animals must have given birth to sports like wrestling, running, jumping, weightlifting and such performing arts as of measuring strength by holding wrists, twisting hands. Kabaddi which is another expression of the same spirit has become the mother of games in Punjab.
In order to toughen the frames and steel the minds of his followers Guru Hargobindji had started the tradition of holding wrestling bouts within the precincts of Akal Takht Sahib and it is mostly because of the fillip that he gave and the seal of ethics that he put on them that sports become a proud facet of life in Punjab. On the common grounds of villages, in the fairs, during the festivals, at the hermitages of pirs, graves of preceptors, wrestling became a part of high recreation. Villages adopt and feed wrestlers and also give prizes to them as a matter of honour in Punjab today.
During the Hola Mohalla celebrations at Anandpur Sahib tent pegging competitions, archery, fencing and riding competitions, gymnastic and acrobatic displays which the Nihangs put up and the tournaments held at Diwali have a hoary history. To the Punjabis goes the distinction of organising rural games into tournaments.
Almost sixty years ago when the Grewal Sports Association had begun to hold competitions in rural sports at Village Quilla Raipur little would have anyone thought that this tournament will become a movement in Punjab.
Today in almost 7000 villages in Punjab in one decade or the other rural sports competitions are being held. Rural folk organise them. It is they who extend all hospitality to the competitors also. In fact these village sports have opened the floodgates of village development.
Before Independence in 1947 major importance was given only to [Kabaddi](/wiki/Kabaddi "Kabaddi") and wrestling, after Independence the circle of rural sports also got widened. The rustic "Khido Khoondi" (literally a ball made out of cuttings of cloth and a stick twisted at the end like a flat hockey blade) was replaced by proper hockey and players from villages, having no facilities beyond uneven grounds to play began to dominate in the game. Twelve of our country's greatest hockey players have come out of a single village called [Sansapur](/wiki/Sansapur "Sansapur") in Jalandhar District.
Recently not only revival of sports fairs has taken place in Punjab but their number has also increased tremendously. Twenty years ago, for instance, their number was limited to
* Babehali\-di\-Chhinj
* Bhaggowal\-di\-Chhinj
* Shikar\-Macchian di\-Parewi
* Jaura\-Chhatra\-di\-Parewi
* Bhomey\-Wadaley\-di\-Chhinj
* Quilla Raipur's sports
* Shanker\-di\-Chhinj
* Manann\-haaney\-di\-Chhinj etc.
Now sports meets are held almost in every significant village in Punjab.
Following the Qila Raipur Rural Sports meet the Kalgidhar Tournament of Kamalpur has also completed half\-a\-century. Dhudike's Lala Lajpat Rai Memorial Sports Fair has completed three decades. Gujarwal, Mullanpur, Sahnewal, Ghungali Rajputtana Hambla., Dhamto are flourishing. The \-small sports meets of Lalto Kalan, Dhurkot, Rauni, Dyalpur, [Rurka Kalan](/wiki/Rurka_Kalan "Rurka Kalan"), Bhinder Kalan, Duare\-ana are gaining stature day by day.
Three types of competitions are held during rural meets, Purely rural games : Kabaddi, Wrestling, Weight\-lifting etc. Modern sports like athletics, hockey, football, volleyball, cycling, handball etc. Performing sports like acrobatics, twisting an iron\-rod by placing it on Adam's apple, passing tractor over the rib\-ease, cracking a big stone by placing it on the chest etc. Now another colour is also being added to these sports fairs. They have got intermixed with folk singing when sun sets after the days sports competitions the notes of music begin to emanate and singing continues, sometimes, late in the night. Music contest that was held between Karamjit Dhuri and Jagmohan Kaur at Qila Raipur is still fondly remembered. At the Gujarwal Meet the singing of Parminder Sandhu, Hans Raj Hans and Surinder Chhinda and at fairs of Majha region the notes o Toombi (one\-stringed instrument) of Amarjit remain fixed in the minds of the people.
Villagers are not just fond of their own competitions they also like to size\-up the skill and power of their animals like bulls, horses, dogs on the sports ground. Bullockcart racing has become a passion in Punjab. Because of a ban on hunting, hound\-races are held in Punjab by dangling a bait of fake hare before them. At places cock\-fights are also held and pigeon fights are contested. In some parts of Punjab people indulge in fighting a bull by barehands.
Rural Sports are a personification of the virility of Punjab.
|
[
"Other rural sports in Punjab with cultural and social importance\n----------------------------------------------------------------",
"In villages which formed the first habitation of civilised man rural sports grew out of sheer necessity. The need for cultivating individual strength for labour on the fields, the interdependence within the community and need of defence, joint defence against onslaughts of a common foe and dangerous animals must have given birth to sports like wrestling, running, jumping, weightlifting and such performing arts as of measuring strength by holding wrists, twisting hands. Kabaddi which is another expression of the same spirit has become the mother of games in Punjab.",
"In order to toughen the frames and steel the minds of his followers Guru Hargobindji had started the tradition of holding wrestling bouts within the precincts of Akal Takht Sahib and it is mostly because of the fillip that he gave and the seal of ethics that he put on them that sports become a proud facet of life in Punjab. On the common grounds of villages, in the fairs, during the festivals, at the hermitages of pirs, graves of preceptors, wrestling became a part of high recreation. Villages adopt and feed wrestlers and also give prizes to them as a matter of honour in Punjab today.",
"During the Hola Mohalla celebrations at Anandpur Sahib tent pegging competitions, archery, fencing and riding competitions, gymnastic and acrobatic displays which the Nihangs put up and the tournaments held at Diwali have a hoary history. To the Punjabis goes the distinction of organising rural games into tournaments.",
"Almost sixty years ago when the Grewal Sports Association had begun to hold competitions in rural sports at Village Quilla Raipur little would have anyone thought that this tournament will become a movement in Punjab.",
"Today in almost 7000 villages in Punjab in one decade or the other rural sports competitions are being held. Rural folk organise them. It is they who extend all hospitality to the competitors also. In fact these village sports have opened the floodgates of village development.",
"Before Independence in 1947 major importance was given only to [Kabaddi](/wiki/Kabaddi \"Kabaddi\") and wrestling, after Independence the circle of rural sports also got widened. The rustic \"Khido Khoondi\" (literally a ball made out of cuttings of cloth and a stick twisted at the end like a flat hockey blade) was replaced by proper hockey and players from villages, having no facilities beyond uneven grounds to play began to dominate in the game. Twelve of our country's greatest hockey players have come out of a single village called [Sansapur](/wiki/Sansapur \"Sansapur\") in Jalandhar District.\nRecently not only revival of sports fairs has taken place in Punjab but their number has also increased tremendously. Twenty years ago, for instance, their number was limited to",
"* Babehali\\-di\\-Chhinj\n* Bhaggowal\\-di\\-Chhinj\n* Shikar\\-Macchian di\\-Parewi\n* Jaura\\-Chhatra\\-di\\-Parewi\n* Bhomey\\-Wadaley\\-di\\-Chhinj\n* Quilla Raipur's sports\n* Shanker\\-di\\-Chhinj\n* Manann\\-haaney\\-di\\-Chhinj etc.",
"Now sports meets are held almost in every significant village in Punjab.",
"Following the Qila Raipur Rural Sports meet the Kalgidhar Tournament of Kamalpur has also completed half\\-a\\-century. Dhudike's Lala Lajpat Rai Memorial Sports Fair has completed three decades. Gujarwal, Mullanpur, Sahnewal, Ghungali Rajputtana Hambla., Dhamto are flourishing. The \\-small sports meets of Lalto Kalan, Dhurkot, Rauni, Dyalpur, [Rurka Kalan](/wiki/Rurka_Kalan \"Rurka Kalan\"), Bhinder Kalan, Duare\\-ana are gaining stature day by day.",
"Three types of competitions are held during rural meets, Purely rural games : Kabaddi, Wrestling, Weight\\-lifting etc. Modern sports like athletics, hockey, football, volleyball, cycling, handball etc. Performing sports like acrobatics, twisting an iron\\-rod by placing it on Adam's apple, passing tractor over the rib\\-ease, cracking a big stone by placing it on the chest etc. Now another colour is also being added to these sports fairs. They have got intermixed with folk singing when sun sets after the days sports competitions the notes of music begin to emanate and singing continues, sometimes, late in the night. Music contest that was held between Karamjit Dhuri and Jagmohan Kaur at Qila Raipur is still fondly remembered. At the Gujarwal Meet the singing of Parminder Sandhu, Hans Raj Hans and Surinder Chhinda and at fairs of Majha region the notes o Toombi (one\\-stringed instrument) of Amarjit remain fixed in the minds of the people.",
"Villagers are not just fond of their own competitions they also like to size\\-up the skill and power of their animals like bulls, horses, dogs on the sports ground. Bullockcart racing has become a passion in Punjab. Because of a ban on hunting, hound\\-races are held in Punjab by dangling a bait of fake hare before them. At places cock\\-fights are also held and pigeon fights are contested. In some parts of Punjab people indulge in fighting a bull by barehands.",
"Rural Sports are a personification of the virility of Punjab.",
""
] |
Other games
-----------
### Tirinjen (ਤ੍ਰਿੰਞਣ)
One of the popular organized forms of work and entertainment for young girls is Tirinjen – where the girls spin and sing. Tirinjen is a kind of social club, which can be organized in any home, where place for spinning wheels and the girls is available for a day/night. The girls would sing and dance, would express their sorrow and happiness, pangs of separation and joy of meeting. The spinning wheel plays a significant role in the life of the women, as a companion, counselor in distress, friend and guide. An example of a song sung by a married girl during Tirinjen:
ਚਰਖਾ ਮੇਰਾ ਰੰਗਲਾ , ਵਿੱਚ ਸੋਨੇ ਦੀਆਂ ਮੇਖਾਂ।
ਵੇ ਮੈਂ ਤੈਨੂੰ ਯਾਦ ਕਰਾਂ, ਜਦ ਚਰਖੇ ਵੱਲ ਵੇਖਾਂ ।
```
(Charkha mera rangla, vich sone dian mekhan,
Ni mai tenu yaad karan, jad charkhe wal vekhan.)
```
In English :\-
```
My spinning wheel is multi colored
Inlaid with nails of gold,
I think of you
Whenever I see my spinning wheel.
```
ਹਰ ਚਰਖੇ ਦੇ ਗੇੜੇ,
ਯਾਦ ਆਵੇਂ ਤੂੰ ਮਿੱਤਰਾ।
```
(Har charkhe de gere
Yad awen toon mitra)
Each circle of the wheel,
Brings your sweet memories to my mind , 0 my beloved.
```
Teej or Teean (ਤੀਆਂ), which is celebrated in the month of Sawan (mid\-July to mid\-August), is also a source of entertainment for girls. Teej festival starts on the third day of Sawan and continues for about thirteen days. This is a period when rainy season is at its best, having said good bye to the scorching heat, people are out to enjoy the rains. It is also the time for sowing. The whole atmosphere is relaxed and people have a sigh of relief. The girls celebrate it by having swings. One sees girls, even today, on the swings all over the villages during the rainy season. They have new clothes, special dishes to eat and special songs for the occasion. This festival has also made inroads into the urban society. A number of songs are sung during the occasion pertaining to various aspects of the social life.
ਰਲ਼ ਆਓ ਸਈਓ ਨੀਂ ,
ਸਭ ਤੀਆਂ ਖੇਡਣ ਜਾਈਏ ।
ਹੁਣ ਆਇਆ ਸਾਵਣ ਨੀਂ,
ਪੀਘਾਂ ਪਿੱਪਲੀਂ ਜਾ ਕੇ ਪਾਈਏ।
ਪਈ ਕੂ\-ਕੂ ਕਰਦੀ ਨੀਂ,
ਸਈਓ ਕੋਇਲ ਹੰਝੂ ਡੋਲ੍ਹੇ।
ਪਪੀਹਾ ਵੇਖੋ ਨੀਂ,
ਭੈੜਾ ਪੀ\-ਪੀ ਕਰ ਕੇ ਬੋਲੇ।
ਪਏ ਪੈਲ਼ਾਂ ਪਾਉਂਦੇ ਨੀਂ,
ਬਾਗ਼ੀਂ ਮੋਰਾਂ ਸ਼ੋਰ ਮਚਾਇਆ।
ਅੜੀਓ ਖਿਲ\-ਖਿਲ ਫੁੱਲਾਂ ਨੇ,
ਸਾਨੂੰ ਮਾਹੀਆ ਯਾਦ ਕਰਾਇਆ।
```
(Ral aao saio ni,
Sabh teean khedan jaiye
Hun aya sawan ni
Pinghan piplin ja ke paiye
Pai ku-ku kardi ni,
Saio koel Hanju dolhe
Papiha wekho ni,
Bherha pee-pee kar ke bole.
Paye pailan pande ni,
Bagi moran shor machaya.
Arhio khil khil phullan ne,
Sanu mahia yad karaya.)
```
In English:
```
Come on all friends!
Let’s go and play Tian,
The Sawan Heartens us,
Let us hang the swings on the Peepal.
Swinging ku-ku O friends!
The cuckoo sheds its tears
And behold this Papiha
Which goes on singing pia-pia.
The peacock dances gleefully
Filling the garden with its crowings
These wretched blossoming flowers
Remind us of our Beloved.
```
### Kikli (ਕਿਕਲੀ)
This is another game, basically for women. Two girls clasp their hands and move in circle. This was a game, which was played by two or four girls and multiple of two thereof.
Kikli kleer di,
Pag mere vir de,
Daupatta mere bhai da
Phitte mun jawai da
### Gheeta Pathar
Some pebbles, stones or broken earthenware could be broken further into pieces and used for playing Gheeta Pather. This was a game, which did not involve running or jumping and was played sitting on the floor.
### Khidu
The girls would sing along with Khidu (Ball), in fact these rhymes and game is suitable for the children: This was for the first round, there was the second and third till the end was reached by counting ten and singing the tenth song.
### Kotla Chhapaki (ਕੋਟਲਾ ਛਪਾਕੀ)
This game is popular even today amongst the children. Both boys and girls play it. Children sit in a circles and a child who has cloth in hand goes around the circle\-singing: It is a kind of warning for the children sitting in a circle not to look back. The cloth is then dropped at the back of a child. If it is discovered before the child who had placed it there had completed the round, the child who discovered the cloth would run after him and try to touch him with it till he sits in the place vacated by the one who had discovered the cloth.
### Chicho Chich Ganerian
This game is for both boys and girls. It is generally played by two teams and involves drawing as many vertical lines as possible.
### Lukan Meeti (hide and seek)
This was also played by both boys and girls and continues to this day. Two teams can also play this. One has to hide, the other has to seek but before doing it a call is given.
### Kidi Kada or Stapoo
This is a game played both by the girls and boys. It is still common amongst some of the children. This game is played with in small boundary (court), drawn on the ground and a piece of stone.
### Ghaggar Phissi
This is another game for the boys. One boy would bend and the other boys, may be one or two or three get on top of him, if he could bear the weight, he would win. In case he could not bear the weight and fell, he would lose.
### Kabbadi
{{Main\|Kabbadi}}
This game is popular even today and is played now by both boys and girls. This was included in the Asian Games also and is popular all over south Asia. The game is played between two teams. A line is drawn between the two teams and each team would send a player across the line. If the player after crossing the line is able to touch a player of the opposite side and came back without being caught, the team doing so would win and a point was added to its score. This process by the player crossing the line has to be performed in a single breath. The team with higher score would be the winner
is also known as achi game
### Rasa Kashi (Tug of War)
The men generally played this game. These days women also participate in the game which is played by FIVE teams. A line is drawn between the two teams, each having one end of the rope in its hands. The team, which is able to drag the other team to its side, is the winner team.
### Akharas
These were very popular. Located near the well outside the village, sometimes near the temple. These were the places where the boys learnt wrestling from a Guru or Pehlwan\-Wrestler.
### Martial art
This was also a part of the teaching in Akharas, where the boys learnt the use of weapons. Nihangs practice martial arts to keep up the traditions.
{{cite web \| url\=https://www.instagram.com/p/BezignKlrTp/ \| title\=A on Instagram: "A Gatka performer understands the value of precision. A small error of judgement and the performer would end up injuring himself with his own weapon, twisting his ankle, falling down or gravely injuring his opponent. Both warriors move swiftly, making sure that their steps are intimidating and well calculated. The moment you learn to adapt yourself with the surroundings and make air and water a companion only then you can master an art like this. . \#travel \#UntamedJourneys \#Punjab \#KilaRaipur \#Ludhiana \#\_oye \#india \#storiesofindia\#indiagram \#desi\_diaries \#indianstories \#Cntgiveitashot\#indiaclicks \#\_indiasb \#incredibleindia\#lonelyplanetindia \#featuremyframe \#everydayindia \#dpeg\#inspiroindia \#indiaphotosociety \#indiaig\#traveldesi \#mysimpleclick \#indianphotography \#ifoundawesome \#\_PJI \#click\_point" }}
### Kite Flying (Patang Bazi)
It is now very much an urbanized game and is popular with the rural folks as well. It has now assumed an International character.
Besides the games mentioned above, Chaupat, Shatranj (Chess), camel and bullockcart races, cock fights in addition to Kabutar bazi, chakore bazi and bater bazi are well known.
LATTOO ( yo\-yo), played mostly by the boys.
### Guli Danda (Lippa)
{{Main\|Gilli\-danda}}
Gilli\-danda Guli Danda is an amateur sport, popular among rural youth in the Indian subcontinent. It is called dÄnggűli in Bangla, chinni\-dandu in Kannada, kuttiyum kolum in Malayalam, viti\-dandu in Marathi, kitti\-pullu in Tamil, gooti\-billa in Telugu, and Lappa\-Duggi in Pashto. This sport is generally played in the rural and small towns of the Indian subcontinent. It is widely played in Punjab and rural areas of the North\-West Frontier Province and Sindh (Pakistan) and Sultanpur district, Uttar Pradesh (north India).
#### Origin
There are no records of the game's origin in the south Asian subcontinent or of its existence before the arrival of Europeans. However a similar game known as Lippa has a history of being played in Italy and southern Europe.
#### Equipment
Gilli\-danda have no official requirements for equipment. The game is played with a gilli or guli and danda, which are both wooden sticks. The danda is longer and handmade by the player, who can swing it easily.
The gilli is smaller and is tapered on both sides so that the ends are conical. The gilli is analogous to a cricket ball and the danda is analogous to a cricket bat.
There is no standard length defined for the danda or gilli. Usually, however, the gilli is 3 to 6 inches long and the danda is 12 to 18 inches.
#### Rules
The objective of the sport is to use the danda like a baseball bat to strike the gilli (similar to striking a ball in cricket or baseball). For this purpose, a circle is drawn in the ground in which a small, oblong\- or spindle\-shaped hole is dug (the overall shape looks like a traditional boat). This hole is smaller than the gilli but as the play progresses the size may increase due to wear. The gilli is inserted into the hole either orthogonally, or at an angle. The danda is then swung (similar to a golf swing) and strikes the gilli. Another variation is when the danda lifts or pries the gilli out of the hole at a high speed. As it is quite similar to cricket, many people believe that cricket originated from it.
Scoring and outs
There are many regional variations to scoring.
The gilli becomes airborne after it is struck. If a fielder from the opposing team catches the gilli, the striker is out. If the gilli lands on the ground, the fielder closest to the gilli has one chance to hit the danda (which has to be placed on top of the hole used) with a throw (similar to a run out in cricket). If the fielder is successful, the striker is out; if not, the striker scores one score and gets another opportunity to strike. The team (or individual) with the most points wins the game. If the striker fails
to hit gilli in three tries, the striker is out (similar to a [strikeout](/wiki/Strikeout "Strikeout") in baseball).
Teams
There is no official maximum number of players or teams. Gilli\-danda can be played where each individual plays for themselves, or between two teams.
#### Champions
So far, very few International tournaments played between India \& Pakistan. Pakistan defeated India in three out of five; two ended in a draw. The Pakistani Champions were: Noor Khan, Abdul Hameed Qureshi, Nadeem Jameel, Iftikhar Hashmi, and
Qaseem Siddiqui.
The Indian Champions: Deepali Gode from Kalyan, Varun, Ajay Kaushik, Rohit Mishra (allahabad)(engineer from IT BHU), Vijay Choudhary of Darbhanga, Vivek Baranwal of Varanasi, Upender Kumar, Satyendra Tripathi, and Sandeep Prakash and Pradeep Kumar yYdav of Lucknow Sudhanshu Yadav from Jaipur
#### Variations
As an amateur youth sport, gilli\-danda has many variations. A common variation is where the striker is allowed to hit the gilli twice, once initially, and then while the gilli is in the air.
In some versions, the points a striker scores is dependent on the distance the gilli falls from the striking point. The distance is measured in term
s of the length of the danda, or in some cases the length of the gilli. Scoring also depends on how many times the gilli was hit in the air in one strike. If it travels a certain distance with two mid\-air strikes, the total point is doubled.
In the Philippines, a game known as syatong is similar to gilli\-danda.
In Italy a similar game known as "Lippa", "Lipe", "Tirolo", or "S\-cianco" is shown in the movie Watch Out We Are Mad.
|
[
"Other games\n-----------",
"### Tirinjen (ਤ੍ਰਿੰਞਣ)",
"One of the popular organized forms of work and entertainment for young girls is Tirinjen – where the girls spin and sing. Tirinjen is a kind of social club, which can be organized in any home, where place for spinning wheels and the girls is available for a day/night. The girls would sing and dance, would express their sorrow and happiness, pangs of separation and joy of meeting. The spinning wheel plays a significant role in the life of the women, as a companion, counselor in distress, friend and guide. An example of a song sung by a married girl during Tirinjen:",
"",
"ਚਰਖਾ ਮੇਰਾ ਰੰਗਲਾ , ਵਿੱਚ ਸੋਨੇ ਦੀਆਂ ਮੇਖਾਂ।\nਵੇ ਮੈਂ ਤੈਨੂੰ ਯਾਦ ਕਰਾਂ, ਜਦ ਚਰਖੇ ਵੱਲ ਵੇਖਾਂ ।",
"```\n(Charkha mera rangla, vich sone dian mekhan,\n Ni mai tenu yaad karan, jad charkhe wal vekhan.)",
"```\nIn English :\\-",
"```\n My spinning wheel is multi colored\n Inlaid with nails of gold,\n I think of you\n Whenever I see my spinning wheel.",
"```",
"ਹਰ ਚਰਖੇ ਦੇ ਗੇੜੇ,\nਯਾਦ ਆਵੇਂ ਤੂੰ ਮਿੱਤਰਾ।",
"```\n(Har charkhe de gere\n Yad awen toon mitra)\n Each circle of the wheel,\n Brings your sweet memories to my mind , 0 my beloved.",
"```",
"",
"Teej or Teean (ਤੀਆਂ), which is celebrated in the month of Sawan (mid\\-July to mid\\-August), is also a source of entertainment for girls. Teej festival starts on the third day of Sawan and continues for about thirteen days. This is a period when rainy season is at its best, having said good bye to the scorching heat, people are out to enjoy the rains. It is also the time for sowing. The whole atmosphere is relaxed and people have a sigh of relief. The girls celebrate it by having swings. One sees girls, even today, on the swings all over the villages during the rainy season. They have new clothes, special dishes to eat and special songs for the occasion. This festival has also made inroads into the urban society. A number of songs are sung during the occasion pertaining to various aspects of the social life.",
"",
"ਰਲ਼ ਆਓ ਸਈਓ ਨੀਂ ,\nਸਭ ਤੀਆਂ ਖੇਡਣ ਜਾਈਏ ।\nਹੁਣ ਆਇਆ ਸਾਵਣ ਨੀਂ,\nਪੀਘਾਂ ਪਿੱਪਲੀਂ ਜਾ ਕੇ ਪਾਈਏ।\nਪਈ ਕੂ\\-ਕੂ ਕਰਦੀ ਨੀਂ,\nਸਈਓ ਕੋਇਲ ਹੰਝੂ ਡੋਲ੍ਹੇ।\nਪਪੀਹਾ ਵੇਖੋ ਨੀਂ,\nਭੈੜਾ ਪੀ\\-ਪੀ ਕਰ ਕੇ ਬੋਲੇ।\nਪਏ ਪੈਲ਼ਾਂ ਪਾਉਂਦੇ ਨੀਂ,\nਬਾਗ਼ੀਂ ਮੋਰਾਂ ਸ਼ੋਰ ਮਚਾਇਆ।\nਅੜੀਓ ਖਿਲ\\-ਖਿਲ ਫੁੱਲਾਂ ਨੇ,\nਸਾਨੂੰ ਮਾਹੀਆ ਯਾਦ ਕਰਾਇਆ।",
"```\n (Ral aao saio ni,\n Sabh teean khedan jaiye\n Hun aya sawan ni\n Pinghan piplin ja ke paiye\n Pai ku-ku kardi ni,\n Saio koel Hanju dolhe\n Papiha wekho ni,\n Bherha pee-pee kar ke bole.\n Paye pailan pande ni,\n Bagi moran shor machaya.\n Arhio khil khil phullan ne,\n Sanu mahia yad karaya.)",
"```",
"",
"In English:",
"```\n Come on all friends!\n Let’s go and play Tian,\n The Sawan Heartens us,\n Let us hang the swings on the Peepal.\n Swinging ku-ku O friends!\n The cuckoo sheds its tears\n And behold this Papiha\n Which goes on singing pia-pia.\n The peacock dances gleefully\n Filling the garden with its crowings\n These wretched blossoming flowers\n Remind us of our Beloved.",
"```",
"",
"### Kikli (ਕਿਕਲੀ)",
"This is another game, basically for women. Two girls clasp their hands and move in circle. This was a game, which was played by two or four girls and multiple of two thereof.\nKikli kleer di,\nPag mere vir de,\nDaupatta mere bhai da\nPhitte mun jawai da",
"### Gheeta Pathar",
"Some pebbles, stones or broken earthenware could be broken further into pieces and used for playing Gheeta Pather. This was a game, which did not involve running or jumping and was played sitting on the floor.",
"### Khidu",
"The girls would sing along with Khidu (Ball), in fact these rhymes and game is suitable for the children: This was for the first round, there was the second and third till the end was reached by counting ten and singing the tenth song.",
"### Kotla Chhapaki (ਕੋਟਲਾ ਛਪਾਕੀ)",
"This game is popular even today amongst the children. Both boys and girls play it. Children sit in a circles and a child who has cloth in hand goes around the circle\\-singing: It is a kind of warning for the children sitting in a circle not to look back. The cloth is then dropped at the back of a child. If it is discovered before the child who had placed it there had completed the round, the child who discovered the cloth would run after him and try to touch him with it till he sits in the place vacated by the one who had discovered the cloth.",
"### Chicho Chich Ganerian",
"This game is for both boys and girls. It is generally played by two teams and involves drawing as many vertical lines as possible.",
"### Lukan Meeti (hide and seek)",
"This was also played by both boys and girls and continues to this day. Two teams can also play this. One has to hide, the other has to seek but before doing it a call is given.",
"### Kidi Kada or Stapoo",
"This is a game played both by the girls and boys. It is still common amongst some of the children. This game is played with in small boundary (court), drawn on the ground and a piece of stone.",
"### Ghaggar Phissi",
"This is another game for the boys. One boy would bend and the other boys, may be one or two or three get on top of him, if he could bear the weight, he would win. In case he could not bear the weight and fell, he would lose.",
"### Kabbadi",
"{{Main\\|Kabbadi}}\nThis game is popular even today and is played now by both boys and girls. This was included in the Asian Games also and is popular all over south Asia. The game is played between two teams. A line is drawn between the two teams and each team would send a player across the line. If the player after crossing the line is able to touch a player of the opposite side and came back without being caught, the team doing so would win and a point was added to its score. This process by the player crossing the line has to be performed in a single breath. The team with higher score would be the winner\nis also known as achi game",
"### Rasa Kashi (Tug of War)",
"The men generally played this game. These days women also participate in the game which is played by FIVE teams. A line is drawn between the two teams, each having one end of the rope in its hands. The team, which is able to drag the other team to its side, is the winner team.",
"### Akharas",
"These were very popular. Located near the well outside the village, sometimes near the temple. These were the places where the boys learnt wrestling from a Guru or Pehlwan\\-Wrestler.",
"### Martial art",
"This was also a part of the teaching in Akharas, where the boys learnt the use of weapons. Nihangs practice martial arts to keep up the traditions.\n{{cite web \\| url\\=https://www.instagram.com/p/BezignKlrTp/ \\| title\\=A on Instagram: \"A Gatka performer understands the value of precision. A small error of judgement and the performer would end up injuring himself with his own weapon, twisting his ankle, falling down or gravely injuring his opponent. Both warriors move swiftly, making sure that their steps are intimidating and well calculated. The moment you learn to adapt yourself with the surroundings and make air and water a companion only then you can master an art like this. . \\#travel \\#UntamedJourneys \\#Punjab \\#KilaRaipur \\#Ludhiana \\#\\_oye \\#india \\#storiesofindia\\#indiagram \\#desi\\_diaries \\#indianstories \\#Cntgiveitashot\\#indiaclicks \\#\\_indiasb \\#incredibleindia\\#lonelyplanetindia \\#featuremyframe \\#everydayindia \\#dpeg\\#inspiroindia \\#indiaphotosociety \\#indiaig\\#traveldesi \\#mysimpleclick \\#indianphotography \\#ifoundawesome \\#\\_PJI \\#click\\_point\" }}",
"### Kite Flying (Patang Bazi)",
"It is now very much an urbanized game and is popular with the rural folks as well. It has now assumed an International character.\nBesides the games mentioned above, Chaupat, Shatranj (Chess), camel and bullockcart races, cock fights in addition to Kabutar bazi, chakore bazi and bater bazi are well known.\nLATTOO ( yo\\-yo), played mostly by the boys.",
"### Guli Danda (Lippa)",
"{{Main\\|Gilli\\-danda}}\nGilli\\-danda Guli Danda is an amateur sport, popular among rural youth in the Indian subcontinent. It is called dÄnggűli in Bangla, chinni\\-dandu in Kannada, kuttiyum kolum in Malayalam, viti\\-dandu in Marathi, kitti\\-pullu in Tamil, gooti\\-billa in Telugu, and Lappa\\-Duggi in Pashto. This sport is generally played in the rural and small towns of the Indian subcontinent. It is widely played in Punjab and rural areas of the North\\-West Frontier Province and Sindh (Pakistan) and Sultanpur district, Uttar Pradesh (north India).",
"#### Origin",
"There are no records of the game's origin in the south Asian subcontinent or of its existence before the arrival of Europeans. However a similar game known as Lippa has a history of being played in Italy and southern Europe.",
"#### Equipment",
"Gilli\\-danda have no official requirements for equipment. The game is played with a gilli or guli and danda, which are both wooden sticks. The danda is longer and handmade by the player, who can swing it easily.\nThe gilli is smaller and is tapered on both sides so that the ends are conical. The gilli is analogous to a cricket ball and the danda is analogous to a cricket bat.\nThere is no standard length defined for the danda or gilli. Usually, however, the gilli is 3 to 6 inches long and the danda is 12 to 18 inches.",
"#### Rules",
"The objective of the sport is to use the danda like a baseball bat to strike the gilli (similar to striking a ball in cricket or baseball). For this purpose, a circle is drawn in the ground in which a small, oblong\\- or spindle\\-shaped hole is dug (the overall shape looks like a traditional boat). This hole is smaller than the gilli but as the play progresses the size may increase due to wear. The gilli is inserted into the hole either orthogonally, or at an angle. The danda is then swung (similar to a golf swing) and strikes the gilli. Another variation is when the danda lifts or pries the gilli out of the hole at a high speed. As it is quite similar to cricket, many people believe that cricket originated from it.\nScoring and outs\nThere are many regional variations to scoring.\nThe gilli becomes airborne after it is struck. If a fielder from the opposing team catches the gilli, the striker is out. If the gilli lands on the ground, the fielder closest to the gilli has one chance to hit the danda (which has to be placed on top of the hole used) with a throw (similar to a run out in cricket). If the fielder is successful, the striker is out; if not, the striker scores one score and gets another opportunity to strike. The team (or individual) with the most points wins the game. If the striker fails\nto hit gilli in three tries, the striker is out (similar to a [strikeout](/wiki/Strikeout \"Strikeout\") in baseball).\nTeams\nThere is no official maximum number of players or teams. Gilli\\-danda can be played where each individual plays for themselves, or between two teams.",
"#### Champions",
"So far, very few International tournaments played between India \\& Pakistan. Pakistan defeated India in three out of five; two ended in a draw. The Pakistani Champions were: Noor Khan, Abdul Hameed Qureshi, Nadeem Jameel, Iftikhar Hashmi, and\nQaseem Siddiqui.\nThe Indian Champions: Deepali Gode from Kalyan, Varun, Ajay Kaushik, Rohit Mishra (allahabad)(engineer from IT BHU), Vijay Choudhary of Darbhanga, Vivek Baranwal of Varanasi, Upender Kumar, Satyendra Tripathi, and Sandeep Prakash and Pradeep Kumar yYdav of Lucknow Sudhanshu Yadav from Jaipur",
"#### Variations",
"As an amateur youth sport, gilli\\-danda has many variations. A common variation is where the striker is allowed to hit the gilli twice, once initially, and then while the gilli is in the air.\nIn some versions, the points a striker scores is dependent on the distance the gilli falls from the striking point. The distance is measured in term\ns of the length of the danda, or in some cases the length of the gilli. Scoring also depends on how many times the gilli was hit in the air in one strike. If it travels a certain distance with two mid\\-air strikes, the total point is doubled.\nIn the Philippines, a game known as syatong is similar to gilli\\-danda.\nIn Italy a similar game known as \"Lippa\", \"Lipe\", \"Tirolo\", or \"S\\-cianco\" is shown in the movie Watch Out We Are Mad.",
""
] |
History
-------
Akari Saho was chosen as one of 32 winners from 10,570 applicants in the search for talent for a new trainee group under the Hello! Project umbrella called Hello! Pro Egg in June 2004\.
Akari replaced the graduated member [Ayumi Yutoku](/wiki/Ayumi_Yutoku "Ayumi Yutoku") in [Tomoiki Ki Wo Uetai](/wiki/Tomoiki_Ki_Wo_Uetai "Tomoiki Ki Wo Uetai") (We Want To Plant Trees) in November 2007, although this group is rarely active.
In late 2008, along with [Ayaka Wada](/wiki/Ayaka_Wada "Ayaka Wada"), [Yuuka Maeda](/wiki/Yuuka_Maeda "Yuuka Maeda") and [Kanon Fukuda](/wiki/Kanon_Fukuda "Kanon Fukuda"), Akari became a member of [Shugo Chara Egg!](/wiki/Shugo_Chara_Egg%21 "Shugo Chara Egg!"), a group formed to sing the opening theme song of the second season of the anime series [Shugo Chara!](/wiki/Shugo_Chara%21 "Shugo Chara!") (Shugo Chara!! Doki).
In July 2009 it was revealed that Akari was to replace [Reina Tanaka](/wiki/Reina_Tanaka "Reina Tanaka") in the revived Hello! Project group [Aa!](/wiki/Aa%21 "Aa!") for a cover album project, [Champloo 1: Happy Marriage Song Cover Shū](/wiki/Champloo_1:Happy_Marriage_Song_Cover_Sh%C5%AB "Happy Marriage Song Cover Shū").{{cite web\|url\=http://www.helloproject.com/discography/va/a\_042\.html \|title\=Champloo 1: Happy Marriage Song Cover Shū \|publisher\=Hello! Project \|language\=Japanese \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110111123133/http://www.helloproject.com/discography/va/a\_042\.html \|archive\-date\=January 11, 2011 }}{{cite web\|url\=http://natalie.mu/music/news/22433\|title\=あぁ！、ZYX、美勇伝も復活！ハロプロ結婚ソングカバー集\|language\=Japanese}} In addition, the group was also featured in another compilation album{{cite web\|url\= http://www.helloproject.com/discography/va/a\_043\.html\|title\= PETIT Best 10\|publisher\= Hello! Project\|language\= Japanese\|url\-status\= dead\|archive\-url\= https://web.archive.org/web/20101103042411/http://www.helloproject.com/discography/va/a\_043\.html\|archive\-date\= November 3, 2010\|df\= mdy\-all}} and numerous concert appearances.
In August, Shugo Chara Egg! changed its lineup for season 3 of "Shugo Chara! Party!".{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.animenewsnetwork.com/news/2009\-08\-26/shugo\-chara\-party\-to\-have\-anime\-live\-action\-segments\|title\=Shugo Chara Party! to Have Anime, Live\-Action Segments\|website\=Anime News Network\|accessdate\=November 27, 2022}}{{cite web\|url\=http://natalie.mu/music/news/22433\|script\-title\=ja:ガーディアンズ4新作にしゅごキャラエッグ！新曲収録\|language\=Japanese}} Akari stayed while Ayaka, Yuuka and Kanon left to concentrate on their newly formed group [S/mileage](/wiki/S/mileage "S/mileage"). Akari was soon joined by [Irori Maeda](/wiki/Irori_Maeda "Irori Maeda") and [Mizuki Fukumura](/wiki/Mizuki_Fukumura "Mizuki Fukumura"). They sang the theme for the anime portion, Shugo Chara!!! Dokki Doki, while appearing in the live action segments as characters from the anime. During these segments, they advertised auditions to cast a new member of Shugo Chara Egg!. Eventually they were joined by [Nanami Tanabe](/wiki/Nanami_Tanabe "Nanami Tanabe"), the winner of the auditions.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.crunchyroll.com/shugo\-chara/episode\-103\-party\-1\-the\-super\-peppy\-transfer\-student\-534422\|title \= Shugo Chara}}
Akari appeared as one of the backup dancers in three consecutive [Erina Mano](/wiki/Erina_Mano "Erina Mano") music videos, "[Haru no Arashi](/wiki/Haru_no_Arashi "Haru no Arashi")",Archived at [Ghostarchive](https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211210/ClJJdbXwHLw){{cbignore}} and the [Wayback Machine](https://web.archive.org/web/20140107070541/http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ClJJdbXwHLw){{cbignore}}: {{cite AV media\| url \= https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\=ClJJdbXwHLw\| title \= 真野恵里菜 「春の嵐」(MV) \| website\=\[\[YouTube]]}}{{cbignore}} "[Onegai Dakara...](/wiki/Onegai_Dakara... "Onegai Dakara...")"Archived at [Ghostarchive](https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211210/G0pZo3E0I98){{cbignore}} and the [Wayback Machine](https://web.archive.org/web/20111231233935/http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=G0pZo3E0I98&gl=US&hl=en){{cbignore}}: {{cite AV media\| url \= https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\=G0pZo3E0I98\| title \= 真野恵里菜 「お願いだから・・・」(MV) \| website\=\[\[YouTube]]}}{{cbignore}}{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.crunchyroll.com/erina\-mano/\-erina\-mano\-onegai\-dakara\-566492\|title \= Crunchyroll \- Watch Popular Anime \& Read Manga Online}} and "[Genkimono de Ikō!](/wiki/Genkimono_de_Ik%C5%8D%21 "Genkimono de Ikō!")"Archived at [Ghostarchive](https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211210/H0te7bdKFIk){{cbignore}} and the [Wayback Machine](https://web.archive.org/web/20110804112244/http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=H0te7bdKFIk&gl=US&hl=en&has_verified=1){{cbignore}}: {{cite AV media\| url \= https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\=H0te7bdKFIk\| title \= 真野恵里菜 「元気者で行こう！」(MV) \| website\=\[\[YouTube]]}}{{cbignore}}{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.crunchyroll.com/erina\-mano/\-erina\-mano\-genkimono\-de\-ikou\-566494\|title \= Crunchyroll \- Watch Popular Anime \& Read Manga Online}}
On April 18, 2011, the official Hello! Pro Egg website announced that Akari had finished her training.
On May 3, 2011, Akari officially joined [Up\-Front Girls](/wiki/Up-Front_Girls "Up-Front Girls"), a new group under [Up\-Front Agency](/wiki/Up-Front_Agency "Up-Front Agency"). Her joining was announced during a live performance streamed on Nico Nico Douga.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.barks.jp/news/?id\=1000069977\|title\=K\-POPカヴァーユニットをも内包する謎のアップフロントガールズ（仮）\|website\=BARKS\|date\=May 19, 2011 \|accessdate\=November 27, 2022}}
On May 16, 2011, Akari, along with fellow Up\-Front Girls member, [Minami Sengoku](/wiki/Minami_Sengoku "Minami Sengoku"), was added to UFZS, a K\-Pop dance cover group. Currently, all seven members of Up\-Front Girls are also members of UFZS.
On June 26, 2011, Up\-Front Girls was renamed to [Up\-Up Girls](/wiki/Up-Up_Girls "Up-Up Girls"). The lineup remained unchanged.
On July 1, 2011, it was announced that Up\-Up Girls would become regular performers at an idol theater called MAP Theater, located in Akihabara. They are scheduled to perform every Thursday.{{Cite web\|url\=http://ameblo.jp/upfront\-girls\-news/entry\-10940583027\.html\|title \= アップアップガールズ(仮)最新情報『☆秋葉原にマップ劇場完成!!☆』}}{{Cite web\|url\=https://map.pigoo.jp/\|title\=アイドル・声優・ライブイベントの予約サイト｜PigooLive\|website\=PigooLive\|accessdate\=November 27, 2022}}
In July, 2011, it was revealed that Akari, along with fellow Up\-Up Girls member, [Ayano Sato](/wiki/Ayano_Sato_%28singer%29 "Ayano Sato (singer)"), would make an appearance in a TV drama entitled Yuusha Yoshihiko to Maou no Shiro (勇者ヨシヒコと魔王の城).{{Cite web\|url\=http://ameblo.jp/upfront\-girls\-news/entry\-10957304276\.html\|title \= アップアップガールズ(仮)最新情報『【佐藤綾乃＆佐保明梨；出演情報!!】』}}
On August 12, 2011, [Takamasa Sakurai](/wiki/Takamasa_Sakurai "Takamasa Sakurai") Tweeted that Akari, along with former [Morning Musume](/wiki/Morning_Musume "Morning Musume") member, [Linlin](/wiki/Linlin "Linlin"), would be forming a special unit. They will be performing a mini live at a Harajuku fashion show in [Harbin](/wiki/Harbin "Harbin"), China.{{cite tweet\|user\=sakuraitakamasa\|author\=櫻井孝昌\|number\=101954189709672448\|date\=12 August 2011\|title\=≪リンリン≫情報解禁！ 8月27日中国ハルビンで、リンリン（昨年モー娘。卒業）とアップアップガールズの佐保明梨ちゃん特別ユニットミニライブ！原宿ファッションショーにも中国人女子たちと。日中の懸け橋になることしようという昨年来の約束の文化外交なのだ(^^)がんばる！}}{{Cite web\|url\=http://sayunii.wordpress.com/2011/08/12/lin\-lin\-and\-saho\-akari\-will\-form\-a\-special\-unit\-for\-a\-mini\-live/\|title \= Lin Lin and Saho Akari Will Form a Special Unit for a Mini\-live\|date \= August 12, 2011}}{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.tokyohive.com/2011/08/lin\-lin\-and\-saho\-akari\-to\-perform\-in\-china/\|title \= Lin Lin and Saho Akari to perform in China!}}{{Cite web\|url\=http://ameblo.jp/upfront\-girls\-news/entry\-10985518878\.html\|title \= アップアップガールズ(仮)最新情報『☆佐保明梨 出演情報!!☆』}}
On March 10, 2012, Up\-Up Girls will release the first version of their debut single, Going My ↑ (pronounced "Going My Way") as an event\-only release.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"Akari Saho was chosen as one of 32 winners from 10,570 applicants in the search for talent for a new trainee group under the Hello! Project umbrella called Hello! Pro Egg in June 2004\\.",
"Akari replaced the graduated member [Ayumi Yutoku](/wiki/Ayumi_Yutoku \"Ayumi Yutoku\") in [Tomoiki Ki Wo Uetai](/wiki/Tomoiki_Ki_Wo_Uetai \"Tomoiki Ki Wo Uetai\") (We Want To Plant Trees) in November 2007, although this group is rarely active.",
"In late 2008, along with [Ayaka Wada](/wiki/Ayaka_Wada \"Ayaka Wada\"), [Yuuka Maeda](/wiki/Yuuka_Maeda \"Yuuka Maeda\") and [Kanon Fukuda](/wiki/Kanon_Fukuda \"Kanon Fukuda\"), Akari became a member of [Shugo Chara Egg!](/wiki/Shugo_Chara_Egg%21 \"Shugo Chara Egg!\"), a group formed to sing the opening theme song of the second season of the anime series [Shugo Chara!](/wiki/Shugo_Chara%21 \"Shugo Chara!\") (Shugo Chara!! Doki).",
"In July 2009 it was revealed that Akari was to replace [Reina Tanaka](/wiki/Reina_Tanaka \"Reina Tanaka\") in the revived Hello! Project group [Aa!](/wiki/Aa%21 \"Aa!\") for a cover album project, [Champloo 1: Happy Marriage Song Cover Shū](/wiki/Champloo_1:Happy_Marriage_Song_Cover_Sh%C5%AB \"Happy Marriage Song Cover Shū\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.helloproject.com/discography/va/a\\_042\\.html \\|title\\=Champloo 1: Happy Marriage Song Cover Shū \\|publisher\\=Hello! Project \\|language\\=Japanese \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110111123133/http://www.helloproject.com/discography/va/a\\_042\\.html \\|archive\\-date\\=January 11, 2011 }}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://natalie.mu/music/news/22433\\|title\\=あぁ！、ZYX、美勇伝も復活！ハロプロ結婚ソングカバー集\\|language\\=Japanese}} In addition, the group was also featured in another compilation album{{cite web\\|url\\= http://www.helloproject.com/discography/va/a\\_043\\.html\\|title\\= PETIT Best 10\\|publisher\\= Hello! Project\\|language\\= Japanese\\|url\\-status\\= dead\\|archive\\-url\\= https://web.archive.org/web/20101103042411/http://www.helloproject.com/discography/va/a\\_043\\.html\\|archive\\-date\\= November 3, 2010\\|df\\= mdy\\-all}} and numerous concert appearances.",
"In August, Shugo Chara Egg! changed its lineup for season 3 of \"Shugo Chara! Party!\".{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.animenewsnetwork.com/news/2009\\-08\\-26/shugo\\-chara\\-party\\-to\\-have\\-anime\\-live\\-action\\-segments\\|title\\=Shugo Chara Party! to Have Anime, Live\\-Action Segments\\|website\\=Anime News Network\\|accessdate\\=November 27, 2022}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://natalie.mu/music/news/22433\\|script\\-title\\=ja:ガーディアンズ4新作にしゅごキャラエッグ！新曲収録\\|language\\=Japanese}} Akari stayed while Ayaka, Yuuka and Kanon left to concentrate on their newly formed group [S/mileage](/wiki/S/mileage \"S/mileage\"). Akari was soon joined by [Irori Maeda](/wiki/Irori_Maeda \"Irori Maeda\") and [Mizuki Fukumura](/wiki/Mizuki_Fukumura \"Mizuki Fukumura\"). They sang the theme for the anime portion, Shugo Chara!!! Dokki Doki, while appearing in the live action segments as characters from the anime. During these segments, they advertised auditions to cast a new member of Shugo Chara Egg!. Eventually they were joined by [Nanami Tanabe](/wiki/Nanami_Tanabe \"Nanami Tanabe\"), the winner of the auditions.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.crunchyroll.com/shugo\\-chara/episode\\-103\\-party\\-1\\-the\\-super\\-peppy\\-transfer\\-student\\-534422\\|title \\= Shugo Chara}}",
"Akari appeared as one of the backup dancers in three consecutive [Erina Mano](/wiki/Erina_Mano \"Erina Mano\") music videos, \"[Haru no Arashi](/wiki/Haru_no_Arashi \"Haru no Arashi\")\",Archived at [Ghostarchive](https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211210/ClJJdbXwHLw){{cbignore}} and the [Wayback Machine](https://web.archive.org/web/20140107070541/http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ClJJdbXwHLw){{cbignore}}: {{cite AV media\\| url \\= https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\\=ClJJdbXwHLw\\| title \\= 真野恵里菜 「春の嵐」(MV) \\| website\\=\\[\\[YouTube]]}}{{cbignore}} \"[Onegai Dakara...](/wiki/Onegai_Dakara... \"Onegai Dakara...\")\"Archived at [Ghostarchive](https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211210/G0pZo3E0I98){{cbignore}} and the [Wayback Machine](https://web.archive.org/web/20111231233935/http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=G0pZo3E0I98&gl=US&hl=en){{cbignore}}: {{cite AV media\\| url \\= https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\\=G0pZo3E0I98\\| title \\= 真野恵里菜 「お願いだから・・・」(MV) \\| website\\=\\[\\[YouTube]]}}{{cbignore}}{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.crunchyroll.com/erina\\-mano/\\-erina\\-mano\\-onegai\\-dakara\\-566492\\|title \\= Crunchyroll \\- Watch Popular Anime \\& Read Manga Online}} and \"[Genkimono de Ikō!](/wiki/Genkimono_de_Ik%C5%8D%21 \"Genkimono de Ikō!\")\"Archived at [Ghostarchive](https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211210/H0te7bdKFIk){{cbignore}} and the [Wayback Machine](https://web.archive.org/web/20110804112244/http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=H0te7bdKFIk&gl=US&hl=en&has_verified=1){{cbignore}}: {{cite AV media\\| url \\= https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\\=H0te7bdKFIk\\| title \\= 真野恵里菜 「元気者で行こう！」(MV) \\| website\\=\\[\\[YouTube]]}}{{cbignore}}{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.crunchyroll.com/erina\\-mano/\\-erina\\-mano\\-genkimono\\-de\\-ikou\\-566494\\|title \\= Crunchyroll \\- Watch Popular Anime \\& Read Manga Online}}",
"On April 18, 2011, the official Hello! Pro Egg website announced that Akari had finished her training.",
"On May 3, 2011, Akari officially joined [Up\\-Front Girls](/wiki/Up-Front_Girls \"Up-Front Girls\"), a new group under [Up\\-Front Agency](/wiki/Up-Front_Agency \"Up-Front Agency\"). Her joining was announced during a live performance streamed on Nico Nico Douga.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.barks.jp/news/?id\\=1000069977\\|title\\=K\\-POPカヴァーユニットをも内包する謎のアップフロントガールズ（仮）\\|website\\=BARKS\\|date\\=May 19, 2011 \\|accessdate\\=November 27, 2022}}",
"On May 16, 2011, Akari, along with fellow Up\\-Front Girls member, [Minami Sengoku](/wiki/Minami_Sengoku \"Minami Sengoku\"), was added to UFZS, a K\\-Pop dance cover group. Currently, all seven members of Up\\-Front Girls are also members of UFZS.",
"On June 26, 2011, Up\\-Front Girls was renamed to [Up\\-Up Girls](/wiki/Up-Up_Girls \"Up-Up Girls\"). The lineup remained unchanged.",
"On July 1, 2011, it was announced that Up\\-Up Girls would become regular performers at an idol theater called MAP Theater, located in Akihabara. They are scheduled to perform every Thursday.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://ameblo.jp/upfront\\-girls\\-news/entry\\-10940583027\\.html\\|title \\= アップアップガールズ(仮)最新情報『☆秋葉原にマップ劇場完成!!☆』}}{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://map.pigoo.jp/\\|title\\=アイドル・声優・ライブイベントの予約サイト｜PigooLive\\|website\\=PigooLive\\|accessdate\\=November 27, 2022}}",
"In July, 2011, it was revealed that Akari, along with fellow Up\\-Up Girls member, [Ayano Sato](/wiki/Ayano_Sato_%28singer%29 \"Ayano Sato (singer)\"), would make an appearance in a TV drama entitled Yuusha Yoshihiko to Maou no Shiro (勇者ヨシヒコと魔王の城).{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://ameblo.jp/upfront\\-girls\\-news/entry\\-10957304276\\.html\\|title \\= アップアップガールズ(仮)最新情報『【佐藤綾乃＆佐保明梨；出演情報!!】』}}",
"On August 12, 2011, [Takamasa Sakurai](/wiki/Takamasa_Sakurai \"Takamasa Sakurai\") Tweeted that Akari, along with former [Morning Musume](/wiki/Morning_Musume \"Morning Musume\") member, [Linlin](/wiki/Linlin \"Linlin\"), would be forming a special unit. They will be performing a mini live at a Harajuku fashion show in [Harbin](/wiki/Harbin \"Harbin\"), China.{{cite tweet\\|user\\=sakuraitakamasa\\|author\\=櫻井孝昌\\|number\\=101954189709672448\\|date\\=12 August 2011\\|title\\=≪リンリン≫情報解禁！ 8月27日中国ハルビンで、リンリン（昨年モー娘。卒業）とアップアップガールズの佐保明梨ちゃん特別ユニットミニライブ！原宿ファッションショーにも中国人女子たちと。日中の懸け橋になることしようという昨年来の約束の文化外交なのだ(^^)がんばる！}}{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://sayunii.wordpress.com/2011/08/12/lin\\-lin\\-and\\-saho\\-akari\\-will\\-form\\-a\\-special\\-unit\\-for\\-a\\-mini\\-live/\\|title \\= Lin Lin and Saho Akari Will Form a Special Unit for a Mini\\-live\\|date \\= August 12, 2011}}{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.tokyohive.com/2011/08/lin\\-lin\\-and\\-saho\\-akari\\-to\\-perform\\-in\\-china/\\|title \\= Lin Lin and Saho Akari to perform in China!}}{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://ameblo.jp/upfront\\-girls\\-news/entry\\-10985518878\\.html\\|title \\= アップアップガールズ(仮)最新情報『☆佐保明梨 出演情報!!☆』}}",
"On March 10, 2012, Up\\-Up Girls will release the first version of their debut single, Going My ↑ (pronounced \"Going My Way\") as an event\\-only release.",
""
] |
Professional career
-------------------
Pultz made his professional debut in 1982\. After winning his first ten fights, Pultz fought [Bernard Benton](/wiki/Bernard_Benton "Bernard Benton") for the USBA Cruiserweight Title in [Atlantic City, New Jersey](/wiki/Atlantic_City%2C_New_Jersey "Atlantic City, New Jersey") on March 27 1985, winning a decision over 12 rounds.
In 1989 the undefeated Pultz got the opportunity to fight [Magne Havnå](/wiki/Magne_Havn%C3%A5 "Magne Havnå") for the vacant [WBO](/wiki/World_Boxing_Organization "World Boxing Organization") [Cruiserweight](/wiki/Cruiserweight_%28boxing%29 "Cruiserweight (boxing)") title. Pultz travelled to Copenhagen and was successful, denying the Norwegian the title in a close 12 round split \- decision contest.
Sixth months later Pultz again travelled to Denmark for a rematch, this time suffering his first defeat via a knockout in the 5th round.
Fresh off the defeat Pultz agreed to move up to Heavyweight and was scheduled to fight [George Foreman](/wiki/George_Foreman "George Foreman") in [Nassau, Bahamas](/wiki/Nassau%2C_Bahamas "Nassau, Bahamas"). Foreman backed out at the last minute, citing a training injury and no follow up date was offered. Pultz then took a three year layoff and never fought for a belt again.
Pultz initially retired in 1995, with a record of 23\-1\. However after over a decade of inactivity, a 47 year old Pultz decided to make a comeback, aiming to win the Heavyweight world title. Pultz initially had success, beating two journeymen opponents, but succumbed to two defeats in a row and nearing his 50th birthday fought for the last time in 2008\.
|
[
"Professional career\n-------------------",
"Pultz made his professional debut in 1982\\. After winning his first ten fights, Pultz fought [Bernard Benton](/wiki/Bernard_Benton \"Bernard Benton\") for the USBA Cruiserweight Title in [Atlantic City, New Jersey](/wiki/Atlantic_City%2C_New_Jersey \"Atlantic City, New Jersey\") on March 27 1985, winning a decision over 12 rounds.",
"In 1989 the undefeated Pultz got the opportunity to fight [Magne Havnå](/wiki/Magne_Havn%C3%A5 \"Magne Havnå\") for the vacant [WBO](/wiki/World_Boxing_Organization \"World Boxing Organization\") [Cruiserweight](/wiki/Cruiserweight_%28boxing%29 \"Cruiserweight (boxing)\") title. Pultz travelled to Copenhagen and was successful, denying the Norwegian the title in a close 12 round split \\- decision contest.",
"Sixth months later Pultz again travelled to Denmark for a rematch, this time suffering his first defeat via a knockout in the 5th round.",
"Fresh off the defeat Pultz agreed to move up to Heavyweight and was scheduled to fight [George Foreman](/wiki/George_Foreman \"George Foreman\") in [Nassau, Bahamas](/wiki/Nassau%2C_Bahamas \"Nassau, Bahamas\"). Foreman backed out at the last minute, citing a training injury and no follow up date was offered. Pultz then took a three year layoff and never fought for a belt again.",
"Pultz initially retired in 1995, with a record of 23\\-1\\. However after over a decade of inactivity, a 47 year old Pultz decided to make a comeback, aiming to win the Heavyweight world title. Pultz initially had success, beating two journeymen opponents, but succumbed to two defeats in a row and nearing his 50th birthday fought for the last time in 2008\\.",
""
] |
Thomson's lamp
--------------
{{main\|Thomson's lamp}}
In a seminal 1954 article {{cite journal \|last\=Thomson \|first\=James F. \|title\=Tasks and Super\-Tasks \|journal\=Analysis \|volume\=15 \|issue\=1
\|date\=October 1954 \|pages\=1–13
\|doi\=10\.2307/3326643 \|publisher\=Analysis, Vol. 15, No. 1 \|jstor\=3326643}} which followed on from the work of [Max Black](/wiki/Max_Black "Max Black"),Black, M. "Achilles and the Tortoise". *Analysis* XI (1950\-51\), pp. 91\-101\. Thomson considered the successful completion of an infinite number of tasks within a given time, to which he gave the name [supertasks](/wiki/Supertasks "Supertasks").
To disprove the possibility of supertasks, he introduced Thomson's lamp, a thought experiment similar to [Zeno's paradoxes](/wiki/Paradoxes_of_Zeno "Paradoxes of Zeno"). This problem involves the mathematical [summation](/wiki/Summation "Summation") of an infinite [divergent series](/wiki/Divergent_series "Divergent series") such as [Grandi's](/wiki/Grandi%27s_series "Grandi's series").
A lamp (which may be on or off at the start of the thought\-experiment) is flicked on and off an infinite number of times within a 2\-minute period. This corresponds to the ordered sequence t\=0, t\=0\.5, t\=0\.75, t\=0\.875, ...
According to Thomson, although the lamp must be either on or off at the end of the experiment when t\=1, the state of the lamp – after an infinite number of switches – is also completely undetermined (i.e. the sequence has no [limit](/wiki/Limit_of_a_sequence "Limit of a sequence")). This apparent contradiction led him to reject the possibility of the experiment, and therefore the possibility of supertasks.
However, [Paul Benacerraf](/wiki/Paul_Benacerraf "Paul Benacerraf") in a 1962 paperBenacerraf, Paul. "Tasks, super\-tasks, and modern eleatics", *Journal of Philosophy* LIX (1962\), pp.765\-784\. successfully criticised Thomson's argument, by pointing out that the states of the lamp during the experiment do not logically determine the final state of the lamp when t\=1\. Thomson's conditions for the experiment are insufficiently complete, since only instants of time before t≡1 are considered. Benacerraf's essay led to a renewed interest in [infinity\-related problems](/wiki/Infinitism "Infinitism"), [set theory](/wiki/Set_theory "Set theory") and the foundation of supertask theory.
|
[
"Thomson's lamp\n--------------",
"{{main\\|Thomson's lamp}}",
"In a seminal 1954 article {{cite journal \\|last\\=Thomson \\|first\\=James F. \\|title\\=Tasks and Super\\-Tasks \\|journal\\=Analysis \\|volume\\=15 \\|issue\\=1\n \\|date\\=October 1954 \\|pages\\=1–13\n \\|doi\\=10\\.2307/3326643 \\|publisher\\=Analysis, Vol. 15, No. 1 \\|jstor\\=3326643}} which followed on from the work of [Max Black](/wiki/Max_Black \"Max Black\"),Black, M. \"Achilles and the Tortoise\". *Analysis* XI (1950\\-51\\), pp. 91\\-101\\. Thomson considered the successful completion of an infinite number of tasks within a given time, to which he gave the name [supertasks](/wiki/Supertasks \"Supertasks\").",
"To disprove the possibility of supertasks, he introduced Thomson's lamp, a thought experiment similar to [Zeno's paradoxes](/wiki/Paradoxes_of_Zeno \"Paradoxes of Zeno\"). This problem involves the mathematical [summation](/wiki/Summation \"Summation\") of an infinite [divergent series](/wiki/Divergent_series \"Divergent series\") such as [Grandi's](/wiki/Grandi%27s_series \"Grandi's series\").",
"A lamp (which may be on or off at the start of the thought\\-experiment) is flicked on and off an infinite number of times within a 2\\-minute period. This corresponds to the ordered sequence t\\=0, t\\=0\\.5, t\\=0\\.75, t\\=0\\.875, ...",
"According to Thomson, although the lamp must be either on or off at the end of the experiment when t\\=1, the state of the lamp – after an infinite number of switches – is also completely undetermined (i.e. the sequence has no [limit](/wiki/Limit_of_a_sequence \"Limit of a sequence\")). This apparent contradiction led him to reject the possibility of the experiment, and therefore the possibility of supertasks.",
"However, [Paul Benacerraf](/wiki/Paul_Benacerraf \"Paul Benacerraf\") in a 1962 paperBenacerraf, Paul. \"Tasks, super\\-tasks, and modern eleatics\", *Journal of Philosophy* LIX (1962\\), pp.765\\-784\\. successfully criticised Thomson's argument, by pointing out that the states of the lamp during the experiment do not logically determine the final state of the lamp when t\\=1\\. Thomson's conditions for the experiment are insufficiently complete, since only instants of time before t≡1 are considered. Benacerraf's essay led to a renewed interest in [infinity\\-related problems](/wiki/Infinitism \"Infinitism\"), [set theory](/wiki/Set_theory \"Set theory\") and the foundation of supertask theory.",
""
] |
History
-------
[thumb\|ULC headquarters, Chicago](/wiki/File:Garland_Building_Chicago.jpg "Garland Building Chicago.jpg")
The uniform law movement began in the latter half of the 19th century. The [Alabama State Bar Association](/wiki/Alabama_State_Bar_Association "Alabama State Bar Association") recognized as early as 1881 that wide variations in law between separate states often created confusion. In 1889, the [New York Bar Association](/wiki/New_York_State_Bar_Association "New York State Bar Association") appointed a special committee on uniformity of laws. In 1890 the New York Legislature authorized the then\-Governor of New York, [Roswell Flower](/wiki/Roswell_Flower "Roswell Flower"), to appoint three commissioners "to examine certain subjects of national importance that seemed to show conflict among the laws of the several commonwealths, to ascertain the best means to effect an assimilation or uniformity in the laws of the states and territories, and especially whether it would be advisable for the State of New York to invite the other states of the Union to send representatives to a convention to draft uniform laws to be submitted for approval and adoption by the several states." The [American Bar Association](/wiki/American_Bar_Association "American Bar Association") held its 12th Annual Meeting the same year and adopted a resolution recommending each state provide for commissioners to confer with the commissioners of other states on the uniformity of legislation on certain subjects.
In August 1892, the first session of the organization that became the Uniform Law Commission was held at the Grand Union Hotel in Saratoga Springs, New York. The gathering took place before the annual summer meeting of the American Bar Association, a tradition that continues. The gathering brought together delegates from seven states: Delaware, Georgia, Massachusetts, Michigan, New Jersey, New York, and Pennsylvania. They titled themselves the "Conference of the State Boards of Commissioners on Promoting Uniformity of Law in the U.S." By 1912, every state was participating in the Commission. The [United States Virgin Islands](/wiki/United_States_Virgin_Islands "United States Virgin Islands") was the last jurisdiction to join, appointing its first commissioner in 1988\.
In each year of service, the ULC has steadily increased its contribution to state and territorial law. It quickly became known as a distinguished body of lawyers. In 1901, [Woodrow Wilson](/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson "Woodrow Wilson") became a member.{{Cite web \|url\=http://www.uniformlaws.org/Shared/Publications/ULC%20History%20Book/Forming%20a%20More%20Perfect%20Union.pdf \|title\=Archived copy \|access\-date\=April 15, 2014 \|archive\-date\=April 15, 2014 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140415064838/http://www.uniformlaws.org/Shared/Publications/ULC%20History%20Book/Forming%20a%20More%20Perfect%20Union.pdf \|url\-status\=dead }} Several commissioners later became Justices of the Supreme Court of the United States: [Louis Brandeis](/wiki/Louis_Brandeis "Louis Brandeis"), [Wiley Blount Rutledge](/wiki/Wiley_Blount_Rutledge "Wiley Blount Rutledge"), and [William H. Rehnquist](/wiki/William_H._Rehnquist "William H. Rehnquist"). Several noted legal scholars have also been members, e.g. [John Wigmore](/wiki/John_Wigmore "John Wigmore"), [Samuel Williston](/wiki/Samuel_Williston "Samuel Williston"), [Roscoe Pound](/wiki/Roscoe_Pound "Roscoe Pound"), and John Bogart. The distinguished membership of the ULC has helped to ensure the quality of its work and made it enormously influential.
In 1940, the ULC moved to dispel confusion in U.S. commercial law with a comprehensive solution. This project led the ULC to partner with the American Law Institute to create the [Uniform Commercial Code](/wiki/Uniform_Commercial_Code "Uniform Commercial Code") (UCC). The Code took ten years to complete. After another 14 years, it had been enacted in every state. It remains the signature product of the Commission.
Since its organization, the ULC has drafted more than 300 uniform laws on numerous subjects and in various fields of law, setting patterns for uniformity across the nation. Today, the Commission is recognized primarily for its work in commercial law, family law, real property law, the law of probate and estates, the law of business organizations, health law, and conflicts of law; it rarely drafts regulatory law. Uniform acts include the Uniform Collaborative Law Act,{{Cite news\|url\=http://familydiplomacy.com/harvard\-law\-professor\-explains\-uniform\-collaborative\-law\-act/\|title\=Video: Harvard Law Professor Explains Uniform Collaborative Law Act \- Family Diplomacy {{!}} A Collaborative Law Firm\|last\=Cordover\|first\=Adam\|date\=2017\-02\-04\|work\=Family Diplomacy {{!}} A Collaborative Law Firm\|access\-date\=2018\-06\-05\|language\=en\-US}} Uniform Probate Code, the Uniform Child Custody Jurisdiction Act, the Uniform Partnership Act, the Uniform Anatomical Gift Act, the Uniform Limited Partnership Act, and the Uniform Interstate Family Support Act.
The ULC has also experienced its share of spectacular failures. In the 1970s, the ULC dedicated an enormous amount of time and effort to the cause of comprehensive reform of U.S. real property law, which then and now varies dramatically from one state to the next. The ULC's generous and well\-intended efforts were utterly futile; most of its Uniform Acts on the subject were never enacted in any state, and only bits and pieces were enacted in a handful of states.Marion W. Benfield, Jr., [*Wasted Days and Wasted Nights: Why the Land Acts Failed*](https://nsuworks.nova.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1485&context=nlr), 20 Nova L. Rev. 1037, 1037–41 (1996\).Ronald Benton Brown, [*Whatever Happened to the Uniform Land Transactions Act?*](https://nsuworks.nova.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1482&context=nlr) 20 Nova L. Rev. 1017 (1996\);Peter B. Maggs, [*The Uniform Simplification of Land Transfers Act and the Politics and Economics of Law Reform,*](https://nsuworks.nova.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1488&context=nlr) 20 Nova L. Rev. 1091, 1091–92 (1996\). However, the Uniform Partition of Heirs Property Act (UPHPA), which addresses one of the most pernicious causes of land loss in low\-income communities, has been enacted in 18 states as of 2020,Uniform Law Commission, [*Uniform Partition of Heirs Property Act*](https://www.uniformlaws.org/committees/community-home?CommunityKey=50724584-e808-4255-bc5d-8ea4e588371d) (2011\) and the Farm Bill passed in 2018 changed the law such that farmers in states that enact the UPHPA have increased access to federal loans and federally funded legal assistance.Leah Douglas, [*Psst! The Farm Bill Includes a Rare Provision That Could Help Black Farmers*](https://www.thenation.com/article/archive/psst-farm-bill-includes-rare-provision-help-black-farmers/,), The Nation (July 24, 2018\).
The ULC is called both the Uniform Law Commission and the National Conference of Commissioners on Uniform State Laws (still the legal name {{as of\|2022\|lc\=y}}); the acronym "NCCUSL" was also formerly often used, but the organization itself now uses the acronym "ULC" instead.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"[thumb\\|ULC headquarters, Chicago](/wiki/File:Garland_Building_Chicago.jpg \"Garland Building Chicago.jpg\")\nThe uniform law movement began in the latter half of the 19th century. The [Alabama State Bar Association](/wiki/Alabama_State_Bar_Association \"Alabama State Bar Association\") recognized as early as 1881 that wide variations in law between separate states often created confusion. In 1889, the [New York Bar Association](/wiki/New_York_State_Bar_Association \"New York State Bar Association\") appointed a special committee on uniformity of laws. In 1890 the New York Legislature authorized the then\\-Governor of New York, [Roswell Flower](/wiki/Roswell_Flower \"Roswell Flower\"), to appoint three commissioners \"to examine certain subjects of national importance that seemed to show conflict among the laws of the several commonwealths, to ascertain the best means to effect an assimilation or uniformity in the laws of the states and territories, and especially whether it would be advisable for the State of New York to invite the other states of the Union to send representatives to a convention to draft uniform laws to be submitted for approval and adoption by the several states.\" The [American Bar Association](/wiki/American_Bar_Association \"American Bar Association\") held its 12th Annual Meeting the same year and adopted a resolution recommending each state provide for commissioners to confer with the commissioners of other states on the uniformity of legislation on certain subjects.",
"In August 1892, the first session of the organization that became the Uniform Law Commission was held at the Grand Union Hotel in Saratoga Springs, New York. The gathering took place before the annual summer meeting of the American Bar Association, a tradition that continues. The gathering brought together delegates from seven states: Delaware, Georgia, Massachusetts, Michigan, New Jersey, New York, and Pennsylvania. They titled themselves the \"Conference of the State Boards of Commissioners on Promoting Uniformity of Law in the U.S.\" By 1912, every state was participating in the Commission. The [United States Virgin Islands](/wiki/United_States_Virgin_Islands \"United States Virgin Islands\") was the last jurisdiction to join, appointing its first commissioner in 1988\\.",
"In each year of service, the ULC has steadily increased its contribution to state and territorial law. It quickly became known as a distinguished body of lawyers. In 1901, [Woodrow Wilson](/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson \"Woodrow Wilson\") became a member.{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://www.uniformlaws.org/Shared/Publications/ULC%20History%20Book/Forming%20a%20More%20Perfect%20Union.pdf \\|title\\=Archived copy \\|access\\-date\\=April 15, 2014 \\|archive\\-date\\=April 15, 2014 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140415064838/http://www.uniformlaws.org/Shared/Publications/ULC%20History%20Book/Forming%20a%20More%20Perfect%20Union.pdf \\|url\\-status\\=dead }} Several commissioners later became Justices of the Supreme Court of the United States: [Louis Brandeis](/wiki/Louis_Brandeis \"Louis Brandeis\"), [Wiley Blount Rutledge](/wiki/Wiley_Blount_Rutledge \"Wiley Blount Rutledge\"), and [William H. Rehnquist](/wiki/William_H._Rehnquist \"William H. Rehnquist\"). Several noted legal scholars have also been members, e.g. [John Wigmore](/wiki/John_Wigmore \"John Wigmore\"), [Samuel Williston](/wiki/Samuel_Williston \"Samuel Williston\"), [Roscoe Pound](/wiki/Roscoe_Pound \"Roscoe Pound\"), and John Bogart. The distinguished membership of the ULC has helped to ensure the quality of its work and made it enormously influential.",
"In 1940, the ULC moved to dispel confusion in U.S. commercial law with a comprehensive solution. This project led the ULC to partner with the American Law Institute to create the [Uniform Commercial Code](/wiki/Uniform_Commercial_Code \"Uniform Commercial Code\") (UCC). The Code took ten years to complete. After another 14 years, it had been enacted in every state. It remains the signature product of the Commission.",
"Since its organization, the ULC has drafted more than 300 uniform laws on numerous subjects and in various fields of law, setting patterns for uniformity across the nation. Today, the Commission is recognized primarily for its work in commercial law, family law, real property law, the law of probate and estates, the law of business organizations, health law, and conflicts of law; it rarely drafts regulatory law. Uniform acts include the Uniform Collaborative Law Act,{{Cite news\\|url\\=http://familydiplomacy.com/harvard\\-law\\-professor\\-explains\\-uniform\\-collaborative\\-law\\-act/\\|title\\=Video: Harvard Law Professor Explains Uniform Collaborative Law Act \\- Family Diplomacy {{!}} A Collaborative Law Firm\\|last\\=Cordover\\|first\\=Adam\\|date\\=2017\\-02\\-04\\|work\\=Family Diplomacy {{!}} A Collaborative Law Firm\\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-06\\-05\\|language\\=en\\-US}} Uniform Probate Code, the Uniform Child Custody Jurisdiction Act, the Uniform Partnership Act, the Uniform Anatomical Gift Act, the Uniform Limited Partnership Act, and the Uniform Interstate Family Support Act.",
"The ULC has also experienced its share of spectacular failures. In the 1970s, the ULC dedicated an enormous amount of time and effort to the cause of comprehensive reform of U.S. real property law, which then and now varies dramatically from one state to the next. The ULC's generous and well\\-intended efforts were utterly futile; most of its Uniform Acts on the subject were never enacted in any state, and only bits and pieces were enacted in a handful of states.Marion W. Benfield, Jr., [*Wasted Days and Wasted Nights: Why the Land Acts Failed*](https://nsuworks.nova.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1485&context=nlr), 20 Nova L. Rev. 1037, 1037–41 (1996\\).Ronald Benton Brown, [*Whatever Happened to the Uniform Land Transactions Act?*](https://nsuworks.nova.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1482&context=nlr) 20 Nova L. Rev. 1017 (1996\\);Peter B. Maggs, [*The Uniform Simplification of Land Transfers Act and the Politics and Economics of Law Reform,*](https://nsuworks.nova.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1488&context=nlr) 20 Nova L. Rev. 1091, 1091–92 (1996\\). However, the Uniform Partition of Heirs Property Act (UPHPA), which addresses one of the most pernicious causes of land loss in low\\-income communities, has been enacted in 18 states as of 2020,Uniform Law Commission, [*Uniform Partition of Heirs Property Act*](https://www.uniformlaws.org/committees/community-home?CommunityKey=50724584-e808-4255-bc5d-8ea4e588371d) (2011\\) and the Farm Bill passed in 2018 changed the law such that farmers in states that enact the UPHPA have increased access to federal loans and federally funded legal assistance.Leah Douglas, [*Psst! The Farm Bill Includes a Rare Provision That Could Help Black Farmers*](https://www.thenation.com/article/archive/psst-farm-bill-includes-rare-provision-help-black-farmers/,), The Nation (July 24, 2018\\).",
"The ULC is called both the Uniform Law Commission and the National Conference of Commissioners on Uniform State Laws (still the legal name {{as of\\|2022\\|lc\\=y}}); the acronym \"NCCUSL\" was also formerly often used, but the organization itself now uses the acronym \"ULC\" instead.",
""
] |
Procedure for drafting and promulgating proposed uniform laws
-------------------------------------------------------------
"It must be emphasized that the \[ULC] can only propose—no uniform law is effective until a state legislature adopts it."{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.uniformlaws.org/Narrative.aspx?title\=About%20the%20ULC\|title\=About the ULC\|website\=Uniform Law Commission\|access\-date\=2017\-10\-24}} Frequently, a state will make substantial variations when adopting a uniform act.See, e.g., Payne v. Stalley, 672 So. 2d 822, 823 (Fla. 2d DCA 1995\), in which a Michigan lawyer overlooked the fact that Florida, when adopting the [Uniform Probate Code](/wiki/Uniform_Probate_Code "Uniform Probate Code"), made a change in the procedure applicable to claims against an estate, and, as a result, an otherwise valid claim for approximately $3\.7 million was denied as late.
Proposals for a new uniform act or [model act](/wiki/Model_act "Model act") are considered by the Committee on Scope and Program, which welcomes suggestions from the organized bar, state government entities, private interest groups, uniform law commissioners and private individuals. It may assign a suggested topic to a Study Committee, which reviews and researches the proposal and reports back to the Scope and Program Committee. Scope and Program sends its recommendations to the Executive Committee. If a recommendation to create or amend an act is approved, a Drafting Committee is selected and a reporter/drafter – an expert in the field – is hired. Advisors and participating observers are solicited to assist every Drafting Committee.
Draft acts are submitted for initial debate of the entire Commission at the ULC's Annual Meeting. Each act must be considered section by section at no less than two annual meetings by all commissioners sitting as a Committee of the Whole. The commissioners may offer amendments and corrections to the proposed act.
Once the Committee of the Whole approves an act, it is presented for a vote by the states. Each of the 53 state and territory delegations caucuses its members and casts one vote. The proposed act must be approved (1\) by no fewer than 20 jurisdictions; and, (2\) by a majority of the states and territories present before it is officially approved as a uniform or model act.
At this point, the act is officially promulgated for consideration by the states and territories. Legislatures are urged to adopt uniform acts exactly as written to "promote uniformity in the law among the jurisdictions adopting the act." Model acts are designed to serve as a guideline for legislation that states and territories can borrow from or adapt to suit their individual needs and conditions.
Once an act is adopted by the ULC, it is usually presented to the House of Delegates of the American Bar Association for its endorsement. Upon its endorsement, the ULC Legislative Council advocates adoption of the act in the various states and territories.
The work of the ULC simplifies the legal life of businesses and individuals by providing rules and procedures that are consistent from jurisdiction to jurisdiction. Representing both state and territorial government and the legal profession, it has sought to bring uniformity to the divergent legal traditions of 53 sovereign jurisdictions, and has done so with significant success.
|
[
"Procedure for drafting and promulgating proposed uniform laws\n-------------------------------------------------------------",
"\"It must be emphasized that the \\[ULC] can only propose—no uniform law is effective until a state legislature adopts it.\"{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.uniformlaws.org/Narrative.aspx?title\\=About%20the%20ULC\\|title\\=About the ULC\\|website\\=Uniform Law Commission\\|access\\-date\\=2017\\-10\\-24}} Frequently, a state will make substantial variations when adopting a uniform act.See, e.g., Payne v. Stalley, 672 So. 2d 822, 823 (Fla. 2d DCA 1995\\), in which a Michigan lawyer overlooked the fact that Florida, when adopting the [Uniform Probate Code](/wiki/Uniform_Probate_Code \"Uniform Probate Code\"), made a change in the procedure applicable to claims against an estate, and, as a result, an otherwise valid claim for approximately $3\\.7 million was denied as late.",
"Proposals for a new uniform act or [model act](/wiki/Model_act \"Model act\") are considered by the Committee on Scope and Program, which welcomes suggestions from the organized bar, state government entities, private interest groups, uniform law commissioners and private individuals. It may assign a suggested topic to a Study Committee, which reviews and researches the proposal and reports back to the Scope and Program Committee. Scope and Program sends its recommendations to the Executive Committee. If a recommendation to create or amend an act is approved, a Drafting Committee is selected and a reporter/drafter – an expert in the field – is hired. Advisors and participating observers are solicited to assist every Drafting Committee.",
"Draft acts are submitted for initial debate of the entire Commission at the ULC's Annual Meeting. Each act must be considered section by section at no less than two annual meetings by all commissioners sitting as a Committee of the Whole. The commissioners may offer amendments and corrections to the proposed act.",
"Once the Committee of the Whole approves an act, it is presented for a vote by the states. Each of the 53 state and territory delegations caucuses its members and casts one vote. The proposed act must be approved (1\\) by no fewer than 20 jurisdictions; and, (2\\) by a majority of the states and territories present before it is officially approved as a uniform or model act.",
"At this point, the act is officially promulgated for consideration by the states and territories. Legislatures are urged to adopt uniform acts exactly as written to \"promote uniformity in the law among the jurisdictions adopting the act.\" Model acts are designed to serve as a guideline for legislation that states and territories can borrow from or adapt to suit their individual needs and conditions.",
"Once an act is adopted by the ULC, it is usually presented to the House of Delegates of the American Bar Association for its endorsement. Upon its endorsement, the ULC Legislative Council advocates adoption of the act in the various states and territories.",
"The work of the ULC simplifies the legal life of businesses and individuals by providing rules and procedures that are consistent from jurisdiction to jurisdiction. Representing both state and territorial government and the legal profession, it has sought to bring uniformity to the divergent legal traditions of 53 sovereign jurisdictions, and has done so with significant success.",
""
] |
Managerial career
-----------------
During her playing career, Reading appointed Cousins as its director of women's and girls football, and she remained in this role until her departure in 2023\.{{Cite news \|url\=https://www.theleaguepaper.com/features/2624/big\-interview\-reading\-women\-manager\-kelly\-chambers/ \|title\=Big Interview: Reading Women manager Kelly Chambers \|date\=22 October 2015 \|access\-date\=19 July 2023 \|work\=The Football League Paper \|first\=Tony \|last\=Leighton}}
Originally, Cousins became manager of Reading whilst in the third tier of English football, succeeding [Phil Cousins](/wiki/Phil_Cousins "Phil Cousins"). After gaining promotion to the WSL 2, now known as the [Women's Championship](/wiki/Women%27s_Championship_%28England%29 "Women's Championship (England)"), in 2014, the club appointed [Jayne Ludlow](/wiki/Jayne_Ludlow "Jayne Ludlow") as manager.{{Cite news\|title\=The hardest working woman in football?\|language\=en\-GB\|work\=BBC Sport\|url\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/football/36330489\|access\-date\=2021\-03\-25}}
Ludlow guided Reading to a third\-place finish in the 2014 WSL 2 season but stepped down at the end of the season to manage the [Wales women's national team](/wiki/Wales_women%27s_national_football_team "Wales women's national football team").{{Cite web\|title\=FAW / National Women's Teams Manager \- Jayne Ludow\|url\=http://www.faw.cymru/en/news/national\-women39s\-teams\-manager\-jayne\-ludow/\|access\-date\=2021\-03\-25\|website\=www.faw.cymru\|language\=en}} Cousins served as manager from that point until her departure in 2023\.{{cite news \|url\=https://thetilehurstend.sbnation.com/2023/6/25/23772985/reading\-fc\-stalwart\-kelly\-chambers\-will\-be\-a\-tough\-act\-to\-follow\-royals \|title\=Reading Stalwart Kelly Chambers Will Be A Tough Act To Follow \|date\=25 June 2023 \|access\-date\=19 July 2023 \|work\=The Tilehurst End}}
Cousins won the 2015 WSL 2 division, earning Reading a promotion to the top flight.{{Cite web\|title\=League Tables\|url\=http://womenscompetitions.thefa.com/League\-Tables/League\-tables\|access\-date\=2021\-03\-25\|website\=womenscompetitions.thefa.com\|language\=en}} Cousins' Reading finished the season, level on points with [Doncaster Rovers Belles](/wiki/Doncaster_Rovers_Belles_L.F.C. "Doncaster Rovers Belles L.F.C.") who also got promoted, but with a goal difference of \+46 \- four higher than Doncaster who had \+42\. What made the title victory so impressive, was that it was with a group of players who also had part\-time jobs.
Her first season in the [WSL](/wiki/2016_FA_WSL "2016 FA WSL"), Cousins managed to avoid relegation. Despite only winning one game all season, Reading managed to finish above Doncaster who were relegated.
The [2017–18 WSL](/wiki/2017%E2%80%9318_FA_WSL "2017–18 FA WSL") season was Reading's highest finish in club history. Cousins secured a fourth\-place finish, with a total of 32 points in 18 games.
Cousins failed to recreate the success of that season. Her following two seasons in [2018–19](/wiki/2018%E2%80%9319_FA_WSL "2018–19 FA WSL") and [2019–20](/wiki/2019%E2%80%9320_FA_WSL "2019–20 FA WSL") both resulted in a fifth\-place finish.
In December 2018, Cousins won the November 2018 League Managers Association (LMA) Manager of the Month Award.{{Cite web\|title\=League Managers Association \- LMA MANAGER OF THE MONTH AWARDS \- NOVEMBER 2018\|url\=https://leaguemanagers.com/news/lma\-latest/lma\-manager\-month\-awards\-november\-2018/\|access\-date\=2021\-03\-25\|website\=leaguemanagers.com}} Victories against [Bristol City](/wiki/Bristol_City_W.F.C. "Bristol City W.F.C."), [Brighton and Hove Albion](/wiki/Brighton_%26_Hove_Albion_W.F.C. "Brighton & Hove Albion W.F.C.") and [Everton](/wiki/Everton_F.C._%28women%29 "Everton F.C. (women)"), saw Cousins' side take maximum points in November and jump two places in the table.
On 20 June 2023, following the club's relegation out of the [Women's Super League](/wiki/Women%27s_Super_League "Women's Super League"), Reading announced that Cousins would leave the club.{{Cite news \|title\=Chambers leaves relegated Reading after 16 years \|language\=en\-GB \|work\=BBC Sport \|url\=https://www.bbc.com/sport/football/65960177 \|access\-date\=2023\-06\-20}} American club [Utah Royals](/wiki/Utah_Royals_FC "Utah Royals FC") announced that it had hired her to be the club's first [sporting director](/wiki/Sporting_director "Sporting director") nearly a month later on 18 July.{{cite news \|url\=https://theathletic.com/4698684/2023/07/18/utah\-royals\-kelly\-cousins\-sporting\-director/ \|title\=Utah Royals name Kelly Cousins, former Reading Women's manager, as first sporting director \|date\=18 July 2023 \|access\-date\=19 July 2023 \|work\=\[\[The Athletic]]}}
|
[
"Managerial career\n-----------------",
"During her playing career, Reading appointed Cousins as its director of women's and girls football, and she remained in this role until her departure in 2023\\.{{Cite news \\|url\\=https://www.theleaguepaper.com/features/2624/big\\-interview\\-reading\\-women\\-manager\\-kelly\\-chambers/ \\|title\\=Big Interview: Reading Women manager Kelly Chambers \\|date\\=22 October 2015 \\|access\\-date\\=19 July 2023 \\|work\\=The Football League Paper \\|first\\=Tony \\|last\\=Leighton}}",
"Originally, Cousins became manager of Reading whilst in the third tier of English football, succeeding [Phil Cousins](/wiki/Phil_Cousins \"Phil Cousins\"). After gaining promotion to the WSL 2, now known as the [Women's Championship](/wiki/Women%27s_Championship_%28England%29 \"Women's Championship (England)\"), in 2014, the club appointed [Jayne Ludlow](/wiki/Jayne_Ludlow \"Jayne Ludlow\") as manager.{{Cite news\\|title\\=The hardest working woman in football?\\|language\\=en\\-GB\\|work\\=BBC Sport\\|url\\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/football/36330489\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-03\\-25}}",
"Ludlow guided Reading to a third\\-place finish in the 2014 WSL 2 season but stepped down at the end of the season to manage the [Wales women's national team](/wiki/Wales_women%27s_national_football_team \"Wales women's national football team\").{{Cite web\\|title\\=FAW / National Women's Teams Manager \\- Jayne Ludow\\|url\\=http://www.faw.cymru/en/news/national\\-women39s\\-teams\\-manager\\-jayne\\-ludow/\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-03\\-25\\|website\\=www.faw.cymru\\|language\\=en}} Cousins served as manager from that point until her departure in 2023\\.{{cite news \\|url\\=https://thetilehurstend.sbnation.com/2023/6/25/23772985/reading\\-fc\\-stalwart\\-kelly\\-chambers\\-will\\-be\\-a\\-tough\\-act\\-to\\-follow\\-royals \\|title\\=Reading Stalwart Kelly Chambers Will Be A Tough Act To Follow \\|date\\=25 June 2023 \\|access\\-date\\=19 July 2023 \\|work\\=The Tilehurst End}}",
"Cousins won the 2015 WSL 2 division, earning Reading a promotion to the top flight.{{Cite web\\|title\\=League Tables\\|url\\=http://womenscompetitions.thefa.com/League\\-Tables/League\\-tables\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-03\\-25\\|website\\=womenscompetitions.thefa.com\\|language\\=en}} Cousins' Reading finished the season, level on points with [Doncaster Rovers Belles](/wiki/Doncaster_Rovers_Belles_L.F.C. \"Doncaster Rovers Belles L.F.C.\") who also got promoted, but with a goal difference of \\+46 \\- four higher than Doncaster who had \\+42\\. What made the title victory so impressive, was that it was with a group of players who also had part\\-time jobs.",
"Her first season in the [WSL](/wiki/2016_FA_WSL \"2016 FA WSL\"), Cousins managed to avoid relegation. Despite only winning one game all season, Reading managed to finish above Doncaster who were relegated.",
"The [2017–18 WSL](/wiki/2017%E2%80%9318_FA_WSL \"2017–18 FA WSL\") season was Reading's highest finish in club history. Cousins secured a fourth\\-place finish, with a total of 32 points in 18 games.",
"Cousins failed to recreate the success of that season. Her following two seasons in [2018–19](/wiki/2018%E2%80%9319_FA_WSL \"2018–19 FA WSL\") and [2019–20](/wiki/2019%E2%80%9320_FA_WSL \"2019–20 FA WSL\") both resulted in a fifth\\-place finish.",
"In December 2018, Cousins won the November 2018 League Managers Association (LMA) Manager of the Month Award.{{Cite web\\|title\\=League Managers Association \\- LMA MANAGER OF THE MONTH AWARDS \\- NOVEMBER 2018\\|url\\=https://leaguemanagers.com/news/lma\\-latest/lma\\-manager\\-month\\-awards\\-november\\-2018/\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-03\\-25\\|website\\=leaguemanagers.com}} Victories against [Bristol City](/wiki/Bristol_City_W.F.C. \"Bristol City W.F.C.\"), [Brighton and Hove Albion](/wiki/Brighton_%26_Hove_Albion_W.F.C. \"Brighton & Hove Albion W.F.C.\") and [Everton](/wiki/Everton_F.C._%28women%29 \"Everton F.C. (women)\"), saw Cousins' side take maximum points in November and jump two places in the table.",
"On 20 June 2023, following the club's relegation out of the [Women's Super League](/wiki/Women%27s_Super_League \"Women's Super League\"), Reading announced that Cousins would leave the club.{{Cite news \\|title\\=Chambers leaves relegated Reading after 16 years \\|language\\=en\\-GB \\|work\\=BBC Sport \\|url\\=https://www.bbc.com/sport/football/65960177 \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-06\\-20}} American club [Utah Royals](/wiki/Utah_Royals_FC \"Utah Royals FC\") announced that it had hired her to be the club's first [sporting director](/wiki/Sporting_director \"Sporting director\") nearly a month later on 18 July.{{cite news \\|url\\=https://theathletic.com/4698684/2023/07/18/utah\\-royals\\-kelly\\-cousins\\-sporting\\-director/ \\|title\\=Utah Royals name Kelly Cousins, former Reading Women's manager, as first sporting director \\|date\\=18 July 2023 \\|access\\-date\\=19 July 2023 \\|work\\=\\[\\[The Athletic]]}}",
""
] |
Conquest of England
-------------------
In 1014 or 1015 Eric left Norway and joined [Canute the Great](/wiki/Canute_the_Great "Canute the Great") for his campaign in England. Judging from [Þórðr Kolbeinsson](/wiki/%C3%9E%C3%B3r%C3%B0r_Kolbeinsson "Þórðr Kolbeinsson")'s *Eiríksdrápa* their fleets met off the English coast (in 1015\) but the chronology of the various sources is difficult to reconcile and some scholars prefer placing their meeting in 1014 in Denmark.Campbell 1998, p. 69\. At that time Canute was young and inexperienced but Eric was "an experienced warrior of tested intelligence and fortune" (*Fagrskinna*) and, in the opinion of [Frank Stenton](/wiki/Frank_Stenton "Frank Stenton"), "the best adviser that could have been found for a young prince setting out on a career of conquest".Stenton 2001, p. 387\.
The Scandinavian invasion fleet landed at [Sandwich](/wiki/Sandwich%2C_Kent "Sandwich, Kent") in midsummer 1015 where it met little resistance. Canute's forces moved into [Wessex](/wiki/Wessex "Wessex") and plundered in [Dorset](/wiki/Dorset "Dorset"), [Wiltshire](/wiki/Wiltshire "Wiltshire") and [Somerset](/wiki/Somerset "Somerset"). Alderman [Eadric Streona](/wiki/Eadric_Streona "Eadric Streona") assembled an English force of 40 ships and submitted to Canute.The Anglo\-Saxon Chronicle. See [http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/etext96/angsx10\.txt](http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/etext96/angsx10.txt). The *Encomium Emmae* is the only English source which gives any information on Eric's actions at this time but its account of his supposed independent raids is vague and does not fit well with other sources.See Campbell 1998, p. 23 and lviii.
In early 1016, the Scandinavian army moved over the [Thames](/wiki/Thames "Thames") into [Mercia](/wiki/Mercia "Mercia"), plundering as it went. [Prince Edmund](/wiki/Edmund_II_of_England "Edmund II of England") attempted to muster an army to resist the invasion but his efforts were not successful and Canute's forces continued unhindered into [Northumbria](/wiki/Northumbria "Northumbria") where [Uhtred the Bold](/wiki/Uhtred_the_Bold "Uhtred the Bold"), [earl of Northumbria](/wiki/Earl_of_Northumbria "Earl of Northumbria"), was murdered. The great north English earldom was given by Canute to Eric after he had won control of the north. After conquering Northumbria, the invading army turned south again towards [London](/wiki/London "London"). Before they arrived King [Ethelred the Unready](/wiki/Ethelred_the_Unready "Ethelred the Unready") died (on 23 April) and [Edmund Ironside](/wiki/Edmund_Ironside "Edmund Ironside") was chosen king.
Following Ethelred's death, the Scandinavian forces besieged London. According to the *Encomium Emmae* the siege was overseen by Eric and this may well be accurate. The *[Legendary Saga of St. Olaf](/wiki/Legendary_Saga_of_St._Olaf "Legendary Saga of St. Olaf")* indicates that Eric was present at the siege of LondonKeyser 1849, p. 8\. and a verse by [Þórðr](/wiki/%C3%9E%C3%B3r%C3%B0r "Þórðr") says that Eric fought "west of London" with [Ulfcytel Snillingr](/wiki/Ulfcytel_Snillingr "Ulfcytel Snillingr").
After several battles, Canute and Edmund reached an agreement to divide the kingdom but Edmund died a few months later. By 1017, Canute was undisputed king of all England. He divided the kingdom into four parts; [Wessex](/wiki/Wessex "Wessex") he kept for himself, he gave [Northumbria](/wiki/Northumbria "Northumbria") to Eric, [East Anglia](/wiki/East_Anglia "East Anglia") to [Thorkell the Tall](/wiki/Thorkell_the_Tall "Thorkell the Tall"), and [Mercia](/wiki/Mercia "Mercia") to [Eadric Streona](/wiki/Eadric_Streona "Eadric Streona"). Later the same year Canute had Eadric executed as a traitor. According to the *Encomium Emmae*, he ordered Eric to "pay this man what we owe him" and he chopped off his head with his axe.Campbell 1998, p. 33\.
Eric remained as earl of Northumbria until his death. His earlship is primarily notable in that it is never recorded that he ever fought with the [Scots](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Scotland "Kingdom of Scotland") or the [Britons](/wiki/Britons_%28historic%29 "Britons (historic)") of [Strathclyde](/wiki/Strathclyde "Strathclyde"), who were usually constantly threatening Northumbria. Eric is not mentioned in English documents after 1023\. According to English sources[William of Malmesbury](/wiki/William_of_Malmesbury "William of Malmesbury") and [Henry of Huntingdon](/wiki/Henry_of_Huntingdon "Henry of Huntingdon"), see Campbell 1998, p. 70 and Greenway 2002, p. 16\. he was exiled by Canute and returned to Norway. This is very unlikely as there are no Norse records of his supposed return. Eric's successor as earl, [Siward](/wiki/Sigurd_the_Dane "Sigurd the Dane"), cannot be confirmed as being earl of Northumbria until 1033 so Eric's death can not strictly be placed more precisely than between 1023 and 1033\. According to the Norse sources he died of a hemorrhage after having his [uvula cut](/wiki/Uvulotomy "Uvulotomy") (a procedure in [medieval medicine](/wiki/Medieval_medicine_of_Western_Europe "Medieval medicine of Western Europe")) either just before or just after a pilgrimage to Rome.
|
[
"Conquest of England\n-------------------",
"In 1014 or 1015 Eric left Norway and joined [Canute the Great](/wiki/Canute_the_Great \"Canute the Great\") for his campaign in England. Judging from [Þórðr Kolbeinsson](/wiki/%C3%9E%C3%B3r%C3%B0r_Kolbeinsson \"Þórðr Kolbeinsson\")'s *Eiríksdrápa* their fleets met off the English coast (in 1015\\) but the chronology of the various sources is difficult to reconcile and some scholars prefer placing their meeting in 1014 in Denmark.Campbell 1998, p. 69\\. At that time Canute was young and inexperienced but Eric was \"an experienced warrior of tested intelligence and fortune\" (*Fagrskinna*) and, in the opinion of [Frank Stenton](/wiki/Frank_Stenton \"Frank Stenton\"), \"the best adviser that could have been found for a young prince setting out on a career of conquest\".Stenton 2001, p. 387\\.",
"The Scandinavian invasion fleet landed at [Sandwich](/wiki/Sandwich%2C_Kent \"Sandwich, Kent\") in midsummer 1015 where it met little resistance. Canute's forces moved into [Wessex](/wiki/Wessex \"Wessex\") and plundered in [Dorset](/wiki/Dorset \"Dorset\"), [Wiltshire](/wiki/Wiltshire \"Wiltshire\") and [Somerset](/wiki/Somerset \"Somerset\"). Alderman [Eadric Streona](/wiki/Eadric_Streona \"Eadric Streona\") assembled an English force of 40 ships and submitted to Canute.The Anglo\\-Saxon Chronicle. See [http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/etext96/angsx10\\.txt](http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/etext96/angsx10.txt). The *Encomium Emmae* is the only English source which gives any information on Eric's actions at this time but its account of his supposed independent raids is vague and does not fit well with other sources.See Campbell 1998, p. 23 and lviii.",
"In early 1016, the Scandinavian army moved over the [Thames](/wiki/Thames \"Thames\") into [Mercia](/wiki/Mercia \"Mercia\"), plundering as it went. [Prince Edmund](/wiki/Edmund_II_of_England \"Edmund II of England\") attempted to muster an army to resist the invasion but his efforts were not successful and Canute's forces continued unhindered into [Northumbria](/wiki/Northumbria \"Northumbria\") where [Uhtred the Bold](/wiki/Uhtred_the_Bold \"Uhtred the Bold\"), [earl of Northumbria](/wiki/Earl_of_Northumbria \"Earl of Northumbria\"), was murdered. The great north English earldom was given by Canute to Eric after he had won control of the north. After conquering Northumbria, the invading army turned south again towards [London](/wiki/London \"London\"). Before they arrived King [Ethelred the Unready](/wiki/Ethelred_the_Unready \"Ethelred the Unready\") died (on 23 April) and [Edmund Ironside](/wiki/Edmund_Ironside \"Edmund Ironside\") was chosen king.",
"Following Ethelred's death, the Scandinavian forces besieged London. According to the *Encomium Emmae* the siege was overseen by Eric and this may well be accurate. The *[Legendary Saga of St. Olaf](/wiki/Legendary_Saga_of_St._Olaf \"Legendary Saga of St. Olaf\")* indicates that Eric was present at the siege of LondonKeyser 1849, p. 8\\. and a verse by [Þórðr](/wiki/%C3%9E%C3%B3r%C3%B0r \"Þórðr\") says that Eric fought \"west of London\" with [Ulfcytel Snillingr](/wiki/Ulfcytel_Snillingr \"Ulfcytel Snillingr\").",
"After several battles, Canute and Edmund reached an agreement to divide the kingdom but Edmund died a few months later. By 1017, Canute was undisputed king of all England. He divided the kingdom into four parts; [Wessex](/wiki/Wessex \"Wessex\") he kept for himself, he gave [Northumbria](/wiki/Northumbria \"Northumbria\") to Eric, [East Anglia](/wiki/East_Anglia \"East Anglia\") to [Thorkell the Tall](/wiki/Thorkell_the_Tall \"Thorkell the Tall\"), and [Mercia](/wiki/Mercia \"Mercia\") to [Eadric Streona](/wiki/Eadric_Streona \"Eadric Streona\"). Later the same year Canute had Eadric executed as a traitor. According to the *Encomium Emmae*, he ordered Eric to \"pay this man what we owe him\" and he chopped off his head with his axe.Campbell 1998, p. 33\\.",
"Eric remained as earl of Northumbria until his death. His earlship is primarily notable in that it is never recorded that he ever fought with the [Scots](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Scotland \"Kingdom of Scotland\") or the [Britons](/wiki/Britons_%28historic%29 \"Britons (historic)\") of [Strathclyde](/wiki/Strathclyde \"Strathclyde\"), who were usually constantly threatening Northumbria. Eric is not mentioned in English documents after 1023\\. According to English sources[William of Malmesbury](/wiki/William_of_Malmesbury \"William of Malmesbury\") and [Henry of Huntingdon](/wiki/Henry_of_Huntingdon \"Henry of Huntingdon\"), see Campbell 1998, p. 70 and Greenway 2002, p. 16\\. he was exiled by Canute and returned to Norway. This is very unlikely as there are no Norse records of his supposed return. Eric's successor as earl, [Siward](/wiki/Sigurd_the_Dane \"Sigurd the Dane\"), cannot be confirmed as being earl of Northumbria until 1033 so Eric's death can not strictly be placed more precisely than between 1023 and 1033\\. According to the Norse sources he died of a hemorrhage after having his [uvula cut](/wiki/Uvulotomy \"Uvulotomy\") (a procedure in [medieval medicine](/wiki/Medieval_medicine_of_Western_Europe \"Medieval medicine of Western Europe\")) either just before or just after a pilgrimage to Rome.",
""
] |
Plot
----
During another night out at [the Cheesecake Factory](/wiki/The_Cheesecake_Factory "The Cheesecake Factory"), the guys and [Penny](/wiki/Penny_%28The_Big_Bang_Theory%29 "Penny (The Big Bang Theory)") make fun of Leonard because of his [lactose intolerance](/wiki/Lactose_intolerance "Lactose intolerance"). However, when [Bernadette](/wiki/Bernadette_Rostenkowski "Bernadette Rostenkowski") announces that her [dissertation](/wiki/Dissertation "Dissertation") has been accepted, earning her a [Ph.D.](/wiki/Ph.D. "Ph.D.") and a well\-paid job, [Leonard](/wiki/Leonard_Hofstadter "Leonard Hofstadter") seizes his chance and starts to mock [Howard](/wiki/Howard_Wolowitz "Howard Wolowitz") with the other guys, degrading him for being the only non\-doctor in their group. Later, Bernadette buys Howard an expensive [Rolex](/wiki/Rolex "Rolex") watch as a present and tells him to "let her worry about the money", a comment that deeply disturbs Howard.
Meanwhile, Leonard's and Priya's noisy and "astronomically inaccurate" sexual roleplay \- she wears Raj's [Lieutenant Uhura](/wiki/Uhura "Uhura") costume \- in his apartment disturbs [Raj](/wiki/Raj_Koothrappali "Raj Koothrappali") and he leaves to spend the night at Sheldon's apartment. When Leonard finds Raj in his bed the next morning, he apologizes and proposes that Raj moves in with Sheldon until Priya finds her own place. Raj likes the idea and moves in after Sheldon's usual bureaucratic procedures (including a modified "temporary roommate agreement" and a [will](/wiki/Will_%28law%29 "Will (law)")).
Raj then prepares a fancy dinner to ingratiate himself with Sheldon, who is delighted. Penny comes over to ask for their [Wi\-Fi](/wiki/Wi-Fi "Wi-Fi") password, because she does not want to pay for her own, and then stays for dinner. When she and Raj both get drunk from the wine Raj serves, Sheldon gets annoyed and goes to bed. Penny then admits that she should not have broken up with Leonard, and tells Raj that she would be "on" him if they were not friends.
Priya receives a video call from her parents and tells Leonard to hide in the bedroom, because she still does not want them to know that she is dating him. Leonard overhears the Koothrappalis talking about Priya moving back to India the following month. When he storms back into the room to confront her, he reveals to her parents that they are in a relationship, justifying that her moving back to India would certainly mean they are breaking up, leaving it moot if her parents know.
At the end of the episode, Sheldon discovers Leonard sleeping on the couch at their apartment after his confrontation with Priya, just before Howard shows up after a fight with Bernadette over the watch. Penny wakes up in Leonard's room and is horrified to be naked with Raj and realizes she hooked up with him. She tells him not to say anything about the night before and tries to sneak out of the apartment with Raj wrapped in a sheet, only for the other men to see them. Penny just states that it is "not what it looks like", leaving Sheldon, Leonard and Howard confused.
|
[
"Plot\n----",
"During another night out at [the Cheesecake Factory](/wiki/The_Cheesecake_Factory \"The Cheesecake Factory\"), the guys and [Penny](/wiki/Penny_%28The_Big_Bang_Theory%29 \"Penny (The Big Bang Theory)\") make fun of Leonard because of his [lactose intolerance](/wiki/Lactose_intolerance \"Lactose intolerance\"). However, when [Bernadette](/wiki/Bernadette_Rostenkowski \"Bernadette Rostenkowski\") announces that her [dissertation](/wiki/Dissertation \"Dissertation\") has been accepted, earning her a [Ph.D.](/wiki/Ph.D. \"Ph.D.\") and a well\\-paid job, [Leonard](/wiki/Leonard_Hofstadter \"Leonard Hofstadter\") seizes his chance and starts to mock [Howard](/wiki/Howard_Wolowitz \"Howard Wolowitz\") with the other guys, degrading him for being the only non\\-doctor in their group. Later, Bernadette buys Howard an expensive [Rolex](/wiki/Rolex \"Rolex\") watch as a present and tells him to \"let her worry about the money\", a comment that deeply disturbs Howard.",
"Meanwhile, Leonard's and Priya's noisy and \"astronomically inaccurate\" sexual roleplay \\- she wears Raj's [Lieutenant Uhura](/wiki/Uhura \"Uhura\") costume \\- in his apartment disturbs [Raj](/wiki/Raj_Koothrappali \"Raj Koothrappali\") and he leaves to spend the night at Sheldon's apartment. When Leonard finds Raj in his bed the next morning, he apologizes and proposes that Raj moves in with Sheldon until Priya finds her own place. Raj likes the idea and moves in after Sheldon's usual bureaucratic procedures (including a modified \"temporary roommate agreement\" and a [will](/wiki/Will_%28law%29 \"Will (law)\")).",
"Raj then prepares a fancy dinner to ingratiate himself with Sheldon, who is delighted. Penny comes over to ask for their [Wi\\-Fi](/wiki/Wi-Fi \"Wi-Fi\") password, because she does not want to pay for her own, and then stays for dinner. When she and Raj both get drunk from the wine Raj serves, Sheldon gets annoyed and goes to bed. Penny then admits that she should not have broken up with Leonard, and tells Raj that she would be \"on\" him if they were not friends.",
"Priya receives a video call from her parents and tells Leonard to hide in the bedroom, because she still does not want them to know that she is dating him. Leonard overhears the Koothrappalis talking about Priya moving back to India the following month. When he storms back into the room to confront her, he reveals to her parents that they are in a relationship, justifying that her moving back to India would certainly mean they are breaking up, leaving it moot if her parents know.",
"At the end of the episode, Sheldon discovers Leonard sleeping on the couch at their apartment after his confrontation with Priya, just before Howard shows up after a fight with Bernadette over the watch. Penny wakes up in Leonard's room and is horrified to be naked with Raj and realizes she hooked up with him. She tells him not to say anything about the night before and tries to sneak out of the apartment with Raj wrapped in a sheet, only for the other men to see them. Penny just states that it is \"not what it looks like\", leaving Sheldon, Leonard and Howard confused.",
""
] |
Season recap
------------
### Offseason
In the spring of 1962, [Cleveland Pipers](/wiki/Cleveland_Pipers "Cleveland Pipers") owner [George Steinbrenner](/wiki/George_Steinbrenner "George Steinbrenner") of the new [American Basketball League](/wiki/American_Basketball_League_%281961%E2%80%931962%29 "American Basketball League (1961–1962)") signed [Jerry Lucas](/wiki/Jerry_Lucas "Jerry Lucas") to a player\-management contract worth $40,000\.Steinbrenner: The Last Lion of Baseball, p.42, Bill Madden, Harper Collins Publishing, New York, 2010, {{ISBN\|978\-0\-06\-169031\-0}} With the Lucas signing, Steinbrenner had a secret deal with NBA commissioner [Maurice Podoloff](/wiki/Maurice_Podoloff "Maurice Podoloff"). The Pipers would merge with the Kansas City Steers and join the NBA. A schedule was printed for the 1963–64 NBA season with the Pipers playing the New York Knicks in the first game. But Steinbrenner and partner George McKean fell behind in payments to the NBA and the deal was cancelled.
### Preseason
The season began with a franchise shift, as the [Philadelphia Warriors](/wiki/Philadelphia_Warriors "Philadelphia Warriors") pulled up stakes and headed to San Francisco, joining the Los Angeles Lakers on the West Coast. The Warriors, whose lineage in basketball dates back to the [Philadelphia Sphas](/wiki/Philadelphia_Sphas "Philadelphia Sphas") of the 1920s, had been a fixture for decades in Philadelphia, one of [pro basketball](/wiki/Professional_basketball "Professional basketball")'s essential cities. Philadelphia would be without an NBA team until the [Syracuse Nationals](/wiki/Syracuse_Nationals "Syracuse Nationals") moved there [the following season](/wiki/1963%E2%80%9364_NBA_season "1963–64 NBA season"), becoming the [Philadelphia 76ers](/wiki/Philadelphia_76ers "Philadelphia 76ers"). The [Cincinnati Royals](/wiki/Cincinnati_Royals "Cincinnati Royals") were promptly shifted to the more competitive NBA's East Division to replace the Warriors, a fact the Royals would come to regret.
The existence of the rival [American Basketball League](/wiki/American_Basketball_League_%281961%E2%80%9363%29 "American Basketball League (1961–63)") played a significant factor this year. [Globetrotters](/wiki/Harlem_Globetrotters "Harlem Globetrotters")' owner [Abe Saperstein](/wiki/Abe_Saperstein "Abe Saperstein") started the league after he was thwarted in a bid for an NBA franchise in Los Angeles. The [Minneapolis Lakers](/wiki/Minneapolis_Lakers "Minneapolis Lakers") had moved to Los Angeles in 1960\. The ABL made an immediate splash with two major innovations that the NBA would copy eventually \-\- a wider free throw lane and 3\-point field goal for successful shots beyond 25 feet.
### Leading teams
Setting the pace in the Eastern Division, the defending champion Celtics won a league high 58 of 80 NBA games, leading the league in both [rebounds](/wiki/Rebound_%28basketball%29 "Rebound (basketball)") and [assists](/wiki/Assist_%28basketball%29 "Assist (basketball)") as a team, followed by the Lakers in the West with 53\. Three other NBA teams won 40 games or better. The [Syracuse Nationals](/wiki/Syracuse_Nationals "Syracuse Nationals") and [St. Louis Hawks](/wiki/St._Louis_Hawks "St. Louis Hawks") both won 48 games each. The Cincinnati Royals also had 42 wins.
#### Celtics
On the court, the powerful Boston Celtics were building a dynasty. [Bill Russell](/wiki/Bill_Russell "Bill Russell") led [Red Auerbach](/wiki/Red_Auerbach "Red Auerbach")'s club from the middle with his [shot blocking](/wiki/Block_%28basketball%29 "Block (basketball)") and [rebounding](/wiki/Rebound_%28basketball%29 "Rebound (basketball)"), where he ranked a huge second place in the NBA. He was also seventh in the NBA in assists, remarkable for a [center](/wiki/Center_%28basketball%29 "Center (basketball)").
[Sam Jones](/wiki/Sam_Jones_%28basketball%2C_born_1933%29 "Sam Jones (basketball, born 1933)") had stepped in for [Bill Sharman](/wiki/Bill_Sharman "Bill Sharman") at [shooting guard](/wiki/Shooting_guard "Shooting guard"), after Sharman left to coach the [ABL](/wiki/American_Basketball_League_%281961%E2%80%931963%29 "American Basketball League (1961–1963)") [Los Angeles Jets](/wiki/Los_Angeles_Jets "Los Angeles Jets"). Jones immediately led the club in scoring just as Sharman had, with his deadly banking [jump shots](/wiki/Jump_shot_%28basketball%29 "Jump shot (basketball)"). 34\-year\-old [Bob Cousy](/wiki/Bob_Cousy "Bob Cousy") quarterbacked his club one more time, but the 1950s superstar had clearly lost a step.
#### Lakers
[Los Angeles Lakers](/wiki/Los_Angeles_Lakers "Los Angeles Lakers") were now in their third year in California. The Lakers were led by super forward [Elgin Baylor](/wiki/Elgin_Baylor "Elgin Baylor"), whose high\-flying drives, surprising strength and all\-around game awed many again this season. Baylor's 34 points per game rated him second in the NBA only to [Wilt Chamberlain](/wiki/Wilt_Chamberlain "Wilt Chamberlain"). He was also fifth in rebounds and sixth in assists. No slouch on defense either, Baylor did it all for the Lakers. He was also freed of his military commitments, which limited his availability during the previous season.
Third year star [Jerry West](/wiki/Jerry_West "Jerry West") battled injuries but continued to grow as a player also. He added 27 points per game and six assists for coach [Fred Schaus](/wiki/Fred_Schaus "Fred Schaus"), also his former college coach. The Lakers won 53 games and the NBA's West Division, looking forward to their matchup with Boston.
#### Nationals
The [Syracuse Nationals](/wiki/Syracuse_Nationals "Syracuse Nationals") were the league's top offense, a fact they greatly helped at the foul line. Coach [Alex Hannum](/wiki/Alex_Hannum "Alex Hannum")'s club were led by the trio of center [Johnny Kerr](/wiki/Johnny_Kerr "Johnny Kerr"), promising young [forward](/wiki/Forward_%28basketball%29 "Forward (basketball)") [Lee Shaffer](/wiki/Lee_Shaffer "Lee Shaffer") and [guard](/wiki/Basketball_positions%23Guards "Basketball positions#Guards") [Hal Greer](/wiki/Hal_Greer "Hal Greer"). Long\-time star [Dolph Schayes](/wiki/Dolph_Schayes "Dolph Schayes") gave it one more year as a reserve at age 34\. This would also be the final season for the NBA in [Syracuse](/wiki/Syracuse%2C_New_York "Syracuse, New York"). They would relocate to [Philadelphia](/wiki/Philadelphia "Philadelphia") for the following season as the [Philadelphia 76ers](/wiki/Philadelphia_76ers "Philadelphia 76ers").
#### Hawks
The [St. Louis Hawks](/wiki/St._Louis_Hawks "St. Louis Hawks") had five ten\-point scorers to support superstar [Bob Pettit](/wiki/Bob_Pettit "Bob Pettit"). The 6'9 230\-pounder rated third in NBA scoring with 28\.4 points per games and was fifth in rebounds as well. His 685 [free throws](/wiki/Free_throws "Free throws") made led the league. The Hawks also had the NBA's top rated defense.
#### Royals
The [Cincinnati Royals](/wiki/Cincinnati_Royals "Cincinnati Royals") continued to recover from the tragedy of [Maurice Stokes](/wiki/Maurice_Stokes "Maurice Stokes") with another huge year from third\-year superstar [Oscar Robertson](/wiki/Oscar_Robertson "Oscar Robertson"). The converted 6' 5 210\-pound forward was now rated by many as the best non\-center to ever play in the NBA, lighting up the Royals backcourt with 28\.3 points, nine rebounds and ten assists per game. Robertson tried 1593 shots this year, the third\-highest total, and made 52% of them, the fourth\-best percentage for accuracy in the NBA. His 614 free throws made were the second\-most also, as he averaged 81% from the [foul line](/wiki/Free_throw "Free throw"). A balanced [starting five](/wiki/Starting_lineup "Starting lineup") and some key reserves supported Robertson, as coach [Charlie Wolf](/wiki/Charlie_Wolf "Charlie Wolf")'s team won over half their games for the second straight year. But the Royals continued to struggle with signees. Draft picks [Larry Siegfried](/wiki/Larry_Siegfried "Larry Siegfried") and [Jerry Lucas](/wiki/Jerry_Lucas "Jerry Lucas") signed with the [Cleveland Pipers](/wiki/Cleveland_Pipers "Cleveland Pipers") of [Abe Saperstein](/wiki/Abe_Saperstein "Abe Saperstein")'s American Basketball League. Worse, Siegfried would return to the NBA as a key Boston Celtic. The loss of these two would hinder the club's playoff chances.
### Wilt Chamberlain
Wilt Chamberlain's first season in San Francisco had his usual incredible stats, but the club failed to win half their games. Wilt's 44 points per game easily ranked him ahead of Baylor in the scoring column. He was also first in the NBA in rebounds, blocked shots, shooting accuracy, number of shots tried and made from the floor, and free throws tried. As a player, he was still all by himself.
### Postseason
Six of the NBA's nine teams made the [playoffs](/wiki/Playoffs "Playoffs"), three in each division. The second and third place teams met first, with each division winner meeting the winner in the second round before the NBA Finals.
#### East
Boston got a huge scare from the Cincinnati Royals, who shocked Syracuse with an overtime win in Syracuse to win Game Five and that series. Cincinnati ownership was shocked too. They had booked [Cincinnati Gardens](/wiki/Cincinnati_Gardens "Cincinnati Gardens") for a circus, expecting a Royals loss in that series. The Royals had to play two of their home games against Boston elsewhere while pushing Boston the full seven games. Robertson's huge play was boosted further by all\-star [Jack Twyman](/wiki/Jack_Twyman "Jack Twyman")' shooting. But Boston's three 20\-point scorers \-\-\- [Tommy Heinsohn](/wiki/Tommy_Heinsohn "Tommy Heinsohn"), Russell and Jones \-\-\- staved off the Royals charge. It was the beginning of a strong, underrated rivalry.
Syracuse was hindered by the absence of [Connie Dierking](/wiki/Connie_Dierking "Connie Dierking"), who also had gone to the ABL, but refused to return to the club when that league folded.
#### West
In the West, St. Louis topped [Don Ohl](/wiki/Don_Ohl "Don Ohl"), [Bailey Howell](/wiki/Bailey_Howell "Bailey Howell"), [Ray Scott](/wiki/Ray_Scott_%28basketball%29 "Ray Scott (basketball)") and the [Detroit Pistons](/wiki/Detroit_Pistons "Detroit Pistons") three games to one to meet the Lakers in the second round. Detroit's rookie [Dave DeBusschere](/wiki/Dave_DeBusschere "Dave DeBusschere") had a strong series off the bench as well in the losing effort.
The Lakers and Hawks went the full seven games as well, with Baylor and Pettit trading big offensive games and rebounds. The difference were Laker guards West and [Dick Barnett](/wiki/Dick_Barnett "Dick Barnett"), the former ABL star.
#### Finals
The balance and depth of Boston would be too much for Baylor and West in the Finals despite their best efforts. The series went six games, with Boston winning the final one 112\-109 in Los Angeles. Boston's Bill Russell, who averaged over 20 points, 20 rebounds, five assists and several blocks per game for his 13 playoff games, was the difference again in the middle for his star\-studded team.
|
[
"Season recap\n------------",
"### Offseason",
"In the spring of 1962, [Cleveland Pipers](/wiki/Cleveland_Pipers \"Cleveland Pipers\") owner [George Steinbrenner](/wiki/George_Steinbrenner \"George Steinbrenner\") of the new [American Basketball League](/wiki/American_Basketball_League_%281961%E2%80%931962%29 \"American Basketball League (1961–1962)\") signed [Jerry Lucas](/wiki/Jerry_Lucas \"Jerry Lucas\") to a player\\-management contract worth $40,000\\.Steinbrenner: The Last Lion of Baseball, p.42, Bill Madden, Harper Collins Publishing, New York, 2010, {{ISBN\\|978\\-0\\-06\\-169031\\-0}} With the Lucas signing, Steinbrenner had a secret deal with NBA commissioner [Maurice Podoloff](/wiki/Maurice_Podoloff \"Maurice Podoloff\"). The Pipers would merge with the Kansas City Steers and join the NBA. A schedule was printed for the 1963–64 NBA season with the Pipers playing the New York Knicks in the first game. But Steinbrenner and partner George McKean fell behind in payments to the NBA and the deal was cancelled.",
"### Preseason",
"The season began with a franchise shift, as the [Philadelphia Warriors](/wiki/Philadelphia_Warriors \"Philadelphia Warriors\") pulled up stakes and headed to San Francisco, joining the Los Angeles Lakers on the West Coast. The Warriors, whose lineage in basketball dates back to the [Philadelphia Sphas](/wiki/Philadelphia_Sphas \"Philadelphia Sphas\") of the 1920s, had been a fixture for decades in Philadelphia, one of [pro basketball](/wiki/Professional_basketball \"Professional basketball\")'s essential cities. Philadelphia would be without an NBA team until the [Syracuse Nationals](/wiki/Syracuse_Nationals \"Syracuse Nationals\") moved there [the following season](/wiki/1963%E2%80%9364_NBA_season \"1963–64 NBA season\"), becoming the [Philadelphia 76ers](/wiki/Philadelphia_76ers \"Philadelphia 76ers\"). The [Cincinnati Royals](/wiki/Cincinnati_Royals \"Cincinnati Royals\") were promptly shifted to the more competitive NBA's East Division to replace the Warriors, a fact the Royals would come to regret.",
"The existence of the rival [American Basketball League](/wiki/American_Basketball_League_%281961%E2%80%9363%29 \"American Basketball League (1961–63)\") played a significant factor this year. [Globetrotters](/wiki/Harlem_Globetrotters \"Harlem Globetrotters\")' owner [Abe Saperstein](/wiki/Abe_Saperstein \"Abe Saperstein\") started the league after he was thwarted in a bid for an NBA franchise in Los Angeles. The [Minneapolis Lakers](/wiki/Minneapolis_Lakers \"Minneapolis Lakers\") had moved to Los Angeles in 1960\\. The ABL made an immediate splash with two major innovations that the NBA would copy eventually \\-\\- a wider free throw lane and 3\\-point field goal for successful shots beyond 25 feet.",
"### Leading teams",
"Setting the pace in the Eastern Division, the defending champion Celtics won a league high 58 of 80 NBA games, leading the league in both [rebounds](/wiki/Rebound_%28basketball%29 \"Rebound (basketball)\") and [assists](/wiki/Assist_%28basketball%29 \"Assist (basketball)\") as a team, followed by the Lakers in the West with 53\\. Three other NBA teams won 40 games or better. The [Syracuse Nationals](/wiki/Syracuse_Nationals \"Syracuse Nationals\") and [St. Louis Hawks](/wiki/St._Louis_Hawks \"St. Louis Hawks\") both won 48 games each. The Cincinnati Royals also had 42 wins.",
"#### Celtics",
"On the court, the powerful Boston Celtics were building a dynasty. [Bill Russell](/wiki/Bill_Russell \"Bill Russell\") led [Red Auerbach](/wiki/Red_Auerbach \"Red Auerbach\")'s club from the middle with his [shot blocking](/wiki/Block_%28basketball%29 \"Block (basketball)\") and [rebounding](/wiki/Rebound_%28basketball%29 \"Rebound (basketball)\"), where he ranked a huge second place in the NBA. He was also seventh in the NBA in assists, remarkable for a [center](/wiki/Center_%28basketball%29 \"Center (basketball)\"). \n[Sam Jones](/wiki/Sam_Jones_%28basketball%2C_born_1933%29 \"Sam Jones (basketball, born 1933)\") had stepped in for [Bill Sharman](/wiki/Bill_Sharman \"Bill Sharman\") at [shooting guard](/wiki/Shooting_guard \"Shooting guard\"), after Sharman left to coach the [ABL](/wiki/American_Basketball_League_%281961%E2%80%931963%29 \"American Basketball League (1961–1963)\") [Los Angeles Jets](/wiki/Los_Angeles_Jets \"Los Angeles Jets\"). Jones immediately led the club in scoring just as Sharman had, with his deadly banking [jump shots](/wiki/Jump_shot_%28basketball%29 \"Jump shot (basketball)\"). 34\\-year\\-old [Bob Cousy](/wiki/Bob_Cousy \"Bob Cousy\") quarterbacked his club one more time, but the 1950s superstar had clearly lost a step.",
"#### Lakers",
"[Los Angeles Lakers](/wiki/Los_Angeles_Lakers \"Los Angeles Lakers\") were now in their third year in California. The Lakers were led by super forward [Elgin Baylor](/wiki/Elgin_Baylor \"Elgin Baylor\"), whose high\\-flying drives, surprising strength and all\\-around game awed many again this season. Baylor's 34 points per game rated him second in the NBA only to [Wilt Chamberlain](/wiki/Wilt_Chamberlain \"Wilt Chamberlain\"). He was also fifth in rebounds and sixth in assists. No slouch on defense either, Baylor did it all for the Lakers. He was also freed of his military commitments, which limited his availability during the previous season.",
"Third year star [Jerry West](/wiki/Jerry_West \"Jerry West\") battled injuries but continued to grow as a player also. He added 27 points per game and six assists for coach [Fred Schaus](/wiki/Fred_Schaus \"Fred Schaus\"), also his former college coach. The Lakers won 53 games and the NBA's West Division, looking forward to their matchup with Boston.",
"#### Nationals",
"The [Syracuse Nationals](/wiki/Syracuse_Nationals \"Syracuse Nationals\") were the league's top offense, a fact they greatly helped at the foul line. Coach [Alex Hannum](/wiki/Alex_Hannum \"Alex Hannum\")'s club were led by the trio of center [Johnny Kerr](/wiki/Johnny_Kerr \"Johnny Kerr\"), promising young [forward](/wiki/Forward_%28basketball%29 \"Forward (basketball)\") [Lee Shaffer](/wiki/Lee_Shaffer \"Lee Shaffer\") and [guard](/wiki/Basketball_positions%23Guards \"Basketball positions#Guards\") [Hal Greer](/wiki/Hal_Greer \"Hal Greer\"). Long\\-time star [Dolph Schayes](/wiki/Dolph_Schayes \"Dolph Schayes\") gave it one more year as a reserve at age 34\\. This would also be the final season for the NBA in [Syracuse](/wiki/Syracuse%2C_New_York \"Syracuse, New York\"). They would relocate to [Philadelphia](/wiki/Philadelphia \"Philadelphia\") for the following season as the [Philadelphia 76ers](/wiki/Philadelphia_76ers \"Philadelphia 76ers\").",
"#### Hawks",
"The [St. Louis Hawks](/wiki/St._Louis_Hawks \"St. Louis Hawks\") had five ten\\-point scorers to support superstar [Bob Pettit](/wiki/Bob_Pettit \"Bob Pettit\"). The 6'9 230\\-pounder rated third in NBA scoring with 28\\.4 points per games and was fifth in rebounds as well. His 685 [free throws](/wiki/Free_throws \"Free throws\") made led the league. The Hawks also had the NBA's top rated defense.",
"#### Royals",
"The [Cincinnati Royals](/wiki/Cincinnati_Royals \"Cincinnati Royals\") continued to recover from the tragedy of [Maurice Stokes](/wiki/Maurice_Stokes \"Maurice Stokes\") with another huge year from third\\-year superstar [Oscar Robertson](/wiki/Oscar_Robertson \"Oscar Robertson\"). The converted 6' 5 210\\-pound forward was now rated by many as the best non\\-center to ever play in the NBA, lighting up the Royals backcourt with 28\\.3 points, nine rebounds and ten assists per game. Robertson tried 1593 shots this year, the third\\-highest total, and made 52% of them, the fourth\\-best percentage for accuracy in the NBA. His 614 free throws made were the second\\-most also, as he averaged 81% from the [foul line](/wiki/Free_throw \"Free throw\"). A balanced [starting five](/wiki/Starting_lineup \"Starting lineup\") and some key reserves supported Robertson, as coach [Charlie Wolf](/wiki/Charlie_Wolf \"Charlie Wolf\")'s team won over half their games for the second straight year. But the Royals continued to struggle with signees. Draft picks [Larry Siegfried](/wiki/Larry_Siegfried \"Larry Siegfried\") and [Jerry Lucas](/wiki/Jerry_Lucas \"Jerry Lucas\") signed with the [Cleveland Pipers](/wiki/Cleveland_Pipers \"Cleveland Pipers\") of [Abe Saperstein](/wiki/Abe_Saperstein \"Abe Saperstein\")'s American Basketball League. Worse, Siegfried would return to the NBA as a key Boston Celtic. The loss of these two would hinder the club's playoff chances.",
"### Wilt Chamberlain",
"Wilt Chamberlain's first season in San Francisco had his usual incredible stats, but the club failed to win half their games. Wilt's 44 points per game easily ranked him ahead of Baylor in the scoring column. He was also first in the NBA in rebounds, blocked shots, shooting accuracy, number of shots tried and made from the floor, and free throws tried. As a player, he was still all by himself.",
"### Postseason",
"Six of the NBA's nine teams made the [playoffs](/wiki/Playoffs \"Playoffs\"), three in each division. The second and third place teams met first, with each division winner meeting the winner in the second round before the NBA Finals.",
"#### East",
"Boston got a huge scare from the Cincinnati Royals, who shocked Syracuse with an overtime win in Syracuse to win Game Five and that series. Cincinnati ownership was shocked too. They had booked [Cincinnati Gardens](/wiki/Cincinnati_Gardens \"Cincinnati Gardens\") for a circus, expecting a Royals loss in that series. The Royals had to play two of their home games against Boston elsewhere while pushing Boston the full seven games. Robertson's huge play was boosted further by all\\-star [Jack Twyman](/wiki/Jack_Twyman \"Jack Twyman\")' shooting. But Boston's three 20\\-point scorers \\-\\-\\- [Tommy Heinsohn](/wiki/Tommy_Heinsohn \"Tommy Heinsohn\"), Russell and Jones \\-\\-\\- staved off the Royals charge. It was the beginning of a strong, underrated rivalry.\nSyracuse was hindered by the absence of [Connie Dierking](/wiki/Connie_Dierking \"Connie Dierking\"), who also had gone to the ABL, but refused to return to the club when that league folded.",
"#### West",
"In the West, St. Louis topped [Don Ohl](/wiki/Don_Ohl \"Don Ohl\"), [Bailey Howell](/wiki/Bailey_Howell \"Bailey Howell\"), [Ray Scott](/wiki/Ray_Scott_%28basketball%29 \"Ray Scott (basketball)\") and the [Detroit Pistons](/wiki/Detroit_Pistons \"Detroit Pistons\") three games to one to meet the Lakers in the second round. Detroit's rookie [Dave DeBusschere](/wiki/Dave_DeBusschere \"Dave DeBusschere\") had a strong series off the bench as well in the losing effort.\nThe Lakers and Hawks went the full seven games as well, with Baylor and Pettit trading big offensive games and rebounds. The difference were Laker guards West and [Dick Barnett](/wiki/Dick_Barnett \"Dick Barnett\"), the former ABL star.",
"#### Finals",
"The balance and depth of Boston would be too much for Baylor and West in the Finals despite their best efforts. The series went six games, with Boston winning the final one 112\\-109 in Los Angeles. Boston's Bill Russell, who averaged over 20 points, 20 rebounds, five assists and several blocks per game for his 13 playoff games, was the difference again in the middle for his star\\-studded team.",
""
] |
### Leading teams
Setting the pace in the Eastern Division, the defending champion Celtics won a league high 58 of 80 NBA games, leading the league in both [rebounds](/wiki/Rebound_%28basketball%29 "Rebound (basketball)") and [assists](/wiki/Assist_%28basketball%29 "Assist (basketball)") as a team, followed by the Lakers in the West with 53\. Three other NBA teams won 40 games or better. The [Syracuse Nationals](/wiki/Syracuse_Nationals "Syracuse Nationals") and [St. Louis Hawks](/wiki/St._Louis_Hawks "St. Louis Hawks") both won 48 games each. The Cincinnati Royals also had 42 wins.
#### Celtics
On the court, the powerful Boston Celtics were building a dynasty. [Bill Russell](/wiki/Bill_Russell "Bill Russell") led [Red Auerbach](/wiki/Red_Auerbach "Red Auerbach")'s club from the middle with his [shot blocking](/wiki/Block_%28basketball%29 "Block (basketball)") and [rebounding](/wiki/Rebound_%28basketball%29 "Rebound (basketball)"), where he ranked a huge second place in the NBA. He was also seventh in the NBA in assists, remarkable for a [center](/wiki/Center_%28basketball%29 "Center (basketball)").
[Sam Jones](/wiki/Sam_Jones_%28basketball%2C_born_1933%29 "Sam Jones (basketball, born 1933)") had stepped in for [Bill Sharman](/wiki/Bill_Sharman "Bill Sharman") at [shooting guard](/wiki/Shooting_guard "Shooting guard"), after Sharman left to coach the [ABL](/wiki/American_Basketball_League_%281961%E2%80%931963%29 "American Basketball League (1961–1963)") [Los Angeles Jets](/wiki/Los_Angeles_Jets "Los Angeles Jets"). Jones immediately led the club in scoring just as Sharman had, with his deadly banking [jump shots](/wiki/Jump_shot_%28basketball%29 "Jump shot (basketball)"). 34\-year\-old [Bob Cousy](/wiki/Bob_Cousy "Bob Cousy") quarterbacked his club one more time, but the 1950s superstar had clearly lost a step.
#### Lakers
[Los Angeles Lakers](/wiki/Los_Angeles_Lakers "Los Angeles Lakers") were now in their third year in California. The Lakers were led by super forward [Elgin Baylor](/wiki/Elgin_Baylor "Elgin Baylor"), whose high\-flying drives, surprising strength and all\-around game awed many again this season. Baylor's 34 points per game rated him second in the NBA only to [Wilt Chamberlain](/wiki/Wilt_Chamberlain "Wilt Chamberlain"). He was also fifth in rebounds and sixth in assists. No slouch on defense either, Baylor did it all for the Lakers. He was also freed of his military commitments, which limited his availability during the previous season.
Third year star [Jerry West](/wiki/Jerry_West "Jerry West") battled injuries but continued to grow as a player also. He added 27 points per game and six assists for coach [Fred Schaus](/wiki/Fred_Schaus "Fred Schaus"), also his former college coach. The Lakers won 53 games and the NBA's West Division, looking forward to their matchup with Boston.
#### Nationals
The [Syracuse Nationals](/wiki/Syracuse_Nationals "Syracuse Nationals") were the league's top offense, a fact they greatly helped at the foul line. Coach [Alex Hannum](/wiki/Alex_Hannum "Alex Hannum")'s club were led by the trio of center [Johnny Kerr](/wiki/Johnny_Kerr "Johnny Kerr"), promising young [forward](/wiki/Forward_%28basketball%29 "Forward (basketball)") [Lee Shaffer](/wiki/Lee_Shaffer "Lee Shaffer") and [guard](/wiki/Basketball_positions%23Guards "Basketball positions#Guards") [Hal Greer](/wiki/Hal_Greer "Hal Greer"). Long\-time star [Dolph Schayes](/wiki/Dolph_Schayes "Dolph Schayes") gave it one more year as a reserve at age 34\. This would also be the final season for the NBA in [Syracuse](/wiki/Syracuse%2C_New_York "Syracuse, New York"). They would relocate to [Philadelphia](/wiki/Philadelphia "Philadelphia") for the following season as the [Philadelphia 76ers](/wiki/Philadelphia_76ers "Philadelphia 76ers").
#### Hawks
The [St. Louis Hawks](/wiki/St._Louis_Hawks "St. Louis Hawks") had five ten\-point scorers to support superstar [Bob Pettit](/wiki/Bob_Pettit "Bob Pettit"). The 6'9 230\-pounder rated third in NBA scoring with 28\.4 points per games and was fifth in rebounds as well. His 685 [free throws](/wiki/Free_throws "Free throws") made led the league. The Hawks also had the NBA's top rated defense.
#### Royals
The [Cincinnati Royals](/wiki/Cincinnati_Royals "Cincinnati Royals") continued to recover from the tragedy of [Maurice Stokes](/wiki/Maurice_Stokes "Maurice Stokes") with another huge year from third\-year superstar [Oscar Robertson](/wiki/Oscar_Robertson "Oscar Robertson"). The converted 6' 5 210\-pound forward was now rated by many as the best non\-center to ever play in the NBA, lighting up the Royals backcourt with 28\.3 points, nine rebounds and ten assists per game. Robertson tried 1593 shots this year, the third\-highest total, and made 52% of them, the fourth\-best percentage for accuracy in the NBA. His 614 free throws made were the second\-most also, as he averaged 81% from the [foul line](/wiki/Free_throw "Free throw"). A balanced [starting five](/wiki/Starting_lineup "Starting lineup") and some key reserves supported Robertson, as coach [Charlie Wolf](/wiki/Charlie_Wolf "Charlie Wolf")'s team won over half their games for the second straight year. But the Royals continued to struggle with signees. Draft picks [Larry Siegfried](/wiki/Larry_Siegfried "Larry Siegfried") and [Jerry Lucas](/wiki/Jerry_Lucas "Jerry Lucas") signed with the [Cleveland Pipers](/wiki/Cleveland_Pipers "Cleveland Pipers") of [Abe Saperstein](/wiki/Abe_Saperstein "Abe Saperstein")'s American Basketball League. Worse, Siegfried would return to the NBA as a key Boston Celtic. The loss of these two would hinder the club's playoff chances.
|
[
"### Leading teams",
"Setting the pace in the Eastern Division, the defending champion Celtics won a league high 58 of 80 NBA games, leading the league in both [rebounds](/wiki/Rebound_%28basketball%29 \"Rebound (basketball)\") and [assists](/wiki/Assist_%28basketball%29 \"Assist (basketball)\") as a team, followed by the Lakers in the West with 53\\. Three other NBA teams won 40 games or better. The [Syracuse Nationals](/wiki/Syracuse_Nationals \"Syracuse Nationals\") and [St. Louis Hawks](/wiki/St._Louis_Hawks \"St. Louis Hawks\") both won 48 games each. The Cincinnati Royals also had 42 wins.",
"#### Celtics",
"On the court, the powerful Boston Celtics were building a dynasty. [Bill Russell](/wiki/Bill_Russell \"Bill Russell\") led [Red Auerbach](/wiki/Red_Auerbach \"Red Auerbach\")'s club from the middle with his [shot blocking](/wiki/Block_%28basketball%29 \"Block (basketball)\") and [rebounding](/wiki/Rebound_%28basketball%29 \"Rebound (basketball)\"), where he ranked a huge second place in the NBA. He was also seventh in the NBA in assists, remarkable for a [center](/wiki/Center_%28basketball%29 \"Center (basketball)\"). \n[Sam Jones](/wiki/Sam_Jones_%28basketball%2C_born_1933%29 \"Sam Jones (basketball, born 1933)\") had stepped in for [Bill Sharman](/wiki/Bill_Sharman \"Bill Sharman\") at [shooting guard](/wiki/Shooting_guard \"Shooting guard\"), after Sharman left to coach the [ABL](/wiki/American_Basketball_League_%281961%E2%80%931963%29 \"American Basketball League (1961–1963)\") [Los Angeles Jets](/wiki/Los_Angeles_Jets \"Los Angeles Jets\"). Jones immediately led the club in scoring just as Sharman had, with his deadly banking [jump shots](/wiki/Jump_shot_%28basketball%29 \"Jump shot (basketball)\"). 34\\-year\\-old [Bob Cousy](/wiki/Bob_Cousy \"Bob Cousy\") quarterbacked his club one more time, but the 1950s superstar had clearly lost a step.",
"#### Lakers",
"[Los Angeles Lakers](/wiki/Los_Angeles_Lakers \"Los Angeles Lakers\") were now in their third year in California. The Lakers were led by super forward [Elgin Baylor](/wiki/Elgin_Baylor \"Elgin Baylor\"), whose high\\-flying drives, surprising strength and all\\-around game awed many again this season. Baylor's 34 points per game rated him second in the NBA only to [Wilt Chamberlain](/wiki/Wilt_Chamberlain \"Wilt Chamberlain\"). He was also fifth in rebounds and sixth in assists. No slouch on defense either, Baylor did it all for the Lakers. He was also freed of his military commitments, which limited his availability during the previous season.",
"Third year star [Jerry West](/wiki/Jerry_West \"Jerry West\") battled injuries but continued to grow as a player also. He added 27 points per game and six assists for coach [Fred Schaus](/wiki/Fred_Schaus \"Fred Schaus\"), also his former college coach. The Lakers won 53 games and the NBA's West Division, looking forward to their matchup with Boston.",
"#### Nationals",
"The [Syracuse Nationals](/wiki/Syracuse_Nationals \"Syracuse Nationals\") were the league's top offense, a fact they greatly helped at the foul line. Coach [Alex Hannum](/wiki/Alex_Hannum \"Alex Hannum\")'s club were led by the trio of center [Johnny Kerr](/wiki/Johnny_Kerr \"Johnny Kerr\"), promising young [forward](/wiki/Forward_%28basketball%29 \"Forward (basketball)\") [Lee Shaffer](/wiki/Lee_Shaffer \"Lee Shaffer\") and [guard](/wiki/Basketball_positions%23Guards \"Basketball positions#Guards\") [Hal Greer](/wiki/Hal_Greer \"Hal Greer\"). Long\\-time star [Dolph Schayes](/wiki/Dolph_Schayes \"Dolph Schayes\") gave it one more year as a reserve at age 34\\. This would also be the final season for the NBA in [Syracuse](/wiki/Syracuse%2C_New_York \"Syracuse, New York\"). They would relocate to [Philadelphia](/wiki/Philadelphia \"Philadelphia\") for the following season as the [Philadelphia 76ers](/wiki/Philadelphia_76ers \"Philadelphia 76ers\").",
"#### Hawks",
"The [St. Louis Hawks](/wiki/St._Louis_Hawks \"St. Louis Hawks\") had five ten\\-point scorers to support superstar [Bob Pettit](/wiki/Bob_Pettit \"Bob Pettit\"). The 6'9 230\\-pounder rated third in NBA scoring with 28\\.4 points per games and was fifth in rebounds as well. His 685 [free throws](/wiki/Free_throws \"Free throws\") made led the league. The Hawks also had the NBA's top rated defense.",
"#### Royals",
"The [Cincinnati Royals](/wiki/Cincinnati_Royals \"Cincinnati Royals\") continued to recover from the tragedy of [Maurice Stokes](/wiki/Maurice_Stokes \"Maurice Stokes\") with another huge year from third\\-year superstar [Oscar Robertson](/wiki/Oscar_Robertson \"Oscar Robertson\"). The converted 6' 5 210\\-pound forward was now rated by many as the best non\\-center to ever play in the NBA, lighting up the Royals backcourt with 28\\.3 points, nine rebounds and ten assists per game. Robertson tried 1593 shots this year, the third\\-highest total, and made 52% of them, the fourth\\-best percentage for accuracy in the NBA. His 614 free throws made were the second\\-most also, as he averaged 81% from the [foul line](/wiki/Free_throw \"Free throw\"). A balanced [starting five](/wiki/Starting_lineup \"Starting lineup\") and some key reserves supported Robertson, as coach [Charlie Wolf](/wiki/Charlie_Wolf \"Charlie Wolf\")'s team won over half their games for the second straight year. But the Royals continued to struggle with signees. Draft picks [Larry Siegfried](/wiki/Larry_Siegfried \"Larry Siegfried\") and [Jerry Lucas](/wiki/Jerry_Lucas \"Jerry Lucas\") signed with the [Cleveland Pipers](/wiki/Cleveland_Pipers \"Cleveland Pipers\") of [Abe Saperstein](/wiki/Abe_Saperstein \"Abe Saperstein\")'s American Basketball League. Worse, Siegfried would return to the NBA as a key Boston Celtic. The loss of these two would hinder the club's playoff chances.",
""
] |
Global activities
-----------------
International Space Year was celebrated by 29 space agencies in various countries with the purpose of establishing peaceful international relations in space programs. International Space Year conferences were held regularly in many nations.
### Australia
In [Australia](/wiki/Australia "Australia"), many public events were organized to augment public awareness of space by the [National Space Society](/wiki/National_Space_Society "National Space Society") chapters of Australia. [CSIRO](/wiki/Commonwealth_Scientific_and_Industrial_Research_Organisation "Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation") led the "Mission to Planet Earth" Land Cover Change project, using [satellites](/wiki/Satellite "Satellite") to study [plant life](/wiki/Plant "Plant") on Earth in relation to climate and civilization. CSIRO and various Australian Universities also studied the ocean using [European](/wiki/Europe "Europe") and [Japanese](/wiki/Japan "Japan") satellites. Additionally, a series of commemorative stamps was issued by the [Australia Post](/wiki/Australia_Post "Australia Post") for International Space Year.Kingwell, Jeff. "International Space Year". *Year Book Australia, 1992*. Accessed through the [Australian Bureau of Statistics](http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/Previousproducts/1301.0Feature%20Article21992). Retrieved 2012\-09\-18\.
### Japan
In [Tokyo](/wiki/Tokyo "Tokyo"), [Japan](/wiki/Japan "Japan"), a conference—the Asia\-Pacific International Space Year Conference—was held to discuss the "Mission to Planet Earth" theme and international cooperation.*Asia\-Pacific International Space Year (ISY) Conference, Tokyo, Japan, Nov. 16\-20, 1992, Proceedings. Vols. 1 \& 2* abstract. Hosted on the [Smithsonian/NASA Astrophysics Data System](http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1992STIA...9343761.). Retrieved 2012\-09\-18\.
### Russia
In [Russia](/wiki/Russia "Russia"), the [Foundation for Social Inventions](/wiki/Foundation_for_Social_Inventions "Foundation for Social Inventions") launched [Space Flight Europe\-America 500](/wiki/Space_Flight_Europe-America_500 "Space Flight Europe-America 500") in an attempt to promote a peaceful social and economic relationship between the former [Soviet states](/wiki/Soviet_Union "Soviet Union") and the United States of America. Space Flight Europe\-America 500 consisted of a [Proton rocket](/wiki/Proton_%28rocket_family%29 "Proton (rocket family)") carrying various items symbolizing peace, which orbited the Earth for a few days."From Russia, With Love: 'Peace Rocket' Heads to U.S. : Space: Craft is slated to splash down off Washington state with cargo of goodwill items." *[Los Angeles Times](/wiki/Los_Angeles_Times "Los Angeles Times")*, November 16, 1992\. Accessed on [latimes.com](https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1992-11-16-mn-496-story.html). Retrieved 2012\-09\-17\. The space craft was scheduled to land near [Washington](/wiki/Washington_%28state%29 "Washington (state)") in late November. Its cost was estimated by Russian authorities at over US$200 million.Dietrich, Bill. "Space \-\- Rocketing Toward Peace". *[Seattle Times](/wiki/Seattle_Times "Seattle Times")*, November 22, 1992\. Accessed [here](http://community.seattletimes.nwsource.com/archive/?date=19921102&slug=1522227). Retrieved 2012\-09\-17\.
### United States
In the [United States](/wiki/United_States "United States"), [NASA](/wiki/NASA "NASA"), which led the US space agencies, responded to ISY with the completion or creation of many important space programs, including numerous collaborations with other domestic and international space agencies. A total of twelve programmes were launched, the most in any year up to that point. NASA focused particularly on projects — such as the *[Mars Observer](/wiki/Mars_Observer "Mars Observer")*, which studied the atmosphere and climate of [Mars](/wiki/Mars "Mars") — that examined the possibility of sustaining human life outside Earth, as well as those exploring problems that existed on Earth at the time.Fisk, Lennard A. "Space science." *National Forum* 72, no. 3 (Summer92 1992\): 20\. *Academic Search Premier*, *EBSCO*host. Retrieved 2012\-09\-17\. ISY was also recognized with the opening of a new exhibit, entitled "Where Next, Columbus?" at the [National Air and Space Museum](/wiki/National_Air_and_Space_Museum "National Air and Space Museum")."Where next, Columbus?" *Futurist 24*, no. 4 (July 1990\): 47\. *Academic Search Premier*, *EBSCO*host. Retrieved 2012\-09\-17\.
#### They Might Be Giants
[thumb\|100px\|ISY logo used for *Apollo 18*](/wiki/File:International_Space_Year_logo_-_Apollo_18%2C_TMBG.png "International Space Year logo - Apollo 18, TMBG.png")
Alternative rock band [They Might Be Giants](/wiki/They_Might_Be_Giants "They Might Be Giants") were designated by NASA as the "Musical Ambassador" of the International Space Year when they were searching the NASA archives for images for their album, *[Apollo 18](/wiki/Apollo_18_%28album%29 "Apollo 18 (album)")*. The title of the album came directly from the NASA [Apollo program](/wiki/Apollo_program "Apollo program")—the last mission of which was [Apollo 17](/wiki/Apollo_17 "Apollo 17").Bresnick, Adam. "They Might Be Giants". *[Creem](/wiki/Creem "Creem")*, May 1992\. [Accordionist](/wiki/Accordion "Accordion") and singer/songwriter [John Linnell](/wiki/John_Linnell "John Linnell") jokingly speculated that an album named *Apollo 18* would be a cheaper alternative to actually manning a flight to the [Moon](/wiki/Moon "Moon") as part of the International Space Year, although the album title was selected prior to the band's involvement with ISY.Schlosberg, Karen. "Giant Steps: Apollo 18 Goes Where No Band Have Gone Before". *[The Boston Phoenix](/wiki/The_Phoenix_%28newspaper%29 "The Phoenix (newspaper)")*. 20 May, 1992\. In support of the celebration, the album's back cover artwork and some promotional materials feature the International Space Year logo. Linnell explained that "\[the band is] supposed to be included on lists of events happening in connection with International Space Year...In other words, on a particular month they'll say in some town there's this lecture about space telescopes and then there's this They Might Be Giants concert."Jackson, Joab. "How They Might Be Giants Became the House Band for NASA". *New Route* magazine, May 1992\. On a different occasion, however, he pointed out that he "\[didn't] think most people have heard that this is International Space Year".*[Rumpus](/wiki/Rumpus_Magazine "Rumpus Magazine")* magazine, October 1992\.
|
[
"Global activities\n-----------------",
"International Space Year was celebrated by 29 space agencies in various countries with the purpose of establishing peaceful international relations in space programs. International Space Year conferences were held regularly in many nations.",
"### Australia",
"In [Australia](/wiki/Australia \"Australia\"), many public events were organized to augment public awareness of space by the [National Space Society](/wiki/National_Space_Society \"National Space Society\") chapters of Australia. [CSIRO](/wiki/Commonwealth_Scientific_and_Industrial_Research_Organisation \"Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation\") led the \"Mission to Planet Earth\" Land Cover Change project, using [satellites](/wiki/Satellite \"Satellite\") to study [plant life](/wiki/Plant \"Plant\") on Earth in relation to climate and civilization. CSIRO and various Australian Universities also studied the ocean using [European](/wiki/Europe \"Europe\") and [Japanese](/wiki/Japan \"Japan\") satellites. Additionally, a series of commemorative stamps was issued by the [Australia Post](/wiki/Australia_Post \"Australia Post\") for International Space Year.Kingwell, Jeff. \"International Space Year\". *Year Book Australia, 1992*. Accessed through the [Australian Bureau of Statistics](http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/Previousproducts/1301.0Feature%20Article21992). Retrieved 2012\\-09\\-18\\.",
"### Japan",
"In [Tokyo](/wiki/Tokyo \"Tokyo\"), [Japan](/wiki/Japan \"Japan\"), a conference—the Asia\\-Pacific International Space Year Conference—was held to discuss the \"Mission to Planet Earth\" theme and international cooperation.*Asia\\-Pacific International Space Year (ISY) Conference, Tokyo, Japan, Nov. 16\\-20, 1992, Proceedings. Vols. 1 \\& 2* abstract. Hosted on the [Smithsonian/NASA Astrophysics Data System](http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1992STIA...9343761.). Retrieved 2012\\-09\\-18\\.",
"### Russia",
"In [Russia](/wiki/Russia \"Russia\"), the [Foundation for Social Inventions](/wiki/Foundation_for_Social_Inventions \"Foundation for Social Inventions\") launched [Space Flight Europe\\-America 500](/wiki/Space_Flight_Europe-America_500 \"Space Flight Europe-America 500\") in an attempt to promote a peaceful social and economic relationship between the former [Soviet states](/wiki/Soviet_Union \"Soviet Union\") and the United States of America. Space Flight Europe\\-America 500 consisted of a [Proton rocket](/wiki/Proton_%28rocket_family%29 \"Proton (rocket family)\") carrying various items symbolizing peace, which orbited the Earth for a few days.\"From Russia, With Love: 'Peace Rocket' Heads to U.S. : Space: Craft is slated to splash down off Washington state with cargo of goodwill items.\" *[Los Angeles Times](/wiki/Los_Angeles_Times \"Los Angeles Times\")*, November 16, 1992\\. Accessed on [latimes.com](https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1992-11-16-mn-496-story.html). Retrieved 2012\\-09\\-17\\. The space craft was scheduled to land near [Washington](/wiki/Washington_%28state%29 \"Washington (state)\") in late November. Its cost was estimated by Russian authorities at over US$200 million.Dietrich, Bill. \"Space \\-\\- Rocketing Toward Peace\". *[Seattle Times](/wiki/Seattle_Times \"Seattle Times\")*, November 22, 1992\\. Accessed [here](http://community.seattletimes.nwsource.com/archive/?date=19921102&slug=1522227). Retrieved 2012\\-09\\-17\\.",
"### United States",
"In the [United States](/wiki/United_States \"United States\"), [NASA](/wiki/NASA \"NASA\"), which led the US space agencies, responded to ISY with the completion or creation of many important space programs, including numerous collaborations with other domestic and international space agencies. A total of twelve programmes were launched, the most in any year up to that point. NASA focused particularly on projects — such as the *[Mars Observer](/wiki/Mars_Observer \"Mars Observer\")*, which studied the atmosphere and climate of [Mars](/wiki/Mars \"Mars\") — that examined the possibility of sustaining human life outside Earth, as well as those exploring problems that existed on Earth at the time.Fisk, Lennard A. \"Space science.\" *National Forum* 72, no. 3 (Summer92 1992\\): 20\\. *Academic Search Premier*, *EBSCO*host. Retrieved 2012\\-09\\-17\\. ISY was also recognized with the opening of a new exhibit, entitled \"Where Next, Columbus?\" at the [National Air and Space Museum](/wiki/National_Air_and_Space_Museum \"National Air and Space Museum\").\"Where next, Columbus?\" *Futurist 24*, no. 4 (July 1990\\): 47\\. *Academic Search Premier*, *EBSCO*host. Retrieved 2012\\-09\\-17\\.",
"#### They Might Be Giants",
"[thumb\\|100px\\|ISY logo used for *Apollo 18*](/wiki/File:International_Space_Year_logo_-_Apollo_18%2C_TMBG.png \"International Space Year logo - Apollo 18, TMBG.png\")\nAlternative rock band [They Might Be Giants](/wiki/They_Might_Be_Giants \"They Might Be Giants\") were designated by NASA as the \"Musical Ambassador\" of the International Space Year when they were searching the NASA archives for images for their album, *[Apollo 18](/wiki/Apollo_18_%28album%29 \"Apollo 18 (album)\")*. The title of the album came directly from the NASA [Apollo program](/wiki/Apollo_program \"Apollo program\")—the last mission of which was [Apollo 17](/wiki/Apollo_17 \"Apollo 17\").Bresnick, Adam. \"They Might Be Giants\". *[Creem](/wiki/Creem \"Creem\")*, May 1992\\. [Accordionist](/wiki/Accordion \"Accordion\") and singer/songwriter [John Linnell](/wiki/John_Linnell \"John Linnell\") jokingly speculated that an album named *Apollo 18* would be a cheaper alternative to actually manning a flight to the [Moon](/wiki/Moon \"Moon\") as part of the International Space Year, although the album title was selected prior to the band's involvement with ISY.Schlosberg, Karen. \"Giant Steps: Apollo 18 Goes Where No Band Have Gone Before\". *[The Boston Phoenix](/wiki/The_Phoenix_%28newspaper%29 \"The Phoenix (newspaper)\")*. 20 May, 1992\\. In support of the celebration, the album's back cover artwork and some promotional materials feature the International Space Year logo. Linnell explained that \"\\[the band is] supposed to be included on lists of events happening in connection with International Space Year...In other words, on a particular month they'll say in some town there's this lecture about space telescopes and then there's this They Might Be Giants concert.\"Jackson, Joab. \"How They Might Be Giants Became the House Band for NASA\". *New Route* magazine, May 1992\\. On a different occasion, however, he pointed out that he \"\\[didn't] think most people have heard that this is International Space Year\".*[Rumpus](/wiki/Rumpus_Magazine \"Rumpus Magazine\")* magazine, October 1992\\.",
""
] |
Natural features
----------------
[thumb\|"Sea grapes" seaweed, Fitzgerald Marine Reserve](/wiki/File:Sea_grapes%2C_Fitzgerald_Marine_Reserve.jpg "Sea grapes, Fitzgerald Marine Reserve.jpg")
[thumb\|View from Bluff Trail Looking down to Frenchmans Reef intertidal Zone](/wiki/Image:Mosslanding.jpg "Mosslanding.jpg")
The tidepool habitat has long been prized as one of the best such habitats in [northern California](/wiki/Northern_California "Northern California"). It has been identified by the State of California as one of 34 such coastal habitats having "Special Biological Significance". [Sea urchins](/wiki/Sea_urchin "Sea urchin"), [anemone](/wiki/Anemone "Anemone"), [hermit crabs](/wiki/Hermit_crab "Hermit crab") and many other [intertidal](/wiki/Intertidal "Intertidal") species are prominent.
At the north of the reserve [San Vicente Creek](/wiki/San_Vicente_Creek_%28San_Mateo_County%29 "San Vicente Creek (San Mateo County)") empties into the [Pacific Ocean](/wiki/Pacific_Ocean "Pacific Ocean") and has a diverse habitat supporting [Red Willow](/wiki/Salix_laevigata "Salix laevigata") and other [riparian](/wiki/Riparian "Riparian") species. From a footbridge across San Vicente Creek, one climbs atop the bluff trail, which rises about {{convert\|30\|m\|ft\|sp\=us}} above the beach. From there one has rewarding views down upon [Frenchmans Reef](/wiki/Frenchmans_Reef "Frenchmans Reef"), a rich marine ecological area. Seaward the reserve extends to a depth of over {{convert\|300\|m\|ft\|sp\=us}} downward into the Pacific Ocean. The reef is composed of the rock [granodiorite](/wiki/Granodiorite "Granodiorite").
An occurrence of the rare plant [Hickman's potentilla](/wiki/Hickman%27s_potentilla "Hickman's potentilla"), *Potentilla hickmanii*, was observed by E.C. Suttliffe in 1933U.S. [Federal Register](/wiki/Federal_Register "Federal Register"): August 2, 1995 (Volume 60, Number 148, Pages 39326\-39337 in the vicinity of the mouth of San Vicente Creek within Moss Beach. This colony was not further documented for decades, but another colony was discoveredFremontia 21(1\):25\-29 (1993\) and 24(1\):3\-11 (1996\) toward the end of the 20th century north of Moss Beach. The plant was listed as an [endangered species](/wiki/Endangered_species "Endangered species") by the [United States](/wiki/United_States "United States") government in 1998, and had previously been listed as California endangered in 1973\.
Sightings of the [San Bruno elfin butterfly](/wiki/San_Bruno_elfin_butterfly "San Bruno elfin butterfly") have been made adjacent to the Fitzgerald Marine Reserve in [Montara](/wiki/Montara%2C_California "Montara, California"). This endangered species has very limited range and habitat.
The active [Seal Cove Fault](/wiki/Seal_Cove_Fault "Seal Cove Fault") (first mapped and named by William Glen in a 1959 publication of the University of California series in the geological sciences) forms much of the eastern boundary of the site. Glen first suggested that the Seal Cove fault was a northward extension of the San Gregorio fault. Submarine surveys later found that the fault extends northward under the Pacific Ocean and presumably joins the [San Andreas Fault](/wiki/San_Andreas_Fault "San Andreas Fault") near [Bolinas](/wiki/Bolinas%2C_California "Bolinas, California"). The fault's trace was formerly clearly exposed in a sea cliff at the northern portion of the reserve, but is now obscured by cultural changes.
|
[
"Natural features\n----------------",
"[thumb\\|\"Sea grapes\" seaweed, Fitzgerald Marine Reserve](/wiki/File:Sea_grapes%2C_Fitzgerald_Marine_Reserve.jpg \"Sea grapes, Fitzgerald Marine Reserve.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|View from Bluff Trail Looking down to Frenchmans Reef intertidal Zone](/wiki/Image:Mosslanding.jpg \"Mosslanding.jpg\")",
"The tidepool habitat has long been prized as one of the best such habitats in [northern California](/wiki/Northern_California \"Northern California\"). It has been identified by the State of California as one of 34 such coastal habitats having \"Special Biological Significance\". [Sea urchins](/wiki/Sea_urchin \"Sea urchin\"), [anemone](/wiki/Anemone \"Anemone\"), [hermit crabs](/wiki/Hermit_crab \"Hermit crab\") and many other [intertidal](/wiki/Intertidal \"Intertidal\") species are prominent.",
"At the north of the reserve [San Vicente Creek](/wiki/San_Vicente_Creek_%28San_Mateo_County%29 \"San Vicente Creek (San Mateo County)\") empties into the [Pacific Ocean](/wiki/Pacific_Ocean \"Pacific Ocean\") and has a diverse habitat supporting [Red Willow](/wiki/Salix_laevigata \"Salix laevigata\") and other [riparian](/wiki/Riparian \"Riparian\") species. From a footbridge across San Vicente Creek, one climbs atop the bluff trail, which rises about {{convert\\|30\\|m\\|ft\\|sp\\=us}} above the beach. From there one has rewarding views down upon [Frenchmans Reef](/wiki/Frenchmans_Reef \"Frenchmans Reef\"), a rich marine ecological area. Seaward the reserve extends to a depth of over {{convert\\|300\\|m\\|ft\\|sp\\=us}} downward into the Pacific Ocean. The reef is composed of the rock [granodiorite](/wiki/Granodiorite \"Granodiorite\").",
"An occurrence of the rare plant [Hickman's potentilla](/wiki/Hickman%27s_potentilla \"Hickman's potentilla\"), *Potentilla hickmanii*, was observed by E.C. Suttliffe in 1933U.S. [Federal Register](/wiki/Federal_Register \"Federal Register\"): August 2, 1995 (Volume 60, Number 148, Pages 39326\\-39337 in the vicinity of the mouth of San Vicente Creek within Moss Beach. This colony was not further documented for decades, but another colony was discoveredFremontia 21(1\\):25\\-29 (1993\\) and 24(1\\):3\\-11 (1996\\) toward the end of the 20th century north of Moss Beach. The plant was listed as an [endangered species](/wiki/Endangered_species \"Endangered species\") by the [United States](/wiki/United_States \"United States\") government in 1998, and had previously been listed as California endangered in 1973\\.",
"Sightings of the [San Bruno elfin butterfly](/wiki/San_Bruno_elfin_butterfly \"San Bruno elfin butterfly\") have been made adjacent to the Fitzgerald Marine Reserve in [Montara](/wiki/Montara%2C_California \"Montara, California\"). This endangered species has very limited range and habitat.",
"The active [Seal Cove Fault](/wiki/Seal_Cove_Fault \"Seal Cove Fault\") (first mapped and named by William Glen in a 1959 publication of the University of California series in the geological sciences) forms much of the eastern boundary of the site. Glen first suggested that the Seal Cove fault was a northward extension of the San Gregorio fault. Submarine surveys later found that the fault extends northward under the Pacific Ocean and presumably joins the [San Andreas Fault](/wiki/San_Andreas_Fault \"San Andreas Fault\") near [Bolinas](/wiki/Bolinas%2C_California \"Bolinas, California\"). The fault's trace was formerly clearly exposed in a sea cliff at the northern portion of the reserve, but is now obscured by cultural changes.",
""
] |
Club career
-----------
Born in [Canberra](/wiki/Canberra "Canberra"), Barisic began his career in 2002 with the [ACTAS](/wiki/Capital_Football "Capital Football") before moving to [Canberra Deakin](/wiki/Canberra_FC "Canberra FC") in July 2003\. In January 2004 he signed his first professional contract with [Melbourne Knights](/wiki/Melbourne_Knights "Melbourne Knights"), then left in the summer of 2006 for Europe and signed a contract for Germany\-based [Oberliga Nord](/wiki/Oberliga_Nord "Oberliga Nord") club, [Arminia Hannover](/wiki/Arminia_Hannover "Arminia Hannover").
On 13 December 2007 he signed with his former club [Melbourne Knights](/wiki/Melbourne_Knights "Melbourne Knights") in the [Victorian Premier League](/wiki/Victorian_Premier_League "Victorian Premier League"). He impressed regularly, becoming a key member of their squad and scoring 19 goals in 21 games in the 2008 season.[Barisic key to Knights' success](http://theadvocate.yourguide.com.au/news/local/sport/afl/barisic-key-to-knights-success/1229167.aspx) {{webarchive \|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080730034515/http://theadvocate.yourguide.com.au/news/local/sport/afl/barisic\-key\-to\-knights\-success/1229167\.aspx \|date\=30 July 2008 }}['Bara' boss of the ball](http://theadvocate.yourguide.com.au/news/local/sport/soccer/bara-boss-of-the-ball/1233766.aspx?storypage=0) {{dead link\|date\=October 2016 \|bot\=InternetArchiveBot \|fix\-attempted\=yes }}
### Gold Coast United
On 10 December 2008 he was signed by [Gold Coast United](/wiki/Gold_Coast_United_Football_Club "Gold Coast United Football Club") on a one\-year contract.{{Cite web \|url\=http://au.fourfourtwo.com/news/90862,gold\-coast\-add\-their\-twelfth\-man.aspx \|title\=Gold Coast add their twelfth man \|access\-date\=3 March 2009 \|archive\-date\=18 March 2012 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120318203744/http://au.fourfourtwo.com/news/90862%2Cgold\-coast\-add\-their\-twelfth\-man.aspx \|url\-status\=dead }}[Young striker ready for Hyundai A\-League challenge](http://www.goldcoastunited.com.au/default.aspx?s=newsdisplay&id=25396) {{webarchive \|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110310045647/http://www.goldcoastunited.com.au/default.aspx?s\=newsdisplay\&id\=25396 \|date\=10 March 2011 }} At Gold Coast United he made six appearances and scored one goal in his first season there. He was signed on for one further year. In his second season at GCU, he made 11 appearances and again scored one goal.
### Persebaya 1927
After leaving Gold Coast, "Bara" signed for Indonesian side [Persebaya Surabaya](/wiki/Persebaya_Surabaya "Persebaya Surabaya") in the Indonesian Premier League. He did very well there, scoring 11 in 14 games.
### Arema Malang
He then signed for another [Indonesia Super League](/wiki/Indonesia_Super_League "Indonesia Super League") side, this time [Arema Cronus F.C.](/wiki/Arema_Cronus_F.C. "Arema Cronus F.C."), where he managed 8 goals in 15 appearances.
### East Bengal
{{cite web\|last\=Ghosh \|first\=Pabitra \|title\=Andrew Barisic – East Bengal's Likely 4th Foreigner \|url\=http://feverpitch.in/SiteWeb/Newsdesc.aspx?SID\=BF0A88BB\-5ECF\-4BF6\-BE02\-A4FF65E8E079 \|work\=Feverpitch \|access\-date\=2 February 2013 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151004050034/http://feverpitch.in/SiteWeb/Newsdesc.aspx?SID\=BF0A88BB\-5ECF\-4BF6\-BE02\-A4FF65E8E079 \|archive\-date\=4 October 2015 }} Andrew officially signed for East Bengal on 10 January 2013\.{{cite web\|title\=East Bengal sign Aussie striker Andrew Barisic\|url\=http://sports.ndtv.com/football/news/item/201704\-east\-bengal\-sign\-aussie\-striker\-andrew\-barisic\|work\=NDTV\|access\-date\=2 February 2013\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140610183918/http://sports.ndtv.com/football/news/item/201704\-east\-bengal\-sign\-aussie\-striker\-andrew\-barisic\|archive\-date\=10 June 2014\|url\-status\=dead}} He then made his debut for East Bengal on 25 January 2013, coming on as a 59th\-minute substitute for [Manandeep Singh](/wiki/Manandeep_Singh "Manandeep Singh"), against [Pune F.C.](/wiki/Pune_F.C. "Pune F.C.") at the [Balewadi Sports Complex](/wiki/Balewadi_Sports_Complex "Balewadi Sports Complex") in which East Bengal won 2–1\.{{cite web\|title\=Pune FC vs East Bengal LIVE Commentary\|url\=http://www.goal.com/en\-india/match/96247/pune\-fc\-vs\-east\-bengal/play\-by\-play\|work\=Goal.com\|access\-date\=2 February 2013}} On 3 April 2013, he scored brace in [2013 AFC Cup](/wiki/2013_AFC_Cup "2013 AFC Cup") against Singaporean opponent [Tampines Rovers](/wiki/Tampines_Rovers_F.C. "Tampines Rovers F.C.") in group stage match.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.goal.com/en\-india/match/100349/tampines\-rovers\-fc\-vs\-east\-bengal\-fc/report?ICID\=OP \|title\=Tampines Rovers 2–4 East Bengal \|publisher\=Goal.com}} He again scored in same competition against a Vietnamese opponent [Xuan Thanh Saigon](/wiki/Xuan_Thanh_Saigon_F.C. "Xuan Thanh Saigon F.C.") in last group stage match, after winning that match East Bengal tops the group and qualified for the knockout stage of AFC Cup.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.goal.com/en\-india/match/100357/east\-bengal\-fc\-vs\-sai\-gon\-xuan\-thanh\-fc/report \|title\=East Bengal 4–1 Sai Gon Xuan Thanh \|publisher\=Goal.com}} On 8 May, he scored his 1st goal in the [2012–13 I\-League](/wiki/2012%E2%80%9313_I-League "2012–13 I-League") in a 6–0 win over [United Sikkim F.C.](/wiki/United_Sikkim_F.C. "United Sikkim F.C."){{cite web\| url \= http://www.goal.com/en\-india/match/96727/east\-bengal\-fc\-vs\-united\-sikkim\-fc/report?\| url\-status \= dead\| archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20130921002624/http://www.goal.com/en\-india/match/96727/east\-bengal\-fc\-vs\-united\-sikkim\-fc/report\| archive\-date \= 2013\-09\-21\| title \= Report: East Bengal 6\-0 United Sikkim \- Goal.com}} He ended his one\-year stint with East Bengal with 15 goals in 22 matches.
### Return to Melbourne Knights
He returned to Melbourne Knights for their 2013 VPL campaign, while the majority of the rest of Asia was in off\-season. He managed 7 goals in 8 games in his third stint with the Knights.
### South China
On 31 December 2013, Barisic signed for [South China](/wiki/South_China_AA "South China AA"). At South China, Barisic managed 13 goals in 18 appearances, 6 in the Hong Kong Premier League, 2 in AFC Qualification and 1 in the Senior Challenge Shield.
### Kerala Blasters FC
Barisic then signed for newly formed [Kerala Blasters FC](/wiki/Kerala_Blasters_FC "Kerala Blasters FC") in the newly formed [Indian Super League](/wiki/Indian_Super_League "Indian Super League"). In the ISL side, Barisic managed 11 appearances in which Kerala came 2nd.
### Return to Melbourne Knights
Barisic returned for the 4th time to Melbourne Knights in January 2015 scoring 12 goals in 16 games.
### Eastern Sports Club
On 1 July 2015 Andrew Signed with Hong Kong Premier League Side [Eastern](/wiki/Eastern_Sports_Club "Eastern Sports Club").
|
[
"Club career\n-----------",
"Born in [Canberra](/wiki/Canberra \"Canberra\"), Barisic began his career in 2002 with the [ACTAS](/wiki/Capital_Football \"Capital Football\") before moving to [Canberra Deakin](/wiki/Canberra_FC \"Canberra FC\") in July 2003\\. In January 2004 he signed his first professional contract with [Melbourne Knights](/wiki/Melbourne_Knights \"Melbourne Knights\"), then left in the summer of 2006 for Europe and signed a contract for Germany\\-based [Oberliga Nord](/wiki/Oberliga_Nord \"Oberliga Nord\") club, [Arminia Hannover](/wiki/Arminia_Hannover \"Arminia Hannover\").",
"On 13 December 2007 he signed with his former club [Melbourne Knights](/wiki/Melbourne_Knights \"Melbourne Knights\") in the [Victorian Premier League](/wiki/Victorian_Premier_League \"Victorian Premier League\"). He impressed regularly, becoming a key member of their squad and scoring 19 goals in 21 games in the 2008 season.[Barisic key to Knights' success](http://theadvocate.yourguide.com.au/news/local/sport/afl/barisic-key-to-knights-success/1229167.aspx) {{webarchive \\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080730034515/http://theadvocate.yourguide.com.au/news/local/sport/afl/barisic\\-key\\-to\\-knights\\-success/1229167\\.aspx \\|date\\=30 July 2008 }}['Bara' boss of the ball](http://theadvocate.yourguide.com.au/news/local/sport/soccer/bara-boss-of-the-ball/1233766.aspx?storypage=0) {{dead link\\|date\\=October 2016 \\|bot\\=InternetArchiveBot \\|fix\\-attempted\\=yes }}",
"### Gold Coast United",
"On 10 December 2008 he was signed by [Gold Coast United](/wiki/Gold_Coast_United_Football_Club \"Gold Coast United Football Club\") on a one\\-year contract.{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://au.fourfourtwo.com/news/90862,gold\\-coast\\-add\\-their\\-twelfth\\-man.aspx \\|title\\=Gold Coast add their twelfth man \\|access\\-date\\=3 March 2009 \\|archive\\-date\\=18 March 2012 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120318203744/http://au.fourfourtwo.com/news/90862%2Cgold\\-coast\\-add\\-their\\-twelfth\\-man.aspx \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}[Young striker ready for Hyundai A\\-League challenge](http://www.goldcoastunited.com.au/default.aspx?s=newsdisplay&id=25396) {{webarchive \\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110310045647/http://www.goldcoastunited.com.au/default.aspx?s\\=newsdisplay\\&id\\=25396 \\|date\\=10 March 2011 }} At Gold Coast United he made six appearances and scored one goal in his first season there. He was signed on for one further year. In his second season at GCU, he made 11 appearances and again scored one goal.",
"### Persebaya 1927",
"After leaving Gold Coast, \"Bara\" signed for Indonesian side [Persebaya Surabaya](/wiki/Persebaya_Surabaya \"Persebaya Surabaya\") in the Indonesian Premier League. He did very well there, scoring 11 in 14 games.",
"### Arema Malang",
"He then signed for another [Indonesia Super League](/wiki/Indonesia_Super_League \"Indonesia Super League\") side, this time [Arema Cronus F.C.](/wiki/Arema_Cronus_F.C. \"Arema Cronus F.C.\"), where he managed 8 goals in 15 appearances.",
"### East Bengal",
"{{cite web\\|last\\=Ghosh \\|first\\=Pabitra \\|title\\=Andrew Barisic – East Bengal's Likely 4th Foreigner \\|url\\=http://feverpitch.in/SiteWeb/Newsdesc.aspx?SID\\=BF0A88BB\\-5ECF\\-4BF6\\-BE02\\-A4FF65E8E079 \\|work\\=Feverpitch \\|access\\-date\\=2 February 2013 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151004050034/http://feverpitch.in/SiteWeb/Newsdesc.aspx?SID\\=BF0A88BB\\-5ECF\\-4BF6\\-BE02\\-A4FF65E8E079 \\|archive\\-date\\=4 October 2015 }} Andrew officially signed for East Bengal on 10 January 2013\\.{{cite web\\|title\\=East Bengal sign Aussie striker Andrew Barisic\\|url\\=http://sports.ndtv.com/football/news/item/201704\\-east\\-bengal\\-sign\\-aussie\\-striker\\-andrew\\-barisic\\|work\\=NDTV\\|access\\-date\\=2 February 2013\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140610183918/http://sports.ndtv.com/football/news/item/201704\\-east\\-bengal\\-sign\\-aussie\\-striker\\-andrew\\-barisic\\|archive\\-date\\=10 June 2014\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} He then made his debut for East Bengal on 25 January 2013, coming on as a 59th\\-minute substitute for [Manandeep Singh](/wiki/Manandeep_Singh \"Manandeep Singh\"), against [Pune F.C.](/wiki/Pune_F.C. \"Pune F.C.\") at the [Balewadi Sports Complex](/wiki/Balewadi_Sports_Complex \"Balewadi Sports Complex\") in which East Bengal won 2–1\\.{{cite web\\|title\\=Pune FC vs East Bengal LIVE Commentary\\|url\\=http://www.goal.com/en\\-india/match/96247/pune\\-fc\\-vs\\-east\\-bengal/play\\-by\\-play\\|work\\=Goal.com\\|access\\-date\\=2 February 2013}} On 3 April 2013, he scored brace in [2013 AFC Cup](/wiki/2013_AFC_Cup \"2013 AFC Cup\") against Singaporean opponent [Tampines Rovers](/wiki/Tampines_Rovers_F.C. \"Tampines Rovers F.C.\") in group stage match.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.goal.com/en\\-india/match/100349/tampines\\-rovers\\-fc\\-vs\\-east\\-bengal\\-fc/report?ICID\\=OP \\|title\\=Tampines Rovers 2–4 East Bengal \\|publisher\\=Goal.com}} He again scored in same competition against a Vietnamese opponent [Xuan Thanh Saigon](/wiki/Xuan_Thanh_Saigon_F.C. \"Xuan Thanh Saigon F.C.\") in last group stage match, after winning that match East Bengal tops the group and qualified for the knockout stage of AFC Cup.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.goal.com/en\\-india/match/100357/east\\-bengal\\-fc\\-vs\\-sai\\-gon\\-xuan\\-thanh\\-fc/report \\|title\\=East Bengal 4–1 Sai Gon Xuan Thanh \\|publisher\\=Goal.com}} On 8 May, he scored his 1st goal in the [2012–13 I\\-League](/wiki/2012%E2%80%9313_I-League \"2012–13 I-League\") in a 6–0 win over [United Sikkim F.C.](/wiki/United_Sikkim_F.C. \"United Sikkim F.C.\"){{cite web\\| url \\= http://www.goal.com/en\\-india/match/96727/east\\-bengal\\-fc\\-vs\\-united\\-sikkim\\-fc/report?\\| url\\-status \\= dead\\| archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20130921002624/http://www.goal.com/en\\-india/match/96727/east\\-bengal\\-fc\\-vs\\-united\\-sikkim\\-fc/report\\| archive\\-date \\= 2013\\-09\\-21\\| title \\= Report: East Bengal 6\\-0 United Sikkim \\- Goal.com}} He ended his one\\-year stint with East Bengal with 15 goals in 22 matches.",
"### Return to Melbourne Knights",
"He returned to Melbourne Knights for their 2013 VPL campaign, while the majority of the rest of Asia was in off\\-season. He managed 7 goals in 8 games in his third stint with the Knights.",
"### South China",
"On 31 December 2013, Barisic signed for [South China](/wiki/South_China_AA \"South China AA\"). At South China, Barisic managed 13 goals in 18 appearances, 6 in the Hong Kong Premier League, 2 in AFC Qualification and 1 in the Senior Challenge Shield.",
"### Kerala Blasters FC",
"Barisic then signed for newly formed [Kerala Blasters FC](/wiki/Kerala_Blasters_FC \"Kerala Blasters FC\") in the newly formed [Indian Super League](/wiki/Indian_Super_League \"Indian Super League\"). In the ISL side, Barisic managed 11 appearances in which Kerala came 2nd.",
"### Return to Melbourne Knights",
"Barisic returned for the 4th time to Melbourne Knights in January 2015 scoring 12 goals in 16 games.",
"### Eastern Sports Club",
"On 1 July 2015 Andrew Signed with Hong Kong Premier League Side [Eastern](/wiki/Eastern_Sports_Club \"Eastern Sports Club\").",
""
] |
Plot summary
------------
The story begins with Michael Rogers, a twenty\-two year old, telling the reader about his time as a chauffeur and how he met the architect Rudolf Santonix. He plans to one day have a house built by Santonix. Mike is poor though, and so can't afford to hire Santonix to build the house he wants. Michael explains that he’s a “rolling stone”; he isn't content doing just one thing and so has held down many different jobs over the years. One day he wants to settle down in his dream house with his dream woman, but for now he can't imagine settling down.
Mike is walking along a village road near the Gipsy's Acre property one day when he falls in love with the grounds. He fantasises about one day building a house there with the woman he loves. Curious to see what an auction is like, he goes to the auction for the property. Several people are interested in buying it, but the bid doesn't go high enough and no one ends up getting the property rights. Michael suspects that this is because of the supposed gipsy’s curse over the property.
While walking through the grounds, he meets Fenella (Ellie) Guteman by chance, a wealthy heiress who wants to escape from her world of snobby friends, begging relatives, and restrictive financial advisors. She introduces herself as Fenella "Goodman," not wanting him to know her true identity as an heiress. They get along quite well and it seems like love at first sight. He shares his dream of owning the acre with her and she seems to reciprocate and encourage the idea. Ellie also mentions her lovely hired companion, Greta Andersen. Apparently, Greta has acted like a best friend to her for several years now and is described as very efficient. Mike appears incredibly jealous of their close relationship, despite never actually having met Greta before.
Mike then sees Ellie on and off over the next few weeks before she has to travel abroad for her twenty\-first birthday. While away from Ellie, Michael discovers that the property he wants has finally been bought. He also returns to his mother's house to ask her for money to marry Ellie. It's quite clear that he doesn't like his mother and she doesn't like him. The situation reads as though she simply disapproves of his spontaneous lifestyle, but Michael claims that his mother knows him all too well. He leaves without the money.
When Ellie returns, she reveals to Mike that she is in fact, one of the wealthiest women in America and that she was the person who bought Gipsy's Acre. She wants to marry him and help fulfill his dream of building a beautiful house there. She doesn't mind leaving her home and family in America to move to England for him. They get married in a simple civil ceremony, without her family's knowledge. Michael is poor and Ellie fears that her family would not approve of him. When they find out, they are indeed highly disapproving of Mike. They fire Greta for helping arrange the marriage in secret. Regardless, Ellie refuses to leave Michael.
Once married, they hire Santonix to build a mansion for them on the acre.
On the night Ellie and Mike move in, a rock is thrown through their window, telling them to leave the acre. Ellie is shaken by the incident, but not enough to want to move. Ellie entertains the idea of inviting Greta to live with them at the acre, feeling bad for getting her fired, but Michael doesn't like the idea.
Mike and Ellie discover a [folly](/wiki/Folly "Folly") near the cliffs on their property, which they restore and use as a secret getaway.
The newlywed couple spend the next few weeks meeting the villagers. Major Phillpot, the local landowner, although not a wealthy man, is seen as the "God" of the village; he becomes close with Michael. Another villager, Claudia Hardcastle, rides horses and befriends Ellie. They start riding horses together regularly. Ellie reveals that although she is allergic to horses, she takes pills to calm her allergies before riding. She offers them to Claudia, who is also mildly allergic. Later, it is revealed that Claudia is Santonix's half\-sister and was once married to one of Ellie's lawyers, Stanford Lloyd.
Meanwhile, an old gipsy woman, Mrs. Lee, continues to warn Mike and Ellie of a curse and instructs them to leave the house they built. Ellie grows increasingly wary of her, so much so that Michael goes to the police station to report Mrs. Lee. He learns that in the past, Mrs. Lee had been bribed with money to terrify other residents. Mike wonders if someone is doing that again.
In the meantime, much to Ellie's chagrin, her American family refuses to leave her alone. Her stepmother, Cora, has moved to the UK to be close to her. Ellie's lawyers also keep in constant contact with her. Her head lawyer, Mr. Lippincott (known to Ellie as ‘Uncle Andrew’) is especially concerned over her marriage to Michael.
When Ellie injures her ankle she needs someone to help take care of her; she persuades Michael to let Greta stay with them. Ellie worries about Michael and Greta, as they don't appear to like each other and even get into a very heated argument one night.
Michael's mother comes to visit them at Gipsy’s Acre when he isn't there; she meets with Ellie and has a short conversation with her. Ellie tells Michael this later and he becomes enraged that his mother came to visit, unbeknownst to him. Ellie is puzzled by his anger.
One day, Ellie goes out horse riding in the morning. She goes alone because Claudia is shopping in London with Greta that day. Before she leaves, Mike suggests that Ellie join him and Major Phillpot at lunch later, which she agrees to. Mike attends an auction with Major Phillpot; since he married Ellie, he can now afford whatever he wants, so he outbids several others to buy a gift for Ellie. After the auction, he thinks he sees Claudia and one of Ellie's lawyers driving away in a car. He thinks it odd, since Claudia was supposed to be shopping at the outlets and the lawyer was supposed to be in America.
While at lunch with Major Phillpot, Mike begins to worry that Ellie has not yet joined them. She never turns up to lunch and when Mike calls Gipsy’s Acre, he learns that she has not yet returned from her morning ride. Mike and Phillpot search the forest around the house; eventually, Mike discovers Ellie's dead body, having sustained no apparent injuries. The local police determine that Ellie died of shock when she was thrown from her horse. Several witnesses come forward, claiming that they saw a woman in the woods at the same time Ellie was riding her horse. The police believe it was Mrs. Lee who scared the horse on purpose and murdered Ellie by accident, not knowing she had a heart condition.
At the inquest, it is revealed that a gold lighter was found in the nearby folly with the initial ‘C’ on it. It could either belong to Claudia Hardcastle, Ellie's riding companion, or Cora, her stepmother. The inquest is inconclusive, because Mrs. Lee does not show up in court.
After the inquest, Michael travels to America to attend Ellie’s funeral with her family and collect his inheritance. While there, he hears that Mrs. Lee has been found dead in a quarry, and Claudia Hardcastle has also died while out riding her horse. He wonders if it can be a coincidence.
From Mr. Lippincott, he also officially learns that Claudia used to be married to Stanford Lloyd, another one of Ellie's lawyers (the one he thought he saw her with that day). Mr. Lippincott asks Mike if he ever knew Greta before meeting Ellie, which he denies. Mr. Lippincott mentions that he has written and sent a letter to Michael – he'll get it upon his arrival back in England.
Before returning to England, Mike goes to visit Santonix on his deathbed in California, his failing health having worsened over the course of the novel. Before Santonix dies, he screams, “You should have gone the other way!” Feeling disturbed by this, Mike returns to the UK on a sea voyage, giving him time to reflect.
When he finally returns to his dream home, he opens the door to join his dream woman: Greta Andersen. He reveals how he and Greta had met in Hamburg years ago. They had fallen in love and later, after Mike had heard that Gipsy's Acre was for sale, they devised a plan to get Ellie’s money. Greta first became Ellie's maid and gained her trust. Greta then arranged that Ellie would meet Michael on the day of the auction. Mike and Greta pretended not to know each other and even hate each other so no one would suspect them. They plan to get married and share Ellie's wealth now that she is dead.
They killed Ellie with cyanide, putting it inside her allergy capsules that she took prior to her horse ride. It was Mike who paid Mrs. Lee to frighten Ellie with the story of the curse. To eliminate Mrs. Lee as a witness, Michael and Greta pushed her into a quarry. Claudia Hardcastle was unintentionally poisoned after finding and taking one of Ellie's pills in the folly. It was her lighter that was left behind by accident.
Michael and Greta celebrate what they have done, but when Michael opens the letter from Mr. Lippincott, he is horrified to find an old newspaper clipping with a picture of himself with Greta in Hamburg. He worries that people will suspect the truth and becomes agitated. He hallucinates that he sees Ellie on the grounds before entering the house. Greta tries to reassure him, but, in a fit of rage, he strangles her.
Shortly afterwards, the police and the local doctor arrive, their suspicions aroused by Claudia Hardcastle's death. They find him sitting with Greta's corpse, slowly losing his sanity.
It is revealed that after Mike was arrested, he wanted to write down the entire story from his perspective; the entire novel is that account.
He recounts that as a child, he let his friend drown in a frozen pond to steal his watch. As a young adult, he let another friend bleed to death after he was stabbed during a mugging, just so Mike could steal the money on his person. He always hated his mother because she was the only person who could see through him and suspected the truth about his murderous tendencies, hence his anger when Ellie met his mother: he was worried his mother might reveal his true character to her.
Michael thinks Santonix might have known or suspected his true character as well. When Santonix told him he "should've gone the other way," he meant that Mike should not have murdered Ellie and instead learned to love her.
He wonders if he could have ever actually been happy with Ellie and why he threw his chance with her away. He wonders if he ever did love her. The novel ends.
|
[
"Plot summary\n------------",
"The story begins with Michael Rogers, a twenty\\-two year old, telling the reader about his time as a chauffeur and how he met the architect Rudolf Santonix. He plans to one day have a house built by Santonix. Mike is poor though, and so can't afford to hire Santonix to build the house he wants. Michael explains that he’s a “rolling stone”; he isn't content doing just one thing and so has held down many different jobs over the years. One day he wants to settle down in his dream house with his dream woman, but for now he can't imagine settling down.",
"Mike is walking along a village road near the Gipsy's Acre property one day when he falls in love with the grounds. He fantasises about one day building a house there with the woman he loves. Curious to see what an auction is like, he goes to the auction for the property. Several people are interested in buying it, but the bid doesn't go high enough and no one ends up getting the property rights. Michael suspects that this is because of the supposed gipsy’s curse over the property.",
"While walking through the grounds, he meets Fenella (Ellie) Guteman by chance, a wealthy heiress who wants to escape from her world of snobby friends, begging relatives, and restrictive financial advisors. She introduces herself as Fenella \"Goodman,\" not wanting him to know her true identity as an heiress. They get along quite well and it seems like love at first sight. He shares his dream of owning the acre with her and she seems to reciprocate and encourage the idea. Ellie also mentions her lovely hired companion, Greta Andersen. Apparently, Greta has acted like a best friend to her for several years now and is described as very efficient. Mike appears incredibly jealous of their close relationship, despite never actually having met Greta before.",
"Mike then sees Ellie on and off over the next few weeks before she has to travel abroad for her twenty\\-first birthday. While away from Ellie, Michael discovers that the property he wants has finally been bought. He also returns to his mother's house to ask her for money to marry Ellie. It's quite clear that he doesn't like his mother and she doesn't like him. The situation reads as though she simply disapproves of his spontaneous lifestyle, but Michael claims that his mother knows him all too well. He leaves without the money.",
"When Ellie returns, she reveals to Mike that she is in fact, one of the wealthiest women in America and that she was the person who bought Gipsy's Acre. She wants to marry him and help fulfill his dream of building a beautiful house there. She doesn't mind leaving her home and family in America to move to England for him. They get married in a simple civil ceremony, without her family's knowledge. Michael is poor and Ellie fears that her family would not approve of him. When they find out, they are indeed highly disapproving of Mike. They fire Greta for helping arrange the marriage in secret. Regardless, Ellie refuses to leave Michael.",
"Once married, they hire Santonix to build a mansion for them on the acre.",
"On the night Ellie and Mike move in, a rock is thrown through their window, telling them to leave the acre. Ellie is shaken by the incident, but not enough to want to move. Ellie entertains the idea of inviting Greta to live with them at the acre, feeling bad for getting her fired, but Michael doesn't like the idea.",
"Mike and Ellie discover a [folly](/wiki/Folly \"Folly\") near the cliffs on their property, which they restore and use as a secret getaway.",
"The newlywed couple spend the next few weeks meeting the villagers. Major Phillpot, the local landowner, although not a wealthy man, is seen as the \"God\" of the village; he becomes close with Michael. Another villager, Claudia Hardcastle, rides horses and befriends Ellie. They start riding horses together regularly. Ellie reveals that although she is allergic to horses, she takes pills to calm her allergies before riding. She offers them to Claudia, who is also mildly allergic. Later, it is revealed that Claudia is Santonix's half\\-sister and was once married to one of Ellie's lawyers, Stanford Lloyd.",
"Meanwhile, an old gipsy woman, Mrs. Lee, continues to warn Mike and Ellie of a curse and instructs them to leave the house they built. Ellie grows increasingly wary of her, so much so that Michael goes to the police station to report Mrs. Lee. He learns that in the past, Mrs. Lee had been bribed with money to terrify other residents. Mike wonders if someone is doing that again.",
"In the meantime, much to Ellie's chagrin, her American family refuses to leave her alone. Her stepmother, Cora, has moved to the UK to be close to her. Ellie's lawyers also keep in constant contact with her. Her head lawyer, Mr. Lippincott (known to Ellie as ‘Uncle Andrew’) is especially concerned over her marriage to Michael.",
"When Ellie injures her ankle she needs someone to help take care of her; she persuades Michael to let Greta stay with them. Ellie worries about Michael and Greta, as they don't appear to like each other and even get into a very heated argument one night.",
"Michael's mother comes to visit them at Gipsy’s Acre when he isn't there; she meets with Ellie and has a short conversation with her. Ellie tells Michael this later and he becomes enraged that his mother came to visit, unbeknownst to him. Ellie is puzzled by his anger.",
"One day, Ellie goes out horse riding in the morning. She goes alone because Claudia is shopping in London with Greta that day. Before she leaves, Mike suggests that Ellie join him and Major Phillpot at lunch later, which she agrees to. Mike attends an auction with Major Phillpot; since he married Ellie, he can now afford whatever he wants, so he outbids several others to buy a gift for Ellie. After the auction, he thinks he sees Claudia and one of Ellie's lawyers driving away in a car. He thinks it odd, since Claudia was supposed to be shopping at the outlets and the lawyer was supposed to be in America.",
"While at lunch with Major Phillpot, Mike begins to worry that Ellie has not yet joined them. She never turns up to lunch and when Mike calls Gipsy’s Acre, he learns that she has not yet returned from her morning ride. Mike and Phillpot search the forest around the house; eventually, Mike discovers Ellie's dead body, having sustained no apparent injuries. The local police determine that Ellie died of shock when she was thrown from her horse. Several witnesses come forward, claiming that they saw a woman in the woods at the same time Ellie was riding her horse. The police believe it was Mrs. Lee who scared the horse on purpose and murdered Ellie by accident, not knowing she had a heart condition.",
"At the inquest, it is revealed that a gold lighter was found in the nearby folly with the initial ‘C’ on it. It could either belong to Claudia Hardcastle, Ellie's riding companion, or Cora, her stepmother. The inquest is inconclusive, because Mrs. Lee does not show up in court.",
"After the inquest, Michael travels to America to attend Ellie’s funeral with her family and collect his inheritance. While there, he hears that Mrs. Lee has been found dead in a quarry, and Claudia Hardcastle has also died while out riding her horse. He wonders if it can be a coincidence.",
"From Mr. Lippincott, he also officially learns that Claudia used to be married to Stanford Lloyd, another one of Ellie's lawyers (the one he thought he saw her with that day). Mr. Lippincott asks Mike if he ever knew Greta before meeting Ellie, which he denies. Mr. Lippincott mentions that he has written and sent a letter to Michael – he'll get it upon his arrival back in England.",
"Before returning to England, Mike goes to visit Santonix on his deathbed in California, his failing health having worsened over the course of the novel. Before Santonix dies, he screams, “You should have gone the other way!” Feeling disturbed by this, Mike returns to the UK on a sea voyage, giving him time to reflect.",
"When he finally returns to his dream home, he opens the door to join his dream woman: Greta Andersen. He reveals how he and Greta had met in Hamburg years ago. They had fallen in love and later, after Mike had heard that Gipsy's Acre was for sale, they devised a plan to get Ellie’s money. Greta first became Ellie's maid and gained her trust. Greta then arranged that Ellie would meet Michael on the day of the auction. Mike and Greta pretended not to know each other and even hate each other so no one would suspect them. They plan to get married and share Ellie's wealth now that she is dead.",
"They killed Ellie with cyanide, putting it inside her allergy capsules that she took prior to her horse ride. It was Mike who paid Mrs. Lee to frighten Ellie with the story of the curse. To eliminate Mrs. Lee as a witness, Michael and Greta pushed her into a quarry. Claudia Hardcastle was unintentionally poisoned after finding and taking one of Ellie's pills in the folly. It was her lighter that was left behind by accident.",
"Michael and Greta celebrate what they have done, but when Michael opens the letter from Mr. Lippincott, he is horrified to find an old newspaper clipping with a picture of himself with Greta in Hamburg. He worries that people will suspect the truth and becomes agitated. He hallucinates that he sees Ellie on the grounds before entering the house. Greta tries to reassure him, but, in a fit of rage, he strangles her.",
"Shortly afterwards, the police and the local doctor arrive, their suspicions aroused by Claudia Hardcastle's death. They find him sitting with Greta's corpse, slowly losing his sanity.",
"It is revealed that after Mike was arrested, he wanted to write down the entire story from his perspective; the entire novel is that account.",
"He recounts that as a child, he let his friend drown in a frozen pond to steal his watch. As a young adult, he let another friend bleed to death after he was stabbed during a mugging, just so Mike could steal the money on his person. He always hated his mother because she was the only person who could see through him and suspected the truth about his murderous tendencies, hence his anger when Ellie met his mother: he was worried his mother might reveal his true character to her.",
"Michael thinks Santonix might have known or suspected his true character as well. When Santonix told him he \"should've gone the other way,\" he meant that Mike should not have murdered Ellie and instead learned to love her.",
"He wonders if he could have ever actually been happy with Ellie and why he threw his chance with her away. He wonders if he ever did love her. The novel ends.",
""
] |
Design
------
The Sun Odyssey 41 DS is a recreational [keelboat](/wiki/Keelboat "Keelboat"), built predominantly of [vacuum bagged](/wiki/Vacuum_bag_moulding "Vacuum bag moulding"), resin infused [polyester](/wiki/Polyester "Polyester") [fiberglass](/wiki/Fiberglass "Fiberglass"), with wood trim. The hull is solid fiberglass while the deck has a [balsa](/wiki/Balsa "Balsa") core. It has a 9/10 [fractional](/wiki/Fractional_rig "Fractional rig") [sloop](/wiki/Sloop "Sloop") rig, with a deck\-stepped mast, two sets of swept [spreaders](/wiki/Spreader_%28sailboat%29 "Spreader (sailboat)") and [aluminum](/wiki/Aluminum "Aluminum") spars with 1X19 [stainless steel](/wiki/Stainless_steel "Stainless steel") wire rigging. An in\-mast [roller furling](/wiki/Roller_furling "Roller furling") [mainsail](/wiki/Mainsail "Mainsail") was a factory option. The hull has a [plumb stem](/wiki/Plumb_stem "Plumb stem"), a walk\-through [reverse transom](/wiki/Reverse_transom "Reverse transom") with a swimming platform, an internally mounted spade\-type [rudder](/wiki/Rudder "Rudder") controlled by dual [wheels](/wiki/Ship%27s_wheel "Ship's wheel") and a fixed fin [keel](/wiki/Keel "Keel") or optional shoal\-draft keel. It displaces {{convert\|19335\|lb\|kg\|0\|abbr\=on}} and carries {{convert\|4982\|lb\|kg\|0\|abbr\=on}} of [cast iron](/wiki/Cast_iron "Cast iron") ballast.{{cite web\|url\= https://www.sailmagazine.com/boats/jeanneau\-41ds\-2\|title\= Boat Review: Jeanneau 41DS\|access\-date\= 8 March 2023\|last\= Dove\|first\= Tom\|work\= Sail Magazine\|date\= 4 March 2013\|archive\-url\= https://web.archive.org/web/20220626072703/https://www.sailmagazine.com/boats/jeanneau\-41ds\-2\|archive\-date\= 26 June 2022\|url\-status\= live}}
The boat has a draft of {{convert\|6\|ft\|11\|in\|m\|abbr\=on}} with the standard keel and {{convert\|5\|ft\|1\|in\|m\|abbr\=on}} with the optional shoal draft keel.
The boat is fitted with a Japanese [Yanmar](/wiki/Yanmar "Yanmar") [diesel engine](/wiki/Diesel_engine "Diesel engine") of {{convert\|45\|hp\|kW\|0\|abbr\=on}} for docking and maneuvering. A 360° rotating [saildrive](/wiki/Saildrive "Saildrive") and a [bow thruster](/wiki/Bow_thruster "Bow thruster") for docking were optional. The fuel tank holds {{convert\|53\|u.s.gal}} and the [fresh water](/wiki/Fresh_water "Fresh water") tank has a capacity of {{convert\|87\|u.s.gal}}.
The design was only built in one interior arrangement, with sleeping accommodation for four people, with a double ["V"\-berth](/wiki/%22V%22-berth) in the bow cabin, a U\-shaped settee and a straight settee in the main cabin and an aft "owner's cabin" with a double island berth. The [galley](/wiki/Galley_%28kitchen%29 "Galley (kitchen)") is located on the starboard side at the [companionway](/wiki/Companionway "Companionway") ladder. The galley is L\-shaped and is equipped with a three\-burner stove, an [ice box](/wiki/Ice_box "Ice box") and a double sink. A navigation station is opposite the galley, on the port side. There are two [heads](/wiki/Head_%28watercraft%29 "Head (watercraft)"), one in the bow cabin on the starboard side and one on the port side, aft. Cabin maximum headroom is {{convert\|77\|in\|cm\|0\|abbr\=on}}.
For sailing downwind the design may be equipped with an [asymmetrical spinnaker](/wiki/Asymmetrical_spinnaker "Asymmetrical spinnaker") of {{convert\|1173\|sqft\|m2\|abbr\=on}} or a [code 0](/wiki/Code_0 "Code 0") of {{convert\|753\|sqft\|m2\|abbr\=on}}.
The design has a [hull speed](/wiki/Hull_speed "Hull speed") of {{convert\|8\.05\|kn\|km/h\|abbr\=on}}.
|
[
"Design\n------",
"The Sun Odyssey 41 DS is a recreational [keelboat](/wiki/Keelboat \"Keelboat\"), built predominantly of [vacuum bagged](/wiki/Vacuum_bag_moulding \"Vacuum bag moulding\"), resin infused [polyester](/wiki/Polyester \"Polyester\") [fiberglass](/wiki/Fiberglass \"Fiberglass\"), with wood trim. The hull is solid fiberglass while the deck has a [balsa](/wiki/Balsa \"Balsa\") core. It has a 9/10 [fractional](/wiki/Fractional_rig \"Fractional rig\") [sloop](/wiki/Sloop \"Sloop\") rig, with a deck\\-stepped mast, two sets of swept [spreaders](/wiki/Spreader_%28sailboat%29 \"Spreader (sailboat)\") and [aluminum](/wiki/Aluminum \"Aluminum\") spars with 1X19 [stainless steel](/wiki/Stainless_steel \"Stainless steel\") wire rigging. An in\\-mast [roller furling](/wiki/Roller_furling \"Roller furling\") [mainsail](/wiki/Mainsail \"Mainsail\") was a factory option. The hull has a [plumb stem](/wiki/Plumb_stem \"Plumb stem\"), a walk\\-through [reverse transom](/wiki/Reverse_transom \"Reverse transom\") with a swimming platform, an internally mounted spade\\-type [rudder](/wiki/Rudder \"Rudder\") controlled by dual [wheels](/wiki/Ship%27s_wheel \"Ship's wheel\") and a fixed fin [keel](/wiki/Keel \"Keel\") or optional shoal\\-draft keel. It displaces {{convert\\|19335\\|lb\\|kg\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} and carries {{convert\\|4982\\|lb\\|kg\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} of [cast iron](/wiki/Cast_iron \"Cast iron\") ballast.{{cite web\\|url\\= https://www.sailmagazine.com/boats/jeanneau\\-41ds\\-2\\|title\\= Boat Review: Jeanneau 41DS\\|access\\-date\\= 8 March 2023\\|last\\= Dove\\|first\\= Tom\\|work\\= Sail Magazine\\|date\\= 4 March 2013\\|archive\\-url\\= https://web.archive.org/web/20220626072703/https://www.sailmagazine.com/boats/jeanneau\\-41ds\\-2\\|archive\\-date\\= 26 June 2022\\|url\\-status\\= live}}",
"The boat has a draft of {{convert\\|6\\|ft\\|11\\|in\\|m\\|abbr\\=on}} with the standard keel and {{convert\\|5\\|ft\\|1\\|in\\|m\\|abbr\\=on}} with the optional shoal draft keel.",
"The boat is fitted with a Japanese [Yanmar](/wiki/Yanmar \"Yanmar\") [diesel engine](/wiki/Diesel_engine \"Diesel engine\") of {{convert\\|45\\|hp\\|kW\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} for docking and maneuvering. A 360° rotating [saildrive](/wiki/Saildrive \"Saildrive\") and a [bow thruster](/wiki/Bow_thruster \"Bow thruster\") for docking were optional. The fuel tank holds {{convert\\|53\\|u.s.gal}} and the [fresh water](/wiki/Fresh_water \"Fresh water\") tank has a capacity of {{convert\\|87\\|u.s.gal}}.",
"The design was only built in one interior arrangement, with sleeping accommodation for four people, with a double [\"V\"\\-berth](/wiki/%22V%22-berth) in the bow cabin, a U\\-shaped settee and a straight settee in the main cabin and an aft \"owner's cabin\" with a double island berth. The [galley](/wiki/Galley_%28kitchen%29 \"Galley (kitchen)\") is located on the starboard side at the [companionway](/wiki/Companionway \"Companionway\") ladder. The galley is L\\-shaped and is equipped with a three\\-burner stove, an [ice box](/wiki/Ice_box \"Ice box\") and a double sink. A navigation station is opposite the galley, on the port side. There are two [heads](/wiki/Head_%28watercraft%29 \"Head (watercraft)\"), one in the bow cabin on the starboard side and one on the port side, aft. Cabin maximum headroom is {{convert\\|77\\|in\\|cm\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}}.",
"For sailing downwind the design may be equipped with an [asymmetrical spinnaker](/wiki/Asymmetrical_spinnaker \"Asymmetrical spinnaker\") of {{convert\\|1173\\|sqft\\|m2\\|abbr\\=on}} or a [code 0](/wiki/Code_0 \"Code 0\") of {{convert\\|753\\|sqft\\|m2\\|abbr\\=on}}.",
"The design has a [hull speed](/wiki/Hull_speed \"Hull speed\") of {{convert\\|8\\.05\\|kn\\|km/h\\|abbr\\=on}}.",
""
] |
Career
------
### GPO Film Unit
Grierson, who was at that time head of the UK [General Post Office film unit](/wiki/GPO_Film_Unit "GPO Film Unit"), saw another of his movies at an amateur film festival and hired McLaren.{{cite web\|last\=St\-Pierre\|first\=Marc\|title\=70 Years of Animation, Part 2 – Norman McLaren\|url\=http://blog.nfb.ca/2011/12/01/70\-years\-of\-animation\-part\-2\-norman\-mclaren/\|work\=NFB Blog\|date\=December 2011\|publisher\=\[\[National Film Board of Canada]]\|access\-date\=6 December 2011}} McLaren worked at the GPO from 1936 to 1939, making eight films including *Defence of Madrid*, *Book Bargain* (1937\), *Mony a Pickle*, *Love on the Wing* (1938\), and *News for the Navy* (1938\).
### Solomon Guggenheim Foundation
McLaren then moved to [New York City](/wiki/New_York_City "New York City") in 1939,{{cite book \|last1\=Dobson \|first1\=Nichola \|title\=Norman McLaren: Between the Frames \|publisher\=Bloomsbury Academic \|location\=New York \|isbn\=978\-1\-5013\-2881\-7 \|pages\=87 \|doi\=10\.5040/9781501328800\-008 }} just as [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II") was about to begin in Europe. With a grant from the [Solomon Guggenheim Foundation](/wiki/Solomon_Guggenheim_Foundation "Solomon Guggenheim Foundation"), he worked in New York until 1941, making drawn\-on\-film animated works, including *[Boogie\-Doodle](/wiki/Boogie-Doodle "Boogie-Doodle")* (1940\), along with *Dots*, *Loops* and *Stars and Stripes*.{{cite web\|last\=Ortega\|first\=Marcos\|title\=Norman McLaren: The Master's Edition\|work\=Experimental Cinema\|url\=http://www.expcinema.com/site/index.php?option\=com\_k2\&view\=item\&id\=22:norman\-mclaren\-the\-masters\-edition\&Itemid\=100001\&tmpl\=component\&print\=1⟨\=en\|access\-date\=1 April 2011\|date\=16 July 2006}}{{cite book\|last\=Beckerman\|first\=Howard\|title\=Animation: The Whole Story\|publisher\=Allworth Press\|isbn\=978\-1\-58115\-301\-9\|pages\=51–52\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=EjW6cCE4v1QC\&q\=%22Boogie\-Doodle%22\&pg\=PA52\|date\=February 2004}}
### NFB
In 1941, at the invitation of Grierson, McLaren moved to [Ottawa](/wiki/Ottawa "Ottawa") to work for the National Film Board and open an animation studio and to train Canadian animators. Upon his arrival in Canada, he made two films with the American director [Mary Ellen Bute](/wiki/Mary_Ellen_Bute "Mary Ellen Bute")—*Spook Sport* and *Tarantella*. Grierson asked him to direct a promotional film reminding Canadians to mail their Christmas cards early, *Mail Early* (1941\). He then worked on animated shorts as well as maps for Allied propaganda documentary films, followed by his [War Bonds](/wiki/War_Bonds "War Bonds") campaign films: *V for Victory* (1941\), *5 for 4* (1942\), *[Hen Hop](/wiki/Hen_Hop "Hen Hop")* (1942\), *Dollar Dance* (1943\) and *Tic Tac Toe* (1943\). In 1943, he also produced the six\-film series of animated French songs, *Chants Populaire*. In 1944 and 1945, he would do a similar series in English with *Let's All Sing Together*.
As of 1942, McLaren could no longer keep up with the demands for animation at the fast\-growing NFB, and he was asked by Grierson to recruit art students and create a small animation team, a task made more difficult because many young students had gone off to fight in the war. McLaren found recruits for his fledgling animation unit at the [École des beaux\-arts de Montréal](/wiki/%C3%89cole_des_beaux-arts_de_Montr%C3%A9al "École des beaux-arts de Montréal") and the [Ontario College of Art](/wiki/Ontario_College_of_Art "Ontario College of Art"), including [René Jodoin](/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Jodoin "René Jodoin"), [George Dunning](/wiki/George_Dunning "George Dunning"), [Jim McKay](/wiki/Jim_McKay_%28animator%29 "Jim McKay (animator)"), [Grant Munro](/wiki/Grant_Munro_%28filmmaker%29 "Grant Munro (filmmaker)") and his future collaborator, [Evelyn Lambart](/wiki/Evelyn_Lambart "Evelyn Lambart"). McLaren trained these emerging animators, who would all work on cartoons, animated cards and propaganda documentaries before going on to make their own films. Studio A, the NFB's first animation studio, formally came into existence as of January 1943, with McLaren as its head.
During his work for the NFB, McLaren made 70 films, including *[Begone Dull Care](/wiki/Begone_Dull_Care "Begone Dull Care")* (1949\), *[Rythmetic](/wiki/Rythmetic "Rythmetic")* (1956\), *[Christmas Cracker](/wiki/Christmas_Cracker_%28film%29 "Christmas Cracker (film)")* (1963\), *[Pas de Deux](/wiki/Pas_de_deux_%28film%29 "Pas de deux (film)")* (1968\), and the [Oscar](/wiki/Academy_Awards "Academy Awards")\-winning *[Neighbours](/wiki/Neighbours_%281952_film%29 "Neighbours (1952 film)")* (1952\), which is a brilliant combination of visuals and sound, and has a strong social message against violence and war. McLaren won the [Short Film Palme d'Or](/wiki/Short_Film_Palme_d%27Or "Short Film Palme d'Or") at the [Cannes Film Festival](/wiki/Cannes_Film_Festival "Cannes Film Festival") and the [BAFTA](/wiki/9th_British_Academy_Film_Awards "9th British Academy Film Awards") Award for Best Animated Film for *[Blinkity Blank](/wiki/Blinkity_Blank "Blinkity Blank")* (1955\), which he later selected as his diploma piece when he was inducted into the [Royal Canadian Academy of Arts](/wiki/Royal_Canadian_Academy_of_Arts "Royal Canadian Academy of Arts") in 1974\.
### UNESCO
In addition to film, McLaren worked with [UNESCO](/wiki/UNESCO "UNESCO") in the 1950s and 1960s on programs to teach film and animation techniques in [China](/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_China "People's Republic of China") and [India](/wiki/India "India"). His five part "Animated Motion" shorts, produced in the late 1970s, are an excellent example of instruction on the basics of film animation.
|
[
"Career\n------",
"### GPO Film Unit",
"Grierson, who was at that time head of the UK [General Post Office film unit](/wiki/GPO_Film_Unit \"GPO Film Unit\"), saw another of his movies at an amateur film festival and hired McLaren.{{cite web\\|last\\=St\\-Pierre\\|first\\=Marc\\|title\\=70 Years of Animation, Part 2 – Norman McLaren\\|url\\=http://blog.nfb.ca/2011/12/01/70\\-years\\-of\\-animation\\-part\\-2\\-norman\\-mclaren/\\|work\\=NFB Blog\\|date\\=December 2011\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[National Film Board of Canada]]\\|access\\-date\\=6 December 2011}} McLaren worked at the GPO from 1936 to 1939, making eight films including *Defence of Madrid*, *Book Bargain* (1937\\), *Mony a Pickle*, *Love on the Wing* (1938\\), and *News for the Navy* (1938\\).",
"### Solomon Guggenheim Foundation",
"McLaren then moved to [New York City](/wiki/New_York_City \"New York City\") in 1939,{{cite book \\|last1\\=Dobson \\|first1\\=Nichola \\|title\\=Norman McLaren: Between the Frames \\|publisher\\=Bloomsbury Academic \\|location\\=New York \\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-5013\\-2881\\-7 \\|pages\\=87 \\|doi\\=10\\.5040/9781501328800\\-008 }} just as [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\") was about to begin in Europe. With a grant from the [Solomon Guggenheim Foundation](/wiki/Solomon_Guggenheim_Foundation \"Solomon Guggenheim Foundation\"), he worked in New York until 1941, making drawn\\-on\\-film animated works, including *[Boogie\\-Doodle](/wiki/Boogie-Doodle \"Boogie-Doodle\")* (1940\\), along with *Dots*, *Loops* and *Stars and Stripes*.{{cite web\\|last\\=Ortega\\|first\\=Marcos\\|title\\=Norman McLaren: The Master's Edition\\|work\\=Experimental Cinema\\|url\\=http://www.expcinema.com/site/index.php?option\\=com\\_k2\\&view\\=item\\&id\\=22:norman\\-mclaren\\-the\\-masters\\-edition\\&Itemid\\=100001\\&tmpl\\=component\\&print\\=1⟨\\=en\\|access\\-date\\=1 April 2011\\|date\\=16 July 2006}}{{cite book\\|last\\=Beckerman\\|first\\=Howard\\|title\\=Animation: The Whole Story\\|publisher\\=Allworth Press\\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-58115\\-301\\-9\\|pages\\=51–52\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=EjW6cCE4v1QC\\&q\\=%22Boogie\\-Doodle%22\\&pg\\=PA52\\|date\\=February 2004}}",
"### NFB",
"In 1941, at the invitation of Grierson, McLaren moved to [Ottawa](/wiki/Ottawa \"Ottawa\") to work for the National Film Board and open an animation studio and to train Canadian animators. Upon his arrival in Canada, he made two films with the American director [Mary Ellen Bute](/wiki/Mary_Ellen_Bute \"Mary Ellen Bute\")—*Spook Sport* and *Tarantella*. Grierson asked him to direct a promotional film reminding Canadians to mail their Christmas cards early, *Mail Early* (1941\\). He then worked on animated shorts as well as maps for Allied propaganda documentary films, followed by his [War Bonds](/wiki/War_Bonds \"War Bonds\") campaign films: *V for Victory* (1941\\), *5 for 4* (1942\\), *[Hen Hop](/wiki/Hen_Hop \"Hen Hop\")* (1942\\), *Dollar Dance* (1943\\) and *Tic Tac Toe* (1943\\). In 1943, he also produced the six\\-film series of animated French songs, *Chants Populaire*. In 1944 and 1945, he would do a similar series in English with *Let's All Sing Together*.",
"As of 1942, McLaren could no longer keep up with the demands for animation at the fast\\-growing NFB, and he was asked by Grierson to recruit art students and create a small animation team, a task made more difficult because many young students had gone off to fight in the war. McLaren found recruits for his fledgling animation unit at the [École des beaux\\-arts de Montréal](/wiki/%C3%89cole_des_beaux-arts_de_Montr%C3%A9al \"École des beaux-arts de Montréal\") and the [Ontario College of Art](/wiki/Ontario_College_of_Art \"Ontario College of Art\"), including [René Jodoin](/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Jodoin \"René Jodoin\"), [George Dunning](/wiki/George_Dunning \"George Dunning\"), [Jim McKay](/wiki/Jim_McKay_%28animator%29 \"Jim McKay (animator)\"), [Grant Munro](/wiki/Grant_Munro_%28filmmaker%29 \"Grant Munro (filmmaker)\") and his future collaborator, [Evelyn Lambart](/wiki/Evelyn_Lambart \"Evelyn Lambart\"). McLaren trained these emerging animators, who would all work on cartoons, animated cards and propaganda documentaries before going on to make their own films. Studio A, the NFB's first animation studio, formally came into existence as of January 1943, with McLaren as its head.",
"During his work for the NFB, McLaren made 70 films, including *[Begone Dull Care](/wiki/Begone_Dull_Care \"Begone Dull Care\")* (1949\\), *[Rythmetic](/wiki/Rythmetic \"Rythmetic\")* (1956\\), *[Christmas Cracker](/wiki/Christmas_Cracker_%28film%29 \"Christmas Cracker (film)\")* (1963\\), *[Pas de Deux](/wiki/Pas_de_deux_%28film%29 \"Pas de deux (film)\")* (1968\\), and the [Oscar](/wiki/Academy_Awards \"Academy Awards\")\\-winning *[Neighbours](/wiki/Neighbours_%281952_film%29 \"Neighbours (1952 film)\")* (1952\\), which is a brilliant combination of visuals and sound, and has a strong social message against violence and war. McLaren won the [Short Film Palme d'Or](/wiki/Short_Film_Palme_d%27Or \"Short Film Palme d'Or\") at the [Cannes Film Festival](/wiki/Cannes_Film_Festival \"Cannes Film Festival\") and the [BAFTA](/wiki/9th_British_Academy_Film_Awards \"9th British Academy Film Awards\") Award for Best Animated Film for *[Blinkity Blank](/wiki/Blinkity_Blank \"Blinkity Blank\")* (1955\\), which he later selected as his diploma piece when he was inducted into the [Royal Canadian Academy of Arts](/wiki/Royal_Canadian_Academy_of_Arts \"Royal Canadian Academy of Arts\") in 1974\\.",
"### UNESCO",
"In addition to film, McLaren worked with [UNESCO](/wiki/UNESCO \"UNESCO\") in the 1950s and 1960s on programs to teach film and animation techniques in [China](/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_China \"People's Republic of China\") and [India](/wiki/India \"India\"). His five part \"Animated Motion\" shorts, produced in the late 1970s, are an excellent example of instruction on the basics of film animation.",
""
] |
Legacy
------
McLaren is remembered for his experiments with image and sound as he developed a number of groundbreaking techniques for combining and synchronizing animation with music.
The National Film Board honoured McLaren by naming its [Montreal](/wiki/Montreal "Montreal") head office building the Norman McLaren Building. The Montreal borough of [Saint\-Laurent](/wiki/Saint-Laurent_%28borough%29 "Saint-Laurent (borough)"), which is home to the NFB, has also honoured McLaren by naming a borough district after him.
In 1979, the new [Edinburgh Filmhouse](/wiki/Edinburgh_Filmhouse "Edinburgh Filmhouse") included two seats dedicated to McLaren and Grierson.
In 2006, McLaren was the subject of a short animated documentary *[McLaren's Negatives](/wiki/McLaren%27s_Negatives "McLaren's Negatives")*. Also in 2006, the Film Board marked the 65th anniversary of NFB animation with an international retrospective of McLaren's restored classics and a new DVD box set of his complete works.
In June 2013, the NFB released an iTunes app entitled "McLaren's Workshop," allowing users to create their own films using animation techniques utilized by McLaren and providing access to over fifty of his films.{{cite news\|url\=http://www.cartoonbrew.com/ipad/nfbs\-free\-mclarens\-workshop\-ipad\-app\-is\-a\-must\-download\-84008\.html\|title\=NFB's Free McLaren's Workshop iPad App is a Must\-Download\|last\=Amidi\|first\=Amid\|date\=7 June 2013\|work\=\[\[Cartoon Brew]]\|access\-date\=28 June 2013}}
In June 2018, [Robert Lepage](/wiki/Robert_Lepage "Robert Lepage"), principal dancer [Guillaume Côté](/wiki/Guillaume_C%C3%B4t%C3%A9 "Guillaume Côté") and the [National Ballet of Canada](/wiki/National_Ballet_of_Canada "National Ballet of Canada") staged a ballet entitled *Frame by Frame*, based on McLaren's life and work.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.thestar.com/entertainment/stage/2017/02/15/national\-ballet\-and\-robert\-lepage\-team\-on\-work\-honouring\-norman\-mclaren.html\|title\=National Ballet and Robert Lepage team on work honouring Norman McLaren\|last\=Demara\|first\=Bruce\|date\=2017\-02\-15\|website\=Toronto Star\|access\-date\=2017\-02\-23}}
Filmmaker [George Lucas](/wiki/George_Lucas "George Lucas") has cited McLaren as an influence on his own work.{{Cite magazine \|last\=Silberman \|first\=Steve \|title\=Life After Darth \|language\=en\-US \|magazine\=Wired \|url\=https://www.wired.com/2005/05/lucas\-2/ \|access\-date\=2023\-10\-08 \|issn\=1059\-1028}}
### Birth centenary events
The 100th anniversary of the birth of McLaren was marked by a project entitled "McLaren Wall\-to\-Wall" in Montreal's [Quartier des Spectacles](/wiki/Quartier_des_Spectacles "Quartier des Spectacles") entertainment district, with short films inspired by McLaren works *Neighbours*, *Begone Dull Care*, *[Synchromy](/wiki/Synchromy "Synchromy")* and *Spheres* projected onto local landmarks.{{cite news\|url\=http://www.animationmagazine.net/events/nfb\-invites\-artists\-celebrate\-mclarens\-100th/\|title\=NFB Invites Artists to Celebrate McLaren's 100th\|last\=Milligan\|first\=Mercedes\|date\=5 December 2013\|work\=\[\[Animation (magazine)\|Animation]]\|access\-date\=18 December 2013}}
McLaren's centenary was also celebrated in Scotland with the McLaren 2014 Programme of screenings, exhibitions, events and animation workshops. The Programme was conceived of and directed by animator Iain Gardner who also serves as the Animation Programmer for the Edinburgh International Film Festival. The programme was a key focus within the 68th Edinburgh International Film Festival in June, and ran through to the end of the XX Commonwealth Games in Glasgow in August. The McLaren 2014 Programme was managed by the Centre for the Moving Image, working in partnership with the National Film Board of Canada, and over 20 partners in Scotland and the UK.{{cite news \| url\=http://film.list.co.uk/article/59720\-mclaren\-2014\-festival\-shines\-a\-light\-on\-underappreciated\-experimental\-filmmaker\-norman\-mclaren/ \| title\=McLaren 2014 festival shines a light on underappreciated experimental filmmaker Norman McLaren \| work\=\[\[The List (magazine)\|The List]] \| date\=27 March 2014 \| access\-date\=28 March 2014 \| author\=McGill, Hannah}}
In April 2014 his only surviving nephew Douglas Biggar (younger son of Sheena) unveiled a blue heritage plaque on his childhood home marking the centenary of his birth.Wood, Aaron. [“Happy 100th Birthday Norman McLaren!”](https://www.skwigly.co.uk/happy-100th-birthday-norman-mclaren/). *Skwigly*. Published April 11th, 2014\. Accessed March 7th, 2023\.
|
[
"Legacy\n------",
"McLaren is remembered for his experiments with image and sound as he developed a number of groundbreaking techniques for combining and synchronizing animation with music.",
"The National Film Board honoured McLaren by naming its [Montreal](/wiki/Montreal \"Montreal\") head office building the Norman McLaren Building. The Montreal borough of [Saint\\-Laurent](/wiki/Saint-Laurent_%28borough%29 \"Saint-Laurent (borough)\"), which is home to the NFB, has also honoured McLaren by naming a borough district after him.",
"In 1979, the new [Edinburgh Filmhouse](/wiki/Edinburgh_Filmhouse \"Edinburgh Filmhouse\") included two seats dedicated to McLaren and Grierson.",
"In 2006, McLaren was the subject of a short animated documentary *[McLaren's Negatives](/wiki/McLaren%27s_Negatives \"McLaren's Negatives\")*. Also in 2006, the Film Board marked the 65th anniversary of NFB animation with an international retrospective of McLaren's restored classics and a new DVD box set of his complete works.",
"In June 2013, the NFB released an iTunes app entitled \"McLaren's Workshop,\" allowing users to create their own films using animation techniques utilized by McLaren and providing access to over fifty of his films.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.cartoonbrew.com/ipad/nfbs\\-free\\-mclarens\\-workshop\\-ipad\\-app\\-is\\-a\\-must\\-download\\-84008\\.html\\|title\\=NFB's Free McLaren's Workshop iPad App is a Must\\-Download\\|last\\=Amidi\\|first\\=Amid\\|date\\=7 June 2013\\|work\\=\\[\\[Cartoon Brew]]\\|access\\-date\\=28 June 2013}}",
"In June 2018, [Robert Lepage](/wiki/Robert_Lepage \"Robert Lepage\"), principal dancer [Guillaume Côté](/wiki/Guillaume_C%C3%B4t%C3%A9 \"Guillaume Côté\") and the [National Ballet of Canada](/wiki/National_Ballet_of_Canada \"National Ballet of Canada\") staged a ballet entitled *Frame by Frame*, based on McLaren's life and work.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.thestar.com/entertainment/stage/2017/02/15/national\\-ballet\\-and\\-robert\\-lepage\\-team\\-on\\-work\\-honouring\\-norman\\-mclaren.html\\|title\\=National Ballet and Robert Lepage team on work honouring Norman McLaren\\|last\\=Demara\\|first\\=Bruce\\|date\\=2017\\-02\\-15\\|website\\=Toronto Star\\|access\\-date\\=2017\\-02\\-23}}",
"Filmmaker [George Lucas](/wiki/George_Lucas \"George Lucas\") has cited McLaren as an influence on his own work.{{Cite magazine \\|last\\=Silberman \\|first\\=Steve \\|title\\=Life After Darth \\|language\\=en\\-US \\|magazine\\=Wired \\|url\\=https://www.wired.com/2005/05/lucas\\-2/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-10\\-08 \\|issn\\=1059\\-1028}}",
"### Birth centenary events",
"The 100th anniversary of the birth of McLaren was marked by a project entitled \"McLaren Wall\\-to\\-Wall\" in Montreal's [Quartier des Spectacles](/wiki/Quartier_des_Spectacles \"Quartier des Spectacles\") entertainment district, with short films inspired by McLaren works *Neighbours*, *Begone Dull Care*, *[Synchromy](/wiki/Synchromy \"Synchromy\")* and *Spheres* projected onto local landmarks.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.animationmagazine.net/events/nfb\\-invites\\-artists\\-celebrate\\-mclarens\\-100th/\\|title\\=NFB Invites Artists to Celebrate McLaren's 100th\\|last\\=Milligan\\|first\\=Mercedes\\|date\\=5 December 2013\\|work\\=\\[\\[Animation (magazine)\\|Animation]]\\|access\\-date\\=18 December 2013}}",
"McLaren's centenary was also celebrated in Scotland with the McLaren 2014 Programme of screenings, exhibitions, events and animation workshops. The Programme was conceived of and directed by animator Iain Gardner who also serves as the Animation Programmer for the Edinburgh International Film Festival. The programme was a key focus within the 68th Edinburgh International Film Festival in June, and ran through to the end of the XX Commonwealth Games in Glasgow in August. The McLaren 2014 Programme was managed by the Centre for the Moving Image, working in partnership with the National Film Board of Canada, and over 20 partners in Scotland and the UK.{{cite news \\| url\\=http://film.list.co.uk/article/59720\\-mclaren\\-2014\\-festival\\-shines\\-a\\-light\\-on\\-underappreciated\\-experimental\\-filmmaker\\-norman\\-mclaren/ \\| title\\=McLaren 2014 festival shines a light on underappreciated experimental filmmaker Norman McLaren \\| work\\=\\[\\[The List (magazine)\\|The List]] \\| date\\=27 March 2014 \\| access\\-date\\=28 March 2014 \\| author\\=McGill, Hannah}}",
"In April 2014 his only surviving nephew Douglas Biggar (younger son of Sheena) unveiled a blue heritage plaque on his childhood home marking the centenary of his birth.Wood, Aaron. [“Happy 100th Birthday Norman McLaren!”](https://www.skwigly.co.uk/happy-100th-birthday-norman-mclaren/). *Skwigly*. Published April 11th, 2014\\. Accessed March 7th, 2023\\.",
""
] |
Francoist Spain
---------------
[thumb\|300px\|left\|Arias Navarro and Franco in 1975](/wiki/File:Carlos_Arias_Navarro_and_Franco_1975.jpg "Carlos Arias Navarro and Franco 1975.jpg")
Arias was close to the right\-wing sectors and joined the Francoist side during the [Spanish Civil War](/wiki/Spanish_Civil_War "Spanish Civil War"). He was public prosecutor in the trials set up by the Francoists in Málaga{{cite book \|last\=Beevor \|first\=Antony \|author\-link\=Antony Beevor \|title\=The Battle for Spain \|publisher\=\[\[Penguin (publisher)\|Penguin]] \|year\=2006 \|url\=https://archive.org/details/battleforspainsp00anto \|url\-access\=registration \|pages\=560 \|isbn\=9781101201206}} after the [conquest of the city](/wiki/Battle_of_M%C3%A1laga_%281937%29 "Battle of Málaga (1937)"). There, he earned the nickname the "Butcher of Málaga" (*Carnicero de Málaga*){{cite book \|first\=Hugh \|last\=Thomas \|author\-link\=Hugh Thomas (historian) \|title\=Historia de la Guerra Civil Española \|year\=1976 \|page\=636 \|publisher\=Random House Publishing \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=UoNpAAAAMAAJ \|isbn\=9780375755156}} for his role in the imposition of capital punishment to true or perceived sympathizers of the Republicans,{{cite news \|url\=http://servicios.diariosur.es/fijas/esp/malagasigloxx/republicayguerracivil.htm \|title\=Málaga XX, Historia de un siglo: La Segunda República y la Guerra Civil \|newspaper\=\[\[Diario Sur]] \|access\-date\=9 March 2019 \|language\=es}} In one of the harshest repressions following the Francoist victory, an estimated total of 17,000 people were summarily executed.{{cite news \|url\=http://www.malagahoy.es/article/malaga/207285/holocausto/malaga.html \|title\=El "holocausto de Málaga" \|newspaper\=Málaga Hoy \|first\=José Luis \|last\=Picón \|date\=18 August 2008 \|access\-date\=9 March 2019 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080821022937/http://www.malagahoy.es/article/malaga/207285/holocausto/malaga.html \|archive\-date\=21 August 2008 \|publisher\=\[\[Joly Digital]] \|language\=es \|url\-status\=live }}{{cite news \|url\=http://www.laopiniondemalaga.es/secciones/noticia.jsp?pRef\=2008072300\_2\_194448\_\_Malaga\-Rafael\-mayor\-fosa\-pais \|title\=San Rafael: la mayor fosa del país \|newspaper\=La Opinión de Málaga \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121208074203/http://www.laopiniondemalaga.es/secciones/noticia.jsp?pRef\=2008072300\_2\_194448\_\_Malaga\-Rafael\-mayor\-fosa\-pais \|archive\-date\=8 December 2012 \|first\=Lucas \|last\=Martín \|publisher\=Editorial Prensa Ibérica \|language\=es \|access\-date\=9 March 2019 \|date\=23 July 2008 \|url\-status\=live }}{{cite news \|url\=http://www.publico.es/espana/malaga\-1937\.html \|title\=Málaga, 1937 \|first\=Arturo \|last\=Díaz \|date\=4 October 2007 \|access\-date\=9 March 2019 \|newspaper\=\[\[Publico (Spain)\|Publico]] \|language\=es \|publisher\=Display Connectors, S.L.}}
He married María de la Luz del Valle y Menéndez, without issue.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.geneall.net/H/per\_page.php?id\=467686 \|title\=Carlos Arias Navarro, 1\. marqués de Arias Navarro \|work\=\[\[Geneall]] \|access\-date\=29 January 2014 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110520070249/http://www.geneall.net/H/per\_page.php?id\=467686 \|archive\-date\=20 May 2011 \|url\-status\=live }}
After serving in various positions, including [Mayor of Madrid](/wiki/Mayor_of_Madrid "Mayor of Madrid") from 1965 to June 1973, Arias became Minister of Government (Minister of the Interior) in June 1973\. After the assassination of Prime Minister (*Presidente del Gobierno*) [Luis Carrero Blanco](/wiki/Luis_Carrero_Blanco "Luis Carrero Blanco") he was appointed his successor on 31 December 1973, a position he continued to hold after the death of Franco. Arias Navarro had the support of the Franco family, most notably [Carmen Polo](/wiki/Carmen_Polo "Carmen Polo"), and retained the post during the [transition to democracy](/wiki/Transition_to_democracy_%28Spain%29 "Transition to democracy (Spain)"). However, the [garroting](/wiki/Garrote "Garrote") of the [Catalan](/wiki/Catalonia "Catalonia") anarchist [Salvador Puig Antich](/wiki/Salvador_Puig_Antich "Salvador Puig Antich") in March 1974 had already shown his aversion to political liberalization, while other events, including the executions in September 1974, the organization of the [Green March](/wiki/Green_March "Green March") in November 1975 by King [Hassan II of Morocco](/wiki/Hassan_II_of_Morocco "Hassan II of Morocco"), and the illness and death of Franco (which Arias announced on television), displayed his weaknesses and further eroded his authority.
Franco's successor as head of state, King [Juan Carlos I](/wiki/Juan_Carlos_I "Juan Carlos I"), continued his appointment, so that it was his government (which included [Manuel Fraga Iribarne](/wiki/Manuel_Fraga_Iribarne "Manuel Fraga Iribarne") and [José María de Areilza](/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Mar%C3%ADa_de_Areilza "José María de Areilza")) that instituted the first reforms, however unwillingly. He tried to continue Franco's late policies, opposing any change. After a lengthy power struggle, Juan Carlos forced his resignation on 1 July 1976\.
The next day, the King granted him the hereditary title of *Marqués de Arias Navarro* ([English](/wiki/English_language "English language"): Marquess of Arias Navarro), together with the dignity [Grande de España](/wiki/Grandee_of_Spain "Grandee of Spain") (English: Grandee of Spain). On his death, the title of Marquess was inherited by his nephew Miguel Ángel Arias\-Navarro.
Arias was succeeded by [Adolfo Suárez](/wiki/Adolfo_Su%C3%A1rez "Adolfo Suárez"), named general secretary of the Francoist official party *[Movimiento Nacional](/wiki/Movimiento_Nacional "Movimiento Nacional")* in December 1975\. In June 1977, during the first free [general elections](/wiki/General_elections "General elections") held since 1936, Arias joined the [*Alianza Popular*](/wiki/Popular_Alliance_%28Spain%29 "Popular Alliance (Spain)"), a right\-wing party created by Manuel Fraga. He then led the [Búnker](/wiki/B%C3%BAnker "Búnker") group of hard\-liners opposed to any reforms, along with the leader of the Francoist party *[Fuerza Nueva](/wiki/Fuerza_Nueva "Fuerza Nueva")*, [Blas Piñar](/wiki/Blas_Pi%C3%B1ar "Blas Piñar"). Arias, however, never again occupied a relevant position in the later Spanish government.
Both left and extreme right attacked him, calling him by the nickname "The Old {{lang\|en\|\[\[wikt:pusillanimous\|Pusillanimous]]}}".
|
[
"Francoist Spain\n---------------",
"[thumb\\|300px\\|left\\|Arias Navarro and Franco in 1975](/wiki/File:Carlos_Arias_Navarro_and_Franco_1975.jpg \"Carlos Arias Navarro and Franco 1975.jpg\")",
"Arias was close to the right\\-wing sectors and joined the Francoist side during the [Spanish Civil War](/wiki/Spanish_Civil_War \"Spanish Civil War\"). He was public prosecutor in the trials set up by the Francoists in Málaga{{cite book \\|last\\=Beevor \\|first\\=Antony \\|author\\-link\\=Antony Beevor \\|title\\=The Battle for Spain \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Penguin (publisher)\\|Penguin]] \\|year\\=2006 \\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/battleforspainsp00anto \\|url\\-access\\=registration \\|pages\\=560 \\|isbn\\=9781101201206}} after the [conquest of the city](/wiki/Battle_of_M%C3%A1laga_%281937%29 \"Battle of Málaga (1937)\"). There, he earned the nickname the \"Butcher of Málaga\" (*Carnicero de Málaga*){{cite book \\|first\\=Hugh \\|last\\=Thomas \\|author\\-link\\=Hugh Thomas (historian) \\|title\\=Historia de la Guerra Civil Española \\|year\\=1976 \\|page\\=636 \\|publisher\\=Random House Publishing \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=UoNpAAAAMAAJ \\|isbn\\=9780375755156}} for his role in the imposition of capital punishment to true or perceived sympathizers of the Republicans,{{cite news \\|url\\=http://servicios.diariosur.es/fijas/esp/malagasigloxx/republicayguerracivil.htm \\|title\\=Málaga XX, Historia de un siglo: La Segunda República y la Guerra Civil \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[Diario Sur]] \\|access\\-date\\=9 March 2019 \\|language\\=es}} In one of the harshest repressions following the Francoist victory, an estimated total of 17,000 people were summarily executed.{{cite news \\|url\\=http://www.malagahoy.es/article/malaga/207285/holocausto/malaga.html \\|title\\=El \"holocausto de Málaga\" \\|newspaper\\=Málaga Hoy \\|first\\=José Luis \\|last\\=Picón \\|date\\=18 August 2008 \\|access\\-date\\=9 March 2019 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080821022937/http://www.malagahoy.es/article/malaga/207285/holocausto/malaga.html \\|archive\\-date\\=21 August 2008 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Joly Digital]] \\|language\\=es \\|url\\-status\\=live }}{{cite news \\|url\\=http://www.laopiniondemalaga.es/secciones/noticia.jsp?pRef\\=2008072300\\_2\\_194448\\_\\_Malaga\\-Rafael\\-mayor\\-fosa\\-pais \\|title\\=San Rafael: la mayor fosa del país \\|newspaper\\=La Opinión de Málaga \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121208074203/http://www.laopiniondemalaga.es/secciones/noticia.jsp?pRef\\=2008072300\\_2\\_194448\\_\\_Malaga\\-Rafael\\-mayor\\-fosa\\-pais \\|archive\\-date\\=8 December 2012 \\|first\\=Lucas \\|last\\=Martín \\|publisher\\=Editorial Prensa Ibérica \\|language\\=es \\|access\\-date\\=9 March 2019 \\|date\\=23 July 2008 \\|url\\-status\\=live }}{{cite news \\|url\\=http://www.publico.es/espana/malaga\\-1937\\.html \\|title\\=Málaga, 1937 \\|first\\=Arturo \\|last\\=Díaz \\|date\\=4 October 2007 \\|access\\-date\\=9 March 2019 \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[Publico (Spain)\\|Publico]] \\|language\\=es \\|publisher\\=Display Connectors, S.L.}}",
"He married María de la Luz del Valle y Menéndez, without issue.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.geneall.net/H/per\\_page.php?id\\=467686 \\|title\\=Carlos Arias Navarro, 1\\. marqués de Arias Navarro \\|work\\=\\[\\[Geneall]] \\|access\\-date\\=29 January 2014 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110520070249/http://www.geneall.net/H/per\\_page.php?id\\=467686 \\|archive\\-date\\=20 May 2011 \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"After serving in various positions, including [Mayor of Madrid](/wiki/Mayor_of_Madrid \"Mayor of Madrid\") from 1965 to June 1973, Arias became Minister of Government (Minister of the Interior) in June 1973\\. After the assassination of Prime Minister (*Presidente del Gobierno*) [Luis Carrero Blanco](/wiki/Luis_Carrero_Blanco \"Luis Carrero Blanco\") he was appointed his successor on 31 December 1973, a position he continued to hold after the death of Franco. Arias Navarro had the support of the Franco family, most notably [Carmen Polo](/wiki/Carmen_Polo \"Carmen Polo\"), and retained the post during the [transition to democracy](/wiki/Transition_to_democracy_%28Spain%29 \"Transition to democracy (Spain)\"). However, the [garroting](/wiki/Garrote \"Garrote\") of the [Catalan](/wiki/Catalonia \"Catalonia\") anarchist [Salvador Puig Antich](/wiki/Salvador_Puig_Antich \"Salvador Puig Antich\") in March 1974 had already shown his aversion to political liberalization, while other events, including the executions in September 1974, the organization of the [Green March](/wiki/Green_March \"Green March\") in November 1975 by King [Hassan II of Morocco](/wiki/Hassan_II_of_Morocco \"Hassan II of Morocco\"), and the illness and death of Franco (which Arias announced on television), displayed his weaknesses and further eroded his authority.",
"Franco's successor as head of state, King [Juan Carlos I](/wiki/Juan_Carlos_I \"Juan Carlos I\"), continued his appointment, so that it was his government (which included [Manuel Fraga Iribarne](/wiki/Manuel_Fraga_Iribarne \"Manuel Fraga Iribarne\") and [José María de Areilza](/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Mar%C3%ADa_de_Areilza \"José María de Areilza\")) that instituted the first reforms, however unwillingly. He tried to continue Franco's late policies, opposing any change. After a lengthy power struggle, Juan Carlos forced his resignation on 1 July 1976\\.",
"The next day, the King granted him the hereditary title of *Marqués de Arias Navarro* ([English](/wiki/English_language \"English language\"): Marquess of Arias Navarro), together with the dignity [Grande de España](/wiki/Grandee_of_Spain \"Grandee of Spain\") (English: Grandee of Spain). On his death, the title of Marquess was inherited by his nephew Miguel Ángel Arias\\-Navarro.",
"Arias was succeeded by [Adolfo Suárez](/wiki/Adolfo_Su%C3%A1rez \"Adolfo Suárez\"), named general secretary of the Francoist official party *[Movimiento Nacional](/wiki/Movimiento_Nacional \"Movimiento Nacional\")* in December 1975\\. In June 1977, during the first free [general elections](/wiki/General_elections \"General elections\") held since 1936, Arias joined the [*Alianza Popular*](/wiki/Popular_Alliance_%28Spain%29 \"Popular Alliance (Spain)\"), a right\\-wing party created by Manuel Fraga. He then led the [Búnker](/wiki/B%C3%BAnker \"Búnker\") group of hard\\-liners opposed to any reforms, along with the leader of the Francoist party *[Fuerza Nueva](/wiki/Fuerza_Nueva \"Fuerza Nueva\")*, [Blas Piñar](/wiki/Blas_Pi%C3%B1ar \"Blas Piñar\"). Arias, however, never again occupied a relevant position in the later Spanish government.",
"Both left and extreme right attacked him, calling him by the nickname \"The Old {{lang\\|en\\|\\[\\[wikt:pusillanimous\\|Pusillanimous]]}}\".",
""
] |
Age of Discovery
----------------
[thumb\|left\|The Italian explorer [Christopher Columbus](/wiki/Christopher_Columbus "Christopher Columbus") leads an expedition to the New World, 1492\. [His voyages](/wiki/Voyages_of_Christopher_Columbus "Voyages of Christopher Columbus") are celebrated as the discovery of the Americas from a European perspective, and they opened a [new era](/wiki/Early_modern_period "Early modern period") in the history of humankind and sustained contact between the two worlds.](/wiki/File:Desembarco_de_Col%C3%B3n_de_Di%C3%B3scoro_Puebla.jpg "Desembarco de Colón de Dióscoro Puebla.jpg")
ItalianThough the modern state of Italy had yet to be established, the Latin equivalent of the [term Italian](/wiki/Italians%23Name "Italians#Name") had been in use for natives of [the region](/wiki/Italian_geographical_region "Italian geographical region") since antiquity. See [Pliny the Elder](/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder "Pliny the Elder"), *[Letters](/wiki/Epistulae_%28Pliny%29 "Epistulae (Pliny)")* 9\.23\. navigators and explorers played a key role in the exploration and settlement of the Americas by [Europeans](/wiki/Europeans "Europeans"). [Genoese](/wiki/Genoa "Genoa") explorer [Christopher Columbus](/wiki/Christopher_Columbus "Christopher Columbus") ({{lang\-it\|Cristoforo Colombo}} {{IPA\|it\|kriˈstɔːforo koˈlombo\|}}) completed [four voyages across the Atlantic Ocean](/wiki/Voyages_of_Christopher_Columbus "Voyages of Christopher Columbus") for the [Catholic Monarchs of Spain](/wiki/Catholic_Monarchs_of_Spain "Catholic Monarchs of Spain"). These voyages led to the widespread knowledge of the [New World](/wiki/New_World "New World"). This breakthrough inaugurated the period known as the [Age of Discovery](/wiki/Age_of_Discovery "Age of Discovery"), which saw the [colonization of the Americas](/wiki/Colonization_of_the_Americas "Colonization of the Americas"), a related [biological exchange](/wiki/Columbian_exchange "Columbian exchange"), and [trans\-Atlantic trade](/wiki/Trans-Atlantic_trade "Trans-Atlantic trade"). These events, the effects and consequences of which persist to the present, are often cited as the beginning of the [modern era](/wiki/Modern_era "Modern era").
Born in the [Republic of Genoa](/wiki/Republic_of_Genoa "Republic of Genoa"), Columbus was a [navigator](/wiki/Navigator "Navigator") who sailed in search of a westward route to [India](/wiki/India "India"), [China](/wiki/China "China"), [Japan](/wiki/Japan "Japan") and the [Spice Islands](/wiki/Maluku_Islands "Maluku Islands") thought to be the East Asian source of [spices](/wiki/Spice_trade "Spice trade") and other precious oriental goods obtainable only through arduous [overland routes](/wiki/Silk_Road "Silk Road").{{Cite web \|title\=Christopher Columbus {{!}} Royal Museums Greenwich \|url\=https://www.rmg.co.uk/stories/topics/christopher\-columbus \|access\-date\=2023\-11\-15 \|website\=www.rmg.co.uk \|language\=en}} Columbus was partly inspired by 13th\-century Italian explorer [Marco Polo](/wiki/Marco_Polo "Marco Polo") in his ambition to explore Asia. His initial belief that he had reached "the Indies" has resulted in the name "[West Indies](/wiki/West_Indies "West Indies")" being attached to the [Bahamas](/wiki/Bahamas "Bahamas") and the islands of the [Caribbean](/wiki/Caribbean "Caribbean"). At the time of Columbus's voyages, the Americas were inhabited by [Indigenous Americans](/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas "Indigenous peoples of the Americas"), and Columbus later participated in the beginning of the Spanish [conquest of the Americas](/wiki/Conquistador "Conquistador").
[thumb\|[Christopher Columbus House](/wiki/Christopher_Columbus_House "Christopher Columbus House") in [Genoa](/wiki/Genoa "Genoa"), Italy, an 18th\-century reconstruction of the house in which Columbus grew up. The original was likely destroyed during the 1684 [bombardment of Genoa](/wiki/Bombardment_of_Genoa "Bombardment of Genoa").{{cite book \|title\=Una Giornata nella Città \|trans\-title\=A Day in the City \|first1\=Corinna \|last1\=Praga \|author2\=Laura Monac \|publisher\=Sagep Editrice \|location\=Genoa \|year\=1992 \|page\=14 \|language\=it}}{{cite book \|url\=http://www.ortidicarignano.it/files/seiitinerariinportoria.pdf \|archive\-url\=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.ortidicarignano.it/files/seiitinerariinportoria.pdf \|archive\-date\=9 October 2022 \|url\-status\=live \|chapter\=Casa di Colombo \|first1\=Alfredo \|last1\=Preste \|author2\=Alessandro Torti \|author3\=Remo Viazzi \|title\=Sei itinerari in Portoria \|publisher\=Grafiche Frassicomo \|trans\-title\=Six itineraries in Portoria \|location\=Genova \|year\=1997 \|language\=it}}](/wiki/File:Casa_di_Colombo_Genova_foto_2.jpg "Casa di Colombo Genova foto 2.jpg")
[thumb\|right\|[Giovanni da Verrazzano](/wiki/Giovanni_da_Verrazzano "Giovanni da Verrazzano")'s voyage of 1524\. The Italian explorer was the first documented European to enter New York Harbor and the Hudson River.](/wiki/File:Viaggioverrazzano.jpg "Viaggioverrazzano.jpg")
[thumb\|A statue of the Italian explorer [John Cabot](/wiki/John_Cabot "John Cabot") gazing across [Bonavista Bay](/wiki/Bonavista_Bay "Bonavista Bay") in eastern [Newfoundland](/wiki/Newfoundland "Newfoundland")](/wiki/File:Bonavista_Cabot_2.jpg "Bonavista Cabot 2.jpg")
[thumb\|World map of [Waldseemüller](/wiki/Martin_Waldseem%C3%BCller "Martin Waldseemüller") (Germany, 1507\), which first used the name America (in the lower\-left section, over South America).{{cite web\|url\=http://memory.loc.gov/cgi\-bin/query/h?ammem/gmd:@field%28NUMBER\+@band%28g3200\+ct000725C%29%29\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090109175922/http://memory.loc.gov/cgi\-bin/query/h?ammem%2Fgmd%3A%40field%28NUMBER\+%40band%28g3200\+ct000725C%29%29\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-date\=January 9, 2009\|title\=Universalis cosmographia secundum Ptholomaei traditionem et Americi Vespucii alioru\[m]que lustrationes.\|accessdate\=September 8, 2014}} The [name America](/wiki/Naming_of_the_Americas "Naming of the Americas") derives from the Italian explorer [Amerigo Vespucci](/wiki/Amerigo_Vespucci "Amerigo Vespucci").](/wiki/File:Waldseemuller_map_2.jpg "Waldseemuller map 2.jpg")
Another Italian, [John Cabot](/wiki/John_Cabot "John Cabot") ({{lang\-it\|Giovanni Caboto}} {{IPA\|it\|dʒoˈvanni kaˈbɔːto\|}}), together with his son [Sebastian](/wiki/Sebastian_Cabot_%28explorer%29 "Sebastian Cabot (explorer)"), explored the [eastern seaboard of North America](/wiki/East_Coast_of_the_United_States "East Coast of the United States") for [Henry VII](/wiki/Henry_VII_of_England "Henry VII of England") in the early 16th century. The historian [Alwyn Ruddock](/wiki/Alwyn_Ruddock "Alwyn Ruddock") worked on Cabot and his era for 35 years. She suggested that Cabot and his expedition successfully returned to England in the spring of 1500\. She claimed their return followed an epic two\-year exploration of the east coast of North America, south into the Chesapeake Bay area and perhaps as far as the Spanish territories in the Caribbean. Her evidence included the well\-known world map of the Spanish cartographer [Juan de la Cosa](/wiki/Juan_de_la_Cosa "Juan de la Cosa"). His chart included the North American coast and seas "discovered by the English" between 1497 and 1500\.Evan T. Jones and Margaret M. Condon, *[Cabot and Bristol's Age of Discovery: The Bristol Discovery Voyages 1480–1508](https://archive.org/details/Cabotdigital/page/2/mode/2up)* (University of Bristol, Nov. 2016\), p. 2\.
The Cabot Project at the [University of Bristol](/wiki/University_of_Bristol "University of Bristol") was organized in 2009 to search for the evidence on which Ruddock's claims rest, as well as to undertake related studies of Cabot and his expeditions.["The Cabot Project"](http://www.bristol.ac.uk/history/research/cabot.html), University of Bristol, 2009\. The lead researchers on the project, Evan Jones and Margaret Condon, claim to have found further evidence to support aspects of Ruddock's case, including some of the information she intended to use to argue for a successful return of the 1498 expedition to Bristol. These appear to place John Cabot in London by May 1500, although Jones and Condon have yet to publish their documentation.
The project is collaborating on an archaeological excavation at the community of [Carbonear](/wiki/Carbonear "Carbonear"), Newfoundland, located at Conception Bay and believed the likely location for Carbonariis's possible mission settlement. The Archaeology of Historic Carbonear Project, carried out by [Memorial University of Newfoundland](/wiki/Memorial_University_of_Newfoundland "Memorial University of Newfoundland"), has conducted summer fieldwork each season since 2011\. So far, it has found evidence of planter habitation since the late 17th century and of trade with Spain through [Bilbao](/wiki/Bilbao "Bilbao"), including a Spanish coin minted in [Peru](/wiki/Peru "Peru").[Peter E. Pope and Bryn Tapper, "Historic Carbonear, Summer 2013"](http://www.tcii.gov.nl.ca/pao/newsletters/pdf/Vol12-2013.pdf), *Provincial Archaeology Office 2013 Archaeology Review*, 2013, Vol. 12, pp. 127–133, accessed 24 April 2015[Mark Rendell, "17th\-century coins unearthed in Carbonear"](http://www.thetelegram.com/News/Local/2014-04-17/article-3692324/17th-century-coins-unearthed-in-Carbonear/) {{webarchive\|url\=https://archive.today/20150424133701/http://www.thetelegram.com/News/Local/2014\-04\-17/article\-3692324/17th\-century\-coins\-unearthed\-in\-Carbonear/ \|date\=24 April 2015 }}, *The Telegram*, 17 April 2014, accessed 24 April 2015\.
In 1524 the [Florentine](/wiki/Florence "Florence") explorer [Giovanni da Verrazzano](/wiki/Giovanni_da_Verrazzano "Giovanni da Verrazzano") ({{IPA\|it\|dʒoˈvanni da (v)verratˈtsaːno\|lang}}) was the first European to explore the Atlantic coast of North America between Florida and New Brunswick in 1524\.{{Cite book \|last\=Greene \|first\=George Washington \|author\-link\=George Washington Greene \|url\={{Google books\|1qsuAAAAYAAJ\|page\=PA13\|keywords\=\|text\=\|plainurl\=yes}} \|title\=The Life and Voyages of Verrazzano \|date\=1837 \|publisher\=Folsom, Wells, and Thurston \|location\=Cambridge University \|page\=13 \|access\-date\=18 August 2017 \|via\=Google Books}} The geographic information derived from this voyage significantly influenced 16th\-century cartographers.Castelnovi Michele, Rotta verso la Cina: "les Indes en Kathaye" obiettivo della prima spedizione di Verrazzano, tra illusione e catacresi, in “Miscellanea di Storia delle Esplorazioni” XLII, Genova, Bozzi, 2017, pp. 45–78 Despite his discoveries, Verrazzano's reputation did not proliferate as much as other explorers of that era. For example, Verrazzano gave the European name Francesca to the new land that he had seen, in accordance with contemporary practices, after the French king in whose name he sailed. That and other names he bestowed on features he discovered have not survived.
Verrazzano's reputation was particularly obscure in [New York City](/wiki/New_York_City "New York City"), where the 1609 voyage of [Henry Hudson](/wiki/Henry_Hudson "Henry Hudson") on behalf of the [Dutch Republic](/wiki/Dutch_Republic "Dutch Republic") came to be regarded as the *de facto* start of European exploration of New York. It was only [by a great effort](/wiki/Verrazano-Narrows_Bridge%23Naming "Verrazano-Narrows Bridge#Naming") in the 1950s and 1960s that Verrazzano's name and reputation were re\-established as the European discoverer of the harbour, during an effort to name the newly built [Narrows bridge](/wiki/Verrazano-Narrows_Bridge "Verrazano-Narrows Bridge") after him.{{Cite web\|last\=Adler\|first\=Jerry\|title\=The History of the Verrazano\-Narrows Bridge, 50 Years After Its Construction\|url\=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/history\-verrazano\-narrows\-bridge\-50\-years\-after\-its\-construction\-180953032/\|access\-date\=2020\-08\-15\|website\=Smithsonian Magazine\|language\=en}}
The Italian explorer [Amerigo Vespucci](/wiki/Amerigo_Vespucci "Amerigo Vespucci") ({{IPA\|it\|ameˈriːɡo veˈsputtʃi\|lang}}) first demonstrated in about 1501 that the New World was not Asia as initially conjectured but a different continent ([America](/wiki/Naming_of_the_Americas "Naming of the Americas") is named after him).{{Cite book \|last\=Martone \|first\=Eric \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=MHJ1DQAAQBAJ\&pg\=PA109 \|title\=Italian Americans: The History and Culture of a People \|date\=2016 \|publisher\=ABC\-CLIO \|isbn\=978\-1\-6106\-9995\-2 \|page\=504}} Between 1497 and 1504, Vespucci participated in at least two voyages of the [Age of Discovery](/wiki/Age_of_Discovery "Age of Discovery"), first on behalf of Spain (1499{{ndash}}1500\) and then for Portugal (1501{{ndash}}1502\). In 1503 and 1505, two booklets were published under his name, containing colourful descriptions of these explorations and other alleged voyages. Both publications were extremely popular and widely read across much of Europe. Although historians still dispute the authorship and veracity of these accounts, at the time they were instrumental in raising awareness of the new discoveries and enhancing the reputation of Vespucci as an explorer and navigator.
Vespucci claimed to have understood, back in 1501 during his Portuguese expedition, that Brazil was part of a fourth continent unknown to Europeans, which he called the "[New World](/wiki/New_World "New World")". The claim inspired cartographer [Martin Waldseemüller](/wiki/Martin_Waldseem%C3%BCller "Martin Waldseemüller") to recognize Vespucci's accomplishments in 1507 by applying the Latinized form "America" for the first time to a map showing the New World. Other cartographers followed suit, and by 1538 the tradition of marking the name "America" on maps of the newly discovered continents was secure. It is unknown whether Vespucci was ever aware of these honours. In 1505, he was made a subject of [Castile](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Castile "Kingdom of Castile") by royal decree and in 1508, he was appointed to the newly created position of *piloto mayor* (master navigator) for Spain's *[Casa de Contratación](/wiki/Casa_de_Contrataci%C3%B3n "Casa de Contratación")* (House of Trade) in Seville, a post he held until his death in 1512\.
A number of Italian navigators and explorers in the employ of Spain and France were involved in exploring and mapping their territories, and in establishing settlements; but this did not lead to the permanent presence of Italians in America. In 1539 [Marco da Nizza](/wiki/Marcos_de_Niza "Marcos de Niza") explored the territory that later became the states of [Arizona](/wiki/Arizona "Arizona") and [New Mexico](/wiki/New_Mexico "New Mexico").
{{Gallery\|align\=center
\|width\=160 \|File:Ridolfo del Ghirlandaio \- Ritratto di Cristoforo Colombo (1520\).jpg\|\[\[Christopher Columbus]]
\|File:Amerigo Vespucci (with turban) \- cropped.jpg\|\[\[Amerigo Vespucci]]
\|File:John\-cabot\-2\.jpg\|\[\[John Cabot]]
\|File:Giovanni da Verrazano.jpg\|\[\[Giovanni da Verrazzano]]
}}
|
[
"Age of Discovery\n----------------",
"[thumb\\|left\\|The Italian explorer [Christopher Columbus](/wiki/Christopher_Columbus \"Christopher Columbus\") leads an expedition to the New World, 1492\\. [His voyages](/wiki/Voyages_of_Christopher_Columbus \"Voyages of Christopher Columbus\") are celebrated as the discovery of the Americas from a European perspective, and they opened a [new era](/wiki/Early_modern_period \"Early modern period\") in the history of humankind and sustained contact between the two worlds.](/wiki/File:Desembarco_de_Col%C3%B3n_de_Di%C3%B3scoro_Puebla.jpg \"Desembarco de Colón de Dióscoro Puebla.jpg\")",
"ItalianThough the modern state of Italy had yet to be established, the Latin equivalent of the [term Italian](/wiki/Italians%23Name \"Italians#Name\") had been in use for natives of [the region](/wiki/Italian_geographical_region \"Italian geographical region\") since antiquity. See [Pliny the Elder](/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder \"Pliny the Elder\"), *[Letters](/wiki/Epistulae_%28Pliny%29 \"Epistulae (Pliny)\")* 9\\.23\\. navigators and explorers played a key role in the exploration and settlement of the Americas by [Europeans](/wiki/Europeans \"Europeans\"). [Genoese](/wiki/Genoa \"Genoa\") explorer [Christopher Columbus](/wiki/Christopher_Columbus \"Christopher Columbus\") ({{lang\\-it\\|Cristoforo Colombo}} {{IPA\\|it\\|kriˈstɔːforo koˈlombo\\|}}) completed [four voyages across the Atlantic Ocean](/wiki/Voyages_of_Christopher_Columbus \"Voyages of Christopher Columbus\") for the [Catholic Monarchs of Spain](/wiki/Catholic_Monarchs_of_Spain \"Catholic Monarchs of Spain\"). These voyages led to the widespread knowledge of the [New World](/wiki/New_World \"New World\"). This breakthrough inaugurated the period known as the [Age of Discovery](/wiki/Age_of_Discovery \"Age of Discovery\"), which saw the [colonization of the Americas](/wiki/Colonization_of_the_Americas \"Colonization of the Americas\"), a related [biological exchange](/wiki/Columbian_exchange \"Columbian exchange\"), and [trans\\-Atlantic trade](/wiki/Trans-Atlantic_trade \"Trans-Atlantic trade\"). These events, the effects and consequences of which persist to the present, are often cited as the beginning of the [modern era](/wiki/Modern_era \"Modern era\").",
"Born in the [Republic of Genoa](/wiki/Republic_of_Genoa \"Republic of Genoa\"), Columbus was a [navigator](/wiki/Navigator \"Navigator\") who sailed in search of a westward route to [India](/wiki/India \"India\"), [China](/wiki/China \"China\"), [Japan](/wiki/Japan \"Japan\") and the [Spice Islands](/wiki/Maluku_Islands \"Maluku Islands\") thought to be the East Asian source of [spices](/wiki/Spice_trade \"Spice trade\") and other precious oriental goods obtainable only through arduous [overland routes](/wiki/Silk_Road \"Silk Road\").{{Cite web \\|title\\=Christopher Columbus {{!}} Royal Museums Greenwich \\|url\\=https://www.rmg.co.uk/stories/topics/christopher\\-columbus \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-11\\-15 \\|website\\=www.rmg.co.uk \\|language\\=en}} Columbus was partly inspired by 13th\\-century Italian explorer [Marco Polo](/wiki/Marco_Polo \"Marco Polo\") in his ambition to explore Asia. His initial belief that he had reached \"the Indies\" has resulted in the name \"[West Indies](/wiki/West_Indies \"West Indies\")\" being attached to the [Bahamas](/wiki/Bahamas \"Bahamas\") and the islands of the [Caribbean](/wiki/Caribbean \"Caribbean\"). At the time of Columbus's voyages, the Americas were inhabited by [Indigenous Americans](/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas \"Indigenous peoples of the Americas\"), and Columbus later participated in the beginning of the Spanish [conquest of the Americas](/wiki/Conquistador \"Conquistador\").\n[thumb\\|[Christopher Columbus House](/wiki/Christopher_Columbus_House \"Christopher Columbus House\") in [Genoa](/wiki/Genoa \"Genoa\"), Italy, an 18th\\-century reconstruction of the house in which Columbus grew up. The original was likely destroyed during the 1684 [bombardment of Genoa](/wiki/Bombardment_of_Genoa \"Bombardment of Genoa\").{{cite book \\|title\\=Una Giornata nella Città \\|trans\\-title\\=A Day in the City \\|first1\\=Corinna \\|last1\\=Praga \\|author2\\=Laura Monac \\|publisher\\=Sagep Editrice \\|location\\=Genoa \\|year\\=1992 \\|page\\=14 \\|language\\=it}}{{cite book \\|url\\=http://www.ortidicarignano.it/files/seiitinerariinportoria.pdf \\|archive\\-url\\=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.ortidicarignano.it/files/seiitinerariinportoria.pdf \\|archive\\-date\\=9 October 2022 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|chapter\\=Casa di Colombo \\|first1\\=Alfredo \\|last1\\=Preste \\|author2\\=Alessandro Torti \\|author3\\=Remo Viazzi \\|title\\=Sei itinerari in Portoria \\|publisher\\=Grafiche Frassicomo \\|trans\\-title\\=Six itineraries in Portoria \\|location\\=Genova \\|year\\=1997 \\|language\\=it}}](/wiki/File:Casa_di_Colombo_Genova_foto_2.jpg \"Casa di Colombo Genova foto 2.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|right\\|[Giovanni da Verrazzano](/wiki/Giovanni_da_Verrazzano \"Giovanni da Verrazzano\")'s voyage of 1524\\. The Italian explorer was the first documented European to enter New York Harbor and the Hudson River.](/wiki/File:Viaggioverrazzano.jpg \"Viaggioverrazzano.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|A statue of the Italian explorer [John Cabot](/wiki/John_Cabot \"John Cabot\") gazing across [Bonavista Bay](/wiki/Bonavista_Bay \"Bonavista Bay\") in eastern [Newfoundland](/wiki/Newfoundland \"Newfoundland\")](/wiki/File:Bonavista_Cabot_2.jpg \"Bonavista Cabot 2.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|World map of [Waldseemüller](/wiki/Martin_Waldseem%C3%BCller \"Martin Waldseemüller\") (Germany, 1507\\), which first used the name America (in the lower\\-left section, over South America).{{cite web\\|url\\=http://memory.loc.gov/cgi\\-bin/query/h?ammem/gmd:@field%28NUMBER\\+@band%28g3200\\+ct000725C%29%29\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090109175922/http://memory.loc.gov/cgi\\-bin/query/h?ammem%2Fgmd%3A%40field%28NUMBER\\+%40band%28g3200\\+ct000725C%29%29\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-date\\=January 9, 2009\\|title\\=Universalis cosmographia secundum Ptholomaei traditionem et Americi Vespucii alioru\\[m]que lustrationes.\\|accessdate\\=September 8, 2014}} The [name America](/wiki/Naming_of_the_Americas \"Naming of the Americas\") derives from the Italian explorer [Amerigo Vespucci](/wiki/Amerigo_Vespucci \"Amerigo Vespucci\").](/wiki/File:Waldseemuller_map_2.jpg \"Waldseemuller map 2.jpg\")",
"Another Italian, [John Cabot](/wiki/John_Cabot \"John Cabot\") ({{lang\\-it\\|Giovanni Caboto}} {{IPA\\|it\\|dʒoˈvanni kaˈbɔːto\\|}}), together with his son [Sebastian](/wiki/Sebastian_Cabot_%28explorer%29 \"Sebastian Cabot (explorer)\"), explored the [eastern seaboard of North America](/wiki/East_Coast_of_the_United_States \"East Coast of the United States\") for [Henry VII](/wiki/Henry_VII_of_England \"Henry VII of England\") in the early 16th century. The historian [Alwyn Ruddock](/wiki/Alwyn_Ruddock \"Alwyn Ruddock\") worked on Cabot and his era for 35 years. She suggested that Cabot and his expedition successfully returned to England in the spring of 1500\\. She claimed their return followed an epic two\\-year exploration of the east coast of North America, south into the Chesapeake Bay area and perhaps as far as the Spanish territories in the Caribbean. Her evidence included the well\\-known world map of the Spanish cartographer [Juan de la Cosa](/wiki/Juan_de_la_Cosa \"Juan de la Cosa\"). His chart included the North American coast and seas \"discovered by the English\" between 1497 and 1500\\.Evan T. Jones and Margaret M. Condon, *[Cabot and Bristol's Age of Discovery: The Bristol Discovery Voyages 1480–1508](https://archive.org/details/Cabotdigital/page/2/mode/2up)* (University of Bristol, Nov. 2016\\), p. 2\\.",
"The Cabot Project at the [University of Bristol](/wiki/University_of_Bristol \"University of Bristol\") was organized in 2009 to search for the evidence on which Ruddock's claims rest, as well as to undertake related studies of Cabot and his expeditions.[\"The Cabot Project\"](http://www.bristol.ac.uk/history/research/cabot.html), University of Bristol, 2009\\. The lead researchers on the project, Evan Jones and Margaret Condon, claim to have found further evidence to support aspects of Ruddock's case, including some of the information she intended to use to argue for a successful return of the 1498 expedition to Bristol. These appear to place John Cabot in London by May 1500, although Jones and Condon have yet to publish their documentation.",
"The project is collaborating on an archaeological excavation at the community of [Carbonear](/wiki/Carbonear \"Carbonear\"), Newfoundland, located at Conception Bay and believed the likely location for Carbonariis's possible mission settlement. The Archaeology of Historic Carbonear Project, carried out by [Memorial University of Newfoundland](/wiki/Memorial_University_of_Newfoundland \"Memorial University of Newfoundland\"), has conducted summer fieldwork each season since 2011\\. So far, it has found evidence of planter habitation since the late 17th century and of trade with Spain through [Bilbao](/wiki/Bilbao \"Bilbao\"), including a Spanish coin minted in [Peru](/wiki/Peru \"Peru\").[Peter E. Pope and Bryn Tapper, \"Historic Carbonear, Summer 2013\"](http://www.tcii.gov.nl.ca/pao/newsletters/pdf/Vol12-2013.pdf), *Provincial Archaeology Office 2013 Archaeology Review*, 2013, Vol. 12, pp. 127–133, accessed 24 April 2015[Mark Rendell, \"17th\\-century coins unearthed in Carbonear\"](http://www.thetelegram.com/News/Local/2014-04-17/article-3692324/17th-century-coins-unearthed-in-Carbonear/) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://archive.today/20150424133701/http://www.thetelegram.com/News/Local/2014\\-04\\-17/article\\-3692324/17th\\-century\\-coins\\-unearthed\\-in\\-Carbonear/ \\|date\\=24 April 2015 }}, *The Telegram*, 17 April 2014, accessed 24 April 2015\\.",
"In 1524 the [Florentine](/wiki/Florence \"Florence\") explorer [Giovanni da Verrazzano](/wiki/Giovanni_da_Verrazzano \"Giovanni da Verrazzano\") ({{IPA\\|it\\|dʒoˈvanni da (v)verratˈtsaːno\\|lang}}) was the first European to explore the Atlantic coast of North America between Florida and New Brunswick in 1524\\.{{Cite book \\|last\\=Greene \\|first\\=George Washington \\|author\\-link\\=George Washington Greene \\|url\\={{Google books\\|1qsuAAAAYAAJ\\|page\\=PA13\\|keywords\\=\\|text\\=\\|plainurl\\=yes}} \\|title\\=The Life and Voyages of Verrazzano \\|date\\=1837 \\|publisher\\=Folsom, Wells, and Thurston \\|location\\=Cambridge University \\|page\\=13 \\|access\\-date\\=18 August 2017 \\|via\\=Google Books}} The geographic information derived from this voyage significantly influenced 16th\\-century cartographers.Castelnovi Michele, Rotta verso la Cina: \"les Indes en Kathaye\" obiettivo della prima spedizione di Verrazzano, tra illusione e catacresi, in “Miscellanea di Storia delle Esplorazioni” XLII, Genova, Bozzi, 2017, pp. 45–78 Despite his discoveries, Verrazzano's reputation did not proliferate as much as other explorers of that era. For example, Verrazzano gave the European name Francesca to the new land that he had seen, in accordance with contemporary practices, after the French king in whose name he sailed. That and other names he bestowed on features he discovered have not survived.",
"Verrazzano's reputation was particularly obscure in [New York City](/wiki/New_York_City \"New York City\"), where the 1609 voyage of [Henry Hudson](/wiki/Henry_Hudson \"Henry Hudson\") on behalf of the [Dutch Republic](/wiki/Dutch_Republic \"Dutch Republic\") came to be regarded as the *de facto* start of European exploration of New York. It was only [by a great effort](/wiki/Verrazano-Narrows_Bridge%23Naming \"Verrazano-Narrows Bridge#Naming\") in the 1950s and 1960s that Verrazzano's name and reputation were re\\-established as the European discoverer of the harbour, during an effort to name the newly built [Narrows bridge](/wiki/Verrazano-Narrows_Bridge \"Verrazano-Narrows Bridge\") after him.{{Cite web\\|last\\=Adler\\|first\\=Jerry\\|title\\=The History of the Verrazano\\-Narrows Bridge, 50 Years After Its Construction\\|url\\=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/history\\-verrazano\\-narrows\\-bridge\\-50\\-years\\-after\\-its\\-construction\\-180953032/\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-08\\-15\\|website\\=Smithsonian Magazine\\|language\\=en}}",
"The Italian explorer [Amerigo Vespucci](/wiki/Amerigo_Vespucci \"Amerigo Vespucci\") ({{IPA\\|it\\|ameˈriːɡo veˈsputtʃi\\|lang}}) first demonstrated in about 1501 that the New World was not Asia as initially conjectured but a different continent ([America](/wiki/Naming_of_the_Americas \"Naming of the Americas\") is named after him).{{Cite book \\|last\\=Martone \\|first\\=Eric \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=MHJ1DQAAQBAJ\\&pg\\=PA109 \\|title\\=Italian Americans: The History and Culture of a People \\|date\\=2016 \\|publisher\\=ABC\\-CLIO \\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-6106\\-9995\\-2 \\|page\\=504}} Between 1497 and 1504, Vespucci participated in at least two voyages of the [Age of Discovery](/wiki/Age_of_Discovery \"Age of Discovery\"), first on behalf of Spain (1499{{ndash}}1500\\) and then for Portugal (1501{{ndash}}1502\\). In 1503 and 1505, two booklets were published under his name, containing colourful descriptions of these explorations and other alleged voyages. Both publications were extremely popular and widely read across much of Europe. Although historians still dispute the authorship and veracity of these accounts, at the time they were instrumental in raising awareness of the new discoveries and enhancing the reputation of Vespucci as an explorer and navigator.",
"Vespucci claimed to have understood, back in 1501 during his Portuguese expedition, that Brazil was part of a fourth continent unknown to Europeans, which he called the \"[New World](/wiki/New_World \"New World\")\". The claim inspired cartographer [Martin Waldseemüller](/wiki/Martin_Waldseem%C3%BCller \"Martin Waldseemüller\") to recognize Vespucci's accomplishments in 1507 by applying the Latinized form \"America\" for the first time to a map showing the New World. Other cartographers followed suit, and by 1538 the tradition of marking the name \"America\" on maps of the newly discovered continents was secure. It is unknown whether Vespucci was ever aware of these honours. In 1505, he was made a subject of [Castile](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Castile \"Kingdom of Castile\") by royal decree and in 1508, he was appointed to the newly created position of *piloto mayor* (master navigator) for Spain's *[Casa de Contratación](/wiki/Casa_de_Contrataci%C3%B3n \"Casa de Contratación\")* (House of Trade) in Seville, a post he held until his death in 1512\\.",
"A number of Italian navigators and explorers in the employ of Spain and France were involved in exploring and mapping their territories, and in establishing settlements; but this did not lead to the permanent presence of Italians in America. In 1539 [Marco da Nizza](/wiki/Marcos_de_Niza \"Marcos de Niza\") explored the territory that later became the states of [Arizona](/wiki/Arizona \"Arizona\") and [New Mexico](/wiki/New_Mexico \"New Mexico\").\n{{Gallery\\|align\\=center\n\\|width\\=160 \\|File:Ridolfo del Ghirlandaio \\- Ritratto di Cristoforo Colombo (1520\\).jpg\\|\\[\\[Christopher Columbus]]\n\\|File:Amerigo Vespucci (with turban) \\- cropped.jpg\\|\\[\\[Amerigo Vespucci]]\n\\|File:John\\-cabot\\-2\\.jpg\\|\\[\\[John Cabot]]\n\\|File:Giovanni da Verrazano.jpg\\|\\[\\[Giovanni da Verrazzano]]\n}}",
""
] |
1776 to 1850
------------
[thumb\|upright\|[Filippo Mazzei](/wiki/Filippo_Mazzei "Filippo Mazzei"), an Italian physician, philosopher, diplomat, promoter of liberty and author, whose phrase "All men are by nature equally free and independent" was incorporated into the [United States Declaration of Independence](/wiki/United_States_Declaration_of_Independence "United States Declaration of Independence")](/wiki/File:David_Filippo_Mazzei.jpg "David Filippo Mazzei.jpg")
[thumb\|upright\|Birthplace of Filippo Mazzei in [Poggio a Caiano](/wiki/Poggio_a_Caiano "Poggio a Caiano")](/wiki/File:Casa_Natale_di_Filippo_Mazzei_3.jpg "Casa Natale di Filippo Mazzei 3.jpg")
This period saw a small stream of new arrivals from Italy. Some brought skills in agriculture and the making of glass, silk and wine, while others brought skills as musicians.Andrew F. Rolle, *The immigrant upraised: Italian adventurers and colonists in an expanding America* (U of Oklahoma Press, 1968\).
In 1773–1785, [Filippo Mazzei](/wiki/Filippo_Mazzei "Filippo Mazzei"), a physician, philosopher, diplomat, promoter of liberty and author, was a close friend and confidant of Thomas Jefferson. He published a pamphlet containing the phrase, which Jefferson incorporated essentially intact into the [Declaration of Independence](/wiki/United_States_Declaration_of_Independence "United States Declaration of Independence"):Filippo Mazzei, *[The Virginia Gazette](/wiki/The_Virginia_Gazette "The Virginia Gazette")*, 1774\. Translated by a friend and neighbor, Thomas Jefferson.
{{blockquote\|''Tutti gli uomini sono per natura egualmente liberi e indipendenti. Quest'eguaglianza è necessaria per costituire un governo libero. Bisogna che ognuno sia uguale all'altro nel diritto naturale.''}}
Translated by Jefferson as follow:
{{blockquote\|All men are by nature equally free and independent. Such equality is necessary in order to create a free government. All men must be equal to each other in natural law}}
Mazzei practiced medicine in Italy and the [Middle East](/wiki/Middle_East "Middle East") for several years before moving to [London](/wiki/London "London") in 1755 to take up a mercantile career as an importer. In London, he worked as a teacher of Italian language.{{cite journal \|last\=Łukaszewicz \|first\=Witold \|date\=1948 \|title\=Filippo Mazzei (1730–1816\). Zarys biograficzny \|url\=http://kpbc.umk.pl/dlibra/publication?id\=46207\&tab\=3 \|journal\=Kwartalnik Historyczny \|issue\=3–4 \|page\=305 \|access\-date\=2 January 2015}} While in London he met the Americans [Benjamin Franklin](/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin "Benjamin Franklin") and [Thomas Jefferson](/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson "Thomas Jefferson") of Virginia. While doing work for Franklin, Mazzei shared his idea of importing Tuscan products, wine and olive trees, to the New World. They convinced him to undertake his next venture.
On September 2, 1773, Mazzei boarded a ship from Livorno to the [Colony of Virginia](/wiki/Colony_of_Virginia "Colony of Virginia"), bringing with him plants, seeds, silkworms, and 10 farmers from [Lucca](/wiki/Lucca "Lucca"). He visited Jefferson at his estate, and the two became good friends. Jefferson gave Mazzei an allotment of land for an experimental plantation. Mazzei purchased more land adjoining this gift of acreage and established a plantation he named Colle. They shared an interest in politics and liberal values, and maintained an active correspondence for the rest of Mazzei's life. The contribution of Filippo Mazzei to the [U.S. Declaration of Independence](/wiki/U.S._Declaration_of_Independence "U.S. Declaration of Independence") was acknowledged by [John F. Kennedy](/wiki/John_F._Kennedy "John F. Kennedy") in his book *[A Nation of Immigrants](/wiki/A_Nation_of_Immigrants "A Nation of Immigrants")*, in which he states that:{{cite book\|last\=Kennedy\|first\=John F.\| author\-link \=John F. Kennedy \|year\=2008\|title\=\[\[A Nation of Immigrants]]\|publisher\=Perennial\|pages\=15–16\|isbn\=978\-0061447549}}
{{blockquote\|The great doctrine 'All men are created equal'Filippo Mazzei, ''\[\[The Virginia Gazette]]'', 1774\. Translated by a friend and neighbor, Thomas Jefferson:
{{blockquote\|''Tutti gli uomini sono per natura egualmente liberi e indipendenti. Quest'eguaglianza è necessaria per costituire un governo libero. Bisogna che ognuno sia uguale all'altro nel diritto naturale.''}}Translated by Jefferson as follow:{{blockquote\|All men are by nature equally free and independent. Such equality is necessary in order to create a free government.
All men must be equal to each other in natural law}}According to \[http://frwebgate.access.gpo.gov/cgi\-bin/getdoc.cgi?dbname\=103\_cong\_bills\&docid\=f:hj175eh.pdfJoint Resolution 175 of the 103rd Congress]: the phrase in the Declaration of Independence 'All men are created equal', was suggested by the Italian patriot and immigrant Filippo Mazzei. and incorporated into the Declaration of Independence by Thomas Jefferson, was paraphrased from the writing of Philip Mazzei, an Italian\-born patriot and pamphleteer, who was a close friend of Jefferson. A few alleged scholars try to discredit Mazzei as the creator of this statement and idea, saying that "there is no mention of it anywhere until after the Declaration was published". This phrase appears in Italian in Mazzei's own hand, written in Italian, several years prior to the writing of the Declaration of Independence. Mazzei and Jefferson often exchanged ideas about true liberty and freedom. No one man can take complete credit for the ideals of American democracy.}}
[thumb\|upright\|Statue of [Francesco Vigo](/wiki/Francesco_Vigo "Francesco Vigo"), who aided the colonial forces of [George Rogers Clark](/wiki/George_Rogers_Clark "George Rogers Clark") during the [American Revolutionary War](/wiki/American_Revolutionary_War "American Revolutionary War")](/wiki/File:Francevigovincennes.jpg "Francevigovincennes.jpg")
Italian Americans served in the [American Revolutionary War](/wiki/American_Revolutionary_War "American Revolutionary War") both as soldiers and officers. [Francesco Vigo](/wiki/Francesco_Vigo "Francesco Vigo") aided the colonial forces of [George Rogers Clark](/wiki/George_Rogers_Clark "George Rogers Clark") by serving as one of the foremost financiers of the Revolution in the frontier Northwest. Later, he was a co\-founder of [Vincennes University](/wiki/Vincennes_University "Vincennes University") in Indiana. Born in [Mondovì](/wiki/Mondov%C3%AC "Mondovì"), [Italy](/wiki/Italy "Italy"), he served with the [Spanish](/wiki/Spain "Spain") Army in [New Orleans](/wiki/New_Orleans%2C_Louisiana "New Orleans, Louisiana"). In 1772 he established a fur trading business in [St. Louis](/wiki/St._Louis%2C_Missouri "St. Louis, Missouri"). In 1783, Vigo moved to [Vincennes, Indiana](/wiki/Vincennes%2C_Indiana "Vincennes, Indiana"), and operated a fur trading business there. [Vigo County, Indiana](/wiki/Vigo_County%2C_Indiana "Vigo County, Indiana"), on the [Wabash River](/wiki/Wabash_River "Wabash River") north of Vincennes, is named for Francis Vigo, as is [Vigo, Indiana](/wiki/Vigo%2C_Indiana "Vigo, Indiana"). The [George Rogers Clark National Historical Park](/wiki/George_Rogers_Clark_National_Historical_Park "George Rogers Clark National Historical Park") erected a statue of Vigo by [John Angel](/wiki/John_Angel_%28sculptor%29 "John Angel (sculptor)") in 1934, on the waterfront of the Wabash River. Vigo was featured in a collectors coin to celebrate the bicentennial of Indiana statehood.{{cite web \|title\=Indiana bicentennial coins \|publisher\=The Indianapolis Public Library \|url\=https://www.digitalindy.org/digital/collection/tcm/id/1051 \|accessdate\=14 April 2021}}
There is a strong association between [Italian\-American cuisine](/wiki/Italian-American_cuisine "Italian-American cuisine") and the history of [winemaking](/wiki/Winemaking "Winemaking") in the United States. Many [Italian wines](/wiki/Italian_wine "Italian wine") were first introduced to the United States in the late 18th century. Italian vintners were first brought to the state of [Florida](/wiki/Florida "Florida") in 1766 by [Dr. Andrew Turnbull](/wiki/Andrew_Turnbull_%28colonist%29 "Andrew Turnbull (colonist)"), a British Consul at [Smyrna](/wiki/Smyrna "Smyrna") (now [İzmir](/wiki/%C4%B0zmir "İzmir")). [Filippo Mazzei](/wiki/Filippo_Mazzei "Filippo Mazzei") also cultivate vineyards, olives, and other Mediterranean fruit with the help of Italians.{{Cite web\|url\=https://publishing.cdlib.org/ucpressebooks/view?docId\=ft967nb63q\&chunk.id\=d0e1690\&toc.id\=d0e1690\&brand\=ucpress\|title\=A History of Wine in America\|website\=publishing.cdlib.org\|access\-date\=2019\-03\-21}}
After American independence numerous political refugees arrived, most notably: [Giuseppe Avezzana](/wiki/Giuseppe_Avezzana "Giuseppe Avezzana"), [Alessandro Gavazzi](/wiki/Alessandro_Gavazzi "Alessandro Gavazzi"), [Silvio Pellico](/wiki/Silvio_Pellico "Silvio Pellico"), [Federico Confalonieri](/wiki/Federico_Confalonieri "Federico Confalonieri"), and [Eleuterio Felice Foresti](/wiki/Eleuterio_Felice_Foresti "Eleuterio Felice Foresti"). [Giuseppe Garibaldi](/wiki/Giuseppe_Garibaldi "Giuseppe Garibaldi") resided in the United States in 1850–51\. At the invitation of Thomas Jefferson, Carlo Bellini became the first professor of modern languages at the [College of William \& Mary](/wiki/College_of_William_%26_Mary "College of William & Mary"), in the years 1779–1803\.{{Cite web \|title\=About \|publisher\=Department of Modern Languages and Literatures, College of William and Mary \|url\=http://www.wm.edu/as/modernlanguages/about/index.php \|access\-date\=2019\-06\-17 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131005001111/http://www.wm.edu/as/modernlanguages/about/index.php \|archive\-date\=2013\-10\-05 \|url\-status\=dead }}{{Cite web\|title\=Bellini Colloquium\|url\=https://www.wm.edu/as/modernlanguages/research/bellini\-colloquium/index.php\|access\-date\=2021\-05\-11\|website\=William \& Mary\|language\=en}} [Pietro Bachi](/wiki/Pietro_Bachi "Pietro Bachi") was the first professor from [Italy](/wiki/Italy "Italy") teaching at [Harvard University](/wiki/Harvard_University "Harvard University") from 1826 to 1846\.
In 1801, [Philip Trajetta](/wiki/Philip_Trajetta "Philip Trajetta") (Filippo Traetta) established the nation's first conservatory of music in Boston, where, in the first half of the century, organist [Charles Nolcini](/wiki/Charles_Nolcini "Charles Nolcini") and conductor Louis Ostinelli were also active.{{cite web \|url\=http://bostonhistorycollaborative.com/BostonFamilyHistory/ancestors/italian/ita\_1750\.html \|title\=BostonFamilyHistory.com – The Place to Meet Your Past \|publisher\=Bostonhistorycollaborative.com \|access\-date\=2014\-08\-10 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131004215733/http://bostonhistorycollaborative.com/BostonFamilyHistory/ancestors/italian/ita\_1750\.html \|archive\-date\=2013\-10\-04 \|url\-status\=dead }} In 1805 [Thomas Jefferson](/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson "Thomas Jefferson") recruited a group of musicians from Sicily to form a military band, later to become the nucleus of the [U.S. Marine Band](/wiki/U.S._Marine_Band "U.S. Marine Band"). The musicians included the young [Venerando Pulizzi](/wiki/Venerando_Pulizzi "Venerando Pulizzi"), who became the first Italian director of the band, and served in this capacity from 1816 to 1827\.[http://article/italians\-in\-america\-band\-leaders\-a173703](http://article/italians-in-america-band-leaders-a173703) {{dead link\|date\=October 2017}} [Francesco Maria Scala](/wiki/Francesco_Maria_Scala "Francesco Maria Scala"), an Italian\-born naturalized American citizen, was one of the most important and influential directors of the U.S. Marine Band, from 1855 to 1871, and was credited with the instrumental organization the band still maintains. Joseph Lucchesi, the third Italian leader of the U.S. Marine Band, served from 1844 to 1846\.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.marineband.marines.mil/About/Our\-History/History\-of\-the\-Directors\|title \= History of the Directors}} The first opera house in the country opened in 1833 in New York through the efforts of [Lorenzo Da Ponte](/wiki/Lorenzo_Da_Ponte "Lorenzo Da Ponte"), Mozart's former librettist, who had immigrated to America and had become the first professor of Italian at [Columbia College](/wiki/Columbia_University "Columbia University") in 1825\.
[thumb\|right\|upright\|[Giacomo Beltrami](/wiki/Giacomo_Beltrami "Giacomo Beltrami"), who explored the headwater region of the [Mississippi River](/wiki/Mississippi_River "Mississippi River")](/wiki/File:GCBeltrami.jpg "GCBeltrami.jpg")
During this period Italian explorers continued to be active in the West. [Alessandro Malaspina](/wiki/Alessandro_Malaspina "Alessandro Malaspina") undertook a [voyage around the world](/wiki/Circumnavigation "Circumnavigation") from 1786 to 1788, then, from 1789 to 1794, a scientific expedition (the [Malaspina Expedition](/wiki/Malaspina_Expedition "Malaspina Expedition")) throughout the [Pacific Ocean](/wiki/Pacific_Ocean "Pacific Ocean"), exploring and mapping much of [the west coast of the Americas](/wiki/History_of_the_west_coast_of_North_America "History of the west coast of North America") from [Cape Horn](/wiki/Cape_Horn "Cape Horn") to the [Gulf of Alaska](/wiki/Gulf_of_Alaska "Gulf of Alaska"), crossing to [Guam](/wiki/Guam "Guam") and the [Philippines](/wiki/Philippines "Philippines"), and stopping in [New Zealand](/wiki/New_Zealand "New Zealand"), [Australia](/wiki/Australia "Australia"), and [Tonga](/wiki/Tonga "Tonga"). In 1822–23 the headwater region of the [Mississippi](/wiki/Mississippi_River "Mississippi River") was explored by [Giacomo Beltrami](/wiki/Giacomo_Beltrami "Giacomo Beltrami") in the territory that was later to become Minnesota, which named a [county](/wiki/Beltrami_County%2C_Minnesota "Beltrami County, Minnesota") in his honor. In the U.S. Giacomo Beltrami also began visiting a number of cities. He eventually began a voyage down the [Ohio River](/wiki/Ohio_River "Ohio River") with the intention of following it to the Mississippi and then south to [New Orleans, Louisiana](/wiki/New_Orleans%2C_Louisiana "New Orleans, Louisiana"). While on board he met with the prominent United States Indian agent, [Lawrence Taliaferro](/wiki/Lawrence_Taliaferro "Lawrence Taliaferro"), who was planning to travel upriver on the Mississippi. Beltrami soon became obsessed with the idea of finding the river's source. In 1823, the two later joined with [Stephen H. Long](/wiki/Stephen_H._Long "Stephen H. Long") as they traveled upriver to [Fort Saint Anthony](/wiki/Fort_Snelling "Fort Snelling").
[Joseph Rosati](/wiki/Joseph_Rosati "Joseph Rosati") was named the first Catholic bishop of St. Louis in 1824\. In 1830–64 [Samuel Mazzuchelli](/wiki/Samuel_Mazzuchelli "Samuel Mazzuchelli"), a missionary and expert in Indian languages, ministered to European colonists and Native Americans in Wisconsin and Iowa for 34 years and, after his death, was declared Venerable by the Catholic Church. Father [Charles Constantine Pise](/wiki/Charles_Constantine_Pise "Charles Constantine Pise"), a Jesuit, served as [Chaplain of the Senate](/wiki/Chaplain_of_the_Senate "Chaplain of the Senate") from 1832 to 1833,"Pise, Charles Constantine", in [John Julian](/wiki/John_Julian "John Julian") (1907/1957\), *[A Dictionary of Hymnology](/wiki/A_Dictionary_of_Hymnology "A Dictionary of Hymnology")*, reprint, New York: Dover, Vol. 2, p. 1687\."Pise, Charles Constantine", in [Catholic Encyclopedia](/wiki/Catholic_Encyclopedia "Catholic Encyclopedia") (1913\), New York: Robert Appleton Company. the only Catholic priest ever chosen to serve in this capacity.
[thumb\|[Lorenzo Da Ponte](/wiki/Lorenzo_Da_Ponte "Lorenzo Da Ponte"), who was the first to introduce [Italian opera](/wiki/Italian_opera%23Gluck%27s_reforms_and_Mozart "Italian opera#Gluck's reforms and Mozart") to America](/wiki/File:Samuel_Morse_zugeschrieben_Lorenzo_Da_Ponte_New_York_Yacht_Club_Detail.jpg "Samuel Morse zugeschrieben Lorenzo Da Ponte New York Yacht Club Detail.jpg")
In 1833, [Lorenzo Da Ponte](/wiki/Lorenzo_Da_Ponte "Lorenzo Da Ponte"), formerly Mozart's librettist, and a naturalized U.S. citizen, founded the first opera house in the United States, the Italian Opera House in New York City, which was the predecessor of the New York Academy of Music and of the New York Metropolitan Opera. He was the first professor of [Italian literature](/wiki/Italian_literature "Italian literature") at [Columbia University](/wiki/Columbia_University "Columbia University"), and with [Manuel Garcia](/wiki/Manuel_Garc%C3%ADa_%28tenor%29 "Manuel García (tenor)"), the first to introduce [Italian opera](/wiki/Italian_opera%23Gluck%27s_reforms_and_Mozart "Italian opera#Gluck's reforms and Mozart") to America.[Music View, Did Casanova Lend a Helping Hand?](https://www.nytimes.com/1985/11/10/arts/music-view-did-casanova-lend-a-helping-hand.html), The New York Times, Donald Henahan, Nov. 10, 1985Smith, Howard Jay (2022\). [The Man Who Brought Opera to America](https://www.americanheritage.com/man-who-brought-opera-america), American Heritage Magazine, Vol. 67, Issue 3\. Da Ponte was also a close friend of [Mozart](/wiki/Mozart "Mozart") and [Casanova](/wiki/Casanova "Casanova").{{Cite Grove1900\|wstitle\= Ponte, Lorenzo da \|volume\= 3 \| page\= 15 \|last\= Dumazet de Pontigny \|first\= Victor \|author\-link\= \|short\=1}}
Missionaries of the [Jesuit](/wiki/Jesuit "Jesuit") and [Franciscan](/wiki/Franciscan "Franciscan") orders were active in many parts of America. Italian Jesuits founded numerous missions, schools and two colleges in the west. [Giovanni Nobili](/wiki/John_Nobili "John Nobili") founded the *Santa Clara College* (now [Santa Clara University](/wiki/Santa_Clara_University "Santa Clara University")) in 1851\. The *St. Ignatius Academy* (now [University of San Francisco](/wiki/University_of_San_Francisco "University of San Francisco")) was established by [Anthony Maraschi](/wiki/Anthony_Maraschi "Anthony Maraschi") in 1855\. The Italian Jesuits also laid the foundation for the wine\-making industry that would later flourish in California. In the east, the Italian Franciscans founded hospitals, orphanages, schools, and the *St. Bonaventure College* (now [St. Bonaventure University](/wiki/St._Bonaventure_University "St. Bonaventure University")), established by Panfilo da Magliano in 1858\.
In 1837, John Phinizy (Finizzi) became the mayor of [Augusta](/wiki/Augusta%2C_Georgia "Augusta, Georgia"), Georgia. [Samuel Wilds Trotti](/wiki/Samuel_Wilds_Trotti "Samuel Wilds Trotti") of [South Carolina](/wiki/South_Carolina "South Carolina") was the first Italian American to serve in the [United States House of Representatives](/wiki/United_States_House_of_Representatives "United States House of Representatives").{{cite web\|url\=http://bioguide.congress.gov/scripts/biodisplay.pl?index\=T000381\|title\=TROTTI, Samuel Wilds \- Biographical Information\|website\=bioguide.congress.gov}} Born in [Barnwell, South Carolina](/wiki/Barnwell%2C_South_Carolina "Barnwell, South Carolina"), Trotti attended the common schools. He graduated from South Carolina College (now [University of South Carolina](/wiki/University_of_South_Carolina "University of South Carolina")) at Columbia in 1832\. He studied law and was admitted to the bar. He served in the Seminole War. Trotti served as member of the State house of representatives from 1840 to 1841 from 1852 to 1855\. He was elected as a [Democrat](/wiki/Democratic_Party_%28United_States%29 "Democratic Party (United States)") to the Twenty\-seventh Congress to fill the vacancy caused by the resignation of [Sampson H. Butler](/wiki/Sampson_H._Butler "Sampson H. Butler") and served from December 17, 1842, to March 3, 1843\.
In 1849, Francesco, de Casale began publishing the Italian American newspaper *L'Eco d'Italia* in New York, the first of many to eventually follow. In 1848, [Francis Ramacciotti](/wiki/Francis_Ramacciotti "Francis Ramacciotti"), piano string inventor and manufacturer, immigrated to the U.S. from Tuscany.
|
[
"1776 to 1850\n------------",
"[thumb\\|upright\\|[Filippo Mazzei](/wiki/Filippo_Mazzei \"Filippo Mazzei\"), an Italian physician, philosopher, diplomat, promoter of liberty and author, whose phrase \"All men are by nature equally free and independent\" was incorporated into the [United States Declaration of Independence](/wiki/United_States_Declaration_of_Independence \"United States Declaration of Independence\")](/wiki/File:David_Filippo_Mazzei.jpg \"David Filippo Mazzei.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|upright\\|Birthplace of Filippo Mazzei in [Poggio a Caiano](/wiki/Poggio_a_Caiano \"Poggio a Caiano\")](/wiki/File:Casa_Natale_di_Filippo_Mazzei_3.jpg \"Casa Natale di Filippo Mazzei 3.jpg\")\nThis period saw a small stream of new arrivals from Italy. Some brought skills in agriculture and the making of glass, silk and wine, while others brought skills as musicians.Andrew F. Rolle, *The immigrant upraised: Italian adventurers and colonists in an expanding America* (U of Oklahoma Press, 1968\\).",
"In 1773–1785, [Filippo Mazzei](/wiki/Filippo_Mazzei \"Filippo Mazzei\"), a physician, philosopher, diplomat, promoter of liberty and author, was a close friend and confidant of Thomas Jefferson. He published a pamphlet containing the phrase, which Jefferson incorporated essentially intact into the [Declaration of Independence](/wiki/United_States_Declaration_of_Independence \"United States Declaration of Independence\"):Filippo Mazzei, *[The Virginia Gazette](/wiki/The_Virginia_Gazette \"The Virginia Gazette\")*, 1774\\. Translated by a friend and neighbor, Thomas Jefferson.",
"{{blockquote\\|''Tutti gli uomini sono per natura egualmente liberi e indipendenti. Quest'eguaglianza è necessaria per costituire un governo libero. Bisogna che ognuno sia uguale all'altro nel diritto naturale.''}}",
"Translated by Jefferson as follow:",
"{{blockquote\\|All men are by nature equally free and independent. Such equality is necessary in order to create a free government. All men must be equal to each other in natural law}}",
"Mazzei practiced medicine in Italy and the [Middle East](/wiki/Middle_East \"Middle East\") for several years before moving to [London](/wiki/London \"London\") in 1755 to take up a mercantile career as an importer. In London, he worked as a teacher of Italian language.{{cite journal \\|last\\=Łukaszewicz \\|first\\=Witold \\|date\\=1948 \\|title\\=Filippo Mazzei (1730–1816\\). Zarys biograficzny \\|url\\=http://kpbc.umk.pl/dlibra/publication?id\\=46207\\&tab\\=3 \\|journal\\=Kwartalnik Historyczny \\|issue\\=3–4 \\|page\\=305 \\|access\\-date\\=2 January 2015}} While in London he met the Americans [Benjamin Franklin](/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin \"Benjamin Franklin\") and [Thomas Jefferson](/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson \"Thomas Jefferson\") of Virginia. While doing work for Franklin, Mazzei shared his idea of importing Tuscan products, wine and olive trees, to the New World. They convinced him to undertake his next venture.",
"On September 2, 1773, Mazzei boarded a ship from Livorno to the [Colony of Virginia](/wiki/Colony_of_Virginia \"Colony of Virginia\"), bringing with him plants, seeds, silkworms, and 10 farmers from [Lucca](/wiki/Lucca \"Lucca\"). He visited Jefferson at his estate, and the two became good friends. Jefferson gave Mazzei an allotment of land for an experimental plantation. Mazzei purchased more land adjoining this gift of acreage and established a plantation he named Colle. They shared an interest in politics and liberal values, and maintained an active correspondence for the rest of Mazzei's life. The contribution of Filippo Mazzei to the [U.S. Declaration of Independence](/wiki/U.S._Declaration_of_Independence \"U.S. Declaration of Independence\") was acknowledged by [John F. Kennedy](/wiki/John_F._Kennedy \"John F. Kennedy\") in his book *[A Nation of Immigrants](/wiki/A_Nation_of_Immigrants \"A Nation of Immigrants\")*, in which he states that:{{cite book\\|last\\=Kennedy\\|first\\=John F.\\| author\\-link \\=John F. Kennedy \\|year\\=2008\\|title\\=\\[\\[A Nation of Immigrants]]\\|publisher\\=Perennial\\|pages\\=15–16\\|isbn\\=978\\-0061447549}}",
"{{blockquote\\|The great doctrine 'All men are created equal'Filippo Mazzei, ''\\[\\[The Virginia Gazette]]'', 1774\\. Translated by a friend and neighbor, Thomas Jefferson: \n{{blockquote\\|''Tutti gli uomini sono per natura egualmente liberi e indipendenti. Quest'eguaglianza è necessaria per costituire un governo libero. Bisogna che ognuno sia uguale all'altro nel diritto naturale.''}}Translated by Jefferson as follow:{{blockquote\\|All men are by nature equally free and independent. Such equality is necessary in order to create a free government. \n All men must be equal to each other in natural law}}According to \\[http://frwebgate.access.gpo.gov/cgi\\-bin/getdoc.cgi?dbname\\=103\\_cong\\_bills\\&docid\\=f:hj175eh.pdfJoint Resolution 175 of the 103rd Congress]: the phrase in the Declaration of Independence 'All men are created equal', was suggested by the Italian patriot and immigrant Filippo Mazzei. and incorporated into the Declaration of Independence by Thomas Jefferson, was paraphrased from the writing of Philip Mazzei, an Italian\\-born patriot and pamphleteer, who was a close friend of Jefferson. A few alleged scholars try to discredit Mazzei as the creator of this statement and idea, saying that \"there is no mention of it anywhere until after the Declaration was published\". This phrase appears in Italian in Mazzei's own hand, written in Italian, several years prior to the writing of the Declaration of Independence. Mazzei and Jefferson often exchanged ideas about true liberty and freedom. No one man can take complete credit for the ideals of American democracy.}}\n[thumb\\|upright\\|Statue of [Francesco Vigo](/wiki/Francesco_Vigo \"Francesco Vigo\"), who aided the colonial forces of [George Rogers Clark](/wiki/George_Rogers_Clark \"George Rogers Clark\") during the [American Revolutionary War](/wiki/American_Revolutionary_War \"American Revolutionary War\")](/wiki/File:Francevigovincennes.jpg \"Francevigovincennes.jpg\")",
"Italian Americans served in the [American Revolutionary War](/wiki/American_Revolutionary_War \"American Revolutionary War\") both as soldiers and officers. [Francesco Vigo](/wiki/Francesco_Vigo \"Francesco Vigo\") aided the colonial forces of [George Rogers Clark](/wiki/George_Rogers_Clark \"George Rogers Clark\") by serving as one of the foremost financiers of the Revolution in the frontier Northwest. Later, he was a co\\-founder of [Vincennes University](/wiki/Vincennes_University \"Vincennes University\") in Indiana. Born in [Mondovì](/wiki/Mondov%C3%AC \"Mondovì\"), [Italy](/wiki/Italy \"Italy\"), he served with the [Spanish](/wiki/Spain \"Spain\") Army in [New Orleans](/wiki/New_Orleans%2C_Louisiana \"New Orleans, Louisiana\"). In 1772 he established a fur trading business in [St. Louis](/wiki/St._Louis%2C_Missouri \"St. Louis, Missouri\"). In 1783, Vigo moved to [Vincennes, Indiana](/wiki/Vincennes%2C_Indiana \"Vincennes, Indiana\"), and operated a fur trading business there. [Vigo County, Indiana](/wiki/Vigo_County%2C_Indiana \"Vigo County, Indiana\"), on the [Wabash River](/wiki/Wabash_River \"Wabash River\") north of Vincennes, is named for Francis Vigo, as is [Vigo, Indiana](/wiki/Vigo%2C_Indiana \"Vigo, Indiana\"). The [George Rogers Clark National Historical Park](/wiki/George_Rogers_Clark_National_Historical_Park \"George Rogers Clark National Historical Park\") erected a statue of Vigo by [John Angel](/wiki/John_Angel_%28sculptor%29 \"John Angel (sculptor)\") in 1934, on the waterfront of the Wabash River. Vigo was featured in a collectors coin to celebrate the bicentennial of Indiana statehood.{{cite web \\|title\\=Indiana bicentennial coins \\|publisher\\=The Indianapolis Public Library \\|url\\=https://www.digitalindy.org/digital/collection/tcm/id/1051 \\|accessdate\\=14 April 2021}}",
"There is a strong association between [Italian\\-American cuisine](/wiki/Italian-American_cuisine \"Italian-American cuisine\") and the history of [winemaking](/wiki/Winemaking \"Winemaking\") in the United States. Many [Italian wines](/wiki/Italian_wine \"Italian wine\") were first introduced to the United States in the late 18th century. Italian vintners were first brought to the state of [Florida](/wiki/Florida \"Florida\") in 1766 by [Dr. Andrew Turnbull](/wiki/Andrew_Turnbull_%28colonist%29 \"Andrew Turnbull (colonist)\"), a British Consul at [Smyrna](/wiki/Smyrna \"Smyrna\") (now [İzmir](/wiki/%C4%B0zmir \"İzmir\")). [Filippo Mazzei](/wiki/Filippo_Mazzei \"Filippo Mazzei\") also cultivate vineyards, olives, and other Mediterranean fruit with the help of Italians.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://publishing.cdlib.org/ucpressebooks/view?docId\\=ft967nb63q\\&chunk.id\\=d0e1690\\&toc.id\\=d0e1690\\&brand\\=ucpress\\|title\\=A History of Wine in America\\|website\\=publishing.cdlib.org\\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-03\\-21}}",
"After American independence numerous political refugees arrived, most notably: [Giuseppe Avezzana](/wiki/Giuseppe_Avezzana \"Giuseppe Avezzana\"), [Alessandro Gavazzi](/wiki/Alessandro_Gavazzi \"Alessandro Gavazzi\"), [Silvio Pellico](/wiki/Silvio_Pellico \"Silvio Pellico\"), [Federico Confalonieri](/wiki/Federico_Confalonieri \"Federico Confalonieri\"), and [Eleuterio Felice Foresti](/wiki/Eleuterio_Felice_Foresti \"Eleuterio Felice Foresti\"). [Giuseppe Garibaldi](/wiki/Giuseppe_Garibaldi \"Giuseppe Garibaldi\") resided in the United States in 1850–51\\. At the invitation of Thomas Jefferson, Carlo Bellini became the first professor of modern languages at the [College of William \\& Mary](/wiki/College_of_William_%26_Mary \"College of William & Mary\"), in the years 1779–1803\\.{{Cite web \\|title\\=About \\|publisher\\=Department of Modern Languages and Literatures, College of William and Mary \\|url\\=http://www.wm.edu/as/modernlanguages/about/index.php \\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-06\\-17 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131005001111/http://www.wm.edu/as/modernlanguages/about/index.php \\|archive\\-date\\=2013\\-10\\-05 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}{{Cite web\\|title\\=Bellini Colloquium\\|url\\=https://www.wm.edu/as/modernlanguages/research/bellini\\-colloquium/index.php\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-05\\-11\\|website\\=William \\& Mary\\|language\\=en}} [Pietro Bachi](/wiki/Pietro_Bachi \"Pietro Bachi\") was the first professor from [Italy](/wiki/Italy \"Italy\") teaching at [Harvard University](/wiki/Harvard_University \"Harvard University\") from 1826 to 1846\\.",
"In 1801, [Philip Trajetta](/wiki/Philip_Trajetta \"Philip Trajetta\") (Filippo Traetta) established the nation's first conservatory of music in Boston, where, in the first half of the century, organist [Charles Nolcini](/wiki/Charles_Nolcini \"Charles Nolcini\") and conductor Louis Ostinelli were also active.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://bostonhistorycollaborative.com/BostonFamilyHistory/ancestors/italian/ita\\_1750\\.html \\|title\\=BostonFamilyHistory.com – The Place to Meet Your Past \\|publisher\\=Bostonhistorycollaborative.com \\|access\\-date\\=2014\\-08\\-10 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131004215733/http://bostonhistorycollaborative.com/BostonFamilyHistory/ancestors/italian/ita\\_1750\\.html \\|archive\\-date\\=2013\\-10\\-04 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }} In 1805 [Thomas Jefferson](/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson \"Thomas Jefferson\") recruited a group of musicians from Sicily to form a military band, later to become the nucleus of the [U.S. Marine Band](/wiki/U.S._Marine_Band \"U.S. Marine Band\"). The musicians included the young [Venerando Pulizzi](/wiki/Venerando_Pulizzi \"Venerando Pulizzi\"), who became the first Italian director of the band, and served in this capacity from 1816 to 1827\\.[http://article/italians\\-in\\-america\\-band\\-leaders\\-a173703](http://article/italians-in-america-band-leaders-a173703) {{dead link\\|date\\=October 2017}} [Francesco Maria Scala](/wiki/Francesco_Maria_Scala \"Francesco Maria Scala\"), an Italian\\-born naturalized American citizen, was one of the most important and influential directors of the U.S. Marine Band, from 1855 to 1871, and was credited with the instrumental organization the band still maintains. Joseph Lucchesi, the third Italian leader of the U.S. Marine Band, served from 1844 to 1846\\.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.marineband.marines.mil/About/Our\\-History/History\\-of\\-the\\-Directors\\|title \\= History of the Directors}} The first opera house in the country opened in 1833 in New York through the efforts of [Lorenzo Da Ponte](/wiki/Lorenzo_Da_Ponte \"Lorenzo Da Ponte\"), Mozart's former librettist, who had immigrated to America and had become the first professor of Italian at [Columbia College](/wiki/Columbia_University \"Columbia University\") in 1825\\.\n[thumb\\|right\\|upright\\|[Giacomo Beltrami](/wiki/Giacomo_Beltrami \"Giacomo Beltrami\"), who explored the headwater region of the [Mississippi River](/wiki/Mississippi_River \"Mississippi River\")](/wiki/File:GCBeltrami.jpg \"GCBeltrami.jpg\")",
"During this period Italian explorers continued to be active in the West. [Alessandro Malaspina](/wiki/Alessandro_Malaspina \"Alessandro Malaspina\") undertook a [voyage around the world](/wiki/Circumnavigation \"Circumnavigation\") from 1786 to 1788, then, from 1789 to 1794, a scientific expedition (the [Malaspina Expedition](/wiki/Malaspina_Expedition \"Malaspina Expedition\")) throughout the [Pacific Ocean](/wiki/Pacific_Ocean \"Pacific Ocean\"), exploring and mapping much of [the west coast of the Americas](/wiki/History_of_the_west_coast_of_North_America \"History of the west coast of North America\") from [Cape Horn](/wiki/Cape_Horn \"Cape Horn\") to the [Gulf of Alaska](/wiki/Gulf_of_Alaska \"Gulf of Alaska\"), crossing to [Guam](/wiki/Guam \"Guam\") and the [Philippines](/wiki/Philippines \"Philippines\"), and stopping in [New Zealand](/wiki/New_Zealand \"New Zealand\"), [Australia](/wiki/Australia \"Australia\"), and [Tonga](/wiki/Tonga \"Tonga\"). In 1822–23 the headwater region of the [Mississippi](/wiki/Mississippi_River \"Mississippi River\") was explored by [Giacomo Beltrami](/wiki/Giacomo_Beltrami \"Giacomo Beltrami\") in the territory that was later to become Minnesota, which named a [county](/wiki/Beltrami_County%2C_Minnesota \"Beltrami County, Minnesota\") in his honor. In the U.S. Giacomo Beltrami also began visiting a number of cities. He eventually began a voyage down the [Ohio River](/wiki/Ohio_River \"Ohio River\") with the intention of following it to the Mississippi and then south to [New Orleans, Louisiana](/wiki/New_Orleans%2C_Louisiana \"New Orleans, Louisiana\"). While on board he met with the prominent United States Indian agent, [Lawrence Taliaferro](/wiki/Lawrence_Taliaferro \"Lawrence Taliaferro\"), who was planning to travel upriver on the Mississippi. Beltrami soon became obsessed with the idea of finding the river's source. In 1823, the two later joined with [Stephen H. Long](/wiki/Stephen_H._Long \"Stephen H. Long\") as they traveled upriver to [Fort Saint Anthony](/wiki/Fort_Snelling \"Fort Snelling\").",
"[Joseph Rosati](/wiki/Joseph_Rosati \"Joseph Rosati\") was named the first Catholic bishop of St. Louis in 1824\\. In 1830–64 [Samuel Mazzuchelli](/wiki/Samuel_Mazzuchelli \"Samuel Mazzuchelli\"), a missionary and expert in Indian languages, ministered to European colonists and Native Americans in Wisconsin and Iowa for 34 years and, after his death, was declared Venerable by the Catholic Church. Father [Charles Constantine Pise](/wiki/Charles_Constantine_Pise \"Charles Constantine Pise\"), a Jesuit, served as [Chaplain of the Senate](/wiki/Chaplain_of_the_Senate \"Chaplain of the Senate\") from 1832 to 1833,\"Pise, Charles Constantine\", in [John Julian](/wiki/John_Julian \"John Julian\") (1907/1957\\), *[A Dictionary of Hymnology](/wiki/A_Dictionary_of_Hymnology \"A Dictionary of Hymnology\")*, reprint, New York: Dover, Vol. 2, p. 1687\\.\"Pise, Charles Constantine\", in [Catholic Encyclopedia](/wiki/Catholic_Encyclopedia \"Catholic Encyclopedia\") (1913\\), New York: Robert Appleton Company. the only Catholic priest ever chosen to serve in this capacity.\n[thumb\\|[Lorenzo Da Ponte](/wiki/Lorenzo_Da_Ponte \"Lorenzo Da Ponte\"), who was the first to introduce [Italian opera](/wiki/Italian_opera%23Gluck%27s_reforms_and_Mozart \"Italian opera#Gluck's reforms and Mozart\") to America](/wiki/File:Samuel_Morse_zugeschrieben_Lorenzo_Da_Ponte_New_York_Yacht_Club_Detail.jpg \"Samuel Morse zugeschrieben Lorenzo Da Ponte New York Yacht Club Detail.jpg\")",
"In 1833, [Lorenzo Da Ponte](/wiki/Lorenzo_Da_Ponte \"Lorenzo Da Ponte\"), formerly Mozart's librettist, and a naturalized U.S. citizen, founded the first opera house in the United States, the Italian Opera House in New York City, which was the predecessor of the New York Academy of Music and of the New York Metropolitan Opera. He was the first professor of [Italian literature](/wiki/Italian_literature \"Italian literature\") at [Columbia University](/wiki/Columbia_University \"Columbia University\"), and with [Manuel Garcia](/wiki/Manuel_Garc%C3%ADa_%28tenor%29 \"Manuel García (tenor)\"), the first to introduce [Italian opera](/wiki/Italian_opera%23Gluck%27s_reforms_and_Mozart \"Italian opera#Gluck's reforms and Mozart\") to America.[Music View, Did Casanova Lend a Helping Hand?](https://www.nytimes.com/1985/11/10/arts/music-view-did-casanova-lend-a-helping-hand.html), The New York Times, Donald Henahan, Nov. 10, 1985Smith, Howard Jay (2022\\). [The Man Who Brought Opera to America](https://www.americanheritage.com/man-who-brought-opera-america), American Heritage Magazine, Vol. 67, Issue 3\\. Da Ponte was also a close friend of [Mozart](/wiki/Mozart \"Mozart\") and [Casanova](/wiki/Casanova \"Casanova\").{{Cite Grove1900\\|wstitle\\= Ponte, Lorenzo da \\|volume\\= 3 \\| page\\= 15 \\|last\\= Dumazet de Pontigny \\|first\\= Victor \\|author\\-link\\= \\|short\\=1}}",
"Missionaries of the [Jesuit](/wiki/Jesuit \"Jesuit\") and [Franciscan](/wiki/Franciscan \"Franciscan\") orders were active in many parts of America. Italian Jesuits founded numerous missions, schools and two colleges in the west. [Giovanni Nobili](/wiki/John_Nobili \"John Nobili\") founded the *Santa Clara College* (now [Santa Clara University](/wiki/Santa_Clara_University \"Santa Clara University\")) in 1851\\. The *St. Ignatius Academy* (now [University of San Francisco](/wiki/University_of_San_Francisco \"University of San Francisco\")) was established by [Anthony Maraschi](/wiki/Anthony_Maraschi \"Anthony Maraschi\") in 1855\\. The Italian Jesuits also laid the foundation for the wine\\-making industry that would later flourish in California. In the east, the Italian Franciscans founded hospitals, orphanages, schools, and the *St. Bonaventure College* (now [St. Bonaventure University](/wiki/St._Bonaventure_University \"St. Bonaventure University\")), established by Panfilo da Magliano in 1858\\.",
"In 1837, John Phinizy (Finizzi) became the mayor of [Augusta](/wiki/Augusta%2C_Georgia \"Augusta, Georgia\"), Georgia. [Samuel Wilds Trotti](/wiki/Samuel_Wilds_Trotti \"Samuel Wilds Trotti\") of [South Carolina](/wiki/South_Carolina \"South Carolina\") was the first Italian American to serve in the [United States House of Representatives](/wiki/United_States_House_of_Representatives \"United States House of Representatives\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://bioguide.congress.gov/scripts/biodisplay.pl?index\\=T000381\\|title\\=TROTTI, Samuel Wilds \\- Biographical Information\\|website\\=bioguide.congress.gov}} Born in [Barnwell, South Carolina](/wiki/Barnwell%2C_South_Carolina \"Barnwell, South Carolina\"), Trotti attended the common schools. He graduated from South Carolina College (now [University of South Carolina](/wiki/University_of_South_Carolina \"University of South Carolina\")) at Columbia in 1832\\. He studied law and was admitted to the bar. He served in the Seminole War. Trotti served as member of the State house of representatives from 1840 to 1841 from 1852 to 1855\\. He was elected as a [Democrat](/wiki/Democratic_Party_%28United_States%29 \"Democratic Party (United States)\") to the Twenty\\-seventh Congress to fill the vacancy caused by the resignation of [Sampson H. Butler](/wiki/Sampson_H._Butler \"Sampson H. Butler\") and served from December 17, 1842, to March 3, 1843\\.",
"In 1849, Francesco, de Casale began publishing the Italian American newspaper *L'Eco d'Italia* in New York, the first of many to eventually follow. In 1848, [Francis Ramacciotti](/wiki/Francis_Ramacciotti \"Francis Ramacciotti\"), piano string inventor and manufacturer, immigrated to the U.S. from Tuscany.",
""
] |
Club career
-----------
### Early career
Howard began his career at non\-league [Tow Law Town](/wiki/Tow_Law_Town_F.C. "Tow Law Town F.C."), whilst working as a roofer as his day\-job. He worked 12\-hour shifts and also dug up roads before moving to [Hartlepool United](/wiki/Hartlepool_United_F.C. "Hartlepool United F.C.") in 1995\. He moved on to [Northampton Town](/wiki/Northampton_Town_F.C. "Northampton Town F.C.") as their record signing for £120,000 in February 1999\.{{cite web\| title\=Steve Howard profile\| url\=http://www.lcfc.com/page/ProfilesDetail/0,,10274\~9149,00\.html\| publisher\=LCFC.com\| access\-date\=2009\-04\-09\| url\-status\=dead\| archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090412101235/http://www.lcfc.com/page/ProfilesDetail/0,,10274\~9149,00\.html\| archive\-date\=12 April 2009}}
### Luton Town
[Luton Town](/wiki/Luton_Town_F.C. "Luton Town F.C.") signed him for £50,000 on 22 March 2001 with another £25,000 due if Luton avoided relegation, which they failed to do.
Howard was almost sacked from Luton in late 2001 after an incident during an away game against [York City](/wiki/York_City_F.C. "York City F.C."). The Hatters had been awarded a penalty, and Howard grabbed the ball from the designated penalty taker and promptly missed. However, an infringement was noticed and the penalty was ordered to be re\-taken. Against the protests of the senior players and the management team, Howard once again grabbed the ball and stepped up to take the penalty, missing once again. He was substituted immediately afterwards and he walked straight into the changing rooms. After reclaiming his place in the team, Howard went on to score 24 goals as Luton finished runners\-up in the [Division 3](/wiki/Football_League_Third_Division "Football League Third Division") and Howard won the Golden Boot for that Division.
The 2002–03 season saw Howard partnered by [Tony Thorpe](/wiki/Tony_Thorpe "Tony Thorpe"). Many pundits expected Thorpe to be the striker to hit 20\+ goals that season, but it was Howard who again finished as the Hatters' top scorer, this time with 23\. Howard was part of the squad of players that dug deep and stuck together as the awful mess of the 2003 take\-over saga unravelled. During that season, Howard suffered from a hernia and missed a large chunk of the season, but again he finished as the Hatters' top scorer, this time with 16 goals.
In the summer of 2004 a transfer to [Sheffield Wednesday](/wiki/Sheffield_Wednesday_F.C. "Sheffield Wednesday F.C.") for £500,000 appeared to be imminent after Wednesday announced that Luton had accepted a bid for him.{{cite news\|title \= Owls eye strike duo\|url \= http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/football/teams/s/sheff\_wed/3714959\.stm\|publisher \= BBC Sport\|date \= 14 May 2004\|access\-date \= 2010\-02\-03}} Luton then came out and denied accepting a bid.{{cite news\|title \= Confusion over Howard move\|url \= http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/football/teams/l/luton\_town/3736503\.stm\|publisher \= BBC Sport\|date \= 21 May 2004\|access\-date \= 2010\-02\-03}} After much confusion, Howard stayed at Luton and earned himself a [League One](/wiki/Football_League_One "Football League One") winner's medal. With 18 goals, Howard played a crucial part in Luton's promotion season, earning himself a place in the League One [PFA](/wiki/Professional_Footballers%27_Association "Professional Footballers' Association") Team of the Year alongside five of his Luton teammates.{{cite news\|title \= Swans duo win PFA team accolade\|url \= http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/football/teams/s/swansea\_city/4480635\.stm\|publisher \= BBC Sport\|date \= 25 April 2005\|access\-date \= 2010\-02\-03}}
Howard signed a new deal in June 2005,{{cite news\|title \= Howard commits himself to Hatters\|url \= http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/football/teams/l/luton\_town/4072814\.stm\|publisher \= BBC Sport\|date \= 16 June 2005\|access\-date \= 2010\-02\-03}} despite interest from a host of clubs in Luton's new league.{{cite news\|title \= Clarets boss admits Howard talks\|url \= http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/football/teams/b/burnley/4333035\.stm\|publisher \= BBC Sport\|date \= 9 March 2005\|access\-date \= 2010\-02\-03}} In his first season at [Championship](/wiki/Football_League_Championship "Football League Championship") level, he managed to hit 15 goals in 45 appearances. This is more impressive because Howard played a large chunk of the season at centre\-half following an injury crises. Howard scored more than 100 goals for Luton and is the third all time scorer. He wore the number 19 shirt at Luton, and Howard is regarded by Luton fans as a club legend, with over 100 goals in all competitions (96 in the league), five years of service, two promotions and a never\-say\-die attitude.
Howard's form attracted "derisory offers" from [Leeds United](/wiki/Leeds_United "Leeds United"), [Cardiff City](/wiki/Cardiff_City "Cardiff City") and [Norwich City](/wiki/Norwich_City "Norwich City").{{cite news\|title \= Leeds bids for Luton duo rejected\|url \= http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/football/teams/l/luton\_town/5159180\.stm\|publisher \= BBC Sport\|date \= 7 July 2006\|access\-date \= 2010\-02\-03}} On 22 July 2006, he signed a three\-year contract with [Derby County](/wiki/Derby_County_F.C. "Derby County F.C.") for £1 million.{{cite news\| title \= Rams snap up Luton striker Howard\| url \= http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/football/teams/d/derby\_county/5205906\.stm\| publisher \= BBC Sport\| date \= 22 July 2006\| access\-date \= 2009\-04\-08}} Then\-manager of Luton [Mike Newell](/wiki/Mike_Newell_%28footballer%29 "Mike Newell (footballer)") said the club had no choice but to let Howard leave the club.{{cite news\|title \= Newell happy to let pair depart\|url \= http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/football/teams/l/luton\_town/5212828\.stm\|publisher \= BBC Sport\|date \= 25 July 2006\|access\-date \= 2010\-02\-03}}
### Derby County
[thumb\|Howard in 2006 during his time at [Derby County](/wiki/Derby_County_F.C. "Derby County F.C.")](/wiki/File:SteveHoward05.JPG "SteveHoward05.JPG")
Howard made his Derby County debut in a 2–2 draw with [Southampton](/wiki/Southampton_F.C. "Southampton F.C.") on the opening day of the [2006–07 season](/wiki/2006%E2%80%9307_in_English_football "2006–07 in English football"). His £1 million fee made him Derby's biggest signing for over 5 years and he initially struggled to repay it as he failed to score in his first seven appearances for the club. He finally broke his duck with the winner in a 1–0 victory against [Wolves](/wiki/Wolverhampton_Wanderers_F.C. "Wolverhampton Wanderers F.C.") at [Molineux](/wiki/Molineux_Stadium "Molineux Stadium") and went on to score in four consecutive games, the first player to do so for the club since [Fabrizio Ravanelli](/wiki/Fabrizio_Ravanelli "Fabrizio Ravanelli") in 2001\.
Howard quickly became a fans' favourite as his work rate and goals helped Derby to finish third in the 2006–07 Championship and eventually earn promotion to the Premier League for the first time in 5 years following a 1–0 win over [West Bromwich Albion](/wiki/West_Bromwich_Albion_F.C. "West Bromwich Albion F.C.") in the [play\-off final](/wiki/2007_Football_League_playoff_final "2007 Football League playoff final"). He finished the season as Derby's top scorer with 19 goals, of which [16 came in the league](/wiki/2006%E2%80%9307_Football_League%23Championship "2006–07 Football League#Championship") and 3 in Cup competitions, two of which were vital goals in the Championship play\-off semi\-final first leg against Southampton at the [St. Mary's Stadium](/wiki/St._Mary%27s_Stadium "St. Mary's Stadium"), giving Derby a 2–1 lead prior to the second leg at Pride Park. Howard was also nominated for the January 2007 Championship player of the month award and was awarded the Jack Stamps Trophy as Derby's Player of the Season for 2006–07\.{{cite news\|title \= Nugent handed Championship award\|url \= http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/football/teams/p/preston/6354405\.stm\|publisher \= BBC Sport\|date \= 12 February 2007\|access\-date \= 2010\-02\-03}}
Howard, and Derby as a team, found life in the [Premier League](/wiki/2007%E2%80%9308_FA_Premier_League "2007–08 FA Premier League") difficult and he managed only one goal in a 4–1 defeat to [Manchester United](/wiki/Manchester_United_F.C. "Manchester United F.C.") at [Old Trafford](/wiki/Old_Trafford "Old Trafford") on 8 December 2007\.{{cite news\| title \= Man Utd 4–1 Derby\| url \= http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/football/eng\_prem/7122780\.stm\| publisher \= BBC Sport\| date \= 8 December 2007\| access\-date \= 2009\-04\-08}} He also missed a vital penalty in a 2–1 home defeat to [Blackburn Rovers](/wiki/Blackburn_Rovers_F.C. "Blackburn Rovers F.C.") on 30 December 2007\. It proved to be his last contribution for Derby County, and the club confirmed there was interest shown in Howard from other clubs in December.{{cite news \|title \= Jewell reveals interest in Howard\|url \= http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/football/teams/d/derby\_county/7140152\.stm\|publisher \= BBC Sport\|date \= 12 December 2007\|access\-date \= 2010\-02\-03}}
### Leicester City
[thumb\|Steve Howard playing for [Leicester City](/wiki/Leicester_City_F.C. "Leicester City F.C."), 13 September 2008](/wiki/Image:Steve_Howard01.jpg "Steve Howard01.jpg")
[thumb\|left\|125px\|Howard in his fifth season with Leicester, 21 September 2011](/wiki/File:Steve_Howard_2011.jpg "Steve Howard 2011.jpg")
Howard joined [Leicester City](/wiki/Leicester_City_F.C. "Leicester City F.C.") on 1 January 2008 for a fee of £1\.5 million, signing a three\-and\-a\-half\-year contract.{{cite news \|title \= Leicester confirm deal for Howard\|url \= http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/football/teams/l/leicester\_city/7165982\.stm\|publisher \= BBC Sport\|date \= 1 January 2008\|access\-date \= 18 May 2008}} Initially signing on loan, Derby teammate [Matt Oakley](/wiki/Matt_Oakley "Matt Oakley") joined him at the club on 11 January. He made his debut in a 3–1 defeat to [QPR](/wiki/Queens_Park_Rangers_F.C. "Queens Park Rangers F.C.") on 1 January 2008\.{{cite news\| title \= QPR 3–1 Leicester\| url \= http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/football/eng\_div\_1/7163883\.stm\| publisher \= BBC Sport\| date \= 1 January 2007\| access\-date \= 5 January 2007}} He scored his first goal in an [M69 derby](/wiki/M69_derby "M69 derby") on 12 January, in which Leicester won 2–0\.{{cite news\| title \= Leicester 2–0 Coventry\| url \= http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/football/eng\_div\_1/7172833\.stm\| publisher \= BBC Sport\| date \= 12 January 2008\| access\-date \= 12 January 2008}} Howard bagged a hat\-trick in a 4–1 win over [West Brom](/wiki/West_Bromwich_Albion_F.C. "West Bromwich Albion F.C.") on 15 March,{{cite news \| title \= West Brom 1–4 Leicester \| url \= http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/football/eng\_div\_1/7285134\.stm \| publisher \= BBC Sport \| date \= 15 March 2008 \| access\-date \= 18 March 2008}} a result he said was coming and was confident the club could stay up.{{cite news\|title \= Big win was on the cards – Howard\|url \= http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/football/teams/l/leicester\_city/7301162\.stm\|publisher \= BBC Sport\|date \= 17 March 2008\|access\-date \= 2010\-02\-03}} Despite regaining his form by scoring six goals however, Howard could not prevent Leicester from being relegated at the end of the season.
Desperate to win promotion back to the Championship, Howard was able to maintain his form the [following season](/wiki/2008%E2%80%9309_in_English_football "2008–09 in English football").{{cite news\|title \= Foxes desperate to go up – Howard\|url \= http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/football/teams/l/leicester\_city/7517960\.stm\|publisher \= BBC Sport\|date \= 22 July 2008\|access\-date \= 2010\-02\-02}} Partnering teammate [Matty Fryatt](/wiki/Matty_Fryatt "Matty Fryatt") in attack, he scored 13 league goals and contributed numerous assists to help Leicester maintain their lead at the top of [League One](/wiki/Football_League_One "Football League One").{{cite news\| title \= Howard 'happy to do dirty work'\| url \= http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/football/teams/l/leicester\_city/7758838\.stm\| publisher \= BBC Sport\| date \= 1 December 2008\| access\-date \= 2009\-03\-08}} He went on to help the club secure their promotion as champions, earning his second League One medal on 24 April.{{cite news\| title \= Champions Picture Special\| url \= http://www.lcfc.com/page/LatestNews/0,,10274\~1638777,00\.html\| publisher \= LCFC.com\| date \= 25 April 2009\| access\-date \= 2009\-04\-25\| url\-status \= dead\| archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20120218092113/http://www.lcfc.com/page/LatestNews/0,,10274\~1638777,00\.html\| archive\-date \= 18 February 2012}} Howard was also voted Leicester City supporters club player of the season for the [2008–09 season](/wiki/2008%E2%80%9309_Football_League_One "2008–09 Football League One").{{cite news\| title\=Trio honoured at awards\| url\=http://www.lcfc.com/page/LatestNews/0,,10274\~1634825,00\.html\| work\=LCFC.co.uk\| publisher\=Leicester City FC\| date\=23 April 2009\| access\-date\=26 April 2009\| url\-status\=dead\| archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120218092142/http://www.lcfc.com/page/LatestNews/0%2C%2C10274\~1634825%2C00\.html\| archive\-date\=18 February 2012}} His overall performance earned him the club's player of the season award on 28 April 2009\.{{cite news\| title\=Howard bags club gong\| url\=http://www.lcfc.com/page/LatestNews/0,,10274\~1642325,00\.html\| work\=LCFC.co.uk\| publisher\=Leicester City FC\| date\=28 April 2009\| access\-date\=29 April 2009\| url\-status\=dead\| archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120218092216/http://www.lcfc.com/page/LatestNews/0%2C%2C10274\~1642325%2C00\.html\| archive\-date\=18 February 2012}}
In April 2009, Howard believed Leicester could win promotion to the [Premier League](/wiki/Premier_League "Premier League") in the 2009–10 season.{{cite news\|title \= Foxes can go straight up – Howard\|url \= http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/football/teams/l/leicester\_city/8024467\.stm\|publisher \= BBC Sport\|date \= 29 April 2009\|access\-date \= 2010\-02\-03}} He failed to score his first goal until 12 December 2009, in a 3–0 win over [Sheffield Wednesday](/wiki/Sheffield_Wednesday_F.C. "Sheffield Wednesday F.C.").{{cite news\| title \= Leicester 3–0 Sheff Wed\| url \= http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/football/eng\_div\_1/8404495\.stm\| publisher \= BBC Sport\| date \= 12 December 2009\| access\-date \= 2009\-12\-13}} Howard scored a total of 5 league goals in 35 matches as Leicester qualified for the [Championship play\-offs](/wiki/Football_League_Championship_play-offs "Football League Championship play-offs"). Despite eventually going on to lose to [Cardiff City](/wiki/Cardiff_City "Cardiff City") 4–3 on penalties in the play\-off semi\-final,{{cite news\|title \= Cardiff 2–3 Leicester (agg 3–3\)\|url \= http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/football/eng\_div\_1/8672579\.stm\|publisher \= BBC Sport\|date \= 12 May 2010\|access\-date \= 2010\-05\-13}} Howard's performance in the second leg earned him great plaudits, being described in both [The Times](/wiki/The_Times "The Times") and [The Scotsman](/wiki/The_Scotsman "The Scotsman") as "unplayable".{{cite news\|title \= David Marshall keeps Cardiff on road to Wembley\|url \= http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/sport/football/football\_league/article7124760\.ece\|archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20100522060934/http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/sport/football/football\_league/article7124760\.ece\|url\-status \= dead\|archive\-date \= 22 May 2010\|work \= The Times\|date \= 13 May 2010\|access\-date \= 2010\-06\-11 \| location\=London \| first\=John \| last\=Percy}}{{cite news\|title \= Cardiff City 2 – 3 Leicester City: Marshall is Cardiff hero as Leicester pay costly penalty\|url \= http://thescotsman.scotsman.com/sport/Cardiff\-City\-2\-\-3\.6291161\.jp\|work \= The Scotsman\|date \= 13 May 2010\|access\-date \= 2010\-06\-11}}
Howard extended his contract with the club until June 2012 on 21 October 2010\.{{cite news\|title \= Steve Howard signs new Leicester City contract\|url \= http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/football/teams/l/leicester\_city/9115621\.stm\|publisher \= BBC Sport\|date \= 21 October 2010\|access\-date \= 15 January 2011}} He scored 4 league goals and played 35 games in the 2010–11 season, of which 19 were as a substitute.{{citation\|title \= Steve Howard happy to fight for Leicester City place\|url \= https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/0/football/14217027\|publisher \= BBC Sport\|date \= 20 July 2011\|access\-date \= 10 March 2012}} He was linked with a permanent move to Sheffield Wednesday in April 2011, but Leicester denied that they were selling him.{{citation\|title \= Sven\-Goran Eriksson denies Steve Howard exit talk\|url \= https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/0/football/13350613\|publisher \= BBC Sport\|date \= 10 May 2011\|access\-date \= 10 March 2012}} In the 2011–12 season, Howard's position in the first team was limited as a result of Leicester buying new strikers. He made his 55th appearance off the bench in a 2–0 win over Coventry City on 3 March 2012\.{{cite news\|title \= Leicester 2–0 Coventry\|url \= https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/0/football/17163085\|publisher \= BBC Sport\|date \= 3 March 2012\|access\-date \= 4 March 2012}} This made him the most\-used substitute in the club's history, beating the previous record of 54 held by [Trevor Benjamin](/wiki/Trevor_Benjamin "Trevor Benjamin").{{citation\|title \= Steve Howard sets new City record\|url \= http://www.thisisleicestershire.co.uk/Steve\-Howard\-sets\-new\-City\-record/story\-15431194\-detail/story.html\|publisher \= thisisleicestershire.co.uk\|date \= 8 March 2012\|access\-date \= 10 March 2012}}
### Hartlepool United return
On 11 July 2012, Howard re\-joined Hartlepool United as a [free agent](/wiki/Free_agent "Free agent") following his release from Leicester City{{Cite news \|url\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/0/football/18785024 \|title\=Steve Howard re\-joins Hartlepool United as free agent \|publisher\=BBC Sport \|access\-date\=2012\-07\-11}} His first goal back at the club came in a 2–1 defeat at home to [Sheffield United](/wiki/Sheffield_United_F.C. "Sheffield United F.C.") on 2 October 2012\. However, his first season back was not successful and Steve was booed off in his last game before being loaned out to [Sheffield Wednesday](/wiki/Sheffield_Wednesday_F.C. "Sheffield Wednesday F.C.") while Hartlepool were relegated to [League Two](/wiki/Football_League_Two "Football League Two").
Howard's first game back from his loan spell at Sheffield Wednesday was in a pre\-season friendly for Pools against [Middlesbrough F.C.](/wiki/Middlesbrough_F.C. "Middlesbrough F.C.") in which his substitution was greeted to boos{{Cite web \|url\=http://www.hartlepoolmail.co.uk/sport/football/hartlepool\-utd/full\-time\-report\-hartlepool\-united\-0\-middlesbrough\-0\-1\-5876617 \|title\=FULL\-TIME REPORT: Hartlepool United 0 Middlesbrough 0 \|work\=Hartlepool Mail\|access\-date\=2014\-01\-13}} due to comments he had made about the club in the press and on Twitter. Boss [Colin Cooper](/wiki/Colin_Cooper "Colin Cooper") stated that "He wants to repay the fans and although he knows that won't be easy, it's something he's determined to do" as he was handed the number nine shirt for the 2013–14 season.{{Cite web \|url\=http://www.hartlepoolmail.co.uk/sport/football/hartlepool\-utd/steve\-howard\-handed\-no\-9\-shirt\-as\-he\-remains\-at\-hartlepool\-united\-1\-5910563 \|title\=Steve Howard handed No.9 shirt as he remains at Hartlepool United \|work\=Hartlepool Mail\|access\-date\=2014\-01\-13}}
Howard's contract was terminated by mutual agreement on 25 November{{cite news\|title \= Howard released by Mutual Consent\|url \= http://www.hartlepoolunited.co.uk/news/article/251113\-howard\-leaves\-pools\-1194959\.aspx?\|publisher \= HUFC Official Site\|date \= 25 November 2013\|access\-date \= 2013\-11\-25}} after only managing 3 goals in a season and a half. His last game for Hartlepool saw him sent off after only being on the field for five minutes in a 3–1 home defeat to [Oxford United](/wiki/Oxford_United_F.C. "Oxford United F.C.").{{Cite news \|url\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/0/football/24185141 \|title\=Hartlepool 1 – 3 Oxford \|publisher\=BBC Sport \|access\-date\=2014\-01\-13}}
### Sheffield Wednesday
Howard was signed on loan on 28 March 2013 and was one of 3 emergency loan signings made by manager [Dave Jones](/wiki/Dave_Jones_%28footballer%2C_born_1956%29 "Dave Jones (footballer, born 1956)"). Howard was brought in alongside [Stuart Holden](/wiki/Stuart_Holden "Stuart Holden") and [Seyi Olofinjana](/wiki/Seyi_Olofinjana "Seyi Olofinjana"). Some owls fans were speculative about the loan signing of the 36\-year\-old, who was brought in from – at the time – bottom of the [League One](/wiki/Football_League_One "Football League One") Table, [Hartlepool United](/wiki/Hartlepool_United_F.C. "Hartlepool United F.C.") who were on the verge of relegation. Howard made his first appearance for the Owls against [Bristol City](/wiki/Bristol_City_F.C. "Bristol City F.C.") at [Ashton Gate](/wiki/Ashton_Gate_Stadium "Ashton Gate Stadium") on 1 April 2013 in a 1–1 draw. During the game Howard flicked on a header to set [Jermaine Johnson](/wiki/Jermaine_Johnson_%28soccer%29 "Jermaine Johnson (soccer)") up for his fourth of the season. Howard only played 63 minutes before being substituted by striker, [Gary Madine](/wiki/Gary_Madine "Gary Madine"). Howard made his second appearance for the owls as substitute, in the 69th minute and replaced striker [Leroy Lita](/wiki/Leroy_Lita "Leroy Lita"). Howard started his third game for the Owls, partnered alongside Lita and was denied a first Wednesday goal from a close range shot saved by Millwall keeper [David Forde](/wiki/David_Forde_%28footballer%29 "David Forde (footballer)"), in a vital 1–2 victory over [Millwall](/wiki/Millwall_F.C. "Millwall F.C."). Howard's first goal for the Owls came in the last game of the season from a [Miguel Llera](/wiki/Miguel_Llera "Miguel Llera") pass, Howard struck a top left finish in the 2–0 victory over [Middlesbrough](/wiki/Middlesbrough_F.C. "Middlesbrough F.C."), to clinch safety from the hands of relegation.
|
[
"Club career\n-----------",
"### Early career",
"Howard began his career at non\\-league [Tow Law Town](/wiki/Tow_Law_Town_F.C. \"Tow Law Town F.C.\"), whilst working as a roofer as his day\\-job. He worked 12\\-hour shifts and also dug up roads before moving to [Hartlepool United](/wiki/Hartlepool_United_F.C. \"Hartlepool United F.C.\") in 1995\\. He moved on to [Northampton Town](/wiki/Northampton_Town_F.C. \"Northampton Town F.C.\") as their record signing for £120,000 in February 1999\\.{{cite web\\| title\\=Steve Howard profile\\| url\\=http://www.lcfc.com/page/ProfilesDetail/0,,10274\\~9149,00\\.html\\| publisher\\=LCFC.com\\| access\\-date\\=2009\\-04\\-09\\| url\\-status\\=dead\\| archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090412101235/http://www.lcfc.com/page/ProfilesDetail/0,,10274\\~9149,00\\.html\\| archive\\-date\\=12 April 2009}}",
"### Luton Town",
"[Luton Town](/wiki/Luton_Town_F.C. \"Luton Town F.C.\") signed him for £50,000 on 22 March 2001 with another £25,000 due if Luton avoided relegation, which they failed to do.",
"Howard was almost sacked from Luton in late 2001 after an incident during an away game against [York City](/wiki/York_City_F.C. \"York City F.C.\"). The Hatters had been awarded a penalty, and Howard grabbed the ball from the designated penalty taker and promptly missed. However, an infringement was noticed and the penalty was ordered to be re\\-taken. Against the protests of the senior players and the management team, Howard once again grabbed the ball and stepped up to take the penalty, missing once again. He was substituted immediately afterwards and he walked straight into the changing rooms. After reclaiming his place in the team, Howard went on to score 24 goals as Luton finished runners\\-up in the [Division 3](/wiki/Football_League_Third_Division \"Football League Third Division\") and Howard won the Golden Boot for that Division.",
"The 2002–03 season saw Howard partnered by [Tony Thorpe](/wiki/Tony_Thorpe \"Tony Thorpe\"). Many pundits expected Thorpe to be the striker to hit 20\\+ goals that season, but it was Howard who again finished as the Hatters' top scorer, this time with 23\\. Howard was part of the squad of players that dug deep and stuck together as the awful mess of the 2003 take\\-over saga unravelled. During that season, Howard suffered from a hernia and missed a large chunk of the season, but again he finished as the Hatters' top scorer, this time with 16 goals.",
"In the summer of 2004 a transfer to [Sheffield Wednesday](/wiki/Sheffield_Wednesday_F.C. \"Sheffield Wednesday F.C.\") for £500,000 appeared to be imminent after Wednesday announced that Luton had accepted a bid for him.{{cite news\\|title \\= Owls eye strike duo\\|url \\= http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/football/teams/s/sheff\\_wed/3714959\\.stm\\|publisher \\= BBC Sport\\|date \\= 14 May 2004\\|access\\-date \\= 2010\\-02\\-03}} Luton then came out and denied accepting a bid.{{cite news\\|title \\= Confusion over Howard move\\|url \\= http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/football/teams/l/luton\\_town/3736503\\.stm\\|publisher \\= BBC Sport\\|date \\= 21 May 2004\\|access\\-date \\= 2010\\-02\\-03}} After much confusion, Howard stayed at Luton and earned himself a [League One](/wiki/Football_League_One \"Football League One\") winner's medal. With 18 goals, Howard played a crucial part in Luton's promotion season, earning himself a place in the League One [PFA](/wiki/Professional_Footballers%27_Association \"Professional Footballers' Association\") Team of the Year alongside five of his Luton teammates.{{cite news\\|title \\= Swans duo win PFA team accolade\\|url \\= http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/football/teams/s/swansea\\_city/4480635\\.stm\\|publisher \\= BBC Sport\\|date \\= 25 April 2005\\|access\\-date \\= 2010\\-02\\-03}}",
"Howard signed a new deal in June 2005,{{cite news\\|title \\= Howard commits himself to Hatters\\|url \\= http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/football/teams/l/luton\\_town/4072814\\.stm\\|publisher \\= BBC Sport\\|date \\= 16 June 2005\\|access\\-date \\= 2010\\-02\\-03}} despite interest from a host of clubs in Luton's new league.{{cite news\\|title \\= Clarets boss admits Howard talks\\|url \\= http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/football/teams/b/burnley/4333035\\.stm\\|publisher \\= BBC Sport\\|date \\= 9 March 2005\\|access\\-date \\= 2010\\-02\\-03}} In his first season at [Championship](/wiki/Football_League_Championship \"Football League Championship\") level, he managed to hit 15 goals in 45 appearances. This is more impressive because Howard played a large chunk of the season at centre\\-half following an injury crises. Howard scored more than 100 goals for Luton and is the third all time scorer. He wore the number 19 shirt at Luton, and Howard is regarded by Luton fans as a club legend, with over 100 goals in all competitions (96 in the league), five years of service, two promotions and a never\\-say\\-die attitude.",
"Howard's form attracted \"derisory offers\" from [Leeds United](/wiki/Leeds_United \"Leeds United\"), [Cardiff City](/wiki/Cardiff_City \"Cardiff City\") and [Norwich City](/wiki/Norwich_City \"Norwich City\").{{cite news\\|title \\= Leeds bids for Luton duo rejected\\|url \\= http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/football/teams/l/luton\\_town/5159180\\.stm\\|publisher \\= BBC Sport\\|date \\= 7 July 2006\\|access\\-date \\= 2010\\-02\\-03}} On 22 July 2006, he signed a three\\-year contract with [Derby County](/wiki/Derby_County_F.C. \"Derby County F.C.\") for £1 million.{{cite news\\| title \\= Rams snap up Luton striker Howard\\| url \\= http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/football/teams/d/derby\\_county/5205906\\.stm\\| publisher \\= BBC Sport\\| date \\= 22 July 2006\\| access\\-date \\= 2009\\-04\\-08}} Then\\-manager of Luton [Mike Newell](/wiki/Mike_Newell_%28footballer%29 \"Mike Newell (footballer)\") said the club had no choice but to let Howard leave the club.{{cite news\\|title \\= Newell happy to let pair depart\\|url \\= http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/football/teams/l/luton\\_town/5212828\\.stm\\|publisher \\= BBC Sport\\|date \\= 25 July 2006\\|access\\-date \\= 2010\\-02\\-03}}",
"### Derby County",
"[thumb\\|Howard in 2006 during his time at [Derby County](/wiki/Derby_County_F.C. \"Derby County F.C.\")](/wiki/File:SteveHoward05.JPG \"SteveHoward05.JPG\")\nHoward made his Derby County debut in a 2–2 draw with [Southampton](/wiki/Southampton_F.C. \"Southampton F.C.\") on the opening day of the [2006–07 season](/wiki/2006%E2%80%9307_in_English_football \"2006–07 in English football\"). His £1 million fee made him Derby's biggest signing for over 5 years and he initially struggled to repay it as he failed to score in his first seven appearances for the club. He finally broke his duck with the winner in a 1–0 victory against [Wolves](/wiki/Wolverhampton_Wanderers_F.C. \"Wolverhampton Wanderers F.C.\") at [Molineux](/wiki/Molineux_Stadium \"Molineux Stadium\") and went on to score in four consecutive games, the first player to do so for the club since [Fabrizio Ravanelli](/wiki/Fabrizio_Ravanelli \"Fabrizio Ravanelli\") in 2001\\.",
"Howard quickly became a fans' favourite as his work rate and goals helped Derby to finish third in the 2006–07 Championship and eventually earn promotion to the Premier League for the first time in 5 years following a 1–0 win over [West Bromwich Albion](/wiki/West_Bromwich_Albion_F.C. \"West Bromwich Albion F.C.\") in the [play\\-off final](/wiki/2007_Football_League_playoff_final \"2007 Football League playoff final\"). He finished the season as Derby's top scorer with 19 goals, of which [16 came in the league](/wiki/2006%E2%80%9307_Football_League%23Championship \"2006–07 Football League#Championship\") and 3 in Cup competitions, two of which were vital goals in the Championship play\\-off semi\\-final first leg against Southampton at the [St. Mary's Stadium](/wiki/St._Mary%27s_Stadium \"St. Mary's Stadium\"), giving Derby a 2–1 lead prior to the second leg at Pride Park. Howard was also nominated for the January 2007 Championship player of the month award and was awarded the Jack Stamps Trophy as Derby's Player of the Season for 2006–07\\.{{cite news\\|title \\= Nugent handed Championship award\\|url \\= http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/football/teams/p/preston/6354405\\.stm\\|publisher \\= BBC Sport\\|date \\= 12 February 2007\\|access\\-date \\= 2010\\-02\\-03}}",
"Howard, and Derby as a team, found life in the [Premier League](/wiki/2007%E2%80%9308_FA_Premier_League \"2007–08 FA Premier League\") difficult and he managed only one goal in a 4–1 defeat to [Manchester United](/wiki/Manchester_United_F.C. \"Manchester United F.C.\") at [Old Trafford](/wiki/Old_Trafford \"Old Trafford\") on 8 December 2007\\.{{cite news\\| title \\= Man Utd 4–1 Derby\\| url \\= http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/football/eng\\_prem/7122780\\.stm\\| publisher \\= BBC Sport\\| date \\= 8 December 2007\\| access\\-date \\= 2009\\-04\\-08}} He also missed a vital penalty in a 2–1 home defeat to [Blackburn Rovers](/wiki/Blackburn_Rovers_F.C. \"Blackburn Rovers F.C.\") on 30 December 2007\\. It proved to be his last contribution for Derby County, and the club confirmed there was interest shown in Howard from other clubs in December.{{cite news \\|title \\= Jewell reveals interest in Howard\\|url \\= http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/football/teams/d/derby\\_county/7140152\\.stm\\|publisher \\= BBC Sport\\|date \\= 12 December 2007\\|access\\-date \\= 2010\\-02\\-03}}",
"### Leicester City",
"[thumb\\|Steve Howard playing for [Leicester City](/wiki/Leicester_City_F.C. \"Leicester City F.C.\"), 13 September 2008](/wiki/Image:Steve_Howard01.jpg \"Steve Howard01.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|left\\|125px\\|Howard in his fifth season with Leicester, 21 September 2011](/wiki/File:Steve_Howard_2011.jpg \"Steve Howard 2011.jpg\")\nHoward joined [Leicester City](/wiki/Leicester_City_F.C. \"Leicester City F.C.\") on 1 January 2008 for a fee of £1\\.5 million, signing a three\\-and\\-a\\-half\\-year contract.{{cite news \\|title \\= Leicester confirm deal for Howard\\|url \\= http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/football/teams/l/leicester\\_city/7165982\\.stm\\|publisher \\= BBC Sport\\|date \\= 1 January 2008\\|access\\-date \\= 18 May 2008}} Initially signing on loan, Derby teammate [Matt Oakley](/wiki/Matt_Oakley \"Matt Oakley\") joined him at the club on 11 January. He made his debut in a 3–1 defeat to [QPR](/wiki/Queens_Park_Rangers_F.C. \"Queens Park Rangers F.C.\") on 1 January 2008\\.{{cite news\\| title \\= QPR 3–1 Leicester\\| url \\= http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/football/eng\\_div\\_1/7163883\\.stm\\| publisher \\= BBC Sport\\| date \\= 1 January 2007\\| access\\-date \\= 5 January 2007}} He scored his first goal in an [M69 derby](/wiki/M69_derby \"M69 derby\") on 12 January, in which Leicester won 2–0\\.{{cite news\\| title \\= Leicester 2–0 Coventry\\| url \\= http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/football/eng\\_div\\_1/7172833\\.stm\\| publisher \\= BBC Sport\\| date \\= 12 January 2008\\| access\\-date \\= 12 January 2008}} Howard bagged a hat\\-trick in a 4–1 win over [West Brom](/wiki/West_Bromwich_Albion_F.C. \"West Bromwich Albion F.C.\") on 15 March,{{cite news \\| title \\= West Brom 1–4 Leicester \\| url \\= http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/football/eng\\_div\\_1/7285134\\.stm \\| publisher \\= BBC Sport \\| date \\= 15 March 2008 \\| access\\-date \\= 18 March 2008}} a result he said was coming and was confident the club could stay up.{{cite news\\|title \\= Big win was on the cards – Howard\\|url \\= http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/football/teams/l/leicester\\_city/7301162\\.stm\\|publisher \\= BBC Sport\\|date \\= 17 March 2008\\|access\\-date \\= 2010\\-02\\-03}} Despite regaining his form by scoring six goals however, Howard could not prevent Leicester from being relegated at the end of the season.",
"Desperate to win promotion back to the Championship, Howard was able to maintain his form the [following season](/wiki/2008%E2%80%9309_in_English_football \"2008–09 in English football\").{{cite news\\|title \\= Foxes desperate to go up – Howard\\|url \\= http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/football/teams/l/leicester\\_city/7517960\\.stm\\|publisher \\= BBC Sport\\|date \\= 22 July 2008\\|access\\-date \\= 2010\\-02\\-02}} Partnering teammate [Matty Fryatt](/wiki/Matty_Fryatt \"Matty Fryatt\") in attack, he scored 13 league goals and contributed numerous assists to help Leicester maintain their lead at the top of [League One](/wiki/Football_League_One \"Football League One\").{{cite news\\| title \\= Howard 'happy to do dirty work'\\| url \\= http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/football/teams/l/leicester\\_city/7758838\\.stm\\| publisher \\= BBC Sport\\| date \\= 1 December 2008\\| access\\-date \\= 2009\\-03\\-08}} He went on to help the club secure their promotion as champions, earning his second League One medal on 24 April.{{cite news\\| title \\= Champions Picture Special\\| url \\= http://www.lcfc.com/page/LatestNews/0,,10274\\~1638777,00\\.html\\| publisher \\= LCFC.com\\| date \\= 25 April 2009\\| access\\-date \\= 2009\\-04\\-25\\| url\\-status \\= dead\\| archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20120218092113/http://www.lcfc.com/page/LatestNews/0,,10274\\~1638777,00\\.html\\| archive\\-date \\= 18 February 2012}} Howard was also voted Leicester City supporters club player of the season for the [2008–09 season](/wiki/2008%E2%80%9309_Football_League_One \"2008–09 Football League One\").{{cite news\\| title\\=Trio honoured at awards\\| url\\=http://www.lcfc.com/page/LatestNews/0,,10274\\~1634825,00\\.html\\| work\\=LCFC.co.uk\\| publisher\\=Leicester City FC\\| date\\=23 April 2009\\| access\\-date\\=26 April 2009\\| url\\-status\\=dead\\| archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120218092142/http://www.lcfc.com/page/LatestNews/0%2C%2C10274\\~1634825%2C00\\.html\\| archive\\-date\\=18 February 2012}} His overall performance earned him the club's player of the season award on 28 April 2009\\.{{cite news\\| title\\=Howard bags club gong\\| url\\=http://www.lcfc.com/page/LatestNews/0,,10274\\~1642325,00\\.html\\| work\\=LCFC.co.uk\\| publisher\\=Leicester City FC\\| date\\=28 April 2009\\| access\\-date\\=29 April 2009\\| url\\-status\\=dead\\| archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120218092216/http://www.lcfc.com/page/LatestNews/0%2C%2C10274\\~1642325%2C00\\.html\\| archive\\-date\\=18 February 2012}}",
"In April 2009, Howard believed Leicester could win promotion to the [Premier League](/wiki/Premier_League \"Premier League\") in the 2009–10 season.{{cite news\\|title \\= Foxes can go straight up – Howard\\|url \\= http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/football/teams/l/leicester\\_city/8024467\\.stm\\|publisher \\= BBC Sport\\|date \\= 29 April 2009\\|access\\-date \\= 2010\\-02\\-03}} He failed to score his first goal until 12 December 2009, in a 3–0 win over [Sheffield Wednesday](/wiki/Sheffield_Wednesday_F.C. \"Sheffield Wednesday F.C.\").{{cite news\\| title \\= Leicester 3–0 Sheff Wed\\| url \\= http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/football/eng\\_div\\_1/8404495\\.stm\\| publisher \\= BBC Sport\\| date \\= 12 December 2009\\| access\\-date \\= 2009\\-12\\-13}} Howard scored a total of 5 league goals in 35 matches as Leicester qualified for the [Championship play\\-offs](/wiki/Football_League_Championship_play-offs \"Football League Championship play-offs\"). Despite eventually going on to lose to [Cardiff City](/wiki/Cardiff_City \"Cardiff City\") 4–3 on penalties in the play\\-off semi\\-final,{{cite news\\|title \\= Cardiff 2–3 Leicester (agg 3–3\\)\\|url \\= http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/football/eng\\_div\\_1/8672579\\.stm\\|publisher \\= BBC Sport\\|date \\= 12 May 2010\\|access\\-date \\= 2010\\-05\\-13}} Howard's performance in the second leg earned him great plaudits, being described in both [The Times](/wiki/The_Times \"The Times\") and [The Scotsman](/wiki/The_Scotsman \"The Scotsman\") as \"unplayable\".{{cite news\\|title \\= David Marshall keeps Cardiff on road to Wembley\\|url \\= http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/sport/football/football\\_league/article7124760\\.ece\\|archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20100522060934/http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/sport/football/football\\_league/article7124760\\.ece\\|url\\-status \\= dead\\|archive\\-date \\= 22 May 2010\\|work \\= The Times\\|date \\= 13 May 2010\\|access\\-date \\= 2010\\-06\\-11 \\| location\\=London \\| first\\=John \\| last\\=Percy}}{{cite news\\|title \\= Cardiff City 2 – 3 Leicester City: Marshall is Cardiff hero as Leicester pay costly penalty\\|url \\= http://thescotsman.scotsman.com/sport/Cardiff\\-City\\-2\\-\\-3\\.6291161\\.jp\\|work \\= The Scotsman\\|date \\= 13 May 2010\\|access\\-date \\= 2010\\-06\\-11}}",
"Howard extended his contract with the club until June 2012 on 21 October 2010\\.{{cite news\\|title \\= Steve Howard signs new Leicester City contract\\|url \\= http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/football/teams/l/leicester\\_city/9115621\\.stm\\|publisher \\= BBC Sport\\|date \\= 21 October 2010\\|access\\-date \\= 15 January 2011}} He scored 4 league goals and played 35 games in the 2010–11 season, of which 19 were as a substitute.{{citation\\|title \\= Steve Howard happy to fight for Leicester City place\\|url \\= https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/0/football/14217027\\|publisher \\= BBC Sport\\|date \\= 20 July 2011\\|access\\-date \\= 10 March 2012}} He was linked with a permanent move to Sheffield Wednesday in April 2011, but Leicester denied that they were selling him.{{citation\\|title \\= Sven\\-Goran Eriksson denies Steve Howard exit talk\\|url \\= https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/0/football/13350613\\|publisher \\= BBC Sport\\|date \\= 10 May 2011\\|access\\-date \\= 10 March 2012}} In the 2011–12 season, Howard's position in the first team was limited as a result of Leicester buying new strikers. He made his 55th appearance off the bench in a 2–0 win over Coventry City on 3 March 2012\\.{{cite news\\|title \\= Leicester 2–0 Coventry\\|url \\= https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/0/football/17163085\\|publisher \\= BBC Sport\\|date \\= 3 March 2012\\|access\\-date \\= 4 March 2012}} This made him the most\\-used substitute in the club's history, beating the previous record of 54 held by [Trevor Benjamin](/wiki/Trevor_Benjamin \"Trevor Benjamin\").{{citation\\|title \\= Steve Howard sets new City record\\|url \\= http://www.thisisleicestershire.co.uk/Steve\\-Howard\\-sets\\-new\\-City\\-record/story\\-15431194\\-detail/story.html\\|publisher \\= thisisleicestershire.co.uk\\|date \\= 8 March 2012\\|access\\-date \\= 10 March 2012}}",
"### Hartlepool United return",
"On 11 July 2012, Howard re\\-joined Hartlepool United as a [free agent](/wiki/Free_agent \"Free agent\") following his release from Leicester City{{Cite news \\|url\\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/0/football/18785024 \\|title\\=Steve Howard re\\-joins Hartlepool United as free agent \\|publisher\\=BBC Sport \\|access\\-date\\=2012\\-07\\-11}} His first goal back at the club came in a 2–1 defeat at home to [Sheffield United](/wiki/Sheffield_United_F.C. \"Sheffield United F.C.\") on 2 October 2012\\. However, his first season back was not successful and Steve was booed off in his last game before being loaned out to [Sheffield Wednesday](/wiki/Sheffield_Wednesday_F.C. \"Sheffield Wednesday F.C.\") while Hartlepool were relegated to [League Two](/wiki/Football_League_Two \"Football League Two\").",
"Howard's first game back from his loan spell at Sheffield Wednesday was in a pre\\-season friendly for Pools against [Middlesbrough F.C.](/wiki/Middlesbrough_F.C. \"Middlesbrough F.C.\") in which his substitution was greeted to boos{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://www.hartlepoolmail.co.uk/sport/football/hartlepool\\-utd/full\\-time\\-report\\-hartlepool\\-united\\-0\\-middlesbrough\\-0\\-1\\-5876617 \\|title\\=FULL\\-TIME REPORT: Hartlepool United 0 Middlesbrough 0 \\|work\\=Hartlepool Mail\\|access\\-date\\=2014\\-01\\-13}} due to comments he had made about the club in the press and on Twitter. Boss [Colin Cooper](/wiki/Colin_Cooper \"Colin Cooper\") stated that \"He wants to repay the fans and although he knows that won't be easy, it's something he's determined to do\" as he was handed the number nine shirt for the 2013–14 season.{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://www.hartlepoolmail.co.uk/sport/football/hartlepool\\-utd/steve\\-howard\\-handed\\-no\\-9\\-shirt\\-as\\-he\\-remains\\-at\\-hartlepool\\-united\\-1\\-5910563 \\|title\\=Steve Howard handed No.9 shirt as he remains at Hartlepool United \\|work\\=Hartlepool Mail\\|access\\-date\\=2014\\-01\\-13}}",
"Howard's contract was terminated by mutual agreement on 25 November{{cite news\\|title \\= Howard released by Mutual Consent\\|url \\= http://www.hartlepoolunited.co.uk/news/article/251113\\-howard\\-leaves\\-pools\\-1194959\\.aspx?\\|publisher \\= HUFC Official Site\\|date \\= 25 November 2013\\|access\\-date \\= 2013\\-11\\-25}} after only managing 3 goals in a season and a half. His last game for Hartlepool saw him sent off after only being on the field for five minutes in a 3–1 home defeat to [Oxford United](/wiki/Oxford_United_F.C. \"Oxford United F.C.\").{{Cite news \\|url\\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/0/football/24185141 \\|title\\=Hartlepool 1 – 3 Oxford \\|publisher\\=BBC Sport \\|access\\-date\\=2014\\-01\\-13}}",
"### Sheffield Wednesday",
"Howard was signed on loan on 28 March 2013 and was one of 3 emergency loan signings made by manager [Dave Jones](/wiki/Dave_Jones_%28footballer%2C_born_1956%29 \"Dave Jones (footballer, born 1956)\"). Howard was brought in alongside [Stuart Holden](/wiki/Stuart_Holden \"Stuart Holden\") and [Seyi Olofinjana](/wiki/Seyi_Olofinjana \"Seyi Olofinjana\"). Some owls fans were speculative about the loan signing of the 36\\-year\\-old, who was brought in from – at the time – bottom of the [League One](/wiki/Football_League_One \"Football League One\") Table, [Hartlepool United](/wiki/Hartlepool_United_F.C. \"Hartlepool United F.C.\") who were on the verge of relegation. Howard made his first appearance for the Owls against [Bristol City](/wiki/Bristol_City_F.C. \"Bristol City F.C.\") at [Ashton Gate](/wiki/Ashton_Gate_Stadium \"Ashton Gate Stadium\") on 1 April 2013 in a 1–1 draw. During the game Howard flicked on a header to set [Jermaine Johnson](/wiki/Jermaine_Johnson_%28soccer%29 \"Jermaine Johnson (soccer)\") up for his fourth of the season. Howard only played 63 minutes before being substituted by striker, [Gary Madine](/wiki/Gary_Madine \"Gary Madine\"). Howard made his second appearance for the owls as substitute, in the 69th minute and replaced striker [Leroy Lita](/wiki/Leroy_Lita \"Leroy Lita\"). Howard started his third game for the Owls, partnered alongside Lita and was denied a first Wednesday goal from a close range shot saved by Millwall keeper [David Forde](/wiki/David_Forde_%28footballer%29 \"David Forde (footballer)\"), in a vital 1–2 victory over [Millwall](/wiki/Millwall_F.C. \"Millwall F.C.\"). Howard's first goal for the Owls came in the last game of the season from a [Miguel Llera](/wiki/Miguel_Llera \"Miguel Llera\") pass, Howard struck a top left finish in the 2–0 victory over [Middlesbrough](/wiki/Middlesbrough_F.C. \"Middlesbrough F.C.\"), to clinch safety from the hands of relegation.",
""
] |
Broadcasting career
-------------------
Murphy started his career in the spring of 1977 at [CFBC](/wiki/CFBC "CFBC") Saint John.Murphy, Steve. *Behind The Camera: A Memoir.* Halifax: Nimbus, 1956\. p.29\. Murphy then moved to [CJCH\-AM](/wiki/CJCH-FM "CJCH-FM") Halifax in May 1980\.Murphy, Steve. *Behind The Camera: A Memoir.* Halifax: Nimbus, 1956\. pp. 64–66\. While at CJCH\-AM, Murphy moved from reporter and newsreader to being the host of *The Hotline*, a mid\-morning call\-in show.
Murphy replaced Dave Wright, who moved into television full\-time at [CTV Atlantic](/wiki/CTV_Atlantic "CTV Atlantic") as the host of *[Live At 5](/wiki/CTV_News_at_5_%28Maritimes%29 "CTV News at 5 (Maritimes)")*. Murphy also started doing commentaries on *Live At 5* on CTV Atlantic in 1982 and was featured on the very first episode.Murphy, Steve. *Live At 5: The Story of its Success.* Halifax: Nimbus, 1952\. Murphy would eventually stop doing his commentaries on *Live At 5* and become a co\-host of that program in 1986, replacing Wright who moved to Boston to anchor at [WNEV\-TV](/wiki/WHDH_%28TV%29 "WHDH (TV)"). He continued to host *The Hotline* in the morning and *Live At 5* at night until 1988, when Murphy decided to focus his energies on hosting and producing *Live At 5*.
Murphy would continue hosting *Live At 5* until 1993\. Wright, then anchor of the *ATV Evening News*, went into retirement and Murphy was tapped as his replacement in 1993\. Murphy continued to anchor CTV News at 6:00 p.m. until Nov. 30, 2021, and the newscast is the Maritimes number one rated supper\-time newscast. Murphy is also the longest serving anchor of CTV News at 6:00 p.m., having anchored the newscast for almost 30 years. Murphy is also one of the few CTV local anchors to have filled in for the anchor on *[CTV National News](/wiki/CTV_National_News "CTV National News")*; he filled in for then\-anchor [Lloyd Robertson](/wiki/Lloyd_Robertson "Lloyd Robertson") for two newscasts in 2003\.
[thumb\|Murphy interviewing [Andrew Scheer](/wiki/Andrew_Scheer "Andrew Scheer") in 2019\.](/wiki/File:Steve_Murphy_and_Andrew_Scheer_%2846715406465%29.jpg "Steve Murphy and Andrew Scheer (46715406465).jpg")
In September 2011, CTV Atlantic celebrated Murphy's 25 years of being an anchor and host on CTV Atlantic with a special tribute and interview on *Live at 5*.
On September 22, 2021, Murphy, announced during the evening’s broadcast of CTV NEWS AT SIX his decision to step aside from his role as CTV News Atlantic’s Executive News Editor and Chief Anchor for the flagship news program. After 45 years in broadcasting, Murphy’s last appearance as Anchor of CTV NEWS AT SIX took place on Nov. 30\.
|
[
"Broadcasting career\n-------------------",
"Murphy started his career in the spring of 1977 at [CFBC](/wiki/CFBC \"CFBC\") Saint John.Murphy, Steve. *Behind The Camera: A Memoir.* Halifax: Nimbus, 1956\\. p.29\\. Murphy then moved to [CJCH\\-AM](/wiki/CJCH-FM \"CJCH-FM\") Halifax in May 1980\\.Murphy, Steve. *Behind The Camera: A Memoir.* Halifax: Nimbus, 1956\\. pp. 64–66\\. While at CJCH\\-AM, Murphy moved from reporter and newsreader to being the host of *The Hotline*, a mid\\-morning call\\-in show.",
"Murphy replaced Dave Wright, who moved into television full\\-time at [CTV Atlantic](/wiki/CTV_Atlantic \"CTV Atlantic\") as the host of *[Live At 5](/wiki/CTV_News_at_5_%28Maritimes%29 \"CTV News at 5 (Maritimes)\")*. Murphy also started doing commentaries on *Live At 5* on CTV Atlantic in 1982 and was featured on the very first episode.Murphy, Steve. *Live At 5: The Story of its Success.* Halifax: Nimbus, 1952\\. Murphy would eventually stop doing his commentaries on *Live At 5* and become a co\\-host of that program in 1986, replacing Wright who moved to Boston to anchor at [WNEV\\-TV](/wiki/WHDH_%28TV%29 \"WHDH (TV)\"). He continued to host *The Hotline* in the morning and *Live At 5* at night until 1988, when Murphy decided to focus his energies on hosting and producing *Live At 5*.",
"Murphy would continue hosting *Live At 5* until 1993\\. Wright, then anchor of the *ATV Evening News*, went into retirement and Murphy was tapped as his replacement in 1993\\. Murphy continued to anchor CTV News at 6:00 p.m. until Nov. 30, 2021, and the newscast is the Maritimes number one rated supper\\-time newscast. Murphy is also the longest serving anchor of CTV News at 6:00 p.m., having anchored the newscast for almost 30 years. Murphy is also one of the few CTV local anchors to have filled in for the anchor on *[CTV National News](/wiki/CTV_National_News \"CTV National News\")*; he filled in for then\\-anchor [Lloyd Robertson](/wiki/Lloyd_Robertson \"Lloyd Robertson\") for two newscasts in 2003\\.",
"[thumb\\|Murphy interviewing [Andrew Scheer](/wiki/Andrew_Scheer \"Andrew Scheer\") in 2019\\.](/wiki/File:Steve_Murphy_and_Andrew_Scheer_%2846715406465%29.jpg \"Steve Murphy and Andrew Scheer (46715406465).jpg\")",
"In September 2011, CTV Atlantic celebrated Murphy's 25 years of being an anchor and host on CTV Atlantic with a special tribute and interview on *Live at 5*.",
"On September 22, 2021, Murphy, announced during the evening’s broadcast of CTV NEWS AT SIX his decision to step aside from his role as CTV News Atlantic’s Executive News Editor and Chief Anchor for the flagship news program. After 45 years in broadcasting, Murphy’s last appearance as Anchor of CTV NEWS AT SIX took place on Nov. 30\\.",
""
] |
Landmarks
---------
### Yanyarina
This is the northernmost beach, continuing from the one starting in Ica. It is a bird\-filled beach separated from the La Libertad resort by a hill that extends into the sea and connects with a protruding islet separated by a water channel. On the islet, there is a rock known as [Buddha](/wiki/The_Buddha "The Buddha") among local fishermen.
### La Libertad
Formed by a curved sandy cove where the sea is usually calm. It is sheltered by Punta Sombrerillo. A small beach, El Buda, marks the beginning of the resort, which continues with Lomo de Corvina and then, after a headland with a cross, the resort proper, with a few houses.
The coastline to the south features cliffs and inaccessible spots before reaching Cirilo beach, which is flanked by ravines and alleys. In this area is the islet known as El Submarino or El Barco de los Pajaritos due to the presence of guano birds. Further south are cliffs and a promontory known as Las Tres Cuevas and Punta Pirata before reaching Los Erizos beach, a sandy curve enclosed by cliffs.
### El Cahuacho or Playa Grande
Located further south, it is wide, extensive, and inhabited by birds. Another hill marks the end of this beach. From there, the La Península islands can be seen. This area is also known as Los Arcos, consisting of three large guano islands forming channels and whimsical shapes. Their presence marks the beginning of Sombrerillo beach. A steep promontory ending in the Hércules island divides the beach into two parts.
### Isla Hércules
At the end of a steep promontory. Flat, high, and large, it is connected to the shore by a sand neck forming two beaches.
At the end of these, an inaccessible islet inhabited by birds marks the beginning of Mansa de Lomas beach. This is long, with a sloping shore and fine sand from which machas (a type of shellfish) are harvested.
After a curve is Punta Lomas beach, where bathers have ramadas (shaded structures) and two hotels. This beach also features the old fishing port of Lomas. In front of this port, the steamship Pachitea sank in 1915\.
At km 528 of the Panamericana Sur highway, an asphalt road leads to the port, which has houses built at the beginning of the 20th century, restaurants, and a hotel. Factories producing canned goods and fishmeal are located to the south.
### Punta Lomas
A steep, high guano zone, opposite which is the Lobería islet, with a lighthouse and therefore restricted access.
Continuing south is Playa Brava de Lomas, large, with fine sand and extensive banks of machas. From there, the dunes extend inland, driven by strong sea winds. The beach ends at Punta Peñuetas. In the past, the area was known, especially by English cartographers, as Punta Paquija or Chaviña.
### Playa Peñuelas
A small beach bordered by islets populated by sea lions, followed by several small beaches of sand and rocks.
### Morro Chala
This hill marks the boundary of the Tanaca resort, famous for its pools among the cliffs. The hill, described in 17th\-century chronicles, is formed by the peaks Cusihuamán and Cahuamarca (1297 meters above sea level) and a dune sand hill (1148 meters above sea level).
With black and reddish colors, Morro Chala forms a 25 km curve between Tanaca and Chala beach. This hill, crossed by freshwater that allows the growth of casuarinas and fig trees, houses pre\-Columbian ruins and terraces, the only ones in Peru located on the beach.
### Tanaca
To the south are the Tanaca pools. The cliffs begin with the Maucayata cove, with calm pools and guano islets. In this area, there are pre\-Columbian ruins that may have been used as granaries.
### Silaca
Continuing south, at km 596\.5, after passing large grass areas and islets with sea lions and guano birds, is the Silaca resort. It is only populated in summer by families from the [Jaqui district](/wiki/Jaqui_District "Jaqui District").
The Silaca resort resembles an [Inca](/wiki/Inca_Empire "Inca Empire") village amid ruins and terraces, with houses made of stone and cone\-shaped totora roofs.
The pools here have names such as Los Hombres, Las Sirenas, Las Viejas, el desembarcadero, de Piero, Los Curcos o Jorobados, de La Cruz, Los Compadres, Brujillos, Vladimir, and Los Pajaritos. Between Los Compadres and Brujillos is the guano promontory of Puerto Viejo, the Lobería islet, the Santa Rosa ravine and islet, and the Ocopa cove.
This resort offers a significant variety of seafood (lapas, barquillos, choros) and fish. Families vacationing here enjoy the benefits of nature during the three months of summer. It is a small resort but rich in countless adventures.
### Jihuay
South of the Los Pajaritos pool and the ravine where the Atiquipa river flows, is Jihuay beach. On the same route is the former Moca resort, full of ruins and terraces, abandoned and a twin to Silaca.
### Puerto Inca
The last beach of Morro Chala is Puerto Inca, which until the early 20th century was known as Llacpatera. Here are Inca ruins and an Inca trail leading to the historical Incan capital [Cusco](/wiki/Cusco "Cusco") (Qosqo \= 'navel of the world').
Puerto Inca is located at km 603 of the Panamericana Sur highway, and it is said that the Inca used to bathe there.
### Chala
Chala Bay is a large sandy beach located south of Puerto Inca. It has three sectors known as Aguadita, La Calera, and Playa Grande or Playa Hermosa.
From here, it is said that the chasquis (messengers who ran long distances in short times) used to carry fresh fish to Cusco.
### Playa Chica
Continuing south is Playa Chica, with a flat shore and calm sea. It has an artisanal pier with nearby islets serving as a natural breakwater. These islets connect to the Centinela hill, where a lighthouse is located on its summit.
|
[
"Landmarks\n---------",
"### Yanyarina",
"This is the northernmost beach, continuing from the one starting in Ica. It is a bird\\-filled beach separated from the La Libertad resort by a hill that extends into the sea and connects with a protruding islet separated by a water channel. On the islet, there is a rock known as [Buddha](/wiki/The_Buddha \"The Buddha\") among local fishermen.",
"### La Libertad",
"Formed by a curved sandy cove where the sea is usually calm. It is sheltered by Punta Sombrerillo. A small beach, El Buda, marks the beginning of the resort, which continues with Lomo de Corvina and then, after a headland with a cross, the resort proper, with a few houses.",
"The coastline to the south features cliffs and inaccessible spots before reaching Cirilo beach, which is flanked by ravines and alleys. In this area is the islet known as El Submarino or El Barco de los Pajaritos due to the presence of guano birds. Further south are cliffs and a promontory known as Las Tres Cuevas and Punta Pirata before reaching Los Erizos beach, a sandy curve enclosed by cliffs.",
"### El Cahuacho or Playa Grande",
"Located further south, it is wide, extensive, and inhabited by birds. Another hill marks the end of this beach. From there, the La Península islands can be seen. This area is also known as Los Arcos, consisting of three large guano islands forming channels and whimsical shapes. Their presence marks the beginning of Sombrerillo beach. A steep promontory ending in the Hércules island divides the beach into two parts.",
"### Isla Hércules",
"At the end of a steep promontory. Flat, high, and large, it is connected to the shore by a sand neck forming two beaches.",
"At the end of these, an inaccessible islet inhabited by birds marks the beginning of Mansa de Lomas beach. This is long, with a sloping shore and fine sand from which machas (a type of shellfish) are harvested.",
"After a curve is Punta Lomas beach, where bathers have ramadas (shaded structures) and two hotels. This beach also features the old fishing port of Lomas. In front of this port, the steamship Pachitea sank in 1915\\.",
"At km 528 of the Panamericana Sur highway, an asphalt road leads to the port, which has houses built at the beginning of the 20th century, restaurants, and a hotel. Factories producing canned goods and fishmeal are located to the south.",
"### Punta Lomas",
"A steep, high guano zone, opposite which is the Lobería islet, with a lighthouse and therefore restricted access.",
"Continuing south is Playa Brava de Lomas, large, with fine sand and extensive banks of machas. From there, the dunes extend inland, driven by strong sea winds. The beach ends at Punta Peñuetas. In the past, the area was known, especially by English cartographers, as Punta Paquija or Chaviña.",
"### Playa Peñuelas",
"A small beach bordered by islets populated by sea lions, followed by several small beaches of sand and rocks.",
"### Morro Chala",
"This hill marks the boundary of the Tanaca resort, famous for its pools among the cliffs. The hill, described in 17th\\-century chronicles, is formed by the peaks Cusihuamán and Cahuamarca (1297 meters above sea level) and a dune sand hill (1148 meters above sea level).",
"With black and reddish colors, Morro Chala forms a 25 km curve between Tanaca and Chala beach. This hill, crossed by freshwater that allows the growth of casuarinas and fig trees, houses pre\\-Columbian ruins and terraces, the only ones in Peru located on the beach.",
"### Tanaca",
"To the south are the Tanaca pools. The cliffs begin with the Maucayata cove, with calm pools and guano islets. In this area, there are pre\\-Columbian ruins that may have been used as granaries.",
"### Silaca",
"Continuing south, at km 596\\.5, after passing large grass areas and islets with sea lions and guano birds, is the Silaca resort. It is only populated in summer by families from the [Jaqui district](/wiki/Jaqui_District \"Jaqui District\").",
"The Silaca resort resembles an [Inca](/wiki/Inca_Empire \"Inca Empire\") village amid ruins and terraces, with houses made of stone and cone\\-shaped totora roofs.",
"The pools here have names such as Los Hombres, Las Sirenas, Las Viejas, el desembarcadero, de Piero, Los Curcos o Jorobados, de La Cruz, Los Compadres, Brujillos, Vladimir, and Los Pajaritos. Between Los Compadres and Brujillos is the guano promontory of Puerto Viejo, the Lobería islet, the Santa Rosa ravine and islet, and the Ocopa cove.",
"This resort offers a significant variety of seafood (lapas, barquillos, choros) and fish. Families vacationing here enjoy the benefits of nature during the three months of summer. It is a small resort but rich in countless adventures.",
"### Jihuay",
"South of the Los Pajaritos pool and the ravine where the Atiquipa river flows, is Jihuay beach. On the same route is the former Moca resort, full of ruins and terraces, abandoned and a twin to Silaca.",
"### Puerto Inca",
"The last beach of Morro Chala is Puerto Inca, which until the early 20th century was known as Llacpatera. Here are Inca ruins and an Inca trail leading to the historical Incan capital [Cusco](/wiki/Cusco \"Cusco\") (Qosqo \\= 'navel of the world').",
"Puerto Inca is located at km 603 of the Panamericana Sur highway, and it is said that the Inca used to bathe there.",
"### Chala",
"Chala Bay is a large sandy beach located south of Puerto Inca. It has three sectors known as Aguadita, La Calera, and Playa Grande or Playa Hermosa.",
"From here, it is said that the chasquis (messengers who ran long distances in short times) used to carry fresh fish to Cusco.",
"### Playa Chica",
"Continuing south is Playa Chica, with a flat shore and calm sea. It has an artisanal pier with nearby islets serving as a natural breakwater. These islets connect to the Centinela hill, where a lighthouse is located on its summit.",
""
] |
Career
------
{{Expand section\|date\=February 2017}}
### United Talent Agency
Naegle began her career in 1992 in the mail room at [United Talent Agency](/wiki/United_Talent_Agency "United Talent Agency"). Two years later, she became an agent at the company, and went on to be named a partner and co\-head of the TV department in 1999\. At 28 years old, Naegle was one of the youngest partners at a major agency. During her tenure, she was credited with developing several successful programs, including *[The Bernie Mac Show](/wiki/The_Bernie_Mac_Show "The Bernie Mac Show")* and the HBO dramas [*Six Feet Under*](/wiki/Six_Feet_Under_%28TV_series%29 "Six Feet Under (TV series)") and *[True Blood](/wiki/True_Blood "True Blood")*.
### HBO
In 2008, she was named President of [HBO Entertainment](/wiki/Home_Box_Office%2C_Inc. "Home Box Office, Inc."), overseeing the production of all original series. At HBO, she was instrumental in shepherding such [Emmy Award](/wiki/Emmy_Awards "Emmy Awards")\-winning shows as *[Game of Thrones](/wiki/Game_of_Thrones "Game of Thrones"), [Boardwalk Empire](/wiki/Boardwalk_Empire "Boardwalk Empire"), [True Blood](/wiki/True_Blood "True Blood"), [Treme](/wiki/Treme_%28TV_series%29 "Treme (TV series)"), [Eastbound \& Down](/wiki/Eastbound_%26_Down "Eastbound & Down"), [Enlightened](/wiki/Enlightened_%28TV_series%29 "Enlightened (TV series)"), [Veep](/wiki/Veep "Veep")* and [*Girls*](/wiki/Girls_%28TV_series%29 "Girls (TV series)").{{Cite web \|last\=Hunt \|first\=Stacey Wilson \|date\=2012\-12\-05 \|title\=Why HBO's Sue Naegle Didn't Lose Sleep Over 'Homeland's' Big Wins \|url\=https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/general\-news/women\-entertainment\-sue\-naegle\-hbo\-397431/ \|access\-date\=2024\-06\-21 \|website\=The Hollywood Reporter \|language\=en\-US}} In August 2012, she was recognized as the 46th most powerful woman in the world by [Forbes Magazine](/wiki/Forbes "Forbes"), and in the last year of her tenure, HBO won 27 Emmy Awards.{{Cite web \|last\=Rose \|first\=Lacey \|date\=2013\-09\-23 \|title\=HBO's Sue Naegle Exits for Rich Producing Deal \|url\=https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/tv/tv\-news/hbos\-sue\-naegle\-exits\-rich\-634744/ \|access\-date\=2024\-06\-21 \|website\=The Hollywood Reporter \|language\=en\-US}} After her departure from the company in 2013, she formed her own television and film production company, Naegle Ink.
### Annapurna
In 2016, she was named the head of [Annapurna Television](/wiki/Annapurna_Pictures "Annapurna Pictures"), a division of [Annapurna Pictures](/wiki/Annapurna_Pictures "Annapurna Pictures").{{Cite web \|last\=Sandberg \|first\=Bryn \|date\=2016\-09\-27 \|title\=Annapurna Pictures Taps Sue Naegle to Head TV Division \|url\=https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/tv/tv\-news/annapurna\-pictures\-taps\-sue\-naegle\-933026/ \|access\-date\=2024\-06\-21 \|website\=The Hollywood Reporter \|language\=en\-US}} In 2019, she was named [chief content officer](/wiki/Chief_content_officer "Chief content officer") of Annapurna Pictures, where she oversaw TV, film, and theatre development.{{Cite web \|last\=Donnelly \|first\=Matt \|date\=2019\-01\-23 \|title\=Annapurna Ups Sue Naegle to Chief Content Officer, Names Ivana Lombardi President of Film \|url\=https://variety.com/2019/film/news/annapurna\-sue\-naegle\-chief\-content\-officer\-1203115913/ \|access\-date\=2024\-06\-21 \|website\=Variety \|language\=en\-US}} She was instrumental in launching Annapurna’s Theater and Television departments, fostering a supportive environment for artists and amplifying distinctive voices across both spaces. During her tenure at the company, Naegle executive produced the ten\-time Emmy\-nominated [Hulu](/wiki/Hulu "Hulu") series *[Pam \& Tommy](/wiki/Pam_%26_Tommy "Pam & Tommy")*, starring [Sebastian Stan](/wiki/Sebastian_Stan "Sebastian Stan") and [Lily James](/wiki/Lily_James "Lily James"); the two\-time Emmy\-nominated [Max](/wiki/Max_%28streaming_service%29 "Max (streaming service)") series [*The Staircase*](/wiki/The_Staircase_%28American_miniseries%29 "The Staircase (American miniseries)"), starring [Colin Firth](/wiki/Colin_Firth "Colin Firth") and [Toni Collette](/wiki/Toni_Collette "Toni Collette"); [Showtime’s](/wiki/Showtime_%28TV_network%29 "Showtime (TV network)") [*I Love That For You*](/wiki/I_Love_That_for_You "I Love That for You"), created by and starring [Vanessa Bayer](/wiki/Vanessa_Bayer "Vanessa Bayer"); HBO’s [*The Plot Against America*](/wiki/The_Plot_Against_America_%28miniseries%29 "The Plot Against America (miniseries)"), [Amazon’s](/wiki/Amazon_Prime_Video "Amazon Prime Video") [*Dead Ringers*](/wiki/Dead_Ringers_%28miniseries%29 "Dead Ringers (miniseries)"), starring [Rachel Weisz](/wiki/Rachel_Weisz "Rachel Weisz"); and [Apple TV\+’s](/wiki/Apple_TV "Apple TV") [*The Changeling*](/wiki/The_Changeling_%28TV_series%29 "The Changeling (TV series)"), starring [LaKeith Stanfield](/wiki/LaKeith_Stanfield "LaKeith Stanfield"). Naegle also produced the [Coen Brother’s](/wiki/Coen_brothers "Coen brothers") *[The Ballad of Buster Scruggs](/wiki/The_Ballad_of_Buster_Scruggs "The Ballad of Buster Scruggs")* for [Netflix](/wiki/Netflix "Netflix") in 2018\.
After starting Annapurna’s Theater division, she oversaw the production of several [Tony Award](/wiki/Tony_Awards "Tony Awards")\-winning shows including [*Network*](/wiki/Network_%28play%29 "Network (play)"), starring [Bryan Cranston](/wiki/Bryan_Cranston "Bryan Cranston"); [*The Lehmann Trilogy*](/wiki/The_Lehman_Trilogy "The Lehman Trilogy"); [David Byrne’s](/wiki/David_Byrne "David Byrne") [*American Utopia*](/wiki/American_Utopia_%28film%29 "American Utopia (film)"), directed by [Spike Lee](/wiki/Spike_Lee "Spike Lee"); and *[A Strange Loop](/wiki/A_Strange_Loop "A Strange Loop").* In March 2022, Naegle departed from the company.
### Film
On the film side, Naegle produced Laura Steinel’s feature directorial debut, [*Family*](/wiki/Family_%282018_film%29 "Family (2018 film)"), starring [Taylor Schilling](/wiki/Taylor_Schilling "Taylor Schilling") and [Brian Tyree Henry](/wiki/Brian_Tyree_Henry "Brian Tyree Henry"), which premiered at the 2018 [SXSW festival](/wiki/South_by_Southwest "South by Southwest"). She subsequently produced the adaptation of [Susan Scarf Merrell’s](/wiki/Susan_Scarf_Merrell "Susan Scarf Merrell") [*Shirley*](/wiki/Shirley_%282020_film%29 "Shirley (2020 film)"), with [Josephine Decker](/wiki/Josephine_Decker "Josephine Decker") directing, and starring [Elisabeth Moss](/wiki/Elisabeth_Moss "Elisabeth Moss"). The film premiered at the 2020 [Sundance Film Festival](/wiki/Sundance_Film_Festival "Sundance Film Festival"), with Decker winning the Special Jury Award for Auteur Filmmaking.
Naegle was an Executive Producer on [Maria Schrader](/wiki/Maria_Schrader "Maria Schrader")’s [*She Said*](/wiki/She_Said_%28film%29 "She Said (film)") with [Plan B](/wiki/Plan_B_Entertainment "Plan B Entertainment") for [Universal](/wiki/Universal_Pictures "Universal Pictures") and [Cory Finley’s](/wiki/Cory_Finley "Cory Finley") *Landscape of the Invisible Hand* for MGM/Amazon.
She is producing the upcoming adaptation of [Rachel Yoder’s](/wiki/Rachel_Yoder "Rachel Yoder") novel [*Nightbitch*](/wiki/Nightbitch_%28film%29 "Nightbitch (film)") for [Searchlight](/wiki/Searchlight_Pictures "Searchlight Pictures"), with [Mari Heller](/wiki/Marielle_Heller "Marielle Heller") directing, and [Amy Adams](/wiki/Amy_Adams "Amy Adams") starring.
### Dinner Party Productions
In April 2024, it was announced that Naegle had signed a multiple\-year overall deal with [Universal Content Productions](/wiki/Universal_Content_Productions "Universal Content Productions"), forming [Dinner Party Productions](/wiki/Dinner_Party_Productions "Dinner Party Productions") alongside producing partner [Ali Krug](/wiki/Ali_Krug "Ali Krug"). The company will develop and produce new projects for UCP.{{Cite web \|last\=Goldberg \|first\=Lesley \|date\=2024\-04\-09 \|title\=Sue Naegle, Ali Krug Set Up Shop at Universal Content Productions \|url\=https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/tv/tv\-news/sue\-naegle\-ali\-krug\-universal\-content\-productions\-interview\-1235869528/ \|access\-date\=2024\-06\-21 \|website\=The Hollywood Reporter \|language\=en\-US}}{{Cite web \|last\=Whittock \|first\=Jesse \|date\=2024\-04\-09 \|title\=Sue Naegle \& Ali Krug Sign Overall Deal At UCP; Pair Developing Elin Hilderbrand Novel 'The Five\-Star Weekend' For Peacock \|url\=https://deadline.com/2024/04/sue\-naegle\-ali\-krug\-overall\-deal\-ucp\-five\-star\-weekend\-peacock\-1235879113/ \|access\-date\=2024\-06\-21 \|website\=Deadline \|language\=en\-US}}
Dinner Party Productions is producing [Peacock’s](/wiki/Peacock_%28streaming_service%29 "Peacock (streaming service)") adaptation of [Elin Hilderbrand’s](/wiki/Elin_Hilderbrand "Elin Hilderbrand") New York Times best\-selling novel *[The Five\-Star Weekend](/wiki/The_Five-Star_Weekend "The Five-Star Weekend")*, with [Bekkah Brunstetter](/wiki/Bekah_Brunstetter "Bekah Brunstetter") writing. The company will also Executive Produce the series adaption of New York Times bestselling author [Lucy Foley’s](/wiki/Lucy_Foley "Lucy Foley") *The Midnight Feast* in collaboration with [Universal International Studios](/wiki/Universal_International_Studios "Universal International Studios") after the studio landed the rights in a competitive bidding war.
|
[
"Career\n------",
"{{Expand section\\|date\\=February 2017}}",
"### United Talent Agency",
"Naegle began her career in 1992 in the mail room at [United Talent Agency](/wiki/United_Talent_Agency \"United Talent Agency\"). Two years later, she became an agent at the company, and went on to be named a partner and co\\-head of the TV department in 1999\\. At 28 years old, Naegle was one of the youngest partners at a major agency. During her tenure, she was credited with developing several successful programs, including *[The Bernie Mac Show](/wiki/The_Bernie_Mac_Show \"The Bernie Mac Show\")* and the HBO dramas [*Six Feet Under*](/wiki/Six_Feet_Under_%28TV_series%29 \"Six Feet Under (TV series)\") and *[True Blood](/wiki/True_Blood \"True Blood\")*.",
"### HBO",
"In 2008, she was named President of [HBO Entertainment](/wiki/Home_Box_Office%2C_Inc. \"Home Box Office, Inc.\"), overseeing the production of all original series. At HBO, she was instrumental in shepherding such [Emmy Award](/wiki/Emmy_Awards \"Emmy Awards\")\\-winning shows as *[Game of Thrones](/wiki/Game_of_Thrones \"Game of Thrones\"), [Boardwalk Empire](/wiki/Boardwalk_Empire \"Boardwalk Empire\"), [True Blood](/wiki/True_Blood \"True Blood\"), [Treme](/wiki/Treme_%28TV_series%29 \"Treme (TV series)\"), [Eastbound \\& Down](/wiki/Eastbound_%26_Down \"Eastbound & Down\"), [Enlightened](/wiki/Enlightened_%28TV_series%29 \"Enlightened (TV series)\"), [Veep](/wiki/Veep \"Veep\")* and [*Girls*](/wiki/Girls_%28TV_series%29 \"Girls (TV series)\").{{Cite web \\|last\\=Hunt \\|first\\=Stacey Wilson \\|date\\=2012\\-12\\-05 \\|title\\=Why HBO's Sue Naegle Didn't Lose Sleep Over 'Homeland's' Big Wins \\|url\\=https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/general\\-news/women\\-entertainment\\-sue\\-naegle\\-hbo\\-397431/ \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-06\\-21 \\|website\\=The Hollywood Reporter \\|language\\=en\\-US}} In August 2012, she was recognized as the 46th most powerful woman in the world by [Forbes Magazine](/wiki/Forbes \"Forbes\"), and in the last year of her tenure, HBO won 27 Emmy Awards.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Rose \\|first\\=Lacey \\|date\\=2013\\-09\\-23 \\|title\\=HBO's Sue Naegle Exits for Rich Producing Deal \\|url\\=https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/tv/tv\\-news/hbos\\-sue\\-naegle\\-exits\\-rich\\-634744/ \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-06\\-21 \\|website\\=The Hollywood Reporter \\|language\\=en\\-US}} After her departure from the company in 2013, she formed her own television and film production company, Naegle Ink.",
"### Annapurna",
"In 2016, she was named the head of [Annapurna Television](/wiki/Annapurna_Pictures \"Annapurna Pictures\"), a division of [Annapurna Pictures](/wiki/Annapurna_Pictures \"Annapurna Pictures\").{{Cite web \\|last\\=Sandberg \\|first\\=Bryn \\|date\\=2016\\-09\\-27 \\|title\\=Annapurna Pictures Taps Sue Naegle to Head TV Division \\|url\\=https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/tv/tv\\-news/annapurna\\-pictures\\-taps\\-sue\\-naegle\\-933026/ \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-06\\-21 \\|website\\=The Hollywood Reporter \\|language\\=en\\-US}} In 2019, she was named [chief content officer](/wiki/Chief_content_officer \"Chief content officer\") of Annapurna Pictures, where she oversaw TV, film, and theatre development.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Donnelly \\|first\\=Matt \\|date\\=2019\\-01\\-23 \\|title\\=Annapurna Ups Sue Naegle to Chief Content Officer, Names Ivana Lombardi President of Film \\|url\\=https://variety.com/2019/film/news/annapurna\\-sue\\-naegle\\-chief\\-content\\-officer\\-1203115913/ \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-06\\-21 \\|website\\=Variety \\|language\\=en\\-US}} She was instrumental in launching Annapurna’s Theater and Television departments, fostering a supportive environment for artists and amplifying distinctive voices across both spaces. During her tenure at the company, Naegle executive produced the ten\\-time Emmy\\-nominated [Hulu](/wiki/Hulu \"Hulu\") series *[Pam \\& Tommy](/wiki/Pam_%26_Tommy \"Pam & Tommy\")*, starring [Sebastian Stan](/wiki/Sebastian_Stan \"Sebastian Stan\") and [Lily James](/wiki/Lily_James \"Lily James\"); the two\\-time Emmy\\-nominated [Max](/wiki/Max_%28streaming_service%29 \"Max (streaming service)\") series [*The Staircase*](/wiki/The_Staircase_%28American_miniseries%29 \"The Staircase (American miniseries)\"), starring [Colin Firth](/wiki/Colin_Firth \"Colin Firth\") and [Toni Collette](/wiki/Toni_Collette \"Toni Collette\"); [Showtime’s](/wiki/Showtime_%28TV_network%29 \"Showtime (TV network)\") [*I Love That For You*](/wiki/I_Love_That_for_You \"I Love That for You\"), created by and starring [Vanessa Bayer](/wiki/Vanessa_Bayer \"Vanessa Bayer\"); HBO’s [*The Plot Against America*](/wiki/The_Plot_Against_America_%28miniseries%29 \"The Plot Against America (miniseries)\"), [Amazon’s](/wiki/Amazon_Prime_Video \"Amazon Prime Video\") [*Dead Ringers*](/wiki/Dead_Ringers_%28miniseries%29 \"Dead Ringers (miniseries)\"), starring [Rachel Weisz](/wiki/Rachel_Weisz \"Rachel Weisz\"); and [Apple TV\\+’s](/wiki/Apple_TV \"Apple TV\") [*The Changeling*](/wiki/The_Changeling_%28TV_series%29 \"The Changeling (TV series)\"), starring [LaKeith Stanfield](/wiki/LaKeith_Stanfield \"LaKeith Stanfield\"). Naegle also produced the [Coen Brother’s](/wiki/Coen_brothers \"Coen brothers\") *[The Ballad of Buster Scruggs](/wiki/The_Ballad_of_Buster_Scruggs \"The Ballad of Buster Scruggs\")* for [Netflix](/wiki/Netflix \"Netflix\") in 2018\\.",
"After starting Annapurna’s Theater division, she oversaw the production of several [Tony Award](/wiki/Tony_Awards \"Tony Awards\")\\-winning shows including [*Network*](/wiki/Network_%28play%29 \"Network (play)\"), starring [Bryan Cranston](/wiki/Bryan_Cranston \"Bryan Cranston\"); [*The Lehmann Trilogy*](/wiki/The_Lehman_Trilogy \"The Lehman Trilogy\"); [David Byrne’s](/wiki/David_Byrne \"David Byrne\") [*American Utopia*](/wiki/American_Utopia_%28film%29 \"American Utopia (film)\"), directed by [Spike Lee](/wiki/Spike_Lee \"Spike Lee\"); and *[A Strange Loop](/wiki/A_Strange_Loop \"A Strange Loop\").* In March 2022, Naegle departed from the company.",
"### Film",
"On the film side, Naegle produced Laura Steinel’s feature directorial debut, [*Family*](/wiki/Family_%282018_film%29 \"Family (2018 film)\"), starring [Taylor Schilling](/wiki/Taylor_Schilling \"Taylor Schilling\") and [Brian Tyree Henry](/wiki/Brian_Tyree_Henry \"Brian Tyree Henry\"), which premiered at the 2018 [SXSW festival](/wiki/South_by_Southwest \"South by Southwest\"). She subsequently produced the adaptation of [Susan Scarf Merrell’s](/wiki/Susan_Scarf_Merrell \"Susan Scarf Merrell\") [*Shirley*](/wiki/Shirley_%282020_film%29 \"Shirley (2020 film)\"), with [Josephine Decker](/wiki/Josephine_Decker \"Josephine Decker\") directing, and starring [Elisabeth Moss](/wiki/Elisabeth_Moss \"Elisabeth Moss\"). The film premiered at the 2020 [Sundance Film Festival](/wiki/Sundance_Film_Festival \"Sundance Film Festival\"), with Decker winning the Special Jury Award for Auteur Filmmaking.",
"Naegle was an Executive Producer on [Maria Schrader](/wiki/Maria_Schrader \"Maria Schrader\")’s [*She Said*](/wiki/She_Said_%28film%29 \"She Said (film)\") with [Plan B](/wiki/Plan_B_Entertainment \"Plan B Entertainment\") for [Universal](/wiki/Universal_Pictures \"Universal Pictures\") and [Cory Finley’s](/wiki/Cory_Finley \"Cory Finley\") *Landscape of the Invisible Hand* for MGM/Amazon.",
"She is producing the upcoming adaptation of [Rachel Yoder’s](/wiki/Rachel_Yoder \"Rachel Yoder\") novel [*Nightbitch*](/wiki/Nightbitch_%28film%29 \"Nightbitch (film)\") for [Searchlight](/wiki/Searchlight_Pictures \"Searchlight Pictures\"), with [Mari Heller](/wiki/Marielle_Heller \"Marielle Heller\") directing, and [Amy Adams](/wiki/Amy_Adams \"Amy Adams\") starring.",
"### Dinner Party Productions",
"In April 2024, it was announced that Naegle had signed a multiple\\-year overall deal with [Universal Content Productions](/wiki/Universal_Content_Productions \"Universal Content Productions\"), forming [Dinner Party Productions](/wiki/Dinner_Party_Productions \"Dinner Party Productions\") alongside producing partner [Ali Krug](/wiki/Ali_Krug \"Ali Krug\"). The company will develop and produce new projects for UCP.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Goldberg \\|first\\=Lesley \\|date\\=2024\\-04\\-09 \\|title\\=Sue Naegle, Ali Krug Set Up Shop at Universal Content Productions \\|url\\=https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/tv/tv\\-news/sue\\-naegle\\-ali\\-krug\\-universal\\-content\\-productions\\-interview\\-1235869528/ \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-06\\-21 \\|website\\=The Hollywood Reporter \\|language\\=en\\-US}}{{Cite web \\|last\\=Whittock \\|first\\=Jesse \\|date\\=2024\\-04\\-09 \\|title\\=Sue Naegle \\& Ali Krug Sign Overall Deal At UCP; Pair Developing Elin Hilderbrand Novel 'The Five\\-Star Weekend' For Peacock \\|url\\=https://deadline.com/2024/04/sue\\-naegle\\-ali\\-krug\\-overall\\-deal\\-ucp\\-five\\-star\\-weekend\\-peacock\\-1235879113/ \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-06\\-21 \\|website\\=Deadline \\|language\\=en\\-US}}",
"Dinner Party Productions is producing [Peacock’s](/wiki/Peacock_%28streaming_service%29 \"Peacock (streaming service)\") adaptation of [Elin Hilderbrand’s](/wiki/Elin_Hilderbrand \"Elin Hilderbrand\") New York Times best\\-selling novel *[The Five\\-Star Weekend](/wiki/The_Five-Star_Weekend \"The Five-Star Weekend\")*, with [Bekkah Brunstetter](/wiki/Bekah_Brunstetter \"Bekah Brunstetter\") writing. The company will also Executive Produce the series adaption of New York Times bestselling author [Lucy Foley’s](/wiki/Lucy_Foley \"Lucy Foley\") *The Midnight Feast* in collaboration with [Universal International Studios](/wiki/Universal_International_Studios \"Universal International Studios\") after the studio landed the rights in a competitive bidding war.",
""
] |
Format
------
### Educational goals
Terry Deary, the creator of the *Horrible Histories* series, offers a distinct perspective on education. He questions conventional schooling, asserting, "If I had it my way, I wouldn't have schools at all. They don't educate, they just keep kids off the streets. But my books educate because they prepare kids for life ... It's outrageous, why don't we start telling children the truth about history? I hope my books do just that."{{cite web \| url\=http://www.bucksfreepress.co.uk/leisure/2291192\.terrific\_terrys\_horrible\_histories/ \| title\=Terrific Terry's Horrible Histories \| work\=Bucks Free Press \| date\=22 May 2008 \| access\-date\=18 July 2011 \| author\=Wolfisz, Francine \| url\-status\=dead \| archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120219091638/http://www.bucksfreepress.co.uk/leisure/2291192\.terrific\_terrys\_horrible\_histories/ \| archive\-date\=19 February 2012 \| df\=dmy\-all }}
Beyond entertainment, Deary's *Horrible Histories* books aim to deepen historical understanding. This integration of entertainment and education challenges the dichotomy between these two aspects.{{cite book\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=P35MViXVTbAC\&pg\=PA69\|title\=Promoting Reading for Pleasure in the Early Years\|author\=Lockwood, Michael\|year\=2008\|work\=Promoting Reading for Pleasure in the Primary School\|publisher\=SAGE Publications\|page\=69\|isbn\=9780857026736\|access\-date\=2 July 2011}}{{cite news \| url\=https://www.theguardian.com/books/2003/may/10/booksforchildrenandteenagers \| title\=Horribly good \| publisher\=Guardian News and Media Limited \| work\=The Guardian \| date\=10 May 2003 \| access\-date\=12 July 2011 \| author\=Gardner, Lyn \| location\=London}} By adopting a skeptical approach to historical accuracy, the series prompts reflection on the reliability of historical information.
Deary's works also contain implicit political messages. Through parallels between contemporary and historical issues, readers are encouraged to ponder morality and patriotism. Rooted in an anti\-imperialist perspective, the series frames history as a struggle between powerful entities and marginalized voices. This approach stimulates discussions about present\-day societal challenges in relation to historical contexts. Deary's critique extends to conventional education methods, emphasizing critical thinking over conformity."{{cite news\|author\=Jon Henley \|url\=https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2012/jul/14/terry\-deary\-horrible\-histories \|title\=Terry Deary: The man behind the Horrible Histories \| Books \|work\=The Guardian \|date\= 14 July 2012\|access\-date\=17 April 2014 \|location\=London}}
Deary's persistent critique of conventional education underscores his strong anti\-establishment stance. His inclination to challenge authority encourages critical thinking and fosters open discussions, aligning with his unique approach to history and empowerment. His ultimate goal is to convey the emotions and motivations of historical figures. His writing style encourages readers to immerse themselves in history, prompting reflection on the past and their own actions.{{cite book \| title\=Creating Writers: A Creative Writing Manual for Schools}}
### Literary techniques
[left\|thumb\|The books employ diverse media techniques, incorporating elements like cartoons (as depicted in this example by Martin Brown).](/wiki/File:Horrible_Histories_-_Martin_Brown.jpg "Horrible Histories - Martin Brown.jpg")
Research is pivotal to Deary's process. Collaborating with experts, particularly in specialized fields, lends authenticity to his narratives. He delves into historical contexts to gather a plethora of information, avoiding mundane details like dates. This approach focuses on human experiences rather than strict chronology.{{cite book \| url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=IfpjJsXHPCEC\&pg\=PA59 \| title\=Bitesize Learning \| work\=ICT and literacy: information and communications technology, media, reading and writing \| year\=2000 \| access\-date\=18 April 2011 \| author\=Gamble, Nicki \| page\=67\| publisher\=A\&C Black \| isbn\=9780826425539 }}
Deary employs diverse literary techniques to bring history to life. His writing mirrors natural speech rhythms, incorporating elements like alliteration and assonance. Poetry is employed for impact rather than adhering to a rigid structure. Direct second\-person communication fosters a personal connection between the text and the reader, creating an engaging narrative style.
Utilizing newspaper formats bridges the gap between complex historical content and relatable narratives. This approach blends tabloid\-style lightness with in\-depth journalism, offering readers a multifaceted perspective. Incorporating newspaper excerpts, diaries, and letters immerses readers in personal viewpoints and subjective experiences.
While Deary addresses recent historical events with sensitivity, he maintains a delicate balance between humor and respect. The series has certain boundaries, such as avoiding descriptions of violence against infants, but Deary advocates for open dialogue rather than avoidance.
The series caters to 'reluctant readers,' favoring concise, non\-linear reading experiences. Deary accommodates this preference with brief chapters, interactive elements, and multimedia features such as quizzes.
|
[
"Format\n------",
"### Educational goals",
"Terry Deary, the creator of the *Horrible Histories* series, offers a distinct perspective on education. He questions conventional schooling, asserting, \"If I had it my way, I wouldn't have schools at all. They don't educate, they just keep kids off the streets. But my books educate because they prepare kids for life ... It's outrageous, why don't we start telling children the truth about history? I hope my books do just that.\"{{cite web \\| url\\=http://www.bucksfreepress.co.uk/leisure/2291192\\.terrific\\_terrys\\_horrible\\_histories/ \\| title\\=Terrific Terry's Horrible Histories \\| work\\=Bucks Free Press \\| date\\=22 May 2008 \\| access\\-date\\=18 July 2011 \\| author\\=Wolfisz, Francine \\| url\\-status\\=dead \\| archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120219091638/http://www.bucksfreepress.co.uk/leisure/2291192\\.terrific\\_terrys\\_horrible\\_histories/ \\| archive\\-date\\=19 February 2012 \\| df\\=dmy\\-all }}",
"Beyond entertainment, Deary's *Horrible Histories* books aim to deepen historical understanding. This integration of entertainment and education challenges the dichotomy between these two aspects.{{cite book\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=P35MViXVTbAC\\&pg\\=PA69\\|title\\=Promoting Reading for Pleasure in the Early Years\\|author\\=Lockwood, Michael\\|year\\=2008\\|work\\=Promoting Reading for Pleasure in the Primary School\\|publisher\\=SAGE Publications\\|page\\=69\\|isbn\\=9780857026736\\|access\\-date\\=2 July 2011}}{{cite news \\| url\\=https://www.theguardian.com/books/2003/may/10/booksforchildrenandteenagers \\| title\\=Horribly good \\| publisher\\=Guardian News and Media Limited \\| work\\=The Guardian \\| date\\=10 May 2003 \\| access\\-date\\=12 July 2011 \\| author\\=Gardner, Lyn \\| location\\=London}} By adopting a skeptical approach to historical accuracy, the series prompts reflection on the reliability of historical information.",
"Deary's works also contain implicit political messages. Through parallels between contemporary and historical issues, readers are encouraged to ponder morality and patriotism. Rooted in an anti\\-imperialist perspective, the series frames history as a struggle between powerful entities and marginalized voices. This approach stimulates discussions about present\\-day societal challenges in relation to historical contexts. Deary's critique extends to conventional education methods, emphasizing critical thinking over conformity.\"{{cite news\\|author\\=Jon Henley \\|url\\=https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2012/jul/14/terry\\-deary\\-horrible\\-histories \\|title\\=Terry Deary: The man behind the Horrible Histories \\| Books \\|work\\=The Guardian \\|date\\= 14 July 2012\\|access\\-date\\=17 April 2014 \\|location\\=London}}",
"Deary's persistent critique of conventional education underscores his strong anti\\-establishment stance. His inclination to challenge authority encourages critical thinking and fosters open discussions, aligning with his unique approach to history and empowerment. His ultimate goal is to convey the emotions and motivations of historical figures. His writing style encourages readers to immerse themselves in history, prompting reflection on the past and their own actions.{{cite book \\| title\\=Creating Writers: A Creative Writing Manual for Schools}}",
"### Literary techniques",
"[left\\|thumb\\|The books employ diverse media techniques, incorporating elements like cartoons (as depicted in this example by Martin Brown).](/wiki/File:Horrible_Histories_-_Martin_Brown.jpg \"Horrible Histories - Martin Brown.jpg\")\nResearch is pivotal to Deary's process. Collaborating with experts, particularly in specialized fields, lends authenticity to his narratives. He delves into historical contexts to gather a plethora of information, avoiding mundane details like dates. This approach focuses on human experiences rather than strict chronology.{{cite book \\| url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=IfpjJsXHPCEC\\&pg\\=PA59 \\| title\\=Bitesize Learning \\| work\\=ICT and literacy: information and communications technology, media, reading and writing \\| year\\=2000 \\| access\\-date\\=18 April 2011 \\| author\\=Gamble, Nicki \\| page\\=67\\| publisher\\=A\\&C Black \\| isbn\\=9780826425539 }}",
"Deary employs diverse literary techniques to bring history to life. His writing mirrors natural speech rhythms, incorporating elements like alliteration and assonance. Poetry is employed for impact rather than adhering to a rigid structure. Direct second\\-person communication fosters a personal connection between the text and the reader, creating an engaging narrative style.",
"Utilizing newspaper formats bridges the gap between complex historical content and relatable narratives. This approach blends tabloid\\-style lightness with in\\-depth journalism, offering readers a multifaceted perspective. Incorporating newspaper excerpts, diaries, and letters immerses readers in personal viewpoints and subjective experiences.",
"While Deary addresses recent historical events with sensitivity, he maintains a delicate balance between humor and respect. The series has certain boundaries, such as avoiding descriptions of violence against infants, but Deary advocates for open dialogue rather than avoidance.",
"The series caters to 'reluctant readers,' favoring concise, non\\-linear reading experiences. Deary accommodates this preference with brief chapters, interactive elements, and multimedia features such as quizzes.",
""
] |
Publication history
-------------------
The *Horrible Histories* series, comprising 23 books, has seen various editions and translations since its inception.
### English
The original *Horrible Histories* book series encompasses 23 titles. It commenced with the publication of *The Terrible Tudors* and *The Awesome Egyptians* in 1993 and 1994 respectively. The series extends to encompass two\-in\-one volumes, boxed sets, special editions, handbooks, city guides, comic strips, annuals, novelty releases, and more.
In 2013, Terry Deary formally announced the conclusion of the series. Reports indicated that the decision stemmed from Deary exhausting his story ideas and the associated risk of launching new titles without guarantees of success.{{cite news \| url\=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/education/educationnews/9976384/No\-more\-Histories\-That%27s\-Horrible.html \| title\=No more Histories? That's Horrible! \| publisher\=The Telegraph \| access\-date\=2013\-04\-08 \| author\=Moreton, Cole \| location\=London \| date\=7 April 2013}}{{dead link\|date\=July 2021\|bot\=medic}}{{cbignore\|bot\=medic}}
### Translations
*Horrible Histories* has achieved international presence through translations, reaching readers in diverse languages and cultures.
In Denmark, the series is distributed by Egmont Publishing.
In Poland, the series goes by the names *Strrraszna historia* (*Horrible Histories*), *Strrraszne sławy* (*Horribly Famous*), and *Sławy z krypty* (*Dead Famous*). An additional sub\-series delves into various aspects of Polish history and society, authored by Małgorzata Fabianowska and Małgorzata Nesteruk, with illustrations by Jędrzej Łaniecki. These titles are exclusive to Poland and have yet to be published in English. Examples include:
* *Ci Sprytni Słowianie* (*The Clever Slavs*)
* *Pokrętni Piastowie* (*Piast Dynasty*)
* *Dynamiczna Dynastia Jagiellonów* (*Dynamic Jagiellon Dynasty*)
* *Sakramencki Sarmatyzm* (*Bloody Sarmatism*)
* *Atrakcyjni Królowie Elekcyjni* (*Sovereign Election Appeal*)
* *Zagmatwane Zabory* (*Invasive Embroilment*)
* *Nieznośna Niepodległość* (*Vexing Independence*)
In Portugal, the series is titled *Os Horríveis* (*The Horribles*), while in Brazil, it goes by *Saber Horrível* (*Horrible Knowledge*). These adaptations aim to stimulate interest in history, geography, science, and other academic subjects. The collection has experienced considerable commercial success.
The Czech version, known as *Děsivé dějiny* (*Horrible History*), not only translates the English content but also includes adaptations of the Polish sub\-series. This version incorporates titles specific to Czech history, authored by individuals such as Roman Ferstl and Martin Pitro.
In Germany, the series is published under the title *Schauderhafte Geschichten*.
The Dutch series, *Waanzinnig om te weten* (*Amazing to Know*), is a translation and adaptation of the *Horrible Histories*, *Horrible Science*, *Horrible Geography*, and *Murderous Maths* series. It consists of 36 books as of January 2009\.
The series has also been translated into Thai and Spanish. In the Welsh edition, *Cut\-Throat Celts* is known as *Y Celtiaid Cythryblus*.
In Italy, the series is known as *Brutte Storie* (title that can both mean "Horrible Histories" and "Horrible Stories"), and have been published since 1997\.{{Cite web \|last\=Libraio \|first\=Redazione Il \|date\=2022\-09\-01 \|title\=Con Salani tornano le "Brutte Storie" e "Brutte Scienze": humor nero per raccontare gli argomenti scolastici \|url\=https://www.illibraio.it/news/bambini\-e\-ragazzi/salani\-brutte\-storie\-brutte\-scienze\-1426893/ \|access\-date\=2023\-08\-26 \|website\=ilLibraio.it \|language\=it}}
|
[
"Publication history\n-------------------",
"The *Horrible Histories* series, comprising 23 books, has seen various editions and translations since its inception.",
"### English",
"The original *Horrible Histories* book series encompasses 23 titles. It commenced with the publication of *The Terrible Tudors* and *The Awesome Egyptians* in 1993 and 1994 respectively. The series extends to encompass two\\-in\\-one volumes, boxed sets, special editions, handbooks, city guides, comic strips, annuals, novelty releases, and more.",
"In 2013, Terry Deary formally announced the conclusion of the series. Reports indicated that the decision stemmed from Deary exhausting his story ideas and the associated risk of launching new titles without guarantees of success.{{cite news \\| url\\=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/education/educationnews/9976384/No\\-more\\-Histories\\-That%27s\\-Horrible.html \\| title\\=No more Histories? That's Horrible! \\| publisher\\=The Telegraph \\| access\\-date\\=2013\\-04\\-08 \\| author\\=Moreton, Cole \\| location\\=London \\| date\\=7 April 2013}}{{dead link\\|date\\=July 2021\\|bot\\=medic}}{{cbignore\\|bot\\=medic}}",
"### Translations",
"*Horrible Histories* has achieved international presence through translations, reaching readers in diverse languages and cultures.",
"In Denmark, the series is distributed by Egmont Publishing.",
"In Poland, the series goes by the names *Strrraszna historia* (*Horrible Histories*), *Strrraszne sławy* (*Horribly Famous*), and *Sławy z krypty* (*Dead Famous*). An additional sub\\-series delves into various aspects of Polish history and society, authored by Małgorzata Fabianowska and Małgorzata Nesteruk, with illustrations by Jędrzej Łaniecki. These titles are exclusive to Poland and have yet to be published in English. Examples include:",
"* *Ci Sprytni Słowianie* (*The Clever Slavs*)\n* *Pokrętni Piastowie* (*Piast Dynasty*)\n* *Dynamiczna Dynastia Jagiellonów* (*Dynamic Jagiellon Dynasty*)\n* *Sakramencki Sarmatyzm* (*Bloody Sarmatism*)\n* *Atrakcyjni Królowie Elekcyjni* (*Sovereign Election Appeal*)\n* *Zagmatwane Zabory* (*Invasive Embroilment*)\n* *Nieznośna Niepodległość* (*Vexing Independence*)",
"In Portugal, the series is titled *Os Horríveis* (*The Horribles*), while in Brazil, it goes by *Saber Horrível* (*Horrible Knowledge*). These adaptations aim to stimulate interest in history, geography, science, and other academic subjects. The collection has experienced considerable commercial success.",
"The Czech version, known as *Děsivé dějiny* (*Horrible History*), not only translates the English content but also includes adaptations of the Polish sub\\-series. This version incorporates titles specific to Czech history, authored by individuals such as Roman Ferstl and Martin Pitro.",
"In Germany, the series is published under the title *Schauderhafte Geschichten*.",
"The Dutch series, *Waanzinnig om te weten* (*Amazing to Know*), is a translation and adaptation of the *Horrible Histories*, *Horrible Science*, *Horrible Geography*, and *Murderous Maths* series. It consists of 36 books as of January 2009\\.",
"The series has also been translated into Thai and Spanish. In the Welsh edition, *Cut\\-Throat Celts* is known as *Y Celtiaid Cythryblus*.",
"In Italy, the series is known as *Brutte Storie* (title that can both mean \"Horrible Histories\" and \"Horrible Stories\"), and have been published since 1997\\.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Libraio \\|first\\=Redazione Il \\|date\\=2022\\-09\\-01 \\|title\\=Con Salani tornano le \"Brutte Storie\" e \"Brutte Scienze\": humor nero per raccontare gli argomenti scolastici \\|url\\=https://www.illibraio.it/news/bambini\\-e\\-ragazzi/salani\\-brutte\\-storie\\-brutte\\-scienze\\-1426893/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-08\\-26 \\|website\\=ilLibraio.it \\|language\\=it}}",
""
] |
Government and politics
-----------------------
[thumb\|right\|1914 Town Hall (now a museum)](/wiki/Image:Eaganoldtownhall2.jpg "Eaganoldtownhall2.jpg")
{{More citations needed section\|date\=January 2017}}
Eagan's municipal government is a Type B Statutory City, which provides for a council size of five members, one of whom is the mayor. Eagan's mayor since 2007 has been Mike Maguire.
The other councilmembers are:{{cite web\|title\=Council \& Commission\|url\=https://www.cityofeagan.com/council\-commission\|website\=www.cityofeagan.com\|access\-date\=November 12, 2017}}
* Paul Bakken (fifth non\-consecutive term, 1997 and since 2007, seat up again in 2026\)
* Gary Hansen (fourth term, since 2009 special election, seat up again in 2026\)
* Cyndee Fields (fifth term, since 2001, seat up again in 2024\){{Cite web\|url\=https://electionresults.sos.state.mn.us/results/Index?ErsElectionId\=136\&scenario\=LocalMunicipality\&FipsCode\=17288\&show\=Go\|title \= Index \- Election Results}}
* Mike Supina (first term, since 2021, seat up again in 2024\)
In general, city government is [nonpartisan](/wiki/Nonpartisanship "Nonpartisanship"). Candidates need not be (and usually are not) selected or endorsed by political parties, and no such endorsement appears on the [ballot](/wiki/Ballot "Ballot") by state law. All five council seats including the mayor are elected at\-large in a general election every four years. Terms are staggered with two council members elected one election cycle and the other two and the mayor two years later. The non\-mayoral seats are elected in pairs, giving voters the chance to vote for up to two candidates. If necessary, races are narrowed down during a primary election.
As a part of [Dakota County](/wiki/Dakota_County%2C_Minnesota "Dakota County, Minnesota"), Eagan's northern and western precincts join with regions northward to form the Third District on the County Commission. It has been represented by Laurie Halverson since 2021\. The southern and eastern portions of the city are joined by regions south and east to form the Fourth District of the County Commission, which has been represented by William Droste since 2023\. County commissioners serve four\-year terms.
Eagan is in [Minnesota's 2nd congressional district](/wiki/Minnesota%27s_2nd_congressional_district "Minnesota's 2nd congressional district"), represented by [Angie Craig](/wiki/Angie_Craig "Angie Craig") since 2019\.
Since redistricting last took place, in 2022, Eagan straddles two [Minnesota State Senate](/wiki/Minnesota_State_Senate "Minnesota State Senate") districts. Seventeen of Eagan's 18 precincts are joined with three precincts in neighboring [Burnsville](/wiki/Burnsville%2C_Minnesota "Burnsville, Minnesota"), four precincts in [Mendota Heights](/wiki/Mendota_Heights%2C_Minnesota "Mendota Heights, Minnesota"), and the Village of Mendota to form Senate District 52, represented by Senator [Jim Carlson](/wiki/Jim_Carlson_%28Minnesota_politician%29 "Jim Carlson (Minnesota politician)") ([DFL](/wiki/Minnesota_Democratic-Farmer-Labor_Party "Minnesota Democratic-Farmer-Labor Party")). Eagan's southeastern most precinct is part of Senate District 56, represented by Senator [Erin Maye Quade](/wiki/Erin_Maye_Quade "Erin Maye Quade") (DFL).
In the [Minnesota House of Representatives](/wiki/Minnesota_House_of_Representatives "Minnesota House of Representatives"), each senate district is divided into an "A" and a "B" side. The western half of District 52 makes up House District 52A, represented by [Liz Reyer](/wiki/Liz_Reyer "Liz Reyer") (DFL). The eastern half of District 52 makes up House District 52B, represented by [Bianca Virnig](/wiki/Bianca_Virnig "Bianca Virnig") (DFL). [John Huot](/wiki/John_Huot "John Huot") (DFL) represents precinct 18 as part of House District 56B.
Eagan is home to Minnesota's 39th [governor](/wiki/Governor_of_Minnesota "Governor of Minnesota"), [Tim Pawlenty](/wiki/Tim_Pawlenty "Tim Pawlenty"), who previously represented Eagan in the Minnesota House and on the city council. Former mayor [Patricia Anderson](/wiki/Patricia_Anderson "Patricia Anderson") served as the 17th [state auditor](/wiki/Minnesota_State_Auditor "Minnesota State Auditor") from 2003 to 2007\.
Recently two city questions have gone to the ballot for city residents to vote on. In 2008, the citizens voted 53% to 47% to allow private development of a defunct golf course instead of having the City purchase the land for public development or open space. In 2004 and in 2007, voters were presented with plans drafted by an established Charter Commission calling for the city to scrap its current governing structure as a statutory city and adopt a new home\-rule city charter. The measure failed 80% to 20% in 2004 and 91% to 9% in 2007\. The Charter Commission was dissolved on June 18, 2008\.
Eagan lies in Minnesota's First Judicial District.
{{Hidden begin\|titlestyle\=background:\#ccccff\|title\=Presidential election results}}
| \+ 2020 Precinct Results Spreadsheet{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.sos.state.mn.us/elections\-voting/election\-results/2020/2020\-general\-election\-results/2020\-precinct\-results\-spreadsheet/\|title\=Minnesota Secretary Of State \- 2020 Precinct Results Spreadsheet\|website\=www.sos.state.mn.us\|accessdate\=July 23, 2023}} | \+ **2016 Precinct Results Spreadsheet**{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.sos.state.mn.us/elections\-voting/election\-results/2016/2016\-general\-election\-results/2016\-precinct\-results\-spreadsheet/\|title\=Minnesota Secretary Of State \- 2016 Precinct Results Spreadsheet\|website\=www.sos.state.mn.us\|accessdate\=July 23, 2023}} | \+ **2012 Precinct Results Spreadsheet**{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.sos.state.mn.us/elections\-voting/election\-results/2012/2012\-general\-election\-results/2012\-precinct\-results\-spreadsheet/\|title\=Minnesota Secretary Of State \- 2012 Precinct Results Spreadsheet\|website\=www.sos.state.mn.us\|accessdate\=July 23, 2023}} | \+ **2008 Precinct Results Spreadsheet**{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.sos.state.mn.us/elections\-voting/election\-results/2008/2008\-general\-election\-results/2008\-precinct\-results\-spreadsheet/\|title\=Minnesota Secretary Of State \- 2008 Precinct Results Spreadsheet\|website\=www.sos.state.mn.us\|accessdate\=July 23, 2023}} | \+ **2004 Precinct Results Spreadsheet**{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.sos.state.mn.us/elections\-voting/election\-results/2004/2004\-general\-election\-results/2004\-precinct\-results\-spreadsheet/\|title\=Minnesota Secretary Of State \- 2004 Precinct Results Spreadsheet\|website\=www.sos.state.mn.us\|accessdate\=July 23, 2023}} | \+ **2000 Precinct Results Spreadsheet**{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.sos.state.mn.us/elections\-voting/election\-results/2000/2000\-general\-election\-results/2000\-precinct\-results\-spreadsheet/\|title\=Minnesota Secretary Of State \- 2000 Precinct Results Spreadsheet\|website\=www.sos.state.mn.us\|accessdate\=July 23, 2023}} | \+ **1996 Precinct Results**{{cite web\|url\=https://www.lrl.mn.gov/archive/sessions/electionresults/1996\-11\-05\-g\-sec.pdf\|title\=Minnesota Election results\|website\=mn.gov}} | \+ **1992 Precinct Results**{{cite web\|url\=https://www.lrl.mn.gov/archive/sessions/electionresults/1992\-11\-03\-g\-sec.pdf\|title\=Minnesota Election results\|website\=mn.gov}} | \+ **1988 Precinct Results**{{cite web\|url\=https://www.lrl.mn.gov/archive/sessions/electionresults/1988\-11\-08\-g\-sec.pdf\|title\=Minnesota Election results\|website\=mn.gov}} | \+ **1984 Precinct Results**{{cite web\|url\=https://www.lrl.mn.gov/archive/sessions/electionresults/1984\-11\-06\-g\-sec.pdf\|title\=Minnesota Election results\|website\=mn.gov}} | \+ **1980 Precinct Results**{{cite web\|url\=https://www.lrl.mn.gov/archive/sessions/electionresults/1980\-11\-04\-g\-sec.pdf\|title\=Minnesota Election results\|website\=mn.gov}} | \+ **1976 Precinct Results**{{cite web\|url\=https://www.lrl.mn.gov/archive/sessions/electionresults/1976\-11\-02\-g\-sec.pdf\|title\=Minnesota Election results\|website\=mn.gov}} | \+ **1968 Precinct Results**{{cite web\|url\=https://www.lrl.mn.gov/archive/sessions/electionresults/1968\-11\-05\-g\-man.pdf\|title\=Minnesota Election results\|website\=mn.gov}} | \+ **1964 Precinct Results**{{cite web\|url\=https://www.lrl.mn.gov/archive/sessions/electionresults/1964\-11\-03\-g\-man.pdf\|title\=Minnesota Election results\|website\=mn.gov}} | \+ **1960 Precinct Results**{{cite web\|url\=https://www.lrl.mn.gov/archive/sessions/electionresults/1960\-11\-08\-g\-man.pdf\|title\=Minnesota Election results\|website\=mn.gov}} |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Year | [Republican](/wiki/Republican_Party_%28United_States%29 "Republican Party (United States)") | [Democratic](/wiki/Democratic_Party_%28United_States%29 "Democratic Party (United States)") | [Third parties](/wiki/Third_Party_%28United_States%29 "Third Party (United States)") |
| **[2020](/wiki/2020_United_States_presidential_election "2020 United States presidential election")** | 34\.2% *14,444* | **63\.2%** *26,703* | 2\.6% *1,086* |
| **[2016](/wiki/2016_United_States_presidential_election "2016 United States presidential election")** | 36\.4% *13,977* | **53\.8%** *20,630* | 9\.8% *3,776* |
| **[2012](/wiki/2012_United_States_presidential_election "2012 United States presidential election")** | 44\.5% *17,193* | **53\.2%** *20,539* | 2\.3% *891* |
| **[2008](/wiki/2008_United_States_presidential_election "2008 United States presidential election")** | 43\.6% *16,461* | **54\.6%** *20,638* | 1\.8% *676* |
| **[2004](/wiki/2004_United_States_presidential_election "2004 United States presidential election")** | 48\.7% *18,010* | **50\.3%** *18,588* | 1\.0% *380* |
| **[2000](/wiki/2000_United_States_presidential_election "2000 United States presidential election")** | 47\.1% *15,510* | **47\.4%** *15,604* | 5\.5% *1,839* |
| **[1996](/wiki/1996_United_States_presidential_election "1996 United States presidential election")** | 39\.5% *10,947* | **50\.7%** *14,049* | 9\.8% *2,738* |
| **[1992](/wiki/1992_United_States_presidential_election "1992 United States presidential election")** | 35\.1% *9,905* | **39\.5%** *11,125* | 25\.4% *7,155* |
| **[1988](/wiki/1988_United_States_presidential_election "1988 United States presidential election")** | **52\.4%** *10,679* | 47\.6% *9,717* | 0\.0% *0* |
| **[1984](/wiki/1984_United_States_presidential_election "1984 United States presidential election")** | **55\.3%** *7,492* | 44\.7% *6,047* | 0\.0% *0* |
| **[1980](/wiki/1980_United_States_presidential_election "1980 United States presidential election")** | 43\.1% *4,303* | **43\.3%** *4,323* | 13\.6% *1,357* |
| **[1976](/wiki/1976_United_States_presidential_election "1976 United States presidential election")** | 46\.6% *3,914* | **50\.9%** *4,267* | 2\.5% *211* |
{{Hidden end}}
|
[
"Government and politics\n-----------------------",
"[thumb\\|right\\|1914 Town Hall (now a museum)](/wiki/Image:Eaganoldtownhall2.jpg \"Eaganoldtownhall2.jpg\")\n{{More citations needed section\\|date\\=January 2017}}",
"Eagan's municipal government is a Type B Statutory City, which provides for a council size of five members, one of whom is the mayor. Eagan's mayor since 2007 has been Mike Maguire.",
"The other councilmembers are:{{cite web\\|title\\=Council \\& Commission\\|url\\=https://www.cityofeagan.com/council\\-commission\\|website\\=www.cityofeagan.com\\|access\\-date\\=November 12, 2017}}\n* Paul Bakken (fifth non\\-consecutive term, 1997 and since 2007, seat up again in 2026\\)\n* Gary Hansen (fourth term, since 2009 special election, seat up again in 2026\\)\n* Cyndee Fields (fifth term, since 2001, seat up again in 2024\\){{Cite web\\|url\\=https://electionresults.sos.state.mn.us/results/Index?ErsElectionId\\=136\\&scenario\\=LocalMunicipality\\&FipsCode\\=17288\\&show\\=Go\\|title \\= Index \\- Election Results}}\n* Mike Supina (first term, since 2021, seat up again in 2024\\)",
"In general, city government is [nonpartisan](/wiki/Nonpartisanship \"Nonpartisanship\"). Candidates need not be (and usually are not) selected or endorsed by political parties, and no such endorsement appears on the [ballot](/wiki/Ballot \"Ballot\") by state law. All five council seats including the mayor are elected at\\-large in a general election every four years. Terms are staggered with two council members elected one election cycle and the other two and the mayor two years later. The non\\-mayoral seats are elected in pairs, giving voters the chance to vote for up to two candidates. If necessary, races are narrowed down during a primary election.",
"As a part of [Dakota County](/wiki/Dakota_County%2C_Minnesota \"Dakota County, Minnesota\"), Eagan's northern and western precincts join with regions northward to form the Third District on the County Commission. It has been represented by Laurie Halverson since 2021\\. The southern and eastern portions of the city are joined by regions south and east to form the Fourth District of the County Commission, which has been represented by William Droste since 2023\\. County commissioners serve four\\-year terms.",
"Eagan is in [Minnesota's 2nd congressional district](/wiki/Minnesota%27s_2nd_congressional_district \"Minnesota's 2nd congressional district\"), represented by [Angie Craig](/wiki/Angie_Craig \"Angie Craig\") since 2019\\.",
"Since redistricting last took place, in 2022, Eagan straddles two [Minnesota State Senate](/wiki/Minnesota_State_Senate \"Minnesota State Senate\") districts. Seventeen of Eagan's 18 precincts are joined with three precincts in neighboring [Burnsville](/wiki/Burnsville%2C_Minnesota \"Burnsville, Minnesota\"), four precincts in [Mendota Heights](/wiki/Mendota_Heights%2C_Minnesota \"Mendota Heights, Minnesota\"), and the Village of Mendota to form Senate District 52, represented by Senator [Jim Carlson](/wiki/Jim_Carlson_%28Minnesota_politician%29 \"Jim Carlson (Minnesota politician)\") ([DFL](/wiki/Minnesota_Democratic-Farmer-Labor_Party \"Minnesota Democratic-Farmer-Labor Party\")). Eagan's southeastern most precinct is part of Senate District 56, represented by Senator [Erin Maye Quade](/wiki/Erin_Maye_Quade \"Erin Maye Quade\") (DFL).",
"In the [Minnesota House of Representatives](/wiki/Minnesota_House_of_Representatives \"Minnesota House of Representatives\"), each senate district is divided into an \"A\" and a \"B\" side. The western half of District 52 makes up House District 52A, represented by [Liz Reyer](/wiki/Liz_Reyer \"Liz Reyer\") (DFL). The eastern half of District 52 makes up House District 52B, represented by [Bianca Virnig](/wiki/Bianca_Virnig \"Bianca Virnig\") (DFL). [John Huot](/wiki/John_Huot \"John Huot\") (DFL) represents precinct 18 as part of House District 56B.",
"Eagan is home to Minnesota's 39th [governor](/wiki/Governor_of_Minnesota \"Governor of Minnesota\"), [Tim Pawlenty](/wiki/Tim_Pawlenty \"Tim Pawlenty\"), who previously represented Eagan in the Minnesota House and on the city council. Former mayor [Patricia Anderson](/wiki/Patricia_Anderson \"Patricia Anderson\") served as the 17th [state auditor](/wiki/Minnesota_State_Auditor \"Minnesota State Auditor\") from 2003 to 2007\\.",
"Recently two city questions have gone to the ballot for city residents to vote on. In 2008, the citizens voted 53% to 47% to allow private development of a defunct golf course instead of having the City purchase the land for public development or open space. In 2004 and in 2007, voters were presented with plans drafted by an established Charter Commission calling for the city to scrap its current governing structure as a statutory city and adopt a new home\\-rule city charter. The measure failed 80% to 20% in 2004 and 91% to 9% in 2007\\. The Charter Commission was dissolved on June 18, 2008\\.",
"Eagan lies in Minnesota's First Judicial District.",
"{{Hidden begin\\|titlestyle\\=background:\\#ccccff\\|title\\=Presidential election results}}",
"| \\+ 2020 Precinct Results Spreadsheet{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.sos.state.mn.us/elections\\-voting/election\\-results/2020/2020\\-general\\-election\\-results/2020\\-precinct\\-results\\-spreadsheet/\\|title\\=Minnesota Secretary Of State \\- 2020 Precinct Results Spreadsheet\\|website\\=www.sos.state.mn.us\\|accessdate\\=July 23, 2023}} | \\+ **2016 Precinct Results Spreadsheet**{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.sos.state.mn.us/elections\\-voting/election\\-results/2016/2016\\-general\\-election\\-results/2016\\-precinct\\-results\\-spreadsheet/\\|title\\=Minnesota Secretary Of State \\- 2016 Precinct Results Spreadsheet\\|website\\=www.sos.state.mn.us\\|accessdate\\=July 23, 2023}} | \\+ **2012 Precinct Results Spreadsheet**{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.sos.state.mn.us/elections\\-voting/election\\-results/2012/2012\\-general\\-election\\-results/2012\\-precinct\\-results\\-spreadsheet/\\|title\\=Minnesota Secretary Of State \\- 2012 Precinct Results Spreadsheet\\|website\\=www.sos.state.mn.us\\|accessdate\\=July 23, 2023}} | \\+ **2008 Precinct Results Spreadsheet**{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.sos.state.mn.us/elections\\-voting/election\\-results/2008/2008\\-general\\-election\\-results/2008\\-precinct\\-results\\-spreadsheet/\\|title\\=Minnesota Secretary Of State \\- 2008 Precinct Results Spreadsheet\\|website\\=www.sos.state.mn.us\\|accessdate\\=July 23, 2023}} | \\+ **2004 Precinct Results Spreadsheet**{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.sos.state.mn.us/elections\\-voting/election\\-results/2004/2004\\-general\\-election\\-results/2004\\-precinct\\-results\\-spreadsheet/\\|title\\=Minnesota Secretary Of State \\- 2004 Precinct Results Spreadsheet\\|website\\=www.sos.state.mn.us\\|accessdate\\=July 23, 2023}} | \\+ **2000 Precinct Results Spreadsheet**{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.sos.state.mn.us/elections\\-voting/election\\-results/2000/2000\\-general\\-election\\-results/2000\\-precinct\\-results\\-spreadsheet/\\|title\\=Minnesota Secretary Of State \\- 2000 Precinct Results Spreadsheet\\|website\\=www.sos.state.mn.us\\|accessdate\\=July 23, 2023}} | \\+ **1996 Precinct Results**{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.lrl.mn.gov/archive/sessions/electionresults/1996\\-11\\-05\\-g\\-sec.pdf\\|title\\=Minnesota Election results\\|website\\=mn.gov}} | \\+ **1992 Precinct Results**{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.lrl.mn.gov/archive/sessions/electionresults/1992\\-11\\-03\\-g\\-sec.pdf\\|title\\=Minnesota Election results\\|website\\=mn.gov}} | \\+ **1988 Precinct Results**{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.lrl.mn.gov/archive/sessions/electionresults/1988\\-11\\-08\\-g\\-sec.pdf\\|title\\=Minnesota Election results\\|website\\=mn.gov}} | \\+ **1984 Precinct Results**{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.lrl.mn.gov/archive/sessions/electionresults/1984\\-11\\-06\\-g\\-sec.pdf\\|title\\=Minnesota Election results\\|website\\=mn.gov}} | \\+ **1980 Precinct Results**{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.lrl.mn.gov/archive/sessions/electionresults/1980\\-11\\-04\\-g\\-sec.pdf\\|title\\=Minnesota Election results\\|website\\=mn.gov}} | \\+ **1976 Precinct Results**{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.lrl.mn.gov/archive/sessions/electionresults/1976\\-11\\-02\\-g\\-sec.pdf\\|title\\=Minnesota Election results\\|website\\=mn.gov}} | \\+ **1968 Precinct Results**{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.lrl.mn.gov/archive/sessions/electionresults/1968\\-11\\-05\\-g\\-man.pdf\\|title\\=Minnesota Election results\\|website\\=mn.gov}} | \\+ **1964 Precinct Results**{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.lrl.mn.gov/archive/sessions/electionresults/1964\\-11\\-03\\-g\\-man.pdf\\|title\\=Minnesota Election results\\|website\\=mn.gov}} | \\+ **1960 Precinct Results**{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.lrl.mn.gov/archive/sessions/electionresults/1960\\-11\\-08\\-g\\-man.pdf\\|title\\=Minnesota Election results\\|website\\=mn.gov}} |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| Year | [Republican](/wiki/Republican_Party_%28United_States%29 \"Republican Party (United States)\") | [Democratic](/wiki/Democratic_Party_%28United_States%29 \"Democratic Party (United States)\") | [Third parties](/wiki/Third_Party_%28United_States%29 \"Third Party (United States)\") |\n| **[2020](/wiki/2020_United_States_presidential_election \"2020 United States presidential election\")** | 34\\.2% *14,444* | **63\\.2%** *26,703* | 2\\.6% *1,086* |\n| **[2016](/wiki/2016_United_States_presidential_election \"2016 United States presidential election\")** | 36\\.4% *13,977* | **53\\.8%** *20,630* | 9\\.8% *3,776* |\n| **[2012](/wiki/2012_United_States_presidential_election \"2012 United States presidential election\")** | 44\\.5% *17,193* | **53\\.2%** *20,539* | 2\\.3% *891* |\n| **[2008](/wiki/2008_United_States_presidential_election \"2008 United States presidential election\")** | 43\\.6% *16,461* | **54\\.6%** *20,638* | 1\\.8% *676* |\n| **[2004](/wiki/2004_United_States_presidential_election \"2004 United States presidential election\")** | 48\\.7% *18,010* | **50\\.3%** *18,588* | 1\\.0% *380* |\n| **[2000](/wiki/2000_United_States_presidential_election \"2000 United States presidential election\")** | 47\\.1% *15,510* | **47\\.4%** *15,604* | 5\\.5% *1,839* |\n| **[1996](/wiki/1996_United_States_presidential_election \"1996 United States presidential election\")** | 39\\.5% *10,947* | **50\\.7%** *14,049* | 9\\.8% *2,738* |\n| **[1992](/wiki/1992_United_States_presidential_election \"1992 United States presidential election\")** | 35\\.1% *9,905* | **39\\.5%** *11,125* | 25\\.4% *7,155* |\n| **[1988](/wiki/1988_United_States_presidential_election \"1988 United States presidential election\")** | **52\\.4%** *10,679* | 47\\.6% *9,717* | 0\\.0% *0* |\n| **[1984](/wiki/1984_United_States_presidential_election \"1984 United States presidential election\")** | **55\\.3%** *7,492* | 44\\.7% *6,047* | 0\\.0% *0* |\n| **[1980](/wiki/1980_United_States_presidential_election \"1980 United States presidential election\")** | 43\\.1% *4,303* | **43\\.3%** *4,323* | 13\\.6% *1,357* |\n| **[1976](/wiki/1976_United_States_presidential_election \"1976 United States presidential election\")** | 46\\.6% *3,914* | **50\\.9%** *4,267* | 2\\.5% *211* |",
"{{Hidden end}}",
""
] |
History
-------
The band was founded in 1970 in [Lubumbashi](/wiki/Lubumbashi "Lubumbashi") (then [Zaire](/wiki/Zaire "Zaire"), now [DR Congo](/wiki/Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo "Democratic Republic of the Congo")) by a group of musicians from [soukous](/wiki/Soukous "Soukous") band "[Super Teo](/wiki/Super_Teo "Super Teo")". In 1972, they were invited to play in [Kampala](/wiki/Kampala "Kampala"), [Uganda](/wiki/Uganda "Uganda"), and on the way there performed a few gigs in [Tanzania](/wiki/Tanzania "Tanzania"). This experience triggered their decision to relocate to [Kinondoni](/wiki/Kinondoni "Kinondoni"), a district of [Dar es Salaam](/wiki/Dar_es_Salaam "Dar es Salaam").
As most Tanzanian bands of the time, Orchestra Maquis Original was sponsored by the Tanzanian government and, from a commercial point of view, was managed as a [cooperative](/wiki/Cooperative "Cooperative"); the cooperative actually had other businesses besides music (e.g., it owned a [farm](/wiki/Farm "Farm")). The leader of the band was also president of the cooperative. The first leader/president of Orchestra Maquis was [saxophonist](/wiki/Saxophone "Saxophone") [Chinyama Chianza](/wiki/Chinyama_Chianza "Chinyama Chianza"), who served in both roles until his death in 1985\.
In the 1970s the band became very popular{{Cite web\|url\=http://eastafricanmusic.com/karubandikaLP.htm\|title\=Orchestra Maquis Original \- Karubandika\|website\=eastafricanmusic.com\|access\-date\=2018\-02\-24}} with its *mtindo* (style) *kamanyola bila jasho*, which roughly translates to "dance kamanyola without sweating".
The next leader after Chianza's death was [guitarist](/wiki/Guitar "Guitar") [Nguza Mbangu](/wiki/Nguza_Mbangu "Nguza Mbangu"), who was famous for his [soloing](/wiki/Guitar_solo "Guitar solo") technique (two of his most appreciated solos are those in songs *Mpenzi Luta* and *Mabruki*). In 1987, Mbangu left Orchestra Maquis to get involved with several other projects (he would later create another notable dansi band, [Orchestra Safari Sound](/wiki/Orchestra_Safari_Sound "Orchestra Safari Sound")). The new leader of the band was singer [Mbuya Makonga](/wiki/Mbuya_Makonga "Mbuya Makonga"). Subsequent leaders of Maquis include [Thsimanga Assosa](/wiki/Thsimanga_Assosa "Thsimanga Assosa") and [Ilunga Mbanza](/wiki/Ilunga_Mbanza "Ilunga Mbanza"). Assosa wrote some of the most recent hit songs of Maquis, such as *Makumbele* and *Ngalula*; those songs also showcased guitarist [Dekula Kahanga](/wiki/Dekula_Kahanga "Dekula Kahanga")'s talent. Kahanga would later become a successful guitarist on his own; he has now relocated in [Sweden](/wiki/Sweden "Sweden").
Over time, Orchestra Maquis has explored a number of *mitindo* (styles). Besides *kamanyola*, some of the most popular mitindo by Maquis were *sanifu*, *ogelea piga mbizi* (literally: "swim and dive") and *zembwela*.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"The band was founded in 1970 in [Lubumbashi](/wiki/Lubumbashi \"Lubumbashi\") (then [Zaire](/wiki/Zaire \"Zaire\"), now [DR Congo](/wiki/Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo \"Democratic Republic of the Congo\")) by a group of musicians from [soukous](/wiki/Soukous \"Soukous\") band \"[Super Teo](/wiki/Super_Teo \"Super Teo\")\". In 1972, they were invited to play in [Kampala](/wiki/Kampala \"Kampala\"), [Uganda](/wiki/Uganda \"Uganda\"), and on the way there performed a few gigs in [Tanzania](/wiki/Tanzania \"Tanzania\"). This experience triggered their decision to relocate to [Kinondoni](/wiki/Kinondoni \"Kinondoni\"), a district of [Dar es Salaam](/wiki/Dar_es_Salaam \"Dar es Salaam\").",
"As most Tanzanian bands of the time, Orchestra Maquis Original was sponsored by the Tanzanian government and, from a commercial point of view, was managed as a [cooperative](/wiki/Cooperative \"Cooperative\"); the cooperative actually had other businesses besides music (e.g., it owned a [farm](/wiki/Farm \"Farm\")). The leader of the band was also president of the cooperative. The first leader/president of Orchestra Maquis was [saxophonist](/wiki/Saxophone \"Saxophone\") [Chinyama Chianza](/wiki/Chinyama_Chianza \"Chinyama Chianza\"), who served in both roles until his death in 1985\\.",
"In the 1970s the band became very popular{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://eastafricanmusic.com/karubandikaLP.htm\\|title\\=Orchestra Maquis Original \\- Karubandika\\|website\\=eastafricanmusic.com\\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-02\\-24}} with its *mtindo* (style) *kamanyola bila jasho*, which roughly translates to \"dance kamanyola without sweating\".",
"The next leader after Chianza's death was [guitarist](/wiki/Guitar \"Guitar\") [Nguza Mbangu](/wiki/Nguza_Mbangu \"Nguza Mbangu\"), who was famous for his [soloing](/wiki/Guitar_solo \"Guitar solo\") technique (two of his most appreciated solos are those in songs *Mpenzi Luta* and *Mabruki*). In 1987, Mbangu left Orchestra Maquis to get involved with several other projects (he would later create another notable dansi band, [Orchestra Safari Sound](/wiki/Orchestra_Safari_Sound \"Orchestra Safari Sound\")). The new leader of the band was singer [Mbuya Makonga](/wiki/Mbuya_Makonga \"Mbuya Makonga\"). Subsequent leaders of Maquis include [Thsimanga Assosa](/wiki/Thsimanga_Assosa \"Thsimanga Assosa\") and [Ilunga Mbanza](/wiki/Ilunga_Mbanza \"Ilunga Mbanza\"). Assosa wrote some of the most recent hit songs of Maquis, such as *Makumbele* and *Ngalula*; those songs also showcased guitarist [Dekula Kahanga](/wiki/Dekula_Kahanga \"Dekula Kahanga\")'s talent. Kahanga would later become a successful guitarist on his own; he has now relocated in [Sweden](/wiki/Sweden \"Sweden\").",
"Over time, Orchestra Maquis has explored a number of *mitindo* (styles). Besides *kamanyola*, some of the most popular mitindo by Maquis were *sanifu*, *ogelea piga mbizi* (literally: \"swim and dive\") and *zembwela*.",
""
] |
Dialects
--------
### In relation to varieties of Standard German
In [linguistics](/wiki/Linguistics "Linguistics") of German, German [dialects](/wiki/Dialect "Dialect") are distinguished from [varieties](/wiki/Variety_%28linguistics%29 "Variety (linguistics)") of [Standard German](/wiki/Standard_German "Standard German").
* The German dialects are the traditional local varieties. They are traced back to the different Germanic tribes. Many of them are hardly understandable to someone who knows only Standard German, since they often differ from Standard German in [lexicon](/wiki/Lexicon "Lexicon"), [phonology](/wiki/Phonology "Phonology") and [syntax](/wiki/Syntax "Syntax"). If a narrow definition of [language](/wiki/Language "Language") based on [mutual intelligibility](/wiki/Mutual_intelligibility "Mutual intelligibility") is used, many German dialects are considered to be separate languages (for example, in the view of [Ethnologue](/wiki/Ethnologue "Ethnologue")).{{Citation needed\|date\=February 2014}}
* The varieties of Standard German refer to the different local varieties of the [pluricentric language](/wiki/Pluricentric_language "Pluricentric language") Standard German. They differ only slightly in lexicon and phonology. In certain regions, they have replaced the traditional German dialects, especially the [Low German](/wiki/Low_German "Low German") of Northern Germany.
### Dialects in Germany
{{more citations needed section\|date\=February 2014}}
The variation among German dialects ranges. In regions with dialects are being in the same dialectal region, pronunciation, syntax and words particular to specific towns even only a few miles apart can create even more variation. In the Black Forest region alone, there was a newspaper request for people to report what word they used for the term "Dragonfly." Sixty words were collected as reported from responders for the term.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.alemannisch.de/de/alemannische\-woerter/show.php?id\=11\|title\=Libelle: Bachjüngferli – Hexenoodle – Hirnschiässer – Deifelsnodle – Alemannisches Wörterbuch\|website\=www.alemannisch.de\|access\-date\=17 April 2019}}
When spoken in their purest form, Low German, most Upper German, High Franconian dialects and even some Central German dialects are unintelligible to those versed only in Standard German. However, all German dialects belong to the [dialect continuum](/wiki/Dialect_continuum "Dialect continuum") of High German and Low German. In the past (roughly until the end of [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II")), there was a [dialect continuum](/wiki/Dialect_continuum "Dialect continuum") of all Continental [West Germanic languages](/wiki/West_Germanic_languages "West Germanic languages"), as nearly any pair of contiguous dialects were perfectly mutually intelligible.
The German dialect continuum is typically divided into [High German](/wiki/High_German_languages "High German languages") and [Low German](/wiki/Low_German "Low German"). The terms derive from the geographic characteristics of the terrain in which each is found rather than depicting social status.
### Dialects in Central Europe
As the result of the [flight and expulsion of Germans](/wiki/Flight_and_expulsion_of_Germans_%281944%E2%80%931950%29 "Flight and expulsion of Germans (1944–1950)") following World War II, particularly from post\-war [Poland](/wiki/Poland "Poland"), the [Czech Republic](/wiki/Czech_Republic "Czech Republic"), Hungary and Yugoslavia ([Danube Swabians](/wiki/Danube_Swabians "Danube Swabians")),{{cite web \| url\=http://donauschwaben\-usa.org/danube\_swabians.htm \| title\=Danube Swabians }} the territorial extent of German was considerably reduced. Significant dialects such as the [East Pomeranian dialect](/wiki/East_Pomeranian_dialect "East Pomeranian dialect"), most varieties of [Silesian German](/wiki/Silesian_German "Silesian German"), [Prussian](/wiki/Low_Prussian_dialect "Low Prussian dialect") dialects and [Bohemian German](/wiki/Sudeten_Germans "Sudeten Germans") dialects gradually disappeared as a result of their speakers assimilating into areas where other dialects, as well as Standard German, were already spoken.{{cite book\|title\=Gegenwartsdeutsch\|author\=Helmut Glück, Wolfgang Werner Sauer\|publisher\=Springer\-Verlag\|lang\=de\|year\=2016\|pages\=88}}
### Low German
{{main\|Low German}}
Low German varieties (in Germany usually referred to as "Platt" or "Plattdeutsch") are considered dialects of the German language by some but a separate language by others (then often termed "Low Saxon"). Linguistically Low German (that is, [Ingvaeonic](/wiki/Ingvaeonic "Ingvaeonic") ("North Sea Germanic") and [Low Franconian](/wiki/Low_Franconian "Low Franconian") (that is, some [Istvaeonic](/wiki/Low_Franconian_languages "Low Franconian languages")) dialects are grouped together because both did not participate in the [High German consonant shift](/wiki/High_German_consonant_shift "High German consonant shift"). Low German is further divided into [Dutch Low Saxon](/wiki/Dutch_Low_Saxon "Dutch Low Saxon"), [West Low German](/wiki/West_Low_German "West Low German") and [East Low German](/wiki/East_Low_German "East Low German").
[Middle Low German](/wiki/Middle_Low_German "Middle Low German") was the [lingua franca](/wiki/Lingua_franca "Lingua franca") of the [Hanseatic League](/wiki/Hanseatic_League "Hanseatic League").{{Cite journal \|last\=Boden \|first\=Keith \|date\=1993 \|title\=A Re\-Examination of Middle Low German\-Scandinavian Language Contact \|url\=https://www.jstor.org/stable/40503856 \|journal\=Zeitschrift für Dialektologie und Linguistik \|volume\=60 \|issue\=3 \|pages\=292–306 \|issn\=0044\-1449}} It was the predominant language in Northern Germany, and several translations of the Bible were printed in Low German. That predominance changed in the 16th century. In 1534, the [Luther Bible](/wiki/Luther_Bible "Luther Bible") was printed by [Martin Luther](/wiki/Martin_Luther "Martin Luther"), and that translation is considered to be an important step towards the evolution of the [Early New High German](/wiki/Early_New_High_German "Early New High German"). It aimed to be understandable to an ample audience and was based mainly on [High German](/wiki/High_German "High German") varieties. Early New High German gained more prestige than Low Saxon {{Citation \|last\=Pickl \|first\=Simon \|title\=(High) German \|date\=2023\-01\-31 \|work\=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Linguistics \|url\=https://oxfordre.com/linguistics/display/10\.1093/acrefore/9780199384655\.001\.0001/acrefore\-9780199384655\-e\-939 \|access\-date\=2024\-03\-06 \|language\=en \|doi\=10\.1093/acrefore/9780199384655\.013\.939 \|isbn\=978\-0\-19\-938465\-5}} and became the language of science and literature. Other factors included the Hanseatic League losing its importance around the same time (as new trade routes to Asia and the Americas were established) and the most powerful German states then being located in Middle and Southern Germany.
The 18th and 19th centuries were marked by mass education, with the language of the schools being Standard German.{{Cite web \|date\=2018\-06\-01 \|title\=German Dialects: The Sound of Plattdeutsch \|url\=https://www.deutschland.de/en/topic/culture/german\-dialects\-the\-sound\-of\-plattdeutsch \|access\-date\=2024\-03\-06 \|website\=www.deutschland.de \|language\=en}}{{Cite web \|title\=German and its Norms \|url\=https://www.goethe.de/en/spr/mag/lld/20456023\.html \|access\-date\=2024\-03\-06 \|website\=@GI\_weltweit \|language\=en}}
Today, Low Saxon dialects are still widespread, especially among the elderly in the Northern parts of Germany.{{Cite web \|title\=Saxon, Low \|url\=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/nds/ \|access\-date\=2024\-03\-06 \|website\=Ethnologue \|language\=en \|quote\=Language Use: Officially recognized as a regional (separate) language in 8 states of Germany. Recognized as a regional (separate) language by the European Charter on Languages. Adults only. Shifting to Standard German \[deu]. Used as L2 by Northern Frisian \[frr].}} Some local media take care not to let the Low Saxon language die out, so there are several newspapers that have recurring articles in Low Saxon. The North German Broadcasting ([Norddeutscher Rundfunk](/wiki/Norddeutscher_Rundfunk "Norddeutscher Rundfunk")) also offers television programs, such as "Talk op Platt" and radio programs in Low Saxon.
On the other hand, Northern Germany is considered to be the region that speaks the purest Standard German, and in everyday life, little influence of dialect is heard. Still, there are notable differences in pronunciation, even among North German speakers such as the lengthening of vowels and differences in accentuation. There are also some North German expressions that are in use even in Standard High German but are seldom heard in Southern Germany, such as "plietsch" for "intelligent".
### High German
{{main\|High German}}
High German is divided into [Central German](/wiki/Central_German "Central German"), [High Franconian](/wiki/High_Franconian "High Franconian") and [Upper German](/wiki/Upper_German_language "Upper German language").
Central German dialects include [Ripuarian](/wiki/Ripuarian_language "Ripuarian language"), [Moselle Franconian](/wiki/Moselle_Franconian "Moselle Franconian"), [Rhine Franconian](/wiki/Rhine_Franconian "Rhine Franconian") (incl. [Hessian](/wiki/Hessian_dialects "Hessian dialects")), [Lorraine Franconian](/wiki/Lorraine_Franconian "Lorraine Franconian"), [Thuringian](/wiki/Thuringian "Thuringian"), [Silesian](/wiki/Silesian_German "Silesian German"), [High Prussian](/wiki/High_Prussian "High Prussian"), [Lusatian dialects](/wiki/Lusatian_dialects "Lusatian dialects") and [Upper Saxon](/wiki/Upper_Saxon_dialect "Upper Saxon dialect"). They are spoken in the southeastern Netherlands, eastern Belgium, Luxembourg, parts of northeastern France and in Germany approximately between the River [Main](/wiki/Main_%28river%29 "Main (river)") and the southern edge of the Lowlands.
High Franconian dialects are transitional dialects in between the two greater [High German](/wiki/High_German "High German") groups. High Franconian dialects include [East Franconian](/wiki/East_Franconian "East Franconian") and [South Franconian](/wiki/South_Franconian "South Franconian").
Upper German dialects include [Alemannic in the broad sense](/wiki/Alemannic_German "Alemannic German") (incl. [Alsatian](/wiki/Alsatian_dialect "Alsatian dialect"), [Swabian](/wiki/Swabian_German "Swabian German")) and [Bavarian](/wiki/Bavarian_language "Bavarian language") ([Southern Bavarian](/wiki/Southern_Bavarian "Southern Bavarian"), [Central Bavarian](/wiki/Central_Bavarian "Central Bavarian") and [Northern Bavarian](/wiki/Northern_Bavarian "Northern Bavarian")) and are spoken in parts of northeastern France, southern Germany, Liechtenstein, Austria, and in the German\-speaking parts of Switzerland and Italy.
[Standard High German](/wiki/Standard_German "Standard German") is based on Central and Upper German.
The Moselle Franconian varieties spoken in [Luxembourg](/wiki/Luxembourg "Luxembourg") have been officially standardized and institutionalized and so are usually considered a separate language, known as [Luxembourgish](/wiki/Luxembourgish_language "Luxembourgish language").
[Halcnovian](/wiki/Alzenau_dialect "Alzenau dialect"), [Wymysorys](/wiki/Wymysorys_language "Wymysorys language"), [Sathmarisch](/wiki/Sathmarisch "Sathmarisch") and [Transylvanian Saxon](/wiki/Transylvanian_Saxon_dialect "Transylvanian Saxon dialect") are High German dialects of Poland and [Romania](/wiki/Romania "Romania").
The High German varieties spoken by [Ashkenazi Jews](/wiki/Ashkenazi_Jew "Ashkenazi Jew") (mostly in Tsarist Russia, then the former [Soviet Union](/wiki/Soviet_Union "Soviet Union") and Poland) have several unique features and are usually considered as a separate language. Known as [Yiddish](/wiki/Yiddish "Yiddish"), it is the only Germanic language that does not (only) use the [Latin script](/wiki/Latin_script "Latin script") as its [standard script](/wiki/Official_script "Official script"). Since it developed in the Danube area, there are some similarities with the Central and Upper German dialects of that region.
File:Ik\-ich\-Isogloss \- Uerdinger Lien.svg\|Map showing the \[\[Uerdingen line]], which divides Low German from High German
File:Benrather und Speyerer Linie.png\|The Speyer line, dividing the \[\[Central German]] dialects from the \[\[High Franconian]] dialects
File:Uerdinger und Karlsruher Linie.png\|The Uerdingen and the \[\[Karlsruhe line]]. The Karlsruhe line divides the \[\[High Franconian]] dialects from the \[\[Upper German]] dialects.
|
[
"Dialects\n--------",
"### In relation to varieties of Standard German",
"In [linguistics](/wiki/Linguistics \"Linguistics\") of German, German [dialects](/wiki/Dialect \"Dialect\") are distinguished from [varieties](/wiki/Variety_%28linguistics%29 \"Variety (linguistics)\") of [Standard German](/wiki/Standard_German \"Standard German\").",
"* The German dialects are the traditional local varieties. They are traced back to the different Germanic tribes. Many of them are hardly understandable to someone who knows only Standard German, since they often differ from Standard German in [lexicon](/wiki/Lexicon \"Lexicon\"), [phonology](/wiki/Phonology \"Phonology\") and [syntax](/wiki/Syntax \"Syntax\"). If a narrow definition of [language](/wiki/Language \"Language\") based on [mutual intelligibility](/wiki/Mutual_intelligibility \"Mutual intelligibility\") is used, many German dialects are considered to be separate languages (for example, in the view of [Ethnologue](/wiki/Ethnologue \"Ethnologue\")).{{Citation needed\\|date\\=February 2014}}\n* The varieties of Standard German refer to the different local varieties of the [pluricentric language](/wiki/Pluricentric_language \"Pluricentric language\") Standard German. They differ only slightly in lexicon and phonology. In certain regions, they have replaced the traditional German dialects, especially the [Low German](/wiki/Low_German \"Low German\") of Northern Germany.",
"### Dialects in Germany",
"{{more citations needed section\\|date\\=February 2014}}\nThe variation among German dialects ranges. In regions with dialects are being in the same dialectal region, pronunciation, syntax and words particular to specific towns even only a few miles apart can create even more variation. In the Black Forest region alone, there was a newspaper request for people to report what word they used for the term \"Dragonfly.\" Sixty words were collected as reported from responders for the term.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.alemannisch.de/de/alemannische\\-woerter/show.php?id\\=11\\|title\\=Libelle: Bachjüngferli – Hexenoodle – Hirnschiässer – Deifelsnodle – Alemannisches Wörterbuch\\|website\\=www.alemannisch.de\\|access\\-date\\=17 April 2019}}",
"When spoken in their purest form, Low German, most Upper German, High Franconian dialects and even some Central German dialects are unintelligible to those versed only in Standard German. However, all German dialects belong to the [dialect continuum](/wiki/Dialect_continuum \"Dialect continuum\") of High German and Low German. In the past (roughly until the end of [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\")), there was a [dialect continuum](/wiki/Dialect_continuum \"Dialect continuum\") of all Continental [West Germanic languages](/wiki/West_Germanic_languages \"West Germanic languages\"), as nearly any pair of contiguous dialects were perfectly mutually intelligible.",
"The German dialect continuum is typically divided into [High German](/wiki/High_German_languages \"High German languages\") and [Low German](/wiki/Low_German \"Low German\"). The terms derive from the geographic characteristics of the terrain in which each is found rather than depicting social status.",
"### Dialects in Central Europe",
"As the result of the [flight and expulsion of Germans](/wiki/Flight_and_expulsion_of_Germans_%281944%E2%80%931950%29 \"Flight and expulsion of Germans (1944–1950)\") following World War II, particularly from post\\-war [Poland](/wiki/Poland \"Poland\"), the [Czech Republic](/wiki/Czech_Republic \"Czech Republic\"), Hungary and Yugoslavia ([Danube Swabians](/wiki/Danube_Swabians \"Danube Swabians\")),{{cite web \\| url\\=http://donauschwaben\\-usa.org/danube\\_swabians.htm \\| title\\=Danube Swabians }} the territorial extent of German was considerably reduced. Significant dialects such as the [East Pomeranian dialect](/wiki/East_Pomeranian_dialect \"East Pomeranian dialect\"), most varieties of [Silesian German](/wiki/Silesian_German \"Silesian German\"), [Prussian](/wiki/Low_Prussian_dialect \"Low Prussian dialect\") dialects and [Bohemian German](/wiki/Sudeten_Germans \"Sudeten Germans\") dialects gradually disappeared as a result of their speakers assimilating into areas where other dialects, as well as Standard German, were already spoken.{{cite book\\|title\\=Gegenwartsdeutsch\\|author\\=Helmut Glück, Wolfgang Werner Sauer\\|publisher\\=Springer\\-Verlag\\|lang\\=de\\|year\\=2016\\|pages\\=88}}",
"### Low German",
"{{main\\|Low German}}\nLow German varieties (in Germany usually referred to as \"Platt\" or \"Plattdeutsch\") are considered dialects of the German language by some but a separate language by others (then often termed \"Low Saxon\"). Linguistically Low German (that is, [Ingvaeonic](/wiki/Ingvaeonic \"Ingvaeonic\") (\"North Sea Germanic\") and [Low Franconian](/wiki/Low_Franconian \"Low Franconian\") (that is, some [Istvaeonic](/wiki/Low_Franconian_languages \"Low Franconian languages\")) dialects are grouped together because both did not participate in the [High German consonant shift](/wiki/High_German_consonant_shift \"High German consonant shift\"). Low German is further divided into [Dutch Low Saxon](/wiki/Dutch_Low_Saxon \"Dutch Low Saxon\"), [West Low German](/wiki/West_Low_German \"West Low German\") and [East Low German](/wiki/East_Low_German \"East Low German\").",
"[Middle Low German](/wiki/Middle_Low_German \"Middle Low German\") was the [lingua franca](/wiki/Lingua_franca \"Lingua franca\") of the [Hanseatic League](/wiki/Hanseatic_League \"Hanseatic League\").{{Cite journal \\|last\\=Boden \\|first\\=Keith \\|date\\=1993 \\|title\\=A Re\\-Examination of Middle Low German\\-Scandinavian Language Contact \\|url\\=https://www.jstor.org/stable/40503856 \\|journal\\=Zeitschrift für Dialektologie und Linguistik \\|volume\\=60 \\|issue\\=3 \\|pages\\=292–306 \\|issn\\=0044\\-1449}} It was the predominant language in Northern Germany, and several translations of the Bible were printed in Low German. That predominance changed in the 16th century. In 1534, the [Luther Bible](/wiki/Luther_Bible \"Luther Bible\") was printed by [Martin Luther](/wiki/Martin_Luther \"Martin Luther\"), and that translation is considered to be an important step towards the evolution of the [Early New High German](/wiki/Early_New_High_German \"Early New High German\"). It aimed to be understandable to an ample audience and was based mainly on [High German](/wiki/High_German \"High German\") varieties. Early New High German gained more prestige than Low Saxon {{Citation \\|last\\=Pickl \\|first\\=Simon \\|title\\=(High) German \\|date\\=2023\\-01\\-31 \\|work\\=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Linguistics \\|url\\=https://oxfordre.com/linguistics/display/10\\.1093/acrefore/9780199384655\\.001\\.0001/acrefore\\-9780199384655\\-e\\-939 \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-03\\-06 \\|language\\=en \\|doi\\=10\\.1093/acrefore/9780199384655\\.013\\.939 \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-19\\-938465\\-5}} and became the language of science and literature. Other factors included the Hanseatic League losing its importance around the same time (as new trade routes to Asia and the Americas were established) and the most powerful German states then being located in Middle and Southern Germany.",
"The 18th and 19th centuries were marked by mass education, with the language of the schools being Standard German.{{Cite web \\|date\\=2018\\-06\\-01 \\|title\\=German Dialects: The Sound of Plattdeutsch \\|url\\=https://www.deutschland.de/en/topic/culture/german\\-dialects\\-the\\-sound\\-of\\-plattdeutsch \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-03\\-06 \\|website\\=www.deutschland.de \\|language\\=en}}{{Cite web \\|title\\=German and its Norms \\|url\\=https://www.goethe.de/en/spr/mag/lld/20456023\\.html \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-03\\-06 \\|website\\=@GI\\_weltweit \\|language\\=en}}",
"Today, Low Saxon dialects are still widespread, especially among the elderly in the Northern parts of Germany.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Saxon, Low \\|url\\=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/nds/ \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-03\\-06 \\|website\\=Ethnologue \\|language\\=en \\|quote\\=Language Use: Officially recognized as a regional (separate) language in 8 states of Germany. Recognized as a regional (separate) language by the European Charter on Languages. Adults only. Shifting to Standard German \\[deu]. Used as L2 by Northern Frisian \\[frr].}} Some local media take care not to let the Low Saxon language die out, so there are several newspapers that have recurring articles in Low Saxon. The North German Broadcasting ([Norddeutscher Rundfunk](/wiki/Norddeutscher_Rundfunk \"Norddeutscher Rundfunk\")) also offers television programs, such as \"Talk op Platt\" and radio programs in Low Saxon.",
"On the other hand, Northern Germany is considered to be the region that speaks the purest Standard German, and in everyday life, little influence of dialect is heard. Still, there are notable differences in pronunciation, even among North German speakers such as the lengthening of vowels and differences in accentuation. There are also some North German expressions that are in use even in Standard High German but are seldom heard in Southern Germany, such as \"plietsch\" for \"intelligent\".",
"### High German",
"{{main\\|High German}}\nHigh German is divided into [Central German](/wiki/Central_German \"Central German\"), [High Franconian](/wiki/High_Franconian \"High Franconian\") and [Upper German](/wiki/Upper_German_language \"Upper German language\").",
"Central German dialects include [Ripuarian](/wiki/Ripuarian_language \"Ripuarian language\"), [Moselle Franconian](/wiki/Moselle_Franconian \"Moselle Franconian\"), [Rhine Franconian](/wiki/Rhine_Franconian \"Rhine Franconian\") (incl. [Hessian](/wiki/Hessian_dialects \"Hessian dialects\")), [Lorraine Franconian](/wiki/Lorraine_Franconian \"Lorraine Franconian\"), [Thuringian](/wiki/Thuringian \"Thuringian\"), [Silesian](/wiki/Silesian_German \"Silesian German\"), [High Prussian](/wiki/High_Prussian \"High Prussian\"), [Lusatian dialects](/wiki/Lusatian_dialects \"Lusatian dialects\") and [Upper Saxon](/wiki/Upper_Saxon_dialect \"Upper Saxon dialect\"). They are spoken in the southeastern Netherlands, eastern Belgium, Luxembourg, parts of northeastern France and in Germany approximately between the River [Main](/wiki/Main_%28river%29 \"Main (river)\") and the southern edge of the Lowlands.",
"High Franconian dialects are transitional dialects in between the two greater [High German](/wiki/High_German \"High German\") groups. High Franconian dialects include [East Franconian](/wiki/East_Franconian \"East Franconian\") and [South Franconian](/wiki/South_Franconian \"South Franconian\").",
"Upper German dialects include [Alemannic in the broad sense](/wiki/Alemannic_German \"Alemannic German\") (incl. [Alsatian](/wiki/Alsatian_dialect \"Alsatian dialect\"), [Swabian](/wiki/Swabian_German \"Swabian German\")) and [Bavarian](/wiki/Bavarian_language \"Bavarian language\") ([Southern Bavarian](/wiki/Southern_Bavarian \"Southern Bavarian\"), [Central Bavarian](/wiki/Central_Bavarian \"Central Bavarian\") and [Northern Bavarian](/wiki/Northern_Bavarian \"Northern Bavarian\")) and are spoken in parts of northeastern France, southern Germany, Liechtenstein, Austria, and in the German\\-speaking parts of Switzerland and Italy.",
"[Standard High German](/wiki/Standard_German \"Standard German\") is based on Central and Upper German.",
"The Moselle Franconian varieties spoken in [Luxembourg](/wiki/Luxembourg \"Luxembourg\") have been officially standardized and institutionalized and so are usually considered a separate language, known as [Luxembourgish](/wiki/Luxembourgish_language \"Luxembourgish language\").",
"[Halcnovian](/wiki/Alzenau_dialect \"Alzenau dialect\"), [Wymysorys](/wiki/Wymysorys_language \"Wymysorys language\"), [Sathmarisch](/wiki/Sathmarisch \"Sathmarisch\") and [Transylvanian Saxon](/wiki/Transylvanian_Saxon_dialect \"Transylvanian Saxon dialect\") are High German dialects of Poland and [Romania](/wiki/Romania \"Romania\").",
"The High German varieties spoken by [Ashkenazi Jews](/wiki/Ashkenazi_Jew \"Ashkenazi Jew\") (mostly in Tsarist Russia, then the former [Soviet Union](/wiki/Soviet_Union \"Soviet Union\") and Poland) have several unique features and are usually considered as a separate language. Known as [Yiddish](/wiki/Yiddish \"Yiddish\"), it is the only Germanic language that does not (only) use the [Latin script](/wiki/Latin_script \"Latin script\") as its [standard script](/wiki/Official_script \"Official script\"). Since it developed in the Danube area, there are some similarities with the Central and Upper German dialects of that region.",
"",
"File:Ik\\-ich\\-Isogloss \\- Uerdinger Lien.svg\\|Map showing the \\[\\[Uerdingen line]], which divides Low German from High German\nFile:Benrather und Speyerer Linie.png\\|The Speyer line, dividing the \\[\\[Central German]] dialects from the \\[\\[High Franconian]] dialects\nFile:Uerdinger und Karlsruher Linie.png\\|The Uerdingen and the \\[\\[Karlsruhe line]]. The Karlsruhe line divides the \\[\\[High Franconian]] dialects from the \\[\\[Upper German]] dialects.",
"",
""
] |
### High German
{{main\|High German}}
High German is divided into [Central German](/wiki/Central_German "Central German"), [High Franconian](/wiki/High_Franconian "High Franconian") and [Upper German](/wiki/Upper_German_language "Upper German language").
Central German dialects include [Ripuarian](/wiki/Ripuarian_language "Ripuarian language"), [Moselle Franconian](/wiki/Moselle_Franconian "Moselle Franconian"), [Rhine Franconian](/wiki/Rhine_Franconian "Rhine Franconian") (incl. [Hessian](/wiki/Hessian_dialects "Hessian dialects")), [Lorraine Franconian](/wiki/Lorraine_Franconian "Lorraine Franconian"), [Thuringian](/wiki/Thuringian "Thuringian"), [Silesian](/wiki/Silesian_German "Silesian German"), [High Prussian](/wiki/High_Prussian "High Prussian"), [Lusatian dialects](/wiki/Lusatian_dialects "Lusatian dialects") and [Upper Saxon](/wiki/Upper_Saxon_dialect "Upper Saxon dialect"). They are spoken in the southeastern Netherlands, eastern Belgium, Luxembourg, parts of northeastern France and in Germany approximately between the River [Main](/wiki/Main_%28river%29 "Main (river)") and the southern edge of the Lowlands.
High Franconian dialects are transitional dialects in between the two greater [High German](/wiki/High_German "High German") groups. High Franconian dialects include [East Franconian](/wiki/East_Franconian "East Franconian") and [South Franconian](/wiki/South_Franconian "South Franconian").
Upper German dialects include [Alemannic in the broad sense](/wiki/Alemannic_German "Alemannic German") (incl. [Alsatian](/wiki/Alsatian_dialect "Alsatian dialect"), [Swabian](/wiki/Swabian_German "Swabian German")) and [Bavarian](/wiki/Bavarian_language "Bavarian language") ([Southern Bavarian](/wiki/Southern_Bavarian "Southern Bavarian"), [Central Bavarian](/wiki/Central_Bavarian "Central Bavarian") and [Northern Bavarian](/wiki/Northern_Bavarian "Northern Bavarian")) and are spoken in parts of northeastern France, southern Germany, Liechtenstein, Austria, and in the German\-speaking parts of Switzerland and Italy.
[Standard High German](/wiki/Standard_German "Standard German") is based on Central and Upper German.
The Moselle Franconian varieties spoken in [Luxembourg](/wiki/Luxembourg "Luxembourg") have been officially standardized and institutionalized and so are usually considered a separate language, known as [Luxembourgish](/wiki/Luxembourgish_language "Luxembourgish language").
[Halcnovian](/wiki/Alzenau_dialect "Alzenau dialect"), [Wymysorys](/wiki/Wymysorys_language "Wymysorys language"), [Sathmarisch](/wiki/Sathmarisch "Sathmarisch") and [Transylvanian Saxon](/wiki/Transylvanian_Saxon_dialect "Transylvanian Saxon dialect") are High German dialects of Poland and [Romania](/wiki/Romania "Romania").
The High German varieties spoken by [Ashkenazi Jews](/wiki/Ashkenazi_Jew "Ashkenazi Jew") (mostly in Tsarist Russia, then the former [Soviet Union](/wiki/Soviet_Union "Soviet Union") and Poland) have several unique features and are usually considered as a separate language. Known as [Yiddish](/wiki/Yiddish "Yiddish"), it is the only Germanic language that does not (only) use the [Latin script](/wiki/Latin_script "Latin script") as its [standard script](/wiki/Official_script "Official script"). Since it developed in the Danube area, there are some similarities with the Central and Upper German dialects of that region.
File:Ik\-ich\-Isogloss \- Uerdinger Lien.svg\|Map showing the \[\[Uerdingen line]], which divides Low German from High German
File:Benrather und Speyerer Linie.png\|The Speyer line, dividing the \[\[Central German]] dialects from the \[\[High Franconian]] dialects
File:Uerdinger und Karlsruher Linie.png\|The Uerdingen and the \[\[Karlsruhe line]]. The Karlsruhe line divides the \[\[High Franconian]] dialects from the \[\[Upper German]] dialects.
|
[
"### High German",
"{{main\\|High German}}\nHigh German is divided into [Central German](/wiki/Central_German \"Central German\"), [High Franconian](/wiki/High_Franconian \"High Franconian\") and [Upper German](/wiki/Upper_German_language \"Upper German language\").",
"Central German dialects include [Ripuarian](/wiki/Ripuarian_language \"Ripuarian language\"), [Moselle Franconian](/wiki/Moselle_Franconian \"Moselle Franconian\"), [Rhine Franconian](/wiki/Rhine_Franconian \"Rhine Franconian\") (incl. [Hessian](/wiki/Hessian_dialects \"Hessian dialects\")), [Lorraine Franconian](/wiki/Lorraine_Franconian \"Lorraine Franconian\"), [Thuringian](/wiki/Thuringian \"Thuringian\"), [Silesian](/wiki/Silesian_German \"Silesian German\"), [High Prussian](/wiki/High_Prussian \"High Prussian\"), [Lusatian dialects](/wiki/Lusatian_dialects \"Lusatian dialects\") and [Upper Saxon](/wiki/Upper_Saxon_dialect \"Upper Saxon dialect\"). They are spoken in the southeastern Netherlands, eastern Belgium, Luxembourg, parts of northeastern France and in Germany approximately between the River [Main](/wiki/Main_%28river%29 \"Main (river)\") and the southern edge of the Lowlands.",
"High Franconian dialects are transitional dialects in between the two greater [High German](/wiki/High_German \"High German\") groups. High Franconian dialects include [East Franconian](/wiki/East_Franconian \"East Franconian\") and [South Franconian](/wiki/South_Franconian \"South Franconian\").",
"Upper German dialects include [Alemannic in the broad sense](/wiki/Alemannic_German \"Alemannic German\") (incl. [Alsatian](/wiki/Alsatian_dialect \"Alsatian dialect\"), [Swabian](/wiki/Swabian_German \"Swabian German\")) and [Bavarian](/wiki/Bavarian_language \"Bavarian language\") ([Southern Bavarian](/wiki/Southern_Bavarian \"Southern Bavarian\"), [Central Bavarian](/wiki/Central_Bavarian \"Central Bavarian\") and [Northern Bavarian](/wiki/Northern_Bavarian \"Northern Bavarian\")) and are spoken in parts of northeastern France, southern Germany, Liechtenstein, Austria, and in the German\\-speaking parts of Switzerland and Italy.",
"[Standard High German](/wiki/Standard_German \"Standard German\") is based on Central and Upper German.",
"The Moselle Franconian varieties spoken in [Luxembourg](/wiki/Luxembourg \"Luxembourg\") have been officially standardized and institutionalized and so are usually considered a separate language, known as [Luxembourgish](/wiki/Luxembourgish_language \"Luxembourgish language\").",
"[Halcnovian](/wiki/Alzenau_dialect \"Alzenau dialect\"), [Wymysorys](/wiki/Wymysorys_language \"Wymysorys language\"), [Sathmarisch](/wiki/Sathmarisch \"Sathmarisch\") and [Transylvanian Saxon](/wiki/Transylvanian_Saxon_dialect \"Transylvanian Saxon dialect\") are High German dialects of Poland and [Romania](/wiki/Romania \"Romania\").",
"The High German varieties spoken by [Ashkenazi Jews](/wiki/Ashkenazi_Jew \"Ashkenazi Jew\") (mostly in Tsarist Russia, then the former [Soviet Union](/wiki/Soviet_Union \"Soviet Union\") and Poland) have several unique features and are usually considered as a separate language. Known as [Yiddish](/wiki/Yiddish \"Yiddish\"), it is the only Germanic language that does not (only) use the [Latin script](/wiki/Latin_script \"Latin script\") as its [standard script](/wiki/Official_script \"Official script\"). Since it developed in the Danube area, there are some similarities with the Central and Upper German dialects of that region.",
"",
"File:Ik\\-ich\\-Isogloss \\- Uerdinger Lien.svg\\|Map showing the \\[\\[Uerdingen line]], which divides Low German from High German\nFile:Benrather und Speyerer Linie.png\\|The Speyer line, dividing the \\[\\[Central German]] dialects from the \\[\\[High Franconian]] dialects\nFile:Uerdinger und Karlsruher Linie.png\\|The Uerdingen and the \\[\\[Karlsruhe line]]. The Karlsruhe line divides the \\[\\[High Franconian]] dialects from the \\[\\[Upper German]] dialects.",
"",
""
] |
Manager career
--------------
### KBO Manager
In 1973 Kim managed Baemoon High School until 1977, and also coached Sangmoon High School during 3 years.
He was the manage of the [Dongguk University baseball team](/wiki/Dongguk_University "Dongguk University") from 1982 to 1985\. Then, Kim moved into the professional ranks in 1986 when he became the bench coach of the [Haitai Tigers](/wiki/Haitai_Tigers "Haitai Tigers") from 1986 to 1989\.
Kim managed during his career the [Ssangbangwool Raiders](/wiki/Ssangbangwool_Raiders "Ssangbangwool Raiders") from 1990 to 1992 and the [Doosan Bears](/wiki/Doosan_Bears "Doosan Bears") from 1995 to 2003\. For the Bears, he led Doosan to [Korean Series](/wiki/Korean_Series "Korean Series") titles in 1995 and 2001\.
In November 2004, Kim was hired to manage the [Hanwha Eagles](/wiki/Hanwha_Eagles "Hanwha Eagles"). One month later he suffered a [stroke](/wiki/Stroke "Stroke") but recovered enough to stay on as manager.Yonhap. ["KBO manager's collapse shows how stressful the job is,"](https://koreajoongangdaily.joins.com/2020/06/28/sports/Baseball/wyverns-manager-sk-wyverns-youm-kyoungyoub/20200628181407136.html) *Korea JoongAng Daily* (June 28, 2020\). Kim led the Eagles to the [Korean Series](/wiki/Korean_Series "Korean Series") in 2006 but the team lost to the Samsung Lions. The Eagles did not qualify for the postseason in 2009, and Kim resigned after the season.
### Team Korea Manager
He was the [bench coach](/wiki/Bench_coach "Bench coach") of the [South Korea national baseball team](/wiki/South_Korea_national_baseball_team "South Korea national baseball team") in the [2000 Summer Olympics](/wiki/2000_Summer_Olympics "2000 Summer Olympics") under manager [Kim Eung\-Yong](/wiki/Kim_Eung-Yong "Kim Eung-Yong"). The team won the Bronze medal after defeating [Japan](/wiki/Japan_national_baseball_team "Japan national baseball team") by a 3\-1 score. Then Kim was named national team manager and led his team to the gold medal in the [2002 Asian Games](/wiki/2002_Asian_Games "2002 Asian Games"), defeating [Chinese Taipei](/wiki/Chinese_Taipei_national_baseball_team "Chinese Taipei national baseball team") 4\-3 in the gold medal match.
He was the manager of the South Korean national team that played in the [2006 World Baseball Classic](/wiki/2006_World_Baseball_Classic "2006 World Baseball Classic") and won every game they played in Pool A. They advanced to round two, again winning all three games to secure a place in the semifinals. Upon reaching the semifinals, the South Korean government announced that it would waive for the players on the team the mandatory two\-year military service required of all young South Korean men. However, at the semifinals, the South Korean team lost to Japan, whom they had beaten twice previously. This led to controversy in South Korea over the regulations of the WBC concerning the fact that South Korea had to face Japan three times and that it was Japan that was allowed to go to the finals, when it had four victories and three losses up to that point, two of those losses to South Korea, while the South Korean team, which had only one loss and had already beaten Japan twice, was eliminated from the finals. Kim also led the South Korean team to the final of the [2009 World Baseball Classic](/wiki/2009_World_Baseball_Classic "2009 World Baseball Classic"), where they finished in second place.
|
[
"Manager career\n--------------",
"### KBO Manager",
"In 1973 Kim managed Baemoon High School until 1977, and also coached Sangmoon High School during 3 years.",
"He was the manage of the [Dongguk University baseball team](/wiki/Dongguk_University \"Dongguk University\") from 1982 to 1985\\. Then, Kim moved into the professional ranks in 1986 when he became the bench coach of the [Haitai Tigers](/wiki/Haitai_Tigers \"Haitai Tigers\") from 1986 to 1989\\.",
"Kim managed during his career the [Ssangbangwool Raiders](/wiki/Ssangbangwool_Raiders \"Ssangbangwool Raiders\") from 1990 to 1992 and the [Doosan Bears](/wiki/Doosan_Bears \"Doosan Bears\") from 1995 to 2003\\. For the Bears, he led Doosan to [Korean Series](/wiki/Korean_Series \"Korean Series\") titles in 1995 and 2001\\.",
"In November 2004, Kim was hired to manage the [Hanwha Eagles](/wiki/Hanwha_Eagles \"Hanwha Eagles\"). One month later he suffered a [stroke](/wiki/Stroke \"Stroke\") but recovered enough to stay on as manager.Yonhap. [\"KBO manager's collapse shows how stressful the job is,\"](https://koreajoongangdaily.joins.com/2020/06/28/sports/Baseball/wyverns-manager-sk-wyverns-youm-kyoungyoub/20200628181407136.html) *Korea JoongAng Daily* (June 28, 2020\\). Kim led the Eagles to the [Korean Series](/wiki/Korean_Series \"Korean Series\") in 2006 but the team lost to the Samsung Lions. The Eagles did not qualify for the postseason in 2009, and Kim resigned after the season.",
"### Team Korea Manager",
"He was the [bench coach](/wiki/Bench_coach \"Bench coach\") of the [South Korea national baseball team](/wiki/South_Korea_national_baseball_team \"South Korea national baseball team\") in the [2000 Summer Olympics](/wiki/2000_Summer_Olympics \"2000 Summer Olympics\") under manager [Kim Eung\\-Yong](/wiki/Kim_Eung-Yong \"Kim Eung-Yong\"). The team won the Bronze medal after defeating [Japan](/wiki/Japan_national_baseball_team \"Japan national baseball team\") by a 3\\-1 score. Then Kim was named national team manager and led his team to the gold medal in the [2002 Asian Games](/wiki/2002_Asian_Games \"2002 Asian Games\"), defeating [Chinese Taipei](/wiki/Chinese_Taipei_national_baseball_team \"Chinese Taipei national baseball team\") 4\\-3 in the gold medal match.",
"He was the manager of the South Korean national team that played in the [2006 World Baseball Classic](/wiki/2006_World_Baseball_Classic \"2006 World Baseball Classic\") and won every game they played in Pool A. They advanced to round two, again winning all three games to secure a place in the semifinals. Upon reaching the semifinals, the South Korean government announced that it would waive for the players on the team the mandatory two\\-year military service required of all young South Korean men. However, at the semifinals, the South Korean team lost to Japan, whom they had beaten twice previously. This led to controversy in South Korea over the regulations of the WBC concerning the fact that South Korea had to face Japan three times and that it was Japan that was allowed to go to the finals, when it had four victories and three losses up to that point, two of those losses to South Korea, while the South Korean team, which had only one loss and had already beaten Japan twice, was eliminated from the finals. Kim also led the South Korean team to the final of the [2009 World Baseball Classic](/wiki/2009_World_Baseball_Classic \"2009 World Baseball Classic\"), where they finished in second place.",
""
] |
Biography
---------
She was born in New York City on March 16, 1903 to [Howard Alexander Smith](/wiki/Howard_Alexander_Smith "Howard Alexander Smith"), a U.S. senator from New Jersey from 1944 to 1958, and Helen Babcock Dominick.
Helen Smith was educated privately and then studied art in [New York City](/wiki/New_York_City "New York City"). She attended schools in [Colorado](/wiki/Colorado "Colorado"), [Princeton, New Jersey](/wiki/Princeton%2C_New_Jersey "Princeton, New Jersey"), and [Florence, Italy](/wiki/Florence%2C_Italy "Florence, Italy"). She also studied art in [Paris](/wiki/Paris "Paris") and New York. In the 1920s in [New York](/wiki/New_York_City "New York City"), she was attracted to the *First Century Christian Fellowship* founded by [Frank Buchman](/wiki/Frank_Buchman "Frank Buchman"), that would later become the [Oxford Group](/wiki/Oxford_Group "Oxford Group") in 1928, and the [Moral Re\-Armament](/wiki/Moral_Re-Armament "Moral Re-Armament") movement (MRA) in 1938\.
She worked and resided with a First Century Christian Fellowship group at [Calvary Episcopal Church](/wiki/Calvary_Church_%28Manhattan%29 "Calvary Church (Manhattan)") in New York, and there met the Rev. Dr. [Samuel Shoemaker](/wiki/Sam_Shoemaker "Sam Shoemaker"), (Samuel Moor Shoemaker), who was rector. After their marriage, she sought to help her clergyman husband by a ministry of hospitality and entertaining. She was a founder of the [Anglican Fellowship of Prayer](/wiki/Anglican_Fellowship_of_Prayer "Anglican Fellowship of Prayer"), an international prayer movement, consisting of small groups of people meeting in church basements and homes to pray for soldiers during [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II").
It expanded in 1958 into a nationwide organization whose mission is to intercede continually for the national church and beyond, following the [Anglican Cycle of Prayer](/wiki/Anglican_Cycle_of_Prayer "Anglican Cycle of Prayer"). After the death of her husband, she wrote a memoir of him, I Stand By the Door: The Life of Sam Shoemaker (1967\). [Internet Archive, *I Stand By The Door*, by Helen Smith Shoemaker](https://archive.org/details/istandbydoorlife00shoe/page/n5/mode/2up) She published a number of books on prayer, including Prayer and You (1948\), and The Secret Effect of Prayer (1967\).{{Cite web\|last\=Sun\|first\=Baltimore\|title\=Helen S. ShoemakerAuthor, church leaderHelen Smith Shoemaker,...\|url\=https://www.baltimoresun.com/news/bs\-xpm\-1993\-02\-01\-1993032061\-story.html\|access\-date\=2021\-10\-21\|website\=baltimoresun.com\|language\=en\-US}}
The family moved to Calvary Episcopal Church in [Pittsburgh](/wiki/Pittsburgh "Pittsburgh") in 1952 and retired to a home in the Greenspring Valley of [Baltimore County](/wiki/Baltimore_County%2C_Maryland "Baltimore County, Maryland") in 1962\. Mr. Shoemaker died in 1963\.
Mrs. Shoemaker, along with [Polly Wiley](/wiki/Polly_Wiley "Polly Wiley") of [Pound, New York](/wiki/Pound%2C_New_York "Pound, New York"), began organizing the Anglican Fellowship of Prayer in the 1940s. The organization is now based in [Orlando](/wiki/Orlando%2C_Florida "Orlando, Florida"), Florida. She was the keynote speaker at [U.S. President](/wiki/President_of_the_United_States "President of the United States") [John F. Kennedy](/wiki/John_F._Kennedy "John F. Kennedy")'s [Presidential Prayer Breakfast](/wiki/Presidential_Prayer_Breakfast "Presidential Prayer Breakfast") in 1962 and represented the [Episcopal Church](/wiki/Episcopal_Church_%28United_States%29 "Episcopal Church (United States)") at the [First Evangelical Congress](/wiki/First_Evangelical_Congress "First Evangelical Congress") in [Switzerland](/wiki/Switzerland "Switzerland") at the invitation of evangelist [Billy Graham](/wiki/Billy_Graham "Billy Graham"). A lifelong champion of the lay ministry and the role of women in the church, Mrs. Shoemaker also supported [civil rights](/wiki/Civil_rights "Civil rights").
She died in [Brooklandville, Maryland](/wiki/Brooklandville%2C_Maryland "Brooklandville, Maryland") on January 29, 1993 at age 89\.{{cite news \|title\= Helen S. Shoemaker, Author, Church Leader \|url\=http://articles.baltimoresun.com/1993\-02\-01/news/1993032061\_1\_calvary\-episcopal\-urologic\-surgery\-shoemaker \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150715112510/http://articles.baltimoresun.com/1993\-02\-01/news/1993032061\_1\_calvary\-episcopal\-urologic\-surgery\-shoemaker \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-date\=July 15, 2015 \|quote\=Helen Smith Shoemaker, an author, sculptor and church leader, died of a stroke Friday at Meridian Healthcare Center in Brooklandville. She was 89\. ... \|newspaper\=\[\[Baltimore Sun]] \|date\=January 30, 1993 \|access\-date\=2012\-12\-01 }}
|
[
"Biography\n---------",
"She was born in New York City on March 16, 1903 to [Howard Alexander Smith](/wiki/Howard_Alexander_Smith \"Howard Alexander Smith\"), a U.S. senator from New Jersey from 1944 to 1958, and Helen Babcock Dominick.",
"Helen Smith was educated privately and then studied art in [New York City](/wiki/New_York_City \"New York City\"). She attended schools in [Colorado](/wiki/Colorado \"Colorado\"), [Princeton, New Jersey](/wiki/Princeton%2C_New_Jersey \"Princeton, New Jersey\"), and [Florence, Italy](/wiki/Florence%2C_Italy \"Florence, Italy\"). She also studied art in [Paris](/wiki/Paris \"Paris\") and New York. In the 1920s in [New York](/wiki/New_York_City \"New York City\"), she was attracted to the *First Century Christian Fellowship* founded by [Frank Buchman](/wiki/Frank_Buchman \"Frank Buchman\"), that would later become the [Oxford Group](/wiki/Oxford_Group \"Oxford Group\") in 1928, and the [Moral Re\\-Armament](/wiki/Moral_Re-Armament \"Moral Re-Armament\") movement (MRA) in 1938\\.",
"She worked and resided with a First Century Christian Fellowship group at [Calvary Episcopal Church](/wiki/Calvary_Church_%28Manhattan%29 \"Calvary Church (Manhattan)\") in New York, and there met the Rev. Dr. [Samuel Shoemaker](/wiki/Sam_Shoemaker \"Sam Shoemaker\"), (Samuel Moor Shoemaker), who was rector. After their marriage, she sought to help her clergyman husband by a ministry of hospitality and entertaining. She was a founder of the [Anglican Fellowship of Prayer](/wiki/Anglican_Fellowship_of_Prayer \"Anglican Fellowship of Prayer\"), an international prayer movement, consisting of small groups of people meeting in church basements and homes to pray for soldiers during [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\").",
"It expanded in 1958 into a nationwide organization whose mission is to intercede continually for the national church and beyond, following the [Anglican Cycle of Prayer](/wiki/Anglican_Cycle_of_Prayer \"Anglican Cycle of Prayer\"). After the death of her husband, she wrote a memoir of him, I Stand By the Door: The Life of Sam Shoemaker (1967\\). [Internet Archive, *I Stand By The Door*, by Helen Smith Shoemaker](https://archive.org/details/istandbydoorlife00shoe/page/n5/mode/2up) She published a number of books on prayer, including Prayer and You (1948\\), and The Secret Effect of Prayer (1967\\).{{Cite web\\|last\\=Sun\\|first\\=Baltimore\\|title\\=Helen S. ShoemakerAuthor, church leaderHelen Smith Shoemaker,...\\|url\\=https://www.baltimoresun.com/news/bs\\-xpm\\-1993\\-02\\-01\\-1993032061\\-story.html\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-10\\-21\\|website\\=baltimoresun.com\\|language\\=en\\-US}}",
"The family moved to Calvary Episcopal Church in [Pittsburgh](/wiki/Pittsburgh \"Pittsburgh\") in 1952 and retired to a home in the Greenspring Valley of [Baltimore County](/wiki/Baltimore_County%2C_Maryland \"Baltimore County, Maryland\") in 1962\\. Mr. Shoemaker died in 1963\\.",
"Mrs. Shoemaker, along with [Polly Wiley](/wiki/Polly_Wiley \"Polly Wiley\") of [Pound, New York](/wiki/Pound%2C_New_York \"Pound, New York\"), began organizing the Anglican Fellowship of Prayer in the 1940s. The organization is now based in [Orlando](/wiki/Orlando%2C_Florida \"Orlando, Florida\"), Florida. She was the keynote speaker at [U.S. President](/wiki/President_of_the_United_States \"President of the United States\") [John F. Kennedy](/wiki/John_F._Kennedy \"John F. Kennedy\")'s [Presidential Prayer Breakfast](/wiki/Presidential_Prayer_Breakfast \"Presidential Prayer Breakfast\") in 1962 and represented the [Episcopal Church](/wiki/Episcopal_Church_%28United_States%29 \"Episcopal Church (United States)\") at the [First Evangelical Congress](/wiki/First_Evangelical_Congress \"First Evangelical Congress\") in [Switzerland](/wiki/Switzerland \"Switzerland\") at the invitation of evangelist [Billy Graham](/wiki/Billy_Graham \"Billy Graham\"). A lifelong champion of the lay ministry and the role of women in the church, Mrs. Shoemaker also supported [civil rights](/wiki/Civil_rights \"Civil rights\").",
"She died in [Brooklandville, Maryland](/wiki/Brooklandville%2C_Maryland \"Brooklandville, Maryland\") on January 29, 1993 at age 89\\.{{cite news \\|title\\= Helen S. Shoemaker, Author, Church Leader \\|url\\=http://articles.baltimoresun.com/1993\\-02\\-01/news/1993032061\\_1\\_calvary\\-episcopal\\-urologic\\-surgery\\-shoemaker \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150715112510/http://articles.baltimoresun.com/1993\\-02\\-01/news/1993032061\\_1\\_calvary\\-episcopal\\-urologic\\-surgery\\-shoemaker \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-date\\=July 15, 2015 \\|quote\\=Helen Smith Shoemaker, an author, sculptor and church leader, died of a stroke Friday at Meridian Healthcare Center in Brooklandville. She was 89\\. ... \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[Baltimore Sun]] \\|date\\=January 30, 1993 \\|access\\-date\\=2012\\-12\\-01 }}",
""
] |
CCC and journalists
-------------------
The Commission was criticised in 2007 when it emerged it had secretly interrogated two Perth [journalists](/wiki/Journalists "Journalists"). In 2006/2007 the Commission held 40\.5 days of open hearings and 22 days of secret hearings.[http://www.ccc.wa.gov.au/pdfs/annualreport\_2006\-2007\.pdf](http://www.ccc.wa.gov.au/pdfs/annualreport_2006-2007.pdf) {{Bare URL PDF\|date\=March 2022}}
The journalists were threatened with “fine and lengthy imprisonment”[Copyright in this document is reserved to the Crown in right of the State of Western Australia](http://www.ccc.wa.gov.au/files/transcripts/MODDER%20-%20Transcript%20-%20private%20hearing%20-%2020070626%20-%20witness%20-%20POH%20-%20COOPER%20-%20SHORT%20.pdf) if they told anyone about their attendance. Under Commission law, witnesses can be fined $60,000 and imprisoned for three years if they disclose their attendance or discuss it with others.
The journalists were [ABC](/wiki/Australian_Broadcasting_Corporation "Australian Broadcasting Corporation") TV's Sue Short and [Channel 9](/wiki/STW "STW")'s David Cooper. [Channel 7](/wiki/TVW "TVW")'s Gary Adshead and [The West Australian](/wiki/The_West_Australian "The West Australian")'s Robert Taylor were summonsed to appear at a hearing of the Parliamentary Inspector of the CCC which are held in private.
Short and Cooper appeared before the Commission on 26 June over “...identifying the person or persons who on or about 12 May 2006 provided information and/or assisted her (Short) in identifying the new suspect for the murder of [Pamela Lawrence](/wiki/Pamela_Lawrence "Pamela Lawrence") as being in custody for another homicide”,; Adshead and Taylor were two of 21 witnesses who appeared before the Parliamentary Inspector of the Commission, [Malcolm McCusker](/wiki/Malcolm_McCusker "Malcolm McCusker"), in late June and early July when he investigated the leaking of a Commission document to the media on former [Labor](/wiki/Australian_Labor_Party_%28Western_Australian_Branch%29 "Australian Labor Party (Western Australian Branch)") MP [John D'Orazio](/wiki/John_D%27Orazio "John D'Orazio")[http://www.parliament.wa.gov.au/Parliament%5CNews.nsf/(Report\+Lookup\+by\+Com\+ID)/482569F400245ECBC825731C0013E8C7/$file/Parliamentary\+Inspectors\+Report\+July\+2007\.pdf{{Dead link\|date\=July 2020 \|bot\=InternetArchiveBot \|fix\-attempted\=yes }}](http://www.parliament.wa.gov.au/Parliament%5CNews.nsf/(Report+Lookup+by+Com+ID)/482569F400245ECBC825731C0013E8C7/$file/Parliamentary+Inspectors+Report+July+2007.pdf{{Dead link|date=July 2020 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }})
The journalists’ [union](/wiki/Trade_union "Trade union"), the [Media, Entertainment \& Arts Alliance](/wiki/Media%2C_Entertainment_%26_Arts_Alliance "Media, Entertainment & Arts Alliance"), described the secret hearings as “insidious and sinister”.
“We are bringing it to public attention because we are deeply disturbed by its impact on the practice of journalism,” Alliance WA Branch Secretary Michael Sinclair\-Jones was quoted in [The Australian](/wiki/The_Australian "The Australian") on Thursday 8 November. He said the hearing had the characteristics of a [star chamber](/wiki/Star_chamber "Star chamber"), with interrogations and investigations held in secret and people who were unwilling to testify threatened with severe penalties.
“These journalists could not tell their families, their boss, their union...it's police state stuff.
“The blanket suppression of free speech at secret hearings that nobody is allowed to know even occurred is deeply troubling. But we are even more concerned that journalists are being secretly threatened with long jail sentences and massive fines for protecting confidential sources.
“Such inquisitorial powers would have been unthinkable 10 years ago. Press freedom and democracy will inevitably suffer if the secret state powers are used to intimidate journalists and crush leaks.”
The last Perth journalist to be imprisoned for contempt was [The Sunday Times](/wiki/The_Sunday_Times_%28Western_Australia%29 "The Sunday Times (Western Australia)")’ Tony Barrass in December 1989\. He was imprisoned for the maximum seven days and fined the maximum of $175 when he refused to disclose his sources of information to a court.
In November, Robert Taylor was named in the [WA Parliament](/wiki/Parliament_of_Western_Australia "Parliament of Western Australia") as the recipient of more unauthorised “privileged” information, prompting a new Parliamentary investigation.
|
[
"CCC and journalists\n-------------------",
"The Commission was criticised in 2007 when it emerged it had secretly interrogated two Perth [journalists](/wiki/Journalists \"Journalists\"). In 2006/2007 the Commission held 40\\.5 days of open hearings and 22 days of secret hearings.[http://www.ccc.wa.gov.au/pdfs/annualreport\\_2006\\-2007\\.pdf](http://www.ccc.wa.gov.au/pdfs/annualreport_2006-2007.pdf) {{Bare URL PDF\\|date\\=March 2022}}",
"The journalists were threatened with “fine and lengthy imprisonment”[Copyright in this document is reserved to the Crown in right of the State of Western Australia](http://www.ccc.wa.gov.au/files/transcripts/MODDER%20-%20Transcript%20-%20private%20hearing%20-%2020070626%20-%20witness%20-%20POH%20-%20COOPER%20-%20SHORT%20.pdf) if they told anyone about their attendance. Under Commission law, witnesses can be fined $60,000 and imprisoned for three years if they disclose their attendance or discuss it with others.",
"The journalists were [ABC](/wiki/Australian_Broadcasting_Corporation \"Australian Broadcasting Corporation\") TV's Sue Short and [Channel 9](/wiki/STW \"STW\")'s David Cooper. [Channel 7](/wiki/TVW \"TVW\")'s Gary Adshead and [The West Australian](/wiki/The_West_Australian \"The West Australian\")'s Robert Taylor were summonsed to appear at a hearing of the Parliamentary Inspector of the CCC which are held in private.",
"Short and Cooper appeared before the Commission on 26 June over “...identifying the person or persons who on or about 12 May 2006 provided information and/or assisted her (Short) in identifying the new suspect for the murder of [Pamela Lawrence](/wiki/Pamela_Lawrence \"Pamela Lawrence\") as being in custody for another homicide”,; Adshead and Taylor were two of 21 witnesses who appeared before the Parliamentary Inspector of the Commission, [Malcolm McCusker](/wiki/Malcolm_McCusker \"Malcolm McCusker\"), in late June and early July when he investigated the leaking of a Commission document to the media on former [Labor](/wiki/Australian_Labor_Party_%28Western_Australian_Branch%29 \"Australian Labor Party (Western Australian Branch)\") MP [John D'Orazio](/wiki/John_D%27Orazio \"John D'Orazio\")[http://www.parliament.wa.gov.au/Parliament%5CNews.nsf/(Report\\+Lookup\\+by\\+Com\\+ID)/482569F400245ECBC825731C0013E8C7/$file/Parliamentary\\+Inspectors\\+Report\\+July\\+2007\\.pdf{{Dead link\\|date\\=July 2020 \\|bot\\=InternetArchiveBot \\|fix\\-attempted\\=yes }}](http://www.parliament.wa.gov.au/Parliament%5CNews.nsf/(Report+Lookup+by+Com+ID)/482569F400245ECBC825731C0013E8C7/$file/Parliamentary+Inspectors+Report+July+2007.pdf{{Dead link|date=July 2020 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }})",
"The journalists’ [union](/wiki/Trade_union \"Trade union\"), the [Media, Entertainment \\& Arts Alliance](/wiki/Media%2C_Entertainment_%26_Arts_Alliance \"Media, Entertainment & Arts Alliance\"), described the secret hearings as “insidious and sinister”.",
"“We are bringing it to public attention because we are deeply disturbed by its impact on the practice of journalism,” Alliance WA Branch Secretary Michael Sinclair\\-Jones was quoted in [The Australian](/wiki/The_Australian \"The Australian\") on Thursday 8 November. He said the hearing had the characteristics of a [star chamber](/wiki/Star_chamber \"Star chamber\"), with interrogations and investigations held in secret and people who were unwilling to testify threatened with severe penalties. \n“These journalists could not tell their families, their boss, their union...it's police state stuff.\n“The blanket suppression of free speech at secret hearings that nobody is allowed to know even occurred is deeply troubling. But we are even more concerned that journalists are being secretly threatened with long jail sentences and massive fines for protecting confidential sources.\n“Such inquisitorial powers would have been unthinkable 10 years ago. Press freedom and democracy will inevitably suffer if the secret state powers are used to intimidate journalists and crush leaks.”",
"The last Perth journalist to be imprisoned for contempt was [The Sunday Times](/wiki/The_Sunday_Times_%28Western_Australia%29 \"The Sunday Times (Western Australia)\")’ Tony Barrass in December 1989\\. He was imprisoned for the maximum seven days and fined the maximum of $175 when he refused to disclose his sources of information to a court.",
"In November, Robert Taylor was named in the [WA Parliament](/wiki/Parliament_of_Western_Australia \"Parliament of Western Australia\") as the recipient of more unauthorised “privileged” information, prompting a new Parliamentary investigation.",
""
] |
History
-------
### Founding
The village of McLean was laid out on June 22, 1855, by Franklin Price (1821 \- 1908\).*Historical Encyclopedia of Illinois and History of McLean County* (Edited by Ezra M. Prince and John H. Burnham; 2 Vols. Chicago: Munsell, 1908\) p. 902\. Price was born in [Chester Valley, Pennsylvania](/wiki/Chester_County%2C_Pennsylvania "Chester County, Pennsylvania"), and was the brother\-in\-law of Bloomington real estate developer Kersey Fell. Price came to Bloomington in 1849; he worked as a clerk and newspaper writer and was elected mayor of Bloomington in 1855 and again in 1856, serving until 1858\. Price never lived in the new town he founded.
McLean was laid out when the Alton and Springfield Railroad, soon to become the [Alton Railroad](/wiki/Alton_Railroad "Alton Railroad"), was first built through McLean County. The nearby towns of [Atlanta](/wiki/Atlanta%2C_Illinois "Atlanta, Illinois"), [Normal](/wiki/Normal%2C_Illinois "Normal, Illinois"), and [Towanda](/wiki/Towanda%2C_Illinois "Towanda, Illinois") were laid out at the same time as McLean. There had been an earlier attempt to found a town nearby.
Mt. Hope, two miles east of McLean, was established in 1836 by the Providence Farmers and Mechanics Emigrating Society of [Rhode Island](/wiki/Rhode_Island "Rhode Island"). The colony and its town were not a success; only three settlers actually arrived in McLean County. When the town of McLean was founded, the church building from Mt. Hope was moved into McLean. The first residents of McLean were the brothers G.L. and F.A. Wheelock, railroad employees, who moved into the new station house to conduct business. A blacksmith shop was the first business, and H.H. Dillon built the first warehouse.*History of McLean County, Illinois* (Chicago: LeBaron 1879\) pp. 578 – 579, 589\.
McLean was incorporated as a village on May 29, 1866\. By 1900, it had grown to a population of 532\.'Historical Encyclopedia, 1908, P. 902\.
### Original town design
The design of the original town of McLean remains almost unaltered to this day from the original plans. The design was similar to other places along the Alton and Springfield Railroad, including Normal, Towanda, [Odell](/wiki/Odell%2C_Illinois "Odell, Illinois"), and [Dwight](/wiki/Dwight%2C_Illinois "Dwight, Illinois"). The original town was basically a square with streets aligned north–south and east–west, split diagonally by the railroad with a line of lots paralleling either side of the tracks.
As in other towns along the same railroad, there was a widened rectangular area paralleling the tracks labeled "Depot Grounds." In the case of McLean, the depot grounds were laid out only on the southeast side of the railroad. The triangle of land on the northwest side, between the lots paralleling the railroad and remainder of the town, was designated as a public property and is still used as a park. The comparable triangle on the opposite side of the tracks was unlabeled, and its intended use is unclear. This same arrangement of public land was followed at the village of [Towanda](/wiki/Towanda%2C_Illinois "Towanda, Illinois").
McLean was distinctive in that there were no streets between the diagonal line of lots along the tracks. Perhaps because of this, much of the business district developed along Morgan Street, which ran east–west just north of the park, or along Hamilton Street, which ran north–south, just west of the park. The line of lots paralleling the tracks and southeast of the railroad became the location of the hotel and the town jail. Later additions on the east side of the town featured additional lots which parallel the railroad, as well as more conventional blocks.*Combined Indexed Atlas 1856 \-1914, McLean County Illinois* (Bloomington, Illinois: McLean County Historical Society and McLean County Genealogical society, 2006\) pp. 113, 149\.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"### Founding",
"The village of McLean was laid out on June 22, 1855, by Franklin Price (1821 \\- 1908\\).*Historical Encyclopedia of Illinois and History of McLean County* (Edited by Ezra M. Prince and John H. Burnham; 2 Vols. Chicago: Munsell, 1908\\) p. 902\\. Price was born in [Chester Valley, Pennsylvania](/wiki/Chester_County%2C_Pennsylvania \"Chester County, Pennsylvania\"), and was the brother\\-in\\-law of Bloomington real estate developer Kersey Fell. Price came to Bloomington in 1849; he worked as a clerk and newspaper writer and was elected mayor of Bloomington in 1855 and again in 1856, serving until 1858\\. Price never lived in the new town he founded.",
"McLean was laid out when the Alton and Springfield Railroad, soon to become the [Alton Railroad](/wiki/Alton_Railroad \"Alton Railroad\"), was first built through McLean County. The nearby towns of [Atlanta](/wiki/Atlanta%2C_Illinois \"Atlanta, Illinois\"), [Normal](/wiki/Normal%2C_Illinois \"Normal, Illinois\"), and [Towanda](/wiki/Towanda%2C_Illinois \"Towanda, Illinois\") were laid out at the same time as McLean. There had been an earlier attempt to found a town nearby.",
"Mt. Hope, two miles east of McLean, was established in 1836 by the Providence Farmers and Mechanics Emigrating Society of [Rhode Island](/wiki/Rhode_Island \"Rhode Island\"). The colony and its town were not a success; only three settlers actually arrived in McLean County. When the town of McLean was founded, the church building from Mt. Hope was moved into McLean. The first residents of McLean were the brothers G.L. and F.A. Wheelock, railroad employees, who moved into the new station house to conduct business. A blacksmith shop was the first business, and H.H. Dillon built the first warehouse.*History of McLean County, Illinois* (Chicago: LeBaron 1879\\) pp. 578 – 579, 589\\.",
"McLean was incorporated as a village on May 29, 1866\\. By 1900, it had grown to a population of 532\\.'Historical Encyclopedia, 1908, P. 902\\.",
"### Original town design",
"The design of the original town of McLean remains almost unaltered to this day from the original plans. The design was similar to other places along the Alton and Springfield Railroad, including Normal, Towanda, [Odell](/wiki/Odell%2C_Illinois \"Odell, Illinois\"), and [Dwight](/wiki/Dwight%2C_Illinois \"Dwight, Illinois\"). The original town was basically a square with streets aligned north–south and east–west, split diagonally by the railroad with a line of lots paralleling either side of the tracks.",
"As in other towns along the same railroad, there was a widened rectangular area paralleling the tracks labeled \"Depot Grounds.\" In the case of McLean, the depot grounds were laid out only on the southeast side of the railroad. The triangle of land on the northwest side, between the lots paralleling the railroad and remainder of the town, was designated as a public property and is still used as a park. The comparable triangle on the opposite side of the tracks was unlabeled, and its intended use is unclear. This same arrangement of public land was followed at the village of [Towanda](/wiki/Towanda%2C_Illinois \"Towanda, Illinois\").",
"McLean was distinctive in that there were no streets between the diagonal line of lots along the tracks. Perhaps because of this, much of the business district developed along Morgan Street, which ran east–west just north of the park, or along Hamilton Street, which ran north–south, just west of the park. The line of lots paralleling the tracks and southeast of the railroad became the location of the hotel and the town jail. Later additions on the east side of the town featured additional lots which parallel the railroad, as well as more conventional blocks.*Combined Indexed Atlas 1856 \\-1914, McLean County Illinois* (Bloomington, Illinois: McLean County Historical Society and McLean County Genealogical society, 2006\\) pp. 113, 149\\.",
""
] |
Bus services
------------
[thumb\|right\|MacBrayne Bedford VAS bus at [Ardrishaig](/wiki/Ardrishaig "Ardrishaig") 1970, when MacBrayne buses operated in many parts of the west coast and islands](/wiki/File:Macbrayne_bus_Ardrishaig.jpg "Macbrayne bus Ardrishaig.jpg")
Motor bus services began with a Fort William to [Ballachulish](/wiki/Ballachulish "Ballachulish") route in 1906, and by the outbreak of the [First World War](/wiki/First_World_War "First World War") several other bus routes had been established around Inverness, Fort William and Ardrishaig. No routes actually connected these detached operations with each other at that stage, and road operations remained a very small part of the business until after the reconstituting of the company in 1928\. The new owners provided capital to modernise the business, including setting up a substantial road haulage division to replace cargo shipping services at many of the smaller ports. Expansion of the bus division was gradual, and mainly achieved by acquisition of existing small operators.The P.S.V. Circle and The Omnibus Society (1984\), *Fleet History PM10: David MacBrayne Limited*, pp. 3\-4\. P.S.V. Circle, London.
In 1929 Link Line of Glasgow introduced a coach route from Glasgow to [Tarbert](/wiki/Tarbert%2C_Kintyre "Tarbert, Kintyre") ([Kintyre](/wiki/Kintyre "Kintyre")) in competition with MacBrayne's steamer service, and MacBrayne quickly responded by introducing its own coach service, which would become one of the firm's principal routes. Coaches were timed to connect at Tarbert with MacBrayne's steamer to Islay and McConnachie of [Campbeltown](/wiki/Campbeltown "Campbeltown")'s bus service to that town. Link Line sold out to MacBrayne in 1932 ending the competition, although from 1935 onward [West Coast Motors](/wiki/West_Coast_Motors "West Coast Motors") of Campbeltown provided an overnight passenger and mail coach service between Campbeltown and Glasgow. MacBrayne's own buses did not reach Campbeltown until 1940, when they replaced the Glasgow to Campbeltown steamer.The P.S.V. Circle and The Omnibus Society (1984\), *Fleet History PM10: David MacBrayne Limited*, pp. 4\. P.S.V. Circle, London. MacBraynes and West Coast co\-existed on the route thereafter.
Another significant takeover was of Shields of [Kinlochleven](/wiki/Kinlochleven "Kinlochleven") in 1934\. Shields operated a service from Fort William to [Tyndrum](/wiki/Tyndrum "Tyndrum"), where a connection could be made with [W. Alexander \& Sons](/wiki/W._Alexander_%26_Sons "W. Alexander & Sons")' Oban to Glasgow (via [Helensburgh](/wiki/Helensburgh "Helensburgh")) service. MacBrayne extended some journeys on this route through to Glasgow (via Luss), although connections with the Alexander service also continued. McIntyre of Fort William was acquired in 1936, giving MacBrayne an interest in the Fort William to Fort Augustus route, and through services between Fort William and Inverness were finally introduced in 1939 following cessation of the Fort Augustus to Inverness steamer.
This important route was jointly operated with Macrae \& Dick of Inverness (a [Highland Omnibuses](/wiki/Highland_Scottish "Highland Scottish") predecessor). Various other small operators were taken over in the 1930s and 1940s, expanding or consolidating the route network on the mainland. Most MacBrayne bus services carried parcels and in some cases mail as well as passengers. In addition to the stage carriage routes, MacBraynes developed a significant coach tour operation in the West Highlands, often operated in conjunction with the firm's pleasure steamers.
On the islands served by MacBrayne steamers, connecting bus services were provided by local independent operators, but from 1941 onwards MacBrayne began to take over many of these businesses and to operate the buses themselves.McCallum, F. \& Bloomfield, S.W. (1965\), *British Bus Fleets No.22: Scottish Bus Group*, pp. 66\-67\. Ian Allan, London. Firms so acquired were McGibbon of Bowmore ([Islay](/wiki/Islay "Islay")) in 1941, MacKinnon of [Askernish](/wiki/Askernish "Askernish") ([South Uist](/wiki/South_Uist "South Uist")) in 1947, Ferguson of Clachan ([South Uist](/wiki/South_Uist "South Uist")) in 1947, MacLean \& Donald of [Ardvasar](/wiki/Ardvasar "Ardvasar") ([Skye](/wiki/Skye "Skye")) in 1948, MacDonald of Sollas ([North Uist](/wiki/North_Uist "North Uist")) in 1948, Skye Transport (a Scottish Co\-operative Wholesale Society subsidiary) of [Portree](/wiki/Portree "Portree") (Skye) in 1958, Cameron of Tarbert ([Harris](/wiki/Harris%2C_Outer_Hebrides "Harris, Outer Hebrides")) in 1964, Cowe of [Tobermory](/wiki/Tobermory%2C_Mull "Tobermory, Mull") ([Mull](/wiki/Isle_of_Mull "Isle of Mull")) in 1964 and finally Carson of [Dunvegan](/wiki/Dunvegan "Dunvegan") (Skye) in 1970\.The P.S.V. Circle and The Omnibus Society (1984\), *Fleet History PM10: David MacBrayne Limited*, pp. 38\. P.S.V. Circle, London.
Postwar expansion on the mainland included a detached operation on the [Ardgour](/wiki/Ardgour "Ardgour") Peninsula. When Ardgour and Acharacle Motor Services ceased trading at the end of 1950, MacBaynes took over their services connecting Acharacle and [Kilchoan](/wiki/Kilchoan "Kilchoan") with the [Corran Ferry](/wiki/Corran_Ferry "Corran Ferry"), by which means onward connection could be made with MacBrayne's buses for Fort William or Glasgow.The P.S.V. Circle and The Omnibus Society (1984\), *Fleet History PM10: David MacBrayne Limited*, pp. 5\. P.S.V. Circle, London. MacBraynes also took over operation of the ferry itself in 1954\. Another acquisition on the mainland was Campbell of [Glenshiel](/wiki/Glenshiel "Glenshiel") in 1960, with the route from Inverness to Kyle of Lochalsh and a connecting service from [Shiel Bridge](/wiki/Shiel_Bridge "Shiel Bridge") to [Glenelg](/wiki/Glenelg%2C_Highland "Glenelg, Highland").
Due to the highly dispersed nature of its operations, the MacBrayne bus fleet used a remarkably large number of bus depots relative to its size, none of which was particularly large and many of which were simply small sheds for overnight parking of one vehicle. For example, the five\-vehicle operation on Islay had a depot at [Port Ellen](/wiki/Port_Ellen "Port Ellen") and overnight sheds at [Port Askaig](/wiki/Port_Askaig "Port Askaig") and [Portnahaven](/wiki/Portnahaven "Portnahaven").The P.S.V. Circle and The Omnibus Society (1984\), *Fleet History PM10: David MacBrayne Limited*, pp. 36\. P.S.V. Circle, London. Many garage facilities were shared with the company's road haulage fleet. The largest bus depot was Fort William, and other larger facilities were at [Ardrishaig](/wiki/Ardrishaig "Ardrishaig"), Glasgow, Inverness, Kinlochleven, and Portree.{{cn\|date\=August 2022}}
|
[
"Bus services\n------------",
"[thumb\\|right\\|MacBrayne Bedford VAS bus at [Ardrishaig](/wiki/Ardrishaig \"Ardrishaig\") 1970, when MacBrayne buses operated in many parts of the west coast and islands](/wiki/File:Macbrayne_bus_Ardrishaig.jpg \"Macbrayne bus Ardrishaig.jpg\")\nMotor bus services began with a Fort William to [Ballachulish](/wiki/Ballachulish \"Ballachulish\") route in 1906, and by the outbreak of the [First World War](/wiki/First_World_War \"First World War\") several other bus routes had been established around Inverness, Fort William and Ardrishaig. No routes actually connected these detached operations with each other at that stage, and road operations remained a very small part of the business until after the reconstituting of the company in 1928\\. The new owners provided capital to modernise the business, including setting up a substantial road haulage division to replace cargo shipping services at many of the smaller ports. Expansion of the bus division was gradual, and mainly achieved by acquisition of existing small operators.The P.S.V. Circle and The Omnibus Society (1984\\), *Fleet History PM10: David MacBrayne Limited*, pp. 3\\-4\\. P.S.V. Circle, London.",
"In 1929 Link Line of Glasgow introduced a coach route from Glasgow to [Tarbert](/wiki/Tarbert%2C_Kintyre \"Tarbert, Kintyre\") ([Kintyre](/wiki/Kintyre \"Kintyre\")) in competition with MacBrayne's steamer service, and MacBrayne quickly responded by introducing its own coach service, which would become one of the firm's principal routes. Coaches were timed to connect at Tarbert with MacBrayne's steamer to Islay and McConnachie of [Campbeltown](/wiki/Campbeltown \"Campbeltown\")'s bus service to that town. Link Line sold out to MacBrayne in 1932 ending the competition, although from 1935 onward [West Coast Motors](/wiki/West_Coast_Motors \"West Coast Motors\") of Campbeltown provided an overnight passenger and mail coach service between Campbeltown and Glasgow. MacBrayne's own buses did not reach Campbeltown until 1940, when they replaced the Glasgow to Campbeltown steamer.The P.S.V. Circle and The Omnibus Society (1984\\), *Fleet History PM10: David MacBrayne Limited*, pp. 4\\. P.S.V. Circle, London. MacBraynes and West Coast co\\-existed on the route thereafter.",
"Another significant takeover was of Shields of [Kinlochleven](/wiki/Kinlochleven \"Kinlochleven\") in 1934\\. Shields operated a service from Fort William to [Tyndrum](/wiki/Tyndrum \"Tyndrum\"), where a connection could be made with [W. Alexander \\& Sons](/wiki/W._Alexander_%26_Sons \"W. Alexander & Sons\")' Oban to Glasgow (via [Helensburgh](/wiki/Helensburgh \"Helensburgh\")) service. MacBrayne extended some journeys on this route through to Glasgow (via Luss), although connections with the Alexander service also continued. McIntyre of Fort William was acquired in 1936, giving MacBrayne an interest in the Fort William to Fort Augustus route, and through services between Fort William and Inverness were finally introduced in 1939 following cessation of the Fort Augustus to Inverness steamer.",
"This important route was jointly operated with Macrae \\& Dick of Inverness (a [Highland Omnibuses](/wiki/Highland_Scottish \"Highland Scottish\") predecessor). Various other small operators were taken over in the 1930s and 1940s, expanding or consolidating the route network on the mainland. Most MacBrayne bus services carried parcels and in some cases mail as well as passengers. In addition to the stage carriage routes, MacBraynes developed a significant coach tour operation in the West Highlands, often operated in conjunction with the firm's pleasure steamers.",
"On the islands served by MacBrayne steamers, connecting bus services were provided by local independent operators, but from 1941 onwards MacBrayne began to take over many of these businesses and to operate the buses themselves.McCallum, F. \\& Bloomfield, S.W. (1965\\), *British Bus Fleets No.22: Scottish Bus Group*, pp. 66\\-67\\. Ian Allan, London. Firms so acquired were McGibbon of Bowmore ([Islay](/wiki/Islay \"Islay\")) in 1941, MacKinnon of [Askernish](/wiki/Askernish \"Askernish\") ([South Uist](/wiki/South_Uist \"South Uist\")) in 1947, Ferguson of Clachan ([South Uist](/wiki/South_Uist \"South Uist\")) in 1947, MacLean \\& Donald of [Ardvasar](/wiki/Ardvasar \"Ardvasar\") ([Skye](/wiki/Skye \"Skye\")) in 1948, MacDonald of Sollas ([North Uist](/wiki/North_Uist \"North Uist\")) in 1948, Skye Transport (a Scottish Co\\-operative Wholesale Society subsidiary) of [Portree](/wiki/Portree \"Portree\") (Skye) in 1958, Cameron of Tarbert ([Harris](/wiki/Harris%2C_Outer_Hebrides \"Harris, Outer Hebrides\")) in 1964, Cowe of [Tobermory](/wiki/Tobermory%2C_Mull \"Tobermory, Mull\") ([Mull](/wiki/Isle_of_Mull \"Isle of Mull\")) in 1964 and finally Carson of [Dunvegan](/wiki/Dunvegan \"Dunvegan\") (Skye) in 1970\\.The P.S.V. Circle and The Omnibus Society (1984\\), *Fleet History PM10: David MacBrayne Limited*, pp. 38\\. P.S.V. Circle, London.",
"Postwar expansion on the mainland included a detached operation on the [Ardgour](/wiki/Ardgour \"Ardgour\") Peninsula. When Ardgour and Acharacle Motor Services ceased trading at the end of 1950, MacBaynes took over their services connecting Acharacle and [Kilchoan](/wiki/Kilchoan \"Kilchoan\") with the [Corran Ferry](/wiki/Corran_Ferry \"Corran Ferry\"), by which means onward connection could be made with MacBrayne's buses for Fort William or Glasgow.The P.S.V. Circle and The Omnibus Society (1984\\), *Fleet History PM10: David MacBrayne Limited*, pp. 5\\. P.S.V. Circle, London. MacBraynes also took over operation of the ferry itself in 1954\\. Another acquisition on the mainland was Campbell of [Glenshiel](/wiki/Glenshiel \"Glenshiel\") in 1960, with the route from Inverness to Kyle of Lochalsh and a connecting service from [Shiel Bridge](/wiki/Shiel_Bridge \"Shiel Bridge\") to [Glenelg](/wiki/Glenelg%2C_Highland \"Glenelg, Highland\").",
"Due to the highly dispersed nature of its operations, the MacBrayne bus fleet used a remarkably large number of bus depots relative to its size, none of which was particularly large and many of which were simply small sheds for overnight parking of one vehicle. For example, the five\\-vehicle operation on Islay had a depot at [Port Ellen](/wiki/Port_Ellen \"Port Ellen\") and overnight sheds at [Port Askaig](/wiki/Port_Askaig \"Port Askaig\") and [Portnahaven](/wiki/Portnahaven \"Portnahaven\").The P.S.V. Circle and The Omnibus Society (1984\\), *Fleet History PM10: David MacBrayne Limited*, pp. 36\\. P.S.V. Circle, London. Many garage facilities were shared with the company's road haulage fleet. The largest bus depot was Fort William, and other larger facilities were at [Ardrishaig](/wiki/Ardrishaig \"Ardrishaig\"), Glasgow, Inverness, Kinlochleven, and Portree.{{cn\\|date\\=August 2022}}",
""
] |
Modern fiction and games
------------------------
Agaliarept is also the name given to the Demon King in two computer games published by [Level 9 Computing](/wiki/Level_9_Computing "Level 9 Computing") in the 1980s as part of their *Middle Earth* [trilogy](/wiki/Trilogy "Trilogy"): *Adventure Quest* and *Dungeon Adventure*.{{Fact\|date\=October 2008}}
In the [MMORPG](/wiki/MMORPG "MMORPG") *[Ultima Online](/wiki/Ultima_Online "Ultima Online")*, Agaliarept is one of the names randomly assigned to demons in various dungeons.
Agaliarept is featured in [Wayne Barlowe's](/wiki/Wayne_Barlowe "Wayne Barlowe") novel *God's Demon*, appearing as a bizarre gestalt entity serving as the court conjuror to [Beelzebub](/wiki/Beelzebub "Beelzebub").
The Action\-Online\-RPG *The Ruins of the Lost Kingdom Online* also has a Boss named Agaliarept (Japanese Katakana:"アガリアレプト") with 2 additional variations with added prefix "Demon\-Lord \[魔王]" and "Old Devil \[老魔]".
Algaliarept (note spelling variation) is the name given to a demon in [Kim Harrison](/wiki/Kim_Harrison "Kim Harrison")'s [urban fantasy](/wiki/Urban_fantasy "Urban fantasy") series about Rachel Morgan set in *[The Hollows](/wiki/Hollows_%28series%29 "Hollows (series)")*.
In the anime *[Macademi Wasshoi!](/wiki/Macademi_Wasshoi%21 "Macademi Wasshoi!")*, Agaliarept is a highest\-rank demon and ironically trying to save the world. He is also a friend of Gabriel, the archangel. She even calls him Aga\-rin as a nickname.
In the game *[Lucius II](/wiki/Lucius_II_%28video_game%29 "Lucius II (video game)")*, Agaliarept is one of the titles based on your scores that you can get at the end of every level.
|
[
"Modern fiction and games\n------------------------",
"Agaliarept is also the name given to the Demon King in two computer games published by [Level 9 Computing](/wiki/Level_9_Computing \"Level 9 Computing\") in the 1980s as part of their *Middle Earth* [trilogy](/wiki/Trilogy \"Trilogy\"): *Adventure Quest* and *Dungeon Adventure*.{{Fact\\|date\\=October 2008}}",
"In the [MMORPG](/wiki/MMORPG \"MMORPG\") *[Ultima Online](/wiki/Ultima_Online \"Ultima Online\")*, Agaliarept is one of the names randomly assigned to demons in various dungeons.",
"Agaliarept is featured in [Wayne Barlowe's](/wiki/Wayne_Barlowe \"Wayne Barlowe\") novel *God's Demon*, appearing as a bizarre gestalt entity serving as the court conjuror to [Beelzebub](/wiki/Beelzebub \"Beelzebub\").",
"The Action\\-Online\\-RPG *The Ruins of the Lost Kingdom Online* also has a Boss named Agaliarept (Japanese Katakana:\"アガリアレプト\") with 2 additional variations with added prefix \"Demon\\-Lord \\[魔王]\" and \"Old Devil \\[老魔]\".",
"Algaliarept (note spelling variation) is the name given to a demon in [Kim Harrison](/wiki/Kim_Harrison \"Kim Harrison\")'s [urban fantasy](/wiki/Urban_fantasy \"Urban fantasy\") series about Rachel Morgan set in *[The Hollows](/wiki/Hollows_%28series%29 \"Hollows (series)\")*.",
"In the anime *[Macademi Wasshoi!](/wiki/Macademi_Wasshoi%21 \"Macademi Wasshoi!\")*, Agaliarept is a highest\\-rank demon and ironically trying to save the world. He is also a friend of Gabriel, the archangel. She even calls him Aga\\-rin as a nickname.",
"In the game *[Lucius II](/wiki/Lucius_II_%28video_game%29 \"Lucius II (video game)\")*, Agaliarept is one of the titles based on your scores that you can get at the end of every level.",
""
] |
Career
------
Prior to holding political office, Boyce was the executive director of the KnowledgeWorks Foundation, a nonprofit organization that promotes college access for high school students.{{cite news\|url\=http://www.bizjournals.com/cincinnati/stories/2008/12/22/daily35\.html\|title\=Columbus councilman named state treasurer\|last\=Bell\|first\=Jeff\|date\=December 13, 2008\|publisher\=Business Courier of Cincinnati\|page\=1\|access\-date\=December 23, 2008}} He was also the executive director of the [Ohio Legislative Black Caucus](/wiki/Ohio_Legislative_Black_Caucus "Ohio Legislative Black Caucus") from 1997 to 1999\.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.aamec.us/Councilman%20Boyce%20Bio.html \|title\=Kevin L. Boyce \|publisher\=Columbus City Council \|access\-date\=December 23, 2008 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080415222543/http://www.aamec.us/Councilman%20Boyce%20Bio.html \|archive\-date\=April 15, 2008 \|url\-status\=dead}} He managed Charleta B. Tavares' unsuccessful campaign for Ohio Secretary of State in 1998, and was Chief of Staff for the Minority Caucus of the [Ohio House of Representatives](/wiki/Ohio_House_of_Representatives "Ohio House of Representatives") from January 1999 to September 2000\.{{cite news\|url\=http://www.dispatch.com/live/content/local\_news/stories/2008/12/23/boyce.html?sid\=101\|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20130208041557/http://www.dispatch.com/live/content/local\_news/stories/2008/12/23/boyce.html?sid\=101\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-date\=February 8, 2013\|title\=Boyce to be next state treasurer\|last\=Hallett\|first\=Joe\|date\=December 23, 2008\|publisher\=The Columbus Dispatch\|page\=1\|access\-date\=December 24, 2008}}
On September 11, 2000, Boyce was appointed to [Columbus City Council](/wiki/Columbus_City_Council "Columbus City Council"). He was elected to one of three open Council seats in the November 6, 2001 election and won another four\-year Council term on November 8, 2005\. On the council, Boyce ultimately served as [President pro Tempore](/wiki/President_pro_Tempore "President pro Tempore") and as Chairman of the Finance and Zoning Committees.{{cite news\|url\=http://www.columbuspost.com/news/headlines347\.html\|title\=Africa awaits Boyce\|last\=Thornton\|first\=Pamela Glason\|publisher\=\[\[Columbus Post]]\|page\=1\|access\-date\=December 23, 2008\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090624023920/http://www.columbuspost.com/news/headlines347\.html\|archive\-date\=June 24, 2009\|url\-status\=dead\|df\=mdy\-all}}{{cite news\|url\=http://www.ohio.com/news/ap?articleID\=1328067\&c\=y \|title\=Source: Boyce to be next Ohio Treasurer \|last\=Majors \|first\=Stephen \|author2\=Julie Carr Smyth \|date\=December 23, 2008 \|agency\=Associated Press \|publisher\=\[\[Akron Beacon Journal]] \|page\=1 \|access\-date\=December 23, 2008 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110615134724/http://www.ohio.com/news/ap?articleID\=1328067\&c\=y \|archive\-date\=June 15, 2011 \|url\-status\=dead}}
On December 23, 2008, Democratic Governor [Ted Strickland](/wiki/Ted_Strickland "Ted Strickland") announced Boyce's appointment as [Ohio State Treasurer](/wiki/Ohio_State_Treasurer "Ohio State Treasurer"), to replace [Richard Cordray](/wiki/Richard_Cordray "Richard Cordray"), who left office in November 2008 to become [Ohio Attorney General](/wiki/Ohio_Attorney_General "Ohio Attorney General").{{cite news\|last\=Provance\|first\=Jim\|date\=December 23, 2008\|title\=University of Toledo graduate selected as Ohio treasurer\|page\=1\|publisher\=\[\[Toledo Blade]]\|url\=http://toledoblade.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID\=/20081223/NEWS24/812230261\&Show\=0\|access\-date\=December 23, 2008}} On January 8, 2009, Boyce was sworn into office, becoming the first African\-American Democrat to hold a statewide, non\-judicial office in Ohio. In July 2009, the [Dayton Daily News](/wiki/Dayton_Daily_News "Dayton Daily News") published an article alleging that Boyce had spent $32,469 on promotional items with his name on them. Despite Boyce's arguments that such practices were common for political officeholders and that he had spent 30% less than did his predecessor on such items, Boyce's Republican opponent in the 2010 campaign, state Rep. [Josh Mandel](/wiki/Josh_Mandel "Josh Mandel"), charged that the expenditures were inappropriate given the state's budget difficulties.{{cite news\|last\=Bischoff\|first\=Laura\|title\=Critics: Ohio Treasurer shouldn't be spending on self\-promotion\|url\=http://www.daytondailynews.com/news/politics/critics\-ohio\-treasurer\-shouldnt\-be\-spending\-on\-self\-promotion\-161898\.html?showComments\=true\|access\-date\=June 6, 2010\|newspaper\=\[\[Dayton Daily News]]\|date\=June 13, 2009}} Boyce also was criticized for hiring [Democratic](/wiki/Democratic_Party_%28United_States%29 "Democratic Party (United States)") party operatives for several positions within his office.
Boyce was further questioned for awarding a $160,000 per year contract to [Key Bank](/wiki/Key_Bank "Key Bank") for processing the state's checks. While Ohio had previously processed its own checks for 100 years, Boyce expected that the new contract would save approximately $83,000 per year through increased interest earnings. The contract was awarded in a competitive bid process, but critics questioned it because two Key Bank lobbyists held a $500 per ticket fundraiser for Boyce one week after the contract was awarded.{{cite news\|last\=Bischoff\|first\=Laura\|title\=Ohio treasurer gives bank contract, gets political fundraiser\|url\=http://www.daytondailynews.com/news/dayton\-news/ohio\-treasurer\-gives\-bank\-contract\-gets\-political\-fund\-raiser\-225029\.html\|access\-date\=June 6, 2010\|newspaper\=\[\[Dayton Daily News]]\|date\=July 28, 2009}}
### State Treasurer
Boyce ran for the Treasurer's position for the first time during the [2010 midterm elections](/wiki/United_States_elections%2C_2010%23Other_state-wide_officer_elections "United States elections, 2010#Other state-wide officer elections") against Republican challenger [Josh Mandel](/wiki/Josh_Mandel_%28politician%29 "Josh Mandel (politician)"), but lost the election with 40\.2% of the vote.{{cite news\|last\=Scott\|first\=Michael\|title\=Republican challenger Josh Mandel crushes incumbent Kevin Boyce in Ohio treasurer's race\|url\=http://www.cleveland.com/politics/index.ssf/2010/11/ohio\_treasurer\_incumbent\_boyce.html\|access\-date\=November 4, 2010\|newspaper\=\[\[The Plain Dealer]]\|date\=November 3, 2010}}
After losing re\-election in 2010, Boyce recommended his top aide, Amer Ahmad, to Chicago Mayor [Rahm Emanuel](/wiki/Rahm_Emanuel "Rahm Emanuel") for Comptroller of Chicago, even though Boyce had received federal subpoenas asking about Ahmad's involvement in contracts given to a Boston bank.{{cite journal\|journal\=Chicago Tribune \|first\=John \|last\=Byrne \|title\=Mayor says he wouldn't have hired Ahmad if he knew of probe : Emanuel blames Ohio officials for lack of information \|date\=August 27, 2013 \|url\=http://www.chicagotribune.com/news/local/ct\-met\-rahm\-emanuel\-comptroller\-indicted\-0828\-20130828,0,563144\.story }} Ahmad was indicted in August 2013, charged with eight counts of bribery, wire fraud and conspiracy for his actions as Ohio deputy treasurer under Boyce.{{cite journal\|journal\=Crain's Chicago Business \|title\=Emanuel's ex\-Comptroller Amer Ahmad indicted in Ohio \|date\=August 15, 2013 \|url\=http://www.chicagobusiness.com/article/20130815/BLOGS02/130819859/emanuels\-ex\-comptroller\-amer\-ahmad\-indicted\-in\-ohio}} Ahmad is a fugitive from justice in [Pakistan](/wiki/Pakistan "Pakistan"). He was sentenced to 15 years in US prison, but is unlikely to be extradited.{{cite web\|publisher\=Columbus Dispatch \|date\=December 2, 2014\|title\=Former state official Ahmad, now in Pakistan, faces 15 years in prison here\|first\=Kathy Lynn\|last\=Gray\|access\-date\=March 3, 2015\|url\=http://www.dispatch.com/content/stories/local/2014/12/01/former\-state\-official\-sentenced\-in\-absentia.html}}
The [National Council of Negro Women](/wiki/National_Council_of_Negro_Women "National Council of Negro Women") presented Boyce its Community Service Plaque in May 2004\. He was honored by the [Phi Beta Sigma](/wiki/Phi_Beta_Sigma "Phi Beta Sigma") fraternity and Leadership At Its Best LLC as an outstanding role model for young men in November 2004\.
### Ohio House of Representatives
When [W. Carlton Weddington](/wiki/W._Carlton_Weddington "W. Carlton Weddington") was indicted in a bribery scandal in early 2012, he resigned his seat, forcing House Democrats to appoint his successor. It was soon after announced that Boyce would be the appointee, chosen over a number of applicants. Boyce was sworn into office on May 6, 2012\. In 2012, Boyce won his first full term in the House with 85\.84% of the vote over Republican Seth Golding.
In 2014, Boyce won a second term with 81% of the vote, and was elected soon after to serve as [Minority Whip](/wiki/Minority_Whip "Minority Whip") as well. He was also the only Democrat to hold a Chairmanship in the [131st Ohio General Assembly](/wiki/131st_Ohio_General_Assembly "131st Ohio General Assembly"), as the Chair of the Committee on Community and Family Advancement's Subcommittee on Minority Affairs.{{cite news \|url\=http://www.dispatch.com/content/stories/local/2015/03/01/income\-shift.html \|title\=Debate over Ohio's shift from income tax to sales tax continues \|work\=Columbus Dispatch \|date\=March 1, 2015 \|access\-date\=March 2, 2015 }}
#### Committee assignments
* **[Committee on Community \& Family Advancement](/wiki/Ohio_House_Committees%23Community_%26_Family_Advancement "Ohio House Committees#Community & Family Advancement")**
+ **[Subcommittee on Minority Affairs](/wiki/Ohio_House_Committees%23Community_%26_Family_Advancement "Ohio House Committees#Community & Family Advancement")** (Chair)
* **[Committee on Finance \& Appropriations](/wiki/Ohio_House_Committees%23Finance_%26_Appropriations "Ohio House Committees#Finance & Appropriations")**
* **[Committee on Rules \& Reference](/wiki/Ohio_House_Committees%23Rules_%26_Reference "Ohio House Committees#Rules & Reference")**{{clear}}
### Franklin County Board of Commissioners
In the March 15, 2016 Democratic primary election, Boyce defeated incumbent [Paula Brooks](/wiki/Paula_Brooks_%28politician%29 "Paula Brooks (politician)") in her bid for re\-election to the Franklin County Board of Commissioners, receiving 58% of the vote to Brooks' 42%.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.dispatch.com/content/stories/public/2016/primary\-election/franklin\-county\-officeholders.html\|title\=Sheriff Zach Scott among Democrats swept from Franklin County offices\|author\=Rick Rouan\|date\=March 16, 2016\|work\=The Columbus Dispatch\|access\-date\=March 17, 2016}} In an unusual move, the Franklin County Democratic Party endorsed Boyce rather than the incumbent Brooks, in part as a consequence of Brooks' support for county sheriff Zach Scott in his failed effort to oppose [Andy Ginther](/wiki/Andy_Ginther "Andy Ginther"), who received the party's endorsement for mayor of Columbus in [the preceding general election](/wiki/Columbus%2C_Ohio_mayoral_election%2C_2015 "Columbus, Ohio mayoral election, 2015"). Scott was also defeated in the March 2016 primary election in his effort to continue as county sheriff.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.dispatch.com/content/stories/local/2016/03/17/democratic\-party\-rulers\-had\-their\-way.html\|title\=Democratic Party hierarchy flexes its muscle in Franklin County primary\|author\=Rick Rouan\|date\=March 17, 2016\|work\=The Columbus Dispatch\|access\-date\=March 17, 2016}} Boyce then defeated his Republican opponent Terry Boyd in the November, 2016 general election.
On November 3, 2020, Boyce defeated his Republican challenger Andrew Littler to earn a 2nd term on the [Franklin County, Ohio](/wiki/Franklin_County%2C_Ohio "Franklin County, Ohio") Board of Commissioners. He currently serves as President of the Franklin County Board of Commissioners.
|
[
"Career\n------",
"Prior to holding political office, Boyce was the executive director of the KnowledgeWorks Foundation, a nonprofit organization that promotes college access for high school students.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.bizjournals.com/cincinnati/stories/2008/12/22/daily35\\.html\\|title\\=Columbus councilman named state treasurer\\|last\\=Bell\\|first\\=Jeff\\|date\\=December 13, 2008\\|publisher\\=Business Courier of Cincinnati\\|page\\=1\\|access\\-date\\=December 23, 2008}} He was also the executive director of the [Ohio Legislative Black Caucus](/wiki/Ohio_Legislative_Black_Caucus \"Ohio Legislative Black Caucus\") from 1997 to 1999\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.aamec.us/Councilman%20Boyce%20Bio.html \\|title\\=Kevin L. Boyce \\|publisher\\=Columbus City Council \\|access\\-date\\=December 23, 2008 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080415222543/http://www.aamec.us/Councilman%20Boyce%20Bio.html \\|archive\\-date\\=April 15, 2008 \\|url\\-status\\=dead}} He managed Charleta B. Tavares' unsuccessful campaign for Ohio Secretary of State in 1998, and was Chief of Staff for the Minority Caucus of the [Ohio House of Representatives](/wiki/Ohio_House_of_Representatives \"Ohio House of Representatives\") from January 1999 to September 2000\\.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.dispatch.com/live/content/local\\_news/stories/2008/12/23/boyce.html?sid\\=101\\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20130208041557/http://www.dispatch.com/live/content/local\\_news/stories/2008/12/23/boyce.html?sid\\=101\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-date\\=February 8, 2013\\|title\\=Boyce to be next state treasurer\\|last\\=Hallett\\|first\\=Joe\\|date\\=December 23, 2008\\|publisher\\=The Columbus Dispatch\\|page\\=1\\|access\\-date\\=December 24, 2008}}",
"On September 11, 2000, Boyce was appointed to [Columbus City Council](/wiki/Columbus_City_Council \"Columbus City Council\"). He was elected to one of three open Council seats in the November 6, 2001 election and won another four\\-year Council term on November 8, 2005\\. On the council, Boyce ultimately served as [President pro Tempore](/wiki/President_pro_Tempore \"President pro Tempore\") and as Chairman of the Finance and Zoning Committees.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.columbuspost.com/news/headlines347\\.html\\|title\\=Africa awaits Boyce\\|last\\=Thornton\\|first\\=Pamela Glason\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Columbus Post]]\\|page\\=1\\|access\\-date\\=December 23, 2008\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090624023920/http://www.columbuspost.com/news/headlines347\\.html\\|archive\\-date\\=June 24, 2009\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|df\\=mdy\\-all}}{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.ohio.com/news/ap?articleID\\=1328067\\&c\\=y \\|title\\=Source: Boyce to be next Ohio Treasurer \\|last\\=Majors \\|first\\=Stephen \\|author2\\=Julie Carr Smyth \\|date\\=December 23, 2008 \\|agency\\=Associated Press \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Akron Beacon Journal]] \\|page\\=1 \\|access\\-date\\=December 23, 2008 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110615134724/http://www.ohio.com/news/ap?articleID\\=1328067\\&c\\=y \\|archive\\-date\\=June 15, 2011 \\|url\\-status\\=dead}}",
"On December 23, 2008, Democratic Governor [Ted Strickland](/wiki/Ted_Strickland \"Ted Strickland\") announced Boyce's appointment as [Ohio State Treasurer](/wiki/Ohio_State_Treasurer \"Ohio State Treasurer\"), to replace [Richard Cordray](/wiki/Richard_Cordray \"Richard Cordray\"), who left office in November 2008 to become [Ohio Attorney General](/wiki/Ohio_Attorney_General \"Ohio Attorney General\").{{cite news\\|last\\=Provance\\|first\\=Jim\\|date\\=December 23, 2008\\|title\\=University of Toledo graduate selected as Ohio treasurer\\|page\\=1\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Toledo Blade]]\\|url\\=http://toledoblade.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID\\=/20081223/NEWS24/812230261\\&Show\\=0\\|access\\-date\\=December 23, 2008}} On January 8, 2009, Boyce was sworn into office, becoming the first African\\-American Democrat to hold a statewide, non\\-judicial office in Ohio. In July 2009, the [Dayton Daily News](/wiki/Dayton_Daily_News \"Dayton Daily News\") published an article alleging that Boyce had spent $32,469 on promotional items with his name on them. Despite Boyce's arguments that such practices were common for political officeholders and that he had spent 30% less than did his predecessor on such items, Boyce's Republican opponent in the 2010 campaign, state Rep. [Josh Mandel](/wiki/Josh_Mandel \"Josh Mandel\"), charged that the expenditures were inappropriate given the state's budget difficulties.{{cite news\\|last\\=Bischoff\\|first\\=Laura\\|title\\=Critics: Ohio Treasurer shouldn't be spending on self\\-promotion\\|url\\=http://www.daytondailynews.com/news/politics/critics\\-ohio\\-treasurer\\-shouldnt\\-be\\-spending\\-on\\-self\\-promotion\\-161898\\.html?showComments\\=true\\|access\\-date\\=June 6, 2010\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[Dayton Daily News]]\\|date\\=June 13, 2009}} Boyce also was criticized for hiring [Democratic](/wiki/Democratic_Party_%28United_States%29 \"Democratic Party (United States)\") party operatives for several positions within his office.",
"Boyce was further questioned for awarding a $160,000 per year contract to [Key Bank](/wiki/Key_Bank \"Key Bank\") for processing the state's checks. While Ohio had previously processed its own checks for 100 years, Boyce expected that the new contract would save approximately $83,000 per year through increased interest earnings. The contract was awarded in a competitive bid process, but critics questioned it because two Key Bank lobbyists held a $500 per ticket fundraiser for Boyce one week after the contract was awarded.{{cite news\\|last\\=Bischoff\\|first\\=Laura\\|title\\=Ohio treasurer gives bank contract, gets political fundraiser\\|url\\=http://www.daytondailynews.com/news/dayton\\-news/ohio\\-treasurer\\-gives\\-bank\\-contract\\-gets\\-political\\-fund\\-raiser\\-225029\\.html\\|access\\-date\\=June 6, 2010\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[Dayton Daily News]]\\|date\\=July 28, 2009}}",
"### State Treasurer",
"Boyce ran for the Treasurer's position for the first time during the [2010 midterm elections](/wiki/United_States_elections%2C_2010%23Other_state-wide_officer_elections \"United States elections, 2010#Other state-wide officer elections\") against Republican challenger [Josh Mandel](/wiki/Josh_Mandel_%28politician%29 \"Josh Mandel (politician)\"), but lost the election with 40\\.2% of the vote.{{cite news\\|last\\=Scott\\|first\\=Michael\\|title\\=Republican challenger Josh Mandel crushes incumbent Kevin Boyce in Ohio treasurer's race\\|url\\=http://www.cleveland.com/politics/index.ssf/2010/11/ohio\\_treasurer\\_incumbent\\_boyce.html\\|access\\-date\\=November 4, 2010\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The Plain Dealer]]\\|date\\=November 3, 2010}}",
"After losing re\\-election in 2010, Boyce recommended his top aide, Amer Ahmad, to Chicago Mayor [Rahm Emanuel](/wiki/Rahm_Emanuel \"Rahm Emanuel\") for Comptroller of Chicago, even though Boyce had received federal subpoenas asking about Ahmad's involvement in contracts given to a Boston bank.{{cite journal\\|journal\\=Chicago Tribune \\|first\\=John \\|last\\=Byrne \\|title\\=Mayor says he wouldn't have hired Ahmad if he knew of probe : Emanuel blames Ohio officials for lack of information \\|date\\=August 27, 2013 \\|url\\=http://www.chicagotribune.com/news/local/ct\\-met\\-rahm\\-emanuel\\-comptroller\\-indicted\\-0828\\-20130828,0,563144\\.story }} Ahmad was indicted in August 2013, charged with eight counts of bribery, wire fraud and conspiracy for his actions as Ohio deputy treasurer under Boyce.{{cite journal\\|journal\\=Crain's Chicago Business \\|title\\=Emanuel's ex\\-Comptroller Amer Ahmad indicted in Ohio \\|date\\=August 15, 2013 \\|url\\=http://www.chicagobusiness.com/article/20130815/BLOGS02/130819859/emanuels\\-ex\\-comptroller\\-amer\\-ahmad\\-indicted\\-in\\-ohio}} Ahmad is a fugitive from justice in [Pakistan](/wiki/Pakistan \"Pakistan\"). He was sentenced to 15 years in US prison, but is unlikely to be extradited.{{cite web\\|publisher\\=Columbus Dispatch \\|date\\=December 2, 2014\\|title\\=Former state official Ahmad, now in Pakistan, faces 15 years in prison here\\|first\\=Kathy Lynn\\|last\\=Gray\\|access\\-date\\=March 3, 2015\\|url\\=http://www.dispatch.com/content/stories/local/2014/12/01/former\\-state\\-official\\-sentenced\\-in\\-absentia.html}}",
"The [National Council of Negro Women](/wiki/National_Council_of_Negro_Women \"National Council of Negro Women\") presented Boyce its Community Service Plaque in May 2004\\. He was honored by the [Phi Beta Sigma](/wiki/Phi_Beta_Sigma \"Phi Beta Sigma\") fraternity and Leadership At Its Best LLC as an outstanding role model for young men in November 2004\\.",
"### Ohio House of Representatives",
"When [W. Carlton Weddington](/wiki/W._Carlton_Weddington \"W. Carlton Weddington\") was indicted in a bribery scandal in early 2012, he resigned his seat, forcing House Democrats to appoint his successor. It was soon after announced that Boyce would be the appointee, chosen over a number of applicants. Boyce was sworn into office on May 6, 2012\\. In 2012, Boyce won his first full term in the House with 85\\.84% of the vote over Republican Seth Golding.",
"In 2014, Boyce won a second term with 81% of the vote, and was elected soon after to serve as [Minority Whip](/wiki/Minority_Whip \"Minority Whip\") as well. He was also the only Democrat to hold a Chairmanship in the [131st Ohio General Assembly](/wiki/131st_Ohio_General_Assembly \"131st Ohio General Assembly\"), as the Chair of the Committee on Community and Family Advancement's Subcommittee on Minority Affairs.{{cite news \\|url\\=http://www.dispatch.com/content/stories/local/2015/03/01/income\\-shift.html \\|title\\=Debate over Ohio's shift from income tax to sales tax continues \\|work\\=Columbus Dispatch \\|date\\=March 1, 2015 \\|access\\-date\\=March 2, 2015 }}",
"#### Committee assignments",
"* **[Committee on Community \\& Family Advancement](/wiki/Ohio_House_Committees%23Community_%26_Family_Advancement \"Ohio House Committees#Community & Family Advancement\")**\n\t+ **[Subcommittee on Minority Affairs](/wiki/Ohio_House_Committees%23Community_%26_Family_Advancement \"Ohio House Committees#Community & Family Advancement\")** (Chair)\n* **[Committee on Finance \\& Appropriations](/wiki/Ohio_House_Committees%23Finance_%26_Appropriations \"Ohio House Committees#Finance & Appropriations\")**\n* **[Committee on Rules \\& Reference](/wiki/Ohio_House_Committees%23Rules_%26_Reference \"Ohio House Committees#Rules & Reference\")**{{clear}}",
"### Franklin County Board of Commissioners",
"In the March 15, 2016 Democratic primary election, Boyce defeated incumbent [Paula Brooks](/wiki/Paula_Brooks_%28politician%29 \"Paula Brooks (politician)\") in her bid for re\\-election to the Franklin County Board of Commissioners, receiving 58% of the vote to Brooks' 42%.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.dispatch.com/content/stories/public/2016/primary\\-election/franklin\\-county\\-officeholders.html\\|title\\=Sheriff Zach Scott among Democrats swept from Franklin County offices\\|author\\=Rick Rouan\\|date\\=March 16, 2016\\|work\\=The Columbus Dispatch\\|access\\-date\\=March 17, 2016}} In an unusual move, the Franklin County Democratic Party endorsed Boyce rather than the incumbent Brooks, in part as a consequence of Brooks' support for county sheriff Zach Scott in his failed effort to oppose [Andy Ginther](/wiki/Andy_Ginther \"Andy Ginther\"), who received the party's endorsement for mayor of Columbus in [the preceding general election](/wiki/Columbus%2C_Ohio_mayoral_election%2C_2015 \"Columbus, Ohio mayoral election, 2015\"). Scott was also defeated in the March 2016 primary election in his effort to continue as county sheriff.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.dispatch.com/content/stories/local/2016/03/17/democratic\\-party\\-rulers\\-had\\-their\\-way.html\\|title\\=Democratic Party hierarchy flexes its muscle in Franklin County primary\\|author\\=Rick Rouan\\|date\\=March 17, 2016\\|work\\=The Columbus Dispatch\\|access\\-date\\=March 17, 2016}} Boyce then defeated his Republican opponent Terry Boyd in the November, 2016 general election.",
"On November 3, 2020, Boyce defeated his Republican challenger Andrew Littler to earn a 2nd term on the [Franklin County, Ohio](/wiki/Franklin_County%2C_Ohio \"Franklin County, Ohio\") Board of Commissioners. He currently serves as President of the Franklin County Board of Commissioners.",
""
] |
Design and development
----------------------
The H3H1 was Hiro Naval Arsenal's first large all\-metal, [stressed\-skin](/wiki/Stressed-skin "Stressed-skin") aircraft, though they had long experience of large wooden flying boat design and construction. It was the first Japanese Naval aircraft able to carry a one tonne bomb load. Built in 1931, it was first flown in the spring of 1932\.
It had a [shoulder\-mounted](/wiki/Shoulder_wing "Shoulder wing"), [cantilever](/wiki/Cantilever "Cantilever") wing built around a type of single [box spar](/wiki/Spar_%28aeronautics%29 "Spar (aeronautics)") previously proven by the German company [Rohrbach](/wiki/Rohrbach_Metall-Flugzeugbau "Rohrbach Metall-Flugzeugbau"). Its three licence\-built, {{cvt\|650\-790\|hp\|kW\|disp\=flip}}, [Hispano\-Suiza](/wiki/Hispano-Suiza "Hispano-Suiza") [V12](/wiki/V12_engine "V12 engine") engines were [tractor mounted](/wiki/Tractor_configuration "Tractor configuration") over the wing on multi\-[strut](/wiki/Strut "Strut") pylons. Lateral stability on the water was provided by floats at mid\-span, mounted on vertical N\-struts and braced by inward parallel strut pairs to the wing.
The hull incorporated both Hiro's experience and some features from that of the [Supermarine Southampton](/wiki/Supermarine_Southampton "Supermarine Southampton"), with [hydrodynamics](/wiki/Hydrodynamics "Hydrodynamics") refined in the water tank of the Naval Technical Research Institution. The H3H1 was flown from a side\-by\-side, open cockpit well ahead of the wings. There was an open mooring cockpit in the nose, also equipped with a pair of flexibly mounted {{cvt\|7\.7\|mm\|in}} [machine guns](/wiki/Machine_gun "Machine gun"), and other, similarly equipped, gun positions amidships and in the tail. The maximum bomb load was {{cvt\|1000\|kg\|lb}}. Its tail surfaces were conventional with the [tailplane](/wiki/Tailplane "Tailplane") mounted just above the base of the [fin](/wiki/Fin_%28aeronautics%29 "Fin (aeronautics)") and braced to the fuselage on N\-struts.
After its first flight the H3H1 flew to [Yokohama](/wiki/Yokohama "Yokohama") for extensive testing which revealed problems with aerodynamic stability and with the engine installations. The former led to the addition of auxiliary fins on the tailplane and modification of the tailplane struts to allow its [incidence](/wiki/Angle_of_incidence_%28aerodynamics%29 "Angle of incidence (aerodynamics)") to be adjusted for trimming. The engines had their [radiators](/wiki/Radiator_%28engine_cooling%29 "Radiator (engine cooling)") moved further aft and different propellers were tested. The modification state was denoted with a dash number suffix, thus the final modification state of the Navy Type 90\-1 Flying boat, was the Navy Type 90\-1\-4 Flying boat.
Despite the changes the stability problems persisted and the contemporary but more traditional [Kawanishi H3K](/wiki/Kawanishi_H3K "Kawanishi H3K") [biplane](/wiki/Biplane "Biplane") was preferred by the Navy. From 1933 the H3H1 was used as an engine test\-bed for the [Mitsubishi MK1 Shinten](/wiki/Mitsubishi_MK1_Shinten "Mitsubishi MK1 Shinten") {{cvt\|950\|hp\|kW}} 14 cylinder, double\-row [radial engine](/wiki/Radial_engine "Radial engine").
|
[
"Design and development\n----------------------",
"The H3H1 was Hiro Naval Arsenal's first large all\\-metal, [stressed\\-skin](/wiki/Stressed-skin \"Stressed-skin\") aircraft, though they had long experience of large wooden flying boat design and construction. It was the first Japanese Naval aircraft able to carry a one tonne bomb load. Built in 1931, it was first flown in the spring of 1932\\.",
"It had a [shoulder\\-mounted](/wiki/Shoulder_wing \"Shoulder wing\"), [cantilever](/wiki/Cantilever \"Cantilever\") wing built around a type of single [box spar](/wiki/Spar_%28aeronautics%29 \"Spar (aeronautics)\") previously proven by the German company [Rohrbach](/wiki/Rohrbach_Metall-Flugzeugbau \"Rohrbach Metall-Flugzeugbau\"). Its three licence\\-built, {{cvt\\|650\\-790\\|hp\\|kW\\|disp\\=flip}}, [Hispano\\-Suiza](/wiki/Hispano-Suiza \"Hispano-Suiza\") [V12](/wiki/V12_engine \"V12 engine\") engines were [tractor mounted](/wiki/Tractor_configuration \"Tractor configuration\") over the wing on multi\\-[strut](/wiki/Strut \"Strut\") pylons. Lateral stability on the water was provided by floats at mid\\-span, mounted on vertical N\\-struts and braced by inward parallel strut pairs to the wing.",
"The hull incorporated both Hiro's experience and some features from that of the [Supermarine Southampton](/wiki/Supermarine_Southampton \"Supermarine Southampton\"), with [hydrodynamics](/wiki/Hydrodynamics \"Hydrodynamics\") refined in the water tank of the Naval Technical Research Institution. The H3H1 was flown from a side\\-by\\-side, open cockpit well ahead of the wings. There was an open mooring cockpit in the nose, also equipped with a pair of flexibly mounted {{cvt\\|7\\.7\\|mm\\|in}} [machine guns](/wiki/Machine_gun \"Machine gun\"), and other, similarly equipped, gun positions amidships and in the tail. The maximum bomb load was {{cvt\\|1000\\|kg\\|lb}}. Its tail surfaces were conventional with the [tailplane](/wiki/Tailplane \"Tailplane\") mounted just above the base of the [fin](/wiki/Fin_%28aeronautics%29 \"Fin (aeronautics)\") and braced to the fuselage on N\\-struts.",
"After its first flight the H3H1 flew to [Yokohama](/wiki/Yokohama \"Yokohama\") for extensive testing which revealed problems with aerodynamic stability and with the engine installations. The former led to the addition of auxiliary fins on the tailplane and modification of the tailplane struts to allow its [incidence](/wiki/Angle_of_incidence_%28aerodynamics%29 \"Angle of incidence (aerodynamics)\") to be adjusted for trimming. The engines had their [radiators](/wiki/Radiator_%28engine_cooling%29 \"Radiator (engine cooling)\") moved further aft and different propellers were tested. The modification state was denoted with a dash number suffix, thus the final modification state of the Navy Type 90\\-1 Flying boat, was the Navy Type 90\\-1\\-4 Flying boat.",
"Despite the changes the stability problems persisted and the contemporary but more traditional [Kawanishi H3K](/wiki/Kawanishi_H3K \"Kawanishi H3K\") [biplane](/wiki/Biplane \"Biplane\") was preferred by the Navy. From 1933 the H3H1 was used as an engine test\\-bed for the [Mitsubishi MK1 Shinten](/wiki/Mitsubishi_MK1_Shinten \"Mitsubishi MK1 Shinten\") {{cvt\\|950\\|hp\\|kW}} 14 cylinder, double\\-row [radial engine](/wiki/Radial_engine \"Radial engine\").",
""
] |
Plot
----
Detectives Brad Halloran and Keith Hunt pursue Edgar Munsen, who claims that he must start a "game" in exchange for his own survival. He activates a [remote trigger](/wiki/Triggering_device "Triggering device"), and is then shot and collapses.
Five people – Mitch, Anna, Ryan, Carly, and an unconscious man – awaken inside a barn with buckets on their heads and chains around their necks. A tape recording from [John Kramer](/wiki/John_Kramer_%28Saw_character%29 "John Kramer (Saw character)") explains that they must each sacrifice blood to survive before the chains pull them towards a wall of buzzsaws. Most of the group survives by cutting themselves, except for the unconscious man, who awakens too late. Their next test reveals that Carly, a [purse snatcher](/wiki/Snatch_theft "Snatch theft"), accidentally caused the death of an [asthmatic](/wiki/Asthmatic "Asthmatic") woman. To save the others from being [hanged](/wiki/Hanging "Hanging"), she must inject herself with one of three needles – one an antidote to a poison in her system, another being [saline](/wiki/Saline_%28medicine%29 "Saline (medicine)"), and the last one acid. She refuses, so Ryan injects her with all three, killing her and saving the others. In their third test, Ryan attempts to escape the barn, but his leg falls through loose floorboards, and is ensnared by wires. Another tape recorder reveals that he will be punished for breaking the rules and must pull a lever to be "set free." Anna and Mitch become trapped inside a [silo](/wiki/Silo "Silo"), forcing Ryan to pull the lever and sever his leg to rescue them.
Halloran and Hunt investigate the discovery of corpses that appear to be the unconscious man and Carly, whose deaths fit Kramer's [modus operandi](/wiki/Modus_operandi "Modus operandi"). Halloran becomes suspicious of pathologists Logan Nelson and Eleanor Bonneville. Eleanor reveals to Logan that she is a Jigsaw [fangirl](/wiki/Fandom "Fandom"), but now fears this might incriminate her. Hunt spies and informs Halloran. Later, Munsen is abducted from the hospital.
In the barn, Mitch is revealed to have sold a faulty motorcycle to John's nephew, causing his death, and is tested by being lowered into a funnel with a spiral\-shaped blade powered by a motorcycle engine inside. He attempts to stop the blade, but is ultimately killed.
Munsen's corpse is found inside Kramer's grave. Halloran finds a corpse appearing to be Mitch in Eleanor's studio and calls for her and Logan's arrest. Logan convinces Hunt to let them go after telling him that the bullet which hit Edgar was fired by Halloran, whom he and Eleanor suspect to be the new Jigsaw Killer. Eleanor deduces the game's location and she and Logan depart for the barn, with Halloran in pursuit.
In the barn, Anna and Ryan are shackled to pipes at opposite ends of a room. Kramer confronts them and reveals that Anna [asphyxiated her baby](/wiki/Infanticide "Infanticide") and framed her husband, who later committed suicide, and Ryan's drunken tomfoolery caused his friends' death in a car accident. Meanwhile, Hunt finds jigsaw\-shaped pieces of flesh in Halloran's freezer.
For their final test, Kramer leaves the two a shotgun loaded with one shell, saying it is their key to freedom. Logan and Eleanor are ambushed by Halloran at the barn. Anna tries to shoot Ryan, but the gun backfires, killing her. Ryan finds the now\-destroyed keys among the debris; they had been hidden inside the shell. Eleanor escapes Halloran, while he is drugged by an unseen assailant.
Logan and Halloran awaken in collars rigged with [laser cutters](/wiki/Laser_cutters "Laser cutters") and are told to confess their sins. Halloran forces Logan to go first; Logan confesses to mislabeling John's X\-rays years earlier, causing his cancer to go undiagnosed. Despite confessing, Logan is apparently killed. Halloran then admits to allowing criminals to walk free for personal gain and his collar deactivates. Logan is revealed to still be alive, and also the unconscious man from the first barn game, which took place ten years earlier.{{efn\|This means that the barn game occurred before the events of the \[\[Saw (2004 film)\|first film]].}} Feeling that Logan should not die over an honest mistake, John saved him and recruited him as his first [apprentice](/wiki/Apprentice "Apprentice"). Logan reveals that he recreated the barn games using other criminals that Halloran let go as victims, and framed Halloran as the new Jigsaw Killer as revenge for releasing Edgar, who killed Logan's wife.{{efn\|The corpses found by the police in the present died similarly to the original barn game's victims.}} For breaking the rules by forcing Logan to go first, Halloran's collar is reactivated, slicing his head open. The film ends with Logan declaring that he "speaks for the dead" before closing the door and sealing Halloran's body inside.
|
[
"Plot\n----",
"Detectives Brad Halloran and Keith Hunt pursue Edgar Munsen, who claims that he must start a \"game\" in exchange for his own survival. He activates a [remote trigger](/wiki/Triggering_device \"Triggering device\"), and is then shot and collapses.",
"Five people – Mitch, Anna, Ryan, Carly, and an unconscious man – awaken inside a barn with buckets on their heads and chains around their necks. A tape recording from [John Kramer](/wiki/John_Kramer_%28Saw_character%29 \"John Kramer (Saw character)\") explains that they must each sacrifice blood to survive before the chains pull them towards a wall of buzzsaws. Most of the group survives by cutting themselves, except for the unconscious man, who awakens too late. Their next test reveals that Carly, a [purse snatcher](/wiki/Snatch_theft \"Snatch theft\"), accidentally caused the death of an [asthmatic](/wiki/Asthmatic \"Asthmatic\") woman. To save the others from being [hanged](/wiki/Hanging \"Hanging\"), she must inject herself with one of three needles – one an antidote to a poison in her system, another being [saline](/wiki/Saline_%28medicine%29 \"Saline (medicine)\"), and the last one acid. She refuses, so Ryan injects her with all three, killing her and saving the others. In their third test, Ryan attempts to escape the barn, but his leg falls through loose floorboards, and is ensnared by wires. Another tape recorder reveals that he will be punished for breaking the rules and must pull a lever to be \"set free.\" Anna and Mitch become trapped inside a [silo](/wiki/Silo \"Silo\"), forcing Ryan to pull the lever and sever his leg to rescue them.",
"Halloran and Hunt investigate the discovery of corpses that appear to be the unconscious man and Carly, whose deaths fit Kramer's [modus operandi](/wiki/Modus_operandi \"Modus operandi\"). Halloran becomes suspicious of pathologists Logan Nelson and Eleanor Bonneville. Eleanor reveals to Logan that she is a Jigsaw [fangirl](/wiki/Fandom \"Fandom\"), but now fears this might incriminate her. Hunt spies and informs Halloran. Later, Munsen is abducted from the hospital.",
"In the barn, Mitch is revealed to have sold a faulty motorcycle to John's nephew, causing his death, and is tested by being lowered into a funnel with a spiral\\-shaped blade powered by a motorcycle engine inside. He attempts to stop the blade, but is ultimately killed.",
"Munsen's corpse is found inside Kramer's grave. Halloran finds a corpse appearing to be Mitch in Eleanor's studio and calls for her and Logan's arrest. Logan convinces Hunt to let them go after telling him that the bullet which hit Edgar was fired by Halloran, whom he and Eleanor suspect to be the new Jigsaw Killer. Eleanor deduces the game's location and she and Logan depart for the barn, with Halloran in pursuit.",
"In the barn, Anna and Ryan are shackled to pipes at opposite ends of a room. Kramer confronts them and reveals that Anna [asphyxiated her baby](/wiki/Infanticide \"Infanticide\") and framed her husband, who later committed suicide, and Ryan's drunken tomfoolery caused his friends' death in a car accident. Meanwhile, Hunt finds jigsaw\\-shaped pieces of flesh in Halloran's freezer.",
"For their final test, Kramer leaves the two a shotgun loaded with one shell, saying it is their key to freedom. Logan and Eleanor are ambushed by Halloran at the barn. Anna tries to shoot Ryan, but the gun backfires, killing her. Ryan finds the now\\-destroyed keys among the debris; they had been hidden inside the shell. Eleanor escapes Halloran, while he is drugged by an unseen assailant.",
"Logan and Halloran awaken in collars rigged with [laser cutters](/wiki/Laser_cutters \"Laser cutters\") and are told to confess their sins. Halloran forces Logan to go first; Logan confesses to mislabeling John's X\\-rays years earlier, causing his cancer to go undiagnosed. Despite confessing, Logan is apparently killed. Halloran then admits to allowing criminals to walk free for personal gain and his collar deactivates. Logan is revealed to still be alive, and also the unconscious man from the first barn game, which took place ten years earlier.{{efn\\|This means that the barn game occurred before the events of the \\[\\[Saw (2004 film)\\|first film]].}} Feeling that Logan should not die over an honest mistake, John saved him and recruited him as his first [apprentice](/wiki/Apprentice \"Apprentice\"). Logan reveals that he recreated the barn games using other criminals that Halloran let go as victims, and framed Halloran as the new Jigsaw Killer as revenge for releasing Edgar, who killed Logan's wife.{{efn\\|The corpses found by the police in the present died similarly to the original barn game's victims.}} For breaking the rules by forcing Logan to go first, Halloran's collar is reactivated, slicing his head open. The film ends with Logan declaring that he \"speaks for the dead\" before closing the door and sealing Halloran's body inside.",
""
] |
Plot
----
Jay ([Ed O'Neill](/wiki/Ed_O%27Neill "Ed O'Neill")) begins to worry that he does not have a conventionally masculine son, as Manny ([Rico Rodriguez](/wiki/Rico_Rodriguez_%28actor%29 "Rico Rodriguez (actor)")) mourns his girlfriend's loss and Gloria ([Sofia Vergara](/wiki/Sofia_Vergara "Sofia Vergara")) dresses and makes up Joe ([Pierce Wallace](/wiki/Pierce_Wallace_%28juvenile_actor%29 "Pierce Wallace (juvenile actor)")) like a girl. Phil ([Ty Burrell](/wiki/Ty_Burrell "Ty Burrell")), who runs errands with him in order to get Lily's ([Aubrey Anderson\-Emmons](/wiki/Aubrey_Anderson-Emmons "Aubrey Anderson-Emmons")) Princess Castle for Joe, is upset too as Claire ([Julie Bowen](/wiki/Julie_Bowen "Julie Bowen")) refuses to let him buy a new [Pac\-Man](/wiki/Pac-Man "Pac-Man") game. On the road, the two men bond over their respective difficulties and exchange advise with each other, until Phil misinterprets Jay's words and unties the castle from the car. The castle falls in the road and a truck hits it before the two of them get it back, resulting in its destruction.
Haley ([Sarah Hyland](/wiki/Sarah_Hyland "Sarah Hyland")) feels as if her boss, Gavin Sinclair ([Michael Urie](/wiki/Michael_Urie "Michael Urie")), disrespects her since he treats his own plant better than he treats her or his employees. Gloria suggests that Haley should stand up for herself more, but Haley explains that Gloria cannot understand the full situation, as Haley still lives in her parents’ house and does not have a rich husband to fall back on. At first, Gloria seems to understand, but then her choleric personality comes back and she forces Gavin to apologize to Haley.
Luke ([Nolan Gould](/wiki/Nolan_Gould "Nolan Gould")) feels bad because Manny's girlfriend hit on him, but Claire misinterprets his mood as him having trouble in accepting the fact that Alex ([Ariel Winter](/wiki/Ariel_Winter "Ariel Winter")) receives medals from their school while he gets nothing. Claire decides to visit Principal Brown ([Andrew Daly](/wiki/Andrew_Daly "Andrew Daly")) who, though he remembers Alex and Haley, has no recollection of Luke and does not seem to know who he is. When Claire fails to bribe him in giving an award to Luke, she pushes the car of the winner of the "Integrity Award" into a handicapped parking space. When the Principal finds the car there, he decides to finally give the award to Luke. Luke soon reveals that he did not want an award in the first place, and consequently lived the worst day of his life. Initially believing Manny to be the real culprit, Luke prepares to fight him, until Claire reveals the truth.
Mitchell ([Jesse Tyler Ferguson](/wiki/Jesse_Tyler_Ferguson "Jesse Tyler Ferguson")) and Cameron ([Eric Stonestreet](/wiki/Eric_Stonestreet "Eric Stonestreet")) have the desire to adopt another child but because they think that the other one might not be ready, no one says anything and they try to make each other understand their wish by babysitting Joe and looking happy while doing it. Lily feels excluded but Mitch and Cameron notice that Joe can be quite a handful, especially when he begins to break and damage their possessions. They ultimately realize they are more than happy with their lives as they are, and decide not to adopt another baby.
The episode ends with the whole family (except Haley) trying to re\-build Lily's princess castle and paint it into a Pirate's castle for Joe, while he and Lily play together. Alex receives more prizes and medals and provides a speech to the family about [integrity](/wiki/Integrity "Integrity").
|
[
"Plot\n----",
"Jay ([Ed O'Neill](/wiki/Ed_O%27Neill \"Ed O'Neill\")) begins to worry that he does not have a conventionally masculine son, as Manny ([Rico Rodriguez](/wiki/Rico_Rodriguez_%28actor%29 \"Rico Rodriguez (actor)\")) mourns his girlfriend's loss and Gloria ([Sofia Vergara](/wiki/Sofia_Vergara \"Sofia Vergara\")) dresses and makes up Joe ([Pierce Wallace](/wiki/Pierce_Wallace_%28juvenile_actor%29 \"Pierce Wallace (juvenile actor)\")) like a girl. Phil ([Ty Burrell](/wiki/Ty_Burrell \"Ty Burrell\")), who runs errands with him in order to get Lily's ([Aubrey Anderson\\-Emmons](/wiki/Aubrey_Anderson-Emmons \"Aubrey Anderson-Emmons\")) Princess Castle for Joe, is upset too as Claire ([Julie Bowen](/wiki/Julie_Bowen \"Julie Bowen\")) refuses to let him buy a new [Pac\\-Man](/wiki/Pac-Man \"Pac-Man\") game. On the road, the two men bond over their respective difficulties and exchange advise with each other, until Phil misinterprets Jay's words and unties the castle from the car. The castle falls in the road and a truck hits it before the two of them get it back, resulting in its destruction.",
"Haley ([Sarah Hyland](/wiki/Sarah_Hyland \"Sarah Hyland\")) feels as if her boss, Gavin Sinclair ([Michael Urie](/wiki/Michael_Urie \"Michael Urie\")), disrespects her since he treats his own plant better than he treats her or his employees. Gloria suggests that Haley should stand up for herself more, but Haley explains that Gloria cannot understand the full situation, as Haley still lives in her parents’ house and does not have a rich husband to fall back on. At first, Gloria seems to understand, but then her choleric personality comes back and she forces Gavin to apologize to Haley.",
"Luke ([Nolan Gould](/wiki/Nolan_Gould \"Nolan Gould\")) feels bad because Manny's girlfriend hit on him, but Claire misinterprets his mood as him having trouble in accepting the fact that Alex ([Ariel Winter](/wiki/Ariel_Winter \"Ariel Winter\")) receives medals from their school while he gets nothing. Claire decides to visit Principal Brown ([Andrew Daly](/wiki/Andrew_Daly \"Andrew Daly\")) who, though he remembers Alex and Haley, has no recollection of Luke and does not seem to know who he is. When Claire fails to bribe him in giving an award to Luke, she pushes the car of the winner of the \"Integrity Award\" into a handicapped parking space. When the Principal finds the car there, he decides to finally give the award to Luke. Luke soon reveals that he did not want an award in the first place, and consequently lived the worst day of his life. Initially believing Manny to be the real culprit, Luke prepares to fight him, until Claire reveals the truth.",
"Mitchell ([Jesse Tyler Ferguson](/wiki/Jesse_Tyler_Ferguson \"Jesse Tyler Ferguson\")) and Cameron ([Eric Stonestreet](/wiki/Eric_Stonestreet \"Eric Stonestreet\")) have the desire to adopt another child but because they think that the other one might not be ready, no one says anything and they try to make each other understand their wish by babysitting Joe and looking happy while doing it. Lily feels excluded but Mitch and Cameron notice that Joe can be quite a handful, especially when he begins to break and damage their possessions. They ultimately realize they are more than happy with their lives as they are, and decide not to adopt another baby.",
"The episode ends with the whole family (except Haley) trying to re\\-build Lily's princess castle and paint it into a Pirate's castle for Joe, while he and Lily play together. Alex receives more prizes and medals and provides a speech to the family about [integrity](/wiki/Integrity \"Integrity\").",
""
] |
Reign
-----
After the death of his brother in 1132, Mstislav I the Great, Yaropolk received the crown of Kiev. Yaropolk had to deal with the many interests of his family, most of all his powerful half brother [Yuri Dolgoruki](/wiki/Yuri_Dolgoruki "Yuri Dolgoruki"). Yaropolk appointed [Vsevolod Mstislavich](/wiki/Vsevolod_of_Pskov "Vsevolod of Pskov") to succeed him in Pereyaslavl but Yuri Dolgoruki, with the consent of the Novgorodians, soon drove out his nephew. Yaropolk appointed another son of Mstislav I: [Iziaslav Mstislavich](/wiki/Iziaslav_II_of_Kiev "Iziaslav II of Kiev") to Pereyaslavl, who also received Turov. He was replaced soon thereafter by Yaropolk's brother [Viacheslav Vladimirovich](/wiki/Viacheslav_I_of_Kiev "Viacheslav I of Kiev").
The peace did not last long and in 1134 the merry\-go\-round started once more. Iziaslav had to transfer Turov to his uncle Viacheslav to let him rule the principality once again. Pereyaslavl would come to Yuri Dolgoruki on the condition that Iziaslav got to rule [Rostov](/wiki/Rostov%2C_Yaroslavl_Oblast "Rostov, Yaroslavl Oblast") although Yuri kept a large part of the principality under his influence. Iziaslav also got to rule Volyn and another half brother of Yaropolk, Andrey Vladimirovich was to rule Pereyaslavl.
[Vsevolod Olgovich](/wiki/Vsevolod_II_of_Kiev "Vsevolod II of Kiev"), then the prince of [Chernigov](/wiki/Chernihiv "Chernihiv"), the Cumans and his allies who were asked by Iziaslav to make his point against Viacheslav, continued their war against Yaropolk and crossed the [Dnieper](/wiki/Dnieper "Dnieper") to loot the Kiev region. After a decisive battle at the river Supoy in 1135, Yaropolk had to cede the town of [Kursk](/wiki/Kursk "Kursk") only gained 17 years earlier.
Due to this change of balance the people of Novgorod expelled Vsevolod Mstislavich from Novgorod and replaced him with the brother of the Chernigov prince, Sviatoslav Olgovich. Vsevolod moved to [Pskov](/wiki/Pskov "Pskov") and died in 1138 at the siege of Novgorod. Who were convinced to replace Sviatoslav with [Rostislav Yuryevich](/wiki/Rostislav_Yuryevich "Rostislav Yuryevich"), the eldest son of Yuri Dolgoruki.
Sviatoslav continued the war against Yaropolk with also this time, Yaropolk's old enemies, the Cumans on his side. He found soon the combined troops of Kiev, Pereyaslavl, Rostov, Polotsk, Smolensk, parts of Halych and 30,000 Hungarians, sent by the king [Bela II](/wiki/B%C3%A9la_II_of_Hungary "Béla II of Hungary") before the gates of Chernigov. He was forced to make peace in 1139\.
Just before his death Yaropolk assisted Bela II when he was faced with internal enemies.
He died in 1139, and was buried in the church of St. Andrey. His brother, [Viacheslav I](/wiki/Viacheslav_I_of_Kiev "Viacheslav I of Kiev"), who succeeded him was soon driven out by [Vsevolod II](/wiki/Vsevolod_II_of_Kiev "Vsevolod II of Kiev").
|
[
"Reign\n-----",
"After the death of his brother in 1132, Mstislav I the Great, Yaropolk received the crown of Kiev. Yaropolk had to deal with the many interests of his family, most of all his powerful half brother [Yuri Dolgoruki](/wiki/Yuri_Dolgoruki \"Yuri Dolgoruki\"). Yaropolk appointed [Vsevolod Mstislavich](/wiki/Vsevolod_of_Pskov \"Vsevolod of Pskov\") to succeed him in Pereyaslavl but Yuri Dolgoruki, with the consent of the Novgorodians, soon drove out his nephew. Yaropolk appointed another son of Mstislav I: [Iziaslav Mstislavich](/wiki/Iziaslav_II_of_Kiev \"Iziaslav II of Kiev\") to Pereyaslavl, who also received Turov. He was replaced soon thereafter by Yaropolk's brother [Viacheslav Vladimirovich](/wiki/Viacheslav_I_of_Kiev \"Viacheslav I of Kiev\").",
"The peace did not last long and in 1134 the merry\\-go\\-round started once more. Iziaslav had to transfer Turov to his uncle Viacheslav to let him rule the principality once again. Pereyaslavl would come to Yuri Dolgoruki on the condition that Iziaslav got to rule [Rostov](/wiki/Rostov%2C_Yaroslavl_Oblast \"Rostov, Yaroslavl Oblast\") although Yuri kept a large part of the principality under his influence. Iziaslav also got to rule Volyn and another half brother of Yaropolk, Andrey Vladimirovich was to rule Pereyaslavl.",
"[Vsevolod Olgovich](/wiki/Vsevolod_II_of_Kiev \"Vsevolod II of Kiev\"), then the prince of [Chernigov](/wiki/Chernihiv \"Chernihiv\"), the Cumans and his allies who were asked by Iziaslav to make his point against Viacheslav, continued their war against Yaropolk and crossed the [Dnieper](/wiki/Dnieper \"Dnieper\") to loot the Kiev region. After a decisive battle at the river Supoy in 1135, Yaropolk had to cede the town of [Kursk](/wiki/Kursk \"Kursk\") only gained 17 years earlier.",
"Due to this change of balance the people of Novgorod expelled Vsevolod Mstislavich from Novgorod and replaced him with the brother of the Chernigov prince, Sviatoslav Olgovich. Vsevolod moved to [Pskov](/wiki/Pskov \"Pskov\") and died in 1138 at the siege of Novgorod. Who were convinced to replace Sviatoslav with [Rostislav Yuryevich](/wiki/Rostislav_Yuryevich \"Rostislav Yuryevich\"), the eldest son of Yuri Dolgoruki.",
"Sviatoslav continued the war against Yaropolk with also this time, Yaropolk's old enemies, the Cumans on his side. He found soon the combined troops of Kiev, Pereyaslavl, Rostov, Polotsk, Smolensk, parts of Halych and 30,000 Hungarians, sent by the king [Bela II](/wiki/B%C3%A9la_II_of_Hungary \"Béla II of Hungary\") before the gates of Chernigov. He was forced to make peace in 1139\\.",
"Just before his death Yaropolk assisted Bela II when he was faced with internal enemies.",
"He died in 1139, and was buried in the church of St. Andrey. His brother, [Viacheslav I](/wiki/Viacheslav_I_of_Kiev \"Viacheslav I of Kiev\"), who succeeded him was soon driven out by [Vsevolod II](/wiki/Vsevolod_II_of_Kiev \"Vsevolod II of Kiev\").",
""
] |
History
-------
[thumb \| 220x124px \| right \| Colquhoun tartan](/wiki/File:Colquhoun_tartan_%28Vestiarium_Scoticum%29.svg "Colquhoun tartan (Vestiarium Scoticum).svg")
### Origins of the clan
The lands of the clan Colquhoun are on the shores of [Loch Lomond](/wiki/Loch_Lomond "Loch Lomond"). During the reign of [Alexander II](/wiki/Alexander_II_of_Scotland "Alexander II of Scotland"), Umphredus de Kilpatrick received from Malduin, [Earl of Lennox](/wiki/Earl_of_Lennox "Earl of Lennox"), the estates of Colquhoun, Auchentorily and Dumbuck. The clan chief's early stronghold was at [Dunglass Castle](/wiki/Dunglass_Castle "Dunglass Castle"), which is perched on a rocky promontory by the [River Clyde](/wiki/River_Clyde "River Clyde"). Dunglass was also close to the royal [Dumbarton Castle](/wiki/Dumbarton_Castle "Dumbarton Castle"), of which later Colquhoun chiefs were appointed governors and keepers.
The chief's title was that of the Barony of Luss which came to the clan when Sir Robert of Colquhoun married the heiress of the Lord of Luss in about 1368\.
### 15th and 16th centuries
During the minority of [James II of Scotland](/wiki/James_II_of_Scotland "James II of Scotland"), Sir John Colquhoun was appointed governor of the royal Dumbarton Castle. However he was murdered during a raid at [Inchmurrin](/wiki/Inchmurrin "Inchmurrin") in 1439\. He was succeeded by his son, another Sir John, who rose to be Comptroller of the Royal Household. He received a charter incorporating all of his lands into the free barony of Luss in 1457\. A year later he also received the forests of Rossdhu and Glenmachome together with the lands of Kilmardinny.
In 1474 Sir John Colquhoun was part of an embassy to [Edward IV of England](/wiki/Edward_IV_of_England "Edward IV of England") which was to negotiate the marriage between Edward's daughter, Cecilia and the infant [James IV of Scotland](/wiki/James_IV_of_Scotland "James IV of Scotland"). Sir John fought at the siege of [Dunbar Castle](/wiki/Dunbar_Castle "Dunbar Castle") which was being held by rebels and there he was killed by a cannonball.
The clan Colqhuhoun also controlled Camstradden Castle that had been acquired by a younger son of Luss in 1395\. The sixth Colquhoun Laird of Camstradden was a renowned knight and in 1547 fought at the [Battle of Pinkie Cleugh](/wiki/Battle_of_Pinkie_Cleugh "Battle of Pinkie Cleugh").
### 17th century
{{Main\|Battle of Glen Fruin}}
Colquhoun lands were particularly vulnerable to raids due to their strategic nature. In 1603 Alasdair MacGregor marched into Colquhoun territory with a force of over four hundred [MacGregor clansmen](/wiki/Clan_Gregor "Clan Gregor"). The chief of clan Colquhoun had been granted a royal commission to suppress the MacGregors. He assembled a force of five hundred foot and three hundred horse and advanced to Glen Fruin to repel the Highland raiders. MacGregor split his force in two and while the main force and the Colquhouns engaged in combat the second MacGregor force attacked from the rear. The Colquhouns were driven into the Moss of Auchingaich where their cavalry was useless and over two hundred men were killed. At the end of the 18th century, the chiefs of the two clans met and shook hands on the very site of the former slaughter.
In 1625 Sir John Colquhoun of Luss was created a [baronet](/wiki/Colquhoun_baronets "Colquhoun baronets") in the [Baronetage of Nova Scotia](/wiki/List_of_baronetcies_in_the_Baronetage_of_Nova_Scotia "List of baronetcies in the Baronetage of Nova Scotia"). However, in 1632 he was accused of absconding with his wife's sister, Lady Catherine Graham, daughter of the [Earl of Montrose](/wiki/Duke_of_Montrose "Duke of Montrose"). He was accused of using sorcery and witchcraft and perhaps wisely he did not return to answer these charges. He became a [fugitive](/wiki/Fugitive "Fugitive") and his estates were forfeited. Sir John's eldest son recovered the estates in 1646\.
### 18th century
In 1703 Sir Humphrey Colquhoun, fifth Baronet, represented [Dunbartonshire](/wiki/Dunbartonshire "Dunbartonshire") in the last Scottish Parliament. He strongly opposed the Treaty of Union. He died without male issue and the title passed to his daughter's husband, James Grant of Pluscardine. However, when Pluscardine's elder brother died he re\-assumed the name of Grant. He was the ancestor of the [Earls of Seafield](/wiki/Earl_of_Seafield "Earl of Seafield") and [Barons Strathspey](/wiki/Baron_Strathspey "Baron Strathspey"), on whom the baronetcy devolved. The estate was succeeded to by Sir James Grant Colquhoun who was the fourth son of James Grant and Ann Colquhoun. He built the mansion of Rossdhu which remains the seat of the Colquhoun chiefs.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"[thumb \\| 220x124px \\| right \\| Colquhoun tartan](/wiki/File:Colquhoun_tartan_%28Vestiarium_Scoticum%29.svg \"Colquhoun tartan (Vestiarium Scoticum).svg\") \n### Origins of the clan",
"",
"The lands of the clan Colquhoun are on the shores of [Loch Lomond](/wiki/Loch_Lomond \"Loch Lomond\"). During the reign of [Alexander II](/wiki/Alexander_II_of_Scotland \"Alexander II of Scotland\"), Umphredus de Kilpatrick received from Malduin, [Earl of Lennox](/wiki/Earl_of_Lennox \"Earl of Lennox\"), the estates of Colquhoun, Auchentorily and Dumbuck. The clan chief's early stronghold was at [Dunglass Castle](/wiki/Dunglass_Castle \"Dunglass Castle\"), which is perched on a rocky promontory by the [River Clyde](/wiki/River_Clyde \"River Clyde\"). Dunglass was also close to the royal [Dumbarton Castle](/wiki/Dumbarton_Castle \"Dumbarton Castle\"), of which later Colquhoun chiefs were appointed governors and keepers.",
"The chief's title was that of the Barony of Luss which came to the clan when Sir Robert of Colquhoun married the heiress of the Lord of Luss in about 1368\\.",
"### 15th and 16th centuries",
"During the minority of [James II of Scotland](/wiki/James_II_of_Scotland \"James II of Scotland\"), Sir John Colquhoun was appointed governor of the royal Dumbarton Castle. However he was murdered during a raid at [Inchmurrin](/wiki/Inchmurrin \"Inchmurrin\") in 1439\\. He was succeeded by his son, another Sir John, who rose to be Comptroller of the Royal Household. He received a charter incorporating all of his lands into the free barony of Luss in 1457\\. A year later he also received the forests of Rossdhu and Glenmachome together with the lands of Kilmardinny.",
"In 1474 Sir John Colquhoun was part of an embassy to [Edward IV of England](/wiki/Edward_IV_of_England \"Edward IV of England\") which was to negotiate the marriage between Edward's daughter, Cecilia and the infant [James IV of Scotland](/wiki/James_IV_of_Scotland \"James IV of Scotland\"). Sir John fought at the siege of [Dunbar Castle](/wiki/Dunbar_Castle \"Dunbar Castle\") which was being held by rebels and there he was killed by a cannonball.",
"The clan Colqhuhoun also controlled Camstradden Castle that had been acquired by a younger son of Luss in 1395\\. The sixth Colquhoun Laird of Camstradden was a renowned knight and in 1547 fought at the [Battle of Pinkie Cleugh](/wiki/Battle_of_Pinkie_Cleugh \"Battle of Pinkie Cleugh\").",
"### 17th century",
"{{Main\\|Battle of Glen Fruin}}",
"Colquhoun lands were particularly vulnerable to raids due to their strategic nature. In 1603 Alasdair MacGregor marched into Colquhoun territory with a force of over four hundred [MacGregor clansmen](/wiki/Clan_Gregor \"Clan Gregor\"). The chief of clan Colquhoun had been granted a royal commission to suppress the MacGregors. He assembled a force of five hundred foot and three hundred horse and advanced to Glen Fruin to repel the Highland raiders. MacGregor split his force in two and while the main force and the Colquhouns engaged in combat the second MacGregor force attacked from the rear. The Colquhouns were driven into the Moss of Auchingaich where their cavalry was useless and over two hundred men were killed. At the end of the 18th century, the chiefs of the two clans met and shook hands on the very site of the former slaughter.",
"In 1625 Sir John Colquhoun of Luss was created a [baronet](/wiki/Colquhoun_baronets \"Colquhoun baronets\") in the [Baronetage of Nova Scotia](/wiki/List_of_baronetcies_in_the_Baronetage_of_Nova_Scotia \"List of baronetcies in the Baronetage of Nova Scotia\"). However, in 1632 he was accused of absconding with his wife's sister, Lady Catherine Graham, daughter of the [Earl of Montrose](/wiki/Duke_of_Montrose \"Duke of Montrose\"). He was accused of using sorcery and witchcraft and perhaps wisely he did not return to answer these charges. He became a [fugitive](/wiki/Fugitive \"Fugitive\") and his estates were forfeited. Sir John's eldest son recovered the estates in 1646\\.",
"### 18th century",
"In 1703 Sir Humphrey Colquhoun, fifth Baronet, represented [Dunbartonshire](/wiki/Dunbartonshire \"Dunbartonshire\") in the last Scottish Parliament. He strongly opposed the Treaty of Union. He died without male issue and the title passed to his daughter's husband, James Grant of Pluscardine. However, when Pluscardine's elder brother died he re\\-assumed the name of Grant. He was the ancestor of the [Earls of Seafield](/wiki/Earl_of_Seafield \"Earl of Seafield\") and [Barons Strathspey](/wiki/Baron_Strathspey \"Baron Strathspey\"), on whom the baronetcy devolved. The estate was succeeded to by Sir James Grant Colquhoun who was the fourth son of James Grant and Ann Colquhoun. He built the mansion of Rossdhu which remains the seat of the Colquhoun chiefs.",
""
] |
Industrial fractionating columns
--------------------------------
[Fractional distillation](/wiki/Fractional_distillation "Fractional distillation") is one of the [unit operations](/wiki/Unit_operations "Unit operations") of [chemical engineering](/wiki/Chemical_engineering "Chemical engineering").{{cite book \|author\=Kroschwitz \|first\=Jacqueline \|title\=Kirk\-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology \|last2\=Seidel \|first2\=Arza \|publisher\=Wiley\-Interscience \|year\=2004 \|isbn\=0\-471\-48810\-0 \|edition\=5th \|location\=Hoboken, New Jersey}}{{cite book \|last1\=Smith \|first1\=Julian \|last2\=McCabe \|first2\=Warren \|last3\=Harriott \|first3\=Peter \|edition\=7th \|title\=Unit Operations of Chemical Engineering \|publisher\=McGraw Hill \|year\=2004 \|isbn\=0\-07\-284823\-5}} Fractionating columns are widely used in chemical process industries where large quantities of liquids have to be distilled.{{cite book\|author\=Kister, Henry Z.\|title\=\[\[Distillation Design]]\|edition\=1st \|publisher\=McGraw\-Hill\|year\=1992\|isbn\=0\-07\-034909\-6}}{{cite book\|author\=King, C.J.\|title\=Separation Processes\|publisher\=McGraw Hill\|year\=1980\|isbn\=0\-07\-034612\-7\|edition\=2nd}}{{cite book\|author1\=Perry, Robert H. \|author2\=Green, Don W.\|title\=\[\[Perry's Chemical Engineers' Handbook]]\|edition\=6th\| publisher\=McGraw\-Hill\|year\=1984\|isbn\=0\-07\-049479\-7}} Such industries are [petroleum](/wiki/Petroleum "Petroleum") processing, [petrochemical](/wiki/Petrochemical "Petrochemical") production, [natural gas processing](/wiki/Natural_gas_processing "Natural gas processing"), [coal tar](/wiki/Coal_tar "Coal tar") processing, [brewing](/wiki/Brewing "Brewing"), [liquefied air](/wiki/Liquid_air "Liquid air") separation, and [hydrocarbon](/wiki/Hydrocarbon "Hydrocarbon") [solvents](/wiki/Solvents "Solvents") production. Fractional distillation finds its widest application in [petroleum refineries](/wiki/Oil_refinery "Oil refinery"). In such refineries, the crude oil feedstock is a complex, multicomponent mixture that must be separated. Yields of pure chemical compounds are generally not expected, however, yields of groups of compounds within a relatively small range of [boiling points](/wiki/Boiling_points "Boiling points"), also called *fractions*, are expected. This process is the origin of the name *fractional distillation* or *fractionation*.
Distillation is one of the most common and energy\-intensive separation processes. Effectiveness of separation is dependent upon the height and diameter of the column, the ratio of the column's height to diameter, and the material that comprises the distillation column itself.{{cite web\|title\=Distillation Columns\|url\=http://www.brewhaus.com/Distillation\-Columns.aspx\|website\=Brewhaus\|access\-date\=4 August 2015\|archive\-date\=23 September 2015\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923194457/http://www.brewhaus.com/Distillation\-Columns.aspx\|url\-status\=dead}} In a typical chemical plant, it accounts for about 40% of the total energy consumption.{{cite book\|author1\=Felder, R. \|author2\=Roussea, W. \|edition\=3rd\|title\=Elementary Principles of Chemical Processes\|publisher\=Wiley\|year\=2005\|isbn\=978\-0\-471\-68757\-3}} Industrial distillation is typically performed in large, vertical cylindrical columns (as shown in Figure 2\) known as "distillation towers" or "distillation columns" with diameters ranging from about 65 centimeters to 6 meters and heights ranging from about 6 meters to 60 meters or more.
[right\|thumb\|300px\|Figure 3: Chemical engineering schematic of a continuous fractionating column](/wiki/Image:Continuous_Binary_Fractional_Distillation.PNG "Continuous Binary Fractional Distillation.PNG")
[frame\|right\|Figure 4: Chemical engineering schematic of typical bubble\-cap trays in a fractionating column](/wiki/Image:Tray_Distillation_Tower.PNG "Tray Distillation Tower.PNG")
Industrial distillation towers are usually operated at a continuous steady state. Unless disturbed by changes in feed, heat, ambient temperature, or condensing, the amount of feed being added normally equals the amount of product being removed.
The amount of heat entering the column from the [reboiler](/wiki/Reboiler "Reboiler") and with the feed must equal the amount heat removed by the overhead condenser and with the products. The heat entering a distillation column is a crucial operating parameter, addition of excess or insufficient heat to the column can lead to foaming, weeping, entrainment, or flooding.
Figure 3 depicts an industrial fractionating column separating a feed stream into one distillate fraction and one bottoms fraction. However, many industrial fractionating columns have outlets at intervals up the column so that multiple products having different boiling ranges may be withdrawn from a column distilling a multi\-component feed stream. The "lightest" products with the lowest boiling points exit from the top of the columns and the "heaviest" products with the highest boiling points exit from the bottom.
Industrial fractionating columns use external reflux to achieve better separation of products. Reflux refers to the portion of the condensed overhead liquid product that returns to the upper part of the fractionating column as shown in Figure 3\.
Inside the column, the downflowing reflux liquid provides cooling and condensation of upflowing vapors thereby increasing the efficacy of the distillation tower. The more reflux and/or more trays provided, the better is the tower's separation of lower boiling materials from higher boiling materials.
The design and operation of a fractionating column depends on the composition of the feed as well as the composition of the desired products. Given a simple, binary component feed, analytical methods such as the [McCabe–Thiele method](/wiki/McCabe%E2%80%93Thiele_method "McCabe–Thiele method"){{cite journal \| last \= Beychok \| first \= Milton \| title \= Algebraic Solution of McCabe\-Thiele Diagram \| journal \= Chemical Engineering Progress \| date \= May 1951 }}{{cite book \|author1\=Seader, J. D. \|author2\=Henley, Ernest J. \| title \= Separation Process Principles \| publisher \= Wiley \| location \= New York \| year \= 1998\| isbn \= 0\-471\-58626\-9}} or the [Fenske equation](/wiki/Fenske_equation "Fenske equation") can be used. For a multi\-component feed, simulation models are used both for design, operation, and construction.
Bubble\-cap "trays" or "plates" are one of the types of physical devices, which are used to provide good contact between the upflowing vapor and the downflowing liquid inside an industrial fractionating column. Such trays are shown in Figures 4 and 5\.
The efficiency of a tray or plate is typically lower than that of a theoretical 100% efficient [equilibrium stage](/wiki/Equilibrium_stage "Equilibrium stage"). Hence, a fractionating column almost always needs more actual, physical plates than the required number of theoretical [vapor–liquid equilibrium](/wiki/Vapor%E2%80%93liquid_equilibrium "Vapor–liquid equilibrium") stages. [frame\|right\|Figure 5: Section of fractionating tower of Figure 4 showing detail of a pair of trays with bubble caps](/wiki/Image:Bubble_Cap_Trays.PNG "Bubble Cap Trays.PNG")
[thumb\|right\|400px\|Figure 6: Entire view of a Distillation Column](/wiki/File:Distillation_Column_%28Tower%29.png "Distillation Column (Tower).png")
In industrial uses, sometimes a [packing material](/wiki/Packed_bed "Packed bed") is used in the column instead of trays, especially when low pressure drops across the column are required, as when operating under [vacuum](/wiki/Vacuum "Vacuum"). This packing material can either be random dumped packing ({{convert\|1\|–\|3\|in\|cm\|abbr\=on\|disp\=or}} wide) such as [Raschig rings](/wiki/Raschig_ring "Raschig ring") or [structured sheet metal](/wiki/Structured_packing "Structured packing"). Liquids tend to wet the surface of the packing, and the vapors pass across this wetted surface, where [mass transfer](/wiki/Mass_transfer "Mass transfer") takes place. Differently shaped packings have different surface areas and void space between packings. Both of these factors affect packing performance.
|
[
"Industrial fractionating columns\n--------------------------------",
"[Fractional distillation](/wiki/Fractional_distillation \"Fractional distillation\") is one of the [unit operations](/wiki/Unit_operations \"Unit operations\") of [chemical engineering](/wiki/Chemical_engineering \"Chemical engineering\").{{cite book \\|author\\=Kroschwitz \\|first\\=Jacqueline \\|title\\=Kirk\\-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology \\|last2\\=Seidel \\|first2\\=Arza \\|publisher\\=Wiley\\-Interscience \\|year\\=2004 \\|isbn\\=0\\-471\\-48810\\-0 \\|edition\\=5th \\|location\\=Hoboken, New Jersey}}{{cite book \\|last1\\=Smith \\|first1\\=Julian \\|last2\\=McCabe \\|first2\\=Warren \\|last3\\=Harriott \\|first3\\=Peter \\|edition\\=7th \\|title\\=Unit Operations of Chemical Engineering \\|publisher\\=McGraw Hill \\|year\\=2004 \\|isbn\\=0\\-07\\-284823\\-5}} Fractionating columns are widely used in chemical process industries where large quantities of liquids have to be distilled.{{cite book\\|author\\=Kister, Henry Z.\\|title\\=\\[\\[Distillation Design]]\\|edition\\=1st \\|publisher\\=McGraw\\-Hill\\|year\\=1992\\|isbn\\=0\\-07\\-034909\\-6}}{{cite book\\|author\\=King, C.J.\\|title\\=Separation Processes\\|publisher\\=McGraw Hill\\|year\\=1980\\|isbn\\=0\\-07\\-034612\\-7\\|edition\\=2nd}}{{cite book\\|author1\\=Perry, Robert H. \\|author2\\=Green, Don W.\\|title\\=\\[\\[Perry's Chemical Engineers' Handbook]]\\|edition\\=6th\\| publisher\\=McGraw\\-Hill\\|year\\=1984\\|isbn\\=0\\-07\\-049479\\-7}} Such industries are [petroleum](/wiki/Petroleum \"Petroleum\") processing, [petrochemical](/wiki/Petrochemical \"Petrochemical\") production, [natural gas processing](/wiki/Natural_gas_processing \"Natural gas processing\"), [coal tar](/wiki/Coal_tar \"Coal tar\") processing, [brewing](/wiki/Brewing \"Brewing\"), [liquefied air](/wiki/Liquid_air \"Liquid air\") separation, and [hydrocarbon](/wiki/Hydrocarbon \"Hydrocarbon\") [solvents](/wiki/Solvents \"Solvents\") production. Fractional distillation finds its widest application in [petroleum refineries](/wiki/Oil_refinery \"Oil refinery\"). In such refineries, the crude oil feedstock is a complex, multicomponent mixture that must be separated. Yields of pure chemical compounds are generally not expected, however, yields of groups of compounds within a relatively small range of [boiling points](/wiki/Boiling_points \"Boiling points\"), also called *fractions*, are expected. This process is the origin of the name *fractional distillation* or *fractionation*.",
"Distillation is one of the most common and energy\\-intensive separation processes. Effectiveness of separation is dependent upon the height and diameter of the column, the ratio of the column's height to diameter, and the material that comprises the distillation column itself.{{cite web\\|title\\=Distillation Columns\\|url\\=http://www.brewhaus.com/Distillation\\-Columns.aspx\\|website\\=Brewhaus\\|access\\-date\\=4 August 2015\\|archive\\-date\\=23 September 2015\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923194457/http://www.brewhaus.com/Distillation\\-Columns.aspx\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} In a typical chemical plant, it accounts for about 40% of the total energy consumption.{{cite book\\|author1\\=Felder, R. \\|author2\\=Roussea, W. \\|edition\\=3rd\\|title\\=Elementary Principles of Chemical Processes\\|publisher\\=Wiley\\|year\\=2005\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-471\\-68757\\-3}} Industrial distillation is typically performed in large, vertical cylindrical columns (as shown in Figure 2\\) known as \"distillation towers\" or \"distillation columns\" with diameters ranging from about 65 centimeters to 6 meters and heights ranging from about 6 meters to 60 meters or more.\n[right\\|thumb\\|300px\\|Figure 3: Chemical engineering schematic of a continuous fractionating column](/wiki/Image:Continuous_Binary_Fractional_Distillation.PNG \"Continuous Binary Fractional Distillation.PNG\")\n[frame\\|right\\|Figure 4: Chemical engineering schematic of typical bubble\\-cap trays in a fractionating column](/wiki/Image:Tray_Distillation_Tower.PNG \"Tray Distillation Tower.PNG\")\nIndustrial distillation towers are usually operated at a continuous steady state. Unless disturbed by changes in feed, heat, ambient temperature, or condensing, the amount of feed being added normally equals the amount of product being removed.",
"The amount of heat entering the column from the [reboiler](/wiki/Reboiler \"Reboiler\") and with the feed must equal the amount heat removed by the overhead condenser and with the products. The heat entering a distillation column is a crucial operating parameter, addition of excess or insufficient heat to the column can lead to foaming, weeping, entrainment, or flooding.",
"Figure 3 depicts an industrial fractionating column separating a feed stream into one distillate fraction and one bottoms fraction. However, many industrial fractionating columns have outlets at intervals up the column so that multiple products having different boiling ranges may be withdrawn from a column distilling a multi\\-component feed stream. The \"lightest\" products with the lowest boiling points exit from the top of the columns and the \"heaviest\" products with the highest boiling points exit from the bottom.",
"Industrial fractionating columns use external reflux to achieve better separation of products. Reflux refers to the portion of the condensed overhead liquid product that returns to the upper part of the fractionating column as shown in Figure 3\\.",
"Inside the column, the downflowing reflux liquid provides cooling and condensation of upflowing vapors thereby increasing the efficacy of the distillation tower. The more reflux and/or more trays provided, the better is the tower's separation of lower boiling materials from higher boiling materials.",
"The design and operation of a fractionating column depends on the composition of the feed as well as the composition of the desired products. Given a simple, binary component feed, analytical methods such as the [McCabe–Thiele method](/wiki/McCabe%E2%80%93Thiele_method \"McCabe–Thiele method\"){{cite journal \\| last \\= Beychok \\| first \\= Milton \\| title \\= Algebraic Solution of McCabe\\-Thiele Diagram \\| journal \\= Chemical Engineering Progress \\| date \\= May 1951 }}{{cite book \\|author1\\=Seader, J. D. \\|author2\\=Henley, Ernest J. \\| title \\= Separation Process Principles \\| publisher \\= Wiley \\| location \\= New York \\| year \\= 1998\\| isbn \\= 0\\-471\\-58626\\-9}} or the [Fenske equation](/wiki/Fenske_equation \"Fenske equation\") can be used. For a multi\\-component feed, simulation models are used both for design, operation, and construction.",
"Bubble\\-cap \"trays\" or \"plates\" are one of the types of physical devices, which are used to provide good contact between the upflowing vapor and the downflowing liquid inside an industrial fractionating column. Such trays are shown in Figures 4 and 5\\.",
"The efficiency of a tray or plate is typically lower than that of a theoretical 100% efficient [equilibrium stage](/wiki/Equilibrium_stage \"Equilibrium stage\"). Hence, a fractionating column almost always needs more actual, physical plates than the required number of theoretical [vapor–liquid equilibrium](/wiki/Vapor%E2%80%93liquid_equilibrium \"Vapor–liquid equilibrium\") stages. [frame\\|right\\|Figure 5: Section of fractionating tower of Figure 4 showing detail of a pair of trays with bubble caps](/wiki/Image:Bubble_Cap_Trays.PNG \"Bubble Cap Trays.PNG\")",
"[thumb\\|right\\|400px\\|Figure 6: Entire view of a Distillation Column](/wiki/File:Distillation_Column_%28Tower%29.png \"Distillation Column (Tower).png\")",
"In industrial uses, sometimes a [packing material](/wiki/Packed_bed \"Packed bed\") is used in the column instead of trays, especially when low pressure drops across the column are required, as when operating under [vacuum](/wiki/Vacuum \"Vacuum\"). This packing material can either be random dumped packing ({{convert\\|1\\|–\\|3\\|in\\|cm\\|abbr\\=on\\|disp\\=or}} wide) such as [Raschig rings](/wiki/Raschig_ring \"Raschig ring\") or [structured sheet metal](/wiki/Structured_packing \"Structured packing\"). Liquids tend to wet the surface of the packing, and the vapors pass across this wetted surface, where [mass transfer](/wiki/Mass_transfer \"Mass transfer\") takes place. Differently shaped packings have different surface areas and void space between packings. Both of these factors affect packing performance.",
""
] |
Career
------
### Film and television
[thumb\|upright\|right\|Smits at the 39th Annual Emmy Awards in 1987](/wiki/Image:Jimmy_Smits_at_the_39th_Emmy_Awards2.jpg "Jimmy Smits at the 39th Emmy Awards2.jpg")
One of Smits's early roles was playing [Sonny Crockett](/wiki/Sonny_Crockett "Sonny Crockett")'s original partner on the first episode of *[Miami Vice](/wiki/Miami_Vice "Miami Vice")* in 1984\. In the first five minutes of the episode he falls victim to a [car bomb](/wiki/Car_bomb "Car bomb").
Beginning in 1986, Smits played Victor Sifuentes in the first five seasons of the NBC television [Steven Bochco](/wiki/Steven_Bochco "Steven Bochco") legal drama *[L.A. Law](/wiki/L.A._Law "L.A. Law")*,{{Cite news\|url\=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la\-xpm\-1987\-08\-07\-ca\-1054\-story.html\|title\=Jimmy Smits: A Latino Look And Class Act On 'L.a. Law'\|last\=McKENNA\|first\=KRISTINE\|date\=1987\-08\-07\|work\=Los Angeles Times\|access\-date\=2017\-10\-19\|language\=en\-US\|issn\=0458\-3035}} for which he was nominated for six [Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series](/wiki/Primetime_Emmy_Award_for_Outstanding_Supporting_Actor_in_a_Drama_Series "Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series"), winning in [1990](/wiki/42nd_Primetime_Emmy_Awards "42nd Primetime Emmy Awards").{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.emmys.com/bios/jimmy\-smits\|title \= Jimmy Smits}}
Also in 1986, Smits made his feature film debut as drug dealer Julio Gonzalez in the comedy/action cop film *[Running Scared](/wiki/Running_Scared_%281986_film%29 "Running Scared (1986 film)")* starring [Billy Crystal](/wiki/Billy_Crystal "Billy Crystal") and [Gregory Hines](/wiki/Gregory_Hines "Gregory Hines"). In 1989, Smits had a leading role in the romantic adventure *[Old Gringo](/wiki/Old_Gringo "Old Gringo")* as [Jane Fonda](/wiki/Jane_Fonda "Jane Fonda")'s love interest.
Additionally, Smits played a repairman on *[Pee\-wee's Playhouse](/wiki/Pee-wee%27s_Playhouse "Pee-wee's Playhouse")*, and he starred in the multigenerational story of a [Chicano](/wiki/Chicano "Chicano") family in the film *[My Family](/wiki/My_Family_%281995_film%29 "My Family (1995 film)")* (1995\), alongside [Edward James Olmos](/wiki/Edward_James_Olmos "Edward James Olmos") and [Jennifer Lopez](/wiki/Jennifer_Lopez "Jennifer Lopez").
One of Smits's most acclaimed roles was that of Detective [Bobby Simone](/wiki/Bobby_Simone "Bobby Simone") on the [ABC](/wiki/American_Broadcasting_Company "American Broadcasting Company") television program *NYPD Blue*, in which he starred from 1994 to 1998\. He received several Emmy nominations for his performance on the series and was reunited with his former co\-star [Dennis Franz](/wiki/Dennis_Franz "Dennis Franz") at the 2016 [Emmy Awards](/wiki/Emmy_Awards "Emmy Awards") presentation. He won the ALMA award twice.
[thumb\|right\|Smits in 2000](/wiki/Image:Jimmy_Smits_2_%2848591893606%29.jpg "Jimmy Smits 2 (48591893606).jpg")
Smits was scheduled to host the 2001 Latin Grammy Awards broadcast on September 11, 2001\. It was canceled due to continuous news coverage and out of respect for the victims of the [terrorist attacks](/wiki/September_11_attacks "September 11 attacks") earlier that day. He did host a non\-televised press conference to announce the winners.
Smits appeared as [Senator Bail Organa](/wiki/Viceroy_Bail_Organa "Viceroy Bail Organa") of [Alderaan](/wiki/Alderaan "Alderaan") in *[Star Wars: Episode II – Attack of the Clones](/wiki/Star_Wars:Episode_II_%E2%80%93_Attack_of_the_Clones "Episode II – Attack of the Clones")* (2002\) and *[Star Wars: Episode III – Revenge of the Sith](/wiki/Star_Wars:Episode_III_%E2%80%93_Revenge_of_the_Sith "Episode III – Revenge of the Sith")* (2005\), in which the character becomes [Princess Leia](/wiki/Princess_Leia "Princess Leia")'s adoptive father. He reappeared as Bail Organa in the game *[Star Wars: The Force Unleashed](/wiki/Star_Wars:The_Force_Unleashed "The Force Unleashed")* (2008\) and the spinoff movie *[Rogue One](/wiki/Rogue_One "Rogue One")* (2016\). He later reprised the role for *[Obi\-Wan Kenobi](/wiki/Obi-Wan_Kenobi_%28TV_series%29 "Obi-Wan Kenobi (TV series)")* (2022\).
Smits played the role of [Congressman](/wiki/United_States_House_of_Representatives "United States House of Representatives") [Matt Santos](/wiki/Matt_Santos "Matt Santos") of [Houston, Texas](/wiki/Houston%2C_Texas "Houston, Texas"), in the final two seasons of the NBC television drama *The West Wing*,{{Cite news\|url\=http://www.politico.com/story/2008/11/the\-jimmy\-smits\-interview\-015156\|title\=The Jimmy Smits interview\|work\=POLITICO\|access\-date\=2017\-10\-19}} joining fellow *L.A. Law* alumnus [John Spencer](/wiki/John_Spencer_%28actor%29 "John Spencer (actor)"). His character eventually ran for and won the U.S. presidency.
In *[Dexter](/wiki/Dexter_%28TV_series%29 "Dexter (TV series)")* season 3, Smits played the role of Miguel Prado, an assistant district attorney who befriends the title character.{{cite news
\|title\=Jimmy Smits Joins Dexter. Couldn't You Just Die?
\|url\=http://community.tvguide.com/blog\-entry/TVGuide\-News\-Blog/Todays\-News/Jimmy\-Smits\-Dexter/800041016
\|publisher\=TV Guide
\|date\=June 5, 2008
\|url\-status\=dead
\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080830004604/http://community.tvguide.com/blog\-entry/TVGuide\-News\-Blog/Todays\-News/Jimmy\-Smits\-Dexter/800041016
\|archive\-date\=August 30, 2008
}} Smits was nominated for an [Emmy Award for Outstanding Guest Actor in a Drama Series](/wiki/Primetime_Emmy_Award_for_Outstanding_Guest_Actor_-_Drama_Series "Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Guest Actor - Drama Series") for the role.
Additionally, Smits portrayed the character Alex Vega in the CBS TV series *[Cane](/wiki/Cane_%28TV_series%29 "Cane (TV series)")*, which aired from September 25, 2007, to December 18, 2007, and was subsequently canceled by the network due to the 2007 Screen Writer's Guild strike.
Smits joined the *[Sons of Anarchy](/wiki/Sons_of_Anarchy "Sons of Anarchy")* cast in [season 5](/wiki/Sons_of_Anarchy%23Season_5_%282012%29 "Sons of Anarchy#Season 5 (2012)") as [Nero Padilla](/wiki/List_of_Sons_of_Anarchy_characters%23Nero_Padilla "List of Sons of Anarchy characters#Nero Padilla"), a high\-level pimp who refers to himself as a "companionator". He builds a relationship with [Gemma Teller Morrow](/wiki/Gemma_Teller_Morrow "Gemma Teller Morrow") ([Katey Sagal](/wiki/Katey_Sagal "Katey Sagal")) and forms an alliance and mentorship with Gemma's son, the central character [Jax Teller](/wiki/Jax_Teller "Jax Teller") ([Charlie Hunnam](/wiki/Charlie_Hunnam "Charlie Hunnam")).{{cite news\|journal\=USA Today\|date\=1 October 2012\|access\-date\=23 October 2012\|title\=On 'Sons of Anarchy,' new faces and new fears\|author\=Bill Keveney\|url\=https://www.usatoday.com/story/life/tv/2012/10/01/sons\-of\-anarchy\-smits\-perrineau/1606569/}}
Smits starred in *[The Get Down](/wiki/The_Get_Down "The Get Down")*, a musical drama television series which debuted in 2016 on [Netflix](/wiki/Netflix "Netflix").{{cite web\|url\=https://deadline.com/2015/08/baz\-luhrmann\-the\-get\-down\-production\-hiatus\-netflix\-1201497749/\|title\=Baz Luhrmann's Netflix Series 'The Get Down' To Take Production Hiatus\|first\=Nellie\|last\=Andreeva\|publisher\=Deadline\|date\=2015\-08\-11\|access\-date\=2016\-06\-08}}
On February 25, 2019, news outlets reported that Smits was cast as Elijah Strait in NBC drama series *[Bluff City Law](/wiki/Bluff_City_Law "Bluff City Law")*{{cite web\|last1\=Andreeva\|first1\=Nellie\|title\=Jimmy Smits To Star In NBC Legal Drama Pilot 'Bluff City Law'\|url\=https://deadline.com/2019/02/jimmy\-smits\-star\-bluff\-city\-law\-nbc\-legal\-drama\-pilot\-1202564968/\|website\=Deadline Hollywood\|access\-date\=May 8, 2019\|date\=February 25, 2019}} and it was picked up to series on May 6, 2019\.{{cite web\|last1\=Andreeva\|first1\=Nellie\|title\=Drama 'Bluff City Law' Starring Jimmy Smits \& Kal Penn Comedy 'Sunnyside' Picked Up To Series By NBC\|url\=https://deadline.com/2019/05/bluff\-city\-law\-jimmy\-smits\-kal\-penn\-comedy\-sunnyside\-picked\-up\-series\-nbc\-1202608537/\|website\=Deadline Hollywood\|access\-date\=May 8, 2019\|date\=May 6, 2019}} *Bluff City Law* brings Smits back to TV courtrooms on a steady basis for the first time in over a quarter century since his role in *[L.A. Law](/wiki/L.A._Law "L.A. Law").*{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.cnn.com/2019/09/20/entertainment/jimmy\-smitts\-bluff\-city\-law/index.html\|title\=Jimmy Smits returns to the TV courtroom\|first\=Scott \|last\=Huver\|website\=CNN\|date\=September 20, 2019\|access\-date\=2020\-02\-06}}
In 2021, Smits played Kevin Rosario in the musical film *[In the Heights](/wiki/In_the_Heights_%28film%29 "In the Heights (film)")*.{{cite web\|last1\=Sanders\|first1\=Hosea\|last2\=Jordan\|first2\=Marsha\|title\=Lin Manuel Miranda's 'In The Heights' movie stars veteran actors Jimmy Smits, Olga Merediz\|url\=https://abc7chicago.com/in\-the\-heights\-movie\-cast\-lin\-manuel\-miranda/10762405/\|website\=abc7chicago\|date\=June 8, 2021\|access\-date\=June 11, 2021}}
### Theatre
In the mid\-1980s, Smits acted in numerous performances at the Hangar Theatre in [Ithaca, New York](/wiki/Ithaca%2C_New_York "Ithaca, New York"), Cornell's summer repertory program. In 1982 at the Hangar his roles included Max in *Cabaret*, Paul in *Loose Ends*, and the lead in *Pudd'nhead Wilson*. Smits has participated in the [Public Theater](/wiki/Public_Theater "Public Theater")'s New York Shakespeare Festival, playing the role of Duke Orsino in *[Twelfth Night](/wiki/Twelfth_Night "Twelfth Night")* in 2002 and Benedick in *[Much Ado about Nothing](/wiki/Much_Ado_about_Nothing "Much Ado about Nothing")* in 2004\. In 2003, Smits starred in the Broadway production of the Pulitzer Prize\-winning play, *[Anna in the Tropics](/wiki/Anna_in_the_Tropics "Anna in the Tropics")*, by Nilo Cruz, performed at the Royale Theatre. From November 2009 to February 2010, he appeared opposite [Christine Lahti](/wiki/Christine_Lahti "Christine Lahti"), [Annie Potts](/wiki/Annie_Potts "Annie Potts"), and [Ken Stott](/wiki/Ken_Stott "Ken Stott") in the critically lauded Broadway play *[God of Carnage](/wiki/God_of_Carnage "God of Carnage")*, replacing [Jeff Daniels](/wiki/Jeff_Daniels "Jeff Daniels"). In December 2012 through March 2013, he appeared in Chicago in *[The Motherfucker with the Hat](/wiki/The_Motherfucker_with_the_Hat "The Motherfucker with the Hat")*, at [Steppenwolf Theatre Company](/wiki/Steppenwolf_Theatre_Company "Steppenwolf Theatre Company").
|
[
"Career\n------",
"### Film and television",
"[thumb\\|upright\\|right\\|Smits at the 39th Annual Emmy Awards in 1987](/wiki/Image:Jimmy_Smits_at_the_39th_Emmy_Awards2.jpg \"Jimmy Smits at the 39th Emmy Awards2.jpg\")\nOne of Smits's early roles was playing [Sonny Crockett](/wiki/Sonny_Crockett \"Sonny Crockett\")'s original partner on the first episode of *[Miami Vice](/wiki/Miami_Vice \"Miami Vice\")* in 1984\\. In the first five minutes of the episode he falls victim to a [car bomb](/wiki/Car_bomb \"Car bomb\").",
"Beginning in 1986, Smits played Victor Sifuentes in the first five seasons of the NBC television [Steven Bochco](/wiki/Steven_Bochco \"Steven Bochco\") legal drama *[L.A. Law](/wiki/L.A._Law \"L.A. Law\")*,{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la\\-xpm\\-1987\\-08\\-07\\-ca\\-1054\\-story.html\\|title\\=Jimmy Smits: A Latino Look And Class Act On 'L.a. Law'\\|last\\=McKENNA\\|first\\=KRISTINE\\|date\\=1987\\-08\\-07\\|work\\=Los Angeles Times\\|access\\-date\\=2017\\-10\\-19\\|language\\=en\\-US\\|issn\\=0458\\-3035}} for which he was nominated for six [Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series](/wiki/Primetime_Emmy_Award_for_Outstanding_Supporting_Actor_in_a_Drama_Series \"Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series\"), winning in [1990](/wiki/42nd_Primetime_Emmy_Awards \"42nd Primetime Emmy Awards\").{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.emmys.com/bios/jimmy\\-smits\\|title \\= Jimmy Smits}}",
"Also in 1986, Smits made his feature film debut as drug dealer Julio Gonzalez in the comedy/action cop film *[Running Scared](/wiki/Running_Scared_%281986_film%29 \"Running Scared (1986 film)\")* starring [Billy Crystal](/wiki/Billy_Crystal \"Billy Crystal\") and [Gregory Hines](/wiki/Gregory_Hines \"Gregory Hines\"). In 1989, Smits had a leading role in the romantic adventure *[Old Gringo](/wiki/Old_Gringo \"Old Gringo\")* as [Jane Fonda](/wiki/Jane_Fonda \"Jane Fonda\")'s love interest.",
"Additionally, Smits played a repairman on *[Pee\\-wee's Playhouse](/wiki/Pee-wee%27s_Playhouse \"Pee-wee's Playhouse\")*, and he starred in the multigenerational story of a [Chicano](/wiki/Chicano \"Chicano\") family in the film *[My Family](/wiki/My_Family_%281995_film%29 \"My Family (1995 film)\")* (1995\\), alongside [Edward James Olmos](/wiki/Edward_James_Olmos \"Edward James Olmos\") and [Jennifer Lopez](/wiki/Jennifer_Lopez \"Jennifer Lopez\").",
"One of Smits's most acclaimed roles was that of Detective [Bobby Simone](/wiki/Bobby_Simone \"Bobby Simone\") on the [ABC](/wiki/American_Broadcasting_Company \"American Broadcasting Company\") television program *NYPD Blue*, in which he starred from 1994 to 1998\\. He received several Emmy nominations for his performance on the series and was reunited with his former co\\-star [Dennis Franz](/wiki/Dennis_Franz \"Dennis Franz\") at the 2016 [Emmy Awards](/wiki/Emmy_Awards \"Emmy Awards\") presentation. He won the ALMA award twice.\n[thumb\\|right\\|Smits in 2000](/wiki/Image:Jimmy_Smits_2_%2848591893606%29.jpg \"Jimmy Smits 2 (48591893606).jpg\")",
"Smits was scheduled to host the 2001 Latin Grammy Awards broadcast on September 11, 2001\\. It was canceled due to continuous news coverage and out of respect for the victims of the [terrorist attacks](/wiki/September_11_attacks \"September 11 attacks\") earlier that day. He did host a non\\-televised press conference to announce the winners.",
"Smits appeared as [Senator Bail Organa](/wiki/Viceroy_Bail_Organa \"Viceroy Bail Organa\") of [Alderaan](/wiki/Alderaan \"Alderaan\") in *[Star Wars: Episode II – Attack of the Clones](/wiki/Star_Wars:Episode_II_%E2%80%93_Attack_of_the_Clones \"Episode II – Attack of the Clones\")* (2002\\) and *[Star Wars: Episode III – Revenge of the Sith](/wiki/Star_Wars:Episode_III_%E2%80%93_Revenge_of_the_Sith \"Episode III – Revenge of the Sith\")* (2005\\), in which the character becomes [Princess Leia](/wiki/Princess_Leia \"Princess Leia\")'s adoptive father. He reappeared as Bail Organa in the game *[Star Wars: The Force Unleashed](/wiki/Star_Wars:The_Force_Unleashed \"The Force Unleashed\")* (2008\\) and the spinoff movie *[Rogue One](/wiki/Rogue_One \"Rogue One\")* (2016\\). He later reprised the role for *[Obi\\-Wan Kenobi](/wiki/Obi-Wan_Kenobi_%28TV_series%29 \"Obi-Wan Kenobi (TV series)\")* (2022\\).",
"Smits played the role of [Congressman](/wiki/United_States_House_of_Representatives \"United States House of Representatives\") [Matt Santos](/wiki/Matt_Santos \"Matt Santos\") of [Houston, Texas](/wiki/Houston%2C_Texas \"Houston, Texas\"), in the final two seasons of the NBC television drama *The West Wing*,{{Cite news\\|url\\=http://www.politico.com/story/2008/11/the\\-jimmy\\-smits\\-interview\\-015156\\|title\\=The Jimmy Smits interview\\|work\\=POLITICO\\|access\\-date\\=2017\\-10\\-19}} joining fellow *L.A. Law* alumnus [John Spencer](/wiki/John_Spencer_%28actor%29 \"John Spencer (actor)\"). His character eventually ran for and won the U.S. presidency.",
"In *[Dexter](/wiki/Dexter_%28TV_series%29 \"Dexter (TV series)\")* season 3, Smits played the role of Miguel Prado, an assistant district attorney who befriends the title character.{{cite news\n \\|title\\=Jimmy Smits Joins Dexter. Couldn't You Just Die?\n \\|url\\=http://community.tvguide.com/blog\\-entry/TVGuide\\-News\\-Blog/Todays\\-News/Jimmy\\-Smits\\-Dexter/800041016\n \\|publisher\\=TV Guide\n \\|date\\=June 5, 2008\n \\|url\\-status\\=dead\n \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080830004604/http://community.tvguide.com/blog\\-entry/TVGuide\\-News\\-Blog/Todays\\-News/Jimmy\\-Smits\\-Dexter/800041016\n \\|archive\\-date\\=August 30, 2008\n}} Smits was nominated for an [Emmy Award for Outstanding Guest Actor in a Drama Series](/wiki/Primetime_Emmy_Award_for_Outstanding_Guest_Actor_-_Drama_Series \"Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Guest Actor - Drama Series\") for the role.",
"Additionally, Smits portrayed the character Alex Vega in the CBS TV series *[Cane](/wiki/Cane_%28TV_series%29 \"Cane (TV series)\")*, which aired from September 25, 2007, to December 18, 2007, and was subsequently canceled by the network due to the 2007 Screen Writer's Guild strike.",
"Smits joined the *[Sons of Anarchy](/wiki/Sons_of_Anarchy \"Sons of Anarchy\")* cast in [season 5](/wiki/Sons_of_Anarchy%23Season_5_%282012%29 \"Sons of Anarchy#Season 5 (2012)\") as [Nero Padilla](/wiki/List_of_Sons_of_Anarchy_characters%23Nero_Padilla \"List of Sons of Anarchy characters#Nero Padilla\"), a high\\-level pimp who refers to himself as a \"companionator\". He builds a relationship with [Gemma Teller Morrow](/wiki/Gemma_Teller_Morrow \"Gemma Teller Morrow\") ([Katey Sagal](/wiki/Katey_Sagal \"Katey Sagal\")) and forms an alliance and mentorship with Gemma's son, the central character [Jax Teller](/wiki/Jax_Teller \"Jax Teller\") ([Charlie Hunnam](/wiki/Charlie_Hunnam \"Charlie Hunnam\")).{{cite news\\|journal\\=USA Today\\|date\\=1 October 2012\\|access\\-date\\=23 October 2012\\|title\\=On 'Sons of Anarchy,' new faces and new fears\\|author\\=Bill Keveney\\|url\\=https://www.usatoday.com/story/life/tv/2012/10/01/sons\\-of\\-anarchy\\-smits\\-perrineau/1606569/}}",
"Smits starred in *[The Get Down](/wiki/The_Get_Down \"The Get Down\")*, a musical drama television series which debuted in 2016 on [Netflix](/wiki/Netflix \"Netflix\").{{cite web\\|url\\=https://deadline.com/2015/08/baz\\-luhrmann\\-the\\-get\\-down\\-production\\-hiatus\\-netflix\\-1201497749/\\|title\\=Baz Luhrmann's Netflix Series 'The Get Down' To Take Production Hiatus\\|first\\=Nellie\\|last\\=Andreeva\\|publisher\\=Deadline\\|date\\=2015\\-08\\-11\\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-06\\-08}}",
"On February 25, 2019, news outlets reported that Smits was cast as Elijah Strait in NBC drama series *[Bluff City Law](/wiki/Bluff_City_Law \"Bluff City Law\")*{{cite web\\|last1\\=Andreeva\\|first1\\=Nellie\\|title\\=Jimmy Smits To Star In NBC Legal Drama Pilot 'Bluff City Law'\\|url\\=https://deadline.com/2019/02/jimmy\\-smits\\-star\\-bluff\\-city\\-law\\-nbc\\-legal\\-drama\\-pilot\\-1202564968/\\|website\\=Deadline Hollywood\\|access\\-date\\=May 8, 2019\\|date\\=February 25, 2019}} and it was picked up to series on May 6, 2019\\.{{cite web\\|last1\\=Andreeva\\|first1\\=Nellie\\|title\\=Drama 'Bluff City Law' Starring Jimmy Smits \\& Kal Penn Comedy 'Sunnyside' Picked Up To Series By NBC\\|url\\=https://deadline.com/2019/05/bluff\\-city\\-law\\-jimmy\\-smits\\-kal\\-penn\\-comedy\\-sunnyside\\-picked\\-up\\-series\\-nbc\\-1202608537/\\|website\\=Deadline Hollywood\\|access\\-date\\=May 8, 2019\\|date\\=May 6, 2019}} *Bluff City Law* brings Smits back to TV courtrooms on a steady basis for the first time in over a quarter century since his role in *[L.A. Law](/wiki/L.A._Law \"L.A. Law\").*{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.cnn.com/2019/09/20/entertainment/jimmy\\-smitts\\-bluff\\-city\\-law/index.html\\|title\\=Jimmy Smits returns to the TV courtroom\\|first\\=Scott \\|last\\=Huver\\|website\\=CNN\\|date\\=September 20, 2019\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-02\\-06}}",
"In 2021, Smits played Kevin Rosario in the musical film *[In the Heights](/wiki/In_the_Heights_%28film%29 \"In the Heights (film)\")*.{{cite web\\|last1\\=Sanders\\|first1\\=Hosea\\|last2\\=Jordan\\|first2\\=Marsha\\|title\\=Lin Manuel Miranda's 'In The Heights' movie stars veteran actors Jimmy Smits, Olga Merediz\\|url\\=https://abc7chicago.com/in\\-the\\-heights\\-movie\\-cast\\-lin\\-manuel\\-miranda/10762405/\\|website\\=abc7chicago\\|date\\=June 8, 2021\\|access\\-date\\=June 11, 2021}}",
"### Theatre",
"In the mid\\-1980s, Smits acted in numerous performances at the Hangar Theatre in [Ithaca, New York](/wiki/Ithaca%2C_New_York \"Ithaca, New York\"), Cornell's summer repertory program. In 1982 at the Hangar his roles included Max in *Cabaret*, Paul in *Loose Ends*, and the lead in *Pudd'nhead Wilson*. Smits has participated in the [Public Theater](/wiki/Public_Theater \"Public Theater\")'s New York Shakespeare Festival, playing the role of Duke Orsino in *[Twelfth Night](/wiki/Twelfth_Night \"Twelfth Night\")* in 2002 and Benedick in *[Much Ado about Nothing](/wiki/Much_Ado_about_Nothing \"Much Ado about Nothing\")* in 2004\\. In 2003, Smits starred in the Broadway production of the Pulitzer Prize\\-winning play, *[Anna in the Tropics](/wiki/Anna_in_the_Tropics \"Anna in the Tropics\")*, by Nilo Cruz, performed at the Royale Theatre. From November 2009 to February 2010, he appeared opposite [Christine Lahti](/wiki/Christine_Lahti \"Christine Lahti\"), [Annie Potts](/wiki/Annie_Potts \"Annie Potts\"), and [Ken Stott](/wiki/Ken_Stott \"Ken Stott\") in the critically lauded Broadway play *[God of Carnage](/wiki/God_of_Carnage \"God of Carnage\")*, replacing [Jeff Daniels](/wiki/Jeff_Daniels \"Jeff Daniels\"). In December 2012 through March 2013, he appeared in Chicago in *[The Motherfucker with the Hat](/wiki/The_Motherfucker_with_the_Hat \"The Motherfucker with the Hat\")*, at [Steppenwolf Theatre Company](/wiki/Steppenwolf_Theatre_Company \"Steppenwolf Theatre Company\").",
""
] |
### Film and television
[thumb\|upright\|right\|Smits at the 39th Annual Emmy Awards in 1987](/wiki/Image:Jimmy_Smits_at_the_39th_Emmy_Awards2.jpg "Jimmy Smits at the 39th Emmy Awards2.jpg")
One of Smits's early roles was playing [Sonny Crockett](/wiki/Sonny_Crockett "Sonny Crockett")'s original partner on the first episode of *[Miami Vice](/wiki/Miami_Vice "Miami Vice")* in 1984\. In the first five minutes of the episode he falls victim to a [car bomb](/wiki/Car_bomb "Car bomb").
Beginning in 1986, Smits played Victor Sifuentes in the first five seasons of the NBC television [Steven Bochco](/wiki/Steven_Bochco "Steven Bochco") legal drama *[L.A. Law](/wiki/L.A._Law "L.A. Law")*,{{Cite news\|url\=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la\-xpm\-1987\-08\-07\-ca\-1054\-story.html\|title\=Jimmy Smits: A Latino Look And Class Act On 'L.a. Law'\|last\=McKENNA\|first\=KRISTINE\|date\=1987\-08\-07\|work\=Los Angeles Times\|access\-date\=2017\-10\-19\|language\=en\-US\|issn\=0458\-3035}} for which he was nominated for six [Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series](/wiki/Primetime_Emmy_Award_for_Outstanding_Supporting_Actor_in_a_Drama_Series "Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series"), winning in [1990](/wiki/42nd_Primetime_Emmy_Awards "42nd Primetime Emmy Awards").{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.emmys.com/bios/jimmy\-smits\|title \= Jimmy Smits}}
Also in 1986, Smits made his feature film debut as drug dealer Julio Gonzalez in the comedy/action cop film *[Running Scared](/wiki/Running_Scared_%281986_film%29 "Running Scared (1986 film)")* starring [Billy Crystal](/wiki/Billy_Crystal "Billy Crystal") and [Gregory Hines](/wiki/Gregory_Hines "Gregory Hines"). In 1989, Smits had a leading role in the romantic adventure *[Old Gringo](/wiki/Old_Gringo "Old Gringo")* as [Jane Fonda](/wiki/Jane_Fonda "Jane Fonda")'s love interest.
Additionally, Smits played a repairman on *[Pee\-wee's Playhouse](/wiki/Pee-wee%27s_Playhouse "Pee-wee's Playhouse")*, and he starred in the multigenerational story of a [Chicano](/wiki/Chicano "Chicano") family in the film *[My Family](/wiki/My_Family_%281995_film%29 "My Family (1995 film)")* (1995\), alongside [Edward James Olmos](/wiki/Edward_James_Olmos "Edward James Olmos") and [Jennifer Lopez](/wiki/Jennifer_Lopez "Jennifer Lopez").
One of Smits's most acclaimed roles was that of Detective [Bobby Simone](/wiki/Bobby_Simone "Bobby Simone") on the [ABC](/wiki/American_Broadcasting_Company "American Broadcasting Company") television program *NYPD Blue*, in which he starred from 1994 to 1998\. He received several Emmy nominations for his performance on the series and was reunited with his former co\-star [Dennis Franz](/wiki/Dennis_Franz "Dennis Franz") at the 2016 [Emmy Awards](/wiki/Emmy_Awards "Emmy Awards") presentation. He won the ALMA award twice.
[thumb\|right\|Smits in 2000](/wiki/Image:Jimmy_Smits_2_%2848591893606%29.jpg "Jimmy Smits 2 (48591893606).jpg")
Smits was scheduled to host the 2001 Latin Grammy Awards broadcast on September 11, 2001\. It was canceled due to continuous news coverage and out of respect for the victims of the [terrorist attacks](/wiki/September_11_attacks "September 11 attacks") earlier that day. He did host a non\-televised press conference to announce the winners.
Smits appeared as [Senator Bail Organa](/wiki/Viceroy_Bail_Organa "Viceroy Bail Organa") of [Alderaan](/wiki/Alderaan "Alderaan") in *[Star Wars: Episode II – Attack of the Clones](/wiki/Star_Wars:Episode_II_%E2%80%93_Attack_of_the_Clones "Episode II – Attack of the Clones")* (2002\) and *[Star Wars: Episode III – Revenge of the Sith](/wiki/Star_Wars:Episode_III_%E2%80%93_Revenge_of_the_Sith "Episode III – Revenge of the Sith")* (2005\), in which the character becomes [Princess Leia](/wiki/Princess_Leia "Princess Leia")'s adoptive father. He reappeared as Bail Organa in the game *[Star Wars: The Force Unleashed](/wiki/Star_Wars:The_Force_Unleashed "The Force Unleashed")* (2008\) and the spinoff movie *[Rogue One](/wiki/Rogue_One "Rogue One")* (2016\). He later reprised the role for *[Obi\-Wan Kenobi](/wiki/Obi-Wan_Kenobi_%28TV_series%29 "Obi-Wan Kenobi (TV series)")* (2022\).
Smits played the role of [Congressman](/wiki/United_States_House_of_Representatives "United States House of Representatives") [Matt Santos](/wiki/Matt_Santos "Matt Santos") of [Houston, Texas](/wiki/Houston%2C_Texas "Houston, Texas"), in the final two seasons of the NBC television drama *The West Wing*,{{Cite news\|url\=http://www.politico.com/story/2008/11/the\-jimmy\-smits\-interview\-015156\|title\=The Jimmy Smits interview\|work\=POLITICO\|access\-date\=2017\-10\-19}} joining fellow *L.A. Law* alumnus [John Spencer](/wiki/John_Spencer_%28actor%29 "John Spencer (actor)"). His character eventually ran for and won the U.S. presidency.
In *[Dexter](/wiki/Dexter_%28TV_series%29 "Dexter (TV series)")* season 3, Smits played the role of Miguel Prado, an assistant district attorney who befriends the title character.{{cite news
\|title\=Jimmy Smits Joins Dexter. Couldn't You Just Die?
\|url\=http://community.tvguide.com/blog\-entry/TVGuide\-News\-Blog/Todays\-News/Jimmy\-Smits\-Dexter/800041016
\|publisher\=TV Guide
\|date\=June 5, 2008
\|url\-status\=dead
\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080830004604/http://community.tvguide.com/blog\-entry/TVGuide\-News\-Blog/Todays\-News/Jimmy\-Smits\-Dexter/800041016
\|archive\-date\=August 30, 2008
}} Smits was nominated for an [Emmy Award for Outstanding Guest Actor in a Drama Series](/wiki/Primetime_Emmy_Award_for_Outstanding_Guest_Actor_-_Drama_Series "Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Guest Actor - Drama Series") for the role.
Additionally, Smits portrayed the character Alex Vega in the CBS TV series *[Cane](/wiki/Cane_%28TV_series%29 "Cane (TV series)")*, which aired from September 25, 2007, to December 18, 2007, and was subsequently canceled by the network due to the 2007 Screen Writer's Guild strike.
Smits joined the *[Sons of Anarchy](/wiki/Sons_of_Anarchy "Sons of Anarchy")* cast in [season 5](/wiki/Sons_of_Anarchy%23Season_5_%282012%29 "Sons of Anarchy#Season 5 (2012)") as [Nero Padilla](/wiki/List_of_Sons_of_Anarchy_characters%23Nero_Padilla "List of Sons of Anarchy characters#Nero Padilla"), a high\-level pimp who refers to himself as a "companionator". He builds a relationship with [Gemma Teller Morrow](/wiki/Gemma_Teller_Morrow "Gemma Teller Morrow") ([Katey Sagal](/wiki/Katey_Sagal "Katey Sagal")) and forms an alliance and mentorship with Gemma's son, the central character [Jax Teller](/wiki/Jax_Teller "Jax Teller") ([Charlie Hunnam](/wiki/Charlie_Hunnam "Charlie Hunnam")).{{cite news\|journal\=USA Today\|date\=1 October 2012\|access\-date\=23 October 2012\|title\=On 'Sons of Anarchy,' new faces and new fears\|author\=Bill Keveney\|url\=https://www.usatoday.com/story/life/tv/2012/10/01/sons\-of\-anarchy\-smits\-perrineau/1606569/}}
Smits starred in *[The Get Down](/wiki/The_Get_Down "The Get Down")*, a musical drama television series which debuted in 2016 on [Netflix](/wiki/Netflix "Netflix").{{cite web\|url\=https://deadline.com/2015/08/baz\-luhrmann\-the\-get\-down\-production\-hiatus\-netflix\-1201497749/\|title\=Baz Luhrmann's Netflix Series 'The Get Down' To Take Production Hiatus\|first\=Nellie\|last\=Andreeva\|publisher\=Deadline\|date\=2015\-08\-11\|access\-date\=2016\-06\-08}}
On February 25, 2019, news outlets reported that Smits was cast as Elijah Strait in NBC drama series *[Bluff City Law](/wiki/Bluff_City_Law "Bluff City Law")*{{cite web\|last1\=Andreeva\|first1\=Nellie\|title\=Jimmy Smits To Star In NBC Legal Drama Pilot 'Bluff City Law'\|url\=https://deadline.com/2019/02/jimmy\-smits\-star\-bluff\-city\-law\-nbc\-legal\-drama\-pilot\-1202564968/\|website\=Deadline Hollywood\|access\-date\=May 8, 2019\|date\=February 25, 2019}} and it was picked up to series on May 6, 2019\.{{cite web\|last1\=Andreeva\|first1\=Nellie\|title\=Drama 'Bluff City Law' Starring Jimmy Smits \& Kal Penn Comedy 'Sunnyside' Picked Up To Series By NBC\|url\=https://deadline.com/2019/05/bluff\-city\-law\-jimmy\-smits\-kal\-penn\-comedy\-sunnyside\-picked\-up\-series\-nbc\-1202608537/\|website\=Deadline Hollywood\|access\-date\=May 8, 2019\|date\=May 6, 2019}} *Bluff City Law* brings Smits back to TV courtrooms on a steady basis for the first time in over a quarter century since his role in *[L.A. Law](/wiki/L.A._Law "L.A. Law").*{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.cnn.com/2019/09/20/entertainment/jimmy\-smitts\-bluff\-city\-law/index.html\|title\=Jimmy Smits returns to the TV courtroom\|first\=Scott \|last\=Huver\|website\=CNN\|date\=September 20, 2019\|access\-date\=2020\-02\-06}}
In 2021, Smits played Kevin Rosario in the musical film *[In the Heights](/wiki/In_the_Heights_%28film%29 "In the Heights (film)")*.{{cite web\|last1\=Sanders\|first1\=Hosea\|last2\=Jordan\|first2\=Marsha\|title\=Lin Manuel Miranda's 'In The Heights' movie stars veteran actors Jimmy Smits, Olga Merediz\|url\=https://abc7chicago.com/in\-the\-heights\-movie\-cast\-lin\-manuel\-miranda/10762405/\|website\=abc7chicago\|date\=June 8, 2021\|access\-date\=June 11, 2021}}
|
[
"### Film and television",
"[thumb\\|upright\\|right\\|Smits at the 39th Annual Emmy Awards in 1987](/wiki/Image:Jimmy_Smits_at_the_39th_Emmy_Awards2.jpg \"Jimmy Smits at the 39th Emmy Awards2.jpg\")\nOne of Smits's early roles was playing [Sonny Crockett](/wiki/Sonny_Crockett \"Sonny Crockett\")'s original partner on the first episode of *[Miami Vice](/wiki/Miami_Vice \"Miami Vice\")* in 1984\\. In the first five minutes of the episode he falls victim to a [car bomb](/wiki/Car_bomb \"Car bomb\").",
"Beginning in 1986, Smits played Victor Sifuentes in the first five seasons of the NBC television [Steven Bochco](/wiki/Steven_Bochco \"Steven Bochco\") legal drama *[L.A. Law](/wiki/L.A._Law \"L.A. Law\")*,{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la\\-xpm\\-1987\\-08\\-07\\-ca\\-1054\\-story.html\\|title\\=Jimmy Smits: A Latino Look And Class Act On 'L.a. Law'\\|last\\=McKENNA\\|first\\=KRISTINE\\|date\\=1987\\-08\\-07\\|work\\=Los Angeles Times\\|access\\-date\\=2017\\-10\\-19\\|language\\=en\\-US\\|issn\\=0458\\-3035}} for which he was nominated for six [Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series](/wiki/Primetime_Emmy_Award_for_Outstanding_Supporting_Actor_in_a_Drama_Series \"Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series\"), winning in [1990](/wiki/42nd_Primetime_Emmy_Awards \"42nd Primetime Emmy Awards\").{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.emmys.com/bios/jimmy\\-smits\\|title \\= Jimmy Smits}}",
"Also in 1986, Smits made his feature film debut as drug dealer Julio Gonzalez in the comedy/action cop film *[Running Scared](/wiki/Running_Scared_%281986_film%29 \"Running Scared (1986 film)\")* starring [Billy Crystal](/wiki/Billy_Crystal \"Billy Crystal\") and [Gregory Hines](/wiki/Gregory_Hines \"Gregory Hines\"). In 1989, Smits had a leading role in the romantic adventure *[Old Gringo](/wiki/Old_Gringo \"Old Gringo\")* as [Jane Fonda](/wiki/Jane_Fonda \"Jane Fonda\")'s love interest.",
"Additionally, Smits played a repairman on *[Pee\\-wee's Playhouse](/wiki/Pee-wee%27s_Playhouse \"Pee-wee's Playhouse\")*, and he starred in the multigenerational story of a [Chicano](/wiki/Chicano \"Chicano\") family in the film *[My Family](/wiki/My_Family_%281995_film%29 \"My Family (1995 film)\")* (1995\\), alongside [Edward James Olmos](/wiki/Edward_James_Olmos \"Edward James Olmos\") and [Jennifer Lopez](/wiki/Jennifer_Lopez \"Jennifer Lopez\").",
"One of Smits's most acclaimed roles was that of Detective [Bobby Simone](/wiki/Bobby_Simone \"Bobby Simone\") on the [ABC](/wiki/American_Broadcasting_Company \"American Broadcasting Company\") television program *NYPD Blue*, in which he starred from 1994 to 1998\\. He received several Emmy nominations for his performance on the series and was reunited with his former co\\-star [Dennis Franz](/wiki/Dennis_Franz \"Dennis Franz\") at the 2016 [Emmy Awards](/wiki/Emmy_Awards \"Emmy Awards\") presentation. He won the ALMA award twice.\n[thumb\\|right\\|Smits in 2000](/wiki/Image:Jimmy_Smits_2_%2848591893606%29.jpg \"Jimmy Smits 2 (48591893606).jpg\")",
"Smits was scheduled to host the 2001 Latin Grammy Awards broadcast on September 11, 2001\\. It was canceled due to continuous news coverage and out of respect for the victims of the [terrorist attacks](/wiki/September_11_attacks \"September 11 attacks\") earlier that day. He did host a non\\-televised press conference to announce the winners.",
"Smits appeared as [Senator Bail Organa](/wiki/Viceroy_Bail_Organa \"Viceroy Bail Organa\") of [Alderaan](/wiki/Alderaan \"Alderaan\") in *[Star Wars: Episode II – Attack of the Clones](/wiki/Star_Wars:Episode_II_%E2%80%93_Attack_of_the_Clones \"Episode II – Attack of the Clones\")* (2002\\) and *[Star Wars: Episode III – Revenge of the Sith](/wiki/Star_Wars:Episode_III_%E2%80%93_Revenge_of_the_Sith \"Episode III – Revenge of the Sith\")* (2005\\), in which the character becomes [Princess Leia](/wiki/Princess_Leia \"Princess Leia\")'s adoptive father. He reappeared as Bail Organa in the game *[Star Wars: The Force Unleashed](/wiki/Star_Wars:The_Force_Unleashed \"The Force Unleashed\")* (2008\\) and the spinoff movie *[Rogue One](/wiki/Rogue_One \"Rogue One\")* (2016\\). He later reprised the role for *[Obi\\-Wan Kenobi](/wiki/Obi-Wan_Kenobi_%28TV_series%29 \"Obi-Wan Kenobi (TV series)\")* (2022\\).",
"Smits played the role of [Congressman](/wiki/United_States_House_of_Representatives \"United States House of Representatives\") [Matt Santos](/wiki/Matt_Santos \"Matt Santos\") of [Houston, Texas](/wiki/Houston%2C_Texas \"Houston, Texas\"), in the final two seasons of the NBC television drama *The West Wing*,{{Cite news\\|url\\=http://www.politico.com/story/2008/11/the\\-jimmy\\-smits\\-interview\\-015156\\|title\\=The Jimmy Smits interview\\|work\\=POLITICO\\|access\\-date\\=2017\\-10\\-19}} joining fellow *L.A. Law* alumnus [John Spencer](/wiki/John_Spencer_%28actor%29 \"John Spencer (actor)\"). His character eventually ran for and won the U.S. presidency.",
"In *[Dexter](/wiki/Dexter_%28TV_series%29 \"Dexter (TV series)\")* season 3, Smits played the role of Miguel Prado, an assistant district attorney who befriends the title character.{{cite news\n \\|title\\=Jimmy Smits Joins Dexter. Couldn't You Just Die?\n \\|url\\=http://community.tvguide.com/blog\\-entry/TVGuide\\-News\\-Blog/Todays\\-News/Jimmy\\-Smits\\-Dexter/800041016\n \\|publisher\\=TV Guide\n \\|date\\=June 5, 2008\n \\|url\\-status\\=dead\n \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080830004604/http://community.tvguide.com/blog\\-entry/TVGuide\\-News\\-Blog/Todays\\-News/Jimmy\\-Smits\\-Dexter/800041016\n \\|archive\\-date\\=August 30, 2008\n}} Smits was nominated for an [Emmy Award for Outstanding Guest Actor in a Drama Series](/wiki/Primetime_Emmy_Award_for_Outstanding_Guest_Actor_-_Drama_Series \"Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Guest Actor - Drama Series\") for the role.",
"Additionally, Smits portrayed the character Alex Vega in the CBS TV series *[Cane](/wiki/Cane_%28TV_series%29 \"Cane (TV series)\")*, which aired from September 25, 2007, to December 18, 2007, and was subsequently canceled by the network due to the 2007 Screen Writer's Guild strike.",
"Smits joined the *[Sons of Anarchy](/wiki/Sons_of_Anarchy \"Sons of Anarchy\")* cast in [season 5](/wiki/Sons_of_Anarchy%23Season_5_%282012%29 \"Sons of Anarchy#Season 5 (2012)\") as [Nero Padilla](/wiki/List_of_Sons_of_Anarchy_characters%23Nero_Padilla \"List of Sons of Anarchy characters#Nero Padilla\"), a high\\-level pimp who refers to himself as a \"companionator\". He builds a relationship with [Gemma Teller Morrow](/wiki/Gemma_Teller_Morrow \"Gemma Teller Morrow\") ([Katey Sagal](/wiki/Katey_Sagal \"Katey Sagal\")) and forms an alliance and mentorship with Gemma's son, the central character [Jax Teller](/wiki/Jax_Teller \"Jax Teller\") ([Charlie Hunnam](/wiki/Charlie_Hunnam \"Charlie Hunnam\")).{{cite news\\|journal\\=USA Today\\|date\\=1 October 2012\\|access\\-date\\=23 October 2012\\|title\\=On 'Sons of Anarchy,' new faces and new fears\\|author\\=Bill Keveney\\|url\\=https://www.usatoday.com/story/life/tv/2012/10/01/sons\\-of\\-anarchy\\-smits\\-perrineau/1606569/}}",
"Smits starred in *[The Get Down](/wiki/The_Get_Down \"The Get Down\")*, a musical drama television series which debuted in 2016 on [Netflix](/wiki/Netflix \"Netflix\").{{cite web\\|url\\=https://deadline.com/2015/08/baz\\-luhrmann\\-the\\-get\\-down\\-production\\-hiatus\\-netflix\\-1201497749/\\|title\\=Baz Luhrmann's Netflix Series 'The Get Down' To Take Production Hiatus\\|first\\=Nellie\\|last\\=Andreeva\\|publisher\\=Deadline\\|date\\=2015\\-08\\-11\\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-06\\-08}}",
"On February 25, 2019, news outlets reported that Smits was cast as Elijah Strait in NBC drama series *[Bluff City Law](/wiki/Bluff_City_Law \"Bluff City Law\")*{{cite web\\|last1\\=Andreeva\\|first1\\=Nellie\\|title\\=Jimmy Smits To Star In NBC Legal Drama Pilot 'Bluff City Law'\\|url\\=https://deadline.com/2019/02/jimmy\\-smits\\-star\\-bluff\\-city\\-law\\-nbc\\-legal\\-drama\\-pilot\\-1202564968/\\|website\\=Deadline Hollywood\\|access\\-date\\=May 8, 2019\\|date\\=February 25, 2019}} and it was picked up to series on May 6, 2019\\.{{cite web\\|last1\\=Andreeva\\|first1\\=Nellie\\|title\\=Drama 'Bluff City Law' Starring Jimmy Smits \\& Kal Penn Comedy 'Sunnyside' Picked Up To Series By NBC\\|url\\=https://deadline.com/2019/05/bluff\\-city\\-law\\-jimmy\\-smits\\-kal\\-penn\\-comedy\\-sunnyside\\-picked\\-up\\-series\\-nbc\\-1202608537/\\|website\\=Deadline Hollywood\\|access\\-date\\=May 8, 2019\\|date\\=May 6, 2019}} *Bluff City Law* brings Smits back to TV courtrooms on a steady basis for the first time in over a quarter century since his role in *[L.A. Law](/wiki/L.A._Law \"L.A. Law\").*{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.cnn.com/2019/09/20/entertainment/jimmy\\-smitts\\-bluff\\-city\\-law/index.html\\|title\\=Jimmy Smits returns to the TV courtroom\\|first\\=Scott \\|last\\=Huver\\|website\\=CNN\\|date\\=September 20, 2019\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-02\\-06}}",
"In 2021, Smits played Kevin Rosario in the musical film *[In the Heights](/wiki/In_the_Heights_%28film%29 \"In the Heights (film)\")*.{{cite web\\|last1\\=Sanders\\|first1\\=Hosea\\|last2\\=Jordan\\|first2\\=Marsha\\|title\\=Lin Manuel Miranda's 'In The Heights' movie stars veteran actors Jimmy Smits, Olga Merediz\\|url\\=https://abc7chicago.com/in\\-the\\-heights\\-movie\\-cast\\-lin\\-manuel\\-miranda/10762405/\\|website\\=abc7chicago\\|date\\=June 8, 2021\\|access\\-date\\=June 11, 2021}}",
""
] |
Plot
----
In its opening titles, the film declares that its actors are all non\-professional performers cast from the locations being depicted. Over scenes of modern [Bombay](/wiki/Bombay "Bombay"), voice\-over narration remarks on the thousands of bustling people and praises the Indian people for their racial and religious tolerance before moving into more rural parts of the country, which it calls the real India.
In the first section, the film praises Indian's connection with nature over scenes of men using elephants to clear sections of forest. The elephants are bathed and fed, while the human workers are entertained by a traditional puppet show. We are introduced to a young elephant driver, Devi, a [Hindu](/wiki/Hindu "Hindu") refugee from [East Bengal](/wiki/East_Bengal "East Bengal"), who becomes the film's narrator. His elephant mates and he, in turn, courts a local woman and is wed to her in a traditional ceremony. When Devi's wife becomes pregnant, he sends her to live with her mother as Devi doesn't have time to tend to her and also work.
In the second part, the film switches to the foothills of the [Himalayas](/wiki/Himalayas "Himalayas") and follows several rivers downstream, referring to both the rivers' source of life\-giving water and their spiritual connection with the people. India's history is shown in ancient temples that are slowly eroding into he rivers' waters. The narration references ancient Indian holy books as the film shows the construction of the giant [Hirakud Dam](/wiki/Hirakud_Dam "Hirakud Dam"), which creates a huge artificial lake. Devi has taken a job as a dam builder, and his wife has given birth. Devi's narration expressed the pride he has for being part of the dam's construction, lamenting the 175 deaths amongst the workers to save the lives of untold people who would've been lost to flooding. Finding a tree stump that will soon be swallowed by the forming lake, Devi writes on it about his journey and feelings. Devi and his wife quarrel over his need to travel for work, lreaving her rootless, and they leave their home beside the dam, traveling west through rice farms, ancient Muslim forts, and jungles.
Life in the jungle is explored in the third section with a new narrator, an 80\-year\-old man who has lived in his village his entire life. His narration explores life with his wife and grown sons who live nearby, their daily work routines, their religious rituals, and the uneasy relationship the old man has with the local tiger. When iron\-mining surveyors come to the village, they disrupt the local people and wildlife, who flee from the noise. Lacking prey, the tiger injures itself trying to predate a porcupine and becomes a man\-eater. The old man goes to drive off the tiger before the company\-led hunting party can kill it.
Finally, the narrator discusses heatwaves in India, where the wildlife escapes to the rivers to cool themselves in the waters. The narrator tells the story of an old man traveling through barren lands to a city festival with his performing monkey Ramu. The heat causes the old man to die; Ramu is still chained to him as vultures circle above them. Ramu is able to free itself as the vulture swoop in. Ramu finds the way to the city festival, and falls back on its training, dancing for crowds and collecting coins. It tries to rejoin a group of wild monkeys, who reject it. Finally, it is adopted by another owner, who puts Ramu in an acrobatic show.
The film ends as it begins, with narration over imagery of the big modern city, with crowds of thousands of people.
|
[
"Plot\n----",
"In its opening titles, the film declares that its actors are all non\\-professional performers cast from the locations being depicted. Over scenes of modern [Bombay](/wiki/Bombay \"Bombay\"), voice\\-over narration remarks on the thousands of bustling people and praises the Indian people for their racial and religious tolerance before moving into more rural parts of the country, which it calls the real India.",
"In the first section, the film praises Indian's connection with nature over scenes of men using elephants to clear sections of forest. The elephants are bathed and fed, while the human workers are entertained by a traditional puppet show. We are introduced to a young elephant driver, Devi, a [Hindu](/wiki/Hindu \"Hindu\") refugee from [East Bengal](/wiki/East_Bengal \"East Bengal\"), who becomes the film's narrator. His elephant mates and he, in turn, courts a local woman and is wed to her in a traditional ceremony. When Devi's wife becomes pregnant, he sends her to live with her mother as Devi doesn't have time to tend to her and also work.",
"In the second part, the film switches to the foothills of the [Himalayas](/wiki/Himalayas \"Himalayas\") and follows several rivers downstream, referring to both the rivers' source of life\\-giving water and their spiritual connection with the people. India's history is shown in ancient temples that are slowly eroding into he rivers' waters. The narration references ancient Indian holy books as the film shows the construction of the giant [Hirakud Dam](/wiki/Hirakud_Dam \"Hirakud Dam\"), which creates a huge artificial lake. Devi has taken a job as a dam builder, and his wife has given birth. Devi's narration expressed the pride he has for being part of the dam's construction, lamenting the 175 deaths amongst the workers to save the lives of untold people who would've been lost to flooding. Finding a tree stump that will soon be swallowed by the forming lake, Devi writes on it about his journey and feelings. Devi and his wife quarrel over his need to travel for work, lreaving her rootless, and they leave their home beside the dam, traveling west through rice farms, ancient Muslim forts, and jungles.",
"Life in the jungle is explored in the third section with a new narrator, an 80\\-year\\-old man who has lived in his village his entire life. His narration explores life with his wife and grown sons who live nearby, their daily work routines, their religious rituals, and the uneasy relationship the old man has with the local tiger. When iron\\-mining surveyors come to the village, they disrupt the local people and wildlife, who flee from the noise. Lacking prey, the tiger injures itself trying to predate a porcupine and becomes a man\\-eater. The old man goes to drive off the tiger before the company\\-led hunting party can kill it.",
"Finally, the narrator discusses heatwaves in India, where the wildlife escapes to the rivers to cool themselves in the waters. The narrator tells the story of an old man traveling through barren lands to a city festival with his performing monkey Ramu. The heat causes the old man to die; Ramu is still chained to him as vultures circle above them. Ramu is able to free itself as the vulture swoop in. Ramu finds the way to the city festival, and falls back on its training, dancing for crowds and collecting coins. It tries to rejoin a group of wild monkeys, who reject it. Finally, it is adopted by another owner, who puts Ramu in an acrobatic show.",
"The film ends as it begins, with narration over imagery of the big modern city, with crowds of thousands of people.",
""
] |
Biography
---------
[thumb\|150px\|Natalia Ivanovna, wifeThe](/wiki/File:Vladimir_Borovikovsky_007.jpg "Vladimir Borovikovsky 007.jpg") younger brother of [Alexander Borisovich Kurakin](/wiki/Alexander_Kurakin "Alexander Kurakin"), who was brought up together with the crown prince Pavel Petrovich (future emperor [Paul I](/wiki/Paul_I_of_Russia "Paul I of Russia")) and this relationship was bound to take off his career in senior government positions, which began in the early days of Paul. From 1775 to 1776 he studied at the [Leiden University](/wiki/Leiden_University "Leiden University"). In 1777 he received the title of chamber junker.
In 1793 he was granted a chamberlain, in 1795 promoted to secret advisers; on 4 December 1796 he was appointed [Prosecutor General](/wiki/Prosecutor_General_of_the_Russian_Empire "Prosecutor General of the Russian Empire"); a few days later, on 19 December, he received the [Order of Saint Alexander Nevsky](/wiki/Order_of_Saint_Alexander_Nevsky "Order of Saint Alexander Nevsky") and took the post of Chief Director of the [Russian Assignation Bank](/wiki/Russian_Assignation_Bank "Russian Assignation Bank"). Being a procurator\-general, he collected a "laid commission" – three books of laws on criminal, civil and state affairs, and re\-established a school of junkers from the nobility under the [Senate](/wiki/Governing_Senate "Governing Senate") to train them in jurisprudence. On 5 April 1797 he was granted the rank of [Active Privy Councillor](/wiki/Active_Privy_Councillor "Active Privy Councillor"), and on 19 December that year he was awarded the [Order of Saint Andrew the First Called](/wiki/Order_of_St._Andrew "Order of St. Andrew"). Nevertheless, he fell into disgrace of the Emperor: on 8 August 1798 he was dismissed from the post of procurator\-general; appointed as the senator, which meant an unconditional downgrade, and soon completely removed from public affairs. His brother Alexander also fell into disgrace.
He was again called up for public service by [Alexander I](/wiki/Alexander_I_of_Russia "Alexander I of Russia"); on 4 February 1802 he was appointed Little Russian Governor\-General. He was in office for about six years; during this time he spent a canal on the river Ostyor, took care of public education and public health.Ivan Pavlovsky. Outline of the Activities of the Little Russian Governor\-General, Prince Alexei Kurakin. Poltava, 1914 [Mikhail Speransky](/wiki/Mikhail_Speransky "Mikhail Speransky") began his career with Alexei Borisovich; first as Kurakin's personal secretary, later adopted by the patron in the Senate office.
Since 1804, Alexey Kurakin is a member of the [Permanent Council](/wiki/State_Council_%28Russian_Empire%29 "State Council (Russian Empire)"); often served as chairman. After the [Peace of Tilsit](/wiki/Treaties_of_Tilsit "Treaties of Tilsit"), he received from Napoleon a large cross of the Order of the [Legion of Honour](/wiki/Legion_of_Honour "Legion of Honour").
From 1807 to 1810, the Minister of the Interior. Being in this position, he arranged for the Main Board of Manufactures and founded the Northern Mail (the New Saint Petersburg Newspaper). In 1808 he was awarded the highest award of [Denmark](/wiki/Denmark%E2%80%93Norway "Denmark–Norway") – the [Order of the Elephant](/wiki/Order_of_the_Elephant "Order of the Elephant").
Kurakin played a role during [Ottoman plague epidemic](/wiki/1812%E2%80%931819_Ottoman_plague_epidemic "1812–1819 Ottoman plague epidemic") which hit Odessa in the autumn 1812\.[Travels in Russia, and a residence at St. Petersburg and Odessa, by Edward Morton](https://books.google.com/books?id=G6W32VE42L0C&dq=plague+Odessa+1812&pg=PA312)[Odessa, 1812: Plague and Tyranny at the Edge of the Empire](https://balkanist.net/plague-and-political-tyranny-odessa/) Dismissive of any attempt to forge a compromise between quarantine requirements and free trade, Prince Kurakin (the Saint Petersburg\-based High Commissioner for Sanitation) countermanded [Richelieu's](/wiki/Armand-Emmanuel_de_Vignerot_du_Plessis%2C_duc_de_Richelieu "Armand-Emmanuel de Vignerot du Plessis, duc de Richelieu") orders.[Migration and Disease in the Black Sea Region by Andrew Robarts, p. 148](https://books.google.com/books?id=QSd7DQAAQBAJ&dq=plague+Odessa+1812&pg=PA147)
After leaving the post – again in the State Council. Since 1821, Chairman of the Department of State Economy of the State Council. Since 1826, the Chancellor of Russian orders. Member of the Supreme Criminal Court of the Decembrists.
According to Baron Heyking, Prince Kurakin was "a very handsome man, brilliant eyes and thick, black, beautifully drawn eyebrows, would give his appearance a stern expression if it were not softened by his friendly manners and polite tone of speech".Emperor Paul and His Time. Notes of Baron Heyking / / Russian Antiquities. 1887\. Issues 10–12 – Page 368
|
[
"Biography\n---------",
"[thumb\\|150px\\|Natalia Ivanovna, wifeThe](/wiki/File:Vladimir_Borovikovsky_007.jpg \"Vladimir Borovikovsky 007.jpg\") younger brother of [Alexander Borisovich Kurakin](/wiki/Alexander_Kurakin \"Alexander Kurakin\"), who was brought up together with the crown prince Pavel Petrovich (future emperor [Paul I](/wiki/Paul_I_of_Russia \"Paul I of Russia\")) and this relationship was bound to take off his career in senior government positions, which began in the early days of Paul. From 1775 to 1776 he studied at the [Leiden University](/wiki/Leiden_University \"Leiden University\"). In 1777 he received the title of chamber junker.",
"In 1793 he was granted a chamberlain, in 1795 promoted to secret advisers; on 4 December 1796 he was appointed [Prosecutor General](/wiki/Prosecutor_General_of_the_Russian_Empire \"Prosecutor General of the Russian Empire\"); a few days later, on 19 December, he received the [Order of Saint Alexander Nevsky](/wiki/Order_of_Saint_Alexander_Nevsky \"Order of Saint Alexander Nevsky\") and took the post of Chief Director of the [Russian Assignation Bank](/wiki/Russian_Assignation_Bank \"Russian Assignation Bank\"). Being a procurator\\-general, he collected a \"laid commission\" – three books of laws on criminal, civil and state affairs, and re\\-established a school of junkers from the nobility under the [Senate](/wiki/Governing_Senate \"Governing Senate\") to train them in jurisprudence. On 5 April 1797 he was granted the rank of [Active Privy Councillor](/wiki/Active_Privy_Councillor \"Active Privy Councillor\"), and on 19 December that year he was awarded the [Order of Saint Andrew the First Called](/wiki/Order_of_St._Andrew \"Order of St. Andrew\"). Nevertheless, he fell into disgrace of the Emperor: on 8 August 1798 he was dismissed from the post of procurator\\-general; appointed as the senator, which meant an unconditional downgrade, and soon completely removed from public affairs. His brother Alexander also fell into disgrace.",
"He was again called up for public service by [Alexander I](/wiki/Alexander_I_of_Russia \"Alexander I of Russia\"); on 4 February 1802 he was appointed Little Russian Governor\\-General. He was in office for about six years; during this time he spent a canal on the river Ostyor, took care of public education and public health.Ivan Pavlovsky. Outline of the Activities of the Little Russian Governor\\-General, Prince Alexei Kurakin. Poltava, 1914 [Mikhail Speransky](/wiki/Mikhail_Speransky \"Mikhail Speransky\") began his career with Alexei Borisovich; first as Kurakin's personal secretary, later adopted by the patron in the Senate office.",
"Since 1804, Alexey Kurakin is a member of the [Permanent Council](/wiki/State_Council_%28Russian_Empire%29 \"State Council (Russian Empire)\"); often served as chairman. After the [Peace of Tilsit](/wiki/Treaties_of_Tilsit \"Treaties of Tilsit\"), he received from Napoleon a large cross of the Order of the [Legion of Honour](/wiki/Legion_of_Honour \"Legion of Honour\").",
"From 1807 to 1810, the Minister of the Interior. Being in this position, he arranged for the Main Board of Manufactures and founded the Northern Mail (the New Saint Petersburg Newspaper). In 1808 he was awarded the highest award of [Denmark](/wiki/Denmark%E2%80%93Norway \"Denmark–Norway\") – the [Order of the Elephant](/wiki/Order_of_the_Elephant \"Order of the Elephant\").",
"Kurakin played a role during [Ottoman plague epidemic](/wiki/1812%E2%80%931819_Ottoman_plague_epidemic \"1812–1819 Ottoman plague epidemic\") which hit Odessa in the autumn 1812\\.[Travels in Russia, and a residence at St. Petersburg and Odessa, by Edward Morton](https://books.google.com/books?id=G6W32VE42L0C&dq=plague+Odessa+1812&pg=PA312)[Odessa, 1812: Plague and Tyranny at the Edge of the Empire](https://balkanist.net/plague-and-political-tyranny-odessa/) Dismissive of any attempt to forge a compromise between quarantine requirements and free trade, Prince Kurakin (the Saint Petersburg\\-based High Commissioner for Sanitation) countermanded [Richelieu's](/wiki/Armand-Emmanuel_de_Vignerot_du_Plessis%2C_duc_de_Richelieu \"Armand-Emmanuel de Vignerot du Plessis, duc de Richelieu\") orders.[Migration and Disease in the Black Sea Region by Andrew Robarts, p. 148](https://books.google.com/books?id=QSd7DQAAQBAJ&dq=plague+Odessa+1812&pg=PA147)",
"After leaving the post – again in the State Council. Since 1821, Chairman of the Department of State Economy of the State Council. Since 1826, the Chancellor of Russian orders. Member of the Supreme Criminal Court of the Decembrists.",
"According to Baron Heyking, Prince Kurakin was \"a very handsome man, brilliant eyes and thick, black, beautifully drawn eyebrows, would give his appearance a stern expression if it were not softened by his friendly manners and polite tone of speech\".Emperor Paul and His Time. Notes of Baron Heyking / / Russian Antiquities. 1887\\. Issues 10–12 – Page 368",
""
] |
Formula One
-----------
### Ferrari
Ginther made his F1 debut at the [1960 Monaco Grand Prix](/wiki/1960_Monaco_Grand_Prix "1960 Monaco Grand Prix") driving for Ferrari, which he stayed with through {{F1\|1961}}. In the September [1960 Italian Grand Prix](/wiki/1960_Italian_Grand_Prix "1960 Italian Grand Prix") in [Monza](/wiki/Monza "Monza"), he placed second to Hill. Ginther led from the start until the 25th lap when Hill passed him and led until the finish.*Phil Hill, in [Ferrari](/wiki/Scuderia_Ferrari "Scuderia Ferrari") Wins Monza Grand Prix*, [Los Angeles Times](/wiki/Los_Angeles_Times "Los Angeles Times"), September 5, 1960, Page C6
Following the {{F1\|1960}} season the Ferrari team gave up 1000 cc in engine size. The 2500 cc engine,
permitted the previous year, was replaced by a 1\.5\-liter rear\-engine model, with 110 less horsepower. However, the newer engine was superior in both "profiling" and handling. The conservative [Enzo Ferrari](/wiki/Enzo_Ferrari "Enzo Ferrari") was the last major Formula 1 race car manufacturer to make the transition to cars with engines in the rear.*Ferraris Pace Dutch Trials*, [Los Angeles Times](/wiki/Los_Angeles_Times "Los Angeles Times"), May 22, 1961, Page 43\.
In 1961, Ginther was the No. 3 Ferrari driver, behind No. 1 [Wolfgang Von Trips](/wiki/Wolfgang_Von_Trips "Wolfgang Von Trips") and No. 2 Hill. [Giancarlo Baghetti](/wiki/Giancarlo_Baghetti "Giancarlo Baghetti") occasionally piloted a fourth car. The team manager was Romulo Tavoni.*Ferrari Has Enviable Problem; Who on His Team Should Win*, [New York Times](/wiki/New_York_Times "New York Times"), July 2, 1961, Page 58\.
On May 14, 1961, Ginther finished second to [Stirling Moss](/wiki/Stirling_Moss "Stirling Moss") at the [1961 Monaco Grand Prix](/wiki/1961_Monaco_Grand_Prix "1961 Monaco Grand Prix"), 3\.6 seconds behind, a few hundred feet. He was driving a new rear\-engine Ferrari with a 120\-degree V\-6 which had a lower center of gravity.*Moss May Be Tough*, Lincoln Evening Journal, May 15, 1961, Page 14 Ginther had qualified second, just ahead of Hill, with an average speed of {{Convert\|70\.7\|mi/h\|km/h\|1\|abbr\=on}}, and a qualifying time of 1:39\.3\. He eclipsed the previous course record of 1:39\.6, before Moss took pole position the day after.*Ginther Sets Monaco Record*, [Los Angeles Times](/wiki/Los_Angeles_Times "Los Angeles Times"), May 13, 1961, Page A3
In August 1961, Ginther and Baghetti were teammates at the [Pescara](/wiki/Pescara "Pescara") Grand Prix, a world auto manufacturers' championship event. Their Ferrari was leading on the 10th lap when it stopped on a straight stretch with a flat tire.*Italians' Ferrari Takes Auto Race*, [New York Times](/wiki/New_York_Times "New York Times"), August 16, 1961, Page 27\. Ginther averaged more than {{convert\|133\|mi/h\|km/h\|0\|abbr\=on}} on the {{convert\|6\.2\|mi\|km\|1\|adj\=on}} [Autodromo Nazionale Monza](/wiki/Autodromo_Nazionale_Monza "Autodromo Nazionale Monza") in September 1961, to lead the first day of qualifying for the [1961 Italian Grand Prix](/wiki/1961_Italian_Grand_Prix "1961 Italian Grand Prix").*Grand Prix Trials Paced By Ginther*, [New York Times](/wiki/New_York_Times "New York Times"), September 9, 1961, Page 25\. Von Trips qualified first with Ginther taking the third starting position after [Ricardo Rodriguez](/wiki/Ricardo_Rodr%C3%ADguez_%28Formula_One%29 "Ricardo Rodríguez (Formula One)").*Ferraris In Sweep*, [New York Times](/wiki/New_York_Times "New York Times"), September 10, 1961, Page K9 Ginther retired in the race. Von Trips died in a spectacular crash on the second lap, which also killed eleven spectators, when his Ferrari climbed a {{convert\|5\|ft\|m\|adj\=mid\|\-high}} earth embankment.
It brushed a wire fence employed to restrain a portion of the crowd and struck the spectators.*Von Trips and 11 Spectators Killed in Grand Prix*, [New York Times](/wiki/New_York_Times "New York Times"), September 11, 1961, Page 1\. Some who were injured eventually succumbed and brought the total to 15 deaths. The Ferrari team ceased competition until January 1, 1962, as a mark of respect to Von Trips.*Top Drivers Arrive For Grand Prix*, [New York Times](/wiki/New_York_Times "New York Times"), October 10, 1961, Page C4\.
### BRM and Honda
In {{F1\|1962}}, Ginther switched to the British\-based [BRM](/wiki/BRM "BRM") team to race alongside [Graham Hill](/wiki/Graham_Hill "Graham Hill"). The highlight of his time at BRM was finishing equal\-second (with Hill) in the [1963 World Championship](/wiki/1963_Formula_One_season "1963 Formula One season"). Ginther scored more points than his British teammate over the whole season, but only a driver's six best scores were counted towards the championship.
His reputation as a solid "team player" and excellent test and development driver earned him an invitation to join the works Honda F1 team for 1965, for whom he scored his one and only GP win, at the [1965 Mexican Grand Prix](/wiki/1965_Mexican_Grand_Prix "1965 Mexican Grand Prix"). The win was also Honda's first in Formula 1\. Ginther averaged {{Convert\|151\.7\|km/h\|mi/h}} over the curving {{Convert\|5\|km\|mi}} track in the 65 lap Mexico City event. His speed eclipsed the previous course record of {{Convert\|150\.185\|km/h\|mi/h\|3\|abbr\=on}} established by [Dan Gurney](/wiki/Dan_Gurney "Dan Gurney") in 1964\. It was the first time Honda had entered the Mexican Grand Prix.*Ginther Takes Mexican Grand Prix*, [Fresno Bee](/wiki/Fresno_Bee "Fresno Bee"), October 25, 1965, Page 18\. Honda reentered international competition in the [1966 Italian Grand Prix](/wiki/1966_Italian_Grand_Prix "1966 Italian Grand Prix"). The team was three years old and had encountered difficulty in the preparation of a larger engine. Ginther led in Italy before his car crashed into a retaining wall and he broke his collarbone.*U.S. Grand Prix*, [Fremont Argus](/wiki/Fremont_Argus "Fremont Argus"), September 30, 1966, Page 9\. He signed with the [Eagle](/wiki/Anglo_American_Racers "Anglo American Racers") F1 team in 1967 and raced in the [Race of Champions](/wiki/1967_Race_of_Champions "1967 Race of Champions"). His last race entered was the [Monaco Grand Prix](/wiki/1967_Monaco_Grand_Prix "1967 Monaco Grand Prix"), but he failed to qualify.
Ginther won one race, achieved 14 podiums, and scored a total of 107 championship points.
He appeared in an uncredited role in the 1966 film *[Grand Prix](/wiki/Grand_Prix_%281966_film%29 "Grand Prix (1966 film)")* as John Hogarth, a driver in the Japanese funded "Yamura" team. He also acted as one of the technical racing advisors for the movie.
While making an attempt to qualify for the [1967 Indianapolis 500](/wiki/1967_Indianapolis_500 "1967 Indianapolis 500"), Ginther broke a fuel line in his American Eagle Indy Car. A mix of ethanol and gasoline, was sprayed down his back. This experience, along with the recent fiery death of close friend [Lorenzo Bandini](/wiki/Lorenzo_Bandini "Lorenzo Bandini"), along with other factors, led to his sudden retirement.*Motor Sports Today*, Van Nuys News, April 14, 1968, Page 36\.
He participated in a rally with sixty\-five other competitors, including actor [James Garner](/wiki/James_Garner "James Garner"), in June 1969\. The California Sports Car Club event was three hours cross country from [Los Angeles](/wiki/Los_Angeles "Los Angeles") to [Huntington Beach](/wiki/Huntington_Beach "Huntington Beach"). It benefited students from the [Braille Institute](/wiki/Braille_Institute "Braille Institute").*Unique Blind Rally Set Saturday*, Valley News And Green Sheet, June 19, 1969
Ginther managed a [Porsche 911S](/wiki/Porsche_911 "Porsche 911") with two American drivers during the 39th [24 hours of Le Mans](/wiki/24_hours_of_Le_Mans "24 hours of Le Mans"), in June 1971\.*Porsche Team Choice To Wim At Le Mans*, [Hamilton, Ohio](/wiki/Hamilton%2C_Ohio "Hamilton, Ohio") Daily News Journal, June 12, 1971, Page 23\.
|
[
"Formula One\n-----------",
"### Ferrari",
"Ginther made his F1 debut at the [1960 Monaco Grand Prix](/wiki/1960_Monaco_Grand_Prix \"1960 Monaco Grand Prix\") driving for Ferrari, which he stayed with through {{F1\\|1961}}. In the September [1960 Italian Grand Prix](/wiki/1960_Italian_Grand_Prix \"1960 Italian Grand Prix\") in [Monza](/wiki/Monza \"Monza\"), he placed second to Hill. Ginther led from the start until the 25th lap when Hill passed him and led until the finish.*Phil Hill, in [Ferrari](/wiki/Scuderia_Ferrari \"Scuderia Ferrari\") Wins Monza Grand Prix*, [Los Angeles Times](/wiki/Los_Angeles_Times \"Los Angeles Times\"), September 5, 1960, Page C6",
"Following the {{F1\\|1960}} season the Ferrari team gave up 1000 cc in engine size. The 2500 cc engine,\npermitted the previous year, was replaced by a 1\\.5\\-liter rear\\-engine model, with 110 less horsepower. However, the newer engine was superior in both \"profiling\" and handling. The conservative [Enzo Ferrari](/wiki/Enzo_Ferrari \"Enzo Ferrari\") was the last major Formula 1 race car manufacturer to make the transition to cars with engines in the rear.*Ferraris Pace Dutch Trials*, [Los Angeles Times](/wiki/Los_Angeles_Times \"Los Angeles Times\"), May 22, 1961, Page 43\\.\nIn 1961, Ginther was the No. 3 Ferrari driver, behind No. 1 [Wolfgang Von Trips](/wiki/Wolfgang_Von_Trips \"Wolfgang Von Trips\") and No. 2 Hill. [Giancarlo Baghetti](/wiki/Giancarlo_Baghetti \"Giancarlo Baghetti\") occasionally piloted a fourth car. The team manager was Romulo Tavoni.*Ferrari Has Enviable Problem; Who on His Team Should Win*, [New York Times](/wiki/New_York_Times \"New York Times\"), July 2, 1961, Page 58\\.",
"On May 14, 1961, Ginther finished second to [Stirling Moss](/wiki/Stirling_Moss \"Stirling Moss\") at the [1961 Monaco Grand Prix](/wiki/1961_Monaco_Grand_Prix \"1961 Monaco Grand Prix\"), 3\\.6 seconds behind, a few hundred feet. He was driving a new rear\\-engine Ferrari with a 120\\-degree V\\-6 which had a lower center of gravity.*Moss May Be Tough*, Lincoln Evening Journal, May 15, 1961, Page 14 Ginther had qualified second, just ahead of Hill, with an average speed of {{Convert\\|70\\.7\\|mi/h\\|km/h\\|1\\|abbr\\=on}}, and a qualifying time of 1:39\\.3\\. He eclipsed the previous course record of 1:39\\.6, before Moss took pole position the day after.*Ginther Sets Monaco Record*, [Los Angeles Times](/wiki/Los_Angeles_Times \"Los Angeles Times\"), May 13, 1961, Page A3",
"In August 1961, Ginther and Baghetti were teammates at the [Pescara](/wiki/Pescara \"Pescara\") Grand Prix, a world auto manufacturers' championship event. Their Ferrari was leading on the 10th lap when it stopped on a straight stretch with a flat tire.*Italians' Ferrari Takes Auto Race*, [New York Times](/wiki/New_York_Times \"New York Times\"), August 16, 1961, Page 27\\. Ginther averaged more than {{convert\\|133\\|mi/h\\|km/h\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} on the {{convert\\|6\\.2\\|mi\\|km\\|1\\|adj\\=on}} [Autodromo Nazionale Monza](/wiki/Autodromo_Nazionale_Monza \"Autodromo Nazionale Monza\") in September 1961, to lead the first day of qualifying for the [1961 Italian Grand Prix](/wiki/1961_Italian_Grand_Prix \"1961 Italian Grand Prix\").*Grand Prix Trials Paced By Ginther*, [New York Times](/wiki/New_York_Times \"New York Times\"), September 9, 1961, Page 25\\. Von Trips qualified first with Ginther taking the third starting position after [Ricardo Rodriguez](/wiki/Ricardo_Rodr%C3%ADguez_%28Formula_One%29 \"Ricardo Rodríguez (Formula One)\").*Ferraris In Sweep*, [New York Times](/wiki/New_York_Times \"New York Times\"), September 10, 1961, Page K9 Ginther retired in the race. Von Trips died in a spectacular crash on the second lap, which also killed eleven spectators, when his Ferrari climbed a {{convert\\|5\\|ft\\|m\\|adj\\=mid\\|\\-high}} earth embankment. \nIt brushed a wire fence employed to restrain a portion of the crowd and struck the spectators.*Von Trips and 11 Spectators Killed in Grand Prix*, [New York Times](/wiki/New_York_Times \"New York Times\"), September 11, 1961, Page 1\\. Some who were injured eventually succumbed and brought the total to 15 deaths. The Ferrari team ceased competition until January 1, 1962, as a mark of respect to Von Trips.*Top Drivers Arrive For Grand Prix*, [New York Times](/wiki/New_York_Times \"New York Times\"), October 10, 1961, Page C4\\.",
"### BRM and Honda",
"In {{F1\\|1962}}, Ginther switched to the British\\-based [BRM](/wiki/BRM \"BRM\") team to race alongside [Graham Hill](/wiki/Graham_Hill \"Graham Hill\"). The highlight of his time at BRM was finishing equal\\-second (with Hill) in the [1963 World Championship](/wiki/1963_Formula_One_season \"1963 Formula One season\"). Ginther scored more points than his British teammate over the whole season, but only a driver's six best scores were counted towards the championship.",
"His reputation as a solid \"team player\" and excellent test and development driver earned him an invitation to join the works Honda F1 team for 1965, for whom he scored his one and only GP win, at the [1965 Mexican Grand Prix](/wiki/1965_Mexican_Grand_Prix \"1965 Mexican Grand Prix\"). The win was also Honda's first in Formula 1\\. Ginther averaged {{Convert\\|151\\.7\\|km/h\\|mi/h}} over the curving {{Convert\\|5\\|km\\|mi}} track in the 65 lap Mexico City event. His speed eclipsed the previous course record of {{Convert\\|150\\.185\\|km/h\\|mi/h\\|3\\|abbr\\=on}} established by [Dan Gurney](/wiki/Dan_Gurney \"Dan Gurney\") in 1964\\. It was the first time Honda had entered the Mexican Grand Prix.*Ginther Takes Mexican Grand Prix*, [Fresno Bee](/wiki/Fresno_Bee \"Fresno Bee\"), October 25, 1965, Page 18\\. Honda reentered international competition in the [1966 Italian Grand Prix](/wiki/1966_Italian_Grand_Prix \"1966 Italian Grand Prix\"). The team was three years old and had encountered difficulty in the preparation of a larger engine. Ginther led in Italy before his car crashed into a retaining wall and he broke his collarbone.*U.S. Grand Prix*, [Fremont Argus](/wiki/Fremont_Argus \"Fremont Argus\"), September 30, 1966, Page 9\\. He signed with the [Eagle](/wiki/Anglo_American_Racers \"Anglo American Racers\") F1 team in 1967 and raced in the [Race of Champions](/wiki/1967_Race_of_Champions \"1967 Race of Champions\"). His last race entered was the [Monaco Grand Prix](/wiki/1967_Monaco_Grand_Prix \"1967 Monaco Grand Prix\"), but he failed to qualify.",
"Ginther won one race, achieved 14 podiums, and scored a total of 107 championship points.",
"He appeared in an uncredited role in the 1966 film *[Grand Prix](/wiki/Grand_Prix_%281966_film%29 \"Grand Prix (1966 film)\")* as John Hogarth, a driver in the Japanese funded \"Yamura\" team. He also acted as one of the technical racing advisors for the movie.",
"While making an attempt to qualify for the [1967 Indianapolis 500](/wiki/1967_Indianapolis_500 \"1967 Indianapolis 500\"), Ginther broke a fuel line in his American Eagle Indy Car. A mix of ethanol and gasoline, was sprayed down his back. This experience, along with the recent fiery death of close friend [Lorenzo Bandini](/wiki/Lorenzo_Bandini \"Lorenzo Bandini\"), along with other factors, led to his sudden retirement.*Motor Sports Today*, Van Nuys News, April 14, 1968, Page 36\\.",
"He participated in a rally with sixty\\-five other competitors, including actor [James Garner](/wiki/James_Garner \"James Garner\"), in June 1969\\. The California Sports Car Club event was three hours cross country from [Los Angeles](/wiki/Los_Angeles \"Los Angeles\") to [Huntington Beach](/wiki/Huntington_Beach \"Huntington Beach\"). It benefited students from the [Braille Institute](/wiki/Braille_Institute \"Braille Institute\").*Unique Blind Rally Set Saturday*, Valley News And Green Sheet, June 19, 1969\nGinther managed a [Porsche 911S](/wiki/Porsche_911 \"Porsche 911\") with two American drivers during the 39th [24 hours of Le Mans](/wiki/24_hours_of_Le_Mans \"24 hours of Le Mans\"), in June 1971\\.*Porsche Team Choice To Wim At Le Mans*, [Hamilton, Ohio](/wiki/Hamilton%2C_Ohio \"Hamilton, Ohio\") Daily News Journal, June 12, 1971, Page 23\\.",
""
] |
### BRM and Honda
In {{F1\|1962}}, Ginther switched to the British\-based [BRM](/wiki/BRM "BRM") team to race alongside [Graham Hill](/wiki/Graham_Hill "Graham Hill"). The highlight of his time at BRM was finishing equal\-second (with Hill) in the [1963 World Championship](/wiki/1963_Formula_One_season "1963 Formula One season"). Ginther scored more points than his British teammate over the whole season, but only a driver's six best scores were counted towards the championship.
His reputation as a solid "team player" and excellent test and development driver earned him an invitation to join the works Honda F1 team for 1965, for whom he scored his one and only GP win, at the [1965 Mexican Grand Prix](/wiki/1965_Mexican_Grand_Prix "1965 Mexican Grand Prix"). The win was also Honda's first in Formula 1\. Ginther averaged {{Convert\|151\.7\|km/h\|mi/h}} over the curving {{Convert\|5\|km\|mi}} track in the 65 lap Mexico City event. His speed eclipsed the previous course record of {{Convert\|150\.185\|km/h\|mi/h\|3\|abbr\=on}} established by [Dan Gurney](/wiki/Dan_Gurney "Dan Gurney") in 1964\. It was the first time Honda had entered the Mexican Grand Prix.*Ginther Takes Mexican Grand Prix*, [Fresno Bee](/wiki/Fresno_Bee "Fresno Bee"), October 25, 1965, Page 18\. Honda reentered international competition in the [1966 Italian Grand Prix](/wiki/1966_Italian_Grand_Prix "1966 Italian Grand Prix"). The team was three years old and had encountered difficulty in the preparation of a larger engine. Ginther led in Italy before his car crashed into a retaining wall and he broke his collarbone.*U.S. Grand Prix*, [Fremont Argus](/wiki/Fremont_Argus "Fremont Argus"), September 30, 1966, Page 9\. He signed with the [Eagle](/wiki/Anglo_American_Racers "Anglo American Racers") F1 team in 1967 and raced in the [Race of Champions](/wiki/1967_Race_of_Champions "1967 Race of Champions"). His last race entered was the [Monaco Grand Prix](/wiki/1967_Monaco_Grand_Prix "1967 Monaco Grand Prix"), but he failed to qualify.
Ginther won one race, achieved 14 podiums, and scored a total of 107 championship points.
He appeared in an uncredited role in the 1966 film *[Grand Prix](/wiki/Grand_Prix_%281966_film%29 "Grand Prix (1966 film)")* as John Hogarth, a driver in the Japanese funded "Yamura" team. He also acted as one of the technical racing advisors for the movie.
While making an attempt to qualify for the [1967 Indianapolis 500](/wiki/1967_Indianapolis_500 "1967 Indianapolis 500"), Ginther broke a fuel line in his American Eagle Indy Car. A mix of ethanol and gasoline, was sprayed down his back. This experience, along with the recent fiery death of close friend [Lorenzo Bandini](/wiki/Lorenzo_Bandini "Lorenzo Bandini"), along with other factors, led to his sudden retirement.*Motor Sports Today*, Van Nuys News, April 14, 1968, Page 36\.
He participated in a rally with sixty\-five other competitors, including actor [James Garner](/wiki/James_Garner "James Garner"), in June 1969\. The California Sports Car Club event was three hours cross country from [Los Angeles](/wiki/Los_Angeles "Los Angeles") to [Huntington Beach](/wiki/Huntington_Beach "Huntington Beach"). It benefited students from the [Braille Institute](/wiki/Braille_Institute "Braille Institute").*Unique Blind Rally Set Saturday*, Valley News And Green Sheet, June 19, 1969
Ginther managed a [Porsche 911S](/wiki/Porsche_911 "Porsche 911") with two American drivers during the 39th [24 hours of Le Mans](/wiki/24_hours_of_Le_Mans "24 hours of Le Mans"), in June 1971\.*Porsche Team Choice To Wim At Le Mans*, [Hamilton, Ohio](/wiki/Hamilton%2C_Ohio "Hamilton, Ohio") Daily News Journal, June 12, 1971, Page 23\.
|
[
"### BRM and Honda",
"In {{F1\\|1962}}, Ginther switched to the British\\-based [BRM](/wiki/BRM \"BRM\") team to race alongside [Graham Hill](/wiki/Graham_Hill \"Graham Hill\"). The highlight of his time at BRM was finishing equal\\-second (with Hill) in the [1963 World Championship](/wiki/1963_Formula_One_season \"1963 Formula One season\"). Ginther scored more points than his British teammate over the whole season, but only a driver's six best scores were counted towards the championship.",
"His reputation as a solid \"team player\" and excellent test and development driver earned him an invitation to join the works Honda F1 team for 1965, for whom he scored his one and only GP win, at the [1965 Mexican Grand Prix](/wiki/1965_Mexican_Grand_Prix \"1965 Mexican Grand Prix\"). The win was also Honda's first in Formula 1\\. Ginther averaged {{Convert\\|151\\.7\\|km/h\\|mi/h}} over the curving {{Convert\\|5\\|km\\|mi}} track in the 65 lap Mexico City event. His speed eclipsed the previous course record of {{Convert\\|150\\.185\\|km/h\\|mi/h\\|3\\|abbr\\=on}} established by [Dan Gurney](/wiki/Dan_Gurney \"Dan Gurney\") in 1964\\. It was the first time Honda had entered the Mexican Grand Prix.*Ginther Takes Mexican Grand Prix*, [Fresno Bee](/wiki/Fresno_Bee \"Fresno Bee\"), October 25, 1965, Page 18\\. Honda reentered international competition in the [1966 Italian Grand Prix](/wiki/1966_Italian_Grand_Prix \"1966 Italian Grand Prix\"). The team was three years old and had encountered difficulty in the preparation of a larger engine. Ginther led in Italy before his car crashed into a retaining wall and he broke his collarbone.*U.S. Grand Prix*, [Fremont Argus](/wiki/Fremont_Argus \"Fremont Argus\"), September 30, 1966, Page 9\\. He signed with the [Eagle](/wiki/Anglo_American_Racers \"Anglo American Racers\") F1 team in 1967 and raced in the [Race of Champions](/wiki/1967_Race_of_Champions \"1967 Race of Champions\"). His last race entered was the [Monaco Grand Prix](/wiki/1967_Monaco_Grand_Prix \"1967 Monaco Grand Prix\"), but he failed to qualify.",
"Ginther won one race, achieved 14 podiums, and scored a total of 107 championship points.",
"He appeared in an uncredited role in the 1966 film *[Grand Prix](/wiki/Grand_Prix_%281966_film%29 \"Grand Prix (1966 film)\")* as John Hogarth, a driver in the Japanese funded \"Yamura\" team. He also acted as one of the technical racing advisors for the movie.",
"While making an attempt to qualify for the [1967 Indianapolis 500](/wiki/1967_Indianapolis_500 \"1967 Indianapolis 500\"), Ginther broke a fuel line in his American Eagle Indy Car. A mix of ethanol and gasoline, was sprayed down his back. This experience, along with the recent fiery death of close friend [Lorenzo Bandini](/wiki/Lorenzo_Bandini \"Lorenzo Bandini\"), along with other factors, led to his sudden retirement.*Motor Sports Today*, Van Nuys News, April 14, 1968, Page 36\\.",
"He participated in a rally with sixty\\-five other competitors, including actor [James Garner](/wiki/James_Garner \"James Garner\"), in June 1969\\. The California Sports Car Club event was three hours cross country from [Los Angeles](/wiki/Los_Angeles \"Los Angeles\") to [Huntington Beach](/wiki/Huntington_Beach \"Huntington Beach\"). It benefited students from the [Braille Institute](/wiki/Braille_Institute \"Braille Institute\").*Unique Blind Rally Set Saturday*, Valley News And Green Sheet, June 19, 1969\nGinther managed a [Porsche 911S](/wiki/Porsche_911 \"Porsche 911\") with two American drivers during the 39th [24 hours of Le Mans](/wiki/24_hours_of_Le_Mans \"24 hours of Le Mans\"), in June 1971\\.*Porsche Team Choice To Wim At Le Mans*, [Hamilton, Ohio](/wiki/Hamilton%2C_Ohio \"Hamilton, Ohio\") Daily News Journal, June 12, 1971, Page 23\\.",
""
] |
Background
----------
### German socialist parties
When World War I started, the [Social Democratic Party of Germany](/wiki/Social_Democratic_Party_of_Germany "Social Democratic Party of Germany") (SPD) was the one socialist political party of any significance in the [German Empire](/wiki/German_Empire "German Empire") and as such played a major role in the revolution. It had been [banned from 1878–1890](/wiki/Anti-Socialist_Laws "Anti-Socialist Laws") and in 1914 continued to adhere to the tenets of [class conflict](/wiki/Class_conflict "Class conflict"). It had international ties to other countries' socialist parties, all of which were ideologically anti\-war. Patriotism nevertheless proved the stronger force when the war broke out, and the SPD threw its support behind the Fatherland.
By 1917, some on the left of the party had become so outspokenly anti\-war that they were expelled from the SPD and formed a new party, the [Independent Social Democrats](/wiki/Independent_Social_Democratic_Party_of_Germany "Independent Social Democratic Party of Germany") (USPD) – from which the [Communist Party of Germany](/wiki/Communist_Party_of_Germany "Communist Party of Germany") broke off shortly after the end of the war. The SPD and USPD tried to work together during the early days of the revolution, but their differing goals – parliamentary versus [council republics](/wiki/Soviet_republic_%28system_of_government%29 "Soviet republic (system of government)") – proved irreconcilable. After the fall of the German monarchy, the increasing antagonism between the three socialist parties drove the violence of the revolution's second stage.
#### SPD and the World War
By 1912, the Social Democrats had grown into the largest political party in Germany, with 35% of the national vote and 110 seats in the [last imperial Reichstag](/wiki/1912_German_federal_election "1912 German federal election").{{Cite web \|title\=Wahlen in Deutschland bis 1918: Reichstagswahlen \|trans\-title\=Elections in Germany Until 1918: Reichstag Elections \|url\=https://wahlen\-in\-deutschland.de/krtw.htm \|access\-date\=7 January 2024 \|website\=Wahlen in Deutschland \|language\=de}} In spite of its predominance, the party had no role in the imperial government. Its official espousal of [Marxist revolutionary socialism](/wiki/Revolutionary_socialism "Revolutionary socialism"){{Cite web \|title\=The Erfurt Program (1891\) \|url\=https://ghdi.ghi\-dc.org/sub\_document.cfm?document\_id\=766 \|access\-date\=16 April 2024 \|website\=German History in Documents and Images (GHDI)}} aroused the distrust of the parties of the centre and Right, and its members were often disparaged as "journeymen without a fatherland" ({{Lang\|de\|Vaterlandslose Gesellen}}) because their class antagonism was seen to transcend national boundaries.{{Cite web \|title\=Vaterlandlose Gesellen \|trans\-title\=Men Without a Fatherland \|url\=https://erinnerungsorte.fes.de/vaterlandlose\-gesellen/ \|access\-date\=17 April 2024 \|website\=Friedrich Ebert Stiftung \|date\=18 May 2012 \|language\=de}}
The SPD had attended the congresses of the [Second International](/wiki/Second_International "Second International") beginning in 1889, where they had agreed to resolutions asking for combined action by socialists in the event of a war. Following the [assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand](/wiki/Assassination_of_Archduke_Franz_Ferdinand "Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand") in June 1914, the SPD, like other socialist parties in Europe, organised anti\-war demonstrations during the [July Crisis](/wiki/July_Crisis "July Crisis") that led up to the war's outbreak.{{Cite journal \|last1\=Cinar \|first1\=Meral Ugur \|last2\=Cinar \|first2\=Kursat \|date\=2014 \|title\=The Second International: The Impact of Domestic Factors on International Organization Dysfunction \|url\=https://doi.org/10\.1111/1467\-9248\.12062 \|journal\=Political Studies \|volume\=62 \|issue\=3 \|pages\=669–685 \|doi\=10\.1111/1467\-9248\.12062 \|s2cid\=54019053 \|via\=Sage Journals}}
In contrast to the widespread enthusiasm for the war among the educated classes (the "[Spirit of 1914](/wiki/Spirit_of_1914 "Spirit of 1914")"), the majority of SPD newspapers were strongly anti\-war, although some supported it by pointing out the danger posed by the [Russian Empire](/wiki/Russian_Empire "Russian Empire"), which they saw as the most reactionary and anti\-socialist power in Europe.{{Cite book \|last\=Jeffrey \|first\=Verhey \|url\=https://prussia.online/Data/Book/th/the\-spirit\-of\-1914/Verhey%20J.%20The%20Spirit%20of%201914\.%20Militarism,%20Myth,%20and%20Mobilization%20in%20Germany%20(2003\),%20OCR.pdf \|title\=The Spirit of 1914\. Militarism,Myth,and Mobilization in Germany \|publisher\=Cambridge University Press \|year\=2003 \|location\=Cambridge, UK \|pages\=20}} Chancellor [Theobald von Bethmann Hollweg](/wiki/Theobald_von_Bethmann_Hollweg "Theobald von Bethmann Hollweg") turned down plans by high\-ranking military officials to dissolve the SPD at the start of the war{{Cite book \|last\=Rathenau \|first\=Walter \|title\=Walther Rathenau Tagebuch 1907–1922 \|publisher\=Droste \|year\=1967 \|editor\-last\=Pogge von Strandmann \|editor\-first\=Hartmut \|location\=Düsseldorf \|pages\=162 \|language\=de \|trans\-title\=Walther Rathenau Diary 1907–1922}} and exploited the party's anti\-Russian stance to gain its approval for it.
After Germany declared war on Russia on 1 August 1914, 96 SPD deputies, among them [Friedrich Ebert](/wiki/Friedrich_Ebert "Friedrich Ebert"), agreed to approve the [war bonds](/wiki/War_bond "War bond") requested by the imperial government. Fourteen deputies, headed by party co\-leader [Hugo Haase](/wiki/Hugo_Haase "Hugo Haase"), and including [Karl Liebknecht](/wiki/Karl_Liebknecht "Karl Liebknecht"), spoke out against the bonds but nevertheless followed party discipline and voted in favour.{{Cite book \|last\=Grossman \|first\=Henryk \|title\=Henryk Grossman Works Volume 2 Political Writings \|publisher\=Koninklijke Brill NV \|year\=2021 \|location\=Leiden, Netherlands \|pages\=426}} The support was based primarily on the belief, actively fostered by the government, that Germany was fighting a defensive war.{{Cite web \|last\=Krumeich \|first\=Gerd \|date\=11 October 2016 \|editor\-last\=Daniel \|editor\-first\=Ute \|editor2\-last\=Gatrell \|editor2\-first\=Peter \|editor3\-last\=Janz \|editor3\-first\=Oliver \|editor4\-last\=Jones \|editor4\-first\=Heather \|editor5\-last\=Keene \|editor5\-first\=Jennifer \|editor6\-last\=Kramer \|editor6\-first\=Alan \|editor7\-last\=Nasson \|editor7\-first\=Bill \|title\=Burgfrieden/Union sacrée \|url\=https://encyclopedia.1914\-1918\-online.net/article/burgfriedenunion\_sacree \|access\-date\=16 April 2024 \|website\=1914–1918\-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War \|publisher\=Freie Universität Berlin}} Haase explained the decision that the party had made with the words: "We will not abandon our Fatherland in its hour of danger!"{{Cite book \|last\=Haffner \|first\=Sebastian \|author\-link\=Sebastian Haffner \|title\=Der Verrat: Deutschland 1918/1919 \|publisher\=Verlag 1900 \|year\=2002 \|isbn\=978\-3930278008 \|location\=Berlin \|pages\=12 \|language\=de \|trans\-title\=The Betrayal: Germany 1918/1919}} Many SPD members were eager to show their patriotism, in part to free themselves from the charge of being "journeymen without a fatherland".{{Cite web \|title\=Vaterlandslose Gesellen \|trans\-title\=Men Without a Fatherland \|url\=https://www.preussenchronik.de/begriff\_jsp/key\=begriff\_vaterlandslose\+gesellen.html \|access\-date\=17 April 2024 \|website\=Preussen Chronik \|date\=21 May 2008 \|language\=de}}
Since the SPD was the only party whose position was in any real doubt, its unanimous vote for the war bonds was greeted with great enthusiasm as a sign of Germany's national unity. The Emperor welcomed the political truce (*[Burgfriedenspolitik](/wiki/Burgfriedenspolitik "Burgfriedenspolitik")*) among the Reichstag's parties in which they agreed not to criticise the government's handling of the war and to keep their disagreements out of public view. He declared: "I no longer know parties, I know only Germans!"{{Cite web \|title\=Thronrede Kaiser Wilhelms II. vor den Abgeordneten des Reichstags, 4\. August 1914 \|trans\-title\=Emperor Wilhelm II's Speech from the Throne to the Reichstag Representatives, 4 August 1914 \|url\=https://www.1000dokumente.de/index.html?c\=dokument\_de\&dokument\=0081\_kwi\&object\=translation\&st\=\&l\=de \|access\-date\=8 January 2024 \|website\=100(0\) Schlüsseldokumente \|language\=de}}
#### SPD's split
As the war dragged on and the death toll rose, more SPD members began to question the party's support for the war. The dissatisfaction increased when the [Supreme Army Command](/wiki/Supreme_Army_Command "Supreme Army Command") (OHL) introduced the [Auxiliary Services Act](/wiki/Auxiliary_Services_Act_%281916%29 "Auxiliary Services Act (1916)") in December 1916\. It proposed full mobilisation and deployment of the workforce, including women, and the "militarisation" of labour relations. It met with such strong criticism that the OHL had to agree to participation by trade unions and the Reichstag parties in the act's implementation. It accepted their demands for arbitration committees, the expansion of trade union powers and a repeal of the act at the end of the war.{{Cite web \|last\=Nagornaja \|first\=Oksana \|title\=Gesetz über den vaterländischen Hilfsdienst, 5\. Dezember 1916 \|trans\-title\=Auxiliary Services Act, 5 December 1916 \|url\=https://www.1000dokumente.de/index.html?c\=dokument\_de\&dokument\=0001\_hil\&object\=context\&st\=\&l\=de \|access\-date\=10 January 2024 \|website\=100(0\) Schlüsseldokumente \|language\=de}}{{Cite web \|last\=Asmuss \|first\=Burkhard \|date\=8 June 2011 \|title\=Das Hindenburg\-Programm \|url\=https://www.dhm.de/lemo/kapitel/erster\-weltkrieg/industrie\-und\-wirtschaft/hindenburg\-programm.html \|access\-date\=10 January 2024 \|website\=Deutsches Historisches Museum}}
After the outbreak of the Russian [February Revolution](/wiki/February_Revolution "February Revolution") in 1917, the wartime's [first organised strikes](/wiki/German_strike_of_January_1918 "German strike of January 1918") erupted in German armament factories in January 1918\. 400,000 workers went on strike in Berlin and around a million nationwide. Their primary demand was an end to the war. The SPD took part in the strike in order to keep the [Spartacists](/wiki/Spartacus_League "Spartacus League") from having control of the strike's leadership, but its participation soured the SPD's relationship with the other parties in the Reichstag. The strike was put down by the military after a week.{{Cite web \|last\=Kalmbach \|first\=Karena \|date\=10 June 2003 \|title\=Der Januarstreik 1918 \|trans\-title\=The January Strike 1918 \|url\=https://www.dhm.de/lemo/kapitel/erster\-weltkrieg/innenpolitik/januarstreik\-1918\.html \|access\-date\=18 April 2024 \|website\=Deutsches Historisches Museum \|language\=de}}
Because of the increasing intra\-party conflicts centering around the opponents of the war, the leadership of the SPD under Friedrich Ebert expelled them from the party in January 1917\. The Spartacists, who had formed the SPD's far left wing, joined with [revisionists](/wiki/Revisionism_%28Marxism%29 "Revisionism (Marxism)") such as [Eduard Bernstein](/wiki/Eduard_Bernstein "Eduard Bernstein") and [centrist Marxists](/wiki/Centrist_Marxism "Centrist Marxism") such as [Karl Kautsky](/wiki/Karl_Kautsky "Karl Kautsky") to found the anti\-war [Independent Social Democratic Party of Germany](/wiki/Independent_Social_Democratic_Party_of_Germany "Independent Social Democratic Party of Germany") (USPD) under the leadership of Hugo Haase on 6 April 1917\. After that point, the SPD was officially named the [Majority Social Democratic Party of Germany](/wiki/Majority_Social_Democratic_Party_of_Germany "Majority Social Democratic Party of Germany") (MSPD), although it was still generally referred to as the SPD.{{Cite book \|last\=Ghanem \|first\=Michael \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=CzWaEAAAQBAJ\&dq\=%22Alexander\+Parvus%22\+%22Lensch\-Cunow\-Haenisch%22\&pg\=PT196 \|title\=Im Würgegriff der politischen Parteien. Teil 1: Im Jahr 2019 \|publisher\=tredition \|year\=2019 \|location\=Ahrensburg \|pages\=ebook \|isbn\=978\-3\-7482\-7933\-4 \|language\=de \|trans\-title\=In the Stranglehold of the Political Parties. Part 1: In the Year 2019}} The USPD called for an immediate end to the war and a further democratisation of Germany but did not have a unified agenda for social policies.{{Cite web \|last\=Kalmbach \|first\=Karena \|date\=6 September 2014 \|title\=Die Unabhängige Sozialdemokratische Partei Deutschlands (USPD) \|trans\-title\=The Independent Social Democratic Party of Germany (USPD) \|url\=https://www.dhm.de/lemo/kapitel/weimarer\-republik/innenpolitik/uspd.html \|access\-date\=30 December 2023 \|website\=Deutsches Historisches Museum \|language\=de}} Both the USPD and the Spartacists continued their anti\-war propaganda in factories, especially in armament plants.
### End of the war
#### Impact of the Russian Revolution
{{further\|Russian Revolution}}
In April 1917, the German government facilitated [Vladimir Lenin](/wiki/Vladimir_Lenin "Vladimir Lenin")'s return to Russia from his exile in Switzerland in the hope that he would weaken the tsarist regime and its conduct of the war.{{Cite book \|last\=Fischer \|first\=Louis \|title\=The Life of Lenin \|publisher\=Weidenfeld and Nicolson \|year\=1964 \|location\=London \|pages\=109–110}} After the 1917 [October Revolution](/wiki/October_Revolution "October Revolution") that put Lenin and the [Bolsheviks](/wiki/Bolsheviks "Bolsheviks") in power, many in both Russia and Germany expected that soviet Russia would in return help foment a communist revolution in Germany. For Germany's far Left, it provided hope for its own success, and for the moderate socialists, along with the middle and upper classes, it was a source of fear that the kind of bloody civil war that was occurring in Russia could also break out in Germany.{{Cite book \|last\=Winkler \|first\=Heinrich August \|title\=Weimar 1918–1933\. Die Geschichte der ersten deutschen Demokratie \|publisher\=C.H. Beck \|year\=1993 \|isbn\=3\-406\-37646\-0 \|location\=Munich \|page\=21 \|language\=de \|trans\-title\=Weimar 1918–1933\. The History of the FIrst German Democracy}}
The moderate SPD leadership consequently shifted away from the party's official stance as revolutionary socialists. [Otto Braun](/wiki/Otto_Braun "Otto Braun") clarified the SPD's position in an article titled "The Bolsheviks and Us" ({{Lang\|de\|Die Bolschewiki und Wir}}) in the party newspaper {{Lang\|de\|\[\[Vorwärts]]}} of 15 February 1918:{{Cite web \|title\=Vorwärts 15 Februar 1918 \|url\=https://collections.fes.de/historische\-presse/periodical/zoom/112447 \|access\-date\=28 January 2024 \|website\=FES Historische Presse}} "Socialism cannot be erected on bayonets and machine guns. If it is to last, it must be realised with democratic means. ... Therefore we must draw a thick, visible dividing line between ourselves and the Bolsheviks."{{Cite book \|last\=Schulze \|first\=Hagen \|title\=Weimar. Deutschland 1917–1933 \|publisher\=Siedler \|year\=1994 \|isbn\=978\-3886800506 \|location\=Berlin \|pages\=158 \|language\=de}}
On 3 March 1918, the newly established Soviet government signed the [Treaty of Brest\-Litovsk](/wiki/Treaty_of_Brest-Litovsk "Treaty of Brest-Litovsk") with Germany to end Russia's involvement in the war. It arguably contained harsher terms for the Russians than the later [Treaty of Versailles](/wiki/Treaty_of_Versailles "Treaty of Versailles") would demand of the Germans.{{Cite journal \|last\=Wheeler\-Bennett \|first\=John W. \|date\=January 1940 \|title\=From Brest\-Litovsk to Brest\-Litovsk \|url\=https://www.jstor.org/stable/20028991 \|journal\=Foreign Affairs \|publisher\=Council on Foreign Relations \|volume\=18 \|issue\=2 \|pages\=199 \|doi\=10\.2307/20028991 \|jstor\=20028991 }}
#### Military collapse
[thumb\|268x268px\|[Erich Ludendorff](/wiki/Erich_Ludendorff "Erich Ludendorff") in 1918\. His calculated shifting of responsibility for the war's loss from the army to the civilian government gave rise to the [stab\-in\-the\-back myth](/wiki/Stab-in-the-back_myth "Stab-in-the-back myth").](/wiki/File:Erich_Ludendorff_1918.jpg "Erich Ludendorff 1918.jpg")
On 29 September 1918, the Supreme Army Command informed Emperor [Wilhelm II](/wiki/Wilhelm_II "Wilhelm II") and Chancellor [Georg von Hertling](/wiki/Georg_von_Hertling "Georg von Hertling") that the military situation was hopeless in the face of the enemy's overwhelming advantage in manpower and equipment. General Ludendorff said that a request for an immediate ceasefire should be sent to the [Entente](/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_I "Allies of World War I") powers. In hopes of more favourable peace terms, he also recommended accepting American president [Woodrow Wilson](/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson "Woodrow Wilson")'s demand that the imperial government be democratised. His aim was to protect the reputation of the Imperial Army by placing the responsibility for the capitulation and its consequences at the feet of the democratic parties and the Reichstag.{{Cite web \|last\=Oppelland \|first\=Torsten \|date\=2 June 2016 \|editor\-last\=Daniel \|editor\-first\=Ute \|editor2\-last\=Gatrell \|editor2\-first\=Peter \|editor3\-last\=Janz \|editor3\-first\=Oliver \|editor4\-last\=Jones \|editor4\-first\=Heather \|editor5\-last\=Keene \|editor5\-first\=Jennifer \|editor6\-last\=Kramer \|editor6\-first\=Alan \|editor7\-last\=Nasson \|editor7\-first\=Bill \|title\=Governments, Parliaments and Parties (Germany) \|url\=https://encyclopedia.1914\-1918\-online.net/article/governments\_parliaments\_and\_parties\_germany \|access\-date\=23 January 2024 \|website\=1914–1918\-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War \|publisher\=Freie Universität Berlin}}{{Cite web \|last\=Sturm \|first\=Reinhard \|date\=23 December 2011 \|title\=Vom Kaiserreich zur Republik 1918/19 \|trans\-title\=From Empire to Republic 1918/19 \|url\=https://www.bpb.de/themen/nationalsozialismus\-zweiter\-weltkrieg/dossier\-nationalsozialismus/168748/vom\-kaiserreich\-zur\-republik\-1918\-19/ \|access\-date\=23 January 2024 \|website\=Bundeszentrale für politische Bildung \|language\=de}} In a veiled reference to the workers who had struck the armaments plants, the Social Democrats who had helped pass the [Reichstag Peace Resolution](/wiki/Reichstag_Peace_Resolution "Reichstag Peace Resolution") in July 1917 and the radical Spartacists who wanted a [dictatorship of the proletariat](/wiki/Dictatorship_of_the_proletariat "Dictatorship of the proletariat"), he said to his staff officers on 1 October:
> I have asked His Majesty to bring into the government those circles to whom we mainly owe it that we have come this far. ... Let them now make the peace that must be made. They should eat the soup they have served up to us!{{Sfn\|Haffner\|2002\|p\=32 f}}
His statement marked the birth of the "[stab\-in\-the\-back myth](/wiki/Stab-in-the-back_myth "Stab-in-the-back myth")" ({{Lang\|de\|Dolchstoßlegende}}), according to which revolutionary socialists and republican politicians had betrayed the undefeated army and turned an almost certain victory into a defeat.{{Cite web \|last\=Kitchen \|first\=Martin \|date\=17 February 2011 \|title\=The Ending of World War One, and the Legacy of Peace \|url\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/worldwars/wwone/war\_end\_01\.shtml \|access\-date\=23 January 2023 \|website\=BBC}}
#### Political response
Although shocked by Ludendorff's report and the news of the certain defeat, the majority parties in the Reichstag, especially the SPD, were willing to take on the responsibility of government. Chancellor Hertling objected to introducing a parliamentary system and resigned. Emperor Wilhelm II appointed [Prince Max of Baden](/wiki/Prince_Maximilian_of_Baden "Prince Maximilian of Baden") as the new imperial chancellor on 3 October. The Prince was considered a liberal and at the same time was a representative of the royal family. Most of the men in [his cabinet](/wiki/Baden_cabinet "Baden cabinet") were independents, but there were also two members of the SPD. The following day, the new government offered the Allies the truce that Ludendorff had insisted on, and on the fifth the German public was informed of the dismal situation that it faced.{{Cite book \|last\=Winkler \|first\=Heinrich August \|title\=Der Lange Weg nach Westen \|publisher\=C.H. Beck \|year\=2000 \|isbn\=978\-3\-406\-66049\-8 \|volume\=1 \|location\=Munich \|pages\=363–364, 366 \|language\=de \|trans\-title\=The Long Road to the West}}{{Cite book \|last\=Mommsen \|first\=Hans \|title\=The Rise and Fall of Weimar Democracy \|publisher\=University of North Carolina Press \|year\=1996 \|isbn\=0\-8078\-4721\-6 \|location\=Chapel Hill, NC \|pages\=11–12 \|translator\-last\=Forster \|translator\-first\=Elborg \|translator\-last2\=Jones \|translator\-first2\=Larry Eugene}} Even up to that late point, government propaganda and the press had led the people to believe that the war would still be won. The shock of the impending defeat caused a "paralytic bitterness and deep resignation" which eased the way for those who wanted an immediate ceasefire.{{Sfn\|Mommsen\|1996\|p\=12}}
During October, President Wilson responded to the request for a truce with three diplomatic notes. As a precondition for negotiations, he demanded the retreat of Germany from all occupied territories, the cessation of submarine activities and (implicitly) the Emperor's abdication.{{cite book \|last\=Tucker \|first\=Spencer \|title\=World War I: The Definitive Encyclopedia and Document Collection \|publisher\=ABC\-CLIO \|place\=Santa Barbara \|year\=2014 \|page\=2069 \|isbn\=978\-1\-85109\-964\-1 }} Following the third note of 24 October, which emphasised the danger to international peace inherent in the power of the "King of Prussia" and the "military authorities of the Empire",{{Cite journal \|last\=Larsen \|first\=Daniel \|date\=June 2013 \|title\=Abandoning Democracy: Woodrow Wilson and Promoting German Democracy, 1918\-1919 \|url\=https://www.jstor.org/stable/44254305 \|journal\=Diplomatic History \|volume\=34 \|issue\=3 \|pages\=487 \|jstor\=44254305 }} General Ludendorff resigned{{Cite web \|last\=Görlitz \|first\=Walter Otto Julius \|date\=16 December 2023 \|title\=Erich Ludendorff \|url\=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Erich\-Ludendorff \|access\-date\=27 January 2023 \|website\=Encyclopedia Britannica}} and was replaced as First General Quartermaster by General [Wilhelm Groener](/wiki/Wilhelm_Groener "Wilhelm Groener").
On 28 October, the Reichstag passed [constitutional reforms](/wiki/German_constitutional_reforms_of_October_1918 "German constitutional reforms of October 1918") that changed Germany into a [parliamentary monarchy](/wiki/Parliamentary_monarchy "Parliamentary monarchy"). The chancellor and his ministers were made dependent on the confidence of the parliamentary majority rather than the emperor, and peace treaties and declarations of war required the Reichstag's approval.{{Cite web \|last\=Sturm \|first\=Reinhard \|date\=23 December 2011 \|title\=Vom Kaiserreich zur Republik 1918/19 \|trans\-title\=From Empire to Republic 1918/19 \|url\=https://www.bpb.de/themen/erster\-weltkrieg\-weimar/weimarer\-republik/275834/vom\-kaiserreich\-zur\-republik\-1918\-19/ \|access\-date\=25 January 2024 \|website\=Bundeszentrale für politische Bildung \|language\=de}} Because the chancellor was also responsible for the emperor's acts under the constitution, the emperor's military right of command (*[Kommandogewalt](/wiki/Kommandogewalt "Kommandogewalt")*) became the chancellor's responsibility and thus subject to parliamentary control.{{Cite book \|last\=Huber \|first\=Ernst Rudolf \|title\=Deutsche Verfassungsgeschichte seit 1789 \|publisher\=W. Kohlhammer \|year\=1978 \|volume\=V. Weltkrieg, Revolution und Reichserneuerung: 1914–1919 \[World War, Revolution and Reich Renewal: 1914–1919] \|location\=Stuttgart \|pages\=590 \|language\=de \|trans\-title\=German Constitutional History since 1789 \|issn\=0066\-6505}} As far as the Social Democrats were concerned, the October Constitution met all the party's important constitutional objectives.{{Cite web \|title\=Der Ablauf der politischen Ereignisse in Deutschland vom November 1918 bis zur Wahl Eberts als Reichspräsident im Februar 1919 \|trans\-title\=The course of political events in Germany from November 1918 to the election of Ebert as Reich President in February 1919 \|url\=https://www.zum.de/Faecher/G/BW/abbl/weimar/neunter.htm \|access\-date\=27 January 2024 \|website\=Zentrale für Unterrichtsmedien im Internet e.V. (ZUM) \|language\=de}} Ebert regarded the formation of the Baden government as the birthday of German democracy. Since the Emperor had voluntarily ceded power, he considered a revolution unnecessary.{{Cite journal \|last\=Gusy \|first\=Christoph \|date\=19 August 1994 \|title\=Die Entstehung der Weimarer Reichsverfassung \|trans\-title\=The Genesis of the Weimar Constitution \|url\=https://www.jstor.org/stable/20822634 \|journal\=JuristenZeitung \|language\=de \|volume\=49 \|issue\=15/16 \|pages\=757 \|jstor\=20822634 }}
On 5 November, the Entente Powers agreed to take up negotiations for a truce. After the third note, many soldiers had come to expect the war to end and were anxious to return home. They had little willingness to fight more battles, and desertions were increasing.{{Cite web \|last\=Bruendel \|first\=Steffen \|date\=8 October 2014 \|editor\-last\=Daniel \|editor\-first\=Ute \|editor2\-last\=Gatrell \|editor2\-first\=Peter \|editor3\-last\=Janz \|editor3\-first\=Oliver \|editor4\-last\=Jones \|editor4\-first\=Heather \|editor5\-last\=Keene \|editor5\-first\=Jennifer \|editor6\-last\=Kramer \|editor6\-first\=Alan \|editor7\-last\=Nasson \|editor7\-first\=Bill \|title\=Between Acceptance and Refusal \- Soldiers' Attitudes Towards War (Germany) \|url\=https://encyclopedia.1914\-1918\-online.net/article/between\_acceptance\_and\_refusal\_\-\_soldiers\_attitudes\_towards\_war\_germany \|access\-date\=19 April 2024 \|website\=1914–1918\-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War \|publisher\=Freie Universität Berlin}}
|
[
"Background\n----------",
"### German socialist parties",
"When World War I started, the [Social Democratic Party of Germany](/wiki/Social_Democratic_Party_of_Germany \"Social Democratic Party of Germany\") (SPD) was the one socialist political party of any significance in the [German Empire](/wiki/German_Empire \"German Empire\") and as such played a major role in the revolution. It had been [banned from 1878–1890](/wiki/Anti-Socialist_Laws \"Anti-Socialist Laws\") and in 1914 continued to adhere to the tenets of [class conflict](/wiki/Class_conflict \"Class conflict\"). It had international ties to other countries' socialist parties, all of which were ideologically anti\\-war. Patriotism nevertheless proved the stronger force when the war broke out, and the SPD threw its support behind the Fatherland.",
"By 1917, some on the left of the party had become so outspokenly anti\\-war that they were expelled from the SPD and formed a new party, the [Independent Social Democrats](/wiki/Independent_Social_Democratic_Party_of_Germany \"Independent Social Democratic Party of Germany\") (USPD) – from which the [Communist Party of Germany](/wiki/Communist_Party_of_Germany \"Communist Party of Germany\") broke off shortly after the end of the war. The SPD and USPD tried to work together during the early days of the revolution, but their differing goals – parliamentary versus [council republics](/wiki/Soviet_republic_%28system_of_government%29 \"Soviet republic (system of government)\") – proved irreconcilable. After the fall of the German monarchy, the increasing antagonism between the three socialist parties drove the violence of the revolution's second stage.",
"#### SPD and the World War",
"By 1912, the Social Democrats had grown into the largest political party in Germany, with 35% of the national vote and 110 seats in the [last imperial Reichstag](/wiki/1912_German_federal_election \"1912 German federal election\").{{Cite web \\|title\\=Wahlen in Deutschland bis 1918: Reichstagswahlen \\|trans\\-title\\=Elections in Germany Until 1918: Reichstag Elections \\|url\\=https://wahlen\\-in\\-deutschland.de/krtw.htm \\|access\\-date\\=7 January 2024 \\|website\\=Wahlen in Deutschland \\|language\\=de}} In spite of its predominance, the party had no role in the imperial government. Its official espousal of [Marxist revolutionary socialism](/wiki/Revolutionary_socialism \"Revolutionary socialism\"){{Cite web \\|title\\=The Erfurt Program (1891\\) \\|url\\=https://ghdi.ghi\\-dc.org/sub\\_document.cfm?document\\_id\\=766 \\|access\\-date\\=16 April 2024 \\|website\\=German History in Documents and Images (GHDI)}} aroused the distrust of the parties of the centre and Right, and its members were often disparaged as \"journeymen without a fatherland\" ({{Lang\\|de\\|Vaterlandslose Gesellen}}) because their class antagonism was seen to transcend national boundaries.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Vaterlandlose Gesellen \\|trans\\-title\\=Men Without a Fatherland \\|url\\=https://erinnerungsorte.fes.de/vaterlandlose\\-gesellen/ \\|access\\-date\\=17 April 2024 \\|website\\=Friedrich Ebert Stiftung \\|date\\=18 May 2012 \\|language\\=de}}",
"The SPD had attended the congresses of the [Second International](/wiki/Second_International \"Second International\") beginning in 1889, where they had agreed to resolutions asking for combined action by socialists in the event of a war. Following the [assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand](/wiki/Assassination_of_Archduke_Franz_Ferdinand \"Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand\") in June 1914, the SPD, like other socialist parties in Europe, organised anti\\-war demonstrations during the [July Crisis](/wiki/July_Crisis \"July Crisis\") that led up to the war's outbreak.{{Cite journal \\|last1\\=Cinar \\|first1\\=Meral Ugur \\|last2\\=Cinar \\|first2\\=Kursat \\|date\\=2014 \\|title\\=The Second International: The Impact of Domestic Factors on International Organization Dysfunction \\|url\\=https://doi.org/10\\.1111/1467\\-9248\\.12062 \\|journal\\=Political Studies \\|volume\\=62 \\|issue\\=3 \\|pages\\=669–685 \\|doi\\=10\\.1111/1467\\-9248\\.12062 \\|s2cid\\=54019053 \\|via\\=Sage Journals}}",
"In contrast to the widespread enthusiasm for the war among the educated classes (the \"[Spirit of 1914](/wiki/Spirit_of_1914 \"Spirit of 1914\")\"), the majority of SPD newspapers were strongly anti\\-war, although some supported it by pointing out the danger posed by the [Russian Empire](/wiki/Russian_Empire \"Russian Empire\"), which they saw as the most reactionary and anti\\-socialist power in Europe.{{Cite book \\|last\\=Jeffrey \\|first\\=Verhey \\|url\\=https://prussia.online/Data/Book/th/the\\-spirit\\-of\\-1914/Verhey%20J.%20The%20Spirit%20of%201914\\.%20Militarism,%20Myth,%20and%20Mobilization%20in%20Germany%20(2003\\),%20OCR.pdf \\|title\\=The Spirit of 1914\\. Militarism,Myth,and Mobilization in Germany \\|publisher\\=Cambridge University Press \\|year\\=2003 \\|location\\=Cambridge, UK \\|pages\\=20}} Chancellor [Theobald von Bethmann Hollweg](/wiki/Theobald_von_Bethmann_Hollweg \"Theobald von Bethmann Hollweg\") turned down plans by high\\-ranking military officials to dissolve the SPD at the start of the war{{Cite book \\|last\\=Rathenau \\|first\\=Walter \\|title\\=Walther Rathenau Tagebuch 1907–1922 \\|publisher\\=Droste \\|year\\=1967 \\|editor\\-last\\=Pogge von Strandmann \\|editor\\-first\\=Hartmut \\|location\\=Düsseldorf \\|pages\\=162 \\|language\\=de \\|trans\\-title\\=Walther Rathenau Diary 1907–1922}} and exploited the party's anti\\-Russian stance to gain its approval for it.",
"After Germany declared war on Russia on 1 August 1914, 96 SPD deputies, among them [Friedrich Ebert](/wiki/Friedrich_Ebert \"Friedrich Ebert\"), agreed to approve the [war bonds](/wiki/War_bond \"War bond\") requested by the imperial government. Fourteen deputies, headed by party co\\-leader [Hugo Haase](/wiki/Hugo_Haase \"Hugo Haase\"), and including [Karl Liebknecht](/wiki/Karl_Liebknecht \"Karl Liebknecht\"), spoke out against the bonds but nevertheless followed party discipline and voted in favour.{{Cite book \\|last\\=Grossman \\|first\\=Henryk \\|title\\=Henryk Grossman Works Volume 2 Political Writings \\|publisher\\=Koninklijke Brill NV \\|year\\=2021 \\|location\\=Leiden, Netherlands \\|pages\\=426}} The support was based primarily on the belief, actively fostered by the government, that Germany was fighting a defensive war.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Krumeich \\|first\\=Gerd \\|date\\=11 October 2016 \\|editor\\-last\\=Daniel \\|editor\\-first\\=Ute \\|editor2\\-last\\=Gatrell \\|editor2\\-first\\=Peter \\|editor3\\-last\\=Janz \\|editor3\\-first\\=Oliver \\|editor4\\-last\\=Jones \\|editor4\\-first\\=Heather \\|editor5\\-last\\=Keene \\|editor5\\-first\\=Jennifer \\|editor6\\-last\\=Kramer \\|editor6\\-first\\=Alan \\|editor7\\-last\\=Nasson \\|editor7\\-first\\=Bill \\|title\\=Burgfrieden/Union sacrée \\|url\\=https://encyclopedia.1914\\-1918\\-online.net/article/burgfriedenunion\\_sacree \\|access\\-date\\=16 April 2024 \\|website\\=1914–1918\\-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War \\|publisher\\=Freie Universität Berlin}} Haase explained the decision that the party had made with the words: \"We will not abandon our Fatherland in its hour of danger!\"{{Cite book \\|last\\=Haffner \\|first\\=Sebastian \\|author\\-link\\=Sebastian Haffner \\|title\\=Der Verrat: Deutschland 1918/1919 \\|publisher\\=Verlag 1900 \\|year\\=2002 \\|isbn\\=978\\-3930278008 \\|location\\=Berlin \\|pages\\=12 \\|language\\=de \\|trans\\-title\\=The Betrayal: Germany 1918/1919}} Many SPD members were eager to show their patriotism, in part to free themselves from the charge of being \"journeymen without a fatherland\".{{Cite web \\|title\\=Vaterlandslose Gesellen \\|trans\\-title\\=Men Without a Fatherland \\|url\\=https://www.preussenchronik.de/begriff\\_jsp/key\\=begriff\\_vaterlandslose\\+gesellen.html \\|access\\-date\\=17 April 2024 \\|website\\=Preussen Chronik \\|date\\=21 May 2008 \\|language\\=de}}",
"Since the SPD was the only party whose position was in any real doubt, its unanimous vote for the war bonds was greeted with great enthusiasm as a sign of Germany's national unity. The Emperor welcomed the political truce (*[Burgfriedenspolitik](/wiki/Burgfriedenspolitik \"Burgfriedenspolitik\")*) among the Reichstag's parties in which they agreed not to criticise the government's handling of the war and to keep their disagreements out of public view. He declared: \"I no longer know parties, I know only Germans!\"{{Cite web \\|title\\=Thronrede Kaiser Wilhelms II. vor den Abgeordneten des Reichstags, 4\\. August 1914 \\|trans\\-title\\=Emperor Wilhelm II's Speech from the Throne to the Reichstag Representatives, 4 August 1914 \\|url\\=https://www.1000dokumente.de/index.html?c\\=dokument\\_de\\&dokument\\=0081\\_kwi\\&object\\=translation\\&st\\=\\&l\\=de \\|access\\-date\\=8 January 2024 \\|website\\=100(0\\) Schlüsseldokumente \\|language\\=de}}",
"#### SPD's split",
"As the war dragged on and the death toll rose, more SPD members began to question the party's support for the war. The dissatisfaction increased when the [Supreme Army Command](/wiki/Supreme_Army_Command \"Supreme Army Command\") (OHL) introduced the [Auxiliary Services Act](/wiki/Auxiliary_Services_Act_%281916%29 \"Auxiliary Services Act (1916)\") in December 1916\\. It proposed full mobilisation and deployment of the workforce, including women, and the \"militarisation\" of labour relations. It met with such strong criticism that the OHL had to agree to participation by trade unions and the Reichstag parties in the act's implementation. It accepted their demands for arbitration committees, the expansion of trade union powers and a repeal of the act at the end of the war.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Nagornaja \\|first\\=Oksana \\|title\\=Gesetz über den vaterländischen Hilfsdienst, 5\\. Dezember 1916 \\|trans\\-title\\=Auxiliary Services Act, 5 December 1916 \\|url\\=https://www.1000dokumente.de/index.html?c\\=dokument\\_de\\&dokument\\=0001\\_hil\\&object\\=context\\&st\\=\\&l\\=de \\|access\\-date\\=10 January 2024 \\|website\\=100(0\\) Schlüsseldokumente \\|language\\=de}}{{Cite web \\|last\\=Asmuss \\|first\\=Burkhard \\|date\\=8 June 2011 \\|title\\=Das Hindenburg\\-Programm \\|url\\=https://www.dhm.de/lemo/kapitel/erster\\-weltkrieg/industrie\\-und\\-wirtschaft/hindenburg\\-programm.html \\|access\\-date\\=10 January 2024 \\|website\\=Deutsches Historisches Museum}}",
"After the outbreak of the Russian [February Revolution](/wiki/February_Revolution \"February Revolution\") in 1917, the wartime's [first organised strikes](/wiki/German_strike_of_January_1918 \"German strike of January 1918\") erupted in German armament factories in January 1918\\. 400,000 workers went on strike in Berlin and around a million nationwide. Their primary demand was an end to the war. The SPD took part in the strike in order to keep the [Spartacists](/wiki/Spartacus_League \"Spartacus League\") from having control of the strike's leadership, but its participation soured the SPD's relationship with the other parties in the Reichstag. The strike was put down by the military after a week.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Kalmbach \\|first\\=Karena \\|date\\=10 June 2003 \\|title\\=Der Januarstreik 1918 \\|trans\\-title\\=The January Strike 1918 \\|url\\=https://www.dhm.de/lemo/kapitel/erster\\-weltkrieg/innenpolitik/januarstreik\\-1918\\.html \\|access\\-date\\=18 April 2024 \\|website\\=Deutsches Historisches Museum \\|language\\=de}}",
"Because of the increasing intra\\-party conflicts centering around the opponents of the war, the leadership of the SPD under Friedrich Ebert expelled them from the party in January 1917\\. The Spartacists, who had formed the SPD's far left wing, joined with [revisionists](/wiki/Revisionism_%28Marxism%29 \"Revisionism (Marxism)\") such as [Eduard Bernstein](/wiki/Eduard_Bernstein \"Eduard Bernstein\") and [centrist Marxists](/wiki/Centrist_Marxism \"Centrist Marxism\") such as [Karl Kautsky](/wiki/Karl_Kautsky \"Karl Kautsky\") to found the anti\\-war [Independent Social Democratic Party of Germany](/wiki/Independent_Social_Democratic_Party_of_Germany \"Independent Social Democratic Party of Germany\") (USPD) under the leadership of Hugo Haase on 6 April 1917\\. After that point, the SPD was officially named the [Majority Social Democratic Party of Germany](/wiki/Majority_Social_Democratic_Party_of_Germany \"Majority Social Democratic Party of Germany\") (MSPD), although it was still generally referred to as the SPD.{{Cite book \\|last\\=Ghanem \\|first\\=Michael \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=CzWaEAAAQBAJ\\&dq\\=%22Alexander\\+Parvus%22\\+%22Lensch\\-Cunow\\-Haenisch%22\\&pg\\=PT196 \\|title\\=Im Würgegriff der politischen Parteien. Teil 1: Im Jahr 2019 \\|publisher\\=tredition \\|year\\=2019 \\|location\\=Ahrensburg \\|pages\\=ebook \\|isbn\\=978\\-3\\-7482\\-7933\\-4 \\|language\\=de \\|trans\\-title\\=In the Stranglehold of the Political Parties. Part 1: In the Year 2019}} The USPD called for an immediate end to the war and a further democratisation of Germany but did not have a unified agenda for social policies.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Kalmbach \\|first\\=Karena \\|date\\=6 September 2014 \\|title\\=Die Unabhängige Sozialdemokratische Partei Deutschlands (USPD) \\|trans\\-title\\=The Independent Social Democratic Party of Germany (USPD) \\|url\\=https://www.dhm.de/lemo/kapitel/weimarer\\-republik/innenpolitik/uspd.html \\|access\\-date\\=30 December 2023 \\|website\\=Deutsches Historisches Museum \\|language\\=de}} Both the USPD and the Spartacists continued their anti\\-war propaganda in factories, especially in armament plants.",
"### End of the war",
"#### Impact of the Russian Revolution",
"{{further\\|Russian Revolution}}\nIn April 1917, the German government facilitated [Vladimir Lenin](/wiki/Vladimir_Lenin \"Vladimir Lenin\")'s return to Russia from his exile in Switzerland in the hope that he would weaken the tsarist regime and its conduct of the war.{{Cite book \\|last\\=Fischer \\|first\\=Louis \\|title\\=The Life of Lenin \\|publisher\\=Weidenfeld and Nicolson \\|year\\=1964 \\|location\\=London \\|pages\\=109–110}} After the 1917 [October Revolution](/wiki/October_Revolution \"October Revolution\") that put Lenin and the [Bolsheviks](/wiki/Bolsheviks \"Bolsheviks\") in power, many in both Russia and Germany expected that soviet Russia would in return help foment a communist revolution in Germany. For Germany's far Left, it provided hope for its own success, and for the moderate socialists, along with the middle and upper classes, it was a source of fear that the kind of bloody civil war that was occurring in Russia could also break out in Germany.{{Cite book \\|last\\=Winkler \\|first\\=Heinrich August \\|title\\=Weimar 1918–1933\\. Die Geschichte der ersten deutschen Demokratie \\|publisher\\=C.H. Beck \\|year\\=1993 \\|isbn\\=3\\-406\\-37646\\-0 \\|location\\=Munich \\|page\\=21 \\|language\\=de \\|trans\\-title\\=Weimar 1918–1933\\. The History of the FIrst German Democracy}}",
"The moderate SPD leadership consequently shifted away from the party's official stance as revolutionary socialists. [Otto Braun](/wiki/Otto_Braun \"Otto Braun\") clarified the SPD's position in an article titled \"The Bolsheviks and Us\" ({{Lang\\|de\\|Die Bolschewiki und Wir}}) in the party newspaper {{Lang\\|de\\|\\[\\[Vorwärts]]}} of 15 February 1918:{{Cite web \\|title\\=Vorwärts 15 Februar 1918 \\|url\\=https://collections.fes.de/historische\\-presse/periodical/zoom/112447 \\|access\\-date\\=28 January 2024 \\|website\\=FES Historische Presse}} \"Socialism cannot be erected on bayonets and machine guns. If it is to last, it must be realised with democratic means. ... Therefore we must draw a thick, visible dividing line between ourselves and the Bolsheviks.\"{{Cite book \\|last\\=Schulze \\|first\\=Hagen \\|title\\=Weimar. Deutschland 1917–1933 \\|publisher\\=Siedler \\|year\\=1994 \\|isbn\\=978\\-3886800506 \\|location\\=Berlin \\|pages\\=158 \\|language\\=de}}",
"On 3 March 1918, the newly established Soviet government signed the [Treaty of Brest\\-Litovsk](/wiki/Treaty_of_Brest-Litovsk \"Treaty of Brest-Litovsk\") with Germany to end Russia's involvement in the war. It arguably contained harsher terms for the Russians than the later [Treaty of Versailles](/wiki/Treaty_of_Versailles \"Treaty of Versailles\") would demand of the Germans.{{Cite journal \\|last\\=Wheeler\\-Bennett \\|first\\=John W. \\|date\\=January 1940 \\|title\\=From Brest\\-Litovsk to Brest\\-Litovsk \\|url\\=https://www.jstor.org/stable/20028991 \\|journal\\=Foreign Affairs \\|publisher\\=Council on Foreign Relations \\|volume\\=18 \\|issue\\=2 \\|pages\\=199 \\|doi\\=10\\.2307/20028991 \\|jstor\\=20028991 }}",
"#### Military collapse",
"[thumb\\|268x268px\\|[Erich Ludendorff](/wiki/Erich_Ludendorff \"Erich Ludendorff\") in 1918\\. His calculated shifting of responsibility for the war's loss from the army to the civilian government gave rise to the [stab\\-in\\-the\\-back myth](/wiki/Stab-in-the-back_myth \"Stab-in-the-back myth\").](/wiki/File:Erich_Ludendorff_1918.jpg \"Erich Ludendorff 1918.jpg\")\nOn 29 September 1918, the Supreme Army Command informed Emperor [Wilhelm II](/wiki/Wilhelm_II \"Wilhelm II\") and Chancellor [Georg von Hertling](/wiki/Georg_von_Hertling \"Georg von Hertling\") that the military situation was hopeless in the face of the enemy's overwhelming advantage in manpower and equipment. General Ludendorff said that a request for an immediate ceasefire should be sent to the [Entente](/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_I \"Allies of World War I\") powers. In hopes of more favourable peace terms, he also recommended accepting American president [Woodrow Wilson](/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson \"Woodrow Wilson\")'s demand that the imperial government be democratised. His aim was to protect the reputation of the Imperial Army by placing the responsibility for the capitulation and its consequences at the feet of the democratic parties and the Reichstag.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Oppelland \\|first\\=Torsten \\|date\\=2 June 2016 \\|editor\\-last\\=Daniel \\|editor\\-first\\=Ute \\|editor2\\-last\\=Gatrell \\|editor2\\-first\\=Peter \\|editor3\\-last\\=Janz \\|editor3\\-first\\=Oliver \\|editor4\\-last\\=Jones \\|editor4\\-first\\=Heather \\|editor5\\-last\\=Keene \\|editor5\\-first\\=Jennifer \\|editor6\\-last\\=Kramer \\|editor6\\-first\\=Alan \\|editor7\\-last\\=Nasson \\|editor7\\-first\\=Bill \\|title\\=Governments, Parliaments and Parties (Germany) \\|url\\=https://encyclopedia.1914\\-1918\\-online.net/article/governments\\_parliaments\\_and\\_parties\\_germany \\|access\\-date\\=23 January 2024 \\|website\\=1914–1918\\-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War \\|publisher\\=Freie Universität Berlin}}{{Cite web \\|last\\=Sturm \\|first\\=Reinhard \\|date\\=23 December 2011 \\|title\\=Vom Kaiserreich zur Republik 1918/19 \\|trans\\-title\\=From Empire to Republic 1918/19 \\|url\\=https://www.bpb.de/themen/nationalsozialismus\\-zweiter\\-weltkrieg/dossier\\-nationalsozialismus/168748/vom\\-kaiserreich\\-zur\\-republik\\-1918\\-19/ \\|access\\-date\\=23 January 2024 \\|website\\=Bundeszentrale für politische Bildung \\|language\\=de}} In a veiled reference to the workers who had struck the armaments plants, the Social Democrats who had helped pass the [Reichstag Peace Resolution](/wiki/Reichstag_Peace_Resolution \"Reichstag Peace Resolution\") in July 1917 and the radical Spartacists who wanted a [dictatorship of the proletariat](/wiki/Dictatorship_of_the_proletariat \"Dictatorship of the proletariat\"), he said to his staff officers on 1 October:\n> I have asked His Majesty to bring into the government those circles to whom we mainly owe it that we have come this far. ... Let them now make the peace that must be made. They should eat the soup they have served up to us!{{Sfn\\|Haffner\\|2002\\|p\\=32 f}}",
"His statement marked the birth of the \"[stab\\-in\\-the\\-back myth](/wiki/Stab-in-the-back_myth \"Stab-in-the-back myth\")\" ({{Lang\\|de\\|Dolchstoßlegende}}), according to which revolutionary socialists and republican politicians had betrayed the undefeated army and turned an almost certain victory into a defeat.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Kitchen \\|first\\=Martin \\|date\\=17 February 2011 \\|title\\=The Ending of World War One, and the Legacy of Peace \\|url\\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/worldwars/wwone/war\\_end\\_01\\.shtml \\|access\\-date\\=23 January 2023 \\|website\\=BBC}}",
"#### Political response",
"Although shocked by Ludendorff's report and the news of the certain defeat, the majority parties in the Reichstag, especially the SPD, were willing to take on the responsibility of government. Chancellor Hertling objected to introducing a parliamentary system and resigned. Emperor Wilhelm II appointed [Prince Max of Baden](/wiki/Prince_Maximilian_of_Baden \"Prince Maximilian of Baden\") as the new imperial chancellor on 3 October. The Prince was considered a liberal and at the same time was a representative of the royal family. Most of the men in [his cabinet](/wiki/Baden_cabinet \"Baden cabinet\") were independents, but there were also two members of the SPD. The following day, the new government offered the Allies the truce that Ludendorff had insisted on, and on the fifth the German public was informed of the dismal situation that it faced.{{Cite book \\|last\\=Winkler \\|first\\=Heinrich August \\|title\\=Der Lange Weg nach Westen \\|publisher\\=C.H. Beck \\|year\\=2000 \\|isbn\\=978\\-3\\-406\\-66049\\-8 \\|volume\\=1 \\|location\\=Munich \\|pages\\=363–364, 366 \\|language\\=de \\|trans\\-title\\=The Long Road to the West}}{{Cite book \\|last\\=Mommsen \\|first\\=Hans \\|title\\=The Rise and Fall of Weimar Democracy \\|publisher\\=University of North Carolina Press \\|year\\=1996 \\|isbn\\=0\\-8078\\-4721\\-6 \\|location\\=Chapel Hill, NC \\|pages\\=11–12 \\|translator\\-last\\=Forster \\|translator\\-first\\=Elborg \\|translator\\-last2\\=Jones \\|translator\\-first2\\=Larry Eugene}} Even up to that late point, government propaganda and the press had led the people to believe that the war would still be won. The shock of the impending defeat caused a \"paralytic bitterness and deep resignation\" which eased the way for those who wanted an immediate ceasefire.{{Sfn\\|Mommsen\\|1996\\|p\\=12}}",
"During October, President Wilson responded to the request for a truce with three diplomatic notes. As a precondition for negotiations, he demanded the retreat of Germany from all occupied territories, the cessation of submarine activities and (implicitly) the Emperor's abdication.{{cite book \\|last\\=Tucker \\|first\\=Spencer \\|title\\=World War I: The Definitive Encyclopedia and Document Collection \\|publisher\\=ABC\\-CLIO \\|place\\=Santa Barbara \\|year\\=2014 \\|page\\=2069 \\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-85109\\-964\\-1 }} Following the third note of 24 October, which emphasised the danger to international peace inherent in the power of the \"King of Prussia\" and the \"military authorities of the Empire\",{{Cite journal \\|last\\=Larsen \\|first\\=Daniel \\|date\\=June 2013 \\|title\\=Abandoning Democracy: Woodrow Wilson and Promoting German Democracy, 1918\\-1919 \\|url\\=https://www.jstor.org/stable/44254305 \\|journal\\=Diplomatic History \\|volume\\=34 \\|issue\\=3 \\|pages\\=487 \\|jstor\\=44254305 }} General Ludendorff resigned{{Cite web \\|last\\=Görlitz \\|first\\=Walter Otto Julius \\|date\\=16 December 2023 \\|title\\=Erich Ludendorff \\|url\\=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Erich\\-Ludendorff \\|access\\-date\\=27 January 2023 \\|website\\=Encyclopedia Britannica}} and was replaced as First General Quartermaster by General [Wilhelm Groener](/wiki/Wilhelm_Groener \"Wilhelm Groener\").",
"On 28 October, the Reichstag passed [constitutional reforms](/wiki/German_constitutional_reforms_of_October_1918 \"German constitutional reforms of October 1918\") that changed Germany into a [parliamentary monarchy](/wiki/Parliamentary_monarchy \"Parliamentary monarchy\"). The chancellor and his ministers were made dependent on the confidence of the parliamentary majority rather than the emperor, and peace treaties and declarations of war required the Reichstag's approval.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Sturm \\|first\\=Reinhard \\|date\\=23 December 2011 \\|title\\=Vom Kaiserreich zur Republik 1918/19 \\|trans\\-title\\=From Empire to Republic 1918/19 \\|url\\=https://www.bpb.de/themen/erster\\-weltkrieg\\-weimar/weimarer\\-republik/275834/vom\\-kaiserreich\\-zur\\-republik\\-1918\\-19/ \\|access\\-date\\=25 January 2024 \\|website\\=Bundeszentrale für politische Bildung \\|language\\=de}} Because the chancellor was also responsible for the emperor's acts under the constitution, the emperor's military right of command (*[Kommandogewalt](/wiki/Kommandogewalt \"Kommandogewalt\")*) became the chancellor's responsibility and thus subject to parliamentary control.{{Cite book \\|last\\=Huber \\|first\\=Ernst Rudolf \\|title\\=Deutsche Verfassungsgeschichte seit 1789 \\|publisher\\=W. Kohlhammer \\|year\\=1978 \\|volume\\=V. Weltkrieg, Revolution und Reichserneuerung: 1914–1919 \\[World War, Revolution and Reich Renewal: 1914–1919] \\|location\\=Stuttgart \\|pages\\=590 \\|language\\=de \\|trans\\-title\\=German Constitutional History since 1789 \\|issn\\=0066\\-6505}} As far as the Social Democrats were concerned, the October Constitution met all the party's important constitutional objectives.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Der Ablauf der politischen Ereignisse in Deutschland vom November 1918 bis zur Wahl Eberts als Reichspräsident im Februar 1919 \\|trans\\-title\\=The course of political events in Germany from November 1918 to the election of Ebert as Reich President in February 1919 \\|url\\=https://www.zum.de/Faecher/G/BW/abbl/weimar/neunter.htm \\|access\\-date\\=27 January 2024 \\|website\\=Zentrale für Unterrichtsmedien im Internet e.V. (ZUM) \\|language\\=de}} Ebert regarded the formation of the Baden government as the birthday of German democracy. Since the Emperor had voluntarily ceded power, he considered a revolution unnecessary.{{Cite journal \\|last\\=Gusy \\|first\\=Christoph \\|date\\=19 August 1994 \\|title\\=Die Entstehung der Weimarer Reichsverfassung \\|trans\\-title\\=The Genesis of the Weimar Constitution \\|url\\=https://www.jstor.org/stable/20822634 \\|journal\\=JuristenZeitung \\|language\\=de \\|volume\\=49 \\|issue\\=15/16 \\|pages\\=757 \\|jstor\\=20822634 }}",
"On 5 November, the Entente Powers agreed to take up negotiations for a truce. After the third note, many soldiers had come to expect the war to end and were anxious to return home. They had little willingness to fight more battles, and desertions were increasing.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Bruendel \\|first\\=Steffen \\|date\\=8 October 2014 \\|editor\\-last\\=Daniel \\|editor\\-first\\=Ute \\|editor2\\-last\\=Gatrell \\|editor2\\-first\\=Peter \\|editor3\\-last\\=Janz \\|editor3\\-first\\=Oliver \\|editor4\\-last\\=Jones \\|editor4\\-first\\=Heather \\|editor5\\-last\\=Keene \\|editor5\\-first\\=Jennifer \\|editor6\\-last\\=Kramer \\|editor6\\-first\\=Alan \\|editor7\\-last\\=Nasson \\|editor7\\-first\\=Bill \\|title\\=Between Acceptance and Refusal \\- Soldiers' Attitudes Towards War (Germany) \\|url\\=https://encyclopedia.1914\\-1918\\-online.net/article/between\\_acceptance\\_and\\_refusal\\_\\-\\_soldiers\\_attitudes\\_towards\\_war\\_germany \\|access\\-date\\=19 April 2024 \\|website\\=1914–1918\\-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War \\|publisher\\=Freie Universität Berlin}}",
""
] |
Revolution, second stage: defeat of the radical Left
----------------------------------------------------
Once the monarchy had collapsed under the pressure of the workers' and soldiers' councils, it was up to the leadership of the socialist parties in Berlin to quickly establish the new order and address the many critical problems the defeated nation faced. From the beginning, the moderates of the SPD held the leading position. They had the broadest support from the working class and the at least grudging backing of the imperial bureaucracy, most of which remained in place. When Ebert showed himself willing to use the military and *Freikorps* against opposing members of the socialist Left, it quickly led to fractures between the SPD and USPD and then to street battles with the Spartacists and communists.
### The councils
#### Establishment, pact with the military and armistice
Ebert wanted to take the sting out of the revolutionary mood and to meet the demands of the 9 November demonstrators for the unity of the labour parties. He offered the USPD equal participation in the government and was ready to accept Karl Liebknecht as a minister. The USPD, at Liebknecht's insistence, demanded that elected representatives of the unions and soldiers have full executive, legislative and judicial control. The SPD refused, and negotiations got no further that day.{{Sfn\|Winkler\|1993\|p\=35}}
Around 8 pm, a group of 100 [Revolutionary Stewards](/wiki/Revolutionary_Stewards "Revolutionary Stewards") from the larger Berlin factories occupied the Reichstag. Led by their spokesmen [Richard Müller](/wiki/Richard_M%C3%BCller_%28socialist%29 "Richard Müller (socialist)") and [Emil Barth](/wiki/Emil_Barth "Emil Barth"), they formed a revolutionary parliament. Most of the participating stewards had been leaders during the strikes earlier in the year. They did not trust the SPD leadership and had planned a coup for 11 November independently of the sailors' revolt, but were unprepared for the revolutionary events since Kiel. In order to take the initiative from Ebert, they decided to announce elections for the following day, a Sunday. Every Berlin factory was to elect workers' councils and every regiment soldiers' councils that were then to elect a revolutionary government from members of the two labour parties (SPD and USPD) in the evening. The government would be empowered to execute the resolutions of the revolutionary parliament, since they intended to replace Ebert's function as chancellor.{{sfn\|Hoffrogge\|2014\|pp\=61–79}}
On the evening of the ninth, the SPD leadership learned of the plans for the elections and the councils' meeting. Since they could not be prevented, [Otto Wels](/wiki/Otto_Wels "Otto Wels") used the party apparatus to influence the voting in the soldiers' councils and won most of them over to the SPD. By morning it was clear that the SPD would have the majority of the delegates on its side at the councils' meeting that evening.{{Sfn\|Mommsen\|1996\|p\=28}}
USPD chairman [Hugo Haase](/wiki/Hugo_Haase "Hugo Haase") returned from Kiel the morning of 10 November and was able to broker a compromise in the negotiations with the SPD about the new government. The revolutionary government, to be called the [Council of the People's Deputies](/wiki/Council_of_the_People%27s_Deputies "Council of the People's Deputies") ({{Lang\|de\|Rat der Volksbeauftragten}}) at the USPD's insistence, gave the USPD much of what it wanted. The Council was to be made up of three representatives of the SPD (Ebert, Scheidemann and [Otto Landsberg](/wiki/Otto_Landsberg "Otto Landsberg")) and three from the USPD (Haase, [Wilhelm Dittmann](/wiki/Wilhelm_Dittmann "Wilhelm Dittmann") and [Emil Barth](/wiki/Emil_Barth "Emil Barth")).{{Sfn\|Winkler\|1993\|pp\=35–36}} The workers' and soldiers' councils were to be given political power – not full executive, legislative and judicial control – and a national assembly would be discussed only "after a consolidation of the conditions created by the revolution".{{Sfn\|Huber\|1978\|p\=711 f}}[right\|thumb\|"Berlin seized by revolutionists": *[The New York Times](/wiki/The_New_York_Times "The New York Times")* on [Armistice Day](/wiki/Armistice_Day "Armistice Day"), 11 November 1918\|251x251pxIn](/wiki/File:NYTimes-Page1-11-11-1918.jpg "NYTimes-Page1-11-11-1918.jpg") the assembly of the newly elected councils that convened in the afternoon at the Circus Busch, almost all of the soldiers' councils and a large part of the workers' representatives stood on the side of the SPD.{{Sfn\|Mommsen\|1996\|p\=28}} After it ratified the membership of the Council of the People's Deputies, Emil Barth called for an action committee to oversee it and presented a list of names drawn up by the Revolutionary Stewards. The proposal took the SPD leadership by surprise and started heated debates in the assembly. Ebert was able to push through an "[Executive Council of Workers' and Soldiers' Councils of Greater Berlin](/wiki/German_workers%27_and_soldiers%27_councils_1918%E2%80%931919 "German workers' and soldiers' councils 1918–1919")" ({{Lang\|de\|Vollzugsrat des Arbeiter\- und Soldatenrates Grossberlin}}) made up of seven SPD members, seven from the USPD and fourteen mostly independent soldiers' representatives. It was to oversee the People's Deputies until the creation of a national assembly and was chaired by Richard Müller of the USPD and {{Ill\|Brutus Molkenbuhr\|de}} representing the soldiers.{{Sfn\|Winkler\|1993\|pp\=37–38}}{{Cite web \|last\=Scriba \|first\=Arnulf \|date\=14 September 2014 \|title\=Vollzugsrat \|url\=https://www.dhm.de/lemo/kapitel/weimarer\-republik/revolution\-191819/vollzugsrat.html \|access\-date\=20 February 2024 \|website\=Deutsches Historisches Museum}}
On the evening of the same day, a phone call between Ebert and General Wilhelm Groener, the new First Quartermaster General, resulted in the unofficial and secret [Ebert–Groener pact](/wiki/Ebert%E2%80%93Groener_pact "Ebert–Groener pact"). In exchange for Groener's assurance of the army's support "for the good of the state", Ebert promised Groener that the military's hierarchies and command structures would not be changed. He thus made no attempt to democratise the authoritarian military. As Groener stated in his memoirs: "The best and strongest element of the old Prussianism was saved for the new Germany."{{Cite book \|last1\=Hirschfeld \|first1\=Gerhard \|title\=Deutschland im Ersten Weltkrieg \|last2\=Krumeich \|first2\=Gerd \|publisher\=Fischer E\-Books \|year\=2013 \|isbn\=978\-3104024899 \|edition\=Kindle \|location\=Berlin \|pages\=276 \|language\=de \|trans\-title\=Germany in the First World War}}
In the turmoil of the day, the Ebert government's acceptance of the Entente's harsh terms for a ceasefire after a renewed demand from the Supreme Army Command went almost unnoticed. On 11 November, the [Centre Party](/wiki/Centre_Party_%28Germany%29 "Centre Party (Germany)") deputy [Matthias Erzberger](/wiki/Matthias_Erzberger "Matthias Erzberger") signed [the armistice agreement](/wiki/Armistice_with_Germany_%28Compi%C3%A8gne%29 "Armistice with Germany (Compiègne)") at [Compiègne](/wiki/Compi%C3%A8gne "Compiègne"), France, on behalf of the government in Berlin, and World War I came to an end.{{Cite web \|last\=Dowe \|first\=Christopher \|date\=8 October 2014 \|editor\-last\=Daniel \|editor\-first\=Ute \|editor2\-last\=Gatrell \|editor2\-first\=Peter \|editor3\-last\=Janz \|editor3\-first\=Oliver \|editor4\-last\=Jones \|editor4\-first\=Heather \|editor5\-last\=Keene \|editor5\-first\=Jennifer \|editor6\-last\=Kramer \|editor6\-first\=Alan \|editor7\-last\=Nasson \|editor7\-first\=Bill \|title\=Erzberger, Matthias \|url\=https://encyclopedia.1914\-1918\-online.net/article/erzberger\_matthias \|access\-date\=23 February 2024 \|website\=1914–1918\-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War \|publisher\=Freie Universität Berlin}}
#### Interim government
[thumb\|271x271px\|The Council of the People's Deputies. From left to right: Barth (USPD), Landsberg (SPD), Ebert (SPD), Haase (USPD), Dittmann (USPD), Scheidemann (SPD)](/wiki/File:Rat_der_Volksbeauftragten.jpg "Rat der Volksbeauftragten.jpg")
On 12 November, the Council of People's Deputies published its government programme in the proclamation "To the German People". It lifted the state of siege and censorship, granted amnesty to all political prisoners, guaranteed freedom of association, assembly and the press and abolished the rules that governed relations between servant and master. It also promised the introduction of direct, equal and universal suffrage for all women and men from the age of 20 years, the eight\-hour workday and improvements in benefits for unemployment, social insurance and workers' compensation.{{Cite web \|title\=Rat der Volksbeauftragten, Aufruf "An das deutsche Volk", 12\. November 1918 \|trans\-title\=Council of the People's Deputies, Proclamation "To the German People", 12 November 1918 \|url\=https://www.1000dokumente.de/index.html?c\=dokument\_de\&dokument\=0238\_rev\&object\=translation\&st\=\&l\=de \|access\-date\=1 March 2024 \|website\=100(0\) Schlüsseldokumente \|language\=de}}
In theory, the Executive Council of Workers' and Soldiers' Councils of Greater Berlin was the highest\-ranking council of the revolutionary regime and therefore Richard Müller the head of state of the newly declared "Socialist Republic of Germany",{{Cite book \|title\=Groß\-Berliner Arbeiter\- und Soldatenräte in der Revolution 1918/19 \|publisher\=Akademie Verlag \|year\=1997 \|isbn\=3\-05\-003061\-5 \|editor\-last\=Engel \|editor\-first\=Gerhard \|location\=Berlin \|pages\=VII \|language\=de \|trans\-title\=Greater Berlin Workers' and Soldiers' Councils in the Revolution 1918/19 \|editor\-last2\=Holtz \|editor\-first2\=Bärbel \|editor\-last3\=Huch \|editor\-first3\=Gaby \|editor\-last4\=Materna \|editor\-first4\=Ingo}} but in practice the Executive Council's initiative was blocked by internal power struggles. In the eight weeks of the double rule of the Executive Council and the Ebert\-led government, the latter was always dominant. Although Haase was formally co\-chairman in the Council of the People's Deputies with equal rights, the higher level administration almost always preferred to work with the more moderate Ebert and the SPD.{{Cite journal \|last\=Piper \|first\=Ernst \|date\=2018 \|title\=Deutsche Revolution 1918/19 \|journal\=Informationen zur Politischen Bildung \|language\=de \|issue\=33 \|page\=15}}
The government saw its immediate tasks as fulfilling the terms of the Treaty of Versailles, demobilisation, providing adequate food and fuel supplies for a nation still under the [Allied blockade](/wiki/Blockade_of_Germany_%281914%E2%80%931919%29 "Blockade of Germany (1914–1919)") and ensuring both internal and foreign security against separatists in the [Rhine Province](/wiki/Rhine_Province "Rhine Province") and [Polish insurgents](/wiki/Greater_Poland_uprising_%281918%E2%80%931919%29 "Greater Poland uprising (1918–1919)") in the East. In order to make sure that the new democracy was firmly anchored, the government would have had to make an almost complete break with the old institutions, but the SPD decided that facing the immediate post\-war crises was more important. To do that, it had to rely on existing structures and expertise within both the government and private enterprise. Even after 9 November, far from everything had collapsed. The administration continued to function. Civil servants from the imperial era were under the supervision of the councils but kept their positions and continued to do their work in most respects unchanged. The judiciary and education systems had been only minimally affected by the revolution if at all, and after the Ebert–Groener Pact, the Supreme Army Command became a partner of the Council of the People's Deputies.{{Cite book \|last\=Winkler \|first\=Heinrich August \|author\-link\=Heinrich August Winkler \|title\=Der lange Weg nach Westen. Deutsche Geschichte 1806–1933 \|publisher\=C.H. Beck \|year\=2002 \|isbn\=978\-3893314638 \|location\=Munich \|page\=375 \|language\=de \|trans\-title\=The Long Road to the West. German History 1806–1933}} Generals and other high\-ranking officers kept their positions. The Ebert government needed the OHL to manage the monumental problem of demobilisation, but the Council of the People's Deputies did not try to limit its powers to the most essential tasks. No attempt was made to dispossess the [East Elbian](/wiki/East_Elbian "East Elbian") nobility (which had historically provided much of the officer corps) or the bourgeois owners of large estates.
The SPD and USPD were under great time pressure to act. When the two parties formed their alliance, it chose to govern outside the imperial constitution. It instructed the Reichstag not to reconvene and decreed that the existing Federal Council of the states (*[Bundesrat](/wiki/Bundesrat_%28German_Empire%29 "Bundesrat (German Empire)")*) should exercise only its administrative functions, not its legislative powers.{{Sfn\|Huber\|1978\|pp\=728–730}} The Council in essence took over the former roles of the emperor, chancellor, *Bundesrat* and Reichstag. The Council began working according to rules of procedure on 12 November. The rules prohibited unauthorised intervention in the administration by individual members of the Council. Its instructions to the state secretaries had to be issued collectively and only as guidelines, not for individual cases.{{Sfn\|Huber\|1978\|pp\=731 f}}
Through the various councils, the socialists were able to establish a firm base at the local level. But while they believed that they were acting in the interest of the new order, the party leaders of the SPD regarded them as elements that threatened the peaceful changeover of power that they imagined had already taken place.{{Sfn\|Mommsen\|1996\|p\=27}} Along with the middle\-class parties, they pushed for speedy elections to a national assembly that would make the final decision on the form of the new state. The position soon brought the SPD into opposition with many of the revolutionaries. The USPD continued to want to delay elections until after the achievements of the revolution had been consolidated.{{Sfn\|Mommsen\|1996\|p\=29}}
Although Ebert had saved the decisive position of the SPD and prevented a social revolution, he was not happy with the results. He did not regard the council assembly or the Executive Council as helpful, but rather as obstacles impeding a smooth transition from monarchy to a new system of government. The entire SPD leadership mistrusted the councils rather than the old elites in the army and administration. At the same time they considerably overestimated the old elite's loyalty to the new republic. Ebert could no longer act as chancellor in front of the OHL or his middle\-class colleagues among the ministers and in the Reichstag, but only as chairman of a revolutionary government. In spite of having taken the lead of the revolution in order to halt it, conservatives saw him as a traitor.{{Sfn\|Haffner\|1991\|pp\=102–111}}
#### Nationalisation and labour unions
{{Main\|Stinnes–Legien Agreement}}
At the insistence of the USPD representatives, the Council of People's Deputies appointed a "Nationalisation Committee" that included the [Marxist](/wiki/Marxism "Marxism") theoreticians [Karl Kautsky](/wiki/Karl_Kautsky "Karl Kautsky") and [Rudolf Hilferding](/wiki/Rudolf_Hilferding "Rudolf Hilferding"), the chairman of the Socialist Miners' Union Otto Hue and a number of leading economists. The committee was to examine which industries were "fit" for nationalisation and to prepare for the nationalisation of the coal industry. It sat until 7 April 1919 without producing any tangible results.{{Cite web \|last\=Lange \|first\=Dietmar \|date\=14 February 2022 \|title\=Wie die erste deutsche Sozialisierungskommission scheiterte \|trans\-title\=How the First German Socialisation Commission Failed \|url\=https://jacobin.de/artikel/wie\-die\-erste\-deutsche\-sozialisierungskommission\-scheiterte\-volksentscheid\-novemberrevolution\-vergesellschaftung\-sozialisierung\-weimarer\-republik\-karl\-kautsky \|access\-date\=2 March 2024 \|website\=Jacobin \|language\=de}} "Self\-Administration Bodies" were installed only at coal and potash mines.{{Cite thesis \|last\=Brenk\-Keller \|first\=Sibylle \|title\=Die Beteiligung der Mitarbeiter am Produktivkapital \- Konzeptionelle Entwicklung und praktische Ausgestaltung \[Employee Participation in Productive Capital \- Conceptual Development and Practical Implementation] \|date\=1997 \|degree\=PhD \|publisher\=Universität Fridericiana zu Karlsruhe \|pages\=82–83 \|language\=de}} From those bodies emerged the modern German [Works Councils](/wiki/Works_council "Works council"), or Factory Committees.[left\|thumb\|184x184px\|[Hugo Stinnes](/wiki/Hugo_Stinnes "Hugo Stinnes"), one of Germany's leading industrialists](/wiki/File:Hugo_Stinnes_-_LCCN2014711231_%28cropped%29.jpg "Hugo Stinnes - LCCN2014711231 (cropped).jpg")
[thumb\|179x179px\|[Carl Legien](/wiki/Carl_Legien "Carl Legien"), who represented the unions in creating the agreement that shared his name](/wiki/File:Carl_Legien.jpg "Carl Legien.jpg")
Like the SPD moderates, the unions also feared the councils because their supporters saw them as replacing the unions.{{Cite book \|last\=Peterson \|first\=Larry \|url\={{Google books\| 2zDyCAAAQBAJ \|page\=39\|plainurl\=yes}} \|title\=German Communism, Workers' Protest, and Labor Unions \|publisher\=Springer Netherlands \|year\=2013 \|isbn\=978\-9401116442 \|location\=Dordrecht \|pages\=39}} To prevent such a development, union leader [Carl Legien](/wiki/Carl_Legien "Carl Legien") (SPD) met with representatives of heavy industry led by [Hugo Stinnes](/wiki/Hugo_Stinnes "Hugo Stinnes") in Berlin from 9 to 12 November. On 15 November, they signed the [Stinnes–Legien Agreement](/wiki/Stinnes%E2%80%93Legien_Agreement "Stinnes–Legien Agreement"), which had advantages for both sides. Employers acknowledged trade unions as the official representatives of the workforce and recognised their right to [collective bargaining](/wiki/Collective_bargaining "Collective bargaining"). The agreement also introduced the [eight\-hour day](/wiki/Eight-hour_day "Eight-hour day"), allowed for the creation of [workers' councils](/wiki/Workers%27_council "Workers' council") and arbitration committees in firms with more than 50 employees and guaranteed that returning soldiers would have a right to their pre\-war jobs.{{Cite web \|last\=Scriba \|first\=Arnulf \|date\=10 May 2011 \|title\=Das Stinnes\-Legien\-Abkommen \|trans\-title\=The Stinnes\-Legien Agreement \|url\=https://www.dhm.de/lemo/kapitel/weimarer\-republik/industrie\-und\-wirtschaft/stinnes\-legien\-abkommen\-1918\.html \|access\-date\=1 March 2024 \|website\=Deutsches Historisches Museum \|language\=de}} Future disputes were to be resolved through a newly created organisation called the "Central Working Group" ({{lang\|de\|Zentralarbeitsgemeinschaft}}, or ZAG).{{Sfn\|Winkler\|1993\|pp\=45–46}}
With the agreement, the unions had achieved several of their longtime demands, and by their recognition of private enterprise, they made the efforts towards nationalising the means of production more difficult.
#### Reich Congress of Workers' and Soldiers' Councils
[thumb\|281x281px\|Reich Congress of Workers' and Soldiers' Councils. From right to left on the ministerial bench: [Emil Barth](/wiki/Emil_Barth "Emil Barth"), [Friedrich Ebert](/wiki/Friedrich_Ebert "Friedrich Ebert"), [Otto Landsberg](/wiki/Otto_Landsberg "Otto Landsberg") and [Philipp Scheidemann](/wiki/Philipp_Scheidemann "Philipp Scheidemann")The](/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1972-030-63%2C_Reichskongre%C3%9F_der_Arbeiter-_und_Soldatenr%C3%A4te%2C_Berlin.jpg "Bundesarchiv Bild 146-1972-030-63, Reichskongreß der Arbeiter- und Soldatenräte, Berlin.jpg") Executive Council called for a meeting of the workers' and soldiers' councils from the entire country to be held in Berlin beginning on 16 December. When the [Reich Congress of Workers' and Soldiers' Councils](/wiki/German_workers%27_and_soldiers%27_councils_1918%E2%80%931919%23Reich_Congress_of_Workers%27_and_Soldiers%27_Councils "German workers' and soldiers' councils 1918–1919#Reich Congress of Workers' and Soldiers' Councils") ({{Lang\|de\|Reichskongress der Arbeiter\- und Soldatenräte}}) met in the hall of the [Prussian House of Representatives](/wiki/Prussian_House_of_Representatives "Prussian House of Representatives"), it consisted mainly of SPD followers. Not even Karl Liebknecht or Rosa Luxemburg had been chosen to attend, leaving the Spartacus League without influence. On 19 December, the Council voted 344 to 98 against the creation of a council system as the basis for a new constitution. Instead, they supported the government's decision to call for elections as soon as possible for a constituent national assembly to decide on the future state system.{{Sfn\|Winkler\|1993\|pp\=50–51}}
The Congress then approved a proposal by the SPD to give the Council of the People's Deputies lawgiving and executive power until the national assembly made a final decision on the form of government. Oversight of the Council was switched from the Berlin Executive Council to a new Central Council of the German Socialist Republic (*Zentralrat der Deutschen Sozialistischen Republik*). After the Congress accepted the SPD's definition of parliamentary oversight, the USPD boycotted the election to the Central Council, with the result that it had only SPD members.{{Cite journal \|last\=Piper \|first\=Ernst \|date\=2018 \|title\=Deutsche Revolution 1918/19 \|journal\=Informationen zur Politischen Bildung \|language\=de \|issue\=33 \|pages\=14}}
With the oversight of the Berlin Executive Council, the People's Deputies were to exercise military command authority and to see to the ending of militarism. The Congress voted unanimously for the democratisation of the military as laid out in the Hamburg Points: there were to be no more rank insignia and no carrying of weapons when not in service; soldiers were to elect officers; soldiers' councils were to be responsible for discipline; and the standing army was to be replaced by a people's army (*Volkswehr*). The Army Command strongly objected to the Hamburg Points, and no trace of them was left in the [Weimar Constitution](/wiki/Weimar_Constitution "Weimar Constitution").{{Sfn\|Winkler\|1993\|p\=52}}
### Turn to violence
#### Opposition from the Right
On 6 December 1918, in what was likely a putsch attempt, a group of armed students and soldiers, including some members of the [People's Navy Division](/wiki/Volksmarinedivision "Volksmarinedivision") ({{Lang\|de\|Volksmarinedivision}}), went to the [Reich Chancellery](/wiki/Reich_Chancellery "Reich Chancellery") and asked Friedrich Ebert to accept the office of president with nearly dictatorial powers, an offer that Ebert carefully refused.{{sfn\|Winkler\|1993\|pp\=49–50}} At around the same time – although some sources say that it involved the same demonstrators who spoke to Ebert – a group of soldiers briefly took the members of the Executive Council into custody.{{Cite web \|date\=24 November 1968 \|title\=November 1918: "Kartoffeln \- keine Revolution" \|trans\-title\=November 1918: "Potatoes \- not a Revolution" \|url\=https://www.spiegel.de/politik/november\-1918\-kartoffeln\-keine\-revolution\-a\-05d82072\-0002\-0001\-0000\-000045922013 \|access\-date\=3 January 2024 \|website\=Der Spiegel \|language\=de}} In an unrelated incident several hours later, members of the Garde\-Füsilier\-Regiment, which was responsible for security in Berlin's government quarter, fired on an approved Spartacist demonstration, killing 16 and seriously wounding 12\.{{Cite web \|last\=Gallus \|first\=Alexander \|date\=13 September 2018 \|title\=Die deutsche Revolution 1918/19 \|trans\-title\=The German Revolution 1918/19 \|url\=https://www.bpb.de/themen/erster\-weltkrieg\-weimar/weimarer\-republik/275865/die\-deutsche\-revolution\-1918\-19/ \|access\-date\=3 January 2024 \|website\=Bundeszentrale für politische Bildung \|language\=de}}{{Cite web \|last\=Kröger \|first\=Martin \|date\=6 November 2008 \|title\=Novemberrevolution: Rotes Tuch für Steinmeier \|trans\-title\=November Revolution: Red Cloth for Steinmeier \|url\=https://www.spiegel.de/geschichte/90\-jahre\-novemberrevolution\-a\-947999\.html \|access\-date\=3 January 2024 \|website\=Der Spiegel \|language\=de}} It is not certain who gave the order to fire or who was behind the assumed putsch.{{Cite web \|last\=Piper \|first\=Ernst \|date\=23 July 2018 \|title\=Deutscher Umsturz \|trans\-title\=German Coup \|url\=https://www.das\-parlament.de/2018/30\_31/themenausgaben/564724\-564724 \|website\=Das Parlament \|language\=de}} The historian [Heinrich August Winkler](/wiki/Heinrich_August_Winkler "Heinrich August Winkler") attributes it to "high\-ranking officers and officials" who planned to have Ebert disband the workers' and soldiers' councils with the military's support.
Ebert and the [Army High Command](/wiki/Oberste_Heeresleitung "Oberste Heeresleitung") (OHL) had agreed that troops returning from the front would parade through Berlin on 10 December. Ebert greeted them with a glowing speech that included words that would help give rise to the [stab\-in\-the\-back myth](/wiki/Stab-in-the-back_myth "Stab-in-the-back myth"): "No enemy overcame you." General Groener had wanted to use the soldiers to disarm the civilians of Berlin and rid it of Spartacists, but the majority of the soldiers wanted only to return home for Christmas with their families and simply dispersed into the city after the parade. Their lack of interest in more fighting put an end to Groener's hope that he could lead the troops to domestic successes that would make the OHL the recognized force in restoring order.
As a result of the events, the potential for violence and the danger of a coup from the Right became visible. [Rosa Luxemburg](/wiki/Rosa_Luxemburg "Rosa Luxemburg"), in the Spartacist newspaper *[Rote Fahne](/wiki/Rote_Fahne "Rote Fahne")* ("*Red Flag*"), demanded the peaceful disarmament of returning soldiers by the workers of Berlin. She wanted the soldiers' councils to be subordinated to the revolutionary parliament and the soldiers to be "re\-educated".{{Citation needed\|date\=April 2024}}
#### Christmas crisis
{{Main\|1918 Christmas crisis}}
Because the People's Navy Division had been helpful to the government in Kiel and was considered loyal,{{Cite book \|last\=Ostrowski \|first\=Marius S. \|url\={{Google books\|BJO7DwAAQBAJ\|page\=138\|plainurl\=yes}} \|title\=Eduard Bernstein on the German Revolution. Selected Historical Writings \|publisher\=Springer International \|year\=2019 \|isbn\=9783030277192 \|location\=Berlin \|page\=138}} it was ordered to Berlin in early November to help protect the city's government quarter and stationed in the [Royal Stables](/wiki/Neuer_Marstall "Neuer Marstall") across from the [Berlin Palace](/wiki/Berlin_Palace "Berlin Palace"). Following the coup attempt of 6 December, the sailors deposed their commander because of his alleged involvement in it.{{Cite book \|last\=Wrobel \|first\=Kurt \|url\={{Google books\| DORXAAAAIAAJ \|page\=480\|plainurl\=yes}} \|title\=Zeitschrift für Militärgeschichte Volume 7 \|publisher\=Deutscher Militärverlag \|year\=1968 \|location\=Berlin \|pages\=480 \|language\=de \|chapter\=Heinrich Dorrenbach – Soldat der Revolution \|trans\-chapter\=Heinrich Dorrenbach – Soldier of the Revolution}} The government came to see the division as generally standing with the leftist revolutionaries,{{Cite book \|last\=Oeckel \|first\=Heinz \|url\={{Google books\| DORXAAAAIAAJ \|page\=539\|plainurl\=yes}} \|title\=Zeitschrift für Militärgeschichte Volume 7 \|publisher\=Deutscher Militärverlag \|year\=1968 \|location\=Berlin \|page\=539 \|language\=de \|chapter\=Volkswehrbewegung und Novemberrevolution \|trans\-chapter\=People's Defence Movement and the November Revolution}} and on 23 December, the Council of the People's Deputies ordered it out of Berlin, considerably reduced its size and refused the men their pay.{{Cite web \|last\=Scriba \|first\=Arnulf \|date\=1 September 2014 \|title\=Die Weihnachtskämpfe 1918 \|trans\-title\=The Christmas Battles 1918 \|url\=https://www.dhm.de/lemo/kapitel/weimarer\-republik/revolution\-191819/die\-weihnachtskaempfe\-1918\.html \|access\-date\=4 March 2024 \|website\=Deutsches Historisches Museum \|language\=de}}
[thumb\|Leftist soldiers during Christmas fighting in the [Berlin Palace](/wiki/Berlin_Palace "Berlin Palace")\|266x266px](/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1976-067-30A%2C_Revolution_in_Berlin%2C_Soldaten_im_Kampf.jpg "Bundesarchiv Bild 146-1976-067-30A, Revolution in Berlin, Soldaten im Kampf.jpg")
The sailors then occupied the Reich Chancellery, cut the phone lines, put the Council of People's Representatives under house arrest and took Otto Wels hostage and physically abused him. Ebert, who was in touch with the Supreme Command in Kassel via a secret phone line, gave orders on the morning of 24 December to attack the Palace with troops loyal to the government. The sailors repelled the attack after they were joined by armed workers and the security forces of the Berlin police.{{Cite web \|title\=Deutsche Revolution: Weihnachtskämpfe \|trans\-title\=German Revolution: Christmas Battles \|url\=http://www.deutschegeschichten.de/zeitraum/themaplus.asp?KategorieID\=1001\&InhaltID\=1555\&Seite\=6 \|access\-date\=4 March 2024 \|website\=Bundeszentrale für politische Bildung \|language\=de}} The government troops had to withdraw with the loss of 56 soldiers. The People's Navy Division, which counted just 11 deaths, was allowed to remain intact, and the sailors received their pay.
The main result of the [Christmas crisis](/wiki/1918_Christmas_crisis "1918 Christmas crisis"), which the Spartacists named "Ebert's Bloody Christmas",{{Cite book \|url\={{Google books\|6fhQEAAAQBAJ \|page\=37\|plainurl\=yes}} \|title\=The Oxford Handbook of the Weimar Republic \|publisher\=Oxford University Press \|year\=2022 \|isbn\=978\-0198845775 \|editor\-last\=Ziemann \|editor\-first\=Benjamin \|location\=Oxford, UK \|page\=37 \|editor\-last2\=Rossol \|editor\-first2\=Nadine}} was that the USPD resigned from the government in protest on 29 December. Its three members were replaced on the Council of the People's Deputies by two from the SPD: [Gustav Noske](/wiki/Gustav_Noske "Gustav Noske") (responsible for the military) and [Rudolf Wissell](/wiki/Rudolf_Wissell "Rudolf Wissell") (labour and social affairs). In light of the military's failure at the Berlin Palace, Noske ordered a strengthening of the *Freikorps* for use against internal enemies.
#### Founding of the Communist Party and Spartacist uprising
{{Main\|Spartacist uprising}}
[thumb\|The occupation of the Silesian railway station in Berlin by government troops\|243x243px](/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_119-1577%2C_Revolution_in_Berlin.jpg "Bundesarchiv Bild 119-1577, Revolution in Berlin.jpg")
After their experiences with the SPD and the USPD, the Spartacists concluded that their goals could be met only by forming a party of their own. They therefore joined with other left\-socialist groups from across Germany to found the [Communist Party of Germany](/wiki/Communist_Party_of_Germany "Communist Party of Germany") (KPD).{{sfn\|Winkler\|1993\|p\=55}}
Rosa Luxemburg drew up a founding programme and presented it on 31 December 1918\. She wrote that the communists could never take power without the clear will of the majority of the people. On 1 January she proposed that the KPD participate in the elections for a national assembly, but a motion to boycott the elections passed 62 to 23\. In the words of Marxist historian [Arthur Rosenberg](/wiki/Arthur_Rosenberg "Arthur Rosenberg"), the majority still implicitly hoped to gain power through "putschist adventures". After deliberations with the Spartacists, the Revolutionary Stewards decided to remain in the USPD.{{Sfn\|Winkler\|1993\|p\=56}}
A wave of violence started on 4 January when the Prussian government dismissed the chief of the Berlin police, [Emil Eichhorn](/wiki/Emil_Eichhorn "Emil Eichhorn") (USPD), for supporting the People's Navy Division during the Christmas crisis. His dismissal led the USPD, Revolutionary Stewards and KPD chairmen [Karl Liebknecht](/wiki/Karl_Liebknecht "Karl Liebknecht") and [Wilhelm Pieck](/wiki/Wilhelm_Pieck "Wilhelm Pieck") to call for a demonstration the following day. On 5 January, as on 9 November 1918, hundreds of thousands of people poured into the centre of Berlin, many of them armed. In the afternoon, the train stations and the newspaper district with the offices of the middle\-class press and the SPD' {{Lang\|de\|Vorwärts}} were occupied.
[thumb\|left\|Spartacist militia in Berlin](/wiki/File:AlzadosEspartaquistas..png "AlzadosEspartaquistas..png")
The demonstrators were mainly the same people who had participated in the revolutionary actions in November who were demanding the fulfilment of their wish for a workers' government expressed two months previously. The so\-called "[Spartacist uprising](/wiki/Spartacist_uprising "Spartacist uprising")" that followed originated only partially in the KPD. The Spartacists did not have a leading position in January 1919\. KPD members were a minority among the insurgents.{{Sfn\|Haffner\|1991\|pp\=144–145}}
The initiators of the revolt, who had gathered at the Police Headquarters, elected a 53\-member "Interim Revolutionary Committee" ({{lang\|de\|Provisorischer Revolutionsausschuss}}) that failed to make use of its power and was unable to give any clear direction.{{Sfn\|Haffner\|1991\|pp\=136–137}} Liebknecht wanted the government overthrown and agreed with the majority of the Committee that supported an armed struggle. Rosa Luxemburg and other KPD leaders ([Leo Jogiches](/wiki/Leo_Jogiches "Leo Jogiches"), [Karl Radek](/wiki/Karl_Radek "Karl Radek")) thought a revolt at that time to be premature and spoke out against it, although Luxemburg later gave in and followed the will of the majority of the Committee.{{Sfn\|Winkler\|1993}}
[thumb\|A British [Mark IV tank](/wiki/Mark_IV_tank "Mark IV tank"), captured during World War I, in use by German government troops. Berlin, January 1919\|alt\=](/wiki/File:Mark_IV_Berlin.jpg "Mark IV Berlin.jpg")
On the following day, 6 January, the Revolutionary Committee again called for a mass demonstration. Even more people heeded the call and filled the streets from the [Siegesallee](/wiki/Siegesallee "Siegesallee") to the [Alexanderplatz](/wiki/Alexanderplatz "Alexanderplatz"). But the masses were leaderless; the Committee provided no direction and no orders to act.{{Sfn\|Haffner\|1991\|p\=137}} In addition, the protestors lacked support from the military. Even the People's Navy Division was unwilling to support the armed revolt and declared themselves neutral. The other regiments stationed in Berlin mostly remained loyal to the government.{{Sfn\|Winkler\|1993\|pp\=58–59}} As a result, very little happened that day.
While more troops were moving into Berlin on Ebert's order, he accepted an offer by the USPD to mediate between the government and the Revolutionary Committee, but the negotiations failed the following day. On 8 January, in an appeal to the people of Berlin, the Council of the People's Deputies stated that "force can be fought only with force. ... The hour of reckoning approaches!"{{Cite web \|last\=Sauer \|first\=Bernhard \|date\=2018 \|title\=Der "Spartakusaufstand". Legende und Wirklichkeit \|trans\-title\=The "Spartacus Uprising". Legends and Reality \|url\=http://www.bernhard\-sauer\-historiker.de/Karuscheit\_ua\_Novemberrevolution\_Sauer.pdf \|access\-date\=20 March 2024 \|website\=Bernhard Sauer – Historiker \|page\=112 \|language\=de}} The USPD and KPD leadership decided to press ahead with the revolutionary overthrow of the Ebert government, but the masses were more interested in the unification of the parties of the Left. Finally, on 11 January, *Freikorps* forces attacked and took the {{Lang\|de\|Vorwärts}} building with heavy weaponry.{{Sfn\|Sauer\|2018\|pp\=114, 116, 124}} Six parliamentarians who came out to negotiate a surrender were summarily shot. The remaining occupied buildings were taken the same day, and by 12 January the uprising was over.{{Sfn\|Winkler\|1993\|p\=59}} The death toll was estimated at 156\.{{Cite book \|last\=Wette \|first\=Wolfram \|title\=Gustav Noske. Eine politische Biographie \|publisher\=Droste \|year\=1987 \|isbn\=978\-3770007288 \|location\=Düsseldorf \|page\=308 \|language\=de}}
The historian [Eberhard Kolb](/wiki/Eberhard_Kolb "Eberhard Kolb") calls the January Revolt the revolution's [Battle of the Marne](/wiki/Battle_of_the_Marne_%281918%29 "Battle of the Marne (1918)") (Germany's July 1918 battlefield defeat that led directly to the [Armistice](/wiki/Armistice_of_11_November_1918 "Armistice of 11 November 1918")). The 1919 uprising and its brutal end exacerbated the already deep divisions in the workers' movement and fuelled more political radicalisation.
#### Murder of Karl Liebknecht and Rosa Luxemburg
Rosa Luxemburg and Karl Liebknecht, the ringleaders of the January Revolt, were forced to go into hiding after its failure, but in spite of the urgings of their associates, they refused to leave Berlin. On the evening of 15 January 1919, the two were found by the authorities in an apartment in the [Wilmersdorf](/wiki/Wilmersdorf "Wilmersdorf") district of Berlin. They were immediately arrested and handed over to the largest *Freikorps* unit, the heavily armed {{lang\|de\|Garde\-Kavallerie\-Schützen\-Division}}. Its commander, Captain [Waldemar Pabst](/wiki/Waldemar_Pabst "Waldemar Pabst"), had them questioned. The same night both prisoners were clubbed with the butt of a rifle and shot in the head. Karl Liebknecht's body, without a name, was delivered to a nearby morgue. Rosa Luxemburg's body was thrown into Berlin's [Landwehr Canal](/wiki/Landwehr_Canal "Landwehr Canal"), where it was found only on 1 July.{{Sfn\|Haffner\|1991\|pp\=155–156}}
The perpetrators for the most part went unpunished. The [Nazi Party](/wiki/Nazi_Party "Nazi Party") later compensated the few who had been put on trial or jailed,{{Cite book \|last1\=Daimagüler \|first1\=Mehmet Gürcan \|url\={{Google books\|BOsmEAAAQBAJ\|page\=26\|plainurl\=yes}} \|title\=Das rechte Recht. Die deutsche Justiz und ihre Auseinandersetzung mit alten und neuen Nazis \|last2\=von Münchhausen \|first2\=Ernst \|publisher\=Penguin Random House Verlagsgruppe GmbH \|year\=2021 \|isbn\=9783641259259 \|location\=Munich \|pages\=26 \|language\=de \|trans\-title\=Right\-wing Justice. The German Judiciary and its Confrontation with Old and New Nazis}} and they merged the {{Lang\|de\|Garde\-Kavallerie}} into the SA ({{lang\|de\|\[\[Sturmabteilung]]}}). In an interview given to *[Der Spiegel](/wiki/Der_Spiegel "Der Spiegel")* in 1962 and in his memoirs, Pabst maintained that he had talked on the phone with Noske in the Chancellery*[Der Spiegel](/wiki/Der_Spiegel "Der Spiegel")* of 18\.04\.1962 and that Noske and Ebert had approved of his actions.{{Cite book \|last\=Gietinger \|first\=Klaus \|title\=Der Konterrevolutionär. Waldemar Pabst – eine deutsche Karriere \|publisher\=Verlag Lutz Schulenburg \|year\=2008 \|location\=Hamburg \|pages\=394 \|language\=de \|trans\-title\=The Counterrevolutionary. Waldemar Pabst – a German Career}} Pabst's statement was never confirmed, especially since neither the Reichstag nor the courts ever examined the case.
#### Final revolts
[thumb\|Dead revolutionaries in Berlin after summary execution, March 1919\|alt\=\|262x262px](/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_102-00539%2C_Berlin%2C_Revolution%2C_Standrechtlich_Erschossene.jpg "Bundesarchiv Bild 102-00539, Berlin, Revolution, Standrechtlich Erschossene.jpg")
In the first months of 1919, there were additional armed revolts in parts of Germany that culminated in the [Berlin March Battles](/wiki/Berlin_March_Battles "Berlin March Battles"). The overall cause was continued worker disappointment that the revolution had not achieved the goals they had hoped for in November 1918: nationalisation of key industries, recognition of the workers' and soldiers' councils and establishment of a [council republic](/wiki/Council_communism "Council communism"). In 1919, attaining the goals would have required the overthrow of the Ebert government.{{Cite web \|last\=Scriba \|first\=Arnulf \|date\=1 September 2014 \|title\=Die Märzkämpfe 1919 \|trans\-title\=The March Battles 1919 \|url\=https://www.dhm.de/lemo/kapitel/weimarer\-republik/revolution\-191819/maerzkaempfe\-1919\.html \|access\-date\=22 March 2024 \|website\=Deutsches Historisches Museum \|language\=de}} General strikes were called in [Upper Silesia](/wiki/Upper_Silesia "Upper Silesia") in January, in the Ruhr district in February{{Cite web \|last\=Kozicki \|first\=Norbert Kozicki \|title\=Die Essener Sozialisierungsbewegung und ihr Ende (Januar/Februar 1919\) \|trans\-title\=The Essen Socialisation Movement and its End (January/February 1919\) \|url\=https://herne\-damals\-heute.de/politische\-teilhabe/die\-essener\-sozialisierungsbewegung\-und\-ihr\-ende\-januar\-februar\-1919/ \|access\-date\=22 March 2024 \|website\=Herne von damals bis heute \|language\=de}} and in [Saxony](/wiki/Saxony "Saxony") and [Thuringia](/wiki/Thuringia "Thuringia") in February and March.
In Berlin, members of the USPD and KPD called for a general strike that started on 4 March. Its key aims were the socialisation of major industries, democratisation of the military and the safeguarding of the position of the remaining workers' and soldiers' councils. Against the will of the leadership, the strikes escalated into street fighting. The Prussian state government, which had declared a state of siege, called on the Reich government for help. It responded with the deployment of both government and *Freikorps* troops. On 9 March, Gustav Noske, to whom executive power had been transferred, gave the order to shoot on sight anyone found carrying a weapon. By the end of the fighting on 16 March, the uprising had been bloodily quashed, with a death toll of at least 1,200\.
Short\-lived [soviet republics](/wiki/Soviet_republic_%28system_of_government%29 "Soviet republic (system of government)") were proclaimed in a number of cities and towns into early 1919, but only those in [Bavaria](/wiki/Bavarian_Soviet_Republic "Bavarian Soviet Republic") (Munich) and [Bremen](/wiki/Bremen_Soviet_Republic "Bremen Soviet Republic") lasted longer than a few days. They were overthrown by government and *Freikorps* troops with considerable loss of life: 80 in Bremen (February){{Cite book \|last\=Hans Rudolf \|first\=Wahl \|url\=https://www.deutschlandstudien.uni\-bremen.de/wp\-content/uploads/2019/03/Wahl\-Novemberrevolution\-R%C3%A4terepublik\-und\-Demokratiegr%C3%BCndung\-in\-Bremen.pdf \|title\=Revolution in Norddeutschland \|publisher\=Metropol Verlag \|year\=2018 \|editor\-last\=Lehnert \|editor\-first\=Detlef \|location\=Berlin \|publication\-date\=2018 \|pages\=210–211 \|language\=de \|trans\-title\=Revolution in North Germany \|chapter\=Novemberrevolution, Räterepublik und Demokratiegründung in Bremen \|trans\-chapter\=November Revolution, Soviet Republic and Founding of Democracy in Bremen}} and about 600 in Munich (May).{{Cite book \|last\=Burleigh \|first\=Michael \|author\-link\=Michael Burleigh \|title\=The Third Reich: A New History \|publisher\=Hill and Wang \|year\=2000 \|isbn\=9780809093250 \|location\=New York \|pages\=40}}
According to the predominant opinion of modern historians, the establishment of a Bolshevik\-style council government in Germany following the war would have been all but impossible. The Ebert government felt threatened by a coup from the Left and was certainly undermined by the Spartacus movement. That underlay its cooperation with the Supreme Army Command and the *Freikorps*. The brutal actions of the *Freikorps* during the various revolts estranged many left democrats from the SPD. They regarded the behaviour of Ebert, Noske and the other SPD leaders during the revolution as a betrayal of their own followers.{{Sfn\|Schulze\|1994\|p\=169–170}}
### National Assembly and new Reich constitution
{{Main\|Weimar National Assembly}}
On 19 January 1919, Germans [voted for representatives](/wiki/1919_German_federal_election "1919 German federal election") to a [constituent national assembly](/wiki/Weimar_National_Assembly "Weimar National Assembly") in an election that included women for the first time. The SPD received the highest percentage of votes (38%), and with the Catholic [Centre Party](/wiki/Centre_Party_%28Germany%29 "Centre Party (Germany)") and the liberal [German Democratic Party](/wiki/German_Democratic_Party "German Democratic Party"), it formed the [Weimar Coalition](/wiki/Weimar_Coalition "Weimar Coalition"). The USPD received only 7\.6% of the vote; the KPD did not participate.{{Cite web \|last\=Altmann \|first\=Gerhard \|date\=11 April 2000 \|title\=Die Wahlen zur Nationalversammlung \|trans\-title\=The Elections to the National Assembly \|url\=https://www.dhm.de/lemo/kapitel/weimarer\-republik/revolution\-191819/wahlen\-zur\-nationalversammlung.html \|access\-date\=24 March 2024 \|website\=Deutsches Historisches Museum \|language\=de}} To remove itself from the post\-revolutionary confusion in Berlin, the National Assembly met in [Weimar](/wiki/Weimar "Weimar") beginning on 6 February. The Assembly elected Friedrich Ebert temporary president on 11 February and Philipp Scheidemann [minister president](/wiki/Minister_president_%28Germany%29 "Minister president (Germany)") on 13 February.{{Cite web \|last1\=Altmann \|first1\=Gerhard \|last2\=Schweinoch \|first2\=Oliver \|date\=2 August 2018 \|title\=Die Nationalversammlung \|trans\-title\=The National Assembly \|url\=https://www.dhm.de/lemo/kapitel/weimarer\-republik/innenpolitik/versammlung \|access\-date\=24 March 2024 \|website\=Deutsches Historisches Museum \|language\=de}}
In addition to drawing up and approving a new constitution, the Assembly was responsible for passing urgently needed Reich laws. In May it found itself embroiled in the highly contentious issue of whether or not to accept the terms of the [Treaty of Versailles](/wiki/Treaty_of_Versailles "Treaty of Versailles"). Under intense pressure from the victorious Allies, it agreed on 16 June 1919 after Scheidemann resigned as minister president{{Cite web \|date\=31 January 2019 \|title\=Vor 100 Jahren: Weimarer Nationalversammlung \|trans\-title\=100 Years Ago: The Weimar National Assembly \|url\=https://www.bpb.de/kurz\-knapp/hintergrund\-aktuell/284871/vor\-100\-jahren\-weimarer\-nationalversammlung/ \|access\-date\=24 March 2024 \|website\=Bundeszentrale für politische Bildung \|language\=de}} with the words, "What hand should not wither that puts itself and us in these fetters?"{{Cite web \|title\=Scheidemann: "Welche Hand müßte nicht verdorren, die sich und uns in diese Fesseln legt?" \|trans\-title\=Scheidemann: "What hand should not wither that puts itself and us in these fetters?" \|url\=https://www.weimarer\-republik.net/jubilaeum/revolution\-und\-gruendung\-der\-republik\-tag\-fuer\-tag/mai\-1919/scheidemann\-welche\-hand\-muesste\-nicht\-verdorren\-die\-sich\-und\-uns\-in\-diese\-fesseln\-legt/ \|access\-date\=24 March 2024 \|website\=Die Weimarer Republik – Deutschlands erste Demokratie \|language\=de}} [Gustav Bauer](/wiki/Gustav_Bauer "Gustav Bauer") of the SPD took his place.
The [Weimar Constitution](/wiki/Weimar_Constitution "Weimar Constitution") was ratified by the National Assembly on 11 August and became effective three days later. It established a federal [parliamentary republic](/wiki/Parliamentary_republic "Parliamentary republic") (sometimes called a [semi\-presidential republic](/wiki/Semi-presidential_republic "Semi-presidential republic") because of the strength of the presidency) with a comprehensive list of fundamental rights and a popularly elected [Reichstag](/wiki/Reichstag_%28Weimar_Republic%29 "Reichstag (Weimar Republic)") that was responsible for legislation, the budget and control of the executive. The government, headed by the chancellor, was dependent on the confidence of the Reichstag. The president, who was elected by popular vote for seven years, could dissolve the Reichstag and under [Article 48](/wiki/Article_48_%28Weimar_Constitution%29 "Article 48 (Weimar Constitution)") had the power to declare a state of emergency and issue emergency decrees when public security was threatened.{{Cite web \|last\=Scriba \|first\=Arnulf \|date\=1 September 2014 \|title\=Die Verfassung der Weimarer Republik \|trans\-title\=The Constitution of the Weimar Republic \|url\=https://www.dhm.de/lemo/kapitel/weimarer\-republik/innenpolitik/reichsverfassung\-1919\.html \|access\-date\=24 March 2024 \|website\=Deutsches Historisches Museum \|language\=de}}
In October 1922, the Reichstag lengthened Ebert's term of office until 23 June 1925\.{{Cite web \|last\=Albrecht \|first\=Kai\-Britt \|date\=14 September 2014 \|title\=Friedrich Ebert \|url\=https://www.dhm.de/lemo/biografie/friedrich\-ebert \|access\-date\=7 January 2024 \|website\=Deutsches Historisches Museum \|language\=de}} He died in office a few months before then, and [Paul von Hindenburg](/wiki/Paul_von_Hindenburg "Paul von Hindenburg") was elected the second and last president of the Republic. His use of Article 48 was instrumental in paving the way for Adolf Hitler's rise to power.{{Cite web \|title\=Article 48 \|url\=https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/article\-48\#:\~:text\=This%20was%20Article%2048%2C%20which,allowed%20the%20President%20to%20suspend \|access\-date\=24 March 2024 \|website\=Holocaust Encyclopedia}}
|
[
"Revolution, second stage: defeat of the radical Left\n----------------------------------------------------",
"Once the monarchy had collapsed under the pressure of the workers' and soldiers' councils, it was up to the leadership of the socialist parties in Berlin to quickly establish the new order and address the many critical problems the defeated nation faced. From the beginning, the moderates of the SPD held the leading position. They had the broadest support from the working class and the at least grudging backing of the imperial bureaucracy, most of which remained in place. When Ebert showed himself willing to use the military and *Freikorps* against opposing members of the socialist Left, it quickly led to fractures between the SPD and USPD and then to street battles with the Spartacists and communists.",
"### The councils",
"#### Establishment, pact with the military and armistice",
"Ebert wanted to take the sting out of the revolutionary mood and to meet the demands of the 9 November demonstrators for the unity of the labour parties. He offered the USPD equal participation in the government and was ready to accept Karl Liebknecht as a minister. The USPD, at Liebknecht's insistence, demanded that elected representatives of the unions and soldiers have full executive, legislative and judicial control. The SPD refused, and negotiations got no further that day.{{Sfn\\|Winkler\\|1993\\|p\\=35}}",
"Around 8 pm, a group of 100 [Revolutionary Stewards](/wiki/Revolutionary_Stewards \"Revolutionary Stewards\") from the larger Berlin factories occupied the Reichstag. Led by their spokesmen [Richard Müller](/wiki/Richard_M%C3%BCller_%28socialist%29 \"Richard Müller (socialist)\") and [Emil Barth](/wiki/Emil_Barth \"Emil Barth\"), they formed a revolutionary parliament. Most of the participating stewards had been leaders during the strikes earlier in the year. They did not trust the SPD leadership and had planned a coup for 11 November independently of the sailors' revolt, but were unprepared for the revolutionary events since Kiel. In order to take the initiative from Ebert, they decided to announce elections for the following day, a Sunday. Every Berlin factory was to elect workers' councils and every regiment soldiers' councils that were then to elect a revolutionary government from members of the two labour parties (SPD and USPD) in the evening. The government would be empowered to execute the resolutions of the revolutionary parliament, since they intended to replace Ebert's function as chancellor.{{sfn\\|Hoffrogge\\|2014\\|pp\\=61–79}}",
"On the evening of the ninth, the SPD leadership learned of the plans for the elections and the councils' meeting. Since they could not be prevented, [Otto Wels](/wiki/Otto_Wels \"Otto Wels\") used the party apparatus to influence the voting in the soldiers' councils and won most of them over to the SPD. By morning it was clear that the SPD would have the majority of the delegates on its side at the councils' meeting that evening.{{Sfn\\|Mommsen\\|1996\\|p\\=28}}",
"USPD chairman [Hugo Haase](/wiki/Hugo_Haase \"Hugo Haase\") returned from Kiel the morning of 10 November and was able to broker a compromise in the negotiations with the SPD about the new government. The revolutionary government, to be called the [Council of the People's Deputies](/wiki/Council_of_the_People%27s_Deputies \"Council of the People's Deputies\") ({{Lang\\|de\\|Rat der Volksbeauftragten}}) at the USPD's insistence, gave the USPD much of what it wanted. The Council was to be made up of three representatives of the SPD (Ebert, Scheidemann and [Otto Landsberg](/wiki/Otto_Landsberg \"Otto Landsberg\")) and three from the USPD (Haase, [Wilhelm Dittmann](/wiki/Wilhelm_Dittmann \"Wilhelm Dittmann\") and [Emil Barth](/wiki/Emil_Barth \"Emil Barth\")).{{Sfn\\|Winkler\\|1993\\|pp\\=35–36}} The workers' and soldiers' councils were to be given political power – not full executive, legislative and judicial control – and a national assembly would be discussed only \"after a consolidation of the conditions created by the revolution\".{{Sfn\\|Huber\\|1978\\|p\\=711 f}}[right\\|thumb\\|\"Berlin seized by revolutionists\": *[The New York Times](/wiki/The_New_York_Times \"The New York Times\")* on [Armistice Day](/wiki/Armistice_Day \"Armistice Day\"), 11 November 1918\\|251x251pxIn](/wiki/File:NYTimes-Page1-11-11-1918.jpg \"NYTimes-Page1-11-11-1918.jpg\") the assembly of the newly elected councils that convened in the afternoon at the Circus Busch, almost all of the soldiers' councils and a large part of the workers' representatives stood on the side of the SPD.{{Sfn\\|Mommsen\\|1996\\|p\\=28}} After it ratified the membership of the Council of the People's Deputies, Emil Barth called for an action committee to oversee it and presented a list of names drawn up by the Revolutionary Stewards. The proposal took the SPD leadership by surprise and started heated debates in the assembly. Ebert was able to push through an \"[Executive Council of Workers' and Soldiers' Councils of Greater Berlin](/wiki/German_workers%27_and_soldiers%27_councils_1918%E2%80%931919 \"German workers' and soldiers' councils 1918–1919\")\" ({{Lang\\|de\\|Vollzugsrat des Arbeiter\\- und Soldatenrates Grossberlin}}) made up of seven SPD members, seven from the USPD and fourteen mostly independent soldiers' representatives. It was to oversee the People's Deputies until the creation of a national assembly and was chaired by Richard Müller of the USPD and {{Ill\\|Brutus Molkenbuhr\\|de}} representing the soldiers.{{Sfn\\|Winkler\\|1993\\|pp\\=37–38}}{{Cite web \\|last\\=Scriba \\|first\\=Arnulf \\|date\\=14 September 2014 \\|title\\=Vollzugsrat \\|url\\=https://www.dhm.de/lemo/kapitel/weimarer\\-republik/revolution\\-191819/vollzugsrat.html \\|access\\-date\\=20 February 2024 \\|website\\=Deutsches Historisches Museum}}",
"On the evening of the same day, a phone call between Ebert and General Wilhelm Groener, the new First Quartermaster General, resulted in the unofficial and secret [Ebert–Groener pact](/wiki/Ebert%E2%80%93Groener_pact \"Ebert–Groener pact\"). In exchange for Groener's assurance of the army's support \"for the good of the state\", Ebert promised Groener that the military's hierarchies and command structures would not be changed. He thus made no attempt to democratise the authoritarian military. As Groener stated in his memoirs: \"The best and strongest element of the old Prussianism was saved for the new Germany.\"{{Cite book \\|last1\\=Hirschfeld \\|first1\\=Gerhard \\|title\\=Deutschland im Ersten Weltkrieg \\|last2\\=Krumeich \\|first2\\=Gerd \\|publisher\\=Fischer E\\-Books \\|year\\=2013 \\|isbn\\=978\\-3104024899 \\|edition\\=Kindle \\|location\\=Berlin \\|pages\\=276 \\|language\\=de \\|trans\\-title\\=Germany in the First World War}}",
"In the turmoil of the day, the Ebert government's acceptance of the Entente's harsh terms for a ceasefire after a renewed demand from the Supreme Army Command went almost unnoticed. On 11 November, the [Centre Party](/wiki/Centre_Party_%28Germany%29 \"Centre Party (Germany)\") deputy [Matthias Erzberger](/wiki/Matthias_Erzberger \"Matthias Erzberger\") signed [the armistice agreement](/wiki/Armistice_with_Germany_%28Compi%C3%A8gne%29 \"Armistice with Germany (Compiègne)\") at [Compiègne](/wiki/Compi%C3%A8gne \"Compiègne\"), France, on behalf of the government in Berlin, and World War I came to an end.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Dowe \\|first\\=Christopher \\|date\\=8 October 2014 \\|editor\\-last\\=Daniel \\|editor\\-first\\=Ute \\|editor2\\-last\\=Gatrell \\|editor2\\-first\\=Peter \\|editor3\\-last\\=Janz \\|editor3\\-first\\=Oliver \\|editor4\\-last\\=Jones \\|editor4\\-first\\=Heather \\|editor5\\-last\\=Keene \\|editor5\\-first\\=Jennifer \\|editor6\\-last\\=Kramer \\|editor6\\-first\\=Alan \\|editor7\\-last\\=Nasson \\|editor7\\-first\\=Bill \\|title\\=Erzberger, Matthias \\|url\\=https://encyclopedia.1914\\-1918\\-online.net/article/erzberger\\_matthias \\|access\\-date\\=23 February 2024 \\|website\\=1914–1918\\-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War \\|publisher\\=Freie Universität Berlin}}",
"#### Interim government",
"[thumb\\|271x271px\\|The Council of the People's Deputies. From left to right: Barth (USPD), Landsberg (SPD), Ebert (SPD), Haase (USPD), Dittmann (USPD), Scheidemann (SPD)](/wiki/File:Rat_der_Volksbeauftragten.jpg \"Rat der Volksbeauftragten.jpg\")\nOn 12 November, the Council of People's Deputies published its government programme in the proclamation \"To the German People\". It lifted the state of siege and censorship, granted amnesty to all political prisoners, guaranteed freedom of association, assembly and the press and abolished the rules that governed relations between servant and master. It also promised the introduction of direct, equal and universal suffrage for all women and men from the age of 20 years, the eight\\-hour workday and improvements in benefits for unemployment, social insurance and workers' compensation.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Rat der Volksbeauftragten, Aufruf \"An das deutsche Volk\", 12\\. November 1918 \\|trans\\-title\\=Council of the People's Deputies, Proclamation \"To the German People\", 12 November 1918 \\|url\\=https://www.1000dokumente.de/index.html?c\\=dokument\\_de\\&dokument\\=0238\\_rev\\&object\\=translation\\&st\\=\\&l\\=de \\|access\\-date\\=1 March 2024 \\|website\\=100(0\\) Schlüsseldokumente \\|language\\=de}}",
"In theory, the Executive Council of Workers' and Soldiers' Councils of Greater Berlin was the highest\\-ranking council of the revolutionary regime and therefore Richard Müller the head of state of the newly declared \"Socialist Republic of Germany\",{{Cite book \\|title\\=Groß\\-Berliner Arbeiter\\- und Soldatenräte in der Revolution 1918/19 \\|publisher\\=Akademie Verlag \\|year\\=1997 \\|isbn\\=3\\-05\\-003061\\-5 \\|editor\\-last\\=Engel \\|editor\\-first\\=Gerhard \\|location\\=Berlin \\|pages\\=VII \\|language\\=de \\|trans\\-title\\=Greater Berlin Workers' and Soldiers' Councils in the Revolution 1918/19 \\|editor\\-last2\\=Holtz \\|editor\\-first2\\=Bärbel \\|editor\\-last3\\=Huch \\|editor\\-first3\\=Gaby \\|editor\\-last4\\=Materna \\|editor\\-first4\\=Ingo}} but in practice the Executive Council's initiative was blocked by internal power struggles. In the eight weeks of the double rule of the Executive Council and the Ebert\\-led government, the latter was always dominant. Although Haase was formally co\\-chairman in the Council of the People's Deputies with equal rights, the higher level administration almost always preferred to work with the more moderate Ebert and the SPD.{{Cite journal \\|last\\=Piper \\|first\\=Ernst \\|date\\=2018 \\|title\\=Deutsche Revolution 1918/19 \\|journal\\=Informationen zur Politischen Bildung \\|language\\=de \\|issue\\=33 \\|page\\=15}}",
"The government saw its immediate tasks as fulfilling the terms of the Treaty of Versailles, demobilisation, providing adequate food and fuel supplies for a nation still under the [Allied blockade](/wiki/Blockade_of_Germany_%281914%E2%80%931919%29 \"Blockade of Germany (1914–1919)\") and ensuring both internal and foreign security against separatists in the [Rhine Province](/wiki/Rhine_Province \"Rhine Province\") and [Polish insurgents](/wiki/Greater_Poland_uprising_%281918%E2%80%931919%29 \"Greater Poland uprising (1918–1919)\") in the East. In order to make sure that the new democracy was firmly anchored, the government would have had to make an almost complete break with the old institutions, but the SPD decided that facing the immediate post\\-war crises was more important. To do that, it had to rely on existing structures and expertise within both the government and private enterprise. Even after 9 November, far from everything had collapsed. The administration continued to function. Civil servants from the imperial era were under the supervision of the councils but kept their positions and continued to do their work in most respects unchanged. The judiciary and education systems had been only minimally affected by the revolution if at all, and after the Ebert–Groener Pact, the Supreme Army Command became a partner of the Council of the People's Deputies.{{Cite book \\|last\\=Winkler \\|first\\=Heinrich August \\|author\\-link\\=Heinrich August Winkler \\|title\\=Der lange Weg nach Westen. Deutsche Geschichte 1806–1933 \\|publisher\\=C.H. Beck \\|year\\=2002 \\|isbn\\=978\\-3893314638 \\|location\\=Munich \\|page\\=375 \\|language\\=de \\|trans\\-title\\=The Long Road to the West. German History 1806–1933}} Generals and other high\\-ranking officers kept their positions. The Ebert government needed the OHL to manage the monumental problem of demobilisation, but the Council of the People's Deputies did not try to limit its powers to the most essential tasks. No attempt was made to dispossess the [East Elbian](/wiki/East_Elbian \"East Elbian\") nobility (which had historically provided much of the officer corps) or the bourgeois owners of large estates.",
"The SPD and USPD were under great time pressure to act. When the two parties formed their alliance, it chose to govern outside the imperial constitution. It instructed the Reichstag not to reconvene and decreed that the existing Federal Council of the states (*[Bundesrat](/wiki/Bundesrat_%28German_Empire%29 \"Bundesrat (German Empire)\")*) should exercise only its administrative functions, not its legislative powers.{{Sfn\\|Huber\\|1978\\|pp\\=728–730}} The Council in essence took over the former roles of the emperor, chancellor, *Bundesrat* and Reichstag. The Council began working according to rules of procedure on 12 November. The rules prohibited unauthorised intervention in the administration by individual members of the Council. Its instructions to the state secretaries had to be issued collectively and only as guidelines, not for individual cases.{{Sfn\\|Huber\\|1978\\|pp\\=731 f}}",
"Through the various councils, the socialists were able to establish a firm base at the local level. But while they believed that they were acting in the interest of the new order, the party leaders of the SPD regarded them as elements that threatened the peaceful changeover of power that they imagined had already taken place.{{Sfn\\|Mommsen\\|1996\\|p\\=27}} Along with the middle\\-class parties, they pushed for speedy elections to a national assembly that would make the final decision on the form of the new state. The position soon brought the SPD into opposition with many of the revolutionaries. The USPD continued to want to delay elections until after the achievements of the revolution had been consolidated.{{Sfn\\|Mommsen\\|1996\\|p\\=29}}",
"Although Ebert had saved the decisive position of the SPD and prevented a social revolution, he was not happy with the results. He did not regard the council assembly or the Executive Council as helpful, but rather as obstacles impeding a smooth transition from monarchy to a new system of government. The entire SPD leadership mistrusted the councils rather than the old elites in the army and administration. At the same time they considerably overestimated the old elite's loyalty to the new republic. Ebert could no longer act as chancellor in front of the OHL or his middle\\-class colleagues among the ministers and in the Reichstag, but only as chairman of a revolutionary government. In spite of having taken the lead of the revolution in order to halt it, conservatives saw him as a traitor.{{Sfn\\|Haffner\\|1991\\|pp\\=102–111}}",
"#### Nationalisation and labour unions",
"{{Main\\|Stinnes–Legien Agreement}}\nAt the insistence of the USPD representatives, the Council of People's Deputies appointed a \"Nationalisation Committee\" that included the [Marxist](/wiki/Marxism \"Marxism\") theoreticians [Karl Kautsky](/wiki/Karl_Kautsky \"Karl Kautsky\") and [Rudolf Hilferding](/wiki/Rudolf_Hilferding \"Rudolf Hilferding\"), the chairman of the Socialist Miners' Union Otto Hue and a number of leading economists. The committee was to examine which industries were \"fit\" for nationalisation and to prepare for the nationalisation of the coal industry. It sat until 7 April 1919 without producing any tangible results.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Lange \\|first\\=Dietmar \\|date\\=14 February 2022 \\|title\\=Wie die erste deutsche Sozialisierungskommission scheiterte \\|trans\\-title\\=How the First German Socialisation Commission Failed \\|url\\=https://jacobin.de/artikel/wie\\-die\\-erste\\-deutsche\\-sozialisierungskommission\\-scheiterte\\-volksentscheid\\-novemberrevolution\\-vergesellschaftung\\-sozialisierung\\-weimarer\\-republik\\-karl\\-kautsky \\|access\\-date\\=2 March 2024 \\|website\\=Jacobin \\|language\\=de}} \"Self\\-Administration Bodies\" were installed only at coal and potash mines.{{Cite thesis \\|last\\=Brenk\\-Keller \\|first\\=Sibylle \\|title\\=Die Beteiligung der Mitarbeiter am Produktivkapital \\- Konzeptionelle Entwicklung und praktische Ausgestaltung \\[Employee Participation in Productive Capital \\- Conceptual Development and Practical Implementation] \\|date\\=1997 \\|degree\\=PhD \\|publisher\\=Universität Fridericiana zu Karlsruhe \\|pages\\=82–83 \\|language\\=de}} From those bodies emerged the modern German [Works Councils](/wiki/Works_council \"Works council\"), or Factory Committees.[left\\|thumb\\|184x184px\\|[Hugo Stinnes](/wiki/Hugo_Stinnes \"Hugo Stinnes\"), one of Germany's leading industrialists](/wiki/File:Hugo_Stinnes_-_LCCN2014711231_%28cropped%29.jpg \"Hugo Stinnes - LCCN2014711231 (cropped).jpg\")\n[thumb\\|179x179px\\|[Carl Legien](/wiki/Carl_Legien \"Carl Legien\"), who represented the unions in creating the agreement that shared his name](/wiki/File:Carl_Legien.jpg \"Carl Legien.jpg\")\nLike the SPD moderates, the unions also feared the councils because their supporters saw them as replacing the unions.{{Cite book \\|last\\=Peterson \\|first\\=Larry \\|url\\={{Google books\\| 2zDyCAAAQBAJ \\|page\\=39\\|plainurl\\=yes}} \\|title\\=German Communism, Workers' Protest, and Labor Unions \\|publisher\\=Springer Netherlands \\|year\\=2013 \\|isbn\\=978\\-9401116442 \\|location\\=Dordrecht \\|pages\\=39}} To prevent such a development, union leader [Carl Legien](/wiki/Carl_Legien \"Carl Legien\") (SPD) met with representatives of heavy industry led by [Hugo Stinnes](/wiki/Hugo_Stinnes \"Hugo Stinnes\") in Berlin from 9 to 12 November. On 15 November, they signed the [Stinnes–Legien Agreement](/wiki/Stinnes%E2%80%93Legien_Agreement \"Stinnes–Legien Agreement\"), which had advantages for both sides. Employers acknowledged trade unions as the official representatives of the workforce and recognised their right to [collective bargaining](/wiki/Collective_bargaining \"Collective bargaining\"). The agreement also introduced the [eight\\-hour day](/wiki/Eight-hour_day \"Eight-hour day\"), allowed for the creation of [workers' councils](/wiki/Workers%27_council \"Workers' council\") and arbitration committees in firms with more than 50 employees and guaranteed that returning soldiers would have a right to their pre\\-war jobs.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Scriba \\|first\\=Arnulf \\|date\\=10 May 2011 \\|title\\=Das Stinnes\\-Legien\\-Abkommen \\|trans\\-title\\=The Stinnes\\-Legien Agreement \\|url\\=https://www.dhm.de/lemo/kapitel/weimarer\\-republik/industrie\\-und\\-wirtschaft/stinnes\\-legien\\-abkommen\\-1918\\.html \\|access\\-date\\=1 March 2024 \\|website\\=Deutsches Historisches Museum \\|language\\=de}} Future disputes were to be resolved through a newly created organisation called the \"Central Working Group\" ({{lang\\|de\\|Zentralarbeitsgemeinschaft}}, or ZAG).{{Sfn\\|Winkler\\|1993\\|pp\\=45–46}}",
"With the agreement, the unions had achieved several of their longtime demands, and by their recognition of private enterprise, they made the efforts towards nationalising the means of production more difficult.",
"#### Reich Congress of Workers' and Soldiers' Councils",
"[thumb\\|281x281px\\|Reich Congress of Workers' and Soldiers' Councils. From right to left on the ministerial bench: [Emil Barth](/wiki/Emil_Barth \"Emil Barth\"), [Friedrich Ebert](/wiki/Friedrich_Ebert \"Friedrich Ebert\"), [Otto Landsberg](/wiki/Otto_Landsberg \"Otto Landsberg\") and [Philipp Scheidemann](/wiki/Philipp_Scheidemann \"Philipp Scheidemann\")The](/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1972-030-63%2C_Reichskongre%C3%9F_der_Arbeiter-_und_Soldatenr%C3%A4te%2C_Berlin.jpg \"Bundesarchiv Bild 146-1972-030-63, Reichskongreß der Arbeiter- und Soldatenräte, Berlin.jpg\") Executive Council called for a meeting of the workers' and soldiers' councils from the entire country to be held in Berlin beginning on 16 December. When the [Reich Congress of Workers' and Soldiers' Councils](/wiki/German_workers%27_and_soldiers%27_councils_1918%E2%80%931919%23Reich_Congress_of_Workers%27_and_Soldiers%27_Councils \"German workers' and soldiers' councils 1918–1919#Reich Congress of Workers' and Soldiers' Councils\") ({{Lang\\|de\\|Reichskongress der Arbeiter\\- und Soldatenräte}}) met in the hall of the [Prussian House of Representatives](/wiki/Prussian_House_of_Representatives \"Prussian House of Representatives\"), it consisted mainly of SPD followers. Not even Karl Liebknecht or Rosa Luxemburg had been chosen to attend, leaving the Spartacus League without influence. On 19 December, the Council voted 344 to 98 against the creation of a council system as the basis for a new constitution. Instead, they supported the government's decision to call for elections as soon as possible for a constituent national assembly to decide on the future state system.{{Sfn\\|Winkler\\|1993\\|pp\\=50–51}}",
"The Congress then approved a proposal by the SPD to give the Council of the People's Deputies lawgiving and executive power until the national assembly made a final decision on the form of government. Oversight of the Council was switched from the Berlin Executive Council to a new Central Council of the German Socialist Republic (*Zentralrat der Deutschen Sozialistischen Republik*). After the Congress accepted the SPD's definition of parliamentary oversight, the USPD boycotted the election to the Central Council, with the result that it had only SPD members.{{Cite journal \\|last\\=Piper \\|first\\=Ernst \\|date\\=2018 \\|title\\=Deutsche Revolution 1918/19 \\|journal\\=Informationen zur Politischen Bildung \\|language\\=de \\|issue\\=33 \\|pages\\=14}}",
"With the oversight of the Berlin Executive Council, the People's Deputies were to exercise military command authority and to see to the ending of militarism. The Congress voted unanimously for the democratisation of the military as laid out in the Hamburg Points: there were to be no more rank insignia and no carrying of weapons when not in service; soldiers were to elect officers; soldiers' councils were to be responsible for discipline; and the standing army was to be replaced by a people's army (*Volkswehr*). The Army Command strongly objected to the Hamburg Points, and no trace of them was left in the [Weimar Constitution](/wiki/Weimar_Constitution \"Weimar Constitution\").{{Sfn\\|Winkler\\|1993\\|p\\=52}}",
"### Turn to violence",
"#### Opposition from the Right",
"On 6 December 1918, in what was likely a putsch attempt, a group of armed students and soldiers, including some members of the [People's Navy Division](/wiki/Volksmarinedivision \"Volksmarinedivision\") ({{Lang\\|de\\|Volksmarinedivision}}), went to the [Reich Chancellery](/wiki/Reich_Chancellery \"Reich Chancellery\") and asked Friedrich Ebert to accept the office of president with nearly dictatorial powers, an offer that Ebert carefully refused.{{sfn\\|Winkler\\|1993\\|pp\\=49–50}} At around the same time – although some sources say that it involved the same demonstrators who spoke to Ebert – a group of soldiers briefly took the members of the Executive Council into custody.{{Cite web \\|date\\=24 November 1968 \\|title\\=November 1918: \"Kartoffeln \\- keine Revolution\" \\|trans\\-title\\=November 1918: \"Potatoes \\- not a Revolution\" \\|url\\=https://www.spiegel.de/politik/november\\-1918\\-kartoffeln\\-keine\\-revolution\\-a\\-05d82072\\-0002\\-0001\\-0000\\-000045922013 \\|access\\-date\\=3 January 2024 \\|website\\=Der Spiegel \\|language\\=de}} In an unrelated incident several hours later, members of the Garde\\-Füsilier\\-Regiment, which was responsible for security in Berlin's government quarter, fired on an approved Spartacist demonstration, killing 16 and seriously wounding 12\\.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Gallus \\|first\\=Alexander \\|date\\=13 September 2018 \\|title\\=Die deutsche Revolution 1918/19 \\|trans\\-title\\=The German Revolution 1918/19 \\|url\\=https://www.bpb.de/themen/erster\\-weltkrieg\\-weimar/weimarer\\-republik/275865/die\\-deutsche\\-revolution\\-1918\\-19/ \\|access\\-date\\=3 January 2024 \\|website\\=Bundeszentrale für politische Bildung \\|language\\=de}}{{Cite web \\|last\\=Kröger \\|first\\=Martin \\|date\\=6 November 2008 \\|title\\=Novemberrevolution: Rotes Tuch für Steinmeier \\|trans\\-title\\=November Revolution: Red Cloth for Steinmeier \\|url\\=https://www.spiegel.de/geschichte/90\\-jahre\\-novemberrevolution\\-a\\-947999\\.html \\|access\\-date\\=3 January 2024 \\|website\\=Der Spiegel \\|language\\=de}} It is not certain who gave the order to fire or who was behind the assumed putsch.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Piper \\|first\\=Ernst \\|date\\=23 July 2018 \\|title\\=Deutscher Umsturz \\|trans\\-title\\=German Coup \\|url\\=https://www.das\\-parlament.de/2018/30\\_31/themenausgaben/564724\\-564724 \\|website\\=Das Parlament \\|language\\=de}} The historian [Heinrich August Winkler](/wiki/Heinrich_August_Winkler \"Heinrich August Winkler\") attributes it to \"high\\-ranking officers and officials\" who planned to have Ebert disband the workers' and soldiers' councils with the military's support.",
"Ebert and the [Army High Command](/wiki/Oberste_Heeresleitung \"Oberste Heeresleitung\") (OHL) had agreed that troops returning from the front would parade through Berlin on 10 December. Ebert greeted them with a glowing speech that included words that would help give rise to the [stab\\-in\\-the\\-back myth](/wiki/Stab-in-the-back_myth \"Stab-in-the-back myth\"): \"No enemy overcame you.\" General Groener had wanted to use the soldiers to disarm the civilians of Berlin and rid it of Spartacists, but the majority of the soldiers wanted only to return home for Christmas with their families and simply dispersed into the city after the parade. Their lack of interest in more fighting put an end to Groener's hope that he could lead the troops to domestic successes that would make the OHL the recognized force in restoring order.",
"As a result of the events, the potential for violence and the danger of a coup from the Right became visible. [Rosa Luxemburg](/wiki/Rosa_Luxemburg \"Rosa Luxemburg\"), in the Spartacist newspaper *[Rote Fahne](/wiki/Rote_Fahne \"Rote Fahne\")* (\"*Red Flag*\"), demanded the peaceful disarmament of returning soldiers by the workers of Berlin. She wanted the soldiers' councils to be subordinated to the revolutionary parliament and the soldiers to be \"re\\-educated\".{{Citation needed\\|date\\=April 2024}}",
"#### Christmas crisis",
"{{Main\\|1918 Christmas crisis}}",
"Because the People's Navy Division had been helpful to the government in Kiel and was considered loyal,{{Cite book \\|last\\=Ostrowski \\|first\\=Marius S. \\|url\\={{Google books\\|BJO7DwAAQBAJ\\|page\\=138\\|plainurl\\=yes}} \\|title\\=Eduard Bernstein on the German Revolution. Selected Historical Writings \\|publisher\\=Springer International \\|year\\=2019 \\|isbn\\=9783030277192 \\|location\\=Berlin \\|page\\=138}} it was ordered to Berlin in early November to help protect the city's government quarter and stationed in the [Royal Stables](/wiki/Neuer_Marstall \"Neuer Marstall\") across from the [Berlin Palace](/wiki/Berlin_Palace \"Berlin Palace\"). Following the coup attempt of 6 December, the sailors deposed their commander because of his alleged involvement in it.{{Cite book \\|last\\=Wrobel \\|first\\=Kurt \\|url\\={{Google books\\| DORXAAAAIAAJ \\|page\\=480\\|plainurl\\=yes}} \\|title\\=Zeitschrift für Militärgeschichte Volume 7 \\|publisher\\=Deutscher Militärverlag \\|year\\=1968 \\|location\\=Berlin \\|pages\\=480 \\|language\\=de \\|chapter\\=Heinrich Dorrenbach – Soldat der Revolution \\|trans\\-chapter\\=Heinrich Dorrenbach – Soldier of the Revolution}} The government came to see the division as generally standing with the leftist revolutionaries,{{Cite book \\|last\\=Oeckel \\|first\\=Heinz \\|url\\={{Google books\\| DORXAAAAIAAJ \\|page\\=539\\|plainurl\\=yes}} \\|title\\=Zeitschrift für Militärgeschichte Volume 7 \\|publisher\\=Deutscher Militärverlag \\|year\\=1968 \\|location\\=Berlin \\|page\\=539 \\|language\\=de \\|chapter\\=Volkswehrbewegung und Novemberrevolution \\|trans\\-chapter\\=People's Defence Movement and the November Revolution}} and on 23 December, the Council of the People's Deputies ordered it out of Berlin, considerably reduced its size and refused the men their pay.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Scriba \\|first\\=Arnulf \\|date\\=1 September 2014 \\|title\\=Die Weihnachtskämpfe 1918 \\|trans\\-title\\=The Christmas Battles 1918 \\|url\\=https://www.dhm.de/lemo/kapitel/weimarer\\-republik/revolution\\-191819/die\\-weihnachtskaempfe\\-1918\\.html \\|access\\-date\\=4 March 2024 \\|website\\=Deutsches Historisches Museum \\|language\\=de}}\n[thumb\\|Leftist soldiers during Christmas fighting in the [Berlin Palace](/wiki/Berlin_Palace \"Berlin Palace\")\\|266x266px](/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1976-067-30A%2C_Revolution_in_Berlin%2C_Soldaten_im_Kampf.jpg \"Bundesarchiv Bild 146-1976-067-30A, Revolution in Berlin, Soldaten im Kampf.jpg\")\nThe sailors then occupied the Reich Chancellery, cut the phone lines, put the Council of People's Representatives under house arrest and took Otto Wels hostage and physically abused him. Ebert, who was in touch with the Supreme Command in Kassel via a secret phone line, gave orders on the morning of 24 December to attack the Palace with troops loyal to the government. The sailors repelled the attack after they were joined by armed workers and the security forces of the Berlin police.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Deutsche Revolution: Weihnachtskämpfe \\|trans\\-title\\=German Revolution: Christmas Battles \\|url\\=http://www.deutschegeschichten.de/zeitraum/themaplus.asp?KategorieID\\=1001\\&InhaltID\\=1555\\&Seite\\=6 \\|access\\-date\\=4 March 2024 \\|website\\=Bundeszentrale für politische Bildung \\|language\\=de}} The government troops had to withdraw with the loss of 56 soldiers. The People's Navy Division, which counted just 11 deaths, was allowed to remain intact, and the sailors received their pay.",
"The main result of the [Christmas crisis](/wiki/1918_Christmas_crisis \"1918 Christmas crisis\"), which the Spartacists named \"Ebert's Bloody Christmas\",{{Cite book \\|url\\={{Google books\\|6fhQEAAAQBAJ \\|page\\=37\\|plainurl\\=yes}} \\|title\\=The Oxford Handbook of the Weimar Republic \\|publisher\\=Oxford University Press \\|year\\=2022 \\|isbn\\=978\\-0198845775 \\|editor\\-last\\=Ziemann \\|editor\\-first\\=Benjamin \\|location\\=Oxford, UK \\|page\\=37 \\|editor\\-last2\\=Rossol \\|editor\\-first2\\=Nadine}} was that the USPD resigned from the government in protest on 29 December. Its three members were replaced on the Council of the People's Deputies by two from the SPD: [Gustav Noske](/wiki/Gustav_Noske \"Gustav Noske\") (responsible for the military) and [Rudolf Wissell](/wiki/Rudolf_Wissell \"Rudolf Wissell\") (labour and social affairs). In light of the military's failure at the Berlin Palace, Noske ordered a strengthening of the *Freikorps* for use against internal enemies.",
"#### Founding of the Communist Party and Spartacist uprising",
"{{Main\\|Spartacist uprising}}\n[thumb\\|The occupation of the Silesian railway station in Berlin by government troops\\|243x243px](/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_119-1577%2C_Revolution_in_Berlin.jpg \"Bundesarchiv Bild 119-1577, Revolution in Berlin.jpg\")\nAfter their experiences with the SPD and the USPD, the Spartacists concluded that their goals could be met only by forming a party of their own. They therefore joined with other left\\-socialist groups from across Germany to found the [Communist Party of Germany](/wiki/Communist_Party_of_Germany \"Communist Party of Germany\") (KPD).{{sfn\\|Winkler\\|1993\\|p\\=55}}",
"Rosa Luxemburg drew up a founding programme and presented it on 31 December 1918\\. She wrote that the communists could never take power without the clear will of the majority of the people. On 1 January she proposed that the KPD participate in the elections for a national assembly, but a motion to boycott the elections passed 62 to 23\\. In the words of Marxist historian [Arthur Rosenberg](/wiki/Arthur_Rosenberg \"Arthur Rosenberg\"), the majority still implicitly hoped to gain power through \"putschist adventures\". After deliberations with the Spartacists, the Revolutionary Stewards decided to remain in the USPD.{{Sfn\\|Winkler\\|1993\\|p\\=56}}",
"A wave of violence started on 4 January when the Prussian government dismissed the chief of the Berlin police, [Emil Eichhorn](/wiki/Emil_Eichhorn \"Emil Eichhorn\") (USPD), for supporting the People's Navy Division during the Christmas crisis. His dismissal led the USPD, Revolutionary Stewards and KPD chairmen [Karl Liebknecht](/wiki/Karl_Liebknecht \"Karl Liebknecht\") and [Wilhelm Pieck](/wiki/Wilhelm_Pieck \"Wilhelm Pieck\") to call for a demonstration the following day. On 5 January, as on 9 November 1918, hundreds of thousands of people poured into the centre of Berlin, many of them armed. In the afternoon, the train stations and the newspaper district with the offices of the middle\\-class press and the SPD' {{Lang\\|de\\|Vorwärts}} were occupied.",
"[thumb\\|left\\|Spartacist militia in Berlin](/wiki/File:AlzadosEspartaquistas..png \"AlzadosEspartaquistas..png\")\nThe demonstrators were mainly the same people who had participated in the revolutionary actions in November who were demanding the fulfilment of their wish for a workers' government expressed two months previously. The so\\-called \"[Spartacist uprising](/wiki/Spartacist_uprising \"Spartacist uprising\")\" that followed originated only partially in the KPD. The Spartacists did not have a leading position in January 1919\\. KPD members were a minority among the insurgents.{{Sfn\\|Haffner\\|1991\\|pp\\=144–145}}",
"The initiators of the revolt, who had gathered at the Police Headquarters, elected a 53\\-member \"Interim Revolutionary Committee\" ({{lang\\|de\\|Provisorischer Revolutionsausschuss}}) that failed to make use of its power and was unable to give any clear direction.{{Sfn\\|Haffner\\|1991\\|pp\\=136–137}} Liebknecht wanted the government overthrown and agreed with the majority of the Committee that supported an armed struggle. Rosa Luxemburg and other KPD leaders ([Leo Jogiches](/wiki/Leo_Jogiches \"Leo Jogiches\"), [Karl Radek](/wiki/Karl_Radek \"Karl Radek\")) thought a revolt at that time to be premature and spoke out against it, although Luxemburg later gave in and followed the will of the majority of the Committee.{{Sfn\\|Winkler\\|1993}}",
"[thumb\\|A British [Mark IV tank](/wiki/Mark_IV_tank \"Mark IV tank\"), captured during World War I, in use by German government troops. Berlin, January 1919\\|alt\\=](/wiki/File:Mark_IV_Berlin.jpg \"Mark IV Berlin.jpg\")\nOn the following day, 6 January, the Revolutionary Committee again called for a mass demonstration. Even more people heeded the call and filled the streets from the [Siegesallee](/wiki/Siegesallee \"Siegesallee\") to the [Alexanderplatz](/wiki/Alexanderplatz \"Alexanderplatz\"). But the masses were leaderless; the Committee provided no direction and no orders to act.{{Sfn\\|Haffner\\|1991\\|p\\=137}} In addition, the protestors lacked support from the military. Even the People's Navy Division was unwilling to support the armed revolt and declared themselves neutral. The other regiments stationed in Berlin mostly remained loyal to the government.{{Sfn\\|Winkler\\|1993\\|pp\\=58–59}} As a result, very little happened that day.",
"While more troops were moving into Berlin on Ebert's order, he accepted an offer by the USPD to mediate between the government and the Revolutionary Committee, but the negotiations failed the following day. On 8 January, in an appeal to the people of Berlin, the Council of the People's Deputies stated that \"force can be fought only with force. ... The hour of reckoning approaches!\"{{Cite web \\|last\\=Sauer \\|first\\=Bernhard \\|date\\=2018 \\|title\\=Der \"Spartakusaufstand\". Legende und Wirklichkeit \\|trans\\-title\\=The \"Spartacus Uprising\". Legends and Reality \\|url\\=http://www.bernhard\\-sauer\\-historiker.de/Karuscheit\\_ua\\_Novemberrevolution\\_Sauer.pdf \\|access\\-date\\=20 March 2024 \\|website\\=Bernhard Sauer – Historiker \\|page\\=112 \\|language\\=de}} The USPD and KPD leadership decided to press ahead with the revolutionary overthrow of the Ebert government, but the masses were more interested in the unification of the parties of the Left. Finally, on 11 January, *Freikorps* forces attacked and took the {{Lang\\|de\\|Vorwärts}} building with heavy weaponry.{{Sfn\\|Sauer\\|2018\\|pp\\=114, 116, 124}} Six parliamentarians who came out to negotiate a surrender were summarily shot. The remaining occupied buildings were taken the same day, and by 12 January the uprising was over.{{Sfn\\|Winkler\\|1993\\|p\\=59}} The death toll was estimated at 156\\.{{Cite book \\|last\\=Wette \\|first\\=Wolfram \\|title\\=Gustav Noske. Eine politische Biographie \\|publisher\\=Droste \\|year\\=1987 \\|isbn\\=978\\-3770007288 \\|location\\=Düsseldorf \\|page\\=308 \\|language\\=de}}",
"The historian [Eberhard Kolb](/wiki/Eberhard_Kolb \"Eberhard Kolb\") calls the January Revolt the revolution's [Battle of the Marne](/wiki/Battle_of_the_Marne_%281918%29 \"Battle of the Marne (1918)\") (Germany's July 1918 battlefield defeat that led directly to the [Armistice](/wiki/Armistice_of_11_November_1918 \"Armistice of 11 November 1918\")). The 1919 uprising and its brutal end exacerbated the already deep divisions in the workers' movement and fuelled more political radicalisation.",
"#### Murder of Karl Liebknecht and Rosa Luxemburg",
"Rosa Luxemburg and Karl Liebknecht, the ringleaders of the January Revolt, were forced to go into hiding after its failure, but in spite of the urgings of their associates, they refused to leave Berlin. On the evening of 15 January 1919, the two were found by the authorities in an apartment in the [Wilmersdorf](/wiki/Wilmersdorf \"Wilmersdorf\") district of Berlin. They were immediately arrested and handed over to the largest *Freikorps* unit, the heavily armed {{lang\\|de\\|Garde\\-Kavallerie\\-Schützen\\-Division}}. Its commander, Captain [Waldemar Pabst](/wiki/Waldemar_Pabst \"Waldemar Pabst\"), had them questioned. The same night both prisoners were clubbed with the butt of a rifle and shot in the head. Karl Liebknecht's body, without a name, was delivered to a nearby morgue. Rosa Luxemburg's body was thrown into Berlin's [Landwehr Canal](/wiki/Landwehr_Canal \"Landwehr Canal\"), where it was found only on 1 July.{{Sfn\\|Haffner\\|1991\\|pp\\=155–156}}",
"The perpetrators for the most part went unpunished. The [Nazi Party](/wiki/Nazi_Party \"Nazi Party\") later compensated the few who had been put on trial or jailed,{{Cite book \\|last1\\=Daimagüler \\|first1\\=Mehmet Gürcan \\|url\\={{Google books\\|BOsmEAAAQBAJ\\|page\\=26\\|plainurl\\=yes}} \\|title\\=Das rechte Recht. Die deutsche Justiz und ihre Auseinandersetzung mit alten und neuen Nazis \\|last2\\=von Münchhausen \\|first2\\=Ernst \\|publisher\\=Penguin Random House Verlagsgruppe GmbH \\|year\\=2021 \\|isbn\\=9783641259259 \\|location\\=Munich \\|pages\\=26 \\|language\\=de \\|trans\\-title\\=Right\\-wing Justice. The German Judiciary and its Confrontation with Old and New Nazis}} and they merged the {{Lang\\|de\\|Garde\\-Kavallerie}} into the SA ({{lang\\|de\\|\\[\\[Sturmabteilung]]}}). In an interview given to *[Der Spiegel](/wiki/Der_Spiegel \"Der Spiegel\")* in 1962 and in his memoirs, Pabst maintained that he had talked on the phone with Noske in the Chancellery*[Der Spiegel](/wiki/Der_Spiegel \"Der Spiegel\")* of 18\\.04\\.1962 and that Noske and Ebert had approved of his actions.{{Cite book \\|last\\=Gietinger \\|first\\=Klaus \\|title\\=Der Konterrevolutionär. Waldemar Pabst – eine deutsche Karriere \\|publisher\\=Verlag Lutz Schulenburg \\|year\\=2008 \\|location\\=Hamburg \\|pages\\=394 \\|language\\=de \\|trans\\-title\\=The Counterrevolutionary. Waldemar Pabst – a German Career}} Pabst's statement was never confirmed, especially since neither the Reichstag nor the courts ever examined the case.",
"#### Final revolts",
"[thumb\\|Dead revolutionaries in Berlin after summary execution, March 1919\\|alt\\=\\|262x262px](/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_102-00539%2C_Berlin%2C_Revolution%2C_Standrechtlich_Erschossene.jpg \"Bundesarchiv Bild 102-00539, Berlin, Revolution, Standrechtlich Erschossene.jpg\")\nIn the first months of 1919, there were additional armed revolts in parts of Germany that culminated in the [Berlin March Battles](/wiki/Berlin_March_Battles \"Berlin March Battles\"). The overall cause was continued worker disappointment that the revolution had not achieved the goals they had hoped for in November 1918: nationalisation of key industries, recognition of the workers' and soldiers' councils and establishment of a [council republic](/wiki/Council_communism \"Council communism\"). In 1919, attaining the goals would have required the overthrow of the Ebert government.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Scriba \\|first\\=Arnulf \\|date\\=1 September 2014 \\|title\\=Die Märzkämpfe 1919 \\|trans\\-title\\=The March Battles 1919 \\|url\\=https://www.dhm.de/lemo/kapitel/weimarer\\-republik/revolution\\-191819/maerzkaempfe\\-1919\\.html \\|access\\-date\\=22 March 2024 \\|website\\=Deutsches Historisches Museum \\|language\\=de}} General strikes were called in [Upper Silesia](/wiki/Upper_Silesia \"Upper Silesia\") in January, in the Ruhr district in February{{Cite web \\|last\\=Kozicki \\|first\\=Norbert Kozicki \\|title\\=Die Essener Sozialisierungsbewegung und ihr Ende (Januar/Februar 1919\\) \\|trans\\-title\\=The Essen Socialisation Movement and its End (January/February 1919\\) \\|url\\=https://herne\\-damals\\-heute.de/politische\\-teilhabe/die\\-essener\\-sozialisierungsbewegung\\-und\\-ihr\\-ende\\-januar\\-februar\\-1919/ \\|access\\-date\\=22 March 2024 \\|website\\=Herne von damals bis heute \\|language\\=de}} and in [Saxony](/wiki/Saxony \"Saxony\") and [Thuringia](/wiki/Thuringia \"Thuringia\") in February and March.",
"In Berlin, members of the USPD and KPD called for a general strike that started on 4 March. Its key aims were the socialisation of major industries, democratisation of the military and the safeguarding of the position of the remaining workers' and soldiers' councils. Against the will of the leadership, the strikes escalated into street fighting. The Prussian state government, which had declared a state of siege, called on the Reich government for help. It responded with the deployment of both government and *Freikorps* troops. On 9 March, Gustav Noske, to whom executive power had been transferred, gave the order to shoot on sight anyone found carrying a weapon. By the end of the fighting on 16 March, the uprising had been bloodily quashed, with a death toll of at least 1,200\\.",
"Short\\-lived [soviet republics](/wiki/Soviet_republic_%28system_of_government%29 \"Soviet republic (system of government)\") were proclaimed in a number of cities and towns into early 1919, but only those in [Bavaria](/wiki/Bavarian_Soviet_Republic \"Bavarian Soviet Republic\") (Munich) and [Bremen](/wiki/Bremen_Soviet_Republic \"Bremen Soviet Republic\") lasted longer than a few days. They were overthrown by government and *Freikorps* troops with considerable loss of life: 80 in Bremen (February){{Cite book \\|last\\=Hans Rudolf \\|first\\=Wahl \\|url\\=https://www.deutschlandstudien.uni\\-bremen.de/wp\\-content/uploads/2019/03/Wahl\\-Novemberrevolution\\-R%C3%A4terepublik\\-und\\-Demokratiegr%C3%BCndung\\-in\\-Bremen.pdf \\|title\\=Revolution in Norddeutschland \\|publisher\\=Metropol Verlag \\|year\\=2018 \\|editor\\-last\\=Lehnert \\|editor\\-first\\=Detlef \\|location\\=Berlin \\|publication\\-date\\=2018 \\|pages\\=210–211 \\|language\\=de \\|trans\\-title\\=Revolution in North Germany \\|chapter\\=Novemberrevolution, Räterepublik und Demokratiegründung in Bremen \\|trans\\-chapter\\=November Revolution, Soviet Republic and Founding of Democracy in Bremen}} and about 600 in Munich (May).{{Cite book \\|last\\=Burleigh \\|first\\=Michael \\|author\\-link\\=Michael Burleigh \\|title\\=The Third Reich: A New History \\|publisher\\=Hill and Wang \\|year\\=2000 \\|isbn\\=9780809093250 \\|location\\=New York \\|pages\\=40}}",
"According to the predominant opinion of modern historians, the establishment of a Bolshevik\\-style council government in Germany following the war would have been all but impossible. The Ebert government felt threatened by a coup from the Left and was certainly undermined by the Spartacus movement. That underlay its cooperation with the Supreme Army Command and the *Freikorps*. The brutal actions of the *Freikorps* during the various revolts estranged many left democrats from the SPD. They regarded the behaviour of Ebert, Noske and the other SPD leaders during the revolution as a betrayal of their own followers.{{Sfn\\|Schulze\\|1994\\|p\\=169–170}}",
"### National Assembly and new Reich constitution",
"{{Main\\|Weimar National Assembly}}\nOn 19 January 1919, Germans [voted for representatives](/wiki/1919_German_federal_election \"1919 German federal election\") to a [constituent national assembly](/wiki/Weimar_National_Assembly \"Weimar National Assembly\") in an election that included women for the first time. The SPD received the highest percentage of votes (38%), and with the Catholic [Centre Party](/wiki/Centre_Party_%28Germany%29 \"Centre Party (Germany)\") and the liberal [German Democratic Party](/wiki/German_Democratic_Party \"German Democratic Party\"), it formed the [Weimar Coalition](/wiki/Weimar_Coalition \"Weimar Coalition\"). The USPD received only 7\\.6% of the vote; the KPD did not participate.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Altmann \\|first\\=Gerhard \\|date\\=11 April 2000 \\|title\\=Die Wahlen zur Nationalversammlung \\|trans\\-title\\=The Elections to the National Assembly \\|url\\=https://www.dhm.de/lemo/kapitel/weimarer\\-republik/revolution\\-191819/wahlen\\-zur\\-nationalversammlung.html \\|access\\-date\\=24 March 2024 \\|website\\=Deutsches Historisches Museum \\|language\\=de}} To remove itself from the post\\-revolutionary confusion in Berlin, the National Assembly met in [Weimar](/wiki/Weimar \"Weimar\") beginning on 6 February. The Assembly elected Friedrich Ebert temporary president on 11 February and Philipp Scheidemann [minister president](/wiki/Minister_president_%28Germany%29 \"Minister president (Germany)\") on 13 February.{{Cite web \\|last1\\=Altmann \\|first1\\=Gerhard \\|last2\\=Schweinoch \\|first2\\=Oliver \\|date\\=2 August 2018 \\|title\\=Die Nationalversammlung \\|trans\\-title\\=The National Assembly \\|url\\=https://www.dhm.de/lemo/kapitel/weimarer\\-republik/innenpolitik/versammlung \\|access\\-date\\=24 March 2024 \\|website\\=Deutsches Historisches Museum \\|language\\=de}}",
"In addition to drawing up and approving a new constitution, the Assembly was responsible for passing urgently needed Reich laws. In May it found itself embroiled in the highly contentious issue of whether or not to accept the terms of the [Treaty of Versailles](/wiki/Treaty_of_Versailles \"Treaty of Versailles\"). Under intense pressure from the victorious Allies, it agreed on 16 June 1919 after Scheidemann resigned as minister president{{Cite web \\|date\\=31 January 2019 \\|title\\=Vor 100 Jahren: Weimarer Nationalversammlung \\|trans\\-title\\=100 Years Ago: The Weimar National Assembly \\|url\\=https://www.bpb.de/kurz\\-knapp/hintergrund\\-aktuell/284871/vor\\-100\\-jahren\\-weimarer\\-nationalversammlung/ \\|access\\-date\\=24 March 2024 \\|website\\=Bundeszentrale für politische Bildung \\|language\\=de}} with the words, \"What hand should not wither that puts itself and us in these fetters?\"{{Cite web \\|title\\=Scheidemann: \"Welche Hand müßte nicht verdorren, die sich und uns in diese Fesseln legt?\" \\|trans\\-title\\=Scheidemann: \"What hand should not wither that puts itself and us in these fetters?\" \\|url\\=https://www.weimarer\\-republik.net/jubilaeum/revolution\\-und\\-gruendung\\-der\\-republik\\-tag\\-fuer\\-tag/mai\\-1919/scheidemann\\-welche\\-hand\\-muesste\\-nicht\\-verdorren\\-die\\-sich\\-und\\-uns\\-in\\-diese\\-fesseln\\-legt/ \\|access\\-date\\=24 March 2024 \\|website\\=Die Weimarer Republik – Deutschlands erste Demokratie \\|language\\=de}} [Gustav Bauer](/wiki/Gustav_Bauer \"Gustav Bauer\") of the SPD took his place.",
"The [Weimar Constitution](/wiki/Weimar_Constitution \"Weimar Constitution\") was ratified by the National Assembly on 11 August and became effective three days later. It established a federal [parliamentary republic](/wiki/Parliamentary_republic \"Parliamentary republic\") (sometimes called a [semi\\-presidential republic](/wiki/Semi-presidential_republic \"Semi-presidential republic\") because of the strength of the presidency) with a comprehensive list of fundamental rights and a popularly elected [Reichstag](/wiki/Reichstag_%28Weimar_Republic%29 \"Reichstag (Weimar Republic)\") that was responsible for legislation, the budget and control of the executive. The government, headed by the chancellor, was dependent on the confidence of the Reichstag. The president, who was elected by popular vote for seven years, could dissolve the Reichstag and under [Article 48](/wiki/Article_48_%28Weimar_Constitution%29 \"Article 48 (Weimar Constitution)\") had the power to declare a state of emergency and issue emergency decrees when public security was threatened.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Scriba \\|first\\=Arnulf \\|date\\=1 September 2014 \\|title\\=Die Verfassung der Weimarer Republik \\|trans\\-title\\=The Constitution of the Weimar Republic \\|url\\=https://www.dhm.de/lemo/kapitel/weimarer\\-republik/innenpolitik/reichsverfassung\\-1919\\.html \\|access\\-date\\=24 March 2024 \\|website\\=Deutsches Historisches Museum \\|language\\=de}}",
"In October 1922, the Reichstag lengthened Ebert's term of office until 23 June 1925\\.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Albrecht \\|first\\=Kai\\-Britt \\|date\\=14 September 2014 \\|title\\=Friedrich Ebert \\|url\\=https://www.dhm.de/lemo/biografie/friedrich\\-ebert \\|access\\-date\\=7 January 2024 \\|website\\=Deutsches Historisches Museum \\|language\\=de}} He died in office a few months before then, and [Paul von Hindenburg](/wiki/Paul_von_Hindenburg \"Paul von Hindenburg\") was elected the second and last president of the Republic. His use of Article 48 was instrumental in paving the way for Adolf Hitler's rise to power.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Article 48 \\|url\\=https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/article\\-48\\#:\\~:text\\=This%20was%20Article%2048%2C%20which,allowed%20the%20President%20to%20suspend \\|access\\-date\\=24 March 2024 \\|website\\=Holocaust Encyclopedia}}",
""
] |
### Turn to violence
#### Opposition from the Right
On 6 December 1918, in what was likely a putsch attempt, a group of armed students and soldiers, including some members of the [People's Navy Division](/wiki/Volksmarinedivision "Volksmarinedivision") ({{Lang\|de\|Volksmarinedivision}}), went to the [Reich Chancellery](/wiki/Reich_Chancellery "Reich Chancellery") and asked Friedrich Ebert to accept the office of president with nearly dictatorial powers, an offer that Ebert carefully refused.{{sfn\|Winkler\|1993\|pp\=49–50}} At around the same time – although some sources say that it involved the same demonstrators who spoke to Ebert – a group of soldiers briefly took the members of the Executive Council into custody.{{Cite web \|date\=24 November 1968 \|title\=November 1918: "Kartoffeln \- keine Revolution" \|trans\-title\=November 1918: "Potatoes \- not a Revolution" \|url\=https://www.spiegel.de/politik/november\-1918\-kartoffeln\-keine\-revolution\-a\-05d82072\-0002\-0001\-0000\-000045922013 \|access\-date\=3 January 2024 \|website\=Der Spiegel \|language\=de}} In an unrelated incident several hours later, members of the Garde\-Füsilier\-Regiment, which was responsible for security in Berlin's government quarter, fired on an approved Spartacist demonstration, killing 16 and seriously wounding 12\.{{Cite web \|last\=Gallus \|first\=Alexander \|date\=13 September 2018 \|title\=Die deutsche Revolution 1918/19 \|trans\-title\=The German Revolution 1918/19 \|url\=https://www.bpb.de/themen/erster\-weltkrieg\-weimar/weimarer\-republik/275865/die\-deutsche\-revolution\-1918\-19/ \|access\-date\=3 January 2024 \|website\=Bundeszentrale für politische Bildung \|language\=de}}{{Cite web \|last\=Kröger \|first\=Martin \|date\=6 November 2008 \|title\=Novemberrevolution: Rotes Tuch für Steinmeier \|trans\-title\=November Revolution: Red Cloth for Steinmeier \|url\=https://www.spiegel.de/geschichte/90\-jahre\-novemberrevolution\-a\-947999\.html \|access\-date\=3 January 2024 \|website\=Der Spiegel \|language\=de}} It is not certain who gave the order to fire or who was behind the assumed putsch.{{Cite web \|last\=Piper \|first\=Ernst \|date\=23 July 2018 \|title\=Deutscher Umsturz \|trans\-title\=German Coup \|url\=https://www.das\-parlament.de/2018/30\_31/themenausgaben/564724\-564724 \|website\=Das Parlament \|language\=de}} The historian [Heinrich August Winkler](/wiki/Heinrich_August_Winkler "Heinrich August Winkler") attributes it to "high\-ranking officers and officials" who planned to have Ebert disband the workers' and soldiers' councils with the military's support.
Ebert and the [Army High Command](/wiki/Oberste_Heeresleitung "Oberste Heeresleitung") (OHL) had agreed that troops returning from the front would parade through Berlin on 10 December. Ebert greeted them with a glowing speech that included words that would help give rise to the [stab\-in\-the\-back myth](/wiki/Stab-in-the-back_myth "Stab-in-the-back myth"): "No enemy overcame you." General Groener had wanted to use the soldiers to disarm the civilians of Berlin and rid it of Spartacists, but the majority of the soldiers wanted only to return home for Christmas with their families and simply dispersed into the city after the parade. Their lack of interest in more fighting put an end to Groener's hope that he could lead the troops to domestic successes that would make the OHL the recognized force in restoring order.
As a result of the events, the potential for violence and the danger of a coup from the Right became visible. [Rosa Luxemburg](/wiki/Rosa_Luxemburg "Rosa Luxemburg"), in the Spartacist newspaper *[Rote Fahne](/wiki/Rote_Fahne "Rote Fahne")* ("*Red Flag*"), demanded the peaceful disarmament of returning soldiers by the workers of Berlin. She wanted the soldiers' councils to be subordinated to the revolutionary parliament and the soldiers to be "re\-educated".{{Citation needed\|date\=April 2024}}
#### Christmas crisis
{{Main\|1918 Christmas crisis}}
Because the People's Navy Division had been helpful to the government in Kiel and was considered loyal,{{Cite book \|last\=Ostrowski \|first\=Marius S. \|url\={{Google books\|BJO7DwAAQBAJ\|page\=138\|plainurl\=yes}} \|title\=Eduard Bernstein on the German Revolution. Selected Historical Writings \|publisher\=Springer International \|year\=2019 \|isbn\=9783030277192 \|location\=Berlin \|page\=138}} it was ordered to Berlin in early November to help protect the city's government quarter and stationed in the [Royal Stables](/wiki/Neuer_Marstall "Neuer Marstall") across from the [Berlin Palace](/wiki/Berlin_Palace "Berlin Palace"). Following the coup attempt of 6 December, the sailors deposed their commander because of his alleged involvement in it.{{Cite book \|last\=Wrobel \|first\=Kurt \|url\={{Google books\| DORXAAAAIAAJ \|page\=480\|plainurl\=yes}} \|title\=Zeitschrift für Militärgeschichte Volume 7 \|publisher\=Deutscher Militärverlag \|year\=1968 \|location\=Berlin \|pages\=480 \|language\=de \|chapter\=Heinrich Dorrenbach – Soldat der Revolution \|trans\-chapter\=Heinrich Dorrenbach – Soldier of the Revolution}} The government came to see the division as generally standing with the leftist revolutionaries,{{Cite book \|last\=Oeckel \|first\=Heinz \|url\={{Google books\| DORXAAAAIAAJ \|page\=539\|plainurl\=yes}} \|title\=Zeitschrift für Militärgeschichte Volume 7 \|publisher\=Deutscher Militärverlag \|year\=1968 \|location\=Berlin \|page\=539 \|language\=de \|chapter\=Volkswehrbewegung und Novemberrevolution \|trans\-chapter\=People's Defence Movement and the November Revolution}} and on 23 December, the Council of the People's Deputies ordered it out of Berlin, considerably reduced its size and refused the men their pay.{{Cite web \|last\=Scriba \|first\=Arnulf \|date\=1 September 2014 \|title\=Die Weihnachtskämpfe 1918 \|trans\-title\=The Christmas Battles 1918 \|url\=https://www.dhm.de/lemo/kapitel/weimarer\-republik/revolution\-191819/die\-weihnachtskaempfe\-1918\.html \|access\-date\=4 March 2024 \|website\=Deutsches Historisches Museum \|language\=de}}
[thumb\|Leftist soldiers during Christmas fighting in the [Berlin Palace](/wiki/Berlin_Palace "Berlin Palace")\|266x266px](/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1976-067-30A%2C_Revolution_in_Berlin%2C_Soldaten_im_Kampf.jpg "Bundesarchiv Bild 146-1976-067-30A, Revolution in Berlin, Soldaten im Kampf.jpg")
The sailors then occupied the Reich Chancellery, cut the phone lines, put the Council of People's Representatives under house arrest and took Otto Wels hostage and physically abused him. Ebert, who was in touch with the Supreme Command in Kassel via a secret phone line, gave orders on the morning of 24 December to attack the Palace with troops loyal to the government. The sailors repelled the attack after they were joined by armed workers and the security forces of the Berlin police.{{Cite web \|title\=Deutsche Revolution: Weihnachtskämpfe \|trans\-title\=German Revolution: Christmas Battles \|url\=http://www.deutschegeschichten.de/zeitraum/themaplus.asp?KategorieID\=1001\&InhaltID\=1555\&Seite\=6 \|access\-date\=4 March 2024 \|website\=Bundeszentrale für politische Bildung \|language\=de}} The government troops had to withdraw with the loss of 56 soldiers. The People's Navy Division, which counted just 11 deaths, was allowed to remain intact, and the sailors received their pay.
The main result of the [Christmas crisis](/wiki/1918_Christmas_crisis "1918 Christmas crisis"), which the Spartacists named "Ebert's Bloody Christmas",{{Cite book \|url\={{Google books\|6fhQEAAAQBAJ \|page\=37\|plainurl\=yes}} \|title\=The Oxford Handbook of the Weimar Republic \|publisher\=Oxford University Press \|year\=2022 \|isbn\=978\-0198845775 \|editor\-last\=Ziemann \|editor\-first\=Benjamin \|location\=Oxford, UK \|page\=37 \|editor\-last2\=Rossol \|editor\-first2\=Nadine}} was that the USPD resigned from the government in protest on 29 December. Its three members were replaced on the Council of the People's Deputies by two from the SPD: [Gustav Noske](/wiki/Gustav_Noske "Gustav Noske") (responsible for the military) and [Rudolf Wissell](/wiki/Rudolf_Wissell "Rudolf Wissell") (labour and social affairs). In light of the military's failure at the Berlin Palace, Noske ordered a strengthening of the *Freikorps* for use against internal enemies.
#### Founding of the Communist Party and Spartacist uprising
{{Main\|Spartacist uprising}}
[thumb\|The occupation of the Silesian railway station in Berlin by government troops\|243x243px](/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_119-1577%2C_Revolution_in_Berlin.jpg "Bundesarchiv Bild 119-1577, Revolution in Berlin.jpg")
After their experiences with the SPD and the USPD, the Spartacists concluded that their goals could be met only by forming a party of their own. They therefore joined with other left\-socialist groups from across Germany to found the [Communist Party of Germany](/wiki/Communist_Party_of_Germany "Communist Party of Germany") (KPD).{{sfn\|Winkler\|1993\|p\=55}}
Rosa Luxemburg drew up a founding programme and presented it on 31 December 1918\. She wrote that the communists could never take power without the clear will of the majority of the people. On 1 January she proposed that the KPD participate in the elections for a national assembly, but a motion to boycott the elections passed 62 to 23\. In the words of Marxist historian [Arthur Rosenberg](/wiki/Arthur_Rosenberg "Arthur Rosenberg"), the majority still implicitly hoped to gain power through "putschist adventures". After deliberations with the Spartacists, the Revolutionary Stewards decided to remain in the USPD.{{Sfn\|Winkler\|1993\|p\=56}}
A wave of violence started on 4 January when the Prussian government dismissed the chief of the Berlin police, [Emil Eichhorn](/wiki/Emil_Eichhorn "Emil Eichhorn") (USPD), for supporting the People's Navy Division during the Christmas crisis. His dismissal led the USPD, Revolutionary Stewards and KPD chairmen [Karl Liebknecht](/wiki/Karl_Liebknecht "Karl Liebknecht") and [Wilhelm Pieck](/wiki/Wilhelm_Pieck "Wilhelm Pieck") to call for a demonstration the following day. On 5 January, as on 9 November 1918, hundreds of thousands of people poured into the centre of Berlin, many of them armed. In the afternoon, the train stations and the newspaper district with the offices of the middle\-class press and the SPD' {{Lang\|de\|Vorwärts}} were occupied.
[thumb\|left\|Spartacist militia in Berlin](/wiki/File:AlzadosEspartaquistas..png "AlzadosEspartaquistas..png")
The demonstrators were mainly the same people who had participated in the revolutionary actions in November who were demanding the fulfilment of their wish for a workers' government expressed two months previously. The so\-called "[Spartacist uprising](/wiki/Spartacist_uprising "Spartacist uprising")" that followed originated only partially in the KPD. The Spartacists did not have a leading position in January 1919\. KPD members were a minority among the insurgents.{{Sfn\|Haffner\|1991\|pp\=144–145}}
The initiators of the revolt, who had gathered at the Police Headquarters, elected a 53\-member "Interim Revolutionary Committee" ({{lang\|de\|Provisorischer Revolutionsausschuss}}) that failed to make use of its power and was unable to give any clear direction.{{Sfn\|Haffner\|1991\|pp\=136–137}} Liebknecht wanted the government overthrown and agreed with the majority of the Committee that supported an armed struggle. Rosa Luxemburg and other KPD leaders ([Leo Jogiches](/wiki/Leo_Jogiches "Leo Jogiches"), [Karl Radek](/wiki/Karl_Radek "Karl Radek")) thought a revolt at that time to be premature and spoke out against it, although Luxemburg later gave in and followed the will of the majority of the Committee.{{Sfn\|Winkler\|1993}}
[thumb\|A British [Mark IV tank](/wiki/Mark_IV_tank "Mark IV tank"), captured during World War I, in use by German government troops. Berlin, January 1919\|alt\=](/wiki/File:Mark_IV_Berlin.jpg "Mark IV Berlin.jpg")
On the following day, 6 January, the Revolutionary Committee again called for a mass demonstration. Even more people heeded the call and filled the streets from the [Siegesallee](/wiki/Siegesallee "Siegesallee") to the [Alexanderplatz](/wiki/Alexanderplatz "Alexanderplatz"). But the masses were leaderless; the Committee provided no direction and no orders to act.{{Sfn\|Haffner\|1991\|p\=137}} In addition, the protestors lacked support from the military. Even the People's Navy Division was unwilling to support the armed revolt and declared themselves neutral. The other regiments stationed in Berlin mostly remained loyal to the government.{{Sfn\|Winkler\|1993\|pp\=58–59}} As a result, very little happened that day.
While more troops were moving into Berlin on Ebert's order, he accepted an offer by the USPD to mediate between the government and the Revolutionary Committee, but the negotiations failed the following day. On 8 January, in an appeal to the people of Berlin, the Council of the People's Deputies stated that "force can be fought only with force. ... The hour of reckoning approaches!"{{Cite web \|last\=Sauer \|first\=Bernhard \|date\=2018 \|title\=Der "Spartakusaufstand". Legende und Wirklichkeit \|trans\-title\=The "Spartacus Uprising". Legends and Reality \|url\=http://www.bernhard\-sauer\-historiker.de/Karuscheit\_ua\_Novemberrevolution\_Sauer.pdf \|access\-date\=20 March 2024 \|website\=Bernhard Sauer – Historiker \|page\=112 \|language\=de}} The USPD and KPD leadership decided to press ahead with the revolutionary overthrow of the Ebert government, but the masses were more interested in the unification of the parties of the Left. Finally, on 11 January, *Freikorps* forces attacked and took the {{Lang\|de\|Vorwärts}} building with heavy weaponry.{{Sfn\|Sauer\|2018\|pp\=114, 116, 124}} Six parliamentarians who came out to negotiate a surrender were summarily shot. The remaining occupied buildings were taken the same day, and by 12 January the uprising was over.{{Sfn\|Winkler\|1993\|p\=59}} The death toll was estimated at 156\.{{Cite book \|last\=Wette \|first\=Wolfram \|title\=Gustav Noske. Eine politische Biographie \|publisher\=Droste \|year\=1987 \|isbn\=978\-3770007288 \|location\=Düsseldorf \|page\=308 \|language\=de}}
The historian [Eberhard Kolb](/wiki/Eberhard_Kolb "Eberhard Kolb") calls the January Revolt the revolution's [Battle of the Marne](/wiki/Battle_of_the_Marne_%281918%29 "Battle of the Marne (1918)") (Germany's July 1918 battlefield defeat that led directly to the [Armistice](/wiki/Armistice_of_11_November_1918 "Armistice of 11 November 1918")). The 1919 uprising and its brutal end exacerbated the already deep divisions in the workers' movement and fuelled more political radicalisation.
#### Murder of Karl Liebknecht and Rosa Luxemburg
Rosa Luxemburg and Karl Liebknecht, the ringleaders of the January Revolt, were forced to go into hiding after its failure, but in spite of the urgings of their associates, they refused to leave Berlin. On the evening of 15 January 1919, the two were found by the authorities in an apartment in the [Wilmersdorf](/wiki/Wilmersdorf "Wilmersdorf") district of Berlin. They were immediately arrested and handed over to the largest *Freikorps* unit, the heavily armed {{lang\|de\|Garde\-Kavallerie\-Schützen\-Division}}. Its commander, Captain [Waldemar Pabst](/wiki/Waldemar_Pabst "Waldemar Pabst"), had them questioned. The same night both prisoners were clubbed with the butt of a rifle and shot in the head. Karl Liebknecht's body, without a name, was delivered to a nearby morgue. Rosa Luxemburg's body was thrown into Berlin's [Landwehr Canal](/wiki/Landwehr_Canal "Landwehr Canal"), where it was found only on 1 July.{{Sfn\|Haffner\|1991\|pp\=155–156}}
The perpetrators for the most part went unpunished. The [Nazi Party](/wiki/Nazi_Party "Nazi Party") later compensated the few who had been put on trial or jailed,{{Cite book \|last1\=Daimagüler \|first1\=Mehmet Gürcan \|url\={{Google books\|BOsmEAAAQBAJ\|page\=26\|plainurl\=yes}} \|title\=Das rechte Recht. Die deutsche Justiz und ihre Auseinandersetzung mit alten und neuen Nazis \|last2\=von Münchhausen \|first2\=Ernst \|publisher\=Penguin Random House Verlagsgruppe GmbH \|year\=2021 \|isbn\=9783641259259 \|location\=Munich \|pages\=26 \|language\=de \|trans\-title\=Right\-wing Justice. The German Judiciary and its Confrontation with Old and New Nazis}} and they merged the {{Lang\|de\|Garde\-Kavallerie}} into the SA ({{lang\|de\|\[\[Sturmabteilung]]}}). In an interview given to *[Der Spiegel](/wiki/Der_Spiegel "Der Spiegel")* in 1962 and in his memoirs, Pabst maintained that he had talked on the phone with Noske in the Chancellery*[Der Spiegel](/wiki/Der_Spiegel "Der Spiegel")* of 18\.04\.1962 and that Noske and Ebert had approved of his actions.{{Cite book \|last\=Gietinger \|first\=Klaus \|title\=Der Konterrevolutionär. Waldemar Pabst – eine deutsche Karriere \|publisher\=Verlag Lutz Schulenburg \|year\=2008 \|location\=Hamburg \|pages\=394 \|language\=de \|trans\-title\=The Counterrevolutionary. Waldemar Pabst – a German Career}} Pabst's statement was never confirmed, especially since neither the Reichstag nor the courts ever examined the case.
#### Final revolts
[thumb\|Dead revolutionaries in Berlin after summary execution, March 1919\|alt\=\|262x262px](/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_102-00539%2C_Berlin%2C_Revolution%2C_Standrechtlich_Erschossene.jpg "Bundesarchiv Bild 102-00539, Berlin, Revolution, Standrechtlich Erschossene.jpg")
In the first months of 1919, there were additional armed revolts in parts of Germany that culminated in the [Berlin March Battles](/wiki/Berlin_March_Battles "Berlin March Battles"). The overall cause was continued worker disappointment that the revolution had not achieved the goals they had hoped for in November 1918: nationalisation of key industries, recognition of the workers' and soldiers' councils and establishment of a [council republic](/wiki/Council_communism "Council communism"). In 1919, attaining the goals would have required the overthrow of the Ebert government.{{Cite web \|last\=Scriba \|first\=Arnulf \|date\=1 September 2014 \|title\=Die Märzkämpfe 1919 \|trans\-title\=The March Battles 1919 \|url\=https://www.dhm.de/lemo/kapitel/weimarer\-republik/revolution\-191819/maerzkaempfe\-1919\.html \|access\-date\=22 March 2024 \|website\=Deutsches Historisches Museum \|language\=de}} General strikes were called in [Upper Silesia](/wiki/Upper_Silesia "Upper Silesia") in January, in the Ruhr district in February{{Cite web \|last\=Kozicki \|first\=Norbert Kozicki \|title\=Die Essener Sozialisierungsbewegung und ihr Ende (Januar/Februar 1919\) \|trans\-title\=The Essen Socialisation Movement and its End (January/February 1919\) \|url\=https://herne\-damals\-heute.de/politische\-teilhabe/die\-essener\-sozialisierungsbewegung\-und\-ihr\-ende\-januar\-februar\-1919/ \|access\-date\=22 March 2024 \|website\=Herne von damals bis heute \|language\=de}} and in [Saxony](/wiki/Saxony "Saxony") and [Thuringia](/wiki/Thuringia "Thuringia") in February and March.
In Berlin, members of the USPD and KPD called for a general strike that started on 4 March. Its key aims were the socialisation of major industries, democratisation of the military and the safeguarding of the position of the remaining workers' and soldiers' councils. Against the will of the leadership, the strikes escalated into street fighting. The Prussian state government, which had declared a state of siege, called on the Reich government for help. It responded with the deployment of both government and *Freikorps* troops. On 9 March, Gustav Noske, to whom executive power had been transferred, gave the order to shoot on sight anyone found carrying a weapon. By the end of the fighting on 16 March, the uprising had been bloodily quashed, with a death toll of at least 1,200\.
Short\-lived [soviet republics](/wiki/Soviet_republic_%28system_of_government%29 "Soviet republic (system of government)") were proclaimed in a number of cities and towns into early 1919, but only those in [Bavaria](/wiki/Bavarian_Soviet_Republic "Bavarian Soviet Republic") (Munich) and [Bremen](/wiki/Bremen_Soviet_Republic "Bremen Soviet Republic") lasted longer than a few days. They were overthrown by government and *Freikorps* troops with considerable loss of life: 80 in Bremen (February){{Cite book \|last\=Hans Rudolf \|first\=Wahl \|url\=https://www.deutschlandstudien.uni\-bremen.de/wp\-content/uploads/2019/03/Wahl\-Novemberrevolution\-R%C3%A4terepublik\-und\-Demokratiegr%C3%BCndung\-in\-Bremen.pdf \|title\=Revolution in Norddeutschland \|publisher\=Metropol Verlag \|year\=2018 \|editor\-last\=Lehnert \|editor\-first\=Detlef \|location\=Berlin \|publication\-date\=2018 \|pages\=210–211 \|language\=de \|trans\-title\=Revolution in North Germany \|chapter\=Novemberrevolution, Räterepublik und Demokratiegründung in Bremen \|trans\-chapter\=November Revolution, Soviet Republic and Founding of Democracy in Bremen}} and about 600 in Munich (May).{{Cite book \|last\=Burleigh \|first\=Michael \|author\-link\=Michael Burleigh \|title\=The Third Reich: A New History \|publisher\=Hill and Wang \|year\=2000 \|isbn\=9780809093250 \|location\=New York \|pages\=40}}
According to the predominant opinion of modern historians, the establishment of a Bolshevik\-style council government in Germany following the war would have been all but impossible. The Ebert government felt threatened by a coup from the Left and was certainly undermined by the Spartacus movement. That underlay its cooperation with the Supreme Army Command and the *Freikorps*. The brutal actions of the *Freikorps* during the various revolts estranged many left democrats from the SPD. They regarded the behaviour of Ebert, Noske and the other SPD leaders during the revolution as a betrayal of their own followers.{{Sfn\|Schulze\|1994\|p\=169–170}}
|
[
"### Turn to violence",
"#### Opposition from the Right",
"On 6 December 1918, in what was likely a putsch attempt, a group of armed students and soldiers, including some members of the [People's Navy Division](/wiki/Volksmarinedivision \"Volksmarinedivision\") ({{Lang\\|de\\|Volksmarinedivision}}), went to the [Reich Chancellery](/wiki/Reich_Chancellery \"Reich Chancellery\") and asked Friedrich Ebert to accept the office of president with nearly dictatorial powers, an offer that Ebert carefully refused.{{sfn\\|Winkler\\|1993\\|pp\\=49–50}} At around the same time – although some sources say that it involved the same demonstrators who spoke to Ebert – a group of soldiers briefly took the members of the Executive Council into custody.{{Cite web \\|date\\=24 November 1968 \\|title\\=November 1918: \"Kartoffeln \\- keine Revolution\" \\|trans\\-title\\=November 1918: \"Potatoes \\- not a Revolution\" \\|url\\=https://www.spiegel.de/politik/november\\-1918\\-kartoffeln\\-keine\\-revolution\\-a\\-05d82072\\-0002\\-0001\\-0000\\-000045922013 \\|access\\-date\\=3 January 2024 \\|website\\=Der Spiegel \\|language\\=de}} In an unrelated incident several hours later, members of the Garde\\-Füsilier\\-Regiment, which was responsible for security in Berlin's government quarter, fired on an approved Spartacist demonstration, killing 16 and seriously wounding 12\\.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Gallus \\|first\\=Alexander \\|date\\=13 September 2018 \\|title\\=Die deutsche Revolution 1918/19 \\|trans\\-title\\=The German Revolution 1918/19 \\|url\\=https://www.bpb.de/themen/erster\\-weltkrieg\\-weimar/weimarer\\-republik/275865/die\\-deutsche\\-revolution\\-1918\\-19/ \\|access\\-date\\=3 January 2024 \\|website\\=Bundeszentrale für politische Bildung \\|language\\=de}}{{Cite web \\|last\\=Kröger \\|first\\=Martin \\|date\\=6 November 2008 \\|title\\=Novemberrevolution: Rotes Tuch für Steinmeier \\|trans\\-title\\=November Revolution: Red Cloth for Steinmeier \\|url\\=https://www.spiegel.de/geschichte/90\\-jahre\\-novemberrevolution\\-a\\-947999\\.html \\|access\\-date\\=3 January 2024 \\|website\\=Der Spiegel \\|language\\=de}} It is not certain who gave the order to fire or who was behind the assumed putsch.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Piper \\|first\\=Ernst \\|date\\=23 July 2018 \\|title\\=Deutscher Umsturz \\|trans\\-title\\=German Coup \\|url\\=https://www.das\\-parlament.de/2018/30\\_31/themenausgaben/564724\\-564724 \\|website\\=Das Parlament \\|language\\=de}} The historian [Heinrich August Winkler](/wiki/Heinrich_August_Winkler \"Heinrich August Winkler\") attributes it to \"high\\-ranking officers and officials\" who planned to have Ebert disband the workers' and soldiers' councils with the military's support.",
"Ebert and the [Army High Command](/wiki/Oberste_Heeresleitung \"Oberste Heeresleitung\") (OHL) had agreed that troops returning from the front would parade through Berlin on 10 December. Ebert greeted them with a glowing speech that included words that would help give rise to the [stab\\-in\\-the\\-back myth](/wiki/Stab-in-the-back_myth \"Stab-in-the-back myth\"): \"No enemy overcame you.\" General Groener had wanted to use the soldiers to disarm the civilians of Berlin and rid it of Spartacists, but the majority of the soldiers wanted only to return home for Christmas with their families and simply dispersed into the city after the parade. Their lack of interest in more fighting put an end to Groener's hope that he could lead the troops to domestic successes that would make the OHL the recognized force in restoring order.",
"As a result of the events, the potential for violence and the danger of a coup from the Right became visible. [Rosa Luxemburg](/wiki/Rosa_Luxemburg \"Rosa Luxemburg\"), in the Spartacist newspaper *[Rote Fahne](/wiki/Rote_Fahne \"Rote Fahne\")* (\"*Red Flag*\"), demanded the peaceful disarmament of returning soldiers by the workers of Berlin. She wanted the soldiers' councils to be subordinated to the revolutionary parliament and the soldiers to be \"re\\-educated\".{{Citation needed\\|date\\=April 2024}}",
"#### Christmas crisis",
"{{Main\\|1918 Christmas crisis}}",
"Because the People's Navy Division had been helpful to the government in Kiel and was considered loyal,{{Cite book \\|last\\=Ostrowski \\|first\\=Marius S. \\|url\\={{Google books\\|BJO7DwAAQBAJ\\|page\\=138\\|plainurl\\=yes}} \\|title\\=Eduard Bernstein on the German Revolution. Selected Historical Writings \\|publisher\\=Springer International \\|year\\=2019 \\|isbn\\=9783030277192 \\|location\\=Berlin \\|page\\=138}} it was ordered to Berlin in early November to help protect the city's government quarter and stationed in the [Royal Stables](/wiki/Neuer_Marstall \"Neuer Marstall\") across from the [Berlin Palace](/wiki/Berlin_Palace \"Berlin Palace\"). Following the coup attempt of 6 December, the sailors deposed their commander because of his alleged involvement in it.{{Cite book \\|last\\=Wrobel \\|first\\=Kurt \\|url\\={{Google books\\| DORXAAAAIAAJ \\|page\\=480\\|plainurl\\=yes}} \\|title\\=Zeitschrift für Militärgeschichte Volume 7 \\|publisher\\=Deutscher Militärverlag \\|year\\=1968 \\|location\\=Berlin \\|pages\\=480 \\|language\\=de \\|chapter\\=Heinrich Dorrenbach – Soldat der Revolution \\|trans\\-chapter\\=Heinrich Dorrenbach – Soldier of the Revolution}} The government came to see the division as generally standing with the leftist revolutionaries,{{Cite book \\|last\\=Oeckel \\|first\\=Heinz \\|url\\={{Google books\\| DORXAAAAIAAJ \\|page\\=539\\|plainurl\\=yes}} \\|title\\=Zeitschrift für Militärgeschichte Volume 7 \\|publisher\\=Deutscher Militärverlag \\|year\\=1968 \\|location\\=Berlin \\|page\\=539 \\|language\\=de \\|chapter\\=Volkswehrbewegung und Novemberrevolution \\|trans\\-chapter\\=People's Defence Movement and the November Revolution}} and on 23 December, the Council of the People's Deputies ordered it out of Berlin, considerably reduced its size and refused the men their pay.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Scriba \\|first\\=Arnulf \\|date\\=1 September 2014 \\|title\\=Die Weihnachtskämpfe 1918 \\|trans\\-title\\=The Christmas Battles 1918 \\|url\\=https://www.dhm.de/lemo/kapitel/weimarer\\-republik/revolution\\-191819/die\\-weihnachtskaempfe\\-1918\\.html \\|access\\-date\\=4 March 2024 \\|website\\=Deutsches Historisches Museum \\|language\\=de}}\n[thumb\\|Leftist soldiers during Christmas fighting in the [Berlin Palace](/wiki/Berlin_Palace \"Berlin Palace\")\\|266x266px](/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1976-067-30A%2C_Revolution_in_Berlin%2C_Soldaten_im_Kampf.jpg \"Bundesarchiv Bild 146-1976-067-30A, Revolution in Berlin, Soldaten im Kampf.jpg\")\nThe sailors then occupied the Reich Chancellery, cut the phone lines, put the Council of People's Representatives under house arrest and took Otto Wels hostage and physically abused him. Ebert, who was in touch with the Supreme Command in Kassel via a secret phone line, gave orders on the morning of 24 December to attack the Palace with troops loyal to the government. The sailors repelled the attack after they were joined by armed workers and the security forces of the Berlin police.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Deutsche Revolution: Weihnachtskämpfe \\|trans\\-title\\=German Revolution: Christmas Battles \\|url\\=http://www.deutschegeschichten.de/zeitraum/themaplus.asp?KategorieID\\=1001\\&InhaltID\\=1555\\&Seite\\=6 \\|access\\-date\\=4 March 2024 \\|website\\=Bundeszentrale für politische Bildung \\|language\\=de}} The government troops had to withdraw with the loss of 56 soldiers. The People's Navy Division, which counted just 11 deaths, was allowed to remain intact, and the sailors received their pay.",
"The main result of the [Christmas crisis](/wiki/1918_Christmas_crisis \"1918 Christmas crisis\"), which the Spartacists named \"Ebert's Bloody Christmas\",{{Cite book \\|url\\={{Google books\\|6fhQEAAAQBAJ \\|page\\=37\\|plainurl\\=yes}} \\|title\\=The Oxford Handbook of the Weimar Republic \\|publisher\\=Oxford University Press \\|year\\=2022 \\|isbn\\=978\\-0198845775 \\|editor\\-last\\=Ziemann \\|editor\\-first\\=Benjamin \\|location\\=Oxford, UK \\|page\\=37 \\|editor\\-last2\\=Rossol \\|editor\\-first2\\=Nadine}} was that the USPD resigned from the government in protest on 29 December. Its three members were replaced on the Council of the People's Deputies by two from the SPD: [Gustav Noske](/wiki/Gustav_Noske \"Gustav Noske\") (responsible for the military) and [Rudolf Wissell](/wiki/Rudolf_Wissell \"Rudolf Wissell\") (labour and social affairs). In light of the military's failure at the Berlin Palace, Noske ordered a strengthening of the *Freikorps* for use against internal enemies.",
"#### Founding of the Communist Party and Spartacist uprising",
"{{Main\\|Spartacist uprising}}\n[thumb\\|The occupation of the Silesian railway station in Berlin by government troops\\|243x243px](/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_119-1577%2C_Revolution_in_Berlin.jpg \"Bundesarchiv Bild 119-1577, Revolution in Berlin.jpg\")\nAfter their experiences with the SPD and the USPD, the Spartacists concluded that their goals could be met only by forming a party of their own. They therefore joined with other left\\-socialist groups from across Germany to found the [Communist Party of Germany](/wiki/Communist_Party_of_Germany \"Communist Party of Germany\") (KPD).{{sfn\\|Winkler\\|1993\\|p\\=55}}",
"Rosa Luxemburg drew up a founding programme and presented it on 31 December 1918\\. She wrote that the communists could never take power without the clear will of the majority of the people. On 1 January she proposed that the KPD participate in the elections for a national assembly, but a motion to boycott the elections passed 62 to 23\\. In the words of Marxist historian [Arthur Rosenberg](/wiki/Arthur_Rosenberg \"Arthur Rosenberg\"), the majority still implicitly hoped to gain power through \"putschist adventures\". After deliberations with the Spartacists, the Revolutionary Stewards decided to remain in the USPD.{{Sfn\\|Winkler\\|1993\\|p\\=56}}",
"A wave of violence started on 4 January when the Prussian government dismissed the chief of the Berlin police, [Emil Eichhorn](/wiki/Emil_Eichhorn \"Emil Eichhorn\") (USPD), for supporting the People's Navy Division during the Christmas crisis. His dismissal led the USPD, Revolutionary Stewards and KPD chairmen [Karl Liebknecht](/wiki/Karl_Liebknecht \"Karl Liebknecht\") and [Wilhelm Pieck](/wiki/Wilhelm_Pieck \"Wilhelm Pieck\") to call for a demonstration the following day. On 5 January, as on 9 November 1918, hundreds of thousands of people poured into the centre of Berlin, many of them armed. In the afternoon, the train stations and the newspaper district with the offices of the middle\\-class press and the SPD' {{Lang\\|de\\|Vorwärts}} were occupied.",
"[thumb\\|left\\|Spartacist militia in Berlin](/wiki/File:AlzadosEspartaquistas..png \"AlzadosEspartaquistas..png\")\nThe demonstrators were mainly the same people who had participated in the revolutionary actions in November who were demanding the fulfilment of their wish for a workers' government expressed two months previously. The so\\-called \"[Spartacist uprising](/wiki/Spartacist_uprising \"Spartacist uprising\")\" that followed originated only partially in the KPD. The Spartacists did not have a leading position in January 1919\\. KPD members were a minority among the insurgents.{{Sfn\\|Haffner\\|1991\\|pp\\=144–145}}",
"The initiators of the revolt, who had gathered at the Police Headquarters, elected a 53\\-member \"Interim Revolutionary Committee\" ({{lang\\|de\\|Provisorischer Revolutionsausschuss}}) that failed to make use of its power and was unable to give any clear direction.{{Sfn\\|Haffner\\|1991\\|pp\\=136–137}} Liebknecht wanted the government overthrown and agreed with the majority of the Committee that supported an armed struggle. Rosa Luxemburg and other KPD leaders ([Leo Jogiches](/wiki/Leo_Jogiches \"Leo Jogiches\"), [Karl Radek](/wiki/Karl_Radek \"Karl Radek\")) thought a revolt at that time to be premature and spoke out against it, although Luxemburg later gave in and followed the will of the majority of the Committee.{{Sfn\\|Winkler\\|1993}}",
"[thumb\\|A British [Mark IV tank](/wiki/Mark_IV_tank \"Mark IV tank\"), captured during World War I, in use by German government troops. Berlin, January 1919\\|alt\\=](/wiki/File:Mark_IV_Berlin.jpg \"Mark IV Berlin.jpg\")\nOn the following day, 6 January, the Revolutionary Committee again called for a mass demonstration. Even more people heeded the call and filled the streets from the [Siegesallee](/wiki/Siegesallee \"Siegesallee\") to the [Alexanderplatz](/wiki/Alexanderplatz \"Alexanderplatz\"). But the masses were leaderless; the Committee provided no direction and no orders to act.{{Sfn\\|Haffner\\|1991\\|p\\=137}} In addition, the protestors lacked support from the military. Even the People's Navy Division was unwilling to support the armed revolt and declared themselves neutral. The other regiments stationed in Berlin mostly remained loyal to the government.{{Sfn\\|Winkler\\|1993\\|pp\\=58–59}} As a result, very little happened that day.",
"While more troops were moving into Berlin on Ebert's order, he accepted an offer by the USPD to mediate between the government and the Revolutionary Committee, but the negotiations failed the following day. On 8 January, in an appeal to the people of Berlin, the Council of the People's Deputies stated that \"force can be fought only with force. ... The hour of reckoning approaches!\"{{Cite web \\|last\\=Sauer \\|first\\=Bernhard \\|date\\=2018 \\|title\\=Der \"Spartakusaufstand\". Legende und Wirklichkeit \\|trans\\-title\\=The \"Spartacus Uprising\". Legends and Reality \\|url\\=http://www.bernhard\\-sauer\\-historiker.de/Karuscheit\\_ua\\_Novemberrevolution\\_Sauer.pdf \\|access\\-date\\=20 March 2024 \\|website\\=Bernhard Sauer – Historiker \\|page\\=112 \\|language\\=de}} The USPD and KPD leadership decided to press ahead with the revolutionary overthrow of the Ebert government, but the masses were more interested in the unification of the parties of the Left. Finally, on 11 January, *Freikorps* forces attacked and took the {{Lang\\|de\\|Vorwärts}} building with heavy weaponry.{{Sfn\\|Sauer\\|2018\\|pp\\=114, 116, 124}} Six parliamentarians who came out to negotiate a surrender were summarily shot. The remaining occupied buildings were taken the same day, and by 12 January the uprising was over.{{Sfn\\|Winkler\\|1993\\|p\\=59}} The death toll was estimated at 156\\.{{Cite book \\|last\\=Wette \\|first\\=Wolfram \\|title\\=Gustav Noske. Eine politische Biographie \\|publisher\\=Droste \\|year\\=1987 \\|isbn\\=978\\-3770007288 \\|location\\=Düsseldorf \\|page\\=308 \\|language\\=de}}",
"The historian [Eberhard Kolb](/wiki/Eberhard_Kolb \"Eberhard Kolb\") calls the January Revolt the revolution's [Battle of the Marne](/wiki/Battle_of_the_Marne_%281918%29 \"Battle of the Marne (1918)\") (Germany's July 1918 battlefield defeat that led directly to the [Armistice](/wiki/Armistice_of_11_November_1918 \"Armistice of 11 November 1918\")). The 1919 uprising and its brutal end exacerbated the already deep divisions in the workers' movement and fuelled more political radicalisation.",
"#### Murder of Karl Liebknecht and Rosa Luxemburg",
"Rosa Luxemburg and Karl Liebknecht, the ringleaders of the January Revolt, were forced to go into hiding after its failure, but in spite of the urgings of their associates, they refused to leave Berlin. On the evening of 15 January 1919, the two were found by the authorities in an apartment in the [Wilmersdorf](/wiki/Wilmersdorf \"Wilmersdorf\") district of Berlin. They were immediately arrested and handed over to the largest *Freikorps* unit, the heavily armed {{lang\\|de\\|Garde\\-Kavallerie\\-Schützen\\-Division}}. Its commander, Captain [Waldemar Pabst](/wiki/Waldemar_Pabst \"Waldemar Pabst\"), had them questioned. The same night both prisoners were clubbed with the butt of a rifle and shot in the head. Karl Liebknecht's body, without a name, was delivered to a nearby morgue. Rosa Luxemburg's body was thrown into Berlin's [Landwehr Canal](/wiki/Landwehr_Canal \"Landwehr Canal\"), where it was found only on 1 July.{{Sfn\\|Haffner\\|1991\\|pp\\=155–156}}",
"The perpetrators for the most part went unpunished. The [Nazi Party](/wiki/Nazi_Party \"Nazi Party\") later compensated the few who had been put on trial or jailed,{{Cite book \\|last1\\=Daimagüler \\|first1\\=Mehmet Gürcan \\|url\\={{Google books\\|BOsmEAAAQBAJ\\|page\\=26\\|plainurl\\=yes}} \\|title\\=Das rechte Recht. Die deutsche Justiz und ihre Auseinandersetzung mit alten und neuen Nazis \\|last2\\=von Münchhausen \\|first2\\=Ernst \\|publisher\\=Penguin Random House Verlagsgruppe GmbH \\|year\\=2021 \\|isbn\\=9783641259259 \\|location\\=Munich \\|pages\\=26 \\|language\\=de \\|trans\\-title\\=Right\\-wing Justice. The German Judiciary and its Confrontation with Old and New Nazis}} and they merged the {{Lang\\|de\\|Garde\\-Kavallerie}} into the SA ({{lang\\|de\\|\\[\\[Sturmabteilung]]}}). In an interview given to *[Der Spiegel](/wiki/Der_Spiegel \"Der Spiegel\")* in 1962 and in his memoirs, Pabst maintained that he had talked on the phone with Noske in the Chancellery*[Der Spiegel](/wiki/Der_Spiegel \"Der Spiegel\")* of 18\\.04\\.1962 and that Noske and Ebert had approved of his actions.{{Cite book \\|last\\=Gietinger \\|first\\=Klaus \\|title\\=Der Konterrevolutionär. Waldemar Pabst – eine deutsche Karriere \\|publisher\\=Verlag Lutz Schulenburg \\|year\\=2008 \\|location\\=Hamburg \\|pages\\=394 \\|language\\=de \\|trans\\-title\\=The Counterrevolutionary. Waldemar Pabst – a German Career}} Pabst's statement was never confirmed, especially since neither the Reichstag nor the courts ever examined the case.",
"#### Final revolts",
"[thumb\\|Dead revolutionaries in Berlin after summary execution, March 1919\\|alt\\=\\|262x262px](/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_102-00539%2C_Berlin%2C_Revolution%2C_Standrechtlich_Erschossene.jpg \"Bundesarchiv Bild 102-00539, Berlin, Revolution, Standrechtlich Erschossene.jpg\")\nIn the first months of 1919, there were additional armed revolts in parts of Germany that culminated in the [Berlin March Battles](/wiki/Berlin_March_Battles \"Berlin March Battles\"). The overall cause was continued worker disappointment that the revolution had not achieved the goals they had hoped for in November 1918: nationalisation of key industries, recognition of the workers' and soldiers' councils and establishment of a [council republic](/wiki/Council_communism \"Council communism\"). In 1919, attaining the goals would have required the overthrow of the Ebert government.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Scriba \\|first\\=Arnulf \\|date\\=1 September 2014 \\|title\\=Die Märzkämpfe 1919 \\|trans\\-title\\=The March Battles 1919 \\|url\\=https://www.dhm.de/lemo/kapitel/weimarer\\-republik/revolution\\-191819/maerzkaempfe\\-1919\\.html \\|access\\-date\\=22 March 2024 \\|website\\=Deutsches Historisches Museum \\|language\\=de}} General strikes were called in [Upper Silesia](/wiki/Upper_Silesia \"Upper Silesia\") in January, in the Ruhr district in February{{Cite web \\|last\\=Kozicki \\|first\\=Norbert Kozicki \\|title\\=Die Essener Sozialisierungsbewegung und ihr Ende (Januar/Februar 1919\\) \\|trans\\-title\\=The Essen Socialisation Movement and its End (January/February 1919\\) \\|url\\=https://herne\\-damals\\-heute.de/politische\\-teilhabe/die\\-essener\\-sozialisierungsbewegung\\-und\\-ihr\\-ende\\-januar\\-februar\\-1919/ \\|access\\-date\\=22 March 2024 \\|website\\=Herne von damals bis heute \\|language\\=de}} and in [Saxony](/wiki/Saxony \"Saxony\") and [Thuringia](/wiki/Thuringia \"Thuringia\") in February and March.",
"In Berlin, members of the USPD and KPD called for a general strike that started on 4 March. Its key aims were the socialisation of major industries, democratisation of the military and the safeguarding of the position of the remaining workers' and soldiers' councils. Against the will of the leadership, the strikes escalated into street fighting. The Prussian state government, which had declared a state of siege, called on the Reich government for help. It responded with the deployment of both government and *Freikorps* troops. On 9 March, Gustav Noske, to whom executive power had been transferred, gave the order to shoot on sight anyone found carrying a weapon. By the end of the fighting on 16 March, the uprising had been bloodily quashed, with a death toll of at least 1,200\\.",
"Short\\-lived [soviet republics](/wiki/Soviet_republic_%28system_of_government%29 \"Soviet republic (system of government)\") were proclaimed in a number of cities and towns into early 1919, but only those in [Bavaria](/wiki/Bavarian_Soviet_Republic \"Bavarian Soviet Republic\") (Munich) and [Bremen](/wiki/Bremen_Soviet_Republic \"Bremen Soviet Republic\") lasted longer than a few days. They were overthrown by government and *Freikorps* troops with considerable loss of life: 80 in Bremen (February){{Cite book \\|last\\=Hans Rudolf \\|first\\=Wahl \\|url\\=https://www.deutschlandstudien.uni\\-bremen.de/wp\\-content/uploads/2019/03/Wahl\\-Novemberrevolution\\-R%C3%A4terepublik\\-und\\-Demokratiegr%C3%BCndung\\-in\\-Bremen.pdf \\|title\\=Revolution in Norddeutschland \\|publisher\\=Metropol Verlag \\|year\\=2018 \\|editor\\-last\\=Lehnert \\|editor\\-first\\=Detlef \\|location\\=Berlin \\|publication\\-date\\=2018 \\|pages\\=210–211 \\|language\\=de \\|trans\\-title\\=Revolution in North Germany \\|chapter\\=Novemberrevolution, Räterepublik und Demokratiegründung in Bremen \\|trans\\-chapter\\=November Revolution, Soviet Republic and Founding of Democracy in Bremen}} and about 600 in Munich (May).{{Cite book \\|last\\=Burleigh \\|first\\=Michael \\|author\\-link\\=Michael Burleigh \\|title\\=The Third Reich: A New History \\|publisher\\=Hill and Wang \\|year\\=2000 \\|isbn\\=9780809093250 \\|location\\=New York \\|pages\\=40}}",
"According to the predominant opinion of modern historians, the establishment of a Bolshevik\\-style council government in Germany following the war would have been all but impossible. The Ebert government felt threatened by a coup from the Left and was certainly undermined by the Spartacus movement. That underlay its cooperation with the Supreme Army Command and the *Freikorps*. The brutal actions of the *Freikorps* during the various revolts estranged many left democrats from the SPD. They regarded the behaviour of Ebert, Noske and the other SPD leaders during the revolution as a betrayal of their own followers.{{Sfn\\|Schulze\\|1994\\|p\\=169–170}}",
""
] |
Contemporary statements
-----------------------
Depending on their political standpoint, contemporaries had greatly differing opinions about the revolution.
[Ernst Troeltsch](/wiki/Ernst_Troeltsch "Ernst Troeltsch"), a Protestant theologian and philosopher, rather calmly remarked how the majority of Berlin citizens perceived 10 November:
> On Sunday morning, after a frightful night, the morning newspapers gave a clear picture: the Emperor in Holland, the revolution victorious in most urban centres, the royals in the states abdicating. No man dead for Emperor and Empire! The continuation of duties ensured and no run on the banks! (...) Trams and subways ran as usual, which is a pledge that basic needs are cared for. On all faces it could be read: Wages will continue to be paid.{{sfn\|Haffner\|2002\|p\=85}}
Lending himself to far too optimistic illusions, which the SPD leadership also might have had, the liberal journalist [Theodor Wolff](/wiki/Theodor_Wolff "Theodor Wolff") wrote on 10 November in the newspaper *[Berliner Tageblatt](/wiki/Berliner_Tageblatt "Berliner Tageblatt")*:
> Like a sudden storm, the biggest of all revolutions has toppled the imperial regime, including everything that belonged to it. It can be called the greatest of all revolutions because never has a more firmly built (...) fortress been taken in this manner at the first attempt. Only one week ago, there was still a military and civil administration so deeply rooted that it seemed to have secured its dominion beyond the change of times. (...) Only yesterday morning, at least in Berlin, all this still existed. Yesterday afternoon it was all gone.{{sfn\|Haffner\|2002\|p\=95}}
The extreme Right had a completely opposite perception. On 10 November, conservative journalist Paul Baecker wrote an article in {{Lang\|de\|Deutsche Tageszeitung}} which already contained essential elements of the *[stab\-in\-the\-back myth](/wiki/Stab-in-the-back_myth "Stab-in-the-back myth")*:
> The work fought for by our fathers with their precious blood – dismissed by betrayal in the ranks of our own people! Germany, yesterday still undefeated, left to the mercy of our enemies by men carrying the German name, by felony out of our own ranks broken down in guilt and shame.
> The German socialists knew that peace was at hand anyway and that it was only a matter of holding out against the enemy for a few days or weeks in order to wrest bearable conditions from them. In this situation they raised the white flag.
> This is a sin that can never be forgiven and never will be forgiven. This is treason not only against the monarchy and the army but also against the German people themselves who will have to bear the consequences in centuries of decline and of misery.{{sfn\|Haffner\|2002\|p\=96}}
In an article on the 10th anniversary of the revolution, the journalist [Kurt Tucholsky](/wiki/Kurt_Tucholsky "Kurt Tucholsky") remarked that neither Wolff nor Baecker were right. Nevertheless, Tucholsky accused Ebert and Noske of betrayal, not of the monarchy but of the revolution. Although he wanted to regard it as only a coup d'état, he analysed the course of events more clearly than most of his contemporaries. In 1928 he wrote in "November Coup":
> The German Revolution of 1918 took place in a hall.
The things taking place were not a revolution. There was no spiritual preparation, no leaders ready in the dark; no revolutionary goals. The mother of this revolution was the soldiers' longing to be home for Christmas. And weariness, disgust and weariness.
The possibilities that nevertheless were lying in the streets were betrayed by Ebert and his like. Fritz\* Ebert, whom you cannot heighten to a personality by calling him Friedrich, opposed the establishment of a republic only until he found there was a post of chairman to be had; comrade Scheidemann è tutti quanti, all were would\-be senior civil servants. (\* Fritz is the colloquial term for Friedrich like Willy is for William.)
The following possibilities were left out: shattering federal states, division of landed property, revolutionary socialization of industry, reform of administrative and judiciary personnel. A republican constitution in which every sentence rescinds the next one, a revolution talking about well\-acquired rights of the old regime, can be only laughed at.
*The German Revolution is still to take place.*{{Cite book \|last\=Tucholsky \|first\=Kurt \|title\=Gesammelte Werke \|publisher\=Rowohlt Reinbeck \|year\=1928 \|isbn\=978\-3499290060 \|volume\=6 \|location\=Hamburg \|pages\=300 \|language\=de \|trans\-title\=Collected Works}}
[Walther Rathenau](/wiki/Walther_Rathenau "Walther Rathenau") was of a similar opinion. He called the revolution a "disappointment", a "present by chance", a "product of desperation", a "revolution by mistake". It did not deserve the name because it did "not abolish the actual mistakes" but "degenerated into a degrading clash of interests".
> Not a chain was broken by the swelling of spirit and will, only a lock merely rusted through. The chain fell off and the freed stood amazed, helpless, embarrassed and needed to arm against their will. The ones sensing their advantage were the quickest.{{cite book \|last\=Sösemann\|first\=Bernd \|date\=1993 \|publisher\=Klett \|title\=Demokratie im Widerstreit. Die Weimarer Republik im Urteil der Zeitgenossen \|language\=de \|trans\-title\=Democracy in Conflict. The Weimar Republic in the Judgement of Contemporaries \|location\=Stuttgart\|page\=13 }}
The historian [Sebastian Haffner](/wiki/Sebastian_Haffner "Sebastian Haffner") in turn came out against Tucholsky and Rathenau. He lived through the revolution in Berlin as a child and wrote 50 years later in his book about one of the myths related to the events of November 1918 that had taken root especially in the bourgeoisie:
> It is often said that a true revolution in Germany in 1918 never took place. All that really happened was a breakdown. It was only the temporary weakness of the police and army in the moment of military defeat which let a mutiny of sailors appear as a revolution.
>
> At first sight, one can see how wrong and blind it is comparing 1918 with 1945\. In 1945 there really was a breakdown.
> Certainly a mutiny of sailors started the revolution in 1918 but it was only a start. What made it extraordinary is that a mere sailors' mutiny triggered an earthquake which shook all of Germany; that the whole home army, the whole urban workforce and in Bavaria a part of the rural population rose up in revolt. This revolt was not just a mutiny anymore, it was a true revolution....
> As in any revolution, the old order was replaced by the beginnings of a new one. It was not just destructive but also creative....
> As a revolutionary achievement of masses the German November 1918 does not need to take second place to either the French July 1789 or the Russian March 1917\.{{sfn\|Haffner\|2002\|p\=193f}}
### Historical research
During the Nazi regime, works on the Weimar Republic and the German revolution published abroad and by exiles could not be read in Germany. Around 1935, that affected the first published history of the Weimar Republic by [Arthur Rosenberg](/wiki/Arthur_Rosenberg "Arthur Rosenberg"). In his view, the political situation at the beginning of the revolution was open: the moderate socialist and democratically oriented workforce had a chance to become the social foundation of the republic and to drive back the conservative forces. It failed because of bad decisions by the SPD leadership and because of the revolutionary tactics employed by the extreme left wing of the workforce.
After 1945, West German historical research on the Weimar Republic concentrated most of all on its decline. In 1951, Theodor Eschenburg mostly ignored the revolutionary beginning of the republic. In 1955, [Karl Dietrich Bracher](/wiki/Karl_Dietrich_Bracher "Karl Dietrich Bracher") also dealt with the German revolution from the perspective of the failed republic. [Erich Eyck](/wiki/Erich_Eyck "Erich Eyck") shows how little the revolution after 1945 was regarded as part of German history. His two\-volume *History of the Weimar Republic* gave barely 20 pages to the events. The same can be said for Karl Dietrich Erdmann's contribution to the 8th edition of the *Gebhardt Handbook for German History* ({{Lang\|de\|Gebhardtsches Handbuch zur Deutschen Geschichte}}), whose viewpoint dominated the interpretation of events related to the German revolution after 1945\. According to Erdmann, 1918/19 was about the choice between "social revolution in line with forces demanding a proletarian dictatorship and parliamentary republic in line with the conservative elements like the German officer corps".{{Cite book \|last\=Kluge \|first\=Ulrich \|title\=Die deutsche Revolution 1918–1919 \|publisher\=Suhrkamp \|year\=1985 \|isbn\=978\-3518112625 \|location\=Berlin \|pages\=15 \|language\=de \|trans\-title\=The German Revolution 1918–1919}} As most Social Democrats were forced to join with the old elites to prevent an imminent council dictatorship, the blame for the failure of the Weimar Republic was to be put on the extreme Left, and the events of 1918/19 were successful defensive actions of democracy against Bolshevism.
This interpretation at the height of the [Cold War](/wiki/Cold_War "Cold War") was based on the assumption that the extreme Left was comparably strong and a real threat to the democratic development. On this point, West German researchers ironically found themselves in line with Marxist historiography in the [German Democratic Republic](/wiki/German_Democratic_Republic "German Democratic Republic") (GDR), which attributed considerable revolutionary potential most of all to the Spartacists.On East German historiography of the German revolution see Mario Keßler: Die Novemberrevolution in der Geschichtswissenschaft der DDR – Die Kontroversen des Jahres 1958 und ihre Folgen im internationalen Kontext, in: [Jahrbuch für Forschungen zur Geschichte der Arbeiterbewegung](/wiki/Arbeit_-_Bewegung_-_Geschichte "Arbeit - Bewegung - Geschichte"), No. III/2008\.
While in the postwar years the majority SPD (MSPD) was cleared of its Nazi odium as "November Criminals", GDR historians blamed the SPD for "betrayal of the working class" and the USPD leadership for their incompetence. Their interpretation was mainly based on the 1958 theories of the Central Committee of the [Socialist Unity Party of Germany](/wiki/Socialist_Unity_Party_of_Germany "Socialist Unity Party of Germany") according to which the German revolution was defined as a "bourgeois\-democratic revolution", led in certain aspects by proletarian means and methods. The fact that a revolution by the working class in Germany never happened could be attributed to the "subjective factor", especially the absence of a "[Marxist\-Leninist](/wiki/Marxist-Leninist "Marxist-Leninist") offensive party". Contrary to the official party line, [Rudolf Lindau](/wiki/Rudolf_Lindau_%28politician%29 "Rudolf Lindau (politician)") supported the theory that the German revolution had a Socialist tendency.
Consistently, the founding of the KPD (Communist Party of Germany) was declared to be the decisive turning point in German history, but in spite of ideological bias, historical research in the GDR expanded detailed knowledge of the German revolution.{{Cite book \|last\=Kolb \|first\=Eberhard \|title\=Die Weimarer Republik \|publisher\=Oldenbourg \|year\=1984 \|isbn\=978\-3486489118 \|location\=Munich / Vienna \|pages\=154f \|language\=de \|trans\-title\=The Weimar Republic}}
During the 1950s, West German historians had focused their research on the final stages of the Weimar Republic. In the 1960s, they shifted to its revolutionary beginnings, realising that the decisions and developments during the revolution were central to the failure of the first German republic. The [workers' and soldiers' councils](/wiki/German_workers%27_and_soldiers%27_councils_1918%E2%80%931919 "German workers' and soldiers' councils 1918–1919") especially moved into focus, and their previous appearance as a far\-left movement had to be revised extensively. Authors like Ulrich Kluge, [Eberhard Kolb](/wiki/Eberhard_Kolb "Eberhard Kolb") and Reinhard Rürup argued that in the first weeks of the revolution the social base for a democratic redesign of society was much stronger than previously thought and that the potential of the extreme Left was weaker than the SPD's leadership, for example, assumed.
As Bolshevism posed no real threat, the scope of action for the Council of the People's Deputies (also supported by the more reform\-oriented councils) to democratise the administration, military and society had been relatively large, but the SPD's leadership did not take the step because it trusted in the loyalty of the old elites and mistrusted the spontaneous mass movements in the first weeks of the revolution. The result was the radicalisation of the council movement. The theories were supported by the publications of the minutes of the Council of the People's Deputies. Increasingly, the history of the German revolution appeared as the history of its gradual reversal.
This new interpretation of the German revolution gained acceptance in research rather quickly even though older perceptions remained alive. Research concerning the composition of the worker's and soldier's councils, which today can be easily verified by sources, is undisputed to a large extent, but the interpretation of the revolutionary events based on the research has been criticised and partially modified since the end of the 1970s. Criticism was aimed at the partially idealised description of the workers' and soldiers' councils, which especially was the case in the wake of the [German Student Movement](/wiki/German_Student_Movement "German Student Movement") of the 1960s (1968\). Peter von Oertzen went particularly far in this respect, describing a social democracy based on councils as a positive alternative to the bourgeois republic. In comparison, [Wolfgang J. Mommsen](/wiki/Wolfgang_J._Mommsen "Wolfgang J. Mommsen") did not regard the councils as a homogeneous focused movement for democracy but as a heterogeneous group with a multitude of different motivations and goals. Jesse and Köhler talked about the "construct of a democratic council movement". Certainly, the authors also excluded a relapse to the positions of the 1950s: "The councils to a large extent were neither communist\-oriented, nor can the policies of the majority SPD in every aspect be labelled fortuitous and worth praising."{{Sfn\|Kolb\|1984\|pp\=160f}}
[Heinrich August Winkler](/wiki/Heinrich_August_Winkler "Heinrich August Winkler") tried to find a compromise, according to which the Social Democrats depended to a limited extent on cooperation with the old elites but went considerably too far: "With more political willpower they could have changed more and preserved less."{{Sfn\|Kolb\|1984\|p\=161}}
With all the differences concerning details, historical researchers agree that in the German revolution, the chances to put the republic on a firm footing were considerably better than the dangers coming from the radical left. Instead, the alliance of the SPD with the old elites constituted a considerable structural problem for the Weimar Republic.{{Sfn\|Kolb\|1984\|pp\=143–162}}{{Sfn\|Kluge\|1985\|pp\=10–38}}
|
[
"Contemporary statements\n-----------------------",
"Depending on their political standpoint, contemporaries had greatly differing opinions about the revolution.",
"[Ernst Troeltsch](/wiki/Ernst_Troeltsch \"Ernst Troeltsch\"), a Protestant theologian and philosopher, rather calmly remarked how the majority of Berlin citizens perceived 10 November:",
"> On Sunday morning, after a frightful night, the morning newspapers gave a clear picture: the Emperor in Holland, the revolution victorious in most urban centres, the royals in the states abdicating. No man dead for Emperor and Empire! The continuation of duties ensured and no run on the banks! (...) Trams and subways ran as usual, which is a pledge that basic needs are cared for. On all faces it could be read: Wages will continue to be paid.{{sfn\\|Haffner\\|2002\\|p\\=85}}",
"",
"Lending himself to far too optimistic illusions, which the SPD leadership also might have had, the liberal journalist [Theodor Wolff](/wiki/Theodor_Wolff \"Theodor Wolff\") wrote on 10 November in the newspaper *[Berliner Tageblatt](/wiki/Berliner_Tageblatt \"Berliner Tageblatt\")*:",
"> Like a sudden storm, the biggest of all revolutions has toppled the imperial regime, including everything that belonged to it. It can be called the greatest of all revolutions because never has a more firmly built (...) fortress been taken in this manner at the first attempt. Only one week ago, there was still a military and civil administration so deeply rooted that it seemed to have secured its dominion beyond the change of times. (...) Only yesterday morning, at least in Berlin, all this still existed. Yesterday afternoon it was all gone.{{sfn\\|Haffner\\|2002\\|p\\=95}}",
"",
"The extreme Right had a completely opposite perception. On 10 November, conservative journalist Paul Baecker wrote an article in {{Lang\\|de\\|Deutsche Tageszeitung}} which already contained essential elements of the *[stab\\-in\\-the\\-back myth](/wiki/Stab-in-the-back_myth \"Stab-in-the-back myth\")*:",
"> The work fought for by our fathers with their precious blood – dismissed by betrayal in the ranks of our own people! Germany, yesterday still undefeated, left to the mercy of our enemies by men carrying the German name, by felony out of our own ranks broken down in guilt and shame. \n> The German socialists knew that peace was at hand anyway and that it was only a matter of holding out against the enemy for a few days or weeks in order to wrest bearable conditions from them. In this situation they raised the white flag. \n> This is a sin that can never be forgiven and never will be forgiven. This is treason not only against the monarchy and the army but also against the German people themselves who will have to bear the consequences in centuries of decline and of misery.{{sfn\\|Haffner\\|2002\\|p\\=96}}",
"",
"In an article on the 10th anniversary of the revolution, the journalist [Kurt Tucholsky](/wiki/Kurt_Tucholsky \"Kurt Tucholsky\") remarked that neither Wolff nor Baecker were right. Nevertheless, Tucholsky accused Ebert and Noske of betrayal, not of the monarchy but of the revolution. Although he wanted to regard it as only a coup d'état, he analysed the course of events more clearly than most of his contemporaries. In 1928 he wrote in \"November Coup\":",
"> The German Revolution of 1918 took place in a hall.",
"",
"The things taking place were not a revolution. There was no spiritual preparation, no leaders ready in the dark; no revolutionary goals. The mother of this revolution was the soldiers' longing to be home for Christmas. And weariness, disgust and weariness. \nThe possibilities that nevertheless were lying in the streets were betrayed by Ebert and his like. Fritz\\* Ebert, whom you cannot heighten to a personality by calling him Friedrich, opposed the establishment of a republic only until he found there was a post of chairman to be had; comrade Scheidemann è tutti quanti, all were would\\-be senior civil servants. (\\* Fritz is the colloquial term for Friedrich like Willy is for William.)\nThe following possibilities were left out: shattering federal states, division of landed property, revolutionary socialization of industry, reform of administrative and judiciary personnel. A republican constitution in which every sentence rescinds the next one, a revolution talking about well\\-acquired rights of the old regime, can be only laughed at.\n*The German Revolution is still to take place.*{{Cite book \\|last\\=Tucholsky \\|first\\=Kurt \\|title\\=Gesammelte Werke \\|publisher\\=Rowohlt Reinbeck \\|year\\=1928 \\|isbn\\=978\\-3499290060 \\|volume\\=6 \\|location\\=Hamburg \\|pages\\=300 \\|language\\=de \\|trans\\-title\\=Collected Works}}\n[Walther Rathenau](/wiki/Walther_Rathenau \"Walther Rathenau\") was of a similar opinion. He called the revolution a \"disappointment\", a \"present by chance\", a \"product of desperation\", a \"revolution by mistake\". It did not deserve the name because it did \"not abolish the actual mistakes\" but \"degenerated into a degrading clash of interests\".",
"",
"> Not a chain was broken by the swelling of spirit and will, only a lock merely rusted through. The chain fell off and the freed stood amazed, helpless, embarrassed and needed to arm against their will. The ones sensing their advantage were the quickest.{{cite book \\|last\\=Sösemann\\|first\\=Bernd \\|date\\=1993 \\|publisher\\=Klett \\|title\\=Demokratie im Widerstreit. Die Weimarer Republik im Urteil der Zeitgenossen \\|language\\=de \\|trans\\-title\\=Democracy in Conflict. The Weimar Republic in the Judgement of Contemporaries \\|location\\=Stuttgart\\|page\\=13 }}",
"The historian [Sebastian Haffner](/wiki/Sebastian_Haffner \"Sebastian Haffner\") in turn came out against Tucholsky and Rathenau. He lived through the revolution in Berlin as a child and wrote 50 years later in his book about one of the myths related to the events of November 1918 that had taken root especially in the bourgeoisie:",
"",
"> It is often said that a true revolution in Germany in 1918 never took place. All that really happened was a breakdown. It was only the temporary weakness of the police and army in the moment of military defeat which let a mutiny of sailors appear as a revolution.\n> \n> At first sight, one can see how wrong and blind it is comparing 1918 with 1945\\. In 1945 there really was a breakdown. \n> Certainly a mutiny of sailors started the revolution in 1918 but it was only a start. What made it extraordinary is that a mere sailors' mutiny triggered an earthquake which shook all of Germany; that the whole home army, the whole urban workforce and in Bavaria a part of the rural population rose up in revolt. This revolt was not just a mutiny anymore, it was a true revolution.... \n> As in any revolution, the old order was replaced by the beginnings of a new one. It was not just destructive but also creative.... \n> As a revolutionary achievement of masses the German November 1918 does not need to take second place to either the French July 1789 or the Russian March 1917\\.{{sfn\\|Haffner\\|2002\\|p\\=193f}}",
"### Historical research",
"During the Nazi regime, works on the Weimar Republic and the German revolution published abroad and by exiles could not be read in Germany. Around 1935, that affected the first published history of the Weimar Republic by [Arthur Rosenberg](/wiki/Arthur_Rosenberg \"Arthur Rosenberg\"). In his view, the political situation at the beginning of the revolution was open: the moderate socialist and democratically oriented workforce had a chance to become the social foundation of the republic and to drive back the conservative forces. It failed because of bad decisions by the SPD leadership and because of the revolutionary tactics employed by the extreme left wing of the workforce.",
"After 1945, West German historical research on the Weimar Republic concentrated most of all on its decline. In 1951, Theodor Eschenburg mostly ignored the revolutionary beginning of the republic. In 1955, [Karl Dietrich Bracher](/wiki/Karl_Dietrich_Bracher \"Karl Dietrich Bracher\") also dealt with the German revolution from the perspective of the failed republic. [Erich Eyck](/wiki/Erich_Eyck \"Erich Eyck\") shows how little the revolution after 1945 was regarded as part of German history. His two\\-volume *History of the Weimar Republic* gave barely 20 pages to the events. The same can be said for Karl Dietrich Erdmann's contribution to the 8th edition of the *Gebhardt Handbook for German History* ({{Lang\\|de\\|Gebhardtsches Handbuch zur Deutschen Geschichte}}), whose viewpoint dominated the interpretation of events related to the German revolution after 1945\\. According to Erdmann, 1918/19 was about the choice between \"social revolution in line with forces demanding a proletarian dictatorship and parliamentary republic in line with the conservative elements like the German officer corps\".{{Cite book \\|last\\=Kluge \\|first\\=Ulrich \\|title\\=Die deutsche Revolution 1918–1919 \\|publisher\\=Suhrkamp \\|year\\=1985 \\|isbn\\=978\\-3518112625 \\|location\\=Berlin \\|pages\\=15 \\|language\\=de \\|trans\\-title\\=The German Revolution 1918–1919}} As most Social Democrats were forced to join with the old elites to prevent an imminent council dictatorship, the blame for the failure of the Weimar Republic was to be put on the extreme Left, and the events of 1918/19 were successful defensive actions of democracy against Bolshevism.",
"This interpretation at the height of the [Cold War](/wiki/Cold_War \"Cold War\") was based on the assumption that the extreme Left was comparably strong and a real threat to the democratic development. On this point, West German researchers ironically found themselves in line with Marxist historiography in the [German Democratic Republic](/wiki/German_Democratic_Republic \"German Democratic Republic\") (GDR), which attributed considerable revolutionary potential most of all to the Spartacists.On East German historiography of the German revolution see Mario Keßler: Die Novemberrevolution in der Geschichtswissenschaft der DDR – Die Kontroversen des Jahres 1958 und ihre Folgen im internationalen Kontext, in: [Jahrbuch für Forschungen zur Geschichte der Arbeiterbewegung](/wiki/Arbeit_-_Bewegung_-_Geschichte \"Arbeit - Bewegung - Geschichte\"), No. III/2008\\.",
"While in the postwar years the majority SPD (MSPD) was cleared of its Nazi odium as \"November Criminals\", GDR historians blamed the SPD for \"betrayal of the working class\" and the USPD leadership for their incompetence. Their interpretation was mainly based on the 1958 theories of the Central Committee of the [Socialist Unity Party of Germany](/wiki/Socialist_Unity_Party_of_Germany \"Socialist Unity Party of Germany\") according to which the German revolution was defined as a \"bourgeois\\-democratic revolution\", led in certain aspects by proletarian means and methods. The fact that a revolution by the working class in Germany never happened could be attributed to the \"subjective factor\", especially the absence of a \"[Marxist\\-Leninist](/wiki/Marxist-Leninist \"Marxist-Leninist\") offensive party\". Contrary to the official party line, [Rudolf Lindau](/wiki/Rudolf_Lindau_%28politician%29 \"Rudolf Lindau (politician)\") supported the theory that the German revolution had a Socialist tendency.",
"Consistently, the founding of the KPD (Communist Party of Germany) was declared to be the decisive turning point in German history, but in spite of ideological bias, historical research in the GDR expanded detailed knowledge of the German revolution.{{Cite book \\|last\\=Kolb \\|first\\=Eberhard \\|title\\=Die Weimarer Republik \\|publisher\\=Oldenbourg \\|year\\=1984 \\|isbn\\=978\\-3486489118 \\|location\\=Munich / Vienna \\|pages\\=154f \\|language\\=de \\|trans\\-title\\=The Weimar Republic}}",
"During the 1950s, West German historians had focused their research on the final stages of the Weimar Republic. In the 1960s, they shifted to its revolutionary beginnings, realising that the decisions and developments during the revolution were central to the failure of the first German republic. The [workers' and soldiers' councils](/wiki/German_workers%27_and_soldiers%27_councils_1918%E2%80%931919 \"German workers' and soldiers' councils 1918–1919\") especially moved into focus, and their previous appearance as a far\\-left movement had to be revised extensively. Authors like Ulrich Kluge, [Eberhard Kolb](/wiki/Eberhard_Kolb \"Eberhard Kolb\") and Reinhard Rürup argued that in the first weeks of the revolution the social base for a democratic redesign of society was much stronger than previously thought and that the potential of the extreme Left was weaker than the SPD's leadership, for example, assumed.",
"As Bolshevism posed no real threat, the scope of action for the Council of the People's Deputies (also supported by the more reform\\-oriented councils) to democratise the administration, military and society had been relatively large, but the SPD's leadership did not take the step because it trusted in the loyalty of the old elites and mistrusted the spontaneous mass movements in the first weeks of the revolution. The result was the radicalisation of the council movement. The theories were supported by the publications of the minutes of the Council of the People's Deputies. Increasingly, the history of the German revolution appeared as the history of its gradual reversal.",
"This new interpretation of the German revolution gained acceptance in research rather quickly even though older perceptions remained alive. Research concerning the composition of the worker's and soldier's councils, which today can be easily verified by sources, is undisputed to a large extent, but the interpretation of the revolutionary events based on the research has been criticised and partially modified since the end of the 1970s. Criticism was aimed at the partially idealised description of the workers' and soldiers' councils, which especially was the case in the wake of the [German Student Movement](/wiki/German_Student_Movement \"German Student Movement\") of the 1960s (1968\\). Peter von Oertzen went particularly far in this respect, describing a social democracy based on councils as a positive alternative to the bourgeois republic. In comparison, [Wolfgang J. Mommsen](/wiki/Wolfgang_J._Mommsen \"Wolfgang J. Mommsen\") did not regard the councils as a homogeneous focused movement for democracy but as a heterogeneous group with a multitude of different motivations and goals. Jesse and Köhler talked about the \"construct of a democratic council movement\". Certainly, the authors also excluded a relapse to the positions of the 1950s: \"The councils to a large extent were neither communist\\-oriented, nor can the policies of the majority SPD in every aspect be labelled fortuitous and worth praising.\"{{Sfn\\|Kolb\\|1984\\|pp\\=160f}}",
"[Heinrich August Winkler](/wiki/Heinrich_August_Winkler \"Heinrich August Winkler\") tried to find a compromise, according to which the Social Democrats depended to a limited extent on cooperation with the old elites but went considerably too far: \"With more political willpower they could have changed more and preserved less.\"{{Sfn\\|Kolb\\|1984\\|p\\=161}}",
"With all the differences concerning details, historical researchers agree that in the German revolution, the chances to put the republic on a firm footing were considerably better than the dangers coming from the radical left. Instead, the alliance of the SPD with the old elites constituted a considerable structural problem for the Weimar Republic.{{Sfn\\|Kolb\\|1984\\|pp\\=143–162}}{{Sfn\\|Kluge\\|1985\\|pp\\=10–38}}",
""
] |
### Historical research
During the Nazi regime, works on the Weimar Republic and the German revolution published abroad and by exiles could not be read in Germany. Around 1935, that affected the first published history of the Weimar Republic by [Arthur Rosenberg](/wiki/Arthur_Rosenberg "Arthur Rosenberg"). In his view, the political situation at the beginning of the revolution was open: the moderate socialist and democratically oriented workforce had a chance to become the social foundation of the republic and to drive back the conservative forces. It failed because of bad decisions by the SPD leadership and because of the revolutionary tactics employed by the extreme left wing of the workforce.
After 1945, West German historical research on the Weimar Republic concentrated most of all on its decline. In 1951, Theodor Eschenburg mostly ignored the revolutionary beginning of the republic. In 1955, [Karl Dietrich Bracher](/wiki/Karl_Dietrich_Bracher "Karl Dietrich Bracher") also dealt with the German revolution from the perspective of the failed republic. [Erich Eyck](/wiki/Erich_Eyck "Erich Eyck") shows how little the revolution after 1945 was regarded as part of German history. His two\-volume *History of the Weimar Republic* gave barely 20 pages to the events. The same can be said for Karl Dietrich Erdmann's contribution to the 8th edition of the *Gebhardt Handbook for German History* ({{Lang\|de\|Gebhardtsches Handbuch zur Deutschen Geschichte}}), whose viewpoint dominated the interpretation of events related to the German revolution after 1945\. According to Erdmann, 1918/19 was about the choice between "social revolution in line with forces demanding a proletarian dictatorship and parliamentary republic in line with the conservative elements like the German officer corps".{{Cite book \|last\=Kluge \|first\=Ulrich \|title\=Die deutsche Revolution 1918–1919 \|publisher\=Suhrkamp \|year\=1985 \|isbn\=978\-3518112625 \|location\=Berlin \|pages\=15 \|language\=de \|trans\-title\=The German Revolution 1918–1919}} As most Social Democrats were forced to join with the old elites to prevent an imminent council dictatorship, the blame for the failure of the Weimar Republic was to be put on the extreme Left, and the events of 1918/19 were successful defensive actions of democracy against Bolshevism.
This interpretation at the height of the [Cold War](/wiki/Cold_War "Cold War") was based on the assumption that the extreme Left was comparably strong and a real threat to the democratic development. On this point, West German researchers ironically found themselves in line with Marxist historiography in the [German Democratic Republic](/wiki/German_Democratic_Republic "German Democratic Republic") (GDR), which attributed considerable revolutionary potential most of all to the Spartacists.On East German historiography of the German revolution see Mario Keßler: Die Novemberrevolution in der Geschichtswissenschaft der DDR – Die Kontroversen des Jahres 1958 und ihre Folgen im internationalen Kontext, in: [Jahrbuch für Forschungen zur Geschichte der Arbeiterbewegung](/wiki/Arbeit_-_Bewegung_-_Geschichte "Arbeit - Bewegung - Geschichte"), No. III/2008\.
While in the postwar years the majority SPD (MSPD) was cleared of its Nazi odium as "November Criminals", GDR historians blamed the SPD for "betrayal of the working class" and the USPD leadership for their incompetence. Their interpretation was mainly based on the 1958 theories of the Central Committee of the [Socialist Unity Party of Germany](/wiki/Socialist_Unity_Party_of_Germany "Socialist Unity Party of Germany") according to which the German revolution was defined as a "bourgeois\-democratic revolution", led in certain aspects by proletarian means and methods. The fact that a revolution by the working class in Germany never happened could be attributed to the "subjective factor", especially the absence of a "[Marxist\-Leninist](/wiki/Marxist-Leninist "Marxist-Leninist") offensive party". Contrary to the official party line, [Rudolf Lindau](/wiki/Rudolf_Lindau_%28politician%29 "Rudolf Lindau (politician)") supported the theory that the German revolution had a Socialist tendency.
Consistently, the founding of the KPD (Communist Party of Germany) was declared to be the decisive turning point in German history, but in spite of ideological bias, historical research in the GDR expanded detailed knowledge of the German revolution.{{Cite book \|last\=Kolb \|first\=Eberhard \|title\=Die Weimarer Republik \|publisher\=Oldenbourg \|year\=1984 \|isbn\=978\-3486489118 \|location\=Munich / Vienna \|pages\=154f \|language\=de \|trans\-title\=The Weimar Republic}}
During the 1950s, West German historians had focused their research on the final stages of the Weimar Republic. In the 1960s, they shifted to its revolutionary beginnings, realising that the decisions and developments during the revolution were central to the failure of the first German republic. The [workers' and soldiers' councils](/wiki/German_workers%27_and_soldiers%27_councils_1918%E2%80%931919 "German workers' and soldiers' councils 1918–1919") especially moved into focus, and their previous appearance as a far\-left movement had to be revised extensively. Authors like Ulrich Kluge, [Eberhard Kolb](/wiki/Eberhard_Kolb "Eberhard Kolb") and Reinhard Rürup argued that in the first weeks of the revolution the social base for a democratic redesign of society was much stronger than previously thought and that the potential of the extreme Left was weaker than the SPD's leadership, for example, assumed.
As Bolshevism posed no real threat, the scope of action for the Council of the People's Deputies (also supported by the more reform\-oriented councils) to democratise the administration, military and society had been relatively large, but the SPD's leadership did not take the step because it trusted in the loyalty of the old elites and mistrusted the spontaneous mass movements in the first weeks of the revolution. The result was the radicalisation of the council movement. The theories were supported by the publications of the minutes of the Council of the People's Deputies. Increasingly, the history of the German revolution appeared as the history of its gradual reversal.
This new interpretation of the German revolution gained acceptance in research rather quickly even though older perceptions remained alive. Research concerning the composition of the worker's and soldier's councils, which today can be easily verified by sources, is undisputed to a large extent, but the interpretation of the revolutionary events based on the research has been criticised and partially modified since the end of the 1970s. Criticism was aimed at the partially idealised description of the workers' and soldiers' councils, which especially was the case in the wake of the [German Student Movement](/wiki/German_Student_Movement "German Student Movement") of the 1960s (1968\). Peter von Oertzen went particularly far in this respect, describing a social democracy based on councils as a positive alternative to the bourgeois republic. In comparison, [Wolfgang J. Mommsen](/wiki/Wolfgang_J._Mommsen "Wolfgang J. Mommsen") did not regard the councils as a homogeneous focused movement for democracy but as a heterogeneous group with a multitude of different motivations and goals. Jesse and Köhler talked about the "construct of a democratic council movement". Certainly, the authors also excluded a relapse to the positions of the 1950s: "The councils to a large extent were neither communist\-oriented, nor can the policies of the majority SPD in every aspect be labelled fortuitous and worth praising."{{Sfn\|Kolb\|1984\|pp\=160f}}
[Heinrich August Winkler](/wiki/Heinrich_August_Winkler "Heinrich August Winkler") tried to find a compromise, according to which the Social Democrats depended to a limited extent on cooperation with the old elites but went considerably too far: "With more political willpower they could have changed more and preserved less."{{Sfn\|Kolb\|1984\|p\=161}}
With all the differences concerning details, historical researchers agree that in the German revolution, the chances to put the republic on a firm footing were considerably better than the dangers coming from the radical left. Instead, the alliance of the SPD with the old elites constituted a considerable structural problem for the Weimar Republic.{{Sfn\|Kolb\|1984\|pp\=143–162}}{{Sfn\|Kluge\|1985\|pp\=10–38}}
|
[
"### Historical research",
"During the Nazi regime, works on the Weimar Republic and the German revolution published abroad and by exiles could not be read in Germany. Around 1935, that affected the first published history of the Weimar Republic by [Arthur Rosenberg](/wiki/Arthur_Rosenberg \"Arthur Rosenberg\"). In his view, the political situation at the beginning of the revolution was open: the moderate socialist and democratically oriented workforce had a chance to become the social foundation of the republic and to drive back the conservative forces. It failed because of bad decisions by the SPD leadership and because of the revolutionary tactics employed by the extreme left wing of the workforce.",
"After 1945, West German historical research on the Weimar Republic concentrated most of all on its decline. In 1951, Theodor Eschenburg mostly ignored the revolutionary beginning of the republic. In 1955, [Karl Dietrich Bracher](/wiki/Karl_Dietrich_Bracher \"Karl Dietrich Bracher\") also dealt with the German revolution from the perspective of the failed republic. [Erich Eyck](/wiki/Erich_Eyck \"Erich Eyck\") shows how little the revolution after 1945 was regarded as part of German history. His two\\-volume *History of the Weimar Republic* gave barely 20 pages to the events. The same can be said for Karl Dietrich Erdmann's contribution to the 8th edition of the *Gebhardt Handbook for German History* ({{Lang\\|de\\|Gebhardtsches Handbuch zur Deutschen Geschichte}}), whose viewpoint dominated the interpretation of events related to the German revolution after 1945\\. According to Erdmann, 1918/19 was about the choice between \"social revolution in line with forces demanding a proletarian dictatorship and parliamentary republic in line with the conservative elements like the German officer corps\".{{Cite book \\|last\\=Kluge \\|first\\=Ulrich \\|title\\=Die deutsche Revolution 1918–1919 \\|publisher\\=Suhrkamp \\|year\\=1985 \\|isbn\\=978\\-3518112625 \\|location\\=Berlin \\|pages\\=15 \\|language\\=de \\|trans\\-title\\=The German Revolution 1918–1919}} As most Social Democrats were forced to join with the old elites to prevent an imminent council dictatorship, the blame for the failure of the Weimar Republic was to be put on the extreme Left, and the events of 1918/19 were successful defensive actions of democracy against Bolshevism.",
"This interpretation at the height of the [Cold War](/wiki/Cold_War \"Cold War\") was based on the assumption that the extreme Left was comparably strong and a real threat to the democratic development. On this point, West German researchers ironically found themselves in line with Marxist historiography in the [German Democratic Republic](/wiki/German_Democratic_Republic \"German Democratic Republic\") (GDR), which attributed considerable revolutionary potential most of all to the Spartacists.On East German historiography of the German revolution see Mario Keßler: Die Novemberrevolution in der Geschichtswissenschaft der DDR – Die Kontroversen des Jahres 1958 und ihre Folgen im internationalen Kontext, in: [Jahrbuch für Forschungen zur Geschichte der Arbeiterbewegung](/wiki/Arbeit_-_Bewegung_-_Geschichte \"Arbeit - Bewegung - Geschichte\"), No. III/2008\\.",
"While in the postwar years the majority SPD (MSPD) was cleared of its Nazi odium as \"November Criminals\", GDR historians blamed the SPD for \"betrayal of the working class\" and the USPD leadership for their incompetence. Their interpretation was mainly based on the 1958 theories of the Central Committee of the [Socialist Unity Party of Germany](/wiki/Socialist_Unity_Party_of_Germany \"Socialist Unity Party of Germany\") according to which the German revolution was defined as a \"bourgeois\\-democratic revolution\", led in certain aspects by proletarian means and methods. The fact that a revolution by the working class in Germany never happened could be attributed to the \"subjective factor\", especially the absence of a \"[Marxist\\-Leninist](/wiki/Marxist-Leninist \"Marxist-Leninist\") offensive party\". Contrary to the official party line, [Rudolf Lindau](/wiki/Rudolf_Lindau_%28politician%29 \"Rudolf Lindau (politician)\") supported the theory that the German revolution had a Socialist tendency.",
"Consistently, the founding of the KPD (Communist Party of Germany) was declared to be the decisive turning point in German history, but in spite of ideological bias, historical research in the GDR expanded detailed knowledge of the German revolution.{{Cite book \\|last\\=Kolb \\|first\\=Eberhard \\|title\\=Die Weimarer Republik \\|publisher\\=Oldenbourg \\|year\\=1984 \\|isbn\\=978\\-3486489118 \\|location\\=Munich / Vienna \\|pages\\=154f \\|language\\=de \\|trans\\-title\\=The Weimar Republic}}",
"During the 1950s, West German historians had focused their research on the final stages of the Weimar Republic. In the 1960s, they shifted to its revolutionary beginnings, realising that the decisions and developments during the revolution were central to the failure of the first German republic. The [workers' and soldiers' councils](/wiki/German_workers%27_and_soldiers%27_councils_1918%E2%80%931919 \"German workers' and soldiers' councils 1918–1919\") especially moved into focus, and their previous appearance as a far\\-left movement had to be revised extensively. Authors like Ulrich Kluge, [Eberhard Kolb](/wiki/Eberhard_Kolb \"Eberhard Kolb\") and Reinhard Rürup argued that in the first weeks of the revolution the social base for a democratic redesign of society was much stronger than previously thought and that the potential of the extreme Left was weaker than the SPD's leadership, for example, assumed.",
"As Bolshevism posed no real threat, the scope of action for the Council of the People's Deputies (also supported by the more reform\\-oriented councils) to democratise the administration, military and society had been relatively large, but the SPD's leadership did not take the step because it trusted in the loyalty of the old elites and mistrusted the spontaneous mass movements in the first weeks of the revolution. The result was the radicalisation of the council movement. The theories were supported by the publications of the minutes of the Council of the People's Deputies. Increasingly, the history of the German revolution appeared as the history of its gradual reversal.",
"This new interpretation of the German revolution gained acceptance in research rather quickly even though older perceptions remained alive. Research concerning the composition of the worker's and soldier's councils, which today can be easily verified by sources, is undisputed to a large extent, but the interpretation of the revolutionary events based on the research has been criticised and partially modified since the end of the 1970s. Criticism was aimed at the partially idealised description of the workers' and soldiers' councils, which especially was the case in the wake of the [German Student Movement](/wiki/German_Student_Movement \"German Student Movement\") of the 1960s (1968\\). Peter von Oertzen went particularly far in this respect, describing a social democracy based on councils as a positive alternative to the bourgeois republic. In comparison, [Wolfgang J. Mommsen](/wiki/Wolfgang_J._Mommsen \"Wolfgang J. Mommsen\") did not regard the councils as a homogeneous focused movement for democracy but as a heterogeneous group with a multitude of different motivations and goals. Jesse and Köhler talked about the \"construct of a democratic council movement\". Certainly, the authors also excluded a relapse to the positions of the 1950s: \"The councils to a large extent were neither communist\\-oriented, nor can the policies of the majority SPD in every aspect be labelled fortuitous and worth praising.\"{{Sfn\\|Kolb\\|1984\\|pp\\=160f}}",
"[Heinrich August Winkler](/wiki/Heinrich_August_Winkler \"Heinrich August Winkler\") tried to find a compromise, according to which the Social Democrats depended to a limited extent on cooperation with the old elites but went considerably too far: \"With more political willpower they could have changed more and preserved less.\"{{Sfn\\|Kolb\\|1984\\|p\\=161}}",
"With all the differences concerning details, historical researchers agree that in the German revolution, the chances to put the republic on a firm footing were considerably better than the dangers coming from the radical left. Instead, the alliance of the SPD with the old elites constituted a considerable structural problem for the Weimar Republic.{{Sfn\\|Kolb\\|1984\\|pp\\=143–162}}{{Sfn\\|Kluge\\|1985\\|pp\\=10–38}}",
""
] |
Demographics
------------
{{US Census population\|align\=left
\|1920\= 476
\|1930\= 272
\|1940\= 255
\|1950\= 219
\|1960\= 160
\|1970\= 111
\|1980\= 90
\|1990\= 78
\|2000\= 51
\|2010\= 33
\|2020\= 49
\|footnote\=U.S. Decennial Census{{cite web\|url\=https://www.census.gov/programs\-surveys/decennial\-census.html\|title\=Census of Population and Housing\|publisher\=Census.gov\|accessdate\=June 4, 2015}}
}}
### 2000 census
As of the [census](/wiki/Census "Census") of 2000, there were 51 people, 26 households, and 17 families residing in the village. The population density was {{convert\|422\.8\|PD/sqmi\|PD/km2\|sp\=us\|adj\=off}}. There were 52 housing units at an average density of {{convert\|431\.1\|/sqmi\|/km2\|sp\=us\|adj\=off}}. The racial makeup of the village was 100\.00% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 "White (U.S. Census)").
There were 26 households, out of which 23\.1% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 50\.0% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage "Marriage") living together, 15\.4% had a female householder with no husband present, and 34\.6% were non\-families. 34\.6% of all households were made up of individuals, and 23\.1% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 1\.96 and the average family size was 2\.47\.
The median age in Seneca was 48 years: 19\.6% of the residents were under the age of 18; 2\.0% were aged from 18 to 24; 19\.6% were between 25 and 44; 35\.3% were from 45 to 64; and 23\.5% were 65 years of age or older. For every 100 females, there were 75\.9 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 64\.0 males.
As of 2000, the median income for a household in the village was $20,833 and the median income for a family was $21,667\. Males had a median income of $26,250 versus $20,500 for females. The [per capita income](/wiki/Per_capita_income "Per capita income") for the village was $15,803\. The village population included 12\.1% who lived below the [poverty line](/wiki/Poverty_line "Poverty line"). That included 16\.7% of the families and 23\.1% of residents older than 64, but no one younger than 18\.
### 2010 census
As of the [census](/wiki/Census "Census"){{cite web\|title\=U.S. Census website\|url\=https://www.census.gov\|publisher\=\[\[United States Census Bureau]]\|accessdate\=2012\-06\-24}} of 2010, there were 33 people, 21 households, and 10 families residing in the village. The [population density](/wiki/Population_density "Population density") was {{convert\|253\.8\|PD/sqmi\|PD/km2\|1}}. There were 46 housing units at an average density of {{convert\|353\.8\|/sqmi\|/km2\|1}}. The racial makeup of the village was 100\.0% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 "White (U.S. Census)").
There were 21 households, of which 2 had children under the age of 18 living with them, 8 were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage "Marriage") living together, 1 had a female householder with no husband present, 1 had a male householder with no wife present, and 11 were non\-families. Eleven of the households were made up of individuals, and 8 had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 1\.57 and the average family size was 2\.10\.
The median age in the village was 55\.3 years. Three of the residents were under the age of 18; one was between the ages of 18 and 24; four were between 25 and 44; fifteen were from 45 to 64; and ten were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the village was 45\.5% male and 54\.5% female.
|
[
"Demographics\n------------",
"{{US Census population\\|align\\=left\n\\|1920\\= 476\n\\|1930\\= 272\n\\|1940\\= 255\n\\|1950\\= 219\n\\|1960\\= 160\n\\|1970\\= 111\n\\|1980\\= 90\n\\|1990\\= 78\n\\|2000\\= 51\n\\|2010\\= 33\n\\|2020\\= 49\n\\|footnote\\=U.S. Decennial Census{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.census.gov/programs\\-surveys/decennial\\-census.html\\|title\\=Census of Population and Housing\\|publisher\\=Census.gov\\|accessdate\\=June 4, 2015}}\n}}",
"### 2000 census",
"As of the [census](/wiki/Census \"Census\") of 2000, there were 51 people, 26 households, and 17 families residing in the village. The population density was {{convert\\|422\\.8\\|PD/sqmi\\|PD/km2\\|sp\\=us\\|adj\\=off}}. There were 52 housing units at an average density of {{convert\\|431\\.1\\|/sqmi\\|/km2\\|sp\\=us\\|adj\\=off}}. The racial makeup of the village was 100\\.00% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 \"White (U.S. Census)\").",
"There were 26 households, out of which 23\\.1% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 50\\.0% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage \"Marriage\") living together, 15\\.4% had a female householder with no husband present, and 34\\.6% were non\\-families. 34\\.6% of all households were made up of individuals, and 23\\.1% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 1\\.96 and the average family size was 2\\.47\\.",
"The median age in Seneca was 48 years: 19\\.6% of the residents were under the age of 18; 2\\.0% were aged from 18 to 24; 19\\.6% were between 25 and 44; 35\\.3% were from 45 to 64; and 23\\.5% were 65 years of age or older. For every 100 females, there were 75\\.9 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 64\\.0 males.",
"As of 2000, the median income for a household in the village was $20,833 and the median income for a family was $21,667\\. Males had a median income of $26,250 versus $20,500 for females. The [per capita income](/wiki/Per_capita_income \"Per capita income\") for the village was $15,803\\. The village population included 12\\.1% who lived below the [poverty line](/wiki/Poverty_line \"Poverty line\"). That included 16\\.7% of the families and 23\\.1% of residents older than 64, but no one younger than 18\\.",
"### 2010 census",
"As of the [census](/wiki/Census \"Census\"){{cite web\\|title\\=U.S. Census website\\|url\\=https://www.census.gov\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[United States Census Bureau]]\\|accessdate\\=2012\\-06\\-24}} of 2010, there were 33 people, 21 households, and 10 families residing in the village. The [population density](/wiki/Population_density \"Population density\") was {{convert\\|253\\.8\\|PD/sqmi\\|PD/km2\\|1}}. There were 46 housing units at an average density of {{convert\\|353\\.8\\|/sqmi\\|/km2\\|1}}. The racial makeup of the village was 100\\.0% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 \"White (U.S. Census)\").",
"There were 21 households, of which 2 had children under the age of 18 living with them, 8 were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage \"Marriage\") living together, 1 had a female householder with no husband present, 1 had a male householder with no wife present, and 11 were non\\-families. Eleven of the households were made up of individuals, and 8 had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 1\\.57 and the average family size was 2\\.10\\.",
"The median age in the village was 55\\.3 years. Three of the residents were under the age of 18; one was between the ages of 18 and 24; four were between 25 and 44; fifteen were from 45 to 64; and ten were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the village was 45\\.5% male and 54\\.5% female.",
""
] |
History
-------
### Mitsubishi Chemical SC (1947[–](/wiki/Japan_Soccer_League_1990-91 "Japan Soccer League 1990-91")2000\)
The club was formed in 1947 as part of [Mitsubishi Chemical](/wiki/Mitsubishi_Chemical "Mitsubishi Chemical")'s Kurosaki factory. The club was a founding member of Kyushu regional league since 1973\. Most of its career was spent in the regional and prefectural leagues, as Kitakyushu was represented in the [Japan Soccer League](/wiki/Japan_Soccer_League "Japan Soccer League") by [Yahata Steel F.C.](/wiki/Yawata_Steel_F.C. "Yawata Steel F.C.") Yahata was a founding member of the JSL in [1965](/wiki/Japan_Soccer_League_1965 "Japan Soccer League 1965"), and finished as runner\-up in its first two seasons in that league. Yahata was renamed New Nippon Steel F.C. in 1970, when Yahata Steel merged with Fuji Steel to form (New) [Nippon Steel](/wiki/Nippon_Steel "Nippon Steel"). It ultimately was relegated to the Second Division in [1982](/wiki/Japan_Soccer_League_1982 "Japan Soccer League 1982"), then relegated from the Second Division to Kyushu regional league after [1990–91](/wiki/Japan_Soccer_League_1990-91 "Japan Soccer League 1990-91") season, and closed in 1999\.
### New Wave Kitakyushu (2001[–](/wiki/Japan_Soccer_League_1990-91 "Japan Soccer League 1990-91")2009\)
In 2001, the club became a community\-oriented club (New Wave) Kitakyushu F.C.
In 2007 New Wave took second place in the [Regional League promotion series](/wiki/Japanese_Regional_Football_League_Competition "Japanese Regional Football League Competition"), and was promoted to the JFL for the 2008 season.
The club applied for [J. League Associate Membership](/wiki/J._League_Associate_Membership "J. League Associate Membership") in January 2008, and the application was accepted at the [J. League](/wiki/J._League "J. League") board meeting on February 19, 2008\.
On 1 April 2009, the club made an announcement that they would be accepting suggestions for a new name. This was because the name "New Wave" may cause trademark or tradename disputes.[Official website (Japanese only)](http://newwave-k.co.jp/news/index/0/111){{dead link\|date\=October 2017 \|bot\=InternetArchiveBot \|fix\-attempted\=yes }} Therefore, the new name had to be something not yet registered as a [trademark](/wiki/Trademark "Trademark").
### Giravanz Kitakyushu (2010[–](/wiki/Japan_Soccer_League_1990-91 "Japan Soccer League 1990-91"))
On 2 October 2009, they announced that the new club name for the 2010 season would be {{nihongo\|Giravanz Kitakyushu\|ギラヴァンツ北九州\|Giravantsu Kitakyūshū}}. According to the official news release, the name "Giravanz" is coined from two [Italian](/wiki/Italian_language "Italian language") words: "Girasole", which means "sunflower", and "Avanzare", which means "moving forward".[{{nihongo\|Announcement of the new team name and its emblem\|新チーム名称・エンブレム発表}}](http://newwave-k.co.jp/news/index/0/291) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20091007144843/http://newwave\-k.co.jp/news/index/0/291 \|date\=2009\-10\-07 }} New Wave Kitakyushu official website news release : dated 2 October 2009 (The sunflower is one of Kitakyushu's symbol flowers.)
On 23 November 2009, after a 2–1 win away against [Arte Takasaki](/wiki/Arte_Takasaki "Arte Takasaki"), Kitakyushu secured a top four position in the JFL for the 2009 season, regardless of the result at the final week of [2009 JFL](/wiki/2009_Japan_Football_League "2009 Japan Football League"). This means they will play in [J. League Division 2](/wiki/J._League_Division_2 "J. League Division 2") for the 2010 season, something which was confirmed by the J.League board meeting on 30 November 2009\.[Official website (Japanese only)](http://newwave-k.co.jp/news/index/0/353) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20091203112618/http://newwave\-k.co.jp/news/index/0/353 \|date\=2009\-12\-03 }}{{cite web \|url\=http://www.jsgoal.jp/official/00093000/00093326\.html \|title\=J's GOAL \| オフィシャルニュース \| ニューウェーブ北九州がＪリーグ入会 \|access\-date\=2009\-11\-30 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20091204150153/http://www.jsgoal.jp/official/00093000/00093326\.html \|archive\-date\=2009\-12\-04 }} J's Goal Website (Japanese only)[http://www.tvq.co.jp/news/news.php?did\=5162](http://www.tvq.co.jp/news/news.php?did=5162) {{Dead link\|date\=February 2022}}
In its inaugural year in the pro ranks, despite attaining a large number of draw matches, Kitakyushu [set new records](/wiki/J._League_records "J. League records") for fewest wins and points in the season standings.
After several seasons in [J2 League](/wiki/J2_League "J2 League"), on 20 November 2016 they suffered their first relegation to [J3 League](/wiki/J3_League "J3 League").
After the [2018 J3 League](/wiki/2018_J3_League "2018 J3 League") season when they eventually ranked bottom, they named [Shinji Kobayashi](/wiki/Shinji_Kobayashi "Shinji Kobayashi") as the new manager, who also took a role as the newly established Sports Director position concurrently. In [2019 J3 League](/wiki/2019_J3_League "2019 J3 League"), Kobayashi led the club to become the champions \& promoted to the [2020 J2 League](/wiki/2020_J2_League "2020 J2 League"). Although they are successful enough as far as ranked top at the end of the first half, and eventually ranked 5th at the end of the 2020 season, they had a dozen of key players, including [Akira Silvano Disaro](/wiki/Akira_Silvano_Disaro "Akira Silvano Disaro") who scored 18 goals in 2020 season, transferred to other clubs after the season. In 2021, they have ranked at or near the bottom for the entire season, which resulted in suffering relegation to the [2022 J3 League](/wiki/2022_J3_League "2022 J3 League"), becoming the first J.\-League club relegated to the J3 League a second time. The club played its 2nd consecutive season in the J3 on 2023, in which they ranked the bottom second time after 2018, although they were not relegated to the Japan Football League (JFL) as both Honda FC and Briobecca Urayasu, champions and runners\-up of 2023 JFL, have not applied for J3 license, thus were not eligible to promote to the J3 League.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"### Mitsubishi Chemical SC (1947[–](/wiki/Japan_Soccer_League_1990-91 \"Japan Soccer League 1990-91\")2000\\)",
"The club was formed in 1947 as part of [Mitsubishi Chemical](/wiki/Mitsubishi_Chemical \"Mitsubishi Chemical\")'s Kurosaki factory. The club was a founding member of Kyushu regional league since 1973\\. Most of its career was spent in the regional and prefectural leagues, as Kitakyushu was represented in the [Japan Soccer League](/wiki/Japan_Soccer_League \"Japan Soccer League\") by [Yahata Steel F.C.](/wiki/Yawata_Steel_F.C. \"Yawata Steel F.C.\") Yahata was a founding member of the JSL in [1965](/wiki/Japan_Soccer_League_1965 \"Japan Soccer League 1965\"), and finished as runner\\-up in its first two seasons in that league. Yahata was renamed New Nippon Steel F.C. in 1970, when Yahata Steel merged with Fuji Steel to form (New) [Nippon Steel](/wiki/Nippon_Steel \"Nippon Steel\"). It ultimately was relegated to the Second Division in [1982](/wiki/Japan_Soccer_League_1982 \"Japan Soccer League 1982\"), then relegated from the Second Division to Kyushu regional league after [1990–91](/wiki/Japan_Soccer_League_1990-91 \"Japan Soccer League 1990-91\") season, and closed in 1999\\.",
"### New Wave Kitakyushu (2001[–](/wiki/Japan_Soccer_League_1990-91 \"Japan Soccer League 1990-91\")2009\\)",
"In 2001, the club became a community\\-oriented club (New Wave) Kitakyushu F.C.",
"In 2007 New Wave took second place in the [Regional League promotion series](/wiki/Japanese_Regional_Football_League_Competition \"Japanese Regional Football League Competition\"), and was promoted to the JFL for the 2008 season.",
"The club applied for [J. League Associate Membership](/wiki/J._League_Associate_Membership \"J. League Associate Membership\") in January 2008, and the application was accepted at the [J. League](/wiki/J._League \"J. League\") board meeting on February 19, 2008\\.",
"On 1 April 2009, the club made an announcement that they would be accepting suggestions for a new name. This was because the name \"New Wave\" may cause trademark or tradename disputes.[Official website (Japanese only)](http://newwave-k.co.jp/news/index/0/111){{dead link\\|date\\=October 2017 \\|bot\\=InternetArchiveBot \\|fix\\-attempted\\=yes }} Therefore, the new name had to be something not yet registered as a [trademark](/wiki/Trademark \"Trademark\").",
"### Giravanz Kitakyushu (2010[–](/wiki/Japan_Soccer_League_1990-91 \"Japan Soccer League 1990-91\"))",
"On 2 October 2009, they announced that the new club name for the 2010 season would be {{nihongo\\|Giravanz Kitakyushu\\|ギラヴァンツ北九州\\|Giravantsu Kitakyūshū}}. According to the official news release, the name \"Giravanz\" is coined from two [Italian](/wiki/Italian_language \"Italian language\") words: \"Girasole\", which means \"sunflower\", and \"Avanzare\", which means \"moving forward\".[{{nihongo\\|Announcement of the new team name and its emblem\\|新チーム名称・エンブレム発表}}](http://newwave-k.co.jp/news/index/0/291) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20091007144843/http://newwave\\-k.co.jp/news/index/0/291 \\|date\\=2009\\-10\\-07 }} New Wave Kitakyushu official website news release : dated 2 October 2009 (The sunflower is one of Kitakyushu's symbol flowers.)",
"On 23 November 2009, after a 2–1 win away against [Arte Takasaki](/wiki/Arte_Takasaki \"Arte Takasaki\"), Kitakyushu secured a top four position in the JFL for the 2009 season, regardless of the result at the final week of [2009 JFL](/wiki/2009_Japan_Football_League \"2009 Japan Football League\"). This means they will play in [J. League Division 2](/wiki/J._League_Division_2 \"J. League Division 2\") for the 2010 season, something which was confirmed by the J.League board meeting on 30 November 2009\\.[Official website (Japanese only)](http://newwave-k.co.jp/news/index/0/353) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20091203112618/http://newwave\\-k.co.jp/news/index/0/353 \\|date\\=2009\\-12\\-03 }}{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.jsgoal.jp/official/00093000/00093326\\.html \\|title\\=J's GOAL \\| オフィシャルニュース \\| ニューウェーブ北九州がＪリーグ入会 \\|access\\-date\\=2009\\-11\\-30 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20091204150153/http://www.jsgoal.jp/official/00093000/00093326\\.html \\|archive\\-date\\=2009\\-12\\-04 }} J's Goal Website (Japanese only)[http://www.tvq.co.jp/news/news.php?did\\=5162](http://www.tvq.co.jp/news/news.php?did=5162) {{Dead link\\|date\\=February 2022}}",
"In its inaugural year in the pro ranks, despite attaining a large number of draw matches, Kitakyushu [set new records](/wiki/J._League_records \"J. League records\") for fewest wins and points in the season standings.",
"After several seasons in [J2 League](/wiki/J2_League \"J2 League\"), on 20 November 2016 they suffered their first relegation to [J3 League](/wiki/J3_League \"J3 League\").",
"After the [2018 J3 League](/wiki/2018_J3_League \"2018 J3 League\") season when they eventually ranked bottom, they named [Shinji Kobayashi](/wiki/Shinji_Kobayashi \"Shinji Kobayashi\") as the new manager, who also took a role as the newly established Sports Director position concurrently. In [2019 J3 League](/wiki/2019_J3_League \"2019 J3 League\"), Kobayashi led the club to become the champions \\& promoted to the [2020 J2 League](/wiki/2020_J2_League \"2020 J2 League\"). Although they are successful enough as far as ranked top at the end of the first half, and eventually ranked 5th at the end of the 2020 season, they had a dozen of key players, including [Akira Silvano Disaro](/wiki/Akira_Silvano_Disaro \"Akira Silvano Disaro\") who scored 18 goals in 2020 season, transferred to other clubs after the season. In 2021, they have ranked at or near the bottom for the entire season, which resulted in suffering relegation to the [2022 J3 League](/wiki/2022_J3_League \"2022 J3 League\"), becoming the first J.\\-League club relegated to the J3 League a second time. The club played its 2nd consecutive season in the J3 on 2023, in which they ranked the bottom second time after 2018, although they were not relegated to the Japan Football League (JFL) as both Honda FC and Briobecca Urayasu, champions and runners\\-up of 2023 JFL, have not applied for J3 license, thus were not eligible to promote to the J3 League.",
""
] |
Season chronology
-----------------
### September
In the preseason poll released on September 12, the defending champion [Syracuse Orangemen](/wiki/Syracuse_Orange_football "Syracuse Orange football") and 1959's second\-place finisher, the [Mississippi Rebels](/wiki/1960_Ole_Miss_Rebels_football_team "1960 Ole Miss Rebels football team"), were No. 1 and No. 2, with 26 and 21 first place votes respectively. They were followed by the No. 3 [Washington Huskies](/wiki/1960_Washington_Huskies_football_team "1960 Washington Huskies football team") from Seattle, the No. 4 [Texas Longhorns](/wiki/1960_Texas_Longhorns_football_team "1960 Texas Longhorns football team") and the No. 5 [Illinois Fighting Illini](/wiki/1960_Illinois_Fighting_Illini_football_team "1960 Illinois Fighting Illini football team").{{cite web \|url\=http://www.appollarchive.com/football/ap/ \|title\=Archived copy \|access\-date\=2009\-01\-11 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20111002010550/http://www.appollarchive.com/football/ap/ \|archive\-date\=2011\-10\-02 }} As the regular season progressed, a new poll would be issued on the Monday following the weekend's games.
The Big Ten schools would not kick off until September 24\. On **September 17**, No. 2 Mississippi beat the [Houston Cougars](/wiki/Houston_Cougars_football "Houston Cougars football") in Houston, 42–0\. No. 3 Washington crushed the visiting [College of the Pacific](/wiki/Pacific_Tigers "Pacific Tigers"), 55–6 (the school became the University of the Pacific in 1961\). No. 4 Texas opened its season with a loss at home to Nebraska, falling 14–13\. Ole Miss was voted No. 1, followed by No. 2 Syracuse, No. 3 Washington, and No. 4 Illinois. Previously unranked Alabama, which had beaten No. 13 Georgia 21–6 in [Birmingham](/wiki/Legion_Field "Legion Field"), was fifth.
**September 24** No. 1 Mississippi beat [Kentucky](/wiki/Kentucky_Wildcats_football "Kentucky Wildcats football") in Memphis, 21–6\. No. 2 Syracuse opened its season with a 55–7 win over [Boston University](/wiki/Boston_University "Boston University"). No. 3 Washington won at home again, beating the [University of Idaho Vandals](/wiki/Idaho_Vandals_football "Idaho Vandals football") 41–12\. No. 4 Illinois beat [Indiana](/wiki/Indiana_Hoosiers_football "Indiana Hoosiers football") 17–6\. In Lincoln, Minnesota beat No. 12 Nebraska 26–14\. No. 5 Alabama was tied 6–6 by [Tulane](/wiki/Tulane_Green_Wave_football "Tulane Green Wave football") in New Orleans. Mississippi, Syracuse, Washington, and Illinois remained as the top four in the next poll, but [Kansas](/wiki/Kansas_Jayhawks_football "Kansas Jayhawks football"), which had crushed [Kansas State](/wiki/1960_Kansas_State_Wildcats_football_team "1960 Kansas State Wildcats football team") 41–0 on the road, rose from No. 7 to No. 5\. Minnesota entered the poll at the No. 18 spot.
### October
**October 1** [No. 1 Mississippi](/wiki/Ole_Miss_Rebels "Ole Miss Rebels") played its second straight game in Memphis, Tennessee, beating Memphis State 31–20\. [No. 2 Syracuse](/wiki/Syracuse_football "Syracuse football") defeated [No. 5 Kansas](/wiki/Kansas_Jayhawks_football "Kansas Jayhawks football") in Lawrence, Kansas, 14–7, to reclaim the top spot. [No. 3 Washington](/wiki/Washington_Huskies_football "Washington Huskies football") narrowly lost 15–14 at home to the No. 17 Navy Midshipmen. [No. 4 Illinois](/wiki/Illinois_football "Illinois football") beat West Virginia 33–0\. No. 8 Iowa beat No. 6 Northwestern 42\-0 on the road. No. 9 Ohio State shut out visiting USC 20\-0\. No. 18 Minnesota beat Indiana 42–0\. The following poll featured No. 1 Syracuse and No. 2 Mississippi, followed by three [Big Ten](/wiki/Big_Ten "Big Ten") teams: No. 3 Iowa, No. 4 Illinois, and No. 5 Ohio State. Also from the Big Ten, Purdue was 7th, Michigan State 13th, and Minnesota 14th.
**October 8**
[No. 1 Syracuse](/wiki/Syracuse_football "Syracuse football") struggled to beat Holy Cross 15–6 in Worcester, Mass. [No. 2 Mississippi](/wiki/Ole_Miss_Rebels "Ole Miss Rebels") won in their third consecutive trip to Tennessee, beating Vanderbilt 26–0 in Nashville. [No. 3 Iowa](/wiki/1960_Iowa_Hawkeyes_football_team "1960 Iowa Hawkeyes football team") beat No. 13 Michigan State in East Lansing, 27–15\. [No. 4 Illinois](/wiki/Illinois_football "Illinois football") lost in Champaign, Ill., to [No. 5 Ohio State](/wiki/Ohio_State_football "Ohio State football"), 34–7\. [No. 6 Navy](/wiki/Navy_Midshipmen_football "Navy Midshipmen football"), which had beaten SMU 26–7 at a game in the naval port of [Norfolk, Virginia](/wiki/Norfolk%2C_Virginia "Norfolk, Virginia"), came in at fifth. No. 14 Minnesota beat Northwestern 7–0\. The next poll was: No. 1 Mississippi, No. 2 Iowa, No. 3 Ohio State, No. 4 Syracuse, and No. 5 Navy. Minnesota reached the Top Ten at No. 10\.
On **October 15**, [No. 1 Mississippi](/wiki/Ole_Miss_Rebels "Ole Miss Rebels") beat Tulane in New Orleans 26–13, and [No. 2 Iowa](/wiki/1960_Iowa_Hawkeyes_football_team "1960 Iowa Hawkeyes football team") beat No. 12 Wisconsin at home, 28–21\. [No. 3 Ohio State](/wiki/Ohio_State_football "Ohio State football") lost a close one at Purdue 24–21\. [No. 4 Syracuse](/wiki/Syracuse_football "Syracuse football") beat No. 20 Penn State 21–15, and [No. 5 Navy](/wiki/Navy_Midshipmen_football "Navy Midshipmen football") beat the Air Force Academy 35–3 in [Baltimore](/wiki/Baltimore "Baltimore"). No. 6 [Missouri](/wiki/Missouri_Tigers_football "Missouri Tigers football") reached 5–0 after a 45–0 win over Kansas State at Manhattan, KS. No. 10 Minnesota beat Illinois 21–10\. The Iowa Hawkeyes narrowly topped the next poll, with 23 first place votes to 22 for Ole Miss, and only two points to separate No. 1 and No. 2 (442–440\). They were followed by No. 3 Syracuse, No. 4 Navy, and No. 5 [Missouri](/wiki/Missouri_Tigers_football "Missouri Tigers football"). Minnesota rose from 10th to 6th.
**October 22** [No. 1 Iowa](/wiki/1960_Iowa_Hawkeyes_football_team "1960 Iowa Hawkeyes football team") beat No. 10 Purdue 21–14 and [No. 2 Mississippi](/wiki/Ole_Miss_Rebels "Ole Miss Rebels") edged No. 14 Arkansas 10–7 in Little Rock. [No. 3 Syracuse](/wiki/Syracuse_football "Syracuse football") won at West Virginia 45–0, while [No. 4 Navy](/wiki/Navy_Midshipmen_football "Navy Midshipmen football") beat the Ivy League's Pennsylvania in Philadelphia, 27–0\. [No. 5 Missouri](/wiki/Missouri_Tigers_football "Missouri Tigers football"), which had held all of its opponents to single digits, continued winning with a 34–8 thrashing of Iowa State. In Ann Arbor, Michigan, No. 6 Minnesota beat Michigan 10–0\. Iowa tightened its hold on No. 1 in the next poll, with 34 of the 48 votes for first place. The next week's Top 20 had only nineteen teams, with Kansas at No. 19 with 2 points. The top five remained the same.
**October 29** [No. 1 Iowa](/wiki/1960_Iowa_Hawkeyes_football_team "1960 Iowa Hawkeyes football team") beat No. 19 Kansas 21–7\. [No. 2 Mississippi](/wiki/Ole_Miss_Rebels "Ole Miss Rebels") played its 7th game of the season, but its first at home in Oxford, and was tied 6–6 by the LSU Tigers, the only team which had defeated them in 1959\. [No. 3 Syracuse](/wiki/Syracuse_football "Syracuse football") lost to Pittsburgh 10–0\. In [Philadelphia](/wiki/Philadelphia "Philadelphia"), [No. 4 Navy](/wiki/Navy_Midshipmen_football "Navy Midshipmen football") beat Notre Dame 14–7\. [No. 5 Missouri](/wiki/Missouri_Tigers_football "Missouri Tigers football") crushed Nebraska in Lincoln, 28–0, to go 7–0–0\. At this time, they had outscored their opponents 210–31\. No. 6 Minnesota beat Kansas State 48–7\. [No. 8 Ohio State](/wiki/Ohio_State_football "Ohio State football") defeated No. 10 Michigan State in East Lansing, 21–10\. The next poll again featured three Big Ten teams in the top five: No. 1 Iowa, No. 2 Missouri, No. 3 Minnesota, No. 4 Navy, and No. 5 Ohio State.
### November
**November 5** The battle between the Big Ten's two 6–0–0 teams took place in Minneapolis, where [No. 1 Iowa](/wiki/1960_Iowa_Hawkeyes_football_team "1960 Iowa Hawkeyes football team") lost to [No. 3 Minnesota](/wiki/Minnesota_Gophers_football "Minnesota Gophers football"), 27–10\. [No. 2 Missouri](/wiki/Missouri_Tigers_football "Missouri Tigers football") beat No. 18 Colorado at home 16–6\. [No. 4 Navy](/wiki/Navy_Midshipmen_football "Navy Midshipmen football") lost in Durham, North Carolina, to No. 13 Duke 19–10\. [No. 5 Ohio State](/wiki/Ohio_State_football "Ohio State football") handled Indiana 36–7\. Having dethroned the No. 1 team, the Minnesota Gophers took the top spot in the poll released on November 7, 1960, with 40 of the 47 voters voting them as No. 1\. [No. 6 Mississippi](/wiki/Ole_Miss_Rebels "Ole Miss Rebels"), still unbeaten, returned to the Top Five after a 45–0 win over the University of Chattanooga. The top five was No. 1 Minnesota, No. 2 Missouri, No. 3 Ohio State, No. 4 Mississippi, and No. 5 Iowa.
**November 12**
[No. 1 Minnesota](/wiki/Minnesota_Gophers_football "Minnesota Gophers football") lost to Purdue, 23–14\. [No. 2 Missouri](/wiki/Missouri_Tigers_football "Missouri Tigers football") gave up more than a touchdown for the first time, but still won 41–19 at Oklahoma. [No. 3 Ohio State](/wiki/Ohio_State_football "Ohio State football") lost at [No. 5 Iowa](/wiki/1960_Iowa_Hawkeyes_football_team "1960 Iowa Hawkeyes football team"), 35–12\. [No. 4 Mississippi](/wiki/Ole_Miss_Rebels "Ole Miss Rebels") beat No. 14 Tennessee in Knoxville, 24–3\. [No. 6 Washington](/wiki/Washington_Huskies_football "Washington Huskies football"), which had beaten California 27–7, moved into the Top Five. The Missouri Tigers captured the top spot in the next poll, which was No. 1 Missouri, No. 2 Iowa, No. 3 Mississippi, No. 4 Minnesota, and No. 5 Washington.
**November 19**
Unbeaten [No. 1 Missouri](/wiki/Missouri_Tigers_football "Missouri Tigers football"), with only a home game left between it and the national championship, lost to visiting Kansas, 23–7, but the game was later forfeited to Missouri due to the Jayhawks' use of an ineligible player.{{Cite news\|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/1960/12/09/archives/decision\-follows\-action\-of\-ncaa\-missouri\-colorado\-games\-forfeited.html\|title\=DECISION FOLLOWS ACTION OF N.C.A.A.; Missouri, Colorado Games Forfeited \-\- Recruiting of Coan is Charged\|newspaper\=The New York Times\|date\=9 December 1960}} [No. 2 Iowa](/wiki/1960_Iowa_Hawkeyes_football_team "1960 Iowa Hawkeyes football team") defeated Notre Dame in South Bend, 28–0\. [No. 3 Mississippi](/wiki/Ole_Miss_Rebels "Ole Miss Rebels") was idle. [No. 4 Minnesota](/wiki/Minnesota_Gophers_football "Minnesota Gophers football") closed its season with a 26–7 win at Wisconsin. They tied with Iowa atop the Big Ten standings and earned a [Rose Bowl](/wiki/1961_Rose_Bowl "1961 Rose Bowl") berth by virtue of their head\-to\-head victory over the Hawkeyes. Their opponent would be [No. 5 Washington](/wiki/Washington_Huskies_football "Washington Huskies football"), which played its season ender against 4–4–1 Washington State in Spokane and won only by a 2–point conversion, 8–7\. In the penultimate poll, released November 21, No. 1 Minnesota, No. 2 Iowa, and No. 3 Mississippi had 13½, 17½ and 13 first place votes respectively (voters were allowed to split their choices for No. 1\), followed by No. 4 Washington and No. 5 Missouri.
**November 26**
[No. 3 Mississippi](/wiki/Ole_Miss_Rebels "Ole Miss Rebels") finished its season unbeaten (9–0–1\) with a 35–9 win at home over Mississippi State, earning the SEC title and a spot in the [Sugar Bowl](/wiki/1961_Sugar_Bowl "1961 Sugar Bowl"). All of the other Top Five teams had finished their schedules, but No. 7 Navy moved up in the final poll with a 17–12 victory against Army. The Midshipmen would face off against Missouri in the Orange Bowl.
With both the AP and UPI [finishing their voting](/wiki/1960_major_college_football_rankings "1960 major college football rankings") before the bowl games, the championship was determined in December. The AP writers divided among No. 1 Minnesota (8–1\), No. 2 Mississippi (9–0–1\), and No. 3 Iowa (8–1\), and some voters split their choices. As such, the Minnesota Gophers received 17½ votes for No. 1, Mississippi got 16, and Iowa 12½. Minnesota had 433½ poll points, ahead of 411 for Ole Miss and 407½ for Iowa. The next tier of teams all had one loss and also were closely packed together: No. 4 Navy had 262 poll points, No. 5 Missouri had 253, and No. 6 Washington had 250\.{{Cite web\|url\=http://collegepollarchive.com/football/ap/seasons.cfm?appollid\=247\#.YdkiKv7MI2w\|title \= 1960 Final Football Polls \- College Poll Archive \- Historical College Football, Basketball, and Softball Polls and Rankings}} The UPI Coaches Poll placed the teams in a slightly different order, but also settled on Minnesota as the No. 1 choice.
Because the final Associated Press and United Press International polls were conducted after the final game of the regular season, Minnesota is considered the national champion for 1960 despite their loss to Washington in the [Rose Bowl](/wiki/1961_Rose_Bowl "1961 Rose Bowl"). After the bowl games, the Helms Athletic Foundation recognized Washington as national champion,{{citation \| last \= Jenkins\| first \= Dan \| title \= This Year The Fight Will Be in the Open \| magazine \= Sports Illustrated \| date \= September 11, 1967 \| page\=33 \| volume \= 27 \| issue \= 11 \| publisher \= Time Inc. \| location\=Chicago, IL \| url\=https://www.si.com/vault/1967/09/11/614180/this\-year\-the\-fight\-will\-be\-in\-the\-open \| access\-date\=March 16, 2016\|quote\=In 1948, the Helms Athletic Foundation decided to name a national champion … and name past champions. The director of Helms since its beginning, Bill Schroeder, did the work, and he now heads the committee that selects No. 1 after the bowl games. 'A committee of one – me,' he says.}} while the [Football Writers Association of America](/wiki/Football_Writers_Association_of_America "Football Writers Association of America") crowned Mississippi as national champion. Had the polls been taken after the bowl games, Missouri would likely also have been a contender for the national championship, as the Tigers beat Navy in the Orange Bowl and their 10–1 record was improved to 11–0 when the Kansas game was declared a forfeit.
The MAC's Ohio Bobcats were also crowned the world small college football champions in 1960, after an undefeated season.
### December
**December 8**
The Big Eight faculty committee, meeting in Kansas City, ruled [Kansas](/wiki/1960_Kansas_Jayhawks_football_team "1960 Kansas Jayhawks football team") halfback [Bert Coan](/wiki/Bert_Coan "Bert Coan") ineligible and ordered the Jayhawks to forfeit their last two victories on November 12 and 19\.{{cite news \|url\=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id\=lcMxAAAAIBAJ\&sjid\=buUFAAAAIBAJ\&pg\=6111%2C5489823 \|work\=Lawrence Daily Journal\-World \|location\=(Kansas)\|last\=Morey \|first\=Earl \|title\=Big Eight voted 5\-3 to strip KU's title in Bert Coan action \|date\=December 9, 1960 \|page\=1 \|quote\=The move gave MU a 10\-0 season record and a 7\-0 record in league play.}} The reversal brought Missouri's record to 11–0 instead of 10–1\.
|
[
"Season chronology\n-----------------",
"### September",
"In the preseason poll released on September 12, the defending champion [Syracuse Orangemen](/wiki/Syracuse_Orange_football \"Syracuse Orange football\") and 1959's second\\-place finisher, the [Mississippi Rebels](/wiki/1960_Ole_Miss_Rebels_football_team \"1960 Ole Miss Rebels football team\"), were No. 1 and No. 2, with 26 and 21 first place votes respectively. They were followed by the No. 3 [Washington Huskies](/wiki/1960_Washington_Huskies_football_team \"1960 Washington Huskies football team\") from Seattle, the No. 4 [Texas Longhorns](/wiki/1960_Texas_Longhorns_football_team \"1960 Texas Longhorns football team\") and the No. 5 [Illinois Fighting Illini](/wiki/1960_Illinois_Fighting_Illini_football_team \"1960 Illinois Fighting Illini football team\").{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.appollarchive.com/football/ap/ \\|title\\=Archived copy \\|access\\-date\\=2009\\-01\\-11 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20111002010550/http://www.appollarchive.com/football/ap/ \\|archive\\-date\\=2011\\-10\\-02 }} As the regular season progressed, a new poll would be issued on the Monday following the weekend's games.",
"The Big Ten schools would not kick off until September 24\\. On **September 17**, No. 2 Mississippi beat the [Houston Cougars](/wiki/Houston_Cougars_football \"Houston Cougars football\") in Houston, 42–0\\. No. 3 Washington crushed the visiting [College of the Pacific](/wiki/Pacific_Tigers \"Pacific Tigers\"), 55–6 (the school became the University of the Pacific in 1961\\). No. 4 Texas opened its season with a loss at home to Nebraska, falling 14–13\\. Ole Miss was voted No. 1, followed by No. 2 Syracuse, No. 3 Washington, and No. 4 Illinois. Previously unranked Alabama, which had beaten No. 13 Georgia 21–6 in [Birmingham](/wiki/Legion_Field \"Legion Field\"), was fifth.",
"**September 24** No. 1 Mississippi beat [Kentucky](/wiki/Kentucky_Wildcats_football \"Kentucky Wildcats football\") in Memphis, 21–6\\. No. 2 Syracuse opened its season with a 55–7 win over [Boston University](/wiki/Boston_University \"Boston University\"). No. 3 Washington won at home again, beating the [University of Idaho Vandals](/wiki/Idaho_Vandals_football \"Idaho Vandals football\") 41–12\\. No. 4 Illinois beat [Indiana](/wiki/Indiana_Hoosiers_football \"Indiana Hoosiers football\") 17–6\\. In Lincoln, Minnesota beat No. 12 Nebraska 26–14\\. No. 5 Alabama was tied 6–6 by [Tulane](/wiki/Tulane_Green_Wave_football \"Tulane Green Wave football\") in New Orleans. Mississippi, Syracuse, Washington, and Illinois remained as the top four in the next poll, but [Kansas](/wiki/Kansas_Jayhawks_football \"Kansas Jayhawks football\"), which had crushed [Kansas State](/wiki/1960_Kansas_State_Wildcats_football_team \"1960 Kansas State Wildcats football team\") 41–0 on the road, rose from No. 7 to No. 5\\. Minnesota entered the poll at the No. 18 spot.",
"### October",
"**October 1** [No. 1 Mississippi](/wiki/Ole_Miss_Rebels \"Ole Miss Rebels\") played its second straight game in Memphis, Tennessee, beating Memphis State 31–20\\. [No. 2 Syracuse](/wiki/Syracuse_football \"Syracuse football\") defeated [No. 5 Kansas](/wiki/Kansas_Jayhawks_football \"Kansas Jayhawks football\") in Lawrence, Kansas, 14–7, to reclaim the top spot. [No. 3 Washington](/wiki/Washington_Huskies_football \"Washington Huskies football\") narrowly lost 15–14 at home to the No. 17 Navy Midshipmen. [No. 4 Illinois](/wiki/Illinois_football \"Illinois football\") beat West Virginia 33–0\\. No. 8 Iowa beat No. 6 Northwestern 42\\-0 on the road. No. 9 Ohio State shut out visiting USC 20\\-0\\. No. 18 Minnesota beat Indiana 42–0\\. The following poll featured No. 1 Syracuse and No. 2 Mississippi, followed by three [Big Ten](/wiki/Big_Ten \"Big Ten\") teams: No. 3 Iowa, No. 4 Illinois, and No. 5 Ohio State. Also from the Big Ten, Purdue was 7th, Michigan State 13th, and Minnesota 14th.",
"**October 8**\n[No. 1 Syracuse](/wiki/Syracuse_football \"Syracuse football\") struggled to beat Holy Cross 15–6 in Worcester, Mass. [No. 2 Mississippi](/wiki/Ole_Miss_Rebels \"Ole Miss Rebels\") won in their third consecutive trip to Tennessee, beating Vanderbilt 26–0 in Nashville. [No. 3 Iowa](/wiki/1960_Iowa_Hawkeyes_football_team \"1960 Iowa Hawkeyes football team\") beat No. 13 Michigan State in East Lansing, 27–15\\. [No. 4 Illinois](/wiki/Illinois_football \"Illinois football\") lost in Champaign, Ill., to [No. 5 Ohio State](/wiki/Ohio_State_football \"Ohio State football\"), 34–7\\. [No. 6 Navy](/wiki/Navy_Midshipmen_football \"Navy Midshipmen football\"), which had beaten SMU 26–7 at a game in the naval port of [Norfolk, Virginia](/wiki/Norfolk%2C_Virginia \"Norfolk, Virginia\"), came in at fifth. No. 14 Minnesota beat Northwestern 7–0\\. The next poll was: No. 1 Mississippi, No. 2 Iowa, No. 3 Ohio State, No. 4 Syracuse, and No. 5 Navy. Minnesota reached the Top Ten at No. 10\\.",
"On **October 15**, [No. 1 Mississippi](/wiki/Ole_Miss_Rebels \"Ole Miss Rebels\") beat Tulane in New Orleans 26–13, and [No. 2 Iowa](/wiki/1960_Iowa_Hawkeyes_football_team \"1960 Iowa Hawkeyes football team\") beat No. 12 Wisconsin at home, 28–21\\. [No. 3 Ohio State](/wiki/Ohio_State_football \"Ohio State football\") lost a close one at Purdue 24–21\\. [No. 4 Syracuse](/wiki/Syracuse_football \"Syracuse football\") beat No. 20 Penn State 21–15, and [No. 5 Navy](/wiki/Navy_Midshipmen_football \"Navy Midshipmen football\") beat the Air Force Academy 35–3 in [Baltimore](/wiki/Baltimore \"Baltimore\"). No. 6 [Missouri](/wiki/Missouri_Tigers_football \"Missouri Tigers football\") reached 5–0 after a 45–0 win over Kansas State at Manhattan, KS. No. 10 Minnesota beat Illinois 21–10\\. The Iowa Hawkeyes narrowly topped the next poll, with 23 first place votes to 22 for Ole Miss, and only two points to separate No. 1 and No. 2 (442–440\\). They were followed by No. 3 Syracuse, No. 4 Navy, and No. 5 [Missouri](/wiki/Missouri_Tigers_football \"Missouri Tigers football\"). Minnesota rose from 10th to 6th.",
"**October 22** [No. 1 Iowa](/wiki/1960_Iowa_Hawkeyes_football_team \"1960 Iowa Hawkeyes football team\") beat No. 10 Purdue 21–14 and [No. 2 Mississippi](/wiki/Ole_Miss_Rebels \"Ole Miss Rebels\") edged No. 14 Arkansas 10–7 in Little Rock. [No. 3 Syracuse](/wiki/Syracuse_football \"Syracuse football\") won at West Virginia 45–0, while [No. 4 Navy](/wiki/Navy_Midshipmen_football \"Navy Midshipmen football\") beat the Ivy League's Pennsylvania in Philadelphia, 27–0\\. [No. 5 Missouri](/wiki/Missouri_Tigers_football \"Missouri Tigers football\"), which had held all of its opponents to single digits, continued winning with a 34–8 thrashing of Iowa State. In Ann Arbor, Michigan, No. 6 Minnesota beat Michigan 10–0\\. Iowa tightened its hold on No. 1 in the next poll, with 34 of the 48 votes for first place. The next week's Top 20 had only nineteen teams, with Kansas at No. 19 with 2 points. The top five remained the same.",
"**October 29** [No. 1 Iowa](/wiki/1960_Iowa_Hawkeyes_football_team \"1960 Iowa Hawkeyes football team\") beat No. 19 Kansas 21–7\\. [No. 2 Mississippi](/wiki/Ole_Miss_Rebels \"Ole Miss Rebels\") played its 7th game of the season, but its first at home in Oxford, and was tied 6–6 by the LSU Tigers, the only team which had defeated them in 1959\\. [No. 3 Syracuse](/wiki/Syracuse_football \"Syracuse football\") lost to Pittsburgh 10–0\\. In [Philadelphia](/wiki/Philadelphia \"Philadelphia\"), [No. 4 Navy](/wiki/Navy_Midshipmen_football \"Navy Midshipmen football\") beat Notre Dame 14–7\\. [No. 5 Missouri](/wiki/Missouri_Tigers_football \"Missouri Tigers football\") crushed Nebraska in Lincoln, 28–0, to go 7–0–0\\. At this time, they had outscored their opponents 210–31\\. No. 6 Minnesota beat Kansas State 48–7\\. [No. 8 Ohio State](/wiki/Ohio_State_football \"Ohio State football\") defeated No. 10 Michigan State in East Lansing, 21–10\\. The next poll again featured three Big Ten teams in the top five: No. 1 Iowa, No. 2 Missouri, No. 3 Minnesota, No. 4 Navy, and No. 5 Ohio State.",
"### November",
"**November 5** The battle between the Big Ten's two 6–0–0 teams took place in Minneapolis, where [No. 1 Iowa](/wiki/1960_Iowa_Hawkeyes_football_team \"1960 Iowa Hawkeyes football team\") lost to [No. 3 Minnesota](/wiki/Minnesota_Gophers_football \"Minnesota Gophers football\"), 27–10\\. [No. 2 Missouri](/wiki/Missouri_Tigers_football \"Missouri Tigers football\") beat No. 18 Colorado at home 16–6\\. [No. 4 Navy](/wiki/Navy_Midshipmen_football \"Navy Midshipmen football\") lost in Durham, North Carolina, to No. 13 Duke 19–10\\. [No. 5 Ohio State](/wiki/Ohio_State_football \"Ohio State football\") handled Indiana 36–7\\. Having dethroned the No. 1 team, the Minnesota Gophers took the top spot in the poll released on November 7, 1960, with 40 of the 47 voters voting them as No. 1\\. [No. 6 Mississippi](/wiki/Ole_Miss_Rebels \"Ole Miss Rebels\"), still unbeaten, returned to the Top Five after a 45–0 win over the University of Chattanooga. The top five was No. 1 Minnesota, No. 2 Missouri, No. 3 Ohio State, No. 4 Mississippi, and No. 5 Iowa.",
"**November 12**\n[No. 1 Minnesota](/wiki/Minnesota_Gophers_football \"Minnesota Gophers football\") lost to Purdue, 23–14\\. [No. 2 Missouri](/wiki/Missouri_Tigers_football \"Missouri Tigers football\") gave up more than a touchdown for the first time, but still won 41–19 at Oklahoma. [No. 3 Ohio State](/wiki/Ohio_State_football \"Ohio State football\") lost at [No. 5 Iowa](/wiki/1960_Iowa_Hawkeyes_football_team \"1960 Iowa Hawkeyes football team\"), 35–12\\. [No. 4 Mississippi](/wiki/Ole_Miss_Rebels \"Ole Miss Rebels\") beat No. 14 Tennessee in Knoxville, 24–3\\. [No. 6 Washington](/wiki/Washington_Huskies_football \"Washington Huskies football\"), which had beaten California 27–7, moved into the Top Five. The Missouri Tigers captured the top spot in the next poll, which was No. 1 Missouri, No. 2 Iowa, No. 3 Mississippi, No. 4 Minnesota, and No. 5 Washington.",
"**November 19** \nUnbeaten [No. 1 Missouri](/wiki/Missouri_Tigers_football \"Missouri Tigers football\"), with only a home game left between it and the national championship, lost to visiting Kansas, 23–7, but the game was later forfeited to Missouri due to the Jayhawks' use of an ineligible player.{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/1960/12/09/archives/decision\\-follows\\-action\\-of\\-ncaa\\-missouri\\-colorado\\-games\\-forfeited.html\\|title\\=DECISION FOLLOWS ACTION OF N.C.A.A.; Missouri, Colorado Games Forfeited \\-\\- Recruiting of Coan is Charged\\|newspaper\\=The New York Times\\|date\\=9 December 1960}} [No. 2 Iowa](/wiki/1960_Iowa_Hawkeyes_football_team \"1960 Iowa Hawkeyes football team\") defeated Notre Dame in South Bend, 28–0\\. [No. 3 Mississippi](/wiki/Ole_Miss_Rebels \"Ole Miss Rebels\") was idle. [No. 4 Minnesota](/wiki/Minnesota_Gophers_football \"Minnesota Gophers football\") closed its season with a 26–7 win at Wisconsin. They tied with Iowa atop the Big Ten standings and earned a [Rose Bowl](/wiki/1961_Rose_Bowl \"1961 Rose Bowl\") berth by virtue of their head\\-to\\-head victory over the Hawkeyes. Their opponent would be [No. 5 Washington](/wiki/Washington_Huskies_football \"Washington Huskies football\"), which played its season ender against 4–4–1 Washington State in Spokane and won only by a 2–point conversion, 8–7\\. In the penultimate poll, released November 21, No. 1 Minnesota, No. 2 Iowa, and No. 3 Mississippi had 13½, 17½ and 13 first place votes respectively (voters were allowed to split their choices for No. 1\\), followed by No. 4 Washington and No. 5 Missouri.",
"**November 26**\n[No. 3 Mississippi](/wiki/Ole_Miss_Rebels \"Ole Miss Rebels\") finished its season unbeaten (9–0–1\\) with a 35–9 win at home over Mississippi State, earning the SEC title and a spot in the [Sugar Bowl](/wiki/1961_Sugar_Bowl \"1961 Sugar Bowl\"). All of the other Top Five teams had finished their schedules, but No. 7 Navy moved up in the final poll with a 17–12 victory against Army. The Midshipmen would face off against Missouri in the Orange Bowl.",
"With both the AP and UPI [finishing their voting](/wiki/1960_major_college_football_rankings \"1960 major college football rankings\") before the bowl games, the championship was determined in December. The AP writers divided among No. 1 Minnesota (8–1\\), No. 2 Mississippi (9–0–1\\), and No. 3 Iowa (8–1\\), and some voters split their choices. As such, the Minnesota Gophers received 17½ votes for No. 1, Mississippi got 16, and Iowa 12½. Minnesota had 433½ poll points, ahead of 411 for Ole Miss and 407½ for Iowa. The next tier of teams all had one loss and also were closely packed together: No. 4 Navy had 262 poll points, No. 5 Missouri had 253, and No. 6 Washington had 250\\.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://collegepollarchive.com/football/ap/seasons.cfm?appollid\\=247\\#.YdkiKv7MI2w\\|title \\= 1960 Final Football Polls \\- College Poll Archive \\- Historical College Football, Basketball, and Softball Polls and Rankings}} The UPI Coaches Poll placed the teams in a slightly different order, but also settled on Minnesota as the No. 1 choice.",
"Because the final Associated Press and United Press International polls were conducted after the final game of the regular season, Minnesota is considered the national champion for 1960 despite their loss to Washington in the [Rose Bowl](/wiki/1961_Rose_Bowl \"1961 Rose Bowl\"). After the bowl games, the Helms Athletic Foundation recognized Washington as national champion,{{citation \\| last \\= Jenkins\\| first \\= Dan \\| title \\= This Year The Fight Will Be in the Open \\| magazine \\= Sports Illustrated \\| date \\= September 11, 1967 \\| page\\=33 \\| volume \\= 27 \\| issue \\= 11 \\| publisher \\= Time Inc. \\| location\\=Chicago, IL \\| url\\=https://www.si.com/vault/1967/09/11/614180/this\\-year\\-the\\-fight\\-will\\-be\\-in\\-the\\-open \\| access\\-date\\=March 16, 2016\\|quote\\=In 1948, the Helms Athletic Foundation decided to name a national champion … and name past champions. The director of Helms since its beginning, Bill Schroeder, did the work, and he now heads the committee that selects No. 1 after the bowl games. 'A committee of one – me,' he says.}} while the [Football Writers Association of America](/wiki/Football_Writers_Association_of_America \"Football Writers Association of America\") crowned Mississippi as national champion. Had the polls been taken after the bowl games, Missouri would likely also have been a contender for the national championship, as the Tigers beat Navy in the Orange Bowl and their 10–1 record was improved to 11–0 when the Kansas game was declared a forfeit.",
"The MAC's Ohio Bobcats were also crowned the world small college football champions in 1960, after an undefeated season.",
"### December",
"**December 8**\nThe Big Eight faculty committee, meeting in Kansas City, ruled [Kansas](/wiki/1960_Kansas_Jayhawks_football_team \"1960 Kansas Jayhawks football team\") halfback [Bert Coan](/wiki/Bert_Coan \"Bert Coan\") ineligible and ordered the Jayhawks to forfeit their last two victories on November 12 and 19\\.{{cite news \\|url\\=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id\\=lcMxAAAAIBAJ\\&sjid\\=buUFAAAAIBAJ\\&pg\\=6111%2C5489823 \\|work\\=Lawrence Daily Journal\\-World \\|location\\=(Kansas)\\|last\\=Morey \\|first\\=Earl \\|title\\=Big Eight voted 5\\-3 to strip KU's title in Bert Coan action \\|date\\=December 9, 1960 \\|page\\=1 \\|quote\\=The move gave MU a 10\\-0 season record and a 7\\-0 record in league play.}} The reversal brought Missouri's record to 11–0 instead of 10–1\\.",
""
] |
Educational Background
----------------------
Simon received his primary education in SJKC Chung Hwa Sungai Lalang. He then continued his secondary education in SMK Amanjaya. Subsequently after completing secondary school, he furthered his academic education in [University of Putra Malaysia](/wiki/University_of_Putra_Malaysia "University of Putra Malaysia") (UPM) and obtained his first Bachelor Degree of Computer and Communication System Engineering in 2008\. In 2014, he started to pursue his second Bachelor Degree of Jurisprudence in University of Malaya (UM). In the next few years, he had been travelling back and forth between Sungai Petani and Kuala Lumpur weekly to attend lectures in the university. Once, he was forced to defer his study after being appointed as a Member of Kedah State Executive Council in 2018\. After the PH government was overthrown, he resumed his study in 2020 and eventually completed the degree in July 2021\.
### Student Activist
Simon had been actively involved in student activism during his university time. In 2006, he served as the Vice President of Chinese Language Society of UPM and Coordinator of Student Progressive Front UPM. He then became the Administrative Secretary of Malaysia Youth and Student Democratic Movement (DEMA) in 2007\. His most significant chapter as a student activist was initiating a protest and boycott movement against unfair campus election in 2005 through a series of peaceful assemblies in UPM. As a consequence, he was charged by the university authorities for 7 charges under the University and University College Act 1971 (AUKU).
### Earlier Involvement in Politics
Simon kickstarted his journey in politics by joining People’s Justice Party (PKR) in 2008\. He debuted as political secretary to Member of Parliament Gopeng, Dr Lee Boon Chye from 2008 to 2009\. In 2010, he returned to his hometown, Sungai Petani, Kedah and served as a Municipal Councillor in Sungai Petani Municipal Council until 2013 before he was elected as State Assemblyperson in the 13th General Election.
### Kedah State Assemblyperson
In the 13th General Election held on 5 May 2013, it was the first time Simon contested in an election and was elected as the State Assemblyperson of Bakar Arang Constituency in Kedah. The seat was retained by him with a larger majority in the 14th General Election held on 9 May 2018\. At the same time, Pakatan Harapan coalition was installed as State Government in Kedah after winning with a majority of 18 out of 36 state seats.
### Member of Kedah State Executive Council
After the Pakatan Harapan coalition became State Government in the 14th General Election, Simon was appointed as a Member of Kedah State Executive Council (EXCO), being the only Chinese representative from PKR. During his service, he held the portfolios of Environment, Science and Technology; as well as Chinese and Siamese Community Affairs. Two years later, the PH State Government in Kedah was overthrown where Simon signed off his duty as an EXCO and returned to the opposition seat.
### People’s Justice Party
Prior to 2018, Simon held the position of Deputy Chairperson for PKR Youth Wing (Angkatan Muda Keadilan) in Kedah state. After the Party Elections in 2018, Simon was appointed as the treasurer of the Central Youth Wing and Vice Chairperson of the party in Kedah State. In 2022, he contested in the Keadilan Party Elections or known as Pemilihan Keadilan 2022, he wrestled against one of the pioneer members in the party, Dato’ Johari Abdul and won the position Chairperson in Sungai Petani Division. Whereas in the central level, Simon contested for the position of Central Leadership Council Member along with 73 other candidates and was elected after securing 703 votes, making him to the Top 20 for the position. He was also continually appointed as the Vice Chairperson of PKR in Kedah state.
|
[
"Educational Background\n----------------------",
"Simon received his primary education in SJKC Chung Hwa Sungai Lalang. He then continued his secondary education in SMK Amanjaya. Subsequently after completing secondary school, he furthered his academic education in [University of Putra Malaysia](/wiki/University_of_Putra_Malaysia \"University of Putra Malaysia\") (UPM) and obtained his first Bachelor Degree of Computer and Communication System Engineering in 2008\\. In 2014, he started to pursue his second Bachelor Degree of Jurisprudence in University of Malaya (UM). In the next few years, he had been travelling back and forth between Sungai Petani and Kuala Lumpur weekly to attend lectures in the university. Once, he was forced to defer his study after being appointed as a Member of Kedah State Executive Council in 2018\\. After the PH government was overthrown, he resumed his study in 2020 and eventually completed the degree in July 2021\\.",
"### Student Activist",
"Simon had been actively involved in student activism during his university time. In 2006, he served as the Vice President of Chinese Language Society of UPM and Coordinator of Student Progressive Front UPM. He then became the Administrative Secretary of Malaysia Youth and Student Democratic Movement (DEMA) in 2007\\. His most significant chapter as a student activist was initiating a protest and boycott movement against unfair campus election in 2005 through a series of peaceful assemblies in UPM. As a consequence, he was charged by the university authorities for 7 charges under the University and University College Act 1971 (AUKU).",
"### Earlier Involvement in Politics",
"Simon kickstarted his journey in politics by joining People’s Justice Party (PKR) in 2008\\. He debuted as political secretary to Member of Parliament Gopeng, Dr Lee Boon Chye from 2008 to 2009\\. In 2010, he returned to his hometown, Sungai Petani, Kedah and served as a Municipal Councillor in Sungai Petani Municipal Council until 2013 before he was elected as State Assemblyperson in the 13th General Election.",
"### Kedah State Assemblyperson",
"In the 13th General Election held on 5 May 2013, it was the first time Simon contested in an election and was elected as the State Assemblyperson of Bakar Arang Constituency in Kedah. The seat was retained by him with a larger majority in the 14th General Election held on 9 May 2018\\. At the same time, Pakatan Harapan coalition was installed as State Government in Kedah after winning with a majority of 18 out of 36 state seats.",
"### Member of Kedah State Executive Council",
"After the Pakatan Harapan coalition became State Government in the 14th General Election, Simon was appointed as a Member of Kedah State Executive Council (EXCO), being the only Chinese representative from PKR. During his service, he held the portfolios of Environment, Science and Technology; as well as Chinese and Siamese Community Affairs. Two years later, the PH State Government in Kedah was overthrown where Simon signed off his duty as an EXCO and returned to the opposition seat.",
"### People’s Justice Party",
"Prior to 2018, Simon held the position of Deputy Chairperson for PKR Youth Wing (Angkatan Muda Keadilan) in Kedah state. After the Party Elections in 2018, Simon was appointed as the treasurer of the Central Youth Wing and Vice Chairperson of the party in Kedah State. In 2022, he contested in the Keadilan Party Elections or known as Pemilihan Keadilan 2022, he wrestled against one of the pioneer members in the party, Dato’ Johari Abdul and won the position Chairperson in Sungai Petani Division. Whereas in the central level, Simon contested for the position of Central Leadership Council Member along with 73 other candidates and was elected after securing 703 votes, making him to the Top 20 for the position. He was also continually appointed as the Vice Chairperson of PKR in Kedah state.",
""
] |
Background
----------
A gay couple, Nikesh and Sonu, filed a petition seeking legal recognition of their marriage in the [Kerala High Court](/wiki/Kerala_High_Court "Kerala High Court") on 24 January 2020\. Kerala High Court Justice [Anu Sivaraman](/wiki/Anu_Sivaraman "Anu Sivaraman") admitted the petition on 27 January 2020\. Four sexual and gender minority individuals, Abhijit Iyer Mitra, [Gopi Shankar M](/wiki/Gopi_Shankar_Madurai "Gopi Shankar Madurai"), Giti Thadani and G. Oorvas, filed a petition seeking legal recognition of marriage in the [Delhi High Court](/wiki/Delhi_High_Court "Delhi High Court") on 8 September 2020\. A two\-judge Bench of [Delhi High Court](/wiki/Delhi_High_Court "Delhi High Court"), consisting of Chief Justice of Delhi High Court [D.N. Patel](/wiki/Dhirubhai_Naranbhai_Patel "Dhirubhai Naranbhai Patel") and Justice Prateek Jalan, admitted the petition on 14 September 2020\.
A gay couple, Supriya Chakraborty and Abhay Dang, filed a petition seeking legal recognition of their marriage in the Supreme Court of India on 14 November 2022\.Petitioner: {{Harvnb\|Supriyo v. Union of India}} A two\-judge Bench of the Supreme Court, consisting of Chief Justice of India [D.Y. Chandrachud](/wiki/Dhananjaya_Y._Chandrachud "Dhananjaya Y. Chandrachud") and Justice [Hima Kohli](/wiki/Hima_Kohli "Hima Kohli"), admitted the petition along with another gay couple, Parth Phiroze Mehrotra and Uday Raj Anand, on 25 November 2022\.
The Supreme Court bench consisting of Chief Justice of India [D.Y. Chandrachud](/wiki/Dhananjaya_Y._Chandrachud "Dhananjaya Y. Chandrachud") and Justice [P.S. Narasimha](/wiki/P._S._Narasimha "P. S. Narasimha") and Justice [J.B. Pardiwala](/wiki/J.B._Pardiwala "J.B. Pardiwala") directed [high courts](/wiki/High_courts_of_India "High courts of India") to transfer nine similar petitions— eight from [Delhi High Court](/wiki/Delhi_High_Court "Delhi High Court") and one from [Kerala High Court](/wiki/Kerala_High_Court "Kerala High Court")— to the Supreme Court to consider alongside the original petitioners.{{Cite news \|date\=6 January 2023 \|title\=Supreme Court transfers to itself all petitions on same\-sex marriage \|language\=en \|work\=\[\[The Hindu]] \|url\=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/sc\-transfers\-to\-itself\-all\-pleas\-pending\-before\-different\-high\-courts\-on\-recognition\-of\-same\-sex\-marriages/article66345499\.ece \|access\-date\= \|issn\=0971\-751X \|archive\-date\=17 January 2023 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230117194348/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/sc\-transfers\-to\-itself\-all\-pleas\-pending\-before\-different\-high\-courts\-on\-recognition\-of\-same\-sex\-marriages/article66345499\.ece \|url\-status\=live }}Supreme Court Order: {{Harvnb\|W.P.(C) No. 1011/2022 (6 Jan 2023\)}} On 15 March 2023, the Supreme Court admitted 20 connected petitions filed by 52 sexual and gender minority individuals, including 17 couples from sexual and gender minority communities.
Most of the petitioners wanted recognition of right to marry under secular marriage laws—[the Special Marriage Act](/wiki/Special_Marriage_Act%2C_1954 "Special Marriage Act, 1954") and [the Foreign Marriage Act](/wiki/Foreign_Marriage_Act%2C_1969 "Foreign Marriage Act, 1969").The petitions seeking recognition under the secular marriage laws—the Special Marriage Act of 1954 and the Foreign Marriage Act of 1969— include: {{Harvnb\|Nikesh P.P. v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Vaibhav Jai v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Dr Kavita Arora v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Udit Sood v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Joydeep Sengupta v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Supriyo v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Parth Phiroze Mehrotra v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Sameer Samudra v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Aditi Anand v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Utkarsh Saxena v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Nitin Karan v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Kajal v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Amburi Roy v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Akkai Padmashali v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Rituparna Borah v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\|Harish Iyer v. Union of India}} As various news reports,News reports on unwarranted interferences in marriage due to the notice and objection provision of secular marriage laws:
{{Cite news \|date\=2018\-07\-24 \|title\=Ghaziabad Mob Assaults Muslim Man for Registering Marriage With Hindu Woman \|work\=\[\[The Wire (India)\|The Wire]] \|url\=https://thewire.in/communalism/love\-jihad\-ghaziabad\-muslim\-man\-beaten \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180725120728/https://thewire.in/communalism/love\-jihad\-ghaziabad\-muslim\-man\-beaten \|archive\-date\=2018\-07\-25}}
{{Cite news \|last\=Kurian \|first\=Shiba \|date\=2020\-07\-20 \|title\=Kerala interfaith couples harassed by right wing vigilantes using marriage notices \|work\=\[\[The News Minute]] \|url\=https://www.thenewsminute.com/article/kerala\-interfaith\-couples\-harassed\-right\-wing\-vigilantes\-using\-marriage\-notices\-129053 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200721101004/https://www.thenewsminute.com/article/kerala\-interfaith\-couples\-harassed\-right\-wing\-vigilantes\-using\-marriage\-notices\-129053 \|archive\-date\=2020\-07\-21}}
{{Cite news \|last\=Sodhi \|first\=Tanishka \|date\=2021\-07\-26 \|title\=How Hindu vigilantes are exploiting a Special Marriage Act clause to target interfaith couples \|work\=\[\[Newslaundry]] \|url\=https://www.newslaundry.com/2021/07/26/how\-hindu\-vigilantes\-are\-exploiting\-a\-special\-marriage\-act\-clause\-to\-target\-interfaith\-couples \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210726073007/https://www.newslaundry.com/2021/07/26/how\-hindu\-vigilantes\-are\-exploiting\-a\-special\-marriage\-act\-clause\-to\-target\-interfaith\-couples \|archive\-date\=2021\-07\-26}} case studies{{Citation \|last\=Association for Advocacy and Legal Initiative \|title\=Facing Reality: A Journey on the Path of Choice \|date\=2010 \|type\=Case Study \|publication\-place\=\[\[Lucknow\|Lucknow, India]] \|publisher\=Association for Advocacy and Legal Initiative}} and official publications of the [Law Commission](/wiki/Law_Commission_of_India "Law Commission of India"){{Citation \|last\=\[\[Law Commission of India\#Twenty\-First Law Commission\|Twenty\-First Law Commission]] \|title\=Reform of Family Law \|date\=31 August 2018 \|url\=https://archive.pib.gov.in/documents/rlink/2018/aug/p201883101\.pdf \|type\=Consultation Paper \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201217035842/https://archive.pib.gov.in/documents/rlink/2018/aug/p201883101\.pdf \|publisher\=\[\[Law Commission of India]] \|archive\-date\=17 December 2020}}{{Cite report \|url\=https://cdnbbsr.s3waas.gov.in/s3ca0daec69b5adc880fb464895726dbdf/uploads/2022/08/2022081053\-3\.pdf \|title\=Prevention of Interference with the freedom of Matrimonial Alliances 2012 (in the name of Honour and Tradition): A suggested legal framework \|last\=\[\[Law Commission of India\#Nineteenth Law Commission\|Nineteenth Law Commission]] \|date\=August 2012 \|publisher\=\[\[Law Commission of India]] \|issue\=242 \|access\-date\=22 February 2023 \|archive\-date\=7 February 2023 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230207090438/https://cdnbbsr.s3waas.gov.in/s3ca0daec69b5adc880fb464895726dbdf/uploads/2022/08/2022081053\-3\.pdf \|url\-status\=live }} documented unwarranted interferences in marriage due to the notice and objection provision of secular marriage laws and recommended its removal, most of the petitioners seeking recognition under secular marriage laws challenged the constitutionality of the notice and objection provisions.
Some of the petitioners are practising [Hindus](/wiki/Hindus "Hindus") who believe that [Hinduism](/wiki/Hinduism "Hinduism") does not prohibit marriage between sexual and gender minority individuals. They argued that excluding couples from sexual and gender minority communities from the [Hindu Marriage Act](/wiki/Hindu_Marriage_Act%2C_1955 "Hindu Marriage Act, 1955") amounted to a violation of their [freedom to practice their religion](/wiki/Freedom_of_religion_in_India "Freedom of religion in India").
Many advocates represented the petitioners, while [Attorney General](/wiki/Attorney-General_for_India "Attorney-General for India") [R. Venkataramani](/wiki/R._Venkataramani "R. Venkataramani") and [Solicitor General](/wiki/Solicitor_General_of_India "Solicitor General of India") [Tushar Mehta](/wiki/Tushar_Mehta "Tushar Mehta") represent the respondents. The Supreme Court appointed Advocate [Arundhati Katju](/wiki/Arundhati_Katju "Arundhati Katju") and Kanu Agrawal as the Nodal Counsel for the petitioners and respondents, respectively.
| \+ Cases connected to Supriyo v. Union of India |
| --- |
| First Hearing | | {{Abbr\|W.P.(C) No.\|Writ Petition (Civil) Number}} | Petitioners | Respondents |
| Court | Date |
| [High Court of Kerala](/wiki/Kerala_High_Court "Kerala High Court") | {{Date table sorting\|27 Jan 2020}}Kerala High Court Order: {{Harvnb\|W.P.(C) No. 2186/2020 (27 Jan 2020\)}} | 02186/2020 | Nikesh P.P. {{Abbr\|\&\|and}} Sonu M.S.Petitioner: {{Harvnb\|Nikesh P.P. v. Union of India}} | [Ministry of Law and Justice](/wiki/Ministry_of_Law_and_Justice_%28India%29 "Ministry of Law and Justice (India)"), [Union of India](/wiki/Government_of_India "Government of India") |
| Department of Law, [State of Kerala](/wiki/Government_of_Kerala "Government of Kerala") |
| Marriage Officer, [Thrissur](/wiki/Thrissur_district "Thrissur district") |
| [High Court of Delhi](/wiki/Delhi_High_Court "Delhi High Court") | {{Date table sorting\|14 Sep 2020}}Delhi High Court Order: {{Harvnb\|W.P.(C) No. 6371/2020 (14 Sep 2020\)}} | 06371/2020 | Abhijit Iyer Mitra, [Gopi Shankar M](/wiki/Gopi_Shankar_Madurai "Gopi Shankar Madurai"), Giti Thadani {{Abbr\|\&\|and}} G.OorvasiPetitioner: {{Harvnb\|Abhijit Iyer Mitra v. Union of India}} | [Ministry of Law and Justice](/wiki/Ministry_of_Law_and_Justice_%28India%29 "Ministry of Law and Justice (India)"), [Union of India](/wiki/Government_of_India "Government of India") |
| {{Date table sorting\|08 Oct 2020\|addkey\=1}}Delhi High Court Order: {{Harvnb\|W.P.(C) No. 7657/2020 (08 Oct 2020\)}} \& {{Harvnb\|W.P.(C) No. 7692/2020 (08 Oct 2020\)}} | 07657/2020 | Vaibhav Jain {{Abbr\|\&\|and}} Parag Vijay MehtaPetitioner: {{Harvnb\|Vaibhav Jai v. Union of India}} | [Ministry of Law and Justice](/wiki/Ministry_of_Law_and_Justice_%28India%29 "Ministry of Law and Justice (India)"), [Union of India](/wiki/Government_of_India "Government of India") |
| Marriage Officer, [Consulate General](/wiki/List_of_diplomatic_missions_of_India "List of diplomatic missions of India"), [New York](/wiki/New_York_City "New York City") |
| 07692/2020 | Dr Kavita Arora {{Abbr\|\&\|and}} Ankita KhannaPetitioner: {{Harvnb\|Dr Kavita Arora v. Union of India}} | [Ministry of Law and Justice](/wiki/Ministry_of_Law_and_Justice_%28India%29 "Ministry of Law and Justice (India)"), [Union of India](/wiki/Government_of_India "Government of India") |
| Marriage Officer, [Delhi](/wiki/Delhi "Delhi") |
| {{Date table sorting\|25 Feb 2021}}Delhi High Court Order: {{Harvnb\|W.P.(C) No. 2574/2021 (25 Feb 2021\)}} | 02574/2021 | Udit Sood, Saattvic, Lakshmi Manoharan {{Abbr\|\&\|and}} Gagandeep PaulPetitioner: {{Harvnb\|Udit Sood v. Union of India}} | [Ministry of Law and Justice](/wiki/Ministry_of_Law_and_Justice_%28India%29 "Ministry of Law and Justice (India)"), [Union of India](/wiki/Government_of_India "Government of India") |
| {{Date table sorting\|06 Jul 2021}}Delhi High Court Order: {{Harvnb\|W.P.(C) No. 6150/2021 (06 Jul 2021\)}} | 06150/2021 | Joydeep Sengupta, Russell Blaine Stephens {{Abbr\|\&\|and}} Mario Leslie DpenhaPetitioner: {{Harvnb\|Joydeep Sengupta v. Union of India}} | [Ministry of Home Affairs](/wiki/Ministry_of_Home_Affairs_%28India%29 "Ministry of Home Affairs (India)") [, Union of India](/wiki/Government_of_India "Government of India") |
| [Ministry of External Affairs](/wiki/Ministry_of_External_Affairs_%28India%29 "Ministry of External Affairs (India)"), [Union of India](/wiki/Government_of_India "Government of India") |
| Marriage Officer, [Consulate General](/wiki/List_of_diplomatic_missions_of_India "List of diplomatic missions of India"), [New York](/wiki/New_York_City "New York City") |
| {{Date table sorting\|24 Nov 2021}}Delhi High Court Order: {{Harvnb\|W.P.(C) No. 13206/2021 (24 Nov 2021\)}} | 13206/2021 | Mellissa Ferrier {{Abbr\|\&\|and}} Kamakshi RaghavanPetitioner: {{Harvnb\|Mellissa Ferrier v. Union of India}} | [Ministry of Law and Justice](/wiki/Ministry_of_Law_and_Justice_%28India%29 "Ministry of Law and Justice (India)"), [Union of India](/wiki/Government_of_India "Government of India") |
| {{Date table sorting\|30 Nov 2021}}Delhi High Court Order: {{Harvnb\|W.P.(C) No. 13528/2021 (30 Nov 2021\)}} \& {{Harvnb\|W.P.(C) No. 13535/2021 (30 Nov 2021\)}} | 13528/2021 | Nibedita Dutta {{Abbr\|\&\|and}} Pooja SrivastavaPetitioners: {{Harvnb\|Nibedita Dutta v. Union of India}} | [Ministry of Law and Justice](/wiki/Ministry_of_Law_and_Justice_%28India%29 "Ministry of Law and Justice (India)"), [Union of India](/wiki/Government_of_India "Government of India") |
| 13535/2021 | Zainab J. PatelPetitioner: {{Harvnb\|Zainab J. Patel v. Union of India}} | [Ministry of Law and Justice](/wiki/Ministry_of_Law_and_Justice_%28India%29 "Ministry of Law and Justice (India)"), [Union of India](/wiki/Government_of_India "Government of India") |
| [National Legal Services Authority](/wiki/National_Legal_Services_Authority "National Legal Services Authority") |
| Supreme Court of India | {{Date table sorting\|25 Nov 2022\|addkey\=1}}Supreme Court Order: {{Harvnb\|W.P.(C) No. 1011/2022 (25 Nov 2022\)}} | 01011/2022 | Supriyo {{Abbr\|a.k.a\|also known as}} Supriya Chakraborty {{Abbr\|\&\|and}} Abhay Dang | [Ministry of Law and Justice](/wiki/Ministry_of_Law_and_Justice_%28India%29 "Ministry of Law and Justice (India)"), [Union of India](/wiki/Government_of_India "Government of India") |
|1020/2022
Parth Phiroze Mehrotra {{Abbr\|\&\|and}} Uday Raj AnandPetitioner:{{Harvnb\|Parth Phiroze Mehrotra v. Union of India}} |
[Ministry of Law and Justice](/wiki/Ministry_of_Law_and_Justice_%28India%29 "Ministry of Law and Justice (India)"), [Union of India](/wiki/Government_of_India "Government of India") |
| {{Date table sorting\|06 Jan 2023\|addkey\=1}} | 01105/2022 | Sameer Samudra {{Abbr\|\&\|and}} Amit GokhalePetitioner: {{Harvnb\|Sameer Samudra v. Union of India}} | [Ministry of Law and Justice](/wiki/Ministry_of_Law_and_Justice_%28India%29 "Ministry of Law and Justice (India)"), [Union of India](/wiki/Government_of_India "Government of India") |
| [Department of Law and Justice](/wiki/Ministry_of_Law_and_Judiciary_Government_of_Maharashtra "Ministry of Law and Judiciary Government of Maharashtra"), [State of Maharashtra](/wiki/Government_of_Maharashtra "Government of Maharashtra") |
| Marriage Registration Bureau, [Pune](/wiki/Pune "Pune") |
| 01141/2022 | Aditi Anand {{Abbr\|\&\|and}} Susan DiasPetitioner: {{Harvnb\|Aditi Anand v. Union of India}} | [Ministry of Law and Justice](/wiki/Ministry_of_Law_and_Justice_%28India%29 "Ministry of Law and Justice (India)"), [Union of India](/wiki/Government_of_India "Government of India") |
| 01142/2022 | Utkarsh Saxena {{Abbr\|\&\|and}} Ananya KotiaPetitioner: {{Harvnb\|Utkarsh Saxena v. Union of India}} | [Ministry of Law and Justice](/wiki/Ministry_of_Law_and_Justice_%28India%29 "Ministry of Law and Justice (India)"), [Union of India](/wiki/Government_of_India "Government of India") |
| 01150/2022 | Nitin Karani {{Abbr\|\&\|and}} Thomas JosephPetitioner: {{Harvnb\|Nitin Karan v. Union of India}} | [Ministry of Law and Justice](/wiki/Ministry_of_Law_and_Justice_%28India%29 "Ministry of Law and Justice (India)"), [Union of India](/wiki/Government_of_India "Government of India") |
| [Department of Law and Justice](/wiki/Ministry_of_Law_and_Judiciary_Government_of_Maharashtra "Ministry of Law and Judiciary Government of Maharashtra"), [State of Maharashtra](/wiki/Government_of_Maharashtra "Government of Maharashtra") |
| {{Date table sorting\|30 Jan 2023}}Supreme Court Order: {{Harvnb\|W.P.(C) No. 93/2023 (30 Jan 2023\)}} | 00093/2023 | Kajal {{Abbr\|\&\|and}} BhawnaPetitioner: {{Harvnb\|Kajal v. Union of India}} | [Ministry of Law and Justice](/wiki/Ministry_of_Law_and_Justice_%28India%29 "Ministry of Law and Justice (India)"), [Union of India](/wiki/Government_of_India "Government of India") |
| {{Date table sorting\|10 Feb 2023}}Supreme Court Order: {{Harvnb\|W.P.(C) No. 129/2023 (10 Feb 2023\)}} | 00129/2023 | Amburi Roy {{Abbr\|\&\|and}} Aparna SahaPetitioner: {{Harvnb\|Amburi Roy v. Union of India}} | [Ministry of Law and Justice](/wiki/Ministry_of_Law_and_Justice_%28India%29 "Ministry of Law and Justice (India)"), [Union of India](/wiki/Government_of_India "Government of India") |
| [Ministry of External Affairs](/wiki/Ministry_of_External_Affairs_%28India%29 "Ministry of External Affairs (India)"), [Union of India](/wiki/Government_of_India "Government of India") |
| [Central Adoption Resource Authority](/wiki/Central_Adoption_Resource_Authority "Central Adoption Resource Authority"), [Ministry of Women and Child Development](/wiki/Ministry_of_Women_and_Child_Development "Ministry of Women and Child Development"), [Union of India](/wiki/Government_of_India "Government of India") |
| {{Date table sorting\|20 Feb 2023}}Supreme Court Order: {{Harvnb\|W.P.(C) No. 159/2023 (20 Feb 2023\)}} |00159/2023
[Akkai Padmashali](/wiki/Akkai_Padmashali "Akkai Padmashali"), [Vyjayanti Vasanta Mogli](/wiki/Vyjayanti_Vasanta_Mogli "Vyjayanti Vasanta Mogli") {{Abbr\|\&\|and}} Umesh P {{Abbr\|a.k.a\|also known as}} UmaPetitioner: {{Harvnb\|Akkai Padmashali v. Union of India}} |
[Ministry of Law and Justice](/wiki/Ministry_of_Law_and_Justice_%28India%29 "Ministry of Law and Justice (India)"), [Union of India](/wiki/Government_of_India "Government of India") |
| {{Date table sorting\|03 Mar 2023}}Supreme Court Order: {{Harvnb\|W.P.(C) No. 260/2023 (03 Mar 2023\)}} | 00260/2023 | Rituparna Borah, Chayanika Shah, Minakshi Sanyal, Maya Sharma {{Abbr\|\&\|and}} {{Abbr\|Ors.\|Others}} | [Ministry of Law and Justice](/wiki/Ministry_of_Law_and_Justice_%28India%29 "Ministry of Law and Justice (India)"), [Union of India](/wiki/Government_of_India "Government of India") |
| {{Date table sorting\|13 Mar 2023}} |00319/2023
Harish IyerPetitioner: {{Harvnb\|Harish Iyer v. Union of India}} |
[Ministry of Law and Justice](/wiki/Ministry_of_Law_and_Justice_%28India%29 "Ministry of Law and Justice (India)"), [Union of India](/wiki/Government_of_India "Government of India") |
|
[
"Background\n----------",
"A gay couple, Nikesh and Sonu, filed a petition seeking legal recognition of their marriage in the [Kerala High Court](/wiki/Kerala_High_Court \"Kerala High Court\") on 24 January 2020\\. Kerala High Court Justice [Anu Sivaraman](/wiki/Anu_Sivaraman \"Anu Sivaraman\") admitted the petition on 27 January 2020\\. Four sexual and gender minority individuals, Abhijit Iyer Mitra, [Gopi Shankar M](/wiki/Gopi_Shankar_Madurai \"Gopi Shankar Madurai\"), Giti Thadani and G. Oorvas, filed a petition seeking legal recognition of marriage in the [Delhi High Court](/wiki/Delhi_High_Court \"Delhi High Court\") on 8 September 2020\\. A two\\-judge Bench of [Delhi High Court](/wiki/Delhi_High_Court \"Delhi High Court\"), consisting of Chief Justice of Delhi High Court [D.N. Patel](/wiki/Dhirubhai_Naranbhai_Patel \"Dhirubhai Naranbhai Patel\") and Justice Prateek Jalan, admitted the petition on 14 September 2020\\.",
"A gay couple, Supriya Chakraborty and Abhay Dang, filed a petition seeking legal recognition of their marriage in the Supreme Court of India on 14 November 2022\\.Petitioner: {{Harvnb\\|Supriyo v. Union of India}} A two\\-judge Bench of the Supreme Court, consisting of Chief Justice of India [D.Y. Chandrachud](/wiki/Dhananjaya_Y._Chandrachud \"Dhananjaya Y. Chandrachud\") and Justice [Hima Kohli](/wiki/Hima_Kohli \"Hima Kohli\"), admitted the petition along with another gay couple, Parth Phiroze Mehrotra and Uday Raj Anand, on 25 November 2022\\.",
"The Supreme Court bench consisting of Chief Justice of India [D.Y. Chandrachud](/wiki/Dhananjaya_Y._Chandrachud \"Dhananjaya Y. Chandrachud\") and Justice [P.S. Narasimha](/wiki/P._S._Narasimha \"P. S. Narasimha\") and Justice [J.B. Pardiwala](/wiki/J.B._Pardiwala \"J.B. Pardiwala\") directed [high courts](/wiki/High_courts_of_India \"High courts of India\") to transfer nine similar petitions— eight from [Delhi High Court](/wiki/Delhi_High_Court \"Delhi High Court\") and one from [Kerala High Court](/wiki/Kerala_High_Court \"Kerala High Court\")— to the Supreme Court to consider alongside the original petitioners.{{Cite news \\|date\\=6 January 2023 \\|title\\=Supreme Court transfers to itself all petitions on same\\-sex marriage \\|language\\=en \\|work\\=\\[\\[The Hindu]] \\|url\\=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/sc\\-transfers\\-to\\-itself\\-all\\-pleas\\-pending\\-before\\-different\\-high\\-courts\\-on\\-recognition\\-of\\-same\\-sex\\-marriages/article66345499\\.ece \\|access\\-date\\= \\|issn\\=0971\\-751X \\|archive\\-date\\=17 January 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230117194348/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/sc\\-transfers\\-to\\-itself\\-all\\-pleas\\-pending\\-before\\-different\\-high\\-courts\\-on\\-recognition\\-of\\-same\\-sex\\-marriages/article66345499\\.ece \\|url\\-status\\=live }}Supreme Court Order: {{Harvnb\\|W.P.(C) No. 1011/2022 (6 Jan 2023\\)}} On 15 March 2023, the Supreme Court admitted 20 connected petitions filed by 52 sexual and gender minority individuals, including 17 couples from sexual and gender minority communities.",
"Most of the petitioners wanted recognition of right to marry under secular marriage laws—[the Special Marriage Act](/wiki/Special_Marriage_Act%2C_1954 \"Special Marriage Act, 1954\") and [the Foreign Marriage Act](/wiki/Foreign_Marriage_Act%2C_1969 \"Foreign Marriage Act, 1969\").The petitions seeking recognition under the secular marriage laws—the Special Marriage Act of 1954 and the Foreign Marriage Act of 1969— include: {{Harvnb\\|Nikesh P.P. v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Vaibhav Jai v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Dr Kavita Arora v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Udit Sood v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Joydeep Sengupta v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Supriyo v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Parth Phiroze Mehrotra v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Sameer Samudra v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Aditi Anand v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Utkarsh Saxena v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Nitin Karan v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Kajal v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Amburi Roy v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Akkai Padmashali v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Rituparna Borah v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\\|Harish Iyer v. Union of India}} As various news reports,News reports on unwarranted interferences in marriage due to the notice and objection provision of secular marriage laws: \n{{Cite news \\|date\\=2018\\-07\\-24 \\|title\\=Ghaziabad Mob Assaults Muslim Man for Registering Marriage With Hindu Woman \\|work\\=\\[\\[The Wire (India)\\|The Wire]] \\|url\\=https://thewire.in/communalism/love\\-jihad\\-ghaziabad\\-muslim\\-man\\-beaten \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180725120728/https://thewire.in/communalism/love\\-jihad\\-ghaziabad\\-muslim\\-man\\-beaten \\|archive\\-date\\=2018\\-07\\-25}} \n{{Cite news \\|last\\=Kurian \\|first\\=Shiba \\|date\\=2020\\-07\\-20 \\|title\\=Kerala interfaith couples harassed by right wing vigilantes using marriage notices \\|work\\=\\[\\[The News Minute]] \\|url\\=https://www.thenewsminute.com/article/kerala\\-interfaith\\-couples\\-harassed\\-right\\-wing\\-vigilantes\\-using\\-marriage\\-notices\\-129053 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200721101004/https://www.thenewsminute.com/article/kerala\\-interfaith\\-couples\\-harassed\\-right\\-wing\\-vigilantes\\-using\\-marriage\\-notices\\-129053 \\|archive\\-date\\=2020\\-07\\-21}} \n{{Cite news \\|last\\=Sodhi \\|first\\=Tanishka \\|date\\=2021\\-07\\-26 \\|title\\=How Hindu vigilantes are exploiting a Special Marriage Act clause to target interfaith couples \\|work\\=\\[\\[Newslaundry]] \\|url\\=https://www.newslaundry.com/2021/07/26/how\\-hindu\\-vigilantes\\-are\\-exploiting\\-a\\-special\\-marriage\\-act\\-clause\\-to\\-target\\-interfaith\\-couples \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210726073007/https://www.newslaundry.com/2021/07/26/how\\-hindu\\-vigilantes\\-are\\-exploiting\\-a\\-special\\-marriage\\-act\\-clause\\-to\\-target\\-interfaith\\-couples \\|archive\\-date\\=2021\\-07\\-26}} case studies{{Citation \\|last\\=Association for Advocacy and Legal Initiative \\|title\\=Facing Reality: A Journey on the Path of Choice \\|date\\=2010 \\|type\\=Case Study \\|publication\\-place\\=\\[\\[Lucknow\\|Lucknow, India]] \\|publisher\\=Association for Advocacy and Legal Initiative}} and official publications of the [Law Commission](/wiki/Law_Commission_of_India \"Law Commission of India\"){{Citation \\|last\\=\\[\\[Law Commission of India\\#Twenty\\-First Law Commission\\|Twenty\\-First Law Commission]] \\|title\\=Reform of Family Law \\|date\\=31 August 2018 \\|url\\=https://archive.pib.gov.in/documents/rlink/2018/aug/p201883101\\.pdf \\|type\\=Consultation Paper \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201217035842/https://archive.pib.gov.in/documents/rlink/2018/aug/p201883101\\.pdf \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Law Commission of India]] \\|archive\\-date\\=17 December 2020}}{{Cite report \\|url\\=https://cdnbbsr.s3waas.gov.in/s3ca0daec69b5adc880fb464895726dbdf/uploads/2022/08/2022081053\\-3\\.pdf \\|title\\=Prevention of Interference with the freedom of Matrimonial Alliances 2012 (in the name of Honour and Tradition): A suggested legal framework \\|last\\=\\[\\[Law Commission of India\\#Nineteenth Law Commission\\|Nineteenth Law Commission]] \\|date\\=August 2012 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Law Commission of India]] \\|issue\\=242 \\|access\\-date\\=22 February 2023 \\|archive\\-date\\=7 February 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230207090438/https://cdnbbsr.s3waas.gov.in/s3ca0daec69b5adc880fb464895726dbdf/uploads/2022/08/2022081053\\-3\\.pdf \\|url\\-status\\=live }} documented unwarranted interferences in marriage due to the notice and objection provision of secular marriage laws and recommended its removal, most of the petitioners seeking recognition under secular marriage laws challenged the constitutionality of the notice and objection provisions.",
"Some of the petitioners are practising [Hindus](/wiki/Hindus \"Hindus\") who believe that [Hinduism](/wiki/Hinduism \"Hinduism\") does not prohibit marriage between sexual and gender minority individuals. They argued that excluding couples from sexual and gender minority communities from the [Hindu Marriage Act](/wiki/Hindu_Marriage_Act%2C_1955 \"Hindu Marriage Act, 1955\") amounted to a violation of their [freedom to practice their religion](/wiki/Freedom_of_religion_in_India \"Freedom of religion in India\").",
"Many advocates represented the petitioners, while [Attorney General](/wiki/Attorney-General_for_India \"Attorney-General for India\") [R. Venkataramani](/wiki/R._Venkataramani \"R. Venkataramani\") and [Solicitor General](/wiki/Solicitor_General_of_India \"Solicitor General of India\") [Tushar Mehta](/wiki/Tushar_Mehta \"Tushar Mehta\") represent the respondents. The Supreme Court appointed Advocate [Arundhati Katju](/wiki/Arundhati_Katju \"Arundhati Katju\") and Kanu Agrawal as the Nodal Counsel for the petitioners and respondents, respectively.",
"",
"| \\+ Cases connected to Supriyo v. Union of India |\n| --- |\n| First Hearing | | {{Abbr\\|W.P.(C) No.\\|Writ Petition (Civil) Number}} | Petitioners | Respondents |\n| Court | Date |\n| [High Court of Kerala](/wiki/Kerala_High_Court \"Kerala High Court\") | {{Date table sorting\\|27 Jan 2020}}Kerala High Court Order: {{Harvnb\\|W.P.(C) No. 2186/2020 (27 Jan 2020\\)}} | 02186/2020 | Nikesh P.P. {{Abbr\\|\\&\\|and}} Sonu M.S.Petitioner: {{Harvnb\\|Nikesh P.P. v. Union of India}} | [Ministry of Law and Justice](/wiki/Ministry_of_Law_and_Justice_%28India%29 \"Ministry of Law and Justice (India)\"), [Union of India](/wiki/Government_of_India \"Government of India\") |\n| Department of Law, [State of Kerala](/wiki/Government_of_Kerala \"Government of Kerala\") |\n| Marriage Officer, [Thrissur](/wiki/Thrissur_district \"Thrissur district\") |\n| [High Court of Delhi](/wiki/Delhi_High_Court \"Delhi High Court\") | {{Date table sorting\\|14 Sep 2020}}Delhi High Court Order: {{Harvnb\\|W.P.(C) No. 6371/2020 (14 Sep 2020\\)}} | 06371/2020 | Abhijit Iyer Mitra, [Gopi Shankar M](/wiki/Gopi_Shankar_Madurai \"Gopi Shankar Madurai\"), Giti Thadani {{Abbr\\|\\&\\|and}} G.OorvasiPetitioner: {{Harvnb\\|Abhijit Iyer Mitra v. Union of India}} | [Ministry of Law and Justice](/wiki/Ministry_of_Law_and_Justice_%28India%29 \"Ministry of Law and Justice (India)\"), [Union of India](/wiki/Government_of_India \"Government of India\") |\n| {{Date table sorting\\|08 Oct 2020\\|addkey\\=1}}Delhi High Court Order: {{Harvnb\\|W.P.(C) No. 7657/2020 (08 Oct 2020\\)}} \\& {{Harvnb\\|W.P.(C) No. 7692/2020 (08 Oct 2020\\)}} | 07657/2020 | Vaibhav Jain {{Abbr\\|\\&\\|and}} Parag Vijay MehtaPetitioner: {{Harvnb\\|Vaibhav Jai v. Union of India}} | [Ministry of Law and Justice](/wiki/Ministry_of_Law_and_Justice_%28India%29 \"Ministry of Law and Justice (India)\"), [Union of India](/wiki/Government_of_India \"Government of India\") |\n| Marriage Officer, [Consulate General](/wiki/List_of_diplomatic_missions_of_India \"List of diplomatic missions of India\"), [New York](/wiki/New_York_City \"New York City\") |\n| 07692/2020 | Dr Kavita Arora {{Abbr\\|\\&\\|and}} Ankita KhannaPetitioner: {{Harvnb\\|Dr Kavita Arora v. Union of India}} | [Ministry of Law and Justice](/wiki/Ministry_of_Law_and_Justice_%28India%29 \"Ministry of Law and Justice (India)\"), [Union of India](/wiki/Government_of_India \"Government of India\") |\n| Marriage Officer, [Delhi](/wiki/Delhi \"Delhi\") |\n| {{Date table sorting\\|25 Feb 2021}}Delhi High Court Order: {{Harvnb\\|W.P.(C) No. 2574/2021 (25 Feb 2021\\)}} | 02574/2021 | Udit Sood, Saattvic, Lakshmi Manoharan {{Abbr\\|\\&\\|and}} Gagandeep PaulPetitioner: {{Harvnb\\|Udit Sood v. Union of India}} | [Ministry of Law and Justice](/wiki/Ministry_of_Law_and_Justice_%28India%29 \"Ministry of Law and Justice (India)\"), [Union of India](/wiki/Government_of_India \"Government of India\") |\n| {{Date table sorting\\|06 Jul 2021}}Delhi High Court Order: {{Harvnb\\|W.P.(C) No. 6150/2021 (06 Jul 2021\\)}} | 06150/2021 | Joydeep Sengupta, Russell Blaine Stephens {{Abbr\\|\\&\\|and}} Mario Leslie DpenhaPetitioner: {{Harvnb\\|Joydeep Sengupta v. Union of India}} | [Ministry of Home Affairs](/wiki/Ministry_of_Home_Affairs_%28India%29 \"Ministry of Home Affairs (India)\") [, Union of India](/wiki/Government_of_India \"Government of India\") |\n| [Ministry of External Affairs](/wiki/Ministry_of_External_Affairs_%28India%29 \"Ministry of External Affairs (India)\"), [Union of India](/wiki/Government_of_India \"Government of India\") |\n| Marriage Officer, [Consulate General](/wiki/List_of_diplomatic_missions_of_India \"List of diplomatic missions of India\"), [New York](/wiki/New_York_City \"New York City\") |\n| {{Date table sorting\\|24 Nov 2021}}Delhi High Court Order: {{Harvnb\\|W.P.(C) No. 13206/2021 (24 Nov 2021\\)}} | 13206/2021 | Mellissa Ferrier {{Abbr\\|\\&\\|and}} Kamakshi RaghavanPetitioner: {{Harvnb\\|Mellissa Ferrier v. Union of India}} | [Ministry of Law and Justice](/wiki/Ministry_of_Law_and_Justice_%28India%29 \"Ministry of Law and Justice (India)\"), [Union of India](/wiki/Government_of_India \"Government of India\") |\n| {{Date table sorting\\|30 Nov 2021}}Delhi High Court Order: {{Harvnb\\|W.P.(C) No. 13528/2021 (30 Nov 2021\\)}} \\& {{Harvnb\\|W.P.(C) No. 13535/2021 (30 Nov 2021\\)}} | 13528/2021 | Nibedita Dutta {{Abbr\\|\\&\\|and}} Pooja SrivastavaPetitioners: {{Harvnb\\|Nibedita Dutta v. Union of India}} | [Ministry of Law and Justice](/wiki/Ministry_of_Law_and_Justice_%28India%29 \"Ministry of Law and Justice (India)\"), [Union of India](/wiki/Government_of_India \"Government of India\") |\n| 13535/2021 | Zainab J. PatelPetitioner: {{Harvnb\\|Zainab J. Patel v. Union of India}} | [Ministry of Law and Justice](/wiki/Ministry_of_Law_and_Justice_%28India%29 \"Ministry of Law and Justice (India)\"), [Union of India](/wiki/Government_of_India \"Government of India\") |\n| [National Legal Services Authority](/wiki/National_Legal_Services_Authority \"National Legal Services Authority\") |\n| Supreme Court of India | {{Date table sorting\\|25 Nov 2022\\|addkey\\=1}}Supreme Court Order: {{Harvnb\\|W.P.(C) No. 1011/2022 (25 Nov 2022\\)}} | 01011/2022 | Supriyo {{Abbr\\|a.k.a\\|also known as}} Supriya Chakraborty {{Abbr\\|\\&\\|and}} Abhay Dang | [Ministry of Law and Justice](/wiki/Ministry_of_Law_and_Justice_%28India%29 \"Ministry of Law and Justice (India)\"), [Union of India](/wiki/Government_of_India \"Government of India\") |\n|1020/2022",
"Parth Phiroze Mehrotra {{Abbr\\|\\&\\|and}} Uday Raj AnandPetitioner:{{Harvnb\\|Parth Phiroze Mehrotra v. Union of India}} |\n [Ministry of Law and Justice](/wiki/Ministry_of_Law_and_Justice_%28India%29 \"Ministry of Law and Justice (India)\"), [Union of India](/wiki/Government_of_India \"Government of India\") |\n| {{Date table sorting\\|06 Jan 2023\\|addkey\\=1}} | 01105/2022 | Sameer Samudra {{Abbr\\|\\&\\|and}} Amit GokhalePetitioner: {{Harvnb\\|Sameer Samudra v. Union of India}} | [Ministry of Law and Justice](/wiki/Ministry_of_Law_and_Justice_%28India%29 \"Ministry of Law and Justice (India)\"), [Union of India](/wiki/Government_of_India \"Government of India\") |\n| [Department of Law and Justice](/wiki/Ministry_of_Law_and_Judiciary_Government_of_Maharashtra \"Ministry of Law and Judiciary Government of Maharashtra\"), [State of Maharashtra](/wiki/Government_of_Maharashtra \"Government of Maharashtra\") |\n| Marriage Registration Bureau, [Pune](/wiki/Pune \"Pune\") |\n| 01141/2022 | Aditi Anand {{Abbr\\|\\&\\|and}} Susan DiasPetitioner: {{Harvnb\\|Aditi Anand v. Union of India}} | [Ministry of Law and Justice](/wiki/Ministry_of_Law_and_Justice_%28India%29 \"Ministry of Law and Justice (India)\"), [Union of India](/wiki/Government_of_India \"Government of India\") |\n| 01142/2022 | Utkarsh Saxena {{Abbr\\|\\&\\|and}} Ananya KotiaPetitioner: {{Harvnb\\|Utkarsh Saxena v. Union of India}} | [Ministry of Law and Justice](/wiki/Ministry_of_Law_and_Justice_%28India%29 \"Ministry of Law and Justice (India)\"), [Union of India](/wiki/Government_of_India \"Government of India\") |\n| 01150/2022 | Nitin Karani {{Abbr\\|\\&\\|and}} Thomas JosephPetitioner: {{Harvnb\\|Nitin Karan v. Union of India}} | [Ministry of Law and Justice](/wiki/Ministry_of_Law_and_Justice_%28India%29 \"Ministry of Law and Justice (India)\"), [Union of India](/wiki/Government_of_India \"Government of India\") |\n| [Department of Law and Justice](/wiki/Ministry_of_Law_and_Judiciary_Government_of_Maharashtra \"Ministry of Law and Judiciary Government of Maharashtra\"), [State of Maharashtra](/wiki/Government_of_Maharashtra \"Government of Maharashtra\") |\n| {{Date table sorting\\|30 Jan 2023}}Supreme Court Order: {{Harvnb\\|W.P.(C) No. 93/2023 (30 Jan 2023\\)}} | 00093/2023 | Kajal {{Abbr\\|\\&\\|and}} BhawnaPetitioner: {{Harvnb\\|Kajal v. Union of India}} | [Ministry of Law and Justice](/wiki/Ministry_of_Law_and_Justice_%28India%29 \"Ministry of Law and Justice (India)\"), [Union of India](/wiki/Government_of_India \"Government of India\") |\n| {{Date table sorting\\|10 Feb 2023}}Supreme Court Order: {{Harvnb\\|W.P.(C) No. 129/2023 (10 Feb 2023\\)}} | 00129/2023 | Amburi Roy {{Abbr\\|\\&\\|and}} Aparna SahaPetitioner: {{Harvnb\\|Amburi Roy v. Union of India}} | [Ministry of Law and Justice](/wiki/Ministry_of_Law_and_Justice_%28India%29 \"Ministry of Law and Justice (India)\"), [Union of India](/wiki/Government_of_India \"Government of India\") |\n| [Ministry of External Affairs](/wiki/Ministry_of_External_Affairs_%28India%29 \"Ministry of External Affairs (India)\"), [Union of India](/wiki/Government_of_India \"Government of India\") |\n| [Central Adoption Resource Authority](/wiki/Central_Adoption_Resource_Authority \"Central Adoption Resource Authority\"), [Ministry of Women and Child Development](/wiki/Ministry_of_Women_and_Child_Development \"Ministry of Women and Child Development\"), [Union of India](/wiki/Government_of_India \"Government of India\") |\n| {{Date table sorting\\|20 Feb 2023}}Supreme Court Order: {{Harvnb\\|W.P.(C) No. 159/2023 (20 Feb 2023\\)}} |00159/2023",
"[Akkai Padmashali](/wiki/Akkai_Padmashali \"Akkai Padmashali\"), [Vyjayanti Vasanta Mogli](/wiki/Vyjayanti_Vasanta_Mogli \"Vyjayanti Vasanta Mogli\") {{Abbr\\|\\&\\|and}} Umesh P {{Abbr\\|a.k.a\\|also known as}} UmaPetitioner: {{Harvnb\\|Akkai Padmashali v. Union of India}} |\n [Ministry of Law and Justice](/wiki/Ministry_of_Law_and_Justice_%28India%29 \"Ministry of Law and Justice (India)\"), [Union of India](/wiki/Government_of_India \"Government of India\") |\n| {{Date table sorting\\|03 Mar 2023}}Supreme Court Order: {{Harvnb\\|W.P.(C) No. 260/2023 (03 Mar 2023\\)}} | 00260/2023 | Rituparna Borah, Chayanika Shah, Minakshi Sanyal, Maya Sharma {{Abbr\\|\\&\\|and}} {{Abbr\\|Ors.\\|Others}} | [Ministry of Law and Justice](/wiki/Ministry_of_Law_and_Justice_%28India%29 \"Ministry of Law and Justice (India)\"), [Union of India](/wiki/Government_of_India \"Government of India\") |\n| {{Date table sorting\\|13 Mar 2023}} |00319/2023",
"Harish IyerPetitioner: {{Harvnb\\|Harish Iyer v. Union of India}} |\n [Ministry of Law and Justice](/wiki/Ministry_of_Law_and_Justice_%28India%29 \"Ministry of Law and Justice (India)\"), [Union of India](/wiki/Government_of_India \"Government of India\") |",
""
] |
Written arguments
-----------------
This section summarises the written arguments submitted in the Court by the parties involved in the Case— the petitioners, respondent and intervenors.
### Petitioners
#### Fundamental rights
Among the relevant precedents, issues and laws presented, the petitioners argued that the exclusion of couples from sexual and gender minority communities from marriage laws constituted a violation of fundamental right.{{Harvnb\|Supriyo v. Union of India}} and other connected cases. Other connected cases include {{Harvnb\|Nikesh P.P. v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Abhijit Iyer Mitra v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Vaibhav Jai v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Dr Kavita Arora v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Udit Sood v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Joydeep Sengupta v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Mellissa Ferrier v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Nibedita Dutta v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Zainab J. Patel v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Parth Phiroze Mehrotra v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Sameer Samudra v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Aditi Anand v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Utkarsh Saxena v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Nitin Karan v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Kajal v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Amburi Roy v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Akkai Padmashali v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Rituparna Borah v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\|Harish Iyer v. Union of India}}. Similarly, the notice and objection provisions in secular marriage laws— [Special Marriage Act](/wiki/Special_Marriage_Act%2C_1954 "Special Marriage Act, 1954") and [Foreign Marriage Act](/wiki/Foreign_Marriage_Act%2C_1969 "Foreign Marriage Act, 1969")— constituted a violation. Hence, following [Article 32](/wiki/Fundamental_rights_in_India%23Right_to_Constitutional_Remedies "Fundamental rights in India#Right to Constitutional Remedies") of the [Indian Constitution](/wiki/Constitution_of_India "Constitution of India"), which guarantees the [Right to Constitutional Remedies](/wiki/Fundamental_rights_in_India%23Right_to_Constitutional_Remedies "Fundamental rights in India#Right to Constitutional Remedies") and designates the Supreme Court as the protector of [Fundamental Rights](/wiki/Fundamental_rights_in_India "Fundamental rights in India"), the petitioners argued that they are within their rights to approach the Supreme Court.Petitioners: {{Harvnb\|Supriyo v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Parth Phiroze Mehrotra v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Sameer Samudra v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Aditi Anand v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Utkarsh Saxena v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Nitin Karan v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Kajal v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Amburi Roy v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Akkai Padmashali v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Rituparna Borah v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\|Harish Iyer v. Union of India}}
##### Jurisdiction
In assessing whether a law infringes a fundamental right, the Supreme Court held that it is not the intention of the lawmaker that is determinative, but whether the effect or operation of the law infringes fundamental rights in the ruling of [*Maneka Gandhi v. UOI (1978\)*](/wiki/Maneka_Gandhi_v._Union_of_India "Maneka Gandhi v. Union of India"). Since the marriage laws infringe on the fundamental rights of sexual and gender minority individuals, petitioners argued that the Supreme Court could act as the designated protector of fundamental rights.Petitioners: {{Harvnb\|Dr Kavita Arora v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Supriyo v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Aditi Anand v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\|Utkarsh Saxena v. Union of India}}.
The Supreme Court has regularly interpreted statutes in a manner which preserves their constitutionality, for example, in *Travancore v. Mohammed Mohammed Khan (1981\)*, *Githa Hariharan v. Reserve Bank of India (1999\)* and *Indra Das v. State of Assam (2011\).*Petitioners: {{Harvnb\|Vaibhav Jai v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Dr Kavita Arora v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Supriyo v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\|Aditi Anand v. Union of India}}. Furthermore, the Supreme Court has held that when the enforcement of fundamental rights is concerned, the [Supreme](/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_India "Supreme Court of India") and [High Courts](/wiki/High_courts_of_India "High courts of India") do not have to await action by the legislature in *[Vishaka v. State of Rajasthan (1997\)](/wiki/Vishakha_and_others_v_State_of_Rajasthan "Vishakha and others v State of Rajasthan")*, *Vineet Narain v. UOI (1997\)*, *[Shayara Bano v. UOI (2017\)](/wiki/Triple_talaq_in_India%23Judgement "Triple talaq in India#Judgement")*, *Common Cause v. UOI (2018\)* and [*Navtej Singh Johar v. UOI (2018\)*](/wiki/Navtej_Singh_Johar_v._Union_of_India "Navtej Singh Johar v. Union of India").Petitioners: {{Harvnb\|Joydeep Sengupta v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Parth Phiroze Mehrotra v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\|Rituparna Borah v. Union of India}}.
##### Constitutional morality
The law, reflecting societal values, regulates relationships between people and prescribes behaviour patterns. As the social realities changes, the law changes. However, sometimes a legal change precedes societal changes and is even intended to stimulate. The Supreme Court, noting these dynamics when ruling in *Badshah v. Urmila Badshah Godse (2014\)*, held that the court should exercise discretion in determining the proper relationship between the subjective and objective purposes of the law.Petitioners: {{Harvnb\|Vaibhav Jai v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Dr Kavita Arora v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Zainab J. Patel v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Supriyo v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\|Aditi Anand v. Union of India}}.
The Supreme Court held that while the State can impose reasonable restrictions based on decency and morality, the limitations should be rational and tolerant of unpopular social views in *S. Khushboo v. Kanniammal (2010\) and [Navtej Singh Johar v. UOI (2018\)](/wiki/Navtej_Singh_Johar_v._Union_of_India "Navtej Singh Johar v. Union of India")*.Petitioners: {{Harvnb\|Joydeep Sengupta v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\|Parth Phiroze Mehrotra v. Union of India}}. The Supreme Court stated the purpose of elevating certain rights to the stature of fundamental rights as to insulate their exercise from the disdain of majorities, whether legislative or popular, in [*Puttaswamy v. UOI (2017\)*](/wiki/Right_to_Privacy_verdict "Right to Privacy verdict").Petitioners: {{Harvnb\|Udit Sood v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Parth Phiroze Mehrotra v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Aditi Anand v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\|Rituparna Borah v. Union of India}}. The petitioners highlighted the instances where the [Indian Courts](/wiki/Judiciary_of_India "Judiciary of India") protected fundamental rights by defying social and religious norms.— *Mary Roy v. State of Kerala (1986\)*, *Githa Hariharan v. Reserve Bank of India (1999\)*, *[Shayara Bano v. UOI (2017\)](/wiki/Triple_talaq_in_India%23Judgement "Triple talaq in India#Judgement"), Joseph Shine v. UOI (2018\)* and [*Arun Kumar v. Inspector General of Registration (2019\)*](/wiki/Arun_Kumar_v._Inspector_General_of_Registration "Arun Kumar v. Inspector General of Registration").Petitioners: {{Harvnb\|Nikesh P.P. v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Vaibhav Jai v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Dr Kavita Arora v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Udit Sood v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Supriyo v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Parth Phiroze Mehrotra v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Kajal v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\|Rituparna Borah v. Union of India}}.
##### Right to equality
[Article 14](/wiki/Article_14_of_the_Constitution_of_India "Article 14 of the Constitution of India") of the [Indian Constitution](/wiki/Constitution_of_India "Constitution of India") guarantees the right to equality. The Supreme Court declared that any law that fails to protect the [self\-determination](/wiki/Self-determination "Self-determination") of [sexual orientation](/wiki/Sexual_orientation "Sexual orientation") and [gender identity](/wiki/Gender_identity "Gender identity") of an individual is irrational, manifestly arbitrary, and a violation of [Article 14](/wiki/Article_14_of_the_Constitution_of_India "Article 14 of the Constitution of India"). The Supreme Court has recognised the [principle of substantive equality](/wiki/Substantive_equality "Substantive equality") in *Lt. Col. Nitisha v. UOI (2021\).* The Supreme Court held that atypical families, such as domestic, unmarried partnerships or relationships between sexual and gender minority individuals, deserve equal protection under the law guaranteed in [Article 14](/wiki/Article_14_of_the_Constitution_of_India "Article 14 of the Constitution of India") in *[Deepika Singh v. Central Administrative Tribunal (2022\)](/wiki/Deepika_Singh_v._Central_Administrative_Tribunal "Deepika Singh v. Central Administrative Tribunal")*.Petitioners: {{Harvnb\|Sameer Samudra v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Aditi Anand v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\|Amburi Roy v. Union of India}}.
##### Anti\-discrimination
[Article 15](/wiki/Article_15_of_the_Constitution_of_India "Article 15 of the Constitution of India") of the [Indian Constitution](/wiki/Constitution_of_India "Constitution of India") guarantees protection from discrimination. The Supreme Court extended the protection to include [sexual orientation](/wiki/Sexual_orientation "Sexual orientation") and [gender identity](/wiki/Gender_identity "Gender identity"). The Supreme Court has recognised the [principle of substantive equality](/wiki/Substantive_equality "Substantive equality") in *Lt. Col. Nitisha v. UOI (2021\).* Considering the cultural stereotypes based on [sex](/wiki/Sex "Sex") and [gender](/wiki/Gender "Gender") and their role in discriminatory legislation, the Supreme Court held that judicial scrutiny to weave out discrimination must be strict in *Anuj Garg v. Hotel Association of India (2007\)*.{{Harvnb\|Nikesh P.P. v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Joydeep Sengupta v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\|Rituparna Borah v. Union of India}}. The Supreme Court held that [Article 15](/wiki/Article_15_of_the_Constitution_of_India "Article 15 of the Constitution of India") places positive and negative obligations on the State in [*Navtej Singh Johar v. UOI (2018\)*](/wiki/Navtej_Singh_Johar_v._Union_of_India "Navtej Singh Johar v. Union of India"), where positive obligations call for the state to recognise rights which bring true fulfilment to same\-sex relationships.Petitioners: {{Harvnb\|Dr Kavita Arora v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\|Aditi Anand v. Union of India}}.
##### Freedom of expression
[Article 19](/wiki/Fundamental_rights_in_India%23Right_To_Freedom "Fundamental rights in India#Right To Freedom") of the [Indian Constitution](/wiki/Constitution_of_India "Constitution of India") guarantees the right to freedom of speech and expression. The Supreme Court held that [Article 19](/wiki/Fundamental_rights_in_India%23Right_To_Freedom "Fundamental rights in India#Right To Freedom") includes full expression of [sexual orientation](/wiki/Sexual_orientation "Sexual orientation") and [gender identity](/wiki/Gender_identity "Gender identity"). The Supreme Court held that the choice of marital partner is an exercise of freedom of expression enshrined in [Article 19](/wiki/Fundamental_rights_in_India%23Right_To_Freedom "Fundamental rights in India#Right To Freedom") in *Vikas Yadav v. State of Uttar Pradesh (2016\)*, *Asha Ranjan v. State of Bihar (2017\)*, *Shakti Vahini v. UOI (2018\)* and [*Shafin Jahan v Ashokan K.M. (2018\)*](/wiki/Hadiya_case "Hadiya case")*.*
##### Right to life and personal liberty
[Article 21](/wiki/Fundamental_rights_in_India%23Right_to_life "Fundamental rights in India#Right to life") of the [Indian Constitution](/wiki/Constitution_of_India "Constitution of India") guarantees the right to life and personal liberty, which includes dignity, privacy, and personal autonomy. The Supreme Court recognised the rights guaranteed by [Article 21](/wiki/Fundamental_rights_in_India%23Right_to_life "Fundamental rights in India#Right to life") for sexual and gender minority individuals. The Supreme Court held that [Article 21](/wiki/Fundamental_rights_in_India%23Right_to_life "Fundamental rights in India#Right to life") recognises the right to choose a marital partner in the ruling of *Shakti Vahini v. UOI (2018\), Lata Singh v. State of Uttar Pradesh (2006\), [Puttaswamy v. UOI (2017\)](/wiki/Right_to_Privacy_verdict "Right to Privacy verdict")*, *[Shafin Jahan v Ashokan K.M. (2018\)](/wiki/Hadiya_case "Hadiya case"),* and *Laxmibai Chandaragi B. v. State of Karnataka (2021\).*
##### Freedom of conscience and religion
[Article 25](/wiki/Freedom_of_religion_in_India "Freedom of religion in India") of the [Indian Constitution](/wiki/Constitution_of_India "Constitution of India") guarantees freedom of conscience and religion. Since the Supreme Court ruled that the freedom of conscience of an individual is more than religious beliefs in [*Puttaswamy v. UOI (2017\)*](/wiki/Right_to_Privacy_verdict "Right to Privacy verdict"), the petitioners argued that the freedom to choose a marital partner is an integral component of freedom of conscience.Petitioners: {{Harvnb\|Vaibhav Jai v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Dr Kavita Arora v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Zainab J. Patel v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Supriyo v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Aditi Anand v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\|Kajal v. Union of India}}.
* Since the Supreme Court ruled that in addition to freedom of religion, [Article 25](/wiki/Freedom_of_religion_in_India "Freedom of religion in India") guarantees freedom from religion in [*Indian Young Lawyers Association v. State of Kerala (2019\)*](/wiki/Entry_of_women_to_Sabarimala "Entry of women to Sabarimala"), the petitioners claiming recognition under the secular marriage laws argued the state should not endorse the conception of marriage that is exclusively heterosexual, as it is rooted in the norms of religion.Petitioners: {{Harvnb\|Utkarsh Saxena v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\|Harish Iyer v. Union of India}}.
* Since [Hinduism](/wiki/Hinduism_and_LGBT_topics "Hinduism and LGBT topics") does not prohibit marriage between sexual and gender minority individuals, the petitioners claiming recognition under [personal laws](/wiki/Law_of_India%23Family_law_%E2%80%93_personal_law "Law of India#Family law – personal law") argued exclusion of couples from sexual and gender minority communities from the [Hindu Marriage Act](/wiki/Hindu_Marriage_Act%2C_1955 "Hindu Marriage Act, 1955") violates the petitioners' right to practice religion freely.Petitioners: {{Harvnb\|Abhijit Iyer Mitra v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\|Nibedita Dutta v. Union of India}}. The [Madras High Court](/wiki/Madras_High_Court "Madras High Court") held that refusal to register the marriage between a [Hindu](/wiki/Hindus "Hindus") [cisgender man](/wiki/Man "Man") and a [Hindu](/wiki/Hindus "Hindus") [transgender woman](/wiki/Trans_woman "Trans woman") under [Hindu Marriage Act](/wiki/Hindu_Marriage_Act%2C_1955 "Hindu Marriage Act, 1955") violates [Article 25](/wiki/Freedom_of_religion_in_India "Freedom of religion in India") in [*Arun Kumar v. Inspector General of Registration (2019\)*](/wiki/Arun_Kumar_v._Inspector_General_of_Registration "Arun Kumar v. Inspector General of Registration").
##### Right to marry
Since the Supreme Court established the fundamental rights of sexual and gender minority individuals in [*NLSA v. UOI (2014\)*](/wiki/National_Legal_Services_Authority_v._Union_of_India "National Legal Services Authority v. Union of India"), [*Puttaswamy v. UOI (2017\)*](/wiki/Right_to_Privacy_verdict "Right to Privacy verdict") and [*Navtej Singh Johar v. UOI (2018\)*](/wiki/Navtej_Singh_Johar_v._Union_of_India "Navtej Singh Johar v. Union of India"), the petitioners argued for extending the right to marry and establish a family to sexual and gender minority individuals based on Articles [14](/wiki/Article_14_of_the_Constitution_of_India "Article 14 of the Constitution of India"), [15](/wiki/Article_15_of_the_Constitution_of_India "Article 15 of the Constitution of India"), [19](/wiki/Fundamental_rights_in_India%23Right_To_Freedom "Fundamental rights in India#Right To Freedom"), [21](/wiki/Fundamental_rights_in_India%23Right_To_Freedom "Fundamental rights in India#Right To Freedom") and [25](/wiki/Freedom_of_religion_in_India "Freedom of religion in India") of the [Indian Constitution](/wiki/Constitution_of_India "Constitution of India").
[High Courts](/wiki/High_courts_of_India "High courts of India") have considered the constitutionality of Indian marriage laws. The [Madras High Court](/wiki/Madras_High_Court "Madras High Court") held that refusal to register the marriage between a [Hindu](/wiki/Hindus "Hindus") [cisgender man](/wiki/Man "Man") and a [Hindu](/wiki/Hindus "Hindus") [transgender woman](/wiki/Trans_woman "Trans woman") under [Hindu Marriage Act](/wiki/Hindu_Marriage_Act%2C_1955 "Hindu Marriage Act, 1955") violates [fundamental rights](/wiki/Fundamental_rights_in_India "Fundamental rights in India") guaranteed under Articles [14](/wiki/Article_14_of_the_Constitution_of_India "Article 14 of the Constitution of India"), [15](/wiki/Article_15_of_the_Constitution_of_India "Article 15 of the Constitution of India"), [19](/wiki/Fundamental_rights_in_India%23Right_To_Freedom "Fundamental rights in India#Right To Freedom"), [21](/wiki/Fundamental_rights_in_India%23Right_To_Freedom "Fundamental rights in India#Right To Freedom") and [25](/wiki/Freedom_of_religion_in_India "Freedom of religion in India") of the [Indian Constitution](/wiki/Constitution_of_India "Constitution of India") in [*Arun Kumar v. Inspector General of Registration (2019\)*](/wiki/Arun_Kumar_v._Inspector_General_of_Registration "Arun Kumar v. Inspector General of Registration").Petitioners: {{Harvnb\|Nikesh P.P. v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Vaibhav Jai v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Udit Sood v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Nibedita Dutta v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Parth Phiroze Mehrotra v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\|Kajal v. Union of India}}.
The petitioners requested that the Supreme Court declare that the gender change of a spouse would not automatically void solemnised marriage. As an extension of recognising the right to marry and establishing a family, the petitioners argued for the entitlement of a foreign\-origin sexual or gender minority spouse of an [Indian Citizen](/wiki/Indian_citizen "Indian citizen") or [Overseas Citizen of India](/wiki/Overseas_Citizenship_of_India "Overseas Citizenship of India") to apply for registration as an [Overseas Citizen of India](/wiki/Overseas_Citizenship_of_India "Overseas Citizenship of India").
#### Issues in secular marriage law
The notice and objections provisions detail the requirement for registering a marriage under the secular marriage laws— [Special Marriage Act](/wiki/Special_Marriage_Act%2C_1954 "Special Marriage Act, 1954") and [Foreign Marriage Act](/wiki/Foreign_Marriage_Act%2C_1969 "Foreign Marriage Act, 1969"). The individuals intending to marry must publish their details in Marriage Notice Book meant for public inspection. Within thirty days of publication, any person can object to their marriage, and a marriage officer, who has the power of a civil court, handles the objections.{{Cite act\|index\=43\|date\=1954\|article\=\|article\-type\=\|legislature\=\[\[Parliament of India]]\|title\=The Special Marriage Act\|url\=https://www.indiacode.nic.in/handle/123456789/1387}} {{Cite web \|url\=https://www.indiacode.nic.in/handle/123456789/1387 \|title\=Archived copy \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-12 \|archive\-date\=2021\-12\-18 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20211218225516/https://www.indiacode.nic.in/handle/123456789/1387 \|url\-status\=bot: unknown }}{{Cite act\|index\=33\|date\=1969\|article\=\|article\-type\=\|legislature\=\[\[Parliament of India]]\|title\=The Foreign Marriage Act\|url\=https://www.indiacode.nic.in/handle/123456789/1720}} {{Cite web \|url\=https://www.indiacode.nic.in/handle/123456789/1720 \|title\=Archived copy \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-12 \|archive\-date\=2023\-04\-26 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230426161619/https://www.indiacode.nic.in/handle/123456789/1720 \|url\-status\=bot: unknown }}
##### Non\-equality
The intention of the notice and objections provisions is to address the situations where individuals might hide the breach of prerequisites of marriage. However, such deterrents are absent in the [personal laws](/wiki/Law_of_India%23Family_law_%E2%80%93_personal_law "Law of India#Family law – personal law") governing marriage. Evidently, notice and objection provisions are not the only way to address the problem of a breach of prerequisites of marriage. The provisions are grossly disproportionate and violate the [fundamental rights](/wiki/Fundamental_rights_in_India "Fundamental rights in India") of the [Indian Constitution](/wiki/Constitution_of_India "Constitution of India"). The provisions violates [Article 14](/wiki/Article_14_of_the_Constitution_of_India "Article 14 of the Constitution of India") of the [Indian Constitution](/wiki/Constitution_of_India "Constitution of India") by creating an unequal burden on individuals who choose to marry under secular marriage laws. It violates [Article 15](/wiki/Article_15_of_the_Constitution_of_India "Article 15 of the Constitution of India") of the [Indian Constitution](/wiki/Constitution_of_India "Constitution of India") by discriminating those constrained to marry under secular marriage laws from those who marry under [personal laws](/wiki/Law_of_India%23Family_law_%E2%80%93_personal_law "Law of India#Family law – personal law").
##### Violations of freedom of expression
The provisions violate the freedom of expression guaranteed by [Article 19](/wiki/Article_14_of_the_Constitution_of_India "Article 14 of the Constitution of India") by enabling continuing harassment and persecution. Multiple news reports document the role of the provision in enabling continuing harassment and persecution. The 2010 [Indian](/wiki/India "India") case studies documented the barrier posed by these procedural requirements of the secular marriage laws. The [Law Commission](/wiki/Law_Commission_of_India "Law Commission of India") published a consultation paper on the Reform of Family Law that recognised the notice and objection provision of secular marriage laws as an impediment to personal autonomy. The [Law Commission](/wiki/Law_Commission_of_India "Law Commission of India") published a report on the Prevention of Interference with the freedom of Matrimonial Alliances that recommended the removal of the notice and objection provisions of the secular marriage laws to prevent “high\-handed or unwarranted interference” in marriages.
##### Violations of decisional autonomy
The provisions violate the decisional autonomy guaranteed by [Article 21](/wiki/Fundamental_rights_in_India%23Right_to_life "Fundamental rights in India#Right to life") by authorising any person to object to the marriage. The [Law Commission](/wiki/Law_Commission_of_India "Law Commission of India") published a consultation paper on the Reform of Family Law that recognised the provisions as an impediment to personal autonomy protected by [Article 21](/wiki/Fundamental_rights_in_India%23Right_to_life "Fundamental rights in India#Right to life"). The provisions force individuals to surrender their right to privacy to exercise their right to marry. The Supreme Court held that a requirement that forces the individual to give up one constitutional right to exercise another is unconstitutional in the ruling of *Ahmedabad St. Xavier’s College Society v. State of Gujarat (1974\).*
[High Courts](/wiki/High_courts_of_India "High courts of India") have considered the constitutionality of the provisions. Remarking that unwarranted disclosure of the marriage plans might jeopardise the marriage and endanger the lives of the couple, the [Delhi High Court](/wiki/Delhi_High_Court "Delhi High Court") deprecated the practice of sending notices to residential addresses in the ruling of *Pranav Kumar Mishra v. Govt. of NCT of Delhi (2009\)*. Relying on the [right](/wiki/Fundamental_rights_in_India "Fundamental rights in India") to [personal liberty](/wiki/Fundamental_rights_in_India%23Right_to_life "Fundamental rights in India#Right to life") and [privacy](/wiki/Right_to_Privacy_verdict "Right to Privacy verdict"), [Allahabad High Court](/wiki/Allahabad_High_Court "Allahabad High Court") read down the notice and objection provision of the [Special Marriage Act](/wiki/Special_Marriage_Act%2C_1954 "Special Marriage Act, 1954") as a directory and not mandatory in the ruling of *Safiya Sultana v. State of Uttar Pradesh (2021\)*.Petitioners: {{Harvnb\|Utkarsh Saxena v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Kajal v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\|Akkai Padmashali v. Union of India}}.
#### Representative and heirs
Despite the landmark decision of the Supreme Court asserting the right to [self\-determination](/wiki/Self-determination "Self-determination") of [sexual orientation](/wiki/Sexual_orientation "Sexual orientation") and [gender identity](/wiki/Gender_identity "Gender identity") in [*NLSA v. UOI (2014\)*](/wiki/National_Legal_Services_Authority_v._Union_of_India "National Legal Services Authority v. Union of India"), [*Puttaswamy v. UOI (2017\)*](/wiki/Right_to_Privacy_verdict "Right to Privacy verdict") and [*Navtej Singh Johar v. UOI (2018\)*](/wiki/Navtej_Singh_Johar_v._Union_of_India "Navtej Singh Johar v. Union of India")*,* the birth or adoptive family continues to interfere and restrict the [self\-determination](/wiki/Self-determination "Self-determination"). As the vast majority of [Indian laws](/wiki/Law_of_India "Law of India") define ‘family’ to be persons related by marriage, birth or adoption, the petitioners have presented a compelling case for legal recognition of their marital relationships to formalise access to rights and obligations. However, many others do not share the aspiration for married life, and the law cannot ignore them. They may choose friends, domestic partners and other persons of vital importance to assign rights and obligations.
While the conflict with the birth or adoptive family may have given rise to the idea of chosen family, it does not challenges birth or adoptive family bonds but allows for a more inclusive understanding of adult relationships. Most sexual and gender minority individuals, informed by their lived experience of family rejection, hostility and violence, require a legal substitute for the family for healthcare, social and economic rights and obligations. Recognising any person as capable of serving the best interests of an individual in a state of vulnerability or incapacitation, the [Mental Healthcare Act of 2017](/wiki/Mental_Healthcare_Act%2C_2017 "Mental Healthcare Act, 2017") authorised an individual to appoint any person as the nominated representative. Legal limiting next of kin to persons related by marriage, birth or adoption violates the decisional autonomy of sexual and gender minority individuals.
The Supreme Court has recognised the [principle of substantive equality](/wiki/Substantive_equality "Substantive equality"), which prohibits the State from expecting conformity as a price for equality in *Lt. Col. Nitisha v. UOI (2021\)*. The Supreme Court held that married and unmarried persons have equal decisional autonomy to make decisions about their welfare in *X v. Principal Secretary, Health and Family Welfare Department, Govt. of NCT of Delhi (2022\).* The Supreme Court held that atypical families deserve equal protection under the law guaranteed in [Article 14](/wiki/Article_14_of_the_Constitution_of_India "Article 14 of the Constitution of India") in [*Deepika Singh v. Central Administrative Tribunal (2022\)*](/wiki/Deepika_Singh_v._Central_Administrative_Tribunal "Deepika Singh v. Central Administrative Tribunal")*.* Relying on these precedents, the petitioners argued that unmarried sexual and gender minority individuals deserve recognition and protection of the law when they seek to nominate any person beyond the constraints of biological or adoptive families.
[High Courts](/wiki/High_courts_of_India "High courts of India") have expanded the scope of legal heirs for [intersex, non\-binary and transgender people](/wiki/Third_gender "Third gender") in *Illyas v. Badshah alias Kamla (1990\)* and S*weety v. General Public (2016\)*. The petitioners request the Supreme Court to declare that a person can nominate anyone in the place of ‘next of kin’ under all relevant laws.
#### International treaties
India is a party to various international treaties concerning human rights. India voted to adopt the [Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR)](/wiki/Universal_Declaration_of_Human_Rights "Universal Declaration of Human Rights") in [United Nations](/wiki/United_Nations "United Nations") [General Assembly](/wiki/United_Nations_General_Assembly "United Nations General Assembly") on 10 December 1948, and the same is enforceable in India under the Protection of Human Rights Act of 1993\. India ratified the [International Convention of Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR)](/wiki/International_Covenant_on_Civil_and_Political_Rights "International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights") and the [International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR)](/wiki/International_Covenant_on_Economic%2C_Social_and_Cultural_Rights "International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights") on 10 April 1979\.Petitioners: {{Harvnb\|Nikesh P.P. v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Abhijit Iyer Mitra v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Dr Kavita Arora v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Udit Sood v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Nibedita Dutta v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Zainab J. Patel v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Supriyo v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Parth Phiroze Mehrotra v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Sameer Samudra v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Aditi Anand v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Nitin Karan v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Kajal v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\|Amburi Roy v. Union of India}}. Over the last three decades, [International human rights law](/wiki/International_human_rights_law "International human rights law") has developed an established jurisprudence on the rights to equality, privacy and autonomy of sexual and gender minority individuals and protection from discrimination based on [sexual orientation](/wiki/Sexual_orientation "Sexual orientation") and [gender identity](/wiki/Gender_identity "Gender identity").{{Citation \|last\=\[\[Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights\|United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights]] \|title\=Discriminatory laws and practices and acts of violence against individuals based on their sexual orientation and gender identity \|date\=17 November 2011 \|url\=https://documents\-dds\-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/G11/170/75/PDF/G1117075\.pdf \|type\=\[\[United Nations Document Codes\|UN Document]] \|series\=A/HRC/19/41 \|publisher\=\[\[United Nations]] \[\[United Nations Human Rights Council\|Human Rights Council]] \|access\-date\=27 March 2023 \|archive\-date\=27 March 2023 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230327133227/https://documents\-dds\-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/G11/170/75/PDF/G1117075\.pdf \|url\-status\=live }}
Since the Supreme Court enforced the international treaties discussed above while ruling in the [*NLSA v. UOI (2014\)*](/wiki/National_Legal_Services_Authority_v._Union_of_India "National Legal Services Authority v. Union of India") and [*Navtej Singh Johar v. UOI (2018\)*](/wiki/Navtej_Singh_Johar_v._Union_of_India "Navtej Singh Johar v. Union of India"), the petitioners argued extending the right to marry and establish a family to sexual and gender minority individuals based on the following articles:
* Article 7 of the [UDHR](/wiki/Universal_Declaration_of_Human_Rights "Universal Declaration of Human Rights"), Article 26 of [ICCPR](/wiki/International_Covenant_on_Civil_and_Political_Rights "International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights") and Article 2 of [ICESCR](/wiki/International_Covenant_on_Economic%2C_Social_and_Cultural_Rights "International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights") prohibit discrimination based on *‘*sex... or other status.*’*{{Citation \|title\=Universal Declaration of Human Rights \|url\=https://www.un.org/en/about\-us/universal\-declaration\-of\-human\-rights \|publication\-date\=10 December 1948 \|type\=\[\[Treaty]] \|publisher\=\[\[United Nations]] \|access\-date\=23 February 2023 \|archive\-date\=16 March 2021 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210316050452/https://www.un.org/en/about\-us/universal\-declaration\-of\-human\-rights \|url\-status\=live }}{{Citation \|title\=International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights \|url\=https://treaties.un.org/doc/Treaties/1976/03/19760323%2006\-17%20AM/Ch\_IV\_04\.pdf \|publication\-date\=16 December 1966 \|type\=\[\[Treaty]] \|publisher\=\[\[United Nations]] \|access\-date\=23 February 2023 \|archive\-date\=20 December 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20221220134544/https://treaties.un.org/doc/Treaties/1976/03/19760323%2006\-17%20AM/Ch\_IV\_04\.pdf \|url\-status\=live }}{{Citation \|title\=International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights \|url\=https://www.refworld.org/docid/3ae6b36c0\.htmls \|publication\-date\=16 December 1966 \|type\=\[\[Treaty]] \|publisher\=\[\[United Nations]] \|access\-date\=5 March 2023 \|archive\-date\=26 April 2023 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230426200337/https://www.refworld.org/docid/3ae6b36c0\.htmls \|url\-status\=live }} The [UN](/wiki/United_Nations "United Nations") [Human Rights Committee](/wiki/United_Nations_Human_Rights_Committee "United Nations Human Rights Committee") stated that the *‘*other status*’* includes [sexual orientation](/wiki/Sexual_orientation "Sexual orientation").{{Citation \|last\=\[\[United Nations Human Rights Committee]] \|title\=Toonen v. Australia \|url\=http://hrlibrary.umn.edu/undocs/html/vws488\.htm \|type\=\[\[United Nations Document Codes\|UN Document]] \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160801175251/http://hrlibrary.umn.edu/undocs/html/vws488\.htm \|series\=CCPR/C/50/D/488/1992 \|publisher\=\[\[United Nations]] \[\[United Nations Human Rights Committee\|Human Rights Committee]] \|archive\-date\=2016\-08\-01}} The [UN](/wiki/United_Nations "United Nations") [Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights](/wiki/Committee_on_Economic%2C_Social_and_Cultural_Rights "Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights") urged the member states to ensure that a person's sexual orientation is not a barrier to realising [Covenant Rights](/wiki/International_Covenant_on_Economic%2C_Social_and_Cultural_Rights "International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights").{{Citation \|last\=United Nations Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights \|title\=Non\-discrimination in economic, social and cultural rights \|url\=https://docstore.ohchr.org/SelfServices/FilesHandler.ashx?enc\=4slQ6QSmlBEDzFEovLCuW1a0Szab0oXTdImnsJZZVQdqeXgncKnylFC%2BlzJjLZGhsosnD23NsgR1Q1NNNgs2QltnHpLzG%2FBmxPjJUVNxAedgozixcbEW9WMvnSFEiU%2FV \|publication\-date\=2 July 2009 \|type\=\[\[United Nations Document Codes\|UN Document]] \|series\=E/C.12/GC/20 \|publisher\=\[\[United Nations]] \[\[Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights]] \|author\-link\=Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights \|access\-date\=5 March 2023 \|archive\-date\=11 March 2023 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230311095328/https://docstore.ohchr.org/SelfServices/FilesHandler.ashx?enc\=4slQ6QSmlBEDzFEovLCuW1a0Szab0oXTdImnsJZZVQdqeXgncKnylFC%2BlzJjLZGhsosnD23NsgR1Q1NNNgs2QltnHpLzG%2FBmxPjJUVNxAedgozixcbEW9WMvnSFEiU%2FV \|url\-status\=live }}
* Article 16 of the [UDHR](/wiki/Universal_Declaration_of_Human_Rights "Universal Declaration of Human Rights"), Article 23 of the [ICCPR](/wiki/International_Covenant_on_Civil_and_Political_Rights "International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights") and Article 10 of [ICESCR](/wiki/International_Covenant_on_Economic%2C_Social_and_Cultural_Rights "International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights") guarantee the [right to marry and establish a family](/wiki/Right_to_family_life "Right to family life"). [Travaux préparatoires](/wiki/Travaux_pr%C3%A9paratoires "Travaux préparatoires") shows that drafters of [UDHR](/wiki/Universal_Declaration_of_Human_Rights "Universal Declaration of Human Rights") changed the language in the right to marry from *‘*everyone*’* to the specific *‘*men and women*’* to highlight that women have the right to marry. The drafters did not intend to exclude same\-sex couples from marriage.{{Cite journal \|last1\=Wolfson \|first1\=Evan \|last2\=Tueller \|first2\=Jessica \|last3\=Fromkin \|first3\=Alissa \|date\=2022 \|title\=The Freedom to Marry in Human Rights Law Worldwide: Ending the Exclusion of Same\-Sex Couples from Marriage \|url\=https://journals.iupui.edu/index.php/iiclr/article/download/26253/24273 \|journal\=Indiana International \& Comparative Law Review \|volume\=32 \|issue\=1 \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-27 \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-27 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230327133228/https://journals.iupui.edu/index.php/iiclr/article/download/26253/24273 \|url\-status\=live }} The [UN](/wiki/United_Nations "United Nations") [Human Rights Committee](/wiki/United_Nations_Human_Rights_Committee "United Nations Human Rights Committee") urged member states to recognise marriage for same\-sex couples to fulfil their [ICCPR](/wiki/International_Covenant_on_Civil_and_Political_Rights "International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights") obligations.{{Citation \|title\=Young v. Australia \|date\=6 August 2003 \|url\=https://documents\-dds\-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/DER/G03/440/25/PDF/G0344025\.pdf \|type\=\[\[United Nations Document Codes\|UN Document]] \|series\=CCPR/C/78/D/941/2000 \|publisher\=\[\[United Nations]] \[\[United Nations Human Rights Committee\|Human Rights Committee]] \|access\-date\=27 March 2023 \|archive\-date\=27 March 2023 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230327133228/https://documents\-dds\-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/DER/G03/440/25/PDF/G0344025\.pdf \|url\-status\=live }}{{Citation \|last\=United Nations Human Rights Committee \|title\=Concluding observations on the sixth periodic report of Australia \|url\=https://docstore.ohchr.org/SelfServices/FilesHandler.ashx?enc\=6QkG1d%2FPPRiCAqhKb7yhsoAl3%2FFsniSQx2VAmWrPA0uA3KW0KkpmSGOue15UG42EodNm2j%2FnCTyghc1kM8Y%2FLQ4n6KZBdggHt5qPmUYCI8eCslXZmnVlMq%2FoYCNPyKpq \|publication\-date\=1 December 2017 \|type\=\[\[United Nations Document Codes\|UN Document]] \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201112032912/https://docstore.ohchr.org/SelfServices/FilesHandler.ashx?enc\=6QkG1d%2FPPRiCAqhKb7yhsoAl3%2FFsniSQx2VAmWrPA0uA3KW0KkpmSGOue15UG42EodNm2j%2FnCTyghc1kM8Y%2FLQ4n6KZBdggHt5qPmUYCI8eCslXZmnVlMq%2FoYCNPyKpq \|series\=CCPR/C/AUS/CO/6 \|publisher\=\[\[United Nations]] \[\[United Nations Human Rights Committee\|Human Rights Committee]] \|archive\-date\=12 November 2020 \|author\-link\=United Nations Human Rights Committee}}{{Citation \|last\=United Nations Human Rights Committee \|title\=Concluding observations on the sixth periodic report of Hungary \|url\=https://docstore.ohchr.org/SelfServices/FilesHandler.ashx?enc\=6QkG1d%2FPPRiCAqhKb7yhsnm97%2BRfSonZvQyDICMC7to7lkIHViwiffCrjxVJVYr7AYGd1bD3LqpWwx7fjwdowp0XO09j1KeHx2S0%2Be4%2FGUZf4WEtz0X6rsDTNt6FAcrQ \|type\=\[\[United Nations Document Codes\|UN Document]] \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190703135746/https://docstore.ohchr.org/SelfServices/FilesHandler.ashx?enc\=6QkG1d%2FPPRiCAqhKb7yhsnm97%2BRfSonZvQyDICMC7to7lkIHViwiffCrjxVJVYr7AYGd1bD3LqpWwx7fjwdowp0XO09j1KeHx2S0%2Be4%2FGUZf4WEtz0X6rsDTNt6FAcrQ \|series\=CCPR/C/HUN/CO/6 \|publisher\=\[\[United Nations]] \[\[United Nations Human Rights Committee\|Human Rights Committee]] \|archive\-date\=3 July 2019 \|author\-link\=United Nations Human Rights Committee}}{{Citation \|last\=United Nations Human Rights Committee \|title\=Concluding observations on the fourth periodic report of Bulgaria \|date\=15 November 2018 \|url\=https://docstore.ohchr.org/SelfServices/FilesHandler.ashx?enc\=6QkG1d%2FPPRiCAqhKb7yhskh%2Bqy5CyN8D%2FZ%2BBzREl4JFFGBP%2FHKF%2FOdQmhX%2FowRuyRPF6ULj89EPBOq9kvUJgYNQHSS625xvETKp1EUpOs6ekr3vAaU0IH6Z0CyRL%2Ftuy \|type\=\[\[United Nations Document Codes\|UN Document]] \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200403222827/https://docstore.ohchr.org/SelfServices/FilesHandler.ashx?enc\=6QkG1d%2FPPRiCAqhKb7yhskh%2Bqy5CyN8D%2FZ%2BBzREl4JFFGBP%2FHKF%2FOdQmhX%2FowRuyRPF6ULj89EPBOq9kvUJgYNQHSS625xvETKp1EUpOs6ekr3vAaU0IH6Z0CyRL%2Ftuy \|series\=CCPR/C/BGR/CO/4 \|publisher\=\[\[United Nations]] \[\[United Nations Human Rights Committee\|Human Rights Committee]] \|archive\-date\=3 April 2020 \|author\-link\=United Nations Human Rights Committee}}
* Article 12 of the [UDHR](/wiki/Universal_Declaration_of_Human_Rights "Universal Declaration of Human Rights") and Article 17 of the [ICCPR](/wiki/International_Covenant_on_Civil_and_Political_Rights "International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights") prohibit arbitrary interference with their privacy, family, home or correspondence.
#### Soft Law
The Supreme Court held that [*Yogyakarta Principles on the* *Application of Human Rights Law in Relation to Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity (2007\)*](/wiki/Yogyakarta_Principles%23Original_2007_Principles "Yogyakarta Principles#Original 2007 Principles") is consistent with various [fundamental rights](/wiki/Fundamental_rights_in_India "Fundamental rights in India") enshrined in the [Indian Constitution](/wiki/Constitution_of_India "Constitution of India") and stated that they must be recognised and followed in the decision of [*NLSA v. UOI (2014\)*](/wiki/National_Legal_Services_Authority_v._Union_of_India "National Legal Services Authority v. Union of India") and [*Navtej Singh Johar v. UOI (2018\)*](/wiki/Navtej_Singh_Johar_v._Union_of_India "Navtej Singh Johar v. Union of India"). The petitioners pointed to:Petitioners: {{Harvnb\|Dr Kavita Arora v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Udit Sood v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Nibedita Dutta v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Zainab J. Patel v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Supriyo v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Parth Phiroze Mehrotra v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Aditi Anand v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Amburi Roy v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Akkai Padmashali v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\|Rituparna Borah v. Union of India}}.
* Principle 24 of the [Yogyakarta Principles](/wiki/Yogyakarta_Principles "Yogyakarta Principles"), which recognises the right to establish a family, regardless of [sexual orientation](/wiki/Sexual_orientation "Sexual orientation") and [gender identity](/wiki/Gender_identity "Gender identity"). It calls for the State to recognise [same\-sex marriage](/wiki/Same-sex_marriage "Same-sex marriage") or registered partnership and ensure that same\-sex married or registered partners have the entitlements, privileges, obligations and benefits available to opposite\-sex married or registered partners.{{Cite report \|url\=http://yogyakartaprinciples.org/wp\-content/uploads/2016/08/principles\_en.pdf \|title\=Principles on the Application of Human Rights Law in Relation to Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity \|date\=March 2007 \|publisher\=\[\[Yogyakarta Principles]] \|access\-date\=23 February 2023 \|archive\-date\=1 April 2023 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230401034915/http://yogyakartaprinciples.org/wp\-content/uploads/2016/08/principles\_en.pdf \|url\-status\=live }}
#### *Obergefell v. Hodges* (United States, 2015\)
In anticipation of an oppositional argument that could emphasise marriage as traditionally and historically being limited to opposite\-sex couples, the petitioners argue that generations of denial are not an argument for its perpetuation. They point to the majority opinion of [*Obergefell v. Hodges (2015\)*](/wiki/Obergefell_v._Hodges "Obergefell v. Hodges"), in which [Associate Justice](/wiki/Associate_Justice_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States "Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States") [Kennedy](/wiki/Anthony_Kennedy "Anthony Kennedy") wrote that if rights were defined by who exercised them in the past, then past practices would serve as continued justification for denying the new groups the rights.Petitioners: {{Harvnb\|Udit Sood v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\|Parth Phiroze Mehrotra v. Union of India}}.
In anticipation of an opposition prophesy that upholding everybody's fundamental right to marry would diminish the worth of opposite\-sex marriages, petitioners point to the conclusion of the majority on the same discussion in *[Obergefell v. Hodges (2015\)](/wiki/Obergefell_v._Hodges "Obergefell v. Hodges")*, “it is wholly illogical to believe that state recognition of the love and commitment between same\-sex couples will alter the most intimate and personal decisions of opposite\-sex couples.”
While deciding the *Sunil Batra v. Delhi Administration (1978\),* the Supreme Court held that the despite the lack of the [Due Process Clause](/wiki/Due_Process_Clause "Due Process Clause") in the [Constitution of India](/wiki/Constitution_of_India "Constitution of India") same consequence ensued after the decisions in *R.C. Cooper v. Union of India (1970\)* and [*Maneka Gandhi v. Union of India (1978\)*](/wiki/Maneka_Gandhi_v._Union_of_India "Maneka Gandhi v. Union of India")*.* Affirming the verdict of *Sunil Batra v. Delhi Administration (1978\),* the Supreme Court held that substantive due process is applied to the [fundamental right to life and liberty](/wiki/Fundamental_rights_in_India%23Right_To_Freedom "Fundamental rights in India#Right To Freedom") in *Mohd Arif v. The Registrar (2014\).*Petitioners: {{Harvnb\|Sameer Samudra v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\|Nitin Karan v. Union of India}}.
Finally, the Supreme Court held that [Article 14](/wiki/Article_14_of_the_Constitution_of_India "Article 14 of the Constitution of India") of the [Indian Constitution](/wiki/Constitution_of_India "Constitution of India") corresponds to the [Equal Protection Clause](/wiki/Equal_Protection_Clause "Equal Protection Clause") of the [Fourteenth Amendment of the United States Constitution](/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution "Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution") in *Chiranjit Lal Chowdhuri v. UOI (1950\).* Hence, the [United States Supreme Court](/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States "Supreme Court of the United States") ruling in *[Obergefell v. Hodges (2015\)](/wiki/Obergefell_v._Hodges "Obergefell v. Hodges")*, which held the fundamental right to marry is guaranteed to [same\-sex couples](/wiki/Same-sex_relationship "Same-sex relationship") by both the [Due Process Clause](/wiki/Due_Process_Clause "Due Process Clause") and the [Equal Protection Clause](/wiki/Equal_Protection_Clause "Equal Protection Clause") of the [Fourteenth Amendment of the Constitution](/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution "Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution") is relevant to the current case.
#### Recognition of foreign marriage
The Supreme Court recognised the [principles of comity of nations](/wiki/Comity "Comity") in the ruling of *Mirza Ali Akbar Kashani v. United Arab Republic (1966\)*, *Tractor Export v. Tarapore \& Co. (1969\)* and *Gramophone Company of India Ltd. v. Birendra Bahadur Pandey (1984\).* The petitioners called attention to the fact that 32 countries have recognised [same\-sex marriage](/wiki/Same-sex_marriage "Same-sex marriage"). Since [Foreign Marriage Act](/wiki/Foreign_Marriage_Act%2C_1969 "Foreign Marriage Act, 1969") has extraterritorial operations, petitioners argued that it should be read to conform with international developments.Petitioners: {{Harvnb\|Vaibhav Jai v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Udit Sood v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Joydeep Sengupta v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\|Zainab J. Patel v. Union of India}}.
#### Citizenship of sexual and gender minority spouse
The petitioners argue that the [Citizenship Act](/wiki/Indian_nationality_law "Indian nationality law") does not authorise the officials to examine the marriage under [Indian law](/wiki/Law_of_India "Law of India"). Therefore, as long as the marriage is validly registered overseas and the sexual or gender minority spouse of foreign origin satisfies other conditions, they are entitled to apply for [OCI](/wiki/Overseas_Citizenship_of_India "Overseas Citizenship of India"). They point to the ruling of the [Israeli High Court of Justice](/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Israel%23High_Court_of_Justice "Supreme Court of Israel#High Court of Justice") that registration officials, who are not competent to examine the validity of the marriage under [Israeli law](/wiki/Israeli_law "Israeli law"), should register the [same\-sex marriage](/wiki/Same-sex_marriage "Same-sex marriage") of [Israeli Citizens](/wiki/Israelis "Israelis") performed validly overseas in *Ben\-Ari v. Director of Population Administration (2006\).*
#### Legislative policy
The petitioners highlighted various entitlements, privileges, obligations and benefits limited to marital, blood or adoptive relationships. These legal provisions exclude legally unrecognised spouses and families of sexual and gender minority individuals.
##### Healthcare
When a patient cannot communicate their wishes due to being in a persistent vegetative state, having a form of dementia or similar illness, or being under anaesthesia, legally unrecognised spouses and families of sexual and gender minority individuals are not allowed to make healthcare decisions for them.Petitioners: {{Harvnb\|Dr Kavita Arora v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Parth Phiroze Mehrotra v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Aditi Anand v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\|Rituparna Borah v. Union of India}}.
Legally unrecognised spouses and families of sexual and gender minority individuals face discrimination in [organ donation](/wiki/Organ_donation "Organ donation") in the case of both living or deceased partners.Petitioners: {{Harvnb\|Dr Kavita Arora v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Udit Sood v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Nibedita Dutta v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Supriyo v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Parth Phiroze Mehrotra v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\|Aditi Anand v. Union of India}}. Under the [Transplantation of Human Organs and Tissues Act of 1994](/wiki/Transplantation_of_Human_Organs_and_Tissues_Act%2C_1994 "Transplantation of Human Organs and Tissues Act, 1994"), the declaration to donate organs requires the presence of at least one marital, blood or adoptive relative. As a result, unrecognised spouses and families cannot make these vital decisions about sexual and gender minority family members. Sexual and gender minority partners need prior approval of the Authorisation Committee under the [Transplantation of Human Organs and Tissues Act](/wiki/Transplantation_of_Human_Organs_and_Tissues_Act%2C_1994 "Transplantation of Human Organs and Tissues Act, 1994"). The Committee evaluates the proof of affection or attachment to the intended recipient of the organ before permitting organ donation, which legally married couples need not provide.{{Cite act\|index\=42\|date\=1994\|legislature\=\[\[Parliament of India]]\|title\=The Transplantation of Human Organs and Tissues Act\|url\=https://www.indiacode.nic.in/handle/123456789/1962}} {{Cite web \|url\=https://www.indiacode.nic.in/handle/123456789/1962 \|title\=Archived copy \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-12 \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-12 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230312173357/https://www.indiacode.nic.in/handle/123456789/1962 \|url\-status\=bot: unknown }}
##### Finance
Sexual and gender minority family members lack the rights around succession, [maintenance](/wiki/Alimony "Alimony"), joint ownership of assets, taxation and benefits. As private entitlements exclude sexual and gender minority family members, sexual and gender minority individuals face more barriers and higher scrutiny in privately offered life insurance nominations, owning [joint bank accounts](/wiki/Joint_account "Joint account") and lockers, and mutual funds and savings plans.Petitioners: {{Harvnb\|Vaibhav Jai v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Dr Kavita Arora v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Udit Sood v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Nibedita Dutta v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Supriyo v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Parth Phiroze Mehrotra v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\|Aditi Anand v. Union of India}}.
According to the [Income Tax Act of 1961](/wiki/The_Income-tax_Act%2C_1961 "The Income-tax Act, 1961"), the payments made on behalf of a spouse are included in the deduction when computing the total income. These deductions include the payments made towards life insurance, a deferred annuity of the life of a spouse, the spouse's provident fund set up by the Central Government and the spouse for participation in the Unit\-linked Insurance Plan.{{Cite act\|index\=43\|date\=1961\|article\=80C\|article\-type\=Section\|legislature\=\[\[Parliament of India]]\|title\=The Income\-tax Act\|url\=https://www.indiacode.nic.in/handle/123456789/2435}} {{Cite web \|url\=https://www.indiacode.nic.in/handle/123456789/2435 \|title\=Archived copy \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-12 \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-12 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230312071723/https://www.indiacode.nic.in/handle/123456789/2435 \|url\-status\=bot: unknown }} Sexual and gender minority family members cannot claim such deductions.Petitioners: {{Harvnb\|Vaibhav Jai v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Dr Kavita Arora v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Udit Sood v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Nibedita Dutta v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Zainab J. Patel v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Supriyo v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Parth Phiroze Mehrotra v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\|Aditi Anand v. Union of India}}.
According to the Supreme Court ruling on *Rajesh v. Rajbir Singh*, the spousal consortium considered in the claims, including the claims for injury and death in the [Motor Vehicle Act of 1988](/wiki/Motor_Vehicles_Act%2C_1988 "Motor Vehicles Act, 1988") cases, is only available to married couples.{{Cite act\|index\=59\|date\=1988\|article\=158, 166 {{abbr\|\&\|and}} 168\|article\-type\=Section\|legislature\=\[\[Parliament of India]]\|title\=The Motor Vehicles Act\|url\=https://www.indiacode.nic.in/handle/123456789/1798}} {{Cite web \|url\=https://www.indiacode.nic.in/handle/123456789/1798 \|title\=Archived copy \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-12 \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-12 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230312103247/https://www.indiacode.nic.in/handle/123456789/1798 \|url\-status\=bot: unknown }}{{Cite court\|litigants\=Rajesh {{abbr\|\&\|and}} {{abbr\|Ors.\|Others}} versus Rajbir Singh {{abbr\|\&\|and}} {{abbr\|Ors.\|Others}}\|court\=\[\[Supreme Court of India]]\|opinion\={{abbr\|Civil Appeal No.\|Civil Appeal Number}} 3860/2013\|date\=12 April 2013\|url\=https://main.sci.gov.in/jonew/bosir/orderpdf/1721330\.pdf}} Hence the legally unrecognised spouses of sexual and gender minority individuals are denied such claims.Petitioners: {{Harvnb\|Dr Kavita Arora v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Nibedita Dutta v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Supriyo v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\|Aditi Anand v. Union of India}}.
##### Employment
Without recognition of the right to marry, couples from sexual and gender minority communities cannot access the benefits available to opposite\-sex couples through various legislation. Couples from sexual and gender minority communities in government service cannot request same\-city postings. A sexual and gender minority partner cannot receive the healthcare coverage provided to the spouse of government employees.
The government grants an appointment on compassionate grounds to a dependent family member of a government servant dying or retired on medical grounds and leaving their family without any livelihood. Couples from sexual and gender minority communities are not eligible for compassionate appointments or family pensions.
Under the current reading of the [Indian Acts](/wiki/Law_of_India "Law of India"), sexual and gender minority employee cannot nominate their legally unrecognised family for benefits and entitlements as long as their biological or adoptive family members are alive.{{Cite news \|last1\=Chaturvedi \|first1\=Arpan \|last2\=Jain \|first2\=Rupam \|date\=19 December 2022 \|title\=Gay couples in India ask Supreme Court to legalise same\-sex marriage \|language\=en \|work\=\[\[Reuters]] \|url\=https://www.reuters.com/world/india/gay\-couples\-india\-ask\-supreme\-court\-legalise\-same\-sex\-marriage\-2022\-12\-19/ \|access\-date\= \|archive\-date\=2023\-02\-12 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230212153427/https://www.reuters.com/world/india/gay\-couples\-india\-ask\-supreme\-court\-legalise\-same\-sex\-marriage\-2022\-12\-19/ \|url\-status\=live }}{{Cite news \|last\=Rajagopal \|first\=Krishnadas \|date\=25 November 2022 \|title\=Supreme Court seeks govt response on including same\-sex marriage under Special Marriage Act \|language\=en \|work\=\[\[The Hindu]] \|url\=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/supreme\-court\-seeks\-govt\-response\-on\-including\-same\-sex\-marriage\-under\-special\-marriage\-act/article66182642\.ece \|access\-date\= \|issn\=0971\-751X \|archive\-date\=13 February 2023 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230213051311/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/supreme\-court\-seeks\-govt\-response\-on\-including\-same\-sex\-marriage\-under\-special\-marriage\-act/article66182642\.ece \|url\-status\=live }} Some of the [Acts](/wiki/Law_of_India "Law of India") highlighted by the petitioners are:Petitioners: {{Harvnb\|Vaibhav Jai v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Dr Kavita Arora v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Udit Sood v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Joydeep Sengupta v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Nibedita Dutta v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Zainab J. Patel v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Supriyo v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Parth Phiroze Mehrotra v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\|Aditi Anand v. Union of India}}.
* Employee's Compensation Act of 1923,{{Cite act\|type\=Act\|index\=8\|date\=1923\|article\=10A(4\)\|article\-type\=Section\|legislature\=\[\[Imperial Legislative Council]]\|title\=The Employees Compensation Act\|url\=https://www.indiacode.nic.in/show\-data?actid\=AC\_UP\_88\_477\_00016\_00016\_1614836915424\§ionId\=64520\§ionno\=10A\&orderno\=12}} {{Cite web \|url\=https://www.indiacode.nic.in/show\-data?actid\=AC\_UP\_88\_477\_00016\_00016\_1614836915424\§ionId\=64520\§ionno\=10A\&orderno\=12 \|title\=Archived copy \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-12 \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-12 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230312062151/https://www.indiacode.nic.in/show\-data?actid\=AC\_UP\_88\_477\_00016\_00016\_1614836915424\§ionId\=64520\§ionno\=10A\&orderno\=12 \|url\-status\=bot: unknown }}
* Employees' Provident Funds Act of 1952,{{Cite act\|type\=Act\|index\=19\|date\=1952\|article\=4\|article\-type\=Schedule\|legislature\=\[\[Parliament of India]]\|title\=Employees' Provident Funds and Miscellaneous Provisions Act\|url\=https://www.indiacode.nic.in/handle/123456789/2152}} {{Cite web \|url\=https://www.indiacode.nic.in/handle/123456789/2152 \|title\=Archived copy \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-12 \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-12 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230312060651/https://www.indiacode.nic.in/handle/123456789/2152 \|url\-status\=bot: unknown }}
* [Payment of Gratuity Act of 1972](/wiki/The_Payment_of_Gratuity_Act%2C_1972 "The Payment of Gratuity Act, 1972"),{{Cite act\|index\=39\|date\=1972\|article\=6\|article\-type\=Section\|legislature\=\[\[Parliament of India]]\|title\=The Payment of Gratuity Act\|url\=https://www.indiacode.nic.in/show\-data?actid\=AC\_CEN\_6\_6\_00029\_197239\_1517807324619\§ionId\=42151\§ionno\=6\&orderno\=8}} {{Cite web \|url\=https://www.indiacode.nic.in/show\-data?actid\=AC\_CEN\_6\_6\_00029\_197239\_1517807324619\§ionId\=42151\§ionno\=6\&orderno\=8 \|title\=Archived copy \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-12 \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-12 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230312060646/https://www.indiacode.nic.in/show\-data?actid\=AC\_CEN\_6\_6\_00029\_197239\_1517807324619\§ionId\=42151\§ionno\=6\&orderno\=8 \|url\-status\=bot: unknown }}
* Payment of Wages Act, 1936{{Cite act\|index\=4\|date\=1936\|article\=26\|article\-type\=Section\|legislature\=\[\[Imperial Legislative Council]]\|title\=The Payment of Wages Act\|url\=https://www.indiacode.nic.in/bitstream/123456789/8324/1/payment\_of\_wages\_act\_1936\.pdf}} {{Cite web \|url\=https://www.indiacode.nic.in/bitstream/123456789/8324/1/payment\_of\_wages\_act\_1936\.pdf \|title\=Archived copy \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-12 \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-25 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230325172323/https://www.indiacode.nic.in/bitstream/123456789/8324/1/payment\_of\_wages\_act\_1936\.pdf \|url\-status\=bot: unknown }}{{Cite act\|type\=General Statutory Rule\|index\=822 (E)\|date\=2009\|article\=3 (2\)\|article\-type\=Rule\|legislature\=\[\[Government of India]] through \[\[Ministry of Labour and Employment (India)\|Ministry of Labour and Employment]]\|title\=Payment of Wages (Nomination) Rules\|url\=https://labour.gov.in/sites/default/files/PW\_Nomination%20Rules.pdf}} {{Cite web \|url\=https://labour.gov.in/sites/default/files/PW\_Nomination%20Rules.pdf \|title\=Archived copy \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-12 \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-12 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230312060646/https://labour.gov.in/sites/default/files/PW\_Nomination%20Rules.pdf \|url\-status\=bot: unknown }} and
* [Unorganised Workers' Social Security Act of 2008](/wiki/Unorganised_Workers%27_Social_Security_Act_2008 "Unorganised Workers' Social Security Act 2008").{{Cite act\|index\=33\|date\=2008\|article\=3\|article\-type\=Section\|legislature\=\[\[Parliament of India]]\|title\=Unorganised Workers Social Security Act\|url\=https://www.indiacode.nic.in/show\-data?actid\=AC\_CEN\_6\_6\_00036\_200833\_1517807327317\§ionId\=42317\§ionno\=3\&orderno\=3}} {{Cite web \|url\=https://www.indiacode.nic.in/show\-data?actid\=AC\_CEN\_6\_6\_00036\_200833\_1517807327317\§ionId\=42317\§ionno\=3\&orderno\=3 \|title\=India Code: Section Details \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-12 \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-12 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230312060653/https://www.indiacode.nic.in/show\-data?actid\=AC\_CEN\_6\_6\_00036\_200833\_1517807327317\§ionId\=42317\§ionno\=3\&orderno\=3 \|url\-status\=bot: unknown }}{{Cite act\|type\=Statutory Order\|index\=764 (E)\|date\=2019\|legislature\=\[\[Government of India]] through \[\[Ministry of Labour and Employment (India)\|Ministry of Labour and Employment]]\|title\=Pradhan Mantri Shram Yogi Maan\-dhan Yojana\|url\=https://labour.gov.in/sites/default/files/197105\_0\.pdf}} {{Cite web \|url\=https://labour.gov.in/sites/default/files/197105\_0\.pdf \|title\=Archived copy \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-12 \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-12 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230312060717/https://labour.gov.in/sites/default/files/197105\_0\.pdf \|url\-status\=bot: unknown }}
Since private entitlements, such as healthcare and other spousal benefits extended in private employment, exclude sexual and gender minority family members, sexual and gender minority individuals face more barriers and higher scrutiny in acquiring spousal benefits.Petitioners: {{Harvnb\|Dr Kavita Arora v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\|Supriyo v. Union of India}}.
##### Housing
Couples from sexual and gender minority communities do not have the right to reside in a shared household. Hence, sexual and gender minority individuals cannot rely on their partner's rented or owned home to prove residence for official purposes.
##### Parenthood
Without recognition of the right to marry, couples from sexual and gender minority communities cannot have children through [adoption](/wiki/Same-sex_adoption "Same-sex adoption"), [surrogacy](/wiki/Surrogacy_in_India "Surrogacy in India"), or [assisted reproductive technologies](/wiki/Assisted_reproductive_technology%23India "Assisted reproductive technology#India").Petitioners: {{Harvnb\|Supriyo v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Aditi Anand v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\|Amburi Roy v. Union of India}}.
The [Juvenile Justice Act of 2015](/wiki/Juvenile_Justice_%28Care_and_Protection_of_Children%29_Act%2C_2015 "Juvenile Justice (Care and Protection of Children) Act, 2015"), along with relevant rules, does not allow unmarried couples and couples in a live\-in relationship to adopt children as a couple.{{Cite act\|index\=2\|date\=2015\|legislature\=\[\[Parliament of India]]\|title\=The Juvenile Justice (Care and Protection of Children) Act\|url\=https://www.indiacode.nic.in/handle/123456789/2148}} {{Cite web \|url\=https://www.indiacode.nic.in/handle/123456789/2148 \|title\=India Code: Juvenile Justice (Care and Protection of Children) Act, 2015 \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-12 \|archive\-date\=2023\-04\-24 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230424144953/https://www.indiacode.nic.in/handle/123456789/2148 \|url\-status\=bot: unknown }}{{Cite act\|type\=General Statutory Rules\|index\=726 (E)\|date\=2022\|legislature\=\[\[Government of India]] through \[\[Ministry of Women and Child Development]]\|title\=Adoption Regulations\|url\=https://wcd.nic.in/sites/default/files/Adoption%20Regulations%202022\.pdf}} {{Cite web \|url\=https://wcd.nic.in/sites/default/files/Adoption%20Regulations%202022\.pdf \|title\=Archived copy \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-12 \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-12 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230312095012/https://wcd.nic.in/sites/default/files/Adoption%20Regulations%202022\.pdf \|url\-status\=bot: unknown }} The Adoption Regulations of 2022 state that a child cannot be given in adoption to a couple unless they have at least two years of a stable marital relationship. In line with the Adoption Regulations, the [Central Adoption Resource Authority](/wiki/Central_Adoption_Resource_Authority "Central Adoption Resource Authority") has decided that single prospective adoptive parents, who are in a live\-in relationship with a partner, will not be considered eligible to adopt a child.{{Cite act\|type\=Office Memorandum\|index\=CARAICA013/1/2022/Administration\|date\={{date\|2022\-06\-16\|mdy}}\|legislature\=\[\[Central Adoption Resource Authority]], \[\[New Delhi]]\|title\=Registration of cases of single PAPs having a live\-in partner in a long\-time relationship and not married\|url\=https://cara.nic.in/PDF/Registration\-of\-cases\-of\-single\-PAPs\-having\-a\_live\-in\_partner\-in\-a\-long\-time\-relationship\-and\-not\-married160622\.pdf}} {{Cite web \|url\=https://cara.nic.in/PDF/Registration\-of\-cases\-of\-single\-PAPs\-having\-a\_live\-in\_partner\-in\-a\-long\-time\-relationship\-and\-not\-married160622\.pdf \|title\=Archived copy \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-12 \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-12 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230312095003/https://cara.nic.in/PDF/Registration\-of\-cases\-of\-single\-PAPs\-having\-a\_live\-in\_partner\-in\-a\-long\-time\-relationship\-and\-not\-married160622\.pdf \|url\-status\=bot: unknown }}
The Surrogacy (Regulation) Act of 2021 allows only married couples to have children through surrogacy.{{Cite act\|index\=47\|date\=2021\|legislature\=\[\[Parliament of India]]\|title\=The Surrogacy (Regulation) Act\|url\=https://www.indiacode.nic.in/handle/123456789/17046}} {{Cite web \|url\=https://www.indiacode.nic.in/handle/123456789/17046 \|title\=India Code: Surrogacy (Regulation) Act, 2021 \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-12 \|archive\-date\=2023\-04\-26 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230426175844/https://www.indiacode.nic.in/handle/123456789/17046 \|url\-status\=bot: unknown }} The Assisted Reproductive Technology (Regulation) Act of 2021 allows only infertile married couples to obtain the services of an authorised clinic or bank for assisted reproductive technologies.{{Cite act\|index\=42\|date\=2021\|legislature\=\[\[Parliament of India]]\|title\=The Assisted Reproductive Technology (Regulation) Act\|url\=https://www.indiacode.nic.in/handle/123456789/17031}} {{Cite web \|url\=https://www.indiacode.nic.in/handle/123456789/17031 \|title\=India Code: Assisted Reproductive Technology (Regulation) Act, 2021 \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-12 \|archive\-date\=2022\-07\-18 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220718080315/https://www.indiacode.nic.in/handle/123456789/17031 \|url\-status\=bot: unknown }}
Since the parents cannot get married, the child has no legal relationship with an unrelated parent. As a result, various entitlements, privileges, obligations and benefits are unavailable to the unrelated parent and the child. An unrelated parent cannot make medical decisions in the case of an emergency.
##### Judicial proceedings
The [Indian Evidence Act of 1872](/wiki/Indian_Evidence_Act "Indian Evidence Act") provides [spousal privilege](/wiki/Spousal_privilege "Spousal privilege"), that is, immunity from being compelled to disclose any communication between spouses during their marriage. Additionally, they cannot disclose any communication without their partner or partner's representative's consent.{{Cite act\|type\=\|index\=1\|date\=1872\|article\=122\|article\-type\=Section\|legislature\=\[\[Imperial Legislative Council]]\|title\=Indian Evidence Act\|url\=https://www.indiacode.nic.in/show\-data?actid\=AC\_CEN\_3\_20\_00034\_187201\_1523268871700\§ionId\=38987\§ionno\=122\&orderno\=140}} {{Cite web \|url\=https://www.indiacode.nic.in/show\-data?actid\=AC\_CEN\_3\_20\_00034\_187201\_1523268871700\§ionId\=38987\§ionno\=122\&orderno\=140 \|title\=India Code: Section Details \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-12 \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-12 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230312060655/https://www.indiacode.nic.in/show\-data?actid\=AC\_CEN\_3\_20\_00034\_187201\_1523268871700\§ionId\=38987\§ionno\=122\&orderno\=140 \|url\-status\=bot: unknown }} Couples from sexual and gender minority communities do not have this crucial protection privilege under Indian evidentiary law.Petitioners: {{Harvnb\|Vaibhav Jai v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Dr Kavita Arora v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Joydeep Sengupta v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Nibedita Dutta v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Zainab J. Patel v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Supriyo v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Parth Phiroze Mehrotra v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\|Aditi Anand v. Union of India}}.
The [Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act of 2005](/wiki/Protection_of_Women_from_Domestic_Violence_Act%2C_2005 "Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act, 2005") protects women in an opposite\-sex marital or live\-in relationship. The law extends its protection to women living in a household, such as sisters or mothers, but fails to protect sexual and gender minority women in a relationship.Petitioners: {{Harvnb\|Dr Kavita Arora v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\|Parth Phiroze Mehrotra v. Union of India}}.
#### Entry and residence permits
A spouse of foreign origin of an Indian Citizen or [OCI](/wiki/Overseas_Citizenship_of_India "Overseas Citizenship of India") is entitled to apply for registration as an [OCI](/wiki/Overseas_Citizenship_of_India "Overseas Citizenship of India") under the [Citizenship Act](/wiki/The_Citizenship_Act%2C_1955 "The Citizenship Act, 1955"). [OCI](/wiki/Overseas_Citizenship_of_India "Overseas Citizenship of India") is a form of [permanent residency](/wiki/Permanent_residency "Permanent residency") which allows cardholders to live and work in India indefinitely. Without recognition of the right to marry, a foreign\-origin sexual or gender minority spouse is not eligible for [OCI](/wiki/Overseas_Citizenship_of_India "Overseas Citizenship of India") Card.
Recognition of the right to marry for sexual and gender minority individuals is crucial for acquiring a visa and residency. Sexual and gender minority families cannot declare the name of their spouse or parent on their passports. Similarly, [OCI](/wiki/Overseas_Citizenship_of_India "Overseas Citizenship of India") cardholders are subject to the notification issued by the [Union Government](/wiki/Government_of_India "Government of India")— for example, during the [COVID\-19 pandemic](/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_India "COVID-19 pandemic in India"), the [Union Government](/wiki/Government_of_India "Government of India") allowed [OCI](/wiki/Overseas_Citizenship_of_India "Overseas Citizenship of India") cardholders with Indian parents or spouses alone to enter the country.
#### Social exclusion and violence
Legally sanctioned exclusion, such as the prohibition of marriage between sexual and gender minority individuals, constitutes a form of [structural discrimination](/wiki/Structural_discrimination "Structural discrimination") which reinforces [ignorance](/wiki/Ignorance "Ignorance") and [prejudice](/wiki/Prejudice "Prejudice") and leads to widespread [discrimination](/wiki/Discrimination "Discrimination"), [rejection](/wiki/Social_rejection "Social rejection") and [violence](/wiki/Violence_against_LGBT_people "Violence against LGBT people") against sexual and gender minority individuals in India.Petitioners: {{Harvnb\|Dr Kavita Arora v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Udit Sood v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Aditi Anand v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Utkarsh Saxena v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Kajal v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Rituparna Borah v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\|Harish Iyer v. Union of India}}. The petitioners demonstrate widespread [discrimination](/wiki/Discrimination "Discrimination"), [rejection](/wiki/Social_rejection "Social rejection") and [violence](/wiki/Violence_against_LGBT_people "Violence against LGBT people") against sexual and gender minority individuals in India by reporting relevant peer\-reviewed studies and news articles.Petitioners: {{Harvnb\|Udit Sood v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\|Kajal v. Union of India}}.
[Family honour culture](/wiki/Family_honor "Family honor") is one of the reasons for the harassment of sexual and gender minority individuals in India.{{Cite web \|last\=Bhattacharya \|first\=Ananya \|date\=30 May 2019 \|title\=South Asian honour culture hounds India and Pakistan's LGBTQ community \|url\=https://qz.com/india/1630092/indians\-pakistanis\-most\-likely\-to\-back\-anti\-gay\-honour\-abuse \|access\-date\= \|website\=\[\[Quartz (publication)\|Quartz]] \|language\=en \|archive\-date\=18 October 2023 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20231018150037/https://qz.com/india/1630092/indians\-pakistanis\-most\-likely\-to\-back\-anti\-gay\-honour\-abuse \|url\-status\=live }} A 2021 multinational study documented the attitudes towards violence against sexual and gender minority individuals in five countries: [India](/wiki/India "India"), [Pakistan](/wiki/Pakistan "Pakistan"), [Malaysia](/wiki/Malaysia "Malaysia"), [Iran](/wiki/Iran "Iran") and [England](/wiki/England "England"). [Indians](/wiki/Indian_people "Indian people") ranked second, following [Pakistanis](/wiki/Pakistanis "Pakistanis"), for their belief that gay men had damaged their [family honour](/wiki/Family_honor "Family honor") and their acceptance of verbal abuse and life\-threatening violence by the family towards gay men.{{Cite journal \|last1\=Lowe \|first1\=Michelle \|last2\=Khan \|first2\=Roxanne \|last3\=Thanzami \|first3\=Vanlal \|last4\=Barzy \|first4\=Mahsa \|last5\=Karmaliani \|first5\=Rozina \|date\=2021 \|title\=Anti\-gay "Honor" Abuse: A Multinational Attitudinal Study of Collectivist\- Versus Individualist\-Orientated Populations in Asia and England \|url\=https://clok.uclan.ac.uk/26187/ \|journal\=\[\[Journal of Interpersonal Violence]] \|volume\=36 \|issue\=15–16 \|pages\=7866–7885 \|doi\=10\.1177/0886260519838493 \|pmid\=30924715 \|s2cid\=85566154 \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-06 \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-06 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230306085034/https://clok.uclan.ac.uk/26187/ \|url\-status\=live }}
Familial harassment takes various forms of violence and violations. A 2016 Indian study reported the family as the primary source of psychological, physical and sexual violence against sexual and gender minority individuals that normalises such violence for sexual and gender minority individuals in India.{{Cite journal \|last1\=Ranade \|first1\=Ketki \|last2\=Shah \|first2\=Chayanika \|last3\=Chatterji \|first3\=Sangeeta \|date\=1 August 2016 \|title\=Making sense: Familial journeys towards acceptance of gay and lesbian family members in India \|url\=https://journals.tiss.edu/ijsw/index.php/ijsw/article/view/72 \|journal\=The Indian Journal of Social Work \|volume\=77 \|issue\=4 \|pages\=437–458 \|issn\=2456\-7809 \|access\-date\=27 March 2023 \|archive\-date\=27 March 2023 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230327114743/https://journals.tiss.edu/ijsw/index.php/ijsw/article/view/72 \|url\-status\=live }} 2011 Indian qualitative study documented the endemic and pervasive nature of violence faced by sexual and gender minority women, such as psychological and verbal abuse, bodily harm, forced marriage, wrongful confinement, medical abuse and corrective rape.{{Citation \|last1\=Ghosh \|first1\=Subhagata \|title\=Vio Map: Documenting and Mapping Violence \& Rights Violation Taking Place in lives of Sexually Marginalised Women to Chart Out Effective Advocacy Strategies \|date\=8 March 2011 \|url\=https://www.sapphokolkata.in/public/research\_reports/1677858525\.pdf \|type\=Research Report \|publisher\=\[\[Sappho for Equality]] \|last2\=Bandyopadhyay \|first2\=Sumita Basu \|last3\=Ranjita \|first3\=Biswas \|access\-date\=27 March 2023 \|archive\-date\=27 March 2023 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230327113552/https://www.sapphokolkata.in/public/research\_reports/1677858525\.pdf \|url\-status\=live }} Familial harassment and rejection are common reasons for [homelessness](/wiki/Homelessness "Homelessness") and [suicide](/wiki/Suicide "Suicide") among sexual and gender minority individuals in India.{{Cite web \|last\=Watta \|first\=Anureet \|date\=2020\-09\-02 \|title\=Bullying, Homophobia, Conversion Therapy: What Is Pushing Queer People To Suicide? \|url\=https://www.shethepeople.tv/home\-top\-video/bullying\-homophobia\-conversion\-therapy\-queer\-people\-suicides/ \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-05 \|website\=\[\[SheThePeople]] \|language\=en\-US \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-05 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230305132122/https://www.shethepeople.tv/home\-top\-video/bullying\-homophobia\-conversion\-therapy\-queer\-people\-suicides/ \|url\-status\=live }}{{Cite magazine \|last\=Kidangoor \|first\=Abhishyant \|date\=2021\-01\-05 \|title\=This Indian Same\-Sex Couple Is Fighting for the Right to Marry. But Is Their Country Ready? \|url\=https://time.com/5926324/india\-lgbtq\-marriage\-case/ \|magazine\=\[\[Time (magazine)\|Time]] \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-07 \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-07 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230307061757/https://time.com/5926324/india\-lgbtq\-marriage\-case/ \|url\-status\=live }} India lacks comprehensive statistics on [suicide](/wiki/Suicide "Suicide") among sexual and gender minority individuals in India. A 2011 Mumbai\-based study of men who have sex with men found 45 per cent to be [suicidal](/wiki/Suicidal_ideation "Suicidal ideation"), with 15 per cent categorised as high risk. A 2016 Indian study estimated the suicide rate among [transgender Indians](/wiki/Transgender "Transgender") as 31 per cent, and at least 50 per cent of them have attempted suicide at least once before their 20th birthday.{{Cite journal \|last1\=H.G. \|first1\=Virupaksha \|last2\=Muralidhar \|first2\=Daliboyina \|last3\=Ramakrishna \|first3\=Jayashree \|date\=2016 \|title\=Suicide and Suicidal Behavior among Transgender Persons \|journal\=\[\[Indian Journal of Psychological Medicine]] \|volume\=38 \|issue\=6 \|pages\=505–509 \|doi\=10\.4103/0253\-7176\.194908\|pmid\=28031583 \|pmc\=5178031 \|doi\-access\=free }}
Couples from sexual and gender minority communities face familial harassment in the form of [forced separation](/wiki/Family_separation "Family separation") and [wrongful detention](/wiki/False_imprisonment "False imprisonment") or reporting their partners of [kidnapping](/wiki/Kidnapping "Kidnapping"). If the couple were [separated](/wiki/Family_separation "Family separation") and [detained](/wiki/False_imprisonment "False imprisonment") by the parents, the partner has to approach a [High Court](/wiki/High_courts_of_India "High courts of India") for a [writ petition for habeas corpus](/wiki/Habeas_corpus "Habeas corpus"). The Courts frequently question the [locus standi](/wiki/Standing_%28law%29 "Standing (law)") of the individual due to the non\-recognition of their relationship.{{Cite book \|last1\=Arasu \|first1\=Ponni \|url\=https://archive.org/details/lawlikelovequeer0000unse \|title\=Law like love: Queer perspectives on law \|last2\=Thangarajah \|first2\=Priya \|date\=2011 \|publisher\=\[\[Yoda Press]] \|isbn\=9789380403144 \|editor\-last\=Narrain \|editor\-first\=Arvind \|publication\-place\=\[\[New Delhi\|New Delhi, India]] \|chapter\=Queer Women and the Law in India \|oclc\=741445911 \|editor\-last2\=Gupta \|editor\-first2\=Alok }} On the other hand, if the parents had reported the [kidnapping](/wiki/Kidnapping "Kidnapping"), the police ascertained if the partner had left on their own accord. However, the seemingly straightforward procedure of recording the individual's statement to determine whether they are acting out of their free will gets complicated due to [societal prejudice](/wiki/Prejudice "Prejudice") validated by the lack of the right to marry for sexual and gender minority individuals in India.{{Cite book \|last\=Sharma \|first\=Maya \|title\=Footprints of a Queer History: Life\-stories from Gujarat \|publisher\=\[\[Yoda Press]] \|year\=2023 \|isbn\=9789382579359 \|location\=\[\[New Delhi\|New Delhi, India]]}}
Reports have documented instances where lesbian couples have considered, attempted or committed suicide together.{{Citation \|last\=Deepa \|first\=Vasudevan \|title\=Lesbian Suicides and the Kerala Women's Movement \|date\=2001 \|url\=http://feministlawarchives.pldindia.org/wp\-content/uploads/Lesbian\-Suicides\-and\-the\-Kerala\-Womens\-Movement.pdf \|type\=\[\[Conference proceedings\|Conference Proceeding]] \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210305201621/http://feministlawarchives.pldindia.org/wp\-content/uploads/Lesbian\-Suicides\-and\-the\-Kerala\-Womens\-Movement.pdf \|publication\-place\=\[\[Hyderabad\|Hyderabad, India]] \|publisher\=South Indian Young Feminists Conference \|archive\-date\=2021\-03\-05}}{{Cite report \|url\=https://www.tiss.edu/uploads/files/8The\_Nature\_of\_violence\_faced\_by\_Lesbian\_women\_in\_India.pdf \|title\=The nature of violence faced by lesbian women in India \|last1\=Fernandez \|first1\=Bina \|last2\=Gomathy \|first2\=N.B \|date\=2003 \|publisher\=Research Centre on Violence Against Women, \[\[Tata Institute of Social Sciences]] \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-08 \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-08 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230308071546/https://www.tiss.edu/uploads/files/8The\_Nature\_of\_violence\_faced\_by\_Lesbian\_women\_in\_India.pdf \|url\-status\=live }}{{Cite journal \|date\=2006 \|editor\-last\=Kalpana \|editor\-first\=Kannabiran \|title\=India: Second NGO Shadow Report on CEDAW \|url\=http://pldindia.org/wp\-content/uploads/2013/06/CEDAW\_\-Second\-Shadow\_report\_2006\.pdf \|journal\=National Alliance of Women \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-08 \|archive\-date\=2022\-09\-01 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220901034958/http://pldindia.org/wp\-content/uploads/2013/06/CEDAW\_\-Second\-Shadow\_report\_2006\.pdf \|url\-status\=live }} A lesbian couple, Asha Thakor and Bhavna Thakor, facing opposition from their family in rural [Gujarat](/wiki/Gujarat "Gujarat"), committed suicide shortly after eloping to the city. The couple had eloped to find a safe space and acceptance but never found it.{{Cite news \|last\=Dey \|first\=Simantini \|date\=2018\-06\-11 \|title\=The World Did Not Let Us Live: What Led To The Suicide of a same sex couple in 'Homophobic' Gujarat \|work\=\[\[News18 India\|News18]] \|url\=https://www.news18\.com/news/immersive/gujarat\-same\-sex\-suicide.html \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180626081203/https://www.news18\.com/news/immersive/gujarat\-same\-sex\-suicide.html \|archive\-date\=2018\-06\-26}} Similarly, a gay couple from rural [Assam](/wiki/Assam "Assam"), Ankur Das and Brajen Thakuria committed suicide after their families firmly opposed their relationship and blamed them for one of their mother's early death.{{Cite web \|date\=2020\-08\-01 \|title\=Gay lovers from Assam commit suicide due to families' opposition \|url\=https://www.sentinelassam.com/north\-east\-india\-news/assam\-news/gay\-lovers\-from\-assam\-commit\-suicide\-due\-to\-families\-opposition\-492587 \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-05 \|website\=\[\[The Sentinel (Guwahati)\|The Sentinel]] \|language\=en \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-05 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230305132114/https://www.sentinelassam.com/north\-east\-india\-news/assam\-news/gay\-lovers\-from\-assam\-commit\-suicide\-due\-to\-families\-opposition\-492587 \|url\-status\=live }} Despite the existence of suicide notes and social media posts, most of the cases end with [first information reports](/wiki/First_information_report "First information report") and news articles, without any investigations and persecution of those [abetting](/wiki/Aiding_and_abetting "Aiding and abetting") suicide.
##### Housing, education and employment
In the larger society, sexual and gender minority individuals in India face [prejudice](/wiki/Prejudice "Prejudice") in housing, education and employment. Sexual and gender minority individuals in India encounter discrimination from property owners and landlords, leading to a denial of housing and forced evictions.{{Citation \|last1\=Dutta \|first1\=Debolina \|title\=count me IN! Violence Against Disabled, Lesbian, and Sex\-working Women in Bangladesh, India, and Nepal \|url\=https://www.oursplatform.org/wp\-content/uploads/CREA\-The\-Count\-Me\-In\-Violence\-against\-Disabled\-Lesbian\-Sex\-working\-Women\-in\-Bangladesh\-India\-Nepal\-Report.pdf \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220119025401/https://www.oursplatform.org/wp\-content/uploads/CREA\-The\-Count\-Me\-In\-Violence\-against\-Disabled\-Lesbian\-Sex\-working\-Women\-in\-Bangladesh\-India\-Nepal\-Report.pdf \|publication\-place\=\[\[New Delhi\|New Delhi, India]] \|publisher\=CREA \|archive\-date\=2022\-01\-19 \|last2\=Weston \|first2\=Mark \|last3\=Bhattacharji \|first3\=Jaya \|last4\=Mukherji \|first4\=Suparna \|last5\=Kurien \|first5\=Sarah Joseph}}{{Cite news \|last\=Borate \|first\=Neil \|date\=2019\-06\-25 \|title\=Same\-sex couples in India lack basic financial rights. \|work\=\[\[Mint (newspaper)\|Mint]] \|url\=https://www.livemint.com/money/personal\-finance/same\-sex\-couples\-in\-india\-lack\-basic\-financial\-rights\-1561396839301\.html \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-07 \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-07 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230307061757/https://www.livemint.com/money/personal\-finance/same\-sex\-couples\-in\-india\-lack\-basic\-financial\-rights\-1561396839301\.html \|url\-status\=live }} A 2018 [UNESCO](/wiki/UNESCO "UNESCO")\-supported Indian study found that 60% of middle school students ([ISCED](/wiki/International_Standard_Classification_of_Education "International Standard Classification of Education") Level 2\), 60% of high school students ([ISCED](/wiki/International_Standard_Classification_of_Education "International Standard Classification of Education") Level 3\) and 50% of higher secondary school students ([ISCED](/wiki/International_Standard_Classification_of_Education "International Standard Classification of Education") Level 3\) were victims of physical violence due to [sexual orientation](/wiki/Sexual_orientation "Sexual orientation") and [gender identity](/wiki/Gender_identity "Gender identity"). As a result of the harassment, the students reported they had reduced social interaction with their peers (73%), suffered from anxiety and depression (70%), and discontinued school (33\.2%).{{Cite news \|date\=2018\-03\-13 \|title\=New study on bullying based on sexual orientation and gender identity in schools in Tamil Nadu, India \|work\=\[\[UNESCO]] \|url\=https://www.unesco.org/en/articles/new\-study\-bullying\-based\-sexual\-orientation\-and\-gender\-identity\-schools\-tamil\-nadu\-india \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-07 \|archive\-date\=2023\-04\-26 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230426162041/https://www.unesco.org/en/articles/new\-study\-bullying\-based\-sexual\-orientation\-and\-gender\-identity\-schools\-tamil\-nadu\-india \|url\-status\=live }} [Prejudice](/wiki/Prejudice "Prejudice") in the workplace manifests as harassment and discrimination in the recruitment process and promotions.{{Cite journal \|last1\=Noronha \|first1\=Ernesto \|last2\=Bisht \|first2\=Nidhi S. \|last3\=D’Cruz \|first3\=Premilla \|date\=2022\-04\-11 \|title\=From Fear to Courage: Indian Lesbians' and Gays' Quest for Inclusive Ethical Organizations \|url\=https://link.springer.com/article/10\.1007/s10551\-022\-05098\-x \|journal\=\[\[Journal of Business Ethics]] \|volume\=177 \|issue\=4 \|pages\=779–797 \|doi\=10\.1007/s10551\-022\-05098\-x \|s2cid\=248116558 \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-07 \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-07 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230307061800/https://link.springer.com/article/10\.1007/s10551\-022\-05098\-x \|url\-status\=live }}{{Cite news \|last\=Menon \|first\=Rashmi \|date\=2022\-07\-20 \|title\=How lesbian, gay employees deal with workplace bullying \|work\=\[\[Mint (newspaper)\|Mint]] \|url\=https://lifestyle.livemint.com/news/talking\-point/how\-lesbian\-gay\-employees\-deal\-with\-workplace\-bullying\-111658305286171\.html \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-07 \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-07 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230307061758/https://lifestyle.livemint.com/news/talking\-point/how\-lesbian\-gay\-employees\-deal\-with\-workplace\-bullying\-111658305286171\.html \|url\-status\=live }}
##### Effects of repression
The fear of familial harassment and rejection causes sexual and gender minority individuals in India to conceal their identity and remain in the closet. However, this does not guarantee their safety. According to a 2015 Indian survey, the majority of gay men who experienced physical violence (52\.4%), sexual abuse (55%) and psychological abuse (46\.5%) lived with their parents and were most often closeted. In contrast, gay men who lived with their partners or sexual and gender minority individuals faced little abuse. Closeted gay men living with parents cannot freely seek peer support from other sexual and gender minority individuals when faced with violence.{{Cite web \|last\=Chaturvedi \|first\=Sumit \|date\=2016\-10\-21 \|title\=52% of gay men in India without peer support suffer violence: Survey \|url\=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india\-news/52\-of\-gay\-men\-in\-india\-without\-peer\-support\-suffer\-violence\-survey/story\-HKOutVLK7YbIieafqsTrwL.html \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-06 \|website\=\[\[Hindustan Times]] \|language\=en \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-06 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230306145056/https://www.hindustantimes.com/india\-news/52\-of\-gay\-men\-in\-india\-without\-peer\-support\-suffer\-violence\-survey/story\-HKOutVLK7YbIieafqsTrwL.html \|url\-status\=live }} Subsequently, most sexual and gender minority individuals in India grow old facing life without lawful companionship and confronting the reality of [loneliness](/wiki/Loneliness "Loneliness"), which research shows carry a risk comparable to if not exceeds, that of other well\-accepted factors, including [smoking up to 15 cigarettes a day](/wiki/Tobacco_smoking "Tobacco smoking"), [obesity](/wiki/Obesity "Obesity"), [physical inactivity](/wiki/Physical_inactivity "Physical inactivity") and [air pollution](/wiki/Air_pollution "Air pollution").{{Cite journal \|last1\=Holt\-Lunstad \|first1\=Julianne \|last2\=Smith \|first2\=Timothy B. \|last3\=Layton \|first3\=J. Bradley \|date\=2010\-07\-27 \|title\=Social Relationships and Mortality Risk: A Meta\-analytic Review \|journal\=\[\[PLOS Medicine]] \|volume\=7 \|issue\=7 \|pages\=e1000316 \|doi\=10\.1371/journal.pmed.1000316\|pmid\=20668659 \|pmc\=2910600 \|doi\-access\=free }}{{Cite journal \|last\=Holt\-Lunstad \|first\=Julianne \|date\=2018\-01\-02 \|title\=The Potential Public Health Relevance of Social Isolation and Loneliness: Prevalence, Epidemiology, and Risk Factors \|url\=https://academic.oup.com/ppar/article/27/4/127/4782506 \|journal\=Public Policy \& Aging Report \|volume\=27 \|issue\=4 \|pages\=127–130 \|doi\=10\.1093/ppar/prx030 \|doi\-access\=free \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-06 \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-06 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230306162944/https://academic.oup.com/ppar/article/27/4/127/4782506 \|url\-status\=live }}
##### Social assimilation through inclusive policies
In light of widespread [discrimination](/wiki/Discrimination "Discrimination"), [rejection](/wiki/Social_rejection "Social rejection") and [violence](/wiki/Violence_against_LGBT_people "Violence against LGBT people") against sexual and gender minority individuals in India, the petitioners argued the [sexual and gender minority\-inclusive policies](/wiki/Gay-friendly "Gay-friendly") — for relationships, parenthood, healthcare, education and employment — provides opportunities to assimilate into society To make their case, the petitioners highlighted the historical role of Indian statutory reforms, such as the abolishment of [Sati](/wiki/Sati_%28practice%29 "Sati (practice)") and recognition of inter\-caste marriage and widow remarriage, in aiding the social assimilation of [marginalised](/wiki/Social_exclusion "Social exclusion") [Indians](/wiki/Indian_people "Indian people").{{Harvnb\|Vaibhav Jai v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Dr Kavita Arora v. Union of India}} \& {{Harvnb\|Nibedita Dutta v. Union of India}} The petitioners highlighted the instances where the [Indian Courts](/wiki/Judiciary_of_India "Judiciary of India") got rid of various socially regressive practices in defiance of social and religious norms— *Mary Roy v. State of Kerala (1986\)*, *Githa Hariharan v. Reserve Bank of India (1999\)*, *[Shayara Bano v. UOI (2017\)](/wiki/Triple_talaq_in_India%23Judgement "Triple talaq in India#Judgement")*, *Joseph Shine v. UOI (2018\)* and [*Arun Kumar v. Inspector General of Registration (2019\)*](/wiki/Arun_Kumar_v._Inspector_General_of_Registration "Arun Kumar v. Inspector General of Registration").
Scholars reason that the legal recognition of marriage between sexual and gender minority individuals is often accompanied by media attention and increased visibility, which is associated with increased social support for sexual and gender minority individuals.{{Cite journal \|last1\=Christopher \|first1\=Ramos \|last2\=Goldberg \|first2\=Naomi G \|last3\=Badgett \|first3\=M.V. Lee \|date\=2009\-05\-17 \|title\=The Effects of Marriage Equality in Massachusetts: A survey of the experiences and impact of marriage on same\-sex couples \|url\=https://escholarship.org/content/qt9dx6v3kj/qt9dx6v3kj.pdf \|journal\=\[\[Williams Institute]] \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-07 \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-05 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230305142847/https://escholarship.org/content/qt9dx6v3kj/qt9dx6v3kj.pdf \|url\-status\=live }}{{Cite journal \|last\=Lewis \|first\=Gregory B. \|date\=2011\-05\-02 \|title\=The Friends and Family Plan: Contact with Gays and Support for Gay Rights \|url\=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10\.1111/j.1541\-0072\.2011\.00405\.x \|journal\=\[\[Policy Studies Journal]] \|volume\=39 \|issue\=2 \|pages\=217–238 \|doi\=10\.1111/j.1541\-0072\.2011\.00405\.x \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-07 \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-07 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230307102539/https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10\.1111/j.1541\-0072\.2011\.00405\.x \|url\-status\=live }}{{Cite journal \|last1\=Chomsky \|first1\=Daniel \|last2\=Barclay \|first2\=Scott \|date\=2010 \|title\=The Mass Media, Public Opinion, and Lesbian and Gay Rights \|url\=https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/abs/10\.1146/annurev\-lawsocsci\-102209\-152825 \|journal\=\[\[Annual Review of Law and Social Science]] \|volume\=6 \|pages\=387–403 \|doi\=10\.1146/annurev\-lawsocsci\-102209\-152825 \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-07 \|archive\-date\=2022\-10\-12 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20221012131104/https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/abs/10\.1146/annurev\-lawsocsci\-102209\-152825 \|url\-status\=live }} The increased social support could translate into improved familial and peer acceptance, which is associated with improved mental health.{{Cite journal \|last1\=Ryan \|first1\=Caitlin \|last2\=Huebner \|first2\=David \|last3\=Diaz \|first3\=Rafael M. \|last4\=Sanchez \|first4\=Jorge \|date\=2009 \|title\=Family Rejection as a Predictor of Negative Health Outcomes in White and Latino Lesbian, Gay, and Bisexual Young Adults \|url\=https://publications.aap.org/pediatrics/article\-abstract/123/1/346/71912/Family\-Rejection\-as\-a\-Predictor\-of\-Negative\-Health \|journal\=\[\[Pediatrics (journal)\|Pediatrics]] \|volume\=123 \|issue\=1 \|pages\=346–352 \|doi\=10\.1542/peds.2007\-3524 \|pmid\=19117902 \|s2cid\=33361972 \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-07 \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-25 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230325095337/https://publications.aap.org/pediatrics/article\-abstract/123/1/346/71912/Family\-Rejection\-as\-a\-Predictor\-of\-Negative\-Health \|url\-status\=live }}{{Cite journal \|last1\=Gini \|first1\=Gianluca \|last2\=Espelage \|first2\=Dorothy L. \|date\=2014\-08\-06 \|title\=Peer Victimization, Cyberbullying, and Suicide Risk in Children and Adolescents \|url\=https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama/article\-abstract/1892227 \|journal\=\[\[JAMA\|Journal of the American Medical Association]] \|volume\=312 \|issue\=5 \|pages\=545–546 \|doi\=10\.1001/jama.2014\.3212 \|pmid\=25096695 \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-07 \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-07 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230307102540/https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama/article\-abstract/1892227 \|url\-status\=live }} A 2017 [U.S.](/wiki/United_States "United States") study found sexual and gender minority teens' suicide attempts declined in [U.S. states](/wiki/U.S._state "U.S. state") that enacted laws recognising [same\-sex marriage](/wiki/Same-sex_marriage "Same-sex marriage"). The study also reported the effect of legal recognition of [same\-sex marriage](/wiki/Same-sex_marriage "Same-sex marriage") persisted two years after recognition, disproving the argument that legal recognition of [same\-sex marriage](/wiki/Same-sex_marriage "Same-sex marriage") would negatively affect sexual and gender minority individuals due to social and political backlash.{{Cite journal \|last1\=Raifman \|first1\=Julia \|last2\=Moscoe \|first2\=Ellen \|last3\=Austin \|first3\=S. Bryn \|last4\=McConnell \|first4\=Margaret \|date\=2017\-02\-20 \|title\=Difference\-in\-differences analysis of the association between state same\-sex marriage policies and adolescent suicide attempts \|url\=https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamapediatrics/fullarticle/2604258 \|journal\=\[\[JAMA Pediatrics]] \|volume\=171 \|issue\=4 \|pages\=350–356 \|doi\=10\.1001/jamapediatrics.2016\.4529 \|pmid\=28241285 \|pmc\=5848493 \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-05 \|archive\-date\=2019\-05\-18 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190518115213/https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamapediatrics/fullarticle/2604258 \|url\-status\=live }} More directly, the legal recognition of the right to marry would extend the [previously discussed](/wiki/%23National_Laws_%26_Regulations "#National Laws & Regulations") benefits, entitlements, privileges and obligations to couples from sexual and gender minority communities and improve their quality of life.
#### Economic cost of social exclusion
The petitioners argued that the [structural discrimination](/wiki/Structural_discrimination "Structural discrimination") against sexual and gender minority individuals in India, such as the prohibition of marriage between sexual and gender minority individuals, hurts economic output— an unnecessary cost to all [Indian citizens](/wiki/Indian_people "Indian people"). Cross\-country studies have estimated that the legal provision of [same\-sex marriage](/wiki/Same-sex_marriage "Same-sex marriage") is associated with a long\-term increase in [GDP per capita](/wiki/Gross_domestic_product "Gross domestic product") of 54 to 64 per cent.{{Cite journal \|last1\=Lamontagne \|first1\=Erik \|last2\=d’Elbée \|first2\=Marc \|last3\=Ross \|first3\=Michael W. \|last4\=Carroll \|first4\=Aengus \|last5\=Plessis \|first5\=André du \|last6\=Loures \|first6\=Luiz \|date\=2018\-03\-03 \|title\=A socioecological measurement of homophobia for all countries and its public health impact \|url\=https://academic.oup.com/eurpub/article/28/5/967/4919666 \|journal\=\[\[European Journal of Public Health]] \|volume\=28 \|issue\=5 \|pages\=967–972 \|doi\=10\.1093/eurpub/cky023 \|pmid\=29514190 \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-11 \|archive\-date\=2020\-01\-03 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200103100505/https://academic.oup.com/eurpub/article/28/5/967/4919666 \|url\-status\=live \|doi\-access\=free }}
[Discrimination](/wiki/Discrimination "Discrimination") in the workplace leads to underutilisation of [human capital](/wiki/Human_capital "Human capital") if a less skilled worker from favoured groups is hired or promoted instead of a skilled sexual and gender minority worker. If the skilled sexual and gender minority workers cannot find a suitable option, then the unutilised or underutilised skilled sexual and gender minority workers constitute a loss to economic output.
In addition to [discrimination](/wiki/Discrimination "Discrimination"), the harassment of sexual and gender minority workers can reduce their [productivity](/wiki/Productivity "Productivity"), even if their wages and employment are not directly affected. A 2016 study found that 40 per cent of sexual and gender minority workers experienced [harassment](/wiki/Harassment "Harassment") by their peers, and 66 per cent heard negative comments about sexual and gender minorities.{{Citation \|last1\=Dhar \|first1\=Udayan \|title\=The Indian LGBT Workplace Climate Survey 2016 \|url\=https://vartagensex.org/wp\-content/uploads/2019/10/1559396942000\-mingle\-lgbt\-wrkplc\-climt\-srvy\-2016\.pdf \|type\=Survey Report \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-11 \|publisher\=Mission for Indian Gay \& Lesbian Empowerment \|last2\=Sinha \|first2\=Ramkrishna \|last3\=Khan \|first3\=Zafrulla \|archive\-date\=2022\-07\-09 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220709025644/https://vartagensex.org/wp\-content/uploads/2019/10/1559396942000\-mingle\-lgbt\-wrkplc\-climt\-srvy\-2016\.pdf \|url\-status\=live }} A 2019 study found that sexual and gender minority workers are 10 per cent less [productive](/wiki/Productivity "Productivity") in the same job as the general population, leading to a loss of 0\.4 per cent of [GDP](/wiki/Gross_domestic_product "Gross domestic product") annually.
Several studies found a positive association between [sexual and gender minority\-inclusive policies](/wiki/Gay-friendly "Gay-friendly") and financial measures like stock prices, asset returns, per\-worker output and employee innovation.{{Cite journal \|last1\=Shan \|first1\=Liwei \|last2\=Fu \|first2\=Shihe \|last3\=Zheng \|first3\=Lu \|date\=2017 \|title\=Corporate sexual equality and firm performance. \|url\=http://socialbigdata.cn/css/team/doc/zheng/Corporate%20Sexual%20Equality%20and%20Firm%20Performance.pdf \|journal\=Strategic Management Journal \|volume\=38 \|issue\=9 \|pages\=1812–1826 \|doi\=10\.1002/smj.2624 \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-11 \|archive\-date\=2023\-10\-16 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20231016113015/http://socialbigdata.cn/css/team/doc/zheng/Corporate%20Sexual%20Equality%20and%20Firm%20Performance.pdf \|url\-status\=live }}{{Cite journal \|last1\=Li \|first1\=Feng \|last2\=Nagar \|first2\=Venky \|date\=2013 \|title\=Diversity and performance \|url\=http://gljc.sxu.edu.cn/docs/2013\-10/20131021101508197036\.pdf \|journal\=\[\[Management Science (journal)\|Management Science]] \|volume\=59 \|issue\=3 \|pages\=529–544 \|doi\=10\.1287/mnsc.1120\.1548 \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-11 \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-11 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230311133409/http://gljc.sxu.edu.cn/docs/2013\-10/20131021101508197036\.pdf \|url\-status\=live }}{{Cite journal \|last1\=Gao \|first1\=Huasheng \|last2\=Zhang \|first2\=Wei \|date\=2017\-06\-15 \|title\=Employment nondiscrimination acts and corporate innovation. \|url\=https://pubsonline.informs.org/doi/abs/10\.1287/mnsc.2016\.2457 \|journal\=\[\[Management Science (journal)\|Management Science]] \|volume\=63 \|issue\=9 \|pages\=2982–2999 \|doi\=10\.1287/mnsc.2016\.2457 \|hdl\=10356/81557 \|s2cid\=23088627 \|hdl\-access\=free \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-11 \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-11 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230311131850/https://pubsonline.informs.org/doi/abs/10\.1287/mnsc.2016\.2457 \|url\-status\=live }} It is not a coincidence that 91 per cent of [Fortune 500](/wiki/Fortune_500 "Fortune 500") companies included [sexual orientation](/wiki/Sexual_orientation "Sexual orientation") in their non\-discrimination policies in 2019\.{{Cite web \|title\=LGBTQ\+ Equality at the Fortune 500 \|url\=https://www.hrc.org/resources/lgbt\-equality\-at\-the\-fortune\-500 \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-11 \|website\=\[\[Human Rights Campaign]] \|language\=en\-US \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-11 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230311131849/https://www.hrc.org/resources/lgbt\-equality\-at\-the\-fortune\-500 \|url\-status\=live }}
##### Emigration
When denied equal rights, sexual and gender minority individuals who can migrate, often highly educated or financially resourceful individuals, migrate to countries that afford better protection. Sexual Migration— migration where [sexual orientation](/wiki/Sexual_orientation "Sexual orientation") is an influential factor— is a well\-documented and widespread phenomenon.{{Cite journal \|last\=Carrillo \|first\=Héctor \|date\=2004 \|title\=Sexual migration, cross\-cultural sexual encounters, and sexual health \|url\=https://link.springer.com/article/10\.1525/srsp.2004\.1\.3\.58 \|journal\=\[\[Sexuality Research and Social Policy]] \|volume\=1 \|issue\=3 \|pages\=58–70 \|doi\=10\.1525/srsp.2004\.1\.3\.58 \|s2cid\=145584935 \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-11 \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-11 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230311141106/https://link.springer.com/article/10\.1525/srsp.2004\.1\.3\.58 \|url\-status\=live }} Studies focusing on Indian migrants have documented the lack of [sexual and gender minority rights in India](/wiki/LGBT_rights_in_India "LGBT rights in India") as a motivating factor for the decision.{{Cite journal \|last\=Smith \|first\=Geoffrey \|date\=2012\-08\-13 \|title\=Sexuality, space and migration: South Asian gay men in Australia \|url\=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10\.1111/j.1745\-7939\.2012\.01229\.x \|journal\=New Zealand Geographer \|volume\=68 \|issue\=2 \|pages\=92–100 \|doi\=10\.1111/j.1745\-7939\.2012\.01229\.x \|bibcode\=2012NZGeo..68\...92S \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-11 \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-11 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230311141103/https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10\.1111/j.1745\-7939\.2012\.01229\.x \|url\-status\=live }}{{Cite journal \|last\=Baas \|first\=Michiel \|date\=2019 \|title\=The past, present and future of 'gay' migrants from India in Singapore \|url\=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10\.1177/0011392118792922 \|journal\=\[\[Current Sociology]] \|volume\=67 \|issue\=2 \|pages\=206–224 \|doi\=10\.1177/0011392118792922 \|s2cid\=149617969 \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-11 \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-11 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230311141103/https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10\.1177/0011392118792922 \|url\-status\=live }} Due to the lack of Indian studies on sexual migration, the petitioners pointed to the [Hong Kong](/wiki/Hong_Kong "Hong Kong") study, which reported that 52\.5 per cent considered leaving because of their [sexual orientation](/wiki/Sexual_orientation "Sexual orientation"), of whom 91\.3 per cent cited the lack of legal recognition of marriage between sexual and gender minority individuals as a reason.{{Cite journal \|last1\=Suen \|first1\=Yiu Tung \|last2\=Chan \|first2\=Randolph CH \|date\=2021\-11\-04 \|title\="Gay brain drain": Hong Kong lesbian, gay, and bisexual people's consideration of emigration because of non\-inclusive social policies \|url\=https://link.springer.com/article/10\.1007/s13178\-020\-00497\-z \|journal\=\[\[Sexuality Research and Social Policy]] \|volume\=18 \|issue\=3 \|pages\=739–752 \|doi\=10\.1007/s13178\-020\-00497\-z \|s2cid\=256065733 \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-11 \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-11 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230311141107/https://link.springer.com/article/10\.1007/s13178\-020\-00497\-z \|url\-status\=live }}
##### Foreign revenue
Research shows a positive correlation between acceptance of [homosexuality](/wiki/Homosexuality "Homosexuality") and foreign investments.{{Cite journal \|last\=Noland \|first\=Marcus \|date\=2005\-12\-16 \|title\=Popular attitudes, globalization and risk \|url\=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10\.1111/j.1468\-2362\.2005\.00157\.x \|journal\=\[\[International Finance (journal)\|International Finance]] \|volume\=8 \|issue\=2 \|pages\=199–229 \|doi\=10\.1111/j.1468\-2362\.2005\.00157\.x \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-11 \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-11 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230311145617/https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10\.1111/j.1468\-2362\.2005\.00157\.x \|url\-status\=live }} When comparing cities, there is a positive association between [homosexual](/wiki/Homosexuality "Homosexuality") residents, foreign\-born residents and the number of successful businesses.{{Cite book \|last1\=Florida \|first1\=Richard \|url\=https://www.emerald.com/insight/publication/doi/10\.1016/S1479\-3520(2003\)9 \|title\=The City as an Entertainment Machine: Volume 9 \|last2\=Gates \|first2\=Gary \|date\=2003\-12\-16 \|publisher\=\[\[Emerald Group Publishing\|Emerald Group Publishing Limited]] \|isbn\=978\-0\-76231\-060\-9 \|editor\-last\=Nichols Clark \|editor\-first\=Terry \|pages\=199–219 \|chapter\=Technology and Tolerance: the Importance of Diversity To High\-Technology Growth \|doi\=10\.1016/S1479\-3520(03\)09007\-X \|chapter\-url\=https://www.emerald.com/insight/content/doi/10\.1016/S1479\-3520(03\)09007\-X/full/html \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-11 \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-11 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230311145619/https://www.emerald.com/insight/publication/doi/10\.1016/S1479\-3520(2003\)9 \|url\-status\=live }} Additionally, sexual and gender minority [tourism](/wiki/Tourism "Tourism") was worth 211 billion dollars in 2016\.{{Citation \|last\=Thurlow \|first\=Claire \|title\=The Economic Cost of Homophobia \|date\=2018 \|url\=https://www.petertatchellfoundation.org/wp\-content/uploads/2018/06/report\-a4\-lo\-res\-1\.pdf \|type\=Report \|publisher\=Peter Tatchell Foundation \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-11 \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-11 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230311145627/https://www.petertatchellfoundation.org/wp\-content/uploads/2018/06/report\-a4\-lo\-res\-1\.pdf \|url\-status\=live }} Sexual and gender minority travellers tend to spend more than [cisgendered](/wiki/Cisgender "Cisgender") [heterosexual](/wiki/Heterosexuality "Heterosexuality") travellers, but they are unlikely to choose destinations which lack adequate protections for sexual and gender minority individuals.
##### Health disparity
The studies show the [stigma](/wiki/Social_stigma "Social stigma") and [social exclusion](/wiki/Social_exclusion "Social exclusion") experienced by sexual and gender minority individuals in India lead to higher incidences of physical and mental health problems among sexual and gender minority individuals in India compared to the general population drastically reducing their ability to engage in productive work and contribute to overall economic activity.{{Cite journal \|last\=Badgett \|first\=M.V. Lee \|date\=2014\-10\-03 \|title\=The Economic Cost of Stigma and the Exclusion of LGBT People: A Case Study of India \|url\=https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/dbf67f8d\-0566\-5ea8\-ad55\-02c83c42d600/content \|journal\=\[\[World Bank Group]] \|publication\-place\=Washington, DC. \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-11 \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-08 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230308192853/https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/dbf67f8d\-0566\-5ea8\-ad55\-02c83c42d600/content \|url\-status\=live }} [Canadian](/wiki/Canada "Canada") and [US](/wiki/United_States "United States") studies on the cost of [stigma](/wiki/Social_stigma "Social stigma") and [social exclusion](/wiki/Social_exclusion "Social exclusion") have used data on [depression](/wiki/Depression_%28mood%29 "Depression (mood)"), [suicide](/wiki/Suicide "Suicide"), [smoking](/wiki/Tobacco_smoking "Tobacco smoking"), [alcohol abuse](/wiki/Alcoholism "Alcoholism"), [substance abuse](/wiki/Substance_abuse "Substance abuse"), [HIV](/wiki/HIV/AIDS "HIV/AIDS"), hospitalisation, lost days of work, and early mortality.{{Cite book \|last\=Bank \|first\=Christopher \|url\=https://cuisr.usask.ca/documents/publications/2000\-2004/The%20Cost%20of%20Homophobia%20Literature%20Review%20on%20the%20Economic%20Impact%20of%20Homophobia%20On%20Canada.pdf \|title\=The Cost of Homophobia: Literature Review on the Economic Impact of Homophobia On Canada \|publisher\=Community\-University Institute for Social Research \|year\=2004 \|location\=\[\[Saskatoon\|Saskatoon, Canada]] \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-11 \|archive\-date\=2021\-08\-08 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210808212143/https://cuisr.usask.ca/documents/publications/2000\-2004/The%20Cost%20of%20Homophobia%20Literature%20Review%20on%20the%20Economic%20Impact%20of%20Homophobia%20On%20Canada.pdf \|url\-status\=live }}{{Citation \|last1\=Hanlon \|first1\=Carrie \|title\=State documentation of racial and ethnic health disparities to inform strategic action. \|date\=2011 \|place\=\[\[Rockville, Maryland\|Rockville, United States]] \|publisher\=\[\[Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality]] \|last2\=Rosenthal \|first2\=Jill \|last3\=Hinkle \|first3\=Larry}}{{Citation \|last1\=LaVeist \|first1\=Thomas A \|title\=The economic burden of health inequalities in the United States. \|url\=https://hsrc.himmelfarb.gwu.edu/sphhs\_policy\_facpubs/225/ \|place\=\[\[Washington, D.C.\|Washington, D.C., United States]] \|publisher\=\[\[Joint Center for Political and Economic Studies]] \|last2\=Gaskin \|first2\=Darrell J. \|last3\=Richard \|first3\=Patrick \|journal\=Health Policy and Management Faculty Publications \|date\=September 2009 \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-11 \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-11 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230311073702/https://hsrc.himmelfarb.gwu.edu/sphhs\_policy\_facpubs/225/ \|url\-status\=live }} Since [India](/wiki/India "India") lacks such comprehensive data on the health disparity of sexual and gender minority individuals in India, the 2014 [World Bank](/wiki/World_Bank "World Bank") study considered only [depression](/wiki/Depression_%28mood%29 "Depression (mood)"), [suicide](/wiki/Suicide "Suicide") and [HIV](/wiki/HIV/AIDS "HIV/AIDS") among sexual and gender minority individuals in India. The study estimates [stigma](/wiki/Social_stigma "Social stigma") and [social exclusion](/wiki/Social_exclusion "Social exclusion") of sexual and gender minority individuals in India cost India up to 1\.3 per cent of its [GDP](/wiki/Gross_domestic_product "Gross domestic product") annually.{{Cite journal \|last1\=Badgett \|first1\=M.V. Lee \|last2\=Waaldijk \|first2\=Kees \|last3\=van der Meulen Rodgers \|first3\=Yana \|date\=2019\-04\-06 \|title\=The relationship between LGBT inclusion and economic development: Macro\-level evidence \|url\=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0305750X19300695 \|journal\=\[\[World Development (journal)\|World Development]] \|volume\=120 \|pages\=1–14 \|doi\=10\.1016/j.worlddev.2019\.03\.011 \|s2cid\=159223991 \|hdl\=1887/84562 \|hdl\-access\=free \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-11 \|archive\-date\=2021\-08\-06 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210806220939/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0305750X19300695 \|url\-status\=live }}
Researchers’ preferred explanation for the higher incidences of mental health problems among sexual and gender minority individuals is that [stigma](/wiki/Social_stigma "Social stigma"), [prejudice](/wiki/Prejudice "Prejudice"), and [discrimination](/wiki/Discrimination "Discrimination") create a stressful social environment that can lead to these problems.{{Cite journal \|last\=Meyer \|first\=Ilan H. \|author\-link\=Ilan Meyer \|date\=2003 \|title\=Prejudice, Social Stress, and Mental Health in Lesbian, Gay, and Bisexual Populations: Conceptual Issues and Research Evidence \|journal\=\[\[Psychological Bulletin]] \|volume\=125 \|issue\=5 \|pages\=674–697 \|doi\=10\.1037/0033\-2909\.129\.5\.674\|pmid\=12956539 \|pmc\=2072932 }} Rates of [depression](/wiki/Depression_%28mood%29 "Depression (mood)") among sexual and gender minority individuals in India are 6 to 12 times higher than the general population. A Mumbai\-based study of men who have sex with men found 45 per cent to be [suicidal](/wiki/Suicidal_ideation "Suicidal ideation"), with 15 per cent categorised as high risk.{{Cite journal \|last1\=Sivasubramanian \|first1\=Murugesan \|last2\=Mimiaga \|first2\=Matthew J. \|last3\=Mayer \|first3\=Kenneth H. \|last4\=Anand \|first4\=Vivek Raj \|last5\=Johnson \|first5\=Carey V. \|last6\=Prabhugate \|first6\=Priti \|last7\=Safren \|first7\=Steven A. \|date\=2011\-08\-01 \|title\=Suicidality, clinical depression, and anxiety disorders are highly prevalent in men who have sex with men in Mumbai, India: findings from a community\-recruited sample. \|journal\=Psychol Health Med \|volume\=16 \|issue\=4 \|pages\=450–462 \|doi\=10\.1080/13548506\.2011\.554645\|pmid\=21749242 \|pmc\=3136931 }} This range of [suicidal ideation](/wiki/Suicidal_ideation "Suicidal ideation") among sexual and gender minority individuals in India is 7 to 14 times the [suicidal ideation](/wiki/Suicidal_ideation "Suicidal ideation") among the general population from developing countries, including India.
[Social exclusion](/wiki/Social_exclusion "Social exclusion") might make healthcare services less relevant or accessible to sexual and gender minority individuals in India. A study found that [prejudice](/wiki/Prejudice "Prejudice") in society, specifically among healthcare providers, and experiencing negative consequences when disclosing their identity was associated with lower access to [HIV](/wiki/HIV/AIDS "HIV/AIDS") preventive measures among sexual and gender minority individuals.{{Citation \|last1\=Arreola \|first1\=Sonya \|title\=Access to HIV Prevention and Treatment for Men Who Have Sex with Men: Findings from the 2012 Global Men's Health and Rights Study (GMHR) \|date\=2012 \|url\=https://mpactglobal.org/wp\-content/uploads/2015/09/GMHR\_Factsheet\_EN.pdf \|type\=\[\[White paper\|White Paper]] \|publication\-place\=Oakland \|publisher\=The Global Forum on MSM \& HIV (MSMGF) \|last2\=Hebert \|first2\=Pato \|last3\=Makofane \|first3\=Keletso \|last4\=Beck \|first4\=J. \|last5\=Ayala \|first5\=George \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-11 \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-11 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230311055155/https://mpactglobal.org/wp\-content/uploads/2015/09/GMHR\_Factsheet\_EN.pdf \|url\-status\=live }}
### Respondent
On 12 March 2023, the [Union Government](/wiki/Government_of_India "Government of India") under the leadership of the [Bharatiya Janata Party](/wiki/Bharatiya_Janata_Party "Bharatiya Janata Party") filed a counter\-affidavit in the Supreme Court, opposing extending the right to marry to sexual and gender minority individuals in India. The Union Government argued that the challenge to notice and objection provisions of the [Special Marriage Act](/wiki/Special_Marriage_Act%2C_1954 "Special Marriage Act, 1954") and [Foreign Marriage Act](/wiki/Foreign_Marriage_Act%2C_1969 "Foreign Marriage Act, 1969") and adoption regulations unrelated to same\-sex marriage. Therefore, the Supreme Court should exclude those matters from the current Case. This section contains a summary of relevant precedents, issues and laws submitted.
#### Fundamental rights
The [Union Government](/wiki/Government_of_India "Government of India") argued that denying the right to marry for sexual and gender minority individuals in India does not violate the [fundamental rights](/wiki/Fundamental_rights_in_India "Fundamental rights in India") guaranteed under Articles [14](/wiki/Article_14_of_the_Constitution_of_India "Article 14 of the Constitution of India"), [15](/wiki/Article_15_of_the_Constitution_of_India "Article 15 of the Constitution of India"), [19](/wiki/Fundamental_rights_in_India%23Right_To_Freedom "Fundamental rights in India#Right To Freedom"), [21](/wiki/Fundamental_rights_in_India%23Right_To_Freedom "Fundamental rights in India#Right To Freedom") and [25](/wiki/Freedom_of_religion_in_India "Freedom of religion in India") of the [Indian Constitution](/wiki/Constitution_of_India "Constitution of India"). To make their case, they point to the Supreme Court ruling in [*Navtej Singh Johar v. UOI (2018\)*](/wiki/Navtej_Singh_Johar_v._Union_of_India "Navtej Singh Johar v. Union of India") that explicitly differentiated and excluded marital relationships while reading down [Section 377](/wiki/Section_377 "Section 377") of the [Indian Penal Code](/wiki/Indian_Penal_Code "Indian Penal Code") for violating [fundamental rights](/wiki/Fundamental_rights_in_India "Fundamental rights in India"). They argue that the Supreme Court decriminalised homosexual conduct but did not legitimise it.
[Normativity](/wiki/Normativity "Normativity") is an intelligible differentia which distinguishes opposite\-sex couples from couples from sexual and gender minority communities. The rationale for this classification is to ensure social stability through legal recognition of marriage. Hence the non\-recognition of marriage between sexual and gender minority individuals does not violate [Article 14](/wiki/Article_14_of_the_Constitution_of_India "Article 14 of the Constitution of India") of the [Indian Constitution](/wiki/Constitution_of_India "Constitution of India"), which guarantees [equality before the law](/wiki/Equality_before_the_law "Equality before the law") or [equal protection of the laws](/wiki/Equal_Protection_Clause "Equal Protection Clause") within the territory of India.
Opposite\-sex [couples living together](/wiki/Cohabitation_in_India "Cohabitation in India") do not enjoy the same status as opposite\-sex married couples. The Supreme Court held the presumption of the marriage of [couples living together](/wiki/Cohabitation_in_India "Cohabitation in India") is rebuttable in *Badri Prasad v. Director of Consolidation(1978\)*. Not every form of opposite\-sex relationship is on par with opposite\-sex marriage. Since the non\-recognition of marriage between sexual and gender minority individuals is not discrimination only based on sex, it does not violate [Article 15](/wiki/Article_15_of_the_Constitution_of_India "Article 15 of the Constitution of India") of the [Indian Constitution](/wiki/Constitution_of_India "Constitution of India").
While all citizens have a right to an association under [Article 19](/wiki/Fundamental_rights_in_India%23Right_To_Freedom "Fundamental rights in India#Right To Freedom") of the [Indian Constitution](/wiki/Constitution_of_India "Constitution of India"), the State is not obligated to recognise such associations. The State limits the legal recognition of marriage to opposite\-sex couples. While the State does not recognise various forms of marriages, unions or relationships between individuals in society, they are not unlawful either.
##### Right to life and personal liberty
The [Union Government](/wiki/Government_of_India "Government of India") argued against any interpretation of [Article 21](/wiki/Fundamental_rights_in_India%23Right_to_life "Fundamental rights in India#Right to life") of the [Indian Constitution](/wiki/Constitution_of_India "Constitution of India") to include any implicit approval of the right to marry for sexual and gender minority individuals. They point to the Supreme Court decision that explicitly differentiated and excluded marital relationships while reading down [Section 377](/wiki/Section_377 "Section 377") of the [Indian Penal Code](/wiki/Indian_Penal_Code "Indian Penal Code") for violating Article 21 in [*Navtej Singh Johar v. UOI (2018\)*](/wiki/Navtej_Singh_Johar_v._Union_of_India "Navtej Singh Johar v. Union of India").
Since the fundamental rights guaranteed by [Article 21](/wiki/Fundamental_rights_in_India%23Right_to_life "Fundamental rights in India#Right to life") are subject to the procedure established by the law, and the Indian marriage laws explicitly limit the recognition to opposite\-sex couples, the Supreme Court cannot extend the right to marry to include couples from sexual and gender minority communities. The Supreme Court held that [Article 21](/wiki/Fundamental_rights_in_India%23Right_to_life "Fundamental rights in India#Right to life") provides the right to marry a person of choice but also included that the law may regulate the conditions of a valid marriage in *[Shafin Jehan vs Asokan K.M (2018\)](/wiki/Hadiya_case "Hadiya case")*.
Marriage is between two individuals with a profound impact on their personal lives, causing petitioners to seek recognition of marriage under the [right to privacy](/wiki/Right_to_Privacy_verdict "Right to Privacy verdict"), which is intrinsic to [Article 21](/wiki/Fundamental_rights_in_India%23Right_to_life "Fundamental rights in India#Right to life") of the [Indian Constitution](/wiki/Constitution_of_India "Constitution of India"). However, when considering legal recognition of their marriage and ancillary rights, the State cannot relegate marriage as a concept within the private domain. The legal recognition of marriage is a public recognition of their relationship.
Even if the petitioners can claim the right to marry under [Article 21](/wiki/Fundamental_rights_in_India%23Right_to_life "Fundamental rights in India#Right to life"), the [legislature](/wiki/Parliament_of_India "Parliament of India") can curtail the rights on constitutionally permissible grounds such as legitimate State interest.
##### Right to freedom of conscience and religion
[Article 25](/wiki/Freedom_of_religion_in_India "Freedom of religion in India") of the [Indian Constitution](/wiki/Constitution_of_India "Constitution of India") protects [personal laws](/wiki/Law_of_India%23Family_law_%E2%80%93_personal_law "Law of India#Family law – personal law"). The Supreme Court reaffirmed the constitutional protection of [personal laws](/wiki/Law_of_India%23Family_law_%E2%80%93_personal_law "Law of India#Family law – personal law") when ruling in *[Shayara Bano v. UOI (2017\)](/wiki/Triple_talaq_in_India%23Judgement "Triple talaq in India#Judgement")*.
#### Constitutional exception to fundamental rights
The [Union Government](/wiki/Government_of_India "Government of India") pointed to the Supreme Court ruling that reading fundamental rights is not to be done in isolation but along with the [Directive Principles of State Policy](/wiki/Directive_Principles "Directive Principles") and the [Fundamental Duties](/wiki/Fundamental_Rights%2C_Directive_Principles_and_Fundamental_Duties_of_India%23Fundamental_Duties "Fundamental Rights, Directive Principles and Fundamental Duties of India#Fundamental Duties") in *Javed v. State of Haryana (2003\)*. They argue that the principles of legitimate state interests as an exception to fundamental rights would be applicable in the current case.
##### Legitimate state interests
The [Union Government](/wiki/Government_of_India "Government of India") argued that a larger legislative framework around the legislative understanding of marriage between opposite sexes demonstrates the legitimate state interest in limiting legal recognition of marriage. The legal recognition of marriage limited to opposite\-sex couples is the norm throughout history and foundational to both the existence and continuance of the State.
Considering the historical and religious norms and social value of marriage, [Union Government](/wiki/Government_of_India "Government of India") argued that the State has a legitimate interest in limiting legal recognition of marriage to opposite\-sex couples. While deciding on *Ram Shiv Kumar v. State of Haryana (1981\)* and *Dalmia Cement (Bharat) Ltd. v. UOI (1996\)*, the Supreme Court held that considerations of social morals are relevant in the process of legislating and [legislature](/wiki/Parliament_of_India "Parliament of India") can judge and enforce such societal morality and public acceptance. The Supreme Court held that the right to privacy is not absolute and is subject to lawful actions to prevent crime and disorder or protect the rights and freedom of others, health or morals in the *Mr ‘X’ v. Hospital ‘Z’ (1998\)*. Similarly, the Supreme Court held that the freedom guaranteed by Article 301 of the [Indian Constitution](/wiki/Constitution_of_India "Constitution of India") is not available to the liquor trade because liquor is a harmful substance detrimental to public health, order and morality.
###### Historical and religious norms
Codified statutory or uncodified [personal laws](/wiki/Law_of_India%23Family_law_%E2%80%93_personal_law "Law of India#Family law – personal law") evolved based on societal values and beliefs, cultural history and religious beliefs. The concept of marriage is a concept emanating from the [personal laws](/wiki/Law_of_India%23Family_law_%E2%80%93_personal_law "Law of India#Family law – personal law") of citizens. In [Hinduism](/wiki/Hinduism "Hinduism"), marriage is a sacrament for reciprocal duties between a [cis man](/wiki/Man "Man") and [cis woman](/wiki/Woman "Woman"). In [Islam](/wiki/Islam "Islam"), marriage is a contract between a cis man and cis woman. With the evolution of jurisprudence, the [legislature](/wiki/Parliament_of_India "Parliament of India") codified some aspects of marriage. The legal recognition of opposite\-sex marriage is to give the relationship a formal character and ensure that all statutory provisions governing the relationships, rights, liabilities, privileges and consequences are available. Despite the statutory recognition of marriage, it relies on historical customs, rituals and practices.
###### Social values
Marriage is a [social institution](/wiki/Institution "Institution") that provides security, support and companionship. Marriage has social and moral obligations in addition to legal obligations and plays a significant role in child\-rearing. Same\-sex individuals living together and having sexual relationships, which the Supreme Court decriminalised, cannot be compared with the Indian family unit. Indian family unit, which consists of a [cis man](/wiki/Man "Man") and [cis woman](/wiki/Woman "Woman") as a husband and wife, and the children born to them, is a quintessential building block for the existence and continuance of the society.
#### International and comparative law
Given the context of the current case, the [Union Government](/wiki/Government_of_India "Government of India") argued that Western decisions, without any basis in [Indian Constitutional](/wiki/Constitution_of_India "Constitution of India") law jurisprudence, cannot be imported. The Supreme Court rejected the US decision that relied on the due process clause of the Constitution of the United States, which was absent in the [Indian Constitution](/wiki/Constitution_of_India "Constitution of India") as it relied upon the tests of reasonableness in the ruling of *Collector of Customs, Madras v. Nathella Sampathu Chetty (1962\)* and *Santokh Singh v. Delhi Administration (1973\).*
#### Legislative policy
The acceptance of marriage between two individuals of the same gender is neither recognised nor accepted by any uncodified [personal](/wiki/Law_of_India%23Family_law_%E2%80%93_personal_law "Law of India#Family law – personal law") or codified statutory laws, such as the [Christian Marriage Act of 1872](/wiki/The_Indian_Christian_Marriage_Act%2C_1872 "The Indian Christian Marriage Act, 1872"), the [Parsi Marriage and Divorce Act of 1936](/wiki/Parsi_law "Parsi law"), the [Special Marriage Act](/wiki/Special_Marriage_Act%2C_1954 "Special Marriage Act, 1954"), the [Hindu Marriage Act](/wiki/Hindu_Marriage_Act%2C_1955 "Hindu Marriage Act, 1955") and the [Foreign Marriage Act](/wiki/Foreign_Marriage_Act%2C_1969 "Foreign Marriage Act, 1969"). Through specific references to opposite sexes, the legislative intent to limit the legal recognition of marriage to opposite\-sex couples is clear. The Supreme Court affirmed that marriage is a legal union of a man and a woman in the ruling of *Mr ‘X’ v. Hospital ‘Z’ (1998\)* and *Reema Aggarwal v. Anupam (2004\).*
Extension of the right to marry to sexual and gender minority individuals would make laws governing marriage, ancillary rights and special provisions for married women otiose. The Supreme Court ruled that the ‘relationship in the nature of marriage’ specified in the [Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act](/wiki/Protection_of_Women_from_Domestic_Violence_Act%2C_2005 "Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act, 2005") does not include same\-sex relationships in *Indra Sarma v. V.K.V. Sarma (2013\)*. The Union Government presented a list of legislations that will be affected if the Supreme Court extend the right to marry to sexual and gender minority individuals, demonstrating the consistent legislative policy that limits marriage to opposite\-sex couples and the incompatibility between the right and the current Legislative Policy.
The above list demonstrates the clear legislative intent to limit the legal recognition of marriage to opposite\-sex couples. The Supreme Court held that [Judiciary](/wiki/Judiciary_of_India "Judiciary of India") is bound to the [literal interpretation](/wiki/Plain_meaning_rule "Plain meaning rule") when the words of a statute are clear and unambiguous in the ruling of the *Raghunath Rai Bareja v. Punjab National Bank (2007\)*. While ruling in *Subramanian Swamy v. Raju (2014\)*, the Supreme Court held that the [Judiciary](/wiki/Judiciary_of_India "Judiciary of India") could read down only when the reading of the provision produces an absurd or unworkable result and reads down a law to give effect to its legislative intent. It is not permissible for the [Judiciary](/wiki/Judiciary_of_India "Judiciary of India") to change the entire legislative policy of the country deeply embedded in religious, societal, cultural and legal norms.
Recognising marriage and conferring ancillary rights, which have consequences in law and privileges, is a legislative function. The [legislature](/wiki/Parliament_of_India "Parliament of India") would have to consider and deliberate on the right to adopt and other rights that would naturally follow the recognition of the right to marry for sexual and gender minority individuals. Only a [legislature](/wiki/Parliament_of_India "Parliament of India"), which reflects the collective wisdom of the nation, can enact legislation based on societal values, beliefs and acceptability, and cultural history to govern, regulate, permit or prohibit human relationships, including issues such as [marriage](/wiki/Marriage "Marriage"), [adoption](/wiki/Adoption "Adoption"), [divorce](/wiki/Divorce "Divorce"), and [maintenance](/wiki/Alimony "Alimony").
Regarding sexual or gender minority spouses, the respondent argued that the legislative intent of the [Citizenship Act](/wiki/Indian_nationality_law "Indian nationality law") is to provide a mechanism for foreign citizens married to Indian Citizens or [Overseas Citizens of India](/wiki/Overseas_Citizenship_of_India "Overseas Citizenship of India") to obtain [Overseas Citizens of India](/wiki/Overseas_Citizenship_of_India "Overseas Citizenship of India"). It was never intended to recognise same\-sex marriage. The Supreme Court held that Parliament is presumed to know the law of the land when it is legislating in *Bhagwati Steel Rolling Mills v. CCE (2016\)*. When the Parliament enacted the Citizenship Act, it was aware of laws limiting legal recognition of marriage to opposite\-sex couples. Therefore, the gender\-neutral language of the Citizenship Act does not recognise a foreign\-origin sexual or gender minority spouse.
### Intervenors
#### National Commission for Protection of Child Rights
The [National Commission for Protection of Child Rights](/wiki/National_Commission_for_Protection_of_Child_Rights "National Commission for Protection of Child Rights") (NCPCR), a statutory body of the [Union Government](/wiki/Government_of_India "Government of India"), intervened in the case opposing the extension of the right to adopt for sexual and gender minority individuals in India.
It argued that the current Legislative Policy does not envision same\-sex adoptions. The [Hindu Adoption and Maintenance Act of 1956](/wiki/Hindu_Adoptions_and_Maintenance_Act%2C_1956 "Hindu Adoptions and Maintenance Act, 1956") explicitly recognises opposite\-sex couples. Therefore, it implies that the Act does not recognise adoption by same\-sex couples. The [Juvenile Justice Act of 2015](/wiki/Juvenile_Justice_%28Care_and_Protection_of_Children%29_Act%2C_2015 "Juvenile Justice (Care and Protection of Children) Act, 2015") prohibits single men from adopting a girl child. Therefore, it would restrict the gay couple from adopting a girl child.
India ratified the [United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child](/wiki/Convention_on_the_Rights_of_the_Child "Convention on the Rights of the Child") and the [Hague Convention on Protection of Children and Co\-operation in Respect of Intercountry Adoption](/wiki/Hague_Adoption_Convention "Hague Adoption Convention") on 11 December 1992 and 6 June 2003, respectively, and the treaties do not mention same\-sex adoptions. Therefore, it can be inferred that it does not recognise same\-sex adoptions.
Additionally, a 2015 report argues that studies showing no differences between same\-sex and opposite\-sex parents are flawed due to low sample sizes, selective choosing of the participants and biased responses by the participants. The report asserts that more rigorous studies show that children raised by parents in a same\-sex relationship face greater emotional, developmental, and other difficulties than those raised by mothers and fathers, particularly by their married biological parents.{{Citation \|last\=Hall \|first\=Jamie \|title\=The Research on Same\-Sex Parenting: "No Differences" No More \|date\=23 April 2015 \|url\=https://www.heritage.org/marriage\-and\-family/report/the\-research\-same\-sex\-parenting\-no\-differences\-no\-more \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170331152636/https://www.heritage.org/marriage\-and\-family/report/the\-research\-same\-sex\-parenting\-no\-differences\-no\-more \|place\=\[\[Washington, D.C.]], \[\[United States]] \|publisher\=\[\[The Heritage Foundation]] \|archive\-date\=31 March 2017}}
A 2015 [US](/wiki/United_States "United States") study found that emotional problems were twice as prevalent for children with same\-sex parents than for opposite\-sex parents. The study found the lowest risk of emotional problems in children living with both biological parents who were married.{{Cite journal \|last\=Sullins \|first\=Donald Paul \|date\=25 January 2015 \|title\=Emotional Problems among Children with Same\-Sex Parents: Difference by Definition \|journal\=British Journal of Education, Society and Behavioural Science \|volume\=7 \|issue\=2 \|pages\=99–120 \|doi\=10\.2139/ssrn.2500537}} A longitudinal US study found that children of same\-sex parents experienced an increased rate of depression and obesity as an adult.{{Cite journal \|last\=Sullins \|first\=Donald Paul \|date\=29 May 2016 \|title\=Invisible victims: delayed onset depression among adults with same\-sex parents. \|journal\=Depression Research and Treatment \|volume\=2016 \|pages\=1–8 \|doi\=10\.1155/2016/2410392 \|pmid\=27313882 \|pmc\=4903140 \|doi\-access\=free }}{{Expression of Concern\|doi\=10\.1155/2017/4981984\|http://retractionwatch.com/2017/08/25/publisher\-flags\-paper\-sex\-parenting\-neo\-nazi\-group\-cites/ ''Retraction Watch''}}
Relying on the [US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention](/wiki/Centers_for_Disease_Control_and_Prevention "Centers for Disease Control and Prevention") report that gay and bisexual men are at high risk for sexually transmitted diseases,{{Cite web \|last\=US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention \|author\-link\=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention \|date\=16 September 2022 \|title\=Sexually Transmitted Diseases Among Gay and Bisexual Men \|url\=https://www.cdc.gov/msmhealth/STD.htm \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230306170115/https://www.cdc.gov/msmhealth/STD.htm \|archive\-date\=6 March 2023 \|access\-date\= \|publisher\=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention \|language\=en\-us \|publication\-place\=\[\[Atlanta]], \[\[United States]]}} the NCPCR argued that gay and bisexual men could put their adopted children at risk.
#### Delhi Commission for Protection of Child Rights
The [Delhi Commission for Protection of Child Rights](/wiki/Delhi_Commission_for_Protection_of_Child_Rights "Delhi Commission for Protection of Child Rights") (DCPCR), a statutory body of the [Delhi Government](/wiki/Government_of_Delhi "Government of Delhi") led by the [Aam Aadmi Party](/wiki/Aam_Aadmi_Party "Aam Aadmi Party"), intervened to support extending the right to marry and adopt for sexual and gender minority individuals in India.
It argued that the impact of legal recognition of same\-sex marriage on gendered language in the current Legislative Policy does not present a serious concern. The Fundamental Rights conferred by the Constitution, which relies on gender\-neutral terms such as "person" and "citizen", cannot be limited by the gendered language of the Statutes. The State has legal obligations to ensure non\-discrimination of transgender people in matters including succession under the [Transgender Persons Act of 2019](/wiki/Transgender_Persons_%28Protection_of_Rights%29_Act%2C_2019 "Transgender Persons (Protection of Rights) Act, 2019") and *[NLSA v. UOI (2014\)](/wiki/National_Legal_Services_Authority_v._Union_of_India "National Legal Services Authority v. Union of India")*. These mandates have warranted deviation from the literal interpretation of laws.
One of the reasons for gendered language is to ensure higher protection for women in heterosexual marriages, such as the [Domestic Violence Act of 2005](/wiki/Protection_of_Women_from_Domestic_Violence_Act%2C_2005 "Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act, 2005"), the [Dowry Prohibition Act of 1961](/wiki/Dowry_system_in_India%23Dowry_Prohibition_Act%2C_1961 "Dowry system in India#Dowry Prohibition Act, 1961") and sections granting additional grounds for divorce to women. Recognising same\-sex marriage would not affect these provisions as they would still be relevant in opposite\-sex marriages. Other conditions, such as maintenance, can be read down as gender\-neutral.
The Indian Succession Act of 1925 governs the succession for the marriage registered under Special Marriage Act unless both parties are Hindu, Sikh, Buddhist or Jain. The Supreme Court reviewed the gendered language in the [Hindu Minority and Guardianship Act of 1956](/wiki/Hindu_Minority_and_Guardianship_Act%2C_1956 "Hindu Minority and Guardianship Act, 1956") in *Githa Hariharan v. Reserve Bank of India (1999\).* Similarly, the Hindu Succession Act of 1956, through legislative amendments and judicial decisions, has been made more gender\-neutral.
Uncodified personal laws are not subject to judicial review. As uncodified personal laws govern guardianship for Muslims, Muslim same\-sex spouses can rely on the Guardians and Wards Act of 1890 and seek the appointment of guardians through court on a case\-to\-case basis. Similarly, uncodified personal laws govern succession for Muslims. If Muslim same\-sex couples register their marriage under Special Marriage Act, succession will be handled by Indian Succession Act.
Additionally, more than 50 countries allow same\-sex couples to legally adopt children, including 2 in Asia — Israel and Lebanon — 22 in Europe, and 16 in the Americas. [Constitutional Courts](/wiki/Constitutional_court "Constitutional court") have agreed that there is no reason to deny adoption rights due to sexual orientation, including the [South Africa](/wiki/South_Africa "South Africa") in the [*National Coalition for Gay and Lesbian Equality v. Minister of Home Affairs (2000\)*](/wiki/National_Coalition_for_Gay_and_Lesbian_Equality_v_Minister_of_Home_Affairs "National Coalition for Gay and Lesbian Equality v Minister of Home Affairs") and [*Du Toit v. Minister of Welfare and Population Department (2002\)*](/wiki/Du_Toit_v_Minister_for_Welfare_and_Population_Development "Du Toit v Minister for Welfare and Population Development"), the [United States](/wiki/United_States "United States") in *Florida Department v. Adoption of X.X.G (2010\)* and [*Obergefell v. Hodges (2015\)*](/wiki/Obergefell_v._Hodges "Obergefell v. Hodges"), the [European Court of Human Rights](/wiki/European_Court_of_Human_Rights "European Court of Human Rights") in *Salguiero Da Silva Mouta v. Portugal (1999\)* and *E.B. v. France (2008\)* and [Inter\-American Court of Human Rights](/wiki/Inter-American_Court_of_Human_Rights "Inter-American Court of Human Rights") in [*Advisory Opinion (2018\)*](/wiki/Recognition_of_same-sex_unions_in_the_Americas%232018_Inter-American_Court_of_Human_Rights_ruling "Recognition of same-sex unions in the Americas#2018 Inter-American Court of Human Rights ruling").
A Brazilian legal and psychoanalysis found that the relevant factors in determining whether a couple can be a good parent depend on the capacity to care for the child and the quality of the relationship between parent and child.{{Cite journal \|last1\=Campos Refosco \|first1\=Helena \|last2\=Guida Fernandes \|first2\=Martha Maria \|date\=2017 \|title\=Same\-Sex Parents and Their Children: Brazilian Case Law and Insights from Psychoanalysis \|url\=https://scholarship.law.wm.edu/wmjowl/vol23/iss2/2 \|journal\=William \& Mary Journal of Women and the Law \|volume\=23 \|issue\=2 \|access\-date\=2023\-04\-13 \|archive\-date\=2023\-04\-18 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230418030907/https://scholarship.law.wm.edu/wmjowl/vol23/iss2/2/ \|url\-status\=live }}
Multiple studies have shown that same\-sex parents are no different from opposite\-sex parents. An [American Psychological Association](/wiki/American_Psychological_Association "American Psychological Association") report concluded that the home environment provided by same\-sex parents to support and enable the psychosocial growth of their children is not different from the home environment provided by opposite\-sex parents.{{Citation \|last1\=Committee on Lesbian, Gay, and Bisexual Concerns \|title\=Lesbian \& Gay Parenting \|date\=2005 \|url\=https://www.apa.org/pi/lgbt/resources/parenting\-full.pdf \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110514111440/https://www.apa.org/pi/lgbt/resources/parenting\-full.pdf \|publisher\=\[\[American Psychological Association]] \|archive\-date\=14 May 2011 \|last2\=Committee on Children, Youth, and Families \|last3\=Committee on Women in Psychology}} A 2021 study analysed the administrative data from several population registers from the [Netherlands](/wiki/Netherlands "Netherlands") from 2006 to 2018\. The study included complete population coverage, reliable identification of same\-sex families, verifiable educational outcomes and detailed measures of family dynamics over the children's life course. The study found that in a socio\-political environment characterised by high levels of legislative or public support, children of same\-sex parents achieved as well as children of opposite\-sex parents.{{Cite journal \|last1\=Kabátek \|first1\=Jan \|last2\=Perales \|first2\=Francisco \|date\=1 April 2021 \|title\=Academic Achievement of Children in Same\- and Different\-Sex\-Parented Families: A Population\-Level Analysis of Linked Administrative Data From the Netherlands. \|url\=https://read.dukeupress.edu/demography/article/58/2/393/168481/Academic\-Achievement\-of\-Children\-in\-Same\-and \|journal\=Demography \|volume\=58 \|issue\=2 \|pages\=393–418 \|doi\=10\.1215/00703370\-8994569 \|pmid\=33834221 \|s2cid\=233192489 \|hdl\=11343/280466 \|hdl\-access\=free \|access\-date\=13 April 2023 \|archive\-date\=27 May 2021 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210527233934/https://read.dukeupress.edu/demography/article/58/2/393/168481/Academic\-Achievement\-of\-Children\-in\-Same\-and \|url\-status\=live }}
As same\-sex couples started adopting in 1995 but were allowed to marry only in 2013, a study found that the delay affected same\-sex families negatively, including the health, education and other responsibilities toward their children.{{Cite journal \|last1\=Biasutti \|first1\=Carolina Monteiro \|last2\=Nascimento \|first2\=Célia Regina Rangel \|last3\=Gato \|first3\=Jorge \|last4\=Bortolozzo \|first4\=Mylena Leite \|date\=11 December 2022 \|title\=Same\-sex parenting in Brazil and Portugal: An integrative review. \|url\=https://rsdjournal.org/index.php/rsd/article/view/38227 \|journal\=Research, Society and Development \|volume\=11 \|issue\=16 \|pages\=e357111638227 \|doi\=10\.33448/rsd\-v11i16\.38227 \|s2cid\=254677483 \|doi\-access\=free \|access\-date\=13 April 2023 \|archive\-date\=13 April 2023 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230413194727/https://rsdjournal.org/index.php/rsd/article/view/38227 \|url\-status\=live }}
The DCPCR also relied on the scientific consensus that sexual orientation and gender identity are established at least by adolescence. A Systematic Review and Meta\-Analysis found that sexual orientation develops around the age of 13\.{{Cite journal \|last1\=Hall \|first1\=William J. \|last2\=Dawes \|first2\=Hayden C. \|last3\=Plocek \|first3\=Nina \|date\=21 October 2021 \|title\=Sexual orientation identity development milestones among lesbian, gay, bisexual, and queer people: a systematic review and meta\-analysis. \|journal\=\[\[Frontiers in Psychology]] \|volume\=12 \|page\=753954 \|doi\=10\.3389/fpsyg.2021\.753954 \|pmid\=34777153 \|pmc\=8581765 \|doi\-access\=free }}
In the socio\-legal environment where sexual and gender minority individuals do not have equal rights as cisgender heterosexual counterparts, acceptance, assimilation and legitimacy remains troubled. Despite the [US Supreme Court](/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States "Supreme Court of the United States") ruling on same\-sex marriage, the [US State of Ohio](/wiki/Ohio "Ohio") refrained from enacting anti\-discrimination laws, creating a less favourable legal environment for sexual and gender minority individuals than other states. A study found that sexual and gender minority adolescents in Ohio were twice as likely to face bullying and harassment in school than their cisgender heterosexual counterparts.{{Citation \|last1\=Mallory \|first1\=Christy \|title\=The Impact of Stigma and Discrimination against LGBT People in Ohio \|date\=October 2019 \|url\=https://williamsinstitute.law.ucla.edu/wp\-content/uploads/Impact\-LGBT\-Discrimination\-OH\-Nov\-2019\.pdf \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210515015052/https://williamsinstitute.law.ucla.edu/wp\-content/uploads/Impact\-LGBT\-Discrimination\-OH\-Nov\-2019\.pdf \|publication\-place\=\[\[Los Angeles]], \[\[United States]] \|publisher\=\[\[Williams Institute]], \[\[UCLA School of Law]] \|archive\-date\=15 May 2021 \|last2\=Brown \|first2\=Taylor N.T. \|last3\=Sears \|first3\=Brad}}
##### Guidelines
{{anchor\|DCPCR\-Guidelines}}The DCPCR recommended the following guidelines to ensure the well\-being of children in same\-sex adoptions:
* The [Union](/wiki/Government_of_India "Government of India") and [State Governments](/wiki/State_governments_of_India "State governments of India") create public awareness that same\-sex families are as "normal" as opposite\-sex families and that children of same\-sex families are not incomplete.
* School boards and educational institutions normalise same\-sex families proactively.
* National and State Council for Education, Research and Training to review and eliminate homophobic content and include a more diverse understanding of the families in school textbooks.
* Relevant Authorities should create dedicated helplines and set aside resources for counselling for children facing stigma and bullying due to belonging to a same\-sex family unit.
#### Jamiat Ulema\-e\-Hind
Islamic organisation [Jamiat Ulema\-e\-Hind](/wiki/Jamiat_Ulema-e-Hind "Jamiat Ulema-e-Hind") and Telangana Markazi Shia Ulema Council intervened in the case opposing the extension of the right to marry and establish a family to sexual and gender minority individuals in India on socio\-legal and religious grounds.
It argued that marriage, founded on established societal norms, cannot change following newly developed values emerging from a different worldview in a different paradigm. The concept of same\-sex marriage attacks the family system rather than building a family through the process. Same\-sex marriage recognition in certain countries, which achieved a certain threshold of social order in terms of education and social acceptance, cannot justify introducing the concept in India.
Moreover, a person identifying as a follower of a particular religion should believe in the foundational norms of the same. When a person fails to follow the religious norms, they are considered a sinner. A person who questions and seeks to amend well\-established religious norms is not a follower of the religion. Therefore, there cannot be an imposition of a radical non\-religious view on established, inseparable and core principles of religion.
According to Islam, marriage is a sacred contract between a cis man and cis woman. The current sexual and gender minority rights movement originated from the [Western sexual liberation movement](/wiki/Sexual_revolution_in_1960s_United_States "Sexual revolution in 1960s United States"), an atheistic movement, in the 1960s. Therefore, atheistic values should not be allowed to create any space within the religiously governed personal laws of the communities.
The Supreme Court held that personal laws have constitutional protection under Article 25 in [*Shayara Bano v. UOI (2017\)*](/wiki/Triple_talaq_in_India%23Judgement "Triple talaq in India#Judgement")*.* The petitioner's request is against the established understanding of marriage in all personal laws.
The legislative intent to recognise marriage as a union of a cis man and cis woman is evident. The Supreme Court recognised the separation of power as a part of the basic structure of the Indian Constitution in *[Kesavananda Bharati v. State of Kerala (1973\)](/wiki/Kesavananda_Bharati_v._State_of_Kerala "Kesavananda Bharati v. State of Kerala")*. The legislature enacts laws as per the social acceptability based on the prevailing values of a society. The Supreme Court held that judicial adjudication cannot be equated to law\-making by legislators in *Ashwani Kumar v. Union of India (2020\)*.
#### Telangana Markazi Shia Ulema Council
Islamic organisation Telangana Markazi Shia Ulema Council intervened in the case opposing the extension of the right to marry and establish a family to sexual and gender minority individuals in India on socio\-legal and religious grounds.
|
[
"Written arguments\n-----------------",
"This section summarises the written arguments submitted in the Court by the parties involved in the Case— the petitioners, respondent and intervenors.",
"### Petitioners",
"#### Fundamental rights",
"Among the relevant precedents, issues and laws presented, the petitioners argued that the exclusion of couples from sexual and gender minority communities from marriage laws constituted a violation of fundamental right.{{Harvnb\\|Supriyo v. Union of India}} and other connected cases. Other connected cases include {{Harvnb\\|Nikesh P.P. v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Abhijit Iyer Mitra v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Vaibhav Jai v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Dr Kavita Arora v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Udit Sood v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Joydeep Sengupta v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Mellissa Ferrier v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Nibedita Dutta v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Zainab J. Patel v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Parth Phiroze Mehrotra v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Sameer Samudra v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Aditi Anand v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Utkarsh Saxena v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Nitin Karan v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Kajal v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Amburi Roy v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Akkai Padmashali v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Rituparna Borah v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\\|Harish Iyer v. Union of India}}. Similarly, the notice and objection provisions in secular marriage laws— [Special Marriage Act](/wiki/Special_Marriage_Act%2C_1954 \"Special Marriage Act, 1954\") and [Foreign Marriage Act](/wiki/Foreign_Marriage_Act%2C_1969 \"Foreign Marriage Act, 1969\")— constituted a violation. Hence, following [Article 32](/wiki/Fundamental_rights_in_India%23Right_to_Constitutional_Remedies \"Fundamental rights in India#Right to Constitutional Remedies\") of the [Indian Constitution](/wiki/Constitution_of_India \"Constitution of India\"), which guarantees the [Right to Constitutional Remedies](/wiki/Fundamental_rights_in_India%23Right_to_Constitutional_Remedies \"Fundamental rights in India#Right to Constitutional Remedies\") and designates the Supreme Court as the protector of [Fundamental Rights](/wiki/Fundamental_rights_in_India \"Fundamental rights in India\"), the petitioners argued that they are within their rights to approach the Supreme Court.Petitioners: {{Harvnb\\|Supriyo v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Parth Phiroze Mehrotra v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Sameer Samudra v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Aditi Anand v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Utkarsh Saxena v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Nitin Karan v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Kajal v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Amburi Roy v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Akkai Padmashali v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Rituparna Borah v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\\|Harish Iyer v. Union of India}}",
"##### Jurisdiction",
"In assessing whether a law infringes a fundamental right, the Supreme Court held that it is not the intention of the lawmaker that is determinative, but whether the effect or operation of the law infringes fundamental rights in the ruling of [*Maneka Gandhi v. UOI (1978\\)*](/wiki/Maneka_Gandhi_v._Union_of_India \"Maneka Gandhi v. Union of India\"). Since the marriage laws infringe on the fundamental rights of sexual and gender minority individuals, petitioners argued that the Supreme Court could act as the designated protector of fundamental rights.Petitioners: {{Harvnb\\|Dr Kavita Arora v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Supriyo v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Aditi Anand v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\\|Utkarsh Saxena v. Union of India}}.",
"The Supreme Court has regularly interpreted statutes in a manner which preserves their constitutionality, for example, in *Travancore v. Mohammed Mohammed Khan (1981\\)*, *Githa Hariharan v. Reserve Bank of India (1999\\)* and *Indra Das v. State of Assam (2011\\).*Petitioners: {{Harvnb\\|Vaibhav Jai v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Dr Kavita Arora v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Supriyo v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\\|Aditi Anand v. Union of India}}. Furthermore, the Supreme Court has held that when the enforcement of fundamental rights is concerned, the [Supreme](/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_India \"Supreme Court of India\") and [High Courts](/wiki/High_courts_of_India \"High courts of India\") do not have to await action by the legislature in *[Vishaka v. State of Rajasthan (1997\\)](/wiki/Vishakha_and_others_v_State_of_Rajasthan \"Vishakha and others v State of Rajasthan\")*, *Vineet Narain v. UOI (1997\\)*, *[Shayara Bano v. UOI (2017\\)](/wiki/Triple_talaq_in_India%23Judgement \"Triple talaq in India#Judgement\")*, *Common Cause v. UOI (2018\\)* and [*Navtej Singh Johar v. UOI (2018\\)*](/wiki/Navtej_Singh_Johar_v._Union_of_India \"Navtej Singh Johar v. Union of India\").Petitioners: {{Harvnb\\|Joydeep Sengupta v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Parth Phiroze Mehrotra v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\\|Rituparna Borah v. Union of India}}.",
"##### Constitutional morality",
"The law, reflecting societal values, regulates relationships between people and prescribes behaviour patterns. As the social realities changes, the law changes. However, sometimes a legal change precedes societal changes and is even intended to stimulate. The Supreme Court, noting these dynamics when ruling in *Badshah v. Urmila Badshah Godse (2014\\)*, held that the court should exercise discretion in determining the proper relationship between the subjective and objective purposes of the law.Petitioners: {{Harvnb\\|Vaibhav Jai v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Dr Kavita Arora v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Zainab J. Patel v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Supriyo v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\\|Aditi Anand v. Union of India}}.",
"The Supreme Court held that while the State can impose reasonable restrictions based on decency and morality, the limitations should be rational and tolerant of unpopular social views in *S. Khushboo v. Kanniammal (2010\\) and [Navtej Singh Johar v. UOI (2018\\)](/wiki/Navtej_Singh_Johar_v._Union_of_India \"Navtej Singh Johar v. Union of India\")*.Petitioners: {{Harvnb\\|Joydeep Sengupta v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\\|Parth Phiroze Mehrotra v. Union of India}}. The Supreme Court stated the purpose of elevating certain rights to the stature of fundamental rights as to insulate their exercise from the disdain of majorities, whether legislative or popular, in [*Puttaswamy v. UOI (2017\\)*](/wiki/Right_to_Privacy_verdict \"Right to Privacy verdict\").Petitioners: {{Harvnb\\|Udit Sood v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Parth Phiroze Mehrotra v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Aditi Anand v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\\|Rituparna Borah v. Union of India}}. The petitioners highlighted the instances where the [Indian Courts](/wiki/Judiciary_of_India \"Judiciary of India\") protected fundamental rights by defying social and religious norms.— *Mary Roy v. State of Kerala (1986\\)*, *Githa Hariharan v. Reserve Bank of India (1999\\)*, *[Shayara Bano v. UOI (2017\\)](/wiki/Triple_talaq_in_India%23Judgement \"Triple talaq in India#Judgement\"), Joseph Shine v. UOI (2018\\)* and [*Arun Kumar v. Inspector General of Registration (2019\\)*](/wiki/Arun_Kumar_v._Inspector_General_of_Registration \"Arun Kumar v. Inspector General of Registration\").Petitioners: {{Harvnb\\|Nikesh P.P. v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Vaibhav Jai v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Dr Kavita Arora v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Udit Sood v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Supriyo v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Parth Phiroze Mehrotra v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Kajal v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\\|Rituparna Borah v. Union of India}}.",
"##### Right to equality",
"[Article 14](/wiki/Article_14_of_the_Constitution_of_India \"Article 14 of the Constitution of India\") of the [Indian Constitution](/wiki/Constitution_of_India \"Constitution of India\") guarantees the right to equality. The Supreme Court declared that any law that fails to protect the [self\\-determination](/wiki/Self-determination \"Self-determination\") of [sexual orientation](/wiki/Sexual_orientation \"Sexual orientation\") and [gender identity](/wiki/Gender_identity \"Gender identity\") of an individual is irrational, manifestly arbitrary, and a violation of [Article 14](/wiki/Article_14_of_the_Constitution_of_India \"Article 14 of the Constitution of India\"). The Supreme Court has recognised the [principle of substantive equality](/wiki/Substantive_equality \"Substantive equality\") in *Lt. Col. Nitisha v. UOI (2021\\).* The Supreme Court held that atypical families, such as domestic, unmarried partnerships or relationships between sexual and gender minority individuals, deserve equal protection under the law guaranteed in [Article 14](/wiki/Article_14_of_the_Constitution_of_India \"Article 14 of the Constitution of India\") in *[Deepika Singh v. Central Administrative Tribunal (2022\\)](/wiki/Deepika_Singh_v._Central_Administrative_Tribunal \"Deepika Singh v. Central Administrative Tribunal\")*.Petitioners: {{Harvnb\\|Sameer Samudra v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Aditi Anand v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\\|Amburi Roy v. Union of India}}.",
"##### Anti\\-discrimination",
"[Article 15](/wiki/Article_15_of_the_Constitution_of_India \"Article 15 of the Constitution of India\") of the [Indian Constitution](/wiki/Constitution_of_India \"Constitution of India\") guarantees protection from discrimination. The Supreme Court extended the protection to include [sexual orientation](/wiki/Sexual_orientation \"Sexual orientation\") and [gender identity](/wiki/Gender_identity \"Gender identity\"). The Supreme Court has recognised the [principle of substantive equality](/wiki/Substantive_equality \"Substantive equality\") in *Lt. Col. Nitisha v. UOI (2021\\).* Considering the cultural stereotypes based on [sex](/wiki/Sex \"Sex\") and [gender](/wiki/Gender \"Gender\") and their role in discriminatory legislation, the Supreme Court held that judicial scrutiny to weave out discrimination must be strict in *Anuj Garg v. Hotel Association of India (2007\\)*.{{Harvnb\\|Nikesh P.P. v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Joydeep Sengupta v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\\|Rituparna Borah v. Union of India}}. The Supreme Court held that [Article 15](/wiki/Article_15_of_the_Constitution_of_India \"Article 15 of the Constitution of India\") places positive and negative obligations on the State in [*Navtej Singh Johar v. UOI (2018\\)*](/wiki/Navtej_Singh_Johar_v._Union_of_India \"Navtej Singh Johar v. Union of India\"), where positive obligations call for the state to recognise rights which bring true fulfilment to same\\-sex relationships.Petitioners: {{Harvnb\\|Dr Kavita Arora v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\\|Aditi Anand v. Union of India}}.",
"##### Freedom of expression",
"[Article 19](/wiki/Fundamental_rights_in_India%23Right_To_Freedom \"Fundamental rights in India#Right To Freedom\") of the [Indian Constitution](/wiki/Constitution_of_India \"Constitution of India\") guarantees the right to freedom of speech and expression. The Supreme Court held that [Article 19](/wiki/Fundamental_rights_in_India%23Right_To_Freedom \"Fundamental rights in India#Right To Freedom\") includes full expression of [sexual orientation](/wiki/Sexual_orientation \"Sexual orientation\") and [gender identity](/wiki/Gender_identity \"Gender identity\"). The Supreme Court held that the choice of marital partner is an exercise of freedom of expression enshrined in [Article 19](/wiki/Fundamental_rights_in_India%23Right_To_Freedom \"Fundamental rights in India#Right To Freedom\") in *Vikas Yadav v. State of Uttar Pradesh (2016\\)*, *Asha Ranjan v. State of Bihar (2017\\)*, *Shakti Vahini v. UOI (2018\\)* and [*Shafin Jahan v Ashokan K.M. (2018\\)*](/wiki/Hadiya_case \"Hadiya case\")*.*",
"##### Right to life and personal liberty",
"[Article 21](/wiki/Fundamental_rights_in_India%23Right_to_life \"Fundamental rights in India#Right to life\") of the [Indian Constitution](/wiki/Constitution_of_India \"Constitution of India\") guarantees the right to life and personal liberty, which includes dignity, privacy, and personal autonomy. The Supreme Court recognised the rights guaranteed by [Article 21](/wiki/Fundamental_rights_in_India%23Right_to_life \"Fundamental rights in India#Right to life\") for sexual and gender minority individuals. The Supreme Court held that [Article 21](/wiki/Fundamental_rights_in_India%23Right_to_life \"Fundamental rights in India#Right to life\") recognises the right to choose a marital partner in the ruling of *Shakti Vahini v. UOI (2018\\), Lata Singh v. State of Uttar Pradesh (2006\\), [Puttaswamy v. UOI (2017\\)](/wiki/Right_to_Privacy_verdict \"Right to Privacy verdict\")*, *[Shafin Jahan v Ashokan K.M. (2018\\)](/wiki/Hadiya_case \"Hadiya case\"),* and *Laxmibai Chandaragi B. v. State of Karnataka (2021\\).*",
"##### Freedom of conscience and religion",
"[Article 25](/wiki/Freedom_of_religion_in_India \"Freedom of religion in India\") of the [Indian Constitution](/wiki/Constitution_of_India \"Constitution of India\") guarantees freedom of conscience and religion. Since the Supreme Court ruled that the freedom of conscience of an individual is more than religious beliefs in [*Puttaswamy v. UOI (2017\\)*](/wiki/Right_to_Privacy_verdict \"Right to Privacy verdict\"), the petitioners argued that the freedom to choose a marital partner is an integral component of freedom of conscience.Petitioners: {{Harvnb\\|Vaibhav Jai v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Dr Kavita Arora v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Zainab J. Patel v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Supriyo v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Aditi Anand v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\\|Kajal v. Union of India}}.\n* Since the Supreme Court ruled that in addition to freedom of religion, [Article 25](/wiki/Freedom_of_religion_in_India \"Freedom of religion in India\") guarantees freedom from religion in [*Indian Young Lawyers Association v. State of Kerala (2019\\)*](/wiki/Entry_of_women_to_Sabarimala \"Entry of women to Sabarimala\"), the petitioners claiming recognition under the secular marriage laws argued the state should not endorse the conception of marriage that is exclusively heterosexual, as it is rooted in the norms of religion.Petitioners: {{Harvnb\\|Utkarsh Saxena v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\\|Harish Iyer v. Union of India}}.\n* Since [Hinduism](/wiki/Hinduism_and_LGBT_topics \"Hinduism and LGBT topics\") does not prohibit marriage between sexual and gender minority individuals, the petitioners claiming recognition under [personal laws](/wiki/Law_of_India%23Family_law_%E2%80%93_personal_law \"Law of India#Family law – personal law\") argued exclusion of couples from sexual and gender minority communities from the [Hindu Marriage Act](/wiki/Hindu_Marriage_Act%2C_1955 \"Hindu Marriage Act, 1955\") violates the petitioners' right to practice religion freely.Petitioners: {{Harvnb\\|Abhijit Iyer Mitra v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\\|Nibedita Dutta v. Union of India}}. The [Madras High Court](/wiki/Madras_High_Court \"Madras High Court\") held that refusal to register the marriage between a [Hindu](/wiki/Hindus \"Hindus\") [cisgender man](/wiki/Man \"Man\") and a [Hindu](/wiki/Hindus \"Hindus\") [transgender woman](/wiki/Trans_woman \"Trans woman\") under [Hindu Marriage Act](/wiki/Hindu_Marriage_Act%2C_1955 \"Hindu Marriage Act, 1955\") violates [Article 25](/wiki/Freedom_of_religion_in_India \"Freedom of religion in India\") in [*Arun Kumar v. Inspector General of Registration (2019\\)*](/wiki/Arun_Kumar_v._Inspector_General_of_Registration \"Arun Kumar v. Inspector General of Registration\").",
"##### Right to marry",
"Since the Supreme Court established the fundamental rights of sexual and gender minority individuals in [*NLSA v. UOI (2014\\)*](/wiki/National_Legal_Services_Authority_v._Union_of_India \"National Legal Services Authority v. Union of India\"), [*Puttaswamy v. UOI (2017\\)*](/wiki/Right_to_Privacy_verdict \"Right to Privacy verdict\") and [*Navtej Singh Johar v. UOI (2018\\)*](/wiki/Navtej_Singh_Johar_v._Union_of_India \"Navtej Singh Johar v. Union of India\"), the petitioners argued for extending the right to marry and establish a family to sexual and gender minority individuals based on Articles [14](/wiki/Article_14_of_the_Constitution_of_India \"Article 14 of the Constitution of India\"), [15](/wiki/Article_15_of_the_Constitution_of_India \"Article 15 of the Constitution of India\"), [19](/wiki/Fundamental_rights_in_India%23Right_To_Freedom \"Fundamental rights in India#Right To Freedom\"), [21](/wiki/Fundamental_rights_in_India%23Right_To_Freedom \"Fundamental rights in India#Right To Freedom\") and [25](/wiki/Freedom_of_religion_in_India \"Freedom of religion in India\") of the [Indian Constitution](/wiki/Constitution_of_India \"Constitution of India\").",
"[High Courts](/wiki/High_courts_of_India \"High courts of India\") have considered the constitutionality of Indian marriage laws. The [Madras High Court](/wiki/Madras_High_Court \"Madras High Court\") held that refusal to register the marriage between a [Hindu](/wiki/Hindus \"Hindus\") [cisgender man](/wiki/Man \"Man\") and a [Hindu](/wiki/Hindus \"Hindus\") [transgender woman](/wiki/Trans_woman \"Trans woman\") under [Hindu Marriage Act](/wiki/Hindu_Marriage_Act%2C_1955 \"Hindu Marriage Act, 1955\") violates [fundamental rights](/wiki/Fundamental_rights_in_India \"Fundamental rights in India\") guaranteed under Articles [14](/wiki/Article_14_of_the_Constitution_of_India \"Article 14 of the Constitution of India\"), [15](/wiki/Article_15_of_the_Constitution_of_India \"Article 15 of the Constitution of India\"), [19](/wiki/Fundamental_rights_in_India%23Right_To_Freedom \"Fundamental rights in India#Right To Freedom\"), [21](/wiki/Fundamental_rights_in_India%23Right_To_Freedom \"Fundamental rights in India#Right To Freedom\") and [25](/wiki/Freedom_of_religion_in_India \"Freedom of religion in India\") of the [Indian Constitution](/wiki/Constitution_of_India \"Constitution of India\") in [*Arun Kumar v. Inspector General of Registration (2019\\)*](/wiki/Arun_Kumar_v._Inspector_General_of_Registration \"Arun Kumar v. Inspector General of Registration\").Petitioners: {{Harvnb\\|Nikesh P.P. v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Vaibhav Jai v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Udit Sood v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Nibedita Dutta v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Parth Phiroze Mehrotra v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\\|Kajal v. Union of India}}.",
"The petitioners requested that the Supreme Court declare that the gender change of a spouse would not automatically void solemnised marriage. As an extension of recognising the right to marry and establishing a family, the petitioners argued for the entitlement of a foreign\\-origin sexual or gender minority spouse of an [Indian Citizen](/wiki/Indian_citizen \"Indian citizen\") or [Overseas Citizen of India](/wiki/Overseas_Citizenship_of_India \"Overseas Citizenship of India\") to apply for registration as an [Overseas Citizen of India](/wiki/Overseas_Citizenship_of_India \"Overseas Citizenship of India\").",
"#### Issues in secular marriage law",
"The notice and objections provisions detail the requirement for registering a marriage under the secular marriage laws— [Special Marriage Act](/wiki/Special_Marriage_Act%2C_1954 \"Special Marriage Act, 1954\") and [Foreign Marriage Act](/wiki/Foreign_Marriage_Act%2C_1969 \"Foreign Marriage Act, 1969\"). The individuals intending to marry must publish their details in Marriage Notice Book meant for public inspection. Within thirty days of publication, any person can object to their marriage, and a marriage officer, who has the power of a civil court, handles the objections.{{Cite act\\|index\\=43\\|date\\=1954\\|article\\=\\|article\\-type\\=\\|legislature\\=\\[\\[Parliament of India]]\\|title\\=The Special Marriage Act\\|url\\=https://www.indiacode.nic.in/handle/123456789/1387}} {{Cite web \\|url\\=https://www.indiacode.nic.in/handle/123456789/1387 \\|title\\=Archived copy \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-12 \\|archive\\-date\\=2021\\-12\\-18 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20211218225516/https://www.indiacode.nic.in/handle/123456789/1387 \\|url\\-status\\=bot: unknown }}{{Cite act\\|index\\=33\\|date\\=1969\\|article\\=\\|article\\-type\\=\\|legislature\\=\\[\\[Parliament of India]]\\|title\\=The Foreign Marriage Act\\|url\\=https://www.indiacode.nic.in/handle/123456789/1720}} {{Cite web \\|url\\=https://www.indiacode.nic.in/handle/123456789/1720 \\|title\\=Archived copy \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-12 \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-04\\-26 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230426161619/https://www.indiacode.nic.in/handle/123456789/1720 \\|url\\-status\\=bot: unknown }}",
"##### Non\\-equality",
"The intention of the notice and objections provisions is to address the situations where individuals might hide the breach of prerequisites of marriage. However, such deterrents are absent in the [personal laws](/wiki/Law_of_India%23Family_law_%E2%80%93_personal_law \"Law of India#Family law – personal law\") governing marriage. Evidently, notice and objection provisions are not the only way to address the problem of a breach of prerequisites of marriage. The provisions are grossly disproportionate and violate the [fundamental rights](/wiki/Fundamental_rights_in_India \"Fundamental rights in India\") of the [Indian Constitution](/wiki/Constitution_of_India \"Constitution of India\"). The provisions violates [Article 14](/wiki/Article_14_of_the_Constitution_of_India \"Article 14 of the Constitution of India\") of the [Indian Constitution](/wiki/Constitution_of_India \"Constitution of India\") by creating an unequal burden on individuals who choose to marry under secular marriage laws. It violates [Article 15](/wiki/Article_15_of_the_Constitution_of_India \"Article 15 of the Constitution of India\") of the [Indian Constitution](/wiki/Constitution_of_India \"Constitution of India\") by discriminating those constrained to marry under secular marriage laws from those who marry under [personal laws](/wiki/Law_of_India%23Family_law_%E2%80%93_personal_law \"Law of India#Family law – personal law\").",
"##### Violations of freedom of expression",
"The provisions violate the freedom of expression guaranteed by [Article 19](/wiki/Article_14_of_the_Constitution_of_India \"Article 14 of the Constitution of India\") by enabling continuing harassment and persecution. Multiple news reports document the role of the provision in enabling continuing harassment and persecution. The 2010 [Indian](/wiki/India \"India\") case studies documented the barrier posed by these procedural requirements of the secular marriage laws. The [Law Commission](/wiki/Law_Commission_of_India \"Law Commission of India\") published a consultation paper on the Reform of Family Law that recognised the notice and objection provision of secular marriage laws as an impediment to personal autonomy. The [Law Commission](/wiki/Law_Commission_of_India \"Law Commission of India\") published a report on the Prevention of Interference with the freedom of Matrimonial Alliances that recommended the removal of the notice and objection provisions of the secular marriage laws to prevent “high\\-handed or unwarranted interference” in marriages.",
"##### Violations of decisional autonomy",
"The provisions violate the decisional autonomy guaranteed by [Article 21](/wiki/Fundamental_rights_in_India%23Right_to_life \"Fundamental rights in India#Right to life\") by authorising any person to object to the marriage. The [Law Commission](/wiki/Law_Commission_of_India \"Law Commission of India\") published a consultation paper on the Reform of Family Law that recognised the provisions as an impediment to personal autonomy protected by [Article 21](/wiki/Fundamental_rights_in_India%23Right_to_life \"Fundamental rights in India#Right to life\"). The provisions force individuals to surrender their right to privacy to exercise their right to marry. The Supreme Court held that a requirement that forces the individual to give up one constitutional right to exercise another is unconstitutional in the ruling of *Ahmedabad St. Xavier’s College Society v. State of Gujarat (1974\\).*",
"[High Courts](/wiki/High_courts_of_India \"High courts of India\") have considered the constitutionality of the provisions. Remarking that unwarranted disclosure of the marriage plans might jeopardise the marriage and endanger the lives of the couple, the [Delhi High Court](/wiki/Delhi_High_Court \"Delhi High Court\") deprecated the practice of sending notices to residential addresses in the ruling of *Pranav Kumar Mishra v. Govt. of NCT of Delhi (2009\\)*. Relying on the [right](/wiki/Fundamental_rights_in_India \"Fundamental rights in India\") to [personal liberty](/wiki/Fundamental_rights_in_India%23Right_to_life \"Fundamental rights in India#Right to life\") and [privacy](/wiki/Right_to_Privacy_verdict \"Right to Privacy verdict\"), [Allahabad High Court](/wiki/Allahabad_High_Court \"Allahabad High Court\") read down the notice and objection provision of the [Special Marriage Act](/wiki/Special_Marriage_Act%2C_1954 \"Special Marriage Act, 1954\") as a directory and not mandatory in the ruling of *Safiya Sultana v. State of Uttar Pradesh (2021\\)*.Petitioners: {{Harvnb\\|Utkarsh Saxena v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Kajal v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\\|Akkai Padmashali v. Union of India}}.",
"#### Representative and heirs",
"Despite the landmark decision of the Supreme Court asserting the right to [self\\-determination](/wiki/Self-determination \"Self-determination\") of [sexual orientation](/wiki/Sexual_orientation \"Sexual orientation\") and [gender identity](/wiki/Gender_identity \"Gender identity\") in [*NLSA v. UOI (2014\\)*](/wiki/National_Legal_Services_Authority_v._Union_of_India \"National Legal Services Authority v. Union of India\"), [*Puttaswamy v. UOI (2017\\)*](/wiki/Right_to_Privacy_verdict \"Right to Privacy verdict\") and [*Navtej Singh Johar v. UOI (2018\\)*](/wiki/Navtej_Singh_Johar_v._Union_of_India \"Navtej Singh Johar v. Union of India\")*,* the birth or adoptive family continues to interfere and restrict the [self\\-determination](/wiki/Self-determination \"Self-determination\"). As the vast majority of [Indian laws](/wiki/Law_of_India \"Law of India\") define ‘family’ to be persons related by marriage, birth or adoption, the petitioners have presented a compelling case for legal recognition of their marital relationships to formalise access to rights and obligations. However, many others do not share the aspiration for married life, and the law cannot ignore them. They may choose friends, domestic partners and other persons of vital importance to assign rights and obligations.",
"While the conflict with the birth or adoptive family may have given rise to the idea of chosen family, it does not challenges birth or adoptive family bonds but allows for a more inclusive understanding of adult relationships. Most sexual and gender minority individuals, informed by their lived experience of family rejection, hostility and violence, require a legal substitute for the family for healthcare, social and economic rights and obligations. Recognising any person as capable of serving the best interests of an individual in a state of vulnerability or incapacitation, the [Mental Healthcare Act of 2017](/wiki/Mental_Healthcare_Act%2C_2017 \"Mental Healthcare Act, 2017\") authorised an individual to appoint any person as the nominated representative. Legal limiting next of kin to persons related by marriage, birth or adoption violates the decisional autonomy of sexual and gender minority individuals.",
"The Supreme Court has recognised the [principle of substantive equality](/wiki/Substantive_equality \"Substantive equality\"), which prohibits the State from expecting conformity as a price for equality in *Lt. Col. Nitisha v. UOI (2021\\)*. The Supreme Court held that married and unmarried persons have equal decisional autonomy to make decisions about their welfare in *X v. Principal Secretary, Health and Family Welfare Department, Govt. of NCT of Delhi (2022\\).* The Supreme Court held that atypical families deserve equal protection under the law guaranteed in [Article 14](/wiki/Article_14_of_the_Constitution_of_India \"Article 14 of the Constitution of India\") in [*Deepika Singh v. Central Administrative Tribunal (2022\\)*](/wiki/Deepika_Singh_v._Central_Administrative_Tribunal \"Deepika Singh v. Central Administrative Tribunal\")*.* Relying on these precedents, the petitioners argued that unmarried sexual and gender minority individuals deserve recognition and protection of the law when they seek to nominate any person beyond the constraints of biological or adoptive families.",
"[High Courts](/wiki/High_courts_of_India \"High courts of India\") have expanded the scope of legal heirs for [intersex, non\\-binary and transgender people](/wiki/Third_gender \"Third gender\") in *Illyas v. Badshah alias Kamla (1990\\)* and S*weety v. General Public (2016\\)*. The petitioners request the Supreme Court to declare that a person can nominate anyone in the place of ‘next of kin’ under all relevant laws.",
"#### International treaties",
"India is a party to various international treaties concerning human rights. India voted to adopt the [Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR)](/wiki/Universal_Declaration_of_Human_Rights \"Universal Declaration of Human Rights\") in [United Nations](/wiki/United_Nations \"United Nations\") [General Assembly](/wiki/United_Nations_General_Assembly \"United Nations General Assembly\") on 10 December 1948, and the same is enforceable in India under the Protection of Human Rights Act of 1993\\. India ratified the [International Convention of Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR)](/wiki/International_Covenant_on_Civil_and_Political_Rights \"International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights\") and the [International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR)](/wiki/International_Covenant_on_Economic%2C_Social_and_Cultural_Rights \"International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights\") on 10 April 1979\\.Petitioners: {{Harvnb\\|Nikesh P.P. v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Abhijit Iyer Mitra v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Dr Kavita Arora v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Udit Sood v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Nibedita Dutta v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Zainab J. Patel v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Supriyo v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Parth Phiroze Mehrotra v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Sameer Samudra v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Aditi Anand v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Nitin Karan v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Kajal v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\\|Amburi Roy v. Union of India}}. Over the last three decades, [International human rights law](/wiki/International_human_rights_law \"International human rights law\") has developed an established jurisprudence on the rights to equality, privacy and autonomy of sexual and gender minority individuals and protection from discrimination based on [sexual orientation](/wiki/Sexual_orientation \"Sexual orientation\") and [gender identity](/wiki/Gender_identity \"Gender identity\").{{Citation \\|last\\=\\[\\[Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights\\|United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights]] \\|title\\=Discriminatory laws and practices and acts of violence against individuals based on their sexual orientation and gender identity \\|date\\=17 November 2011 \\|url\\=https://documents\\-dds\\-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/G11/170/75/PDF/G1117075\\.pdf \\|type\\=\\[\\[United Nations Document Codes\\|UN Document]] \\|series\\=A/HRC/19/41 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[United Nations]] \\[\\[United Nations Human Rights Council\\|Human Rights Council]] \\|access\\-date\\=27 March 2023 \\|archive\\-date\\=27 March 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230327133227/https://documents\\-dds\\-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/G11/170/75/PDF/G1117075\\.pdf \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"Since the Supreme Court enforced the international treaties discussed above while ruling in the [*NLSA v. UOI (2014\\)*](/wiki/National_Legal_Services_Authority_v._Union_of_India \"National Legal Services Authority v. Union of India\") and [*Navtej Singh Johar v. UOI (2018\\)*](/wiki/Navtej_Singh_Johar_v._Union_of_India \"Navtej Singh Johar v. Union of India\"), the petitioners argued extending the right to marry and establish a family to sexual and gender minority individuals based on the following articles:",
"* Article 7 of the [UDHR](/wiki/Universal_Declaration_of_Human_Rights \"Universal Declaration of Human Rights\"), Article 26 of [ICCPR](/wiki/International_Covenant_on_Civil_and_Political_Rights \"International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights\") and Article 2 of [ICESCR](/wiki/International_Covenant_on_Economic%2C_Social_and_Cultural_Rights \"International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights\") prohibit discrimination based on *‘*sex... or other status.*’*{{Citation \\|title\\=Universal Declaration of Human Rights \\|url\\=https://www.un.org/en/about\\-us/universal\\-declaration\\-of\\-human\\-rights \\|publication\\-date\\=10 December 1948 \\|type\\=\\[\\[Treaty]] \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[United Nations]] \\|access\\-date\\=23 February 2023 \\|archive\\-date\\=16 March 2021 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210316050452/https://www.un.org/en/about\\-us/universal\\-declaration\\-of\\-human\\-rights \\|url\\-status\\=live }}{{Citation \\|title\\=International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights \\|url\\=https://treaties.un.org/doc/Treaties/1976/03/19760323%2006\\-17%20AM/Ch\\_IV\\_04\\.pdf \\|publication\\-date\\=16 December 1966 \\|type\\=\\[\\[Treaty]] \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[United Nations]] \\|access\\-date\\=23 February 2023 \\|archive\\-date\\=20 December 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20221220134544/https://treaties.un.org/doc/Treaties/1976/03/19760323%2006\\-17%20AM/Ch\\_IV\\_04\\.pdf \\|url\\-status\\=live }}{{Citation \\|title\\=International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights \\|url\\=https://www.refworld.org/docid/3ae6b36c0\\.htmls \\|publication\\-date\\=16 December 1966 \\|type\\=\\[\\[Treaty]] \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[United Nations]] \\|access\\-date\\=5 March 2023 \\|archive\\-date\\=26 April 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230426200337/https://www.refworld.org/docid/3ae6b36c0\\.htmls \\|url\\-status\\=live }} The [UN](/wiki/United_Nations \"United Nations\") [Human Rights Committee](/wiki/United_Nations_Human_Rights_Committee \"United Nations Human Rights Committee\") stated that the *‘*other status*’* includes [sexual orientation](/wiki/Sexual_orientation \"Sexual orientation\").{{Citation \\|last\\=\\[\\[United Nations Human Rights Committee]] \\|title\\=Toonen v. Australia \\|url\\=http://hrlibrary.umn.edu/undocs/html/vws488\\.htm \\|type\\=\\[\\[United Nations Document Codes\\|UN Document]] \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160801175251/http://hrlibrary.umn.edu/undocs/html/vws488\\.htm \\|series\\=CCPR/C/50/D/488/1992 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[United Nations]] \\[\\[United Nations Human Rights Committee\\|Human Rights Committee]] \\|archive\\-date\\=2016\\-08\\-01}} The [UN](/wiki/United_Nations \"United Nations\") [Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights](/wiki/Committee_on_Economic%2C_Social_and_Cultural_Rights \"Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights\") urged the member states to ensure that a person's sexual orientation is not a barrier to realising [Covenant Rights](/wiki/International_Covenant_on_Economic%2C_Social_and_Cultural_Rights \"International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights\").{{Citation \\|last\\=United Nations Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights \\|title\\=Non\\-discrimination in economic, social and cultural rights \\|url\\=https://docstore.ohchr.org/SelfServices/FilesHandler.ashx?enc\\=4slQ6QSmlBEDzFEovLCuW1a0Szab0oXTdImnsJZZVQdqeXgncKnylFC%2BlzJjLZGhsosnD23NsgR1Q1NNNgs2QltnHpLzG%2FBmxPjJUVNxAedgozixcbEW9WMvnSFEiU%2FV \\|publication\\-date\\=2 July 2009 \\|type\\=\\[\\[United Nations Document Codes\\|UN Document]] \\|series\\=E/C.12/GC/20 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[United Nations]] \\[\\[Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights]] \\|author\\-link\\=Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights \\|access\\-date\\=5 March 2023 \\|archive\\-date\\=11 March 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230311095328/https://docstore.ohchr.org/SelfServices/FilesHandler.ashx?enc\\=4slQ6QSmlBEDzFEovLCuW1a0Szab0oXTdImnsJZZVQdqeXgncKnylFC%2BlzJjLZGhsosnD23NsgR1Q1NNNgs2QltnHpLzG%2FBmxPjJUVNxAedgozixcbEW9WMvnSFEiU%2FV \\|url\\-status\\=live }}\n* Article 16 of the [UDHR](/wiki/Universal_Declaration_of_Human_Rights \"Universal Declaration of Human Rights\"), Article 23 of the [ICCPR](/wiki/International_Covenant_on_Civil_and_Political_Rights \"International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights\") and Article 10 of [ICESCR](/wiki/International_Covenant_on_Economic%2C_Social_and_Cultural_Rights \"International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights\") guarantee the [right to marry and establish a family](/wiki/Right_to_family_life \"Right to family life\"). [Travaux préparatoires](/wiki/Travaux_pr%C3%A9paratoires \"Travaux préparatoires\") shows that drafters of [UDHR](/wiki/Universal_Declaration_of_Human_Rights \"Universal Declaration of Human Rights\") changed the language in the right to marry from *‘*everyone*’* to the specific *‘*men and women*’* to highlight that women have the right to marry. The drafters did not intend to exclude same\\-sex couples from marriage.{{Cite journal \\|last1\\=Wolfson \\|first1\\=Evan \\|last2\\=Tueller \\|first2\\=Jessica \\|last3\\=Fromkin \\|first3\\=Alissa \\|date\\=2022 \\|title\\=The Freedom to Marry in Human Rights Law Worldwide: Ending the Exclusion of Same\\-Sex Couples from Marriage \\|url\\=https://journals.iupui.edu/index.php/iiclr/article/download/26253/24273 \\|journal\\=Indiana International \\& Comparative Law Review \\|volume\\=32 \\|issue\\=1 \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-27 \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-27 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230327133228/https://journals.iupui.edu/index.php/iiclr/article/download/26253/24273 \\|url\\-status\\=live }} The [UN](/wiki/United_Nations \"United Nations\") [Human Rights Committee](/wiki/United_Nations_Human_Rights_Committee \"United Nations Human Rights Committee\") urged member states to recognise marriage for same\\-sex couples to fulfil their [ICCPR](/wiki/International_Covenant_on_Civil_and_Political_Rights \"International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights\") obligations.{{Citation \\|title\\=Young v. Australia \\|date\\=6 August 2003 \\|url\\=https://documents\\-dds\\-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/DER/G03/440/25/PDF/G0344025\\.pdf \\|type\\=\\[\\[United Nations Document Codes\\|UN Document]] \\|series\\=CCPR/C/78/D/941/2000 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[United Nations]] \\[\\[United Nations Human Rights Committee\\|Human Rights Committee]] \\|access\\-date\\=27 March 2023 \\|archive\\-date\\=27 March 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230327133228/https://documents\\-dds\\-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/DER/G03/440/25/PDF/G0344025\\.pdf \\|url\\-status\\=live }}{{Citation \\|last\\=United Nations Human Rights Committee \\|title\\=Concluding observations on the sixth periodic report of Australia \\|url\\=https://docstore.ohchr.org/SelfServices/FilesHandler.ashx?enc\\=6QkG1d%2FPPRiCAqhKb7yhsoAl3%2FFsniSQx2VAmWrPA0uA3KW0KkpmSGOue15UG42EodNm2j%2FnCTyghc1kM8Y%2FLQ4n6KZBdggHt5qPmUYCI8eCslXZmnVlMq%2FoYCNPyKpq \\|publication\\-date\\=1 December 2017 \\|type\\=\\[\\[United Nations Document Codes\\|UN Document]] \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201112032912/https://docstore.ohchr.org/SelfServices/FilesHandler.ashx?enc\\=6QkG1d%2FPPRiCAqhKb7yhsoAl3%2FFsniSQx2VAmWrPA0uA3KW0KkpmSGOue15UG42EodNm2j%2FnCTyghc1kM8Y%2FLQ4n6KZBdggHt5qPmUYCI8eCslXZmnVlMq%2FoYCNPyKpq \\|series\\=CCPR/C/AUS/CO/6 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[United Nations]] \\[\\[United Nations Human Rights Committee\\|Human Rights Committee]] \\|archive\\-date\\=12 November 2020 \\|author\\-link\\=United Nations Human Rights Committee}}{{Citation \\|last\\=United Nations Human Rights Committee \\|title\\=Concluding observations on the sixth periodic report of Hungary \\|url\\=https://docstore.ohchr.org/SelfServices/FilesHandler.ashx?enc\\=6QkG1d%2FPPRiCAqhKb7yhsnm97%2BRfSonZvQyDICMC7to7lkIHViwiffCrjxVJVYr7AYGd1bD3LqpWwx7fjwdowp0XO09j1KeHx2S0%2Be4%2FGUZf4WEtz0X6rsDTNt6FAcrQ \\|type\\=\\[\\[United Nations Document Codes\\|UN Document]] \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190703135746/https://docstore.ohchr.org/SelfServices/FilesHandler.ashx?enc\\=6QkG1d%2FPPRiCAqhKb7yhsnm97%2BRfSonZvQyDICMC7to7lkIHViwiffCrjxVJVYr7AYGd1bD3LqpWwx7fjwdowp0XO09j1KeHx2S0%2Be4%2FGUZf4WEtz0X6rsDTNt6FAcrQ \\|series\\=CCPR/C/HUN/CO/6 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[United Nations]] \\[\\[United Nations Human Rights Committee\\|Human Rights Committee]] \\|archive\\-date\\=3 July 2019 \\|author\\-link\\=United Nations Human Rights Committee}}{{Citation \\|last\\=United Nations Human Rights Committee \\|title\\=Concluding observations on the fourth periodic report of Bulgaria \\|date\\=15 November 2018 \\|url\\=https://docstore.ohchr.org/SelfServices/FilesHandler.ashx?enc\\=6QkG1d%2FPPRiCAqhKb7yhskh%2Bqy5CyN8D%2FZ%2BBzREl4JFFGBP%2FHKF%2FOdQmhX%2FowRuyRPF6ULj89EPBOq9kvUJgYNQHSS625xvETKp1EUpOs6ekr3vAaU0IH6Z0CyRL%2Ftuy \\|type\\=\\[\\[United Nations Document Codes\\|UN Document]] \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200403222827/https://docstore.ohchr.org/SelfServices/FilesHandler.ashx?enc\\=6QkG1d%2FPPRiCAqhKb7yhskh%2Bqy5CyN8D%2FZ%2BBzREl4JFFGBP%2FHKF%2FOdQmhX%2FowRuyRPF6ULj89EPBOq9kvUJgYNQHSS625xvETKp1EUpOs6ekr3vAaU0IH6Z0CyRL%2Ftuy \\|series\\=CCPR/C/BGR/CO/4 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[United Nations]] \\[\\[United Nations Human Rights Committee\\|Human Rights Committee]] \\|archive\\-date\\=3 April 2020 \\|author\\-link\\=United Nations Human Rights Committee}}\n* Article 12 of the [UDHR](/wiki/Universal_Declaration_of_Human_Rights \"Universal Declaration of Human Rights\") and Article 17 of the [ICCPR](/wiki/International_Covenant_on_Civil_and_Political_Rights \"International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights\") prohibit arbitrary interference with their privacy, family, home or correspondence.",
"#### Soft Law",
"The Supreme Court held that [*Yogyakarta Principles on the* *Application of Human Rights Law in Relation to Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity (2007\\)*](/wiki/Yogyakarta_Principles%23Original_2007_Principles \"Yogyakarta Principles#Original 2007 Principles\") is consistent with various [fundamental rights](/wiki/Fundamental_rights_in_India \"Fundamental rights in India\") enshrined in the [Indian Constitution](/wiki/Constitution_of_India \"Constitution of India\") and stated that they must be recognised and followed in the decision of [*NLSA v. UOI (2014\\)*](/wiki/National_Legal_Services_Authority_v._Union_of_India \"National Legal Services Authority v. Union of India\") and [*Navtej Singh Johar v. UOI (2018\\)*](/wiki/Navtej_Singh_Johar_v._Union_of_India \"Navtej Singh Johar v. Union of India\"). The petitioners pointed to:Petitioners: {{Harvnb\\|Dr Kavita Arora v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Udit Sood v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Nibedita Dutta v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Zainab J. Patel v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Supriyo v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Parth Phiroze Mehrotra v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Aditi Anand v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Amburi Roy v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Akkai Padmashali v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\\|Rituparna Borah v. Union of India}}.",
"* Principle 24 of the [Yogyakarta Principles](/wiki/Yogyakarta_Principles \"Yogyakarta Principles\"), which recognises the right to establish a family, regardless of [sexual orientation](/wiki/Sexual_orientation \"Sexual orientation\") and [gender identity](/wiki/Gender_identity \"Gender identity\"). It calls for the State to recognise [same\\-sex marriage](/wiki/Same-sex_marriage \"Same-sex marriage\") or registered partnership and ensure that same\\-sex married or registered partners have the entitlements, privileges, obligations and benefits available to opposite\\-sex married or registered partners.{{Cite report \\|url\\=http://yogyakartaprinciples.org/wp\\-content/uploads/2016/08/principles\\_en.pdf \\|title\\=Principles on the Application of Human Rights Law in Relation to Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity \\|date\\=March 2007 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Yogyakarta Principles]] \\|access\\-date\\=23 February 2023 \\|archive\\-date\\=1 April 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230401034915/http://yogyakartaprinciples.org/wp\\-content/uploads/2016/08/principles\\_en.pdf \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"#### *Obergefell v. Hodges* (United States, 2015\\)",
"In anticipation of an oppositional argument that could emphasise marriage as traditionally and historically being limited to opposite\\-sex couples, the petitioners argue that generations of denial are not an argument for its perpetuation. They point to the majority opinion of [*Obergefell v. Hodges (2015\\)*](/wiki/Obergefell_v._Hodges \"Obergefell v. Hodges\"), in which [Associate Justice](/wiki/Associate_Justice_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States \"Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States\") [Kennedy](/wiki/Anthony_Kennedy \"Anthony Kennedy\") wrote that if rights were defined by who exercised them in the past, then past practices would serve as continued justification for denying the new groups the rights.Petitioners: {{Harvnb\\|Udit Sood v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\\|Parth Phiroze Mehrotra v. Union of India}}.",
"In anticipation of an opposition prophesy that upholding everybody's fundamental right to marry would diminish the worth of opposite\\-sex marriages, petitioners point to the conclusion of the majority on the same discussion in *[Obergefell v. Hodges (2015\\)](/wiki/Obergefell_v._Hodges \"Obergefell v. Hodges\")*, “it is wholly illogical to believe that state recognition of the love and commitment between same\\-sex couples will alter the most intimate and personal decisions of opposite\\-sex couples.”",
"While deciding the *Sunil Batra v. Delhi Administration (1978\\),* the Supreme Court held that the despite the lack of the [Due Process Clause](/wiki/Due_Process_Clause \"Due Process Clause\") in the [Constitution of India](/wiki/Constitution_of_India \"Constitution of India\") same consequence ensued after the decisions in *R.C. Cooper v. Union of India (1970\\)* and [*Maneka Gandhi v. Union of India (1978\\)*](/wiki/Maneka_Gandhi_v._Union_of_India \"Maneka Gandhi v. Union of India\")*.* Affirming the verdict of *Sunil Batra v. Delhi Administration (1978\\),* the Supreme Court held that substantive due process is applied to the [fundamental right to life and liberty](/wiki/Fundamental_rights_in_India%23Right_To_Freedom \"Fundamental rights in India#Right To Freedom\") in *Mohd Arif v. The Registrar (2014\\).*Petitioners: {{Harvnb\\|Sameer Samudra v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\\|Nitin Karan v. Union of India}}.",
"Finally, the Supreme Court held that [Article 14](/wiki/Article_14_of_the_Constitution_of_India \"Article 14 of the Constitution of India\") of the [Indian Constitution](/wiki/Constitution_of_India \"Constitution of India\") corresponds to the [Equal Protection Clause](/wiki/Equal_Protection_Clause \"Equal Protection Clause\") of the [Fourteenth Amendment of the United States Constitution](/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution \"Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution\") in *Chiranjit Lal Chowdhuri v. UOI (1950\\).* Hence, the [United States Supreme Court](/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States \"Supreme Court of the United States\") ruling in *[Obergefell v. Hodges (2015\\)](/wiki/Obergefell_v._Hodges \"Obergefell v. Hodges\")*, which held the fundamental right to marry is guaranteed to [same\\-sex couples](/wiki/Same-sex_relationship \"Same-sex relationship\") by both the [Due Process Clause](/wiki/Due_Process_Clause \"Due Process Clause\") and the [Equal Protection Clause](/wiki/Equal_Protection_Clause \"Equal Protection Clause\") of the [Fourteenth Amendment of the Constitution](/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution \"Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution\") is relevant to the current case.",
"#### Recognition of foreign marriage",
"The Supreme Court recognised the [principles of comity of nations](/wiki/Comity \"Comity\") in the ruling of *Mirza Ali Akbar Kashani v. United Arab Republic (1966\\)*, *Tractor Export v. Tarapore \\& Co. (1969\\)* and *Gramophone Company of India Ltd. v. Birendra Bahadur Pandey (1984\\).* The petitioners called attention to the fact that 32 countries have recognised [same\\-sex marriage](/wiki/Same-sex_marriage \"Same-sex marriage\"). Since [Foreign Marriage Act](/wiki/Foreign_Marriage_Act%2C_1969 \"Foreign Marriage Act, 1969\") has extraterritorial operations, petitioners argued that it should be read to conform with international developments.Petitioners: {{Harvnb\\|Vaibhav Jai v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Udit Sood v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Joydeep Sengupta v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\\|Zainab J. Patel v. Union of India}}.",
"#### Citizenship of sexual and gender minority spouse",
"The petitioners argue that the [Citizenship Act](/wiki/Indian_nationality_law \"Indian nationality law\") does not authorise the officials to examine the marriage under [Indian law](/wiki/Law_of_India \"Law of India\"). Therefore, as long as the marriage is validly registered overseas and the sexual or gender minority spouse of foreign origin satisfies other conditions, they are entitled to apply for [OCI](/wiki/Overseas_Citizenship_of_India \"Overseas Citizenship of India\"). They point to the ruling of the [Israeli High Court of Justice](/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Israel%23High_Court_of_Justice \"Supreme Court of Israel#High Court of Justice\") that registration officials, who are not competent to examine the validity of the marriage under [Israeli law](/wiki/Israeli_law \"Israeli law\"), should register the [same\\-sex marriage](/wiki/Same-sex_marriage \"Same-sex marriage\") of [Israeli Citizens](/wiki/Israelis \"Israelis\") performed validly overseas in *Ben\\-Ari v. Director of Population Administration (2006\\).*",
"#### Legislative policy",
"The petitioners highlighted various entitlements, privileges, obligations and benefits limited to marital, blood or adoptive relationships. These legal provisions exclude legally unrecognised spouses and families of sexual and gender minority individuals.",
"##### Healthcare",
"When a patient cannot communicate their wishes due to being in a persistent vegetative state, having a form of dementia or similar illness, or being under anaesthesia, legally unrecognised spouses and families of sexual and gender minority individuals are not allowed to make healthcare decisions for them.Petitioners: {{Harvnb\\|Dr Kavita Arora v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Parth Phiroze Mehrotra v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Aditi Anand v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\\|Rituparna Borah v. Union of India}}.",
"Legally unrecognised spouses and families of sexual and gender minority individuals face discrimination in [organ donation](/wiki/Organ_donation \"Organ donation\") in the case of both living or deceased partners.Petitioners: {{Harvnb\\|Dr Kavita Arora v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Udit Sood v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Nibedita Dutta v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Supriyo v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Parth Phiroze Mehrotra v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\\|Aditi Anand v. Union of India}}. Under the [Transplantation of Human Organs and Tissues Act of 1994](/wiki/Transplantation_of_Human_Organs_and_Tissues_Act%2C_1994 \"Transplantation of Human Organs and Tissues Act, 1994\"), the declaration to donate organs requires the presence of at least one marital, blood or adoptive relative. As a result, unrecognised spouses and families cannot make these vital decisions about sexual and gender minority family members. Sexual and gender minority partners need prior approval of the Authorisation Committee under the [Transplantation of Human Organs and Tissues Act](/wiki/Transplantation_of_Human_Organs_and_Tissues_Act%2C_1994 \"Transplantation of Human Organs and Tissues Act, 1994\"). The Committee evaluates the proof of affection or attachment to the intended recipient of the organ before permitting organ donation, which legally married couples need not provide.{{Cite act\\|index\\=42\\|date\\=1994\\|legislature\\=\\[\\[Parliament of India]]\\|title\\=The Transplantation of Human Organs and Tissues Act\\|url\\=https://www.indiacode.nic.in/handle/123456789/1962}} {{Cite web \\|url\\=https://www.indiacode.nic.in/handle/123456789/1962 \\|title\\=Archived copy \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-12 \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-12 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230312173357/https://www.indiacode.nic.in/handle/123456789/1962 \\|url\\-status\\=bot: unknown }}",
"##### Finance",
"Sexual and gender minority family members lack the rights around succession, [maintenance](/wiki/Alimony \"Alimony\"), joint ownership of assets, taxation and benefits. As private entitlements exclude sexual and gender minority family members, sexual and gender minority individuals face more barriers and higher scrutiny in privately offered life insurance nominations, owning [joint bank accounts](/wiki/Joint_account \"Joint account\") and lockers, and mutual funds and savings plans.Petitioners: {{Harvnb\\|Vaibhav Jai v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Dr Kavita Arora v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Udit Sood v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Nibedita Dutta v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Supriyo v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Parth Phiroze Mehrotra v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\\|Aditi Anand v. Union of India}}.",
"According to the [Income Tax Act of 1961](/wiki/The_Income-tax_Act%2C_1961 \"The Income-tax Act, 1961\"), the payments made on behalf of a spouse are included in the deduction when computing the total income. These deductions include the payments made towards life insurance, a deferred annuity of the life of a spouse, the spouse's provident fund set up by the Central Government and the spouse for participation in the Unit\\-linked Insurance Plan.{{Cite act\\|index\\=43\\|date\\=1961\\|article\\=80C\\|article\\-type\\=Section\\|legislature\\=\\[\\[Parliament of India]]\\|title\\=The Income\\-tax Act\\|url\\=https://www.indiacode.nic.in/handle/123456789/2435}} {{Cite web \\|url\\=https://www.indiacode.nic.in/handle/123456789/2435 \\|title\\=Archived copy \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-12 \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-12 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230312071723/https://www.indiacode.nic.in/handle/123456789/2435 \\|url\\-status\\=bot: unknown }} Sexual and gender minority family members cannot claim such deductions.Petitioners: {{Harvnb\\|Vaibhav Jai v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Dr Kavita Arora v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Udit Sood v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Nibedita Dutta v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Zainab J. Patel v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Supriyo v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Parth Phiroze Mehrotra v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\\|Aditi Anand v. Union of India}}.\n According to the Supreme Court ruling on *Rajesh v. Rajbir Singh*, the spousal consortium considered in the claims, including the claims for injury and death in the [Motor Vehicle Act of 1988](/wiki/Motor_Vehicles_Act%2C_1988 \"Motor Vehicles Act, 1988\") cases, is only available to married couples.{{Cite act\\|index\\=59\\|date\\=1988\\|article\\=158, 166 {{abbr\\|\\&\\|and}} 168\\|article\\-type\\=Section\\|legislature\\=\\[\\[Parliament of India]]\\|title\\=The Motor Vehicles Act\\|url\\=https://www.indiacode.nic.in/handle/123456789/1798}} {{Cite web \\|url\\=https://www.indiacode.nic.in/handle/123456789/1798 \\|title\\=Archived copy \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-12 \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-12 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230312103247/https://www.indiacode.nic.in/handle/123456789/1798 \\|url\\-status\\=bot: unknown }}{{Cite court\\|litigants\\=Rajesh {{abbr\\|\\&\\|and}} {{abbr\\|Ors.\\|Others}} versus Rajbir Singh {{abbr\\|\\&\\|and}} {{abbr\\|Ors.\\|Others}}\\|court\\=\\[\\[Supreme Court of India]]\\|opinion\\={{abbr\\|Civil Appeal No.\\|Civil Appeal Number}} 3860/2013\\|date\\=12 April 2013\\|url\\=https://main.sci.gov.in/jonew/bosir/orderpdf/1721330\\.pdf}} Hence the legally unrecognised spouses of sexual and gender minority individuals are denied such claims.Petitioners: {{Harvnb\\|Dr Kavita Arora v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Nibedita Dutta v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Supriyo v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\\|Aditi Anand v. Union of India}}.",
"##### Employment",
"Without recognition of the right to marry, couples from sexual and gender minority communities cannot access the benefits available to opposite\\-sex couples through various legislation. Couples from sexual and gender minority communities in government service cannot request same\\-city postings. A sexual and gender minority partner cannot receive the healthcare coverage provided to the spouse of government employees.",
"The government grants an appointment on compassionate grounds to a dependent family member of a government servant dying or retired on medical grounds and leaving their family without any livelihood. Couples from sexual and gender minority communities are not eligible for compassionate appointments or family pensions.",
"Under the current reading of the [Indian Acts](/wiki/Law_of_India \"Law of India\"), sexual and gender minority employee cannot nominate their legally unrecognised family for benefits and entitlements as long as their biological or adoptive family members are alive.{{Cite news \\|last1\\=Chaturvedi \\|first1\\=Arpan \\|last2\\=Jain \\|first2\\=Rupam \\|date\\=19 December 2022 \\|title\\=Gay couples in India ask Supreme Court to legalise same\\-sex marriage \\|language\\=en \\|work\\=\\[\\[Reuters]] \\|url\\=https://www.reuters.com/world/india/gay\\-couples\\-india\\-ask\\-supreme\\-court\\-legalise\\-same\\-sex\\-marriage\\-2022\\-12\\-19/ \\|access\\-date\\= \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-02\\-12 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230212153427/https://www.reuters.com/world/india/gay\\-couples\\-india\\-ask\\-supreme\\-court\\-legalise\\-same\\-sex\\-marriage\\-2022\\-12\\-19/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }}{{Cite news \\|last\\=Rajagopal \\|first\\=Krishnadas \\|date\\=25 November 2022 \\|title\\=Supreme Court seeks govt response on including same\\-sex marriage under Special Marriage Act \\|language\\=en \\|work\\=\\[\\[The Hindu]] \\|url\\=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/supreme\\-court\\-seeks\\-govt\\-response\\-on\\-including\\-same\\-sex\\-marriage\\-under\\-special\\-marriage\\-act/article66182642\\.ece \\|access\\-date\\= \\|issn\\=0971\\-751X \\|archive\\-date\\=13 February 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230213051311/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/supreme\\-court\\-seeks\\-govt\\-response\\-on\\-including\\-same\\-sex\\-marriage\\-under\\-special\\-marriage\\-act/article66182642\\.ece \\|url\\-status\\=live }} Some of the [Acts](/wiki/Law_of_India \"Law of India\") highlighted by the petitioners are:Petitioners: {{Harvnb\\|Vaibhav Jai v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Dr Kavita Arora v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Udit Sood v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Joydeep Sengupta v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Nibedita Dutta v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Zainab J. Patel v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Supriyo v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Parth Phiroze Mehrotra v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\\|Aditi Anand v. Union of India}}.\n* Employee's Compensation Act of 1923,{{Cite act\\|type\\=Act\\|index\\=8\\|date\\=1923\\|article\\=10A(4\\)\\|article\\-type\\=Section\\|legislature\\=\\[\\[Imperial Legislative Council]]\\|title\\=The Employees Compensation Act\\|url\\=https://www.indiacode.nic.in/show\\-data?actid\\=AC\\_UP\\_88\\_477\\_00016\\_00016\\_1614836915424\\§ionId\\=64520\\§ionno\\=10A\\&orderno\\=12}} {{Cite web \\|url\\=https://www.indiacode.nic.in/show\\-data?actid\\=AC\\_UP\\_88\\_477\\_00016\\_00016\\_1614836915424\\§ionId\\=64520\\§ionno\\=10A\\&orderno\\=12 \\|title\\=Archived copy \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-12 \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-12 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230312062151/https://www.indiacode.nic.in/show\\-data?actid\\=AC\\_UP\\_88\\_477\\_00016\\_00016\\_1614836915424\\§ionId\\=64520\\§ionno\\=10A\\&orderno\\=12 \\|url\\-status\\=bot: unknown }}\n* Employees' Provident Funds Act of 1952,{{Cite act\\|type\\=Act\\|index\\=19\\|date\\=1952\\|article\\=4\\|article\\-type\\=Schedule\\|legislature\\=\\[\\[Parliament of India]]\\|title\\=Employees' Provident Funds and Miscellaneous Provisions Act\\|url\\=https://www.indiacode.nic.in/handle/123456789/2152}} {{Cite web \\|url\\=https://www.indiacode.nic.in/handle/123456789/2152 \\|title\\=Archived copy \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-12 \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-12 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230312060651/https://www.indiacode.nic.in/handle/123456789/2152 \\|url\\-status\\=bot: unknown }}\n* [Payment of Gratuity Act of 1972](/wiki/The_Payment_of_Gratuity_Act%2C_1972 \"The Payment of Gratuity Act, 1972\"),{{Cite act\\|index\\=39\\|date\\=1972\\|article\\=6\\|article\\-type\\=Section\\|legislature\\=\\[\\[Parliament of India]]\\|title\\=The Payment of Gratuity Act\\|url\\=https://www.indiacode.nic.in/show\\-data?actid\\=AC\\_CEN\\_6\\_6\\_00029\\_197239\\_1517807324619\\§ionId\\=42151\\§ionno\\=6\\&orderno\\=8}} {{Cite web \\|url\\=https://www.indiacode.nic.in/show\\-data?actid\\=AC\\_CEN\\_6\\_6\\_00029\\_197239\\_1517807324619\\§ionId\\=42151\\§ionno\\=6\\&orderno\\=8 \\|title\\=Archived copy \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-12 \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-12 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230312060646/https://www.indiacode.nic.in/show\\-data?actid\\=AC\\_CEN\\_6\\_6\\_00029\\_197239\\_1517807324619\\§ionId\\=42151\\§ionno\\=6\\&orderno\\=8 \\|url\\-status\\=bot: unknown }}\n* Payment of Wages Act, 1936{{Cite act\\|index\\=4\\|date\\=1936\\|article\\=26\\|article\\-type\\=Section\\|legislature\\=\\[\\[Imperial Legislative Council]]\\|title\\=The Payment of Wages Act\\|url\\=https://www.indiacode.nic.in/bitstream/123456789/8324/1/payment\\_of\\_wages\\_act\\_1936\\.pdf}} {{Cite web \\|url\\=https://www.indiacode.nic.in/bitstream/123456789/8324/1/payment\\_of\\_wages\\_act\\_1936\\.pdf \\|title\\=Archived copy \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-12 \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-25 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230325172323/https://www.indiacode.nic.in/bitstream/123456789/8324/1/payment\\_of\\_wages\\_act\\_1936\\.pdf \\|url\\-status\\=bot: unknown }}{{Cite act\\|type\\=General Statutory Rule\\|index\\=822 (E)\\|date\\=2009\\|article\\=3 (2\\)\\|article\\-type\\=Rule\\|legislature\\=\\[\\[Government of India]] through \\[\\[Ministry of Labour and Employment (India)\\|Ministry of Labour and Employment]]\\|title\\=Payment of Wages (Nomination) Rules\\|url\\=https://labour.gov.in/sites/default/files/PW\\_Nomination%20Rules.pdf}} {{Cite web \\|url\\=https://labour.gov.in/sites/default/files/PW\\_Nomination%20Rules.pdf \\|title\\=Archived copy \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-12 \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-12 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230312060646/https://labour.gov.in/sites/default/files/PW\\_Nomination%20Rules.pdf \\|url\\-status\\=bot: unknown }} and\n* [Unorganised Workers' Social Security Act of 2008](/wiki/Unorganised_Workers%27_Social_Security_Act_2008 \"Unorganised Workers' Social Security Act 2008\").{{Cite act\\|index\\=33\\|date\\=2008\\|article\\=3\\|article\\-type\\=Section\\|legislature\\=\\[\\[Parliament of India]]\\|title\\=Unorganised Workers Social Security Act\\|url\\=https://www.indiacode.nic.in/show\\-data?actid\\=AC\\_CEN\\_6\\_6\\_00036\\_200833\\_1517807327317\\§ionId\\=42317\\§ionno\\=3\\&orderno\\=3}} {{Cite web \\|url\\=https://www.indiacode.nic.in/show\\-data?actid\\=AC\\_CEN\\_6\\_6\\_00036\\_200833\\_1517807327317\\§ionId\\=42317\\§ionno\\=3\\&orderno\\=3 \\|title\\=India Code: Section Details \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-12 \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-12 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230312060653/https://www.indiacode.nic.in/show\\-data?actid\\=AC\\_CEN\\_6\\_6\\_00036\\_200833\\_1517807327317\\§ionId\\=42317\\§ionno\\=3\\&orderno\\=3 \\|url\\-status\\=bot: unknown }}{{Cite act\\|type\\=Statutory Order\\|index\\=764 (E)\\|date\\=2019\\|legislature\\=\\[\\[Government of India]] through \\[\\[Ministry of Labour and Employment (India)\\|Ministry of Labour and Employment]]\\|title\\=Pradhan Mantri Shram Yogi Maan\\-dhan Yojana\\|url\\=https://labour.gov.in/sites/default/files/197105\\_0\\.pdf}} {{Cite web \\|url\\=https://labour.gov.in/sites/default/files/197105\\_0\\.pdf \\|title\\=Archived copy \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-12 \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-12 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230312060717/https://labour.gov.in/sites/default/files/197105\\_0\\.pdf \\|url\\-status\\=bot: unknown }}",
"Since private entitlements, such as healthcare and other spousal benefits extended in private employment, exclude sexual and gender minority family members, sexual and gender minority individuals face more barriers and higher scrutiny in acquiring spousal benefits.Petitioners: {{Harvnb\\|Dr Kavita Arora v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\\|Supriyo v. Union of India}}.",
"##### Housing",
"Couples from sexual and gender minority communities do not have the right to reside in a shared household. Hence, sexual and gender minority individuals cannot rely on their partner's rented or owned home to prove residence for official purposes.",
"##### Parenthood",
"Without recognition of the right to marry, couples from sexual and gender minority communities cannot have children through [adoption](/wiki/Same-sex_adoption \"Same-sex adoption\"), [surrogacy](/wiki/Surrogacy_in_India \"Surrogacy in India\"), or [assisted reproductive technologies](/wiki/Assisted_reproductive_technology%23India \"Assisted reproductive technology#India\").Petitioners: {{Harvnb\\|Supriyo v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Aditi Anand v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\\|Amburi Roy v. Union of India}}.",
"The [Juvenile Justice Act of 2015](/wiki/Juvenile_Justice_%28Care_and_Protection_of_Children%29_Act%2C_2015 \"Juvenile Justice (Care and Protection of Children) Act, 2015\"), along with relevant rules, does not allow unmarried couples and couples in a live\\-in relationship to adopt children as a couple.{{Cite act\\|index\\=2\\|date\\=2015\\|legislature\\=\\[\\[Parliament of India]]\\|title\\=The Juvenile Justice (Care and Protection of Children) Act\\|url\\=https://www.indiacode.nic.in/handle/123456789/2148}} {{Cite web \\|url\\=https://www.indiacode.nic.in/handle/123456789/2148 \\|title\\=India Code: Juvenile Justice (Care and Protection of Children) Act, 2015 \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-12 \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-04\\-24 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230424144953/https://www.indiacode.nic.in/handle/123456789/2148 \\|url\\-status\\=bot: unknown }}{{Cite act\\|type\\=General Statutory Rules\\|index\\=726 (E)\\|date\\=2022\\|legislature\\=\\[\\[Government of India]] through \\[\\[Ministry of Women and Child Development]]\\|title\\=Adoption Regulations\\|url\\=https://wcd.nic.in/sites/default/files/Adoption%20Regulations%202022\\.pdf}} {{Cite web \\|url\\=https://wcd.nic.in/sites/default/files/Adoption%20Regulations%202022\\.pdf \\|title\\=Archived copy \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-12 \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-12 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230312095012/https://wcd.nic.in/sites/default/files/Adoption%20Regulations%202022\\.pdf \\|url\\-status\\=bot: unknown }} The Adoption Regulations of 2022 state that a child cannot be given in adoption to a couple unless they have at least two years of a stable marital relationship. In line with the Adoption Regulations, the [Central Adoption Resource Authority](/wiki/Central_Adoption_Resource_Authority \"Central Adoption Resource Authority\") has decided that single prospective adoptive parents, who are in a live\\-in relationship with a partner, will not be considered eligible to adopt a child.{{Cite act\\|type\\=Office Memorandum\\|index\\=CARAICA013/1/2022/Administration\\|date\\={{date\\|2022\\-06\\-16\\|mdy}}\\|legislature\\=\\[\\[Central Adoption Resource Authority]], \\[\\[New Delhi]]\\|title\\=Registration of cases of single PAPs having a live\\-in partner in a long\\-time relationship and not married\\|url\\=https://cara.nic.in/PDF/Registration\\-of\\-cases\\-of\\-single\\-PAPs\\-having\\-a\\_live\\-in\\_partner\\-in\\-a\\-long\\-time\\-relationship\\-and\\-not\\-married160622\\.pdf}} {{Cite web \\|url\\=https://cara.nic.in/PDF/Registration\\-of\\-cases\\-of\\-single\\-PAPs\\-having\\-a\\_live\\-in\\_partner\\-in\\-a\\-long\\-time\\-relationship\\-and\\-not\\-married160622\\.pdf \\|title\\=Archived copy \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-12 \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-12 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230312095003/https://cara.nic.in/PDF/Registration\\-of\\-cases\\-of\\-single\\-PAPs\\-having\\-a\\_live\\-in\\_partner\\-in\\-a\\-long\\-time\\-relationship\\-and\\-not\\-married160622\\.pdf \\|url\\-status\\=bot: unknown }}",
"The Surrogacy (Regulation) Act of 2021 allows only married couples to have children through surrogacy.{{Cite act\\|index\\=47\\|date\\=2021\\|legislature\\=\\[\\[Parliament of India]]\\|title\\=The Surrogacy (Regulation) Act\\|url\\=https://www.indiacode.nic.in/handle/123456789/17046}} {{Cite web \\|url\\=https://www.indiacode.nic.in/handle/123456789/17046 \\|title\\=India Code: Surrogacy (Regulation) Act, 2021 \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-12 \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-04\\-26 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230426175844/https://www.indiacode.nic.in/handle/123456789/17046 \\|url\\-status\\=bot: unknown }} The Assisted Reproductive Technology (Regulation) Act of 2021 allows only infertile married couples to obtain the services of an authorised clinic or bank for assisted reproductive technologies.{{Cite act\\|index\\=42\\|date\\=2021\\|legislature\\=\\[\\[Parliament of India]]\\|title\\=The Assisted Reproductive Technology (Regulation) Act\\|url\\=https://www.indiacode.nic.in/handle/123456789/17031}} {{Cite web \\|url\\=https://www.indiacode.nic.in/handle/123456789/17031 \\|title\\=India Code: Assisted Reproductive Technology (Regulation) Act, 2021 \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-12 \\|archive\\-date\\=2022\\-07\\-18 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220718080315/https://www.indiacode.nic.in/handle/123456789/17031 \\|url\\-status\\=bot: unknown }}",
"Since the parents cannot get married, the child has no legal relationship with an unrelated parent. As a result, various entitlements, privileges, obligations and benefits are unavailable to the unrelated parent and the child. An unrelated parent cannot make medical decisions in the case of an emergency.",
"##### Judicial proceedings",
"The [Indian Evidence Act of 1872](/wiki/Indian_Evidence_Act \"Indian Evidence Act\") provides [spousal privilege](/wiki/Spousal_privilege \"Spousal privilege\"), that is, immunity from being compelled to disclose any communication between spouses during their marriage. Additionally, they cannot disclose any communication without their partner or partner's representative's consent.{{Cite act\\|type\\=\\|index\\=1\\|date\\=1872\\|article\\=122\\|article\\-type\\=Section\\|legislature\\=\\[\\[Imperial Legislative Council]]\\|title\\=Indian Evidence Act\\|url\\=https://www.indiacode.nic.in/show\\-data?actid\\=AC\\_CEN\\_3\\_20\\_00034\\_187201\\_1523268871700\\§ionId\\=38987\\§ionno\\=122\\&orderno\\=140}} {{Cite web \\|url\\=https://www.indiacode.nic.in/show\\-data?actid\\=AC\\_CEN\\_3\\_20\\_00034\\_187201\\_1523268871700\\§ionId\\=38987\\§ionno\\=122\\&orderno\\=140 \\|title\\=India Code: Section Details \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-12 \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-12 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230312060655/https://www.indiacode.nic.in/show\\-data?actid\\=AC\\_CEN\\_3\\_20\\_00034\\_187201\\_1523268871700\\§ionId\\=38987\\§ionno\\=122\\&orderno\\=140 \\|url\\-status\\=bot: unknown }} Couples from sexual and gender minority communities do not have this crucial protection privilege under Indian evidentiary law.Petitioners: {{Harvnb\\|Vaibhav Jai v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Dr Kavita Arora v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Joydeep Sengupta v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Nibedita Dutta v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Zainab J. Patel v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Supriyo v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Parth Phiroze Mehrotra v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\\|Aditi Anand v. Union of India}}.",
"The [Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act of 2005](/wiki/Protection_of_Women_from_Domestic_Violence_Act%2C_2005 \"Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act, 2005\") protects women in an opposite\\-sex marital or live\\-in relationship. The law extends its protection to women living in a household, such as sisters or mothers, but fails to protect sexual and gender minority women in a relationship.Petitioners: {{Harvnb\\|Dr Kavita Arora v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\\|Parth Phiroze Mehrotra v. Union of India}}.",
"#### Entry and residence permits",
"A spouse of foreign origin of an Indian Citizen or [OCI](/wiki/Overseas_Citizenship_of_India \"Overseas Citizenship of India\") is entitled to apply for registration as an [OCI](/wiki/Overseas_Citizenship_of_India \"Overseas Citizenship of India\") under the [Citizenship Act](/wiki/The_Citizenship_Act%2C_1955 \"The Citizenship Act, 1955\"). [OCI](/wiki/Overseas_Citizenship_of_India \"Overseas Citizenship of India\") is a form of [permanent residency](/wiki/Permanent_residency \"Permanent residency\") which allows cardholders to live and work in India indefinitely. Without recognition of the right to marry, a foreign\\-origin sexual or gender minority spouse is not eligible for [OCI](/wiki/Overseas_Citizenship_of_India \"Overseas Citizenship of India\") Card.",
"Recognition of the right to marry for sexual and gender minority individuals is crucial for acquiring a visa and residency. Sexual and gender minority families cannot declare the name of their spouse or parent on their passports. Similarly, [OCI](/wiki/Overseas_Citizenship_of_India \"Overseas Citizenship of India\") cardholders are subject to the notification issued by the [Union Government](/wiki/Government_of_India \"Government of India\")— for example, during the [COVID\\-19 pandemic](/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_India \"COVID-19 pandemic in India\"), the [Union Government](/wiki/Government_of_India \"Government of India\") allowed [OCI](/wiki/Overseas_Citizenship_of_India \"Overseas Citizenship of India\") cardholders with Indian parents or spouses alone to enter the country.",
"#### Social exclusion and violence",
"Legally sanctioned exclusion, such as the prohibition of marriage between sexual and gender minority individuals, constitutes a form of [structural discrimination](/wiki/Structural_discrimination \"Structural discrimination\") which reinforces [ignorance](/wiki/Ignorance \"Ignorance\") and [prejudice](/wiki/Prejudice \"Prejudice\") and leads to widespread [discrimination](/wiki/Discrimination \"Discrimination\"), [rejection](/wiki/Social_rejection \"Social rejection\") and [violence](/wiki/Violence_against_LGBT_people \"Violence against LGBT people\") against sexual and gender minority individuals in India.Petitioners: {{Harvnb\\|Dr Kavita Arora v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Udit Sood v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Aditi Anand v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Utkarsh Saxena v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Kajal v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Rituparna Borah v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\\|Harish Iyer v. Union of India}}. The petitioners demonstrate widespread [discrimination](/wiki/Discrimination \"Discrimination\"), [rejection](/wiki/Social_rejection \"Social rejection\") and [violence](/wiki/Violence_against_LGBT_people \"Violence against LGBT people\") against sexual and gender minority individuals in India by reporting relevant peer\\-reviewed studies and news articles.Petitioners: {{Harvnb\\|Udit Sood v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\\|Kajal v. Union of India}}.",
"[Family honour culture](/wiki/Family_honor \"Family honor\") is one of the reasons for the harassment of sexual and gender minority individuals in India.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Bhattacharya \\|first\\=Ananya \\|date\\=30 May 2019 \\|title\\=South Asian honour culture hounds India and Pakistan's LGBTQ community \\|url\\=https://qz.com/india/1630092/indians\\-pakistanis\\-most\\-likely\\-to\\-back\\-anti\\-gay\\-honour\\-abuse \\|access\\-date\\= \\|website\\=\\[\\[Quartz (publication)\\|Quartz]] \\|language\\=en \\|archive\\-date\\=18 October 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20231018150037/https://qz.com/india/1630092/indians\\-pakistanis\\-most\\-likely\\-to\\-back\\-anti\\-gay\\-honour\\-abuse \\|url\\-status\\=live }} A 2021 multinational study documented the attitudes towards violence against sexual and gender minority individuals in five countries: [India](/wiki/India \"India\"), [Pakistan](/wiki/Pakistan \"Pakistan\"), [Malaysia](/wiki/Malaysia \"Malaysia\"), [Iran](/wiki/Iran \"Iran\") and [England](/wiki/England \"England\"). [Indians](/wiki/Indian_people \"Indian people\") ranked second, following [Pakistanis](/wiki/Pakistanis \"Pakistanis\"), for their belief that gay men had damaged their [family honour](/wiki/Family_honor \"Family honor\") and their acceptance of verbal abuse and life\\-threatening violence by the family towards gay men.{{Cite journal \\|last1\\=Lowe \\|first1\\=Michelle \\|last2\\=Khan \\|first2\\=Roxanne \\|last3\\=Thanzami \\|first3\\=Vanlal \\|last4\\=Barzy \\|first4\\=Mahsa \\|last5\\=Karmaliani \\|first5\\=Rozina \\|date\\=2021 \\|title\\=Anti\\-gay \"Honor\" Abuse: A Multinational Attitudinal Study of Collectivist\\- Versus Individualist\\-Orientated Populations in Asia and England \\|url\\=https://clok.uclan.ac.uk/26187/ \\|journal\\=\\[\\[Journal of Interpersonal Violence]] \\|volume\\=36 \\|issue\\=15–16 \\|pages\\=7866–7885 \\|doi\\=10\\.1177/0886260519838493 \\|pmid\\=30924715 \\|s2cid\\=85566154 \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-06 \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-06 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230306085034/https://clok.uclan.ac.uk/26187/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"Familial harassment takes various forms of violence and violations. A 2016 Indian study reported the family as the primary source of psychological, physical and sexual violence against sexual and gender minority individuals that normalises such violence for sexual and gender minority individuals in India.{{Cite journal \\|last1\\=Ranade \\|first1\\=Ketki \\|last2\\=Shah \\|first2\\=Chayanika \\|last3\\=Chatterji \\|first3\\=Sangeeta \\|date\\=1 August 2016 \\|title\\=Making sense: Familial journeys towards acceptance of gay and lesbian family members in India \\|url\\=https://journals.tiss.edu/ijsw/index.php/ijsw/article/view/72 \\|journal\\=The Indian Journal of Social Work \\|volume\\=77 \\|issue\\=4 \\|pages\\=437–458 \\|issn\\=2456\\-7809 \\|access\\-date\\=27 March 2023 \\|archive\\-date\\=27 March 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230327114743/https://journals.tiss.edu/ijsw/index.php/ijsw/article/view/72 \\|url\\-status\\=live }} 2011 Indian qualitative study documented the endemic and pervasive nature of violence faced by sexual and gender minority women, such as psychological and verbal abuse, bodily harm, forced marriage, wrongful confinement, medical abuse and corrective rape.{{Citation \\|last1\\=Ghosh \\|first1\\=Subhagata \\|title\\=Vio Map: Documenting and Mapping Violence \\& Rights Violation Taking Place in lives of Sexually Marginalised Women to Chart Out Effective Advocacy Strategies \\|date\\=8 March 2011 \\|url\\=https://www.sapphokolkata.in/public/research\\_reports/1677858525\\.pdf \\|type\\=Research Report \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Sappho for Equality]] \\|last2\\=Bandyopadhyay \\|first2\\=Sumita Basu \\|last3\\=Ranjita \\|first3\\=Biswas \\|access\\-date\\=27 March 2023 \\|archive\\-date\\=27 March 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230327113552/https://www.sapphokolkata.in/public/research\\_reports/1677858525\\.pdf \\|url\\-status\\=live }} Familial harassment and rejection are common reasons for [homelessness](/wiki/Homelessness \"Homelessness\") and [suicide](/wiki/Suicide \"Suicide\") among sexual and gender minority individuals in India.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Watta \\|first\\=Anureet \\|date\\=2020\\-09\\-02 \\|title\\=Bullying, Homophobia, Conversion Therapy: What Is Pushing Queer People To Suicide? \\|url\\=https://www.shethepeople.tv/home\\-top\\-video/bullying\\-homophobia\\-conversion\\-therapy\\-queer\\-people\\-suicides/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-05 \\|website\\=\\[\\[SheThePeople]] \\|language\\=en\\-US \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-05 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230305132122/https://www.shethepeople.tv/home\\-top\\-video/bullying\\-homophobia\\-conversion\\-therapy\\-queer\\-people\\-suicides/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }}{{Cite magazine \\|last\\=Kidangoor \\|first\\=Abhishyant \\|date\\=2021\\-01\\-05 \\|title\\=This Indian Same\\-Sex Couple Is Fighting for the Right to Marry. But Is Their Country Ready? \\|url\\=https://time.com/5926324/india\\-lgbtq\\-marriage\\-case/ \\|magazine\\=\\[\\[Time (magazine)\\|Time]] \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-07 \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-07 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230307061757/https://time.com/5926324/india\\-lgbtq\\-marriage\\-case/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }} India lacks comprehensive statistics on [suicide](/wiki/Suicide \"Suicide\") among sexual and gender minority individuals in India. A 2011 Mumbai\\-based study of men who have sex with men found 45 per cent to be [suicidal](/wiki/Suicidal_ideation \"Suicidal ideation\"), with 15 per cent categorised as high risk. A 2016 Indian study estimated the suicide rate among [transgender Indians](/wiki/Transgender \"Transgender\") as 31 per cent, and at least 50 per cent of them have attempted suicide at least once before their 20th birthday.{{Cite journal \\|last1\\=H.G. \\|first1\\=Virupaksha \\|last2\\=Muralidhar \\|first2\\=Daliboyina \\|last3\\=Ramakrishna \\|first3\\=Jayashree \\|date\\=2016 \\|title\\=Suicide and Suicidal Behavior among Transgender Persons \\|journal\\=\\[\\[Indian Journal of Psychological Medicine]] \\|volume\\=38 \\|issue\\=6 \\|pages\\=505–509 \\|doi\\=10\\.4103/0253\\-7176\\.194908\\|pmid\\=28031583 \\|pmc\\=5178031 \\|doi\\-access\\=free }}",
"Couples from sexual and gender minority communities face familial harassment in the form of [forced separation](/wiki/Family_separation \"Family separation\") and [wrongful detention](/wiki/False_imprisonment \"False imprisonment\") or reporting their partners of [kidnapping](/wiki/Kidnapping \"Kidnapping\"). If the couple were [separated](/wiki/Family_separation \"Family separation\") and [detained](/wiki/False_imprisonment \"False imprisonment\") by the parents, the partner has to approach a [High Court](/wiki/High_courts_of_India \"High courts of India\") for a [writ petition for habeas corpus](/wiki/Habeas_corpus \"Habeas corpus\"). The Courts frequently question the [locus standi](/wiki/Standing_%28law%29 \"Standing (law)\") of the individual due to the non\\-recognition of their relationship.{{Cite book \\|last1\\=Arasu \\|first1\\=Ponni \\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/lawlikelovequeer0000unse \\|title\\=Law like love: Queer perspectives on law \\|last2\\=Thangarajah \\|first2\\=Priya \\|date\\=2011 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Yoda Press]] \\|isbn\\=9789380403144 \\|editor\\-last\\=Narrain \\|editor\\-first\\=Arvind \\|publication\\-place\\=\\[\\[New Delhi\\|New Delhi, India]] \\|chapter\\=Queer Women and the Law in India \\|oclc\\=741445911 \\|editor\\-last2\\=Gupta \\|editor\\-first2\\=Alok }} On the other hand, if the parents had reported the [kidnapping](/wiki/Kidnapping \"Kidnapping\"), the police ascertained if the partner had left on their own accord. However, the seemingly straightforward procedure of recording the individual's statement to determine whether they are acting out of their free will gets complicated due to [societal prejudice](/wiki/Prejudice \"Prejudice\") validated by the lack of the right to marry for sexual and gender minority individuals in India.{{Cite book \\|last\\=Sharma \\|first\\=Maya \\|title\\=Footprints of a Queer History: Life\\-stories from Gujarat \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Yoda Press]] \\|year\\=2023 \\|isbn\\=9789382579359 \\|location\\=\\[\\[New Delhi\\|New Delhi, India]]}}",
"Reports have documented instances where lesbian couples have considered, attempted or committed suicide together.{{Citation \\|last\\=Deepa \\|first\\=Vasudevan \\|title\\=Lesbian Suicides and the Kerala Women's Movement \\|date\\=2001 \\|url\\=http://feministlawarchives.pldindia.org/wp\\-content/uploads/Lesbian\\-Suicides\\-and\\-the\\-Kerala\\-Womens\\-Movement.pdf \\|type\\=\\[\\[Conference proceedings\\|Conference Proceeding]] \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210305201621/http://feministlawarchives.pldindia.org/wp\\-content/uploads/Lesbian\\-Suicides\\-and\\-the\\-Kerala\\-Womens\\-Movement.pdf \\|publication\\-place\\=\\[\\[Hyderabad\\|Hyderabad, India]] \\|publisher\\=South Indian Young Feminists Conference \\|archive\\-date\\=2021\\-03\\-05}}{{Cite report \\|url\\=https://www.tiss.edu/uploads/files/8The\\_Nature\\_of\\_violence\\_faced\\_by\\_Lesbian\\_women\\_in\\_India.pdf \\|title\\=The nature of violence faced by lesbian women in India \\|last1\\=Fernandez \\|first1\\=Bina \\|last2\\=Gomathy \\|first2\\=N.B \\|date\\=2003 \\|publisher\\=Research Centre on Violence Against Women, \\[\\[Tata Institute of Social Sciences]] \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-08 \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-08 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230308071546/https://www.tiss.edu/uploads/files/8The\\_Nature\\_of\\_violence\\_faced\\_by\\_Lesbian\\_women\\_in\\_India.pdf \\|url\\-status\\=live }}{{Cite journal \\|date\\=2006 \\|editor\\-last\\=Kalpana \\|editor\\-first\\=Kannabiran \\|title\\=India: Second NGO Shadow Report on CEDAW \\|url\\=http://pldindia.org/wp\\-content/uploads/2013/06/CEDAW\\_\\-Second\\-Shadow\\_report\\_2006\\.pdf \\|journal\\=National Alliance of Women \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-08 \\|archive\\-date\\=2022\\-09\\-01 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220901034958/http://pldindia.org/wp\\-content/uploads/2013/06/CEDAW\\_\\-Second\\-Shadow\\_report\\_2006\\.pdf \\|url\\-status\\=live }} A lesbian couple, Asha Thakor and Bhavna Thakor, facing opposition from their family in rural [Gujarat](/wiki/Gujarat \"Gujarat\"), committed suicide shortly after eloping to the city. The couple had eloped to find a safe space and acceptance but never found it.{{Cite news \\|last\\=Dey \\|first\\=Simantini \\|date\\=2018\\-06\\-11 \\|title\\=The World Did Not Let Us Live: What Led To The Suicide of a same sex couple in 'Homophobic' Gujarat \\|work\\=\\[\\[News18 India\\|News18]] \\|url\\=https://www.news18\\.com/news/immersive/gujarat\\-same\\-sex\\-suicide.html \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180626081203/https://www.news18\\.com/news/immersive/gujarat\\-same\\-sex\\-suicide.html \\|archive\\-date\\=2018\\-06\\-26}} Similarly, a gay couple from rural [Assam](/wiki/Assam \"Assam\"), Ankur Das and Brajen Thakuria committed suicide after their families firmly opposed their relationship and blamed them for one of their mother's early death.{{Cite web \\|date\\=2020\\-08\\-01 \\|title\\=Gay lovers from Assam commit suicide due to families' opposition \\|url\\=https://www.sentinelassam.com/north\\-east\\-india\\-news/assam\\-news/gay\\-lovers\\-from\\-assam\\-commit\\-suicide\\-due\\-to\\-families\\-opposition\\-492587 \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-05 \\|website\\=\\[\\[The Sentinel (Guwahati)\\|The Sentinel]] \\|language\\=en \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-05 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230305132114/https://www.sentinelassam.com/north\\-east\\-india\\-news/assam\\-news/gay\\-lovers\\-from\\-assam\\-commit\\-suicide\\-due\\-to\\-families\\-opposition\\-492587 \\|url\\-status\\=live }} Despite the existence of suicide notes and social media posts, most of the cases end with [first information reports](/wiki/First_information_report \"First information report\") and news articles, without any investigations and persecution of those [abetting](/wiki/Aiding_and_abetting \"Aiding and abetting\") suicide.",
"##### Housing, education and employment",
"In the larger society, sexual and gender minority individuals in India face [prejudice](/wiki/Prejudice \"Prejudice\") in housing, education and employment. Sexual and gender minority individuals in India encounter discrimination from property owners and landlords, leading to a denial of housing and forced evictions.{{Citation \\|last1\\=Dutta \\|first1\\=Debolina \\|title\\=count me IN! Violence Against Disabled, Lesbian, and Sex\\-working Women in Bangladesh, India, and Nepal \\|url\\=https://www.oursplatform.org/wp\\-content/uploads/CREA\\-The\\-Count\\-Me\\-In\\-Violence\\-against\\-Disabled\\-Lesbian\\-Sex\\-working\\-Women\\-in\\-Bangladesh\\-India\\-Nepal\\-Report.pdf \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220119025401/https://www.oursplatform.org/wp\\-content/uploads/CREA\\-The\\-Count\\-Me\\-In\\-Violence\\-against\\-Disabled\\-Lesbian\\-Sex\\-working\\-Women\\-in\\-Bangladesh\\-India\\-Nepal\\-Report.pdf \\|publication\\-place\\=\\[\\[New Delhi\\|New Delhi, India]] \\|publisher\\=CREA \\|archive\\-date\\=2022\\-01\\-19 \\|last2\\=Weston \\|first2\\=Mark \\|last3\\=Bhattacharji \\|first3\\=Jaya \\|last4\\=Mukherji \\|first4\\=Suparna \\|last5\\=Kurien \\|first5\\=Sarah Joseph}}{{Cite news \\|last\\=Borate \\|first\\=Neil \\|date\\=2019\\-06\\-25 \\|title\\=Same\\-sex couples in India lack basic financial rights. \\|work\\=\\[\\[Mint (newspaper)\\|Mint]] \\|url\\=https://www.livemint.com/money/personal\\-finance/same\\-sex\\-couples\\-in\\-india\\-lack\\-basic\\-financial\\-rights\\-1561396839301\\.html \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-07 \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-07 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230307061757/https://www.livemint.com/money/personal\\-finance/same\\-sex\\-couples\\-in\\-india\\-lack\\-basic\\-financial\\-rights\\-1561396839301\\.html \\|url\\-status\\=live }} A 2018 [UNESCO](/wiki/UNESCO \"UNESCO\")\\-supported Indian study found that 60% of middle school students ([ISCED](/wiki/International_Standard_Classification_of_Education \"International Standard Classification of Education\") Level 2\\), 60% of high school students ([ISCED](/wiki/International_Standard_Classification_of_Education \"International Standard Classification of Education\") Level 3\\) and 50% of higher secondary school students ([ISCED](/wiki/International_Standard_Classification_of_Education \"International Standard Classification of Education\") Level 3\\) were victims of physical violence due to [sexual orientation](/wiki/Sexual_orientation \"Sexual orientation\") and [gender identity](/wiki/Gender_identity \"Gender identity\"). As a result of the harassment, the students reported they had reduced social interaction with their peers (73%), suffered from anxiety and depression (70%), and discontinued school (33\\.2%).{{Cite news \\|date\\=2018\\-03\\-13 \\|title\\=New study on bullying based on sexual orientation and gender identity in schools in Tamil Nadu, India \\|work\\=\\[\\[UNESCO]] \\|url\\=https://www.unesco.org/en/articles/new\\-study\\-bullying\\-based\\-sexual\\-orientation\\-and\\-gender\\-identity\\-schools\\-tamil\\-nadu\\-india \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-07 \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-04\\-26 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230426162041/https://www.unesco.org/en/articles/new\\-study\\-bullying\\-based\\-sexual\\-orientation\\-and\\-gender\\-identity\\-schools\\-tamil\\-nadu\\-india \\|url\\-status\\=live }} [Prejudice](/wiki/Prejudice \"Prejudice\") in the workplace manifests as harassment and discrimination in the recruitment process and promotions.{{Cite journal \\|last1\\=Noronha \\|first1\\=Ernesto \\|last2\\=Bisht \\|first2\\=Nidhi S. \\|last3\\=D’Cruz \\|first3\\=Premilla \\|date\\=2022\\-04\\-11 \\|title\\=From Fear to Courage: Indian Lesbians' and Gays' Quest for Inclusive Ethical Organizations \\|url\\=https://link.springer.com/article/10\\.1007/s10551\\-022\\-05098\\-x \\|journal\\=\\[\\[Journal of Business Ethics]] \\|volume\\=177 \\|issue\\=4 \\|pages\\=779–797 \\|doi\\=10\\.1007/s10551\\-022\\-05098\\-x \\|s2cid\\=248116558 \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-07 \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-07 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230307061800/https://link.springer.com/article/10\\.1007/s10551\\-022\\-05098\\-x \\|url\\-status\\=live }}{{Cite news \\|last\\=Menon \\|first\\=Rashmi \\|date\\=2022\\-07\\-20 \\|title\\=How lesbian, gay employees deal with workplace bullying \\|work\\=\\[\\[Mint (newspaper)\\|Mint]] \\|url\\=https://lifestyle.livemint.com/news/talking\\-point/how\\-lesbian\\-gay\\-employees\\-deal\\-with\\-workplace\\-bullying\\-111658305286171\\.html \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-07 \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-07 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230307061758/https://lifestyle.livemint.com/news/talking\\-point/how\\-lesbian\\-gay\\-employees\\-deal\\-with\\-workplace\\-bullying\\-111658305286171\\.html \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"##### Effects of repression",
"The fear of familial harassment and rejection causes sexual and gender minority individuals in India to conceal their identity and remain in the closet. However, this does not guarantee their safety. According to a 2015 Indian survey, the majority of gay men who experienced physical violence (52\\.4%), sexual abuse (55%) and psychological abuse (46\\.5%) lived with their parents and were most often closeted. In contrast, gay men who lived with their partners or sexual and gender minority individuals faced little abuse. Closeted gay men living with parents cannot freely seek peer support from other sexual and gender minority individuals when faced with violence.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Chaturvedi \\|first\\=Sumit \\|date\\=2016\\-10\\-21 \\|title\\=52% of gay men in India without peer support suffer violence: Survey \\|url\\=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india\\-news/52\\-of\\-gay\\-men\\-in\\-india\\-without\\-peer\\-support\\-suffer\\-violence\\-survey/story\\-HKOutVLK7YbIieafqsTrwL.html \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-06 \\|website\\=\\[\\[Hindustan Times]] \\|language\\=en \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-06 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230306145056/https://www.hindustantimes.com/india\\-news/52\\-of\\-gay\\-men\\-in\\-india\\-without\\-peer\\-support\\-suffer\\-violence\\-survey/story\\-HKOutVLK7YbIieafqsTrwL.html \\|url\\-status\\=live }} Subsequently, most sexual and gender minority individuals in India grow old facing life without lawful companionship and confronting the reality of [loneliness](/wiki/Loneliness \"Loneliness\"), which research shows carry a risk comparable to if not exceeds, that of other well\\-accepted factors, including [smoking up to 15 cigarettes a day](/wiki/Tobacco_smoking \"Tobacco smoking\"), [obesity](/wiki/Obesity \"Obesity\"), [physical inactivity](/wiki/Physical_inactivity \"Physical inactivity\") and [air pollution](/wiki/Air_pollution \"Air pollution\").{{Cite journal \\|last1\\=Holt\\-Lunstad \\|first1\\=Julianne \\|last2\\=Smith \\|first2\\=Timothy B. \\|last3\\=Layton \\|first3\\=J. Bradley \\|date\\=2010\\-07\\-27 \\|title\\=Social Relationships and Mortality Risk: A Meta\\-analytic Review \\|journal\\=\\[\\[PLOS Medicine]] \\|volume\\=7 \\|issue\\=7 \\|pages\\=e1000316 \\|doi\\=10\\.1371/journal.pmed.1000316\\|pmid\\=20668659 \\|pmc\\=2910600 \\|doi\\-access\\=free }}{{Cite journal \\|last\\=Holt\\-Lunstad \\|first\\=Julianne \\|date\\=2018\\-01\\-02 \\|title\\=The Potential Public Health Relevance of Social Isolation and Loneliness: Prevalence, Epidemiology, and Risk Factors \\|url\\=https://academic.oup.com/ppar/article/27/4/127/4782506 \\|journal\\=Public Policy \\& Aging Report \\|volume\\=27 \\|issue\\=4 \\|pages\\=127–130 \\|doi\\=10\\.1093/ppar/prx030 \\|doi\\-access\\=free \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-06 \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-06 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230306162944/https://academic.oup.com/ppar/article/27/4/127/4782506 \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"##### Social assimilation through inclusive policies",
"In light of widespread [discrimination](/wiki/Discrimination \"Discrimination\"), [rejection](/wiki/Social_rejection \"Social rejection\") and [violence](/wiki/Violence_against_LGBT_people \"Violence against LGBT people\") against sexual and gender minority individuals in India, the petitioners argued the [sexual and gender minority\\-inclusive policies](/wiki/Gay-friendly \"Gay-friendly\") — for relationships, parenthood, healthcare, education and employment — provides opportunities to assimilate into society To make their case, the petitioners highlighted the historical role of Indian statutory reforms, such as the abolishment of [Sati](/wiki/Sati_%28practice%29 \"Sati (practice)\") and recognition of inter\\-caste marriage and widow remarriage, in aiding the social assimilation of [marginalised](/wiki/Social_exclusion \"Social exclusion\") [Indians](/wiki/Indian_people \"Indian people\").{{Harvnb\\|Vaibhav Jai v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Dr Kavita Arora v. Union of India}} \\& {{Harvnb\\|Nibedita Dutta v. Union of India}} The petitioners highlighted the instances where the [Indian Courts](/wiki/Judiciary_of_India \"Judiciary of India\") got rid of various socially regressive practices in defiance of social and religious norms— *Mary Roy v. State of Kerala (1986\\)*, *Githa Hariharan v. Reserve Bank of India (1999\\)*, *[Shayara Bano v. UOI (2017\\)](/wiki/Triple_talaq_in_India%23Judgement \"Triple talaq in India#Judgement\")*, *Joseph Shine v. UOI (2018\\)* and [*Arun Kumar v. Inspector General of Registration (2019\\)*](/wiki/Arun_Kumar_v._Inspector_General_of_Registration \"Arun Kumar v. Inspector General of Registration\").",
"Scholars reason that the legal recognition of marriage between sexual and gender minority individuals is often accompanied by media attention and increased visibility, which is associated with increased social support for sexual and gender minority individuals.{{Cite journal \\|last1\\=Christopher \\|first1\\=Ramos \\|last2\\=Goldberg \\|first2\\=Naomi G \\|last3\\=Badgett \\|first3\\=M.V. Lee \\|date\\=2009\\-05\\-17 \\|title\\=The Effects of Marriage Equality in Massachusetts: A survey of the experiences and impact of marriage on same\\-sex couples \\|url\\=https://escholarship.org/content/qt9dx6v3kj/qt9dx6v3kj.pdf \\|journal\\=\\[\\[Williams Institute]] \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-07 \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-05 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230305142847/https://escholarship.org/content/qt9dx6v3kj/qt9dx6v3kj.pdf \\|url\\-status\\=live }}{{Cite journal \\|last\\=Lewis \\|first\\=Gregory B. \\|date\\=2011\\-05\\-02 \\|title\\=The Friends and Family Plan: Contact with Gays and Support for Gay Rights \\|url\\=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10\\.1111/j.1541\\-0072\\.2011\\.00405\\.x \\|journal\\=\\[\\[Policy Studies Journal]] \\|volume\\=39 \\|issue\\=2 \\|pages\\=217–238 \\|doi\\=10\\.1111/j.1541\\-0072\\.2011\\.00405\\.x \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-07 \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-07 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230307102539/https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10\\.1111/j.1541\\-0072\\.2011\\.00405\\.x \\|url\\-status\\=live }}{{Cite journal \\|last1\\=Chomsky \\|first1\\=Daniel \\|last2\\=Barclay \\|first2\\=Scott \\|date\\=2010 \\|title\\=The Mass Media, Public Opinion, and Lesbian and Gay Rights \\|url\\=https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/abs/10\\.1146/annurev\\-lawsocsci\\-102209\\-152825 \\|journal\\=\\[\\[Annual Review of Law and Social Science]] \\|volume\\=6 \\|pages\\=387–403 \\|doi\\=10\\.1146/annurev\\-lawsocsci\\-102209\\-152825 \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-07 \\|archive\\-date\\=2022\\-10\\-12 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20221012131104/https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/abs/10\\.1146/annurev\\-lawsocsci\\-102209\\-152825 \\|url\\-status\\=live }} The increased social support could translate into improved familial and peer acceptance, which is associated with improved mental health.{{Cite journal \\|last1\\=Ryan \\|first1\\=Caitlin \\|last2\\=Huebner \\|first2\\=David \\|last3\\=Diaz \\|first3\\=Rafael M. \\|last4\\=Sanchez \\|first4\\=Jorge \\|date\\=2009 \\|title\\=Family Rejection as a Predictor of Negative Health Outcomes in White and Latino Lesbian, Gay, and Bisexual Young Adults \\|url\\=https://publications.aap.org/pediatrics/article\\-abstract/123/1/346/71912/Family\\-Rejection\\-as\\-a\\-Predictor\\-of\\-Negative\\-Health \\|journal\\=\\[\\[Pediatrics (journal)\\|Pediatrics]] \\|volume\\=123 \\|issue\\=1 \\|pages\\=346–352 \\|doi\\=10\\.1542/peds.2007\\-3524 \\|pmid\\=19117902 \\|s2cid\\=33361972 \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-07 \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-25 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230325095337/https://publications.aap.org/pediatrics/article\\-abstract/123/1/346/71912/Family\\-Rejection\\-as\\-a\\-Predictor\\-of\\-Negative\\-Health \\|url\\-status\\=live }}{{Cite journal \\|last1\\=Gini \\|first1\\=Gianluca \\|last2\\=Espelage \\|first2\\=Dorothy L. \\|date\\=2014\\-08\\-06 \\|title\\=Peer Victimization, Cyberbullying, and Suicide Risk in Children and Adolescents \\|url\\=https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama/article\\-abstract/1892227 \\|journal\\=\\[\\[JAMA\\|Journal of the American Medical Association]] \\|volume\\=312 \\|issue\\=5 \\|pages\\=545–546 \\|doi\\=10\\.1001/jama.2014\\.3212 \\|pmid\\=25096695 \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-07 \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-07 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230307102540/https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama/article\\-abstract/1892227 \\|url\\-status\\=live }} A 2017 [U.S.](/wiki/United_States \"United States\") study found sexual and gender minority teens' suicide attempts declined in [U.S. states](/wiki/U.S._state \"U.S. state\") that enacted laws recognising [same\\-sex marriage](/wiki/Same-sex_marriage \"Same-sex marriage\"). The study also reported the effect of legal recognition of [same\\-sex marriage](/wiki/Same-sex_marriage \"Same-sex marriage\") persisted two years after recognition, disproving the argument that legal recognition of [same\\-sex marriage](/wiki/Same-sex_marriage \"Same-sex marriage\") would negatively affect sexual and gender minority individuals due to social and political backlash.{{Cite journal \\|last1\\=Raifman \\|first1\\=Julia \\|last2\\=Moscoe \\|first2\\=Ellen \\|last3\\=Austin \\|first3\\=S. Bryn \\|last4\\=McConnell \\|first4\\=Margaret \\|date\\=2017\\-02\\-20 \\|title\\=Difference\\-in\\-differences analysis of the association between state same\\-sex marriage policies and adolescent suicide attempts \\|url\\=https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamapediatrics/fullarticle/2604258 \\|journal\\=\\[\\[JAMA Pediatrics]] \\|volume\\=171 \\|issue\\=4 \\|pages\\=350–356 \\|doi\\=10\\.1001/jamapediatrics.2016\\.4529 \\|pmid\\=28241285 \\|pmc\\=5848493 \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-05 \\|archive\\-date\\=2019\\-05\\-18 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190518115213/https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamapediatrics/fullarticle/2604258 \\|url\\-status\\=live }} More directly, the legal recognition of the right to marry would extend the [previously discussed](/wiki/%23National_Laws_%26_Regulations \"#National Laws & Regulations\") benefits, entitlements, privileges and obligations to couples from sexual and gender minority communities and improve their quality of life.",
"#### Economic cost of social exclusion",
"The petitioners argued that the [structural discrimination](/wiki/Structural_discrimination \"Structural discrimination\") against sexual and gender minority individuals in India, such as the prohibition of marriage between sexual and gender minority individuals, hurts economic output— an unnecessary cost to all [Indian citizens](/wiki/Indian_people \"Indian people\"). Cross\\-country studies have estimated that the legal provision of [same\\-sex marriage](/wiki/Same-sex_marriage \"Same-sex marriage\") is associated with a long\\-term increase in [GDP per capita](/wiki/Gross_domestic_product \"Gross domestic product\") of 54 to 64 per cent.{{Cite journal \\|last1\\=Lamontagne \\|first1\\=Erik \\|last2\\=d’Elbée \\|first2\\=Marc \\|last3\\=Ross \\|first3\\=Michael W. \\|last4\\=Carroll \\|first4\\=Aengus \\|last5\\=Plessis \\|first5\\=André du \\|last6\\=Loures \\|first6\\=Luiz \\|date\\=2018\\-03\\-03 \\|title\\=A socioecological measurement of homophobia for all countries and its public health impact \\|url\\=https://academic.oup.com/eurpub/article/28/5/967/4919666 \\|journal\\=\\[\\[European Journal of Public Health]] \\|volume\\=28 \\|issue\\=5 \\|pages\\=967–972 \\|doi\\=10\\.1093/eurpub/cky023 \\|pmid\\=29514190 \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-11 \\|archive\\-date\\=2020\\-01\\-03 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200103100505/https://academic.oup.com/eurpub/article/28/5/967/4919666 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|doi\\-access\\=free }}",
"[Discrimination](/wiki/Discrimination \"Discrimination\") in the workplace leads to underutilisation of [human capital](/wiki/Human_capital \"Human capital\") if a less skilled worker from favoured groups is hired or promoted instead of a skilled sexual and gender minority worker. If the skilled sexual and gender minority workers cannot find a suitable option, then the unutilised or underutilised skilled sexual and gender minority workers constitute a loss to economic output.",
"In addition to [discrimination](/wiki/Discrimination \"Discrimination\"), the harassment of sexual and gender minority workers can reduce their [productivity](/wiki/Productivity \"Productivity\"), even if their wages and employment are not directly affected. A 2016 study found that 40 per cent of sexual and gender minority workers experienced [harassment](/wiki/Harassment \"Harassment\") by their peers, and 66 per cent heard negative comments about sexual and gender minorities.{{Citation \\|last1\\=Dhar \\|first1\\=Udayan \\|title\\=The Indian LGBT Workplace Climate Survey 2016 \\|url\\=https://vartagensex.org/wp\\-content/uploads/2019/10/1559396942000\\-mingle\\-lgbt\\-wrkplc\\-climt\\-srvy\\-2016\\.pdf \\|type\\=Survey Report \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-11 \\|publisher\\=Mission for Indian Gay \\& Lesbian Empowerment \\|last2\\=Sinha \\|first2\\=Ramkrishna \\|last3\\=Khan \\|first3\\=Zafrulla \\|archive\\-date\\=2022\\-07\\-09 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220709025644/https://vartagensex.org/wp\\-content/uploads/2019/10/1559396942000\\-mingle\\-lgbt\\-wrkplc\\-climt\\-srvy\\-2016\\.pdf \\|url\\-status\\=live }} A 2019 study found that sexual and gender minority workers are 10 per cent less [productive](/wiki/Productivity \"Productivity\") in the same job as the general population, leading to a loss of 0\\.4 per cent of [GDP](/wiki/Gross_domestic_product \"Gross domestic product\") annually.",
"Several studies found a positive association between [sexual and gender minority\\-inclusive policies](/wiki/Gay-friendly \"Gay-friendly\") and financial measures like stock prices, asset returns, per\\-worker output and employee innovation.{{Cite journal \\|last1\\=Shan \\|first1\\=Liwei \\|last2\\=Fu \\|first2\\=Shihe \\|last3\\=Zheng \\|first3\\=Lu \\|date\\=2017 \\|title\\=Corporate sexual equality and firm performance. \\|url\\=http://socialbigdata.cn/css/team/doc/zheng/Corporate%20Sexual%20Equality%20and%20Firm%20Performance.pdf \\|journal\\=Strategic Management Journal \\|volume\\=38 \\|issue\\=9 \\|pages\\=1812–1826 \\|doi\\=10\\.1002/smj.2624 \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-11 \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-10\\-16 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20231016113015/http://socialbigdata.cn/css/team/doc/zheng/Corporate%20Sexual%20Equality%20and%20Firm%20Performance.pdf \\|url\\-status\\=live }}{{Cite journal \\|last1\\=Li \\|first1\\=Feng \\|last2\\=Nagar \\|first2\\=Venky \\|date\\=2013 \\|title\\=Diversity and performance \\|url\\=http://gljc.sxu.edu.cn/docs/2013\\-10/20131021101508197036\\.pdf \\|journal\\=\\[\\[Management Science (journal)\\|Management Science]] \\|volume\\=59 \\|issue\\=3 \\|pages\\=529–544 \\|doi\\=10\\.1287/mnsc.1120\\.1548 \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-11 \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-11 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230311133409/http://gljc.sxu.edu.cn/docs/2013\\-10/20131021101508197036\\.pdf \\|url\\-status\\=live }}{{Cite journal \\|last1\\=Gao \\|first1\\=Huasheng \\|last2\\=Zhang \\|first2\\=Wei \\|date\\=2017\\-06\\-15 \\|title\\=Employment nondiscrimination acts and corporate innovation. \\|url\\=https://pubsonline.informs.org/doi/abs/10\\.1287/mnsc.2016\\.2457 \\|journal\\=\\[\\[Management Science (journal)\\|Management Science]] \\|volume\\=63 \\|issue\\=9 \\|pages\\=2982–2999 \\|doi\\=10\\.1287/mnsc.2016\\.2457 \\|hdl\\=10356/81557 \\|s2cid\\=23088627 \\|hdl\\-access\\=free \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-11 \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-11 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230311131850/https://pubsonline.informs.org/doi/abs/10\\.1287/mnsc.2016\\.2457 \\|url\\-status\\=live }} It is not a coincidence that 91 per cent of [Fortune 500](/wiki/Fortune_500 \"Fortune 500\") companies included [sexual orientation](/wiki/Sexual_orientation \"Sexual orientation\") in their non\\-discrimination policies in 2019\\.{{Cite web \\|title\\=LGBTQ\\+ Equality at the Fortune 500 \\|url\\=https://www.hrc.org/resources/lgbt\\-equality\\-at\\-the\\-fortune\\-500 \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-11 \\|website\\=\\[\\[Human Rights Campaign]] \\|language\\=en\\-US \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-11 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230311131849/https://www.hrc.org/resources/lgbt\\-equality\\-at\\-the\\-fortune\\-500 \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"##### Emigration",
"When denied equal rights, sexual and gender minority individuals who can migrate, often highly educated or financially resourceful individuals, migrate to countries that afford better protection. Sexual Migration— migration where [sexual orientation](/wiki/Sexual_orientation \"Sexual orientation\") is an influential factor— is a well\\-documented and widespread phenomenon.{{Cite journal \\|last\\=Carrillo \\|first\\=Héctor \\|date\\=2004 \\|title\\=Sexual migration, cross\\-cultural sexual encounters, and sexual health \\|url\\=https://link.springer.com/article/10\\.1525/srsp.2004\\.1\\.3\\.58 \\|journal\\=\\[\\[Sexuality Research and Social Policy]] \\|volume\\=1 \\|issue\\=3 \\|pages\\=58–70 \\|doi\\=10\\.1525/srsp.2004\\.1\\.3\\.58 \\|s2cid\\=145584935 \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-11 \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-11 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230311141106/https://link.springer.com/article/10\\.1525/srsp.2004\\.1\\.3\\.58 \\|url\\-status\\=live }} Studies focusing on Indian migrants have documented the lack of [sexual and gender minority rights in India](/wiki/LGBT_rights_in_India \"LGBT rights in India\") as a motivating factor for the decision.{{Cite journal \\|last\\=Smith \\|first\\=Geoffrey \\|date\\=2012\\-08\\-13 \\|title\\=Sexuality, space and migration: South Asian gay men in Australia \\|url\\=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10\\.1111/j.1745\\-7939\\.2012\\.01229\\.x \\|journal\\=New Zealand Geographer \\|volume\\=68 \\|issue\\=2 \\|pages\\=92–100 \\|doi\\=10\\.1111/j.1745\\-7939\\.2012\\.01229\\.x \\|bibcode\\=2012NZGeo..68\\...92S \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-11 \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-11 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230311141103/https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10\\.1111/j.1745\\-7939\\.2012\\.01229\\.x \\|url\\-status\\=live }}{{Cite journal \\|last\\=Baas \\|first\\=Michiel \\|date\\=2019 \\|title\\=The past, present and future of 'gay' migrants from India in Singapore \\|url\\=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10\\.1177/0011392118792922 \\|journal\\=\\[\\[Current Sociology]] \\|volume\\=67 \\|issue\\=2 \\|pages\\=206–224 \\|doi\\=10\\.1177/0011392118792922 \\|s2cid\\=149617969 \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-11 \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-11 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230311141103/https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10\\.1177/0011392118792922 \\|url\\-status\\=live }} Due to the lack of Indian studies on sexual migration, the petitioners pointed to the [Hong Kong](/wiki/Hong_Kong \"Hong Kong\") study, which reported that 52\\.5 per cent considered leaving because of their [sexual orientation](/wiki/Sexual_orientation \"Sexual orientation\"), of whom 91\\.3 per cent cited the lack of legal recognition of marriage between sexual and gender minority individuals as a reason.{{Cite journal \\|last1\\=Suen \\|first1\\=Yiu Tung \\|last2\\=Chan \\|first2\\=Randolph CH \\|date\\=2021\\-11\\-04 \\|title\\=\"Gay brain drain\": Hong Kong lesbian, gay, and bisexual people's consideration of emigration because of non\\-inclusive social policies \\|url\\=https://link.springer.com/article/10\\.1007/s13178\\-020\\-00497\\-z \\|journal\\=\\[\\[Sexuality Research and Social Policy]] \\|volume\\=18 \\|issue\\=3 \\|pages\\=739–752 \\|doi\\=10\\.1007/s13178\\-020\\-00497\\-z \\|s2cid\\=256065733 \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-11 \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-11 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230311141107/https://link.springer.com/article/10\\.1007/s13178\\-020\\-00497\\-z \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"##### Foreign revenue",
"Research shows a positive correlation between acceptance of [homosexuality](/wiki/Homosexuality \"Homosexuality\") and foreign investments.{{Cite journal \\|last\\=Noland \\|first\\=Marcus \\|date\\=2005\\-12\\-16 \\|title\\=Popular attitudes, globalization and risk \\|url\\=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10\\.1111/j.1468\\-2362\\.2005\\.00157\\.x \\|journal\\=\\[\\[International Finance (journal)\\|International Finance]] \\|volume\\=8 \\|issue\\=2 \\|pages\\=199–229 \\|doi\\=10\\.1111/j.1468\\-2362\\.2005\\.00157\\.x \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-11 \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-11 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230311145617/https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10\\.1111/j.1468\\-2362\\.2005\\.00157\\.x \\|url\\-status\\=live }} When comparing cities, there is a positive association between [homosexual](/wiki/Homosexuality \"Homosexuality\") residents, foreign\\-born residents and the number of successful businesses.{{Cite book \\|last1\\=Florida \\|first1\\=Richard \\|url\\=https://www.emerald.com/insight/publication/doi/10\\.1016/S1479\\-3520(2003\\)9 \\|title\\=The City as an Entertainment Machine: Volume 9 \\|last2\\=Gates \\|first2\\=Gary \\|date\\=2003\\-12\\-16 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Emerald Group Publishing\\|Emerald Group Publishing Limited]] \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-76231\\-060\\-9 \\|editor\\-last\\=Nichols Clark \\|editor\\-first\\=Terry \\|pages\\=199–219 \\|chapter\\=Technology and Tolerance: the Importance of Diversity To High\\-Technology Growth \\|doi\\=10\\.1016/S1479\\-3520(03\\)09007\\-X \\|chapter\\-url\\=https://www.emerald.com/insight/content/doi/10\\.1016/S1479\\-3520(03\\)09007\\-X/full/html \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-11 \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-11 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230311145619/https://www.emerald.com/insight/publication/doi/10\\.1016/S1479\\-3520(2003\\)9 \\|url\\-status\\=live }} Additionally, sexual and gender minority [tourism](/wiki/Tourism \"Tourism\") was worth 211 billion dollars in 2016\\.{{Citation \\|last\\=Thurlow \\|first\\=Claire \\|title\\=The Economic Cost of Homophobia \\|date\\=2018 \\|url\\=https://www.petertatchellfoundation.org/wp\\-content/uploads/2018/06/report\\-a4\\-lo\\-res\\-1\\.pdf \\|type\\=Report \\|publisher\\=Peter Tatchell Foundation \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-11 \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-11 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230311145627/https://www.petertatchellfoundation.org/wp\\-content/uploads/2018/06/report\\-a4\\-lo\\-res\\-1\\.pdf \\|url\\-status\\=live }} Sexual and gender minority travellers tend to spend more than [cisgendered](/wiki/Cisgender \"Cisgender\") [heterosexual](/wiki/Heterosexuality \"Heterosexuality\") travellers, but they are unlikely to choose destinations which lack adequate protections for sexual and gender minority individuals.",
"##### Health disparity",
"The studies show the [stigma](/wiki/Social_stigma \"Social stigma\") and [social exclusion](/wiki/Social_exclusion \"Social exclusion\") experienced by sexual and gender minority individuals in India lead to higher incidences of physical and mental health problems among sexual and gender minority individuals in India compared to the general population drastically reducing their ability to engage in productive work and contribute to overall economic activity.{{Cite journal \\|last\\=Badgett \\|first\\=M.V. Lee \\|date\\=2014\\-10\\-03 \\|title\\=The Economic Cost of Stigma and the Exclusion of LGBT People: A Case Study of India \\|url\\=https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/dbf67f8d\\-0566\\-5ea8\\-ad55\\-02c83c42d600/content \\|journal\\=\\[\\[World Bank Group]] \\|publication\\-place\\=Washington, DC. \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-11 \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-08 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230308192853/https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/dbf67f8d\\-0566\\-5ea8\\-ad55\\-02c83c42d600/content \\|url\\-status\\=live }} [Canadian](/wiki/Canada \"Canada\") and [US](/wiki/United_States \"United States\") studies on the cost of [stigma](/wiki/Social_stigma \"Social stigma\") and [social exclusion](/wiki/Social_exclusion \"Social exclusion\") have used data on [depression](/wiki/Depression_%28mood%29 \"Depression (mood)\"), [suicide](/wiki/Suicide \"Suicide\"), [smoking](/wiki/Tobacco_smoking \"Tobacco smoking\"), [alcohol abuse](/wiki/Alcoholism \"Alcoholism\"), [substance abuse](/wiki/Substance_abuse \"Substance abuse\"), [HIV](/wiki/HIV/AIDS \"HIV/AIDS\"), hospitalisation, lost days of work, and early mortality.{{Cite book \\|last\\=Bank \\|first\\=Christopher \\|url\\=https://cuisr.usask.ca/documents/publications/2000\\-2004/The%20Cost%20of%20Homophobia%20Literature%20Review%20on%20the%20Economic%20Impact%20of%20Homophobia%20On%20Canada.pdf \\|title\\=The Cost of Homophobia: Literature Review on the Economic Impact of Homophobia On Canada \\|publisher\\=Community\\-University Institute for Social Research \\|year\\=2004 \\|location\\=\\[\\[Saskatoon\\|Saskatoon, Canada]] \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-11 \\|archive\\-date\\=2021\\-08\\-08 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210808212143/https://cuisr.usask.ca/documents/publications/2000\\-2004/The%20Cost%20of%20Homophobia%20Literature%20Review%20on%20the%20Economic%20Impact%20of%20Homophobia%20On%20Canada.pdf \\|url\\-status\\=live }}{{Citation \\|last1\\=Hanlon \\|first1\\=Carrie \\|title\\=State documentation of racial and ethnic health disparities to inform strategic action. \\|date\\=2011 \\|place\\=\\[\\[Rockville, Maryland\\|Rockville, United States]] \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality]] \\|last2\\=Rosenthal \\|first2\\=Jill \\|last3\\=Hinkle \\|first3\\=Larry}}{{Citation \\|last1\\=LaVeist \\|first1\\=Thomas A \\|title\\=The economic burden of health inequalities in the United States. \\|url\\=https://hsrc.himmelfarb.gwu.edu/sphhs\\_policy\\_facpubs/225/ \\|place\\=\\[\\[Washington, D.C.\\|Washington, D.C., United States]] \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Joint Center for Political and Economic Studies]] \\|last2\\=Gaskin \\|first2\\=Darrell J. \\|last3\\=Richard \\|first3\\=Patrick \\|journal\\=Health Policy and Management Faculty Publications \\|date\\=September 2009 \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-11 \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-11 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230311073702/https://hsrc.himmelfarb.gwu.edu/sphhs\\_policy\\_facpubs/225/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }} Since [India](/wiki/India \"India\") lacks such comprehensive data on the health disparity of sexual and gender minority individuals in India, the 2014 [World Bank](/wiki/World_Bank \"World Bank\") study considered only [depression](/wiki/Depression_%28mood%29 \"Depression (mood)\"), [suicide](/wiki/Suicide \"Suicide\") and [HIV](/wiki/HIV/AIDS \"HIV/AIDS\") among sexual and gender minority individuals in India. The study estimates [stigma](/wiki/Social_stigma \"Social stigma\") and [social exclusion](/wiki/Social_exclusion \"Social exclusion\") of sexual and gender minority individuals in India cost India up to 1\\.3 per cent of its [GDP](/wiki/Gross_domestic_product \"Gross domestic product\") annually.{{Cite journal \\|last1\\=Badgett \\|first1\\=M.V. Lee \\|last2\\=Waaldijk \\|first2\\=Kees \\|last3\\=van der Meulen Rodgers \\|first3\\=Yana \\|date\\=2019\\-04\\-06 \\|title\\=The relationship between LGBT inclusion and economic development: Macro\\-level evidence \\|url\\=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0305750X19300695 \\|journal\\=\\[\\[World Development (journal)\\|World Development]] \\|volume\\=120 \\|pages\\=1–14 \\|doi\\=10\\.1016/j.worlddev.2019\\.03\\.011 \\|s2cid\\=159223991 \\|hdl\\=1887/84562 \\|hdl\\-access\\=free \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-11 \\|archive\\-date\\=2021\\-08\\-06 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210806220939/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0305750X19300695 \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"Researchers’ preferred explanation for the higher incidences of mental health problems among sexual and gender minority individuals is that [stigma](/wiki/Social_stigma \"Social stigma\"), [prejudice](/wiki/Prejudice \"Prejudice\"), and [discrimination](/wiki/Discrimination \"Discrimination\") create a stressful social environment that can lead to these problems.{{Cite journal \\|last\\=Meyer \\|first\\=Ilan H. \\|author\\-link\\=Ilan Meyer \\|date\\=2003 \\|title\\=Prejudice, Social Stress, and Mental Health in Lesbian, Gay, and Bisexual Populations: Conceptual Issues and Research Evidence \\|journal\\=\\[\\[Psychological Bulletin]] \\|volume\\=125 \\|issue\\=5 \\|pages\\=674–697 \\|doi\\=10\\.1037/0033\\-2909\\.129\\.5\\.674\\|pmid\\=12956539 \\|pmc\\=2072932 }} Rates of [depression](/wiki/Depression_%28mood%29 \"Depression (mood)\") among sexual and gender minority individuals in India are 6 to 12 times higher than the general population. A Mumbai\\-based study of men who have sex with men found 45 per cent to be [suicidal](/wiki/Suicidal_ideation \"Suicidal ideation\"), with 15 per cent categorised as high risk.{{Cite journal \\|last1\\=Sivasubramanian \\|first1\\=Murugesan \\|last2\\=Mimiaga \\|first2\\=Matthew J. \\|last3\\=Mayer \\|first3\\=Kenneth H. \\|last4\\=Anand \\|first4\\=Vivek Raj \\|last5\\=Johnson \\|first5\\=Carey V. \\|last6\\=Prabhugate \\|first6\\=Priti \\|last7\\=Safren \\|first7\\=Steven A. \\|date\\=2011\\-08\\-01 \\|title\\=Suicidality, clinical depression, and anxiety disorders are highly prevalent in men who have sex with men in Mumbai, India: findings from a community\\-recruited sample. \\|journal\\=Psychol Health Med \\|volume\\=16 \\|issue\\=4 \\|pages\\=450–462 \\|doi\\=10\\.1080/13548506\\.2011\\.554645\\|pmid\\=21749242 \\|pmc\\=3136931 }} This range of [suicidal ideation](/wiki/Suicidal_ideation \"Suicidal ideation\") among sexual and gender minority individuals in India is 7 to 14 times the [suicidal ideation](/wiki/Suicidal_ideation \"Suicidal ideation\") among the general population from developing countries, including India.",
"[Social exclusion](/wiki/Social_exclusion \"Social exclusion\") might make healthcare services less relevant or accessible to sexual and gender minority individuals in India. A study found that [prejudice](/wiki/Prejudice \"Prejudice\") in society, specifically among healthcare providers, and experiencing negative consequences when disclosing their identity was associated with lower access to [HIV](/wiki/HIV/AIDS \"HIV/AIDS\") preventive measures among sexual and gender minority individuals.{{Citation \\|last1\\=Arreola \\|first1\\=Sonya \\|title\\=Access to HIV Prevention and Treatment for Men Who Have Sex with Men: Findings from the 2012 Global Men's Health and Rights Study (GMHR) \\|date\\=2012 \\|url\\=https://mpactglobal.org/wp\\-content/uploads/2015/09/GMHR\\_Factsheet\\_EN.pdf \\|type\\=\\[\\[White paper\\|White Paper]] \\|publication\\-place\\=Oakland \\|publisher\\=The Global Forum on MSM \\& HIV (MSMGF) \\|last2\\=Hebert \\|first2\\=Pato \\|last3\\=Makofane \\|first3\\=Keletso \\|last4\\=Beck \\|first4\\=J. \\|last5\\=Ayala \\|first5\\=George \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-11 \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-11 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230311055155/https://mpactglobal.org/wp\\-content/uploads/2015/09/GMHR\\_Factsheet\\_EN.pdf \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"### Respondent",
"On 12 March 2023, the [Union Government](/wiki/Government_of_India \"Government of India\") under the leadership of the [Bharatiya Janata Party](/wiki/Bharatiya_Janata_Party \"Bharatiya Janata Party\") filed a counter\\-affidavit in the Supreme Court, opposing extending the right to marry to sexual and gender minority individuals in India. The Union Government argued that the challenge to notice and objection provisions of the [Special Marriage Act](/wiki/Special_Marriage_Act%2C_1954 \"Special Marriage Act, 1954\") and [Foreign Marriage Act](/wiki/Foreign_Marriage_Act%2C_1969 \"Foreign Marriage Act, 1969\") and adoption regulations unrelated to same\\-sex marriage. Therefore, the Supreme Court should exclude those matters from the current Case. This section contains a summary of relevant precedents, issues and laws submitted.",
"#### Fundamental rights",
"The [Union Government](/wiki/Government_of_India \"Government of India\") argued that denying the right to marry for sexual and gender minority individuals in India does not violate the [fundamental rights](/wiki/Fundamental_rights_in_India \"Fundamental rights in India\") guaranteed under Articles [14](/wiki/Article_14_of_the_Constitution_of_India \"Article 14 of the Constitution of India\"), [15](/wiki/Article_15_of_the_Constitution_of_India \"Article 15 of the Constitution of India\"), [19](/wiki/Fundamental_rights_in_India%23Right_To_Freedom \"Fundamental rights in India#Right To Freedom\"), [21](/wiki/Fundamental_rights_in_India%23Right_To_Freedom \"Fundamental rights in India#Right To Freedom\") and [25](/wiki/Freedom_of_religion_in_India \"Freedom of religion in India\") of the [Indian Constitution](/wiki/Constitution_of_India \"Constitution of India\"). To make their case, they point to the Supreme Court ruling in [*Navtej Singh Johar v. UOI (2018\\)*](/wiki/Navtej_Singh_Johar_v._Union_of_India \"Navtej Singh Johar v. Union of India\") that explicitly differentiated and excluded marital relationships while reading down [Section 377](/wiki/Section_377 \"Section 377\") of the [Indian Penal Code](/wiki/Indian_Penal_Code \"Indian Penal Code\") for violating [fundamental rights](/wiki/Fundamental_rights_in_India \"Fundamental rights in India\"). They argue that the Supreme Court decriminalised homosexual conduct but did not legitimise it.",
"[Normativity](/wiki/Normativity \"Normativity\") is an intelligible differentia which distinguishes opposite\\-sex couples from couples from sexual and gender minority communities. The rationale for this classification is to ensure social stability through legal recognition of marriage. Hence the non\\-recognition of marriage between sexual and gender minority individuals does not violate [Article 14](/wiki/Article_14_of_the_Constitution_of_India \"Article 14 of the Constitution of India\") of the [Indian Constitution](/wiki/Constitution_of_India \"Constitution of India\"), which guarantees [equality before the law](/wiki/Equality_before_the_law \"Equality before the law\") or [equal protection of the laws](/wiki/Equal_Protection_Clause \"Equal Protection Clause\") within the territory of India.",
"Opposite\\-sex [couples living together](/wiki/Cohabitation_in_India \"Cohabitation in India\") do not enjoy the same status as opposite\\-sex married couples. The Supreme Court held the presumption of the marriage of [couples living together](/wiki/Cohabitation_in_India \"Cohabitation in India\") is rebuttable in *Badri Prasad v. Director of Consolidation(1978\\)*. Not every form of opposite\\-sex relationship is on par with opposite\\-sex marriage. Since the non\\-recognition of marriage between sexual and gender minority individuals is not discrimination only based on sex, it does not violate [Article 15](/wiki/Article_15_of_the_Constitution_of_India \"Article 15 of the Constitution of India\") of the [Indian Constitution](/wiki/Constitution_of_India \"Constitution of India\").",
"While all citizens have a right to an association under [Article 19](/wiki/Fundamental_rights_in_India%23Right_To_Freedom \"Fundamental rights in India#Right To Freedom\") of the [Indian Constitution](/wiki/Constitution_of_India \"Constitution of India\"), the State is not obligated to recognise such associations. The State limits the legal recognition of marriage to opposite\\-sex couples. While the State does not recognise various forms of marriages, unions or relationships between individuals in society, they are not unlawful either.",
"##### Right to life and personal liberty",
"The [Union Government](/wiki/Government_of_India \"Government of India\") argued against any interpretation of [Article 21](/wiki/Fundamental_rights_in_India%23Right_to_life \"Fundamental rights in India#Right to life\") of the [Indian Constitution](/wiki/Constitution_of_India \"Constitution of India\") to include any implicit approval of the right to marry for sexual and gender minority individuals. They point to the Supreme Court decision that explicitly differentiated and excluded marital relationships while reading down [Section 377](/wiki/Section_377 \"Section 377\") of the [Indian Penal Code](/wiki/Indian_Penal_Code \"Indian Penal Code\") for violating Article 21 in [*Navtej Singh Johar v. UOI (2018\\)*](/wiki/Navtej_Singh_Johar_v._Union_of_India \"Navtej Singh Johar v. Union of India\").",
"Since the fundamental rights guaranteed by [Article 21](/wiki/Fundamental_rights_in_India%23Right_to_life \"Fundamental rights in India#Right to life\") are subject to the procedure established by the law, and the Indian marriage laws explicitly limit the recognition to opposite\\-sex couples, the Supreme Court cannot extend the right to marry to include couples from sexual and gender minority communities. The Supreme Court held that [Article 21](/wiki/Fundamental_rights_in_India%23Right_to_life \"Fundamental rights in India#Right to life\") provides the right to marry a person of choice but also included that the law may regulate the conditions of a valid marriage in *[Shafin Jehan vs Asokan K.M (2018\\)](/wiki/Hadiya_case \"Hadiya case\")*.",
"Marriage is between two individuals with a profound impact on their personal lives, causing petitioners to seek recognition of marriage under the [right to privacy](/wiki/Right_to_Privacy_verdict \"Right to Privacy verdict\"), which is intrinsic to [Article 21](/wiki/Fundamental_rights_in_India%23Right_to_life \"Fundamental rights in India#Right to life\") of the [Indian Constitution](/wiki/Constitution_of_India \"Constitution of India\"). However, when considering legal recognition of their marriage and ancillary rights, the State cannot relegate marriage as a concept within the private domain. The legal recognition of marriage is a public recognition of their relationship.",
"Even if the petitioners can claim the right to marry under [Article 21](/wiki/Fundamental_rights_in_India%23Right_to_life \"Fundamental rights in India#Right to life\"), the [legislature](/wiki/Parliament_of_India \"Parliament of India\") can curtail the rights on constitutionally permissible grounds such as legitimate State interest.",
"##### Right to freedom of conscience and religion",
"[Article 25](/wiki/Freedom_of_religion_in_India \"Freedom of religion in India\") of the [Indian Constitution](/wiki/Constitution_of_India \"Constitution of India\") protects [personal laws](/wiki/Law_of_India%23Family_law_%E2%80%93_personal_law \"Law of India#Family law – personal law\"). The Supreme Court reaffirmed the constitutional protection of [personal laws](/wiki/Law_of_India%23Family_law_%E2%80%93_personal_law \"Law of India#Family law – personal law\") when ruling in *[Shayara Bano v. UOI (2017\\)](/wiki/Triple_talaq_in_India%23Judgement \"Triple talaq in India#Judgement\")*.",
"#### Constitutional exception to fundamental rights",
"The [Union Government](/wiki/Government_of_India \"Government of India\") pointed to the Supreme Court ruling that reading fundamental rights is not to be done in isolation but along with the [Directive Principles of State Policy](/wiki/Directive_Principles \"Directive Principles\") and the [Fundamental Duties](/wiki/Fundamental_Rights%2C_Directive_Principles_and_Fundamental_Duties_of_India%23Fundamental_Duties \"Fundamental Rights, Directive Principles and Fundamental Duties of India#Fundamental Duties\") in *Javed v. State of Haryana (2003\\)*. They argue that the principles of legitimate state interests as an exception to fundamental rights would be applicable in the current case.",
"##### Legitimate state interests",
"The [Union Government](/wiki/Government_of_India \"Government of India\") argued that a larger legislative framework around the legislative understanding of marriage between opposite sexes demonstrates the legitimate state interest in limiting legal recognition of marriage. The legal recognition of marriage limited to opposite\\-sex couples is the norm throughout history and foundational to both the existence and continuance of the State.",
"Considering the historical and religious norms and social value of marriage, [Union Government](/wiki/Government_of_India \"Government of India\") argued that the State has a legitimate interest in limiting legal recognition of marriage to opposite\\-sex couples. While deciding on *Ram Shiv Kumar v. State of Haryana (1981\\)* and *Dalmia Cement (Bharat) Ltd. v. UOI (1996\\)*, the Supreme Court held that considerations of social morals are relevant in the process of legislating and [legislature](/wiki/Parliament_of_India \"Parliament of India\") can judge and enforce such societal morality and public acceptance. The Supreme Court held that the right to privacy is not absolute and is subject to lawful actions to prevent crime and disorder or protect the rights and freedom of others, health or morals in the *Mr ‘X’ v. Hospital ‘Z’ (1998\\)*. Similarly, the Supreme Court held that the freedom guaranteed by Article 301 of the [Indian Constitution](/wiki/Constitution_of_India \"Constitution of India\") is not available to the liquor trade because liquor is a harmful substance detrimental to public health, order and morality.",
"###### Historical and religious norms",
"Codified statutory or uncodified [personal laws](/wiki/Law_of_India%23Family_law_%E2%80%93_personal_law \"Law of India#Family law – personal law\") evolved based on societal values and beliefs, cultural history and religious beliefs. The concept of marriage is a concept emanating from the [personal laws](/wiki/Law_of_India%23Family_law_%E2%80%93_personal_law \"Law of India#Family law – personal law\") of citizens. In [Hinduism](/wiki/Hinduism \"Hinduism\"), marriage is a sacrament for reciprocal duties between a [cis man](/wiki/Man \"Man\") and [cis woman](/wiki/Woman \"Woman\"). In [Islam](/wiki/Islam \"Islam\"), marriage is a contract between a cis man and cis woman. With the evolution of jurisprudence, the [legislature](/wiki/Parliament_of_India \"Parliament of India\") codified some aspects of marriage. The legal recognition of opposite\\-sex marriage is to give the relationship a formal character and ensure that all statutory provisions governing the relationships, rights, liabilities, privileges and consequences are available. Despite the statutory recognition of marriage, it relies on historical customs, rituals and practices.",
"###### Social values",
"Marriage is a [social institution](/wiki/Institution \"Institution\") that provides security, support and companionship. Marriage has social and moral obligations in addition to legal obligations and plays a significant role in child\\-rearing. Same\\-sex individuals living together and having sexual relationships, which the Supreme Court decriminalised, cannot be compared with the Indian family unit. Indian family unit, which consists of a [cis man](/wiki/Man \"Man\") and [cis woman](/wiki/Woman \"Woman\") as a husband and wife, and the children born to them, is a quintessential building block for the existence and continuance of the society.",
"#### International and comparative law",
"Given the context of the current case, the [Union Government](/wiki/Government_of_India \"Government of India\") argued that Western decisions, without any basis in [Indian Constitutional](/wiki/Constitution_of_India \"Constitution of India\") law jurisprudence, cannot be imported. The Supreme Court rejected the US decision that relied on the due process clause of the Constitution of the United States, which was absent in the [Indian Constitution](/wiki/Constitution_of_India \"Constitution of India\") as it relied upon the tests of reasonableness in the ruling of *Collector of Customs, Madras v. Nathella Sampathu Chetty (1962\\)* and *Santokh Singh v. Delhi Administration (1973\\).*",
"#### Legislative policy",
"The acceptance of marriage between two individuals of the same gender is neither recognised nor accepted by any uncodified [personal](/wiki/Law_of_India%23Family_law_%E2%80%93_personal_law \"Law of India#Family law – personal law\") or codified statutory laws, such as the [Christian Marriage Act of 1872](/wiki/The_Indian_Christian_Marriage_Act%2C_1872 \"The Indian Christian Marriage Act, 1872\"), the [Parsi Marriage and Divorce Act of 1936](/wiki/Parsi_law \"Parsi law\"), the [Special Marriage Act](/wiki/Special_Marriage_Act%2C_1954 \"Special Marriage Act, 1954\"), the [Hindu Marriage Act](/wiki/Hindu_Marriage_Act%2C_1955 \"Hindu Marriage Act, 1955\") and the [Foreign Marriage Act](/wiki/Foreign_Marriage_Act%2C_1969 \"Foreign Marriage Act, 1969\"). Through specific references to opposite sexes, the legislative intent to limit the legal recognition of marriage to opposite\\-sex couples is clear. The Supreme Court affirmed that marriage is a legal union of a man and a woman in the ruling of *Mr ‘X’ v. Hospital ‘Z’ (1998\\)* and *Reema Aggarwal v. Anupam (2004\\).*",
"Extension of the right to marry to sexual and gender minority individuals would make laws governing marriage, ancillary rights and special provisions for married women otiose. The Supreme Court ruled that the ‘relationship in the nature of marriage’ specified in the [Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act](/wiki/Protection_of_Women_from_Domestic_Violence_Act%2C_2005 \"Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act, 2005\") does not include same\\-sex relationships in *Indra Sarma v. V.K.V. Sarma (2013\\)*. The Union Government presented a list of legislations that will be affected if the Supreme Court extend the right to marry to sexual and gender minority individuals, demonstrating the consistent legislative policy that limits marriage to opposite\\-sex couples and the incompatibility between the right and the current Legislative Policy.",
"The above list demonstrates the clear legislative intent to limit the legal recognition of marriage to opposite\\-sex couples. The Supreme Court held that [Judiciary](/wiki/Judiciary_of_India \"Judiciary of India\") is bound to the [literal interpretation](/wiki/Plain_meaning_rule \"Plain meaning rule\") when the words of a statute are clear and unambiguous in the ruling of the *Raghunath Rai Bareja v. Punjab National Bank (2007\\)*. While ruling in *Subramanian Swamy v. Raju (2014\\)*, the Supreme Court held that the [Judiciary](/wiki/Judiciary_of_India \"Judiciary of India\") could read down only when the reading of the provision produces an absurd or unworkable result and reads down a law to give effect to its legislative intent. It is not permissible for the [Judiciary](/wiki/Judiciary_of_India \"Judiciary of India\") to change the entire legislative policy of the country deeply embedded in religious, societal, cultural and legal norms.",
"Recognising marriage and conferring ancillary rights, which have consequences in law and privileges, is a legislative function. The [legislature](/wiki/Parliament_of_India \"Parliament of India\") would have to consider and deliberate on the right to adopt and other rights that would naturally follow the recognition of the right to marry for sexual and gender minority individuals. Only a [legislature](/wiki/Parliament_of_India \"Parliament of India\"), which reflects the collective wisdom of the nation, can enact legislation based on societal values, beliefs and acceptability, and cultural history to govern, regulate, permit or prohibit human relationships, including issues such as [marriage](/wiki/Marriage \"Marriage\"), [adoption](/wiki/Adoption \"Adoption\"), [divorce](/wiki/Divorce \"Divorce\"), and [maintenance](/wiki/Alimony \"Alimony\").",
"Regarding sexual or gender minority spouses, the respondent argued that the legislative intent of the [Citizenship Act](/wiki/Indian_nationality_law \"Indian nationality law\") is to provide a mechanism for foreign citizens married to Indian Citizens or [Overseas Citizens of India](/wiki/Overseas_Citizenship_of_India \"Overseas Citizenship of India\") to obtain [Overseas Citizens of India](/wiki/Overseas_Citizenship_of_India \"Overseas Citizenship of India\"). It was never intended to recognise same\\-sex marriage. The Supreme Court held that Parliament is presumed to know the law of the land when it is legislating in *Bhagwati Steel Rolling Mills v. CCE (2016\\)*. When the Parliament enacted the Citizenship Act, it was aware of laws limiting legal recognition of marriage to opposite\\-sex couples. Therefore, the gender\\-neutral language of the Citizenship Act does not recognise a foreign\\-origin sexual or gender minority spouse.",
"### Intervenors",
"#### National Commission for Protection of Child Rights",
"The [National Commission for Protection of Child Rights](/wiki/National_Commission_for_Protection_of_Child_Rights \"National Commission for Protection of Child Rights\") (NCPCR), a statutory body of the [Union Government](/wiki/Government_of_India \"Government of India\"), intervened in the case opposing the extension of the right to adopt for sexual and gender minority individuals in India.",
"It argued that the current Legislative Policy does not envision same\\-sex adoptions. The [Hindu Adoption and Maintenance Act of 1956](/wiki/Hindu_Adoptions_and_Maintenance_Act%2C_1956 \"Hindu Adoptions and Maintenance Act, 1956\") explicitly recognises opposite\\-sex couples. Therefore, it implies that the Act does not recognise adoption by same\\-sex couples. The [Juvenile Justice Act of 2015](/wiki/Juvenile_Justice_%28Care_and_Protection_of_Children%29_Act%2C_2015 \"Juvenile Justice (Care and Protection of Children) Act, 2015\") prohibits single men from adopting a girl child. Therefore, it would restrict the gay couple from adopting a girl child.",
"India ratified the [United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child](/wiki/Convention_on_the_Rights_of_the_Child \"Convention on the Rights of the Child\") and the [Hague Convention on Protection of Children and Co\\-operation in Respect of Intercountry Adoption](/wiki/Hague_Adoption_Convention \"Hague Adoption Convention\") on 11 December 1992 and 6 June 2003, respectively, and the treaties do not mention same\\-sex adoptions. Therefore, it can be inferred that it does not recognise same\\-sex adoptions.",
"Additionally, a 2015 report argues that studies showing no differences between same\\-sex and opposite\\-sex parents are flawed due to low sample sizes, selective choosing of the participants and biased responses by the participants. The report asserts that more rigorous studies show that children raised by parents in a same\\-sex relationship face greater emotional, developmental, and other difficulties than those raised by mothers and fathers, particularly by their married biological parents.{{Citation \\|last\\=Hall \\|first\\=Jamie \\|title\\=The Research on Same\\-Sex Parenting: \"No Differences\" No More \\|date\\=23 April 2015 \\|url\\=https://www.heritage.org/marriage\\-and\\-family/report/the\\-research\\-same\\-sex\\-parenting\\-no\\-differences\\-no\\-more \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170331152636/https://www.heritage.org/marriage\\-and\\-family/report/the\\-research\\-same\\-sex\\-parenting\\-no\\-differences\\-no\\-more \\|place\\=\\[\\[Washington, D.C.]], \\[\\[United States]] \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[The Heritage Foundation]] \\|archive\\-date\\=31 March 2017}}",
"A 2015 [US](/wiki/United_States \"United States\") study found that emotional problems were twice as prevalent for children with same\\-sex parents than for opposite\\-sex parents. The study found the lowest risk of emotional problems in children living with both biological parents who were married.{{Cite journal \\|last\\=Sullins \\|first\\=Donald Paul \\|date\\=25 January 2015 \\|title\\=Emotional Problems among Children with Same\\-Sex Parents: Difference by Definition \\|journal\\=British Journal of Education, Society and Behavioural Science \\|volume\\=7 \\|issue\\=2 \\|pages\\=99–120 \\|doi\\=10\\.2139/ssrn.2500537}} A longitudinal US study found that children of same\\-sex parents experienced an increased rate of depression and obesity as an adult.{{Cite journal \\|last\\=Sullins \\|first\\=Donald Paul \\|date\\=29 May 2016 \\|title\\=Invisible victims: delayed onset depression among adults with same\\-sex parents. \\|journal\\=Depression Research and Treatment \\|volume\\=2016 \\|pages\\=1–8 \\|doi\\=10\\.1155/2016/2410392 \\|pmid\\=27313882 \\|pmc\\=4903140 \\|doi\\-access\\=free }}{{Expression of Concern\\|doi\\=10\\.1155/2017/4981984\\|http://retractionwatch.com/2017/08/25/publisher\\-flags\\-paper\\-sex\\-parenting\\-neo\\-nazi\\-group\\-cites/ ''Retraction Watch''}}",
"Relying on the [US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention](/wiki/Centers_for_Disease_Control_and_Prevention \"Centers for Disease Control and Prevention\") report that gay and bisexual men are at high risk for sexually transmitted diseases,{{Cite web \\|last\\=US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention \\|author\\-link\\=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention \\|date\\=16 September 2022 \\|title\\=Sexually Transmitted Diseases Among Gay and Bisexual Men \\|url\\=https://www.cdc.gov/msmhealth/STD.htm \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230306170115/https://www.cdc.gov/msmhealth/STD.htm \\|archive\\-date\\=6 March 2023 \\|access\\-date\\= \\|publisher\\=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention \\|language\\=en\\-us \\|publication\\-place\\=\\[\\[Atlanta]], \\[\\[United States]]}} the NCPCR argued that gay and bisexual men could put their adopted children at risk.",
"#### Delhi Commission for Protection of Child Rights",
"The [Delhi Commission for Protection of Child Rights](/wiki/Delhi_Commission_for_Protection_of_Child_Rights \"Delhi Commission for Protection of Child Rights\") (DCPCR), a statutory body of the [Delhi Government](/wiki/Government_of_Delhi \"Government of Delhi\") led by the [Aam Aadmi Party](/wiki/Aam_Aadmi_Party \"Aam Aadmi Party\"), intervened to support extending the right to marry and adopt for sexual and gender minority individuals in India.",
"It argued that the impact of legal recognition of same\\-sex marriage on gendered language in the current Legislative Policy does not present a serious concern. The Fundamental Rights conferred by the Constitution, which relies on gender\\-neutral terms such as \"person\" and \"citizen\", cannot be limited by the gendered language of the Statutes. The State has legal obligations to ensure non\\-discrimination of transgender people in matters including succession under the [Transgender Persons Act of 2019](/wiki/Transgender_Persons_%28Protection_of_Rights%29_Act%2C_2019 \"Transgender Persons (Protection of Rights) Act, 2019\") and *[NLSA v. UOI (2014\\)](/wiki/National_Legal_Services_Authority_v._Union_of_India \"National Legal Services Authority v. Union of India\")*. These mandates have warranted deviation from the literal interpretation of laws.",
"One of the reasons for gendered language is to ensure higher protection for women in heterosexual marriages, such as the [Domestic Violence Act of 2005](/wiki/Protection_of_Women_from_Domestic_Violence_Act%2C_2005 \"Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act, 2005\"), the [Dowry Prohibition Act of 1961](/wiki/Dowry_system_in_India%23Dowry_Prohibition_Act%2C_1961 \"Dowry system in India#Dowry Prohibition Act, 1961\") and sections granting additional grounds for divorce to women. Recognising same\\-sex marriage would not affect these provisions as they would still be relevant in opposite\\-sex marriages. Other conditions, such as maintenance, can be read down as gender\\-neutral.",
"The Indian Succession Act of 1925 governs the succession for the marriage registered under Special Marriage Act unless both parties are Hindu, Sikh, Buddhist or Jain. The Supreme Court reviewed the gendered language in the [Hindu Minority and Guardianship Act of 1956](/wiki/Hindu_Minority_and_Guardianship_Act%2C_1956 \"Hindu Minority and Guardianship Act, 1956\") in *Githa Hariharan v. Reserve Bank of India (1999\\).* Similarly, the Hindu Succession Act of 1956, through legislative amendments and judicial decisions, has been made more gender\\-neutral.",
"Uncodified personal laws are not subject to judicial review. As uncodified personal laws govern guardianship for Muslims, Muslim same\\-sex spouses can rely on the Guardians and Wards Act of 1890 and seek the appointment of guardians through court on a case\\-to\\-case basis. Similarly, uncodified personal laws govern succession for Muslims. If Muslim same\\-sex couples register their marriage under Special Marriage Act, succession will be handled by Indian Succession Act.",
"Additionally, more than 50 countries allow same\\-sex couples to legally adopt children, including 2 in Asia — Israel and Lebanon — 22 in Europe, and 16 in the Americas. [Constitutional Courts](/wiki/Constitutional_court \"Constitutional court\") have agreed that there is no reason to deny adoption rights due to sexual orientation, including the [South Africa](/wiki/South_Africa \"South Africa\") in the [*National Coalition for Gay and Lesbian Equality v. Minister of Home Affairs (2000\\)*](/wiki/National_Coalition_for_Gay_and_Lesbian_Equality_v_Minister_of_Home_Affairs \"National Coalition for Gay and Lesbian Equality v Minister of Home Affairs\") and [*Du Toit v. Minister of Welfare and Population Department (2002\\)*](/wiki/Du_Toit_v_Minister_for_Welfare_and_Population_Development \"Du Toit v Minister for Welfare and Population Development\"), the [United States](/wiki/United_States \"United States\") in *Florida Department v. Adoption of X.X.G (2010\\)* and [*Obergefell v. Hodges (2015\\)*](/wiki/Obergefell_v._Hodges \"Obergefell v. Hodges\"), the [European Court of Human Rights](/wiki/European_Court_of_Human_Rights \"European Court of Human Rights\") in *Salguiero Da Silva Mouta v. Portugal (1999\\)* and *E.B. v. France (2008\\)* and [Inter\\-American Court of Human Rights](/wiki/Inter-American_Court_of_Human_Rights \"Inter-American Court of Human Rights\") in [*Advisory Opinion (2018\\)*](/wiki/Recognition_of_same-sex_unions_in_the_Americas%232018_Inter-American_Court_of_Human_Rights_ruling \"Recognition of same-sex unions in the Americas#2018 Inter-American Court of Human Rights ruling\").",
"A Brazilian legal and psychoanalysis found that the relevant factors in determining whether a couple can be a good parent depend on the capacity to care for the child and the quality of the relationship between parent and child.{{Cite journal \\|last1\\=Campos Refosco \\|first1\\=Helena \\|last2\\=Guida Fernandes \\|first2\\=Martha Maria \\|date\\=2017 \\|title\\=Same\\-Sex Parents and Their Children: Brazilian Case Law and Insights from Psychoanalysis \\|url\\=https://scholarship.law.wm.edu/wmjowl/vol23/iss2/2 \\|journal\\=William \\& Mary Journal of Women and the Law \\|volume\\=23 \\|issue\\=2 \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-04\\-13 \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-04\\-18 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230418030907/https://scholarship.law.wm.edu/wmjowl/vol23/iss2/2/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"Multiple studies have shown that same\\-sex parents are no different from opposite\\-sex parents. An [American Psychological Association](/wiki/American_Psychological_Association \"American Psychological Association\") report concluded that the home environment provided by same\\-sex parents to support and enable the psychosocial growth of their children is not different from the home environment provided by opposite\\-sex parents.{{Citation \\|last1\\=Committee on Lesbian, Gay, and Bisexual Concerns \\|title\\=Lesbian \\& Gay Parenting \\|date\\=2005 \\|url\\=https://www.apa.org/pi/lgbt/resources/parenting\\-full.pdf \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110514111440/https://www.apa.org/pi/lgbt/resources/parenting\\-full.pdf \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[American Psychological Association]] \\|archive\\-date\\=14 May 2011 \\|last2\\=Committee on Children, Youth, and Families \\|last3\\=Committee on Women in Psychology}} A 2021 study analysed the administrative data from several population registers from the [Netherlands](/wiki/Netherlands \"Netherlands\") from 2006 to 2018\\. The study included complete population coverage, reliable identification of same\\-sex families, verifiable educational outcomes and detailed measures of family dynamics over the children's life course. The study found that in a socio\\-political environment characterised by high levels of legislative or public support, children of same\\-sex parents achieved as well as children of opposite\\-sex parents.{{Cite journal \\|last1\\=Kabátek \\|first1\\=Jan \\|last2\\=Perales \\|first2\\=Francisco \\|date\\=1 April 2021 \\|title\\=Academic Achievement of Children in Same\\- and Different\\-Sex\\-Parented Families: A Population\\-Level Analysis of Linked Administrative Data From the Netherlands. \\|url\\=https://read.dukeupress.edu/demography/article/58/2/393/168481/Academic\\-Achievement\\-of\\-Children\\-in\\-Same\\-and \\|journal\\=Demography \\|volume\\=58 \\|issue\\=2 \\|pages\\=393–418 \\|doi\\=10\\.1215/00703370\\-8994569 \\|pmid\\=33834221 \\|s2cid\\=233192489 \\|hdl\\=11343/280466 \\|hdl\\-access\\=free \\|access\\-date\\=13 April 2023 \\|archive\\-date\\=27 May 2021 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210527233934/https://read.dukeupress.edu/demography/article/58/2/393/168481/Academic\\-Achievement\\-of\\-Children\\-in\\-Same\\-and \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"As same\\-sex couples started adopting in 1995 but were allowed to marry only in 2013, a study found that the delay affected same\\-sex families negatively, including the health, education and other responsibilities toward their children.{{Cite journal \\|last1\\=Biasutti \\|first1\\=Carolina Monteiro \\|last2\\=Nascimento \\|first2\\=Célia Regina Rangel \\|last3\\=Gato \\|first3\\=Jorge \\|last4\\=Bortolozzo \\|first4\\=Mylena Leite \\|date\\=11 December 2022 \\|title\\=Same\\-sex parenting in Brazil and Portugal: An integrative review. \\|url\\=https://rsdjournal.org/index.php/rsd/article/view/38227 \\|journal\\=Research, Society and Development \\|volume\\=11 \\|issue\\=16 \\|pages\\=e357111638227 \\|doi\\=10\\.33448/rsd\\-v11i16\\.38227 \\|s2cid\\=254677483 \\|doi\\-access\\=free \\|access\\-date\\=13 April 2023 \\|archive\\-date\\=13 April 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230413194727/https://rsdjournal.org/index.php/rsd/article/view/38227 \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"The DCPCR also relied on the scientific consensus that sexual orientation and gender identity are established at least by adolescence. A Systematic Review and Meta\\-Analysis found that sexual orientation develops around the age of 13\\.{{Cite journal \\|last1\\=Hall \\|first1\\=William J. \\|last2\\=Dawes \\|first2\\=Hayden C. \\|last3\\=Plocek \\|first3\\=Nina \\|date\\=21 October 2021 \\|title\\=Sexual orientation identity development milestones among lesbian, gay, bisexual, and queer people: a systematic review and meta\\-analysis. \\|journal\\=\\[\\[Frontiers in Psychology]] \\|volume\\=12 \\|page\\=753954 \\|doi\\=10\\.3389/fpsyg.2021\\.753954 \\|pmid\\=34777153 \\|pmc\\=8581765 \\|doi\\-access\\=free }}",
"In the socio\\-legal environment where sexual and gender minority individuals do not have equal rights as cisgender heterosexual counterparts, acceptance, assimilation and legitimacy remains troubled. Despite the [US Supreme Court](/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States \"Supreme Court of the United States\") ruling on same\\-sex marriage, the [US State of Ohio](/wiki/Ohio \"Ohio\") refrained from enacting anti\\-discrimination laws, creating a less favourable legal environment for sexual and gender minority individuals than other states. A study found that sexual and gender minority adolescents in Ohio were twice as likely to face bullying and harassment in school than their cisgender heterosexual counterparts.{{Citation \\|last1\\=Mallory \\|first1\\=Christy \\|title\\=The Impact of Stigma and Discrimination against LGBT People in Ohio \\|date\\=October 2019 \\|url\\=https://williamsinstitute.law.ucla.edu/wp\\-content/uploads/Impact\\-LGBT\\-Discrimination\\-OH\\-Nov\\-2019\\.pdf \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210515015052/https://williamsinstitute.law.ucla.edu/wp\\-content/uploads/Impact\\-LGBT\\-Discrimination\\-OH\\-Nov\\-2019\\.pdf \\|publication\\-place\\=\\[\\[Los Angeles]], \\[\\[United States]] \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Williams Institute]], \\[\\[UCLA School of Law]] \\|archive\\-date\\=15 May 2021 \\|last2\\=Brown \\|first2\\=Taylor N.T. \\|last3\\=Sears \\|first3\\=Brad}}",
"##### Guidelines",
"{{anchor\\|DCPCR\\-Guidelines}}The DCPCR recommended the following guidelines to ensure the well\\-being of children in same\\-sex adoptions:",
"* The [Union](/wiki/Government_of_India \"Government of India\") and [State Governments](/wiki/State_governments_of_India \"State governments of India\") create public awareness that same\\-sex families are as \"normal\" as opposite\\-sex families and that children of same\\-sex families are not incomplete.\n* School boards and educational institutions normalise same\\-sex families proactively.\n* National and State Council for Education, Research and Training to review and eliminate homophobic content and include a more diverse understanding of the families in school textbooks.\n* Relevant Authorities should create dedicated helplines and set aside resources for counselling for children facing stigma and bullying due to belonging to a same\\-sex family unit.",
"#### Jamiat Ulema\\-e\\-Hind",
"Islamic organisation [Jamiat Ulema\\-e\\-Hind](/wiki/Jamiat_Ulema-e-Hind \"Jamiat Ulema-e-Hind\") and Telangana Markazi Shia Ulema Council intervened in the case opposing the extension of the right to marry and establish a family to sexual and gender minority individuals in India on socio\\-legal and religious grounds.",
"It argued that marriage, founded on established societal norms, cannot change following newly developed values emerging from a different worldview in a different paradigm. The concept of same\\-sex marriage attacks the family system rather than building a family through the process. Same\\-sex marriage recognition in certain countries, which achieved a certain threshold of social order in terms of education and social acceptance, cannot justify introducing the concept in India.",
"Moreover, a person identifying as a follower of a particular religion should believe in the foundational norms of the same. When a person fails to follow the religious norms, they are considered a sinner. A person who questions and seeks to amend well\\-established religious norms is not a follower of the religion. Therefore, there cannot be an imposition of a radical non\\-religious view on established, inseparable and core principles of religion.",
"According to Islam, marriage is a sacred contract between a cis man and cis woman. The current sexual and gender minority rights movement originated from the [Western sexual liberation movement](/wiki/Sexual_revolution_in_1960s_United_States \"Sexual revolution in 1960s United States\"), an atheistic movement, in the 1960s. Therefore, atheistic values should not be allowed to create any space within the religiously governed personal laws of the communities.",
"The Supreme Court held that personal laws have constitutional protection under Article 25 in [*Shayara Bano v. UOI (2017\\)*](/wiki/Triple_talaq_in_India%23Judgement \"Triple talaq in India#Judgement\")*.* The petitioner's request is against the established understanding of marriage in all personal laws.",
"The legislative intent to recognise marriage as a union of a cis man and cis woman is evident. The Supreme Court recognised the separation of power as a part of the basic structure of the Indian Constitution in *[Kesavananda Bharati v. State of Kerala (1973\\)](/wiki/Kesavananda_Bharati_v._State_of_Kerala \"Kesavananda Bharati v. State of Kerala\")*. The legislature enacts laws as per the social acceptability based on the prevailing values of a society. The Supreme Court held that judicial adjudication cannot be equated to law\\-making by legislators in *Ashwani Kumar v. Union of India (2020\\)*.",
"#### Telangana Markazi Shia Ulema Council",
"Islamic organisation Telangana Markazi Shia Ulema Council intervened in the case opposing the extension of the right to marry and establish a family to sexual and gender minority individuals in India on socio\\-legal and religious grounds.",
""
] |
### Petitioners
#### Fundamental rights
Among the relevant precedents, issues and laws presented, the petitioners argued that the exclusion of couples from sexual and gender minority communities from marriage laws constituted a violation of fundamental right.{{Harvnb\|Supriyo v. Union of India}} and other connected cases. Other connected cases include {{Harvnb\|Nikesh P.P. v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Abhijit Iyer Mitra v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Vaibhav Jai v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Dr Kavita Arora v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Udit Sood v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Joydeep Sengupta v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Mellissa Ferrier v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Nibedita Dutta v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Zainab J. Patel v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Parth Phiroze Mehrotra v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Sameer Samudra v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Aditi Anand v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Utkarsh Saxena v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Nitin Karan v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Kajal v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Amburi Roy v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Akkai Padmashali v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Rituparna Borah v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\|Harish Iyer v. Union of India}}. Similarly, the notice and objection provisions in secular marriage laws— [Special Marriage Act](/wiki/Special_Marriage_Act%2C_1954 "Special Marriage Act, 1954") and [Foreign Marriage Act](/wiki/Foreign_Marriage_Act%2C_1969 "Foreign Marriage Act, 1969")— constituted a violation. Hence, following [Article 32](/wiki/Fundamental_rights_in_India%23Right_to_Constitutional_Remedies "Fundamental rights in India#Right to Constitutional Remedies") of the [Indian Constitution](/wiki/Constitution_of_India "Constitution of India"), which guarantees the [Right to Constitutional Remedies](/wiki/Fundamental_rights_in_India%23Right_to_Constitutional_Remedies "Fundamental rights in India#Right to Constitutional Remedies") and designates the Supreme Court as the protector of [Fundamental Rights](/wiki/Fundamental_rights_in_India "Fundamental rights in India"), the petitioners argued that they are within their rights to approach the Supreme Court.Petitioners: {{Harvnb\|Supriyo v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Parth Phiroze Mehrotra v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Sameer Samudra v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Aditi Anand v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Utkarsh Saxena v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Nitin Karan v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Kajal v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Amburi Roy v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Akkai Padmashali v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Rituparna Borah v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\|Harish Iyer v. Union of India}}
##### Jurisdiction
In assessing whether a law infringes a fundamental right, the Supreme Court held that it is not the intention of the lawmaker that is determinative, but whether the effect or operation of the law infringes fundamental rights in the ruling of [*Maneka Gandhi v. UOI (1978\)*](/wiki/Maneka_Gandhi_v._Union_of_India "Maneka Gandhi v. Union of India"). Since the marriage laws infringe on the fundamental rights of sexual and gender minority individuals, petitioners argued that the Supreme Court could act as the designated protector of fundamental rights.Petitioners: {{Harvnb\|Dr Kavita Arora v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Supriyo v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Aditi Anand v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\|Utkarsh Saxena v. Union of India}}.
The Supreme Court has regularly interpreted statutes in a manner which preserves their constitutionality, for example, in *Travancore v. Mohammed Mohammed Khan (1981\)*, *Githa Hariharan v. Reserve Bank of India (1999\)* and *Indra Das v. State of Assam (2011\).*Petitioners: {{Harvnb\|Vaibhav Jai v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Dr Kavita Arora v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Supriyo v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\|Aditi Anand v. Union of India}}. Furthermore, the Supreme Court has held that when the enforcement of fundamental rights is concerned, the [Supreme](/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_India "Supreme Court of India") and [High Courts](/wiki/High_courts_of_India "High courts of India") do not have to await action by the legislature in *[Vishaka v. State of Rajasthan (1997\)](/wiki/Vishakha_and_others_v_State_of_Rajasthan "Vishakha and others v State of Rajasthan")*, *Vineet Narain v. UOI (1997\)*, *[Shayara Bano v. UOI (2017\)](/wiki/Triple_talaq_in_India%23Judgement "Triple talaq in India#Judgement")*, *Common Cause v. UOI (2018\)* and [*Navtej Singh Johar v. UOI (2018\)*](/wiki/Navtej_Singh_Johar_v._Union_of_India "Navtej Singh Johar v. Union of India").Petitioners: {{Harvnb\|Joydeep Sengupta v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Parth Phiroze Mehrotra v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\|Rituparna Borah v. Union of India}}.
##### Constitutional morality
The law, reflecting societal values, regulates relationships between people and prescribes behaviour patterns. As the social realities changes, the law changes. However, sometimes a legal change precedes societal changes and is even intended to stimulate. The Supreme Court, noting these dynamics when ruling in *Badshah v. Urmila Badshah Godse (2014\)*, held that the court should exercise discretion in determining the proper relationship between the subjective and objective purposes of the law.Petitioners: {{Harvnb\|Vaibhav Jai v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Dr Kavita Arora v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Zainab J. Patel v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Supriyo v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\|Aditi Anand v. Union of India}}.
The Supreme Court held that while the State can impose reasonable restrictions based on decency and morality, the limitations should be rational and tolerant of unpopular social views in *S. Khushboo v. Kanniammal (2010\) and [Navtej Singh Johar v. UOI (2018\)](/wiki/Navtej_Singh_Johar_v._Union_of_India "Navtej Singh Johar v. Union of India")*.Petitioners: {{Harvnb\|Joydeep Sengupta v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\|Parth Phiroze Mehrotra v. Union of India}}. The Supreme Court stated the purpose of elevating certain rights to the stature of fundamental rights as to insulate their exercise from the disdain of majorities, whether legislative or popular, in [*Puttaswamy v. UOI (2017\)*](/wiki/Right_to_Privacy_verdict "Right to Privacy verdict").Petitioners: {{Harvnb\|Udit Sood v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Parth Phiroze Mehrotra v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Aditi Anand v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\|Rituparna Borah v. Union of India}}. The petitioners highlighted the instances where the [Indian Courts](/wiki/Judiciary_of_India "Judiciary of India") protected fundamental rights by defying social and religious norms.— *Mary Roy v. State of Kerala (1986\)*, *Githa Hariharan v. Reserve Bank of India (1999\)*, *[Shayara Bano v. UOI (2017\)](/wiki/Triple_talaq_in_India%23Judgement "Triple talaq in India#Judgement"), Joseph Shine v. UOI (2018\)* and [*Arun Kumar v. Inspector General of Registration (2019\)*](/wiki/Arun_Kumar_v._Inspector_General_of_Registration "Arun Kumar v. Inspector General of Registration").Petitioners: {{Harvnb\|Nikesh P.P. v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Vaibhav Jai v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Dr Kavita Arora v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Udit Sood v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Supriyo v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Parth Phiroze Mehrotra v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Kajal v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\|Rituparna Borah v. Union of India}}.
##### Right to equality
[Article 14](/wiki/Article_14_of_the_Constitution_of_India "Article 14 of the Constitution of India") of the [Indian Constitution](/wiki/Constitution_of_India "Constitution of India") guarantees the right to equality. The Supreme Court declared that any law that fails to protect the [self\-determination](/wiki/Self-determination "Self-determination") of [sexual orientation](/wiki/Sexual_orientation "Sexual orientation") and [gender identity](/wiki/Gender_identity "Gender identity") of an individual is irrational, manifestly arbitrary, and a violation of [Article 14](/wiki/Article_14_of_the_Constitution_of_India "Article 14 of the Constitution of India"). The Supreme Court has recognised the [principle of substantive equality](/wiki/Substantive_equality "Substantive equality") in *Lt. Col. Nitisha v. UOI (2021\).* The Supreme Court held that atypical families, such as domestic, unmarried partnerships or relationships between sexual and gender minority individuals, deserve equal protection under the law guaranteed in [Article 14](/wiki/Article_14_of_the_Constitution_of_India "Article 14 of the Constitution of India") in *[Deepika Singh v. Central Administrative Tribunal (2022\)](/wiki/Deepika_Singh_v._Central_Administrative_Tribunal "Deepika Singh v. Central Administrative Tribunal")*.Petitioners: {{Harvnb\|Sameer Samudra v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Aditi Anand v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\|Amburi Roy v. Union of India}}.
##### Anti\-discrimination
[Article 15](/wiki/Article_15_of_the_Constitution_of_India "Article 15 of the Constitution of India") of the [Indian Constitution](/wiki/Constitution_of_India "Constitution of India") guarantees protection from discrimination. The Supreme Court extended the protection to include [sexual orientation](/wiki/Sexual_orientation "Sexual orientation") and [gender identity](/wiki/Gender_identity "Gender identity"). The Supreme Court has recognised the [principle of substantive equality](/wiki/Substantive_equality "Substantive equality") in *Lt. Col. Nitisha v. UOI (2021\).* Considering the cultural stereotypes based on [sex](/wiki/Sex "Sex") and [gender](/wiki/Gender "Gender") and their role in discriminatory legislation, the Supreme Court held that judicial scrutiny to weave out discrimination must be strict in *Anuj Garg v. Hotel Association of India (2007\)*.{{Harvnb\|Nikesh P.P. v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Joydeep Sengupta v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\|Rituparna Borah v. Union of India}}. The Supreme Court held that [Article 15](/wiki/Article_15_of_the_Constitution_of_India "Article 15 of the Constitution of India") places positive and negative obligations on the State in [*Navtej Singh Johar v. UOI (2018\)*](/wiki/Navtej_Singh_Johar_v._Union_of_India "Navtej Singh Johar v. Union of India"), where positive obligations call for the state to recognise rights which bring true fulfilment to same\-sex relationships.Petitioners: {{Harvnb\|Dr Kavita Arora v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\|Aditi Anand v. Union of India}}.
##### Freedom of expression
[Article 19](/wiki/Fundamental_rights_in_India%23Right_To_Freedom "Fundamental rights in India#Right To Freedom") of the [Indian Constitution](/wiki/Constitution_of_India "Constitution of India") guarantees the right to freedom of speech and expression. The Supreme Court held that [Article 19](/wiki/Fundamental_rights_in_India%23Right_To_Freedom "Fundamental rights in India#Right To Freedom") includes full expression of [sexual orientation](/wiki/Sexual_orientation "Sexual orientation") and [gender identity](/wiki/Gender_identity "Gender identity"). The Supreme Court held that the choice of marital partner is an exercise of freedom of expression enshrined in [Article 19](/wiki/Fundamental_rights_in_India%23Right_To_Freedom "Fundamental rights in India#Right To Freedom") in *Vikas Yadav v. State of Uttar Pradesh (2016\)*, *Asha Ranjan v. State of Bihar (2017\)*, *Shakti Vahini v. UOI (2018\)* and [*Shafin Jahan v Ashokan K.M. (2018\)*](/wiki/Hadiya_case "Hadiya case")*.*
##### Right to life and personal liberty
[Article 21](/wiki/Fundamental_rights_in_India%23Right_to_life "Fundamental rights in India#Right to life") of the [Indian Constitution](/wiki/Constitution_of_India "Constitution of India") guarantees the right to life and personal liberty, which includes dignity, privacy, and personal autonomy. The Supreme Court recognised the rights guaranteed by [Article 21](/wiki/Fundamental_rights_in_India%23Right_to_life "Fundamental rights in India#Right to life") for sexual and gender minority individuals. The Supreme Court held that [Article 21](/wiki/Fundamental_rights_in_India%23Right_to_life "Fundamental rights in India#Right to life") recognises the right to choose a marital partner in the ruling of *Shakti Vahini v. UOI (2018\), Lata Singh v. State of Uttar Pradesh (2006\), [Puttaswamy v. UOI (2017\)](/wiki/Right_to_Privacy_verdict "Right to Privacy verdict")*, *[Shafin Jahan v Ashokan K.M. (2018\)](/wiki/Hadiya_case "Hadiya case"),* and *Laxmibai Chandaragi B. v. State of Karnataka (2021\).*
##### Freedom of conscience and religion
[Article 25](/wiki/Freedom_of_religion_in_India "Freedom of religion in India") of the [Indian Constitution](/wiki/Constitution_of_India "Constitution of India") guarantees freedom of conscience and religion. Since the Supreme Court ruled that the freedom of conscience of an individual is more than religious beliefs in [*Puttaswamy v. UOI (2017\)*](/wiki/Right_to_Privacy_verdict "Right to Privacy verdict"), the petitioners argued that the freedom to choose a marital partner is an integral component of freedom of conscience.Petitioners: {{Harvnb\|Vaibhav Jai v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Dr Kavita Arora v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Zainab J. Patel v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Supriyo v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Aditi Anand v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\|Kajal v. Union of India}}.
* Since the Supreme Court ruled that in addition to freedom of religion, [Article 25](/wiki/Freedom_of_religion_in_India "Freedom of religion in India") guarantees freedom from religion in [*Indian Young Lawyers Association v. State of Kerala (2019\)*](/wiki/Entry_of_women_to_Sabarimala "Entry of women to Sabarimala"), the petitioners claiming recognition under the secular marriage laws argued the state should not endorse the conception of marriage that is exclusively heterosexual, as it is rooted in the norms of religion.Petitioners: {{Harvnb\|Utkarsh Saxena v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\|Harish Iyer v. Union of India}}.
* Since [Hinduism](/wiki/Hinduism_and_LGBT_topics "Hinduism and LGBT topics") does not prohibit marriage between sexual and gender minority individuals, the petitioners claiming recognition under [personal laws](/wiki/Law_of_India%23Family_law_%E2%80%93_personal_law "Law of India#Family law – personal law") argued exclusion of couples from sexual and gender minority communities from the [Hindu Marriage Act](/wiki/Hindu_Marriage_Act%2C_1955 "Hindu Marriage Act, 1955") violates the petitioners' right to practice religion freely.Petitioners: {{Harvnb\|Abhijit Iyer Mitra v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\|Nibedita Dutta v. Union of India}}. The [Madras High Court](/wiki/Madras_High_Court "Madras High Court") held that refusal to register the marriage between a [Hindu](/wiki/Hindus "Hindus") [cisgender man](/wiki/Man "Man") and a [Hindu](/wiki/Hindus "Hindus") [transgender woman](/wiki/Trans_woman "Trans woman") under [Hindu Marriage Act](/wiki/Hindu_Marriage_Act%2C_1955 "Hindu Marriage Act, 1955") violates [Article 25](/wiki/Freedom_of_religion_in_India "Freedom of religion in India") in [*Arun Kumar v. Inspector General of Registration (2019\)*](/wiki/Arun_Kumar_v._Inspector_General_of_Registration "Arun Kumar v. Inspector General of Registration").
##### Right to marry
Since the Supreme Court established the fundamental rights of sexual and gender minority individuals in [*NLSA v. UOI (2014\)*](/wiki/National_Legal_Services_Authority_v._Union_of_India "National Legal Services Authority v. Union of India"), [*Puttaswamy v. UOI (2017\)*](/wiki/Right_to_Privacy_verdict "Right to Privacy verdict") and [*Navtej Singh Johar v. UOI (2018\)*](/wiki/Navtej_Singh_Johar_v._Union_of_India "Navtej Singh Johar v. Union of India"), the petitioners argued for extending the right to marry and establish a family to sexual and gender minority individuals based on Articles [14](/wiki/Article_14_of_the_Constitution_of_India "Article 14 of the Constitution of India"), [15](/wiki/Article_15_of_the_Constitution_of_India "Article 15 of the Constitution of India"), [19](/wiki/Fundamental_rights_in_India%23Right_To_Freedom "Fundamental rights in India#Right To Freedom"), [21](/wiki/Fundamental_rights_in_India%23Right_To_Freedom "Fundamental rights in India#Right To Freedom") and [25](/wiki/Freedom_of_religion_in_India "Freedom of religion in India") of the [Indian Constitution](/wiki/Constitution_of_India "Constitution of India").
[High Courts](/wiki/High_courts_of_India "High courts of India") have considered the constitutionality of Indian marriage laws. The [Madras High Court](/wiki/Madras_High_Court "Madras High Court") held that refusal to register the marriage between a [Hindu](/wiki/Hindus "Hindus") [cisgender man](/wiki/Man "Man") and a [Hindu](/wiki/Hindus "Hindus") [transgender woman](/wiki/Trans_woman "Trans woman") under [Hindu Marriage Act](/wiki/Hindu_Marriage_Act%2C_1955 "Hindu Marriage Act, 1955") violates [fundamental rights](/wiki/Fundamental_rights_in_India "Fundamental rights in India") guaranteed under Articles [14](/wiki/Article_14_of_the_Constitution_of_India "Article 14 of the Constitution of India"), [15](/wiki/Article_15_of_the_Constitution_of_India "Article 15 of the Constitution of India"), [19](/wiki/Fundamental_rights_in_India%23Right_To_Freedom "Fundamental rights in India#Right To Freedom"), [21](/wiki/Fundamental_rights_in_India%23Right_To_Freedom "Fundamental rights in India#Right To Freedom") and [25](/wiki/Freedom_of_religion_in_India "Freedom of religion in India") of the [Indian Constitution](/wiki/Constitution_of_India "Constitution of India") in [*Arun Kumar v. Inspector General of Registration (2019\)*](/wiki/Arun_Kumar_v._Inspector_General_of_Registration "Arun Kumar v. Inspector General of Registration").Petitioners: {{Harvnb\|Nikesh P.P. v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Vaibhav Jai v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Udit Sood v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Nibedita Dutta v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Parth Phiroze Mehrotra v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\|Kajal v. Union of India}}.
The petitioners requested that the Supreme Court declare that the gender change of a spouse would not automatically void solemnised marriage. As an extension of recognising the right to marry and establishing a family, the petitioners argued for the entitlement of a foreign\-origin sexual or gender minority spouse of an [Indian Citizen](/wiki/Indian_citizen "Indian citizen") or [Overseas Citizen of India](/wiki/Overseas_Citizenship_of_India "Overseas Citizenship of India") to apply for registration as an [Overseas Citizen of India](/wiki/Overseas_Citizenship_of_India "Overseas Citizenship of India").
#### Issues in secular marriage law
The notice and objections provisions detail the requirement for registering a marriage under the secular marriage laws— [Special Marriage Act](/wiki/Special_Marriage_Act%2C_1954 "Special Marriage Act, 1954") and [Foreign Marriage Act](/wiki/Foreign_Marriage_Act%2C_1969 "Foreign Marriage Act, 1969"). The individuals intending to marry must publish their details in Marriage Notice Book meant for public inspection. Within thirty days of publication, any person can object to their marriage, and a marriage officer, who has the power of a civil court, handles the objections.{{Cite act\|index\=43\|date\=1954\|article\=\|article\-type\=\|legislature\=\[\[Parliament of India]]\|title\=The Special Marriage Act\|url\=https://www.indiacode.nic.in/handle/123456789/1387}} {{Cite web \|url\=https://www.indiacode.nic.in/handle/123456789/1387 \|title\=Archived copy \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-12 \|archive\-date\=2021\-12\-18 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20211218225516/https://www.indiacode.nic.in/handle/123456789/1387 \|url\-status\=bot: unknown }}{{Cite act\|index\=33\|date\=1969\|article\=\|article\-type\=\|legislature\=\[\[Parliament of India]]\|title\=The Foreign Marriage Act\|url\=https://www.indiacode.nic.in/handle/123456789/1720}} {{Cite web \|url\=https://www.indiacode.nic.in/handle/123456789/1720 \|title\=Archived copy \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-12 \|archive\-date\=2023\-04\-26 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230426161619/https://www.indiacode.nic.in/handle/123456789/1720 \|url\-status\=bot: unknown }}
##### Non\-equality
The intention of the notice and objections provisions is to address the situations where individuals might hide the breach of prerequisites of marriage. However, such deterrents are absent in the [personal laws](/wiki/Law_of_India%23Family_law_%E2%80%93_personal_law "Law of India#Family law – personal law") governing marriage. Evidently, notice and objection provisions are not the only way to address the problem of a breach of prerequisites of marriage. The provisions are grossly disproportionate and violate the [fundamental rights](/wiki/Fundamental_rights_in_India "Fundamental rights in India") of the [Indian Constitution](/wiki/Constitution_of_India "Constitution of India"). The provisions violates [Article 14](/wiki/Article_14_of_the_Constitution_of_India "Article 14 of the Constitution of India") of the [Indian Constitution](/wiki/Constitution_of_India "Constitution of India") by creating an unequal burden on individuals who choose to marry under secular marriage laws. It violates [Article 15](/wiki/Article_15_of_the_Constitution_of_India "Article 15 of the Constitution of India") of the [Indian Constitution](/wiki/Constitution_of_India "Constitution of India") by discriminating those constrained to marry under secular marriage laws from those who marry under [personal laws](/wiki/Law_of_India%23Family_law_%E2%80%93_personal_law "Law of India#Family law – personal law").
##### Violations of freedom of expression
The provisions violate the freedom of expression guaranteed by [Article 19](/wiki/Article_14_of_the_Constitution_of_India "Article 14 of the Constitution of India") by enabling continuing harassment and persecution. Multiple news reports document the role of the provision in enabling continuing harassment and persecution. The 2010 [Indian](/wiki/India "India") case studies documented the barrier posed by these procedural requirements of the secular marriage laws. The [Law Commission](/wiki/Law_Commission_of_India "Law Commission of India") published a consultation paper on the Reform of Family Law that recognised the notice and objection provision of secular marriage laws as an impediment to personal autonomy. The [Law Commission](/wiki/Law_Commission_of_India "Law Commission of India") published a report on the Prevention of Interference with the freedom of Matrimonial Alliances that recommended the removal of the notice and objection provisions of the secular marriage laws to prevent “high\-handed or unwarranted interference” in marriages.
##### Violations of decisional autonomy
The provisions violate the decisional autonomy guaranteed by [Article 21](/wiki/Fundamental_rights_in_India%23Right_to_life "Fundamental rights in India#Right to life") by authorising any person to object to the marriage. The [Law Commission](/wiki/Law_Commission_of_India "Law Commission of India") published a consultation paper on the Reform of Family Law that recognised the provisions as an impediment to personal autonomy protected by [Article 21](/wiki/Fundamental_rights_in_India%23Right_to_life "Fundamental rights in India#Right to life"). The provisions force individuals to surrender their right to privacy to exercise their right to marry. The Supreme Court held that a requirement that forces the individual to give up one constitutional right to exercise another is unconstitutional in the ruling of *Ahmedabad St. Xavier’s College Society v. State of Gujarat (1974\).*
[High Courts](/wiki/High_courts_of_India "High courts of India") have considered the constitutionality of the provisions. Remarking that unwarranted disclosure of the marriage plans might jeopardise the marriage and endanger the lives of the couple, the [Delhi High Court](/wiki/Delhi_High_Court "Delhi High Court") deprecated the practice of sending notices to residential addresses in the ruling of *Pranav Kumar Mishra v. Govt. of NCT of Delhi (2009\)*. Relying on the [right](/wiki/Fundamental_rights_in_India "Fundamental rights in India") to [personal liberty](/wiki/Fundamental_rights_in_India%23Right_to_life "Fundamental rights in India#Right to life") and [privacy](/wiki/Right_to_Privacy_verdict "Right to Privacy verdict"), [Allahabad High Court](/wiki/Allahabad_High_Court "Allahabad High Court") read down the notice and objection provision of the [Special Marriage Act](/wiki/Special_Marriage_Act%2C_1954 "Special Marriage Act, 1954") as a directory and not mandatory in the ruling of *Safiya Sultana v. State of Uttar Pradesh (2021\)*.Petitioners: {{Harvnb\|Utkarsh Saxena v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Kajal v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\|Akkai Padmashali v. Union of India}}.
#### Representative and heirs
Despite the landmark decision of the Supreme Court asserting the right to [self\-determination](/wiki/Self-determination "Self-determination") of [sexual orientation](/wiki/Sexual_orientation "Sexual orientation") and [gender identity](/wiki/Gender_identity "Gender identity") in [*NLSA v. UOI (2014\)*](/wiki/National_Legal_Services_Authority_v._Union_of_India "National Legal Services Authority v. Union of India"), [*Puttaswamy v. UOI (2017\)*](/wiki/Right_to_Privacy_verdict "Right to Privacy verdict") and [*Navtej Singh Johar v. UOI (2018\)*](/wiki/Navtej_Singh_Johar_v._Union_of_India "Navtej Singh Johar v. Union of India")*,* the birth or adoptive family continues to interfere and restrict the [self\-determination](/wiki/Self-determination "Self-determination"). As the vast majority of [Indian laws](/wiki/Law_of_India "Law of India") define ‘family’ to be persons related by marriage, birth or adoption, the petitioners have presented a compelling case for legal recognition of their marital relationships to formalise access to rights and obligations. However, many others do not share the aspiration for married life, and the law cannot ignore them. They may choose friends, domestic partners and other persons of vital importance to assign rights and obligations.
While the conflict with the birth or adoptive family may have given rise to the idea of chosen family, it does not challenges birth or adoptive family bonds but allows for a more inclusive understanding of adult relationships. Most sexual and gender minority individuals, informed by their lived experience of family rejection, hostility and violence, require a legal substitute for the family for healthcare, social and economic rights and obligations. Recognising any person as capable of serving the best interests of an individual in a state of vulnerability or incapacitation, the [Mental Healthcare Act of 2017](/wiki/Mental_Healthcare_Act%2C_2017 "Mental Healthcare Act, 2017") authorised an individual to appoint any person as the nominated representative. Legal limiting next of kin to persons related by marriage, birth or adoption violates the decisional autonomy of sexual and gender minority individuals.
The Supreme Court has recognised the [principle of substantive equality](/wiki/Substantive_equality "Substantive equality"), which prohibits the State from expecting conformity as a price for equality in *Lt. Col. Nitisha v. UOI (2021\)*. The Supreme Court held that married and unmarried persons have equal decisional autonomy to make decisions about their welfare in *X v. Principal Secretary, Health and Family Welfare Department, Govt. of NCT of Delhi (2022\).* The Supreme Court held that atypical families deserve equal protection under the law guaranteed in [Article 14](/wiki/Article_14_of_the_Constitution_of_India "Article 14 of the Constitution of India") in [*Deepika Singh v. Central Administrative Tribunal (2022\)*](/wiki/Deepika_Singh_v._Central_Administrative_Tribunal "Deepika Singh v. Central Administrative Tribunal")*.* Relying on these precedents, the petitioners argued that unmarried sexual and gender minority individuals deserve recognition and protection of the law when they seek to nominate any person beyond the constraints of biological or adoptive families.
[High Courts](/wiki/High_courts_of_India "High courts of India") have expanded the scope of legal heirs for [intersex, non\-binary and transgender people](/wiki/Third_gender "Third gender") in *Illyas v. Badshah alias Kamla (1990\)* and S*weety v. General Public (2016\)*. The petitioners request the Supreme Court to declare that a person can nominate anyone in the place of ‘next of kin’ under all relevant laws.
#### International treaties
India is a party to various international treaties concerning human rights. India voted to adopt the [Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR)](/wiki/Universal_Declaration_of_Human_Rights "Universal Declaration of Human Rights") in [United Nations](/wiki/United_Nations "United Nations") [General Assembly](/wiki/United_Nations_General_Assembly "United Nations General Assembly") on 10 December 1948, and the same is enforceable in India under the Protection of Human Rights Act of 1993\. India ratified the [International Convention of Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR)](/wiki/International_Covenant_on_Civil_and_Political_Rights "International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights") and the [International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR)](/wiki/International_Covenant_on_Economic%2C_Social_and_Cultural_Rights "International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights") on 10 April 1979\.Petitioners: {{Harvnb\|Nikesh P.P. v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Abhijit Iyer Mitra v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Dr Kavita Arora v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Udit Sood v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Nibedita Dutta v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Zainab J. Patel v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Supriyo v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Parth Phiroze Mehrotra v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Sameer Samudra v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Aditi Anand v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Nitin Karan v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Kajal v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\|Amburi Roy v. Union of India}}. Over the last three decades, [International human rights law](/wiki/International_human_rights_law "International human rights law") has developed an established jurisprudence on the rights to equality, privacy and autonomy of sexual and gender minority individuals and protection from discrimination based on [sexual orientation](/wiki/Sexual_orientation "Sexual orientation") and [gender identity](/wiki/Gender_identity "Gender identity").{{Citation \|last\=\[\[Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights\|United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights]] \|title\=Discriminatory laws and practices and acts of violence against individuals based on their sexual orientation and gender identity \|date\=17 November 2011 \|url\=https://documents\-dds\-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/G11/170/75/PDF/G1117075\.pdf \|type\=\[\[United Nations Document Codes\|UN Document]] \|series\=A/HRC/19/41 \|publisher\=\[\[United Nations]] \[\[United Nations Human Rights Council\|Human Rights Council]] \|access\-date\=27 March 2023 \|archive\-date\=27 March 2023 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230327133227/https://documents\-dds\-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/G11/170/75/PDF/G1117075\.pdf \|url\-status\=live }}
Since the Supreme Court enforced the international treaties discussed above while ruling in the [*NLSA v. UOI (2014\)*](/wiki/National_Legal_Services_Authority_v._Union_of_India "National Legal Services Authority v. Union of India") and [*Navtej Singh Johar v. UOI (2018\)*](/wiki/Navtej_Singh_Johar_v._Union_of_India "Navtej Singh Johar v. Union of India"), the petitioners argued extending the right to marry and establish a family to sexual and gender minority individuals based on the following articles:
* Article 7 of the [UDHR](/wiki/Universal_Declaration_of_Human_Rights "Universal Declaration of Human Rights"), Article 26 of [ICCPR](/wiki/International_Covenant_on_Civil_and_Political_Rights "International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights") and Article 2 of [ICESCR](/wiki/International_Covenant_on_Economic%2C_Social_and_Cultural_Rights "International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights") prohibit discrimination based on *‘*sex... or other status.*’*{{Citation \|title\=Universal Declaration of Human Rights \|url\=https://www.un.org/en/about\-us/universal\-declaration\-of\-human\-rights \|publication\-date\=10 December 1948 \|type\=\[\[Treaty]] \|publisher\=\[\[United Nations]] \|access\-date\=23 February 2023 \|archive\-date\=16 March 2021 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210316050452/https://www.un.org/en/about\-us/universal\-declaration\-of\-human\-rights \|url\-status\=live }}{{Citation \|title\=International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights \|url\=https://treaties.un.org/doc/Treaties/1976/03/19760323%2006\-17%20AM/Ch\_IV\_04\.pdf \|publication\-date\=16 December 1966 \|type\=\[\[Treaty]] \|publisher\=\[\[United Nations]] \|access\-date\=23 February 2023 \|archive\-date\=20 December 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20221220134544/https://treaties.un.org/doc/Treaties/1976/03/19760323%2006\-17%20AM/Ch\_IV\_04\.pdf \|url\-status\=live }}{{Citation \|title\=International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights \|url\=https://www.refworld.org/docid/3ae6b36c0\.htmls \|publication\-date\=16 December 1966 \|type\=\[\[Treaty]] \|publisher\=\[\[United Nations]] \|access\-date\=5 March 2023 \|archive\-date\=26 April 2023 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230426200337/https://www.refworld.org/docid/3ae6b36c0\.htmls \|url\-status\=live }} The [UN](/wiki/United_Nations "United Nations") [Human Rights Committee](/wiki/United_Nations_Human_Rights_Committee "United Nations Human Rights Committee") stated that the *‘*other status*’* includes [sexual orientation](/wiki/Sexual_orientation "Sexual orientation").{{Citation \|last\=\[\[United Nations Human Rights Committee]] \|title\=Toonen v. Australia \|url\=http://hrlibrary.umn.edu/undocs/html/vws488\.htm \|type\=\[\[United Nations Document Codes\|UN Document]] \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160801175251/http://hrlibrary.umn.edu/undocs/html/vws488\.htm \|series\=CCPR/C/50/D/488/1992 \|publisher\=\[\[United Nations]] \[\[United Nations Human Rights Committee\|Human Rights Committee]] \|archive\-date\=2016\-08\-01}} The [UN](/wiki/United_Nations "United Nations") [Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights](/wiki/Committee_on_Economic%2C_Social_and_Cultural_Rights "Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights") urged the member states to ensure that a person's sexual orientation is not a barrier to realising [Covenant Rights](/wiki/International_Covenant_on_Economic%2C_Social_and_Cultural_Rights "International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights").{{Citation \|last\=United Nations Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights \|title\=Non\-discrimination in economic, social and cultural rights \|url\=https://docstore.ohchr.org/SelfServices/FilesHandler.ashx?enc\=4slQ6QSmlBEDzFEovLCuW1a0Szab0oXTdImnsJZZVQdqeXgncKnylFC%2BlzJjLZGhsosnD23NsgR1Q1NNNgs2QltnHpLzG%2FBmxPjJUVNxAedgozixcbEW9WMvnSFEiU%2FV \|publication\-date\=2 July 2009 \|type\=\[\[United Nations Document Codes\|UN Document]] \|series\=E/C.12/GC/20 \|publisher\=\[\[United Nations]] \[\[Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights]] \|author\-link\=Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights \|access\-date\=5 March 2023 \|archive\-date\=11 March 2023 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230311095328/https://docstore.ohchr.org/SelfServices/FilesHandler.ashx?enc\=4slQ6QSmlBEDzFEovLCuW1a0Szab0oXTdImnsJZZVQdqeXgncKnylFC%2BlzJjLZGhsosnD23NsgR1Q1NNNgs2QltnHpLzG%2FBmxPjJUVNxAedgozixcbEW9WMvnSFEiU%2FV \|url\-status\=live }}
* Article 16 of the [UDHR](/wiki/Universal_Declaration_of_Human_Rights "Universal Declaration of Human Rights"), Article 23 of the [ICCPR](/wiki/International_Covenant_on_Civil_and_Political_Rights "International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights") and Article 10 of [ICESCR](/wiki/International_Covenant_on_Economic%2C_Social_and_Cultural_Rights "International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights") guarantee the [right to marry and establish a family](/wiki/Right_to_family_life "Right to family life"). [Travaux préparatoires](/wiki/Travaux_pr%C3%A9paratoires "Travaux préparatoires") shows that drafters of [UDHR](/wiki/Universal_Declaration_of_Human_Rights "Universal Declaration of Human Rights") changed the language in the right to marry from *‘*everyone*’* to the specific *‘*men and women*’* to highlight that women have the right to marry. The drafters did not intend to exclude same\-sex couples from marriage.{{Cite journal \|last1\=Wolfson \|first1\=Evan \|last2\=Tueller \|first2\=Jessica \|last3\=Fromkin \|first3\=Alissa \|date\=2022 \|title\=The Freedom to Marry in Human Rights Law Worldwide: Ending the Exclusion of Same\-Sex Couples from Marriage \|url\=https://journals.iupui.edu/index.php/iiclr/article/download/26253/24273 \|journal\=Indiana International \& Comparative Law Review \|volume\=32 \|issue\=1 \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-27 \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-27 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230327133228/https://journals.iupui.edu/index.php/iiclr/article/download/26253/24273 \|url\-status\=live }} The [UN](/wiki/United_Nations "United Nations") [Human Rights Committee](/wiki/United_Nations_Human_Rights_Committee "United Nations Human Rights Committee") urged member states to recognise marriage for same\-sex couples to fulfil their [ICCPR](/wiki/International_Covenant_on_Civil_and_Political_Rights "International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights") obligations.{{Citation \|title\=Young v. Australia \|date\=6 August 2003 \|url\=https://documents\-dds\-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/DER/G03/440/25/PDF/G0344025\.pdf \|type\=\[\[United Nations Document Codes\|UN Document]] \|series\=CCPR/C/78/D/941/2000 \|publisher\=\[\[United Nations]] \[\[United Nations Human Rights Committee\|Human Rights Committee]] \|access\-date\=27 March 2023 \|archive\-date\=27 March 2023 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230327133228/https://documents\-dds\-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/DER/G03/440/25/PDF/G0344025\.pdf \|url\-status\=live }}{{Citation \|last\=United Nations Human Rights Committee \|title\=Concluding observations on the sixth periodic report of Australia \|url\=https://docstore.ohchr.org/SelfServices/FilesHandler.ashx?enc\=6QkG1d%2FPPRiCAqhKb7yhsoAl3%2FFsniSQx2VAmWrPA0uA3KW0KkpmSGOue15UG42EodNm2j%2FnCTyghc1kM8Y%2FLQ4n6KZBdggHt5qPmUYCI8eCslXZmnVlMq%2FoYCNPyKpq \|publication\-date\=1 December 2017 \|type\=\[\[United Nations Document Codes\|UN Document]] \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201112032912/https://docstore.ohchr.org/SelfServices/FilesHandler.ashx?enc\=6QkG1d%2FPPRiCAqhKb7yhsoAl3%2FFsniSQx2VAmWrPA0uA3KW0KkpmSGOue15UG42EodNm2j%2FnCTyghc1kM8Y%2FLQ4n6KZBdggHt5qPmUYCI8eCslXZmnVlMq%2FoYCNPyKpq \|series\=CCPR/C/AUS/CO/6 \|publisher\=\[\[United Nations]] \[\[United Nations Human Rights Committee\|Human Rights Committee]] \|archive\-date\=12 November 2020 \|author\-link\=United Nations Human Rights Committee}}{{Citation \|last\=United Nations Human Rights Committee \|title\=Concluding observations on the sixth periodic report of Hungary \|url\=https://docstore.ohchr.org/SelfServices/FilesHandler.ashx?enc\=6QkG1d%2FPPRiCAqhKb7yhsnm97%2BRfSonZvQyDICMC7to7lkIHViwiffCrjxVJVYr7AYGd1bD3LqpWwx7fjwdowp0XO09j1KeHx2S0%2Be4%2FGUZf4WEtz0X6rsDTNt6FAcrQ \|type\=\[\[United Nations Document Codes\|UN Document]] \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190703135746/https://docstore.ohchr.org/SelfServices/FilesHandler.ashx?enc\=6QkG1d%2FPPRiCAqhKb7yhsnm97%2BRfSonZvQyDICMC7to7lkIHViwiffCrjxVJVYr7AYGd1bD3LqpWwx7fjwdowp0XO09j1KeHx2S0%2Be4%2FGUZf4WEtz0X6rsDTNt6FAcrQ \|series\=CCPR/C/HUN/CO/6 \|publisher\=\[\[United Nations]] \[\[United Nations Human Rights Committee\|Human Rights Committee]] \|archive\-date\=3 July 2019 \|author\-link\=United Nations Human Rights Committee}}{{Citation \|last\=United Nations Human Rights Committee \|title\=Concluding observations on the fourth periodic report of Bulgaria \|date\=15 November 2018 \|url\=https://docstore.ohchr.org/SelfServices/FilesHandler.ashx?enc\=6QkG1d%2FPPRiCAqhKb7yhskh%2Bqy5CyN8D%2FZ%2BBzREl4JFFGBP%2FHKF%2FOdQmhX%2FowRuyRPF6ULj89EPBOq9kvUJgYNQHSS625xvETKp1EUpOs6ekr3vAaU0IH6Z0CyRL%2Ftuy \|type\=\[\[United Nations Document Codes\|UN Document]] \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200403222827/https://docstore.ohchr.org/SelfServices/FilesHandler.ashx?enc\=6QkG1d%2FPPRiCAqhKb7yhskh%2Bqy5CyN8D%2FZ%2BBzREl4JFFGBP%2FHKF%2FOdQmhX%2FowRuyRPF6ULj89EPBOq9kvUJgYNQHSS625xvETKp1EUpOs6ekr3vAaU0IH6Z0CyRL%2Ftuy \|series\=CCPR/C/BGR/CO/4 \|publisher\=\[\[United Nations]] \[\[United Nations Human Rights Committee\|Human Rights Committee]] \|archive\-date\=3 April 2020 \|author\-link\=United Nations Human Rights Committee}}
* Article 12 of the [UDHR](/wiki/Universal_Declaration_of_Human_Rights "Universal Declaration of Human Rights") and Article 17 of the [ICCPR](/wiki/International_Covenant_on_Civil_and_Political_Rights "International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights") prohibit arbitrary interference with their privacy, family, home or correspondence.
#### Soft Law
The Supreme Court held that [*Yogyakarta Principles on the* *Application of Human Rights Law in Relation to Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity (2007\)*](/wiki/Yogyakarta_Principles%23Original_2007_Principles "Yogyakarta Principles#Original 2007 Principles") is consistent with various [fundamental rights](/wiki/Fundamental_rights_in_India "Fundamental rights in India") enshrined in the [Indian Constitution](/wiki/Constitution_of_India "Constitution of India") and stated that they must be recognised and followed in the decision of [*NLSA v. UOI (2014\)*](/wiki/National_Legal_Services_Authority_v._Union_of_India "National Legal Services Authority v. Union of India") and [*Navtej Singh Johar v. UOI (2018\)*](/wiki/Navtej_Singh_Johar_v._Union_of_India "Navtej Singh Johar v. Union of India"). The petitioners pointed to:Petitioners: {{Harvnb\|Dr Kavita Arora v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Udit Sood v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Nibedita Dutta v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Zainab J. Patel v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Supriyo v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Parth Phiroze Mehrotra v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Aditi Anand v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Amburi Roy v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Akkai Padmashali v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\|Rituparna Borah v. Union of India}}.
* Principle 24 of the [Yogyakarta Principles](/wiki/Yogyakarta_Principles "Yogyakarta Principles"), which recognises the right to establish a family, regardless of [sexual orientation](/wiki/Sexual_orientation "Sexual orientation") and [gender identity](/wiki/Gender_identity "Gender identity"). It calls for the State to recognise [same\-sex marriage](/wiki/Same-sex_marriage "Same-sex marriage") or registered partnership and ensure that same\-sex married or registered partners have the entitlements, privileges, obligations and benefits available to opposite\-sex married or registered partners.{{Cite report \|url\=http://yogyakartaprinciples.org/wp\-content/uploads/2016/08/principles\_en.pdf \|title\=Principles on the Application of Human Rights Law in Relation to Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity \|date\=March 2007 \|publisher\=\[\[Yogyakarta Principles]] \|access\-date\=23 February 2023 \|archive\-date\=1 April 2023 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230401034915/http://yogyakartaprinciples.org/wp\-content/uploads/2016/08/principles\_en.pdf \|url\-status\=live }}
#### *Obergefell v. Hodges* (United States, 2015\)
In anticipation of an oppositional argument that could emphasise marriage as traditionally and historically being limited to opposite\-sex couples, the petitioners argue that generations of denial are not an argument for its perpetuation. They point to the majority opinion of [*Obergefell v. Hodges (2015\)*](/wiki/Obergefell_v._Hodges "Obergefell v. Hodges"), in which [Associate Justice](/wiki/Associate_Justice_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States "Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States") [Kennedy](/wiki/Anthony_Kennedy "Anthony Kennedy") wrote that if rights were defined by who exercised them in the past, then past practices would serve as continued justification for denying the new groups the rights.Petitioners: {{Harvnb\|Udit Sood v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\|Parth Phiroze Mehrotra v. Union of India}}.
In anticipation of an opposition prophesy that upholding everybody's fundamental right to marry would diminish the worth of opposite\-sex marriages, petitioners point to the conclusion of the majority on the same discussion in *[Obergefell v. Hodges (2015\)](/wiki/Obergefell_v._Hodges "Obergefell v. Hodges")*, “it is wholly illogical to believe that state recognition of the love and commitment between same\-sex couples will alter the most intimate and personal decisions of opposite\-sex couples.”
While deciding the *Sunil Batra v. Delhi Administration (1978\),* the Supreme Court held that the despite the lack of the [Due Process Clause](/wiki/Due_Process_Clause "Due Process Clause") in the [Constitution of India](/wiki/Constitution_of_India "Constitution of India") same consequence ensued after the decisions in *R.C. Cooper v. Union of India (1970\)* and [*Maneka Gandhi v. Union of India (1978\)*](/wiki/Maneka_Gandhi_v._Union_of_India "Maneka Gandhi v. Union of India")*.* Affirming the verdict of *Sunil Batra v. Delhi Administration (1978\),* the Supreme Court held that substantive due process is applied to the [fundamental right to life and liberty](/wiki/Fundamental_rights_in_India%23Right_To_Freedom "Fundamental rights in India#Right To Freedom") in *Mohd Arif v. The Registrar (2014\).*Petitioners: {{Harvnb\|Sameer Samudra v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\|Nitin Karan v. Union of India}}.
Finally, the Supreme Court held that [Article 14](/wiki/Article_14_of_the_Constitution_of_India "Article 14 of the Constitution of India") of the [Indian Constitution](/wiki/Constitution_of_India "Constitution of India") corresponds to the [Equal Protection Clause](/wiki/Equal_Protection_Clause "Equal Protection Clause") of the [Fourteenth Amendment of the United States Constitution](/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution "Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution") in *Chiranjit Lal Chowdhuri v. UOI (1950\).* Hence, the [United States Supreme Court](/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States "Supreme Court of the United States") ruling in *[Obergefell v. Hodges (2015\)](/wiki/Obergefell_v._Hodges "Obergefell v. Hodges")*, which held the fundamental right to marry is guaranteed to [same\-sex couples](/wiki/Same-sex_relationship "Same-sex relationship") by both the [Due Process Clause](/wiki/Due_Process_Clause "Due Process Clause") and the [Equal Protection Clause](/wiki/Equal_Protection_Clause "Equal Protection Clause") of the [Fourteenth Amendment of the Constitution](/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution "Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution") is relevant to the current case.
#### Recognition of foreign marriage
The Supreme Court recognised the [principles of comity of nations](/wiki/Comity "Comity") in the ruling of *Mirza Ali Akbar Kashani v. United Arab Republic (1966\)*, *Tractor Export v. Tarapore \& Co. (1969\)* and *Gramophone Company of India Ltd. v. Birendra Bahadur Pandey (1984\).* The petitioners called attention to the fact that 32 countries have recognised [same\-sex marriage](/wiki/Same-sex_marriage "Same-sex marriage"). Since [Foreign Marriage Act](/wiki/Foreign_Marriage_Act%2C_1969 "Foreign Marriage Act, 1969") has extraterritorial operations, petitioners argued that it should be read to conform with international developments.Petitioners: {{Harvnb\|Vaibhav Jai v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Udit Sood v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Joydeep Sengupta v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\|Zainab J. Patel v. Union of India}}.
#### Citizenship of sexual and gender minority spouse
The petitioners argue that the [Citizenship Act](/wiki/Indian_nationality_law "Indian nationality law") does not authorise the officials to examine the marriage under [Indian law](/wiki/Law_of_India "Law of India"). Therefore, as long as the marriage is validly registered overseas and the sexual or gender minority spouse of foreign origin satisfies other conditions, they are entitled to apply for [OCI](/wiki/Overseas_Citizenship_of_India "Overseas Citizenship of India"). They point to the ruling of the [Israeli High Court of Justice](/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Israel%23High_Court_of_Justice "Supreme Court of Israel#High Court of Justice") that registration officials, who are not competent to examine the validity of the marriage under [Israeli law](/wiki/Israeli_law "Israeli law"), should register the [same\-sex marriage](/wiki/Same-sex_marriage "Same-sex marriage") of [Israeli Citizens](/wiki/Israelis "Israelis") performed validly overseas in *Ben\-Ari v. Director of Population Administration (2006\).*
#### Legislative policy
The petitioners highlighted various entitlements, privileges, obligations and benefits limited to marital, blood or adoptive relationships. These legal provisions exclude legally unrecognised spouses and families of sexual and gender minority individuals.
##### Healthcare
When a patient cannot communicate their wishes due to being in a persistent vegetative state, having a form of dementia or similar illness, or being under anaesthesia, legally unrecognised spouses and families of sexual and gender minority individuals are not allowed to make healthcare decisions for them.Petitioners: {{Harvnb\|Dr Kavita Arora v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Parth Phiroze Mehrotra v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Aditi Anand v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\|Rituparna Borah v. Union of India}}.
Legally unrecognised spouses and families of sexual and gender minority individuals face discrimination in [organ donation](/wiki/Organ_donation "Organ donation") in the case of both living or deceased partners.Petitioners: {{Harvnb\|Dr Kavita Arora v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Udit Sood v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Nibedita Dutta v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Supriyo v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Parth Phiroze Mehrotra v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\|Aditi Anand v. Union of India}}. Under the [Transplantation of Human Organs and Tissues Act of 1994](/wiki/Transplantation_of_Human_Organs_and_Tissues_Act%2C_1994 "Transplantation of Human Organs and Tissues Act, 1994"), the declaration to donate organs requires the presence of at least one marital, blood or adoptive relative. As a result, unrecognised spouses and families cannot make these vital decisions about sexual and gender minority family members. Sexual and gender minority partners need prior approval of the Authorisation Committee under the [Transplantation of Human Organs and Tissues Act](/wiki/Transplantation_of_Human_Organs_and_Tissues_Act%2C_1994 "Transplantation of Human Organs and Tissues Act, 1994"). The Committee evaluates the proof of affection or attachment to the intended recipient of the organ before permitting organ donation, which legally married couples need not provide.{{Cite act\|index\=42\|date\=1994\|legislature\=\[\[Parliament of India]]\|title\=The Transplantation of Human Organs and Tissues Act\|url\=https://www.indiacode.nic.in/handle/123456789/1962}} {{Cite web \|url\=https://www.indiacode.nic.in/handle/123456789/1962 \|title\=Archived copy \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-12 \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-12 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230312173357/https://www.indiacode.nic.in/handle/123456789/1962 \|url\-status\=bot: unknown }}
##### Finance
Sexual and gender minority family members lack the rights around succession, [maintenance](/wiki/Alimony "Alimony"), joint ownership of assets, taxation and benefits. As private entitlements exclude sexual and gender minority family members, sexual and gender minority individuals face more barriers and higher scrutiny in privately offered life insurance nominations, owning [joint bank accounts](/wiki/Joint_account "Joint account") and lockers, and mutual funds and savings plans.Petitioners: {{Harvnb\|Vaibhav Jai v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Dr Kavita Arora v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Udit Sood v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Nibedita Dutta v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Supriyo v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Parth Phiroze Mehrotra v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\|Aditi Anand v. Union of India}}.
According to the [Income Tax Act of 1961](/wiki/The_Income-tax_Act%2C_1961 "The Income-tax Act, 1961"), the payments made on behalf of a spouse are included in the deduction when computing the total income. These deductions include the payments made towards life insurance, a deferred annuity of the life of a spouse, the spouse's provident fund set up by the Central Government and the spouse for participation in the Unit\-linked Insurance Plan.{{Cite act\|index\=43\|date\=1961\|article\=80C\|article\-type\=Section\|legislature\=\[\[Parliament of India]]\|title\=The Income\-tax Act\|url\=https://www.indiacode.nic.in/handle/123456789/2435}} {{Cite web \|url\=https://www.indiacode.nic.in/handle/123456789/2435 \|title\=Archived copy \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-12 \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-12 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230312071723/https://www.indiacode.nic.in/handle/123456789/2435 \|url\-status\=bot: unknown }} Sexual and gender minority family members cannot claim such deductions.Petitioners: {{Harvnb\|Vaibhav Jai v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Dr Kavita Arora v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Udit Sood v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Nibedita Dutta v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Zainab J. Patel v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Supriyo v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Parth Phiroze Mehrotra v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\|Aditi Anand v. Union of India}}.
According to the Supreme Court ruling on *Rajesh v. Rajbir Singh*, the spousal consortium considered in the claims, including the claims for injury and death in the [Motor Vehicle Act of 1988](/wiki/Motor_Vehicles_Act%2C_1988 "Motor Vehicles Act, 1988") cases, is only available to married couples.{{Cite act\|index\=59\|date\=1988\|article\=158, 166 {{abbr\|\&\|and}} 168\|article\-type\=Section\|legislature\=\[\[Parliament of India]]\|title\=The Motor Vehicles Act\|url\=https://www.indiacode.nic.in/handle/123456789/1798}} {{Cite web \|url\=https://www.indiacode.nic.in/handle/123456789/1798 \|title\=Archived copy \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-12 \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-12 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230312103247/https://www.indiacode.nic.in/handle/123456789/1798 \|url\-status\=bot: unknown }}{{Cite court\|litigants\=Rajesh {{abbr\|\&\|and}} {{abbr\|Ors.\|Others}} versus Rajbir Singh {{abbr\|\&\|and}} {{abbr\|Ors.\|Others}}\|court\=\[\[Supreme Court of India]]\|opinion\={{abbr\|Civil Appeal No.\|Civil Appeal Number}} 3860/2013\|date\=12 April 2013\|url\=https://main.sci.gov.in/jonew/bosir/orderpdf/1721330\.pdf}} Hence the legally unrecognised spouses of sexual and gender minority individuals are denied such claims.Petitioners: {{Harvnb\|Dr Kavita Arora v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Nibedita Dutta v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Supriyo v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\|Aditi Anand v. Union of India}}.
##### Employment
Without recognition of the right to marry, couples from sexual and gender minority communities cannot access the benefits available to opposite\-sex couples through various legislation. Couples from sexual and gender minority communities in government service cannot request same\-city postings. A sexual and gender minority partner cannot receive the healthcare coverage provided to the spouse of government employees.
The government grants an appointment on compassionate grounds to a dependent family member of a government servant dying or retired on medical grounds and leaving their family without any livelihood. Couples from sexual and gender minority communities are not eligible for compassionate appointments or family pensions.
Under the current reading of the [Indian Acts](/wiki/Law_of_India "Law of India"), sexual and gender minority employee cannot nominate their legally unrecognised family for benefits and entitlements as long as their biological or adoptive family members are alive.{{Cite news \|last1\=Chaturvedi \|first1\=Arpan \|last2\=Jain \|first2\=Rupam \|date\=19 December 2022 \|title\=Gay couples in India ask Supreme Court to legalise same\-sex marriage \|language\=en \|work\=\[\[Reuters]] \|url\=https://www.reuters.com/world/india/gay\-couples\-india\-ask\-supreme\-court\-legalise\-same\-sex\-marriage\-2022\-12\-19/ \|access\-date\= \|archive\-date\=2023\-02\-12 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230212153427/https://www.reuters.com/world/india/gay\-couples\-india\-ask\-supreme\-court\-legalise\-same\-sex\-marriage\-2022\-12\-19/ \|url\-status\=live }}{{Cite news \|last\=Rajagopal \|first\=Krishnadas \|date\=25 November 2022 \|title\=Supreme Court seeks govt response on including same\-sex marriage under Special Marriage Act \|language\=en \|work\=\[\[The Hindu]] \|url\=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/supreme\-court\-seeks\-govt\-response\-on\-including\-same\-sex\-marriage\-under\-special\-marriage\-act/article66182642\.ece \|access\-date\= \|issn\=0971\-751X \|archive\-date\=13 February 2023 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230213051311/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/supreme\-court\-seeks\-govt\-response\-on\-including\-same\-sex\-marriage\-under\-special\-marriage\-act/article66182642\.ece \|url\-status\=live }} Some of the [Acts](/wiki/Law_of_India "Law of India") highlighted by the petitioners are:Petitioners: {{Harvnb\|Vaibhav Jai v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Dr Kavita Arora v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Udit Sood v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Joydeep Sengupta v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Nibedita Dutta v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Zainab J. Patel v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Supriyo v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Parth Phiroze Mehrotra v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\|Aditi Anand v. Union of India}}.
* Employee's Compensation Act of 1923,{{Cite act\|type\=Act\|index\=8\|date\=1923\|article\=10A(4\)\|article\-type\=Section\|legislature\=\[\[Imperial Legislative Council]]\|title\=The Employees Compensation Act\|url\=https://www.indiacode.nic.in/show\-data?actid\=AC\_UP\_88\_477\_00016\_00016\_1614836915424\§ionId\=64520\§ionno\=10A\&orderno\=12}} {{Cite web \|url\=https://www.indiacode.nic.in/show\-data?actid\=AC\_UP\_88\_477\_00016\_00016\_1614836915424\§ionId\=64520\§ionno\=10A\&orderno\=12 \|title\=Archived copy \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-12 \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-12 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230312062151/https://www.indiacode.nic.in/show\-data?actid\=AC\_UP\_88\_477\_00016\_00016\_1614836915424\§ionId\=64520\§ionno\=10A\&orderno\=12 \|url\-status\=bot: unknown }}
* Employees' Provident Funds Act of 1952,{{Cite act\|type\=Act\|index\=19\|date\=1952\|article\=4\|article\-type\=Schedule\|legislature\=\[\[Parliament of India]]\|title\=Employees' Provident Funds and Miscellaneous Provisions Act\|url\=https://www.indiacode.nic.in/handle/123456789/2152}} {{Cite web \|url\=https://www.indiacode.nic.in/handle/123456789/2152 \|title\=Archived copy \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-12 \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-12 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230312060651/https://www.indiacode.nic.in/handle/123456789/2152 \|url\-status\=bot: unknown }}
* [Payment of Gratuity Act of 1972](/wiki/The_Payment_of_Gratuity_Act%2C_1972 "The Payment of Gratuity Act, 1972"),{{Cite act\|index\=39\|date\=1972\|article\=6\|article\-type\=Section\|legislature\=\[\[Parliament of India]]\|title\=The Payment of Gratuity Act\|url\=https://www.indiacode.nic.in/show\-data?actid\=AC\_CEN\_6\_6\_00029\_197239\_1517807324619\§ionId\=42151\§ionno\=6\&orderno\=8}} {{Cite web \|url\=https://www.indiacode.nic.in/show\-data?actid\=AC\_CEN\_6\_6\_00029\_197239\_1517807324619\§ionId\=42151\§ionno\=6\&orderno\=8 \|title\=Archived copy \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-12 \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-12 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230312060646/https://www.indiacode.nic.in/show\-data?actid\=AC\_CEN\_6\_6\_00029\_197239\_1517807324619\§ionId\=42151\§ionno\=6\&orderno\=8 \|url\-status\=bot: unknown }}
* Payment of Wages Act, 1936{{Cite act\|index\=4\|date\=1936\|article\=26\|article\-type\=Section\|legislature\=\[\[Imperial Legislative Council]]\|title\=The Payment of Wages Act\|url\=https://www.indiacode.nic.in/bitstream/123456789/8324/1/payment\_of\_wages\_act\_1936\.pdf}} {{Cite web \|url\=https://www.indiacode.nic.in/bitstream/123456789/8324/1/payment\_of\_wages\_act\_1936\.pdf \|title\=Archived copy \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-12 \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-25 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230325172323/https://www.indiacode.nic.in/bitstream/123456789/8324/1/payment\_of\_wages\_act\_1936\.pdf \|url\-status\=bot: unknown }}{{Cite act\|type\=General Statutory Rule\|index\=822 (E)\|date\=2009\|article\=3 (2\)\|article\-type\=Rule\|legislature\=\[\[Government of India]] through \[\[Ministry of Labour and Employment (India)\|Ministry of Labour and Employment]]\|title\=Payment of Wages (Nomination) Rules\|url\=https://labour.gov.in/sites/default/files/PW\_Nomination%20Rules.pdf}} {{Cite web \|url\=https://labour.gov.in/sites/default/files/PW\_Nomination%20Rules.pdf \|title\=Archived copy \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-12 \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-12 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230312060646/https://labour.gov.in/sites/default/files/PW\_Nomination%20Rules.pdf \|url\-status\=bot: unknown }} and
* [Unorganised Workers' Social Security Act of 2008](/wiki/Unorganised_Workers%27_Social_Security_Act_2008 "Unorganised Workers' Social Security Act 2008").{{Cite act\|index\=33\|date\=2008\|article\=3\|article\-type\=Section\|legislature\=\[\[Parliament of India]]\|title\=Unorganised Workers Social Security Act\|url\=https://www.indiacode.nic.in/show\-data?actid\=AC\_CEN\_6\_6\_00036\_200833\_1517807327317\§ionId\=42317\§ionno\=3\&orderno\=3}} {{Cite web \|url\=https://www.indiacode.nic.in/show\-data?actid\=AC\_CEN\_6\_6\_00036\_200833\_1517807327317\§ionId\=42317\§ionno\=3\&orderno\=3 \|title\=India Code: Section Details \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-12 \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-12 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230312060653/https://www.indiacode.nic.in/show\-data?actid\=AC\_CEN\_6\_6\_00036\_200833\_1517807327317\§ionId\=42317\§ionno\=3\&orderno\=3 \|url\-status\=bot: unknown }}{{Cite act\|type\=Statutory Order\|index\=764 (E)\|date\=2019\|legislature\=\[\[Government of India]] through \[\[Ministry of Labour and Employment (India)\|Ministry of Labour and Employment]]\|title\=Pradhan Mantri Shram Yogi Maan\-dhan Yojana\|url\=https://labour.gov.in/sites/default/files/197105\_0\.pdf}} {{Cite web \|url\=https://labour.gov.in/sites/default/files/197105\_0\.pdf \|title\=Archived copy \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-12 \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-12 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230312060717/https://labour.gov.in/sites/default/files/197105\_0\.pdf \|url\-status\=bot: unknown }}
Since private entitlements, such as healthcare and other spousal benefits extended in private employment, exclude sexual and gender minority family members, sexual and gender minority individuals face more barriers and higher scrutiny in acquiring spousal benefits.Petitioners: {{Harvnb\|Dr Kavita Arora v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\|Supriyo v. Union of India}}.
##### Housing
Couples from sexual and gender minority communities do not have the right to reside in a shared household. Hence, sexual and gender minority individuals cannot rely on their partner's rented or owned home to prove residence for official purposes.
##### Parenthood
Without recognition of the right to marry, couples from sexual and gender minority communities cannot have children through [adoption](/wiki/Same-sex_adoption "Same-sex adoption"), [surrogacy](/wiki/Surrogacy_in_India "Surrogacy in India"), or [assisted reproductive technologies](/wiki/Assisted_reproductive_technology%23India "Assisted reproductive technology#India").Petitioners: {{Harvnb\|Supriyo v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Aditi Anand v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\|Amburi Roy v. Union of India}}.
The [Juvenile Justice Act of 2015](/wiki/Juvenile_Justice_%28Care_and_Protection_of_Children%29_Act%2C_2015 "Juvenile Justice (Care and Protection of Children) Act, 2015"), along with relevant rules, does not allow unmarried couples and couples in a live\-in relationship to adopt children as a couple.{{Cite act\|index\=2\|date\=2015\|legislature\=\[\[Parliament of India]]\|title\=The Juvenile Justice (Care and Protection of Children) Act\|url\=https://www.indiacode.nic.in/handle/123456789/2148}} {{Cite web \|url\=https://www.indiacode.nic.in/handle/123456789/2148 \|title\=India Code: Juvenile Justice (Care and Protection of Children) Act, 2015 \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-12 \|archive\-date\=2023\-04\-24 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230424144953/https://www.indiacode.nic.in/handle/123456789/2148 \|url\-status\=bot: unknown }}{{Cite act\|type\=General Statutory Rules\|index\=726 (E)\|date\=2022\|legislature\=\[\[Government of India]] through \[\[Ministry of Women and Child Development]]\|title\=Adoption Regulations\|url\=https://wcd.nic.in/sites/default/files/Adoption%20Regulations%202022\.pdf}} {{Cite web \|url\=https://wcd.nic.in/sites/default/files/Adoption%20Regulations%202022\.pdf \|title\=Archived copy \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-12 \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-12 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230312095012/https://wcd.nic.in/sites/default/files/Adoption%20Regulations%202022\.pdf \|url\-status\=bot: unknown }} The Adoption Regulations of 2022 state that a child cannot be given in adoption to a couple unless they have at least two years of a stable marital relationship. In line with the Adoption Regulations, the [Central Adoption Resource Authority](/wiki/Central_Adoption_Resource_Authority "Central Adoption Resource Authority") has decided that single prospective adoptive parents, who are in a live\-in relationship with a partner, will not be considered eligible to adopt a child.{{Cite act\|type\=Office Memorandum\|index\=CARAICA013/1/2022/Administration\|date\={{date\|2022\-06\-16\|mdy}}\|legislature\=\[\[Central Adoption Resource Authority]], \[\[New Delhi]]\|title\=Registration of cases of single PAPs having a live\-in partner in a long\-time relationship and not married\|url\=https://cara.nic.in/PDF/Registration\-of\-cases\-of\-single\-PAPs\-having\-a\_live\-in\_partner\-in\-a\-long\-time\-relationship\-and\-not\-married160622\.pdf}} {{Cite web \|url\=https://cara.nic.in/PDF/Registration\-of\-cases\-of\-single\-PAPs\-having\-a\_live\-in\_partner\-in\-a\-long\-time\-relationship\-and\-not\-married160622\.pdf \|title\=Archived copy \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-12 \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-12 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230312095003/https://cara.nic.in/PDF/Registration\-of\-cases\-of\-single\-PAPs\-having\-a\_live\-in\_partner\-in\-a\-long\-time\-relationship\-and\-not\-married160622\.pdf \|url\-status\=bot: unknown }}
The Surrogacy (Regulation) Act of 2021 allows only married couples to have children through surrogacy.{{Cite act\|index\=47\|date\=2021\|legislature\=\[\[Parliament of India]]\|title\=The Surrogacy (Regulation) Act\|url\=https://www.indiacode.nic.in/handle/123456789/17046}} {{Cite web \|url\=https://www.indiacode.nic.in/handle/123456789/17046 \|title\=India Code: Surrogacy (Regulation) Act, 2021 \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-12 \|archive\-date\=2023\-04\-26 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230426175844/https://www.indiacode.nic.in/handle/123456789/17046 \|url\-status\=bot: unknown }} The Assisted Reproductive Technology (Regulation) Act of 2021 allows only infertile married couples to obtain the services of an authorised clinic or bank for assisted reproductive technologies.{{Cite act\|index\=42\|date\=2021\|legislature\=\[\[Parliament of India]]\|title\=The Assisted Reproductive Technology (Regulation) Act\|url\=https://www.indiacode.nic.in/handle/123456789/17031}} {{Cite web \|url\=https://www.indiacode.nic.in/handle/123456789/17031 \|title\=India Code: Assisted Reproductive Technology (Regulation) Act, 2021 \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-12 \|archive\-date\=2022\-07\-18 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220718080315/https://www.indiacode.nic.in/handle/123456789/17031 \|url\-status\=bot: unknown }}
Since the parents cannot get married, the child has no legal relationship with an unrelated parent. As a result, various entitlements, privileges, obligations and benefits are unavailable to the unrelated parent and the child. An unrelated parent cannot make medical decisions in the case of an emergency.
##### Judicial proceedings
The [Indian Evidence Act of 1872](/wiki/Indian_Evidence_Act "Indian Evidence Act") provides [spousal privilege](/wiki/Spousal_privilege "Spousal privilege"), that is, immunity from being compelled to disclose any communication between spouses during their marriage. Additionally, they cannot disclose any communication without their partner or partner's representative's consent.{{Cite act\|type\=\|index\=1\|date\=1872\|article\=122\|article\-type\=Section\|legislature\=\[\[Imperial Legislative Council]]\|title\=Indian Evidence Act\|url\=https://www.indiacode.nic.in/show\-data?actid\=AC\_CEN\_3\_20\_00034\_187201\_1523268871700\§ionId\=38987\§ionno\=122\&orderno\=140}} {{Cite web \|url\=https://www.indiacode.nic.in/show\-data?actid\=AC\_CEN\_3\_20\_00034\_187201\_1523268871700\§ionId\=38987\§ionno\=122\&orderno\=140 \|title\=India Code: Section Details \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-12 \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-12 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230312060655/https://www.indiacode.nic.in/show\-data?actid\=AC\_CEN\_3\_20\_00034\_187201\_1523268871700\§ionId\=38987\§ionno\=122\&orderno\=140 \|url\-status\=bot: unknown }} Couples from sexual and gender minority communities do not have this crucial protection privilege under Indian evidentiary law.Petitioners: {{Harvnb\|Vaibhav Jai v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Dr Kavita Arora v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Joydeep Sengupta v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Nibedita Dutta v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Zainab J. Patel v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Supriyo v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Parth Phiroze Mehrotra v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\|Aditi Anand v. Union of India}}.
The [Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act of 2005](/wiki/Protection_of_Women_from_Domestic_Violence_Act%2C_2005 "Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act, 2005") protects women in an opposite\-sex marital or live\-in relationship. The law extends its protection to women living in a household, such as sisters or mothers, but fails to protect sexual and gender minority women in a relationship.Petitioners: {{Harvnb\|Dr Kavita Arora v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\|Parth Phiroze Mehrotra v. Union of India}}.
#### Entry and residence permits
A spouse of foreign origin of an Indian Citizen or [OCI](/wiki/Overseas_Citizenship_of_India "Overseas Citizenship of India") is entitled to apply for registration as an [OCI](/wiki/Overseas_Citizenship_of_India "Overseas Citizenship of India") under the [Citizenship Act](/wiki/The_Citizenship_Act%2C_1955 "The Citizenship Act, 1955"). [OCI](/wiki/Overseas_Citizenship_of_India "Overseas Citizenship of India") is a form of [permanent residency](/wiki/Permanent_residency "Permanent residency") which allows cardholders to live and work in India indefinitely. Without recognition of the right to marry, a foreign\-origin sexual or gender minority spouse is not eligible for [OCI](/wiki/Overseas_Citizenship_of_India "Overseas Citizenship of India") Card.
Recognition of the right to marry for sexual and gender minority individuals is crucial for acquiring a visa and residency. Sexual and gender minority families cannot declare the name of their spouse or parent on their passports. Similarly, [OCI](/wiki/Overseas_Citizenship_of_India "Overseas Citizenship of India") cardholders are subject to the notification issued by the [Union Government](/wiki/Government_of_India "Government of India")— for example, during the [COVID\-19 pandemic](/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_India "COVID-19 pandemic in India"), the [Union Government](/wiki/Government_of_India "Government of India") allowed [OCI](/wiki/Overseas_Citizenship_of_India "Overseas Citizenship of India") cardholders with Indian parents or spouses alone to enter the country.
#### Social exclusion and violence
Legally sanctioned exclusion, such as the prohibition of marriage between sexual and gender minority individuals, constitutes a form of [structural discrimination](/wiki/Structural_discrimination "Structural discrimination") which reinforces [ignorance](/wiki/Ignorance "Ignorance") and [prejudice](/wiki/Prejudice "Prejudice") and leads to widespread [discrimination](/wiki/Discrimination "Discrimination"), [rejection](/wiki/Social_rejection "Social rejection") and [violence](/wiki/Violence_against_LGBT_people "Violence against LGBT people") against sexual and gender minority individuals in India.Petitioners: {{Harvnb\|Dr Kavita Arora v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Udit Sood v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Aditi Anand v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Utkarsh Saxena v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Kajal v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Rituparna Borah v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\|Harish Iyer v. Union of India}}. The petitioners demonstrate widespread [discrimination](/wiki/Discrimination "Discrimination"), [rejection](/wiki/Social_rejection "Social rejection") and [violence](/wiki/Violence_against_LGBT_people "Violence against LGBT people") against sexual and gender minority individuals in India by reporting relevant peer\-reviewed studies and news articles.Petitioners: {{Harvnb\|Udit Sood v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\|Kajal v. Union of India}}.
[Family honour culture](/wiki/Family_honor "Family honor") is one of the reasons for the harassment of sexual and gender minority individuals in India.{{Cite web \|last\=Bhattacharya \|first\=Ananya \|date\=30 May 2019 \|title\=South Asian honour culture hounds India and Pakistan's LGBTQ community \|url\=https://qz.com/india/1630092/indians\-pakistanis\-most\-likely\-to\-back\-anti\-gay\-honour\-abuse \|access\-date\= \|website\=\[\[Quartz (publication)\|Quartz]] \|language\=en \|archive\-date\=18 October 2023 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20231018150037/https://qz.com/india/1630092/indians\-pakistanis\-most\-likely\-to\-back\-anti\-gay\-honour\-abuse \|url\-status\=live }} A 2021 multinational study documented the attitudes towards violence against sexual and gender minority individuals in five countries: [India](/wiki/India "India"), [Pakistan](/wiki/Pakistan "Pakistan"), [Malaysia](/wiki/Malaysia "Malaysia"), [Iran](/wiki/Iran "Iran") and [England](/wiki/England "England"). [Indians](/wiki/Indian_people "Indian people") ranked second, following [Pakistanis](/wiki/Pakistanis "Pakistanis"), for their belief that gay men had damaged their [family honour](/wiki/Family_honor "Family honor") and their acceptance of verbal abuse and life\-threatening violence by the family towards gay men.{{Cite journal \|last1\=Lowe \|first1\=Michelle \|last2\=Khan \|first2\=Roxanne \|last3\=Thanzami \|first3\=Vanlal \|last4\=Barzy \|first4\=Mahsa \|last5\=Karmaliani \|first5\=Rozina \|date\=2021 \|title\=Anti\-gay "Honor" Abuse: A Multinational Attitudinal Study of Collectivist\- Versus Individualist\-Orientated Populations in Asia and England \|url\=https://clok.uclan.ac.uk/26187/ \|journal\=\[\[Journal of Interpersonal Violence]] \|volume\=36 \|issue\=15–16 \|pages\=7866–7885 \|doi\=10\.1177/0886260519838493 \|pmid\=30924715 \|s2cid\=85566154 \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-06 \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-06 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230306085034/https://clok.uclan.ac.uk/26187/ \|url\-status\=live }}
Familial harassment takes various forms of violence and violations. A 2016 Indian study reported the family as the primary source of psychological, physical and sexual violence against sexual and gender minority individuals that normalises such violence for sexual and gender minority individuals in India.{{Cite journal \|last1\=Ranade \|first1\=Ketki \|last2\=Shah \|first2\=Chayanika \|last3\=Chatterji \|first3\=Sangeeta \|date\=1 August 2016 \|title\=Making sense: Familial journeys towards acceptance of gay and lesbian family members in India \|url\=https://journals.tiss.edu/ijsw/index.php/ijsw/article/view/72 \|journal\=The Indian Journal of Social Work \|volume\=77 \|issue\=4 \|pages\=437–458 \|issn\=2456\-7809 \|access\-date\=27 March 2023 \|archive\-date\=27 March 2023 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230327114743/https://journals.tiss.edu/ijsw/index.php/ijsw/article/view/72 \|url\-status\=live }} 2011 Indian qualitative study documented the endemic and pervasive nature of violence faced by sexual and gender minority women, such as psychological and verbal abuse, bodily harm, forced marriage, wrongful confinement, medical abuse and corrective rape.{{Citation \|last1\=Ghosh \|first1\=Subhagata \|title\=Vio Map: Documenting and Mapping Violence \& Rights Violation Taking Place in lives of Sexually Marginalised Women to Chart Out Effective Advocacy Strategies \|date\=8 March 2011 \|url\=https://www.sapphokolkata.in/public/research\_reports/1677858525\.pdf \|type\=Research Report \|publisher\=\[\[Sappho for Equality]] \|last2\=Bandyopadhyay \|first2\=Sumita Basu \|last3\=Ranjita \|first3\=Biswas \|access\-date\=27 March 2023 \|archive\-date\=27 March 2023 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230327113552/https://www.sapphokolkata.in/public/research\_reports/1677858525\.pdf \|url\-status\=live }} Familial harassment and rejection are common reasons for [homelessness](/wiki/Homelessness "Homelessness") and [suicide](/wiki/Suicide "Suicide") among sexual and gender minority individuals in India.{{Cite web \|last\=Watta \|first\=Anureet \|date\=2020\-09\-02 \|title\=Bullying, Homophobia, Conversion Therapy: What Is Pushing Queer People To Suicide? \|url\=https://www.shethepeople.tv/home\-top\-video/bullying\-homophobia\-conversion\-therapy\-queer\-people\-suicides/ \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-05 \|website\=\[\[SheThePeople]] \|language\=en\-US \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-05 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230305132122/https://www.shethepeople.tv/home\-top\-video/bullying\-homophobia\-conversion\-therapy\-queer\-people\-suicides/ \|url\-status\=live }}{{Cite magazine \|last\=Kidangoor \|first\=Abhishyant \|date\=2021\-01\-05 \|title\=This Indian Same\-Sex Couple Is Fighting for the Right to Marry. But Is Their Country Ready? \|url\=https://time.com/5926324/india\-lgbtq\-marriage\-case/ \|magazine\=\[\[Time (magazine)\|Time]] \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-07 \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-07 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230307061757/https://time.com/5926324/india\-lgbtq\-marriage\-case/ \|url\-status\=live }} India lacks comprehensive statistics on [suicide](/wiki/Suicide "Suicide") among sexual and gender minority individuals in India. A 2011 Mumbai\-based study of men who have sex with men found 45 per cent to be [suicidal](/wiki/Suicidal_ideation "Suicidal ideation"), with 15 per cent categorised as high risk. A 2016 Indian study estimated the suicide rate among [transgender Indians](/wiki/Transgender "Transgender") as 31 per cent, and at least 50 per cent of them have attempted suicide at least once before their 20th birthday.{{Cite journal \|last1\=H.G. \|first1\=Virupaksha \|last2\=Muralidhar \|first2\=Daliboyina \|last3\=Ramakrishna \|first3\=Jayashree \|date\=2016 \|title\=Suicide and Suicidal Behavior among Transgender Persons \|journal\=\[\[Indian Journal of Psychological Medicine]] \|volume\=38 \|issue\=6 \|pages\=505–509 \|doi\=10\.4103/0253\-7176\.194908\|pmid\=28031583 \|pmc\=5178031 \|doi\-access\=free }}
Couples from sexual and gender minority communities face familial harassment in the form of [forced separation](/wiki/Family_separation "Family separation") and [wrongful detention](/wiki/False_imprisonment "False imprisonment") or reporting their partners of [kidnapping](/wiki/Kidnapping "Kidnapping"). If the couple were [separated](/wiki/Family_separation "Family separation") and [detained](/wiki/False_imprisonment "False imprisonment") by the parents, the partner has to approach a [High Court](/wiki/High_courts_of_India "High courts of India") for a [writ petition for habeas corpus](/wiki/Habeas_corpus "Habeas corpus"). The Courts frequently question the [locus standi](/wiki/Standing_%28law%29 "Standing (law)") of the individual due to the non\-recognition of their relationship.{{Cite book \|last1\=Arasu \|first1\=Ponni \|url\=https://archive.org/details/lawlikelovequeer0000unse \|title\=Law like love: Queer perspectives on law \|last2\=Thangarajah \|first2\=Priya \|date\=2011 \|publisher\=\[\[Yoda Press]] \|isbn\=9789380403144 \|editor\-last\=Narrain \|editor\-first\=Arvind \|publication\-place\=\[\[New Delhi\|New Delhi, India]] \|chapter\=Queer Women and the Law in India \|oclc\=741445911 \|editor\-last2\=Gupta \|editor\-first2\=Alok }} On the other hand, if the parents had reported the [kidnapping](/wiki/Kidnapping "Kidnapping"), the police ascertained if the partner had left on their own accord. However, the seemingly straightforward procedure of recording the individual's statement to determine whether they are acting out of their free will gets complicated due to [societal prejudice](/wiki/Prejudice "Prejudice") validated by the lack of the right to marry for sexual and gender minority individuals in India.{{Cite book \|last\=Sharma \|first\=Maya \|title\=Footprints of a Queer History: Life\-stories from Gujarat \|publisher\=\[\[Yoda Press]] \|year\=2023 \|isbn\=9789382579359 \|location\=\[\[New Delhi\|New Delhi, India]]}}
Reports have documented instances where lesbian couples have considered, attempted or committed suicide together.{{Citation \|last\=Deepa \|first\=Vasudevan \|title\=Lesbian Suicides and the Kerala Women's Movement \|date\=2001 \|url\=http://feministlawarchives.pldindia.org/wp\-content/uploads/Lesbian\-Suicides\-and\-the\-Kerala\-Womens\-Movement.pdf \|type\=\[\[Conference proceedings\|Conference Proceeding]] \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210305201621/http://feministlawarchives.pldindia.org/wp\-content/uploads/Lesbian\-Suicides\-and\-the\-Kerala\-Womens\-Movement.pdf \|publication\-place\=\[\[Hyderabad\|Hyderabad, India]] \|publisher\=South Indian Young Feminists Conference \|archive\-date\=2021\-03\-05}}{{Cite report \|url\=https://www.tiss.edu/uploads/files/8The\_Nature\_of\_violence\_faced\_by\_Lesbian\_women\_in\_India.pdf \|title\=The nature of violence faced by lesbian women in India \|last1\=Fernandez \|first1\=Bina \|last2\=Gomathy \|first2\=N.B \|date\=2003 \|publisher\=Research Centre on Violence Against Women, \[\[Tata Institute of Social Sciences]] \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-08 \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-08 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230308071546/https://www.tiss.edu/uploads/files/8The\_Nature\_of\_violence\_faced\_by\_Lesbian\_women\_in\_India.pdf \|url\-status\=live }}{{Cite journal \|date\=2006 \|editor\-last\=Kalpana \|editor\-first\=Kannabiran \|title\=India: Second NGO Shadow Report on CEDAW \|url\=http://pldindia.org/wp\-content/uploads/2013/06/CEDAW\_\-Second\-Shadow\_report\_2006\.pdf \|journal\=National Alliance of Women \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-08 \|archive\-date\=2022\-09\-01 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220901034958/http://pldindia.org/wp\-content/uploads/2013/06/CEDAW\_\-Second\-Shadow\_report\_2006\.pdf \|url\-status\=live }} A lesbian couple, Asha Thakor and Bhavna Thakor, facing opposition from their family in rural [Gujarat](/wiki/Gujarat "Gujarat"), committed suicide shortly after eloping to the city. The couple had eloped to find a safe space and acceptance but never found it.{{Cite news \|last\=Dey \|first\=Simantini \|date\=2018\-06\-11 \|title\=The World Did Not Let Us Live: What Led To The Suicide of a same sex couple in 'Homophobic' Gujarat \|work\=\[\[News18 India\|News18]] \|url\=https://www.news18\.com/news/immersive/gujarat\-same\-sex\-suicide.html \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180626081203/https://www.news18\.com/news/immersive/gujarat\-same\-sex\-suicide.html \|archive\-date\=2018\-06\-26}} Similarly, a gay couple from rural [Assam](/wiki/Assam "Assam"), Ankur Das and Brajen Thakuria committed suicide after their families firmly opposed their relationship and blamed them for one of their mother's early death.{{Cite web \|date\=2020\-08\-01 \|title\=Gay lovers from Assam commit suicide due to families' opposition \|url\=https://www.sentinelassam.com/north\-east\-india\-news/assam\-news/gay\-lovers\-from\-assam\-commit\-suicide\-due\-to\-families\-opposition\-492587 \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-05 \|website\=\[\[The Sentinel (Guwahati)\|The Sentinel]] \|language\=en \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-05 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230305132114/https://www.sentinelassam.com/north\-east\-india\-news/assam\-news/gay\-lovers\-from\-assam\-commit\-suicide\-due\-to\-families\-opposition\-492587 \|url\-status\=live }} Despite the existence of suicide notes and social media posts, most of the cases end with [first information reports](/wiki/First_information_report "First information report") and news articles, without any investigations and persecution of those [abetting](/wiki/Aiding_and_abetting "Aiding and abetting") suicide.
##### Housing, education and employment
In the larger society, sexual and gender minority individuals in India face [prejudice](/wiki/Prejudice "Prejudice") in housing, education and employment. Sexual and gender minority individuals in India encounter discrimination from property owners and landlords, leading to a denial of housing and forced evictions.{{Citation \|last1\=Dutta \|first1\=Debolina \|title\=count me IN! Violence Against Disabled, Lesbian, and Sex\-working Women in Bangladesh, India, and Nepal \|url\=https://www.oursplatform.org/wp\-content/uploads/CREA\-The\-Count\-Me\-In\-Violence\-against\-Disabled\-Lesbian\-Sex\-working\-Women\-in\-Bangladesh\-India\-Nepal\-Report.pdf \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220119025401/https://www.oursplatform.org/wp\-content/uploads/CREA\-The\-Count\-Me\-In\-Violence\-against\-Disabled\-Lesbian\-Sex\-working\-Women\-in\-Bangladesh\-India\-Nepal\-Report.pdf \|publication\-place\=\[\[New Delhi\|New Delhi, India]] \|publisher\=CREA \|archive\-date\=2022\-01\-19 \|last2\=Weston \|first2\=Mark \|last3\=Bhattacharji \|first3\=Jaya \|last4\=Mukherji \|first4\=Suparna \|last5\=Kurien \|first5\=Sarah Joseph}}{{Cite news \|last\=Borate \|first\=Neil \|date\=2019\-06\-25 \|title\=Same\-sex couples in India lack basic financial rights. \|work\=\[\[Mint (newspaper)\|Mint]] \|url\=https://www.livemint.com/money/personal\-finance/same\-sex\-couples\-in\-india\-lack\-basic\-financial\-rights\-1561396839301\.html \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-07 \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-07 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230307061757/https://www.livemint.com/money/personal\-finance/same\-sex\-couples\-in\-india\-lack\-basic\-financial\-rights\-1561396839301\.html \|url\-status\=live }} A 2018 [UNESCO](/wiki/UNESCO "UNESCO")\-supported Indian study found that 60% of middle school students ([ISCED](/wiki/International_Standard_Classification_of_Education "International Standard Classification of Education") Level 2\), 60% of high school students ([ISCED](/wiki/International_Standard_Classification_of_Education "International Standard Classification of Education") Level 3\) and 50% of higher secondary school students ([ISCED](/wiki/International_Standard_Classification_of_Education "International Standard Classification of Education") Level 3\) were victims of physical violence due to [sexual orientation](/wiki/Sexual_orientation "Sexual orientation") and [gender identity](/wiki/Gender_identity "Gender identity"). As a result of the harassment, the students reported they had reduced social interaction with their peers (73%), suffered from anxiety and depression (70%), and discontinued school (33\.2%).{{Cite news \|date\=2018\-03\-13 \|title\=New study on bullying based on sexual orientation and gender identity in schools in Tamil Nadu, India \|work\=\[\[UNESCO]] \|url\=https://www.unesco.org/en/articles/new\-study\-bullying\-based\-sexual\-orientation\-and\-gender\-identity\-schools\-tamil\-nadu\-india \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-07 \|archive\-date\=2023\-04\-26 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230426162041/https://www.unesco.org/en/articles/new\-study\-bullying\-based\-sexual\-orientation\-and\-gender\-identity\-schools\-tamil\-nadu\-india \|url\-status\=live }} [Prejudice](/wiki/Prejudice "Prejudice") in the workplace manifests as harassment and discrimination in the recruitment process and promotions.{{Cite journal \|last1\=Noronha \|first1\=Ernesto \|last2\=Bisht \|first2\=Nidhi S. \|last3\=D’Cruz \|first3\=Premilla \|date\=2022\-04\-11 \|title\=From Fear to Courage: Indian Lesbians' and Gays' Quest for Inclusive Ethical Organizations \|url\=https://link.springer.com/article/10\.1007/s10551\-022\-05098\-x \|journal\=\[\[Journal of Business Ethics]] \|volume\=177 \|issue\=4 \|pages\=779–797 \|doi\=10\.1007/s10551\-022\-05098\-x \|s2cid\=248116558 \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-07 \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-07 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230307061800/https://link.springer.com/article/10\.1007/s10551\-022\-05098\-x \|url\-status\=live }}{{Cite news \|last\=Menon \|first\=Rashmi \|date\=2022\-07\-20 \|title\=How lesbian, gay employees deal with workplace bullying \|work\=\[\[Mint (newspaper)\|Mint]] \|url\=https://lifestyle.livemint.com/news/talking\-point/how\-lesbian\-gay\-employees\-deal\-with\-workplace\-bullying\-111658305286171\.html \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-07 \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-07 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230307061758/https://lifestyle.livemint.com/news/talking\-point/how\-lesbian\-gay\-employees\-deal\-with\-workplace\-bullying\-111658305286171\.html \|url\-status\=live }}
##### Effects of repression
The fear of familial harassment and rejection causes sexual and gender minority individuals in India to conceal their identity and remain in the closet. However, this does not guarantee their safety. According to a 2015 Indian survey, the majority of gay men who experienced physical violence (52\.4%), sexual abuse (55%) and psychological abuse (46\.5%) lived with their parents and were most often closeted. In contrast, gay men who lived with their partners or sexual and gender minority individuals faced little abuse. Closeted gay men living with parents cannot freely seek peer support from other sexual and gender minority individuals when faced with violence.{{Cite web \|last\=Chaturvedi \|first\=Sumit \|date\=2016\-10\-21 \|title\=52% of gay men in India without peer support suffer violence: Survey \|url\=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india\-news/52\-of\-gay\-men\-in\-india\-without\-peer\-support\-suffer\-violence\-survey/story\-HKOutVLK7YbIieafqsTrwL.html \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-06 \|website\=\[\[Hindustan Times]] \|language\=en \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-06 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230306145056/https://www.hindustantimes.com/india\-news/52\-of\-gay\-men\-in\-india\-without\-peer\-support\-suffer\-violence\-survey/story\-HKOutVLK7YbIieafqsTrwL.html \|url\-status\=live }} Subsequently, most sexual and gender minority individuals in India grow old facing life without lawful companionship and confronting the reality of [loneliness](/wiki/Loneliness "Loneliness"), which research shows carry a risk comparable to if not exceeds, that of other well\-accepted factors, including [smoking up to 15 cigarettes a day](/wiki/Tobacco_smoking "Tobacco smoking"), [obesity](/wiki/Obesity "Obesity"), [physical inactivity](/wiki/Physical_inactivity "Physical inactivity") and [air pollution](/wiki/Air_pollution "Air pollution").{{Cite journal \|last1\=Holt\-Lunstad \|first1\=Julianne \|last2\=Smith \|first2\=Timothy B. \|last3\=Layton \|first3\=J. Bradley \|date\=2010\-07\-27 \|title\=Social Relationships and Mortality Risk: A Meta\-analytic Review \|journal\=\[\[PLOS Medicine]] \|volume\=7 \|issue\=7 \|pages\=e1000316 \|doi\=10\.1371/journal.pmed.1000316\|pmid\=20668659 \|pmc\=2910600 \|doi\-access\=free }}{{Cite journal \|last\=Holt\-Lunstad \|first\=Julianne \|date\=2018\-01\-02 \|title\=The Potential Public Health Relevance of Social Isolation and Loneliness: Prevalence, Epidemiology, and Risk Factors \|url\=https://academic.oup.com/ppar/article/27/4/127/4782506 \|journal\=Public Policy \& Aging Report \|volume\=27 \|issue\=4 \|pages\=127–130 \|doi\=10\.1093/ppar/prx030 \|doi\-access\=free \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-06 \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-06 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230306162944/https://academic.oup.com/ppar/article/27/4/127/4782506 \|url\-status\=live }}
##### Social assimilation through inclusive policies
In light of widespread [discrimination](/wiki/Discrimination "Discrimination"), [rejection](/wiki/Social_rejection "Social rejection") and [violence](/wiki/Violence_against_LGBT_people "Violence against LGBT people") against sexual and gender minority individuals in India, the petitioners argued the [sexual and gender minority\-inclusive policies](/wiki/Gay-friendly "Gay-friendly") — for relationships, parenthood, healthcare, education and employment — provides opportunities to assimilate into society To make their case, the petitioners highlighted the historical role of Indian statutory reforms, such as the abolishment of [Sati](/wiki/Sati_%28practice%29 "Sati (practice)") and recognition of inter\-caste marriage and widow remarriage, in aiding the social assimilation of [marginalised](/wiki/Social_exclusion "Social exclusion") [Indians](/wiki/Indian_people "Indian people").{{Harvnb\|Vaibhav Jai v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Dr Kavita Arora v. Union of India}} \& {{Harvnb\|Nibedita Dutta v. Union of India}} The petitioners highlighted the instances where the [Indian Courts](/wiki/Judiciary_of_India "Judiciary of India") got rid of various socially regressive practices in defiance of social and religious norms— *Mary Roy v. State of Kerala (1986\)*, *Githa Hariharan v. Reserve Bank of India (1999\)*, *[Shayara Bano v. UOI (2017\)](/wiki/Triple_talaq_in_India%23Judgement "Triple talaq in India#Judgement")*, *Joseph Shine v. UOI (2018\)* and [*Arun Kumar v. Inspector General of Registration (2019\)*](/wiki/Arun_Kumar_v._Inspector_General_of_Registration "Arun Kumar v. Inspector General of Registration").
Scholars reason that the legal recognition of marriage between sexual and gender minority individuals is often accompanied by media attention and increased visibility, which is associated with increased social support for sexual and gender minority individuals.{{Cite journal \|last1\=Christopher \|first1\=Ramos \|last2\=Goldberg \|first2\=Naomi G \|last3\=Badgett \|first3\=M.V. Lee \|date\=2009\-05\-17 \|title\=The Effects of Marriage Equality in Massachusetts: A survey of the experiences and impact of marriage on same\-sex couples \|url\=https://escholarship.org/content/qt9dx6v3kj/qt9dx6v3kj.pdf \|journal\=\[\[Williams Institute]] \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-07 \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-05 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230305142847/https://escholarship.org/content/qt9dx6v3kj/qt9dx6v3kj.pdf \|url\-status\=live }}{{Cite journal \|last\=Lewis \|first\=Gregory B. \|date\=2011\-05\-02 \|title\=The Friends and Family Plan: Contact with Gays and Support for Gay Rights \|url\=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10\.1111/j.1541\-0072\.2011\.00405\.x \|journal\=\[\[Policy Studies Journal]] \|volume\=39 \|issue\=2 \|pages\=217–238 \|doi\=10\.1111/j.1541\-0072\.2011\.00405\.x \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-07 \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-07 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230307102539/https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10\.1111/j.1541\-0072\.2011\.00405\.x \|url\-status\=live }}{{Cite journal \|last1\=Chomsky \|first1\=Daniel \|last2\=Barclay \|first2\=Scott \|date\=2010 \|title\=The Mass Media, Public Opinion, and Lesbian and Gay Rights \|url\=https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/abs/10\.1146/annurev\-lawsocsci\-102209\-152825 \|journal\=\[\[Annual Review of Law and Social Science]] \|volume\=6 \|pages\=387–403 \|doi\=10\.1146/annurev\-lawsocsci\-102209\-152825 \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-07 \|archive\-date\=2022\-10\-12 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20221012131104/https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/abs/10\.1146/annurev\-lawsocsci\-102209\-152825 \|url\-status\=live }} The increased social support could translate into improved familial and peer acceptance, which is associated with improved mental health.{{Cite journal \|last1\=Ryan \|first1\=Caitlin \|last2\=Huebner \|first2\=David \|last3\=Diaz \|first3\=Rafael M. \|last4\=Sanchez \|first4\=Jorge \|date\=2009 \|title\=Family Rejection as a Predictor of Negative Health Outcomes in White and Latino Lesbian, Gay, and Bisexual Young Adults \|url\=https://publications.aap.org/pediatrics/article\-abstract/123/1/346/71912/Family\-Rejection\-as\-a\-Predictor\-of\-Negative\-Health \|journal\=\[\[Pediatrics (journal)\|Pediatrics]] \|volume\=123 \|issue\=1 \|pages\=346–352 \|doi\=10\.1542/peds.2007\-3524 \|pmid\=19117902 \|s2cid\=33361972 \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-07 \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-25 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230325095337/https://publications.aap.org/pediatrics/article\-abstract/123/1/346/71912/Family\-Rejection\-as\-a\-Predictor\-of\-Negative\-Health \|url\-status\=live }}{{Cite journal \|last1\=Gini \|first1\=Gianluca \|last2\=Espelage \|first2\=Dorothy L. \|date\=2014\-08\-06 \|title\=Peer Victimization, Cyberbullying, and Suicide Risk in Children and Adolescents \|url\=https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama/article\-abstract/1892227 \|journal\=\[\[JAMA\|Journal of the American Medical Association]] \|volume\=312 \|issue\=5 \|pages\=545–546 \|doi\=10\.1001/jama.2014\.3212 \|pmid\=25096695 \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-07 \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-07 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230307102540/https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama/article\-abstract/1892227 \|url\-status\=live }} A 2017 [U.S.](/wiki/United_States "United States") study found sexual and gender minority teens' suicide attempts declined in [U.S. states](/wiki/U.S._state "U.S. state") that enacted laws recognising [same\-sex marriage](/wiki/Same-sex_marriage "Same-sex marriage"). The study also reported the effect of legal recognition of [same\-sex marriage](/wiki/Same-sex_marriage "Same-sex marriage") persisted two years after recognition, disproving the argument that legal recognition of [same\-sex marriage](/wiki/Same-sex_marriage "Same-sex marriage") would negatively affect sexual and gender minority individuals due to social and political backlash.{{Cite journal \|last1\=Raifman \|first1\=Julia \|last2\=Moscoe \|first2\=Ellen \|last3\=Austin \|first3\=S. Bryn \|last4\=McConnell \|first4\=Margaret \|date\=2017\-02\-20 \|title\=Difference\-in\-differences analysis of the association between state same\-sex marriage policies and adolescent suicide attempts \|url\=https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamapediatrics/fullarticle/2604258 \|journal\=\[\[JAMA Pediatrics]] \|volume\=171 \|issue\=4 \|pages\=350–356 \|doi\=10\.1001/jamapediatrics.2016\.4529 \|pmid\=28241285 \|pmc\=5848493 \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-05 \|archive\-date\=2019\-05\-18 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190518115213/https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamapediatrics/fullarticle/2604258 \|url\-status\=live }} More directly, the legal recognition of the right to marry would extend the [previously discussed](/wiki/%23National_Laws_%26_Regulations "#National Laws & Regulations") benefits, entitlements, privileges and obligations to couples from sexual and gender minority communities and improve their quality of life.
#### Economic cost of social exclusion
The petitioners argued that the [structural discrimination](/wiki/Structural_discrimination "Structural discrimination") against sexual and gender minority individuals in India, such as the prohibition of marriage between sexual and gender minority individuals, hurts economic output— an unnecessary cost to all [Indian citizens](/wiki/Indian_people "Indian people"). Cross\-country studies have estimated that the legal provision of [same\-sex marriage](/wiki/Same-sex_marriage "Same-sex marriage") is associated with a long\-term increase in [GDP per capita](/wiki/Gross_domestic_product "Gross domestic product") of 54 to 64 per cent.{{Cite journal \|last1\=Lamontagne \|first1\=Erik \|last2\=d’Elbée \|first2\=Marc \|last3\=Ross \|first3\=Michael W. \|last4\=Carroll \|first4\=Aengus \|last5\=Plessis \|first5\=André du \|last6\=Loures \|first6\=Luiz \|date\=2018\-03\-03 \|title\=A socioecological measurement of homophobia for all countries and its public health impact \|url\=https://academic.oup.com/eurpub/article/28/5/967/4919666 \|journal\=\[\[European Journal of Public Health]] \|volume\=28 \|issue\=5 \|pages\=967–972 \|doi\=10\.1093/eurpub/cky023 \|pmid\=29514190 \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-11 \|archive\-date\=2020\-01\-03 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200103100505/https://academic.oup.com/eurpub/article/28/5/967/4919666 \|url\-status\=live \|doi\-access\=free }}
[Discrimination](/wiki/Discrimination "Discrimination") in the workplace leads to underutilisation of [human capital](/wiki/Human_capital "Human capital") if a less skilled worker from favoured groups is hired or promoted instead of a skilled sexual and gender minority worker. If the skilled sexual and gender minority workers cannot find a suitable option, then the unutilised or underutilised skilled sexual and gender minority workers constitute a loss to economic output.
In addition to [discrimination](/wiki/Discrimination "Discrimination"), the harassment of sexual and gender minority workers can reduce their [productivity](/wiki/Productivity "Productivity"), even if their wages and employment are not directly affected. A 2016 study found that 40 per cent of sexual and gender minority workers experienced [harassment](/wiki/Harassment "Harassment") by their peers, and 66 per cent heard negative comments about sexual and gender minorities.{{Citation \|last1\=Dhar \|first1\=Udayan \|title\=The Indian LGBT Workplace Climate Survey 2016 \|url\=https://vartagensex.org/wp\-content/uploads/2019/10/1559396942000\-mingle\-lgbt\-wrkplc\-climt\-srvy\-2016\.pdf \|type\=Survey Report \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-11 \|publisher\=Mission for Indian Gay \& Lesbian Empowerment \|last2\=Sinha \|first2\=Ramkrishna \|last3\=Khan \|first3\=Zafrulla \|archive\-date\=2022\-07\-09 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220709025644/https://vartagensex.org/wp\-content/uploads/2019/10/1559396942000\-mingle\-lgbt\-wrkplc\-climt\-srvy\-2016\.pdf \|url\-status\=live }} A 2019 study found that sexual and gender minority workers are 10 per cent less [productive](/wiki/Productivity "Productivity") in the same job as the general population, leading to a loss of 0\.4 per cent of [GDP](/wiki/Gross_domestic_product "Gross domestic product") annually.
Several studies found a positive association between [sexual and gender minority\-inclusive policies](/wiki/Gay-friendly "Gay-friendly") and financial measures like stock prices, asset returns, per\-worker output and employee innovation.{{Cite journal \|last1\=Shan \|first1\=Liwei \|last2\=Fu \|first2\=Shihe \|last3\=Zheng \|first3\=Lu \|date\=2017 \|title\=Corporate sexual equality and firm performance. \|url\=http://socialbigdata.cn/css/team/doc/zheng/Corporate%20Sexual%20Equality%20and%20Firm%20Performance.pdf \|journal\=Strategic Management Journal \|volume\=38 \|issue\=9 \|pages\=1812–1826 \|doi\=10\.1002/smj.2624 \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-11 \|archive\-date\=2023\-10\-16 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20231016113015/http://socialbigdata.cn/css/team/doc/zheng/Corporate%20Sexual%20Equality%20and%20Firm%20Performance.pdf \|url\-status\=live }}{{Cite journal \|last1\=Li \|first1\=Feng \|last2\=Nagar \|first2\=Venky \|date\=2013 \|title\=Diversity and performance \|url\=http://gljc.sxu.edu.cn/docs/2013\-10/20131021101508197036\.pdf \|journal\=\[\[Management Science (journal)\|Management Science]] \|volume\=59 \|issue\=3 \|pages\=529–544 \|doi\=10\.1287/mnsc.1120\.1548 \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-11 \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-11 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230311133409/http://gljc.sxu.edu.cn/docs/2013\-10/20131021101508197036\.pdf \|url\-status\=live }}{{Cite journal \|last1\=Gao \|first1\=Huasheng \|last2\=Zhang \|first2\=Wei \|date\=2017\-06\-15 \|title\=Employment nondiscrimination acts and corporate innovation. \|url\=https://pubsonline.informs.org/doi/abs/10\.1287/mnsc.2016\.2457 \|journal\=\[\[Management Science (journal)\|Management Science]] \|volume\=63 \|issue\=9 \|pages\=2982–2999 \|doi\=10\.1287/mnsc.2016\.2457 \|hdl\=10356/81557 \|s2cid\=23088627 \|hdl\-access\=free \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-11 \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-11 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230311131850/https://pubsonline.informs.org/doi/abs/10\.1287/mnsc.2016\.2457 \|url\-status\=live }} It is not a coincidence that 91 per cent of [Fortune 500](/wiki/Fortune_500 "Fortune 500") companies included [sexual orientation](/wiki/Sexual_orientation "Sexual orientation") in their non\-discrimination policies in 2019\.{{Cite web \|title\=LGBTQ\+ Equality at the Fortune 500 \|url\=https://www.hrc.org/resources/lgbt\-equality\-at\-the\-fortune\-500 \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-11 \|website\=\[\[Human Rights Campaign]] \|language\=en\-US \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-11 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230311131849/https://www.hrc.org/resources/lgbt\-equality\-at\-the\-fortune\-500 \|url\-status\=live }}
##### Emigration
When denied equal rights, sexual and gender minority individuals who can migrate, often highly educated or financially resourceful individuals, migrate to countries that afford better protection. Sexual Migration— migration where [sexual orientation](/wiki/Sexual_orientation "Sexual orientation") is an influential factor— is a well\-documented and widespread phenomenon.{{Cite journal \|last\=Carrillo \|first\=Héctor \|date\=2004 \|title\=Sexual migration, cross\-cultural sexual encounters, and sexual health \|url\=https://link.springer.com/article/10\.1525/srsp.2004\.1\.3\.58 \|journal\=\[\[Sexuality Research and Social Policy]] \|volume\=1 \|issue\=3 \|pages\=58–70 \|doi\=10\.1525/srsp.2004\.1\.3\.58 \|s2cid\=145584935 \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-11 \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-11 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230311141106/https://link.springer.com/article/10\.1525/srsp.2004\.1\.3\.58 \|url\-status\=live }} Studies focusing on Indian migrants have documented the lack of [sexual and gender minority rights in India](/wiki/LGBT_rights_in_India "LGBT rights in India") as a motivating factor for the decision.{{Cite journal \|last\=Smith \|first\=Geoffrey \|date\=2012\-08\-13 \|title\=Sexuality, space and migration: South Asian gay men in Australia \|url\=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10\.1111/j.1745\-7939\.2012\.01229\.x \|journal\=New Zealand Geographer \|volume\=68 \|issue\=2 \|pages\=92–100 \|doi\=10\.1111/j.1745\-7939\.2012\.01229\.x \|bibcode\=2012NZGeo..68\...92S \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-11 \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-11 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230311141103/https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10\.1111/j.1745\-7939\.2012\.01229\.x \|url\-status\=live }}{{Cite journal \|last\=Baas \|first\=Michiel \|date\=2019 \|title\=The past, present and future of 'gay' migrants from India in Singapore \|url\=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10\.1177/0011392118792922 \|journal\=\[\[Current Sociology]] \|volume\=67 \|issue\=2 \|pages\=206–224 \|doi\=10\.1177/0011392118792922 \|s2cid\=149617969 \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-11 \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-11 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230311141103/https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10\.1177/0011392118792922 \|url\-status\=live }} Due to the lack of Indian studies on sexual migration, the petitioners pointed to the [Hong Kong](/wiki/Hong_Kong "Hong Kong") study, which reported that 52\.5 per cent considered leaving because of their [sexual orientation](/wiki/Sexual_orientation "Sexual orientation"), of whom 91\.3 per cent cited the lack of legal recognition of marriage between sexual and gender minority individuals as a reason.{{Cite journal \|last1\=Suen \|first1\=Yiu Tung \|last2\=Chan \|first2\=Randolph CH \|date\=2021\-11\-04 \|title\="Gay brain drain": Hong Kong lesbian, gay, and bisexual people's consideration of emigration because of non\-inclusive social policies \|url\=https://link.springer.com/article/10\.1007/s13178\-020\-00497\-z \|journal\=\[\[Sexuality Research and Social Policy]] \|volume\=18 \|issue\=3 \|pages\=739–752 \|doi\=10\.1007/s13178\-020\-00497\-z \|s2cid\=256065733 \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-11 \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-11 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230311141107/https://link.springer.com/article/10\.1007/s13178\-020\-00497\-z \|url\-status\=live }}
##### Foreign revenue
Research shows a positive correlation between acceptance of [homosexuality](/wiki/Homosexuality "Homosexuality") and foreign investments.{{Cite journal \|last\=Noland \|first\=Marcus \|date\=2005\-12\-16 \|title\=Popular attitudes, globalization and risk \|url\=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10\.1111/j.1468\-2362\.2005\.00157\.x \|journal\=\[\[International Finance (journal)\|International Finance]] \|volume\=8 \|issue\=2 \|pages\=199–229 \|doi\=10\.1111/j.1468\-2362\.2005\.00157\.x \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-11 \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-11 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230311145617/https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10\.1111/j.1468\-2362\.2005\.00157\.x \|url\-status\=live }} When comparing cities, there is a positive association between [homosexual](/wiki/Homosexuality "Homosexuality") residents, foreign\-born residents and the number of successful businesses.{{Cite book \|last1\=Florida \|first1\=Richard \|url\=https://www.emerald.com/insight/publication/doi/10\.1016/S1479\-3520(2003\)9 \|title\=The City as an Entertainment Machine: Volume 9 \|last2\=Gates \|first2\=Gary \|date\=2003\-12\-16 \|publisher\=\[\[Emerald Group Publishing\|Emerald Group Publishing Limited]] \|isbn\=978\-0\-76231\-060\-9 \|editor\-last\=Nichols Clark \|editor\-first\=Terry \|pages\=199–219 \|chapter\=Technology and Tolerance: the Importance of Diversity To High\-Technology Growth \|doi\=10\.1016/S1479\-3520(03\)09007\-X \|chapter\-url\=https://www.emerald.com/insight/content/doi/10\.1016/S1479\-3520(03\)09007\-X/full/html \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-11 \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-11 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230311145619/https://www.emerald.com/insight/publication/doi/10\.1016/S1479\-3520(2003\)9 \|url\-status\=live }} Additionally, sexual and gender minority [tourism](/wiki/Tourism "Tourism") was worth 211 billion dollars in 2016\.{{Citation \|last\=Thurlow \|first\=Claire \|title\=The Economic Cost of Homophobia \|date\=2018 \|url\=https://www.petertatchellfoundation.org/wp\-content/uploads/2018/06/report\-a4\-lo\-res\-1\.pdf \|type\=Report \|publisher\=Peter Tatchell Foundation \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-11 \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-11 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230311145627/https://www.petertatchellfoundation.org/wp\-content/uploads/2018/06/report\-a4\-lo\-res\-1\.pdf \|url\-status\=live }} Sexual and gender minority travellers tend to spend more than [cisgendered](/wiki/Cisgender "Cisgender") [heterosexual](/wiki/Heterosexuality "Heterosexuality") travellers, but they are unlikely to choose destinations which lack adequate protections for sexual and gender minority individuals.
##### Health disparity
The studies show the [stigma](/wiki/Social_stigma "Social stigma") and [social exclusion](/wiki/Social_exclusion "Social exclusion") experienced by sexual and gender minority individuals in India lead to higher incidences of physical and mental health problems among sexual and gender minority individuals in India compared to the general population drastically reducing their ability to engage in productive work and contribute to overall economic activity.{{Cite journal \|last\=Badgett \|first\=M.V. Lee \|date\=2014\-10\-03 \|title\=The Economic Cost of Stigma and the Exclusion of LGBT People: A Case Study of India \|url\=https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/dbf67f8d\-0566\-5ea8\-ad55\-02c83c42d600/content \|journal\=\[\[World Bank Group]] \|publication\-place\=Washington, DC. \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-11 \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-08 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230308192853/https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/dbf67f8d\-0566\-5ea8\-ad55\-02c83c42d600/content \|url\-status\=live }} [Canadian](/wiki/Canada "Canada") and [US](/wiki/United_States "United States") studies on the cost of [stigma](/wiki/Social_stigma "Social stigma") and [social exclusion](/wiki/Social_exclusion "Social exclusion") have used data on [depression](/wiki/Depression_%28mood%29 "Depression (mood)"), [suicide](/wiki/Suicide "Suicide"), [smoking](/wiki/Tobacco_smoking "Tobacco smoking"), [alcohol abuse](/wiki/Alcoholism "Alcoholism"), [substance abuse](/wiki/Substance_abuse "Substance abuse"), [HIV](/wiki/HIV/AIDS "HIV/AIDS"), hospitalisation, lost days of work, and early mortality.{{Cite book \|last\=Bank \|first\=Christopher \|url\=https://cuisr.usask.ca/documents/publications/2000\-2004/The%20Cost%20of%20Homophobia%20Literature%20Review%20on%20the%20Economic%20Impact%20of%20Homophobia%20On%20Canada.pdf \|title\=The Cost of Homophobia: Literature Review on the Economic Impact of Homophobia On Canada \|publisher\=Community\-University Institute for Social Research \|year\=2004 \|location\=\[\[Saskatoon\|Saskatoon, Canada]] \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-11 \|archive\-date\=2021\-08\-08 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210808212143/https://cuisr.usask.ca/documents/publications/2000\-2004/The%20Cost%20of%20Homophobia%20Literature%20Review%20on%20the%20Economic%20Impact%20of%20Homophobia%20On%20Canada.pdf \|url\-status\=live }}{{Citation \|last1\=Hanlon \|first1\=Carrie \|title\=State documentation of racial and ethnic health disparities to inform strategic action. \|date\=2011 \|place\=\[\[Rockville, Maryland\|Rockville, United States]] \|publisher\=\[\[Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality]] \|last2\=Rosenthal \|first2\=Jill \|last3\=Hinkle \|first3\=Larry}}{{Citation \|last1\=LaVeist \|first1\=Thomas A \|title\=The economic burden of health inequalities in the United States. \|url\=https://hsrc.himmelfarb.gwu.edu/sphhs\_policy\_facpubs/225/ \|place\=\[\[Washington, D.C.\|Washington, D.C., United States]] \|publisher\=\[\[Joint Center for Political and Economic Studies]] \|last2\=Gaskin \|first2\=Darrell J. \|last3\=Richard \|first3\=Patrick \|journal\=Health Policy and Management Faculty Publications \|date\=September 2009 \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-11 \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-11 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230311073702/https://hsrc.himmelfarb.gwu.edu/sphhs\_policy\_facpubs/225/ \|url\-status\=live }} Since [India](/wiki/India "India") lacks such comprehensive data on the health disparity of sexual and gender minority individuals in India, the 2014 [World Bank](/wiki/World_Bank "World Bank") study considered only [depression](/wiki/Depression_%28mood%29 "Depression (mood)"), [suicide](/wiki/Suicide "Suicide") and [HIV](/wiki/HIV/AIDS "HIV/AIDS") among sexual and gender minority individuals in India. The study estimates [stigma](/wiki/Social_stigma "Social stigma") and [social exclusion](/wiki/Social_exclusion "Social exclusion") of sexual and gender minority individuals in India cost India up to 1\.3 per cent of its [GDP](/wiki/Gross_domestic_product "Gross domestic product") annually.{{Cite journal \|last1\=Badgett \|first1\=M.V. Lee \|last2\=Waaldijk \|first2\=Kees \|last3\=van der Meulen Rodgers \|first3\=Yana \|date\=2019\-04\-06 \|title\=The relationship between LGBT inclusion and economic development: Macro\-level evidence \|url\=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0305750X19300695 \|journal\=\[\[World Development (journal)\|World Development]] \|volume\=120 \|pages\=1–14 \|doi\=10\.1016/j.worlddev.2019\.03\.011 \|s2cid\=159223991 \|hdl\=1887/84562 \|hdl\-access\=free \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-11 \|archive\-date\=2021\-08\-06 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210806220939/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0305750X19300695 \|url\-status\=live }}
Researchers’ preferred explanation for the higher incidences of mental health problems among sexual and gender minority individuals is that [stigma](/wiki/Social_stigma "Social stigma"), [prejudice](/wiki/Prejudice "Prejudice"), and [discrimination](/wiki/Discrimination "Discrimination") create a stressful social environment that can lead to these problems.{{Cite journal \|last\=Meyer \|first\=Ilan H. \|author\-link\=Ilan Meyer \|date\=2003 \|title\=Prejudice, Social Stress, and Mental Health in Lesbian, Gay, and Bisexual Populations: Conceptual Issues and Research Evidence \|journal\=\[\[Psychological Bulletin]] \|volume\=125 \|issue\=5 \|pages\=674–697 \|doi\=10\.1037/0033\-2909\.129\.5\.674\|pmid\=12956539 \|pmc\=2072932 }} Rates of [depression](/wiki/Depression_%28mood%29 "Depression (mood)") among sexual and gender minority individuals in India are 6 to 12 times higher than the general population. A Mumbai\-based study of men who have sex with men found 45 per cent to be [suicidal](/wiki/Suicidal_ideation "Suicidal ideation"), with 15 per cent categorised as high risk.{{Cite journal \|last1\=Sivasubramanian \|first1\=Murugesan \|last2\=Mimiaga \|first2\=Matthew J. \|last3\=Mayer \|first3\=Kenneth H. \|last4\=Anand \|first4\=Vivek Raj \|last5\=Johnson \|first5\=Carey V. \|last6\=Prabhugate \|first6\=Priti \|last7\=Safren \|first7\=Steven A. \|date\=2011\-08\-01 \|title\=Suicidality, clinical depression, and anxiety disorders are highly prevalent in men who have sex with men in Mumbai, India: findings from a community\-recruited sample. \|journal\=Psychol Health Med \|volume\=16 \|issue\=4 \|pages\=450–462 \|doi\=10\.1080/13548506\.2011\.554645\|pmid\=21749242 \|pmc\=3136931 }} This range of [suicidal ideation](/wiki/Suicidal_ideation "Suicidal ideation") among sexual and gender minority individuals in India is 7 to 14 times the [suicidal ideation](/wiki/Suicidal_ideation "Suicidal ideation") among the general population from developing countries, including India.
[Social exclusion](/wiki/Social_exclusion "Social exclusion") might make healthcare services less relevant or accessible to sexual and gender minority individuals in India. A study found that [prejudice](/wiki/Prejudice "Prejudice") in society, specifically among healthcare providers, and experiencing negative consequences when disclosing their identity was associated with lower access to [HIV](/wiki/HIV/AIDS "HIV/AIDS") preventive measures among sexual and gender minority individuals.{{Citation \|last1\=Arreola \|first1\=Sonya \|title\=Access to HIV Prevention and Treatment for Men Who Have Sex with Men: Findings from the 2012 Global Men's Health and Rights Study (GMHR) \|date\=2012 \|url\=https://mpactglobal.org/wp\-content/uploads/2015/09/GMHR\_Factsheet\_EN.pdf \|type\=\[\[White paper\|White Paper]] \|publication\-place\=Oakland \|publisher\=The Global Forum on MSM \& HIV (MSMGF) \|last2\=Hebert \|first2\=Pato \|last3\=Makofane \|first3\=Keletso \|last4\=Beck \|first4\=J. \|last5\=Ayala \|first5\=George \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-11 \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-11 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230311055155/https://mpactglobal.org/wp\-content/uploads/2015/09/GMHR\_Factsheet\_EN.pdf \|url\-status\=live }}
|
[
"### Petitioners",
"#### Fundamental rights",
"Among the relevant precedents, issues and laws presented, the petitioners argued that the exclusion of couples from sexual and gender minority communities from marriage laws constituted a violation of fundamental right.{{Harvnb\\|Supriyo v. Union of India}} and other connected cases. Other connected cases include {{Harvnb\\|Nikesh P.P. v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Abhijit Iyer Mitra v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Vaibhav Jai v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Dr Kavita Arora v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Udit Sood v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Joydeep Sengupta v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Mellissa Ferrier v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Nibedita Dutta v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Zainab J. Patel v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Parth Phiroze Mehrotra v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Sameer Samudra v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Aditi Anand v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Utkarsh Saxena v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Nitin Karan v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Kajal v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Amburi Roy v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Akkai Padmashali v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Rituparna Borah v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\\|Harish Iyer v. Union of India}}. Similarly, the notice and objection provisions in secular marriage laws— [Special Marriage Act](/wiki/Special_Marriage_Act%2C_1954 \"Special Marriage Act, 1954\") and [Foreign Marriage Act](/wiki/Foreign_Marriage_Act%2C_1969 \"Foreign Marriage Act, 1969\")— constituted a violation. Hence, following [Article 32](/wiki/Fundamental_rights_in_India%23Right_to_Constitutional_Remedies \"Fundamental rights in India#Right to Constitutional Remedies\") of the [Indian Constitution](/wiki/Constitution_of_India \"Constitution of India\"), which guarantees the [Right to Constitutional Remedies](/wiki/Fundamental_rights_in_India%23Right_to_Constitutional_Remedies \"Fundamental rights in India#Right to Constitutional Remedies\") and designates the Supreme Court as the protector of [Fundamental Rights](/wiki/Fundamental_rights_in_India \"Fundamental rights in India\"), the petitioners argued that they are within their rights to approach the Supreme Court.Petitioners: {{Harvnb\\|Supriyo v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Parth Phiroze Mehrotra v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Sameer Samudra v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Aditi Anand v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Utkarsh Saxena v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Nitin Karan v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Kajal v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Amburi Roy v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Akkai Padmashali v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Rituparna Borah v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\\|Harish Iyer v. Union of India}}",
"##### Jurisdiction",
"In assessing whether a law infringes a fundamental right, the Supreme Court held that it is not the intention of the lawmaker that is determinative, but whether the effect or operation of the law infringes fundamental rights in the ruling of [*Maneka Gandhi v. UOI (1978\\)*](/wiki/Maneka_Gandhi_v._Union_of_India \"Maneka Gandhi v. Union of India\"). Since the marriage laws infringe on the fundamental rights of sexual and gender minority individuals, petitioners argued that the Supreme Court could act as the designated protector of fundamental rights.Petitioners: {{Harvnb\\|Dr Kavita Arora v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Supriyo v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Aditi Anand v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\\|Utkarsh Saxena v. Union of India}}.",
"The Supreme Court has regularly interpreted statutes in a manner which preserves their constitutionality, for example, in *Travancore v. Mohammed Mohammed Khan (1981\\)*, *Githa Hariharan v. Reserve Bank of India (1999\\)* and *Indra Das v. State of Assam (2011\\).*Petitioners: {{Harvnb\\|Vaibhav Jai v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Dr Kavita Arora v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Supriyo v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\\|Aditi Anand v. Union of India}}. Furthermore, the Supreme Court has held that when the enforcement of fundamental rights is concerned, the [Supreme](/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_India \"Supreme Court of India\") and [High Courts](/wiki/High_courts_of_India \"High courts of India\") do not have to await action by the legislature in *[Vishaka v. State of Rajasthan (1997\\)](/wiki/Vishakha_and_others_v_State_of_Rajasthan \"Vishakha and others v State of Rajasthan\")*, *Vineet Narain v. UOI (1997\\)*, *[Shayara Bano v. UOI (2017\\)](/wiki/Triple_talaq_in_India%23Judgement \"Triple talaq in India#Judgement\")*, *Common Cause v. UOI (2018\\)* and [*Navtej Singh Johar v. UOI (2018\\)*](/wiki/Navtej_Singh_Johar_v._Union_of_India \"Navtej Singh Johar v. Union of India\").Petitioners: {{Harvnb\\|Joydeep Sengupta v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Parth Phiroze Mehrotra v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\\|Rituparna Borah v. Union of India}}.",
"##### Constitutional morality",
"The law, reflecting societal values, regulates relationships between people and prescribes behaviour patterns. As the social realities changes, the law changes. However, sometimes a legal change precedes societal changes and is even intended to stimulate. The Supreme Court, noting these dynamics when ruling in *Badshah v. Urmila Badshah Godse (2014\\)*, held that the court should exercise discretion in determining the proper relationship between the subjective and objective purposes of the law.Petitioners: {{Harvnb\\|Vaibhav Jai v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Dr Kavita Arora v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Zainab J. Patel v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Supriyo v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\\|Aditi Anand v. Union of India}}.",
"The Supreme Court held that while the State can impose reasonable restrictions based on decency and morality, the limitations should be rational and tolerant of unpopular social views in *S. Khushboo v. Kanniammal (2010\\) and [Navtej Singh Johar v. UOI (2018\\)](/wiki/Navtej_Singh_Johar_v._Union_of_India \"Navtej Singh Johar v. Union of India\")*.Petitioners: {{Harvnb\\|Joydeep Sengupta v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\\|Parth Phiroze Mehrotra v. Union of India}}. The Supreme Court stated the purpose of elevating certain rights to the stature of fundamental rights as to insulate their exercise from the disdain of majorities, whether legislative or popular, in [*Puttaswamy v. UOI (2017\\)*](/wiki/Right_to_Privacy_verdict \"Right to Privacy verdict\").Petitioners: {{Harvnb\\|Udit Sood v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Parth Phiroze Mehrotra v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Aditi Anand v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\\|Rituparna Borah v. Union of India}}. The petitioners highlighted the instances where the [Indian Courts](/wiki/Judiciary_of_India \"Judiciary of India\") protected fundamental rights by defying social and religious norms.— *Mary Roy v. State of Kerala (1986\\)*, *Githa Hariharan v. Reserve Bank of India (1999\\)*, *[Shayara Bano v. UOI (2017\\)](/wiki/Triple_talaq_in_India%23Judgement \"Triple talaq in India#Judgement\"), Joseph Shine v. UOI (2018\\)* and [*Arun Kumar v. Inspector General of Registration (2019\\)*](/wiki/Arun_Kumar_v._Inspector_General_of_Registration \"Arun Kumar v. Inspector General of Registration\").Petitioners: {{Harvnb\\|Nikesh P.P. v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Vaibhav Jai v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Dr Kavita Arora v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Udit Sood v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Supriyo v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Parth Phiroze Mehrotra v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Kajal v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\\|Rituparna Borah v. Union of India}}.",
"##### Right to equality",
"[Article 14](/wiki/Article_14_of_the_Constitution_of_India \"Article 14 of the Constitution of India\") of the [Indian Constitution](/wiki/Constitution_of_India \"Constitution of India\") guarantees the right to equality. The Supreme Court declared that any law that fails to protect the [self\\-determination](/wiki/Self-determination \"Self-determination\") of [sexual orientation](/wiki/Sexual_orientation \"Sexual orientation\") and [gender identity](/wiki/Gender_identity \"Gender identity\") of an individual is irrational, manifestly arbitrary, and a violation of [Article 14](/wiki/Article_14_of_the_Constitution_of_India \"Article 14 of the Constitution of India\"). The Supreme Court has recognised the [principle of substantive equality](/wiki/Substantive_equality \"Substantive equality\") in *Lt. Col. Nitisha v. UOI (2021\\).* The Supreme Court held that atypical families, such as domestic, unmarried partnerships or relationships between sexual and gender minority individuals, deserve equal protection under the law guaranteed in [Article 14](/wiki/Article_14_of_the_Constitution_of_India \"Article 14 of the Constitution of India\") in *[Deepika Singh v. Central Administrative Tribunal (2022\\)](/wiki/Deepika_Singh_v._Central_Administrative_Tribunal \"Deepika Singh v. Central Administrative Tribunal\")*.Petitioners: {{Harvnb\\|Sameer Samudra v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Aditi Anand v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\\|Amburi Roy v. Union of India}}.",
"##### Anti\\-discrimination",
"[Article 15](/wiki/Article_15_of_the_Constitution_of_India \"Article 15 of the Constitution of India\") of the [Indian Constitution](/wiki/Constitution_of_India \"Constitution of India\") guarantees protection from discrimination. The Supreme Court extended the protection to include [sexual orientation](/wiki/Sexual_orientation \"Sexual orientation\") and [gender identity](/wiki/Gender_identity \"Gender identity\"). The Supreme Court has recognised the [principle of substantive equality](/wiki/Substantive_equality \"Substantive equality\") in *Lt. Col. Nitisha v. UOI (2021\\).* Considering the cultural stereotypes based on [sex](/wiki/Sex \"Sex\") and [gender](/wiki/Gender \"Gender\") and their role in discriminatory legislation, the Supreme Court held that judicial scrutiny to weave out discrimination must be strict in *Anuj Garg v. Hotel Association of India (2007\\)*.{{Harvnb\\|Nikesh P.P. v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Joydeep Sengupta v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\\|Rituparna Borah v. Union of India}}. The Supreme Court held that [Article 15](/wiki/Article_15_of_the_Constitution_of_India \"Article 15 of the Constitution of India\") places positive and negative obligations on the State in [*Navtej Singh Johar v. UOI (2018\\)*](/wiki/Navtej_Singh_Johar_v._Union_of_India \"Navtej Singh Johar v. Union of India\"), where positive obligations call for the state to recognise rights which bring true fulfilment to same\\-sex relationships.Petitioners: {{Harvnb\\|Dr Kavita Arora v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\\|Aditi Anand v. Union of India}}.",
"##### Freedom of expression",
"[Article 19](/wiki/Fundamental_rights_in_India%23Right_To_Freedom \"Fundamental rights in India#Right To Freedom\") of the [Indian Constitution](/wiki/Constitution_of_India \"Constitution of India\") guarantees the right to freedom of speech and expression. The Supreme Court held that [Article 19](/wiki/Fundamental_rights_in_India%23Right_To_Freedom \"Fundamental rights in India#Right To Freedom\") includes full expression of [sexual orientation](/wiki/Sexual_orientation \"Sexual orientation\") and [gender identity](/wiki/Gender_identity \"Gender identity\"). The Supreme Court held that the choice of marital partner is an exercise of freedom of expression enshrined in [Article 19](/wiki/Fundamental_rights_in_India%23Right_To_Freedom \"Fundamental rights in India#Right To Freedom\") in *Vikas Yadav v. State of Uttar Pradesh (2016\\)*, *Asha Ranjan v. State of Bihar (2017\\)*, *Shakti Vahini v. UOI (2018\\)* and [*Shafin Jahan v Ashokan K.M. (2018\\)*](/wiki/Hadiya_case \"Hadiya case\")*.*",
"##### Right to life and personal liberty",
"[Article 21](/wiki/Fundamental_rights_in_India%23Right_to_life \"Fundamental rights in India#Right to life\") of the [Indian Constitution](/wiki/Constitution_of_India \"Constitution of India\") guarantees the right to life and personal liberty, which includes dignity, privacy, and personal autonomy. The Supreme Court recognised the rights guaranteed by [Article 21](/wiki/Fundamental_rights_in_India%23Right_to_life \"Fundamental rights in India#Right to life\") for sexual and gender minority individuals. The Supreme Court held that [Article 21](/wiki/Fundamental_rights_in_India%23Right_to_life \"Fundamental rights in India#Right to life\") recognises the right to choose a marital partner in the ruling of *Shakti Vahini v. UOI (2018\\), Lata Singh v. State of Uttar Pradesh (2006\\), [Puttaswamy v. UOI (2017\\)](/wiki/Right_to_Privacy_verdict \"Right to Privacy verdict\")*, *[Shafin Jahan v Ashokan K.M. (2018\\)](/wiki/Hadiya_case \"Hadiya case\"),* and *Laxmibai Chandaragi B. v. State of Karnataka (2021\\).*",
"##### Freedom of conscience and religion",
"[Article 25](/wiki/Freedom_of_religion_in_India \"Freedom of religion in India\") of the [Indian Constitution](/wiki/Constitution_of_India \"Constitution of India\") guarantees freedom of conscience and religion. Since the Supreme Court ruled that the freedom of conscience of an individual is more than religious beliefs in [*Puttaswamy v. UOI (2017\\)*](/wiki/Right_to_Privacy_verdict \"Right to Privacy verdict\"), the petitioners argued that the freedom to choose a marital partner is an integral component of freedom of conscience.Petitioners: {{Harvnb\\|Vaibhav Jai v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Dr Kavita Arora v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Zainab J. Patel v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Supriyo v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Aditi Anand v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\\|Kajal v. Union of India}}.\n* Since the Supreme Court ruled that in addition to freedom of religion, [Article 25](/wiki/Freedom_of_religion_in_India \"Freedom of religion in India\") guarantees freedom from religion in [*Indian Young Lawyers Association v. State of Kerala (2019\\)*](/wiki/Entry_of_women_to_Sabarimala \"Entry of women to Sabarimala\"), the petitioners claiming recognition under the secular marriage laws argued the state should not endorse the conception of marriage that is exclusively heterosexual, as it is rooted in the norms of religion.Petitioners: {{Harvnb\\|Utkarsh Saxena v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\\|Harish Iyer v. Union of India}}.\n* Since [Hinduism](/wiki/Hinduism_and_LGBT_topics \"Hinduism and LGBT topics\") does not prohibit marriage between sexual and gender minority individuals, the petitioners claiming recognition under [personal laws](/wiki/Law_of_India%23Family_law_%E2%80%93_personal_law \"Law of India#Family law – personal law\") argued exclusion of couples from sexual and gender minority communities from the [Hindu Marriage Act](/wiki/Hindu_Marriage_Act%2C_1955 \"Hindu Marriage Act, 1955\") violates the petitioners' right to practice religion freely.Petitioners: {{Harvnb\\|Abhijit Iyer Mitra v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\\|Nibedita Dutta v. Union of India}}. The [Madras High Court](/wiki/Madras_High_Court \"Madras High Court\") held that refusal to register the marriage between a [Hindu](/wiki/Hindus \"Hindus\") [cisgender man](/wiki/Man \"Man\") and a [Hindu](/wiki/Hindus \"Hindus\") [transgender woman](/wiki/Trans_woman \"Trans woman\") under [Hindu Marriage Act](/wiki/Hindu_Marriage_Act%2C_1955 \"Hindu Marriage Act, 1955\") violates [Article 25](/wiki/Freedom_of_religion_in_India \"Freedom of religion in India\") in [*Arun Kumar v. Inspector General of Registration (2019\\)*](/wiki/Arun_Kumar_v._Inspector_General_of_Registration \"Arun Kumar v. Inspector General of Registration\").",
"##### Right to marry",
"Since the Supreme Court established the fundamental rights of sexual and gender minority individuals in [*NLSA v. UOI (2014\\)*](/wiki/National_Legal_Services_Authority_v._Union_of_India \"National Legal Services Authority v. Union of India\"), [*Puttaswamy v. UOI (2017\\)*](/wiki/Right_to_Privacy_verdict \"Right to Privacy verdict\") and [*Navtej Singh Johar v. UOI (2018\\)*](/wiki/Navtej_Singh_Johar_v._Union_of_India \"Navtej Singh Johar v. Union of India\"), the petitioners argued for extending the right to marry and establish a family to sexual and gender minority individuals based on Articles [14](/wiki/Article_14_of_the_Constitution_of_India \"Article 14 of the Constitution of India\"), [15](/wiki/Article_15_of_the_Constitution_of_India \"Article 15 of the Constitution of India\"), [19](/wiki/Fundamental_rights_in_India%23Right_To_Freedom \"Fundamental rights in India#Right To Freedom\"), [21](/wiki/Fundamental_rights_in_India%23Right_To_Freedom \"Fundamental rights in India#Right To Freedom\") and [25](/wiki/Freedom_of_religion_in_India \"Freedom of religion in India\") of the [Indian Constitution](/wiki/Constitution_of_India \"Constitution of India\").",
"[High Courts](/wiki/High_courts_of_India \"High courts of India\") have considered the constitutionality of Indian marriage laws. The [Madras High Court](/wiki/Madras_High_Court \"Madras High Court\") held that refusal to register the marriage between a [Hindu](/wiki/Hindus \"Hindus\") [cisgender man](/wiki/Man \"Man\") and a [Hindu](/wiki/Hindus \"Hindus\") [transgender woman](/wiki/Trans_woman \"Trans woman\") under [Hindu Marriage Act](/wiki/Hindu_Marriage_Act%2C_1955 \"Hindu Marriage Act, 1955\") violates [fundamental rights](/wiki/Fundamental_rights_in_India \"Fundamental rights in India\") guaranteed under Articles [14](/wiki/Article_14_of_the_Constitution_of_India \"Article 14 of the Constitution of India\"), [15](/wiki/Article_15_of_the_Constitution_of_India \"Article 15 of the Constitution of India\"), [19](/wiki/Fundamental_rights_in_India%23Right_To_Freedom \"Fundamental rights in India#Right To Freedom\"), [21](/wiki/Fundamental_rights_in_India%23Right_To_Freedom \"Fundamental rights in India#Right To Freedom\") and [25](/wiki/Freedom_of_religion_in_India \"Freedom of religion in India\") of the [Indian Constitution](/wiki/Constitution_of_India \"Constitution of India\") in [*Arun Kumar v. Inspector General of Registration (2019\\)*](/wiki/Arun_Kumar_v._Inspector_General_of_Registration \"Arun Kumar v. Inspector General of Registration\").Petitioners: {{Harvnb\\|Nikesh P.P. v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Vaibhav Jai v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Udit Sood v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Nibedita Dutta v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Parth Phiroze Mehrotra v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\\|Kajal v. Union of India}}.",
"The petitioners requested that the Supreme Court declare that the gender change of a spouse would not automatically void solemnised marriage. As an extension of recognising the right to marry and establishing a family, the petitioners argued for the entitlement of a foreign\\-origin sexual or gender minority spouse of an [Indian Citizen](/wiki/Indian_citizen \"Indian citizen\") or [Overseas Citizen of India](/wiki/Overseas_Citizenship_of_India \"Overseas Citizenship of India\") to apply for registration as an [Overseas Citizen of India](/wiki/Overseas_Citizenship_of_India \"Overseas Citizenship of India\").",
"#### Issues in secular marriage law",
"The notice and objections provisions detail the requirement for registering a marriage under the secular marriage laws— [Special Marriage Act](/wiki/Special_Marriage_Act%2C_1954 \"Special Marriage Act, 1954\") and [Foreign Marriage Act](/wiki/Foreign_Marriage_Act%2C_1969 \"Foreign Marriage Act, 1969\"). The individuals intending to marry must publish their details in Marriage Notice Book meant for public inspection. Within thirty days of publication, any person can object to their marriage, and a marriage officer, who has the power of a civil court, handles the objections.{{Cite act\\|index\\=43\\|date\\=1954\\|article\\=\\|article\\-type\\=\\|legislature\\=\\[\\[Parliament of India]]\\|title\\=The Special Marriage Act\\|url\\=https://www.indiacode.nic.in/handle/123456789/1387}} {{Cite web \\|url\\=https://www.indiacode.nic.in/handle/123456789/1387 \\|title\\=Archived copy \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-12 \\|archive\\-date\\=2021\\-12\\-18 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20211218225516/https://www.indiacode.nic.in/handle/123456789/1387 \\|url\\-status\\=bot: unknown }}{{Cite act\\|index\\=33\\|date\\=1969\\|article\\=\\|article\\-type\\=\\|legislature\\=\\[\\[Parliament of India]]\\|title\\=The Foreign Marriage Act\\|url\\=https://www.indiacode.nic.in/handle/123456789/1720}} {{Cite web \\|url\\=https://www.indiacode.nic.in/handle/123456789/1720 \\|title\\=Archived copy \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-12 \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-04\\-26 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230426161619/https://www.indiacode.nic.in/handle/123456789/1720 \\|url\\-status\\=bot: unknown }}",
"##### Non\\-equality",
"The intention of the notice and objections provisions is to address the situations where individuals might hide the breach of prerequisites of marriage. However, such deterrents are absent in the [personal laws](/wiki/Law_of_India%23Family_law_%E2%80%93_personal_law \"Law of India#Family law – personal law\") governing marriage. Evidently, notice and objection provisions are not the only way to address the problem of a breach of prerequisites of marriage. The provisions are grossly disproportionate and violate the [fundamental rights](/wiki/Fundamental_rights_in_India \"Fundamental rights in India\") of the [Indian Constitution](/wiki/Constitution_of_India \"Constitution of India\"). The provisions violates [Article 14](/wiki/Article_14_of_the_Constitution_of_India \"Article 14 of the Constitution of India\") of the [Indian Constitution](/wiki/Constitution_of_India \"Constitution of India\") by creating an unequal burden on individuals who choose to marry under secular marriage laws. It violates [Article 15](/wiki/Article_15_of_the_Constitution_of_India \"Article 15 of the Constitution of India\") of the [Indian Constitution](/wiki/Constitution_of_India \"Constitution of India\") by discriminating those constrained to marry under secular marriage laws from those who marry under [personal laws](/wiki/Law_of_India%23Family_law_%E2%80%93_personal_law \"Law of India#Family law – personal law\").",
"##### Violations of freedom of expression",
"The provisions violate the freedom of expression guaranteed by [Article 19](/wiki/Article_14_of_the_Constitution_of_India \"Article 14 of the Constitution of India\") by enabling continuing harassment and persecution. Multiple news reports document the role of the provision in enabling continuing harassment and persecution. The 2010 [Indian](/wiki/India \"India\") case studies documented the barrier posed by these procedural requirements of the secular marriage laws. The [Law Commission](/wiki/Law_Commission_of_India \"Law Commission of India\") published a consultation paper on the Reform of Family Law that recognised the notice and objection provision of secular marriage laws as an impediment to personal autonomy. The [Law Commission](/wiki/Law_Commission_of_India \"Law Commission of India\") published a report on the Prevention of Interference with the freedom of Matrimonial Alliances that recommended the removal of the notice and objection provisions of the secular marriage laws to prevent “high\\-handed or unwarranted interference” in marriages.",
"##### Violations of decisional autonomy",
"The provisions violate the decisional autonomy guaranteed by [Article 21](/wiki/Fundamental_rights_in_India%23Right_to_life \"Fundamental rights in India#Right to life\") by authorising any person to object to the marriage. The [Law Commission](/wiki/Law_Commission_of_India \"Law Commission of India\") published a consultation paper on the Reform of Family Law that recognised the provisions as an impediment to personal autonomy protected by [Article 21](/wiki/Fundamental_rights_in_India%23Right_to_life \"Fundamental rights in India#Right to life\"). The provisions force individuals to surrender their right to privacy to exercise their right to marry. The Supreme Court held that a requirement that forces the individual to give up one constitutional right to exercise another is unconstitutional in the ruling of *Ahmedabad St. Xavier’s College Society v. State of Gujarat (1974\\).*",
"[High Courts](/wiki/High_courts_of_India \"High courts of India\") have considered the constitutionality of the provisions. Remarking that unwarranted disclosure of the marriage plans might jeopardise the marriage and endanger the lives of the couple, the [Delhi High Court](/wiki/Delhi_High_Court \"Delhi High Court\") deprecated the practice of sending notices to residential addresses in the ruling of *Pranav Kumar Mishra v. Govt. of NCT of Delhi (2009\\)*. Relying on the [right](/wiki/Fundamental_rights_in_India \"Fundamental rights in India\") to [personal liberty](/wiki/Fundamental_rights_in_India%23Right_to_life \"Fundamental rights in India#Right to life\") and [privacy](/wiki/Right_to_Privacy_verdict \"Right to Privacy verdict\"), [Allahabad High Court](/wiki/Allahabad_High_Court \"Allahabad High Court\") read down the notice and objection provision of the [Special Marriage Act](/wiki/Special_Marriage_Act%2C_1954 \"Special Marriage Act, 1954\") as a directory and not mandatory in the ruling of *Safiya Sultana v. State of Uttar Pradesh (2021\\)*.Petitioners: {{Harvnb\\|Utkarsh Saxena v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Kajal v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\\|Akkai Padmashali v. Union of India}}.",
"#### Representative and heirs",
"Despite the landmark decision of the Supreme Court asserting the right to [self\\-determination](/wiki/Self-determination \"Self-determination\") of [sexual orientation](/wiki/Sexual_orientation \"Sexual orientation\") and [gender identity](/wiki/Gender_identity \"Gender identity\") in [*NLSA v. UOI (2014\\)*](/wiki/National_Legal_Services_Authority_v._Union_of_India \"National Legal Services Authority v. Union of India\"), [*Puttaswamy v. UOI (2017\\)*](/wiki/Right_to_Privacy_verdict \"Right to Privacy verdict\") and [*Navtej Singh Johar v. UOI (2018\\)*](/wiki/Navtej_Singh_Johar_v._Union_of_India \"Navtej Singh Johar v. Union of India\")*,* the birth or adoptive family continues to interfere and restrict the [self\\-determination](/wiki/Self-determination \"Self-determination\"). As the vast majority of [Indian laws](/wiki/Law_of_India \"Law of India\") define ‘family’ to be persons related by marriage, birth or adoption, the petitioners have presented a compelling case for legal recognition of their marital relationships to formalise access to rights and obligations. However, many others do not share the aspiration for married life, and the law cannot ignore them. They may choose friends, domestic partners and other persons of vital importance to assign rights and obligations.",
"While the conflict with the birth or adoptive family may have given rise to the idea of chosen family, it does not challenges birth or adoptive family bonds but allows for a more inclusive understanding of adult relationships. Most sexual and gender minority individuals, informed by their lived experience of family rejection, hostility and violence, require a legal substitute for the family for healthcare, social and economic rights and obligations. Recognising any person as capable of serving the best interests of an individual in a state of vulnerability or incapacitation, the [Mental Healthcare Act of 2017](/wiki/Mental_Healthcare_Act%2C_2017 \"Mental Healthcare Act, 2017\") authorised an individual to appoint any person as the nominated representative. Legal limiting next of kin to persons related by marriage, birth or adoption violates the decisional autonomy of sexual and gender minority individuals.",
"The Supreme Court has recognised the [principle of substantive equality](/wiki/Substantive_equality \"Substantive equality\"), which prohibits the State from expecting conformity as a price for equality in *Lt. Col. Nitisha v. UOI (2021\\)*. The Supreme Court held that married and unmarried persons have equal decisional autonomy to make decisions about their welfare in *X v. Principal Secretary, Health and Family Welfare Department, Govt. of NCT of Delhi (2022\\).* The Supreme Court held that atypical families deserve equal protection under the law guaranteed in [Article 14](/wiki/Article_14_of_the_Constitution_of_India \"Article 14 of the Constitution of India\") in [*Deepika Singh v. Central Administrative Tribunal (2022\\)*](/wiki/Deepika_Singh_v._Central_Administrative_Tribunal \"Deepika Singh v. Central Administrative Tribunal\")*.* Relying on these precedents, the petitioners argued that unmarried sexual and gender minority individuals deserve recognition and protection of the law when they seek to nominate any person beyond the constraints of biological or adoptive families.",
"[High Courts](/wiki/High_courts_of_India \"High courts of India\") have expanded the scope of legal heirs for [intersex, non\\-binary and transgender people](/wiki/Third_gender \"Third gender\") in *Illyas v. Badshah alias Kamla (1990\\)* and S*weety v. General Public (2016\\)*. The petitioners request the Supreme Court to declare that a person can nominate anyone in the place of ‘next of kin’ under all relevant laws.",
"#### International treaties",
"India is a party to various international treaties concerning human rights. India voted to adopt the [Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR)](/wiki/Universal_Declaration_of_Human_Rights \"Universal Declaration of Human Rights\") in [United Nations](/wiki/United_Nations \"United Nations\") [General Assembly](/wiki/United_Nations_General_Assembly \"United Nations General Assembly\") on 10 December 1948, and the same is enforceable in India under the Protection of Human Rights Act of 1993\\. India ratified the [International Convention of Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR)](/wiki/International_Covenant_on_Civil_and_Political_Rights \"International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights\") and the [International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR)](/wiki/International_Covenant_on_Economic%2C_Social_and_Cultural_Rights \"International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights\") on 10 April 1979\\.Petitioners: {{Harvnb\\|Nikesh P.P. v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Abhijit Iyer Mitra v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Dr Kavita Arora v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Udit Sood v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Nibedita Dutta v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Zainab J. Patel v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Supriyo v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Parth Phiroze Mehrotra v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Sameer Samudra v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Aditi Anand v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Nitin Karan v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Kajal v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\\|Amburi Roy v. Union of India}}. Over the last three decades, [International human rights law](/wiki/International_human_rights_law \"International human rights law\") has developed an established jurisprudence on the rights to equality, privacy and autonomy of sexual and gender minority individuals and protection from discrimination based on [sexual orientation](/wiki/Sexual_orientation \"Sexual orientation\") and [gender identity](/wiki/Gender_identity \"Gender identity\").{{Citation \\|last\\=\\[\\[Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights\\|United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights]] \\|title\\=Discriminatory laws and practices and acts of violence against individuals based on their sexual orientation and gender identity \\|date\\=17 November 2011 \\|url\\=https://documents\\-dds\\-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/G11/170/75/PDF/G1117075\\.pdf \\|type\\=\\[\\[United Nations Document Codes\\|UN Document]] \\|series\\=A/HRC/19/41 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[United Nations]] \\[\\[United Nations Human Rights Council\\|Human Rights Council]] \\|access\\-date\\=27 March 2023 \\|archive\\-date\\=27 March 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230327133227/https://documents\\-dds\\-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/G11/170/75/PDF/G1117075\\.pdf \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"Since the Supreme Court enforced the international treaties discussed above while ruling in the [*NLSA v. UOI (2014\\)*](/wiki/National_Legal_Services_Authority_v._Union_of_India \"National Legal Services Authority v. Union of India\") and [*Navtej Singh Johar v. UOI (2018\\)*](/wiki/Navtej_Singh_Johar_v._Union_of_India \"Navtej Singh Johar v. Union of India\"), the petitioners argued extending the right to marry and establish a family to sexual and gender minority individuals based on the following articles:",
"* Article 7 of the [UDHR](/wiki/Universal_Declaration_of_Human_Rights \"Universal Declaration of Human Rights\"), Article 26 of [ICCPR](/wiki/International_Covenant_on_Civil_and_Political_Rights \"International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights\") and Article 2 of [ICESCR](/wiki/International_Covenant_on_Economic%2C_Social_and_Cultural_Rights \"International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights\") prohibit discrimination based on *‘*sex... or other status.*’*{{Citation \\|title\\=Universal Declaration of Human Rights \\|url\\=https://www.un.org/en/about\\-us/universal\\-declaration\\-of\\-human\\-rights \\|publication\\-date\\=10 December 1948 \\|type\\=\\[\\[Treaty]] \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[United Nations]] \\|access\\-date\\=23 February 2023 \\|archive\\-date\\=16 March 2021 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210316050452/https://www.un.org/en/about\\-us/universal\\-declaration\\-of\\-human\\-rights \\|url\\-status\\=live }}{{Citation \\|title\\=International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights \\|url\\=https://treaties.un.org/doc/Treaties/1976/03/19760323%2006\\-17%20AM/Ch\\_IV\\_04\\.pdf \\|publication\\-date\\=16 December 1966 \\|type\\=\\[\\[Treaty]] \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[United Nations]] \\|access\\-date\\=23 February 2023 \\|archive\\-date\\=20 December 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20221220134544/https://treaties.un.org/doc/Treaties/1976/03/19760323%2006\\-17%20AM/Ch\\_IV\\_04\\.pdf \\|url\\-status\\=live }}{{Citation \\|title\\=International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights \\|url\\=https://www.refworld.org/docid/3ae6b36c0\\.htmls \\|publication\\-date\\=16 December 1966 \\|type\\=\\[\\[Treaty]] \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[United Nations]] \\|access\\-date\\=5 March 2023 \\|archive\\-date\\=26 April 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230426200337/https://www.refworld.org/docid/3ae6b36c0\\.htmls \\|url\\-status\\=live }} The [UN](/wiki/United_Nations \"United Nations\") [Human Rights Committee](/wiki/United_Nations_Human_Rights_Committee \"United Nations Human Rights Committee\") stated that the *‘*other status*’* includes [sexual orientation](/wiki/Sexual_orientation \"Sexual orientation\").{{Citation \\|last\\=\\[\\[United Nations Human Rights Committee]] \\|title\\=Toonen v. Australia \\|url\\=http://hrlibrary.umn.edu/undocs/html/vws488\\.htm \\|type\\=\\[\\[United Nations Document Codes\\|UN Document]] \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160801175251/http://hrlibrary.umn.edu/undocs/html/vws488\\.htm \\|series\\=CCPR/C/50/D/488/1992 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[United Nations]] \\[\\[United Nations Human Rights Committee\\|Human Rights Committee]] \\|archive\\-date\\=2016\\-08\\-01}} The [UN](/wiki/United_Nations \"United Nations\") [Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights](/wiki/Committee_on_Economic%2C_Social_and_Cultural_Rights \"Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights\") urged the member states to ensure that a person's sexual orientation is not a barrier to realising [Covenant Rights](/wiki/International_Covenant_on_Economic%2C_Social_and_Cultural_Rights \"International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights\").{{Citation \\|last\\=United Nations Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights \\|title\\=Non\\-discrimination in economic, social and cultural rights \\|url\\=https://docstore.ohchr.org/SelfServices/FilesHandler.ashx?enc\\=4slQ6QSmlBEDzFEovLCuW1a0Szab0oXTdImnsJZZVQdqeXgncKnylFC%2BlzJjLZGhsosnD23NsgR1Q1NNNgs2QltnHpLzG%2FBmxPjJUVNxAedgozixcbEW9WMvnSFEiU%2FV \\|publication\\-date\\=2 July 2009 \\|type\\=\\[\\[United Nations Document Codes\\|UN Document]] \\|series\\=E/C.12/GC/20 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[United Nations]] \\[\\[Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights]] \\|author\\-link\\=Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights \\|access\\-date\\=5 March 2023 \\|archive\\-date\\=11 March 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230311095328/https://docstore.ohchr.org/SelfServices/FilesHandler.ashx?enc\\=4slQ6QSmlBEDzFEovLCuW1a0Szab0oXTdImnsJZZVQdqeXgncKnylFC%2BlzJjLZGhsosnD23NsgR1Q1NNNgs2QltnHpLzG%2FBmxPjJUVNxAedgozixcbEW9WMvnSFEiU%2FV \\|url\\-status\\=live }}\n* Article 16 of the [UDHR](/wiki/Universal_Declaration_of_Human_Rights \"Universal Declaration of Human Rights\"), Article 23 of the [ICCPR](/wiki/International_Covenant_on_Civil_and_Political_Rights \"International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights\") and Article 10 of [ICESCR](/wiki/International_Covenant_on_Economic%2C_Social_and_Cultural_Rights \"International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights\") guarantee the [right to marry and establish a family](/wiki/Right_to_family_life \"Right to family life\"). [Travaux préparatoires](/wiki/Travaux_pr%C3%A9paratoires \"Travaux préparatoires\") shows that drafters of [UDHR](/wiki/Universal_Declaration_of_Human_Rights \"Universal Declaration of Human Rights\") changed the language in the right to marry from *‘*everyone*’* to the specific *‘*men and women*’* to highlight that women have the right to marry. The drafters did not intend to exclude same\\-sex couples from marriage.{{Cite journal \\|last1\\=Wolfson \\|first1\\=Evan \\|last2\\=Tueller \\|first2\\=Jessica \\|last3\\=Fromkin \\|first3\\=Alissa \\|date\\=2022 \\|title\\=The Freedom to Marry in Human Rights Law Worldwide: Ending the Exclusion of Same\\-Sex Couples from Marriage \\|url\\=https://journals.iupui.edu/index.php/iiclr/article/download/26253/24273 \\|journal\\=Indiana International \\& Comparative Law Review \\|volume\\=32 \\|issue\\=1 \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-27 \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-27 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230327133228/https://journals.iupui.edu/index.php/iiclr/article/download/26253/24273 \\|url\\-status\\=live }} The [UN](/wiki/United_Nations \"United Nations\") [Human Rights Committee](/wiki/United_Nations_Human_Rights_Committee \"United Nations Human Rights Committee\") urged member states to recognise marriage for same\\-sex couples to fulfil their [ICCPR](/wiki/International_Covenant_on_Civil_and_Political_Rights \"International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights\") obligations.{{Citation \\|title\\=Young v. Australia \\|date\\=6 August 2003 \\|url\\=https://documents\\-dds\\-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/DER/G03/440/25/PDF/G0344025\\.pdf \\|type\\=\\[\\[United Nations Document Codes\\|UN Document]] \\|series\\=CCPR/C/78/D/941/2000 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[United Nations]] \\[\\[United Nations Human Rights Committee\\|Human Rights Committee]] \\|access\\-date\\=27 March 2023 \\|archive\\-date\\=27 March 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230327133228/https://documents\\-dds\\-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/DER/G03/440/25/PDF/G0344025\\.pdf \\|url\\-status\\=live }}{{Citation \\|last\\=United Nations Human Rights Committee \\|title\\=Concluding observations on the sixth periodic report of Australia \\|url\\=https://docstore.ohchr.org/SelfServices/FilesHandler.ashx?enc\\=6QkG1d%2FPPRiCAqhKb7yhsoAl3%2FFsniSQx2VAmWrPA0uA3KW0KkpmSGOue15UG42EodNm2j%2FnCTyghc1kM8Y%2FLQ4n6KZBdggHt5qPmUYCI8eCslXZmnVlMq%2FoYCNPyKpq \\|publication\\-date\\=1 December 2017 \\|type\\=\\[\\[United Nations Document Codes\\|UN Document]] \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201112032912/https://docstore.ohchr.org/SelfServices/FilesHandler.ashx?enc\\=6QkG1d%2FPPRiCAqhKb7yhsoAl3%2FFsniSQx2VAmWrPA0uA3KW0KkpmSGOue15UG42EodNm2j%2FnCTyghc1kM8Y%2FLQ4n6KZBdggHt5qPmUYCI8eCslXZmnVlMq%2FoYCNPyKpq \\|series\\=CCPR/C/AUS/CO/6 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[United Nations]] \\[\\[United Nations Human Rights Committee\\|Human Rights Committee]] \\|archive\\-date\\=12 November 2020 \\|author\\-link\\=United Nations Human Rights Committee}}{{Citation \\|last\\=United Nations Human Rights Committee \\|title\\=Concluding observations on the sixth periodic report of Hungary \\|url\\=https://docstore.ohchr.org/SelfServices/FilesHandler.ashx?enc\\=6QkG1d%2FPPRiCAqhKb7yhsnm97%2BRfSonZvQyDICMC7to7lkIHViwiffCrjxVJVYr7AYGd1bD3LqpWwx7fjwdowp0XO09j1KeHx2S0%2Be4%2FGUZf4WEtz0X6rsDTNt6FAcrQ \\|type\\=\\[\\[United Nations Document Codes\\|UN Document]] \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190703135746/https://docstore.ohchr.org/SelfServices/FilesHandler.ashx?enc\\=6QkG1d%2FPPRiCAqhKb7yhsnm97%2BRfSonZvQyDICMC7to7lkIHViwiffCrjxVJVYr7AYGd1bD3LqpWwx7fjwdowp0XO09j1KeHx2S0%2Be4%2FGUZf4WEtz0X6rsDTNt6FAcrQ \\|series\\=CCPR/C/HUN/CO/6 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[United Nations]] \\[\\[United Nations Human Rights Committee\\|Human Rights Committee]] \\|archive\\-date\\=3 July 2019 \\|author\\-link\\=United Nations Human Rights Committee}}{{Citation \\|last\\=United Nations Human Rights Committee \\|title\\=Concluding observations on the fourth periodic report of Bulgaria \\|date\\=15 November 2018 \\|url\\=https://docstore.ohchr.org/SelfServices/FilesHandler.ashx?enc\\=6QkG1d%2FPPRiCAqhKb7yhskh%2Bqy5CyN8D%2FZ%2BBzREl4JFFGBP%2FHKF%2FOdQmhX%2FowRuyRPF6ULj89EPBOq9kvUJgYNQHSS625xvETKp1EUpOs6ekr3vAaU0IH6Z0CyRL%2Ftuy \\|type\\=\\[\\[United Nations Document Codes\\|UN Document]] \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200403222827/https://docstore.ohchr.org/SelfServices/FilesHandler.ashx?enc\\=6QkG1d%2FPPRiCAqhKb7yhskh%2Bqy5CyN8D%2FZ%2BBzREl4JFFGBP%2FHKF%2FOdQmhX%2FowRuyRPF6ULj89EPBOq9kvUJgYNQHSS625xvETKp1EUpOs6ekr3vAaU0IH6Z0CyRL%2Ftuy \\|series\\=CCPR/C/BGR/CO/4 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[United Nations]] \\[\\[United Nations Human Rights Committee\\|Human Rights Committee]] \\|archive\\-date\\=3 April 2020 \\|author\\-link\\=United Nations Human Rights Committee}}\n* Article 12 of the [UDHR](/wiki/Universal_Declaration_of_Human_Rights \"Universal Declaration of Human Rights\") and Article 17 of the [ICCPR](/wiki/International_Covenant_on_Civil_and_Political_Rights \"International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights\") prohibit arbitrary interference with their privacy, family, home or correspondence.",
"#### Soft Law",
"The Supreme Court held that [*Yogyakarta Principles on the* *Application of Human Rights Law in Relation to Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity (2007\\)*](/wiki/Yogyakarta_Principles%23Original_2007_Principles \"Yogyakarta Principles#Original 2007 Principles\") is consistent with various [fundamental rights](/wiki/Fundamental_rights_in_India \"Fundamental rights in India\") enshrined in the [Indian Constitution](/wiki/Constitution_of_India \"Constitution of India\") and stated that they must be recognised and followed in the decision of [*NLSA v. UOI (2014\\)*](/wiki/National_Legal_Services_Authority_v._Union_of_India \"National Legal Services Authority v. Union of India\") and [*Navtej Singh Johar v. UOI (2018\\)*](/wiki/Navtej_Singh_Johar_v._Union_of_India \"Navtej Singh Johar v. Union of India\"). The petitioners pointed to:Petitioners: {{Harvnb\\|Dr Kavita Arora v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Udit Sood v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Nibedita Dutta v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Zainab J. Patel v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Supriyo v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Parth Phiroze Mehrotra v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Aditi Anand v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Amburi Roy v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Akkai Padmashali v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\\|Rituparna Borah v. Union of India}}.",
"* Principle 24 of the [Yogyakarta Principles](/wiki/Yogyakarta_Principles \"Yogyakarta Principles\"), which recognises the right to establish a family, regardless of [sexual orientation](/wiki/Sexual_orientation \"Sexual orientation\") and [gender identity](/wiki/Gender_identity \"Gender identity\"). It calls for the State to recognise [same\\-sex marriage](/wiki/Same-sex_marriage \"Same-sex marriage\") or registered partnership and ensure that same\\-sex married or registered partners have the entitlements, privileges, obligations and benefits available to opposite\\-sex married or registered partners.{{Cite report \\|url\\=http://yogyakartaprinciples.org/wp\\-content/uploads/2016/08/principles\\_en.pdf \\|title\\=Principles on the Application of Human Rights Law in Relation to Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity \\|date\\=March 2007 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Yogyakarta Principles]] \\|access\\-date\\=23 February 2023 \\|archive\\-date\\=1 April 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230401034915/http://yogyakartaprinciples.org/wp\\-content/uploads/2016/08/principles\\_en.pdf \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"#### *Obergefell v. Hodges* (United States, 2015\\)",
"In anticipation of an oppositional argument that could emphasise marriage as traditionally and historically being limited to opposite\\-sex couples, the petitioners argue that generations of denial are not an argument for its perpetuation. They point to the majority opinion of [*Obergefell v. Hodges (2015\\)*](/wiki/Obergefell_v._Hodges \"Obergefell v. Hodges\"), in which [Associate Justice](/wiki/Associate_Justice_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States \"Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States\") [Kennedy](/wiki/Anthony_Kennedy \"Anthony Kennedy\") wrote that if rights were defined by who exercised them in the past, then past practices would serve as continued justification for denying the new groups the rights.Petitioners: {{Harvnb\\|Udit Sood v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\\|Parth Phiroze Mehrotra v. Union of India}}.",
"In anticipation of an opposition prophesy that upholding everybody's fundamental right to marry would diminish the worth of opposite\\-sex marriages, petitioners point to the conclusion of the majority on the same discussion in *[Obergefell v. Hodges (2015\\)](/wiki/Obergefell_v._Hodges \"Obergefell v. Hodges\")*, “it is wholly illogical to believe that state recognition of the love and commitment between same\\-sex couples will alter the most intimate and personal decisions of opposite\\-sex couples.”",
"While deciding the *Sunil Batra v. Delhi Administration (1978\\),* the Supreme Court held that the despite the lack of the [Due Process Clause](/wiki/Due_Process_Clause \"Due Process Clause\") in the [Constitution of India](/wiki/Constitution_of_India \"Constitution of India\") same consequence ensued after the decisions in *R.C. Cooper v. Union of India (1970\\)* and [*Maneka Gandhi v. Union of India (1978\\)*](/wiki/Maneka_Gandhi_v._Union_of_India \"Maneka Gandhi v. Union of India\")*.* Affirming the verdict of *Sunil Batra v. Delhi Administration (1978\\),* the Supreme Court held that substantive due process is applied to the [fundamental right to life and liberty](/wiki/Fundamental_rights_in_India%23Right_To_Freedom \"Fundamental rights in India#Right To Freedom\") in *Mohd Arif v. The Registrar (2014\\).*Petitioners: {{Harvnb\\|Sameer Samudra v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\\|Nitin Karan v. Union of India}}.",
"Finally, the Supreme Court held that [Article 14](/wiki/Article_14_of_the_Constitution_of_India \"Article 14 of the Constitution of India\") of the [Indian Constitution](/wiki/Constitution_of_India \"Constitution of India\") corresponds to the [Equal Protection Clause](/wiki/Equal_Protection_Clause \"Equal Protection Clause\") of the [Fourteenth Amendment of the United States Constitution](/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution \"Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution\") in *Chiranjit Lal Chowdhuri v. UOI (1950\\).* Hence, the [United States Supreme Court](/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States \"Supreme Court of the United States\") ruling in *[Obergefell v. Hodges (2015\\)](/wiki/Obergefell_v._Hodges \"Obergefell v. Hodges\")*, which held the fundamental right to marry is guaranteed to [same\\-sex couples](/wiki/Same-sex_relationship \"Same-sex relationship\") by both the [Due Process Clause](/wiki/Due_Process_Clause \"Due Process Clause\") and the [Equal Protection Clause](/wiki/Equal_Protection_Clause \"Equal Protection Clause\") of the [Fourteenth Amendment of the Constitution](/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution \"Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution\") is relevant to the current case.",
"#### Recognition of foreign marriage",
"The Supreme Court recognised the [principles of comity of nations](/wiki/Comity \"Comity\") in the ruling of *Mirza Ali Akbar Kashani v. United Arab Republic (1966\\)*, *Tractor Export v. Tarapore \\& Co. (1969\\)* and *Gramophone Company of India Ltd. v. Birendra Bahadur Pandey (1984\\).* The petitioners called attention to the fact that 32 countries have recognised [same\\-sex marriage](/wiki/Same-sex_marriage \"Same-sex marriage\"). Since [Foreign Marriage Act](/wiki/Foreign_Marriage_Act%2C_1969 \"Foreign Marriage Act, 1969\") has extraterritorial operations, petitioners argued that it should be read to conform with international developments.Petitioners: {{Harvnb\\|Vaibhav Jai v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Udit Sood v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Joydeep Sengupta v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\\|Zainab J. Patel v. Union of India}}.",
"#### Citizenship of sexual and gender minority spouse",
"The petitioners argue that the [Citizenship Act](/wiki/Indian_nationality_law \"Indian nationality law\") does not authorise the officials to examine the marriage under [Indian law](/wiki/Law_of_India \"Law of India\"). Therefore, as long as the marriage is validly registered overseas and the sexual or gender minority spouse of foreign origin satisfies other conditions, they are entitled to apply for [OCI](/wiki/Overseas_Citizenship_of_India \"Overseas Citizenship of India\"). They point to the ruling of the [Israeli High Court of Justice](/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Israel%23High_Court_of_Justice \"Supreme Court of Israel#High Court of Justice\") that registration officials, who are not competent to examine the validity of the marriage under [Israeli law](/wiki/Israeli_law \"Israeli law\"), should register the [same\\-sex marriage](/wiki/Same-sex_marriage \"Same-sex marriage\") of [Israeli Citizens](/wiki/Israelis \"Israelis\") performed validly overseas in *Ben\\-Ari v. Director of Population Administration (2006\\).*",
"#### Legislative policy",
"The petitioners highlighted various entitlements, privileges, obligations and benefits limited to marital, blood or adoptive relationships. These legal provisions exclude legally unrecognised spouses and families of sexual and gender minority individuals.",
"##### Healthcare",
"When a patient cannot communicate their wishes due to being in a persistent vegetative state, having a form of dementia or similar illness, or being under anaesthesia, legally unrecognised spouses and families of sexual and gender minority individuals are not allowed to make healthcare decisions for them.Petitioners: {{Harvnb\\|Dr Kavita Arora v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Parth Phiroze Mehrotra v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Aditi Anand v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\\|Rituparna Borah v. Union of India}}.",
"Legally unrecognised spouses and families of sexual and gender minority individuals face discrimination in [organ donation](/wiki/Organ_donation \"Organ donation\") in the case of both living or deceased partners.Petitioners: {{Harvnb\\|Dr Kavita Arora v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Udit Sood v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Nibedita Dutta v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Supriyo v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Parth Phiroze Mehrotra v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\\|Aditi Anand v. Union of India}}. Under the [Transplantation of Human Organs and Tissues Act of 1994](/wiki/Transplantation_of_Human_Organs_and_Tissues_Act%2C_1994 \"Transplantation of Human Organs and Tissues Act, 1994\"), the declaration to donate organs requires the presence of at least one marital, blood or adoptive relative. As a result, unrecognised spouses and families cannot make these vital decisions about sexual and gender minority family members. Sexual and gender minority partners need prior approval of the Authorisation Committee under the [Transplantation of Human Organs and Tissues Act](/wiki/Transplantation_of_Human_Organs_and_Tissues_Act%2C_1994 \"Transplantation of Human Organs and Tissues Act, 1994\"). The Committee evaluates the proof of affection or attachment to the intended recipient of the organ before permitting organ donation, which legally married couples need not provide.{{Cite act\\|index\\=42\\|date\\=1994\\|legislature\\=\\[\\[Parliament of India]]\\|title\\=The Transplantation of Human Organs and Tissues Act\\|url\\=https://www.indiacode.nic.in/handle/123456789/1962}} {{Cite web \\|url\\=https://www.indiacode.nic.in/handle/123456789/1962 \\|title\\=Archived copy \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-12 \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-12 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230312173357/https://www.indiacode.nic.in/handle/123456789/1962 \\|url\\-status\\=bot: unknown }}",
"##### Finance",
"Sexual and gender minority family members lack the rights around succession, [maintenance](/wiki/Alimony \"Alimony\"), joint ownership of assets, taxation and benefits. As private entitlements exclude sexual and gender minority family members, sexual and gender minority individuals face more barriers and higher scrutiny in privately offered life insurance nominations, owning [joint bank accounts](/wiki/Joint_account \"Joint account\") and lockers, and mutual funds and savings plans.Petitioners: {{Harvnb\\|Vaibhav Jai v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Dr Kavita Arora v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Udit Sood v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Nibedita Dutta v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Supriyo v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Parth Phiroze Mehrotra v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\\|Aditi Anand v. Union of India}}.",
"According to the [Income Tax Act of 1961](/wiki/The_Income-tax_Act%2C_1961 \"The Income-tax Act, 1961\"), the payments made on behalf of a spouse are included in the deduction when computing the total income. These deductions include the payments made towards life insurance, a deferred annuity of the life of a spouse, the spouse's provident fund set up by the Central Government and the spouse for participation in the Unit\\-linked Insurance Plan.{{Cite act\\|index\\=43\\|date\\=1961\\|article\\=80C\\|article\\-type\\=Section\\|legislature\\=\\[\\[Parliament of India]]\\|title\\=The Income\\-tax Act\\|url\\=https://www.indiacode.nic.in/handle/123456789/2435}} {{Cite web \\|url\\=https://www.indiacode.nic.in/handle/123456789/2435 \\|title\\=Archived copy \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-12 \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-12 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230312071723/https://www.indiacode.nic.in/handle/123456789/2435 \\|url\\-status\\=bot: unknown }} Sexual and gender minority family members cannot claim such deductions.Petitioners: {{Harvnb\\|Vaibhav Jai v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Dr Kavita Arora v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Udit Sood v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Nibedita Dutta v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Zainab J. Patel v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Supriyo v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Parth Phiroze Mehrotra v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\\|Aditi Anand v. Union of India}}.\n According to the Supreme Court ruling on *Rajesh v. Rajbir Singh*, the spousal consortium considered in the claims, including the claims for injury and death in the [Motor Vehicle Act of 1988](/wiki/Motor_Vehicles_Act%2C_1988 \"Motor Vehicles Act, 1988\") cases, is only available to married couples.{{Cite act\\|index\\=59\\|date\\=1988\\|article\\=158, 166 {{abbr\\|\\&\\|and}} 168\\|article\\-type\\=Section\\|legislature\\=\\[\\[Parliament of India]]\\|title\\=The Motor Vehicles Act\\|url\\=https://www.indiacode.nic.in/handle/123456789/1798}} {{Cite web \\|url\\=https://www.indiacode.nic.in/handle/123456789/1798 \\|title\\=Archived copy \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-12 \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-12 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230312103247/https://www.indiacode.nic.in/handle/123456789/1798 \\|url\\-status\\=bot: unknown }}{{Cite court\\|litigants\\=Rajesh {{abbr\\|\\&\\|and}} {{abbr\\|Ors.\\|Others}} versus Rajbir Singh {{abbr\\|\\&\\|and}} {{abbr\\|Ors.\\|Others}}\\|court\\=\\[\\[Supreme Court of India]]\\|opinion\\={{abbr\\|Civil Appeal No.\\|Civil Appeal Number}} 3860/2013\\|date\\=12 April 2013\\|url\\=https://main.sci.gov.in/jonew/bosir/orderpdf/1721330\\.pdf}} Hence the legally unrecognised spouses of sexual and gender minority individuals are denied such claims.Petitioners: {{Harvnb\\|Dr Kavita Arora v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Nibedita Dutta v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Supriyo v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\\|Aditi Anand v. Union of India}}.",
"##### Employment",
"Without recognition of the right to marry, couples from sexual and gender minority communities cannot access the benefits available to opposite\\-sex couples through various legislation. Couples from sexual and gender minority communities in government service cannot request same\\-city postings. A sexual and gender minority partner cannot receive the healthcare coverage provided to the spouse of government employees.",
"The government grants an appointment on compassionate grounds to a dependent family member of a government servant dying or retired on medical grounds and leaving their family without any livelihood. Couples from sexual and gender minority communities are not eligible for compassionate appointments or family pensions.",
"Under the current reading of the [Indian Acts](/wiki/Law_of_India \"Law of India\"), sexual and gender minority employee cannot nominate their legally unrecognised family for benefits and entitlements as long as their biological or adoptive family members are alive.{{Cite news \\|last1\\=Chaturvedi \\|first1\\=Arpan \\|last2\\=Jain \\|first2\\=Rupam \\|date\\=19 December 2022 \\|title\\=Gay couples in India ask Supreme Court to legalise same\\-sex marriage \\|language\\=en \\|work\\=\\[\\[Reuters]] \\|url\\=https://www.reuters.com/world/india/gay\\-couples\\-india\\-ask\\-supreme\\-court\\-legalise\\-same\\-sex\\-marriage\\-2022\\-12\\-19/ \\|access\\-date\\= \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-02\\-12 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230212153427/https://www.reuters.com/world/india/gay\\-couples\\-india\\-ask\\-supreme\\-court\\-legalise\\-same\\-sex\\-marriage\\-2022\\-12\\-19/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }}{{Cite news \\|last\\=Rajagopal \\|first\\=Krishnadas \\|date\\=25 November 2022 \\|title\\=Supreme Court seeks govt response on including same\\-sex marriage under Special Marriage Act \\|language\\=en \\|work\\=\\[\\[The Hindu]] \\|url\\=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/supreme\\-court\\-seeks\\-govt\\-response\\-on\\-including\\-same\\-sex\\-marriage\\-under\\-special\\-marriage\\-act/article66182642\\.ece \\|access\\-date\\= \\|issn\\=0971\\-751X \\|archive\\-date\\=13 February 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230213051311/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/supreme\\-court\\-seeks\\-govt\\-response\\-on\\-including\\-same\\-sex\\-marriage\\-under\\-special\\-marriage\\-act/article66182642\\.ece \\|url\\-status\\=live }} Some of the [Acts](/wiki/Law_of_India \"Law of India\") highlighted by the petitioners are:Petitioners: {{Harvnb\\|Vaibhav Jai v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Dr Kavita Arora v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Udit Sood v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Joydeep Sengupta v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Nibedita Dutta v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Zainab J. Patel v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Supriyo v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Parth Phiroze Mehrotra v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\\|Aditi Anand v. Union of India}}.\n* Employee's Compensation Act of 1923,{{Cite act\\|type\\=Act\\|index\\=8\\|date\\=1923\\|article\\=10A(4\\)\\|article\\-type\\=Section\\|legislature\\=\\[\\[Imperial Legislative Council]]\\|title\\=The Employees Compensation Act\\|url\\=https://www.indiacode.nic.in/show\\-data?actid\\=AC\\_UP\\_88\\_477\\_00016\\_00016\\_1614836915424\\§ionId\\=64520\\§ionno\\=10A\\&orderno\\=12}} {{Cite web \\|url\\=https://www.indiacode.nic.in/show\\-data?actid\\=AC\\_UP\\_88\\_477\\_00016\\_00016\\_1614836915424\\§ionId\\=64520\\§ionno\\=10A\\&orderno\\=12 \\|title\\=Archived copy \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-12 \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-12 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230312062151/https://www.indiacode.nic.in/show\\-data?actid\\=AC\\_UP\\_88\\_477\\_00016\\_00016\\_1614836915424\\§ionId\\=64520\\§ionno\\=10A\\&orderno\\=12 \\|url\\-status\\=bot: unknown }}\n* Employees' Provident Funds Act of 1952,{{Cite act\\|type\\=Act\\|index\\=19\\|date\\=1952\\|article\\=4\\|article\\-type\\=Schedule\\|legislature\\=\\[\\[Parliament of India]]\\|title\\=Employees' Provident Funds and Miscellaneous Provisions Act\\|url\\=https://www.indiacode.nic.in/handle/123456789/2152}} {{Cite web \\|url\\=https://www.indiacode.nic.in/handle/123456789/2152 \\|title\\=Archived copy \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-12 \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-12 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230312060651/https://www.indiacode.nic.in/handle/123456789/2152 \\|url\\-status\\=bot: unknown }}\n* [Payment of Gratuity Act of 1972](/wiki/The_Payment_of_Gratuity_Act%2C_1972 \"The Payment of Gratuity Act, 1972\"),{{Cite act\\|index\\=39\\|date\\=1972\\|article\\=6\\|article\\-type\\=Section\\|legislature\\=\\[\\[Parliament of India]]\\|title\\=The Payment of Gratuity Act\\|url\\=https://www.indiacode.nic.in/show\\-data?actid\\=AC\\_CEN\\_6\\_6\\_00029\\_197239\\_1517807324619\\§ionId\\=42151\\§ionno\\=6\\&orderno\\=8}} {{Cite web \\|url\\=https://www.indiacode.nic.in/show\\-data?actid\\=AC\\_CEN\\_6\\_6\\_00029\\_197239\\_1517807324619\\§ionId\\=42151\\§ionno\\=6\\&orderno\\=8 \\|title\\=Archived copy \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-12 \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-12 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230312060646/https://www.indiacode.nic.in/show\\-data?actid\\=AC\\_CEN\\_6\\_6\\_00029\\_197239\\_1517807324619\\§ionId\\=42151\\§ionno\\=6\\&orderno\\=8 \\|url\\-status\\=bot: unknown }}\n* Payment of Wages Act, 1936{{Cite act\\|index\\=4\\|date\\=1936\\|article\\=26\\|article\\-type\\=Section\\|legislature\\=\\[\\[Imperial Legislative Council]]\\|title\\=The Payment of Wages Act\\|url\\=https://www.indiacode.nic.in/bitstream/123456789/8324/1/payment\\_of\\_wages\\_act\\_1936\\.pdf}} {{Cite web \\|url\\=https://www.indiacode.nic.in/bitstream/123456789/8324/1/payment\\_of\\_wages\\_act\\_1936\\.pdf \\|title\\=Archived copy \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-12 \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-25 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230325172323/https://www.indiacode.nic.in/bitstream/123456789/8324/1/payment\\_of\\_wages\\_act\\_1936\\.pdf \\|url\\-status\\=bot: unknown }}{{Cite act\\|type\\=General Statutory Rule\\|index\\=822 (E)\\|date\\=2009\\|article\\=3 (2\\)\\|article\\-type\\=Rule\\|legislature\\=\\[\\[Government of India]] through \\[\\[Ministry of Labour and Employment (India)\\|Ministry of Labour and Employment]]\\|title\\=Payment of Wages (Nomination) Rules\\|url\\=https://labour.gov.in/sites/default/files/PW\\_Nomination%20Rules.pdf}} {{Cite web \\|url\\=https://labour.gov.in/sites/default/files/PW\\_Nomination%20Rules.pdf \\|title\\=Archived copy \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-12 \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-12 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230312060646/https://labour.gov.in/sites/default/files/PW\\_Nomination%20Rules.pdf \\|url\\-status\\=bot: unknown }} and\n* [Unorganised Workers' Social Security Act of 2008](/wiki/Unorganised_Workers%27_Social_Security_Act_2008 \"Unorganised Workers' Social Security Act 2008\").{{Cite act\\|index\\=33\\|date\\=2008\\|article\\=3\\|article\\-type\\=Section\\|legislature\\=\\[\\[Parliament of India]]\\|title\\=Unorganised Workers Social Security Act\\|url\\=https://www.indiacode.nic.in/show\\-data?actid\\=AC\\_CEN\\_6\\_6\\_00036\\_200833\\_1517807327317\\§ionId\\=42317\\§ionno\\=3\\&orderno\\=3}} {{Cite web \\|url\\=https://www.indiacode.nic.in/show\\-data?actid\\=AC\\_CEN\\_6\\_6\\_00036\\_200833\\_1517807327317\\§ionId\\=42317\\§ionno\\=3\\&orderno\\=3 \\|title\\=India Code: Section Details \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-12 \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-12 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230312060653/https://www.indiacode.nic.in/show\\-data?actid\\=AC\\_CEN\\_6\\_6\\_00036\\_200833\\_1517807327317\\§ionId\\=42317\\§ionno\\=3\\&orderno\\=3 \\|url\\-status\\=bot: unknown }}{{Cite act\\|type\\=Statutory Order\\|index\\=764 (E)\\|date\\=2019\\|legislature\\=\\[\\[Government of India]] through \\[\\[Ministry of Labour and Employment (India)\\|Ministry of Labour and Employment]]\\|title\\=Pradhan Mantri Shram Yogi Maan\\-dhan Yojana\\|url\\=https://labour.gov.in/sites/default/files/197105\\_0\\.pdf}} {{Cite web \\|url\\=https://labour.gov.in/sites/default/files/197105\\_0\\.pdf \\|title\\=Archived copy \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-12 \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-12 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230312060717/https://labour.gov.in/sites/default/files/197105\\_0\\.pdf \\|url\\-status\\=bot: unknown }}",
"Since private entitlements, such as healthcare and other spousal benefits extended in private employment, exclude sexual and gender minority family members, sexual and gender minority individuals face more barriers and higher scrutiny in acquiring spousal benefits.Petitioners: {{Harvnb\\|Dr Kavita Arora v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\\|Supriyo v. Union of India}}.",
"##### Housing",
"Couples from sexual and gender minority communities do not have the right to reside in a shared household. Hence, sexual and gender minority individuals cannot rely on their partner's rented or owned home to prove residence for official purposes.",
"##### Parenthood",
"Without recognition of the right to marry, couples from sexual and gender minority communities cannot have children through [adoption](/wiki/Same-sex_adoption \"Same-sex adoption\"), [surrogacy](/wiki/Surrogacy_in_India \"Surrogacy in India\"), or [assisted reproductive technologies](/wiki/Assisted_reproductive_technology%23India \"Assisted reproductive technology#India\").Petitioners: {{Harvnb\\|Supriyo v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Aditi Anand v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\\|Amburi Roy v. Union of India}}.",
"The [Juvenile Justice Act of 2015](/wiki/Juvenile_Justice_%28Care_and_Protection_of_Children%29_Act%2C_2015 \"Juvenile Justice (Care and Protection of Children) Act, 2015\"), along with relevant rules, does not allow unmarried couples and couples in a live\\-in relationship to adopt children as a couple.{{Cite act\\|index\\=2\\|date\\=2015\\|legislature\\=\\[\\[Parliament of India]]\\|title\\=The Juvenile Justice (Care and Protection of Children) Act\\|url\\=https://www.indiacode.nic.in/handle/123456789/2148}} {{Cite web \\|url\\=https://www.indiacode.nic.in/handle/123456789/2148 \\|title\\=India Code: Juvenile Justice (Care and Protection of Children) Act, 2015 \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-12 \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-04\\-24 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230424144953/https://www.indiacode.nic.in/handle/123456789/2148 \\|url\\-status\\=bot: unknown }}{{Cite act\\|type\\=General Statutory Rules\\|index\\=726 (E)\\|date\\=2022\\|legislature\\=\\[\\[Government of India]] through \\[\\[Ministry of Women and Child Development]]\\|title\\=Adoption Regulations\\|url\\=https://wcd.nic.in/sites/default/files/Adoption%20Regulations%202022\\.pdf}} {{Cite web \\|url\\=https://wcd.nic.in/sites/default/files/Adoption%20Regulations%202022\\.pdf \\|title\\=Archived copy \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-12 \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-12 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230312095012/https://wcd.nic.in/sites/default/files/Adoption%20Regulations%202022\\.pdf \\|url\\-status\\=bot: unknown }} The Adoption Regulations of 2022 state that a child cannot be given in adoption to a couple unless they have at least two years of a stable marital relationship. In line with the Adoption Regulations, the [Central Adoption Resource Authority](/wiki/Central_Adoption_Resource_Authority \"Central Adoption Resource Authority\") has decided that single prospective adoptive parents, who are in a live\\-in relationship with a partner, will not be considered eligible to adopt a child.{{Cite act\\|type\\=Office Memorandum\\|index\\=CARAICA013/1/2022/Administration\\|date\\={{date\\|2022\\-06\\-16\\|mdy}}\\|legislature\\=\\[\\[Central Adoption Resource Authority]], \\[\\[New Delhi]]\\|title\\=Registration of cases of single PAPs having a live\\-in partner in a long\\-time relationship and not married\\|url\\=https://cara.nic.in/PDF/Registration\\-of\\-cases\\-of\\-single\\-PAPs\\-having\\-a\\_live\\-in\\_partner\\-in\\-a\\-long\\-time\\-relationship\\-and\\-not\\-married160622\\.pdf}} {{Cite web \\|url\\=https://cara.nic.in/PDF/Registration\\-of\\-cases\\-of\\-single\\-PAPs\\-having\\-a\\_live\\-in\\_partner\\-in\\-a\\-long\\-time\\-relationship\\-and\\-not\\-married160622\\.pdf \\|title\\=Archived copy \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-12 \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-12 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230312095003/https://cara.nic.in/PDF/Registration\\-of\\-cases\\-of\\-single\\-PAPs\\-having\\-a\\_live\\-in\\_partner\\-in\\-a\\-long\\-time\\-relationship\\-and\\-not\\-married160622\\.pdf \\|url\\-status\\=bot: unknown }}",
"The Surrogacy (Regulation) Act of 2021 allows only married couples to have children through surrogacy.{{Cite act\\|index\\=47\\|date\\=2021\\|legislature\\=\\[\\[Parliament of India]]\\|title\\=The Surrogacy (Regulation) Act\\|url\\=https://www.indiacode.nic.in/handle/123456789/17046}} {{Cite web \\|url\\=https://www.indiacode.nic.in/handle/123456789/17046 \\|title\\=India Code: Surrogacy (Regulation) Act, 2021 \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-12 \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-04\\-26 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230426175844/https://www.indiacode.nic.in/handle/123456789/17046 \\|url\\-status\\=bot: unknown }} The Assisted Reproductive Technology (Regulation) Act of 2021 allows only infertile married couples to obtain the services of an authorised clinic or bank for assisted reproductive technologies.{{Cite act\\|index\\=42\\|date\\=2021\\|legislature\\=\\[\\[Parliament of India]]\\|title\\=The Assisted Reproductive Technology (Regulation) Act\\|url\\=https://www.indiacode.nic.in/handle/123456789/17031}} {{Cite web \\|url\\=https://www.indiacode.nic.in/handle/123456789/17031 \\|title\\=India Code: Assisted Reproductive Technology (Regulation) Act, 2021 \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-12 \\|archive\\-date\\=2022\\-07\\-18 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220718080315/https://www.indiacode.nic.in/handle/123456789/17031 \\|url\\-status\\=bot: unknown }}",
"Since the parents cannot get married, the child has no legal relationship with an unrelated parent. As a result, various entitlements, privileges, obligations and benefits are unavailable to the unrelated parent and the child. An unrelated parent cannot make medical decisions in the case of an emergency.",
"##### Judicial proceedings",
"The [Indian Evidence Act of 1872](/wiki/Indian_Evidence_Act \"Indian Evidence Act\") provides [spousal privilege](/wiki/Spousal_privilege \"Spousal privilege\"), that is, immunity from being compelled to disclose any communication between spouses during their marriage. Additionally, they cannot disclose any communication without their partner or partner's representative's consent.{{Cite act\\|type\\=\\|index\\=1\\|date\\=1872\\|article\\=122\\|article\\-type\\=Section\\|legislature\\=\\[\\[Imperial Legislative Council]]\\|title\\=Indian Evidence Act\\|url\\=https://www.indiacode.nic.in/show\\-data?actid\\=AC\\_CEN\\_3\\_20\\_00034\\_187201\\_1523268871700\\§ionId\\=38987\\§ionno\\=122\\&orderno\\=140}} {{Cite web \\|url\\=https://www.indiacode.nic.in/show\\-data?actid\\=AC\\_CEN\\_3\\_20\\_00034\\_187201\\_1523268871700\\§ionId\\=38987\\§ionno\\=122\\&orderno\\=140 \\|title\\=India Code: Section Details \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-12 \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-12 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230312060655/https://www.indiacode.nic.in/show\\-data?actid\\=AC\\_CEN\\_3\\_20\\_00034\\_187201\\_1523268871700\\§ionId\\=38987\\§ionno\\=122\\&orderno\\=140 \\|url\\-status\\=bot: unknown }} Couples from sexual and gender minority communities do not have this crucial protection privilege under Indian evidentiary law.Petitioners: {{Harvnb\\|Vaibhav Jai v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Dr Kavita Arora v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Joydeep Sengupta v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Nibedita Dutta v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Zainab J. Patel v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Supriyo v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Parth Phiroze Mehrotra v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\\|Aditi Anand v. Union of India}}.",
"The [Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act of 2005](/wiki/Protection_of_Women_from_Domestic_Violence_Act%2C_2005 \"Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act, 2005\") protects women in an opposite\\-sex marital or live\\-in relationship. The law extends its protection to women living in a household, such as sisters or mothers, but fails to protect sexual and gender minority women in a relationship.Petitioners: {{Harvnb\\|Dr Kavita Arora v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\\|Parth Phiroze Mehrotra v. Union of India}}.",
"#### Entry and residence permits",
"A spouse of foreign origin of an Indian Citizen or [OCI](/wiki/Overseas_Citizenship_of_India \"Overseas Citizenship of India\") is entitled to apply for registration as an [OCI](/wiki/Overseas_Citizenship_of_India \"Overseas Citizenship of India\") under the [Citizenship Act](/wiki/The_Citizenship_Act%2C_1955 \"The Citizenship Act, 1955\"). [OCI](/wiki/Overseas_Citizenship_of_India \"Overseas Citizenship of India\") is a form of [permanent residency](/wiki/Permanent_residency \"Permanent residency\") which allows cardholders to live and work in India indefinitely. Without recognition of the right to marry, a foreign\\-origin sexual or gender minority spouse is not eligible for [OCI](/wiki/Overseas_Citizenship_of_India \"Overseas Citizenship of India\") Card.",
"Recognition of the right to marry for sexual and gender minority individuals is crucial for acquiring a visa and residency. Sexual and gender minority families cannot declare the name of their spouse or parent on their passports. Similarly, [OCI](/wiki/Overseas_Citizenship_of_India \"Overseas Citizenship of India\") cardholders are subject to the notification issued by the [Union Government](/wiki/Government_of_India \"Government of India\")— for example, during the [COVID\\-19 pandemic](/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_India \"COVID-19 pandemic in India\"), the [Union Government](/wiki/Government_of_India \"Government of India\") allowed [OCI](/wiki/Overseas_Citizenship_of_India \"Overseas Citizenship of India\") cardholders with Indian parents or spouses alone to enter the country.",
"#### Social exclusion and violence",
"Legally sanctioned exclusion, such as the prohibition of marriage between sexual and gender minority individuals, constitutes a form of [structural discrimination](/wiki/Structural_discrimination \"Structural discrimination\") which reinforces [ignorance](/wiki/Ignorance \"Ignorance\") and [prejudice](/wiki/Prejudice \"Prejudice\") and leads to widespread [discrimination](/wiki/Discrimination \"Discrimination\"), [rejection](/wiki/Social_rejection \"Social rejection\") and [violence](/wiki/Violence_against_LGBT_people \"Violence against LGBT people\") against sexual and gender minority individuals in India.Petitioners: {{Harvnb\\|Dr Kavita Arora v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Udit Sood v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Aditi Anand v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Utkarsh Saxena v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Kajal v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Rituparna Borah v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\\|Harish Iyer v. Union of India}}. The petitioners demonstrate widespread [discrimination](/wiki/Discrimination \"Discrimination\"), [rejection](/wiki/Social_rejection \"Social rejection\") and [violence](/wiki/Violence_against_LGBT_people \"Violence against LGBT people\") against sexual and gender minority individuals in India by reporting relevant peer\\-reviewed studies and news articles.Petitioners: {{Harvnb\\|Udit Sood v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\\|Kajal v. Union of India}}.",
"[Family honour culture](/wiki/Family_honor \"Family honor\") is one of the reasons for the harassment of sexual and gender minority individuals in India.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Bhattacharya \\|first\\=Ananya \\|date\\=30 May 2019 \\|title\\=South Asian honour culture hounds India and Pakistan's LGBTQ community \\|url\\=https://qz.com/india/1630092/indians\\-pakistanis\\-most\\-likely\\-to\\-back\\-anti\\-gay\\-honour\\-abuse \\|access\\-date\\= \\|website\\=\\[\\[Quartz (publication)\\|Quartz]] \\|language\\=en \\|archive\\-date\\=18 October 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20231018150037/https://qz.com/india/1630092/indians\\-pakistanis\\-most\\-likely\\-to\\-back\\-anti\\-gay\\-honour\\-abuse \\|url\\-status\\=live }} A 2021 multinational study documented the attitudes towards violence against sexual and gender minority individuals in five countries: [India](/wiki/India \"India\"), [Pakistan](/wiki/Pakistan \"Pakistan\"), [Malaysia](/wiki/Malaysia \"Malaysia\"), [Iran](/wiki/Iran \"Iran\") and [England](/wiki/England \"England\"). [Indians](/wiki/Indian_people \"Indian people\") ranked second, following [Pakistanis](/wiki/Pakistanis \"Pakistanis\"), for their belief that gay men had damaged their [family honour](/wiki/Family_honor \"Family honor\") and their acceptance of verbal abuse and life\\-threatening violence by the family towards gay men.{{Cite journal \\|last1\\=Lowe \\|first1\\=Michelle \\|last2\\=Khan \\|first2\\=Roxanne \\|last3\\=Thanzami \\|first3\\=Vanlal \\|last4\\=Barzy \\|first4\\=Mahsa \\|last5\\=Karmaliani \\|first5\\=Rozina \\|date\\=2021 \\|title\\=Anti\\-gay \"Honor\" Abuse: A Multinational Attitudinal Study of Collectivist\\- Versus Individualist\\-Orientated Populations in Asia and England \\|url\\=https://clok.uclan.ac.uk/26187/ \\|journal\\=\\[\\[Journal of Interpersonal Violence]] \\|volume\\=36 \\|issue\\=15–16 \\|pages\\=7866–7885 \\|doi\\=10\\.1177/0886260519838493 \\|pmid\\=30924715 \\|s2cid\\=85566154 \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-06 \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-06 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230306085034/https://clok.uclan.ac.uk/26187/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"Familial harassment takes various forms of violence and violations. A 2016 Indian study reported the family as the primary source of psychological, physical and sexual violence against sexual and gender minority individuals that normalises such violence for sexual and gender minority individuals in India.{{Cite journal \\|last1\\=Ranade \\|first1\\=Ketki \\|last2\\=Shah \\|first2\\=Chayanika \\|last3\\=Chatterji \\|first3\\=Sangeeta \\|date\\=1 August 2016 \\|title\\=Making sense: Familial journeys towards acceptance of gay and lesbian family members in India \\|url\\=https://journals.tiss.edu/ijsw/index.php/ijsw/article/view/72 \\|journal\\=The Indian Journal of Social Work \\|volume\\=77 \\|issue\\=4 \\|pages\\=437–458 \\|issn\\=2456\\-7809 \\|access\\-date\\=27 March 2023 \\|archive\\-date\\=27 March 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230327114743/https://journals.tiss.edu/ijsw/index.php/ijsw/article/view/72 \\|url\\-status\\=live }} 2011 Indian qualitative study documented the endemic and pervasive nature of violence faced by sexual and gender minority women, such as psychological and verbal abuse, bodily harm, forced marriage, wrongful confinement, medical abuse and corrective rape.{{Citation \\|last1\\=Ghosh \\|first1\\=Subhagata \\|title\\=Vio Map: Documenting and Mapping Violence \\& Rights Violation Taking Place in lives of Sexually Marginalised Women to Chart Out Effective Advocacy Strategies \\|date\\=8 March 2011 \\|url\\=https://www.sapphokolkata.in/public/research\\_reports/1677858525\\.pdf \\|type\\=Research Report \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Sappho for Equality]] \\|last2\\=Bandyopadhyay \\|first2\\=Sumita Basu \\|last3\\=Ranjita \\|first3\\=Biswas \\|access\\-date\\=27 March 2023 \\|archive\\-date\\=27 March 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230327113552/https://www.sapphokolkata.in/public/research\\_reports/1677858525\\.pdf \\|url\\-status\\=live }} Familial harassment and rejection are common reasons for [homelessness](/wiki/Homelessness \"Homelessness\") and [suicide](/wiki/Suicide \"Suicide\") among sexual and gender minority individuals in India.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Watta \\|first\\=Anureet \\|date\\=2020\\-09\\-02 \\|title\\=Bullying, Homophobia, Conversion Therapy: What Is Pushing Queer People To Suicide? \\|url\\=https://www.shethepeople.tv/home\\-top\\-video/bullying\\-homophobia\\-conversion\\-therapy\\-queer\\-people\\-suicides/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-05 \\|website\\=\\[\\[SheThePeople]] \\|language\\=en\\-US \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-05 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230305132122/https://www.shethepeople.tv/home\\-top\\-video/bullying\\-homophobia\\-conversion\\-therapy\\-queer\\-people\\-suicides/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }}{{Cite magazine \\|last\\=Kidangoor \\|first\\=Abhishyant \\|date\\=2021\\-01\\-05 \\|title\\=This Indian Same\\-Sex Couple Is Fighting for the Right to Marry. But Is Their Country Ready? \\|url\\=https://time.com/5926324/india\\-lgbtq\\-marriage\\-case/ \\|magazine\\=\\[\\[Time (magazine)\\|Time]] \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-07 \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-07 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230307061757/https://time.com/5926324/india\\-lgbtq\\-marriage\\-case/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }} India lacks comprehensive statistics on [suicide](/wiki/Suicide \"Suicide\") among sexual and gender minority individuals in India. A 2011 Mumbai\\-based study of men who have sex with men found 45 per cent to be [suicidal](/wiki/Suicidal_ideation \"Suicidal ideation\"), with 15 per cent categorised as high risk. A 2016 Indian study estimated the suicide rate among [transgender Indians](/wiki/Transgender \"Transgender\") as 31 per cent, and at least 50 per cent of them have attempted suicide at least once before their 20th birthday.{{Cite journal \\|last1\\=H.G. \\|first1\\=Virupaksha \\|last2\\=Muralidhar \\|first2\\=Daliboyina \\|last3\\=Ramakrishna \\|first3\\=Jayashree \\|date\\=2016 \\|title\\=Suicide and Suicidal Behavior among Transgender Persons \\|journal\\=\\[\\[Indian Journal of Psychological Medicine]] \\|volume\\=38 \\|issue\\=6 \\|pages\\=505–509 \\|doi\\=10\\.4103/0253\\-7176\\.194908\\|pmid\\=28031583 \\|pmc\\=5178031 \\|doi\\-access\\=free }}",
"Couples from sexual and gender minority communities face familial harassment in the form of [forced separation](/wiki/Family_separation \"Family separation\") and [wrongful detention](/wiki/False_imprisonment \"False imprisonment\") or reporting their partners of [kidnapping](/wiki/Kidnapping \"Kidnapping\"). If the couple were [separated](/wiki/Family_separation \"Family separation\") and [detained](/wiki/False_imprisonment \"False imprisonment\") by the parents, the partner has to approach a [High Court](/wiki/High_courts_of_India \"High courts of India\") for a [writ petition for habeas corpus](/wiki/Habeas_corpus \"Habeas corpus\"). The Courts frequently question the [locus standi](/wiki/Standing_%28law%29 \"Standing (law)\") of the individual due to the non\\-recognition of their relationship.{{Cite book \\|last1\\=Arasu \\|first1\\=Ponni \\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/lawlikelovequeer0000unse \\|title\\=Law like love: Queer perspectives on law \\|last2\\=Thangarajah \\|first2\\=Priya \\|date\\=2011 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Yoda Press]] \\|isbn\\=9789380403144 \\|editor\\-last\\=Narrain \\|editor\\-first\\=Arvind \\|publication\\-place\\=\\[\\[New Delhi\\|New Delhi, India]] \\|chapter\\=Queer Women and the Law in India \\|oclc\\=741445911 \\|editor\\-last2\\=Gupta \\|editor\\-first2\\=Alok }} On the other hand, if the parents had reported the [kidnapping](/wiki/Kidnapping \"Kidnapping\"), the police ascertained if the partner had left on their own accord. However, the seemingly straightforward procedure of recording the individual's statement to determine whether they are acting out of their free will gets complicated due to [societal prejudice](/wiki/Prejudice \"Prejudice\") validated by the lack of the right to marry for sexual and gender minority individuals in India.{{Cite book \\|last\\=Sharma \\|first\\=Maya \\|title\\=Footprints of a Queer History: Life\\-stories from Gujarat \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Yoda Press]] \\|year\\=2023 \\|isbn\\=9789382579359 \\|location\\=\\[\\[New Delhi\\|New Delhi, India]]}}",
"Reports have documented instances where lesbian couples have considered, attempted or committed suicide together.{{Citation \\|last\\=Deepa \\|first\\=Vasudevan \\|title\\=Lesbian Suicides and the Kerala Women's Movement \\|date\\=2001 \\|url\\=http://feministlawarchives.pldindia.org/wp\\-content/uploads/Lesbian\\-Suicides\\-and\\-the\\-Kerala\\-Womens\\-Movement.pdf \\|type\\=\\[\\[Conference proceedings\\|Conference Proceeding]] \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210305201621/http://feministlawarchives.pldindia.org/wp\\-content/uploads/Lesbian\\-Suicides\\-and\\-the\\-Kerala\\-Womens\\-Movement.pdf \\|publication\\-place\\=\\[\\[Hyderabad\\|Hyderabad, India]] \\|publisher\\=South Indian Young Feminists Conference \\|archive\\-date\\=2021\\-03\\-05}}{{Cite report \\|url\\=https://www.tiss.edu/uploads/files/8The\\_Nature\\_of\\_violence\\_faced\\_by\\_Lesbian\\_women\\_in\\_India.pdf \\|title\\=The nature of violence faced by lesbian women in India \\|last1\\=Fernandez \\|first1\\=Bina \\|last2\\=Gomathy \\|first2\\=N.B \\|date\\=2003 \\|publisher\\=Research Centre on Violence Against Women, \\[\\[Tata Institute of Social Sciences]] \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-08 \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-08 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230308071546/https://www.tiss.edu/uploads/files/8The\\_Nature\\_of\\_violence\\_faced\\_by\\_Lesbian\\_women\\_in\\_India.pdf \\|url\\-status\\=live }}{{Cite journal \\|date\\=2006 \\|editor\\-last\\=Kalpana \\|editor\\-first\\=Kannabiran \\|title\\=India: Second NGO Shadow Report on CEDAW \\|url\\=http://pldindia.org/wp\\-content/uploads/2013/06/CEDAW\\_\\-Second\\-Shadow\\_report\\_2006\\.pdf \\|journal\\=National Alliance of Women \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-08 \\|archive\\-date\\=2022\\-09\\-01 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220901034958/http://pldindia.org/wp\\-content/uploads/2013/06/CEDAW\\_\\-Second\\-Shadow\\_report\\_2006\\.pdf \\|url\\-status\\=live }} A lesbian couple, Asha Thakor and Bhavna Thakor, facing opposition from their family in rural [Gujarat](/wiki/Gujarat \"Gujarat\"), committed suicide shortly after eloping to the city. The couple had eloped to find a safe space and acceptance but never found it.{{Cite news \\|last\\=Dey \\|first\\=Simantini \\|date\\=2018\\-06\\-11 \\|title\\=The World Did Not Let Us Live: What Led To The Suicide of a same sex couple in 'Homophobic' Gujarat \\|work\\=\\[\\[News18 India\\|News18]] \\|url\\=https://www.news18\\.com/news/immersive/gujarat\\-same\\-sex\\-suicide.html \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180626081203/https://www.news18\\.com/news/immersive/gujarat\\-same\\-sex\\-suicide.html \\|archive\\-date\\=2018\\-06\\-26}} Similarly, a gay couple from rural [Assam](/wiki/Assam \"Assam\"), Ankur Das and Brajen Thakuria committed suicide after their families firmly opposed their relationship and blamed them for one of their mother's early death.{{Cite web \\|date\\=2020\\-08\\-01 \\|title\\=Gay lovers from Assam commit suicide due to families' opposition \\|url\\=https://www.sentinelassam.com/north\\-east\\-india\\-news/assam\\-news/gay\\-lovers\\-from\\-assam\\-commit\\-suicide\\-due\\-to\\-families\\-opposition\\-492587 \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-05 \\|website\\=\\[\\[The Sentinel (Guwahati)\\|The Sentinel]] \\|language\\=en \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-05 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230305132114/https://www.sentinelassam.com/north\\-east\\-india\\-news/assam\\-news/gay\\-lovers\\-from\\-assam\\-commit\\-suicide\\-due\\-to\\-families\\-opposition\\-492587 \\|url\\-status\\=live }} Despite the existence of suicide notes and social media posts, most of the cases end with [first information reports](/wiki/First_information_report \"First information report\") and news articles, without any investigations and persecution of those [abetting](/wiki/Aiding_and_abetting \"Aiding and abetting\") suicide.",
"##### Housing, education and employment",
"In the larger society, sexual and gender minority individuals in India face [prejudice](/wiki/Prejudice \"Prejudice\") in housing, education and employment. Sexual and gender minority individuals in India encounter discrimination from property owners and landlords, leading to a denial of housing and forced evictions.{{Citation \\|last1\\=Dutta \\|first1\\=Debolina \\|title\\=count me IN! Violence Against Disabled, Lesbian, and Sex\\-working Women in Bangladesh, India, and Nepal \\|url\\=https://www.oursplatform.org/wp\\-content/uploads/CREA\\-The\\-Count\\-Me\\-In\\-Violence\\-against\\-Disabled\\-Lesbian\\-Sex\\-working\\-Women\\-in\\-Bangladesh\\-India\\-Nepal\\-Report.pdf \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220119025401/https://www.oursplatform.org/wp\\-content/uploads/CREA\\-The\\-Count\\-Me\\-In\\-Violence\\-against\\-Disabled\\-Lesbian\\-Sex\\-working\\-Women\\-in\\-Bangladesh\\-India\\-Nepal\\-Report.pdf \\|publication\\-place\\=\\[\\[New Delhi\\|New Delhi, India]] \\|publisher\\=CREA \\|archive\\-date\\=2022\\-01\\-19 \\|last2\\=Weston \\|first2\\=Mark \\|last3\\=Bhattacharji \\|first3\\=Jaya \\|last4\\=Mukherji \\|first4\\=Suparna \\|last5\\=Kurien \\|first5\\=Sarah Joseph}}{{Cite news \\|last\\=Borate \\|first\\=Neil \\|date\\=2019\\-06\\-25 \\|title\\=Same\\-sex couples in India lack basic financial rights. \\|work\\=\\[\\[Mint (newspaper)\\|Mint]] \\|url\\=https://www.livemint.com/money/personal\\-finance/same\\-sex\\-couples\\-in\\-india\\-lack\\-basic\\-financial\\-rights\\-1561396839301\\.html \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-07 \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-07 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230307061757/https://www.livemint.com/money/personal\\-finance/same\\-sex\\-couples\\-in\\-india\\-lack\\-basic\\-financial\\-rights\\-1561396839301\\.html \\|url\\-status\\=live }} A 2018 [UNESCO](/wiki/UNESCO \"UNESCO\")\\-supported Indian study found that 60% of middle school students ([ISCED](/wiki/International_Standard_Classification_of_Education \"International Standard Classification of Education\") Level 2\\), 60% of high school students ([ISCED](/wiki/International_Standard_Classification_of_Education \"International Standard Classification of Education\") Level 3\\) and 50% of higher secondary school students ([ISCED](/wiki/International_Standard_Classification_of_Education \"International Standard Classification of Education\") Level 3\\) were victims of physical violence due to [sexual orientation](/wiki/Sexual_orientation \"Sexual orientation\") and [gender identity](/wiki/Gender_identity \"Gender identity\"). As a result of the harassment, the students reported they had reduced social interaction with their peers (73%), suffered from anxiety and depression (70%), and discontinued school (33\\.2%).{{Cite news \\|date\\=2018\\-03\\-13 \\|title\\=New study on bullying based on sexual orientation and gender identity in schools in Tamil Nadu, India \\|work\\=\\[\\[UNESCO]] \\|url\\=https://www.unesco.org/en/articles/new\\-study\\-bullying\\-based\\-sexual\\-orientation\\-and\\-gender\\-identity\\-schools\\-tamil\\-nadu\\-india \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-07 \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-04\\-26 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230426162041/https://www.unesco.org/en/articles/new\\-study\\-bullying\\-based\\-sexual\\-orientation\\-and\\-gender\\-identity\\-schools\\-tamil\\-nadu\\-india \\|url\\-status\\=live }} [Prejudice](/wiki/Prejudice \"Prejudice\") in the workplace manifests as harassment and discrimination in the recruitment process and promotions.{{Cite journal \\|last1\\=Noronha \\|first1\\=Ernesto \\|last2\\=Bisht \\|first2\\=Nidhi S. \\|last3\\=D’Cruz \\|first3\\=Premilla \\|date\\=2022\\-04\\-11 \\|title\\=From Fear to Courage: Indian Lesbians' and Gays' Quest for Inclusive Ethical Organizations \\|url\\=https://link.springer.com/article/10\\.1007/s10551\\-022\\-05098\\-x \\|journal\\=\\[\\[Journal of Business Ethics]] \\|volume\\=177 \\|issue\\=4 \\|pages\\=779–797 \\|doi\\=10\\.1007/s10551\\-022\\-05098\\-x \\|s2cid\\=248116558 \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-07 \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-07 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230307061800/https://link.springer.com/article/10\\.1007/s10551\\-022\\-05098\\-x \\|url\\-status\\=live }}{{Cite news \\|last\\=Menon \\|first\\=Rashmi \\|date\\=2022\\-07\\-20 \\|title\\=How lesbian, gay employees deal with workplace bullying \\|work\\=\\[\\[Mint (newspaper)\\|Mint]] \\|url\\=https://lifestyle.livemint.com/news/talking\\-point/how\\-lesbian\\-gay\\-employees\\-deal\\-with\\-workplace\\-bullying\\-111658305286171\\.html \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-07 \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-07 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230307061758/https://lifestyle.livemint.com/news/talking\\-point/how\\-lesbian\\-gay\\-employees\\-deal\\-with\\-workplace\\-bullying\\-111658305286171\\.html \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"##### Effects of repression",
"The fear of familial harassment and rejection causes sexual and gender minority individuals in India to conceal their identity and remain in the closet. However, this does not guarantee their safety. According to a 2015 Indian survey, the majority of gay men who experienced physical violence (52\\.4%), sexual abuse (55%) and psychological abuse (46\\.5%) lived with their parents and were most often closeted. In contrast, gay men who lived with their partners or sexual and gender minority individuals faced little abuse. Closeted gay men living with parents cannot freely seek peer support from other sexual and gender minority individuals when faced with violence.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Chaturvedi \\|first\\=Sumit \\|date\\=2016\\-10\\-21 \\|title\\=52% of gay men in India without peer support suffer violence: Survey \\|url\\=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india\\-news/52\\-of\\-gay\\-men\\-in\\-india\\-without\\-peer\\-support\\-suffer\\-violence\\-survey/story\\-HKOutVLK7YbIieafqsTrwL.html \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-06 \\|website\\=\\[\\[Hindustan Times]] \\|language\\=en \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-06 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230306145056/https://www.hindustantimes.com/india\\-news/52\\-of\\-gay\\-men\\-in\\-india\\-without\\-peer\\-support\\-suffer\\-violence\\-survey/story\\-HKOutVLK7YbIieafqsTrwL.html \\|url\\-status\\=live }} Subsequently, most sexual and gender minority individuals in India grow old facing life without lawful companionship and confronting the reality of [loneliness](/wiki/Loneliness \"Loneliness\"), which research shows carry a risk comparable to if not exceeds, that of other well\\-accepted factors, including [smoking up to 15 cigarettes a day](/wiki/Tobacco_smoking \"Tobacco smoking\"), [obesity](/wiki/Obesity \"Obesity\"), [physical inactivity](/wiki/Physical_inactivity \"Physical inactivity\") and [air pollution](/wiki/Air_pollution \"Air pollution\").{{Cite journal \\|last1\\=Holt\\-Lunstad \\|first1\\=Julianne \\|last2\\=Smith \\|first2\\=Timothy B. \\|last3\\=Layton \\|first3\\=J. Bradley \\|date\\=2010\\-07\\-27 \\|title\\=Social Relationships and Mortality Risk: A Meta\\-analytic Review \\|journal\\=\\[\\[PLOS Medicine]] \\|volume\\=7 \\|issue\\=7 \\|pages\\=e1000316 \\|doi\\=10\\.1371/journal.pmed.1000316\\|pmid\\=20668659 \\|pmc\\=2910600 \\|doi\\-access\\=free }}{{Cite journal \\|last\\=Holt\\-Lunstad \\|first\\=Julianne \\|date\\=2018\\-01\\-02 \\|title\\=The Potential Public Health Relevance of Social Isolation and Loneliness: Prevalence, Epidemiology, and Risk Factors \\|url\\=https://academic.oup.com/ppar/article/27/4/127/4782506 \\|journal\\=Public Policy \\& Aging Report \\|volume\\=27 \\|issue\\=4 \\|pages\\=127–130 \\|doi\\=10\\.1093/ppar/prx030 \\|doi\\-access\\=free \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-06 \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-06 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230306162944/https://academic.oup.com/ppar/article/27/4/127/4782506 \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"##### Social assimilation through inclusive policies",
"In light of widespread [discrimination](/wiki/Discrimination \"Discrimination\"), [rejection](/wiki/Social_rejection \"Social rejection\") and [violence](/wiki/Violence_against_LGBT_people \"Violence against LGBT people\") against sexual and gender minority individuals in India, the petitioners argued the [sexual and gender minority\\-inclusive policies](/wiki/Gay-friendly \"Gay-friendly\") — for relationships, parenthood, healthcare, education and employment — provides opportunities to assimilate into society To make their case, the petitioners highlighted the historical role of Indian statutory reforms, such as the abolishment of [Sati](/wiki/Sati_%28practice%29 \"Sati (practice)\") and recognition of inter\\-caste marriage and widow remarriage, in aiding the social assimilation of [marginalised](/wiki/Social_exclusion \"Social exclusion\") [Indians](/wiki/Indian_people \"Indian people\").{{Harvnb\\|Vaibhav Jai v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Dr Kavita Arora v. Union of India}} \\& {{Harvnb\\|Nibedita Dutta v. Union of India}} The petitioners highlighted the instances where the [Indian Courts](/wiki/Judiciary_of_India \"Judiciary of India\") got rid of various socially regressive practices in defiance of social and religious norms— *Mary Roy v. State of Kerala (1986\\)*, *Githa Hariharan v. Reserve Bank of India (1999\\)*, *[Shayara Bano v. UOI (2017\\)](/wiki/Triple_talaq_in_India%23Judgement \"Triple talaq in India#Judgement\")*, *Joseph Shine v. UOI (2018\\)* and [*Arun Kumar v. Inspector General of Registration (2019\\)*](/wiki/Arun_Kumar_v._Inspector_General_of_Registration \"Arun Kumar v. Inspector General of Registration\").",
"Scholars reason that the legal recognition of marriage between sexual and gender minority individuals is often accompanied by media attention and increased visibility, which is associated with increased social support for sexual and gender minority individuals.{{Cite journal \\|last1\\=Christopher \\|first1\\=Ramos \\|last2\\=Goldberg \\|first2\\=Naomi G \\|last3\\=Badgett \\|first3\\=M.V. Lee \\|date\\=2009\\-05\\-17 \\|title\\=The Effects of Marriage Equality in Massachusetts: A survey of the experiences and impact of marriage on same\\-sex couples \\|url\\=https://escholarship.org/content/qt9dx6v3kj/qt9dx6v3kj.pdf \\|journal\\=\\[\\[Williams Institute]] \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-07 \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-05 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230305142847/https://escholarship.org/content/qt9dx6v3kj/qt9dx6v3kj.pdf \\|url\\-status\\=live }}{{Cite journal \\|last\\=Lewis \\|first\\=Gregory B. \\|date\\=2011\\-05\\-02 \\|title\\=The Friends and Family Plan: Contact with Gays and Support for Gay Rights \\|url\\=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10\\.1111/j.1541\\-0072\\.2011\\.00405\\.x \\|journal\\=\\[\\[Policy Studies Journal]] \\|volume\\=39 \\|issue\\=2 \\|pages\\=217–238 \\|doi\\=10\\.1111/j.1541\\-0072\\.2011\\.00405\\.x \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-07 \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-07 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230307102539/https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10\\.1111/j.1541\\-0072\\.2011\\.00405\\.x \\|url\\-status\\=live }}{{Cite journal \\|last1\\=Chomsky \\|first1\\=Daniel \\|last2\\=Barclay \\|first2\\=Scott \\|date\\=2010 \\|title\\=The Mass Media, Public Opinion, and Lesbian and Gay Rights \\|url\\=https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/abs/10\\.1146/annurev\\-lawsocsci\\-102209\\-152825 \\|journal\\=\\[\\[Annual Review of Law and Social Science]] \\|volume\\=6 \\|pages\\=387–403 \\|doi\\=10\\.1146/annurev\\-lawsocsci\\-102209\\-152825 \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-07 \\|archive\\-date\\=2022\\-10\\-12 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20221012131104/https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/abs/10\\.1146/annurev\\-lawsocsci\\-102209\\-152825 \\|url\\-status\\=live }} The increased social support could translate into improved familial and peer acceptance, which is associated with improved mental health.{{Cite journal \\|last1\\=Ryan \\|first1\\=Caitlin \\|last2\\=Huebner \\|first2\\=David \\|last3\\=Diaz \\|first3\\=Rafael M. \\|last4\\=Sanchez \\|first4\\=Jorge \\|date\\=2009 \\|title\\=Family Rejection as a Predictor of Negative Health Outcomes in White and Latino Lesbian, Gay, and Bisexual Young Adults \\|url\\=https://publications.aap.org/pediatrics/article\\-abstract/123/1/346/71912/Family\\-Rejection\\-as\\-a\\-Predictor\\-of\\-Negative\\-Health \\|journal\\=\\[\\[Pediatrics (journal)\\|Pediatrics]] \\|volume\\=123 \\|issue\\=1 \\|pages\\=346–352 \\|doi\\=10\\.1542/peds.2007\\-3524 \\|pmid\\=19117902 \\|s2cid\\=33361972 \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-07 \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-25 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230325095337/https://publications.aap.org/pediatrics/article\\-abstract/123/1/346/71912/Family\\-Rejection\\-as\\-a\\-Predictor\\-of\\-Negative\\-Health \\|url\\-status\\=live }}{{Cite journal \\|last1\\=Gini \\|first1\\=Gianluca \\|last2\\=Espelage \\|first2\\=Dorothy L. \\|date\\=2014\\-08\\-06 \\|title\\=Peer Victimization, Cyberbullying, and Suicide Risk in Children and Adolescents \\|url\\=https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama/article\\-abstract/1892227 \\|journal\\=\\[\\[JAMA\\|Journal of the American Medical Association]] \\|volume\\=312 \\|issue\\=5 \\|pages\\=545–546 \\|doi\\=10\\.1001/jama.2014\\.3212 \\|pmid\\=25096695 \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-07 \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-07 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230307102540/https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama/article\\-abstract/1892227 \\|url\\-status\\=live }} A 2017 [U.S.](/wiki/United_States \"United States\") study found sexual and gender minority teens' suicide attempts declined in [U.S. states](/wiki/U.S._state \"U.S. state\") that enacted laws recognising [same\\-sex marriage](/wiki/Same-sex_marriage \"Same-sex marriage\"). The study also reported the effect of legal recognition of [same\\-sex marriage](/wiki/Same-sex_marriage \"Same-sex marriage\") persisted two years after recognition, disproving the argument that legal recognition of [same\\-sex marriage](/wiki/Same-sex_marriage \"Same-sex marriage\") would negatively affect sexual and gender minority individuals due to social and political backlash.{{Cite journal \\|last1\\=Raifman \\|first1\\=Julia \\|last2\\=Moscoe \\|first2\\=Ellen \\|last3\\=Austin \\|first3\\=S. Bryn \\|last4\\=McConnell \\|first4\\=Margaret \\|date\\=2017\\-02\\-20 \\|title\\=Difference\\-in\\-differences analysis of the association between state same\\-sex marriage policies and adolescent suicide attempts \\|url\\=https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamapediatrics/fullarticle/2604258 \\|journal\\=\\[\\[JAMA Pediatrics]] \\|volume\\=171 \\|issue\\=4 \\|pages\\=350–356 \\|doi\\=10\\.1001/jamapediatrics.2016\\.4529 \\|pmid\\=28241285 \\|pmc\\=5848493 \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-05 \\|archive\\-date\\=2019\\-05\\-18 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190518115213/https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamapediatrics/fullarticle/2604258 \\|url\\-status\\=live }} More directly, the legal recognition of the right to marry would extend the [previously discussed](/wiki/%23National_Laws_%26_Regulations \"#National Laws & Regulations\") benefits, entitlements, privileges and obligations to couples from sexual and gender minority communities and improve their quality of life.",
"#### Economic cost of social exclusion",
"The petitioners argued that the [structural discrimination](/wiki/Structural_discrimination \"Structural discrimination\") against sexual and gender minority individuals in India, such as the prohibition of marriage between sexual and gender minority individuals, hurts economic output— an unnecessary cost to all [Indian citizens](/wiki/Indian_people \"Indian people\"). Cross\\-country studies have estimated that the legal provision of [same\\-sex marriage](/wiki/Same-sex_marriage \"Same-sex marriage\") is associated with a long\\-term increase in [GDP per capita](/wiki/Gross_domestic_product \"Gross domestic product\") of 54 to 64 per cent.{{Cite journal \\|last1\\=Lamontagne \\|first1\\=Erik \\|last2\\=d’Elbée \\|first2\\=Marc \\|last3\\=Ross \\|first3\\=Michael W. \\|last4\\=Carroll \\|first4\\=Aengus \\|last5\\=Plessis \\|first5\\=André du \\|last6\\=Loures \\|first6\\=Luiz \\|date\\=2018\\-03\\-03 \\|title\\=A socioecological measurement of homophobia for all countries and its public health impact \\|url\\=https://academic.oup.com/eurpub/article/28/5/967/4919666 \\|journal\\=\\[\\[European Journal of Public Health]] \\|volume\\=28 \\|issue\\=5 \\|pages\\=967–972 \\|doi\\=10\\.1093/eurpub/cky023 \\|pmid\\=29514190 \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-11 \\|archive\\-date\\=2020\\-01\\-03 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200103100505/https://academic.oup.com/eurpub/article/28/5/967/4919666 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|doi\\-access\\=free }}",
"[Discrimination](/wiki/Discrimination \"Discrimination\") in the workplace leads to underutilisation of [human capital](/wiki/Human_capital \"Human capital\") if a less skilled worker from favoured groups is hired or promoted instead of a skilled sexual and gender minority worker. If the skilled sexual and gender minority workers cannot find a suitable option, then the unutilised or underutilised skilled sexual and gender minority workers constitute a loss to economic output.",
"In addition to [discrimination](/wiki/Discrimination \"Discrimination\"), the harassment of sexual and gender minority workers can reduce their [productivity](/wiki/Productivity \"Productivity\"), even if their wages and employment are not directly affected. A 2016 study found that 40 per cent of sexual and gender minority workers experienced [harassment](/wiki/Harassment \"Harassment\") by their peers, and 66 per cent heard negative comments about sexual and gender minorities.{{Citation \\|last1\\=Dhar \\|first1\\=Udayan \\|title\\=The Indian LGBT Workplace Climate Survey 2016 \\|url\\=https://vartagensex.org/wp\\-content/uploads/2019/10/1559396942000\\-mingle\\-lgbt\\-wrkplc\\-climt\\-srvy\\-2016\\.pdf \\|type\\=Survey Report \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-11 \\|publisher\\=Mission for Indian Gay \\& Lesbian Empowerment \\|last2\\=Sinha \\|first2\\=Ramkrishna \\|last3\\=Khan \\|first3\\=Zafrulla \\|archive\\-date\\=2022\\-07\\-09 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220709025644/https://vartagensex.org/wp\\-content/uploads/2019/10/1559396942000\\-mingle\\-lgbt\\-wrkplc\\-climt\\-srvy\\-2016\\.pdf \\|url\\-status\\=live }} A 2019 study found that sexual and gender minority workers are 10 per cent less [productive](/wiki/Productivity \"Productivity\") in the same job as the general population, leading to a loss of 0\\.4 per cent of [GDP](/wiki/Gross_domestic_product \"Gross domestic product\") annually.",
"Several studies found a positive association between [sexual and gender minority\\-inclusive policies](/wiki/Gay-friendly \"Gay-friendly\") and financial measures like stock prices, asset returns, per\\-worker output and employee innovation.{{Cite journal \\|last1\\=Shan \\|first1\\=Liwei \\|last2\\=Fu \\|first2\\=Shihe \\|last3\\=Zheng \\|first3\\=Lu \\|date\\=2017 \\|title\\=Corporate sexual equality and firm performance. \\|url\\=http://socialbigdata.cn/css/team/doc/zheng/Corporate%20Sexual%20Equality%20and%20Firm%20Performance.pdf \\|journal\\=Strategic Management Journal \\|volume\\=38 \\|issue\\=9 \\|pages\\=1812–1826 \\|doi\\=10\\.1002/smj.2624 \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-11 \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-10\\-16 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20231016113015/http://socialbigdata.cn/css/team/doc/zheng/Corporate%20Sexual%20Equality%20and%20Firm%20Performance.pdf \\|url\\-status\\=live }}{{Cite journal \\|last1\\=Li \\|first1\\=Feng \\|last2\\=Nagar \\|first2\\=Venky \\|date\\=2013 \\|title\\=Diversity and performance \\|url\\=http://gljc.sxu.edu.cn/docs/2013\\-10/20131021101508197036\\.pdf \\|journal\\=\\[\\[Management Science (journal)\\|Management Science]] \\|volume\\=59 \\|issue\\=3 \\|pages\\=529–544 \\|doi\\=10\\.1287/mnsc.1120\\.1548 \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-11 \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-11 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230311133409/http://gljc.sxu.edu.cn/docs/2013\\-10/20131021101508197036\\.pdf \\|url\\-status\\=live }}{{Cite journal \\|last1\\=Gao \\|first1\\=Huasheng \\|last2\\=Zhang \\|first2\\=Wei \\|date\\=2017\\-06\\-15 \\|title\\=Employment nondiscrimination acts and corporate innovation. \\|url\\=https://pubsonline.informs.org/doi/abs/10\\.1287/mnsc.2016\\.2457 \\|journal\\=\\[\\[Management Science (journal)\\|Management Science]] \\|volume\\=63 \\|issue\\=9 \\|pages\\=2982–2999 \\|doi\\=10\\.1287/mnsc.2016\\.2457 \\|hdl\\=10356/81557 \\|s2cid\\=23088627 \\|hdl\\-access\\=free \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-11 \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-11 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230311131850/https://pubsonline.informs.org/doi/abs/10\\.1287/mnsc.2016\\.2457 \\|url\\-status\\=live }} It is not a coincidence that 91 per cent of [Fortune 500](/wiki/Fortune_500 \"Fortune 500\") companies included [sexual orientation](/wiki/Sexual_orientation \"Sexual orientation\") in their non\\-discrimination policies in 2019\\.{{Cite web \\|title\\=LGBTQ\\+ Equality at the Fortune 500 \\|url\\=https://www.hrc.org/resources/lgbt\\-equality\\-at\\-the\\-fortune\\-500 \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-11 \\|website\\=\\[\\[Human Rights Campaign]] \\|language\\=en\\-US \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-11 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230311131849/https://www.hrc.org/resources/lgbt\\-equality\\-at\\-the\\-fortune\\-500 \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"##### Emigration",
"When denied equal rights, sexual and gender minority individuals who can migrate, often highly educated or financially resourceful individuals, migrate to countries that afford better protection. Sexual Migration— migration where [sexual orientation](/wiki/Sexual_orientation \"Sexual orientation\") is an influential factor— is a well\\-documented and widespread phenomenon.{{Cite journal \\|last\\=Carrillo \\|first\\=Héctor \\|date\\=2004 \\|title\\=Sexual migration, cross\\-cultural sexual encounters, and sexual health \\|url\\=https://link.springer.com/article/10\\.1525/srsp.2004\\.1\\.3\\.58 \\|journal\\=\\[\\[Sexuality Research and Social Policy]] \\|volume\\=1 \\|issue\\=3 \\|pages\\=58–70 \\|doi\\=10\\.1525/srsp.2004\\.1\\.3\\.58 \\|s2cid\\=145584935 \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-11 \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-11 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230311141106/https://link.springer.com/article/10\\.1525/srsp.2004\\.1\\.3\\.58 \\|url\\-status\\=live }} Studies focusing on Indian migrants have documented the lack of [sexual and gender minority rights in India](/wiki/LGBT_rights_in_India \"LGBT rights in India\") as a motivating factor for the decision.{{Cite journal \\|last\\=Smith \\|first\\=Geoffrey \\|date\\=2012\\-08\\-13 \\|title\\=Sexuality, space and migration: South Asian gay men in Australia \\|url\\=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10\\.1111/j.1745\\-7939\\.2012\\.01229\\.x \\|journal\\=New Zealand Geographer \\|volume\\=68 \\|issue\\=2 \\|pages\\=92–100 \\|doi\\=10\\.1111/j.1745\\-7939\\.2012\\.01229\\.x \\|bibcode\\=2012NZGeo..68\\...92S \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-11 \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-11 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230311141103/https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10\\.1111/j.1745\\-7939\\.2012\\.01229\\.x \\|url\\-status\\=live }}{{Cite journal \\|last\\=Baas \\|first\\=Michiel \\|date\\=2019 \\|title\\=The past, present and future of 'gay' migrants from India in Singapore \\|url\\=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10\\.1177/0011392118792922 \\|journal\\=\\[\\[Current Sociology]] \\|volume\\=67 \\|issue\\=2 \\|pages\\=206–224 \\|doi\\=10\\.1177/0011392118792922 \\|s2cid\\=149617969 \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-11 \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-11 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230311141103/https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10\\.1177/0011392118792922 \\|url\\-status\\=live }} Due to the lack of Indian studies on sexual migration, the petitioners pointed to the [Hong Kong](/wiki/Hong_Kong \"Hong Kong\") study, which reported that 52\\.5 per cent considered leaving because of their [sexual orientation](/wiki/Sexual_orientation \"Sexual orientation\"), of whom 91\\.3 per cent cited the lack of legal recognition of marriage between sexual and gender minority individuals as a reason.{{Cite journal \\|last1\\=Suen \\|first1\\=Yiu Tung \\|last2\\=Chan \\|first2\\=Randolph CH \\|date\\=2021\\-11\\-04 \\|title\\=\"Gay brain drain\": Hong Kong lesbian, gay, and bisexual people's consideration of emigration because of non\\-inclusive social policies \\|url\\=https://link.springer.com/article/10\\.1007/s13178\\-020\\-00497\\-z \\|journal\\=\\[\\[Sexuality Research and Social Policy]] \\|volume\\=18 \\|issue\\=3 \\|pages\\=739–752 \\|doi\\=10\\.1007/s13178\\-020\\-00497\\-z \\|s2cid\\=256065733 \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-11 \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-11 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230311141107/https://link.springer.com/article/10\\.1007/s13178\\-020\\-00497\\-z \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"##### Foreign revenue",
"Research shows a positive correlation between acceptance of [homosexuality](/wiki/Homosexuality \"Homosexuality\") and foreign investments.{{Cite journal \\|last\\=Noland \\|first\\=Marcus \\|date\\=2005\\-12\\-16 \\|title\\=Popular attitudes, globalization and risk \\|url\\=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10\\.1111/j.1468\\-2362\\.2005\\.00157\\.x \\|journal\\=\\[\\[International Finance (journal)\\|International Finance]] \\|volume\\=8 \\|issue\\=2 \\|pages\\=199–229 \\|doi\\=10\\.1111/j.1468\\-2362\\.2005\\.00157\\.x \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-11 \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-11 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230311145617/https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10\\.1111/j.1468\\-2362\\.2005\\.00157\\.x \\|url\\-status\\=live }} When comparing cities, there is a positive association between [homosexual](/wiki/Homosexuality \"Homosexuality\") residents, foreign\\-born residents and the number of successful businesses.{{Cite book \\|last1\\=Florida \\|first1\\=Richard \\|url\\=https://www.emerald.com/insight/publication/doi/10\\.1016/S1479\\-3520(2003\\)9 \\|title\\=The City as an Entertainment Machine: Volume 9 \\|last2\\=Gates \\|first2\\=Gary \\|date\\=2003\\-12\\-16 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Emerald Group Publishing\\|Emerald Group Publishing Limited]] \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-76231\\-060\\-9 \\|editor\\-last\\=Nichols Clark \\|editor\\-first\\=Terry \\|pages\\=199–219 \\|chapter\\=Technology and Tolerance: the Importance of Diversity To High\\-Technology Growth \\|doi\\=10\\.1016/S1479\\-3520(03\\)09007\\-X \\|chapter\\-url\\=https://www.emerald.com/insight/content/doi/10\\.1016/S1479\\-3520(03\\)09007\\-X/full/html \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-11 \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-11 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230311145619/https://www.emerald.com/insight/publication/doi/10\\.1016/S1479\\-3520(2003\\)9 \\|url\\-status\\=live }} Additionally, sexual and gender minority [tourism](/wiki/Tourism \"Tourism\") was worth 211 billion dollars in 2016\\.{{Citation \\|last\\=Thurlow \\|first\\=Claire \\|title\\=The Economic Cost of Homophobia \\|date\\=2018 \\|url\\=https://www.petertatchellfoundation.org/wp\\-content/uploads/2018/06/report\\-a4\\-lo\\-res\\-1\\.pdf \\|type\\=Report \\|publisher\\=Peter Tatchell Foundation \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-11 \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-11 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230311145627/https://www.petertatchellfoundation.org/wp\\-content/uploads/2018/06/report\\-a4\\-lo\\-res\\-1\\.pdf \\|url\\-status\\=live }} Sexual and gender minority travellers tend to spend more than [cisgendered](/wiki/Cisgender \"Cisgender\") [heterosexual](/wiki/Heterosexuality \"Heterosexuality\") travellers, but they are unlikely to choose destinations which lack adequate protections for sexual and gender minority individuals.",
"##### Health disparity",
"The studies show the [stigma](/wiki/Social_stigma \"Social stigma\") and [social exclusion](/wiki/Social_exclusion \"Social exclusion\") experienced by sexual and gender minority individuals in India lead to higher incidences of physical and mental health problems among sexual and gender minority individuals in India compared to the general population drastically reducing their ability to engage in productive work and contribute to overall economic activity.{{Cite journal \\|last\\=Badgett \\|first\\=M.V. Lee \\|date\\=2014\\-10\\-03 \\|title\\=The Economic Cost of Stigma and the Exclusion of LGBT People: A Case Study of India \\|url\\=https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/dbf67f8d\\-0566\\-5ea8\\-ad55\\-02c83c42d600/content \\|journal\\=\\[\\[World Bank Group]] \\|publication\\-place\\=Washington, DC. \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-11 \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-08 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230308192853/https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/dbf67f8d\\-0566\\-5ea8\\-ad55\\-02c83c42d600/content \\|url\\-status\\=live }} [Canadian](/wiki/Canada \"Canada\") and [US](/wiki/United_States \"United States\") studies on the cost of [stigma](/wiki/Social_stigma \"Social stigma\") and [social exclusion](/wiki/Social_exclusion \"Social exclusion\") have used data on [depression](/wiki/Depression_%28mood%29 \"Depression (mood)\"), [suicide](/wiki/Suicide \"Suicide\"), [smoking](/wiki/Tobacco_smoking \"Tobacco smoking\"), [alcohol abuse](/wiki/Alcoholism \"Alcoholism\"), [substance abuse](/wiki/Substance_abuse \"Substance abuse\"), [HIV](/wiki/HIV/AIDS \"HIV/AIDS\"), hospitalisation, lost days of work, and early mortality.{{Cite book \\|last\\=Bank \\|first\\=Christopher \\|url\\=https://cuisr.usask.ca/documents/publications/2000\\-2004/The%20Cost%20of%20Homophobia%20Literature%20Review%20on%20the%20Economic%20Impact%20of%20Homophobia%20On%20Canada.pdf \\|title\\=The Cost of Homophobia: Literature Review on the Economic Impact of Homophobia On Canada \\|publisher\\=Community\\-University Institute for Social Research \\|year\\=2004 \\|location\\=\\[\\[Saskatoon\\|Saskatoon, Canada]] \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-11 \\|archive\\-date\\=2021\\-08\\-08 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210808212143/https://cuisr.usask.ca/documents/publications/2000\\-2004/The%20Cost%20of%20Homophobia%20Literature%20Review%20on%20the%20Economic%20Impact%20of%20Homophobia%20On%20Canada.pdf \\|url\\-status\\=live }}{{Citation \\|last1\\=Hanlon \\|first1\\=Carrie \\|title\\=State documentation of racial and ethnic health disparities to inform strategic action. \\|date\\=2011 \\|place\\=\\[\\[Rockville, Maryland\\|Rockville, United States]] \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality]] \\|last2\\=Rosenthal \\|first2\\=Jill \\|last3\\=Hinkle \\|first3\\=Larry}}{{Citation \\|last1\\=LaVeist \\|first1\\=Thomas A \\|title\\=The economic burden of health inequalities in the United States. \\|url\\=https://hsrc.himmelfarb.gwu.edu/sphhs\\_policy\\_facpubs/225/ \\|place\\=\\[\\[Washington, D.C.\\|Washington, D.C., United States]] \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Joint Center for Political and Economic Studies]] \\|last2\\=Gaskin \\|first2\\=Darrell J. \\|last3\\=Richard \\|first3\\=Patrick \\|journal\\=Health Policy and Management Faculty Publications \\|date\\=September 2009 \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-11 \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-11 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230311073702/https://hsrc.himmelfarb.gwu.edu/sphhs\\_policy\\_facpubs/225/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }} Since [India](/wiki/India \"India\") lacks such comprehensive data on the health disparity of sexual and gender minority individuals in India, the 2014 [World Bank](/wiki/World_Bank \"World Bank\") study considered only [depression](/wiki/Depression_%28mood%29 \"Depression (mood)\"), [suicide](/wiki/Suicide \"Suicide\") and [HIV](/wiki/HIV/AIDS \"HIV/AIDS\") among sexual and gender minority individuals in India. The study estimates [stigma](/wiki/Social_stigma \"Social stigma\") and [social exclusion](/wiki/Social_exclusion \"Social exclusion\") of sexual and gender minority individuals in India cost India up to 1\\.3 per cent of its [GDP](/wiki/Gross_domestic_product \"Gross domestic product\") annually.{{Cite journal \\|last1\\=Badgett \\|first1\\=M.V. Lee \\|last2\\=Waaldijk \\|first2\\=Kees \\|last3\\=van der Meulen Rodgers \\|first3\\=Yana \\|date\\=2019\\-04\\-06 \\|title\\=The relationship between LGBT inclusion and economic development: Macro\\-level evidence \\|url\\=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0305750X19300695 \\|journal\\=\\[\\[World Development (journal)\\|World Development]] \\|volume\\=120 \\|pages\\=1–14 \\|doi\\=10\\.1016/j.worlddev.2019\\.03\\.011 \\|s2cid\\=159223991 \\|hdl\\=1887/84562 \\|hdl\\-access\\=free \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-11 \\|archive\\-date\\=2021\\-08\\-06 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210806220939/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0305750X19300695 \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"Researchers’ preferred explanation for the higher incidences of mental health problems among sexual and gender minority individuals is that [stigma](/wiki/Social_stigma \"Social stigma\"), [prejudice](/wiki/Prejudice \"Prejudice\"), and [discrimination](/wiki/Discrimination \"Discrimination\") create a stressful social environment that can lead to these problems.{{Cite journal \\|last\\=Meyer \\|first\\=Ilan H. \\|author\\-link\\=Ilan Meyer \\|date\\=2003 \\|title\\=Prejudice, Social Stress, and Mental Health in Lesbian, Gay, and Bisexual Populations: Conceptual Issues and Research Evidence \\|journal\\=\\[\\[Psychological Bulletin]] \\|volume\\=125 \\|issue\\=5 \\|pages\\=674–697 \\|doi\\=10\\.1037/0033\\-2909\\.129\\.5\\.674\\|pmid\\=12956539 \\|pmc\\=2072932 }} Rates of [depression](/wiki/Depression_%28mood%29 \"Depression (mood)\") among sexual and gender minority individuals in India are 6 to 12 times higher than the general population. A Mumbai\\-based study of men who have sex with men found 45 per cent to be [suicidal](/wiki/Suicidal_ideation \"Suicidal ideation\"), with 15 per cent categorised as high risk.{{Cite journal \\|last1\\=Sivasubramanian \\|first1\\=Murugesan \\|last2\\=Mimiaga \\|first2\\=Matthew J. \\|last3\\=Mayer \\|first3\\=Kenneth H. \\|last4\\=Anand \\|first4\\=Vivek Raj \\|last5\\=Johnson \\|first5\\=Carey V. \\|last6\\=Prabhugate \\|first6\\=Priti \\|last7\\=Safren \\|first7\\=Steven A. \\|date\\=2011\\-08\\-01 \\|title\\=Suicidality, clinical depression, and anxiety disorders are highly prevalent in men who have sex with men in Mumbai, India: findings from a community\\-recruited sample. \\|journal\\=Psychol Health Med \\|volume\\=16 \\|issue\\=4 \\|pages\\=450–462 \\|doi\\=10\\.1080/13548506\\.2011\\.554645\\|pmid\\=21749242 \\|pmc\\=3136931 }} This range of [suicidal ideation](/wiki/Suicidal_ideation \"Suicidal ideation\") among sexual and gender minority individuals in India is 7 to 14 times the [suicidal ideation](/wiki/Suicidal_ideation \"Suicidal ideation\") among the general population from developing countries, including India.",
"[Social exclusion](/wiki/Social_exclusion \"Social exclusion\") might make healthcare services less relevant or accessible to sexual and gender minority individuals in India. A study found that [prejudice](/wiki/Prejudice \"Prejudice\") in society, specifically among healthcare providers, and experiencing negative consequences when disclosing their identity was associated with lower access to [HIV](/wiki/HIV/AIDS \"HIV/AIDS\") preventive measures among sexual and gender minority individuals.{{Citation \\|last1\\=Arreola \\|first1\\=Sonya \\|title\\=Access to HIV Prevention and Treatment for Men Who Have Sex with Men: Findings from the 2012 Global Men's Health and Rights Study (GMHR) \\|date\\=2012 \\|url\\=https://mpactglobal.org/wp\\-content/uploads/2015/09/GMHR\\_Factsheet\\_EN.pdf \\|type\\=\\[\\[White paper\\|White Paper]] \\|publication\\-place\\=Oakland \\|publisher\\=The Global Forum on MSM \\& HIV (MSMGF) \\|last2\\=Hebert \\|first2\\=Pato \\|last3\\=Makofane \\|first3\\=Keletso \\|last4\\=Beck \\|first4\\=J. \\|last5\\=Ayala \\|first5\\=George \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-11 \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-11 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230311055155/https://mpactglobal.org/wp\\-content/uploads/2015/09/GMHR\\_Factsheet\\_EN.pdf \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
""
] |
#### Fundamental rights
Among the relevant precedents, issues and laws presented, the petitioners argued that the exclusion of couples from sexual and gender minority communities from marriage laws constituted a violation of fundamental right.{{Harvnb\|Supriyo v. Union of India}} and other connected cases. Other connected cases include {{Harvnb\|Nikesh P.P. v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Abhijit Iyer Mitra v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Vaibhav Jai v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Dr Kavita Arora v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Udit Sood v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Joydeep Sengupta v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Mellissa Ferrier v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Nibedita Dutta v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Zainab J. Patel v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Parth Phiroze Mehrotra v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Sameer Samudra v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Aditi Anand v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Utkarsh Saxena v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Nitin Karan v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Kajal v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Amburi Roy v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Akkai Padmashali v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Rituparna Borah v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\|Harish Iyer v. Union of India}}. Similarly, the notice and objection provisions in secular marriage laws— [Special Marriage Act](/wiki/Special_Marriage_Act%2C_1954 "Special Marriage Act, 1954") and [Foreign Marriage Act](/wiki/Foreign_Marriage_Act%2C_1969 "Foreign Marriage Act, 1969")— constituted a violation. Hence, following [Article 32](/wiki/Fundamental_rights_in_India%23Right_to_Constitutional_Remedies "Fundamental rights in India#Right to Constitutional Remedies") of the [Indian Constitution](/wiki/Constitution_of_India "Constitution of India"), which guarantees the [Right to Constitutional Remedies](/wiki/Fundamental_rights_in_India%23Right_to_Constitutional_Remedies "Fundamental rights in India#Right to Constitutional Remedies") and designates the Supreme Court as the protector of [Fundamental Rights](/wiki/Fundamental_rights_in_India "Fundamental rights in India"), the petitioners argued that they are within their rights to approach the Supreme Court.Petitioners: {{Harvnb\|Supriyo v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Parth Phiroze Mehrotra v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Sameer Samudra v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Aditi Anand v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Utkarsh Saxena v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Nitin Karan v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Kajal v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Amburi Roy v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Akkai Padmashali v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Rituparna Borah v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\|Harish Iyer v. Union of India}}
##### Jurisdiction
In assessing whether a law infringes a fundamental right, the Supreme Court held that it is not the intention of the lawmaker that is determinative, but whether the effect or operation of the law infringes fundamental rights in the ruling of [*Maneka Gandhi v. UOI (1978\)*](/wiki/Maneka_Gandhi_v._Union_of_India "Maneka Gandhi v. Union of India"). Since the marriage laws infringe on the fundamental rights of sexual and gender minority individuals, petitioners argued that the Supreme Court could act as the designated protector of fundamental rights.Petitioners: {{Harvnb\|Dr Kavita Arora v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Supriyo v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Aditi Anand v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\|Utkarsh Saxena v. Union of India}}.
The Supreme Court has regularly interpreted statutes in a manner which preserves their constitutionality, for example, in *Travancore v. Mohammed Mohammed Khan (1981\)*, *Githa Hariharan v. Reserve Bank of India (1999\)* and *Indra Das v. State of Assam (2011\).*Petitioners: {{Harvnb\|Vaibhav Jai v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Dr Kavita Arora v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Supriyo v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\|Aditi Anand v. Union of India}}. Furthermore, the Supreme Court has held that when the enforcement of fundamental rights is concerned, the [Supreme](/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_India "Supreme Court of India") and [High Courts](/wiki/High_courts_of_India "High courts of India") do not have to await action by the legislature in *[Vishaka v. State of Rajasthan (1997\)](/wiki/Vishakha_and_others_v_State_of_Rajasthan "Vishakha and others v State of Rajasthan")*, *Vineet Narain v. UOI (1997\)*, *[Shayara Bano v. UOI (2017\)](/wiki/Triple_talaq_in_India%23Judgement "Triple talaq in India#Judgement")*, *Common Cause v. UOI (2018\)* and [*Navtej Singh Johar v. UOI (2018\)*](/wiki/Navtej_Singh_Johar_v._Union_of_India "Navtej Singh Johar v. Union of India").Petitioners: {{Harvnb\|Joydeep Sengupta v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Parth Phiroze Mehrotra v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\|Rituparna Borah v. Union of India}}.
##### Constitutional morality
The law, reflecting societal values, regulates relationships between people and prescribes behaviour patterns. As the social realities changes, the law changes. However, sometimes a legal change precedes societal changes and is even intended to stimulate. The Supreme Court, noting these dynamics when ruling in *Badshah v. Urmila Badshah Godse (2014\)*, held that the court should exercise discretion in determining the proper relationship between the subjective and objective purposes of the law.Petitioners: {{Harvnb\|Vaibhav Jai v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Dr Kavita Arora v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Zainab J. Patel v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Supriyo v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\|Aditi Anand v. Union of India}}.
The Supreme Court held that while the State can impose reasonable restrictions based on decency and morality, the limitations should be rational and tolerant of unpopular social views in *S. Khushboo v. Kanniammal (2010\) and [Navtej Singh Johar v. UOI (2018\)](/wiki/Navtej_Singh_Johar_v._Union_of_India "Navtej Singh Johar v. Union of India")*.Petitioners: {{Harvnb\|Joydeep Sengupta v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\|Parth Phiroze Mehrotra v. Union of India}}. The Supreme Court stated the purpose of elevating certain rights to the stature of fundamental rights as to insulate their exercise from the disdain of majorities, whether legislative or popular, in [*Puttaswamy v. UOI (2017\)*](/wiki/Right_to_Privacy_verdict "Right to Privacy verdict").Petitioners: {{Harvnb\|Udit Sood v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Parth Phiroze Mehrotra v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Aditi Anand v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\|Rituparna Borah v. Union of India}}. The petitioners highlighted the instances where the [Indian Courts](/wiki/Judiciary_of_India "Judiciary of India") protected fundamental rights by defying social and religious norms.— *Mary Roy v. State of Kerala (1986\)*, *Githa Hariharan v. Reserve Bank of India (1999\)*, *[Shayara Bano v. UOI (2017\)](/wiki/Triple_talaq_in_India%23Judgement "Triple talaq in India#Judgement"), Joseph Shine v. UOI (2018\)* and [*Arun Kumar v. Inspector General of Registration (2019\)*](/wiki/Arun_Kumar_v._Inspector_General_of_Registration "Arun Kumar v. Inspector General of Registration").Petitioners: {{Harvnb\|Nikesh P.P. v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Vaibhav Jai v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Dr Kavita Arora v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Udit Sood v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Supriyo v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Parth Phiroze Mehrotra v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Kajal v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\|Rituparna Borah v. Union of India}}.
##### Right to equality
[Article 14](/wiki/Article_14_of_the_Constitution_of_India "Article 14 of the Constitution of India") of the [Indian Constitution](/wiki/Constitution_of_India "Constitution of India") guarantees the right to equality. The Supreme Court declared that any law that fails to protect the [self\-determination](/wiki/Self-determination "Self-determination") of [sexual orientation](/wiki/Sexual_orientation "Sexual orientation") and [gender identity](/wiki/Gender_identity "Gender identity") of an individual is irrational, manifestly arbitrary, and a violation of [Article 14](/wiki/Article_14_of_the_Constitution_of_India "Article 14 of the Constitution of India"). The Supreme Court has recognised the [principle of substantive equality](/wiki/Substantive_equality "Substantive equality") in *Lt. Col. Nitisha v. UOI (2021\).* The Supreme Court held that atypical families, such as domestic, unmarried partnerships or relationships between sexual and gender minority individuals, deserve equal protection under the law guaranteed in [Article 14](/wiki/Article_14_of_the_Constitution_of_India "Article 14 of the Constitution of India") in *[Deepika Singh v. Central Administrative Tribunal (2022\)](/wiki/Deepika_Singh_v._Central_Administrative_Tribunal "Deepika Singh v. Central Administrative Tribunal")*.Petitioners: {{Harvnb\|Sameer Samudra v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Aditi Anand v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\|Amburi Roy v. Union of India}}.
##### Anti\-discrimination
[Article 15](/wiki/Article_15_of_the_Constitution_of_India "Article 15 of the Constitution of India") of the [Indian Constitution](/wiki/Constitution_of_India "Constitution of India") guarantees protection from discrimination. The Supreme Court extended the protection to include [sexual orientation](/wiki/Sexual_orientation "Sexual orientation") and [gender identity](/wiki/Gender_identity "Gender identity"). The Supreme Court has recognised the [principle of substantive equality](/wiki/Substantive_equality "Substantive equality") in *Lt. Col. Nitisha v. UOI (2021\).* Considering the cultural stereotypes based on [sex](/wiki/Sex "Sex") and [gender](/wiki/Gender "Gender") and their role in discriminatory legislation, the Supreme Court held that judicial scrutiny to weave out discrimination must be strict in *Anuj Garg v. Hotel Association of India (2007\)*.{{Harvnb\|Nikesh P.P. v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Joydeep Sengupta v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\|Rituparna Borah v. Union of India}}. The Supreme Court held that [Article 15](/wiki/Article_15_of_the_Constitution_of_India "Article 15 of the Constitution of India") places positive and negative obligations on the State in [*Navtej Singh Johar v. UOI (2018\)*](/wiki/Navtej_Singh_Johar_v._Union_of_India "Navtej Singh Johar v. Union of India"), where positive obligations call for the state to recognise rights which bring true fulfilment to same\-sex relationships.Petitioners: {{Harvnb\|Dr Kavita Arora v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\|Aditi Anand v. Union of India}}.
##### Freedom of expression
[Article 19](/wiki/Fundamental_rights_in_India%23Right_To_Freedom "Fundamental rights in India#Right To Freedom") of the [Indian Constitution](/wiki/Constitution_of_India "Constitution of India") guarantees the right to freedom of speech and expression. The Supreme Court held that [Article 19](/wiki/Fundamental_rights_in_India%23Right_To_Freedom "Fundamental rights in India#Right To Freedom") includes full expression of [sexual orientation](/wiki/Sexual_orientation "Sexual orientation") and [gender identity](/wiki/Gender_identity "Gender identity"). The Supreme Court held that the choice of marital partner is an exercise of freedom of expression enshrined in [Article 19](/wiki/Fundamental_rights_in_India%23Right_To_Freedom "Fundamental rights in India#Right To Freedom") in *Vikas Yadav v. State of Uttar Pradesh (2016\)*, *Asha Ranjan v. State of Bihar (2017\)*, *Shakti Vahini v. UOI (2018\)* and [*Shafin Jahan v Ashokan K.M. (2018\)*](/wiki/Hadiya_case "Hadiya case")*.*
##### Right to life and personal liberty
[Article 21](/wiki/Fundamental_rights_in_India%23Right_to_life "Fundamental rights in India#Right to life") of the [Indian Constitution](/wiki/Constitution_of_India "Constitution of India") guarantees the right to life and personal liberty, which includes dignity, privacy, and personal autonomy. The Supreme Court recognised the rights guaranteed by [Article 21](/wiki/Fundamental_rights_in_India%23Right_to_life "Fundamental rights in India#Right to life") for sexual and gender minority individuals. The Supreme Court held that [Article 21](/wiki/Fundamental_rights_in_India%23Right_to_life "Fundamental rights in India#Right to life") recognises the right to choose a marital partner in the ruling of *Shakti Vahini v. UOI (2018\), Lata Singh v. State of Uttar Pradesh (2006\), [Puttaswamy v. UOI (2017\)](/wiki/Right_to_Privacy_verdict "Right to Privacy verdict")*, *[Shafin Jahan v Ashokan K.M. (2018\)](/wiki/Hadiya_case "Hadiya case"),* and *Laxmibai Chandaragi B. v. State of Karnataka (2021\).*
##### Freedom of conscience and religion
[Article 25](/wiki/Freedom_of_religion_in_India "Freedom of religion in India") of the [Indian Constitution](/wiki/Constitution_of_India "Constitution of India") guarantees freedom of conscience and religion. Since the Supreme Court ruled that the freedom of conscience of an individual is more than religious beliefs in [*Puttaswamy v. UOI (2017\)*](/wiki/Right_to_Privacy_verdict "Right to Privacy verdict"), the petitioners argued that the freedom to choose a marital partner is an integral component of freedom of conscience.Petitioners: {{Harvnb\|Vaibhav Jai v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Dr Kavita Arora v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Zainab J. Patel v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Supriyo v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Aditi Anand v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\|Kajal v. Union of India}}.
* Since the Supreme Court ruled that in addition to freedom of religion, [Article 25](/wiki/Freedom_of_religion_in_India "Freedom of religion in India") guarantees freedom from religion in [*Indian Young Lawyers Association v. State of Kerala (2019\)*](/wiki/Entry_of_women_to_Sabarimala "Entry of women to Sabarimala"), the petitioners claiming recognition under the secular marriage laws argued the state should not endorse the conception of marriage that is exclusively heterosexual, as it is rooted in the norms of religion.Petitioners: {{Harvnb\|Utkarsh Saxena v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\|Harish Iyer v. Union of India}}.
* Since [Hinduism](/wiki/Hinduism_and_LGBT_topics "Hinduism and LGBT topics") does not prohibit marriage between sexual and gender minority individuals, the petitioners claiming recognition under [personal laws](/wiki/Law_of_India%23Family_law_%E2%80%93_personal_law "Law of India#Family law – personal law") argued exclusion of couples from sexual and gender minority communities from the [Hindu Marriage Act](/wiki/Hindu_Marriage_Act%2C_1955 "Hindu Marriage Act, 1955") violates the petitioners' right to practice religion freely.Petitioners: {{Harvnb\|Abhijit Iyer Mitra v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\|Nibedita Dutta v. Union of India}}. The [Madras High Court](/wiki/Madras_High_Court "Madras High Court") held that refusal to register the marriage between a [Hindu](/wiki/Hindus "Hindus") [cisgender man](/wiki/Man "Man") and a [Hindu](/wiki/Hindus "Hindus") [transgender woman](/wiki/Trans_woman "Trans woman") under [Hindu Marriage Act](/wiki/Hindu_Marriage_Act%2C_1955 "Hindu Marriage Act, 1955") violates [Article 25](/wiki/Freedom_of_religion_in_India "Freedom of religion in India") in [*Arun Kumar v. Inspector General of Registration (2019\)*](/wiki/Arun_Kumar_v._Inspector_General_of_Registration "Arun Kumar v. Inspector General of Registration").
##### Right to marry
Since the Supreme Court established the fundamental rights of sexual and gender minority individuals in [*NLSA v. UOI (2014\)*](/wiki/National_Legal_Services_Authority_v._Union_of_India "National Legal Services Authority v. Union of India"), [*Puttaswamy v. UOI (2017\)*](/wiki/Right_to_Privacy_verdict "Right to Privacy verdict") and [*Navtej Singh Johar v. UOI (2018\)*](/wiki/Navtej_Singh_Johar_v._Union_of_India "Navtej Singh Johar v. Union of India"), the petitioners argued for extending the right to marry and establish a family to sexual and gender minority individuals based on Articles [14](/wiki/Article_14_of_the_Constitution_of_India "Article 14 of the Constitution of India"), [15](/wiki/Article_15_of_the_Constitution_of_India "Article 15 of the Constitution of India"), [19](/wiki/Fundamental_rights_in_India%23Right_To_Freedom "Fundamental rights in India#Right To Freedom"), [21](/wiki/Fundamental_rights_in_India%23Right_To_Freedom "Fundamental rights in India#Right To Freedom") and [25](/wiki/Freedom_of_religion_in_India "Freedom of religion in India") of the [Indian Constitution](/wiki/Constitution_of_India "Constitution of India").
[High Courts](/wiki/High_courts_of_India "High courts of India") have considered the constitutionality of Indian marriage laws. The [Madras High Court](/wiki/Madras_High_Court "Madras High Court") held that refusal to register the marriage between a [Hindu](/wiki/Hindus "Hindus") [cisgender man](/wiki/Man "Man") and a [Hindu](/wiki/Hindus "Hindus") [transgender woman](/wiki/Trans_woman "Trans woman") under [Hindu Marriage Act](/wiki/Hindu_Marriage_Act%2C_1955 "Hindu Marriage Act, 1955") violates [fundamental rights](/wiki/Fundamental_rights_in_India "Fundamental rights in India") guaranteed under Articles [14](/wiki/Article_14_of_the_Constitution_of_India "Article 14 of the Constitution of India"), [15](/wiki/Article_15_of_the_Constitution_of_India "Article 15 of the Constitution of India"), [19](/wiki/Fundamental_rights_in_India%23Right_To_Freedom "Fundamental rights in India#Right To Freedom"), [21](/wiki/Fundamental_rights_in_India%23Right_To_Freedom "Fundamental rights in India#Right To Freedom") and [25](/wiki/Freedom_of_religion_in_India "Freedom of religion in India") of the [Indian Constitution](/wiki/Constitution_of_India "Constitution of India") in [*Arun Kumar v. Inspector General of Registration (2019\)*](/wiki/Arun_Kumar_v._Inspector_General_of_Registration "Arun Kumar v. Inspector General of Registration").Petitioners: {{Harvnb\|Nikesh P.P. v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Vaibhav Jai v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Udit Sood v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Nibedita Dutta v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Parth Phiroze Mehrotra v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\|Kajal v. Union of India}}.
The petitioners requested that the Supreme Court declare that the gender change of a spouse would not automatically void solemnised marriage. As an extension of recognising the right to marry and establishing a family, the petitioners argued for the entitlement of a foreign\-origin sexual or gender minority spouse of an [Indian Citizen](/wiki/Indian_citizen "Indian citizen") or [Overseas Citizen of India](/wiki/Overseas_Citizenship_of_India "Overseas Citizenship of India") to apply for registration as an [Overseas Citizen of India](/wiki/Overseas_Citizenship_of_India "Overseas Citizenship of India").
|
[
"#### Fundamental rights",
"Among the relevant precedents, issues and laws presented, the petitioners argued that the exclusion of couples from sexual and gender minority communities from marriage laws constituted a violation of fundamental right.{{Harvnb\\|Supriyo v. Union of India}} and other connected cases. Other connected cases include {{Harvnb\\|Nikesh P.P. v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Abhijit Iyer Mitra v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Vaibhav Jai v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Dr Kavita Arora v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Udit Sood v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Joydeep Sengupta v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Mellissa Ferrier v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Nibedita Dutta v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Zainab J. Patel v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Parth Phiroze Mehrotra v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Sameer Samudra v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Aditi Anand v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Utkarsh Saxena v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Nitin Karan v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Kajal v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Amburi Roy v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Akkai Padmashali v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Rituparna Borah v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\\|Harish Iyer v. Union of India}}. Similarly, the notice and objection provisions in secular marriage laws— [Special Marriage Act](/wiki/Special_Marriage_Act%2C_1954 \"Special Marriage Act, 1954\") and [Foreign Marriage Act](/wiki/Foreign_Marriage_Act%2C_1969 \"Foreign Marriage Act, 1969\")— constituted a violation. Hence, following [Article 32](/wiki/Fundamental_rights_in_India%23Right_to_Constitutional_Remedies \"Fundamental rights in India#Right to Constitutional Remedies\") of the [Indian Constitution](/wiki/Constitution_of_India \"Constitution of India\"), which guarantees the [Right to Constitutional Remedies](/wiki/Fundamental_rights_in_India%23Right_to_Constitutional_Remedies \"Fundamental rights in India#Right to Constitutional Remedies\") and designates the Supreme Court as the protector of [Fundamental Rights](/wiki/Fundamental_rights_in_India \"Fundamental rights in India\"), the petitioners argued that they are within their rights to approach the Supreme Court.Petitioners: {{Harvnb\\|Supriyo v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Parth Phiroze Mehrotra v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Sameer Samudra v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Aditi Anand v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Utkarsh Saxena v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Nitin Karan v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Kajal v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Amburi Roy v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Akkai Padmashali v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Rituparna Borah v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\\|Harish Iyer v. Union of India}}",
"##### Jurisdiction",
"In assessing whether a law infringes a fundamental right, the Supreme Court held that it is not the intention of the lawmaker that is determinative, but whether the effect or operation of the law infringes fundamental rights in the ruling of [*Maneka Gandhi v. UOI (1978\\)*](/wiki/Maneka_Gandhi_v._Union_of_India \"Maneka Gandhi v. Union of India\"). Since the marriage laws infringe on the fundamental rights of sexual and gender minority individuals, petitioners argued that the Supreme Court could act as the designated protector of fundamental rights.Petitioners: {{Harvnb\\|Dr Kavita Arora v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Supriyo v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Aditi Anand v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\\|Utkarsh Saxena v. Union of India}}.",
"The Supreme Court has regularly interpreted statutes in a manner which preserves their constitutionality, for example, in *Travancore v. Mohammed Mohammed Khan (1981\\)*, *Githa Hariharan v. Reserve Bank of India (1999\\)* and *Indra Das v. State of Assam (2011\\).*Petitioners: {{Harvnb\\|Vaibhav Jai v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Dr Kavita Arora v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Supriyo v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\\|Aditi Anand v. Union of India}}. Furthermore, the Supreme Court has held that when the enforcement of fundamental rights is concerned, the [Supreme](/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_India \"Supreme Court of India\") and [High Courts](/wiki/High_courts_of_India \"High courts of India\") do not have to await action by the legislature in *[Vishaka v. State of Rajasthan (1997\\)](/wiki/Vishakha_and_others_v_State_of_Rajasthan \"Vishakha and others v State of Rajasthan\")*, *Vineet Narain v. UOI (1997\\)*, *[Shayara Bano v. UOI (2017\\)](/wiki/Triple_talaq_in_India%23Judgement \"Triple talaq in India#Judgement\")*, *Common Cause v. UOI (2018\\)* and [*Navtej Singh Johar v. UOI (2018\\)*](/wiki/Navtej_Singh_Johar_v._Union_of_India \"Navtej Singh Johar v. Union of India\").Petitioners: {{Harvnb\\|Joydeep Sengupta v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Parth Phiroze Mehrotra v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\\|Rituparna Borah v. Union of India}}.",
"##### Constitutional morality",
"The law, reflecting societal values, regulates relationships between people and prescribes behaviour patterns. As the social realities changes, the law changes. However, sometimes a legal change precedes societal changes and is even intended to stimulate. The Supreme Court, noting these dynamics when ruling in *Badshah v. Urmila Badshah Godse (2014\\)*, held that the court should exercise discretion in determining the proper relationship between the subjective and objective purposes of the law.Petitioners: {{Harvnb\\|Vaibhav Jai v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Dr Kavita Arora v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Zainab J. Patel v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Supriyo v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\\|Aditi Anand v. Union of India}}.",
"The Supreme Court held that while the State can impose reasonable restrictions based on decency and morality, the limitations should be rational and tolerant of unpopular social views in *S. Khushboo v. Kanniammal (2010\\) and [Navtej Singh Johar v. UOI (2018\\)](/wiki/Navtej_Singh_Johar_v._Union_of_India \"Navtej Singh Johar v. Union of India\")*.Petitioners: {{Harvnb\\|Joydeep Sengupta v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\\|Parth Phiroze Mehrotra v. Union of India}}. The Supreme Court stated the purpose of elevating certain rights to the stature of fundamental rights as to insulate their exercise from the disdain of majorities, whether legislative or popular, in [*Puttaswamy v. UOI (2017\\)*](/wiki/Right_to_Privacy_verdict \"Right to Privacy verdict\").Petitioners: {{Harvnb\\|Udit Sood v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Parth Phiroze Mehrotra v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Aditi Anand v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\\|Rituparna Borah v. Union of India}}. The petitioners highlighted the instances where the [Indian Courts](/wiki/Judiciary_of_India \"Judiciary of India\") protected fundamental rights by defying social and religious norms.— *Mary Roy v. State of Kerala (1986\\)*, *Githa Hariharan v. Reserve Bank of India (1999\\)*, *[Shayara Bano v. UOI (2017\\)](/wiki/Triple_talaq_in_India%23Judgement \"Triple talaq in India#Judgement\"), Joseph Shine v. UOI (2018\\)* and [*Arun Kumar v. Inspector General of Registration (2019\\)*](/wiki/Arun_Kumar_v._Inspector_General_of_Registration \"Arun Kumar v. Inspector General of Registration\").Petitioners: {{Harvnb\\|Nikesh P.P. v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Vaibhav Jai v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Dr Kavita Arora v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Udit Sood v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Supriyo v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Parth Phiroze Mehrotra v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Kajal v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\\|Rituparna Borah v. Union of India}}.",
"##### Right to equality",
"[Article 14](/wiki/Article_14_of_the_Constitution_of_India \"Article 14 of the Constitution of India\") of the [Indian Constitution](/wiki/Constitution_of_India \"Constitution of India\") guarantees the right to equality. The Supreme Court declared that any law that fails to protect the [self\\-determination](/wiki/Self-determination \"Self-determination\") of [sexual orientation](/wiki/Sexual_orientation \"Sexual orientation\") and [gender identity](/wiki/Gender_identity \"Gender identity\") of an individual is irrational, manifestly arbitrary, and a violation of [Article 14](/wiki/Article_14_of_the_Constitution_of_India \"Article 14 of the Constitution of India\"). The Supreme Court has recognised the [principle of substantive equality](/wiki/Substantive_equality \"Substantive equality\") in *Lt. Col. Nitisha v. UOI (2021\\).* The Supreme Court held that atypical families, such as domestic, unmarried partnerships or relationships between sexual and gender minority individuals, deserve equal protection under the law guaranteed in [Article 14](/wiki/Article_14_of_the_Constitution_of_India \"Article 14 of the Constitution of India\") in *[Deepika Singh v. Central Administrative Tribunal (2022\\)](/wiki/Deepika_Singh_v._Central_Administrative_Tribunal \"Deepika Singh v. Central Administrative Tribunal\")*.Petitioners: {{Harvnb\\|Sameer Samudra v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Aditi Anand v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\\|Amburi Roy v. Union of India}}.",
"##### Anti\\-discrimination",
"[Article 15](/wiki/Article_15_of_the_Constitution_of_India \"Article 15 of the Constitution of India\") of the [Indian Constitution](/wiki/Constitution_of_India \"Constitution of India\") guarantees protection from discrimination. The Supreme Court extended the protection to include [sexual orientation](/wiki/Sexual_orientation \"Sexual orientation\") and [gender identity](/wiki/Gender_identity \"Gender identity\"). The Supreme Court has recognised the [principle of substantive equality](/wiki/Substantive_equality \"Substantive equality\") in *Lt. Col. Nitisha v. UOI (2021\\).* Considering the cultural stereotypes based on [sex](/wiki/Sex \"Sex\") and [gender](/wiki/Gender \"Gender\") and their role in discriminatory legislation, the Supreme Court held that judicial scrutiny to weave out discrimination must be strict in *Anuj Garg v. Hotel Association of India (2007\\)*.{{Harvnb\\|Nikesh P.P. v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Joydeep Sengupta v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\\|Rituparna Borah v. Union of India}}. The Supreme Court held that [Article 15](/wiki/Article_15_of_the_Constitution_of_India \"Article 15 of the Constitution of India\") places positive and negative obligations on the State in [*Navtej Singh Johar v. UOI (2018\\)*](/wiki/Navtej_Singh_Johar_v._Union_of_India \"Navtej Singh Johar v. Union of India\"), where positive obligations call for the state to recognise rights which bring true fulfilment to same\\-sex relationships.Petitioners: {{Harvnb\\|Dr Kavita Arora v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\\|Aditi Anand v. Union of India}}.",
"##### Freedom of expression",
"[Article 19](/wiki/Fundamental_rights_in_India%23Right_To_Freedom \"Fundamental rights in India#Right To Freedom\") of the [Indian Constitution](/wiki/Constitution_of_India \"Constitution of India\") guarantees the right to freedom of speech and expression. The Supreme Court held that [Article 19](/wiki/Fundamental_rights_in_India%23Right_To_Freedom \"Fundamental rights in India#Right To Freedom\") includes full expression of [sexual orientation](/wiki/Sexual_orientation \"Sexual orientation\") and [gender identity](/wiki/Gender_identity \"Gender identity\"). The Supreme Court held that the choice of marital partner is an exercise of freedom of expression enshrined in [Article 19](/wiki/Fundamental_rights_in_India%23Right_To_Freedom \"Fundamental rights in India#Right To Freedom\") in *Vikas Yadav v. State of Uttar Pradesh (2016\\)*, *Asha Ranjan v. State of Bihar (2017\\)*, *Shakti Vahini v. UOI (2018\\)* and [*Shafin Jahan v Ashokan K.M. (2018\\)*](/wiki/Hadiya_case \"Hadiya case\")*.*",
"##### Right to life and personal liberty",
"[Article 21](/wiki/Fundamental_rights_in_India%23Right_to_life \"Fundamental rights in India#Right to life\") of the [Indian Constitution](/wiki/Constitution_of_India \"Constitution of India\") guarantees the right to life and personal liberty, which includes dignity, privacy, and personal autonomy. The Supreme Court recognised the rights guaranteed by [Article 21](/wiki/Fundamental_rights_in_India%23Right_to_life \"Fundamental rights in India#Right to life\") for sexual and gender minority individuals. The Supreme Court held that [Article 21](/wiki/Fundamental_rights_in_India%23Right_to_life \"Fundamental rights in India#Right to life\") recognises the right to choose a marital partner in the ruling of *Shakti Vahini v. UOI (2018\\), Lata Singh v. State of Uttar Pradesh (2006\\), [Puttaswamy v. UOI (2017\\)](/wiki/Right_to_Privacy_verdict \"Right to Privacy verdict\")*, *[Shafin Jahan v Ashokan K.M. (2018\\)](/wiki/Hadiya_case \"Hadiya case\"),* and *Laxmibai Chandaragi B. v. State of Karnataka (2021\\).*",
"##### Freedom of conscience and religion",
"[Article 25](/wiki/Freedom_of_religion_in_India \"Freedom of religion in India\") of the [Indian Constitution](/wiki/Constitution_of_India \"Constitution of India\") guarantees freedom of conscience and religion. Since the Supreme Court ruled that the freedom of conscience of an individual is more than religious beliefs in [*Puttaswamy v. UOI (2017\\)*](/wiki/Right_to_Privacy_verdict \"Right to Privacy verdict\"), the petitioners argued that the freedom to choose a marital partner is an integral component of freedom of conscience.Petitioners: {{Harvnb\\|Vaibhav Jai v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Dr Kavita Arora v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Zainab J. Patel v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Supriyo v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Aditi Anand v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\\|Kajal v. Union of India}}.\n* Since the Supreme Court ruled that in addition to freedom of religion, [Article 25](/wiki/Freedom_of_religion_in_India \"Freedom of religion in India\") guarantees freedom from religion in [*Indian Young Lawyers Association v. State of Kerala (2019\\)*](/wiki/Entry_of_women_to_Sabarimala \"Entry of women to Sabarimala\"), the petitioners claiming recognition under the secular marriage laws argued the state should not endorse the conception of marriage that is exclusively heterosexual, as it is rooted in the norms of religion.Petitioners: {{Harvnb\\|Utkarsh Saxena v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\\|Harish Iyer v. Union of India}}.\n* Since [Hinduism](/wiki/Hinduism_and_LGBT_topics \"Hinduism and LGBT topics\") does not prohibit marriage between sexual and gender minority individuals, the petitioners claiming recognition under [personal laws](/wiki/Law_of_India%23Family_law_%E2%80%93_personal_law \"Law of India#Family law – personal law\") argued exclusion of couples from sexual and gender minority communities from the [Hindu Marriage Act](/wiki/Hindu_Marriage_Act%2C_1955 \"Hindu Marriage Act, 1955\") violates the petitioners' right to practice religion freely.Petitioners: {{Harvnb\\|Abhijit Iyer Mitra v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\\|Nibedita Dutta v. Union of India}}. The [Madras High Court](/wiki/Madras_High_Court \"Madras High Court\") held that refusal to register the marriage between a [Hindu](/wiki/Hindus \"Hindus\") [cisgender man](/wiki/Man \"Man\") and a [Hindu](/wiki/Hindus \"Hindus\") [transgender woman](/wiki/Trans_woman \"Trans woman\") under [Hindu Marriage Act](/wiki/Hindu_Marriage_Act%2C_1955 \"Hindu Marriage Act, 1955\") violates [Article 25](/wiki/Freedom_of_religion_in_India \"Freedom of religion in India\") in [*Arun Kumar v. Inspector General of Registration (2019\\)*](/wiki/Arun_Kumar_v._Inspector_General_of_Registration \"Arun Kumar v. Inspector General of Registration\").",
"##### Right to marry",
"Since the Supreme Court established the fundamental rights of sexual and gender minority individuals in [*NLSA v. UOI (2014\\)*](/wiki/National_Legal_Services_Authority_v._Union_of_India \"National Legal Services Authority v. Union of India\"), [*Puttaswamy v. UOI (2017\\)*](/wiki/Right_to_Privacy_verdict \"Right to Privacy verdict\") and [*Navtej Singh Johar v. UOI (2018\\)*](/wiki/Navtej_Singh_Johar_v._Union_of_India \"Navtej Singh Johar v. Union of India\"), the petitioners argued for extending the right to marry and establish a family to sexual and gender minority individuals based on Articles [14](/wiki/Article_14_of_the_Constitution_of_India \"Article 14 of the Constitution of India\"), [15](/wiki/Article_15_of_the_Constitution_of_India \"Article 15 of the Constitution of India\"), [19](/wiki/Fundamental_rights_in_India%23Right_To_Freedom \"Fundamental rights in India#Right To Freedom\"), [21](/wiki/Fundamental_rights_in_India%23Right_To_Freedom \"Fundamental rights in India#Right To Freedom\") and [25](/wiki/Freedom_of_religion_in_India \"Freedom of religion in India\") of the [Indian Constitution](/wiki/Constitution_of_India \"Constitution of India\").",
"[High Courts](/wiki/High_courts_of_India \"High courts of India\") have considered the constitutionality of Indian marriage laws. The [Madras High Court](/wiki/Madras_High_Court \"Madras High Court\") held that refusal to register the marriage between a [Hindu](/wiki/Hindus \"Hindus\") [cisgender man](/wiki/Man \"Man\") and a [Hindu](/wiki/Hindus \"Hindus\") [transgender woman](/wiki/Trans_woman \"Trans woman\") under [Hindu Marriage Act](/wiki/Hindu_Marriage_Act%2C_1955 \"Hindu Marriage Act, 1955\") violates [fundamental rights](/wiki/Fundamental_rights_in_India \"Fundamental rights in India\") guaranteed under Articles [14](/wiki/Article_14_of_the_Constitution_of_India \"Article 14 of the Constitution of India\"), [15](/wiki/Article_15_of_the_Constitution_of_India \"Article 15 of the Constitution of India\"), [19](/wiki/Fundamental_rights_in_India%23Right_To_Freedom \"Fundamental rights in India#Right To Freedom\"), [21](/wiki/Fundamental_rights_in_India%23Right_To_Freedom \"Fundamental rights in India#Right To Freedom\") and [25](/wiki/Freedom_of_religion_in_India \"Freedom of religion in India\") of the [Indian Constitution](/wiki/Constitution_of_India \"Constitution of India\") in [*Arun Kumar v. Inspector General of Registration (2019\\)*](/wiki/Arun_Kumar_v._Inspector_General_of_Registration \"Arun Kumar v. Inspector General of Registration\").Petitioners: {{Harvnb\\|Nikesh P.P. v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Vaibhav Jai v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Udit Sood v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Nibedita Dutta v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Parth Phiroze Mehrotra v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\\|Kajal v. Union of India}}.",
"The petitioners requested that the Supreme Court declare that the gender change of a spouse would not automatically void solemnised marriage. As an extension of recognising the right to marry and establishing a family, the petitioners argued for the entitlement of a foreign\\-origin sexual or gender minority spouse of an [Indian Citizen](/wiki/Indian_citizen \"Indian citizen\") or [Overseas Citizen of India](/wiki/Overseas_Citizenship_of_India \"Overseas Citizenship of India\") to apply for registration as an [Overseas Citizen of India](/wiki/Overseas_Citizenship_of_India \"Overseas Citizenship of India\").",
""
] |
#### Legislative policy
The petitioners highlighted various entitlements, privileges, obligations and benefits limited to marital, blood or adoptive relationships. These legal provisions exclude legally unrecognised spouses and families of sexual and gender minority individuals.
##### Healthcare
When a patient cannot communicate their wishes due to being in a persistent vegetative state, having a form of dementia or similar illness, or being under anaesthesia, legally unrecognised spouses and families of sexual and gender minority individuals are not allowed to make healthcare decisions for them.Petitioners: {{Harvnb\|Dr Kavita Arora v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Parth Phiroze Mehrotra v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Aditi Anand v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\|Rituparna Borah v. Union of India}}.
Legally unrecognised spouses and families of sexual and gender minority individuals face discrimination in [organ donation](/wiki/Organ_donation "Organ donation") in the case of both living or deceased partners.Petitioners: {{Harvnb\|Dr Kavita Arora v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Udit Sood v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Nibedita Dutta v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Supriyo v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Parth Phiroze Mehrotra v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\|Aditi Anand v. Union of India}}. Under the [Transplantation of Human Organs and Tissues Act of 1994](/wiki/Transplantation_of_Human_Organs_and_Tissues_Act%2C_1994 "Transplantation of Human Organs and Tissues Act, 1994"), the declaration to donate organs requires the presence of at least one marital, blood or adoptive relative. As a result, unrecognised spouses and families cannot make these vital decisions about sexual and gender minority family members. Sexual and gender minority partners need prior approval of the Authorisation Committee under the [Transplantation of Human Organs and Tissues Act](/wiki/Transplantation_of_Human_Organs_and_Tissues_Act%2C_1994 "Transplantation of Human Organs and Tissues Act, 1994"). The Committee evaluates the proof of affection or attachment to the intended recipient of the organ before permitting organ donation, which legally married couples need not provide.{{Cite act\|index\=42\|date\=1994\|legislature\=\[\[Parliament of India]]\|title\=The Transplantation of Human Organs and Tissues Act\|url\=https://www.indiacode.nic.in/handle/123456789/1962}} {{Cite web \|url\=https://www.indiacode.nic.in/handle/123456789/1962 \|title\=Archived copy \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-12 \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-12 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230312173357/https://www.indiacode.nic.in/handle/123456789/1962 \|url\-status\=bot: unknown }}
##### Finance
Sexual and gender minority family members lack the rights around succession, [maintenance](/wiki/Alimony "Alimony"), joint ownership of assets, taxation and benefits. As private entitlements exclude sexual and gender minority family members, sexual and gender minority individuals face more barriers and higher scrutiny in privately offered life insurance nominations, owning [joint bank accounts](/wiki/Joint_account "Joint account") and lockers, and mutual funds and savings plans.Petitioners: {{Harvnb\|Vaibhav Jai v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Dr Kavita Arora v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Udit Sood v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Nibedita Dutta v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Supriyo v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Parth Phiroze Mehrotra v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\|Aditi Anand v. Union of India}}.
According to the [Income Tax Act of 1961](/wiki/The_Income-tax_Act%2C_1961 "The Income-tax Act, 1961"), the payments made on behalf of a spouse are included in the deduction when computing the total income. These deductions include the payments made towards life insurance, a deferred annuity of the life of a spouse, the spouse's provident fund set up by the Central Government and the spouse for participation in the Unit\-linked Insurance Plan.{{Cite act\|index\=43\|date\=1961\|article\=80C\|article\-type\=Section\|legislature\=\[\[Parliament of India]]\|title\=The Income\-tax Act\|url\=https://www.indiacode.nic.in/handle/123456789/2435}} {{Cite web \|url\=https://www.indiacode.nic.in/handle/123456789/2435 \|title\=Archived copy \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-12 \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-12 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230312071723/https://www.indiacode.nic.in/handle/123456789/2435 \|url\-status\=bot: unknown }} Sexual and gender minority family members cannot claim such deductions.Petitioners: {{Harvnb\|Vaibhav Jai v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Dr Kavita Arora v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Udit Sood v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Nibedita Dutta v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Zainab J. Patel v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Supriyo v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Parth Phiroze Mehrotra v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\|Aditi Anand v. Union of India}}.
According to the Supreme Court ruling on *Rajesh v. Rajbir Singh*, the spousal consortium considered in the claims, including the claims for injury and death in the [Motor Vehicle Act of 1988](/wiki/Motor_Vehicles_Act%2C_1988 "Motor Vehicles Act, 1988") cases, is only available to married couples.{{Cite act\|index\=59\|date\=1988\|article\=158, 166 {{abbr\|\&\|and}} 168\|article\-type\=Section\|legislature\=\[\[Parliament of India]]\|title\=The Motor Vehicles Act\|url\=https://www.indiacode.nic.in/handle/123456789/1798}} {{Cite web \|url\=https://www.indiacode.nic.in/handle/123456789/1798 \|title\=Archived copy \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-12 \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-12 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230312103247/https://www.indiacode.nic.in/handle/123456789/1798 \|url\-status\=bot: unknown }}{{Cite court\|litigants\=Rajesh {{abbr\|\&\|and}} {{abbr\|Ors.\|Others}} versus Rajbir Singh {{abbr\|\&\|and}} {{abbr\|Ors.\|Others}}\|court\=\[\[Supreme Court of India]]\|opinion\={{abbr\|Civil Appeal No.\|Civil Appeal Number}} 3860/2013\|date\=12 April 2013\|url\=https://main.sci.gov.in/jonew/bosir/orderpdf/1721330\.pdf}} Hence the legally unrecognised spouses of sexual and gender minority individuals are denied such claims.Petitioners: {{Harvnb\|Dr Kavita Arora v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Nibedita Dutta v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Supriyo v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\|Aditi Anand v. Union of India}}.
##### Employment
Without recognition of the right to marry, couples from sexual and gender minority communities cannot access the benefits available to opposite\-sex couples through various legislation. Couples from sexual and gender minority communities in government service cannot request same\-city postings. A sexual and gender minority partner cannot receive the healthcare coverage provided to the spouse of government employees.
The government grants an appointment on compassionate grounds to a dependent family member of a government servant dying or retired on medical grounds and leaving their family without any livelihood. Couples from sexual and gender minority communities are not eligible for compassionate appointments or family pensions.
Under the current reading of the [Indian Acts](/wiki/Law_of_India "Law of India"), sexual and gender minority employee cannot nominate their legally unrecognised family for benefits and entitlements as long as their biological or adoptive family members are alive.{{Cite news \|last1\=Chaturvedi \|first1\=Arpan \|last2\=Jain \|first2\=Rupam \|date\=19 December 2022 \|title\=Gay couples in India ask Supreme Court to legalise same\-sex marriage \|language\=en \|work\=\[\[Reuters]] \|url\=https://www.reuters.com/world/india/gay\-couples\-india\-ask\-supreme\-court\-legalise\-same\-sex\-marriage\-2022\-12\-19/ \|access\-date\= \|archive\-date\=2023\-02\-12 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230212153427/https://www.reuters.com/world/india/gay\-couples\-india\-ask\-supreme\-court\-legalise\-same\-sex\-marriage\-2022\-12\-19/ \|url\-status\=live }}{{Cite news \|last\=Rajagopal \|first\=Krishnadas \|date\=25 November 2022 \|title\=Supreme Court seeks govt response on including same\-sex marriage under Special Marriage Act \|language\=en \|work\=\[\[The Hindu]] \|url\=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/supreme\-court\-seeks\-govt\-response\-on\-including\-same\-sex\-marriage\-under\-special\-marriage\-act/article66182642\.ece \|access\-date\= \|issn\=0971\-751X \|archive\-date\=13 February 2023 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230213051311/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/supreme\-court\-seeks\-govt\-response\-on\-including\-same\-sex\-marriage\-under\-special\-marriage\-act/article66182642\.ece \|url\-status\=live }} Some of the [Acts](/wiki/Law_of_India "Law of India") highlighted by the petitioners are:Petitioners: {{Harvnb\|Vaibhav Jai v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Dr Kavita Arora v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Udit Sood v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Joydeep Sengupta v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Nibedita Dutta v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Zainab J. Patel v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Supriyo v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Parth Phiroze Mehrotra v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\|Aditi Anand v. Union of India}}.
* Employee's Compensation Act of 1923,{{Cite act\|type\=Act\|index\=8\|date\=1923\|article\=10A(4\)\|article\-type\=Section\|legislature\=\[\[Imperial Legislative Council]]\|title\=The Employees Compensation Act\|url\=https://www.indiacode.nic.in/show\-data?actid\=AC\_UP\_88\_477\_00016\_00016\_1614836915424\§ionId\=64520\§ionno\=10A\&orderno\=12}} {{Cite web \|url\=https://www.indiacode.nic.in/show\-data?actid\=AC\_UP\_88\_477\_00016\_00016\_1614836915424\§ionId\=64520\§ionno\=10A\&orderno\=12 \|title\=Archived copy \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-12 \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-12 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230312062151/https://www.indiacode.nic.in/show\-data?actid\=AC\_UP\_88\_477\_00016\_00016\_1614836915424\§ionId\=64520\§ionno\=10A\&orderno\=12 \|url\-status\=bot: unknown }}
* Employees' Provident Funds Act of 1952,{{Cite act\|type\=Act\|index\=19\|date\=1952\|article\=4\|article\-type\=Schedule\|legislature\=\[\[Parliament of India]]\|title\=Employees' Provident Funds and Miscellaneous Provisions Act\|url\=https://www.indiacode.nic.in/handle/123456789/2152}} {{Cite web \|url\=https://www.indiacode.nic.in/handle/123456789/2152 \|title\=Archived copy \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-12 \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-12 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230312060651/https://www.indiacode.nic.in/handle/123456789/2152 \|url\-status\=bot: unknown }}
* [Payment of Gratuity Act of 1972](/wiki/The_Payment_of_Gratuity_Act%2C_1972 "The Payment of Gratuity Act, 1972"),{{Cite act\|index\=39\|date\=1972\|article\=6\|article\-type\=Section\|legislature\=\[\[Parliament of India]]\|title\=The Payment of Gratuity Act\|url\=https://www.indiacode.nic.in/show\-data?actid\=AC\_CEN\_6\_6\_00029\_197239\_1517807324619\§ionId\=42151\§ionno\=6\&orderno\=8}} {{Cite web \|url\=https://www.indiacode.nic.in/show\-data?actid\=AC\_CEN\_6\_6\_00029\_197239\_1517807324619\§ionId\=42151\§ionno\=6\&orderno\=8 \|title\=Archived copy \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-12 \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-12 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230312060646/https://www.indiacode.nic.in/show\-data?actid\=AC\_CEN\_6\_6\_00029\_197239\_1517807324619\§ionId\=42151\§ionno\=6\&orderno\=8 \|url\-status\=bot: unknown }}
* Payment of Wages Act, 1936{{Cite act\|index\=4\|date\=1936\|article\=26\|article\-type\=Section\|legislature\=\[\[Imperial Legislative Council]]\|title\=The Payment of Wages Act\|url\=https://www.indiacode.nic.in/bitstream/123456789/8324/1/payment\_of\_wages\_act\_1936\.pdf}} {{Cite web \|url\=https://www.indiacode.nic.in/bitstream/123456789/8324/1/payment\_of\_wages\_act\_1936\.pdf \|title\=Archived copy \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-12 \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-25 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230325172323/https://www.indiacode.nic.in/bitstream/123456789/8324/1/payment\_of\_wages\_act\_1936\.pdf \|url\-status\=bot: unknown }}{{Cite act\|type\=General Statutory Rule\|index\=822 (E)\|date\=2009\|article\=3 (2\)\|article\-type\=Rule\|legislature\=\[\[Government of India]] through \[\[Ministry of Labour and Employment (India)\|Ministry of Labour and Employment]]\|title\=Payment of Wages (Nomination) Rules\|url\=https://labour.gov.in/sites/default/files/PW\_Nomination%20Rules.pdf}} {{Cite web \|url\=https://labour.gov.in/sites/default/files/PW\_Nomination%20Rules.pdf \|title\=Archived copy \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-12 \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-12 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230312060646/https://labour.gov.in/sites/default/files/PW\_Nomination%20Rules.pdf \|url\-status\=bot: unknown }} and
* [Unorganised Workers' Social Security Act of 2008](/wiki/Unorganised_Workers%27_Social_Security_Act_2008 "Unorganised Workers' Social Security Act 2008").{{Cite act\|index\=33\|date\=2008\|article\=3\|article\-type\=Section\|legislature\=\[\[Parliament of India]]\|title\=Unorganised Workers Social Security Act\|url\=https://www.indiacode.nic.in/show\-data?actid\=AC\_CEN\_6\_6\_00036\_200833\_1517807327317\§ionId\=42317\§ionno\=3\&orderno\=3}} {{Cite web \|url\=https://www.indiacode.nic.in/show\-data?actid\=AC\_CEN\_6\_6\_00036\_200833\_1517807327317\§ionId\=42317\§ionno\=3\&orderno\=3 \|title\=India Code: Section Details \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-12 \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-12 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230312060653/https://www.indiacode.nic.in/show\-data?actid\=AC\_CEN\_6\_6\_00036\_200833\_1517807327317\§ionId\=42317\§ionno\=3\&orderno\=3 \|url\-status\=bot: unknown }}{{Cite act\|type\=Statutory Order\|index\=764 (E)\|date\=2019\|legislature\=\[\[Government of India]] through \[\[Ministry of Labour and Employment (India)\|Ministry of Labour and Employment]]\|title\=Pradhan Mantri Shram Yogi Maan\-dhan Yojana\|url\=https://labour.gov.in/sites/default/files/197105\_0\.pdf}} {{Cite web \|url\=https://labour.gov.in/sites/default/files/197105\_0\.pdf \|title\=Archived copy \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-12 \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-12 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230312060717/https://labour.gov.in/sites/default/files/197105\_0\.pdf \|url\-status\=bot: unknown }}
Since private entitlements, such as healthcare and other spousal benefits extended in private employment, exclude sexual and gender minority family members, sexual and gender minority individuals face more barriers and higher scrutiny in acquiring spousal benefits.Petitioners: {{Harvnb\|Dr Kavita Arora v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\|Supriyo v. Union of India}}.
##### Housing
Couples from sexual and gender minority communities do not have the right to reside in a shared household. Hence, sexual and gender minority individuals cannot rely on their partner's rented or owned home to prove residence for official purposes.
##### Parenthood
Without recognition of the right to marry, couples from sexual and gender minority communities cannot have children through [adoption](/wiki/Same-sex_adoption "Same-sex adoption"), [surrogacy](/wiki/Surrogacy_in_India "Surrogacy in India"), or [assisted reproductive technologies](/wiki/Assisted_reproductive_technology%23India "Assisted reproductive technology#India").Petitioners: {{Harvnb\|Supriyo v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Aditi Anand v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\|Amburi Roy v. Union of India}}.
The [Juvenile Justice Act of 2015](/wiki/Juvenile_Justice_%28Care_and_Protection_of_Children%29_Act%2C_2015 "Juvenile Justice (Care and Protection of Children) Act, 2015"), along with relevant rules, does not allow unmarried couples and couples in a live\-in relationship to adopt children as a couple.{{Cite act\|index\=2\|date\=2015\|legislature\=\[\[Parliament of India]]\|title\=The Juvenile Justice (Care and Protection of Children) Act\|url\=https://www.indiacode.nic.in/handle/123456789/2148}} {{Cite web \|url\=https://www.indiacode.nic.in/handle/123456789/2148 \|title\=India Code: Juvenile Justice (Care and Protection of Children) Act, 2015 \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-12 \|archive\-date\=2023\-04\-24 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230424144953/https://www.indiacode.nic.in/handle/123456789/2148 \|url\-status\=bot: unknown }}{{Cite act\|type\=General Statutory Rules\|index\=726 (E)\|date\=2022\|legislature\=\[\[Government of India]] through \[\[Ministry of Women and Child Development]]\|title\=Adoption Regulations\|url\=https://wcd.nic.in/sites/default/files/Adoption%20Regulations%202022\.pdf}} {{Cite web \|url\=https://wcd.nic.in/sites/default/files/Adoption%20Regulations%202022\.pdf \|title\=Archived copy \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-12 \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-12 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230312095012/https://wcd.nic.in/sites/default/files/Adoption%20Regulations%202022\.pdf \|url\-status\=bot: unknown }} The Adoption Regulations of 2022 state that a child cannot be given in adoption to a couple unless they have at least two years of a stable marital relationship. In line with the Adoption Regulations, the [Central Adoption Resource Authority](/wiki/Central_Adoption_Resource_Authority "Central Adoption Resource Authority") has decided that single prospective adoptive parents, who are in a live\-in relationship with a partner, will not be considered eligible to adopt a child.{{Cite act\|type\=Office Memorandum\|index\=CARAICA013/1/2022/Administration\|date\={{date\|2022\-06\-16\|mdy}}\|legislature\=\[\[Central Adoption Resource Authority]], \[\[New Delhi]]\|title\=Registration of cases of single PAPs having a live\-in partner in a long\-time relationship and not married\|url\=https://cara.nic.in/PDF/Registration\-of\-cases\-of\-single\-PAPs\-having\-a\_live\-in\_partner\-in\-a\-long\-time\-relationship\-and\-not\-married160622\.pdf}} {{Cite web \|url\=https://cara.nic.in/PDF/Registration\-of\-cases\-of\-single\-PAPs\-having\-a\_live\-in\_partner\-in\-a\-long\-time\-relationship\-and\-not\-married160622\.pdf \|title\=Archived copy \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-12 \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-12 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230312095003/https://cara.nic.in/PDF/Registration\-of\-cases\-of\-single\-PAPs\-having\-a\_live\-in\_partner\-in\-a\-long\-time\-relationship\-and\-not\-married160622\.pdf \|url\-status\=bot: unknown }}
The Surrogacy (Regulation) Act of 2021 allows only married couples to have children through surrogacy.{{Cite act\|index\=47\|date\=2021\|legislature\=\[\[Parliament of India]]\|title\=The Surrogacy (Regulation) Act\|url\=https://www.indiacode.nic.in/handle/123456789/17046}} {{Cite web \|url\=https://www.indiacode.nic.in/handle/123456789/17046 \|title\=India Code: Surrogacy (Regulation) Act, 2021 \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-12 \|archive\-date\=2023\-04\-26 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230426175844/https://www.indiacode.nic.in/handle/123456789/17046 \|url\-status\=bot: unknown }} The Assisted Reproductive Technology (Regulation) Act of 2021 allows only infertile married couples to obtain the services of an authorised clinic or bank for assisted reproductive technologies.{{Cite act\|index\=42\|date\=2021\|legislature\=\[\[Parliament of India]]\|title\=The Assisted Reproductive Technology (Regulation) Act\|url\=https://www.indiacode.nic.in/handle/123456789/17031}} {{Cite web \|url\=https://www.indiacode.nic.in/handle/123456789/17031 \|title\=India Code: Assisted Reproductive Technology (Regulation) Act, 2021 \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-12 \|archive\-date\=2022\-07\-18 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220718080315/https://www.indiacode.nic.in/handle/123456789/17031 \|url\-status\=bot: unknown }}
Since the parents cannot get married, the child has no legal relationship with an unrelated parent. As a result, various entitlements, privileges, obligations and benefits are unavailable to the unrelated parent and the child. An unrelated parent cannot make medical decisions in the case of an emergency.
##### Judicial proceedings
The [Indian Evidence Act of 1872](/wiki/Indian_Evidence_Act "Indian Evidence Act") provides [spousal privilege](/wiki/Spousal_privilege "Spousal privilege"), that is, immunity from being compelled to disclose any communication between spouses during their marriage. Additionally, they cannot disclose any communication without their partner or partner's representative's consent.{{Cite act\|type\=\|index\=1\|date\=1872\|article\=122\|article\-type\=Section\|legislature\=\[\[Imperial Legislative Council]]\|title\=Indian Evidence Act\|url\=https://www.indiacode.nic.in/show\-data?actid\=AC\_CEN\_3\_20\_00034\_187201\_1523268871700\§ionId\=38987\§ionno\=122\&orderno\=140}} {{Cite web \|url\=https://www.indiacode.nic.in/show\-data?actid\=AC\_CEN\_3\_20\_00034\_187201\_1523268871700\§ionId\=38987\§ionno\=122\&orderno\=140 \|title\=India Code: Section Details \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-12 \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-12 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230312060655/https://www.indiacode.nic.in/show\-data?actid\=AC\_CEN\_3\_20\_00034\_187201\_1523268871700\§ionId\=38987\§ionno\=122\&orderno\=140 \|url\-status\=bot: unknown }} Couples from sexual and gender minority communities do not have this crucial protection privilege under Indian evidentiary law.Petitioners: {{Harvnb\|Vaibhav Jai v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Dr Kavita Arora v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Joydeep Sengupta v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Nibedita Dutta v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Zainab J. Patel v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Supriyo v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\|Parth Phiroze Mehrotra v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\|Aditi Anand v. Union of India}}.
The [Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act of 2005](/wiki/Protection_of_Women_from_Domestic_Violence_Act%2C_2005 "Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act, 2005") protects women in an opposite\-sex marital or live\-in relationship. The law extends its protection to women living in a household, such as sisters or mothers, but fails to protect sexual and gender minority women in a relationship.Petitioners: {{Harvnb\|Dr Kavita Arora v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\|Parth Phiroze Mehrotra v. Union of India}}.
|
[
"#### Legislative policy",
"The petitioners highlighted various entitlements, privileges, obligations and benefits limited to marital, blood or adoptive relationships. These legal provisions exclude legally unrecognised spouses and families of sexual and gender minority individuals.",
"##### Healthcare",
"When a patient cannot communicate their wishes due to being in a persistent vegetative state, having a form of dementia or similar illness, or being under anaesthesia, legally unrecognised spouses and families of sexual and gender minority individuals are not allowed to make healthcare decisions for them.Petitioners: {{Harvnb\\|Dr Kavita Arora v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Parth Phiroze Mehrotra v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Aditi Anand v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\\|Rituparna Borah v. Union of India}}.",
"Legally unrecognised spouses and families of sexual and gender minority individuals face discrimination in [organ donation](/wiki/Organ_donation \"Organ donation\") in the case of both living or deceased partners.Petitioners: {{Harvnb\\|Dr Kavita Arora v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Udit Sood v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Nibedita Dutta v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Supriyo v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Parth Phiroze Mehrotra v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\\|Aditi Anand v. Union of India}}. Under the [Transplantation of Human Organs and Tissues Act of 1994](/wiki/Transplantation_of_Human_Organs_and_Tissues_Act%2C_1994 \"Transplantation of Human Organs and Tissues Act, 1994\"), the declaration to donate organs requires the presence of at least one marital, blood or adoptive relative. As a result, unrecognised spouses and families cannot make these vital decisions about sexual and gender minority family members. Sexual and gender minority partners need prior approval of the Authorisation Committee under the [Transplantation of Human Organs and Tissues Act](/wiki/Transplantation_of_Human_Organs_and_Tissues_Act%2C_1994 \"Transplantation of Human Organs and Tissues Act, 1994\"). The Committee evaluates the proof of affection or attachment to the intended recipient of the organ before permitting organ donation, which legally married couples need not provide.{{Cite act\\|index\\=42\\|date\\=1994\\|legislature\\=\\[\\[Parliament of India]]\\|title\\=The Transplantation of Human Organs and Tissues Act\\|url\\=https://www.indiacode.nic.in/handle/123456789/1962}} {{Cite web \\|url\\=https://www.indiacode.nic.in/handle/123456789/1962 \\|title\\=Archived copy \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-12 \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-12 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230312173357/https://www.indiacode.nic.in/handle/123456789/1962 \\|url\\-status\\=bot: unknown }}",
"##### Finance",
"Sexual and gender minority family members lack the rights around succession, [maintenance](/wiki/Alimony \"Alimony\"), joint ownership of assets, taxation and benefits. As private entitlements exclude sexual and gender minority family members, sexual and gender minority individuals face more barriers and higher scrutiny in privately offered life insurance nominations, owning [joint bank accounts](/wiki/Joint_account \"Joint account\") and lockers, and mutual funds and savings plans.Petitioners: {{Harvnb\\|Vaibhav Jai v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Dr Kavita Arora v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Udit Sood v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Nibedita Dutta v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Supriyo v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Parth Phiroze Mehrotra v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\\|Aditi Anand v. Union of India}}.",
"According to the [Income Tax Act of 1961](/wiki/The_Income-tax_Act%2C_1961 \"The Income-tax Act, 1961\"), the payments made on behalf of a spouse are included in the deduction when computing the total income. These deductions include the payments made towards life insurance, a deferred annuity of the life of a spouse, the spouse's provident fund set up by the Central Government and the spouse for participation in the Unit\\-linked Insurance Plan.{{Cite act\\|index\\=43\\|date\\=1961\\|article\\=80C\\|article\\-type\\=Section\\|legislature\\=\\[\\[Parliament of India]]\\|title\\=The Income\\-tax Act\\|url\\=https://www.indiacode.nic.in/handle/123456789/2435}} {{Cite web \\|url\\=https://www.indiacode.nic.in/handle/123456789/2435 \\|title\\=Archived copy \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-12 \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-12 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230312071723/https://www.indiacode.nic.in/handle/123456789/2435 \\|url\\-status\\=bot: unknown }} Sexual and gender minority family members cannot claim such deductions.Petitioners: {{Harvnb\\|Vaibhav Jai v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Dr Kavita Arora v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Udit Sood v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Nibedita Dutta v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Zainab J. Patel v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Supriyo v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Parth Phiroze Mehrotra v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\\|Aditi Anand v. Union of India}}.\n According to the Supreme Court ruling on *Rajesh v. Rajbir Singh*, the spousal consortium considered in the claims, including the claims for injury and death in the [Motor Vehicle Act of 1988](/wiki/Motor_Vehicles_Act%2C_1988 \"Motor Vehicles Act, 1988\") cases, is only available to married couples.{{Cite act\\|index\\=59\\|date\\=1988\\|article\\=158, 166 {{abbr\\|\\&\\|and}} 168\\|article\\-type\\=Section\\|legislature\\=\\[\\[Parliament of India]]\\|title\\=The Motor Vehicles Act\\|url\\=https://www.indiacode.nic.in/handle/123456789/1798}} {{Cite web \\|url\\=https://www.indiacode.nic.in/handle/123456789/1798 \\|title\\=Archived copy \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-12 \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-12 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230312103247/https://www.indiacode.nic.in/handle/123456789/1798 \\|url\\-status\\=bot: unknown }}{{Cite court\\|litigants\\=Rajesh {{abbr\\|\\&\\|and}} {{abbr\\|Ors.\\|Others}} versus Rajbir Singh {{abbr\\|\\&\\|and}} {{abbr\\|Ors.\\|Others}}\\|court\\=\\[\\[Supreme Court of India]]\\|opinion\\={{abbr\\|Civil Appeal No.\\|Civil Appeal Number}} 3860/2013\\|date\\=12 April 2013\\|url\\=https://main.sci.gov.in/jonew/bosir/orderpdf/1721330\\.pdf}} Hence the legally unrecognised spouses of sexual and gender minority individuals are denied such claims.Petitioners: {{Harvnb\\|Dr Kavita Arora v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Nibedita Dutta v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Supriyo v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\\|Aditi Anand v. Union of India}}.",
"##### Employment",
"Without recognition of the right to marry, couples from sexual and gender minority communities cannot access the benefits available to opposite\\-sex couples through various legislation. Couples from sexual and gender minority communities in government service cannot request same\\-city postings. A sexual and gender minority partner cannot receive the healthcare coverage provided to the spouse of government employees.",
"The government grants an appointment on compassionate grounds to a dependent family member of a government servant dying or retired on medical grounds and leaving their family without any livelihood. Couples from sexual and gender minority communities are not eligible for compassionate appointments or family pensions.",
"Under the current reading of the [Indian Acts](/wiki/Law_of_India \"Law of India\"), sexual and gender minority employee cannot nominate their legally unrecognised family for benefits and entitlements as long as their biological or adoptive family members are alive.{{Cite news \\|last1\\=Chaturvedi \\|first1\\=Arpan \\|last2\\=Jain \\|first2\\=Rupam \\|date\\=19 December 2022 \\|title\\=Gay couples in India ask Supreme Court to legalise same\\-sex marriage \\|language\\=en \\|work\\=\\[\\[Reuters]] \\|url\\=https://www.reuters.com/world/india/gay\\-couples\\-india\\-ask\\-supreme\\-court\\-legalise\\-same\\-sex\\-marriage\\-2022\\-12\\-19/ \\|access\\-date\\= \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-02\\-12 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230212153427/https://www.reuters.com/world/india/gay\\-couples\\-india\\-ask\\-supreme\\-court\\-legalise\\-same\\-sex\\-marriage\\-2022\\-12\\-19/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }}{{Cite news \\|last\\=Rajagopal \\|first\\=Krishnadas \\|date\\=25 November 2022 \\|title\\=Supreme Court seeks govt response on including same\\-sex marriage under Special Marriage Act \\|language\\=en \\|work\\=\\[\\[The Hindu]] \\|url\\=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/supreme\\-court\\-seeks\\-govt\\-response\\-on\\-including\\-same\\-sex\\-marriage\\-under\\-special\\-marriage\\-act/article66182642\\.ece \\|access\\-date\\= \\|issn\\=0971\\-751X \\|archive\\-date\\=13 February 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230213051311/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/supreme\\-court\\-seeks\\-govt\\-response\\-on\\-including\\-same\\-sex\\-marriage\\-under\\-special\\-marriage\\-act/article66182642\\.ece \\|url\\-status\\=live }} Some of the [Acts](/wiki/Law_of_India \"Law of India\") highlighted by the petitioners are:Petitioners: {{Harvnb\\|Vaibhav Jai v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Dr Kavita Arora v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Udit Sood v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Joydeep Sengupta v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Nibedita Dutta v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Zainab J. Patel v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Supriyo v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Parth Phiroze Mehrotra v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\\|Aditi Anand v. Union of India}}.\n* Employee's Compensation Act of 1923,{{Cite act\\|type\\=Act\\|index\\=8\\|date\\=1923\\|article\\=10A(4\\)\\|article\\-type\\=Section\\|legislature\\=\\[\\[Imperial Legislative Council]]\\|title\\=The Employees Compensation Act\\|url\\=https://www.indiacode.nic.in/show\\-data?actid\\=AC\\_UP\\_88\\_477\\_00016\\_00016\\_1614836915424\\§ionId\\=64520\\§ionno\\=10A\\&orderno\\=12}} {{Cite web \\|url\\=https://www.indiacode.nic.in/show\\-data?actid\\=AC\\_UP\\_88\\_477\\_00016\\_00016\\_1614836915424\\§ionId\\=64520\\§ionno\\=10A\\&orderno\\=12 \\|title\\=Archived copy \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-12 \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-12 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230312062151/https://www.indiacode.nic.in/show\\-data?actid\\=AC\\_UP\\_88\\_477\\_00016\\_00016\\_1614836915424\\§ionId\\=64520\\§ionno\\=10A\\&orderno\\=12 \\|url\\-status\\=bot: unknown }}\n* Employees' Provident Funds Act of 1952,{{Cite act\\|type\\=Act\\|index\\=19\\|date\\=1952\\|article\\=4\\|article\\-type\\=Schedule\\|legislature\\=\\[\\[Parliament of India]]\\|title\\=Employees' Provident Funds and Miscellaneous Provisions Act\\|url\\=https://www.indiacode.nic.in/handle/123456789/2152}} {{Cite web \\|url\\=https://www.indiacode.nic.in/handle/123456789/2152 \\|title\\=Archived copy \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-12 \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-12 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230312060651/https://www.indiacode.nic.in/handle/123456789/2152 \\|url\\-status\\=bot: unknown }}\n* [Payment of Gratuity Act of 1972](/wiki/The_Payment_of_Gratuity_Act%2C_1972 \"The Payment of Gratuity Act, 1972\"),{{Cite act\\|index\\=39\\|date\\=1972\\|article\\=6\\|article\\-type\\=Section\\|legislature\\=\\[\\[Parliament of India]]\\|title\\=The Payment of Gratuity Act\\|url\\=https://www.indiacode.nic.in/show\\-data?actid\\=AC\\_CEN\\_6\\_6\\_00029\\_197239\\_1517807324619\\§ionId\\=42151\\§ionno\\=6\\&orderno\\=8}} {{Cite web \\|url\\=https://www.indiacode.nic.in/show\\-data?actid\\=AC\\_CEN\\_6\\_6\\_00029\\_197239\\_1517807324619\\§ionId\\=42151\\§ionno\\=6\\&orderno\\=8 \\|title\\=Archived copy \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-12 \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-12 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230312060646/https://www.indiacode.nic.in/show\\-data?actid\\=AC\\_CEN\\_6\\_6\\_00029\\_197239\\_1517807324619\\§ionId\\=42151\\§ionno\\=6\\&orderno\\=8 \\|url\\-status\\=bot: unknown }}\n* Payment of Wages Act, 1936{{Cite act\\|index\\=4\\|date\\=1936\\|article\\=26\\|article\\-type\\=Section\\|legislature\\=\\[\\[Imperial Legislative Council]]\\|title\\=The Payment of Wages Act\\|url\\=https://www.indiacode.nic.in/bitstream/123456789/8324/1/payment\\_of\\_wages\\_act\\_1936\\.pdf}} {{Cite web \\|url\\=https://www.indiacode.nic.in/bitstream/123456789/8324/1/payment\\_of\\_wages\\_act\\_1936\\.pdf \\|title\\=Archived copy \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-12 \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-25 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230325172323/https://www.indiacode.nic.in/bitstream/123456789/8324/1/payment\\_of\\_wages\\_act\\_1936\\.pdf \\|url\\-status\\=bot: unknown }}{{Cite act\\|type\\=General Statutory Rule\\|index\\=822 (E)\\|date\\=2009\\|article\\=3 (2\\)\\|article\\-type\\=Rule\\|legislature\\=\\[\\[Government of India]] through \\[\\[Ministry of Labour and Employment (India)\\|Ministry of Labour and Employment]]\\|title\\=Payment of Wages (Nomination) Rules\\|url\\=https://labour.gov.in/sites/default/files/PW\\_Nomination%20Rules.pdf}} {{Cite web \\|url\\=https://labour.gov.in/sites/default/files/PW\\_Nomination%20Rules.pdf \\|title\\=Archived copy \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-12 \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-12 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230312060646/https://labour.gov.in/sites/default/files/PW\\_Nomination%20Rules.pdf \\|url\\-status\\=bot: unknown }} and\n* [Unorganised Workers' Social Security Act of 2008](/wiki/Unorganised_Workers%27_Social_Security_Act_2008 \"Unorganised Workers' Social Security Act 2008\").{{Cite act\\|index\\=33\\|date\\=2008\\|article\\=3\\|article\\-type\\=Section\\|legislature\\=\\[\\[Parliament of India]]\\|title\\=Unorganised Workers Social Security Act\\|url\\=https://www.indiacode.nic.in/show\\-data?actid\\=AC\\_CEN\\_6\\_6\\_00036\\_200833\\_1517807327317\\§ionId\\=42317\\§ionno\\=3\\&orderno\\=3}} {{Cite web \\|url\\=https://www.indiacode.nic.in/show\\-data?actid\\=AC\\_CEN\\_6\\_6\\_00036\\_200833\\_1517807327317\\§ionId\\=42317\\§ionno\\=3\\&orderno\\=3 \\|title\\=India Code: Section Details \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-12 \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-12 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230312060653/https://www.indiacode.nic.in/show\\-data?actid\\=AC\\_CEN\\_6\\_6\\_00036\\_200833\\_1517807327317\\§ionId\\=42317\\§ionno\\=3\\&orderno\\=3 \\|url\\-status\\=bot: unknown }}{{Cite act\\|type\\=Statutory Order\\|index\\=764 (E)\\|date\\=2019\\|legislature\\=\\[\\[Government of India]] through \\[\\[Ministry of Labour and Employment (India)\\|Ministry of Labour and Employment]]\\|title\\=Pradhan Mantri Shram Yogi Maan\\-dhan Yojana\\|url\\=https://labour.gov.in/sites/default/files/197105\\_0\\.pdf}} {{Cite web \\|url\\=https://labour.gov.in/sites/default/files/197105\\_0\\.pdf \\|title\\=Archived copy \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-12 \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-12 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230312060717/https://labour.gov.in/sites/default/files/197105\\_0\\.pdf \\|url\\-status\\=bot: unknown }}",
"Since private entitlements, such as healthcare and other spousal benefits extended in private employment, exclude sexual and gender minority family members, sexual and gender minority individuals face more barriers and higher scrutiny in acquiring spousal benefits.Petitioners: {{Harvnb\\|Dr Kavita Arora v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\\|Supriyo v. Union of India}}.",
"##### Housing",
"Couples from sexual and gender minority communities do not have the right to reside in a shared household. Hence, sexual and gender minority individuals cannot rely on their partner's rented or owned home to prove residence for official purposes.",
"##### Parenthood",
"Without recognition of the right to marry, couples from sexual and gender minority communities cannot have children through [adoption](/wiki/Same-sex_adoption \"Same-sex adoption\"), [surrogacy](/wiki/Surrogacy_in_India \"Surrogacy in India\"), or [assisted reproductive technologies](/wiki/Assisted_reproductive_technology%23India \"Assisted reproductive technology#India\").Petitioners: {{Harvnb\\|Supriyo v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Aditi Anand v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\\|Amburi Roy v. Union of India}}.",
"The [Juvenile Justice Act of 2015](/wiki/Juvenile_Justice_%28Care_and_Protection_of_Children%29_Act%2C_2015 \"Juvenile Justice (Care and Protection of Children) Act, 2015\"), along with relevant rules, does not allow unmarried couples and couples in a live\\-in relationship to adopt children as a couple.{{Cite act\\|index\\=2\\|date\\=2015\\|legislature\\=\\[\\[Parliament of India]]\\|title\\=The Juvenile Justice (Care and Protection of Children) Act\\|url\\=https://www.indiacode.nic.in/handle/123456789/2148}} {{Cite web \\|url\\=https://www.indiacode.nic.in/handle/123456789/2148 \\|title\\=India Code: Juvenile Justice (Care and Protection of Children) Act, 2015 \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-12 \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-04\\-24 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230424144953/https://www.indiacode.nic.in/handle/123456789/2148 \\|url\\-status\\=bot: unknown }}{{Cite act\\|type\\=General Statutory Rules\\|index\\=726 (E)\\|date\\=2022\\|legislature\\=\\[\\[Government of India]] through \\[\\[Ministry of Women and Child Development]]\\|title\\=Adoption Regulations\\|url\\=https://wcd.nic.in/sites/default/files/Adoption%20Regulations%202022\\.pdf}} {{Cite web \\|url\\=https://wcd.nic.in/sites/default/files/Adoption%20Regulations%202022\\.pdf \\|title\\=Archived copy \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-12 \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-12 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230312095012/https://wcd.nic.in/sites/default/files/Adoption%20Regulations%202022\\.pdf \\|url\\-status\\=bot: unknown }} The Adoption Regulations of 2022 state that a child cannot be given in adoption to a couple unless they have at least two years of a stable marital relationship. In line with the Adoption Regulations, the [Central Adoption Resource Authority](/wiki/Central_Adoption_Resource_Authority \"Central Adoption Resource Authority\") has decided that single prospective adoptive parents, who are in a live\\-in relationship with a partner, will not be considered eligible to adopt a child.{{Cite act\\|type\\=Office Memorandum\\|index\\=CARAICA013/1/2022/Administration\\|date\\={{date\\|2022\\-06\\-16\\|mdy}}\\|legislature\\=\\[\\[Central Adoption Resource Authority]], \\[\\[New Delhi]]\\|title\\=Registration of cases of single PAPs having a live\\-in partner in a long\\-time relationship and not married\\|url\\=https://cara.nic.in/PDF/Registration\\-of\\-cases\\-of\\-single\\-PAPs\\-having\\-a\\_live\\-in\\_partner\\-in\\-a\\-long\\-time\\-relationship\\-and\\-not\\-married160622\\.pdf}} {{Cite web \\|url\\=https://cara.nic.in/PDF/Registration\\-of\\-cases\\-of\\-single\\-PAPs\\-having\\-a\\_live\\-in\\_partner\\-in\\-a\\-long\\-time\\-relationship\\-and\\-not\\-married160622\\.pdf \\|title\\=Archived copy \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-12 \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-12 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230312095003/https://cara.nic.in/PDF/Registration\\-of\\-cases\\-of\\-single\\-PAPs\\-having\\-a\\_live\\-in\\_partner\\-in\\-a\\-long\\-time\\-relationship\\-and\\-not\\-married160622\\.pdf \\|url\\-status\\=bot: unknown }}",
"The Surrogacy (Regulation) Act of 2021 allows only married couples to have children through surrogacy.{{Cite act\\|index\\=47\\|date\\=2021\\|legislature\\=\\[\\[Parliament of India]]\\|title\\=The Surrogacy (Regulation) Act\\|url\\=https://www.indiacode.nic.in/handle/123456789/17046}} {{Cite web \\|url\\=https://www.indiacode.nic.in/handle/123456789/17046 \\|title\\=India Code: Surrogacy (Regulation) Act, 2021 \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-12 \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-04\\-26 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230426175844/https://www.indiacode.nic.in/handle/123456789/17046 \\|url\\-status\\=bot: unknown }} The Assisted Reproductive Technology (Regulation) Act of 2021 allows only infertile married couples to obtain the services of an authorised clinic or bank for assisted reproductive technologies.{{Cite act\\|index\\=42\\|date\\=2021\\|legislature\\=\\[\\[Parliament of India]]\\|title\\=The Assisted Reproductive Technology (Regulation) Act\\|url\\=https://www.indiacode.nic.in/handle/123456789/17031}} {{Cite web \\|url\\=https://www.indiacode.nic.in/handle/123456789/17031 \\|title\\=India Code: Assisted Reproductive Technology (Regulation) Act, 2021 \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-12 \\|archive\\-date\\=2022\\-07\\-18 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220718080315/https://www.indiacode.nic.in/handle/123456789/17031 \\|url\\-status\\=bot: unknown }}",
"Since the parents cannot get married, the child has no legal relationship with an unrelated parent. As a result, various entitlements, privileges, obligations and benefits are unavailable to the unrelated parent and the child. An unrelated parent cannot make medical decisions in the case of an emergency.",
"##### Judicial proceedings",
"The [Indian Evidence Act of 1872](/wiki/Indian_Evidence_Act \"Indian Evidence Act\") provides [spousal privilege](/wiki/Spousal_privilege \"Spousal privilege\"), that is, immunity from being compelled to disclose any communication between spouses during their marriage. Additionally, they cannot disclose any communication without their partner or partner's representative's consent.{{Cite act\\|type\\=\\|index\\=1\\|date\\=1872\\|article\\=122\\|article\\-type\\=Section\\|legislature\\=\\[\\[Imperial Legislative Council]]\\|title\\=Indian Evidence Act\\|url\\=https://www.indiacode.nic.in/show\\-data?actid\\=AC\\_CEN\\_3\\_20\\_00034\\_187201\\_1523268871700\\§ionId\\=38987\\§ionno\\=122\\&orderno\\=140}} {{Cite web \\|url\\=https://www.indiacode.nic.in/show\\-data?actid\\=AC\\_CEN\\_3\\_20\\_00034\\_187201\\_1523268871700\\§ionId\\=38987\\§ionno\\=122\\&orderno\\=140 \\|title\\=India Code: Section Details \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-12 \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-12 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230312060655/https://www.indiacode.nic.in/show\\-data?actid\\=AC\\_CEN\\_3\\_20\\_00034\\_187201\\_1523268871700\\§ionId\\=38987\\§ionno\\=122\\&orderno\\=140 \\|url\\-status\\=bot: unknown }} Couples from sexual and gender minority communities do not have this crucial protection privilege under Indian evidentiary law.Petitioners: {{Harvnb\\|Vaibhav Jai v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Dr Kavita Arora v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Joydeep Sengupta v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Nibedita Dutta v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Zainab J. Patel v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Supriyo v. Union of India}}, {{Harvnb\\|Parth Phiroze Mehrotra v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\\|Aditi Anand v. Union of India}}.",
"The [Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act of 2005](/wiki/Protection_of_Women_from_Domestic_Violence_Act%2C_2005 \"Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act, 2005\") protects women in an opposite\\-sex marital or live\\-in relationship. The law extends its protection to women living in a household, such as sisters or mothers, but fails to protect sexual and gender minority women in a relationship.Petitioners: {{Harvnb\\|Dr Kavita Arora v. Union of India}} and {{Harvnb\\|Parth Phiroze Mehrotra v. Union of India}}.",
""
] |
### Respondent
On 12 March 2023, the [Union Government](/wiki/Government_of_India "Government of India") under the leadership of the [Bharatiya Janata Party](/wiki/Bharatiya_Janata_Party "Bharatiya Janata Party") filed a counter\-affidavit in the Supreme Court, opposing extending the right to marry to sexual and gender minority individuals in India. The Union Government argued that the challenge to notice and objection provisions of the [Special Marriage Act](/wiki/Special_Marriage_Act%2C_1954 "Special Marriage Act, 1954") and [Foreign Marriage Act](/wiki/Foreign_Marriage_Act%2C_1969 "Foreign Marriage Act, 1969") and adoption regulations unrelated to same\-sex marriage. Therefore, the Supreme Court should exclude those matters from the current Case. This section contains a summary of relevant precedents, issues and laws submitted.
#### Fundamental rights
The [Union Government](/wiki/Government_of_India "Government of India") argued that denying the right to marry for sexual and gender minority individuals in India does not violate the [fundamental rights](/wiki/Fundamental_rights_in_India "Fundamental rights in India") guaranteed under Articles [14](/wiki/Article_14_of_the_Constitution_of_India "Article 14 of the Constitution of India"), [15](/wiki/Article_15_of_the_Constitution_of_India "Article 15 of the Constitution of India"), [19](/wiki/Fundamental_rights_in_India%23Right_To_Freedom "Fundamental rights in India#Right To Freedom"), [21](/wiki/Fundamental_rights_in_India%23Right_To_Freedom "Fundamental rights in India#Right To Freedom") and [25](/wiki/Freedom_of_religion_in_India "Freedom of religion in India") of the [Indian Constitution](/wiki/Constitution_of_India "Constitution of India"). To make their case, they point to the Supreme Court ruling in [*Navtej Singh Johar v. UOI (2018\)*](/wiki/Navtej_Singh_Johar_v._Union_of_India "Navtej Singh Johar v. Union of India") that explicitly differentiated and excluded marital relationships while reading down [Section 377](/wiki/Section_377 "Section 377") of the [Indian Penal Code](/wiki/Indian_Penal_Code "Indian Penal Code") for violating [fundamental rights](/wiki/Fundamental_rights_in_India "Fundamental rights in India"). They argue that the Supreme Court decriminalised homosexual conduct but did not legitimise it.
[Normativity](/wiki/Normativity "Normativity") is an intelligible differentia which distinguishes opposite\-sex couples from couples from sexual and gender minority communities. The rationale for this classification is to ensure social stability through legal recognition of marriage. Hence the non\-recognition of marriage between sexual and gender minority individuals does not violate [Article 14](/wiki/Article_14_of_the_Constitution_of_India "Article 14 of the Constitution of India") of the [Indian Constitution](/wiki/Constitution_of_India "Constitution of India"), which guarantees [equality before the law](/wiki/Equality_before_the_law "Equality before the law") or [equal protection of the laws](/wiki/Equal_Protection_Clause "Equal Protection Clause") within the territory of India.
Opposite\-sex [couples living together](/wiki/Cohabitation_in_India "Cohabitation in India") do not enjoy the same status as opposite\-sex married couples. The Supreme Court held the presumption of the marriage of [couples living together](/wiki/Cohabitation_in_India "Cohabitation in India") is rebuttable in *Badri Prasad v. Director of Consolidation(1978\)*. Not every form of opposite\-sex relationship is on par with opposite\-sex marriage. Since the non\-recognition of marriage between sexual and gender minority individuals is not discrimination only based on sex, it does not violate [Article 15](/wiki/Article_15_of_the_Constitution_of_India "Article 15 of the Constitution of India") of the [Indian Constitution](/wiki/Constitution_of_India "Constitution of India").
While all citizens have a right to an association under [Article 19](/wiki/Fundamental_rights_in_India%23Right_To_Freedom "Fundamental rights in India#Right To Freedom") of the [Indian Constitution](/wiki/Constitution_of_India "Constitution of India"), the State is not obligated to recognise such associations. The State limits the legal recognition of marriage to opposite\-sex couples. While the State does not recognise various forms of marriages, unions or relationships between individuals in society, they are not unlawful either.
##### Right to life and personal liberty
The [Union Government](/wiki/Government_of_India "Government of India") argued against any interpretation of [Article 21](/wiki/Fundamental_rights_in_India%23Right_to_life "Fundamental rights in India#Right to life") of the [Indian Constitution](/wiki/Constitution_of_India "Constitution of India") to include any implicit approval of the right to marry for sexual and gender minority individuals. They point to the Supreme Court decision that explicitly differentiated and excluded marital relationships while reading down [Section 377](/wiki/Section_377 "Section 377") of the [Indian Penal Code](/wiki/Indian_Penal_Code "Indian Penal Code") for violating Article 21 in [*Navtej Singh Johar v. UOI (2018\)*](/wiki/Navtej_Singh_Johar_v._Union_of_India "Navtej Singh Johar v. Union of India").
Since the fundamental rights guaranteed by [Article 21](/wiki/Fundamental_rights_in_India%23Right_to_life "Fundamental rights in India#Right to life") are subject to the procedure established by the law, and the Indian marriage laws explicitly limit the recognition to opposite\-sex couples, the Supreme Court cannot extend the right to marry to include couples from sexual and gender minority communities. The Supreme Court held that [Article 21](/wiki/Fundamental_rights_in_India%23Right_to_life "Fundamental rights in India#Right to life") provides the right to marry a person of choice but also included that the law may regulate the conditions of a valid marriage in *[Shafin Jehan vs Asokan K.M (2018\)](/wiki/Hadiya_case "Hadiya case")*.
Marriage is between two individuals with a profound impact on their personal lives, causing petitioners to seek recognition of marriage under the [right to privacy](/wiki/Right_to_Privacy_verdict "Right to Privacy verdict"), which is intrinsic to [Article 21](/wiki/Fundamental_rights_in_India%23Right_to_life "Fundamental rights in India#Right to life") of the [Indian Constitution](/wiki/Constitution_of_India "Constitution of India"). However, when considering legal recognition of their marriage and ancillary rights, the State cannot relegate marriage as a concept within the private domain. The legal recognition of marriage is a public recognition of their relationship.
Even if the petitioners can claim the right to marry under [Article 21](/wiki/Fundamental_rights_in_India%23Right_to_life "Fundamental rights in India#Right to life"), the [legislature](/wiki/Parliament_of_India "Parliament of India") can curtail the rights on constitutionally permissible grounds such as legitimate State interest.
##### Right to freedom of conscience and religion
[Article 25](/wiki/Freedom_of_religion_in_India "Freedom of religion in India") of the [Indian Constitution](/wiki/Constitution_of_India "Constitution of India") protects [personal laws](/wiki/Law_of_India%23Family_law_%E2%80%93_personal_law "Law of India#Family law – personal law"). The Supreme Court reaffirmed the constitutional protection of [personal laws](/wiki/Law_of_India%23Family_law_%E2%80%93_personal_law "Law of India#Family law – personal law") when ruling in *[Shayara Bano v. UOI (2017\)](/wiki/Triple_talaq_in_India%23Judgement "Triple talaq in India#Judgement")*.
#### Constitutional exception to fundamental rights
The [Union Government](/wiki/Government_of_India "Government of India") pointed to the Supreme Court ruling that reading fundamental rights is not to be done in isolation but along with the [Directive Principles of State Policy](/wiki/Directive_Principles "Directive Principles") and the [Fundamental Duties](/wiki/Fundamental_Rights%2C_Directive_Principles_and_Fundamental_Duties_of_India%23Fundamental_Duties "Fundamental Rights, Directive Principles and Fundamental Duties of India#Fundamental Duties") in *Javed v. State of Haryana (2003\)*. They argue that the principles of legitimate state interests as an exception to fundamental rights would be applicable in the current case.
##### Legitimate state interests
The [Union Government](/wiki/Government_of_India "Government of India") argued that a larger legislative framework around the legislative understanding of marriage between opposite sexes demonstrates the legitimate state interest in limiting legal recognition of marriage. The legal recognition of marriage limited to opposite\-sex couples is the norm throughout history and foundational to both the existence and continuance of the State.
Considering the historical and religious norms and social value of marriage, [Union Government](/wiki/Government_of_India "Government of India") argued that the State has a legitimate interest in limiting legal recognition of marriage to opposite\-sex couples. While deciding on *Ram Shiv Kumar v. State of Haryana (1981\)* and *Dalmia Cement (Bharat) Ltd. v. UOI (1996\)*, the Supreme Court held that considerations of social morals are relevant in the process of legislating and [legislature](/wiki/Parliament_of_India "Parliament of India") can judge and enforce such societal morality and public acceptance. The Supreme Court held that the right to privacy is not absolute and is subject to lawful actions to prevent crime and disorder or protect the rights and freedom of others, health or morals in the *Mr ‘X’ v. Hospital ‘Z’ (1998\)*. Similarly, the Supreme Court held that the freedom guaranteed by Article 301 of the [Indian Constitution](/wiki/Constitution_of_India "Constitution of India") is not available to the liquor trade because liquor is a harmful substance detrimental to public health, order and morality.
###### Historical and religious norms
Codified statutory or uncodified [personal laws](/wiki/Law_of_India%23Family_law_%E2%80%93_personal_law "Law of India#Family law – personal law") evolved based on societal values and beliefs, cultural history and religious beliefs. The concept of marriage is a concept emanating from the [personal laws](/wiki/Law_of_India%23Family_law_%E2%80%93_personal_law "Law of India#Family law – personal law") of citizens. In [Hinduism](/wiki/Hinduism "Hinduism"), marriage is a sacrament for reciprocal duties between a [cis man](/wiki/Man "Man") and [cis woman](/wiki/Woman "Woman"). In [Islam](/wiki/Islam "Islam"), marriage is a contract between a cis man and cis woman. With the evolution of jurisprudence, the [legislature](/wiki/Parliament_of_India "Parliament of India") codified some aspects of marriage. The legal recognition of opposite\-sex marriage is to give the relationship a formal character and ensure that all statutory provisions governing the relationships, rights, liabilities, privileges and consequences are available. Despite the statutory recognition of marriage, it relies on historical customs, rituals and practices.
###### Social values
Marriage is a [social institution](/wiki/Institution "Institution") that provides security, support and companionship. Marriage has social and moral obligations in addition to legal obligations and plays a significant role in child\-rearing. Same\-sex individuals living together and having sexual relationships, which the Supreme Court decriminalised, cannot be compared with the Indian family unit. Indian family unit, which consists of a [cis man](/wiki/Man "Man") and [cis woman](/wiki/Woman "Woman") as a husband and wife, and the children born to them, is a quintessential building block for the existence and continuance of the society.
#### International and comparative law
Given the context of the current case, the [Union Government](/wiki/Government_of_India "Government of India") argued that Western decisions, without any basis in [Indian Constitutional](/wiki/Constitution_of_India "Constitution of India") law jurisprudence, cannot be imported. The Supreme Court rejected the US decision that relied on the due process clause of the Constitution of the United States, which was absent in the [Indian Constitution](/wiki/Constitution_of_India "Constitution of India") as it relied upon the tests of reasonableness in the ruling of *Collector of Customs, Madras v. Nathella Sampathu Chetty (1962\)* and *Santokh Singh v. Delhi Administration (1973\).*
#### Legislative policy
The acceptance of marriage between two individuals of the same gender is neither recognised nor accepted by any uncodified [personal](/wiki/Law_of_India%23Family_law_%E2%80%93_personal_law "Law of India#Family law – personal law") or codified statutory laws, such as the [Christian Marriage Act of 1872](/wiki/The_Indian_Christian_Marriage_Act%2C_1872 "The Indian Christian Marriage Act, 1872"), the [Parsi Marriage and Divorce Act of 1936](/wiki/Parsi_law "Parsi law"), the [Special Marriage Act](/wiki/Special_Marriage_Act%2C_1954 "Special Marriage Act, 1954"), the [Hindu Marriage Act](/wiki/Hindu_Marriage_Act%2C_1955 "Hindu Marriage Act, 1955") and the [Foreign Marriage Act](/wiki/Foreign_Marriage_Act%2C_1969 "Foreign Marriage Act, 1969"). Through specific references to opposite sexes, the legislative intent to limit the legal recognition of marriage to opposite\-sex couples is clear. The Supreme Court affirmed that marriage is a legal union of a man and a woman in the ruling of *Mr ‘X’ v. Hospital ‘Z’ (1998\)* and *Reema Aggarwal v. Anupam (2004\).*
Extension of the right to marry to sexual and gender minority individuals would make laws governing marriage, ancillary rights and special provisions for married women otiose. The Supreme Court ruled that the ‘relationship in the nature of marriage’ specified in the [Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act](/wiki/Protection_of_Women_from_Domestic_Violence_Act%2C_2005 "Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act, 2005") does not include same\-sex relationships in *Indra Sarma v. V.K.V. Sarma (2013\)*. The Union Government presented a list of legislations that will be affected if the Supreme Court extend the right to marry to sexual and gender minority individuals, demonstrating the consistent legislative policy that limits marriage to opposite\-sex couples and the incompatibility between the right and the current Legislative Policy.
The above list demonstrates the clear legislative intent to limit the legal recognition of marriage to opposite\-sex couples. The Supreme Court held that [Judiciary](/wiki/Judiciary_of_India "Judiciary of India") is bound to the [literal interpretation](/wiki/Plain_meaning_rule "Plain meaning rule") when the words of a statute are clear and unambiguous in the ruling of the *Raghunath Rai Bareja v. Punjab National Bank (2007\)*. While ruling in *Subramanian Swamy v. Raju (2014\)*, the Supreme Court held that the [Judiciary](/wiki/Judiciary_of_India "Judiciary of India") could read down only when the reading of the provision produces an absurd or unworkable result and reads down a law to give effect to its legislative intent. It is not permissible for the [Judiciary](/wiki/Judiciary_of_India "Judiciary of India") to change the entire legislative policy of the country deeply embedded in religious, societal, cultural and legal norms.
Recognising marriage and conferring ancillary rights, which have consequences in law and privileges, is a legislative function. The [legislature](/wiki/Parliament_of_India "Parliament of India") would have to consider and deliberate on the right to adopt and other rights that would naturally follow the recognition of the right to marry for sexual and gender minority individuals. Only a [legislature](/wiki/Parliament_of_India "Parliament of India"), which reflects the collective wisdom of the nation, can enact legislation based on societal values, beliefs and acceptability, and cultural history to govern, regulate, permit or prohibit human relationships, including issues such as [marriage](/wiki/Marriage "Marriage"), [adoption](/wiki/Adoption "Adoption"), [divorce](/wiki/Divorce "Divorce"), and [maintenance](/wiki/Alimony "Alimony").
Regarding sexual or gender minority spouses, the respondent argued that the legislative intent of the [Citizenship Act](/wiki/Indian_nationality_law "Indian nationality law") is to provide a mechanism for foreign citizens married to Indian Citizens or [Overseas Citizens of India](/wiki/Overseas_Citizenship_of_India "Overseas Citizenship of India") to obtain [Overseas Citizens of India](/wiki/Overseas_Citizenship_of_India "Overseas Citizenship of India"). It was never intended to recognise same\-sex marriage. The Supreme Court held that Parliament is presumed to know the law of the land when it is legislating in *Bhagwati Steel Rolling Mills v. CCE (2016\)*. When the Parliament enacted the Citizenship Act, it was aware of laws limiting legal recognition of marriage to opposite\-sex couples. Therefore, the gender\-neutral language of the Citizenship Act does not recognise a foreign\-origin sexual or gender minority spouse.
|
[
"### Respondent",
"On 12 March 2023, the [Union Government](/wiki/Government_of_India \"Government of India\") under the leadership of the [Bharatiya Janata Party](/wiki/Bharatiya_Janata_Party \"Bharatiya Janata Party\") filed a counter\\-affidavit in the Supreme Court, opposing extending the right to marry to sexual and gender minority individuals in India. The Union Government argued that the challenge to notice and objection provisions of the [Special Marriage Act](/wiki/Special_Marriage_Act%2C_1954 \"Special Marriage Act, 1954\") and [Foreign Marriage Act](/wiki/Foreign_Marriage_Act%2C_1969 \"Foreign Marriage Act, 1969\") and adoption regulations unrelated to same\\-sex marriage. Therefore, the Supreme Court should exclude those matters from the current Case. This section contains a summary of relevant precedents, issues and laws submitted.",
"#### Fundamental rights",
"The [Union Government](/wiki/Government_of_India \"Government of India\") argued that denying the right to marry for sexual and gender minority individuals in India does not violate the [fundamental rights](/wiki/Fundamental_rights_in_India \"Fundamental rights in India\") guaranteed under Articles [14](/wiki/Article_14_of_the_Constitution_of_India \"Article 14 of the Constitution of India\"), [15](/wiki/Article_15_of_the_Constitution_of_India \"Article 15 of the Constitution of India\"), [19](/wiki/Fundamental_rights_in_India%23Right_To_Freedom \"Fundamental rights in India#Right To Freedom\"), [21](/wiki/Fundamental_rights_in_India%23Right_To_Freedom \"Fundamental rights in India#Right To Freedom\") and [25](/wiki/Freedom_of_religion_in_India \"Freedom of religion in India\") of the [Indian Constitution](/wiki/Constitution_of_India \"Constitution of India\"). To make their case, they point to the Supreme Court ruling in [*Navtej Singh Johar v. UOI (2018\\)*](/wiki/Navtej_Singh_Johar_v._Union_of_India \"Navtej Singh Johar v. Union of India\") that explicitly differentiated and excluded marital relationships while reading down [Section 377](/wiki/Section_377 \"Section 377\") of the [Indian Penal Code](/wiki/Indian_Penal_Code \"Indian Penal Code\") for violating [fundamental rights](/wiki/Fundamental_rights_in_India \"Fundamental rights in India\"). They argue that the Supreme Court decriminalised homosexual conduct but did not legitimise it.",
"[Normativity](/wiki/Normativity \"Normativity\") is an intelligible differentia which distinguishes opposite\\-sex couples from couples from sexual and gender minority communities. The rationale for this classification is to ensure social stability through legal recognition of marriage. Hence the non\\-recognition of marriage between sexual and gender minority individuals does not violate [Article 14](/wiki/Article_14_of_the_Constitution_of_India \"Article 14 of the Constitution of India\") of the [Indian Constitution](/wiki/Constitution_of_India \"Constitution of India\"), which guarantees [equality before the law](/wiki/Equality_before_the_law \"Equality before the law\") or [equal protection of the laws](/wiki/Equal_Protection_Clause \"Equal Protection Clause\") within the territory of India.",
"Opposite\\-sex [couples living together](/wiki/Cohabitation_in_India \"Cohabitation in India\") do not enjoy the same status as opposite\\-sex married couples. The Supreme Court held the presumption of the marriage of [couples living together](/wiki/Cohabitation_in_India \"Cohabitation in India\") is rebuttable in *Badri Prasad v. Director of Consolidation(1978\\)*. Not every form of opposite\\-sex relationship is on par with opposite\\-sex marriage. Since the non\\-recognition of marriage between sexual and gender minority individuals is not discrimination only based on sex, it does not violate [Article 15](/wiki/Article_15_of_the_Constitution_of_India \"Article 15 of the Constitution of India\") of the [Indian Constitution](/wiki/Constitution_of_India \"Constitution of India\").",
"While all citizens have a right to an association under [Article 19](/wiki/Fundamental_rights_in_India%23Right_To_Freedom \"Fundamental rights in India#Right To Freedom\") of the [Indian Constitution](/wiki/Constitution_of_India \"Constitution of India\"), the State is not obligated to recognise such associations. The State limits the legal recognition of marriage to opposite\\-sex couples. While the State does not recognise various forms of marriages, unions or relationships between individuals in society, they are not unlawful either.",
"##### Right to life and personal liberty",
"The [Union Government](/wiki/Government_of_India \"Government of India\") argued against any interpretation of [Article 21](/wiki/Fundamental_rights_in_India%23Right_to_life \"Fundamental rights in India#Right to life\") of the [Indian Constitution](/wiki/Constitution_of_India \"Constitution of India\") to include any implicit approval of the right to marry for sexual and gender minority individuals. They point to the Supreme Court decision that explicitly differentiated and excluded marital relationships while reading down [Section 377](/wiki/Section_377 \"Section 377\") of the [Indian Penal Code](/wiki/Indian_Penal_Code \"Indian Penal Code\") for violating Article 21 in [*Navtej Singh Johar v. UOI (2018\\)*](/wiki/Navtej_Singh_Johar_v._Union_of_India \"Navtej Singh Johar v. Union of India\").",
"Since the fundamental rights guaranteed by [Article 21](/wiki/Fundamental_rights_in_India%23Right_to_life \"Fundamental rights in India#Right to life\") are subject to the procedure established by the law, and the Indian marriage laws explicitly limit the recognition to opposite\\-sex couples, the Supreme Court cannot extend the right to marry to include couples from sexual and gender minority communities. The Supreme Court held that [Article 21](/wiki/Fundamental_rights_in_India%23Right_to_life \"Fundamental rights in India#Right to life\") provides the right to marry a person of choice but also included that the law may regulate the conditions of a valid marriage in *[Shafin Jehan vs Asokan K.M (2018\\)](/wiki/Hadiya_case \"Hadiya case\")*.",
"Marriage is between two individuals with a profound impact on their personal lives, causing petitioners to seek recognition of marriage under the [right to privacy](/wiki/Right_to_Privacy_verdict \"Right to Privacy verdict\"), which is intrinsic to [Article 21](/wiki/Fundamental_rights_in_India%23Right_to_life \"Fundamental rights in India#Right to life\") of the [Indian Constitution](/wiki/Constitution_of_India \"Constitution of India\"). However, when considering legal recognition of their marriage and ancillary rights, the State cannot relegate marriage as a concept within the private domain. The legal recognition of marriage is a public recognition of their relationship.",
"Even if the petitioners can claim the right to marry under [Article 21](/wiki/Fundamental_rights_in_India%23Right_to_life \"Fundamental rights in India#Right to life\"), the [legislature](/wiki/Parliament_of_India \"Parliament of India\") can curtail the rights on constitutionally permissible grounds such as legitimate State interest.",
"##### Right to freedom of conscience and religion",
"[Article 25](/wiki/Freedom_of_religion_in_India \"Freedom of religion in India\") of the [Indian Constitution](/wiki/Constitution_of_India \"Constitution of India\") protects [personal laws](/wiki/Law_of_India%23Family_law_%E2%80%93_personal_law \"Law of India#Family law – personal law\"). The Supreme Court reaffirmed the constitutional protection of [personal laws](/wiki/Law_of_India%23Family_law_%E2%80%93_personal_law \"Law of India#Family law – personal law\") when ruling in *[Shayara Bano v. UOI (2017\\)](/wiki/Triple_talaq_in_India%23Judgement \"Triple talaq in India#Judgement\")*.",
"#### Constitutional exception to fundamental rights",
"The [Union Government](/wiki/Government_of_India \"Government of India\") pointed to the Supreme Court ruling that reading fundamental rights is not to be done in isolation but along with the [Directive Principles of State Policy](/wiki/Directive_Principles \"Directive Principles\") and the [Fundamental Duties](/wiki/Fundamental_Rights%2C_Directive_Principles_and_Fundamental_Duties_of_India%23Fundamental_Duties \"Fundamental Rights, Directive Principles and Fundamental Duties of India#Fundamental Duties\") in *Javed v. State of Haryana (2003\\)*. They argue that the principles of legitimate state interests as an exception to fundamental rights would be applicable in the current case.",
"##### Legitimate state interests",
"The [Union Government](/wiki/Government_of_India \"Government of India\") argued that a larger legislative framework around the legislative understanding of marriage between opposite sexes demonstrates the legitimate state interest in limiting legal recognition of marriage. The legal recognition of marriage limited to opposite\\-sex couples is the norm throughout history and foundational to both the existence and continuance of the State.",
"Considering the historical and religious norms and social value of marriage, [Union Government](/wiki/Government_of_India \"Government of India\") argued that the State has a legitimate interest in limiting legal recognition of marriage to opposite\\-sex couples. While deciding on *Ram Shiv Kumar v. State of Haryana (1981\\)* and *Dalmia Cement (Bharat) Ltd. v. UOI (1996\\)*, the Supreme Court held that considerations of social morals are relevant in the process of legislating and [legislature](/wiki/Parliament_of_India \"Parliament of India\") can judge and enforce such societal morality and public acceptance. The Supreme Court held that the right to privacy is not absolute and is subject to lawful actions to prevent crime and disorder or protect the rights and freedom of others, health or morals in the *Mr ‘X’ v. Hospital ‘Z’ (1998\\)*. Similarly, the Supreme Court held that the freedom guaranteed by Article 301 of the [Indian Constitution](/wiki/Constitution_of_India \"Constitution of India\") is not available to the liquor trade because liquor is a harmful substance detrimental to public health, order and morality.",
"###### Historical and religious norms",
"Codified statutory or uncodified [personal laws](/wiki/Law_of_India%23Family_law_%E2%80%93_personal_law \"Law of India#Family law – personal law\") evolved based on societal values and beliefs, cultural history and religious beliefs. The concept of marriage is a concept emanating from the [personal laws](/wiki/Law_of_India%23Family_law_%E2%80%93_personal_law \"Law of India#Family law – personal law\") of citizens. In [Hinduism](/wiki/Hinduism \"Hinduism\"), marriage is a sacrament for reciprocal duties between a [cis man](/wiki/Man \"Man\") and [cis woman](/wiki/Woman \"Woman\"). In [Islam](/wiki/Islam \"Islam\"), marriage is a contract between a cis man and cis woman. With the evolution of jurisprudence, the [legislature](/wiki/Parliament_of_India \"Parliament of India\") codified some aspects of marriage. The legal recognition of opposite\\-sex marriage is to give the relationship a formal character and ensure that all statutory provisions governing the relationships, rights, liabilities, privileges and consequences are available. Despite the statutory recognition of marriage, it relies on historical customs, rituals and practices.",
"###### Social values",
"Marriage is a [social institution](/wiki/Institution \"Institution\") that provides security, support and companionship. Marriage has social and moral obligations in addition to legal obligations and plays a significant role in child\\-rearing. Same\\-sex individuals living together and having sexual relationships, which the Supreme Court decriminalised, cannot be compared with the Indian family unit. Indian family unit, which consists of a [cis man](/wiki/Man \"Man\") and [cis woman](/wiki/Woman \"Woman\") as a husband and wife, and the children born to them, is a quintessential building block for the existence and continuance of the society.",
"#### International and comparative law",
"Given the context of the current case, the [Union Government](/wiki/Government_of_India \"Government of India\") argued that Western decisions, without any basis in [Indian Constitutional](/wiki/Constitution_of_India \"Constitution of India\") law jurisprudence, cannot be imported. The Supreme Court rejected the US decision that relied on the due process clause of the Constitution of the United States, which was absent in the [Indian Constitution](/wiki/Constitution_of_India \"Constitution of India\") as it relied upon the tests of reasonableness in the ruling of *Collector of Customs, Madras v. Nathella Sampathu Chetty (1962\\)* and *Santokh Singh v. Delhi Administration (1973\\).*",
"#### Legislative policy",
"The acceptance of marriage between two individuals of the same gender is neither recognised nor accepted by any uncodified [personal](/wiki/Law_of_India%23Family_law_%E2%80%93_personal_law \"Law of India#Family law – personal law\") or codified statutory laws, such as the [Christian Marriage Act of 1872](/wiki/The_Indian_Christian_Marriage_Act%2C_1872 \"The Indian Christian Marriage Act, 1872\"), the [Parsi Marriage and Divorce Act of 1936](/wiki/Parsi_law \"Parsi law\"), the [Special Marriage Act](/wiki/Special_Marriage_Act%2C_1954 \"Special Marriage Act, 1954\"), the [Hindu Marriage Act](/wiki/Hindu_Marriage_Act%2C_1955 \"Hindu Marriage Act, 1955\") and the [Foreign Marriage Act](/wiki/Foreign_Marriage_Act%2C_1969 \"Foreign Marriage Act, 1969\"). Through specific references to opposite sexes, the legislative intent to limit the legal recognition of marriage to opposite\\-sex couples is clear. The Supreme Court affirmed that marriage is a legal union of a man and a woman in the ruling of *Mr ‘X’ v. Hospital ‘Z’ (1998\\)* and *Reema Aggarwal v. Anupam (2004\\).*",
"Extension of the right to marry to sexual and gender minority individuals would make laws governing marriage, ancillary rights and special provisions for married women otiose. The Supreme Court ruled that the ‘relationship in the nature of marriage’ specified in the [Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act](/wiki/Protection_of_Women_from_Domestic_Violence_Act%2C_2005 \"Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act, 2005\") does not include same\\-sex relationships in *Indra Sarma v. V.K.V. Sarma (2013\\)*. The Union Government presented a list of legislations that will be affected if the Supreme Court extend the right to marry to sexual and gender minority individuals, demonstrating the consistent legislative policy that limits marriage to opposite\\-sex couples and the incompatibility between the right and the current Legislative Policy.",
"The above list demonstrates the clear legislative intent to limit the legal recognition of marriage to opposite\\-sex couples. The Supreme Court held that [Judiciary](/wiki/Judiciary_of_India \"Judiciary of India\") is bound to the [literal interpretation](/wiki/Plain_meaning_rule \"Plain meaning rule\") when the words of a statute are clear and unambiguous in the ruling of the *Raghunath Rai Bareja v. Punjab National Bank (2007\\)*. While ruling in *Subramanian Swamy v. Raju (2014\\)*, the Supreme Court held that the [Judiciary](/wiki/Judiciary_of_India \"Judiciary of India\") could read down only when the reading of the provision produces an absurd or unworkable result and reads down a law to give effect to its legislative intent. It is not permissible for the [Judiciary](/wiki/Judiciary_of_India \"Judiciary of India\") to change the entire legislative policy of the country deeply embedded in religious, societal, cultural and legal norms.",
"Recognising marriage and conferring ancillary rights, which have consequences in law and privileges, is a legislative function. The [legislature](/wiki/Parliament_of_India \"Parliament of India\") would have to consider and deliberate on the right to adopt and other rights that would naturally follow the recognition of the right to marry for sexual and gender minority individuals. Only a [legislature](/wiki/Parliament_of_India \"Parliament of India\"), which reflects the collective wisdom of the nation, can enact legislation based on societal values, beliefs and acceptability, and cultural history to govern, regulate, permit or prohibit human relationships, including issues such as [marriage](/wiki/Marriage \"Marriage\"), [adoption](/wiki/Adoption \"Adoption\"), [divorce](/wiki/Divorce \"Divorce\"), and [maintenance](/wiki/Alimony \"Alimony\").",
"Regarding sexual or gender minority spouses, the respondent argued that the legislative intent of the [Citizenship Act](/wiki/Indian_nationality_law \"Indian nationality law\") is to provide a mechanism for foreign citizens married to Indian Citizens or [Overseas Citizens of India](/wiki/Overseas_Citizenship_of_India \"Overseas Citizenship of India\") to obtain [Overseas Citizens of India](/wiki/Overseas_Citizenship_of_India \"Overseas Citizenship of India\"). It was never intended to recognise same\\-sex marriage. The Supreme Court held that Parliament is presumed to know the law of the land when it is legislating in *Bhagwati Steel Rolling Mills v. CCE (2016\\)*. When the Parliament enacted the Citizenship Act, it was aware of laws limiting legal recognition of marriage to opposite\\-sex couples. Therefore, the gender\\-neutral language of the Citizenship Act does not recognise a foreign\\-origin sexual or gender minority spouse.",
""
] |
#### Fundamental rights
The [Union Government](/wiki/Government_of_India "Government of India") argued that denying the right to marry for sexual and gender minority individuals in India does not violate the [fundamental rights](/wiki/Fundamental_rights_in_India "Fundamental rights in India") guaranteed under Articles [14](/wiki/Article_14_of_the_Constitution_of_India "Article 14 of the Constitution of India"), [15](/wiki/Article_15_of_the_Constitution_of_India "Article 15 of the Constitution of India"), [19](/wiki/Fundamental_rights_in_India%23Right_To_Freedom "Fundamental rights in India#Right To Freedom"), [21](/wiki/Fundamental_rights_in_India%23Right_To_Freedom "Fundamental rights in India#Right To Freedom") and [25](/wiki/Freedom_of_religion_in_India "Freedom of religion in India") of the [Indian Constitution](/wiki/Constitution_of_India "Constitution of India"). To make their case, they point to the Supreme Court ruling in [*Navtej Singh Johar v. UOI (2018\)*](/wiki/Navtej_Singh_Johar_v._Union_of_India "Navtej Singh Johar v. Union of India") that explicitly differentiated and excluded marital relationships while reading down [Section 377](/wiki/Section_377 "Section 377") of the [Indian Penal Code](/wiki/Indian_Penal_Code "Indian Penal Code") for violating [fundamental rights](/wiki/Fundamental_rights_in_India "Fundamental rights in India"). They argue that the Supreme Court decriminalised homosexual conduct but did not legitimise it.
[Normativity](/wiki/Normativity "Normativity") is an intelligible differentia which distinguishes opposite\-sex couples from couples from sexual and gender minority communities. The rationale for this classification is to ensure social stability through legal recognition of marriage. Hence the non\-recognition of marriage between sexual and gender minority individuals does not violate [Article 14](/wiki/Article_14_of_the_Constitution_of_India "Article 14 of the Constitution of India") of the [Indian Constitution](/wiki/Constitution_of_India "Constitution of India"), which guarantees [equality before the law](/wiki/Equality_before_the_law "Equality before the law") or [equal protection of the laws](/wiki/Equal_Protection_Clause "Equal Protection Clause") within the territory of India.
Opposite\-sex [couples living together](/wiki/Cohabitation_in_India "Cohabitation in India") do not enjoy the same status as opposite\-sex married couples. The Supreme Court held the presumption of the marriage of [couples living together](/wiki/Cohabitation_in_India "Cohabitation in India") is rebuttable in *Badri Prasad v. Director of Consolidation(1978\)*. Not every form of opposite\-sex relationship is on par with opposite\-sex marriage. Since the non\-recognition of marriage between sexual and gender minority individuals is not discrimination only based on sex, it does not violate [Article 15](/wiki/Article_15_of_the_Constitution_of_India "Article 15 of the Constitution of India") of the [Indian Constitution](/wiki/Constitution_of_India "Constitution of India").
While all citizens have a right to an association under [Article 19](/wiki/Fundamental_rights_in_India%23Right_To_Freedom "Fundamental rights in India#Right To Freedom") of the [Indian Constitution](/wiki/Constitution_of_India "Constitution of India"), the State is not obligated to recognise such associations. The State limits the legal recognition of marriage to opposite\-sex couples. While the State does not recognise various forms of marriages, unions or relationships between individuals in society, they are not unlawful either.
##### Right to life and personal liberty
The [Union Government](/wiki/Government_of_India "Government of India") argued against any interpretation of [Article 21](/wiki/Fundamental_rights_in_India%23Right_to_life "Fundamental rights in India#Right to life") of the [Indian Constitution](/wiki/Constitution_of_India "Constitution of India") to include any implicit approval of the right to marry for sexual and gender minority individuals. They point to the Supreme Court decision that explicitly differentiated and excluded marital relationships while reading down [Section 377](/wiki/Section_377 "Section 377") of the [Indian Penal Code](/wiki/Indian_Penal_Code "Indian Penal Code") for violating Article 21 in [*Navtej Singh Johar v. UOI (2018\)*](/wiki/Navtej_Singh_Johar_v._Union_of_India "Navtej Singh Johar v. Union of India").
Since the fundamental rights guaranteed by [Article 21](/wiki/Fundamental_rights_in_India%23Right_to_life "Fundamental rights in India#Right to life") are subject to the procedure established by the law, and the Indian marriage laws explicitly limit the recognition to opposite\-sex couples, the Supreme Court cannot extend the right to marry to include couples from sexual and gender minority communities. The Supreme Court held that [Article 21](/wiki/Fundamental_rights_in_India%23Right_to_life "Fundamental rights in India#Right to life") provides the right to marry a person of choice but also included that the law may regulate the conditions of a valid marriage in *[Shafin Jehan vs Asokan K.M (2018\)](/wiki/Hadiya_case "Hadiya case")*.
Marriage is between two individuals with a profound impact on their personal lives, causing petitioners to seek recognition of marriage under the [right to privacy](/wiki/Right_to_Privacy_verdict "Right to Privacy verdict"), which is intrinsic to [Article 21](/wiki/Fundamental_rights_in_India%23Right_to_life "Fundamental rights in India#Right to life") of the [Indian Constitution](/wiki/Constitution_of_India "Constitution of India"). However, when considering legal recognition of their marriage and ancillary rights, the State cannot relegate marriage as a concept within the private domain. The legal recognition of marriage is a public recognition of their relationship.
Even if the petitioners can claim the right to marry under [Article 21](/wiki/Fundamental_rights_in_India%23Right_to_life "Fundamental rights in India#Right to life"), the [legislature](/wiki/Parliament_of_India "Parliament of India") can curtail the rights on constitutionally permissible grounds such as legitimate State interest.
##### Right to freedom of conscience and religion
[Article 25](/wiki/Freedom_of_religion_in_India "Freedom of religion in India") of the [Indian Constitution](/wiki/Constitution_of_India "Constitution of India") protects [personal laws](/wiki/Law_of_India%23Family_law_%E2%80%93_personal_law "Law of India#Family law – personal law"). The Supreme Court reaffirmed the constitutional protection of [personal laws](/wiki/Law_of_India%23Family_law_%E2%80%93_personal_law "Law of India#Family law – personal law") when ruling in *[Shayara Bano v. UOI (2017\)](/wiki/Triple_talaq_in_India%23Judgement "Triple talaq in India#Judgement")*.
|
[
"#### Fundamental rights",
"The [Union Government](/wiki/Government_of_India \"Government of India\") argued that denying the right to marry for sexual and gender minority individuals in India does not violate the [fundamental rights](/wiki/Fundamental_rights_in_India \"Fundamental rights in India\") guaranteed under Articles [14](/wiki/Article_14_of_the_Constitution_of_India \"Article 14 of the Constitution of India\"), [15](/wiki/Article_15_of_the_Constitution_of_India \"Article 15 of the Constitution of India\"), [19](/wiki/Fundamental_rights_in_India%23Right_To_Freedom \"Fundamental rights in India#Right To Freedom\"), [21](/wiki/Fundamental_rights_in_India%23Right_To_Freedom \"Fundamental rights in India#Right To Freedom\") and [25](/wiki/Freedom_of_religion_in_India \"Freedom of religion in India\") of the [Indian Constitution](/wiki/Constitution_of_India \"Constitution of India\"). To make their case, they point to the Supreme Court ruling in [*Navtej Singh Johar v. UOI (2018\\)*](/wiki/Navtej_Singh_Johar_v._Union_of_India \"Navtej Singh Johar v. Union of India\") that explicitly differentiated and excluded marital relationships while reading down [Section 377](/wiki/Section_377 \"Section 377\") of the [Indian Penal Code](/wiki/Indian_Penal_Code \"Indian Penal Code\") for violating [fundamental rights](/wiki/Fundamental_rights_in_India \"Fundamental rights in India\"). They argue that the Supreme Court decriminalised homosexual conduct but did not legitimise it.",
"[Normativity](/wiki/Normativity \"Normativity\") is an intelligible differentia which distinguishes opposite\\-sex couples from couples from sexual and gender minority communities. The rationale for this classification is to ensure social stability through legal recognition of marriage. Hence the non\\-recognition of marriage between sexual and gender minority individuals does not violate [Article 14](/wiki/Article_14_of_the_Constitution_of_India \"Article 14 of the Constitution of India\") of the [Indian Constitution](/wiki/Constitution_of_India \"Constitution of India\"), which guarantees [equality before the law](/wiki/Equality_before_the_law \"Equality before the law\") or [equal protection of the laws](/wiki/Equal_Protection_Clause \"Equal Protection Clause\") within the territory of India.",
"Opposite\\-sex [couples living together](/wiki/Cohabitation_in_India \"Cohabitation in India\") do not enjoy the same status as opposite\\-sex married couples. The Supreme Court held the presumption of the marriage of [couples living together](/wiki/Cohabitation_in_India \"Cohabitation in India\") is rebuttable in *Badri Prasad v. Director of Consolidation(1978\\)*. Not every form of opposite\\-sex relationship is on par with opposite\\-sex marriage. Since the non\\-recognition of marriage between sexual and gender minority individuals is not discrimination only based on sex, it does not violate [Article 15](/wiki/Article_15_of_the_Constitution_of_India \"Article 15 of the Constitution of India\") of the [Indian Constitution](/wiki/Constitution_of_India \"Constitution of India\").",
"While all citizens have a right to an association under [Article 19](/wiki/Fundamental_rights_in_India%23Right_To_Freedom \"Fundamental rights in India#Right To Freedom\") of the [Indian Constitution](/wiki/Constitution_of_India \"Constitution of India\"), the State is not obligated to recognise such associations. The State limits the legal recognition of marriage to opposite\\-sex couples. While the State does not recognise various forms of marriages, unions or relationships between individuals in society, they are not unlawful either.",
"##### Right to life and personal liberty",
"The [Union Government](/wiki/Government_of_India \"Government of India\") argued against any interpretation of [Article 21](/wiki/Fundamental_rights_in_India%23Right_to_life \"Fundamental rights in India#Right to life\") of the [Indian Constitution](/wiki/Constitution_of_India \"Constitution of India\") to include any implicit approval of the right to marry for sexual and gender minority individuals. They point to the Supreme Court decision that explicitly differentiated and excluded marital relationships while reading down [Section 377](/wiki/Section_377 \"Section 377\") of the [Indian Penal Code](/wiki/Indian_Penal_Code \"Indian Penal Code\") for violating Article 21 in [*Navtej Singh Johar v. UOI (2018\\)*](/wiki/Navtej_Singh_Johar_v._Union_of_India \"Navtej Singh Johar v. Union of India\").",
"Since the fundamental rights guaranteed by [Article 21](/wiki/Fundamental_rights_in_India%23Right_to_life \"Fundamental rights in India#Right to life\") are subject to the procedure established by the law, and the Indian marriage laws explicitly limit the recognition to opposite\\-sex couples, the Supreme Court cannot extend the right to marry to include couples from sexual and gender minority communities. The Supreme Court held that [Article 21](/wiki/Fundamental_rights_in_India%23Right_to_life \"Fundamental rights in India#Right to life\") provides the right to marry a person of choice but also included that the law may regulate the conditions of a valid marriage in *[Shafin Jehan vs Asokan K.M (2018\\)](/wiki/Hadiya_case \"Hadiya case\")*.",
"Marriage is between two individuals with a profound impact on their personal lives, causing petitioners to seek recognition of marriage under the [right to privacy](/wiki/Right_to_Privacy_verdict \"Right to Privacy verdict\"), which is intrinsic to [Article 21](/wiki/Fundamental_rights_in_India%23Right_to_life \"Fundamental rights in India#Right to life\") of the [Indian Constitution](/wiki/Constitution_of_India \"Constitution of India\"). However, when considering legal recognition of their marriage and ancillary rights, the State cannot relegate marriage as a concept within the private domain. The legal recognition of marriage is a public recognition of their relationship.",
"Even if the petitioners can claim the right to marry under [Article 21](/wiki/Fundamental_rights_in_India%23Right_to_life \"Fundamental rights in India#Right to life\"), the [legislature](/wiki/Parliament_of_India \"Parliament of India\") can curtail the rights on constitutionally permissible grounds such as legitimate State interest.",
"##### Right to freedom of conscience and religion",
"[Article 25](/wiki/Freedom_of_religion_in_India \"Freedom of religion in India\") of the [Indian Constitution](/wiki/Constitution_of_India \"Constitution of India\") protects [personal laws](/wiki/Law_of_India%23Family_law_%E2%80%93_personal_law \"Law of India#Family law – personal law\"). The Supreme Court reaffirmed the constitutional protection of [personal laws](/wiki/Law_of_India%23Family_law_%E2%80%93_personal_law \"Law of India#Family law – personal law\") when ruling in *[Shayara Bano v. UOI (2017\\)](/wiki/Triple_talaq_in_India%23Judgement \"Triple talaq in India#Judgement\")*.",
""
] |
#### Constitutional exception to fundamental rights
The [Union Government](/wiki/Government_of_India "Government of India") pointed to the Supreme Court ruling that reading fundamental rights is not to be done in isolation but along with the [Directive Principles of State Policy](/wiki/Directive_Principles "Directive Principles") and the [Fundamental Duties](/wiki/Fundamental_Rights%2C_Directive_Principles_and_Fundamental_Duties_of_India%23Fundamental_Duties "Fundamental Rights, Directive Principles and Fundamental Duties of India#Fundamental Duties") in *Javed v. State of Haryana (2003\)*. They argue that the principles of legitimate state interests as an exception to fundamental rights would be applicable in the current case.
##### Legitimate state interests
The [Union Government](/wiki/Government_of_India "Government of India") argued that a larger legislative framework around the legislative understanding of marriage between opposite sexes demonstrates the legitimate state interest in limiting legal recognition of marriage. The legal recognition of marriage limited to opposite\-sex couples is the norm throughout history and foundational to both the existence and continuance of the State.
Considering the historical and religious norms and social value of marriage, [Union Government](/wiki/Government_of_India "Government of India") argued that the State has a legitimate interest in limiting legal recognition of marriage to opposite\-sex couples. While deciding on *Ram Shiv Kumar v. State of Haryana (1981\)* and *Dalmia Cement (Bharat) Ltd. v. UOI (1996\)*, the Supreme Court held that considerations of social morals are relevant in the process of legislating and [legislature](/wiki/Parliament_of_India "Parliament of India") can judge and enforce such societal morality and public acceptance. The Supreme Court held that the right to privacy is not absolute and is subject to lawful actions to prevent crime and disorder or protect the rights and freedom of others, health or morals in the *Mr ‘X’ v. Hospital ‘Z’ (1998\)*. Similarly, the Supreme Court held that the freedom guaranteed by Article 301 of the [Indian Constitution](/wiki/Constitution_of_India "Constitution of India") is not available to the liquor trade because liquor is a harmful substance detrimental to public health, order and morality.
###### Historical and religious norms
Codified statutory or uncodified [personal laws](/wiki/Law_of_India%23Family_law_%E2%80%93_personal_law "Law of India#Family law – personal law") evolved based on societal values and beliefs, cultural history and religious beliefs. The concept of marriage is a concept emanating from the [personal laws](/wiki/Law_of_India%23Family_law_%E2%80%93_personal_law "Law of India#Family law – personal law") of citizens. In [Hinduism](/wiki/Hinduism "Hinduism"), marriage is a sacrament for reciprocal duties between a [cis man](/wiki/Man "Man") and [cis woman](/wiki/Woman "Woman"). In [Islam](/wiki/Islam "Islam"), marriage is a contract between a cis man and cis woman. With the evolution of jurisprudence, the [legislature](/wiki/Parliament_of_India "Parliament of India") codified some aspects of marriage. The legal recognition of opposite\-sex marriage is to give the relationship a formal character and ensure that all statutory provisions governing the relationships, rights, liabilities, privileges and consequences are available. Despite the statutory recognition of marriage, it relies on historical customs, rituals and practices.
###### Social values
Marriage is a [social institution](/wiki/Institution "Institution") that provides security, support and companionship. Marriage has social and moral obligations in addition to legal obligations and plays a significant role in child\-rearing. Same\-sex individuals living together and having sexual relationships, which the Supreme Court decriminalised, cannot be compared with the Indian family unit. Indian family unit, which consists of a [cis man](/wiki/Man "Man") and [cis woman](/wiki/Woman "Woman") as a husband and wife, and the children born to them, is a quintessential building block for the existence and continuance of the society.
|
[
"#### Constitutional exception to fundamental rights",
"The [Union Government](/wiki/Government_of_India \"Government of India\") pointed to the Supreme Court ruling that reading fundamental rights is not to be done in isolation but along with the [Directive Principles of State Policy](/wiki/Directive_Principles \"Directive Principles\") and the [Fundamental Duties](/wiki/Fundamental_Rights%2C_Directive_Principles_and_Fundamental_Duties_of_India%23Fundamental_Duties \"Fundamental Rights, Directive Principles and Fundamental Duties of India#Fundamental Duties\") in *Javed v. State of Haryana (2003\\)*. They argue that the principles of legitimate state interests as an exception to fundamental rights would be applicable in the current case.",
"##### Legitimate state interests",
"The [Union Government](/wiki/Government_of_India \"Government of India\") argued that a larger legislative framework around the legislative understanding of marriage between opposite sexes demonstrates the legitimate state interest in limiting legal recognition of marriage. The legal recognition of marriage limited to opposite\\-sex couples is the norm throughout history and foundational to both the existence and continuance of the State.",
"Considering the historical and religious norms and social value of marriage, [Union Government](/wiki/Government_of_India \"Government of India\") argued that the State has a legitimate interest in limiting legal recognition of marriage to opposite\\-sex couples. While deciding on *Ram Shiv Kumar v. State of Haryana (1981\\)* and *Dalmia Cement (Bharat) Ltd. v. UOI (1996\\)*, the Supreme Court held that considerations of social morals are relevant in the process of legislating and [legislature](/wiki/Parliament_of_India \"Parliament of India\") can judge and enforce such societal morality and public acceptance. The Supreme Court held that the right to privacy is not absolute and is subject to lawful actions to prevent crime and disorder or protect the rights and freedom of others, health or morals in the *Mr ‘X’ v. Hospital ‘Z’ (1998\\)*. Similarly, the Supreme Court held that the freedom guaranteed by Article 301 of the [Indian Constitution](/wiki/Constitution_of_India \"Constitution of India\") is not available to the liquor trade because liquor is a harmful substance detrimental to public health, order and morality.",
"###### Historical and religious norms",
"Codified statutory or uncodified [personal laws](/wiki/Law_of_India%23Family_law_%E2%80%93_personal_law \"Law of India#Family law – personal law\") evolved based on societal values and beliefs, cultural history and religious beliefs. The concept of marriage is a concept emanating from the [personal laws](/wiki/Law_of_India%23Family_law_%E2%80%93_personal_law \"Law of India#Family law – personal law\") of citizens. In [Hinduism](/wiki/Hinduism \"Hinduism\"), marriage is a sacrament for reciprocal duties between a [cis man](/wiki/Man \"Man\") and [cis woman](/wiki/Woman \"Woman\"). In [Islam](/wiki/Islam \"Islam\"), marriage is a contract between a cis man and cis woman. With the evolution of jurisprudence, the [legislature](/wiki/Parliament_of_India \"Parliament of India\") codified some aspects of marriage. The legal recognition of opposite\\-sex marriage is to give the relationship a formal character and ensure that all statutory provisions governing the relationships, rights, liabilities, privileges and consequences are available. Despite the statutory recognition of marriage, it relies on historical customs, rituals and practices.",
"###### Social values",
"Marriage is a [social institution](/wiki/Institution \"Institution\") that provides security, support and companionship. Marriage has social and moral obligations in addition to legal obligations and plays a significant role in child\\-rearing. Same\\-sex individuals living together and having sexual relationships, which the Supreme Court decriminalised, cannot be compared with the Indian family unit. Indian family unit, which consists of a [cis man](/wiki/Man \"Man\") and [cis woman](/wiki/Woman \"Woman\") as a husband and wife, and the children born to them, is a quintessential building block for the existence and continuance of the society.",
""
] |
### Intervenors
#### National Commission for Protection of Child Rights
The [National Commission for Protection of Child Rights](/wiki/National_Commission_for_Protection_of_Child_Rights "National Commission for Protection of Child Rights") (NCPCR), a statutory body of the [Union Government](/wiki/Government_of_India "Government of India"), intervened in the case opposing the extension of the right to adopt for sexual and gender minority individuals in India.
It argued that the current Legislative Policy does not envision same\-sex adoptions. The [Hindu Adoption and Maintenance Act of 1956](/wiki/Hindu_Adoptions_and_Maintenance_Act%2C_1956 "Hindu Adoptions and Maintenance Act, 1956") explicitly recognises opposite\-sex couples. Therefore, it implies that the Act does not recognise adoption by same\-sex couples. The [Juvenile Justice Act of 2015](/wiki/Juvenile_Justice_%28Care_and_Protection_of_Children%29_Act%2C_2015 "Juvenile Justice (Care and Protection of Children) Act, 2015") prohibits single men from adopting a girl child. Therefore, it would restrict the gay couple from adopting a girl child.
India ratified the [United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child](/wiki/Convention_on_the_Rights_of_the_Child "Convention on the Rights of the Child") and the [Hague Convention on Protection of Children and Co\-operation in Respect of Intercountry Adoption](/wiki/Hague_Adoption_Convention "Hague Adoption Convention") on 11 December 1992 and 6 June 2003, respectively, and the treaties do not mention same\-sex adoptions. Therefore, it can be inferred that it does not recognise same\-sex adoptions.
Additionally, a 2015 report argues that studies showing no differences between same\-sex and opposite\-sex parents are flawed due to low sample sizes, selective choosing of the participants and biased responses by the participants. The report asserts that more rigorous studies show that children raised by parents in a same\-sex relationship face greater emotional, developmental, and other difficulties than those raised by mothers and fathers, particularly by their married biological parents.{{Citation \|last\=Hall \|first\=Jamie \|title\=The Research on Same\-Sex Parenting: "No Differences" No More \|date\=23 April 2015 \|url\=https://www.heritage.org/marriage\-and\-family/report/the\-research\-same\-sex\-parenting\-no\-differences\-no\-more \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170331152636/https://www.heritage.org/marriage\-and\-family/report/the\-research\-same\-sex\-parenting\-no\-differences\-no\-more \|place\=\[\[Washington, D.C.]], \[\[United States]] \|publisher\=\[\[The Heritage Foundation]] \|archive\-date\=31 March 2017}}
A 2015 [US](/wiki/United_States "United States") study found that emotional problems were twice as prevalent for children with same\-sex parents than for opposite\-sex parents. The study found the lowest risk of emotional problems in children living with both biological parents who were married.{{Cite journal \|last\=Sullins \|first\=Donald Paul \|date\=25 January 2015 \|title\=Emotional Problems among Children with Same\-Sex Parents: Difference by Definition \|journal\=British Journal of Education, Society and Behavioural Science \|volume\=7 \|issue\=2 \|pages\=99–120 \|doi\=10\.2139/ssrn.2500537}} A longitudinal US study found that children of same\-sex parents experienced an increased rate of depression and obesity as an adult.{{Cite journal \|last\=Sullins \|first\=Donald Paul \|date\=29 May 2016 \|title\=Invisible victims: delayed onset depression among adults with same\-sex parents. \|journal\=Depression Research and Treatment \|volume\=2016 \|pages\=1–8 \|doi\=10\.1155/2016/2410392 \|pmid\=27313882 \|pmc\=4903140 \|doi\-access\=free }}{{Expression of Concern\|doi\=10\.1155/2017/4981984\|http://retractionwatch.com/2017/08/25/publisher\-flags\-paper\-sex\-parenting\-neo\-nazi\-group\-cites/ ''Retraction Watch''}}
Relying on the [US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention](/wiki/Centers_for_Disease_Control_and_Prevention "Centers for Disease Control and Prevention") report that gay and bisexual men are at high risk for sexually transmitted diseases,{{Cite web \|last\=US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention \|author\-link\=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention \|date\=16 September 2022 \|title\=Sexually Transmitted Diseases Among Gay and Bisexual Men \|url\=https://www.cdc.gov/msmhealth/STD.htm \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230306170115/https://www.cdc.gov/msmhealth/STD.htm \|archive\-date\=6 March 2023 \|access\-date\= \|publisher\=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention \|language\=en\-us \|publication\-place\=\[\[Atlanta]], \[\[United States]]}} the NCPCR argued that gay and bisexual men could put their adopted children at risk.
#### Delhi Commission for Protection of Child Rights
The [Delhi Commission for Protection of Child Rights](/wiki/Delhi_Commission_for_Protection_of_Child_Rights "Delhi Commission for Protection of Child Rights") (DCPCR), a statutory body of the [Delhi Government](/wiki/Government_of_Delhi "Government of Delhi") led by the [Aam Aadmi Party](/wiki/Aam_Aadmi_Party "Aam Aadmi Party"), intervened to support extending the right to marry and adopt for sexual and gender minority individuals in India.
It argued that the impact of legal recognition of same\-sex marriage on gendered language in the current Legislative Policy does not present a serious concern. The Fundamental Rights conferred by the Constitution, which relies on gender\-neutral terms such as "person" and "citizen", cannot be limited by the gendered language of the Statutes. The State has legal obligations to ensure non\-discrimination of transgender people in matters including succession under the [Transgender Persons Act of 2019](/wiki/Transgender_Persons_%28Protection_of_Rights%29_Act%2C_2019 "Transgender Persons (Protection of Rights) Act, 2019") and *[NLSA v. UOI (2014\)](/wiki/National_Legal_Services_Authority_v._Union_of_India "National Legal Services Authority v. Union of India")*. These mandates have warranted deviation from the literal interpretation of laws.
One of the reasons for gendered language is to ensure higher protection for women in heterosexual marriages, such as the [Domestic Violence Act of 2005](/wiki/Protection_of_Women_from_Domestic_Violence_Act%2C_2005 "Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act, 2005"), the [Dowry Prohibition Act of 1961](/wiki/Dowry_system_in_India%23Dowry_Prohibition_Act%2C_1961 "Dowry system in India#Dowry Prohibition Act, 1961") and sections granting additional grounds for divorce to women. Recognising same\-sex marriage would not affect these provisions as they would still be relevant in opposite\-sex marriages. Other conditions, such as maintenance, can be read down as gender\-neutral.
The Indian Succession Act of 1925 governs the succession for the marriage registered under Special Marriage Act unless both parties are Hindu, Sikh, Buddhist or Jain. The Supreme Court reviewed the gendered language in the [Hindu Minority and Guardianship Act of 1956](/wiki/Hindu_Minority_and_Guardianship_Act%2C_1956 "Hindu Minority and Guardianship Act, 1956") in *Githa Hariharan v. Reserve Bank of India (1999\).* Similarly, the Hindu Succession Act of 1956, through legislative amendments and judicial decisions, has been made more gender\-neutral.
Uncodified personal laws are not subject to judicial review. As uncodified personal laws govern guardianship for Muslims, Muslim same\-sex spouses can rely on the Guardians and Wards Act of 1890 and seek the appointment of guardians through court on a case\-to\-case basis. Similarly, uncodified personal laws govern succession for Muslims. If Muslim same\-sex couples register their marriage under Special Marriage Act, succession will be handled by Indian Succession Act.
Additionally, more than 50 countries allow same\-sex couples to legally adopt children, including 2 in Asia — Israel and Lebanon — 22 in Europe, and 16 in the Americas. [Constitutional Courts](/wiki/Constitutional_court "Constitutional court") have agreed that there is no reason to deny adoption rights due to sexual orientation, including the [South Africa](/wiki/South_Africa "South Africa") in the [*National Coalition for Gay and Lesbian Equality v. Minister of Home Affairs (2000\)*](/wiki/National_Coalition_for_Gay_and_Lesbian_Equality_v_Minister_of_Home_Affairs "National Coalition for Gay and Lesbian Equality v Minister of Home Affairs") and [*Du Toit v. Minister of Welfare and Population Department (2002\)*](/wiki/Du_Toit_v_Minister_for_Welfare_and_Population_Development "Du Toit v Minister for Welfare and Population Development"), the [United States](/wiki/United_States "United States") in *Florida Department v. Adoption of X.X.G (2010\)* and [*Obergefell v. Hodges (2015\)*](/wiki/Obergefell_v._Hodges "Obergefell v. Hodges"), the [European Court of Human Rights](/wiki/European_Court_of_Human_Rights "European Court of Human Rights") in *Salguiero Da Silva Mouta v. Portugal (1999\)* and *E.B. v. France (2008\)* and [Inter\-American Court of Human Rights](/wiki/Inter-American_Court_of_Human_Rights "Inter-American Court of Human Rights") in [*Advisory Opinion (2018\)*](/wiki/Recognition_of_same-sex_unions_in_the_Americas%232018_Inter-American_Court_of_Human_Rights_ruling "Recognition of same-sex unions in the Americas#2018 Inter-American Court of Human Rights ruling").
A Brazilian legal and psychoanalysis found that the relevant factors in determining whether a couple can be a good parent depend on the capacity to care for the child and the quality of the relationship between parent and child.{{Cite journal \|last1\=Campos Refosco \|first1\=Helena \|last2\=Guida Fernandes \|first2\=Martha Maria \|date\=2017 \|title\=Same\-Sex Parents and Their Children: Brazilian Case Law and Insights from Psychoanalysis \|url\=https://scholarship.law.wm.edu/wmjowl/vol23/iss2/2 \|journal\=William \& Mary Journal of Women and the Law \|volume\=23 \|issue\=2 \|access\-date\=2023\-04\-13 \|archive\-date\=2023\-04\-18 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230418030907/https://scholarship.law.wm.edu/wmjowl/vol23/iss2/2/ \|url\-status\=live }}
Multiple studies have shown that same\-sex parents are no different from opposite\-sex parents. An [American Psychological Association](/wiki/American_Psychological_Association "American Psychological Association") report concluded that the home environment provided by same\-sex parents to support and enable the psychosocial growth of their children is not different from the home environment provided by opposite\-sex parents.{{Citation \|last1\=Committee on Lesbian, Gay, and Bisexual Concerns \|title\=Lesbian \& Gay Parenting \|date\=2005 \|url\=https://www.apa.org/pi/lgbt/resources/parenting\-full.pdf \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110514111440/https://www.apa.org/pi/lgbt/resources/parenting\-full.pdf \|publisher\=\[\[American Psychological Association]] \|archive\-date\=14 May 2011 \|last2\=Committee on Children, Youth, and Families \|last3\=Committee on Women in Psychology}} A 2021 study analysed the administrative data from several population registers from the [Netherlands](/wiki/Netherlands "Netherlands") from 2006 to 2018\. The study included complete population coverage, reliable identification of same\-sex families, verifiable educational outcomes and detailed measures of family dynamics over the children's life course. The study found that in a socio\-political environment characterised by high levels of legislative or public support, children of same\-sex parents achieved as well as children of opposite\-sex parents.{{Cite journal \|last1\=Kabátek \|first1\=Jan \|last2\=Perales \|first2\=Francisco \|date\=1 April 2021 \|title\=Academic Achievement of Children in Same\- and Different\-Sex\-Parented Families: A Population\-Level Analysis of Linked Administrative Data From the Netherlands. \|url\=https://read.dukeupress.edu/demography/article/58/2/393/168481/Academic\-Achievement\-of\-Children\-in\-Same\-and \|journal\=Demography \|volume\=58 \|issue\=2 \|pages\=393–418 \|doi\=10\.1215/00703370\-8994569 \|pmid\=33834221 \|s2cid\=233192489 \|hdl\=11343/280466 \|hdl\-access\=free \|access\-date\=13 April 2023 \|archive\-date\=27 May 2021 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210527233934/https://read.dukeupress.edu/demography/article/58/2/393/168481/Academic\-Achievement\-of\-Children\-in\-Same\-and \|url\-status\=live }}
As same\-sex couples started adopting in 1995 but were allowed to marry only in 2013, a study found that the delay affected same\-sex families negatively, including the health, education and other responsibilities toward their children.{{Cite journal \|last1\=Biasutti \|first1\=Carolina Monteiro \|last2\=Nascimento \|first2\=Célia Regina Rangel \|last3\=Gato \|first3\=Jorge \|last4\=Bortolozzo \|first4\=Mylena Leite \|date\=11 December 2022 \|title\=Same\-sex parenting in Brazil and Portugal: An integrative review. \|url\=https://rsdjournal.org/index.php/rsd/article/view/38227 \|journal\=Research, Society and Development \|volume\=11 \|issue\=16 \|pages\=e357111638227 \|doi\=10\.33448/rsd\-v11i16\.38227 \|s2cid\=254677483 \|doi\-access\=free \|access\-date\=13 April 2023 \|archive\-date\=13 April 2023 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230413194727/https://rsdjournal.org/index.php/rsd/article/view/38227 \|url\-status\=live }}
The DCPCR also relied on the scientific consensus that sexual orientation and gender identity are established at least by adolescence. A Systematic Review and Meta\-Analysis found that sexual orientation develops around the age of 13\.{{Cite journal \|last1\=Hall \|first1\=William J. \|last2\=Dawes \|first2\=Hayden C. \|last3\=Plocek \|first3\=Nina \|date\=21 October 2021 \|title\=Sexual orientation identity development milestones among lesbian, gay, bisexual, and queer people: a systematic review and meta\-analysis. \|journal\=\[\[Frontiers in Psychology]] \|volume\=12 \|page\=753954 \|doi\=10\.3389/fpsyg.2021\.753954 \|pmid\=34777153 \|pmc\=8581765 \|doi\-access\=free }}
In the socio\-legal environment where sexual and gender minority individuals do not have equal rights as cisgender heterosexual counterparts, acceptance, assimilation and legitimacy remains troubled. Despite the [US Supreme Court](/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States "Supreme Court of the United States") ruling on same\-sex marriage, the [US State of Ohio](/wiki/Ohio "Ohio") refrained from enacting anti\-discrimination laws, creating a less favourable legal environment for sexual and gender minority individuals than other states. A study found that sexual and gender minority adolescents in Ohio were twice as likely to face bullying and harassment in school than their cisgender heterosexual counterparts.{{Citation \|last1\=Mallory \|first1\=Christy \|title\=The Impact of Stigma and Discrimination against LGBT People in Ohio \|date\=October 2019 \|url\=https://williamsinstitute.law.ucla.edu/wp\-content/uploads/Impact\-LGBT\-Discrimination\-OH\-Nov\-2019\.pdf \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210515015052/https://williamsinstitute.law.ucla.edu/wp\-content/uploads/Impact\-LGBT\-Discrimination\-OH\-Nov\-2019\.pdf \|publication\-place\=\[\[Los Angeles]], \[\[United States]] \|publisher\=\[\[Williams Institute]], \[\[UCLA School of Law]] \|archive\-date\=15 May 2021 \|last2\=Brown \|first2\=Taylor N.T. \|last3\=Sears \|first3\=Brad}}
##### Guidelines
{{anchor\|DCPCR\-Guidelines}}The DCPCR recommended the following guidelines to ensure the well\-being of children in same\-sex adoptions:
* The [Union](/wiki/Government_of_India "Government of India") and [State Governments](/wiki/State_governments_of_India "State governments of India") create public awareness that same\-sex families are as "normal" as opposite\-sex families and that children of same\-sex families are not incomplete.
* School boards and educational institutions normalise same\-sex families proactively.
* National and State Council for Education, Research and Training to review and eliminate homophobic content and include a more diverse understanding of the families in school textbooks.
* Relevant Authorities should create dedicated helplines and set aside resources for counselling for children facing stigma and bullying due to belonging to a same\-sex family unit.
#### Jamiat Ulema\-e\-Hind
Islamic organisation [Jamiat Ulema\-e\-Hind](/wiki/Jamiat_Ulema-e-Hind "Jamiat Ulema-e-Hind") and Telangana Markazi Shia Ulema Council intervened in the case opposing the extension of the right to marry and establish a family to sexual and gender minority individuals in India on socio\-legal and religious grounds.
It argued that marriage, founded on established societal norms, cannot change following newly developed values emerging from a different worldview in a different paradigm. The concept of same\-sex marriage attacks the family system rather than building a family through the process. Same\-sex marriage recognition in certain countries, which achieved a certain threshold of social order in terms of education and social acceptance, cannot justify introducing the concept in India.
Moreover, a person identifying as a follower of a particular religion should believe in the foundational norms of the same. When a person fails to follow the religious norms, they are considered a sinner. A person who questions and seeks to amend well\-established religious norms is not a follower of the religion. Therefore, there cannot be an imposition of a radical non\-religious view on established, inseparable and core principles of religion.
According to Islam, marriage is a sacred contract between a cis man and cis woman. The current sexual and gender minority rights movement originated from the [Western sexual liberation movement](/wiki/Sexual_revolution_in_1960s_United_States "Sexual revolution in 1960s United States"), an atheistic movement, in the 1960s. Therefore, atheistic values should not be allowed to create any space within the religiously governed personal laws of the communities.
The Supreme Court held that personal laws have constitutional protection under Article 25 in [*Shayara Bano v. UOI (2017\)*](/wiki/Triple_talaq_in_India%23Judgement "Triple talaq in India#Judgement")*.* The petitioner's request is against the established understanding of marriage in all personal laws.
The legislative intent to recognise marriage as a union of a cis man and cis woman is evident. The Supreme Court recognised the separation of power as a part of the basic structure of the Indian Constitution in *[Kesavananda Bharati v. State of Kerala (1973\)](/wiki/Kesavananda_Bharati_v._State_of_Kerala "Kesavananda Bharati v. State of Kerala")*. The legislature enacts laws as per the social acceptability based on the prevailing values of a society. The Supreme Court held that judicial adjudication cannot be equated to law\-making by legislators in *Ashwani Kumar v. Union of India (2020\)*.
#### Telangana Markazi Shia Ulema Council
Islamic organisation Telangana Markazi Shia Ulema Council intervened in the case opposing the extension of the right to marry and establish a family to sexual and gender minority individuals in India on socio\-legal and religious grounds.
|
[
"### Intervenors",
"#### National Commission for Protection of Child Rights",
"The [National Commission for Protection of Child Rights](/wiki/National_Commission_for_Protection_of_Child_Rights \"National Commission for Protection of Child Rights\") (NCPCR), a statutory body of the [Union Government](/wiki/Government_of_India \"Government of India\"), intervened in the case opposing the extension of the right to adopt for sexual and gender minority individuals in India.",
"It argued that the current Legislative Policy does not envision same\\-sex adoptions. The [Hindu Adoption and Maintenance Act of 1956](/wiki/Hindu_Adoptions_and_Maintenance_Act%2C_1956 \"Hindu Adoptions and Maintenance Act, 1956\") explicitly recognises opposite\\-sex couples. Therefore, it implies that the Act does not recognise adoption by same\\-sex couples. The [Juvenile Justice Act of 2015](/wiki/Juvenile_Justice_%28Care_and_Protection_of_Children%29_Act%2C_2015 \"Juvenile Justice (Care and Protection of Children) Act, 2015\") prohibits single men from adopting a girl child. Therefore, it would restrict the gay couple from adopting a girl child.",
"India ratified the [United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child](/wiki/Convention_on_the_Rights_of_the_Child \"Convention on the Rights of the Child\") and the [Hague Convention on Protection of Children and Co\\-operation in Respect of Intercountry Adoption](/wiki/Hague_Adoption_Convention \"Hague Adoption Convention\") on 11 December 1992 and 6 June 2003, respectively, and the treaties do not mention same\\-sex adoptions. Therefore, it can be inferred that it does not recognise same\\-sex adoptions.",
"Additionally, a 2015 report argues that studies showing no differences between same\\-sex and opposite\\-sex parents are flawed due to low sample sizes, selective choosing of the participants and biased responses by the participants. The report asserts that more rigorous studies show that children raised by parents in a same\\-sex relationship face greater emotional, developmental, and other difficulties than those raised by mothers and fathers, particularly by their married biological parents.{{Citation \\|last\\=Hall \\|first\\=Jamie \\|title\\=The Research on Same\\-Sex Parenting: \"No Differences\" No More \\|date\\=23 April 2015 \\|url\\=https://www.heritage.org/marriage\\-and\\-family/report/the\\-research\\-same\\-sex\\-parenting\\-no\\-differences\\-no\\-more \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170331152636/https://www.heritage.org/marriage\\-and\\-family/report/the\\-research\\-same\\-sex\\-parenting\\-no\\-differences\\-no\\-more \\|place\\=\\[\\[Washington, D.C.]], \\[\\[United States]] \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[The Heritage Foundation]] \\|archive\\-date\\=31 March 2017}}",
"A 2015 [US](/wiki/United_States \"United States\") study found that emotional problems were twice as prevalent for children with same\\-sex parents than for opposite\\-sex parents. The study found the lowest risk of emotional problems in children living with both biological parents who were married.{{Cite journal \\|last\\=Sullins \\|first\\=Donald Paul \\|date\\=25 January 2015 \\|title\\=Emotional Problems among Children with Same\\-Sex Parents: Difference by Definition \\|journal\\=British Journal of Education, Society and Behavioural Science \\|volume\\=7 \\|issue\\=2 \\|pages\\=99–120 \\|doi\\=10\\.2139/ssrn.2500537}} A longitudinal US study found that children of same\\-sex parents experienced an increased rate of depression and obesity as an adult.{{Cite journal \\|last\\=Sullins \\|first\\=Donald Paul \\|date\\=29 May 2016 \\|title\\=Invisible victims: delayed onset depression among adults with same\\-sex parents. \\|journal\\=Depression Research and Treatment \\|volume\\=2016 \\|pages\\=1–8 \\|doi\\=10\\.1155/2016/2410392 \\|pmid\\=27313882 \\|pmc\\=4903140 \\|doi\\-access\\=free }}{{Expression of Concern\\|doi\\=10\\.1155/2017/4981984\\|http://retractionwatch.com/2017/08/25/publisher\\-flags\\-paper\\-sex\\-parenting\\-neo\\-nazi\\-group\\-cites/ ''Retraction Watch''}}",
"Relying on the [US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention](/wiki/Centers_for_Disease_Control_and_Prevention \"Centers for Disease Control and Prevention\") report that gay and bisexual men are at high risk for sexually transmitted diseases,{{Cite web \\|last\\=US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention \\|author\\-link\\=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention \\|date\\=16 September 2022 \\|title\\=Sexually Transmitted Diseases Among Gay and Bisexual Men \\|url\\=https://www.cdc.gov/msmhealth/STD.htm \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230306170115/https://www.cdc.gov/msmhealth/STD.htm \\|archive\\-date\\=6 March 2023 \\|access\\-date\\= \\|publisher\\=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention \\|language\\=en\\-us \\|publication\\-place\\=\\[\\[Atlanta]], \\[\\[United States]]}} the NCPCR argued that gay and bisexual men could put their adopted children at risk.",
"#### Delhi Commission for Protection of Child Rights",
"The [Delhi Commission for Protection of Child Rights](/wiki/Delhi_Commission_for_Protection_of_Child_Rights \"Delhi Commission for Protection of Child Rights\") (DCPCR), a statutory body of the [Delhi Government](/wiki/Government_of_Delhi \"Government of Delhi\") led by the [Aam Aadmi Party](/wiki/Aam_Aadmi_Party \"Aam Aadmi Party\"), intervened to support extending the right to marry and adopt for sexual and gender minority individuals in India.",
"It argued that the impact of legal recognition of same\\-sex marriage on gendered language in the current Legislative Policy does not present a serious concern. The Fundamental Rights conferred by the Constitution, which relies on gender\\-neutral terms such as \"person\" and \"citizen\", cannot be limited by the gendered language of the Statutes. The State has legal obligations to ensure non\\-discrimination of transgender people in matters including succession under the [Transgender Persons Act of 2019](/wiki/Transgender_Persons_%28Protection_of_Rights%29_Act%2C_2019 \"Transgender Persons (Protection of Rights) Act, 2019\") and *[NLSA v. UOI (2014\\)](/wiki/National_Legal_Services_Authority_v._Union_of_India \"National Legal Services Authority v. Union of India\")*. These mandates have warranted deviation from the literal interpretation of laws.",
"One of the reasons for gendered language is to ensure higher protection for women in heterosexual marriages, such as the [Domestic Violence Act of 2005](/wiki/Protection_of_Women_from_Domestic_Violence_Act%2C_2005 \"Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act, 2005\"), the [Dowry Prohibition Act of 1961](/wiki/Dowry_system_in_India%23Dowry_Prohibition_Act%2C_1961 \"Dowry system in India#Dowry Prohibition Act, 1961\") and sections granting additional grounds for divorce to women. Recognising same\\-sex marriage would not affect these provisions as they would still be relevant in opposite\\-sex marriages. Other conditions, such as maintenance, can be read down as gender\\-neutral.",
"The Indian Succession Act of 1925 governs the succession for the marriage registered under Special Marriage Act unless both parties are Hindu, Sikh, Buddhist or Jain. The Supreme Court reviewed the gendered language in the [Hindu Minority and Guardianship Act of 1956](/wiki/Hindu_Minority_and_Guardianship_Act%2C_1956 \"Hindu Minority and Guardianship Act, 1956\") in *Githa Hariharan v. Reserve Bank of India (1999\\).* Similarly, the Hindu Succession Act of 1956, through legislative amendments and judicial decisions, has been made more gender\\-neutral.",
"Uncodified personal laws are not subject to judicial review. As uncodified personal laws govern guardianship for Muslims, Muslim same\\-sex spouses can rely on the Guardians and Wards Act of 1890 and seek the appointment of guardians through court on a case\\-to\\-case basis. Similarly, uncodified personal laws govern succession for Muslims. If Muslim same\\-sex couples register their marriage under Special Marriage Act, succession will be handled by Indian Succession Act.",
"Additionally, more than 50 countries allow same\\-sex couples to legally adopt children, including 2 in Asia — Israel and Lebanon — 22 in Europe, and 16 in the Americas. [Constitutional Courts](/wiki/Constitutional_court \"Constitutional court\") have agreed that there is no reason to deny adoption rights due to sexual orientation, including the [South Africa](/wiki/South_Africa \"South Africa\") in the [*National Coalition for Gay and Lesbian Equality v. Minister of Home Affairs (2000\\)*](/wiki/National_Coalition_for_Gay_and_Lesbian_Equality_v_Minister_of_Home_Affairs \"National Coalition for Gay and Lesbian Equality v Minister of Home Affairs\") and [*Du Toit v. Minister of Welfare and Population Department (2002\\)*](/wiki/Du_Toit_v_Minister_for_Welfare_and_Population_Development \"Du Toit v Minister for Welfare and Population Development\"), the [United States](/wiki/United_States \"United States\") in *Florida Department v. Adoption of X.X.G (2010\\)* and [*Obergefell v. Hodges (2015\\)*](/wiki/Obergefell_v._Hodges \"Obergefell v. Hodges\"), the [European Court of Human Rights](/wiki/European_Court_of_Human_Rights \"European Court of Human Rights\") in *Salguiero Da Silva Mouta v. Portugal (1999\\)* and *E.B. v. France (2008\\)* and [Inter\\-American Court of Human Rights](/wiki/Inter-American_Court_of_Human_Rights \"Inter-American Court of Human Rights\") in [*Advisory Opinion (2018\\)*](/wiki/Recognition_of_same-sex_unions_in_the_Americas%232018_Inter-American_Court_of_Human_Rights_ruling \"Recognition of same-sex unions in the Americas#2018 Inter-American Court of Human Rights ruling\").",
"A Brazilian legal and psychoanalysis found that the relevant factors in determining whether a couple can be a good parent depend on the capacity to care for the child and the quality of the relationship between parent and child.{{Cite journal \\|last1\\=Campos Refosco \\|first1\\=Helena \\|last2\\=Guida Fernandes \\|first2\\=Martha Maria \\|date\\=2017 \\|title\\=Same\\-Sex Parents and Their Children: Brazilian Case Law and Insights from Psychoanalysis \\|url\\=https://scholarship.law.wm.edu/wmjowl/vol23/iss2/2 \\|journal\\=William \\& Mary Journal of Women and the Law \\|volume\\=23 \\|issue\\=2 \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-04\\-13 \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-04\\-18 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230418030907/https://scholarship.law.wm.edu/wmjowl/vol23/iss2/2/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"Multiple studies have shown that same\\-sex parents are no different from opposite\\-sex parents. An [American Psychological Association](/wiki/American_Psychological_Association \"American Psychological Association\") report concluded that the home environment provided by same\\-sex parents to support and enable the psychosocial growth of their children is not different from the home environment provided by opposite\\-sex parents.{{Citation \\|last1\\=Committee on Lesbian, Gay, and Bisexual Concerns \\|title\\=Lesbian \\& Gay Parenting \\|date\\=2005 \\|url\\=https://www.apa.org/pi/lgbt/resources/parenting\\-full.pdf \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110514111440/https://www.apa.org/pi/lgbt/resources/parenting\\-full.pdf \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[American Psychological Association]] \\|archive\\-date\\=14 May 2011 \\|last2\\=Committee on Children, Youth, and Families \\|last3\\=Committee on Women in Psychology}} A 2021 study analysed the administrative data from several population registers from the [Netherlands](/wiki/Netherlands \"Netherlands\") from 2006 to 2018\\. The study included complete population coverage, reliable identification of same\\-sex families, verifiable educational outcomes and detailed measures of family dynamics over the children's life course. The study found that in a socio\\-political environment characterised by high levels of legislative or public support, children of same\\-sex parents achieved as well as children of opposite\\-sex parents.{{Cite journal \\|last1\\=Kabátek \\|first1\\=Jan \\|last2\\=Perales \\|first2\\=Francisco \\|date\\=1 April 2021 \\|title\\=Academic Achievement of Children in Same\\- and Different\\-Sex\\-Parented Families: A Population\\-Level Analysis of Linked Administrative Data From the Netherlands. \\|url\\=https://read.dukeupress.edu/demography/article/58/2/393/168481/Academic\\-Achievement\\-of\\-Children\\-in\\-Same\\-and \\|journal\\=Demography \\|volume\\=58 \\|issue\\=2 \\|pages\\=393–418 \\|doi\\=10\\.1215/00703370\\-8994569 \\|pmid\\=33834221 \\|s2cid\\=233192489 \\|hdl\\=11343/280466 \\|hdl\\-access\\=free \\|access\\-date\\=13 April 2023 \\|archive\\-date\\=27 May 2021 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210527233934/https://read.dukeupress.edu/demography/article/58/2/393/168481/Academic\\-Achievement\\-of\\-Children\\-in\\-Same\\-and \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"As same\\-sex couples started adopting in 1995 but were allowed to marry only in 2013, a study found that the delay affected same\\-sex families negatively, including the health, education and other responsibilities toward their children.{{Cite journal \\|last1\\=Biasutti \\|first1\\=Carolina Monteiro \\|last2\\=Nascimento \\|first2\\=Célia Regina Rangel \\|last3\\=Gato \\|first3\\=Jorge \\|last4\\=Bortolozzo \\|first4\\=Mylena Leite \\|date\\=11 December 2022 \\|title\\=Same\\-sex parenting in Brazil and Portugal: An integrative review. \\|url\\=https://rsdjournal.org/index.php/rsd/article/view/38227 \\|journal\\=Research, Society and Development \\|volume\\=11 \\|issue\\=16 \\|pages\\=e357111638227 \\|doi\\=10\\.33448/rsd\\-v11i16\\.38227 \\|s2cid\\=254677483 \\|doi\\-access\\=free \\|access\\-date\\=13 April 2023 \\|archive\\-date\\=13 April 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230413194727/https://rsdjournal.org/index.php/rsd/article/view/38227 \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"The DCPCR also relied on the scientific consensus that sexual orientation and gender identity are established at least by adolescence. A Systematic Review and Meta\\-Analysis found that sexual orientation develops around the age of 13\\.{{Cite journal \\|last1\\=Hall \\|first1\\=William J. \\|last2\\=Dawes \\|first2\\=Hayden C. \\|last3\\=Plocek \\|first3\\=Nina \\|date\\=21 October 2021 \\|title\\=Sexual orientation identity development milestones among lesbian, gay, bisexual, and queer people: a systematic review and meta\\-analysis. \\|journal\\=\\[\\[Frontiers in Psychology]] \\|volume\\=12 \\|page\\=753954 \\|doi\\=10\\.3389/fpsyg.2021\\.753954 \\|pmid\\=34777153 \\|pmc\\=8581765 \\|doi\\-access\\=free }}",
"In the socio\\-legal environment where sexual and gender minority individuals do not have equal rights as cisgender heterosexual counterparts, acceptance, assimilation and legitimacy remains troubled. Despite the [US Supreme Court](/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States \"Supreme Court of the United States\") ruling on same\\-sex marriage, the [US State of Ohio](/wiki/Ohio \"Ohio\") refrained from enacting anti\\-discrimination laws, creating a less favourable legal environment for sexual and gender minority individuals than other states. A study found that sexual and gender minority adolescents in Ohio were twice as likely to face bullying and harassment in school than their cisgender heterosexual counterparts.{{Citation \\|last1\\=Mallory \\|first1\\=Christy \\|title\\=The Impact of Stigma and Discrimination against LGBT People in Ohio \\|date\\=October 2019 \\|url\\=https://williamsinstitute.law.ucla.edu/wp\\-content/uploads/Impact\\-LGBT\\-Discrimination\\-OH\\-Nov\\-2019\\.pdf \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210515015052/https://williamsinstitute.law.ucla.edu/wp\\-content/uploads/Impact\\-LGBT\\-Discrimination\\-OH\\-Nov\\-2019\\.pdf \\|publication\\-place\\=\\[\\[Los Angeles]], \\[\\[United States]] \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Williams Institute]], \\[\\[UCLA School of Law]] \\|archive\\-date\\=15 May 2021 \\|last2\\=Brown \\|first2\\=Taylor N.T. \\|last3\\=Sears \\|first3\\=Brad}}",
"##### Guidelines",
"{{anchor\\|DCPCR\\-Guidelines}}The DCPCR recommended the following guidelines to ensure the well\\-being of children in same\\-sex adoptions:",
"* The [Union](/wiki/Government_of_India \"Government of India\") and [State Governments](/wiki/State_governments_of_India \"State governments of India\") create public awareness that same\\-sex families are as \"normal\" as opposite\\-sex families and that children of same\\-sex families are not incomplete.\n* School boards and educational institutions normalise same\\-sex families proactively.\n* National and State Council for Education, Research and Training to review and eliminate homophobic content and include a more diverse understanding of the families in school textbooks.\n* Relevant Authorities should create dedicated helplines and set aside resources for counselling for children facing stigma and bullying due to belonging to a same\\-sex family unit.",
"#### Jamiat Ulema\\-e\\-Hind",
"Islamic organisation [Jamiat Ulema\\-e\\-Hind](/wiki/Jamiat_Ulema-e-Hind \"Jamiat Ulema-e-Hind\") and Telangana Markazi Shia Ulema Council intervened in the case opposing the extension of the right to marry and establish a family to sexual and gender minority individuals in India on socio\\-legal and religious grounds.",
"It argued that marriage, founded on established societal norms, cannot change following newly developed values emerging from a different worldview in a different paradigm. The concept of same\\-sex marriage attacks the family system rather than building a family through the process. Same\\-sex marriage recognition in certain countries, which achieved a certain threshold of social order in terms of education and social acceptance, cannot justify introducing the concept in India.",
"Moreover, a person identifying as a follower of a particular religion should believe in the foundational norms of the same. When a person fails to follow the religious norms, they are considered a sinner. A person who questions and seeks to amend well\\-established religious norms is not a follower of the religion. Therefore, there cannot be an imposition of a radical non\\-religious view on established, inseparable and core principles of religion.",
"According to Islam, marriage is a sacred contract between a cis man and cis woman. The current sexual and gender minority rights movement originated from the [Western sexual liberation movement](/wiki/Sexual_revolution_in_1960s_United_States \"Sexual revolution in 1960s United States\"), an atheistic movement, in the 1960s. Therefore, atheistic values should not be allowed to create any space within the religiously governed personal laws of the communities.",
"The Supreme Court held that personal laws have constitutional protection under Article 25 in [*Shayara Bano v. UOI (2017\\)*](/wiki/Triple_talaq_in_India%23Judgement \"Triple talaq in India#Judgement\")*.* The petitioner's request is against the established understanding of marriage in all personal laws.",
"The legislative intent to recognise marriage as a union of a cis man and cis woman is evident. The Supreme Court recognised the separation of power as a part of the basic structure of the Indian Constitution in *[Kesavananda Bharati v. State of Kerala (1973\\)](/wiki/Kesavananda_Bharati_v._State_of_Kerala \"Kesavananda Bharati v. State of Kerala\")*. The legislature enacts laws as per the social acceptability based on the prevailing values of a society. The Supreme Court held that judicial adjudication cannot be equated to law\\-making by legislators in *Ashwani Kumar v. Union of India (2020\\)*.",
"#### Telangana Markazi Shia Ulema Council",
"Islamic organisation Telangana Markazi Shia Ulema Council intervened in the case opposing the extension of the right to marry and establish a family to sexual and gender minority individuals in India on socio\\-legal and religious grounds.",
""
] |
#### Delhi Commission for Protection of Child Rights
The [Delhi Commission for Protection of Child Rights](/wiki/Delhi_Commission_for_Protection_of_Child_Rights "Delhi Commission for Protection of Child Rights") (DCPCR), a statutory body of the [Delhi Government](/wiki/Government_of_Delhi "Government of Delhi") led by the [Aam Aadmi Party](/wiki/Aam_Aadmi_Party "Aam Aadmi Party"), intervened to support extending the right to marry and adopt for sexual and gender minority individuals in India.
It argued that the impact of legal recognition of same\-sex marriage on gendered language in the current Legislative Policy does not present a serious concern. The Fundamental Rights conferred by the Constitution, which relies on gender\-neutral terms such as "person" and "citizen", cannot be limited by the gendered language of the Statutes. The State has legal obligations to ensure non\-discrimination of transgender people in matters including succession under the [Transgender Persons Act of 2019](/wiki/Transgender_Persons_%28Protection_of_Rights%29_Act%2C_2019 "Transgender Persons (Protection of Rights) Act, 2019") and *[NLSA v. UOI (2014\)](/wiki/National_Legal_Services_Authority_v._Union_of_India "National Legal Services Authority v. Union of India")*. These mandates have warranted deviation from the literal interpretation of laws.
One of the reasons for gendered language is to ensure higher protection for women in heterosexual marriages, such as the [Domestic Violence Act of 2005](/wiki/Protection_of_Women_from_Domestic_Violence_Act%2C_2005 "Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act, 2005"), the [Dowry Prohibition Act of 1961](/wiki/Dowry_system_in_India%23Dowry_Prohibition_Act%2C_1961 "Dowry system in India#Dowry Prohibition Act, 1961") and sections granting additional grounds for divorce to women. Recognising same\-sex marriage would not affect these provisions as they would still be relevant in opposite\-sex marriages. Other conditions, such as maintenance, can be read down as gender\-neutral.
The Indian Succession Act of 1925 governs the succession for the marriage registered under Special Marriage Act unless both parties are Hindu, Sikh, Buddhist or Jain. The Supreme Court reviewed the gendered language in the [Hindu Minority and Guardianship Act of 1956](/wiki/Hindu_Minority_and_Guardianship_Act%2C_1956 "Hindu Minority and Guardianship Act, 1956") in *Githa Hariharan v. Reserve Bank of India (1999\).* Similarly, the Hindu Succession Act of 1956, through legislative amendments and judicial decisions, has been made more gender\-neutral.
Uncodified personal laws are not subject to judicial review. As uncodified personal laws govern guardianship for Muslims, Muslim same\-sex spouses can rely on the Guardians and Wards Act of 1890 and seek the appointment of guardians through court on a case\-to\-case basis. Similarly, uncodified personal laws govern succession for Muslims. If Muslim same\-sex couples register their marriage under Special Marriage Act, succession will be handled by Indian Succession Act.
Additionally, more than 50 countries allow same\-sex couples to legally adopt children, including 2 in Asia — Israel and Lebanon — 22 in Europe, and 16 in the Americas. [Constitutional Courts](/wiki/Constitutional_court "Constitutional court") have agreed that there is no reason to deny adoption rights due to sexual orientation, including the [South Africa](/wiki/South_Africa "South Africa") in the [*National Coalition for Gay and Lesbian Equality v. Minister of Home Affairs (2000\)*](/wiki/National_Coalition_for_Gay_and_Lesbian_Equality_v_Minister_of_Home_Affairs "National Coalition for Gay and Lesbian Equality v Minister of Home Affairs") and [*Du Toit v. Minister of Welfare and Population Department (2002\)*](/wiki/Du_Toit_v_Minister_for_Welfare_and_Population_Development "Du Toit v Minister for Welfare and Population Development"), the [United States](/wiki/United_States "United States") in *Florida Department v. Adoption of X.X.G (2010\)* and [*Obergefell v. Hodges (2015\)*](/wiki/Obergefell_v._Hodges "Obergefell v. Hodges"), the [European Court of Human Rights](/wiki/European_Court_of_Human_Rights "European Court of Human Rights") in *Salguiero Da Silva Mouta v. Portugal (1999\)* and *E.B. v. France (2008\)* and [Inter\-American Court of Human Rights](/wiki/Inter-American_Court_of_Human_Rights "Inter-American Court of Human Rights") in [*Advisory Opinion (2018\)*](/wiki/Recognition_of_same-sex_unions_in_the_Americas%232018_Inter-American_Court_of_Human_Rights_ruling "Recognition of same-sex unions in the Americas#2018 Inter-American Court of Human Rights ruling").
A Brazilian legal and psychoanalysis found that the relevant factors in determining whether a couple can be a good parent depend on the capacity to care for the child and the quality of the relationship between parent and child.{{Cite journal \|last1\=Campos Refosco \|first1\=Helena \|last2\=Guida Fernandes \|first2\=Martha Maria \|date\=2017 \|title\=Same\-Sex Parents and Their Children: Brazilian Case Law and Insights from Psychoanalysis \|url\=https://scholarship.law.wm.edu/wmjowl/vol23/iss2/2 \|journal\=William \& Mary Journal of Women and the Law \|volume\=23 \|issue\=2 \|access\-date\=2023\-04\-13 \|archive\-date\=2023\-04\-18 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230418030907/https://scholarship.law.wm.edu/wmjowl/vol23/iss2/2/ \|url\-status\=live }}
Multiple studies have shown that same\-sex parents are no different from opposite\-sex parents. An [American Psychological Association](/wiki/American_Psychological_Association "American Psychological Association") report concluded that the home environment provided by same\-sex parents to support and enable the psychosocial growth of their children is not different from the home environment provided by opposite\-sex parents.{{Citation \|last1\=Committee on Lesbian, Gay, and Bisexual Concerns \|title\=Lesbian \& Gay Parenting \|date\=2005 \|url\=https://www.apa.org/pi/lgbt/resources/parenting\-full.pdf \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110514111440/https://www.apa.org/pi/lgbt/resources/parenting\-full.pdf \|publisher\=\[\[American Psychological Association]] \|archive\-date\=14 May 2011 \|last2\=Committee on Children, Youth, and Families \|last3\=Committee on Women in Psychology}} A 2021 study analysed the administrative data from several population registers from the [Netherlands](/wiki/Netherlands "Netherlands") from 2006 to 2018\. The study included complete population coverage, reliable identification of same\-sex families, verifiable educational outcomes and detailed measures of family dynamics over the children's life course. The study found that in a socio\-political environment characterised by high levels of legislative or public support, children of same\-sex parents achieved as well as children of opposite\-sex parents.{{Cite journal \|last1\=Kabátek \|first1\=Jan \|last2\=Perales \|first2\=Francisco \|date\=1 April 2021 \|title\=Academic Achievement of Children in Same\- and Different\-Sex\-Parented Families: A Population\-Level Analysis of Linked Administrative Data From the Netherlands. \|url\=https://read.dukeupress.edu/demography/article/58/2/393/168481/Academic\-Achievement\-of\-Children\-in\-Same\-and \|journal\=Demography \|volume\=58 \|issue\=2 \|pages\=393–418 \|doi\=10\.1215/00703370\-8994569 \|pmid\=33834221 \|s2cid\=233192489 \|hdl\=11343/280466 \|hdl\-access\=free \|access\-date\=13 April 2023 \|archive\-date\=27 May 2021 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210527233934/https://read.dukeupress.edu/demography/article/58/2/393/168481/Academic\-Achievement\-of\-Children\-in\-Same\-and \|url\-status\=live }}
As same\-sex couples started adopting in 1995 but were allowed to marry only in 2013, a study found that the delay affected same\-sex families negatively, including the health, education and other responsibilities toward their children.{{Cite journal \|last1\=Biasutti \|first1\=Carolina Monteiro \|last2\=Nascimento \|first2\=Célia Regina Rangel \|last3\=Gato \|first3\=Jorge \|last4\=Bortolozzo \|first4\=Mylena Leite \|date\=11 December 2022 \|title\=Same\-sex parenting in Brazil and Portugal: An integrative review. \|url\=https://rsdjournal.org/index.php/rsd/article/view/38227 \|journal\=Research, Society and Development \|volume\=11 \|issue\=16 \|pages\=e357111638227 \|doi\=10\.33448/rsd\-v11i16\.38227 \|s2cid\=254677483 \|doi\-access\=free \|access\-date\=13 April 2023 \|archive\-date\=13 April 2023 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230413194727/https://rsdjournal.org/index.php/rsd/article/view/38227 \|url\-status\=live }}
The DCPCR also relied on the scientific consensus that sexual orientation and gender identity are established at least by adolescence. A Systematic Review and Meta\-Analysis found that sexual orientation develops around the age of 13\.{{Cite journal \|last1\=Hall \|first1\=William J. \|last2\=Dawes \|first2\=Hayden C. \|last3\=Plocek \|first3\=Nina \|date\=21 October 2021 \|title\=Sexual orientation identity development milestones among lesbian, gay, bisexual, and queer people: a systematic review and meta\-analysis. \|journal\=\[\[Frontiers in Psychology]] \|volume\=12 \|page\=753954 \|doi\=10\.3389/fpsyg.2021\.753954 \|pmid\=34777153 \|pmc\=8581765 \|doi\-access\=free }}
In the socio\-legal environment where sexual and gender minority individuals do not have equal rights as cisgender heterosexual counterparts, acceptance, assimilation and legitimacy remains troubled. Despite the [US Supreme Court](/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States "Supreme Court of the United States") ruling on same\-sex marriage, the [US State of Ohio](/wiki/Ohio "Ohio") refrained from enacting anti\-discrimination laws, creating a less favourable legal environment for sexual and gender minority individuals than other states. A study found that sexual and gender minority adolescents in Ohio were twice as likely to face bullying and harassment in school than their cisgender heterosexual counterparts.{{Citation \|last1\=Mallory \|first1\=Christy \|title\=The Impact of Stigma and Discrimination against LGBT People in Ohio \|date\=October 2019 \|url\=https://williamsinstitute.law.ucla.edu/wp\-content/uploads/Impact\-LGBT\-Discrimination\-OH\-Nov\-2019\.pdf \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210515015052/https://williamsinstitute.law.ucla.edu/wp\-content/uploads/Impact\-LGBT\-Discrimination\-OH\-Nov\-2019\.pdf \|publication\-place\=\[\[Los Angeles]], \[\[United States]] \|publisher\=\[\[Williams Institute]], \[\[UCLA School of Law]] \|archive\-date\=15 May 2021 \|last2\=Brown \|first2\=Taylor N.T. \|last3\=Sears \|first3\=Brad}}
##### Guidelines
{{anchor\|DCPCR\-Guidelines}}The DCPCR recommended the following guidelines to ensure the well\-being of children in same\-sex adoptions:
* The [Union](/wiki/Government_of_India "Government of India") and [State Governments](/wiki/State_governments_of_India "State governments of India") create public awareness that same\-sex families are as "normal" as opposite\-sex families and that children of same\-sex families are not incomplete.
* School boards and educational institutions normalise same\-sex families proactively.
* National and State Council for Education, Research and Training to review and eliminate homophobic content and include a more diverse understanding of the families in school textbooks.
* Relevant Authorities should create dedicated helplines and set aside resources for counselling for children facing stigma and bullying due to belonging to a same\-sex family unit.
|
[
"#### Delhi Commission for Protection of Child Rights",
"The [Delhi Commission for Protection of Child Rights](/wiki/Delhi_Commission_for_Protection_of_Child_Rights \"Delhi Commission for Protection of Child Rights\") (DCPCR), a statutory body of the [Delhi Government](/wiki/Government_of_Delhi \"Government of Delhi\") led by the [Aam Aadmi Party](/wiki/Aam_Aadmi_Party \"Aam Aadmi Party\"), intervened to support extending the right to marry and adopt for sexual and gender minority individuals in India.",
"It argued that the impact of legal recognition of same\\-sex marriage on gendered language in the current Legislative Policy does not present a serious concern. The Fundamental Rights conferred by the Constitution, which relies on gender\\-neutral terms such as \"person\" and \"citizen\", cannot be limited by the gendered language of the Statutes. The State has legal obligations to ensure non\\-discrimination of transgender people in matters including succession under the [Transgender Persons Act of 2019](/wiki/Transgender_Persons_%28Protection_of_Rights%29_Act%2C_2019 \"Transgender Persons (Protection of Rights) Act, 2019\") and *[NLSA v. UOI (2014\\)](/wiki/National_Legal_Services_Authority_v._Union_of_India \"National Legal Services Authority v. Union of India\")*. These mandates have warranted deviation from the literal interpretation of laws.",
"One of the reasons for gendered language is to ensure higher protection for women in heterosexual marriages, such as the [Domestic Violence Act of 2005](/wiki/Protection_of_Women_from_Domestic_Violence_Act%2C_2005 \"Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act, 2005\"), the [Dowry Prohibition Act of 1961](/wiki/Dowry_system_in_India%23Dowry_Prohibition_Act%2C_1961 \"Dowry system in India#Dowry Prohibition Act, 1961\") and sections granting additional grounds for divorce to women. Recognising same\\-sex marriage would not affect these provisions as they would still be relevant in opposite\\-sex marriages. Other conditions, such as maintenance, can be read down as gender\\-neutral.",
"The Indian Succession Act of 1925 governs the succession for the marriage registered under Special Marriage Act unless both parties are Hindu, Sikh, Buddhist or Jain. The Supreme Court reviewed the gendered language in the [Hindu Minority and Guardianship Act of 1956](/wiki/Hindu_Minority_and_Guardianship_Act%2C_1956 \"Hindu Minority and Guardianship Act, 1956\") in *Githa Hariharan v. Reserve Bank of India (1999\\).* Similarly, the Hindu Succession Act of 1956, through legislative amendments and judicial decisions, has been made more gender\\-neutral.",
"Uncodified personal laws are not subject to judicial review. As uncodified personal laws govern guardianship for Muslims, Muslim same\\-sex spouses can rely on the Guardians and Wards Act of 1890 and seek the appointment of guardians through court on a case\\-to\\-case basis. Similarly, uncodified personal laws govern succession for Muslims. If Muslim same\\-sex couples register their marriage under Special Marriage Act, succession will be handled by Indian Succession Act.",
"Additionally, more than 50 countries allow same\\-sex couples to legally adopt children, including 2 in Asia — Israel and Lebanon — 22 in Europe, and 16 in the Americas. [Constitutional Courts](/wiki/Constitutional_court \"Constitutional court\") have agreed that there is no reason to deny adoption rights due to sexual orientation, including the [South Africa](/wiki/South_Africa \"South Africa\") in the [*National Coalition for Gay and Lesbian Equality v. Minister of Home Affairs (2000\\)*](/wiki/National_Coalition_for_Gay_and_Lesbian_Equality_v_Minister_of_Home_Affairs \"National Coalition for Gay and Lesbian Equality v Minister of Home Affairs\") and [*Du Toit v. Minister of Welfare and Population Department (2002\\)*](/wiki/Du_Toit_v_Minister_for_Welfare_and_Population_Development \"Du Toit v Minister for Welfare and Population Development\"), the [United States](/wiki/United_States \"United States\") in *Florida Department v. Adoption of X.X.G (2010\\)* and [*Obergefell v. Hodges (2015\\)*](/wiki/Obergefell_v._Hodges \"Obergefell v. Hodges\"), the [European Court of Human Rights](/wiki/European_Court_of_Human_Rights \"European Court of Human Rights\") in *Salguiero Da Silva Mouta v. Portugal (1999\\)* and *E.B. v. France (2008\\)* and [Inter\\-American Court of Human Rights](/wiki/Inter-American_Court_of_Human_Rights \"Inter-American Court of Human Rights\") in [*Advisory Opinion (2018\\)*](/wiki/Recognition_of_same-sex_unions_in_the_Americas%232018_Inter-American_Court_of_Human_Rights_ruling \"Recognition of same-sex unions in the Americas#2018 Inter-American Court of Human Rights ruling\").",
"A Brazilian legal and psychoanalysis found that the relevant factors in determining whether a couple can be a good parent depend on the capacity to care for the child and the quality of the relationship between parent and child.{{Cite journal \\|last1\\=Campos Refosco \\|first1\\=Helena \\|last2\\=Guida Fernandes \\|first2\\=Martha Maria \\|date\\=2017 \\|title\\=Same\\-Sex Parents and Their Children: Brazilian Case Law and Insights from Psychoanalysis \\|url\\=https://scholarship.law.wm.edu/wmjowl/vol23/iss2/2 \\|journal\\=William \\& Mary Journal of Women and the Law \\|volume\\=23 \\|issue\\=2 \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-04\\-13 \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-04\\-18 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230418030907/https://scholarship.law.wm.edu/wmjowl/vol23/iss2/2/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"Multiple studies have shown that same\\-sex parents are no different from opposite\\-sex parents. An [American Psychological Association](/wiki/American_Psychological_Association \"American Psychological Association\") report concluded that the home environment provided by same\\-sex parents to support and enable the psychosocial growth of their children is not different from the home environment provided by opposite\\-sex parents.{{Citation \\|last1\\=Committee on Lesbian, Gay, and Bisexual Concerns \\|title\\=Lesbian \\& Gay Parenting \\|date\\=2005 \\|url\\=https://www.apa.org/pi/lgbt/resources/parenting\\-full.pdf \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110514111440/https://www.apa.org/pi/lgbt/resources/parenting\\-full.pdf \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[American Psychological Association]] \\|archive\\-date\\=14 May 2011 \\|last2\\=Committee on Children, Youth, and Families \\|last3\\=Committee on Women in Psychology}} A 2021 study analysed the administrative data from several population registers from the [Netherlands](/wiki/Netherlands \"Netherlands\") from 2006 to 2018\\. The study included complete population coverage, reliable identification of same\\-sex families, verifiable educational outcomes and detailed measures of family dynamics over the children's life course. The study found that in a socio\\-political environment characterised by high levels of legislative or public support, children of same\\-sex parents achieved as well as children of opposite\\-sex parents.{{Cite journal \\|last1\\=Kabátek \\|first1\\=Jan \\|last2\\=Perales \\|first2\\=Francisco \\|date\\=1 April 2021 \\|title\\=Academic Achievement of Children in Same\\- and Different\\-Sex\\-Parented Families: A Population\\-Level Analysis of Linked Administrative Data From the Netherlands. \\|url\\=https://read.dukeupress.edu/demography/article/58/2/393/168481/Academic\\-Achievement\\-of\\-Children\\-in\\-Same\\-and \\|journal\\=Demography \\|volume\\=58 \\|issue\\=2 \\|pages\\=393–418 \\|doi\\=10\\.1215/00703370\\-8994569 \\|pmid\\=33834221 \\|s2cid\\=233192489 \\|hdl\\=11343/280466 \\|hdl\\-access\\=free \\|access\\-date\\=13 April 2023 \\|archive\\-date\\=27 May 2021 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210527233934/https://read.dukeupress.edu/demography/article/58/2/393/168481/Academic\\-Achievement\\-of\\-Children\\-in\\-Same\\-and \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"As same\\-sex couples started adopting in 1995 but were allowed to marry only in 2013, a study found that the delay affected same\\-sex families negatively, including the health, education and other responsibilities toward their children.{{Cite journal \\|last1\\=Biasutti \\|first1\\=Carolina Monteiro \\|last2\\=Nascimento \\|first2\\=Célia Regina Rangel \\|last3\\=Gato \\|first3\\=Jorge \\|last4\\=Bortolozzo \\|first4\\=Mylena Leite \\|date\\=11 December 2022 \\|title\\=Same\\-sex parenting in Brazil and Portugal: An integrative review. \\|url\\=https://rsdjournal.org/index.php/rsd/article/view/38227 \\|journal\\=Research, Society and Development \\|volume\\=11 \\|issue\\=16 \\|pages\\=e357111638227 \\|doi\\=10\\.33448/rsd\\-v11i16\\.38227 \\|s2cid\\=254677483 \\|doi\\-access\\=free \\|access\\-date\\=13 April 2023 \\|archive\\-date\\=13 April 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230413194727/https://rsdjournal.org/index.php/rsd/article/view/38227 \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"The DCPCR also relied on the scientific consensus that sexual orientation and gender identity are established at least by adolescence. A Systematic Review and Meta\\-Analysis found that sexual orientation develops around the age of 13\\.{{Cite journal \\|last1\\=Hall \\|first1\\=William J. \\|last2\\=Dawes \\|first2\\=Hayden C. \\|last3\\=Plocek \\|first3\\=Nina \\|date\\=21 October 2021 \\|title\\=Sexual orientation identity development milestones among lesbian, gay, bisexual, and queer people: a systematic review and meta\\-analysis. \\|journal\\=\\[\\[Frontiers in Psychology]] \\|volume\\=12 \\|page\\=753954 \\|doi\\=10\\.3389/fpsyg.2021\\.753954 \\|pmid\\=34777153 \\|pmc\\=8581765 \\|doi\\-access\\=free }}",
"In the socio\\-legal environment where sexual and gender minority individuals do not have equal rights as cisgender heterosexual counterparts, acceptance, assimilation and legitimacy remains troubled. Despite the [US Supreme Court](/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States \"Supreme Court of the United States\") ruling on same\\-sex marriage, the [US State of Ohio](/wiki/Ohio \"Ohio\") refrained from enacting anti\\-discrimination laws, creating a less favourable legal environment for sexual and gender minority individuals than other states. A study found that sexual and gender minority adolescents in Ohio were twice as likely to face bullying and harassment in school than their cisgender heterosexual counterparts.{{Citation \\|last1\\=Mallory \\|first1\\=Christy \\|title\\=The Impact of Stigma and Discrimination against LGBT People in Ohio \\|date\\=October 2019 \\|url\\=https://williamsinstitute.law.ucla.edu/wp\\-content/uploads/Impact\\-LGBT\\-Discrimination\\-OH\\-Nov\\-2019\\.pdf \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210515015052/https://williamsinstitute.law.ucla.edu/wp\\-content/uploads/Impact\\-LGBT\\-Discrimination\\-OH\\-Nov\\-2019\\.pdf \\|publication\\-place\\=\\[\\[Los Angeles]], \\[\\[United States]] \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Williams Institute]], \\[\\[UCLA School of Law]] \\|archive\\-date\\=15 May 2021 \\|last2\\=Brown \\|first2\\=Taylor N.T. \\|last3\\=Sears \\|first3\\=Brad}}",
"##### Guidelines",
"{{anchor\\|DCPCR\\-Guidelines}}The DCPCR recommended the following guidelines to ensure the well\\-being of children in same\\-sex adoptions:",
"* The [Union](/wiki/Government_of_India \"Government of India\") and [State Governments](/wiki/State_governments_of_India \"State governments of India\") create public awareness that same\\-sex families are as \"normal\" as opposite\\-sex families and that children of same\\-sex families are not incomplete.\n* School boards and educational institutions normalise same\\-sex families proactively.\n* National and State Council for Education, Research and Training to review and eliminate homophobic content and include a more diverse understanding of the families in school textbooks.\n* Relevant Authorities should create dedicated helplines and set aside resources for counselling for children facing stigma and bullying due to belonging to a same\\-sex family unit."
] |
#### Jamiat Ulema\-e\-Hind
Islamic organisation [Jamiat Ulema\-e\-Hind](/wiki/Jamiat_Ulema-e-Hind "Jamiat Ulema-e-Hind") and Telangana Markazi Shia Ulema Council intervened in the case opposing the extension of the right to marry and establish a family to sexual and gender minority individuals in India on socio\-legal and religious grounds.
It argued that marriage, founded on established societal norms, cannot change following newly developed values emerging from a different worldview in a different paradigm. The concept of same\-sex marriage attacks the family system rather than building a family through the process. Same\-sex marriage recognition in certain countries, which achieved a certain threshold of social order in terms of education and social acceptance, cannot justify introducing the concept in India.
Moreover, a person identifying as a follower of a particular religion should believe in the foundational norms of the same. When a person fails to follow the religious norms, they are considered a sinner. A person who questions and seeks to amend well\-established religious norms is not a follower of the religion. Therefore, there cannot be an imposition of a radical non\-religious view on established, inseparable and core principles of religion.
According to Islam, marriage is a sacred contract between a cis man and cis woman. The current sexual and gender minority rights movement originated from the [Western sexual liberation movement](/wiki/Sexual_revolution_in_1960s_United_States "Sexual revolution in 1960s United States"), an atheistic movement, in the 1960s. Therefore, atheistic values should not be allowed to create any space within the religiously governed personal laws of the communities.
The Supreme Court held that personal laws have constitutional protection under Article 25 in [*Shayara Bano v. UOI (2017\)*](/wiki/Triple_talaq_in_India%23Judgement "Triple talaq in India#Judgement")*.* The petitioner's request is against the established understanding of marriage in all personal laws.
The legislative intent to recognise marriage as a union of a cis man and cis woman is evident. The Supreme Court recognised the separation of power as a part of the basic structure of the Indian Constitution in *[Kesavananda Bharati v. State of Kerala (1973\)](/wiki/Kesavananda_Bharati_v._State_of_Kerala "Kesavananda Bharati v. State of Kerala")*. The legislature enacts laws as per the social acceptability based on the prevailing values of a society. The Supreme Court held that judicial adjudication cannot be equated to law\-making by legislators in *Ashwani Kumar v. Union of India (2020\)*.
|
[
"#### Jamiat Ulema\\-e\\-Hind",
"Islamic organisation [Jamiat Ulema\\-e\\-Hind](/wiki/Jamiat_Ulema-e-Hind \"Jamiat Ulema-e-Hind\") and Telangana Markazi Shia Ulema Council intervened in the case opposing the extension of the right to marry and establish a family to sexual and gender minority individuals in India on socio\\-legal and religious grounds.",
"It argued that marriage, founded on established societal norms, cannot change following newly developed values emerging from a different worldview in a different paradigm. The concept of same\\-sex marriage attacks the family system rather than building a family through the process. Same\\-sex marriage recognition in certain countries, which achieved a certain threshold of social order in terms of education and social acceptance, cannot justify introducing the concept in India.",
"Moreover, a person identifying as a follower of a particular religion should believe in the foundational norms of the same. When a person fails to follow the religious norms, they are considered a sinner. A person who questions and seeks to amend well\\-established religious norms is not a follower of the religion. Therefore, there cannot be an imposition of a radical non\\-religious view on established, inseparable and core principles of religion.",
"According to Islam, marriage is a sacred contract between a cis man and cis woman. The current sexual and gender minority rights movement originated from the [Western sexual liberation movement](/wiki/Sexual_revolution_in_1960s_United_States \"Sexual revolution in 1960s United States\"), an atheistic movement, in the 1960s. Therefore, atheistic values should not be allowed to create any space within the religiously governed personal laws of the communities.",
"The Supreme Court held that personal laws have constitutional protection under Article 25 in [*Shayara Bano v. UOI (2017\\)*](/wiki/Triple_talaq_in_India%23Judgement \"Triple talaq in India#Judgement\")*.* The petitioner's request is against the established understanding of marriage in all personal laws.",
"The legislative intent to recognise marriage as a union of a cis man and cis woman is evident. The Supreme Court recognised the separation of power as a part of the basic structure of the Indian Constitution in *[Kesavananda Bharati v. State of Kerala (1973\\)](/wiki/Kesavananda_Bharati_v._State_of_Kerala \"Kesavananda Bharati v. State of Kerala\")*. The legislature enacts laws as per the social acceptability based on the prevailing values of a society. The Supreme Court held that judicial adjudication cannot be equated to law\\-making by legislators in *Ashwani Kumar v. Union of India (2020\\)*.",
""
] |
Oral arguments
--------------
The oral arguments before the Constitution bench commenced on 18 April 2023\.{{Cite news \|last\=Singh \|first\=Karan Deep \|date\=2023\-04\-18 \|title\=India's Top Court Begins Hearing Same\-Sex Marriage Case \|language\=en\-US \|work\=The New York Times \|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2023/04/18/world/asia/india\-court\-same\-sex\-marriage.html \|access\-date\=2023\-04\-22 \|issn\=0362\-4331 \|archive\-date\=2023\-04\-21 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230421225813/https://www.nytimes.com/2023/04/18/world/asia/india\-court\-same\-sex\-marriage.html \|url\-status\=live }} After a total of ten days of hearings from both the petitioners and respondents, the Bench concluded the hearings and reserved their verdict on 11 May 2023\.{{Cite web \|last\=Venkatesan \|first\=V. \|date\=11 May 2023 \|title\='SC Must Walk the Full Mile': What Petitioners Said in the Same\-Sex Marriage Equality Rights Case \|url\=https://thewire.in/law/sc\-must\-walk\-the\-full\-mile\-what\-petitioners\-said\-in\-the\-same\-sex\-marriage\-equality\-rights\-case \|access\-date\= \|website\=The Wire \|archive\-date\=19 May 2023 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230519073051/https://thewire.in/law/sc\-must\-walk\-the\-full\-mile\-what\-petitioners\-said\-in\-the\-same\-sex\-marriage\-equality\-rights\-case \|url\-status\=live }}
### Jurisdiction
On 18 April 2023, Solicitor General [Mehta](/wiki/Tushar_Mehta "Tushar Mehta") filed an affidavit from the Union Government, arguing that petitions lacked tenability. He reasoned that the issues raised in the Case were in the jurisdiction of the Parliament and the State Legislatures. He maintained that the subjects were out of the Supreme Court's jurisdiction and urged the Bench to dismiss the Case. Senior Advocate [Rohatgi](/wiki/Mukul_Rohatgi "Mukul Rohatgi") and [Vishwanathan](/wiki/K._V._Viswanathan "K. V. Viswanathan") swiftly countered the arguments put forth by Solicitor General Mehta. They strongly asserted their right to be heard by the Supreme Court, as guaranteed by Article 32, particularly on matters related to the infringement of fundamental rights guaranteed by Part 3 of the Indian Constitution. Chief Justice D.Y. Chandrachud and Justice S.K. Kaul rejected the Solicitor General's motion to pre\-empt the submissions of petitioners.Transcript of Hearing: {{Harvnb\|18th April 2023}}
Senior Advocate Rohatgi emphasized that the Supreme Court has the jurisdiction and responsibility to address violations of fundamental rights, even if only a few individuals are affected. He argued that waiting for parliamentary action is not an adequate response when fundamental rights are at stake.
{{Blockquote\|text\=I have no voice in Parliament. \[However,] I have a voice \[when it comes to] coming to open the doors of this court \[and to] come here and plead before your Lordships.\|author\=Senior Advocate Rohatgi\|title\=19th April 2023}}
Senior Advocate Rohatgi pointed out that justices have consistently rejected the argument that the number of affected individuals is insignificant, as even one person's fundamental rights being violated is enough to seek redress from the Court. The duty of the Court under Article 32 of the Constitution is to protect and uphold the rights of individuals, regardless of their minority status.
Senior Advocate [Guruswamy](/wiki/Menaka_Guruswamy "Menaka Guruswamy") argued that the Indian Parliament, unlike British Parliament, is not a sovereign body with unlimited powers but is constrained by the Constitution. Chief Justice D.Y. Chandrachud pointed out that Parliament has legislative authority over the matters covered in the case, such as marriage, divorce, and adoption. They discussed the need for Parliament to enact laws to give effect to certain rights, as seen in the case of privacy. Senior Advocate Guruswamy emphasized that citizens have the right to approach the Supreme Court under Article 32 when fundamental rights are violated. She contended that marriage constitutes a fundamental right, and she argued that the court must engage in statutory interpretation to grant statutory recognition of this right to couples from sexual and gender minority communities.
#### Statutory Interpretation
In addressing concerns about the courts' institutional capacity to interpret laws, Senior Advocate [Singhvi](/wiki/Abhishek_Singhvi "Abhishek Singhvi") referenced the [UK House of Lords](/wiki/Lords_of_Appeal_in_Ordinary "Lords of Appeal in Ordinary") case, Ghaidan v. Godin\-Mendoza, where statutory interpretation was separated from parliamentary intent and statutory text, including instances of unambiguous language, introducing an approach that prioritizes convention rights. He highlighted the court's authority to reinterpret legislation to align with convention rights within the constraints of the "thrust" of legislation and institutional capability of the court. Senior Advocate Singhvi highlighted that the underlying thrust of the Special Marriage Act in India is to allow individuals, irrespective of their religious beliefs, to enter into marriages, emphasizing the need for its interpretation to align with the Constitution of India.
#### Workability of law
Senior Advocate [Kirpal](/wiki/Saurabh_Kirpal "Saurabh Kirpal") addresses concerns raised by the Bench and the Union Government regarding the practicality and effectiveness in recognizing fundamental rights through judicial interpretation. He argued against accepting unworkability as a defence against judicial review of laws that infringe upon fundamental rights. Senior Advocate Kirpal emphasizes that accepting the workability defence would enable Parliament to intentionally draft laws in a way that protects them from judicial review, even if they violate fundamental rights. This precedent would undermine the Court's constitutional duty to protect the fundamental rights of citizens.
#### Personal law
On 18 April, Chief Justice D.Y. Chandrachud suggested steering clear of personal law and focusing on the Special Marriage Act for the arguments. Senior Advocate Guruswamy expressed concerns about the Hindu Marriage Act, to which the Chief Justice D.Y. Chandrachud responded that confining themselves to the Hindu Marriage Act may not be sufficient, considering other marriage acts applicable to different religious communities. Chief Justice D.Y. Chandrachud proposed an incremental approach to the interpretation of laws and societal evolution. Justice S.K. Kaul highlighted the importance of focusing on the core issue and suggested confining the discussion to the interpretation of the Special Marriage Act without delving into personal law issues.
### Right to marry
The petitioners reasoned that the right to marry falls within the fundamental rights outlined in Articles 19 and 21 of the Constitution. Senior Advocate Rohatgi, representing the petitioners, argued that family, marriage, and procreation are integral to human dignity, which is safeguarded by Article 21\. He further emphasized that procreation encompasses adoption, IVF, and surrogacy in today's context. Additionally, he highlighted the Supreme Court's ruling in *[Puttaswamy v. UOI](/wiki/Right_to_Privacy_verdict "Right to Privacy verdict")*, which recognized marriage as a component of privacy. Senior Advocate [Ramachandran](/wiki/Raju_Ramachandran "Raju Ramachandran") reiterated that the right to marry is a part of the right to life as enshrined in Article 21\.
Senior Advocate Rohatgi argued that the right to marry has been recognised as a constitutional right by the Supreme Court in *Shakti Vahini v. UOI (2018\),* *[Shafin Jahan v Ashokan K.M. (2018\)](/wiki/Hadiya_case "Hadiya case")* and *Laxmibai Chandaragi B. v. State of Karnataka (2021\).*
Senior Advocate [Anand Grover](/wiki/Anand_Grover "Anand Grover") focused his arguments on the concept of 'intimate association' in US Courts, citing relevant cases such as *[Griswold v Connecticut (1965\)](/wiki/Griswold_v._Connecticut "Griswold v. Connecticut")*, *[Roberts v. United States Jaycees (1984\)](/wiki/Roberts_v._United_States_Jaycees "Roberts v. United States Jaycees")*, and *[Obergefell v. Hodges (2015\)](/wiki/Obergefell_v._Hodges "Obergefell v. Hodges")*. He argued that these cases recognized marriage as a fundamental right that brings harmony to a way of life. Senior Advocate Kothari, representing the petitioners, relied on the [Universal Declaration of Human Rights](/wiki/Universal_Declaration_of_Human_Rights "Universal Declaration of Human Rights") and the [International Convention of Civil and Political Rights](/wiki/International_Covenant_on_Civil_and_Political_Rights "International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights") to argue that the right to marry and form a family are fundamental rights.Transcript of Hearing: {{Harvnb\|25th April 2023}}
### Sexual and gender minority rights
Senior Advocate Singhvi, representing the petitioners, claimed that the right to choose in marital relationships regardless of sex, sexual orientation, gender, and gender orientation is at the heart of this case. He argued that individuals within the sexual and gender minority community have the right to marry without facing discrimination. He emphasized that discriminating against homosexual couples based on inherent characteristics like sexual orientation and identity would violate the Right to Equality. Even if a law is specifically created to establish such a classification, it must still adhere to the principles of equality and non\-discrimination outlined in Article 14\.Transcript of Hearing: {{Harvnb\|19th April 2023}} Senior Advocate Kirpal, representing the petitioners, emphasized that the sexual and gender minority community's pursuit extends beyond seeking equal rights already granted to heterosexual individuals; it is a declaration of their inherent entitlement to fundamental rights.
Senior Advocate Singhvi further stated that the freedom of expression under Article 19 encompasses the right to express one's gender in all its forms. Excluding sexual and gender minority individuals from the right to marriage also infringes upon their right to dignity. It is the government's responsibility to ensure that laws comply with the Constitution.
Senior Advocate Vishwanathan, representing the petitioners, discussed the [Transgender Persons (Protection of Rights) Act of 2019](/wiki/Transgender_Persons_%28Protection_of_Rights%29_Act%2C_2019 "Transgender Persons (Protection of Rights) Act, 2019") and the *[NALSA v. UOI](/wiki/National_Legal_Services_Authority_v._Union_of_India "National Legal Services Authority v. Union of India")* Judgment (2014\), emphasizing that these legal frameworks grant transgender and non\-binary individuals various rights, including voting, marriage, and property ownership.
Senior Advocate Anand Grover pointed out that according to the law, if a cisgender man marries a cisgender woman and later identifies as a woman, the marriage is not considered invalid. The law acknowledges the existence of such marriages, as they are a part of our society. Senior Advocate Kothari, representing the petitioners, argued for the equal rights of trans persons to marry and form families. She emphasized that family is not exclusive to heterosexual individuals and highlighted that trans persons already have families. However, she pointed out that their right to marry is not recognized, leading to discrimination based on sex under Article 15 of the Constitution.
#### Heteronormative framework
Senior Advocate Singhvi has rejected the argument that the State's definition of marriage, limited to a union between a man and a woman, can serve as a valid basis for denying the recognition of same\-sex marriages, considering it as a circular and self\-referential form of reasoning.
Senior Advocate Rohatgi emphasized the need to dismantle the heteronormative framework of marriage, acknowledging that intimate relationships are integral to the right to privacy. Drawing upon the *[Obergefell v Hodges (2015\)](/wiki/Obergefell_v._Hodges "Obergefell v. Hodges")* case and other foreign precedents, he argued against imposing restrictions on consensual adult intimacy. Senior Advocate Rohatgi pleaded for recognizing the rights of sexual minorities to freely navigate public spaces, ensuring their right to marry and equal treatment in all aspects of life, including public employment and benefits.
Senior Advocate Luthra discussed an Austrian legal case that invalidated the distinction between marriage and registered partnerships for both same\-sex and opposite\-sex couples. She emphasized that although these institutions granted similar rights, they were inherently unequal due to discrimination based on sexual orientation. Emphasizing the Constitutional principles of equality and non\-discrimination, she argued for the recognition of marriages of couples from sexual and gender minority communities.
Senior Advocate Kirpal contested the Union Government's assertion that marriage between sexual and gender minority individuals undermine the institution of marriage. He argued that in a marriage\-centric society like India, excluding sexual and gender minority individuals from marriage leads to [lavender marriages](/wiki/Lavender_marriage "Lavender marriage"), trapping gay men and lesbian women in unhappy and disingenuous relationships. He further highlighted the potential harm caused when a gay man deceives a heterosexual woman into marriage. Senior Advocate Kirpal emphasized that these situations are more detrimental to marriage. Additionally, he highlighted that granting sexual and gender minority individuals the right to marry would not infringe upon the rights of heterosexual individuals.
#### Procreation
Senior Advocate Rohatgi argued that procreation, which encompasses diverse methods like adoption, IVF, and surrogacy in contemporary times, is integral to human dignity and is protected under Article 21\.
Senior Advocate Vishwanathan challenged the notion that the inability to procreate justifies denying the right to marry. He emphasized that marriage laws do not impose an upper age limit, allowing individuals beyond reproductive capacity to enter into marriage. Additionally, He stressed that the ability or intention to have children is not a prerequisite for marriage. He argued that procreation is a secondary aspect of marriage, rather than a fundamental requirement.
Expressing concerns about the Union Government's argument, Senior Advocate Vishwanathan highlighted the harmful consequences of denying the right to marry for sexual and gender minority individuals based on their inability to have children. He presented a hypothetical scenario illustrating the detrimental effects and the infringement on their security and rights. Justice S.R. Bhat cautioned against extreme possibilities and emphasized the importance of considering realistic situations. To support his point, Senior Advocate Vishwanathan cited instances of eugenics practices in other countries, underscoring the potential dangers. He also argued against the perception that marriage is solely for procreation, emphasizing its broader significance. Justice S.R. Bhat echoed this sentiment, stating that procreation should not be disproportionately emphasized in such a manner.
#### Parenthood
Senior Advocate Vishwanathan argued that there is no evidence to suggest that couples from sexual and gender minority communities are unable to provide the safety, welfare, and security that children require. Chief Justice D.Y Chandrachud acknowledged that even in traditional households, there can be instances of domestic violence and emphasized that absolutes do not exist.
### Cultural, social and religious values
Senior Advocate Singhvi, representing the petitioners, highlighted the need for laws to adapt to the evolving nature of society. He strongly argued against prioritizing societal values over the Constitutional principles of equality and non\-discrimination, firmly asserting that culture and morality should not override the Constitution.
Senior Advocate Singhvi outlined several motives behind people's desire for marriage, including seeking societal recognition and acceptance of their relationships, ensuring safety and security, finding personal fulfilment, and embracing a fundamental aspect of family life.
Senior Advocate Singhvi highlighted the secular nature of the Special Marriage Act, emphasizing its departure from cultural\-based personal marriage laws. He cited the objectives of the Act, which aimed to enable individuals in India, regardless of their faith, to enter into a marriage. Chief Justice D.Y. Chandrachud inquired about the faith\-agnostic nature of the Act, to which Singhvi concurred. Additionally, Senior Advocate Singhvi noted that if the Act remained independent of faith, it would similarly transcend cultural contexts due to the strong intertwining of religion and culture.
#### Urban elitism
On 19 April, the government argued before the court that the concept of same\-sex marriage was a "mere urban elitist view for the purpose of social acceptance."{{Cite news \|date\=2023\-04\-19 \|title\=No data from government to indicate it is 'urban\-elitist concept': SC on same\-sex marriages \|work\=The Times of India \|url\=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/no\-data\-from\-government\-to\-indicate\-it\-is\-urban\-elitist\-concept\-sc\-on\-same\-sex\-marriages/articleshow/99617770\.cms?from\=mdr \|access\-date\=2023\-04\-19 \|issn\=0971\-8257 \|archive\-date\=2023\-04\-19 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230419141851/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/no\-data\-from\-government\-to\-indicate\-it\-is\-urban\-elitist\-concept\-sc\-on\-same\-sex\-marriages/articleshow/99617770\.cms?from\=mdr \|url\-status\=live }}
As Senior Advocate Singhvi argued that sexual orientation is an innate characteristic, Chief Justice D.Y. Chandrachud observed that it counters the claim that sexual orientation might be elitist, urban\-centric, or influenced by class bias. Chief Justice D.Y. Chandrachud further explained that an innate characteristic could exhibit class bias and remarked that its manifestations might be more prevalent in urban areas due to increased acceptability.
Senior Advocate Vishwanathan represented Zainab Patel, a trans woman petitioner disowned by her family. He highlighted that despite her experience of being forced to beg on the streets, Zainab Patel's resilience and determination propelled her to achieve the position of Director at KPMG. He criticized the Union Government for lacking compassion in labelling her as an urban elitist.
Senior Advocate Kothari, representing Akai Padmashan, a trans woman petitioner disowned by her family, highlighted that at 15 years old, Akai Padmashan faced homelessness and had to leave school. Noting Akai Padmashan's successful reintegration into mainstream society, Senior Advocate emphasized recognizing that these individuals often come from impoverished and working\-class backgrounds. Senior Advocate Kothari criticized the Union Government for unjustly labelling their struggles as elitist concerns.
Senior Advocate Anand Grover rebutted the Union Government's argument that relationship between sexual and gender minority individuals were ‘urban’ and ‘elitist’ ideas by presenting evidence of 10 court protection orders of sexual and gender minority individuals in India, all hailing from poor and rural backgrounds.
In response to the respondents' attempt to portray marriage between sexual and gender minority individuals as urban elitist concept. Senior Advocate Ramachandran, representing the lesbian couple Kajal and Bhawna, highlighted the insightful words of Justice [Vivian Bose](/wiki/Vivian_Bose "Vivian Bose") from 1956\.Transcript of Hearing: {{Harvnb\|20th April 2023}}
{{Blockquote\|text\=The Constitution also exists for the common man, for the poor and the humble, for those who have businesses at stake. For the butcher, the baker, and the candlestick maker.\|author\=Justice Vivian Bose\|title\=Bidi Supply Company v. Union of India (1956\)}}
Senior Advocate Ramachandran specifically highlighted Kajal's occupation as a baker, emphasizing that she embodies the very individuals Justice Vivian Bose had in mind. He further noted that Kajal, a [Dalit woman](/wiki/Dalit "Dalit") from [Muktsar](/wiki/Sri_Muktsar_Sahib "Sri Muktsar Sahib") in [Punjab](/wiki/Punjab%2C_India "Punjab, India"), and Bhavna, from [Bahadurgarh](/wiki/Bahadurgarh "Bahadurgarh") in [Haryana](/wiki/Haryana "Haryana"), belong to a [backward caste](/wiki/Other_Backward_Class "Other Backward Class"), challenging the notion of an urban elite. He argued that the recognition of their marriage provides essential societal protection from their own unsupportive natal families.
Senior Advocate Vrinda Grover drew the Bench's attention to the violence and discrimination faced by sexual and gender minority individuals, particularly trans individuals, from their own families. She emphasized that trans persons are often compelled to suppress their identities in front of their natal families. In line with the arguments put forth by Senior Advocate Ramachandran, she asserted that recognizing their marriages is essential to provide them with the support and protection that their natal families have failed to provide.
#### Western influence
Senior Advocate Rohatgi countered the Union Government's claim that relationships between sexual and gender minority individuals were a Western influence. He emphasized the historical presence of homosexuality in Indian culture predating the imposition of Victorian morality by the British in the 1800s. Senior Advocate Rohatgi supported his argument with evidence from the Khajuraho temple carvings, which depict same\-sex relationships existing in India for centuries. Senior Advocate Anand Grover further highlighted the respectful recognition of transgender individuals in ancient Indian scriptures. He attributed the negative attitudes towards them to British influence, which permeated our society. These evidence contradicts the notion that relationships between sexual and gender minority individuals are solely an imported concept.
### Comity of nations
Senior Advocate Luthra, representing the same\-sex couple, emphasized that their marriage, legally recognized in the United States but not in India, should be recognised in India under the [Foreign Marriage Act of 1969](/wiki/Foreign_Marriage_Act%2C_1969 "Foreign Marriage Act, 1969"). She pointed out that the Act states that the recognition can be denied only if the foreign marriage is inconsistent with international law or the comity of nations. She highlighted the discrepancy that arises when a marriage is recognized in one country but loses recognition upon entering India. She pointed out that the recognition of same\-sex marriages in 34 countries, including the country where the marriage took place, indicates conformity with international legal standards.
### Legal relief sought
#### Constitutional recognition
Senior Advocate Rohatgi argued against a mere amendment to the act without a clear declaration. He reasoned that relying solely on the interpretation of the act would leave it vulnerable to potential future amendments, which could lead to unfavorable outcomes. Consequently, he respectfully urged the court to issue a constitutional declaration that would explicitly recognize marriage for diverse groups, drawing parallels to the recognition already afforded to heterosexual couples.
#### Statutory recognition
Senior Advocate Rohatgi argued that declaration of constitutional recognition of right to marry would be symbolic and it is necessary to provide statutory recognition to exercise the right.
Senior Advocate Rohatgi began explaining potential ways the Special Marriage Act could be interpreted by the court, highlighting that if the court recognizes a constitutional right to marriage for sexual and gender minority couples, the Act, being subservient to the Indian Constitution, might be deemed unconstitutional due to its exclusive clauses. He stressed that his purpose in outlining these possible judicial interpretations is to protect the Act's constitutional validity.
Senior Advocate Singhvi contended that using legislative intent as a defense against an equality challenge is invalid, as it constitutes circular and self\-referential reasoning. He cited the UK House of Lords case, Ghaidan v. Godin\-Mendoza, to advocate for an interpretation of statutes that aligns with the constitution, emphasizing the significance of fundamental rights over legislative intent and statutory language. He highlighted that the underlying thrust of the Special Marriage Act in India is to allow individuals, irrespective of their religious beliefs, to enter into marriages, emphasizing the need for its interpretation to align with the Constitution of India.
##### Marriageable age
The [minimum age for marriage](/wiki/Marriageable_age "Marriageable age") is specified in Section 4(c) of the Special Marriage Act and Section 4(c) of the Foreign Marriage Act, which mandates that a man must be 21 years old, and a woman must be 18 years old.
On 19 April, while advocating for a gender\-neutral interpretation of various sections of the Special Marriage Act, Senior Advocate Rohatgi argued that retaining the terms "male" and "female" for determining the minimum age for marriage is necessary to prevent legal ambiguity arising from gender\-based differences in marriageable age. Chief Justice D.Y. Chandrachud further inquired about the minimum age for marriage concerning gender non\-binary individuals.
##### Prohibited degree of kinship
The [prohibited degree of kinship](/wiki/Prohibited_degree_of_kinship "Prohibited degree of kinship") are outlined in Section 2(b) of the Special Marriage Act, stating that a man cannot marry anyone listed in Part I of the first schedule, which exclusively includes female relatives, and a woman cannot marry anyone listed in Part II of the first schedule, which exclusively comprises male relatives. The prohibited degrees of relationships, as delineated in Section 2(b) of the Special Marriage Act, apply to marriages conducted under the Foreign Marriage Act, as per Section 2(a) of the Foreign Marriage Act.
On 19 April, Senior Advocate Rohatgi argued that unintended consequences arising from recognizing marriages for couples from the sexual and gender minority community could be resolved by interpreting Section 2(b) of the Special Marriage Act to allow the terms "man" and "woman" to be understood as "person," effectively merging the gendered lists.
#### Recognition of ancillary rights
On 18 April, Senior Advocate Guruswamy argued that merely recognizing the fundamental right to marry would not sufficiently address the practical aspects of life for sexual and gender minority individuals. She reasoned that in addition to the right to marry, there is a need for specific laws that enable them to access insurance, purchase or rent homes, open bank accounts, and engage in similar activities. Senior Advocate Guruswamy emphasized that if the Supreme Court fails to address these practical aspects in the present instance, the petitioners would be compelled to repeatedly approach the court for resolution on each individual aspect.
On 27 April, as Solicitor General Mehta firmly opposed recognising the marriage of couples from sexual and gender minority communities, Chief Justice D.Y. Chandrachud told Solicitor General Mehta to provide an alternative solution to accommodate the various rights available to married couples for same\-sex couples. On 3 May, Solicitor General Mehta told the Bench that a committee would be formed under the Cabinet Secretary. The Bench noted that committee would require coordination with multiple ministries, and suggested the petitioners to submit a list of issues. Further, the Bench clarified that they would still be deciding the right to marry in the Case. The administrative measure of forming a committee is something that must take place regardless of how the case is decided.{{Cite web \|last1\=Karpuram \|first1\=Ajoy \|last2\=R. \|first2\=Sai Spandana \|date\=3 May 2023 \|title\=Plea for Marriage Equality: Constitution Bench Day \#7 \|url\=https://www.scobserver.in/reports/plea\-for\-marriage\-equality\-constitution\-bench\-day\-7/ \|access\-date\= \|website\=Supreme Court Observer \|language\=en\-US \|archive\-date\=3 May 2023 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230503223455/https://www.scobserver.in/reports/plea\-for\-marriage\-equality\-constitution\-bench\-day\-7/ \|url\-status\=live }}
|
[
"Oral arguments\n--------------",
"The oral arguments before the Constitution bench commenced on 18 April 2023\\.{{Cite news \\|last\\=Singh \\|first\\=Karan Deep \\|date\\=2023\\-04\\-18 \\|title\\=India's Top Court Begins Hearing Same\\-Sex Marriage Case \\|language\\=en\\-US \\|work\\=The New York Times \\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2023/04/18/world/asia/india\\-court\\-same\\-sex\\-marriage.html \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-04\\-22 \\|issn\\=0362\\-4331 \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-04\\-21 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230421225813/https://www.nytimes.com/2023/04/18/world/asia/india\\-court\\-same\\-sex\\-marriage.html \\|url\\-status\\=live }} After a total of ten days of hearings from both the petitioners and respondents, the Bench concluded the hearings and reserved their verdict on 11 May 2023\\.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Venkatesan \\|first\\=V. \\|date\\=11 May 2023 \\|title\\='SC Must Walk the Full Mile': What Petitioners Said in the Same\\-Sex Marriage Equality Rights Case \\|url\\=https://thewire.in/law/sc\\-must\\-walk\\-the\\-full\\-mile\\-what\\-petitioners\\-said\\-in\\-the\\-same\\-sex\\-marriage\\-equality\\-rights\\-case \\|access\\-date\\= \\|website\\=The Wire \\|archive\\-date\\=19 May 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230519073051/https://thewire.in/law/sc\\-must\\-walk\\-the\\-full\\-mile\\-what\\-petitioners\\-said\\-in\\-the\\-same\\-sex\\-marriage\\-equality\\-rights\\-case \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"### Jurisdiction",
"On 18 April 2023, Solicitor General [Mehta](/wiki/Tushar_Mehta \"Tushar Mehta\") filed an affidavit from the Union Government, arguing that petitions lacked tenability. He reasoned that the issues raised in the Case were in the jurisdiction of the Parliament and the State Legislatures. He maintained that the subjects were out of the Supreme Court's jurisdiction and urged the Bench to dismiss the Case. Senior Advocate [Rohatgi](/wiki/Mukul_Rohatgi \"Mukul Rohatgi\") and [Vishwanathan](/wiki/K._V._Viswanathan \"K. V. Viswanathan\") swiftly countered the arguments put forth by Solicitor General Mehta. They strongly asserted their right to be heard by the Supreme Court, as guaranteed by Article 32, particularly on matters related to the infringement of fundamental rights guaranteed by Part 3 of the Indian Constitution. Chief Justice D.Y. Chandrachud and Justice S.K. Kaul rejected the Solicitor General's motion to pre\\-empt the submissions of petitioners.Transcript of Hearing: {{Harvnb\\|18th April 2023}}",
"Senior Advocate Rohatgi emphasized that the Supreme Court has the jurisdiction and responsibility to address violations of fundamental rights, even if only a few individuals are affected. He argued that waiting for parliamentary action is not an adequate response when fundamental rights are at stake.",
"{{Blockquote\\|text\\=I have no voice in Parliament. \\[However,] I have a voice \\[when it comes to] coming to open the doors of this court \\[and to] come here and plead before your Lordships.\\|author\\=Senior Advocate Rohatgi\\|title\\=19th April 2023}}",
"Senior Advocate Rohatgi pointed out that justices have consistently rejected the argument that the number of affected individuals is insignificant, as even one person's fundamental rights being violated is enough to seek redress from the Court. The duty of the Court under Article 32 of the Constitution is to protect and uphold the rights of individuals, regardless of their minority status.",
"Senior Advocate [Guruswamy](/wiki/Menaka_Guruswamy \"Menaka Guruswamy\") argued that the Indian Parliament, unlike British Parliament, is not a sovereign body with unlimited powers but is constrained by the Constitution. Chief Justice D.Y. Chandrachud pointed out that Parliament has legislative authority over the matters covered in the case, such as marriage, divorce, and adoption. They discussed the need for Parliament to enact laws to give effect to certain rights, as seen in the case of privacy. Senior Advocate Guruswamy emphasized that citizens have the right to approach the Supreme Court under Article 32 when fundamental rights are violated. She contended that marriage constitutes a fundamental right, and she argued that the court must engage in statutory interpretation to grant statutory recognition of this right to couples from sexual and gender minority communities.",
"#### Statutory Interpretation",
"In addressing concerns about the courts' institutional capacity to interpret laws, Senior Advocate [Singhvi](/wiki/Abhishek_Singhvi \"Abhishek Singhvi\") referenced the [UK House of Lords](/wiki/Lords_of_Appeal_in_Ordinary \"Lords of Appeal in Ordinary\") case, Ghaidan v. Godin\\-Mendoza, where statutory interpretation was separated from parliamentary intent and statutory text, including instances of unambiguous language, introducing an approach that prioritizes convention rights. He highlighted the court's authority to reinterpret legislation to align with convention rights within the constraints of the \"thrust\" of legislation and institutional capability of the court. Senior Advocate Singhvi highlighted that the underlying thrust of the Special Marriage Act in India is to allow individuals, irrespective of their religious beliefs, to enter into marriages, emphasizing the need for its interpretation to align with the Constitution of India.",
"#### Workability of law",
"Senior Advocate [Kirpal](/wiki/Saurabh_Kirpal \"Saurabh Kirpal\") addresses concerns raised by the Bench and the Union Government regarding the practicality and effectiveness in recognizing fundamental rights through judicial interpretation. He argued against accepting unworkability as a defence against judicial review of laws that infringe upon fundamental rights. Senior Advocate Kirpal emphasizes that accepting the workability defence would enable Parliament to intentionally draft laws in a way that protects them from judicial review, even if they violate fundamental rights. This precedent would undermine the Court's constitutional duty to protect the fundamental rights of citizens.",
"#### Personal law",
"On 18 April, Chief Justice D.Y. Chandrachud suggested steering clear of personal law and focusing on the Special Marriage Act for the arguments. Senior Advocate Guruswamy expressed concerns about the Hindu Marriage Act, to which the Chief Justice D.Y. Chandrachud responded that confining themselves to the Hindu Marriage Act may not be sufficient, considering other marriage acts applicable to different religious communities. Chief Justice D.Y. Chandrachud proposed an incremental approach to the interpretation of laws and societal evolution. Justice S.K. Kaul highlighted the importance of focusing on the core issue and suggested confining the discussion to the interpretation of the Special Marriage Act without delving into personal law issues.",
"### Right to marry",
"The petitioners reasoned that the right to marry falls within the fundamental rights outlined in Articles 19 and 21 of the Constitution. Senior Advocate Rohatgi, representing the petitioners, argued that family, marriage, and procreation are integral to human dignity, which is safeguarded by Article 21\\. He further emphasized that procreation encompasses adoption, IVF, and surrogacy in today's context. Additionally, he highlighted the Supreme Court's ruling in *[Puttaswamy v. UOI](/wiki/Right_to_Privacy_verdict \"Right to Privacy verdict\")*, which recognized marriage as a component of privacy. Senior Advocate [Ramachandran](/wiki/Raju_Ramachandran \"Raju Ramachandran\") reiterated that the right to marry is a part of the right to life as enshrined in Article 21\\.",
"Senior Advocate Rohatgi argued that the right to marry has been recognised as a constitutional right by the Supreme Court in *Shakti Vahini v. UOI (2018\\),* *[Shafin Jahan v Ashokan K.M. (2018\\)](/wiki/Hadiya_case \"Hadiya case\")* and *Laxmibai Chandaragi B. v. State of Karnataka (2021\\).*",
"Senior Advocate [Anand Grover](/wiki/Anand_Grover \"Anand Grover\") focused his arguments on the concept of 'intimate association' in US Courts, citing relevant cases such as *[Griswold v Connecticut (1965\\)](/wiki/Griswold_v._Connecticut \"Griswold v. Connecticut\")*, *[Roberts v. United States Jaycees (1984\\)](/wiki/Roberts_v._United_States_Jaycees \"Roberts v. United States Jaycees\")*, and *[Obergefell v. Hodges (2015\\)](/wiki/Obergefell_v._Hodges \"Obergefell v. Hodges\")*. He argued that these cases recognized marriage as a fundamental right that brings harmony to a way of life. Senior Advocate Kothari, representing the petitioners, relied on the [Universal Declaration of Human Rights](/wiki/Universal_Declaration_of_Human_Rights \"Universal Declaration of Human Rights\") and the [International Convention of Civil and Political Rights](/wiki/International_Covenant_on_Civil_and_Political_Rights \"International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights\") to argue that the right to marry and form a family are fundamental rights.Transcript of Hearing: {{Harvnb\\|25th April 2023}}",
"### Sexual and gender minority rights",
"Senior Advocate Singhvi, representing the petitioners, claimed that the right to choose in marital relationships regardless of sex, sexual orientation, gender, and gender orientation is at the heart of this case. He argued that individuals within the sexual and gender minority community have the right to marry without facing discrimination. He emphasized that discriminating against homosexual couples based on inherent characteristics like sexual orientation and identity would violate the Right to Equality. Even if a law is specifically created to establish such a classification, it must still adhere to the principles of equality and non\\-discrimination outlined in Article 14\\.Transcript of Hearing: {{Harvnb\\|19th April 2023}} Senior Advocate Kirpal, representing the petitioners, emphasized that the sexual and gender minority community's pursuit extends beyond seeking equal rights already granted to heterosexual individuals; it is a declaration of their inherent entitlement to fundamental rights.",
"Senior Advocate Singhvi further stated that the freedom of expression under Article 19 encompasses the right to express one's gender in all its forms. Excluding sexual and gender minority individuals from the right to marriage also infringes upon their right to dignity. It is the government's responsibility to ensure that laws comply with the Constitution.",
"Senior Advocate Vishwanathan, representing the petitioners, discussed the [Transgender Persons (Protection of Rights) Act of 2019](/wiki/Transgender_Persons_%28Protection_of_Rights%29_Act%2C_2019 \"Transgender Persons (Protection of Rights) Act, 2019\") and the *[NALSA v. UOI](/wiki/National_Legal_Services_Authority_v._Union_of_India \"National Legal Services Authority v. Union of India\")* Judgment (2014\\), emphasizing that these legal frameworks grant transgender and non\\-binary individuals various rights, including voting, marriage, and property ownership.",
"Senior Advocate Anand Grover pointed out that according to the law, if a cisgender man marries a cisgender woman and later identifies as a woman, the marriage is not considered invalid. The law acknowledges the existence of such marriages, as they are a part of our society. Senior Advocate Kothari, representing the petitioners, argued for the equal rights of trans persons to marry and form families. She emphasized that family is not exclusive to heterosexual individuals and highlighted that trans persons already have families. However, she pointed out that their right to marry is not recognized, leading to discrimination based on sex under Article 15 of the Constitution.",
"#### Heteronormative framework",
"Senior Advocate Singhvi has rejected the argument that the State's definition of marriage, limited to a union between a man and a woman, can serve as a valid basis for denying the recognition of same\\-sex marriages, considering it as a circular and self\\-referential form of reasoning.",
"Senior Advocate Rohatgi emphasized the need to dismantle the heteronormative framework of marriage, acknowledging that intimate relationships are integral to the right to privacy. Drawing upon the *[Obergefell v Hodges (2015\\)](/wiki/Obergefell_v._Hodges \"Obergefell v. Hodges\")* case and other foreign precedents, he argued against imposing restrictions on consensual adult intimacy. Senior Advocate Rohatgi pleaded for recognizing the rights of sexual minorities to freely navigate public spaces, ensuring their right to marry and equal treatment in all aspects of life, including public employment and benefits.",
"Senior Advocate Luthra discussed an Austrian legal case that invalidated the distinction between marriage and registered partnerships for both same\\-sex and opposite\\-sex couples. She emphasized that although these institutions granted similar rights, they were inherently unequal due to discrimination based on sexual orientation. Emphasizing the Constitutional principles of equality and non\\-discrimination, she argued for the recognition of marriages of couples from sexual and gender minority communities.",
"Senior Advocate Kirpal contested the Union Government's assertion that marriage between sexual and gender minority individuals undermine the institution of marriage. He argued that in a marriage\\-centric society like India, excluding sexual and gender minority individuals from marriage leads to [lavender marriages](/wiki/Lavender_marriage \"Lavender marriage\"), trapping gay men and lesbian women in unhappy and disingenuous relationships. He further highlighted the potential harm caused when a gay man deceives a heterosexual woman into marriage. Senior Advocate Kirpal emphasized that these situations are more detrimental to marriage. Additionally, he highlighted that granting sexual and gender minority individuals the right to marry would not infringe upon the rights of heterosexual individuals.",
"#### Procreation",
"Senior Advocate Rohatgi argued that procreation, which encompasses diverse methods like adoption, IVF, and surrogacy in contemporary times, is integral to human dignity and is protected under Article 21\\.",
"Senior Advocate Vishwanathan challenged the notion that the inability to procreate justifies denying the right to marry. He emphasized that marriage laws do not impose an upper age limit, allowing individuals beyond reproductive capacity to enter into marriage. Additionally, He stressed that the ability or intention to have children is not a prerequisite for marriage. He argued that procreation is a secondary aspect of marriage, rather than a fundamental requirement.",
"Expressing concerns about the Union Government's argument, Senior Advocate Vishwanathan highlighted the harmful consequences of denying the right to marry for sexual and gender minority individuals based on their inability to have children. He presented a hypothetical scenario illustrating the detrimental effects and the infringement on their security and rights. Justice S.R. Bhat cautioned against extreme possibilities and emphasized the importance of considering realistic situations. To support his point, Senior Advocate Vishwanathan cited instances of eugenics practices in other countries, underscoring the potential dangers. He also argued against the perception that marriage is solely for procreation, emphasizing its broader significance. Justice S.R. Bhat echoed this sentiment, stating that procreation should not be disproportionately emphasized in such a manner.",
"#### Parenthood",
"Senior Advocate Vishwanathan argued that there is no evidence to suggest that couples from sexual and gender minority communities are unable to provide the safety, welfare, and security that children require. Chief Justice D.Y Chandrachud acknowledged that even in traditional households, there can be instances of domestic violence and emphasized that absolutes do not exist.",
"### Cultural, social and religious values",
"Senior Advocate Singhvi, representing the petitioners, highlighted the need for laws to adapt to the evolving nature of society. He strongly argued against prioritizing societal values over the Constitutional principles of equality and non\\-discrimination, firmly asserting that culture and morality should not override the Constitution.",
"Senior Advocate Singhvi outlined several motives behind people's desire for marriage, including seeking societal recognition and acceptance of their relationships, ensuring safety and security, finding personal fulfilment, and embracing a fundamental aspect of family life.",
"Senior Advocate Singhvi highlighted the secular nature of the Special Marriage Act, emphasizing its departure from cultural\\-based personal marriage laws. He cited the objectives of the Act, which aimed to enable individuals in India, regardless of their faith, to enter into a marriage. Chief Justice D.Y. Chandrachud inquired about the faith\\-agnostic nature of the Act, to which Singhvi concurred. Additionally, Senior Advocate Singhvi noted that if the Act remained independent of faith, it would similarly transcend cultural contexts due to the strong intertwining of religion and culture.",
"#### Urban elitism",
"On 19 April, the government argued before the court that the concept of same\\-sex marriage was a \"mere urban elitist view for the purpose of social acceptance.\"{{Cite news \\|date\\=2023\\-04\\-19 \\|title\\=No data from government to indicate it is 'urban\\-elitist concept': SC on same\\-sex marriages \\|work\\=The Times of India \\|url\\=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/no\\-data\\-from\\-government\\-to\\-indicate\\-it\\-is\\-urban\\-elitist\\-concept\\-sc\\-on\\-same\\-sex\\-marriages/articleshow/99617770\\.cms?from\\=mdr \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-04\\-19 \\|issn\\=0971\\-8257 \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-04\\-19 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230419141851/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/no\\-data\\-from\\-government\\-to\\-indicate\\-it\\-is\\-urban\\-elitist\\-concept\\-sc\\-on\\-same\\-sex\\-marriages/articleshow/99617770\\.cms?from\\=mdr \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"As Senior Advocate Singhvi argued that sexual orientation is an innate characteristic, Chief Justice D.Y. Chandrachud observed that it counters the claim that sexual orientation might be elitist, urban\\-centric, or influenced by class bias. Chief Justice D.Y. Chandrachud further explained that an innate characteristic could exhibit class bias and remarked that its manifestations might be more prevalent in urban areas due to increased acceptability.",
"Senior Advocate Vishwanathan represented Zainab Patel, a trans woman petitioner disowned by her family. He highlighted that despite her experience of being forced to beg on the streets, Zainab Patel's resilience and determination propelled her to achieve the position of Director at KPMG. He criticized the Union Government for lacking compassion in labelling her as an urban elitist.",
"Senior Advocate Kothari, representing Akai Padmashan, a trans woman petitioner disowned by her family, highlighted that at 15 years old, Akai Padmashan faced homelessness and had to leave school. Noting Akai Padmashan's successful reintegration into mainstream society, Senior Advocate emphasized recognizing that these individuals often come from impoverished and working\\-class backgrounds. Senior Advocate Kothari criticized the Union Government for unjustly labelling their struggles as elitist concerns.",
"Senior Advocate Anand Grover rebutted the Union Government's argument that relationship between sexual and gender minority individuals were ‘urban’ and ‘elitist’ ideas by presenting evidence of 10 court protection orders of sexual and gender minority individuals in India, all hailing from poor and rural backgrounds.",
"In response to the respondents' attempt to portray marriage between sexual and gender minority individuals as urban elitist concept. Senior Advocate Ramachandran, representing the lesbian couple Kajal and Bhawna, highlighted the insightful words of Justice [Vivian Bose](/wiki/Vivian_Bose \"Vivian Bose\") from 1956\\.Transcript of Hearing: {{Harvnb\\|20th April 2023}}",
"{{Blockquote\\|text\\=The Constitution also exists for the common man, for the poor and the humble, for those who have businesses at stake. For the butcher, the baker, and the candlestick maker.\\|author\\=Justice Vivian Bose\\|title\\=Bidi Supply Company v. Union of India (1956\\)}}",
"Senior Advocate Ramachandran specifically highlighted Kajal's occupation as a baker, emphasizing that she embodies the very individuals Justice Vivian Bose had in mind. He further noted that Kajal, a [Dalit woman](/wiki/Dalit \"Dalit\") from [Muktsar](/wiki/Sri_Muktsar_Sahib \"Sri Muktsar Sahib\") in [Punjab](/wiki/Punjab%2C_India \"Punjab, India\"), and Bhavna, from [Bahadurgarh](/wiki/Bahadurgarh \"Bahadurgarh\") in [Haryana](/wiki/Haryana \"Haryana\"), belong to a [backward caste](/wiki/Other_Backward_Class \"Other Backward Class\"), challenging the notion of an urban elite. He argued that the recognition of their marriage provides essential societal protection from their own unsupportive natal families.",
"Senior Advocate Vrinda Grover drew the Bench's attention to the violence and discrimination faced by sexual and gender minority individuals, particularly trans individuals, from their own families. She emphasized that trans persons are often compelled to suppress their identities in front of their natal families. In line with the arguments put forth by Senior Advocate Ramachandran, she asserted that recognizing their marriages is essential to provide them with the support and protection that their natal families have failed to provide.",
"#### Western influence",
"Senior Advocate Rohatgi countered the Union Government's claim that relationships between sexual and gender minority individuals were a Western influence. He emphasized the historical presence of homosexuality in Indian culture predating the imposition of Victorian morality by the British in the 1800s. Senior Advocate Rohatgi supported his argument with evidence from the Khajuraho temple carvings, which depict same\\-sex relationships existing in India for centuries. Senior Advocate Anand Grover further highlighted the respectful recognition of transgender individuals in ancient Indian scriptures. He attributed the negative attitudes towards them to British influence, which permeated our society. These evidence contradicts the notion that relationships between sexual and gender minority individuals are solely an imported concept.",
"### Comity of nations",
"Senior Advocate Luthra, representing the same\\-sex couple, emphasized that their marriage, legally recognized in the United States but not in India, should be recognised in India under the [Foreign Marriage Act of 1969](/wiki/Foreign_Marriage_Act%2C_1969 \"Foreign Marriage Act, 1969\"). She pointed out that the Act states that the recognition can be denied only if the foreign marriage is inconsistent with international law or the comity of nations. She highlighted the discrepancy that arises when a marriage is recognized in one country but loses recognition upon entering India. She pointed out that the recognition of same\\-sex marriages in 34 countries, including the country where the marriage took place, indicates conformity with international legal standards.",
"### Legal relief sought",
"#### Constitutional recognition",
"Senior Advocate Rohatgi argued against a mere amendment to the act without a clear declaration. He reasoned that relying solely on the interpretation of the act would leave it vulnerable to potential future amendments, which could lead to unfavorable outcomes. Consequently, he respectfully urged the court to issue a constitutional declaration that would explicitly recognize marriage for diverse groups, drawing parallels to the recognition already afforded to heterosexual couples.",
"#### Statutory recognition",
"Senior Advocate Rohatgi argued that declaration of constitutional recognition of right to marry would be symbolic and it is necessary to provide statutory recognition to exercise the right.",
"Senior Advocate Rohatgi began explaining potential ways the Special Marriage Act could be interpreted by the court, highlighting that if the court recognizes a constitutional right to marriage for sexual and gender minority couples, the Act, being subservient to the Indian Constitution, might be deemed unconstitutional due to its exclusive clauses. He stressed that his purpose in outlining these possible judicial interpretations is to protect the Act's constitutional validity.",
"Senior Advocate Singhvi contended that using legislative intent as a defense against an equality challenge is invalid, as it constitutes circular and self\\-referential reasoning. He cited the UK House of Lords case, Ghaidan v. Godin\\-Mendoza, to advocate for an interpretation of statutes that aligns with the constitution, emphasizing the significance of fundamental rights over legislative intent and statutory language. He highlighted that the underlying thrust of the Special Marriage Act in India is to allow individuals, irrespective of their religious beliefs, to enter into marriages, emphasizing the need for its interpretation to align with the Constitution of India.",
"##### Marriageable age",
"The [minimum age for marriage](/wiki/Marriageable_age \"Marriageable age\") is specified in Section 4(c) of the Special Marriage Act and Section 4(c) of the Foreign Marriage Act, which mandates that a man must be 21 years old, and a woman must be 18 years old.",
"On 19 April, while advocating for a gender\\-neutral interpretation of various sections of the Special Marriage Act, Senior Advocate Rohatgi argued that retaining the terms \"male\" and \"female\" for determining the minimum age for marriage is necessary to prevent legal ambiguity arising from gender\\-based differences in marriageable age. Chief Justice D.Y. Chandrachud further inquired about the minimum age for marriage concerning gender non\\-binary individuals.",
"##### Prohibited degree of kinship",
"The [prohibited degree of kinship](/wiki/Prohibited_degree_of_kinship \"Prohibited degree of kinship\") are outlined in Section 2(b) of the Special Marriage Act, stating that a man cannot marry anyone listed in Part I of the first schedule, which exclusively includes female relatives, and a woman cannot marry anyone listed in Part II of the first schedule, which exclusively comprises male relatives. The prohibited degrees of relationships, as delineated in Section 2(b) of the Special Marriage Act, apply to marriages conducted under the Foreign Marriage Act, as per Section 2(a) of the Foreign Marriage Act.",
"On 19 April, Senior Advocate Rohatgi argued that unintended consequences arising from recognizing marriages for couples from the sexual and gender minority community could be resolved by interpreting Section 2(b) of the Special Marriage Act to allow the terms \"man\" and \"woman\" to be understood as \"person,\" effectively merging the gendered lists.",
"#### Recognition of ancillary rights",
"On 18 April, Senior Advocate Guruswamy argued that merely recognizing the fundamental right to marry would not sufficiently address the practical aspects of life for sexual and gender minority individuals. She reasoned that in addition to the right to marry, there is a need for specific laws that enable them to access insurance, purchase or rent homes, open bank accounts, and engage in similar activities. Senior Advocate Guruswamy emphasized that if the Supreme Court fails to address these practical aspects in the present instance, the petitioners would be compelled to repeatedly approach the court for resolution on each individual aspect.",
"On 27 April, as Solicitor General Mehta firmly opposed recognising the marriage of couples from sexual and gender minority communities, Chief Justice D.Y. Chandrachud told Solicitor General Mehta to provide an alternative solution to accommodate the various rights available to married couples for same\\-sex couples. On 3 May, Solicitor General Mehta told the Bench that a committee would be formed under the Cabinet Secretary. The Bench noted that committee would require coordination with multiple ministries, and suggested the petitioners to submit a list of issues. Further, the Bench clarified that they would still be deciding the right to marry in the Case. The administrative measure of forming a committee is something that must take place regardless of how the case is decided.{{Cite web \\|last1\\=Karpuram \\|first1\\=Ajoy \\|last2\\=R. \\|first2\\=Sai Spandana \\|date\\=3 May 2023 \\|title\\=Plea for Marriage Equality: Constitution Bench Day \\#7 \\|url\\=https://www.scobserver.in/reports/plea\\-for\\-marriage\\-equality\\-constitution\\-bench\\-day\\-7/ \\|access\\-date\\= \\|website\\=Supreme Court Observer \\|language\\=en\\-US \\|archive\\-date\\=3 May 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230503223455/https://www.scobserver.in/reports/plea\\-for\\-marriage\\-equality\\-constitution\\-bench\\-day\\-7/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
""
] |
### Jurisdiction
On 18 April 2023, Solicitor General [Mehta](/wiki/Tushar_Mehta "Tushar Mehta") filed an affidavit from the Union Government, arguing that petitions lacked tenability. He reasoned that the issues raised in the Case were in the jurisdiction of the Parliament and the State Legislatures. He maintained that the subjects were out of the Supreme Court's jurisdiction and urged the Bench to dismiss the Case. Senior Advocate [Rohatgi](/wiki/Mukul_Rohatgi "Mukul Rohatgi") and [Vishwanathan](/wiki/K._V._Viswanathan "K. V. Viswanathan") swiftly countered the arguments put forth by Solicitor General Mehta. They strongly asserted their right to be heard by the Supreme Court, as guaranteed by Article 32, particularly on matters related to the infringement of fundamental rights guaranteed by Part 3 of the Indian Constitution. Chief Justice D.Y. Chandrachud and Justice S.K. Kaul rejected the Solicitor General's motion to pre\-empt the submissions of petitioners.Transcript of Hearing: {{Harvnb\|18th April 2023}}
Senior Advocate Rohatgi emphasized that the Supreme Court has the jurisdiction and responsibility to address violations of fundamental rights, even if only a few individuals are affected. He argued that waiting for parliamentary action is not an adequate response when fundamental rights are at stake.
{{Blockquote\|text\=I have no voice in Parliament. \[However,] I have a voice \[when it comes to] coming to open the doors of this court \[and to] come here and plead before your Lordships.\|author\=Senior Advocate Rohatgi\|title\=19th April 2023}}
Senior Advocate Rohatgi pointed out that justices have consistently rejected the argument that the number of affected individuals is insignificant, as even one person's fundamental rights being violated is enough to seek redress from the Court. The duty of the Court under Article 32 of the Constitution is to protect and uphold the rights of individuals, regardless of their minority status.
Senior Advocate [Guruswamy](/wiki/Menaka_Guruswamy "Menaka Guruswamy") argued that the Indian Parliament, unlike British Parliament, is not a sovereign body with unlimited powers but is constrained by the Constitution. Chief Justice D.Y. Chandrachud pointed out that Parliament has legislative authority over the matters covered in the case, such as marriage, divorce, and adoption. They discussed the need for Parliament to enact laws to give effect to certain rights, as seen in the case of privacy. Senior Advocate Guruswamy emphasized that citizens have the right to approach the Supreme Court under Article 32 when fundamental rights are violated. She contended that marriage constitutes a fundamental right, and she argued that the court must engage in statutory interpretation to grant statutory recognition of this right to couples from sexual and gender minority communities.
#### Statutory Interpretation
In addressing concerns about the courts' institutional capacity to interpret laws, Senior Advocate [Singhvi](/wiki/Abhishek_Singhvi "Abhishek Singhvi") referenced the [UK House of Lords](/wiki/Lords_of_Appeal_in_Ordinary "Lords of Appeal in Ordinary") case, Ghaidan v. Godin\-Mendoza, where statutory interpretation was separated from parliamentary intent and statutory text, including instances of unambiguous language, introducing an approach that prioritizes convention rights. He highlighted the court's authority to reinterpret legislation to align with convention rights within the constraints of the "thrust" of legislation and institutional capability of the court. Senior Advocate Singhvi highlighted that the underlying thrust of the Special Marriage Act in India is to allow individuals, irrespective of their religious beliefs, to enter into marriages, emphasizing the need for its interpretation to align with the Constitution of India.
#### Workability of law
Senior Advocate [Kirpal](/wiki/Saurabh_Kirpal "Saurabh Kirpal") addresses concerns raised by the Bench and the Union Government regarding the practicality and effectiveness in recognizing fundamental rights through judicial interpretation. He argued against accepting unworkability as a defence against judicial review of laws that infringe upon fundamental rights. Senior Advocate Kirpal emphasizes that accepting the workability defence would enable Parliament to intentionally draft laws in a way that protects them from judicial review, even if they violate fundamental rights. This precedent would undermine the Court's constitutional duty to protect the fundamental rights of citizens.
#### Personal law
On 18 April, Chief Justice D.Y. Chandrachud suggested steering clear of personal law and focusing on the Special Marriage Act for the arguments. Senior Advocate Guruswamy expressed concerns about the Hindu Marriage Act, to which the Chief Justice D.Y. Chandrachud responded that confining themselves to the Hindu Marriage Act may not be sufficient, considering other marriage acts applicable to different religious communities. Chief Justice D.Y. Chandrachud proposed an incremental approach to the interpretation of laws and societal evolution. Justice S.K. Kaul highlighted the importance of focusing on the core issue and suggested confining the discussion to the interpretation of the Special Marriage Act without delving into personal law issues.
|
[
"### Jurisdiction",
"On 18 April 2023, Solicitor General [Mehta](/wiki/Tushar_Mehta \"Tushar Mehta\") filed an affidavit from the Union Government, arguing that petitions lacked tenability. He reasoned that the issues raised in the Case were in the jurisdiction of the Parliament and the State Legislatures. He maintained that the subjects were out of the Supreme Court's jurisdiction and urged the Bench to dismiss the Case. Senior Advocate [Rohatgi](/wiki/Mukul_Rohatgi \"Mukul Rohatgi\") and [Vishwanathan](/wiki/K._V._Viswanathan \"K. V. Viswanathan\") swiftly countered the arguments put forth by Solicitor General Mehta. They strongly asserted their right to be heard by the Supreme Court, as guaranteed by Article 32, particularly on matters related to the infringement of fundamental rights guaranteed by Part 3 of the Indian Constitution. Chief Justice D.Y. Chandrachud and Justice S.K. Kaul rejected the Solicitor General's motion to pre\\-empt the submissions of petitioners.Transcript of Hearing: {{Harvnb\\|18th April 2023}}",
"Senior Advocate Rohatgi emphasized that the Supreme Court has the jurisdiction and responsibility to address violations of fundamental rights, even if only a few individuals are affected. He argued that waiting for parliamentary action is not an adequate response when fundamental rights are at stake.",
"{{Blockquote\\|text\\=I have no voice in Parliament. \\[However,] I have a voice \\[when it comes to] coming to open the doors of this court \\[and to] come here and plead before your Lordships.\\|author\\=Senior Advocate Rohatgi\\|title\\=19th April 2023}}",
"Senior Advocate Rohatgi pointed out that justices have consistently rejected the argument that the number of affected individuals is insignificant, as even one person's fundamental rights being violated is enough to seek redress from the Court. The duty of the Court under Article 32 of the Constitution is to protect and uphold the rights of individuals, regardless of their minority status.",
"Senior Advocate [Guruswamy](/wiki/Menaka_Guruswamy \"Menaka Guruswamy\") argued that the Indian Parliament, unlike British Parliament, is not a sovereign body with unlimited powers but is constrained by the Constitution. Chief Justice D.Y. Chandrachud pointed out that Parliament has legislative authority over the matters covered in the case, such as marriage, divorce, and adoption. They discussed the need for Parliament to enact laws to give effect to certain rights, as seen in the case of privacy. Senior Advocate Guruswamy emphasized that citizens have the right to approach the Supreme Court under Article 32 when fundamental rights are violated. She contended that marriage constitutes a fundamental right, and she argued that the court must engage in statutory interpretation to grant statutory recognition of this right to couples from sexual and gender minority communities.",
"#### Statutory Interpretation",
"In addressing concerns about the courts' institutional capacity to interpret laws, Senior Advocate [Singhvi](/wiki/Abhishek_Singhvi \"Abhishek Singhvi\") referenced the [UK House of Lords](/wiki/Lords_of_Appeal_in_Ordinary \"Lords of Appeal in Ordinary\") case, Ghaidan v. Godin\\-Mendoza, where statutory interpretation was separated from parliamentary intent and statutory text, including instances of unambiguous language, introducing an approach that prioritizes convention rights. He highlighted the court's authority to reinterpret legislation to align with convention rights within the constraints of the \"thrust\" of legislation and institutional capability of the court. Senior Advocate Singhvi highlighted that the underlying thrust of the Special Marriage Act in India is to allow individuals, irrespective of their religious beliefs, to enter into marriages, emphasizing the need for its interpretation to align with the Constitution of India.",
"#### Workability of law",
"Senior Advocate [Kirpal](/wiki/Saurabh_Kirpal \"Saurabh Kirpal\") addresses concerns raised by the Bench and the Union Government regarding the practicality and effectiveness in recognizing fundamental rights through judicial interpretation. He argued against accepting unworkability as a defence against judicial review of laws that infringe upon fundamental rights. Senior Advocate Kirpal emphasizes that accepting the workability defence would enable Parliament to intentionally draft laws in a way that protects them from judicial review, even if they violate fundamental rights. This precedent would undermine the Court's constitutional duty to protect the fundamental rights of citizens.",
"#### Personal law",
"On 18 April, Chief Justice D.Y. Chandrachud suggested steering clear of personal law and focusing on the Special Marriage Act for the arguments. Senior Advocate Guruswamy expressed concerns about the Hindu Marriage Act, to which the Chief Justice D.Y. Chandrachud responded that confining themselves to the Hindu Marriage Act may not be sufficient, considering other marriage acts applicable to different religious communities. Chief Justice D.Y. Chandrachud proposed an incremental approach to the interpretation of laws and societal evolution. Justice S.K. Kaul highlighted the importance of focusing on the core issue and suggested confining the discussion to the interpretation of the Special Marriage Act without delving into personal law issues.",
""
] |
### Sexual and gender minority rights
Senior Advocate Singhvi, representing the petitioners, claimed that the right to choose in marital relationships regardless of sex, sexual orientation, gender, and gender orientation is at the heart of this case. He argued that individuals within the sexual and gender minority community have the right to marry without facing discrimination. He emphasized that discriminating against homosexual couples based on inherent characteristics like sexual orientation and identity would violate the Right to Equality. Even if a law is specifically created to establish such a classification, it must still adhere to the principles of equality and non\-discrimination outlined in Article 14\.Transcript of Hearing: {{Harvnb\|19th April 2023}} Senior Advocate Kirpal, representing the petitioners, emphasized that the sexual and gender minority community's pursuit extends beyond seeking equal rights already granted to heterosexual individuals; it is a declaration of their inherent entitlement to fundamental rights.
Senior Advocate Singhvi further stated that the freedom of expression under Article 19 encompasses the right to express one's gender in all its forms. Excluding sexual and gender minority individuals from the right to marriage also infringes upon their right to dignity. It is the government's responsibility to ensure that laws comply with the Constitution.
Senior Advocate Vishwanathan, representing the petitioners, discussed the [Transgender Persons (Protection of Rights) Act of 2019](/wiki/Transgender_Persons_%28Protection_of_Rights%29_Act%2C_2019 "Transgender Persons (Protection of Rights) Act, 2019") and the *[NALSA v. UOI](/wiki/National_Legal_Services_Authority_v._Union_of_India "National Legal Services Authority v. Union of India")* Judgment (2014\), emphasizing that these legal frameworks grant transgender and non\-binary individuals various rights, including voting, marriage, and property ownership.
Senior Advocate Anand Grover pointed out that according to the law, if a cisgender man marries a cisgender woman and later identifies as a woman, the marriage is not considered invalid. The law acknowledges the existence of such marriages, as they are a part of our society. Senior Advocate Kothari, representing the petitioners, argued for the equal rights of trans persons to marry and form families. She emphasized that family is not exclusive to heterosexual individuals and highlighted that trans persons already have families. However, she pointed out that their right to marry is not recognized, leading to discrimination based on sex under Article 15 of the Constitution.
#### Heteronormative framework
Senior Advocate Singhvi has rejected the argument that the State's definition of marriage, limited to a union between a man and a woman, can serve as a valid basis for denying the recognition of same\-sex marriages, considering it as a circular and self\-referential form of reasoning.
Senior Advocate Rohatgi emphasized the need to dismantle the heteronormative framework of marriage, acknowledging that intimate relationships are integral to the right to privacy. Drawing upon the *[Obergefell v Hodges (2015\)](/wiki/Obergefell_v._Hodges "Obergefell v. Hodges")* case and other foreign precedents, he argued against imposing restrictions on consensual adult intimacy. Senior Advocate Rohatgi pleaded for recognizing the rights of sexual minorities to freely navigate public spaces, ensuring their right to marry and equal treatment in all aspects of life, including public employment and benefits.
Senior Advocate Luthra discussed an Austrian legal case that invalidated the distinction between marriage and registered partnerships for both same\-sex and opposite\-sex couples. She emphasized that although these institutions granted similar rights, they were inherently unequal due to discrimination based on sexual orientation. Emphasizing the Constitutional principles of equality and non\-discrimination, she argued for the recognition of marriages of couples from sexual and gender minority communities.
Senior Advocate Kirpal contested the Union Government's assertion that marriage between sexual and gender minority individuals undermine the institution of marriage. He argued that in a marriage\-centric society like India, excluding sexual and gender minority individuals from marriage leads to [lavender marriages](/wiki/Lavender_marriage "Lavender marriage"), trapping gay men and lesbian women in unhappy and disingenuous relationships. He further highlighted the potential harm caused when a gay man deceives a heterosexual woman into marriage. Senior Advocate Kirpal emphasized that these situations are more detrimental to marriage. Additionally, he highlighted that granting sexual and gender minority individuals the right to marry would not infringe upon the rights of heterosexual individuals.
#### Procreation
Senior Advocate Rohatgi argued that procreation, which encompasses diverse methods like adoption, IVF, and surrogacy in contemporary times, is integral to human dignity and is protected under Article 21\.
Senior Advocate Vishwanathan challenged the notion that the inability to procreate justifies denying the right to marry. He emphasized that marriage laws do not impose an upper age limit, allowing individuals beyond reproductive capacity to enter into marriage. Additionally, He stressed that the ability or intention to have children is not a prerequisite for marriage. He argued that procreation is a secondary aspect of marriage, rather than a fundamental requirement.
Expressing concerns about the Union Government's argument, Senior Advocate Vishwanathan highlighted the harmful consequences of denying the right to marry for sexual and gender minority individuals based on their inability to have children. He presented a hypothetical scenario illustrating the detrimental effects and the infringement on their security and rights. Justice S.R. Bhat cautioned against extreme possibilities and emphasized the importance of considering realistic situations. To support his point, Senior Advocate Vishwanathan cited instances of eugenics practices in other countries, underscoring the potential dangers. He also argued against the perception that marriage is solely for procreation, emphasizing its broader significance. Justice S.R. Bhat echoed this sentiment, stating that procreation should not be disproportionately emphasized in such a manner.
#### Parenthood
Senior Advocate Vishwanathan argued that there is no evidence to suggest that couples from sexual and gender minority communities are unable to provide the safety, welfare, and security that children require. Chief Justice D.Y Chandrachud acknowledged that even in traditional households, there can be instances of domestic violence and emphasized that absolutes do not exist.
|
[
"### Sexual and gender minority rights",
"Senior Advocate Singhvi, representing the petitioners, claimed that the right to choose in marital relationships regardless of sex, sexual orientation, gender, and gender orientation is at the heart of this case. He argued that individuals within the sexual and gender minority community have the right to marry without facing discrimination. He emphasized that discriminating against homosexual couples based on inherent characteristics like sexual orientation and identity would violate the Right to Equality. Even if a law is specifically created to establish such a classification, it must still adhere to the principles of equality and non\\-discrimination outlined in Article 14\\.Transcript of Hearing: {{Harvnb\\|19th April 2023}} Senior Advocate Kirpal, representing the petitioners, emphasized that the sexual and gender minority community's pursuit extends beyond seeking equal rights already granted to heterosexual individuals; it is a declaration of their inherent entitlement to fundamental rights.",
"Senior Advocate Singhvi further stated that the freedom of expression under Article 19 encompasses the right to express one's gender in all its forms. Excluding sexual and gender minority individuals from the right to marriage also infringes upon their right to dignity. It is the government's responsibility to ensure that laws comply with the Constitution.",
"Senior Advocate Vishwanathan, representing the petitioners, discussed the [Transgender Persons (Protection of Rights) Act of 2019](/wiki/Transgender_Persons_%28Protection_of_Rights%29_Act%2C_2019 \"Transgender Persons (Protection of Rights) Act, 2019\") and the *[NALSA v. UOI](/wiki/National_Legal_Services_Authority_v._Union_of_India \"National Legal Services Authority v. Union of India\")* Judgment (2014\\), emphasizing that these legal frameworks grant transgender and non\\-binary individuals various rights, including voting, marriage, and property ownership.",
"Senior Advocate Anand Grover pointed out that according to the law, if a cisgender man marries a cisgender woman and later identifies as a woman, the marriage is not considered invalid. The law acknowledges the existence of such marriages, as they are a part of our society. Senior Advocate Kothari, representing the petitioners, argued for the equal rights of trans persons to marry and form families. She emphasized that family is not exclusive to heterosexual individuals and highlighted that trans persons already have families. However, she pointed out that their right to marry is not recognized, leading to discrimination based on sex under Article 15 of the Constitution.",
"#### Heteronormative framework",
"Senior Advocate Singhvi has rejected the argument that the State's definition of marriage, limited to a union between a man and a woman, can serve as a valid basis for denying the recognition of same\\-sex marriages, considering it as a circular and self\\-referential form of reasoning.",
"Senior Advocate Rohatgi emphasized the need to dismantle the heteronormative framework of marriage, acknowledging that intimate relationships are integral to the right to privacy. Drawing upon the *[Obergefell v Hodges (2015\\)](/wiki/Obergefell_v._Hodges \"Obergefell v. Hodges\")* case and other foreign precedents, he argued against imposing restrictions on consensual adult intimacy. Senior Advocate Rohatgi pleaded for recognizing the rights of sexual minorities to freely navigate public spaces, ensuring their right to marry and equal treatment in all aspects of life, including public employment and benefits.",
"Senior Advocate Luthra discussed an Austrian legal case that invalidated the distinction between marriage and registered partnerships for both same\\-sex and opposite\\-sex couples. She emphasized that although these institutions granted similar rights, they were inherently unequal due to discrimination based on sexual orientation. Emphasizing the Constitutional principles of equality and non\\-discrimination, she argued for the recognition of marriages of couples from sexual and gender minority communities.",
"Senior Advocate Kirpal contested the Union Government's assertion that marriage between sexual and gender minority individuals undermine the institution of marriage. He argued that in a marriage\\-centric society like India, excluding sexual and gender minority individuals from marriage leads to [lavender marriages](/wiki/Lavender_marriage \"Lavender marriage\"), trapping gay men and lesbian women in unhappy and disingenuous relationships. He further highlighted the potential harm caused when a gay man deceives a heterosexual woman into marriage. Senior Advocate Kirpal emphasized that these situations are more detrimental to marriage. Additionally, he highlighted that granting sexual and gender minority individuals the right to marry would not infringe upon the rights of heterosexual individuals.",
"#### Procreation",
"Senior Advocate Rohatgi argued that procreation, which encompasses diverse methods like adoption, IVF, and surrogacy in contemporary times, is integral to human dignity and is protected under Article 21\\.",
"Senior Advocate Vishwanathan challenged the notion that the inability to procreate justifies denying the right to marry. He emphasized that marriage laws do not impose an upper age limit, allowing individuals beyond reproductive capacity to enter into marriage. Additionally, He stressed that the ability or intention to have children is not a prerequisite for marriage. He argued that procreation is a secondary aspect of marriage, rather than a fundamental requirement.",
"Expressing concerns about the Union Government's argument, Senior Advocate Vishwanathan highlighted the harmful consequences of denying the right to marry for sexual and gender minority individuals based on their inability to have children. He presented a hypothetical scenario illustrating the detrimental effects and the infringement on their security and rights. Justice S.R. Bhat cautioned against extreme possibilities and emphasized the importance of considering realistic situations. To support his point, Senior Advocate Vishwanathan cited instances of eugenics practices in other countries, underscoring the potential dangers. He also argued against the perception that marriage is solely for procreation, emphasizing its broader significance. Justice S.R. Bhat echoed this sentiment, stating that procreation should not be disproportionately emphasized in such a manner.",
"#### Parenthood",
"Senior Advocate Vishwanathan argued that there is no evidence to suggest that couples from sexual and gender minority communities are unable to provide the safety, welfare, and security that children require. Chief Justice D.Y Chandrachud acknowledged that even in traditional households, there can be instances of domestic violence and emphasized that absolutes do not exist.",
""
] |
### Cultural, social and religious values
Senior Advocate Singhvi, representing the petitioners, highlighted the need for laws to adapt to the evolving nature of society. He strongly argued against prioritizing societal values over the Constitutional principles of equality and non\-discrimination, firmly asserting that culture and morality should not override the Constitution.
Senior Advocate Singhvi outlined several motives behind people's desire for marriage, including seeking societal recognition and acceptance of their relationships, ensuring safety and security, finding personal fulfilment, and embracing a fundamental aspect of family life.
Senior Advocate Singhvi highlighted the secular nature of the Special Marriage Act, emphasizing its departure from cultural\-based personal marriage laws. He cited the objectives of the Act, which aimed to enable individuals in India, regardless of their faith, to enter into a marriage. Chief Justice D.Y. Chandrachud inquired about the faith\-agnostic nature of the Act, to which Singhvi concurred. Additionally, Senior Advocate Singhvi noted that if the Act remained independent of faith, it would similarly transcend cultural contexts due to the strong intertwining of religion and culture.
#### Urban elitism
On 19 April, the government argued before the court that the concept of same\-sex marriage was a "mere urban elitist view for the purpose of social acceptance."{{Cite news \|date\=2023\-04\-19 \|title\=No data from government to indicate it is 'urban\-elitist concept': SC on same\-sex marriages \|work\=The Times of India \|url\=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/no\-data\-from\-government\-to\-indicate\-it\-is\-urban\-elitist\-concept\-sc\-on\-same\-sex\-marriages/articleshow/99617770\.cms?from\=mdr \|access\-date\=2023\-04\-19 \|issn\=0971\-8257 \|archive\-date\=2023\-04\-19 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230419141851/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/no\-data\-from\-government\-to\-indicate\-it\-is\-urban\-elitist\-concept\-sc\-on\-same\-sex\-marriages/articleshow/99617770\.cms?from\=mdr \|url\-status\=live }}
As Senior Advocate Singhvi argued that sexual orientation is an innate characteristic, Chief Justice D.Y. Chandrachud observed that it counters the claim that sexual orientation might be elitist, urban\-centric, or influenced by class bias. Chief Justice D.Y. Chandrachud further explained that an innate characteristic could exhibit class bias and remarked that its manifestations might be more prevalent in urban areas due to increased acceptability.
Senior Advocate Vishwanathan represented Zainab Patel, a trans woman petitioner disowned by her family. He highlighted that despite her experience of being forced to beg on the streets, Zainab Patel's resilience and determination propelled her to achieve the position of Director at KPMG. He criticized the Union Government for lacking compassion in labelling her as an urban elitist.
Senior Advocate Kothari, representing Akai Padmashan, a trans woman petitioner disowned by her family, highlighted that at 15 years old, Akai Padmashan faced homelessness and had to leave school. Noting Akai Padmashan's successful reintegration into mainstream society, Senior Advocate emphasized recognizing that these individuals often come from impoverished and working\-class backgrounds. Senior Advocate Kothari criticized the Union Government for unjustly labelling their struggles as elitist concerns.
Senior Advocate Anand Grover rebutted the Union Government's argument that relationship between sexual and gender minority individuals were ‘urban’ and ‘elitist’ ideas by presenting evidence of 10 court protection orders of sexual and gender minority individuals in India, all hailing from poor and rural backgrounds.
In response to the respondents' attempt to portray marriage between sexual and gender minority individuals as urban elitist concept. Senior Advocate Ramachandran, representing the lesbian couple Kajal and Bhawna, highlighted the insightful words of Justice [Vivian Bose](/wiki/Vivian_Bose "Vivian Bose") from 1956\.Transcript of Hearing: {{Harvnb\|20th April 2023}}
{{Blockquote\|text\=The Constitution also exists for the common man, for the poor and the humble, for those who have businesses at stake. For the butcher, the baker, and the candlestick maker.\|author\=Justice Vivian Bose\|title\=Bidi Supply Company v. Union of India (1956\)}}
Senior Advocate Ramachandran specifically highlighted Kajal's occupation as a baker, emphasizing that she embodies the very individuals Justice Vivian Bose had in mind. He further noted that Kajal, a [Dalit woman](/wiki/Dalit "Dalit") from [Muktsar](/wiki/Sri_Muktsar_Sahib "Sri Muktsar Sahib") in [Punjab](/wiki/Punjab%2C_India "Punjab, India"), and Bhavna, from [Bahadurgarh](/wiki/Bahadurgarh "Bahadurgarh") in [Haryana](/wiki/Haryana "Haryana"), belong to a [backward caste](/wiki/Other_Backward_Class "Other Backward Class"), challenging the notion of an urban elite. He argued that the recognition of their marriage provides essential societal protection from their own unsupportive natal families.
Senior Advocate Vrinda Grover drew the Bench's attention to the violence and discrimination faced by sexual and gender minority individuals, particularly trans individuals, from their own families. She emphasized that trans persons are often compelled to suppress their identities in front of their natal families. In line with the arguments put forth by Senior Advocate Ramachandran, she asserted that recognizing their marriages is essential to provide them with the support and protection that their natal families have failed to provide.
#### Western influence
Senior Advocate Rohatgi countered the Union Government's claim that relationships between sexual and gender minority individuals were a Western influence. He emphasized the historical presence of homosexuality in Indian culture predating the imposition of Victorian morality by the British in the 1800s. Senior Advocate Rohatgi supported his argument with evidence from the Khajuraho temple carvings, which depict same\-sex relationships existing in India for centuries. Senior Advocate Anand Grover further highlighted the respectful recognition of transgender individuals in ancient Indian scriptures. He attributed the negative attitudes towards them to British influence, which permeated our society. These evidence contradicts the notion that relationships between sexual and gender minority individuals are solely an imported concept.
|
[
"### Cultural, social and religious values",
"Senior Advocate Singhvi, representing the petitioners, highlighted the need for laws to adapt to the evolving nature of society. He strongly argued against prioritizing societal values over the Constitutional principles of equality and non\\-discrimination, firmly asserting that culture and morality should not override the Constitution.",
"Senior Advocate Singhvi outlined several motives behind people's desire for marriage, including seeking societal recognition and acceptance of their relationships, ensuring safety and security, finding personal fulfilment, and embracing a fundamental aspect of family life.",
"Senior Advocate Singhvi highlighted the secular nature of the Special Marriage Act, emphasizing its departure from cultural\\-based personal marriage laws. He cited the objectives of the Act, which aimed to enable individuals in India, regardless of their faith, to enter into a marriage. Chief Justice D.Y. Chandrachud inquired about the faith\\-agnostic nature of the Act, to which Singhvi concurred. Additionally, Senior Advocate Singhvi noted that if the Act remained independent of faith, it would similarly transcend cultural contexts due to the strong intertwining of religion and culture.",
"#### Urban elitism",
"On 19 April, the government argued before the court that the concept of same\\-sex marriage was a \"mere urban elitist view for the purpose of social acceptance.\"{{Cite news \\|date\\=2023\\-04\\-19 \\|title\\=No data from government to indicate it is 'urban\\-elitist concept': SC on same\\-sex marriages \\|work\\=The Times of India \\|url\\=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/no\\-data\\-from\\-government\\-to\\-indicate\\-it\\-is\\-urban\\-elitist\\-concept\\-sc\\-on\\-same\\-sex\\-marriages/articleshow/99617770\\.cms?from\\=mdr \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-04\\-19 \\|issn\\=0971\\-8257 \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-04\\-19 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230419141851/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/no\\-data\\-from\\-government\\-to\\-indicate\\-it\\-is\\-urban\\-elitist\\-concept\\-sc\\-on\\-same\\-sex\\-marriages/articleshow/99617770\\.cms?from\\=mdr \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"As Senior Advocate Singhvi argued that sexual orientation is an innate characteristic, Chief Justice D.Y. Chandrachud observed that it counters the claim that sexual orientation might be elitist, urban\\-centric, or influenced by class bias. Chief Justice D.Y. Chandrachud further explained that an innate characteristic could exhibit class bias and remarked that its manifestations might be more prevalent in urban areas due to increased acceptability.",
"Senior Advocate Vishwanathan represented Zainab Patel, a trans woman petitioner disowned by her family. He highlighted that despite her experience of being forced to beg on the streets, Zainab Patel's resilience and determination propelled her to achieve the position of Director at KPMG. He criticized the Union Government for lacking compassion in labelling her as an urban elitist.",
"Senior Advocate Kothari, representing Akai Padmashan, a trans woman petitioner disowned by her family, highlighted that at 15 years old, Akai Padmashan faced homelessness and had to leave school. Noting Akai Padmashan's successful reintegration into mainstream society, Senior Advocate emphasized recognizing that these individuals often come from impoverished and working\\-class backgrounds. Senior Advocate Kothari criticized the Union Government for unjustly labelling their struggles as elitist concerns.",
"Senior Advocate Anand Grover rebutted the Union Government's argument that relationship between sexual and gender minority individuals were ‘urban’ and ‘elitist’ ideas by presenting evidence of 10 court protection orders of sexual and gender minority individuals in India, all hailing from poor and rural backgrounds.",
"In response to the respondents' attempt to portray marriage between sexual and gender minority individuals as urban elitist concept. Senior Advocate Ramachandran, representing the lesbian couple Kajal and Bhawna, highlighted the insightful words of Justice [Vivian Bose](/wiki/Vivian_Bose \"Vivian Bose\") from 1956\\.Transcript of Hearing: {{Harvnb\\|20th April 2023}}",
"{{Blockquote\\|text\\=The Constitution also exists for the common man, for the poor and the humble, for those who have businesses at stake. For the butcher, the baker, and the candlestick maker.\\|author\\=Justice Vivian Bose\\|title\\=Bidi Supply Company v. Union of India (1956\\)}}",
"Senior Advocate Ramachandran specifically highlighted Kajal's occupation as a baker, emphasizing that she embodies the very individuals Justice Vivian Bose had in mind. He further noted that Kajal, a [Dalit woman](/wiki/Dalit \"Dalit\") from [Muktsar](/wiki/Sri_Muktsar_Sahib \"Sri Muktsar Sahib\") in [Punjab](/wiki/Punjab%2C_India \"Punjab, India\"), and Bhavna, from [Bahadurgarh](/wiki/Bahadurgarh \"Bahadurgarh\") in [Haryana](/wiki/Haryana \"Haryana\"), belong to a [backward caste](/wiki/Other_Backward_Class \"Other Backward Class\"), challenging the notion of an urban elite. He argued that the recognition of their marriage provides essential societal protection from their own unsupportive natal families.",
"Senior Advocate Vrinda Grover drew the Bench's attention to the violence and discrimination faced by sexual and gender minority individuals, particularly trans individuals, from their own families. She emphasized that trans persons are often compelled to suppress their identities in front of their natal families. In line with the arguments put forth by Senior Advocate Ramachandran, she asserted that recognizing their marriages is essential to provide them with the support and protection that their natal families have failed to provide.",
"#### Western influence",
"Senior Advocate Rohatgi countered the Union Government's claim that relationships between sexual and gender minority individuals were a Western influence. He emphasized the historical presence of homosexuality in Indian culture predating the imposition of Victorian morality by the British in the 1800s. Senior Advocate Rohatgi supported his argument with evidence from the Khajuraho temple carvings, which depict same\\-sex relationships existing in India for centuries. Senior Advocate Anand Grover further highlighted the respectful recognition of transgender individuals in ancient Indian scriptures. He attributed the negative attitudes towards them to British influence, which permeated our society. These evidence contradicts the notion that relationships between sexual and gender minority individuals are solely an imported concept.",
""
] |
#### Urban elitism
On 19 April, the government argued before the court that the concept of same\-sex marriage was a "mere urban elitist view for the purpose of social acceptance."{{Cite news \|date\=2023\-04\-19 \|title\=No data from government to indicate it is 'urban\-elitist concept': SC on same\-sex marriages \|work\=The Times of India \|url\=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/no\-data\-from\-government\-to\-indicate\-it\-is\-urban\-elitist\-concept\-sc\-on\-same\-sex\-marriages/articleshow/99617770\.cms?from\=mdr \|access\-date\=2023\-04\-19 \|issn\=0971\-8257 \|archive\-date\=2023\-04\-19 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230419141851/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/no\-data\-from\-government\-to\-indicate\-it\-is\-urban\-elitist\-concept\-sc\-on\-same\-sex\-marriages/articleshow/99617770\.cms?from\=mdr \|url\-status\=live }}
As Senior Advocate Singhvi argued that sexual orientation is an innate characteristic, Chief Justice D.Y. Chandrachud observed that it counters the claim that sexual orientation might be elitist, urban\-centric, or influenced by class bias. Chief Justice D.Y. Chandrachud further explained that an innate characteristic could exhibit class bias and remarked that its manifestations might be more prevalent in urban areas due to increased acceptability.
Senior Advocate Vishwanathan represented Zainab Patel, a trans woman petitioner disowned by her family. He highlighted that despite her experience of being forced to beg on the streets, Zainab Patel's resilience and determination propelled her to achieve the position of Director at KPMG. He criticized the Union Government for lacking compassion in labelling her as an urban elitist.
Senior Advocate Kothari, representing Akai Padmashan, a trans woman petitioner disowned by her family, highlighted that at 15 years old, Akai Padmashan faced homelessness and had to leave school. Noting Akai Padmashan's successful reintegration into mainstream society, Senior Advocate emphasized recognizing that these individuals often come from impoverished and working\-class backgrounds. Senior Advocate Kothari criticized the Union Government for unjustly labelling their struggles as elitist concerns.
Senior Advocate Anand Grover rebutted the Union Government's argument that relationship between sexual and gender minority individuals were ‘urban’ and ‘elitist’ ideas by presenting evidence of 10 court protection orders of sexual and gender minority individuals in India, all hailing from poor and rural backgrounds.
In response to the respondents' attempt to portray marriage between sexual and gender minority individuals as urban elitist concept. Senior Advocate Ramachandran, representing the lesbian couple Kajal and Bhawna, highlighted the insightful words of Justice [Vivian Bose](/wiki/Vivian_Bose "Vivian Bose") from 1956\.Transcript of Hearing: {{Harvnb\|20th April 2023}}
{{Blockquote\|text\=The Constitution also exists for the common man, for the poor and the humble, for those who have businesses at stake. For the butcher, the baker, and the candlestick maker.\|author\=Justice Vivian Bose\|title\=Bidi Supply Company v. Union of India (1956\)}}
Senior Advocate Ramachandran specifically highlighted Kajal's occupation as a baker, emphasizing that she embodies the very individuals Justice Vivian Bose had in mind. He further noted that Kajal, a [Dalit woman](/wiki/Dalit "Dalit") from [Muktsar](/wiki/Sri_Muktsar_Sahib "Sri Muktsar Sahib") in [Punjab](/wiki/Punjab%2C_India "Punjab, India"), and Bhavna, from [Bahadurgarh](/wiki/Bahadurgarh "Bahadurgarh") in [Haryana](/wiki/Haryana "Haryana"), belong to a [backward caste](/wiki/Other_Backward_Class "Other Backward Class"), challenging the notion of an urban elite. He argued that the recognition of their marriage provides essential societal protection from their own unsupportive natal families.
Senior Advocate Vrinda Grover drew the Bench's attention to the violence and discrimination faced by sexual and gender minority individuals, particularly trans individuals, from their own families. She emphasized that trans persons are often compelled to suppress their identities in front of their natal families. In line with the arguments put forth by Senior Advocate Ramachandran, she asserted that recognizing their marriages is essential to provide them with the support and protection that their natal families have failed to provide.
|
[
"#### Urban elitism",
"On 19 April, the government argued before the court that the concept of same\\-sex marriage was a \"mere urban elitist view for the purpose of social acceptance.\"{{Cite news \\|date\\=2023\\-04\\-19 \\|title\\=No data from government to indicate it is 'urban\\-elitist concept': SC on same\\-sex marriages \\|work\\=The Times of India \\|url\\=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/no\\-data\\-from\\-government\\-to\\-indicate\\-it\\-is\\-urban\\-elitist\\-concept\\-sc\\-on\\-same\\-sex\\-marriages/articleshow/99617770\\.cms?from\\=mdr \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-04\\-19 \\|issn\\=0971\\-8257 \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-04\\-19 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230419141851/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/no\\-data\\-from\\-government\\-to\\-indicate\\-it\\-is\\-urban\\-elitist\\-concept\\-sc\\-on\\-same\\-sex\\-marriages/articleshow/99617770\\.cms?from\\=mdr \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"As Senior Advocate Singhvi argued that sexual orientation is an innate characteristic, Chief Justice D.Y. Chandrachud observed that it counters the claim that sexual orientation might be elitist, urban\\-centric, or influenced by class bias. Chief Justice D.Y. Chandrachud further explained that an innate characteristic could exhibit class bias and remarked that its manifestations might be more prevalent in urban areas due to increased acceptability.",
"Senior Advocate Vishwanathan represented Zainab Patel, a trans woman petitioner disowned by her family. He highlighted that despite her experience of being forced to beg on the streets, Zainab Patel's resilience and determination propelled her to achieve the position of Director at KPMG. He criticized the Union Government for lacking compassion in labelling her as an urban elitist.",
"Senior Advocate Kothari, representing Akai Padmashan, a trans woman petitioner disowned by her family, highlighted that at 15 years old, Akai Padmashan faced homelessness and had to leave school. Noting Akai Padmashan's successful reintegration into mainstream society, Senior Advocate emphasized recognizing that these individuals often come from impoverished and working\\-class backgrounds. Senior Advocate Kothari criticized the Union Government for unjustly labelling their struggles as elitist concerns.",
"Senior Advocate Anand Grover rebutted the Union Government's argument that relationship between sexual and gender minority individuals were ‘urban’ and ‘elitist’ ideas by presenting evidence of 10 court protection orders of sexual and gender minority individuals in India, all hailing from poor and rural backgrounds.",
"In response to the respondents' attempt to portray marriage between sexual and gender minority individuals as urban elitist concept. Senior Advocate Ramachandran, representing the lesbian couple Kajal and Bhawna, highlighted the insightful words of Justice [Vivian Bose](/wiki/Vivian_Bose \"Vivian Bose\") from 1956\\.Transcript of Hearing: {{Harvnb\\|20th April 2023}}",
"{{Blockquote\\|text\\=The Constitution also exists for the common man, for the poor and the humble, for those who have businesses at stake. For the butcher, the baker, and the candlestick maker.\\|author\\=Justice Vivian Bose\\|title\\=Bidi Supply Company v. Union of India (1956\\)}}",
"Senior Advocate Ramachandran specifically highlighted Kajal's occupation as a baker, emphasizing that she embodies the very individuals Justice Vivian Bose had in mind. He further noted that Kajal, a [Dalit woman](/wiki/Dalit \"Dalit\") from [Muktsar](/wiki/Sri_Muktsar_Sahib \"Sri Muktsar Sahib\") in [Punjab](/wiki/Punjab%2C_India \"Punjab, India\"), and Bhavna, from [Bahadurgarh](/wiki/Bahadurgarh \"Bahadurgarh\") in [Haryana](/wiki/Haryana \"Haryana\"), belong to a [backward caste](/wiki/Other_Backward_Class \"Other Backward Class\"), challenging the notion of an urban elite. He argued that the recognition of their marriage provides essential societal protection from their own unsupportive natal families.",
"Senior Advocate Vrinda Grover drew the Bench's attention to the violence and discrimination faced by sexual and gender minority individuals, particularly trans individuals, from their own families. She emphasized that trans persons are often compelled to suppress their identities in front of their natal families. In line with the arguments put forth by Senior Advocate Ramachandran, she asserted that recognizing their marriages is essential to provide them with the support and protection that their natal families have failed to provide.",
""
] |
### Legal relief sought
#### Constitutional recognition
Senior Advocate Rohatgi argued against a mere amendment to the act without a clear declaration. He reasoned that relying solely on the interpretation of the act would leave it vulnerable to potential future amendments, which could lead to unfavorable outcomes. Consequently, he respectfully urged the court to issue a constitutional declaration that would explicitly recognize marriage for diverse groups, drawing parallels to the recognition already afforded to heterosexual couples.
#### Statutory recognition
Senior Advocate Rohatgi argued that declaration of constitutional recognition of right to marry would be symbolic and it is necessary to provide statutory recognition to exercise the right.
Senior Advocate Rohatgi began explaining potential ways the Special Marriage Act could be interpreted by the court, highlighting that if the court recognizes a constitutional right to marriage for sexual and gender minority couples, the Act, being subservient to the Indian Constitution, might be deemed unconstitutional due to its exclusive clauses. He stressed that his purpose in outlining these possible judicial interpretations is to protect the Act's constitutional validity.
Senior Advocate Singhvi contended that using legislative intent as a defense against an equality challenge is invalid, as it constitutes circular and self\-referential reasoning. He cited the UK House of Lords case, Ghaidan v. Godin\-Mendoza, to advocate for an interpretation of statutes that aligns with the constitution, emphasizing the significance of fundamental rights over legislative intent and statutory language. He highlighted that the underlying thrust of the Special Marriage Act in India is to allow individuals, irrespective of their religious beliefs, to enter into marriages, emphasizing the need for its interpretation to align with the Constitution of India.
##### Marriageable age
The [minimum age for marriage](/wiki/Marriageable_age "Marriageable age") is specified in Section 4(c) of the Special Marriage Act and Section 4(c) of the Foreign Marriage Act, which mandates that a man must be 21 years old, and a woman must be 18 years old.
On 19 April, while advocating for a gender\-neutral interpretation of various sections of the Special Marriage Act, Senior Advocate Rohatgi argued that retaining the terms "male" and "female" for determining the minimum age for marriage is necessary to prevent legal ambiguity arising from gender\-based differences in marriageable age. Chief Justice D.Y. Chandrachud further inquired about the minimum age for marriage concerning gender non\-binary individuals.
##### Prohibited degree of kinship
The [prohibited degree of kinship](/wiki/Prohibited_degree_of_kinship "Prohibited degree of kinship") are outlined in Section 2(b) of the Special Marriage Act, stating that a man cannot marry anyone listed in Part I of the first schedule, which exclusively includes female relatives, and a woman cannot marry anyone listed in Part II of the first schedule, which exclusively comprises male relatives. The prohibited degrees of relationships, as delineated in Section 2(b) of the Special Marriage Act, apply to marriages conducted under the Foreign Marriage Act, as per Section 2(a) of the Foreign Marriage Act.
On 19 April, Senior Advocate Rohatgi argued that unintended consequences arising from recognizing marriages for couples from the sexual and gender minority community could be resolved by interpreting Section 2(b) of the Special Marriage Act to allow the terms "man" and "woman" to be understood as "person," effectively merging the gendered lists.
#### Recognition of ancillary rights
On 18 April, Senior Advocate Guruswamy argued that merely recognizing the fundamental right to marry would not sufficiently address the practical aspects of life for sexual and gender minority individuals. She reasoned that in addition to the right to marry, there is a need for specific laws that enable them to access insurance, purchase or rent homes, open bank accounts, and engage in similar activities. Senior Advocate Guruswamy emphasized that if the Supreme Court fails to address these practical aspects in the present instance, the petitioners would be compelled to repeatedly approach the court for resolution on each individual aspect.
On 27 April, as Solicitor General Mehta firmly opposed recognising the marriage of couples from sexual and gender minority communities, Chief Justice D.Y. Chandrachud told Solicitor General Mehta to provide an alternative solution to accommodate the various rights available to married couples for same\-sex couples. On 3 May, Solicitor General Mehta told the Bench that a committee would be formed under the Cabinet Secretary. The Bench noted that committee would require coordination with multiple ministries, and suggested the petitioners to submit a list of issues. Further, the Bench clarified that they would still be deciding the right to marry in the Case. The administrative measure of forming a committee is something that must take place regardless of how the case is decided.{{Cite web \|last1\=Karpuram \|first1\=Ajoy \|last2\=R. \|first2\=Sai Spandana \|date\=3 May 2023 \|title\=Plea for Marriage Equality: Constitution Bench Day \#7 \|url\=https://www.scobserver.in/reports/plea\-for\-marriage\-equality\-constitution\-bench\-day\-7/ \|access\-date\= \|website\=Supreme Court Observer \|language\=en\-US \|archive\-date\=3 May 2023 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230503223455/https://www.scobserver.in/reports/plea\-for\-marriage\-equality\-constitution\-bench\-day\-7/ \|url\-status\=live }}
|
[
"### Legal relief sought",
"#### Constitutional recognition",
"Senior Advocate Rohatgi argued against a mere amendment to the act without a clear declaration. He reasoned that relying solely on the interpretation of the act would leave it vulnerable to potential future amendments, which could lead to unfavorable outcomes. Consequently, he respectfully urged the court to issue a constitutional declaration that would explicitly recognize marriage for diverse groups, drawing parallels to the recognition already afforded to heterosexual couples.",
"#### Statutory recognition",
"Senior Advocate Rohatgi argued that declaration of constitutional recognition of right to marry would be symbolic and it is necessary to provide statutory recognition to exercise the right.",
"Senior Advocate Rohatgi began explaining potential ways the Special Marriage Act could be interpreted by the court, highlighting that if the court recognizes a constitutional right to marriage for sexual and gender minority couples, the Act, being subservient to the Indian Constitution, might be deemed unconstitutional due to its exclusive clauses. He stressed that his purpose in outlining these possible judicial interpretations is to protect the Act's constitutional validity.",
"Senior Advocate Singhvi contended that using legislative intent as a defense against an equality challenge is invalid, as it constitutes circular and self\\-referential reasoning. He cited the UK House of Lords case, Ghaidan v. Godin\\-Mendoza, to advocate for an interpretation of statutes that aligns with the constitution, emphasizing the significance of fundamental rights over legislative intent and statutory language. He highlighted that the underlying thrust of the Special Marriage Act in India is to allow individuals, irrespective of their religious beliefs, to enter into marriages, emphasizing the need for its interpretation to align with the Constitution of India.",
"##### Marriageable age",
"The [minimum age for marriage](/wiki/Marriageable_age \"Marriageable age\") is specified in Section 4(c) of the Special Marriage Act and Section 4(c) of the Foreign Marriage Act, which mandates that a man must be 21 years old, and a woman must be 18 years old.",
"On 19 April, while advocating for a gender\\-neutral interpretation of various sections of the Special Marriage Act, Senior Advocate Rohatgi argued that retaining the terms \"male\" and \"female\" for determining the minimum age for marriage is necessary to prevent legal ambiguity arising from gender\\-based differences in marriageable age. Chief Justice D.Y. Chandrachud further inquired about the minimum age for marriage concerning gender non\\-binary individuals.",
"##### Prohibited degree of kinship",
"The [prohibited degree of kinship](/wiki/Prohibited_degree_of_kinship \"Prohibited degree of kinship\") are outlined in Section 2(b) of the Special Marriage Act, stating that a man cannot marry anyone listed in Part I of the first schedule, which exclusively includes female relatives, and a woman cannot marry anyone listed in Part II of the first schedule, which exclusively comprises male relatives. The prohibited degrees of relationships, as delineated in Section 2(b) of the Special Marriage Act, apply to marriages conducted under the Foreign Marriage Act, as per Section 2(a) of the Foreign Marriage Act.",
"On 19 April, Senior Advocate Rohatgi argued that unintended consequences arising from recognizing marriages for couples from the sexual and gender minority community could be resolved by interpreting Section 2(b) of the Special Marriage Act to allow the terms \"man\" and \"woman\" to be understood as \"person,\" effectively merging the gendered lists.",
"#### Recognition of ancillary rights",
"On 18 April, Senior Advocate Guruswamy argued that merely recognizing the fundamental right to marry would not sufficiently address the practical aspects of life for sexual and gender minority individuals. She reasoned that in addition to the right to marry, there is a need for specific laws that enable them to access insurance, purchase or rent homes, open bank accounts, and engage in similar activities. Senior Advocate Guruswamy emphasized that if the Supreme Court fails to address these practical aspects in the present instance, the petitioners would be compelled to repeatedly approach the court for resolution on each individual aspect.",
"On 27 April, as Solicitor General Mehta firmly opposed recognising the marriage of couples from sexual and gender minority communities, Chief Justice D.Y. Chandrachud told Solicitor General Mehta to provide an alternative solution to accommodate the various rights available to married couples for same\\-sex couples. On 3 May, Solicitor General Mehta told the Bench that a committee would be formed under the Cabinet Secretary. The Bench noted that committee would require coordination with multiple ministries, and suggested the petitioners to submit a list of issues. Further, the Bench clarified that they would still be deciding the right to marry in the Case. The administrative measure of forming a committee is something that must take place regardless of how the case is decided.{{Cite web \\|last1\\=Karpuram \\|first1\\=Ajoy \\|last2\\=R. \\|first2\\=Sai Spandana \\|date\\=3 May 2023 \\|title\\=Plea for Marriage Equality: Constitution Bench Day \\#7 \\|url\\=https://www.scobserver.in/reports/plea\\-for\\-marriage\\-equality\\-constitution\\-bench\\-day\\-7/ \\|access\\-date\\= \\|website\\=Supreme Court Observer \\|language\\=en\\-US \\|archive\\-date\\=3 May 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230503223455/https://www.scobserver.in/reports/plea\\-for\\-marriage\\-equality\\-constitution\\-bench\\-day\\-7/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
""
] |
#### Statutory recognition
Senior Advocate Rohatgi argued that declaration of constitutional recognition of right to marry would be symbolic and it is necessary to provide statutory recognition to exercise the right.
Senior Advocate Rohatgi began explaining potential ways the Special Marriage Act could be interpreted by the court, highlighting that if the court recognizes a constitutional right to marriage for sexual and gender minority couples, the Act, being subservient to the Indian Constitution, might be deemed unconstitutional due to its exclusive clauses. He stressed that his purpose in outlining these possible judicial interpretations is to protect the Act's constitutional validity.
Senior Advocate Singhvi contended that using legislative intent as a defense against an equality challenge is invalid, as it constitutes circular and self\-referential reasoning. He cited the UK House of Lords case, Ghaidan v. Godin\-Mendoza, to advocate for an interpretation of statutes that aligns with the constitution, emphasizing the significance of fundamental rights over legislative intent and statutory language. He highlighted that the underlying thrust of the Special Marriage Act in India is to allow individuals, irrespective of their religious beliefs, to enter into marriages, emphasizing the need for its interpretation to align with the Constitution of India.
##### Marriageable age
The [minimum age for marriage](/wiki/Marriageable_age "Marriageable age") is specified in Section 4(c) of the Special Marriage Act and Section 4(c) of the Foreign Marriage Act, which mandates that a man must be 21 years old, and a woman must be 18 years old.
On 19 April, while advocating for a gender\-neutral interpretation of various sections of the Special Marriage Act, Senior Advocate Rohatgi argued that retaining the terms "male" and "female" for determining the minimum age for marriage is necessary to prevent legal ambiguity arising from gender\-based differences in marriageable age. Chief Justice D.Y. Chandrachud further inquired about the minimum age for marriage concerning gender non\-binary individuals.
##### Prohibited degree of kinship
The [prohibited degree of kinship](/wiki/Prohibited_degree_of_kinship "Prohibited degree of kinship") are outlined in Section 2(b) of the Special Marriage Act, stating that a man cannot marry anyone listed in Part I of the first schedule, which exclusively includes female relatives, and a woman cannot marry anyone listed in Part II of the first schedule, which exclusively comprises male relatives. The prohibited degrees of relationships, as delineated in Section 2(b) of the Special Marriage Act, apply to marriages conducted under the Foreign Marriage Act, as per Section 2(a) of the Foreign Marriage Act.
On 19 April, Senior Advocate Rohatgi argued that unintended consequences arising from recognizing marriages for couples from the sexual and gender minority community could be resolved by interpreting Section 2(b) of the Special Marriage Act to allow the terms "man" and "woman" to be understood as "person," effectively merging the gendered lists.
|
[
"#### Statutory recognition",
"Senior Advocate Rohatgi argued that declaration of constitutional recognition of right to marry would be symbolic and it is necessary to provide statutory recognition to exercise the right.",
"Senior Advocate Rohatgi began explaining potential ways the Special Marriage Act could be interpreted by the court, highlighting that if the court recognizes a constitutional right to marriage for sexual and gender minority couples, the Act, being subservient to the Indian Constitution, might be deemed unconstitutional due to its exclusive clauses. He stressed that his purpose in outlining these possible judicial interpretations is to protect the Act's constitutional validity.",
"Senior Advocate Singhvi contended that using legislative intent as a defense against an equality challenge is invalid, as it constitutes circular and self\\-referential reasoning. He cited the UK House of Lords case, Ghaidan v. Godin\\-Mendoza, to advocate for an interpretation of statutes that aligns with the constitution, emphasizing the significance of fundamental rights over legislative intent and statutory language. He highlighted that the underlying thrust of the Special Marriage Act in India is to allow individuals, irrespective of their religious beliefs, to enter into marriages, emphasizing the need for its interpretation to align with the Constitution of India.",
"##### Marriageable age",
"The [minimum age for marriage](/wiki/Marriageable_age \"Marriageable age\") is specified in Section 4(c) of the Special Marriage Act and Section 4(c) of the Foreign Marriage Act, which mandates that a man must be 21 years old, and a woman must be 18 years old.",
"On 19 April, while advocating for a gender\\-neutral interpretation of various sections of the Special Marriage Act, Senior Advocate Rohatgi argued that retaining the terms \"male\" and \"female\" for determining the minimum age for marriage is necessary to prevent legal ambiguity arising from gender\\-based differences in marriageable age. Chief Justice D.Y. Chandrachud further inquired about the minimum age for marriage concerning gender non\\-binary individuals.",
"##### Prohibited degree of kinship",
"The [prohibited degree of kinship](/wiki/Prohibited_degree_of_kinship \"Prohibited degree of kinship\") are outlined in Section 2(b) of the Special Marriage Act, stating that a man cannot marry anyone listed in Part I of the first schedule, which exclusively includes female relatives, and a woman cannot marry anyone listed in Part II of the first schedule, which exclusively comprises male relatives. The prohibited degrees of relationships, as delineated in Section 2(b) of the Special Marriage Act, apply to marriages conducted under the Foreign Marriage Act, as per Section 2(a) of the Foreign Marriage Act.",
"On 19 April, Senior Advocate Rohatgi argued that unintended consequences arising from recognizing marriages for couples from the sexual and gender minority community could be resolved by interpreting Section 2(b) of the Special Marriage Act to allow the terms \"man\" and \"woman\" to be understood as \"person,\" effectively merging the gendered lists.",
""
] |
Commentary
----------
The hearings on marriage between sexual and gender minority individuals ignited a public debate on the issue, thereby increasing public awareness about sexual and gender minority individuals in India and their experiences. The media provided a platform for sexual and gender minority individuals in India to share their stories and perspectives.
### Jurisdiction
A group of retired judges pointed out that [separation of power](/wiki/Separation_of_powers "Separation of powers") is a [basic structure](/wiki/Basic_structure_doctrine "Basic structure doctrine") of the [Constitution](/wiki/Constitution_of_India "Constitution of India") and argued that law\-making power is an exclusive domain of the [legislature](/wiki/Legislature "Legislature").{{Cite news \|date\=2003\-03\-29 \|title\=Legalising same\-sex marriage will have devastating impact on society: Former judges \|work\=\[\[Asian News International]] \|publication\-place\=\[\[New Delhi]], \[\[India]] \|url\=https://www.aninews.in/news/national/general\-news/legalising\-same\-sex\-marriage\-will\-have\-devastating\-impact\-on\-society\-former\-judges20230329171902/ \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230329115131/https://www.aninews.in/news/national/general\-news/legalising\-same\-sex\-marriage\-will\-have\-devastating\-impact\-on\-society\-former\-judges20230329171902/ \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-29}} Rohin Bhatt countered that it is not a judiciary overreach but one of interpreting the statutes. Anish Gawande pointed out that judicial review played a crucial role in protecting fundamental rights granted to Indian citizens, especially when the Legislature was hesitant to act. Despite facing political opposition, the Court's commitment to upholding these rights has been a cornerstone of Indian democracy{{Cite news \|last\=Gawande \|first\=Anish \|date\=25 April 2023 \|title\=Parliament didn't protect LGBTQ\+ rights, so courts must step in \|work\=The Times of India \|url\=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/blogs/voices/parliament\-didnt\-protect\-lgbtq\-rights\-so\-courts\-must\-step\-in/ \|access\-date\= \|issn\=0971\-8257 \|archive\-date\=13 May 2023 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230513011448/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/blogs/voices/parliament\-didnt\-protect\-lgbtq\-rights\-so\-courts\-must\-step\-in/ \|url\-status\=live }}
Former Member of the [Council of States](/wiki/Rajya_Sabha "Rajya Sabha") Swapan Dasgupta and Law professors G.S. Bajpai and Ankit Kaushik joined the retired judges arguing that legal recognition of marriage between sexual and gender minority individuals concerns the entire Society. Therefore, the Society and the [Parliament](/wiki/Parliament_of_India "Parliament of India") should debate and decide on the issue.{{Cite news \|last\=Dasgupta \|first\=Swapan \|date\=25 April 2023 \|title\=Why the call on same\-sex marriage should be Parliament's \|work\=The Times of India \|url\=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/why\-the\-call\-on\-same\-sex\-marriage\-should\-be\-parliaments/articleshow/99694599\.cms \|access\-date\= \|issn\=0971\-8257 \|archive\-date\=13 May 2023 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230513005055/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/why\-the\-call\-on\-same\-sex\-marriage\-should\-be\-parliaments/articleshow/99694599\.cms \|url\-status\=live }} Pointing out the lack of sexual and gender minority voices in the legislative spaces, Jaideep Singh Lalli disputed the idea of parliament having legitimacy to decide sexual and gender minority rights issues as a “representative" body.{{Cite web \|last\=Lalli \|first\=Jaideep Singh \|date\=7 April 2023 \|title\=The Paranoia of Former Judges Opposing Same\-Sex Marriages on Civilisational Grounds \|url\=https://thewire.in/lgbtqia/former\-judges\-paranoia\-same\-sex\-marriages \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230407092542/https://thewire.in/lgbtqia/former\-judges\-paranoia\-same\-sex\-marriages \|archive\-date\=7 April 2023 \|access\-date\= \|website\=\[\[The Wire (India)\|The Wire]]}} Rohin Bhatt contended that sexual and gender minority individuals could not wait for society to think it is acceptable for sexual and gender minority individuals to have equal rights. He argued that the rights are not bestowed upon sexual and gender minority individuals by society but instead accorded to sexual and gender minority individuals as equal citizens of the country.
Anish Gawande argued that a political commitment to the primacy of Parliament is important, but it must be accompanied by a firm rejection of its supremacy. Drawing attention to the lack of parliamentary debate on two private member's bills introduced on the same issue by Members of the [House of the People](/wiki/Lok_Sabha "Lok Sabha") Supriya Sule and DNV Senthilkumar, he asserted that the Parliament has failed to protect sexual and gender minority rights in India. He said the courts must ensure fundamental rights are not sacrificed at the altar of populist politics.
### Definition of marriage
Mani Chander pointed out that the Union Government used an outdated American legal dictionary to define marriage in the counter affidavit. The counter affidavit included the definition of marriage as a union of one man and one woman from the 4th Revised Edition of Black's Law Dictionary published in 1968\. However, the 9th Edition, published in 2009, defines marriage as a legal union of a couple as spouses.{{Cite news \|last\=Chander \|first\=Mani \|date\=20 March 2023 \|title\=Why is the Indian govt so afraid of same sex marriage? \|work\=The Times of India \|url\=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/why\-is\-the\-indian\-govt\-so\-afraid\-of\-same\-sex\-marriage/articleshow/98771120\.cms?from\=mdr \|access\-date\=2023\-04\-14 \|issn\=0971\-8257 \|archive\-date\=2023\-04\-24 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230424215311/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/why\-is\-the\-indian\-govt\-so\-afraid\-of\-same\-sex\-marriage/articleshow/98771120\.cms?from\=mdr \|url\-status\=live }}{{Cite book \|url\=https://karnatakajudiciary.kar.nic.in/hcklibrary/PDF/Blacks\-Law\-Dictionery.pdf \|title\=Black's Law Dictionary \|publisher\=\[\[West (publisher)\|West Publishing Co.]] \|year\=1968 \|edition\=Revised 4th \|location\=\[\[Saint Paul, Minnesota\|Saint Paul]], \[\[United States]] \|pages\=1123–1124 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20221104005105/https://karnatakajudiciary.kar.nic.in/hcklibrary/PDF/Blacks\-Law\-Dictionery.pdf \|archive\-date\=4 November 2022}}{{Cite book \|last\=Garner \|first\=Bryan A. \|title\=Black's Law Dictionary \|publisher\=\[\[West (publisher)\|West Group]] \|year\=2009 \|edition\=9th \|location\=\[\[Saint Paul, Minnesota\|Saint Paul]], \[\[United States]] \|pages\=1059}}
Law professors [G.S. Bajpai](/wiki/G._S._Bajpai "G. S. Bajpai") and Ankit Kaushik joined the retired judges in stressing the importance of [procreation](/wiki/Reproduction "Reproduction") in marriage. Pointing to the provision for the [annulment of marriage](/wiki/Annulment "Annulment") due to the [infertility](/wiki/Infertility "Infertility") of a partner, [G.S. Bajpai](/wiki/G._S._Bajpai "G. S. Bajpai") and Ankit Kaushik argued that [procreation](/wiki/Reproduction "Reproduction") is an essential requirement in the legal conception of marriage. Rohin Bhatt retorted that the law does not apply to heterosexual couples who mutually decide against procreation. Similarly, sexual and gender minority individuals enter the relationship fully aware of their inability to procreate.
### Ancillary rights
While noting that couples from sexual and gender minority communities may have a legitimate reason to seek legal protection, [Tahir Mahmood](/wiki/Tahir_Mahmood "Tahir Mahmood") pointed to the [cohabitation rights](/wiki/Cohabitation "Cohabitation") recognised by the Courts. He contended that the couples forcibly separated could file for [a writ of Habeas Corpus](/wiki/Habeas_corpus "Habeas corpus"). If these weren't satisfactory, he argued that same\-sex could request the Parliament to pass civil partnership.
### Health
The retired judges suggested that the [recognition of same\-sex marriage in the United States](/wiki/Same-sex_marriage_in_the_United_States "Same-sex marriage in the United States") was responsible for new [HIV infections](/wiki/HIV/AIDS "HIV/AIDS") in the [United States](/wiki/United_States "United States"). Kanav N. Sahgal pointed out that the retired judges relied on the report that identified [stigma](/wiki/Social_stigma "Social stigma"), [homophobia](/wiki/Homophobia "Homophobia"), and [discrimination](/wiki/Discrimination "Discrimination") as a cause for the increased susceptibility of gay and bisexual men to [HIV infections](/wiki/HIV/AIDS "HIV/AIDS") to make their baseless argument. Kanav N. Sahgal argued that recognition of marriage might reduce the stigma and improve access to healthcare.{{Cite web \|last\=Sahgal \|first\=Kanav N. \|date\=2023\-04\-04 \|title\=Misinformation and bigotry: Exposing the misleading arguments of the 21 retired judges opposing same\-sex marriage in India \|url\=https://theleaflet.in/misinformation\-and\-bigotry\-exposing\-the\-misleading\-arguments\-of\-the\-21\-retired\-judges\-opposing\-same\-sex\-marriage\-in\-india/ \|access\-date\=2023\-04\-06 \|website\=theleaflet.in \|language\=en\-US \|archive\-date\=2023\-04\-06 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230406003057/https://theleaflet.in/misinformation\-and\-bigotry\-exposing\-the\-misleading\-arguments\-of\-the\-21\-retired\-judges\-opposing\-same\-sex\-marriage\-in\-india/ \|url\-status\=live }}{{Citation \|last\=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention \|title\=HIV Surveillance Report: Diagnoses of HIV Infection in the United States and Dependent Areas, 2019 \|date\=2021 \|url\=https://www.cdc.gov/hiv/pdf/library/reports/surveillance/cdc\-hiv\-surveillance\-report\-2018\-updated\-vol\-32\.pdf \|volume\=32 \|pages\=19 \|type\=Report \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210619144437/https://www.cdc.gov/hiv/pdf/library/reports/surveillance/cdc\-hiv\-surveillance\-report\-2018\-updated\-vol\-32\.pdf \|place\=\[\[Atlanta\|Atlanta, United States]] \|publisher\=\[\[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention]] \|archive\-date\=2021\-06\-19 \|author\-link\=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention}}{{Citation \|last\=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention \|title\=HIV Surveillance Report: Diagnoses of HIV Infection in the United States and Dependent Areas, 2020 \|date\=2022 \|url\=https://www.cdc.gov/hiv/pdf/library/reports/surveillance/cdc\-hiv\-surveillance\-report\-2020\-updated\-vol\-33\.pdf \|volume\=33 \|pages\=23 \|type\=Report \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220524161550/https://www.cdc.gov/hiv/pdf/library/reports/surveillance/cdc\-hiv\-surveillance\-report\-2020\-updated\-vol\-33\.pdf \|place\=\[\[Atlanta\|Atlanta, United States]] \|publisher\=\[\[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention]] \|archive\-date\=2022\-05\-24 \|author\-link\=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention}} According to the Indian [National AIDS Control Organisation](/wiki/National_AIDS_Control_Organisation "National AIDS Control Organisation"), gay and bisexual people were responsible for only 2\.5 per cent of the transmission, whereas heterosexual people were responsible for 83\.1 per cent.{{Citation \|last\=National AIDS Control Organisation \|title\=Sankalak: Status of National AIDS Respo \|url\=https://naco.gov.in/sites/default/files/Sankalak\_Status\_of\_National\_AIDS\_Response\_Third\_Edition\_2021\.pdf \|pages\=32 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220617023437/http://naco.gov.in/sites/default/files/Sankalak\_Status\_of\_National\_AIDS\_Response\_Third\_Edition\_2021\.pdf \|edition\=3rd \|place\=\[\[New Delhi]], \[\[India]] \|publisher\=\[\[National AIDS Control Organisation\|NACO]], \[\[Ministry of Health and Family Welfare]], \[\[Government of India]] \|archive\-date\=17 June 2022 \|author\-link\=National AIDS Control Organisation}}
#### Parenthood
[Tahir Mahmood](/wiki/Tahir_Mahmood "Tahir Mahmood") claimed that the children adopted by same\-sex parents would suffer embarrassment in society.{{Cite news \|last\=Mahmood \|first\=Tahir \|author\-link\=Tahir Mahmood \|date\=2023\-03\-23 \|title\=Tahir Mahmood on same\-sex marriage: Existing matrimonial law should be left exclusively for the 'sanskaar' called 'marriage' \|work\=\[\[The Indian Express]] \|url\=https://indianexpress.com/article/opinion/columns/sex\-marriage\-matrimonial\-law\-should\-be\-left\-exclusively\-for\-marriage\-8512611/ \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230322151110/https://indianexpress.com/article/opinion/columns/sex\-marriage\-matrimonial\-law\-should\-be\-left\-exclusively\-for\-marriage\-8512611/ \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-22}} The retired judges argued that the psychological development of children adopted by same\-sex parents would be affected due to the lack of "balanced parenthood". Kanav N. Sahgal pointed out that the scientific evidence suggests that same\-sex parents are not different from opposite\-sex parents.
### Cultural, social and religious values
Most commenters noted that marriage in India is a sacred and revered institution rooted in socio\-religious customs, with a complex religious and legal relationship.{{Cite news \|last\=Kaushik \|first\=G. S. Bajpai \& Ankit \|date\=2023\-04\-02 \|title\=Same\-sex marriages: A matter for Parliament \|language\=en\-IN \|work\=The Hindu \|url\=https://www.thehindu.com/opinion/op\-ed/same\-sex\-marriages\-a\-matter\-for\-parliament/article66692014\.ece \|access\-date\=2023\-04\-06 \|issn\=0971\-751X \|archive\-date\=2023\-04\-05 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405062614/https://www.thehindu.com/opinion/op\-ed/same\-sex\-marriages\-a\-matter\-for\-parliament/article66692014\.ece \|url\-status\=live }} Rohin Bhatt pointed out that Indian law on marriage is a mixture of common law and religious law. He contended that marriage under Hindu law stopped being a sacrament when divorce was introduced.He pointed out that scholars such as Ruth Vanita and Saleem Kidwai have demonstrated that LGBT relationships were not an aberration in Hinduism.{{Cite news \|last\=Bhatt \|first\=Rohin \|date\=2023\-04\-04 \|title\=A case for marriage equality \|language\=en\-IN \|work\=The Hindu \|url\=https://www.thehindu.com/opinion/op\-ed/a\-case\-for\-marriage\-equality/article66698340\.ece \|access\-date\=2023\-04\-06 \|issn\=0971\-751X \|archive\-date\=2023\-04\-05 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405091058/https://www.thehindu.com/opinion/op\-ed/a\-case\-for\-marriage\-equality/article66698340\.ece \|url\-status\=live }}
Shahrukh Alam noted the irony in [Jamiat\-e\-ulema\-e\-Hind](/wiki/Jamiat_Ulema-e-Hind "Jamiat Ulema-e-Hind"), an organisation with a distinguished history of resisting imperialism, arguing for the hegemonic imposition of social and religious norms. She argued that Jamiat\-e\-ulema\-e\-Hind's approach to religious norms is the same as the Bharatiya Janata Party\-led Union Government's approach to National Security. They both refuse to acknowledge and engage with divergent views.{{Cite web \|last\=Alam \|first\=Shahrukh \|date\=17 April 2023 \|title\=Same\-sex marriage: In attacking notions of love, the Jamiat\-e\-ulema\-e\-Hind propagates a narrative that is hostile to change \|url\=https://indianexpress.com/article/opinion/columns/same\-sex\-marriage\-jamiat\-e\-ulema\-e\-hind\-8561390/ \|access\-date\= \|website\=The Indian Express \|language\=en \|archive\-date\=19 April 2023 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230419190452/https://indianexpress.com/article/opinion/columns/same\-sex\-marriage\-jamiat\-e\-ulema\-e\-hind\-8561390/ \|url\-status\=live }}
#### Personal liberty
In response to the [Jamiat\-e\-ulema\-e\-Hind](/wiki/Jamiat_Ulema-e-Hind "Jamiat Ulema-e-Hind")'s intervention application, Shahrukh Alam pointed out that some advocates in the Hijab Ban Case relied on freedom of expression and personal autonomy. They argued in good faith when they reasoned the identity should be constructed holistically without being demarcated into religious and secular spaces. She urged young people to reject the Jamiat\-e\-ulema\-e\-Hind argument that if you want to be different, do it in your own non\-religious space.
#### Western influence
The retired judges claimed that those demanding the legal recognition of marriage between sexual and gender minority individuals lacked knowledge and regard for the civilisation and institution of marriage, and that the interest groups were trying to impose [Western thoughts](/wiki/Western_philosophy "Western philosophy"), philosophies and practices on Indian Society. Literary historian [Ruth Vanita](/wiki/Ruth_Vanita "Ruth Vanita") pointed out that Indian opponents arguing that marriage between sexual and gender minority individuals is against [Indian culture](/wiki/Culture_of_India "Culture of India") were ironically borrowing the argument from Western opponents, who claimed that marriage between sexual and gender minority individuals is against [Western culture](/wiki/Western_culture "Western culture").{{Cite news \|last\=Desai \|first\=Ketaki \|date\=2023\-03\-19 \|title\=Social havoc? Has society collapsed in the 31 countries where gay marriage is legal?: Ruth Vanita \|work\=\[\[The Times of India]] \|url\=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/home/sunday\-times/all\-that\-matters/social\-havoc\-has\-society\-collapsed\-in\-the\-31\-countries\-where\-gay\-marriage\-is\-legal\-ruth\-vanita/articleshow/98760723\.cms \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-20 \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-20 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230320070120/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/home/sunday\-times/all\-that\-matters/social\-havoc\-has\-society\-collapsed\-in\-the\-31\-countries\-where\-gay\-marriage\-is\-legal\-ruth\-vanita/articleshow/98760723\.cms \|url\-status\=live }}
### Controversy
Among the commenters, 21 retired [High Courts](/wiki/High_courts_of_India "High courts of India") judges co\-signed an [open letter](/wiki/Open_letter "Open letter") stating that the petitioners were attacking the root of the Indian family system. Writing for [*The Wire*](/wiki/The_Wire_%28India%29 "The Wire (India)"), Vrinda Gopinath reported that at least 11 of them had worked for the [Bharatiya Janata Party](/wiki/Bharatiya_Janata_Party "Bharatiya Janata Party")\-led government in some capacity following their retirement. She reported various ethical violations, including Justice [Raghuvendra Singh Rathore](/wiki/Raghuvendra_Singh_Rathore "Raghuvendra Singh Rathore") detaining his daughter to prevent her [inter\-caste marriage](/wiki/Inter-caste_marriage "Inter-caste marriage"), which compelled the Supreme Court to intervene.{{Cite web \|last\=Gopinath \|first\=Vrinda \|date\=11 April 2023 \|title\=At Least 11 of 21 Former Judges Opposing Same Sex Marriage Are Not as Sanskari as They Seem \|url\=https://thewire.in/law/at\-least\-11\-of\-21\-former\-judges\-opposing\-same\-sex\-marriage\-are\-not\-as\-sanskari\-as\-they\-seem \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230411131219/https://thewire.in/law/at\-least\-11\-of\-21\-former\-judges\-opposing\-same\-sex\-marriage\-are\-not\-as\-sanskari\-as\-they\-seem \|archive\-date\=11 April 2023 \|access\-date\= \|website\=\[\[The Wire (India)\|The Wire]]}}{{Cite news \|last\=J \|first\=Venkatesan \|date\=16 December 2013 \|title\=Supreme Court to the rescue of HC judge's daughter \|language\=en\-IN \|work\=The Hindu \|url\=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/other\-states/supreme\-court\-to\-the\-rescue\-of\-hc\-judges\-daughter/article5466980\.ece \|access\-date\=2023\-04\-14 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131219005330/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/other\-states/supreme\-court\-to\-the\-rescue\-of\-hc\-judges\-daughter/article5466980\.ece \|archive\-date\=19 December 2013 \|issn\=0971\-751X}}
|
[
"Commentary\n----------",
"The hearings on marriage between sexual and gender minority individuals ignited a public debate on the issue, thereby increasing public awareness about sexual and gender minority individuals in India and their experiences. The media provided a platform for sexual and gender minority individuals in India to share their stories and perspectives.",
"### Jurisdiction",
"A group of retired judges pointed out that [separation of power](/wiki/Separation_of_powers \"Separation of powers\") is a [basic structure](/wiki/Basic_structure_doctrine \"Basic structure doctrine\") of the [Constitution](/wiki/Constitution_of_India \"Constitution of India\") and argued that law\\-making power is an exclusive domain of the [legislature](/wiki/Legislature \"Legislature\").{{Cite news \\|date\\=2003\\-03\\-29 \\|title\\=Legalising same\\-sex marriage will have devastating impact on society: Former judges \\|work\\=\\[\\[Asian News International]] \\|publication\\-place\\=\\[\\[New Delhi]], \\[\\[India]] \\|url\\=https://www.aninews.in/news/national/general\\-news/legalising\\-same\\-sex\\-marriage\\-will\\-have\\-devastating\\-impact\\-on\\-society\\-former\\-judges20230329171902/ \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230329115131/https://www.aninews.in/news/national/general\\-news/legalising\\-same\\-sex\\-marriage\\-will\\-have\\-devastating\\-impact\\-on\\-society\\-former\\-judges20230329171902/ \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-29}} Rohin Bhatt countered that it is not a judiciary overreach but one of interpreting the statutes. Anish Gawande pointed out that judicial review played a crucial role in protecting fundamental rights granted to Indian citizens, especially when the Legislature was hesitant to act. Despite facing political opposition, the Court's commitment to upholding these rights has been a cornerstone of Indian democracy{{Cite news \\|last\\=Gawande \\|first\\=Anish \\|date\\=25 April 2023 \\|title\\=Parliament didn't protect LGBTQ\\+ rights, so courts must step in \\|work\\=The Times of India \\|url\\=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/blogs/voices/parliament\\-didnt\\-protect\\-lgbtq\\-rights\\-so\\-courts\\-must\\-step\\-in/ \\|access\\-date\\= \\|issn\\=0971\\-8257 \\|archive\\-date\\=13 May 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230513011448/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/blogs/voices/parliament\\-didnt\\-protect\\-lgbtq\\-rights\\-so\\-courts\\-must\\-step\\-in/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"Former Member of the [Council of States](/wiki/Rajya_Sabha \"Rajya Sabha\") Swapan Dasgupta and Law professors G.S. Bajpai and Ankit Kaushik joined the retired judges arguing that legal recognition of marriage between sexual and gender minority individuals concerns the entire Society. Therefore, the Society and the [Parliament](/wiki/Parliament_of_India \"Parliament of India\") should debate and decide on the issue.{{Cite news \\|last\\=Dasgupta \\|first\\=Swapan \\|date\\=25 April 2023 \\|title\\=Why the call on same\\-sex marriage should be Parliament's \\|work\\=The Times of India \\|url\\=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/why\\-the\\-call\\-on\\-same\\-sex\\-marriage\\-should\\-be\\-parliaments/articleshow/99694599\\.cms \\|access\\-date\\= \\|issn\\=0971\\-8257 \\|archive\\-date\\=13 May 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230513005055/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/why\\-the\\-call\\-on\\-same\\-sex\\-marriage\\-should\\-be\\-parliaments/articleshow/99694599\\.cms \\|url\\-status\\=live }} Pointing out the lack of sexual and gender minority voices in the legislative spaces, Jaideep Singh Lalli disputed the idea of parliament having legitimacy to decide sexual and gender minority rights issues as a “representative\" body.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Lalli \\|first\\=Jaideep Singh \\|date\\=7 April 2023 \\|title\\=The Paranoia of Former Judges Opposing Same\\-Sex Marriages on Civilisational Grounds \\|url\\=https://thewire.in/lgbtqia/former\\-judges\\-paranoia\\-same\\-sex\\-marriages \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230407092542/https://thewire.in/lgbtqia/former\\-judges\\-paranoia\\-same\\-sex\\-marriages \\|archive\\-date\\=7 April 2023 \\|access\\-date\\= \\|website\\=\\[\\[The Wire (India)\\|The Wire]]}} Rohin Bhatt contended that sexual and gender minority individuals could not wait for society to think it is acceptable for sexual and gender minority individuals to have equal rights. He argued that the rights are not bestowed upon sexual and gender minority individuals by society but instead accorded to sexual and gender minority individuals as equal citizens of the country.",
"Anish Gawande argued that a political commitment to the primacy of Parliament is important, but it must be accompanied by a firm rejection of its supremacy. Drawing attention to the lack of parliamentary debate on two private member's bills introduced on the same issue by Members of the [House of the People](/wiki/Lok_Sabha \"Lok Sabha\") Supriya Sule and DNV Senthilkumar, he asserted that the Parliament has failed to protect sexual and gender minority rights in India. He said the courts must ensure fundamental rights are not sacrificed at the altar of populist politics.",
"### Definition of marriage",
"Mani Chander pointed out that the Union Government used an outdated American legal dictionary to define marriage in the counter affidavit. The counter affidavit included the definition of marriage as a union of one man and one woman from the 4th Revised Edition of Black's Law Dictionary published in 1968\\. However, the 9th Edition, published in 2009, defines marriage as a legal union of a couple as spouses.{{Cite news \\|last\\=Chander \\|first\\=Mani \\|date\\=20 March 2023 \\|title\\=Why is the Indian govt so afraid of same sex marriage? \\|work\\=The Times of India \\|url\\=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/why\\-is\\-the\\-indian\\-govt\\-so\\-afraid\\-of\\-same\\-sex\\-marriage/articleshow/98771120\\.cms?from\\=mdr \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-04\\-14 \\|issn\\=0971\\-8257 \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-04\\-24 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230424215311/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/why\\-is\\-the\\-indian\\-govt\\-so\\-afraid\\-of\\-same\\-sex\\-marriage/articleshow/98771120\\.cms?from\\=mdr \\|url\\-status\\=live }}{{Cite book \\|url\\=https://karnatakajudiciary.kar.nic.in/hcklibrary/PDF/Blacks\\-Law\\-Dictionery.pdf \\|title\\=Black's Law Dictionary \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[West (publisher)\\|West Publishing Co.]] \\|year\\=1968 \\|edition\\=Revised 4th \\|location\\=\\[\\[Saint Paul, Minnesota\\|Saint Paul]], \\[\\[United States]] \\|pages\\=1123–1124 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20221104005105/https://karnatakajudiciary.kar.nic.in/hcklibrary/PDF/Blacks\\-Law\\-Dictionery.pdf \\|archive\\-date\\=4 November 2022}}{{Cite book \\|last\\=Garner \\|first\\=Bryan A. \\|title\\=Black's Law Dictionary \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[West (publisher)\\|West Group]] \\|year\\=2009 \\|edition\\=9th \\|location\\=\\[\\[Saint Paul, Minnesota\\|Saint Paul]], \\[\\[United States]] \\|pages\\=1059}}",
"Law professors [G.S. Bajpai](/wiki/G._S._Bajpai \"G. S. Bajpai\") and Ankit Kaushik joined the retired judges in stressing the importance of [procreation](/wiki/Reproduction \"Reproduction\") in marriage. Pointing to the provision for the [annulment of marriage](/wiki/Annulment \"Annulment\") due to the [infertility](/wiki/Infertility \"Infertility\") of a partner, [G.S. Bajpai](/wiki/G._S._Bajpai \"G. S. Bajpai\") and Ankit Kaushik argued that [procreation](/wiki/Reproduction \"Reproduction\") is an essential requirement in the legal conception of marriage. Rohin Bhatt retorted that the law does not apply to heterosexual couples who mutually decide against procreation. Similarly, sexual and gender minority individuals enter the relationship fully aware of their inability to procreate.",
"### Ancillary rights",
"While noting that couples from sexual and gender minority communities may have a legitimate reason to seek legal protection, [Tahir Mahmood](/wiki/Tahir_Mahmood \"Tahir Mahmood\") pointed to the [cohabitation rights](/wiki/Cohabitation \"Cohabitation\") recognised by the Courts. He contended that the couples forcibly separated could file for [a writ of Habeas Corpus](/wiki/Habeas_corpus \"Habeas corpus\"). If these weren't satisfactory, he argued that same\\-sex could request the Parliament to pass civil partnership.",
"### Health",
"The retired judges suggested that the [recognition of same\\-sex marriage in the United States](/wiki/Same-sex_marriage_in_the_United_States \"Same-sex marriage in the United States\") was responsible for new [HIV infections](/wiki/HIV/AIDS \"HIV/AIDS\") in the [United States](/wiki/United_States \"United States\"). Kanav N. Sahgal pointed out that the retired judges relied on the report that identified [stigma](/wiki/Social_stigma \"Social stigma\"), [homophobia](/wiki/Homophobia \"Homophobia\"), and [discrimination](/wiki/Discrimination \"Discrimination\") as a cause for the increased susceptibility of gay and bisexual men to [HIV infections](/wiki/HIV/AIDS \"HIV/AIDS\") to make their baseless argument. Kanav N. Sahgal argued that recognition of marriage might reduce the stigma and improve access to healthcare.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Sahgal \\|first\\=Kanav N. \\|date\\=2023\\-04\\-04 \\|title\\=Misinformation and bigotry: Exposing the misleading arguments of the 21 retired judges opposing same\\-sex marriage in India \\|url\\=https://theleaflet.in/misinformation\\-and\\-bigotry\\-exposing\\-the\\-misleading\\-arguments\\-of\\-the\\-21\\-retired\\-judges\\-opposing\\-same\\-sex\\-marriage\\-in\\-india/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-04\\-06 \\|website\\=theleaflet.in \\|language\\=en\\-US \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-04\\-06 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230406003057/https://theleaflet.in/misinformation\\-and\\-bigotry\\-exposing\\-the\\-misleading\\-arguments\\-of\\-the\\-21\\-retired\\-judges\\-opposing\\-same\\-sex\\-marriage\\-in\\-india/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }}{{Citation \\|last\\=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention \\|title\\=HIV Surveillance Report: Diagnoses of HIV Infection in the United States and Dependent Areas, 2019 \\|date\\=2021 \\|url\\=https://www.cdc.gov/hiv/pdf/library/reports/surveillance/cdc\\-hiv\\-surveillance\\-report\\-2018\\-updated\\-vol\\-32\\.pdf \\|volume\\=32 \\|pages\\=19 \\|type\\=Report \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210619144437/https://www.cdc.gov/hiv/pdf/library/reports/surveillance/cdc\\-hiv\\-surveillance\\-report\\-2018\\-updated\\-vol\\-32\\.pdf \\|place\\=\\[\\[Atlanta\\|Atlanta, United States]] \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention]] \\|archive\\-date\\=2021\\-06\\-19 \\|author\\-link\\=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention}}{{Citation \\|last\\=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention \\|title\\=HIV Surveillance Report: Diagnoses of HIV Infection in the United States and Dependent Areas, 2020 \\|date\\=2022 \\|url\\=https://www.cdc.gov/hiv/pdf/library/reports/surveillance/cdc\\-hiv\\-surveillance\\-report\\-2020\\-updated\\-vol\\-33\\.pdf \\|volume\\=33 \\|pages\\=23 \\|type\\=Report \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220524161550/https://www.cdc.gov/hiv/pdf/library/reports/surveillance/cdc\\-hiv\\-surveillance\\-report\\-2020\\-updated\\-vol\\-33\\.pdf \\|place\\=\\[\\[Atlanta\\|Atlanta, United States]] \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention]] \\|archive\\-date\\=2022\\-05\\-24 \\|author\\-link\\=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention}} According to the Indian [National AIDS Control Organisation](/wiki/National_AIDS_Control_Organisation \"National AIDS Control Organisation\"), gay and bisexual people were responsible for only 2\\.5 per cent of the transmission, whereas heterosexual people were responsible for 83\\.1 per cent.{{Citation \\|last\\=National AIDS Control Organisation \\|title\\=Sankalak: Status of National AIDS Respo \\|url\\=https://naco.gov.in/sites/default/files/Sankalak\\_Status\\_of\\_National\\_AIDS\\_Response\\_Third\\_Edition\\_2021\\.pdf \\|pages\\=32 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220617023437/http://naco.gov.in/sites/default/files/Sankalak\\_Status\\_of\\_National\\_AIDS\\_Response\\_Third\\_Edition\\_2021\\.pdf \\|edition\\=3rd \\|place\\=\\[\\[New Delhi]], \\[\\[India]] \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[National AIDS Control Organisation\\|NACO]], \\[\\[Ministry of Health and Family Welfare]], \\[\\[Government of India]] \\|archive\\-date\\=17 June 2022 \\|author\\-link\\=National AIDS Control Organisation}}",
"#### Parenthood",
"[Tahir Mahmood](/wiki/Tahir_Mahmood \"Tahir Mahmood\") claimed that the children adopted by same\\-sex parents would suffer embarrassment in society.{{Cite news \\|last\\=Mahmood \\|first\\=Tahir \\|author\\-link\\=Tahir Mahmood \\|date\\=2023\\-03\\-23 \\|title\\=Tahir Mahmood on same\\-sex marriage: Existing matrimonial law should be left exclusively for the 'sanskaar' called 'marriage' \\|work\\=\\[\\[The Indian Express]] \\|url\\=https://indianexpress.com/article/opinion/columns/sex\\-marriage\\-matrimonial\\-law\\-should\\-be\\-left\\-exclusively\\-for\\-marriage\\-8512611/ \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230322151110/https://indianexpress.com/article/opinion/columns/sex\\-marriage\\-matrimonial\\-law\\-should\\-be\\-left\\-exclusively\\-for\\-marriage\\-8512611/ \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-22}} The retired judges argued that the psychological development of children adopted by same\\-sex parents would be affected due to the lack of \"balanced parenthood\". Kanav N. Sahgal pointed out that the scientific evidence suggests that same\\-sex parents are not different from opposite\\-sex parents.",
"### Cultural, social and religious values",
"Most commenters noted that marriage in India is a sacred and revered institution rooted in socio\\-religious customs, with a complex religious and legal relationship.{{Cite news \\|last\\=Kaushik \\|first\\=G. S. Bajpai \\& Ankit \\|date\\=2023\\-04\\-02 \\|title\\=Same\\-sex marriages: A matter for Parliament \\|language\\=en\\-IN \\|work\\=The Hindu \\|url\\=https://www.thehindu.com/opinion/op\\-ed/same\\-sex\\-marriages\\-a\\-matter\\-for\\-parliament/article66692014\\.ece \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-04\\-06 \\|issn\\=0971\\-751X \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-04\\-05 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405062614/https://www.thehindu.com/opinion/op\\-ed/same\\-sex\\-marriages\\-a\\-matter\\-for\\-parliament/article66692014\\.ece \\|url\\-status\\=live }} Rohin Bhatt pointed out that Indian law on marriage is a mixture of common law and religious law. He contended that marriage under Hindu law stopped being a sacrament when divorce was introduced.He pointed out that scholars such as Ruth Vanita and Saleem Kidwai have demonstrated that LGBT relationships were not an aberration in Hinduism.{{Cite news \\|last\\=Bhatt \\|first\\=Rohin \\|date\\=2023\\-04\\-04 \\|title\\=A case for marriage equality \\|language\\=en\\-IN \\|work\\=The Hindu \\|url\\=https://www.thehindu.com/opinion/op\\-ed/a\\-case\\-for\\-marriage\\-equality/article66698340\\.ece \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-04\\-06 \\|issn\\=0971\\-751X \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-04\\-05 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405091058/https://www.thehindu.com/opinion/op\\-ed/a\\-case\\-for\\-marriage\\-equality/article66698340\\.ece \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"Shahrukh Alam noted the irony in [Jamiat\\-e\\-ulema\\-e\\-Hind](/wiki/Jamiat_Ulema-e-Hind \"Jamiat Ulema-e-Hind\"), an organisation with a distinguished history of resisting imperialism, arguing for the hegemonic imposition of social and religious norms. She argued that Jamiat\\-e\\-ulema\\-e\\-Hind's approach to religious norms is the same as the Bharatiya Janata Party\\-led Union Government's approach to National Security. They both refuse to acknowledge and engage with divergent views.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Alam \\|first\\=Shahrukh \\|date\\=17 April 2023 \\|title\\=Same\\-sex marriage: In attacking notions of love, the Jamiat\\-e\\-ulema\\-e\\-Hind propagates a narrative that is hostile to change \\|url\\=https://indianexpress.com/article/opinion/columns/same\\-sex\\-marriage\\-jamiat\\-e\\-ulema\\-e\\-hind\\-8561390/ \\|access\\-date\\= \\|website\\=The Indian Express \\|language\\=en \\|archive\\-date\\=19 April 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230419190452/https://indianexpress.com/article/opinion/columns/same\\-sex\\-marriage\\-jamiat\\-e\\-ulema\\-e\\-hind\\-8561390/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"#### Personal liberty",
"In response to the [Jamiat\\-e\\-ulema\\-e\\-Hind](/wiki/Jamiat_Ulema-e-Hind \"Jamiat Ulema-e-Hind\")'s intervention application, Shahrukh Alam pointed out that some advocates in the Hijab Ban Case relied on freedom of expression and personal autonomy. They argued in good faith when they reasoned the identity should be constructed holistically without being demarcated into religious and secular spaces. She urged young people to reject the Jamiat\\-e\\-ulema\\-e\\-Hind argument that if you want to be different, do it in your own non\\-religious space.",
"#### Western influence",
"The retired judges claimed that those demanding the legal recognition of marriage between sexual and gender minority individuals lacked knowledge and regard for the civilisation and institution of marriage, and that the interest groups were trying to impose [Western thoughts](/wiki/Western_philosophy \"Western philosophy\"), philosophies and practices on Indian Society. Literary historian [Ruth Vanita](/wiki/Ruth_Vanita \"Ruth Vanita\") pointed out that Indian opponents arguing that marriage between sexual and gender minority individuals is against [Indian culture](/wiki/Culture_of_India \"Culture of India\") were ironically borrowing the argument from Western opponents, who claimed that marriage between sexual and gender minority individuals is against [Western culture](/wiki/Western_culture \"Western culture\").{{Cite news \\|last\\=Desai \\|first\\=Ketaki \\|date\\=2023\\-03\\-19 \\|title\\=Social havoc? Has society collapsed in the 31 countries where gay marriage is legal?: Ruth Vanita \\|work\\=\\[\\[The Times of India]] \\|url\\=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/home/sunday\\-times/all\\-that\\-matters/social\\-havoc\\-has\\-society\\-collapsed\\-in\\-the\\-31\\-countries\\-where\\-gay\\-marriage\\-is\\-legal\\-ruth\\-vanita/articleshow/98760723\\.cms \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-20 \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-20 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230320070120/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/home/sunday\\-times/all\\-that\\-matters/social\\-havoc\\-has\\-society\\-collapsed\\-in\\-the\\-31\\-countries\\-where\\-gay\\-marriage\\-is\\-legal\\-ruth\\-vanita/articleshow/98760723\\.cms \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"### Controversy",
"Among the commenters, 21 retired [High Courts](/wiki/High_courts_of_India \"High courts of India\") judges co\\-signed an [open letter](/wiki/Open_letter \"Open letter\") stating that the petitioners were attacking the root of the Indian family system. Writing for [*The Wire*](/wiki/The_Wire_%28India%29 \"The Wire (India)\"), Vrinda Gopinath reported that at least 11 of them had worked for the [Bharatiya Janata Party](/wiki/Bharatiya_Janata_Party \"Bharatiya Janata Party\")\\-led government in some capacity following their retirement. She reported various ethical violations, including Justice [Raghuvendra Singh Rathore](/wiki/Raghuvendra_Singh_Rathore \"Raghuvendra Singh Rathore\") detaining his daughter to prevent her [inter\\-caste marriage](/wiki/Inter-caste_marriage \"Inter-caste marriage\"), which compelled the Supreme Court to intervene.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Gopinath \\|first\\=Vrinda \\|date\\=11 April 2023 \\|title\\=At Least 11 of 21 Former Judges Opposing Same Sex Marriage Are Not as Sanskari as They Seem \\|url\\=https://thewire.in/law/at\\-least\\-11\\-of\\-21\\-former\\-judges\\-opposing\\-same\\-sex\\-marriage\\-are\\-not\\-as\\-sanskari\\-as\\-they\\-seem \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230411131219/https://thewire.in/law/at\\-least\\-11\\-of\\-21\\-former\\-judges\\-opposing\\-same\\-sex\\-marriage\\-are\\-not\\-as\\-sanskari\\-as\\-they\\-seem \\|archive\\-date\\=11 April 2023 \\|access\\-date\\= \\|website\\=\\[\\[The Wire (India)\\|The Wire]]}}{{Cite news \\|last\\=J \\|first\\=Venkatesan \\|date\\=16 December 2013 \\|title\\=Supreme Court to the rescue of HC judge's daughter \\|language\\=en\\-IN \\|work\\=The Hindu \\|url\\=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/other\\-states/supreme\\-court\\-to\\-the\\-rescue\\-of\\-hc\\-judges\\-daughter/article5466980\\.ece \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-04\\-14 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131219005330/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/other\\-states/supreme\\-court\\-to\\-the\\-rescue\\-of\\-hc\\-judges\\-daughter/article5466980\\.ece \\|archive\\-date\\=19 December 2013 \\|issn\\=0971\\-751X}}",
""
] |
Reactions
---------
### Community organisations
#### Namma Pride
[Bangalore](/wiki/Bangalore "Bangalore")\-based sexual and gender minority community organisation Namma Pride and [civil rights group](/wiki/Civil_and_political_rights "Civil and political rights") Coalition for Sex Workers and Sexual Minorities Rights co\-published an [open letter](/wiki/Open_letter "Open letter") responding to the affidavit filed by [Union Government](/wiki/Government_of_India "Government of India") on 12 March 2023\. The letter criticised the [Union Government](/wiki/Government_of_India "Government of India") for disregarding its constitutional commitment to secure the rights of sexual and gender minority individuals in India and perpetuating [discriminatory](/wiki/Discrimination "Discrimination") marriage laws. The letter called out the [Union Government](/wiki/Government_of_India "Government of India") for the hostile statement that couples from sexual and gender minority communities and opposite\-sex couples are distinct classes and that couples from sexual and gender minority communities are undeserving of equal treatment.{{Cite news \|date\=2023\-03\-14 \|title\='Demand Rooted in the Constitution': LGBTQI Rights Activists Urge SC to Legalise Same\-Sex Marriage \|work\=\[\[The Wire (India)\|The Wire]] \|url\=https://thewire.in/lgbtqia/demand\-rooted\-in\-the\-constitution\-lgbtqi\-rights\-activists\-urge\-sc\-to\-legalise\-same\-sex\-marriage \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230314105134/https://thewire.in/lgbtqia/demand\-rooted\-in\-the\-constitution\-lgbtqi\-rights\-activists\-urge\-sc\-to\-legalise\-same\-sex\-marriage \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-14}}
#### Sweekar
Sweekar— the Rainbow Parents is a group of parents of 400 sexual and gender minority children. They wrote an open letter to the Chief Justice of India urging him to consider marriage between sexual and gender minority individuals. They expressed their desire to see their children and our children\-in\-law find legal acceptance of their relationship. Noting that they are growing old and some will reach 80 years soon, they urged urgency in the matter.{{Cite web \|last\=Nair \|first\=Harish V \|date\=25 April 2023 \|title\=We Desire To See... Parents Of 400 LGBTQ Children Write Open Letter To CJI Demanding Marriage Equality \|url\=https://www.timesnownews.com/india/we\-desire\-to\-see\-parents\-of\-400\-lgbtq\-children\-write\-open\-letter\-to\-cji\-demanding\-marriage\-equality\-article\-99749460 \|access\-date\= \|website\=Times Now \|language\=en \|archive\-date\=25 April 2023 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230425114354/https://www.timesnownews.com/india/we\-desire\-to\-see\-parents\-of\-400\-lgbtq\-children\-write\-open\-letter\-to\-cji\-demanding\-marriage\-equality\-article\-99749460 \|url\-status\=live }}
#### Queerythm
Prijith P K, president of [Thiruvananthapuram](/wiki/Thiruvananthapuram "Thiruvananthapuram")\-based sexual and gender minority community organization [Queerythm](/wiki/Queerythm "Queerythm"), accused [Bharatiya Janata Party](/wiki/Bharatiya_Janata_Party "Bharatiya Janata Party") of filing a ‘[homophobic](/wiki/Homophobia "Homophobia")’ counter\-affidavit to cater to the [social conservative voters](/wiki/Social_conservatism "Social conservatism") for the [upcoming elections](/wiki/2023_elections_in_India "2023 elections in India") at the cost of [sexual and gender minority rights](/wiki/LGBT_rights_in_India "LGBT rights in India").{{Cite news \|date\=2023\-03\-15 \|title\=Catering to core vote bank ahead of polls: Activist on Centre opposing LGBTQ marriage \|work\=\[\[Asian News International]] \|url\=https://www.aninews.in/news/national/general\-news/catering\-to\-core\-vote\-bank\-ahead\-of\-polls\-activist\-on\-centre\-opposing\-lgbtq\-marriage20230315022100/ \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230314205824/https://www.aninews.in/news/national/general\-news/catering\-to\-core\-vote\-bank\-ahead\-of\-polls\-activist\-on\-centre\-opposing\-lgbtq\-marriage20230315022100/ \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-14}}
### Political parties
#### Bharatiya Janata Party
[BJP](/wiki/Bharatiya_Janata_Party "Bharatiya Janata Party") is a [right\-wing](/wiki/Right-wing_politics "Right-wing politics") national party. On 12 March 2023, the [Union Government](/wiki/Government_of_India "Government of India") under the leadership of BJP opposed extending the right to marry to sexual and gender minority individuals in India in the Supreme Court.{{Cite news \|last1\=Mehrotra \|first1\=Karishma \|last2\=Shih \|first2\=Gerry \|date\=2023\-03\-14 \|title\=Indian government opposes same\-sex marriage, warns of countrywide 'havoc' \|newspaper\=\[\[The Washington Post]] \|url\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2023/03/14/india\-same\-sex\-marriage/ \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-15 \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-14 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230314172029/https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2023/03/14/india\-same\-sex\-marriage/ \|url\-status\=live }} The BJP\-led State Government of [Assam](/wiki/Government_of_Assam "Government of Assam"), [Gujarat](/wiki/Government_of_Gujarat "Government of Gujarat") and [Madhya Pradesh](/wiki/Government_of_Madhya_Pradesh "Government of Madhya Pradesh") interevened in the Case opposing the extension of the right to adopt for sexual and gender minority individuals in India.
On 19 December 2022, [BJP](/wiki/Bharatiya_Janata_Party "Bharatiya Janata Party") Member of the [Council of States](/wiki/Rajya_Sabha "Rajya Sabha") [Sushil Kumar Modi](/wiki/Sushil_Modi "Sushil Modi") expressed his opposition to the [Judicial Review](/wiki/Judicial_review_in_India "Judicial review in India") of the Indian marriage laws. He told the [Parliament](/wiki/Parliament_of_India "Parliament of India"), "India is a country of 1\.4 billion people, and two judges cannot just sit in a room and decide on such a socially significant subject. Instead, there should be a debate in Parliament as well as the society at large".{{Cite web \|last\=Zargar \|first\=Arshad \|date\=2023\-01\-06 \|title\=As India's top court takes up same\-sex marriage, couples hope, and activists say there's a long fight ahead \|url\=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/india\-same\-sex\-marriage\-supreme\-court\-lgbtq\-rights\-narendra\-modi/ \|access\-date\=2023\-02\-15 \|website\=\[\[CBS News]] \|language\=en\-US \|archive\-date\=2023\-10\-18 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20231018150040/https://www.cbsnews.com/news/india\-same\-sex\-marriage\-supreme\-court\-lgbtq\-rights\-narendra\-modi/ \|url\-status\=live }}{{Cite web \|last\=Gopinathan \|first\=Raj \|date\=2023\-01\-07 \|title\=SubscriberWrites: Sushil Modi's stance on same\-sex marriage is not supported by facts \|url\=https://theprint.in/yourturn/subscriberwrites\-sushil\-modis\-stance\-on\-same\-sex\-marriage\-is\-not\-supported\-by\-facts/1302990/ \|access\-date\=2023\-02\-19 \|website\=\[\[ThePrint]] \|language\=en\-US \|archive\-date\=2023\-02\-19 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230219045309/https://theprint.in/yourturn/subscriberwrites\-sushil\-modis\-stance\-on\-same\-sex\-marriage\-is\-not\-supported\-by\-facts/1302990/ \|url\-status\=live }}
On 23 April 2023, the [Bar Council of India](/wiki/Bar_Council_of_India "Bar Council of India"), under the chairmanship of BJP member [Manan Kumar Mishra](/wiki/Manan_Kumar_Mishra "Manan Kumar Mishra"), passed a Resolution stating that the Supreme Court should defer the matter to the Parliament. The Resolution received wide condemnation, including from the Supreme Court Bar Association, which reminded the BCI that Supreme Court was duty\-bound to hear the petitioner before deciding on adjudication or referring to the Parliament.{{Cite news \|last\=PTI \|date\=28 April 2023 \|title\=SCBA terms Bar Council of India resolution on same\-sex marriage "highly inappropriate" \|language\=en\-IN \|work\=The Hindu \|url\=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/scba\-terms\-bci\-resolution\-on\-same\-sex\-marriage\-highly\-inappropriate/article66790184\.ece \|access\-date\=2023\-05\-07 \|issn\=0971\-751X \|archive\-date\=2023\-05\-07 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230507160027/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/scba\-terms\-bci\-resolution\-on\-same\-sex\-marriage\-highly\-inappropriate/article66790184\.ece \|url\-status\=live }}
At least 11 of 21 retired judges, who wrote an open letter criticising the petitioners for attacking the root of the Indian family system, had worked for the BJP\-led government in some capacity following their retirement.
#### Indian National Congress
[Congress](/wiki/Indian_National_Congress "Indian National Congress") is a [centre](/wiki/Centrism "Centrism")\-to\-[centre\-left](/wiki/Centre-left "Centre-left") national party. As some senior leaders dismissed the extension of the right to marry to sexual and gender minority individuals in India as an unimportant or alien issue for [Congress](/wiki/Indian_National_Congress "Indian National Congress") to take an official position, and others shared only their personal views, [Congress](/wiki/Indian_National_Congress "Indian National Congress") does not have an official stance on the extending the right to marry to sexual and gender minority individuals in India.{{Cite web \|last\=C.G \|first\=Manoj \|date\=2023\-03\-14 \|title\=Same\-sex marriage: Oppn parties cautious, want SC to take the lead as it did on Section 377 \|url\=https://indianexpress.com/article/political\-pulse/same\-sex\-marriage\-opposition\-parties\-cautious\-supreme\-court\-section\-377\-8497168/ \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-15 \|website\=\[\[The Indian Express]] \|language\=en \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-15 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230315025328/https://indianexpress.com/article/political\-pulse/same\-sex\-marriage\-opposition\-parties\-cautious\-supreme\-court\-section\-377\-8497168/ \|url\-status\=live }} The Congress\-led [State Government of Rajasthan](/wiki/Government_of_Rajasthan "Government of Rajasthan") interevened in the Case opposing the extension of the right to adopt for sexual and gender minority individuals in India.
Congress Member of the [Council of States](/wiki/Rajya_Sabha "Rajya Sabha") [Abhishek Singhvi](/wiki/Abhishek_Singhvi "Abhishek Singhvi"), who is a lead counsel for one of the petitioners, argued for judicial intervention. He said that the questions about the possible legislative approach are meaningless as the BJP\-led [Union Government](/wiki/Government_of_India "Government of India") vociferously opposed extending the right to marry to sexual and gender minority individuals in India.
Congress Member of the [House of the People](/wiki/Lok_Sabha "Lok Sabha") [Shashi Tharoor](/wiki/Shashi_Tharoor "Shashi Tharoor") said denying civil rights to same\-sex partners is wrong and unjustifiable and should be remedied without delay. Noting the resistance from the majority, he suggested a two\-stage process where the first step is a [civil partnership](/wiki/Civil_union "Civil union"), a contract that grants the legal rights of spouses to same\-sex partners. After seeing the impact on Indian society, the [Union Government](/wiki/Government_of_India "Government of India") might recognise [same\-sex marriage](/wiki/Same-sex_marriage "Same-sex marriage").
Congress Member of the [House of the People](/wiki/Lok_Sabha "Lok Sabha") [Manish Tewari](/wiki/Manish_Tewari "Manish Tewari") said that following the decriminalisation of same\-sex relations by the 5\-judge [Constitution Bench](/wiki/Constitution_bench_%28India%29 "Constitution bench (India)") of the Supreme Court, legalisation of such relationships should be a natural corollary.
#### Trinamool Congress
[Trinamool Congress](/wiki/Trinamool_Congress "Trinamool Congress") is a [centre](/wiki/Centrism "Centrism")\-to\-[centre\-right](/wiki/Centre-right_politics "Centre-right politics") state party based in [West Bengal](/wiki/West_Bengal "West Bengal"), [Tripura](/wiki/Tripura "Tripura") and [Meghalaya](/wiki/Meghalaya "Meghalaya"). National general secretary [Abhishek Banerjee](/wiki/Abhishek_Banerjee_%28politician%29 "Abhishek Banerjee (politician)") endorsed legal recognition of marriage between sexual and gender minority individuals. A party spokesperson confirmed that it reflects the party's stance.{{Cite web \|last\=Choudhury \|first\=Sunetra \|date\=22 April 2023 \|title\=Amid SC hearing, TMC, Left back same\-sex marriages, many parties remain undecided \|url\=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india\-news/tmc\-and\-cpi\-support\-legal\-recognition\-for\-same\-sex\-marriages\-in\-india\-most\-other\-political\-parties\-remain\-silent\-as\-supreme\-court\-hears\-case\-101682102447290\.html \|access\-date\= \|website\=Hindustan Times \|language\=en \|archive\-date\=25 April 2023 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230425062537/https://www.hindustantimes.com/india\-news/tmc\-and\-cpi\-support\-legal\-recognition\-for\-same\-sex\-marriages\-in\-india\-most\-other\-political\-parties\-remain\-silent\-as\-supreme\-court\-hears\-case\-101682102447290\.html \|url\-status\=live }} Earlier, [Mamata Banerjee](/wiki/Mamata_Banerjee "Mamata Banerjee"), chairperson of the party and [Chief Minister](/wiki/Chief_minister_%28India%29 "Chief minister (India)") of West Bengal refused to comment on marriage between sexual and gender minority individuals, reasoning that it is a sub judice matter.{{Cite web \|last\=NDTV News Desk \|date\=19 April 2023 \|title\=What Mamata Banerjee Said On Same\-Sex Marriage, Opposition Unity \|url\=https://www.ndtv.com/india\-news/it\-will\-happen\-like\-a\-tornado\-mamata\-banerjee\-on\-opposition\-unity\-3961492 \|access\-date\= \|archive\-date\=25 April 2023 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230425062537/https://www.ndtv.com/india\-news/it\-will\-happen\-like\-a\-tornado\-mamata\-banerjee\-on\-opposition\-unity\-3961492 \|url\-status\=live }}
Trinamool Congress Member of the [Council of States](/wiki/Rajya_Sabha "Rajya Sabha") [Derek O’Brien](/wiki/Derek_O%27Brien_%28politician%29 "Derek O'Brien (politician)"), who introduced a private member's bill to recognise marriage equality, published an opinion highlighting the personal experiences of sexual and gender minority individuals in India facing discrimination and prejudice. He concluded by emphasizing that the fight for same\-sex marriage is not just about legalizing a union, but about fighting for the dignity and equal rights of the sexual and gender minority community.{{Cite news \|last\=O’Brien \|first\=Derek \|author\-link\=Derek O'Brien (politician) \|date\=29 April 2023 \|title\=Derek O'Brien on same\-sex marriage: Queer Indians fighting the good fight \|work\=\[\[Indian Express Limited\|The Indian Express]] \|url\=https://indianexpress.com/article/opinion/columns/same\-sex\-marriage\-queer\-indians\-fighting\-the\-good\-fight\-8579732/ \|access\-date\=9 May 2023 \|archive\-date\=9 May 2023 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230509172701/https://indianexpress.com/article/opinion/columns/same\-sex\-marriage\-queer\-indians\-fighting\-the\-good\-fight\-8579732/ \|url\-status\=live }}
Trinamool Congress Member of the [House of the People](/wiki/Lok_Sabha "Lok Sabha") [Mahua Moitra](/wiki/Mahua_Moitra "Mahua Moitra") criticised the Bar Council of India for failing their oath by promoting popular sentiment over constitutional morality. She pointed out that despite 49 per cent of Indian Citizens being women, all the members of the Bar Council of India were men. She questioned the legitimacy of the Bar Council of India in claiming to express the sentiments of 99\.9 per cent of Indians.{{Cite web \|last\=Chitre \|first\=Manjiri \|date\=24 April 2023 \|title\='Lost your minds?': Mahua Moitra slams BCI for opposing same\-sex marriage case in SC \|url\=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india\-news/mahua\-moitra\-slams\-bci\-for\-opposing\-same\-sex\-marriage\-case\-in\-sc\-lost\-your\-minds\-101682328692563\.html \|access\-date\= \|website\=Hindustan Times \|language\=en \|archive\-date\=28 April 2023 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230428130634/https://www.hindustantimes.com/india\-news/mahua\-moitra\-slams\-bci\-for\-opposing\-same\-sex\-marriage\-case\-in\-sc\-lost\-your\-minds\-101682328692563\.html \|url\-status\=live }}
#### YSR Congress Party
[YSR Congress Party](/wiki/YSR_Congress_Party "YSR Congress Party") is a [centre\-left](/wiki/Centre-left "Centre-left") state party based in [Andhra Pradesh](/wiki/Andhra_Pradesh "Andhra Pradesh"). The YSR Congress Party\-led [State Government of Andhra Pradesh](/wiki/Government_of_Andhra_Pradesh "Government of Andhra Pradesh") interevened in the Case opposing the extension of the right to adopt for sexual and gender minority individuals in India.
#### Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam
[DMK](/wiki/Dravida_Munnetra_Kazhagam "Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam") is a [centre\-left](/wiki/Centre-left "Centre-left") state party based in [Tamil Nadu](/wiki/Tamil_Nadu "Tamil Nadu") and [Puducherry](/wiki/Puducherry_%28union_territory%29 "Puducherry (union territory)"). On 8 May 2023, DMK organising secretary [R S Bharathi](/wiki/R._S._Bharathi "R. S. Bharathi") said the party has not decided on the stance.{{Cite web \|last\=Som \|first\=Moyurie \|date\=8 May 2023 \|title\=Same\-sex marriage: What Opposition parties feel about legalising gay marriage \|url\=https://epaper.timesgroup.com/timesspecial/samesexmarriage/same\-sex\-marriage\-what\-opposition\-parties\-feel\-about\-legalising\-gay\-marriage/1683532825217 \|access\-date\=2023\-05\-08 \|website\=Times of India \|language\=English \|archive\-date\=2023\-05\-08 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230508173211/https://epaper.timesgroup.com/timesspecial/samesexmarriage/same\-sex\-marriage\-what\-opposition\-parties\-feel\-about\-legalising\-gay\-marriage/1683532825217 \|url\-status\=live }}
DMK Member of the [House of the People](/wiki/Lok_Sabha "Lok Sabha") [Thamizhachi Thangapandian](/wiki/Thamizhachi_Thangapandian "Thamizhachi Thangapandian"), who has been closely following the proceedings, offered her full support. She eagerly awaits a favourable judgement that would make India the first UN\-recognised nation from Asia to do so, a massive victory for sexual and gender minority rights globally.{{Cite web \|last\=Desk \|first\=Online \|title\=Famous personalities supporting legalisation of same\-sex marriage in India \|url\=https://www.dtnext.in/national/2023/04/18/famous\-personalities\-supporting\-legalisation\-of\-same\-sex\-marriage\-in\-india \|access\-date\=2023\-05\-08 \|website\=DT next \|date\=18 April 2023 \|language\=en \|archive\-date\=2023\-05\-08 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230508172153/https://www.dtnext.in/national/2023/04/18/famous\-personalities\-supporting\-legalisation\-of\-same\-sex\-marriage\-in\-india \|url\-status\=live }}
#### Communist Party of India (Marxist)
[CPI(M)](/wiki/Communist_Party_of_India_%28Marxist%29 "Communist Party of India (Marxist)") is a [left\-wing](/wiki/Left-wing_politics "Left-wing politics") national party. Member of the [Politburo](/wiki/Polit_Bureau_of_the_Communist_Party_of_India_%28Marxist%29 "Polit Bureau of the Communist Party of India (Marxist)") [Brinda Karat](/wiki/Brinda_Karat "Brinda Karat") said [CPI(M)](/wiki/Communist_Party_of_India_%28Marxist%29 "Communist Party of India (Marxist)") supports the rights of same\-sex partners to get legal recognition of their relationship as a marriage. She called for judicial intervention, as the [BJP](/wiki/Bharatiya_Janata_Party "Bharatiya Janata Party")\-led [Union Government](/wiki/Government_of_India "Government of India") opposed extending the right to marry for sexual and gender minority individuals in India.
#### Biju Janata Dal
[Biju Janata Dal](/wiki/Biju_Janata_Dal "Biju Janata Dal") is a [centre\-left](/wiki/Centre-left "Centre-left") state party based in [Odisha](/wiki/Odisha "Odisha"). As of 8 May 2023, the Party does not have an official stance on the issue.
In sharing his personal opinion, Biju Janata Dal Member of the [Council of States](/wiki/Rajya_Sabha "Rajya Sabha") [Prasanna Acharya](/wiki/Prasanna_Acharya "Prasanna Acharya") argued that Indian society is not comparable to Western society and, therefore, what may be suitable for the latter may not be appropriate for the former and opposed marriage between sexual and gender minority individuals.
#### Nationalist Congress Party
Nationalist Congress Party is a [centrist](/wiki/Centrism "Centrism") state party based in [Maharashtra](/wiki/Maharashtra "Maharashtra") and [Nagaland](/wiki/Nagaland "Nagaland"). As of 8 May 2023, NCP does not have an official stance on the issue.
On 1 April 2022, NCP Member of the [House of the People](/wiki/Lok_Sabha "Lok Sabha") [Supriya Sule](/wiki/Supriya_Sule "Supriya Sule") had introduced a private member's bill in Parliament, to recognise same\-sex marriages under the Special Marriage Act.{{Cite web \|last\=ANI \|date\=1 April 2022 \|title\=NCP's Supriya Sule introduces Private Member's Bill for legalising same\-sex marriage \|url\=https://theprint.in/india/ncps\-supriya\-sule\-introduces\-private\-members\-bill\-for\-legalising\-same\-sex\-marriage/898806/ \|access\-date\= \|website\=The Print \|language\=en\-US \|archive\-date\=9 May 2023 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230509172702/https://theprint.in/india/ncps\-supriya\-sule\-introduces\-private\-members\-bill\-for\-legalising\-same\-sex\-marriage/898806/ \|url\-status\=live }}
#### All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam
[AIADMK](/wiki/All_India_Anna_Dravida_Munnetra_Kazhagam "All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam") is a [centre\-left](/wiki/Centre-left "Centre-left") state party based in [Tamil Nadu](/wiki/Tamil_Nadu "Tamil Nadu") and [Puducherry](/wiki/Puducherry_%28union_territory%29 "Puducherry (union territory)"). As of 8 May 2023, the Party does not have an official stance on the issue.
On 8 May 2023, senior party leaders said that same\-sex marriage is against Indian culture and raised concerns about the emotional impact on the adopted child of the same\-sex couple.
#### Bharat Rashtra Samithi
[Bharat Rashtra Samithi](/wiki/Bharat_Rashtra_Samithi "Bharat Rashtra Samithi") is a [centrist](/wiki/Centrism "Centrism") state party based in [Telangana](/wiki/Telangana "Telangana"). On 8 May 2023, BRS Member of the [House of the People](/wiki/Lok_Sabha "Lok Sabha") [Nageshwar Rao](/wiki/Nama_Nageswara_Rao "Nama Nageswara Rao") said that opinion of state governments on same\-sex marriage is irrelevant as they will abide by the Supreme Court's verdict.
#### Rashtriya Janata Dal
[Rashtriya Janata Dal](/wiki/Rashtriya_Janata_Dal "Rashtriya Janata Dal") is a [centre\-left](/wiki/Centre-left "Centre-left") state party based in [Bihar](/wiki/Bihar "Bihar") and [Jharkhand](/wiki/Jharkhand "Jharkhand"). On 8 May 2023, RJD Vice\-president [Shivanand Tiwary](/wiki/Shivanand_Tiwari "Shivanand Tiwari") said the party had not discussed the issue. RJD National Spokesperson Prof Subodh Kumar Mehta stated that commenting on a sub judice matter is against the ethos of the judiciary and refused to comment.
In sharing his personal opinion, RJD Vice\-president Shivanand Tiwary criticized [BJP](/wiki/Bharatiya_Janata_Party "Bharatiya Janata Party")'s stance on same\-sex marriage and supported the right of those with a same\-sex sexual orientation to marry if they choose to, citing scientific evidence and examples from other countries where it is legal. He said that the recognition of same\-sex marriage is next step following the decriminalisation of same\-sex relations.
#### Communist Party of India
[CPI](/wiki/Communist_Party_of_India "Communist Party of India") is a [left\-wing](/wiki/Left-wing_politics "Left-wing politics") state party based in [Kerala](/wiki/Kerala "Kerala"), [Manipur](/wiki/Manipur "Manipur") and [Tamil Nadu](/wiki/Tamil_Nadu "Tamil Nadu"). CPI was the first party to support legal recognition of marriage between sexual and gender minority individuals officially. On 15 March 2023, the party released a statement that criticised the [BJP](/wiki/Bharatiya_Janata_Party "Bharatiya Janata Party")\-led Union Government's position as a reflection of the Manuwadi worldview, which excludes and criminalises. The statement called on the Supreme Court to uphold the right and dignity of the sexual and gender minority community.{{Cite web \|last\=Communist Party of India \|author\-link\=Communist Party of India \|date\=15 March 2023 \|title\=Protect Rights of LGBTQIA\+ Community \|url\=https://communistpartyofindia.com/protect\-rights\-of\-lgbtqia\-community\-cpi/ \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230425061934/https://communistpartyofindia.com/protect\-rights\-of\-lgbtqia\-community\-cpi/ \|archive\-date\=25 April 2023 \|access\-date\= \|language\=en\-GB}}
On 22 April 2023, CPI Member of the [Council of States](/wiki/Rajya_Sabha "Rajya Sabha") [Binoy Viswam](/wiki/Binoy_Viswam "Binoy Viswam") reiterated the party stands with the democratic rights of the sexual and gender minority community.
#### Lok Janshakti Party
[Lok Janshakti Party](/wiki/Lok_Janshakti_Party_%28Ram_Vilas%29 "Lok Janshakti Party (Ram Vilas)") is a state party based in Bihar. On 8 May 2023, Party Vice\-president Arvind Kumar Bajpai said that part has not decided on their stance, but they are more likely to oppose it due to social and cultural values.
#### Aam Aadmi Party
[Aam Aadmi Party](/wiki/Aam_Aadmi_Party "Aam Aadmi Party") is a [centrist](/wiki/Centrism "Centrism") national party. [Delhi Commission for Protection of Child Rights](/wiki/Delhi_Commission_for_Protection_of_Child_Rights "Delhi Commission for Protection of Child Rights"), a statutory body of the [Delhi Government](/wiki/Government_of_Delhi "Government of Delhi") under the AAP leadership, intervened to support extending the right to marry and adopt for sexual and gender minority individuals.
#### Naga People's Front
[Naga People's Front](/wiki/Naga_People%27s_Front "Naga People's Front") is a state party based in [Manipur](/wiki/Manipur "Manipur") and [Nagaland](/wiki/Nagaland "Nagaland"). On 11 May 2023, [Küzholuzo Nienü](/wiki/K%C3%BCzholuzo_Nien%C3%BC "Küzholuzo Nienü"), party leader and member of [Nagaland Legislative Assembly](/wiki/Nagaland_Legislative_Assembly "Nagaland Legislative Assembly"), opposed same\-sex marriage. He cautioned the Supreme Court that while society may have "grudgingly" accepted the ruling that decriminalized homosexuality, they would react in an "unsavoury" manner to the legalization of same\-sex marriage,{{Citation \|last\=Nienü \|first\=Küzholuzo \|title\=Naga People's Front on same sex marriage. \|date\=11 May 2023 \|url\=https://pbs.twimg.com/media/Fv2jQ9KagAMz0zw?format\=jpg\&name\=large \|type\=Press Release \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230511201348/https://pbs.twimg.com/media/Fv2jQ9KagAMz0zw?format\=jpg\&name\=large \|publication\-place\=Kohima, India \|publisher\=\[\[Naga People's Front]] \|archive\-date\=11 May 2023}}
### Professional associations
#### All India Lawyers Association for Justice
The All India Lawyers Association for Justice criticised the [Bar Council of India](/wiki/Bar_Council_of_India "Bar Council of India")'s resolution calling the Supreme Court to refer the matter to the Parliament as an endorsement of the doctrine of [parliamentary supremacy](/wiki/Parliamentary_sovereignty "Parliamentary sovereignty"). The association endorsed constitutional supremacy and [Dr Ambedkar's](/wiki/B._R._Ambedkar "B. R. Ambedkar") constitutional morality. They expressed that excluding people based on sexual orientation and gender identity is unconstitutional.{{Citation \|last\=All India Lawyers Association for Justice \|title\=Constitutional Morality demands that Same\-sex Marriage be Permitted \|date\=24 April 2023 \|type\=Organizational Resolution \|place\=\[\[Bangalore]], \[\[India]] \|publisher\=All India Lawyers Association for Justice}}
#### Bar Council of India
The [Bar Council of India](/wiki/Bar_Council_of_India "Bar Council of India"), a statutory body that regulates the legal practice and legal education, claimed that more than 99\.9 per cent of Indians opposed marriage between sexual and gender minority individuals and urged the Supreme Court to leave the matter to the Parliament.{{Cite web \|last\=Scroll Staff \|date\=24 April 2023 \|title\=Same\-sex marriage: Bar Council asks Supreme Court to leave the matter to Parliament \|url\=https://scroll.in/latest/1047881/same\-sex\-marriage\-bar\-council\-asks\-supreme\-court\-to\-leave\-the\-matter\-to\-parliament \|access\-date\= \|website\=Scroll.in \|language\=en\-US \|archive\-date\=24 April 2023 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230424065233/https://scroll.in/latest/1047881/same\-sex\-marriage\-bar\-council\-asks\-supreme\-court\-to\-leave\-the\-matter\-to\-parliament \|url\-status\=live }} The [fact\-checking website](/wiki/List_of_fact-checking_websites "List of fact-checking websites") Boomlive reported that the data does not support the BCI claim of over 99\.9% against legal recognition of marriage between sexual and gender minority individuals.{{Cite web \|last\=Kudrati \|first\=Mohammed \|date\=18 April 2023 \|title\=Data Doesn't Support BCI's Claim Of Over 99\.9% Against Marriage Equality \|url\=https://www.boomlive.in/fact\-check/fact\-check\-viral\-marriage\-equality\-same\-sex\-marriage\-lgbtqia\-lgbtq\-bar\-council\-of\-india\-21804 \|access\-date\= \|website\=www.boomlive.in \|language\=en \|archive\-date\=1 May 2023 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230501173758/https://www.boomlive.in/fact\-check/fact\-check\-viral\-marriage\-equality\-same\-sex\-marriage\-lgbtqia\-lgbtq\-bar\-council\-of\-india\-21804 \|url\-status\=live }} According to *[The Wire](/wiki/The_Wire_%28India%29 "The Wire (India)")*, Senior Advocate Manan Kumar Mishra, Chairperson of the BCI, joined the Bharatiya Janata Party in January 2014 and has been a vocal supporter.{{Cite web \|last\=Pisharoty \|first\=Sangeeta Barooah \|date\=14 April 2023 \|title\=Marriage Equality: Behind Bar Council's Plea to SC, a Political Motive \|url\=https://thewire.in/law/marriage\-equality\-bar\-council\-sc\-political\-motive \|access\-date\= \|website\=The Wire \|archive\-date\=27 April 2023 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230427124815/https://thewire.in/law/marriage\-equality\-bar\-council\-sc\-political\-motive \|url\-status\=live }}
#### Indian Psychiatric Society
On 9 April 2023, the [Indian Psychiatric Society](/wiki/Indian_Psychiatric_Society "Indian Psychiatric Society"), a professional association for Indian [psychiatrists](/wiki/Psychiatrist "Psychiatrist") affiliated with the [World Psychiatric Association](/wiki/World_Psychiatric_Association "World Psychiatric Association"), issued a statement asserting that sexual and gender minority identities are natural variations within the range of human sexuality. Stating that there is no evidence to support the exclusion of sexual and gender minority individuals, the Society supported equal rights for sexual and gender minority individuals, including marriage and adoption. The Society cautioned that [discrimination](/wiki/Discrimination "Discrimination") leads to mental health issues. The [Society](/wiki/Indian_Psychiatric_Society "Indian Psychiatric Society") acknowledged that the children of [same\-sex parents](/wiki/LGBT_parenting "LGBT parenting") might experience [discrimination](/wiki/Discrimination "Discrimination") and [stigma](/wiki/Social_stigma "Social stigma") and urged the sensitize families, schools and communities to prevent stigma and discrimination.{{Citation \|last\=Indian Psychiatric Society \|title\=Position Statement of Indian Psychiatric Society regarding LGBTQA \|date\=3 April 2023 \|url\=https://indianpsychiatricsociety.org/ips\-position\-statement\-regarding\-lgbtqa/ \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230411120124/https://indianpsychiatricsociety.org/ips\-position\-statement\-regarding\-lgbtqa/ \|series\=IPS/HGS/22\-24/1007 (LGBTQA) \|publication\-place\=\[\[Gurgaon]], \[\[India]] \|publisher\=\[\[Indian Psychiatric Society]] \|archive\-date\=11 April 2023 \|author\-link\=Indian Psychiatric Society}}{{Cite news \|last\=Dutta \|first\=Alisha \|date\=9 April 2023 \|title\=No scientific data to oppose same\-sex marriage, says Indian Psychiatric Society \|language\=en\-IN \|work\=The Hindu \|url\=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/indian\-psychiatric\-society\-says\-that\-there\-is\-no\-scientific\-reasoning\-to\-prove\-lgbtqia\-individuals\-cannot\-be\-good\-parents/article66718128\.ece \|access\-date\= \|issn\=0971\-751X \|archive\-date\=10 April 2023 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230410110305/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/indian\-psychiatric\-society\-says\-that\-there\-is\-no\-scientific\-reasoning\-to\-prove\-lgbtqia\-individuals\-cannot\-be\-good\-parents/article66718128\.ece \|url\-status\=live }}
Dr Alka Subramanyam, author of the statement and member of the executive council of the Society, said they reviewed scientific research conducted in countries like the [United Kingdom](/wiki/United_Kingdom "United Kingdom"), [United States](/wiki/United_States "United States"), [Netherlands](/wiki/Netherlands "Netherlands"), and [Taiwan](/wiki/Taiwan "Taiwan"), where [same\-sex marriage](/wiki/Same-sex_marriage "Same-sex marriage") and [adoption](/wiki/LGBT_parenting "LGBT parenting") by couples from sexual and gender minority communities are recognised.
#### Supreme Court Bar Association
Supreme Court Bar Association criticised the Bar Council of India for their "inappropriate" resolution urging the Supreme Court to refer the matter to the Parliament. The Association asserted that the Supreme Court has to hear the petitions and decide whether the Court should adjudicate or refer to the Parliament. President of the Association Vikas Singh said the actions of the Bar Council of India were inappropriate and the proper way would be to intervene and argue the point.{{Citation \|last\=Supreme Court Bar Association \|title\=Resolution by Circulation \|date\=27 April 2023 \|type\=Organizational Resolution \|publication\-place\=\[\[New Delhi]], \[\[India]] \|publisher\=Supreme Court Bar Association}}
### Prominent individuals
[Akkai Padmashali](/wiki/Akkai_Padmashali "Akkai Padmashali"), a sexual and gender minority rights activist, recently wrote an open letter in which she condemned [BJP](/wiki/Bharatiya_Janata_Party "Bharatiya Janata Party") [MP](/wiki/Member_of_Parliament_%28India%29 "Member of Parliament (India)") [Sushil Kumar Modi](/wiki/Sushil_Modi "Sushil Modi") for his speech opposing legal recognition of marriage between sexual and gender minority individuals in the [Council of States](/wiki/Rajya_Sabha "Rajya Sabha"). In the letter, she reminded him of Dr. Ambedkar's words that constitutional morality requires cultivation, as it is not a natural sentiment. She also pointed out that the court is duty\-bound to apply constitutional morality, not popular morality. As a [trans woman](/wiki/Trans_woman "Trans woman"), Akkai corrected Modi that the campaign for legal recognition of marriage between sexual and gender minority individuals is led by sexual and gender minority individuals, not [left](/wiki/Left-wing_politics "Left-wing politics")\-[liberal](/wiki/Liberalism "Liberalism") activists.{{Cite news \|last\=Thomas \|first\=Bellie \|date\=2022\-12\-25 \|title\=Same\-sex marriages: Bengaluru transgender activist Akkai pens an open letter to MP Sushil Kumar Modi \|work\=The South First \|url\=https://thesouthfirst.com/karnataka/same\-sex\-marriages\-bengaluru\-transgender\-activist\-akkai\-pens\-an\-open\-letter\-to\-mp\-sushil\-kumar\-modi/ \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20221225072945/https://thesouthfirst.com/karnataka/same\-sex\-marriages\-bengaluru\-transgender\-activist\-akkai\-pens\-an\-open\-letter\-to\-mp\-sushil\-kumar\-modi/ \|archive\-date\=2022\-12\-25}}{{Cite news \|date\=2022\-12\-26 \|title\=Akkai Padmashali demands apology from BJP MP for remarks against same\-sex marriages \|work\=\[\[The News Minute]] \|url\=https://www.thenewsminute.com/article/akkai\-padmashali\-demands\-apology\-bjp\-mp\-remarks\-against\-same\-sex\-marriages\-171311 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230327150713/https://www.thenewsminute.com/article/akkai\-padmashali\-demands\-apology\-bjp\-mp\-remarks\-against\-same\-sex\-marriages\-171311 \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-27}} On 27 January 2023, she filed a petition to join the case.
[Ruth Vanita](/wiki/Ruth_Vanita "Ruth Vanita"), a feminist critic and literary historian, pointed out that opponents of marriage between sexual and gender minority individuals in India who argue that it goes against Indian culture are ironically borrowing the same argument used by opponents in the [West](/wiki/Western_world "Western world") who claimed that it goes against [Western culture](/wiki/Western_culture "Western culture"). As Indian opponents raised the alarm that marriage between sexual and gender minority individuals would cause social havoc, she drew attention to the 31 countries that have recognised the [same\-sex marriage](/wiki/Same-sex_marriage "Same-sex marriage") and did not experience “social havoc”.
[Onir](/wiki/Onir "Onir"), a gay filmmaker, said that humanity and equality are more important than the misplaced values of culture and society. Shortcomings of religion, especially those that come from regressive patriarchy, should not stand in the way of progress. Earlier, he criticised the United Hindu Front for protesting against the hearing. He referred to them as a group of haters who are against all minorities and emphasized that their viciousness, lack of education, and unemployment is a terrible combination.{{Cite web \|last\=Masand \|first\=Taru B \|date\=6 January 2023 \|title\=Onir slams United Hindu Front after they protest outside SC against same\-sex marriage plea: Should be all imprisoned \|url\=https://www.timesnownews.com/entertainment\-news/onir\-slams\-united\-hindu\-front\-after\-they\-protest\-outside\-sc\-against\-same\-sex\-marriage\-plea\-should\-be\-all\-imprisoned\-bollywood\-news\-article\-96795057 \|access\-date\= \|website\=Times Now \|language\=en \|archive\-date\=21 June 2023 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230621163526/https://www.timesnownews.com/entertainment\-news/onir\-slams\-united\-hindu\-front\-after\-they\-protest\-outside\-sc\-against\-same\-sex\-marriage\-plea\-should\-be\-all\-imprisoned\-bollywood\-news\-article\-96795057 \|url\-status\=live }}
[Hansal Mehta](/wiki/Hansal_Mehta "Hansal Mehta"), a filmmaker who directed the movie [*Aligarh*](/wiki/Aligarh_%28film%29 "Aligarh (film)") based on the life of [Ramchandra Siras](/wiki/Ramchandra_Siras "Ramchandra Siras"), an Indian gay professor, recently expressed his support for legal recognition of marriage between sexual and gender minority individuals. [Apurva Asrani](/wiki/Apurva_Asrani "Apurva Asrani"), an editor and screenwriter who wrote the movie [*Aligarh*](/wiki/Aligarh_%28film%29 "Aligarh (film)"), said that ancient Indian texts don't prohibit homosexuality and mention same\-sex unions of many gods. The homophobia is a result of colonization and Abrahamic religions.{{Cite web \|date\=18 April 2023 \|title\=Famous personalities supporting legalisation of same\-sex marriage in India \|url\=https://www.dtnext.in/national/2023/04/18/famous\-personalities\-supporting\-legalisation\-of\-same\-sex\-marriage\-in\-india \|access\-date\= \|website\=DT Next \|language\=en \|archive\-date\=8 May 2023 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230508172153/https://www.dtnext.in/national/2023/04/18/famous\-personalities\-supporting\-legalisation\-of\-same\-sex\-marriage\-in\-india \|url\-status\=live }}
[Bhumi Pednekar](/wiki/Bhumi_Pednekar "Bhumi Pednekar"), an actress who portrayed the character of a teacher who identifies as a lesbian in the movie [Badhaai Do](/wiki/Badhaai_Do "Badhaai Do"), has identified herself as an ally of the sexual and gender minority community. She said that equality in every aspect of life should be afforded to everyone, regardless of their sexual orientation.{{Cite web \|date\=10 May 2023 \|title\=Bhumi Pednekar shows her support for same\-sex marriage in India: I just feel love is love \|url\=https://www.filmfare.com/news/bollywood/bhumi\-pednekar\-puts\-her\-support\-for\-same\-sex\-marriage\-in\-india\-i\-just\-feel\-love\-is\-love\-58393\.html \|website\=Filmfare\|language\=en \|archive\-date\=13 May 2023 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230513084438/https://www.filmfare.com/news/bollywood/bhumi\-pednekar\-puts\-her\-support\-for\-same\-sex\-marriage\-in\-india\-i\-just\-feel\-love\-is\-love\-58393\.html \|url\-status\=live }}
Actress [Kangana Ranaut](/wiki/Kangana_Ranaut "Kangana Ranaut") expressed that what a person does in the world defines their identity, not what they do in bed. She said that sexual preferences are private and not to be flaunted as identity cards or medals. She urged acceptance of those who disagree with one's gender identity. However, she counselled against judging people based on physical attributes. She said that people can be whoever they want to be. She encourages individuals to rise above limiting perceptions. Kangana Ranaut suggests parents teach children to see themselves beyond physical attributes and focus on their inner potential. Later, during an interview, she expressed that marriage is a matter of the heart and people's preferences are of no concern once two hearts have met.{{Cite web \|date\=1 May 2023 \|title\=Kangana Ranaut supports same\-sex marriage in India: 'Jab logo ke dil mil gaye hai, hum kya bol sakte hai' \|url\=https://www.hindustantimes.com/entertainment/bollywood/kangana\-ranaut\-supports\-same\-sex\-marriage\-fans\-call\-her\-liberal\-in\-true\-sense\-101682929136873\.html \|access\-date\= \|website\=Hindustan Times \|language\=en \|archive\-date\=11 May 2023 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230511060336/https://www.hindustantimes.com/entertainment/bollywood/kangana\-ranaut\-supports\-same\-sex\-marriage\-fans\-call\-her\-liberal\-in\-true\-sense\-101682929136873\.html \|url\-status\=live }}
Abhijit Ganguly, a comedian, believes that claiming same\-sex relationships are against Indian culture is incorrect. He raises the question of whether the blame lies with urban elites who view Indian culture as backward and Western culture as modern or self\-appointed dogmatic saviors of Indian culture fixated on their views of right and wrong.
Film director [Vivek Ranjan Agnihotri](/wiki/Vivek_Agnihotri "Vivek Agnihotri") said that Same\-sex marriage is not an elitist concept but a human need and right that should be normalized in Indian society. Later, he published an opinion stating that social issues like same\-sex marriage are complex and should be addressed by representatives of the people, not the Supreme Court. He argued that the will and the preparedness of society also should be taken into account. If people are not prepared, parliamentarians and the authorities must educate people with facts.{{Cite web \|last\=Agnihotri \|first\=Vivek \|date\=19 April 2023 \|title\=Vivek Agnihotri writes on same\-sex marriage: It is time for India to take the lead in creating an open, progressive society \|url\=https://indianexpress.com/article/opinion/columns/vivek\-agnihotri\-same\-sex\-marriage\-india\-open\-progressive\-society\-8564625/ \|access\-date\= \|website\=The Indian Express \|language\=en \|archive\-date\=12 May 2023 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230512062940/https://indianexpress.com/article/opinion/columns/vivek\-agnihotri\-same\-sex\-marriage\-india\-open\-progressive\-society\-8564625/ \|url\-status\=live }}
Tehseen Poonawalla, an entrepreneur and anchor, said that marriage to a consenting adult is a fundamental right under Article 21, and society cannot take it away. He said that sexual and gender minority community's right to marry under the special marriage act should be upheld by the Supreme Court. [Celina Jaitley](/wiki/Celina_Jaitly "Celina Jaitly"), an actress, supported the Indian sexual and gender minority community's fight for the right to life, dignity, and the same opportunities for marriage and family as others. Comedian [Vir Das](/wiki/Vir_Das "Vir Das"), actress [Sumona Chakravarti](/wiki/Sumona_Chakravarti "Sumona Chakravarti"), and [Maanvi Gagroo](/wiki/Maanvi_Gagroo "Maanvi Gagroo") are among the celebrities who have expressed their hope for the recognition of marriage between sexual and gender minority individuals by the Supreme Court.
### Religious organisations
#### Hinduism
[RSS](/wiki/Rashtriya_Swayamsevak_Sangh "Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh") is a [Hindu nationalist](/wiki/Hindu_nationalism "Hindu nationalism") organisation and the ideological parent of [Prime Minister](/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_India "Prime Minister of India") [Modi's](/wiki/Narendra_Modi "Narendra Modi") [Bharatiya Janata Party](/wiki/Bharatiya_Janata_Party "Bharatiya Janata Party").{{Cite news \|last\=Jain \|first\=Rupam \|date\=2023\-03\-14 \|title\=Powerful Indian Hindu group backs government's opposition to same\-sex marriage recognition \|work\=\[\[Reuters]] \|editor\-last\=Y.P. \|editor\-first\=Rajesh \|url\=https://www.reuters.com/world/india/powerful\-indian\-hindu\-group\-backs\-governments\-opposition\-same\-sex\-marriage\-2023\-03\-14/ \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-15 \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-15 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230315043930/https://www.reuters.com/world/india/powerful\-indian\-hindu\-group\-backs\-governments\-opposition\-same\-sex\-marriage\-2023\-03\-14/ \|url\-status\=live }} On 14 March 2023, during the press conference at the end of [Akhil Bharatiya Pratinidhi Sabha](/wiki/Akhil_Bharatiya_Pratinidhi_Sabha "Akhil Bharatiya Pratinidhi Sabha"), [RSS](/wiki/Rashtriya_Swayamsevak_Sangh "Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh") General Secretary [Dattatreya Hosabale](/wiki/Dattatreya_Hosabale "Dattatreya Hosabale") backed the [BJP](/wiki/Bharatiya_Janata_Party "Bharatiya Janata Party")\-led [Union Government's](/wiki/Government_of_India "Government of India") opposition to the extension of the right to marry for sexual and gender minority individuals in India. He said marriage is an institution for the benefit of the family and society, not for physical and sexual enjoyment.{{Cite news \|last\=Tiwary \|first\=Deeptiman \|date\=2023\-03\-14 \|title\=RSS backs govt stand on same\-sex marriage, says 'in Hindu philosophy, marriage a sanskar' \|work\=\[\[The Indian Express]] \|url\=https://indianexpress.com/article/political\-pulse/rss\-backs\-govt\-stand\-on\-same\-sex\-marriage\-against\-our\-culture\-8496625/ \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-15 \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-15 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230315031951/https://indianexpress.com/article/political\-pulse/rss\-backs\-govt\-stand\-on\-same\-sex\-marriage\-against\-our\-culture\-8496625/ \|url\-status\=live }}
Samvardhinee Nyas, an affiliate of RSS, interviewed persons affiliated with eight branches of medicine ranging from Ayurveda to modern medicine and submitted its finding to support the Union Government's opposition. They claimed that 60% of medical professionals claimed homosexuality was a disorder, 23\.58% claimed they had "treated" such persons and "now their life is just like normal people." They reported that 84\.27% of the medical professionals opposed legal recognition of marriage between sexual and gender minority individuals, and 67% claimed same\-sex parents could not raise their offspring.{{Cite web \|last\=Scroll Staff \|date\=7 May 2023 \|title\=Most doctors consider homosexuality as a disorder, RSS affiliate tells Supreme Court \|url\=https://scroll.in/latest/1048675/most\-doctors\-consider\-homosexuality\-as\-a\-disorder\-rss\-affiliate\-tells\-supreme\-court \|access\-date\= \|website\=Scroll.in \|language\=en\-US \|archive\-date\=7 May 2023 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230507160028/https://scroll.in/latest/1048675/most\-doctors\-consider\-homosexuality\-as\-a\-disorder\-rss\-affiliate\-tells\-supreme\-court \|url\-status\=live }}
On 6 January 2023, the United Hindu Front protested outside the court, decrying homosexuality as against Indian culture and insisting the Supreme Court should not hear the petitions. However, the Supreme Court continued with the hearing.{{Cite web \|date\=2023\-01\-06 \|title\=Delhi: United Hindu Front protests outside SC ahead of same\-sex marriage case hearing; Watch video \|url\=https://www.freepressjournal.in/india/delhi\-united\-hindu\-front\-protests\-outside\-sc\-ahead\-of\-same\-sex\-marriage\-case\-hearing\-watch\-video \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-10 \|website\=\[\[The Free Press Journal]] \|language\=en \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-10 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230310044259/https://www.freepressjournal.in/india/delhi\-united\-hindu\-front\-protests\-outside\-sc\-ahead\-of\-same\-sex\-marriage\-case\-hearing\-watch\-video \|url\-status\=live }}{{Cite web \|last\=Kakkar \|first\=Shruti \|date\=2023\-01\-07 \|title\=Supreme Court transfers all same\-sex marriage pleas to itself \|url\=https://www.newindianexpress.com/nation/2023/jan/07/supreme\-court\-transfers\-all\-same\-sex\-marriage\-pleas\-to\-itself\-2535477\.html \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-10 \|website\=\[\[The New Indian Express]] \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-10 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230310044309/https://www.newindianexpress.com/nation/2023/jan/07/supreme\-court\-transfers\-all\-same\-sex\-marriage\-pleas\-to\-itself\-2535477\.html \|url\-status\=live }}
Shri Sanatam Dharm Pratinidhi Sabha and Akhil Bhartiya Sant Samiti sought to [intervene](/wiki/Intervention_%28law%29 "Intervention (law)") as an opponent to extending the right to marry and establish a family to sexual and gender minority individuals in India. Shri Sanatam Dharm Pratinidhi Sabha relied on Manusmriti and Vedas to oppose the rights. Akhil Bhartiya Sant Samiti argued that the concept of same\-sex marriage is going to attack the whole family system in India.
#### Islam
[Khalid Saifullah Rahmani](/wiki/Khalid_Saifullah_Rahmani "Khalid Saifullah Rahmani"), General Secretary of the [Muslim Personal Law Board](/wiki/All_India_Muslim_Personal_Law_Board "All India Muslim Personal Law Board"), released a statement supporting the [Union Government's](/wiki/Government_of_India "Government of India") opposition to extension of the right to marry for sexual and gender minority individuals in India and stated that the Board would try to become a party to the case if necessary. It said that the act of [homosexuality](/wiki/Homosexuality "Homosexuality") and [same\-sex marriage](/wiki/Same-sex_marriage "Same-sex marriage") is contrary to religion, moral values, and social traditions and is unacceptable, illegal and a crime.{{Cite news \|last\=Shamsi \|first\=Mohammed Safi \|date\=2023\-03\-15 \|title\=AIMPLB backs Centre's stance against same\-sex marriage \|work\=\[\[Deccan Herald]] \|url\=https://www.deccanherald.com/national/aimplb\-backs\-centres\-stance\-against\-same\-sex\-marriage\-1200503\.html \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230316111813/https://www.deccanherald.com/national/aimplb\-backs\-centres\-stance\-against\-same\-sex\-marriage\-1200503\.html \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-16}}
On 1 April 2023, [Mahmood Asad Madani](/wiki/Mahmood_Madani "Mahmood Madani") representing the [Jamiat Ulema\-e\-Hind](/wiki/Jamiat_Ulema-e-Hind "Jamiat Ulema-e-Hind") sought to [intervene](/wiki/Intervention_%28law%29 "Intervention (law)") as an opponent to extending the right to marry and establish a family to sexual and gender minority individuals in India. He noted that the [sexual liberation movement](/wiki/Sexual_revolution "Sexual revolution"), which he alleges of being an [atheist](/wiki/Atheism "Atheism") movement, resulted in the acceptance of [homosexuality](/wiki/Homosexuality "Homosexuality"). Therefore, it should not be allowed to infringe on the religiously governed [personal laws](/wiki/Law_of_India%23Family_law_%E2%80%93_personal_law "Law of India#Family law – personal law"). On 10 April 2023, Telangana Markazi Shia Ulema Council sought to [intervene](/wiki/Intervention_%28law%29 "Intervention (law)") as an opponent to extending the right to marry and establish a family to sexual and gender minority individuals in India. They argued that legitimising same\-sex marriage is exclusive to Western and unsuited to Indian society. Marriage is intertwined with religion and personal law. Therefore, it is critical to consider religious perspectives.{{Cite news \|date\=11 April 2023 \|title\=Against teaching of Prophet: Shiite body moves SC against same\-sex marriage \|work\=The Times of India \|url\=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/against\-teaching\-of\-prophet\-shiite\-body\-moves\-sc\-against\-same\-sex\-marriage/articleshow/99394286\.cms \|access\-date\= \|issn\=0971\-8257 \|archive\-date\=1 May 2023 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230501033043/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/against\-teaching\-of\-prophet\-shiite\-body\-moves\-sc\-against\-same\-sex\-marriage/articleshow/99394286\.cms \|url\-status\=live }}
Mohammad Salim, Vice President of the [Jamaat\-e\-Islami Hind](/wiki/Jamaat-e-Islami_Hind "Jamaat-e-Islami Hind"), backed the [Union Government's](/wiki/Government_of_India "Government of India") opposition to extension of the right to marry for sexual and gender minority individuals in India. He said that the organisation believes in fundamental rights and advocates for freedom and minority rights. However, freedom comes with moral responsibility, and no society can accept crimes, vices and anarchy in the name of freedom and personal liberty.{{Citation \|title\=Jamaat\-e\-Islami Hind opposes same\-sex marriages \|date\=2023\-03\-15 \|url\=https://jamaateislamihind.org/eng/jamaat\-e\-islami\-hind\-opposes\-same\-sex\-marriages/ \|type\=Press Release \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230315110125/https://jamaateislamihind.org/eng/jamaat\-e\-islami\-hind\-opposes\-same\-sex\-marriages/ \|publisher\=\[\[Jamaat\-e\-Islami Hind]] \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-15}}
#### Christian
[Syro\-Malabar Catholic Church](/wiki/Syro-Malabar_Catholic_Church "Syro-Malabar Catholic Church"), a Kerala\-based [Eastern Catholic Church](/wiki/Eastern_Catholic_Churches "Eastern Catholic Churches") in full communion with [Roman Catholic Church](/wiki/Catholic_Church "Catholic Church"), raised concerns that recognising marriage between sexual and gender minority individuals would lead to demand for legalising paedophilia and bestiality. The Church stated that same\-sex marriages are unnatural and do an injustice to the family system in India.{{Cite web \|last\=Scroll Staff \|date\=5 May 2023 \|title\=Nod to same\-sex marriage may lead to demands to allow paedophilia, bestiality: Kerala church \|url\=https://scroll.in/latest/1048578/nod\-to\-same\-sex\-marriage\-may\-lead\-to\-demands\-to\-allow\-paedophilia\-bestiality\-kerala\-church \|access\-date\= \|website\=Scroll.in \|language\=en\-US \|archive\-date\=5 May 2023 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230505152826/https://scroll.in/latest/1048578/nod\-to\-same\-sex\-marriage\-may\-lead\-to\-demands\-to\-allow\-paedophilia\-bestiality\-kerala\-church \|url\-status\=live }}
### Student organization
#### Law School Sexual and Gender Minority Collectives
Over 30 sexual and gender minority collectives from 36 law schools with more than 600 students condemned the [Bar Council of India](/wiki/Bar_Council_of_India "Bar Council of India") for the resolution. The students criticised the resolution as ignorant, harmful and antithetical to the Constitution. Expressing concerns about the Bar Council of India disregarding constitutional morality, they reminded them that Indian Constitution is a counterweight to majoritarianism, religious morality, and unjust public opinion.{{Cite web \|date\=27 April 2023 \|title\=Shows Heinous Indifference: Law Students Condemn BCI's Resolution Requesting Supreme Court To Defer Same\-Sex Marriage Issue To Parliament \|url\=https://www.livelaw.in/news\-updates/same\-sex\-marriage\-bci\-resolution\-law\-students\-oppose\-supreme\-court\-separation\-of\-powers\-parliament\-legislation\-227322 \|access\-date\= \|website\=www.livelaw.in \|language\=en \|archive\-date\=27 April 2023 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230427123933/https://www.livelaw.in/news\-updates/same\-sex\-marriage\-bci\-resolution\-law\-students\-oppose\-supreme\-court\-separation\-of\-powers\-parliament\-legislation\-227322 \|url\-status\=live }}{{Cite news \|last\=Press Trust of India \|date\=27 April 2023 \|title\=LGBTQIA\+\+ collectives of law school students condemn BCI resolution on same sex marriage \|language\=en\-IN \|work\=The Hindu \|url\=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/lgbtqia\-collectives\-of\-law\-school\-students\-condemn\-bci\-resolution\-on\-same\-sex\-marriage/article66784265\.ece \|access\-date\= \|issn\=0971\-751X \|archive\-date\=27 April 2023 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230427123933/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/lgbtqia\-collectives\-of\-law\-school\-students\-condemn\-bci\-resolution\-on\-same\-sex\-marriage/article66784265\.ece \|url\-status\=live }}
|
[
"Reactions\n---------",
"### Community organisations",
"#### Namma Pride",
"[Bangalore](/wiki/Bangalore \"Bangalore\")\\-based sexual and gender minority community organisation Namma Pride and [civil rights group](/wiki/Civil_and_political_rights \"Civil and political rights\") Coalition for Sex Workers and Sexual Minorities Rights co\\-published an [open letter](/wiki/Open_letter \"Open letter\") responding to the affidavit filed by [Union Government](/wiki/Government_of_India \"Government of India\") on 12 March 2023\\. The letter criticised the [Union Government](/wiki/Government_of_India \"Government of India\") for disregarding its constitutional commitment to secure the rights of sexual and gender minority individuals in India and perpetuating [discriminatory](/wiki/Discrimination \"Discrimination\") marriage laws. The letter called out the [Union Government](/wiki/Government_of_India \"Government of India\") for the hostile statement that couples from sexual and gender minority communities and opposite\\-sex couples are distinct classes and that couples from sexual and gender minority communities are undeserving of equal treatment.{{Cite news \\|date\\=2023\\-03\\-14 \\|title\\='Demand Rooted in the Constitution': LGBTQI Rights Activists Urge SC to Legalise Same\\-Sex Marriage \\|work\\=\\[\\[The Wire (India)\\|The Wire]] \\|url\\=https://thewire.in/lgbtqia/demand\\-rooted\\-in\\-the\\-constitution\\-lgbtqi\\-rights\\-activists\\-urge\\-sc\\-to\\-legalise\\-same\\-sex\\-marriage \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230314105134/https://thewire.in/lgbtqia/demand\\-rooted\\-in\\-the\\-constitution\\-lgbtqi\\-rights\\-activists\\-urge\\-sc\\-to\\-legalise\\-same\\-sex\\-marriage \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-14}}",
"#### Sweekar",
"Sweekar— the Rainbow Parents is a group of parents of 400 sexual and gender minority children. They wrote an open letter to the Chief Justice of India urging him to consider marriage between sexual and gender minority individuals. They expressed their desire to see their children and our children\\-in\\-law find legal acceptance of their relationship. Noting that they are growing old and some will reach 80 years soon, they urged urgency in the matter.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Nair \\|first\\=Harish V \\|date\\=25 April 2023 \\|title\\=We Desire To See... Parents Of 400 LGBTQ Children Write Open Letter To CJI Demanding Marriage Equality \\|url\\=https://www.timesnownews.com/india/we\\-desire\\-to\\-see\\-parents\\-of\\-400\\-lgbtq\\-children\\-write\\-open\\-letter\\-to\\-cji\\-demanding\\-marriage\\-equality\\-article\\-99749460 \\|access\\-date\\= \\|website\\=Times Now \\|language\\=en \\|archive\\-date\\=25 April 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230425114354/https://www.timesnownews.com/india/we\\-desire\\-to\\-see\\-parents\\-of\\-400\\-lgbtq\\-children\\-write\\-open\\-letter\\-to\\-cji\\-demanding\\-marriage\\-equality\\-article\\-99749460 \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"#### Queerythm",
"Prijith P K, president of [Thiruvananthapuram](/wiki/Thiruvananthapuram \"Thiruvananthapuram\")\\-based sexual and gender minority community organization [Queerythm](/wiki/Queerythm \"Queerythm\"), accused [Bharatiya Janata Party](/wiki/Bharatiya_Janata_Party \"Bharatiya Janata Party\") of filing a ‘[homophobic](/wiki/Homophobia \"Homophobia\")’ counter\\-affidavit to cater to the [social conservative voters](/wiki/Social_conservatism \"Social conservatism\") for the [upcoming elections](/wiki/2023_elections_in_India \"2023 elections in India\") at the cost of [sexual and gender minority rights](/wiki/LGBT_rights_in_India \"LGBT rights in India\").{{Cite news \\|date\\=2023\\-03\\-15 \\|title\\=Catering to core vote bank ahead of polls: Activist on Centre opposing LGBTQ marriage \\|work\\=\\[\\[Asian News International]] \\|url\\=https://www.aninews.in/news/national/general\\-news/catering\\-to\\-core\\-vote\\-bank\\-ahead\\-of\\-polls\\-activist\\-on\\-centre\\-opposing\\-lgbtq\\-marriage20230315022100/ \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230314205824/https://www.aninews.in/news/national/general\\-news/catering\\-to\\-core\\-vote\\-bank\\-ahead\\-of\\-polls\\-activist\\-on\\-centre\\-opposing\\-lgbtq\\-marriage20230315022100/ \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-14}}",
"### Political parties",
"#### Bharatiya Janata Party",
"[BJP](/wiki/Bharatiya_Janata_Party \"Bharatiya Janata Party\") is a [right\\-wing](/wiki/Right-wing_politics \"Right-wing politics\") national party. On 12 March 2023, the [Union Government](/wiki/Government_of_India \"Government of India\") under the leadership of BJP opposed extending the right to marry to sexual and gender minority individuals in India in the Supreme Court.{{Cite news \\|last1\\=Mehrotra \\|first1\\=Karishma \\|last2\\=Shih \\|first2\\=Gerry \\|date\\=2023\\-03\\-14 \\|title\\=Indian government opposes same\\-sex marriage, warns of countrywide 'havoc' \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The Washington Post]] \\|url\\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2023/03/14/india\\-same\\-sex\\-marriage/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-15 \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-14 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230314172029/https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2023/03/14/india\\-same\\-sex\\-marriage/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }} The BJP\\-led State Government of [Assam](/wiki/Government_of_Assam \"Government of Assam\"), [Gujarat](/wiki/Government_of_Gujarat \"Government of Gujarat\") and [Madhya Pradesh](/wiki/Government_of_Madhya_Pradesh \"Government of Madhya Pradesh\") interevened in the Case opposing the extension of the right to adopt for sexual and gender minority individuals in India.",
"On 19 December 2022, [BJP](/wiki/Bharatiya_Janata_Party \"Bharatiya Janata Party\") Member of the [Council of States](/wiki/Rajya_Sabha \"Rajya Sabha\") [Sushil Kumar Modi](/wiki/Sushil_Modi \"Sushil Modi\") expressed his opposition to the [Judicial Review](/wiki/Judicial_review_in_India \"Judicial review in India\") of the Indian marriage laws. He told the [Parliament](/wiki/Parliament_of_India \"Parliament of India\"), \"India is a country of 1\\.4 billion people, and two judges cannot just sit in a room and decide on such a socially significant subject. Instead, there should be a debate in Parliament as well as the society at large\".{{Cite web \\|last\\=Zargar \\|first\\=Arshad \\|date\\=2023\\-01\\-06 \\|title\\=As India's top court takes up same\\-sex marriage, couples hope, and activists say there's a long fight ahead \\|url\\=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/india\\-same\\-sex\\-marriage\\-supreme\\-court\\-lgbtq\\-rights\\-narendra\\-modi/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-02\\-15 \\|website\\=\\[\\[CBS News]] \\|language\\=en\\-US \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-10\\-18 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20231018150040/https://www.cbsnews.com/news/india\\-same\\-sex\\-marriage\\-supreme\\-court\\-lgbtq\\-rights\\-narendra\\-modi/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }}{{Cite web \\|last\\=Gopinathan \\|first\\=Raj \\|date\\=2023\\-01\\-07 \\|title\\=SubscriberWrites: Sushil Modi's stance on same\\-sex marriage is not supported by facts \\|url\\=https://theprint.in/yourturn/subscriberwrites\\-sushil\\-modis\\-stance\\-on\\-same\\-sex\\-marriage\\-is\\-not\\-supported\\-by\\-facts/1302990/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-02\\-19 \\|website\\=\\[\\[ThePrint]] \\|language\\=en\\-US \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-02\\-19 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230219045309/https://theprint.in/yourturn/subscriberwrites\\-sushil\\-modis\\-stance\\-on\\-same\\-sex\\-marriage\\-is\\-not\\-supported\\-by\\-facts/1302990/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"On 23 April 2023, the [Bar Council of India](/wiki/Bar_Council_of_India \"Bar Council of India\"), under the chairmanship of BJP member [Manan Kumar Mishra](/wiki/Manan_Kumar_Mishra \"Manan Kumar Mishra\"), passed a Resolution stating that the Supreme Court should defer the matter to the Parliament. The Resolution received wide condemnation, including from the Supreme Court Bar Association, which reminded the BCI that Supreme Court was duty\\-bound to hear the petitioner before deciding on adjudication or referring to the Parliament.{{Cite news \\|last\\=PTI \\|date\\=28 April 2023 \\|title\\=SCBA terms Bar Council of India resolution on same\\-sex marriage \"highly inappropriate\" \\|language\\=en\\-IN \\|work\\=The Hindu \\|url\\=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/scba\\-terms\\-bci\\-resolution\\-on\\-same\\-sex\\-marriage\\-highly\\-inappropriate/article66790184\\.ece \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-05\\-07 \\|issn\\=0971\\-751X \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-05\\-07 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230507160027/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/scba\\-terms\\-bci\\-resolution\\-on\\-same\\-sex\\-marriage\\-highly\\-inappropriate/article66790184\\.ece \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"At least 11 of 21 retired judges, who wrote an open letter criticising the petitioners for attacking the root of the Indian family system, had worked for the BJP\\-led government in some capacity following their retirement.",
"#### Indian National Congress",
"[Congress](/wiki/Indian_National_Congress \"Indian National Congress\") is a [centre](/wiki/Centrism \"Centrism\")\\-to\\-[centre\\-left](/wiki/Centre-left \"Centre-left\") national party. As some senior leaders dismissed the extension of the right to marry to sexual and gender minority individuals in India as an unimportant or alien issue for [Congress](/wiki/Indian_National_Congress \"Indian National Congress\") to take an official position, and others shared only their personal views, [Congress](/wiki/Indian_National_Congress \"Indian National Congress\") does not have an official stance on the extending the right to marry to sexual and gender minority individuals in India.{{Cite web \\|last\\=C.G \\|first\\=Manoj \\|date\\=2023\\-03\\-14 \\|title\\=Same\\-sex marriage: Oppn parties cautious, want SC to take the lead as it did on Section 377 \\|url\\=https://indianexpress.com/article/political\\-pulse/same\\-sex\\-marriage\\-opposition\\-parties\\-cautious\\-supreme\\-court\\-section\\-377\\-8497168/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-15 \\|website\\=\\[\\[The Indian Express]] \\|language\\=en \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-15 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230315025328/https://indianexpress.com/article/political\\-pulse/same\\-sex\\-marriage\\-opposition\\-parties\\-cautious\\-supreme\\-court\\-section\\-377\\-8497168/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }} The Congress\\-led [State Government of Rajasthan](/wiki/Government_of_Rajasthan \"Government of Rajasthan\") interevened in the Case opposing the extension of the right to adopt for sexual and gender minority individuals in India.",
"Congress Member of the [Council of States](/wiki/Rajya_Sabha \"Rajya Sabha\") [Abhishek Singhvi](/wiki/Abhishek_Singhvi \"Abhishek Singhvi\"), who is a lead counsel for one of the petitioners, argued for judicial intervention. He said that the questions about the possible legislative approach are meaningless as the BJP\\-led [Union Government](/wiki/Government_of_India \"Government of India\") vociferously opposed extending the right to marry to sexual and gender minority individuals in India.",
"Congress Member of the [House of the People](/wiki/Lok_Sabha \"Lok Sabha\") [Shashi Tharoor](/wiki/Shashi_Tharoor \"Shashi Tharoor\") said denying civil rights to same\\-sex partners is wrong and unjustifiable and should be remedied without delay. Noting the resistance from the majority, he suggested a two\\-stage process where the first step is a [civil partnership](/wiki/Civil_union \"Civil union\"), a contract that grants the legal rights of spouses to same\\-sex partners. After seeing the impact on Indian society, the [Union Government](/wiki/Government_of_India \"Government of India\") might recognise [same\\-sex marriage](/wiki/Same-sex_marriage \"Same-sex marriage\").",
"Congress Member of the [House of the People](/wiki/Lok_Sabha \"Lok Sabha\") [Manish Tewari](/wiki/Manish_Tewari \"Manish Tewari\") said that following the decriminalisation of same\\-sex relations by the 5\\-judge [Constitution Bench](/wiki/Constitution_bench_%28India%29 \"Constitution bench (India)\") of the Supreme Court, legalisation of such relationships should be a natural corollary.",
"#### Trinamool Congress",
"[Trinamool Congress](/wiki/Trinamool_Congress \"Trinamool Congress\") is a [centre](/wiki/Centrism \"Centrism\")\\-to\\-[centre\\-right](/wiki/Centre-right_politics \"Centre-right politics\") state party based in [West Bengal](/wiki/West_Bengal \"West Bengal\"), [Tripura](/wiki/Tripura \"Tripura\") and [Meghalaya](/wiki/Meghalaya \"Meghalaya\"). National general secretary [Abhishek Banerjee](/wiki/Abhishek_Banerjee_%28politician%29 \"Abhishek Banerjee (politician)\") endorsed legal recognition of marriage between sexual and gender minority individuals. A party spokesperson confirmed that it reflects the party's stance.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Choudhury \\|first\\=Sunetra \\|date\\=22 April 2023 \\|title\\=Amid SC hearing, TMC, Left back same\\-sex marriages, many parties remain undecided \\|url\\=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india\\-news/tmc\\-and\\-cpi\\-support\\-legal\\-recognition\\-for\\-same\\-sex\\-marriages\\-in\\-india\\-most\\-other\\-political\\-parties\\-remain\\-silent\\-as\\-supreme\\-court\\-hears\\-case\\-101682102447290\\.html \\|access\\-date\\= \\|website\\=Hindustan Times \\|language\\=en \\|archive\\-date\\=25 April 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230425062537/https://www.hindustantimes.com/india\\-news/tmc\\-and\\-cpi\\-support\\-legal\\-recognition\\-for\\-same\\-sex\\-marriages\\-in\\-india\\-most\\-other\\-political\\-parties\\-remain\\-silent\\-as\\-supreme\\-court\\-hears\\-case\\-101682102447290\\.html \\|url\\-status\\=live }} Earlier, [Mamata Banerjee](/wiki/Mamata_Banerjee \"Mamata Banerjee\"), chairperson of the party and [Chief Minister](/wiki/Chief_minister_%28India%29 \"Chief minister (India)\") of West Bengal refused to comment on marriage between sexual and gender minority individuals, reasoning that it is a sub judice matter.{{Cite web \\|last\\=NDTV News Desk \\|date\\=19 April 2023 \\|title\\=What Mamata Banerjee Said On Same\\-Sex Marriage, Opposition Unity \\|url\\=https://www.ndtv.com/india\\-news/it\\-will\\-happen\\-like\\-a\\-tornado\\-mamata\\-banerjee\\-on\\-opposition\\-unity\\-3961492 \\|access\\-date\\= \\|archive\\-date\\=25 April 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230425062537/https://www.ndtv.com/india\\-news/it\\-will\\-happen\\-like\\-a\\-tornado\\-mamata\\-banerjee\\-on\\-opposition\\-unity\\-3961492 \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"Trinamool Congress Member of the [Council of States](/wiki/Rajya_Sabha \"Rajya Sabha\") [Derek O’Brien](/wiki/Derek_O%27Brien_%28politician%29 \"Derek O'Brien (politician)\"), who introduced a private member's bill to recognise marriage equality, published an opinion highlighting the personal experiences of sexual and gender minority individuals in India facing discrimination and prejudice. He concluded by emphasizing that the fight for same\\-sex marriage is not just about legalizing a union, but about fighting for the dignity and equal rights of the sexual and gender minority community.{{Cite news \\|last\\=O’Brien \\|first\\=Derek \\|author\\-link\\=Derek O'Brien (politician) \\|date\\=29 April 2023 \\|title\\=Derek O'Brien on same\\-sex marriage: Queer Indians fighting the good fight \\|work\\=\\[\\[Indian Express Limited\\|The Indian Express]] \\|url\\=https://indianexpress.com/article/opinion/columns/same\\-sex\\-marriage\\-queer\\-indians\\-fighting\\-the\\-good\\-fight\\-8579732/ \\|access\\-date\\=9 May 2023 \\|archive\\-date\\=9 May 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230509172701/https://indianexpress.com/article/opinion/columns/same\\-sex\\-marriage\\-queer\\-indians\\-fighting\\-the\\-good\\-fight\\-8579732/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"Trinamool Congress Member of the [House of the People](/wiki/Lok_Sabha \"Lok Sabha\") [Mahua Moitra](/wiki/Mahua_Moitra \"Mahua Moitra\") criticised the Bar Council of India for failing their oath by promoting popular sentiment over constitutional morality. She pointed out that despite 49 per cent of Indian Citizens being women, all the members of the Bar Council of India were men. She questioned the legitimacy of the Bar Council of India in claiming to express the sentiments of 99\\.9 per cent of Indians.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Chitre \\|first\\=Manjiri \\|date\\=24 April 2023 \\|title\\='Lost your minds?': Mahua Moitra slams BCI for opposing same\\-sex marriage case in SC \\|url\\=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india\\-news/mahua\\-moitra\\-slams\\-bci\\-for\\-opposing\\-same\\-sex\\-marriage\\-case\\-in\\-sc\\-lost\\-your\\-minds\\-101682328692563\\.html \\|access\\-date\\= \\|website\\=Hindustan Times \\|language\\=en \\|archive\\-date\\=28 April 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230428130634/https://www.hindustantimes.com/india\\-news/mahua\\-moitra\\-slams\\-bci\\-for\\-opposing\\-same\\-sex\\-marriage\\-case\\-in\\-sc\\-lost\\-your\\-minds\\-101682328692563\\.html \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"#### YSR Congress Party",
"[YSR Congress Party](/wiki/YSR_Congress_Party \"YSR Congress Party\") is a [centre\\-left](/wiki/Centre-left \"Centre-left\") state party based in [Andhra Pradesh](/wiki/Andhra_Pradesh \"Andhra Pradesh\"). The YSR Congress Party\\-led [State Government of Andhra Pradesh](/wiki/Government_of_Andhra_Pradesh \"Government of Andhra Pradesh\") interevened in the Case opposing the extension of the right to adopt for sexual and gender minority individuals in India.",
"#### Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam",
"[DMK](/wiki/Dravida_Munnetra_Kazhagam \"Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam\") is a [centre\\-left](/wiki/Centre-left \"Centre-left\") state party based in [Tamil Nadu](/wiki/Tamil_Nadu \"Tamil Nadu\") and [Puducherry](/wiki/Puducherry_%28union_territory%29 \"Puducherry (union territory)\"). On 8 May 2023, DMK organising secretary [R S Bharathi](/wiki/R._S._Bharathi \"R. S. Bharathi\") said the party has not decided on the stance.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Som \\|first\\=Moyurie \\|date\\=8 May 2023 \\|title\\=Same\\-sex marriage: What Opposition parties feel about legalising gay marriage \\|url\\=https://epaper.timesgroup.com/timesspecial/samesexmarriage/same\\-sex\\-marriage\\-what\\-opposition\\-parties\\-feel\\-about\\-legalising\\-gay\\-marriage/1683532825217 \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-05\\-08 \\|website\\=Times of India \\|language\\=English \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-05\\-08 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230508173211/https://epaper.timesgroup.com/timesspecial/samesexmarriage/same\\-sex\\-marriage\\-what\\-opposition\\-parties\\-feel\\-about\\-legalising\\-gay\\-marriage/1683532825217 \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"DMK Member of the [House of the People](/wiki/Lok_Sabha \"Lok Sabha\") [Thamizhachi Thangapandian](/wiki/Thamizhachi_Thangapandian \"Thamizhachi Thangapandian\"), who has been closely following the proceedings, offered her full support. She eagerly awaits a favourable judgement that would make India the first UN\\-recognised nation from Asia to do so, a massive victory for sexual and gender minority rights globally.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Desk \\|first\\=Online \\|title\\=Famous personalities supporting legalisation of same\\-sex marriage in India \\|url\\=https://www.dtnext.in/national/2023/04/18/famous\\-personalities\\-supporting\\-legalisation\\-of\\-same\\-sex\\-marriage\\-in\\-india \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-05\\-08 \\|website\\=DT next \\|date\\=18 April 2023 \\|language\\=en \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-05\\-08 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230508172153/https://www.dtnext.in/national/2023/04/18/famous\\-personalities\\-supporting\\-legalisation\\-of\\-same\\-sex\\-marriage\\-in\\-india \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"#### Communist Party of India (Marxist)",
"[CPI(M)](/wiki/Communist_Party_of_India_%28Marxist%29 \"Communist Party of India (Marxist)\") is a [left\\-wing](/wiki/Left-wing_politics \"Left-wing politics\") national party. Member of the [Politburo](/wiki/Polit_Bureau_of_the_Communist_Party_of_India_%28Marxist%29 \"Polit Bureau of the Communist Party of India (Marxist)\") [Brinda Karat](/wiki/Brinda_Karat \"Brinda Karat\") said [CPI(M)](/wiki/Communist_Party_of_India_%28Marxist%29 \"Communist Party of India (Marxist)\") supports the rights of same\\-sex partners to get legal recognition of their relationship as a marriage. She called for judicial intervention, as the [BJP](/wiki/Bharatiya_Janata_Party \"Bharatiya Janata Party\")\\-led [Union Government](/wiki/Government_of_India \"Government of India\") opposed extending the right to marry for sexual and gender minority individuals in India.",
"#### Biju Janata Dal",
"[Biju Janata Dal](/wiki/Biju_Janata_Dal \"Biju Janata Dal\") is a [centre\\-left](/wiki/Centre-left \"Centre-left\") state party based in [Odisha](/wiki/Odisha \"Odisha\"). As of 8 May 2023, the Party does not have an official stance on the issue.",
"In sharing his personal opinion, Biju Janata Dal Member of the [Council of States](/wiki/Rajya_Sabha \"Rajya Sabha\") [Prasanna Acharya](/wiki/Prasanna_Acharya \"Prasanna Acharya\") argued that Indian society is not comparable to Western society and, therefore, what may be suitable for the latter may not be appropriate for the former and opposed marriage between sexual and gender minority individuals.",
"#### Nationalist Congress Party",
"Nationalist Congress Party is a [centrist](/wiki/Centrism \"Centrism\") state party based in [Maharashtra](/wiki/Maharashtra \"Maharashtra\") and [Nagaland](/wiki/Nagaland \"Nagaland\"). As of 8 May 2023, NCP does not have an official stance on the issue.",
"On 1 April 2022, NCP Member of the [House of the People](/wiki/Lok_Sabha \"Lok Sabha\") [Supriya Sule](/wiki/Supriya_Sule \"Supriya Sule\") had introduced a private member's bill in Parliament, to recognise same\\-sex marriages under the Special Marriage Act.{{Cite web \\|last\\=ANI \\|date\\=1 April 2022 \\|title\\=NCP's Supriya Sule introduces Private Member's Bill for legalising same\\-sex marriage \\|url\\=https://theprint.in/india/ncps\\-supriya\\-sule\\-introduces\\-private\\-members\\-bill\\-for\\-legalising\\-same\\-sex\\-marriage/898806/ \\|access\\-date\\= \\|website\\=The Print \\|language\\=en\\-US \\|archive\\-date\\=9 May 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230509172702/https://theprint.in/india/ncps\\-supriya\\-sule\\-introduces\\-private\\-members\\-bill\\-for\\-legalising\\-same\\-sex\\-marriage/898806/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"#### All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam",
"[AIADMK](/wiki/All_India_Anna_Dravida_Munnetra_Kazhagam \"All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam\") is a [centre\\-left](/wiki/Centre-left \"Centre-left\") state party based in [Tamil Nadu](/wiki/Tamil_Nadu \"Tamil Nadu\") and [Puducherry](/wiki/Puducherry_%28union_territory%29 \"Puducherry (union territory)\"). As of 8 May 2023, the Party does not have an official stance on the issue.",
"On 8 May 2023, senior party leaders said that same\\-sex marriage is against Indian culture and raised concerns about the emotional impact on the adopted child of the same\\-sex couple.",
"#### Bharat Rashtra Samithi",
"[Bharat Rashtra Samithi](/wiki/Bharat_Rashtra_Samithi \"Bharat Rashtra Samithi\") is a [centrist](/wiki/Centrism \"Centrism\") state party based in [Telangana](/wiki/Telangana \"Telangana\"). On 8 May 2023, BRS Member of the [House of the People](/wiki/Lok_Sabha \"Lok Sabha\") [Nageshwar Rao](/wiki/Nama_Nageswara_Rao \"Nama Nageswara Rao\") said that opinion of state governments on same\\-sex marriage is irrelevant as they will abide by the Supreme Court's verdict.",
"#### Rashtriya Janata Dal",
"[Rashtriya Janata Dal](/wiki/Rashtriya_Janata_Dal \"Rashtriya Janata Dal\") is a [centre\\-left](/wiki/Centre-left \"Centre-left\") state party based in [Bihar](/wiki/Bihar \"Bihar\") and [Jharkhand](/wiki/Jharkhand \"Jharkhand\"). On 8 May 2023, RJD Vice\\-president [Shivanand Tiwary](/wiki/Shivanand_Tiwari \"Shivanand Tiwari\") said the party had not discussed the issue. RJD National Spokesperson Prof Subodh Kumar Mehta stated that commenting on a sub judice matter is against the ethos of the judiciary and refused to comment.",
"In sharing his personal opinion, RJD Vice\\-president Shivanand Tiwary criticized [BJP](/wiki/Bharatiya_Janata_Party \"Bharatiya Janata Party\")'s stance on same\\-sex marriage and supported the right of those with a same\\-sex sexual orientation to marry if they choose to, citing scientific evidence and examples from other countries where it is legal. He said that the recognition of same\\-sex marriage is next step following the decriminalisation of same\\-sex relations.",
"#### Communist Party of India",
"[CPI](/wiki/Communist_Party_of_India \"Communist Party of India\") is a [left\\-wing](/wiki/Left-wing_politics \"Left-wing politics\") state party based in [Kerala](/wiki/Kerala \"Kerala\"), [Manipur](/wiki/Manipur \"Manipur\") and [Tamil Nadu](/wiki/Tamil_Nadu \"Tamil Nadu\"). CPI was the first party to support legal recognition of marriage between sexual and gender minority individuals officially. On 15 March 2023, the party released a statement that criticised the [BJP](/wiki/Bharatiya_Janata_Party \"Bharatiya Janata Party\")\\-led Union Government's position as a reflection of the Manuwadi worldview, which excludes and criminalises. The statement called on the Supreme Court to uphold the right and dignity of the sexual and gender minority community.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Communist Party of India \\|author\\-link\\=Communist Party of India \\|date\\=15 March 2023 \\|title\\=Protect Rights of LGBTQIA\\+ Community \\|url\\=https://communistpartyofindia.com/protect\\-rights\\-of\\-lgbtqia\\-community\\-cpi/ \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230425061934/https://communistpartyofindia.com/protect\\-rights\\-of\\-lgbtqia\\-community\\-cpi/ \\|archive\\-date\\=25 April 2023 \\|access\\-date\\= \\|language\\=en\\-GB}}",
"On 22 April 2023, CPI Member of the [Council of States](/wiki/Rajya_Sabha \"Rajya Sabha\") [Binoy Viswam](/wiki/Binoy_Viswam \"Binoy Viswam\") reiterated the party stands with the democratic rights of the sexual and gender minority community.",
"#### Lok Janshakti Party",
"[Lok Janshakti Party](/wiki/Lok_Janshakti_Party_%28Ram_Vilas%29 \"Lok Janshakti Party (Ram Vilas)\") is a state party based in Bihar. On 8 May 2023, Party Vice\\-president Arvind Kumar Bajpai said that part has not decided on their stance, but they are more likely to oppose it due to social and cultural values.",
"#### Aam Aadmi Party",
"[Aam Aadmi Party](/wiki/Aam_Aadmi_Party \"Aam Aadmi Party\") is a [centrist](/wiki/Centrism \"Centrism\") national party. [Delhi Commission for Protection of Child Rights](/wiki/Delhi_Commission_for_Protection_of_Child_Rights \"Delhi Commission for Protection of Child Rights\"), a statutory body of the [Delhi Government](/wiki/Government_of_Delhi \"Government of Delhi\") under the AAP leadership, intervened to support extending the right to marry and adopt for sexual and gender minority individuals.",
"#### Naga People's Front",
"[Naga People's Front](/wiki/Naga_People%27s_Front \"Naga People's Front\") is a state party based in [Manipur](/wiki/Manipur \"Manipur\") and [Nagaland](/wiki/Nagaland \"Nagaland\"). On 11 May 2023, [Küzholuzo Nienü](/wiki/K%C3%BCzholuzo_Nien%C3%BC \"Küzholuzo Nienü\"), party leader and member of [Nagaland Legislative Assembly](/wiki/Nagaland_Legislative_Assembly \"Nagaland Legislative Assembly\"), opposed same\\-sex marriage. He cautioned the Supreme Court that while society may have \"grudgingly\" accepted the ruling that decriminalized homosexuality, they would react in an \"unsavoury\" manner to the legalization of same\\-sex marriage,{{Citation \\|last\\=Nienü \\|first\\=Küzholuzo \\|title\\=Naga People's Front on same sex marriage. \\|date\\=11 May 2023 \\|url\\=https://pbs.twimg.com/media/Fv2jQ9KagAMz0zw?format\\=jpg\\&name\\=large \\|type\\=Press Release \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230511201348/https://pbs.twimg.com/media/Fv2jQ9KagAMz0zw?format\\=jpg\\&name\\=large \\|publication\\-place\\=Kohima, India \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Naga People's Front]] \\|archive\\-date\\=11 May 2023}}",
"### Professional associations",
"#### All India Lawyers Association for Justice",
"The All India Lawyers Association for Justice criticised the [Bar Council of India](/wiki/Bar_Council_of_India \"Bar Council of India\")'s resolution calling the Supreme Court to refer the matter to the Parliament as an endorsement of the doctrine of [parliamentary supremacy](/wiki/Parliamentary_sovereignty \"Parliamentary sovereignty\"). The association endorsed constitutional supremacy and [Dr Ambedkar's](/wiki/B._R._Ambedkar \"B. R. Ambedkar\") constitutional morality. They expressed that excluding people based on sexual orientation and gender identity is unconstitutional.{{Citation \\|last\\=All India Lawyers Association for Justice \\|title\\=Constitutional Morality demands that Same\\-sex Marriage be Permitted \\|date\\=24 April 2023 \\|type\\=Organizational Resolution \\|place\\=\\[\\[Bangalore]], \\[\\[India]] \\|publisher\\=All India Lawyers Association for Justice}}",
"#### Bar Council of India",
"The [Bar Council of India](/wiki/Bar_Council_of_India \"Bar Council of India\"), a statutory body that regulates the legal practice and legal education, claimed that more than 99\\.9 per cent of Indians opposed marriage between sexual and gender minority individuals and urged the Supreme Court to leave the matter to the Parliament.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Scroll Staff \\|date\\=24 April 2023 \\|title\\=Same\\-sex marriage: Bar Council asks Supreme Court to leave the matter to Parliament \\|url\\=https://scroll.in/latest/1047881/same\\-sex\\-marriage\\-bar\\-council\\-asks\\-supreme\\-court\\-to\\-leave\\-the\\-matter\\-to\\-parliament \\|access\\-date\\= \\|website\\=Scroll.in \\|language\\=en\\-US \\|archive\\-date\\=24 April 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230424065233/https://scroll.in/latest/1047881/same\\-sex\\-marriage\\-bar\\-council\\-asks\\-supreme\\-court\\-to\\-leave\\-the\\-matter\\-to\\-parliament \\|url\\-status\\=live }} The [fact\\-checking website](/wiki/List_of_fact-checking_websites \"List of fact-checking websites\") Boomlive reported that the data does not support the BCI claim of over 99\\.9% against legal recognition of marriage between sexual and gender minority individuals.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Kudrati \\|first\\=Mohammed \\|date\\=18 April 2023 \\|title\\=Data Doesn't Support BCI's Claim Of Over 99\\.9% Against Marriage Equality \\|url\\=https://www.boomlive.in/fact\\-check/fact\\-check\\-viral\\-marriage\\-equality\\-same\\-sex\\-marriage\\-lgbtqia\\-lgbtq\\-bar\\-council\\-of\\-india\\-21804 \\|access\\-date\\= \\|website\\=www.boomlive.in \\|language\\=en \\|archive\\-date\\=1 May 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230501173758/https://www.boomlive.in/fact\\-check/fact\\-check\\-viral\\-marriage\\-equality\\-same\\-sex\\-marriage\\-lgbtqia\\-lgbtq\\-bar\\-council\\-of\\-india\\-21804 \\|url\\-status\\=live }} According to *[The Wire](/wiki/The_Wire_%28India%29 \"The Wire (India)\")*, Senior Advocate Manan Kumar Mishra, Chairperson of the BCI, joined the Bharatiya Janata Party in January 2014 and has been a vocal supporter.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Pisharoty \\|first\\=Sangeeta Barooah \\|date\\=14 April 2023 \\|title\\=Marriage Equality: Behind Bar Council's Plea to SC, a Political Motive \\|url\\=https://thewire.in/law/marriage\\-equality\\-bar\\-council\\-sc\\-political\\-motive \\|access\\-date\\= \\|website\\=The Wire \\|archive\\-date\\=27 April 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230427124815/https://thewire.in/law/marriage\\-equality\\-bar\\-council\\-sc\\-political\\-motive \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"#### Indian Psychiatric Society",
"On 9 April 2023, the [Indian Psychiatric Society](/wiki/Indian_Psychiatric_Society \"Indian Psychiatric Society\"), a professional association for Indian [psychiatrists](/wiki/Psychiatrist \"Psychiatrist\") affiliated with the [World Psychiatric Association](/wiki/World_Psychiatric_Association \"World Psychiatric Association\"), issued a statement asserting that sexual and gender minority identities are natural variations within the range of human sexuality. Stating that there is no evidence to support the exclusion of sexual and gender minority individuals, the Society supported equal rights for sexual and gender minority individuals, including marriage and adoption. The Society cautioned that [discrimination](/wiki/Discrimination \"Discrimination\") leads to mental health issues. The [Society](/wiki/Indian_Psychiatric_Society \"Indian Psychiatric Society\") acknowledged that the children of [same\\-sex parents](/wiki/LGBT_parenting \"LGBT parenting\") might experience [discrimination](/wiki/Discrimination \"Discrimination\") and [stigma](/wiki/Social_stigma \"Social stigma\") and urged the sensitize families, schools and communities to prevent stigma and discrimination.{{Citation \\|last\\=Indian Psychiatric Society \\|title\\=Position Statement of Indian Psychiatric Society regarding LGBTQA \\|date\\=3 April 2023 \\|url\\=https://indianpsychiatricsociety.org/ips\\-position\\-statement\\-regarding\\-lgbtqa/ \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230411120124/https://indianpsychiatricsociety.org/ips\\-position\\-statement\\-regarding\\-lgbtqa/ \\|series\\=IPS/HGS/22\\-24/1007 (LGBTQA) \\|publication\\-place\\=\\[\\[Gurgaon]], \\[\\[India]] \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Indian Psychiatric Society]] \\|archive\\-date\\=11 April 2023 \\|author\\-link\\=Indian Psychiatric Society}}{{Cite news \\|last\\=Dutta \\|first\\=Alisha \\|date\\=9 April 2023 \\|title\\=No scientific data to oppose same\\-sex marriage, says Indian Psychiatric Society \\|language\\=en\\-IN \\|work\\=The Hindu \\|url\\=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/indian\\-psychiatric\\-society\\-says\\-that\\-there\\-is\\-no\\-scientific\\-reasoning\\-to\\-prove\\-lgbtqia\\-individuals\\-cannot\\-be\\-good\\-parents/article66718128\\.ece \\|access\\-date\\= \\|issn\\=0971\\-751X \\|archive\\-date\\=10 April 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230410110305/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/indian\\-psychiatric\\-society\\-says\\-that\\-there\\-is\\-no\\-scientific\\-reasoning\\-to\\-prove\\-lgbtqia\\-individuals\\-cannot\\-be\\-good\\-parents/article66718128\\.ece \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"Dr Alka Subramanyam, author of the statement and member of the executive council of the Society, said they reviewed scientific research conducted in countries like the [United Kingdom](/wiki/United_Kingdom \"United Kingdom\"), [United States](/wiki/United_States \"United States\"), [Netherlands](/wiki/Netherlands \"Netherlands\"), and [Taiwan](/wiki/Taiwan \"Taiwan\"), where [same\\-sex marriage](/wiki/Same-sex_marriage \"Same-sex marriage\") and [adoption](/wiki/LGBT_parenting \"LGBT parenting\") by couples from sexual and gender minority communities are recognised.",
"#### Supreme Court Bar Association",
"Supreme Court Bar Association criticised the Bar Council of India for their \"inappropriate\" resolution urging the Supreme Court to refer the matter to the Parliament. The Association asserted that the Supreme Court has to hear the petitions and decide whether the Court should adjudicate or refer to the Parliament. President of the Association Vikas Singh said the actions of the Bar Council of India were inappropriate and the proper way would be to intervene and argue the point.{{Citation \\|last\\=Supreme Court Bar Association \\|title\\=Resolution by Circulation \\|date\\=27 April 2023 \\|type\\=Organizational Resolution \\|publication\\-place\\=\\[\\[New Delhi]], \\[\\[India]] \\|publisher\\=Supreme Court Bar Association}}",
"### Prominent individuals",
"[Akkai Padmashali](/wiki/Akkai_Padmashali \"Akkai Padmashali\"), a sexual and gender minority rights activist, recently wrote an open letter in which she condemned [BJP](/wiki/Bharatiya_Janata_Party \"Bharatiya Janata Party\") [MP](/wiki/Member_of_Parliament_%28India%29 \"Member of Parliament (India)\") [Sushil Kumar Modi](/wiki/Sushil_Modi \"Sushil Modi\") for his speech opposing legal recognition of marriage between sexual and gender minority individuals in the [Council of States](/wiki/Rajya_Sabha \"Rajya Sabha\"). In the letter, she reminded him of Dr. Ambedkar's words that constitutional morality requires cultivation, as it is not a natural sentiment. She also pointed out that the court is duty\\-bound to apply constitutional morality, not popular morality. As a [trans woman](/wiki/Trans_woman \"Trans woman\"), Akkai corrected Modi that the campaign for legal recognition of marriage between sexual and gender minority individuals is led by sexual and gender minority individuals, not [left](/wiki/Left-wing_politics \"Left-wing politics\")\\-[liberal](/wiki/Liberalism \"Liberalism\") activists.{{Cite news \\|last\\=Thomas \\|first\\=Bellie \\|date\\=2022\\-12\\-25 \\|title\\=Same\\-sex marriages: Bengaluru transgender activist Akkai pens an open letter to MP Sushil Kumar Modi \\|work\\=The South First \\|url\\=https://thesouthfirst.com/karnataka/same\\-sex\\-marriages\\-bengaluru\\-transgender\\-activist\\-akkai\\-pens\\-an\\-open\\-letter\\-to\\-mp\\-sushil\\-kumar\\-modi/ \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20221225072945/https://thesouthfirst.com/karnataka/same\\-sex\\-marriages\\-bengaluru\\-transgender\\-activist\\-akkai\\-pens\\-an\\-open\\-letter\\-to\\-mp\\-sushil\\-kumar\\-modi/ \\|archive\\-date\\=2022\\-12\\-25}}{{Cite news \\|date\\=2022\\-12\\-26 \\|title\\=Akkai Padmashali demands apology from BJP MP for remarks against same\\-sex marriages \\|work\\=\\[\\[The News Minute]] \\|url\\=https://www.thenewsminute.com/article/akkai\\-padmashali\\-demands\\-apology\\-bjp\\-mp\\-remarks\\-against\\-same\\-sex\\-marriages\\-171311 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230327150713/https://www.thenewsminute.com/article/akkai\\-padmashali\\-demands\\-apology\\-bjp\\-mp\\-remarks\\-against\\-same\\-sex\\-marriages\\-171311 \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-27}} On 27 January 2023, she filed a petition to join the case.",
"[Ruth Vanita](/wiki/Ruth_Vanita \"Ruth Vanita\"), a feminist critic and literary historian, pointed out that opponents of marriage between sexual and gender minority individuals in India who argue that it goes against Indian culture are ironically borrowing the same argument used by opponents in the [West](/wiki/Western_world \"Western world\") who claimed that it goes against [Western culture](/wiki/Western_culture \"Western culture\"). As Indian opponents raised the alarm that marriage between sexual and gender minority individuals would cause social havoc, she drew attention to the 31 countries that have recognised the [same\\-sex marriage](/wiki/Same-sex_marriage \"Same-sex marriage\") and did not experience “social havoc”.",
"[Onir](/wiki/Onir \"Onir\"), a gay filmmaker, said that humanity and equality are more important than the misplaced values of culture and society. Shortcomings of religion, especially those that come from regressive patriarchy, should not stand in the way of progress. Earlier, he criticised the United Hindu Front for protesting against the hearing. He referred to them as a group of haters who are against all minorities and emphasized that their viciousness, lack of education, and unemployment is a terrible combination.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Masand \\|first\\=Taru B \\|date\\=6 January 2023 \\|title\\=Onir slams United Hindu Front after they protest outside SC against same\\-sex marriage plea: Should be all imprisoned \\|url\\=https://www.timesnownews.com/entertainment\\-news/onir\\-slams\\-united\\-hindu\\-front\\-after\\-they\\-protest\\-outside\\-sc\\-against\\-same\\-sex\\-marriage\\-plea\\-should\\-be\\-all\\-imprisoned\\-bollywood\\-news\\-article\\-96795057 \\|access\\-date\\= \\|website\\=Times Now \\|language\\=en \\|archive\\-date\\=21 June 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230621163526/https://www.timesnownews.com/entertainment\\-news/onir\\-slams\\-united\\-hindu\\-front\\-after\\-they\\-protest\\-outside\\-sc\\-against\\-same\\-sex\\-marriage\\-plea\\-should\\-be\\-all\\-imprisoned\\-bollywood\\-news\\-article\\-96795057 \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"[Hansal Mehta](/wiki/Hansal_Mehta \"Hansal Mehta\"), a filmmaker who directed the movie [*Aligarh*](/wiki/Aligarh_%28film%29 \"Aligarh (film)\") based on the life of [Ramchandra Siras](/wiki/Ramchandra_Siras \"Ramchandra Siras\"), an Indian gay professor, recently expressed his support for legal recognition of marriage between sexual and gender minority individuals. [Apurva Asrani](/wiki/Apurva_Asrani \"Apurva Asrani\"), an editor and screenwriter who wrote the movie [*Aligarh*](/wiki/Aligarh_%28film%29 \"Aligarh (film)\"), said that ancient Indian texts don't prohibit homosexuality and mention same\\-sex unions of many gods. The homophobia is a result of colonization and Abrahamic religions.{{Cite web \\|date\\=18 April 2023 \\|title\\=Famous personalities supporting legalisation of same\\-sex marriage in India \\|url\\=https://www.dtnext.in/national/2023/04/18/famous\\-personalities\\-supporting\\-legalisation\\-of\\-same\\-sex\\-marriage\\-in\\-india \\|access\\-date\\= \\|website\\=DT Next \\|language\\=en \\|archive\\-date\\=8 May 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230508172153/https://www.dtnext.in/national/2023/04/18/famous\\-personalities\\-supporting\\-legalisation\\-of\\-same\\-sex\\-marriage\\-in\\-india \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"[Bhumi Pednekar](/wiki/Bhumi_Pednekar \"Bhumi Pednekar\"), an actress who portrayed the character of a teacher who identifies as a lesbian in the movie [Badhaai Do](/wiki/Badhaai_Do \"Badhaai Do\"), has identified herself as an ally of the sexual and gender minority community. She said that equality in every aspect of life should be afforded to everyone, regardless of their sexual orientation.{{Cite web \\|date\\=10 May 2023 \\|title\\=Bhumi Pednekar shows her support for same\\-sex marriage in India: I just feel love is love \\|url\\=https://www.filmfare.com/news/bollywood/bhumi\\-pednekar\\-puts\\-her\\-support\\-for\\-same\\-sex\\-marriage\\-in\\-india\\-i\\-just\\-feel\\-love\\-is\\-love\\-58393\\.html \\|website\\=Filmfare\\|language\\=en \\|archive\\-date\\=13 May 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230513084438/https://www.filmfare.com/news/bollywood/bhumi\\-pednekar\\-puts\\-her\\-support\\-for\\-same\\-sex\\-marriage\\-in\\-india\\-i\\-just\\-feel\\-love\\-is\\-love\\-58393\\.html \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"Actress [Kangana Ranaut](/wiki/Kangana_Ranaut \"Kangana Ranaut\") expressed that what a person does in the world defines their identity, not what they do in bed. She said that sexual preferences are private and not to be flaunted as identity cards or medals. She urged acceptance of those who disagree with one's gender identity. However, she counselled against judging people based on physical attributes. She said that people can be whoever they want to be. She encourages individuals to rise above limiting perceptions. Kangana Ranaut suggests parents teach children to see themselves beyond physical attributes and focus on their inner potential. Later, during an interview, she expressed that marriage is a matter of the heart and people's preferences are of no concern once two hearts have met.{{Cite web \\|date\\=1 May 2023 \\|title\\=Kangana Ranaut supports same\\-sex marriage in India: 'Jab logo ke dil mil gaye hai, hum kya bol sakte hai' \\|url\\=https://www.hindustantimes.com/entertainment/bollywood/kangana\\-ranaut\\-supports\\-same\\-sex\\-marriage\\-fans\\-call\\-her\\-liberal\\-in\\-true\\-sense\\-101682929136873\\.html \\|access\\-date\\= \\|website\\=Hindustan Times \\|language\\=en \\|archive\\-date\\=11 May 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230511060336/https://www.hindustantimes.com/entertainment/bollywood/kangana\\-ranaut\\-supports\\-same\\-sex\\-marriage\\-fans\\-call\\-her\\-liberal\\-in\\-true\\-sense\\-101682929136873\\.html \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"Abhijit Ganguly, a comedian, believes that claiming same\\-sex relationships are against Indian culture is incorrect. He raises the question of whether the blame lies with urban elites who view Indian culture as backward and Western culture as modern or self\\-appointed dogmatic saviors of Indian culture fixated on their views of right and wrong.",
"Film director [Vivek Ranjan Agnihotri](/wiki/Vivek_Agnihotri \"Vivek Agnihotri\") said that Same\\-sex marriage is not an elitist concept but a human need and right that should be normalized in Indian society. Later, he published an opinion stating that social issues like same\\-sex marriage are complex and should be addressed by representatives of the people, not the Supreme Court. He argued that the will and the preparedness of society also should be taken into account. If people are not prepared, parliamentarians and the authorities must educate people with facts.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Agnihotri \\|first\\=Vivek \\|date\\=19 April 2023 \\|title\\=Vivek Agnihotri writes on same\\-sex marriage: It is time for India to take the lead in creating an open, progressive society \\|url\\=https://indianexpress.com/article/opinion/columns/vivek\\-agnihotri\\-same\\-sex\\-marriage\\-india\\-open\\-progressive\\-society\\-8564625/ \\|access\\-date\\= \\|website\\=The Indian Express \\|language\\=en \\|archive\\-date\\=12 May 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230512062940/https://indianexpress.com/article/opinion/columns/vivek\\-agnihotri\\-same\\-sex\\-marriage\\-india\\-open\\-progressive\\-society\\-8564625/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"Tehseen Poonawalla, an entrepreneur and anchor, said that marriage to a consenting adult is a fundamental right under Article 21, and society cannot take it away. He said that sexual and gender minority community's right to marry under the special marriage act should be upheld by the Supreme Court. [Celina Jaitley](/wiki/Celina_Jaitly \"Celina Jaitly\"), an actress, supported the Indian sexual and gender minority community's fight for the right to life, dignity, and the same opportunities for marriage and family as others. Comedian [Vir Das](/wiki/Vir_Das \"Vir Das\"), actress [Sumona Chakravarti](/wiki/Sumona_Chakravarti \"Sumona Chakravarti\"), and [Maanvi Gagroo](/wiki/Maanvi_Gagroo \"Maanvi Gagroo\") are among the celebrities who have expressed their hope for the recognition of marriage between sexual and gender minority individuals by the Supreme Court.",
"### Religious organisations",
"#### Hinduism",
"[RSS](/wiki/Rashtriya_Swayamsevak_Sangh \"Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh\") is a [Hindu nationalist](/wiki/Hindu_nationalism \"Hindu nationalism\") organisation and the ideological parent of [Prime Minister](/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_India \"Prime Minister of India\") [Modi's](/wiki/Narendra_Modi \"Narendra Modi\") [Bharatiya Janata Party](/wiki/Bharatiya_Janata_Party \"Bharatiya Janata Party\").{{Cite news \\|last\\=Jain \\|first\\=Rupam \\|date\\=2023\\-03\\-14 \\|title\\=Powerful Indian Hindu group backs government's opposition to same\\-sex marriage recognition \\|work\\=\\[\\[Reuters]] \\|editor\\-last\\=Y.P. \\|editor\\-first\\=Rajesh \\|url\\=https://www.reuters.com/world/india/powerful\\-indian\\-hindu\\-group\\-backs\\-governments\\-opposition\\-same\\-sex\\-marriage\\-2023\\-03\\-14/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-15 \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-15 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230315043930/https://www.reuters.com/world/india/powerful\\-indian\\-hindu\\-group\\-backs\\-governments\\-opposition\\-same\\-sex\\-marriage\\-2023\\-03\\-14/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }} On 14 March 2023, during the press conference at the end of [Akhil Bharatiya Pratinidhi Sabha](/wiki/Akhil_Bharatiya_Pratinidhi_Sabha \"Akhil Bharatiya Pratinidhi Sabha\"), [RSS](/wiki/Rashtriya_Swayamsevak_Sangh \"Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh\") General Secretary [Dattatreya Hosabale](/wiki/Dattatreya_Hosabale \"Dattatreya Hosabale\") backed the [BJP](/wiki/Bharatiya_Janata_Party \"Bharatiya Janata Party\")\\-led [Union Government's](/wiki/Government_of_India \"Government of India\") opposition to the extension of the right to marry for sexual and gender minority individuals in India. He said marriage is an institution for the benefit of the family and society, not for physical and sexual enjoyment.{{Cite news \\|last\\=Tiwary \\|first\\=Deeptiman \\|date\\=2023\\-03\\-14 \\|title\\=RSS backs govt stand on same\\-sex marriage, says 'in Hindu philosophy, marriage a sanskar' \\|work\\=\\[\\[The Indian Express]] \\|url\\=https://indianexpress.com/article/political\\-pulse/rss\\-backs\\-govt\\-stand\\-on\\-same\\-sex\\-marriage\\-against\\-our\\-culture\\-8496625/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-15 \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-15 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230315031951/https://indianexpress.com/article/political\\-pulse/rss\\-backs\\-govt\\-stand\\-on\\-same\\-sex\\-marriage\\-against\\-our\\-culture\\-8496625/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"Samvardhinee Nyas, an affiliate of RSS, interviewed persons affiliated with eight branches of medicine ranging from Ayurveda to modern medicine and submitted its finding to support the Union Government's opposition. They claimed that 60% of medical professionals claimed homosexuality was a disorder, 23\\.58% claimed they had \"treated\" such persons and \"now their life is just like normal people.\" They reported that 84\\.27% of the medical professionals opposed legal recognition of marriage between sexual and gender minority individuals, and 67% claimed same\\-sex parents could not raise their offspring.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Scroll Staff \\|date\\=7 May 2023 \\|title\\=Most doctors consider homosexuality as a disorder, RSS affiliate tells Supreme Court \\|url\\=https://scroll.in/latest/1048675/most\\-doctors\\-consider\\-homosexuality\\-as\\-a\\-disorder\\-rss\\-affiliate\\-tells\\-supreme\\-court \\|access\\-date\\= \\|website\\=Scroll.in \\|language\\=en\\-US \\|archive\\-date\\=7 May 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230507160028/https://scroll.in/latest/1048675/most\\-doctors\\-consider\\-homosexuality\\-as\\-a\\-disorder\\-rss\\-affiliate\\-tells\\-supreme\\-court \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"On 6 January 2023, the United Hindu Front protested outside the court, decrying homosexuality as against Indian culture and insisting the Supreme Court should not hear the petitions. However, the Supreme Court continued with the hearing.{{Cite web \\|date\\=2023\\-01\\-06 \\|title\\=Delhi: United Hindu Front protests outside SC ahead of same\\-sex marriage case hearing; Watch video \\|url\\=https://www.freepressjournal.in/india/delhi\\-united\\-hindu\\-front\\-protests\\-outside\\-sc\\-ahead\\-of\\-same\\-sex\\-marriage\\-case\\-hearing\\-watch\\-video \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-10 \\|website\\=\\[\\[The Free Press Journal]] \\|language\\=en \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-10 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230310044259/https://www.freepressjournal.in/india/delhi\\-united\\-hindu\\-front\\-protests\\-outside\\-sc\\-ahead\\-of\\-same\\-sex\\-marriage\\-case\\-hearing\\-watch\\-video \\|url\\-status\\=live }}{{Cite web \\|last\\=Kakkar \\|first\\=Shruti \\|date\\=2023\\-01\\-07 \\|title\\=Supreme Court transfers all same\\-sex marriage pleas to itself \\|url\\=https://www.newindianexpress.com/nation/2023/jan/07/supreme\\-court\\-transfers\\-all\\-same\\-sex\\-marriage\\-pleas\\-to\\-itself\\-2535477\\.html \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-10 \\|website\\=\\[\\[The New Indian Express]] \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-10 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230310044309/https://www.newindianexpress.com/nation/2023/jan/07/supreme\\-court\\-transfers\\-all\\-same\\-sex\\-marriage\\-pleas\\-to\\-itself\\-2535477\\.html \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"Shri Sanatam Dharm Pratinidhi Sabha and Akhil Bhartiya Sant Samiti sought to [intervene](/wiki/Intervention_%28law%29 \"Intervention (law)\") as an opponent to extending the right to marry and establish a family to sexual and gender minority individuals in India. Shri Sanatam Dharm Pratinidhi Sabha relied on Manusmriti and Vedas to oppose the rights. Akhil Bhartiya Sant Samiti argued that the concept of same\\-sex marriage is going to attack the whole family system in India.",
"#### Islam",
"[Khalid Saifullah Rahmani](/wiki/Khalid_Saifullah_Rahmani \"Khalid Saifullah Rahmani\"), General Secretary of the [Muslim Personal Law Board](/wiki/All_India_Muslim_Personal_Law_Board \"All India Muslim Personal Law Board\"), released a statement supporting the [Union Government's](/wiki/Government_of_India \"Government of India\") opposition to extension of the right to marry for sexual and gender minority individuals in India and stated that the Board would try to become a party to the case if necessary. It said that the act of [homosexuality](/wiki/Homosexuality \"Homosexuality\") and [same\\-sex marriage](/wiki/Same-sex_marriage \"Same-sex marriage\") is contrary to religion, moral values, and social traditions and is unacceptable, illegal and a crime.{{Cite news \\|last\\=Shamsi \\|first\\=Mohammed Safi \\|date\\=2023\\-03\\-15 \\|title\\=AIMPLB backs Centre's stance against same\\-sex marriage \\|work\\=\\[\\[Deccan Herald]] \\|url\\=https://www.deccanherald.com/national/aimplb\\-backs\\-centres\\-stance\\-against\\-same\\-sex\\-marriage\\-1200503\\.html \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230316111813/https://www.deccanherald.com/national/aimplb\\-backs\\-centres\\-stance\\-against\\-same\\-sex\\-marriage\\-1200503\\.html \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-16}}",
"On 1 April 2023, [Mahmood Asad Madani](/wiki/Mahmood_Madani \"Mahmood Madani\") representing the [Jamiat Ulema\\-e\\-Hind](/wiki/Jamiat_Ulema-e-Hind \"Jamiat Ulema-e-Hind\") sought to [intervene](/wiki/Intervention_%28law%29 \"Intervention (law)\") as an opponent to extending the right to marry and establish a family to sexual and gender minority individuals in India. He noted that the [sexual liberation movement](/wiki/Sexual_revolution \"Sexual revolution\"), which he alleges of being an [atheist](/wiki/Atheism \"Atheism\") movement, resulted in the acceptance of [homosexuality](/wiki/Homosexuality \"Homosexuality\"). Therefore, it should not be allowed to infringe on the religiously governed [personal laws](/wiki/Law_of_India%23Family_law_%E2%80%93_personal_law \"Law of India#Family law – personal law\"). On 10 April 2023, Telangana Markazi Shia Ulema Council sought to [intervene](/wiki/Intervention_%28law%29 \"Intervention (law)\") as an opponent to extending the right to marry and establish a family to sexual and gender minority individuals in India. They argued that legitimising same\\-sex marriage is exclusive to Western and unsuited to Indian society. Marriage is intertwined with religion and personal law. Therefore, it is critical to consider religious perspectives.{{Cite news \\|date\\=11 April 2023 \\|title\\=Against teaching of Prophet: Shiite body moves SC against same\\-sex marriage \\|work\\=The Times of India \\|url\\=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/against\\-teaching\\-of\\-prophet\\-shiite\\-body\\-moves\\-sc\\-against\\-same\\-sex\\-marriage/articleshow/99394286\\.cms \\|access\\-date\\= \\|issn\\=0971\\-8257 \\|archive\\-date\\=1 May 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230501033043/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/against\\-teaching\\-of\\-prophet\\-shiite\\-body\\-moves\\-sc\\-against\\-same\\-sex\\-marriage/articleshow/99394286\\.cms \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"Mohammad Salim, Vice President of the [Jamaat\\-e\\-Islami Hind](/wiki/Jamaat-e-Islami_Hind \"Jamaat-e-Islami Hind\"), backed the [Union Government's](/wiki/Government_of_India \"Government of India\") opposition to extension of the right to marry for sexual and gender minority individuals in India. He said that the organisation believes in fundamental rights and advocates for freedom and minority rights. However, freedom comes with moral responsibility, and no society can accept crimes, vices and anarchy in the name of freedom and personal liberty.{{Citation \\|title\\=Jamaat\\-e\\-Islami Hind opposes same\\-sex marriages \\|date\\=2023\\-03\\-15 \\|url\\=https://jamaateislamihind.org/eng/jamaat\\-e\\-islami\\-hind\\-opposes\\-same\\-sex\\-marriages/ \\|type\\=Press Release \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230315110125/https://jamaateislamihind.org/eng/jamaat\\-e\\-islami\\-hind\\-opposes\\-same\\-sex\\-marriages/ \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Jamaat\\-e\\-Islami Hind]] \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-15}}",
"#### Christian",
"[Syro\\-Malabar Catholic Church](/wiki/Syro-Malabar_Catholic_Church \"Syro-Malabar Catholic Church\"), a Kerala\\-based [Eastern Catholic Church](/wiki/Eastern_Catholic_Churches \"Eastern Catholic Churches\") in full communion with [Roman Catholic Church](/wiki/Catholic_Church \"Catholic Church\"), raised concerns that recognising marriage between sexual and gender minority individuals would lead to demand for legalising paedophilia and bestiality. The Church stated that same\\-sex marriages are unnatural and do an injustice to the family system in India.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Scroll Staff \\|date\\=5 May 2023 \\|title\\=Nod to same\\-sex marriage may lead to demands to allow paedophilia, bestiality: Kerala church \\|url\\=https://scroll.in/latest/1048578/nod\\-to\\-same\\-sex\\-marriage\\-may\\-lead\\-to\\-demands\\-to\\-allow\\-paedophilia\\-bestiality\\-kerala\\-church \\|access\\-date\\= \\|website\\=Scroll.in \\|language\\=en\\-US \\|archive\\-date\\=5 May 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230505152826/https://scroll.in/latest/1048578/nod\\-to\\-same\\-sex\\-marriage\\-may\\-lead\\-to\\-demands\\-to\\-allow\\-paedophilia\\-bestiality\\-kerala\\-church \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"### Student organization",
"#### Law School Sexual and Gender Minority Collectives",
"Over 30 sexual and gender minority collectives from 36 law schools with more than 600 students condemned the [Bar Council of India](/wiki/Bar_Council_of_India \"Bar Council of India\") for the resolution. The students criticised the resolution as ignorant, harmful and antithetical to the Constitution. Expressing concerns about the Bar Council of India disregarding constitutional morality, they reminded them that Indian Constitution is a counterweight to majoritarianism, religious morality, and unjust public opinion.{{Cite web \\|date\\=27 April 2023 \\|title\\=Shows Heinous Indifference: Law Students Condemn BCI's Resolution Requesting Supreme Court To Defer Same\\-Sex Marriage Issue To Parliament \\|url\\=https://www.livelaw.in/news\\-updates/same\\-sex\\-marriage\\-bci\\-resolution\\-law\\-students\\-oppose\\-supreme\\-court\\-separation\\-of\\-powers\\-parliament\\-legislation\\-227322 \\|access\\-date\\= \\|website\\=www.livelaw.in \\|language\\=en \\|archive\\-date\\=27 April 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230427123933/https://www.livelaw.in/news\\-updates/same\\-sex\\-marriage\\-bci\\-resolution\\-law\\-students\\-oppose\\-supreme\\-court\\-separation\\-of\\-powers\\-parliament\\-legislation\\-227322 \\|url\\-status\\=live }}{{Cite news \\|last\\=Press Trust of India \\|date\\=27 April 2023 \\|title\\=LGBTQIA\\+\\+ collectives of law school students condemn BCI resolution on same sex marriage \\|language\\=en\\-IN \\|work\\=The Hindu \\|url\\=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/lgbtqia\\-collectives\\-of\\-law\\-school\\-students\\-condemn\\-bci\\-resolution\\-on\\-same\\-sex\\-marriage/article66784265\\.ece \\|access\\-date\\= \\|issn\\=0971\\-751X \\|archive\\-date\\=27 April 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230427123933/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/lgbtqia\\-collectives\\-of\\-law\\-school\\-students\\-condemn\\-bci\\-resolution\\-on\\-same\\-sex\\-marriage/article66784265\\.ece \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
""
] |
### Political parties
#### Bharatiya Janata Party
[BJP](/wiki/Bharatiya_Janata_Party "Bharatiya Janata Party") is a [right\-wing](/wiki/Right-wing_politics "Right-wing politics") national party. On 12 March 2023, the [Union Government](/wiki/Government_of_India "Government of India") under the leadership of BJP opposed extending the right to marry to sexual and gender minority individuals in India in the Supreme Court.{{Cite news \|last1\=Mehrotra \|first1\=Karishma \|last2\=Shih \|first2\=Gerry \|date\=2023\-03\-14 \|title\=Indian government opposes same\-sex marriage, warns of countrywide 'havoc' \|newspaper\=\[\[The Washington Post]] \|url\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2023/03/14/india\-same\-sex\-marriage/ \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-15 \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-14 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230314172029/https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2023/03/14/india\-same\-sex\-marriage/ \|url\-status\=live }} The BJP\-led State Government of [Assam](/wiki/Government_of_Assam "Government of Assam"), [Gujarat](/wiki/Government_of_Gujarat "Government of Gujarat") and [Madhya Pradesh](/wiki/Government_of_Madhya_Pradesh "Government of Madhya Pradesh") interevened in the Case opposing the extension of the right to adopt for sexual and gender minority individuals in India.
On 19 December 2022, [BJP](/wiki/Bharatiya_Janata_Party "Bharatiya Janata Party") Member of the [Council of States](/wiki/Rajya_Sabha "Rajya Sabha") [Sushil Kumar Modi](/wiki/Sushil_Modi "Sushil Modi") expressed his opposition to the [Judicial Review](/wiki/Judicial_review_in_India "Judicial review in India") of the Indian marriage laws. He told the [Parliament](/wiki/Parliament_of_India "Parliament of India"), "India is a country of 1\.4 billion people, and two judges cannot just sit in a room and decide on such a socially significant subject. Instead, there should be a debate in Parliament as well as the society at large".{{Cite web \|last\=Zargar \|first\=Arshad \|date\=2023\-01\-06 \|title\=As India's top court takes up same\-sex marriage, couples hope, and activists say there's a long fight ahead \|url\=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/india\-same\-sex\-marriage\-supreme\-court\-lgbtq\-rights\-narendra\-modi/ \|access\-date\=2023\-02\-15 \|website\=\[\[CBS News]] \|language\=en\-US \|archive\-date\=2023\-10\-18 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20231018150040/https://www.cbsnews.com/news/india\-same\-sex\-marriage\-supreme\-court\-lgbtq\-rights\-narendra\-modi/ \|url\-status\=live }}{{Cite web \|last\=Gopinathan \|first\=Raj \|date\=2023\-01\-07 \|title\=SubscriberWrites: Sushil Modi's stance on same\-sex marriage is not supported by facts \|url\=https://theprint.in/yourturn/subscriberwrites\-sushil\-modis\-stance\-on\-same\-sex\-marriage\-is\-not\-supported\-by\-facts/1302990/ \|access\-date\=2023\-02\-19 \|website\=\[\[ThePrint]] \|language\=en\-US \|archive\-date\=2023\-02\-19 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230219045309/https://theprint.in/yourturn/subscriberwrites\-sushil\-modis\-stance\-on\-same\-sex\-marriage\-is\-not\-supported\-by\-facts/1302990/ \|url\-status\=live }}
On 23 April 2023, the [Bar Council of India](/wiki/Bar_Council_of_India "Bar Council of India"), under the chairmanship of BJP member [Manan Kumar Mishra](/wiki/Manan_Kumar_Mishra "Manan Kumar Mishra"), passed a Resolution stating that the Supreme Court should defer the matter to the Parliament. The Resolution received wide condemnation, including from the Supreme Court Bar Association, which reminded the BCI that Supreme Court was duty\-bound to hear the petitioner before deciding on adjudication or referring to the Parliament.{{Cite news \|last\=PTI \|date\=28 April 2023 \|title\=SCBA terms Bar Council of India resolution on same\-sex marriage "highly inappropriate" \|language\=en\-IN \|work\=The Hindu \|url\=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/scba\-terms\-bci\-resolution\-on\-same\-sex\-marriage\-highly\-inappropriate/article66790184\.ece \|access\-date\=2023\-05\-07 \|issn\=0971\-751X \|archive\-date\=2023\-05\-07 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230507160027/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/scba\-terms\-bci\-resolution\-on\-same\-sex\-marriage\-highly\-inappropriate/article66790184\.ece \|url\-status\=live }}
At least 11 of 21 retired judges, who wrote an open letter criticising the petitioners for attacking the root of the Indian family system, had worked for the BJP\-led government in some capacity following their retirement.
#### Indian National Congress
[Congress](/wiki/Indian_National_Congress "Indian National Congress") is a [centre](/wiki/Centrism "Centrism")\-to\-[centre\-left](/wiki/Centre-left "Centre-left") national party. As some senior leaders dismissed the extension of the right to marry to sexual and gender minority individuals in India as an unimportant or alien issue for [Congress](/wiki/Indian_National_Congress "Indian National Congress") to take an official position, and others shared only their personal views, [Congress](/wiki/Indian_National_Congress "Indian National Congress") does not have an official stance on the extending the right to marry to sexual and gender minority individuals in India.{{Cite web \|last\=C.G \|first\=Manoj \|date\=2023\-03\-14 \|title\=Same\-sex marriage: Oppn parties cautious, want SC to take the lead as it did on Section 377 \|url\=https://indianexpress.com/article/political\-pulse/same\-sex\-marriage\-opposition\-parties\-cautious\-supreme\-court\-section\-377\-8497168/ \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-15 \|website\=\[\[The Indian Express]] \|language\=en \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-15 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230315025328/https://indianexpress.com/article/political\-pulse/same\-sex\-marriage\-opposition\-parties\-cautious\-supreme\-court\-section\-377\-8497168/ \|url\-status\=live }} The Congress\-led [State Government of Rajasthan](/wiki/Government_of_Rajasthan "Government of Rajasthan") interevened in the Case opposing the extension of the right to adopt for sexual and gender minority individuals in India.
Congress Member of the [Council of States](/wiki/Rajya_Sabha "Rajya Sabha") [Abhishek Singhvi](/wiki/Abhishek_Singhvi "Abhishek Singhvi"), who is a lead counsel for one of the petitioners, argued for judicial intervention. He said that the questions about the possible legislative approach are meaningless as the BJP\-led [Union Government](/wiki/Government_of_India "Government of India") vociferously opposed extending the right to marry to sexual and gender minority individuals in India.
Congress Member of the [House of the People](/wiki/Lok_Sabha "Lok Sabha") [Shashi Tharoor](/wiki/Shashi_Tharoor "Shashi Tharoor") said denying civil rights to same\-sex partners is wrong and unjustifiable and should be remedied without delay. Noting the resistance from the majority, he suggested a two\-stage process where the first step is a [civil partnership](/wiki/Civil_union "Civil union"), a contract that grants the legal rights of spouses to same\-sex partners. After seeing the impact on Indian society, the [Union Government](/wiki/Government_of_India "Government of India") might recognise [same\-sex marriage](/wiki/Same-sex_marriage "Same-sex marriage").
Congress Member of the [House of the People](/wiki/Lok_Sabha "Lok Sabha") [Manish Tewari](/wiki/Manish_Tewari "Manish Tewari") said that following the decriminalisation of same\-sex relations by the 5\-judge [Constitution Bench](/wiki/Constitution_bench_%28India%29 "Constitution bench (India)") of the Supreme Court, legalisation of such relationships should be a natural corollary.
#### Trinamool Congress
[Trinamool Congress](/wiki/Trinamool_Congress "Trinamool Congress") is a [centre](/wiki/Centrism "Centrism")\-to\-[centre\-right](/wiki/Centre-right_politics "Centre-right politics") state party based in [West Bengal](/wiki/West_Bengal "West Bengal"), [Tripura](/wiki/Tripura "Tripura") and [Meghalaya](/wiki/Meghalaya "Meghalaya"). National general secretary [Abhishek Banerjee](/wiki/Abhishek_Banerjee_%28politician%29 "Abhishek Banerjee (politician)") endorsed legal recognition of marriage between sexual and gender minority individuals. A party spokesperson confirmed that it reflects the party's stance.{{Cite web \|last\=Choudhury \|first\=Sunetra \|date\=22 April 2023 \|title\=Amid SC hearing, TMC, Left back same\-sex marriages, many parties remain undecided \|url\=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india\-news/tmc\-and\-cpi\-support\-legal\-recognition\-for\-same\-sex\-marriages\-in\-india\-most\-other\-political\-parties\-remain\-silent\-as\-supreme\-court\-hears\-case\-101682102447290\.html \|access\-date\= \|website\=Hindustan Times \|language\=en \|archive\-date\=25 April 2023 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230425062537/https://www.hindustantimes.com/india\-news/tmc\-and\-cpi\-support\-legal\-recognition\-for\-same\-sex\-marriages\-in\-india\-most\-other\-political\-parties\-remain\-silent\-as\-supreme\-court\-hears\-case\-101682102447290\.html \|url\-status\=live }} Earlier, [Mamata Banerjee](/wiki/Mamata_Banerjee "Mamata Banerjee"), chairperson of the party and [Chief Minister](/wiki/Chief_minister_%28India%29 "Chief minister (India)") of West Bengal refused to comment on marriage between sexual and gender minority individuals, reasoning that it is a sub judice matter.{{Cite web \|last\=NDTV News Desk \|date\=19 April 2023 \|title\=What Mamata Banerjee Said On Same\-Sex Marriage, Opposition Unity \|url\=https://www.ndtv.com/india\-news/it\-will\-happen\-like\-a\-tornado\-mamata\-banerjee\-on\-opposition\-unity\-3961492 \|access\-date\= \|archive\-date\=25 April 2023 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230425062537/https://www.ndtv.com/india\-news/it\-will\-happen\-like\-a\-tornado\-mamata\-banerjee\-on\-opposition\-unity\-3961492 \|url\-status\=live }}
Trinamool Congress Member of the [Council of States](/wiki/Rajya_Sabha "Rajya Sabha") [Derek O’Brien](/wiki/Derek_O%27Brien_%28politician%29 "Derek O'Brien (politician)"), who introduced a private member's bill to recognise marriage equality, published an opinion highlighting the personal experiences of sexual and gender minority individuals in India facing discrimination and prejudice. He concluded by emphasizing that the fight for same\-sex marriage is not just about legalizing a union, but about fighting for the dignity and equal rights of the sexual and gender minority community.{{Cite news \|last\=O’Brien \|first\=Derek \|author\-link\=Derek O'Brien (politician) \|date\=29 April 2023 \|title\=Derek O'Brien on same\-sex marriage: Queer Indians fighting the good fight \|work\=\[\[Indian Express Limited\|The Indian Express]] \|url\=https://indianexpress.com/article/opinion/columns/same\-sex\-marriage\-queer\-indians\-fighting\-the\-good\-fight\-8579732/ \|access\-date\=9 May 2023 \|archive\-date\=9 May 2023 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230509172701/https://indianexpress.com/article/opinion/columns/same\-sex\-marriage\-queer\-indians\-fighting\-the\-good\-fight\-8579732/ \|url\-status\=live }}
Trinamool Congress Member of the [House of the People](/wiki/Lok_Sabha "Lok Sabha") [Mahua Moitra](/wiki/Mahua_Moitra "Mahua Moitra") criticised the Bar Council of India for failing their oath by promoting popular sentiment over constitutional morality. She pointed out that despite 49 per cent of Indian Citizens being women, all the members of the Bar Council of India were men. She questioned the legitimacy of the Bar Council of India in claiming to express the sentiments of 99\.9 per cent of Indians.{{Cite web \|last\=Chitre \|first\=Manjiri \|date\=24 April 2023 \|title\='Lost your minds?': Mahua Moitra slams BCI for opposing same\-sex marriage case in SC \|url\=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india\-news/mahua\-moitra\-slams\-bci\-for\-opposing\-same\-sex\-marriage\-case\-in\-sc\-lost\-your\-minds\-101682328692563\.html \|access\-date\= \|website\=Hindustan Times \|language\=en \|archive\-date\=28 April 2023 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230428130634/https://www.hindustantimes.com/india\-news/mahua\-moitra\-slams\-bci\-for\-opposing\-same\-sex\-marriage\-case\-in\-sc\-lost\-your\-minds\-101682328692563\.html \|url\-status\=live }}
#### YSR Congress Party
[YSR Congress Party](/wiki/YSR_Congress_Party "YSR Congress Party") is a [centre\-left](/wiki/Centre-left "Centre-left") state party based in [Andhra Pradesh](/wiki/Andhra_Pradesh "Andhra Pradesh"). The YSR Congress Party\-led [State Government of Andhra Pradesh](/wiki/Government_of_Andhra_Pradesh "Government of Andhra Pradesh") interevened in the Case opposing the extension of the right to adopt for sexual and gender minority individuals in India.
#### Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam
[DMK](/wiki/Dravida_Munnetra_Kazhagam "Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam") is a [centre\-left](/wiki/Centre-left "Centre-left") state party based in [Tamil Nadu](/wiki/Tamil_Nadu "Tamil Nadu") and [Puducherry](/wiki/Puducherry_%28union_territory%29 "Puducherry (union territory)"). On 8 May 2023, DMK organising secretary [R S Bharathi](/wiki/R._S._Bharathi "R. S. Bharathi") said the party has not decided on the stance.{{Cite web \|last\=Som \|first\=Moyurie \|date\=8 May 2023 \|title\=Same\-sex marriage: What Opposition parties feel about legalising gay marriage \|url\=https://epaper.timesgroup.com/timesspecial/samesexmarriage/same\-sex\-marriage\-what\-opposition\-parties\-feel\-about\-legalising\-gay\-marriage/1683532825217 \|access\-date\=2023\-05\-08 \|website\=Times of India \|language\=English \|archive\-date\=2023\-05\-08 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230508173211/https://epaper.timesgroup.com/timesspecial/samesexmarriage/same\-sex\-marriage\-what\-opposition\-parties\-feel\-about\-legalising\-gay\-marriage/1683532825217 \|url\-status\=live }}
DMK Member of the [House of the People](/wiki/Lok_Sabha "Lok Sabha") [Thamizhachi Thangapandian](/wiki/Thamizhachi_Thangapandian "Thamizhachi Thangapandian"), who has been closely following the proceedings, offered her full support. She eagerly awaits a favourable judgement that would make India the first UN\-recognised nation from Asia to do so, a massive victory for sexual and gender minority rights globally.{{Cite web \|last\=Desk \|first\=Online \|title\=Famous personalities supporting legalisation of same\-sex marriage in India \|url\=https://www.dtnext.in/national/2023/04/18/famous\-personalities\-supporting\-legalisation\-of\-same\-sex\-marriage\-in\-india \|access\-date\=2023\-05\-08 \|website\=DT next \|date\=18 April 2023 \|language\=en \|archive\-date\=2023\-05\-08 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230508172153/https://www.dtnext.in/national/2023/04/18/famous\-personalities\-supporting\-legalisation\-of\-same\-sex\-marriage\-in\-india \|url\-status\=live }}
#### Communist Party of India (Marxist)
[CPI(M)](/wiki/Communist_Party_of_India_%28Marxist%29 "Communist Party of India (Marxist)") is a [left\-wing](/wiki/Left-wing_politics "Left-wing politics") national party. Member of the [Politburo](/wiki/Polit_Bureau_of_the_Communist_Party_of_India_%28Marxist%29 "Polit Bureau of the Communist Party of India (Marxist)") [Brinda Karat](/wiki/Brinda_Karat "Brinda Karat") said [CPI(M)](/wiki/Communist_Party_of_India_%28Marxist%29 "Communist Party of India (Marxist)") supports the rights of same\-sex partners to get legal recognition of their relationship as a marriage. She called for judicial intervention, as the [BJP](/wiki/Bharatiya_Janata_Party "Bharatiya Janata Party")\-led [Union Government](/wiki/Government_of_India "Government of India") opposed extending the right to marry for sexual and gender minority individuals in India.
#### Biju Janata Dal
[Biju Janata Dal](/wiki/Biju_Janata_Dal "Biju Janata Dal") is a [centre\-left](/wiki/Centre-left "Centre-left") state party based in [Odisha](/wiki/Odisha "Odisha"). As of 8 May 2023, the Party does not have an official stance on the issue.
In sharing his personal opinion, Biju Janata Dal Member of the [Council of States](/wiki/Rajya_Sabha "Rajya Sabha") [Prasanna Acharya](/wiki/Prasanna_Acharya "Prasanna Acharya") argued that Indian society is not comparable to Western society and, therefore, what may be suitable for the latter may not be appropriate for the former and opposed marriage between sexual and gender minority individuals.
#### Nationalist Congress Party
Nationalist Congress Party is a [centrist](/wiki/Centrism "Centrism") state party based in [Maharashtra](/wiki/Maharashtra "Maharashtra") and [Nagaland](/wiki/Nagaland "Nagaland"). As of 8 May 2023, NCP does not have an official stance on the issue.
On 1 April 2022, NCP Member of the [House of the People](/wiki/Lok_Sabha "Lok Sabha") [Supriya Sule](/wiki/Supriya_Sule "Supriya Sule") had introduced a private member's bill in Parliament, to recognise same\-sex marriages under the Special Marriage Act.{{Cite web \|last\=ANI \|date\=1 April 2022 \|title\=NCP's Supriya Sule introduces Private Member's Bill for legalising same\-sex marriage \|url\=https://theprint.in/india/ncps\-supriya\-sule\-introduces\-private\-members\-bill\-for\-legalising\-same\-sex\-marriage/898806/ \|access\-date\= \|website\=The Print \|language\=en\-US \|archive\-date\=9 May 2023 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230509172702/https://theprint.in/india/ncps\-supriya\-sule\-introduces\-private\-members\-bill\-for\-legalising\-same\-sex\-marriage/898806/ \|url\-status\=live }}
#### All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam
[AIADMK](/wiki/All_India_Anna_Dravida_Munnetra_Kazhagam "All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam") is a [centre\-left](/wiki/Centre-left "Centre-left") state party based in [Tamil Nadu](/wiki/Tamil_Nadu "Tamil Nadu") and [Puducherry](/wiki/Puducherry_%28union_territory%29 "Puducherry (union territory)"). As of 8 May 2023, the Party does not have an official stance on the issue.
On 8 May 2023, senior party leaders said that same\-sex marriage is against Indian culture and raised concerns about the emotional impact on the adopted child of the same\-sex couple.
#### Bharat Rashtra Samithi
[Bharat Rashtra Samithi](/wiki/Bharat_Rashtra_Samithi "Bharat Rashtra Samithi") is a [centrist](/wiki/Centrism "Centrism") state party based in [Telangana](/wiki/Telangana "Telangana"). On 8 May 2023, BRS Member of the [House of the People](/wiki/Lok_Sabha "Lok Sabha") [Nageshwar Rao](/wiki/Nama_Nageswara_Rao "Nama Nageswara Rao") said that opinion of state governments on same\-sex marriage is irrelevant as they will abide by the Supreme Court's verdict.
#### Rashtriya Janata Dal
[Rashtriya Janata Dal](/wiki/Rashtriya_Janata_Dal "Rashtriya Janata Dal") is a [centre\-left](/wiki/Centre-left "Centre-left") state party based in [Bihar](/wiki/Bihar "Bihar") and [Jharkhand](/wiki/Jharkhand "Jharkhand"). On 8 May 2023, RJD Vice\-president [Shivanand Tiwary](/wiki/Shivanand_Tiwari "Shivanand Tiwari") said the party had not discussed the issue. RJD National Spokesperson Prof Subodh Kumar Mehta stated that commenting on a sub judice matter is against the ethos of the judiciary and refused to comment.
In sharing his personal opinion, RJD Vice\-president Shivanand Tiwary criticized [BJP](/wiki/Bharatiya_Janata_Party "Bharatiya Janata Party")'s stance on same\-sex marriage and supported the right of those with a same\-sex sexual orientation to marry if they choose to, citing scientific evidence and examples from other countries where it is legal. He said that the recognition of same\-sex marriage is next step following the decriminalisation of same\-sex relations.
#### Communist Party of India
[CPI](/wiki/Communist_Party_of_India "Communist Party of India") is a [left\-wing](/wiki/Left-wing_politics "Left-wing politics") state party based in [Kerala](/wiki/Kerala "Kerala"), [Manipur](/wiki/Manipur "Manipur") and [Tamil Nadu](/wiki/Tamil_Nadu "Tamil Nadu"). CPI was the first party to support legal recognition of marriage between sexual and gender minority individuals officially. On 15 March 2023, the party released a statement that criticised the [BJP](/wiki/Bharatiya_Janata_Party "Bharatiya Janata Party")\-led Union Government's position as a reflection of the Manuwadi worldview, which excludes and criminalises. The statement called on the Supreme Court to uphold the right and dignity of the sexual and gender minority community.{{Cite web \|last\=Communist Party of India \|author\-link\=Communist Party of India \|date\=15 March 2023 \|title\=Protect Rights of LGBTQIA\+ Community \|url\=https://communistpartyofindia.com/protect\-rights\-of\-lgbtqia\-community\-cpi/ \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230425061934/https://communistpartyofindia.com/protect\-rights\-of\-lgbtqia\-community\-cpi/ \|archive\-date\=25 April 2023 \|access\-date\= \|language\=en\-GB}}
On 22 April 2023, CPI Member of the [Council of States](/wiki/Rajya_Sabha "Rajya Sabha") [Binoy Viswam](/wiki/Binoy_Viswam "Binoy Viswam") reiterated the party stands with the democratic rights of the sexual and gender minority community.
#### Lok Janshakti Party
[Lok Janshakti Party](/wiki/Lok_Janshakti_Party_%28Ram_Vilas%29 "Lok Janshakti Party (Ram Vilas)") is a state party based in Bihar. On 8 May 2023, Party Vice\-president Arvind Kumar Bajpai said that part has not decided on their stance, but they are more likely to oppose it due to social and cultural values.
#### Aam Aadmi Party
[Aam Aadmi Party](/wiki/Aam_Aadmi_Party "Aam Aadmi Party") is a [centrist](/wiki/Centrism "Centrism") national party. [Delhi Commission for Protection of Child Rights](/wiki/Delhi_Commission_for_Protection_of_Child_Rights "Delhi Commission for Protection of Child Rights"), a statutory body of the [Delhi Government](/wiki/Government_of_Delhi "Government of Delhi") under the AAP leadership, intervened to support extending the right to marry and adopt for sexual and gender minority individuals.
#### Naga People's Front
[Naga People's Front](/wiki/Naga_People%27s_Front "Naga People's Front") is a state party based in [Manipur](/wiki/Manipur "Manipur") and [Nagaland](/wiki/Nagaland "Nagaland"). On 11 May 2023, [Küzholuzo Nienü](/wiki/K%C3%BCzholuzo_Nien%C3%BC "Küzholuzo Nienü"), party leader and member of [Nagaland Legislative Assembly](/wiki/Nagaland_Legislative_Assembly "Nagaland Legislative Assembly"), opposed same\-sex marriage. He cautioned the Supreme Court that while society may have "grudgingly" accepted the ruling that decriminalized homosexuality, they would react in an "unsavoury" manner to the legalization of same\-sex marriage,{{Citation \|last\=Nienü \|first\=Küzholuzo \|title\=Naga People's Front on same sex marriage. \|date\=11 May 2023 \|url\=https://pbs.twimg.com/media/Fv2jQ9KagAMz0zw?format\=jpg\&name\=large \|type\=Press Release \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230511201348/https://pbs.twimg.com/media/Fv2jQ9KagAMz0zw?format\=jpg\&name\=large \|publication\-place\=Kohima, India \|publisher\=\[\[Naga People's Front]] \|archive\-date\=11 May 2023}}
|
[
"### Political parties",
"#### Bharatiya Janata Party",
"[BJP](/wiki/Bharatiya_Janata_Party \"Bharatiya Janata Party\") is a [right\\-wing](/wiki/Right-wing_politics \"Right-wing politics\") national party. On 12 March 2023, the [Union Government](/wiki/Government_of_India \"Government of India\") under the leadership of BJP opposed extending the right to marry to sexual and gender minority individuals in India in the Supreme Court.{{Cite news \\|last1\\=Mehrotra \\|first1\\=Karishma \\|last2\\=Shih \\|first2\\=Gerry \\|date\\=2023\\-03\\-14 \\|title\\=Indian government opposes same\\-sex marriage, warns of countrywide 'havoc' \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The Washington Post]] \\|url\\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2023/03/14/india\\-same\\-sex\\-marriage/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-15 \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-14 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230314172029/https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2023/03/14/india\\-same\\-sex\\-marriage/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }} The BJP\\-led State Government of [Assam](/wiki/Government_of_Assam \"Government of Assam\"), [Gujarat](/wiki/Government_of_Gujarat \"Government of Gujarat\") and [Madhya Pradesh](/wiki/Government_of_Madhya_Pradesh \"Government of Madhya Pradesh\") interevened in the Case opposing the extension of the right to adopt for sexual and gender minority individuals in India.",
"On 19 December 2022, [BJP](/wiki/Bharatiya_Janata_Party \"Bharatiya Janata Party\") Member of the [Council of States](/wiki/Rajya_Sabha \"Rajya Sabha\") [Sushil Kumar Modi](/wiki/Sushil_Modi \"Sushil Modi\") expressed his opposition to the [Judicial Review](/wiki/Judicial_review_in_India \"Judicial review in India\") of the Indian marriage laws. He told the [Parliament](/wiki/Parliament_of_India \"Parliament of India\"), \"India is a country of 1\\.4 billion people, and two judges cannot just sit in a room and decide on such a socially significant subject. Instead, there should be a debate in Parliament as well as the society at large\".{{Cite web \\|last\\=Zargar \\|first\\=Arshad \\|date\\=2023\\-01\\-06 \\|title\\=As India's top court takes up same\\-sex marriage, couples hope, and activists say there's a long fight ahead \\|url\\=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/india\\-same\\-sex\\-marriage\\-supreme\\-court\\-lgbtq\\-rights\\-narendra\\-modi/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-02\\-15 \\|website\\=\\[\\[CBS News]] \\|language\\=en\\-US \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-10\\-18 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20231018150040/https://www.cbsnews.com/news/india\\-same\\-sex\\-marriage\\-supreme\\-court\\-lgbtq\\-rights\\-narendra\\-modi/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }}{{Cite web \\|last\\=Gopinathan \\|first\\=Raj \\|date\\=2023\\-01\\-07 \\|title\\=SubscriberWrites: Sushil Modi's stance on same\\-sex marriage is not supported by facts \\|url\\=https://theprint.in/yourturn/subscriberwrites\\-sushil\\-modis\\-stance\\-on\\-same\\-sex\\-marriage\\-is\\-not\\-supported\\-by\\-facts/1302990/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-02\\-19 \\|website\\=\\[\\[ThePrint]] \\|language\\=en\\-US \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-02\\-19 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230219045309/https://theprint.in/yourturn/subscriberwrites\\-sushil\\-modis\\-stance\\-on\\-same\\-sex\\-marriage\\-is\\-not\\-supported\\-by\\-facts/1302990/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"On 23 April 2023, the [Bar Council of India](/wiki/Bar_Council_of_India \"Bar Council of India\"), under the chairmanship of BJP member [Manan Kumar Mishra](/wiki/Manan_Kumar_Mishra \"Manan Kumar Mishra\"), passed a Resolution stating that the Supreme Court should defer the matter to the Parliament. The Resolution received wide condemnation, including from the Supreme Court Bar Association, which reminded the BCI that Supreme Court was duty\\-bound to hear the petitioner before deciding on adjudication or referring to the Parliament.{{Cite news \\|last\\=PTI \\|date\\=28 April 2023 \\|title\\=SCBA terms Bar Council of India resolution on same\\-sex marriage \"highly inappropriate\" \\|language\\=en\\-IN \\|work\\=The Hindu \\|url\\=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/scba\\-terms\\-bci\\-resolution\\-on\\-same\\-sex\\-marriage\\-highly\\-inappropriate/article66790184\\.ece \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-05\\-07 \\|issn\\=0971\\-751X \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-05\\-07 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230507160027/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/scba\\-terms\\-bci\\-resolution\\-on\\-same\\-sex\\-marriage\\-highly\\-inappropriate/article66790184\\.ece \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"At least 11 of 21 retired judges, who wrote an open letter criticising the petitioners for attacking the root of the Indian family system, had worked for the BJP\\-led government in some capacity following their retirement.",
"#### Indian National Congress",
"[Congress](/wiki/Indian_National_Congress \"Indian National Congress\") is a [centre](/wiki/Centrism \"Centrism\")\\-to\\-[centre\\-left](/wiki/Centre-left \"Centre-left\") national party. As some senior leaders dismissed the extension of the right to marry to sexual and gender minority individuals in India as an unimportant or alien issue for [Congress](/wiki/Indian_National_Congress \"Indian National Congress\") to take an official position, and others shared only their personal views, [Congress](/wiki/Indian_National_Congress \"Indian National Congress\") does not have an official stance on the extending the right to marry to sexual and gender minority individuals in India.{{Cite web \\|last\\=C.G \\|first\\=Manoj \\|date\\=2023\\-03\\-14 \\|title\\=Same\\-sex marriage: Oppn parties cautious, want SC to take the lead as it did on Section 377 \\|url\\=https://indianexpress.com/article/political\\-pulse/same\\-sex\\-marriage\\-opposition\\-parties\\-cautious\\-supreme\\-court\\-section\\-377\\-8497168/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-15 \\|website\\=\\[\\[The Indian Express]] \\|language\\=en \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-15 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230315025328/https://indianexpress.com/article/political\\-pulse/same\\-sex\\-marriage\\-opposition\\-parties\\-cautious\\-supreme\\-court\\-section\\-377\\-8497168/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }} The Congress\\-led [State Government of Rajasthan](/wiki/Government_of_Rajasthan \"Government of Rajasthan\") interevened in the Case opposing the extension of the right to adopt for sexual and gender minority individuals in India.",
"Congress Member of the [Council of States](/wiki/Rajya_Sabha \"Rajya Sabha\") [Abhishek Singhvi](/wiki/Abhishek_Singhvi \"Abhishek Singhvi\"), who is a lead counsel for one of the petitioners, argued for judicial intervention. He said that the questions about the possible legislative approach are meaningless as the BJP\\-led [Union Government](/wiki/Government_of_India \"Government of India\") vociferously opposed extending the right to marry to sexual and gender minority individuals in India.",
"Congress Member of the [House of the People](/wiki/Lok_Sabha \"Lok Sabha\") [Shashi Tharoor](/wiki/Shashi_Tharoor \"Shashi Tharoor\") said denying civil rights to same\\-sex partners is wrong and unjustifiable and should be remedied without delay. Noting the resistance from the majority, he suggested a two\\-stage process where the first step is a [civil partnership](/wiki/Civil_union \"Civil union\"), a contract that grants the legal rights of spouses to same\\-sex partners. After seeing the impact on Indian society, the [Union Government](/wiki/Government_of_India \"Government of India\") might recognise [same\\-sex marriage](/wiki/Same-sex_marriage \"Same-sex marriage\").",
"Congress Member of the [House of the People](/wiki/Lok_Sabha \"Lok Sabha\") [Manish Tewari](/wiki/Manish_Tewari \"Manish Tewari\") said that following the decriminalisation of same\\-sex relations by the 5\\-judge [Constitution Bench](/wiki/Constitution_bench_%28India%29 \"Constitution bench (India)\") of the Supreme Court, legalisation of such relationships should be a natural corollary.",
"#### Trinamool Congress",
"[Trinamool Congress](/wiki/Trinamool_Congress \"Trinamool Congress\") is a [centre](/wiki/Centrism \"Centrism\")\\-to\\-[centre\\-right](/wiki/Centre-right_politics \"Centre-right politics\") state party based in [West Bengal](/wiki/West_Bengal \"West Bengal\"), [Tripura](/wiki/Tripura \"Tripura\") and [Meghalaya](/wiki/Meghalaya \"Meghalaya\"). National general secretary [Abhishek Banerjee](/wiki/Abhishek_Banerjee_%28politician%29 \"Abhishek Banerjee (politician)\") endorsed legal recognition of marriage between sexual and gender minority individuals. A party spokesperson confirmed that it reflects the party's stance.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Choudhury \\|first\\=Sunetra \\|date\\=22 April 2023 \\|title\\=Amid SC hearing, TMC, Left back same\\-sex marriages, many parties remain undecided \\|url\\=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india\\-news/tmc\\-and\\-cpi\\-support\\-legal\\-recognition\\-for\\-same\\-sex\\-marriages\\-in\\-india\\-most\\-other\\-political\\-parties\\-remain\\-silent\\-as\\-supreme\\-court\\-hears\\-case\\-101682102447290\\.html \\|access\\-date\\= \\|website\\=Hindustan Times \\|language\\=en \\|archive\\-date\\=25 April 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230425062537/https://www.hindustantimes.com/india\\-news/tmc\\-and\\-cpi\\-support\\-legal\\-recognition\\-for\\-same\\-sex\\-marriages\\-in\\-india\\-most\\-other\\-political\\-parties\\-remain\\-silent\\-as\\-supreme\\-court\\-hears\\-case\\-101682102447290\\.html \\|url\\-status\\=live }} Earlier, [Mamata Banerjee](/wiki/Mamata_Banerjee \"Mamata Banerjee\"), chairperson of the party and [Chief Minister](/wiki/Chief_minister_%28India%29 \"Chief minister (India)\") of West Bengal refused to comment on marriage between sexual and gender minority individuals, reasoning that it is a sub judice matter.{{Cite web \\|last\\=NDTV News Desk \\|date\\=19 April 2023 \\|title\\=What Mamata Banerjee Said On Same\\-Sex Marriage, Opposition Unity \\|url\\=https://www.ndtv.com/india\\-news/it\\-will\\-happen\\-like\\-a\\-tornado\\-mamata\\-banerjee\\-on\\-opposition\\-unity\\-3961492 \\|access\\-date\\= \\|archive\\-date\\=25 April 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230425062537/https://www.ndtv.com/india\\-news/it\\-will\\-happen\\-like\\-a\\-tornado\\-mamata\\-banerjee\\-on\\-opposition\\-unity\\-3961492 \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"Trinamool Congress Member of the [Council of States](/wiki/Rajya_Sabha \"Rajya Sabha\") [Derek O’Brien](/wiki/Derek_O%27Brien_%28politician%29 \"Derek O'Brien (politician)\"), who introduced a private member's bill to recognise marriage equality, published an opinion highlighting the personal experiences of sexual and gender minority individuals in India facing discrimination and prejudice. He concluded by emphasizing that the fight for same\\-sex marriage is not just about legalizing a union, but about fighting for the dignity and equal rights of the sexual and gender minority community.{{Cite news \\|last\\=O’Brien \\|first\\=Derek \\|author\\-link\\=Derek O'Brien (politician) \\|date\\=29 April 2023 \\|title\\=Derek O'Brien on same\\-sex marriage: Queer Indians fighting the good fight \\|work\\=\\[\\[Indian Express Limited\\|The Indian Express]] \\|url\\=https://indianexpress.com/article/opinion/columns/same\\-sex\\-marriage\\-queer\\-indians\\-fighting\\-the\\-good\\-fight\\-8579732/ \\|access\\-date\\=9 May 2023 \\|archive\\-date\\=9 May 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230509172701/https://indianexpress.com/article/opinion/columns/same\\-sex\\-marriage\\-queer\\-indians\\-fighting\\-the\\-good\\-fight\\-8579732/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"Trinamool Congress Member of the [House of the People](/wiki/Lok_Sabha \"Lok Sabha\") [Mahua Moitra](/wiki/Mahua_Moitra \"Mahua Moitra\") criticised the Bar Council of India for failing their oath by promoting popular sentiment over constitutional morality. She pointed out that despite 49 per cent of Indian Citizens being women, all the members of the Bar Council of India were men. She questioned the legitimacy of the Bar Council of India in claiming to express the sentiments of 99\\.9 per cent of Indians.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Chitre \\|first\\=Manjiri \\|date\\=24 April 2023 \\|title\\='Lost your minds?': Mahua Moitra slams BCI for opposing same\\-sex marriage case in SC \\|url\\=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india\\-news/mahua\\-moitra\\-slams\\-bci\\-for\\-opposing\\-same\\-sex\\-marriage\\-case\\-in\\-sc\\-lost\\-your\\-minds\\-101682328692563\\.html \\|access\\-date\\= \\|website\\=Hindustan Times \\|language\\=en \\|archive\\-date\\=28 April 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230428130634/https://www.hindustantimes.com/india\\-news/mahua\\-moitra\\-slams\\-bci\\-for\\-opposing\\-same\\-sex\\-marriage\\-case\\-in\\-sc\\-lost\\-your\\-minds\\-101682328692563\\.html \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"#### YSR Congress Party",
"[YSR Congress Party](/wiki/YSR_Congress_Party \"YSR Congress Party\") is a [centre\\-left](/wiki/Centre-left \"Centre-left\") state party based in [Andhra Pradesh](/wiki/Andhra_Pradesh \"Andhra Pradesh\"). The YSR Congress Party\\-led [State Government of Andhra Pradesh](/wiki/Government_of_Andhra_Pradesh \"Government of Andhra Pradesh\") interevened in the Case opposing the extension of the right to adopt for sexual and gender minority individuals in India.",
"#### Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam",
"[DMK](/wiki/Dravida_Munnetra_Kazhagam \"Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam\") is a [centre\\-left](/wiki/Centre-left \"Centre-left\") state party based in [Tamil Nadu](/wiki/Tamil_Nadu \"Tamil Nadu\") and [Puducherry](/wiki/Puducherry_%28union_territory%29 \"Puducherry (union territory)\"). On 8 May 2023, DMK organising secretary [R S Bharathi](/wiki/R._S._Bharathi \"R. S. Bharathi\") said the party has not decided on the stance.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Som \\|first\\=Moyurie \\|date\\=8 May 2023 \\|title\\=Same\\-sex marriage: What Opposition parties feel about legalising gay marriage \\|url\\=https://epaper.timesgroup.com/timesspecial/samesexmarriage/same\\-sex\\-marriage\\-what\\-opposition\\-parties\\-feel\\-about\\-legalising\\-gay\\-marriage/1683532825217 \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-05\\-08 \\|website\\=Times of India \\|language\\=English \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-05\\-08 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230508173211/https://epaper.timesgroup.com/timesspecial/samesexmarriage/same\\-sex\\-marriage\\-what\\-opposition\\-parties\\-feel\\-about\\-legalising\\-gay\\-marriage/1683532825217 \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"DMK Member of the [House of the People](/wiki/Lok_Sabha \"Lok Sabha\") [Thamizhachi Thangapandian](/wiki/Thamizhachi_Thangapandian \"Thamizhachi Thangapandian\"), who has been closely following the proceedings, offered her full support. She eagerly awaits a favourable judgement that would make India the first UN\\-recognised nation from Asia to do so, a massive victory for sexual and gender minority rights globally.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Desk \\|first\\=Online \\|title\\=Famous personalities supporting legalisation of same\\-sex marriage in India \\|url\\=https://www.dtnext.in/national/2023/04/18/famous\\-personalities\\-supporting\\-legalisation\\-of\\-same\\-sex\\-marriage\\-in\\-india \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-05\\-08 \\|website\\=DT next \\|date\\=18 April 2023 \\|language\\=en \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-05\\-08 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230508172153/https://www.dtnext.in/national/2023/04/18/famous\\-personalities\\-supporting\\-legalisation\\-of\\-same\\-sex\\-marriage\\-in\\-india \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"#### Communist Party of India (Marxist)",
"[CPI(M)](/wiki/Communist_Party_of_India_%28Marxist%29 \"Communist Party of India (Marxist)\") is a [left\\-wing](/wiki/Left-wing_politics \"Left-wing politics\") national party. Member of the [Politburo](/wiki/Polit_Bureau_of_the_Communist_Party_of_India_%28Marxist%29 \"Polit Bureau of the Communist Party of India (Marxist)\") [Brinda Karat](/wiki/Brinda_Karat \"Brinda Karat\") said [CPI(M)](/wiki/Communist_Party_of_India_%28Marxist%29 \"Communist Party of India (Marxist)\") supports the rights of same\\-sex partners to get legal recognition of their relationship as a marriage. She called for judicial intervention, as the [BJP](/wiki/Bharatiya_Janata_Party \"Bharatiya Janata Party\")\\-led [Union Government](/wiki/Government_of_India \"Government of India\") opposed extending the right to marry for sexual and gender minority individuals in India.",
"#### Biju Janata Dal",
"[Biju Janata Dal](/wiki/Biju_Janata_Dal \"Biju Janata Dal\") is a [centre\\-left](/wiki/Centre-left \"Centre-left\") state party based in [Odisha](/wiki/Odisha \"Odisha\"). As of 8 May 2023, the Party does not have an official stance on the issue.",
"In sharing his personal opinion, Biju Janata Dal Member of the [Council of States](/wiki/Rajya_Sabha \"Rajya Sabha\") [Prasanna Acharya](/wiki/Prasanna_Acharya \"Prasanna Acharya\") argued that Indian society is not comparable to Western society and, therefore, what may be suitable for the latter may not be appropriate for the former and opposed marriage between sexual and gender minority individuals.",
"#### Nationalist Congress Party",
"Nationalist Congress Party is a [centrist](/wiki/Centrism \"Centrism\") state party based in [Maharashtra](/wiki/Maharashtra \"Maharashtra\") and [Nagaland](/wiki/Nagaland \"Nagaland\"). As of 8 May 2023, NCP does not have an official stance on the issue.",
"On 1 April 2022, NCP Member of the [House of the People](/wiki/Lok_Sabha \"Lok Sabha\") [Supriya Sule](/wiki/Supriya_Sule \"Supriya Sule\") had introduced a private member's bill in Parliament, to recognise same\\-sex marriages under the Special Marriage Act.{{Cite web \\|last\\=ANI \\|date\\=1 April 2022 \\|title\\=NCP's Supriya Sule introduces Private Member's Bill for legalising same\\-sex marriage \\|url\\=https://theprint.in/india/ncps\\-supriya\\-sule\\-introduces\\-private\\-members\\-bill\\-for\\-legalising\\-same\\-sex\\-marriage/898806/ \\|access\\-date\\= \\|website\\=The Print \\|language\\=en\\-US \\|archive\\-date\\=9 May 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230509172702/https://theprint.in/india/ncps\\-supriya\\-sule\\-introduces\\-private\\-members\\-bill\\-for\\-legalising\\-same\\-sex\\-marriage/898806/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"#### All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam",
"[AIADMK](/wiki/All_India_Anna_Dravida_Munnetra_Kazhagam \"All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam\") is a [centre\\-left](/wiki/Centre-left \"Centre-left\") state party based in [Tamil Nadu](/wiki/Tamil_Nadu \"Tamil Nadu\") and [Puducherry](/wiki/Puducherry_%28union_territory%29 \"Puducherry (union territory)\"). As of 8 May 2023, the Party does not have an official stance on the issue.",
"On 8 May 2023, senior party leaders said that same\\-sex marriage is against Indian culture and raised concerns about the emotional impact on the adopted child of the same\\-sex couple.",
"#### Bharat Rashtra Samithi",
"[Bharat Rashtra Samithi](/wiki/Bharat_Rashtra_Samithi \"Bharat Rashtra Samithi\") is a [centrist](/wiki/Centrism \"Centrism\") state party based in [Telangana](/wiki/Telangana \"Telangana\"). On 8 May 2023, BRS Member of the [House of the People](/wiki/Lok_Sabha \"Lok Sabha\") [Nageshwar Rao](/wiki/Nama_Nageswara_Rao \"Nama Nageswara Rao\") said that opinion of state governments on same\\-sex marriage is irrelevant as they will abide by the Supreme Court's verdict.",
"#### Rashtriya Janata Dal",
"[Rashtriya Janata Dal](/wiki/Rashtriya_Janata_Dal \"Rashtriya Janata Dal\") is a [centre\\-left](/wiki/Centre-left \"Centre-left\") state party based in [Bihar](/wiki/Bihar \"Bihar\") and [Jharkhand](/wiki/Jharkhand \"Jharkhand\"). On 8 May 2023, RJD Vice\\-president [Shivanand Tiwary](/wiki/Shivanand_Tiwari \"Shivanand Tiwari\") said the party had not discussed the issue. RJD National Spokesperson Prof Subodh Kumar Mehta stated that commenting on a sub judice matter is against the ethos of the judiciary and refused to comment.",
"In sharing his personal opinion, RJD Vice\\-president Shivanand Tiwary criticized [BJP](/wiki/Bharatiya_Janata_Party \"Bharatiya Janata Party\")'s stance on same\\-sex marriage and supported the right of those with a same\\-sex sexual orientation to marry if they choose to, citing scientific evidence and examples from other countries where it is legal. He said that the recognition of same\\-sex marriage is next step following the decriminalisation of same\\-sex relations.",
"#### Communist Party of India",
"[CPI](/wiki/Communist_Party_of_India \"Communist Party of India\") is a [left\\-wing](/wiki/Left-wing_politics \"Left-wing politics\") state party based in [Kerala](/wiki/Kerala \"Kerala\"), [Manipur](/wiki/Manipur \"Manipur\") and [Tamil Nadu](/wiki/Tamil_Nadu \"Tamil Nadu\"). CPI was the first party to support legal recognition of marriage between sexual and gender minority individuals officially. On 15 March 2023, the party released a statement that criticised the [BJP](/wiki/Bharatiya_Janata_Party \"Bharatiya Janata Party\")\\-led Union Government's position as a reflection of the Manuwadi worldview, which excludes and criminalises. The statement called on the Supreme Court to uphold the right and dignity of the sexual and gender minority community.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Communist Party of India \\|author\\-link\\=Communist Party of India \\|date\\=15 March 2023 \\|title\\=Protect Rights of LGBTQIA\\+ Community \\|url\\=https://communistpartyofindia.com/protect\\-rights\\-of\\-lgbtqia\\-community\\-cpi/ \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230425061934/https://communistpartyofindia.com/protect\\-rights\\-of\\-lgbtqia\\-community\\-cpi/ \\|archive\\-date\\=25 April 2023 \\|access\\-date\\= \\|language\\=en\\-GB}}",
"On 22 April 2023, CPI Member of the [Council of States](/wiki/Rajya_Sabha \"Rajya Sabha\") [Binoy Viswam](/wiki/Binoy_Viswam \"Binoy Viswam\") reiterated the party stands with the democratic rights of the sexual and gender minority community.",
"#### Lok Janshakti Party",
"[Lok Janshakti Party](/wiki/Lok_Janshakti_Party_%28Ram_Vilas%29 \"Lok Janshakti Party (Ram Vilas)\") is a state party based in Bihar. On 8 May 2023, Party Vice\\-president Arvind Kumar Bajpai said that part has not decided on their stance, but they are more likely to oppose it due to social and cultural values.",
"#### Aam Aadmi Party",
"[Aam Aadmi Party](/wiki/Aam_Aadmi_Party \"Aam Aadmi Party\") is a [centrist](/wiki/Centrism \"Centrism\") national party. [Delhi Commission for Protection of Child Rights](/wiki/Delhi_Commission_for_Protection_of_Child_Rights \"Delhi Commission for Protection of Child Rights\"), a statutory body of the [Delhi Government](/wiki/Government_of_Delhi \"Government of Delhi\") under the AAP leadership, intervened to support extending the right to marry and adopt for sexual and gender minority individuals.",
"#### Naga People's Front",
"[Naga People's Front](/wiki/Naga_People%27s_Front \"Naga People's Front\") is a state party based in [Manipur](/wiki/Manipur \"Manipur\") and [Nagaland](/wiki/Nagaland \"Nagaland\"). On 11 May 2023, [Küzholuzo Nienü](/wiki/K%C3%BCzholuzo_Nien%C3%BC \"Küzholuzo Nienü\"), party leader and member of [Nagaland Legislative Assembly](/wiki/Nagaland_Legislative_Assembly \"Nagaland Legislative Assembly\"), opposed same\\-sex marriage. He cautioned the Supreme Court that while society may have \"grudgingly\" accepted the ruling that decriminalized homosexuality, they would react in an \"unsavoury\" manner to the legalization of same\\-sex marriage,{{Citation \\|last\\=Nienü \\|first\\=Küzholuzo \\|title\\=Naga People's Front on same sex marriage. \\|date\\=11 May 2023 \\|url\\=https://pbs.twimg.com/media/Fv2jQ9KagAMz0zw?format\\=jpg\\&name\\=large \\|type\\=Press Release \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230511201348/https://pbs.twimg.com/media/Fv2jQ9KagAMz0zw?format\\=jpg\\&name\\=large \\|publication\\-place\\=Kohima, India \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Naga People's Front]] \\|archive\\-date\\=11 May 2023}}",
""
] |
Matchups
--------
### Game 1
[thumb\|The Yankees and Phillies lining up prior to Game 1 at [Shibe Park](/wiki/Shibe_Park "Shibe Park").](/wiki/File:Shibe_Park_1950.png "Shibe Park 1950.png")
{{Linescore\|
\|Date\=October 4, 1950
\|Time\=1:00{{nbsp}}pm (\[\[Eastern Time Zone\|ET]])
\|Location\=\[\[Shibe Park]] in \[\[Philadelphia]], \[\[Pennsylvania]]
\|Road\='''New York'''\|RoadAbr\=NYY
\|R1\=0\|R2\=0\|R3\=0\|R4\=1\|R5\=0\|R6\=0\|R7\=0\|R8\=0\|R9\=0\|RR\=1\|RH\=5\|RE\=0
\|Home\=Philadelphia\|HomeAbr\=PHI
\|H1\=0\|H2\=0\|H3\=0\|H4\=0\|H5\=0\|H6\=0\|H7\=0\|H8\=0\|H9\=0\|HR\=0\|HH\=2\|HE\=1
\|RSP\=\|HSP\=
\|WP\=\[\[Vic Raschi]] (1–0\)\|LP\=\[\[Jim Konstanty]] (0–1\)\|SV\=
\|RoadHR\=\|HomeHR\=
\|}}
Because his \#1 starter, [Robin Roberts](/wiki/Robin_Roberts_%28baseball%29 "Robin Roberts (baseball)"), had just pitched in three of the last five games of the frantic 1950 pennant race, Phils manager Eddie Sawyer surprised the world by naming his bullpen ace, [Jim Konstanty](/wiki/Jim_Konstanty "Jim Konstanty"), to open on the mound for Philadelphia, opposing 21\-game winner [Vic Raschi](/wiki/Vic_Raschi "Vic Raschi") of the Yankees.{{Cite news \|title\=Jim Konstanty to Pitch Series Opener for Phils \|newspaper\=Spokane Daily Chronicle \|date\=October 3, 1950 \|url\=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id\=U6QVAAAAIBAJ\&pg\=6673,692631\&dq\=yankees\+phillies\+alexander\&hl\=en \|page\=15 }}{{Dead link\|date\=April 2023 \|bot\=InternetArchiveBot \|fix\-attempted\=yes }} Konstanty was outstanding, allowing just four hits and a run in eight innings, but Raschi was tougher, shutting out the Phils on only two hits en route to a 1–0 victory in the opener. The game's only run came in the fourth when [Bobby Brown](/wiki/Bobby_Brown_%28third_baseman%29 "Bobby Brown (third baseman)") hit a leadoff double and scored on two fly\-outs, the last one a sacrifice fly by [Jerry Coleman](/wiki/Jerry_Coleman "Jerry Coleman"). This marked the third consecutive year that the World Series opened with a 1–0 game, and the third consecutive year a two\-hitter was thrown in the opening game of the World Series.
### Game 2
[thumb\|right\|250px\|[Joe DiMaggio](/wiki/Joe_DiMaggio "Joe DiMaggio") catches [Del Ennis](/wiki/Del_Ennis "Del Ennis")' deep fly](/wiki/Image:DiMaggio19501005.JPG "DiMaggio19501005.JPG")
{{Linescore\|
\|Date\=October 5, 1950
\|Time\=1:00{{nbsp}}pm (ET)
\|Location\=Shibe Park in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
\|Road\='''New York'''\|RoadAbr\=NYY
\|R1\=0\|R2\=1\|R3\=0\|R4\=0\|R5\=0\|R6\=0\|R7\=0\|R8\=0\|R9\=0\|R10\=1\|RR\=2\|RH\=10\|RE\=0
\|Home\=Philadelphia\|HomeAbr\=PHI
\|H1\=0\|H2\=0\|H3\=0\|H4\=0\|H5\=1\|H6\=0\|H7\=0\|H8\=0\|H9\=0\|H10\=0\|HR\=1\|HH\=7\|HE\=0
\|RSP\=\|HSP\=
\|WP\=\[\[Allie Reynolds]] (1–0\)\|LP\=\[\[Robin Roberts (baseball)\|Robin Roberts]] (0–1\)\|SV\=
\|RoadHR\=\[\[Joe DiMaggio]] (1\)\|HomeHR\=
\|}}
In what would be the last postseason game ever played in [Shibe Park](/wiki/Shibe_Park "Shibe Park"), 20\-game winner Robin Roberts and [Allie Reynolds](/wiki/Allie_Reynolds "Allie Reynolds") both pitched outstanding baseball for nine innings, as strong pitching and stout defense again prevailed in the Series. [Gene Woodling](/wiki/Gene_Woodling "Gene Woodling") drove in [Jerry Coleman](/wiki/Jerry_Coleman "Jerry Coleman"), who walked with two outs and moved to second on a single, with an RBI single for a Yankee run in the second, and [Richie Ashburn](/wiki/Richie_Ashburn "Richie Ashburn")'s sacrifice fly scored [Mike Goliat](/wiki/Mike_Goliat "Mike Goliat") from third in the fifth, forcing a 1–1 tie which held up through nine full innings. This set the stage for [Joe DiMaggio](/wiki/Joe_DiMaggio "Joe DiMaggio"), leading off the tenth inning for the Yankees. With one swing, DiMaggio smashed a home run to left field to provide the difference in a 2–1 extra\-inning win for the Yankees as the Series shifted to New York.
DiMaggio had a hand in holding the Phillies at bay long enough to get his key at\-bat. Leading off the sixth inning, [Del Ennis](/wiki/Del_Ennis "Del Ennis") hit a deep fly to center, but DiMaggio made a spectacular over\-the\-shoulder running catch, near the {{convert\|400\|ft\|m\|adj\=on\|abbr\=out}} marker at the base of the scoreboard in right\-center. This play is far less well\-known but was similar\-looking to the famous [Willie Mays catch](/wiki/The_Catch_%28baseball%29 "The Catch (baseball)") in the [1954 World Series](/wiki/1954_World_Series "1954 World Series"). DiMaggio made this play on the road, although in a ballpark which he played in during the regular season (Shibe Park was also the home of the Philadelphia A's). Because there was nobody on when the ball was hit, he was not in a hurry to get the ball back to the infield (Mays' famous 1954 catch was deeper, with two runners on base and nobody out when the ball was hit).
### Game 3
[thumb\|right\|150px\|[Jerry Coleman](/wiki/Jerry_Coleman "Jerry Coleman"), after delivering the go\-ahead run in Game 1, delivered again with an RBI hit in the top half of the final 10th inning of Game 3\.](/wiki/File:Jerry_Coleman_of_San_Diego_Padres.jpg "Jerry Coleman of San Diego Padres.jpg")
{{Linescore\|
\|Date\=October 6, 1950
\|Time\=1:00{{nbsp}}pm (ET)
\|Location\=\[\[Yankee Stadium (1923\)\|Yankee Stadium]] in \[\[The Bronx\|Bronx]], \[\[New York (state)\|New York]]
\|Road\=Philadelphia\|RoadAbr\=PHI
\|R1\=0\|R2\=0\|R3\=0\|R4\=0\|R5\=0\|R6\=1\|R7\=1\|R8\=0\|R9\=0\|RR\=2\|RH\=10\|RE\=2
\|Home\='''New York'''\|HomeAbr\=NYY
\|H1\=0\|H2\=0\|H3\=1\|H4\=0\|H5\=0\|H6\=0\|H7\=0\|H8\=1\|H9\=1\|HR\=3\|HH\=7\|HE\=0
\|RSP\=\|HSP\=
\|WP\=\[\[Tom Ferrick (baseball)\|Tom Ferrick]] (1–0\)\|LP\=\[\[Russ Meyer (baseball)\|Russ Meyer]] (0–1\)\|SV\=
\|RoadHR\=\|HomeHR\=
\|}}
Phils lefty [Ken Heintzelman](/wiki/Ken_Heintzelman "Ken Heintzelman") started the third game against Yankee stalwart [Eddie Lopat](/wiki/Eddie_Lopat "Eddie Lopat"). The Yankees struck first in the third when [Phil Rizzuto](/wiki/Phil_Rizzuto "Phil Rizzuto") walked with two outs, stole second and scored on a single by [Jerry Coleman](/wiki/Jerry_Coleman "Jerry Coleman"), who was tagged out at second to end the inning. In the sixth, [Del Ennis](/wiki/Del_Ennis "Del Ennis") doubled with two outs and scored on [Dick Sisler](/wiki/Dick_Sisler "Dick Sisler")'s single to tie the game. Next inning [Granny Hamner](/wiki/Granny_Hamner "Granny Hamner") hit a leadoff single, moved to second on a sacrifice bunt and scored on [Mike Goliat](/wiki/Mike_Goliat "Mike Goliat")'s single to put the Phillies up 2–1\. Heintzelman continued the Phils' great pitching into the eighth inning, when he lost control and walked the bases loaded after two outs. Konstanty relieved him and got [Bobby Brown](/wiki/Bobby_Brown_%28third_baseman%29 "Bobby Brown (third baseman)") to ground to shortstop [Granny Hamner](/wiki/Granny_Hamner "Granny Hamner"), but Hamner misplayed the ball to allow the tying run to score. [Russ Meyer](/wiki/Russ_Meyer_%28baseball%29 "Russ Meyer (baseball)") came on for the Phillies in the last of the ninth. After retiring the first two batters, Meyer allowed consecutive singles to set the stage for [Jerry Coleman](/wiki/Jerry_Coleman "Jerry Coleman"), who drove in the winning run with a base hit to give the Yankees a 3–2 win.
In attendance at the game was [Grover Cleveland Alexander](/wiki/Grover_Cleveland_Alexander "Grover Cleveland Alexander"), who had led the Phillies to their previous pennant in 1915\. It was his first World Series game in 20 years. Ill from the effects of long term alcohol abuse, Alexander was generally ignored.{{Cite news \|title\=Alexander Ignored At Yankee Stadium Where He Beat Great Bronx Bombers \|newspaper\=Hartford Courant \|date\=October 7, 1950 \|url\=https://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/courant/access/888364132\.html?dids\=888364132:888364132\&FMT\=ABS\&FMTS\=ABS:AI\&type\=historic\&date\=Oct\+07%2C\+1950\&author\=\&pub\=Hartford\+Courant\&desc\=Alexander\+Ignored\+At\+Yankee\+Stadium\+Where\+He\+Beat\+Great\+Bronx\+Bombers\&pqatl\=google \|page\=12 \|access\-date\=July 5, 2017 \|archive\-date\=October 23, 2012 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121023100609/http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/courant/access/888364132\.html?dids\=888364132:888364132\&FMT\=ABS\&FMTS\=ABS:AI\&type\=historic\&date\=Oct\+07,\+1950\&author\=\&pub\=Hartford\+Courant\&desc\=Alexander\+Ignored\+At\+Yankee\+Stadium\+Where\+He\+Beat\+Great\+Bronx\+Bombers\&pqatl\=google \|url\-status\=dead }} He would be dead less than a month later on November 4, 1950, at age 63\.{{Cite news \|title\=Sport: Old Pete \|newspaper\=TIME \|date\=November 13, 1950 \|url\=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,821384,00\.html \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110131102933/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,821384,00\.html \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-date\=January 31, 2011 }}
### Game 4
[thumb\|right\|160px\|[Yogi Berra](/wiki/Yogi_Berra "Yogi Berra")](/wiki/File:1951_Bowman_yogi-berra-baseball-cards.jpg "1951 Bowman yogi-berra-baseball-cards.jpg")
{{Linescore\|
\|Date\=October 7, 1950
\|Time\=1:00{{nbsp}}pm (ET)
\|Location\=Yankee Stadium in Bronx, New York
\|Road\=Philadelphia\|RoadAbr\=PHI
\|R1\=0\|R2\=0\|R3\=0\|R4\=0\|R5\=0\|R6\=0\|R7\=0\|R8\=0\|R9\=2\|RR\=2\|RH\=7\|RE\=1
\|Home\='''New York'''\|HomeAbr\=NYY
\|H1\=2\|H2\=0\|H3\=0\|H4\=0\|H5\=0\|H6\=3\|H7\=0\|H8\=0\|H9\=X\|HR\=5\|HH\=8\|HE\=2
\|RSP\=\|HSP\=
\|WP\=\[\[Whitey Ford]] (1–0\)\|LP\=\[\[Bob Miller (baseball, born 1926\)\|Bob Miller]] (0–1\)\|SV\=\[\[Allie Reynolds]] (1\)
\|RoadHR\=\|HomeHR\=\[\[Yogi Berra]] (1\)
\|}}
Phillies starter [Bob Miller](/wiki/Bob_Miller_%28baseball%2C_born_1926%29 "Bob Miller (baseball, born 1926)") matched up against rookie [Whitey Ford](/wiki/Whitey_Ford "Whitey Ford"), making his first [World Series](/wiki/World_Series "World Series") appearance, as the Yankees tried to wrap up the Series in four straight. New York scored two runs in the first inning when [Gene Woodling](/wiki/Gene_Woodling "Gene Woodling") reached when second baseman [Mike Goliat](/wiki/Mike_Goliat "Mike Goliat") misplayed his ground ball, moved to second on a ground ball, and scored on [Yogi Berra](/wiki/Yogi_Berra "Yogi Berra")'s single. After a wild pitch, [Joe DiMaggio](/wiki/Joe_DiMaggio "Joe DiMaggio")'s RBI double made it 2–0 Yankees. Berra hit a leadoff home run in the sixth off of [Jim Konstanty](/wiki/Jim_Konstanty "Jim Konstanty"), who then hit DiMaggio with a pitch. After a groundout, [Bobby Brown](/wiki/Bobby_Brown_%28third_baseman%29 "Bobby Brown (third baseman)")'s RBI triple and [Hank Bauer](/wiki/Hank_Bauer "Hank Bauer")'s sacrifice fly made it 5–0 Yankees. The first two Phils reached base in the ninth via a single and hit\-by\-pitch before Ford got the next two outs. [Andy Seminick](/wiki/Andy_Seminick "Andy Seminick") then flied to left, but left fielder [Gene Woodling](/wiki/Gene_Woodling "Gene Woodling") dropped what looked like the Series\-ending out, allowing two runs to score. Mike Goliat kept the inning going with a hit, and Stengel removed Ford to bring in [Allie Reynolds](/wiki/Allie_Reynolds "Allie Reynolds"). Reynolds struck out pinch\-hitter [Stan Lopata](/wiki/Stan_Lopata "Stan Lopata"), giving the Yanks a 5–2 win and the World Series victory.
The Phillies failed to hit a home run in the entire World Series. No other team has matched that dubious feat since.
|
[
"Matchups\n--------",
"### Game 1",
"[thumb\\|The Yankees and Phillies lining up prior to Game 1 at [Shibe Park](/wiki/Shibe_Park \"Shibe Park\").](/wiki/File:Shibe_Park_1950.png \"Shibe Park 1950.png\")\n{{Linescore\\|\n\\|Date\\=October 4, 1950\n\\|Time\\=1:00{{nbsp}}pm (\\[\\[Eastern Time Zone\\|ET]])\n\\|Location\\=\\[\\[Shibe Park]] in \\[\\[Philadelphia]], \\[\\[Pennsylvania]]\n\\|Road\\='''New York'''\\|RoadAbr\\=NYY\n\\|R1\\=0\\|R2\\=0\\|R3\\=0\\|R4\\=1\\|R5\\=0\\|R6\\=0\\|R7\\=0\\|R8\\=0\\|R9\\=0\\|RR\\=1\\|RH\\=5\\|RE\\=0\n\\|Home\\=Philadelphia\\|HomeAbr\\=PHI\n\\|H1\\=0\\|H2\\=0\\|H3\\=0\\|H4\\=0\\|H5\\=0\\|H6\\=0\\|H7\\=0\\|H8\\=0\\|H9\\=0\\|HR\\=0\\|HH\\=2\\|HE\\=1\n\\|RSP\\=\\|HSP\\=\n\\|WP\\=\\[\\[Vic Raschi]] (1–0\\)\\|LP\\=\\[\\[Jim Konstanty]] (0–1\\)\\|SV\\=\n\\|RoadHR\\=\\|HomeHR\\=\n\\|}}",
"Because his \\#1 starter, [Robin Roberts](/wiki/Robin_Roberts_%28baseball%29 \"Robin Roberts (baseball)\"), had just pitched in three of the last five games of the frantic 1950 pennant race, Phils manager Eddie Sawyer surprised the world by naming his bullpen ace, [Jim Konstanty](/wiki/Jim_Konstanty \"Jim Konstanty\"), to open on the mound for Philadelphia, opposing 21\\-game winner [Vic Raschi](/wiki/Vic_Raschi \"Vic Raschi\") of the Yankees.{{Cite news \\|title\\=Jim Konstanty to Pitch Series Opener for Phils \\|newspaper\\=Spokane Daily Chronicle \\|date\\=October 3, 1950 \\|url\\=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id\\=U6QVAAAAIBAJ\\&pg\\=6673,692631\\&dq\\=yankees\\+phillies\\+alexander\\&hl\\=en \\|page\\=15 }}{{Dead link\\|date\\=April 2023 \\|bot\\=InternetArchiveBot \\|fix\\-attempted\\=yes }} Konstanty was outstanding, allowing just four hits and a run in eight innings, but Raschi was tougher, shutting out the Phils on only two hits en route to a 1–0 victory in the opener. The game's only run came in the fourth when [Bobby Brown](/wiki/Bobby_Brown_%28third_baseman%29 \"Bobby Brown (third baseman)\") hit a leadoff double and scored on two fly\\-outs, the last one a sacrifice fly by [Jerry Coleman](/wiki/Jerry_Coleman \"Jerry Coleman\"). This marked the third consecutive year that the World Series opened with a 1–0 game, and the third consecutive year a two\\-hitter was thrown in the opening game of the World Series.",
"### Game 2",
"[thumb\\|right\\|250px\\|[Joe DiMaggio](/wiki/Joe_DiMaggio \"Joe DiMaggio\") catches [Del Ennis](/wiki/Del_Ennis \"Del Ennis\")' deep fly](/wiki/Image:DiMaggio19501005.JPG \"DiMaggio19501005.JPG\")\n{{Linescore\\|\n\\|Date\\=October 5, 1950\n\\|Time\\=1:00{{nbsp}}pm (ET)\n\\|Location\\=Shibe Park in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania\n\\|Road\\='''New York'''\\|RoadAbr\\=NYY\n\\|R1\\=0\\|R2\\=1\\|R3\\=0\\|R4\\=0\\|R5\\=0\\|R6\\=0\\|R7\\=0\\|R8\\=0\\|R9\\=0\\|R10\\=1\\|RR\\=2\\|RH\\=10\\|RE\\=0\n\\|Home\\=Philadelphia\\|HomeAbr\\=PHI\n\\|H1\\=0\\|H2\\=0\\|H3\\=0\\|H4\\=0\\|H5\\=1\\|H6\\=0\\|H7\\=0\\|H8\\=0\\|H9\\=0\\|H10\\=0\\|HR\\=1\\|HH\\=7\\|HE\\=0\n\\|RSP\\=\\|HSP\\=\n\\|WP\\=\\[\\[Allie Reynolds]] (1–0\\)\\|LP\\=\\[\\[Robin Roberts (baseball)\\|Robin Roberts]] (0–1\\)\\|SV\\=\n\\|RoadHR\\=\\[\\[Joe DiMaggio]] (1\\)\\|HomeHR\\=\n\\|}}",
"In what would be the last postseason game ever played in [Shibe Park](/wiki/Shibe_Park \"Shibe Park\"), 20\\-game winner Robin Roberts and [Allie Reynolds](/wiki/Allie_Reynolds \"Allie Reynolds\") both pitched outstanding baseball for nine innings, as strong pitching and stout defense again prevailed in the Series. [Gene Woodling](/wiki/Gene_Woodling \"Gene Woodling\") drove in [Jerry Coleman](/wiki/Jerry_Coleman \"Jerry Coleman\"), who walked with two outs and moved to second on a single, with an RBI single for a Yankee run in the second, and [Richie Ashburn](/wiki/Richie_Ashburn \"Richie Ashburn\")'s sacrifice fly scored [Mike Goliat](/wiki/Mike_Goliat \"Mike Goliat\") from third in the fifth, forcing a 1–1 tie which held up through nine full innings. This set the stage for [Joe DiMaggio](/wiki/Joe_DiMaggio \"Joe DiMaggio\"), leading off the tenth inning for the Yankees. With one swing, DiMaggio smashed a home run to left field to provide the difference in a 2–1 extra\\-inning win for the Yankees as the Series shifted to New York.",
"DiMaggio had a hand in holding the Phillies at bay long enough to get his key at\\-bat. Leading off the sixth inning, [Del Ennis](/wiki/Del_Ennis \"Del Ennis\") hit a deep fly to center, but DiMaggio made a spectacular over\\-the\\-shoulder running catch, near the {{convert\\|400\\|ft\\|m\\|adj\\=on\\|abbr\\=out}} marker at the base of the scoreboard in right\\-center. This play is far less well\\-known but was similar\\-looking to the famous [Willie Mays catch](/wiki/The_Catch_%28baseball%29 \"The Catch (baseball)\") in the [1954 World Series](/wiki/1954_World_Series \"1954 World Series\"). DiMaggio made this play on the road, although in a ballpark which he played in during the regular season (Shibe Park was also the home of the Philadelphia A's). Because there was nobody on when the ball was hit, he was not in a hurry to get the ball back to the infield (Mays' famous 1954 catch was deeper, with two runners on base and nobody out when the ball was hit).",
"### Game 3",
"[thumb\\|right\\|150px\\|[Jerry Coleman](/wiki/Jerry_Coleman \"Jerry Coleman\"), after delivering the go\\-ahead run in Game 1, delivered again with an RBI hit in the top half of the final 10th inning of Game 3\\.](/wiki/File:Jerry_Coleman_of_San_Diego_Padres.jpg \"Jerry Coleman of San Diego Padres.jpg\")",
"{{Linescore\\|\n\\|Date\\=October 6, 1950\n\\|Time\\=1:00{{nbsp}}pm (ET)\n\\|Location\\=\\[\\[Yankee Stadium (1923\\)\\|Yankee Stadium]] in \\[\\[The Bronx\\|Bronx]], \\[\\[New York (state)\\|New York]]\n\\|Road\\=Philadelphia\\|RoadAbr\\=PHI\n\\|R1\\=0\\|R2\\=0\\|R3\\=0\\|R4\\=0\\|R5\\=0\\|R6\\=1\\|R7\\=1\\|R8\\=0\\|R9\\=0\\|RR\\=2\\|RH\\=10\\|RE\\=2\n\\|Home\\='''New York'''\\|HomeAbr\\=NYY\n\\|H1\\=0\\|H2\\=0\\|H3\\=1\\|H4\\=0\\|H5\\=0\\|H6\\=0\\|H7\\=0\\|H8\\=1\\|H9\\=1\\|HR\\=3\\|HH\\=7\\|HE\\=0\n\\|RSP\\=\\|HSP\\=\n\\|WP\\=\\[\\[Tom Ferrick (baseball)\\|Tom Ferrick]] (1–0\\)\\|LP\\=\\[\\[Russ Meyer (baseball)\\|Russ Meyer]] (0–1\\)\\|SV\\=\n\\|RoadHR\\=\\|HomeHR\\=\n\\|}}",
"Phils lefty [Ken Heintzelman](/wiki/Ken_Heintzelman \"Ken Heintzelman\") started the third game against Yankee stalwart [Eddie Lopat](/wiki/Eddie_Lopat \"Eddie Lopat\"). The Yankees struck first in the third when [Phil Rizzuto](/wiki/Phil_Rizzuto \"Phil Rizzuto\") walked with two outs, stole second and scored on a single by [Jerry Coleman](/wiki/Jerry_Coleman \"Jerry Coleman\"), who was tagged out at second to end the inning. In the sixth, [Del Ennis](/wiki/Del_Ennis \"Del Ennis\") doubled with two outs and scored on [Dick Sisler](/wiki/Dick_Sisler \"Dick Sisler\")'s single to tie the game. Next inning [Granny Hamner](/wiki/Granny_Hamner \"Granny Hamner\") hit a leadoff single, moved to second on a sacrifice bunt and scored on [Mike Goliat](/wiki/Mike_Goliat \"Mike Goliat\")'s single to put the Phillies up 2–1\\. Heintzelman continued the Phils' great pitching into the eighth inning, when he lost control and walked the bases loaded after two outs. Konstanty relieved him and got [Bobby Brown](/wiki/Bobby_Brown_%28third_baseman%29 \"Bobby Brown (third baseman)\") to ground to shortstop [Granny Hamner](/wiki/Granny_Hamner \"Granny Hamner\"), but Hamner misplayed the ball to allow the tying run to score. [Russ Meyer](/wiki/Russ_Meyer_%28baseball%29 \"Russ Meyer (baseball)\") came on for the Phillies in the last of the ninth. After retiring the first two batters, Meyer allowed consecutive singles to set the stage for [Jerry Coleman](/wiki/Jerry_Coleman \"Jerry Coleman\"), who drove in the winning run with a base hit to give the Yankees a 3–2 win.",
"In attendance at the game was [Grover Cleveland Alexander](/wiki/Grover_Cleveland_Alexander \"Grover Cleveland Alexander\"), who had led the Phillies to their previous pennant in 1915\\. It was his first World Series game in 20 years. Ill from the effects of long term alcohol abuse, Alexander was generally ignored.{{Cite news \\|title\\=Alexander Ignored At Yankee Stadium Where He Beat Great Bronx Bombers \\|newspaper\\=Hartford Courant \\|date\\=October 7, 1950 \\|url\\=https://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/courant/access/888364132\\.html?dids\\=888364132:888364132\\&FMT\\=ABS\\&FMTS\\=ABS:AI\\&type\\=historic\\&date\\=Oct\\+07%2C\\+1950\\&author\\=\\&pub\\=Hartford\\+Courant\\&desc\\=Alexander\\+Ignored\\+At\\+Yankee\\+Stadium\\+Where\\+He\\+Beat\\+Great\\+Bronx\\+Bombers\\&pqatl\\=google \\|page\\=12 \\|access\\-date\\=July 5, 2017 \\|archive\\-date\\=October 23, 2012 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121023100609/http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/courant/access/888364132\\.html?dids\\=888364132:888364132\\&FMT\\=ABS\\&FMTS\\=ABS:AI\\&type\\=historic\\&date\\=Oct\\+07,\\+1950\\&author\\=\\&pub\\=Hartford\\+Courant\\&desc\\=Alexander\\+Ignored\\+At\\+Yankee\\+Stadium\\+Where\\+He\\+Beat\\+Great\\+Bronx\\+Bombers\\&pqatl\\=google \\|url\\-status\\=dead }} He would be dead less than a month later on November 4, 1950, at age 63\\.{{Cite news \\|title\\=Sport: Old Pete \\|newspaper\\=TIME \\|date\\=November 13, 1950 \\|url\\=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,821384,00\\.html \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110131102933/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,821384,00\\.html \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-date\\=January 31, 2011 }}",
"### Game 4",
"[thumb\\|right\\|160px\\|[Yogi Berra](/wiki/Yogi_Berra \"Yogi Berra\")](/wiki/File:1951_Bowman_yogi-berra-baseball-cards.jpg \"1951 Bowman yogi-berra-baseball-cards.jpg\")\n{{Linescore\\|\n\\|Date\\=October 7, 1950\n\\|Time\\=1:00{{nbsp}}pm (ET)\n\\|Location\\=Yankee Stadium in Bronx, New York\n\\|Road\\=Philadelphia\\|RoadAbr\\=PHI\n\\|R1\\=0\\|R2\\=0\\|R3\\=0\\|R4\\=0\\|R5\\=0\\|R6\\=0\\|R7\\=0\\|R8\\=0\\|R9\\=2\\|RR\\=2\\|RH\\=7\\|RE\\=1\n\\|Home\\='''New York'''\\|HomeAbr\\=NYY\n\\|H1\\=2\\|H2\\=0\\|H3\\=0\\|H4\\=0\\|H5\\=0\\|H6\\=3\\|H7\\=0\\|H8\\=0\\|H9\\=X\\|HR\\=5\\|HH\\=8\\|HE\\=2\n\\|RSP\\=\\|HSP\\=\n\\|WP\\=\\[\\[Whitey Ford]] (1–0\\)\\|LP\\=\\[\\[Bob Miller (baseball, born 1926\\)\\|Bob Miller]] (0–1\\)\\|SV\\=\\[\\[Allie Reynolds]] (1\\)\n\\|RoadHR\\=\\|HomeHR\\=\\[\\[Yogi Berra]] (1\\)\n\\|}}",
"Phillies starter [Bob Miller](/wiki/Bob_Miller_%28baseball%2C_born_1926%29 \"Bob Miller (baseball, born 1926)\") matched up against rookie [Whitey Ford](/wiki/Whitey_Ford \"Whitey Ford\"), making his first [World Series](/wiki/World_Series \"World Series\") appearance, as the Yankees tried to wrap up the Series in four straight. New York scored two runs in the first inning when [Gene Woodling](/wiki/Gene_Woodling \"Gene Woodling\") reached when second baseman [Mike Goliat](/wiki/Mike_Goliat \"Mike Goliat\") misplayed his ground ball, moved to second on a ground ball, and scored on [Yogi Berra](/wiki/Yogi_Berra \"Yogi Berra\")'s single. After a wild pitch, [Joe DiMaggio](/wiki/Joe_DiMaggio \"Joe DiMaggio\")'s RBI double made it 2–0 Yankees. Berra hit a leadoff home run in the sixth off of [Jim Konstanty](/wiki/Jim_Konstanty \"Jim Konstanty\"), who then hit DiMaggio with a pitch. After a groundout, [Bobby Brown](/wiki/Bobby_Brown_%28third_baseman%29 \"Bobby Brown (third baseman)\")'s RBI triple and [Hank Bauer](/wiki/Hank_Bauer \"Hank Bauer\")'s sacrifice fly made it 5–0 Yankees. The first two Phils reached base in the ninth via a single and hit\\-by\\-pitch before Ford got the next two outs. [Andy Seminick](/wiki/Andy_Seminick \"Andy Seminick\") then flied to left, but left fielder [Gene Woodling](/wiki/Gene_Woodling \"Gene Woodling\") dropped what looked like the Series\\-ending out, allowing two runs to score. Mike Goliat kept the inning going with a hit, and Stengel removed Ford to bring in [Allie Reynolds](/wiki/Allie_Reynolds \"Allie Reynolds\"). Reynolds struck out pinch\\-hitter [Stan Lopata](/wiki/Stan_Lopata \"Stan Lopata\"), giving the Yanks a 5–2 win and the World Series victory.",
"The Phillies failed to hit a home run in the entire World Series. No other team has matched that dubious feat since.",
""
] |
History
-------
[thumb\|Church Street, CheshamThere](/wiki/File:Church_Street%2C_Chesham_-_geograph.org.uk_-_111011.jpg "Church Street, Chesham - geograph.org.uk - 111011.jpg") is archaeological evidence of the earliest settlement during the [Late Mesolithic](/wiki/Mesolithic "Mesolithic") period around 5000 BC in East Street, Chesham where a large quantity of [flint tools](/wiki/Flint_tool "Flint tool") were found.{{cite book
\| last \=Farley
\| first \=Michael.
\| title \=An Illustrated History of Early Buckinghamshire
\| page \=23
\| year\=2010
\| publisher \=Buckinghamshire Archeological Society
\| location\=England
\| isbn\=978\-0\-9558158\-4\-3}} The earliest farming evidence from the [Neolithic](/wiki/Neolithic "Neolithic") era around 2500 BC. [Bronze Age](/wiki/Bronze_Age "Bronze Age") tribes settled in the valley around 1800 BC and they were succeeded by [Iron Age](/wiki/Iron_Age "Iron Age") [Belgic](/wiki/Belgae "Belgae") people of the [Catuvellauni](/wiki/Catuvellauni "Catuvellauni") tribe around 500 BC. Between 150 and 400 AD, there is evidence of [Romano\-British](/wiki/Romano-British "Romano-British") farming, and nearby at [Latimer](/wiki/Latimer%2C_Buckinghamshire "Latimer, Buckinghamshire"), there is [archaeological](/wiki/Archaeological "Archaeological") evidence of a [Roman](/wiki/Roman_Empire "Roman Empire") [villa](/wiki/Villa "Villa") and the planting of grapevines. However, the area was then deserted until the [Saxon period](/wiki/History_of_Anglo-Saxon_England "History of Anglo-Saxon England") around the 7th century.{{cite journal
\| last \=Branigan
\| first \=Keith.
\| title \=The distribution and development of Romano\-British occupation in the Chess Valley
\| journal \=Records of Buckinghamshire
\| volume \=18
\| pages \=136–49
\| year \=1967}}
Contrary to popular belief, the town is not named after the river; rather, the river is named after the town. The first recorded reference to Chesham is under the [Old English](/wiki/Old_English_language "Old English language") name {{lang\|ang\|Cæstæleshamm}}, meaning "the river\-meadow at the pile of stones"{{cite book \|last\=Hunt\|first\=Julian\|title\=Chesham A Pictorial History\|year\=1977 \|publisher\=Phillimore \& Co Ltd \|location\=England \|isbn\=1\-86077\-058\-4}} around 970 in the will of Lady Ælfgifu, who has been identified with the former [wife of King Eadwig](/wiki/%C3%86lfgifu%2C_wife_of_Eadwig "Ælfgifu, wife of Eadwig"). She held an estate here which she bequeathed to [Abingdon Abbey](/wiki/Abingdon_Abbey "Abingdon Abbey").[S 1484](http://www.anglo-saxons.net/hwaet/?do=seek&query=S+1484).
Prior to [1066](/wiki/Norman_conquest_of_England "Norman conquest of England") there were three adjacent estates which comprised *Caestreham* which are briefly recorded in the [Domesday Book](/wiki/Domesday_Book "Domesday Book") as being of {{frac\|1\|1\|2}}, 4 and {{frac\|8\|1\|2}} [hides](/wiki/Hide_%28unit%29 "Hide (unit)"), having four mills. The most important of these manors was held by [Queen Edith](/wiki/Edith_of_Wessex "Edith of Wessex"), the widow of [Edward the Confessor](/wiki/Edward_the_Confessor "Edward the Confessor"). Other land having been returned to the Crown it was in the hands of [Harold Godwinson](/wiki/Harold_Godwinson "Harold Godwinson") and his brother [Leofwine Godwinson](/wiki/Leofwine_Godwinson "Leofwine Godwinson"). Part of these later became [Chesham Bois](/wiki/Chesham_Bois "Chesham Bois") parish.{{cite book \|last\=Hay \|first\=David and Joan \|title\=Hilltop Villages of the Chilterns\|year\=1994 \|publisher\=Phillimore \& Co Ltd \|location\=England \|isbn\=0\-85033\-505\-1}}
{{cite book\|last\=Hepple, Leslie \&\|first\=Doggett, Alison\|title\=The Chilterns\|year\=1971\|publisher\=Phillimore \& Co Ltd\|location\=England\|isbn\=0\-85033\-833\-6\|url\-access\=registration\|url\=https://archive.org/details/chilterns0000hepp}} After 1066 Edith kept her lands and [William the Conqueror](/wiki/William_the_Conqueror "William the Conqueror") divided royal lands between his half\-brother [Odo, Bishop of Bayeux](/wiki/Odo%2C_Bishop_of_Bayeux "Odo, Bishop of Bayeux") and Hugh de Bolbec.
### The land owners of Chesham
The [Domesday Book](/wiki/Domesday_Book "Domesday Book") records that there were three [manors](/wiki/Manorialism "Manorialism") in Cestreham and one at nearby Latimer. [William the Conqueror](/wiki/William_the_Conqueror "William the Conqueror") shared out the estates between four of his dependants. The vast majority of land was granted to Hugh de Bolebec and smaller parcels to Odo, Bishop of Bayeux, Toustain Mantel and Alsi.
Before the 13th century, the three Cestreham manors were known as Chesham Higham, Chesham Bury and Chesham Bois. In the 14th century they were first recorded as 'the manors of Great Chesham'. Collectively they extended beyond the current Chesham town boundary. Together with the manor at Latimer they were held by the [Earls of Oxford](/wiki/Earl_of_Oxford "Earl of Oxford") and [Surrey](/wiki/Earl_of_Surrey "Earl of Surrey"). During the 16th century Greater Chesham was owned by the [Seymour family](/wiki/Seymour_family "Seymour family") who disposed of it to the Cavendish family who were [the Earls and later Dukes of Devonshire](/wiki/Earl_of_Devonshire "Earl of Devonshire"). It is from the 15th century that the earliest surviving properties survive and are to be found close by the church in an area called *the Nap*, and along part of the present\-day Church Street. Though gradually disposing of land the Cavendishes maintained an influence in the town until the 19th century. The Lowndes family started purchasing land from the 16th century. [William Lowndes](/wiki/William_Lowndes_%28British_politician%29 "William Lowndes (British politician)") was an influential politician and [Secretary to the Treasury](/wiki/Secretary_to_the_Treasury "Secretary to the Treasury") during the reigns of [Mary II](/wiki/Mary_II_of_England "Mary II of England"), [William III](/wiki/William_III_of_England "William III of England") and [Queen Anne](/wiki/Anne%2C_Queen_of_Great_Britain "Anne, Queen of Great Britain"). He rebuilt the original Bury and [manor house](/wiki/Manor_house "Manor house") of Great Chesham in 1712\. The Lowndes family settled in Chesham and over the next 200 years became equally influential both nationally through politics and the law and locally within the town as its principal benefactors.
### Ecclesiastical history
No evidence remains of any church prior to the Norman Conquest. However, the siting of [puddingstones](/wiki/Hertfordshire_puddingstone "Hertfordshire puddingstone") beneath the present\-day church suggests a wooden church was constructed on the site during the Anglo\-Saxon period. During the 12th century two families of Norman descent, the de Bolebecs and the Sifrewasts, each held a share of the [advowson](/wiki/Advowson "Advowson") assigned to the adjacent manors of Chesham Higham and Chesham Bury respectively for the Church at Chesham which it is evidenced from about 1154 was dedicated to St Mary.{{Citation\|first1\=Shirley\|last1\=Foxell\|first2\=Clive\|last2\=Foxell\|title\=St Mary's Church, Chesham\|year\=2004\|publisher\=Clive Foxell\|place\=Chesham\|isbn\=0\-9529184\-4\-7}} These moieties were subsequently given by the families to two [monasteries](/wiki/Monastery "Monastery"). In 1194 the de Bolbecs bestowed their advowson to the abbot and monks of [Woburn Abbey](/wiki/Woburn_Abbey "Woburn Abbey") and henceforth the parish of Chesham Higham was renamed 'Chesham Woburn'. Meanwhile, and sometime before 1199, the Sifrewast family granted their advowson to the [convent](/wiki/Convent "Convent") of St Mary's de Pré Leicester. As a consequence the advowson for the parish of Chesham Bury became known as 'Chesham Leicester'.[British History online Chesham](http://www.british-history.ac.uk/report.aspx?compid=42547), Retrieved 14 June 2013 In 1536 [Henry VIII](/wiki/Henry_VIII_of_England "Henry VIII of England") seized control of church property as part of the [Dissolution of the Monasteries](/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Monasteries "Dissolution of the Monasteries"). Subsequently, during [Edward VI](/wiki/Edward_VI_of_England "Edward VI of England") and [Elizabeth I](/wiki/Elizabeth_I_of_England "Elizabeth I of England")'s reigns, first Chesham Woburn and then Chesham Leicester advowsons became part of the estates of the [Dukes of Bedford](/wiki/Dukes_of_Bedford "Dukes of Bedford"). Though there were originally two vicars appointed to the [parish church of St Mary's](/wiki/St._Mary%27s_Church%2C_Chesham "St. Mary's Church, Chesham"), from the 17th century a single [incumbent](/wiki/Incumbent_%28ecclesiastical%29 "Incumbent (ecclesiastical)") was appointed. Jurisdiction was still shared between both advowsons and two parsonages, an 'upper' and 'lower', continued to be maintained until the 18th century when both were superseded by a single new parsonage. The Duke of Bedford subsequently consolidated the moieties by Act of Parliament in 1767\.[Records Of Buckinghamshire Vol 3 1870](https://books.google.com/books?id=FsMMAAAAYAAJ&dq=chesham&pg=PA63), Retrieved 14 June 2013 To accommodate the increasing population during the 19th century, a new parish church was built in 1867; Christ Church at Waterside, and further churches were built at Ashley Green and Bellingdon, which were at the time both within the civil parish of Chesham. [thumb\|Thomas Harding memorial](/wiki/File:Thomas_Harding_memorial.jpg "Thomas Harding memorial.jpg")
### Religious dissent and nonconformity
Chesham is noted for the religious dissent which dominated the town from the 15th century. In 1532 [Thomas Harding](/wiki/Thomas_Harding "Thomas Harding") was [burnt at the stake](/wiki/Burnt_at_the_stake "Burnt at the stake") in the town for being a [Lollard](/wiki/Lollard "Lollard") and [heretic](/wiki/Heresy "Heresy"). From the 17th century, Chesham was a focus for [those dissenting from mainstream religion](/wiki/English_Dissenters "English Dissenters"). [Quakers](/wiki/Quaker "Quaker") met in the late 17th century in Chesham and in 1798 they built the current [meeting house](/wiki/Friends_meeting_house "Friends meeting house"). The first [Baptists](/wiki/Baptists "Baptists")' meeting dates back to about 1640 and a place was registered for services in 1706\. The first chapel was opened in 1712, one of many to be built for the various Baptist groups during the 18th and 19th centuries. [John Wesley](/wiki/John_Wesley "John Wesley") preached in Chesham in the 1760s and a Wesleyan [Methodist](/wiki/Methodist "Methodist") society existed in the town. In more recent time a [Wesleyan Methodist](/wiki/Methodist_Church_of_Great_Britain "Methodist Church of Great Britain") chapel was opened in 1897\. The [Christian Brethren](/wiki/Christian_Brethren "Christian Brethren") which date back in Chesham to 1876, opened their Gospel Hall in 1895, which closed in December 2008\. Broadway Baptist church had congregations at the Vale, Hawridge, Ashley Green and Chartridge; only the one at Chartridge survives. Trinity Baptist church had congregations at Hyde Heath, Ley Hill and Whelpley Hill; only the one at Hyde Heath survives. The Congregational Church had congregations at Asheridge and Pond Park.
### Emigration to the American colonies
In 1630 Aquila Chase left Chesham to join the colony, settling first at Hampton (now New Hampshire), then [Newbury, Massachusetts](/wiki/Newbury%2C_Massachusetts "Newbury, Massachusetts"). Descendants of Aquila became influential in shaping political, legislative and commercial matters from the colonial period until after the [Declaration of Independence](/wiki/United_States_Declaration_of_Independence "United States Declaration of Independence"). For example, [Salmon P. Chase](/wiki/Salmon_P._Chase "Salmon P. Chase") was the United States Treasury Secretary and Chief Justice in the 1870s. The [Chase Manhattan Bank](/wiki/Chase_Manhattan_Bank "Chase Manhattan Bank") is named after him (although Chase did not have any connection with the bank).[History of Chase Manhattan Bank](http://www.fundinguniverse.com/company-histories/JP-Morgan-Chase-amp;-Co-Company-History.html), Retrieved 12 May 2009[Genealogy of Chase family](http://www.politicalfamilytree.com/samples%20content/members/chief_justices/Chase-OH-1.pdf), Retrieved 12 May 2009
### Industrial development
The primary industries of the town in [medieval](/wiki/Medieval "Medieval") times were flour production, woodworking and weaving of wool. There were four mills built along the Chess which was diverted to generate sufficient power. Surplus flour was supplied to London. The number of clothworkers, including spinners and those associated with dying ([fullers](/wiki/Fulling "Fulling")), grew rapidly between 1530 and 1730 and became the major industry in the town prior to a period of rapid decline. Between 1740 and 1798, mills were converted to produce paper (pulp), responding to London's insatiable demand for paper. However, technological developments in paper\-making elsewhere rendered the mills unprofitable and they reverted to flour production in the 1850s.
[left\|thumb\|300px\|Painting of Chesham town, circa 1750](/wiki/File:Chesham_Town_picture.jpg "Chesham Town picture.jpg")
New industries emerged from the 16th century onwards. The woodlands had been a source of firewood for London during the mediaeval period. A small\-scale woodenware industry making shovels, brooms, spoons and chairs, began around 1538 and its expansion was accompanied by the planting of beechwoods between the 17th and 19th centuries. [Straw plaiting](/wiki/Straw_plaiting "Straw plaiting") was seen as home\-based work for the wives and daughters of labourers from the 18th century. Straw was also imported from Italy to produce the superior 'Tuscan plait' traded at a Saturday market for the [Luton](/wiki/Luton "Luton") and [Dunstable](/wiki/Dunstable "Dunstable") hat trade and remained the major cottage industry until around 1860, providing employment for women and girls, some of whom attended a 'plait\-school' in [Waterside](/wiki/Waterside%2C_Buckinghamshire "Waterside, Buckinghamshire"). [Lace](/wiki/Lace "Lace") making developed in the 16th century as a cottage industry and was valued for its quality. Chesham specialised in black lace. The industry declined in the 1850s due to mechanisation in [Nottingham](/wiki/Nottingham "Nottingham"). Between 1838 and 1864 silk\-spinning, powered by a steam\-driven mill in Waterside, was started to make use of unemployed lace workers. This trend was relatively short\-lived as changes in fashion and the growth of the railways resulted in competition from elsewhere for the valuable London markets. However one exception was the firm of [George Tutill](/wiki/George_Tutill "George Tutill") which specialised in high\-quality [banners](/wiki/Banner-making "Banner-making") and was responsible for three\-quarters of those made for trade unions. The firm is still a going concern, specialising in flags and banners.
Four of the five Bs that have shaped Chesham's history relate to its industries. Brush making was introduced around 1829 to make use of the off\-cuts from woodworking. Boot and shoe making which started as a cottage industry later expanding through small workshops, thrived following the opening of [tanneries](/wiki/Tanneries "Tanneries") around 1792 which also supplied leather for [saddle](/wiki/Saddle "Saddle") making and [gloves](/wiki/Glove "Glove"). Brick making was also a big business. By the mid\-19th century both brushmaking and footwear manufacture became major industries in the town with production concentrated in large factories. The industry declined in the early\-20th century as the market for heavy boots declined. Beer brewing grew rapidly around the town centre in the 19th century again declining at the start of the 20th century. These traditional industries were succeeded by smaller but more commercial enterprises which took advantage of the available skilled labour. For example, in 1908 the Chiltern Toy Works was opened by Joseph Eisenmann on Bellingdon Road, later moving to the 'new' industrial estate in Waterside, making high quality [teddy bears](/wiki/Teddy_bears "Teddy bears"). The works finally closed in 1960\.[Chiltern Teddy Bear factory](http://www.luckybears.com/encyclopaedia_chiltern.asp) Post Second World War industry has ranged from the manufacture of glue ([Industrial Adhesives](/wiki/Adhesive "Adhesive")) to aluminium\-based packaging ([Alcan](/wiki/Alcan "Alcan")), Aluminium Castings \& Bronze Castings (Draycast Foundries Limited), [balloons](/wiki/Balloon "Balloon") (B\-Loony) and [household cleaning products](/wiki/Cleaning_agent "Cleaning agent") (Kilrock).
### The town in times of war
[Henry VIII](/wiki/Henry_VIII_of_England "Henry VIII of England") imposed a tax on the town to pay for his wars against Scotland and France.
In common with the majority of communities in Buckinghamshire, Chesham's [Lollard](/wiki/Lollard "Lollard") heritage and [puritan](/wiki/Puritan "Puritan") traditions ensured it would vehemently resist [King Charles I](/wiki/King_Charles_I_of_England "King Charles I of England")'s demand for [Ship Money](/wiki/Ship_Money "Ship Money"); a tax on tradesmen and landowners. In 1635 the townsfolk of Chesham protested to the Sheriff of Buckinghamshire, Sir Peter Temple, who was reluctantly enforcing a writ requiring payment of a levy to the King. Not surprisingly given the local allegiances to [John Hampden](/wiki/John_Hampden "John Hampden"), the towns' people largely sided with the [Parliamentarians](/wiki/Roundheads "Roundheads") at the outbreak of the [English Civil War](/wiki/English_Civil_War "English Civil War"). During 1642 the influential Parliamentarians [John Pym](/wiki/John_Pym "John Pym") and [Earl of Warwick](/wiki/Robert_Rich%2C_2nd_Earl_of_Warwick "Robert Rich, 2nd Earl of Warwick") were headquartered in the town along with large numbers of troops. There are records of skirmishes in the area during 1643 when [Prince Rupert](/wiki/Prince_Rupert "Prince Rupert") was stationed near Aylesbury and dispatched [Robert Dormer, 1st Earl of Carnarvon](/wiki/Robert_Dormer%2C_1st_Earl_of_Carnarvon "Robert Dormer, 1st Earl of Carnarvon") to pillage nearby towns, such as [Wendover](/wiki/Wendover "Wendover"). Heading toward Chesham a company of horse of the Parliamentary Army from the town met them outside Great Missenden where a skirmish took place ending with the Parliamentary force being driven back.
The records of the [Posse Comitatus](/wiki/Posse_comitatus_%28common_law%29 "Posse comitatus (common law)") for Chesham in 1798 recorded over 800 men between the ages of 16 and 60 enrolled in a militia to defend the town in the event of invasion by [Napoleon I](/wiki/Napoleon_I "Napoleon I") or to deal with civil unrest. Less than 50 years later, in 1846, a similar register of 22 able\-bodied men had been assembled to form the Chesham troop of the [Royal Buckinghamshire Yeomanry](/wiki/Royal_Buckinghamshire_Yeomanry "Royal Buckinghamshire Yeomanry") which coincided with the billeting of troops from the [7th Queen's Own Hussars](/wiki/7th_Queen%27s_Own_Hussars "7th Queen's Own Hussars") passing through the town on their way to Ireland.{{cite book \|last\=Birch\|first\=Clive\|title\=The Book of Chesham \|year\=1997 \|publisher\=Quotes Limited \|location\=England \|isbn\=0\-86023\-641\-2}}
During the [First World War](/wiki/First_World_War "First World War"), 188 servicemen from Chesham lost their lives (see Landmarks). [Alfred Burt](/wiki/Alfred_Alexander_Burt "Alfred Alexander Burt"), a corporal in the [Bedfordshire and Hertfordshire Regiment](/wiki/Bedfordshire_and_Hertfordshire_Regiment "Bedfordshire and Hertfordshire Regiment") from Chesham, received the [Victoria Cross](/wiki/Victoria_Cross "Victoria Cross") for his actions in September 1915\. The town provided temporary quarters for several regiments including the [Kings Royal Rifles](/wiki/King%27s_Royal_Rifle_Corps "King's Royal Rifle Corps") and the [Royal Engineers](/wiki/Royal_Engineers "Royal Engineers") honed their bridge building skills in local parks. In 1919, two 'Victory Oaks' were planted in the town: one was planted by Margot Cavendish, [Lady Chesham](/wiki/Baron_Chesham "Baron Chesham") of [Latimer House](/wiki/Latimer_House "Latimer House"), [Latimer, Buckinghamshire](/wiki/Latimer%2C_Buckinghamshire "Latimer, Buckinghamshire"), and Major [Lionel de Rothschild](/wiki/Lionel_de_Rothschild "Lionel de Rothschild"); the other by Mr. and Mrs. Lowndes (former owners of Lowndes Park), and Mr. and Mrs. Byrne (the chairman of Chesham Urban District Council and his wife).{{cite web \|title\=Fascinating history of Chesham's famous 'Victory Oaks' \|url\=https://www.bucksfreepress.co.uk/news/18652433\.fascinating\-history\-cheshams\-famous\-victory\-oaks/ \|website\=Bucks Free Press \|access\-date\=17 August 2020}}
Over the duration of the [Second World War](/wiki/Second_World_War "Second World War"), 80 servicemen lost their lives. Air raid shelters were built by the Council in 1940, although the official view was that the town was unlikely to be targeted since its was not a strategic location. In fact at the end of the war it was estimated that 45 bombs fell in the Chesham area, killing at least nine people.{{cite book \|last\=Baines, Arnold \&\|first\=Birch, Clive\|title\=Chesham Century \|year\=1994 \|publisher\=Quotes Limited \|location\=England \|isbn\=0\-86023\-549\-1}}
### Social history
A Chesham [workhouse](/wiki/Workhouse "Workhouse") for 90 paupers was operating in Germain Street as early as 1777\. New legislation transferred the control of the Chesham institution to Amersham [Poor Law Union](/wiki/Poor_Law_Union "Poor Law Union") in 1835\. However, there were long\-standing rivalries between the locals of both towns and in July that year violence broke out when an order was given to remove the paupers to Amersham. The [Riot Act](/wiki/Riot_Act "Riot Act") was read out to an angry crowd of 500 and arrests followed.[Times reports riots outside Chesham Workhouse](http://www.workhouses.org.uk/index.html?Amersham/Amersham.shtml) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110605224359/http://www.workhouses.org.uk/index.html?Amersham%2FAmersham.shtml \|date\=5 June 2011 }}
Publicly funded education started with the opening of a [British School](/wiki/British_and_Foreign_School_Society "British and Foreign School Society") in 1825 followed by a [National School](/wiki/National_school_%28England_and_Wales%29 "National school (England and Wales)") in 1845, an [Infants' School](/wiki/Infant_school "Infant school") in 1851 and the first Elementary School for girls in 1864\. [Chesham Building Society](/wiki/Chesham_Building_Society "Chesham Building Society") opened for business in 1845 and continued to operate until June 2010, when it was taken over by the [Skipton Building Society](/wiki/Skipton_Building_Society "Skipton Building Society"). Other public institutions also started at this time, with a [Fire Brigade](/wiki/Fire_Brigade "Fire Brigade") being established in 1846, the first cemetery in 1858 and a police station built in 1861\.
Chesham [cottage hospital](/wiki/Cottage_hospital "Cottage hospital"), built for £865 17s 11d on land provided by [Lord Chesham](/wiki/Baron_Chesham "Baron Chesham"), opened in October 1869, just ahead of an outbreak of [typhoid](/wiki/Typhoid "Typhoid") in 1871\. Despite a local campaign to save the hospital it closed in 2005\.[Chesham Hospital – History](http://www.cheshamhospital.com/index.htm) {{webarchive \|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20050429175545/http://www.cheshamhospital.com/index.htm \|date\=29 April 2005 }} In September 2010 the derelict hospital building was severely damaged by a fire caused by arsonists, according to police reports.[Arsonists hunted after hospital fire](http://www.buckinghamshireexaminer.co.uk/south-bucks-news/local-buckinghamshire-examiner-news/2010/09/16/arsonists-hunted-after-hospital-fire-114018-27282423/) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110911095506/http://www.buckinghamshireexaminer.co.uk/south\-bucks\-news/local\-buckinghamshire\-examiner\-news/2010/09/16/arsonists\-hunted\-after\-hospital\-fire\-114018\-27282423/ \|date\=11 September 2011 }}, Bucks Examiner, Accessed 30 October 2010 The Council commissioned a [waterworks](/wiki/Waterworks "Waterworks") to be built in 1875 in Alma Road and [mains drainage](/wiki/Sewage_collection_and_disposal "Sewage collection and disposal") in the town and a [sewage works](/wiki/Sewage_treatment "Sewage treatment") was opened adjacent to the Chess, downstream in 1887\. A [gasworks](/wiki/Gasworks "Gasworks") was constructed on the southern part of the town in 1847\. Bathing in the Chess at Waterside was an old tradition which became increasingly popular in the 19th century. Complaints that it had become a nuisance led to the Urban District Council surrounding the site with a concrete wall. This further increased its popularity and an open\-air pool was built by the council in 1912\.{{cite news \|title\=Editorial \|url\=http://content.yudu.com/Library/A1wnak/yourCheshamissue28/resources/index.htm?referrerUrl\=http%3A%2F%2Ffree.yudu.com%2Fitem%2Fdetails%2F518107%2FyourChesham\-issue\-28%3Frefid%3D44057 \|newspaper\=yourChesham \|date\=May 2012 \|access\-date\=7 May 2012}}
Transport connections have always come late to the town. The [Metropolitan Railway](/wiki/Metropolitan_Railway "Metropolitan Railway") eventually reached Chesham in July 1889\. Electrification was not to come until the 1960s. Between the two world wars and in the 1950s and 60s there was much expansion in the town with new public housing developments along the Missenden Road, at [Pond Park](/wiki/Pond_Park "Pond Park") and at [Botley](/wiki/Botley%2C_Buckinghamshire "Botley, Buckinghamshire").[Chesham Timeline Chesham Museum](http://www.cheshammuseum.org.uk/cm_timeline.php) {{webarchive\|url\=https://archive.today/20130624213809/http://www.cheshammuseum.org.uk/cm\_timeline.php \|date\=24 June 2013 }}
The first public viewings of cinema films in Chesham were provided by travelling showmen around 1900 and attracted large crowds. The first purpose\-built cinema, *The Empire Picture Hall*, opened in Station Road in 1912 and in 1914 *The Chesham Palace* started up in The Broadway. Both showed silent films. By 1920 the Empire had closed. In 1930 the Chesham Palace was refurbished to show the new 'talkies' and reopened as *The Astoria* which remained in business until 1959 when the arrival of television forced it to close. *The Embassy* in Germain Street opened in 1935 and survived until 1982, closing due to competition from cinemas in nearby towns. *The Elgiva Theatre*, completed in 1976 beside St Mary's Way, was equipped to show films and on moving to a new site just across the road in 1998 state of the art projection equipment was installed in the new theatre (see image below).{{Cite book \|last\=Foxell\|first\=Clive \|title\=The Ten Cinemas of Chesham\|year\=2010 \|publisher\=Clive Foxell \|location\=Chesham England \|isbn\=978\-0\-9564178\-0\-0}}
|
[
"History\n-------",
"[thumb\\|Church Street, CheshamThere](/wiki/File:Church_Street%2C_Chesham_-_geograph.org.uk_-_111011.jpg \"Church Street, Chesham - geograph.org.uk - 111011.jpg\") is archaeological evidence of the earliest settlement during the [Late Mesolithic](/wiki/Mesolithic \"Mesolithic\") period around 5000 BC in East Street, Chesham where a large quantity of [flint tools](/wiki/Flint_tool \"Flint tool\") were found.{{cite book\n \\| last \\=Farley\n \\| first \\=Michael.\n \\| title \\=An Illustrated History of Early Buckinghamshire\n \\| page \\=23\n \\| year\\=2010\n \\| publisher \\=Buckinghamshire Archeological Society\n \\| location\\=England\n \\| isbn\\=978\\-0\\-9558158\\-4\\-3}} The earliest farming evidence from the [Neolithic](/wiki/Neolithic \"Neolithic\") era around 2500 BC. [Bronze Age](/wiki/Bronze_Age \"Bronze Age\") tribes settled in the valley around 1800 BC and they were succeeded by [Iron Age](/wiki/Iron_Age \"Iron Age\") [Belgic](/wiki/Belgae \"Belgae\") people of the [Catuvellauni](/wiki/Catuvellauni \"Catuvellauni\") tribe around 500 BC. Between 150 and 400 AD, there is evidence of [Romano\\-British](/wiki/Romano-British \"Romano-British\") farming, and nearby at [Latimer](/wiki/Latimer%2C_Buckinghamshire \"Latimer, Buckinghamshire\"), there is [archaeological](/wiki/Archaeological \"Archaeological\") evidence of a [Roman](/wiki/Roman_Empire \"Roman Empire\") [villa](/wiki/Villa \"Villa\") and the planting of grapevines. However, the area was then deserted until the [Saxon period](/wiki/History_of_Anglo-Saxon_England \"History of Anglo-Saxon England\") around the 7th century.{{cite journal\n \\| last \\=Branigan\n \\| first \\=Keith.\n \\| title \\=The distribution and development of Romano\\-British occupation in the Chess Valley\n \\| journal \\=Records of Buckinghamshire\n \\| volume \\=18\n \\| pages \\=136–49\n \\| year \\=1967}}",
"Contrary to popular belief, the town is not named after the river; rather, the river is named after the town. The first recorded reference to Chesham is under the [Old English](/wiki/Old_English_language \"Old English language\") name {{lang\\|ang\\|Cæstæleshamm}}, meaning \"the river\\-meadow at the pile of stones\"{{cite book \\|last\\=Hunt\\|first\\=Julian\\|title\\=Chesham A Pictorial History\\|year\\=1977 \\|publisher\\=Phillimore \\& Co Ltd \\|location\\=England \\|isbn\\=1\\-86077\\-058\\-4}} around 970 in the will of Lady Ælfgifu, who has been identified with the former [wife of King Eadwig](/wiki/%C3%86lfgifu%2C_wife_of_Eadwig \"Ælfgifu, wife of Eadwig\"). She held an estate here which she bequeathed to [Abingdon Abbey](/wiki/Abingdon_Abbey \"Abingdon Abbey\").[S 1484](http://www.anglo-saxons.net/hwaet/?do=seek&query=S+1484).",
"Prior to [1066](/wiki/Norman_conquest_of_England \"Norman conquest of England\") there were three adjacent estates which comprised *Caestreham* which are briefly recorded in the [Domesday Book](/wiki/Domesday_Book \"Domesday Book\") as being of {{frac\\|1\\|1\\|2}}, 4 and {{frac\\|8\\|1\\|2}} [hides](/wiki/Hide_%28unit%29 \"Hide (unit)\"), having four mills. The most important of these manors was held by [Queen Edith](/wiki/Edith_of_Wessex \"Edith of Wessex\"), the widow of [Edward the Confessor](/wiki/Edward_the_Confessor \"Edward the Confessor\"). Other land having been returned to the Crown it was in the hands of [Harold Godwinson](/wiki/Harold_Godwinson \"Harold Godwinson\") and his brother [Leofwine Godwinson](/wiki/Leofwine_Godwinson \"Leofwine Godwinson\"). Part of these later became [Chesham Bois](/wiki/Chesham_Bois \"Chesham Bois\") parish.{{cite book \\|last\\=Hay \\|first\\=David and Joan \\|title\\=Hilltop Villages of the Chilterns\\|year\\=1994 \\|publisher\\=Phillimore \\& Co Ltd \\|location\\=England \\|isbn\\=0\\-85033\\-505\\-1}}\n{{cite book\\|last\\=Hepple, Leslie \\&\\|first\\=Doggett, Alison\\|title\\=The Chilterns\\|year\\=1971\\|publisher\\=Phillimore \\& Co Ltd\\|location\\=England\\|isbn\\=0\\-85033\\-833\\-6\\|url\\-access\\=registration\\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/chilterns0000hepp}} After 1066 Edith kept her lands and [William the Conqueror](/wiki/William_the_Conqueror \"William the Conqueror\") divided royal lands between his half\\-brother [Odo, Bishop of Bayeux](/wiki/Odo%2C_Bishop_of_Bayeux \"Odo, Bishop of Bayeux\") and Hugh de Bolbec.",
"### The land owners of Chesham",
"The [Domesday Book](/wiki/Domesday_Book \"Domesday Book\") records that there were three [manors](/wiki/Manorialism \"Manorialism\") in Cestreham and one at nearby Latimer. [William the Conqueror](/wiki/William_the_Conqueror \"William the Conqueror\") shared out the estates between four of his dependants. The vast majority of land was granted to Hugh de Bolebec and smaller parcels to Odo, Bishop of Bayeux, Toustain Mantel and Alsi.",
"Before the 13th century, the three Cestreham manors were known as Chesham Higham, Chesham Bury and Chesham Bois. In the 14th century they were first recorded as 'the manors of Great Chesham'. Collectively they extended beyond the current Chesham town boundary. Together with the manor at Latimer they were held by the [Earls of Oxford](/wiki/Earl_of_Oxford \"Earl of Oxford\") and [Surrey](/wiki/Earl_of_Surrey \"Earl of Surrey\"). During the 16th century Greater Chesham was owned by the [Seymour family](/wiki/Seymour_family \"Seymour family\") who disposed of it to the Cavendish family who were [the Earls and later Dukes of Devonshire](/wiki/Earl_of_Devonshire \"Earl of Devonshire\"). It is from the 15th century that the earliest surviving properties survive and are to be found close by the church in an area called *the Nap*, and along part of the present\\-day Church Street. Though gradually disposing of land the Cavendishes maintained an influence in the town until the 19th century. The Lowndes family started purchasing land from the 16th century. [William Lowndes](/wiki/William_Lowndes_%28British_politician%29 \"William Lowndes (British politician)\") was an influential politician and [Secretary to the Treasury](/wiki/Secretary_to_the_Treasury \"Secretary to the Treasury\") during the reigns of [Mary II](/wiki/Mary_II_of_England \"Mary II of England\"), [William III](/wiki/William_III_of_England \"William III of England\") and [Queen Anne](/wiki/Anne%2C_Queen_of_Great_Britain \"Anne, Queen of Great Britain\"). He rebuilt the original Bury and [manor house](/wiki/Manor_house \"Manor house\") of Great Chesham in 1712\\. The Lowndes family settled in Chesham and over the next 200 years became equally influential both nationally through politics and the law and locally within the town as its principal benefactors.",
"### Ecclesiastical history",
"No evidence remains of any church prior to the Norman Conquest. However, the siting of [puddingstones](/wiki/Hertfordshire_puddingstone \"Hertfordshire puddingstone\") beneath the present\\-day church suggests a wooden church was constructed on the site during the Anglo\\-Saxon period. During the 12th century two families of Norman descent, the de Bolebecs and the Sifrewasts, each held a share of the [advowson](/wiki/Advowson \"Advowson\") assigned to the adjacent manors of Chesham Higham and Chesham Bury respectively for the Church at Chesham which it is evidenced from about 1154 was dedicated to St Mary.{{Citation\\|first1\\=Shirley\\|last1\\=Foxell\\|first2\\=Clive\\|last2\\=Foxell\\|title\\=St Mary's Church, Chesham\\|year\\=2004\\|publisher\\=Clive Foxell\\|place\\=Chesham\\|isbn\\=0\\-9529184\\-4\\-7}} These moieties were subsequently given by the families to two [monasteries](/wiki/Monastery \"Monastery\"). In 1194 the de Bolbecs bestowed their advowson to the abbot and monks of [Woburn Abbey](/wiki/Woburn_Abbey \"Woburn Abbey\") and henceforth the parish of Chesham Higham was renamed 'Chesham Woburn'. Meanwhile, and sometime before 1199, the Sifrewast family granted their advowson to the [convent](/wiki/Convent \"Convent\") of St Mary's de Pré Leicester. As a consequence the advowson for the parish of Chesham Bury became known as 'Chesham Leicester'.[British History online Chesham](http://www.british-history.ac.uk/report.aspx?compid=42547), Retrieved 14 June 2013 In 1536 [Henry VIII](/wiki/Henry_VIII_of_England \"Henry VIII of England\") seized control of church property as part of the [Dissolution of the Monasteries](/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Monasteries \"Dissolution of the Monasteries\"). Subsequently, during [Edward VI](/wiki/Edward_VI_of_England \"Edward VI of England\") and [Elizabeth I](/wiki/Elizabeth_I_of_England \"Elizabeth I of England\")'s reigns, first Chesham Woburn and then Chesham Leicester advowsons became part of the estates of the [Dukes of Bedford](/wiki/Dukes_of_Bedford \"Dukes of Bedford\"). Though there were originally two vicars appointed to the [parish church of St Mary's](/wiki/St._Mary%27s_Church%2C_Chesham \"St. Mary's Church, Chesham\"), from the 17th century a single [incumbent](/wiki/Incumbent_%28ecclesiastical%29 \"Incumbent (ecclesiastical)\") was appointed. Jurisdiction was still shared between both advowsons and two parsonages, an 'upper' and 'lower', continued to be maintained until the 18th century when both were superseded by a single new parsonage. The Duke of Bedford subsequently consolidated the moieties by Act of Parliament in 1767\\.[Records Of Buckinghamshire Vol 3 1870](https://books.google.com/books?id=FsMMAAAAYAAJ&dq=chesham&pg=PA63), Retrieved 14 June 2013 To accommodate the increasing population during the 19th century, a new parish church was built in 1867; Christ Church at Waterside, and further churches were built at Ashley Green and Bellingdon, which were at the time both within the civil parish of Chesham. [thumb\\|Thomas Harding memorial](/wiki/File:Thomas_Harding_memorial.jpg \"Thomas Harding memorial.jpg\")",
"### Religious dissent and nonconformity",
"Chesham is noted for the religious dissent which dominated the town from the 15th century. In 1532 [Thomas Harding](/wiki/Thomas_Harding \"Thomas Harding\") was [burnt at the stake](/wiki/Burnt_at_the_stake \"Burnt at the stake\") in the town for being a [Lollard](/wiki/Lollard \"Lollard\") and [heretic](/wiki/Heresy \"Heresy\"). From the 17th century, Chesham was a focus for [those dissenting from mainstream religion](/wiki/English_Dissenters \"English Dissenters\"). [Quakers](/wiki/Quaker \"Quaker\") met in the late 17th century in Chesham and in 1798 they built the current [meeting house](/wiki/Friends_meeting_house \"Friends meeting house\"). The first [Baptists](/wiki/Baptists \"Baptists\")' meeting dates back to about 1640 and a place was registered for services in 1706\\. The first chapel was opened in 1712, one of many to be built for the various Baptist groups during the 18th and 19th centuries. [John Wesley](/wiki/John_Wesley \"John Wesley\") preached in Chesham in the 1760s and a Wesleyan [Methodist](/wiki/Methodist \"Methodist\") society existed in the town. In more recent time a [Wesleyan Methodist](/wiki/Methodist_Church_of_Great_Britain \"Methodist Church of Great Britain\") chapel was opened in 1897\\. The [Christian Brethren](/wiki/Christian_Brethren \"Christian Brethren\") which date back in Chesham to 1876, opened their Gospel Hall in 1895, which closed in December 2008\\. Broadway Baptist church had congregations at the Vale, Hawridge, Ashley Green and Chartridge; only the one at Chartridge survives. Trinity Baptist church had congregations at Hyde Heath, Ley Hill and Whelpley Hill; only the one at Hyde Heath survives. The Congregational Church had congregations at Asheridge and Pond Park.",
"### Emigration to the American colonies",
"In 1630 Aquila Chase left Chesham to join the colony, settling first at Hampton (now New Hampshire), then [Newbury, Massachusetts](/wiki/Newbury%2C_Massachusetts \"Newbury, Massachusetts\"). Descendants of Aquila became influential in shaping political, legislative and commercial matters from the colonial period until after the [Declaration of Independence](/wiki/United_States_Declaration_of_Independence \"United States Declaration of Independence\"). For example, [Salmon P. Chase](/wiki/Salmon_P._Chase \"Salmon P. Chase\") was the United States Treasury Secretary and Chief Justice in the 1870s. The [Chase Manhattan Bank](/wiki/Chase_Manhattan_Bank \"Chase Manhattan Bank\") is named after him (although Chase did not have any connection with the bank).[History of Chase Manhattan Bank](http://www.fundinguniverse.com/company-histories/JP-Morgan-Chase-amp;-Co-Company-History.html), Retrieved 12 May 2009[Genealogy of Chase family](http://www.politicalfamilytree.com/samples%20content/members/chief_justices/Chase-OH-1.pdf), Retrieved 12 May 2009",
"### Industrial development",
"The primary industries of the town in [medieval](/wiki/Medieval \"Medieval\") times were flour production, woodworking and weaving of wool. There were four mills built along the Chess which was diverted to generate sufficient power. Surplus flour was supplied to London. The number of clothworkers, including spinners and those associated with dying ([fullers](/wiki/Fulling \"Fulling\")), grew rapidly between 1530 and 1730 and became the major industry in the town prior to a period of rapid decline. Between 1740 and 1798, mills were converted to produce paper (pulp), responding to London's insatiable demand for paper. However, technological developments in paper\\-making elsewhere rendered the mills unprofitable and they reverted to flour production in the 1850s.\n[left\\|thumb\\|300px\\|Painting of Chesham town, circa 1750](/wiki/File:Chesham_Town_picture.jpg \"Chesham Town picture.jpg\")\nNew industries emerged from the 16th century onwards. The woodlands had been a source of firewood for London during the mediaeval period. A small\\-scale woodenware industry making shovels, brooms, spoons and chairs, began around 1538 and its expansion was accompanied by the planting of beechwoods between the 17th and 19th centuries. [Straw plaiting](/wiki/Straw_plaiting \"Straw plaiting\") was seen as home\\-based work for the wives and daughters of labourers from the 18th century. Straw was also imported from Italy to produce the superior 'Tuscan plait' traded at a Saturday market for the [Luton](/wiki/Luton \"Luton\") and [Dunstable](/wiki/Dunstable \"Dunstable\") hat trade and remained the major cottage industry until around 1860, providing employment for women and girls, some of whom attended a 'plait\\-school' in [Waterside](/wiki/Waterside%2C_Buckinghamshire \"Waterside, Buckinghamshire\"). [Lace](/wiki/Lace \"Lace\") making developed in the 16th century as a cottage industry and was valued for its quality. Chesham specialised in black lace. The industry declined in the 1850s due to mechanisation in [Nottingham](/wiki/Nottingham \"Nottingham\"). Between 1838 and 1864 silk\\-spinning, powered by a steam\\-driven mill in Waterside, was started to make use of unemployed lace workers. This trend was relatively short\\-lived as changes in fashion and the growth of the railways resulted in competition from elsewhere for the valuable London markets. However one exception was the firm of [George Tutill](/wiki/George_Tutill \"George Tutill\") which specialised in high\\-quality [banners](/wiki/Banner-making \"Banner-making\") and was responsible for three\\-quarters of those made for trade unions. The firm is still a going concern, specialising in flags and banners.",
"Four of the five Bs that have shaped Chesham's history relate to its industries. Brush making was introduced around 1829 to make use of the off\\-cuts from woodworking. Boot and shoe making which started as a cottage industry later expanding through small workshops, thrived following the opening of [tanneries](/wiki/Tanneries \"Tanneries\") around 1792 which also supplied leather for [saddle](/wiki/Saddle \"Saddle\") making and [gloves](/wiki/Glove \"Glove\"). Brick making was also a big business. By the mid\\-19th century both brushmaking and footwear manufacture became major industries in the town with production concentrated in large factories. The industry declined in the early\\-20th century as the market for heavy boots declined. Beer brewing grew rapidly around the town centre in the 19th century again declining at the start of the 20th century. These traditional industries were succeeded by smaller but more commercial enterprises which took advantage of the available skilled labour. For example, in 1908 the Chiltern Toy Works was opened by Joseph Eisenmann on Bellingdon Road, later moving to the 'new' industrial estate in Waterside, making high quality [teddy bears](/wiki/Teddy_bears \"Teddy bears\"). The works finally closed in 1960\\.[Chiltern Teddy Bear factory](http://www.luckybears.com/encyclopaedia_chiltern.asp) Post Second World War industry has ranged from the manufacture of glue ([Industrial Adhesives](/wiki/Adhesive \"Adhesive\")) to aluminium\\-based packaging ([Alcan](/wiki/Alcan \"Alcan\")), Aluminium Castings \\& Bronze Castings (Draycast Foundries Limited), [balloons](/wiki/Balloon \"Balloon\") (B\\-Loony) and [household cleaning products](/wiki/Cleaning_agent \"Cleaning agent\") (Kilrock).",
"### The town in times of war",
"[Henry VIII](/wiki/Henry_VIII_of_England \"Henry VIII of England\") imposed a tax on the town to pay for his wars against Scotland and France.",
"In common with the majority of communities in Buckinghamshire, Chesham's [Lollard](/wiki/Lollard \"Lollard\") heritage and [puritan](/wiki/Puritan \"Puritan\") traditions ensured it would vehemently resist [King Charles I](/wiki/King_Charles_I_of_England \"King Charles I of England\")'s demand for [Ship Money](/wiki/Ship_Money \"Ship Money\"); a tax on tradesmen and landowners. In 1635 the townsfolk of Chesham protested to the Sheriff of Buckinghamshire, Sir Peter Temple, who was reluctantly enforcing a writ requiring payment of a levy to the King. Not surprisingly given the local allegiances to [John Hampden](/wiki/John_Hampden \"John Hampden\"), the towns' people largely sided with the [Parliamentarians](/wiki/Roundheads \"Roundheads\") at the outbreak of the [English Civil War](/wiki/English_Civil_War \"English Civil War\"). During 1642 the influential Parliamentarians [John Pym](/wiki/John_Pym \"John Pym\") and [Earl of Warwick](/wiki/Robert_Rich%2C_2nd_Earl_of_Warwick \"Robert Rich, 2nd Earl of Warwick\") were headquartered in the town along with large numbers of troops. There are records of skirmishes in the area during 1643 when [Prince Rupert](/wiki/Prince_Rupert \"Prince Rupert\") was stationed near Aylesbury and dispatched [Robert Dormer, 1st Earl of Carnarvon](/wiki/Robert_Dormer%2C_1st_Earl_of_Carnarvon \"Robert Dormer, 1st Earl of Carnarvon\") to pillage nearby towns, such as [Wendover](/wiki/Wendover \"Wendover\"). Heading toward Chesham a company of horse of the Parliamentary Army from the town met them outside Great Missenden where a skirmish took place ending with the Parliamentary force being driven back.",
"The records of the [Posse Comitatus](/wiki/Posse_comitatus_%28common_law%29 \"Posse comitatus (common law)\") for Chesham in 1798 recorded over 800 men between the ages of 16 and 60 enrolled in a militia to defend the town in the event of invasion by [Napoleon I](/wiki/Napoleon_I \"Napoleon I\") or to deal with civil unrest. Less than 50 years later, in 1846, a similar register of 22 able\\-bodied men had been assembled to form the Chesham troop of the [Royal Buckinghamshire Yeomanry](/wiki/Royal_Buckinghamshire_Yeomanry \"Royal Buckinghamshire Yeomanry\") which coincided with the billeting of troops from the [7th Queen's Own Hussars](/wiki/7th_Queen%27s_Own_Hussars \"7th Queen's Own Hussars\") passing through the town on their way to Ireland.{{cite book \\|last\\=Birch\\|first\\=Clive\\|title\\=The Book of Chesham \\|year\\=1997 \\|publisher\\=Quotes Limited \\|location\\=England \\|isbn\\=0\\-86023\\-641\\-2}}",
"During the [First World War](/wiki/First_World_War \"First World War\"), 188 servicemen from Chesham lost their lives (see Landmarks). [Alfred Burt](/wiki/Alfred_Alexander_Burt \"Alfred Alexander Burt\"), a corporal in the [Bedfordshire and Hertfordshire Regiment](/wiki/Bedfordshire_and_Hertfordshire_Regiment \"Bedfordshire and Hertfordshire Regiment\") from Chesham, received the [Victoria Cross](/wiki/Victoria_Cross \"Victoria Cross\") for his actions in September 1915\\. The town provided temporary quarters for several regiments including the [Kings Royal Rifles](/wiki/King%27s_Royal_Rifle_Corps \"King's Royal Rifle Corps\") and the [Royal Engineers](/wiki/Royal_Engineers \"Royal Engineers\") honed their bridge building skills in local parks. In 1919, two 'Victory Oaks' were planted in the town: one was planted by Margot Cavendish, [Lady Chesham](/wiki/Baron_Chesham \"Baron Chesham\") of [Latimer House](/wiki/Latimer_House \"Latimer House\"), [Latimer, Buckinghamshire](/wiki/Latimer%2C_Buckinghamshire \"Latimer, Buckinghamshire\"), and Major [Lionel de Rothschild](/wiki/Lionel_de_Rothschild \"Lionel de Rothschild\"); the other by Mr. and Mrs. Lowndes (former owners of Lowndes Park), and Mr. and Mrs. Byrne (the chairman of Chesham Urban District Council and his wife).{{cite web \\|title\\=Fascinating history of Chesham's famous 'Victory Oaks' \\|url\\=https://www.bucksfreepress.co.uk/news/18652433\\.fascinating\\-history\\-cheshams\\-famous\\-victory\\-oaks/ \\|website\\=Bucks Free Press \\|access\\-date\\=17 August 2020}}",
"Over the duration of the [Second World War](/wiki/Second_World_War \"Second World War\"), 80 servicemen lost their lives. Air raid shelters were built by the Council in 1940, although the official view was that the town was unlikely to be targeted since its was not a strategic location. In fact at the end of the war it was estimated that 45 bombs fell in the Chesham area, killing at least nine people.{{cite book \\|last\\=Baines, Arnold \\&\\|first\\=Birch, Clive\\|title\\=Chesham Century \\|year\\=1994 \\|publisher\\=Quotes Limited \\|location\\=England \\|isbn\\=0\\-86023\\-549\\-1}}",
"### Social history",
"A Chesham [workhouse](/wiki/Workhouse \"Workhouse\") for 90 paupers was operating in Germain Street as early as 1777\\. New legislation transferred the control of the Chesham institution to Amersham [Poor Law Union](/wiki/Poor_Law_Union \"Poor Law Union\") in 1835\\. However, there were long\\-standing rivalries between the locals of both towns and in July that year violence broke out when an order was given to remove the paupers to Amersham. The [Riot Act](/wiki/Riot_Act \"Riot Act\") was read out to an angry crowd of 500 and arrests followed.[Times reports riots outside Chesham Workhouse](http://www.workhouses.org.uk/index.html?Amersham/Amersham.shtml) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110605224359/http://www.workhouses.org.uk/index.html?Amersham%2FAmersham.shtml \\|date\\=5 June 2011 }}",
"Publicly funded education started with the opening of a [British School](/wiki/British_and_Foreign_School_Society \"British and Foreign School Society\") in 1825 followed by a [National School](/wiki/National_school_%28England_and_Wales%29 \"National school (England and Wales)\") in 1845, an [Infants' School](/wiki/Infant_school \"Infant school\") in 1851 and the first Elementary School for girls in 1864\\. [Chesham Building Society](/wiki/Chesham_Building_Society \"Chesham Building Society\") opened for business in 1845 and continued to operate until June 2010, when it was taken over by the [Skipton Building Society](/wiki/Skipton_Building_Society \"Skipton Building Society\"). Other public institutions also started at this time, with a [Fire Brigade](/wiki/Fire_Brigade \"Fire Brigade\") being established in 1846, the first cemetery in 1858 and a police station built in 1861\\.",
"Chesham [cottage hospital](/wiki/Cottage_hospital \"Cottage hospital\"), built for £865 17s 11d on land provided by [Lord Chesham](/wiki/Baron_Chesham \"Baron Chesham\"), opened in October 1869, just ahead of an outbreak of [typhoid](/wiki/Typhoid \"Typhoid\") in 1871\\. Despite a local campaign to save the hospital it closed in 2005\\.[Chesham Hospital – History](http://www.cheshamhospital.com/index.htm) {{webarchive \\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20050429175545/http://www.cheshamhospital.com/index.htm \\|date\\=29 April 2005 }} In September 2010 the derelict hospital building was severely damaged by a fire caused by arsonists, according to police reports.[Arsonists hunted after hospital fire](http://www.buckinghamshireexaminer.co.uk/south-bucks-news/local-buckinghamshire-examiner-news/2010/09/16/arsonists-hunted-after-hospital-fire-114018-27282423/) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110911095506/http://www.buckinghamshireexaminer.co.uk/south\\-bucks\\-news/local\\-buckinghamshire\\-examiner\\-news/2010/09/16/arsonists\\-hunted\\-after\\-hospital\\-fire\\-114018\\-27282423/ \\|date\\=11 September 2011 }}, Bucks Examiner, Accessed 30 October 2010 The Council commissioned a [waterworks](/wiki/Waterworks \"Waterworks\") to be built in 1875 in Alma Road and [mains drainage](/wiki/Sewage_collection_and_disposal \"Sewage collection and disposal\") in the town and a [sewage works](/wiki/Sewage_treatment \"Sewage treatment\") was opened adjacent to the Chess, downstream in 1887\\. A [gasworks](/wiki/Gasworks \"Gasworks\") was constructed on the southern part of the town in 1847\\. Bathing in the Chess at Waterside was an old tradition which became increasingly popular in the 19th century. Complaints that it had become a nuisance led to the Urban District Council surrounding the site with a concrete wall. This further increased its popularity and an open\\-air pool was built by the council in 1912\\.{{cite news \\|title\\=Editorial \\|url\\=http://content.yudu.com/Library/A1wnak/yourCheshamissue28/resources/index.htm?referrerUrl\\=http%3A%2F%2Ffree.yudu.com%2Fitem%2Fdetails%2F518107%2FyourChesham\\-issue\\-28%3Frefid%3D44057 \\|newspaper\\=yourChesham \\|date\\=May 2012 \\|access\\-date\\=7 May 2012}}",
"Transport connections have always come late to the town. The [Metropolitan Railway](/wiki/Metropolitan_Railway \"Metropolitan Railway\") eventually reached Chesham in July 1889\\. Electrification was not to come until the 1960s. Between the two world wars and in the 1950s and 60s there was much expansion in the town with new public housing developments along the Missenden Road, at [Pond Park](/wiki/Pond_Park \"Pond Park\") and at [Botley](/wiki/Botley%2C_Buckinghamshire \"Botley, Buckinghamshire\").[Chesham Timeline Chesham Museum](http://www.cheshammuseum.org.uk/cm_timeline.php) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://archive.today/20130624213809/http://www.cheshammuseum.org.uk/cm\\_timeline.php \\|date\\=24 June 2013 }}",
"The first public viewings of cinema films in Chesham were provided by travelling showmen around 1900 and attracted large crowds. The first purpose\\-built cinema, *The Empire Picture Hall*, opened in Station Road in 1912 and in 1914 *The Chesham Palace* started up in The Broadway. Both showed silent films. By 1920 the Empire had closed. In 1930 the Chesham Palace was refurbished to show the new 'talkies' and reopened as *The Astoria* which remained in business until 1959 when the arrival of television forced it to close. *The Embassy* in Germain Street opened in 1935 and survived until 1982, closing due to competition from cinemas in nearby towns. *The Elgiva Theatre*, completed in 1976 beside St Mary's Way, was equipped to show films and on moving to a new site just across the road in 1998 state of the art projection equipment was installed in the new theatre (see image below).{{Cite book \\|last\\=Foxell\\|first\\=Clive \\|title\\=The Ten Cinemas of Chesham\\|year\\=2010 \\|publisher\\=Clive Foxell \\|location\\=Chesham England \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-9564178\\-0\\-0}}",
""
] |
Plot
----
After Sage was kidnapped by the Saviors, Clea is fruitlessly searching for him. In the woods outside her house, a family of ghostly apparitions appears and gives her information on his whereabouts.
Clea and her friend Ben track down a hideout of Cursed Vengeance, the group that has been cursed until Sage's death, in an abandoned subway station. They come to a tenuous agreement to help each other find Sage, but after that they will be at odds again.
Through a series of flashbacks, it is revealed that the ghostly family all consumed the Elixir of Life over 2,000 years ago and have been living in immortality ever since. They've trained their minds to gain psychic powers such as [telekinesis](/wiki/Psychokinesis "Psychokinesis") and [astral projection](/wiki/Astral_projection "Astral projection"), but the Elixir is running out and soon they'll be left in a comatose state. To prevent this, they are helping the Saviors to kill Sage and turn his blood into more Elixir. The youngest daughter, Amelia, is unsure of this path and decides she wants to help Clea save Sage.
Meanwhile, Sage is being held captive by the Saviors and they perform a ritual to break the bond between his soul and Clea's. At the next full moon, they will kill him with a magical dagger and his blood will become more Elixir that others can drink.
Amelia sends a psychic warning to Clea, letting her know where the ritual will be performed on Sage. She warns Cursed Vengeance, who gathers up a small army and leads an attack on the Saviors compound. Amelia uses her psychic powers to fight her family, seemingly killing all of them in the process.
Clea reaches Sage just in time to witness his throat being cut and his blood turning to Elixir in a bowl. In her anguish, she knocks the bowl over, letting the Elixir soak into the ground so no one can have it. The remaining Saviors leave, dejected.
The book ends with the reveal that Sage's soul entered the body of a man killed during the fighting.
|
[
"Plot\n----",
"After Sage was kidnapped by the Saviors, Clea is fruitlessly searching for him. In the woods outside her house, a family of ghostly apparitions appears and gives her information on his whereabouts.",
"Clea and her friend Ben track down a hideout of Cursed Vengeance, the group that has been cursed until Sage's death, in an abandoned subway station. They come to a tenuous agreement to help each other find Sage, but after that they will be at odds again.",
"Through a series of flashbacks, it is revealed that the ghostly family all consumed the Elixir of Life over 2,000 years ago and have been living in immortality ever since. They've trained their minds to gain psychic powers such as [telekinesis](/wiki/Psychokinesis \"Psychokinesis\") and [astral projection](/wiki/Astral_projection \"Astral projection\"), but the Elixir is running out and soon they'll be left in a comatose state. To prevent this, they are helping the Saviors to kill Sage and turn his blood into more Elixir. The youngest daughter, Amelia, is unsure of this path and decides she wants to help Clea save Sage.",
"Meanwhile, Sage is being held captive by the Saviors and they perform a ritual to break the bond between his soul and Clea's. At the next full moon, they will kill him with a magical dagger and his blood will become more Elixir that others can drink.",
"Amelia sends a psychic warning to Clea, letting her know where the ritual will be performed on Sage. She warns Cursed Vengeance, who gathers up a small army and leads an attack on the Saviors compound. Amelia uses her psychic powers to fight her family, seemingly killing all of them in the process.",
"Clea reaches Sage just in time to witness his throat being cut and his blood turning to Elixir in a bowl. In her anguish, she knocks the bowl over, letting the Elixir soak into the ground so no one can have it. The remaining Saviors leave, dejected.",
"The book ends with the reveal that Sage's soul entered the body of a man killed during the fighting.",
""
] |
Career
------
After law school, Baker worked as a senior [Congressional Black Caucus](/wiki/Congressional_Black_Caucus "Congressional Black Caucus") fellow in the office of U.S. Senator [John Kerry](/wiki/John_Kerry "John Kerry") for one year, afterwards working as a contract complaints officer in the District of Columbia Department of Housing and Community Development from 1987 to 1989\. After serving as a legal counsel and special assistant for the Peoples Involvement Corporation from 1989 to 1999, Baker ran his own law firm, Baker \& Perry LLP, until 2002\.
Baker served as a delegate to the [Democratic National Convention](/wiki/Democratic_National_Convention "Democratic National Convention") in [2000](/wiki/2000_Democratic_National_Convention "2000 Democratic National Convention"), [2004](/wiki/2004_Democratic_National_Convention "2004 Democratic National Convention"), [2008](/wiki/2008_Democratic_National_Convention "2008 Democratic National Convention"), [2012](/wiki/2012_Democratic_National_Convention "2012 Democratic National Convention"), [2016](/wiki/2016_Democratic_National_Convention "2016 Democratic National Convention"), and [2024](/wiki/2024_Democratic_National_Convention "2024 Democratic National Convention").
### Maryland House of Delegates
Baker was appointed to the Maryland House of Delegates by Governor [William Donald Schaefer](/wiki/William_Donald_Schaefer "William Donald Schaefer") to succeed [Paul G. Pinsky](/wiki/Paul_G._Pinsky "Paul G. Pinsky"), who was appointed to the Maryland Senate.{{cite web \|title\=Maryland General Assembly, 1994 session \|url\=https://msa.maryland.gov/msa/speccol/sc2600/sc2685/genassem/html/1994reg\_session.html \|website\=Archives of Maryland \|publisher\=Maryland State Archives \|access\-date\=August 23, 2024}} He was sworn in on August 11, 1994\. Baker served as a member of the Judiciary Committee from 1995 to 1998, afterwards serving on the Appropriations Committee from 1999 to 2003\. He was also a member of the [Legislative Black Caucus of Maryland](/wiki/Legislative_Black_Caucus_of_Maryland "Legislative Black Caucus of Maryland") and was the chair of the [Prince George's County Delegation](/wiki/Prince_George%27s_County_Delegation "Prince George's County Delegation") from 1999 to 2003\. During his tenure, Baker opposed legislation to provide $270 million in state funding for [National Football League](/wiki/National_Football_League "National Football League") stadiums in [Baltimore](/wiki/M%26T_Bank_Stadium "M&T Bank Stadium") and [Prince George's County](/wiki/Commanders_Field "Commanders Field"),{{cite news \|last1\=Waldron \|first1\=Thomas W. \|title\=Funding for stadiums secured \|url\=https://www.newspapers.com/article/the\-baltimore\-sun\-delegates\-ok\-funding\-f/154288755/ \|access\-date\=August 23, 2024 \|work\=The Baltimore Sun \|date\=March 22, 1996 \|via\=\[\[Newspapers.com]]}} a bill designating [English](/wiki/English_language "English language") as the official state language,{{cite news \|last1\=Marsh \|first1\=Sara \|title\=House OKs bill on state language \|url\=https://www.newspapers.com/article/the\-capital\-house\-oks\-bill\-on\-state\-lang/154288782/ \|access\-date\=August 23, 2024 \|work\=The Capital \|date\=March 24, 1998 \|via\=\[\[Newspapers.com]]}} and the nomination of [Richard N. Dixon](/wiki/Richard_N._Dixon "Richard N. Dixon")—whose policies Baker compared to U.S. Supreme Court Justice [Clarence Thomas](/wiki/Clarence_Thomas "Clarence Thomas")—as [Maryland State Treasurer](/wiki/Maryland_State_Treasurer "Maryland State Treasurer").{{cite news \|last1\=Waldron \|first1\=Thomas W. \|title\=Ex\-critics give Dixon high remarks \|url\=https://www.newspapers.com/article/carroll\-county\-times\-ex\-critics\-give\-dix/154288810/ \|access\-date\=August 23, 2024 \|work\=Carroll County Times \|date\=September 15, 1997 \|via\=\[\[Newspapers.com]]}} He supported bills to ban [discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation](/wiki/Sexual_orientation_discrimination "Sexual orientation discrimination"),{{cite news \|title\=Gay anti\-discrimination bill receives House approval \|url\=https://www.newspapers.com/article/carroll\-county\-times\-gay\-anti\-discrimina/154288831/ \|access\-date\=August 23, 2024 \|work\=Carroll County Times \|date\=March 25, 1999 \|via\=\[\[Newspapers.com]]}} require the state to translate all public documents and forms into [Spanish](/wiki/Spanish_language "Spanish language"),{{cite news \|last\=Thomson \|first\=Candus \|title\=Latinos denied equal access, study concludes \|url\=https://www.newspapers.com/article/the\-baltimore\-sun\-latinos\-denied\-equal\-a/154288859/ \|access\-date\=August 23, 2024 \|work\=The Baltimore Sun \|date\=December 15, 1999 \|via\=\[\[Newspapers.com]]}} and limit the powers of the [Prince George's County Board of Education](/wiki/Prince_George%27s_County_Public_Schools "Prince George's County Public Schools").{{cite news \|title\=House votes to limit power of PG County school board \|url\=https://www.newspapers.com/article/the\-star\-democrat\-house\-votes\-to\-limit\-p/154288887/ \|access\-date\=August 23, 2024 \|work\=The Star Democrat \|date\=February 15, 2002 \|via\=\[\[Newspapers.com]]}}
### Prince George's County Executive
#### Elections
##### 2002
{{main\|2002 Maryland county executive elections\#Prince George's County}}
In early 2000, Baker announced that he would run for Prince George's County Executive in 2002, seeking to succeed term\-limited county executive [Wayne Curry](/wiki/Wayne_Curry "Wayne Curry").{{cite news \|last1\=Dresser \|first1\=Michael \|title\=Considering a run for executive \|url\=https://www.newspapers.com/article/the\-baltimore\-sun\-considering\-a\-run\-for/154288921/ \|access\-date\=August 23, 2024 \|work\=The Republican \|date\=May 2, 2000 \|via\=\[\[Newspapers.com]]}} He targeted women voters and enjoyed a boost in momentum after *[The Washington Post](/wiki/The_Washington_Post "The Washington Post")* endorsed his campaign during the Democratic primary,{{cite news \|last1\=Dresser \|first1\=Michael \|title\=Prince George's primary recalls city mayoral race \|url\=https://www.newspapers.com/article/the\-baltimore\-sun\-prince\-geroges\-primar/154288952/ \|access\-date\=August 23, 2024 \|work\=The Republican \|date\=August 17, 2002 \|via\=\[\[Newspapers.com]]}} but continued to trail county state's attorney [Jack B. Johnson](/wiki/Jack_B._Johnson "Jack B. Johnson") in polling up to election day.{{cite news \|title\=Voters to choose from crowded field in Prince George's County \|url\=https://www.newspapers.com/article/the\-star\-democrat\-voters\-to\-choose\-from/154288991/ \|access\-date\=August 23, 2024 \|work\=The Star Democrat \|date\=September 10, 2002 \|via\=\[\[Newspapers.com]]}} Baker was defeated in the Democratic primary by Johnson on September 10, 2002, placing second\-to\-last with 12\.5 percent of the vote.{{cite news \|title\=Schaefer easily wins primary \|url\=https://www.newspapers.com/article/the\-baltimore\-sun\-jack\-johnson\-elected\-c/154289028/ \|access\-date\=August 23, 2024 \|work\=The Baltimore Sun \|date\=September 11, 2002 \|via\=\[\[Newspapers.com]]}}
##### 2006
{{main\|2006 Maryland county executive elections\#Prince George's County}}
In June 2005, Baker announced that he was forming an [exploratory committee](/wiki/Exploratory_committee "Exploratory committee") to run for Prince George's County Executive in 2006, challenging incumbent county executive [Jack B. Johnson](/wiki/Jack_B._Johnson "Jack B. Johnson").{{cite news \|title\=Former Del. Baker aspires to office in Prince George's \|url\=https://www.newspapers.com/article/the\-baltimore\-sun\-former\-del\-baker\-aspi/154289056/ \|access\-date\=August 24, 2024 \|work\=The Baltimore Sun \|date\=June 7, 2005 \|via\=\[\[Newspapers.com]]}} He declared his candidacy in January 2006, and ran a campaign criticizing Johnson's handling of crime and education in Prince George's County.{{cite news \|title\=Former delegate to challenge PG county executive \|url\=https://www.newspapers.com/article/the\-star\-democrat\-former\-delegate\-to\-cha/154289086/ \|access\-date\=August 24, 2024 \|work\=The Star Democrat \|date\=January 4, 2006 \|via\=\[\[Newspapers.com]]}} Baker was narrowly defeated in the Democratic primary in September 2006, receiving 47\.5 percent of the vote to Johnson's 52\.5 percent.
##### 2010
{{main\|2010 Maryland county executive elections\#Prince George's County}}
Baker thrice ran for Prince George's County Executive in 2010, seeking to succeed term\-limited county executive [Jack B. Johnson](/wiki/Jack_B._Johnson "Jack B. Johnson").{{cite news \|title\=Md. delegate will run for Prince George's exec \|url\=https://www.newspapers.com/article/the\-star\-democrat\-md\-delegate\-will\-run/154289115/ \|access\-date\=August 24, 2024 \|work\=The Star Democrat \|date\=January 15, 2010 \|via\=\[\[Newspapers.com]]}} He won the Democratic primary in September 2010, defeating Prince George's County Sheriff [Michael A. Jackson](/wiki/Michael_A._Jackson_%28politician%29 "Michael A. Jackson (politician)"), who was backed by Johnson,{{cite news \|title\=Johnson believed to be backing Jackson \|url\=https://www.newspapers.com/article/the\-star\-democrat\-johnson\-believed\-to\-be/154289136/ \|access\-date\=August 24, 2024 \|work\=The Star Democrat \|date\=June 28, 2010 \|via\=\[\[Newspapers.com]]}} and state delegate [Gerron Levi](/wiki/Gerron_Levi "Gerron Levi") with 43\.9 percent of the vote. Baker ran unopposed in the general election.{{cite news \|last\=Brownback \|first\=Abby \|title\=Dead\-dog ads arrive after election for PG county executive \|url\=https://www.newspapers.com/article/the\-star\-democrat\-dead\-dog\-ads\-arrive\-af/154289165/ \|access\-date\=August 24, 2024 \|work\=The Star Democrat \|date\=September 20, 2010 \|via\=\[\[Newspapers.com]]}}
##### 2014
{{main\|2014 Maryland county executive elections\#Prince George's County}}
Baker filed to run for re\-election as county executive in February 2014\.{{cite news \|last1\=Svitek \|first1\=Patrick \|title\=Rushern Baker, Prince George’s county executive, files for reelection \|url\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/local/prince\-georges\-county\-executive\-rushern\-baker\-to\-file\-for\-reelection\-friday\-afternoon/2014/02/21/8dbd616a\-9a87\-11e3\-b931\-0204122c514b\_story.html \|access\-date\=August 21, 2024 \|work\=The Washington Post \|date\=February 21, 2014}} He ran unopposed in both the primary and general elections.{{cite news \|last1\=Turque \|first1\=Bill \|title\=Leggett, Baker reelected in Montgomery and Prince George’s counties \|url\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/local/md\-politics/leggett\-baker\-headed\-toward\-reelection\-in\-montgomery\-and\-prince\-georges\-counties/2014/11/04/10501a48\-636c\-11e4\-9fdc\-d43b053ecb4d\_story.html \|access\-date\=August 21, 2024 \|work\=The Washington Post \|date\=November 4, 2014}}
#### Tenure
[thumb\|Baker at the construction of [MGM National Harbor](/wiki/MGM_National_Harbor "MGM National Harbor"), 2015](/wiki/File:MGM_National_Harbor_1000_construction_workers_celebration_%2816935755565%29.jpg "MGM National Harbor 1000 construction workers celebration (16935755565).jpg")
Baker was sworn in as Prince George's County Executive on December 6, 2010\.
During his tenure, Baker advocated for efforts to lure and retain businesses to the county and simplified the county's permitting process, which caused Prince George's County to undergo an economic revival that saw it lead the state's other jurisdictions in job growth and allowed it to achieve a budget surplus. Revitalization projects in the county's underserved communities and major development projects—including the [MGM National Harbor](/wiki/MGM_National_Harbor "MGM National Harbor") casino, the University of Maryland Capital Region Medical Center, and the [Purple Line](/wiki/Purple_Line_%28Maryland%29 "Purple Line (Maryland)") transit line—broke ground under his administration. Baker also pushed for reforms to the county's ethics law amid the arrest of his predecessor, [Jack B. Johnson](/wiki/Jack_B._Johnson "Jack B. Johnson"), on federal corruption charges; and sought to rehabilitate the county's [school system](/wiki/Prince_George%27s_County_Public_Schools "Prince George's County Public Schools") by proposing legislation to restructure the county Board of Education.{{cite news \|last1\=Hernández \|first1\=Arelis R. \|title\=Rushern Baker’s stubborn focus helped transform Prince George’s County \|url\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/local/md\-politics/rushern\-bakers\-stubborn\-focus\-helped\-transform\-prince\-georges\-county/2018/11/30/47e068ee\-ecef\-11e8\-8679\-934a2b33be52\_story.html \|access\-date\=August 21, 2024 \|work\=The Washington Post \|date\=November 30, 2018}} He unsuccessfully sought to raise property taxes in Prince George's County to pay for education reforms and supported a failed referendum that would have increased the number of terms that county\-elected officials could serve from two to three.
Baker received criticism for his handling of education issues in Prince George's County. After the [Maryland General Assembly](/wiki/Maryland_General_Assembly "Maryland General Assembly") passed Baker\-backed legislation in 2013 that allowed him to appoint the superintendent of the Prince George's County Board of Education as well as many of its members, Baker appointed Kevin Maxwell to serve as the board's superintendent. Under Maxwell's tenure, the school system lost $6\.4 million in federal [Head Start](/wiki/Head_Start_%28program%29 "Head Start (program)") grants after a review found that county officials failed to address complaints that teachers in the program were humiliating and using [corporal punishment](/wiki/Corporal_punishment "Corporal punishment") against students;{{cite news \|last1\=Wiggins \|first1\=Ovetta \|title\=Baker’s public schools takeover: Achievement or Achilles’ heel? \|url\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/local/md\-politics/bakers\-public\-schools\-takeover\-achievement\-or\-achilles\-heel/2018/04/30/3b5b9b34\-43e4\-11e8\-8569\-26fda6b404c7\_story.html \|access\-date\=August 21, 2024 \|work\=The Washington Post \|date\=April 30, 2018}} and was the subject of a state probe that found that the grades of nearly 5,500 students were altered between 2015 and 2017, which prompted the Maryland State Board of Education to assign a monitor to prevent future grade manipulation. Maxwell also approved large pay raises to a number of central\-office employees without board approval.{{cite news \|last1\=George \|first1\=Donna St \|title\=School system leader in Md. signed off on raises, board members allege \|url\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/local/education/school\-system\-leader\-in\-md\-signed\-off\-on\-raises\-board\-members\-allege/2018/04/26/f9660e5c\-47b8\-11e8\-827e\-190efaf1f1ee\_story.html \|access\-date\=August 21, 2024 \|work\=The Washington Post \|date\=April 26, 2018}} After Maxwell's tenure became an issue during the 2018 Democratic gubernatorial primary, Baker defended Maxwell by highlighting that the school system added nearly 9,000 students under his tenure and expanded specialty programs, including [language immersion](/wiki/Language_immersion "Language immersion"), full\-day prekindergarten, and [dual enrollment](/wiki/Dual_enrollment "Dual enrollment").
Baker initially declined to say how he would vote on [Maryland Question 6](/wiki/Maryland_Question_6 "Maryland Question 6"), a ballot referendum to legalize [same\-sex marriage in Maryland](/wiki/Same-sex_marriage_in_Maryland "Same-sex marriage in Maryland"), but finally endorsed the referendum in October 2012\.{{cite news \|last1\=Spivack \|first1\=Miranda \|title\=Pr. Geo.’s Executive Rushern Baker III endorses same\-sex marriage legalization \|url\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/local/md\-politics/pr\-geos\-executive\-rushern\-baker\-endorses\-same\-sex\-marriage\-legalization/2012/10/19/11a56908\-1a16\-11e2\-bd10\-5ff056538b7c\_story.html \|access\-date\=August 21, 2024 \|work\=The Washington Post \|date\=October 19, 2012}}
### Gubernatorial campaigns
#### 2018
{{main\|2018 Maryland gubernatorial election}}
On June 21, 2017, Baker announced that he would run for [governor of Maryland](/wiki/Governor_of_Maryland "Governor of Maryland") in 2018, challenging incumbent Republican Governor [Larry Hogan](/wiki/Larry_Hogan "Larry Hogan"). In February 2018, Baker chose former [2016 Baltimore mayoral](/wiki/2016_Baltimore_mayoral_election "2016 Baltimore mayoral election") candidate [Elizabeth Embry](/wiki/Elizabeth_Embry "Elizabeth Embry") as his running mate.{{cite news \|last1\=Cox \|first1\=Erin \|title\=Democrat Rushern Baker picks former mayoral candidate Elizabeth Embry as running mate \|url\=https://www.baltimoresun.com/2018/02/20/democrat\-rushern\-baker\-picks\-former\-mayoral\-candidate\-elizabeth\-embry\-as\-running\-mate/ \|access\-date\=August 21, 2024 \|work\=The Baltimore Sun \|date\=February 20, 2018}}
During the Democratic primary, Baker touted his accomplishments toward the economy and crime as county executive,{{cite news \|last1\=Cox \|first1\=Erin \|title\=In governor’s race, Democrat Rushern Baker says he turned around Prince George’s and will do same for Maryland \|url\=https://www.baltimoresun.com/2018/05/17/in\-governors\-race\-democrat\-rushern\-baker\-says\-he\-turned\-around\-prince\-georges\-and\-will\-do\-same\-for\-maryland/ \|access\-date\=August 21, 2024 \|work\=The Baltimore Sun \|date\=May 17, 2018}}{{cite news \|last1\=Hernández \|first1\=Arelis R. \|title\=In speeches, Rushern Baker makes his case for the governor’s mansion \|url\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/local/md\-politics/in\-speeches\-rushern\-baker\-makes\-his\-case\-for\-the\-governors\-mansion/2017/04/08/2672120e\-1305\-11e7\-9e4f\-09aa75d3ec57\_story.html \|access\-date\=August 21, 2024 \|work\=The Washington Post \|date\=April 8, 2017}}{{cite news \|last1\=Wiggins \|first1\=Ovetta \|last2\=Hernández \|first2\=Arelis R. \|title\=Baker, Jealous make final pitches as Maryland Democratic gubernatorial primary looms \|url\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/local/md\-politics/baker\-jealous\-make\-final\-pitches\-as\-maryland\-democratic\-gubernatorial\-primary\-looms/2018/06/24/795adae2\-75cd\-11e8\-805c\-4b67019fcfe4\_story.html \|access\-date\=August 21, 2024 \|work\=The Washington Post \|date\=June 24, 2018}} and supported proposals to raise the minimum wage to [$15 an hour](/wiki/Fight_for_%2415 "Fight for $15"), increase funding for state community colleges,{{Cite news\|last\=Hernández\|first\=Arelis R.\|title\=Rushern Baker: Economic success, political bruising as leader of Prince George's\|language\=en\-US\|newspaper\=Washington Post\|url\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/local/md\-politics/rushern\-baker\-economic\-success\-political\-bruising\-as\-leader\-of\-prince\-georges/2018/06/07/29d60a8c\-4e3b\-11e8\-84a0\-458a1aa9ac0a\_story.html\|access\-date\=September 10, 2020\|issn\=0190\-8286}} accelerate the state's clean energy transition,{{cite news \|last1\=Cook \|first1\=Chase \|title\=Rushern Baker pushes for 100 percent clean energy, defends school system CEO \|url\=https://www.baltimoresun.com/2018/04/19/rushern\-baker\-pushes\-for\-100\-percent\-clean\-energy\-defends\-school\-system\-ceo/ \|access\-date\=August 21, 2024 \|work\=The Baltimore Sun \|date\=April 19, 2018}} and revive the [Red Line](/wiki/Red_Line_%28Baltimore%29 "Red Line (Baltimore)").{{cite news \|last1\=Lazo \|first1\=Luz \|title\=Rushern Baker says as governor he would revive Baltimore’s Red Line \|url\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/dr\-gridlock/wp/2017/01/24/rushern\-baker\-says\-as\-governor\-he\-would\-revive\-baltimores\-red\-line/ \|access\-date\=August 21, 2024 \|work\=The Washington Post \|date\=January 24, 2017}} He received endorsements from U.S. Senator [Chris Van Hollen](/wiki/Chris_Van_Hollen "Chris Van Hollen"),{{cite news \|last1\=Wiggins \|first1\=Ovetta \|title\=Van Hollen endorses Baker in Maryland governor’s race \|url\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/local/md\-politics/van\-hollen\-plans\-to\-endorse\-baker\-in\-maryland\-governors\-race/2017/11/02/4e87f15a\-c00c\-11e7\-97d9\-bdab5a0ab381\_story.html \|access\-date\=August 21, 2024 \|work\=The Washington Post \|date\=November 2, 2017}} U.S. Representative [Steny Hoyer](/wiki/Steny_Hoyer "Steny Hoyer"),{{cite news \|last1\=Chason \|first1\=Rachel \|title\=Steny Hoyer backs Rushern Baker in Maryland governor’s race \|url\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/local/md\-politics/steny\-hoyer\-backs\-rushern\-baker\-in\-maryland\-governors\-race/2018/03/26/caf6ba7e\-3144\-11e8\-94fa\-32d48460b955\_story.html \|access\-date\=August 21, 2024 \|work\=The Washington Post \|date\=March 26, 2018}} Attorney General [Brian Frosh](/wiki/Brian_Frosh "Brian Frosh"),{{cite news \|last1\=Wiggins \|first1\=Ovetta \|title\=Frosh endorses Baker in his bid for Maryland governor \|url\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/local/md\-politics/frosh\-endorses\-baker\-in\-his\-bid\-for\-maryland\-governor/2017/12/06/e6a4b122\-daaa\-11e7\-b1a8\-62589434a581\_story.html \|access\-date\=August 21, 2024 \|work\=The Washington Post \|date\=December 6, 2017}} Montgomery County Executive [Isiah Leggett](/wiki/Isiah_Leggett "Isiah Leggett"),{{cite news \|last1\=Siegel \|first1\=Rachel \|title\=Isiah Leggett to endorse Rushern Baker, longtime colleague and friend, for Md. governor \|url\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/local/md\-politics/isiah\-leggett\-to\-endorse\-rushern\-baker\-longtime\-colleague\-and\-friend\-for\-md\-governor/2018/01/22/1a08c6de\-ffbd\-11e7\-bb03\-722769454f82\_story.html \|access\-date\=August 21, 2024 \|work\=The Washington Post \|date\=January 22, 2018}} and former governors [Parris Glendening](/wiki/Parris_Glendening "Parris Glendening"){{cite news \|last1\=Chason \|first1\=Rachel \|title\=Former governor Parris Glendening backs Rushern Baker in Maryland governor race \|url\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/local/md\-politics/former\-governor\-parris\-glendening\-backs\-rushern\-baker\-in\-maryland\-governors\-race/2018/04/19/cb7baf1e\-43f9\-11e8\-ad8f\-27a8c409298b\_story.html \|access\-date\=August 21, 2024 \|work\=The Washington Post \|date\=April 19, 2018}} and [Martin O'Malley](/wiki/Martin_O%27Malley "Martin O'Malley").{{cite news \|last1\=Hernández \|first1\=Arelis R. \|title\=Baker’s campaign hurt by weak funding, enemies he made as county executive \|url\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/local/md\-politics/bakers\-campaign\-hurt\-by\-weak\-funding\-enemies\-he\-made\-as\-county\-executive/2018/06/27/758843d8\-700e\-11e8\-bd50\-b80389a4e569\_story.html \|access\-date\=August 21, 2024 \|work\=The Washington Post \|date\=June 7, 2018}} He also received financial support from businessman [David Trone](/wiki/David_Trone "David Trone"), who was [running for Congress](/wiki/2018_United_States_House_of_Representatives_elections_in_Maryland%23District_6 "2018 United States House of Representatives elections in Maryland#District 6") in [Maryland's 6th congressional district](/wiki/Maryland%27s_6th_congressional_district "Maryland's 6th congressional district").{{cite news \|last1\=Hicks \|first1\=Josh \|title\=Wine magnate David Trone is throwing his support and money behind Rushern Baker’s bid for Maryland governor \|url\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/local/md\-politics/wine\-magnate\-david\-trone\-is\-throwing\-his\-support\-and\-his\-money\-behind\-rushern\-bakers\-bid\-for\-maryland\-governor/2018/02/13/3aee364a\-10fc\-11e8\-9065\-e55346f6de81\_story.html \|access\-date\=August 21, 2024 \|work\=The Washington Post \|date\=February 14, 2018}}
[thumb\|2018 Democratic gubernatorial primary election results by county:
{{collapsible list
\|title\=Map legend
\|{{legend\|\#87aade\|Jealous—40–50%}}
\|{{legend\|\#afc6e9\|Jealous—30–40%}}
\|{{legend\|\#afe9af\|Baker—30–40%}}
\|{{legend\|\#87de87\|Baker—40–50%}}
}}](/wiki/File:Maryland_Governor_Democratic_primary%2C_2018.svg "Maryland Governor Democratic primary, 2018.svg")
Baker was defeated by former [NAACP](/wiki/NAACP "NAACP") president [Ben Jealous](/wiki/Ben_Jealous "Ben Jealous") in the Democratic primary election on June 26, 2018, placing second with 29\.3 percent of the vote.{{cite news \|last1\=Wiggins \|first1\=Ovetta \|last2\=Hernández \|first2\=Arelis R. \|last3\=McCartney \|first3\=Robert \|title\=Ben Jealous wins Maryland primary, vows to topple Republican Gov. Larry Hogan \|url\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/local/md\-politics/maryland\-democrats\-choose\-between\-insurgents\-and\-party\-establishment\-in\-crowded\-primary/2018/06/26/a3aabc9a\-77a8\-11e8\-80be\-6d32e182a3bc\_story.html \|access\-date\=August 21, 2024 \|work\=The Washington Post \|date\=June 26, 2018}} *[The Washington Post](/wiki/The_Washington_Post "The Washington Post")* blamed his loss on Baker's failure to aggressively tout his accomplishments as county executive, lackluster fundraising skills, and his past conflicts with county unions and activists.{{cite news \|last1\=Hernández \|first1\=Arelis R. \|title\=Baker’s campaign hurt by weak funding, enemies he made as county executive \|url\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/local/md\-politics/bakers\-campaign\-hurt\-by\-weak\-funding\-enemies\-he\-made\-as\-county\-executive/2018/06/27/758843d8\-700e\-11e8\-bd50\-b80389a4e569\_story.html \|access\-date\=August 21, 2024 \|work\=The Washington Post \|date\=June 27, 2018}} Following his defeat, Baker campaigned for Jealous in the general election,{{cite news \|last1\=Armus \|first1\=Teo \|title\=Ben Jealous gets warm welcome from Rushern Baker, his vanquished party rival \|url\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/local/md\-politics/ben\-jealous\-gets\-warm\-welcome\-from\-rushern\-baker\-his\-vanquished\-party\-rival/2018/07/18/2c6f03a6\-8aaf\-11e8\-85ae\-511bc1146b0b\_story.html \|access\-date\=August 21, 2024 \|work\=The Washington Post \|date\=July 19, 2018}} in which Jealous was defeated by Hogan.{{cite news \|last1\=Ng \|first1\=Greg \|title\=Gov. Larry Hogan makes history with re\-election in Maryland \|url\=https://www.wbaltv.com/article/hogan\-becomes\-first\-gop\-governor\-to\-win\-second\-term\-in\-maryland\-since\-1954/24510818 \|access\-date\=August 21, 2024 \|work\=WBAL\-TV \|date\=November 7, 2018 \|language\=en}}
#### 2022
{{main\|2022 Maryland gubernatorial election}}
On April 8, 2021, Baker that he would again run for governor of Maryland in [2022](/wiki/2022_Maryland_gubernatorial_election "2022 Maryland gubernatorial election"), seeking to succeed term\-limited Governor [Larry Hogan](/wiki/Larry_Hogan "Larry Hogan").{{cite news \|last1\=DePuyt \|first1\=Bruce \|title\=Rushern Baker to Enter 2022 Race for Governor \|url\=https://www.marylandmatters.org/2021/04/08/rushern\-baker\-to\-enter\-2022\-race\-for\-governor/ \|access\-date\=November 20, 2021 \|work\=\[\[Maryland Matters]] \|date\=April 8, 2021}} His running mate was [Nancy Navarro](/wiki/Nancy_Navarro "Nancy Navarro"), a member of the [Montgomery County](/wiki/Howard_County%2C_Maryland "Howard County, Maryland") Council from 2009 to 2022\.{{cite news \|last1\=DePuyt \|first1\=Bruce \|title\=Rushern Baker Taps Nancy Navarro, Montgomery Councilmember, as Running Mate \|url\=https://www.marylandmatters.org/2021/10/12/rushern\-baker\-taps\-nancy\-navarro\-montgomery\-councilmember\-as\-running\-mate/ \|access\-date\=November 20, 2021 \|work\=\[\[Maryland Matters]] \|date\=October 12, 2021}} During the Democratic primary, Baker unveiled a crime and policing plan that included proposals to increase police hiring, address vacant housing in Baltimore, and provide jobs and education to [squeegee boys](/wiki/Squeegee_man "Squeegee man").{{cite news \|last1\=Wiggins \|first1\=Ovetta \|title\=Baker wants more officers hired to ‘stop the slaughter’ in Baltimore \|url\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/dc\-md\-va/2022/05/03/rushern\-baker\-crime\-baltimore/ \|access\-date\=August 21, 2024 \|work\=The Washington Post \|date\=May 3, 2022}} He also criticized the leaked draft majority opinion for the [U.S. Supreme Court](/wiki/U.S._Supreme_Court "U.S. Supreme Court") case *[Dobbs v. Jackson Women's Health Organization](/wiki/Dobbs_v._Jackson_Women%27s_Health_Organization "Dobbs v. Jackson Women's Health Organization")*.{{cite news \|last1\=Shwe \|first1\=Elizabeth \|last2\=Gaines \|first2\=Danielle E. \|title\=After Leak of Draft SCOTUS Opinion on Abortion Rights, Maryland Lawmakers and Candidates Pledge Action \|url\=https://marylandmatters.org/2022/05/03/after\-leak\-of\-draft\-scotus\-opinion\-on\-abortion\-rights\-maryland\-lawmakers\-and\-candidates\-pledge\-action/ \|access\-date\=August 21, 2024 \|work\=Maryland Matters \|date\=May 4, 2024}}
Initially viewed as one of the frontrunners in the race alongside Comptroller [Peter Franchot](/wiki/Peter_Franchot "Peter Franchot"), Baker fell behind in polls and fundraising; by June 2022, his campaign reported having less than $100,000 cash on hand and placing a distant fourth in polls of the Democratic primary. Furthermore, many of the high\-profile elected officials who backed Baker's 2018 campaign had endorsed other candidates. He suspended his campaign on June 10, 2022\.{{cite news \|last1\=DePuyt \|first1\=Bruce \|title\=Rushern Baker Suspends Gubernatorial Campaign, Will Likely Endorse a Democratic Rival Soon \|url\=https://www.marylandmatters.org/2022/06/10/rushern\-baker\-suspends\-gubernatorial\-campaign\-will\-likely\-endorse\-a\-democratic\-rival\-soon/ \|access\-date\=June 10, 2022 \|work\=\[\[Maryland Matters]] \|date\=June 10, 2022}}
### Post\-county executive career
Since leaving office, Baker has run his own consulting firm, Baker Strategy Group.{{cite news \|last1\=Ford \|first1\=William J. \|title\=Black activists and political leaders mobilizing to make cannabis legal in Maryland \|url\=https://marylandmatters.org/2022/10/16/black\-activists\-and\-political\-leaders\-mobilizing\-to\-make\-cannabis\-legal\-in\-maryland/ \|access\-date\=August 21, 2024 \|work\=Maryland Matters \|date\=October 16, 2022}} In July 2019, Senate President [Thomas V. Miller Jr.](/wiki/Thomas_V._Miller_Jr. "Thomas V. Miller Jr.") appointed Baker to the [University of Maryland Medical System](/wiki/University_of_Maryland_Medical_System "University of Maryland Medical System") board.{{cite news \|last1\=Chason \|first1\=Rachel \|title\=Rushern Baker appointed to University of Maryland Medical System board \|url\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/local/md\-politics/rushern\-baker\-appointed\-to\-university\-of\-maryland\-medical\-system\-board/2019/07/08/5f6dd81e\-a1c8\-11e9\-b732\-41a79c2551bf\_story.html \|access\-date\=August 21, 2024 \|work\=The Washington Post \|date\=July 9, 2019}} During his tenure, Baker worked with the [University of Maryland, College Park](/wiki/University_of_Maryland%2C_College_Park "University of Maryland, College Park") to establish the Elected Executive Leadership Program.{{cite news \|last1\=Kurtz \|first1\=Josh \|title\=Lobbying Shop Adds Ex\-State Senator, Other Strategists \|url\=https://marylandmatters.org/2019/07/11/lobbying\-shop\-adds\-ex\-state\-senator\-other\-strategists/ \|access\-date\=August 21, 2024 \|work\=Maryland Matters \|date\=July 11, 2019}}{{cite news \|last1\=DePuyt \|first1\=Bruce \|title\=Baker, University Teaming Up on Leadership Institute \|url\=https://marylandmatters.org/2019/07/22/baker\-university\-teaming\-up\-on\-leadership\-institute/ \|access\-date\=August 21, 2024 \|work\=Maryland Matters \|date\=July 22, 2019}} He left the board 2021\.
|
[
"Career\n------",
"After law school, Baker worked as a senior [Congressional Black Caucus](/wiki/Congressional_Black_Caucus \"Congressional Black Caucus\") fellow in the office of U.S. Senator [John Kerry](/wiki/John_Kerry \"John Kerry\") for one year, afterwards working as a contract complaints officer in the District of Columbia Department of Housing and Community Development from 1987 to 1989\\. After serving as a legal counsel and special assistant for the Peoples Involvement Corporation from 1989 to 1999, Baker ran his own law firm, Baker \\& Perry LLP, until 2002\\.",
"Baker served as a delegate to the [Democratic National Convention](/wiki/Democratic_National_Convention \"Democratic National Convention\") in [2000](/wiki/2000_Democratic_National_Convention \"2000 Democratic National Convention\"), [2004](/wiki/2004_Democratic_National_Convention \"2004 Democratic National Convention\"), [2008](/wiki/2008_Democratic_National_Convention \"2008 Democratic National Convention\"), [2012](/wiki/2012_Democratic_National_Convention \"2012 Democratic National Convention\"), [2016](/wiki/2016_Democratic_National_Convention \"2016 Democratic National Convention\"), and [2024](/wiki/2024_Democratic_National_Convention \"2024 Democratic National Convention\").",
"### Maryland House of Delegates",
"Baker was appointed to the Maryland House of Delegates by Governor [William Donald Schaefer](/wiki/William_Donald_Schaefer \"William Donald Schaefer\") to succeed [Paul G. Pinsky](/wiki/Paul_G._Pinsky \"Paul G. Pinsky\"), who was appointed to the Maryland Senate.{{cite web \\|title\\=Maryland General Assembly, 1994 session \\|url\\=https://msa.maryland.gov/msa/speccol/sc2600/sc2685/genassem/html/1994reg\\_session.html \\|website\\=Archives of Maryland \\|publisher\\=Maryland State Archives \\|access\\-date\\=August 23, 2024}} He was sworn in on August 11, 1994\\. Baker served as a member of the Judiciary Committee from 1995 to 1998, afterwards serving on the Appropriations Committee from 1999 to 2003\\. He was also a member of the [Legislative Black Caucus of Maryland](/wiki/Legislative_Black_Caucus_of_Maryland \"Legislative Black Caucus of Maryland\") and was the chair of the [Prince George's County Delegation](/wiki/Prince_George%27s_County_Delegation \"Prince George's County Delegation\") from 1999 to 2003\\. During his tenure, Baker opposed legislation to provide $270 million in state funding for [National Football League](/wiki/National_Football_League \"National Football League\") stadiums in [Baltimore](/wiki/M%26T_Bank_Stadium \"M&T Bank Stadium\") and [Prince George's County](/wiki/Commanders_Field \"Commanders Field\"),{{cite news \\|last1\\=Waldron \\|first1\\=Thomas W. \\|title\\=Funding for stadiums secured \\|url\\=https://www.newspapers.com/article/the\\-baltimore\\-sun\\-delegates\\-ok\\-funding\\-f/154288755/ \\|access\\-date\\=August 23, 2024 \\|work\\=The Baltimore Sun \\|date\\=March 22, 1996 \\|via\\=\\[\\[Newspapers.com]]}} a bill designating [English](/wiki/English_language \"English language\") as the official state language,{{cite news \\|last1\\=Marsh \\|first1\\=Sara \\|title\\=House OKs bill on state language \\|url\\=https://www.newspapers.com/article/the\\-capital\\-house\\-oks\\-bill\\-on\\-state\\-lang/154288782/ \\|access\\-date\\=August 23, 2024 \\|work\\=The Capital \\|date\\=March 24, 1998 \\|via\\=\\[\\[Newspapers.com]]}} and the nomination of [Richard N. Dixon](/wiki/Richard_N._Dixon \"Richard N. Dixon\")—whose policies Baker compared to U.S. Supreme Court Justice [Clarence Thomas](/wiki/Clarence_Thomas \"Clarence Thomas\")—as [Maryland State Treasurer](/wiki/Maryland_State_Treasurer \"Maryland State Treasurer\").{{cite news \\|last1\\=Waldron \\|first1\\=Thomas W. \\|title\\=Ex\\-critics give Dixon high remarks \\|url\\=https://www.newspapers.com/article/carroll\\-county\\-times\\-ex\\-critics\\-give\\-dix/154288810/ \\|access\\-date\\=August 23, 2024 \\|work\\=Carroll County Times \\|date\\=September 15, 1997 \\|via\\=\\[\\[Newspapers.com]]}} He supported bills to ban [discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation](/wiki/Sexual_orientation_discrimination \"Sexual orientation discrimination\"),{{cite news \\|title\\=Gay anti\\-discrimination bill receives House approval \\|url\\=https://www.newspapers.com/article/carroll\\-county\\-times\\-gay\\-anti\\-discrimina/154288831/ \\|access\\-date\\=August 23, 2024 \\|work\\=Carroll County Times \\|date\\=March 25, 1999 \\|via\\=\\[\\[Newspapers.com]]}} require the state to translate all public documents and forms into [Spanish](/wiki/Spanish_language \"Spanish language\"),{{cite news \\|last\\=Thomson \\|first\\=Candus \\|title\\=Latinos denied equal access, study concludes \\|url\\=https://www.newspapers.com/article/the\\-baltimore\\-sun\\-latinos\\-denied\\-equal\\-a/154288859/ \\|access\\-date\\=August 23, 2024 \\|work\\=The Baltimore Sun \\|date\\=December 15, 1999 \\|via\\=\\[\\[Newspapers.com]]}} and limit the powers of the [Prince George's County Board of Education](/wiki/Prince_George%27s_County_Public_Schools \"Prince George's County Public Schools\").{{cite news \\|title\\=House votes to limit power of PG County school board \\|url\\=https://www.newspapers.com/article/the\\-star\\-democrat\\-house\\-votes\\-to\\-limit\\-p/154288887/ \\|access\\-date\\=August 23, 2024 \\|work\\=The Star Democrat \\|date\\=February 15, 2002 \\|via\\=\\[\\[Newspapers.com]]}}",
"### Prince George's County Executive",
"#### Elections",
"##### 2002",
"{{main\\|2002 Maryland county executive elections\\#Prince George's County}}\nIn early 2000, Baker announced that he would run for Prince George's County Executive in 2002, seeking to succeed term\\-limited county executive [Wayne Curry](/wiki/Wayne_Curry \"Wayne Curry\").{{cite news \\|last1\\=Dresser \\|first1\\=Michael \\|title\\=Considering a run for executive \\|url\\=https://www.newspapers.com/article/the\\-baltimore\\-sun\\-considering\\-a\\-run\\-for/154288921/ \\|access\\-date\\=August 23, 2024 \\|work\\=The Republican \\|date\\=May 2, 2000 \\|via\\=\\[\\[Newspapers.com]]}} He targeted women voters and enjoyed a boost in momentum after *[The Washington Post](/wiki/The_Washington_Post \"The Washington Post\")* endorsed his campaign during the Democratic primary,{{cite news \\|last1\\=Dresser \\|first1\\=Michael \\|title\\=Prince George's primary recalls city mayoral race \\|url\\=https://www.newspapers.com/article/the\\-baltimore\\-sun\\-prince\\-geroges\\-primar/154288952/ \\|access\\-date\\=August 23, 2024 \\|work\\=The Republican \\|date\\=August 17, 2002 \\|via\\=\\[\\[Newspapers.com]]}} but continued to trail county state's attorney [Jack B. Johnson](/wiki/Jack_B._Johnson \"Jack B. Johnson\") in polling up to election day.{{cite news \\|title\\=Voters to choose from crowded field in Prince George's County \\|url\\=https://www.newspapers.com/article/the\\-star\\-democrat\\-voters\\-to\\-choose\\-from/154288991/ \\|access\\-date\\=August 23, 2024 \\|work\\=The Star Democrat \\|date\\=September 10, 2002 \\|via\\=\\[\\[Newspapers.com]]}} Baker was defeated in the Democratic primary by Johnson on September 10, 2002, placing second\\-to\\-last with 12\\.5 percent of the vote.{{cite news \\|title\\=Schaefer easily wins primary \\|url\\=https://www.newspapers.com/article/the\\-baltimore\\-sun\\-jack\\-johnson\\-elected\\-c/154289028/ \\|access\\-date\\=August 23, 2024 \\|work\\=The Baltimore Sun \\|date\\=September 11, 2002 \\|via\\=\\[\\[Newspapers.com]]}}",
"##### 2006",
"{{main\\|2006 Maryland county executive elections\\#Prince George's County}}\nIn June 2005, Baker announced that he was forming an [exploratory committee](/wiki/Exploratory_committee \"Exploratory committee\") to run for Prince George's County Executive in 2006, challenging incumbent county executive [Jack B. Johnson](/wiki/Jack_B._Johnson \"Jack B. Johnson\").{{cite news \\|title\\=Former Del. Baker aspires to office in Prince George's \\|url\\=https://www.newspapers.com/article/the\\-baltimore\\-sun\\-former\\-del\\-baker\\-aspi/154289056/ \\|access\\-date\\=August 24, 2024 \\|work\\=The Baltimore Sun \\|date\\=June 7, 2005 \\|via\\=\\[\\[Newspapers.com]]}} He declared his candidacy in January 2006, and ran a campaign criticizing Johnson's handling of crime and education in Prince George's County.{{cite news \\|title\\=Former delegate to challenge PG county executive \\|url\\=https://www.newspapers.com/article/the\\-star\\-democrat\\-former\\-delegate\\-to\\-cha/154289086/ \\|access\\-date\\=August 24, 2024 \\|work\\=The Star Democrat \\|date\\=January 4, 2006 \\|via\\=\\[\\[Newspapers.com]]}} Baker was narrowly defeated in the Democratic primary in September 2006, receiving 47\\.5 percent of the vote to Johnson's 52\\.5 percent.",
"##### 2010",
"{{main\\|2010 Maryland county executive elections\\#Prince George's County}}\nBaker thrice ran for Prince George's County Executive in 2010, seeking to succeed term\\-limited county executive [Jack B. Johnson](/wiki/Jack_B._Johnson \"Jack B. Johnson\").{{cite news \\|title\\=Md. delegate will run for Prince George's exec \\|url\\=https://www.newspapers.com/article/the\\-star\\-democrat\\-md\\-delegate\\-will\\-run/154289115/ \\|access\\-date\\=August 24, 2024 \\|work\\=The Star Democrat \\|date\\=January 15, 2010 \\|via\\=\\[\\[Newspapers.com]]}} He won the Democratic primary in September 2010, defeating Prince George's County Sheriff [Michael A. Jackson](/wiki/Michael_A._Jackson_%28politician%29 \"Michael A. Jackson (politician)\"), who was backed by Johnson,{{cite news \\|title\\=Johnson believed to be backing Jackson \\|url\\=https://www.newspapers.com/article/the\\-star\\-democrat\\-johnson\\-believed\\-to\\-be/154289136/ \\|access\\-date\\=August 24, 2024 \\|work\\=The Star Democrat \\|date\\=June 28, 2010 \\|via\\=\\[\\[Newspapers.com]]}} and state delegate [Gerron Levi](/wiki/Gerron_Levi \"Gerron Levi\") with 43\\.9 percent of the vote. Baker ran unopposed in the general election.{{cite news \\|last\\=Brownback \\|first\\=Abby \\|title\\=Dead\\-dog ads arrive after election for PG county executive \\|url\\=https://www.newspapers.com/article/the\\-star\\-democrat\\-dead\\-dog\\-ads\\-arrive\\-af/154289165/ \\|access\\-date\\=August 24, 2024 \\|work\\=The Star Democrat \\|date\\=September 20, 2010 \\|via\\=\\[\\[Newspapers.com]]}}",
"##### 2014",
"{{main\\|2014 Maryland county executive elections\\#Prince George's County}}\nBaker filed to run for re\\-election as county executive in February 2014\\.{{cite news \\|last1\\=Svitek \\|first1\\=Patrick \\|title\\=Rushern Baker, Prince George’s county executive, files for reelection \\|url\\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/local/prince\\-georges\\-county\\-executive\\-rushern\\-baker\\-to\\-file\\-for\\-reelection\\-friday\\-afternoon/2014/02/21/8dbd616a\\-9a87\\-11e3\\-b931\\-0204122c514b\\_story.html \\|access\\-date\\=August 21, 2024 \\|work\\=The Washington Post \\|date\\=February 21, 2014}} He ran unopposed in both the primary and general elections.{{cite news \\|last1\\=Turque \\|first1\\=Bill \\|title\\=Leggett, Baker reelected in Montgomery and Prince George’s counties \\|url\\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/local/md\\-politics/leggett\\-baker\\-headed\\-toward\\-reelection\\-in\\-montgomery\\-and\\-prince\\-georges\\-counties/2014/11/04/10501a48\\-636c\\-11e4\\-9fdc\\-d43b053ecb4d\\_story.html \\|access\\-date\\=August 21, 2024 \\|work\\=The Washington Post \\|date\\=November 4, 2014}}",
"#### Tenure",
"[thumb\\|Baker at the construction of [MGM National Harbor](/wiki/MGM_National_Harbor \"MGM National Harbor\"), 2015](/wiki/File:MGM_National_Harbor_1000_construction_workers_celebration_%2816935755565%29.jpg \"MGM National Harbor 1000 construction workers celebration (16935755565).jpg\")\nBaker was sworn in as Prince George's County Executive on December 6, 2010\\.",
"During his tenure, Baker advocated for efforts to lure and retain businesses to the county and simplified the county's permitting process, which caused Prince George's County to undergo an economic revival that saw it lead the state's other jurisdictions in job growth and allowed it to achieve a budget surplus. Revitalization projects in the county's underserved communities and major development projects—including the [MGM National Harbor](/wiki/MGM_National_Harbor \"MGM National Harbor\") casino, the University of Maryland Capital Region Medical Center, and the [Purple Line](/wiki/Purple_Line_%28Maryland%29 \"Purple Line (Maryland)\") transit line—broke ground under his administration. Baker also pushed for reforms to the county's ethics law amid the arrest of his predecessor, [Jack B. Johnson](/wiki/Jack_B._Johnson \"Jack B. Johnson\"), on federal corruption charges; and sought to rehabilitate the county's [school system](/wiki/Prince_George%27s_County_Public_Schools \"Prince George's County Public Schools\") by proposing legislation to restructure the county Board of Education.{{cite news \\|last1\\=Hernández \\|first1\\=Arelis R. \\|title\\=Rushern Baker’s stubborn focus helped transform Prince George’s County \\|url\\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/local/md\\-politics/rushern\\-bakers\\-stubborn\\-focus\\-helped\\-transform\\-prince\\-georges\\-county/2018/11/30/47e068ee\\-ecef\\-11e8\\-8679\\-934a2b33be52\\_story.html \\|access\\-date\\=August 21, 2024 \\|work\\=The Washington Post \\|date\\=November 30, 2018}} He unsuccessfully sought to raise property taxes in Prince George's County to pay for education reforms and supported a failed referendum that would have increased the number of terms that county\\-elected officials could serve from two to three.",
"Baker received criticism for his handling of education issues in Prince George's County. After the [Maryland General Assembly](/wiki/Maryland_General_Assembly \"Maryland General Assembly\") passed Baker\\-backed legislation in 2013 that allowed him to appoint the superintendent of the Prince George's County Board of Education as well as many of its members, Baker appointed Kevin Maxwell to serve as the board's superintendent. Under Maxwell's tenure, the school system lost $6\\.4 million in federal [Head Start](/wiki/Head_Start_%28program%29 \"Head Start (program)\") grants after a review found that county officials failed to address complaints that teachers in the program were humiliating and using [corporal punishment](/wiki/Corporal_punishment \"Corporal punishment\") against students;{{cite news \\|last1\\=Wiggins \\|first1\\=Ovetta \\|title\\=Baker’s public schools takeover: Achievement or Achilles’ heel? \\|url\\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/local/md\\-politics/bakers\\-public\\-schools\\-takeover\\-achievement\\-or\\-achilles\\-heel/2018/04/30/3b5b9b34\\-43e4\\-11e8\\-8569\\-26fda6b404c7\\_story.html \\|access\\-date\\=August 21, 2024 \\|work\\=The Washington Post \\|date\\=April 30, 2018}} and was the subject of a state probe that found that the grades of nearly 5,500 students were altered between 2015 and 2017, which prompted the Maryland State Board of Education to assign a monitor to prevent future grade manipulation. Maxwell also approved large pay raises to a number of central\\-office employees without board approval.{{cite news \\|last1\\=George \\|first1\\=Donna St \\|title\\=School system leader in Md. signed off on raises, board members allege \\|url\\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/local/education/school\\-system\\-leader\\-in\\-md\\-signed\\-off\\-on\\-raises\\-board\\-members\\-allege/2018/04/26/f9660e5c\\-47b8\\-11e8\\-827e\\-190efaf1f1ee\\_story.html \\|access\\-date\\=August 21, 2024 \\|work\\=The Washington Post \\|date\\=April 26, 2018}} After Maxwell's tenure became an issue during the 2018 Democratic gubernatorial primary, Baker defended Maxwell by highlighting that the school system added nearly 9,000 students under his tenure and expanded specialty programs, including [language immersion](/wiki/Language_immersion \"Language immersion\"), full\\-day prekindergarten, and [dual enrollment](/wiki/Dual_enrollment \"Dual enrollment\").",
"Baker initially declined to say how he would vote on [Maryland Question 6](/wiki/Maryland_Question_6 \"Maryland Question 6\"), a ballot referendum to legalize [same\\-sex marriage in Maryland](/wiki/Same-sex_marriage_in_Maryland \"Same-sex marriage in Maryland\"), but finally endorsed the referendum in October 2012\\.{{cite news \\|last1\\=Spivack \\|first1\\=Miranda \\|title\\=Pr. Geo.’s Executive Rushern Baker III endorses same\\-sex marriage legalization \\|url\\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/local/md\\-politics/pr\\-geos\\-executive\\-rushern\\-baker\\-endorses\\-same\\-sex\\-marriage\\-legalization/2012/10/19/11a56908\\-1a16\\-11e2\\-bd10\\-5ff056538b7c\\_story.html \\|access\\-date\\=August 21, 2024 \\|work\\=The Washington Post \\|date\\=October 19, 2012}}",
"### Gubernatorial campaigns",
"#### 2018",
"{{main\\|2018 Maryland gubernatorial election}}\nOn June 21, 2017, Baker announced that he would run for [governor of Maryland](/wiki/Governor_of_Maryland \"Governor of Maryland\") in 2018, challenging incumbent Republican Governor [Larry Hogan](/wiki/Larry_Hogan \"Larry Hogan\"). In February 2018, Baker chose former [2016 Baltimore mayoral](/wiki/2016_Baltimore_mayoral_election \"2016 Baltimore mayoral election\") candidate [Elizabeth Embry](/wiki/Elizabeth_Embry \"Elizabeth Embry\") as his running mate.{{cite news \\|last1\\=Cox \\|first1\\=Erin \\|title\\=Democrat Rushern Baker picks former mayoral candidate Elizabeth Embry as running mate \\|url\\=https://www.baltimoresun.com/2018/02/20/democrat\\-rushern\\-baker\\-picks\\-former\\-mayoral\\-candidate\\-elizabeth\\-embry\\-as\\-running\\-mate/ \\|access\\-date\\=August 21, 2024 \\|work\\=The Baltimore Sun \\|date\\=February 20, 2018}}",
"During the Democratic primary, Baker touted his accomplishments toward the economy and crime as county executive,{{cite news \\|last1\\=Cox \\|first1\\=Erin \\|title\\=In governor’s race, Democrat Rushern Baker says he turned around Prince George’s and will do same for Maryland \\|url\\=https://www.baltimoresun.com/2018/05/17/in\\-governors\\-race\\-democrat\\-rushern\\-baker\\-says\\-he\\-turned\\-around\\-prince\\-georges\\-and\\-will\\-do\\-same\\-for\\-maryland/ \\|access\\-date\\=August 21, 2024 \\|work\\=The Baltimore Sun \\|date\\=May 17, 2018}}{{cite news \\|last1\\=Hernández \\|first1\\=Arelis R. \\|title\\=In speeches, Rushern Baker makes his case for the governor’s mansion \\|url\\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/local/md\\-politics/in\\-speeches\\-rushern\\-baker\\-makes\\-his\\-case\\-for\\-the\\-governors\\-mansion/2017/04/08/2672120e\\-1305\\-11e7\\-9e4f\\-09aa75d3ec57\\_story.html \\|access\\-date\\=August 21, 2024 \\|work\\=The Washington Post \\|date\\=April 8, 2017}}{{cite news \\|last1\\=Wiggins \\|first1\\=Ovetta \\|last2\\=Hernández \\|first2\\=Arelis R. \\|title\\=Baker, Jealous make final pitches as Maryland Democratic gubernatorial primary looms \\|url\\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/local/md\\-politics/baker\\-jealous\\-make\\-final\\-pitches\\-as\\-maryland\\-democratic\\-gubernatorial\\-primary\\-looms/2018/06/24/795adae2\\-75cd\\-11e8\\-805c\\-4b67019fcfe4\\_story.html \\|access\\-date\\=August 21, 2024 \\|work\\=The Washington Post \\|date\\=June 24, 2018}} and supported proposals to raise the minimum wage to [$15 an hour](/wiki/Fight_for_%2415 \"Fight for $15\"), increase funding for state community colleges,{{Cite news\\|last\\=Hernández\\|first\\=Arelis R.\\|title\\=Rushern Baker: Economic success, political bruising as leader of Prince George's\\|language\\=en\\-US\\|newspaper\\=Washington Post\\|url\\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/local/md\\-politics/rushern\\-baker\\-economic\\-success\\-political\\-bruising\\-as\\-leader\\-of\\-prince\\-georges/2018/06/07/29d60a8c\\-4e3b\\-11e8\\-84a0\\-458a1aa9ac0a\\_story.html\\|access\\-date\\=September 10, 2020\\|issn\\=0190\\-8286}} accelerate the state's clean energy transition,{{cite news \\|last1\\=Cook \\|first1\\=Chase \\|title\\=Rushern Baker pushes for 100 percent clean energy, defends school system CEO \\|url\\=https://www.baltimoresun.com/2018/04/19/rushern\\-baker\\-pushes\\-for\\-100\\-percent\\-clean\\-energy\\-defends\\-school\\-system\\-ceo/ \\|access\\-date\\=August 21, 2024 \\|work\\=The Baltimore Sun \\|date\\=April 19, 2018}} and revive the [Red Line](/wiki/Red_Line_%28Baltimore%29 \"Red Line (Baltimore)\").{{cite news \\|last1\\=Lazo \\|first1\\=Luz \\|title\\=Rushern Baker says as governor he would revive Baltimore’s Red Line \\|url\\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/dr\\-gridlock/wp/2017/01/24/rushern\\-baker\\-says\\-as\\-governor\\-he\\-would\\-revive\\-baltimores\\-red\\-line/ \\|access\\-date\\=August 21, 2024 \\|work\\=The Washington Post \\|date\\=January 24, 2017}} He received endorsements from U.S. Senator [Chris Van Hollen](/wiki/Chris_Van_Hollen \"Chris Van Hollen\"),{{cite news \\|last1\\=Wiggins \\|first1\\=Ovetta \\|title\\=Van Hollen endorses Baker in Maryland governor’s race \\|url\\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/local/md\\-politics/van\\-hollen\\-plans\\-to\\-endorse\\-baker\\-in\\-maryland\\-governors\\-race/2017/11/02/4e87f15a\\-c00c\\-11e7\\-97d9\\-bdab5a0ab381\\_story.html \\|access\\-date\\=August 21, 2024 \\|work\\=The Washington Post \\|date\\=November 2, 2017}} U.S. Representative [Steny Hoyer](/wiki/Steny_Hoyer \"Steny Hoyer\"),{{cite news \\|last1\\=Chason \\|first1\\=Rachel \\|title\\=Steny Hoyer backs Rushern Baker in Maryland governor’s race \\|url\\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/local/md\\-politics/steny\\-hoyer\\-backs\\-rushern\\-baker\\-in\\-maryland\\-governors\\-race/2018/03/26/caf6ba7e\\-3144\\-11e8\\-94fa\\-32d48460b955\\_story.html \\|access\\-date\\=August 21, 2024 \\|work\\=The Washington Post \\|date\\=March 26, 2018}} Attorney General [Brian Frosh](/wiki/Brian_Frosh \"Brian Frosh\"),{{cite news \\|last1\\=Wiggins \\|first1\\=Ovetta \\|title\\=Frosh endorses Baker in his bid for Maryland governor \\|url\\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/local/md\\-politics/frosh\\-endorses\\-baker\\-in\\-his\\-bid\\-for\\-maryland\\-governor/2017/12/06/e6a4b122\\-daaa\\-11e7\\-b1a8\\-62589434a581\\_story.html \\|access\\-date\\=August 21, 2024 \\|work\\=The Washington Post \\|date\\=December 6, 2017}} Montgomery County Executive [Isiah Leggett](/wiki/Isiah_Leggett \"Isiah Leggett\"),{{cite news \\|last1\\=Siegel \\|first1\\=Rachel \\|title\\=Isiah Leggett to endorse Rushern Baker, longtime colleague and friend, for Md. governor \\|url\\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/local/md\\-politics/isiah\\-leggett\\-to\\-endorse\\-rushern\\-baker\\-longtime\\-colleague\\-and\\-friend\\-for\\-md\\-governor/2018/01/22/1a08c6de\\-ffbd\\-11e7\\-bb03\\-722769454f82\\_story.html \\|access\\-date\\=August 21, 2024 \\|work\\=The Washington Post \\|date\\=January 22, 2018}} and former governors [Parris Glendening](/wiki/Parris_Glendening \"Parris Glendening\"){{cite news \\|last1\\=Chason \\|first1\\=Rachel \\|title\\=Former governor Parris Glendening backs Rushern Baker in Maryland governor race \\|url\\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/local/md\\-politics/former\\-governor\\-parris\\-glendening\\-backs\\-rushern\\-baker\\-in\\-maryland\\-governors\\-race/2018/04/19/cb7baf1e\\-43f9\\-11e8\\-ad8f\\-27a8c409298b\\_story.html \\|access\\-date\\=August 21, 2024 \\|work\\=The Washington Post \\|date\\=April 19, 2018}} and [Martin O'Malley](/wiki/Martin_O%27Malley \"Martin O'Malley\").{{cite news \\|last1\\=Hernández \\|first1\\=Arelis R. \\|title\\=Baker’s campaign hurt by weak funding, enemies he made as county executive \\|url\\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/local/md\\-politics/bakers\\-campaign\\-hurt\\-by\\-weak\\-funding\\-enemies\\-he\\-made\\-as\\-county\\-executive/2018/06/27/758843d8\\-700e\\-11e8\\-bd50\\-b80389a4e569\\_story.html \\|access\\-date\\=August 21, 2024 \\|work\\=The Washington Post \\|date\\=June 7, 2018}} He also received financial support from businessman [David Trone](/wiki/David_Trone \"David Trone\"), who was [running for Congress](/wiki/2018_United_States_House_of_Representatives_elections_in_Maryland%23District_6 \"2018 United States House of Representatives elections in Maryland#District 6\") in [Maryland's 6th congressional district](/wiki/Maryland%27s_6th_congressional_district \"Maryland's 6th congressional district\").{{cite news \\|last1\\=Hicks \\|first1\\=Josh \\|title\\=Wine magnate David Trone is throwing his support and money behind Rushern Baker’s bid for Maryland governor \\|url\\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/local/md\\-politics/wine\\-magnate\\-david\\-trone\\-is\\-throwing\\-his\\-support\\-and\\-his\\-money\\-behind\\-rushern\\-bakers\\-bid\\-for\\-maryland\\-governor/2018/02/13/3aee364a\\-10fc\\-11e8\\-9065\\-e55346f6de81\\_story.html \\|access\\-date\\=August 21, 2024 \\|work\\=The Washington Post \\|date\\=February 14, 2018}}",
"[thumb\\|2018 Democratic gubernatorial primary election results by county:\n{{collapsible list\n\\|title\\=Map legend\n\\|{{legend\\|\\#87aade\\|Jealous—40–50%}}\n\\|{{legend\\|\\#afc6e9\\|Jealous—30–40%}}\n\\|{{legend\\|\\#afe9af\\|Baker—30–40%}}\n\\|{{legend\\|\\#87de87\\|Baker—40–50%}}\n}}](/wiki/File:Maryland_Governor_Democratic_primary%2C_2018.svg \"Maryland Governor Democratic primary, 2018.svg\")\nBaker was defeated by former [NAACP](/wiki/NAACP \"NAACP\") president [Ben Jealous](/wiki/Ben_Jealous \"Ben Jealous\") in the Democratic primary election on June 26, 2018, placing second with 29\\.3 percent of the vote.{{cite news \\|last1\\=Wiggins \\|first1\\=Ovetta \\|last2\\=Hernández \\|first2\\=Arelis R. \\|last3\\=McCartney \\|first3\\=Robert \\|title\\=Ben Jealous wins Maryland primary, vows to topple Republican Gov. Larry Hogan \\|url\\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/local/md\\-politics/maryland\\-democrats\\-choose\\-between\\-insurgents\\-and\\-party\\-establishment\\-in\\-crowded\\-primary/2018/06/26/a3aabc9a\\-77a8\\-11e8\\-80be\\-6d32e182a3bc\\_story.html \\|access\\-date\\=August 21, 2024 \\|work\\=The Washington Post \\|date\\=June 26, 2018}} *[The Washington Post](/wiki/The_Washington_Post \"The Washington Post\")* blamed his loss on Baker's failure to aggressively tout his accomplishments as county executive, lackluster fundraising skills, and his past conflicts with county unions and activists.{{cite news \\|last1\\=Hernández \\|first1\\=Arelis R. \\|title\\=Baker’s campaign hurt by weak funding, enemies he made as county executive \\|url\\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/local/md\\-politics/bakers\\-campaign\\-hurt\\-by\\-weak\\-funding\\-enemies\\-he\\-made\\-as\\-county\\-executive/2018/06/27/758843d8\\-700e\\-11e8\\-bd50\\-b80389a4e569\\_story.html \\|access\\-date\\=August 21, 2024 \\|work\\=The Washington Post \\|date\\=June 27, 2018}} Following his defeat, Baker campaigned for Jealous in the general election,{{cite news \\|last1\\=Armus \\|first1\\=Teo \\|title\\=Ben Jealous gets warm welcome from Rushern Baker, his vanquished party rival \\|url\\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/local/md\\-politics/ben\\-jealous\\-gets\\-warm\\-welcome\\-from\\-rushern\\-baker\\-his\\-vanquished\\-party\\-rival/2018/07/18/2c6f03a6\\-8aaf\\-11e8\\-85ae\\-511bc1146b0b\\_story.html \\|access\\-date\\=August 21, 2024 \\|work\\=The Washington Post \\|date\\=July 19, 2018}} in which Jealous was defeated by Hogan.{{cite news \\|last1\\=Ng \\|first1\\=Greg \\|title\\=Gov. Larry Hogan makes history with re\\-election in Maryland \\|url\\=https://www.wbaltv.com/article/hogan\\-becomes\\-first\\-gop\\-governor\\-to\\-win\\-second\\-term\\-in\\-maryland\\-since\\-1954/24510818 \\|access\\-date\\=August 21, 2024 \\|work\\=WBAL\\-TV \\|date\\=November 7, 2018 \\|language\\=en}}",
"#### 2022",
"{{main\\|2022 Maryland gubernatorial election}}\nOn April 8, 2021, Baker that he would again run for governor of Maryland in [2022](/wiki/2022_Maryland_gubernatorial_election \"2022 Maryland gubernatorial election\"), seeking to succeed term\\-limited Governor [Larry Hogan](/wiki/Larry_Hogan \"Larry Hogan\").{{cite news \\|last1\\=DePuyt \\|first1\\=Bruce \\|title\\=Rushern Baker to Enter 2022 Race for Governor \\|url\\=https://www.marylandmatters.org/2021/04/08/rushern\\-baker\\-to\\-enter\\-2022\\-race\\-for\\-governor/ \\|access\\-date\\=November 20, 2021 \\|work\\=\\[\\[Maryland Matters]] \\|date\\=April 8, 2021}} His running mate was [Nancy Navarro](/wiki/Nancy_Navarro \"Nancy Navarro\"), a member of the [Montgomery County](/wiki/Howard_County%2C_Maryland \"Howard County, Maryland\") Council from 2009 to 2022\\.{{cite news \\|last1\\=DePuyt \\|first1\\=Bruce \\|title\\=Rushern Baker Taps Nancy Navarro, Montgomery Councilmember, as Running Mate \\|url\\=https://www.marylandmatters.org/2021/10/12/rushern\\-baker\\-taps\\-nancy\\-navarro\\-montgomery\\-councilmember\\-as\\-running\\-mate/ \\|access\\-date\\=November 20, 2021 \\|work\\=\\[\\[Maryland Matters]] \\|date\\=October 12, 2021}} During the Democratic primary, Baker unveiled a crime and policing plan that included proposals to increase police hiring, address vacant housing in Baltimore, and provide jobs and education to [squeegee boys](/wiki/Squeegee_man \"Squeegee man\").{{cite news \\|last1\\=Wiggins \\|first1\\=Ovetta \\|title\\=Baker wants more officers hired to ‘stop the slaughter’ in Baltimore \\|url\\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/dc\\-md\\-va/2022/05/03/rushern\\-baker\\-crime\\-baltimore/ \\|access\\-date\\=August 21, 2024 \\|work\\=The Washington Post \\|date\\=May 3, 2022}} He also criticized the leaked draft majority opinion for the [U.S. Supreme Court](/wiki/U.S._Supreme_Court \"U.S. Supreme Court\") case *[Dobbs v. Jackson Women's Health Organization](/wiki/Dobbs_v._Jackson_Women%27s_Health_Organization \"Dobbs v. Jackson Women's Health Organization\")*.{{cite news \\|last1\\=Shwe \\|first1\\=Elizabeth \\|last2\\=Gaines \\|first2\\=Danielle E. \\|title\\=After Leak of Draft SCOTUS Opinion on Abortion Rights, Maryland Lawmakers and Candidates Pledge Action \\|url\\=https://marylandmatters.org/2022/05/03/after\\-leak\\-of\\-draft\\-scotus\\-opinion\\-on\\-abortion\\-rights\\-maryland\\-lawmakers\\-and\\-candidates\\-pledge\\-action/ \\|access\\-date\\=August 21, 2024 \\|work\\=Maryland Matters \\|date\\=May 4, 2024}}",
"Initially viewed as one of the frontrunners in the race alongside Comptroller [Peter Franchot](/wiki/Peter_Franchot \"Peter Franchot\"), Baker fell behind in polls and fundraising; by June 2022, his campaign reported having less than $100,000 cash on hand and placing a distant fourth in polls of the Democratic primary. Furthermore, many of the high\\-profile elected officials who backed Baker's 2018 campaign had endorsed other candidates. He suspended his campaign on June 10, 2022\\.{{cite news \\|last1\\=DePuyt \\|first1\\=Bruce \\|title\\=Rushern Baker Suspends Gubernatorial Campaign, Will Likely Endorse a Democratic Rival Soon \\|url\\=https://www.marylandmatters.org/2022/06/10/rushern\\-baker\\-suspends\\-gubernatorial\\-campaign\\-will\\-likely\\-endorse\\-a\\-democratic\\-rival\\-soon/ \\|access\\-date\\=June 10, 2022 \\|work\\=\\[\\[Maryland Matters]] \\|date\\=June 10, 2022}}",
"### Post\\-county executive career",
"Since leaving office, Baker has run his own consulting firm, Baker Strategy Group.{{cite news \\|last1\\=Ford \\|first1\\=William J. \\|title\\=Black activists and political leaders mobilizing to make cannabis legal in Maryland \\|url\\=https://marylandmatters.org/2022/10/16/black\\-activists\\-and\\-political\\-leaders\\-mobilizing\\-to\\-make\\-cannabis\\-legal\\-in\\-maryland/ \\|access\\-date\\=August 21, 2024 \\|work\\=Maryland Matters \\|date\\=October 16, 2022}} In July 2019, Senate President [Thomas V. Miller Jr.](/wiki/Thomas_V._Miller_Jr. \"Thomas V. Miller Jr.\") appointed Baker to the [University of Maryland Medical System](/wiki/University_of_Maryland_Medical_System \"University of Maryland Medical System\") board.{{cite news \\|last1\\=Chason \\|first1\\=Rachel \\|title\\=Rushern Baker appointed to University of Maryland Medical System board \\|url\\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/local/md\\-politics/rushern\\-baker\\-appointed\\-to\\-university\\-of\\-maryland\\-medical\\-system\\-board/2019/07/08/5f6dd81e\\-a1c8\\-11e9\\-b732\\-41a79c2551bf\\_story.html \\|access\\-date\\=August 21, 2024 \\|work\\=The Washington Post \\|date\\=July 9, 2019}} During his tenure, Baker worked with the [University of Maryland, College Park](/wiki/University_of_Maryland%2C_College_Park \"University of Maryland, College Park\") to establish the Elected Executive Leadership Program.{{cite news \\|last1\\=Kurtz \\|first1\\=Josh \\|title\\=Lobbying Shop Adds Ex\\-State Senator, Other Strategists \\|url\\=https://marylandmatters.org/2019/07/11/lobbying\\-shop\\-adds\\-ex\\-state\\-senator\\-other\\-strategists/ \\|access\\-date\\=August 21, 2024 \\|work\\=Maryland Matters \\|date\\=July 11, 2019}}{{cite news \\|last1\\=DePuyt \\|first1\\=Bruce \\|title\\=Baker, University Teaming Up on Leadership Institute \\|url\\=https://marylandmatters.org/2019/07/22/baker\\-university\\-teaming\\-up\\-on\\-leadership\\-institute/ \\|access\\-date\\=August 21, 2024 \\|work\\=Maryland Matters \\|date\\=July 22, 2019}} He left the board 2021\\.",
""
] |
History
-------
{{Main\|History of quantum field theory}}
Quantum field theory emerged from the work of generations of theoretical physicists spanning much of the 20th century. Its development began in the 1920s with the description of interactions between [light](/wiki/Light "Light") and [electrons](/wiki/Electrons "Electrons"), culminating in the first quantum field theory—[quantum electrodynamics](/wiki/Quantum_electrodynamics "Quantum electrodynamics"). A major theoretical obstacle soon followed with the appearance and persistence of various infinities in perturbative calculations, a problem only resolved in the 1950s with the invention of the [renormalization](/wiki/Renormalization "Renormalization") procedure. A second major barrier came with QFT's apparent inability to describe the [weak](/wiki/Weak_interaction "Weak interaction") and [strong interactions](/wiki/Strong_interaction "Strong interaction"), to the point where some theorists called for the abandonment of the field theoretic approach. The development of [gauge theory](/wiki/Gauge_theory "Gauge theory") and the completion of the [Standard Model](/wiki/Standard_Model "Standard Model") in the 1970s led to a renaissance of quantum field theory.
### Theoretical background
[thumb\|200px\|[Magnetic field lines](/wiki/Magnetic_field_lines "Magnetic field lines") visualized using [iron filings](/wiki/Iron_filings "Iron filings"). When a piece of paper is sprinkled with iron filings and placed above a bar magnet, the filings align according to the direction of the magnetic field, forming arcs allowing viewers to clearly see the poles of the magnet and to see the magnetic field generated.](/wiki/File:Magnet0873.png "Magnet0873.png")
Quantum field theory results from the combination of [classical field theory](/wiki/Classical_field_theory "Classical field theory"), [quantum mechanics](/wiki/Quantum_mechanics "Quantum mechanics"), and [special relativity](/wiki/Special_relativity "Special relativity").{{rp\|xi}} A brief overview of these theoretical precursors follows.
The earliest successful classical field theory is one that emerged from [Newton's law of universal gravitation](/wiki/Newton%27s_law_of_universal_gravitation "Newton's law of universal gravitation"), despite the complete absence of the concept of fields from his 1687 treatise *[Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica](/wiki/Philosophi%C3%A6_Naturalis_Principia_Mathematica "Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica")*. The force of gravity as described by Isaac Newton is an "[action at a distance](/wiki/Action_at_a_distance "Action at a distance")"—its effects on faraway objects are instantaneous, no matter the distance. In an exchange of letters with [Richard Bentley](/wiki/Richard_Bentley "Richard Bentley"), however, Newton stated that "it is inconceivable that inanimate brute matter should, without the mediation of something else which is not material, operate upon and affect other matter without mutual contact".{{rp\|4}} It was not until the 18th century that mathematical physicists discovered a convenient description of gravity based on fields—a numerical quantity (a [vector](/wiki/Vector_%28mathematics_and_physics%29 "Vector (mathematics and physics)") in the case of [gravitational field](/wiki/Gravitational_field "Gravitational field")) assigned to every point in space indicating the action of gravity on any particle at that point. However, this was considered merely a mathematical trick.{{cite journal \|last\=Weinberg \|first\=Steven \|author\-link\=Steven Weinberg \|date\=1977 \|title\=The Search for Unity: Notes for a History of Quantum Field Theory \|journal\=Daedalus \|volume\=106 \|issue\=4 \|pages\=17–35 \|jstor\=20024506 }}{{rp\|18}}
Fields began to take on an existence of their own with the development of [electromagnetism](/wiki/Electromagnetism "Electromagnetism") in the 19th century. [Michael Faraday](/wiki/Michael_Faraday "Michael Faraday") coined the English term "field" in 1845\. He introduced fields as properties of space (even when it is devoid of matter) having physical effects. He argued against "action at a distance", and proposed that interactions between objects occur via space\-filling "lines of force". This description of fields remains to this day.{{cite journal
\| last \=Hobson
\| first \=Art
\| title \=There are no particles, there are only fields
\| journal \=\[\[American Journal of Physics]]
\| volume \=81
\| issue \=211
\| pages \=211–223
\| year \=2013
\| doi \=10\.1119/1\.4789885
\| arxiv \=1204\.4616
\| bibcode \=2013AmJPh..81\..211H
\| s2cid \=18254182
}}{{Cite book \|url\=https://archive.org/details/oxfordcompaniont0000unse\_s7n3 \|title\=The Oxford companion to the history of modern science \|date\=2003 \|publisher\=\[\[Oxford University Press]] \|isbn\=978\-0\-19\-511229\-0 \|editor\-last\=Heilbron \|editor\-first\=J. L. \|editor\-link\=John L. Heilbron \|location\=Oxford ; New York}}{{rp\|301}}{{Cite book \|last\=Thomson \|first\=Joseph John \|author\-link\=Joseph John Thomson \|url\=https://archive.org/details/notesonrecentres00thom \|title\=Notes on recent researches in electricity and magnetism, intended as a sequel to Professor Clerk\-Maxwell's 'Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism' \|last2\=Maxwell \|first2\=James Clerk \|publisher\=\[\[Clarendon Press]] \|year\=1893}}{{rp\|2}}
The theory of [classical electromagnetism](/wiki/Classical_electromagnetism "Classical electromagnetism") was completed in 1864 with [Maxwell's equations](/wiki/Maxwell%27s_equation "Maxwell's equation"), which described the relationship between the [electric field](/wiki/Electric_field "Electric field"), the [magnetic field](/wiki/Magnetic_field "Magnetic field"), [electric current](/wiki/Electric_current "Electric current"), and [electric charge](/wiki/Electric_charge "Electric charge"). Maxwell's equations implied the existence of [electromagnetic waves](/wiki/Electromagnetic_waves "Electromagnetic waves"), a phenomenon whereby electric and magnetic fields propagate from one spatial point to another at a finite speed, which turns out to be the [speed of light](/wiki/Speed_of_light "Speed of light"). Action\-at\-a\-distance was thus conclusively refuted.{{rp\|19}}
Despite the enormous success of classical electromagnetism, it was unable to account for the discrete lines in [atomic spectra](/wiki/Emission_spectrum "Emission spectrum"), nor for the distribution of [blackbody radiation](/wiki/Blackbody_radiation "Blackbody radiation") in different wavelengths.{{cite journal \|last\=Weisskopf \|first\=Victor \|author\-link\=Victor Weisskopf \|date\=November 1981 \|title\=The development of field theory in the last 50 years \|journal\=\[\[Physics Today]] \|volume\=34 \|issue\=11 \|pages\=69–85 \|doi\=10\.1063/1\.2914365 \|bibcode\=1981PhT....34k..69W }} [Max Planck](/wiki/Max_Planck "Max Planck")'s study of blackbody radiation marked the beginning of quantum mechanics. He treated atoms, which absorb and emit [electromagnetic radiation](/wiki/Electromagnetic_radiation "Electromagnetic radiation"), as tiny [oscillators](/wiki/Oscillator "Oscillator") with the crucial property that their energies can only take on a series of discrete, rather than continuous, values. These are known as [quantum harmonic oscillators](/wiki/Quantum_harmonic_oscillator "Quantum harmonic oscillator"). This process of restricting energies to discrete values is called quantization.{{Cite book \|last\=Heisenberg \|first\=Werner \|author\-link\=Werner Heisenberg \|url\=https://archive.org/details/physics\-and\-philosophy\-the\-revolution\-in\-modern\-scirnce\-werner\-heisenberg\-f.\-s.\-c.\-northrop \|title\=Physics and philosophy: the revolution in modern science \|publisher\=\[\[Prometheus Books]] \|year\=1999 \|isbn\=978\-1\-57392\-694\-2 \|series\=Great minds series \|location\=Amherst, N.Y}}{{rp\|Ch.2}} Building on this idea, [Albert Einstein](/wiki/Albert_Einstein "Albert Einstein") proposed in 1905 an explanation for the [photoelectric effect](/wiki/Photoelectric_effect "Photoelectric effect"), that light is composed of individual packets of energy called [photons](/wiki/Photon "Photon") (the quanta of light). This implied that the electromagnetic radiation, while being waves in the classical electromagnetic field, also exists in the form of particles.
In 1913, [Niels Bohr](/wiki/Niels_Bohr "Niels Bohr") introduced the [Bohr model](/wiki/Bohr_model "Bohr model") of atomic structure, wherein [electrons](/wiki/Electrons "Electrons") within atoms can only take on a series of discrete, rather than continuous, energies. This is another example of quantization. The Bohr model successfully explained the discrete nature of atomic spectral lines. In 1924, [Louis de Broglie](/wiki/Louis_de_Broglie "Louis de Broglie") proposed the hypothesis of [wave–particle duality](/wiki/Wave%E2%80%93particle_duality "Wave–particle duality"), that microscopic particles exhibit both wave\-like and particle\-like properties under different circumstances. Uniting these scattered ideas, a coherent discipline, [quantum mechanics](/wiki/Quantum_mechanics "Quantum mechanics"), was formulated between 1925 and 1926, with important contributions from [Max Planck](/wiki/Max_Planck "Max Planck"), [Louis de Broglie](/wiki/Louis_de_Broglie "Louis de Broglie"), [Werner Heisenberg](/wiki/Werner_Heisenberg "Werner Heisenberg"), [Max Born](/wiki/Max_Born "Max Born"), [Erwin Schrödinger](/wiki/Erwin_Schr%C3%B6dinger "Erwin Schrödinger"), [Paul Dirac](/wiki/Paul_Dirac "Paul Dirac"), and [Wolfgang Pauli](/wiki/Wolfgang_Pauli "Wolfgang Pauli").{{r\|weinberg\|page1\=22–23}}
In the same year as his paper on the photoelectric effect, Einstein published his theory of [special relativity](/wiki/Special_relativity "Special relativity"), built on Maxwell's electromagnetism. New rules, called [Lorentz transformations](/wiki/Lorentz_transformations "Lorentz transformations"), were given for the way time and space coordinates of an event change under changes in the observer's velocity, and the distinction between time and space was blurred.{{r\|weinberg\|page1\=19}} It was proposed that all physical laws must be the same for observers at different velocities, i.e. that physical laws be invariant under Lorentz transformations.
Two difficulties remained. Observationally, the [Schrödinger equation](/wiki/Schr%C3%B6dinger_equation "Schrödinger equation") underlying quantum mechanics could explain the [stimulated emission](/wiki/Stimulated_emission "Stimulated emission") of radiation from atoms, where an electron emits a new photon under the action of an external electromagnetic field, but it was unable to explain [spontaneous emission](/wiki/Spontaneous_emission "Spontaneous emission"), where an electron spontaneously decreases in energy and emits a photon even without the action of an external electromagnetic field. Theoretically, the Schrödinger equation could not describe photons and was inconsistent with the principles of special relativity—it treats time as an ordinary number while promoting spatial coordinates to [linear operators](/wiki/Linear_operator "Linear operator").
### Quantum electrodynamics
Quantum field theory naturally began with the study of electromagnetic interactions, as the electromagnetic field was the only known classical field as of the 1920s.{{r\|shifman\|page1\=1}}
Through the works of Born, Heisenberg, and [Pascual Jordan](/wiki/Pascual_Jordan "Pascual Jordan") in 1925–1926, a quantum theory of the free electromagnetic field (one with no interactions with matter) was developed via [canonical quantization](/wiki/Canonical_quantization "Canonical quantization") by treating the electromagnetic field as a set of [quantum harmonic oscillators](/wiki/Quantum_harmonic_oscillator "Quantum harmonic oscillator").{{r\|shifman\|page1\=1}} With the exclusion of interactions, however, such a theory was yet incapable of making quantitative predictions about the real world.{{r\|weinberg\|page1\=22}}
In his seminal 1927 paper *The quantum theory of the emission and absorption of radiation*, Dirac coined the term [quantum electrodynamics](/wiki/Quantum_electrodynamics "Quantum electrodynamics") (QED), a theory that adds upon the terms describing the free electromagnetic field an additional interaction term between electric [current density](/wiki/Current_density "Current density") and the [electromagnetic vector potential](/wiki/Electromagnetic_four-potential "Electromagnetic four-potential"). Using first\-order [perturbation theory](/wiki/Perturbation_theory_%28quantum_mechanics%29 "Perturbation theory (quantum mechanics)"), he successfully explained the phenomenon of spontaneous emission. According to the [uncertainty principle](/wiki/Uncertainty_principle "Uncertainty principle") in quantum mechanics, quantum harmonic oscillators cannot remain stationary, but they have a non\-zero minimum energy and must always be oscillating, even in the lowest energy state (the [ground state](/wiki/Ground_state "Ground state")). Therefore, even in a perfect [vacuum](/wiki/Vacuum "Vacuum"), there remains an oscillating electromagnetic field having [zero\-point energy](/wiki/Zero-point_energy "Zero-point energy"). It is this [quantum fluctuation](/wiki/Quantum_fluctuation "Quantum fluctuation") of electromagnetic fields in the vacuum that "stimulates" the spontaneous emission of radiation by electrons in atoms. Dirac's theory was hugely successful in explaining both the emission and absorption of radiation by atoms; by applying second\-order perturbation theory, it was able to account for the [scattering](/wiki/Scattering "Scattering") of photons, [resonance fluorescence](/wiki/Resonance_fluorescence "Resonance fluorescence") and non\-relativistic [Compton scattering](/wiki/Compton_scattering "Compton scattering"). Nonetheless, the application of higher\-order perturbation theory was plagued with problematic infinities in calculations.{{rp\|71}}
In 1928, Dirac wrote down a [wave equation](/wiki/Wave_equation "Wave equation") that described relativistic electrons: the [Dirac equation](/wiki/Dirac_equation "Dirac equation"). It had the following important consequences: the [spin](/wiki/Spin_%28physics%29 "Spin (physics)") of an electron is 1/2; the electron [*g*\-factor](/wiki/G-factor_%28physics%29 "G-factor (physics)") is 2; it led to the correct Sommerfeld formula for the [fine structure](/wiki/Fine_structure "Fine structure") of the [hydrogen atom](/wiki/Hydrogen_atom "Hydrogen atom"); and it could be used to derive the [Klein–Nishina formula](/wiki/Klein%E2%80%93Nishina_formula "Klein–Nishina formula") for relativistic Compton scattering. Although the results were fruitful, the theory also apparently implied the existence of negative energy states, which would cause atoms to be unstable, since they could always decay to lower energy states by the emission of radiation.{{rp\|71–72}}
The prevailing view at the time was that the world was composed of two very different ingredients: material particles (such as electrons) and [quantum fields](/wiki/Field_%28physics%29%23Quantum_fields "Field (physics)#Quantum fields") (such as photons). Material particles were considered to be eternal, with their physical state described by the probabilities of finding each particle in any given region of space or range of velocities. On the other hand, photons were considered merely the [excited states](/wiki/Excited_state "Excited state") of the underlying quantized electromagnetic field, and could be freely created or destroyed. It was between 1928 and 1930 that Jordan, [Eugene Wigner](/wiki/Eugene_Wigner "Eugene Wigner"), Heisenberg, Pauli, and [Enrico Fermi](/wiki/Enrico_Fermi "Enrico Fermi") discovered that material particles could also be seen as excited states of quantum fields. Just as photons are excited states of the quantized electromagnetic field, so each type of particle had its corresponding quantum field: an electron field, a proton field, etc. Given enough energy, it would now be possible to create material particles. Building on this idea, Fermi proposed in 1932 an explanation for [beta decay](/wiki/Beta_decay "Beta decay") known as [Fermi's interaction](/wiki/Fermi%27s_interaction "Fermi's interaction"). [Atomic nuclei](/wiki/Atomic_nucleus "Atomic nucleus") do not contain electrons *per se*, but in the process of decay, an electron is created out of the surrounding electron field, analogous to the photon created from the surrounding electromagnetic field in the radiative decay of an excited atom.{{r\|weinberg\|page1\=22–23}}
It was realized in 1929 by Dirac and others that negative energy states implied by the Dirac equation could be removed by assuming the existence of particles with the same mass as electrons but opposite electric charge. This not only ensured the stability of atoms, but it was also the first proposal of the existence of [antimatter](/wiki/Antimatter "Antimatter"). Indeed, the evidence for [positrons](/wiki/Positron "Positron") was discovered in 1932 by [Carl David Anderson](/wiki/Carl_David_Anderson "Carl David Anderson") in [cosmic rays](/wiki/Cosmic_ray "Cosmic ray"). With enough energy, such as by absorbing a photon, an electron\-positron pair could be created, a process called [pair production](/wiki/Pair_production "Pair production"); the reverse process, annihilation, could also occur with the emission of a photon. This showed that particle numbers need not be fixed during an interaction. Historically, however, positrons were at first thought of as "holes" in an infinite electron sea, rather than a new kind of particle, and this theory was referred to as the [Dirac hole theory](/wiki/Dirac_hole_theory "Dirac hole theory").{{rp\|72}}{{r\|weinberg\|page1\=23}} QFT naturally incorporated antiparticles in its formalism.{{r\|weinberg\|page1\=24}}
### Infinities and renormalization
[Robert Oppenheimer](/wiki/Robert_Oppenheimer "Robert Oppenheimer") showed in 1930 that higher\-order perturbative calculations in QED always resulted in infinite quantities, such as the electron [self\-energy](/wiki/Self-energy "Self-energy") and the vacuum zero\-point energy of the electron and photon fields, suggesting that the computational methods at the time could not properly deal with interactions involving photons with extremely high momenta.{{r\|weinberg\|page1\=25}} It was not until 20 years later that a systematic approach to remove such infinities was developed.
A series of papers was published between 1934 and 1938 by [Ernst Stueckelberg](/wiki/Ernst_Stueckelberg "Ernst Stueckelberg") that established a relativistically invariant formulation of QFT. In 1947, Stueckelberg also independently developed a complete renormalization procedure. Such achievements were not understood and recognized by the theoretical community.
Faced with these infinities, [John Archibald Wheeler](/wiki/John_Archibald_Wheeler "John Archibald Wheeler") and Heisenberg proposed, in 1937 and 1943 respectively, to supplant the problematic QFT with the so\-called [S\-matrix theory](/wiki/S-matrix_theory "S-matrix theory"). Since the specific details of microscopic interactions are inaccessible to observations, the theory should only attempt to describe the relationships between a small number of [observables](/wiki/Observable "Observable") (*e.g.* the energy of an atom) in an interaction, rather than be concerned with the microscopic minutiae of the interaction. In 1945, [Richard Feynman](/wiki/Richard_Feynman "Richard Feynman") and Wheeler daringly suggested abandoning QFT altogether and proposed [action\-at\-a\-distance](/wiki/Action-at-a-distance "Action-at-a-distance") as the mechanism of particle interactions.{{r\|weinberg\|page1\=26}}
In 1947, [Willis Lamb](/wiki/Willis_Lamb "Willis Lamb") and [Robert Retherford](/wiki/Robert_Retherford "Robert Retherford") measured the minute difference in the 2*S*1/2 and 2*P*1/2 energy levels of the hydrogen atom, also called the [Lamb shift](/wiki/Lamb_shift "Lamb shift"). By ignoring the contribution of photons whose energy exceeds the electron mass, [Hans Bethe](/wiki/Hans_Bethe "Hans Bethe") successfully estimated the numerical value of the Lamb shift.{{r\|weinberg\|page1\=28}} Subsequently, [Norman Myles Kroll](/wiki/Norman_Myles_Kroll "Norman Myles Kroll"), Lamb, [James Bruce French](/wiki/James_Bruce_French "James Bruce French"), and [Victor Weisskopf](/wiki/Victor_Weisskopf "Victor Weisskopf") again confirmed this value using an approach in which infinities cancelled other infinities to result in finite quantities. However, this method was clumsy and unreliable and could not be generalized to other calculations.
The breakthrough eventually came around 1950 when a more robust method for eliminating infinities was developed by [Julian Schwinger](/wiki/Julian_Schwinger "Julian Schwinger"), [Richard Feynman](/wiki/Richard_Feynman "Richard Feynman"), [Freeman Dyson](/wiki/Freeman_Dyson "Freeman Dyson"), and [Shinichiro Tomonaga](/wiki/Shinichiro_Tomonaga "Shinichiro Tomonaga"). The main idea is to replace the calculated values of mass and charge, infinite though they may be, by their finite measured values. This systematic computational procedure is known as [renormalization](/wiki/Renormalization "Renormalization") and can be applied to arbitrary order in perturbation theory. As Tomonaga said in his Nobel lecture:
> Since those parts of the modified mass and charge due to field reactions \[become infinite], it is impossible to calculate them by the theory. However, the mass and charge observed in experiments are not the original mass and charge but the mass and charge as modified by field reactions, and they are finite. On the other hand, the mass and charge appearing in the theory are… the values modified by field reactions. Since this is so, and particularly since the theory is unable to calculate the modified mass and charge, we may adopt the procedure of substituting experimental values for them phenomenologically... This procedure is called the renormalization of mass and charge… After long, laborious calculations, less skillful than Schwinger's, we obtained a result... which was in agreement with \[the] Americans'.{{cite journal \|last1\=Tomonaga \|first1\=Shinichiro \|title\=Development of Quantum Electrodynamics \|url\=https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/physics/1965/tomonaga/lecture/ \|journal\=Science\|year\=1966 \|volume\=154 \|issue\=3751 \|pages\=864–868 \|doi\=10\.1126/science.154\.3751\.864 \|pmid\=17744604 \|bibcode\=1966Sci...154\..864T }}
By applying the renormalization procedure, calculations were finally made to explain the electron's [anomalous magnetic moment](/wiki/Anomalous_magnetic_moment "Anomalous magnetic moment") (the deviation of the electron [*g*\-factor](/wiki/G-factor_%28physics%29 "G-factor (physics)") from 2\) and [vacuum polarization](/wiki/Vacuum_polarization "Vacuum polarization"). These results agreed with experimental measurements to a remarkable degree, thus marking the end of a "war against infinities".
At the same time, Feynman introduced the [path integral formulation](/wiki/Path_integral_formulation "Path integral formulation") of quantum mechanics and [Feynman diagrams](/wiki/Feynman_diagrams "Feynman diagrams").{{r\|shifman\|page1\=2}} The latter can be used to visually and intuitively organize and to help compute terms in the perturbative expansion. Each diagram can be interpreted as paths of particles in an interaction, with each vertex and line having a corresponding mathematical expression, and the product of these expressions gives the [scattering amplitude](/wiki/Scattering_amplitude "Scattering amplitude") of the interaction represented by the diagram.{{r\|peskin\|page1\=5}}
It was with the invention of the renormalization procedure and Feynman diagrams that QFT finally arose as a complete theoretical framework.{{r\|shifman\|page1\=2}}
### Non\-renormalizability
Given the tremendous success of QED, many theorists believed, in the few years after 1949, that QFT could soon provide an understanding of all microscopic phenomena, not only the interactions between photons, electrons, and positrons. Contrary to this optimism, QFT entered yet another period of depression that lasted for almost two decades.{{r\|weinberg\|page1\=30}}
The first obstacle was the limited applicability of the renormalization procedure. In perturbative calculations in QED, all infinite quantities could be eliminated by redefining a small (finite) number of physical quantities (namely the mass and charge of the electron). Dyson proved in 1949 that this is only possible for a small class of theories called "renormalizable theories", of which QED is an example. However, most theories, including the [Fermi theory](/wiki/Fermi%27s_interaction "Fermi's interaction") of the [weak interaction](/wiki/Weak_interaction "Weak interaction"), are "non\-renormalizable". Any perturbative calculation in these theories beyond the first order would result in infinities that could not be removed by redefining a finite number of physical quantities.{{r\|weinberg\|page1\=30}}
The second major problem stemmed from the limited validity of the Feynman diagram method, which is based on a series expansion in perturbation theory. In order for the series to converge and low\-order calculations to be a good approximation, the [coupling constant](/wiki/Coupling_constant "Coupling constant"), in which the series is expanded, must be a sufficiently small number. The coupling constant in QED is the [fine\-structure constant](/wiki/Fine-structure_constant "Fine-structure constant") {{math\|''α'' ≈ 1/137}}, which is small enough that only the simplest, lowest order, Feynman diagrams need to be considered in realistic calculations. In contrast, the coupling constant in the [strong interaction](/wiki/Strong_interaction "Strong interaction") is roughly of the order of one, making complicated, higher order, Feynman diagrams just as important as simple ones. There was thus no way of deriving reliable quantitative predictions for the strong interaction using perturbative QFT methods.{{r\|weinberg\|page1\=31}}
With these difficulties looming, many theorists began to turn away from QFT. Some focused on [symmetry](/wiki/Symmetry_%28physics%29 "Symmetry (physics)") principles and [conservation laws](/wiki/Conservation_law "Conservation law"), while others picked up the old S\-matrix theory of Wheeler and Heisenberg. QFT was used heuristically as guiding principles, but not as a basis for quantitative calculations.{{r\|weinberg\|page1\=31}}
### Source theory
Schwinger, however, took a different route. For more than a decade he and his students had been nearly the only exponents of field theory,{{rp\|p\=454}} but in 1951{{Cite journal \|last\=Schwinger \|first\=Julian \|date\=July 1951 \|title\=On the Green's functions of quantized fields. I \|journal\=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences \|language\=en \|volume\=37 \|issue\=7 \|pages\=452–455 \|doi\=10\.1073/pnas.37\.7\.452 \|issn\=0027\-8424 \|pmc\=1063400 \|pmid\=16578383 \|doi\-access\=free \|bibcode\=1951PNAS...37\..452S }}{{Cite journal \|last\=Schwinger \|first\=Julian \|date\=July 1951 \|title\=On the Green's functions of quantized fields. II \|journal\=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences \|language\=en \|volume\=37 \|issue\=7 \|pages\=455–459 \|doi\=10\.1073/pnas.37\.7\.455 \|issn\=0027\-8424 \|pmc\=1063401 \|pmid\=16578384 \|doi\-access\=free \|bibcode\=1951PNAS...37\..455S }} he found a way around the problem of the infinities with a new method using *external sources* as currents coupled to gauge fields.{{Cite journal \|last\=Schweber \|first\=Silvan S. \|date\=2005\-05\-31 \|title\=The sources of Schwinger's Green's functions \|journal\=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences \|language\=en \|volume\=102 \|issue\=22 \|pages\=7783–7788 \|doi\=10\.1073/pnas.0405167101 \|issn\=0027\-8424 \|pmc\=1142349 \|pmid\=15930139 \|doi\-access\=free }} Motivated by the former findings, Schwinger kept pursuing this approach in order to "quantumly" generalize the [classical process](/wiki/Lagrangian_mechanics%23Lagrange_multipliers_and_constraints "Lagrangian mechanics#Lagrange multipliers and constraints") of coupling external forces to the configuration space parameters known as Lagrange multipliers. He summarized his [source theory](/wiki/Source_field "Source field") in 1966{{cite journal \|last1\=Schwinger \|first1\=Julian \|title\=Particles and Sources \|journal\=Phys Rev \|date\=1966 \|volume\=152 \|issue\=4 \|page\=1219\|doi\=10\.1103/PhysRev.152\.1219 \|bibcode\=1966PhRv..152\.1219S }} then expanded the theory's applications to quantum electrodynamics in his three volume\-set titled: *Particles, Sources, and Fields.*{{Cite book \|last\=Schwinger \|first\=Julian \|title\=Particles, sources, and fields. 2 \|date\=1998 \|publisher\=Advanced Book Program, Perseus Books \|isbn\=978\-0\-7382\-0054\-5 \|edition\=1\. print \|location\=Reading, Mass}}{{Cite book \|last\=Schwinger \|first\=Julian \|title\=Particles, sources, and fields. 3 \|date\=1998 \|publisher\=Advanced Book Program, Perseus Books \|isbn\=978\-0\-7382\-0055\-2 \|edition\=1\. print \|location\=Reading, Mass}} Developments in pion physics, in which the new viewpoint was most successfully applied, convinced him of the great advantages of mathematical simplicity and conceptual clarity that its use bestowed.{{cite book \|last1\=Schwinger \|first1\=Julian \|title\=Particles, Sources and Fields vol. 1 \|date\=1998 \|publisher\=Perseus Books \|location\=Reading, MA \|isbn\=0\-7382\-0053\-0 \|page\=xi}}
In source theory there are no divergences, and no renormalization. It may be regarded as the calculational tool of field theory, but it is more general.{{cite book \|editor\=C.R. Hagen \|display\-editors\=etal \|title\=Proc of the 1967 Int. Conference on Particles and Fields \|date\=1967 \|publisher\=Interscience \|location\=NY \|page\=128}} Using source theory, Schwinger was able to calculate the anomalous magnetic moment of the electron, which he had done in 1947, but this time with no ‘distracting remarks’ about infinite quantities.{{rp\|p\=467}}
Schwinger also applied source theory to his QFT theory of gravity, and was able to reproduce all four of Einstein's classic results: gravitational red shift, deflection and slowing of light by gravity, and the perihelion precession of Mercury.{{cite book \|last1\=Schwinger \|first1\=Julian \|title\=Particles, Sources and Fields vol. 1 \|date\=1998 \|publisher\=Perseus Bookks \|location\=Reading, MA \|pages\=82–85}} The neglect of source theory by the physics community was a major disappointment for Schwinger:
> The lack of appreciation of these facts by others was depressing, but understandable. \-J. Schwinger
See "[the shoes incident](/wiki/Julian_Schwinger%23Career "Julian Schwinger#Career")" between J. Schwinger and [S. Weinberg](/wiki/Steven_Weinberg "Steven Weinberg").{{Cite book \|last\=Milton \|first\=K. A. \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=9SmZSN8F164C \|title\=Climbing the Mountain: The Scientific Biography of Julian Schwinger \|last2\=Mehra \|first2\=Jagdish \|date\=2000 \|publisher\=Oxford University Press \|isbn\=978\-0\-19\-850658\-4 \|edition\=Repr \|location\=Oxford \|language\=en}}
### Standard model
[thumb\|300px\|[Elementary particles](/wiki/Elementary_particles "Elementary particles") of the [Standard Model](/wiki/Standard_Model "Standard Model"): six types of [quarks](/wiki/Quark "Quark"), six types of [leptons](/wiki/Lepton "Lepton"), four types of [gauge bosons](/wiki/Gauge_boson "Gauge boson") that carry [fundamental interactions](/wiki/Fundamental_interaction "Fundamental interaction"), as well as the [Higgs boson](/wiki/Higgs_boson "Higgs boson"), which endow elementary particles with mass.](/wiki/File:Standard_Model_of_Elementary_Particles.svg "Standard Model of Elementary Particles.svg")
In 1954, [Yang Chen\-Ning](/wiki/Yang_Chen-Ning "Yang Chen-Ning") and [Robert Mills](/wiki/Robert_Mills_%28physicist%29 "Robert Mills (physicist)") generalized the [local symmetry](/wiki/Gauge_theory "Gauge theory") of QED, leading to [non\-Abelian gauge theories](/wiki/Yang%E2%80%93Mills_theory "Yang–Mills theory") (also known as Yang–Mills theories), which are based on more complicated local [symmetry groups](/wiki/Symmetry_group "Symmetry group").{{Cite book \|last\='t Hooft \|first\=Gerard \|author\-link\=Gerard 't Hooft \|arxiv\=1503\.05007 \|chapter\=The Evolution of Quantum Field Theory \|title\=The Standard Theory of Particle Physics \|volume\=26 \|pages\=1–27 \|date\=2015\-03\-17 \|bibcode\=2016stpp.conf....1T \|doi\=10\.1142/9789814733519\_0001 \|series\=Advanced Series on Directions in High Energy Physics \|isbn\=978\-981\-4733\-50\-2 \|s2cid\=119198452 }}{{rp\|5}} In QED, (electrically) charged particles interact via the exchange of photons, while in non\-Abelian gauge theory, particles carrying a new type of "[charge](/wiki/Charge_%28physics%29 "Charge (physics)")" interact via the exchange of massless [gauge bosons](/wiki/Gauge_boson "Gauge boson"). Unlike photons, these gauge bosons themselves carry charge.{{r\|weinberg\|page1\=32}}{{cite journal \|last1\=Yang \|first1\=C. N. \|last2\=Mills \|first2\=R. L. \|author\-link1\=Chen\-Ning Yang \|author\-link2\=Robert Mills (physicist) \|date\=1954\-10\-01 \|title\=Conservation of Isotopic Spin and Isotopic Gauge Invariance \|journal\=\[\[Physical Review]] \|volume\=96 \|issue\=1 \|pages\=191–195 \|doi\=10\.1103/PhysRev.96\.191 \|bibcode\=1954PhRv...96\..191Y \|doi\-access\=free }}
[Sheldon Glashow](/wiki/Sheldon_Glashow "Sheldon Glashow") developed a non\-Abelian gauge theory that unified the electromagnetic and weak interactions in 1960\. In 1964, [Abdus Salam](/wiki/Abdus_Salam "Abdus Salam") and [John Clive Ward](/wiki/John_Clive_Ward "John Clive Ward") arrived at the same theory through a different path. This theory, nevertheless, was non\-renormalizable.{{cite journal \|last\=Coleman \|first\=Sidney \|author\-link\=Sidney Coleman \|date\=1979\-12\-14 \|title\=The 1979 Nobel Prize in Physics \|journal\=\[\[Science (journal)\|Science]] \|volume\=206 \|issue\=4424 \|pages\=1290–1292 \|jstor\=1749117 \|bibcode\=1979Sci...206\.1290C \|doi\=10\.1126/science.206\.4424\.1290 \|pmid\=17799637 }}
[Peter Higgs](/wiki/Peter_Higgs "Peter Higgs"), [Robert Brout](/wiki/Robert_Brout "Robert Brout"), [François Englert](/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Englert "François Englert"), [Gerald Guralnik](/wiki/Gerald_Guralnik "Gerald Guralnik"), [Carl Hagen](/wiki/C._R._Hagen "C. R. Hagen"), and [Tom Kibble](/wiki/T._W._B._Kibble "T. W. B. Kibble") proposed in their famous [*Physical Review Letters* papers](/wiki/1964_PRL_symmetry_breaking_papers "1964 PRL symmetry breaking papers") that the gauge symmetry in Yang–Mills theories could be broken by a mechanism called [spontaneous symmetry breaking](/wiki/Spontaneous_symmetry_breaking "Spontaneous symmetry breaking"), through which originally massless gauge bosons could acquire mass.{{r\|thooft\|page1\=5–6}}
By combining the earlier theory of Glashow, Salam, and Ward with the idea of spontaneous symmetry breaking, [Steven Weinberg](/wiki/Steven_Weinberg "Steven Weinberg") wrote down in 1967 a theory describing [electroweak interactions](/wiki/Electroweak_interaction "Electroweak interaction") between all [leptons](/wiki/Lepton "Lepton") and the effects of the [Higgs boson](/wiki/Higgs_boson "Higgs boson"). His theory was at first mostly ignored,{{r\|thooft\|page1\=6}} until it was brought back to light in 1971 by [Gerard 't Hooft](/wiki/Gerard_%27t_Hooft "Gerard 't Hooft")'s proof that non\-Abelian gauge theories are renormalizable. The electroweak theory of Weinberg and Salam was extended from leptons to [quarks](/wiki/Quark "Quark") in 1970 by Glashow, [John Iliopoulos](/wiki/John_Iliopoulos "John Iliopoulos"), and [Luciano Maiani](/wiki/Luciano_Maiani "Luciano Maiani"), marking its completion.
[Harald Fritzsch](/wiki/Harald_Fritzsch "Harald Fritzsch"), [Murray Gell\-Mann](/wiki/Murray_Gell-Mann "Murray Gell-Mann"), and [Heinrich Leutwyler](/wiki/Heinrich_Leutwyler "Heinrich Leutwyler") discovered in 1971 that certain phenomena involving the [strong interaction](/wiki/Strong_interaction "Strong interaction") could also be explained by non\-Abelian gauge theory. [Quantum chromodynamics](/wiki/Quantum_chromodynamics "Quantum chromodynamics") (QCD) was born. In 1973, [David Gross](/wiki/David_Gross "David Gross"), [Frank Wilczek](/wiki/Frank_Wilczek "Frank Wilczek"), and [Hugh David Politzer](/wiki/Hugh_David_Politzer "Hugh David Politzer") showed that non\-Abelian gauge theories are "[asymptotically free](/wiki/Asymptotic_freedom "Asymptotic freedom")", meaning that under renormalization, the coupling constant of the strong interaction decreases as the interaction energy increases. (Similar discoveries had been made numerous times previously, but they had been largely ignored.) {{r\|thooft\|page1\=11}} Therefore, at least in high\-energy interactions, the coupling constant in QCD becomes sufficiently small to warrant a perturbative series expansion, making quantitative predictions for the strong interaction possible.{{r\|weinberg\|page1\=32}}
These theoretical breakthroughs brought about a renaissance in QFT. The full theory, which includes the electroweak theory and chromodynamics, is referred to today as the [Standard Model](/wiki/Standard_Model "Standard Model") of elementary particles.{{cite web \|url\=https://www.britannica.com/science/Standard\-Model \|title\=Standard model \|last\=Sutton \|first\=Christine \|author\-link\=Christine Sutton \|website\=britannica.com \|publisher\=\[\[Encyclopædia Britannica]] \|access\-date\=2018\-08\-14}} The Standard Model successfully describes all [fundamental interactions](/wiki/Fundamental_interaction "Fundamental interaction") except [gravity](/wiki/Gravity "Gravity"), and its many predictions have been met with remarkable experimental confirmation in subsequent decades.{{r\|shifman\|page1\=3}} The [Higgs boson](/wiki/Higgs_boson "Higgs boson"), central to the mechanism of spontaneous symmetry breaking, was finally detected in 2012 at [CERN](/wiki/CERN "CERN"), marking the complete verification of the existence of all constituents of the Standard Model.{{cite arXiv \|last\=Kibble \|first\=Tom W. B. \|author\-link\=Tom Kibble \|eprint\=1412\.4094 \|title\=The Standard Model of Particle Physics \|class\=physics.hist\-ph \|date\=2014\-12\-12 }}
### Other developments
The 1970s saw the development of non\-perturbative methods in non\-Abelian gauge theories. The ['t Hooft–Polyakov monopole](/wiki/%27t_Hooft%E2%80%93Polyakov_monopole "'t Hooft–Polyakov monopole") was discovered theoretically by 't Hooft and [Alexander Polyakov](/wiki/Alexander_Markovich_Polyakov "Alexander Markovich Polyakov"), [flux tubes](/wiki/Flux_tube "Flux tube") by [Holger Bech Nielsen](/wiki/Holger_Bech_Nielsen "Holger Bech Nielsen") and [Poul Olesen](/wiki/Poul_Olesen "Poul Olesen"), and [instantons](/wiki/Instanton "Instanton") by Polyakov and coauthors. These objects are inaccessible through perturbation theory.{{r\|shifman\|page1\=4}}
[Supersymmetry](/wiki/Supersymmetry "Supersymmetry") also appeared in the same period. The first supersymmetric QFT in four dimensions was built by [Yuri Golfand](/wiki/Yuri_Golfand "Yuri Golfand") and [Evgeny Likhtman](/wiki/Evgeny_Likhtman "Evgeny Likhtman") in 1970, but their result failed to garner widespread interest due to the [Iron Curtain](/wiki/Iron_Curtain "Iron Curtain"). Supersymmetry only took off in the theoretical community after the work of [Julius Wess](/wiki/Julius_Wess "Julius Wess") and [Bruno Zumino](/wiki/Bruno_Zumino "Bruno Zumino") in 1973\.{{r\|shifman\|page1\=7}}
Among the four fundamental interactions, gravity remains the only one that lacks a consistent QFT description. Various attempts at a theory of [quantum gravity](/wiki/Quantum_gravity "Quantum gravity") led to the development of [string theory](/wiki/String_theory "String theory"),{{r\|shifman\|page1\=6}} itself a type of two\-dimensional QFT with [conformal symmetry](/wiki/Conformal_symmetry "Conformal symmetry"). [Joël Scherk](/wiki/Jo%C3%ABl_Scherk "Joël Scherk") and [John Schwarz](/wiki/John_Henry_Schwarz "John Henry Schwarz") first proposed in 1974 that string theory could be *the* quantum theory of gravity.{{cite arXiv \|last\=Schwarz \|first\=John H. \|author\-link\=John Henry Schwarz \|eprint\=1201\.0981 \|title\=The Early History of String Theory and Supersymmetry \|class\=physics.hist\-ph \|date\=2012\-01\-04 }}
### Condensed\-matter\-physics
Although quantum field theory arose from the study of interactions between elementary particles, it has been successfully applied to other physical systems, particularly to [many\-body systems](/wiki/Many-body_system "Many-body system") in [condensed matter physics](/wiki/Condensed_matter_physics "Condensed matter physics").
Historically, the Higgs mechanism of spontaneous symmetry breaking was a result of [Yoichiro Nambu](/wiki/Yoichiro_Nambu "Yoichiro Nambu")'s application of [superconductor](/wiki/Superconductor "Superconductor") theory to elementary particles, while the concept of renormalization came out of the study of second\-order [phase transitions](/wiki/Phase_transition "Phase transition") in matter.{{cite web \|url\=https://science.energy.gov/\~/media/hep/pdf/Reports/HEP\-BES\_Roundtable\_Report.pdf \|title\=Common Problems in Condensed Matter and High Energy Physics \|date\=2015\-02\-02 \|website\=science.energy.gov \|publisher\=Office of Science, \[\[U.S. Department of Energy]] \|access\-date\=2018\-07\-18}}
Soon after the introduction of photons, Einstein performed the quantization procedure on vibrations in a crystal, leading to the first [quasiparticle](/wiki/Quasiparticle "Quasiparticle")—[phonons](/wiki/Phonon "Phonon"). Lev Landau claimed that low\-energy excitations in many condensed matter systems could be described in terms of interactions between a set of quasiparticles. The Feynman diagram method of QFT was naturally well suited to the analysis of various phenomena in condensed matter systems.{{Cite journal \|last\=Wilczek \|first\=Frank \|author\-link\=Frank Wilczek \|arxiv\=1604\.05669 \|title\=Particle Physics and Condensed Matter: The Saga Continues \|journal\=Physica Scripta \|volume\=2016 \|issue\=T168 \|pages\=014003 \|date\=2016\-04\-19 \|bibcode\=2016PhST..168a4003W \|doi\=10\.1088/0031\-8949/T168/1/014003 \|s2cid\=118439678 }}
Gauge theory is used to describe the quantization of [magnetic flux](/wiki/Magnetic_flux "Magnetic flux") in superconductors, the [resistivity](/wiki/Resistivity "Resistivity") in the [quantum Hall effect](/wiki/Quantum_Hall_effect "Quantum Hall effect"), as well as the relation between frequency and voltage in the AC [Josephson effect](/wiki/Josephson_effect "Josephson effect").
|
[
"History\n-------",
"{{Main\\|History of quantum field theory}}\nQuantum field theory emerged from the work of generations of theoretical physicists spanning much of the 20th century. Its development began in the 1920s with the description of interactions between [light](/wiki/Light \"Light\") and [electrons](/wiki/Electrons \"Electrons\"), culminating in the first quantum field theory—[quantum electrodynamics](/wiki/Quantum_electrodynamics \"Quantum electrodynamics\"). A major theoretical obstacle soon followed with the appearance and persistence of various infinities in perturbative calculations, a problem only resolved in the 1950s with the invention of the [renormalization](/wiki/Renormalization \"Renormalization\") procedure. A second major barrier came with QFT's apparent inability to describe the [weak](/wiki/Weak_interaction \"Weak interaction\") and [strong interactions](/wiki/Strong_interaction \"Strong interaction\"), to the point where some theorists called for the abandonment of the field theoretic approach. The development of [gauge theory](/wiki/Gauge_theory \"Gauge theory\") and the completion of the [Standard Model](/wiki/Standard_Model \"Standard Model\") in the 1970s led to a renaissance of quantum field theory.",
"### Theoretical background",
"[thumb\\|200px\\|[Magnetic field lines](/wiki/Magnetic_field_lines \"Magnetic field lines\") visualized using [iron filings](/wiki/Iron_filings \"Iron filings\"). When a piece of paper is sprinkled with iron filings and placed above a bar magnet, the filings align according to the direction of the magnetic field, forming arcs allowing viewers to clearly see the poles of the magnet and to see the magnetic field generated.](/wiki/File:Magnet0873.png \"Magnet0873.png\")",
"Quantum field theory results from the combination of [classical field theory](/wiki/Classical_field_theory \"Classical field theory\"), [quantum mechanics](/wiki/Quantum_mechanics \"Quantum mechanics\"), and [special relativity](/wiki/Special_relativity \"Special relativity\").{{rp\\|xi}} A brief overview of these theoretical precursors follows.",
"The earliest successful classical field theory is one that emerged from [Newton's law of universal gravitation](/wiki/Newton%27s_law_of_universal_gravitation \"Newton's law of universal gravitation\"), despite the complete absence of the concept of fields from his 1687 treatise *[Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica](/wiki/Philosophi%C3%A6_Naturalis_Principia_Mathematica \"Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica\")*. The force of gravity as described by Isaac Newton is an \"[action at a distance](/wiki/Action_at_a_distance \"Action at a distance\")\"—its effects on faraway objects are instantaneous, no matter the distance. In an exchange of letters with [Richard Bentley](/wiki/Richard_Bentley \"Richard Bentley\"), however, Newton stated that \"it is inconceivable that inanimate brute matter should, without the mediation of something else which is not material, operate upon and affect other matter without mutual contact\".{{rp\\|4}} It was not until the 18th century that mathematical physicists discovered a convenient description of gravity based on fields—a numerical quantity (a [vector](/wiki/Vector_%28mathematics_and_physics%29 \"Vector (mathematics and physics)\") in the case of [gravitational field](/wiki/Gravitational_field \"Gravitational field\")) assigned to every point in space indicating the action of gravity on any particle at that point. However, this was considered merely a mathematical trick.{{cite journal \\|last\\=Weinberg \\|first\\=Steven \\|author\\-link\\=Steven Weinberg \\|date\\=1977 \\|title\\=The Search for Unity: Notes for a History of Quantum Field Theory \\|journal\\=Daedalus \\|volume\\=106 \\|issue\\=4 \\|pages\\=17–35 \\|jstor\\=20024506 }}{{rp\\|18}}",
"Fields began to take on an existence of their own with the development of [electromagnetism](/wiki/Electromagnetism \"Electromagnetism\") in the 19th century. [Michael Faraday](/wiki/Michael_Faraday \"Michael Faraday\") coined the English term \"field\" in 1845\\. He introduced fields as properties of space (even when it is devoid of matter) having physical effects. He argued against \"action at a distance\", and proposed that interactions between objects occur via space\\-filling \"lines of force\". This description of fields remains to this day.{{cite journal\n \\| last \\=Hobson\n \\| first \\=Art\n \\| title \\=There are no particles, there are only fields \n \\| journal \\=\\[\\[American Journal of Physics]]\n \\| volume \\=81\n \\| issue \\=211\n \\| pages \\=211–223\n \\| year \\=2013\n \\| doi \\=10\\.1119/1\\.4789885\n \\| arxiv \\=1204\\.4616\n \\| bibcode \\=2013AmJPh..81\\..211H\n \\| s2cid \\=18254182\n }}{{Cite book \\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/oxfordcompaniont0000unse\\_s7n3 \\|title\\=The Oxford companion to the history of modern science \\|date\\=2003 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Oxford University Press]] \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-19\\-511229\\-0 \\|editor\\-last\\=Heilbron \\|editor\\-first\\=J. L. \\|editor\\-link\\=John L. Heilbron \\|location\\=Oxford ; New York}}{{rp\\|301}}{{Cite book \\|last\\=Thomson \\|first\\=Joseph John \\|author\\-link\\=Joseph John Thomson \\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/notesonrecentres00thom \\|title\\=Notes on recent researches in electricity and magnetism, intended as a sequel to Professor Clerk\\-Maxwell's 'Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism' \\|last2\\=Maxwell \\|first2\\=James Clerk \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Clarendon Press]] \\|year\\=1893}}{{rp\\|2}}",
"The theory of [classical electromagnetism](/wiki/Classical_electromagnetism \"Classical electromagnetism\") was completed in 1864 with [Maxwell's equations](/wiki/Maxwell%27s_equation \"Maxwell's equation\"), which described the relationship between the [electric field](/wiki/Electric_field \"Electric field\"), the [magnetic field](/wiki/Magnetic_field \"Magnetic field\"), [electric current](/wiki/Electric_current \"Electric current\"), and [electric charge](/wiki/Electric_charge \"Electric charge\"). Maxwell's equations implied the existence of [electromagnetic waves](/wiki/Electromagnetic_waves \"Electromagnetic waves\"), a phenomenon whereby electric and magnetic fields propagate from one spatial point to another at a finite speed, which turns out to be the [speed of light](/wiki/Speed_of_light \"Speed of light\"). Action\\-at\\-a\\-distance was thus conclusively refuted.{{rp\\|19}}",
"Despite the enormous success of classical electromagnetism, it was unable to account for the discrete lines in [atomic spectra](/wiki/Emission_spectrum \"Emission spectrum\"), nor for the distribution of [blackbody radiation](/wiki/Blackbody_radiation \"Blackbody radiation\") in different wavelengths.{{cite journal \\|last\\=Weisskopf \\|first\\=Victor \\|author\\-link\\=Victor Weisskopf \\|date\\=November 1981 \\|title\\=The development of field theory in the last 50 years \\|journal\\=\\[\\[Physics Today]] \\|volume\\=34 \\|issue\\=11 \\|pages\\=69–85 \\|doi\\=10\\.1063/1\\.2914365 \\|bibcode\\=1981PhT....34k..69W }} [Max Planck](/wiki/Max_Planck \"Max Planck\")'s study of blackbody radiation marked the beginning of quantum mechanics. He treated atoms, which absorb and emit [electromagnetic radiation](/wiki/Electromagnetic_radiation \"Electromagnetic radiation\"), as tiny [oscillators](/wiki/Oscillator \"Oscillator\") with the crucial property that their energies can only take on a series of discrete, rather than continuous, values. These are known as [quantum harmonic oscillators](/wiki/Quantum_harmonic_oscillator \"Quantum harmonic oscillator\"). This process of restricting energies to discrete values is called quantization.{{Cite book \\|last\\=Heisenberg \\|first\\=Werner \\|author\\-link\\=Werner Heisenberg \\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/physics\\-and\\-philosophy\\-the\\-revolution\\-in\\-modern\\-scirnce\\-werner\\-heisenberg\\-f.\\-s.\\-c.\\-northrop \\|title\\=Physics and philosophy: the revolution in modern science \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Prometheus Books]] \\|year\\=1999 \\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-57392\\-694\\-2 \\|series\\=Great minds series \\|location\\=Amherst, N.Y}}{{rp\\|Ch.2}} Building on this idea, [Albert Einstein](/wiki/Albert_Einstein \"Albert Einstein\") proposed in 1905 an explanation for the [photoelectric effect](/wiki/Photoelectric_effect \"Photoelectric effect\"), that light is composed of individual packets of energy called [photons](/wiki/Photon \"Photon\") (the quanta of light). This implied that the electromagnetic radiation, while being waves in the classical electromagnetic field, also exists in the form of particles.",
"In 1913, [Niels Bohr](/wiki/Niels_Bohr \"Niels Bohr\") introduced the [Bohr model](/wiki/Bohr_model \"Bohr model\") of atomic structure, wherein [electrons](/wiki/Electrons \"Electrons\") within atoms can only take on a series of discrete, rather than continuous, energies. This is another example of quantization. The Bohr model successfully explained the discrete nature of atomic spectral lines. In 1924, [Louis de Broglie](/wiki/Louis_de_Broglie \"Louis de Broglie\") proposed the hypothesis of [wave–particle duality](/wiki/Wave%E2%80%93particle_duality \"Wave–particle duality\"), that microscopic particles exhibit both wave\\-like and particle\\-like properties under different circumstances. Uniting these scattered ideas, a coherent discipline, [quantum mechanics](/wiki/Quantum_mechanics \"Quantum mechanics\"), was formulated between 1925 and 1926, with important contributions from [Max Planck](/wiki/Max_Planck \"Max Planck\"), [Louis de Broglie](/wiki/Louis_de_Broglie \"Louis de Broglie\"), [Werner Heisenberg](/wiki/Werner_Heisenberg \"Werner Heisenberg\"), [Max Born](/wiki/Max_Born \"Max Born\"), [Erwin Schrödinger](/wiki/Erwin_Schr%C3%B6dinger \"Erwin Schrödinger\"), [Paul Dirac](/wiki/Paul_Dirac \"Paul Dirac\"), and [Wolfgang Pauli](/wiki/Wolfgang_Pauli \"Wolfgang Pauli\").{{r\\|weinberg\\|page1\\=22–23}}",
"In the same year as his paper on the photoelectric effect, Einstein published his theory of [special relativity](/wiki/Special_relativity \"Special relativity\"), built on Maxwell's electromagnetism. New rules, called [Lorentz transformations](/wiki/Lorentz_transformations \"Lorentz transformations\"), were given for the way time and space coordinates of an event change under changes in the observer's velocity, and the distinction between time and space was blurred.{{r\\|weinberg\\|page1\\=19}} It was proposed that all physical laws must be the same for observers at different velocities, i.e. that physical laws be invariant under Lorentz transformations.",
"Two difficulties remained. Observationally, the [Schrödinger equation](/wiki/Schr%C3%B6dinger_equation \"Schrödinger equation\") underlying quantum mechanics could explain the [stimulated emission](/wiki/Stimulated_emission \"Stimulated emission\") of radiation from atoms, where an electron emits a new photon under the action of an external electromagnetic field, but it was unable to explain [spontaneous emission](/wiki/Spontaneous_emission \"Spontaneous emission\"), where an electron spontaneously decreases in energy and emits a photon even without the action of an external electromagnetic field. Theoretically, the Schrödinger equation could not describe photons and was inconsistent with the principles of special relativity—it treats time as an ordinary number while promoting spatial coordinates to [linear operators](/wiki/Linear_operator \"Linear operator\").",
"### Quantum electrodynamics",
"Quantum field theory naturally began with the study of electromagnetic interactions, as the electromagnetic field was the only known classical field as of the 1920s.{{r\\|shifman\\|page1\\=1}}",
"Through the works of Born, Heisenberg, and [Pascual Jordan](/wiki/Pascual_Jordan \"Pascual Jordan\") in 1925–1926, a quantum theory of the free electromagnetic field (one with no interactions with matter) was developed via [canonical quantization](/wiki/Canonical_quantization \"Canonical quantization\") by treating the electromagnetic field as a set of [quantum harmonic oscillators](/wiki/Quantum_harmonic_oscillator \"Quantum harmonic oscillator\").{{r\\|shifman\\|page1\\=1}} With the exclusion of interactions, however, such a theory was yet incapable of making quantitative predictions about the real world.{{r\\|weinberg\\|page1\\=22}}",
"In his seminal 1927 paper *The quantum theory of the emission and absorption of radiation*, Dirac coined the term [quantum electrodynamics](/wiki/Quantum_electrodynamics \"Quantum electrodynamics\") (QED), a theory that adds upon the terms describing the free electromagnetic field an additional interaction term between electric [current density](/wiki/Current_density \"Current density\") and the [electromagnetic vector potential](/wiki/Electromagnetic_four-potential \"Electromagnetic four-potential\"). Using first\\-order [perturbation theory](/wiki/Perturbation_theory_%28quantum_mechanics%29 \"Perturbation theory (quantum mechanics)\"), he successfully explained the phenomenon of spontaneous emission. According to the [uncertainty principle](/wiki/Uncertainty_principle \"Uncertainty principle\") in quantum mechanics, quantum harmonic oscillators cannot remain stationary, but they have a non\\-zero minimum energy and must always be oscillating, even in the lowest energy state (the [ground state](/wiki/Ground_state \"Ground state\")). Therefore, even in a perfect [vacuum](/wiki/Vacuum \"Vacuum\"), there remains an oscillating electromagnetic field having [zero\\-point energy](/wiki/Zero-point_energy \"Zero-point energy\"). It is this [quantum fluctuation](/wiki/Quantum_fluctuation \"Quantum fluctuation\") of electromagnetic fields in the vacuum that \"stimulates\" the spontaneous emission of radiation by electrons in atoms. Dirac's theory was hugely successful in explaining both the emission and absorption of radiation by atoms; by applying second\\-order perturbation theory, it was able to account for the [scattering](/wiki/Scattering \"Scattering\") of photons, [resonance fluorescence](/wiki/Resonance_fluorescence \"Resonance fluorescence\") and non\\-relativistic [Compton scattering](/wiki/Compton_scattering \"Compton scattering\"). Nonetheless, the application of higher\\-order perturbation theory was plagued with problematic infinities in calculations.{{rp\\|71}}",
"In 1928, Dirac wrote down a [wave equation](/wiki/Wave_equation \"Wave equation\") that described relativistic electrons: the [Dirac equation](/wiki/Dirac_equation \"Dirac equation\"). It had the following important consequences: the [spin](/wiki/Spin_%28physics%29 \"Spin (physics)\") of an electron is 1/2; the electron [*g*\\-factor](/wiki/G-factor_%28physics%29 \"G-factor (physics)\") is 2; it led to the correct Sommerfeld formula for the [fine structure](/wiki/Fine_structure \"Fine structure\") of the [hydrogen atom](/wiki/Hydrogen_atom \"Hydrogen atom\"); and it could be used to derive the [Klein–Nishina formula](/wiki/Klein%E2%80%93Nishina_formula \"Klein–Nishina formula\") for relativistic Compton scattering. Although the results were fruitful, the theory also apparently implied the existence of negative energy states, which would cause atoms to be unstable, since they could always decay to lower energy states by the emission of radiation.{{rp\\|71–72}}",
"The prevailing view at the time was that the world was composed of two very different ingredients: material particles (such as electrons) and [quantum fields](/wiki/Field_%28physics%29%23Quantum_fields \"Field (physics)#Quantum fields\") (such as photons). Material particles were considered to be eternal, with their physical state described by the probabilities of finding each particle in any given region of space or range of velocities. On the other hand, photons were considered merely the [excited states](/wiki/Excited_state \"Excited state\") of the underlying quantized electromagnetic field, and could be freely created or destroyed. It was between 1928 and 1930 that Jordan, [Eugene Wigner](/wiki/Eugene_Wigner \"Eugene Wigner\"), Heisenberg, Pauli, and [Enrico Fermi](/wiki/Enrico_Fermi \"Enrico Fermi\") discovered that material particles could also be seen as excited states of quantum fields. Just as photons are excited states of the quantized electromagnetic field, so each type of particle had its corresponding quantum field: an electron field, a proton field, etc. Given enough energy, it would now be possible to create material particles. Building on this idea, Fermi proposed in 1932 an explanation for [beta decay](/wiki/Beta_decay \"Beta decay\") known as [Fermi's interaction](/wiki/Fermi%27s_interaction \"Fermi's interaction\"). [Atomic nuclei](/wiki/Atomic_nucleus \"Atomic nucleus\") do not contain electrons *per se*, but in the process of decay, an electron is created out of the surrounding electron field, analogous to the photon created from the surrounding electromagnetic field in the radiative decay of an excited atom.{{r\\|weinberg\\|page1\\=22–23}}",
"It was realized in 1929 by Dirac and others that negative energy states implied by the Dirac equation could be removed by assuming the existence of particles with the same mass as electrons but opposite electric charge. This not only ensured the stability of atoms, but it was also the first proposal of the existence of [antimatter](/wiki/Antimatter \"Antimatter\"). Indeed, the evidence for [positrons](/wiki/Positron \"Positron\") was discovered in 1932 by [Carl David Anderson](/wiki/Carl_David_Anderson \"Carl David Anderson\") in [cosmic rays](/wiki/Cosmic_ray \"Cosmic ray\"). With enough energy, such as by absorbing a photon, an electron\\-positron pair could be created, a process called [pair production](/wiki/Pair_production \"Pair production\"); the reverse process, annihilation, could also occur with the emission of a photon. This showed that particle numbers need not be fixed during an interaction. Historically, however, positrons were at first thought of as \"holes\" in an infinite electron sea, rather than a new kind of particle, and this theory was referred to as the [Dirac hole theory](/wiki/Dirac_hole_theory \"Dirac hole theory\").{{rp\\|72}}{{r\\|weinberg\\|page1\\=23}} QFT naturally incorporated antiparticles in its formalism.{{r\\|weinberg\\|page1\\=24}}",
"### Infinities and renormalization",
"[Robert Oppenheimer](/wiki/Robert_Oppenheimer \"Robert Oppenheimer\") showed in 1930 that higher\\-order perturbative calculations in QED always resulted in infinite quantities, such as the electron [self\\-energy](/wiki/Self-energy \"Self-energy\") and the vacuum zero\\-point energy of the electron and photon fields, suggesting that the computational methods at the time could not properly deal with interactions involving photons with extremely high momenta.{{r\\|weinberg\\|page1\\=25}} It was not until 20 years later that a systematic approach to remove such infinities was developed.",
"A series of papers was published between 1934 and 1938 by [Ernst Stueckelberg](/wiki/Ernst_Stueckelberg \"Ernst Stueckelberg\") that established a relativistically invariant formulation of QFT. In 1947, Stueckelberg also independently developed a complete renormalization procedure. Such achievements were not understood and recognized by the theoretical community.",
"Faced with these infinities, [John Archibald Wheeler](/wiki/John_Archibald_Wheeler \"John Archibald Wheeler\") and Heisenberg proposed, in 1937 and 1943 respectively, to supplant the problematic QFT with the so\\-called [S\\-matrix theory](/wiki/S-matrix_theory \"S-matrix theory\"). Since the specific details of microscopic interactions are inaccessible to observations, the theory should only attempt to describe the relationships between a small number of [observables](/wiki/Observable \"Observable\") (*e.g.* the energy of an atom) in an interaction, rather than be concerned with the microscopic minutiae of the interaction. In 1945, [Richard Feynman](/wiki/Richard_Feynman \"Richard Feynman\") and Wheeler daringly suggested abandoning QFT altogether and proposed [action\\-at\\-a\\-distance](/wiki/Action-at-a-distance \"Action-at-a-distance\") as the mechanism of particle interactions.{{r\\|weinberg\\|page1\\=26}}",
"In 1947, [Willis Lamb](/wiki/Willis_Lamb \"Willis Lamb\") and [Robert Retherford](/wiki/Robert_Retherford \"Robert Retherford\") measured the minute difference in the 2*S*1/2 and 2*P*1/2 energy levels of the hydrogen atom, also called the [Lamb shift](/wiki/Lamb_shift \"Lamb shift\"). By ignoring the contribution of photons whose energy exceeds the electron mass, [Hans Bethe](/wiki/Hans_Bethe \"Hans Bethe\") successfully estimated the numerical value of the Lamb shift.{{r\\|weinberg\\|page1\\=28}} Subsequently, [Norman Myles Kroll](/wiki/Norman_Myles_Kroll \"Norman Myles Kroll\"), Lamb, [James Bruce French](/wiki/James_Bruce_French \"James Bruce French\"), and [Victor Weisskopf](/wiki/Victor_Weisskopf \"Victor Weisskopf\") again confirmed this value using an approach in which infinities cancelled other infinities to result in finite quantities. However, this method was clumsy and unreliable and could not be generalized to other calculations.",
"The breakthrough eventually came around 1950 when a more robust method for eliminating infinities was developed by [Julian Schwinger](/wiki/Julian_Schwinger \"Julian Schwinger\"), [Richard Feynman](/wiki/Richard_Feynman \"Richard Feynman\"), [Freeman Dyson](/wiki/Freeman_Dyson \"Freeman Dyson\"), and [Shinichiro Tomonaga](/wiki/Shinichiro_Tomonaga \"Shinichiro Tomonaga\"). The main idea is to replace the calculated values of mass and charge, infinite though they may be, by their finite measured values. This systematic computational procedure is known as [renormalization](/wiki/Renormalization \"Renormalization\") and can be applied to arbitrary order in perturbation theory. As Tomonaga said in his Nobel lecture:\n> Since those parts of the modified mass and charge due to field reactions \\[become infinite], it is impossible to calculate them by the theory. However, the mass and charge observed in experiments are not the original mass and charge but the mass and charge as modified by field reactions, and they are finite. On the other hand, the mass and charge appearing in the theory are… the values modified by field reactions. Since this is so, and particularly since the theory is unable to calculate the modified mass and charge, we may adopt the procedure of substituting experimental values for them phenomenologically... This procedure is called the renormalization of mass and charge… After long, laborious calculations, less skillful than Schwinger's, we obtained a result... which was in agreement with \\[the] Americans'.{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Tomonaga \\|first1\\=Shinichiro \\|title\\=Development of Quantum Electrodynamics \\|url\\=https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/physics/1965/tomonaga/lecture/ \\|journal\\=Science\\|year\\=1966 \\|volume\\=154 \\|issue\\=3751 \\|pages\\=864–868 \\|doi\\=10\\.1126/science.154\\.3751\\.864 \\|pmid\\=17744604 \\|bibcode\\=1966Sci...154\\..864T }}",
"",
"By applying the renormalization procedure, calculations were finally made to explain the electron's [anomalous magnetic moment](/wiki/Anomalous_magnetic_moment \"Anomalous magnetic moment\") (the deviation of the electron [*g*\\-factor](/wiki/G-factor_%28physics%29 \"G-factor (physics)\") from 2\\) and [vacuum polarization](/wiki/Vacuum_polarization \"Vacuum polarization\"). These results agreed with experimental measurements to a remarkable degree, thus marking the end of a \"war against infinities\".",
"At the same time, Feynman introduced the [path integral formulation](/wiki/Path_integral_formulation \"Path integral formulation\") of quantum mechanics and [Feynman diagrams](/wiki/Feynman_diagrams \"Feynman diagrams\").{{r\\|shifman\\|page1\\=2}} The latter can be used to visually and intuitively organize and to help compute terms in the perturbative expansion. Each diagram can be interpreted as paths of particles in an interaction, with each vertex and line having a corresponding mathematical expression, and the product of these expressions gives the [scattering amplitude](/wiki/Scattering_amplitude \"Scattering amplitude\") of the interaction represented by the diagram.{{r\\|peskin\\|page1\\=5}}",
"It was with the invention of the renormalization procedure and Feynman diagrams that QFT finally arose as a complete theoretical framework.{{r\\|shifman\\|page1\\=2}}",
"### Non\\-renormalizability",
"Given the tremendous success of QED, many theorists believed, in the few years after 1949, that QFT could soon provide an understanding of all microscopic phenomena, not only the interactions between photons, electrons, and positrons. Contrary to this optimism, QFT entered yet another period of depression that lasted for almost two decades.{{r\\|weinberg\\|page1\\=30}}",
"The first obstacle was the limited applicability of the renormalization procedure. In perturbative calculations in QED, all infinite quantities could be eliminated by redefining a small (finite) number of physical quantities (namely the mass and charge of the electron). Dyson proved in 1949 that this is only possible for a small class of theories called \"renormalizable theories\", of which QED is an example. However, most theories, including the [Fermi theory](/wiki/Fermi%27s_interaction \"Fermi's interaction\") of the [weak interaction](/wiki/Weak_interaction \"Weak interaction\"), are \"non\\-renormalizable\". Any perturbative calculation in these theories beyond the first order would result in infinities that could not be removed by redefining a finite number of physical quantities.{{r\\|weinberg\\|page1\\=30}}",
"The second major problem stemmed from the limited validity of the Feynman diagram method, which is based on a series expansion in perturbation theory. In order for the series to converge and low\\-order calculations to be a good approximation, the [coupling constant](/wiki/Coupling_constant \"Coupling constant\"), in which the series is expanded, must be a sufficiently small number. The coupling constant in QED is the [fine\\-structure constant](/wiki/Fine-structure_constant \"Fine-structure constant\") {{math\\|''α'' ≈ 1/137}}, which is small enough that only the simplest, lowest order, Feynman diagrams need to be considered in realistic calculations. In contrast, the coupling constant in the [strong interaction](/wiki/Strong_interaction \"Strong interaction\") is roughly of the order of one, making complicated, higher order, Feynman diagrams just as important as simple ones. There was thus no way of deriving reliable quantitative predictions for the strong interaction using perturbative QFT methods.{{r\\|weinberg\\|page1\\=31}}",
"With these difficulties looming, many theorists began to turn away from QFT. Some focused on [symmetry](/wiki/Symmetry_%28physics%29 \"Symmetry (physics)\") principles and [conservation laws](/wiki/Conservation_law \"Conservation law\"), while others picked up the old S\\-matrix theory of Wheeler and Heisenberg. QFT was used heuristically as guiding principles, but not as a basis for quantitative calculations.{{r\\|weinberg\\|page1\\=31}}",
"### Source theory",
"Schwinger, however, took a different route. For more than a decade he and his students had been nearly the only exponents of field theory,{{rp\\|p\\=454}} but in 1951{{Cite journal \\|last\\=Schwinger \\|first\\=Julian \\|date\\=July 1951 \\|title\\=On the Green's functions of quantized fields. I \\|journal\\=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences \\|language\\=en \\|volume\\=37 \\|issue\\=7 \\|pages\\=452–455 \\|doi\\=10\\.1073/pnas.37\\.7\\.452 \\|issn\\=0027\\-8424 \\|pmc\\=1063400 \\|pmid\\=16578383 \\|doi\\-access\\=free \\|bibcode\\=1951PNAS...37\\..452S }}{{Cite journal \\|last\\=Schwinger \\|first\\=Julian \\|date\\=July 1951 \\|title\\=On the Green's functions of quantized fields. II \\|journal\\=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences \\|language\\=en \\|volume\\=37 \\|issue\\=7 \\|pages\\=455–459 \\|doi\\=10\\.1073/pnas.37\\.7\\.455 \\|issn\\=0027\\-8424 \\|pmc\\=1063401 \\|pmid\\=16578384 \\|doi\\-access\\=free \\|bibcode\\=1951PNAS...37\\..455S }} he found a way around the problem of the infinities with a new method using *external sources* as currents coupled to gauge fields.{{Cite journal \\|last\\=Schweber \\|first\\=Silvan S. \\|date\\=2005\\-05\\-31 \\|title\\=The sources of Schwinger's Green's functions \\|journal\\=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences \\|language\\=en \\|volume\\=102 \\|issue\\=22 \\|pages\\=7783–7788 \\|doi\\=10\\.1073/pnas.0405167101 \\|issn\\=0027\\-8424 \\|pmc\\=1142349 \\|pmid\\=15930139 \\|doi\\-access\\=free }} Motivated by the former findings, Schwinger kept pursuing this approach in order to \"quantumly\" generalize the [classical process](/wiki/Lagrangian_mechanics%23Lagrange_multipliers_and_constraints \"Lagrangian mechanics#Lagrange multipliers and constraints\") of coupling external forces to the configuration space parameters known as Lagrange multipliers. He summarized his [source theory](/wiki/Source_field \"Source field\") in 1966{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Schwinger \\|first1\\=Julian \\|title\\=Particles and Sources \\|journal\\=Phys Rev \\|date\\=1966 \\|volume\\=152 \\|issue\\=4 \\|page\\=1219\\|doi\\=10\\.1103/PhysRev.152\\.1219 \\|bibcode\\=1966PhRv..152\\.1219S }} then expanded the theory's applications to quantum electrodynamics in his three volume\\-set titled: *Particles, Sources, and Fields.*{{Cite book \\|last\\=Schwinger \\|first\\=Julian \\|title\\=Particles, sources, and fields. 2 \\|date\\=1998 \\|publisher\\=Advanced Book Program, Perseus Books \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-7382\\-0054\\-5 \\|edition\\=1\\. print \\|location\\=Reading, Mass}}{{Cite book \\|last\\=Schwinger \\|first\\=Julian \\|title\\=Particles, sources, and fields. 3 \\|date\\=1998 \\|publisher\\=Advanced Book Program, Perseus Books \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-7382\\-0055\\-2 \\|edition\\=1\\. print \\|location\\=Reading, Mass}} Developments in pion physics, in which the new viewpoint was most successfully applied, convinced him of the great advantages of mathematical simplicity and conceptual clarity that its use bestowed.{{cite book \\|last1\\=Schwinger \\|first1\\=Julian \\|title\\=Particles, Sources and Fields vol. 1 \\|date\\=1998 \\|publisher\\=Perseus Books \\|location\\=Reading, MA \\|isbn\\=0\\-7382\\-0053\\-0 \\|page\\=xi}}",
"In source theory there are no divergences, and no renormalization. It may be regarded as the calculational tool of field theory, but it is more general.{{cite book \\|editor\\=C.R. Hagen \\|display\\-editors\\=etal \\|title\\=Proc of the 1967 Int. Conference on Particles and Fields \\|date\\=1967 \\|publisher\\=Interscience \\|location\\=NY \\|page\\=128}} Using source theory, Schwinger was able to calculate the anomalous magnetic moment of the electron, which he had done in 1947, but this time with no ‘distracting remarks’ about infinite quantities.{{rp\\|p\\=467}}",
"Schwinger also applied source theory to his QFT theory of gravity, and was able to reproduce all four of Einstein's classic results: gravitational red shift, deflection and slowing of light by gravity, and the perihelion precession of Mercury.{{cite book \\|last1\\=Schwinger \\|first1\\=Julian \\|title\\=Particles, Sources and Fields vol. 1 \\|date\\=1998 \\|publisher\\=Perseus Bookks \\|location\\=Reading, MA \\|pages\\=82–85}} The neglect of source theory by the physics community was a major disappointment for Schwinger:\n> The lack of appreciation of these facts by others was depressing, but understandable. \\-J. Schwinger",
"See \"[the shoes incident](/wiki/Julian_Schwinger%23Career \"Julian Schwinger#Career\")\" between J. Schwinger and [S. Weinberg](/wiki/Steven_Weinberg \"Steven Weinberg\").{{Cite book \\|last\\=Milton \\|first\\=K. A. \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=9SmZSN8F164C \\|title\\=Climbing the Mountain: The Scientific Biography of Julian Schwinger \\|last2\\=Mehra \\|first2\\=Jagdish \\|date\\=2000 \\|publisher\\=Oxford University Press \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-19\\-850658\\-4 \\|edition\\=Repr \\|location\\=Oxford \\|language\\=en}}",
"### Standard model",
"[thumb\\|300px\\|[Elementary particles](/wiki/Elementary_particles \"Elementary particles\") of the [Standard Model](/wiki/Standard_Model \"Standard Model\"): six types of [quarks](/wiki/Quark \"Quark\"), six types of [leptons](/wiki/Lepton \"Lepton\"), four types of [gauge bosons](/wiki/Gauge_boson \"Gauge boson\") that carry [fundamental interactions](/wiki/Fundamental_interaction \"Fundamental interaction\"), as well as the [Higgs boson](/wiki/Higgs_boson \"Higgs boson\"), which endow elementary particles with mass.](/wiki/File:Standard_Model_of_Elementary_Particles.svg \"Standard Model of Elementary Particles.svg\")\nIn 1954, [Yang Chen\\-Ning](/wiki/Yang_Chen-Ning \"Yang Chen-Ning\") and [Robert Mills](/wiki/Robert_Mills_%28physicist%29 \"Robert Mills (physicist)\") generalized the [local symmetry](/wiki/Gauge_theory \"Gauge theory\") of QED, leading to [non\\-Abelian gauge theories](/wiki/Yang%E2%80%93Mills_theory \"Yang–Mills theory\") (also known as Yang–Mills theories), which are based on more complicated local [symmetry groups](/wiki/Symmetry_group \"Symmetry group\").{{Cite book \\|last\\='t Hooft \\|first\\=Gerard \\|author\\-link\\=Gerard 't Hooft \\|arxiv\\=1503\\.05007 \\|chapter\\=The Evolution of Quantum Field Theory \\|title\\=The Standard Theory of Particle Physics \\|volume\\=26 \\|pages\\=1–27 \\|date\\=2015\\-03\\-17 \\|bibcode\\=2016stpp.conf....1T \\|doi\\=10\\.1142/9789814733519\\_0001 \\|series\\=Advanced Series on Directions in High Energy Physics \\|isbn\\=978\\-981\\-4733\\-50\\-2 \\|s2cid\\=119198452 }}{{rp\\|5}} In QED, (electrically) charged particles interact via the exchange of photons, while in non\\-Abelian gauge theory, particles carrying a new type of \"[charge](/wiki/Charge_%28physics%29 \"Charge (physics)\")\" interact via the exchange of massless [gauge bosons](/wiki/Gauge_boson \"Gauge boson\"). Unlike photons, these gauge bosons themselves carry charge.{{r\\|weinberg\\|page1\\=32}}{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Yang \\|first1\\=C. N. \\|last2\\=Mills \\|first2\\=R. L. \\|author\\-link1\\=Chen\\-Ning Yang \\|author\\-link2\\=Robert Mills (physicist) \\|date\\=1954\\-10\\-01 \\|title\\=Conservation of Isotopic Spin and Isotopic Gauge Invariance \\|journal\\=\\[\\[Physical Review]] \\|volume\\=96 \\|issue\\=1 \\|pages\\=191–195 \\|doi\\=10\\.1103/PhysRev.96\\.191 \\|bibcode\\=1954PhRv...96\\..191Y \\|doi\\-access\\=free }}",
"[Sheldon Glashow](/wiki/Sheldon_Glashow \"Sheldon Glashow\") developed a non\\-Abelian gauge theory that unified the electromagnetic and weak interactions in 1960\\. In 1964, [Abdus Salam](/wiki/Abdus_Salam \"Abdus Salam\") and [John Clive Ward](/wiki/John_Clive_Ward \"John Clive Ward\") arrived at the same theory through a different path. This theory, nevertheless, was non\\-renormalizable.{{cite journal \\|last\\=Coleman \\|first\\=Sidney \\|author\\-link\\=Sidney Coleman \\|date\\=1979\\-12\\-14 \\|title\\=The 1979 Nobel Prize in Physics \\|journal\\=\\[\\[Science (journal)\\|Science]] \\|volume\\=206 \\|issue\\=4424 \\|pages\\=1290–1292 \\|jstor\\=1749117 \\|bibcode\\=1979Sci...206\\.1290C \\|doi\\=10\\.1126/science.206\\.4424\\.1290 \\|pmid\\=17799637 }}",
"[Peter Higgs](/wiki/Peter_Higgs \"Peter Higgs\"), [Robert Brout](/wiki/Robert_Brout \"Robert Brout\"), [François Englert](/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Englert \"François Englert\"), [Gerald Guralnik](/wiki/Gerald_Guralnik \"Gerald Guralnik\"), [Carl Hagen](/wiki/C._R._Hagen \"C. R. Hagen\"), and [Tom Kibble](/wiki/T._W._B._Kibble \"T. W. B. Kibble\") proposed in their famous [*Physical Review Letters* papers](/wiki/1964_PRL_symmetry_breaking_papers \"1964 PRL symmetry breaking papers\") that the gauge symmetry in Yang–Mills theories could be broken by a mechanism called [spontaneous symmetry breaking](/wiki/Spontaneous_symmetry_breaking \"Spontaneous symmetry breaking\"), through which originally massless gauge bosons could acquire mass.{{r\\|thooft\\|page1\\=5–6}}",
"By combining the earlier theory of Glashow, Salam, and Ward with the idea of spontaneous symmetry breaking, [Steven Weinberg](/wiki/Steven_Weinberg \"Steven Weinberg\") wrote down in 1967 a theory describing [electroweak interactions](/wiki/Electroweak_interaction \"Electroweak interaction\") between all [leptons](/wiki/Lepton \"Lepton\") and the effects of the [Higgs boson](/wiki/Higgs_boson \"Higgs boson\"). His theory was at first mostly ignored,{{r\\|thooft\\|page1\\=6}} until it was brought back to light in 1971 by [Gerard 't Hooft](/wiki/Gerard_%27t_Hooft \"Gerard 't Hooft\")'s proof that non\\-Abelian gauge theories are renormalizable. The electroweak theory of Weinberg and Salam was extended from leptons to [quarks](/wiki/Quark \"Quark\") in 1970 by Glashow, [John Iliopoulos](/wiki/John_Iliopoulos \"John Iliopoulos\"), and [Luciano Maiani](/wiki/Luciano_Maiani \"Luciano Maiani\"), marking its completion.",
"[Harald Fritzsch](/wiki/Harald_Fritzsch \"Harald Fritzsch\"), [Murray Gell\\-Mann](/wiki/Murray_Gell-Mann \"Murray Gell-Mann\"), and [Heinrich Leutwyler](/wiki/Heinrich_Leutwyler \"Heinrich Leutwyler\") discovered in 1971 that certain phenomena involving the [strong interaction](/wiki/Strong_interaction \"Strong interaction\") could also be explained by non\\-Abelian gauge theory. [Quantum chromodynamics](/wiki/Quantum_chromodynamics \"Quantum chromodynamics\") (QCD) was born. In 1973, [David Gross](/wiki/David_Gross \"David Gross\"), [Frank Wilczek](/wiki/Frank_Wilczek \"Frank Wilczek\"), and [Hugh David Politzer](/wiki/Hugh_David_Politzer \"Hugh David Politzer\") showed that non\\-Abelian gauge theories are \"[asymptotically free](/wiki/Asymptotic_freedom \"Asymptotic freedom\")\", meaning that under renormalization, the coupling constant of the strong interaction decreases as the interaction energy increases. (Similar discoveries had been made numerous times previously, but they had been largely ignored.) {{r\\|thooft\\|page1\\=11}} Therefore, at least in high\\-energy interactions, the coupling constant in QCD becomes sufficiently small to warrant a perturbative series expansion, making quantitative predictions for the strong interaction possible.{{r\\|weinberg\\|page1\\=32}}",
"These theoretical breakthroughs brought about a renaissance in QFT. The full theory, which includes the electroweak theory and chromodynamics, is referred to today as the [Standard Model](/wiki/Standard_Model \"Standard Model\") of elementary particles.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.britannica.com/science/Standard\\-Model \\|title\\=Standard model \\|last\\=Sutton \\|first\\=Christine \\|author\\-link\\=Christine Sutton \\|website\\=britannica.com \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Encyclopædia Britannica]] \\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-08\\-14}} The Standard Model successfully describes all [fundamental interactions](/wiki/Fundamental_interaction \"Fundamental interaction\") except [gravity](/wiki/Gravity \"Gravity\"), and its many predictions have been met with remarkable experimental confirmation in subsequent decades.{{r\\|shifman\\|page1\\=3}} The [Higgs boson](/wiki/Higgs_boson \"Higgs boson\"), central to the mechanism of spontaneous symmetry breaking, was finally detected in 2012 at [CERN](/wiki/CERN \"CERN\"), marking the complete verification of the existence of all constituents of the Standard Model.{{cite arXiv \\|last\\=Kibble \\|first\\=Tom W. B. \\|author\\-link\\=Tom Kibble \\|eprint\\=1412\\.4094 \\|title\\=The Standard Model of Particle Physics \\|class\\=physics.hist\\-ph \\|date\\=2014\\-12\\-12 }}",
"### Other developments",
"The 1970s saw the development of non\\-perturbative methods in non\\-Abelian gauge theories. The ['t Hooft–Polyakov monopole](/wiki/%27t_Hooft%E2%80%93Polyakov_monopole \"'t Hooft–Polyakov monopole\") was discovered theoretically by 't Hooft and [Alexander Polyakov](/wiki/Alexander_Markovich_Polyakov \"Alexander Markovich Polyakov\"), [flux tubes](/wiki/Flux_tube \"Flux tube\") by [Holger Bech Nielsen](/wiki/Holger_Bech_Nielsen \"Holger Bech Nielsen\") and [Poul Olesen](/wiki/Poul_Olesen \"Poul Olesen\"), and [instantons](/wiki/Instanton \"Instanton\") by Polyakov and coauthors. These objects are inaccessible through perturbation theory.{{r\\|shifman\\|page1\\=4}}",
"[Supersymmetry](/wiki/Supersymmetry \"Supersymmetry\") also appeared in the same period. The first supersymmetric QFT in four dimensions was built by [Yuri Golfand](/wiki/Yuri_Golfand \"Yuri Golfand\") and [Evgeny Likhtman](/wiki/Evgeny_Likhtman \"Evgeny Likhtman\") in 1970, but their result failed to garner widespread interest due to the [Iron Curtain](/wiki/Iron_Curtain \"Iron Curtain\"). Supersymmetry only took off in the theoretical community after the work of [Julius Wess](/wiki/Julius_Wess \"Julius Wess\") and [Bruno Zumino](/wiki/Bruno_Zumino \"Bruno Zumino\") in 1973\\.{{r\\|shifman\\|page1\\=7}}",
"Among the four fundamental interactions, gravity remains the only one that lacks a consistent QFT description. Various attempts at a theory of [quantum gravity](/wiki/Quantum_gravity \"Quantum gravity\") led to the development of [string theory](/wiki/String_theory \"String theory\"),{{r\\|shifman\\|page1\\=6}} itself a type of two\\-dimensional QFT with [conformal symmetry](/wiki/Conformal_symmetry \"Conformal symmetry\"). [Joël Scherk](/wiki/Jo%C3%ABl_Scherk \"Joël Scherk\") and [John Schwarz](/wiki/John_Henry_Schwarz \"John Henry Schwarz\") first proposed in 1974 that string theory could be *the* quantum theory of gravity.{{cite arXiv \\|last\\=Schwarz \\|first\\=John H. \\|author\\-link\\=John Henry Schwarz \\|eprint\\=1201\\.0981 \\|title\\=The Early History of String Theory and Supersymmetry \\|class\\=physics.hist\\-ph \\|date\\=2012\\-01\\-04 }}",
"### Condensed\\-matter\\-physics",
"Although quantum field theory arose from the study of interactions between elementary particles, it has been successfully applied to other physical systems, particularly to [many\\-body systems](/wiki/Many-body_system \"Many-body system\") in [condensed matter physics](/wiki/Condensed_matter_physics \"Condensed matter physics\").",
"Historically, the Higgs mechanism of spontaneous symmetry breaking was a result of [Yoichiro Nambu](/wiki/Yoichiro_Nambu \"Yoichiro Nambu\")'s application of [superconductor](/wiki/Superconductor \"Superconductor\") theory to elementary particles, while the concept of renormalization came out of the study of second\\-order [phase transitions](/wiki/Phase_transition \"Phase transition\") in matter.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://science.energy.gov/\\~/media/hep/pdf/Reports/HEP\\-BES\\_Roundtable\\_Report.pdf \\|title\\=Common Problems in Condensed Matter and High Energy Physics \\|date\\=2015\\-02\\-02 \\|website\\=science.energy.gov \\|publisher\\=Office of Science, \\[\\[U.S. Department of Energy]] \\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-07\\-18}}",
"Soon after the introduction of photons, Einstein performed the quantization procedure on vibrations in a crystal, leading to the first [quasiparticle](/wiki/Quasiparticle \"Quasiparticle\")—[phonons](/wiki/Phonon \"Phonon\"). Lev Landau claimed that low\\-energy excitations in many condensed matter systems could be described in terms of interactions between a set of quasiparticles. The Feynman diagram method of QFT was naturally well suited to the analysis of various phenomena in condensed matter systems.{{Cite journal \\|last\\=Wilczek \\|first\\=Frank \\|author\\-link\\=Frank Wilczek \\|arxiv\\=1604\\.05669 \\|title\\=Particle Physics and Condensed Matter: The Saga Continues \\|journal\\=Physica Scripta \\|volume\\=2016 \\|issue\\=T168 \\|pages\\=014003 \\|date\\=2016\\-04\\-19 \\|bibcode\\=2016PhST..168a4003W \\|doi\\=10\\.1088/0031\\-8949/T168/1/014003 \\|s2cid\\=118439678 }}",
"Gauge theory is used to describe the quantization of [magnetic flux](/wiki/Magnetic_flux \"Magnetic flux\") in superconductors, the [resistivity](/wiki/Resistivity \"Resistivity\") in the [quantum Hall effect](/wiki/Quantum_Hall_effect \"Quantum Hall effect\"), as well as the relation between frequency and voltage in the AC [Josephson effect](/wiki/Josephson_effect \"Josephson effect\").",
""
] |
Principles
----------
For simplicity, [natural units](/wiki/Natural_units "Natural units") are used in the following sections, in which the [reduced Planck constant](/wiki/Reduced_Planck_constant "Reduced Planck constant") {{math\|''ħ''}} and the [speed of light](/wiki/Speed_of_light "Speed of light") {{math\|''c''}} are both set to one.
### Classical fields
{{See also\|Classical field theory}}
A classical [field](/wiki/Field_%28physics%29 "Field (physics)") is a [function](/wiki/Function_%28mathematics%29 "Function (mathematics)") of spatial and time coordinates.{{harvnb\|Tong\|2015\|loc\=Chapter 1}} Examples include the [gravitational field](/wiki/Gravitational_field "Gravitational field") in [Newtonian gravity](/wiki/Newtonian_gravity "Newtonian gravity") {{math\|'''g'''('''x''', ''t'')}} and the [electric field](/wiki/Electric_field "Electric field") {{math\|'''E'''('''x''', ''t'')}} and [magnetic field](/wiki/Magnetic_field "Magnetic field") {{math\|'''B'''('''x''', ''t'')}} in [classical electromagnetism](/wiki/Classical_electromagnetism "Classical electromagnetism"). A classical field can be thought of as a numerical quantity assigned to every point in space that changes in time. Hence, it has infinitely many [degrees of freedom](/wiki/Degrees_of_freedom_%28mechanics%29 "Degrees of freedom (mechanics)").In fact, its number of degrees of freedom is uncountable, because the vector space dimension of the space of continuous (differentiable, real analytic) functions on even a finite dimensional Euclidean space is uncountable. On the other hand, subspaces (of these function spaces) that one typically considers, such as Hilbert spaces (e.g. the space of square integrable real valued functions) or separable Banach spaces (e.g. the space of continuous real\-valued functions on a compact interval, with the uniform convergence norm), have denumerable (i. e. countably infinite) dimension in the category of Banach spaces (though still their Euclidean vector space dimension is uncountable), so in these restricted contexts, the number of degrees of freedom (interpreted now as the vector space dimension of a dense subspace rather than the vector space dimension of the function space of interest itself) is denumerable.
Many phenomena exhibiting quantum mechanical properties cannot be explained by classical fields alone. Phenomena such as the [photoelectric effect](/wiki/Photoelectric_effect "Photoelectric effect") are best explained by discrete particles ([photons](/wiki/Photon "Photon")), rather than a spatially continuous field. The goal of quantum field theory is to describe various quantum mechanical phenomena using a modified concept of fields.
[Canonical quantization](/wiki/Canonical_quantization "Canonical quantization") and [path integrals](/wiki/Path_integral_formulation "Path integral formulation") are two common formulations of QFT.{{cite book \|last\=Zee \|first\=A. \|date\=2010 \|title\=Quantum Field Theory in a Nutshell \|url\=https://archive.org/details/isbn\_9780691140346 \|url\-access\=registration \|publisher\=Princeton University Press \|isbn\=978\-0\-691\-01019\-9 \|author\-link\=Anthony Zee }}{{rp\|61}} To motivate the fundamentals of QFT, an overview of classical field theory follows.
The simplest classical field is a real [scalar field](/wiki/Scalar_field "Scalar field") — a [real number](/wiki/Real_number "Real number") at every point in space that changes in time. It is denoted as {{math\|''ϕ''('''x''', ''t'')}}, where {{math\|'''x'''}} is the position vector, and {{math\|''t''}} is the time. Suppose the [Lagrangian](/wiki/Lagrangian_%28field_theory%29 "Lagrangian (field theory)") of the field, L, is
L \= \\int d^3x\\,\\mathcal{L} \= \\int d^3x\\,\\left\[\\frac 12 \\dot\\phi^2 \- \\frac 12 (\\nabla\\phi)^2 \- \\frac 12 m^2\\phi^2\\right],
where \\mathcal{L} is the Lagrangian density, \\dot\\phi is the time\-derivative of the field, {{math\|∇}} is the gradient operator, and {{math\|''m''}} is a real parameter (the "mass" of the field). Applying the [Euler–Lagrange equation](/wiki/Euler%E2%80%93Lagrange_equation "Euler–Lagrange equation") on the Lagrangian:{{r\|peskin\|page1\=16}}
\\frac{\\partial}{\\partial t} \\left\[\\frac{\\partial\\mathcal{L}}{\\partial(\\partial\\phi/\\partial t)}\\right] \+ \\sum\_{i\=1}^3 \\frac{\\partial}{\\partial x^i} \\left\[\\frac{\\partial\\mathcal{L}}{\\partial(\\partial\\phi/\\partial x^i)}\\right] \- \\frac{\\partial\\mathcal{L}}{\\partial\\phi} \= 0,
we obtain the [equations of motion](/wiki/Equations_of_motion "Equations of motion") for the field, which describe the way it varies in time and space:
\\left(\\frac{\\partial^2}{\\partial t^2} \- \\nabla^2 \+ m^2\\right)\\phi \= 0\.
This is known as the [Klein–Gordon equation](/wiki/Klein%E2%80%93Gordon_equation "Klein–Gordon equation").{{r\|peskin\|page1\=17}}
The Klein–Gordon equation is a [wave equation](/wiki/Wave_equation "Wave equation"), so its solutions can be expressed as a sum of [normal modes](/wiki/Normal_mode "Normal mode") (obtained via [Fourier transform](/wiki/Fourier_transform "Fourier transform")) as follows:
\\phi(\\mathbf{x}, t) \= \\int \\frac{d^3p}{(2\\pi)^3} \\frac{1}{\\sqrt{2\\omega\_{\\mathbf{p}}}}\\left(a\_{\\mathbf{p}} e^{\-i\\omega\_{\\mathbf{p}}t \+ i\\mathbf{p}\\cdot\\mathbf{x}} \+ a\_{\\mathbf{p}}^\* e^{i\\omega\_{\\mathbf{p}}t \- i\\mathbf{p}\\cdot\\mathbf{x}}\\right),
where {{math\|''a''}} is a [complex number](/wiki/Complex_number "Complex number") (normalized by convention), {{math\|\*}} denotes [complex conjugation](/wiki/Complex_conjugation "Complex conjugation"), and {{math\|''ω'''''p'''}} is the frequency of the normal mode:
\\omega\_{\\mathbf{p}} \= \\sqrt{\|\\mathbf{p}\|^2 \+ m^2}.
Thus each normal mode corresponding to a single {{math\|'''p'''}} can be seen as a classical [harmonic oscillator](/wiki/Harmonic_oscillator "Harmonic oscillator") with frequency {{math\|''ω'''''p'''}}.{{r\|peskin\|page1\=21,26}}
### Canonical quantization
{{Main\|Canonical quantization}}
The quantization procedure for the above classical field to a quantum operator field is analogous to the promotion of a classical harmonic oscillator to a [quantum harmonic oscillator](/wiki/Quantum_harmonic_oscillator "Quantum harmonic oscillator").
The displacement of a classical harmonic oscillator is described by
x(t) \= \\frac{1}{\\sqrt{2\\omega}} a e^{\-i\\omega t} \+ \\frac{1}{\\sqrt{2\\omega}} a^\* e^{i\\omega t},
where {{math\|''a''}} is a complex number (normalized by convention), and {{math\|''ω''}} is the oscillator's frequency. Note that {{math\|''x''}} is the displacement of a particle in simple harmonic motion from the equilibrium position, not to be confused with the spatial label {{math\|'''x'''}} of a quantum field.
For a quantum harmonic oscillator, {{math\|''x''(''t'')}} is promoted to a [linear operator](/wiki/Linear_operator "Linear operator") \\hat x(t):
\\hat x(t) \= \\frac{1}{\\sqrt{2\\omega}} \\hat a e^{\-i\\omega t} \+ \\frac{1}{\\sqrt{2\\omega}} \\hat a^\\dagger e^{i\\omega t}.
Complex numbers {{math\|''a''}} and {{math\|''a''\*}} are replaced by the [annihilation operator](/wiki/Annihilation_operator "Annihilation operator") \\hat a and the [creation operator](/wiki/Creation_operator "Creation operator") \\hat a^\\dagger, respectively, where {{math\|†}} denotes [Hermitian conjugation](/wiki/Hermitian_conjugation "Hermitian conjugation"). The [commutation relation](/wiki/Commutation_relation "Commutation relation") between the two is
\\left\[\\hat a, \\hat a^\\dagger\\right] \= 1\.
The [Hamiltonian](/wiki/Hamiltonian_%28quantum_mechanics%29 "Hamiltonian (quantum mechanics)") of the simple harmonic oscillator can be written as
\\hat H \= \\hbar\\omega \\hat{a}^\\dagger \\hat{a} \+\\frac{1}{2}\\hbar\\omega.
The [vacuum state](/wiki/Vacuum_state "Vacuum state") \|0\\rang, which is the lowest energy state, is defined by
\\hat a\|0\\rang \= 0
and has energy \\frac12\\hbar\\omega.
One can easily check that \[\\hat H, \\hat{a}^\\dagger]\=\\hbar\\omega\\hat{a}^\\dagger, which implies that \\hat{a}^\\dagger increases the energy of the simple harmonic oscillator by \\hbar\\omega. For example, the state \\hat{a}^\\dagger\|0\\rang is an eigenstate of energy 3\\hbar\\omega/2.
Any energy eigenstate state of a single harmonic oscillator can be obtained from \|0\\rang by successively applying the creation operator \\hat a^\\dagger:{{r\|peskin\|page1\=20}} and any state of the system can be expressed as a linear combination of the states
\|n\\rang \\propto \\left(\\hat a^\\dagger\\right)^n\|0\\rang.
A similar procedure can be applied to the real scalar field {{math\|''ϕ''}}, by promoting it to a quantum field operator \\hat\\phi, while the annihilation operator \\hat a\_{\\mathbf{p}}, the creation operator \\hat a\_{\\mathbf{p}}^\\dagger and the angular frequency \\omega\_\\mathbf {p}are now for a particular {{math\|'''p'''}}:
\\hat \\phi(\\mathbf{x}, t) \= \\int \\frac{d^3p}{(2\\pi)^3} \\frac{1}{\\sqrt{2\\omega\_{\\mathbf{p}}}}\\left(\\hat a\_{\\mathbf{p}} e^{\-i\\omega\_{\\mathbf{p}}t \+ i\\mathbf{p}\\cdot\\mathbf{x}} \+ \\hat a\_{\\mathbf{p}}^\\dagger e^{i\\omega\_{\\mathbf{p}}t \- i\\mathbf{p}\\cdot\\mathbf{x}}\\right).
Their commutation relations are:{{r\|peskin\|page1\=21}}
\\left\[\\hat a\_{\\mathbf p}, \\hat a\_{\\mathbf q}^\\dagger\\right] \= (2\\pi)^3\\delta(\\mathbf{p} \- \\mathbf{q}),\\quad \\left\[\\hat a\_{\\mathbf p}, \\hat a\_{\\mathbf q}\\right] \= \\left\[\\hat a\_{\\mathbf p}^\\dagger, \\hat a\_{\\mathbf q}^\\dagger\\right] \= 0,
where {{math\|''δ''}} is the [Dirac delta function](/wiki/Dirac_delta_function "Dirac delta function"). The vacuum state \|0\\rang is defined by
\\hat a\_{\\mathbf p}\|0\\rang \= 0,\\quad \\text{for all }\\mathbf p.
Any quantum state of the field can be obtained from \|0\\rang by successively applying creation operators \\hat a\_{\\mathbf{p}}^\\dagger (or by a linear combination of such states), e.g. {{r\|peskin\|page1\=22}}
\\left(\\hat a\_{\\mathbf{p}\_3}^\\dagger\\right)^3 \\hat a\_{\\mathbf{p}\_2}^\\dagger \\left(\\hat a\_{\\mathbf{p}\_1}^\\dagger\\right)^2 \|0\\rang.
While the state space of a single quantum harmonic oscillator contains all the discrete energy states of one oscillating particle, the state space of a quantum field contains the discrete energy levels of an arbitrary number of particles. The latter space is known as a [Fock space](/wiki/Fock_space "Fock space"), which can account for the fact that particle numbers are not fixed in relativistic quantum systems.{{cite journal \|last1\=Fock \|first1\=V. \|author\-link\=Vladimir Fock \|date\=1932\-03\-10 \|title\=Konfigurationsraum und zweite Quantelung \|journal\=Zeitschrift für Physik \|volume\=75 \|issue\=9–10 \|pages\=622–647 \|doi\=10\.1007/BF01344458 \|language\=de \|bibcode\=1932ZPhy...75\..622F \|s2cid\=186238995 }} The process of quantizing an arbitrary number of particles instead of a single particle is often also called [second quantization](/wiki/Second_quantization "Second quantization").{{r\|peskin\|page1\=19}}
The foregoing procedure is a direct application of non\-relativistic quantum mechanics and can be used to quantize (complex) scalar fields, [Dirac fields](/wiki/Dirac_field "Dirac field"),{{r\|peskin\|page1\=52}} [vector fields](/wiki/Vector_field "Vector field") (*e.g.* the electromagnetic field), and even [strings](/wiki/String_theory "String theory").{{cite book \|last1\=Becker \|first1\=Katrin \|last2\=Becker \|first2\=Melanie\|author\-link2\=Melanie Becker \|last3\=Schwarz \|first3\=John H. \|date\=2007 \|title\=String Theory and M\-Theory \|url\=https://archive.org/details/stringtheorymthe00beck\_649 \|url\-access\=limited \|publisher\=Cambridge University Press \|page\=\[https://archive.org/details/stringtheorymthe00beck\_649/page/n53 36] \|isbn\=978\-0\-521\-86069\-7 \|author\-link3\=John Henry Schwarz }} However, creation and annihilation operators are only well defined in the simplest theories that contain no interactions (so\-called free theory). In the case of the real scalar field, the existence of these operators was a consequence of the decomposition of solutions of the classical equations of motion into a sum of normal modes. To perform calculations on any realistic interacting theory, [perturbation theory](/wiki/Perturbation_theory_%28quantum_mechanics%29 "Perturbation theory (quantum mechanics)") would be necessary.
The Lagrangian of any quantum field in nature would contain interaction terms in addition to the free theory terms. For example, a [quartic interaction](/wiki/Quartic_interaction "Quartic interaction") term could be introduced to the Lagrangian of the real scalar field:{{r\|peskin\|page1\=77}}
\\mathcal{L} \= \\frac 12 (\\partial\_\\mu\\phi)\\left(\\partial^\\mu\\phi\\right) \- \\frac 12 m^2\\phi^2 \- \\frac{\\lambda}{4!}\\phi^4,
where {{math\|''μ''}} is a spacetime index, \\partial\_0 \= \\partial/\\partial t,\\ \\partial\_1 \= \\partial/\\partial x^1, etc. The summation over the index {{math\|''μ''}} has been omitted following the [Einstein notation](/wiki/Einstein_notation "Einstein notation"). If the parameter {{math\|''λ''}} is sufficiently small, then the interacting theory described by the above Lagrangian can be considered as a small perturbation from the free theory.
### Path integrals
{{Main\|Path integral formulation}}
The [path integral formulation](/wiki/Path_integral_formulation "Path integral formulation") of QFT is concerned with the direct computation of the [scattering amplitude](/wiki/Scattering_amplitude "Scattering amplitude") of a certain interaction process, rather than the establishment of operators and state spaces. To calculate the [probability amplitude](/wiki/Probability_amplitude "Probability amplitude") for a system to evolve from some initial state \|\\phi\_I\\rang at time {{math\|''t'' {{\=}} 0}} to some final state \|\\phi\_F\\rang at {{math\|''t'' {{\=}} ''T''}}, the total time {{math\|''T''}} is divided into {{math\|''N''}} small intervals. The overall amplitude is the product of the amplitude of evolution within each interval, integrated over all intermediate states. Let {{math\|''H''}} be the [Hamiltonian](/wiki/Hamiltonian_%28quantum_mechanics%29 "Hamiltonian (quantum mechanics)") (*i.e.* [generator of time evolution](/wiki/Time_evolution_operator "Time evolution operator")), then{{r\|zee\|page1\=10}}
\\lang \\phi\_F\|e^{\-iHT}\|\\phi\_I\\rang \= \\int d\\phi\_1\\int d\\phi\_2\\cdots\\int d\\phi\_{N\-1}\\,\\lang \\phi\_F\|e^{\-iHT/N}\|\\phi\_{N\-1}\\rang\\cdots\\lang \\phi\_2\|e^{\-iHT/N}\|\\phi\_1\\rang\\lang \\phi\_1\|e^{\-iHT/N}\|\\phi\_I\\rang.
Taking the limit {{math\|''N'' → ∞}}, the above product of integrals becomes the Feynman path integral:{{r\|peskin\|zee\|page1\=282\|page2\=12}}
\\lang \\phi\_F\|e^{\-iHT}\|\\phi\_I\\rang \= \\int \\mathcal{D}\\phi(t)\\,\\exp\\left\\{i\\int\_0^T dt\\,L\\right\\},
where {{math\|''L''}} is the Lagrangian involving {{math\|''ϕ''}} and its derivatives with respect to spatial and time coordinates, obtained from the Hamiltonian {{math\|''H''}} via [Legendre transformation](/wiki/Legendre_transformation "Legendre transformation"). The initial and final conditions of the path integral are respectively
\\phi(0\) \= \\phi\_I,\\quad \\phi(T) \= \\phi\_F.
In other words, the overall amplitude is the sum over the amplitude of every possible path between the initial and final states, where the amplitude of a path is given by the exponential in the integrand.
### Two\-point correlation function
{{Main\|Correlation function (quantum field theory)}}
In calculations, one often encounters expression like\\lang 0\|T\\{\\phi(x)\\phi(y)\\}\|0\\rang
\\quad \\text{or} \\quad
\\lang \\Omega \|T\\{\\phi(x)\\phi(y)\\}\|\\Omega \\rangin the free or interacting theory, respectively. Here, x and y are position [four\-vectors](/wiki/Four-vector "Four-vector"), T is the [time ordering](/wiki/Time_ordering "Time ordering") operator that shuffles its operands so the time\-components x^0 and y^0 increase from right to left, and \|\\Omega\\rang is the ground state (vacuum state) of the interacting theory, different from the free ground state \| 0 \\rang. This expression represents the probability amplitude for the field to propagate from {{math\|''y''}} to {{math\|''x''}}, and goes by multiple names, like the two\-point [propagator](/wiki/Propagator "Propagator"), two\-point [correlation function](/wiki/Correlation_function_%28quantum_field_theory%29 "Correlation function (quantum field theory)"), two\-point [Green's function](/wiki/Green%27s_function "Green's function") or two\-point function for short.{{r\|peskin\|page1\=82}}
The free two\-point function, also known as the [Feynman propagator](/wiki/Feynman_propagator "Feynman propagator"), can be found for the real scalar field by either canonical quantization or path integrals to be{{r\|peskin\|zee\|page1\=31,288\|page2\=23}}
\\lang 0\|T\\{\\phi(x)\\phi(y)\\} \|0\\rang \\equiv D\_F(x\-y) \= \\lim\_{\\epsilon\\to 0} \\int\\frac{d^4p}{(2\\pi)^4} \\frac{i}{p\_\\mu p^\\mu \- m^2 \+ i\\epsilon} e^{\-ip\_\\mu (x^\\mu \- y^\\mu)}.
In an interacting theory, where the Lagrangian or Hamiltonian contains terms L\_I(t) or H\_I(t) that describe interactions, the two\-point function is more difficult to define. However, through both the canonical quantization formulation and the path integral formulation, it is possible to express it through an infinite perturbation series of the *free* two\-point function.
In canonical quantization, the two\-point correlation function can be written as:{{r\|peskin\|page1\=87}}
\\lang\\Omega\|T\\{\\phi(x)\\phi(y)\\}\|\\Omega\\rang \= \\lim\_{T\\to\\infty(1\-i\\epsilon)} \\frac{\\left\\lang 0\\left\|T\\left\\{\\phi\_I(x)\\phi\_I(y)\\exp\\left\[\-i\\int\_{\-T}^T dt\\, H\_I(t)\\right]\\right\\}\\right\|0\\right\\rang}{\\left\\lang 0\\left\|T\\left\\{\\exp\\left\[\-i\\int\_{\-T}^T dt\\, H\_I(t)\\right]\\right\\}\\right\|0\\right\\rang},
where {{math\|''ε''}} is an [infinitesimal](/wiki/Infinitesimal "Infinitesimal") number and {{math\|''ϕI''}} is the field operator under the free theory. Here, the [exponential](/wiki/Exponential_function "Exponential function") should be understood as its [power series](/wiki/Power_series "Power series") expansion. For example, in \\phi^4\-theory, the interacting term of the Hamiltonian is H\_I(t) \= \\int d^3 x\\,\\frac{\\lambda}{4!}\\phi\_I(x)^4,{{r\|peskin\|page1\=84}} and the expansion of the two\-point correlator in terms of \\lambda becomes\\lang\\Omega\|T\\{\\phi(x)\\phi(y)\\}\|\\Omega\\rang \=
\\frac{
```
\displaystyle \sum_{n=0}^\infty \frac{(-i \lambda)^n}{(4 !)^n n !} \int d^4 z_1 \cdots \int d^4 z_n \lang 0|T\{\phi_I(x)\phi_I(y)\phi_I(z_1)^4\cdots\phi_I(z_n)^4\}|0\rang}{
\displaystyle \sum_{n=0}^\infty \frac{(-i \lambda)^n}{(4 !)^n n !} \int d^4 z_1 \cdots \int d^4 z_n \lang 0|T\{ \phi_I(z_1)^4\cdots\phi_I(z_n)^4\}|0\rang
```
}.This perturbation expansion expresses the interacting two\-point function in terms of quantities \\lang 0 \| \\cdots \| 0 \\rang that are evaluated in the *free* theory.
In the path integral formulation, the two\-point correlation function can be written{{r\|peskin\|page1\=284}}
\\lang\\Omega\|T\\{\\phi(x)\\phi(y)\\}\|\\Omega\\rang \= \\lim\_{T\\to\\infty(1\-i\\epsilon)} \\frac{\\int\\mathcal{D}\\phi\\,\\phi(x)\\phi(y)\\exp\\left\[i\\int\_{\-T}^T d^4z\\,\\mathcal{L}\\right]}{\\int\\mathcal{D}\\phi\\,\\exp\\left\[i\\int\_{\-T}^T d^4z\\,\\mathcal{L}\\right]},
where \\mathcal{L} is the Lagrangian density. As in the previous paragraph, the exponential can be expanded as a series in {{math\|''λ''}}, reducing the interacting two\-point function to quantities in the free theory.
[Wick's theorem](/wiki/Wick%27s_theorem "Wick's theorem") further reduce any {{math\|''n''}}\-point correlation function in the free theory to a sum of products of two\-point correlation functions. For example,
\\begin{align}
\\lang 0\|T\\{\\phi(x\_1\)\\phi(x\_2\)\\phi(x\_3\)\\phi(x\_4\)\\}\|0\\rang \&\= \\lang 0\|T\\{\\phi(x\_1\)\\phi(x\_2\)\\}\|0\\rang \\lang 0\|T\\{\\phi(x\_3\)\\phi(x\_4\)\\}\|0\\rang\\\\
\&\+ \\lang 0\|T\\{\\phi(x\_1\)\\phi(x\_3\)\\}\|0\\rang \\lang 0\|T\\{\\phi(x\_2\)\\phi(x\_4\)\\}\|0\\rang\\\\
\&\+ \\lang 0\|T\\{\\phi(x\_1\)\\phi(x\_4\)\\}\|0\\rang \\lang 0\|T\\{\\phi(x\_2\)\\phi(x\_3\)\\}\|0\\rang.
\\end{align}
Since interacting correlation functions can be expressed in terms of free correlation functions, only the latter need to be evaluated in order to calculate all physical quantities in the (perturbative) interacting theory.{{r\|peskin\|page1\=90}} This makes the Feynman propagator one of the most important quantities in quantum field theory.
### Feynman diagram
{{Main\|Feynman diagram}}
Correlation functions in the interacting theory can be written as a perturbation series. Each term in the series is a product of Feynman propagators in the free theory and can be represented visually by a [Feynman diagram](/wiki/Feynman_diagram "Feynman diagram"). For example, the {{math\|''λ''1}} term in the two\-point correlation function in the {{math\|''ϕ''4}} theory is
\\frac{\-i\\lambda}{4!}\\int d^4z\\,\\lang 0\|T\\{\\phi(x)\\phi(y)\\phi(z)\\phi(z)\\phi(z)\\phi(z)\\}\|0\\rang.
After applying Wick's theorem, one of the terms is
12\\cdot \\frac{\-i\\lambda}{4!}\\int d^4z\\, D\_F(x\-z)D\_F(y\-z)D\_F(z\-z).
This term can instead be obtained from the Feynman diagram
[200px](/wiki/File:Phi-4_one-loop.svg "Phi-4 one-loop.svg").
The diagram consists of
* *external vertices* connected with one edge and represented by dots (here labeled x and y).
* *internal vertices* connected with four edges and represented by dots (here labeled z).
* *edges* connecting the vertices and represented by lines.
Every vertex corresponds to a single \\phi field factor at the corresponding point in spacetime, while the edges correspond to the propagators between the spacetime points. The term in the perturbation series corresponding to the diagram is obtained by writing down the expression that follows from the so\-called Feynman rules:
1. For every internal vertex z\_i, write down a factor \-i \\lambda \\int d^4 z\_i.
2. For every edge that connects two vertices z\_i and z\_j, write down a factor D\_F(z\_i\-z\_j).
3. Divide by the symmetry factor of the diagram.
With the symmetry factor 2, following these rules yields exactly the expression above. By Fourier transforming the propagator, the Feynman rules can be reformulated from position space into momentum space.{{r\|peskin\|page1\=91–94}}
In order to compute the {{math\|''n''}}\-point correlation function to the {{math\|''k''}}\-th order, list all valid Feynman diagrams with {{math\|''n''}} external points and {{math\|''k''}} or fewer vertices, and then use Feynman rules to obtain the expression for each term. To be precise,
\\lang\\Omega\|T\\{\\phi(x\_1\)\\cdots\\phi(x\_n)\\}\|\\Omega\\rang
is equal to the sum of (expressions corresponding to) all connected diagrams with {{math\|''n''}} external points. (Connected diagrams are those in which every vertex is connected to an external point through lines. Components that are totally disconnected from external lines are sometimes called "vacuum bubbles".) In the {{math\|''ϕ''4}} interaction theory discussed above, every vertex must have four legs.{{r\|peskin\|page1\=98}}
In realistic applications, the scattering amplitude of a certain interaction or the [decay rate](/wiki/Decay_rate "Decay rate") of a particle can be computed from the [S\-matrix](/wiki/S-matrix "S-matrix"), which itself can be found using the Feynman diagram method.{{r\|peskin\|page1\=102–115}}
Feynman diagrams devoid of "loops" are called tree\-level diagrams, which describe the lowest\-order interaction processes; those containing {{math\|''n''}} loops are referred to as {{math\|''n''}}\-loop diagrams, which describe higher\-order contributions, or radiative corrections, to the interaction.{{r\|zee\|page1\=44}} Lines whose end points are vertices can be thought of as the propagation of [virtual particles](/wiki/Virtual_particle "Virtual particle").{{r\|peskin\|page1\=31}}
### Renormalization
{{Main\|Renormalization}}
Feynman rules can be used to directly evaluate tree\-level diagrams. However, naïve computation of loop diagrams such as the one shown above will result in divergent momentum integrals, which seems to imply that almost all terms in the perturbative expansion are infinite. The [renormalisation](/wiki/Renormalisation "Renormalisation") procedure is a systematic process for removing such infinities.
Parameters appearing in the Lagrangian, such as the mass {{math\|''m''}} and the coupling constant {{math\|''λ''}}, have no physical meaning — {{math\|''m''}}, {{math\|''λ''}}, and the field strength {{math\|''ϕ''}} are not experimentally measurable quantities and are referred to here as the bare mass, bare coupling constant, and bare field, respectively. The physical mass and coupling constant are measured in some interaction process and are generally different from the bare quantities. While computing physical quantities from this interaction process, one may limit the domain of divergent momentum integrals to be below some momentum cut\-off {{math\|Λ}}, obtain expressions for the physical quantities, and then take the limit {{math\|Λ → ∞}}. This is an example of [regularization](/wiki/Regularization_%28physics%29 "Regularization (physics)"), a class of methods to treat divergences in QFT, with {{math\|Λ}} being the regulator.
The approach illustrated above is called bare perturbation theory, as calculations involve only the bare quantities such as mass and coupling constant. A different approach, called renormalized perturbation theory, is to use physically meaningful quantities from the very beginning. In the case of {{math\|''ϕ''4}} theory, the field strength is first redefined:
\\phi \= Z^{1/2}\\phi\_r,
where {{math\|''ϕ''}} is the bare field, {{math\|''ϕr''}} is the renormalized field, and {{math\|''Z''}} is a constant to be determined. The Lagrangian density becomes:
\\mathcal{L} \= \\frac 12 (\\partial\_\\mu\\phi\_r)(\\partial^\\mu\\phi\_r) \- \\frac 12 m\_r^2\\phi\_r^2 \- \\frac{\\lambda\_r}{4!}\\phi\_r^4 \+ \\frac 12 \\delta\_Z (\\partial\_\\mu\\phi\_r)(\\partial^\\mu\\phi\_r) \- \\frac 12 \\delta\_m\\phi\_r^2 \- \\frac{\\delta\_\\lambda}{4!}\\phi\_r^4,
where {{math\|''mr''}} and {{math\|''λr''}} are the experimentally measurable, renormalized, mass and coupling constant, respectively, and
\\delta\_Z \= Z\-1,\\quad \\delta\_m \= m^2Z \- m\_r^2,\\quad \\delta\_\\lambda \= \\lambda Z^2 \- \\lambda\_r
are constants to be determined. The first three terms are the {{math\|''ϕ''4}} Lagrangian density written in terms of the renormalized quantities, while the latter three terms are referred to as "counterterms". As the Lagrangian now contains more terms, so the Feynman diagrams should include additional elements, each with their own Feynman rules. The procedure is outlined as follows. First select a regularization scheme (such as the cut\-off regularization introduced above or [dimensional regularization](/wiki/Dimensional_regularization "Dimensional regularization")); call the regulator {{math\|Λ}}. Compute Feynman diagrams, in which divergent terms will depend on {{math\|Λ}}. Then, define {{math\|''δZ''}}, {{math\|''δm''}}, and {{math\|''δλ''}} such that Feynman diagrams for the counterterms will exactly cancel the divergent terms in the normal Feynman diagrams when the limit {{math\|Λ → ∞}} is taken. In this way, meaningful finite quantities are obtained.{{r\|peskin\|page1\=323–326}}
It is only possible to eliminate all infinities to obtain a finite result in renormalizable theories, whereas in non\-renormalizable theories infinities cannot be removed by the redefinition of a small number of parameters. The [Standard Model](/wiki/Standard_Model "Standard Model") of elementary particles is a renormalizable QFT,{{r\|peskin\|page1\=719–727}} while [quantum gravity](/wiki/Quantum_gravity "Quantum gravity") is non\-renormalizable.{{r\|peskin\|zee\|page1\=798\|page2\=421}}
#### Renormalization group
{{Main\|Renormalization group}}
The [renormalization group](/wiki/Renormalization_group "Renormalization group"), developed by [Kenneth Wilson](/wiki/Kenneth_G._Wilson "Kenneth G. Wilson"), is a mathematical apparatus used to study the changes in physical parameters (coefficients in the Lagrangian) as the system is viewed at different scales.{{r\|peskin\|page1\=393}} The way in which each parameter changes with scale is described by its [*β* function](/wiki/Beta_function_%28physics%29 "Beta function (physics)").{{r\|peskin\|page1\=417}} Correlation functions, which underlie quantitative physical predictions, change with scale according to the [Callan–Symanzik equation](/wiki/Callan%E2%80%93Symanzik_equation "Callan–Symanzik equation").{{r\|peskin\|page1\=410–411}}
As an example, the coupling constant in QED, namely the [elementary charge](/wiki/Elementary_charge "Elementary charge") {{math\|''e''}}, has the following *β* function:
\\beta(e) \\equiv \\frac{1}{\\Lambda}\\frac{de}{d\\Lambda} \= \\frac{e^3}{12\\pi^2} \+ O\\mathord\\left(e^5\\right),
where {{math\|Λ}} is the energy scale under which the measurement of {{math\|''e''}} is performed. This [differential equation](/wiki/Differential_equation "Differential equation") implies that the observed elementary charge increases as the scale increases.{{cite arXiv \|last\=Fujita \|first\=Takehisa \|eprint\=hep\-th/0606101 \|title\=Physics of Renormalization Group Equation in QED \|date\=2008\-02\-01 }} The renormalized coupling constant, which changes with the energy scale, is also called the running coupling constant.{{r\|peskin\|page1\=420}}
The coupling constant {{math\|''g''}} in [quantum chromodynamics](/wiki/Quantum_chromodynamics "Quantum chromodynamics"), a non\-Abelian gauge theory based on the symmetry group {{math\|\[\[special unitary group\|SU(3\)]]}}, has the following *β* function:
\\beta(g) \\equiv \\frac{1}{\\Lambda}\\frac{dg}{d\\Lambda} \= \\frac{g^3}{16\\pi^2}\\left(\-11 \+ \\frac 23 N\_f\\right) \+ O\\mathord\\left(g^5\\right),
where {{math\|''Nf''}} is the number of [quark](/wiki/Quark "Quark") [flavours](/wiki/Flavour_%28particle_physics%29 "Flavour (particle physics)"). In the case where {{math\|''Nf'' ≤ 16}} (the Standard Model has {{math\|''Nf'' {{\=}} 6}}), the coupling constant {{math\|''g''}} decreases as the energy scale increases. Hence, while the strong interaction is strong at low energies, it becomes very weak in high\-energy interactions, a phenomenon known as [asymptotic freedom](/wiki/Asymptotic_freedom "Asymptotic freedom").{{r\|peskin\|page1\=531}}
[Conformal field theories](/wiki/Conformal_field_theories "Conformal field theories") (CFTs) are special QFTs that admit [conformal symmetry](/wiki/Conformal_symmetry "Conformal symmetry"). They are insensitive to changes in the scale, as all their coupling constants have vanishing *β* function. (The converse is not true, however — the vanishing of all *β* functions does not imply conformal symmetry of the theory.){{Cite journal \|last1\=Aharony \|first1\=Ofer \|last2\=Gur\-Ari \|first2\=Guy \|last3\=Klinghoffer \|first3\=Nizan \|arxiv\=1501\.06664 \|title\=The Holographic Dictionary for Beta Functions of Multi\-trace Coupling Constants \|journal\=Journal of High Energy Physics \|volume\=2015 \|issue\=5 \|pages\=31 \|date\=2015\-05\-19 \|bibcode\=2015JHEP...05\..031A \|doi\=10\.1007/JHEP05(2015\)031 \|s2cid\=115167208 }} Examples include [string theory](/wiki/String_theory "String theory"){{cite book \|last\=Polchinski \|first\=Joseph \|date\=2005 \|title\=String Theory \|volume\=1 \|publisher\=Cambridge University Press \|isbn\=978\-0\-521\-67227\-6 \|author\-link\=Joseph Polchinski }} and [{{math\|''N'' {{\=}} 4}} supersymmetric Yang–Mills theory](/wiki/N_%3D_4_supersymmetric_Yang%E2%80%93Mills_theory "N = 4 supersymmetric Yang–Mills theory").{{cite arXiv \|last\=Kovacs \|first\=Stefano \|eprint\=hep\-th/9908171 \|title\={{math\|''N'' {{\=}} 4}} supersymmetric Yang–Mills theory and the AdS/SCFT correspondence \|date\=1999\-08\-26 }}
According to Wilson's picture, every QFT is fundamentally accompanied by its energy cut\-off {{math\|Λ}}, *i.e.* that the theory is no longer valid at energies higher than {{math\|Λ}}, and all degrees of freedom above the scale {{math\|Λ}} are to be omitted. For example, the cut\-off could be the inverse of the atomic spacing in a condensed matter system, and in elementary particle physics it could be associated with the fundamental "graininess" of spacetime caused by quantum fluctuations in gravity. The cut\-off scale of theories of particle interactions lies far beyond current experiments. Even if the theory were very complicated at that scale, as long as its couplings are sufficiently weak, it must be described at low energies by a renormalizable [effective field theory](/wiki/Effective_field_theory "Effective field theory").{{r\|peskin\|page1\=402–403}} The difference between renormalizable and non\-renormalizable theories is that the former are insensitive to details at high energies, whereas the latter do depend on them.{{r\|shifman\|page1\=2}} According to this view, non\-renormalizable theories are to be seen as low\-energy effective theories of a more fundamental theory. The failure to remove the cut\-off {{math\|Λ}} from calculations in such a theory merely indicates that new physical phenomena appear at scales above {{math\|Λ}}, where a new theory is necessary.{{r\|zee\|page1\=156}}
### Other theories
The quantization and renormalization procedures outlined in the preceding sections are performed for the free theory and [{{math\|''ϕ''4}} theory](/wiki/Quartic_interaction "Quartic interaction") of the real scalar field. A similar process can be done for other types of fields, including the [complex](/wiki/Complex_numbers "Complex numbers") scalar field, the [vector field](/wiki/Vector_field "Vector field"), and the [Dirac field](/wiki/Dirac_field "Dirac field"), as well as other types of interaction terms, including the electromagnetic interaction and the [Yukawa interaction](/wiki/Yukawa_interaction "Yukawa interaction").
As an example, [quantum electrodynamics](/wiki/Quantum_electrodynamics "Quantum electrodynamics") contains a Dirac field {{math\|''ψ''}} representing the [electron](/wiki/Electron "Electron") field and a vector field {{math\|''Aμ''}} representing the electromagnetic field ([photon](/wiki/Photon "Photon") field). (Despite its name, the quantum electromagnetic "field" actually corresponds to the classical [electromagnetic four\-potential](/wiki/Electromagnetic_four-potential "Electromagnetic four-potential"), rather than the classical electric and magnetic fields.) The full QED Lagrangian density is:
\\mathcal{L} \= \\bar\\psi\\left(i\\gamma^\\mu\\partial\_\\mu \- m\\right)\\psi \- \\frac 14 F\_{\\mu\\nu}F^{\\mu\\nu} \- e\\bar\\psi\\gamma^\\mu\\psi A\_\\mu,
where {{math\|''γμ''}} are [Dirac matrices](/wiki/Dirac_matrices "Dirac matrices"), \\bar\\psi \= \\psi^\\dagger\\gamma^0, and F\_{\\mu\\nu} \= \\partial\_\\mu A\_\\nu \- \\partial\_\\nu A\_\\mu is the [electromagnetic field strength](/wiki/Electromagnetic_field_strength "Electromagnetic field strength"). The parameters in this theory are the (bare) electron mass {{math\|''m''}} and the (bare) [elementary charge](/wiki/Elementary_charge "Elementary charge") {{math\|''e''}}. The first and second terms in the Lagrangian density correspond to the free Dirac field and free vector fields, respectively. The last term describes the interaction between the electron and photon fields, which is treated as a perturbation from the free theories.{{r\|peskin\|page1\=78}}
[thumb](/wiki/File:Electron-positron-annihilation.svg "Electron-positron-annihilation.svg")
Shown above is an example of a tree\-level Feynman diagram in QED. It describes an electron and a positron annihilating, creating an [off\-shell](/wiki/Off-shell "Off-shell") photon, and then decaying into a new pair of electron and positron. Time runs from left to right. Arrows pointing forward in time represent the propagation of electrons, while those pointing backward in time represent the propagation of positrons. A wavy line represents the propagation of a photon. Each vertex in QED Feynman diagrams must have an incoming and an outgoing fermion (positron/electron) leg as well as a photon leg.
#### Gauge symmetry
{{Main\|Gauge theory}}
If the following transformation to the fields is performed at every spacetime point {{math\|''x''}} (a local transformation), then the QED Lagrangian remains unchanged, or invariant:
\\psi(x) \\to e^{i\\alpha(x)}\\psi(x),\\quad A\_\\mu(x) \\to A\_\\mu(x) \+ ie^{\-1} e^{\-i\\alpha(x)}\\partial\_\\mu e^{i\\alpha(x)},
where {{math\|''α''(''x'')}} is any function of spacetime coordinates. If a theory's Lagrangian (or more precisely the [action](/wiki/Action_%28physics%29 "Action (physics)")) is invariant under a certain local transformation, then the transformation is referred to as a [gauge symmetry](/wiki/Gauge_symmetry "Gauge symmetry") of the theory.{{r\|peskin\|page1\=482–483}} Gauge symmetries form a [group](/wiki/Group_%28mathematics%29 "Group (mathematics)") at every spacetime point. In the case of QED, the successive application of two different local symmetry transformations e^{i\\alpha(x)} and e^{i\\alpha'(x)} is yet another symmetry transformation e^{i\[\\alpha(x)\+\\alpha'(x)]}. For any {{math\|''α''(''x'')}}, e^{i\\alpha(x)} is an element of the {{math\|\[\[U(1\)]]}} group, thus QED is said to have {{math\|U(1\)}} gauge symmetry.{{r\|peskin\|page1\=496}} The photon field {{math\|''Aμ''}} may be referred to as the {{math\|U(1\)}} [gauge boson](/wiki/Gauge_boson "Gauge boson").
{{math\|U(1\)}} is an [Abelian group](/wiki/Abelian_group "Abelian group"), meaning that the result is the same regardless of the order in which its elements are applied. QFTs can also be built on [non\-Abelian groups](/wiki/Non-Abelian_group "Non-Abelian group"), giving rise to [non\-Abelian gauge theories](/wiki/Yang%E2%80%93Mills_theory "Yang–Mills theory") (also known as Yang–Mills theories).{{r\|peskin\|page1\=489}} [Quantum chromodynamics](/wiki/Quantum_chromodynamics "Quantum chromodynamics"), which describes the strong interaction, is a non\-Abelian gauge theory with an {{math\|\[\[special unitary group\|SU(3\)]]}} gauge symmetry. It contains three Dirac fields {{math\|''ψi'', ''i'' {{\=}} 1,2,3}} representing [quark](/wiki/Quark "Quark") fields as well as eight vector fields {{math\|''Aa,μ'', ''a'' {{\=}} 1,...,8}} representing [gluon](/wiki/Gluon "Gluon") fields, which are the {{math\|SU(3\)}} gauge bosons.{{r\|peskin\|page1\=547}} The QCD Lagrangian density is:{{r\|peskin\|page1\=490–491}}
\\mathcal{L} \= i\\bar\\psi^i \\gamma^\\mu (D\_\\mu)^{ij} \\psi^j \- \\frac 14 F\_{\\mu\\nu}^aF^{a,\\mu\\nu} \- m\\bar\\psi^i \\psi^i,
where {{math\|''Dμ''}} is the gauge [covariant derivative](/wiki/Covariant_derivative "Covariant derivative"):
D\_\\mu \= \\partial\_\\mu \- igA\_\\mu^a t^a,
where {{math\|''g''}} is the coupling constant, {{math\|''ta''}} are the eight [generators](/wiki/Lie_algebra "Lie algebra") of {{math\|SU(3\)}} in the [fundamental representation](/wiki/Fundamental_representation "Fundamental representation") ({{math\|3×3}} matrices),
F\_{\\mu\\nu}^a \= \\partial\_\\mu A\_\\nu^a \- \\partial\_\\nu A\_\\mu^a \+ gf^{abc}A\_\\mu^b A\_\\nu^c,
and {{math\|''fabc''}} are the [structure constants](/wiki/Structure_constants "Structure constants") of {{math\|SU(3\)}}. Repeated indices {{math\|''i'',''j'',''a''}} are implicitly summed over following Einstein notation. This Lagrangian is invariant under the transformation:
\\psi^i(x) \\to U^{ij}(x)\\psi^j(x),\\quad A\_\\mu^a(x) t^a \\to U(x)\\left\[A\_\\mu^a(x) t^a \+ ig^{\-1} \\partial\_\\mu\\right]U^\\dagger(x),
where {{math\|''U''(''x'')}} is an element of {{math\|SU(3\)}} at every spacetime point {{math\|''x''}}:
U(x) \= e^{i\\alpha(x)^a t^a}.
The preceding discussion of symmetries is on the level of the Lagrangian. In other words, these are "classical" symmetries. After quantization, some theories will no longer exhibit their classical symmetries, a phenomenon called [anomaly](/wiki/Anomaly_%28physics%29 "Anomaly (physics)"). For instance, in the path integral formulation, despite the invariance of the Lagrangian density \\mathcal{L}\[\\phi,\\partial\_\\mu\\phi] under a certain local transformation of the fields, the [measure](/wiki/Measure_%28mathematics%29 "Measure (mathematics)") \\int\\mathcal D\\phi of the path integral may change.{{r\|zee\|page1\=243}} For a theory describing nature to be consistent, it must not contain any anomaly in its gauge symmetry. The Standard Model of elementary particles is a gauge theory based on the group {{math\|SU(3\) × SU(2\) × U(1\)}}, in which all anomalies exactly cancel.{{r\|peskin\|page1\=705–707}}
The theoretical foundation of [general relativity](/wiki/General_relativity "General relativity"), the [equivalence principle](/wiki/Equivalence_principle "Equivalence principle"), can also be understood as a form of gauge symmetry, making general relativity a gauge theory based on the [Lorentz group](/wiki/Lorentz_group "Lorentz group").Veltman, M. J. G. (1976\). *Methods in Field Theory, Proceedings of the Les Houches Summer School, Les Houches, France, 1975*.
[Noether's theorem](/wiki/Noether%27s_theorem "Noether's theorem") states that every continuous symmetry, *i.e.* the parameter in the symmetry transformation being continuous rather than discrete, leads to a corresponding [conservation law](/wiki/Conservation_law "Conservation law").{{r\|peskin\|zee\|page1\=17–18\|page2\=73}} For example, the {{math\|U(1\)}} symmetry of QED implies [charge conservation](/wiki/Charge_conservation "Charge conservation").{{cite journal \|last1\=Brading \|first1\=Katherine A.\|author1\-link\=Katherine Brading \|date\=March 2002 \|title\=Which symmetry? Noether, Weyl, and conservation of electric charge \|journal\=Studies in History and Philosophy of Science Part B: Studies in History and Philosophy of Modern Physics \|volume\=33 \|issue\=1 \|pages\=3–22 \|doi\=10\.1016/S1355\-2198(01\)00033\-8 \|bibcode\=2002SHPMP..33\....3B \|citeseerx\=10\.1\.1\.569\.106 }}
Gauge\-transformations do not relate distinct quantum states. Rather, it relates two equivalent mathematical descriptions of the same quantum state. As an example, the photon field {{math\|''Aμ''}}, being a [four\-vector](/wiki/Four-vector "Four-vector"), has four apparent degrees of freedom, but the actual state of a photon is described by its two degrees of freedom corresponding to the [polarization](/wiki/Photon_polarization "Photon polarization"). The remaining two degrees of freedom are said to be "redundant" — apparently different ways of writing {{math\|''Aμ''}} can be related to each other by a gauge transformation and in fact describe the same state of the photon field. In this sense, gauge invariance is not a "real" symmetry, but a reflection of the "redundancy" of the chosen mathematical description.{{r\|zee\|page1\=168}}
To account for the gauge redundancy in the path integral formulation, one must perform the so\-called [Faddeev–Popov](/wiki/Faddeev%E2%80%93Popov_ghost "Faddeev–Popov ghost") [gauge fixing](/wiki/Gauge_fixing "Gauge fixing") procedure. In non\-Abelian gauge theories, such a procedure introduces new fields called "ghosts". Particles corresponding to the ghost fields are called ghost particles, which cannot be detected externally.{{r\|peskin\|page1\=512–515}} A more rigorous generalization of the Faddeev–Popov procedure is given by [BRST quantization](/wiki/BRST_quantization "BRST quantization").{{r\|peskin\|page1\=517}}
#### Spontaneous symmetry\-breaking
{{Main\|Spontaneous symmetry breaking}}
[Spontaneous symmetry breaking](/wiki/Spontaneous_symmetry_breaking "Spontaneous symmetry breaking") is a mechanism whereby the symmetry of the Lagrangian is violated by the system described by it.{{r\|peskin\|page1\=347}}
To illustrate the mechanism, consider a linear [sigma model](/wiki/Sigma_model "Sigma model") containing {{math\|''N''}} real scalar fields, described by the Lagrangian density:
\\mathcal{L} \= \\frac 12 \\left(\\partial\_\\mu\\phi^i\\right)\\left(\\partial^\\mu\\phi^i\\right) \+ \\frac 12 \\mu^2 \\phi^i\\phi^i \- \\frac{\\lambda}{4} \\left(\\phi^i\\phi^i\\right)^2,
where {{math\|''μ''}} and {{math\|''λ''}} are real parameters. The theory admits an {{math\|\[\[orthogonal group\|O(''N'')]]}} global symmetry:
\\phi^i \\to R^{ij}\\phi^j,\\quad R\\in\\mathrm{O}(N).
The lowest energy state (ground state or vacuum state) of the classical theory is any uniform field {{math\|''ϕ''0}} satisfying
\\phi\_0^i \\phi\_0^i \= \\frac{\\mu^2}{\\lambda}.
Without loss of generality, let the ground state be in the {{math\|''N''}}\-th direction:
\\phi\_0^i \= \\left(0,\\cdots,0,\\frac{\\mu}{\\sqrt{\\lambda}}\\right).
The original {{math\|''N''}} fields can be rewritten as:
\\phi^i(x) \= \\left(\\pi^1(x),\\cdots,\\pi^{N\-1}(x),\\frac{\\mu}{\\sqrt{\\lambda}} \+ \\sigma(x)\\right),
and the original Lagrangian density as:
\\mathcal{L} \= \\frac 12 \\left(\\partial\_\\mu\\pi^k\\right)\\left(\\partial^\\mu\\pi^k\\right) \+ \\frac 12 \\left(\\partial\_\\mu\\sigma\\right)\\left(\\partial^\\mu\\sigma\\right) \- \\frac 12 \\left(2\\mu^2\\right)\\sigma^2 \- \\sqrt{\\lambda}\\mu\\sigma^3 \- \\sqrt{\\lambda}\\mu\\pi^k\\pi^k\\sigma \- \\frac{\\lambda}{2} \\pi^k\\pi^k\\sigma^2 \- \\frac{\\lambda}{4}\\left(\\pi^k\\pi^k\\right)^2,
where {{math\|''k'' {{\=}} 1, ..., ''N'' − 1}}. The original {{math\|O(''N'')}} global symmetry is no longer manifest, leaving only the [subgroup](/wiki/Subgroup "Subgroup") {{math\|O(''N'' − 1\)}}. The larger symmetry before spontaneous symmetry breaking is said to be "hidden" or spontaneously broken.{{r\|peskin\|page1\=349–350}}
[Goldstone's theorem](/wiki/Goldstone%27s_theorem "Goldstone's theorem") states that under spontaneous symmetry breaking, every broken continuous global symmetry leads to a massless field called the Goldstone boson. In the above example, {{math\|O(''N'')}} has {{math\|''N''(''N'' − 1\)/2}} continuous symmetries (the dimension of its [Lie algebra](/wiki/Lie_algebra "Lie algebra")), while {{math\|O(''N'' − 1\)}} has {{math\|(''N'' − 1\)(''N'' − 2\)/2}}. The number of broken symmetries is their difference, {{math\|''N'' − 1}}, which corresponds to the {{math\|''N'' − 1}} massless fields {{math\|''πk''}}.{{r\|peskin\|page1\=351}}
On the other hand, when a gauge (as opposed to global) symmetry is spontaneously broken, the resulting Goldstone boson is "eaten" by the corresponding gauge boson by becoming an additional degree of freedom for the gauge boson. The Goldstone boson equivalence theorem states that at high energy, the amplitude for emission or absorption of a longitudinally polarized massive gauge boson becomes equal to the amplitude for emission or absorption of the Goldstone boson that was eaten by the gauge boson.{{r\|peskin\|page1\=743–744}}
In the QFT of [ferromagnetism](/wiki/Ferromagnetism "Ferromagnetism"), spontaneous symmetry breaking can explain the alignment of [magnetic dipoles](/wiki/Magnetic_dipole "Magnetic dipole") at low temperatures.{{r\|zee\|page1\=199}} In the Standard Model of elementary particles, the [W and Z bosons](/wiki/W_and_Z_bosons "W and Z bosons"), which would otherwise be massless as a result of gauge symmetry, acquire mass through spontaneous symmetry breaking of the [Higgs boson](/wiki/Higgs_boson "Higgs boson"), a process called the [Higgs mechanism](/wiki/Higgs_mechanism "Higgs mechanism").{{r\|peskin\|page1\=690}}
#### Supersymmetry
{{Main\|Supersymmetry}}
All experimentally known symmetries in nature relate [bosons](/wiki/Boson "Boson") to bosons and [fermions](/wiki/Fermion "Fermion") to fermions. Theorists have hypothesized the existence of a type of symmetry, called [supersymmetry](/wiki/Supersymmetry "Supersymmetry"), that relates bosons and fermions.{{r\|peskin\|zee\|page1\=795\|page2\=443}}
The Standard Model obeys [Poincaré symmetry](/wiki/Poincar%C3%A9_group "Poincaré group"), whose generators are the spacetime [translations](/wiki/Translation_%28geometry%29 "Translation (geometry)") {{math\|''Pμ''}} and the [Lorentz transformations](/wiki/Lorentz_transformations "Lorentz transformations") {{math\|''Jμν''}}.{{cite book \|last\=Weinberg \|first\=Steven \|date\=1995 \|title\=The Quantum Theory of Fields \|publisher\=Cambridge University Press \|isbn\=978\-0\-521\-55001\-7 \|author\-link\=Steven Weinberg \|url\-access\=registration \|url\=https://archive.org/details/quantumtheoryoff00stev }}{{rp\|58–60}} In addition to these generators, supersymmetry in (3\+1\)\-dimensions includes additional generators {{math\|''Qα''}}, called [supercharges](/wiki/Supercharge "Supercharge"), which themselves transform as [Weyl fermions](/wiki/Weyl_fermion "Weyl fermion").{{r\|peskin\|zee\|page1\=795\|page2\=444}} The symmetry group generated by all these generators is known as the [super\-Poincaré group](/wiki/Super-Poincar%C3%A9_group "Super-Poincaré group"). In general there can be more than one set of supersymmetry generators, {{math\|''QαI'', ''I'' {{\=}} 1, ..., ''N''}}, which generate the corresponding {{math\|''N'' {{\=}} 1}} supersymmetry, {{math\|''N'' {{\=}} 2}} supersymmetry, and so on.{{r\|peskin\|zee\|page1\=795\|page2\=450}} Supersymmetry can also be constructed in other dimensions,{{cite arXiv \|last1\=de Wit \|first1\=Bernard \|last2\=Louis \|first2\=Jan \|eprint\=hep\-th/9801132 \|title\=Supersymmetry and Dualities in various dimensions \|date\=1998\-02\-18 }} most notably in (1\+1\) dimensions for its application in [superstring theory](/wiki/Superstring_theory "Superstring theory").{{cite book \|last\=Polchinski \|first\=Joseph \|date\=2005 \|title\=String Theory \|volume\=2 \|publisher\=Cambridge University Press \|isbn\=978\-0\-521\-67228\-3 \|author\-link\=Joseph Polchinski }}
The Lagrangian of a supersymmetric theory must be invariant under the action of the super\-Poincaré group.{{r\|zee\|page1\=448}} Examples of such theories include: [Minimal Supersymmetric Standard Model](/wiki/Minimal_Supersymmetric_Standard_Model "Minimal Supersymmetric Standard Model") (MSSM), [{{math\|''N'' {{\=}} 4}} supersymmetric Yang–Mills theory](/wiki/N_%7B%7B%3D%7D%7D_4_supersymmetric_Yang%E2%80%93Mills_theory "N {{=}} 4 supersymmetric Yang–Mills theory"),{{r\|zee\|page1\=450}} and superstring theory. In a supersymmetric theory, every fermion has a bosonic [superpartner](/wiki/Superpartner "Superpartner") and vice versa.{{r\|zee\|page1\=444}}
If supersymmetry is promoted to a local symmetry, then the resultant gauge theory is an extension of general relativity called [supergravity](/wiki/Supergravity "Supergravity").{{cite journal \| last1 \= Nath \| first1 \= P. \| last2 \= Arnowitt \| first2 \= R. \| year \= 1975 \| title \= Generalized Super\-Gauge Symmetry as a New Framework for Unified Gauge Theories \| journal \= Physics Letters B \| volume \= 56 \| issue \= 2\| page \= 177 \| doi\=10\.1016/0370\-2693(75\)90297\-x\| bibcode \= 1975PhLB...56\..177N }}
Supersymmetry is a potential solution to many current problems in physics. For example, the [hierarchy problem](/wiki/Hierarchy_problem "Hierarchy problem") of the Standard Model—why the mass of the Higgs boson is not radiatively corrected (under renormalization) to a very high scale such as the [grand unified scale](/wiki/Grand_Unified_Theory "Grand Unified Theory") or the [Planck scale](/wiki/Planck_mass "Planck mass")—can be resolved by relating the [Higgs field](/wiki/Higgs_field "Higgs field") and its super\-partner, the [Higgsino](/wiki/Higgsino "Higgsino"). Radiative corrections due to Higgs boson loops in Feynman diagrams are cancelled by corresponding Higgsino loops. Supersymmetry also offers answers to the grand unification of all gauge coupling constants in the Standard Model as well as the nature of [dark matter](/wiki/Dark_matter "Dark matter").{{r\|peskin\|page1\=796–797}}{{Cite journal \|last\=Munoz \|first\=Carlos \|arxiv\=1701\.05259 \|title\=Models of Supersymmetry for Dark Matter \|journal\=EPJ Web of Conferences \|volume\=136 \|pages\=01002 \|date\=2017\-01\-18 \|bibcode\=2017EPJWC.13601002M \|doi\=10\.1051/epjconf/201713601002 \|s2cid\=55199323 }}
Nevertheless, experiments have yet to provide evidence for the existence of supersymmetric particles. If supersymmetry were a true symmetry of nature, then it must be a broken symmetry, and the energy of symmetry breaking must be higher than those achievable by present\-day experiments.{{r\|peskin\|zee\|page1\=797\|page2\=443}}
#### Other spacetimes
The {{math\|''ϕ''4}} theory, QED, QCD, as well as the whole Standard Model all assume a (3\+1\)\-dimensional [Minkowski space](/wiki/Minkowski_space "Minkowski space") (3 spatial and 1 time dimensions) as the background on which the quantum fields are defined. However, QFT *a priori* imposes no restriction on the number of dimensions nor the geometry of spacetime.
In [condensed matter physics](/wiki/Condensed_matter_physics "Condensed matter physics"), QFT is used to describe [(2\+1\)\-dimensional electron gases](/wiki/Two-dimensional_electron_gas "Two-dimensional electron gas").{{cite book \|last1\=Morandi \|first1\=G. \|last2\=Sodano \|first2\=P. \|last3\=Tagliacozzo \|first3\=A. \|last4\=Tognetti \|first4\=V. \|date\=2000 \|title\=Field Theories for Low\-Dimensional Condensed Matter Systems \|url\=https://www.springer.com/us/book/9783540671770 \|publisher\=Springer \|isbn\=978\-3\-662\-04273\-1 }} In [high\-energy physics](/wiki/High-energy_physics "High-energy physics"), [string theory](/wiki/String_theory "String theory") is a type of (1\+1\)\-dimensional QFT,{{r\|zee\|page1\=452}} while [Kaluza–Klein theory](/wiki/Kaluza%E2%80%93Klein_theory "Kaluza–Klein theory") uses gravity in [extra dimensions](/wiki/Extra_dimensions "Extra dimensions") to produce gauge theories in lower dimensions.{{r\|zee\|page1\=428–429}}
In Minkowski space, the flat [metric](/wiki/Metric_tensor_%28general_relativity%29 "Metric tensor (general relativity)") {{math\|''ημν''}} is used to [raise and lower](/wiki/Raising_and_lowering_indices "Raising and lowering indices") spacetime indices in the Lagrangian, *e.g.*
A\_\\mu A^\\mu \= \\eta\_{\\mu\\nu} A^\\mu A^\\nu,\\quad \\partial\_\\mu\\phi \\partial^\\mu\\phi \= \\eta^{\\mu\\nu}\\partial\_\\mu\\phi \\partial\_\\nu\\phi,
where {{math\|''ημν''}} is the inverse of {{math\|''ημν''}} satisfying {{math\|''ημρηρν'' {{\=}} ''δμν''}}.
For [QFTs in curved spacetime](/wiki/Quantum_field_theory_in_curved_spacetime "Quantum field theory in curved spacetime") on the other hand, a general metric (such as the [Schwarzschild metric](/wiki/Schwarzschild_metric "Schwarzschild metric") describing a [black hole](/wiki/Black_hole "Black hole")) is used:
A\_\\mu A^\\mu \= g\_{\\mu\\nu} A^\\mu A^\\nu,\\quad \\partial\_\\mu\\phi \\partial^\\mu\\phi \= g^{\\mu\\nu}\\partial\_\\mu\\phi \\partial\_\\nu\\phi,
where {{math\|''gμν''}} is the inverse of {{math\|''gμν''}}.
For a real scalar field, the Lagrangian density in a general spacetime background is
\\mathcal{L} \= \\sqrt{\|g\|}\\left(\\frac 12 g^{\\mu\\nu} \\nabla\_\\mu\\phi \\nabla\_\\nu\\phi \- \\frac 12 m^2\\phi^2\\right),
where {{math\|''g'' {{\=}} det(''gμν'')}}, and {{math\|∇''μ''}} denotes the [covariant derivative](/wiki/Covariant_derivative "Covariant derivative").{{cite book \|last1\=Parker \|first1\=Leonard E. \|last2\=Toms \|first2\=David J. \|date\=2009 \|title\=Quantum Field Theory in Curved Spacetime \|url\=https://archive.org/details/quantumfieldtheo00park \|url\-access\=limited \|publisher\=Cambridge University Press \|page\=\[https://archive.org/details/quantumfieldtheo00park/page/n58 43] \|isbn\=978\-0\-521\-87787\-9 }} The Lagrangian of a QFT, hence its calculational results and physical predictions, depends on the geometry of the spacetime background.
#### Topological quantum field theory
{{Main\|Topological quantum field theory}}
The correlation functions and physical predictions of a QFT depend on the spacetime metric {{math\|''gμν''}}. For a special class of QFTs called [topological quantum field theories](/wiki/Topological_quantum_field_theories "Topological quantum field theories") (TQFTs), all correlation functions are independent of continuous changes in the spacetime metric.{{cite arXiv \|last1\=Ivancevic \|first1\=Vladimir G. \|last2\=Ivancevic \|first2\=Tijana T. \|eprint\=0810\.0344v5 \|title\=Undergraduate Lecture Notes in Topological Quantum Field Theory \|class\=math\-th \|date\=2008\-12\-11 }}{{rp\|36}} QFTs in curved spacetime generally change according to the *geometry* (local structure) of the spacetime background, while TQFTs are invariant under spacetime [diffeomorphisms](/wiki/Diffeomorphism "Diffeomorphism") but are sensitive to the *[topology](/wiki/Topology "Topology")* (global structure) of spacetime. This means that all calculational results of TQFTs are [topological invariants](/wiki/Topological_invariant "Topological invariant") of the underlying spacetime. [Chern–Simons theory](/wiki/Chern%E2%80%93Simons_theory "Chern–Simons theory") is an example of TQFT and has been used to construct models of quantum gravity.{{cite book \|last\=Carlip \|first\=Steven \|author\-link\=Steve Carlip \|date\=1998 \|title\=Quantum Gravity in 2\+1 Dimensions \|url\=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/quantum\-gravity\-in\-21\-dimensions/D2F727B6822014270F423D82501E674A \|publisher\=Cambridge University Press \|pages\=27–29 \|isbn\=9780511564192 \|doi\=10\.1017/CBO9780511564192 \|arxiv\=2312\.12596 }} Applications of TQFT include the [fractional quantum Hall effect](/wiki/Fractional_quantum_Hall_effect "Fractional quantum Hall effect") and [topological quantum computers](/wiki/Topological_quantum_computer "Topological quantum computer").{{cite journal \|last1\=Carqueville \|first1\=Nils \|last2\=Runkel \|first2\=Ingo \|arxiv\=1705\.05734 \|title\=Introductory lectures on topological quantum field theory \|journal\=Banach Center Publications \|year\=2018 \|volume\=114 \|pages\=9–47 \|doi\=10\.4064/bc114\-1 \|s2cid\=119166976 }}{{rp\|1–5}} The world line trajectory of fractionalized particles (known as [anyons](/wiki/Anyons "Anyons")) can form a link configuration in the spacetime,{{Cite journal \|author\-link\=Edward Witten \|first\=Edward \|last\=Witten \|title\=Quantum Field Theory and the Jones Polynomial \|journal\=\[\[Communications in Mathematical Physics]] \|volume\=121 \|issue\=3 \|pages\=351–399 \|year\=1989 \|mr\=0990772 \|bibcode \= 1989CMaPh.121\..351W \|doi \= 10\.1007/BF01217730 \|s2cid\=14951363 \|url\=http://projecteuclid.org/euclid.cmp/1104178138 }} which relates the braiding statistics of anyons in physics to the
link invariants in mathematics. Topological quantum field theories (TQFTs) applicable to the frontier research of topological quantum matters include Chern\-Simons\-Witten gauge theories in 2\+1 spacetime dimensions, other new exotic TQFTs in 3\+1 spacetime dimensions and beyond.{{Cite journal \|first1\=Pavel\|last1\=Putrov \|first2\=Juven \|last2\=Wang \| first3\=Shing\-Tung \| last3\=Yau \|title\=Braiding Statistics and Link Invariants of Bosonic/Fermionic Topological Quantum Matter in 2\+1 and 3\+1 dimensions \|journal\=\[\[Annals of Physics]] \|volume\=384 \|issue\=C \|pages\=254–287 \|year\=2017\|doi \=10\.1016/j.aop.2017\.06\.019\|arxiv\=1612\.09298 \|bibcode\=2017AnPhy.384\..254P \|s2cid\=119578849 }}
### Perturbative and non\-perturbative methods
Using [perturbation theory](/wiki/Perturbation_theory_%28quantum_mechanics%29 "Perturbation theory (quantum mechanics)"), the total effect of a small interaction term can be approximated order by order by a series expansion in the number of [virtual particles](/wiki/Virtual_particle "Virtual particle") participating in the interaction. Every term in the expansion may be understood as one possible way for (physical) particles to interact with each other via virtual particles, expressed visually using a [Feynman diagram](/wiki/Feynman_diagram "Feynman diagram"). The [electromagnetic force](/wiki/Electromagnetic_force "Electromagnetic force") between two electrons in QED is represented (to first order in perturbation theory) by the propagation of a virtual photon. In a similar manner, the [W and Z bosons](/wiki/W_and_Z_bosons "W and Z bosons") carry the weak interaction, while [gluons](/wiki/Gluon "Gluon") carry the strong interaction. The interpretation of an interaction as a sum of intermediate states involving the exchange of various virtual particles only makes sense in the framework of perturbation theory. In contrast, non\-perturbative methods in QFT treat the interacting Lagrangian as a whole without any series expansion. Instead of particles that carry interactions, these methods have spawned such concepts as ['t Hooft–Polyakov monopole](/wiki/%27t_Hooft%E2%80%93Polyakov_monopole "'t Hooft–Polyakov monopole"), [domain wall](/wiki/Domain_wall "Domain wall"), [flux tube](/wiki/Flux_tube "Flux tube"), and [instanton](/wiki/Instanton "Instanton").{{cite book \|last\=Shifman \|first\=M. \|author\-link\=Mikhail Shifman \|date\=2012 \|title\=Advanced Topics in Quantum Field Theory \|publisher\=Cambridge University Press \|isbn\=978\-0\-521\-19084\-8 }} Examples of QFTs that are completely solvable non\-perturbatively include [minimal models](/wiki/Minimal_model_%28physics%29 "Minimal model (physics)") of [conformal field theory](/wiki/Conformal_field_theory "Conformal field theory"){{cite book \|last1\=Di Francesco \|first1\=Philippe \|last2\=Mathieu \|first2\=Pierre \|last3\=Sénéchal \|first3\=David \|date\=1997 \|title\=Conformal Field Theory \|publisher\=Springer \|isbn\=978\-1\-4612\-7475\-9 \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=5u7jBwAAQBAJ }} and the [Thirring model](/wiki/Thirring_model "Thirring model").{{Cite journal \|last\=Thirring \|first\=W. \|author\-link\=Walter Thirring \|year\=1958 \|title\=A Soluble Relativistic Field Theory? \|journal\=\[\[Annals of Physics]] \|volume\=3 \|issue\=1\|pages\=91–112 \|bibcode\=1958AnPhy...3\...91T \|doi\=10\.1016/0003\-4916(58\)90015\-0}}
|
[
"Principles\n----------",
"For simplicity, [natural units](/wiki/Natural_units \"Natural units\") are used in the following sections, in which the [reduced Planck constant](/wiki/Reduced_Planck_constant \"Reduced Planck constant\") {{math\\|''ħ''}} and the [speed of light](/wiki/Speed_of_light \"Speed of light\") {{math\\|''c''}} are both set to one.",
"### Classical fields",
"{{See also\\|Classical field theory}}",
"A classical [field](/wiki/Field_%28physics%29 \"Field (physics)\") is a [function](/wiki/Function_%28mathematics%29 \"Function (mathematics)\") of spatial and time coordinates.{{harvnb\\|Tong\\|2015\\|loc\\=Chapter 1}} Examples include the [gravitational field](/wiki/Gravitational_field \"Gravitational field\") in [Newtonian gravity](/wiki/Newtonian_gravity \"Newtonian gravity\") {{math\\|'''g'''('''x''', ''t'')}} and the [electric field](/wiki/Electric_field \"Electric field\") {{math\\|'''E'''('''x''', ''t'')}} and [magnetic field](/wiki/Magnetic_field \"Magnetic field\") {{math\\|'''B'''('''x''', ''t'')}} in [classical electromagnetism](/wiki/Classical_electromagnetism \"Classical electromagnetism\"). A classical field can be thought of as a numerical quantity assigned to every point in space that changes in time. Hence, it has infinitely many [degrees of freedom](/wiki/Degrees_of_freedom_%28mechanics%29 \"Degrees of freedom (mechanics)\").In fact, its number of degrees of freedom is uncountable, because the vector space dimension of the space of continuous (differentiable, real analytic) functions on even a finite dimensional Euclidean space is uncountable. On the other hand, subspaces (of these function spaces) that one typically considers, such as Hilbert spaces (e.g. the space of square integrable real valued functions) or separable Banach spaces (e.g. the space of continuous real\\-valued functions on a compact interval, with the uniform convergence norm), have denumerable (i. e. countably infinite) dimension in the category of Banach spaces (though still their Euclidean vector space dimension is uncountable), so in these restricted contexts, the number of degrees of freedom (interpreted now as the vector space dimension of a dense subspace rather than the vector space dimension of the function space of interest itself) is denumerable.",
"Many phenomena exhibiting quantum mechanical properties cannot be explained by classical fields alone. Phenomena such as the [photoelectric effect](/wiki/Photoelectric_effect \"Photoelectric effect\") are best explained by discrete particles ([photons](/wiki/Photon \"Photon\")), rather than a spatially continuous field. The goal of quantum field theory is to describe various quantum mechanical phenomena using a modified concept of fields.",
"[Canonical quantization](/wiki/Canonical_quantization \"Canonical quantization\") and [path integrals](/wiki/Path_integral_formulation \"Path integral formulation\") are two common formulations of QFT.{{cite book \\|last\\=Zee \\|first\\=A. \\|date\\=2010 \\|title\\=Quantum Field Theory in a Nutshell \\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/isbn\\_9780691140346 \\|url\\-access\\=registration \\|publisher\\=Princeton University Press \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-691\\-01019\\-9 \\|author\\-link\\=Anthony Zee }}{{rp\\|61}} To motivate the fundamentals of QFT, an overview of classical field theory follows.",
"The simplest classical field is a real [scalar field](/wiki/Scalar_field \"Scalar field\") — a [real number](/wiki/Real_number \"Real number\") at every point in space that changes in time. It is denoted as {{math\\|''ϕ''('''x''', ''t'')}}, where {{math\\|'''x'''}} is the position vector, and {{math\\|''t''}} is the time. Suppose the [Lagrangian](/wiki/Lagrangian_%28field_theory%29 \"Lagrangian (field theory)\") of the field, L, is\nL \\= \\\\int d^3x\\\\,\\\\mathcal{L} \\= \\\\int d^3x\\\\,\\\\left\\[\\\\frac 12 \\\\dot\\\\phi^2 \\- \\\\frac 12 (\\\\nabla\\\\phi)^2 \\- \\\\frac 12 m^2\\\\phi^2\\\\right],\nwhere \\\\mathcal{L} is the Lagrangian density, \\\\dot\\\\phi is the time\\-derivative of the field, {{math\\|∇}} is the gradient operator, and {{math\\|''m''}} is a real parameter (the \"mass\" of the field). Applying the [Euler–Lagrange equation](/wiki/Euler%E2%80%93Lagrange_equation \"Euler–Lagrange equation\") on the Lagrangian:{{r\\|peskin\\|page1\\=16}}\n\\\\frac{\\\\partial}{\\\\partial t} \\\\left\\[\\\\frac{\\\\partial\\\\mathcal{L}}{\\\\partial(\\\\partial\\\\phi/\\\\partial t)}\\\\right] \\+ \\\\sum\\_{i\\=1}^3 \\\\frac{\\\\partial}{\\\\partial x^i} \\\\left\\[\\\\frac{\\\\partial\\\\mathcal{L}}{\\\\partial(\\\\partial\\\\phi/\\\\partial x^i)}\\\\right] \\- \\\\frac{\\\\partial\\\\mathcal{L}}{\\\\partial\\\\phi} \\= 0,\nwe obtain the [equations of motion](/wiki/Equations_of_motion \"Equations of motion\") for the field, which describe the way it varies in time and space:\n\\\\left(\\\\frac{\\\\partial^2}{\\\\partial t^2} \\- \\\\nabla^2 \\+ m^2\\\\right)\\\\phi \\= 0\\.\nThis is known as the [Klein–Gordon equation](/wiki/Klein%E2%80%93Gordon_equation \"Klein–Gordon equation\").{{r\\|peskin\\|page1\\=17}}",
"The Klein–Gordon equation is a [wave equation](/wiki/Wave_equation \"Wave equation\"), so its solutions can be expressed as a sum of [normal modes](/wiki/Normal_mode \"Normal mode\") (obtained via [Fourier transform](/wiki/Fourier_transform \"Fourier transform\")) as follows:\n\\\\phi(\\\\mathbf{x}, t) \\= \\\\int \\\\frac{d^3p}{(2\\\\pi)^3} \\\\frac{1}{\\\\sqrt{2\\\\omega\\_{\\\\mathbf{p}}}}\\\\left(a\\_{\\\\mathbf{p}} e^{\\-i\\\\omega\\_{\\\\mathbf{p}}t \\+ i\\\\mathbf{p}\\\\cdot\\\\mathbf{x}} \\+ a\\_{\\\\mathbf{p}}^\\* e^{i\\\\omega\\_{\\\\mathbf{p}}t \\- i\\\\mathbf{p}\\\\cdot\\\\mathbf{x}}\\\\right),\nwhere {{math\\|''a''}} is a [complex number](/wiki/Complex_number \"Complex number\") (normalized by convention), {{math\\|\\*}} denotes [complex conjugation](/wiki/Complex_conjugation \"Complex conjugation\"), and {{math\\|''ω'''''p'''}} is the frequency of the normal mode:\n\\\\omega\\_{\\\\mathbf{p}} \\= \\\\sqrt{\\|\\\\mathbf{p}\\|^2 \\+ m^2}.\nThus each normal mode corresponding to a single {{math\\|'''p'''}} can be seen as a classical [harmonic oscillator](/wiki/Harmonic_oscillator \"Harmonic oscillator\") with frequency {{math\\|''ω'''''p'''}}.{{r\\|peskin\\|page1\\=21,26}}",
"### Canonical quantization",
"{{Main\\|Canonical quantization}}",
"The quantization procedure for the above classical field to a quantum operator field is analogous to the promotion of a classical harmonic oscillator to a [quantum harmonic oscillator](/wiki/Quantum_harmonic_oscillator \"Quantum harmonic oscillator\").",
"The displacement of a classical harmonic oscillator is described by\nx(t) \\= \\\\frac{1}{\\\\sqrt{2\\\\omega}} a e^{\\-i\\\\omega t} \\+ \\\\frac{1}{\\\\sqrt{2\\\\omega}} a^\\* e^{i\\\\omega t},\nwhere {{math\\|''a''}} is a complex number (normalized by convention), and {{math\\|''ω''}} is the oscillator's frequency. Note that {{math\\|''x''}} is the displacement of a particle in simple harmonic motion from the equilibrium position, not to be confused with the spatial label {{math\\|'''x'''}} of a quantum field.",
"For a quantum harmonic oscillator, {{math\\|''x''(''t'')}} is promoted to a [linear operator](/wiki/Linear_operator \"Linear operator\") \\\\hat x(t):\n\\\\hat x(t) \\= \\\\frac{1}{\\\\sqrt{2\\\\omega}} \\\\hat a e^{\\-i\\\\omega t} \\+ \\\\frac{1}{\\\\sqrt{2\\\\omega}} \\\\hat a^\\\\dagger e^{i\\\\omega t}.\nComplex numbers {{math\\|''a''}} and {{math\\|''a''\\*}} are replaced by the [annihilation operator](/wiki/Annihilation_operator \"Annihilation operator\") \\\\hat a and the [creation operator](/wiki/Creation_operator \"Creation operator\") \\\\hat a^\\\\dagger, respectively, where {{math\\|†}} denotes [Hermitian conjugation](/wiki/Hermitian_conjugation \"Hermitian conjugation\"). The [commutation relation](/wiki/Commutation_relation \"Commutation relation\") between the two is\n\\\\left\\[\\\\hat a, \\\\hat a^\\\\dagger\\\\right] \\= 1\\.\nThe [Hamiltonian](/wiki/Hamiltonian_%28quantum_mechanics%29 \"Hamiltonian (quantum mechanics)\") of the simple harmonic oscillator can be written as\n\\\\hat H \\= \\\\hbar\\\\omega \\\\hat{a}^\\\\dagger \\\\hat{a} \\+\\\\frac{1}{2}\\\\hbar\\\\omega.\nThe [vacuum state](/wiki/Vacuum_state \"Vacuum state\") \\|0\\\\rang, which is the lowest energy state, is defined by\n\\\\hat a\\|0\\\\rang \\= 0\nand has energy \\\\frac12\\\\hbar\\\\omega.\nOne can easily check that \\[\\\\hat H, \\\\hat{a}^\\\\dagger]\\=\\\\hbar\\\\omega\\\\hat{a}^\\\\dagger, which implies that \\\\hat{a}^\\\\dagger increases the energy of the simple harmonic oscillator by \\\\hbar\\\\omega. For example, the state \\\\hat{a}^\\\\dagger\\|0\\\\rang is an eigenstate of energy 3\\\\hbar\\\\omega/2.\nAny energy eigenstate state of a single harmonic oscillator can be obtained from \\|0\\\\rang by successively applying the creation operator \\\\hat a^\\\\dagger:{{r\\|peskin\\|page1\\=20}} and any state of the system can be expressed as a linear combination of the states\n\\|n\\\\rang \\\\propto \\\\left(\\\\hat a^\\\\dagger\\\\right)^n\\|0\\\\rang.",
"A similar procedure can be applied to the real scalar field {{math\\|''ϕ''}}, by promoting it to a quantum field operator \\\\hat\\\\phi, while the annihilation operator \\\\hat a\\_{\\\\mathbf{p}}, the creation operator \\\\hat a\\_{\\\\mathbf{p}}^\\\\dagger and the angular frequency \\\\omega\\_\\\\mathbf {p}are now for a particular {{math\\|'''p'''}}:\n\\\\hat \\\\phi(\\\\mathbf{x}, t) \\= \\\\int \\\\frac{d^3p}{(2\\\\pi)^3} \\\\frac{1}{\\\\sqrt{2\\\\omega\\_{\\\\mathbf{p}}}}\\\\left(\\\\hat a\\_{\\\\mathbf{p}} e^{\\-i\\\\omega\\_{\\\\mathbf{p}}t \\+ i\\\\mathbf{p}\\\\cdot\\\\mathbf{x}} \\+ \\\\hat a\\_{\\\\mathbf{p}}^\\\\dagger e^{i\\\\omega\\_{\\\\mathbf{p}}t \\- i\\\\mathbf{p}\\\\cdot\\\\mathbf{x}}\\\\right).\nTheir commutation relations are:{{r\\|peskin\\|page1\\=21}}\n\\\\left\\[\\\\hat a\\_{\\\\mathbf p}, \\\\hat a\\_{\\\\mathbf q}^\\\\dagger\\\\right] \\= (2\\\\pi)^3\\\\delta(\\\\mathbf{p} \\- \\\\mathbf{q}),\\\\quad \\\\left\\[\\\\hat a\\_{\\\\mathbf p}, \\\\hat a\\_{\\\\mathbf q}\\\\right] \\= \\\\left\\[\\\\hat a\\_{\\\\mathbf p}^\\\\dagger, \\\\hat a\\_{\\\\mathbf q}^\\\\dagger\\\\right] \\= 0,\nwhere {{math\\|''δ''}} is the [Dirac delta function](/wiki/Dirac_delta_function \"Dirac delta function\"). The vacuum state \\|0\\\\rang is defined by\n\\\\hat a\\_{\\\\mathbf p}\\|0\\\\rang \\= 0,\\\\quad \\\\text{for all }\\\\mathbf p.\nAny quantum state of the field can be obtained from \\|0\\\\rang by successively applying creation operators \\\\hat a\\_{\\\\mathbf{p}}^\\\\dagger (or by a linear combination of such states), e.g. {{r\\|peskin\\|page1\\=22}}\n\\\\left(\\\\hat a\\_{\\\\mathbf{p}\\_3}^\\\\dagger\\\\right)^3 \\\\hat a\\_{\\\\mathbf{p}\\_2}^\\\\dagger \\\\left(\\\\hat a\\_{\\\\mathbf{p}\\_1}^\\\\dagger\\\\right)^2 \\|0\\\\rang.",
"While the state space of a single quantum harmonic oscillator contains all the discrete energy states of one oscillating particle, the state space of a quantum field contains the discrete energy levels of an arbitrary number of particles. The latter space is known as a [Fock space](/wiki/Fock_space \"Fock space\"), which can account for the fact that particle numbers are not fixed in relativistic quantum systems.{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Fock \\|first1\\=V. \\|author\\-link\\=Vladimir Fock \\|date\\=1932\\-03\\-10 \\|title\\=Konfigurationsraum und zweite Quantelung \\|journal\\=Zeitschrift für Physik \\|volume\\=75 \\|issue\\=9–10 \\|pages\\=622–647 \\|doi\\=10\\.1007/BF01344458 \\|language\\=de \\|bibcode\\=1932ZPhy...75\\..622F \\|s2cid\\=186238995 }} The process of quantizing an arbitrary number of particles instead of a single particle is often also called [second quantization](/wiki/Second_quantization \"Second quantization\").{{r\\|peskin\\|page1\\=19}}",
"The foregoing procedure is a direct application of non\\-relativistic quantum mechanics and can be used to quantize (complex) scalar fields, [Dirac fields](/wiki/Dirac_field \"Dirac field\"),{{r\\|peskin\\|page1\\=52}} [vector fields](/wiki/Vector_field \"Vector field\") (*e.g.* the electromagnetic field), and even [strings](/wiki/String_theory \"String theory\").{{cite book \\|last1\\=Becker \\|first1\\=Katrin \\|last2\\=Becker \\|first2\\=Melanie\\|author\\-link2\\=Melanie Becker \\|last3\\=Schwarz \\|first3\\=John H. \\|date\\=2007 \\|title\\=String Theory and M\\-Theory \\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/stringtheorymthe00beck\\_649 \\|url\\-access\\=limited \\|publisher\\=Cambridge University Press \\|page\\=\\[https://archive.org/details/stringtheorymthe00beck\\_649/page/n53 36] \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-521\\-86069\\-7 \\|author\\-link3\\=John Henry Schwarz }} However, creation and annihilation operators are only well defined in the simplest theories that contain no interactions (so\\-called free theory). In the case of the real scalar field, the existence of these operators was a consequence of the decomposition of solutions of the classical equations of motion into a sum of normal modes. To perform calculations on any realistic interacting theory, [perturbation theory](/wiki/Perturbation_theory_%28quantum_mechanics%29 \"Perturbation theory (quantum mechanics)\") would be necessary.",
"The Lagrangian of any quantum field in nature would contain interaction terms in addition to the free theory terms. For example, a [quartic interaction](/wiki/Quartic_interaction \"Quartic interaction\") term could be introduced to the Lagrangian of the real scalar field:{{r\\|peskin\\|page1\\=77}}\n\\\\mathcal{L} \\= \\\\frac 12 (\\\\partial\\_\\\\mu\\\\phi)\\\\left(\\\\partial^\\\\mu\\\\phi\\\\right) \\- \\\\frac 12 m^2\\\\phi^2 \\- \\\\frac{\\\\lambda}{4!}\\\\phi^4,\nwhere {{math\\|''μ''}} is a spacetime index, \\\\partial\\_0 \\= \\\\partial/\\\\partial t,\\\\ \\\\partial\\_1 \\= \\\\partial/\\\\partial x^1, etc. The summation over the index {{math\\|''μ''}} has been omitted following the [Einstein notation](/wiki/Einstein_notation \"Einstein notation\"). If the parameter {{math\\|''λ''}} is sufficiently small, then the interacting theory described by the above Lagrangian can be considered as a small perturbation from the free theory.",
"### Path integrals",
"{{Main\\|Path integral formulation}}",
"The [path integral formulation](/wiki/Path_integral_formulation \"Path integral formulation\") of QFT is concerned with the direct computation of the [scattering amplitude](/wiki/Scattering_amplitude \"Scattering amplitude\") of a certain interaction process, rather than the establishment of operators and state spaces. To calculate the [probability amplitude](/wiki/Probability_amplitude \"Probability amplitude\") for a system to evolve from some initial state \\|\\\\phi\\_I\\\\rang at time {{math\\|''t'' {{\\=}} 0}} to some final state \\|\\\\phi\\_F\\\\rang at {{math\\|''t'' {{\\=}} ''T''}}, the total time {{math\\|''T''}} is divided into {{math\\|''N''}} small intervals. The overall amplitude is the product of the amplitude of evolution within each interval, integrated over all intermediate states. Let {{math\\|''H''}} be the [Hamiltonian](/wiki/Hamiltonian_%28quantum_mechanics%29 \"Hamiltonian (quantum mechanics)\") (*i.e.* [generator of time evolution](/wiki/Time_evolution_operator \"Time evolution operator\")), then{{r\\|zee\\|page1\\=10}}\n\\\\lang \\\\phi\\_F\\|e^{\\-iHT}\\|\\\\phi\\_I\\\\rang \\= \\\\int d\\\\phi\\_1\\\\int d\\\\phi\\_2\\\\cdots\\\\int d\\\\phi\\_{N\\-1}\\\\,\\\\lang \\\\phi\\_F\\|e^{\\-iHT/N}\\|\\\\phi\\_{N\\-1}\\\\rang\\\\cdots\\\\lang \\\\phi\\_2\\|e^{\\-iHT/N}\\|\\\\phi\\_1\\\\rang\\\\lang \\\\phi\\_1\\|e^{\\-iHT/N}\\|\\\\phi\\_I\\\\rang.\nTaking the limit {{math\\|''N'' → ∞}}, the above product of integrals becomes the Feynman path integral:{{r\\|peskin\\|zee\\|page1\\=282\\|page2\\=12}}\n\\\\lang \\\\phi\\_F\\|e^{\\-iHT}\\|\\\\phi\\_I\\\\rang \\= \\\\int \\\\mathcal{D}\\\\phi(t)\\\\,\\\\exp\\\\left\\\\{i\\\\int\\_0^T dt\\\\,L\\\\right\\\\},\nwhere {{math\\|''L''}} is the Lagrangian involving {{math\\|''ϕ''}} and its derivatives with respect to spatial and time coordinates, obtained from the Hamiltonian {{math\\|''H''}} via [Legendre transformation](/wiki/Legendre_transformation \"Legendre transformation\"). The initial and final conditions of the path integral are respectively\n\\\\phi(0\\) \\= \\\\phi\\_I,\\\\quad \\\\phi(T) \\= \\\\phi\\_F.\nIn other words, the overall amplitude is the sum over the amplitude of every possible path between the initial and final states, where the amplitude of a path is given by the exponential in the integrand.",
"### Two\\-point correlation function",
"{{Main\\|Correlation function (quantum field theory)}}",
"In calculations, one often encounters expression like\\\\lang 0\\|T\\\\{\\\\phi(x)\\\\phi(y)\\\\}\\|0\\\\rang\n\\\\quad \\\\text{or} \\\\quad\n\\\\lang \\\\Omega \\|T\\\\{\\\\phi(x)\\\\phi(y)\\\\}\\|\\\\Omega \\\\rangin the free or interacting theory, respectively. Here, x and y are position [four\\-vectors](/wiki/Four-vector \"Four-vector\"), T is the [time ordering](/wiki/Time_ordering \"Time ordering\") operator that shuffles its operands so the time\\-components x^0 and y^0 increase from right to left, and \\|\\\\Omega\\\\rang is the ground state (vacuum state) of the interacting theory, different from the free ground state \\| 0 \\\\rang. This expression represents the probability amplitude for the field to propagate from {{math\\|''y''}} to {{math\\|''x''}}, and goes by multiple names, like the two\\-point [propagator](/wiki/Propagator \"Propagator\"), two\\-point [correlation function](/wiki/Correlation_function_%28quantum_field_theory%29 \"Correlation function (quantum field theory)\"), two\\-point [Green's function](/wiki/Green%27s_function \"Green's function\") or two\\-point function for short.{{r\\|peskin\\|page1\\=82}}",
"The free two\\-point function, also known as the [Feynman propagator](/wiki/Feynman_propagator \"Feynman propagator\"), can be found for the real scalar field by either canonical quantization or path integrals to be{{r\\|peskin\\|zee\\|page1\\=31,288\\|page2\\=23}}\n\\\\lang 0\\|T\\\\{\\\\phi(x)\\\\phi(y)\\\\} \\|0\\\\rang \\\\equiv D\\_F(x\\-y) \\= \\\\lim\\_{\\\\epsilon\\\\to 0} \\\\int\\\\frac{d^4p}{(2\\\\pi)^4} \\\\frac{i}{p\\_\\\\mu p^\\\\mu \\- m^2 \\+ i\\\\epsilon} e^{\\-ip\\_\\\\mu (x^\\\\mu \\- y^\\\\mu)}.\nIn an interacting theory, where the Lagrangian or Hamiltonian contains terms L\\_I(t) or H\\_I(t) that describe interactions, the two\\-point function is more difficult to define. However, through both the canonical quantization formulation and the path integral formulation, it is possible to express it through an infinite perturbation series of the *free* two\\-point function.",
"In canonical quantization, the two\\-point correlation function can be written as:{{r\\|peskin\\|page1\\=87}}\n\\\\lang\\\\Omega\\|T\\\\{\\\\phi(x)\\\\phi(y)\\\\}\\|\\\\Omega\\\\rang \\= \\\\lim\\_{T\\\\to\\\\infty(1\\-i\\\\epsilon)} \\\\frac{\\\\left\\\\lang 0\\\\left\\|T\\\\left\\\\{\\\\phi\\_I(x)\\\\phi\\_I(y)\\\\exp\\\\left\\[\\-i\\\\int\\_{\\-T}^T dt\\\\, H\\_I(t)\\\\right]\\\\right\\\\}\\\\right\\|0\\\\right\\\\rang}{\\\\left\\\\lang 0\\\\left\\|T\\\\left\\\\{\\\\exp\\\\left\\[\\-i\\\\int\\_{\\-T}^T dt\\\\, H\\_I(t)\\\\right]\\\\right\\\\}\\\\right\\|0\\\\right\\\\rang},\nwhere {{math\\|''ε''}} is an [infinitesimal](/wiki/Infinitesimal \"Infinitesimal\") number and {{math\\|''ϕI''}} is the field operator under the free theory. Here, the [exponential](/wiki/Exponential_function \"Exponential function\") should be understood as its [power series](/wiki/Power_series \"Power series\") expansion. For example, in \\\\phi^4\\-theory, the interacting term of the Hamiltonian is H\\_I(t) \\= \\\\int d^3 x\\\\,\\\\frac{\\\\lambda}{4!}\\\\phi\\_I(x)^4,{{r\\|peskin\\|page1\\=84}} and the expansion of the two\\-point correlator in terms of \\\\lambda becomes\\\\lang\\\\Omega\\|T\\\\{\\\\phi(x)\\\\phi(y)\\\\}\\|\\\\Omega\\\\rang \\= \n\\\\frac{",
"```\n \\displaystyle \\sum_{n=0}^\\infty \\frac{(-i \\lambda)^n}{(4 !)^n n !} \\int d^4 z_1 \\cdots \\int d^4 z_n \\lang 0|T\\{\\phi_I(x)\\phi_I(y)\\phi_I(z_1)^4\\cdots\\phi_I(z_n)^4\\}|0\\rang}{\n \\displaystyle \\sum_{n=0}^\\infty \\frac{(-i \\lambda)^n}{(4 !)^n n !} \\int d^4 z_1 \\cdots \\int d^4 z_n \\lang 0|T\\{ \\phi_I(z_1)^4\\cdots\\phi_I(z_n)^4\\}|0\\rang",
"```\n}.This perturbation expansion expresses the interacting two\\-point function in terms of quantities \\\\lang 0 \\| \\\\cdots \\| 0 \\\\rang that are evaluated in the *free* theory.",
"In the path integral formulation, the two\\-point correlation function can be written{{r\\|peskin\\|page1\\=284}}\n\\\\lang\\\\Omega\\|T\\\\{\\\\phi(x)\\\\phi(y)\\\\}\\|\\\\Omega\\\\rang \\= \\\\lim\\_{T\\\\to\\\\infty(1\\-i\\\\epsilon)} \\\\frac{\\\\int\\\\mathcal{D}\\\\phi\\\\,\\\\phi(x)\\\\phi(y)\\\\exp\\\\left\\[i\\\\int\\_{\\-T}^T d^4z\\\\,\\\\mathcal{L}\\\\right]}{\\\\int\\\\mathcal{D}\\\\phi\\\\,\\\\exp\\\\left\\[i\\\\int\\_{\\-T}^T d^4z\\\\,\\\\mathcal{L}\\\\right]},\nwhere \\\\mathcal{L} is the Lagrangian density. As in the previous paragraph, the exponential can be expanded as a series in {{math\\|''λ''}}, reducing the interacting two\\-point function to quantities in the free theory.",
"[Wick's theorem](/wiki/Wick%27s_theorem \"Wick's theorem\") further reduce any {{math\\|''n''}}\\-point correlation function in the free theory to a sum of products of two\\-point correlation functions. For example,\n\\\\begin{align}\n\\\\lang 0\\|T\\\\{\\\\phi(x\\_1\\)\\\\phi(x\\_2\\)\\\\phi(x\\_3\\)\\\\phi(x\\_4\\)\\\\}\\|0\\\\rang \\&\\= \\\\lang 0\\|T\\\\{\\\\phi(x\\_1\\)\\\\phi(x\\_2\\)\\\\}\\|0\\\\rang \\\\lang 0\\|T\\\\{\\\\phi(x\\_3\\)\\\\phi(x\\_4\\)\\\\}\\|0\\\\rang\\\\\\\\\n\\&\\+ \\\\lang 0\\|T\\\\{\\\\phi(x\\_1\\)\\\\phi(x\\_3\\)\\\\}\\|0\\\\rang \\\\lang 0\\|T\\\\{\\\\phi(x\\_2\\)\\\\phi(x\\_4\\)\\\\}\\|0\\\\rang\\\\\\\\\n\\&\\+ \\\\lang 0\\|T\\\\{\\\\phi(x\\_1\\)\\\\phi(x\\_4\\)\\\\}\\|0\\\\rang \\\\lang 0\\|T\\\\{\\\\phi(x\\_2\\)\\\\phi(x\\_3\\)\\\\}\\|0\\\\rang.\n\\\\end{align}\nSince interacting correlation functions can be expressed in terms of free correlation functions, only the latter need to be evaluated in order to calculate all physical quantities in the (perturbative) interacting theory.{{r\\|peskin\\|page1\\=90}} This makes the Feynman propagator one of the most important quantities in quantum field theory.",
"### Feynman diagram",
"{{Main\\|Feynman diagram}}",
"Correlation functions in the interacting theory can be written as a perturbation series. Each term in the series is a product of Feynman propagators in the free theory and can be represented visually by a [Feynman diagram](/wiki/Feynman_diagram \"Feynman diagram\"). For example, the {{math\\|''λ''1}} term in the two\\-point correlation function in the {{math\\|''ϕ''4}} theory is\n\\\\frac{\\-i\\\\lambda}{4!}\\\\int d^4z\\\\,\\\\lang 0\\|T\\\\{\\\\phi(x)\\\\phi(y)\\\\phi(z)\\\\phi(z)\\\\phi(z)\\\\phi(z)\\\\}\\|0\\\\rang.\nAfter applying Wick's theorem, one of the terms is\n12\\\\cdot \\\\frac{\\-i\\\\lambda}{4!}\\\\int d^4z\\\\, D\\_F(x\\-z)D\\_F(y\\-z)D\\_F(z\\-z).\nThis term can instead be obtained from the Feynman diagram",
"[200px](/wiki/File:Phi-4_one-loop.svg \"Phi-4 one-loop.svg\").\nThe diagram consists of",
"* *external vertices* connected with one edge and represented by dots (here labeled x and y).\n* *internal vertices* connected with four edges and represented by dots (here labeled z).\n* *edges* connecting the vertices and represented by lines.",
"Every vertex corresponds to a single \\\\phi field factor at the corresponding point in spacetime, while the edges correspond to the propagators between the spacetime points. The term in the perturbation series corresponding to the diagram is obtained by writing down the expression that follows from the so\\-called Feynman rules:",
"1. For every internal vertex z\\_i, write down a factor \\-i \\\\lambda \\\\int d^4 z\\_i.\n2. For every edge that connects two vertices z\\_i and z\\_j, write down a factor D\\_F(z\\_i\\-z\\_j).\n3. Divide by the symmetry factor of the diagram.",
"With the symmetry factor 2, following these rules yields exactly the expression above. By Fourier transforming the propagator, the Feynman rules can be reformulated from position space into momentum space.{{r\\|peskin\\|page1\\=91–94}}",
"In order to compute the {{math\\|''n''}}\\-point correlation function to the {{math\\|''k''}}\\-th order, list all valid Feynman diagrams with {{math\\|''n''}} external points and {{math\\|''k''}} or fewer vertices, and then use Feynman rules to obtain the expression for each term. To be precise,\n\\\\lang\\\\Omega\\|T\\\\{\\\\phi(x\\_1\\)\\\\cdots\\\\phi(x\\_n)\\\\}\\|\\\\Omega\\\\rang\nis equal to the sum of (expressions corresponding to) all connected diagrams with {{math\\|''n''}} external points. (Connected diagrams are those in which every vertex is connected to an external point through lines. Components that are totally disconnected from external lines are sometimes called \"vacuum bubbles\".) In the {{math\\|''ϕ''4}} interaction theory discussed above, every vertex must have four legs.{{r\\|peskin\\|page1\\=98}}",
"In realistic applications, the scattering amplitude of a certain interaction or the [decay rate](/wiki/Decay_rate \"Decay rate\") of a particle can be computed from the [S\\-matrix](/wiki/S-matrix \"S-matrix\"), which itself can be found using the Feynman diagram method.{{r\\|peskin\\|page1\\=102–115}}",
"Feynman diagrams devoid of \"loops\" are called tree\\-level diagrams, which describe the lowest\\-order interaction processes; those containing {{math\\|''n''}} loops are referred to as {{math\\|''n''}}\\-loop diagrams, which describe higher\\-order contributions, or radiative corrections, to the interaction.{{r\\|zee\\|page1\\=44}} Lines whose end points are vertices can be thought of as the propagation of [virtual particles](/wiki/Virtual_particle \"Virtual particle\").{{r\\|peskin\\|page1\\=31}}",
"### Renormalization",
"{{Main\\|Renormalization}}",
"Feynman rules can be used to directly evaluate tree\\-level diagrams. However, naïve computation of loop diagrams such as the one shown above will result in divergent momentum integrals, which seems to imply that almost all terms in the perturbative expansion are infinite. The [renormalisation](/wiki/Renormalisation \"Renormalisation\") procedure is a systematic process for removing such infinities.",
"Parameters appearing in the Lagrangian, such as the mass {{math\\|''m''}} and the coupling constant {{math\\|''λ''}}, have no physical meaning — {{math\\|''m''}}, {{math\\|''λ''}}, and the field strength {{math\\|''ϕ''}} are not experimentally measurable quantities and are referred to here as the bare mass, bare coupling constant, and bare field, respectively. The physical mass and coupling constant are measured in some interaction process and are generally different from the bare quantities. While computing physical quantities from this interaction process, one may limit the domain of divergent momentum integrals to be below some momentum cut\\-off {{math\\|Λ}}, obtain expressions for the physical quantities, and then take the limit {{math\\|Λ → ∞}}. This is an example of [regularization](/wiki/Regularization_%28physics%29 \"Regularization (physics)\"), a class of methods to treat divergences in QFT, with {{math\\|Λ}} being the regulator.",
"The approach illustrated above is called bare perturbation theory, as calculations involve only the bare quantities such as mass and coupling constant. A different approach, called renormalized perturbation theory, is to use physically meaningful quantities from the very beginning. In the case of {{math\\|''ϕ''4}} theory, the field strength is first redefined:\n\\\\phi \\= Z^{1/2}\\\\phi\\_r,\nwhere {{math\\|''ϕ''}} is the bare field, {{math\\|''ϕr''}} is the renormalized field, and {{math\\|''Z''}} is a constant to be determined. The Lagrangian density becomes:\n\\\\mathcal{L} \\= \\\\frac 12 (\\\\partial\\_\\\\mu\\\\phi\\_r)(\\\\partial^\\\\mu\\\\phi\\_r) \\- \\\\frac 12 m\\_r^2\\\\phi\\_r^2 \\- \\\\frac{\\\\lambda\\_r}{4!}\\\\phi\\_r^4 \\+ \\\\frac 12 \\\\delta\\_Z (\\\\partial\\_\\\\mu\\\\phi\\_r)(\\\\partial^\\\\mu\\\\phi\\_r) \\- \\\\frac 12 \\\\delta\\_m\\\\phi\\_r^2 \\- \\\\frac{\\\\delta\\_\\\\lambda}{4!}\\\\phi\\_r^4,\nwhere {{math\\|''mr''}} and {{math\\|''λr''}} are the experimentally measurable, renormalized, mass and coupling constant, respectively, and\n\\\\delta\\_Z \\= Z\\-1,\\\\quad \\\\delta\\_m \\= m^2Z \\- m\\_r^2,\\\\quad \\\\delta\\_\\\\lambda \\= \\\\lambda Z^2 \\- \\\\lambda\\_r\nare constants to be determined. The first three terms are the {{math\\|''ϕ''4}} Lagrangian density written in terms of the renormalized quantities, while the latter three terms are referred to as \"counterterms\". As the Lagrangian now contains more terms, so the Feynman diagrams should include additional elements, each with their own Feynman rules. The procedure is outlined as follows. First select a regularization scheme (such as the cut\\-off regularization introduced above or [dimensional regularization](/wiki/Dimensional_regularization \"Dimensional regularization\")); call the regulator {{math\\|Λ}}. Compute Feynman diagrams, in which divergent terms will depend on {{math\\|Λ}}. Then, define {{math\\|''δZ''}}, {{math\\|''δm''}}, and {{math\\|''δλ''}} such that Feynman diagrams for the counterterms will exactly cancel the divergent terms in the normal Feynman diagrams when the limit {{math\\|Λ → ∞}} is taken. In this way, meaningful finite quantities are obtained.{{r\\|peskin\\|page1\\=323–326}}\nIt is only possible to eliminate all infinities to obtain a finite result in renormalizable theories, whereas in non\\-renormalizable theories infinities cannot be removed by the redefinition of a small number of parameters. The [Standard Model](/wiki/Standard_Model \"Standard Model\") of elementary particles is a renormalizable QFT,{{r\\|peskin\\|page1\\=719–727}} while [quantum gravity](/wiki/Quantum_gravity \"Quantum gravity\") is non\\-renormalizable.{{r\\|peskin\\|zee\\|page1\\=798\\|page2\\=421}}",
"#### Renormalization group",
"{{Main\\|Renormalization group}}",
"The [renormalization group](/wiki/Renormalization_group \"Renormalization group\"), developed by [Kenneth Wilson](/wiki/Kenneth_G._Wilson \"Kenneth G. Wilson\"), is a mathematical apparatus used to study the changes in physical parameters (coefficients in the Lagrangian) as the system is viewed at different scales.{{r\\|peskin\\|page1\\=393}} The way in which each parameter changes with scale is described by its [*β* function](/wiki/Beta_function_%28physics%29 \"Beta function (physics)\").{{r\\|peskin\\|page1\\=417}} Correlation functions, which underlie quantitative physical predictions, change with scale according to the [Callan–Symanzik equation](/wiki/Callan%E2%80%93Symanzik_equation \"Callan–Symanzik equation\").{{r\\|peskin\\|page1\\=410–411}}",
"As an example, the coupling constant in QED, namely the [elementary charge](/wiki/Elementary_charge \"Elementary charge\") {{math\\|''e''}}, has the following *β* function:\n\\\\beta(e) \\\\equiv \\\\frac{1}{\\\\Lambda}\\\\frac{de}{d\\\\Lambda} \\= \\\\frac{e^3}{12\\\\pi^2} \\+ O\\\\mathord\\\\left(e^5\\\\right),\nwhere {{math\\|Λ}} is the energy scale under which the measurement of {{math\\|''e''}} is performed. This [differential equation](/wiki/Differential_equation \"Differential equation\") implies that the observed elementary charge increases as the scale increases.{{cite arXiv \\|last\\=Fujita \\|first\\=Takehisa \\|eprint\\=hep\\-th/0606101 \\|title\\=Physics of Renormalization Group Equation in QED \\|date\\=2008\\-02\\-01 }} The renormalized coupling constant, which changes with the energy scale, is also called the running coupling constant.{{r\\|peskin\\|page1\\=420}}",
"The coupling constant {{math\\|''g''}} in [quantum chromodynamics](/wiki/Quantum_chromodynamics \"Quantum chromodynamics\"), a non\\-Abelian gauge theory based on the symmetry group {{math\\|\\[\\[special unitary group\\|SU(3\\)]]}}, has the following *β* function:\n\\\\beta(g) \\\\equiv \\\\frac{1}{\\\\Lambda}\\\\frac{dg}{d\\\\Lambda} \\= \\\\frac{g^3}{16\\\\pi^2}\\\\left(\\-11 \\+ \\\\frac 23 N\\_f\\\\right) \\+ O\\\\mathord\\\\left(g^5\\\\right),\nwhere {{math\\|''Nf''}} is the number of [quark](/wiki/Quark \"Quark\") [flavours](/wiki/Flavour_%28particle_physics%29 \"Flavour (particle physics)\"). In the case where {{math\\|''Nf'' ≤ 16}} (the Standard Model has {{math\\|''Nf'' {{\\=}} 6}}), the coupling constant {{math\\|''g''}} decreases as the energy scale increases. Hence, while the strong interaction is strong at low energies, it becomes very weak in high\\-energy interactions, a phenomenon known as [asymptotic freedom](/wiki/Asymptotic_freedom \"Asymptotic freedom\").{{r\\|peskin\\|page1\\=531}}",
"[Conformal field theories](/wiki/Conformal_field_theories \"Conformal field theories\") (CFTs) are special QFTs that admit [conformal symmetry](/wiki/Conformal_symmetry \"Conformal symmetry\"). They are insensitive to changes in the scale, as all their coupling constants have vanishing *β* function. (The converse is not true, however — the vanishing of all *β* functions does not imply conformal symmetry of the theory.){{Cite journal \\|last1\\=Aharony \\|first1\\=Ofer \\|last2\\=Gur\\-Ari \\|first2\\=Guy \\|last3\\=Klinghoffer \\|first3\\=Nizan \\|arxiv\\=1501\\.06664 \\|title\\=The Holographic Dictionary for Beta Functions of Multi\\-trace Coupling Constants \\|journal\\=Journal of High Energy Physics \\|volume\\=2015 \\|issue\\=5 \\|pages\\=31 \\|date\\=2015\\-05\\-19 \\|bibcode\\=2015JHEP...05\\..031A \\|doi\\=10\\.1007/JHEP05(2015\\)031 \\|s2cid\\=115167208 }} Examples include [string theory](/wiki/String_theory \"String theory\"){{cite book \\|last\\=Polchinski \\|first\\=Joseph \\|date\\=2005 \\|title\\=String Theory \\|volume\\=1 \\|publisher\\=Cambridge University Press \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-521\\-67227\\-6 \\|author\\-link\\=Joseph Polchinski }} and [{{math\\|''N'' {{\\=}} 4}} supersymmetric Yang–Mills theory](/wiki/N_%3D_4_supersymmetric_Yang%E2%80%93Mills_theory \"N = 4 supersymmetric Yang–Mills theory\").{{cite arXiv \\|last\\=Kovacs \\|first\\=Stefano \\|eprint\\=hep\\-th/9908171 \\|title\\={{math\\|''N'' {{\\=}} 4}} supersymmetric Yang–Mills theory and the AdS/SCFT correspondence \\|date\\=1999\\-08\\-26 }}",
"According to Wilson's picture, every QFT is fundamentally accompanied by its energy cut\\-off {{math\\|Λ}}, *i.e.* that the theory is no longer valid at energies higher than {{math\\|Λ}}, and all degrees of freedom above the scale {{math\\|Λ}} are to be omitted. For example, the cut\\-off could be the inverse of the atomic spacing in a condensed matter system, and in elementary particle physics it could be associated with the fundamental \"graininess\" of spacetime caused by quantum fluctuations in gravity. The cut\\-off scale of theories of particle interactions lies far beyond current experiments. Even if the theory were very complicated at that scale, as long as its couplings are sufficiently weak, it must be described at low energies by a renormalizable [effective field theory](/wiki/Effective_field_theory \"Effective field theory\").{{r\\|peskin\\|page1\\=402–403}} The difference between renormalizable and non\\-renormalizable theories is that the former are insensitive to details at high energies, whereas the latter do depend on them.{{r\\|shifman\\|page1\\=2}} According to this view, non\\-renormalizable theories are to be seen as low\\-energy effective theories of a more fundamental theory. The failure to remove the cut\\-off {{math\\|Λ}} from calculations in such a theory merely indicates that new physical phenomena appear at scales above {{math\\|Λ}}, where a new theory is necessary.{{r\\|zee\\|page1\\=156}}",
"### Other theories",
"The quantization and renormalization procedures outlined in the preceding sections are performed for the free theory and [{{math\\|''ϕ''4}} theory](/wiki/Quartic_interaction \"Quartic interaction\") of the real scalar field. A similar process can be done for other types of fields, including the [complex](/wiki/Complex_numbers \"Complex numbers\") scalar field, the [vector field](/wiki/Vector_field \"Vector field\"), and the [Dirac field](/wiki/Dirac_field \"Dirac field\"), as well as other types of interaction terms, including the electromagnetic interaction and the [Yukawa interaction](/wiki/Yukawa_interaction \"Yukawa interaction\").",
"As an example, [quantum electrodynamics](/wiki/Quantum_electrodynamics \"Quantum electrodynamics\") contains a Dirac field {{math\\|''ψ''}} representing the [electron](/wiki/Electron \"Electron\") field and a vector field {{math\\|''Aμ''}} representing the electromagnetic field ([photon](/wiki/Photon \"Photon\") field). (Despite its name, the quantum electromagnetic \"field\" actually corresponds to the classical [electromagnetic four\\-potential](/wiki/Electromagnetic_four-potential \"Electromagnetic four-potential\"), rather than the classical electric and magnetic fields.) The full QED Lagrangian density is:\n\\\\mathcal{L} \\= \\\\bar\\\\psi\\\\left(i\\\\gamma^\\\\mu\\\\partial\\_\\\\mu \\- m\\\\right)\\\\psi \\- \\\\frac 14 F\\_{\\\\mu\\\\nu}F^{\\\\mu\\\\nu} \\- e\\\\bar\\\\psi\\\\gamma^\\\\mu\\\\psi A\\_\\\\mu,\nwhere {{math\\|''γμ''}} are [Dirac matrices](/wiki/Dirac_matrices \"Dirac matrices\"), \\\\bar\\\\psi \\= \\\\psi^\\\\dagger\\\\gamma^0, and F\\_{\\\\mu\\\\nu} \\= \\\\partial\\_\\\\mu A\\_\\\\nu \\- \\\\partial\\_\\\\nu A\\_\\\\mu is the [electromagnetic field strength](/wiki/Electromagnetic_field_strength \"Electromagnetic field strength\"). The parameters in this theory are the (bare) electron mass {{math\\|''m''}} and the (bare) [elementary charge](/wiki/Elementary_charge \"Elementary charge\") {{math\\|''e''}}. The first and second terms in the Lagrangian density correspond to the free Dirac field and free vector fields, respectively. The last term describes the interaction between the electron and photon fields, which is treated as a perturbation from the free theories.{{r\\|peskin\\|page1\\=78}}\n[thumb](/wiki/File:Electron-positron-annihilation.svg \"Electron-positron-annihilation.svg\")",
"",
"Shown above is an example of a tree\\-level Feynman diagram in QED. It describes an electron and a positron annihilating, creating an [off\\-shell](/wiki/Off-shell \"Off-shell\") photon, and then decaying into a new pair of electron and positron. Time runs from left to right. Arrows pointing forward in time represent the propagation of electrons, while those pointing backward in time represent the propagation of positrons. A wavy line represents the propagation of a photon. Each vertex in QED Feynman diagrams must have an incoming and an outgoing fermion (positron/electron) leg as well as a photon leg.",
"#### Gauge symmetry",
"{{Main\\|Gauge theory}}",
"If the following transformation to the fields is performed at every spacetime point {{math\\|''x''}} (a local transformation), then the QED Lagrangian remains unchanged, or invariant:\n\\\\psi(x) \\\\to e^{i\\\\alpha(x)}\\\\psi(x),\\\\quad A\\_\\\\mu(x) \\\\to A\\_\\\\mu(x) \\+ ie^{\\-1} e^{\\-i\\\\alpha(x)}\\\\partial\\_\\\\mu e^{i\\\\alpha(x)},\nwhere {{math\\|''α''(''x'')}} is any function of spacetime coordinates. If a theory's Lagrangian (or more precisely the [action](/wiki/Action_%28physics%29 \"Action (physics)\")) is invariant under a certain local transformation, then the transformation is referred to as a [gauge symmetry](/wiki/Gauge_symmetry \"Gauge symmetry\") of the theory.{{r\\|peskin\\|page1\\=482–483}} Gauge symmetries form a [group](/wiki/Group_%28mathematics%29 \"Group (mathematics)\") at every spacetime point. In the case of QED, the successive application of two different local symmetry transformations e^{i\\\\alpha(x)} and e^{i\\\\alpha'(x)} is yet another symmetry transformation e^{i\\[\\\\alpha(x)\\+\\\\alpha'(x)]}. For any {{math\\|''α''(''x'')}}, e^{i\\\\alpha(x)} is an element of the {{math\\|\\[\\[U(1\\)]]}} group, thus QED is said to have {{math\\|U(1\\)}} gauge symmetry.{{r\\|peskin\\|page1\\=496}} The photon field {{math\\|''Aμ''}} may be referred to as the {{math\\|U(1\\)}} [gauge boson](/wiki/Gauge_boson \"Gauge boson\").",
"{{math\\|U(1\\)}} is an [Abelian group](/wiki/Abelian_group \"Abelian group\"), meaning that the result is the same regardless of the order in which its elements are applied. QFTs can also be built on [non\\-Abelian groups](/wiki/Non-Abelian_group \"Non-Abelian group\"), giving rise to [non\\-Abelian gauge theories](/wiki/Yang%E2%80%93Mills_theory \"Yang–Mills theory\") (also known as Yang–Mills theories).{{r\\|peskin\\|page1\\=489}} [Quantum chromodynamics](/wiki/Quantum_chromodynamics \"Quantum chromodynamics\"), which describes the strong interaction, is a non\\-Abelian gauge theory with an {{math\\|\\[\\[special unitary group\\|SU(3\\)]]}} gauge symmetry. It contains three Dirac fields {{math\\|''ψi'', ''i'' {{\\=}} 1,2,3}} representing [quark](/wiki/Quark \"Quark\") fields as well as eight vector fields {{math\\|''Aa,μ'', ''a'' {{\\=}} 1,...,8}} representing [gluon](/wiki/Gluon \"Gluon\") fields, which are the {{math\\|SU(3\\)}} gauge bosons.{{r\\|peskin\\|page1\\=547}} The QCD Lagrangian density is:{{r\\|peskin\\|page1\\=490–491}}\n\\\\mathcal{L} \\= i\\\\bar\\\\psi^i \\\\gamma^\\\\mu (D\\_\\\\mu)^{ij} \\\\psi^j \\- \\\\frac 14 F\\_{\\\\mu\\\\nu}^aF^{a,\\\\mu\\\\nu} \\- m\\\\bar\\\\psi^i \\\\psi^i,\nwhere {{math\\|''Dμ''}} is the gauge [covariant derivative](/wiki/Covariant_derivative \"Covariant derivative\"):\nD\\_\\\\mu \\= \\\\partial\\_\\\\mu \\- igA\\_\\\\mu^a t^a,\nwhere {{math\\|''g''}} is the coupling constant, {{math\\|''ta''}} are the eight [generators](/wiki/Lie_algebra \"Lie algebra\") of {{math\\|SU(3\\)}} in the [fundamental representation](/wiki/Fundamental_representation \"Fundamental representation\") ({{math\\|3×3}} matrices),\nF\\_{\\\\mu\\\\nu}^a \\= \\\\partial\\_\\\\mu A\\_\\\\nu^a \\- \\\\partial\\_\\\\nu A\\_\\\\mu^a \\+ gf^{abc}A\\_\\\\mu^b A\\_\\\\nu^c,\nand {{math\\|''fabc''}} are the [structure constants](/wiki/Structure_constants \"Structure constants\") of {{math\\|SU(3\\)}}. Repeated indices {{math\\|''i'',''j'',''a''}} are implicitly summed over following Einstein notation. This Lagrangian is invariant under the transformation:\n\\\\psi^i(x) \\\\to U^{ij}(x)\\\\psi^j(x),\\\\quad A\\_\\\\mu^a(x) t^a \\\\to U(x)\\\\left\\[A\\_\\\\mu^a(x) t^a \\+ ig^{\\-1} \\\\partial\\_\\\\mu\\\\right]U^\\\\dagger(x),\nwhere {{math\\|''U''(''x'')}} is an element of {{math\\|SU(3\\)}} at every spacetime point {{math\\|''x''}}:\nU(x) \\= e^{i\\\\alpha(x)^a t^a}.",
"The preceding discussion of symmetries is on the level of the Lagrangian. In other words, these are \"classical\" symmetries. After quantization, some theories will no longer exhibit their classical symmetries, a phenomenon called [anomaly](/wiki/Anomaly_%28physics%29 \"Anomaly (physics)\"). For instance, in the path integral formulation, despite the invariance of the Lagrangian density \\\\mathcal{L}\\[\\\\phi,\\\\partial\\_\\\\mu\\\\phi] under a certain local transformation of the fields, the [measure](/wiki/Measure_%28mathematics%29 \"Measure (mathematics)\") \\\\int\\\\mathcal D\\\\phi of the path integral may change.{{r\\|zee\\|page1\\=243}} For a theory describing nature to be consistent, it must not contain any anomaly in its gauge symmetry. The Standard Model of elementary particles is a gauge theory based on the group {{math\\|SU(3\\) × SU(2\\) × U(1\\)}}, in which all anomalies exactly cancel.{{r\\|peskin\\|page1\\=705–707}}",
"The theoretical foundation of [general relativity](/wiki/General_relativity \"General relativity\"), the [equivalence principle](/wiki/Equivalence_principle \"Equivalence principle\"), can also be understood as a form of gauge symmetry, making general relativity a gauge theory based on the [Lorentz group](/wiki/Lorentz_group \"Lorentz group\").Veltman, M. J. G. (1976\\). *Methods in Field Theory, Proceedings of the Les Houches Summer School, Les Houches, France, 1975*.",
"[Noether's theorem](/wiki/Noether%27s_theorem \"Noether's theorem\") states that every continuous symmetry, *i.e.* the parameter in the symmetry transformation being continuous rather than discrete, leads to a corresponding [conservation law](/wiki/Conservation_law \"Conservation law\").{{r\\|peskin\\|zee\\|page1\\=17–18\\|page2\\=73}} For example, the {{math\\|U(1\\)}} symmetry of QED implies [charge conservation](/wiki/Charge_conservation \"Charge conservation\").{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Brading \\|first1\\=Katherine A.\\|author1\\-link\\=Katherine Brading \\|date\\=March 2002 \\|title\\=Which symmetry? Noether, Weyl, and conservation of electric charge \\|journal\\=Studies in History and Philosophy of Science Part B: Studies in History and Philosophy of Modern Physics \\|volume\\=33 \\|issue\\=1 \\|pages\\=3–22 \\|doi\\=10\\.1016/S1355\\-2198(01\\)00033\\-8 \\|bibcode\\=2002SHPMP..33\\....3B \\|citeseerx\\=10\\.1\\.1\\.569\\.106 }}",
"Gauge\\-transformations do not relate distinct quantum states. Rather, it relates two equivalent mathematical descriptions of the same quantum state. As an example, the photon field {{math\\|''Aμ''}}, being a [four\\-vector](/wiki/Four-vector \"Four-vector\"), has four apparent degrees of freedom, but the actual state of a photon is described by its two degrees of freedom corresponding to the [polarization](/wiki/Photon_polarization \"Photon polarization\"). The remaining two degrees of freedom are said to be \"redundant\" — apparently different ways of writing {{math\\|''Aμ''}} can be related to each other by a gauge transformation and in fact describe the same state of the photon field. In this sense, gauge invariance is not a \"real\" symmetry, but a reflection of the \"redundancy\" of the chosen mathematical description.{{r\\|zee\\|page1\\=168}}",
"To account for the gauge redundancy in the path integral formulation, one must perform the so\\-called [Faddeev–Popov](/wiki/Faddeev%E2%80%93Popov_ghost \"Faddeev–Popov ghost\") [gauge fixing](/wiki/Gauge_fixing \"Gauge fixing\") procedure. In non\\-Abelian gauge theories, such a procedure introduces new fields called \"ghosts\". Particles corresponding to the ghost fields are called ghost particles, which cannot be detected externally.{{r\\|peskin\\|page1\\=512–515}} A more rigorous generalization of the Faddeev–Popov procedure is given by [BRST quantization](/wiki/BRST_quantization \"BRST quantization\").{{r\\|peskin\\|page1\\=517}}",
"#### Spontaneous symmetry\\-breaking",
"{{Main\\|Spontaneous symmetry breaking}}",
"[Spontaneous symmetry breaking](/wiki/Spontaneous_symmetry_breaking \"Spontaneous symmetry breaking\") is a mechanism whereby the symmetry of the Lagrangian is violated by the system described by it.{{r\\|peskin\\|page1\\=347}}",
"To illustrate the mechanism, consider a linear [sigma model](/wiki/Sigma_model \"Sigma model\") containing {{math\\|''N''}} real scalar fields, described by the Lagrangian density:\n\\\\mathcal{L} \\= \\\\frac 12 \\\\left(\\\\partial\\_\\\\mu\\\\phi^i\\\\right)\\\\left(\\\\partial^\\\\mu\\\\phi^i\\\\right) \\+ \\\\frac 12 \\\\mu^2 \\\\phi^i\\\\phi^i \\- \\\\frac{\\\\lambda}{4} \\\\left(\\\\phi^i\\\\phi^i\\\\right)^2,\nwhere {{math\\|''μ''}} and {{math\\|''λ''}} are real parameters. The theory admits an {{math\\|\\[\\[orthogonal group\\|O(''N'')]]}} global symmetry:\n\\\\phi^i \\\\to R^{ij}\\\\phi^j,\\\\quad R\\\\in\\\\mathrm{O}(N).\nThe lowest energy state (ground state or vacuum state) of the classical theory is any uniform field {{math\\|''ϕ''0}} satisfying\n\\\\phi\\_0^i \\\\phi\\_0^i \\= \\\\frac{\\\\mu^2}{\\\\lambda}.\nWithout loss of generality, let the ground state be in the {{math\\|''N''}}\\-th direction:\n\\\\phi\\_0^i \\= \\\\left(0,\\\\cdots,0,\\\\frac{\\\\mu}{\\\\sqrt{\\\\lambda}}\\\\right).\nThe original {{math\\|''N''}} fields can be rewritten as:\n\\\\phi^i(x) \\= \\\\left(\\\\pi^1(x),\\\\cdots,\\\\pi^{N\\-1}(x),\\\\frac{\\\\mu}{\\\\sqrt{\\\\lambda}} \\+ \\\\sigma(x)\\\\right),\nand the original Lagrangian density as:\n\\\\mathcal{L} \\= \\\\frac 12 \\\\left(\\\\partial\\_\\\\mu\\\\pi^k\\\\right)\\\\left(\\\\partial^\\\\mu\\\\pi^k\\\\right) \\+ \\\\frac 12 \\\\left(\\\\partial\\_\\\\mu\\\\sigma\\\\right)\\\\left(\\\\partial^\\\\mu\\\\sigma\\\\right) \\- \\\\frac 12 \\\\left(2\\\\mu^2\\\\right)\\\\sigma^2 \\- \\\\sqrt{\\\\lambda}\\\\mu\\\\sigma^3 \\- \\\\sqrt{\\\\lambda}\\\\mu\\\\pi^k\\\\pi^k\\\\sigma \\- \\\\frac{\\\\lambda}{2} \\\\pi^k\\\\pi^k\\\\sigma^2 \\- \\\\frac{\\\\lambda}{4}\\\\left(\\\\pi^k\\\\pi^k\\\\right)^2,\nwhere {{math\\|''k'' {{\\=}} 1, ..., ''N'' − 1}}. The original {{math\\|O(''N'')}} global symmetry is no longer manifest, leaving only the [subgroup](/wiki/Subgroup \"Subgroup\") {{math\\|O(''N'' − 1\\)}}. The larger symmetry before spontaneous symmetry breaking is said to be \"hidden\" or spontaneously broken.{{r\\|peskin\\|page1\\=349–350}}",
"[Goldstone's theorem](/wiki/Goldstone%27s_theorem \"Goldstone's theorem\") states that under spontaneous symmetry breaking, every broken continuous global symmetry leads to a massless field called the Goldstone boson. In the above example, {{math\\|O(''N'')}} has {{math\\|''N''(''N'' − 1\\)/2}} continuous symmetries (the dimension of its [Lie algebra](/wiki/Lie_algebra \"Lie algebra\")), while {{math\\|O(''N'' − 1\\)}} has {{math\\|(''N'' − 1\\)(''N'' − 2\\)/2}}. The number of broken symmetries is their difference, {{math\\|''N'' − 1}}, which corresponds to the {{math\\|''N'' − 1}} massless fields {{math\\|''πk''}}.{{r\\|peskin\\|page1\\=351}}",
"On the other hand, when a gauge (as opposed to global) symmetry is spontaneously broken, the resulting Goldstone boson is \"eaten\" by the corresponding gauge boson by becoming an additional degree of freedom for the gauge boson. The Goldstone boson equivalence theorem states that at high energy, the amplitude for emission or absorption of a longitudinally polarized massive gauge boson becomes equal to the amplitude for emission or absorption of the Goldstone boson that was eaten by the gauge boson.{{r\\|peskin\\|page1\\=743–744}}",
"In the QFT of [ferromagnetism](/wiki/Ferromagnetism \"Ferromagnetism\"), spontaneous symmetry breaking can explain the alignment of [magnetic dipoles](/wiki/Magnetic_dipole \"Magnetic dipole\") at low temperatures.{{r\\|zee\\|page1\\=199}} In the Standard Model of elementary particles, the [W and Z bosons](/wiki/W_and_Z_bosons \"W and Z bosons\"), which would otherwise be massless as a result of gauge symmetry, acquire mass through spontaneous symmetry breaking of the [Higgs boson](/wiki/Higgs_boson \"Higgs boson\"), a process called the [Higgs mechanism](/wiki/Higgs_mechanism \"Higgs mechanism\").{{r\\|peskin\\|page1\\=690}}",
"#### Supersymmetry",
"{{Main\\|Supersymmetry}}",
"All experimentally known symmetries in nature relate [bosons](/wiki/Boson \"Boson\") to bosons and [fermions](/wiki/Fermion \"Fermion\") to fermions. Theorists have hypothesized the existence of a type of symmetry, called [supersymmetry](/wiki/Supersymmetry \"Supersymmetry\"), that relates bosons and fermions.{{r\\|peskin\\|zee\\|page1\\=795\\|page2\\=443}}",
"The Standard Model obeys [Poincaré symmetry](/wiki/Poincar%C3%A9_group \"Poincaré group\"), whose generators are the spacetime [translations](/wiki/Translation_%28geometry%29 \"Translation (geometry)\") {{math\\|''Pμ''}} and the [Lorentz transformations](/wiki/Lorentz_transformations \"Lorentz transformations\") {{math\\|''Jμν''}}.{{cite book \\|last\\=Weinberg \\|first\\=Steven \\|date\\=1995 \\|title\\=The Quantum Theory of Fields \\|publisher\\=Cambridge University Press \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-521\\-55001\\-7 \\|author\\-link\\=Steven Weinberg \\|url\\-access\\=registration \\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/quantumtheoryoff00stev }}{{rp\\|58–60}} In addition to these generators, supersymmetry in (3\\+1\\)\\-dimensions includes additional generators {{math\\|''Qα''}}, called [supercharges](/wiki/Supercharge \"Supercharge\"), which themselves transform as [Weyl fermions](/wiki/Weyl_fermion \"Weyl fermion\").{{r\\|peskin\\|zee\\|page1\\=795\\|page2\\=444}} The symmetry group generated by all these generators is known as the [super\\-Poincaré group](/wiki/Super-Poincar%C3%A9_group \"Super-Poincaré group\"). In general there can be more than one set of supersymmetry generators, {{math\\|''QαI'', ''I'' {{\\=}} 1, ..., ''N''}}, which generate the corresponding {{math\\|''N'' {{\\=}} 1}} supersymmetry, {{math\\|''N'' {{\\=}} 2}} supersymmetry, and so on.{{r\\|peskin\\|zee\\|page1\\=795\\|page2\\=450}} Supersymmetry can also be constructed in other dimensions,{{cite arXiv \\|last1\\=de Wit \\|first1\\=Bernard \\|last2\\=Louis \\|first2\\=Jan \\|eprint\\=hep\\-th/9801132 \\|title\\=Supersymmetry and Dualities in various dimensions \\|date\\=1998\\-02\\-18 }} most notably in (1\\+1\\) dimensions for its application in [superstring theory](/wiki/Superstring_theory \"Superstring theory\").{{cite book \\|last\\=Polchinski \\|first\\=Joseph \\|date\\=2005 \\|title\\=String Theory \\|volume\\=2 \\|publisher\\=Cambridge University Press \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-521\\-67228\\-3 \\|author\\-link\\=Joseph Polchinski }}",
"The Lagrangian of a supersymmetric theory must be invariant under the action of the super\\-Poincaré group.{{r\\|zee\\|page1\\=448}} Examples of such theories include: [Minimal Supersymmetric Standard Model](/wiki/Minimal_Supersymmetric_Standard_Model \"Minimal Supersymmetric Standard Model\") (MSSM), [{{math\\|''N'' {{\\=}} 4}} supersymmetric Yang–Mills theory](/wiki/N_%7B%7B%3D%7D%7D_4_supersymmetric_Yang%E2%80%93Mills_theory \"N {{=}} 4 supersymmetric Yang–Mills theory\"),{{r\\|zee\\|page1\\=450}} and superstring theory. In a supersymmetric theory, every fermion has a bosonic [superpartner](/wiki/Superpartner \"Superpartner\") and vice versa.{{r\\|zee\\|page1\\=444}}",
"If supersymmetry is promoted to a local symmetry, then the resultant gauge theory is an extension of general relativity called [supergravity](/wiki/Supergravity \"Supergravity\").{{cite journal \\| last1 \\= Nath \\| first1 \\= P. \\| last2 \\= Arnowitt \\| first2 \\= R. \\| year \\= 1975 \\| title \\= Generalized Super\\-Gauge Symmetry as a New Framework for Unified Gauge Theories \\| journal \\= Physics Letters B \\| volume \\= 56 \\| issue \\= 2\\| page \\= 177 \\| doi\\=10\\.1016/0370\\-2693(75\\)90297\\-x\\| bibcode \\= 1975PhLB...56\\..177N }}",
"Supersymmetry is a potential solution to many current problems in physics. For example, the [hierarchy problem](/wiki/Hierarchy_problem \"Hierarchy problem\") of the Standard Model—why the mass of the Higgs boson is not radiatively corrected (under renormalization) to a very high scale such as the [grand unified scale](/wiki/Grand_Unified_Theory \"Grand Unified Theory\") or the [Planck scale](/wiki/Planck_mass \"Planck mass\")—can be resolved by relating the [Higgs field](/wiki/Higgs_field \"Higgs field\") and its super\\-partner, the [Higgsino](/wiki/Higgsino \"Higgsino\"). Radiative corrections due to Higgs boson loops in Feynman diagrams are cancelled by corresponding Higgsino loops. Supersymmetry also offers answers to the grand unification of all gauge coupling constants in the Standard Model as well as the nature of [dark matter](/wiki/Dark_matter \"Dark matter\").{{r\\|peskin\\|page1\\=796–797}}{{Cite journal \\|last\\=Munoz \\|first\\=Carlos \\|arxiv\\=1701\\.05259 \\|title\\=Models of Supersymmetry for Dark Matter \\|journal\\=EPJ Web of Conferences \\|volume\\=136 \\|pages\\=01002 \\|date\\=2017\\-01\\-18 \\|bibcode\\=2017EPJWC.13601002M \\|doi\\=10\\.1051/epjconf/201713601002 \\|s2cid\\=55199323 }}",
"Nevertheless, experiments have yet to provide evidence for the existence of supersymmetric particles. If supersymmetry were a true symmetry of nature, then it must be a broken symmetry, and the energy of symmetry breaking must be higher than those achievable by present\\-day experiments.{{r\\|peskin\\|zee\\|page1\\=797\\|page2\\=443}}",
"#### Other spacetimes",
"The {{math\\|''ϕ''4}} theory, QED, QCD, as well as the whole Standard Model all assume a (3\\+1\\)\\-dimensional [Minkowski space](/wiki/Minkowski_space \"Minkowski space\") (3 spatial and 1 time dimensions) as the background on which the quantum fields are defined. However, QFT *a priori* imposes no restriction on the number of dimensions nor the geometry of spacetime.",
"In [condensed matter physics](/wiki/Condensed_matter_physics \"Condensed matter physics\"), QFT is used to describe [(2\\+1\\)\\-dimensional electron gases](/wiki/Two-dimensional_electron_gas \"Two-dimensional electron gas\").{{cite book \\|last1\\=Morandi \\|first1\\=G. \\|last2\\=Sodano \\|first2\\=P. \\|last3\\=Tagliacozzo \\|first3\\=A. \\|last4\\=Tognetti \\|first4\\=V. \\|date\\=2000 \\|title\\=Field Theories for Low\\-Dimensional Condensed Matter Systems \\|url\\=https://www.springer.com/us/book/9783540671770 \\|publisher\\=Springer \\|isbn\\=978\\-3\\-662\\-04273\\-1 }} In [high\\-energy physics](/wiki/High-energy_physics \"High-energy physics\"), [string theory](/wiki/String_theory \"String theory\") is a type of (1\\+1\\)\\-dimensional QFT,{{r\\|zee\\|page1\\=452}} while [Kaluza–Klein theory](/wiki/Kaluza%E2%80%93Klein_theory \"Kaluza–Klein theory\") uses gravity in [extra dimensions](/wiki/Extra_dimensions \"Extra dimensions\") to produce gauge theories in lower dimensions.{{r\\|zee\\|page1\\=428–429}}",
"In Minkowski space, the flat [metric](/wiki/Metric_tensor_%28general_relativity%29 \"Metric tensor (general relativity)\") {{math\\|''ημν''}} is used to [raise and lower](/wiki/Raising_and_lowering_indices \"Raising and lowering indices\") spacetime indices in the Lagrangian, *e.g.*\nA\\_\\\\mu A^\\\\mu \\= \\\\eta\\_{\\\\mu\\\\nu} A^\\\\mu A^\\\\nu,\\\\quad \\\\partial\\_\\\\mu\\\\phi \\\\partial^\\\\mu\\\\phi \\= \\\\eta^{\\\\mu\\\\nu}\\\\partial\\_\\\\mu\\\\phi \\\\partial\\_\\\\nu\\\\phi,\nwhere {{math\\|''ημν''}} is the inverse of {{math\\|''ημν''}} satisfying {{math\\|''ημρηρν'' {{\\=}} ''δμν''}}. \nFor [QFTs in curved spacetime](/wiki/Quantum_field_theory_in_curved_spacetime \"Quantum field theory in curved spacetime\") on the other hand, a general metric (such as the [Schwarzschild metric](/wiki/Schwarzschild_metric \"Schwarzschild metric\") describing a [black hole](/wiki/Black_hole \"Black hole\")) is used:\nA\\_\\\\mu A^\\\\mu \\= g\\_{\\\\mu\\\\nu} A^\\\\mu A^\\\\nu,\\\\quad \\\\partial\\_\\\\mu\\\\phi \\\\partial^\\\\mu\\\\phi \\= g^{\\\\mu\\\\nu}\\\\partial\\_\\\\mu\\\\phi \\\\partial\\_\\\\nu\\\\phi,\nwhere {{math\\|''gμν''}} is the inverse of {{math\\|''gμν''}}. \nFor a real scalar field, the Lagrangian density in a general spacetime background is\n\\\\mathcal{L} \\= \\\\sqrt{\\|g\\|}\\\\left(\\\\frac 12 g^{\\\\mu\\\\nu} \\\\nabla\\_\\\\mu\\\\phi \\\\nabla\\_\\\\nu\\\\phi \\- \\\\frac 12 m^2\\\\phi^2\\\\right),\nwhere {{math\\|''g'' {{\\=}} det(''gμν'')}}, and {{math\\|∇''μ''}} denotes the [covariant derivative](/wiki/Covariant_derivative \"Covariant derivative\").{{cite book \\|last1\\=Parker \\|first1\\=Leonard E. \\|last2\\=Toms \\|first2\\=David J. \\|date\\=2009 \\|title\\=Quantum Field Theory in Curved Spacetime \\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/quantumfieldtheo00park \\|url\\-access\\=limited \\|publisher\\=Cambridge University Press \\|page\\=\\[https://archive.org/details/quantumfieldtheo00park/page/n58 43] \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-521\\-87787\\-9 }} The Lagrangian of a QFT, hence its calculational results and physical predictions, depends on the geometry of the spacetime background.",
"#### Topological quantum field theory",
"{{Main\\|Topological quantum field theory}}",
"The correlation functions and physical predictions of a QFT depend on the spacetime metric {{math\\|''gμν''}}. For a special class of QFTs called [topological quantum field theories](/wiki/Topological_quantum_field_theories \"Topological quantum field theories\") (TQFTs), all correlation functions are independent of continuous changes in the spacetime metric.{{cite arXiv \\|last1\\=Ivancevic \\|first1\\=Vladimir G. \\|last2\\=Ivancevic \\|first2\\=Tijana T. \\|eprint\\=0810\\.0344v5 \\|title\\=Undergraduate Lecture Notes in Topological Quantum Field Theory \\|class\\=math\\-th \\|date\\=2008\\-12\\-11 }}{{rp\\|36}} QFTs in curved spacetime generally change according to the *geometry* (local structure) of the spacetime background, while TQFTs are invariant under spacetime [diffeomorphisms](/wiki/Diffeomorphism \"Diffeomorphism\") but are sensitive to the *[topology](/wiki/Topology \"Topology\")* (global structure) of spacetime. This means that all calculational results of TQFTs are [topological invariants](/wiki/Topological_invariant \"Topological invariant\") of the underlying spacetime. [Chern–Simons theory](/wiki/Chern%E2%80%93Simons_theory \"Chern–Simons theory\") is an example of TQFT and has been used to construct models of quantum gravity.{{cite book \\|last\\=Carlip \\|first\\=Steven \\|author\\-link\\=Steve Carlip \\|date\\=1998 \\|title\\=Quantum Gravity in 2\\+1 Dimensions \\|url\\=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/quantum\\-gravity\\-in\\-21\\-dimensions/D2F727B6822014270F423D82501E674A \\|publisher\\=Cambridge University Press \\|pages\\=27–29 \\|isbn\\=9780511564192 \\|doi\\=10\\.1017/CBO9780511564192 \\|arxiv\\=2312\\.12596 }} Applications of TQFT include the [fractional quantum Hall effect](/wiki/Fractional_quantum_Hall_effect \"Fractional quantum Hall effect\") and [topological quantum computers](/wiki/Topological_quantum_computer \"Topological quantum computer\").{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Carqueville \\|first1\\=Nils \\|last2\\=Runkel \\|first2\\=Ingo \\|arxiv\\=1705\\.05734 \\|title\\=Introductory lectures on topological quantum field theory \\|journal\\=Banach Center Publications \\|year\\=2018 \\|volume\\=114 \\|pages\\=9–47 \\|doi\\=10\\.4064/bc114\\-1 \\|s2cid\\=119166976 }}{{rp\\|1–5}} The world line trajectory of fractionalized particles (known as [anyons](/wiki/Anyons \"Anyons\")) can form a link configuration in the spacetime,{{Cite journal \\|author\\-link\\=Edward Witten \\|first\\=Edward \\|last\\=Witten \\|title\\=Quantum Field Theory and the Jones Polynomial \\|journal\\=\\[\\[Communications in Mathematical Physics]] \\|volume\\=121 \\|issue\\=3 \\|pages\\=351–399 \\|year\\=1989 \\|mr\\=0990772 \\|bibcode \\= 1989CMaPh.121\\..351W \\|doi \\= 10\\.1007/BF01217730 \\|s2cid\\=14951363 \\|url\\=http://projecteuclid.org/euclid.cmp/1104178138 }} which relates the braiding statistics of anyons in physics to the\nlink invariants in mathematics. Topological quantum field theories (TQFTs) applicable to the frontier research of topological quantum matters include Chern\\-Simons\\-Witten gauge theories in 2\\+1 spacetime dimensions, other new exotic TQFTs in 3\\+1 spacetime dimensions and beyond.{{Cite journal \\|first1\\=Pavel\\|last1\\=Putrov \\|first2\\=Juven \\|last2\\=Wang \\| first3\\=Shing\\-Tung \\| last3\\=Yau \\|title\\=Braiding Statistics and Link Invariants of Bosonic/Fermionic Topological Quantum Matter in 2\\+1 and 3\\+1 dimensions \\|journal\\=\\[\\[Annals of Physics]] \\|volume\\=384 \\|issue\\=C \\|pages\\=254–287 \\|year\\=2017\\|doi \\=10\\.1016/j.aop.2017\\.06\\.019\\|arxiv\\=1612\\.09298 \\|bibcode\\=2017AnPhy.384\\..254P \\|s2cid\\=119578849 }}",
"### Perturbative and non\\-perturbative methods",
"Using [perturbation theory](/wiki/Perturbation_theory_%28quantum_mechanics%29 \"Perturbation theory (quantum mechanics)\"), the total effect of a small interaction term can be approximated order by order by a series expansion in the number of [virtual particles](/wiki/Virtual_particle \"Virtual particle\") participating in the interaction. Every term in the expansion may be understood as one possible way for (physical) particles to interact with each other via virtual particles, expressed visually using a [Feynman diagram](/wiki/Feynman_diagram \"Feynman diagram\"). The [electromagnetic force](/wiki/Electromagnetic_force \"Electromagnetic force\") between two electrons in QED is represented (to first order in perturbation theory) by the propagation of a virtual photon. In a similar manner, the [W and Z bosons](/wiki/W_and_Z_bosons \"W and Z bosons\") carry the weak interaction, while [gluons](/wiki/Gluon \"Gluon\") carry the strong interaction. The interpretation of an interaction as a sum of intermediate states involving the exchange of various virtual particles only makes sense in the framework of perturbation theory. In contrast, non\\-perturbative methods in QFT treat the interacting Lagrangian as a whole without any series expansion. Instead of particles that carry interactions, these methods have spawned such concepts as ['t Hooft–Polyakov monopole](/wiki/%27t_Hooft%E2%80%93Polyakov_monopole \"'t Hooft–Polyakov monopole\"), [domain wall](/wiki/Domain_wall \"Domain wall\"), [flux tube](/wiki/Flux_tube \"Flux tube\"), and [instanton](/wiki/Instanton \"Instanton\").{{cite book \\|last\\=Shifman \\|first\\=M. \\|author\\-link\\=Mikhail Shifman \\|date\\=2012 \\|title\\=Advanced Topics in Quantum Field Theory \\|publisher\\=Cambridge University Press \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-521\\-19084\\-8 }} Examples of QFTs that are completely solvable non\\-perturbatively include [minimal models](/wiki/Minimal_model_%28physics%29 \"Minimal model (physics)\") of [conformal field theory](/wiki/Conformal_field_theory \"Conformal field theory\"){{cite book \\|last1\\=Di Francesco \\|first1\\=Philippe \\|last2\\=Mathieu \\|first2\\=Pierre \\|last3\\=Sénéchal \\|first3\\=David \\|date\\=1997 \\|title\\=Conformal Field Theory \\|publisher\\=Springer \\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-4612\\-7475\\-9 \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=5u7jBwAAQBAJ }} and the [Thirring model](/wiki/Thirring_model \"Thirring model\").{{Cite journal \\|last\\=Thirring \\|first\\=W. \\|author\\-link\\=Walter Thirring \\|year\\=1958 \\|title\\=A Soluble Relativistic Field Theory? \\|journal\\=\\[\\[Annals of Physics]] \\|volume\\=3 \\|issue\\=1\\|pages\\=91–112 \\|bibcode\\=1958AnPhy...3\\...91T \\|doi\\=10\\.1016/0003\\-4916(58\\)90015\\-0}}",
""
] |
### Canonical quantization
{{Main\|Canonical quantization}}
The quantization procedure for the above classical field to a quantum operator field is analogous to the promotion of a classical harmonic oscillator to a [quantum harmonic oscillator](/wiki/Quantum_harmonic_oscillator "Quantum harmonic oscillator").
The displacement of a classical harmonic oscillator is described by
x(t) \= \\frac{1}{\\sqrt{2\\omega}} a e^{\-i\\omega t} \+ \\frac{1}{\\sqrt{2\\omega}} a^\* e^{i\\omega t},
where {{math\|''a''}} is a complex number (normalized by convention), and {{math\|''ω''}} is the oscillator's frequency. Note that {{math\|''x''}} is the displacement of a particle in simple harmonic motion from the equilibrium position, not to be confused with the spatial label {{math\|'''x'''}} of a quantum field.
For a quantum harmonic oscillator, {{math\|''x''(''t'')}} is promoted to a [linear operator](/wiki/Linear_operator "Linear operator") \\hat x(t):
\\hat x(t) \= \\frac{1}{\\sqrt{2\\omega}} \\hat a e^{\-i\\omega t} \+ \\frac{1}{\\sqrt{2\\omega}} \\hat a^\\dagger e^{i\\omega t}.
Complex numbers {{math\|''a''}} and {{math\|''a''\*}} are replaced by the [annihilation operator](/wiki/Annihilation_operator "Annihilation operator") \\hat a and the [creation operator](/wiki/Creation_operator "Creation operator") \\hat a^\\dagger, respectively, where {{math\|†}} denotes [Hermitian conjugation](/wiki/Hermitian_conjugation "Hermitian conjugation"). The [commutation relation](/wiki/Commutation_relation "Commutation relation") between the two is
\\left\[\\hat a, \\hat a^\\dagger\\right] \= 1\.
The [Hamiltonian](/wiki/Hamiltonian_%28quantum_mechanics%29 "Hamiltonian (quantum mechanics)") of the simple harmonic oscillator can be written as
\\hat H \= \\hbar\\omega \\hat{a}^\\dagger \\hat{a} \+\\frac{1}{2}\\hbar\\omega.
The [vacuum state](/wiki/Vacuum_state "Vacuum state") \|0\\rang, which is the lowest energy state, is defined by
\\hat a\|0\\rang \= 0
and has energy \\frac12\\hbar\\omega.
One can easily check that \[\\hat H, \\hat{a}^\\dagger]\=\\hbar\\omega\\hat{a}^\\dagger, which implies that \\hat{a}^\\dagger increases the energy of the simple harmonic oscillator by \\hbar\\omega. For example, the state \\hat{a}^\\dagger\|0\\rang is an eigenstate of energy 3\\hbar\\omega/2.
Any energy eigenstate state of a single harmonic oscillator can be obtained from \|0\\rang by successively applying the creation operator \\hat a^\\dagger:{{r\|peskin\|page1\=20}} and any state of the system can be expressed as a linear combination of the states
\|n\\rang \\propto \\left(\\hat a^\\dagger\\right)^n\|0\\rang.
A similar procedure can be applied to the real scalar field {{math\|''ϕ''}}, by promoting it to a quantum field operator \\hat\\phi, while the annihilation operator \\hat a\_{\\mathbf{p}}, the creation operator \\hat a\_{\\mathbf{p}}^\\dagger and the angular frequency \\omega\_\\mathbf {p}are now for a particular {{math\|'''p'''}}:
\\hat \\phi(\\mathbf{x}, t) \= \\int \\frac{d^3p}{(2\\pi)^3} \\frac{1}{\\sqrt{2\\omega\_{\\mathbf{p}}}}\\left(\\hat a\_{\\mathbf{p}} e^{\-i\\omega\_{\\mathbf{p}}t \+ i\\mathbf{p}\\cdot\\mathbf{x}} \+ \\hat a\_{\\mathbf{p}}^\\dagger e^{i\\omega\_{\\mathbf{p}}t \- i\\mathbf{p}\\cdot\\mathbf{x}}\\right).
Their commutation relations are:{{r\|peskin\|page1\=21}}
\\left\[\\hat a\_{\\mathbf p}, \\hat a\_{\\mathbf q}^\\dagger\\right] \= (2\\pi)^3\\delta(\\mathbf{p} \- \\mathbf{q}),\\quad \\left\[\\hat a\_{\\mathbf p}, \\hat a\_{\\mathbf q}\\right] \= \\left\[\\hat a\_{\\mathbf p}^\\dagger, \\hat a\_{\\mathbf q}^\\dagger\\right] \= 0,
where {{math\|''δ''}} is the [Dirac delta function](/wiki/Dirac_delta_function "Dirac delta function"). The vacuum state \|0\\rang is defined by
\\hat a\_{\\mathbf p}\|0\\rang \= 0,\\quad \\text{for all }\\mathbf p.
Any quantum state of the field can be obtained from \|0\\rang by successively applying creation operators \\hat a\_{\\mathbf{p}}^\\dagger (or by a linear combination of such states), e.g. {{r\|peskin\|page1\=22}}
\\left(\\hat a\_{\\mathbf{p}\_3}^\\dagger\\right)^3 \\hat a\_{\\mathbf{p}\_2}^\\dagger \\left(\\hat a\_{\\mathbf{p}\_1}^\\dagger\\right)^2 \|0\\rang.
While the state space of a single quantum harmonic oscillator contains all the discrete energy states of one oscillating particle, the state space of a quantum field contains the discrete energy levels of an arbitrary number of particles. The latter space is known as a [Fock space](/wiki/Fock_space "Fock space"), which can account for the fact that particle numbers are not fixed in relativistic quantum systems.{{cite journal \|last1\=Fock \|first1\=V. \|author\-link\=Vladimir Fock \|date\=1932\-03\-10 \|title\=Konfigurationsraum und zweite Quantelung \|journal\=Zeitschrift für Physik \|volume\=75 \|issue\=9–10 \|pages\=622–647 \|doi\=10\.1007/BF01344458 \|language\=de \|bibcode\=1932ZPhy...75\..622F \|s2cid\=186238995 }} The process of quantizing an arbitrary number of particles instead of a single particle is often also called [second quantization](/wiki/Second_quantization "Second quantization").{{r\|peskin\|page1\=19}}
The foregoing procedure is a direct application of non\-relativistic quantum mechanics and can be used to quantize (complex) scalar fields, [Dirac fields](/wiki/Dirac_field "Dirac field"),{{r\|peskin\|page1\=52}} [vector fields](/wiki/Vector_field "Vector field") (*e.g.* the electromagnetic field), and even [strings](/wiki/String_theory "String theory").{{cite book \|last1\=Becker \|first1\=Katrin \|last2\=Becker \|first2\=Melanie\|author\-link2\=Melanie Becker \|last3\=Schwarz \|first3\=John H. \|date\=2007 \|title\=String Theory and M\-Theory \|url\=https://archive.org/details/stringtheorymthe00beck\_649 \|url\-access\=limited \|publisher\=Cambridge University Press \|page\=\[https://archive.org/details/stringtheorymthe00beck\_649/page/n53 36] \|isbn\=978\-0\-521\-86069\-7 \|author\-link3\=John Henry Schwarz }} However, creation and annihilation operators are only well defined in the simplest theories that contain no interactions (so\-called free theory). In the case of the real scalar field, the existence of these operators was a consequence of the decomposition of solutions of the classical equations of motion into a sum of normal modes. To perform calculations on any realistic interacting theory, [perturbation theory](/wiki/Perturbation_theory_%28quantum_mechanics%29 "Perturbation theory (quantum mechanics)") would be necessary.
The Lagrangian of any quantum field in nature would contain interaction terms in addition to the free theory terms. For example, a [quartic interaction](/wiki/Quartic_interaction "Quartic interaction") term could be introduced to the Lagrangian of the real scalar field:{{r\|peskin\|page1\=77}}
\\mathcal{L} \= \\frac 12 (\\partial\_\\mu\\phi)\\left(\\partial^\\mu\\phi\\right) \- \\frac 12 m^2\\phi^2 \- \\frac{\\lambda}{4!}\\phi^4,
where {{math\|''μ''}} is a spacetime index, \\partial\_0 \= \\partial/\\partial t,\\ \\partial\_1 \= \\partial/\\partial x^1, etc. The summation over the index {{math\|''μ''}} has been omitted following the [Einstein notation](/wiki/Einstein_notation "Einstein notation"). If the parameter {{math\|''λ''}} is sufficiently small, then the interacting theory described by the above Lagrangian can be considered as a small perturbation from the free theory.
|
[
"### Canonical quantization",
"{{Main\\|Canonical quantization}}",
"The quantization procedure for the above classical field to a quantum operator field is analogous to the promotion of a classical harmonic oscillator to a [quantum harmonic oscillator](/wiki/Quantum_harmonic_oscillator \"Quantum harmonic oscillator\").",
"The displacement of a classical harmonic oscillator is described by\nx(t) \\= \\\\frac{1}{\\\\sqrt{2\\\\omega}} a e^{\\-i\\\\omega t} \\+ \\\\frac{1}{\\\\sqrt{2\\\\omega}} a^\\* e^{i\\\\omega t},\nwhere {{math\\|''a''}} is a complex number (normalized by convention), and {{math\\|''ω''}} is the oscillator's frequency. Note that {{math\\|''x''}} is the displacement of a particle in simple harmonic motion from the equilibrium position, not to be confused with the spatial label {{math\\|'''x'''}} of a quantum field.",
"For a quantum harmonic oscillator, {{math\\|''x''(''t'')}} is promoted to a [linear operator](/wiki/Linear_operator \"Linear operator\") \\\\hat x(t):\n\\\\hat x(t) \\= \\\\frac{1}{\\\\sqrt{2\\\\omega}} \\\\hat a e^{\\-i\\\\omega t} \\+ \\\\frac{1}{\\\\sqrt{2\\\\omega}} \\\\hat a^\\\\dagger e^{i\\\\omega t}.\nComplex numbers {{math\\|''a''}} and {{math\\|''a''\\*}} are replaced by the [annihilation operator](/wiki/Annihilation_operator \"Annihilation operator\") \\\\hat a and the [creation operator](/wiki/Creation_operator \"Creation operator\") \\\\hat a^\\\\dagger, respectively, where {{math\\|†}} denotes [Hermitian conjugation](/wiki/Hermitian_conjugation \"Hermitian conjugation\"). The [commutation relation](/wiki/Commutation_relation \"Commutation relation\") between the two is\n\\\\left\\[\\\\hat a, \\\\hat a^\\\\dagger\\\\right] \\= 1\\.\nThe [Hamiltonian](/wiki/Hamiltonian_%28quantum_mechanics%29 \"Hamiltonian (quantum mechanics)\") of the simple harmonic oscillator can be written as\n\\\\hat H \\= \\\\hbar\\\\omega \\\\hat{a}^\\\\dagger \\\\hat{a} \\+\\\\frac{1}{2}\\\\hbar\\\\omega.\nThe [vacuum state](/wiki/Vacuum_state \"Vacuum state\") \\|0\\\\rang, which is the lowest energy state, is defined by\n\\\\hat a\\|0\\\\rang \\= 0\nand has energy \\\\frac12\\\\hbar\\\\omega.\nOne can easily check that \\[\\\\hat H, \\\\hat{a}^\\\\dagger]\\=\\\\hbar\\\\omega\\\\hat{a}^\\\\dagger, which implies that \\\\hat{a}^\\\\dagger increases the energy of the simple harmonic oscillator by \\\\hbar\\\\omega. For example, the state \\\\hat{a}^\\\\dagger\\|0\\\\rang is an eigenstate of energy 3\\\\hbar\\\\omega/2.\nAny energy eigenstate state of a single harmonic oscillator can be obtained from \\|0\\\\rang by successively applying the creation operator \\\\hat a^\\\\dagger:{{r\\|peskin\\|page1\\=20}} and any state of the system can be expressed as a linear combination of the states\n\\|n\\\\rang \\\\propto \\\\left(\\\\hat a^\\\\dagger\\\\right)^n\\|0\\\\rang.",
"A similar procedure can be applied to the real scalar field {{math\\|''ϕ''}}, by promoting it to a quantum field operator \\\\hat\\\\phi, while the annihilation operator \\\\hat a\\_{\\\\mathbf{p}}, the creation operator \\\\hat a\\_{\\\\mathbf{p}}^\\\\dagger and the angular frequency \\\\omega\\_\\\\mathbf {p}are now for a particular {{math\\|'''p'''}}:\n\\\\hat \\\\phi(\\\\mathbf{x}, t) \\= \\\\int \\\\frac{d^3p}{(2\\\\pi)^3} \\\\frac{1}{\\\\sqrt{2\\\\omega\\_{\\\\mathbf{p}}}}\\\\left(\\\\hat a\\_{\\\\mathbf{p}} e^{\\-i\\\\omega\\_{\\\\mathbf{p}}t \\+ i\\\\mathbf{p}\\\\cdot\\\\mathbf{x}} \\+ \\\\hat a\\_{\\\\mathbf{p}}^\\\\dagger e^{i\\\\omega\\_{\\\\mathbf{p}}t \\- i\\\\mathbf{p}\\\\cdot\\\\mathbf{x}}\\\\right).\nTheir commutation relations are:{{r\\|peskin\\|page1\\=21}}\n\\\\left\\[\\\\hat a\\_{\\\\mathbf p}, \\\\hat a\\_{\\\\mathbf q}^\\\\dagger\\\\right] \\= (2\\\\pi)^3\\\\delta(\\\\mathbf{p} \\- \\\\mathbf{q}),\\\\quad \\\\left\\[\\\\hat a\\_{\\\\mathbf p}, \\\\hat a\\_{\\\\mathbf q}\\\\right] \\= \\\\left\\[\\\\hat a\\_{\\\\mathbf p}^\\\\dagger, \\\\hat a\\_{\\\\mathbf q}^\\\\dagger\\\\right] \\= 0,\nwhere {{math\\|''δ''}} is the [Dirac delta function](/wiki/Dirac_delta_function \"Dirac delta function\"). The vacuum state \\|0\\\\rang is defined by\n\\\\hat a\\_{\\\\mathbf p}\\|0\\\\rang \\= 0,\\\\quad \\\\text{for all }\\\\mathbf p.\nAny quantum state of the field can be obtained from \\|0\\\\rang by successively applying creation operators \\\\hat a\\_{\\\\mathbf{p}}^\\\\dagger (or by a linear combination of such states), e.g. {{r\\|peskin\\|page1\\=22}}\n\\\\left(\\\\hat a\\_{\\\\mathbf{p}\\_3}^\\\\dagger\\\\right)^3 \\\\hat a\\_{\\\\mathbf{p}\\_2}^\\\\dagger \\\\left(\\\\hat a\\_{\\\\mathbf{p}\\_1}^\\\\dagger\\\\right)^2 \\|0\\\\rang.",
"While the state space of a single quantum harmonic oscillator contains all the discrete energy states of one oscillating particle, the state space of a quantum field contains the discrete energy levels of an arbitrary number of particles. The latter space is known as a [Fock space](/wiki/Fock_space \"Fock space\"), which can account for the fact that particle numbers are not fixed in relativistic quantum systems.{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Fock \\|first1\\=V. \\|author\\-link\\=Vladimir Fock \\|date\\=1932\\-03\\-10 \\|title\\=Konfigurationsraum und zweite Quantelung \\|journal\\=Zeitschrift für Physik \\|volume\\=75 \\|issue\\=9–10 \\|pages\\=622–647 \\|doi\\=10\\.1007/BF01344458 \\|language\\=de \\|bibcode\\=1932ZPhy...75\\..622F \\|s2cid\\=186238995 }} The process of quantizing an arbitrary number of particles instead of a single particle is often also called [second quantization](/wiki/Second_quantization \"Second quantization\").{{r\\|peskin\\|page1\\=19}}",
"The foregoing procedure is a direct application of non\\-relativistic quantum mechanics and can be used to quantize (complex) scalar fields, [Dirac fields](/wiki/Dirac_field \"Dirac field\"),{{r\\|peskin\\|page1\\=52}} [vector fields](/wiki/Vector_field \"Vector field\") (*e.g.* the electromagnetic field), and even [strings](/wiki/String_theory \"String theory\").{{cite book \\|last1\\=Becker \\|first1\\=Katrin \\|last2\\=Becker \\|first2\\=Melanie\\|author\\-link2\\=Melanie Becker \\|last3\\=Schwarz \\|first3\\=John H. \\|date\\=2007 \\|title\\=String Theory and M\\-Theory \\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/stringtheorymthe00beck\\_649 \\|url\\-access\\=limited \\|publisher\\=Cambridge University Press \\|page\\=\\[https://archive.org/details/stringtheorymthe00beck\\_649/page/n53 36] \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-521\\-86069\\-7 \\|author\\-link3\\=John Henry Schwarz }} However, creation and annihilation operators are only well defined in the simplest theories that contain no interactions (so\\-called free theory). In the case of the real scalar field, the existence of these operators was a consequence of the decomposition of solutions of the classical equations of motion into a sum of normal modes. To perform calculations on any realistic interacting theory, [perturbation theory](/wiki/Perturbation_theory_%28quantum_mechanics%29 \"Perturbation theory (quantum mechanics)\") would be necessary.",
"The Lagrangian of any quantum field in nature would contain interaction terms in addition to the free theory terms. For example, a [quartic interaction](/wiki/Quartic_interaction \"Quartic interaction\") term could be introduced to the Lagrangian of the real scalar field:{{r\\|peskin\\|page1\\=77}}\n\\\\mathcal{L} \\= \\\\frac 12 (\\\\partial\\_\\\\mu\\\\phi)\\\\left(\\\\partial^\\\\mu\\\\phi\\\\right) \\- \\\\frac 12 m^2\\\\phi^2 \\- \\\\frac{\\\\lambda}{4!}\\\\phi^4,\nwhere {{math\\|''μ''}} is a spacetime index, \\\\partial\\_0 \\= \\\\partial/\\\\partial t,\\\\ \\\\partial\\_1 \\= \\\\partial/\\\\partial x^1, etc. The summation over the index {{math\\|''μ''}} has been omitted following the [Einstein notation](/wiki/Einstein_notation \"Einstein notation\"). If the parameter {{math\\|''λ''}} is sufficiently small, then the interacting theory described by the above Lagrangian can be considered as a small perturbation from the free theory.",
""
] |
### Other theories
The quantization and renormalization procedures outlined in the preceding sections are performed for the free theory and [{{math\|''ϕ''4}} theory](/wiki/Quartic_interaction "Quartic interaction") of the real scalar field. A similar process can be done for other types of fields, including the [complex](/wiki/Complex_numbers "Complex numbers") scalar field, the [vector field](/wiki/Vector_field "Vector field"), and the [Dirac field](/wiki/Dirac_field "Dirac field"), as well as other types of interaction terms, including the electromagnetic interaction and the [Yukawa interaction](/wiki/Yukawa_interaction "Yukawa interaction").
As an example, [quantum electrodynamics](/wiki/Quantum_electrodynamics "Quantum electrodynamics") contains a Dirac field {{math\|''ψ''}} representing the [electron](/wiki/Electron "Electron") field and a vector field {{math\|''Aμ''}} representing the electromagnetic field ([photon](/wiki/Photon "Photon") field). (Despite its name, the quantum electromagnetic "field" actually corresponds to the classical [electromagnetic four\-potential](/wiki/Electromagnetic_four-potential "Electromagnetic four-potential"), rather than the classical electric and magnetic fields.) The full QED Lagrangian density is:
\\mathcal{L} \= \\bar\\psi\\left(i\\gamma^\\mu\\partial\_\\mu \- m\\right)\\psi \- \\frac 14 F\_{\\mu\\nu}F^{\\mu\\nu} \- e\\bar\\psi\\gamma^\\mu\\psi A\_\\mu,
where {{math\|''γμ''}} are [Dirac matrices](/wiki/Dirac_matrices "Dirac matrices"), \\bar\\psi \= \\psi^\\dagger\\gamma^0, and F\_{\\mu\\nu} \= \\partial\_\\mu A\_\\nu \- \\partial\_\\nu A\_\\mu is the [electromagnetic field strength](/wiki/Electromagnetic_field_strength "Electromagnetic field strength"). The parameters in this theory are the (bare) electron mass {{math\|''m''}} and the (bare) [elementary charge](/wiki/Elementary_charge "Elementary charge") {{math\|''e''}}. The first and second terms in the Lagrangian density correspond to the free Dirac field and free vector fields, respectively. The last term describes the interaction between the electron and photon fields, which is treated as a perturbation from the free theories.{{r\|peskin\|page1\=78}}
[thumb](/wiki/File:Electron-positron-annihilation.svg "Electron-positron-annihilation.svg")
Shown above is an example of a tree\-level Feynman diagram in QED. It describes an electron and a positron annihilating, creating an [off\-shell](/wiki/Off-shell "Off-shell") photon, and then decaying into a new pair of electron and positron. Time runs from left to right. Arrows pointing forward in time represent the propagation of electrons, while those pointing backward in time represent the propagation of positrons. A wavy line represents the propagation of a photon. Each vertex in QED Feynman diagrams must have an incoming and an outgoing fermion (positron/electron) leg as well as a photon leg.
#### Gauge symmetry
{{Main\|Gauge theory}}
If the following transformation to the fields is performed at every spacetime point {{math\|''x''}} (a local transformation), then the QED Lagrangian remains unchanged, or invariant:
\\psi(x) \\to e^{i\\alpha(x)}\\psi(x),\\quad A\_\\mu(x) \\to A\_\\mu(x) \+ ie^{\-1} e^{\-i\\alpha(x)}\\partial\_\\mu e^{i\\alpha(x)},
where {{math\|''α''(''x'')}} is any function of spacetime coordinates. If a theory's Lagrangian (or more precisely the [action](/wiki/Action_%28physics%29 "Action (physics)")) is invariant under a certain local transformation, then the transformation is referred to as a [gauge symmetry](/wiki/Gauge_symmetry "Gauge symmetry") of the theory.{{r\|peskin\|page1\=482–483}} Gauge symmetries form a [group](/wiki/Group_%28mathematics%29 "Group (mathematics)") at every spacetime point. In the case of QED, the successive application of two different local symmetry transformations e^{i\\alpha(x)} and e^{i\\alpha'(x)} is yet another symmetry transformation e^{i\[\\alpha(x)\+\\alpha'(x)]}. For any {{math\|''α''(''x'')}}, e^{i\\alpha(x)} is an element of the {{math\|\[\[U(1\)]]}} group, thus QED is said to have {{math\|U(1\)}} gauge symmetry.{{r\|peskin\|page1\=496}} The photon field {{math\|''Aμ''}} may be referred to as the {{math\|U(1\)}} [gauge boson](/wiki/Gauge_boson "Gauge boson").
{{math\|U(1\)}} is an [Abelian group](/wiki/Abelian_group "Abelian group"), meaning that the result is the same regardless of the order in which its elements are applied. QFTs can also be built on [non\-Abelian groups](/wiki/Non-Abelian_group "Non-Abelian group"), giving rise to [non\-Abelian gauge theories](/wiki/Yang%E2%80%93Mills_theory "Yang–Mills theory") (also known as Yang–Mills theories).{{r\|peskin\|page1\=489}} [Quantum chromodynamics](/wiki/Quantum_chromodynamics "Quantum chromodynamics"), which describes the strong interaction, is a non\-Abelian gauge theory with an {{math\|\[\[special unitary group\|SU(3\)]]}} gauge symmetry. It contains three Dirac fields {{math\|''ψi'', ''i'' {{\=}} 1,2,3}} representing [quark](/wiki/Quark "Quark") fields as well as eight vector fields {{math\|''Aa,μ'', ''a'' {{\=}} 1,...,8}} representing [gluon](/wiki/Gluon "Gluon") fields, which are the {{math\|SU(3\)}} gauge bosons.{{r\|peskin\|page1\=547}} The QCD Lagrangian density is:{{r\|peskin\|page1\=490–491}}
\\mathcal{L} \= i\\bar\\psi^i \\gamma^\\mu (D\_\\mu)^{ij} \\psi^j \- \\frac 14 F\_{\\mu\\nu}^aF^{a,\\mu\\nu} \- m\\bar\\psi^i \\psi^i,
where {{math\|''Dμ''}} is the gauge [covariant derivative](/wiki/Covariant_derivative "Covariant derivative"):
D\_\\mu \= \\partial\_\\mu \- igA\_\\mu^a t^a,
where {{math\|''g''}} is the coupling constant, {{math\|''ta''}} are the eight [generators](/wiki/Lie_algebra "Lie algebra") of {{math\|SU(3\)}} in the [fundamental representation](/wiki/Fundamental_representation "Fundamental representation") ({{math\|3×3}} matrices),
F\_{\\mu\\nu}^a \= \\partial\_\\mu A\_\\nu^a \- \\partial\_\\nu A\_\\mu^a \+ gf^{abc}A\_\\mu^b A\_\\nu^c,
and {{math\|''fabc''}} are the [structure constants](/wiki/Structure_constants "Structure constants") of {{math\|SU(3\)}}. Repeated indices {{math\|''i'',''j'',''a''}} are implicitly summed over following Einstein notation. This Lagrangian is invariant under the transformation:
\\psi^i(x) \\to U^{ij}(x)\\psi^j(x),\\quad A\_\\mu^a(x) t^a \\to U(x)\\left\[A\_\\mu^a(x) t^a \+ ig^{\-1} \\partial\_\\mu\\right]U^\\dagger(x),
where {{math\|''U''(''x'')}} is an element of {{math\|SU(3\)}} at every spacetime point {{math\|''x''}}:
U(x) \= e^{i\\alpha(x)^a t^a}.
The preceding discussion of symmetries is on the level of the Lagrangian. In other words, these are "classical" symmetries. After quantization, some theories will no longer exhibit their classical symmetries, a phenomenon called [anomaly](/wiki/Anomaly_%28physics%29 "Anomaly (physics)"). For instance, in the path integral formulation, despite the invariance of the Lagrangian density \\mathcal{L}\[\\phi,\\partial\_\\mu\\phi] under a certain local transformation of the fields, the [measure](/wiki/Measure_%28mathematics%29 "Measure (mathematics)") \\int\\mathcal D\\phi of the path integral may change.{{r\|zee\|page1\=243}} For a theory describing nature to be consistent, it must not contain any anomaly in its gauge symmetry. The Standard Model of elementary particles is a gauge theory based on the group {{math\|SU(3\) × SU(2\) × U(1\)}}, in which all anomalies exactly cancel.{{r\|peskin\|page1\=705–707}}
The theoretical foundation of [general relativity](/wiki/General_relativity "General relativity"), the [equivalence principle](/wiki/Equivalence_principle "Equivalence principle"), can also be understood as a form of gauge symmetry, making general relativity a gauge theory based on the [Lorentz group](/wiki/Lorentz_group "Lorentz group").Veltman, M. J. G. (1976\). *Methods in Field Theory, Proceedings of the Les Houches Summer School, Les Houches, France, 1975*.
[Noether's theorem](/wiki/Noether%27s_theorem "Noether's theorem") states that every continuous symmetry, *i.e.* the parameter in the symmetry transformation being continuous rather than discrete, leads to a corresponding [conservation law](/wiki/Conservation_law "Conservation law").{{r\|peskin\|zee\|page1\=17–18\|page2\=73}} For example, the {{math\|U(1\)}} symmetry of QED implies [charge conservation](/wiki/Charge_conservation "Charge conservation").{{cite journal \|last1\=Brading \|first1\=Katherine A.\|author1\-link\=Katherine Brading \|date\=March 2002 \|title\=Which symmetry? Noether, Weyl, and conservation of electric charge \|journal\=Studies in History and Philosophy of Science Part B: Studies in History and Philosophy of Modern Physics \|volume\=33 \|issue\=1 \|pages\=3–22 \|doi\=10\.1016/S1355\-2198(01\)00033\-8 \|bibcode\=2002SHPMP..33\....3B \|citeseerx\=10\.1\.1\.569\.106 }}
Gauge\-transformations do not relate distinct quantum states. Rather, it relates two equivalent mathematical descriptions of the same quantum state. As an example, the photon field {{math\|''Aμ''}}, being a [four\-vector](/wiki/Four-vector "Four-vector"), has four apparent degrees of freedom, but the actual state of a photon is described by its two degrees of freedom corresponding to the [polarization](/wiki/Photon_polarization "Photon polarization"). The remaining two degrees of freedom are said to be "redundant" — apparently different ways of writing {{math\|''Aμ''}} can be related to each other by a gauge transformation and in fact describe the same state of the photon field. In this sense, gauge invariance is not a "real" symmetry, but a reflection of the "redundancy" of the chosen mathematical description.{{r\|zee\|page1\=168}}
To account for the gauge redundancy in the path integral formulation, one must perform the so\-called [Faddeev–Popov](/wiki/Faddeev%E2%80%93Popov_ghost "Faddeev–Popov ghost") [gauge fixing](/wiki/Gauge_fixing "Gauge fixing") procedure. In non\-Abelian gauge theories, such a procedure introduces new fields called "ghosts". Particles corresponding to the ghost fields are called ghost particles, which cannot be detected externally.{{r\|peskin\|page1\=512–515}} A more rigorous generalization of the Faddeev–Popov procedure is given by [BRST quantization](/wiki/BRST_quantization "BRST quantization").{{r\|peskin\|page1\=517}}
#### Spontaneous symmetry\-breaking
{{Main\|Spontaneous symmetry breaking}}
[Spontaneous symmetry breaking](/wiki/Spontaneous_symmetry_breaking "Spontaneous symmetry breaking") is a mechanism whereby the symmetry of the Lagrangian is violated by the system described by it.{{r\|peskin\|page1\=347}}
To illustrate the mechanism, consider a linear [sigma model](/wiki/Sigma_model "Sigma model") containing {{math\|''N''}} real scalar fields, described by the Lagrangian density:
\\mathcal{L} \= \\frac 12 \\left(\\partial\_\\mu\\phi^i\\right)\\left(\\partial^\\mu\\phi^i\\right) \+ \\frac 12 \\mu^2 \\phi^i\\phi^i \- \\frac{\\lambda}{4} \\left(\\phi^i\\phi^i\\right)^2,
where {{math\|''μ''}} and {{math\|''λ''}} are real parameters. The theory admits an {{math\|\[\[orthogonal group\|O(''N'')]]}} global symmetry:
\\phi^i \\to R^{ij}\\phi^j,\\quad R\\in\\mathrm{O}(N).
The lowest energy state (ground state or vacuum state) of the classical theory is any uniform field {{math\|''ϕ''0}} satisfying
\\phi\_0^i \\phi\_0^i \= \\frac{\\mu^2}{\\lambda}.
Without loss of generality, let the ground state be in the {{math\|''N''}}\-th direction:
\\phi\_0^i \= \\left(0,\\cdots,0,\\frac{\\mu}{\\sqrt{\\lambda}}\\right).
The original {{math\|''N''}} fields can be rewritten as:
\\phi^i(x) \= \\left(\\pi^1(x),\\cdots,\\pi^{N\-1}(x),\\frac{\\mu}{\\sqrt{\\lambda}} \+ \\sigma(x)\\right),
and the original Lagrangian density as:
\\mathcal{L} \= \\frac 12 \\left(\\partial\_\\mu\\pi^k\\right)\\left(\\partial^\\mu\\pi^k\\right) \+ \\frac 12 \\left(\\partial\_\\mu\\sigma\\right)\\left(\\partial^\\mu\\sigma\\right) \- \\frac 12 \\left(2\\mu^2\\right)\\sigma^2 \- \\sqrt{\\lambda}\\mu\\sigma^3 \- \\sqrt{\\lambda}\\mu\\pi^k\\pi^k\\sigma \- \\frac{\\lambda}{2} \\pi^k\\pi^k\\sigma^2 \- \\frac{\\lambda}{4}\\left(\\pi^k\\pi^k\\right)^2,
where {{math\|''k'' {{\=}} 1, ..., ''N'' − 1}}. The original {{math\|O(''N'')}} global symmetry is no longer manifest, leaving only the [subgroup](/wiki/Subgroup "Subgroup") {{math\|O(''N'' − 1\)}}. The larger symmetry before spontaneous symmetry breaking is said to be "hidden" or spontaneously broken.{{r\|peskin\|page1\=349–350}}
[Goldstone's theorem](/wiki/Goldstone%27s_theorem "Goldstone's theorem") states that under spontaneous symmetry breaking, every broken continuous global symmetry leads to a massless field called the Goldstone boson. In the above example, {{math\|O(''N'')}} has {{math\|''N''(''N'' − 1\)/2}} continuous symmetries (the dimension of its [Lie algebra](/wiki/Lie_algebra "Lie algebra")), while {{math\|O(''N'' − 1\)}} has {{math\|(''N'' − 1\)(''N'' − 2\)/2}}. The number of broken symmetries is their difference, {{math\|''N'' − 1}}, which corresponds to the {{math\|''N'' − 1}} massless fields {{math\|''πk''}}.{{r\|peskin\|page1\=351}}
On the other hand, when a gauge (as opposed to global) symmetry is spontaneously broken, the resulting Goldstone boson is "eaten" by the corresponding gauge boson by becoming an additional degree of freedom for the gauge boson. The Goldstone boson equivalence theorem states that at high energy, the amplitude for emission or absorption of a longitudinally polarized massive gauge boson becomes equal to the amplitude for emission or absorption of the Goldstone boson that was eaten by the gauge boson.{{r\|peskin\|page1\=743–744}}
In the QFT of [ferromagnetism](/wiki/Ferromagnetism "Ferromagnetism"), spontaneous symmetry breaking can explain the alignment of [magnetic dipoles](/wiki/Magnetic_dipole "Magnetic dipole") at low temperatures.{{r\|zee\|page1\=199}} In the Standard Model of elementary particles, the [W and Z bosons](/wiki/W_and_Z_bosons "W and Z bosons"), which would otherwise be massless as a result of gauge symmetry, acquire mass through spontaneous symmetry breaking of the [Higgs boson](/wiki/Higgs_boson "Higgs boson"), a process called the [Higgs mechanism](/wiki/Higgs_mechanism "Higgs mechanism").{{r\|peskin\|page1\=690}}
#### Supersymmetry
{{Main\|Supersymmetry}}
All experimentally known symmetries in nature relate [bosons](/wiki/Boson "Boson") to bosons and [fermions](/wiki/Fermion "Fermion") to fermions. Theorists have hypothesized the existence of a type of symmetry, called [supersymmetry](/wiki/Supersymmetry "Supersymmetry"), that relates bosons and fermions.{{r\|peskin\|zee\|page1\=795\|page2\=443}}
The Standard Model obeys [Poincaré symmetry](/wiki/Poincar%C3%A9_group "Poincaré group"), whose generators are the spacetime [translations](/wiki/Translation_%28geometry%29 "Translation (geometry)") {{math\|''Pμ''}} and the [Lorentz transformations](/wiki/Lorentz_transformations "Lorentz transformations") {{math\|''Jμν''}}.{{cite book \|last\=Weinberg \|first\=Steven \|date\=1995 \|title\=The Quantum Theory of Fields \|publisher\=Cambridge University Press \|isbn\=978\-0\-521\-55001\-7 \|author\-link\=Steven Weinberg \|url\-access\=registration \|url\=https://archive.org/details/quantumtheoryoff00stev }}{{rp\|58–60}} In addition to these generators, supersymmetry in (3\+1\)\-dimensions includes additional generators {{math\|''Qα''}}, called [supercharges](/wiki/Supercharge "Supercharge"), which themselves transform as [Weyl fermions](/wiki/Weyl_fermion "Weyl fermion").{{r\|peskin\|zee\|page1\=795\|page2\=444}} The symmetry group generated by all these generators is known as the [super\-Poincaré group](/wiki/Super-Poincar%C3%A9_group "Super-Poincaré group"). In general there can be more than one set of supersymmetry generators, {{math\|''QαI'', ''I'' {{\=}} 1, ..., ''N''}}, which generate the corresponding {{math\|''N'' {{\=}} 1}} supersymmetry, {{math\|''N'' {{\=}} 2}} supersymmetry, and so on.{{r\|peskin\|zee\|page1\=795\|page2\=450}} Supersymmetry can also be constructed in other dimensions,{{cite arXiv \|last1\=de Wit \|first1\=Bernard \|last2\=Louis \|first2\=Jan \|eprint\=hep\-th/9801132 \|title\=Supersymmetry and Dualities in various dimensions \|date\=1998\-02\-18 }} most notably in (1\+1\) dimensions for its application in [superstring theory](/wiki/Superstring_theory "Superstring theory").{{cite book \|last\=Polchinski \|first\=Joseph \|date\=2005 \|title\=String Theory \|volume\=2 \|publisher\=Cambridge University Press \|isbn\=978\-0\-521\-67228\-3 \|author\-link\=Joseph Polchinski }}
The Lagrangian of a supersymmetric theory must be invariant under the action of the super\-Poincaré group.{{r\|zee\|page1\=448}} Examples of such theories include: [Minimal Supersymmetric Standard Model](/wiki/Minimal_Supersymmetric_Standard_Model "Minimal Supersymmetric Standard Model") (MSSM), [{{math\|''N'' {{\=}} 4}} supersymmetric Yang–Mills theory](/wiki/N_%7B%7B%3D%7D%7D_4_supersymmetric_Yang%E2%80%93Mills_theory "N {{=}} 4 supersymmetric Yang–Mills theory"),{{r\|zee\|page1\=450}} and superstring theory. In a supersymmetric theory, every fermion has a bosonic [superpartner](/wiki/Superpartner "Superpartner") and vice versa.{{r\|zee\|page1\=444}}
If supersymmetry is promoted to a local symmetry, then the resultant gauge theory is an extension of general relativity called [supergravity](/wiki/Supergravity "Supergravity").{{cite journal \| last1 \= Nath \| first1 \= P. \| last2 \= Arnowitt \| first2 \= R. \| year \= 1975 \| title \= Generalized Super\-Gauge Symmetry as a New Framework for Unified Gauge Theories \| journal \= Physics Letters B \| volume \= 56 \| issue \= 2\| page \= 177 \| doi\=10\.1016/0370\-2693(75\)90297\-x\| bibcode \= 1975PhLB...56\..177N }}
Supersymmetry is a potential solution to many current problems in physics. For example, the [hierarchy problem](/wiki/Hierarchy_problem "Hierarchy problem") of the Standard Model—why the mass of the Higgs boson is not radiatively corrected (under renormalization) to a very high scale such as the [grand unified scale](/wiki/Grand_Unified_Theory "Grand Unified Theory") or the [Planck scale](/wiki/Planck_mass "Planck mass")—can be resolved by relating the [Higgs field](/wiki/Higgs_field "Higgs field") and its super\-partner, the [Higgsino](/wiki/Higgsino "Higgsino"). Radiative corrections due to Higgs boson loops in Feynman diagrams are cancelled by corresponding Higgsino loops. Supersymmetry also offers answers to the grand unification of all gauge coupling constants in the Standard Model as well as the nature of [dark matter](/wiki/Dark_matter "Dark matter").{{r\|peskin\|page1\=796–797}}{{Cite journal \|last\=Munoz \|first\=Carlos \|arxiv\=1701\.05259 \|title\=Models of Supersymmetry for Dark Matter \|journal\=EPJ Web of Conferences \|volume\=136 \|pages\=01002 \|date\=2017\-01\-18 \|bibcode\=2017EPJWC.13601002M \|doi\=10\.1051/epjconf/201713601002 \|s2cid\=55199323 }}
Nevertheless, experiments have yet to provide evidence for the existence of supersymmetric particles. If supersymmetry were a true symmetry of nature, then it must be a broken symmetry, and the energy of symmetry breaking must be higher than those achievable by present\-day experiments.{{r\|peskin\|zee\|page1\=797\|page2\=443}}
#### Other spacetimes
The {{math\|''ϕ''4}} theory, QED, QCD, as well as the whole Standard Model all assume a (3\+1\)\-dimensional [Minkowski space](/wiki/Minkowski_space "Minkowski space") (3 spatial and 1 time dimensions) as the background on which the quantum fields are defined. However, QFT *a priori* imposes no restriction on the number of dimensions nor the geometry of spacetime.
In [condensed matter physics](/wiki/Condensed_matter_physics "Condensed matter physics"), QFT is used to describe [(2\+1\)\-dimensional electron gases](/wiki/Two-dimensional_electron_gas "Two-dimensional electron gas").{{cite book \|last1\=Morandi \|first1\=G. \|last2\=Sodano \|first2\=P. \|last3\=Tagliacozzo \|first3\=A. \|last4\=Tognetti \|first4\=V. \|date\=2000 \|title\=Field Theories for Low\-Dimensional Condensed Matter Systems \|url\=https://www.springer.com/us/book/9783540671770 \|publisher\=Springer \|isbn\=978\-3\-662\-04273\-1 }} In [high\-energy physics](/wiki/High-energy_physics "High-energy physics"), [string theory](/wiki/String_theory "String theory") is a type of (1\+1\)\-dimensional QFT,{{r\|zee\|page1\=452}} while [Kaluza–Klein theory](/wiki/Kaluza%E2%80%93Klein_theory "Kaluza–Klein theory") uses gravity in [extra dimensions](/wiki/Extra_dimensions "Extra dimensions") to produce gauge theories in lower dimensions.{{r\|zee\|page1\=428–429}}
In Minkowski space, the flat [metric](/wiki/Metric_tensor_%28general_relativity%29 "Metric tensor (general relativity)") {{math\|''ημν''}} is used to [raise and lower](/wiki/Raising_and_lowering_indices "Raising and lowering indices") spacetime indices in the Lagrangian, *e.g.*
A\_\\mu A^\\mu \= \\eta\_{\\mu\\nu} A^\\mu A^\\nu,\\quad \\partial\_\\mu\\phi \\partial^\\mu\\phi \= \\eta^{\\mu\\nu}\\partial\_\\mu\\phi \\partial\_\\nu\\phi,
where {{math\|''ημν''}} is the inverse of {{math\|''ημν''}} satisfying {{math\|''ημρηρν'' {{\=}} ''δμν''}}.
For [QFTs in curved spacetime](/wiki/Quantum_field_theory_in_curved_spacetime "Quantum field theory in curved spacetime") on the other hand, a general metric (such as the [Schwarzschild metric](/wiki/Schwarzschild_metric "Schwarzschild metric") describing a [black hole](/wiki/Black_hole "Black hole")) is used:
A\_\\mu A^\\mu \= g\_{\\mu\\nu} A^\\mu A^\\nu,\\quad \\partial\_\\mu\\phi \\partial^\\mu\\phi \= g^{\\mu\\nu}\\partial\_\\mu\\phi \\partial\_\\nu\\phi,
where {{math\|''gμν''}} is the inverse of {{math\|''gμν''}}.
For a real scalar field, the Lagrangian density in a general spacetime background is
\\mathcal{L} \= \\sqrt{\|g\|}\\left(\\frac 12 g^{\\mu\\nu} \\nabla\_\\mu\\phi \\nabla\_\\nu\\phi \- \\frac 12 m^2\\phi^2\\right),
where {{math\|''g'' {{\=}} det(''gμν'')}}, and {{math\|∇''μ''}} denotes the [covariant derivative](/wiki/Covariant_derivative "Covariant derivative").{{cite book \|last1\=Parker \|first1\=Leonard E. \|last2\=Toms \|first2\=David J. \|date\=2009 \|title\=Quantum Field Theory in Curved Spacetime \|url\=https://archive.org/details/quantumfieldtheo00park \|url\-access\=limited \|publisher\=Cambridge University Press \|page\=\[https://archive.org/details/quantumfieldtheo00park/page/n58 43] \|isbn\=978\-0\-521\-87787\-9 }} The Lagrangian of a QFT, hence its calculational results and physical predictions, depends on the geometry of the spacetime background.
#### Topological quantum field theory
{{Main\|Topological quantum field theory}}
The correlation functions and physical predictions of a QFT depend on the spacetime metric {{math\|''gμν''}}. For a special class of QFTs called [topological quantum field theories](/wiki/Topological_quantum_field_theories "Topological quantum field theories") (TQFTs), all correlation functions are independent of continuous changes in the spacetime metric.{{cite arXiv \|last1\=Ivancevic \|first1\=Vladimir G. \|last2\=Ivancevic \|first2\=Tijana T. \|eprint\=0810\.0344v5 \|title\=Undergraduate Lecture Notes in Topological Quantum Field Theory \|class\=math\-th \|date\=2008\-12\-11 }}{{rp\|36}} QFTs in curved spacetime generally change according to the *geometry* (local structure) of the spacetime background, while TQFTs are invariant under spacetime [diffeomorphisms](/wiki/Diffeomorphism "Diffeomorphism") but are sensitive to the *[topology](/wiki/Topology "Topology")* (global structure) of spacetime. This means that all calculational results of TQFTs are [topological invariants](/wiki/Topological_invariant "Topological invariant") of the underlying spacetime. [Chern–Simons theory](/wiki/Chern%E2%80%93Simons_theory "Chern–Simons theory") is an example of TQFT and has been used to construct models of quantum gravity.{{cite book \|last\=Carlip \|first\=Steven \|author\-link\=Steve Carlip \|date\=1998 \|title\=Quantum Gravity in 2\+1 Dimensions \|url\=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/quantum\-gravity\-in\-21\-dimensions/D2F727B6822014270F423D82501E674A \|publisher\=Cambridge University Press \|pages\=27–29 \|isbn\=9780511564192 \|doi\=10\.1017/CBO9780511564192 \|arxiv\=2312\.12596 }} Applications of TQFT include the [fractional quantum Hall effect](/wiki/Fractional_quantum_Hall_effect "Fractional quantum Hall effect") and [topological quantum computers](/wiki/Topological_quantum_computer "Topological quantum computer").{{cite journal \|last1\=Carqueville \|first1\=Nils \|last2\=Runkel \|first2\=Ingo \|arxiv\=1705\.05734 \|title\=Introductory lectures on topological quantum field theory \|journal\=Banach Center Publications \|year\=2018 \|volume\=114 \|pages\=9–47 \|doi\=10\.4064/bc114\-1 \|s2cid\=119166976 }}{{rp\|1–5}} The world line trajectory of fractionalized particles (known as [anyons](/wiki/Anyons "Anyons")) can form a link configuration in the spacetime,{{Cite journal \|author\-link\=Edward Witten \|first\=Edward \|last\=Witten \|title\=Quantum Field Theory and the Jones Polynomial \|journal\=\[\[Communications in Mathematical Physics]] \|volume\=121 \|issue\=3 \|pages\=351–399 \|year\=1989 \|mr\=0990772 \|bibcode \= 1989CMaPh.121\..351W \|doi \= 10\.1007/BF01217730 \|s2cid\=14951363 \|url\=http://projecteuclid.org/euclid.cmp/1104178138 }} which relates the braiding statistics of anyons in physics to the
link invariants in mathematics. Topological quantum field theories (TQFTs) applicable to the frontier research of topological quantum matters include Chern\-Simons\-Witten gauge theories in 2\+1 spacetime dimensions, other new exotic TQFTs in 3\+1 spacetime dimensions and beyond.{{Cite journal \|first1\=Pavel\|last1\=Putrov \|first2\=Juven \|last2\=Wang \| first3\=Shing\-Tung \| last3\=Yau \|title\=Braiding Statistics and Link Invariants of Bosonic/Fermionic Topological Quantum Matter in 2\+1 and 3\+1 dimensions \|journal\=\[\[Annals of Physics]] \|volume\=384 \|issue\=C \|pages\=254–287 \|year\=2017\|doi \=10\.1016/j.aop.2017\.06\.019\|arxiv\=1612\.09298 \|bibcode\=2017AnPhy.384\..254P \|s2cid\=119578849 }}
|
[
"### Other theories",
"The quantization and renormalization procedures outlined in the preceding sections are performed for the free theory and [{{math\\|''ϕ''4}} theory](/wiki/Quartic_interaction \"Quartic interaction\") of the real scalar field. A similar process can be done for other types of fields, including the [complex](/wiki/Complex_numbers \"Complex numbers\") scalar field, the [vector field](/wiki/Vector_field \"Vector field\"), and the [Dirac field](/wiki/Dirac_field \"Dirac field\"), as well as other types of interaction terms, including the electromagnetic interaction and the [Yukawa interaction](/wiki/Yukawa_interaction \"Yukawa interaction\").",
"As an example, [quantum electrodynamics](/wiki/Quantum_electrodynamics \"Quantum electrodynamics\") contains a Dirac field {{math\\|''ψ''}} representing the [electron](/wiki/Electron \"Electron\") field and a vector field {{math\\|''Aμ''}} representing the electromagnetic field ([photon](/wiki/Photon \"Photon\") field). (Despite its name, the quantum electromagnetic \"field\" actually corresponds to the classical [electromagnetic four\\-potential](/wiki/Electromagnetic_four-potential \"Electromagnetic four-potential\"), rather than the classical electric and magnetic fields.) The full QED Lagrangian density is:\n\\\\mathcal{L} \\= \\\\bar\\\\psi\\\\left(i\\\\gamma^\\\\mu\\\\partial\\_\\\\mu \\- m\\\\right)\\\\psi \\- \\\\frac 14 F\\_{\\\\mu\\\\nu}F^{\\\\mu\\\\nu} \\- e\\\\bar\\\\psi\\\\gamma^\\\\mu\\\\psi A\\_\\\\mu,\nwhere {{math\\|''γμ''}} are [Dirac matrices](/wiki/Dirac_matrices \"Dirac matrices\"), \\\\bar\\\\psi \\= \\\\psi^\\\\dagger\\\\gamma^0, and F\\_{\\\\mu\\\\nu} \\= \\\\partial\\_\\\\mu A\\_\\\\nu \\- \\\\partial\\_\\\\nu A\\_\\\\mu is the [electromagnetic field strength](/wiki/Electromagnetic_field_strength \"Electromagnetic field strength\"). The parameters in this theory are the (bare) electron mass {{math\\|''m''}} and the (bare) [elementary charge](/wiki/Elementary_charge \"Elementary charge\") {{math\\|''e''}}. The first and second terms in the Lagrangian density correspond to the free Dirac field and free vector fields, respectively. The last term describes the interaction between the electron and photon fields, which is treated as a perturbation from the free theories.{{r\\|peskin\\|page1\\=78}}\n[thumb](/wiki/File:Electron-positron-annihilation.svg \"Electron-positron-annihilation.svg\")",
"",
"Shown above is an example of a tree\\-level Feynman diagram in QED. It describes an electron and a positron annihilating, creating an [off\\-shell](/wiki/Off-shell \"Off-shell\") photon, and then decaying into a new pair of electron and positron. Time runs from left to right. Arrows pointing forward in time represent the propagation of electrons, while those pointing backward in time represent the propagation of positrons. A wavy line represents the propagation of a photon. Each vertex in QED Feynman diagrams must have an incoming and an outgoing fermion (positron/electron) leg as well as a photon leg.",
"#### Gauge symmetry",
"{{Main\\|Gauge theory}}",
"If the following transformation to the fields is performed at every spacetime point {{math\\|''x''}} (a local transformation), then the QED Lagrangian remains unchanged, or invariant:\n\\\\psi(x) \\\\to e^{i\\\\alpha(x)}\\\\psi(x),\\\\quad A\\_\\\\mu(x) \\\\to A\\_\\\\mu(x) \\+ ie^{\\-1} e^{\\-i\\\\alpha(x)}\\\\partial\\_\\\\mu e^{i\\\\alpha(x)},\nwhere {{math\\|''α''(''x'')}} is any function of spacetime coordinates. If a theory's Lagrangian (or more precisely the [action](/wiki/Action_%28physics%29 \"Action (physics)\")) is invariant under a certain local transformation, then the transformation is referred to as a [gauge symmetry](/wiki/Gauge_symmetry \"Gauge symmetry\") of the theory.{{r\\|peskin\\|page1\\=482–483}} Gauge symmetries form a [group](/wiki/Group_%28mathematics%29 \"Group (mathematics)\") at every spacetime point. In the case of QED, the successive application of two different local symmetry transformations e^{i\\\\alpha(x)} and e^{i\\\\alpha'(x)} is yet another symmetry transformation e^{i\\[\\\\alpha(x)\\+\\\\alpha'(x)]}. For any {{math\\|''α''(''x'')}}, e^{i\\\\alpha(x)} is an element of the {{math\\|\\[\\[U(1\\)]]}} group, thus QED is said to have {{math\\|U(1\\)}} gauge symmetry.{{r\\|peskin\\|page1\\=496}} The photon field {{math\\|''Aμ''}} may be referred to as the {{math\\|U(1\\)}} [gauge boson](/wiki/Gauge_boson \"Gauge boson\").",
"{{math\\|U(1\\)}} is an [Abelian group](/wiki/Abelian_group \"Abelian group\"), meaning that the result is the same regardless of the order in which its elements are applied. QFTs can also be built on [non\\-Abelian groups](/wiki/Non-Abelian_group \"Non-Abelian group\"), giving rise to [non\\-Abelian gauge theories](/wiki/Yang%E2%80%93Mills_theory \"Yang–Mills theory\") (also known as Yang–Mills theories).{{r\\|peskin\\|page1\\=489}} [Quantum chromodynamics](/wiki/Quantum_chromodynamics \"Quantum chromodynamics\"), which describes the strong interaction, is a non\\-Abelian gauge theory with an {{math\\|\\[\\[special unitary group\\|SU(3\\)]]}} gauge symmetry. It contains three Dirac fields {{math\\|''ψi'', ''i'' {{\\=}} 1,2,3}} representing [quark](/wiki/Quark \"Quark\") fields as well as eight vector fields {{math\\|''Aa,μ'', ''a'' {{\\=}} 1,...,8}} representing [gluon](/wiki/Gluon \"Gluon\") fields, which are the {{math\\|SU(3\\)}} gauge bosons.{{r\\|peskin\\|page1\\=547}} The QCD Lagrangian density is:{{r\\|peskin\\|page1\\=490–491}}\n\\\\mathcal{L} \\= i\\\\bar\\\\psi^i \\\\gamma^\\\\mu (D\\_\\\\mu)^{ij} \\\\psi^j \\- \\\\frac 14 F\\_{\\\\mu\\\\nu}^aF^{a,\\\\mu\\\\nu} \\- m\\\\bar\\\\psi^i \\\\psi^i,\nwhere {{math\\|''Dμ''}} is the gauge [covariant derivative](/wiki/Covariant_derivative \"Covariant derivative\"):\nD\\_\\\\mu \\= \\\\partial\\_\\\\mu \\- igA\\_\\\\mu^a t^a,\nwhere {{math\\|''g''}} is the coupling constant, {{math\\|''ta''}} are the eight [generators](/wiki/Lie_algebra \"Lie algebra\") of {{math\\|SU(3\\)}} in the [fundamental representation](/wiki/Fundamental_representation \"Fundamental representation\") ({{math\\|3×3}} matrices),\nF\\_{\\\\mu\\\\nu}^a \\= \\\\partial\\_\\\\mu A\\_\\\\nu^a \\- \\\\partial\\_\\\\nu A\\_\\\\mu^a \\+ gf^{abc}A\\_\\\\mu^b A\\_\\\\nu^c,\nand {{math\\|''fabc''}} are the [structure constants](/wiki/Structure_constants \"Structure constants\") of {{math\\|SU(3\\)}}. Repeated indices {{math\\|''i'',''j'',''a''}} are implicitly summed over following Einstein notation. This Lagrangian is invariant under the transformation:\n\\\\psi^i(x) \\\\to U^{ij}(x)\\\\psi^j(x),\\\\quad A\\_\\\\mu^a(x) t^a \\\\to U(x)\\\\left\\[A\\_\\\\mu^a(x) t^a \\+ ig^{\\-1} \\\\partial\\_\\\\mu\\\\right]U^\\\\dagger(x),\nwhere {{math\\|''U''(''x'')}} is an element of {{math\\|SU(3\\)}} at every spacetime point {{math\\|''x''}}:\nU(x) \\= e^{i\\\\alpha(x)^a t^a}.",
"The preceding discussion of symmetries is on the level of the Lagrangian. In other words, these are \"classical\" symmetries. After quantization, some theories will no longer exhibit their classical symmetries, a phenomenon called [anomaly](/wiki/Anomaly_%28physics%29 \"Anomaly (physics)\"). For instance, in the path integral formulation, despite the invariance of the Lagrangian density \\\\mathcal{L}\\[\\\\phi,\\\\partial\\_\\\\mu\\\\phi] under a certain local transformation of the fields, the [measure](/wiki/Measure_%28mathematics%29 \"Measure (mathematics)\") \\\\int\\\\mathcal D\\\\phi of the path integral may change.{{r\\|zee\\|page1\\=243}} For a theory describing nature to be consistent, it must not contain any anomaly in its gauge symmetry. The Standard Model of elementary particles is a gauge theory based on the group {{math\\|SU(3\\) × SU(2\\) × U(1\\)}}, in which all anomalies exactly cancel.{{r\\|peskin\\|page1\\=705–707}}",
"The theoretical foundation of [general relativity](/wiki/General_relativity \"General relativity\"), the [equivalence principle](/wiki/Equivalence_principle \"Equivalence principle\"), can also be understood as a form of gauge symmetry, making general relativity a gauge theory based on the [Lorentz group](/wiki/Lorentz_group \"Lorentz group\").Veltman, M. J. G. (1976\\). *Methods in Field Theory, Proceedings of the Les Houches Summer School, Les Houches, France, 1975*.",
"[Noether's theorem](/wiki/Noether%27s_theorem \"Noether's theorem\") states that every continuous symmetry, *i.e.* the parameter in the symmetry transformation being continuous rather than discrete, leads to a corresponding [conservation law](/wiki/Conservation_law \"Conservation law\").{{r\\|peskin\\|zee\\|page1\\=17–18\\|page2\\=73}} For example, the {{math\\|U(1\\)}} symmetry of QED implies [charge conservation](/wiki/Charge_conservation \"Charge conservation\").{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Brading \\|first1\\=Katherine A.\\|author1\\-link\\=Katherine Brading \\|date\\=March 2002 \\|title\\=Which symmetry? Noether, Weyl, and conservation of electric charge \\|journal\\=Studies in History and Philosophy of Science Part B: Studies in History and Philosophy of Modern Physics \\|volume\\=33 \\|issue\\=1 \\|pages\\=3–22 \\|doi\\=10\\.1016/S1355\\-2198(01\\)00033\\-8 \\|bibcode\\=2002SHPMP..33\\....3B \\|citeseerx\\=10\\.1\\.1\\.569\\.106 }}",
"Gauge\\-transformations do not relate distinct quantum states. Rather, it relates two equivalent mathematical descriptions of the same quantum state. As an example, the photon field {{math\\|''Aμ''}}, being a [four\\-vector](/wiki/Four-vector \"Four-vector\"), has four apparent degrees of freedom, but the actual state of a photon is described by its two degrees of freedom corresponding to the [polarization](/wiki/Photon_polarization \"Photon polarization\"). The remaining two degrees of freedom are said to be \"redundant\" — apparently different ways of writing {{math\\|''Aμ''}} can be related to each other by a gauge transformation and in fact describe the same state of the photon field. In this sense, gauge invariance is not a \"real\" symmetry, but a reflection of the \"redundancy\" of the chosen mathematical description.{{r\\|zee\\|page1\\=168}}",
"To account for the gauge redundancy in the path integral formulation, one must perform the so\\-called [Faddeev–Popov](/wiki/Faddeev%E2%80%93Popov_ghost \"Faddeev–Popov ghost\") [gauge fixing](/wiki/Gauge_fixing \"Gauge fixing\") procedure. In non\\-Abelian gauge theories, such a procedure introduces new fields called \"ghosts\". Particles corresponding to the ghost fields are called ghost particles, which cannot be detected externally.{{r\\|peskin\\|page1\\=512–515}} A more rigorous generalization of the Faddeev–Popov procedure is given by [BRST quantization](/wiki/BRST_quantization \"BRST quantization\").{{r\\|peskin\\|page1\\=517}}",
"#### Spontaneous symmetry\\-breaking",
"{{Main\\|Spontaneous symmetry breaking}}",
"[Spontaneous symmetry breaking](/wiki/Spontaneous_symmetry_breaking \"Spontaneous symmetry breaking\") is a mechanism whereby the symmetry of the Lagrangian is violated by the system described by it.{{r\\|peskin\\|page1\\=347}}",
"To illustrate the mechanism, consider a linear [sigma model](/wiki/Sigma_model \"Sigma model\") containing {{math\\|''N''}} real scalar fields, described by the Lagrangian density:\n\\\\mathcal{L} \\= \\\\frac 12 \\\\left(\\\\partial\\_\\\\mu\\\\phi^i\\\\right)\\\\left(\\\\partial^\\\\mu\\\\phi^i\\\\right) \\+ \\\\frac 12 \\\\mu^2 \\\\phi^i\\\\phi^i \\- \\\\frac{\\\\lambda}{4} \\\\left(\\\\phi^i\\\\phi^i\\\\right)^2,\nwhere {{math\\|''μ''}} and {{math\\|''λ''}} are real parameters. The theory admits an {{math\\|\\[\\[orthogonal group\\|O(''N'')]]}} global symmetry:\n\\\\phi^i \\\\to R^{ij}\\\\phi^j,\\\\quad R\\\\in\\\\mathrm{O}(N).\nThe lowest energy state (ground state or vacuum state) of the classical theory is any uniform field {{math\\|''ϕ''0}} satisfying\n\\\\phi\\_0^i \\\\phi\\_0^i \\= \\\\frac{\\\\mu^2}{\\\\lambda}.\nWithout loss of generality, let the ground state be in the {{math\\|''N''}}\\-th direction:\n\\\\phi\\_0^i \\= \\\\left(0,\\\\cdots,0,\\\\frac{\\\\mu}{\\\\sqrt{\\\\lambda}}\\\\right).\nThe original {{math\\|''N''}} fields can be rewritten as:\n\\\\phi^i(x) \\= \\\\left(\\\\pi^1(x),\\\\cdots,\\\\pi^{N\\-1}(x),\\\\frac{\\\\mu}{\\\\sqrt{\\\\lambda}} \\+ \\\\sigma(x)\\\\right),\nand the original Lagrangian density as:\n\\\\mathcal{L} \\= \\\\frac 12 \\\\left(\\\\partial\\_\\\\mu\\\\pi^k\\\\right)\\\\left(\\\\partial^\\\\mu\\\\pi^k\\\\right) \\+ \\\\frac 12 \\\\left(\\\\partial\\_\\\\mu\\\\sigma\\\\right)\\\\left(\\\\partial^\\\\mu\\\\sigma\\\\right) \\- \\\\frac 12 \\\\left(2\\\\mu^2\\\\right)\\\\sigma^2 \\- \\\\sqrt{\\\\lambda}\\\\mu\\\\sigma^3 \\- \\\\sqrt{\\\\lambda}\\\\mu\\\\pi^k\\\\pi^k\\\\sigma \\- \\\\frac{\\\\lambda}{2} \\\\pi^k\\\\pi^k\\\\sigma^2 \\- \\\\frac{\\\\lambda}{4}\\\\left(\\\\pi^k\\\\pi^k\\\\right)^2,\nwhere {{math\\|''k'' {{\\=}} 1, ..., ''N'' − 1}}. The original {{math\\|O(''N'')}} global symmetry is no longer manifest, leaving only the [subgroup](/wiki/Subgroup \"Subgroup\") {{math\\|O(''N'' − 1\\)}}. The larger symmetry before spontaneous symmetry breaking is said to be \"hidden\" or spontaneously broken.{{r\\|peskin\\|page1\\=349–350}}",
"[Goldstone's theorem](/wiki/Goldstone%27s_theorem \"Goldstone's theorem\") states that under spontaneous symmetry breaking, every broken continuous global symmetry leads to a massless field called the Goldstone boson. In the above example, {{math\\|O(''N'')}} has {{math\\|''N''(''N'' − 1\\)/2}} continuous symmetries (the dimension of its [Lie algebra](/wiki/Lie_algebra \"Lie algebra\")), while {{math\\|O(''N'' − 1\\)}} has {{math\\|(''N'' − 1\\)(''N'' − 2\\)/2}}. The number of broken symmetries is their difference, {{math\\|''N'' − 1}}, which corresponds to the {{math\\|''N'' − 1}} massless fields {{math\\|''πk''}}.{{r\\|peskin\\|page1\\=351}}",
"On the other hand, when a gauge (as opposed to global) symmetry is spontaneously broken, the resulting Goldstone boson is \"eaten\" by the corresponding gauge boson by becoming an additional degree of freedom for the gauge boson. The Goldstone boson equivalence theorem states that at high energy, the amplitude for emission or absorption of a longitudinally polarized massive gauge boson becomes equal to the amplitude for emission or absorption of the Goldstone boson that was eaten by the gauge boson.{{r\\|peskin\\|page1\\=743–744}}",
"In the QFT of [ferromagnetism](/wiki/Ferromagnetism \"Ferromagnetism\"), spontaneous symmetry breaking can explain the alignment of [magnetic dipoles](/wiki/Magnetic_dipole \"Magnetic dipole\") at low temperatures.{{r\\|zee\\|page1\\=199}} In the Standard Model of elementary particles, the [W and Z bosons](/wiki/W_and_Z_bosons \"W and Z bosons\"), which would otherwise be massless as a result of gauge symmetry, acquire mass through spontaneous symmetry breaking of the [Higgs boson](/wiki/Higgs_boson \"Higgs boson\"), a process called the [Higgs mechanism](/wiki/Higgs_mechanism \"Higgs mechanism\").{{r\\|peskin\\|page1\\=690}}",
"#### Supersymmetry",
"{{Main\\|Supersymmetry}}",
"All experimentally known symmetries in nature relate [bosons](/wiki/Boson \"Boson\") to bosons and [fermions](/wiki/Fermion \"Fermion\") to fermions. Theorists have hypothesized the existence of a type of symmetry, called [supersymmetry](/wiki/Supersymmetry \"Supersymmetry\"), that relates bosons and fermions.{{r\\|peskin\\|zee\\|page1\\=795\\|page2\\=443}}",
"The Standard Model obeys [Poincaré symmetry](/wiki/Poincar%C3%A9_group \"Poincaré group\"), whose generators are the spacetime [translations](/wiki/Translation_%28geometry%29 \"Translation (geometry)\") {{math\\|''Pμ''}} and the [Lorentz transformations](/wiki/Lorentz_transformations \"Lorentz transformations\") {{math\\|''Jμν''}}.{{cite book \\|last\\=Weinberg \\|first\\=Steven \\|date\\=1995 \\|title\\=The Quantum Theory of Fields \\|publisher\\=Cambridge University Press \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-521\\-55001\\-7 \\|author\\-link\\=Steven Weinberg \\|url\\-access\\=registration \\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/quantumtheoryoff00stev }}{{rp\\|58–60}} In addition to these generators, supersymmetry in (3\\+1\\)\\-dimensions includes additional generators {{math\\|''Qα''}}, called [supercharges](/wiki/Supercharge \"Supercharge\"), which themselves transform as [Weyl fermions](/wiki/Weyl_fermion \"Weyl fermion\").{{r\\|peskin\\|zee\\|page1\\=795\\|page2\\=444}} The symmetry group generated by all these generators is known as the [super\\-Poincaré group](/wiki/Super-Poincar%C3%A9_group \"Super-Poincaré group\"). In general there can be more than one set of supersymmetry generators, {{math\\|''QαI'', ''I'' {{\\=}} 1, ..., ''N''}}, which generate the corresponding {{math\\|''N'' {{\\=}} 1}} supersymmetry, {{math\\|''N'' {{\\=}} 2}} supersymmetry, and so on.{{r\\|peskin\\|zee\\|page1\\=795\\|page2\\=450}} Supersymmetry can also be constructed in other dimensions,{{cite arXiv \\|last1\\=de Wit \\|first1\\=Bernard \\|last2\\=Louis \\|first2\\=Jan \\|eprint\\=hep\\-th/9801132 \\|title\\=Supersymmetry and Dualities in various dimensions \\|date\\=1998\\-02\\-18 }} most notably in (1\\+1\\) dimensions for its application in [superstring theory](/wiki/Superstring_theory \"Superstring theory\").{{cite book \\|last\\=Polchinski \\|first\\=Joseph \\|date\\=2005 \\|title\\=String Theory \\|volume\\=2 \\|publisher\\=Cambridge University Press \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-521\\-67228\\-3 \\|author\\-link\\=Joseph Polchinski }}",
"The Lagrangian of a supersymmetric theory must be invariant under the action of the super\\-Poincaré group.{{r\\|zee\\|page1\\=448}} Examples of such theories include: [Minimal Supersymmetric Standard Model](/wiki/Minimal_Supersymmetric_Standard_Model \"Minimal Supersymmetric Standard Model\") (MSSM), [{{math\\|''N'' {{\\=}} 4}} supersymmetric Yang–Mills theory](/wiki/N_%7B%7B%3D%7D%7D_4_supersymmetric_Yang%E2%80%93Mills_theory \"N {{=}} 4 supersymmetric Yang–Mills theory\"),{{r\\|zee\\|page1\\=450}} and superstring theory. In a supersymmetric theory, every fermion has a bosonic [superpartner](/wiki/Superpartner \"Superpartner\") and vice versa.{{r\\|zee\\|page1\\=444}}",
"If supersymmetry is promoted to a local symmetry, then the resultant gauge theory is an extension of general relativity called [supergravity](/wiki/Supergravity \"Supergravity\").{{cite journal \\| last1 \\= Nath \\| first1 \\= P. \\| last2 \\= Arnowitt \\| first2 \\= R. \\| year \\= 1975 \\| title \\= Generalized Super\\-Gauge Symmetry as a New Framework for Unified Gauge Theories \\| journal \\= Physics Letters B \\| volume \\= 56 \\| issue \\= 2\\| page \\= 177 \\| doi\\=10\\.1016/0370\\-2693(75\\)90297\\-x\\| bibcode \\= 1975PhLB...56\\..177N }}",
"Supersymmetry is a potential solution to many current problems in physics. For example, the [hierarchy problem](/wiki/Hierarchy_problem \"Hierarchy problem\") of the Standard Model—why the mass of the Higgs boson is not radiatively corrected (under renormalization) to a very high scale such as the [grand unified scale](/wiki/Grand_Unified_Theory \"Grand Unified Theory\") or the [Planck scale](/wiki/Planck_mass \"Planck mass\")—can be resolved by relating the [Higgs field](/wiki/Higgs_field \"Higgs field\") and its super\\-partner, the [Higgsino](/wiki/Higgsino \"Higgsino\"). Radiative corrections due to Higgs boson loops in Feynman diagrams are cancelled by corresponding Higgsino loops. Supersymmetry also offers answers to the grand unification of all gauge coupling constants in the Standard Model as well as the nature of [dark matter](/wiki/Dark_matter \"Dark matter\").{{r\\|peskin\\|page1\\=796–797}}{{Cite journal \\|last\\=Munoz \\|first\\=Carlos \\|arxiv\\=1701\\.05259 \\|title\\=Models of Supersymmetry for Dark Matter \\|journal\\=EPJ Web of Conferences \\|volume\\=136 \\|pages\\=01002 \\|date\\=2017\\-01\\-18 \\|bibcode\\=2017EPJWC.13601002M \\|doi\\=10\\.1051/epjconf/201713601002 \\|s2cid\\=55199323 }}",
"Nevertheless, experiments have yet to provide evidence for the existence of supersymmetric particles. If supersymmetry were a true symmetry of nature, then it must be a broken symmetry, and the energy of symmetry breaking must be higher than those achievable by present\\-day experiments.{{r\\|peskin\\|zee\\|page1\\=797\\|page2\\=443}}",
"#### Other spacetimes",
"The {{math\\|''ϕ''4}} theory, QED, QCD, as well as the whole Standard Model all assume a (3\\+1\\)\\-dimensional [Minkowski space](/wiki/Minkowski_space \"Minkowski space\") (3 spatial and 1 time dimensions) as the background on which the quantum fields are defined. However, QFT *a priori* imposes no restriction on the number of dimensions nor the geometry of spacetime.",
"In [condensed matter physics](/wiki/Condensed_matter_physics \"Condensed matter physics\"), QFT is used to describe [(2\\+1\\)\\-dimensional electron gases](/wiki/Two-dimensional_electron_gas \"Two-dimensional electron gas\").{{cite book \\|last1\\=Morandi \\|first1\\=G. \\|last2\\=Sodano \\|first2\\=P. \\|last3\\=Tagliacozzo \\|first3\\=A. \\|last4\\=Tognetti \\|first4\\=V. \\|date\\=2000 \\|title\\=Field Theories for Low\\-Dimensional Condensed Matter Systems \\|url\\=https://www.springer.com/us/book/9783540671770 \\|publisher\\=Springer \\|isbn\\=978\\-3\\-662\\-04273\\-1 }} In [high\\-energy physics](/wiki/High-energy_physics \"High-energy physics\"), [string theory](/wiki/String_theory \"String theory\") is a type of (1\\+1\\)\\-dimensional QFT,{{r\\|zee\\|page1\\=452}} while [Kaluza–Klein theory](/wiki/Kaluza%E2%80%93Klein_theory \"Kaluza–Klein theory\") uses gravity in [extra dimensions](/wiki/Extra_dimensions \"Extra dimensions\") to produce gauge theories in lower dimensions.{{r\\|zee\\|page1\\=428–429}}",
"In Minkowski space, the flat [metric](/wiki/Metric_tensor_%28general_relativity%29 \"Metric tensor (general relativity)\") {{math\\|''ημν''}} is used to [raise and lower](/wiki/Raising_and_lowering_indices \"Raising and lowering indices\") spacetime indices in the Lagrangian, *e.g.*\nA\\_\\\\mu A^\\\\mu \\= \\\\eta\\_{\\\\mu\\\\nu} A^\\\\mu A^\\\\nu,\\\\quad \\\\partial\\_\\\\mu\\\\phi \\\\partial^\\\\mu\\\\phi \\= \\\\eta^{\\\\mu\\\\nu}\\\\partial\\_\\\\mu\\\\phi \\\\partial\\_\\\\nu\\\\phi,\nwhere {{math\\|''ημν''}} is the inverse of {{math\\|''ημν''}} satisfying {{math\\|''ημρηρν'' {{\\=}} ''δμν''}}. \nFor [QFTs in curved spacetime](/wiki/Quantum_field_theory_in_curved_spacetime \"Quantum field theory in curved spacetime\") on the other hand, a general metric (such as the [Schwarzschild metric](/wiki/Schwarzschild_metric \"Schwarzschild metric\") describing a [black hole](/wiki/Black_hole \"Black hole\")) is used:\nA\\_\\\\mu A^\\\\mu \\= g\\_{\\\\mu\\\\nu} A^\\\\mu A^\\\\nu,\\\\quad \\\\partial\\_\\\\mu\\\\phi \\\\partial^\\\\mu\\\\phi \\= g^{\\\\mu\\\\nu}\\\\partial\\_\\\\mu\\\\phi \\\\partial\\_\\\\nu\\\\phi,\nwhere {{math\\|''gμν''}} is the inverse of {{math\\|''gμν''}}. \nFor a real scalar field, the Lagrangian density in a general spacetime background is\n\\\\mathcal{L} \\= \\\\sqrt{\\|g\\|}\\\\left(\\\\frac 12 g^{\\\\mu\\\\nu} \\\\nabla\\_\\\\mu\\\\phi \\\\nabla\\_\\\\nu\\\\phi \\- \\\\frac 12 m^2\\\\phi^2\\\\right),\nwhere {{math\\|''g'' {{\\=}} det(''gμν'')}}, and {{math\\|∇''μ''}} denotes the [covariant derivative](/wiki/Covariant_derivative \"Covariant derivative\").{{cite book \\|last1\\=Parker \\|first1\\=Leonard E. \\|last2\\=Toms \\|first2\\=David J. \\|date\\=2009 \\|title\\=Quantum Field Theory in Curved Spacetime \\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/quantumfieldtheo00park \\|url\\-access\\=limited \\|publisher\\=Cambridge University Press \\|page\\=\\[https://archive.org/details/quantumfieldtheo00park/page/n58 43] \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-521\\-87787\\-9 }} The Lagrangian of a QFT, hence its calculational results and physical predictions, depends on the geometry of the spacetime background.",
"#### Topological quantum field theory",
"{{Main\\|Topological quantum field theory}}",
"The correlation functions and physical predictions of a QFT depend on the spacetime metric {{math\\|''gμν''}}. For a special class of QFTs called [topological quantum field theories](/wiki/Topological_quantum_field_theories \"Topological quantum field theories\") (TQFTs), all correlation functions are independent of continuous changes in the spacetime metric.{{cite arXiv \\|last1\\=Ivancevic \\|first1\\=Vladimir G. \\|last2\\=Ivancevic \\|first2\\=Tijana T. \\|eprint\\=0810\\.0344v5 \\|title\\=Undergraduate Lecture Notes in Topological Quantum Field Theory \\|class\\=math\\-th \\|date\\=2008\\-12\\-11 }}{{rp\\|36}} QFTs in curved spacetime generally change according to the *geometry* (local structure) of the spacetime background, while TQFTs are invariant under spacetime [diffeomorphisms](/wiki/Diffeomorphism \"Diffeomorphism\") but are sensitive to the *[topology](/wiki/Topology \"Topology\")* (global structure) of spacetime. This means that all calculational results of TQFTs are [topological invariants](/wiki/Topological_invariant \"Topological invariant\") of the underlying spacetime. [Chern–Simons theory](/wiki/Chern%E2%80%93Simons_theory \"Chern–Simons theory\") is an example of TQFT and has been used to construct models of quantum gravity.{{cite book \\|last\\=Carlip \\|first\\=Steven \\|author\\-link\\=Steve Carlip \\|date\\=1998 \\|title\\=Quantum Gravity in 2\\+1 Dimensions \\|url\\=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/quantum\\-gravity\\-in\\-21\\-dimensions/D2F727B6822014270F423D82501E674A \\|publisher\\=Cambridge University Press \\|pages\\=27–29 \\|isbn\\=9780511564192 \\|doi\\=10\\.1017/CBO9780511564192 \\|arxiv\\=2312\\.12596 }} Applications of TQFT include the [fractional quantum Hall effect](/wiki/Fractional_quantum_Hall_effect \"Fractional quantum Hall effect\") and [topological quantum computers](/wiki/Topological_quantum_computer \"Topological quantum computer\").{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Carqueville \\|first1\\=Nils \\|last2\\=Runkel \\|first2\\=Ingo \\|arxiv\\=1705\\.05734 \\|title\\=Introductory lectures on topological quantum field theory \\|journal\\=Banach Center Publications \\|year\\=2018 \\|volume\\=114 \\|pages\\=9–47 \\|doi\\=10\\.4064/bc114\\-1 \\|s2cid\\=119166976 }}{{rp\\|1–5}} The world line trajectory of fractionalized particles (known as [anyons](/wiki/Anyons \"Anyons\")) can form a link configuration in the spacetime,{{Cite journal \\|author\\-link\\=Edward Witten \\|first\\=Edward \\|last\\=Witten \\|title\\=Quantum Field Theory and the Jones Polynomial \\|journal\\=\\[\\[Communications in Mathematical Physics]] \\|volume\\=121 \\|issue\\=3 \\|pages\\=351–399 \\|year\\=1989 \\|mr\\=0990772 \\|bibcode \\= 1989CMaPh.121\\..351W \\|doi \\= 10\\.1007/BF01217730 \\|s2cid\\=14951363 \\|url\\=http://projecteuclid.org/euclid.cmp/1104178138 }} which relates the braiding statistics of anyons in physics to the\nlink invariants in mathematics. Topological quantum field theories (TQFTs) applicable to the frontier research of topological quantum matters include Chern\\-Simons\\-Witten gauge theories in 2\\+1 spacetime dimensions, other new exotic TQFTs in 3\\+1 spacetime dimensions and beyond.{{Cite journal \\|first1\\=Pavel\\|last1\\=Putrov \\|first2\\=Juven \\|last2\\=Wang \\| first3\\=Shing\\-Tung \\| last3\\=Yau \\|title\\=Braiding Statistics and Link Invariants of Bosonic/Fermionic Topological Quantum Matter in 2\\+1 and 3\\+1 dimensions \\|journal\\=\\[\\[Annals of Physics]] \\|volume\\=384 \\|issue\\=C \\|pages\\=254–287 \\|year\\=2017\\|doi \\=10\\.1016/j.aop.2017\\.06\\.019\\|arxiv\\=1612\\.09298 \\|bibcode\\=2017AnPhy.384\\..254P \\|s2cid\\=119578849 }}",
""
] |
Recognition of the art form
---------------------------
[thumb\|right\|The Blighted State of America by Twine Workshop (2005\)](/wiki/File:Blighted_state.gif "Blighted state.gif")
[thumb\|right\|Adam Roussopoulos project for new artistamps (2019\-2024\)](/wiki/File:Artistamp_Revue_40-_The_End_Issue.jpg "Artistamp Revue 40- The End Issue.jpg")
Despite the exhibitions, history, number of artists and global sweep of the artistamp movement, the medium had long been ignored by major institutions and derided by the arts establishment: before his death in 1989, Bidner attempted to [donate](/wiki/Donation "Donation") his definitive collection to several major Canadian institutions but was turned down by every one. The collection eventually went to [Artpool](/wiki/Artpool_Art_Research_Center "Artpool Art Research Center"), an art research centre in [Budapest](/wiki/Budapest "Budapest"), [Hungary](/wiki/Hungary "Hungary")[György Galántai](/wiki/Gy%C3%B6rgy_Gal%C3%A1ntai "György Galántai"), [*Thomas Michael Bidner (1944\-1989\): A Commemorative Exhibition*](http://www.artpool.hu/Artistamp/Artistampex/megnyito_e.html) who organized World Art Post,World Art Post, Budapest 1982 – [online catalog of the show](http://www.artpool.hu/events/APS_6/default.html%20) {{webarchive \|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120802185042/http://www.artpool.hu/events/APS\_6/default.html%20 \|date\=August 2, 2012 }} the first big scale artistamp exhibition in [Central Europe](/wiki/Central_Europe "Central Europe") in 1982, and in 1987 the first arstistamp exhibition to be held in a renowned museum.Stamp Images, [Museum of Fine Arts](/wiki/Museum_of_Fine_Arts_%28Budapest%29 "Museum of Fine Arts (Budapest)"), Budapest, 1987 \- [online catalog of the show](http://www.artpool.hu/Artistamp/Belyegkepek/default.html) Upon his death, Bidner's friend Rosemary Gahlinger\-Beaune, undertook Bidner's vision and began to catalogue, using philatelic standards, artistamps from over 200 artists from 29 countries, documenting more than 10,000 artistamp images. In 1999, Gahlinger\-Beaune and Bianchini released a CD entitled "The World of Artistamps", the most comprehensive database of artistamps of the time.
Multimedia artist [James Warren "Jas" Felter](/wiki/James_Warren_%22Jas%22_Felter "James Warren ") curated an [exhibition](/wiki/Art_exhibition "Art exhibition") called *Artists' Stamps and Stamp Images* at Simon Fraser Gallery, [Simon Fraser University](/wiki/Simon_Fraser_University "Simon Fraser University"), Canada, in 1974: the first exhibition to acknowledge the stamp as an artistic medium. This collection, which toured [Europe](/wiki/Europe "Europe") and [America](/wiki/North_America "North America") for the next ten years, led to an explosion in the number of artists using stamps as an artistic format.
Photographer and multimedia artist [Ginny Lloyd](/wiki/Ginny_Lloyd "Ginny Lloyd") started her Gina Lotta Post series in 1979 and by 1982 had produced some of the first computer\-generated imagery used in artists stamps. On a visit to [Artpool](/wiki/Artpool_Art_Research_Center "Artpool Art Research Center") in 1982, she collaborated with [György Galántai](/wiki/Gy%C3%B6rgy_Gal%C3%A1ntai "György Galántai") on artistamp issues.[Cooperative stampsheets](http://www.artpool.hu/Artistamp/artist/Galantai/GinnyFree.html) by Ginny Lloyd and György Galántai in Artpool's collection In 1984, Lloyd co\-organized an Art in Space event in [San Francisco](/wiki/San_Francisco "San Francisco") at which a rocket containing artistamps on a microchip was launched. In 1986, the artist received a [Visual Studies Workshop](/wiki/Visual_Studies_Workshop "Visual Studies Workshop") artist\-in\-residence funded in part by the National Endowment for the Arts in the United States. Her project for the residency culminated with *Gina Lotta Post,* a series of artistamps bound into a book and includes a set of postcards. A second book *Make Your Own Stamps Sheet,* is a Complete and Return project that originated from the same residency, becoming available in 2011\.
In 1989, Felter curated the first of three International Biannual Exhibitions of Artistamps at Davidson Galleries in [Seattle](/wiki/Seattle "Seattle").
In 1994, an exhibition sponsored by the Swiss Posts was held in the PTT\-Museum in Berne, resulting in the publication of a book and four sheets of artists' stamps (one of the few printed at the costs of an official postal service!). More than 60 artists participated. The word "Artistamps" does not appear in the book, but on one of the stamps, by E.F. Higgins.
In 1995, Patricia Tavenner curated *The First California Artistamp Exhibit* at University of California, Berkeley \- San Francisco Extension. The exhibit presented works of about 170 artists from around the world.
The *First Moscow International Artistamp Exhibition* was held in Moscow in December 1998, as part of International Art Fair XX. The event was curated by Natalie Lamanova, Alexander Kholopv and Jas Felter. This event gave rise to the "Moscow Artistamp Collection" which presently includes more than 700 works of 83 artists from 19 countries.
From November 12, 1999, to January 19, 2000, the Art Institute of Boston hosted the *Stamp Art and Artists Stamps* exhibition. The show included artistamp sheets from Natalia Lamanova, Alexander Kholopov of Russia, Vittore Baroni, Clemente Padin, Jose Carlos Soto, Pere Sousa and Donald Evans. PBS documented this exhibit.
February \- March 2000: Moscow artists Ivan Kolesnikov and Sergei Denisov presented a joint Artistamp project entitled *Azbuka Veka (The Alphabet of the Century)* at the S’ART Gallery in Moscow. The show presented stamps of famous people tagged with letters from the Russian alphabet.Russian Journal, Feb. 13, 2000 ["Stamping Symbols into Russian ABC"](http://www.russiajournal.com/node/10204) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090207191019/http://russiajournal.com/node/10204 \|date\=2009\-02\-07 }}
In December 2000, an exhibit featuring artistamps from around the world was displayed at the E. Max von Isser Gallery of Art at Elgin Community College, Elgin, Illinois.Daily Herald (Arlington Heights, Ill.), [*Event listing*, December 6, 2000](http://docs.newsbank.com/g/GooglePM/ADHB/lib00057,0ECF196C0008B151.html)
The exhibition *Motherland/Fatherland* was held at The International Museum Exhibition Centre in Moscow from July 11 to 21, 2002\. The event was curated by Natalie Lamanova, Alexander Kholopv and Jas Felter. Presented there were works by 44 artists from Russia, Canada, Germany, New Zealand, Spain, Korea, Italy, Japan, The Netherlands, Venezuela, Armenia and the United States.
The [Sonoma County Museum](/wiki/Sonoma_County_Museum "Sonoma County Museum") in [Santa Rosa, California](/wiki/Santa_Rosa%2C_California "Santa Rosa, California"), hosted the exhibit *Post Modern Post: International Artistamps* in April 2003\. The show including the work of 50 artists from 15 countries.San Francisco Chronicle, [*He puts his stamp on his artwork*, March 28, 2003](http://sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2003/03/28/NB11924.DTL)
In 2005, The exhibition *Axis of Evil* opened at The Nexus Gallery, Philadelphia in March 2005, and later traveled to Chicago and Green Bay, Wisconsin. Curated by Chicago\-based artist Michael Hernandez de Luna, the exhibit featured 127 works by 47 stamp artists from 11 countries. It originated with the publication of the book Axis of Evil: Perforated Praeter Naturam, published by Qualiatica Press.Columbia College Press Office, [*Stamp Artists Exhibit Interpret Sin for 21st Century*](http://web3.colum.edu/press_releases/archives/005311.php) {{webarchive \|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090130075244/http://web3\.colum.edu/press\_releases/archives/005311\.php \|date\=January 30, 2009 }}
In the spring of 2007, the Budapest [Museum of Fine Arts](/wiki/Museum_of_Fine_Arts_%28Budapest%29 "Museum of Fine Arts (Budapest)") hosted a successful exhibition entitled *ParaStamp: Four Decades of Artistamps, from Fluxus to the Internet*.ParaStamp: Four Decades of Artistamps, from Fluxus to the Internet \- [online catalog of the show](http://www.artpool.hu/Artistamp/Para/index.html) Curated by [György Galántai](/wiki/Gy%C3%B6rgy_Gal%C3%A1ntai "György Galántai"), the exhibition presented approximately 500 works selected from the archive of the [Artpool Art Research Center](/wiki/Artpool_Art_Research_Center "Artpool Art Research Center"). More than 250 of the most important artists working in the artistamp genre were represented, including Natalie Lamanova, Anna Banana, Ed Varney, [Guy Bleus](/wiki/Guy_Bleus "Guy Bleus"), Twine Workshop, Michael Hernandez de Luna, Steve Smith, [Vittore Baroni](/wiki/Vittore_Baroni "Vittore Baroni"), [Robert Watts](/wiki/Robert_Watts "Robert Watts"), H.R. Fricker, Ryosuke Cohen, Ginny Lloyd, and Al Brandtner. "The new function artistamp has in this exhibition is to convey the explosively changing worldview at the turn of the millennium," said Galántai in an interview.Kata Bodor, “Interview with György Galántai, the curator of the Parastamp exhibition,” in Parastamp: Four Decades of Artistamps, from Fluxus to the Internet (Budapest: Szépművészeti Múzeum \[Museum of Fine Arts], 2007\) \- [online version](http://www.artpool.hu/Artistamp/Para/Stamp00.html) The show ran from March 23 to June 24, 2007\.
In July 2007, the SomArts Cultural Center gallery presented the *Multiplicity/Multiplicidad: Mailart \& Artistamp Show*, in collaboration with Vortice Argentina, Buenos Aires.
The [New Museum Weserburg](/wiki/Weserburg "Weserburg") in Bermen, Germany, held the exhibition *Leck mich! \- Künstlerbriefmarken seit den 1960er Jahren* (*Lick me! \- Artist’s Stamps since the Sixties*)[Leck mich! \- Künstlerbriefmarken seit den 1960er Jahren](http://www.weserburg.de/index.php?id=251&id=251&L=1) from July 7, 2007, through February 2, 2008, assembling more than 300 works to present a global ensemble of stamp art. A portion of the exhibition description reads:
{{quote\|text\=The fact that the artist’s stamp sets its own ''stamp'' on an (art) letter is one of the special features of this form of expression. A further facet of this small\-format art is its challenging the mail monopoly by laying claim to the perforated and gummed miniature works of art. The stamps the artists create are not meant to swindle the postal service, but to call into question the right to design things. The focus in the exhibition will therefore be the artist’s stamp as an expression of independence and self\-determination. Thus the title, Lick me!, is not only an invitation to “remain glued” to this exhibition, rather it also exemplifies the stance of a self\-confident genre.}}
Turner Prize\-winning artist and Academy Award\-winning filmmaker [Steve McQueen](/wiki/Steve_McQueen_%28director%29 "Steve McQueen (director)") assembled the *Queen and Country* exhibition comprising stamps depicting British servicemen and women killed in Iraq. The exhibition was hosted at the Scottish National Gallery of Modern Art in Edinburgh between December 3, 2008, and February 15, 2009\.Scotland on Sunday, [*Stamps of war dead on show*](https://archive.today/20120715184624/http://scotlandonsunday.scotsman.com/arts/Stamps-of-war-dead-on.4652361.jpg)
David Krueger's series of pseudo\-stamps critiquing the Bush administration, begun in 2001, was on view at the CUE Art Foundation in [Chelsea, Manhattan](/wiki/Chelsea%2C_Manhattan "Chelsea, Manhattan"), New York, from April 24 \- May 31, 2008\.
The JAY Gallery in Seoul, Korea, sponsored the exhibition, *American Artistamps,* curated by John Held, Jr., from May 19 \- June 1, 2010\. It featured works by Robert Watts, Donald Evans, Harley, Dogfish, Picasso Gaglione, Michael Thompson, Al Ackerman, Darlene Altschul, Mike Dickau and John Ringer.
The Gina Lotta Post Artistamp Museum, curated by Ginny Lloyd, opened in May 2010\. Currently located in Jupiter, Florida, the museum collection began in the late 1970s and exhibits over 4,200 works by more than 200 international artistamp creators. Selections from the museum can be seen online. Items from the museum were on exhibit at the Jaffe Center for the Book Arts in Boca Raton, Florida, from July 15 to October 27, 2010\. Artists stamps by Harley, Jurgen Olbrich, Reed Altemus, Rockola, Picasso Gaglione, Buz Blurr, Vitore Baroni, and Ginny Lloyd were featured as part of the "Carbon Alternative" exhibit.
In November 2012, The Museum of Artistamps opened in Seattle. The museum is curated by Robert Rudine (Dogfish), working in collaboration with James Felter.The Seattle Star, [*A Museum Opens on the Shore of Lake Union*](http://www.seattlestar.net/2013/01/a-museum-of-art-stamps-opens-on-the-shore-of-lake-union/)
On November 10, 2012, the exhibition, AARPEX (the Artistamp Reunion and Philatelic Expo), was held in Seattle. AARPEX was organized by Carl Chew and Robert Rudine.[C.T. Chew website](http://www.ctchew.com/aarpex.html)
Artistamps have been recognized in mainstream stamp publications, such as *[Linn's Stamp News](/wiki/Linn%27s_Stamp_News "Linn's Stamp News")*. In 2005, Linn's published an article covering the release of Twine Workshop's "The Blighted State of America" artistamp, a piece directly criticizing then U.S. president [George W. Bush](/wiki/George_W._Bush "George W. Bush").
John Held Jr.'s book, *Small Scale Subversion: Mail Art \& Artistamps,* was published on April 11, 2015\.
From 2019\-2024, mail artist Adam Roussopoulos has compiled contemporary artistampers from all over the world in his publication\- The Artistamp Review. The review included some of the prominent works by artists like John Held Jr., The Sticker Dude (Joel Cohen), Vittore Baroni, Ruggero Maggi, the late E.F. Higgins III and H.R. Fricker to name a few. The project expanded to 40 issues.
|
[
"Recognition of the art form\n---------------------------",
"[thumb\\|right\\|The Blighted State of America by Twine Workshop (2005\\)](/wiki/File:Blighted_state.gif \"Blighted state.gif\")\n[thumb\\|right\\|Adam Roussopoulos project for new artistamps (2019\\-2024\\)](/wiki/File:Artistamp_Revue_40-_The_End_Issue.jpg \"Artistamp Revue 40- The End Issue.jpg\")",
"Despite the exhibitions, history, number of artists and global sweep of the artistamp movement, the medium had long been ignored by major institutions and derided by the arts establishment: before his death in 1989, Bidner attempted to [donate](/wiki/Donation \"Donation\") his definitive collection to several major Canadian institutions but was turned down by every one. The collection eventually went to [Artpool](/wiki/Artpool_Art_Research_Center \"Artpool Art Research Center\"), an art research centre in [Budapest](/wiki/Budapest \"Budapest\"), [Hungary](/wiki/Hungary \"Hungary\")[György Galántai](/wiki/Gy%C3%B6rgy_Gal%C3%A1ntai \"György Galántai\"), [*Thomas Michael Bidner (1944\\-1989\\): A Commemorative Exhibition*](http://www.artpool.hu/Artistamp/Artistampex/megnyito_e.html) who organized World Art Post,World Art Post, Budapest 1982 – [online catalog of the show](http://www.artpool.hu/events/APS_6/default.html%20) {{webarchive \\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120802185042/http://www.artpool.hu/events/APS\\_6/default.html%20 \\|date\\=August 2, 2012 }} the first big scale artistamp exhibition in [Central Europe](/wiki/Central_Europe \"Central Europe\") in 1982, and in 1987 the first arstistamp exhibition to be held in a renowned museum.Stamp Images, [Museum of Fine Arts](/wiki/Museum_of_Fine_Arts_%28Budapest%29 \"Museum of Fine Arts (Budapest)\"), Budapest, 1987 \\- [online catalog of the show](http://www.artpool.hu/Artistamp/Belyegkepek/default.html) Upon his death, Bidner's friend Rosemary Gahlinger\\-Beaune, undertook Bidner's vision and began to catalogue, using philatelic standards, artistamps from over 200 artists from 29 countries, documenting more than 10,000 artistamp images. In 1999, Gahlinger\\-Beaune and Bianchini released a CD entitled \"The World of Artistamps\", the most comprehensive database of artistamps of the time.",
"Multimedia artist [James Warren \"Jas\" Felter](/wiki/James_Warren_%22Jas%22_Felter \"James Warren \") curated an [exhibition](/wiki/Art_exhibition \"Art exhibition\") called *Artists' Stamps and Stamp Images* at Simon Fraser Gallery, [Simon Fraser University](/wiki/Simon_Fraser_University \"Simon Fraser University\"), Canada, in 1974: the first exhibition to acknowledge the stamp as an artistic medium. This collection, which toured [Europe](/wiki/Europe \"Europe\") and [America](/wiki/North_America \"North America\") for the next ten years, led to an explosion in the number of artists using stamps as an artistic format.",
"Photographer and multimedia artist [Ginny Lloyd](/wiki/Ginny_Lloyd \"Ginny Lloyd\") started her Gina Lotta Post series in 1979 and by 1982 had produced some of the first computer\\-generated imagery used in artists stamps. On a visit to [Artpool](/wiki/Artpool_Art_Research_Center \"Artpool Art Research Center\") in 1982, she collaborated with [György Galántai](/wiki/Gy%C3%B6rgy_Gal%C3%A1ntai \"György Galántai\") on artistamp issues.[Cooperative stampsheets](http://www.artpool.hu/Artistamp/artist/Galantai/GinnyFree.html) by Ginny Lloyd and György Galántai in Artpool's collection In 1984, Lloyd co\\-organized an Art in Space event in [San Francisco](/wiki/San_Francisco \"San Francisco\") at which a rocket containing artistamps on a microchip was launched. In 1986, the artist received a [Visual Studies Workshop](/wiki/Visual_Studies_Workshop \"Visual Studies Workshop\") artist\\-in\\-residence funded in part by the National Endowment for the Arts in the United States. Her project for the residency culminated with *Gina Lotta Post,* a series of artistamps bound into a book and includes a set of postcards. A second book *Make Your Own Stamps Sheet,* is a Complete and Return project that originated from the same residency, becoming available in 2011\\.",
"In 1989, Felter curated the first of three International Biannual Exhibitions of Artistamps at Davidson Galleries in [Seattle](/wiki/Seattle \"Seattle\").",
"In 1994, an exhibition sponsored by the Swiss Posts was held in the PTT\\-Museum in Berne, resulting in the publication of a book and four sheets of artists' stamps (one of the few printed at the costs of an official postal service!). More than 60 artists participated. The word \"Artistamps\" does not appear in the book, but on one of the stamps, by E.F. Higgins.",
"In 1995, Patricia Tavenner curated *The First California Artistamp Exhibit* at University of California, Berkeley \\- San Francisco Extension. The exhibit presented works of about 170 artists from around the world.",
"The *First Moscow International Artistamp Exhibition* was held in Moscow in December 1998, as part of International Art Fair XX. The event was curated by Natalie Lamanova, Alexander Kholopv and Jas Felter. This event gave rise to the \"Moscow Artistamp Collection\" which presently includes more than 700 works of 83 artists from 19 countries.",
"From November 12, 1999, to January 19, 2000, the Art Institute of Boston hosted the *Stamp Art and Artists Stamps* exhibition. The show included artistamp sheets from Natalia Lamanova, Alexander Kholopov of Russia, Vittore Baroni, Clemente Padin, Jose Carlos Soto, Pere Sousa and Donald Evans. PBS documented this exhibit.",
"February \\- March 2000: Moscow artists Ivan Kolesnikov and Sergei Denisov presented a joint Artistamp project entitled *Azbuka Veka (The Alphabet of the Century)* at the S’ART Gallery in Moscow. The show presented stamps of famous people tagged with letters from the Russian alphabet.Russian Journal, Feb. 13, 2000 [\"Stamping Symbols into Russian ABC\"](http://www.russiajournal.com/node/10204) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090207191019/http://russiajournal.com/node/10204 \\|date\\=2009\\-02\\-07 }}",
"In December 2000, an exhibit featuring artistamps from around the world was displayed at the E. Max von Isser Gallery of Art at Elgin Community College, Elgin, Illinois.Daily Herald (Arlington Heights, Ill.), [*Event listing*, December 6, 2000](http://docs.newsbank.com/g/GooglePM/ADHB/lib00057,0ECF196C0008B151.html)",
"The exhibition *Motherland/Fatherland* was held at The International Museum Exhibition Centre in Moscow from July 11 to 21, 2002\\. The event was curated by Natalie Lamanova, Alexander Kholopv and Jas Felter. Presented there were works by 44 artists from Russia, Canada, Germany, New Zealand, Spain, Korea, Italy, Japan, The Netherlands, Venezuela, Armenia and the United States.",
"The [Sonoma County Museum](/wiki/Sonoma_County_Museum \"Sonoma County Museum\") in [Santa Rosa, California](/wiki/Santa_Rosa%2C_California \"Santa Rosa, California\"), hosted the exhibit *Post Modern Post: International Artistamps* in April 2003\\. The show including the work of 50 artists from 15 countries.San Francisco Chronicle, [*He puts his stamp on his artwork*, March 28, 2003](http://sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2003/03/28/NB11924.DTL)",
"In 2005, The exhibition *Axis of Evil* opened at The Nexus Gallery, Philadelphia in March 2005, and later traveled to Chicago and Green Bay, Wisconsin. Curated by Chicago\\-based artist Michael Hernandez de Luna, the exhibit featured 127 works by 47 stamp artists from 11 countries. It originated with the publication of the book Axis of Evil: Perforated Praeter Naturam, published by Qualiatica Press.Columbia College Press Office, [*Stamp Artists Exhibit Interpret Sin for 21st Century*](http://web3.colum.edu/press_releases/archives/005311.php) {{webarchive \\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090130075244/http://web3\\.colum.edu/press\\_releases/archives/005311\\.php \\|date\\=January 30, 2009 }}",
"In the spring of 2007, the Budapest [Museum of Fine Arts](/wiki/Museum_of_Fine_Arts_%28Budapest%29 \"Museum of Fine Arts (Budapest)\") hosted a successful exhibition entitled *ParaStamp: Four Decades of Artistamps, from Fluxus to the Internet*.ParaStamp: Four Decades of Artistamps, from Fluxus to the Internet \\- [online catalog of the show](http://www.artpool.hu/Artistamp/Para/index.html) Curated by [György Galántai](/wiki/Gy%C3%B6rgy_Gal%C3%A1ntai \"György Galántai\"), the exhibition presented approximately 500 works selected from the archive of the [Artpool Art Research Center](/wiki/Artpool_Art_Research_Center \"Artpool Art Research Center\"). More than 250 of the most important artists working in the artistamp genre were represented, including Natalie Lamanova, Anna Banana, Ed Varney, [Guy Bleus](/wiki/Guy_Bleus \"Guy Bleus\"), Twine Workshop, Michael Hernandez de Luna, Steve Smith, [Vittore Baroni](/wiki/Vittore_Baroni \"Vittore Baroni\"), [Robert Watts](/wiki/Robert_Watts \"Robert Watts\"), H.R. Fricker, Ryosuke Cohen, Ginny Lloyd, and Al Brandtner. \"The new function artistamp has in this exhibition is to convey the explosively changing worldview at the turn of the millennium,\" said Galántai in an interview.Kata Bodor, “Interview with György Galántai, the curator of the Parastamp exhibition,” in Parastamp: Four Decades of Artistamps, from Fluxus to the Internet (Budapest: Szépművészeti Múzeum \\[Museum of Fine Arts], 2007\\) \\- [online version](http://www.artpool.hu/Artistamp/Para/Stamp00.html) The show ran from March 23 to June 24, 2007\\.",
"In July 2007, the SomArts Cultural Center gallery presented the *Multiplicity/Multiplicidad: Mailart \\& Artistamp Show*, in collaboration with Vortice Argentina, Buenos Aires.",
"The [New Museum Weserburg](/wiki/Weserburg \"Weserburg\") in Bermen, Germany, held the exhibition *Leck mich! \\- Künstlerbriefmarken seit den 1960er Jahren* (*Lick me! \\- Artist’s Stamps since the Sixties*)[Leck mich! \\- Künstlerbriefmarken seit den 1960er Jahren](http://www.weserburg.de/index.php?id=251&id=251&L=1) from July 7, 2007, through February 2, 2008, assembling more than 300 works to present a global ensemble of stamp art. A portion of the exhibition description reads:",
"{{quote\\|text\\=The fact that the artist’s stamp sets its own ''stamp'' on an (art) letter is one of the special features of this form of expression. A further facet of this small\\-format art is its challenging the mail monopoly by laying claim to the perforated and gummed miniature works of art. The stamps the artists create are not meant to swindle the postal service, but to call into question the right to design things. The focus in the exhibition will therefore be the artist’s stamp as an expression of independence and self\\-determination. Thus the title, Lick me!, is not only an invitation to “remain glued” to this exhibition, rather it also exemplifies the stance of a self\\-confident genre.}}",
"Turner Prize\\-winning artist and Academy Award\\-winning filmmaker [Steve McQueen](/wiki/Steve_McQueen_%28director%29 \"Steve McQueen (director)\") assembled the *Queen and Country* exhibition comprising stamps depicting British servicemen and women killed in Iraq. The exhibition was hosted at the Scottish National Gallery of Modern Art in Edinburgh between December 3, 2008, and February 15, 2009\\.Scotland on Sunday, [*Stamps of war dead on show*](https://archive.today/20120715184624/http://scotlandonsunday.scotsman.com/arts/Stamps-of-war-dead-on.4652361.jpg)",
"David Krueger's series of pseudo\\-stamps critiquing the Bush administration, begun in 2001, was on view at the CUE Art Foundation in [Chelsea, Manhattan](/wiki/Chelsea%2C_Manhattan \"Chelsea, Manhattan\"), New York, from April 24 \\- May 31, 2008\\.",
"The JAY Gallery in Seoul, Korea, sponsored the exhibition, *American Artistamps,* curated by John Held, Jr., from May 19 \\- June 1, 2010\\. It featured works by Robert Watts, Donald Evans, Harley, Dogfish, Picasso Gaglione, Michael Thompson, Al Ackerman, Darlene Altschul, Mike Dickau and John Ringer.",
"The Gina Lotta Post Artistamp Museum, curated by Ginny Lloyd, opened in May 2010\\. Currently located in Jupiter, Florida, the museum collection began in the late 1970s and exhibits over 4,200 works by more than 200 international artistamp creators. Selections from the museum can be seen online. Items from the museum were on exhibit at the Jaffe Center for the Book Arts in Boca Raton, Florida, from July 15 to October 27, 2010\\. Artists stamps by Harley, Jurgen Olbrich, Reed Altemus, Rockola, Picasso Gaglione, Buz Blurr, Vitore Baroni, and Ginny Lloyd were featured as part of the \"Carbon Alternative\" exhibit.",
"",
"In November 2012, The Museum of Artistamps opened in Seattle. The museum is curated by Robert Rudine (Dogfish), working in collaboration with James Felter.The Seattle Star, [*A Museum Opens on the Shore of Lake Union*](http://www.seattlestar.net/2013/01/a-museum-of-art-stamps-opens-on-the-shore-of-lake-union/)",
"On November 10, 2012, the exhibition, AARPEX (the Artistamp Reunion and Philatelic Expo), was held in Seattle. AARPEX was organized by Carl Chew and Robert Rudine.[C.T. Chew website](http://www.ctchew.com/aarpex.html)",
"Artistamps have been recognized in mainstream stamp publications, such as *[Linn's Stamp News](/wiki/Linn%27s_Stamp_News \"Linn's Stamp News\")*. In 2005, Linn's published an article covering the release of Twine Workshop's \"The Blighted State of America\" artistamp, a piece directly criticizing then U.S. president [George W. Bush](/wiki/George_W._Bush \"George W. Bush\").",
"John Held Jr.'s book, *Small Scale Subversion: Mail Art \\& Artistamps,* was published on April 11, 2015\\.",
"From 2019\\-2024, mail artist Adam Roussopoulos has compiled contemporary artistampers from all over the world in his publication\\- The Artistamp Review. The review included some of the prominent works by artists like John Held Jr., The Sticker Dude (Joel Cohen), Vittore Baroni, Ruggero Maggi, the late E.F. Higgins III and H.R. Fricker to name a few. The project expanded to 40 issues.",
""
] |
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