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First debates during 1848\-1849 ------------------------------- After the [1848 Revolution](/wiki/1848_Revolution_in_France "1848 Revolution in France"), [Lazare Hippolyte Carnot](/wiki/Lazare_Hippolyte_Carnot "Lazare Hippolyte Carnot") was named Minister of Public Instruction and prepared a draft reform. He named the Republican [Jules Barthélemy\-Saint\-Hilaire](/wiki/Jules_Barth%C3%A9lemy-Saint-Hilaire "Jules Barthélemy-Saint-Hilaire") president of the parliamentary commission which would write the draft.[James Guillaume](/wiki/James_Guillaume "James Guillaume"), [Falloux entry](http://www.inrp.fr/edition-electronique/lodel/dictionnaire-ferdinand-buisson/document.php?id=2715) in the *Nouveau dictionnaire de pédagogie* (dir. [Ferdinand Buisson](/wiki/Ferdinand_Buisson "Ferdinand Buisson")), 1911\. The latter would have made education mandatory for children of both sexes, as well as a three years of training for teachers, subsidised by the state. Although it favoured public schools, it still allowed private teaching establishments.Inès Murat, *La IIe République*, Paris, Fayard, 1987, p.198\-200 Carnot's draft was however set aside after his resignation on 5 July 1848\.Inès Murat, *La IIe République*, Paris, Fayard, 1987, p.290 Thus, parliamentary debates were resumed. The newly elected President [Louis Napoléon Bonaparte](/wiki/Napoleon_III "Napoleon III") replaced Carnot with [Alfred de Falloux](/wiki/Alfred_de_Falloux "Alfred de Falloux") as Minister of Public Instruction in December 1848, the latter remaining in [Odilon Barrot](/wiki/Odilon_Barrot "Odilon Barrot")'s government until May 1849\. The [decree](/wiki/Decree "Decree") of 11 December 1848 made the upcoming law on education an [organic law](/wiki/Organic_law "Organic law"), which should thus be reserved to the Constituent Assembly's initiative. A [Legitimist](/wiki/Legitimists "Legitimists") (i.e. a conservative Royalist), Falloux officially withdrew Carnot's draft bill on 4 January 1849 and dissolved the Scientific and Literary Study Commission named by Carnot. Falloux clearly aimed at restoring Roman Catholicism to the forefront of French schooling and society, describing his program in his *Memoirs*: "God in education. The Pope at the head of the Church. The Church at the head of civilisation." Having dissolved Carnot's commission, Falloux created two new ministerial commissions, dedicated to preparing the draft laws for primary and secondary education, which quickly merged. Both were composed by a majority of conservative Catholics. Presided by the Minister Falloux himself, it had as vice\-president [Adolphe Thiers](/wiki/Adolphe_Thiers "Adolphe Thiers"), and included Catholics such as the [archbishop of Paris](/wiki/Archbishop_of_Paris "Archbishop of Paris") [Mgr Sibour](/wiki/Marie-Dominique-Auguste_Sibour "Marie-Dominique-Auguste Sibour"), the abbot [Dupanloup](/wiki/F%C3%A9lix_Dupanloup "Félix Dupanloup") (who later became [bishop of Orléans](/wiki/Bishop_of_Orl%C3%A9ans "Bishop of Orléans")), etc. Surprisingly, Thiers, formerly a critic of the Church's involvement in education, was one of those who most supported Catholics' influence in the education system, being ready to hand over to the clergy the whole of the primary education establishments, whilst bishop Dupanloup and others strong Catholics calmed his excessive claims. Upset by this measure, in part because the December 1848 decree had given the initiative for the legislative process, concerning organic laws, to the Assembly, the latter nominated a new parliamentary Commission to re\-establish its prerogatives following a proposition by the moderate Republican [Pascal Duprat](/wiki/Pascal_Duprat "Pascal Duprat"). This parallel Commission was presided by the Minister of Public Instruction [de Vaulabelle](/wiki/Achille_Tenaille_de_Vaulabelle "Achille Tenaille de Vaulabelle") and had as secretary the Republican [Jules Simon](/wiki/Jules_Simon "Jules Simon"). Parliamentary debates focused on Article 9 of the [new Constitution](/wiki/French_Constitution_of_1848 "French Constitution of 1848") concerning education.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.conseil\-constitutionnel.fr/conseil\-constitutionnel/francais/la\-constitution/les\-constitutions\-de\-la\-france/constitution\-de\-1848\-iie\-republique.5106\.html \|title\=Constitution de 1848, IIe République \|website\=\[\[Constitutional Council (France)]]\|language\=French \|trans\-title\=Constitution of 1848, 2nd Republic\|access\-date\=2 April 2017}} Catholic deputy [Charles de Montalembert](/wiki/Charles_de_Montalembert "Charles de Montalembert") then described the University's monopoly in the education system as "intellectual communism" and claimed the system was "inferior to that of the Ancien Régime".*Les constitutions de la France* présentées par [Jacques Godechot](/wiki/Jacques_Godechot "Jacques Godechot"), p. 259\-260\. Article 9 proclaimed that "education is free" ("*L'enseignement est [libre](/wiki/Gratis_versus_libre "Gratis versus libre")*")" while adding that this "freedom of education" was determined by legislation and exercised "under state supervision." While authorising private establishments, this article thus ensured that education in general was placed under the watch of the state. The extent of the latter would be determined by forthcoming laws. On 5 February 1849, Jules Simon presented to the Assembly the draft law, composed of 23 articles. However, Odilon Barrot's government claimed that the Constituent Assembly's mandate was coming to an end, and that further proposed laws would have to be examined by the succeeding National Assembly. Pressed for time, the Constituent Assembly thus decided to examine the most pressing laws. Deputy [Boubée](/wiki/N%C3%A9r%C3%A9e_Boub%C3%A9e "Nérée Boubée"), a scientist and University lecturer, proposed that the draft education law be one of those scrutinised, but his motion was rejected by 458 votes against 307\.
[ "First debates during 1848\\-1849\n-------------------------------", "After the [1848 Revolution](/wiki/1848_Revolution_in_France \"1848 Revolution in France\"), [Lazare Hippolyte Carnot](/wiki/Lazare_Hippolyte_Carnot \"Lazare Hippolyte Carnot\") was named Minister of Public Instruction and prepared a draft reform. He named the Republican [Jules Barthélemy\\-Saint\\-Hilaire](/wiki/Jules_Barth%C3%A9lemy-Saint-Hilaire \"Jules Barthélemy-Saint-Hilaire\") president of the parliamentary commission which would write the draft.[James Guillaume](/wiki/James_Guillaume \"James Guillaume\"), [Falloux entry](http://www.inrp.fr/edition-electronique/lodel/dictionnaire-ferdinand-buisson/document.php?id=2715) in the *Nouveau dictionnaire de pédagogie* (dir. [Ferdinand Buisson](/wiki/Ferdinand_Buisson \"Ferdinand Buisson\")), 1911\\. The latter would have made education mandatory for children of both sexes, as well as a three years of training for teachers, subsidised by the state. Although it favoured public schools, it still allowed private teaching establishments.Inès Murat, *La IIe République*, Paris, Fayard, 1987, p.198\\-200 Carnot's draft was however set aside after his resignation on 5 July 1848\\.Inès Murat, *La IIe République*, Paris, Fayard, 1987, p.290", "Thus, parliamentary debates were resumed. The newly elected President [Louis Napoléon Bonaparte](/wiki/Napoleon_III \"Napoleon III\") replaced Carnot with [Alfred de Falloux](/wiki/Alfred_de_Falloux \"Alfred de Falloux\") as Minister of Public Instruction in December 1848, the latter remaining in [Odilon Barrot](/wiki/Odilon_Barrot \"Odilon Barrot\")'s government until May 1849\\. The [decree](/wiki/Decree \"Decree\") of 11 December 1848 made the upcoming law on education an [organic law](/wiki/Organic_law \"Organic law\"), which should thus be reserved to the Constituent Assembly's initiative.", "A [Legitimist](/wiki/Legitimists \"Legitimists\") (i.e. a conservative Royalist), Falloux officially withdrew Carnot's draft bill on 4 January 1849 and dissolved the Scientific and Literary Study Commission named by Carnot. Falloux clearly aimed at restoring Roman Catholicism to the forefront of French schooling and society, describing his program in his *Memoirs*: \"God in education. The Pope at the head of the Church. The Church at the head of civilisation.\"", "Having dissolved Carnot's commission, Falloux created two new ministerial commissions, dedicated to preparing the draft laws for primary and secondary education, which quickly merged. Both were composed by a majority of conservative Catholics. Presided by the Minister Falloux himself, it had as vice\\-president [Adolphe Thiers](/wiki/Adolphe_Thiers \"Adolphe Thiers\"), and included Catholics such as the [archbishop of Paris](/wiki/Archbishop_of_Paris \"Archbishop of Paris\") [Mgr Sibour](/wiki/Marie-Dominique-Auguste_Sibour \"Marie-Dominique-Auguste Sibour\"), the abbot [Dupanloup](/wiki/F%C3%A9lix_Dupanloup \"Félix Dupanloup\") (who later became [bishop of Orléans](/wiki/Bishop_of_Orl%C3%A9ans \"Bishop of Orléans\")), etc. Surprisingly, Thiers, formerly a critic of the Church's involvement in education, was one of those who most supported Catholics' influence in the education system, being ready to hand over to the clergy the whole of the primary education establishments, whilst bishop Dupanloup and others strong Catholics calmed his excessive claims.", "Upset by this measure, in part because the December 1848 decree had given the initiative for the legislative process, concerning organic laws, to the Assembly, the latter nominated a new parliamentary Commission to re\\-establish its prerogatives following a proposition by the moderate Republican [Pascal Duprat](/wiki/Pascal_Duprat \"Pascal Duprat\"). This parallel Commission was presided by the Minister of Public Instruction [de Vaulabelle](/wiki/Achille_Tenaille_de_Vaulabelle \"Achille Tenaille de Vaulabelle\") and had as secretary the Republican [Jules Simon](/wiki/Jules_Simon \"Jules Simon\").", "Parliamentary debates focused on Article 9 of the [new Constitution](/wiki/French_Constitution_of_1848 \"French Constitution of 1848\") concerning education.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.conseil\\-constitutionnel.fr/conseil\\-constitutionnel/francais/la\\-constitution/les\\-constitutions\\-de\\-la\\-france/constitution\\-de\\-1848\\-iie\\-republique.5106\\.html \\|title\\=Constitution de 1848, IIe République \\|website\\=\\[\\[Constitutional Council (France)]]\\|language\\=French \\|trans\\-title\\=Constitution of 1848, 2nd Republic\\|access\\-date\\=2 April 2017}} Catholic deputy [Charles de Montalembert](/wiki/Charles_de_Montalembert \"Charles de Montalembert\") then described the University's monopoly in the education system as \"intellectual communism\" and claimed the system was \"inferior to that of the Ancien Régime\".*Les constitutions de la France* présentées par [Jacques Godechot](/wiki/Jacques_Godechot \"Jacques Godechot\"), p. 259\\-260\\. Article 9 proclaimed that \"education is free\" (\"*L'enseignement est [libre](/wiki/Gratis_versus_libre \"Gratis versus libre\")*\")\" while adding that this \"freedom of education\" was determined by legislation and exercised \"under state supervision.\" While authorising private establishments, this article thus ensured that education in general was placed under the watch of the state. The extent of the latter would be determined by forthcoming laws.", "On 5 February 1849, Jules Simon presented to the Assembly the draft law, composed of 23 articles. However, Odilon Barrot's government claimed that the Constituent Assembly's mandate was coming to an end, and that further proposed laws would have to be examined by the succeeding National Assembly. Pressed for time, the Constituent Assembly thus decided to examine the most pressing laws. Deputy [Boubée](/wiki/N%C3%A9r%C3%A9e_Boub%C3%A9e \"Nérée Boubée\"), a scientist and University lecturer, proposed that the draft education law be one of those scrutinised, but his motion was rejected by 458 votes against 307\\.", "" ]
Overview and history -------------------- Christianity has been present in Connor Diocese for over 1500 years. Tradition holds that [St. Patrick](/wiki/St._Patrick "St. Patrick") herded sheep on [Slemish](/wiki/Slemish "Slemish"), in the heart of the Diocese, when first brought to Ireland as a slave. Saint Malachy, the great reformer of the Irish church, was consecrated [Bishop of Connor](/wiki/Bishop_of_Connor "Bishop of Connor") in 1124 and remained until his translation to the Archbishopric of Armagh in 1132\. The see was originally at [Connor](/wiki/Connor%2C_County_Antrim "Connor, County Antrim"). There is much evidence, from written sources and archaeological material, that Connor was a sizeable, complex settlement in the Early Christian period, probably with monastic and secular elements coexisting. There was no monastic establishment at Connor in the [Middle Ages](/wiki/Middle_Ages "Middle Ages"), though there was an [Augustinian](/wiki/Augustinians "Augustinians") community at [Kells](/wiki/Kells%2C_County_Antrim "Kells, County Antrim") nearby. When the Church in England broke communion with the [Catholic Church](/wiki/Catholic_Church "Catholic Church"), the [Church of England](/wiki/Church_of_England "Church of England") was established by the state as the [established church](/wiki/Established_church "Established church"). Later, by decree of the Irish Parliament, a similar new body became the [State Church](/wiki/State_Church "State Church") in the [Kingdom of Ireland](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Ireland "Kingdom of Ireland"). It assumed possession of most Church property (and so retained a great repository of religious architecture and other items, though some were later destroyed). The substantial majority of the population remained faithful to the [Latin Church](/wiki/Latin_Church "Latin Church") of the Catholic Church, despite the political and economic advantages of membership in the state church. They were obliged to find alternative premises and to conduct their services in secret. The English\-speaking minority mostly adhered to the Church of Ireland or to [Presbyterianism](/wiki/Presbyterianism "Presbyterianism"). On the death of Archbishop Trench of Tuam in 1839, the [Province](/wiki/Ecclesiastical_province "Ecclesiastical province") of Tuam was united to the [Armagh](/wiki/Province_of_Armagh_%28Church_of_Ireland%29 "Province of Armagh (Church of Ireland)"). Over the centuries, numerous dioceses were merged, in view of declining membership.{{cn\|date\=August 2023}} The area remained a stronghold of [Gaelic](/wiki/Gaels "Gaels") and Catholic culture until the [Plantation of Ulster](/wiki/Plantation_of_Ulster "Plantation of Ulster"). The majority of [planters](/wiki/Plantations_of_Ireland "Plantations of Ireland") came from [Scotland](/wiki/Scotland "Scotland") and were not only [Presbyterian](/wiki/Presbyterian "Presbyterian") but also [covenanters](/wiki/Covenanter "Covenanter") and fiercely opposed to [episcopacy](/wiki/Episcopacy "Episcopacy"). Such was the anti\-Anglican tenor of the Scottish settlers that the English divine, [Jeremy Taylor](/wiki/Jeremy_Taylor "Jeremy Taylor"), for a time Bishop of the United Dioceses of Down, Connor and Dromore, said of his new home, *"I perceive myself thrown into a place of torment."* County Antrim, corresponding closely with the Diocese of Connor soon became the most [Protestant](/wiki/Protestant "Protestant") county in Ireland, a situation which remains the case today. ### Previous entities The modern Anglican form of the diocese came into being when the Diocese of Connor was split from the hitherto United Dioceses of Down, Connor and Dromore in 1944\. The Diocesan Cathedral is in Christ Church [Lisburn](/wiki/Lisburn "Lisburn"), although this functions largely as a parish church for Lisburn City Centre. Because of its larger size, [St Anne's Cathedral, Belfast](/wiki/St_Anne%27s_Cathedral%2C_Belfast "St Anne's Cathedral, Belfast"), is shared with the [Diocese of Down and Dromore](/wiki/Diocese_of_Down_and_Dromore "Diocese of Down and Dromore") for major church events. With the translation of [Alan Harper](/wiki/Alan_Harper_%28archbishop%29 "Alan Harper (archbishop)") to [Armagh](/wiki/Archbishop_of_Armagh_%28Church_of_Ireland%29 "Archbishop of Armagh (Church of Ireland)"), the House of Bishops met in Dublin on 17 April 2007 to elect Archbishop Harper's successor. ### Recent history In the 19th century, Belfast became the epicentre of the [Industrial Revolution](/wiki/Industrial_Revolution "Industrial Revolution") in Ireland. Other towns in the diocese, such as [Ballymena](/wiki/Ballymena "Ballymena"), [Larne](/wiki/Larne "Larne") and [Lisburn](/wiki/Lisburn "Lisburn"), were also among Ireland's foremost industrial centres. The Church of Ireland population of the Diocese increased dramatically as people moved to the area to work in the factories in the major towns, both from rural areas of [Ulster](/wiki/Ulster "Ulster") with large Anglican populations like [County Armagh](/wiki/County_Armagh "County Armagh") and [County Fermanagh](/wiki/County_Fermanagh "County Fermanagh") and from England. The rapid growth in the population of the Greater Belfast area as well as the rapid drop in the Protestant population of the Republic after [Partition of Ireland](/wiki/Partition_of_Ireland "Partition of Ireland") in 1922 led to the bizarre situation where the United Dioceses of Down, Connor and Dromore, just one of fourteen Church of Ireland Dioceses had over half the Anglican population of the whole island. In 1944, therefore Connor Diocese was split off from the other two. St. Anne's Cathedral, Belfast built in 1905 to serve as a single cathedral for the Diocese, theoretically running alongside, but in practice replacing the existing cathedrals in Lisburn, [Downpatrick](/wiki/Downpatrick "Downpatrick") and [Dromore](/wiki/Dromore%2C_County_Down "Dromore, County Down"), saw two bishops of two distinct dioceses have stalls in the cathedral within forty years. In the 1950s and 1960s rapid [slum clearance](/wiki/Slum_clearance "Slum clearance") and suburbanisation saw a number of new parishes created, however demographic changes, movement of people to suburban areas in the [Diocese of Down and Dromore](/wiki/Diocese_of_Down_and_Dromore "Diocese of Down and Dromore") and the growth of both [secularism](/wiki/Secularism "Secularism") and small [Evangelical](/wiki/Low_church "Low church") churches saw a decline in membership. Between the end of the [Second World War](/wiki/Second_World_War "Second World War") and 2001, the number of Anglicans in the Diocese decreased by 30%, the largest drop in Ireland, although it remains the largest Diocese in the Church. [The Troubles](/wiki/The_Troubles "The Troubles") presented the Diocese with major challenges – in common with every other community in Northern Ireland, many Anglicans in the Diocese were killed or injured in terrorist related incidents. [Ecumenism](/wiki/Ecumenism "Ecumenism"), which since the 1960s has become a steadily more important part of Anglican life in the Diocese, had to be carried out against the background of civil strife in which religion played a major factor. Demographic change, exacerbated by sectarian tensions, meant that North and West Belfast, within the Diocese, became more and more Catholic, while many Church of Ireland members who had previously lived there moved to suburban areas in [County Down](/wiki/County_Down "County Down"), causing many Belfast parishes to close or severely cut back their activities. ### Coat of arms Shortly after the establishment of Connor as a separate diocese, a grant of arms was obtained from the [College of Arms](/wiki/College_of_Arms "College of Arms") in [London](/wiki/London "London") in May 1945, [blazoned](/wiki/Blazon "Blazon") as follows:{{cite book\|author\=Geoffrey Briggs\|title\=Civic and Corporate Heraldry\|date\=1971\|place\=London\|page\=120}} > Azure, a lamb passant supporting with the dexter foreleg a staff proper, flying therefrom a pennon argent charged with a saltire gules, between three cross crosslets Or; on a chief of the last two crosiers in saltire of the field. The arms were confirmed by the [Chief Herald of Ireland](/wiki/Chief_Herald_of_Ireland "Chief Herald of Ireland") in January 2011, although blazoned as follows:[Genealogical Office](/wiki/Genealogical_Office "Genealogical Office") *Grants and Confirmations of Arms*, Vol. Aa, folio 28\. > Azure between three crosses crosslet or a lamb passant supporting with the dexter foreleg a staff proper flying therefrom a pennant argent charged with a saltire gules on a chief of the second two crosiers of the field.
[ "Overview and history\n--------------------", "Christianity has been present in Connor Diocese for over 1500 years. Tradition holds that [St. Patrick](/wiki/St._Patrick \"St. Patrick\") herded sheep on [Slemish](/wiki/Slemish \"Slemish\"), in the heart of the Diocese, when first brought to Ireland as a slave. Saint Malachy, the great reformer of the Irish church, was consecrated [Bishop of Connor](/wiki/Bishop_of_Connor \"Bishop of Connor\") in 1124 and remained until his translation to the Archbishopric of Armagh in 1132\\. The see was originally at [Connor](/wiki/Connor%2C_County_Antrim \"Connor, County Antrim\"). There is much evidence, from written sources and archaeological material, that Connor was a sizeable, complex settlement in the Early Christian period, probably with monastic and secular elements coexisting. There was no monastic establishment at Connor in the [Middle Ages](/wiki/Middle_Ages \"Middle Ages\"), though there was an [Augustinian](/wiki/Augustinians \"Augustinians\") community at [Kells](/wiki/Kells%2C_County_Antrim \"Kells, County Antrim\") nearby.", "When the Church in England broke communion with the [Catholic Church](/wiki/Catholic_Church \"Catholic Church\"), the [Church of England](/wiki/Church_of_England \"Church of England\") was established by the state as the [established church](/wiki/Established_church \"Established church\"). Later, by decree of the Irish Parliament, a similar new body became the [State Church](/wiki/State_Church \"State Church\") in the [Kingdom of Ireland](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Ireland \"Kingdom of Ireland\"). It assumed possession of most Church property (and so retained a great repository of religious architecture and other items, though some were later destroyed). The substantial majority of the population remained faithful to the [Latin Church](/wiki/Latin_Church \"Latin Church\") of the Catholic Church, despite the political and economic advantages of membership in the state church. They were obliged to find alternative premises and to conduct their services in secret. The English\\-speaking minority mostly adhered to the Church of Ireland or to [Presbyterianism](/wiki/Presbyterianism \"Presbyterianism\"). On the death of Archbishop Trench of Tuam in 1839, the [Province](/wiki/Ecclesiastical_province \"Ecclesiastical province\") of Tuam was united to the [Armagh](/wiki/Province_of_Armagh_%28Church_of_Ireland%29 \"Province of Armagh (Church of Ireland)\"). Over the centuries, numerous dioceses were merged, in view of declining membership.{{cn\\|date\\=August 2023}}", "The area remained a stronghold of [Gaelic](/wiki/Gaels \"Gaels\") and Catholic culture until the [Plantation of Ulster](/wiki/Plantation_of_Ulster \"Plantation of Ulster\"). The majority of [planters](/wiki/Plantations_of_Ireland \"Plantations of Ireland\") came from [Scotland](/wiki/Scotland \"Scotland\") and were not only [Presbyterian](/wiki/Presbyterian \"Presbyterian\") but also [covenanters](/wiki/Covenanter \"Covenanter\") and fiercely opposed to [episcopacy](/wiki/Episcopacy \"Episcopacy\"). Such was the anti\\-Anglican tenor of the Scottish settlers that the English divine, [Jeremy Taylor](/wiki/Jeremy_Taylor \"Jeremy Taylor\"), for a time Bishop of the United Dioceses of Down, Connor and Dromore, said of his new home, *\"I perceive myself thrown into a place of torment.\"* County Antrim, corresponding closely with the Diocese of Connor soon became the most [Protestant](/wiki/Protestant \"Protestant\") county in Ireland, a situation which remains the case today.", "### Previous entities", "The modern Anglican form of the diocese came into being when the Diocese of Connor was split from the hitherto United Dioceses of Down, Connor and Dromore in 1944\\. The Diocesan Cathedral is in Christ Church [Lisburn](/wiki/Lisburn \"Lisburn\"), although this functions largely as a parish church for Lisburn City Centre. Because of its larger size, [St Anne's Cathedral, Belfast](/wiki/St_Anne%27s_Cathedral%2C_Belfast \"St Anne's Cathedral, Belfast\"), is shared with the [Diocese of Down and Dromore](/wiki/Diocese_of_Down_and_Dromore \"Diocese of Down and Dromore\") for major church events. With the translation of [Alan Harper](/wiki/Alan_Harper_%28archbishop%29 \"Alan Harper (archbishop)\") to [Armagh](/wiki/Archbishop_of_Armagh_%28Church_of_Ireland%29 \"Archbishop of Armagh (Church of Ireland)\"), the House of Bishops met in Dublin on 17 April 2007 to elect Archbishop Harper's successor.", "### Recent history", "In the 19th century, Belfast became the epicentre of the [Industrial Revolution](/wiki/Industrial_Revolution \"Industrial Revolution\") in Ireland. Other towns in the diocese, such as [Ballymena](/wiki/Ballymena \"Ballymena\"), [Larne](/wiki/Larne \"Larne\") and [Lisburn](/wiki/Lisburn \"Lisburn\"), were also among Ireland's foremost industrial centres. The Church of Ireland population of the Diocese increased dramatically as people moved to the area to work in the factories in the major towns, both from rural areas of [Ulster](/wiki/Ulster \"Ulster\") with large Anglican populations like [County Armagh](/wiki/County_Armagh \"County Armagh\") and [County Fermanagh](/wiki/County_Fermanagh \"County Fermanagh\") and from England.", "The rapid growth in the population of the Greater Belfast area as well as the rapid drop in the Protestant population of the Republic after [Partition of Ireland](/wiki/Partition_of_Ireland \"Partition of Ireland\") in 1922 led to the bizarre situation where the United Dioceses of Down, Connor and Dromore, just one of fourteen Church of Ireland Dioceses had over half the Anglican population of the whole island. In 1944, therefore Connor Diocese was split off from the other two. St. Anne's Cathedral, Belfast built in 1905 to serve as a single cathedral for the Diocese, theoretically running alongside, but in practice replacing the existing cathedrals in Lisburn, [Downpatrick](/wiki/Downpatrick \"Downpatrick\") and [Dromore](/wiki/Dromore%2C_County_Down \"Dromore, County Down\"), saw two bishops of two distinct dioceses have stalls in the cathedral within forty years.", "In the 1950s and 1960s rapid [slum clearance](/wiki/Slum_clearance \"Slum clearance\") and suburbanisation saw a number of new parishes created, however demographic changes, movement of people to suburban areas in the [Diocese of Down and Dromore](/wiki/Diocese_of_Down_and_Dromore \"Diocese of Down and Dromore\") and the growth of both [secularism](/wiki/Secularism \"Secularism\") and small [Evangelical](/wiki/Low_church \"Low church\") churches saw a decline in membership. Between the end of the [Second World War](/wiki/Second_World_War \"Second World War\") and 2001, the number of Anglicans in the Diocese decreased by 30%, the largest drop in Ireland, although it remains the largest Diocese in the Church.", "[The Troubles](/wiki/The_Troubles \"The Troubles\") presented the Diocese with major challenges – in common with every other community in Northern Ireland, many Anglicans in the Diocese were killed or injured in terrorist related incidents. [Ecumenism](/wiki/Ecumenism \"Ecumenism\"), which since the 1960s has become a steadily more important part of Anglican life in the Diocese, had to be carried out against the background of civil strife in which religion played a major factor. Demographic change, exacerbated by sectarian tensions, meant that North and West Belfast, within the Diocese, became more and more Catholic, while many Church of Ireland members who had previously lived there moved to suburban areas in [County Down](/wiki/County_Down \"County Down\"), causing many Belfast parishes to close or severely cut back their activities.", "### Coat of arms", "Shortly after the establishment of Connor as a separate diocese, a grant of arms was obtained from the [College of Arms](/wiki/College_of_Arms \"College of Arms\") in [London](/wiki/London \"London\") in May 1945, [blazoned](/wiki/Blazon \"Blazon\") as follows:{{cite book\\|author\\=Geoffrey Briggs\\|title\\=Civic and Corporate Heraldry\\|date\\=1971\\|place\\=London\\|page\\=120}}", "> Azure, a lamb passant supporting with the dexter foreleg a staff proper, flying therefrom a pennon argent charged with a saltire gules, between three cross crosslets Or; on a chief of the last two crosiers in saltire of the field.", "The arms were confirmed by the [Chief Herald of Ireland](/wiki/Chief_Herald_of_Ireland \"Chief Herald of Ireland\") in January 2011, although blazoned as follows:[Genealogical Office](/wiki/Genealogical_Office \"Genealogical Office\") *Grants and Confirmations of Arms*, Vol. Aa, folio 28\\.\n> Azure between three crosses crosslet or a lamb passant supporting with the dexter foreleg a staff proper flying therefrom a pennant argent charged with a saltire gules on a chief of the second two crosiers of the field.", "", "" ]
Life as a squire ---------------- [thumb\|right\|John Mytton, c. 1820 – 1830](/wiki/File:John_Mytton%2C_artist_unknown%2C_c._1820-1830%2C_oil_on_canvas_-_Shrewsbury_Museums_Service.jpg "John Mytton, artist unknown, c. 1820-1830, oil on canvas - Shrewsbury Museums Service.jpg") Mytton later returned to his country seat and took up the duties of a squire in preparation for coming into his full inheritance when he became 21\. In 1819 he entertained ambitions of standing for [Parliament](/wiki/Parliament_of_the_United_Kingdom "Parliament of the United Kingdom"), as a [Tory](/wiki/Tories_%28British_political_party%29 "Tories (British political party)"),{{cite news\|last\=Weyman\|first\=Henry T.\|title\=Shrewsbury M.P.s\|periodical\=Transactions of the Shropshire Archaeological Society, Volume XII, 4th Series\|year\=1929–30\|pages\=248–249}} following family tradition. He secured his seat by offering voters £10 notes, spending a total of £10,000 ({{Inflation\|UK\|10000\|1819\|fmt\=eq\|cursign\=£}}).{{cite web\|url\=http://www.measuringworth.com/ukcompare/result.php?use%5B%5D\=CPI\&use%5B%5D\=DEFIND\&use%5B%5D\=WAGE\&use%5B%5D\=GDPCP\&use%5B%5D\=GDPC\&year\_early\=1830\&pound71\=10000\&shilling71\=\&pence71\=\&amount\=10000\&year\_source\=1830\&year\_result\=2006\|title\=Measuring Worth\|access\-date\=18 September 2007\|archive\-date\=30 November 2010\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20101130163117/http://www.measuringworth.com/ukcompare/result.php?use%5B%5D\=CPI\&use%5B%5D\=DEFIND\&use%5B%5D\=WAGE\&use%5B%5D\=GDPCP\&use%5B%5D\=GDPC\&year\_early\=1830\&pound71\=10000\&shilling71\=\&pence71\=\&amount\=10000\&year\_source\=1830\&year\_result\=2006\|url\-status\=dead}} He thus became MP for [Shrewsbury](/wiki/Shrewsbury_%28UK_Parliament_constituency%29 "Shrewsbury (UK Parliament constituency)"). He spent just 30 minutes in the House of Commons in June 1819, but found the debates boring and difficult to follow because of his incipient deafness.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.historyofparliamentonline.org/volume/1790\-1820/member/mytton\-john\-1796\-1834 \|title\=Mytton, John (1796\-1834\), of Halston, Salop (The History of Parliament: the House of Commons 1790\-1820\) \|publisher\=The History of Parliament Trust \|first\=R. G. \|last\=Thorne \|year\=1986 \|access\-date\=2017\-12\-29}} When Parliament was dissolved in 1820 he declined to stand at the next election. However, he attempted to re\-enter Parliament in 1831, this time for one of the two [Shropshire](/wiki/Shropshire_%28UK_Parliament_constituency%29 "Shropshire (UK Parliament constituency)") seats and as a [Whig](/wiki/Whigs_%28British_political_party%29 "Whigs (British political party)") candidate. He withdrew on the fifth day of the poll and came bottom with 376 votes. He then issued an address stating that he would contest the next parliamentary election, but by the time of that election, in 1832, he had gone into exile to escape his creditors.{{cite news\|last\=Weyman\|first\=Henry T.\|title\=Shropshire M.Ps\|periodical\=Transactions of the Shropshire Archaeological Society, Volume XII, 4th Series\|year\=1929–30\|pages\=242–245}} He instead served as [High Sheriff of Merionethshire](/wiki/High_Sheriff_of_Merionethshire "High Sheriff of Merionethshire") for 1821–22, [High Sheriff of Shropshire](/wiki/High_Sheriff_of_Shropshire "High Sheriff of Shropshire") for 1823–24; Mayor of Oswestry for 1824–25 and as treasurer of the [Salop Infirmary](/wiki/Royal_Salop_Infirmary "Royal Salop Infirmary") at Shrewsbury in 1822\.{{cite book\|last\=Keeling\-Roberts\|first\=Margaret\|title\=In Retrospect: A Short History of the Royal Salop Infirmary\|year\=1981\|page\=xi\|publisher\=J. and M. Keeling\-Roberts \|isbn\=0\-9507849\-0\-7}} Meanwhile, he indulged his enjoyment of horseracing and gambling, and enjoyed some success at both. He bought a horse named Euphrates, which was already a consistent winner, and entered it in the Gold Cup at [Lichfield](/wiki/Lichfield "Lichfield") in 1825, and it duly won. Its portrait, commissioned by Mytton from the painter William Webb, was exhibited at the [Royal Academy](/wiki/Royal_Academy "Royal Academy") the same year. Mytton also became a well\-known character at [Oswestry Race Course](/wiki/Oswestry_Race_Course "Oswestry Race Course"), an increasingly disreputable local racetrack.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.bbc.co.uk/shropshire/features/places/oswestry/racecourse.shtml \|title\=Shropshire \- Features \- Racecourse Common, Oswestry \|publisher\=BBC \|access\-date\=2013\-09\-09}} It is said that in 1826, in order to win a bet, he rode a horse into the Bedford Hotel opposite the Town Hall in [Leamington Spa](/wiki/Leamington_Spa "Leamington Spa"), up the grand staircase and onto the balcony, from which he jumped, still seated on his horse, over the diners in the restaurant below, and out through the window onto the Parade. He also held contests for local children at [Dinas Mawddwy](/wiki/Dinas_Mawddwy "Dinas Mawddwy"), giving sums ranging from half a crown to half a guinea to those who rolled all the way down the hill Moel Dinas.{{ Dictionary of Welsh Biography \|id\=s\-MYTT\-JOH\-1796 \|title\= Mytton, John (1796 \- 1834\), sportsman and eccentric \|year\=1959 \|first\=Edward Morgan \|last\=Humphreys \|author\-link\=Edward Morgan Humphreys \|access\-date\=2021\-10\-26 }} ### Field sports [thumb\|right\|John Mytton, Esquire, Halston, Salop, by William Giller after William Webb, 1841](/wiki/File:John_Mytton%2C_Esquire%2C_Halston%2C_Salop%2C_by_William_Giller_after_William_Webb%2C_1841%2C_aquatint%2C_hand-colored%2C_Yale_Center_for_British_Art.jpg "John Mytton, Esquire, Halston, Salop, by William Giller after William Webb, 1841, aquatint, hand-colored, Yale Center for British Art.jpg") [thumb\|right\|Mytton riding his bear, by Henry Alken, 1837](/wiki/File:A_new_hunter_-_Tally_ho%2C_Tally_ho%2C_by_Henry_Alken_-_Memoirs_of_the_Life_of_the_Late_John_Mytton%2C_Esq._of_Halston%2C_Shropshire%2C_by_Nimrod%2C_2nd_ed%2C_London%2C_1837.jpg "A new hunter - Tally ho, Tally ho, by Henry Alken - Memoirs of the Life of the Late John Mytton, Esq. of Halston, Shropshire, by Nimrod, 2nd ed, London, 1837.jpg") Mytton had hunted foxes with his own pack of hounds from the age of ten and went hunting in any kind of weather. His usual winter gear was a light jacket, thin shoes, linen trousers and silk stockings, but in the thrill of the chase he sometimes stripped off and continued the hunt naked, even through snow drifts and rivers in full spate. He also continued hunting despite being unseated and sustaining broken ribs \-"unmurmuring when every jar was an agony", and sometimes led his stable boys on rat hunts, each stable boy being equipped with ice skates. He had a wardrobe consisting of 150 pairs of hunting breeches, 700 pairs of handmade hunting boots, 1,000 hats and some 3,000 shirts. Mytton kept numerous pets, including some 2,000 dogs. His favourites among them were fed on steak and champagne. His favourite horse, Baronet, had free range inside Halston Hall and lay in front of the fire with Mytton. It was said of "Mad Jack" that "not only did he not mind accidents, he positively liked them". Mytton drove his [gig](/wiki/Gig_%28carriage%29 "Gig (carriage)") at high speed and once decided to discover if a horse pulling a carriage could jump over a [tollgate](/wiki/Tollgate "Tollgate") (it could not). On another occasion he asked his passenger whether he had ever been upset in a gig. The man said he had not and Mytton responded, "What!! What a damn slow fellow you must have been all your life!" He promptly drove the gig up a sloping bank at full speed, tipping himself and his passenger out.
[ "Life as a squire\n----------------", "[thumb\\|right\\|John Mytton, c. 1820 – 1830](/wiki/File:John_Mytton%2C_artist_unknown%2C_c._1820-1830%2C_oil_on_canvas_-_Shrewsbury_Museums_Service.jpg \"John Mytton, artist unknown, c. 1820-1830, oil on canvas - Shrewsbury Museums Service.jpg\")", "Mytton later returned to his country seat and took up the duties of a squire in preparation for coming into his full inheritance when he became 21\\.", "In 1819 he entertained ambitions of standing for [Parliament](/wiki/Parliament_of_the_United_Kingdom \"Parliament of the United Kingdom\"), as a [Tory](/wiki/Tories_%28British_political_party%29 \"Tories (British political party)\"),{{cite news\\|last\\=Weyman\\|first\\=Henry T.\\|title\\=Shrewsbury M.P.s\\|periodical\\=Transactions of the Shropshire Archaeological Society, Volume XII, 4th Series\\|year\\=1929–30\\|pages\\=248–249}} following family tradition. He secured his seat by offering voters £10 notes, spending a total of £10,000 ({{Inflation\\|UK\\|10000\\|1819\\|fmt\\=eq\\|cursign\\=£}}).{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.measuringworth.com/ukcompare/result.php?use%5B%5D\\=CPI\\&use%5B%5D\\=DEFIND\\&use%5B%5D\\=WAGE\\&use%5B%5D\\=GDPCP\\&use%5B%5D\\=GDPC\\&year\\_early\\=1830\\&pound71\\=10000\\&shilling71\\=\\&pence71\\=\\&amount\\=10000\\&year\\_source\\=1830\\&year\\_result\\=2006\\|title\\=Measuring Worth\\|access\\-date\\=18 September 2007\\|archive\\-date\\=30 November 2010\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20101130163117/http://www.measuringworth.com/ukcompare/result.php?use%5B%5D\\=CPI\\&use%5B%5D\\=DEFIND\\&use%5B%5D\\=WAGE\\&use%5B%5D\\=GDPCP\\&use%5B%5D\\=GDPC\\&year\\_early\\=1830\\&pound71\\=10000\\&shilling71\\=\\&pence71\\=\\&amount\\=10000\\&year\\_source\\=1830\\&year\\_result\\=2006\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} He thus became MP for [Shrewsbury](/wiki/Shrewsbury_%28UK_Parliament_constituency%29 \"Shrewsbury (UK Parliament constituency)\"). He spent just 30 minutes in the House of Commons in June 1819, but found the debates boring and difficult to follow because of his incipient deafness.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.historyofparliamentonline.org/volume/1790\\-1820/member/mytton\\-john\\-1796\\-1834 \\|title\\=Mytton, John (1796\\-1834\\), of Halston, Salop (The History of Parliament: the House of Commons 1790\\-1820\\) \\|publisher\\=The History of Parliament Trust \\|first\\=R. G. \\|last\\=Thorne \\|year\\=1986 \\|access\\-date\\=2017\\-12\\-29}} When Parliament was dissolved in 1820 he declined to stand at the next election.", "However, he attempted to re\\-enter Parliament in 1831, this time for one of the two [Shropshire](/wiki/Shropshire_%28UK_Parliament_constituency%29 \"Shropshire (UK Parliament constituency)\") seats and as a [Whig](/wiki/Whigs_%28British_political_party%29 \"Whigs (British political party)\") candidate. He withdrew on the fifth day of the poll and came bottom with 376 votes. He then issued an address stating that he would contest the next parliamentary election, but by the time of that election, in 1832, he had gone into exile to escape his creditors.{{cite news\\|last\\=Weyman\\|first\\=Henry T.\\|title\\=Shropshire M.Ps\\|periodical\\=Transactions of the Shropshire Archaeological Society, Volume XII, 4th Series\\|year\\=1929–30\\|pages\\=242–245}}", "He instead served as [High Sheriff of Merionethshire](/wiki/High_Sheriff_of_Merionethshire \"High Sheriff of Merionethshire\") for 1821–22, [High Sheriff of Shropshire](/wiki/High_Sheriff_of_Shropshire \"High Sheriff of Shropshire\") for 1823–24; Mayor of Oswestry for 1824–25 and as treasurer of the [Salop Infirmary](/wiki/Royal_Salop_Infirmary \"Royal Salop Infirmary\") at Shrewsbury in 1822\\.{{cite book\\|last\\=Keeling\\-Roberts\\|first\\=Margaret\\|title\\=In Retrospect: A Short History of the Royal Salop Infirmary\\|year\\=1981\\|page\\=xi\\|publisher\\=J. and M. Keeling\\-Roberts \\|isbn\\=0\\-9507849\\-0\\-7}}", "Meanwhile, he indulged his enjoyment of horseracing and gambling, and enjoyed some success at both. He bought a horse named Euphrates, which was already a consistent winner, and entered it in the Gold Cup at [Lichfield](/wiki/Lichfield \"Lichfield\") in 1825, and it duly won. Its portrait, commissioned by Mytton from the painter William Webb, was exhibited at the [Royal Academy](/wiki/Royal_Academy \"Royal Academy\") the same year. Mytton also became a well\\-known character at [Oswestry Race Course](/wiki/Oswestry_Race_Course \"Oswestry Race Course\"), an increasingly disreputable local racetrack.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.bbc.co.uk/shropshire/features/places/oswestry/racecourse.shtml \\|title\\=Shropshire \\- Features \\- Racecourse Common, Oswestry \\|publisher\\=BBC \\|access\\-date\\=2013\\-09\\-09}}", "It is said that in 1826, in order to win a bet, he rode a horse into the Bedford Hotel opposite the Town Hall in [Leamington Spa](/wiki/Leamington_Spa \"Leamington Spa\"), up the grand staircase and onto the balcony, from which he jumped, still seated on his horse, over the diners in the restaurant below, and out through the window onto the Parade.", "He also held contests for local children at [Dinas Mawddwy](/wiki/Dinas_Mawddwy \"Dinas Mawddwy\"), giving sums ranging from half a crown to half a guinea to those who rolled all the way down the hill Moel Dinas.{{ Dictionary of Welsh Biography \\|id\\=s\\-MYTT\\-JOH\\-1796 \\|title\\= Mytton, John (1796 \\- 1834\\), sportsman and eccentric \\|year\\=1959 \\|first\\=Edward Morgan \\|last\\=Humphreys \\|author\\-link\\=Edward Morgan Humphreys \\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-10\\-26 }}", "### Field sports", "[thumb\\|right\\|John Mytton, Esquire, Halston, Salop, by William Giller after William Webb, 1841](/wiki/File:John_Mytton%2C_Esquire%2C_Halston%2C_Salop%2C_by_William_Giller_after_William_Webb%2C_1841%2C_aquatint%2C_hand-colored%2C_Yale_Center_for_British_Art.jpg \"John Mytton, Esquire, Halston, Salop, by William Giller after William Webb, 1841, aquatint, hand-colored, Yale Center for British Art.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|right\\|Mytton riding his bear, by Henry Alken, 1837](/wiki/File:A_new_hunter_-_Tally_ho%2C_Tally_ho%2C_by_Henry_Alken_-_Memoirs_of_the_Life_of_the_Late_John_Mytton%2C_Esq._of_Halston%2C_Shropshire%2C_by_Nimrod%2C_2nd_ed%2C_London%2C_1837.jpg \"A new hunter - Tally ho, Tally ho, by Henry Alken - Memoirs of the Life of the Late John Mytton, Esq. of Halston, Shropshire, by Nimrod, 2nd ed, London, 1837.jpg\")", "Mytton had hunted foxes with his own pack of hounds from the age of ten and went hunting in any kind of weather. His usual winter gear was a light jacket, thin shoes, linen trousers and silk stockings, but in the thrill of the chase he sometimes stripped off and continued the hunt naked, even through snow drifts and rivers in full spate. He also continued hunting despite being unseated and sustaining broken ribs \\-\"unmurmuring when every jar was an agony\", and sometimes led his stable boys on rat hunts, each stable boy being equipped with ice skates. He had a wardrobe consisting of 150 pairs of hunting breeches, 700 pairs of handmade hunting boots, 1,000 hats and some 3,000 shirts.", "Mytton kept numerous pets, including some 2,000 dogs. His favourites among them were fed on steak and champagne. His favourite horse, Baronet, had free range inside Halston Hall and lay in front of the fire with Mytton.", "It was said of \"Mad Jack\" that \"not only did he not mind accidents, he positively liked them\". Mytton drove his [gig](/wiki/Gig_%28carriage%29 \"Gig (carriage)\") at high speed and once decided to discover if a horse pulling a carriage could jump over a [tollgate](/wiki/Tollgate \"Tollgate\") (it could not). On another occasion he asked his passenger whether he had ever been upset in a gig. The man said he had not and Mytton responded, \"What!! What a damn slow fellow you must have been all your life!\" He promptly drove the gig up a sloping bank at full speed, tipping himself and his passenger out.", "" ]
History ------- The Conde dynasty was founded in [Madrid](/wiki/Madrid "Madrid") by [Domingo Esteso](/wiki/Domingo_Esteso "Domingo Esteso") in 1915\. Esteso trained his nephews Faustino and Mariano Conde Sr. Later, the young [Julio Conde](/wiki/Julio_Conde "Julio Conde") joined his brothers. Domingo Esteso died in 1937, and after that time the three Conde Brothers continued working for Esteso's widow under the name of "Viuda y Sobrinos de Esteso" (Esteso's Widow and Nephews) until 1960\.{{Cite news\|url\=http://www.condehermanos.com/en/history/\#\|title\=History of the Handcrafted Guitar's Workshop {{!}} Felipe Conde\|work\=Felipe Conde\|access\-date\=2017\-04\-10\|language\=en\-US}} In the early 1950s, Julio Conde set up a new handicraft guitar center. From 1960 until 1988\-89 they took over the shop and called themselves *"Sobrinos de Domingo Esteso Conde Hermanos"* (Esteso's Nephews, Conde Brothers) or *"Hermanos Conde Sobrinos de Domingo Esteso"* (Conde Brothers, Esteso's Nephews). Mariano Sr. later established his own shop close to the Royal Theatre, calling it "Conde Hermanos Sucesores Sobrinos de Esteso". His two sons, Felipe, born in 1957 and Mariano Jr., born 1959, began their apprenticeship with their father and uncle Faustino when they were about 15 years old. Faustino died in 1988 and Mariano Sr. in 1989\. Felipe and Mariano Conde (sons of Mariano Conde Sr.) manufactured flamenco guitars in their workshop at Felipe V St. nº 2 in [Madrid](/wiki/Madrid "Madrid") close to the [Teatro Real](/wiki/Teatro_Real "Teatro Real") (Royal Theatre) and the [Palacio Real](/wiki/Palacio_Real "Palacio Real") (Royal Palace). They were known as *"Conde Hermanos Sucesores Sobrinos de Esteso"* (Conde Brothers \- Esteso's Nephews Successors) Felipe and Mariano have now broken off their business association. They work in different workshops and sell different models of guitars. Felipe Conde works with his son and daughter Felipe Jr. and María at his shop at Arrieta 4, in front of the Royal Theatre, close to the old shop. Mariano Conde works at his shop at Amnistía 1, next to the [Opera metro](/wiki/%C3%93pera_%28Madrid_Metro%29 "Ópera (Madrid Metro)") station. Meanwhile, Julio carried on making guitars until his death in 1995, and now his sons and granddaughter maintain the tradition of "Conde Hermanos" at Atocha 53\.
[ "History\n-------", "The Conde dynasty was founded in [Madrid](/wiki/Madrid \"Madrid\") by [Domingo Esteso](/wiki/Domingo_Esteso \"Domingo Esteso\") in 1915\\. Esteso trained his nephews Faustino and Mariano Conde Sr. Later, the young [Julio Conde](/wiki/Julio_Conde \"Julio Conde\") joined his brothers.", "Domingo Esteso died in 1937, and after that time the three Conde Brothers continued working for Esteso's widow under the name of \"Viuda y Sobrinos de Esteso\" (Esteso's Widow and Nephews) until 1960\\.{{Cite news\\|url\\=http://www.condehermanos.com/en/history/\\#\\|title\\=History of the Handcrafted Guitar's Workshop {{!}} Felipe Conde\\|work\\=Felipe Conde\\|access\\-date\\=2017\\-04\\-10\\|language\\=en\\-US}}", "In the early 1950s, Julio Conde set up a new handicraft guitar center.", "From 1960 until 1988\\-89 they took over the shop and called themselves *\"Sobrinos de Domingo Esteso Conde Hermanos\"* (Esteso's Nephews, Conde Brothers) or *\"Hermanos Conde Sobrinos de Domingo Esteso\"* (Conde Brothers, Esteso's Nephews).", "Mariano Sr. later established his own shop close to the Royal Theatre, calling it \"Conde Hermanos Sucesores Sobrinos de Esteso\". His two sons, Felipe, born in 1957 and Mariano Jr., born 1959, began their apprenticeship with their father and uncle Faustino when they were about 15 years old. Faustino died in 1988 and Mariano Sr. in 1989\\.", "Felipe and Mariano Conde (sons of Mariano Conde Sr.) manufactured flamenco guitars in their workshop at Felipe V St. nº 2 in [Madrid](/wiki/Madrid \"Madrid\") close to the [Teatro Real](/wiki/Teatro_Real \"Teatro Real\") (Royal Theatre) and the [Palacio Real](/wiki/Palacio_Real \"Palacio Real\") (Royal Palace). They were known as *\"Conde Hermanos Sucesores Sobrinos de Esteso\"* (Conde Brothers \\- Esteso's Nephews Successors)", "Felipe and Mariano have now broken off their business association. They work in different workshops and sell different models of guitars.", "Felipe Conde works with his son and daughter Felipe Jr. and María at his shop at Arrieta 4, in front of the Royal Theatre, close to the old shop. Mariano Conde works at his shop at Amnistía 1, next to the [Opera metro](/wiki/%C3%93pera_%28Madrid_Metro%29 \"Ópera (Madrid Metro)\") station.", "Meanwhile, Julio carried on making guitars until his death in 1995, and now his sons and granddaughter maintain the tradition of \"Conde Hermanos\" at Atocha 53\\.", "" ]
Context ------- A C program consists of *units* called *[source files](/wiki/Source_code "Source code")* (or *preprocessing files*), which, in addition to source code, includes directives for the [C preprocessor](/wiki/C_preprocessor "C preprocessor"). A translation unit is the output of the C preprocessor – a source file after it has been [preprocessed](/wiki/Preprocessor "Preprocessor"). Preprocessing notably consists of expanding a source file to recursively replace all `#include` directives with the literal file declared in the directive (usually [header files](/wiki/Header_file "Header file"), but possibly other source files); the result of this step is a *preprocessing translation unit*. Further steps include [macro expansion](/wiki/Macro_expansion "Macro expansion") of `#define` directives, and [conditional compilation](/wiki/Conditional_compilation "Conditional compilation") of `#ifdef` directives, among others; this translates the preprocessing translation unit into a *translation unit*. From a translation unit, the compiler generates an [object file](/wiki/Object_file "Object file"), which can be further processed and [linked](/wiki/Linker_%28computing%29 "Linker (computing)") (possibly with other object files) to form an [*executable program*](/wiki/Executable "Executable"). Note that the preprocessor is in principle language agnostic, and is a [lexical preprocessor](/wiki/Lexical_preprocessor "Lexical preprocessor"), working at the [lexical analysis](/wiki/Lexical_analysis "Lexical analysis") level – it does not do parsing, and thus is unable to do any processing specific to C syntax. The input to the compiler is the translation unit, and thus it does not see any preprocessor directives, which have all been processed before compiling starts. While a given translation unit is fundamentally based on a file, the actual source code fed into the compiler may appear substantially different than the source file that the programmer views, particularly due to the recursive inclusion of headers. ### Scope Translation units define a [scope](/wiki/Scope_%28programming%29 "Scope (programming)"), roughly [file scope](/wiki/File_scope "File scope"), and functioning similarly to [module scope](/wiki/Module_scope "Module scope"); in C terminology this is referred to as [internal linkage](/wiki/Internal_linkage "Internal linkage"), which is one of the two forms of [linkage](/wiki/Linkage_%28software%29 "Linkage (software)") in C. Names (functions and variables) declared outside of a function block may be visible either only within a given translation unit, in which case they are said to have internal linkage – they are not visible to the linker – or may be visible to other object files, in which case they are said to have [external linkage](/wiki/External_linkage "External linkage"), and are visible to the linker. C does not have a notion of modules. However, separate object files (and hence also the translation units used to produce object files) function similarly to separate modules, and if a source file does not include other source files, internal linkage (translation unit scope) may be thought of as "file scope, including all header files". ### Code organization The bulk of a project's code is typically held in files with a `.c` suffix (or `.cpp`, `.cxx` or `.cc` for [C\+\+](/wiki/C%2B%2B "C++"), of which `.cpp` is used most conventionally). Files intended to be included typically have a `.h` suffix ( `.hpp` or `.hh` are also used for C\+\+, but `.h` is the most common even for C\+\+), and generally do not contain function or variable definitions to avoid name conflicts when headers are included in multiple source files, as is often the case. Header files can be, and often are, included in other header files. It is standard practice for all `.c` files in a project to include at least one `.h` file.
[ "Context\n-------", "A C program consists of *units* called *[source files](/wiki/Source_code \"Source code\")* (or *preprocessing files*), which, in addition to source code, includes directives for the [C preprocessor](/wiki/C_preprocessor \"C preprocessor\"). A translation unit is the output of the C preprocessor – a source file after it has been [preprocessed](/wiki/Preprocessor \"Preprocessor\").", "Preprocessing notably consists of expanding a source file to recursively replace all `#include` directives with the literal file declared in the directive (usually [header files](/wiki/Header_file \"Header file\"), but possibly other source files); the result of this step is a *preprocessing translation unit*. Further steps include [macro expansion](/wiki/Macro_expansion \"Macro expansion\") of `#define` directives, and [conditional compilation](/wiki/Conditional_compilation \"Conditional compilation\") of `#ifdef` directives, among others; this translates the preprocessing translation unit into a *translation unit*. From a translation unit, the compiler generates an [object file](/wiki/Object_file \"Object file\"), which can be further processed and [linked](/wiki/Linker_%28computing%29 \"Linker (computing)\") (possibly with other object files) to form an [*executable program*](/wiki/Executable \"Executable\").", "Note that the preprocessor is in principle language agnostic, and is a [lexical preprocessor](/wiki/Lexical_preprocessor \"Lexical preprocessor\"), working at the [lexical analysis](/wiki/Lexical_analysis \"Lexical analysis\") level – it does not do parsing, and thus is unable to do any processing specific to C syntax. The input to the compiler is the translation unit, and thus it does not see any preprocessor directives, which have all been processed before compiling starts. While a given translation unit is fundamentally based on a file, the actual source code fed into the compiler may appear substantially different than the source file that the programmer views, particularly due to the recursive inclusion of headers.", "### Scope", "Translation units define a [scope](/wiki/Scope_%28programming%29 \"Scope (programming)\"), roughly [file scope](/wiki/File_scope \"File scope\"), and functioning similarly to [module scope](/wiki/Module_scope \"Module scope\"); in C terminology this is referred to as [internal linkage](/wiki/Internal_linkage \"Internal linkage\"), which is one of the two forms of [linkage](/wiki/Linkage_%28software%29 \"Linkage (software)\") in C. Names (functions and variables) declared outside of a function block may be visible either only within a given translation unit, in which case they are said to have internal linkage – they are not visible to the linker – or may be visible to other object files, in which case they are said to have [external linkage](/wiki/External_linkage \"External linkage\"), and are visible to the linker.", "C does not have a notion of modules. However, separate object files (and hence also the translation units used to produce object files) function similarly to separate modules, and if a source file does not include other source files, internal linkage (translation unit scope) may be thought of as \"file scope, including all header files\".", "### Code organization", "The bulk of a project's code is typically held in files with a `.c` suffix (or `.cpp`, `.cxx` or `.cc` for [C\\+\\+](/wiki/C%2B%2B \"C++\"), of which `.cpp` is used most conventionally). Files intended to be included typically have a `.h` suffix ( `.hpp` or `.hh` are also used for C\\+\\+, but `.h` is the most common even for C\\+\\+), and generally do not contain function or variable definitions to avoid name conflicts when headers are included in multiple source files, as is often the case. Header files can be, and often are, included in other header files. It is standard practice for all `.c` files in a project to include at least one `.h` file.", "" ]
Overview -------- ### [First Division](/wiki/Football_League_First_Division "Football League First Division") The last league championship before the creation of the [Premier League](/wiki/FA_Premier_League "FA Premier League") was won by Leeds United who overhauled [Manchester United](/wiki/Manchester_United_F.C. "Manchester United F.C.") thanks to the efforts of, among others, [Gordon Strachan](/wiki/Gordon_Strachan "Gordon Strachan"), [Lee Chapman](/wiki/Lee_Chapman "Lee Chapman"), [David Batty](/wiki/David_Batty "David Batty"), [Gary Speed](/wiki/Gary_Speed "Gary Speed"), [Gary McAllister](/wiki/Gary_McAllister "Gary McAllister") and [Eric Cantona](/wiki/Eric_Cantona "Eric Cantona"). After runners\-up Manchester United came newly promoted [Sheffield Wednesday](/wiki/Sheffield_Wednesday_F.C. "Sheffield Wednesday F.C."). Defending champions [Arsenal](/wiki/Arsenal_F.C. "Arsenal F.C.") slipped to fourth place and were never a serious threat to retain their title. The previous season's runners\-up [Liverpool](/wiki/Liverpool_F.C. "Liverpool F.C.") dropped to sixth, below [Manchester City](/wiki/Manchester_City_F.C. "Manchester City F.C."), in their first full season under the management of [Graeme Souness](/wiki/Graeme_Souness "Graeme Souness"). It was Liverpool's first finish outside the top two since 1981\. Newly promoted [West Ham United](/wiki/West_Ham_United_F.C. "West Ham United F.C.") were relegated in bottom place, with another newly promoted side – [Notts County](/wiki/Notts_County_F.C. "Notts County F.C.") – following days later. The last day of the season saw [Luton Town](/wiki/Luton_Town_F.C. "Luton Town F.C.") lose their top flight status after ten seasons. ### [Second Division](/wiki/Football_League_Second_Division "Football League Second Division") John Lyall took [Ipswich Town](/wiki/Ipswich_Town_F.C. "Ipswich Town F.C.") back to the First Division after a six\-year absence. The Suffolk club were followed by runners\-up [Middlesbrough](/wiki/Middlesbrough_F.C. "Middlesbrough F.C."), but it was play\-off winners [Blackburn Rovers](/wiki/Blackburn_Rovers_F.C. "Blackburn Rovers F.C.") whose promotion made the biggest headlines. Bankrolled by millionaire chairman [Jack Walker](/wiki/Jack_Walker "Jack Walker") and managed by former Liverpool boss [Kenny Dalglish](/wiki/Kenny_Dalglish "Kenny Dalglish"), Rovers beat [Leicester City](/wiki/Leicester_City_F.C. "Leicester City F.C.") 1–0 in the play\-off final to end a 26\-year absence from the top flight. The Second Division relegation places were occupied by [Port Vale](/wiki/Port_Vale_F.C. "Port Vale F.C."), [Plymouth Argyle](/wiki/Plymouth_Argyle_F.C. "Plymouth Argyle F.C.") and [Brighton \& Hove Albion](/wiki/Brighton_%26_Hove_Albion_F.C. "Brighton & Hove Albion F.C."). Brighton had been losing finalists in the play\-offs just twelve months before going down, but their fortunes had been ruined by financial problems and the loss of striker [Mike Small](/wiki/Mike_Small_%28footballer%29 "Mike Small (footballer)") to West Ham United in the 1991 close season. ### [Third Division](/wiki/Football_League_Third_Division "Football League Third Division") New manager [Phil Holder](/wiki/Phil_Holder "Phil Holder") guided [Brentford](/wiki/Brentford_F.C. "Brentford F.C.") to a surprise Third Division championship success, while [Terry Cooper](/wiki/Terry_Cooper_%28footballer_born_1944%29 "Terry Cooper (footballer born 1944)")'s [Birmingham City](/wiki/Birmingham_City_F.C. "Birmingham City F.C.") occupied the runners\-up spot. The play\-offs were won by [Chris Turner](/wiki/Chris_Turner_%28footballer_born_1951%29 "Chris Turner (footballer born 1951)")'s [Peterborough United](/wiki/Peterborough_United_F.C. "Peterborough United F.C."). The Third Division relegation zone was occupied by [Shrewsbury Town](/wiki/Shrewsbury_Town_F.C. "Shrewsbury Town F.C."), [Bury](/wiki/Bury_F.C. "Bury F.C."), [Torquay United](/wiki/Torquay_United_F.C. "Torquay United F.C.") and [Darlington](/wiki/Darlington_F.C. "Darlington F.C."). ### [Fourth Division](/wiki/Football_League_Fourth_Division "Football League Fourth Division") [Burnley](/wiki/Burnley_F.C. "Burnley F.C.") won the Fourth Division title and became the second team, after [Wolverhampton Wanderers](/wiki/Wolverhampton_Wanderers_F.C. "Wolverhampton Wanderers F.C."), to have been the champions of all four divisions of the Football League. Also going up were [Rotherham United](/wiki/Rotherham_United_F.C. "Rotherham United F.C."), [Mansfield Town](/wiki/Mansfield_Town_F.C. "Mansfield Town F.C.") and play\-off winners [Blackpool](/wiki/Blackpool_F.C. "Blackpool F.C."). On 25 March 1992, [Aldershot](/wiki/Aldershot_F.C. "Aldershot F.C.") were declared bankrupt and obliged to resign from the [Football League](/wiki/Football_League "Football League") following a long battle to stay afloat – their record was expunged. [Carlisle United](/wiki/Carlisle_United_F.C. "Carlisle United F.C.") finished bottom, but there was no relegation from the league in the 1991–92 season. Conference champions [Colchester United](/wiki/Colchester_United_F.C. "Colchester United F.C.") returned to the league after a two\-year absence. ### [FA Cup](/wiki/FA_Cup "FA Cup") Liverpool's Graeme Souness compensated for a disappointing season in the league by winning the [FA Cup](/wiki/FA_Cup "FA Cup"). They beat Second Division underdogs [Sunderland](/wiki/Sunderland_A.F.C. "Sunderland A.F.C.") 2–0 in the final. ### [League Cup](/wiki/EFL_Cup "EFL Cup") Manchester United missed out on the league title but achieved success in the [League Cup](/wiki/EFL_Cup "EFL Cup") with a 1–0 triumph against [Nottingham Forest](/wiki/Nottingham_Forest_F.C. "Nottingham Forest F.C.") in the final.
[ "Overview\n--------", "### [First Division](/wiki/Football_League_First_Division \"Football League First Division\")", "The last league championship before the creation of the [Premier League](/wiki/FA_Premier_League \"FA Premier League\") was won by Leeds United who overhauled [Manchester United](/wiki/Manchester_United_F.C. \"Manchester United F.C.\") thanks to the efforts of, among others, [Gordon Strachan](/wiki/Gordon_Strachan \"Gordon Strachan\"), [Lee Chapman](/wiki/Lee_Chapman \"Lee Chapman\"), [David Batty](/wiki/David_Batty \"David Batty\"), [Gary Speed](/wiki/Gary_Speed \"Gary Speed\"), [Gary McAllister](/wiki/Gary_McAllister \"Gary McAllister\") and [Eric Cantona](/wiki/Eric_Cantona \"Eric Cantona\"). After runners\\-up Manchester United came newly promoted [Sheffield Wednesday](/wiki/Sheffield_Wednesday_F.C. \"Sheffield Wednesday F.C.\").", "Defending champions [Arsenal](/wiki/Arsenal_F.C. \"Arsenal F.C.\") slipped to fourth place and were never a serious threat to retain their title. The previous season's runners\\-up [Liverpool](/wiki/Liverpool_F.C. \"Liverpool F.C.\") dropped to sixth, below [Manchester City](/wiki/Manchester_City_F.C. \"Manchester City F.C.\"), in their first full season under the management of [Graeme Souness](/wiki/Graeme_Souness \"Graeme Souness\"). It was Liverpool's first finish outside the top two since 1981\\.", "Newly promoted [West Ham United](/wiki/West_Ham_United_F.C. \"West Ham United F.C.\") were relegated in bottom place, with another newly promoted side – [Notts County](/wiki/Notts_County_F.C. \"Notts County F.C.\") – following days later. The last day of the season saw [Luton Town](/wiki/Luton_Town_F.C. \"Luton Town F.C.\") lose their top flight status after ten seasons.", "### [Second Division](/wiki/Football_League_Second_Division \"Football League Second Division\")", "John Lyall took [Ipswich Town](/wiki/Ipswich_Town_F.C. \"Ipswich Town F.C.\") back to the First Division after a six\\-year absence. The Suffolk club were followed by runners\\-up [Middlesbrough](/wiki/Middlesbrough_F.C. \"Middlesbrough F.C.\"), but it was play\\-off winners [Blackburn Rovers](/wiki/Blackburn_Rovers_F.C. \"Blackburn Rovers F.C.\") whose promotion made the biggest headlines. Bankrolled by millionaire chairman [Jack Walker](/wiki/Jack_Walker \"Jack Walker\") and managed by former Liverpool boss [Kenny Dalglish](/wiki/Kenny_Dalglish \"Kenny Dalglish\"), Rovers beat [Leicester City](/wiki/Leicester_City_F.C. \"Leicester City F.C.\") 1–0 in the play\\-off final to end a 26\\-year absence from the top flight.", "The Second Division relegation places were occupied by [Port Vale](/wiki/Port_Vale_F.C. \"Port Vale F.C.\"), [Plymouth Argyle](/wiki/Plymouth_Argyle_F.C. \"Plymouth Argyle F.C.\") and [Brighton \\& Hove Albion](/wiki/Brighton_%26_Hove_Albion_F.C. \"Brighton & Hove Albion F.C.\"). Brighton had been losing finalists in the play\\-offs just twelve months before going down, but their fortunes had been ruined by financial problems and the loss of striker [Mike Small](/wiki/Mike_Small_%28footballer%29 \"Mike Small (footballer)\") to West Ham United in the 1991 close season.", "### [Third Division](/wiki/Football_League_Third_Division \"Football League Third Division\")", "New manager [Phil Holder](/wiki/Phil_Holder \"Phil Holder\") guided [Brentford](/wiki/Brentford_F.C. \"Brentford F.C.\") to a surprise Third Division championship success, while [Terry Cooper](/wiki/Terry_Cooper_%28footballer_born_1944%29 \"Terry Cooper (footballer born 1944)\")'s [Birmingham City](/wiki/Birmingham_City_F.C. \"Birmingham City F.C.\") occupied the runners\\-up spot. The play\\-offs were won by [Chris Turner](/wiki/Chris_Turner_%28footballer_born_1951%29 \"Chris Turner (footballer born 1951)\")'s [Peterborough United](/wiki/Peterborough_United_F.C. \"Peterborough United F.C.\").", "The Third Division relegation zone was occupied by [Shrewsbury Town](/wiki/Shrewsbury_Town_F.C. \"Shrewsbury Town F.C.\"), [Bury](/wiki/Bury_F.C. \"Bury F.C.\"), [Torquay United](/wiki/Torquay_United_F.C. \"Torquay United F.C.\") and [Darlington](/wiki/Darlington_F.C. \"Darlington F.C.\").", "### [Fourth Division](/wiki/Football_League_Fourth_Division \"Football League Fourth Division\")", "[Burnley](/wiki/Burnley_F.C. \"Burnley F.C.\") won the Fourth Division title and became the second team, after [Wolverhampton Wanderers](/wiki/Wolverhampton_Wanderers_F.C. \"Wolverhampton Wanderers F.C.\"), to have been the champions of all four divisions of the Football League. Also going up were [Rotherham United](/wiki/Rotherham_United_F.C. \"Rotherham United F.C.\"), [Mansfield Town](/wiki/Mansfield_Town_F.C. \"Mansfield Town F.C.\") and play\\-off winners [Blackpool](/wiki/Blackpool_F.C. \"Blackpool F.C.\").", "On 25 March 1992, [Aldershot](/wiki/Aldershot_F.C. \"Aldershot F.C.\") were declared bankrupt and obliged to resign from the [Football League](/wiki/Football_League \"Football League\") following a long battle to stay afloat – their record was expunged. [Carlisle United](/wiki/Carlisle_United_F.C. \"Carlisle United F.C.\") finished bottom, but there was no relegation from the league in the 1991–92 season. Conference champions [Colchester United](/wiki/Colchester_United_F.C. \"Colchester United F.C.\") returned to the league after a two\\-year absence.", "### [FA Cup](/wiki/FA_Cup \"FA Cup\")", "Liverpool's Graeme Souness compensated for a disappointing season in the league by winning the [FA Cup](/wiki/FA_Cup \"FA Cup\"). They beat Second Division underdogs [Sunderland](/wiki/Sunderland_A.F.C. \"Sunderland A.F.C.\") 2–0 in the final.", "### [League Cup](/wiki/EFL_Cup \"EFL Cup\")", "Manchester United missed out on the league title but achieved success in the [League Cup](/wiki/EFL_Cup \"EFL Cup\") with a 1–0 triumph against [Nottingham Forest](/wiki/Nottingham_Forest_F.C. \"Nottingham Forest F.C.\") in the final.", "" ]
Description ----------- The M1, M2, M3, and M4 all run between [Midtown](/wiki/Midtown%2C_Manhattan "Midtown, Manhattan") or [Lower Manhattan](/wiki/Lower_Manhattan "Lower Manhattan") and [Upper Manhattan](/wiki/Upper_Manhattan "Upper Manhattan"), while the [Q32](/wiki/Q32_%28New_York_City_bus%29 "Q32 (New York City bus)") runs from Midtown north along Fifth and Madison Avenues and east over the [Queensboro Bridge](/wiki/Queensboro_Bridge "Queensboro Bridge") to [Jackson Heights, Queens](/wiki/Jackson_Heights%2C_Queens "Jackson Heights, Queens"). The M4 terminates and originates near [32nd Street](/wiki/Empire_State_Building "Empire State Building"), while the [Q32](/wiki/Q32_%28New_York_City_bus%29 "Q32 (New York City bus)") begins at [Penn Station](/wiki/Penn_Station_%28New_York%29 "Penn Station (New York)"), joining Madison Avenue at [32nd Street](/wiki/32nd_Street_%28Manhattan%29 "32nd Street (Manhattan)") (northbound) and leaving Fifth Avenue at [37th Street](/wiki/37th_Street_%28Manhattan%29 "37th Street (Manhattan)") (southbound). Thus, all four routes are on Fifth and Madison Avenues from 34th Street to 110th Street. ### M1 [thumb\|A 2021 XDE40 (9567\) on the Harlem\-bound M1](/wiki/File:2021_New_Flyer_XDE40_9567_on_the_M1_Route.jpg "2021 New Flyer XDE40 9567 on the M1 Route.jpg") The M1 begins its route in [SoHo](/wiki/SoHo%2C_Manhattan "SoHo, Manhattan") at the intersection of [Centre Street](/wiki/Centre_Street_%28Manhattan%29 "Centre Street (Manhattan)") and [Grand Street](/wiki/Grand_Street_%28Manhattan%29 "Grand Street (Manhattan)"). It continues up Centre and [Lafayette Streets](/wiki/Lafayette_Street "Lafayette Street"), then 4th Avenue to [Union Square](/wiki/Union_Square%2C_Manhattan "Union Square, Manhattan"), where it changes names to Union Square East. Union Square East continues past Union Square as [Park Avenue](/wiki/Park_Avenue "Park Avenue") South. The M1 turns off Park Avenue South at East 25th Street for one block, and then immediately turns right onto Madison Avenue. The M1 follows Madison Avenue all the way to East 135th Street, where it again turns left for one block, and then immediately turns right onto Fifth Avenue (becoming a two\-way at this point). It travels up Fifth to West 139th Street, turns left for a block, and turns right onto [Lenox Avenue](/wiki/Lenox_Avenue "Lenox Avenue") to its terminus at 148th Street. The M1 travels south the same route, but entirely on Fifth Avenue between 139th Street and 8th Street (except for a short deviation around [Marcus Garvey Park](/wiki/Marcus_Garvey_Park "Marcus Garvey Park") at 124th Street), then on [Broadway](/wiki/Broadway_%28Manhattan%29 "Broadway (Manhattan)") from 8th Street to Grand Street. During weekdays, every other southbound trip terminates in [East Village, Manhattan](/wiki/East_Village%2C_Manhattan "East Village, Manhattan"), using 8th Street (St. Marks Place) to travel between 5th and 4th Avenues. All trips run to/from Grand Street on weekends. Some southbound trips may terminate at 5th Avenue \& 42nd Street. The M1 has a peak direction limited stop service on weekday rush hours, running to/from Grand Street and making limited stops between 8th Street and 110th Street. While the limited is running, local trips run to/from 8th Street; it is local at all other times.{{cite NYC bus\|M1}} The M1 is the replacement of the **Fourth and Madison Avenues Streetcar Line**. ### M2 [thumb\|A 2019 XD60 (6233\) on the East Village\-bound M2, used as a demonstration for a driver\-ticketing pilot program](/wiki/File:MTA_and_NYCDOT_Announce_Expansion_of_Bus_Lane_Camera_Enforcement_%2850195325878%29.jpg "MTA and NYCDOT Announce Expansion of Bus Lane Camera Enforcement (50195325878).jpg") The M2 follows the same route as the M1 north until East 110th Street, where it turns west. It travels around [Duke Ellington Circle](/wiki/Duke_Ellington_Circle "Duke Ellington Circle") and along [Central Park North](/wiki/110th_Street_%28Manhattan%29 "110th Street (Manhattan)") to [Adam Clayton Powell Jr. Boulevard](/wiki/Adam_Clayton_Powell_Jr._Boulevard "Adam Clayton Powell Jr. Boulevard") and turns right (north). The M2 follows 7th Avenue (as it is locally known) until West 155th Street, where it turns left and then turns right onto Edgecombe Avenue. The M2 follows Edgecombe Avenue to West 165th Street, and terminates at West 168th Street and Audubon Avenue. It follows the same route south, except using Fifth Avenue instead of Madison. The M2 also has a limited\-stop variant, making limited stops south of 110th Street with no local service during the daytime. At other times, it runs local only.{{cite NYC bus\|M2}} Some northbound buses may terminate at 7th Avenue \& 145th Street. ### M3 [thumb\|A 2010 Orion VII NG HEV (4691\) on the East Village\-bound M3 in June 2024](/wiki/File:%28USA-New_York%29_Metropolitan_Transportation_Authority_4691_NY-MTA-AU1515_M3_2024-06-16.jpg "(USA-New York) Metropolitan Transportation Authority 4691 NY-MTA-AU1515 M3 2024-06-16.jpg") The M3 follows the same route as the M2, except it continues west past Adam Clayton Powell Boulevard along West 110th Street to Manhattan Avenue. It follows Manhattan Avenue, which becomes St. Nicholas Avenue. At 190th Street, the northbound M3 turns east, then continues north along Amsterdam Avenue to a terminus at St. Nicholas Avenue and West 192nd Street. Southbound buses begin on St. Nicholas Avenue and West 192nd Street and continue down St. Nicholas Avenue, Manhattan Avenue, Central Park North, and Fifth Avenue. During late nights the M3 terminates at St. Nicholas Avenue and West 125th Street.{{cite NYC bus\|M3}} The M3 has no limited\-stop variant. ### M4 [thumb\|A 2021 Nova Bus LFS HEV (9867\) on the Cloisters Museum\-bound M4 in June 2024](/wiki/File:%28USA-New_York%29_Metropolitan_Transportation_Authority_9867_NY-MTA-BE7353_M4_2024-06-16.jpg "(USA-New York) Metropolitan Transportation Authority 9867 NY-MTA-BE7353 M4 2024-06-16.jpg") The M4 begins at the intersection of East 32nd Street and Fifth Avenue in Midtown Manhattan. It turns left onto Madison Avenue and follows the same route as the M3 from here, except it continues west past Manhattan Avenue along West 110th Street, then Cathedral Parkway, to Broadway. The M4 turns north onto Broadway and travels along Broadway to West 165th Street. At 165th Street, the M4 turns left and then immediately turns right onto Fort Washington Avenue. The M4 continues up Ft. Washington Avenue to the entrance of Fort Tryon Park. When [The Cloisters Museum](/wiki/The_Cloisters "The Cloisters") is open, the M4 continues north along Margaret Corbin Drive to the entrance to the museum. M4 buses make limited\-stops in the peak direction during weekday rush hours (downtown in the morning, uptown in the evening), making limited stops south of 157th Street while also making local stops along 110th Street. Local service runs at all other times.{{cite NYC bus\|M4}} Some northbound buses may terminate at Broadway \& 135th Street.
[ "Description\n-----------", "The M1, M2, M3, and M4 all run between [Midtown](/wiki/Midtown%2C_Manhattan \"Midtown, Manhattan\") or [Lower Manhattan](/wiki/Lower_Manhattan \"Lower Manhattan\") and [Upper Manhattan](/wiki/Upper_Manhattan \"Upper Manhattan\"), while the [Q32](/wiki/Q32_%28New_York_City_bus%29 \"Q32 (New York City bus)\") runs from Midtown north along Fifth and Madison Avenues and east over the [Queensboro Bridge](/wiki/Queensboro_Bridge \"Queensboro Bridge\") to [Jackson Heights, Queens](/wiki/Jackson_Heights%2C_Queens \"Jackson Heights, Queens\"). The M4 terminates and originates near [32nd Street](/wiki/Empire_State_Building \"Empire State Building\"), while the [Q32](/wiki/Q32_%28New_York_City_bus%29 \"Q32 (New York City bus)\") begins at [Penn Station](/wiki/Penn_Station_%28New_York%29 \"Penn Station (New York)\"), joining Madison Avenue at [32nd Street](/wiki/32nd_Street_%28Manhattan%29 \"32nd Street (Manhattan)\") (northbound) and leaving Fifth Avenue at [37th Street](/wiki/37th_Street_%28Manhattan%29 \"37th Street (Manhattan)\") (southbound). Thus, all four routes are on Fifth and Madison Avenues from 34th Street to 110th Street.", "### M1", "[thumb\\|A 2021 XDE40 (9567\\) on the Harlem\\-bound M1](/wiki/File:2021_New_Flyer_XDE40_9567_on_the_M1_Route.jpg \"2021 New Flyer XDE40 9567 on the M1 Route.jpg\")\nThe M1 begins its route in [SoHo](/wiki/SoHo%2C_Manhattan \"SoHo, Manhattan\") at the intersection of [Centre Street](/wiki/Centre_Street_%28Manhattan%29 \"Centre Street (Manhattan)\") and [Grand Street](/wiki/Grand_Street_%28Manhattan%29 \"Grand Street (Manhattan)\"). It continues up Centre and [Lafayette Streets](/wiki/Lafayette_Street \"Lafayette Street\"), then 4th Avenue to [Union Square](/wiki/Union_Square%2C_Manhattan \"Union Square, Manhattan\"), where it changes names to Union Square East. Union Square East continues past Union Square as [Park Avenue](/wiki/Park_Avenue \"Park Avenue\") South. The M1 turns off Park Avenue South at East 25th Street for one block, and then immediately turns right onto Madison Avenue. The M1 follows Madison Avenue all the way to East 135th Street, where it again turns left for one block, and then immediately turns right onto Fifth Avenue (becoming a two\\-way at this point). It travels up Fifth to West 139th Street, turns left for a block, and turns right onto [Lenox Avenue](/wiki/Lenox_Avenue \"Lenox Avenue\") to its terminus at 148th Street. The M1 travels south the same route, but entirely on Fifth Avenue between 139th Street and 8th Street (except for a short deviation around [Marcus Garvey Park](/wiki/Marcus_Garvey_Park \"Marcus Garvey Park\") at 124th Street), then on [Broadway](/wiki/Broadway_%28Manhattan%29 \"Broadway (Manhattan)\") from 8th Street to Grand Street.", "During weekdays, every other southbound trip terminates in [East Village, Manhattan](/wiki/East_Village%2C_Manhattan \"East Village, Manhattan\"), using 8th Street (St. Marks Place) to travel between 5th and 4th Avenues. All trips run to/from Grand Street on weekends. Some southbound trips may terminate at 5th Avenue \\& 42nd Street.", "The M1 has a peak direction limited stop service on weekday rush hours, running to/from Grand Street and making limited stops between 8th Street and 110th Street. While the limited is running, local trips run to/from 8th Street; it is local at all other times.{{cite NYC bus\\|M1}} The M1 is the replacement of the **Fourth and Madison Avenues Streetcar Line**.", "### M2", "[thumb\\|A 2019 XD60 (6233\\) on the East Village\\-bound M2, used as a demonstration for a driver\\-ticketing pilot program](/wiki/File:MTA_and_NYCDOT_Announce_Expansion_of_Bus_Lane_Camera_Enforcement_%2850195325878%29.jpg \"MTA and NYCDOT Announce Expansion of Bus Lane Camera Enforcement (50195325878).jpg\")\nThe M2 follows the same route as the M1 north until East 110th Street, where it turns west. It travels around [Duke Ellington Circle](/wiki/Duke_Ellington_Circle \"Duke Ellington Circle\") and along [Central Park North](/wiki/110th_Street_%28Manhattan%29 \"110th Street (Manhattan)\") to [Adam Clayton Powell Jr. Boulevard](/wiki/Adam_Clayton_Powell_Jr._Boulevard \"Adam Clayton Powell Jr. Boulevard\") and turns right (north). The M2 follows 7th Avenue (as it is locally known) until West 155th Street, where it turns left and then turns right onto Edgecombe Avenue. The M2 follows Edgecombe Avenue to West 165th Street, and terminates at West 168th Street and Audubon Avenue. It follows the same route south, except using Fifth Avenue instead of Madison.", "The M2 also has a limited\\-stop variant, making limited stops south of 110th Street with no local service during the daytime. At other times, it runs local only.{{cite NYC bus\\|M2}} Some northbound buses may terminate at 7th Avenue \\& 145th Street.", "### M3", "[thumb\\|A 2010 Orion VII NG HEV (4691\\) on the East Village\\-bound M3 in June 2024](/wiki/File:%28USA-New_York%29_Metropolitan_Transportation_Authority_4691_NY-MTA-AU1515_M3_2024-06-16.jpg \"(USA-New York) Metropolitan Transportation Authority 4691 NY-MTA-AU1515 M3 2024-06-16.jpg\")\nThe M3 follows the same route as the M2, except it continues west past Adam Clayton Powell Boulevard along West 110th Street to Manhattan Avenue. It follows Manhattan Avenue, which becomes St. Nicholas Avenue. At 190th Street, the northbound M3 turns east, then continues north along Amsterdam Avenue to a terminus at St. Nicholas Avenue and West 192nd Street. Southbound buses begin on St. Nicholas Avenue and West 192nd Street and continue down St. Nicholas Avenue, Manhattan Avenue, Central Park North, and Fifth Avenue. During late nights the M3 terminates at St. Nicholas Avenue and West 125th Street.{{cite NYC bus\\|M3}} The M3 has no limited\\-stop variant.", "### M4", "[thumb\\|A 2021 Nova Bus LFS HEV (9867\\) on the Cloisters Museum\\-bound M4 in June 2024](/wiki/File:%28USA-New_York%29_Metropolitan_Transportation_Authority_9867_NY-MTA-BE7353_M4_2024-06-16.jpg \"(USA-New York) Metropolitan Transportation Authority 9867 NY-MTA-BE7353 M4 2024-06-16.jpg\")\nThe M4 begins at the intersection of East 32nd Street and Fifth Avenue in Midtown Manhattan. It turns left onto Madison Avenue and follows the same route as the M3 from here, except it continues west past Manhattan Avenue along West 110th Street, then Cathedral Parkway, to Broadway. The M4 turns north onto Broadway and travels along Broadway to West 165th Street. At 165th Street, the M4 turns left and then immediately turns right onto Fort Washington Avenue. The M4 continues up Ft. Washington Avenue to the entrance of Fort Tryon Park. When [The Cloisters Museum](/wiki/The_Cloisters \"The Cloisters\") is open, the M4 continues north along Margaret Corbin Drive to the entrance to the museum.", "M4 buses make limited\\-stops in the peak direction during weekday rush hours (downtown in the morning, uptown in the evening), making limited stops south of 157th Street while also making local stops along 110th Street. Local service runs at all other times.{{cite NYC bus\\|M4}} Some northbound buses may terminate at Broadway \\& 135th Street.", "" ]
History ------- [thumb\|A 1998 Nova Bus RTS\-06 (9607\) on the M4 passing by the [125th Street station](/wiki/125th_Street_station_%28IRT_Broadway-Seventh_Avenue_Line%29 "125th Street station (IRT Broadway-Seventh Avenue Line)") served by the [1](/wiki/1_%28New_York_City_Subway_service%29 "1 (New York City Subway service)") and now\-discontinued [9](/wiki/9_%28New_York_City_Subway_service%29 "9 (New York City Subway service)") trains](/wiki/File:Subway_elevated2.jpg "Subway elevated2.jpg") ### The Fourth and Madison Avenues Line The [New York and Harlem Railroad](/wiki/New_York_and_Harlem_Railroad "New York and Harlem Railroad") was the first railroad in Manhattan, opening from [City Hall](/wiki/City_Hall_%28Manhattan%29 "City Hall (Manhattan)") north along [Centre Street](/wiki/Centre_Street_%28Manhattan%29 "Centre Street (Manhattan)"), [Broome Street](/wiki/Broome_Street "Broome Street") (northbound trains were later moved to [Grand Street](/wiki/Grand_Street_%28Manhattan%29 "Grand Street (Manhattan)")), [the Bowery](/wiki/The_Bowery "The Bowery"), [Fourth Avenue](/wiki/Fourth_Avenue_%28Manhattan%29 "Fourth Avenue (Manhattan)"), and Park Avenue to [Harlem](/wiki/Harlem%2C_Manhattan "Harlem, Manhattan") in the 1830s, and was extended southwest along [Park Row](/wiki/Park_Row_%28Manhattan%29 "Park Row (Manhattan)") to [Broadway](/wiki/Broadway_%28Manhattan%29 "Broadway (Manhattan)") in 1852\. A branch opened along [42nd Street](/wiki/42nd_Street_%28Manhattan%29 "42nd Street (Manhattan)") and Madison Avenue to [73rd Street](/wiki/73rd_Street_%28Manhattan%29 "73rd Street (Manhattan)") in 1870, and the NY\&H began to operate streetcars along this route; it was later extended to Harlem. Buses were substituted for streetcars by the [Madison Avenue Coach Company](/wiki/Madison_Avenue_Coach_Company "Madison Avenue Coach Company") in March 1936\. The [New York City Omnibus Corporation](/wiki/New_York_City_Omnibus_Corporation "New York City Omnibus Corporation") took over operations in 1951, and changed its name to [Fifth Avenue Coach Lines](/wiki/Fifth_Avenue_Coach_Lines "Fifth Avenue Coach Lines") in 1956; the [Manhattan and Bronx Surface Transit Operating Authority](/wiki/Manhattan_and_Bronx_Surface_Transit_Operating_Authority "Manhattan and Bronx Surface Transit Operating Authority") took over operations in 1962\. When the bus that replaced the [Lexington and Lenox Avenues Line](/wiki/Lexington_and_Lenox_Avenues_Line "Lexington and Lenox Avenues Line") was terminated, the Madison Avenue bus was extended west on 139th Street and north on [Lenox Avenue](/wiki/Lenox_Avenue "Lenox Avenue") to [147th Street](/wiki/147th_Street_%28Manhattan%29 "147th Street (Manhattan)"). When Madison Avenue became one\-way northbound, southbound traffic was moved to Fifth Avenue, replacing the original route of the [Fifth Avenue Coach Company](/wiki/Fifth_Avenue_Coach_Company "Fifth Avenue Coach Company"). The [Fifth Avenue Transportation Company](/wiki/Fifth_Avenue_Transportation_Company "Fifth Avenue Transportation Company") (later the Fifth Avenue Coach Company) began operating [stages](/wiki/Stagecoach "Stagecoach") on Fifth Avenue between [11th Street](/wiki/11th_Street_%28Manhattan%29 "11th Street (Manhattan)") and [59th Street](/wiki/59th_Street_%28Manhattan%29 "59th Street (Manhattan)") on January 23, 1886\.{{cite news \|work\=\[\[The New York Times]] \|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/1886/01/24/archives/fifthavenue\-stages\-running\-old\-vehicles\-appropriately\-labeled\-used.html \|title\=Fifth\-Avenue Stages Running \|date\=January 24, 1886 \|page\=2}} The company was formed because the wealthy residents of Fifth Avenue did not want a [street railway](/wiki/Street_railway "Street railway").{{cite web\|url\=http://www.arch.columbia.edu/hp/studio/2005\-2006/history/history\_themes5\.html \|title\=GSAPP Historic Preservation Studio 2005\-2006 \|access\-date\=December 20, 2008 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070705064320/http://www.arch.columbia.edu/hp/studio/2005\-2006/history/history\_themes5\.html \|archive\-date\=July 5, 2007 }}{{cite web\|url\=http://dlib.nyu.edu/findingaids/html/nyhs/fifthave.html\|title\=Guide to the Fifth Avenue Coach Company Collection, 1895\-1962 \- Fifth Avenue Coach Company Collection\|publisher\=New York Historical Society\|access\-date\=December 20, 2008}} The route was later extended south to [Washington Square Park](/wiki/Washington_Square_Park%2C_Manhattan "Washington Square Park, Manhattan") and north to [89th Street](/wiki/89th_Street_%28Manhattan%29 "89th Street (Manhattan)"),{{Citation needed\|date\=April 2007}} and in 1900 the company was authorized to extend north to [135th Street](/wiki/135th_Street_%28Manhattan%29 "135th Street (Manhattan)"), and to operate on other streets including [110th Street](/wiki/110th_Street_%28Manhattan%29 "110th Street (Manhattan)") and [Riverside Drive](/wiki/Riverside_Drive_%28Manhattan%29 "Riverside Drive (Manhattan)") to [124th Street](/wiki/124th_Street_%28Manhattan%29 "124th Street (Manhattan)").{{cite news \| work \= \[\[Brooklyn Daily Eagle]] \| location \= \[\[Brooklyn\|Brooklyn, NY]] \|title\=Can Extend Its Lines\|date \= August 2, 1900\|page\=2}} More extensions, on [32nd Street](/wiki/32nd_Street_%28Manhattan%29 "32nd Street (Manhattan)") from Fifth Avenue west to [Seventh Avenue](/wiki/Seventh_Avenue_%28Manhattan%29 "Seventh Avenue (Manhattan)") ([Penn Station](/wiki/Penn_Station_%28New_York%29 "Penn Station (New York)")) and north from 110th Street on [Seventh Avenue](/wiki/Seventh_Avenue_%28Manhattan%29 "Seventh Avenue (Manhattan)") and [Manhattan Avenue](/wiki/Manhattan_Avenue_%28Manhattan%29 "Manhattan Avenue (Manhattan)")/[St. Nicholas Avenue](/wiki/St._Nicholas_Avenue_%28Manhattan%29 "St. Nicholas Avenue (Manhattan)") to [155th Street](/wiki/155th_Street_%28Manhattan%29 "155th Street (Manhattan)"), were soon authorized.{{Citation needed\|date\=April 2007}} After the company's [horse cars](/wiki/Horse_car "Horse car") were replaced with [motor buses](/wiki/Motor_bus "Motor bus") in July 1907, it began operating these extensions,{{Citation needed\|date\=April 2007}} and assigned them numbers in 1916 or 1917:{{cite news \|work\=\[\[The New York Times]] \|url\=https://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res\=FB0615FA3F5D17738DDDAC0A94DE405B868DF1D3 \|title\=Remember Figures Better than Colors \|date\=June 25, 1916 \|page\=XX9}}[Brooklyn Daily Eagle](/wiki/Brooklyn_Daily_Eagle "Brooklyn Daily Eagle") Almanac, 1916 and 1917 1. Fifth Avenue to 135th Street 2. Fifth and Seventh Avenues to [Polo Grounds](/wiki/Polo_Grounds%2C_Manhattan "Polo Grounds, Manhattan") (155th Street and St. Nicholas Place) 3. Fifth and St. Nicholas Avenues to Polo Grounds 4. Fifth Avenue and Riverside Drive via 110th Street to 135th Street and Broadway 5. [Fifth Avenue and Riverside Drive via 57th Street to 135th Street and Broadway](/wiki/M5_%28New_York_City_bus%29 "M5 (New York City bus)") 6. [72nd Street Crosstown via 57th Street](/wiki/M30_%28New_York_City_bus%29 "M30 (New York City bus)") The Fifth Avenue Coach Company (FACCo) obtained a permit on July 1, 1925, and on July 9 began operating its **15** and **16** routes.{{cite news \|work\=\[\[The New York Times]] \|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/1962/03/05/archives/listing\-of\-routes\-hit\-by\-strike.html \|title\=Listing of Routes Hit by Strike \|date\=March 5, 1962 \|page\=47}}; {{cite news \|work\=\[\[The New York Times]] \|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/1962/03/23/archives/buses\-running.html \|title\=Buses Running \|date\=March 23, 1962 \|page\=21}} The 15 (now the [Q32](/wiki/Q32_%28New_York_City_bus%29 "Q32 (New York City bus)")) began at Fifth Avenue and [25th Street](/wiki/25th_Street_%28Manhattan%29 "25th Street (Manhattan)") at [Madison Square Park](/wiki/Madison_Square_Park "Madison Square Park"), and traveled north on Fifth Avenue, east via [57th Street](/wiki/57th_Street_%28Manhattan%29 "57th Street (Manhattan)") to the [Queensboro Bridge](/wiki/Queensboro_Bridge "Queensboro Bridge"), and along [Queens Boulevard](/wiki/Queens_Boulevard "Queens Boulevard"), [Roosevelt Avenue](/wiki/Roosevelt_Avenue "Roosevelt Avenue"), and 25th Street (now 82nd Street) to [Northern Boulevard](/wiki/Northern_Boulevard "Northern Boulevard") in [Jackson Heights, Queens](/wiki/Jackson_Heights%2C_Queens "Jackson Heights, Queens"). The short 16 (Elmhurst Crosstown) was renamed Q89 on July 1, 1974,{{Cite news\|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/1974/06/20/archives/2\-boroughs\-buses\-get\-new\-numbers\-route\-jumblie\-ends\-july\-1\-in.html\|title\=2 BOROUGHS' BUSES GET NEW NUMBERS\|date\=June 20, 1974\|newspaper\=The New York Times\|issn\=0362\-4331\|access\-date\=October 2, 2016}}{{cite web\|title\=1975 Queens Bus Map\|url\=http://www.wardmaps.com/viewasset.php?aid\=16356\|website\=wardmaps.com\|publisher\=\[\[New York City Transit Authority]]\|access\-date\=February 18, 2016\|date\=1975}} began at Roosevelt Avenue and 82nd Street and used Baxter Avenue and [Broadway](/wiki/Broadway_%28Queens%29 "Broadway (Queens)") to reach Queens Boulevard in [Elmhurst](/wiki/Elmhurst%2C_Queens "Elmhurst, Queens").{{cite news \|work\=\[\[The New York Times]] \|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/1925/07/10/archives/plans\-to\-link\-all\-suburban\-transit\-turner\-outlines\-3\-routes\-for.html \|title\=Plans to Link All Suburban Transit \|date\=July 10, 1925 \|page\=19}} Even before the Fifth Avenue company began operating its coaches, the [New York and Harlem Railroad](/wiki/New_York_and_Harlem_Railroad "New York and Harlem Railroad") was operating its [Fourth and Madison Avenues Line](/wiki/Fourth_and_Madison_Avenues_Line "Fourth and Madison Avenues Line") of [horse cars](/wiki/Horse_car "Horse car"), later [trolleys](/wiki/Tram "Tram"), mainly on [Fourth Avenue](/wiki/Fourth_Avenue_%28Manhattan%29 "Fourth Avenue (Manhattan)") below and [Madison Avenue](/wiki/Madison_Avenue_%28Manhattan%29 "Madison Avenue (Manhattan)") above [42nd Street](/wiki/42nd_Street_%28Manhattan%29 "42nd Street (Manhattan)") ([Grand Central Terminal](/wiki/Grand_Central_Terminal "Grand Central Terminal")). The [Madison Avenue Coach Company](/wiki/Madison_Avenue_Coach_Company "Madison Avenue Coach Company"), a [New York Railways](/wiki/New_York_Railways "New York Railways") subsidiary,{{cite news \|work\=\[\[The New York Times]] \|url\=https://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res\=FB0C13FF3A5B107A93C5A91789D85F418385F9 \|title\=Bus Grants Asked on 8th and 9th Avs. \|date\=February 7, 1935 \|page\=3}} started operating replacement buses on February 1, 1935\. Several changes were made to the route: instead of [the Bowery](/wiki/The_Bowery "The Bowery"), a shorter alignment via [Centre Street](/wiki/Centre_Street_%28Manhattan%29 "Centre Street (Manhattan)") and [Lafayette Street](/wiki/Lafayette_Street_%28Manhattan%29 "Lafayette Street (Manhattan)") was used, and a variant stayed on Madison Avenue south to [26th Street](/wiki/26th_Street_%28Manhattan%29 "26th Street (Manhattan)") and short\-turned at [Astor Place](/wiki/Astor_Place_%28Manhattan%29 "Astor Place (Manhattan)").{{cite news \|work\=\[\[The New York Times]] \|url\=https://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res\=FA081EFD3C5812738DDDA80894DA405B858FF1D3 \|title\=Swift Buses Oust Madison Trolleys \|date\=February 1, 1935 \|page\=23}} As part of the [New York City Omnibus Corporation](/wiki/New_York_City_Omnibus_Corporation "New York City Omnibus Corporation") system (NYCO; also a New York Railways subsidiary), these two routes were numbered 1 (*via Park Avenue*) and 2 (short\-turn *via Madison Avenue*).[New York City Omnibus Corporation Motor Coach Routes](http://www.nycsubway.org/maps/busmaps.html), ca. 1940 ### Extensions and combinations On July 17, 1960, [Lexington Avenue](/wiki/Lexington_Avenue_%28Manhattan%29 "Lexington Avenue (Manhattan)") and [Third Avenue](/wiki/Third_Avenue_%28Manhattan%29 "Third Avenue (Manhattan)") became a [one\-way pair](/wiki/One-way_pair "One-way pair"). The NYCO's [4](/wiki/4_%28NYCO%29 "4 (NYCO)"), which had traveled along Lexington Avenue, [116th Street](/wiki/116th_Street_%28Manhattan%29 "116th Street (Manhattan)"), and [Lenox Avenue](/wiki/Lenox_Avenue_%28Manhattan%29 "Lenox Avenue (Manhattan)") to northern [Harlem](/wiki/Harlem%2C_Manhattan "Harlem, Manhattan"), was discontinued. To cover this travel pattern, the 1 was extended west on 135th Street and north on Lenox Avenue, and the 2 was realigned to turn west on 116th Street and north on Lenox Avenue.{{cite news \|work\=\[\[The New York Times]] \|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/1960/07/12/archives/oneway\-bus\-schedules\-given\-for\-lexington\-and\-3d\-avenues.html \|title\=One\-Way Bus Schedules Given For Lexington and 3d Avenues \|date\=July 12, 1960 \|page\=37}} The path of the 1 and 2 south of [Union Square](/wiki/Union_Square%2C_Manhattan "Union Square, Manhattan") was changed on November 10, 1963, to use [Broadway](/wiki/Broadway_%28Manhattan%29 "Broadway (Manhattan)") rather than Fourth Avenue and Lafayette Street, due to Lafayette Street becoming [one\-way](/wiki/One-way_traffic "One-way traffic") northbound and Broadway becoming one\-way southbound.{{cite news \|work\=\[\[The New York Times]] \|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/1963/11/05/archives/city\-to\-extend\-oneway\-traffic\-to\-3\-manhattan\-routes\-sunday\-broadway.html \|title\=City to Extend One\-Way Traffic To 3 Manhattan Routes Sunday \|date\=November 5, 1963 \|page\=1}} On that same day, the southern terminus for FACCo's 2 and 3 was moved to [8th Street](/wiki/8th_Street_%28Manhattan%29 "8th Street (Manhattan)") and [Fourth Avenue](/wiki/Park_Avenue "Park Avenue"),{{cite news \|last\=Stengren \|first\=Bernard \|title\='VILLAGE' TO GET MORE BUS RUNS; 15\-an\-Hour Scheduling on 5th Ave.\-Houston St. Line Will Begin on Sunday \|work\=\[\[The New York Times]] \|date\=November 8, 1963 \|page\=33}} after terminating the prior two months at 8th Street between Fifth Avenue and [University Place](/wiki/University_Place_%28Manhattan%29 "University Place (Manhattan)") following a ban on all bus traffic through their prior terminus of [Washington Square](/wiki/Washington_Square_Park "Washington Square Park") imposed by the city on September 2, 1963\.{{cite news \|last\=Kaplan \|first\=Samuel \|title\=City to Close Washington Square to All Buses; New Routing to Bypass Park Beginning Monday — Traffic Around Square Will Go Counter\-Clockwise \|work\=\[\[The New York Times]] \|date\=August 31, 1963 \|page\=1}} As part of the new pattern, the 2 and 3 turned at Fourth Avenue onto [Wanamaker Place](/wiki/9th_Street_%28Manhattan%29 "9th Street (Manhattan)") and then onto Fifth Avenue. Fifth and Madison Avenues became [one\-way streets](/wiki/One-way_street "One-way street") on January 14, 1966, and the four FACCo routes on Fifth Avenue past Central Park and the two NYCO routes on Madison Avenue were combined into four routes on both avenues. In particular, the following changes were made:{{cite web \|work\=\[\[The New York Times]] \|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/1966/01/17/archives/barnes\-suggests\-express\-bus\-runs\-says\-oneway\-traffic\-flow\-will.html \|title\=Barnes Suggests Express Bus Runs \|date\=January 17, 1966 \|page\=1}}{{cite news \|work\=\[\[The New York Times]] \|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/1966/01/26/archives/oneway\-avenues\-slow\-bus\-traffic\-transit\-authority\-charges.html \|title\=One\-Way Avenues Slow Bus Traffic \|date\=January 26, 1966 \|page\=32}} * The NYCO's 1 and FACCo's 1 were combined. The northbound route of the new 1 followed the old NYCO 1 along Park Avenue, 39th Street, Madison Avenue, 135th Street, and Lenox Avenue, and the southbound route used Lenox Avenue and 135th to join the old FACCo 1 at Fifth Avenue. Buses left the old FACCo route at 40th Street, heading south on the old NYCO route on Park Avenue and Broadway. * The NYCO's 2 and FACCo's 2 (since extended to [168th Street](/wiki/168th_Street_%28Manhattan%29 "168th Street (Manhattan)") via [Edgecombe Avenue](/wiki/Edgecombe_Avenue "Edgecombe Avenue")) were combined. Again, the southbound route generally followed the FACCo's 2, and the northbound route was the NYCO's 2\. North of 110th Street, the combined route had two variants, watching the two divergent routes. One, designated by MaBSTOA as the Seventh Avenue branch (and numbered 2A), followed the FACCo's 2 along 110th Street and Seventh Avenue, continuing along Seventh and Edgecombe Avenues to 168th Street, while the other (designated the Lenox Avenue branch) used 116th Street and Lenox Avenue to 147th Street (NYCO's 2\). FACCo's 2 was renamed 2A from 1966 to 1974, while NYCO's 2 had its route south of 116th Street moved to [Third Avenue](/wiki/Third_Avenue_%28Manhattan%29 "Third Avenue (Manhattan)") northbound and [Lexington Avenue](/wiki/Lexington_Avenue_%28Manhattan%29 "Lexington Avenue (Manhattan)") southbound, and its route number changed to 101A, on March 2, 1969 (renumbered [M102](/wiki/Third_and_Lexington_Avenues_Line "Third and Lexington Avenues Line") on July 1, 1974\)."Manhattan and Bronx Surface Transit Operating Authority: The First Ten Years." *Motor Coach Age*, May 1972\. * The FACCo's 3 (since extended to [Fort George](/wiki/Fort_George%2C_Manhattan "Fort George, Manhattan") via St. Nicholas Avenue), 4 (since extended to [Fort Tryon Park](/wiki/Fort_Tryon_Park "Fort Tryon Park") via [Fort Washington Avenue](/wiki/Fort_Washington_Avenue "Fort Washington Avenue"), and ending at [Penn Station](/wiki/Penn_Station_%28New_York%29 "Penn Station (New York)") in the south), and 15 were essentially moved northbound from Fifth Avenue to Madison Avenue south of 110th Street. Where it made a difference, the NYCO's 2 was more closely followed. The 1 and 4 routes (later the M1 and M4, respectively) were among the first routes to get limited\-stop service, in 1973\.{{cite web \| title\=Buses on 3 Routes Will Be Expresses During Rush Hour \| website\=The New York Times \| date\=September 13, 1973 \| url\=https://www.nytimes.com/1973/09/13/archives/buses\-on\-3\-routes\-will\-be\-expresses\-during\-rush\-hour.html \| access\-date\=July 17, 2018}} In 1976, eight double\-decker buses were placed into service on the M4 and [M5](/wiki/M5_%28New_York_City_bus%29 "M5 (New York City bus)") routes as part of a two\-year test.{{cite web \|date\=September 15, 1976 \|title\=Double‐Deck Buses Make Debut And Stop Traffic (Pedestrian) \|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/1976/09/15/archives/doubledeck\-buses\-make\-debut\-and\-stop\-traffic\-pedestrian.html \|access\-date\=October 5, 2024 \|website\=The New York Times}} The buses were {{Convert\|14\.5\|ft}} tall, which required the relocation of several traffic lights and removal of tree limbs along the routes.{{cite web \|date\=September 9, 1976 \|title\=Double‐Decker Buses Force Some Changes \|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/1976/09/09/archives/doubledecker\-buses\-force\-some\-changes.html \|access\-date\=October 5, 2024 \|website\=The New York Times}}{{cite news \|date\=10 Sep 1976 \|title\=New Buses Too Tall For New York Streets \|work\=The Hartford Courant \|page\=16A \|issn\=1047\-4153 \|id\={{ProQuest\|544741043}}}} ### Recent changes [thumb\|Marked bus lane for the M1 and discontinued M6 at the old South Ferry\-bound stop on [Broadway](/wiki/Broadway_%28Manhattan%29 "Broadway (Manhattan)"), before 2010 budget cuts](/wiki/Image:Broadway_bus_lane_jeh.JPG "Broadway bus lane jeh.JPG") Limited\-stop service on the M2 began between 110th Street and 8th Street on October 14, 1991, replacing local service between 7 a.m. and 7 p.m.{{Cite news\|url\=https://www.newspapers.com/image/?spot\=22822947\|title\=M2 \& M101 Buses Are Pulling Out The Stops Limited\-Stop Service Starts October 14th\|date\=October 11, 1991\|work\=New York Daily News\|access\-date\=August 17, 2018}} In September 1995, limited\-stop service was implemented on Saturdays between 10 a.m. and 6 p.m. In January 2000, the MTA Board announced plans to implement limited\-stop M2 service on Sundays between 10 a.m. and 6 p.m. due to continued increases in weekend ridership. The change was to take effect in spring 2000, and was expected to reduce costs by $25,000 a year.{{Cite book \|title\=January 2000 NYC Transit Committee Agenda \|date\=January 18, 2000 \|publisher\=New York City Transit Authority \|pages\=\[https://www.flickr.com/photos/unionturnpike/48536215771/in/album\-72157710307680251/ 105], \[https://www.flickr.com/photos/unionturnpike/48536362977/in/album\-72157710307680251/ 106], \[https://www.flickr.com/photos/unionturnpike/48536214191/in/album\-72157710307680251/ 107\-108]}} On May 21, 2000, this change took effect. On the same day, Sunday M3 service began starting 17 minutes earlier. [thumb\|A 2006 Orion VII OG HEV (6755\) on the 32nd Street\-bound M4 in Midtown along 34th Street in February 2011](/wiki/File:MTA_Orion_hybrid_bus_2011-2.JPG "MTA Orion hybrid bus 2011-2.JPG") In March 2000, plans were announced to reroute the M4 to run via the same route in both directions between West 159th Street and West 165th Street. Buses would run via Broadway, West 165th Street, and Fort Washington Avenue. At the time, northbound buses ran via Broadway and West 168th Street before turning north onto Fort Washington Avenue, while southbound buses ran via Fort Washington Avenue before turning south onto Broadway. The change would be made to eliminate the M4's asymmetric route and reroute it from a congested block of West 168th Street.{{Cite book \|title\=March 2000 NYC Transit Committee Agenda \|date\=March 21, 2000 \|publisher\=New York City Transit \|pages\=\[https://www.flickr.com/photos/unionturnpike/48481446022/in/album\-72157710160948387/ 91], \[https://www.flickr.com/photos/unionturnpike/48481444972/in/album\-72157710160948387/ 92], \[https://www.flickr.com/photos/unionturnpike/48481443882/in/album\-72157710160948387/ 93\-94], \[https://www.flickr.com/photos/unionturnpike/48481290056/in/album\-72157710160948387/ 95], \[https://www.flickr.com/photos/unionturnpike/48481442152/in/album\-72157710160948387/ 96]}} In May 2000, the MTA announced plans to revise the terminal loop for the M2 and M18 bus routes and relocate their terminal from West 167th Street between Audubon Avenue and St. Nicholas Avenue to the northern side of West 168th Street between Audubon Avenue and St. Nicholas Avenue. The M2 made a circuitous route to reach the 168th Street subway station, including a u\-turn from northbound St. Nicholas Avenue to southbound Broadway, and the M18 misses the subway station. The M18 bus route missed the terminal loop of the M2 would be revised to run along Audubon Avenue, West 168th Street, and Broadway instead of Audubon Avenue, West 167th Street, St. Nicholas Avenue, West 168th Street, and Broadway. The M18 bus terminal loop would be revised from consisting of Audubon Avenue, West 167th Street, and St. Nicholas Avenue to consisting of Audubon Avenue, West 168th Street, Broadway, West 166th Street, and St. Nicholas Avenue. The revised changes would eliminate the u\-turn and, by having southbound M18 buses share a stop with the M2 and M3 at Broadway and West 168th Street, could potentially equalize boarding on those routes. The change was expected to be implemented in mid\-2000\.{{Cite book \|title\=May 2000 NYC Transit Committee Agenda \|date\=May 16, 2000 \|publisher\=New York City Transit \|pages\=\[https://www.flickr.com/photos/unionturnpike/48481718931/in/album\-72157710160948342/ 97], \[https://www.flickr.com/photos/unionturnpike/48481717881/in/album\-72157710160948342/ 98], \[https://www.flickr.com/photos/unionturnpike/48481871402/in/album\-72157710160948342/ 99\-100], \[https://www.flickr.com/photos/unionturnpike/48481715986/in/album\-72157710160948342/ 101]}} On July 2, 2000, the changes in M2, M4, and M18 bus service took effect.{{Cite web \|date\=August 3, 2000 \|title\=Bus Service Notice \|url\=http://www.mta.nyc.ny.us:80/nyct/service/bus/bussrvno.htm \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20000816065656/http://www.mta.nyc.ny.us:80/nyct/service/bus/bussrvno.htm \|archive\-date\=August 16, 2000 \|access\-date\=June 15, 2023 \|website\=mta.info \|publisher\=Metropolitan Transportation Authority}} [thumb\|right\|A 2006 Orion VII OG HEV (6724\) on the East Village\-bound M2 Limited at 57th Street/5th Avenue in August 2018](/wiki/File:57th_St_5th_Av_td_%282018-08-16%29_04.jpg "57th St 5th Av td (2018-08-16) 04.jpg") Plans were announced in April 2002 to reroute northbound evening and late night M2 service off of Wanamaker Place, University Place, and East 14th Street and onto Fourth Avenue, which was the route used by M2 during the rest of the day. The change was made so M2 service would not be split between two corridors overnight, to simplify M2 service, reduce travel times by three to five minutes, and consolidate late night M1 and M2 service.{{Cite book \|title\=April 2002 NYC Transit Committee Agenda \|date\=April 29, 2002 \|publisher\=New York City Transit Authority \|pages\=\[https://www.flickr.com/photos/unionturnpike/48482329746/in/album\-72157710163565687/ 89], \[https://www.flickr.com/photos/unionturnpike/48482328831/in/album\-72157710163565687/ 90], \[https://www.flickr.com/photos/unionturnpike/48482479817/in/album\-72157710163565687/ 91\-92], \[https://www.flickr.com/photos/unionturnpike/48482327241/in/album\-72157710163565687/ 93]}} The service change took effect on June 30, 2002\.{{Cite web \|title\=Bus Service Notice \|url\=http://www.mta.info/nyct/service/bus/bussrvnomn.htm \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20020804090138/http://www.mta.info:80/nyct/service/bus/bussrvnomn.htm \|archive\-date\=August 4, 2002 \|access\-date\=June 15, 2023 \|website\=mta.info \|publisher\=Metropolitan Transportation Authority}} [thumb\|right\|A 2006 Orion VII OG HEV (6743\) on the East Village\-bound M1 traveling along Fifth Avenue near [Central Park](/wiki/Central_Park "Central Park").](/wiki/File:MTA_BUS_-_panoramio.jpg "MTA BUS - panoramio.jpg") On June 25, 2010, as a result of service cuts, MTA no longer operated weekend M1 service into Midtown, instead terminating at 106th Street. After numerous requests to rescind some of the 2010 service cuts, the MTA restored the M1 to 8th Street on the weekends on January 6, 2013\.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.mta.info/press\-release/nyc\-transit/mta\-new\-york\-city\-transit\-implements\-bus\-service\-enhancements\-2013\|title\=MTA {{!}} Press Release {{!}} NYC Transit {{!}} MTA New York City Transit Implements Bus Service Enhancements for 2013\|website\=www.mta.info\|access\-date\=October 29, 2016}} There was a proposal underway to re\-extend this line back down to [Worth Street](/wiki/Worth_Street "Worth Street") in early 2017\. In this proposal, every other bus would go to Worth Street via [Bowery](/wiki/Bowery "Bowery") and [Third Avenue](/wiki/Third_Avenue "Third Avenue"), returning uptown via [Centre Street](/wiki/Centre_Street_%28Manhattan%29 "Centre Street (Manhattan)") and [Lafayette Street](/wiki/Lafayette_Street "Lafayette Street").{{Cite web \|date\=October 25, 2016 \|title\=MTA to extend M1 bus route south to Worth St \|url\=https://www.amny.com/news/mta\-to\-extend\-m1\-bus\-route\-south\-to\-worth\-st/ \|access\-date\=October 29, 2016 \|website\=}} The M1 was extended back down to [Grand Street](/wiki/Grand_Street_%28Manhattan%29 "Grand Street (Manhattan)") on September 3, 2017, though downtown buses run on [Broadway](/wiki/Broadway_%28Manhattan%29 "Broadway (Manhattan)"). Service will eventually be re\-extended to Worth Street, after which the downtown buses running below 8th Street will be rerouted onto Bowery. In April 2018, it was proposed to permanently truncate the M4's southern terminal to 41st Street. This was due to a street\-widening along 32nd Street that would cause delays for M4 buses from terminating there, since that portion of the route was shared with the [Q32](/wiki/Q32_%28New_York_City_bus%29 "Q32 (New York City bus)"), which continues northward from Penn Station to [Jackson Heights, Queens](/wiki/Jackson_Heights%2C_Queens "Jackson Heights, Queens"). The change would occur in summer 2018\.{{Cite web\|url\=http://web.mta.info/mta/news/books/pdf/180423\_1000\_Transit.pdf\|title\=New York City Transit and Bus Committee Meeting\|date\=April 23, 2018\|publisher\=\[\[Metropolitan Transportation Authority]]\|pages\=193–196\|access\-date\=April 20, 2018}} To allow M4 riders to access Penn Station, and vice versa, free transfers would be available between Q32 and M4 buses going in the same direction.{{Cite web\|url\=http://web.mta.info/mta/news/books/pdf/180521\_1030\_Transit.pdf\|title\=New York City Transit and Bus Committee Meeting\|date\=May 21, 2018\|publisher\=\[\[Metropolitan Transportation Authority]]\|pages\=9\|access\-date\=April 20, 2018}} However, the plan was then changed to have the M4 continue down to 32nd Street, where it would terminate midway between 5th and Madison Avenues, two blocks from Penn Station.{{Cite web\|url\=http://web.mta.info/nyct/service/servNotices\_M4\_Reroute.htm\|title\=Permanent M4 Route Change in Midtown\|date\=July 15, 2018\|website\=web.mta.info\|publisher\=Metropolitan Transportation Authority\|language\=en\|access\-date\=July 15, 2018}} This was likely done to minimize the impact of the route changes because of the 32nd Street widening, while still maintaining the same connectivity with other routes, like the {{NYC bus link\|M34\|M34A SBS\|prose\=y}} at 34th Street. On June 30, 2024, the M2 stop on Audubon Ave at W 165th St was discontinued and was redirected to Amsterdam Avenue,{{Cite web \|title\=M2 bus stop relocated \|url\=https://new.mta.info/sites/default/files/2024\-06/M2%20Audubon%20Av%20at%20W%20165%20St%20stop%20closure\_0\.png}} and the M3 stop terminal was relocated to St Nicholas Ave at W 192nd St. {{Cite web \|title\=M3 bus terminal change \|url\=https://new.mta.info/sites/default/files/2024\-06/M3%20Terminal%20Changes.jpg}} The northbound M4 stop on E 32nd St at 5th Ave was relocated to Madison Ave at E 32nd St. The stop on E 32nd St at 5th Ave was changed to be a drop\-off only stop.{{Cite web \|title\=M4 bus stop relocated \|url\=https://new.mta.info/sites/default/files/2024\-06/M4%20\-%20Stop%20change%20on%20E%2032nd%20St%20at%205th%20Ave.png}}
[ "History\n-------", "[thumb\\|A 1998 Nova Bus RTS\\-06 (9607\\) on the M4 passing by the [125th Street station](/wiki/125th_Street_station_%28IRT_Broadway-Seventh_Avenue_Line%29 \"125th Street station (IRT Broadway-Seventh Avenue Line)\") served by the [1](/wiki/1_%28New_York_City_Subway_service%29 \"1 (New York City Subway service)\") and now\\-discontinued [9](/wiki/9_%28New_York_City_Subway_service%29 \"9 (New York City Subway service)\") trains](/wiki/File:Subway_elevated2.jpg \"Subway elevated2.jpg\")", "### The Fourth and Madison Avenues Line", "The [New York and Harlem Railroad](/wiki/New_York_and_Harlem_Railroad \"New York and Harlem Railroad\") was the first railroad in Manhattan, opening from [City Hall](/wiki/City_Hall_%28Manhattan%29 \"City Hall (Manhattan)\") north along [Centre Street](/wiki/Centre_Street_%28Manhattan%29 \"Centre Street (Manhattan)\"), [Broome Street](/wiki/Broome_Street \"Broome Street\") (northbound trains were later moved to [Grand Street](/wiki/Grand_Street_%28Manhattan%29 \"Grand Street (Manhattan)\")), [the Bowery](/wiki/The_Bowery \"The Bowery\"), [Fourth Avenue](/wiki/Fourth_Avenue_%28Manhattan%29 \"Fourth Avenue (Manhattan)\"), and Park Avenue to [Harlem](/wiki/Harlem%2C_Manhattan \"Harlem, Manhattan\") in the 1830s, and was extended southwest along [Park Row](/wiki/Park_Row_%28Manhattan%29 \"Park Row (Manhattan)\") to [Broadway](/wiki/Broadway_%28Manhattan%29 \"Broadway (Manhattan)\") in 1852\\. A branch opened along [42nd Street](/wiki/42nd_Street_%28Manhattan%29 \"42nd Street (Manhattan)\") and Madison Avenue to [73rd Street](/wiki/73rd_Street_%28Manhattan%29 \"73rd Street (Manhattan)\") in 1870, and the NY\\&H began to operate streetcars along this route; it was later extended to Harlem. Buses were substituted for streetcars by the [Madison Avenue Coach Company](/wiki/Madison_Avenue_Coach_Company \"Madison Avenue Coach Company\") in March 1936\\. The [New York City Omnibus Corporation](/wiki/New_York_City_Omnibus_Corporation \"New York City Omnibus Corporation\") took over operations in 1951, and changed its name to [Fifth Avenue Coach Lines](/wiki/Fifth_Avenue_Coach_Lines \"Fifth Avenue Coach Lines\") in 1956; the [Manhattan and Bronx Surface Transit Operating Authority](/wiki/Manhattan_and_Bronx_Surface_Transit_Operating_Authority \"Manhattan and Bronx Surface Transit Operating Authority\") took over operations in 1962\\.", "When the bus that replaced the [Lexington and Lenox Avenues Line](/wiki/Lexington_and_Lenox_Avenues_Line \"Lexington and Lenox Avenues Line\") was terminated, the Madison Avenue bus was extended west on 139th Street and north on [Lenox Avenue](/wiki/Lenox_Avenue \"Lenox Avenue\") to [147th Street](/wiki/147th_Street_%28Manhattan%29 \"147th Street (Manhattan)\"). When Madison Avenue became one\\-way northbound, southbound traffic was moved to Fifth Avenue, replacing the original route of the [Fifth Avenue Coach Company](/wiki/Fifth_Avenue_Coach_Company \"Fifth Avenue Coach Company\").\nThe [Fifth Avenue Transportation Company](/wiki/Fifth_Avenue_Transportation_Company \"Fifth Avenue Transportation Company\") (later the Fifth Avenue Coach Company) began operating [stages](/wiki/Stagecoach \"Stagecoach\") on Fifth Avenue between [11th Street](/wiki/11th_Street_%28Manhattan%29 \"11th Street (Manhattan)\") and [59th Street](/wiki/59th_Street_%28Manhattan%29 \"59th Street (Manhattan)\") on January 23, 1886\\.{{cite news \\|work\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]] \\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/1886/01/24/archives/fifthavenue\\-stages\\-running\\-old\\-vehicles\\-appropriately\\-labeled\\-used.html \\|title\\=Fifth\\-Avenue Stages Running \\|date\\=January 24, 1886 \\|page\\=2}} The company was formed because the wealthy residents of Fifth Avenue did not want a [street railway](/wiki/Street_railway \"Street railway\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.arch.columbia.edu/hp/studio/2005\\-2006/history/history\\_themes5\\.html \\|title\\=GSAPP Historic Preservation Studio 2005\\-2006 \\|access\\-date\\=December 20, 2008 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070705064320/http://www.arch.columbia.edu/hp/studio/2005\\-2006/history/history\\_themes5\\.html \\|archive\\-date\\=July 5, 2007 }}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://dlib.nyu.edu/findingaids/html/nyhs/fifthave.html\\|title\\=Guide to the Fifth Avenue Coach Company Collection, 1895\\-1962 \\- Fifth Avenue Coach Company Collection\\|publisher\\=New York Historical Society\\|access\\-date\\=December 20, 2008}} The route was later extended south to [Washington Square Park](/wiki/Washington_Square_Park%2C_Manhattan \"Washington Square Park, Manhattan\") and north to [89th Street](/wiki/89th_Street_%28Manhattan%29 \"89th Street (Manhattan)\"),{{Citation needed\\|date\\=April 2007}} and in 1900 the company was authorized to extend north to [135th Street](/wiki/135th_Street_%28Manhattan%29 \"135th Street (Manhattan)\"), and to operate on other streets including [110th Street](/wiki/110th_Street_%28Manhattan%29 \"110th Street (Manhattan)\") and [Riverside Drive](/wiki/Riverside_Drive_%28Manhattan%29 \"Riverside Drive (Manhattan)\") to [124th Street](/wiki/124th_Street_%28Manhattan%29 \"124th Street (Manhattan)\").{{cite news \\| work \\= \\[\\[Brooklyn Daily Eagle]] \\| location \\= \\[\\[Brooklyn\\|Brooklyn, NY]] \\|title\\=Can Extend Its Lines\\|date \\= August 2, 1900\\|page\\=2}} More extensions, on [32nd Street](/wiki/32nd_Street_%28Manhattan%29 \"32nd Street (Manhattan)\") from Fifth Avenue west to [Seventh Avenue](/wiki/Seventh_Avenue_%28Manhattan%29 \"Seventh Avenue (Manhattan)\") ([Penn Station](/wiki/Penn_Station_%28New_York%29 \"Penn Station (New York)\")) and north from 110th Street on [Seventh Avenue](/wiki/Seventh_Avenue_%28Manhattan%29 \"Seventh Avenue (Manhattan)\") and [Manhattan Avenue](/wiki/Manhattan_Avenue_%28Manhattan%29 \"Manhattan Avenue (Manhattan)\")/[St. Nicholas Avenue](/wiki/St._Nicholas_Avenue_%28Manhattan%29 \"St. Nicholas Avenue (Manhattan)\") to [155th Street](/wiki/155th_Street_%28Manhattan%29 \"155th Street (Manhattan)\"), were soon authorized.{{Citation needed\\|date\\=April 2007}} After the company's [horse cars](/wiki/Horse_car \"Horse car\") were replaced with [motor buses](/wiki/Motor_bus \"Motor bus\") in July 1907, it began operating these extensions,{{Citation needed\\|date\\=April 2007}} and assigned them numbers in 1916 or 1917:{{cite news \\|work\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]] \\|url\\=https://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res\\=FB0615FA3F5D17738DDDAC0A94DE405B868DF1D3 \\|title\\=Remember Figures Better than Colors \\|date\\=June 25, 1916 \\|page\\=XX9}}[Brooklyn Daily Eagle](/wiki/Brooklyn_Daily_Eagle \"Brooklyn Daily Eagle\") Almanac, 1916 and 1917\n1. Fifth Avenue to 135th Street\n2. Fifth and Seventh Avenues to [Polo Grounds](/wiki/Polo_Grounds%2C_Manhattan \"Polo Grounds, Manhattan\") (155th Street and St. Nicholas Place)\n3. Fifth and St. Nicholas Avenues to Polo Grounds\n4. Fifth Avenue and Riverside Drive via 110th Street to 135th Street and Broadway\n5. [Fifth Avenue and Riverside Drive via 57th Street to 135th Street and Broadway](/wiki/M5_%28New_York_City_bus%29 \"M5 (New York City bus)\")\n6. [72nd Street Crosstown via 57th Street](/wiki/M30_%28New_York_City_bus%29 \"M30 (New York City bus)\")", "The Fifth Avenue Coach Company (FACCo) obtained a permit on July 1, 1925, and on July 9 began operating its **15** and **16** routes.{{cite news \\|work\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]] \\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/1962/03/05/archives/listing\\-of\\-routes\\-hit\\-by\\-strike.html \\|title\\=Listing of Routes Hit by Strike \\|date\\=March 5, 1962 \\|page\\=47}}; {{cite news \\|work\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]] \\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/1962/03/23/archives/buses\\-running.html \\|title\\=Buses Running \\|date\\=March 23, 1962 \\|page\\=21}} The 15 (now the [Q32](/wiki/Q32_%28New_York_City_bus%29 \"Q32 (New York City bus)\")) began at Fifth Avenue and [25th Street](/wiki/25th_Street_%28Manhattan%29 \"25th Street (Manhattan)\") at [Madison Square Park](/wiki/Madison_Square_Park \"Madison Square Park\"), and traveled north on Fifth Avenue, east via [57th Street](/wiki/57th_Street_%28Manhattan%29 \"57th Street (Manhattan)\") to the [Queensboro Bridge](/wiki/Queensboro_Bridge \"Queensboro Bridge\"), and along [Queens Boulevard](/wiki/Queens_Boulevard \"Queens Boulevard\"), [Roosevelt Avenue](/wiki/Roosevelt_Avenue \"Roosevelt Avenue\"), and 25th Street (now 82nd Street) to [Northern Boulevard](/wiki/Northern_Boulevard \"Northern Boulevard\") in [Jackson Heights, Queens](/wiki/Jackson_Heights%2C_Queens \"Jackson Heights, Queens\"). The short 16 (Elmhurst Crosstown) was renamed Q89 on July 1, 1974,{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/1974/06/20/archives/2\\-boroughs\\-buses\\-get\\-new\\-numbers\\-route\\-jumblie\\-ends\\-july\\-1\\-in.html\\|title\\=2 BOROUGHS' BUSES GET NEW NUMBERS\\|date\\=June 20, 1974\\|newspaper\\=The New York Times\\|issn\\=0362\\-4331\\|access\\-date\\=October 2, 2016}}{{cite web\\|title\\=1975 Queens Bus Map\\|url\\=http://www.wardmaps.com/viewasset.php?aid\\=16356\\|website\\=wardmaps.com\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[New York City Transit Authority]]\\|access\\-date\\=February 18, 2016\\|date\\=1975}} began at Roosevelt Avenue and 82nd Street and used Baxter Avenue and [Broadway](/wiki/Broadway_%28Queens%29 \"Broadway (Queens)\") to reach Queens Boulevard in [Elmhurst](/wiki/Elmhurst%2C_Queens \"Elmhurst, Queens\").{{cite news \\|work\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]] \\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/1925/07/10/archives/plans\\-to\\-link\\-all\\-suburban\\-transit\\-turner\\-outlines\\-3\\-routes\\-for.html \\|title\\=Plans to Link All Suburban Transit \\|date\\=July 10, 1925 \\|page\\=19}}", "Even before the Fifth Avenue company began operating its coaches, the [New York and Harlem Railroad](/wiki/New_York_and_Harlem_Railroad \"New York and Harlem Railroad\") was operating its [Fourth and Madison Avenues Line](/wiki/Fourth_and_Madison_Avenues_Line \"Fourth and Madison Avenues Line\") of [horse cars](/wiki/Horse_car \"Horse car\"), later [trolleys](/wiki/Tram \"Tram\"), mainly on [Fourth Avenue](/wiki/Fourth_Avenue_%28Manhattan%29 \"Fourth Avenue (Manhattan)\") below and [Madison Avenue](/wiki/Madison_Avenue_%28Manhattan%29 \"Madison Avenue (Manhattan)\") above [42nd Street](/wiki/42nd_Street_%28Manhattan%29 \"42nd Street (Manhattan)\") ([Grand Central Terminal](/wiki/Grand_Central_Terminal \"Grand Central Terminal\")). The [Madison Avenue Coach Company](/wiki/Madison_Avenue_Coach_Company \"Madison Avenue Coach Company\"), a [New York Railways](/wiki/New_York_Railways \"New York Railways\") subsidiary,{{cite news \\|work\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]] \\|url\\=https://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res\\=FB0C13FF3A5B107A93C5A91789D85F418385F9 \\|title\\=Bus Grants Asked on 8th and 9th Avs. \\|date\\=February 7, 1935 \\|page\\=3}} started operating replacement buses on February 1, 1935\\. Several changes were made to the route: instead of [the Bowery](/wiki/The_Bowery \"The Bowery\"), a shorter alignment via [Centre Street](/wiki/Centre_Street_%28Manhattan%29 \"Centre Street (Manhattan)\") and [Lafayette Street](/wiki/Lafayette_Street_%28Manhattan%29 \"Lafayette Street (Manhattan)\") was used, and a variant stayed on Madison Avenue south to [26th Street](/wiki/26th_Street_%28Manhattan%29 \"26th Street (Manhattan)\") and short\\-turned at [Astor Place](/wiki/Astor_Place_%28Manhattan%29 \"Astor Place (Manhattan)\").{{cite news \\|work\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]] \\|url\\=https://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res\\=FA081EFD3C5812738DDDA80894DA405B858FF1D3 \\|title\\=Swift Buses Oust Madison Trolleys \\|date\\=February 1, 1935 \\|page\\=23}} As part of the [New York City Omnibus Corporation](/wiki/New_York_City_Omnibus_Corporation \"New York City Omnibus Corporation\") system (NYCO; also a New York Railways subsidiary), these two routes were numbered 1 (*via Park Avenue*) and 2 (short\\-turn *via Madison Avenue*).[New York City Omnibus Corporation Motor Coach Routes](http://www.nycsubway.org/maps/busmaps.html), ca. 1940", "### Extensions and combinations", "On July 17, 1960, [Lexington Avenue](/wiki/Lexington_Avenue_%28Manhattan%29 \"Lexington Avenue (Manhattan)\") and [Third Avenue](/wiki/Third_Avenue_%28Manhattan%29 \"Third Avenue (Manhattan)\") became a [one\\-way pair](/wiki/One-way_pair \"One-way pair\"). The NYCO's [4](/wiki/4_%28NYCO%29 \"4 (NYCO)\"), which had traveled along Lexington Avenue, [116th Street](/wiki/116th_Street_%28Manhattan%29 \"116th Street (Manhattan)\"), and [Lenox Avenue](/wiki/Lenox_Avenue_%28Manhattan%29 \"Lenox Avenue (Manhattan)\") to northern [Harlem](/wiki/Harlem%2C_Manhattan \"Harlem, Manhattan\"), was discontinued. To cover this travel pattern, the 1 was extended west on 135th Street and north on Lenox Avenue, and the 2 was realigned to turn west on 116th Street and north on Lenox Avenue.{{cite news \\|work\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]] \\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/1960/07/12/archives/oneway\\-bus\\-schedules\\-given\\-for\\-lexington\\-and\\-3d\\-avenues.html \\|title\\=One\\-Way Bus Schedules Given For Lexington and 3d Avenues \\|date\\=July 12, 1960 \\|page\\=37}} The path of the 1 and 2 south of [Union Square](/wiki/Union_Square%2C_Manhattan \"Union Square, Manhattan\") was changed on November 10, 1963, to use [Broadway](/wiki/Broadway_%28Manhattan%29 \"Broadway (Manhattan)\") rather than Fourth Avenue and Lafayette Street, due to Lafayette Street becoming [one\\-way](/wiki/One-way_traffic \"One-way traffic\") northbound and Broadway becoming one\\-way southbound.{{cite news \\|work\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]] \\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/1963/11/05/archives/city\\-to\\-extend\\-oneway\\-traffic\\-to\\-3\\-manhattan\\-routes\\-sunday\\-broadway.html \\|title\\=City to Extend One\\-Way Traffic To 3 Manhattan Routes Sunday \\|date\\=November 5, 1963 \\|page\\=1}} On that same day, the southern terminus for FACCo's 2 and 3 was moved to [8th Street](/wiki/8th_Street_%28Manhattan%29 \"8th Street (Manhattan)\") and [Fourth Avenue](/wiki/Park_Avenue \"Park Avenue\"),{{cite news \\|last\\=Stengren \\|first\\=Bernard \\|title\\='VILLAGE' TO GET MORE BUS RUNS; 15\\-an\\-Hour Scheduling on 5th Ave.\\-Houston St. Line Will Begin on Sunday \\|work\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]] \\|date\\=November 8, 1963 \\|page\\=33}} after terminating the prior two months at 8th Street between Fifth Avenue and [University Place](/wiki/University_Place_%28Manhattan%29 \"University Place (Manhattan)\") following a ban on all bus traffic through their prior terminus of [Washington Square](/wiki/Washington_Square_Park \"Washington Square Park\") imposed by the city on September 2, 1963\\.{{cite news \\|last\\=Kaplan \\|first\\=Samuel \\|title\\=City to Close Washington Square to All Buses; New Routing to Bypass Park Beginning Monday — Traffic Around Square Will Go Counter\\-Clockwise \\|work\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]] \\|date\\=August 31, 1963 \\|page\\=1}} As part of the new pattern, the 2 and 3 turned at Fourth Avenue onto [Wanamaker Place](/wiki/9th_Street_%28Manhattan%29 \"9th Street (Manhattan)\") and then onto Fifth Avenue.", "Fifth and Madison Avenues became [one\\-way streets](/wiki/One-way_street \"One-way street\") on January 14, 1966, and the four FACCo routes on Fifth Avenue past Central Park and the two NYCO routes on Madison Avenue were combined into four routes on both avenues. In particular, the following changes were made:{{cite web \\|work\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]] \\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/1966/01/17/archives/barnes\\-suggests\\-express\\-bus\\-runs\\-says\\-oneway\\-traffic\\-flow\\-will.html \\|title\\=Barnes Suggests Express Bus Runs \\|date\\=January 17, 1966 \\|page\\=1}}{{cite news \\|work\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]] \\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/1966/01/26/archives/oneway\\-avenues\\-slow\\-bus\\-traffic\\-transit\\-authority\\-charges.html \\|title\\=One\\-Way Avenues Slow Bus Traffic \\|date\\=January 26, 1966 \\|page\\=32}}", "* The NYCO's 1 and FACCo's 1 were combined. The northbound route of the new 1 followed the old NYCO 1 along Park Avenue, 39th Street, Madison Avenue, 135th Street, and Lenox Avenue, and the southbound route used Lenox Avenue and 135th to join the old FACCo 1 at Fifth Avenue. Buses left the old FACCo route at 40th Street, heading south on the old NYCO route on Park Avenue and Broadway.\n* The NYCO's 2 and FACCo's 2 (since extended to [168th Street](/wiki/168th_Street_%28Manhattan%29 \"168th Street (Manhattan)\") via [Edgecombe Avenue](/wiki/Edgecombe_Avenue \"Edgecombe Avenue\")) were combined. Again, the southbound route generally followed the FACCo's 2, and the northbound route was the NYCO's 2\\. North of 110th Street, the combined route had two variants, watching the two divergent routes. One, designated by MaBSTOA as the Seventh Avenue branch (and numbered 2A), followed the FACCo's 2 along 110th Street and Seventh Avenue, continuing along Seventh and Edgecombe Avenues to 168th Street, while the other (designated the Lenox Avenue branch) used 116th Street and Lenox Avenue to 147th Street (NYCO's 2\\). FACCo's 2 was renamed 2A from 1966 to 1974, while NYCO's 2 had its route south of 116th Street moved to [Third Avenue](/wiki/Third_Avenue_%28Manhattan%29 \"Third Avenue (Manhattan)\") northbound and [Lexington Avenue](/wiki/Lexington_Avenue_%28Manhattan%29 \"Lexington Avenue (Manhattan)\") southbound, and its route number changed to 101A, on March 2, 1969 (renumbered [M102](/wiki/Third_and_Lexington_Avenues_Line \"Third and Lexington Avenues Line\") on July 1, 1974\\).\"Manhattan and Bronx Surface Transit Operating Authority: The First Ten Years.\" *Motor Coach Age*, May 1972\\.\n* The FACCo's 3 (since extended to [Fort George](/wiki/Fort_George%2C_Manhattan \"Fort George, Manhattan\") via St. Nicholas Avenue), 4 (since extended to [Fort Tryon Park](/wiki/Fort_Tryon_Park \"Fort Tryon Park\") via [Fort Washington Avenue](/wiki/Fort_Washington_Avenue \"Fort Washington Avenue\"), and ending at [Penn Station](/wiki/Penn_Station_%28New_York%29 \"Penn Station (New York)\") in the south), and 15 were essentially moved northbound from Fifth Avenue to Madison Avenue south of 110th Street. Where it made a difference, the NYCO's 2 was more closely followed.", "The 1 and 4 routes (later the M1 and M4, respectively) were among the first routes to get limited\\-stop service, in 1973\\.{{cite web \\| title\\=Buses on 3 Routes Will Be Expresses During Rush Hour \\| website\\=The New York Times \\| date\\=September 13, 1973 \\| url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/1973/09/13/archives/buses\\-on\\-3\\-routes\\-will\\-be\\-expresses\\-during\\-rush\\-hour.html \\| access\\-date\\=July 17, 2018}} In 1976, eight double\\-decker buses were placed into service on the M4 and [M5](/wiki/M5_%28New_York_City_bus%29 \"M5 (New York City bus)\") routes as part of a two\\-year test.{{cite web \\|date\\=September 15, 1976 \\|title\\=Double‐Deck Buses Make Debut And Stop Traffic (Pedestrian) \\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/1976/09/15/archives/doubledeck\\-buses\\-make\\-debut\\-and\\-stop\\-traffic\\-pedestrian.html \\|access\\-date\\=October 5, 2024 \\|website\\=The New York Times}} The buses were {{Convert\\|14\\.5\\|ft}} tall, which required the relocation of several traffic lights and removal of tree limbs along the routes.{{cite web \\|date\\=September 9, 1976 \\|title\\=Double‐Decker Buses Force Some Changes \\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/1976/09/09/archives/doubledecker\\-buses\\-force\\-some\\-changes.html \\|access\\-date\\=October 5, 2024 \\|website\\=The New York Times}}{{cite news \\|date\\=10 Sep 1976 \\|title\\=New Buses Too Tall For New York Streets \\|work\\=The Hartford Courant \\|page\\=16A \\|issn\\=1047\\-4153 \\|id\\={{ProQuest\\|544741043}}}}", "### Recent changes", "[thumb\\|Marked bus lane for the M1 and discontinued M6 at the old South Ferry\\-bound stop on [Broadway](/wiki/Broadway_%28Manhattan%29 \"Broadway (Manhattan)\"), before 2010 budget cuts](/wiki/Image:Broadway_bus_lane_jeh.JPG \"Broadway bus lane jeh.JPG\")", "Limited\\-stop service on the M2 began between 110th Street and 8th Street on October 14, 1991, replacing local service between 7 a.m. and 7 p.m.{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://www.newspapers.com/image/?spot\\=22822947\\|title\\=M2 \\& M101 Buses Are Pulling Out The Stops Limited\\-Stop Service Starts October 14th\\|date\\=October 11, 1991\\|work\\=New York Daily News\\|access\\-date\\=August 17, 2018}} In September 1995, limited\\-stop service was implemented on Saturdays between 10 a.m. and 6 p.m. In January 2000, the MTA Board announced plans to implement limited\\-stop M2 service on Sundays between 10 a.m. and 6 p.m. due to continued increases in weekend ridership. The change was to take effect in spring 2000, and was expected to reduce costs by $25,000 a year.{{Cite book \\|title\\=January 2000 NYC Transit Committee Agenda \\|date\\=January 18, 2000 \\|publisher\\=New York City Transit Authority \\|pages\\=\\[https://www.flickr.com/photos/unionturnpike/48536215771/in/album\\-72157710307680251/ 105], \\[https://www.flickr.com/photos/unionturnpike/48536362977/in/album\\-72157710307680251/ 106], \\[https://www.flickr.com/photos/unionturnpike/48536214191/in/album\\-72157710307680251/ 107\\-108]}} On May 21, 2000, this change took effect. On the same day, Sunday M3 service began starting 17 minutes earlier.", "[thumb\\|A 2006 Orion VII OG HEV (6755\\) on the 32nd Street\\-bound M4 in Midtown along 34th Street in February 2011](/wiki/File:MTA_Orion_hybrid_bus_2011-2.JPG \"MTA Orion hybrid bus 2011-2.JPG\")", "In March 2000, plans were announced to reroute the M4 to run via the same route in both directions between West 159th Street and West 165th Street. Buses would run via Broadway, West 165th Street, and Fort Washington Avenue. At the time, northbound buses ran via Broadway and West 168th Street before turning north onto Fort Washington Avenue, while southbound buses ran via Fort Washington Avenue before turning south onto Broadway. The change would be made to eliminate the M4's asymmetric route and reroute it from a congested block of West 168th Street.{{Cite book \\|title\\=March 2000 NYC Transit Committee Agenda \\|date\\=March 21, 2000 \\|publisher\\=New York City Transit \\|pages\\=\\[https://www.flickr.com/photos/unionturnpike/48481446022/in/album\\-72157710160948387/ 91], \\[https://www.flickr.com/photos/unionturnpike/48481444972/in/album\\-72157710160948387/ 92], \\[https://www.flickr.com/photos/unionturnpike/48481443882/in/album\\-72157710160948387/ 93\\-94], \\[https://www.flickr.com/photos/unionturnpike/48481290056/in/album\\-72157710160948387/ 95], \\[https://www.flickr.com/photos/unionturnpike/48481442152/in/album\\-72157710160948387/ 96]}} In May 2000, the MTA announced plans to revise the terminal loop for the M2 and M18 bus routes and relocate their terminal from West 167th Street between Audubon Avenue and St. Nicholas Avenue to the northern side of West 168th Street between Audubon Avenue and St. Nicholas Avenue. The M2 made a circuitous route to reach the 168th Street subway station, including a u\\-turn from northbound St. Nicholas Avenue to southbound Broadway, and the M18 misses the subway station. The M18 bus route missed the terminal loop of the M2 would be revised to run along Audubon Avenue, West 168th Street, and Broadway instead of Audubon Avenue, West 167th Street, St. Nicholas Avenue, West 168th Street, and Broadway. The M18 bus terminal loop would be revised from consisting of Audubon Avenue, West 167th Street, and St. Nicholas Avenue to consisting of Audubon Avenue, West 168th Street, Broadway, West 166th Street, and St. Nicholas Avenue. The revised changes would eliminate the u\\-turn and, by having southbound M18 buses share a stop with the M2 and M3 at Broadway and West 168th Street, could potentially equalize boarding on those routes. The change was expected to be implemented in mid\\-2000\\.{{Cite book \\|title\\=May 2000 NYC Transit Committee Agenda \\|date\\=May 16, 2000 \\|publisher\\=New York City Transit \\|pages\\=\\[https://www.flickr.com/photos/unionturnpike/48481718931/in/album\\-72157710160948342/ 97], \\[https://www.flickr.com/photos/unionturnpike/48481717881/in/album\\-72157710160948342/ 98], \\[https://www.flickr.com/photos/unionturnpike/48481871402/in/album\\-72157710160948342/ 99\\-100], \\[https://www.flickr.com/photos/unionturnpike/48481715986/in/album\\-72157710160948342/ 101]}} On July 2, 2000, the changes in M2, M4, and M18 bus service took effect.{{Cite web \\|date\\=August 3, 2000 \\|title\\=Bus Service Notice \\|url\\=http://www.mta.nyc.ny.us:80/nyct/service/bus/bussrvno.htm \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20000816065656/http://www.mta.nyc.ny.us:80/nyct/service/bus/bussrvno.htm \\|archive\\-date\\=August 16, 2000 \\|access\\-date\\=June 15, 2023 \\|website\\=mta.info \\|publisher\\=Metropolitan Transportation Authority}}\n[thumb\\|right\\|A 2006 Orion VII OG HEV (6724\\) on the East Village\\-bound M2 Limited at 57th Street/5th Avenue in August 2018](/wiki/File:57th_St_5th_Av_td_%282018-08-16%29_04.jpg \"57th St 5th Av td (2018-08-16) 04.jpg\")\nPlans were announced in April 2002 to reroute northbound evening and late night M2 service off of Wanamaker Place, University Place, and East 14th Street and onto Fourth Avenue, which was the route used by M2 during the rest of the day. The change was made so M2 service would not be split between two corridors overnight, to simplify M2 service, reduce travel times by three to five minutes, and consolidate late night M1 and M2 service.{{Cite book \\|title\\=April 2002 NYC Transit Committee Agenda \\|date\\=April 29, 2002 \\|publisher\\=New York City Transit Authority \\|pages\\=\\[https://www.flickr.com/photos/unionturnpike/48482329746/in/album\\-72157710163565687/ 89], \\[https://www.flickr.com/photos/unionturnpike/48482328831/in/album\\-72157710163565687/ 90], \\[https://www.flickr.com/photos/unionturnpike/48482479817/in/album\\-72157710163565687/ 91\\-92], \\[https://www.flickr.com/photos/unionturnpike/48482327241/in/album\\-72157710163565687/ 93]}} The service change took effect on June 30, 2002\\.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Bus Service Notice \\|url\\=http://www.mta.info/nyct/service/bus/bussrvnomn.htm \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20020804090138/http://www.mta.info:80/nyct/service/bus/bussrvnomn.htm \\|archive\\-date\\=August 4, 2002 \\|access\\-date\\=June 15, 2023 \\|website\\=mta.info \\|publisher\\=Metropolitan Transportation Authority}}\n[thumb\\|right\\|A 2006 Orion VII OG HEV (6743\\) on the East Village\\-bound M1 traveling along Fifth Avenue near [Central Park](/wiki/Central_Park \"Central Park\").](/wiki/File:MTA_BUS_-_panoramio.jpg \"MTA BUS - panoramio.jpg\")\nOn June 25, 2010, as a result of service cuts, MTA no longer operated weekend M1 service into Midtown, instead terminating at 106th Street. After numerous requests to rescind some of the 2010 service cuts, the MTA restored the M1 to 8th Street on the weekends on January 6, 2013\\.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.mta.info/press\\-release/nyc\\-transit/mta\\-new\\-york\\-city\\-transit\\-implements\\-bus\\-service\\-enhancements\\-2013\\|title\\=MTA {{!}} Press Release {{!}} NYC Transit {{!}} MTA New York City Transit Implements Bus Service Enhancements for 2013\\|website\\=www.mta.info\\|access\\-date\\=October 29, 2016}} There was a proposal underway to re\\-extend this line back down to [Worth Street](/wiki/Worth_Street \"Worth Street\") in early 2017\\. In this proposal, every other bus would go to Worth Street via [Bowery](/wiki/Bowery \"Bowery\") and [Third Avenue](/wiki/Third_Avenue \"Third Avenue\"), returning uptown via [Centre Street](/wiki/Centre_Street_%28Manhattan%29 \"Centre Street (Manhattan)\") and [Lafayette Street](/wiki/Lafayette_Street \"Lafayette Street\").{{Cite web \\|date\\=October 25, 2016 \\|title\\=MTA to extend M1 bus route south to Worth St \\|url\\=https://www.amny.com/news/mta\\-to\\-extend\\-m1\\-bus\\-route\\-south\\-to\\-worth\\-st/ \\|access\\-date\\=October 29, 2016 \\|website\\=}} The M1 was extended back down to [Grand Street](/wiki/Grand_Street_%28Manhattan%29 \"Grand Street (Manhattan)\") on September 3, 2017, though downtown buses run on [Broadway](/wiki/Broadway_%28Manhattan%29 \"Broadway (Manhattan)\"). Service will eventually be re\\-extended to Worth Street, after which the downtown buses running below 8th Street will be rerouted onto Bowery.", "In April 2018, it was proposed to permanently truncate the M4's southern terminal to 41st Street. This was due to a street\\-widening along 32nd Street that would cause delays for M4 buses from terminating there, since that portion of the route was shared with the [Q32](/wiki/Q32_%28New_York_City_bus%29 \"Q32 (New York City bus)\"), which continues northward from Penn Station to [Jackson Heights, Queens](/wiki/Jackson_Heights%2C_Queens \"Jackson Heights, Queens\"). The change would occur in summer 2018\\.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://web.mta.info/mta/news/books/pdf/180423\\_1000\\_Transit.pdf\\|title\\=New York City Transit and Bus Committee Meeting\\|date\\=April 23, 2018\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Metropolitan Transportation Authority]]\\|pages\\=193–196\\|access\\-date\\=April 20, 2018}} To allow M4 riders to access Penn Station, and vice versa, free transfers would be available between Q32 and M4 buses going in the same direction.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://web.mta.info/mta/news/books/pdf/180521\\_1030\\_Transit.pdf\\|title\\=New York City Transit and Bus Committee Meeting\\|date\\=May 21, 2018\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Metropolitan Transportation Authority]]\\|pages\\=9\\|access\\-date\\=April 20, 2018}} However, the plan was then changed to have the M4 continue down to 32nd Street, where it would terminate midway between 5th and Madison Avenues, two blocks from Penn Station.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://web.mta.info/nyct/service/servNotices\\_M4\\_Reroute.htm\\|title\\=Permanent M4 Route Change in Midtown\\|date\\=July 15, 2018\\|website\\=web.mta.info\\|publisher\\=Metropolitan Transportation Authority\\|language\\=en\\|access\\-date\\=July 15, 2018}} This was likely done to minimize the impact of the route changes because of the 32nd Street widening, while still maintaining the same connectivity with other routes, like the {{NYC bus link\\|M34\\|M34A SBS\\|prose\\=y}} at 34th Street.", "On June 30, 2024, the M2 stop on Audubon Ave at W 165th St was discontinued and was redirected to Amsterdam Avenue,{{Cite web \\|title\\=M2 bus stop relocated \\|url\\=https://new.mta.info/sites/default/files/2024\\-06/M2%20Audubon%20Av%20at%20W%20165%20St%20stop%20closure\\_0\\.png}} and the M3 stop terminal was relocated to St Nicholas Ave at W 192nd St. {{Cite web \\|title\\=M3 bus terminal change \\|url\\=https://new.mta.info/sites/default/files/2024\\-06/M3%20Terminal%20Changes.jpg}} The northbound M4 stop on E 32nd St at 5th Ave was relocated to Madison Ave at E 32nd St. The stop on E 32nd St at 5th Ave was changed to be a drop\\-off only stop.{{Cite web \\|title\\=M4 bus stop relocated \\|url\\=https://new.mta.info/sites/default/files/2024\\-06/M4%20\\-%20Stop%20change%20on%20E%2032nd%20St%20at%205th%20Ave.png}}", "" ]
History ------- [thumb\|left\|250px\|*Jōdo\-shiki* garden](/wiki/File:Byodo-in_in_Uji.jpg "Byodo-in in Uji.jpg") [thumb\|[Amitābha](/wiki/Amit%C4%81bha "Amitābha") in Byōdō\-in created by [Jōchō](/wiki/J%C5%8Dch%C5%8D "Jōchō"). 1053\.](/wiki/File:Byodoin_Amitaabha_Buddha.JPG "Byodoin Amitaabha Buddha.JPG") This temple was originally built in 998 in the [Heian period](/wiki/Heian_period "Heian period") as a rural villa of high\-ranking courtier {{ill\|Minamoto no Shigenobu\|pt\|Minamoto no Shigenobu\|ja\|源重信}}, Minister of the Left. After he died, one of the most powerful members of the [Fujiwara clan](/wiki/Fujiwara_clan "Fujiwara clan"), [Fujiwara no Michinaga](/wiki/Fujiwara_no_Michinaga "Fujiwara no Michinaga"), purchased the property from the courtier's widow. The villa was made into a Buddhist temple by his son [Fujiwara no Yorimichi](/wiki/Fujiwara_no_Yorimichi "Fujiwara no Yorimichi") in 1052\. Being one of the World Heritage sites of Japan, the Byodoin Temple buildings and Buddha statues have a long history of about 1000 years. In East Asian Buddhism, there is the [Three Ages of Buddhism](/wiki/Three_Ages_of_Buddhism "Three Ages of Buddhism"), which are three divisions of time following Buddha's passing. The Mappo, which is also translated as the Age of Dharma Decline, is the degenerate Third Age of Buddhism, also known as the Latter Day of the Law. It was widely believed that the year 1052 marked the first year of the beginning of the end\-of\-the\-world. This theory captured the heart of many aristocrats and monks, which as a result, people became more devout in Buddhism and believed in the ideology of [Buddhist Pure Land](/wiki/Pure_land "Pure land"). In the following year, Amida\-do Hall (Phoenix Hall) was completed in whose interior sits the 2\.4 meters tall Amida Buddha statue created by [Jōchō](/wiki/J%C5%8Dch%C5%8D "Jōchō"), who is claimed to have been the best Buddhist sculptor in the Heian Period. [Masashige Kusunoki](/wiki/Masashige_Kusunoki "Masashige Kusunoki"), a samurai warrior who was fighting against the army of the [Ashikaga Clan](/wiki/Ashikaga_shogunate "Ashikaga shogunate"), set a fire around Byodoin Temple in 1336, which resulted in many of the temple buildings were burnt down with only a few surviving. The Byodoin Temple gradually expanded into a massive Temple complex during the [Kamakura Period](/wiki/Kamakura_Period "Kamakura Period"), where Jodo\-in Temple was opened due to the renovation of Byodoin Temple in 1496; Rakan\-do Hall was established in 1640; Saisho\-in Temple was established in 1654\. A full\-scale renovation of the Amida\-do Hall (Phoenix Hall) was undertaken in 1670, during which the front doors were replaced. Two sub\-temples, Jodo\-in Temple belonging to the Jodo Sect and Saisho\-in Temple belonging to the Tendai Sect, began to cooperate and made a great effort to maintain the operation of Byodoin Temple. In 1698, Uji was devastated by a large fire and Byodoin Temple was badly damaged. The walls and doors of Phoenix Hall were ruined after this incident. However, as a result of the deterioration of the temple, people's will for Phoenix Hall's preservation and renovation became enthusiastic. During the [Meiji Period](/wiki/Meiji_Period "Meiji Period") (1868–1912\) and [Showa Period](/wiki/Showa_Period "Showa Period") (1926–1989\), large scale renovation of the Phoenix hall was undertaken. The Phoenix Hall and Amida Buddha statue were designated as [National Treasures](/wiki/National_Treasures_of_Japan "National Treasures of Japan") in 1951, which Phoenix Hall was also selected for the design as the obverse of the [10 yen coin](/wiki/10_yen_coin "10 yen coin"). Then, the Temple Bell, the praying Bodhisattva on Clouds, the Canopy, the paintings on the door and walls of Cho\-do Hall of Phoenix Hall were designated as National Treasures. The Byodoin Temple was designated as a [UNESCO World Heritage](/wiki/UNESCO_World_Heritage "UNESCO World Heritage") as one of the Historic Monuments of Ancient Kyoto in 1994\. Large scale renovation on the garden, the canopy of Amida Buddha statue and the overall outlook of the Phoenix Hall continues in the Heisei Period (1989–2019\) until today. The most famous building in the temple is the {{nihongo\|Phoenix Hall\|鳳凰堂\|Hōō\-dō}} or the [Amida](/wiki/Amitabha "Amitabha") Hall, constructed in 1053\. It is the only remaining original building, surrounded by a scenic pond; additional buildings making up the compound were burnt down during a civil war in 1336\.
[ "History\n-------", "[thumb\\|left\\|250px\\|*Jōdo\\-shiki* garden](/wiki/File:Byodo-in_in_Uji.jpg \"Byodo-in in Uji.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|[Amitābha](/wiki/Amit%C4%81bha \"Amitābha\") in Byōdō\\-in created by [Jōchō](/wiki/J%C5%8Dch%C5%8D \"Jōchō\"). 1053\\.](/wiki/File:Byodoin_Amitaabha_Buddha.JPG \"Byodoin Amitaabha Buddha.JPG\")\nThis temple was originally built in 998 in the [Heian period](/wiki/Heian_period \"Heian period\") as a rural villa of high\\-ranking courtier {{ill\\|Minamoto no Shigenobu\\|pt\\|Minamoto no Shigenobu\\|ja\\|源重信}}, Minister of the Left. After he died, one of the most powerful members of the [Fujiwara clan](/wiki/Fujiwara_clan \"Fujiwara clan\"), [Fujiwara no Michinaga](/wiki/Fujiwara_no_Michinaga \"Fujiwara no Michinaga\"), purchased the property from the courtier's widow. The villa was made into a Buddhist temple by his son [Fujiwara no Yorimichi](/wiki/Fujiwara_no_Yorimichi \"Fujiwara no Yorimichi\") in 1052\\. Being one of the World Heritage sites of Japan, the Byodoin Temple buildings and Buddha statues have a long history of about 1000 years.\nIn East Asian Buddhism, there is the [Three Ages of Buddhism](/wiki/Three_Ages_of_Buddhism \"Three Ages of Buddhism\"), which are three divisions of time following Buddha's passing. The Mappo, which is also translated as the Age of Dharma Decline, is the degenerate Third Age of Buddhism, also known as the Latter Day of the Law. It was widely believed that the year 1052 marked the first year of the beginning of the end\\-of\\-the\\-world. This theory captured the heart of many aristocrats and monks, which as a result, people became more devout in Buddhism and believed in the ideology of [Buddhist Pure Land](/wiki/Pure_land \"Pure land\"). In the following year, Amida\\-do Hall (Phoenix Hall) was completed in whose interior sits the 2\\.4 meters tall Amida Buddha statue created by [Jōchō](/wiki/J%C5%8Dch%C5%8D \"Jōchō\"), who is claimed to have been the best Buddhist sculptor in the Heian Period.", "[Masashige Kusunoki](/wiki/Masashige_Kusunoki \"Masashige Kusunoki\"), a samurai warrior who was fighting against the army of the [Ashikaga Clan](/wiki/Ashikaga_shogunate \"Ashikaga shogunate\"), set a fire around Byodoin Temple in 1336, which resulted in many of the temple buildings were burnt down with only a few surviving.", "The Byodoin Temple gradually expanded into a massive Temple complex during the [Kamakura Period](/wiki/Kamakura_Period \"Kamakura Period\"), where Jodo\\-in Temple was opened due to the renovation of Byodoin Temple in 1496; Rakan\\-do Hall was established in 1640; Saisho\\-in Temple was established in 1654\\.", "A full\\-scale renovation of the Amida\\-do Hall (Phoenix Hall) was undertaken in 1670, during which the front doors were replaced. Two sub\\-temples, Jodo\\-in Temple belonging to the Jodo Sect and Saisho\\-in Temple belonging to the Tendai Sect, began to cooperate and made a great effort to maintain the operation of Byodoin Temple. In 1698, Uji was devastated by a large fire and Byodoin Temple was badly damaged. The walls and doors of Phoenix Hall were ruined after this incident. However, as a result of the deterioration of the temple, people's will for Phoenix Hall's preservation and renovation became enthusiastic.", "During the [Meiji Period](/wiki/Meiji_Period \"Meiji Period\") (1868–1912\\) and [Showa Period](/wiki/Showa_Period \"Showa Period\") (1926–1989\\), large scale renovation of the Phoenix hall was undertaken. The Phoenix Hall and Amida Buddha statue were designated as [National Treasures](/wiki/National_Treasures_of_Japan \"National Treasures of Japan\") in 1951, which Phoenix Hall was also selected for the design as the obverse of the [10 yen coin](/wiki/10_yen_coin \"10 yen coin\"). Then, the Temple Bell, the praying Bodhisattva on Clouds, the Canopy, the paintings on the door and walls of Cho\\-do Hall of Phoenix Hall were designated as National Treasures.", "The Byodoin Temple was designated as a [UNESCO World Heritage](/wiki/UNESCO_World_Heritage \"UNESCO World Heritage\") as one of the Historic Monuments of Ancient Kyoto in 1994\\. Large scale renovation on the garden, the canopy of Amida Buddha statue and the overall outlook of the Phoenix Hall continues in the Heisei Period (1989–2019\\) until today.", "The most famous building in the temple is the {{nihongo\\|Phoenix Hall\\|鳳凰堂\\|Hōō\\-dō}} or the [Amida](/wiki/Amitabha \"Amitabha\") Hall, constructed in 1053\\. It is the only remaining original building, surrounded by a scenic pond; additional buildings making up the compound were burnt down during a civil war in 1336\\.", "" ]
Complex ------- ### Phoenix Hall [right\|thumb\|Japanese [10 yen coin](/wiki/10_yen_coin "10 yen coin") (obverse) showing Phoenix Hall](/wiki/File:JuEnDamaByodoinWP.png "JuEnDamaByodoinWP.png") The main building in Byōdō\-in, the Phoenix Hall consists of a central hall, flanked by twin wing corridors on both sides of the central hall, and a tail corridor. The central hall houses an image of Amida Buddha. The roof of the hall displays statues of [the Chinese phoenix](/wiki/Fenghuang "Fenghuang"), called *hōō* in Japanese. The architecture was influenced by the Chinese style (popular in the capital).{{Cite book \|last1\=Richie \|first1\=Donald \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=ChTRAgAAQBAJ\&dq\=byodoin\+kyoto\+china\&pg\=PT80 \|title\=Temples of Kyoto \|last2\=Georges \|first2\=Alexandre \|date\=2012\-08\-07 \|publisher\=Tuttle Publishing \|isbn\=978\-1\-4629\-0857\-8 \|language\=en}}{{Cite book \|last\=Elverskog \|first\=Johan \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=N7\_4Gr9Q438C\&dq\=byodoin\+\+chinese\&pg\=PA85 \|title\=Buddhism and Islam on the Silk Road \|date\=2011\-06\-06 \|publisher\=University of Pennsylvania Press \|isbn\=978\-0\-8122\-0531\-2 \|language\=en}}{{Cite book \|last\=Daniell \|first\=Thomas \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=UTjRAgAAQBAJ\&dq\=byodoin\+tale\+of\+genji\&pg\=PT94 \|title\=Houses and Gardens of Kyoto: Revised with a new foreword by Matthew Stavros \|date\=2012\-03\-13 \|publisher\=Tuttle Publishing \|isbn\=978\-1\-4629\-0590\-4 \|language\=en}} The building is regarded as almost the sole remaining example from the [Fujiwara Regent Period](/wiki/Fujiwara_regent "Fujiwara regent"), which is also considered as one of the most important cultural assets of Japan. The Phoenix Hall, completed in 1053, is the exemplar of Fujiwara Amida halls. It consists of a main rectangular structure flanked by two L\-shaped wing corridors and a tail corridor, set at the edge of a large artificial pond. Though its official name is Amida\-dō, it began to be called Hōō\-dō, or Phoenix Hall, in the beginning of the [Edo period](/wiki/Edo_period "Edo period"). This name is considered to derive both from the building's likeness to a chinese phoenix with outstretched wings and a tail, and the pair of phoenixes adorning the roof. Inside the Phoenix Hall, a single image of Amida (c. 1053\) is installed on a high platform. The Amida sculpture is made of Japanese cypress and is covered with gold leaf. It was executed by [Jōchō](/wiki/J%C5%8Dch%C5%8D "Jōchō"), who established a new [canon of proportions](/wiki/Canon_of_proportions "Canon of proportions") and a new technique, *[yosegi](/wiki/Yosegi "Yosegi")*, in which multiple pieces of wood are carved out like shells and joined from the inside. The statue measures about three meters high from its face to its knees. Sitting in a meditation position with his back slightly hunched, his body is relaxed without any tension. His hand gesture is called 'Inso', which both hands are placed on the lap, palms facing upward, thumbs and forefingers form a circle. This gesture is a variation of the [Dhyana Mudra](/wiki/Dhy%C4%81na_in_Buddhism "Dhyāna in Buddhism") (Meditation Mudra), which suggests concentration of the Good Law. The [Urna](/wiki/Urna "Urna"), which is the white dot on his forehead between the eyes, is the Third Eye of the Amida Buddha, a symbol of awakening and the ability to see the suffering of all creatures. The serene smile of the statue represents the nobility of the Buddha after attaining [Enlightenment](/wiki/Enlightenment_in_Buddhism "Enlightenment in Buddhism"). With a harmonious and gentle facial expression, he is looking slightly downward, which shows the state of meditation, as well as the feeling of merciful grace towards the audience. His hair is short and curled, along with Ushnisha, which is the pointed topknot located on the center of the head. Applied to the walls of the hall are small relief carvings of celestials, the host believed to have accompanied Amida when he descended from the Western Paradise to gather the souls of believers at the moment of death and transport them in lotus blossoms to Paradise. *[Raigō](/wiki/Raig%C5%8D "Raigō")* paintings on the wooden doors of the Phoenix Hall, depicting the Descent of the Amida Buddha, are an early example of [Yamato\-e](/wiki/Yamato-e "Yamato-e"), Japanese\-style painting, and contain representations of the scenery around Kyoto. There is a *Jōdo\-shiki* garden with a pond in front of the building, which in 1997 was dredged as part of an archeological dig. As the temple faces the East, it suggests that the audience need to cross the Aji\-ike pond in front of the Phoenix Hall, in order to reach Buddhist Pure Land. The gardens are a [nationally designated](/wiki/Cultural_Properties_of_Japan "Cultural Properties of Japan") [Historic Site](/wiki/Monuments_of_Japan "Monuments of Japan") and [Place of Scenic Beauty](/wiki/Monuments_of_Japan "Monuments of Japan").{{cite web \|url\=https://kunishitei.bunka.go.jp/heritage/detail/401/1642 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191223140731/https://kunishitei.bunka.go.jp/heritage/detail/401/1642 \|url\-status \= dead\|archive\-date\=23 December 2019 \|title\=平等院庭園 \|publisher\=\[\[Agency for Cultural Affairs]] \|access\-date\=10 February 2012 }} ### Kannon\-do Hall The Kannon\-do Hall is an Important Cultural Property, established on the former site of the main hall around 1230, during the Early Kamakura Period. The hall structure is simple, which follows the classical design from the [Tenpyo period](/wiki/Tenpy%C5%8D "Tenpyō") (710\-794\), having two different form bent to support the roof. It is currently under renovation and not open to the public. Japan commemorates the building's longevity and cultural significance by displaying its image on the [10 yen coin](/wiki/10_yen_coin "10 yen coin"),Kyoto Travel: [Byōdō\-in.](http://www.japan-guide.com/e/e3923.html) and the [10,000 yen note](/wiki/Banknotes_of_the_Japanese_yen%232004 "Banknotes of the Japanese yen#2004") features the phoenix image. In December 1994, [UNESCO](/wiki/UNESCO "UNESCO") listed the building as a [World Heritage Site](/wiki/World_Heritage_Site "World Heritage Site") as part of the "[Historic Monuments of Ancient Kyoto](/wiki/Historic_Monuments_of_Ancient_Kyoto "Historic Monuments of Ancient Kyoto")". The Phoenix Hall, the great statue of Amida inside it, and several other items at Byōdō\-in are [national treasures](/wiki/National_Treasures_of_Japan "National Treasures of Japan"). A [half\-size replica](/wiki/Byodo-In_%28Hawaii%29 "Byodo-In (Hawaii)") of the temple was completed on June 7, 1968 in the [Valley of the Temples](/wiki/Valley_of_the_Temples_Memorial_Park "Valley of the Temples Memorial Park") ([O'ahu](/wiki/O%27ahu "O'ahu"), [Hawaii](/wiki/Hawaii "Hawaii")). The Japanese post has issued three definitive postage stamps showing the phoenix hall, each prepaying the then postal rate for a surface mail foreign letter: [1950](/wiki/File:Byoudouin_24Yen_stamp_in_1950.JPG "Byoudouin 24Yen stamp in 1950.JPG"), 24 yen 1957 and 30 yen 1959\. Stamps were produced by the costly engraving method, showing the appreciation of the hall. ### Yorin\-an Shoin Residence It is a residence as well as one of the sub\-temples in the precinct. Built in the early [Edo Period](/wiki/Edo_Period "Edo Period") (around 17th century), the roof is thatched with [Japanese cypress](/wiki/Japanese_cypress "Japanese cypress") bark, which the materials used for construction were believed came from remains of the [Momoyama Castle](/wiki/Momoyama_Castle "Momoyama Castle"). The interior wall paintings were the works produced by artists who belonged to the studio run by Sansetsu Kano, while the garden is said to have been designed by Sansai Hosokawa.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.byodoin.or.jp/en/around/watch/\|title\=Watch \| Walk Around \| World Heritage Byodoin\|website\=www.byodoin.or.jp}} ### Hoshokan Museum As the former temple museum which opened in 1965 had become outdated, an innovative third\-generation museum was opened on March 1, 2001, which is named the Hoshokan Museum. This museum achieved a significantly improved storage and display environment for national treasures from the Byodoin Temple, including the Temple Bell, 26 statues of the Praying Bodhisattva on Clouds and a pair of Phoenix from the rooftop of Phoenix Hall. It is the first comprehensive museum run by a religious organisation. The majority of the museum buildings are hidden underground, so that the exterior outlook of museum's blends with Phoenix Hall and other building complexes within the temple. Due to its design, the interior of the museum receives sufficient natural sunlight, as well as artificial lighting to keep the exhibition halls bright and comfortable for audience's experience.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.byodoin.or.jp/en/museum/\|title\=Hoshokan Museum \| World Heritage Byodoin\|website\=www.byodoin.or.jp}} Entry to the complex grounds costs 700 yen for adults, and includes access to the gardens and the museum. An entry pass to the Phoenix Hall, which was newly restored in March 2014, costs an additional 300 yen and can be purchased near the gate. The tour is conducted in Japanese, however English paper guide book is provided. ### Byodoin Tea Salon Toka A tea salon to try authentic Uji green tea in the precinct of Byodoin Temple. Tea leaves harvested in the tea fields of Uji City or neighbouring farms are used. Certified Japanese Tea Instructors will provide tea to visitors with the finest care and knowledge. Open Monday to Sunday but closed on Tuesday, from 10:00 to 16:30\. Last order is at 16:00\.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.byodoin.or.jp/en/touka/\|title\=Byodoin Temple Tea Room "Sabo Toka" \| World Heritage Byodoin\|website\=www.byodoin.or.jp}}
[ "Complex\n-------", "### Phoenix Hall", "[right\\|thumb\\|Japanese [10 yen coin](/wiki/10_yen_coin \"10 yen coin\") (obverse) showing Phoenix Hall](/wiki/File:JuEnDamaByodoinWP.png \"JuEnDamaByodoinWP.png\")\nThe main building in Byōdō\\-in, the Phoenix Hall consists of a central hall, flanked by twin wing corridors on both sides of the central hall, and a tail corridor. The central hall houses an image of Amida Buddha. The roof of the hall displays statues of [the Chinese phoenix](/wiki/Fenghuang \"Fenghuang\"), called *hōō* in Japanese. The architecture was influenced by the Chinese style (popular in the capital).{{Cite book \\|last1\\=Richie \\|first1\\=Donald \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=ChTRAgAAQBAJ\\&dq\\=byodoin\\+kyoto\\+china\\&pg\\=PT80 \\|title\\=Temples of Kyoto \\|last2\\=Georges \\|first2\\=Alexandre \\|date\\=2012\\-08\\-07 \\|publisher\\=Tuttle Publishing \\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-4629\\-0857\\-8 \\|language\\=en}}{{Cite book \\|last\\=Elverskog \\|first\\=Johan \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=N7\\_4Gr9Q438C\\&dq\\=byodoin\\+\\+chinese\\&pg\\=PA85 \\|title\\=Buddhism and Islam on the Silk Road \\|date\\=2011\\-06\\-06 \\|publisher\\=University of Pennsylvania Press \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-8122\\-0531\\-2 \\|language\\=en}}{{Cite book \\|last\\=Daniell \\|first\\=Thomas \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=UTjRAgAAQBAJ\\&dq\\=byodoin\\+tale\\+of\\+genji\\&pg\\=PT94 \\|title\\=Houses and Gardens of Kyoto: Revised with a new foreword by Matthew Stavros \\|date\\=2012\\-03\\-13 \\|publisher\\=Tuttle Publishing \\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-4629\\-0590\\-4 \\|language\\=en}} The building is regarded as almost the sole remaining example from the [Fujiwara Regent Period](/wiki/Fujiwara_regent \"Fujiwara regent\"), which is also considered as one of the most important cultural assets of Japan.", "The Phoenix Hall, completed in 1053, is the exemplar of Fujiwara Amida halls. It consists of a main rectangular structure flanked by two L\\-shaped wing corridors and a tail corridor, set at the edge of a large artificial pond. Though its official name is Amida\\-dō, it began to be called Hōō\\-dō, or Phoenix Hall, in the beginning of the [Edo period](/wiki/Edo_period \"Edo period\"). This name is considered to derive both from the building's likeness to a chinese phoenix with outstretched wings and a tail, and the pair of phoenixes adorning the roof.", "Inside the Phoenix Hall, a single image of Amida (c. 1053\\) is installed on a high platform. The Amida sculpture is made of Japanese cypress and is covered with gold leaf. It was executed by [Jōchō](/wiki/J%C5%8Dch%C5%8D \"Jōchō\"), who established a new [canon of proportions](/wiki/Canon_of_proportions \"Canon of proportions\") and a new technique, *[yosegi](/wiki/Yosegi \"Yosegi\")*, in which multiple pieces of wood are carved out like shells and joined from the inside. The statue measures about three meters high from its face to its knees. Sitting in a meditation position with his back slightly hunched, his body is relaxed without any tension. His hand gesture is called 'Inso', which both hands are placed on the lap, palms facing upward, thumbs and forefingers form a circle. This gesture is a variation of the [Dhyana Mudra](/wiki/Dhy%C4%81na_in_Buddhism \"Dhyāna in Buddhism\") (Meditation Mudra), which suggests concentration of the Good Law. The [Urna](/wiki/Urna \"Urna\"), which is the white dot on his forehead between the eyes, is the Third Eye of the Amida Buddha, a symbol of awakening and the ability to see the suffering of all creatures. The serene smile of the statue represents the nobility of the Buddha after attaining [Enlightenment](/wiki/Enlightenment_in_Buddhism \"Enlightenment in Buddhism\"). With a harmonious and gentle facial expression, he is looking slightly downward, which shows the state of meditation, as well as the feeling of merciful grace towards the audience. His hair is short and curled, along with Ushnisha, which is the pointed topknot located on the center of the head.", "Applied to the walls of the hall are small relief carvings of celestials, the host believed to have accompanied Amida when he descended from the Western Paradise to gather the souls of believers at the moment of death and transport them in lotus blossoms to Paradise. *[Raigō](/wiki/Raig%C5%8D \"Raigō\")* paintings on the wooden doors of the Phoenix Hall, depicting the Descent of the Amida Buddha, are an early example of [Yamato\\-e](/wiki/Yamato-e \"Yamato-e\"), Japanese\\-style painting, and contain representations of the scenery around Kyoto.", "There is a *Jōdo\\-shiki* garden with a pond in front of the building, which in 1997 was dredged as part of an archeological dig. As the temple faces the East, it suggests that the audience need to cross the Aji\\-ike pond in front of the Phoenix Hall, in order to reach Buddhist Pure Land. The gardens are a [nationally designated](/wiki/Cultural_Properties_of_Japan \"Cultural Properties of Japan\") [Historic Site](/wiki/Monuments_of_Japan \"Monuments of Japan\") and [Place of Scenic Beauty](/wiki/Monuments_of_Japan \"Monuments of Japan\").{{cite web \\|url\\=https://kunishitei.bunka.go.jp/heritage/detail/401/1642 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191223140731/https://kunishitei.bunka.go.jp/heritage/detail/401/1642 \\|url\\-status \\= dead\\|archive\\-date\\=23 December 2019 \\|title\\=平等院庭園 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Agency for Cultural Affairs]] \\|access\\-date\\=10 February 2012 }}", "### Kannon\\-do Hall", "The Kannon\\-do Hall is an Important Cultural Property, established on the former site of the main hall around 1230, during the Early Kamakura Period. The hall structure is simple, which follows the classical design from the [Tenpyo period](/wiki/Tenpy%C5%8D \"Tenpyō\") (710\\-794\\), having two different form bent to support the roof. It is currently under renovation and not open to the public.", "Japan commemorates the building's longevity and cultural significance by displaying its image on the [10 yen coin](/wiki/10_yen_coin \"10 yen coin\"),Kyoto Travel: [Byōdō\\-in.](http://www.japan-guide.com/e/e3923.html) and the [10,000 yen note](/wiki/Banknotes_of_the_Japanese_yen%232004 \"Banknotes of the Japanese yen#2004\") features the phoenix image. In December 1994, [UNESCO](/wiki/UNESCO \"UNESCO\") listed the building as a [World Heritage Site](/wiki/World_Heritage_Site \"World Heritage Site\") as part of the \"[Historic Monuments of Ancient Kyoto](/wiki/Historic_Monuments_of_Ancient_Kyoto \"Historic Monuments of Ancient Kyoto\")\". The Phoenix Hall, the great statue of Amida inside it, and several other items at Byōdō\\-in are [national treasures](/wiki/National_Treasures_of_Japan \"National Treasures of Japan\").\nA [half\\-size replica](/wiki/Byodo-In_%28Hawaii%29 \"Byodo-In (Hawaii)\") of the temple was completed on June 7, 1968 in the [Valley of the Temples](/wiki/Valley_of_the_Temples_Memorial_Park \"Valley of the Temples Memorial Park\") ([O'ahu](/wiki/O%27ahu \"O'ahu\"), [Hawaii](/wiki/Hawaii \"Hawaii\")).\nThe Japanese post has issued three definitive postage stamps showing the phoenix hall, each prepaying the then postal rate for a surface mail foreign letter: [1950](/wiki/File:Byoudouin_24Yen_stamp_in_1950.JPG \"Byoudouin 24Yen stamp in 1950.JPG\"), 24 yen 1957 and 30 yen 1959\\. Stamps were produced by the costly engraving method, showing the appreciation of the hall.", "### Yorin\\-an Shoin Residence", "It is a residence as well as one of the sub\\-temples in the precinct. Built in the early [Edo Period](/wiki/Edo_Period \"Edo Period\") (around 17th century), the roof is thatched with [Japanese cypress](/wiki/Japanese_cypress \"Japanese cypress\") bark, which the materials used for construction were believed came from remains of the [Momoyama Castle](/wiki/Momoyama_Castle \"Momoyama Castle\"). The interior wall paintings were the works produced by artists who belonged to the studio run by Sansetsu Kano, while the garden is said to have been designed by Sansai Hosokawa.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.byodoin.or.jp/en/around/watch/\\|title\\=Watch \\| Walk Around \\| World Heritage Byodoin\\|website\\=www.byodoin.or.jp}}", "### Hoshokan Museum", "As the former temple museum which opened in 1965 had become outdated, an innovative third\\-generation museum was opened on March 1, 2001, which is named the Hoshokan Museum. This museum achieved a significantly improved storage and display environment for national treasures from the Byodoin Temple, including the Temple Bell, 26 statues of the Praying Bodhisattva on Clouds and a pair of Phoenix from the rooftop of Phoenix Hall. It is the first comprehensive museum run by a religious organisation. The majority of the museum buildings are hidden underground, so that the exterior outlook of museum's blends with Phoenix Hall and other building complexes within the temple. Due to its design, the interior of the museum receives sufficient natural sunlight, as well as artificial lighting to keep the exhibition halls bright and comfortable for audience's experience.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.byodoin.or.jp/en/museum/\\|title\\=Hoshokan Museum \\| World Heritage Byodoin\\|website\\=www.byodoin.or.jp}}", "Entry to the complex grounds costs 700 yen for adults, and includes access to the gardens and the museum. An entry pass to the Phoenix Hall, which was newly restored in March 2014, costs an additional 300 yen and can be purchased near the gate. The tour is conducted in Japanese, however English paper guide book is provided.", "### Byodoin Tea Salon Toka", "A tea salon to try authentic Uji green tea in the precinct of Byodoin Temple. Tea leaves harvested in the tea fields of Uji City or neighbouring farms are used. Certified Japanese Tea Instructors will provide tea to visitors with the finest care and knowledge. Open Monday to Sunday but closed on Tuesday, from 10:00 to 16:30\\. Last order is at 16:00\\.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.byodoin.or.jp/en/touka/\\|title\\=Byodoin Temple Tea Room \"Sabo Toka\" \\| World Heritage Byodoin\\|website\\=www.byodoin.or.jp}}", "" ]
Various tools by function ------------------------- ### Hub, wheel and tire tools * *[Tire levers](/wiki/Tire_lever "Tire lever")* are used for removing the tires from the rim, often for changing the inner tube. Plastic levers are more prone to breakage; metal ones damage [tubes](/wiki/Inner_tube "Inner tube"), [tires](/wiki/Tire "Tire"), or [rims](/wiki/Rim_%28wheel%29 "Rim (wheel)") more easily. * *[Cone wrenches](/wiki/Cone_wrench "Cone wrench") (spanners)* are needed to dismantle and adjust the [hub](/wiki/Bicycle_wheel%23Hub "Bicycle wheel#Hub") [bearings](/wiki/Ball_bearing "Ball bearing"). * *[Spoke wrenches](/wiki/Spoke_wrench "Spoke wrench")* are used for tensioning the spokes of a wheel. * *Tensiometer* or *spoke tension meter* is used to measure the tension in spokes. * *Tire bead jack* can be used to install tires on rims, especially when the tire\-rim combination is tight. * *Dishing gauge* is used to measure the [dish](/wiki/Bicycle_wheel%23Dish "Bicycle wheel#Dish") of a wheel. * *[Wheel truing stand](/wiki/Wheel_truing_stand "Wheel truing stand")* is used to measure the side to side and radial trueness of a wheel's rim and facilitate truing it. * *[Bicycle pump](/wiki/Bicycle_pump "Bicycle pump")* * *[Pressure gauge](/wiki/Pressure_gauge "Pressure gauge")* is used to measure tire [pressure](/wiki/Pressure "Pressure"). Image:TyreLevers.jpg\|Metal and plastic tire levers Image:Spokey1\.jpg\|''Spokey'' spoke key Image:ConeWrenches.jpg\|Double\-ended cone wrenches, 13 \& 16 mm Image:Bike pump.jpg\|Bicycle floor pump File:Wiki Single arm model.jpg\|One\-armed wheel truing stand ### Brake tools * *Cable and housing cutters* * *Cable tensioning tool* to hold the cables taut while being worked on. * *Third hand* or *3rd hand* to clamp brake pads against rim during adjustment. * *Rotor truing tool* ### Headset tools * A *head tube facing and reaming tool* is a hand tool used to machine the head tube to ensure proper [headset](/wiki/Headset_%28bicycle_part%29 "Headset (bicycle part)") bearing alignment. The tool usually has separate and interchangeable facing and reaming cutters which can vary widely with the many available headset standards. * A *headset bearing cup press* is a [bearing press](/wiki/Bearing_press "Bearing press") specifically for pressing in interference\-fit headset cups. Most sets come with special stepped bushings or adapters that contact the cups, preventing damage when installed. Some manufacturers (e.g. Chris King) also make proprietary adapters for installing their headsets. * A *crown race cutting tool* is a hand tool used to counter\-ream and face the base of the fork column at the crown (known as the crown race seat). A single cutter is usually used to perform both aspects of the cutting operation. The process machines the crown race seat to be precisely perpendicular to the steering column axis and of the correct press\-fit diameter, ensuring the proper alignment of the crown race with the lower headset bearing. * A *crown race puller or remover* is a tool for removing the headset crown race. There are various tools on the market ranging from less than US$100 to several hundreds of dollars. * *Headset wrenches* are oversized (32 – 36 mm) flat open\-end wrenches for tightening headset cups and lock nuts on threaded [steering tubes](/wiki/Bicycle_fork "Bicycle fork"). May be designed to contact 7 sides of an 8 sided (8\-point) lock nut. * *[Hex (or Allen) keys](/wiki/Hex_key "Hex key")* are used on the various hex bolts on the stem, top cap and handlebars. * A *star nut setter* is used to set the [star nut](/wiki/Star_nut "Star nut") inside of the fork steering column for threadless headsets. ### Drivetrain and bottom bracket tools [thumb\|left\|Track sprockets are typically attached and removed from the hub by screwing them with a chain whip. This tool also has a lockring spanner for securing a reverse threaded lockring against the sprocket.](/wiki/Image:Track_sprocket_tool_by_Bruce_McAdam.jpg "Track sprocket tool by Bruce McAdam.jpg") [thumb\|Bottom bracket wrench for newer bottom bracket styles](/wiki/File:BBTool2.jpg "BBTool2.jpg") [thumb\|Crank extractor](/wiki/File:CrankExtractor4.jpg "CrankExtractor4.jpg") * A *[chain tool](/wiki/Chain_tool "Chain tool")* or *chain splitter* is used to 'break' a chain, in order to remove it from a bike or remove links, or to put a chain back together. * A *crank extractor* is used to pull the crank off the [bottom bracket](/wiki/Bottom_bracket "Bottom bracket") spindle. * A *pedal wrench* removes the [pedals](/wiki/Bicycle_pedal "Bicycle pedal") from the bicycle. It is also usually possible to use a common spanner in the correct size for this. * A *pin spanner* is used on adjustable bottom brackets. Note that [ISIS Drive](/wiki/ISIS_Drive "ISIS Drive") bottom brackets need a separate tool (see below). * Various *bottom bracket wrenches* for newer bottom bracket styles such as internally splined by ISIS, Shimano, FSA, and RaceFace; externally notched by Campagnolo Veloce, Xenon, Mirage, Daytona and Avanti; and externally mounted by Shimano. * *Bottom bracket taps and facing tools* are tools used to tap or chase the threads in the bottom bracket shell and face the outside edges, respectively. A single tool will sometimes handle both jobs, and is usually suitable for light\-duty bicycle shop use. A separate tap set and facing set is usually employed by frame builders where more robust tooling that is more frequently used is needed. Both tap sets and facing sets are intended for frame finishing work after welding and/or brazing, as the frame tubes tend to deform slightly after this process, and for cleaning out any weld splatter or paint from the bottom bracket threads. A bottom bracket tap set can be used to tap new threads in a blank bottom bracket shell (or for converting ISO threads to larger diameter Italian), but the process is slow and cumbersome and especially hard on most taps, particularly when tapping hard aluminum or titanium. * A *[chain whip](/wiki/Chain_whip_%28bicycle_tool%29 "Chain whip (bicycle tool)")* and *lock\-ring remover* are used for changing derailleur [cassettes](/wiki/Cassette_%28bicycle_part%29 "Cassette (bicycle part)"). * Various *freewheel remover*s are used to unscrew [freewheels](/wiki/Cassette_%28bicycle_part%29 "Cassette (bicycle part)") from hubs. * A *derailleur alignment gauge* is used to straighten rear [derailleur hangers](/wiki/Dropout_%28bicycle_part%29%23Derailleur_hanger "Dropout (bicycle part)#Derailleur hanger"). ### Stands [right\|thumb\|250px\|Work stand (painted black and blue) holding a bicycle frame by its fork dropouts and bottom bracket shell.](/wiki/Image:Bicycle_Frame_Lemond_zurich_retouched.jpg "Bicycle Frame Lemond zurich retouched.jpg") Various devices have been devised to hold a bike still to facilitate working on it, and they are usually called **stands**. Stands may clamp a part of the bike, such as the [seatpost](/wiki/Seatpost "Seatpost"), seat tube, or top tube, or they may simply provide a surface on which a bike may rest with some security. Stands, especially those that clamp to a bike, may provide a means of repositioning a bike in order to conveniently locate the part being worked on. Stands may be either portable (light and collapsible) or fixed (heavy, usually attached to the floor, wall, or bench). Care must be taken with clamping stands not to clamp a part of the bike that cannot withstand the pressure, such as the tubes of many aluminum or carbon fiber frames, and non\-cylindrical carbon fiber seatposts. An auxiliary bracket may be used with clamping stands to keep the steering mechanism from rotating. ### Storage rack Bicycle storage refers to a method of storing bicycles indoors or outdoors to reduce space usage and protect bicycles. There are various ways to store bicycles, including using bicycle racks, hooks, vertical bike stands, bicycle storage cabinets, etc. Bicycle racks are one of the most commonly used bicycle storage devices. They are usually made of metal or plastic and can support the weight of the bicycle while lifting it up to save space. Bicycle racks can be placed on the ground or on the wall, allowing the bicycle to be hung up and not take up floor space. Hooks are also a common bicycle storage device. They are usually made of metal and can be fixed on the wall or ceiling. The benefit of using hooks is that the bicycle can be stored vertically, which saves more space. However, using hooks requires more effort to put the bicycle on and is not suitable for storing heavy bicycles. Vertical bike stands are a type of bicycle storage device that can store multiple bicycles. They are usually made of metal and can be placed on the ground, often in a corner of a garage or shed. This storage method is more space\-saving than bicycle racks and can store multiple bicycles. Bicycle storage cabinets are an indoor storage solution for bicycles. They are usually made of wood, plastic or metal and can protect bicycles from weather and sun damage. They usually have locks to protect bicycles from theft and can reduce indoor bicycle space usage. Bicycle storage can reduce the space occupied by bicycles while protecting them from weather and sun damage. Choosing the right bicycle storage method can make bicycles last longer and save home or commercial space.
[ "Various tools by function\n-------------------------", "### Hub, wheel and tire tools", "* *[Tire levers](/wiki/Tire_lever \"Tire lever\")* are used for removing the tires from the rim, often for changing the inner tube. Plastic levers are more prone to breakage; metal ones damage [tubes](/wiki/Inner_tube \"Inner tube\"), [tires](/wiki/Tire \"Tire\"), or [rims](/wiki/Rim_%28wheel%29 \"Rim (wheel)\") more easily.\n* *[Cone wrenches](/wiki/Cone_wrench \"Cone wrench\") (spanners)* are needed to dismantle and adjust the [hub](/wiki/Bicycle_wheel%23Hub \"Bicycle wheel#Hub\") [bearings](/wiki/Ball_bearing \"Ball bearing\").\n* *[Spoke wrenches](/wiki/Spoke_wrench \"Spoke wrench\")* are used for tensioning the spokes of a wheel.\n* *Tensiometer* or *spoke tension meter* is used to measure the tension in spokes.\n* *Tire bead jack* can be used to install tires on rims, especially when the tire\\-rim combination is tight.\n* *Dishing gauge* is used to measure the [dish](/wiki/Bicycle_wheel%23Dish \"Bicycle wheel#Dish\") of a wheel.\n* *[Wheel truing stand](/wiki/Wheel_truing_stand \"Wheel truing stand\")* is used to measure the side to side and radial trueness of a wheel's rim and facilitate truing it.\n* *[Bicycle pump](/wiki/Bicycle_pump \"Bicycle pump\")*\n* *[Pressure gauge](/wiki/Pressure_gauge \"Pressure gauge\")* is used to measure tire [pressure](/wiki/Pressure \"Pressure\").", "Image:TyreLevers.jpg\\|Metal and plastic tire levers\nImage:Spokey1\\.jpg\\|''Spokey'' spoke key\nImage:ConeWrenches.jpg\\|Double\\-ended cone wrenches, 13 \\& 16 mm\nImage:Bike pump.jpg\\|Bicycle floor pump\nFile:Wiki Single arm model.jpg\\|One\\-armed wheel truing stand", "", "### Brake tools", "* *Cable and housing cutters*\n* *Cable tensioning tool* to hold the cables taut while being worked on.\n* *Third hand* or *3rd hand* to clamp brake pads against rim during adjustment.\n* *Rotor truing tool*", "### Headset tools", "* A *head tube facing and reaming tool* is a hand tool used to machine the head tube to ensure proper [headset](/wiki/Headset_%28bicycle_part%29 \"Headset (bicycle part)\") bearing alignment. The tool usually has separate and interchangeable facing and reaming cutters which can vary widely with the many available headset standards.\n* A *headset bearing cup press* is a [bearing press](/wiki/Bearing_press \"Bearing press\") specifically for pressing in interference\\-fit headset cups. Most sets come with special stepped bushings or adapters that contact the cups, preventing damage when installed. Some manufacturers (e.g. Chris King) also make proprietary adapters for installing their headsets.\n* A *crown race cutting tool* is a hand tool used to counter\\-ream and face the base of the fork column at the crown (known as the crown race seat). A single cutter is usually used to perform both aspects of the cutting operation. The process machines the crown race seat to be precisely perpendicular to the steering column axis and of the correct press\\-fit diameter, ensuring the proper alignment of the crown race with the lower headset bearing.\n* A *crown race puller or remover* is a tool for removing the headset crown race. There are various tools on the market ranging from less than US$100 to several hundreds of dollars.\n* *Headset wrenches* are oversized (32 – 36 mm) flat open\\-end wrenches for tightening headset cups and lock nuts on threaded [steering tubes](/wiki/Bicycle_fork \"Bicycle fork\"). May be designed to contact 7 sides of an 8 sided (8\\-point) lock nut.\n* *[Hex (or Allen) keys](/wiki/Hex_key \"Hex key\")* are used on the various hex bolts on the stem, top cap and handlebars.\n* A *star nut setter* is used to set the [star nut](/wiki/Star_nut \"Star nut\") inside of the fork steering column for threadless headsets.", "### Drivetrain and bottom bracket tools", "[thumb\\|left\\|Track sprockets are typically attached and removed from the hub by screwing them with a chain whip. This tool also has a lockring spanner for securing a reverse threaded lockring against the sprocket.](/wiki/Image:Track_sprocket_tool_by_Bruce_McAdam.jpg \"Track sprocket tool by Bruce McAdam.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|Bottom bracket wrench for newer bottom bracket styles](/wiki/File:BBTool2.jpg \"BBTool2.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|Crank extractor](/wiki/File:CrankExtractor4.jpg \"CrankExtractor4.jpg\")\n* A *[chain tool](/wiki/Chain_tool \"Chain tool\")* or *chain splitter* is used to 'break' a chain, in order to remove it from a bike or remove links, or to put a chain back together.\n* A *crank extractor* is used to pull the crank off the [bottom bracket](/wiki/Bottom_bracket \"Bottom bracket\") spindle.\n* A *pedal wrench* removes the [pedals](/wiki/Bicycle_pedal \"Bicycle pedal\") from the bicycle. It is also usually possible to use a common spanner in the correct size for this.\n* A *pin spanner* is used on adjustable bottom brackets. Note that [ISIS Drive](/wiki/ISIS_Drive \"ISIS Drive\") bottom brackets need a separate tool (see below).\n* Various *bottom bracket wrenches* for newer bottom bracket styles such as internally splined by ISIS, Shimano, FSA, and RaceFace; externally notched by Campagnolo Veloce, Xenon, Mirage, Daytona and Avanti; and externally mounted by Shimano.\n* *Bottom bracket taps and facing tools* are tools used to tap or chase the threads in the bottom bracket shell and face the outside edges, respectively. A single tool will sometimes handle both jobs, and is usually suitable for light\\-duty bicycle shop use. A separate tap set and facing set is usually employed by frame builders where more robust tooling that is more frequently used is needed. Both tap sets and facing sets are intended for frame finishing work after welding and/or brazing, as the frame tubes tend to deform slightly after this process, and for cleaning out any weld splatter or paint from the bottom bracket threads. A bottom bracket tap set can be used to tap new threads in a blank bottom bracket shell (or for converting ISO threads to larger diameter Italian), but the process is slow and cumbersome and especially hard on most taps, particularly when tapping hard aluminum or titanium.\n* A *[chain whip](/wiki/Chain_whip_%28bicycle_tool%29 \"Chain whip (bicycle tool)\")* and *lock\\-ring remover* are used for changing derailleur [cassettes](/wiki/Cassette_%28bicycle_part%29 \"Cassette (bicycle part)\").\n* Various *freewheel remover*s are used to unscrew [freewheels](/wiki/Cassette_%28bicycle_part%29 \"Cassette (bicycle part)\") from hubs.\n* A *derailleur alignment gauge* is used to straighten rear [derailleur hangers](/wiki/Dropout_%28bicycle_part%29%23Derailleur_hanger \"Dropout (bicycle part)#Derailleur hanger\").", "### Stands", "[right\\|thumb\\|250px\\|Work stand (painted black and blue) holding a bicycle frame by its fork dropouts and bottom bracket shell.](/wiki/Image:Bicycle_Frame_Lemond_zurich_retouched.jpg \"Bicycle Frame Lemond zurich retouched.jpg\")", "Various devices have been devised to hold a bike still to facilitate working on it, and they are usually called **stands**. Stands may clamp a part of the bike, such as the [seatpost](/wiki/Seatpost \"Seatpost\"), seat tube, or top tube, or they may simply provide a surface on which a bike may rest with some security. Stands, especially those that clamp to a bike, may provide a means of repositioning a bike in order to conveniently locate the part being worked on. Stands may be either portable (light and collapsible) or fixed (heavy, usually attached to the floor, wall, or bench).", "Care must be taken with clamping stands not to clamp a part of the bike that cannot withstand the pressure, such as the tubes of many aluminum or carbon fiber frames, and non\\-cylindrical carbon fiber seatposts. An auxiliary bracket may be used with clamping stands to keep the steering mechanism from rotating.", "### Storage rack", "Bicycle storage refers to a method of storing bicycles indoors or outdoors to reduce space usage and protect bicycles. There are various ways to store bicycles, including using bicycle racks, hooks, vertical bike stands, bicycle storage cabinets, etc.", "Bicycle racks are one of the most commonly used bicycle storage devices. They are usually made of metal or plastic and can support the weight of the bicycle while lifting it up to save space. Bicycle racks can be placed on the ground or on the wall, allowing the bicycle to be hung up and not take up floor space.", "Hooks are also a common bicycle storage device. They are usually made of metal and can be fixed on the wall or ceiling. The benefit of using hooks is that the bicycle can be stored vertically, which saves more space. However, using hooks requires more effort to put the bicycle on and is not suitable for storing heavy bicycles.", "Vertical bike stands are a type of bicycle storage device that can store multiple bicycles. They are usually made of metal and can be placed on the ground, often in a corner of a garage or shed. This storage method is more space\\-saving than bicycle racks and can store multiple bicycles.", "Bicycle storage cabinets are an indoor storage solution for bicycles. They are usually made of wood, plastic or metal and can protect bicycles from weather and sun damage. They usually have locks to protect bicycles from theft and can reduce indoor bicycle space usage.", "Bicycle storage can reduce the space occupied by bicycles while protecting them from weather and sun damage. Choosing the right bicycle storage method can make bicycles last longer and save home or commercial space.", "" ]
### Storage rack Bicycle storage refers to a method of storing bicycles indoors or outdoors to reduce space usage and protect bicycles. There are various ways to store bicycles, including using bicycle racks, hooks, vertical bike stands, bicycle storage cabinets, etc. Bicycle racks are one of the most commonly used bicycle storage devices. They are usually made of metal or plastic and can support the weight of the bicycle while lifting it up to save space. Bicycle racks can be placed on the ground or on the wall, allowing the bicycle to be hung up and not take up floor space. Hooks are also a common bicycle storage device. They are usually made of metal and can be fixed on the wall or ceiling. The benefit of using hooks is that the bicycle can be stored vertically, which saves more space. However, using hooks requires more effort to put the bicycle on and is not suitable for storing heavy bicycles. Vertical bike stands are a type of bicycle storage device that can store multiple bicycles. They are usually made of metal and can be placed on the ground, often in a corner of a garage or shed. This storage method is more space\-saving than bicycle racks and can store multiple bicycles. Bicycle storage cabinets are an indoor storage solution for bicycles. They are usually made of wood, plastic or metal and can protect bicycles from weather and sun damage. They usually have locks to protect bicycles from theft and can reduce indoor bicycle space usage. Bicycle storage can reduce the space occupied by bicycles while protecting them from weather and sun damage. Choosing the right bicycle storage method can make bicycles last longer and save home or commercial space.
[ "### Storage rack", "Bicycle storage refers to a method of storing bicycles indoors or outdoors to reduce space usage and protect bicycles. There are various ways to store bicycles, including using bicycle racks, hooks, vertical bike stands, bicycle storage cabinets, etc.", "Bicycle racks are one of the most commonly used bicycle storage devices. They are usually made of metal or plastic and can support the weight of the bicycle while lifting it up to save space. Bicycle racks can be placed on the ground or on the wall, allowing the bicycle to be hung up and not take up floor space.", "Hooks are also a common bicycle storage device. They are usually made of metal and can be fixed on the wall or ceiling. The benefit of using hooks is that the bicycle can be stored vertically, which saves more space. However, using hooks requires more effort to put the bicycle on and is not suitable for storing heavy bicycles.", "Vertical bike stands are a type of bicycle storage device that can store multiple bicycles. They are usually made of metal and can be placed on the ground, often in a corner of a garage or shed. This storage method is more space\\-saving than bicycle racks and can store multiple bicycles.", "Bicycle storage cabinets are an indoor storage solution for bicycles. They are usually made of wood, plastic or metal and can protect bicycles from weather and sun damage. They usually have locks to protect bicycles from theft and can reduce indoor bicycle space usage.", "Bicycle storage can reduce the space occupied by bicycles while protecting them from weather and sun damage. Choosing the right bicycle storage method can make bicycles last longer and save home or commercial space.", "" ]
Plot ---- In the [Kievan Rus'](/wiki/Kievan_Rus%27 "Kievan Rus'") of European epics, the people once lived in fear of a dreadful dragon who terrorizes a local village and its people. In order to appease the dragon, the villagers sacrificed young maidens in a ritual and they sing an ancient song to summon the dragon. The dragon abducts one of the maidens, but one brave knight travels to the dragon's island to rescue his love. When he discovers that she is already dead, the knight and the dragon fight a fierce battle in which the dragon is defeated. The knight frees his people from fear and becomes known as the Dragon Slayer. The dreaded ritual is transformed into a wedding ceremony. Many years later, the young Princess Miroslava ([Maria Poezzhaeva](/wiki/Maria_Poezzhaeva "Maria Poezzhaeva")), Mira for short, is betrothed to Igor, the Dragon Slayer's grandson. Her father and her sister Yaroslava think she is immature because she still likes fairy tales and playing with toys. Mira is placed on a boat deck in her wedding finery to be sent across the water to her future husband, Igor, but as Igor pulls her boat towards him, his people sing the ancient ritual song at their wedding. The dragon, who was thought to have been dead, captures Mira from the ceremony and takes her to his island. Mira is held prisoner in a [cave](/wiki/Cave "Cave") where she meets a young man who cannot remember his name. Mira believes he is another prisoner and calls him Arman ([Matvey Lykov](/wiki/Matvey_Lykov "Matvey Lykov")), but she soon discovers that Arman is the dragon who abducted her. He lives in a human form, holding back his inner beast, but sometimes turns into a dragon against his will. As a dragon, Arman is unable to control himself. Wishing to become a human, Arman shows Mira the island and gives her a place to create a home while she waits for Igor to rescue her. He tells her, as a dragon boy, he was allowed to choose whether to stay as a human or become a dragon. He chose to remain as a human until the Dragon Slayer killed his father. In his grief and rage, he became a dragon, gaining the knowledge of all dragons who had come before him. Realizing that the dragons were truly monsters, Arman isolated himself on the island to prevent himself from killing humans. Sensing the uncontrollable transition to his dragon form, he would go into the cave where the dragon could not escape and remain there until he reverts to his human form and almost had his dragon form under control. He abducted Mira because of the ritual song sung at her wedding by the villagers who believe that the dragons are extinct. The song caught Arman off guard and he did not have enough time to hide in the cave before responding to the song's summons. Arman wants to live as a human and crush his inner beast because he is afraid of harming Mira. Mira talks with Arman and teaches him to live as a human. As they get to know one another, Arman and Mira fall in love although Mira is still afraid of the dragon. The island is bewitched so that only those who are loved by someone on the island can find the way to it. Because Mira's feelings toward Igor change as she fell in love with Arman, Igor meanwhile, searches futilely in a fog. Igor, who does not share his grandfather's bravery, tries to turn back, but his helmsman reminds him of his oath and does not allow him to turn back so that his family name will not be dishonored. Mira's fear of the dragon causes her to secretly prepare a boat in order to escape. Learning of her preparations, Arman despairs of ever being able to control the dragon and reveals to Mira the real reason why the dragons had brought maidens to the island. The dragons bring young girls to the island so they can burn them to death and from the ashes of each girl, a new dragon was born; that is how Arman was born. Arman orders Mira to leave so that she will avoid this fate. But without Mira, Arman does not know how to continue living. Mira returns home after finding Igor's boat in the fog. She realizes that Yaroslava secretly loves Igor's honorable helmsman, and her father encourages her to follow her heart's desire. While preparing again for her wedding with Igor, Mira realizes that she still loves Arman and cannot live without him, rejecting an infuriated Igor during the ceremony. While on the boat, Mira sings the ritual song to call the dragon. Arman, meanwhile, is ending his life in order to make sure that there will be no more dragons, but changes into the dragon as he hears the song. He recaptures Mira and brings her to the island, intending to burn her. Mira does not show fear to the dragon and confesses her love for him. This allows Arman to finally control himself as a dragon. Years later, Mira and Arman are living together on the island with their daughter. Mira flies on her dragon\-husband, who is no longer dangerous to her, and during the flight, Arman changes into his human form and the two share a kiss.{{cite web \|url\=http://evgenius.myblog.arts.ac.uk/2016/01/05/%D0%BE%D0%BD\-%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BD\-he\-is\-a\-dragon\-2015\-russia/ \|title\=He is a Dragon \|last\=Kalyabina \|first\=Evgenia \|date\=January 5, 2016 \|work\=A myblog.arts site}}
[ "Plot\n----", "In the [Kievan Rus'](/wiki/Kievan_Rus%27 \"Kievan Rus'\") of European epics, the people once lived in fear of a dreadful dragon who terrorizes a local village and its people. In order to appease the dragon, the villagers sacrificed young maidens in a ritual and they sing an ancient song to summon the dragon. The dragon abducts one of the maidens, but one brave knight travels to the dragon's island to rescue his love. When he discovers that she is already dead, the knight and the dragon fight a fierce battle in which the dragon is defeated. The knight frees his people from fear and becomes known as the Dragon Slayer. The dreaded ritual is transformed into a wedding ceremony.", "Many years later, the young Princess Miroslava ([Maria Poezzhaeva](/wiki/Maria_Poezzhaeva \"Maria Poezzhaeva\")), Mira for short, is betrothed to Igor, the Dragon Slayer's grandson. Her father and her sister Yaroslava think she is immature because she still likes fairy tales and playing with toys. Mira is placed on a boat deck in her wedding finery to be sent across the water to her future husband, Igor, but as Igor pulls her boat towards him, his people sing the ancient ritual song at their wedding. The dragon, who was thought to have been dead, captures Mira from the ceremony and takes her to his island.", "Mira is held prisoner in a [cave](/wiki/Cave \"Cave\") where she meets a young man who cannot remember his name. Mira believes he is another prisoner and calls him Arman ([Matvey Lykov](/wiki/Matvey_Lykov \"Matvey Lykov\")), but she soon discovers that Arman is the dragon who abducted her. He lives in a human form, holding back his inner beast, but sometimes turns into a dragon against his will. As a dragon, Arman is unable to control himself.", "Wishing to become a human, Arman shows Mira the island and gives her a place to create a home while she waits for Igor to rescue her. He tells her, as a dragon boy, he was allowed to choose whether to stay as a human or become a dragon. He chose to remain as a human until the Dragon Slayer killed his father. In his grief and rage, he became a dragon, gaining the knowledge of all dragons who had come before him. Realizing that the dragons were truly monsters, Arman isolated himself on the island to prevent himself from killing humans. Sensing the uncontrollable transition to his dragon form, he would go into the cave where the dragon could not escape and remain there until he reverts to his human form and almost had his dragon form under control. He abducted Mira because of the ritual song sung at her wedding by the villagers who believe that the dragons are extinct. The song caught Arman off guard and he did not have enough time to hide in the cave before responding to the song's summons.", "Arman wants to live as a human and crush his inner beast because he is afraid of harming Mira. Mira talks with Arman and teaches him to live as a human. As they get to know one another, Arman and Mira fall in love although Mira is still afraid of the dragon.", "The island is bewitched so that only those who are loved by someone on the island can find the way to it. Because Mira's feelings toward Igor change as she fell in love with Arman, Igor meanwhile, searches futilely in a fog. Igor, who does not share his grandfather's bravery, tries to turn back, but his helmsman reminds him of his oath and does not allow him to turn back so that his family name will not be dishonored.", "Mira's fear of the dragon causes her to secretly prepare a boat in order to escape. Learning of her preparations, Arman despairs of ever being able to control the dragon and reveals to Mira the real reason why the dragons had brought maidens to the island. The dragons bring young girls to the island so they can burn them to death and from the ashes of each girl, a new dragon was born; that is how Arman was born. Arman orders Mira to leave so that she will avoid this fate. But without Mira, Arman does not know how to continue living.", "Mira returns home after finding Igor's boat in the fog. She realizes that Yaroslava secretly loves Igor's honorable helmsman, and her father encourages her to follow her heart's desire. While preparing again for her wedding with Igor, Mira realizes that she still loves Arman and cannot live without him, rejecting an infuriated Igor during the ceremony. While on the boat, Mira sings the ritual song to call the dragon. Arman, meanwhile, is ending his life in order to make sure that there will be no more dragons, but changes into the dragon as he hears the song. He recaptures Mira and brings her to the island, intending to burn her. Mira does not show fear to the dragon and confesses her love for him. This allows Arman to finally control himself as a dragon.", "Years later, Mira and Arman are living together on the island with their daughter. Mira flies on her dragon\\-husband, who is no longer dangerous to her, and during the flight, Arman changes into his human form and the two share a kiss.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://evgenius.myblog.arts.ac.uk/2016/01/05/%D0%BE%D0%BD\\-%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BD\\-he\\-is\\-a\\-dragon\\-2015\\-russia/ \\|title\\=He is a Dragon \\|last\\=Kalyabina \\|first\\=Evgenia \\|date\\=January 5, 2016 \\|work\\=A myblog.arts site}}", "" ]
Career ------ In 2001, Lee started his career in television after passing the 28th PD Public Recruitment at [KBS](/wiki/Korean_Broadcasting_System "Korean Broadcasting System") and started working in Drama Department.{{Cite web \|date\=2022\-08\-29 \|title\=송혜교·한소희, 이응복 PD '자백의 대가'로 만날까 \|trans\-title\=Song Hye\-kyo, Han So\-hee, and Lee Eung\-bok's PD, shall we meet as 'The Price of Self\-Confession'? \|url\=http://woman.chosun.com/news/articleView.html?idxno\=102054 \|access\-date\=2024\-01\-14 \|website\=여성조선 \|language\=ko}}{{Cite web \|date\=2008\-09\-22 \|title\=KBS PD들 '인사 철회' 릴레이 성명 발표 \|trans\-title\=KBS PDs announce 'retraction of personnel' relay statement \|url\=http://www.pdjournal.com/news/articleView.html?idxno\=17833 \|access\-date\=2024\-01\-14 \|website\=PD저널 \|language\=ko}} In 2002, a book titled "PD Who and How" was being compiled. It served as an introductory guide to the PD profession and was jointly written by 27 PDs from the three broadcasting companies, along with an outsourced production company. KBS PD Lee Eung\-bok contributed a chapter titled "Broadcasting company recruitment trends and industry trends in the broadcasting industry" to the book.{{Cite web \|date\=2002\-07\-19 \|title\=PD 27명이 공동집필한 입문서 'PD WHO \& HOW' \|url\=http://www.pdjournal.com/news/articleView.html?idxno\=4276 \|access\-date\=2024\-01\-15 \|website\=PD저널 \|language\=ko}} In 2009, Lee made his debut as director in [KBS2](/wiki/KBS2 "KBS2")'s Monday\-Tuesday drama *Hometown of Legends \- Forbidden Books* written by Bang Ji\-young. The story depicts a cursed banned book that summons ghosts, and contains the extreme maternal love of Hyeon\-deok (played by Kim Seong\-eun) to save her son who read the banned book, and the secrets of Jeong\-hee (played by Yoon Hee\-seok) involved in the banned book. In 2010, Lee teamed up with director Jeon Woo\-seong to direct *The Reputable Family* (Myeongga), written by Baek Young\-sook and Yoon Young\-soo. It was the first KBS historical drama to be restored from [KBS2](/wiki/KBS2 "KBS2") to [KBS1](/wiki/KBS1 "KBS1"). It was also noteworthy as [Cha In\-pyo](/wiki/Cha_In-pyo "Cha In-pyo")'s first attempt at a historical drama since his debut. The drama aimed to make us think about the true value of wealth by introducing the anecdote of the richest family in Gyeongju, Korea's representative prestigious family that practiced the spirit of noblesse oblige. In the same year, Lee teamed up with writer Yoon Ji\-hee for [KBS 2TV](/wiki/KBS_2TV "KBS 2TV") Drama Special Episode 7 *The Great Gye Chun\-bin*. It is a romantic comedy melodrama that revolves around kindergarten teacher Gye Chun\-bin ([Jung Yu\-mi](/wiki/Jung_Yu-mi_%28actress%2C_born_1983%29 "Jung Yu-mi (actress, born 1983)")) and art therapist Wang Ki\-nam ([Jung Kyung\-ho](/wiki/Jung_Kyung-ho_%28actor%2C_born_1983%29 "Jung Kyung-ho (actor, born 1983)")). Jung Kyung\-ho appears in his first one\-act play since his joined KBS in 2003\. A year prior, in January 2009, media outlets reported that [Bae Yong\-joon](/wiki/Bae_Yong-joon "Bae Yong-joon"), [hallyu](/wiki/Hallyu "Hallyu") actor and chairman of [KeyEast](/wiki/KeyEast "KeyEast"), would collaborate with Park Jin\-young's entertainment company JYP to co\-produce a television drama.{{cite web \|date\=January 7, 2009 \|title\=JYP, Yonsama to Produce Drama \|url\=https://www.koreatimes.co.kr/www/art/2024/05/398\_37456\.html \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220525194728/https://m.koreatimes.co.kr/pages/article.asp?newsIdx\=37456 \|archive\-date\=May 25, 2022 \|access\-date\=December 31, 2020 \|website\=\[\[The Korea Times]]}} They established a joint venture called Holym, a television drama production company. In April 2010, CJ Media joined the production team by signing a Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) with Holym.{{cite web \|date\=April 14, 2010 \|title\=KEYEAST, JYP, CJ Media team up for drama "Dream High" \|url\=https://www.hancinema.net/keyeast\-jyp\-cj\-media\-team\-up\-for\-drama\-dream\-high\-22977\.html \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210122030959/https://www.hancinema.net/keyeast\-jyp\-cj\-media\-team\-up\-for\-drama\-dream\-high\-22977\.html \|archive\-date\=January 22, 2021 \|access\-date\=December 31, 2020 \|website\=\[\[HanCinema]]}} Bae served as the creative producer of the drama, contributing to the overall concept, goals, and ideas, while Park composed the music and choreographed the dance for the series.{{cite web \|last\=Kwon \|first\=Mee\-yoo \|date\=December 28, 2010 \|title\=Yonsama\-JYP soap to reignite hallyu \|url\=https://www.koreatimes.co.kr/www/art/2024/05/398\_78763\.html \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201113102807/https://m.koreatimes.co.kr/pages/article.asp?newsIdx\=78763 \|archive\-date\=November 13, 2020 \|access\-date\=January 2, 2021}} Towards the end of 2010, it was announced that the screenplay was written by [Park Hye\-ryun](/wiki/Park_Hye-ryun "Park Hye-ryun"), and the series was directed by Lee Eung\-bok and [Kim Seong\-yoon](/wiki/Kim_Seong-yoon_%28director%29 "Kim Seong-yoon (director)").{{Cite web \|date\=2010\-12\-27 \|title\=아이돌잔치 '드림하이', "연기력 우려, 리얼리티로 승화시킨다" \|url\=https://www.mk.co.kr/news/culture/4831485 \|access\-date\=2024\-01\-15 \|website\=매일경제 \|language\=ko}} Bae Yong\-joon also appeared in the drama, starring in four episodes, which marked his return to the small screen after a three years.{{cite web \|date\=December 8, 2010 \|title\=Yonsama returns to television \|url\=https://koreajoongangdaily.joins.com/2010/12/08/etc/Yonsama\-returns\-to\-television/2929373\.html \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210519002909/https://koreajoongangdaily.joins.com/2010/12/08/etc/Yonsama\-returns\-to\-television/2929373\.html \|archive\-date\=May 19, 2021 \|access\-date\=December 31, 2020 \|website\=\[\[Korea JoongAng Daily]]}} Additionally, Park Jin\-young made his acting debut in the series.{{cite web \|date\=December 28, 2010 \|title\=J.Y. Park says "wants to make 'Dream High' a reality" \|url\=https://www.hancinema.net/j\-y\-park\-says\-wants\-to\-make\-dream\-high\-a\-reality\-26886\.html \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220526111437/https://www.hancinema.net/j\-y\-park\-says\-wants\-to\-make\-dream\-high\-a\-reality\-26886\.html \|archive\-date\=May 26, 2022 \|access\-date\=December 31, 2020 \|website\=\[\[HanCinema]]}} The main cast included Ok Taec\-yeon and Jang Wooyoung from the group 2PM, Bae Suzy from Miss A, Hahm Eun\-jung from T\-ara, singer IU, and Kim Soo\-hyun. Kim Soo\-hyun was the only non\-idol among the cast, but he studied music and dance at JYP Entertainment for three months in order to portray his role.{{cite web \|date\=March 2, 2011 \|script\-title\=ko:'드림하이' 스타K, 왜 김수현이었을까 \|trans\-title\='Dream High' Star K, why was Kim Soo\-hyun? \|url\=https://m.news.naver.com/read.nhn?mode\=LSD∣\=sec\&sid1\=106\&oid\=109\&aid\=0002183934 \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230117034747/https://n.news.naver.com/entertain/article/109/0002183934 \|archive\-date\=January 17, 2023 \|access\-date\=December 31, 2020 \|website\=\[\[Naver]] \|publisher\=OSEN \|language\=ko}} In 2012, Lee co\-directed *[School 2013](/wiki/School_2013 "School 2013")*, the fifth installment of [KBS](/wiki/Korean_Broadcasting_System "Korean Broadcasting System")'s *[School](/wiki/School_%28South_Korean_TV_series%29 "School (South Korean TV series)")* series, alongside Lee Min\-hong.{{cite web \|last\=Ho \|first\=Stewart \|date\=5 November 2012 \|title\=''School 2013'' Set As Official Title and Releases Group Poster of the Students \|url\=http://enewsworld.mnet.com/enews/contents.asp?idx\=19825 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20130129144515/http://enewsworld.mnet.com/enews/contents.asp?idx\=19825 \|archive\-date\=29 January 2013 \|accessdate\=2012\-12\-07 \|work\=enewsWorld}} The drama, written by Lee Hyun\-joo and Go Jung\-won, garnered double\-digit viewership ratings and was well received by young viewers. It also gained popularity overseas, contributing to increased recognition for its cast members, including [Kim Woo\-bin](/wiki/Kim_Woo-bin "Kim Woo-bin") and [Lee Jong\-suk](/wiki/Lee_Jong-suk "Lee Jong-suk").{{Cite web \|date\=2013\-01\-29 \|title\='학교 2013' 박수받고 떠났다 \|url\=https://www.dailycc.net/news/articleView.html?idxno\=119718 \|access\-date\=2024\-01\-15 \|website\=충청신문 \|language\=ko}} Since October 2012, while still working on *School 2013*, Lee already set his new project, *[Secret Love](/wiki/Secret_Love_%28South_Korean_TV_series%29 "Secret Love (South Korean TV series)")*, Choi Ho\-cheol's award\-winning script from the KBS Miniseries Script Contest in 2012\. Lee was impressed by the story and had been preparing for nearly a year, holding frequent meetings with Choi Ho\-cheol. Chief Producer Hwang Ui\-kyung recommended writer [Yoo Bo\-ra](/wiki/Yoo_Bo-ra "Yoo Bo-ra") to join the project.{{Cite web \|date\=2013\-10\-30 \|title\=The story behind the production of 'Secret' "I liked it even before winning the PD contest, I prepared for a year" \|url\=https://m.newsen.com/news\_view.php?uid\=201310301540203110\&r\=1 \|website\=Newsen}} The roles were well\-defined, with writer Yoo Bo\-ra responsible for infusing the emotional and feminine elements, while writer Choi Ho\-cheol handled the mystery and thriller aspects.{{Cite web \|date\=2013\-11\-20 \|title\=비밀 속 '퍼즐 맞추기', 그래서 비밀은 특별하다 \|url\=http://www.pdjournal.com/news/articleView.html?idxno\=50162 \|access\-date\=2024\-01\-14 \|website\=PD저널 \|language\=ko}} *[Secret Love](/wiki/Secret_Love_%28South_Korean_TV_series%29 "Secret Love (South Korean TV series)")* starred Hwang Jung\-eum, Ji Sung, Bae Soo\-bin, and Lee Da\-hee in the lead roles. The 16\-episode series aired on KBS2 from September 25 to November 14, 2013, with episodes broadcast on Wednesdays and Thursdays at 21:55\.{{Cite web \|title\=본방사수고뇌의 달, 박지은 김은숙 강은경 유보라 11월 대격돌 \|trans\-title\=The month of the anguish of the live broadcast, Park Ji\-eun, Kim Eun\-sook, Kang Eun\-kyung, Yoo Bo\-ra, November clash \|url\=https://v.daum.net/v/Jg8BxD85Y5 \|access\-date\=2024\-01\-14 \|website\=언론사 뷰}} Secret Love garnered positive reviews consistently for its well\-structured portrayal of a passionate melodrama involving four individuals intertwined with revenge and desire. It secured the top position among Wednesday\-Thursday dramas, achieving a viewership rating of 16%. With two rookie writers, it successfully held its ground in direct competition with SBS drama by star writer [Kim Eun\-sook](/wiki/Kim_Eun-sook "Kim Eun-sook")'s *[The Heirs](/wiki/The_Heirs "The Heirs")*.{{Cite web \|date\=2013\-11\-06 \|title\=단막극 신인 작가 미니시리즈로 영글다 \|trans\-title\=It's a one\-act drama new writer mini\-series. \|url\=http://www.pdjournal.com/news/articleView.html?idxno\=50032 \|access\-date\=2024\-01\-14 \|website\=PD저널 \|language\=ko}} The success of *[Secret Love](/wiki/Secret_Love_%28South_Korean_TV_series%29 "Secret Love (South Korean TV series)")* was attributed to the combined talents of promising new writers and the planning skills of the production team. Hwang Eui\-kyung, the Chief Producer of the KBS drama department, acknowledged that broadcasting companies traditionally hesitated to hire new writers for mini\-series, due to the financial implications and higher risk. However, in this case, they took a chance on a new writer who had demonstrated their capabilities in one\-act plays and internal planning. This decision held significance as it was a project that yielded positive results.{{Cite web \|date\=2013\-11\-06 \|title\=단막극 신인 작가 미니시리즈로 영글다 \|url\=http://www.pdjournal.com/news/articleView.html?idxno\=50032 \|access\-date\=2024\-01\-14 \|website\=PD저널 \|language\=ko}} In 2015, Lee took on the role of director for Descendants of the Sun. This drama stood out from most Korean dramas as it was fully pre\-produced before its airing, deviating from the typical live\-shoot production format.{{cite web \|date\=March 10, 2016 \|title\=Descendants of the Sun outpaces My Love from the Star \|url\=http://english.yonhapnews.co.kr/news/2016/03/10/0200000000AEN20160310001652315\.html \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160327145558/http://english.yonhapnews.co.kr/news/2016/03/10/0200000000AEN20160310001652315\.html \|archive\-date\=March 27, 2016 \|access\-date\=March 15, 2016 \|work\=\[\[Yonhap News Agency]]}}{{cite web \|last\=orionight \|date\=March 6, 2016 \|title\=The Staggering Production Cost of "Descendants of the Sun" Revealed \|url\=http://www.soompi.com/2016/03/06/the\-staggering\-production\-cost\-of\-descendants\-of\-the\-sun\-revealed/ \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160406071537/http://www.soompi.com/2016/03/06/the\-staggering\-production\-cost\-of\-descendants\-of\-the\-sun\-revealed/ \|archive\-date\=April 6, 2016 \|access\-date\=April 6, 2016 \|publisher\=\[\[Soompi]]}} One of the reasons for this decision was due to China's government drama preliminary review. Producer Lee Eung\-bok was initially drawn to Descendants of the Sun when he was still experiencing anger and frustration following the Sewol Ferry disaster, finding solace in the story.{{Cite web \|date\=2016\-04\-18 \|title\="태후는 판타지, '상식'이 통하고 '명예'를 지키는..." \|url\=http://www.pdjournal.com/news/articleView.html?idxno\=58225 \|access\-date\=2024\-01\-15 \|website\=PD저널 \|language\=ko}} [Kim Eun\-sook](/wiki/Kim_Eun-sook "Kim Eun-sook") and [Kim Won\-seok](/wiki/Kim_Won-seok_%28writer%29 "Kim Won-seok (writer)") penned the script, which was adapted from Kim Won\-seok's award\-winning script "Doctors Without Borders." The drama features a star\-studded cast including [Song Joong\-ki](/wiki/Song_Joong-ki "Song Joong-ki"), [Song Hye\-kyo](/wiki/Song_Hye-kyo "Song Hye-kyo"), [Jin Goo](/wiki/Jin_Goo "Jin Goo"), and [Kim Ji\-won](/wiki/Kim_Ji-won_%28actress%29 "Kim Ji-won (actress)").{{cite web \|date\=2 April 2015 \|title\=Song Hye\-kyo, Song Joong\-ki pair up for new drama \|url\=http://www.koreaherald.com/view.php?ud\=20150402000892\&ACE\_SEARCH\=1 \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180626135729/http://www.koreaherald.com/view.php?ud\=20150402000892\&ACE\_SEARCH\=1 \|archive\-date\=June 26, 2018 \|access\-date\=August 25, 2017 \|work\=\[\[The Korea Herald]]}}{{cite web \|date\=April 3, 2015 \|title\=Actors chosen for 'Sun's Descendant' \|url\=http://koreajoongangdaily.joins.com/news/article/article.aspx?aid\=3002654 \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180904225755/http://koreajoongangdaily.joins.com/news/article/article.aspx?aId\=3002654 \|archive\-date\=September 4, 2018 \|access\-date\=August 25, 2017 \|work\=\[\[Korea JoongAng Daily]]}}{{cite web \|date\=April 2, 2015 \|title\=Song Joong Ki, Song Hye Kyo, Jin Goo and Kim Ji Won Confirm for 'Descendants of the Sun' \|url\=http://mwave.interest.me/enewsworld/en/article/90522/song\-joong\-ki\-song\-hye\-kyo\-jin\-goo\-and\-kim\-ji\-won\-confirm\-for\-descendants\-of\-the\-sunm \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160308112622/http://mwave.interest.me/enewsworld/en/article/90522/song\-joong\-ki\-song\-hye\-kyo\-jin\-goo\-and\-kim\-ji\-won\-confirm\-for\-descendants\-of\-the\-sunm \|archive\-date\=March 8, 2016 \|access\-date\=March 15, 2016 \|work\=enewsWorld}} This drama also incorporated overseas filming. Since Lee had limited experience shooting abroad, he enlisted the help of director Kang Myeong\-chan and Kim Dong\-sik, who had previously worked as a coordinator during the filming of the Korean portion of the movie Avengers. On September 28, 2015, the entire cast and crew, including the four main leads and supporting actors Kang Shin\-il and Onew, embarked on a trip to Greece.{{cite web \|last1\=Sung \|first1\=So\-young \|date\=October 1, 2015 \|title\=Song Joong\-ki is filming in Greece \|url\=http://koreajoongangdaily.joins.com/news/article/Article.aspx?aid\=3009742 \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160502183430/http://koreajoongangdaily.joins.com/news/article/article.aspx?aid\=3009742 \|archive\-date\=May 2, 2016 \|access\-date\=October 11, 2015 \|website\=\[\[Korea JoongAng Daily]]}}{{cite web \|date\=September 29, 2015 \|title\=''Descendants of the Sun'' Starts Filming in Greece With Month\-Long Schedule \|url\=http://www.soompi.com/2015/09/29/descendants\-of\-the\-sun\-starts\-filming\-in\-greece\-with\-a\-month\-long\-stay/ \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160413023844/http://www.soompi.com/2015/09/29/descendants\-of\-the\-sun\-starts\-filming\-in\-greece\-with\-a\-month\-long\-stay/ \|archive\-date\=April 13, 2016 \|access\-date\=September 30, 2015 \|publisher\=\[\[Soompi]]}}{{cite web \|date\=September 30, 2015 \|title\=Song Joong\-ki, Song Hye\-kyo in Greece for drama shoot \|url\=http://kpopherald.koreaherald.com/view.php?ud\=201509301756204056611\_2 \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304100921/http://kpopherald.koreaherald.com/view.php?ud\=201509301756204056611\_2 \|archive\-date\=March 4, 2016 \|access\-date\=September 30, 2015 \|work\=\[\[The Korea Herald\|K\-pop Herald]]}} It was reported that the majority of the filming took place in Zakynthos, Arachova, Lemnos, and Navagio.{{cite web \|date\=October 17, 2015 \|title\=''Descendants of the Sun'' filming in Greece \|url\=http://www.hancinema.net/hancinema\-s\-report\-descendants\-of\-the\-sun\-filming\-in\-greece\-87624\.html \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160409191822/http://www.hancinema.net/hancinema\-s\-report\-descendants\-of\-the\-sun\-filming\-in\-greece\-87624\.html \|archive\-date\=April 9, 2016 \|access\-date\=October 17, 2015 \|publisher\=\[\[Hancinema]]}}{{cite web \|date\=March 20, 2016 \|title\=Uruk, backdrop of 'Descendants of the Sun,' inspired by Iraq \|url\=http://kpopherald.koreaherald.com/view.php?ud\=201603201144036538605\_2\&ACE\_SEARCH\=1 \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170825234635/http://kpopherald.koreaherald.com/view.php?ud\=201603201144036538605\_2\&ACE\_SEARCH\=1 \|archive\-date\=August 25, 2017 \|access\-date\=August 25, 2017 \|work\=\[\[Kpop Herald]]}} Although the drama's setting was inspired by Iraq, the decision was made to situate the war\-torn area in a remote part of the Balkan Peninsula to avoid potential diplomatic conflicts with Iraq. The Mowuru Company's base camp was situated at the depleted Taebaek Hanbo Coal Mine, while most of the earthquake scenes were filmed at the Samtan Art Mine. Additionally, filming occurred at the Camp Greaves DMZ Experience Centre, which was formerly a US Army base camp during the Korean War. The scenes set at Haesung Hospital were actually filmed at Seoul St. Mary's Hospital.{{cite web \|date\=October 17, 2016 \|title\=Let's Discover Filming Sites from "Descendants of the Sun!" \|url\=http://english.visitkorea.or.kr/enu/ATR/SI\_EN\_3\_6\.jsp?cid\=2376985 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190710092933/http://english.visitkorea.or.kr/enu/ATR/SI\_EN\_3\_6\.jsp?cid\=2376985 \|archive\-date\=July 10, 2019 \|access\-date\=August 25, 2017 \|work\=Visit Korea}} From February 24 to April 14, 2016, the drama aired on KBS2, spanning 16 episodes.{{cite web \|date\=January 6, 2016 \|title\='Descendants' first K\-drama to air simultaneously in Korea, China \|url\=http://www.koreaherald.com/view.php?ud\=20160106001131\&ACE\_SEARCH\=1 \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170825234750/http://www.koreaherald.com/view.php?ud\=20160106001131\&ACE\_SEARCH\=1 \|archive\-date\=August 25, 2017 \|access\-date\=August 25, 2017 \|work\=\[\[The Korea Herald]]}} Subsequently, KBS broadcast three special episodes from April 20 to April 22, 2016\. These special episodes showcased highlights and memorable scenes from the series, provided insights into the drama's production process, featured behind\-the\-scenes footage, included commentaries from the cast members, and concluded with a final epilogue.{{cite web \|date\=March 30, 2016 \|title\=KBS to air 'Descendants of the Sun' special edition \|url\=http://kpopherald.koreaherald.com/view.php?ud\=201603301522200250528\_2\&ACE\_SEARCH\=1 \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170826032729/http://kpopherald.koreaherald.com/view.php?ud\=201603301522200250528\_2\&ACE\_SEARCH\=1 \|archive\-date\=August 26, 2017 \|access\-date\=August 25, 2017 \|work\=\[\[Kpop Herald]]}}{{cite web \|date\=March 29, 2016 \|title\=KBS prepares special programs for 'Descendants of the Sun' fans \|url\=http://english.yonhapnews.co.kr/search1/2603000000\.html?cid\=AEN20160329009200315 \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170826032424/http://english.yonhapnews.co.kr/search1/2603000000\.html?cid\=AEN20160329009200315 \|archive\-date\=August 26, 2017 \|access\-date\=August 25, 2017 \|work\=\[\[Yonhap News Agency]]}} The series achieved success in South Korea, reaching a peak audience share of 38\.8%. It garnered numerous accolades, including the prestigious Grand Prize in television at the 52nd Baeksang Arts Awards. Additionally, it was recognized as the Most Popular Show of the year by the Korea Broadcasting Advertising Corporation.{{cite web \|date\=December 28, 2016 \|title\='Descendants of the Sun' most engrossing show of 2016 \|url\=http://kpopherald.koreaherald.com/view.php?ud\=201612281054085580718\_2\&ACE\_SEARCH\=1 \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170825234705/http://kpopherald.koreaherald.com/view.php?ud\=201612281054085580718\_2\&ACE\_SEARCH\=1 \|archive\-date\=August 25, 2017 \|access\-date\=August 25, 2017 \|work\=\[\[Kpop Herald]]}} In March 2017, at the 29th Korea PD Awards, KBS's Descendant of the Sun (Lee Eung\-bok, Baek Sang\-hoon) received the Best TV Drama Award.{{Cite web \|date\=2017\-03\-23 \|title\='그것이 알고 싶다', 2년 연속 한국PD대상 올해의 PD상 \|url\=http://www.pdjournal.com/news/articleView.html?idxno\=60422 \|access\-date\=2024\-01\-15 \|website\=PD저널 \|language\=ko}} Lee left [KBS](/wiki/Korean_Broadcasting_System "Korean Broadcasting System") in August 2016 and moved to [CJ ENM Entertainment Division](/wiki/CJ_ENM_Entertainment_Division "CJ ENM Entertainment Division").{{Cite web \|date\=2016\-08\-29 \|title\=이응복, KBS 떠났다..26일 면직 발령 \|url\=https://www.starnewskorea.com/stview.php?no\=2016082910242921924 \|access\-date\=2024\-01\-15 \|website\=스타뉴스 \|language\=ko}} Following Lee's move to [CJ ENM](/wiki/CJ_ENM "CJ ENM") he joined forces once again with Kim Eun\-sook for tvN's Friday\-Saturday drama *[Guardian: The Lonely and Great God](/wiki/Guardian:The_Lonely_and_Great_God "The Lonely and Great God")*. The series revolves around the tale of a goblin and a girl who has the ability to see ghosts. Remarkably, the drama surpassed the 10% viewership mark within just two episodes. It commenced with a rating of 6\.9% and increased to 8\.3% in the second episode.{{Cite web \|date\=2016\-12\-08 \|title\=드라마꾼들에게 물었다, 왜 인어와 도깨비 사랑놀음인가 \|url\=http://www.pdjournal.com/news/articleView.html?idxno\=59849 \|access\-date\=2024\-01\-15 \|website\=PD저널 \|language\=ko}} Followed *[Mr. Sunshine](/wiki/Mr._Sunshine_%28South_Korean_TV_series%29 "Mr. Sunshine (South Korean TV series)")* (2018\).
[ "Career\n------", "In 2001, Lee started his career in television after passing the 28th PD Public Recruitment at [KBS](/wiki/Korean_Broadcasting_System \"Korean Broadcasting System\") and started working in Drama Department.{{Cite web \\|date\\=2022\\-08\\-29 \\|title\\=송혜교·한소희, 이응복 PD '자백의 대가'로 만날까 \\|trans\\-title\\=Song Hye\\-kyo, Han So\\-hee, and Lee Eung\\-bok's PD, shall we meet as 'The Price of Self\\-Confession'? \\|url\\=http://woman.chosun.com/news/articleView.html?idxno\\=102054 \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-01\\-14 \\|website\\=여성조선 \\|language\\=ko}}{{Cite web \\|date\\=2008\\-09\\-22 \\|title\\=KBS PD들 '인사 철회' 릴레이 성명 발표 \\|trans\\-title\\=KBS PDs announce 'retraction of personnel' relay statement \\|url\\=http://www.pdjournal.com/news/articleView.html?idxno\\=17833 \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-01\\-14 \\|website\\=PD저널 \\|language\\=ko}}", "In 2002, a book titled \"PD Who and How\" was being compiled. It served as an introductory guide to the PD profession and was jointly written by 27 PDs from the three broadcasting companies, along with an outsourced production company. KBS PD Lee Eung\\-bok contributed a chapter titled \"Broadcasting company recruitment trends and industry trends in the broadcasting industry\" to the book.{{Cite web \\|date\\=2002\\-07\\-19 \\|title\\=PD 27명이 공동집필한 입문서 'PD WHO \\& HOW' \\|url\\=http://www.pdjournal.com/news/articleView.html?idxno\\=4276 \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-01\\-15 \\|website\\=PD저널 \\|language\\=ko}}", "In 2009, Lee made his debut as director in [KBS2](/wiki/KBS2 \"KBS2\")'s Monday\\-Tuesday drama *Hometown of Legends \\- Forbidden Books* written by Bang Ji\\-young. The story depicts a cursed banned book that summons ghosts, and contains the extreme maternal love of Hyeon\\-deok (played by Kim Seong\\-eun) to save her son who read the banned book, and the secrets of Jeong\\-hee (played by Yoon Hee\\-seok) involved in the banned book.", "In 2010, Lee teamed up with director Jeon Woo\\-seong to direct *The Reputable Family* (Myeongga), written by Baek Young\\-sook and Yoon Young\\-soo. It was the first KBS historical drama to be restored from [KBS2](/wiki/KBS2 \"KBS2\") to [KBS1](/wiki/KBS1 \"KBS1\"). It was also noteworthy as [Cha In\\-pyo](/wiki/Cha_In-pyo \"Cha In-pyo\")'s first attempt at a historical drama since his debut. The drama aimed to make us think about the true value of wealth by introducing the anecdote of the richest family in Gyeongju, Korea's representative prestigious family that practiced the spirit of noblesse oblige.", "In the same year, Lee teamed up with writer Yoon Ji\\-hee for [KBS 2TV](/wiki/KBS_2TV \"KBS 2TV\") Drama Special Episode 7 *The Great Gye Chun\\-bin*. It is a romantic comedy melodrama that revolves around kindergarten teacher Gye Chun\\-bin ([Jung Yu\\-mi](/wiki/Jung_Yu-mi_%28actress%2C_born_1983%29 \"Jung Yu-mi (actress, born 1983)\")) and art therapist Wang Ki\\-nam ([Jung Kyung\\-ho](/wiki/Jung_Kyung-ho_%28actor%2C_born_1983%29 \"Jung Kyung-ho (actor, born 1983)\")). Jung Kyung\\-ho appears in his first one\\-act play since his joined KBS in 2003\\.", "A year prior, in January 2009, media outlets reported that [Bae Yong\\-joon](/wiki/Bae_Yong-joon \"Bae Yong-joon\"), [hallyu](/wiki/Hallyu \"Hallyu\") actor and chairman of [KeyEast](/wiki/KeyEast \"KeyEast\"), would collaborate with Park Jin\\-young's entertainment company JYP to co\\-produce a television drama.{{cite web \\|date\\=January 7, 2009 \\|title\\=JYP, Yonsama to Produce Drama \\|url\\=https://www.koreatimes.co.kr/www/art/2024/05/398\\_37456\\.html \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220525194728/https://m.koreatimes.co.kr/pages/article.asp?newsIdx\\=37456 \\|archive\\-date\\=May 25, 2022 \\|access\\-date\\=December 31, 2020 \\|website\\=\\[\\[The Korea Times]]}} They established a joint venture called Holym, a television drama production company. In April 2010, CJ Media joined the production team by signing a Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) with Holym.{{cite web \\|date\\=April 14, 2010 \\|title\\=KEYEAST, JYP, CJ Media team up for drama \"Dream High\" \\|url\\=https://www.hancinema.net/keyeast\\-jyp\\-cj\\-media\\-team\\-up\\-for\\-drama\\-dream\\-high\\-22977\\.html \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210122030959/https://www.hancinema.net/keyeast\\-jyp\\-cj\\-media\\-team\\-up\\-for\\-drama\\-dream\\-high\\-22977\\.html \\|archive\\-date\\=January 22, 2021 \\|access\\-date\\=December 31, 2020 \\|website\\=\\[\\[HanCinema]]}} Bae served as the creative producer of the drama, contributing to the overall concept, goals, and ideas, while Park composed the music and choreographed the dance for the series.{{cite web \\|last\\=Kwon \\|first\\=Mee\\-yoo \\|date\\=December 28, 2010 \\|title\\=Yonsama\\-JYP soap to reignite hallyu \\|url\\=https://www.koreatimes.co.kr/www/art/2024/05/398\\_78763\\.html \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201113102807/https://m.koreatimes.co.kr/pages/article.asp?newsIdx\\=78763 \\|archive\\-date\\=November 13, 2020 \\|access\\-date\\=January 2, 2021}}", "Towards the end of 2010, it was announced that the screenplay was written by [Park Hye\\-ryun](/wiki/Park_Hye-ryun \"Park Hye-ryun\"), and the series was directed by Lee Eung\\-bok and [Kim Seong\\-yoon](/wiki/Kim_Seong-yoon_%28director%29 \"Kim Seong-yoon (director)\").{{Cite web \\|date\\=2010\\-12\\-27 \\|title\\=아이돌잔치 '드림하이', \"연기력 우려, 리얼리티로 승화시킨다\" \\|url\\=https://www.mk.co.kr/news/culture/4831485 \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-01\\-15 \\|website\\=매일경제 \\|language\\=ko}} Bae Yong\\-joon also appeared in the drama, starring in four episodes, which marked his return to the small screen after a three years.{{cite web \\|date\\=December 8, 2010 \\|title\\=Yonsama returns to television \\|url\\=https://koreajoongangdaily.joins.com/2010/12/08/etc/Yonsama\\-returns\\-to\\-television/2929373\\.html \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210519002909/https://koreajoongangdaily.joins.com/2010/12/08/etc/Yonsama\\-returns\\-to\\-television/2929373\\.html \\|archive\\-date\\=May 19, 2021 \\|access\\-date\\=December 31, 2020 \\|website\\=\\[\\[Korea JoongAng Daily]]}} Additionally, Park Jin\\-young made his acting debut in the series.{{cite web \\|date\\=December 28, 2010 \\|title\\=J.Y. Park says \"wants to make 'Dream High' a reality\" \\|url\\=https://www.hancinema.net/j\\-y\\-park\\-says\\-wants\\-to\\-make\\-dream\\-high\\-a\\-reality\\-26886\\.html \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220526111437/https://www.hancinema.net/j\\-y\\-park\\-says\\-wants\\-to\\-make\\-dream\\-high\\-a\\-reality\\-26886\\.html \\|archive\\-date\\=May 26, 2022 \\|access\\-date\\=December 31, 2020 \\|website\\=\\[\\[HanCinema]]}} The main cast included Ok Taec\\-yeon and Jang Wooyoung from the group 2PM, Bae Suzy from Miss A, Hahm Eun\\-jung from T\\-ara, singer IU, and Kim Soo\\-hyun. Kim Soo\\-hyun was the only non\\-idol among the cast, but he studied music and dance at JYP Entertainment for three months in order to portray his role.{{cite web \\|date\\=March 2, 2011 \\|script\\-title\\=ko:'드림하이' 스타K, 왜 김수현이었을까 \\|trans\\-title\\='Dream High' Star K, why was Kim Soo\\-hyun? \\|url\\=https://m.news.naver.com/read.nhn?mode\\=LSD∣\\=sec\\&sid1\\=106\\&oid\\=109\\&aid\\=0002183934 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230117034747/https://n.news.naver.com/entertain/article/109/0002183934 \\|archive\\-date\\=January 17, 2023 \\|access\\-date\\=December 31, 2020 \\|website\\=\\[\\[Naver]] \\|publisher\\=OSEN \\|language\\=ko}}", "In 2012, Lee co\\-directed *[School 2013](/wiki/School_2013 \"School 2013\")*, the fifth installment of [KBS](/wiki/Korean_Broadcasting_System \"Korean Broadcasting System\")'s *[School](/wiki/School_%28South_Korean_TV_series%29 \"School (South Korean TV series)\")* series, alongside Lee Min\\-hong.{{cite web \\|last\\=Ho \\|first\\=Stewart \\|date\\=5 November 2012 \\|title\\=''School 2013'' Set As Official Title and Releases Group Poster of the Students \\|url\\=http://enewsworld.mnet.com/enews/contents.asp?idx\\=19825 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20130129144515/http://enewsworld.mnet.com/enews/contents.asp?idx\\=19825 \\|archive\\-date\\=29 January 2013 \\|accessdate\\=2012\\-12\\-07 \\|work\\=enewsWorld}} The drama, written by Lee Hyun\\-joo and Go Jung\\-won, garnered double\\-digit viewership ratings and was well received by young viewers. It also gained popularity overseas, contributing to increased recognition for its cast members, including [Kim Woo\\-bin](/wiki/Kim_Woo-bin \"Kim Woo-bin\") and [Lee Jong\\-suk](/wiki/Lee_Jong-suk \"Lee Jong-suk\").{{Cite web \\|date\\=2013\\-01\\-29 \\|title\\='학교 2013' 박수받고 떠났다 \\|url\\=https://www.dailycc.net/news/articleView.html?idxno\\=119718 \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-01\\-15 \\|website\\=충청신문 \\|language\\=ko}}", "Since October 2012, while still working on *School 2013*, Lee already set his new project, *[Secret Love](/wiki/Secret_Love_%28South_Korean_TV_series%29 \"Secret Love (South Korean TV series)\")*, Choi Ho\\-cheol's award\\-winning script from the KBS Miniseries Script Contest in 2012\\. Lee was impressed by the story and had been preparing for nearly a year, holding frequent meetings with Choi Ho\\-cheol. Chief Producer Hwang Ui\\-kyung recommended writer [Yoo Bo\\-ra](/wiki/Yoo_Bo-ra \"Yoo Bo-ra\") to join the project.{{Cite web \\|date\\=2013\\-10\\-30 \\|title\\=The story behind the production of 'Secret' \"I liked it even before winning the PD contest, I prepared for a year\" \\|url\\=https://m.newsen.com/news\\_view.php?uid\\=201310301540203110\\&r\\=1 \\|website\\=Newsen}} The roles were well\\-defined, with writer Yoo Bo\\-ra responsible for infusing the emotional and feminine elements, while writer Choi Ho\\-cheol handled the mystery and thriller aspects.{{Cite web \\|date\\=2013\\-11\\-20 \\|title\\=비밀 속 '퍼즐 맞추기', 그래서 비밀은 특별하다 \\|url\\=http://www.pdjournal.com/news/articleView.html?idxno\\=50162 \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-01\\-14 \\|website\\=PD저널 \\|language\\=ko}}", "*[Secret Love](/wiki/Secret_Love_%28South_Korean_TV_series%29 \"Secret Love (South Korean TV series)\")* starred Hwang Jung\\-eum, Ji Sung, Bae Soo\\-bin, and Lee Da\\-hee in the lead roles. The 16\\-episode series aired on KBS2 from September 25 to November 14, 2013, with episodes broadcast on Wednesdays and Thursdays at 21:55\\.{{Cite web \\|title\\=본방사수고뇌의 달, 박지은 김은숙 강은경 유보라 11월 대격돌 \\|trans\\-title\\=The month of the anguish of the live broadcast, Park Ji\\-eun, Kim Eun\\-sook, Kang Eun\\-kyung, Yoo Bo\\-ra, November clash \\|url\\=https://v.daum.net/v/Jg8BxD85Y5 \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-01\\-14 \\|website\\=언론사 뷰}} Secret Love garnered positive reviews consistently for its well\\-structured portrayal of a passionate melodrama involving four individuals intertwined with revenge and desire. It secured the top position among Wednesday\\-Thursday dramas, achieving a viewership rating of 16%. With two rookie writers, it successfully held its ground in direct competition with SBS drama by star writer [Kim Eun\\-sook](/wiki/Kim_Eun-sook \"Kim Eun-sook\")'s *[The Heirs](/wiki/The_Heirs \"The Heirs\")*.{{Cite web \\|date\\=2013\\-11\\-06 \\|title\\=단막극 신인 작가 미니시리즈로 영글다 \\|trans\\-title\\=It's a one\\-act drama new writer mini\\-series. \\|url\\=http://www.pdjournal.com/news/articleView.html?idxno\\=50032 \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-01\\-14 \\|website\\=PD저널 \\|language\\=ko}}", "The success of *[Secret Love](/wiki/Secret_Love_%28South_Korean_TV_series%29 \"Secret Love (South Korean TV series)\")* was attributed to the combined talents of promising new writers and the planning skills of the production team. Hwang Eui\\-kyung, the Chief Producer of the KBS drama department, acknowledged that broadcasting companies traditionally hesitated to hire new writers for mini\\-series, due to the financial implications and higher risk. However, in this case, they took a chance on a new writer who had demonstrated their capabilities in one\\-act plays and internal planning. This decision held significance as it was a project that yielded positive results.{{Cite web \\|date\\=2013\\-11\\-06 \\|title\\=단막극 신인 작가 미니시리즈로 영글다 \\|url\\=http://www.pdjournal.com/news/articleView.html?idxno\\=50032 \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-01\\-14 \\|website\\=PD저널 \\|language\\=ko}}", "In 2015, Lee took on the role of director for Descendants of the Sun. This drama stood out from most Korean dramas as it was fully pre\\-produced before its airing, deviating from the typical live\\-shoot production format.{{cite web \\|date\\=March 10, 2016 \\|title\\=Descendants of the Sun outpaces My Love from the Star \\|url\\=http://english.yonhapnews.co.kr/news/2016/03/10/0200000000AEN20160310001652315\\.html \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160327145558/http://english.yonhapnews.co.kr/news/2016/03/10/0200000000AEN20160310001652315\\.html \\|archive\\-date\\=March 27, 2016 \\|access\\-date\\=March 15, 2016 \\|work\\=\\[\\[Yonhap News Agency]]}}{{cite web \\|last\\=orionight \\|date\\=March 6, 2016 \\|title\\=The Staggering Production Cost of \"Descendants of the Sun\" Revealed \\|url\\=http://www.soompi.com/2016/03/06/the\\-staggering\\-production\\-cost\\-of\\-descendants\\-of\\-the\\-sun\\-revealed/ \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160406071537/http://www.soompi.com/2016/03/06/the\\-staggering\\-production\\-cost\\-of\\-descendants\\-of\\-the\\-sun\\-revealed/ \\|archive\\-date\\=April 6, 2016 \\|access\\-date\\=April 6, 2016 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Soompi]]}} One of the reasons for this decision was due to China's government drama preliminary review. Producer Lee Eung\\-bok was initially drawn to Descendants of the Sun when he was still experiencing anger and frustration following the Sewol Ferry disaster, finding solace in the story.{{Cite web \\|date\\=2016\\-04\\-18 \\|title\\=\"태후는 판타지, '상식'이 통하고 '명예'를 지키는...\" \\|url\\=http://www.pdjournal.com/news/articleView.html?idxno\\=58225 \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-01\\-15 \\|website\\=PD저널 \\|language\\=ko}} [Kim Eun\\-sook](/wiki/Kim_Eun-sook \"Kim Eun-sook\") and [Kim Won\\-seok](/wiki/Kim_Won-seok_%28writer%29 \"Kim Won-seok (writer)\") penned the script, which was adapted from Kim Won\\-seok's award\\-winning script \"Doctors Without Borders.\" The drama features a star\\-studded cast including [Song Joong\\-ki](/wiki/Song_Joong-ki \"Song Joong-ki\"), [Song Hye\\-kyo](/wiki/Song_Hye-kyo \"Song Hye-kyo\"), [Jin Goo](/wiki/Jin_Goo \"Jin Goo\"), and [Kim Ji\\-won](/wiki/Kim_Ji-won_%28actress%29 \"Kim Ji-won (actress)\").{{cite web \\|date\\=2 April 2015 \\|title\\=Song Hye\\-kyo, Song Joong\\-ki pair up for new drama \\|url\\=http://www.koreaherald.com/view.php?ud\\=20150402000892\\&ACE\\_SEARCH\\=1 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180626135729/http://www.koreaherald.com/view.php?ud\\=20150402000892\\&ACE\\_SEARCH\\=1 \\|archive\\-date\\=June 26, 2018 \\|access\\-date\\=August 25, 2017 \\|work\\=\\[\\[The Korea Herald]]}}{{cite web \\|date\\=April 3, 2015 \\|title\\=Actors chosen for 'Sun's Descendant' \\|url\\=http://koreajoongangdaily.joins.com/news/article/article.aspx?aid\\=3002654 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180904225755/http://koreajoongangdaily.joins.com/news/article/article.aspx?aId\\=3002654 \\|archive\\-date\\=September 4, 2018 \\|access\\-date\\=August 25, 2017 \\|work\\=\\[\\[Korea JoongAng Daily]]}}{{cite web \\|date\\=April 2, 2015 \\|title\\=Song Joong Ki, Song Hye Kyo, Jin Goo and Kim Ji Won Confirm for 'Descendants of the Sun' \\|url\\=http://mwave.interest.me/enewsworld/en/article/90522/song\\-joong\\-ki\\-song\\-hye\\-kyo\\-jin\\-goo\\-and\\-kim\\-ji\\-won\\-confirm\\-for\\-descendants\\-of\\-the\\-sunm \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160308112622/http://mwave.interest.me/enewsworld/en/article/90522/song\\-joong\\-ki\\-song\\-hye\\-kyo\\-jin\\-goo\\-and\\-kim\\-ji\\-won\\-confirm\\-for\\-descendants\\-of\\-the\\-sunm \\|archive\\-date\\=March 8, 2016 \\|access\\-date\\=March 15, 2016 \\|work\\=enewsWorld}}", "This drama also incorporated overseas filming. Since Lee had limited experience shooting abroad, he enlisted the help of director Kang Myeong\\-chan and Kim Dong\\-sik, who had previously worked as a coordinator during the filming of the Korean portion of the movie Avengers. On September 28, 2015, the entire cast and crew, including the four main leads and supporting actors Kang Shin\\-il and Onew, embarked on a trip to Greece.{{cite web \\|last1\\=Sung \\|first1\\=So\\-young \\|date\\=October 1, 2015 \\|title\\=Song Joong\\-ki is filming in Greece \\|url\\=http://koreajoongangdaily.joins.com/news/article/Article.aspx?aid\\=3009742 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160502183430/http://koreajoongangdaily.joins.com/news/article/article.aspx?aid\\=3009742 \\|archive\\-date\\=May 2, 2016 \\|access\\-date\\=October 11, 2015 \\|website\\=\\[\\[Korea JoongAng Daily]]}}{{cite web \\|date\\=September 29, 2015 \\|title\\=''Descendants of the Sun'' Starts Filming in Greece With Month\\-Long Schedule \\|url\\=http://www.soompi.com/2015/09/29/descendants\\-of\\-the\\-sun\\-starts\\-filming\\-in\\-greece\\-with\\-a\\-month\\-long\\-stay/ \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160413023844/http://www.soompi.com/2015/09/29/descendants\\-of\\-the\\-sun\\-starts\\-filming\\-in\\-greece\\-with\\-a\\-month\\-long\\-stay/ \\|archive\\-date\\=April 13, 2016 \\|access\\-date\\=September 30, 2015 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Soompi]]}}{{cite web \\|date\\=September 30, 2015 \\|title\\=Song Joong\\-ki, Song Hye\\-kyo in Greece for drama shoot \\|url\\=http://kpopherald.koreaherald.com/view.php?ud\\=201509301756204056611\\_2 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304100921/http://kpopherald.koreaherald.com/view.php?ud\\=201509301756204056611\\_2 \\|archive\\-date\\=March 4, 2016 \\|access\\-date\\=September 30, 2015 \\|work\\=\\[\\[The Korea Herald\\|K\\-pop Herald]]}} It was reported that the majority of the filming took place in Zakynthos, Arachova, Lemnos, and Navagio.{{cite web \\|date\\=October 17, 2015 \\|title\\=''Descendants of the Sun'' filming in Greece \\|url\\=http://www.hancinema.net/hancinema\\-s\\-report\\-descendants\\-of\\-the\\-sun\\-filming\\-in\\-greece\\-87624\\.html \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160409191822/http://www.hancinema.net/hancinema\\-s\\-report\\-descendants\\-of\\-the\\-sun\\-filming\\-in\\-greece\\-87624\\.html \\|archive\\-date\\=April 9, 2016 \\|access\\-date\\=October 17, 2015 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Hancinema]]}}{{cite web \\|date\\=March 20, 2016 \\|title\\=Uruk, backdrop of 'Descendants of the Sun,' inspired by Iraq \\|url\\=http://kpopherald.koreaherald.com/view.php?ud\\=201603201144036538605\\_2\\&ACE\\_SEARCH\\=1 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170825234635/http://kpopherald.koreaherald.com/view.php?ud\\=201603201144036538605\\_2\\&ACE\\_SEARCH\\=1 \\|archive\\-date\\=August 25, 2017 \\|access\\-date\\=August 25, 2017 \\|work\\=\\[\\[Kpop Herald]]}} Although the drama's setting was inspired by Iraq, the decision was made to situate the war\\-torn area in a remote part of the Balkan Peninsula to avoid potential diplomatic conflicts with Iraq.", "The Mowuru Company's base camp was situated at the depleted Taebaek Hanbo Coal Mine, while most of the earthquake scenes were filmed at the Samtan Art Mine. Additionally, filming occurred at the Camp Greaves DMZ Experience Centre, which was formerly a US Army base camp during the Korean War. The scenes set at Haesung Hospital were actually filmed at Seoul St. Mary's Hospital.{{cite web \\|date\\=October 17, 2016 \\|title\\=Let's Discover Filming Sites from \"Descendants of the Sun!\" \\|url\\=http://english.visitkorea.or.kr/enu/ATR/SI\\_EN\\_3\\_6\\.jsp?cid\\=2376985 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190710092933/http://english.visitkorea.or.kr/enu/ATR/SI\\_EN\\_3\\_6\\.jsp?cid\\=2376985 \\|archive\\-date\\=July 10, 2019 \\|access\\-date\\=August 25, 2017 \\|work\\=Visit Korea}}", "From February 24 to April 14, 2016, the drama aired on KBS2, spanning 16 episodes.{{cite web \\|date\\=January 6, 2016 \\|title\\='Descendants' first K\\-drama to air simultaneously in Korea, China \\|url\\=http://www.koreaherald.com/view.php?ud\\=20160106001131\\&ACE\\_SEARCH\\=1 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170825234750/http://www.koreaherald.com/view.php?ud\\=20160106001131\\&ACE\\_SEARCH\\=1 \\|archive\\-date\\=August 25, 2017 \\|access\\-date\\=August 25, 2017 \\|work\\=\\[\\[The Korea Herald]]}} Subsequently, KBS broadcast three special episodes from April 20 to April 22, 2016\\. These special episodes showcased highlights and memorable scenes from the series, provided insights into the drama's production process, featured behind\\-the\\-scenes footage, included commentaries from the cast members, and concluded with a final epilogue.{{cite web \\|date\\=March 30, 2016 \\|title\\=KBS to air 'Descendants of the Sun' special edition \\|url\\=http://kpopherald.koreaherald.com/view.php?ud\\=201603301522200250528\\_2\\&ACE\\_SEARCH\\=1 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170826032729/http://kpopherald.koreaherald.com/view.php?ud\\=201603301522200250528\\_2\\&ACE\\_SEARCH\\=1 \\|archive\\-date\\=August 26, 2017 \\|access\\-date\\=August 25, 2017 \\|work\\=\\[\\[Kpop Herald]]}}{{cite web \\|date\\=March 29, 2016 \\|title\\=KBS prepares special programs for 'Descendants of the Sun' fans \\|url\\=http://english.yonhapnews.co.kr/search1/2603000000\\.html?cid\\=AEN20160329009200315 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170826032424/http://english.yonhapnews.co.kr/search1/2603000000\\.html?cid\\=AEN20160329009200315 \\|archive\\-date\\=August 26, 2017 \\|access\\-date\\=August 25, 2017 \\|work\\=\\[\\[Yonhap News Agency]]}} The series achieved success in South Korea, reaching a peak audience share of 38\\.8%. It garnered numerous accolades, including the prestigious Grand Prize in television at the 52nd Baeksang Arts Awards. Additionally, it was recognized as the Most Popular Show of the year by the Korea Broadcasting Advertising Corporation.{{cite web \\|date\\=December 28, 2016 \\|title\\='Descendants of the Sun' most engrossing show of 2016 \\|url\\=http://kpopherald.koreaherald.com/view.php?ud\\=201612281054085580718\\_2\\&ACE\\_SEARCH\\=1 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170825234705/http://kpopherald.koreaherald.com/view.php?ud\\=201612281054085580718\\_2\\&ACE\\_SEARCH\\=1 \\|archive\\-date\\=August 25, 2017 \\|access\\-date\\=August 25, 2017 \\|work\\=\\[\\[Kpop Herald]]}} In March 2017, at the 29th Korea PD Awards, KBS's Descendant of the Sun (Lee Eung\\-bok, Baek Sang\\-hoon) received the Best TV Drama Award.{{Cite web \\|date\\=2017\\-03\\-23 \\|title\\='그것이 알고 싶다', 2년 연속 한국PD대상 올해의 PD상 \\|url\\=http://www.pdjournal.com/news/articleView.html?idxno\\=60422 \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-01\\-15 \\|website\\=PD저널 \\|language\\=ko}}", "Lee left [KBS](/wiki/Korean_Broadcasting_System \"Korean Broadcasting System\") in August 2016 and moved to [CJ ENM Entertainment Division](/wiki/CJ_ENM_Entertainment_Division \"CJ ENM Entertainment Division\").{{Cite web \\|date\\=2016\\-08\\-29 \\|title\\=이응복, KBS 떠났다..26일 면직 발령 \\|url\\=https://www.starnewskorea.com/stview.php?no\\=2016082910242921924 \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-01\\-15 \\|website\\=스타뉴스 \\|language\\=ko}}", "Following Lee's move to [CJ ENM](/wiki/CJ_ENM \"CJ ENM\") he joined forces once again with Kim Eun\\-sook for tvN's Friday\\-Saturday drama *[Guardian: The Lonely and Great God](/wiki/Guardian:The_Lonely_and_Great_God \"The Lonely and Great God\")*. The series revolves around the tale of a goblin and a girl who has the ability to see ghosts. Remarkably, the drama surpassed the 10% viewership mark within just two episodes. It commenced with a rating of 6\\.9% and increased to 8\\.3% in the second episode.{{Cite web \\|date\\=2016\\-12\\-08 \\|title\\=드라마꾼들에게 물었다, 왜 인어와 도깨비 사랑놀음인가 \\|url\\=http://www.pdjournal.com/news/articleView.html?idxno\\=59849 \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-01\\-15 \\|website\\=PD저널 \\|language\\=ko}}", "Followed *[Mr. Sunshine](/wiki/Mr._Sunshine_%28South_Korean_TV_series%29 \"Mr. Sunshine (South Korean TV series)\")* (2018\\).", "" ]
History ------- In 2012 when [SeaFrance](/wiki/SeaFrance "SeaFrance") was liquidated, DFDS and LD Lines started a joint service between Dover and Calais and formed New Channel Company A/S or DFDS Seaways France by merging certain LD Lines and DFDS routes into the new company such as LD Lines [Portsmouth](/wiki/Portsmouth "Portsmouth") to [Le Havre](/wiki/Le_Havre "Le Havre") and [Newhaven](/wiki/Newhaven%2C_East_Sussex "Newhaven, East Sussex") to [Dieppe](/wiki/Dieppe "Dieppe") services and DFDS [Dover](/wiki/Dover "Dover") to [Dunkirk](/wiki/Dunkirk "Dunkirk") services but also along with the joint [Dover](/wiki/Dover "Dover")\- [Calais](/wiki/Calais "Calais") service. In June 2015, [DFDS](/wiki/DFDS "DFDS") chartered the [MyFerryLink](/wiki/MyFerryLink "MyFerryLink")/[Eurotunnel](/wiki/Eurotunnel "Eurotunnel") ferries [MS Rodin](/wiki/MS_Rodin "MS Rodin") \& [MS Berlioz](/wiki/MS_Berlioz "MS Berlioz") to enter service on 2 July 2015 when the [MyFerryLink](/wiki/MyFerryLink "MyFerryLink") [Dover](/wiki/Dover "Dover")\-[Calais](/wiki/Calais "Calais") ceased service. [DFDS](/wiki/DFDS "DFDS") planned to keep 202 of the 600 French jobs currently employed by SCOP Seafrance, but in reaction to this decision, the French crew struck in Calais on 29 June 2015 and later occupied the two passenger vessels in Calais and started to vandalise the vessels. This delayed their re\-entry into [Dover](/wiki/Dover "Dover")\-[Calais](/wiki/Calais "Calais") service. Meanwhile, [MS *Calais Seaways*](/wiki/MS_Calais_Seaways "MS Calais Seaways") was diverted and placed on [Dover](/wiki/Dover "Dover")\-[Dunkirk](/wiki/Dunkirk "Dunkirk") service and [MS *Malo Seaways*](/wiki/MS_Malo_Seaways "MS Malo Seaways") was laid up in [Dover](/wiki/Dover "Dover") from 29 June. On 13 September both vessels were tugged to Dunkirk for refit and repaint, which showed the start of DFDS ownership of the vessels, which have subsequently been renamed *Côte des Dunes* and *Côte des Flandres*. In October 2014, DFDS extended its operation contract for the [Newhaven](/wiki/Newhaven%2C_East_Sussex "Newhaven, East Sussex")\-[Dieppe](/wiki/Dieppe "Dieppe") service with Syndicat Mixte de Promotion de L'Activité Transmanche (SMPAT), for a further year to secure the service, and was further extended in May 2016 for four years until May 2020\. On 31 December 2014, DFDS closed the [Portsmouth](/wiki/Portsmouth "Portsmouth")\-[Le Havre](/wiki/Le_Havre "Le Havre") service due to continued losses on the service, following its acquisition from [LD Lines](/wiki/LD_Lines "LD Lines") and also following [Brittany Ferries](/wiki/Brittany_Ferries "Brittany Ferries") introduction of its Economie service to [Le Havre](/wiki/Le_Havre "Le Havre"). The sole vessel, MS Seven Sisters was moved to lay up in [Dunkirk](/wiki/Dunkirk "Dunkirk") before being introduced during the summer of 2015 full\-time on the [Newhaven](/wiki/Newhaven%2C_East_Sussex "Newhaven, East Sussex")\-[Dieppe](/wiki/Dieppe "Dieppe") service. As of August 2017, [DFDS Seaways](/wiki/DFDS_Seaways "DFDS Seaways") currently operates between [Dover](/wiki/Dover "Dover") and [Calais](/wiki/Calais "Calais")/[Dunkirk](/wiki/Dunkirk "Dunkirk") and also [Newhaven](/wiki/Newhaven%2C_East_Sussex "Newhaven, East Sussex") and [Dieppe](/wiki/Dieppe "Dieppe").
[ "History\n-------", "In 2012 when [SeaFrance](/wiki/SeaFrance \"SeaFrance\") was liquidated, DFDS and LD Lines started a joint service between Dover and Calais and formed New Channel Company A/S or DFDS Seaways France by merging certain LD Lines and DFDS routes into the new company such as LD Lines [Portsmouth](/wiki/Portsmouth \"Portsmouth\") to [Le Havre](/wiki/Le_Havre \"Le Havre\") and [Newhaven](/wiki/Newhaven%2C_East_Sussex \"Newhaven, East Sussex\") to [Dieppe](/wiki/Dieppe \"Dieppe\") services and DFDS [Dover](/wiki/Dover \"Dover\") to [Dunkirk](/wiki/Dunkirk \"Dunkirk\") services but also along with the joint [Dover](/wiki/Dover \"Dover\")\\- [Calais](/wiki/Calais \"Calais\") service.", "In June 2015, [DFDS](/wiki/DFDS \"DFDS\") chartered the [MyFerryLink](/wiki/MyFerryLink \"MyFerryLink\")/[Eurotunnel](/wiki/Eurotunnel \"Eurotunnel\") ferries [MS Rodin](/wiki/MS_Rodin \"MS Rodin\") \\& [MS Berlioz](/wiki/MS_Berlioz \"MS Berlioz\") to enter service on 2 July 2015 when the [MyFerryLink](/wiki/MyFerryLink \"MyFerryLink\") [Dover](/wiki/Dover \"Dover\")\\-[Calais](/wiki/Calais \"Calais\") ceased service. [DFDS](/wiki/DFDS \"DFDS\") planned to keep 202 of the 600 French jobs currently employed by SCOP Seafrance, but in reaction to this decision, the French crew struck in Calais on 29 June 2015 and later occupied the two passenger vessels in Calais and started to vandalise the vessels. This delayed their re\\-entry into [Dover](/wiki/Dover \"Dover\")\\-[Calais](/wiki/Calais \"Calais\") service. Meanwhile, [MS *Calais Seaways*](/wiki/MS_Calais_Seaways \"MS Calais Seaways\") was diverted and placed on [Dover](/wiki/Dover \"Dover\")\\-[Dunkirk](/wiki/Dunkirk \"Dunkirk\") service and [MS *Malo Seaways*](/wiki/MS_Malo_Seaways \"MS Malo Seaways\") was laid up in [Dover](/wiki/Dover \"Dover\") from 29 June. On 13 September both vessels were tugged to Dunkirk for refit and repaint, which showed the start of DFDS ownership of the vessels, which have subsequently been renamed *Côte des Dunes* and *Côte des Flandres*.", "In October 2014, DFDS extended its operation contract for the [Newhaven](/wiki/Newhaven%2C_East_Sussex \"Newhaven, East Sussex\")\\-[Dieppe](/wiki/Dieppe \"Dieppe\") service with Syndicat Mixte de Promotion de L'Activité Transmanche (SMPAT), for a further year to secure the service, and was further extended in May 2016 for four years until May 2020\\.", "On 31 December 2014, DFDS closed the [Portsmouth](/wiki/Portsmouth \"Portsmouth\")\\-[Le Havre](/wiki/Le_Havre \"Le Havre\") service due to continued losses on the service, following its acquisition from [LD Lines](/wiki/LD_Lines \"LD Lines\") and also following [Brittany Ferries](/wiki/Brittany_Ferries \"Brittany Ferries\") introduction of its Economie service to [Le Havre](/wiki/Le_Havre \"Le Havre\"). The sole vessel, MS Seven Sisters was moved to lay up in [Dunkirk](/wiki/Dunkirk \"Dunkirk\") before being introduced during the summer of 2015 full\\-time on the [Newhaven](/wiki/Newhaven%2C_East_Sussex \"Newhaven, East Sussex\")\\-[Dieppe](/wiki/Dieppe \"Dieppe\") service.", "As of August 2017, [DFDS Seaways](/wiki/DFDS_Seaways \"DFDS Seaways\") currently operates between [Dover](/wiki/Dover \"Dover\") and [Calais](/wiki/Calais \"Calais\")/[Dunkirk](/wiki/Dunkirk \"Dunkirk\") and also [Newhaven](/wiki/Newhaven%2C_East_Sussex \"Newhaven, East Sussex\") and [Dieppe](/wiki/Dieppe \"Dieppe\").", "" ]
History ------- {{Main\|History of flags}} [upright\|thumb\|right\|Bronze flag Derafsh Shahdad found in [Shahdad](/wiki/Shahdad "Shahdad"), Iran, third millennium BC](/wiki/File:Bronze_flag%2C_Shadad_Kerman%2C_Iran.JPG "Bronze flag, Shadad Kerman, Iran.JPG") The origin of the flag is unknownInglefield, p. 39\. and it remains unclear when the first flag was raised.{{Cite book \|last\=Smith \|first\=Whitney \|url\=http://archive.org/details/flagsthroughages00smit \|title\=Flags through the ages and across the world \|date\=1975 \|publisher\=New York \|others\=Internet Archive \|isbn\=978\-0\-07\-059093\-9 \|pages\=33}} Ships with vexilloids were represented on predynastic Egyptian pottery {{circa\|3500 BC}}. In antiquity, [field signs](/wiki/Field_sign "Field sign") that can be categorised as [vexilloid](/wiki/Vexilloid "Vexilloid") or "flag\-like" were used in warfare, originating in [ancient Egypt](/wiki/Ancient_Egypt "Ancient Egypt") or [Assyria](/wiki/Assyria "Assyria").[Flag \| heraldry](https://www.britannica.com/topic/flag-heraldry). *Encyclopedia Britannica*. Retrieved February 15, 2019\. Examples include the [Sassanid](/wiki/Sassanid "Sassanid") battle standard [Derafsh Kaviani](/wiki/Derafsh_Kaviani "Derafsh Kaviani"), and the standards of the [Roman legions](/wiki/Roman_legion "Roman legion") such as the [eagle](/wiki/Aquila_%28Roman%29 "Aquila (Roman)") of [Augustus Caesar](/wiki/Augustus_Caesar "Augustus Caesar")'s [Xth legion](/wiki/Legio_X_Fretensis "Legio X Fretensis") and the [dragon standard](/wiki/Draconarius "Draconarius") of the [Sarmatians](/wiki/Sarmatians "Sarmatians"); the latter was allowed to fly freely in the wind, carried by a horseman, but depictions suggest that it bore more similarity to an elongated [dragon kite](/wiki/Dragon_kite "Dragon kite") than to a simple flag. While the origin of the flag remains a mystery, the oldest flag discovered is made of bronze: a [Derafsh](/wiki/Derafsh "Derafsh") or 'flag\-like' Shahdad, which was found in [Shahdad](/wiki/Shahdad "Shahdad"), Iran, and dates back to {{Circa\|2400 BC}}. It features a seated man and a kneeling woman facing each other, with a star in between. This iconography was found in other Iranian Bronze Age pieces of art.{{cite book\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=qsmtxmD5kWcC\&q\=shahdad\+standard\&pg\=PA19\|title\=Susa and Elam. Archaeological, Philological, Historical and Geographical Perspectives.: Proceedings of the International Congress Held at Ghent University, December 14–17, 2009\.\|first1\=Katrien De\|last1\=Graef\|first2\=Jan\|last2\=Tavernier\|date\=7 December 2012\|publisher\=BRILL\|isbn\=978\-9004207400\|via\=Google Books}}{{cite book\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=Qbnyh2YH2KQC\&q\=shahdad\+standard\&pg\=PA24\|title\=Art of the Bronze Age: Southeastern Iran, Western Central Asia, and the Indus Valley\|first1\=Holly\|last1\=Pittman\|first2\=Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York\|last2\=N.Y.)\|date\=12 December 1984\|publisher\=Metropolitan Museum of Art\|isbn\=9780870993657\|via\=Google Books}}{{cite book\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=6lDgYxV0DN8C\&q\=shahdad\+standard\&pg\=PA227\|title\=Leaving No Stones Unturned: Essays on the Ancient Near East and Egypt in Honor of Donald P. Hansen\|first1\=Donald P.\|last1\=Hansen\|first2\=Erica\|last2\=Ehrenberg\|date\=12 December 2017\|publisher\=Eisenbrauns\|isbn\=9781575060552\|via\=Google Books}}{{cite book\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=M2QMAQAAMAAJ\&q\=shahdad\+standard\|title\=Shahdad: archaeological excavations of a bronze age center in Iran\|first1\=Ali\|last1\=Hakemi\|first2\=Istituto italiano per il Medio ed Estremo Oriente Centro Scavi e Ricerche\|last2\=Archeologiche\|date\=12 December 1997\|publisher\=IsMEO\|isbn\=9788120410176\|via\=Google Books}} Flags made of cloth were almost certainly the invention of the ancient peoples of the [Indian subcontinent](/wiki/Indian_subcontinent "Indian subcontinent") or the [Zhou dynasty](/wiki/Zhou_dynasty "Zhou dynasty") of [Ancient China](/wiki/Ancient_China "Ancient China"). Chinese flags had iconography such as a red bird, a white tiger, or a blue dragon, and royal flags were to be treated with a level of respect similar to that given to the ruler. Indian flags were often triangular and decorated with attachments such as a [yak](/wiki/Yak "Yak")'s tail and the state umbrella.{{Explain\|reason\=The term ''state umbrella'' needs explanation.\|date\=July 2023}} Silk flags either spread to the Near East from China or it was just the [silk](/wiki/Silk "Silk") itself, later fashioned by people who had independently conceptualized a rectangular cloth attached to a pole.{{Cite book \|last\=Smith \|first\=Whitney \|url\=http://archive.org/details/flagsthroughages00smit \|title\=Flags through the ages and across the world \|date\=1975 \|publisher\=New York \|others\=Internet Archive \|isbn\=978\-0\-07\-059093\-9 \|pages\=41}} Flags were probably transmitted to Europe via the [Muslim world](/wiki/Muslim_world "Muslim world"), where plainly coloured flags were used due to [Islamic proscriptions](/wiki/Aniconism_in_Islam "Aniconism in Islam"). They are often mentioned in the early history of Islam and may have been copied from India. In Europe, during the [High Middle Ages](/wiki/High_Middle_Ages "High Middle Ages"), flags came to be used primarily as a [heraldic device](/wiki/Heraldic_flag "Heraldic flag") in battle, allowing easier identification of a knight over only the heraldic icon painted on the shield. Already during the high medieval period, and increasingly during the [Late Middle Ages](/wiki/Late_Middle_Ages "Late Middle Ages"), [city states](/wiki/City_state "City state") and [communes](/wiki/Medieval_commune "Medieval commune") such as those of the [Old Swiss Confederacy](/wiki/Old_Swiss_Confederacy "Old Swiss Confederacy") also began to use flags as field signs. Regimental flags for individual units became commonplace during the [Early Modern period](/wiki/Early_Modern_period "Early Modern period"). [upright\|left\|thumb\|*[Sujagi](/wiki/Sujagi "Sujagi")* of [Eo Jae\-yeon](/wiki/Eo_Jae-yeon "Eo Jae-yeon"), captured in 1871](/wiki/File:Sujagi_%281871%29.jpg "Sujagi (1871).jpg") During the peak of the [sailing age](/wiki/Age_of_sail "Age of sail"), beginning in the early 17th century, it was customary (and later a legal requirement) for ships to fly flags designating their nationality;Articles 90–94 of the [UN Convention on the Law of the Sea](/wiki/UN_Convention_on_the_Law_of_the_Sea "UN Convention on the Law of the Sea") these flags eventually evolved into the national flags and [maritime flags](/wiki/Maritime_flags "Maritime flags") of today. Flags also became the preferred means of [communications](/wiki/Communication "Communication") at sea, resulting in various systems of flag signals; *see, [International maritime signal flags](/wiki/International_maritime_signal_flags "International maritime signal flags")*. Use of flags beyond a military or naval context began with the rise of [nationalism](/wiki/Nationalism "Nationalism") by the end of the 18th century, although some flags date back earlier. The flags of countries such as Austria, Denmark or Turkey have legendary origins while many others, including those of Poland and Switzerland, grew out of the heraldic emblems of the Middle Ages. The 17th century saw the birth of several [national flags](/wiki/National_flag "National flag") through revolutionary struggle. One of these was the flag of the Netherlands, which appeared during the [80\-year Dutch rebellion](/wiki/Eighty_Years%27_War "Eighty Years' War") which began in 1568 against Spanish domination.Inglefield, p. 48\. Political change and social reform, allied with a growing sense of nationhood among ordinary people, led to the creation of new nations and flags all over the world in the 19th and 20th centuries.Inglefield, p. 50\. {{Clear}}
[ "History\n-------", "{{Main\\|History of flags}}\n[upright\\|thumb\\|right\\|Bronze flag Derafsh Shahdad found in [Shahdad](/wiki/Shahdad \"Shahdad\"), Iran, third millennium BC](/wiki/File:Bronze_flag%2C_Shadad_Kerman%2C_Iran.JPG \"Bronze flag, Shadad Kerman, Iran.JPG\")", "The origin of the flag is unknownInglefield, p. 39\\. and it remains unclear when the first flag was raised.{{Cite book \\|last\\=Smith \\|first\\=Whitney \\|url\\=http://archive.org/details/flagsthroughages00smit \\|title\\=Flags through the ages and across the world \\|date\\=1975 \\|publisher\\=New York \\|others\\=Internet Archive \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-07\\-059093\\-9 \\|pages\\=33}}\nShips with vexilloids were represented on predynastic Egyptian pottery {{circa\\|3500 BC}}. In antiquity, [field signs](/wiki/Field_sign \"Field sign\") that can be categorised as [vexilloid](/wiki/Vexilloid \"Vexilloid\") or \"flag\\-like\" were used in warfare, originating in [ancient Egypt](/wiki/Ancient_Egypt \"Ancient Egypt\") or [Assyria](/wiki/Assyria \"Assyria\").[Flag \\| heraldry](https://www.britannica.com/topic/flag-heraldry). *Encyclopedia Britannica*. Retrieved February 15, 2019\\. Examples include the [Sassanid](/wiki/Sassanid \"Sassanid\") battle standard [Derafsh Kaviani](/wiki/Derafsh_Kaviani \"Derafsh Kaviani\"), and the standards of the [Roman legions](/wiki/Roman_legion \"Roman legion\") such as the [eagle](/wiki/Aquila_%28Roman%29 \"Aquila (Roman)\") of [Augustus Caesar](/wiki/Augustus_Caesar \"Augustus Caesar\")'s [Xth legion](/wiki/Legio_X_Fretensis \"Legio X Fretensis\") and the [dragon standard](/wiki/Draconarius \"Draconarius\") of the [Sarmatians](/wiki/Sarmatians \"Sarmatians\"); the latter was allowed to fly freely in the wind, carried by a horseman, but depictions suggest that it bore more similarity to an elongated [dragon kite](/wiki/Dragon_kite \"Dragon kite\") than to a simple flag.", "While the origin of the flag remains a mystery, the oldest flag discovered is made of bronze: a [Derafsh](/wiki/Derafsh \"Derafsh\") or 'flag\\-like' Shahdad, which was found in [Shahdad](/wiki/Shahdad \"Shahdad\"), Iran, and dates back to {{Circa\\|2400 BC}}. It features a seated man and a kneeling woman facing each other, with a star in between. This iconography was found in other Iranian Bronze Age pieces of art.{{cite book\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=qsmtxmD5kWcC\\&q\\=shahdad\\+standard\\&pg\\=PA19\\|title\\=Susa and Elam. Archaeological, Philological, Historical and Geographical Perspectives.: Proceedings of the International Congress Held at Ghent University, December 14–17, 2009\\.\\|first1\\=Katrien De\\|last1\\=Graef\\|first2\\=Jan\\|last2\\=Tavernier\\|date\\=7 December 2012\\|publisher\\=BRILL\\|isbn\\=978\\-9004207400\\|via\\=Google Books}}{{cite book\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=Qbnyh2YH2KQC\\&q\\=shahdad\\+standard\\&pg\\=PA24\\|title\\=Art of the Bronze Age: Southeastern Iran, Western Central Asia, and the Indus Valley\\|first1\\=Holly\\|last1\\=Pittman\\|first2\\=Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York\\|last2\\=N.Y.)\\|date\\=12 December 1984\\|publisher\\=Metropolitan Museum of Art\\|isbn\\=9780870993657\\|via\\=Google Books}}{{cite book\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=6lDgYxV0DN8C\\&q\\=shahdad\\+standard\\&pg\\=PA227\\|title\\=Leaving No Stones Unturned: Essays on the Ancient Near East and Egypt in Honor of Donald P. Hansen\\|first1\\=Donald P.\\|last1\\=Hansen\\|first2\\=Erica\\|last2\\=Ehrenberg\\|date\\=12 December 2017\\|publisher\\=Eisenbrauns\\|isbn\\=9781575060552\\|via\\=Google Books}}{{cite book\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=M2QMAQAAMAAJ\\&q\\=shahdad\\+standard\\|title\\=Shahdad: archaeological excavations of a bronze age center in Iran\\|first1\\=Ali\\|last1\\=Hakemi\\|first2\\=Istituto italiano per il Medio ed Estremo Oriente Centro Scavi e Ricerche\\|last2\\=Archeologiche\\|date\\=12 December 1997\\|publisher\\=IsMEO\\|isbn\\=9788120410176\\|via\\=Google Books}}", "Flags made of cloth were almost certainly the invention of the ancient peoples of the [Indian subcontinent](/wiki/Indian_subcontinent \"Indian subcontinent\") or the [Zhou dynasty](/wiki/Zhou_dynasty \"Zhou dynasty\") of [Ancient China](/wiki/Ancient_China \"Ancient China\"). Chinese flags had iconography such as a red bird, a white tiger, or a blue dragon, and royal flags were to be treated with a level of respect similar to that given to the ruler. Indian flags were often triangular and decorated with attachments such as a [yak](/wiki/Yak \"Yak\")'s tail and the state umbrella.{{Explain\\|reason\\=The term ''state umbrella'' needs explanation.\\|date\\=July 2023}} Silk flags either spread to the Near East from China or it was just the [silk](/wiki/Silk \"Silk\") itself, later fashioned by people who had independently conceptualized a rectangular cloth attached to a pole.{{Cite book \\|last\\=Smith \\|first\\=Whitney \\|url\\=http://archive.org/details/flagsthroughages00smit \\|title\\=Flags through the ages and across the world \\|date\\=1975 \\|publisher\\=New York \\|others\\=Internet Archive \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-07\\-059093\\-9 \\|pages\\=41}} Flags were probably transmitted to Europe via the [Muslim world](/wiki/Muslim_world \"Muslim world\"), where plainly coloured flags were used due to [Islamic proscriptions](/wiki/Aniconism_in_Islam \"Aniconism in Islam\"). They are often mentioned in the early history of Islam and may have been copied from India.", "In Europe, during the [High Middle Ages](/wiki/High_Middle_Ages \"High Middle Ages\"), flags came to be used primarily as a [heraldic device](/wiki/Heraldic_flag \"Heraldic flag\") in battle, allowing easier identification of a knight over only the heraldic icon painted on the shield. Already during the high medieval period, and increasingly during the [Late Middle Ages](/wiki/Late_Middle_Ages \"Late Middle Ages\"), [city states](/wiki/City_state \"City state\") and [communes](/wiki/Medieval_commune \"Medieval commune\") such as those of the [Old Swiss Confederacy](/wiki/Old_Swiss_Confederacy \"Old Swiss Confederacy\") also began to use flags as field signs. Regimental flags for individual units became commonplace during the [Early Modern period](/wiki/Early_Modern_period \"Early Modern period\").", "[upright\\|left\\|thumb\\|*[Sujagi](/wiki/Sujagi \"Sujagi\")* of [Eo Jae\\-yeon](/wiki/Eo_Jae-yeon \"Eo Jae-yeon\"), captured in 1871](/wiki/File:Sujagi_%281871%29.jpg \"Sujagi (1871).jpg\")", "During the peak of the [sailing age](/wiki/Age_of_sail \"Age of sail\"), beginning in the early 17th century, it was customary (and later a legal requirement) for ships to fly flags designating their nationality;Articles 90–94 of the [UN Convention on the Law of the Sea](/wiki/UN_Convention_on_the_Law_of_the_Sea \"UN Convention on the Law of the Sea\") these flags eventually evolved into the national flags and [maritime flags](/wiki/Maritime_flags \"Maritime flags\") of today. Flags also became the preferred means of [communications](/wiki/Communication \"Communication\") at sea, resulting in various systems of flag signals; *see, [International maritime signal flags](/wiki/International_maritime_signal_flags \"International maritime signal flags\")*.", "Use of flags beyond a military or naval context began with the rise of [nationalism](/wiki/Nationalism \"Nationalism\") by the end of the 18th century, although some flags date back earlier. The flags of countries such as Austria, Denmark or Turkey have legendary origins while many others, including those of Poland and Switzerland, grew out of the heraldic emblems of the Middle Ages. The 17th century saw the birth of several [national flags](/wiki/National_flag \"National flag\") through revolutionary struggle. One of these was the flag of the Netherlands, which appeared during the [80\\-year Dutch rebellion](/wiki/Eighty_Years%27_War \"Eighty Years' War\") which began in 1568 against Spanish domination.Inglefield, p. 48\\.", "Political change and social reform, allied with a growing sense of nationhood among ordinary people, led to the creation of new nations and flags all over the world in the 19th and 20th centuries.Inglefield, p. 50\\.\n{{Clear}}", "" ]
National flags -------------- {{Main\|National flag}} [thumb\|Flags at [half\-mast](/wiki/Half-mast "Half-mast") outside [Central Plaza, Hong Kong](/wiki/Central_Plaza%2C_Hong_Kong "Central Plaza, Hong Kong"), after the [2008 Sichuan earthquake](/wiki/2008_Sichuan_earthquake "2008 Sichuan earthquake"). The [Flag of Saudi Arabia](/wiki/Flag_of_Saudi_Arabia "Flag of Saudi Arabia") is exempted.](/wiki/File:Flags_at_half-staff_outside_Central_Plaza.jpg "Flags at half-staff outside Central Plaza.jpg") [thumb\|Tribal flags at Meeting Place Monument/Flag Plaza at the Oklahoma State Capitol](/wiki/File:Meeting_Place_Monument.JPG "Meeting Place Monument.JPG") One of the most popular uses of a flag is to symbolise a [nation](/wiki/Nation "Nation") or [country](/wiki/Country "Country"). Some [national flags](/wiki/National_flag "National flag") have been particularly inspirational to other nations, countries, or subnational entities in the design of their own flags. Some prominent examples include: [thumb\|upright\|right\|The Danish national flag (Dannebrog) waving in [Samsø](/wiki/Sams%C3%B8 "Samsø")](/wiki/File:Dannebrog_isams%C3%B8.jpg "Dannebrog isamsø.jpg") * The [flag of Denmark](/wiki/Flag_of_Denmark "Flag of Denmark"), the *Dannebrog*, is attested in 1478, and is the oldest national flag still in use.{{cite web \| url\=http://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/world\-records/oldest\-continuously\-used\-national\-flag/ \| title\=Oldest continuously used national flag \| work\=Guinness World Records \| access\-date\=2023\-11\-10}} It inspired the [cross design](/wiki/Nordic_Cross_Flag "Nordic Cross Flag") of the other [Nordic countries](/wiki/Nordic_countries "Nordic countries"): [Norway](/wiki/Flag_of_Norway "Flag of Norway"), [Sweden](/wiki/Flag_of_Sweden "Flag of Sweden"), [Iceland](/wiki/Flag_of_Iceland "Flag of Iceland"), [Finland](/wiki/Flag_of_Finland "Flag of Finland"), and regional Scandinavian flags for the [Faroe Islands](/wiki/Flag_of_the_Faroe_Islands "Flag of the Faroe Islands"), [Åland](/wiki/Flag_of_%C3%85land "Flag of Åland"), [Scania](/wiki/Flag_of_Sk%C3%A5neland "Flag of Skåneland") and [Bornholm](/wiki/Flag_of_Bornholm "Flag of Bornholm"), as well as flags for the non\-Scandinavian [Shetland](/wiki/Flag_of_Shetland "Flag of Shetland") and [Orkney](/wiki/Flag_of_Orkney "Flag of Orkney").[National Flag \-The official website of Denmark](http://denmark.dk/en/quick-facts/national-flag/) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180203070136/http://denmark.dk/en/quick\-facts/national\-flag/ \|date\=2018\-02\-03 }}. Earlier use of the white cross on red is attested by an armorial (Netherlands) of 1370\-1386\. In later monastic tradition, the Dannebrog made its first, miraculous appearance at the Battle of Lindanise on 15 June 1219\.{{cite book\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=Khag6tbsIn4C\&pg\=PA88\|author\=Jeroen Temperman\|title\=State Religion Relationships and Human Rights Law: Towards a Right to Religiously Neutral Governance\|year\=2010\|page\=88\|publisher\=\[\[Martinus Nijhoff Publishers]]\|isbn\=978\-9004181489\|quote\=Many predominantly Christian states show a cross, symbolising Christianity, on their national flag. The so\-called Scandinavian crosses or Nordic crosses on the flags of the Nordic countries–Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway and Sweden–also represent Christianity.\|access\-date\=31 December 2007\|archive\-date\=23 April 2023\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230423140657/https://books.google.com/books?id\=Khag6tbsIn4C\&pg\=PA88\|url\-status\=live}} * The [flag of the Netherlands](/wiki/Flag_of_the_Netherlands "Flag of the Netherlands") is the oldest [tricolour](/wiki/Tricolour_%28flag%29 "Tricolour (flag)"). Its three colours of red, white and blue go back to [Charlemagne](/wiki/Charlemagne "Charlemagne")'s time, the ninth century. The coastal region of what today is the Netherlands was then known for its cloth in these colours. Maps from the early 16th century already put flags in these colours next to this region, like Texeira's map of 1520\. A century before that, during the 15th century, the three colours were mentioned as the coastal signals for this area, with the three bands straight or diagonal, single or doubled. As [state flag](/wiki/State_flag "State flag") it first appeared around 1572 as the [Prince's Flag](/wiki/Prince%27s_Flag "Prince's Flag") in orange–white–blue. Soon the more famous red–white–blue began appearing, becoming the prevalent version from around 1630\. Orange made a comeback during the civil war of the late 18th century, signifying the orangist or pro\-[stadtholder](/wiki/Stadtholder "Stadtholder") party. During World War II the pro\-Nazi [NSB](/wiki/National_Socialist_Movement_in_the_Netherlands "National Socialist Movement in the Netherlands") used it. Any symbolism has been added later to the three colours, although the orange comes from the [House of Orange\-Nassau](/wiki/House_of_Orange-Nassau "House of Orange-Nassau"). This use of orange comes from Nassau, which today uses orange\-blue, not from Orange, which today uses red\-blue. However, the usual way to show the link with the House of Orange\-Nassau is the orange pennant above the red\-white\-blue. It is said that the Dutch Tricolour has inspired{{Cite web \|last\=Smith \|first\=Whitney \|title\=flag of France {{!}} History \& Meaning \|url\=https://www.britannica.com/topic/flag\-of\-France \|access\-date\=2019\-02\-24 \|website\=Encyclopedia Britannica \|language\=en}}{{Citation needed \|date\=October 2007}} many flags but most notably those of Russia, [New York City](/wiki/Flags_of_New_York_City "Flags of New York City"), and [South Africa](/wiki/Flag_of_South_Africa "Flag of South Africa") (the [1928–94 flag](/wiki/Flag_of_South_Africa_%281928%E2%80%931994%29 "Flag of South Africa (1928–1994)") as well the current flag). As the probable inspiration for the [Russian flag](/wiki/Russian_flag "Russian flag"), it is the source too for the [pan\-Slavic colours](/wiki/Pan-Slavic_colours "Pan-Slavic colours") red, white and blue, adopted by many [Slavic](/wiki/Slavic_peoples "Slavic peoples") states and peoples as their symbols; examples are [Slovakia](/wiki/Flag_of_Slovakia "Flag of Slovakia"), [Serbia](/wiki/Flag_of_Serbia "Flag of Serbia"), and [Slovenia](/wiki/Flag_of_Slovenia "Flag of Slovenia").{{cite book \| url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=5qlXatHRJtMC\&q\=Pan\-Slavic\+flag\&pg\=PR16 \| title\=Nation Shapes: The Story behind the World's Borders \| publisher\=ABC\-CLIO \| author\=Shelley, Fred M. \| year\=2013 \| pages\=xvi \| isbn\=9781610691062}} * The national [flag of France](/wiki/Flag_of_France "Flag of France") was designed in 1794\. As a forerunner of revolution, France's tricolour flag style has been adopted by other nations. Examples: [Italy](/wiki/Flag_of_Italy "Flag of Italy"), [Belgium](/wiki/Flag_of_Belgium "Flag of Belgium"), [Ireland](/wiki/Flag_of_Ireland "Flag of Ireland"), [Romania](/wiki/Flag_of_Romania "Flag of Romania") and [Mexico](/wiki/Flag_of_Mexico "Flag of Mexico").{{citation needed\|date\=December 2016}} * The [Union Flag](/wiki/Union_Flag "Union Flag") (Union Jack) of the United Kingdom is the most commonly used. British colonies typically flew a flag based on one of the ensigns based on this flag, and many former colonies have retained the design to acknowledge their cultural history. Examples: [Australia](/wiki/Flag_of_Australia "Flag of Australia"), [Fiji](/wiki/Flag_of_Fiji "Flag of Fiji"), [New Zealand](/wiki/Flag_of_New_Zealand "Flag of New Zealand"), [Tuvalu](/wiki/Flag_of_Tuvalu "Flag of Tuvalu"), and also the Canadian provinces of [Manitoba](/wiki/Flag_of_Manitoba "Flag of Manitoba"), [Ontario](/wiki/Flag_of_Ontario "Flag of Ontario") and [British Columbia](/wiki/Flag_of_British_Columbia "Flag of British Columbia"), and the American state of [Hawaii](/wiki/Flag_of_Hawaii "Flag of Hawaii"); *see [commons:Flags based on British ensigns](/wiki/commons:Flags_based_on_British_ensigns "Flags based on British ensigns")*. * The [flag of the United States](/wiki/Flag_of_the_United_States "Flag of the United States") is nicknamed *The Stars and Stripes* or *Old Glory*.{{Cite web \|last\=Smith \|first\=Whitney \|title\=Flag of the United States of America \|url\=https://www.britannica.com/topic/flag\-of\-the\-United\-States\-of\-America \|access\-date\=2019\-05\-24 \|website\=Encyclopedia Britannica \|language\=en}} Some nations imitated this flag to symbolise their similarity to the United States or the [American Revolution](/wiki/American_Revolution "American Revolution"). Examples: [Liberia](/wiki/Flag_of_Liberia "Flag of Liberia"),{{Cite web \|last\=Smith \|first\=Whitney \|title\=Flag of Liberia \|url\=https://www.britannica.com/topic/flag\-of\-Liberia \|access\-date\=2019\-05\-24 \|website\=Encyclopedia Britannica \|language\=en}} [Chile](/wiki/Flag_of_Chile "Flag of Chile"), [Taiwan (ROC)](/wiki/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China "Flag of the Republic of China"), and the French region of [Brittany](/wiki/Flag_of_Brittany "Flag of Brittany"). [thumb\|The [Flag of Ethiopia](/wiki/Flag_of_Ethiopia "Flag of Ethiopia")'s colours inspired the colours of many African national flags.](/wiki/File:Flag_of_Ethiopia_%281975%E2%80%931987%29.svg "Flag of Ethiopia (1975–1987).svg") * [Ethiopia](/wiki/Ethiopia "Ethiopia") was seen as a model by emerging African states of the 1950s and 1960s, as it was one of the oldest independent states in Africa. Accordingly, its [flag](/wiki/Flag_of_Ethiopia "Flag of Ethiopia") became the source of the [Pan\-African colours](/wiki/Pan-African_colours "Pan-African colours"), or 'Rasta colours'. Examples: [Benin](/wiki/Flag_of_Benin "Flag of Benin"), [Togo](/wiki/Flag_of_Togo "Flag of Togo"), [Senegal](/wiki/Flag_of_Senegal "Flag of Senegal"), [Ghana](/wiki/Flag_of_Ghana "Flag of Ghana"), [Mali](/wiki/Flag_of_Mali "Flag of Mali"), [Guinea](/wiki/Flag_of_Guinea "Flag of Guinea"). * The [flag of Turkey](/wiki/Flag_of_Turkey "Flag of Turkey"), which is very similar to the last flag of the old [Ottoman Empire](/wiki/Ottoman_Empire "Ottoman Empire"), has been an inspiration for the flag designs of many other Muslim nations. During the time of the Ottomans the [crescent](/wiki/Crescent "Crescent") began to be associated with [Islam](/wiki/Islam "Islam") and this is reflected on the flags of [Algeria](/wiki/Flag_of_Algeria "Flag of Algeria"), [Azerbaijan](/wiki/Flag_of_Azerbaijan "Flag of Azerbaijan"), [Comoros](/wiki/Flag_of_the_Comoros "Flag of the Comoros"), [Libya](/wiki/Flag_of_Libya "Flag of Libya"), [Mauritania](/wiki/Flag_of_Mauritania "Flag of Mauritania"), [Pakistan](/wiki/Flag_of_Pakistan "Flag of Pakistan"), [Tunisia](/wiki/Flag_of_Tunisia "Flag of Tunisia") and [Maldives](/wiki/Flag_of_Maldives "Flag of Maldives").Cyril Glassé , *The New Encyclopedia of Islam* (revised ed. 2001\), s.v. "Moon" (p. 314\). * The [Pan\-Arab colours](/wiki/Pan-Arab_colours "Pan-Arab colours"), green, white, red and black, are derived from the flag of the [Great Arab Revolt](/wiki/Arab_Revolt "Arab Revolt") as seen on the flags of [Jordan](/wiki/Flag_of_Jordan "Flag of Jordan"), [Libya](/wiki/Flag_of_Libya "Flag of Libya"), [Kuwait](/wiki/Flag_of_Kuwait "Flag of Kuwait"), [Sudan](/wiki/Flag_of_Sudan "Flag of Sudan"), [Syria](/wiki/Flag_of_Syria "Flag of Syria"), the [United Arab Emirates](/wiki/Flag_of_the_United_Arab_Emirates "Flag of the United Arab Emirates"), [Western Sahara](/wiki/Flag_of_the_Sahrawi_Arab_Democratic_Republic "Flag of the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic"), [Egypt](/wiki/Flag_of_Egypt "Flag of Egypt"), [Iraq](/wiki/Flag_of_Iraq "Flag of Iraq"), [Yemen](/wiki/Flag_of_Yemen "Flag of Yemen") and [Palestine](/wiki/Palestinian_flag "Palestinian flag"). * The [Soviet flag](/wiki/Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union "Flag of the Soviet Union"), with its golden symbols of the [hammer and sickle](/wiki/Hammer_and_sickle "Hammer and sickle") on a red field, was an inspiration to flags of other [communist](/wiki/Communism "Communism") states, such as [East Germany](/wiki/Flag_of_East_Germany "Flag of East Germany"), the [People's Republic of China](/wiki/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China "Flag of the People's Republic of China"), [Vietnam](/wiki/Flag_of_Vietnam "Flag of Vietnam"), [Angola](/wiki/Flag_of_Angola "Flag of Angola"), [Afghanistan (1978–1980\)](/wiki/Flag_of_Afghanistan "Flag of Afghanistan") and [Mozambique](/wiki/Flag_of_Mozambique "Flag of Mozambique"). * The [flag of Venezuela](/wiki/Flag_of_Venezuela "Flag of Venezuela"), created by [Francisco de Miranda](/wiki/Francisco_de_Miranda "Francisco de Miranda") to represent the independence movement in Venezuela that later gave birth to the [Gran Colombia](/wiki/Republic_of_Gran_Colombia "Republic of Gran Colombia"), inspired the flags of [Colombia](/wiki/Flag_of_Colombia "Flag of Colombia"), [Ecuador](/wiki/Flag_of_Ecuador "Flag of Ecuador"), and the [Federal Territories in Malaysia](/wiki/Flag_of_the_Federal_Territory_%28Malaysia%29 "Flag of the Federal Territory (Malaysia)"), all sharing three bands of yellow, blue and red with the flag of Venezuela. * The [flag of Argentina](/wiki/Flag_of_Argentina "Flag of Argentina"), created by [Manuel Belgrano](/wiki/Manuel_Belgrano "Manuel Belgrano") during the war of independence, was the inspiration for the [United Provinces of Central America](/wiki/United_Provinces_of_Central_America "United Provinces of Central America")'s flag, which in turn was the origin for the flags of [Guatemala](/wiki/Flag_of_Guatemala "Flag of Guatemala"), [Honduras](/wiki/Flag_of_Honduras "Flag of Honduras"), [El Salvador](/wiki/Flag_of_El_Salvador "Flag of El Salvador"), and [Nicaragua](/wiki/Flag_of_Nicaragua "Flag of Nicaragua"). National flag designs are often used to signify nationality in other forms, such as [flag patches](/wiki/Flag_patch "Flag patch"). ### Civil flags {{Main\|Civil flag}} {{multiple image \| align \= right \| width \= 160 \| image\_gap \= 10 \| image1 \= Flag of Peru.svg \| alt1 \= Civil flag of Peru \| caption1 \= \| image2 \= Flag of Peru (state).svg \| alt2 \= State flag of Peru \| caption2 \= \| footer \= The civil and state flags of \[\[Peru]] share the same red and white bands, but only the state flag (right) is \[\[Defacement (flag)\|defaced]] with the national ensign. }} A *civil* flag is a version of the national flag that is flown by civilians on non\-government installations or craft. The use of civil flags was more common in the past, in order to denote buildings or ships that were not crewed by the military. In some countries the civil flag is the same as the [war flag](/wiki/War_flag "War flag") or [state flag](/wiki/State_flag "State flag"), but without the coat of arms, such as in the case of [Spain](/wiki/Flag_of_Spain "Flag of Spain"), and in others it is an alteration of the war flag. ### War flags {{Main\|War flag\|Colours, standards and guidons}} [thumb\|Standard for the [UK](/wiki/UK "UK")'s [Royal Air Force](/wiki/Royal_Air_Force "Royal Air Force"), the [Ensign of the RAF](/wiki/Royal_Air_Force_Ensign "Royal Air Force Ensign") displays the RAF [roundel](/wiki/Roundel "Roundel") that is also displayed on the fuselage and wings of British warplanes.](/wiki/File:Ensign_of_the_Royal_Air_Force.svg "Ensign of the Royal Air Force.svg") Several countries, including the [Royal Air Force](/wiki/Royal_Air_Force "Royal Air Force"), [British Army](/wiki/British_Army "British Army") and the [Royal Navy](/wiki/Royal_Navy "Royal Navy") ([White Ensign](/wiki/White_Ensign "White Ensign")) of the [United Kingdom](/wiki/United_Kingdom "United Kingdom") and the [Soviet Union](/wiki/Soviet_Union "Soviet Union") have had [unique flags](/wiki/Union_Jack "Union Jack") flown by their [armed forces](/wiki/Armed_forces "Armed forces") separately, rather than the [national flag](/wiki/National_flag "National flag"). Other countries' armed forces (such as those of the United States or Switzerland) use their standard [national flag](/wiki/Flag_of_the_United_States "Flag of the United States"); in addition, the U.S. has alongside flags and seals designed from long tradition for each of its six uniformed military services/military sub\-departments in the [Department of Defense](/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Defense "United States Department of Defense") and the [Department of Homeland Security](/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Homeland_Security "United States Department of Homeland Security"). The Philippines' armed forces may use their [standard national flag](/wiki/Flag_of_the_Philippines "Flag of the Philippines"), but during times of war the flag is turned upside down. [Bulgaria's flag](/wiki/Flag_of_Bulgaria "Flag of Bulgaria") is also turned upside down during times of war. These are also considered war flags, though the terminology only applies to the flag's military usage. Large versions of the war flag flown on the [warships](/wiki/Warship "Warship") of countries' [navies](/wiki/Navy "Navy") are known as [battle ensigns](/wiki/Battle_ensign "Battle ensign"). In addition, besides flying the national standard or a military services' emblem flag at a military fort, base, station or post and at sea at the stern (rear) or main top mast of a warship, a [Naval Jack flag](/wiki/Jack_%28flag%29 "Jack (flag)") and other [maritime flags](/wiki/Maritime_flag "Maritime flag"), [pennants](/wiki/Pennant_%28commissioning%29 "Pennant (commissioning)") and emblems are flown at the bow (front). In times of war waving a white flag is a banner of truce, talks/negotiations or surrender. Four distinctive African flags currently in the collection of the [National Maritime Museum](/wiki/National_Maritime_Museum "National Maritime Museum") in [Britain](/wiki/United_Kingdom "United Kingdom") were flown in action by [Itsekiri](/wiki/Itsekiri "Itsekiri") ships under the control of [Nana Olomu](/wiki/Nana_Olomu "Nana Olomu") during the conflict in the late 19th century. One is the flag generally known as the [Benin Empire flag](/wiki/Flag_of_the_Benin_Empire "Flag of the Benin Empire") and one is referred to as Nana Olomu's flag.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.rog.nmm.ac.uk/upload/amaxus\_pdf/amaxus\_conWebDoc\_229\.pdf\|title\=Welcome to the Royal Museums Greenwich Blogs \- Royal Museums Greenwich Blogs\|access\-date\=2010\-05\-24\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110928144651/http://www.rog.nmm.ac.uk/upload/amaxus\_pdf/amaxus\_conWebDoc\_229\.pdf\|archive\-date\=2011\-09\-28\|url\-status\=dead}} ### International flags [thumb\|The [Flag of the United Nations](/wiki/Flag_of_the_United_Nations "Flag of the United Nations"), sky blue field with north polar view looking down on a world map in white with two olive branches wreaths curved around. First version presented April–June 1945 to the [United Nations Organization](/wiki/United_Nations "United Nations") (UNO) at the [San Francisco Conference](/wiki/United_Nations_Conference_on_International_Organization "United Nations Conference on International Organization"), second version adopted by the U.N., December 1946](/wiki/File:Flag_of_the_United_Nations.svg "Flag of the United Nations.svg") Among international flags are the [United Nations](/wiki/Flag_of_the_United_Nations "Flag of the United Nations"), [Europe](/wiki/Flag_of_Europe "Flag of Europe"), [Olympic](/wiki/Olympic_symbols%23Flag "Olympic symbols#Flag"), [NATO](/wiki/Flag_of_NATO "Flag of NATO") and [Paralympic flags](/wiki/Paralympic_symbols%23Flag "Paralympic symbols#Flag").
[ "National flags\n--------------", "{{Main\\|National flag}}\n[thumb\\|Flags at [half\\-mast](/wiki/Half-mast \"Half-mast\") outside [Central Plaza, Hong Kong](/wiki/Central_Plaza%2C_Hong_Kong \"Central Plaza, Hong Kong\"), after the [2008 Sichuan earthquake](/wiki/2008_Sichuan_earthquake \"2008 Sichuan earthquake\"). The [Flag of Saudi Arabia](/wiki/Flag_of_Saudi_Arabia \"Flag of Saudi Arabia\") is exempted.](/wiki/File:Flags_at_half-staff_outside_Central_Plaza.jpg \"Flags at half-staff outside Central Plaza.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|Tribal flags at Meeting Place Monument/Flag Plaza at the Oklahoma State Capitol](/wiki/File:Meeting_Place_Monument.JPG \"Meeting Place Monument.JPG\")", "One of the most popular uses of a flag is to symbolise a [nation](/wiki/Nation \"Nation\") or [country](/wiki/Country \"Country\"). Some [national flags](/wiki/National_flag \"National flag\") have been particularly inspirational to other nations, countries, or subnational entities in the design of their own flags. Some prominent examples include:", "[thumb\\|upright\\|right\\|The Danish national flag (Dannebrog) waving in [Samsø](/wiki/Sams%C3%B8 \"Samsø\")](/wiki/File:Dannebrog_isams%C3%B8.jpg \"Dannebrog isamsø.jpg\")", "* The [flag of Denmark](/wiki/Flag_of_Denmark \"Flag of Denmark\"), the *Dannebrog*, is attested in 1478, and is the oldest national flag still in use.{{cite web \\| url\\=http://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/world\\-records/oldest\\-continuously\\-used\\-national\\-flag/ \\| title\\=Oldest continuously used national flag \\| work\\=Guinness World Records \\| access\\-date\\=2023\\-11\\-10}} It inspired the [cross design](/wiki/Nordic_Cross_Flag \"Nordic Cross Flag\") of the other [Nordic countries](/wiki/Nordic_countries \"Nordic countries\"): [Norway](/wiki/Flag_of_Norway \"Flag of Norway\"), [Sweden](/wiki/Flag_of_Sweden \"Flag of Sweden\"), [Iceland](/wiki/Flag_of_Iceland \"Flag of Iceland\"), [Finland](/wiki/Flag_of_Finland \"Flag of Finland\"), and regional Scandinavian flags for the [Faroe Islands](/wiki/Flag_of_the_Faroe_Islands \"Flag of the Faroe Islands\"), [Åland](/wiki/Flag_of_%C3%85land \"Flag of Åland\"), [Scania](/wiki/Flag_of_Sk%C3%A5neland \"Flag of Skåneland\") and [Bornholm](/wiki/Flag_of_Bornholm \"Flag of Bornholm\"), as well as flags for the non\\-Scandinavian [Shetland](/wiki/Flag_of_Shetland \"Flag of Shetland\") and [Orkney](/wiki/Flag_of_Orkney \"Flag of Orkney\").[National Flag \\-The official website of Denmark](http://denmark.dk/en/quick-facts/national-flag/) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180203070136/http://denmark.dk/en/quick\\-facts/national\\-flag/ \\|date\\=2018\\-02\\-03 }}. Earlier use of the white cross on red is attested by an armorial (Netherlands) of 1370\\-1386\\. In later monastic tradition, the Dannebrog made its first, miraculous appearance at the Battle of Lindanise on 15 June 1219\\.{{cite book\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=Khag6tbsIn4C\\&pg\\=PA88\\|author\\=Jeroen Temperman\\|title\\=State Religion Relationships and Human Rights Law: Towards a Right to Religiously Neutral Governance\\|year\\=2010\\|page\\=88\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Martinus Nijhoff Publishers]]\\|isbn\\=978\\-9004181489\\|quote\\=Many predominantly Christian states show a cross, symbolising Christianity, on their national flag. The so\\-called Scandinavian crosses or Nordic crosses on the flags of the Nordic countries–Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway and Sweden–also represent Christianity.\\|access\\-date\\=31 December 2007\\|archive\\-date\\=23 April 2023\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230423140657/https://books.google.com/books?id\\=Khag6tbsIn4C\\&pg\\=PA88\\|url\\-status\\=live}}\n* The [flag of the Netherlands](/wiki/Flag_of_the_Netherlands \"Flag of the Netherlands\") is the oldest [tricolour](/wiki/Tricolour_%28flag%29 \"Tricolour (flag)\"). Its three colours of red, white and blue go back to [Charlemagne](/wiki/Charlemagne \"Charlemagne\")'s time, the ninth century. The coastal region of what today is the Netherlands was then known for its cloth in these colours. Maps from the early 16th century already put flags in these colours next to this region, like Texeira's map of 1520\\. A century before that, during the 15th century, the three colours were mentioned as the coastal signals for this area, with the three bands straight or diagonal, single or doubled. As [state flag](/wiki/State_flag \"State flag\") it first appeared around 1572 as the [Prince's Flag](/wiki/Prince%27s_Flag \"Prince's Flag\") in orange–white–blue. Soon the more famous red–white–blue began appearing, becoming the prevalent version from around 1630\\. Orange made a comeback during the civil war of the late 18th century, signifying the orangist or pro\\-[stadtholder](/wiki/Stadtholder \"Stadtholder\") party. During World War II the pro\\-Nazi [NSB](/wiki/National_Socialist_Movement_in_the_Netherlands \"National Socialist Movement in the Netherlands\") used it. Any symbolism has been added later to the three colours, although the orange comes from the [House of Orange\\-Nassau](/wiki/House_of_Orange-Nassau \"House of Orange-Nassau\"). This use of orange comes from Nassau, which today uses orange\\-blue, not from Orange, which today uses red\\-blue. However, the usual way to show the link with the House of Orange\\-Nassau is the orange pennant above the red\\-white\\-blue. It is said that the Dutch Tricolour has inspired{{Cite web \\|last\\=Smith \\|first\\=Whitney \\|title\\=flag of France {{!}} History \\& Meaning \\|url\\=https://www.britannica.com/topic/flag\\-of\\-France \\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-02\\-24 \\|website\\=Encyclopedia Britannica \\|language\\=en}}{{Citation needed \\|date\\=October 2007}} many flags but most notably those of Russia, [New York City](/wiki/Flags_of_New_York_City \"Flags of New York City\"), and [South Africa](/wiki/Flag_of_South_Africa \"Flag of South Africa\") (the [1928–94 flag](/wiki/Flag_of_South_Africa_%281928%E2%80%931994%29 \"Flag of South Africa (1928–1994)\") as well the current flag). As the probable inspiration for the [Russian flag](/wiki/Russian_flag \"Russian flag\"), it is the source too for the [pan\\-Slavic colours](/wiki/Pan-Slavic_colours \"Pan-Slavic colours\") red, white and blue, adopted by many [Slavic](/wiki/Slavic_peoples \"Slavic peoples\") states and peoples as their symbols; examples are [Slovakia](/wiki/Flag_of_Slovakia \"Flag of Slovakia\"), [Serbia](/wiki/Flag_of_Serbia \"Flag of Serbia\"), and [Slovenia](/wiki/Flag_of_Slovenia \"Flag of Slovenia\").{{cite book \\| url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=5qlXatHRJtMC\\&q\\=Pan\\-Slavic\\+flag\\&pg\\=PR16 \\| title\\=Nation Shapes: The Story behind the World's Borders \\| publisher\\=ABC\\-CLIO \\| author\\=Shelley, Fred M. \\| year\\=2013 \\| pages\\=xvi \\| isbn\\=9781610691062}}\n* The national [flag of France](/wiki/Flag_of_France \"Flag of France\") was designed in 1794\\. As a forerunner of revolution, France's tricolour flag style has been adopted by other nations. Examples: [Italy](/wiki/Flag_of_Italy \"Flag of Italy\"), [Belgium](/wiki/Flag_of_Belgium \"Flag of Belgium\"), [Ireland](/wiki/Flag_of_Ireland \"Flag of Ireland\"), [Romania](/wiki/Flag_of_Romania \"Flag of Romania\") and [Mexico](/wiki/Flag_of_Mexico \"Flag of Mexico\").{{citation needed\\|date\\=December 2016}}\n* The [Union Flag](/wiki/Union_Flag \"Union Flag\") (Union Jack) of the United Kingdom is the most commonly used. British colonies typically flew a flag based on one of the ensigns based on this flag, and many former colonies have retained the design to acknowledge their cultural history. Examples: [Australia](/wiki/Flag_of_Australia \"Flag of Australia\"), [Fiji](/wiki/Flag_of_Fiji \"Flag of Fiji\"), [New Zealand](/wiki/Flag_of_New_Zealand \"Flag of New Zealand\"), [Tuvalu](/wiki/Flag_of_Tuvalu \"Flag of Tuvalu\"), and also the Canadian provinces of [Manitoba](/wiki/Flag_of_Manitoba \"Flag of Manitoba\"), [Ontario](/wiki/Flag_of_Ontario \"Flag of Ontario\") and [British Columbia](/wiki/Flag_of_British_Columbia \"Flag of British Columbia\"), and the American state of [Hawaii](/wiki/Flag_of_Hawaii \"Flag of Hawaii\"); *see [commons:Flags based on British ensigns](/wiki/commons:Flags_based_on_British_ensigns \"Flags based on British ensigns\")*.\n* The [flag of the United States](/wiki/Flag_of_the_United_States \"Flag of the United States\") is nicknamed *The Stars and Stripes* or *Old Glory*.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Smith \\|first\\=Whitney \\|title\\=Flag of the United States of America \\|url\\=https://www.britannica.com/topic/flag\\-of\\-the\\-United\\-States\\-of\\-America \\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-05\\-24 \\|website\\=Encyclopedia Britannica \\|language\\=en}} Some nations imitated this flag to symbolise their similarity to the United States or the [American Revolution](/wiki/American_Revolution \"American Revolution\"). Examples: [Liberia](/wiki/Flag_of_Liberia \"Flag of Liberia\"),{{Cite web \\|last\\=Smith \\|first\\=Whitney \\|title\\=Flag of Liberia \\|url\\=https://www.britannica.com/topic/flag\\-of\\-Liberia \\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-05\\-24 \\|website\\=Encyclopedia Britannica \\|language\\=en}} [Chile](/wiki/Flag_of_Chile \"Flag of Chile\"), [Taiwan (ROC)](/wiki/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China \"Flag of the Republic of China\"), and the French region of [Brittany](/wiki/Flag_of_Brittany \"Flag of Brittany\").\n[thumb\\|The [Flag of Ethiopia](/wiki/Flag_of_Ethiopia \"Flag of Ethiopia\")'s colours inspired the colours of many African national flags.](/wiki/File:Flag_of_Ethiopia_%281975%E2%80%931987%29.svg \"Flag of Ethiopia (1975–1987).svg\")\n* [Ethiopia](/wiki/Ethiopia \"Ethiopia\") was seen as a model by emerging African states of the 1950s and 1960s, as it was one of the oldest independent states in Africa. Accordingly, its [flag](/wiki/Flag_of_Ethiopia \"Flag of Ethiopia\") became the source of the [Pan\\-African colours](/wiki/Pan-African_colours \"Pan-African colours\"), or 'Rasta colours'. Examples: [Benin](/wiki/Flag_of_Benin \"Flag of Benin\"), [Togo](/wiki/Flag_of_Togo \"Flag of Togo\"), [Senegal](/wiki/Flag_of_Senegal \"Flag of Senegal\"), [Ghana](/wiki/Flag_of_Ghana \"Flag of Ghana\"), [Mali](/wiki/Flag_of_Mali \"Flag of Mali\"), [Guinea](/wiki/Flag_of_Guinea \"Flag of Guinea\").\n* The [flag of Turkey](/wiki/Flag_of_Turkey \"Flag of Turkey\"), which is very similar to the last flag of the old [Ottoman Empire](/wiki/Ottoman_Empire \"Ottoman Empire\"), has been an inspiration for the flag designs of many other Muslim nations. During the time of the Ottomans the [crescent](/wiki/Crescent \"Crescent\") began to be associated with [Islam](/wiki/Islam \"Islam\") and this is reflected on the flags of [Algeria](/wiki/Flag_of_Algeria \"Flag of Algeria\"), [Azerbaijan](/wiki/Flag_of_Azerbaijan \"Flag of Azerbaijan\"), [Comoros](/wiki/Flag_of_the_Comoros \"Flag of the Comoros\"), [Libya](/wiki/Flag_of_Libya \"Flag of Libya\"), [Mauritania](/wiki/Flag_of_Mauritania \"Flag of Mauritania\"), [Pakistan](/wiki/Flag_of_Pakistan \"Flag of Pakistan\"), [Tunisia](/wiki/Flag_of_Tunisia \"Flag of Tunisia\") and [Maldives](/wiki/Flag_of_Maldives \"Flag of Maldives\").Cyril Glassé , *The New Encyclopedia of Islam* (revised ed. 2001\\), s.v. \"Moon\" (p. 314\\).\n* The [Pan\\-Arab colours](/wiki/Pan-Arab_colours \"Pan-Arab colours\"), green, white, red and black, are derived from the flag of the [Great Arab Revolt](/wiki/Arab_Revolt \"Arab Revolt\") as seen on the flags of [Jordan](/wiki/Flag_of_Jordan \"Flag of Jordan\"), [Libya](/wiki/Flag_of_Libya \"Flag of Libya\"), [Kuwait](/wiki/Flag_of_Kuwait \"Flag of Kuwait\"), [Sudan](/wiki/Flag_of_Sudan \"Flag of Sudan\"), [Syria](/wiki/Flag_of_Syria \"Flag of Syria\"), the [United Arab Emirates](/wiki/Flag_of_the_United_Arab_Emirates \"Flag of the United Arab Emirates\"), [Western Sahara](/wiki/Flag_of_the_Sahrawi_Arab_Democratic_Republic \"Flag of the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic\"), [Egypt](/wiki/Flag_of_Egypt \"Flag of Egypt\"), [Iraq](/wiki/Flag_of_Iraq \"Flag of Iraq\"), [Yemen](/wiki/Flag_of_Yemen \"Flag of Yemen\") and [Palestine](/wiki/Palestinian_flag \"Palestinian flag\").\n* The [Soviet flag](/wiki/Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union \"Flag of the Soviet Union\"), with its golden symbols of the [hammer and sickle](/wiki/Hammer_and_sickle \"Hammer and sickle\") on a red field, was an inspiration to flags of other [communist](/wiki/Communism \"Communism\") states, such as [East Germany](/wiki/Flag_of_East_Germany \"Flag of East Germany\"), the [People's Republic of China](/wiki/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China \"Flag of the People's Republic of China\"), [Vietnam](/wiki/Flag_of_Vietnam \"Flag of Vietnam\"), [Angola](/wiki/Flag_of_Angola \"Flag of Angola\"), [Afghanistan (1978–1980\\)](/wiki/Flag_of_Afghanistan \"Flag of Afghanistan\") and [Mozambique](/wiki/Flag_of_Mozambique \"Flag of Mozambique\").\n* The [flag of Venezuela](/wiki/Flag_of_Venezuela \"Flag of Venezuela\"), created by [Francisco de Miranda](/wiki/Francisco_de_Miranda \"Francisco de Miranda\") to represent the independence movement in Venezuela that later gave birth to the [Gran Colombia](/wiki/Republic_of_Gran_Colombia \"Republic of Gran Colombia\"), inspired the flags of [Colombia](/wiki/Flag_of_Colombia \"Flag of Colombia\"), [Ecuador](/wiki/Flag_of_Ecuador \"Flag of Ecuador\"), and the [Federal Territories in Malaysia](/wiki/Flag_of_the_Federal_Territory_%28Malaysia%29 \"Flag of the Federal Territory (Malaysia)\"), all sharing three bands of yellow, blue and red with the flag of Venezuela.\n* The [flag of Argentina](/wiki/Flag_of_Argentina \"Flag of Argentina\"), created by [Manuel Belgrano](/wiki/Manuel_Belgrano \"Manuel Belgrano\") during the war of independence, was the inspiration for the [United Provinces of Central America](/wiki/United_Provinces_of_Central_America \"United Provinces of Central America\")'s flag, which in turn was the origin for the flags of [Guatemala](/wiki/Flag_of_Guatemala \"Flag of Guatemala\"), [Honduras](/wiki/Flag_of_Honduras \"Flag of Honduras\"), [El Salvador](/wiki/Flag_of_El_Salvador \"Flag of El Salvador\"), and [Nicaragua](/wiki/Flag_of_Nicaragua \"Flag of Nicaragua\").", "National flag designs are often used to signify nationality in other forms, such as [flag patches](/wiki/Flag_patch \"Flag patch\").", "### Civil flags", "{{Main\\|Civil flag}}\n{{multiple image\n \\| align \\= right\n \\| width \\= 160\n \\| image\\_gap \\= 10\n \\| image1 \\= Flag of Peru.svg\n \\| alt1 \\= Civil flag of Peru\n \\| caption1 \\= \n \\| image2 \\= Flag of Peru (state).svg\n \\| alt2 \\= State flag of Peru\n \\| caption2 \\= \n \\| footer \\= The civil and state flags of \\[\\[Peru]] share the same red and white bands, but only the state flag (right) is \\[\\[Defacement (flag)\\|defaced]] with the national ensign.\n}}", "A *civil* flag is a version of the national flag that is flown by civilians on non\\-government installations or craft. The use of civil flags was more common in the past, in order to denote buildings or ships that were not crewed by the military. In some countries the civil flag is the same as the [war flag](/wiki/War_flag \"War flag\") or [state flag](/wiki/State_flag \"State flag\"), but without the coat of arms, such as in the case of [Spain](/wiki/Flag_of_Spain \"Flag of Spain\"), and in others it is an alteration of the war flag.", "### War flags", "{{Main\\|War flag\\|Colours, standards and guidons}}\n[thumb\\|Standard for the [UK](/wiki/UK \"UK\")'s [Royal Air Force](/wiki/Royal_Air_Force \"Royal Air Force\"), the [Ensign of the RAF](/wiki/Royal_Air_Force_Ensign \"Royal Air Force Ensign\") displays the RAF [roundel](/wiki/Roundel \"Roundel\") that is also displayed on the fuselage and wings of British warplanes.](/wiki/File:Ensign_of_the_Royal_Air_Force.svg \"Ensign of the Royal Air Force.svg\")", "Several countries, including the [Royal Air Force](/wiki/Royal_Air_Force \"Royal Air Force\"), [British Army](/wiki/British_Army \"British Army\") and the [Royal Navy](/wiki/Royal_Navy \"Royal Navy\") ([White Ensign](/wiki/White_Ensign \"White Ensign\")) of the [United Kingdom](/wiki/United_Kingdom \"United Kingdom\") and the [Soviet Union](/wiki/Soviet_Union \"Soviet Union\") have had [unique flags](/wiki/Union_Jack \"Union Jack\") flown by their [armed forces](/wiki/Armed_forces \"Armed forces\") separately, rather than the [national flag](/wiki/National_flag \"National flag\").", "Other countries' armed forces (such as those of the United States or Switzerland) use their standard [national flag](/wiki/Flag_of_the_United_States \"Flag of the United States\"); in addition, the U.S. has alongside flags and seals designed from long tradition for each of its six uniformed military services/military sub\\-departments in the [Department of Defense](/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Defense \"United States Department of Defense\") and the [Department of Homeland Security](/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Homeland_Security \"United States Department of Homeland Security\"). The Philippines' armed forces may use their [standard national flag](/wiki/Flag_of_the_Philippines \"Flag of the Philippines\"), but during times of war the flag is turned upside down. [Bulgaria's flag](/wiki/Flag_of_Bulgaria \"Flag of Bulgaria\") is also turned upside down during times of war. These are also considered war flags, though the terminology only applies to the flag's military usage.", "Large versions of the war flag flown on the [warships](/wiki/Warship \"Warship\") of countries' [navies](/wiki/Navy \"Navy\") are known as [battle ensigns](/wiki/Battle_ensign \"Battle ensign\"). In addition, besides flying the national standard or a military services' emblem flag at a military fort, base, station or post and at sea at the stern (rear) or main top mast of a warship, a [Naval Jack flag](/wiki/Jack_%28flag%29 \"Jack (flag)\") and other [maritime flags](/wiki/Maritime_flag \"Maritime flag\"), [pennants](/wiki/Pennant_%28commissioning%29 \"Pennant (commissioning)\") and emblems are flown at the bow (front). In times of war waving a white flag is a banner of truce, talks/negotiations or surrender.", "Four distinctive African flags currently in the collection of the [National Maritime Museum](/wiki/National_Maritime_Museum \"National Maritime Museum\") in [Britain](/wiki/United_Kingdom \"United Kingdom\") were flown in action by [Itsekiri](/wiki/Itsekiri \"Itsekiri\") ships under the control of [Nana Olomu](/wiki/Nana_Olomu \"Nana Olomu\") during the conflict in the late 19th century. One is the flag generally known as the [Benin Empire flag](/wiki/Flag_of_the_Benin_Empire \"Flag of the Benin Empire\") and one is referred to as Nana Olomu's flag.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.rog.nmm.ac.uk/upload/amaxus\\_pdf/amaxus\\_conWebDoc\\_229\\.pdf\\|title\\=Welcome to the Royal Museums Greenwich Blogs \\- Royal Museums Greenwich Blogs\\|access\\-date\\=2010\\-05\\-24\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110928144651/http://www.rog.nmm.ac.uk/upload/amaxus\\_pdf/amaxus\\_conWebDoc\\_229\\.pdf\\|archive\\-date\\=2011\\-09\\-28\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}", "### International flags", "[thumb\\|The [Flag of the United Nations](/wiki/Flag_of_the_United_Nations \"Flag of the United Nations\"), sky blue field with north polar view looking down on a world map in white with two olive branches wreaths curved around. First version presented April–June 1945 to the [United Nations Organization](/wiki/United_Nations \"United Nations\") (UNO) at the [San Francisco Conference](/wiki/United_Nations_Conference_on_International_Organization \"United Nations Conference on International Organization\"), second version adopted by the U.N., December 1946](/wiki/File:Flag_of_the_United_Nations.svg \"Flag of the United Nations.svg\")", "Among international flags are the [United Nations](/wiki/Flag_of_the_United_Nations \"Flag of the United Nations\"), [Europe](/wiki/Flag_of_Europe \"Flag of Europe\"), [Olympic](/wiki/Olympic_symbols%23Flag \"Olympic symbols#Flag\"), [NATO](/wiki/Flag_of_NATO \"Flag of NATO\") and [Paralympic flags](/wiki/Paralympic_symbols%23Flag \"Paralympic symbols#Flag\").", "" ]
Military era ------------ [thumb\|250px\|*Ludu* The People on 84th and 33rd Mandalay](/wiki/File:Ludu_The_People_on_84th_and_33rd_Mandalay.jpg "Ludu The People on 84th and 33rd Mandalay.jpg") U Hla had nurtured a new generation of young writers and artists from the [University of Mandalay](/wiki/University_of_Mandalay "University of Mandalay") and elsewhere in [Upper Burma](/wiki/Upper_Burma "Upper Burma") such as poets [Tin Moe](/wiki/Tin_Moe "Tin Moe"), Kyi Aung, Maung Swan Yi, Maung Pauk Si and Ko Lay (Innwa Gon\-yi), writers Maung Tha Noe, Maung Tha\-ya, Maung Thein Naing and Maung Saw Lwin, artists [Paw Oo Thett](/wiki/Paw_Oo_Thett "Paw Oo Thett") and Win Pe as well as old established ones such as writers Sagaing U Hpo Thin, Shwe Kaingtha and Marla and artists [U Ba Gyan](/wiki/U_Ba_Gyan "U Ba Gyan"), [U Aung Chit](/wiki/U_Aung_Chit "U Aung Chit") and [U Saw Maung](/wiki/U_Saw_Maung "U Saw Maung"). The *Ludu Daily* carried a Monday extra dedicated to poetry, and with U Hla's encouragement the young poets published an anthology titled *A\-nya myei hkit gabya* (Modern Poetry from Upcountry). Book reviews, critical essays on literature and research papers in local history, arts and crafts enjoyed nearly as many column inches as domestic and international news and analysis. U Hla would not try and influence the content or edit out the young writers' efforts but he would ensure that they could back up any assertions or claims they might make. He would never talk down to them although he often complained that they had talent but they lacked effort; one of his dreams was for them to form a writers' [co\-operative](/wiki/Co-operative "Co-operative") and run their own publishing house. The paper had featured articles about the [Soviet Union](/wiki/Soviet_Union "Soviet Union") and the [People's Republic of China](/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_China "People's Republic of China"); there had been a series of articles titled "From the Volga to the Ganges". Shwe U Daung, the chief editor, had translated "The Heroes of People's China". An old school friend of Daw Amar's father, he was famous for his excellent adaptations of [Sir Arthur Conan Doyle](/wiki/Sir_Arthur_Conan_Doyle "Sir Arthur Conan Doyle")'s Sherlock Holmes and Brigadier Gerard as well as his translations of [H. Rider Haggard](/wiki/H._Rider_Haggard "H. Rider Haggard")'s Allan Quatermain novels and was arrested at the same time as U Hla but he was to remain in Mandalay Prison for the duration. The social calendar of Mandalay was, by the 1960s, featuring U Hla either as an organiser or as a guest speaker, from anniversaries such as [National Day](/wiki/National_Day "National Day") to hospital fund\-raising and the founding of an old people's home. He served on numerous committees and the Senate of [Mandalay University](/wiki/Mandalay_University "Mandalay University"). He would often jokingly refer to himself as a "Mandalayan by marriage". He was liked and respected by senior [Buddhist](/wiki/Buddhist "Buddhist") monks as well as the layfolk but he distanced himself from religious affairs as such. His popularity reached a level where a plot to assassinate him by some of the politicians, who became jealous and feared he might run for office, existed but only came to light after his death. The Writers Association of Upper Burma reached a peak in its activities in the 1960s and the 1970s with U Hla at its helm. *Sazodaw Nei* (Writers' Day) in December each year eventually stretched to *Sazodaw La* (Writers' Month) with talks and seminars open to the public, paying obeisance to older writers, and subsequently literary talk and research tours which were very popular. U Hla insisted that these must not be a financial burden to the locals. He encouraged and ensured that the papers read at these seminars, both critical reviews in literature and research papers, were published in book form. It was during this period that he started collecting folk tales travelling up and down the country. U Hla encouraged ethnic [Mon](/wiki/Mon_people "Mon people") Thakin Aung Pe and [Rakhine](/wiki/Rakhine_people "Rakhine people") U Kyaw Yin to do the same among their own people. When the very first volume *Kayin ponbyin mya* ([Karen](/wiki/Karen_people "Karen people") Folk Tales) was planned, his assistant editor pointed out that it would lose money; he was given a lengthy explanation by U Hla how profit was immaterial in an effort to bring out in print something that would contribute to better understanding among the peoples of Burma and to unifying them, and how it was far more important to make sure these cultural treasures of ethnic minorities were not lost to future generations. U Hla had also been the same driving force behind the revival of [folk songs](/wiki/Folk_song "Folk song"), from the early days of the *Kyipwa Yay* with Yadanabon Hpo Hmatsu's [Shwebo](/wiki/Shwebo "Shwebo") *bongyi than* (drum music) and *Maung htaung tay* (rice\-pounding songs), and Thuriya Kandi's *[Rakhine](/wiki/Rakhine_people "Rakhine people") tay* folk songs. The poet Maung Swan Yi was delegated the task one generation later, and one of the results was *Lègwin dè ga ludu tay than mya* (People's Songs from the Paddy Fields). He was delighted when presented with copies of *Inle taik tay* and *Taung\-yo Danu tay*, songs from [Inle Lake](/wiki/Inle_Lake "Inle Lake") and around, by the local compilers who were inspired by him. The transfer to Mandalay University during this period of two of his old friends, [Rakhine](/wiki/Rakhine_people "Rakhine people") U Kyaw Yin as dean and [Dr. Than Tun](/wiki/Than_Tun "Than Tun") as professor of history, provided a boost to the literary and research activities, and the weekly Saturday seminars (*Sanei Sapei Waing*) came into being. The Ludu couple was well known to all foreign scholars of [Burmese](/wiki/Burmese_language "Burmese language") and the *Ludu* House in 84th. street was invariably the first port of call in their itinerary in Mandalay. It had always been a strongly held conviction of U Hla that language should be simple and easily accessible to the readers. He had advocated speed reading and easy writing to the young writers, and when they started a campaign for writing [Burmese](/wiki/Burmese_language "Burmese language") in the colloquial form instead of the prevailing archaic literary form, he embraced and promoted it with the help of U Kyaw Yin and Dr. Than Tun while Daw Amar expressed some reservations at first. It was a very controversial movement in the history of [Burmese literature](/wiki/Literature_of_Burma "Literature of Burma"), regarded as left wing and subversive by conservative traditionalists and in government circles. In addition to his daily column *{{lang\|my\-Latn\|Thaung pyaung htweila yay gyin ya\-ya}}* ("Medley Writings", later published in 3 volumes), U Hla also compiled and published during this period 3 sets of chronicles: * 1. *{{lang\|my\-Latn\|Thadinza mya thi thamaing go pyaw nei gya thi}}* \- Newspapers Chronicle History 2. *{{lang\|my\-Latn\|Thadinza mya pyaw pya dè sit atwin Myanma pyi}}* \- Wartime Burma as Chronicled by Newspapers 3. *{{lang\|my\-Latn\|Thadinza mya pyaw pya dè sit peeza Myanma pyi}}* \- Post\-war Burma as Chronicled by Newspapers 1969 Two other volumes were published posthumously: * 1. *{{lang\|my\-Latn\|Kyundaw sa\-daan kyundaw ahaan mya}}* \- My Seminar Papers, My Speeches 1983 2. *{{lang\|my\-Latn\|Hnit ta\-ya ga auk\-pyi auk\-ywa}}* \- Lower Burma One Hundred Years Ago 2002
[ "Military era\n------------", "[thumb\\|250px\\|*Ludu* The People on 84th and 33rd Mandalay](/wiki/File:Ludu_The_People_on_84th_and_33rd_Mandalay.jpg \"Ludu The People on 84th and 33rd Mandalay.jpg\")\nU Hla had nurtured a new generation of young writers and artists from the [University of Mandalay](/wiki/University_of_Mandalay \"University of Mandalay\") and elsewhere in [Upper Burma](/wiki/Upper_Burma \"Upper Burma\") such as poets [Tin Moe](/wiki/Tin_Moe \"Tin Moe\"), Kyi Aung, Maung Swan Yi, Maung Pauk Si and Ko Lay (Innwa Gon\\-yi), writers Maung Tha Noe, Maung Tha\\-ya, Maung Thein Naing and Maung Saw Lwin, artists [Paw Oo Thett](/wiki/Paw_Oo_Thett \"Paw Oo Thett\") and Win Pe as well as old established ones such as writers Sagaing U Hpo Thin, Shwe Kaingtha and Marla and artists [U Ba Gyan](/wiki/U_Ba_Gyan \"U Ba Gyan\"), [U Aung Chit](/wiki/U_Aung_Chit \"U Aung Chit\") and [U Saw Maung](/wiki/U_Saw_Maung \"U Saw Maung\"). The *Ludu Daily* carried a Monday extra dedicated to poetry, and with U Hla's encouragement the young poets published an anthology titled *A\\-nya myei hkit gabya* (Modern Poetry from Upcountry). Book reviews, critical essays on literature and research papers in local history, arts and crafts enjoyed nearly as many column inches as domestic and international news and analysis. U Hla would not try and influence the content or edit out the young writers' efforts but he would ensure that they could back up any assertions or claims they might make. He would never talk down to them although he often complained that they had talent but they lacked effort; one of his dreams was for them to form a writers' [co\\-operative](/wiki/Co-operative \"Co-operative\") and run their own publishing house.", "The paper had featured articles about the [Soviet Union](/wiki/Soviet_Union \"Soviet Union\") and the [People's Republic of China](/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_China \"People's Republic of China\"); there had been a series of articles titled \"From the Volga to the Ganges\". Shwe U Daung, the chief editor, had translated \"The Heroes of People's China\". An old school friend of Daw Amar's father, he was famous for his excellent adaptations of [Sir Arthur Conan Doyle](/wiki/Sir_Arthur_Conan_Doyle \"Sir Arthur Conan Doyle\")'s Sherlock Holmes and Brigadier Gerard as well as his translations of [H. Rider Haggard](/wiki/H._Rider_Haggard \"H. Rider Haggard\")'s Allan Quatermain novels and was arrested at the same time as U Hla but he was to remain in Mandalay Prison for the duration.", "The social calendar of Mandalay was, by the 1960s, featuring U Hla either as an organiser or as a guest speaker, from anniversaries such as [National Day](/wiki/National_Day \"National Day\") to hospital fund\\-raising and the founding of an old people's home. He served on numerous committees and the Senate of [Mandalay University](/wiki/Mandalay_University \"Mandalay University\"). He would often jokingly refer to himself as a \"Mandalayan by marriage\". He was liked and respected by senior [Buddhist](/wiki/Buddhist \"Buddhist\") monks as well as the layfolk but he distanced himself from religious affairs as such. His popularity reached a level where a plot to assassinate him by some of the politicians, who became jealous and feared he might run for office, existed but only came to light after his death.", "The Writers Association of Upper Burma reached a peak in its activities in the 1960s and the 1970s with U Hla at its helm. *Sazodaw Nei* (Writers' Day) in December each year eventually stretched to *Sazodaw La* (Writers' Month) with talks and seminars open to the public, paying obeisance to older writers, and subsequently literary talk and research tours which were very popular. U Hla insisted that these must not be a financial burden to the locals. He encouraged and ensured that the papers read at these seminars, both critical reviews in literature and research papers, were published in book form. It was during this period that he started collecting folk tales travelling up and down the country. U Hla encouraged ethnic [Mon](/wiki/Mon_people \"Mon people\") Thakin Aung Pe and [Rakhine](/wiki/Rakhine_people \"Rakhine people\") U Kyaw Yin to do the same among their own people. When the very first volume *Kayin ponbyin mya* ([Karen](/wiki/Karen_people \"Karen people\") Folk Tales) was planned, his assistant editor pointed out that it would lose money; he was given a lengthy explanation by U Hla how profit was immaterial in an effort to bring out in print something that would contribute to better understanding among the peoples of Burma and to unifying them, and how it was far more important to make sure these cultural treasures of ethnic minorities were not lost to future generations.", "U Hla had also been the same driving force behind the revival of [folk songs](/wiki/Folk_song \"Folk song\"), from the early days of the *Kyipwa Yay* with Yadanabon Hpo Hmatsu's [Shwebo](/wiki/Shwebo \"Shwebo\") *bongyi than* (drum music) and *Maung htaung tay* (rice\\-pounding songs), and Thuriya Kandi's *[Rakhine](/wiki/Rakhine_people \"Rakhine people\") tay* folk songs. The poet Maung Swan Yi was delegated the task one generation later, and one of the results was *Lègwin dè ga ludu tay than mya* (People's Songs from the Paddy Fields). He was delighted when presented with copies of *Inle taik tay* and *Taung\\-yo Danu tay*, songs from [Inle Lake](/wiki/Inle_Lake \"Inle Lake\") and around, by the local compilers who were inspired by him. The transfer to Mandalay University during this period of two of his old friends, [Rakhine](/wiki/Rakhine_people \"Rakhine people\") U Kyaw Yin as dean and [Dr. Than Tun](/wiki/Than_Tun \"Than Tun\") as professor of history, provided a boost to the literary and research activities, and the weekly Saturday seminars (*Sanei Sapei Waing*) came into being. The Ludu couple was well known to all foreign scholars of [Burmese](/wiki/Burmese_language \"Burmese language\") and the *Ludu* House in 84th. street was invariably the first port of call in their itinerary in Mandalay.", "It had always been a strongly held conviction of U Hla that language should be simple and easily accessible to the readers. He had advocated speed reading and easy writing to the young writers, and when they started a campaign for writing [Burmese](/wiki/Burmese_language \"Burmese language\") in the colloquial form instead of the prevailing archaic literary form, he embraced and promoted it with the help of U Kyaw Yin and Dr. Than Tun while Daw Amar expressed some reservations at first. It was a very controversial movement in the history of [Burmese literature](/wiki/Literature_of_Burma \"Literature of Burma\"), regarded as left wing and subversive by conservative traditionalists and in government circles.", "In addition to his daily column *{{lang\\|my\\-Latn\\|Thaung pyaung htweila yay gyin ya\\-ya}}* (\"Medley Writings\", later published in 3 volumes), U Hla also compiled and published during this period 3 sets of chronicles:\n* 1. *{{lang\\|my\\-Latn\\|Thadinza mya thi thamaing go pyaw nei gya thi}}* \\- Newspapers Chronicle History\n\t2. *{{lang\\|my\\-Latn\\|Thadinza mya pyaw pya dè sit atwin Myanma pyi}}* \\- Wartime Burma as Chronicled by Newspapers\n\t3. *{{lang\\|my\\-Latn\\|Thadinza mya pyaw pya dè sit peeza Myanma pyi}}* \\- Post\\-war Burma as Chronicled by Newspapers 1969", "Two other volumes were published posthumously:\n* 1. *{{lang\\|my\\-Latn\\|Kyundaw sa\\-daan kyundaw ahaan mya}}* \\- My Seminar Papers, My Speeches 1983\n\t2. *{{lang\\|my\\-Latn\\|Hnit ta\\-ya ga auk\\-pyi auk\\-ywa}}* \\- Lower Burma One Hundred Years Ago 2002", "" ]
Plot ---- Sawyer Nelson is a lonely 11\-year\-old who has been falling behind in school since his father's abandonment five years earlier. His only friend is his college\-aged cousin Kyle Connellan, a champion swimmer who hopes to compete in the [Olympics](/wiki/Olympics "Olympics"). Kyle leaves to spend time in the army. One day, on his way to [summer school](/wiki/Summer_school "Summer school"), Sawyer finds a fisherman attempting to help an injured dolphin tangled in a crab trap. The dolphin is taken for treatment to Clearwater Marine Aquarium (CMA), run by Dr. Clay Haskett. Clay's daughter Hazel names the dolphin Winter, after two prior dolphins, Summer and Autumn, had been treated successfully and returned to the ocean. Sawyer sneaks in to see Winter, and later starts to visit each day, being harassed by a crazy pelican named Rufus. Sawyer's mother, Lorraine, and Clay are hesitant, due to Sawyer's inexperience with marine animals, and repeatedly skipping summer school, but they realize that the friendship seems to benefit both Winter and Sawyer. Clay allows the visits to continue, and Lorraine withdraws Sawyer from summer school and lets him volunteer at CMA, and gives him a new wetsuit. However, Winter's tail is wounded and must be amputated. Winter learns to swim without a tail by developing a side\-to\-side motion like a fish, but after an X\-ray, Clay notices the unnatural motion is causing [stress on her spine](/wiki/Scoliosis "Scoliosis"), which, if continued, will handicap and eventually kill her. The news comes that Kyle has been injured severely in an explosion and is returning home for treatment. Sawyer is excited to see him, but devastated when Kyle skips his own welcoming party and stays at the local Department of Veterans Affairs Medical Center, where Dr. Cameron McCarthy develops [prosthetic](/wiki/Prosthetic "Prosthetic") limbs. Sawyer and his mother visit Kyle there, but Sawyer is insulted when Kyle asks them to leave. Not wanting to upset Sawyer, Kyle takes Sawyer for a walk and explains his situation and that he needs some time. At Sawyer's request, McCarthy agrees to make a prosthetic tail for Winter and convinces his prosthetic supplier [Hanger Prosthetics and Orthotics](/wiki/Hanger%2C_Inc. "Hanger, Inc.") to supply the parts at no cost. McCarthy manufactures a "homemade" model tail while waiting for the real one to arrive, but Winter rejects it by banging it against the pool wall. Meanwhile, Kyle gets more depressed when his friend and swimming partner, Donovan Peck, beats his old swimming records. McCarthy persuades Kyle to go home. Faced with financial trouble, the CMA is heavily damaged by a [hurricane](/wiki/Tropical_cyclone "Tropical cyclone"). The board of directors agrees to close up and sell the land to a real estate developer. It finds homes for all the animals except Winter, who is not wanted due to her disability and may have to be euthanized. Kyle visits CMA and sees that Winter is like him, with a damaged limb. Inspired by a girl with a prosthetic limb whose mother drives her eight hours from [Atlanta](/wiki/Atlanta "Atlanta") to visit Winter, Sawyer imagines holding a "Save Winter Day" to save the facility. Clay is at first unconvinced, but he reconsiders after talking with his father, Reed. Kyle agrees to race Donovan and persuades [Bay News 9](/wiki/Bay_News_9 "Bay News 9") to cover the event. The Hanger\-supplied tail finally arrives; however, Winter refuses it as well. Sawyer then realizes what the real problem is: the plastic base for the tail is irritating her skin. McCarthy develops an alternative gel\-like sock which he calls "Winter's Gel" (which is the real name of the Hanger product used to attach prosthetic limbs, developed during research with Winter) and Winter accepts this new prosthetic tail. At Save Winter Day, the work with Winter impresses everyone. Sawyer's teacher gives him school credit, allowing him to pass summer school. The fisherman who found Winter on the beach comes, too. Kyle and Donovan race, but there is no clear winner as it turns into a race for fun after Winter and many children get in the water. The real estate developer decides to keep CMA open and to support it financially. The ending shows documentary footage from Winter's actual rescue, several of the prosthetic tails that Winter has worn, and scenes of real amputees visiting Winter at the Clearwater Marine Aquarium.
[ "Plot\n----", "Sawyer Nelson is a lonely 11\\-year\\-old who has been falling behind in school since his father's abandonment five years earlier. His only friend is his college\\-aged cousin Kyle Connellan, a champion swimmer who hopes to compete in the [Olympics](/wiki/Olympics \"Olympics\"). Kyle leaves to spend time in the army.", "One day, on his way to [summer school](/wiki/Summer_school \"Summer school\"), Sawyer finds a fisherman attempting to help an injured dolphin tangled in a crab trap. The dolphin is taken for treatment to Clearwater Marine Aquarium (CMA), run by Dr. Clay Haskett. Clay's daughter Hazel names the dolphin Winter, after two prior dolphins, Summer and Autumn, had been treated successfully and returned to the ocean. Sawyer sneaks in to see Winter, and later starts to visit each day, being harassed by a crazy pelican named Rufus. Sawyer's mother, Lorraine, and Clay are hesitant, due to Sawyer's inexperience with marine animals, and repeatedly skipping summer school, but they realize that the friendship seems to benefit both Winter and Sawyer. Clay allows the visits to continue, and Lorraine withdraws Sawyer from summer school and lets him volunteer at CMA, and gives him a new wetsuit.", "However, Winter's tail is wounded and must be amputated. Winter learns to swim without a tail by developing a side\\-to\\-side motion like a fish, but after an X\\-ray, Clay notices the unnatural motion is causing [stress on her spine](/wiki/Scoliosis \"Scoliosis\"), which, if continued, will handicap and eventually kill her.", "The news comes that Kyle has been injured severely in an explosion and is returning home for treatment. Sawyer is excited to see him, but devastated when Kyle skips his own welcoming party and stays at the local Department of Veterans Affairs Medical Center, where Dr. Cameron McCarthy develops [prosthetic](/wiki/Prosthetic \"Prosthetic\") limbs. Sawyer and his mother visit Kyle there, but Sawyer is insulted when Kyle asks them to leave. Not wanting to upset Sawyer, Kyle takes Sawyer for a walk and explains his situation and that he needs some time. At Sawyer's request, McCarthy agrees to make a prosthetic tail for Winter and convinces his prosthetic supplier [Hanger Prosthetics and Orthotics](/wiki/Hanger%2C_Inc. \"Hanger, Inc.\") to supply the parts at no cost. McCarthy manufactures a \"homemade\" model tail while waiting for the real one to arrive, but Winter rejects it by banging it against the pool wall. Meanwhile, Kyle gets more depressed when his friend and swimming partner, Donovan Peck, beats his old swimming records. McCarthy persuades Kyle to go home.", "Faced with financial trouble, the CMA is heavily damaged by a [hurricane](/wiki/Tropical_cyclone \"Tropical cyclone\"). The board of directors agrees to close up and sell the land to a real estate developer. It finds homes for all the animals except Winter, who is not wanted due to her disability and may have to be euthanized. Kyle visits CMA and sees that Winter is like him, with a damaged limb. Inspired by a girl with a prosthetic limb whose mother drives her eight hours from [Atlanta](/wiki/Atlanta \"Atlanta\") to visit Winter, Sawyer imagines holding a \"Save Winter Day\" to save the facility. Clay is at first unconvinced, but he reconsiders after talking with his father, Reed. Kyle agrees to race Donovan and persuades [Bay News 9](/wiki/Bay_News_9 \"Bay News 9\") to cover the event.", "The Hanger\\-supplied tail finally arrives; however, Winter refuses it as well. Sawyer then realizes what the real problem is: the plastic base for the tail is irritating her skin. McCarthy develops an alternative gel\\-like sock which he calls \"Winter's Gel\" (which is the real name of the Hanger product used to attach prosthetic limbs, developed during research with Winter) and Winter accepts this new prosthetic tail.", "At Save Winter Day, the work with Winter impresses everyone. Sawyer's teacher gives him school credit, allowing him to pass summer school. The fisherman who found Winter on the beach comes, too. Kyle and Donovan race, but there is no clear winner as it turns into a race for fun after Winter and many children get in the water. The real estate developer decides to keep CMA open and to support it financially.", "The ending shows documentary footage from Winter's actual rescue, several of the prosthetic tails that Winter has worn, and scenes of real amputees visiting Winter at the Clearwater Marine Aquarium.", "" ]
Summary ------- The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women outlaws discrimination on the basis of gender, and obliges its parties to repeal discriminatory laws and guarantee equality in the fields of health, employment, and education. The Optional Protocol is a subsidiary agreement to the convention. It does not establish any new rights, but rather allows the rights guaranteed in the convention to be enforced.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.awid.org/eng/Library/The\-Optional\-Protocol\-to\-CEDAW\-its\-applicability\-on\-the\-ground \|title\=The Optional Protocol to CEDAW \& its applicability "on the ground" \|publisher\=Association for Women's Rights in Development \|date\=12 February 2008 \|access\-date\=2014\-05\-14 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140514112836/http://www.awid.org/eng/Library/The\-Optional\-Protocol\-to\-CEDAW\-its\-applicability\-on\-the\-ground \|archive\-date\=14 May 2014 \|url\-status\=dead }} Articles 1–7 create an individual complaints mechanism similar to those of the [First Optional Protocol to the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights](/wiki/First_Optional_Protocol_to_the_International_Covenant_on_Civil_and_Political_Rights "First Optional Protocol to the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights"), [Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities](/wiki/Optional_Protocol_to_the_Convention_on_the_Rights_of_Persons_with_Disabilities "Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities") and Article 14 of the [Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination](/wiki/Convention_on_the_Elimination_of_All_Forms_of_Racial_Discrimination "Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination"). Parties agree to recognise the competence of the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women to consider complaints "by or on behalf of" individuals or groups who claim their rights under the Convention have been violated.OP\-CEDAW, Article 1\. If a complaint is submitted on behalf of a victim, then this requires their consent, unless the submitter can justify acting without it.OP\-CEDAW, Article 2\. What constitutes "justification" in such a case is up to the committee.{{cite journal \|title\=CEDAW's Optional Protocol Procedures \|last\=MacKinnon \|first\=Catherine \|journal\=Interights Bulletin \|volume\=14 \|issue\=4 \|year\=2004 \|pages\=173–174 }} The ability for complaints to be submitted on behalf of victims is seen as vital in allowing NGOs such as women's organizations and human rights groups to use the Protocol to enforce the convention. Complainants must have exhausted all domestic remedies, and anonymous complaints and complaints referring to events which occurred before the country concerned joined the Optional Protocol are not permitted.OP\-CEDAW, Article 4\. The committee can request information from and make recommendations to a party,OP\-CEDAW, Articles 6 \& 7\. though these are not binding.{{cite journal \|author\=Bal Sokhi\-Bulley \|title\=The Optional Protocol to CEDAW: First Steps \|journal\=Human Rights Law Review \|volume\=6 \|issue\=1 \|pages\=157 \|year\=2006 \|doi\=10\.1093/hrlr/ngi029}} Articles 8–10 create an inquiry mechanism. Parties may permit the committee to investigate, report on and make recommendations on "grave or systematic violations" of the convention.OP\-CEDAW, Article 8\. The Committee may invite the relevant party to respond and inform it of any measures taken as a result of such an inquiry, either directly or through the normal reporting process under the convention.OP\-CEDAW, Article 9\. Parties may opt out of this obligation on signature or ratification,OP\-CEDAW, Article 10\. but only Bangladesh, Belize, Colombia, Cuba and Tajikistan have done so. Article 11 requires parties to ensure that those complaining under the Optional Protocol are not subjected to ill\-treatment or intimidation.OP\-CEDAW, Article 11\. Article 13 requires parties to inform their citizens about the convention, the Optional Protocol, and the rulings of the committee, so as to facilitate complaints.OP\-CEDAW, Article 13\. Articles 12 and 14 govern the procedureOP\-CEDAW, Article 14\. and reportingOP\-CEDAW, Article 12\. of the Committee in handling complaints. Articles 15–21 govern ratification, [entry into force](/wiki/Entry_into_force "Entry into force"), and amendment of the Optional Protocol.
[ "Summary\n-------", "The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women outlaws discrimination on the basis of gender, and obliges its parties to repeal discriminatory laws and guarantee equality in the fields of health, employment, and education. The Optional Protocol is a subsidiary agreement to the convention. It does not establish any new rights, but rather allows the rights guaranteed in the convention to be enforced.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.awid.org/eng/Library/The\\-Optional\\-Protocol\\-to\\-CEDAW\\-its\\-applicability\\-on\\-the\\-ground \\|title\\=The Optional Protocol to CEDAW \\& its applicability \"on the ground\" \\|publisher\\=Association for Women's Rights in Development \\|date\\=12 February 2008 \\|access\\-date\\=2014\\-05\\-14 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140514112836/http://www.awid.org/eng/Library/The\\-Optional\\-Protocol\\-to\\-CEDAW\\-its\\-applicability\\-on\\-the\\-ground \\|archive\\-date\\=14 May 2014 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}", "Articles 1–7 create an individual complaints mechanism similar to those of the [First Optional Protocol to the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights](/wiki/First_Optional_Protocol_to_the_International_Covenant_on_Civil_and_Political_Rights \"First Optional Protocol to the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights\"), [Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities](/wiki/Optional_Protocol_to_the_Convention_on_the_Rights_of_Persons_with_Disabilities \"Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities\") and Article 14 of the [Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination](/wiki/Convention_on_the_Elimination_of_All_Forms_of_Racial_Discrimination \"Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination\"). Parties agree to recognise the competence of the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women to consider complaints \"by or on behalf of\" individuals or groups who claim their rights under the Convention have been violated.OP\\-CEDAW, Article 1\\. If a complaint is submitted on behalf of a victim, then this requires their consent, unless the submitter can justify acting without it.OP\\-CEDAW, Article 2\\. What constitutes \"justification\" in such a case is up to the committee.{{cite journal \\|title\\=CEDAW's Optional Protocol Procedures \\|last\\=MacKinnon \\|first\\=Catherine \\|journal\\=Interights Bulletin \\|volume\\=14 \\|issue\\=4 \\|year\\=2004 \\|pages\\=173–174 }} The ability for complaints to be submitted on behalf of victims is seen as vital in allowing NGOs such as women's organizations and human rights groups to use the Protocol to enforce the convention.", "Complainants must have exhausted all domestic remedies, and anonymous complaints and complaints referring to events which occurred before the country concerned joined the Optional Protocol are not permitted.OP\\-CEDAW, Article 4\\. The committee can request information from and make recommendations to a party,OP\\-CEDAW, Articles 6 \\& 7\\. though these are not binding.{{cite journal \\|author\\=Bal Sokhi\\-Bulley \\|title\\=The Optional Protocol to CEDAW: First Steps \\|journal\\=Human Rights Law Review \\|volume\\=6 \\|issue\\=1 \\|pages\\=157 \\|year\\=2006 \\|doi\\=10\\.1093/hrlr/ngi029}}", "Articles 8–10 create an inquiry mechanism. Parties may permit the committee to investigate, report on and make recommendations on \"grave or systematic violations\" of the convention.OP\\-CEDAW, Article 8\\. The Committee may invite the relevant party to respond and inform it of any measures taken as a result of such an inquiry, either directly or through the normal reporting process under the convention.OP\\-CEDAW, Article 9\\. Parties may opt out of this obligation on signature or ratification,OP\\-CEDAW, Article 10\\. but only Bangladesh, Belize, Colombia, Cuba and Tajikistan have done so.", "Article 11 requires parties to ensure that those complaining under the Optional Protocol are not subjected to ill\\-treatment or intimidation.OP\\-CEDAW, Article 11\\.", "Article 13 requires parties to inform their citizens about the convention, the Optional Protocol, and the rulings of the committee, so as to facilitate complaints.OP\\-CEDAW, Article 13\\.", "Articles 12 and 14 govern the procedureOP\\-CEDAW, Article 14\\. and reportingOP\\-CEDAW, Article 12\\. of the Committee in handling complaints.", "Articles 15–21 govern ratification, [entry into force](/wiki/Entry_into_force \"Entry into force\"), and amendment of the Optional Protocol.", "" ]
Season review ------------- ### Pre\-season [thumb\|right\|The [Footwork FA16](/wiki/Footwork_FA16 "Footwork FA16") during the [1995 British Grand Prix](/wiki/1995_British_Grand_Prix "1995 British Grand Prix")](/wiki/File:Footwork_FA16_-_Max_Papis_in_the_pit_garage_at_the_1995_British_GP%2C_Silverstone_%2849712432836%29.jpg "Footwork FA16 - Max Papis in the pit garage at the 1995 British GP, Silverstone (49712432836).jpg") The cars were still in various stages of development heading into the new season; the [Footwork FA16](/wiki/Footwork_FA16 "Footwork FA16") and [Simtek S951](/wiki/Simtek_S951 "Simtek S951") chassis arrived at the event with virtually no testing, having been completed shortly beforehand.{{cite book \| chapter \= 1995 Grands Prix: Brazilian Grand Prix \| last \= Henry \| first \= Alan \| author\-link \= Alan Henry \| title \= Autocourse 1995–96 \| url \= https://archive.org/details/autocourseworlds0000unse/ \| publisher \= Hazleton Publishing \| isbn \= 1\-874557\-36\-5 \| pages \= 90 \| year \= 1995 \|url\-access\=registration}}{{cite book \| chapter \= 1995 Grands Prix: Brazilian Grand Prix \| last \= Henry \| first \= Alan \| author\-link \= Alan Henry \| title \= Autocourse 1995–96 \| url \= https://archive.org/details/autocourseworlds0000unse/ \| publisher \= Hazleton Publishing \| isbn \= 1\-874557\-36\-5 \| pages \= 88 \| year \= 1995 \|url\-access\=registration}} Luckily for them and other teams that were expected to be fighting over last places, the withdrawal of teams [Larrousse](/wiki/Larrousse "Larrousse") and [Lotus](/wiki/Team_Lotus "Team Lotus") dropped the number of participating cars to 26, guaranteeing all entrants of a race start, without the threat of failing to qualify, for the first time since the [1994 Canadian Grand Prix](/wiki/1994_Canadian_Grand_Prix "1994 Canadian Grand Prix"). At the front of the field, [Michael Schumacher](/wiki/Michael_Schumacher "Michael Schumacher") for Benetton and [Damon Hill](/wiki/Damon_Hill "Damon Hill") for Williams were the favourites to battle for the [Drivers' Championship](/wiki/List_of_Formula_One_World_Drivers%27_Champions "List of Formula One World Drivers' Champions"), with Schumacher anticipating a "struggle" for the championship.{{cite book \| title \= Michael Schumacher: The Whole Story \| first \= Christopher \| last \= Hilton \| isbn \= 1\-84425\-008\-3 \| publisher \= Haynes Publishing \| pages \= 157–163 \| year \= 2006}} [Bernard Dudot](/wiki/Bernard_Dudot "Bernard Dudot"), [Renault's](/wiki/Renault_F1 "Renault F1") Chief Engineer, said that he believed Benetton was less well\-prepared than Williams, as the former team had just changed its engine supplier to Renault, whereas Williams had been in partnership with the company since {{F1\|1989}}.{{cite book \| chapter \= The 17 Grand Prix – Grande Prêmio do Brasil \| last \= Domenjoz \| first \= Luc \| title \= Formula 1 Yearbook 1995 \| year \= 1995 \| publisher \= Chronosports Editeur \| isbn \= 2\-940125\-06\-6 \| page \= 76 }} [McLaren](/wiki/McLaren "McLaren") were concerned about the standard refuelling equipment provided for 1995 by suppliers [Intertechnique](/wiki/Intertechnique "Intertechnique"), having suffered a major leak in a test of the new rig outside of its factory. Intertechnique had redesigned the fuel equipment, which was used by all of the teams, in the wake of the [pit lane](/wiki/Pit_stop "Pit stop") fire suffered by driver [Jos Verstappen](/wiki/Jos_Verstappen "Jos Verstappen") during the previous year's [German Grand Prix](/wiki/1994_German_Grand_Prix "1994 German Grand Prix"). The new fuel rigs, in addition to being half the size of the 1994, also featured longer nozzles, and were designed to lock onto the car before any fuel could begin to flow.{{cite web \| url \= http://www.grandprix.com/ns/ns00054\.html \| work \= GrandPrix.com \| publisher \= Inside F1 \| title \= F1 updates its refuelling equipment \| date \= 13 March 1995 \| access\-date \= 21 April 2009\| archive\-url\= https://web.archive.org/web/20090402201514/http://www.grandprix.com/ns/ns00054\.html\| archive\-date\= 2 April 2009 \| url\-status\= live}} Intertechnique traced the problem to a faulty valve within the equipment, which caused {{convert\|10\|kg}} of fuel to leak, and modified the parts accordingly.{{cite web \| url \= http://www.grandprix.com/ns/ns00074\.html \| work \= GrandPrix.com \| publisher \= Inside F1 \| title \= More worries over refueling \| date \= 27 March 1995 \| access\-date \= 21 April 2009}} ### Rounds 1 to 4 {{F1\|1994}} runner\-up [Damon Hill](/wiki/Damon_Hill "Damon Hill") for [Williams](/wiki/Williams_Grand_Prix_Engineering "Williams Grand Prix Engineering") achieved [pole position](/wiki/Pole_position "Pole position") for the first race of the season in [Brazil](/wiki/1995_Brazilian_Grand_Prix "1995 Brazilian Grand Prix"). Champion [Michael Schumacher](/wiki/Michael_Schumacher "Michael Schumacher") lined up in second in his [Benetton](/wiki/Benetton_Formula "Benetton Formula"). Hill had a bad start and was immediately overtaken by Schumacher.{{cite web \| url \= http://www.grandprix.com/gpe/rr565\.html \| work \= GrandPrix.com \| publisher \= Inside F1 \| title \= Grand Prix Results: Brazilian GP, 1995 \| access\-date \= 2009\-04\-14 \| archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20090211003701/http://grandprix.com/gpe/rr565\.html \| archive\-date \= 2009\-02\-11 \| url\-status \= live }} They utilised different [pit stop](/wiki/Pit_stop "Pit stop") strategies and the battle was heating up until, on lap 31, the Williams driver spun off the track when his gearbox seized. Schumacher comfortably won the race ahead of Hill's teammate [David Coulthard](/wiki/David_Coulthard "David Coulthard"). Third place was contested by [Mika Salo](/wiki/Mika_Salo "Mika Salo") in the [Tyrrell](/wiki/Tyrrell_Racing "Tyrrell Racing") until he spun on lap 39, suffering from cramp in his hand, and was overtaken by [Mika Häkkinen](/wiki/Mika_H%C3%A4kkinen "Mika Häkkinen") in the [McLaren](/wiki/McLaren "McLaren") and the [Ferraris](/wiki/Scuderia_Ferrari "Scuderia Ferrari") of [Gerhard Berger](/wiki/Gerhard_Berger "Gerhard Berger") and [Jean Alesi](/wiki/Jean_Alesi "Jean Alesi"). After the second round pit stops, Berger took third place and stayed there.{{cite video \| date \= 1995\-12\-11 \| title \= FIA Formula 1 World Championship – 1995 Season Review \| url \= https://www.amazon.co.uk/Formula\-Grand\-Prix\-Review\-1995/dp/B00004CRI7 \| medium \= \[\[VHS]] \| publisher \= \[\[Duke Video]] \| access\-date \= 2008\-08\-20 \| time \= 15:00–27:00 \| id \= \[\[EAN\-13]] 5 017559 034955 \| archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20080627091052/http://www.amazon.co.uk/Formula\-Grand\-Prix\-Review\-1995/dp/B00004CRI7 \| archive\-date \= 2008\-06\-27 \| url\-status \= live }}{{cite book \| chapter \= 1995 Grands Prix: Brazilian Grand Prix \| last \= Henry \| first \= Alan \| author\-link \= Alan Henry \| title \= Autocourse 1995–96 \| url \= https://archive.org/details/autocourseworlds0000unse/ \| orig\-year \= 1995 \| publisher \= Hazleton Publishing \| isbn \= 1\-874557\-36\-5 \| pages \= 91–93 \|date\=December 1995 \|url\-access\=registration}} After the race, Schumacher and Coulthard were both [disqualified](/wiki/Formula_One_regulations%23Penalties "Formula One regulations#Penalties"), as the fuel sample taken from their cars after [qualifying](/wiki/Formula_One_racing%23Qualifying "Formula One racing#Qualifying") did not match the regulations. All classified drivers moved up two places and Berger was declared the victor.{{cite web\|date\=1995\-03\-29 \|url\=http://www.fia.com/resources/documents/314726189\_\_29\_03\_1995\_F1\_BRA\_GP\_Fuel.pdf \|title\=Exclusion of Car.1 (Schumacher / Benetton) and Car No. 6 (Coulthard / Williams) from the results of the Brazilian Grand Prix \|access\-date\=2009\-04\-11 \|publisher\=\[\[Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile]] \|work\=fia.com \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20050302043419/http://www.fia.com/resources/documents/314726189\_\_29\_03\_1995\_F1\_BRA\_GP\_Fuel.pdf \|archive\-date\=March 2, 2005 }}{{cite web \| url \= http://www.grandprix.com/ns/ns00072\.html \| work \= GrandPrix.com \| publisher \= Inside F1 \| title \= F1's weight problems \| date \= 1995\-03\-27 \| access\-date \= 2009\-04\-11 \| archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20100105040919/http://grandprix.com/ns/ns00072\.html \| archive\-date \= 2010\-01\-05 \| url\-status \= live }} However, a successful appeal by the two teams saw their drivers' results reinstated, since the illegal fuel did not offer a performance advantage.{{cite news \|last\=Allsop \|first\=Derick \|date\=14 April 1995 \|title\=Schumacher and Coulthard reinstated \|url\=https://www.independent.co.uk/sport/schumacher\-and\-coulthard\-reinstated\-1615631\.html \|archive\-url\=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220501/https://www.independent.co.uk/sport/schumacher\-and\-coulthard\-reinstated\-1615631\.html \|archive\-date\=2022\-05\-01 \|url\-access\=subscription \|url\-status\=live \|newspaper\=\[\[The Independent]] \|location\=London \|access\-date\=8 January 2019}}{{cbignore}} Still, the teams did not receive any points for the [Constructors' Championship](/wiki/List_of_Formula_One_World_Constructors%27_Champions "List of Formula One World Constructors' Champions") and were penalized $200,000\. This division between car and driver was met with criticism.\> For the second race in [Argentina](/wiki/1995_Argentine_Grand_Prix "1995 Argentine Grand Prix"), Coulthard achieved pole position, the first of his career, with Hill and Schumacher behind him.{{cite book \|last\=Henry \|first\=Alan \|author\-link\=Alan Henry \|year\=1995 \|title\=Autocourse 1995\-96 \|url\=https://archive.org/details/autocourseworlds0000unse/\|publisher\=Hazleton Publishing \|chapter\=1995 Grands Prix: Argentine Grand Prix \|pages\=102–103 \|isbn\=1\-874557\-36\-5\|url\-access\=registration}} The start saw collisions between eight drivers and the race was suspended. On lap six of the restarted race, Coulthard's throttle failed, allowing Schumacher and Hill past, and leading to the [Scot](/wiki/Scot "Scot")'s retirement shortly after. During the pit stops, Hill grabbed the lead and Alesi took second place. Schumacher finished third. Before the race in [San Marino](/wiki/1995_San_Marino_Grand_Prix "1995 San Marino Grand Prix"), it was Benetton's Michael Schumacher on pole position for the first time this season. Berger started second, much to the joy of the local [tifosi](/wiki/Tifosi%23Formula_One "Tifosi#Formula One"). Hill started in fourth. Light rain was falling and teams faced a difficult choice in [tyres](/wiki/Formula_One_tyres "Formula One tyres"). The first five drivers on the grid started on [rain tyres](/wiki/Rain_tyre "Rain tyre") and, after the start, were five seconds per lap quicker than the rest of the field. [Rubens Barrichello](/wiki/Rubens_Barrichello "Rubens Barrichello"), the only other driver on wet tyres, started in tenth in his [Jordan](/wiki/Jordan_Grand_Prix "Jordan Grand Prix") and quickly got up to sixth. Things turned out in the pit stops: Schumacher crashed, coming out on his cold tyres, and Berger's car stalled, giving the lead to Damon Hill. Coulthard and Alesi fought hard over then\-second place, but the over\-eager Williams driver exceeded the pit lane speed limit and had to undertake a [10\-second stop\-go penalties](/wiki/Formula_One_regulations%23Penalties "Formula One regulations#Penalties"). The podium order was Hill, Alesi, Berger. In [Spain](/wiki/1995_Spanish_Grand_Prix "1995 Spanish Grand Prix"), it was Schumacher on pole for the second time and he led from start to finish. On the last lap, Hill was in second, but when he suffered from a hydraulic problem, he crawled across the line in fourth. This allowed Schumacher's teammate [Johnny Herbert](/wiki/Johnny_Herbert "Johnny Herbert") through to second place, his first ever podium. Berger finished third, while Alesi and Coulthard retired. After four races, Schumacher in the Benetton led the [Drivers' Championship](/wiki/List_of_Formula_One_World_Drivers%27_Champions "List of Formula One World Drivers' Champions") with 24 points, just one ahead of Hill in the Williams. Alesi and Berger in the Ferrari followed with 14 and 13 points, respectively. In the [Constructors' Championship](/wiki/List_of_Formula_One_World_Constructors%27_Champions "List of Formula One World Constructors' Champions"), Ferrari (27\) led Williams (26\) and Benetton (23\). ### Rounds 5 to 10 [thumb\|left\|200px\|A bizarre incident in [Saturday practice](/wiki/Formula_One_racing%23Free_practice "Formula One racing#Free practice") saw the [Renault Clio](/wiki/Renault_Clio%23Clio_Williams "Renault Clio#Clio Williams") [safety car](/wiki/Safety_car "Safety car") crash into [Taki Inoue](/wiki/Taki_Inoue "Taki Inoue")'s stalled [Footwork](/wiki/Footwork_Arrows "Footwork Arrows").{{cite journal\|editor\-last\=Benson\|editor\-first\=Andrew\|date\=1995\-06\-01\|title\=Pit \& Paddock: Inoue rolls after crash with safety car\|journal\=\[\[Autosport]]\|volume\=139\|issue\=9\|page\=7}}](/wiki/File:Inoue_Footwork_Monaco.jpg "Inoue Footwork Monaco.jpg") On the narrow streets of [Monaco](/wiki/1995_Monaco_Grand_Prix "1995 Monaco Grand Prix"), [Damon Hill](/wiki/Damon_Hill "Damon Hill") for [Williams](/wiki/Williams_Grand_Prix_Engineering "Williams Grand Prix Engineering") [qualified](/wiki/Formula_One_racing%23Qualifying "Formula One racing#Qualifying") in [pole position](/wiki/Pole_position "Pole position").{{cite book \| chapter \= 1995 Grands Prix: Monaco Grand Prix \| last \= Henry \| first \= Alan \| author\-link \= Alan Henry \| title \= Autocourse 1995–96 \| url \= https://archive.org/details/autocourseworlds0000unse/ \| publisher \= Hazleton Publishing \| isbn \= 1\-874557\-36\-5 \| page \= 123 \| year \= 1995\|url\-access\=registration}}{{cite journal\|last\=Roebuck\|first\=Nigel\|date\=1995\-06\-01\|title\=Qualifying: Hill shows mettle to command pole\|journal\=\[\[Autosport]]\|volume\=139\|issue\=9\|page\=33}} Championship leader [Michael Schumacher](/wiki/Michael_Schumacher "Michael Schumacher") in the [Benetton](/wiki/Benetton_Formula "Benetton Formula") started next to him. [David Coulthard](/wiki/David_Coulthard "David Coulthard") (Williams), [Gerhard Berger](/wiki/Gerhard_Berger "Gerhard Berger") and [Jean Alesi](/wiki/Jean_Alesi "Jean Alesi") (both [Ferrari](/wiki/Scuderia_Ferrari "Scuderia Ferrari")) completed the top five, but the three collided going in the first corner.{{cite journal\|last\=Roebuck\|first\=Nigel\|author\-link\=Nigel Roebuck\|title\=Monaco GP: Schumacher streets ahead\|journal\=\[\[Autosport]]\|date\=1995\-06\-01\|volume\=139\|issue\=9\|page\=26}}{{cite book \| chapter \= 1995 Grands Prix: Spanish Grand Prix \| last \= Henry \| first \= Alan \| author\-link \= Alan Henry \| title \= Autocourse 1995–96 \| url \= https://archive.org/details/autocourseworlds0000unse/ \| publisher \= Hazleton Publishing \| isbn \= 1\-874557\-36\-5 \| page \= 127 \| year \= 1995\|url\-access\=registration}} The track was blocked and the race was suspended.{{cite journal\|last\=Roebuck\|first\=Nigel\|author\-link\=Nigel Roebuck\|date\=1995\-06\-01\|title\=Monaco: F1 team by team\|journal\=\[\[Autosport]]\|volume\=139\|issue\=9\|pages\=35, 37}}{{cite video \| date \= 1995\-12\-11 \| title \= FIA Formula 1 World Championship – 1995 Season Review \| url \= https://www.amazon.co.uk/Formula\-Grand\-Prix\-Review\-1995/dp/B00004CRI7 \| medium \= \[\[VHS]] \| publisher \= \[\[Duke Video]] \| access\-date \= 2012\-05\-29 \| id\=\[\[EAN\-13]] 5 017559 034955 }}{{cite book \| chapter \= 1995 Grands Prix: Spanish Grand Prix \| last \= Henry \| first \= Alan \| author\-link \= Alan Henry \| title \= Autocourse 1995–96 \| url \= https://archive.org/details/autocourseworlds0000unse/ \| publisher \= Hazleton Publishing \| isbn \= 1\-874557\-36\-5 \| page \= 127 \| year \= 1995\|url\-access\=registration}} At the second start, the top drivers remained in order, but during the pit stops, Hill fell back behind Schumacher and Alesi. The Ferrari then crashed whilst attempting to avoid [Martin Brundle](/wiki/Martin_Brundle "Martin Brundle"), who had spun. Coulthard retired, so the top three at the finish was Schumacher, Hill, Berger. This was the last race for the [Simtek](/wiki/Simtek "Simtek") team, who withdrew from the championship because they ran out of budget. [thumb\|right\|[Jean Alesi](/wiki/Jean_Alesi "Jean Alesi") ([Ferrari](/wiki/Scuderia_Ferrari "Scuderia Ferrari") won the [1995 Canadian Grand Prix](/wiki/1995_Canadian_Grand_Prix "1995 Canadian Grand Prix")](/wiki/File:Jean_Alesi_Ferrari_1995.jpg "Jean Alesi Ferrari 1995.jpg") In [Canada](/wiki/1995_Canadian_Grand_Prix "1995 Canadian Grand Prix"), Michael Schumacher achieved pole position, the 100th for a [Renault](/wiki/Renault_Sport "Renault Sport")\-powered F1 car,{{cite video \| people \= \[\[Ben Edwards (commentator)\|Edwards, Ben]] (Commentator) \| date \= 11 June 1995 \| title \= Canadian Grand Prix: Warm\-Up Session Live \| medium \= Television production \| publisher \= \[\[Eurosport]] \| location \= London, England \| time \= 01:09–01:15 (excluding commercials)}} and led away comfortably, until on lap 57, an electrical problem forced him into the pits. He was stationary for 70 seconds to change his [steering wheel](/wiki/Steering_wheel "Steering wheel") and perform an on\-board computer adjustment. He recovered to fifth position at the finish. Jean Alesi went on to win the race on his 31st birthday. This would be his only career victory and also marked the last time to date that a car with a [V12 engine](/wiki/V12_engine "V12 engine") won. After several other front\-runners encountered problems late in the race, the [Jordans](/wiki/Jordan_Grand_Prix "Jordan Grand Prix") of [Rubens Barrichello](/wiki/Rubens_Barrichello "Rubens Barrichello") and [Eddie Irvine](/wiki/Eddie_Irvine "Eddie Irvine") completed the surprising podium. Just like in Monaco, Hill started on pole position in [France](/wiki/1995_French_Grand_Prix "1995 French Grand Prix"), but lost out to second\-starting Schumacher during the pit stops. His teammate Coulthard started and finished in third. [thumb\|right\|[Johnny Herbert](/wiki/Johnny_Herbert "Johnny Herbert") ([Benetton](/wiki/Benetton_Formula "Benetton Formula") won the [1995 British Grand Prix](/wiki/1995_British_Grand_Prix "1995 British Grand Prix")](/wiki/File:Johnny_Herbert_-_Benetton_B195_at_the_1995_British_Grand_Prix%2C_Silverstone_%2849720286518%29.jpg "Johnny Herbert - Benetton B195 at the 1995 British Grand Prix, Silverstone (49720286518).jpg") During the [British Grand Prix](/wiki/1995_British_Grand_Prix "1995 British Grand Prix"), championship rivals Hill and Schumacher clashed for the first time. Hill had started from pole,{{Cite book\| chapter \= 1995 Grands Prix: British Grand Prix \| last \= Henry \| first \= Alan \| author\-link \= Alan Henry \| title \= Autocourse 1995–96 \| url \= https://archive.org/details/autocourseworlds0000unse/ \| publisher \= Hazleton Publishing \| isbn \= 1\-874557\-36\-5 \| page \= 149 \|date\=December 1995\|url\-access\=registration}}{{Cite book\| chapter \= The 17 Grand Prix – British Grand Prix \| last \= Domenjoz \| first \= Luc \| title \= Formula 1 Yearbook 1995 \| publisher \= Chronosports Editeur \| isbn \= 2\-940125\-06\-6 \| page \= 136 \| year \= 1995 }} while Schumacher fell behind third\-starting Alesi. As happened regularly this season, Schumacher took the lead by only needing one pit stop, compared to Hill's two.{{cite journal\|last\=Roebuck\|first\=Nigel\|author\-link\=Nigel Roebuck\|title\=British GP: Deputy Herbert gets his reward\|journal\=\[\[Autosport]]\|date\=20 July 1995\|volume\=140\|issue\=3\|page\=39}} But when the Williams tried to repass the Benetton, the two collided and retired.{{Cite book\| chapter \= 1995 Grands Prix: British Grand Prix \| last \= Henry \| first \= Alan \| author\-link \= Alan Henry \| title \= Autocourse 1995–96 \| url \= https://archive.org/details/autocourseworlds0000unse/ \| publisher \= Hazleton Publishing \| isbn \= 1\-874557\-36\-5 \| page \= 150 \|date\=December 1995\|url\-access\=registration}} This promoted their teammates [Johnny Herbert](/wiki/Johnny_Herbert "Johnny Herbert") and [David Coulthard](/wiki/David_Coulthard "David Coulthard") to the front. Coulthard took the lead, but incurred a stop\-go penalty for speeding in the pit lane.{{cite journal\|last\=Coulthard\|first\=David\|author\-link\=David Coulthard\|title\=Digest: Dream win snatched from my grasp\|journal\=\[\[Autosport]]\|date\=20 July 1995\|volume\=140\|issue\=3\|pages\=26–27}} Herbert won the first race of his career, ahead of Jean Alesi in the Ferrari.{{Cite book\| chapter \= 1995 Grands Prix: British Grand Prix \| last \= Henry \| first \= Alan \| author\-link \= Alan Henry \| title \= Autocourse 1995–96 \| url \= https://archive.org/details/autocourseworlds0000unse/ \| publisher \= Hazleton Publishing \| isbn \= 1\-874557\-36\-5 \| pages \= 154–155 \|date\=December 1995\|url\-access\=registration}} Two weeks later, Michael Schumacher won his home race, the [German Grand Prix](/wiki/1995_German_Grand_Prix "1995 German Grand Prix"). Damon Hill had achieved pole position once again, but this time, spun off on the second lap as a result of [driveshaft](/wiki/Driveshaft "Driveshaft") failure. David Coulthard finished second, Gerhard Berger was third, recovering from a 10\-second stop\-go penalty for [jumping the start](/wiki/Glossary_of_motorsport_terms%23J "Glossary of motorsport terms#J"). The [1995 Hungarian Grand Prix](/wiki/1995_Hungarian_Grand_Prix "1995 Hungarian Grand Prix") was a [grand slam](/wiki/Grand_slam_%28Formula_One%29 "Grand slam (Formula One)") for Damon Hill: he won from pole position and set the fastest lap. Coulthard finished second and Berger third. Michael Schumacher was classified three laps down, suffering from [fuel pump](/wiki/Fuel_pump "Fuel pump") issues. During the race, Taki Inoue had his second coming together with the safety car. This time, he himself was hit by the [Tatra 623](/wiki/Tatra_623 "Tatra 623") when running over to his Footwork with a fire extinguisher. He suffered minor injuries to his leg.{{cite web\|url\=https://static.modestmachines.com/archive/tatra\-t\-623\|title\=Tatra T\-623\|work\=Banovsky's Car of the Day\|date\=9 April 2015\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170422033715/https://static.modestmachines.com/archive/tatra\-t\-623\|archive\-date\=22 April 2017}}{{cite web\|url\=http://www.f1rejects.com/drivers/inoue/biography.html \|title\=Taki Inoue \- Biography \|publisher\=F1 Rejects \|access\-date\=28 May 2011 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080725092840/http://f1rejects.com/drivers/inoue/biography.html \|archive\-date\=July 25, 2008 }} In the [Drivers' Championship](/wiki/List_of_Formula_One_World_Drivers%27_Champions "List of Formula One World Drivers' Champions"), Michael Schumacher was leading with 56 points, ahead of Damon Hill with 45 and Jean Alesi with 32\. It was closer at the front of the [Constructors' Championship](/wiki/List_of_Formula_One_World_Constructors%27_Champions "List of Formula One World Constructors' Champions"), with Benetton and Williams separated by just six points (74 and 68, respectively), followed by Ferrari with 57\. ### Rounds 11 to 14 [Qualifying](/wiki/Formula_One_racing%23Qualifying "Formula One racing#Qualifying") for the [Belgian Grand Prix](/wiki/1995_Belgian_Grand_Prix "1995 Belgian Grand Prix") took place in varying weather conditions and championship rivals [Michael Schumacher](/wiki/Michael_Schumacher "Michael Schumacher") and [Damon Hill](/wiki/Damon_Hill "Damon Hill") could only achieve sixteenth and eighth place on the grid, respectively. [Ferrari](/wiki/Scuderia_Ferrari "Scuderia Ferrari")'s [Gerhard Berger](/wiki/Gerhard_Berger "Gerhard Berger") and [Jean Alesi](/wiki/Jean_Alesi "Jean Alesi") blocked out on the front row, but both retired during the race. Schumacher's teammate [Johnny Herbert](/wiki/Johnny_Herbert "Johnny Herbert") briefly led the race, but struggled for pace on the drying track. Hill took the lead after his teammate [David Coulthard](/wiki/David_Coulthard "David Coulthard") retired with [gearbox](/wiki/Gearbox "Gearbox") issues, but then, as it was seen at least three times during the season already, Schumacher passed him during the round of [pit stops](/wiki/Pit_stop "Pit stop"). The story did not end there, however: the rain arrived and Hill made a second pit stop for [rain tyres](/wiki/Rain_tyre "Rain tyre"), while Schumacher tried to brave it out, at one point lapping six seconds slower than his rival. To make matters worse, he went off the track and the [Williams](/wiki/Williams_Grand_Prix_Engineering "Williams Grand Prix Engineering") took the lead until the rain stopped, the track dried, and the [Benetton](/wiki/Benetton_Formula "Benetton Formula") was back on top. When the [safety car](/wiki/Safety_car "Safety car") came out, the playing field was levelled and Schumacher led away from Hill, both on wet tyres. It looked like a thrilling battle to come, until the [Brit](/wiki/Great_Britain "Great Britain") was served a [10\-second stop\-go penalty](/wiki/Formula_One_regulations%23Penalties "Formula One regulations#Penalties") for speeding in the [pit lane](/wiki/Pit_lane "Pit lane"). He did recover to second place, but finished far behind the [German](/wiki/Germany "Germany"). [Martin Brundle](/wiki/Martin_Brundle "Martin Brundle") came home in a surprising third position. After the race, Schumacher was given a one\-race suspended ban for defending too aggressively.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.grandprix.com/ns/ns00260\.html \|title\=Schumacher in trouble again \|publisher\=GrandPrix.com \|date\=28 August 1995 \|access\-date\=15 December 2006}} [250px\|thumb\|right\|Podium celebration after the [Italian Grand Prix](/wiki/1995_Italian_Grand_Prix "1995 Italian Grand Prix")](/wiki/File:Podium_GP_de_Monza_1995.jpg "Podium GP de Monza 1995.jpg") On the formation lap of the [Italian Grand Prix](/wiki/1995_Italian_Grand_Prix "1995 Italian Grand Prix"), pole\-sitter [David Coulthard](/wiki/David_Coulthard "David Coulthard") spun off and retired with terminal damage. However, when the race was suspended after a first\-lap collision in the same corner, with the track being blocked by four stranded cars, Coulthard was able to take the restart in a [spare car](/wiki/Glossary_of_motorsport_terms%23S "Glossary of motorsport terms#S"), on pole position. Michael Schumacher and Gerhard Berger started behind him. On lap 13, Coulthard retired again, this time with a [wheel bearing](/wiki/Bearing_%28mechanical%29 "Bearing (mechanical)") failure, and Schumacher crashed out when he was hit in the back by championship rival Damon Hill. After the incident, reminiscent of the one at [Silverstone](/wiki/1995_British_Grand_Prix "1995 British Grand Prix"), Schumacher was furious with Hill, but calmed down when learning that the [Brit](/wiki/Great_Britain "Great Britain") had had to take evasive action when lapping [Taki Inoue](/wiki/Taki_Inoue "Taki Inoue"). The Ferraris were running 1\-2 on home soil, until a [TV camera](/wiki/TV_camera "TV camera") on Alesi's [rear wing](/wiki/Downforce "Downforce") fell off and destroyed Berger's suspension. With eight laps to go, the [Frenchman](/wiki/France "France") also retired and handed a second victory to Benetton's Johnny Herbert. [Mika Häkkinen](/wiki/Mika_H%C3%A4kkinen "Mika Häkkinen") ([McLaren](/wiki/McLaren "McLaren")) and [Heinz\-Harald Frentzen](/wiki/Heinz-Harald_Frentzen "Heinz-Harald Frentzen") ([Sauber](/wiki/Sauber "Sauber")) achieved their best results yet in second and third, respectively. After the race, Hill was given a one\-race suspended ban for his part in the collision.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.independent.co.uk/sport/hill\-and\-schumacher\-hit\-boiling\-point\-1600622\.html \|archive\-url\=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220501/https://www.independent.co.uk/sport/hill\-and\-schumacher\-hit\-boiling\-point\-1600622\.html \|archive\-date\=2022\-05\-01 \|url\-access\=subscription \|url\-status\=live \|title\=Hill and Schumacher hit boiling point \| author\=Derick Allsop \| work\=\[\[The Independent]] \|date\=11 September 1995 \|access\-date\=16 January 2020}}{{cbignore}} In [Portugal](/wiki/1995_Portuguese_Grand_Prix "1995 Portuguese Grand Prix"), Coulthard started on pole position again and this time, he held on to achieve his first career win. Hill started in second, before Schumacher in third, but they finished the other way around. At the start, [Ukyo Katayama](/wiki/Ukyo_Katayama "Ukyo Katayama") in the [Tyrrell](/wiki/Tyrrell_Racing "Tyrrell Racing") made contact with [Luca Badoer](/wiki/Luca_Badoer "Luca Badoer")'s [Minardi](/wiki/Minardi "Minardi") and went airborne. After being extracted from the car, he was hospitalised for two days, suffering from a strained neck and bruising in several places.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.newspapers.com/image/122909723\|title\=27 Sep 1995, Page 37 \- The Age at Newspapers.com\|access\-date\=2016\-08\-16}}{{cite book\|title\=Autocourse 1995–96\|url\=https://archive.org/details/autocourseworlds0000unse/\|last\=Henry\|first\=Alan\|date\=December 1995\|publisher\=Hazleton Publishing\|isbn\=1\-874557\-36\-5\|pages\=194\|chapter\=1995 Grands Prix: Portuguese Grand Prix\|author\-link\=Alan Henry\|orig\-year\=1995\|url\-access\=registration}}{{cite web\|url\=http://www.grandprix.com/ns/ns00310\.html\|title\=Tyrrell drive up for grabs\|date\=1995\-10\-02\|publisher\=Inside F1\|work\=GrandPrix.com\|access\-date\=2019\-08\-18}} The [European Grand Prix](/wiki/1995_European_Grand_Prix "1995 European Grand Prix") was held at the [Nürburgring](/wiki/N%C3%BCrburgring "Nürburgring") and saw Coulthard start on pole, ahead of teammate Damon Hill and championship leader Michael Schumacher. Coulthard did start in the spare car, however, after stalling his engine during his [reconnaissance lap](/wiki/Glossary_of_motorsport_terms%23outlap "Glossary of motorsport terms#outlap"). Many teams decided to start on [rain tyres](/wiki/Rain_tyre "Rain tyre"), but Ferrari and McLaren switched to dries after the first start was abandoned. This only turned out to be the right decision after seventeen laps, when most other drivers had pitted. Schumacher and Hill battled again, switching positions several times, while Coulthard suffered from excessive [oversteer](/wiki/Oversteer "Oversteer") and fell behind them. Meanwhile, Alesi was in the lead and extended his advantage to 45 seconds. During the second round of pit stops, however, he collided with Hill and had to pit for repairs. Berger retired with engine problems and Hill crashed out on lap 58\. Schumacher passed Alesi for the lead, two laps from the end, and Coulthard completed the podium.Henry, 1995 Grands Prix: Grand Prix of Europe, p. 206–207{{cite web \|url\=http://www.formula1\.com/results/driver/1995/11\.html \|title\=1995 \> Coulthard, David \|publisher\=The Official Formula 1 Website \|access\-date\=31 January 2009 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090120204610/http://formula1\.com/results/driver/1995/11\.html \|archive\-date\=20 January 2009 \|url\-status\=dead}}{{cite web \|url\=http://www.grandprix.com/gpe/rr578\.html \|title\=Grand Prix Results: European GP, 1995 \|work\=GrandPrix.com \|publisher\=Inside F1 \|access\-date\=27 January 2009 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20081105090504/http://www.grandprix.com/gpe/rr578\.html \|archive\-date\=5 November 2008 \|url\-status\=live}} With three races to go, Schumacher was leading the [Drivers' Championship](/wiki/List_of_Formula_One_World_Drivers%27_Champions "List of Formula One World Drivers' Champions"), 27 points ahead of Hill. This meant that the Williams driver needed to win all remaining races, with his Benetton rival scoring less than three points. In the [Constructors' Championship](/wiki/List_of_Formula_One_World_Constructors%27_Champions "List of Formula One World Constructors' Champions"), Benetton was leading Williams with 112 over 92 points. ### Rounds 15 to 17 The F1 circus landed in [Japan](/wiki/Japan "Japan") for two races, the first one dubbed the [Pacific Grand Prix](/wiki/1995_Pacific_Grand_Prix "1995 Pacific Grand Prix"). [Williams](/wiki/Williams_Grand_Prix_Engineering "Williams Grand Prix Engineering") driver [David Coulthard](/wiki/David_Coulthard "David Coulthard") achieved his fourth [pole position](/wiki/Pole_position "Pole position") in a row, ahead of teammate [Damon Hill](/wiki/Damon_Hill "Damon Hill") and championship leader [Michael Schumacher](/wiki/Michael_Schumacher "Michael Schumacher") in his [Benetton](/wiki/Benetton_Formula "Benetton Formula"). At the start, fourth\-starting [Jean Alesi](/wiki/Jean_Alesi "Jean Alesi") got up to second place. After Schumacher overtook Hill and Alesi during the first round of [pit stops](/wiki/Pit_stop "Pit stop"), he closed in on the leader and lapped consistently faster, so that the [German](/wiki/Germany "Germany") just came out in front after all pit stops were made.{{cite book \| chapter \= 1995 Grands Prix: Pacific Grand Prix \| last \= Henry \| first \= Alan \| author\-link \= Alan Henry \| title \= Autocourse 1995–96 \| url \= https://archive.org/details/autocourseworlds0000unse/ \|orig\-year \= 1995 \| publisher \= Hazleton Publishing \| isbn \= 1\-874557\-36\-5 \| pages \= 214–215 \|date\=December 1995\|url\-access\=registration}} Scoring his eighth victory of the season and gaining enough points to make it impossible for Hill to catch him, the *Schumi* was crowned the [1995 Drivers' Champion](/wiki/List_of_Formula_One_World_Drivers%27_Champions "List of Formula One World Drivers' Champions"). He was the youngest double Drivers' Champion up to that point (his record was subsequently surpassed by [Sebastian Vettel](/wiki/Sebastian_Vettel "Sebastian Vettel")). Schumacher did not settle down: he started on pole position for the [Japanese Grand Prix](/wiki/1995_Japanese_Grand_Prix "1995 Japanese Grand Prix"). The Williams cars could not match the pace and made room for Jean Alesi and [Mika Häkkinen](/wiki/Mika_H%C3%A4kkinen "Mika Häkkinen") in the top three on the grid. All drivers started on [rain tyres](/wiki/Rain_tyre "Rain tyre"), as it had rained in the morning and the track was damp, but it did not stop the champion from leading away. Both [Ferraris](/wiki/Scuderia_Ferrari "Scuderia Ferrari") were judged to have [jumped the start](/wiki/Glossary_of_motorsport_terms%23J "Glossary of motorsport terms#J") and served a [10\-second stop\-go penalty](/wiki/Formula_One_regulations%23Penalties "Formula One regulations#Penalties"). But Alesi was the first to switch to dry tyres and began making his way through the field. On lap 25, he was only six seconds behind leader Schumacher, when he had to retire with a [driveshaft](/wiki/Driveshaft "Driveshaft") failure. When the rain arrived, but only on one edge of the circuit, teammates Hill and Coulthard crashed out in the same corner, one lap after each other.{{cite web \| url \= http://www.grandprix.com/gpe/rr580\.html \| work \= GrandPrix.com \| publisher \= Inside F1 \| title \= Grand Prix Results: Japanese GP, 1995 \| access\-date \= 2 March 2008\| archive\-url\= https://web.archive.org/web/20080203031549/http://www.grandprix.com/gpe/rr580\.html\| archive\-date\= 3 February 2008 \| url\-status\= live}} Schumacher won and his teammate [Johnny Herbert](/wiki/Johnny_Herbert "Johnny Herbert") came home in third, earning Benetton the [1995 Constructors' Champions](/wiki/List_of_Formula_One_World_Constructors%27_Champions "List of Formula One World Constructors' Champions"). The final race of the season was held in [Australia](/wiki/1995_Australian_Grand_Prix "1995 Australian Grand Prix") and saw most of the front\-running cars retire, except for [polesitter](/wiki/Pole_position "Pole position") Damon Hill. David Coulthard crashed while entering the [pit lane](/wiki/Pit_lane "Pit lane"), Schumacher and Alesi collided, and Herbert and Berger retired with mechanical issues. Hill won, over two laps ahead of [Ligier's](/wiki/Equipe_Ligier "Equipe Ligier") [Olivier Panis](/wiki/Olivier_Panis "Olivier Panis") and [Gianni Morbidelli](/wiki/Gianni_Morbidelli "Gianni Morbidelli") in a [Footwork](/wiki/Footwork_Arrows "Footwork Arrows"), equalling [Jackie Stewart](/wiki/Jackie_Stewart "Jackie Stewart")'s feat during the [1969 Spanish Grand Prix](/wiki/1969_Spanish_Grand_Prix "1969 Spanish Grand Prix").{{cite web\|url\=http://www.grandprix.com/gpe/rr581\.html \|title\=Grand Prix Results: Australian GP, 1995 \|publisher\=GrandPrix.com \|access\-date\=2 March 2008 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080220093202/http://www.grandprix.com/gpe/rr581\.html \|archive\-date\=20 February 2008 \|url\-status\=live}}
[ "Season review\n-------------", "### Pre\\-season", "[thumb\\|right\\|The [Footwork FA16](/wiki/Footwork_FA16 \"Footwork FA16\") during the [1995 British Grand Prix](/wiki/1995_British_Grand_Prix \"1995 British Grand Prix\")](/wiki/File:Footwork_FA16_-_Max_Papis_in_the_pit_garage_at_the_1995_British_GP%2C_Silverstone_%2849712432836%29.jpg \"Footwork FA16 - Max Papis in the pit garage at the 1995 British GP, Silverstone (49712432836).jpg\")\nThe cars were still in various stages of development heading into the new season; the [Footwork FA16](/wiki/Footwork_FA16 \"Footwork FA16\") and [Simtek S951](/wiki/Simtek_S951 \"Simtek S951\") chassis arrived at the event with virtually no testing, having been completed shortly beforehand.{{cite book \\| chapter \\= 1995 Grands Prix: Brazilian Grand Prix \\| last \\= Henry \\| first \\= Alan \\| author\\-link \\= Alan Henry \\| title \\= Autocourse 1995–96 \\| url \\= https://archive.org/details/autocourseworlds0000unse/ \\| publisher \\= Hazleton Publishing \\| isbn \\= 1\\-874557\\-36\\-5 \\| pages \\= 90 \\| year \\= 1995 \\|url\\-access\\=registration}}{{cite book \\| chapter \\= 1995 Grands Prix: Brazilian Grand Prix \\| last \\= Henry \\| first \\= Alan \\| author\\-link \\= Alan Henry \\| title \\= Autocourse 1995–96 \\| url \\= https://archive.org/details/autocourseworlds0000unse/ \\| publisher \\= Hazleton Publishing \\| isbn \\= 1\\-874557\\-36\\-5 \\| pages \\= 88 \\| year \\= 1995 \\|url\\-access\\=registration}}", "Luckily for them and other teams that were expected to be fighting over last places, the withdrawal of teams [Larrousse](/wiki/Larrousse \"Larrousse\") and [Lotus](/wiki/Team_Lotus \"Team Lotus\") dropped the number of participating cars to 26, guaranteeing all entrants of a race start, without the threat of failing to qualify, for the first time since the [1994 Canadian Grand Prix](/wiki/1994_Canadian_Grand_Prix \"1994 Canadian Grand Prix\").", "At the front of the field, [Michael Schumacher](/wiki/Michael_Schumacher \"Michael Schumacher\") for Benetton and [Damon Hill](/wiki/Damon_Hill \"Damon Hill\") for Williams were the favourites to battle for the [Drivers' Championship](/wiki/List_of_Formula_One_World_Drivers%27_Champions \"List of Formula One World Drivers' Champions\"), with Schumacher anticipating a \"struggle\" for the championship.{{cite book \\| title \\= Michael Schumacher: The Whole Story \\| first \\= Christopher \\| last \\= Hilton \\| isbn \\= 1\\-84425\\-008\\-3 \\| publisher \\= Haynes Publishing \\| pages \\= 157–163 \\| year \\= 2006}} [Bernard Dudot](/wiki/Bernard_Dudot \"Bernard Dudot\"), [Renault's](/wiki/Renault_F1 \"Renault F1\") Chief Engineer, said that he believed Benetton was less well\\-prepared than Williams, as the former team had just changed its engine supplier to Renault, whereas Williams had been in partnership with the company since {{F1\\|1989}}.{{cite book \\| chapter \\= The 17 Grand Prix – Grande Prêmio do Brasil \\| last \\= Domenjoz \\| first \\= Luc \\| title \\= Formula 1 Yearbook 1995 \\| year \\= 1995 \\| publisher \\= Chronosports Editeur \\| isbn \\= 2\\-940125\\-06\\-6 \\| page \\= 76 }}", "[McLaren](/wiki/McLaren \"McLaren\") were concerned about the standard refuelling equipment provided for 1995 by suppliers [Intertechnique](/wiki/Intertechnique \"Intertechnique\"), having suffered a major leak in a test of the new rig outside of its factory. Intertechnique had redesigned the fuel equipment, which was used by all of the teams, in the wake of the [pit lane](/wiki/Pit_stop \"Pit stop\") fire suffered by driver [Jos Verstappen](/wiki/Jos_Verstappen \"Jos Verstappen\") during the previous year's [German Grand Prix](/wiki/1994_German_Grand_Prix \"1994 German Grand Prix\"). The new fuel rigs, in addition to being half the size of the 1994, also featured longer nozzles, and were designed to lock onto the car before any fuel could begin to flow.{{cite web \\| url \\= http://www.grandprix.com/ns/ns00054\\.html \\| work \\= GrandPrix.com \\| publisher \\= Inside F1 \\| title \\= F1 updates its refuelling equipment \\| date \\= 13 March 1995 \\| access\\-date \\= 21 April 2009\\| archive\\-url\\= https://web.archive.org/web/20090402201514/http://www.grandprix.com/ns/ns00054\\.html\\| archive\\-date\\= 2 April 2009 \\| url\\-status\\= live}} Intertechnique traced the problem to a faulty valve within the equipment, which caused {{convert\\|10\\|kg}} of fuel to leak, and modified the parts accordingly.{{cite web \\| url \\= http://www.grandprix.com/ns/ns00074\\.html \\| work \\= GrandPrix.com \\| publisher \\= Inside F1 \\| title \\= More worries over refueling \\| date \\= 27 March 1995 \\| access\\-date \\= 21 April 2009}}", "### Rounds 1 to 4", "{{F1\\|1994}} runner\\-up [Damon Hill](/wiki/Damon_Hill \"Damon Hill\") for [Williams](/wiki/Williams_Grand_Prix_Engineering \"Williams Grand Prix Engineering\") achieved [pole position](/wiki/Pole_position \"Pole position\") for the first race of the season in [Brazil](/wiki/1995_Brazilian_Grand_Prix \"1995 Brazilian Grand Prix\"). Champion [Michael Schumacher](/wiki/Michael_Schumacher \"Michael Schumacher\") lined up in second in his [Benetton](/wiki/Benetton_Formula \"Benetton Formula\"). Hill had a bad start and was immediately overtaken by Schumacher.{{cite web \\| url \\= http://www.grandprix.com/gpe/rr565\\.html \\| work \\= GrandPrix.com \\| publisher \\= Inside F1 \\| title \\= Grand Prix Results: Brazilian GP, 1995 \\| access\\-date \\= 2009\\-04\\-14 \\| archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20090211003701/http://grandprix.com/gpe/rr565\\.html \\| archive\\-date \\= 2009\\-02\\-11 \\| url\\-status \\= live }} They utilised different [pit stop](/wiki/Pit_stop \"Pit stop\") strategies and the battle was heating up until, on lap 31, the Williams driver spun off the track when his gearbox seized. Schumacher comfortably won the race ahead of Hill's teammate [David Coulthard](/wiki/David_Coulthard \"David Coulthard\"). Third place was contested by [Mika Salo](/wiki/Mika_Salo \"Mika Salo\") in the [Tyrrell](/wiki/Tyrrell_Racing \"Tyrrell Racing\") until he spun on lap 39, suffering from cramp in his hand, and was overtaken by [Mika Häkkinen](/wiki/Mika_H%C3%A4kkinen \"Mika Häkkinen\") in the [McLaren](/wiki/McLaren \"McLaren\") and the [Ferraris](/wiki/Scuderia_Ferrari \"Scuderia Ferrari\") of [Gerhard Berger](/wiki/Gerhard_Berger \"Gerhard Berger\") and [Jean Alesi](/wiki/Jean_Alesi \"Jean Alesi\"). After the second round pit stops, Berger took third place and stayed there.{{cite video \\| date \\= 1995\\-12\\-11 \\| title \\= FIA Formula 1 World Championship – 1995 Season Review \\| url \\= https://www.amazon.co.uk/Formula\\-Grand\\-Prix\\-Review\\-1995/dp/B00004CRI7 \\| medium \\= \\[\\[VHS]] \\| publisher \\= \\[\\[Duke Video]] \\| access\\-date \\= 2008\\-08\\-20 \\| time \\= 15:00–27:00 \\| id \\= \\[\\[EAN\\-13]] 5 017559 034955 \\| archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20080627091052/http://www.amazon.co.uk/Formula\\-Grand\\-Prix\\-Review\\-1995/dp/B00004CRI7 \\| archive\\-date \\= 2008\\-06\\-27 \\| url\\-status \\= live }}{{cite book \\| chapter \\= 1995 Grands Prix: Brazilian Grand Prix \\| last \\= Henry \\| first \\= Alan \\| author\\-link \\= Alan Henry \\| title \\= Autocourse 1995–96 \\| url \\= https://archive.org/details/autocourseworlds0000unse/ \\| orig\\-year \\= 1995 \\| publisher \\= Hazleton Publishing \\| isbn \\= 1\\-874557\\-36\\-5 \\| pages \\= 91–93 \\|date\\=December 1995 \\|url\\-access\\=registration}}", "After the race, Schumacher and Coulthard were both [disqualified](/wiki/Formula_One_regulations%23Penalties \"Formula One regulations#Penalties\"), as the fuel sample taken from their cars after [qualifying](/wiki/Formula_One_racing%23Qualifying \"Formula One racing#Qualifying\") did not match the regulations. All classified drivers moved up two places and Berger was declared the victor.{{cite web\\|date\\=1995\\-03\\-29 \\|url\\=http://www.fia.com/resources/documents/314726189\\_\\_29\\_03\\_1995\\_F1\\_BRA\\_GP\\_Fuel.pdf \\|title\\=Exclusion of Car.1 (Schumacher / Benetton) and Car No. 6 (Coulthard / Williams) from the results of the Brazilian Grand Prix \\|access\\-date\\=2009\\-04\\-11 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile]] \\|work\\=fia.com \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20050302043419/http://www.fia.com/resources/documents/314726189\\_\\_29\\_03\\_1995\\_F1\\_BRA\\_GP\\_Fuel.pdf \\|archive\\-date\\=March 2, 2005 }}{{cite web \\| url \\= http://www.grandprix.com/ns/ns00072\\.html \\| work \\= GrandPrix.com \\| publisher \\= Inside F1 \\| title \\= F1's weight problems \\| date \\= 1995\\-03\\-27 \\| access\\-date \\= 2009\\-04\\-11 \\| archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20100105040919/http://grandprix.com/ns/ns00072\\.html \\| archive\\-date \\= 2010\\-01\\-05 \\| url\\-status \\= live }} However, a successful appeal by the two teams saw their drivers' results reinstated, since the illegal fuel did not offer a performance advantage.{{cite news \\|last\\=Allsop \\|first\\=Derick \\|date\\=14 April 1995 \\|title\\=Schumacher and Coulthard reinstated \\|url\\=https://www.independent.co.uk/sport/schumacher\\-and\\-coulthard\\-reinstated\\-1615631\\.html \\|archive\\-url\\=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220501/https://www.independent.co.uk/sport/schumacher\\-and\\-coulthard\\-reinstated\\-1615631\\.html \\|archive\\-date\\=2022\\-05\\-01 \\|url\\-access\\=subscription \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The Independent]] \\|location\\=London \\|access\\-date\\=8 January 2019}}{{cbignore}} Still, the teams did not receive any points for the [Constructors' Championship](/wiki/List_of_Formula_One_World_Constructors%27_Champions \"List of Formula One World Constructors' Champions\") and were penalized $200,000\\. This division between car and driver was met with criticism.\\>", "For the second race in [Argentina](/wiki/1995_Argentine_Grand_Prix \"1995 Argentine Grand Prix\"), Coulthard achieved pole position, the first of his career, with Hill and Schumacher behind him.{{cite book \\|last\\=Henry \\|first\\=Alan \\|author\\-link\\=Alan Henry \\|year\\=1995 \\|title\\=Autocourse 1995\\-96 \\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/autocourseworlds0000unse/\\|publisher\\=Hazleton Publishing \\|chapter\\=1995 Grands Prix: Argentine Grand Prix \\|pages\\=102–103 \\|isbn\\=1\\-874557\\-36\\-5\\|url\\-access\\=registration}} The start saw collisions between eight drivers and the race was suspended. On lap six of the restarted race, Coulthard's throttle failed, allowing Schumacher and Hill past, and leading to the [Scot](/wiki/Scot \"Scot\")'s retirement shortly after. During the pit stops, Hill grabbed the lead and Alesi took second place. Schumacher finished third.", "Before the race in [San Marino](/wiki/1995_San_Marino_Grand_Prix \"1995 San Marino Grand Prix\"), it was Benetton's Michael Schumacher on pole position for the first time this season. Berger started second, much to the joy of the local [tifosi](/wiki/Tifosi%23Formula_One \"Tifosi#Formula One\"). Hill started in fourth. Light rain was falling and teams faced a difficult choice in [tyres](/wiki/Formula_One_tyres \"Formula One tyres\"). The first five drivers on the grid started on [rain tyres](/wiki/Rain_tyre \"Rain tyre\") and, after the start, were five seconds per lap quicker than the rest of the field. [Rubens Barrichello](/wiki/Rubens_Barrichello \"Rubens Barrichello\"), the only other driver on wet tyres, started in tenth in his [Jordan](/wiki/Jordan_Grand_Prix \"Jordan Grand Prix\") and quickly got up to sixth. Things turned out in the pit stops: Schumacher crashed, coming out on his cold tyres, and Berger's car stalled, giving the lead to Damon Hill. Coulthard and Alesi fought hard over then\\-second place, but the over\\-eager Williams driver exceeded the pit lane speed limit and had to undertake a [10\\-second stop\\-go penalties](/wiki/Formula_One_regulations%23Penalties \"Formula One regulations#Penalties\"). The podium order was Hill, Alesi, Berger.", "In [Spain](/wiki/1995_Spanish_Grand_Prix \"1995 Spanish Grand Prix\"), it was Schumacher on pole for the second time and he led from start to finish. On the last lap, Hill was in second, but when he suffered from a hydraulic problem, he crawled across the line in fourth. This allowed Schumacher's teammate [Johnny Herbert](/wiki/Johnny_Herbert \"Johnny Herbert\") through to second place, his first ever podium. Berger finished third, while Alesi and Coulthard retired.", "After four races, Schumacher in the Benetton led the [Drivers' Championship](/wiki/List_of_Formula_One_World_Drivers%27_Champions \"List of Formula One World Drivers' Champions\") with 24 points, just one ahead of Hill in the Williams. Alesi and Berger in the Ferrari followed with 14 and 13 points, respectively. In the [Constructors' Championship](/wiki/List_of_Formula_One_World_Constructors%27_Champions \"List of Formula One World Constructors' Champions\"), Ferrari (27\\) led Williams (26\\) and Benetton (23\\).", "### Rounds 5 to 10", "[thumb\\|left\\|200px\\|A bizarre incident in [Saturday practice](/wiki/Formula_One_racing%23Free_practice \"Formula One racing#Free practice\") saw the [Renault Clio](/wiki/Renault_Clio%23Clio_Williams \"Renault Clio#Clio Williams\") [safety car](/wiki/Safety_car \"Safety car\") crash into [Taki Inoue](/wiki/Taki_Inoue \"Taki Inoue\")'s stalled [Footwork](/wiki/Footwork_Arrows \"Footwork Arrows\").{{cite journal\\|editor\\-last\\=Benson\\|editor\\-first\\=Andrew\\|date\\=1995\\-06\\-01\\|title\\=Pit \\& Paddock: Inoue rolls after crash with safety car\\|journal\\=\\[\\[Autosport]]\\|volume\\=139\\|issue\\=9\\|page\\=7}}](/wiki/File:Inoue_Footwork_Monaco.jpg \"Inoue Footwork Monaco.jpg\")\nOn the narrow streets of [Monaco](/wiki/1995_Monaco_Grand_Prix \"1995 Monaco Grand Prix\"), [Damon Hill](/wiki/Damon_Hill \"Damon Hill\") for [Williams](/wiki/Williams_Grand_Prix_Engineering \"Williams Grand Prix Engineering\") [qualified](/wiki/Formula_One_racing%23Qualifying \"Formula One racing#Qualifying\") in [pole position](/wiki/Pole_position \"Pole position\").{{cite book \\| chapter \\= 1995 Grands Prix: Monaco Grand Prix \\| last \\= Henry \\| first \\= Alan \\| author\\-link \\= Alan Henry \\| title \\= Autocourse 1995–96 \\| url \\= https://archive.org/details/autocourseworlds0000unse/ \\| publisher \\= Hazleton Publishing \\| isbn \\= 1\\-874557\\-36\\-5 \\| page \\= 123 \\| year \\= 1995\\|url\\-access\\=registration}}{{cite journal\\|last\\=Roebuck\\|first\\=Nigel\\|date\\=1995\\-06\\-01\\|title\\=Qualifying: Hill shows mettle to command pole\\|journal\\=\\[\\[Autosport]]\\|volume\\=139\\|issue\\=9\\|page\\=33}} Championship leader [Michael Schumacher](/wiki/Michael_Schumacher \"Michael Schumacher\") in the [Benetton](/wiki/Benetton_Formula \"Benetton Formula\") started next to him. [David Coulthard](/wiki/David_Coulthard \"David Coulthard\") (Williams), [Gerhard Berger](/wiki/Gerhard_Berger \"Gerhard Berger\") and [Jean Alesi](/wiki/Jean_Alesi \"Jean Alesi\") (both [Ferrari](/wiki/Scuderia_Ferrari \"Scuderia Ferrari\")) completed the top five, but the three collided going in the first corner.{{cite journal\\|last\\=Roebuck\\|first\\=Nigel\\|author\\-link\\=Nigel Roebuck\\|title\\=Monaco GP: Schumacher streets ahead\\|journal\\=\\[\\[Autosport]]\\|date\\=1995\\-06\\-01\\|volume\\=139\\|issue\\=9\\|page\\=26}}{{cite book \\| chapter \\= 1995 Grands Prix: Spanish Grand Prix \\| last \\= Henry \\| first \\= Alan \\| author\\-link \\= Alan Henry \\| title \\= Autocourse 1995–96 \\| url \\= https://archive.org/details/autocourseworlds0000unse/ \\| publisher \\= Hazleton Publishing \\| isbn \\= 1\\-874557\\-36\\-5 \\| page \\= 127 \\| year \\= 1995\\|url\\-access\\=registration}} The track was blocked and the race was suspended.{{cite journal\\|last\\=Roebuck\\|first\\=Nigel\\|author\\-link\\=Nigel Roebuck\\|date\\=1995\\-06\\-01\\|title\\=Monaco: F1 team by team\\|journal\\=\\[\\[Autosport]]\\|volume\\=139\\|issue\\=9\\|pages\\=35, 37}}{{cite video \\| date \\= 1995\\-12\\-11 \\| title \\= FIA Formula 1 World Championship – 1995 Season Review \\| url \\= https://www.amazon.co.uk/Formula\\-Grand\\-Prix\\-Review\\-1995/dp/B00004CRI7 \\| medium \\= \\[\\[VHS]] \\| publisher \\= \\[\\[Duke Video]] \\| access\\-date \\= 2012\\-05\\-29 \\| id\\=\\[\\[EAN\\-13]] 5 017559 034955 }}{{cite book \\| chapter \\= 1995 Grands Prix: Spanish Grand Prix \\| last \\= Henry \\| first \\= Alan \\| author\\-link \\= Alan Henry \\| title \\= Autocourse 1995–96 \\| url \\= https://archive.org/details/autocourseworlds0000unse/ \\| publisher \\= Hazleton Publishing \\| isbn \\= 1\\-874557\\-36\\-5 \\| page \\= 127 \\| year \\= 1995\\|url\\-access\\=registration}} At the second start, the top drivers remained in order, but during the pit stops, Hill fell back behind Schumacher and Alesi. The Ferrari then crashed whilst attempting to avoid [Martin Brundle](/wiki/Martin_Brundle \"Martin Brundle\"), who had spun. Coulthard retired, so the top three at the finish was Schumacher, Hill, Berger.", "This was the last race for the [Simtek](/wiki/Simtek \"Simtek\") team, who withdrew from the championship because they ran out of budget.", "[thumb\\|right\\|[Jean Alesi](/wiki/Jean_Alesi \"Jean Alesi\") ([Ferrari](/wiki/Scuderia_Ferrari \"Scuderia Ferrari\") won the [1995 Canadian Grand Prix](/wiki/1995_Canadian_Grand_Prix \"1995 Canadian Grand Prix\")](/wiki/File:Jean_Alesi_Ferrari_1995.jpg \"Jean Alesi Ferrari 1995.jpg\")", "In [Canada](/wiki/1995_Canadian_Grand_Prix \"1995 Canadian Grand Prix\"), Michael Schumacher achieved pole position, the 100th for a [Renault](/wiki/Renault_Sport \"Renault Sport\")\\-powered F1 car,{{cite video \\| people \\= \\[\\[Ben Edwards (commentator)\\|Edwards, Ben]] (Commentator) \\| date \\= 11 June 1995 \\| title \\= Canadian Grand Prix: Warm\\-Up Session Live \\| medium \\= Television production \\| publisher \\= \\[\\[Eurosport]] \\| location \\= London, England \\| time \\= 01:09–01:15 (excluding commercials)}} and led away comfortably, until on lap 57, an electrical problem forced him into the pits. He was stationary for 70 seconds to change his [steering wheel](/wiki/Steering_wheel \"Steering wheel\") and perform an on\\-board computer adjustment. He recovered to fifth position at the finish. Jean Alesi went on to win the race on his 31st birthday. This would be his only career victory and also marked the last time to date that a car with a [V12 engine](/wiki/V12_engine \"V12 engine\") won. After several other front\\-runners encountered problems late in the race, the [Jordans](/wiki/Jordan_Grand_Prix \"Jordan Grand Prix\") of [Rubens Barrichello](/wiki/Rubens_Barrichello \"Rubens Barrichello\") and [Eddie Irvine](/wiki/Eddie_Irvine \"Eddie Irvine\") completed the surprising podium.", "Just like in Monaco, Hill started on pole position in [France](/wiki/1995_French_Grand_Prix \"1995 French Grand Prix\"), but lost out to second\\-starting Schumacher during the pit stops. His teammate Coulthard started and finished in third.", "[thumb\\|right\\|[Johnny Herbert](/wiki/Johnny_Herbert \"Johnny Herbert\") ([Benetton](/wiki/Benetton_Formula \"Benetton Formula\") won the [1995 British Grand Prix](/wiki/1995_British_Grand_Prix \"1995 British Grand Prix\")](/wiki/File:Johnny_Herbert_-_Benetton_B195_at_the_1995_British_Grand_Prix%2C_Silverstone_%2849720286518%29.jpg \"Johnny Herbert - Benetton B195 at the 1995 British Grand Prix, Silverstone (49720286518).jpg\")", "During the [British Grand Prix](/wiki/1995_British_Grand_Prix \"1995 British Grand Prix\"), championship rivals Hill and Schumacher clashed for the first time. Hill had started from pole,{{Cite book\\| chapter \\= 1995 Grands Prix: British Grand Prix \\| last \\= Henry \\| first \\= Alan \\| author\\-link \\= Alan Henry \\| title \\= Autocourse 1995–96 \\| url \\= https://archive.org/details/autocourseworlds0000unse/ \\| publisher \\= Hazleton Publishing \\| isbn \\= 1\\-874557\\-36\\-5 \\| page \\= 149 \\|date\\=December 1995\\|url\\-access\\=registration}}{{Cite book\\| chapter \\= The 17 Grand Prix – British Grand Prix \\| last \\= Domenjoz \\| first \\= Luc \\| title \\= Formula 1 Yearbook 1995 \\| publisher \\= Chronosports Editeur \\| isbn \\= 2\\-940125\\-06\\-6 \\| page \\= 136 \\| year \\= 1995 }} while Schumacher fell behind third\\-starting Alesi. As happened regularly this season, Schumacher took the lead by only needing one pit stop, compared to Hill's two.{{cite journal\\|last\\=Roebuck\\|first\\=Nigel\\|author\\-link\\=Nigel Roebuck\\|title\\=British GP: Deputy Herbert gets his reward\\|journal\\=\\[\\[Autosport]]\\|date\\=20 July 1995\\|volume\\=140\\|issue\\=3\\|page\\=39}} But when the Williams tried to repass the Benetton, the two collided and retired.{{Cite book\\| chapter \\= 1995 Grands Prix: British Grand Prix \\| last \\= Henry \\| first \\= Alan \\| author\\-link \\= Alan Henry \\| title \\= Autocourse 1995–96 \\| url \\= https://archive.org/details/autocourseworlds0000unse/ \\| publisher \\= Hazleton Publishing \\| isbn \\= 1\\-874557\\-36\\-5 \\| page \\= 150 \\|date\\=December 1995\\|url\\-access\\=registration}} This promoted their teammates [Johnny Herbert](/wiki/Johnny_Herbert \"Johnny Herbert\") and [David Coulthard](/wiki/David_Coulthard \"David Coulthard\") to the front. Coulthard took the lead, but incurred a stop\\-go penalty for speeding in the pit lane.{{cite journal\\|last\\=Coulthard\\|first\\=David\\|author\\-link\\=David Coulthard\\|title\\=Digest: Dream win snatched from my grasp\\|journal\\=\\[\\[Autosport]]\\|date\\=20 July 1995\\|volume\\=140\\|issue\\=3\\|pages\\=26–27}} Herbert won the first race of his career, ahead of Jean Alesi in the Ferrari.{{Cite book\\| chapter \\= 1995 Grands Prix: British Grand Prix \\| last \\= Henry \\| first \\= Alan \\| author\\-link \\= Alan Henry \\| title \\= Autocourse 1995–96 \\| url \\= https://archive.org/details/autocourseworlds0000unse/ \\| publisher \\= Hazleton Publishing \\| isbn \\= 1\\-874557\\-36\\-5 \\| pages \\= 154–155 \\|date\\=December 1995\\|url\\-access\\=registration}}", "Two weeks later, Michael Schumacher won his home race, the [German Grand Prix](/wiki/1995_German_Grand_Prix \"1995 German Grand Prix\"). Damon Hill had achieved pole position once again, but this time, spun off on the second lap as a result of [driveshaft](/wiki/Driveshaft \"Driveshaft\") failure. David Coulthard finished second, Gerhard Berger was third, recovering from a 10\\-second stop\\-go penalty for [jumping the start](/wiki/Glossary_of_motorsport_terms%23J \"Glossary of motorsport terms#J\").", "The [1995 Hungarian Grand Prix](/wiki/1995_Hungarian_Grand_Prix \"1995 Hungarian Grand Prix\") was a [grand slam](/wiki/Grand_slam_%28Formula_One%29 \"Grand slam (Formula One)\") for Damon Hill: he won from pole position and set the fastest lap. Coulthard finished second and Berger third. Michael Schumacher was classified three laps down, suffering from [fuel pump](/wiki/Fuel_pump \"Fuel pump\") issues. During the race, Taki Inoue had his second coming together with the safety car. This time, he himself was hit by the [Tatra 623](/wiki/Tatra_623 \"Tatra 623\") when running over to his Footwork with a fire extinguisher. He suffered minor injuries to his leg.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://static.modestmachines.com/archive/tatra\\-t\\-623\\|title\\=Tatra T\\-623\\|work\\=Banovsky's Car of the Day\\|date\\=9 April 2015\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170422033715/https://static.modestmachines.com/archive/tatra\\-t\\-623\\|archive\\-date\\=22 April 2017}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.f1rejects.com/drivers/inoue/biography.html \\|title\\=Taki Inoue \\- Biography \\|publisher\\=F1 Rejects \\|access\\-date\\=28 May 2011 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080725092840/http://f1rejects.com/drivers/inoue/biography.html \\|archive\\-date\\=July 25, 2008 }}", "In the [Drivers' Championship](/wiki/List_of_Formula_One_World_Drivers%27_Champions \"List of Formula One World Drivers' Champions\"), Michael Schumacher was leading with 56 points, ahead of Damon Hill with 45 and Jean Alesi with 32\\. It was closer at the front of the [Constructors' Championship](/wiki/List_of_Formula_One_World_Constructors%27_Champions \"List of Formula One World Constructors' Champions\"), with Benetton and Williams separated by just six points (74 and 68, respectively), followed by Ferrari with 57\\.", "### Rounds 11 to 14", "[Qualifying](/wiki/Formula_One_racing%23Qualifying \"Formula One racing#Qualifying\") for the [Belgian Grand Prix](/wiki/1995_Belgian_Grand_Prix \"1995 Belgian Grand Prix\") took place in varying weather conditions and championship rivals [Michael Schumacher](/wiki/Michael_Schumacher \"Michael Schumacher\") and [Damon Hill](/wiki/Damon_Hill \"Damon Hill\") could only achieve sixteenth and eighth place on the grid, respectively. [Ferrari](/wiki/Scuderia_Ferrari \"Scuderia Ferrari\")'s [Gerhard Berger](/wiki/Gerhard_Berger \"Gerhard Berger\") and [Jean Alesi](/wiki/Jean_Alesi \"Jean Alesi\") blocked out on the front row, but both retired during the race. Schumacher's teammate [Johnny Herbert](/wiki/Johnny_Herbert \"Johnny Herbert\") briefly led the race, but struggled for pace on the drying track. Hill took the lead after his teammate [David Coulthard](/wiki/David_Coulthard \"David Coulthard\") retired with [gearbox](/wiki/Gearbox \"Gearbox\") issues, but then, as it was seen at least three times during the season already, Schumacher passed him during the round of [pit stops](/wiki/Pit_stop \"Pit stop\"). The story did not end there, however: the rain arrived and Hill made a second pit stop for [rain tyres](/wiki/Rain_tyre \"Rain tyre\"), while Schumacher tried to brave it out, at one point lapping six seconds slower than his rival. To make matters worse, he went off the track and the [Williams](/wiki/Williams_Grand_Prix_Engineering \"Williams Grand Prix Engineering\") took the lead until the rain stopped, the track dried, and the [Benetton](/wiki/Benetton_Formula \"Benetton Formula\") was back on top. When the [safety car](/wiki/Safety_car \"Safety car\") came out, the playing field was levelled and Schumacher led away from Hill, both on wet tyres. It looked like a thrilling battle to come, until the [Brit](/wiki/Great_Britain \"Great Britain\") was served a [10\\-second stop\\-go penalty](/wiki/Formula_One_regulations%23Penalties \"Formula One regulations#Penalties\") for speeding in the [pit lane](/wiki/Pit_lane \"Pit lane\"). He did recover to second place, but finished far behind the [German](/wiki/Germany \"Germany\"). [Martin Brundle](/wiki/Martin_Brundle \"Martin Brundle\") came home in a surprising third position. After the race, Schumacher was given a one\\-race suspended ban for defending too aggressively.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.grandprix.com/ns/ns00260\\.html \\|title\\=Schumacher in trouble again \\|publisher\\=GrandPrix.com \\|date\\=28 August 1995 \\|access\\-date\\=15 December 2006}}", "[250px\\|thumb\\|right\\|Podium celebration after the [Italian Grand Prix](/wiki/1995_Italian_Grand_Prix \"1995 Italian Grand Prix\")](/wiki/File:Podium_GP_de_Monza_1995.jpg \"Podium GP de Monza 1995.jpg\")\nOn the formation lap of the [Italian Grand Prix](/wiki/1995_Italian_Grand_Prix \"1995 Italian Grand Prix\"), pole\\-sitter [David Coulthard](/wiki/David_Coulthard \"David Coulthard\") spun off and retired with terminal damage. However, when the race was suspended after a first\\-lap collision in the same corner, with the track being blocked by four stranded cars, Coulthard was able to take the restart in a [spare car](/wiki/Glossary_of_motorsport_terms%23S \"Glossary of motorsport terms#S\"), on pole position. Michael Schumacher and Gerhard Berger started behind him. On lap 13, Coulthard retired again, this time with a [wheel bearing](/wiki/Bearing_%28mechanical%29 \"Bearing (mechanical)\") failure, and Schumacher crashed out when he was hit in the back by championship rival Damon Hill. After the incident, reminiscent of the one at [Silverstone](/wiki/1995_British_Grand_Prix \"1995 British Grand Prix\"), Schumacher was furious with Hill, but calmed down when learning that the [Brit](/wiki/Great_Britain \"Great Britain\") had had to take evasive action when lapping [Taki Inoue](/wiki/Taki_Inoue \"Taki Inoue\"). The Ferraris were running 1\\-2 on home soil, until a [TV camera](/wiki/TV_camera \"TV camera\") on Alesi's [rear wing](/wiki/Downforce \"Downforce\") fell off and destroyed Berger's suspension. With eight laps to go, the [Frenchman](/wiki/France \"France\") also retired and handed a second victory to Benetton's Johnny Herbert. [Mika Häkkinen](/wiki/Mika_H%C3%A4kkinen \"Mika Häkkinen\") ([McLaren](/wiki/McLaren \"McLaren\")) and [Heinz\\-Harald Frentzen](/wiki/Heinz-Harald_Frentzen \"Heinz-Harald Frentzen\") ([Sauber](/wiki/Sauber \"Sauber\")) achieved their best results yet in second and third, respectively. After the race, Hill was given a one\\-race suspended ban for his part in the collision.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.independent.co.uk/sport/hill\\-and\\-schumacher\\-hit\\-boiling\\-point\\-1600622\\.html \\|archive\\-url\\=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220501/https://www.independent.co.uk/sport/hill\\-and\\-schumacher\\-hit\\-boiling\\-point\\-1600622\\.html \\|archive\\-date\\=2022\\-05\\-01 \\|url\\-access\\=subscription \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|title\\=Hill and Schumacher hit boiling point \\| author\\=Derick Allsop \\| work\\=\\[\\[The Independent]] \\|date\\=11 September 1995 \\|access\\-date\\=16 January 2020}}{{cbignore}}", "In [Portugal](/wiki/1995_Portuguese_Grand_Prix \"1995 Portuguese Grand Prix\"), Coulthard started on pole position again and this time, he held on to achieve his first career win. Hill started in second, before Schumacher in third, but they finished the other way around. At the start, [Ukyo Katayama](/wiki/Ukyo_Katayama \"Ukyo Katayama\") in the [Tyrrell](/wiki/Tyrrell_Racing \"Tyrrell Racing\") made contact with [Luca Badoer](/wiki/Luca_Badoer \"Luca Badoer\")'s [Minardi](/wiki/Minardi \"Minardi\") and went airborne. After being extracted from the car, he was hospitalised for two days, suffering from a strained neck and bruising in several places.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.newspapers.com/image/122909723\\|title\\=27 Sep 1995, Page 37 \\- The Age at Newspapers.com\\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-08\\-16}}{{cite book\\|title\\=Autocourse 1995–96\\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/autocourseworlds0000unse/\\|last\\=Henry\\|first\\=Alan\\|date\\=December 1995\\|publisher\\=Hazleton Publishing\\|isbn\\=1\\-874557\\-36\\-5\\|pages\\=194\\|chapter\\=1995 Grands Prix: Portuguese Grand Prix\\|author\\-link\\=Alan Henry\\|orig\\-year\\=1995\\|url\\-access\\=registration}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.grandprix.com/ns/ns00310\\.html\\|title\\=Tyrrell drive up for grabs\\|date\\=1995\\-10\\-02\\|publisher\\=Inside F1\\|work\\=GrandPrix.com\\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-08\\-18}}", "The [European Grand Prix](/wiki/1995_European_Grand_Prix \"1995 European Grand Prix\") was held at the [Nürburgring](/wiki/N%C3%BCrburgring \"Nürburgring\") and saw Coulthard start on pole, ahead of teammate Damon Hill and championship leader Michael Schumacher. Coulthard did start in the spare car, however, after stalling his engine during his [reconnaissance lap](/wiki/Glossary_of_motorsport_terms%23outlap \"Glossary of motorsport terms#outlap\"). Many teams decided to start on [rain tyres](/wiki/Rain_tyre \"Rain tyre\"), but Ferrari and McLaren switched to dries after the first start was abandoned. This only turned out to be the right decision after seventeen laps, when most other drivers had pitted. Schumacher and Hill battled again, switching positions several times, while Coulthard suffered from excessive [oversteer](/wiki/Oversteer \"Oversteer\") and fell behind them. Meanwhile, Alesi was in the lead and extended his advantage to 45 seconds. During the second round of pit stops, however, he collided with Hill and had to pit for repairs. Berger retired with engine problems and Hill crashed out on lap 58\\. Schumacher passed Alesi for the lead, two laps from the end, and Coulthard completed the podium.Henry, 1995 Grands Prix: Grand Prix of Europe, p. 206–207{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.formula1\\.com/results/driver/1995/11\\.html \\|title\\=1995 \\> Coulthard, David \\|publisher\\=The Official Formula 1 Website \\|access\\-date\\=31 January 2009 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090120204610/http://formula1\\.com/results/driver/1995/11\\.html \\|archive\\-date\\=20 January 2009 \\|url\\-status\\=dead}}{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.grandprix.com/gpe/rr578\\.html \\|title\\=Grand Prix Results: European GP, 1995 \\|work\\=GrandPrix.com \\|publisher\\=Inside F1 \\|access\\-date\\=27 January 2009 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20081105090504/http://www.grandprix.com/gpe/rr578\\.html \\|archive\\-date\\=5 November 2008 \\|url\\-status\\=live}}", "With three races to go, Schumacher was leading the [Drivers' Championship](/wiki/List_of_Formula_One_World_Drivers%27_Champions \"List of Formula One World Drivers' Champions\"), 27 points ahead of Hill. This meant that the Williams driver needed to win all remaining races, with his Benetton rival scoring less than three points. In the [Constructors' Championship](/wiki/List_of_Formula_One_World_Constructors%27_Champions \"List of Formula One World Constructors' Champions\"), Benetton was leading Williams with 112 over 92 points.", "### Rounds 15 to 17", "The F1 circus landed in [Japan](/wiki/Japan \"Japan\") for two races, the first one dubbed the [Pacific Grand Prix](/wiki/1995_Pacific_Grand_Prix \"1995 Pacific Grand Prix\"). [Williams](/wiki/Williams_Grand_Prix_Engineering \"Williams Grand Prix Engineering\") driver [David Coulthard](/wiki/David_Coulthard \"David Coulthard\") achieved his fourth [pole position](/wiki/Pole_position \"Pole position\") in a row, ahead of teammate [Damon Hill](/wiki/Damon_Hill \"Damon Hill\") and championship leader [Michael Schumacher](/wiki/Michael_Schumacher \"Michael Schumacher\") in his [Benetton](/wiki/Benetton_Formula \"Benetton Formula\"). At the start, fourth\\-starting [Jean Alesi](/wiki/Jean_Alesi \"Jean Alesi\") got up to second place. After Schumacher overtook Hill and Alesi during the first round of [pit stops](/wiki/Pit_stop \"Pit stop\"), he closed in on the leader and lapped consistently faster, so that the [German](/wiki/Germany \"Germany\") just came out in front after all pit stops were made.{{cite book \\| chapter \\= 1995 Grands Prix: Pacific Grand Prix \\| last \\= Henry \\| first \\= Alan \\| author\\-link \\= Alan Henry \\| title \\= Autocourse 1995–96 \\| url \\= https://archive.org/details/autocourseworlds0000unse/ \\|orig\\-year \\= 1995 \\| publisher \\= Hazleton Publishing \\| isbn \\= 1\\-874557\\-36\\-5 \\| pages \\= 214–215 \\|date\\=December 1995\\|url\\-access\\=registration}} Scoring his eighth victory of the season and gaining enough points to make it impossible for Hill to catch him, the *Schumi* was crowned the [1995 Drivers' Champion](/wiki/List_of_Formula_One_World_Drivers%27_Champions \"List of Formula One World Drivers' Champions\"). He was the youngest double Drivers' Champion up to that point (his record was subsequently surpassed by [Sebastian Vettel](/wiki/Sebastian_Vettel \"Sebastian Vettel\")).", "Schumacher did not settle down: he started on pole position for the [Japanese Grand Prix](/wiki/1995_Japanese_Grand_Prix \"1995 Japanese Grand Prix\"). The Williams cars could not match the pace and made room for Jean Alesi and [Mika Häkkinen](/wiki/Mika_H%C3%A4kkinen \"Mika Häkkinen\") in the top three on the grid. All drivers started on [rain tyres](/wiki/Rain_tyre \"Rain tyre\"), as it had rained in the morning and the track was damp, but it did not stop the champion from leading away. Both [Ferraris](/wiki/Scuderia_Ferrari \"Scuderia Ferrari\") were judged to have [jumped the start](/wiki/Glossary_of_motorsport_terms%23J \"Glossary of motorsport terms#J\") and served a [10\\-second stop\\-go penalty](/wiki/Formula_One_regulations%23Penalties \"Formula One regulations#Penalties\"). But Alesi was the first to switch to dry tyres and began making his way through the field. On lap 25, he was only six seconds behind leader Schumacher, when he had to retire with a [driveshaft](/wiki/Driveshaft \"Driveshaft\") failure. When the rain arrived, but only on one edge of the circuit, teammates Hill and Coulthard crashed out in the same corner, one lap after each other.{{cite web \\| url \\= http://www.grandprix.com/gpe/rr580\\.html \\| work \\= GrandPrix.com \\| publisher \\= Inside F1 \\| title \\= Grand Prix Results: Japanese GP, 1995 \\| access\\-date \\= 2 March 2008\\| archive\\-url\\= https://web.archive.org/web/20080203031549/http://www.grandprix.com/gpe/rr580\\.html\\| archive\\-date\\= 3 February 2008 \\| url\\-status\\= live}} Schumacher won and his teammate [Johnny Herbert](/wiki/Johnny_Herbert \"Johnny Herbert\") came home in third, earning Benetton the [1995 Constructors' Champions](/wiki/List_of_Formula_One_World_Constructors%27_Champions \"List of Formula One World Constructors' Champions\").", "The final race of the season was held in [Australia](/wiki/1995_Australian_Grand_Prix \"1995 Australian Grand Prix\") and saw most of the front\\-running cars retire, except for [polesitter](/wiki/Pole_position \"Pole position\") Damon Hill. David Coulthard crashed while entering the [pit lane](/wiki/Pit_lane \"Pit lane\"), Schumacher and Alesi collided, and Herbert and Berger retired with mechanical issues. Hill won, over two laps ahead of [Ligier's](/wiki/Equipe_Ligier \"Equipe Ligier\") [Olivier Panis](/wiki/Olivier_Panis \"Olivier Panis\") and [Gianni Morbidelli](/wiki/Gianni_Morbidelli \"Gianni Morbidelli\") in a [Footwork](/wiki/Footwork_Arrows \"Footwork Arrows\"), equalling [Jackie Stewart](/wiki/Jackie_Stewart \"Jackie Stewart\")'s feat during the [1969 Spanish Grand Prix](/wiki/1969_Spanish_Grand_Prix \"1969 Spanish Grand Prix\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.grandprix.com/gpe/rr581\\.html \\|title\\=Grand Prix Results: Australian GP, 1995 \\|publisher\\=GrandPrix.com \\|access\\-date\\=2 March 2008 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080220093202/http://www.grandprix.com/gpe/rr581\\.html \\|archive\\-date\\=20 February 2008 \\|url\\-status\\=live}}", "" ]
### Rounds 5 to 10 [thumb\|left\|200px\|A bizarre incident in [Saturday practice](/wiki/Formula_One_racing%23Free_practice "Formula One racing#Free practice") saw the [Renault Clio](/wiki/Renault_Clio%23Clio_Williams "Renault Clio#Clio Williams") [safety car](/wiki/Safety_car "Safety car") crash into [Taki Inoue](/wiki/Taki_Inoue "Taki Inoue")'s stalled [Footwork](/wiki/Footwork_Arrows "Footwork Arrows").{{cite journal\|editor\-last\=Benson\|editor\-first\=Andrew\|date\=1995\-06\-01\|title\=Pit \& Paddock: Inoue rolls after crash with safety car\|journal\=\[\[Autosport]]\|volume\=139\|issue\=9\|page\=7}}](/wiki/File:Inoue_Footwork_Monaco.jpg "Inoue Footwork Monaco.jpg") On the narrow streets of [Monaco](/wiki/1995_Monaco_Grand_Prix "1995 Monaco Grand Prix"), [Damon Hill](/wiki/Damon_Hill "Damon Hill") for [Williams](/wiki/Williams_Grand_Prix_Engineering "Williams Grand Prix Engineering") [qualified](/wiki/Formula_One_racing%23Qualifying "Formula One racing#Qualifying") in [pole position](/wiki/Pole_position "Pole position").{{cite book \| chapter \= 1995 Grands Prix: Monaco Grand Prix \| last \= Henry \| first \= Alan \| author\-link \= Alan Henry \| title \= Autocourse 1995–96 \| url \= https://archive.org/details/autocourseworlds0000unse/ \| publisher \= Hazleton Publishing \| isbn \= 1\-874557\-36\-5 \| page \= 123 \| year \= 1995\|url\-access\=registration}}{{cite journal\|last\=Roebuck\|first\=Nigel\|date\=1995\-06\-01\|title\=Qualifying: Hill shows mettle to command pole\|journal\=\[\[Autosport]]\|volume\=139\|issue\=9\|page\=33}} Championship leader [Michael Schumacher](/wiki/Michael_Schumacher "Michael Schumacher") in the [Benetton](/wiki/Benetton_Formula "Benetton Formula") started next to him. [David Coulthard](/wiki/David_Coulthard "David Coulthard") (Williams), [Gerhard Berger](/wiki/Gerhard_Berger "Gerhard Berger") and [Jean Alesi](/wiki/Jean_Alesi "Jean Alesi") (both [Ferrari](/wiki/Scuderia_Ferrari "Scuderia Ferrari")) completed the top five, but the three collided going in the first corner.{{cite journal\|last\=Roebuck\|first\=Nigel\|author\-link\=Nigel Roebuck\|title\=Monaco GP: Schumacher streets ahead\|journal\=\[\[Autosport]]\|date\=1995\-06\-01\|volume\=139\|issue\=9\|page\=26}}{{cite book \| chapter \= 1995 Grands Prix: Spanish Grand Prix \| last \= Henry \| first \= Alan \| author\-link \= Alan Henry \| title \= Autocourse 1995–96 \| url \= https://archive.org/details/autocourseworlds0000unse/ \| publisher \= Hazleton Publishing \| isbn \= 1\-874557\-36\-5 \| page \= 127 \| year \= 1995\|url\-access\=registration}} The track was blocked and the race was suspended.{{cite journal\|last\=Roebuck\|first\=Nigel\|author\-link\=Nigel Roebuck\|date\=1995\-06\-01\|title\=Monaco: F1 team by team\|journal\=\[\[Autosport]]\|volume\=139\|issue\=9\|pages\=35, 37}}{{cite video \| date \= 1995\-12\-11 \| title \= FIA Formula 1 World Championship – 1995 Season Review \| url \= https://www.amazon.co.uk/Formula\-Grand\-Prix\-Review\-1995/dp/B00004CRI7 \| medium \= \[\[VHS]] \| publisher \= \[\[Duke Video]] \| access\-date \= 2012\-05\-29 \| id\=\[\[EAN\-13]] 5 017559 034955 }}{{cite book \| chapter \= 1995 Grands Prix: Spanish Grand Prix \| last \= Henry \| first \= Alan \| author\-link \= Alan Henry \| title \= Autocourse 1995–96 \| url \= https://archive.org/details/autocourseworlds0000unse/ \| publisher \= Hazleton Publishing \| isbn \= 1\-874557\-36\-5 \| page \= 127 \| year \= 1995\|url\-access\=registration}} At the second start, the top drivers remained in order, but during the pit stops, Hill fell back behind Schumacher and Alesi. The Ferrari then crashed whilst attempting to avoid [Martin Brundle](/wiki/Martin_Brundle "Martin Brundle"), who had spun. Coulthard retired, so the top three at the finish was Schumacher, Hill, Berger. This was the last race for the [Simtek](/wiki/Simtek "Simtek") team, who withdrew from the championship because they ran out of budget. [thumb\|right\|[Jean Alesi](/wiki/Jean_Alesi "Jean Alesi") ([Ferrari](/wiki/Scuderia_Ferrari "Scuderia Ferrari") won the [1995 Canadian Grand Prix](/wiki/1995_Canadian_Grand_Prix "1995 Canadian Grand Prix")](/wiki/File:Jean_Alesi_Ferrari_1995.jpg "Jean Alesi Ferrari 1995.jpg") In [Canada](/wiki/1995_Canadian_Grand_Prix "1995 Canadian Grand Prix"), Michael Schumacher achieved pole position, the 100th for a [Renault](/wiki/Renault_Sport "Renault Sport")\-powered F1 car,{{cite video \| people \= \[\[Ben Edwards (commentator)\|Edwards, Ben]] (Commentator) \| date \= 11 June 1995 \| title \= Canadian Grand Prix: Warm\-Up Session Live \| medium \= Television production \| publisher \= \[\[Eurosport]] \| location \= London, England \| time \= 01:09–01:15 (excluding commercials)}} and led away comfortably, until on lap 57, an electrical problem forced him into the pits. He was stationary for 70 seconds to change his [steering wheel](/wiki/Steering_wheel "Steering wheel") and perform an on\-board computer adjustment. He recovered to fifth position at the finish. Jean Alesi went on to win the race on his 31st birthday. This would be his only career victory and also marked the last time to date that a car with a [V12 engine](/wiki/V12_engine "V12 engine") won. After several other front\-runners encountered problems late in the race, the [Jordans](/wiki/Jordan_Grand_Prix "Jordan Grand Prix") of [Rubens Barrichello](/wiki/Rubens_Barrichello "Rubens Barrichello") and [Eddie Irvine](/wiki/Eddie_Irvine "Eddie Irvine") completed the surprising podium. Just like in Monaco, Hill started on pole position in [France](/wiki/1995_French_Grand_Prix "1995 French Grand Prix"), but lost out to second\-starting Schumacher during the pit stops. His teammate Coulthard started and finished in third. [thumb\|right\|[Johnny Herbert](/wiki/Johnny_Herbert "Johnny Herbert") ([Benetton](/wiki/Benetton_Formula "Benetton Formula") won the [1995 British Grand Prix](/wiki/1995_British_Grand_Prix "1995 British Grand Prix")](/wiki/File:Johnny_Herbert_-_Benetton_B195_at_the_1995_British_Grand_Prix%2C_Silverstone_%2849720286518%29.jpg "Johnny Herbert - Benetton B195 at the 1995 British Grand Prix, Silverstone (49720286518).jpg") During the [British Grand Prix](/wiki/1995_British_Grand_Prix "1995 British Grand Prix"), championship rivals Hill and Schumacher clashed for the first time. Hill had started from pole,{{Cite book\| chapter \= 1995 Grands Prix: British Grand Prix \| last \= Henry \| first \= Alan \| author\-link \= Alan Henry \| title \= Autocourse 1995–96 \| url \= https://archive.org/details/autocourseworlds0000unse/ \| publisher \= Hazleton Publishing \| isbn \= 1\-874557\-36\-5 \| page \= 149 \|date\=December 1995\|url\-access\=registration}}{{Cite book\| chapter \= The 17 Grand Prix – British Grand Prix \| last \= Domenjoz \| first \= Luc \| title \= Formula 1 Yearbook 1995 \| publisher \= Chronosports Editeur \| isbn \= 2\-940125\-06\-6 \| page \= 136 \| year \= 1995 }} while Schumacher fell behind third\-starting Alesi. As happened regularly this season, Schumacher took the lead by only needing one pit stop, compared to Hill's two.{{cite journal\|last\=Roebuck\|first\=Nigel\|author\-link\=Nigel Roebuck\|title\=British GP: Deputy Herbert gets his reward\|journal\=\[\[Autosport]]\|date\=20 July 1995\|volume\=140\|issue\=3\|page\=39}} But when the Williams tried to repass the Benetton, the two collided and retired.{{Cite book\| chapter \= 1995 Grands Prix: British Grand Prix \| last \= Henry \| first \= Alan \| author\-link \= Alan Henry \| title \= Autocourse 1995–96 \| url \= https://archive.org/details/autocourseworlds0000unse/ \| publisher \= Hazleton Publishing \| isbn \= 1\-874557\-36\-5 \| page \= 150 \|date\=December 1995\|url\-access\=registration}} This promoted their teammates [Johnny Herbert](/wiki/Johnny_Herbert "Johnny Herbert") and [David Coulthard](/wiki/David_Coulthard "David Coulthard") to the front. Coulthard took the lead, but incurred a stop\-go penalty for speeding in the pit lane.{{cite journal\|last\=Coulthard\|first\=David\|author\-link\=David Coulthard\|title\=Digest: Dream win snatched from my grasp\|journal\=\[\[Autosport]]\|date\=20 July 1995\|volume\=140\|issue\=3\|pages\=26–27}} Herbert won the first race of his career, ahead of Jean Alesi in the Ferrari.{{Cite book\| chapter \= 1995 Grands Prix: British Grand Prix \| last \= Henry \| first \= Alan \| author\-link \= Alan Henry \| title \= Autocourse 1995–96 \| url \= https://archive.org/details/autocourseworlds0000unse/ \| publisher \= Hazleton Publishing \| isbn \= 1\-874557\-36\-5 \| pages \= 154–155 \|date\=December 1995\|url\-access\=registration}} Two weeks later, Michael Schumacher won his home race, the [German Grand Prix](/wiki/1995_German_Grand_Prix "1995 German Grand Prix"). Damon Hill had achieved pole position once again, but this time, spun off on the second lap as a result of [driveshaft](/wiki/Driveshaft "Driveshaft") failure. David Coulthard finished second, Gerhard Berger was third, recovering from a 10\-second stop\-go penalty for [jumping the start](/wiki/Glossary_of_motorsport_terms%23J "Glossary of motorsport terms#J"). The [1995 Hungarian Grand Prix](/wiki/1995_Hungarian_Grand_Prix "1995 Hungarian Grand Prix") was a [grand slam](/wiki/Grand_slam_%28Formula_One%29 "Grand slam (Formula One)") for Damon Hill: he won from pole position and set the fastest lap. Coulthard finished second and Berger third. Michael Schumacher was classified three laps down, suffering from [fuel pump](/wiki/Fuel_pump "Fuel pump") issues. During the race, Taki Inoue had his second coming together with the safety car. This time, he himself was hit by the [Tatra 623](/wiki/Tatra_623 "Tatra 623") when running over to his Footwork with a fire extinguisher. He suffered minor injuries to his leg.{{cite web\|url\=https://static.modestmachines.com/archive/tatra\-t\-623\|title\=Tatra T\-623\|work\=Banovsky's Car of the Day\|date\=9 April 2015\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170422033715/https://static.modestmachines.com/archive/tatra\-t\-623\|archive\-date\=22 April 2017}}{{cite web\|url\=http://www.f1rejects.com/drivers/inoue/biography.html \|title\=Taki Inoue \- Biography \|publisher\=F1 Rejects \|access\-date\=28 May 2011 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080725092840/http://f1rejects.com/drivers/inoue/biography.html \|archive\-date\=July 25, 2008 }} In the [Drivers' Championship](/wiki/List_of_Formula_One_World_Drivers%27_Champions "List of Formula One World Drivers' Champions"), Michael Schumacher was leading with 56 points, ahead of Damon Hill with 45 and Jean Alesi with 32\. It was closer at the front of the [Constructors' Championship](/wiki/List_of_Formula_One_World_Constructors%27_Champions "List of Formula One World Constructors' Champions"), with Benetton and Williams separated by just six points (74 and 68, respectively), followed by Ferrari with 57\.
[ "### Rounds 5 to 10", "[thumb\\|left\\|200px\\|A bizarre incident in [Saturday practice](/wiki/Formula_One_racing%23Free_practice \"Formula One racing#Free practice\") saw the [Renault Clio](/wiki/Renault_Clio%23Clio_Williams \"Renault Clio#Clio Williams\") [safety car](/wiki/Safety_car \"Safety car\") crash into [Taki Inoue](/wiki/Taki_Inoue \"Taki Inoue\")'s stalled [Footwork](/wiki/Footwork_Arrows \"Footwork Arrows\").{{cite journal\\|editor\\-last\\=Benson\\|editor\\-first\\=Andrew\\|date\\=1995\\-06\\-01\\|title\\=Pit \\& Paddock: Inoue rolls after crash with safety car\\|journal\\=\\[\\[Autosport]]\\|volume\\=139\\|issue\\=9\\|page\\=7}}](/wiki/File:Inoue_Footwork_Monaco.jpg \"Inoue Footwork Monaco.jpg\")\nOn the narrow streets of [Monaco](/wiki/1995_Monaco_Grand_Prix \"1995 Monaco Grand Prix\"), [Damon Hill](/wiki/Damon_Hill \"Damon Hill\") for [Williams](/wiki/Williams_Grand_Prix_Engineering \"Williams Grand Prix Engineering\") [qualified](/wiki/Formula_One_racing%23Qualifying \"Formula One racing#Qualifying\") in [pole position](/wiki/Pole_position \"Pole position\").{{cite book \\| chapter \\= 1995 Grands Prix: Monaco Grand Prix \\| last \\= Henry \\| first \\= Alan \\| author\\-link \\= Alan Henry \\| title \\= Autocourse 1995–96 \\| url \\= https://archive.org/details/autocourseworlds0000unse/ \\| publisher \\= Hazleton Publishing \\| isbn \\= 1\\-874557\\-36\\-5 \\| page \\= 123 \\| year \\= 1995\\|url\\-access\\=registration}}{{cite journal\\|last\\=Roebuck\\|first\\=Nigel\\|date\\=1995\\-06\\-01\\|title\\=Qualifying: Hill shows mettle to command pole\\|journal\\=\\[\\[Autosport]]\\|volume\\=139\\|issue\\=9\\|page\\=33}} Championship leader [Michael Schumacher](/wiki/Michael_Schumacher \"Michael Schumacher\") in the [Benetton](/wiki/Benetton_Formula \"Benetton Formula\") started next to him. [David Coulthard](/wiki/David_Coulthard \"David Coulthard\") (Williams), [Gerhard Berger](/wiki/Gerhard_Berger \"Gerhard Berger\") and [Jean Alesi](/wiki/Jean_Alesi \"Jean Alesi\") (both [Ferrari](/wiki/Scuderia_Ferrari \"Scuderia Ferrari\")) completed the top five, but the three collided going in the first corner.{{cite journal\\|last\\=Roebuck\\|first\\=Nigel\\|author\\-link\\=Nigel Roebuck\\|title\\=Monaco GP: Schumacher streets ahead\\|journal\\=\\[\\[Autosport]]\\|date\\=1995\\-06\\-01\\|volume\\=139\\|issue\\=9\\|page\\=26}}{{cite book \\| chapter \\= 1995 Grands Prix: Spanish Grand Prix \\| last \\= Henry \\| first \\= Alan \\| author\\-link \\= Alan Henry \\| title \\= Autocourse 1995–96 \\| url \\= https://archive.org/details/autocourseworlds0000unse/ \\| publisher \\= Hazleton Publishing \\| isbn \\= 1\\-874557\\-36\\-5 \\| page \\= 127 \\| year \\= 1995\\|url\\-access\\=registration}} The track was blocked and the race was suspended.{{cite journal\\|last\\=Roebuck\\|first\\=Nigel\\|author\\-link\\=Nigel Roebuck\\|date\\=1995\\-06\\-01\\|title\\=Monaco: F1 team by team\\|journal\\=\\[\\[Autosport]]\\|volume\\=139\\|issue\\=9\\|pages\\=35, 37}}{{cite video \\| date \\= 1995\\-12\\-11 \\| title \\= FIA Formula 1 World Championship – 1995 Season Review \\| url \\= https://www.amazon.co.uk/Formula\\-Grand\\-Prix\\-Review\\-1995/dp/B00004CRI7 \\| medium \\= \\[\\[VHS]] \\| publisher \\= \\[\\[Duke Video]] \\| access\\-date \\= 2012\\-05\\-29 \\| id\\=\\[\\[EAN\\-13]] 5 017559 034955 }}{{cite book \\| chapter \\= 1995 Grands Prix: Spanish Grand Prix \\| last \\= Henry \\| first \\= Alan \\| author\\-link \\= Alan Henry \\| title \\= Autocourse 1995–96 \\| url \\= https://archive.org/details/autocourseworlds0000unse/ \\| publisher \\= Hazleton Publishing \\| isbn \\= 1\\-874557\\-36\\-5 \\| page \\= 127 \\| year \\= 1995\\|url\\-access\\=registration}} At the second start, the top drivers remained in order, but during the pit stops, Hill fell back behind Schumacher and Alesi. The Ferrari then crashed whilst attempting to avoid [Martin Brundle](/wiki/Martin_Brundle \"Martin Brundle\"), who had spun. Coulthard retired, so the top three at the finish was Schumacher, Hill, Berger.", "This was the last race for the [Simtek](/wiki/Simtek \"Simtek\") team, who withdrew from the championship because they ran out of budget.", "[thumb\\|right\\|[Jean Alesi](/wiki/Jean_Alesi \"Jean Alesi\") ([Ferrari](/wiki/Scuderia_Ferrari \"Scuderia Ferrari\") won the [1995 Canadian Grand Prix](/wiki/1995_Canadian_Grand_Prix \"1995 Canadian Grand Prix\")](/wiki/File:Jean_Alesi_Ferrari_1995.jpg \"Jean Alesi Ferrari 1995.jpg\")", "In [Canada](/wiki/1995_Canadian_Grand_Prix \"1995 Canadian Grand Prix\"), Michael Schumacher achieved pole position, the 100th for a [Renault](/wiki/Renault_Sport \"Renault Sport\")\\-powered F1 car,{{cite video \\| people \\= \\[\\[Ben Edwards (commentator)\\|Edwards, Ben]] (Commentator) \\| date \\= 11 June 1995 \\| title \\= Canadian Grand Prix: Warm\\-Up Session Live \\| medium \\= Television production \\| publisher \\= \\[\\[Eurosport]] \\| location \\= London, England \\| time \\= 01:09–01:15 (excluding commercials)}} and led away comfortably, until on lap 57, an electrical problem forced him into the pits. He was stationary for 70 seconds to change his [steering wheel](/wiki/Steering_wheel \"Steering wheel\") and perform an on\\-board computer adjustment. He recovered to fifth position at the finish. Jean Alesi went on to win the race on his 31st birthday. This would be his only career victory and also marked the last time to date that a car with a [V12 engine](/wiki/V12_engine \"V12 engine\") won. After several other front\\-runners encountered problems late in the race, the [Jordans](/wiki/Jordan_Grand_Prix \"Jordan Grand Prix\") of [Rubens Barrichello](/wiki/Rubens_Barrichello \"Rubens Barrichello\") and [Eddie Irvine](/wiki/Eddie_Irvine \"Eddie Irvine\") completed the surprising podium.", "Just like in Monaco, Hill started on pole position in [France](/wiki/1995_French_Grand_Prix \"1995 French Grand Prix\"), but lost out to second\\-starting Schumacher during the pit stops. His teammate Coulthard started and finished in third.", "[thumb\\|right\\|[Johnny Herbert](/wiki/Johnny_Herbert \"Johnny Herbert\") ([Benetton](/wiki/Benetton_Formula \"Benetton Formula\") won the [1995 British Grand Prix](/wiki/1995_British_Grand_Prix \"1995 British Grand Prix\")](/wiki/File:Johnny_Herbert_-_Benetton_B195_at_the_1995_British_Grand_Prix%2C_Silverstone_%2849720286518%29.jpg \"Johnny Herbert - Benetton B195 at the 1995 British Grand Prix, Silverstone (49720286518).jpg\")", "During the [British Grand Prix](/wiki/1995_British_Grand_Prix \"1995 British Grand Prix\"), championship rivals Hill and Schumacher clashed for the first time. Hill had started from pole,{{Cite book\\| chapter \\= 1995 Grands Prix: British Grand Prix \\| last \\= Henry \\| first \\= Alan \\| author\\-link \\= Alan Henry \\| title \\= Autocourse 1995–96 \\| url \\= https://archive.org/details/autocourseworlds0000unse/ \\| publisher \\= Hazleton Publishing \\| isbn \\= 1\\-874557\\-36\\-5 \\| page \\= 149 \\|date\\=December 1995\\|url\\-access\\=registration}}{{Cite book\\| chapter \\= The 17 Grand Prix – British Grand Prix \\| last \\= Domenjoz \\| first \\= Luc \\| title \\= Formula 1 Yearbook 1995 \\| publisher \\= Chronosports Editeur \\| isbn \\= 2\\-940125\\-06\\-6 \\| page \\= 136 \\| year \\= 1995 }} while Schumacher fell behind third\\-starting Alesi. As happened regularly this season, Schumacher took the lead by only needing one pit stop, compared to Hill's two.{{cite journal\\|last\\=Roebuck\\|first\\=Nigel\\|author\\-link\\=Nigel Roebuck\\|title\\=British GP: Deputy Herbert gets his reward\\|journal\\=\\[\\[Autosport]]\\|date\\=20 July 1995\\|volume\\=140\\|issue\\=3\\|page\\=39}} But when the Williams tried to repass the Benetton, the two collided and retired.{{Cite book\\| chapter \\= 1995 Grands Prix: British Grand Prix \\| last \\= Henry \\| first \\= Alan \\| author\\-link \\= Alan Henry \\| title \\= Autocourse 1995–96 \\| url \\= https://archive.org/details/autocourseworlds0000unse/ \\| publisher \\= Hazleton Publishing \\| isbn \\= 1\\-874557\\-36\\-5 \\| page \\= 150 \\|date\\=December 1995\\|url\\-access\\=registration}} This promoted their teammates [Johnny Herbert](/wiki/Johnny_Herbert \"Johnny Herbert\") and [David Coulthard](/wiki/David_Coulthard \"David Coulthard\") to the front. Coulthard took the lead, but incurred a stop\\-go penalty for speeding in the pit lane.{{cite journal\\|last\\=Coulthard\\|first\\=David\\|author\\-link\\=David Coulthard\\|title\\=Digest: Dream win snatched from my grasp\\|journal\\=\\[\\[Autosport]]\\|date\\=20 July 1995\\|volume\\=140\\|issue\\=3\\|pages\\=26–27}} Herbert won the first race of his career, ahead of Jean Alesi in the Ferrari.{{Cite book\\| chapter \\= 1995 Grands Prix: British Grand Prix \\| last \\= Henry \\| first \\= Alan \\| author\\-link \\= Alan Henry \\| title \\= Autocourse 1995–96 \\| url \\= https://archive.org/details/autocourseworlds0000unse/ \\| publisher \\= Hazleton Publishing \\| isbn \\= 1\\-874557\\-36\\-5 \\| pages \\= 154–155 \\|date\\=December 1995\\|url\\-access\\=registration}}", "Two weeks later, Michael Schumacher won his home race, the [German Grand Prix](/wiki/1995_German_Grand_Prix \"1995 German Grand Prix\"). Damon Hill had achieved pole position once again, but this time, spun off on the second lap as a result of [driveshaft](/wiki/Driveshaft \"Driveshaft\") failure. David Coulthard finished second, Gerhard Berger was third, recovering from a 10\\-second stop\\-go penalty for [jumping the start](/wiki/Glossary_of_motorsport_terms%23J \"Glossary of motorsport terms#J\").", "The [1995 Hungarian Grand Prix](/wiki/1995_Hungarian_Grand_Prix \"1995 Hungarian Grand Prix\") was a [grand slam](/wiki/Grand_slam_%28Formula_One%29 \"Grand slam (Formula One)\") for Damon Hill: he won from pole position and set the fastest lap. Coulthard finished second and Berger third. Michael Schumacher was classified three laps down, suffering from [fuel pump](/wiki/Fuel_pump \"Fuel pump\") issues. During the race, Taki Inoue had his second coming together with the safety car. This time, he himself was hit by the [Tatra 623](/wiki/Tatra_623 \"Tatra 623\") when running over to his Footwork with a fire extinguisher. He suffered minor injuries to his leg.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://static.modestmachines.com/archive/tatra\\-t\\-623\\|title\\=Tatra T\\-623\\|work\\=Banovsky's Car of the Day\\|date\\=9 April 2015\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170422033715/https://static.modestmachines.com/archive/tatra\\-t\\-623\\|archive\\-date\\=22 April 2017}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.f1rejects.com/drivers/inoue/biography.html \\|title\\=Taki Inoue \\- Biography \\|publisher\\=F1 Rejects \\|access\\-date\\=28 May 2011 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080725092840/http://f1rejects.com/drivers/inoue/biography.html \\|archive\\-date\\=July 25, 2008 }}", "In the [Drivers' Championship](/wiki/List_of_Formula_One_World_Drivers%27_Champions \"List of Formula One World Drivers' Champions\"), Michael Schumacher was leading with 56 points, ahead of Damon Hill with 45 and Jean Alesi with 32\\. It was closer at the front of the [Constructors' Championship](/wiki/List_of_Formula_One_World_Constructors%27_Champions \"List of Formula One World Constructors' Champions\"), with Benetton and Williams separated by just six points (74 and 68, respectively), followed by Ferrari with 57\\.", "" ]
Plot summary ------------ With thoughts voiced by a narrator, a university professor gives a passionate lecture to students. An Asian\-looking studet watches intently. The professor receives a note delivered by a person on a skateboard. Then he is at a mall. Julia looks at engagement rings at a shopping mall. The professor drives Julia and her son, Javier, afterwards. He tells Julia about a note that was delivered to him by a person on a skateboard and she gets annoyed, and they argue. They arrive at home and he carries the boy to bed. Julia undresses and seduces him after saying "too bad (her son) isn't yours". The professor sees a message written on the pavement that says something to the effect of 'the greatest form of love is paying attention to another human'. As the messages in the form of notes continue, the professor attempts to learn the identity of the sender. He speaks to a French bookshop owner at her shop, and learns the person courting him is Simone Weil. At a Chinese restaurant, where she works as a waitress, is the professor. He eats and has a book titled "Simone Weil" (which is the name of the person who has been courting him). Finally, a message on his landline from Simone, introducing herself brings him joyous expectation for the date she sets for them to meet. They meet, and Simone tells him she is a lesbian. He talks on the telephone, and angrily reacts to a rejection from a publisher, while his all\-female staff cheer him on. The narrator says Simone and the professor are in love. Simone and the professor photograph the place of her employment and plaster posters on its outside walls to promote her work. The professor is happy. Simone introduces the professor to her uncle and another family member. The uncle speaks angrily in Chinese and leaves the room but Simone does not translate. But later Simone rejects him when he asks if she is every going to let him make love to her completely she says she can not explain, then leaves him a message saying she can not see him anymore. On a rainy night, the professor finds Julia sitting on the cement pavement, brings her to his house and showers her. On the couch, Julia opens her legs suggestively. Simone tells the professor her uncle raped her many times when she was a child, that she got pregnant and had an abortion. Simone's name is Liu. The professor meets her x\-lover, a woman and he writes his feelings of woe about his situation. Liu shows at his house desperately yelling "writer, writer, writer" and he refuses to open the door. Liu pens him a note and leaves.
[ "Plot summary\n------------", "With thoughts voiced by a narrator, a university professor gives a passionate lecture to students. An Asian\\-looking studet watches intently. The professor receives a note delivered by a person on a skateboard. Then he is at a mall. Julia looks at engagement rings at a shopping mall. The professor drives Julia and her son, Javier, afterwards. He tells Julia about a note that was delivered to him by a person on a skateboard and she gets annoyed, and they argue. They arrive at home and he carries the boy to bed. Julia undresses and seduces him after saying \"too bad (her son) isn't yours\".", "The professor sees a message written on the pavement that says something to the effect of 'the greatest form of love is paying attention to another human'. As the messages in the form of notes continue, the professor attempts to learn the identity of the sender. He speaks to a French bookshop owner at her shop, and learns the person courting him is Simone Weil. At a Chinese restaurant, where she works as a waitress, is the professor. He eats and has a book titled \"Simone Weil\" (which is the name of the person who has been courting him). Finally, a message on his landline from Simone, introducing herself brings him joyous expectation for the date she sets for them to meet. They meet, and Simone tells him she is a lesbian.", "He talks on the telephone, and angrily reacts to a rejection from a publisher, while his all\\-female staff cheer him on.", "The narrator says Simone and the professor are in love. Simone and the professor photograph the place of her employment and plaster posters on its outside walls to promote her work. The professor is happy. Simone introduces the professor to her uncle and another family member. The uncle speaks angrily in Chinese and leaves the room but Simone does not translate. But later Simone rejects him when he asks if she is every going to let him make love to her completely she says she can not explain, then leaves him a message saying she can not see him anymore.", "On a rainy night, the professor finds Julia sitting on the cement pavement, brings her to his house and showers her. On the couch, Julia opens her legs suggestively.", "Simone tells the professor her uncle raped her many times when she was a child, that she got pregnant and had an abortion.", "Simone's name is Liu. The professor meets her x\\-lover, a woman and he writes his feelings of woe about his situation. Liu shows at his house desperately yelling \"writer, writer, writer\" and he refuses to open the door. Liu pens him a note and leaves.", "" ]
Career ------ After leaving college, Toomer returned to Washington, DC. He published some short stories and continued writing during the volatile social period following [World War I](/wiki/World_War_I "World War I"). He worked for some months in a shipyard in 1919, then escaped to middle\-class life. Labor strikes and [race riots](/wiki/Race_riots "Race riots") victimizing black people occurred in numerous major industrial cities during the summer of 1919, which became known as [Red Summer](/wiki/Red_Summer "Red Summer") as a result. At the same time, it was a period of artistic ferment. Toomer devoted eight months to the study of Eastern philosophies and continued to be interested in this subject. Some of his early writing was political, and he published three essays from 1919 to 1920 in the prominent [socialist](/wiki/Socialist "Socialist") paper *[New York Call](/wiki/New_York_Call "New York Call")*. His work drew from the socialist and "New Negro" movements of New York. He also read new American writing, such as [Waldo Frank](/wiki/Waldo_Frank "Waldo Frank")'s *[Our America](/wiki/Our_America "Our America")* (1919\). In 1919, he adopted "Jean Toomer" as his literary name, and it was the way that he was known for most of his adult life.{{rp\|29}} By his early adult years, Toomer resisted racial classifications, wanting to be identified only as an American.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.english.illinois.edu/maps/poets/s\_z/toomer/life.htm \|title\=Jean Toomer's Life and Career \|last1\=Jones \|first1\=Robert B.\|work\=Modern American Poetry \|publisher\=Department of English, University of Illinois\|location\= Urbana\-Champaign, Illinois \|access\-date\=29 May 2012}} He gained experience in both white and "colored" societies, and resisted being classified as a "Negro" writer. He grudgingly allowed his publisher of *[Cane](/wiki/Cane_%28novel%29 "Cane (novel)")* to use that term to increase sales, as there was considerable interest in new black writers.{{cite book \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=kJFOJpnheGkC\&q\=%27In\+the\+Land\+of\+Cotton%27:\+Economics\+and\+Violence\+in\+Jean\+Toomer%27s\+Cane,%22\+%27%27African\+American\+Review%27%27 \|chapter\=Introduction \|title\=The Letters of Jean Toomer, 1919–1924 \|publisher\=\[\[University of Tennessee Press]] \|editor\-last\=Whalan \|editor\-first\=Mark \|year\=2006 \|isbn\= 9781572334700 }} As Richard Eldridge noted, Toomer "sought to transcend standard definitions of race. I think he never claimed that he was a white man. He always claimed that he was a representative of a new, emergent race that was a combination of various races. He averred this virtually throughout his life."{{cite news \|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/12/27/books/27cane.html?scp\=3\&sq\=%22jean%20toomer%22\&st\=cse\&\_r\=0 \|last\=Lee \|first\=Felicia R. \|title\=Scholars Say Chronicler of Black Life Passed for White \|publisher\=\[\[The New York Times]] \|date\=26 December 2010 \|access\-date\=27 March 2014 }} William Andrews has noted he "was one of the first writers to move beyond the idea that any black ancestry makes you black."[thumb\|Drawing of Toomer by [Winold Reiss](/wiki/Winold_Reiss "Winold Reiss") (c. 1925\). Housed at the [National Portrait Gallery](/wiki/National_Portrait_Gallery_%28United_States%29 "National Portrait Gallery (United States)").](/wiki/File:Jean_Toomer_Drawing_%28c._1925%2C_Reiss%29.jpg "Jean Toomer Drawing (c. 1925, Reiss).jpg") In 1921, Toomer took a job for a few months as a principal at a new rural agricultural and [manual labor college](/wiki/Manual_labor_college "Manual labor college") for black people in [Sparta, Georgia](/wiki/Sparta%2C_Georgia "Sparta, Georgia"). Southern schools were continuing to recruit teachers from the North, although they had also trained generations of teachers since the Civil War. The school was in the center of [Hancock County](/wiki/Hancock_County%2C_Georgia "Hancock County, Georgia") and the [Black Belt](/wiki/Black_Belt_in_the_American_South "Black Belt in the American South") 100 miles southeast of Atlanta, near where his father had lived. Exploring his father's roots in Hancock County, Toomer learned that he sometimes [passed for white](/wiki/Racial_passing "Racial passing"). Seeing the life of rural blacks, [racial segregation](/wiki/Racial_segregation "Racial segregation"), and virtual labor [peonage](/wiki/Peonage "Peonage") in the [Deep South](/wiki/Deep_South "Deep South") led Toomer to identify more strongly as [African American](/wiki/African_American "African American") and with his father's past. Several [lynchings](/wiki/Lynching "Lynching") of black men took place in Georgia during 1921 and 1922, as whites continued to enforce [white supremacy](/wiki/White_supremacy "White supremacy") violently. In 1908, the state had ratified a constitution that [disenfranchised](/wiki/Disfranchisement_after_Reconstruction_era_%28United_States%29 "Disfranchisement after Reconstruction era (United States)") most black people and many poor whites by raising barriers to voter registration. Other former Confederate states had passed similar laws since 1890, led by Mississippi, and they maintained such disenfranchisement essentially into the late 1960s. By Toomer's time, the state was suffering labor shortages due to thousands of rural blacks leaving in the [Great Migration](/wiki/Great_Migration_%28African_American%29 "Great Migration (African American)") to the North and Midwest. Planters feared losing their pool of cheap labor. Trying to control their movement, the legislature passed laws to prevent outmigration. It also established high license fees for Northern employers recruiting labor in the state. This was a formative period for Toomer; he started writing about it while still in Georgia and, while living in Hancock County, submitted the long story "Georgia Night" to the socialist magazine *[The Liberator](/wiki/The_Liberator_%28magazine%29 "The Liberator (magazine)")* in New York.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.poets.org/poet.php/prmPID/71 \|title\=Jean Toomer \|website\=www.poets.org \|publisher\=\[\[Academy of American Poets]] \|access\-date\=27 Dec 2010 }} Toomer returned to New York, where he became friends with [Waldo Frank](/wiki/Waldo_Frank "Waldo Frank"). They had an intense friendship through 1923, and Frank served as his mentor and editor on his novel *Cane.* The two men came to have strong differences.*Brother Mine: The Correspondence of Jean Toomer and Waldo Frank*, Edited by Kathleen Pfeiffer, Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 2010 ### *Cane* [thumb\|First edition cover of *Cane* (1923\)](/wiki/File:Canejeantoomer.jpg "Canejeantoomer.jpg") During Toomer's time as principal of Sparta Agricultural and Industrial Institute in Georgia, he wrote stories, sketches, and poems drawn from his experience there. These formed the basis for *Cane*, his [High Modernist](/wiki/Modernist_literature "Modernist literature") novel published in 1923\. *Cane* was well received by both black and white critics. *Cane* was celebrated by well\-known African\-American critics and artists, including [Claude McKay](/wiki/Claude_McKay "Claude McKay"), [Nella Larsen](/wiki/Nella_Larsen "Nella Larsen"), [Richard Wright](/wiki/Richard_Wright_%28author%29 "Richard Wright (author)"), [Langston Hughes](/wiki/Langston_Hughes "Langston Hughes") and [Wallace Thurman](/wiki/Wallace_Thurman "Wallace Thurman").{{Citation needed\|date\=May 2018}} *Cane* is structured in three parts. The first third of the book is devoted to the black experience in the Southern farmland. The second part of *Cane* is more urban and concerned with Northern life. The conclusion of the work is a prose piece entitled "Kabnis." People would call Toomer's *Cane* a [mysterious brand of Southern psychological realism](/wiki/Southern_gothic "Southern gothic") that has been matched only in the best work of [William Faulkner](/wiki/William_Faulkner "William Faulkner").{{Cite web \|date\=2024\-02\-02 \|title\=Jean Toomer \|url\=https://www.poetryfoundation.org/poets/jean\-toomer \|access\-date\=2024\-02\-02 \|website\=Poetry Foundation \|language\=en}} Toomer was the first poet to unite folk culture and the elite culture of the white avant\-garde. The book was reissued in 1969, two years after Toomer's death. *Cane* has been assessed since the late 20th century as an "analysis of class and caste", with "secrecy and [miscegenation](/wiki/Miscegenation "Miscegenation") as major themes of the first section". He had conceived it as a short\-story cycle, in which he explores the tragic intersection of female sexuality, black manhood, and industrial modernization in the South. Toomer acknowledged the influence of [Sherwood Anderson](/wiki/Sherwood_Anderson "Sherwood Anderson")'s *[Winesburg, Ohio](/wiki/Winesburg%2C_Ohio_%28novel%29 "Winesburg, Ohio (novel)")* (1919\) as his model, in addition to other influential works of that period. He also appeared to have absorbed *[The Waste Land](/wiki/The_Waste_Land "The Waste Land")* of [T. S. Eliot](/wiki/T._S._Eliot "T. S. Eliot") and considered him to be one of the American group of writers that he wanted to join, "artists and intellectuals who were engaged in renewing American society at its multi\-cultural core."{{cite journal \|url\=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi\_m2838/is\_1\_36/ai\_85185735/ \|first\=Charles \|last\=Scruggs \|title\=''Jean Toomer and the Harlem Renaissance'' \- book review \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080514003306/http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi\_m2838/is\_1\_36/ai\_85185735/ \|archive\-date\=2008\-05\-14 \|journal\=\[\[African American Review]] \|date\=Spring 2002 }} Many scholars have considered *Cane* to be Toomer's best work. *Cane* was hailed by critics and has been considered as an important work of both the [Harlem Renaissance](/wiki/Harlem_Renaissance "Harlem Renaissance") and Modernism. However, as previously stated, Toomer resisted racial classification and did not want to be marketed as a "Negro" writer. As he wrote to his publisher [Horace Liveright](/wiki/Horace_Liveright "Horace Liveright"), "My racial composition and my position in the world are realities that I alone may determine."[Harmon, Charles. " 'Cane,' Race, and 'Neither/Norism'"](https://www.jstor.org/pss/20078269), *Southern Literary Journal*, 2000 Spring; 32(2\): 90–101, accessed 15 January 2011\. Toomer found it more difficult to get published throughout the 1930s, the period of the [Great Depression](/wiki/Great_Depression "Great Depression"), as did many authors. ### Later work [thumb\|right\|250px\|Jean Toomer's passport (1926\)In](/wiki/File:Jean_Toomer_passport_1926.jpg "Jean Toomer passport 1926.jpg") the 1920s, Toomer and Frank were among many Americans who became deeply interested in the work of the spiritual leader [George Ivanovitch Gurdjieff](/wiki/George_Ivanovitch_Gurdjieff "George Ivanovitch Gurdjieff"), from Russia, who had a lecture tour in the United States in 1924\. That year, and in 1926 and 1927, Toomer went to France for periods of study with Gurdjieff, who had settled at [Fontainebleau](/wiki/Fontainebleau "Fontainebleau"). He was a student of Gurdjieff until the mid\-1930s. Much of his writing from this period on was related to his spiritual quest and featured allegories. He no longer explored African\-American characters. Some scholars have attributed Toomer's artistic silence to his ambivalence about his identity in a culture insistent on forcing binary racial distinctions. [Wallace Thurman](/wiki/Wallace_Thurman "Wallace Thurman"), Dorothy Peterson, [Aaron Douglas](/wiki/Aaron_Douglas_%28artist%29 "Aaron Douglas (artist)"), and [Nella Larsen](/wiki/Nella_Larsen "Nella Larsen"),{{Cite web\|url\=https://gutenberg.ca/ebooks/hughesl\-bigsea/hughesl\-bigsea\-00\-h\-dir/hughesl\-bigsea\-00\-h.html\#chapter0303\|title \= The Big Sea by Langston Hughes\|website\=Gutenberg.ca}} along with [Zora Neale Hurston](/wiki/Zora_Neale_Hurston "Zora Neale Hurston") and [George Schuyler](/wiki/George_Schuyler "George Schuyler"),{{cite web\|url\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/lifestyle/style/2000/04/09/in\-harmony\-with\-the\-music\-of\-gurdjieff/2ca3661a\-c74b\-4a0d\-bcbb\-a08645d1d337/\|title\=In Harmony With the Music of Gurdjieff\|website\=Washingtonpost.com}} were among those known to have been Toomer's students in the Gurdjieff work during this period. Toomer continued with his spiritual exploration by traveling to India in 1939\. Later, he studied the psychology developed by [Carl Jung](/wiki/Carl_Jung "Carl Jung"), the mystic [Edgar Cayce](/wiki/Edgar_Cayce "Edgar Cayce"), and the [Church of Scientology](/wiki/Church_of_Scientology "Church of Scientology"), but reverted to Gurdjieff's philosophy.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.biography.com/people/jean\-toomer\-37322\|title\=Jean Toomer Biography\|website\=Biography.com\|publisher\=A\&E Television Networks\|access\-date\=February 23, 2016}} Toomer wrote a small amount of fiction in this later period. Mostly he published essays in Quaker publications during these years. He devoted most of his time to serving on Quaker committees for community service and working with high school students. His last literary work published during his lifetime was *Blue Meridian*, a long poem extolling, "the potential of the American race". He stopped writing for publication after 1950\. He continued to write privately, however, including several autobiographies and a poetry volume titled, *The Wayward and the Seeking*.{{Cite journal\|last\=Rehin\|first\=George\|date\=1990\-01\-01\|title\=Review of ''Cane,'' ''The Collected Poems of Jean Toomer,'' ''The Lives of Jean Toomer: A Hunger for Wholeness''\|journal\=Journal of American Studies\|volume\=24\|issue\=1\|pages\=138–139\|doi\=10\.1017/S0021875800028929\|jstor\=27555288}} He died in 1967 after several years of poor health.
[ "Career\n------", "After leaving college, Toomer returned to Washington, DC. He published some short stories and continued writing during the volatile social period following [World War I](/wiki/World_War_I \"World War I\"). He worked for some months in a shipyard in 1919, then escaped to middle\\-class life. Labor strikes and [race riots](/wiki/Race_riots \"Race riots\") victimizing black people occurred in numerous major industrial cities during the summer of 1919, which became known as [Red Summer](/wiki/Red_Summer \"Red Summer\") as a result. At the same time, it was a period of artistic ferment.", "Toomer devoted eight months to the study of Eastern philosophies and continued to be interested in this subject. Some of his early writing was political, and he published three essays from 1919 to 1920 in the prominent [socialist](/wiki/Socialist \"Socialist\") paper *[New York Call](/wiki/New_York_Call \"New York Call\")*. His work drew from the socialist and \"New Negro\" movements of New York. He also read new American writing, such as [Waldo Frank](/wiki/Waldo_Frank \"Waldo Frank\")'s *[Our America](/wiki/Our_America \"Our America\")* (1919\\). In 1919, he adopted \"Jean Toomer\" as his literary name, and it was the way that he was known for most of his adult life.{{rp\\|29}}", "By his early adult years, Toomer resisted racial classifications, wanting to be identified only as an American.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.english.illinois.edu/maps/poets/s\\_z/toomer/life.htm \\|title\\=Jean Toomer's Life and Career \\|last1\\=Jones \\|first1\\=Robert B.\\|work\\=Modern American Poetry \\|publisher\\=Department of English, University of Illinois\\|location\\= Urbana\\-Champaign, Illinois \\|access\\-date\\=29 May 2012}} He gained experience in both white and \"colored\" societies, and resisted being classified as a \"Negro\" writer. He grudgingly allowed his publisher of *[Cane](/wiki/Cane_%28novel%29 \"Cane (novel)\")* to use that term to increase sales, as there was considerable interest in new black writers.{{cite book \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=kJFOJpnheGkC\\&q\\=%27In\\+the\\+Land\\+of\\+Cotton%27:\\+Economics\\+and\\+Violence\\+in\\+Jean\\+Toomer%27s\\+Cane,%22\\+%27%27African\\+American\\+Review%27%27 \\|chapter\\=Introduction \\|title\\=The Letters of Jean Toomer, 1919–1924 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[University of Tennessee Press]] \\|editor\\-last\\=Whalan \\|editor\\-first\\=Mark \\|year\\=2006 \\|isbn\\= 9781572334700 }}", "As Richard Eldridge noted, Toomer \"sought to transcend standard definitions of race. I think he never claimed that he was a white man. He always claimed that he was a representative of a new, emergent race that was a combination of various races. He averred this virtually throughout his life.\"{{cite news \\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/12/27/books/27cane.html?scp\\=3\\&sq\\=%22jean%20toomer%22\\&st\\=cse\\&\\_r\\=0 \\|last\\=Lee \\|first\\=Felicia R. \\|title\\=Scholars Say Chronicler of Black Life Passed for White \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]] \\|date\\=26 December 2010 \\|access\\-date\\=27 March 2014 }} William Andrews has noted he \"was one of the first writers to move beyond the idea that any black ancestry makes you black.\"[thumb\\|Drawing of Toomer by [Winold Reiss](/wiki/Winold_Reiss \"Winold Reiss\") (c. 1925\\). Housed at the [National Portrait Gallery](/wiki/National_Portrait_Gallery_%28United_States%29 \"National Portrait Gallery (United States)\").](/wiki/File:Jean_Toomer_Drawing_%28c._1925%2C_Reiss%29.jpg \"Jean Toomer Drawing (c. 1925, Reiss).jpg\")", "In 1921, Toomer took a job for a few months as a principal at a new rural agricultural and [manual labor college](/wiki/Manual_labor_college \"Manual labor college\") for black people in [Sparta, Georgia](/wiki/Sparta%2C_Georgia \"Sparta, Georgia\"). Southern schools were continuing to recruit teachers from the North, although they had also trained generations of teachers since the Civil War. The school was in the center of [Hancock County](/wiki/Hancock_County%2C_Georgia \"Hancock County, Georgia\") and the [Black Belt](/wiki/Black_Belt_in_the_American_South \"Black Belt in the American South\") 100 miles southeast of Atlanta, near where his father had lived. Exploring his father's roots in Hancock County, Toomer learned that he sometimes [passed for white](/wiki/Racial_passing \"Racial passing\"). Seeing the life of rural blacks, [racial segregation](/wiki/Racial_segregation \"Racial segregation\"), and virtual labor [peonage](/wiki/Peonage \"Peonage\") in the [Deep South](/wiki/Deep_South \"Deep South\") led Toomer to identify more strongly as [African American](/wiki/African_American \"African American\") and with his father's past.", "Several [lynchings](/wiki/Lynching \"Lynching\") of black men took place in Georgia during 1921 and 1922, as whites continued to enforce [white supremacy](/wiki/White_supremacy \"White supremacy\") violently. In 1908, the state had ratified a constitution that [disenfranchised](/wiki/Disfranchisement_after_Reconstruction_era_%28United_States%29 \"Disfranchisement after Reconstruction era (United States)\") most black people and many poor whites by raising barriers to voter registration. Other former Confederate states had passed similar laws since 1890, led by Mississippi, and they maintained such disenfranchisement essentially into the late 1960s.", "By Toomer's time, the state was suffering labor shortages due to thousands of rural blacks leaving in the [Great Migration](/wiki/Great_Migration_%28African_American%29 \"Great Migration (African American)\") to the North and Midwest. Planters feared losing their pool of cheap labor. Trying to control their movement, the legislature passed laws to prevent outmigration. It also established high license fees for Northern employers recruiting labor in the state. This was a formative period for Toomer; he started writing about it while still in Georgia and, while living in Hancock County, submitted the long story \"Georgia Night\" to the socialist magazine *[The Liberator](/wiki/The_Liberator_%28magazine%29 \"The Liberator (magazine)\")* in New York.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.poets.org/poet.php/prmPID/71 \\|title\\=Jean Toomer \\|website\\=www.poets.org \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Academy of American Poets]] \\|access\\-date\\=27 Dec 2010 }}", "Toomer returned to New York, where he became friends with [Waldo Frank](/wiki/Waldo_Frank \"Waldo Frank\"). They had an intense friendship through 1923, and Frank served as his mentor and editor on his novel *Cane.* The two men came to have strong differences.*Brother Mine: The Correspondence of Jean Toomer and Waldo Frank*, Edited by Kathleen Pfeiffer, Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 2010", "### *Cane*", "[thumb\\|First edition cover of *Cane* (1923\\)](/wiki/File:Canejeantoomer.jpg \"Canejeantoomer.jpg\")\nDuring Toomer's time as principal of Sparta Agricultural and Industrial Institute in Georgia, he wrote stories, sketches, and poems drawn from his experience there. These formed the basis for *Cane*, his [High Modernist](/wiki/Modernist_literature \"Modernist literature\") novel published in 1923\\. *Cane* was well received by both black and white critics. *Cane* was celebrated by well\\-known African\\-American critics and artists, including [Claude McKay](/wiki/Claude_McKay \"Claude McKay\"), [Nella Larsen](/wiki/Nella_Larsen \"Nella Larsen\"), [Richard Wright](/wiki/Richard_Wright_%28author%29 \"Richard Wright (author)\"), [Langston Hughes](/wiki/Langston_Hughes \"Langston Hughes\") and [Wallace Thurman](/wiki/Wallace_Thurman \"Wallace Thurman\").{{Citation needed\\|date\\=May 2018}}", "*Cane* is structured in three parts. The first third of the book is devoted to the black experience in the Southern farmland. The second part of *Cane* is more urban and concerned with Northern life. The conclusion of the work is a prose piece entitled \"Kabnis.\" People would call Toomer's *Cane* a [mysterious brand of Southern psychological realism](/wiki/Southern_gothic \"Southern gothic\") that has been matched only in the best work of [William Faulkner](/wiki/William_Faulkner \"William Faulkner\").{{Cite web \\|date\\=2024\\-02\\-02 \\|title\\=Jean Toomer \\|url\\=https://www.poetryfoundation.org/poets/jean\\-toomer \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-02\\-02 \\|website\\=Poetry Foundation \\|language\\=en}} Toomer was the first poet to unite folk culture and the elite culture of the white avant\\-garde.", "The book was reissued in 1969, two years after Toomer's death. *Cane* has been assessed since the late 20th century as an \"analysis of class and caste\", with \"secrecy and [miscegenation](/wiki/Miscegenation \"Miscegenation\") as major themes of the first section\". He had conceived it as a short\\-story cycle, in which he explores the tragic intersection of female sexuality, black manhood, and industrial modernization in the South. Toomer acknowledged the influence of [Sherwood Anderson](/wiki/Sherwood_Anderson \"Sherwood Anderson\")'s *[Winesburg, Ohio](/wiki/Winesburg%2C_Ohio_%28novel%29 \"Winesburg, Ohio (novel)\")* (1919\\) as his model, in addition to other influential works of that period. He also appeared to have absorbed *[The Waste Land](/wiki/The_Waste_Land \"The Waste Land\")* of [T. S. Eliot](/wiki/T._S._Eliot \"T. S. Eliot\") and considered him to be one of the American group of writers that he wanted to join, \"artists and intellectuals who were engaged in renewing American society at its multi\\-cultural core.\"{{cite journal \\|url\\=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi\\_m2838/is\\_1\\_36/ai\\_85185735/ \\|first\\=Charles \\|last\\=Scruggs \\|title\\=''Jean Toomer and the Harlem Renaissance'' \\- book review \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080514003306/http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi\\_m2838/is\\_1\\_36/ai\\_85185735/ \\|archive\\-date\\=2008\\-05\\-14 \\|journal\\=\\[\\[African American Review]] \\|date\\=Spring 2002 }}", "Many scholars have considered *Cane* to be Toomer's best work. *Cane* was hailed by critics and has been considered as an important work of both the [Harlem Renaissance](/wiki/Harlem_Renaissance \"Harlem Renaissance\") and Modernism. However, as previously stated, Toomer resisted racial classification and did not want to be marketed as a \"Negro\" writer. As he wrote to his publisher [Horace Liveright](/wiki/Horace_Liveright \"Horace Liveright\"), \"My racial composition and my position in the world are realities that I alone may determine.\"[Harmon, Charles. \" 'Cane,' Race, and 'Neither/Norism'\"](https://www.jstor.org/pss/20078269), *Southern Literary Journal*, 2000 Spring; 32(2\\): 90–101, accessed 15 January 2011\\. Toomer found it more difficult to get published throughout the 1930s, the period of the [Great Depression](/wiki/Great_Depression \"Great Depression\"), as did many authors.", "### Later work", "[thumb\\|right\\|250px\\|Jean Toomer's passport (1926\\)In](/wiki/File:Jean_Toomer_passport_1926.jpg \"Jean Toomer passport 1926.jpg\") the 1920s, Toomer and Frank were among many Americans who became deeply interested in the work of the spiritual leader [George Ivanovitch Gurdjieff](/wiki/George_Ivanovitch_Gurdjieff \"George Ivanovitch Gurdjieff\"), from Russia, who had a lecture tour in the United States in 1924\\. That year, and in 1926 and 1927, Toomer went to France for periods of study with Gurdjieff, who had settled at [Fontainebleau](/wiki/Fontainebleau \"Fontainebleau\"). He was a student of Gurdjieff until the mid\\-1930s. Much of his writing from this period on was related to his spiritual quest and featured allegories. He no longer explored African\\-American characters. Some scholars have attributed Toomer's artistic silence to his ambivalence about his identity in a culture insistent on forcing binary racial distinctions. [Wallace Thurman](/wiki/Wallace_Thurman \"Wallace Thurman\"), Dorothy Peterson, [Aaron Douglas](/wiki/Aaron_Douglas_%28artist%29 \"Aaron Douglas (artist)\"), and [Nella Larsen](/wiki/Nella_Larsen \"Nella Larsen\"),{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://gutenberg.ca/ebooks/hughesl\\-bigsea/hughesl\\-bigsea\\-00\\-h\\-dir/hughesl\\-bigsea\\-00\\-h.html\\#chapter0303\\|title \\= The Big Sea by Langston Hughes\\|website\\=Gutenberg.ca}} along with [Zora Neale Hurston](/wiki/Zora_Neale_Hurston \"Zora Neale Hurston\") and [George Schuyler](/wiki/George_Schuyler \"George Schuyler\"),{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/lifestyle/style/2000/04/09/in\\-harmony\\-with\\-the\\-music\\-of\\-gurdjieff/2ca3661a\\-c74b\\-4a0d\\-bcbb\\-a08645d1d337/\\|title\\=In Harmony With the Music of Gurdjieff\\|website\\=Washingtonpost.com}} were among those known to have been Toomer's students in the Gurdjieff work during this period.", "Toomer continued with his spiritual exploration by traveling to India in 1939\\. Later, he studied the psychology developed by [Carl Jung](/wiki/Carl_Jung \"Carl Jung\"), the mystic [Edgar Cayce](/wiki/Edgar_Cayce \"Edgar Cayce\"), and the [Church of Scientology](/wiki/Church_of_Scientology \"Church of Scientology\"), but reverted to Gurdjieff's philosophy.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.biography.com/people/jean\\-toomer\\-37322\\|title\\=Jean Toomer Biography\\|website\\=Biography.com\\|publisher\\=A\\&E Television Networks\\|access\\-date\\=February 23, 2016}}", "Toomer wrote a small amount of fiction in this later period. Mostly he published essays in Quaker publications during these years. He devoted most of his time to serving on Quaker committees for community service and working with high school students.", "His last literary work published during his lifetime was *Blue Meridian*, a long poem extolling, \"the potential of the American race\". He stopped writing for publication after 1950\\. He continued to write privately, however, including several autobiographies and a poetry volume titled, *The Wayward and the Seeking*.{{Cite journal\\|last\\=Rehin\\|first\\=George\\|date\\=1990\\-01\\-01\\|title\\=Review of ''Cane,'' ''The Collected Poems of Jean Toomer,'' ''The Lives of Jean Toomer: A Hunger for Wholeness''\\|journal\\=Journal of American Studies\\|volume\\=24\\|issue\\=1\\|pages\\=138–139\\|doi\\=10\\.1017/S0021875800028929\\|jstor\\=27555288}} He died in 1967 after several years of poor health.", "" ]
Demographics ------------ {{US Census population \|1920\= 320 \|1930\= 442 \|1940\= 439 \|1950\= 376 \|1960\= 367 \|1970\= 361 \|1980\= 326 \|1990\= 299 \|2000\= 266 \|2010\= 212 \|2020\= 207 \|estyear\=2022 \|estimate\=203 \|estref\={{cite web\|url\=https://www.census.gov/data/tables/time\-series/demo/popest/2020s\-total\-cities\-and\-towns.html \|date\=November 28, 2023\|title\=City and Town Population Totals: 2020\-2022\|publisher\=United States Census Bureau\|accessdate\=November 28, 2023}} \|align\-fn\=center \|footnote\=U.S. Decennial Census{{cite web\|url\=https://www.census.gov/programs\-surveys/decennial\-census.html\|title\=Census of Population and Housing\|author\=United States Census Bureau\|author\-link\=United States Census Bureau\|accessdate\=January 19, 2014}} 2020 Census }} ### 2010 census As of the [census](/wiki/Census "Census") of 2010, there were 212 people, 101 households, and 53 families living in the city. The [population density](/wiki/Population_density "Population density") was {{convert\|209\.9\|PD/sqmi\|PD/km2\|1}}. There were 121 housing units at an average density of {{convert\|119\.8\|/sqmi\|/km2\|1}}. The racial makeup of the city was 94\.3% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 "White (U.S. Census)"), 0\.5% [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 "Native American (U.S. Census)"), 0\.5% [Asian](/wiki/Asian_%28U.S._Census%29 "Asian (U.S. Census)"), 2\.8% from [other races](/wiki/Race_%28U.S._Census%29 "Race (U.S. Census)"), and 1\.9% from two or more races. [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 "Hispanic (U.S. Census)") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 "Latino (U.S. Census)") of any race were 7\.5% of the population. There were 101 households, of which 25\.7% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 43\.6% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage "Marriage") living together, 5\.9% had a female householder with no husband present, 3\.0% had a male householder with no wife present, and 47\.5% were non\-families. 44\.6% of all households were made up of individuals, and 21\.8% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\.10 and the average family size was 2\.98\. The median age in the city was 44\.5 years. 21\.2% of residents were under the age of 18; 7\.5% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 21\.3% were from 25 to 44; 27\.3% were from 45 to 64; and 22\.6% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 49\.5% male and 50\.5% female. ### 2000 census As of the [census](/wiki/Census "Census") of 2000, there were 266 people, 115 households, and 73 families living in the city. The population density was {{convert\|265\.2\|PD/sqmi\|PD/km2\|sp\=us\|adj\=off}}. There were 131 housing units at an average density of {{convert\|130\.6\|/sqmi\|/km2\|sp\=us\|adj\=off}}. The racial makeup of the city was 95\.11% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 "White (U.S. Census)"), 0\.75% [African American](/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29 "African American (U.S. Census)"), 3\.38% [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 "Native American (U.S. Census)"), 0\.38% from [other races](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 "Race (United States Census)"), and 0\.38% from two or more races. [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 "Hispanic (U.S. Census)") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 "Latino (U.S. Census)") of any race were 1\.13% of the population. There were 115 households, out of which 33\.0% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 50\.4% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage "Marriage") living together, 7\.8% had a female householder with no husband present, and 35\.7% were non\-families. 34\.8% of all households were made up of individuals, and 15\.7% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\.31 and the average family size was 2\.97\. In the city, the population was spread out, with 27\.8% under the age of 18, 5\.6% from 18 to 24, 23\.3% from 25 to 44, 20\.7% from 45 to 64, and 22\.6% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 39 years. For every 100 females, there were 98\.5 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 102\.1 males. The median income for a household in the city was $26,786, and the median income for a family was $40,000\. Males had a median income of $25,875 versus $20,250 for females. The [per capita income](/wiki/Per_capita_income "Per capita income") for the city was $12,516\. About 17\.9% of families and 16\.6% of the population were below the [poverty line](/wiki/Poverty_line "Poverty line"), including 16\.3% of those under the age of eighteen and 17\.2% of those 65 or over.
[ "Demographics\n------------", "{{US Census population\n\\|1920\\= 320\n\\|1930\\= 442\n\\|1940\\= 439\n\\|1950\\= 376\n\\|1960\\= 367\n\\|1970\\= 361\n\\|1980\\= 326\n\\|1990\\= 299\n\\|2000\\= 266\n\\|2010\\= 212\n\\|2020\\= 207\n\\|estyear\\=2022\n\\|estimate\\=203\n\\|estref\\={{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.census.gov/data/tables/time\\-series/demo/popest/2020s\\-total\\-cities\\-and\\-towns.html \\|date\\=November 28, 2023\\|title\\=City and Town Population Totals: 2020\\-2022\\|publisher\\=United States Census Bureau\\|accessdate\\=November 28, 2023}}\n\\|align\\-fn\\=center\n\\|footnote\\=U.S. Decennial Census{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.census.gov/programs\\-surveys/decennial\\-census.html\\|title\\=Census of Population and Housing\\|author\\=United States Census Bureau\\|author\\-link\\=United States Census Bureau\\|accessdate\\=January 19, 2014}} \n2020 Census\n}}", "### 2010 census", "As of the [census](/wiki/Census \"Census\") of 2010, there were 212 people, 101 households, and 53 families living in the city. The [population density](/wiki/Population_density \"Population density\") was {{convert\\|209\\.9\\|PD/sqmi\\|PD/km2\\|1}}. There were 121 housing units at an average density of {{convert\\|119\\.8\\|/sqmi\\|/km2\\|1}}. The racial makeup of the city was 94\\.3% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 \"White (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.5% [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Native American (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.5% [Asian](/wiki/Asian_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Asian (U.S. Census)\"), 2\\.8% from [other races](/wiki/Race_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Race (U.S. Census)\"), and 1\\.9% from two or more races. [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Hispanic (U.S. Census)\") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Latino (U.S. Census)\") of any race were 7\\.5% of the population.", "There were 101 households, of which 25\\.7% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 43\\.6% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage \"Marriage\") living together, 5\\.9% had a female householder with no husband present, 3\\.0% had a male householder with no wife present, and 47\\.5% were non\\-families. 44\\.6% of all households were made up of individuals, and 21\\.8% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\\.10 and the average family size was 2\\.98\\.", "The median age in the city was 44\\.5 years. 21\\.2% of residents were under the age of 18; 7\\.5% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 21\\.3% were from 25 to 44; 27\\.3% were from 45 to 64; and 22\\.6% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 49\\.5% male and 50\\.5% female.", "### 2000 census", "As of the [census](/wiki/Census \"Census\") of 2000, there were 266 people, 115 households, and 73 families living in the city. The population density was {{convert\\|265\\.2\\|PD/sqmi\\|PD/km2\\|sp\\=us\\|adj\\=off}}. There were 131 housing units at an average density of {{convert\\|130\\.6\\|/sqmi\\|/km2\\|sp\\=us\\|adj\\=off}}. The racial makeup of the city was 95\\.11% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 \"White (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.75% [African American](/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"African American (U.S. Census)\"), 3\\.38% [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Native American (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.38% from [other races](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 \"Race (United States Census)\"), and 0\\.38% from two or more races. [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Hispanic (U.S. Census)\") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Latino (U.S. Census)\") of any race were 1\\.13% of the population.", "There were 115 households, out of which 33\\.0% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 50\\.4% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage \"Marriage\") living together, 7\\.8% had a female householder with no husband present, and 35\\.7% were non\\-families. 34\\.8% of all households were made up of individuals, and 15\\.7% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\\.31 and the average family size was 2\\.97\\.", "In the city, the population was spread out, with 27\\.8% under the age of 18, 5\\.6% from 18 to 24, 23\\.3% from 25 to 44, 20\\.7% from 45 to 64, and 22\\.6% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 39 years. For every 100 females, there were 98\\.5 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 102\\.1 males.", "The median income for a household in the city was $26,786, and the median income for a family was $40,000\\. Males had a median income of $25,875 versus $20,250 for females. The [per capita income](/wiki/Per_capita_income \"Per capita income\") for the city was $12,516\\. About 17\\.9% of families and 16\\.6% of the population were below the [poverty line](/wiki/Poverty_line \"Poverty line\"), including 16\\.3% of those under the age of eighteen and 17\\.2% of those 65 or over.", "" ]
Plot ---- Kayalvizhi Pandian, an upper\-division clerk at the Valluvenpettai branch of the Madras Central Bank, is a fervent feminist and [anti\-Hindi imposition](/wiki/Anti-Hindi_agitations_of_Tamil_Nadu "Anti-Hindi agitations of Tamil Nadu") activist. She also writes stories under the male pseudonym "Ka. Pandian", as female authors are often met with a lower readership. Previously, Kayal and her grandfather, Raghothaman "Raghu Thatha", had successfully shut down the Bharathiya Bhasha Ekta Sabha, a Hindi organisation run by Ranganathan in their village, a feat celebrated by the villagemen. Her parents are now pressuring her to marry soon, which she refuses. Kayal receives a promotion with two conditions: a transfer to the Calcutta branch and passing the Hindi Pratmika exam. Meanwhile, Dr. Chandrasekar recommends that Raghothaman undergo a [barium swallow test](/wiki/Upper_gastrointestinal_series "Upper gastrointestinal series") in town due to his stomach pain. The test reveals [stomach cancer](/wiki/Stomach_cancer "Stomach cancer"), and Raghothaman begins treatment at the Madras Cancer Institute. Distraught, Raghothaman expresses three final wishes: to savour biryani at Buhari Hotel in Madras, take a photo with [M. G. Ramachandran](/wiki/M._G._Ramachandran "M. G. Ramachandran"), and see Kayal married. To fulfill her grandfather's last wish, Kayal reluctantly agrees to marry, despite disliking the suitors her family presents. She proposes to Tamilselvan "Selvan", an engineer older by seven years and friend who shares her progressive values and works on transmission towers for the benefit of the people. However, Kayal's world is turned upside down when she receives an anonymous letter revealing her true identity as a female writer using a male pseudonym. Suspecting Tamilselvan, she discovers his regressive nature and realises she must escape the marriage. Her brother, Shankar suggests clearing the Hindi exam and transferring to Calcutta, despite her ideological reservations. Kayal and her friend Alamelu plan to learn Hindi from Suneel, their bank peon. Meanwhile, Tamilselvan grows suspicious of Kayal's secretive behaviour and avoidance. She requests an early exam date from her manager, Ashish Gupta, who arranges it. Kayal and Shankar devise a plan to find someone to impersonate her for the exam. Selvan follows Kayal to the exam centre in Sitrur, far from Valluvanpettai. Kayal smuggles out the question paper, which is taken back to their village for Suneel to answer. After overcoming numerous obstacles, the completed answer sheet reaches the exam hall just in time. Tamilselvan confronts Kayal, questioning her, but she responds boldly, and he leaves, seemingly angry. Kayal hopes this will prompt him to call off the marriage. However, Tamilselvan discovers from his mother that Kayal has seen his diary, where he had expressed his anger and understands of her plan to stop the marriage. He meets Kayal and feigns reform, accepting whatever decision she makes, thus foiling her plan again. Meanwhile, Ranganathan has been trying to reopen the Valluvanpettai Hindi Sabha for two years, seeking revenge for the humiliation he suffered at the hands of Kayal, finally obtains permission and also receives an anonymous letter from Selvan, revealing that Kayal took the Hindi exam for promotion and that her marriage plans are underway. As the wedding preparations progress, Kayal's sister\-in\-law, Poonkothai, suggests abducting the groom. An anonymous letter, supposedly from "Suman", lures the groom to an isolated place, where he is beaten and locked up. Kayal is relieved that the marriage has been stopped, but Selvan unexpectedly reappears, and the proceedings resume. However, Ranganathan crashes the wedding to announce the reopening of the Hindi Sabha, prompting Kayal to interrupt the ceremony and vow to stop him. She reveals that she took the Hindi exam solely to prevent her marriage. When Selvan pretends ignorance about the reason for stopping the marriage and innocently asks for an explanation, Kayal accuses him of being impotent, hoping to provoke his true intentions. Selvan's anger gets the better of him, and he reveals his true [male chauvinistic](/wiki/Male_chauvinism "Male chauvinism") nature. Kayal retaliates by comparing the imposition of marriage on her to the imposition of Hindi, highlighting the parallels between the two. Meanwhile, the doctor discloses that Raghothaman's stomach issues were misdiagnosed as cancer. Enraged, Raghothaman slaps the doctor for the prolonged confusion. Despite his earlier pretenses, Selvan still attempts to portray himself as a reformed man, for which his mother sees through his facade and slaps him, putting an end to the marriage. Later while Kayal sits at a bus stop, an ardent reader named Kamal,{{Efn\|The character, credited as "Kamal Haa", begins to introduce himself but the sound of a bus obscures his full name.}} inspired by Ka. Pandian's feminist and progressive stories, expresses a desire to meet the author. Kayal reveals her true identity, declaring, herself Kayalvizhi Pandian as the author "Ka. Pandian", by shedding her pseudonym and asserting her identity.
[ "Plot\n----", "Kayalvizhi Pandian, an upper\\-division clerk at the Valluvenpettai branch of the Madras Central Bank, is a fervent feminist and [anti\\-Hindi imposition](/wiki/Anti-Hindi_agitations_of_Tamil_Nadu \"Anti-Hindi agitations of Tamil Nadu\") activist. She also writes stories under the male pseudonym \"Ka. Pandian\", as female authors are often met with a lower readership. Previously, Kayal and her grandfather, Raghothaman \"Raghu Thatha\", had successfully shut down the Bharathiya Bhasha Ekta Sabha, a Hindi organisation run by Ranganathan in their village, a feat celebrated by the villagemen. Her parents are now pressuring her to marry soon, which she refuses. Kayal receives a promotion with two conditions: a transfer to the Calcutta branch and passing the Hindi Pratmika exam.", "Meanwhile, Dr. Chandrasekar recommends that Raghothaman undergo a [barium swallow test](/wiki/Upper_gastrointestinal_series \"Upper gastrointestinal series\") in town due to his stomach pain. The test reveals [stomach cancer](/wiki/Stomach_cancer \"Stomach cancer\"), and Raghothaman begins treatment at the Madras Cancer Institute. Distraught, Raghothaman expresses three final wishes: to savour biryani at Buhari Hotel in Madras, take a photo with [M. G. Ramachandran](/wiki/M._G._Ramachandran \"M. G. Ramachandran\"), and see Kayal married. To fulfill her grandfather's last wish, Kayal reluctantly agrees to marry, despite disliking the suitors her family presents. She proposes to Tamilselvan \"Selvan\", an engineer older by seven years and friend who shares her progressive values and works on transmission towers for the benefit of the people. However, Kayal's world is turned upside down when she receives an anonymous letter revealing her true identity as a female writer using a male pseudonym. Suspecting Tamilselvan, she discovers his regressive nature and realises she must escape the marriage. Her brother, Shankar suggests clearing the Hindi exam and transferring to Calcutta, despite her ideological reservations.", "Kayal and her friend Alamelu plan to learn Hindi from Suneel, their bank peon. Meanwhile, Tamilselvan grows suspicious of Kayal's secretive behaviour and avoidance. She requests an early exam date from her manager, Ashish Gupta, who arranges it. Kayal and Shankar devise a plan to find someone to impersonate her for the exam. Selvan follows Kayal to the exam centre in Sitrur, far from Valluvanpettai. Kayal smuggles out the question paper, which is taken back to their village for Suneel to answer. After overcoming numerous obstacles, the completed answer sheet reaches the exam hall just in time. Tamilselvan confronts Kayal, questioning her, but she responds boldly, and he leaves, seemingly angry. Kayal hopes this will prompt him to call off the marriage. However, Tamilselvan discovers from his mother that Kayal has seen his diary, where he had expressed his anger and understands of her plan to stop the marriage. He meets Kayal and feigns reform, accepting whatever decision she makes, thus foiling her plan again. Meanwhile, Ranganathan has been trying to reopen the Valluvanpettai Hindi Sabha for two years, seeking revenge for the humiliation he suffered at the hands of Kayal, finally obtains permission and also receives an anonymous letter from Selvan, revealing that Kayal took the Hindi exam for promotion and that her marriage plans are underway.", "As the wedding preparations progress, Kayal's sister\\-in\\-law, Poonkothai, suggests abducting the groom. An anonymous letter, supposedly from \"Suman\", lures the groom to an isolated place, where he is beaten and locked up. Kayal is relieved that the marriage has been stopped, but Selvan unexpectedly reappears, and the proceedings resume. However, Ranganathan crashes the wedding to announce the reopening of the Hindi Sabha, prompting Kayal to interrupt the ceremony and vow to stop him. She reveals that she took the Hindi exam solely to prevent her marriage. When Selvan pretends ignorance about the reason for stopping the marriage and innocently asks for an explanation, Kayal accuses him of being impotent, hoping to provoke his true intentions. Selvan's anger gets the better of him, and he reveals his true [male chauvinistic](/wiki/Male_chauvinism \"Male chauvinism\") nature. Kayal retaliates by comparing the imposition of marriage on her to the imposition of Hindi, highlighting the parallels between the two. Meanwhile, the doctor discloses that Raghothaman's stomach issues were misdiagnosed as cancer. Enraged, Raghothaman slaps the doctor for the prolonged confusion. Despite his earlier pretenses, Selvan still attempts to portray himself as a reformed man, for which his mother sees through his facade and slaps him, putting an end to the marriage.", "Later while Kayal sits at a bus stop, an ardent reader named Kamal,{{Efn\\|The character, credited as \"Kamal Haa\", begins to introduce himself but the sound of a bus obscures his full name.}} inspired by Ka. Pandian's feminist and progressive stories, expresses a desire to meet the author. Kayal reveals her true identity, declaring, herself Kayalvizhi Pandian as the author \"Ka. Pandian\", by shedding her pseudonym and asserting her identity.", "" ]
Policy positions ---------------- The Academy has published hundreds of policy statements, ranging from advocacy issues to [practice](/wiki/Practice_of_medicine "Practice of medicine") recommendations. The academy's policy website contains all current Academy policies and clinical reports.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.aap.org/en\-us/advocacy\-and\-policy/Pages/Advocacy\-and\-Policy.aspx \|title\=Advocacy \& Policy \|publisher\=American Academy of Pediatrics \|access\-date\=2013\-03\-30}} The AAP policy regarding its statements is to give each statement a five\-year life, after which the statement expires unless it is reaffirmed. ### Abortion The AAP is supportive of [abortion rights](/wiki/Abortion-rights_movements "Abortion-rights movements") and criticized the overturning of *[Roe v. Wade](/wiki/Roe_v._Wade "Roe v. Wade")*.{{Cite web \|last\=Ali \|first\=Shirin \|date\=2022\-06\-28 \|title\=Pediatricians warn Roe v. Wade reversal has 'grave consequences' for teens \|url\=https://thehill.com/changing\-america/well\-being/prevention\-cures/3539412\-pediatricians\-warn\-roe\-v\-wade\-reversal\-has\-grave\-consequences\-for\-teens/ \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-17 \|website\=The Hill \|language\=en\-US}} In June 2022, they stated that adolescents "should have the right to receive legal and confidential medical and surgical abortion care and counseling" and that "\[[Dobbs v. Jackson](/wiki/Dobbs_v._Jackson_Women%27s_Health_Organization "Dobbs v. Jackson Women's Health Organization")] means that in many places in the United States, this evidence\-based care will be difficult or impossible to access, threatening the health and safety of our patients and jeopardizing the patient\-physician relationship". ### Age limit The AAP has changed positions on its age limit throughout the years. In 1988, the American Academy of Pediatrics published a statement on the age limit of pediatrics that identified the upper age limit of pediatrics as age 21\. The policy had a note that exceptions could always be made when the doctor and family jointly agree to an older age.{{Cite journal\|last\=Health\|first\=Council on Child and Adolescent\|date\=1988\-05\-01\|title\=Age Limits of Pediatrics\|url\=https://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/81/5/736\|journal\=Pediatrics\|language\=en\|volume\=81\|issue\=5\|pages\=736\|doi\=10\.1542/peds.81\.5\.736\|issn\=0031\-4005\|pmid\=3357740\|s2cid\=245164191}} Recent studies have shown that the age of 21 years is just an arbitrary line for [adolescence](/wiki/Adolescence "Adolescence"), because [brain development](/wiki/Brain_development "Brain development") does not fully reach adult levels of functioning until the early 30s. In a 2017 policy update, AAP changed its policy to discourage age limits of pediatric providers and instead have families reach an agreement with their pediatric provider as to when to transition care.{{Cite journal\|last1\=Hardin\|first1\=Amy Peykoff\|last2\=Hackell\|first2\=Jesse M.\|last3\=Medicine\|first3\=Committee on Practice and Ambulatory\|date\=2017\-09\-01\|title\=Age Limit of Pediatrics\|url\=https://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/140/3/e20172151\|journal\=Pediatrics\|language\=en\|volume\=140\|issue\=3\|pages\=e20172151\|doi\=10\.1542/peds.2017\-2151\|issn\=0031\-4005\|pmid\=28827380\|doi\-access\=free}} ### Asthma In 2009, the national office and four of its State chapters provided training support to 49 pediatric practices to improve adherence to well\-established [asthma](/wiki/Asthma "Asthma") care guidelines. The percentage of patients at participating practices with well\-controlled asthma (as defined by the [National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute](/wiki/National_Heart%2C_Lung%2C_and_Blood_Institute "National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute")) rose from 58 to 72 percent.{{cite web \|publisher\=Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality \|url\=https://innovations.ahrq.gov/profiles/national\-academy\-and\-affiliated\-state\-chapters\-support\-pediatricians\-improving\-asthma\-care \|title\=National Academy and Affiliated State Chapters Support Pediatricians in Improving Asthma Care, Leading to Better Guideline Adherence and Disease Control, Fewer Acute Episodes \|date\=2013\-06\-05 \|access\-date\=2013\-06\-06}} ### Car safety seats [alt\=drawing of a child in a rear\-facing car seat\|thumb\|In 2018, the AAP began recommending that children be placed in rear\-facing car seats until the child reached the maximum height or weight for the car seat, regardless of the child's age.](/wiki/File:Convertible_Car_Seat_%28Toddler%29.png "Convertible Car Seat (Toddler).png") The AAP periodically issues guidance for child [passenger safety](/wiki/Automotive_safety "Automotive safety"), including policy recommendations for transitioning between rear\-facing [car seats](/wiki/Child_safety_seat "Child safety seat"), front\-facing car seats, belt\-positioning booster seats, and vehicle [safety belts](/wiki/Safety_belt "Safety belt").{{cite web \|url\=https://www.aap.org/en\-us/about\-the\-aap/aap\-press\-room/Pages/AAP\-Updates\-Recommendations\-on\-Car\-Seats\-for\-Children.aspx \|title\=AAP Updates Recommendations on Car Seats for Children \|author\= \|date\=30 August 2018 \|publisher\=American Academy of Pediatrics \|access\-date\=2018\-08\-31}} These recommendations are typically published in the peer\-reviewed scientific journal *[Pediatrics](/wiki/Pediatrics_%28journal%29 "Pediatrics (journal)").*{{cite journal \|last1\=Durbin \|first1\=D. R. \|last2\=Durbin \|first2\=DR \|title\=Child Passenger Safety \|journal\=Pediatrics \|date\=21 March 2011 \|volume\=127 \|issue\=4 \|pages\=788–793 \|doi\=10\.1542/peds.2011\-0213 \|pmid\=21422088 \|doi\-access\=free }}{{cite journal \|last1\=Durbin \|first1\=Dennis R. \|last2\=Hoffman \|first2\=Benjamin D. \|title\=Child Passenger Safety \|journal\=Pediatrics \|date\=November 2018 \|volume\=142 \|issue\=5 \|pages\=e20182461 \|doi\=10\.1542/peds.2018\-2461 \|pmid\=30166367 \|s2cid\=52131066 \|doi\-access\=free }} Previously, the AAP recommended that children remain rear\-facing until they are two years of age. In response to updated crash test, simulation, and field data, the AAP revised their guidance to exclude the age guideline entirely.{{cite web \|url\=https://www.aap.org/en\-us/about\-the\-aap/aap\-press\-room/Pages/AAP\-Updates\-Recommendations\-on\-Car\-Seats\-for\-Children.aspx \|title\=AAP Updates Recommendation on Car Seats for Children \|author\= \|date\=30 August 2018 \|publisher\=American Academy of Pediatrics \|access\-date\=2018\-08\-30}} Current AAP Child Passenger Safety recommendations ({{As of\|2018\|Aug\|30\|df\=US\|lc\=y}}) state that children should remain in a rear\-facing car seat for as long as possible, until they meet the maximum height or weight dictated by the car seat manufacturer. ### COVID schooling in person On June 29, 2020, AAP stated that it "strongly advocates that all policy considerations for the coming school year should start with a goal of having students physically present in school" as [remote learning](/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_education "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on education") during the [COVID\-19 pandemic in the United States](/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_United_States "COVID-19 pandemic in the United States") made it more difficult for education professionals to notice learning deficits, [physical and sexual abuse](/wiki/Child_abuse "Child abuse"), [depression](/wiki/Depression_%28mood%29 "Depression (mood)") and [suicidal ideation](/wiki/Suicidal_ideation "Suicidal ideation"). The AAP argued that [masks](/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Face masks during the COVID-19 pandemic") are probably not practical for children younger than [middle school](/wiki/Middle_school "Middle school") unless they can wear a mask without increased face touching. [Teachers' unions](/wiki/Teachers_union "Teachers union") opposed the AAP statement, however, saying "Our educators are overwhelmingly not comfortable returning to schools ... They fear for their lives, the lives of their students and the lives of their families."{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.npr.org/sections/coronavirus\-live\-updates/2020/06/29/884638999/u\-s\-pediatricians\-call\-for\-in\-person\-school\-this\-fall\|title \= U.S. Pediatricians Call for In\-Person School This Fall\|website \= \[\[NPR]]\| date\=June 29, 2020 \| last1\=Kamenetz \| first1\=Anya }} Two weeks later, the AAP walked back its support, under political pressure from teachers and other groups.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.npr.org/sections/coronavirus\-live\-updates/2020/07/10/889848834/nations\-pediatricians\-walk\-back\-support\-for\-in\-person\-school\|title\=Nation's Pediatricians Walk Back Support for In\-Person School\|website\=\[\[NPR]]\|date\=July 10, 2020 \|last1\=Kamenetz \|first1\=Anya }} The then\-president Donald Trump cited AAP's original statement repeatedly, pressuring school leaders to reopen schools. ### Digital advertising to children In its 2020 statement in *Pediatrics*, the AAP called for banning all [digital advertising](/wiki/Digital_advertising "Digital advertising") that was [targeted to children](/wiki/Advertising_to_children "Advertising to children") under the age of 7 and urged limits to advertising aimed at people under 17\. This aimed to protect kids from digital tracking on social media, Tv and video games.{{cite news \|last1\=Prior \|first1\=Ryan \|title\=Physicians group calls for legislation to regulate digital advertising and its effect on kids \|url\=https://www.cnn.com/2020/06/23/health/aap\-digital\-advertising\-policy\-kids\-wellness/index.html \|work\=CNN \|date\=23 June 2020 }} ### Elective infant circumcision {{See also\|Circumcision controversies\#Modern debates}} In a 2012 position statement, the academy stated that a systematic evaluation of the medical literature shows that the "preventive health benefits of elective [circumcision](/wiki/Circumcision "Circumcision") of male newborns outweigh the risks of the procedure" and that the health benefits "are sufficient to justify access to this procedure for families choosing it and to warrant third\-party payment for circumcision of male newborns", but "are not great enough to recommend routine circumcision for all male newborns". The academy takes the position that parents should make the final decision about circumcision after appropriate information is gathered about the risks and benefits of the procedure.{{cite journal \|title\=Circumcision Policy Statement \|journal\=\[\[Pediatrics (journal)\|Pediatrics]] \|date\=2012\-08\-27 \|volume\=130 \|issue\=3 \|pages\=585–586 \|doi\=10\.1542/peds.2012\-1989 \|pmid\=22926180\|doi\-access\=free \|author1\=American Academy of Pediatrics Task Force on Circumcision }} ### Electronic Nicotine Delivery Systems [Electronic nicotine delivery systems](/wiki/Electronic_nicotine_delivery_systems "Electronic nicotine delivery systems") (electronic cigarettes, e\-hookahs, vape pens, others) are highly addictive and often candy\-flavored products that are rapidly rising in popularity among middle and high school students, and appear to be serving as a [gateway](/wiki/Gateway_drug_effect "Gateway drug effect") to other forms of tobacco, and threaten to addict a new generation to [nicotine](/wiki/Nicotine_dependence "Nicotine dependence").{{Cite journal\|last\=Jenssen BP, Walley SC, American Academy of Pediatrics Section on Tobacco Control\|date\=2019\|title\=E\-cigarettes and similar devices\|url\= \|journal\=Pediatrics\|volume\=143\|issue\=2\|pages\=e20183652\|doi\=10\.1542/peds.2018\-3652\|pmid\=30835247\|pmc\=6644065}} ### Gun violence The American Academy of Pediatrics says that although [firearms\-related deaths in the US](/wiki/Firearm_death_rates_in_the_United_States_by_state "Firearm death rates in the United States by state") have dropped since the 1990s, guns were used in more than 80 percent of teen homicides in 2009 and were the most common [suicide](/wiki/Suicide "Suicide") method among US teens.{{cite news \|last\=Pittman \|first\=Genevra \|date\=2012\-10\-18 \|title\=Pediatricians call for strict gun laws to protect kids \|url\=https://www.reuters.com/article/us\-usa\-health\-firearms\-idUSBRE89H1F420121018 \|work\=Reuters \|access\-date\=2013\-10\-21 }} The AAP believes pediatricians should discuss guns and [gun safety](/wiki/Gun_safety "Gun safety") with parents before babies are born and at children's annual exams.{{cite magazine \|last\=Rho \|first\=Helena \|date\=2013\-02\-01 \|title\=The Pediatricians vs. the NRA: How the gun lobby is trying to gag doctors from talking about kids and guns \|url\=http://www.slate.com/articles/health\_and\_science/medical\_examiner/2013/02/pediatricians\_and\_nra\_physician\_gag\_rules\_and\_the\_cdc\_aca\_and\_states.single.html \|magazine\=Slate \|access\-date\=2013\-10\-21 }} It also advocates for, among other things, more [background checks](/wiki/Background_check "Background check"), an [assault weapons ban](/wiki/Assault_weapons_bans_in_the_United_States "Assault weapons bans in the United States"), and more federal research on [gun violence](/wiki/Gun_violence_in_the_United_States "Gun violence in the United States").{{cite news \|last\=Viebeck \|first\= Elise \|date\=2013\-04\-29 \|title\=Pediatricians to push for gun control on Capitol Hill \|url\=https://thehill.com/policy/healthcare/149054\-pediatricians\-to\-push\-for\-gun\-control\-on\-capitol\-hill/ \|newspaper\=The Hill \|access\-date\=2013\-10\-21 }}{{cite web \|url\=http://www.aap.org/en\-us/advocacy\-and\-policy/federal\-advocacy/Documents/AAPGunViolencePreventionPolicyRecommendations\_Jan2013\.pdf \|title\=American Academy of Pediatrics Gun Violence Policy Recommendations \|author\= \|date\=January 2013 \|access\-date\=2013\-10\-21}} ### Marijuana The AAP warns of possible [marijuana](/wiki/Marijuana "Marijuana") damage to children and adolescents.{{cite journal \|author1\=Committee on Substance Abuse \|author2\=Committee on Adolescence \|title\=The Impact of Marijuana Policies on Youth: Clinical, Research, and Legal Update \|journal\=Pediatrics \|date\=26 January 2015 \|volume\=135 \|issue\=3 \|pages\=584–587 \|doi\=10\.1542/peds.2014\-4146 \|pmid\=25624383 \|s2cid\=42875063 \|doi\-access\=free }} In states that have already [legalized marijuana](/wiki/Legality_of_cannabis_by_U.S._jurisdiction "Legality of cannabis by U.S. jurisdiction"), the Academy recommends that pediatricians and regulators treat it as they would tobacco. The Academy supports ["decriminalization" of marijuana](/wiki/Decriminalization_of_non-medical_cannabis_in_the_United_States "Decriminalization of non-medical cannabis in the United States") (reductions in the penalties for its use and possession) in combination with an increased commitment to [substance\-abuse treatment](/wiki/Substance_abuse_treatment "Substance abuse treatment"). The Academy recommends changing marijuana from a [DEA Schedule I](/wiki/DEA_Schedule_1 "DEA Schedule 1") to a DEA Schedule II to facilitate research into [pharmaceutical uses](/wiki/Medical_marijuana_in_the_United_States "Medical marijuana in the United States").{{cite web \|url\=https://www.aap.org/en\-us/about\-the\-aap/aap\-press\-room/pages/American\-Academy\-of\-Pediatrics\-Reaffirms\-Opposition\-to\-Legalizing\-Marijuana\-for\-Recreational\-or\-Medical\-Use.aspx \|title\=American Academy of Pediatrics Reaffirms Opposition to Legalizing Marijuana for Recreational or Medical Use \|author\= \|date\=26 January 2015 \|publisher\=American Academy of Pediatrics \|access\-date\=2018\-04\-24 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180426075849/https://www.aap.org/en\-us/about\-the\-aap/aap\-press\-room/pages/American\-Academy\-of\-Pediatrics\-Reaffirms\-Opposition\-to\-Legalizing\-Marijuana\-for\-Recreational\-or\-Medical\-Use.aspx \|archive\-date\=April 26, 2018 \|url\-status\=dead }} ### School start times for adolescents Recognizing that [insufficient sleep](/wiki/Insufficient_sleep "Insufficient sleep") in adolescents is an important public health issue that significantly affects the health and safety, as well as [academic success](/wiki/Academic_success "Academic success"), the American Academy of Pediatrics strongly supports efforts of school districts to optimize sleep in students and urges [high schools](/wiki/High_schools_in_the_United_States "High schools in the United States") and middle schools to aim for start times no earlier than 8:30 a.m., to allow students the opportunity to achieve optimal levels of sleep (8\.5–9\.5 hours) and to improve physical and mental health, safety, academic performance, and quality of life. Although the AAP acknowledges that numerous factors may impair the amount and/or quality of sleep in adolescents—among them, biological changes in sleep associated with [puberty](/wiki/Puberty "Puberty"), lifestyle choices, and academic demands—it considers school start times before 8:30 a.m. ("earlier school start times") to be a key modifiable contributor to insufficient sleep, together with [circadian rhythm](/wiki/Circadian_rhythm "Circadian rhythm") disruption. It also recognizes that a substantial body of research has demonstrated that [delaying the start of the school day](/wiki/Start_school_later_movement "Start school later movement") is an effective countermeasure to chronic sleep loss and has a wide range of potential benefits to the physical and mental health, safety, and academic achievement of students—including reduced obesity risk, rates of depression, and [drowsy driving](/wiki/Drowsy_driving "Drowsy driving") crashes as well as improved academic performance and quality of life.{{cite journal \|title\=School Start Times for Adolescents \|journal\=Pediatrics \|volume\=134 \|issue\=3 \|pages\=642–9 \|year\=2014 \|pmid\=25156998 \|doi\=10\.1542/peds.2014\-1697 \|doi\-access\=free \|author1\=Adolescent Sleep Working Group \|author2\=Committee on Adolescence \|pmc\=8194457 }} Later start times also result in less frequent [tardiness](/wiki/Tardiness "Tardiness").{{cite journal\|doi\=10\.1146/annurev\-publhealth\-040119\-094412\|doi\-access\=free\|title\=Sleep Health: An Opportunity for Public Health to Address Health Equity\|year\=2020\|last1\=Hale\|first1\=Lauren\|last2\=Troxel\|first2\=Wendy\|last3\=Buysse\|first3\=Daniel J.\|journal\=Annual Review of Public Health\|volume\=41\|pages\=81–99\|pmid\=31900098\|pmc\=7944938}} ### Abusive head trauma There is limited medical controversy surrounded the AAP regarding [abusive head trauma](/wiki/Abusive_head_trauma "Abusive head trauma") (AHT), also called *shaken baby syndrome* in infants.{{cite journal \|last1\=Narang \|first1\=Sandeep \|title\=Acceptance of Shaken Baby Syndrome and Abusive Head Trauma as Medical Diagnoses \|journal\=Journal of Pediatrics \|date\=1 October 2016 \|volume\=177 \|pages\=273–278 \|doi\=10\.1016/j.jpeds.2016\.06\.036 \|pmid\=27458075 \|doi\-access\=free }} The current skepticism is not whether violent shaking or shaking with slamming is dangerous to infants and children, but of how the scientific information is used in the legal processes. The AAP updated its policy paper in 2020\. In the updated policy paper, the APP states "The AAP continues to affirm the dangers and harms of shaking infants, continues to embrace the 'shaken baby syndrome' diagnosis as a valid subset of the AHT diagnosis, and encourages pediatric practitioners to educate community stakeholders when necessary."{{cite journal \|last1\=Narang \|first1\=Sandeep \|title\=Abusive Head Trauma in Infants and Children \|journal\=Pediatrics \|date\=1 April 2020 \|volume\=145 \|issue\=4 \|pages\=e20200203 \|doi\=10\.1542/peds.2020\-0203 \|pmid\=32205464 \|doi\-access\=free }} ### Statins for high cholesterol in children In 2008, the AAP and the [American Heart Association](/wiki/American_Heart_Association "American Heart Association") recommended [statins](/wiki/Statin "Statin") for children as young as eight years with [high lipid concentrations](/wiki/Hyperlipidemia "Hyperlipidemia") and for children as young as two years with major cardiovascular risk factors, if [weight management](/wiki/Weight_management "Weight management"), dietary changes, and additional [physical exercise](/wiki/Physical_exercise "Physical exercise") were not sufficient to reduce the risk of heart disease. The organizations were criticized by [bloggers](/wiki/Bloggers "Bloggers") and the editorial board of *[The New York Times](/wiki/The_New_York_Times "The New York Times")*, who expressed "fear that it will open the way for drug companies to bombard anxious parents with ads promoting these and other products and increase the number of parents insisting on prescriptions for their children. The ease of popping pills should not distract parents, health professionals, or policy makers from the more arduous tasks of cutting back on junk foods, promoting healthy diets, and putting physical education back into the schools."{{cite journal \|last1\=Tanne \|first1\=Janice Hopkins \|title\=US paediatricians and cardiologists are criticised for recommending statins for children \|journal\=BMJ \|date\=19 July 2008 \|volume\=337 \|issue\=7662 \|pages\=134–135 \|doi\=10\.1136/bmj.a813 \|pmid\=18632713 \|pmc\=2483893 }} ### Tobacco AAP recommends that tobacco control programs should change the image of tobacco by telling the truth about the substance. This includes prohibiting tobacco advertising and promotion that is accessible to children, as well as [point of sale](/wiki/Point_of_sale_display "Point of sale display") advertising, [product placements](/wiki/Product_placement "Product placement") in movies and other entertainment media, and promotion in print or internet\-based media accessible to youth. Advertising and promotion has been shown to be a cause of tobacco use initiation in adolescents.{{Cite journal\|last\=Farber HJ, Walley SC, Groner JA, Nelson KE\|title\=Clinical practice policy to protect children from tobacco, nicotine, and tobacco smoke\|url\=\|journal\=Pediatrics\|year\=2015\|volume\=136\|issue\=5\|pages\=1008–1017\|doi\=10\.1542/peds.2015\-3108\|pmid\=26504137\|s2cid\=23285419\|doi\-access\=free}} AAP supports a [minimum purchasing age](/wiki/Smoking_age "Smoking age") of 21 years for tobacco products. Increasing age of purchase has been shown to decrease [youth smoking](/wiki/Youth_smoking "Youth smoking") rates. Younger age of starting tobacco use leads to lower rates of ever [stopping tobacco use](/wiki/Smoking_cessation "Smoking cessation").{{Cite journal\|last\=Farber HJ, Groner J, Walley S, Nelson K\|date\=2015\|title\=Protecting children from tobacco, nicotine, and tobacco smoke.\|url\=\|journal\=Pediatrics\|volume\=136\|issue\=5\|pages\=e1439\-1467\|doi\=10\.1542/peds.2015\-3110\|pmid\=26504135\|s2cid\=31575284\|doi\-access\=free}} ### LGBT healthcare According to *Block (2023\)*, the AAP and other American medical professional groups have becoming increasingly aligned in supporting [gender affirming care](/wiki/Gender_affirming_care "Gender affirming care") for gender dysphoria, which may include gonadotrophin releasing hormone analogues (GnRHa) to suppress puberty; oestrogen or testosterone to promote secondary sex characteristics; and surgical removal or augmentation of breasts, genitals, or other physical features.{{Cite journal \|last\=Block \|first\=Jennifer \|date\=2023\-02\-23 \|title\=Gender dysphoria in young people is rising—and so is professional disagreement \|url\=https://www.bmj.com/content/380/bmj.p382 \|journal\=BMJ \|language\=en \|volume\=380 \|pages\=382 \|doi\=10\.1136/bmj.p382 \|issn\=1756\-1833 \|pmid\=36822640\|s2cid\=257103170 \|doi\-access\=free }} In 2018, the AAP issued a policy statement putting forward a model of gender affirmative care.{{Cite web \|last\=Fitzsimons \|first\=Tim \|url\=https://www.nbcnews.com/feature/nbc\-out/pediatricians\-group\-recommends\-affirmative\-care\-transgender\-youth\-n910451\|title \= Pediatricians group recommends 'affirmative care' for transgender youth\|website \= \[\[NBC News]]\| date\=September 17, 2018 }}{{Cite news \|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/10/15/well/family/helping\-pediatricians\-care\-for\-transgender\-children.html \|title \= Helping Pediatricians Care for Transgender Children\|newspaper \= The New York Times\|date \= October 15, 2018\|last1 \= Klass\|first1 \= Perri}} Gender affirmative care is based in the idea that transgender identities and diverse gender expressions do not constitute a mental disorder, that variations in gender identity and expression are normal aspects of human diversity, and binary definitions of gender do not always reflect emerging gender identities, that gender identity evolves as an interplay of biology, development, socialization, and culture, and that if a mental health issue exists, it most often stems from stigma and negative experiences rather than being intrinsic to the child.{{Cite journal\|last1\=Rafferty\|first1\=Jason\|last2\=Health\|first2\=Committee on Psychosocial Aspects of Child and Family\|last3\=Adolescence\|first3\=Committee On\|last4\=Section on Lesbian\|first4\=Gay\|date\=2018\-10\-01\|title\=Ensuring Comprehensive Care and Support for Transgender and Gender\-Diverse Children and Adolescents\|url\=https://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/142/4/e20182162\|journal\=Pediatrics\|language\=en\|volume\=142\|issue\=4\|pages\=e20182162\|doi\=10\.1542/peds.2018\-2162\|issn\=0031\-4005\|pmid\=30224363\|doi\-access\=free}} The AAP also describe [conversion therapy](/wiki/Conversion_therapy "Conversion therapy") as "unsuccessful", "deleterious" and "outside the mainstream of traditional medical practice". Finally, the AAP recommends that youth identifying as transgender have access to comprehensive and development\-appropriate healthcare provided in safe and inclusive clinics but also that family based therapy be available. The AAP also recommend that the medical field and federal government prioritize research that is dedicated to improving the quality of [evidence\-based care](/wiki/Evidence-based_healthcare "Evidence-based healthcare") for transgender youth.
[ "Policy positions\n----------------", "The Academy has published hundreds of policy statements, ranging from advocacy issues to [practice](/wiki/Practice_of_medicine \"Practice of medicine\") recommendations. The academy's policy website contains all current Academy policies and clinical reports.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.aap.org/en\\-us/advocacy\\-and\\-policy/Pages/Advocacy\\-and\\-Policy.aspx \\|title\\=Advocacy \\& Policy \\|publisher\\=American Academy of Pediatrics \\|access\\-date\\=2013\\-03\\-30}} The AAP policy regarding its statements is to give each statement a five\\-year life, after which the statement expires unless it is reaffirmed.", "### Abortion", "The AAP is supportive of [abortion rights](/wiki/Abortion-rights_movements \"Abortion-rights movements\") and criticized the overturning of *[Roe v. Wade](/wiki/Roe_v._Wade \"Roe v. Wade\")*.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Ali \\|first\\=Shirin \\|date\\=2022\\-06\\-28 \\|title\\=Pediatricians warn Roe v. Wade reversal has 'grave consequences' for teens \\|url\\=https://thehill.com/changing\\-america/well\\-being/prevention\\-cures/3539412\\-pediatricians\\-warn\\-roe\\-v\\-wade\\-reversal\\-has\\-grave\\-consequences\\-for\\-teens/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-17 \\|website\\=The Hill \\|language\\=en\\-US}} In June 2022, they stated that adolescents \"should have the right to receive legal and confidential medical and surgical abortion care and counseling\" and that \"\\[[Dobbs v. Jackson](/wiki/Dobbs_v._Jackson_Women%27s_Health_Organization \"Dobbs v. Jackson Women's Health Organization\")] means that in many places in the United States, this evidence\\-based care will be difficult or impossible to access, threatening the health and safety of our patients and jeopardizing the patient\\-physician relationship\".", "### Age limit", "The AAP has changed positions on its age limit throughout the years. In 1988, the American Academy of Pediatrics published a statement on the age limit of pediatrics that identified the upper age limit of pediatrics as age 21\\. The policy had a note that exceptions could always be made when the doctor and family jointly agree to an older age.{{Cite journal\\|last\\=Health\\|first\\=Council on Child and Adolescent\\|date\\=1988\\-05\\-01\\|title\\=Age Limits of Pediatrics\\|url\\=https://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/81/5/736\\|journal\\=Pediatrics\\|language\\=en\\|volume\\=81\\|issue\\=5\\|pages\\=736\\|doi\\=10\\.1542/peds.81\\.5\\.736\\|issn\\=0031\\-4005\\|pmid\\=3357740\\|s2cid\\=245164191}}", "Recent studies have shown that the age of 21 years is just an arbitrary line for [adolescence](/wiki/Adolescence \"Adolescence\"), because [brain development](/wiki/Brain_development \"Brain development\") does not fully reach adult levels of functioning until the early 30s. In a 2017 policy update, AAP changed its policy to discourage age limits of pediatric providers and instead have families reach an agreement with their pediatric provider as to when to transition care.{{Cite journal\\|last1\\=Hardin\\|first1\\=Amy Peykoff\\|last2\\=Hackell\\|first2\\=Jesse M.\\|last3\\=Medicine\\|first3\\=Committee on Practice and Ambulatory\\|date\\=2017\\-09\\-01\\|title\\=Age Limit of Pediatrics\\|url\\=https://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/140/3/e20172151\\|journal\\=Pediatrics\\|language\\=en\\|volume\\=140\\|issue\\=3\\|pages\\=e20172151\\|doi\\=10\\.1542/peds.2017\\-2151\\|issn\\=0031\\-4005\\|pmid\\=28827380\\|doi\\-access\\=free}}", "### Asthma", "In 2009, the national office and four of its State chapters provided training support to 49 pediatric practices to improve adherence to well\\-established [asthma](/wiki/Asthma \"Asthma\") care guidelines. The percentage of patients at participating practices with well\\-controlled asthma (as defined by the [National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute](/wiki/National_Heart%2C_Lung%2C_and_Blood_Institute \"National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute\")) rose from 58 to 72 percent.{{cite web \\|publisher\\=Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality \\|url\\=https://innovations.ahrq.gov/profiles/national\\-academy\\-and\\-affiliated\\-state\\-chapters\\-support\\-pediatricians\\-improving\\-asthma\\-care \\|title\\=National Academy and Affiliated State Chapters Support Pediatricians in Improving Asthma Care, Leading to Better Guideline Adherence and Disease Control, Fewer Acute Episodes \\|date\\=2013\\-06\\-05 \\|access\\-date\\=2013\\-06\\-06}}", "### Car safety seats", "[alt\\=drawing of a child in a rear\\-facing car seat\\|thumb\\|In 2018, the AAP began recommending that children be placed in rear\\-facing car seats until the child reached the maximum height or weight for the car seat, regardless of the child's age.](/wiki/File:Convertible_Car_Seat_%28Toddler%29.png \"Convertible Car Seat (Toddler).png\")", "The AAP periodically issues guidance for child [passenger safety](/wiki/Automotive_safety \"Automotive safety\"), including policy recommendations for transitioning between rear\\-facing [car seats](/wiki/Child_safety_seat \"Child safety seat\"), front\\-facing car seats, belt\\-positioning booster seats, and vehicle [safety belts](/wiki/Safety_belt \"Safety belt\").{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.aap.org/en\\-us/about\\-the\\-aap/aap\\-press\\-room/Pages/AAP\\-Updates\\-Recommendations\\-on\\-Car\\-Seats\\-for\\-Children.aspx \\|title\\=AAP Updates Recommendations on Car Seats for Children \\|author\\= \\|date\\=30 August 2018 \\|publisher\\=American Academy of Pediatrics \\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-08\\-31}} These recommendations are typically published in the peer\\-reviewed scientific journal *[Pediatrics](/wiki/Pediatrics_%28journal%29 \"Pediatrics (journal)\").*{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Durbin \\|first1\\=D. R. \\|last2\\=Durbin \\|first2\\=DR \\|title\\=Child Passenger Safety \\|journal\\=Pediatrics \\|date\\=21 March 2011 \\|volume\\=127 \\|issue\\=4 \\|pages\\=788–793 \\|doi\\=10\\.1542/peds.2011\\-0213 \\|pmid\\=21422088 \\|doi\\-access\\=free }}{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Durbin \\|first1\\=Dennis R. \\|last2\\=Hoffman \\|first2\\=Benjamin D. \\|title\\=Child Passenger Safety \\|journal\\=Pediatrics \\|date\\=November 2018 \\|volume\\=142 \\|issue\\=5 \\|pages\\=e20182461 \\|doi\\=10\\.1542/peds.2018\\-2461 \\|pmid\\=30166367 \\|s2cid\\=52131066 \\|doi\\-access\\=free }}", "Previously, the AAP recommended that children remain rear\\-facing until they are two years of age. In response to updated crash test, simulation, and field data, the AAP revised their guidance to exclude the age guideline entirely.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.aap.org/en\\-us/about\\-the\\-aap/aap\\-press\\-room/Pages/AAP\\-Updates\\-Recommendations\\-on\\-Car\\-Seats\\-for\\-Children.aspx \\|title\\=AAP Updates Recommendation on Car Seats for Children \\|author\\= \\|date\\=30 August 2018 \\|publisher\\=American Academy of Pediatrics \\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-08\\-30}} Current AAP Child Passenger Safety recommendations ({{As of\\|2018\\|Aug\\|30\\|df\\=US\\|lc\\=y}}) state that children should remain in a rear\\-facing car seat for as long as possible, until they meet the maximum height or weight dictated by the car seat manufacturer.", "### COVID schooling in person", "On June 29, 2020, AAP stated that it \"strongly advocates that all policy considerations for the coming school year should start with a goal of having students physically present in school\" as [remote learning](/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_education \"Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on education\") during the [COVID\\-19 pandemic in the United States](/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_United_States \"COVID-19 pandemic in the United States\") made it more difficult for education professionals to notice learning deficits, [physical and sexual abuse](/wiki/Child_abuse \"Child abuse\"), [depression](/wiki/Depression_%28mood%29 \"Depression (mood)\") and [suicidal ideation](/wiki/Suicidal_ideation \"Suicidal ideation\"). The AAP argued that [masks](/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic \"Face masks during the COVID-19 pandemic\") are probably not practical for children younger than [middle school](/wiki/Middle_school \"Middle school\") unless they can wear a mask without increased face touching. [Teachers' unions](/wiki/Teachers_union \"Teachers union\") opposed the AAP statement, however, saying \"Our educators are overwhelmingly not comfortable returning to schools ... They fear for their lives, the lives of their students and the lives of their families.\"{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.npr.org/sections/coronavirus\\-live\\-updates/2020/06/29/884638999/u\\-s\\-pediatricians\\-call\\-for\\-in\\-person\\-school\\-this\\-fall\\|title \\= U.S. Pediatricians Call for In\\-Person School This Fall\\|website \\= \\[\\[NPR]]\\| date\\=June 29, 2020 \\| last1\\=Kamenetz \\| first1\\=Anya }} Two weeks later, the AAP walked back its support, under political pressure from teachers and other groups.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.npr.org/sections/coronavirus\\-live\\-updates/2020/07/10/889848834/nations\\-pediatricians\\-walk\\-back\\-support\\-for\\-in\\-person\\-school\\|title\\=Nation's Pediatricians Walk Back Support for In\\-Person School\\|website\\=\\[\\[NPR]]\\|date\\=July 10, 2020 \\|last1\\=Kamenetz \\|first1\\=Anya }} The then\\-president Donald Trump cited AAP's original statement repeatedly, pressuring school leaders to reopen schools.", "### Digital advertising to children", "In its 2020 statement in *Pediatrics*, the AAP called for banning all [digital advertising](/wiki/Digital_advertising \"Digital advertising\") that was [targeted to children](/wiki/Advertising_to_children \"Advertising to children\") under the age of 7 and urged limits to advertising aimed at people under 17\\. This aimed to protect kids from digital tracking on social media, Tv and video games.{{cite news \\|last1\\=Prior \\|first1\\=Ryan \\|title\\=Physicians group calls for legislation to regulate digital advertising and its effect on kids \\|url\\=https://www.cnn.com/2020/06/23/health/aap\\-digital\\-advertising\\-policy\\-kids\\-wellness/index.html \\|work\\=CNN \\|date\\=23 June 2020 }}", "### Elective infant circumcision", "{{See also\\|Circumcision controversies\\#Modern debates}}\nIn a 2012 position statement, the academy stated that a systematic evaluation of the medical literature shows that the \"preventive health benefits of elective [circumcision](/wiki/Circumcision \"Circumcision\") of male newborns outweigh the risks of the procedure\" and that the health benefits \"are sufficient to justify access to this procedure for families choosing it and to warrant third\\-party payment for circumcision of male newborns\", but \"are not great enough to recommend routine circumcision for all male newborns\". The academy takes the position that parents should make the final decision about circumcision after appropriate information is gathered about the risks and benefits of the procedure.{{cite journal \\|title\\=Circumcision Policy Statement \\|journal\\=\\[\\[Pediatrics (journal)\\|Pediatrics]] \\|date\\=2012\\-08\\-27 \\|volume\\=130 \\|issue\\=3 \\|pages\\=585–586 \\|doi\\=10\\.1542/peds.2012\\-1989 \\|pmid\\=22926180\\|doi\\-access\\=free \\|author1\\=American Academy of Pediatrics Task Force on Circumcision }}", "### Electronic Nicotine Delivery Systems", "[Electronic nicotine delivery systems](/wiki/Electronic_nicotine_delivery_systems \"Electronic nicotine delivery systems\") (electronic cigarettes, e\\-hookahs, vape pens, others) are highly addictive and often candy\\-flavored products that are rapidly rising in popularity among middle and high school students, and appear to be serving as a [gateway](/wiki/Gateway_drug_effect \"Gateway drug effect\") to other forms of tobacco, and threaten to addict a new generation to [nicotine](/wiki/Nicotine_dependence \"Nicotine dependence\").{{Cite journal\\|last\\=Jenssen BP, Walley SC, American Academy of Pediatrics Section on Tobacco Control\\|date\\=2019\\|title\\=E\\-cigarettes and similar devices\\|url\\= \\|journal\\=Pediatrics\\|volume\\=143\\|issue\\=2\\|pages\\=e20183652\\|doi\\=10\\.1542/peds.2018\\-3652\\|pmid\\=30835247\\|pmc\\=6644065}}", "### Gun violence", "The American Academy of Pediatrics says that although [firearms\\-related deaths in the US](/wiki/Firearm_death_rates_in_the_United_States_by_state \"Firearm death rates in the United States by state\") have dropped since the 1990s, guns were used in more than 80 percent of teen homicides in 2009 and were the most common [suicide](/wiki/Suicide \"Suicide\") method among US teens.{{cite news \\|last\\=Pittman \\|first\\=Genevra \\|date\\=2012\\-10\\-18 \\|title\\=Pediatricians call for strict gun laws to protect kids \\|url\\=https://www.reuters.com/article/us\\-usa\\-health\\-firearms\\-idUSBRE89H1F420121018 \\|work\\=Reuters \\|access\\-date\\=2013\\-10\\-21 }} The AAP believes pediatricians should discuss guns and [gun safety](/wiki/Gun_safety \"Gun safety\") with parents before babies are born and at children's annual exams.{{cite magazine \\|last\\=Rho \\|first\\=Helena \\|date\\=2013\\-02\\-01 \\|title\\=The Pediatricians vs. the NRA: How the gun lobby is trying to gag doctors from talking about kids and guns \\|url\\=http://www.slate.com/articles/health\\_and\\_science/medical\\_examiner/2013/02/pediatricians\\_and\\_nra\\_physician\\_gag\\_rules\\_and\\_the\\_cdc\\_aca\\_and\\_states.single.html \\|magazine\\=Slate \\|access\\-date\\=2013\\-10\\-21 }} It also advocates for, among other things, more [background checks](/wiki/Background_check \"Background check\"), an [assault weapons ban](/wiki/Assault_weapons_bans_in_the_United_States \"Assault weapons bans in the United States\"), and more federal research on [gun violence](/wiki/Gun_violence_in_the_United_States \"Gun violence in the United States\").{{cite news \\|last\\=Viebeck \\|first\\= Elise \\|date\\=2013\\-04\\-29 \\|title\\=Pediatricians to push for gun control on Capitol Hill \\|url\\=https://thehill.com/policy/healthcare/149054\\-pediatricians\\-to\\-push\\-for\\-gun\\-control\\-on\\-capitol\\-hill/ \\|newspaper\\=The Hill \\|access\\-date\\=2013\\-10\\-21 }}{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.aap.org/en\\-us/advocacy\\-and\\-policy/federal\\-advocacy/Documents/AAPGunViolencePreventionPolicyRecommendations\\_Jan2013\\.pdf \\|title\\=American Academy of Pediatrics Gun Violence Policy Recommendations \\|author\\= \\|date\\=January 2013 \\|access\\-date\\=2013\\-10\\-21}}", "### Marijuana", "The AAP warns of possible [marijuana](/wiki/Marijuana \"Marijuana\") damage to children and adolescents.{{cite journal \\|author1\\=Committee on Substance Abuse \\|author2\\=Committee on Adolescence \\|title\\=The Impact of Marijuana Policies on Youth: Clinical, Research, and Legal Update \\|journal\\=Pediatrics \\|date\\=26 January 2015 \\|volume\\=135 \\|issue\\=3 \\|pages\\=584–587 \\|doi\\=10\\.1542/peds.2014\\-4146 \\|pmid\\=25624383 \\|s2cid\\=42875063 \\|doi\\-access\\=free }} In states that have already [legalized marijuana](/wiki/Legality_of_cannabis_by_U.S._jurisdiction \"Legality of cannabis by U.S. jurisdiction\"), the Academy recommends that pediatricians and regulators treat it as they would tobacco. The Academy supports [\"decriminalization\" of marijuana](/wiki/Decriminalization_of_non-medical_cannabis_in_the_United_States \"Decriminalization of non-medical cannabis in the United States\") (reductions in the penalties for its use and possession) in combination with an increased commitment to [substance\\-abuse treatment](/wiki/Substance_abuse_treatment \"Substance abuse treatment\"). The Academy recommends changing marijuana from a [DEA Schedule I](/wiki/DEA_Schedule_1 \"DEA Schedule 1\") to a DEA Schedule II to facilitate research into [pharmaceutical uses](/wiki/Medical_marijuana_in_the_United_States \"Medical marijuana in the United States\").{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.aap.org/en\\-us/about\\-the\\-aap/aap\\-press\\-room/pages/American\\-Academy\\-of\\-Pediatrics\\-Reaffirms\\-Opposition\\-to\\-Legalizing\\-Marijuana\\-for\\-Recreational\\-or\\-Medical\\-Use.aspx \\|title\\=American Academy of Pediatrics Reaffirms Opposition to Legalizing Marijuana for Recreational or Medical Use \\|author\\= \\|date\\=26 January 2015 \\|publisher\\=American Academy of Pediatrics \\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-04\\-24 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180426075849/https://www.aap.org/en\\-us/about\\-the\\-aap/aap\\-press\\-room/pages/American\\-Academy\\-of\\-Pediatrics\\-Reaffirms\\-Opposition\\-to\\-Legalizing\\-Marijuana\\-for\\-Recreational\\-or\\-Medical\\-Use.aspx \\|archive\\-date\\=April 26, 2018 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}", "### School start times for adolescents", "Recognizing that [insufficient sleep](/wiki/Insufficient_sleep \"Insufficient sleep\") in adolescents is an important public health issue that significantly affects the health and safety, as well as [academic success](/wiki/Academic_success \"Academic success\"), the American Academy of Pediatrics strongly supports efforts of school districts to optimize sleep in students and urges [high schools](/wiki/High_schools_in_the_United_States \"High schools in the United States\") and middle schools to aim for start times no earlier than 8:30 a.m., to allow students the opportunity to achieve optimal levels of sleep (8\\.5–9\\.5 hours) and to improve physical and mental health, safety, academic performance, and quality of life. Although the AAP acknowledges that numerous factors may impair the amount and/or quality of sleep in adolescents—among them, biological changes in sleep associated with [puberty](/wiki/Puberty \"Puberty\"), lifestyle choices, and academic demands—it considers school start times before 8:30 a.m. (\"earlier school start times\") to be a key modifiable contributor to insufficient sleep, together with [circadian rhythm](/wiki/Circadian_rhythm \"Circadian rhythm\") disruption. It also recognizes that a substantial body of research has demonstrated that [delaying the start of the school day](/wiki/Start_school_later_movement \"Start school later movement\") is an effective countermeasure to chronic sleep loss and has a wide range of potential benefits to the physical and mental health, safety, and academic achievement of students—including reduced obesity risk, rates of depression, and [drowsy driving](/wiki/Drowsy_driving \"Drowsy driving\") crashes as well as improved academic performance and quality of life.{{cite journal \\|title\\=School Start Times for Adolescents \\|journal\\=Pediatrics \\|volume\\=134 \\|issue\\=3 \\|pages\\=642–9 \\|year\\=2014 \\|pmid\\=25156998 \\|doi\\=10\\.1542/peds.2014\\-1697 \\|doi\\-access\\=free \\|author1\\=Adolescent Sleep Working Group \\|author2\\=Committee on Adolescence \\|pmc\\=8194457 }} Later start times also result in less frequent [tardiness](/wiki/Tardiness \"Tardiness\").{{cite journal\\|doi\\=10\\.1146/annurev\\-publhealth\\-040119\\-094412\\|doi\\-access\\=free\\|title\\=Sleep Health: An Opportunity for Public Health to Address Health Equity\\|year\\=2020\\|last1\\=Hale\\|first1\\=Lauren\\|last2\\=Troxel\\|first2\\=Wendy\\|last3\\=Buysse\\|first3\\=Daniel J.\\|journal\\=Annual Review of Public Health\\|volume\\=41\\|pages\\=81–99\\|pmid\\=31900098\\|pmc\\=7944938}}", "### Abusive head trauma", "There is limited medical controversy surrounded the AAP regarding [abusive head trauma](/wiki/Abusive_head_trauma \"Abusive head trauma\") (AHT), also called *shaken baby syndrome* in infants.{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Narang \\|first1\\=Sandeep \\|title\\=Acceptance of Shaken Baby Syndrome and Abusive Head Trauma as Medical Diagnoses \\|journal\\=Journal of Pediatrics \\|date\\=1 October 2016 \\|volume\\=177 \\|pages\\=273–278 \\|doi\\=10\\.1016/j.jpeds.2016\\.06\\.036 \\|pmid\\=27458075 \\|doi\\-access\\=free }} The current skepticism is not whether violent shaking or shaking with slamming is dangerous to infants and children, but of how the scientific information is used in the legal processes. The AAP updated its policy paper in 2020\\. In the updated policy paper, the APP states \"The AAP continues to affirm the dangers and harms of shaking infants, continues to embrace the 'shaken baby syndrome' diagnosis as a valid subset of the AHT diagnosis, and encourages pediatric practitioners to educate community stakeholders when necessary.\"{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Narang \\|first1\\=Sandeep \\|title\\=Abusive Head Trauma in Infants and Children \\|journal\\=Pediatrics \\|date\\=1 April 2020 \\|volume\\=145 \\|issue\\=4 \\|pages\\=e20200203 \\|doi\\=10\\.1542/peds.2020\\-0203 \\|pmid\\=32205464 \\|doi\\-access\\=free }}", "### Statins for high cholesterol in children", "In 2008, the AAP and the [American Heart Association](/wiki/American_Heart_Association \"American Heart Association\") recommended [statins](/wiki/Statin \"Statin\") for children as young as eight years with [high lipid concentrations](/wiki/Hyperlipidemia \"Hyperlipidemia\") and for children as young as two years with major cardiovascular risk factors, if [weight management](/wiki/Weight_management \"Weight management\"), dietary changes, and additional [physical exercise](/wiki/Physical_exercise \"Physical exercise\") were not sufficient to reduce the risk of heart disease. The organizations were criticized by [bloggers](/wiki/Bloggers \"Bloggers\") and the editorial board of *[The New York Times](/wiki/The_New_York_Times \"The New York Times\")*, who expressed \"fear that it will open the way for drug companies to bombard anxious parents with ads promoting these and other products and increase the number of parents insisting on prescriptions for their children. The ease of popping pills should not distract parents, health professionals, or policy makers from the more arduous tasks of cutting back on junk foods, promoting healthy diets, and putting physical education back into the schools.\"{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Tanne \\|first1\\=Janice Hopkins \\|title\\=US paediatricians and cardiologists are criticised for recommending statins for children \\|journal\\=BMJ \\|date\\=19 July 2008 \\|volume\\=337 \\|issue\\=7662 \\|pages\\=134–135 \\|doi\\=10\\.1136/bmj.a813 \\|pmid\\=18632713 \\|pmc\\=2483893 }}", "### Tobacco", "AAP recommends that tobacco control programs should change the image of tobacco by telling the truth about the substance. This includes prohibiting tobacco advertising and promotion that is accessible to children, as well as [point of sale](/wiki/Point_of_sale_display \"Point of sale display\") advertising, [product placements](/wiki/Product_placement \"Product placement\") in movies and other entertainment media, and promotion in print or internet\\-based media accessible to youth. Advertising and promotion has been shown to be a cause of tobacco use initiation in adolescents.{{Cite journal\\|last\\=Farber HJ, Walley SC, Groner JA, Nelson KE\\|title\\=Clinical practice policy to protect children from tobacco, nicotine, and tobacco smoke\\|url\\=\\|journal\\=Pediatrics\\|year\\=2015\\|volume\\=136\\|issue\\=5\\|pages\\=1008–1017\\|doi\\=10\\.1542/peds.2015\\-3108\\|pmid\\=26504137\\|s2cid\\=23285419\\|doi\\-access\\=free}}", "AAP supports a [minimum purchasing age](/wiki/Smoking_age \"Smoking age\") of 21 years for tobacco products. Increasing age of purchase has been shown to decrease [youth smoking](/wiki/Youth_smoking \"Youth smoking\") rates. Younger age of starting tobacco use leads to lower rates of ever [stopping tobacco use](/wiki/Smoking_cessation \"Smoking cessation\").{{Cite journal\\|last\\=Farber HJ, Groner J, Walley S, Nelson K\\|date\\=2015\\|title\\=Protecting children from tobacco, nicotine, and tobacco smoke.\\|url\\=\\|journal\\=Pediatrics\\|volume\\=136\\|issue\\=5\\|pages\\=e1439\\-1467\\|doi\\=10\\.1542/peds.2015\\-3110\\|pmid\\=26504135\\|s2cid\\=31575284\\|doi\\-access\\=free}}", "### LGBT healthcare", "According to *Block (2023\\)*, the AAP and other American medical professional groups have becoming increasingly aligned in supporting [gender affirming care](/wiki/Gender_affirming_care \"Gender affirming care\") for gender dysphoria, which may include gonadotrophin releasing hormone analogues (GnRHa) to suppress puberty; oestrogen or testosterone to promote secondary sex characteristics; and surgical removal or augmentation of breasts, genitals, or other physical features.{{Cite journal \\|last\\=Block \\|first\\=Jennifer \\|date\\=2023\\-02\\-23 \\|title\\=Gender dysphoria in young people is rising—and so is professional disagreement \\|url\\=https://www.bmj.com/content/380/bmj.p382 \\|journal\\=BMJ \\|language\\=en \\|volume\\=380 \\|pages\\=382 \\|doi\\=10\\.1136/bmj.p382 \\|issn\\=1756\\-1833 \\|pmid\\=36822640\\|s2cid\\=257103170 \\|doi\\-access\\=free }}", "In 2018, the AAP issued a policy statement putting forward a model of gender affirmative care.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Fitzsimons \\|first\\=Tim \\|url\\=https://www.nbcnews.com/feature/nbc\\-out/pediatricians\\-group\\-recommends\\-affirmative\\-care\\-transgender\\-youth\\-n910451\\|title \\= Pediatricians group recommends 'affirmative care' for transgender youth\\|website \\= \\[\\[NBC News]]\\| date\\=September 17, 2018 }}{{Cite news \\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/10/15/well/family/helping\\-pediatricians\\-care\\-for\\-transgender\\-children.html \\|title \\= Helping Pediatricians Care for Transgender Children\\|newspaper \\= The New York Times\\|date \\= October 15, 2018\\|last1 \\= Klass\\|first1 \\= Perri}} Gender affirmative care is based in the idea that transgender identities and diverse gender expressions do not constitute a mental disorder, that variations in gender identity and expression are normal aspects of human diversity, and binary definitions of gender do not always reflect emerging gender identities, that gender identity evolves as an interplay of biology, development, socialization, and culture, and that if a mental health issue exists, it most often stems from stigma and negative experiences rather than being intrinsic to the child.{{Cite journal\\|last1\\=Rafferty\\|first1\\=Jason\\|last2\\=Health\\|first2\\=Committee on Psychosocial Aspects of Child and Family\\|last3\\=Adolescence\\|first3\\=Committee On\\|last4\\=Section on Lesbian\\|first4\\=Gay\\|date\\=2018\\-10\\-01\\|title\\=Ensuring Comprehensive Care and Support for Transgender and Gender\\-Diverse Children and Adolescents\\|url\\=https://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/142/4/e20182162\\|journal\\=Pediatrics\\|language\\=en\\|volume\\=142\\|issue\\=4\\|pages\\=e20182162\\|doi\\=10\\.1542/peds.2018\\-2162\\|issn\\=0031\\-4005\\|pmid\\=30224363\\|doi\\-access\\=free}}", "The AAP also describe [conversion therapy](/wiki/Conversion_therapy \"Conversion therapy\") as \"unsuccessful\", \"deleterious\" and \"outside the mainstream of traditional medical practice\". Finally, the AAP recommends that youth identifying as transgender have access to comprehensive and development\\-appropriate healthcare provided in safe and inclusive clinics but also that family based therapy be available. The AAP also recommend that the medical field and federal government prioritize research that is dedicated to improving the quality of [evidence\\-based care](/wiki/Evidence-based_healthcare \"Evidence-based healthcare\") for transgender youth.", "" ]
Plot summary ------------ While camping in the woods on her way back to Corus from an errand, Alanna's campsite, set up under a willow tree, is discovered by a small black cat whom she names Faithful. It does not escape Alanna's notice that his eyes are as purple as her own; she also finds out that Faithful can talk to her, although to others it sounds as if he is meowing. Soon after, the Great Mother Goddess, Alanna's patron, shows up at her campfire. She gives Alanna an amulet that allows the young woman to see magic being worked around her. As she progresses into knighthood, Alanna's feminine side is nurtured as well. After a few visits with Eleni, George Cooper's mother, Alanna realizes that part of her wants to act like the ladies she sees in the Court. Eleni takes Alanna under her wing and secretly teaches her how to dress and behave like a woman. The change does not go unnoticed by George or Prince Jonathan, the only two friends with whom she has shared her secret about her sex. Jon and Alanna share their first kiss after he rescues her when she is kidnapped by nobles from Tusaine, and they become lovers soon after, although George made it clear to Alanna that he loved her before they went to war. Alanna withstands the Ordeal of Knighthood and becomes a knight. Her twin brother, Thom, presents her with a shield featuring the crest of their home estate, Trebond. When he and Alanna are alone after the ceremony, he shows her that when she is ready to reveal to everyone that she is a woman, the Trebond crest will disappear, and in its place will be the picture of a golden Lioness rearing on a field of red. Alanna discovers her long\-time nemesis, Duke Roger of Conte, her prince's cousin, has a plan to kill the king, queen, Jonathan, and even Alanna herself in order to take the throne. After her knighthood, Alanna accuses Roger publicly and he demands a duel. During the duel, he accidentally slices through the special corset Alanna wears to keep her breasts flat, revealing to everyone that she is very much a woman. Her friends, including Jonathan and Myles, step up and tell the king that they knew beforehand that she was a female. Driven to rage at being challenged by a woman, Roger attacks and attempts to use an illusion to confuse Alanna. She uses the amulet given to her by the Goddess in the beginning of the novel and, spotting the deception, is able to defeat and kill Roger. After her battle, Alanna decides not to stick around to deal with the initial uproar over her sex. With Faithful, her longtime manservant Coram, and her horse Moonlight, she has a tearful goodbye with Jonathan and sets off for the desert in the South, in search of more adventure.
[ "Plot summary\n------------", "While camping in the woods on her way back to Corus from an errand, Alanna's campsite, set up under a willow tree, is discovered by a small black cat whom she names Faithful. It does not escape Alanna's notice that his eyes are as purple as her own; she also finds out that Faithful can talk to her, although to others it sounds as if he is meowing. Soon after, the Great Mother Goddess, Alanna's patron, shows up at her campfire. She gives Alanna an amulet that allows the young woman to see magic being worked around her.", "As she progresses into knighthood, Alanna's feminine side is nurtured as well. After a few visits with Eleni, George Cooper's mother, Alanna realizes that part of her wants to act like the ladies she sees in the Court. Eleni takes Alanna under her wing and secretly teaches her how to dress and behave like a woman. The change does not go unnoticed by George or Prince Jonathan, the only two friends with whom she has shared her secret about her sex. Jon and Alanna share their first kiss after he rescues her when she is kidnapped by nobles from Tusaine, and they become lovers soon after, although George made it clear to Alanna that he loved her before they went to war.", "Alanna withstands the Ordeal of Knighthood and becomes a knight. Her twin brother, Thom, presents her with a shield featuring the crest of their home estate, Trebond. When he and Alanna are alone after the ceremony, he shows her that when she is ready to reveal to everyone that she is a woman, the Trebond crest will disappear, and in its place will be the picture of a golden Lioness rearing on a field of red.", "Alanna discovers her long\\-time nemesis, Duke Roger of Conte, her prince's cousin, has a plan to kill the king, queen, Jonathan, and even Alanna herself in order to take the throne. After her knighthood, Alanna accuses Roger publicly and he demands a duel. During the duel, he accidentally slices through the special corset Alanna wears to keep her breasts flat, revealing to everyone that she is very much a woman. Her friends, including Jonathan and Myles, step up and tell the king that they knew beforehand that she was a female. Driven to rage at being challenged by a woman, Roger attacks and attempts to use an illusion to confuse Alanna. She uses the amulet given to her by the Goddess in the beginning of the novel and, spotting the deception, is able to defeat and kill Roger.", "After her battle, Alanna decides not to stick around to deal with the initial uproar over her sex. With Faithful, her longtime manservant Coram, and her horse Moonlight, she has a tearful goodbye with Jonathan and sets off for the desert in the South, in search of more adventure.", "" ]
Diplomatic career ----------------- He entered service as a career diplomat in the [Spanish Ministry of Foreign Affairs (MFA)](/wiki/Ministry_of_Foreign_Affairs_%28Spain%29 "Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Spain)") in 1943\.{{cite news \|title\=Angel Sagaz, Envoy to U.S. From Spain, Is Dead at 61 \|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/1974/05/07/archives/angel\-sagaz\-envoy\-to\-us\-from\-spain\-is\-dead\-at\-61\.html \|work\=\[\[New York Times]] \|agency\=\[\[United Press International]] \|date\=7 May 1974}} Early in his career, Sagaz was posted to [Ottawa](/wiki/Ottawa "Ottawa"), [Stockholm](/wiki/Stockholm "Stockholm"), and [Helsinki](/wiki/Helsinki "Helsinki"). From 1953 to 1958, he was posted in Washington, D.C. He was director of the MFA's North America and Canada desk from 1960 to 1964\. From 1964 through 1966, he was Director\-General for North America. In 1966, Sagaz became the Spanish Ambassador to Egypt in Cairo. ### Ambassador to Egypt and Operation Pasaporte 128 In the aftermath of Egypt's participation and decisive defeat in the [Six\-Day War](/wiki/Six-Day_War "Six-Day War"), fought between [Israel](/wiki/Israel "Israel") and a coalition of Arab states (primarily Egypt, [Syria](/wiki/Syria "Syria"), and [Jordan](/wiki/Jordan "Jordan")) in June 1967, the Egyptian government began a campaign of intimidation and harassment of [Egypt's Jewish population](/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Egypt "History of the Jews in Egypt"). The Egyptian police began to detain Jews, trying, in general, to have one member of each Jewish family in prison. Most of the Jewish community's men were arrested.{{cite journal \|last1\=Rein \|first1\=Raanan \|title\=Diplomacy, Propaganda, and Humanitarian Gestures: Francoist Spain and Egyptian Jews, 1956–1968 \|journal\=Iberoamericana \|year\=2006 \|volume\=6 \|issue\=23 \|pages\=21–33 \|url\=http://www.iai.spk\-berlin.de/fileadmin/dokumentenbibliothek/Iberoamericana/23\-rein.pdf \|access\-date\=7 July 2023}} Most of these were imprisoned in the [Tora Prison](/wiki/Tora_Prison "Tora Prison") south of Cairo, a prison in [Abu Zaabal](/wiki/Abu_Zaabal "Abu Zaabal"), a suburb to the north of Cairo, and a women's prison in [El Qantara](/wiki/El_Qantara%2C_Egypt "El Qantara, Egypt") in the [Nile Delta](/wiki/Nile_Delta "Nile Delta"). The Spanish embassy became involved to deal with the consular needs of Egyptian Jews who had a Spanish passport. Sagaz appealed to Egyptian police, the [Egyptian Ministry of Interior](/wiki/Ministry_of_Interior_%28Egypt%29 "Ministry of Interior (Egypt)"), and Egyptian President [Gamal Abdel Nasser](/wiki/Gamal_Abdel_Nasser "Gamal Abdel Nasser") himself for the release and granting of permission for the Jews to leave Egypt. Sagaz argued that the Jews in Egypt held Spanish citizenship by virtue of the decree issued by former Spanish dictator [Primo de Rivera](/wiki/Miguel_Primo_de_Rivera "Miguel Primo de Rivera") in December 1924 "on the granting of Spanish nationality by naturalization letter to protected of Spanish origin". Fellow Spanish diplomat [Ángel Sanz Briz](/wiki/%C3%81ngel_Sanz_Briz "Ángel Sanz Briz") had used the same tactic to provide Spanish passports to more than 5,000 Jews in [German\-occupied Hungary](/wiki/Government_of_National_Unity_%28Hungary%29 "Government of National Unity (Hungary)") during the [Holocaust](/wiki/Holocaust "Holocaust").{{cite news \|last1\=Carrion \|first1\=Francisco \|title\=El ángel español que liberó a 1\.500 judíos presos en Egipto \|url\=https://www.elmundo.es/cronica/2017/06/11/593be423e5fdea6b3c8b4579\.html \|access\-date\=7 July 2023 \|work\=\[\[El Mundo (Spain)\|El Mundo]] \|date\=11 June 2017}} Sagaz emphasized, as a ploy, that he did not believe that Egypt was discriminating for reasons of race or religion, but was taking prudent steps during wartime. He also pointed to the fact that [Spain had never recognized Israel](/wiki/Israel%E2%80%93Spain_relations "Israel–Spain relations") as proof of his country's friendship with the Arab world. The Egyptian government agreed to the Jews' release, with two conditions. First, the freed Jews were to maintain absolute silence about their experience in prison, so that they could not be used as propaganda against Nasser. Second, they were not to immediately go to Israel. Between 1967 and 1970, as many as 1,500 Jews, consisting of more than 615 families, left Egypt due to the efforts of Sagaz and his wife. The first tranche of Jews departed from the [Alexandria Port](/wiki/Alexandria_Port "Alexandria Port") on the Spanish ships *Benidorm* and *Benicarló* and traveled to Marseille, Genoa, or Barcelona. The Spanish government paid for the trip. Sagaz would personally pick up the Jews at the prison, sign their passports, and drive them in a car with diplomatic license plates to Alexandria. The second group left on regular [Air France](/wiki/Air_France "Air France") flights, averaging four people per day, on tickets paid for by global Jewish organizations such as [HIAS](/wiki/HIAS "HIAS"). According to the testimony of some of the Jews, they were not immediately informed of the involvement of the Spanish embassy in Cairo, only handed Spanish passports shortly before the flight to France. The Spanish passports were valid for only 2 years and could not be renewed. As Spanish ambassador, Sagaz also represented the interests of the United States after the severing of relations between Egypt and the U.S. after the war.{{cite news \|title\=Angel Sagaz dies; Spanish diplomat \|url\=https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/GPO\-CRECB\-1974\-pt10/pdf/GPO\-CRECB\-1974\-pt10\-4\-3\.pdf \|access\-date\=7 July 2023 \|newspaper\=Washington Post \|publisher\=U.S. House of Representatives \|date\=7 May 1974}} The efforts of Sagaz and the Spanish embassy were revealed by the American press in 1968\. ### Ambassador to the United States Sagaz served in Cairo until 1972, when he became [Ambassador of Spain to the United States](/wiki/Ambassador_of_Spain_to_the_United_States "Ambassador of Spain to the United States") on 7 March 1972\.
[ "Diplomatic career\n-----------------", "He entered service as a career diplomat in the [Spanish Ministry of Foreign Affairs (MFA)](/wiki/Ministry_of_Foreign_Affairs_%28Spain%29 \"Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Spain)\") in 1943\\.{{cite news \\|title\\=Angel Sagaz, Envoy to U.S. From Spain, Is Dead at 61 \\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/1974/05/07/archives/angel\\-sagaz\\-envoy\\-to\\-us\\-from\\-spain\\-is\\-dead\\-at\\-61\\.html \\|work\\=\\[\\[New York Times]] \\|agency\\=\\[\\[United Press International]] \\|date\\=7 May 1974}} Early in his career, Sagaz was posted to [Ottawa](/wiki/Ottawa \"Ottawa\"), [Stockholm](/wiki/Stockholm \"Stockholm\"), and [Helsinki](/wiki/Helsinki \"Helsinki\"). From 1953 to 1958, he was posted in Washington, D.C. He was director of the MFA's North America and Canada desk from 1960 to 1964\\. From 1964 through 1966, he was Director\\-General for North America. In 1966, Sagaz became the Spanish Ambassador to Egypt in Cairo.", "### Ambassador to Egypt and Operation Pasaporte 128", "In the aftermath of Egypt's participation and decisive defeat in the [Six\\-Day War](/wiki/Six-Day_War \"Six-Day War\"), fought between [Israel](/wiki/Israel \"Israel\") and a coalition of Arab states (primarily Egypt, [Syria](/wiki/Syria \"Syria\"), and [Jordan](/wiki/Jordan \"Jordan\")) in June 1967, the Egyptian government began a campaign of intimidation and harassment of [Egypt's Jewish population](/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Egypt \"History of the Jews in Egypt\"). The Egyptian police began to detain Jews, trying, in general, to have one member of each Jewish family in prison. Most of the Jewish community's men were arrested.{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Rein \\|first1\\=Raanan \\|title\\=Diplomacy, Propaganda, and Humanitarian Gestures: Francoist Spain and Egyptian Jews, 1956–1968 \\|journal\\=Iberoamericana \\|year\\=2006 \\|volume\\=6 \\|issue\\=23 \\|pages\\=21–33 \\|url\\=http://www.iai.spk\\-berlin.de/fileadmin/dokumentenbibliothek/Iberoamericana/23\\-rein.pdf \\|access\\-date\\=7 July 2023}} Most of these were imprisoned in the [Tora Prison](/wiki/Tora_Prison \"Tora Prison\") south of Cairo, a prison in [Abu Zaabal](/wiki/Abu_Zaabal \"Abu Zaabal\"), a suburb to the north of Cairo, and a women's prison in [El Qantara](/wiki/El_Qantara%2C_Egypt \"El Qantara, Egypt\") in the [Nile Delta](/wiki/Nile_Delta \"Nile Delta\").", "The Spanish embassy became involved to deal with the consular needs of Egyptian Jews who had a Spanish passport. Sagaz appealed to Egyptian police, the [Egyptian Ministry of Interior](/wiki/Ministry_of_Interior_%28Egypt%29 \"Ministry of Interior (Egypt)\"), and Egyptian President [Gamal Abdel Nasser](/wiki/Gamal_Abdel_Nasser \"Gamal Abdel Nasser\") himself for the release and granting of permission for the Jews to leave Egypt. Sagaz argued that the Jews in Egypt held Spanish citizenship by virtue of the decree issued by former Spanish dictator [Primo de Rivera](/wiki/Miguel_Primo_de_Rivera \"Miguel Primo de Rivera\") in December 1924 \"on the granting of Spanish nationality by naturalization letter to protected of Spanish origin\". Fellow Spanish diplomat [Ángel Sanz Briz](/wiki/%C3%81ngel_Sanz_Briz \"Ángel Sanz Briz\") had used the same tactic to provide Spanish passports to more than 5,000 Jews in [German\\-occupied Hungary](/wiki/Government_of_National_Unity_%28Hungary%29 \"Government of National Unity (Hungary)\") during the [Holocaust](/wiki/Holocaust \"Holocaust\").{{cite news \\|last1\\=Carrion \\|first1\\=Francisco \\|title\\=El ángel español que liberó a 1\\.500 judíos presos en Egipto \\|url\\=https://www.elmundo.es/cronica/2017/06/11/593be423e5fdea6b3c8b4579\\.html \\|access\\-date\\=7 July 2023 \\|work\\=\\[\\[El Mundo (Spain)\\|El Mundo]] \\|date\\=11 June 2017}} Sagaz emphasized, as a ploy, that he did not believe that Egypt was discriminating for reasons of race or religion, but was taking prudent steps during wartime. He also pointed to the fact that [Spain had never recognized Israel](/wiki/Israel%E2%80%93Spain_relations \"Israel–Spain relations\") as proof of his country's friendship with the Arab world.", "The Egyptian government agreed to the Jews' release, with two conditions. First, the freed Jews were to maintain absolute silence about their experience in prison, so that they could not be used as propaganda against Nasser. Second, they were not to immediately go to Israel. Between 1967 and 1970, as many as 1,500 Jews, consisting of more than 615 families, left Egypt due to the efforts of Sagaz and his wife.", "The first tranche of Jews departed from the [Alexandria Port](/wiki/Alexandria_Port \"Alexandria Port\") on the Spanish ships *Benidorm* and *Benicarló* and traveled to Marseille, Genoa, or Barcelona. The Spanish government paid for the trip. Sagaz would personally pick up the Jews at the prison, sign their passports, and drive them in a car with diplomatic license plates to Alexandria. The second group left on regular [Air France](/wiki/Air_France \"Air France\") flights, averaging four people per day, on tickets paid for by global Jewish organizations such as [HIAS](/wiki/HIAS \"HIAS\"). According to the testimony of some of the Jews, they were not immediately informed of the involvement of the Spanish embassy in Cairo, only handed Spanish passports shortly before the flight to France. The Spanish passports were valid for only 2 years and could not be renewed.", "As Spanish ambassador, Sagaz also represented the interests of the United States after the severing of relations between Egypt and the U.S. after the war.{{cite news \\|title\\=Angel Sagaz dies; Spanish diplomat \\|url\\=https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/GPO\\-CRECB\\-1974\\-pt10/pdf/GPO\\-CRECB\\-1974\\-pt10\\-4\\-3\\.pdf \\|access\\-date\\=7 July 2023 \\|newspaper\\=Washington Post \\|publisher\\=U.S. House of Representatives \\|date\\=7 May 1974}} The efforts of Sagaz and the Spanish embassy were revealed by the American press in 1968\\.", "### Ambassador to the United States", "Sagaz served in Cairo until 1972, when he became [Ambassador of Spain to the United States](/wiki/Ambassador_of_Spain_to_the_United_States \"Ambassador of Spain to the United States\") on 7 March 1972\\.", "" ]
### Ambassador to Egypt and Operation Pasaporte 128 In the aftermath of Egypt's participation and decisive defeat in the [Six\-Day War](/wiki/Six-Day_War "Six-Day War"), fought between [Israel](/wiki/Israel "Israel") and a coalition of Arab states (primarily Egypt, [Syria](/wiki/Syria "Syria"), and [Jordan](/wiki/Jordan "Jordan")) in June 1967, the Egyptian government began a campaign of intimidation and harassment of [Egypt's Jewish population](/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Egypt "History of the Jews in Egypt"). The Egyptian police began to detain Jews, trying, in general, to have one member of each Jewish family in prison. Most of the Jewish community's men were arrested.{{cite journal \|last1\=Rein \|first1\=Raanan \|title\=Diplomacy, Propaganda, and Humanitarian Gestures: Francoist Spain and Egyptian Jews, 1956–1968 \|journal\=Iberoamericana \|year\=2006 \|volume\=6 \|issue\=23 \|pages\=21–33 \|url\=http://www.iai.spk\-berlin.de/fileadmin/dokumentenbibliothek/Iberoamericana/23\-rein.pdf \|access\-date\=7 July 2023}} Most of these were imprisoned in the [Tora Prison](/wiki/Tora_Prison "Tora Prison") south of Cairo, a prison in [Abu Zaabal](/wiki/Abu_Zaabal "Abu Zaabal"), a suburb to the north of Cairo, and a women's prison in [El Qantara](/wiki/El_Qantara%2C_Egypt "El Qantara, Egypt") in the [Nile Delta](/wiki/Nile_Delta "Nile Delta"). The Spanish embassy became involved to deal with the consular needs of Egyptian Jews who had a Spanish passport. Sagaz appealed to Egyptian police, the [Egyptian Ministry of Interior](/wiki/Ministry_of_Interior_%28Egypt%29 "Ministry of Interior (Egypt)"), and Egyptian President [Gamal Abdel Nasser](/wiki/Gamal_Abdel_Nasser "Gamal Abdel Nasser") himself for the release and granting of permission for the Jews to leave Egypt. Sagaz argued that the Jews in Egypt held Spanish citizenship by virtue of the decree issued by former Spanish dictator [Primo de Rivera](/wiki/Miguel_Primo_de_Rivera "Miguel Primo de Rivera") in December 1924 "on the granting of Spanish nationality by naturalization letter to protected of Spanish origin". Fellow Spanish diplomat [Ángel Sanz Briz](/wiki/%C3%81ngel_Sanz_Briz "Ángel Sanz Briz") had used the same tactic to provide Spanish passports to more than 5,000 Jews in [German\-occupied Hungary](/wiki/Government_of_National_Unity_%28Hungary%29 "Government of National Unity (Hungary)") during the [Holocaust](/wiki/Holocaust "Holocaust").{{cite news \|last1\=Carrion \|first1\=Francisco \|title\=El ángel español que liberó a 1\.500 judíos presos en Egipto \|url\=https://www.elmundo.es/cronica/2017/06/11/593be423e5fdea6b3c8b4579\.html \|access\-date\=7 July 2023 \|work\=\[\[El Mundo (Spain)\|El Mundo]] \|date\=11 June 2017}} Sagaz emphasized, as a ploy, that he did not believe that Egypt was discriminating for reasons of race or religion, but was taking prudent steps during wartime. He also pointed to the fact that [Spain had never recognized Israel](/wiki/Israel%E2%80%93Spain_relations "Israel–Spain relations") as proof of his country's friendship with the Arab world. The Egyptian government agreed to the Jews' release, with two conditions. First, the freed Jews were to maintain absolute silence about their experience in prison, so that they could not be used as propaganda against Nasser. Second, they were not to immediately go to Israel. Between 1967 and 1970, as many as 1,500 Jews, consisting of more than 615 families, left Egypt due to the efforts of Sagaz and his wife. The first tranche of Jews departed from the [Alexandria Port](/wiki/Alexandria_Port "Alexandria Port") on the Spanish ships *Benidorm* and *Benicarló* and traveled to Marseille, Genoa, or Barcelona. The Spanish government paid for the trip. Sagaz would personally pick up the Jews at the prison, sign their passports, and drive them in a car with diplomatic license plates to Alexandria. The second group left on regular [Air France](/wiki/Air_France "Air France") flights, averaging four people per day, on tickets paid for by global Jewish organizations such as [HIAS](/wiki/HIAS "HIAS"). According to the testimony of some of the Jews, they were not immediately informed of the involvement of the Spanish embassy in Cairo, only handed Spanish passports shortly before the flight to France. The Spanish passports were valid for only 2 years and could not be renewed. As Spanish ambassador, Sagaz also represented the interests of the United States after the severing of relations between Egypt and the U.S. after the war.{{cite news \|title\=Angel Sagaz dies; Spanish diplomat \|url\=https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/GPO\-CRECB\-1974\-pt10/pdf/GPO\-CRECB\-1974\-pt10\-4\-3\.pdf \|access\-date\=7 July 2023 \|newspaper\=Washington Post \|publisher\=U.S. House of Representatives \|date\=7 May 1974}} The efforts of Sagaz and the Spanish embassy were revealed by the American press in 1968\.
[ "### Ambassador to Egypt and Operation Pasaporte 128", "In the aftermath of Egypt's participation and decisive defeat in the [Six\\-Day War](/wiki/Six-Day_War \"Six-Day War\"), fought between [Israel](/wiki/Israel \"Israel\") and a coalition of Arab states (primarily Egypt, [Syria](/wiki/Syria \"Syria\"), and [Jordan](/wiki/Jordan \"Jordan\")) in June 1967, the Egyptian government began a campaign of intimidation and harassment of [Egypt's Jewish population](/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Egypt \"History of the Jews in Egypt\"). The Egyptian police began to detain Jews, trying, in general, to have one member of each Jewish family in prison. Most of the Jewish community's men were arrested.{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Rein \\|first1\\=Raanan \\|title\\=Diplomacy, Propaganda, and Humanitarian Gestures: Francoist Spain and Egyptian Jews, 1956–1968 \\|journal\\=Iberoamericana \\|year\\=2006 \\|volume\\=6 \\|issue\\=23 \\|pages\\=21–33 \\|url\\=http://www.iai.spk\\-berlin.de/fileadmin/dokumentenbibliothek/Iberoamericana/23\\-rein.pdf \\|access\\-date\\=7 July 2023}} Most of these were imprisoned in the [Tora Prison](/wiki/Tora_Prison \"Tora Prison\") south of Cairo, a prison in [Abu Zaabal](/wiki/Abu_Zaabal \"Abu Zaabal\"), a suburb to the north of Cairo, and a women's prison in [El Qantara](/wiki/El_Qantara%2C_Egypt \"El Qantara, Egypt\") in the [Nile Delta](/wiki/Nile_Delta \"Nile Delta\").", "The Spanish embassy became involved to deal with the consular needs of Egyptian Jews who had a Spanish passport. Sagaz appealed to Egyptian police, the [Egyptian Ministry of Interior](/wiki/Ministry_of_Interior_%28Egypt%29 \"Ministry of Interior (Egypt)\"), and Egyptian President [Gamal Abdel Nasser](/wiki/Gamal_Abdel_Nasser \"Gamal Abdel Nasser\") himself for the release and granting of permission for the Jews to leave Egypt. Sagaz argued that the Jews in Egypt held Spanish citizenship by virtue of the decree issued by former Spanish dictator [Primo de Rivera](/wiki/Miguel_Primo_de_Rivera \"Miguel Primo de Rivera\") in December 1924 \"on the granting of Spanish nationality by naturalization letter to protected of Spanish origin\". Fellow Spanish diplomat [Ángel Sanz Briz](/wiki/%C3%81ngel_Sanz_Briz \"Ángel Sanz Briz\") had used the same tactic to provide Spanish passports to more than 5,000 Jews in [German\\-occupied Hungary](/wiki/Government_of_National_Unity_%28Hungary%29 \"Government of National Unity (Hungary)\") during the [Holocaust](/wiki/Holocaust \"Holocaust\").{{cite news \\|last1\\=Carrion \\|first1\\=Francisco \\|title\\=El ángel español que liberó a 1\\.500 judíos presos en Egipto \\|url\\=https://www.elmundo.es/cronica/2017/06/11/593be423e5fdea6b3c8b4579\\.html \\|access\\-date\\=7 July 2023 \\|work\\=\\[\\[El Mundo (Spain)\\|El Mundo]] \\|date\\=11 June 2017}} Sagaz emphasized, as a ploy, that he did not believe that Egypt was discriminating for reasons of race or religion, but was taking prudent steps during wartime. He also pointed to the fact that [Spain had never recognized Israel](/wiki/Israel%E2%80%93Spain_relations \"Israel–Spain relations\") as proof of his country's friendship with the Arab world.", "The Egyptian government agreed to the Jews' release, with two conditions. First, the freed Jews were to maintain absolute silence about their experience in prison, so that they could not be used as propaganda against Nasser. Second, they were not to immediately go to Israel. Between 1967 and 1970, as many as 1,500 Jews, consisting of more than 615 families, left Egypt due to the efforts of Sagaz and his wife.", "The first tranche of Jews departed from the [Alexandria Port](/wiki/Alexandria_Port \"Alexandria Port\") on the Spanish ships *Benidorm* and *Benicarló* and traveled to Marseille, Genoa, or Barcelona. The Spanish government paid for the trip. Sagaz would personally pick up the Jews at the prison, sign their passports, and drive them in a car with diplomatic license plates to Alexandria. The second group left on regular [Air France](/wiki/Air_France \"Air France\") flights, averaging four people per day, on tickets paid for by global Jewish organizations such as [HIAS](/wiki/HIAS \"HIAS\"). According to the testimony of some of the Jews, they were not immediately informed of the involvement of the Spanish embassy in Cairo, only handed Spanish passports shortly before the flight to France. The Spanish passports were valid for only 2 years and could not be renewed.", "As Spanish ambassador, Sagaz also represented the interests of the United States after the severing of relations between Egypt and the U.S. after the war.{{cite news \\|title\\=Angel Sagaz dies; Spanish diplomat \\|url\\=https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/GPO\\-CRECB\\-1974\\-pt10/pdf/GPO\\-CRECB\\-1974\\-pt10\\-4\\-3\\.pdf \\|access\\-date\\=7 July 2023 \\|newspaper\\=Washington Post \\|publisher\\=U.S. House of Representatives \\|date\\=7 May 1974}} The efforts of Sagaz and the Spanish embassy were revealed by the American press in 1968\\.", "" ]
History ------- [thumb\|[Hillerød station](/wiki/Hiller%C3%B8d_station "Hillerød station") in 1880\.](/wiki/File:Hiller%C3%B8d_Station_1880.jpg "Hillerød Station 1880.jpg") Nordbanen was the second railway to reach Copenhagen in 1863\. It was originally the main line to [Elsinore](/wiki/Elsinore "Elsinore") before the more direct [Kystbanen](/wiki/Kystbanen "Kystbanen") opened in 1897\. The section from Hillerød to Elsinore still exists and is today the [Little North Line](/wiki/Little_North_Line "Little North Line") operated by the [railway company](/wiki/Railway_company "Railway company") [Lokaltog](/wiki/Lokaltog "Lokaltog"). South of Hellerup the original Nordbanen followed a much more westerly route than the current line, taking it along the present [ring line](/wiki/Ringbanen "Ringbanen") alignment to Ryparken and thence through [Nørrebro](/wiki/N%C3%B8rrebro "Nørrebro") to the 1863\-1911 central station at present\-day Kampmannsgade. The trains to Holte and Hillerød moved to the current line in 1921, but the old alignment was used by freight trains until 1930 and still leaves clear traces on a modern street map. The line from Hellerup to the new central station had four tracks of which trains on Nordbanen used the two western ones and trains on [Kystbanen](/wiki/Kystbanen "Kystbanen") used the two eastern ones. In 1928 two new tracks for local trains to [Klampenborg](/wiki/Klampenborgbanen "Klampenborgbanen") were added to Kystbanen; these connected to Nordbanen's tracks at Hellerup. Thus when the first S\-trains were introduced on the Klampenborg line in 1934 it was the Nordbanen tracks between København H and Hellerup that were electrified. But then plans to also electrify Nordbanen as far as Holte were already underfoot. Early on, a service pattern had been established in which local trains between Copenhagen and Holte were complemented by trains to Hillerød and Helsingør which ran non\-stop until Holte. The local trains to Holte were converted to S\-trains in 1936, but trains to Hillerød and beyond were still steam trains for several decades, even though they shared the S\-train tracks south of Holte. The Hillerød trains became a problem in the 1960s when capacity on the central S\-train section became a limiting factor for service extensions on the western radials. The steam trains had poor acceleration relative to the S\-trains and therefore tied up the tracks for twice as long as an S\-train would. In order to free this capacity the line from Holte to Hillerød was electrified in 1968 and the steam trains replaced by S\-trains. The first\-class cars were declassified to second class in 1972\. Likewise, the Hillerød trains kept the stopping pattern of the steam trains and ran non\-stop all the way from Østerport to Holte. Only from 1989 did this tradition break down, and the Hillerød services gradually gained intermediate stops at Hellerup (1989\) and Lyngby (1991\), and finally (1995\) at all stations between Østerport and Hellerup.
[ "History\n-------", "[thumb\\|[Hillerød station](/wiki/Hiller%C3%B8d_station \"Hillerød station\") in 1880\\.](/wiki/File:Hiller%C3%B8d_Station_1880.jpg \"Hillerød Station 1880.jpg\")\nNordbanen was the second railway to reach Copenhagen in 1863\\. It was originally the main line to [Elsinore](/wiki/Elsinore \"Elsinore\") before the more direct [Kystbanen](/wiki/Kystbanen \"Kystbanen\") opened in 1897\\. The section from Hillerød to Elsinore still exists and is today the [Little North Line](/wiki/Little_North_Line \"Little North Line\") operated by the [railway company](/wiki/Railway_company \"Railway company\") [Lokaltog](/wiki/Lokaltog \"Lokaltog\").", "South of Hellerup the original Nordbanen followed a much more westerly route than the current line, taking it along the present [ring line](/wiki/Ringbanen \"Ringbanen\") alignment to Ryparken and thence through [Nørrebro](/wiki/N%C3%B8rrebro \"Nørrebro\") to the 1863\\-1911 central station at present\\-day Kampmannsgade. The trains to Holte and Hillerød moved to the current line in 1921, but the old alignment was used by freight trains until 1930 and still leaves clear traces on a modern street map.", "The line from Hellerup to the new central station had four tracks of which trains on Nordbanen used the two western ones and trains on [Kystbanen](/wiki/Kystbanen \"Kystbanen\") used the two eastern ones. In 1928 two new tracks for local trains\nto [Klampenborg](/wiki/Klampenborgbanen \"Klampenborgbanen\") were added to Kystbanen; these connected to Nordbanen's tracks at Hellerup. Thus when the first S\\-trains were introduced on the Klampenborg line in 1934 it was the Nordbanen tracks between København H and Hellerup that were electrified. But then plans to also electrify Nordbanen as far as Holte were already underfoot.", "Early on, a service pattern had been established in which local trains between Copenhagen and Holte were complemented by trains to Hillerød and Helsingør which ran non\\-stop until Holte. The local trains to Holte were converted to S\\-trains in 1936, but trains to Hillerød and beyond were still steam trains for several decades, even though they shared the S\\-train tracks south of Holte.", "The Hillerød trains became a problem in the 1960s when capacity on the central S\\-train section became a limiting factor for service extensions on the western radials. The steam trains had poor acceleration relative to the S\\-trains and therefore tied up the tracks for twice as long as an S\\-train would. In order to free this capacity the line from Holte to Hillerød was electrified in 1968 and the steam trains replaced by S\\-trains.", "The first\\-class cars were declassified to second class in 1972\\.", "Likewise, the Hillerød trains kept the stopping pattern of the steam trains and ran non\\-stop all the way from Østerport to Holte. Only from 1989 did this tradition break down, and the Hillerød services gradually gained intermediate stops at Hellerup (1989\\) and Lyngby (1991\\), and finally (1995\\) at all stations between Østerport and Hellerup.", "" ]
Above ground ------------ [left\|thumb\|A pumpjack operating at an oil well in Natchez, MississippiIn](/wiki/File:Pumpjack_operating_at_an_oil_well_in_Natchez%2C_Mississippi.jpg "Pumpjack operating at an oil well in Natchez, Mississippi.jpg") the early days, pumpjacks worked by rod lines running horizontally above the ground to a wheel on a rotating eccentric in a mechanism known as a central power.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.petroleumhistory.org/OilHistory/pages/Central%20Power/centralpower.html \|title\=Oil History: The Central Power\|access\-date\=2011\-02\-05}} The central power, which might operate a dozen or more pumpjacks, would be powered by a steam or internal combustion engine or by an electric motor. Among the advantages of this scheme was only having one [prime mover](/wiki/Prime_mover_%28engine%29 "Prime mover (engine)") to power all the pumpjacks rather than individual motors for each. However, among the many difficulties was maintaining system balance as individual well loads changed. Modern pumpjacks are powered by a prime mover. This is commonly an electric motor, but [internal combustion engines](/wiki/Internal_combustion_engine "Internal combustion engine") are used in isolated locations without access to electricity, or, in the cases of water pumpjacks, where [three\-phase power](/wiki/Three-phase_electric_power "Three-phase electric power") is not available (while single phase motors exist at least up to {{convert\|60\|hp\|disp\=or}},{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.meridiumpower.ca/A/a\_1\.html\|title\=Single Phase Motors\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20050226170113/http://www.meridiumpower.ca/A/a\_1\.html\|archive\-date\=2005\-02\-26\|access\-date\=2017\-04\-29}} providing power to single\-phase motors above {{convert\|10\|hp\|disp\=or}} can cause powerline problems, notably voltage sag on startup,{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.rerc.org/pdf\_files/three\_phase\_options.pdf\|title\=Options Beyond Three\-Phase For Serving Remote Motor Loads\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170402142452/https://www.rerc.org/pdf\_files/three\_phase\_options.pdf\|archive\-date\=April 2, 2017\|access\-date\=April 29, 2017}} and many pumps require more than 10 horsepower). Common [off\-grid](/wiki/Grid_%28electricity%29 "Grid (electricity)") pumpjack engines run on [natural gas](/wiki/Natural_gas "Natural gas"), often casing gas produced from the well, but pumpjacks have been run on many types of fuel, such as [propane](/wiki/Propane "Propane") and [diesel fuel](/wiki/Diesel_fuel "Diesel fuel"). In harsh climates, such motors and engines may be housed in a [shack](/wiki/Shack "Shack") for protection from the elements. Engines that power water pumpjacks often receive natural gas from the nearest available [gas grid](/wiki/Gas_grid "Gas grid"). The prime mover runs a set of pulleys to the transmission, often a [double\-reduction gearbox](/wiki/Double_reduction_gearing "Double reduction gearing"), which drives a pair of [cranks](/wiki/Crank_%28mechanism%29 "Crank (mechanism)"), generally with [counterweights](/wiki/Counterweight "Counterweight") installed on them to offset the weight of the heavy rod assembly. The cranks raise and lower one end of an [I\-beam](/wiki/I-beam "I-beam") which is free to move on an [A\-frame](/wiki/A-Frame "A-Frame"). On the other end of the beam is a curved metal box called a horse head or donkey head, so named due to its appearance. A cable made of steel—occasionally, [fibreglass](/wiki/Fibreglass "Fibreglass")—, called a bridle, connects the horse head to the polished rod, a [piston](/wiki/Piston "Piston") that passes through the [stuffing box](/wiki/Stuffing_box "Stuffing box"). The cranks themselves also produce [counterbalance](/wiki/Counterweight "Counterweight") due to their weight, so on pumpjacks that do not carry very heavy loads, the weight of the cranks themselves may be enough to balance the well load. [thumb\|Oilfield pumpjack in Hockley County, Texas](/wiki/File:Pumpjack.webm "Pumpjack.webm") Sometimes, however, crank\-balanced units can become prohibitively heavy due to the need for counterweights. [Lufkin Industries](/wiki/Lufkin_Industries "Lufkin Industries") offer "air\-balanced" units, where counterbalance is provided by a [pneumatic cylinder](/wiki/Pneumatic_cylinder "Pneumatic cylinder") charged with air from a [compressor](/wiki/Compressor "Compressor"), eliminating the need for counterweights. The polished rod has a close fit to the stuffing box, letting it move in and out of the tubing without fluid escaping. (The tubing is a pipe that runs to the bottom of the well through which the liquid is produced.) The bridle follows the curve of the horse head as it lowers and raises to create a vertical or nearly\-vertical stroke. The polished rod is connected to a long string of rods called sucker rods, which run through the tubing to the down\-hole pump, usually positioned near the bottom of the well. File:Pump Jack.jpg\|Picture of a pump jack used to mechanically lift liquid out of the well if there is not enough bottom hole pressure for the liquid to flow all the way to the surface. File:ViewintoHell\-KernRiver.jpg\|The densely developed \[\[Kern River Oil Field]], California: Hundreds of pumpjacks are visible in the full\-size view. This style of development was common in the oil booms of the early 20th century. File:Pump jack animation.gif\|A pumpjack in Southern Alberta fueled by natural gas.
[ "Above ground\n------------", "[left\\|thumb\\|A pumpjack operating at an oil well in Natchez, MississippiIn](/wiki/File:Pumpjack_operating_at_an_oil_well_in_Natchez%2C_Mississippi.jpg \"Pumpjack operating at an oil well in Natchez, Mississippi.jpg\") the early days, pumpjacks worked by rod lines running horizontally above the ground to a wheel on a rotating eccentric in a mechanism known as a central power.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.petroleumhistory.org/OilHistory/pages/Central%20Power/centralpower.html \\|title\\=Oil History: The Central Power\\|access\\-date\\=2011\\-02\\-05}} The central power, which might operate a dozen or more pumpjacks, would be powered by a steam or internal combustion engine or by an electric motor. Among the advantages of this scheme was only having one [prime mover](/wiki/Prime_mover_%28engine%29 \"Prime mover (engine)\") to power all the pumpjacks rather than individual motors for each. However, among the many difficulties was maintaining system balance as individual well loads changed.", "Modern pumpjacks are powered by a prime mover. This is commonly an electric motor, but [internal combustion engines](/wiki/Internal_combustion_engine \"Internal combustion engine\") are used in isolated locations without access to electricity, or, in the cases of water pumpjacks, where [three\\-phase power](/wiki/Three-phase_electric_power \"Three-phase electric power\") is not available (while single phase motors exist at least up to {{convert\\|60\\|hp\\|disp\\=or}},{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.meridiumpower.ca/A/a\\_1\\.html\\|title\\=Single Phase Motors\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20050226170113/http://www.meridiumpower.ca/A/a\\_1\\.html\\|archive\\-date\\=2005\\-02\\-26\\|access\\-date\\=2017\\-04\\-29}} providing power to single\\-phase motors above {{convert\\|10\\|hp\\|disp\\=or}} can cause powerline problems, notably voltage sag on startup,{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.rerc.org/pdf\\_files/three\\_phase\\_options.pdf\\|title\\=Options Beyond Three\\-Phase For Serving Remote Motor Loads\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170402142452/https://www.rerc.org/pdf\\_files/three\\_phase\\_options.pdf\\|archive\\-date\\=April 2, 2017\\|access\\-date\\=April 29, 2017}} and many pumps require more than 10 horsepower). Common [off\\-grid](/wiki/Grid_%28electricity%29 \"Grid (electricity)\") pumpjack engines run on [natural gas](/wiki/Natural_gas \"Natural gas\"), often casing gas produced from the well, but pumpjacks have been run on many types of fuel, such as [propane](/wiki/Propane \"Propane\") and [diesel fuel](/wiki/Diesel_fuel \"Diesel fuel\"). In harsh climates, such motors and engines may be housed in a [shack](/wiki/Shack \"Shack\") for protection from the elements. Engines that power water pumpjacks often receive natural gas from the nearest available [gas grid](/wiki/Gas_grid \"Gas grid\").", "The prime mover runs a set of pulleys to the transmission, often a [double\\-reduction gearbox](/wiki/Double_reduction_gearing \"Double reduction gearing\"), which drives a pair of [cranks](/wiki/Crank_%28mechanism%29 \"Crank (mechanism)\"), generally with [counterweights](/wiki/Counterweight \"Counterweight\") installed on them to offset the weight of the heavy rod assembly. The cranks raise and lower one end of an [I\\-beam](/wiki/I-beam \"I-beam\") which is free to move on an [A\\-frame](/wiki/A-Frame \"A-Frame\"). On the other end of the beam is a curved metal box called a horse head or donkey head, so named due to its appearance. A cable made of steel—occasionally, [fibreglass](/wiki/Fibreglass \"Fibreglass\")—, called a bridle, connects the horse head to the polished rod, a [piston](/wiki/Piston \"Piston\") that passes through the [stuffing box](/wiki/Stuffing_box \"Stuffing box\").", "The cranks themselves also produce [counterbalance](/wiki/Counterweight \"Counterweight\") due to their weight, so on pumpjacks that do not carry very heavy loads, the weight of the cranks themselves may be enough to balance the well load.\n[thumb\\|Oilfield pumpjack in Hockley County, Texas](/wiki/File:Pumpjack.webm \"Pumpjack.webm\")\nSometimes, however, crank\\-balanced units can become prohibitively heavy due to the need for counterweights. [Lufkin Industries](/wiki/Lufkin_Industries \"Lufkin Industries\") offer \"air\\-balanced\" units, where counterbalance is provided by a [pneumatic cylinder](/wiki/Pneumatic_cylinder \"Pneumatic cylinder\") charged with air from a [compressor](/wiki/Compressor \"Compressor\"), eliminating the need for counterweights.", "The polished rod has a close fit to the stuffing box, letting it move in and out of the tubing without fluid escaping. (The tubing is a pipe that runs to the bottom of the well through which the liquid is produced.) The bridle follows the curve of the horse head as it lowers and raises to create a vertical or nearly\\-vertical stroke. The polished rod is connected to a long string of rods called sucker rods, which run through the tubing to the down\\-hole pump, usually positioned near the bottom of the well.", "", "File:Pump Jack.jpg\\|Picture of a pump jack used to mechanically lift liquid out of the well if there is not enough bottom hole pressure for the liquid to flow all the way to the surface.\nFile:ViewintoHell\\-KernRiver.jpg\\|The densely developed \\[\\[Kern River Oil Field]], California: Hundreds of pumpjacks are visible in the full\\-size view. This style of development was common in the oil booms of the early 20th century.\nFile:Pump jack animation.gif\\|A pumpjack in Southern Alberta fueled by natural gas.", "", "" ]
History ------- Sitifis was founded in 97 AD, during the reign of [Nerva](/wiki/Nerva "Nerva"), as a colony for [Roman veterans](/wiki/Legio "Legio"). Although no buildings of this period are known, a cemetery excavated in the 1960s contained Punic shaft tombs dated to the 2nd century AD.R. Guéry, 1985, La Necropole orientale de Sitifis: fouilles de 1966–1967\. Paris As the town grew, around 297 AD, the province of [Mauretania Sitifensis](/wiki/Mauretania_Sitifensis "Mauretania Sitifensis") was established, with Sitifis as its capital. In the newly prosperous town a bath building was built, decorated with fine mosaics: its restoration in the fifth century had a cold room (*frigidarium*) paved with a large mosaic showing the birth of Venus.E. Fentress, ed., *Fouilles de Sétif 1977 \- 1984* BAA supp. 5, Algiers, 29\-92 Setifis initially was populated by Punic people and later by Italian colonists. Sitifis was officially *Colonia Augusta Nerviana Martialis Veteranorum Sitifensium*, and from the time of [Diocletian](/wiki/Diocletian "Diocletian"), (293 A.D.), was the capital of [Mauretania Sitifensis](/wiki/Mauretania_Sitifensis "Mauretania Sitifensis") (now eastern Algeria).Nacéra Benseddik, Autels votifs de la région de Sétif: païens ou chrétiens?, Monuments funéraires, institutions autochtones en Afrique du Nord antique et médiévale, VIe Colloque International sur L'Histoire et l'Archéologie de l'Afrique du Nord, Pau, 1993, C.T.H.S. \[1995], p. 179\-186\. Today vestiges of the [third century](/wiki/3rd_Century "3rd Century") and [fourth century](/wiki/4th_century "4th century") include [city walls](/wiki/City_wall "City wall"), [temple](/wiki/Roman_temple "Roman temple"), circus, mausoleum and "Scipio" [Byzantine](/wiki/Byzantine_Empire "Byzantine Empire") [fortress](/wiki/Fort "Fort"). Numerous archaeological artifacts are exhibited at the archaeological museum of the city. Although what happened under [Vandal](/wiki/Vandals "Vandals") rule is not known, the [Byzantine](/wiki/Byzantine_Empire "Byzantine Empire") reconquest brought with it a major fort, of which parts are still standing. In the sixth century [Christianity](/wiki/Christianity_in_Africa "Christianity in Africa") was the main religion, with a strong presence of [Donatism](/wiki/Donatism "Donatism"). Under the Vandals it was the chief town of a district called "Zaba". It was still the capital of a province (called "Mauretania Prima") under Byzantine rule and was then a place of strategic importance. The area became a part of [Byzantine North Africa](/wiki/Byzantine_North_Africa "Byzantine North Africa") in 541, that saw the introduction of Orthodox doctrines to the main Donatist and Catholic towns of their [Exarchate of Africa](/wiki/Exarchate_of_Africa "Exarchate of Africa")Francois Decret, Early Christianity in North Africa (James Clarke \& Co, 2011\) p.196 [thumb\|right\|Roman stones with Latin words in Setif gardens](/wiki/File:Jardin_%C3%A0_setif_6.JPG "Jardin à setif 6.JPG") In 647 AD the first [Muslim](/wiki/Muslim "Muslim") expedition to [Africa](/wiki/Africa "Africa") took place and by the end of this century, the area started to be conquered. Indeed, [Uqba ibn Nafi](/wiki/Uqba_ibn_Nafi "Uqba ibn Nafi") partially destroyed Sitifis in a raid in 680 AD, when his forces conquered nearby [Saldae](/wiki/Saldae "Saldae") (actual [Bougie](/wiki/B%C3%A9ja%C3%AFa "Béjaïa")), while fighting to reach the [Atlantic Ocean](/wiki/Atlantic_Ocean "Atlantic Ocean"). The Byzantine era of Sitifis was over. By 702 AD, the area had been fully conquered by the [Umayyad Caliphate](/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate "Umayyad Caliphate"). In the eight century the region had been converted to the Islamic faith. We know little of the early Islamic town, but by the tenth century the area outside of the fortress was once more filled with houses: on the site of the Roman baths over twelve of these were excavated, with large courtyards surrounded by long, thin, rooms.E. Fentress, ed., *Fouilles de Sétif 1977 \- 1984* BAA supp. 5, Algiers, 114\-151 In the mid\-eleventh century this development stopped abruptly, and a defensive wall was built around the city. Historian [Leo Africanus](/wiki/Leo_Africanus "Leo Africanus") reports that a major wave of destruction followed the invasion of the [Banu Hillal](/wiki/Banu_Hillal "Banu Hillal") shortly thereafter. {{Quote\|''Similar to an army of locusts, they (the Banu Hillal) destroy everything in their path.''Ibn Khaldun, a Muslim historian}} Nothing more is known of what used to be Roman Setifis until the ruins of the town were used by the [French army](/wiki/French_colonial_empire "French colonial empire") (who built their own fortress on the site in 1848, using the line of the medieval city wall and the Byzantine fortress). The modern city was founded by the [French](/wiki/France "France") on the ruins of the ancient one.[Leslie Dossey](/wiki/Leslie_Dossey "Leslie Dossey"), Peasant and Empire in Christian North Africa (University of California Press, 2010\)[page 131](https://books.google.com/books?id=1efcAyQuKIMC&dq=Diocese+of+Sitifis&pg=PA131). [thumb\|left\|241x241px\|Mosaic from Baths of Roman Setifis (shown in the "Setif Museum")](/wiki/File:Museo_di_S%C3%A9tif%2C_Algeria.jpg "Museo di Sétif, Algeria.jpg")
[ "History\n-------", "Sitifis was founded in 97 AD, during the reign of [Nerva](/wiki/Nerva \"Nerva\"), as a colony for [Roman veterans](/wiki/Legio \"Legio\"). Although no buildings of this period are known, a cemetery excavated in the 1960s contained Punic shaft tombs dated to the 2nd century AD.R. Guéry, 1985, La Necropole orientale de Sitifis: fouilles de 1966–1967\\. Paris As the town grew, around 297 AD, the province of [Mauretania Sitifensis](/wiki/Mauretania_Sitifensis \"Mauretania Sitifensis\") was established, with Sitifis as its capital. In the newly prosperous town a bath building was built, decorated with fine mosaics: its restoration in the fifth century had a cold room (*frigidarium*) paved with a large mosaic showing the birth of Venus.E. Fentress, ed., *Fouilles de Sétif 1977 \\- 1984* BAA supp. 5, Algiers, 29\\-92 Setifis initially was populated by Punic people and later by Italian colonists.", "Sitifis was officially *Colonia Augusta Nerviana Martialis Veteranorum Sitifensium*, and from the time of [Diocletian](/wiki/Diocletian \"Diocletian\"), (293 A.D.), was the capital of [Mauretania Sitifensis](/wiki/Mauretania_Sitifensis \"Mauretania Sitifensis\") (now eastern Algeria).Nacéra Benseddik, Autels votifs de la région de Sétif: païens ou chrétiens?, Monuments funéraires, institutions autochtones en Afrique du Nord antique et médiévale, VIe Colloque International sur L'Histoire et l'Archéologie de l'Afrique du Nord, Pau, 1993, C.T.H.S. \\[1995], p. 179\\-186\\. Today vestiges of the [third century](/wiki/3rd_Century \"3rd Century\") and [fourth century](/wiki/4th_century \"4th century\") include [city walls](/wiki/City_wall \"City wall\"), [temple](/wiki/Roman_temple \"Roman temple\"), circus, mausoleum and \"Scipio\" [Byzantine](/wiki/Byzantine_Empire \"Byzantine Empire\") [fortress](/wiki/Fort \"Fort\"). Numerous archaeological artifacts are exhibited at the archaeological museum of the city.", "Although what happened under [Vandal](/wiki/Vandals \"Vandals\") rule is not known, the [Byzantine](/wiki/Byzantine_Empire \"Byzantine Empire\") reconquest brought with it a major fort, of which parts are still standing. In the sixth century [Christianity](/wiki/Christianity_in_Africa \"Christianity in Africa\") was the main religion, with a strong presence of [Donatism](/wiki/Donatism \"Donatism\"). Under the Vandals it was the chief town of a district called \"Zaba\". It was still the capital of a province (called \"Mauretania Prima\") under Byzantine rule and was then a place of strategic importance. The area became a part of [Byzantine North Africa](/wiki/Byzantine_North_Africa \"Byzantine North Africa\") in 541, that saw the introduction of Orthodox doctrines to the main Donatist and Catholic towns of their [Exarchate of Africa](/wiki/Exarchate_of_Africa \"Exarchate of Africa\")Francois Decret, Early Christianity in North Africa (James Clarke \\& Co, 2011\\) p.196", "[thumb\\|right\\|Roman stones with Latin words in Setif gardens](/wiki/File:Jardin_%C3%A0_setif_6.JPG \"Jardin à setif 6.JPG\")", "In 647 AD the first [Muslim](/wiki/Muslim \"Muslim\") expedition to [Africa](/wiki/Africa \"Africa\") took place and by the end of this century, the area started to be conquered. Indeed, [Uqba ibn Nafi](/wiki/Uqba_ibn_Nafi \"Uqba ibn Nafi\") partially destroyed Sitifis in a raid in 680 AD, when his forces conquered nearby [Saldae](/wiki/Saldae \"Saldae\") (actual [Bougie](/wiki/B%C3%A9ja%C3%AFa \"Béjaïa\")), while fighting to reach the [Atlantic Ocean](/wiki/Atlantic_Ocean \"Atlantic Ocean\"). The Byzantine era of Sitifis was over. By 702 AD, the area had been fully conquered by the [Umayyad Caliphate](/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate \"Umayyad Caliphate\").", "In the eight century the region had been converted to the Islamic faith. We know little of the early Islamic town, but by the tenth century the area outside of the fortress was once more filled with houses: on the site of the Roman baths over twelve of these were excavated, with large courtyards surrounded by long, thin, rooms.E. Fentress, ed., *Fouilles de Sétif 1977 \\- 1984* BAA supp. 5, Algiers, 114\\-151 In the mid\\-eleventh century this development stopped abruptly, and a defensive wall was built around the city.", "Historian [Leo Africanus](/wiki/Leo_Africanus \"Leo Africanus\") reports that a major wave of destruction followed the invasion of the [Banu Hillal](/wiki/Banu_Hillal \"Banu Hillal\") shortly thereafter.", "{{Quote\\|''Similar to an army of locusts, they (the Banu Hillal) destroy everything in their path.''Ibn Khaldun, a Muslim historian}}", "Nothing more is known of what used to be Roman Setifis until the ruins of the town were used by the [French army](/wiki/French_colonial_empire \"French colonial empire\") (who built their own fortress on the site in 1848, using the line of the medieval city wall and the Byzantine fortress). The modern city was founded by the [French](/wiki/France \"France\") on the ruins of the ancient one.[Leslie Dossey](/wiki/Leslie_Dossey \"Leslie Dossey\"), Peasant and Empire in Christian North Africa (University of California Press, 2010\\)[page 131](https://books.google.com/books?id=1efcAyQuKIMC&dq=Diocese+of+Sitifis&pg=PA131).", "[thumb\\|left\\|241x241px\\|Mosaic from Baths of Roman Setifis (shown in the \"Setif Museum\")](/wiki/File:Museo_di_S%C3%A9tif%2C_Algeria.jpg \"Museo di Sétif, Algeria.jpg\")", "" ]
Services -------- ### Relationship Testing BRT's Relationship Testing division offers services in [Paternity Testing](/wiki/DNA_paternity_testing "DNA paternity testing") and [Family reunification](/wiki/Family_reunification "Family reunification") Immigration Testing. DNA testing can identify relationships between parent and child, full or half siblings, grandparent and grandchild, uncles or aunts and nieces or nephews, as well as identical and non\-identical twins. The Laboratory is accredited by the [AABB](/wiki/AABB "AABB") (formerly, American Association of Blood Banks).AABB Accredited Relationship Testing Facilities "<http://www.aabb.org/Content/Accreditation/Parentage_Testing_Accreditation_Program/AABB_Accredited_Parentage_Testing_Laboratories/aboutptlabs.htm> {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100131182905/http://www.aabb.org/Content/Accreditation/Parentage\_Testing\_Accreditation\_Program/AABB\_Accredited\_Parentage\_Testing\_Laboratories/aboutptlabs.htm \|date\=2010\-01\-31 }}" Testing can be performed for submission in legal proceedings (court admissible) or for personal knowledge. Application for immigration to the United States and Canada often requires documentation of biological relationship between a petitioner and his or her beneficiary. DNA testing can be used to prove a relationship if documents are absent or challenged. The US Immigration and Naturalization Service (INS) and United States Citizenship and Immigration Services (USCIS) offices accept DNA testing results from AABB accredited laboratories only.INS Memorandum on DNA Testing to Establish Family Relationships “[http://www.immigrationlinks.com/news/news413\.htm”{{Dead link\|date\=June 2020 \|bot\=InternetArchiveBot \|fix\-attempted\=yes }}](http://www.immigrationlinks.com/news/news413.htm”{{Dead link|date=June 2020 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}) ### Forensics BRT's Forensics division offers services in serology screening, DNA profiling, and case review. These services are contracted by government agencies, defense counsel, and private citizens or organizations for several applications. Government agencies contract BRT’s Forensic division for criminal and “no\-suspect” casework. The Laboratory offers [STR analysis](/wiki/STR_analysis "STR analysis") and [Y\-STR](/wiki/Y-STR "Y-STR") analysis with each of the commercial kits commonly used in the US. The Forensic division is accredited by ASCLD/Lab – International ASCLD/Lab "[http://www.ascld\-lab.org/international/indexinternational.html](http://www.ascld-lab.org/international/indexinternational.html)" and meets the requirements of ISO/IEC 17025\. BRT has also received accreditation from the Texas Department of Public Safety and has been approved by the Maryland State Police Forensic Science Division for analysis of casework that can be uploaded to CODIS. The Laboratory adheres to current [Scientific Working Group on DNA Analysis Methods](https://web.archive.org/web/20091111045023/http://www.nfstc.org/pdi/Subject10/pdi_s10_m03_01_d.htm) (SWGDAM) and [FBI DNA Advisory Board (DAB)](http://www.cstl.nist.gov/strbase/dabqas.htm) guidelines. Defense counsel contract BRT Laboratories to perform case reviews, which may include assistance with the interpretation of subpoena documents, sample retesting, and/or expert witness testimony. The Forensic division also provides serology and DNA profiling services to private citizens for infidelity testing and to private organizations or medical professionals for sample identity verification. ### Clinical Services BRT's Clinical Services division is licensed by the [State of Maryland Department of Health and Mental Hygiene](http://www.dhmh.state.md.us/) for Molecular Biology and Molecular Genetics and is registered under the US Department of Health and Human Services' [Clinical Laboratory Improvement Amendments.](http://www.cms.hhs.gov/clia/) Test offerings include [Tuberculosis](/wiki/Tuberculosis "Tuberculosis") testing and Bone Marrow Engraftment [(chimerism)](/wiki/Chimera_%28genetics%29 "Chimera (genetics)") monitoring. BRT’s tuberculosis (TB) testing is performed using the [Interferon\-gamma](/wiki/Interferon-gamma "Interferon-gamma") release assay [T\-SPOT.TB](/wiki/T-SPOT.TB "T-SPOT.TB"). This assay is recognized by the [Centers for Disease Control and Prevention](/wiki/Centers_for_Disease_Control_and_Prevention "Centers for Disease Control and Prevention") as a special TB blood test CDC Tuberculosis Testing and Diagnosis <https://www.cdc.gov/tb/topic/testing/default.htm> with an accuracy of diagnosing active TB \>80%.{{cite journal \|vauthors\=Wang JY, Chou CH, Lee LN, Hsu HL, Jan IS, Hsueh PR \|title \=Diagnosis of tuberculosis by an enzyme\-linked immunospot assay for interferon\-γ \|journal\=Emerg Infect Dis \|volume\=13 \|issue\=4 \|date\=April 2007\|display\-authors\=etal \|doi\=10\.3201/eid1304\.051195\|pmc\=2725949 }} [https://www.cdc.gov/EID/content/13/4/553\.htm](https://www.cdc.gov/EID/content/13/4/553.htm) Bone Marrow Engraftment monitoring assesses the relative ratio of donor and recipient cell populations in the post\-transplant peripheral blood or bone marrow of the patient. BRT performs this test using STR analysis, the current "gold standard,"{{cite journal \|author\=Vnencak‐Jones C L \|title\=Bone Marrow Engraftment Studies \|journal\=Curr. Protoc. Hum. Genet. \|issue\=UNIT 9\.17 \|date\=July 2009 \|doi\=10\.1002/0471142905\.hg0917s62}} <http://www.currentprotocols.com/protocol/hg0917> {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090620234642/http://www.currentprotocols.com/protocol/hg0917 \|date\=2009\-06\-20 }} yielding a sensitivity of 95–98%.
[ "Services\n--------", "### Relationship Testing", "BRT's Relationship Testing division offers services in [Paternity Testing](/wiki/DNA_paternity_testing \"DNA paternity testing\") and [Family reunification](/wiki/Family_reunification \"Family reunification\") Immigration Testing. DNA testing can identify relationships between parent and child, full or half siblings, grandparent and grandchild, uncles or aunts and nieces or nephews, as well as identical and non\\-identical twins. The Laboratory is accredited by the [AABB](/wiki/AABB \"AABB\") (formerly, American Association of Blood Banks).AABB Accredited Relationship Testing Facilities \"<http://www.aabb.org/Content/Accreditation/Parentage_Testing_Accreditation_Program/AABB_Accredited_Parentage_Testing_Laboratories/aboutptlabs.htm> {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100131182905/http://www.aabb.org/Content/Accreditation/Parentage\\_Testing\\_Accreditation\\_Program/AABB\\_Accredited\\_Parentage\\_Testing\\_Laboratories/aboutptlabs.htm \\|date\\=2010\\-01\\-31 }}\" Testing can be performed for submission in legal proceedings (court admissible) or for personal knowledge.", "Application for immigration to the United States and Canada often requires documentation of biological relationship between a petitioner and his or her beneficiary. DNA testing can be used to prove a relationship if documents are absent or challenged. The US Immigration and Naturalization Service (INS) and United States Citizenship and Immigration Services (USCIS) offices accept DNA testing results from AABB accredited laboratories only.INS Memorandum on DNA Testing to Establish Family Relationships “[http://www.immigrationlinks.com/news/news413\\.htm”{{Dead link\\|date\\=June 2020 \\|bot\\=InternetArchiveBot \\|fix\\-attempted\\=yes }}](http://www.immigrationlinks.com/news/news413.htm”{{Dead link|date=June 2020 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }})", "### Forensics", "BRT's Forensics division offers services in serology screening, DNA profiling, and case review. These services are contracted by government agencies, defense counsel, and private citizens or organizations for several applications.", "Government agencies contract BRT’s Forensic division for criminal and “no\\-suspect” casework. The Laboratory offers [STR analysis](/wiki/STR_analysis \"STR analysis\") and [Y\\-STR](/wiki/Y-STR \"Y-STR\") analysis with each of the commercial kits commonly used in the US. The Forensic division is accredited by ASCLD/Lab – International ASCLD/Lab \"[http://www.ascld\\-lab.org/international/indexinternational.html](http://www.ascld-lab.org/international/indexinternational.html)\" and meets the requirements of ISO/IEC 17025\\. BRT has also received accreditation from the Texas Department of Public Safety and has been approved by the Maryland State Police Forensic Science Division for analysis of casework that can be uploaded to CODIS. The Laboratory adheres to current [Scientific Working Group on DNA Analysis Methods](https://web.archive.org/web/20091111045023/http://www.nfstc.org/pdi/Subject10/pdi_s10_m03_01_d.htm) (SWGDAM) and [FBI DNA Advisory Board (DAB)](http://www.cstl.nist.gov/strbase/dabqas.htm) guidelines.", "Defense counsel contract BRT Laboratories to perform case reviews, which may include assistance with the interpretation of subpoena documents, sample retesting, and/or expert witness testimony.", "The Forensic division also provides serology and DNA profiling services to private citizens for infidelity testing and to private organizations or medical professionals for sample identity verification.", "### Clinical Services", "BRT's Clinical Services division is licensed by the [State of Maryland Department of Health and Mental Hygiene](http://www.dhmh.state.md.us/) for Molecular Biology and Molecular Genetics and is registered under the US Department of Health and Human Services' [Clinical Laboratory Improvement Amendments.](http://www.cms.hhs.gov/clia/) Test offerings include [Tuberculosis](/wiki/Tuberculosis \"Tuberculosis\") testing and Bone Marrow Engraftment [(chimerism)](/wiki/Chimera_%28genetics%29 \"Chimera (genetics)\") monitoring.", "BRT’s tuberculosis (TB) testing is performed using the [Interferon\\-gamma](/wiki/Interferon-gamma \"Interferon-gamma\") release assay [T\\-SPOT.TB](/wiki/T-SPOT.TB \"T-SPOT.TB\"). This assay is recognized by the [Centers for Disease Control and Prevention](/wiki/Centers_for_Disease_Control_and_Prevention \"Centers for Disease Control and Prevention\") as a special TB blood test CDC Tuberculosis Testing and Diagnosis <https://www.cdc.gov/tb/topic/testing/default.htm> with an accuracy of diagnosing active TB \\>80%.{{cite journal \\|vauthors\\=Wang JY, Chou CH, Lee LN, Hsu HL, Jan IS, Hsueh PR \\|title \\=Diagnosis of tuberculosis by an enzyme\\-linked immunospot assay for interferon\\-γ \\|journal\\=Emerg Infect Dis \\|volume\\=13 \\|issue\\=4 \\|date\\=April 2007\\|display\\-authors\\=etal \\|doi\\=10\\.3201/eid1304\\.051195\\|pmc\\=2725949 }} [https://www.cdc.gov/EID/content/13/4/553\\.htm](https://www.cdc.gov/EID/content/13/4/553.htm)", "Bone Marrow Engraftment monitoring assesses the relative ratio of donor and recipient cell populations in the post\\-transplant peripheral blood or bone marrow of the patient. BRT performs this test using STR analysis, the current \"gold standard,\"{{cite journal \\|author\\=Vnencak‐Jones C L \\|title\\=Bone Marrow Engraftment Studies \\|journal\\=Curr. Protoc. Hum. Genet. \\|issue\\=UNIT 9\\.17 \\|date\\=July 2009 \\|doi\\=10\\.1002/0471142905\\.hg0917s62}} <http://www.currentprotocols.com/protocol/hg0917> {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090620234642/http://www.currentprotocols.com/protocol/hg0917 \\|date\\=2009\\-06\\-20 }} yielding a sensitivity of 95–98%.", "" ]
In Slavonic churches -------------------- The first documented Orthodox brotherhood was that of [Lviv](/wiki/Lviv_Dormition_Brotherhood "Lviv Dormition Brotherhood"), in 1463\. They were consolidated in the aftermath of the [Union of Brest](/wiki/Union_of_Brest "Union of Brest") (1596\) in order to oppose the conversion of Orthodox Christians to the [Uniate Church](/wiki/Eastern_Catholic_Churches "Eastern Catholic Churches"), the [Counter\-Reformation](/wiki/Counter-Reformation "Counter-Reformation"), and [Polonization](/wiki/Polonization "Polonization"). The brotherhoods attempted to resist state\-supported Catholic missionary activity by publishing books in the [Cyrillic](/wiki/Cyrillic "Cyrillic") script and by financing a network of Orthodox schools which offered education in both [Old Church Slavonic](/wiki/Old_Church_Slavonic_language "Old Church Slavonic language") and the vernacular [Ruthenian language](/wiki/Ruthenian_language "Ruthenian language").[Russian Humanitarian Encyclopaedia](https://archive.today/20121221190541/http://slovari.yandex.ru/~%D0%BA%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B3%D0%B8/%D0%93%D1%83%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B9%20%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%8C/%D0%91%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%B0%20%D1%86%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B5/) The brotherhoods were also simultaneously engaged in defending the rights and liberties of the Orthodox burghers, particularly of those Ukrainian craftsmen and merchants from the arbitrary oppression of the Polish Catholic authorities. The famous [Kyiv Mohyla Academy](/wiki/National_University_of_Kyiv-Mohyla_Academy "National University of Kyiv-Mohyla Academy") grew out of one such school under the umbrella of the [Brotherhood Monastery](/wiki/Brotherhood_Monastery "Brotherhood Monastery") in [Kyiv](/wiki/Kyiv "Kyiv"). The [Dormition Church, Lviv](/wiki/Dormition_Church%2C_Lviv "Dormition Church, Lviv") was financed by the brotherhood of the same name; its members also supported the [Cossack risings](/wiki/Khmelnytsky_Uprising "Khmelnytsky Uprising") in the east of Ukraine. The powerful [Ostrogski](/wiki/Ostrogski "Ostrogski") family provided political support for their activities. The activity of the Orthodox fraternities helped preserve the national culture of [Ukraine](/wiki/Ukraine "Ukraine") and [Belarus](/wiki/Belarus "Belarus") throughout the [Counter\-Reformation](/wiki/Counter-Reformation "Counter-Reformation") era.[Orest Subtelny](/wiki/Orest_Subtelny "Orest Subtelny"). *Ukraine: A History*. 3rd ed. University of Toronto Press, 2000\. Pages 97\-99\. Most were closed in the course of the 18th century when Greek\-Catholic proselytism had been forbidden by the [House of Romanov](/wiki/House_of_Romanov "House of Romanov"). Some were revived in the late 19th century in order to stem "atheist propaganda" of the [Nihilists](/wiki/Nihilists "Nihilists"). The 19th century [Brotherhood of Saints Cyril and Methodius](/wiki/Brotherhood_of_Saints_Cyril_and_Methodius "Brotherhood of Saints Cyril and Methodius"), formed in the [Russian Empire](/wiki/Russian_Empire "Russian Empire"), was barely religious at all in character, and instead promoted Ukrainian national awareness. The [Ostroh](/wiki/Ostroh "Ostroh") bratstvo was reinstituted by [Countess Bludova](/wiki/Antonina_Bludova "Antonina Bludova") (1813\-1891\), an ardent admirer of the Ostrogski family. Orthodox immigrants to the U.S. formed brotherhoods to support church activities.
[ "In Slavonic churches\n--------------------", "The first documented Orthodox brotherhood was that of [Lviv](/wiki/Lviv_Dormition_Brotherhood \"Lviv Dormition Brotherhood\"), in 1463\\. They were consolidated in the aftermath of the [Union of Brest](/wiki/Union_of_Brest \"Union of Brest\") (1596\\) in order to oppose the conversion of Orthodox Christians to the [Uniate Church](/wiki/Eastern_Catholic_Churches \"Eastern Catholic Churches\"), the [Counter\\-Reformation](/wiki/Counter-Reformation \"Counter-Reformation\"), and [Polonization](/wiki/Polonization \"Polonization\"). The brotherhoods attempted to resist state\\-supported Catholic missionary activity by publishing books in the [Cyrillic](/wiki/Cyrillic \"Cyrillic\") script and by financing a network of Orthodox schools which offered education in both [Old Church Slavonic](/wiki/Old_Church_Slavonic_language \"Old Church Slavonic language\") and the vernacular [Ruthenian language](/wiki/Ruthenian_language \"Ruthenian language\").[Russian Humanitarian Encyclopaedia](https://archive.today/20121221190541/http://slovari.yandex.ru/~%D0%BA%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B3%D0%B8/%D0%93%D1%83%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B9%20%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%8C/%D0%91%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%B0%20%D1%86%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B5/)", "The brotherhoods were also simultaneously engaged in defending the rights and liberties of the Orthodox burghers, particularly of those Ukrainian craftsmen and merchants from the arbitrary oppression of the Polish Catholic authorities.", "The famous [Kyiv Mohyla Academy](/wiki/National_University_of_Kyiv-Mohyla_Academy \"National University of Kyiv-Mohyla Academy\") grew out of one such school under the umbrella of the [Brotherhood Monastery](/wiki/Brotherhood_Monastery \"Brotherhood Monastery\") in [Kyiv](/wiki/Kyiv \"Kyiv\"). The [Dormition Church, Lviv](/wiki/Dormition_Church%2C_Lviv \"Dormition Church, Lviv\") was financed by the brotherhood of the same name; its members also supported the [Cossack risings](/wiki/Khmelnytsky_Uprising \"Khmelnytsky Uprising\") in the east of Ukraine. The powerful [Ostrogski](/wiki/Ostrogski \"Ostrogski\") family provided political support for their activities.", "The activity of the Orthodox fraternities helped preserve the national culture of [Ukraine](/wiki/Ukraine \"Ukraine\") and [Belarus](/wiki/Belarus \"Belarus\") throughout the [Counter\\-Reformation](/wiki/Counter-Reformation \"Counter-Reformation\") era.[Orest Subtelny](/wiki/Orest_Subtelny \"Orest Subtelny\"). *Ukraine: A History*. 3rd ed. University of Toronto Press, 2000\\. Pages 97\\-99\\. Most were closed in the course of the 18th century when Greek\\-Catholic proselytism had been forbidden by the [House of Romanov](/wiki/House_of_Romanov \"House of Romanov\"). Some were revived in the late 19th century in order to stem \"atheist propaganda\" of the [Nihilists](/wiki/Nihilists \"Nihilists\").", "The 19th century [Brotherhood of Saints Cyril and Methodius](/wiki/Brotherhood_of_Saints_Cyril_and_Methodius \"Brotherhood of Saints Cyril and Methodius\"), formed in the [Russian Empire](/wiki/Russian_Empire \"Russian Empire\"), was barely religious at all in character, and instead promoted Ukrainian national awareness.", "The [Ostroh](/wiki/Ostroh \"Ostroh\") bratstvo was reinstituted by [Countess Bludova](/wiki/Antonina_Bludova \"Antonina Bludova\") (1813\\-1891\\), an ardent admirer of the Ostrogski family. Orthodox immigrants to the U.S. formed brotherhoods to support church activities.", "" ]
History ------- Burnside grew as an affluent [commuter suburb](/wiki/Commuter_suburb "Commuter suburb") in the early 20th century following the establishment of the railway station,[General view, Burnside, Rutherglen, Lanarkshire, Scotland, 1937\. Oblique aerial photograph, taken facing south](https://canmore.org.uk/collection/1452115), [Canmore](/wiki/Canmore_%28database%29 "Canmore (database)") and although within the boundaries of Rutherglen it became established separately from the older burgh and has thus retained a distinct identity.[Rutherglen named as one of the top 25 suburbs in the UK for first\-time buyers by national newspaper](https://www.dailyrecord.co.uk/news/local-news/rutherglen-one-25-most-sought-5393669.amp), *Daily Record*, 27 March 2015 The post\-World War II housing estates which subsequently surrounded Burnside to the south and west were built to alleviate housing problems in central Rutherglen and in Cambuslang, so although physically adjacent were never seen as parts of Burnside as such; in the same vein, the nearby [Castlemilk](/wiki/Castlemilk "Castlemilk") housing scheme is situated close to Rutherglen and Burnside and shared the same administration in times past when it was a rural estate, but was constructed by [Glasgow Corporation](/wiki/Glasgow_Corporation "Glasgow Corporation") for residents being rehoused from the inner city and has never had a formal connection to the neighbouring town. [thumb\|left\|'Coronation' style tram (No 18\) travelling south on Stonelaw Road at Stonelaw Woods, 1960](/wiki/File:A_%27Coronation%27_car_at_Burnside_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1344405.jpg "A 'Coronation' car at Burnside - geograph.org.uk - 1344405.jpg") The local park, Stonelaw Woods,[Sewage work project in Rutherglen could see 11 months of disruption for residents](https://www.dailyrecord.co.uk/news/local-news/sewage-work-project-rutherglen-could-10298094.amp), *Daily Record*, 2 May 2017[Stonelaw Woods 5](https://rutherglenheritage.files.wordpress.com/2012/01/stonelaw-woods-5.jpg?w=1576), Rutherglen Heritage Project was landscaped from a disused quarry and named after the most prominent historic landmark in the area, the castellated Stonelaw Tower,[Stonelaw Tower](https://rutherglenheritage.files.wordpress.com/2012/01/stonelaw-tower-2.jpg), Rutherglen Heritage Society a converted 18th\-century [coal mine winding engine house](/wiki/Winding_engine "Winding engine") which fell into disrepair \- after subsidence in the vicinity caused by the mining \- and was demolished in the 1960s to be replaced by apartments and a petrol station (also since demolished),[Rutherglen news: Burnside filling station site subject to planning application](https://www.dailyrecord.co.uk/news/local-news/rutherglen-news-burnside-filling-station-8779459), Daily Record, 9 September 2016 with only a boundary wall remaining.[Stonelaw Tower](https://www.scottishcastlesassociation.com/news/past-present/stonelaw-tower.htm), Scottish Castles Association, 8 December 2014[Tower House or Engine House? Inside Rais and Stonelaw Towers...](https://www.scottishcastlesassociation.com/news/news-features/engine-house.htm), Scottish Castles Association, 10 April 2018 The origin of the name, Burnside Farm, is located some distance south of the centre of the modern settlement, being uphill closer to Fernhill and [Cathkin](/wiki/Rutherglen%23Cathkin "Rutherglen#Cathkin") \- the farmhouse still exists, located off Beech Drive, while the burn in question runs north\-west past the [Blairbeth](/wiki/Rutherglen%23Blairbeth "Rutherglen#Blairbeth") and [Spittal](/wiki/Rutherglen%23Spittal "Rutherglen#Spittal") neighbourhoods, concealed in parts, before merging with another originating near Castlemilk and flowing through Rutherglen, entering the [River Clyde](/wiki/River_Clyde "River Clyde") at Richmond Park ([Oatlands](/wiki/Oatlands%2C_Glasgow "Oatlands, Glasgow")).[Glasgow, Castlemilk House](https://canmore.org.uk/site/44894/glasgow-Castlemilk-House), Greater Glasgow: An Illustrated Architectural Guide, Sam Small, 2008 (quoted at [Canmore](/wiki/Canmore_%28database%29 "Canmore (database)")) The farm also gave its name to Burnside Loch, used for boating and [curling](/wiki/Curling_%28sport%29 "Curling (sport)")[1689 Burnside](https://sites.google.com/a/curlingplaces.info/cp/places/1689-burnside), Curling Places Vol 1 but drained in the 1920s and now the playing fields for two primary schools located in the [Springhall](/wiki/Rutherglen%23Springhall "Rutherglen#Springhall") housing estate (including Loch Primary, which today has no visual indication as to why it was so named).[About Us](http://www.loch-pri.s-lanark.sch.uk/lps_aboutus.htm), Loch Primary School Other local farms included *High Crosshill* at the entrance of Glenlui Avenue at Burnside Primary School, no trace remaining; *Stonelaw*, adjacent to the tower, no trace remaining; and *Fishescoats* off East Kilbride Road, the buildings for which were retained by a funeral director's business. There were various stages of housebuilding, with the earliest properties among the largest at High Burnside in the vicinity of Lower Bourtree Drive and Lochbrae Drive in the late 19th century, followed by the grid of streets at High Crosshill and the similar sandstone villas at Buchanan Drive, plus the tenements on the main road in the 1900s, then more at High Burnside (Thorn Drive / Tynwald Avenue / St Stephen's Avenue) and on the old golf course around Crawfurd Road post\-World War I. Land to the east of Stonelaw Road was also occupied in the 1920s,[John McDonald](https://www.mackintosh-architecture.gla.ac.uk/catalogue/name/?nid=MacdJohn#MacdJohn.19-back), Mackintosh Architecture (The Hunterian, University of Glasgow)[(Sir) John McDonald](http://www.scottisharchitects.org.uk/architect_full.php?id=205318), [Dictionary of Scottish Architects](/wiki/Dictionary_of_Scottish_Architects "Dictionary of Scottish Architects") with a development of quartered villas and bungalows at Southhill Avenue towards the yet unbuilt Eastfield, thereafter mainly semi\-detached homes in the triangular plot of land at Dukes Road / Brownside Road, and another set of quartered villas and bungalows on the inclines around Bradda Avenue / Blairbeth Road; these latter areas (including Burnside Church and bowling club) were historically within the [civil parish](/wiki/Civil_parish "Civil parish") of Cambuslang[Map of the Parish of Cambuslang in the Historical County of Lanark](https://www.scottish-places.info/parishes/parmap817.html), [Gazetteer for Scotland](/wiki/Gazetteer_for_Scotland "Gazetteer for Scotland") but were always more closely associated with the amenities of central Burnside, located within the boundaries of Rutherglen along with Springhall and Blairbeth[Map of the Parish of Rutherglen in the Historical County of Lanark](https://www.scottish-places.info/parishes/parmap810.html), [Gazetteer for Scotland](/wiki/Gazetteer_for_Scotland "Gazetteer for Scotland") (but unlike Spittal, Cathkin and Fernhill which were in [Carmunnock](/wiki/Carmunnock "Carmunnock") parish).[Map of the Parish of Carmunnock in the Historical County of Lanark](https://www.scottish-places.info/parishes/parmap826.html), [Gazetteer for Scotland](/wiki/Gazetteer_for_Scotland "Gazetteer for Scotland") The last major residential project at Upper Bourtree Drive / Larchfield Drive in the 1970s 'joined' the existing parts of High Burnside and meant the vast majority of the territory was now built upon, with all subsequent modern developments being on a far smaller scale. [thumb\|Sandstone villas on Blairbeth Road](/wiki/File:Old_road_sign_by_Crawfurd_Avenue_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1230087.jpg "Old road sign by Crawfurd Avenue - geograph.org.uk - 1230087.jpg") Previously, Burnside had its own cinema on Stonelaw Road, the Rhul Cinema. Built in 1932 by the Burnside Picture House Company, the cinema was sold to ABC in 1936 and later demolished in 1960\.{{cite web \| url\=http://www.codexgeo.co.uk/dsa/building\_full.php?id\=M003488 \| title\=Rhul Cinema \| work\=Dictionary of Scottish Architects \| year\=2006 \| accessdate\=31 October 2006 \| archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928013117/http://www.codexgeo.co.uk/dsa/building\_full.php?id\=M003488 \| archive\-date\=28 September 2007 \| url\-status\=dead }}{{cite web \| url\=http://www.survivingcinemas.org.uk/glasgow/demolished.php \| title\=Glasgow Demolished Cinemas \| work\=Cinema City and Beyond \| accessdate\=31 October 2006}}{{cite web \|url\=https://jellyinboll.co.uk/2017/12/10/rhul\-glasgow/\|title\=Rhul, Glasgow\|website\=The Scottish Cinema Project\|accessdate\=9 September 2018}} The space is now occupied by a supermarket, which was previously run by [Safeway](/wiki/Safeway_%28UK%29 "Safeway (UK)"), [Morrisons](/wiki/Morrisons "Morrisons") and Somerfield,[Rutherglen's movie hall past](https://www.dailyrecord.co.uk/news/local-news/rutherglens-movie-hall-past-2604252), *Daily Record*, 2 September 2009 but is presently a [Tesco](/wiki/Tesco "Tesco"), who purchased the store in 2010 and completed a comprehensive redevelopment. On the western side of Burnside, overlooking Rutherglen Cemetery and immediately north of the railway tracks, is Blairtum House, built in 1878 for the owner of a rope works at [Farme Cross](/wiki/Rutherglen%23Farme_Cross "Rutherglen#Farme Cross") and adorned with rope\-related features in its stonework. It was owned in the 1900s by George Gray, Town Clerk of Rutherglen,[George Gray (Mitchell Library, The Bailie)](https://www.theglasgowstory.com/image/?inum=TGSA00209), The Glasgow Story and later was a care home for the elderly and [YMCA](/wiki/YMCA "YMCA")\-run accommodation for homeless teenagers[Rutherglen pals recall their life at Blairtum House following horror fire which ripped through the building](https://www.dailyrecord.co.uk/news/local-news/rutherglen-pals-recall-life-blairtum-7990886.amp), Daily Record, 20 May 2016 before being converted as the centrepiece of an upmarket residential development,[Conversion of Blairtum House, Scotland](https://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Conversion_of_Blairtum_House,_Scotland), Chartered Institute of Architectural Technologists, 20 September 2019[CS09; Blairtum Park New Build \& Refurbishment](https://www.grossarts.co.uk/case-studies-blog/23-cs09-blairtum-new-build-refurbishment), Grossart Associates surviving a major fire during the process in 2016\.[Iconic Rutherglen building Blairtum House will not be bulldozed](https://www.dailyrecord.co.uk/news/local-news/iconic-rutherglen-building-blairtum-house-8195466.amp), Daily Record, 17 June 2016 The high ground immediately north of Blairtum is presumed by W. R. Shearer in *Rutherglen Lore* (1922\) to have been the location of a large mediaeval stone cross placed in a prominent position and from which the Crosshill name is derived, although other sources suggest the cross may have been further west at [Bankhead](/wiki/Rutherglen%23Bankhead_and_Quigleys "Rutherglen#Bankhead and Quigleys"),[Rutherglen, Crosshill](https://canmore.org.uk/site/45081/Rutherglen-Crosshill), Canmore where there is a Crosshill Farm. ### Burnside Blairbeth Church [thumb\|left\|Burnside Blairbeth Church](/wiki/File:AM_Burnside_Church.jpg "AM Burnside Church.jpg") The Burnside church was established in 1928 and initially operated out of temporary buildings.[Records of Glasgow, Burnside Kirk Session](https://catalogue.nrscotland.gov.uk/nrsonlinecatalogue/browseDetails.aspx?reference=CH2/1386), Glasgow City Archives (via [National Records of Scotland](/wiki/National_Records_of_Scotland "National Records of Scotland"))[General view, Burnside, Rutherglen, Lanarkshire, Scotland, 1937\. Oblique aerial photograph, taken facing south\-west](https://canmore.org.uk/collection/1452107), [Canmore](/wiki/Canmore_%28database%29 "Canmore (database)") Plans for a permanent structure were postponed by World War II, but by the time the conflict ended, a merger had taken place between two congregations based within a few blocks of one another in the [Pollokshields](/wiki/Pollokshields "Pollokshields") area of Glasgow, who chose to use the [Sherbrooke Church](/wiki/Sherbrooke_Mosspark_Church "Sherbrooke Mosspark Church") going forward, leaving the St Gilbert's Church buildings (completed in 1911\) unoccupied. They were dismantled brick\-by\-brick and transported to a new home at Burnside, {{convert\|5\|miles}} away, the process completed in 1954\.[Glasgow, Church Avenue, Burnside Parish Church, Halls And Session House](https://canmore.org.uk/site/165260/glasgow-church-avenue-burnside-parish-church-halls-and-session-house), [Canmore](/wiki/Canmore_%28database%29 "Canmore (database)") The premises are [*Category B* listed](/wiki/Listed_building%23Scotland "Listed building#Scotland")[Burnside Road, Church Avenue, Burnside Parish Church including halls, session house, boundary walls and railings](http://portal.historicenvironment.scot/designation/LB33788), [Historic Environment Scotland](/wiki/Historic_Environment_Scotland "Historic Environment Scotland") and feature stained glass windows designed by the noted craftsman [Oscar Paterson](/wiki/Oscar_Paterson "Oscar Paterson").[Burnside Blairbeth Parish Church](http://warmemscot.s4.bizhat.com/warmemscot-post-39914.html), The Scottish Military History Research Group, 17 October 2010 The sanctuary was completely refurbished in 2002, around the same time as a merger took place between the congregations of Burnside and the Blairbeth Parish Church, with the 1950s building of the latter on Drumliaw Road still used as a secondary site for services and clubs. In 2005, the Rev. David Easton retired after serving as minister there for 28 years.[Letter from the Minister](http://www.parkchurch.co.uk/mag/Park%2520Pages%2520Summer%25202016.pdf), Park Pages (Uddingston Park UF Church), 2016 In September 2006, William Wilson was inducted to the vacant charge.[About Us](https://www.burnsideblairbeth.church/about-us/), Burnside Blairbeth Church[Rutherglen reverend one of the finest](https://www.dailyrecord.co.uk/news/local-news/rutherglen-reverend-one-finest-9029294.amp), *Daily Record*, 16 October 2016 Aside from two Sunday Services, there are Sunday Clubs for children and *The Way*, a club for secondary school students. The Blairbeth building, Roger Memorial, has *Storykeepers* club for P1s to P3s and *Megaquest* for P4s to P7s.
[ "History\n-------", "Burnside grew as an affluent [commuter suburb](/wiki/Commuter_suburb \"Commuter suburb\") in the early 20th century following the establishment of the railway station,[General view, Burnside, Rutherglen, Lanarkshire, Scotland, 1937\\. Oblique aerial photograph, taken facing south](https://canmore.org.uk/collection/1452115), [Canmore](/wiki/Canmore_%28database%29 \"Canmore (database)\") and although within the boundaries of Rutherglen it became established separately from the older burgh and has thus retained a distinct identity.[Rutherglen named as one of the top 25 suburbs in the UK for first\\-time buyers by national newspaper](https://www.dailyrecord.co.uk/news/local-news/rutherglen-one-25-most-sought-5393669.amp), *Daily Record*, 27 March 2015 The post\\-World War II housing estates which subsequently surrounded Burnside to the south and west were built to alleviate housing problems in central Rutherglen and in Cambuslang, so although physically adjacent were never seen as parts of Burnside as such; in the same vein, the nearby [Castlemilk](/wiki/Castlemilk \"Castlemilk\") housing scheme is situated close to Rutherglen and Burnside and shared the same administration in times past when it was a rural estate, but was constructed by [Glasgow Corporation](/wiki/Glasgow_Corporation \"Glasgow Corporation\") for residents being rehoused from the inner city and has never had a formal connection to the neighbouring town.", "[thumb\\|left\\|'Coronation' style tram (No 18\\) travelling south on Stonelaw Road at Stonelaw Woods, 1960](/wiki/File:A_%27Coronation%27_car_at_Burnside_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1344405.jpg \"A 'Coronation' car at Burnside - geograph.org.uk - 1344405.jpg\") \nThe local park, Stonelaw Woods,[Sewage work project in Rutherglen could see 11 months of disruption for residents](https://www.dailyrecord.co.uk/news/local-news/sewage-work-project-rutherglen-could-10298094.amp), *Daily Record*, 2 May 2017[Stonelaw Woods 5](https://rutherglenheritage.files.wordpress.com/2012/01/stonelaw-woods-5.jpg?w=1576), Rutherglen Heritage Project was landscaped from a disused quarry and named after the most prominent historic landmark in the area, the castellated Stonelaw Tower,[Stonelaw Tower](https://rutherglenheritage.files.wordpress.com/2012/01/stonelaw-tower-2.jpg), Rutherglen Heritage Society a converted 18th\\-century [coal mine winding engine house](/wiki/Winding_engine \"Winding engine\") which fell into disrepair \\- after subsidence in the vicinity caused by the mining \\- and was demolished in the 1960s to be replaced by apartments and a petrol station (also since demolished),[Rutherglen news: Burnside filling station site subject to planning application](https://www.dailyrecord.co.uk/news/local-news/rutherglen-news-burnside-filling-station-8779459), Daily Record, 9 September 2016 with only a boundary wall remaining.[Stonelaw Tower](https://www.scottishcastlesassociation.com/news/past-present/stonelaw-tower.htm), Scottish Castles Association, 8 December 2014[Tower House or Engine House? Inside Rais and Stonelaw Towers...](https://www.scottishcastlesassociation.com/news/news-features/engine-house.htm), Scottish Castles Association, 10 April 2018", "The origin of the name, Burnside Farm, is located some distance south of the centre of the modern settlement, being uphill closer to Fernhill and [Cathkin](/wiki/Rutherglen%23Cathkin \"Rutherglen#Cathkin\") \\- the farmhouse still exists, located off Beech Drive, while the burn in question runs north\\-west past the [Blairbeth](/wiki/Rutherglen%23Blairbeth \"Rutherglen#Blairbeth\") and [Spittal](/wiki/Rutherglen%23Spittal \"Rutherglen#Spittal\") neighbourhoods, concealed in parts, before merging with another originating near Castlemilk and flowing through Rutherglen, entering the [River Clyde](/wiki/River_Clyde \"River Clyde\") at Richmond Park ([Oatlands](/wiki/Oatlands%2C_Glasgow \"Oatlands, Glasgow\")).[Glasgow, Castlemilk House](https://canmore.org.uk/site/44894/glasgow-Castlemilk-House), Greater Glasgow: An Illustrated Architectural Guide, Sam Small, 2008 (quoted at [Canmore](/wiki/Canmore_%28database%29 \"Canmore (database)\")) The farm also gave its name to Burnside Loch, used for boating and [curling](/wiki/Curling_%28sport%29 \"Curling (sport)\")[1689 Burnside](https://sites.google.com/a/curlingplaces.info/cp/places/1689-burnside), Curling Places Vol 1 but drained in the 1920s and now the playing fields for two primary schools located in the [Springhall](/wiki/Rutherglen%23Springhall \"Rutherglen#Springhall\") housing estate (including Loch Primary, which today has no visual indication as to why it was so named).[About Us](http://www.loch-pri.s-lanark.sch.uk/lps_aboutus.htm), Loch Primary School Other local farms included *High Crosshill* at the entrance of Glenlui Avenue at Burnside Primary School, no trace remaining; *Stonelaw*, adjacent to the tower, no trace remaining; and *Fishescoats* off East Kilbride Road, the buildings for which were retained by a funeral director's business.", "There were various stages of housebuilding, with the earliest properties among the largest at High Burnside in the vicinity of Lower Bourtree Drive and Lochbrae Drive in the late 19th century, followed by the grid of streets at High Crosshill and the similar sandstone villas at Buchanan Drive, plus the tenements on the main road in the 1900s, then more at High Burnside (Thorn Drive / Tynwald Avenue / St Stephen's Avenue) and on the old golf course around Crawfurd Road post\\-World War I. Land to the east of Stonelaw Road was also occupied in the 1920s,[John McDonald](https://www.mackintosh-architecture.gla.ac.uk/catalogue/name/?nid=MacdJohn#MacdJohn.19-back), Mackintosh Architecture (The Hunterian, University of Glasgow)[(Sir) John McDonald](http://www.scottisharchitects.org.uk/architect_full.php?id=205318), [Dictionary of Scottish Architects](/wiki/Dictionary_of_Scottish_Architects \"Dictionary of Scottish Architects\") with a development of quartered villas and bungalows at Southhill Avenue towards the yet unbuilt Eastfield, thereafter mainly semi\\-detached homes in the triangular plot of land at Dukes Road / Brownside Road, and another set of quartered villas and bungalows on the inclines around Bradda Avenue / Blairbeth Road; these latter areas (including Burnside Church and bowling club) were historically within the [civil parish](/wiki/Civil_parish \"Civil parish\") of Cambuslang[Map of the Parish of Cambuslang in the Historical County of Lanark](https://www.scottish-places.info/parishes/parmap817.html), [Gazetteer for Scotland](/wiki/Gazetteer_for_Scotland \"Gazetteer for Scotland\") but were always more closely associated with the amenities of central Burnside, located within the boundaries of Rutherglen along with Springhall and Blairbeth[Map of the Parish of Rutherglen in the Historical County of Lanark](https://www.scottish-places.info/parishes/parmap810.html), [Gazetteer for Scotland](/wiki/Gazetteer_for_Scotland \"Gazetteer for Scotland\") (but unlike Spittal, Cathkin and Fernhill which were in [Carmunnock](/wiki/Carmunnock \"Carmunnock\") parish).[Map of the Parish of Carmunnock in the Historical County of Lanark](https://www.scottish-places.info/parishes/parmap826.html), [Gazetteer for Scotland](/wiki/Gazetteer_for_Scotland \"Gazetteer for Scotland\") The last major residential project at Upper Bourtree Drive / Larchfield Drive in the 1970s 'joined' the existing parts of High Burnside and meant the vast majority of the territory was now built upon, with all subsequent modern developments being on a far smaller scale.", "[thumb\\|Sandstone villas on Blairbeth Road](/wiki/File:Old_road_sign_by_Crawfurd_Avenue_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1230087.jpg \"Old road sign by Crawfurd Avenue - geograph.org.uk - 1230087.jpg\")\nPreviously, Burnside had its own cinema on Stonelaw Road, the Rhul Cinema. Built in 1932 by the Burnside Picture House Company, the cinema was sold to ABC in 1936 and later demolished in 1960\\.{{cite web \\| url\\=http://www.codexgeo.co.uk/dsa/building\\_full.php?id\\=M003488 \\| title\\=Rhul Cinema \\| work\\=Dictionary of Scottish Architects \\| year\\=2006 \\| accessdate\\=31 October 2006 \\| archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928013117/http://www.codexgeo.co.uk/dsa/building\\_full.php?id\\=M003488 \\| archive\\-date\\=28 September 2007 \\| url\\-status\\=dead }}{{cite web \\| url\\=http://www.survivingcinemas.org.uk/glasgow/demolished.php \\| title\\=Glasgow Demolished Cinemas \\| work\\=Cinema City and Beyond \\| accessdate\\=31 October 2006}}{{cite web \\|url\\=https://jellyinboll.co.uk/2017/12/10/rhul\\-glasgow/\\|title\\=Rhul, Glasgow\\|website\\=The Scottish Cinema Project\\|accessdate\\=9 September 2018}} The space is now occupied by a supermarket, which was previously run by [Safeway](/wiki/Safeway_%28UK%29 \"Safeway (UK)\"), [Morrisons](/wiki/Morrisons \"Morrisons\") and Somerfield,[Rutherglen's movie hall past](https://www.dailyrecord.co.uk/news/local-news/rutherglens-movie-hall-past-2604252), *Daily Record*, 2 September 2009 but is presently a [Tesco](/wiki/Tesco \"Tesco\"), who purchased the store in 2010 and completed a comprehensive redevelopment.", "On the western side of Burnside, overlooking Rutherglen Cemetery and immediately north of the railway tracks, is Blairtum House, built in 1878 for the owner of a rope works at [Farme Cross](/wiki/Rutherglen%23Farme_Cross \"Rutherglen#Farme Cross\") and adorned with rope\\-related features in its stonework. It was owned in the 1900s by George Gray, Town Clerk of Rutherglen,[George Gray (Mitchell Library, The Bailie)](https://www.theglasgowstory.com/image/?inum=TGSA00209), The Glasgow Story and later was a care home for the elderly and [YMCA](/wiki/YMCA \"YMCA\")\\-run accommodation for homeless teenagers[Rutherglen pals recall their life at Blairtum House following horror fire which ripped through the building](https://www.dailyrecord.co.uk/news/local-news/rutherglen-pals-recall-life-blairtum-7990886.amp), Daily Record, 20 May 2016 before being converted as the centrepiece of an upmarket residential development,[Conversion of Blairtum House, Scotland](https://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Conversion_of_Blairtum_House,_Scotland), Chartered Institute of Architectural Technologists, 20 September 2019[CS09; Blairtum Park New Build \\& Refurbishment](https://www.grossarts.co.uk/case-studies-blog/23-cs09-blairtum-new-build-refurbishment), Grossart Associates surviving a major fire during the process in 2016\\.[Iconic Rutherglen building Blairtum House will not be bulldozed](https://www.dailyrecord.co.uk/news/local-news/iconic-rutherglen-building-blairtum-house-8195466.amp), Daily Record, 17 June 2016 The high ground immediately north of Blairtum is presumed by W. R. Shearer in *Rutherglen Lore* (1922\\) to have been the location of a large mediaeval stone cross placed in a prominent position and from which the Crosshill name is derived, although other sources suggest the cross may have been further west at [Bankhead](/wiki/Rutherglen%23Bankhead_and_Quigleys \"Rutherglen#Bankhead and Quigleys\"),[Rutherglen, Crosshill](https://canmore.org.uk/site/45081/Rutherglen-Crosshill), Canmore where there is a Crosshill Farm.", "### Burnside Blairbeth Church", "[thumb\\|left\\|Burnside Blairbeth Church](/wiki/File:AM_Burnside_Church.jpg \"AM Burnside Church.jpg\")\nThe Burnside church was established in 1928 and initially operated out of temporary buildings.[Records of Glasgow, Burnside Kirk Session](https://catalogue.nrscotland.gov.uk/nrsonlinecatalogue/browseDetails.aspx?reference=CH2/1386), Glasgow City Archives (via [National Records of Scotland](/wiki/National_Records_of_Scotland \"National Records of Scotland\"))[General view, Burnside, Rutherglen, Lanarkshire, Scotland, 1937\\. Oblique aerial photograph, taken facing south\\-west](https://canmore.org.uk/collection/1452107), [Canmore](/wiki/Canmore_%28database%29 \"Canmore (database)\") Plans for a permanent structure were postponed by World War II, but by the time the conflict ended, a merger had taken place between two congregations based within a few blocks of one another in the [Pollokshields](/wiki/Pollokshields \"Pollokshields\") area of Glasgow, who chose to use the [Sherbrooke Church](/wiki/Sherbrooke_Mosspark_Church \"Sherbrooke Mosspark Church\") going forward, leaving the St Gilbert's Church buildings (completed in 1911\\) unoccupied. They were dismantled brick\\-by\\-brick and transported to a new home at Burnside, {{convert\\|5\\|miles}} away, the process completed in 1954\\.[Glasgow, Church Avenue, Burnside Parish Church, Halls And Session House](https://canmore.org.uk/site/165260/glasgow-church-avenue-burnside-parish-church-halls-and-session-house), [Canmore](/wiki/Canmore_%28database%29 \"Canmore (database)\")", "The premises are [*Category B* listed](/wiki/Listed_building%23Scotland \"Listed building#Scotland\")[Burnside Road, Church Avenue, Burnside Parish Church including halls, session house, boundary walls and railings](http://portal.historicenvironment.scot/designation/LB33788), [Historic Environment Scotland](/wiki/Historic_Environment_Scotland \"Historic Environment Scotland\") and feature stained glass windows designed by the noted craftsman [Oscar Paterson](/wiki/Oscar_Paterson \"Oscar Paterson\").[Burnside Blairbeth Parish Church](http://warmemscot.s4.bizhat.com/warmemscot-post-39914.html), The Scottish Military History Research Group, 17 October 2010 The sanctuary was completely refurbished in 2002, around the same time as a merger took place between the congregations of Burnside and the Blairbeth Parish Church, with the 1950s building of the latter on Drumliaw Road still used as a secondary site for services and clubs.", "In 2005, the Rev. David Easton retired after serving as minister there for 28 years.[Letter from the Minister](http://www.parkchurch.co.uk/mag/Park%2520Pages%2520Summer%25202016.pdf), Park Pages (Uddingston Park UF Church), 2016 In September 2006, William Wilson was inducted to the vacant charge.[About Us](https://www.burnsideblairbeth.church/about-us/), Burnside Blairbeth Church[Rutherglen reverend one of the finest](https://www.dailyrecord.co.uk/news/local-news/rutherglen-reverend-one-finest-9029294.amp), *Daily Record*, 16 October 2016 Aside from two Sunday Services, there are Sunday Clubs for children and *The Way*, a club for secondary school students. The Blairbeth building, Roger Memorial, has *Storykeepers* club for P1s to P3s and *Megaquest* for P4s to P7s.", "" ]
History ------- The German name *Boyceneburg* was first documented in 1158\. The written form changed to *Boiceneburg* (1171\) and then *Boizeneburg* (1195\). The old Low German name for the town and river (Boize) likely stems from the Slavic *boj* for war. Boizenburg suffered during the Thirty Years' War and its old castle was burnt down by Swedish troops in 1628\. In 1709 the church and 160 or more medieval dwellings were incinerated by a fire. The Town Hall was rebuilt in 1712 and the layout of the town was redesigned by Prussian architects sent from Schwerin. They focused on incorporating efficiency of movement with fire\-resistance, better sanitation and public space. During the Napoleonic Wars French troops were quartered in Boizenburg in 1807\. A battle was fought with the retreating French army near Boizenburg in 1813\. From 1815 to 1918, Boizenburg was part of the [Grand Duchy of Mecklenburg\-Schwerin](/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Mecklenburg-Schwerin "Grand Duchy of Mecklenburg-Schwerin"). In 1826 a highway was built, connecting Hamburg, Berlin and subsequently Boizenburg (Highway "B5"). In 1846 the railway between Berlin and Hamburg was constructed. Boizenburg was included with its own train station along this important route. The shipbuilding yard *Lemmsche* founded in 1793 became highly industrialized in 1852 and produced many wooden and steel ships. The shipbuilders *Thomsen \& Co* supported the German war effort during World War II. In 1973 the [SED](/wiki/Socialist_Unity_Party_of_Germany "Socialist Unity Party of Germany") reactivated the shipbuilding facilities for the production of smaller inland ships for the USSR. After being privatized in 1989, the yard was declared bankrupt in 1997\. Today smaller independent companies are active in the old ship yard. The Boizenburg Tile Factory established by Hans Duensing in 1903, became Europe's largest tile manufacturer by 1937\. After being re\-established in 1991, it remains one of the town's main employers. Artistic impressions of the tile work produced in Boizenburg—particularly in the [Art Nouveau](/wiki/Art_Nouveau "Art Nouveau") style \- can be found at the *Erstes Deutsches Fliesen Museum*. During the communist East German era, residents of Boizenburg were kept under close scrutiny by the [Stasi](/wiki/Stasi "Stasi"). Many deemed 'politically untrustworthy' had their property confiscated during a state\-sponsored terror campaign code\-named [Operation Vermin](/wiki/Operation_Vermin "Operation Vermin") ([Aktion Ungeziefer](/wiki/Aktion_Ungeziefer "Aktion Ungeziefer")).
[ "History\n-------", "The German name *Boyceneburg* was first documented in 1158\\. The written form changed to *Boiceneburg* (1171\\) and then *Boizeneburg* (1195\\). The old Low German name for the town and river (Boize) likely stems from the Slavic *boj* for war.", "Boizenburg suffered during the Thirty Years' War and its old castle was burnt down by Swedish troops in 1628\\. In 1709 the church and 160 or more medieval dwellings were incinerated by a fire. The Town Hall was rebuilt in 1712 and the layout of the town was redesigned by Prussian architects sent from Schwerin. They focused on incorporating efficiency of movement with fire\\-resistance, better sanitation and public space.", "During the Napoleonic Wars French troops were quartered in Boizenburg in 1807\\. A battle was fought with the retreating French army near Boizenburg in 1813\\.", "From 1815 to 1918, Boizenburg was part of the [Grand Duchy of Mecklenburg\\-Schwerin](/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Mecklenburg-Schwerin \"Grand Duchy of Mecklenburg-Schwerin\"). In 1826 a highway was built, connecting Hamburg, Berlin and subsequently Boizenburg (Highway \"B5\"). In 1846 the railway between Berlin and Hamburg was constructed. Boizenburg was included with its own train station along this important route.", "The shipbuilding yard *Lemmsche* founded in 1793 became highly industrialized in 1852 and produced many wooden and steel ships. The shipbuilders *Thomsen \\& Co* supported the German war effort during World War II. In 1973 the [SED](/wiki/Socialist_Unity_Party_of_Germany \"Socialist Unity Party of Germany\") reactivated the shipbuilding facilities for the production of smaller inland ships for the USSR. After being privatized in 1989, the yard was declared bankrupt in 1997\\. Today smaller independent companies are active in the old ship yard.", "The Boizenburg Tile Factory established by Hans Duensing in 1903, became Europe's largest tile manufacturer by 1937\\. After being re\\-established in 1991, it remains one of the town's main employers. Artistic impressions of the tile work produced in Boizenburg—particularly in the [Art Nouveau](/wiki/Art_Nouveau \"Art Nouveau\") style \\- can be found at the *Erstes Deutsches Fliesen Museum*.", "During the communist East German era, residents of Boizenburg were kept under close scrutiny by the [Stasi](/wiki/Stasi \"Stasi\"). Many deemed 'politically untrustworthy' had their property confiscated during a state\\-sponsored terror campaign code\\-named [Operation Vermin](/wiki/Operation_Vermin \"Operation Vermin\") ([Aktion Ungeziefer](/wiki/Aktion_Ungeziefer \"Aktion Ungeziefer\")).", "" ]
History ------- ### Traditional narrative {{Main article\|Hahamongna, California\|Hahamog\-na}} Above Devil's Gate, the rapids of the Arroyo Seco are positioned so that the falls make a beating, laughing sound. In [Tongva\-Gabrieliño traditional narratives](/wiki/Gabrielino_traditional_narratives "Gabrielino traditional narratives"), this is attributed to a wager made between the river and the [coyote spirit](/wiki/Coyote_%28mythology%29 "Coyote (mythology)"){{Citation needed\|date\=August 2023}}. ### Early settlement The Arroyo Seco was one of the Los Angeles River tributaries explored by Gaspar de Portola in the late summer and fall of 1770\. He named the stream Arroyo Seco, for of all the canyons he had seen, this one had the least water. During this exploration he met the Chief [Hahamog\-na](/wiki/Hahamog-na "Hahamog-na") (Hahamonga) near Millard Canyon, at the settlement later known as [Hahamongna, California](/wiki/Hahamongna%2C_California "Hahamongna, California"). This band of the [Tongva](/wiki/Tongva_people "Tongva people") Indians would end up gathered into the fold of the [San Gabriel Mission](/wiki/San_Gabriel_Mission "San Gabriel Mission") and with other bands and tribes collectively called "Gabrielenos". The Arroyo Seco region can be considered by historical accounts as the birthplace of Pasadena. After the 1820s secularization of the Missions, the broad area to the east of the Arroyo was the [Mexican land grant](/wiki/Ranchos_of_California "Ranchos of California") of [Rancho San Pascual](/wiki/Rancho_San_Pascual "Rancho San Pascual"), present\-day [Pasadena, California](/wiki/Pasadena%2C_California "Pasadena, California"). [Manuel Garfias](/wiki/Manuel_Garfias "Manuel Garfias") was the grantee of the Rancho and its longest early resident. His [adobe](/wiki/Adobe "Adobe") house was on the east ridge of the Arroyo, in present\-day [South Pasadena](/wiki/South_Pasadena%2C_California "South Pasadena, California"). With the 1874 establishment of the community of the [Indiana Colony](/wiki/Indiana_Colony "Indiana Colony"), the new residents built their homes along today's Orange Grove Boulevard, the major north–south avenue paralleling the Arroyo on the east. However, the deep and seasonally flooded Arroyo presented a barrier to easy travel and transportation between renamed Pasadena and Los Angeles. Stories of four and five hours just crossing the chasm, whether exaggerated or not, abounded in Pasadena history.*Pasadena*, Hiram Reid, 1895\. Out of Print. A comprehensive history of Pasadena after 20 years of colonization. The first recorded American to live in the Upper Arroyo (north of Devil's Gate) was simply known as "Old Man Brunk". Brunk's cabin stood at a large bend in the canyon, roughly where the Forest Service housing is today. It was said he left [San Francisco](/wiki/San_Francisco "San Francisco") "for that town's good".*Altadena* by [Sarah Noble Ives](/wiki/Sarah_Noble_Ives "Sarah Noble Ives"), 1938 (Altadena Historical Society, out of print) ### Transportation corridor Dating back to the original [Tongva](/wiki/Tongva_people "Tongva people") residents of the area, the Arroyo Seco canyon has always served as a major transportation corridor. Today it links downtown Los Angeles with Pasadena, the west [San Gabriel Valley](/wiki/San_Gabriel_Valley "San Gabriel Valley") and the [San Gabriel Mountains](/wiki/San_Gabriel_Mountains "San Gabriel Mountains"). [thumb\|right\|1886 view of the Los Angeles and San Gabriel Railroad crossing the Arroyo Seco near [Garvanza](/wiki/Garvanza "Garvanza") \- Highland Park](/wiki/File:Los_Angeles_and_San_Gabriel_Railroad_train_on_the_bridge_at_Garvanza%2C_the_first_trestle_across_the_Arroyo_Seco%2C_approaching_Highland_Park_from_South_Pasadena%2C_ca.1885_%28CHS-6666%29.jpg "Los Angeles and San Gabriel Railroad train on the bridge at Garvanza, the first trestle across the Arroyo Seco, approaching Highland Park from South Pasadena, ca.1885 (CHS-6666).jpg") [thumb\|right\|[Pasadena and Los Angeles Electric Railway](/wiki/Pasadena_and_Los_Angeles_Electric_Railway "Pasadena and Los Angeles Electric Railway") and [Los Angeles and San Gabriel Valley Railroad](/wiki/Los_Angeles_and_San_Gabriel_Valley_Railroad "Los Angeles and San Gabriel Valley Railroad") train in the Arroyo Seco](/wiki/File:Arroyo_Seco_Trestles_Rail_and_Street_Car_lines_from_Pasadena_to_downtown_LA.jpg "Arroyo Seco Trestles Rail and Street Car lines from Pasadena to downtown LA.jpg") [thumb\|[Santa Fe Arroyo Seco Railroad Bridge](/wiki/Santa_Fe_Arroyo_Seco_Railroad_Bridge "Santa Fe Arroyo Seco Railroad Bridge") with a Gold line Tram crossing](/wiki/File:Santa_Fe_Arroyo_Seco_Railroad_Bridge.JPG "Santa Fe Arroyo Seco Railroad Bridge.JPG") By 1886 the [Los Angeles and San Gabriel Valley Railroad](/wiki/Los_Angeles_and_San_Gabriel_Valley_Railroad "Los Angeles and San Gabriel Valley Railroad") had been established from Downtown Los Angeles with a grand wooden trestle that cut a straight line crossing from the west side to the east. The wooden trestle was replaced with the [Santa Fe Arroyo Seco Railroad Bridge](/wiki/Santa_Fe_Arroyo_Seco_Railroad_Bridge "Santa Fe Arroyo Seco Railroad Bridge"). Eventually this line would hook up with rail lines built from the east to create the cross\-country course of the [Santa Fe Railroad](/wiki/Santa_Fe_Railroad "Santa Fe Railroad"). For local commutes, an electric traction trolley was put in and operated by the [Pacific Electric Railway](/wiki/Pacific_Electric_Railway "Pacific Electric Railway"), a [Henry E. Huntington](/wiki/Henry_E._Huntington "Henry E. Huntington") enterprise, which ran the "Red Cars" from the upper Arroyo and Pasadena through the San Gabriel Valley into Los Angeles and many points beyond.*Trolley Days in Pasadena*, 1985, Charles Seims. The lower Arroyo Seco was served by the [Los Angeles Railway](/wiki/Los_Angeles_Railway "Los Angeles Railway") "Yellow Car" lines. [thumb\|[Arroyo Seco bicycle path](/wiki/Arroyo_Seco_bicycle_path "Arroyo Seco bicycle path")](/wiki/File:Arroyo_Seco_Bike_Path_Entrance.jpg "Arroyo Seco Bike Path Entrance.jpg") In 1900 [Horace Dobbins](/wiki/Horace_Dobbins "Horace Dobbins"), Mayor of Pasadena, opened his innovative [California Cycleway](/wiki/California_Cycleway "California Cycleway"), an elevated wood structure with a flat planked surface that would allow bicyclers to travel from Pasadena to Los Angeles avoiding the uncertain schedules of the early trains. Dobbins was only able to build a two\-mile portion of the cycleway from the Green Hotel to Raymond Hill before competition from the railroads and the growing popularity of the [horseless carriage](/wiki/Horseless_carriage "Horseless carriage") undermined the project. Present day cycling activists are reviving a vision and plan for a [dedicated bikeway](/wiki/Segregated_cycle_facilities "Segregated cycle facilities") from Pasadena to Los Angeles.cycling activists; such as Dennis Crowley The [Arroyo Seco bicycle path](/wiki/Arroyo_Seco_bicycle_path "Arroyo Seco bicycle path") now runs from Highland Park to South Pasadena; the [Kenneth Newell Bikeway](/wiki/Kenneth_Newell_Bikeway "Kenneth Newell Bikeway") continues the route through Pasadena. In 1913 the [Colorado Street Bridge](/wiki/Colorado_Street_Bridge_%28Pasadena%2C_California%29 "Colorado Street Bridge (Pasadena, California)") was dedicated. This structure curves across the Arroyo accessing [Eagle Rock](/wiki/Eagle_Rock%2C_California "Eagle Rock, California"), [Glendale](/wiki/Glendale%2C_California "Glendale, California"), and the [San Fernando Valley](/wiki/San_Fernando_Valley "San Fernando Valley"). During the [Stock Market Crash of 1929](/wiki/Stock_Market_Crash_of_1929 "Stock Market Crash of 1929") and the subsequent [Great Depression](/wiki/Great_Depression "Great Depression") of the 1930s, the bridge was a jumping off point for many committing [suicide](/wiki/Suicide "Suicide"), whereby it received the ignoble name of "[Suicide bridge](/wiki/Suicide_bridge "Suicide bridge")." By the 1980s the bridge fell into disrepair as chunks of concrete dropped from its face to the armory parking lot in the Arroyo below. In October 1989, the Colorado Street Bridge was closed as a precautionary measure in the aftermath of the [San Francisco–Oakland Bay Bridge](/wiki/San_Francisco%E2%80%93Oakland_Bay_Bridge "San Francisco–Oakland Bay Bridge") failure in the [Loma Prieta earthquake](/wiki/1989_Loma_Prieta_earthquake "1989 Loma Prieta earthquake"). Eventually assistance from the Federal Bridge Repair and Replacement Fund and other local governmental agency discretionary funds provided funding for the complete restoration and [seismic retrofit](/wiki/Seismic_retrofit "Seismic retrofit") of the bridge. The total project budget amounted to $24 million, and the Colorado Street Bridge was reopened on December 13, 1993, on time and on budget. #### Arroyo Seco Parkway [thumb\|[Arroyo Seco Parkway](/wiki/Arroyo_Seco_Parkway "Arroyo Seco Parkway")](/wiki/File:WelcomeToTheHistoricArryoSecoParkway.jpg "WelcomeToTheHistoricArryoSecoParkway.jpg") By mid\-20th Century, the automobile had long become a mainstay of Southern California life. In 1940 the [Arroyo Seco Parkway](/wiki/Arroyo_Seco_Parkway "Arroyo Seco Parkway"), the first freeway, was built as a [parkway](/wiki/Parkway "Parkway") alongside the newly constructed flood channel in the Los Angeles portion of the Arroyo. Today, also known as the [Pasadena Freeway](/wiki/Pasadena_Freeway "Pasadena Freeway"), it continues on through downtown becoming the [Harbor Freeway](/wiki/Harbor_Freeway "Harbor Freeway"), and terminates near the harbor in [San Pedro](/wiki/San_Pedro%2C_Los_Angeles%2C_California "San Pedro, Los Angeles, California"). The Arroyo Seco Corridor Management Plan was completed for the "Arroyo Seco Parkway" in 2004\. The Plan was created through a partnership with the [National Trust for Historic Preservation](/wiki/National_Trust_for_Historic_Preservation "National Trust for Historic Preservation"), the [National Scenic Byways Center](/wiki/National_Scenic_Byway "National Scenic Byway") (Federal Highways), [Caltrans](/wiki/California_Department_of_Transportation "California Department of Transportation") (State Highways), the [National Park Service](/wiki/National_Park_Service "National Park Service"), the [Santa Monica Mountains Conservancy](/wiki/Santa_Monica_Mountains_Conservancy "Santa Monica Mountains Conservancy"), and The Center for Preservation Education and Planning (CPEP Inc.).Project co\-authors for the Arroyo Seco Corridor Management Plan were: Dan Marriott, [National Trust for Historic Preservation](/wiki/National_Trust_for_Historic_Preservation "National Trust for Historic Preservation") and Jeffrey Samudio, Executive Director, Center for Preservation Education and Planning, Hollywood and Partner of Design Aid Architects. The Arroyo Seco Flood Control Channel, was built by the Works Progress Administration before and during construction of the parkway to avoid damages from future floods.
[ "History\n-------", "### Traditional narrative", "{{Main article\\|Hahamongna, California\\|Hahamog\\-na}}\nAbove Devil's Gate, the rapids of the Arroyo Seco are positioned so that the falls make a beating, laughing sound. In [Tongva\\-Gabrieliño traditional narratives](/wiki/Gabrielino_traditional_narratives \"Gabrielino traditional narratives\"), this is attributed to a wager made between the river and the [coyote spirit](/wiki/Coyote_%28mythology%29 \"Coyote (mythology)\"){{Citation needed\\|date\\=August 2023}}.", "### Early settlement", "The Arroyo Seco was one of the Los Angeles River tributaries explored by Gaspar de Portola in the late summer and fall of 1770\\. He named the stream Arroyo Seco, for of all the canyons he had seen, this one had the least water. During this exploration he met the Chief [Hahamog\\-na](/wiki/Hahamog-na \"Hahamog-na\") (Hahamonga) near Millard Canyon, at the settlement later known as [Hahamongna, California](/wiki/Hahamongna%2C_California \"Hahamongna, California\"). This band of the [Tongva](/wiki/Tongva_people \"Tongva people\") Indians would end up gathered into the fold of the [San Gabriel Mission](/wiki/San_Gabriel_Mission \"San Gabriel Mission\") and with other bands and tribes collectively called \"Gabrielenos\".", "The Arroyo Seco region can be considered by historical accounts as the birthplace of Pasadena. After the 1820s secularization of the Missions, the broad area to the east of the Arroyo was the [Mexican land grant](/wiki/Ranchos_of_California \"Ranchos of California\") of [Rancho San Pascual](/wiki/Rancho_San_Pascual \"Rancho San Pascual\"), present\\-day [Pasadena, California](/wiki/Pasadena%2C_California \"Pasadena, California\"). [Manuel Garfias](/wiki/Manuel_Garfias \"Manuel Garfias\") was the grantee of the Rancho and its longest early resident. His [adobe](/wiki/Adobe \"Adobe\") house was on the east ridge of the Arroyo, in present\\-day [South Pasadena](/wiki/South_Pasadena%2C_California \"South Pasadena, California\").", "With the 1874 establishment of the community of the [Indiana Colony](/wiki/Indiana_Colony \"Indiana Colony\"), the new residents built their homes along today's Orange Grove Boulevard, the major north–south avenue paralleling the Arroyo on the east. However, the deep and seasonally flooded Arroyo presented a barrier to easy travel and transportation between renamed Pasadena and Los Angeles. Stories of four and five hours just crossing the chasm, whether exaggerated or not, abounded in Pasadena history.*Pasadena*, Hiram Reid, 1895\\. Out of Print. A comprehensive history of Pasadena after 20 years of colonization.", "The first recorded American to live in the Upper Arroyo (north of Devil's Gate) was simply known as \"Old Man Brunk\". Brunk's cabin stood at a large bend in the canyon, roughly where the Forest Service housing is today. It was said he left [San Francisco](/wiki/San_Francisco \"San Francisco\") \"for that town's good\".*Altadena* by [Sarah Noble Ives](/wiki/Sarah_Noble_Ives \"Sarah Noble Ives\"), 1938 (Altadena Historical Society, out of print)", "### Transportation corridor", "Dating back to the original [Tongva](/wiki/Tongva_people \"Tongva people\") residents of the area, the Arroyo Seco canyon has always served as a major transportation corridor. Today it links downtown Los Angeles with Pasadena, the west [San Gabriel Valley](/wiki/San_Gabriel_Valley \"San Gabriel Valley\") and the [San Gabriel Mountains](/wiki/San_Gabriel_Mountains \"San Gabriel Mountains\").", "[thumb\\|right\\|1886 view of the Los Angeles and San Gabriel Railroad crossing the Arroyo Seco near [Garvanza](/wiki/Garvanza \"Garvanza\") \\- Highland Park](/wiki/File:Los_Angeles_and_San_Gabriel_Railroad_train_on_the_bridge_at_Garvanza%2C_the_first_trestle_across_the_Arroyo_Seco%2C_approaching_Highland_Park_from_South_Pasadena%2C_ca.1885_%28CHS-6666%29.jpg \"Los Angeles and San Gabriel Railroad train on the bridge at Garvanza, the first trestle across the Arroyo Seco, approaching Highland Park from South Pasadena, ca.1885 (CHS-6666).jpg\")", "[thumb\\|right\\|[Pasadena and Los Angeles Electric Railway](/wiki/Pasadena_and_Los_Angeles_Electric_Railway \"Pasadena and Los Angeles Electric Railway\") and [Los Angeles and San Gabriel Valley Railroad](/wiki/Los_Angeles_and_San_Gabriel_Valley_Railroad \"Los Angeles and San Gabriel Valley Railroad\") train in the Arroyo Seco](/wiki/File:Arroyo_Seco_Trestles_Rail_and_Street_Car_lines_from_Pasadena_to_downtown_LA.jpg \"Arroyo Seco Trestles Rail and Street Car lines from Pasadena to downtown LA.jpg\")", "[thumb\\|[Santa Fe Arroyo Seco Railroad Bridge](/wiki/Santa_Fe_Arroyo_Seco_Railroad_Bridge \"Santa Fe Arroyo Seco Railroad Bridge\") with a Gold line Tram crossing](/wiki/File:Santa_Fe_Arroyo_Seco_Railroad_Bridge.JPG \"Santa Fe Arroyo Seco Railroad Bridge.JPG\") By 1886 the [Los Angeles and San Gabriel Valley Railroad](/wiki/Los_Angeles_and_San_Gabriel_Valley_Railroad \"Los Angeles and San Gabriel Valley Railroad\") had been established from Downtown Los Angeles with a grand wooden trestle that cut a straight line crossing from the west side to the east. The wooden trestle was replaced with the [Santa Fe Arroyo Seco Railroad Bridge](/wiki/Santa_Fe_Arroyo_Seco_Railroad_Bridge \"Santa Fe Arroyo Seco Railroad Bridge\"). Eventually this line would hook up with rail lines built from the east to create the cross\\-country course of the [Santa Fe Railroad](/wiki/Santa_Fe_Railroad \"Santa Fe Railroad\"). For local commutes, an electric traction trolley was put in and operated by the [Pacific Electric Railway](/wiki/Pacific_Electric_Railway \"Pacific Electric Railway\"), a [Henry E. Huntington](/wiki/Henry_E._Huntington \"Henry E. Huntington\") enterprise, which ran the \"Red Cars\" from the upper Arroyo and Pasadena through the San Gabriel Valley into Los Angeles and many points beyond.*Trolley Days in Pasadena*, 1985, Charles Seims. The lower Arroyo Seco was served by the [Los Angeles Railway](/wiki/Los_Angeles_Railway \"Los Angeles Railway\") \"Yellow Car\" lines.", "[thumb\\|[Arroyo Seco bicycle path](/wiki/Arroyo_Seco_bicycle_path \"Arroyo Seco bicycle path\")](/wiki/File:Arroyo_Seco_Bike_Path_Entrance.jpg \"Arroyo Seco Bike Path Entrance.jpg\") In 1900 [Horace Dobbins](/wiki/Horace_Dobbins \"Horace Dobbins\"), Mayor of Pasadena, opened his innovative [California Cycleway](/wiki/California_Cycleway \"California Cycleway\"), an elevated wood structure with a flat planked surface that would allow bicyclers to travel from Pasadena to Los Angeles avoiding the uncertain schedules of the early trains. Dobbins was only able to build a two\\-mile portion of the cycleway from the Green Hotel to Raymond Hill before competition from the railroads and the growing popularity of the [horseless carriage](/wiki/Horseless_carriage \"Horseless carriage\") undermined the project. Present day cycling activists are reviving a vision and plan for a [dedicated bikeway](/wiki/Segregated_cycle_facilities \"Segregated cycle facilities\") from Pasadena to Los Angeles.cycling activists; such as Dennis Crowley The [Arroyo Seco bicycle path](/wiki/Arroyo_Seco_bicycle_path \"Arroyo Seco bicycle path\") now runs from Highland Park to South Pasadena; the [Kenneth Newell Bikeway](/wiki/Kenneth_Newell_Bikeway \"Kenneth Newell Bikeway\") continues the route through Pasadena.", "In 1913 the [Colorado Street Bridge](/wiki/Colorado_Street_Bridge_%28Pasadena%2C_California%29 \"Colorado Street Bridge (Pasadena, California)\") was dedicated. This structure curves across the Arroyo accessing [Eagle Rock](/wiki/Eagle_Rock%2C_California \"Eagle Rock, California\"), [Glendale](/wiki/Glendale%2C_California \"Glendale, California\"), and the [San Fernando Valley](/wiki/San_Fernando_Valley \"San Fernando Valley\"). During the [Stock Market Crash of 1929](/wiki/Stock_Market_Crash_of_1929 \"Stock Market Crash of 1929\") and the subsequent [Great Depression](/wiki/Great_Depression \"Great Depression\") of the 1930s, the bridge was a jumping off point for many committing [suicide](/wiki/Suicide \"Suicide\"), whereby it received the ignoble name of \"[Suicide bridge](/wiki/Suicide_bridge \"Suicide bridge\").\" By the 1980s the bridge fell into disrepair as chunks of concrete dropped from its face to the armory parking lot in the Arroyo below. In October 1989, the Colorado Street Bridge was closed as a precautionary measure in the aftermath of the [San Francisco–Oakland Bay Bridge](/wiki/San_Francisco%E2%80%93Oakland_Bay_Bridge \"San Francisco–Oakland Bay Bridge\") failure in the [Loma Prieta earthquake](/wiki/1989_Loma_Prieta_earthquake \"1989 Loma Prieta earthquake\"). Eventually assistance from the Federal Bridge Repair and Replacement Fund and other local governmental agency discretionary funds provided funding for the complete restoration and [seismic retrofit](/wiki/Seismic_retrofit \"Seismic retrofit\") of the bridge. The total project budget amounted to $24 million, and the Colorado Street Bridge was reopened on December 13, 1993, on time and on budget.", "#### Arroyo Seco Parkway", "[thumb\\|[Arroyo Seco Parkway](/wiki/Arroyo_Seco_Parkway \"Arroyo Seco Parkway\")](/wiki/File:WelcomeToTheHistoricArryoSecoParkway.jpg \"WelcomeToTheHistoricArryoSecoParkway.jpg\")\nBy mid\\-20th Century, the automobile had long become a mainstay of Southern California life. In 1940 the [Arroyo Seco Parkway](/wiki/Arroyo_Seco_Parkway \"Arroyo Seco Parkway\"), the first freeway, was built as a [parkway](/wiki/Parkway \"Parkway\") alongside the newly constructed flood channel in the Los Angeles portion of the Arroyo. Today, also known as the [Pasadena Freeway](/wiki/Pasadena_Freeway \"Pasadena Freeway\"), it continues on through downtown becoming the [Harbor Freeway](/wiki/Harbor_Freeway \"Harbor Freeway\"), and terminates near the harbor in [San Pedro](/wiki/San_Pedro%2C_Los_Angeles%2C_California \"San Pedro, Los Angeles, California\").", "The Arroyo Seco Corridor Management Plan was completed for the \"Arroyo Seco Parkway\" in 2004\\. The Plan was created through a partnership with the [National Trust for Historic Preservation](/wiki/National_Trust_for_Historic_Preservation \"National Trust for Historic Preservation\"), the [National Scenic Byways Center](/wiki/National_Scenic_Byway \"National Scenic Byway\") (Federal Highways), [Caltrans](/wiki/California_Department_of_Transportation \"California Department of Transportation\") (State Highways), the [National Park Service](/wiki/National_Park_Service \"National Park Service\"), the [Santa Monica Mountains Conservancy](/wiki/Santa_Monica_Mountains_Conservancy \"Santa Monica Mountains Conservancy\"), and The Center for Preservation Education and Planning (CPEP Inc.).Project co\\-authors for the Arroyo Seco Corridor Management Plan were: Dan Marriott, [National Trust for Historic Preservation](/wiki/National_Trust_for_Historic_Preservation \"National Trust for Historic Preservation\") and Jeffrey Samudio, Executive Director, Center for Preservation Education and Planning, Hollywood and Partner of Design Aid Architects.", "The Arroyo Seco Flood Control Channel, was built by the Works Progress Administration before and during construction of the parkway to avoid damages from future floods.", "" ]
Floods and controls ------------------- The Arroyo Seco generally has a flow of several cubic feet per second,{{cite web\|url\=http://nwis.waterdata.usgs.gov/ca/nwis/uv/?site\_no\=11098000\&\|title\=USGS Current Conditions for USGS 11098000 ARROYO SECO NR PASADENA CA\|website\=nwis.waterdata.usgs.gov}} but periodically it is inundated by torrential floods from its steep, erosion\-prone mountain watershed. The reputation of Arroyo Seco floods led the Spanish to site the original [Pueblo de Los Ángeles](/wiki/Pueblo_de_Los_%C3%81ngeles "Pueblo de Los Ángeles") away from the [confluence](/wiki/Confluence "Confluence") of the Arroyo Seco and the [Los Angeles River](/wiki/Los_Angeles_River "Los Angeles River"). Historically, these floods would race down the stream bed and overflow through Pasadena, South Pasadena, Alhambra and Los Angeles communities all the way to the Los Angeles River. As Los Angeles developed into a city and grew outwards, the damage from these floods was particularly severe in 1914 and 1916\. ### Devil's Gate Dam [thumb\|Postcard of the dam, circa 1935 to 1950](/wiki/File:DEVILS_GATE_DAM_PASADENA_CALIFORNIA_1935_to_1950_era_mass_digital_commonwealth_Tichnor_Brothers.jpg "DEVILS GATE DAM PASADENA CALIFORNIA 1935 to 1950 era mass digital commonwealth Tichnor Brothers.jpg") In {{start date and age\|1920\|p\=y}}, the [Los Angeles County Flood Control District](/wiki/Los_Angeles_County_Flood_Control_District "Los Angeles County Flood Control District") built the first flood control dam in Los Angeles County at Devil's Gate gorge.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.arroyoseco.org/History/ArroyoSecoFloodTimeline.pdf\|title\=Arroyo Seco Flood Timeline}} Named for a rock outcropping which resembles the face of a devil, this is the narrowest spot on the Arroyo Seco's course below Millard Canyon. The construction was by the [Bent Brothers Company](/wiki/Ernest_and_Florence_Bent_Halstead_House_and_Grounds "Ernest and Florence Bent Halstead House and Grounds"). Devil's Gate Dam in the Arroyo Seco in northern Pasadena between [La Cañada Flintridge](/wiki/La_Ca%C3%B1ada_Flintridge%2C_California "La Cañada Flintridge, California") and [Altadena](/wiki/Altadena%2C_California "Altadena, California") is managed by the [Los Angeles County Department of Public Works](/wiki/Los_Angeles_County_Department_of_Public_Works "Los Angeles County Department of Public Works"). [thumb\|Channelized lower creek section of the Arroyo Seco](/wiki/File:Curving_ramp_supported_over_Arroyo_Seco.jpg "Curving ramp supported over Arroyo Seco.jpg") The flood basin above the dam captures the flows of the mountain watershed of the Arroyo Seco. This area is now called "[Hahamongna](/wiki/Hahamongna "Hahamongna")", a phrase meaning "Flowing Waters, Fruitful Valley" in the language of the Tongva tribe who first inhabited the area. In 2011, the flood basin had filled with debris brought down after the 2009 [Station Fire](/wiki/2009_California_wildfires "2009 California wildfires"), reducing its effectiveness as a flood control measure. The County of Los Angeles conducted public hearings on the [Environmental impact statement](/wiki/Environmental_impact_statement "Environmental impact statement") before selecting a method to remove debris from the Hahamongna area. In 2014, the Board of Supervisors approved a five\-year project to remove 2\.4 million cubic yards of sediment ({{convert\|2400000\|cuyd\|m3\|disp\=out}}) from the basin despite strong opposition from neighbors and recreational enthusiasts. The opponents contended that hundreds of trucks would be required that would increase pollution and noise.{{Cite news\|last\=BERMONT\|first\=BRADLEY\|date\=2020\-07\-08\|title\=After lengthy legal battle, Pasadena groups victorious at Devil's Gate Dam\|url\=https://www.pasadenastarnews.com/after\-lengthy\-legal\-battle\-pasadena\-groups\-victorious\-at\-devils\-gate\-dam\|access\-date\=2020\-08\-27\|work\=Pasadena Star News\|language\=en\-US}} They also said that the wildlife habitat would be destroyed and interfere with hikers, cyclists and horseback riders who use the area for recreation. The alternative supported by Pasadena officials would have removed 1\.4 million cubic yards of sediment ({{convert\|1400000\|cuyd\|m3\|disp\=out}}) and provided regular maintenance. County officials supported removing more sediment to reduce the flood risk for most major storms, the work having begun in early\-2019\.Karlamangla, Soumya (November 13, 2014\) {{cite web\| url \= http://www.latimes.com/local/countygovernment/la\-me\-1113\-devils\-gate\-2\-20141113\-story.html\| title \= "L.A. County supervisors OK debris clearance for Devil's Gate Dam"\| website \= \[\[Los Angeles Times]]\| date \= 13 November 2014}} *[Los Angeles Times](/wiki/Los_Angeles_Times "Los Angeles Times")* Below Devil's Gate Dam, most of the Arroyo Seco creek, with two short exceptions, is contained in a concrete channel that contains stormwater and municipal runoff. This channel and other similar flood control structures throughout the [Los Angeles Basin](/wiki/Los_Angeles_Basin "Los Angeles Basin") and along the foothills of the [San Gabriel Mountains](/wiki/San_Gabriel_Mountains "San Gabriel Mountains") were built following the devastating [Los Angeles Flood of 1938](/wiki/Los_Angeles_Flood_of_1938 "Los Angeles Flood of 1938"). ### Restoration programs [thumb\|Arroyo Seco channel under the [Colorado Street](/wiki/Colorado_Street_Bridge_%28Pasadena%2C_California%29 "Colorado Street Bridge (Pasadena, California)") and [Ventura Freeway](/wiki/Ventura_Freeway "Ventura Freeway") bridges](/wiki/File:Arroyo_Seco_under_the_bridges.jpg "Arroyo Seco under the bridges.jpg") For more than one hundred years, the natural environment of the Arroyo Seco and its proximity to a large urban population have inspired efforts to protect, manage and preserve it.{{citation needed\|date\=July 2018}} L.A. County flood control was first founded in an effort to control the wild waters of the Arroyo Seco and [Charles Lummis](/wiki/Charles_Lummis "Charles Lummis") founded the Arroyo Seco Foundation in 1905 for the purpose of preserving recreational use and habitat, residents in Los Angeles and Pasadena contributed generously to efforts to buy up open space in the great canyon to protect for future generations. There has been a series of studies conducted to assess and improve the management of the Arroyo Seco Watershed. These include: | Study or program | Year | Description | | --- | --- | --- | | [Arroyo Seco Watershed Restoration Feasibility Study](http://www.arroyoseco.org/aswrfs.htm) | 2002 | A cooperative partnership of North East Trees and the Arroyo Seco Foundation, this report released in May, 2002, provides a blueprint for restoration and better management for the watershed. The study contains a series of valuable technical reports on hydrology, biology, water resources and recreational uses. | | [US Army Corps of Engineers Arroyo Seco Watershed Reconnaissance Study](https://web.archive.org/web/20110716032051/http://www.arroyoseco.org/corpsasrecon.pdf) | 2002– | Evaluates watershed conditions and determines there is a federal purpose in Arroyo Seco work. | | [Pasadena Arroyo Seco Master Plan \& EIR](https://web.archive.org/web/20090306135114/http://www.cityofpasadena.net/publicworks/PNR/ArroyoSeco/) | 2003 | Identifies a comprehensive series of projects and improvements for the five mile (8 km) stretch of the Arroyo Seco lying within Pasadena | | Angeles National Forest Master Plan – US Forest Service | 2005 | Defines the plan for the management of the upper mountain watershed of the Arroyo Seco | | [Arroyo Seco Watershed Coordination Program (Arroyo Seco Foundation)](http://www.arroyoseco.org/watershed.htm) | 2004– ongoing | Builds the capacity of local groups to cooperate and collaborate in watershed management. In addition to educational programs about California's water issues and local water programs, this program supports the Council of Arroyo Seco Organization, a network of Arroyo improvement groups. | | [Arroyo Seco Parkway Corridor Management Plan](http://www.arroyoseco.org/ARROYOSECOCMPfeb132004.pdf) | 2004 | Parkway management plan prepared for Caltrans by the National Scenic Byways Center, Federal Highways, the National Trust for Historic Preservation, and the Center for Preservation Education and Planning (CPEP, Inc.). This plan serves as the basis for signage and other recent improvements on the parkway. | | [USACE Arroyo Seco Watershed Feasibility Study](http://www.arroyoseco.org/corpsstudy.htm) | 2005– ongoing | This study, conducted by the US Army Corps of Engineers with the County of Los Angeles and other local partners is evaluating the watershed to determine the best program to improve water resources, habitat and recreational opportunities; the study, which actually began in 2001 continues on a slow pace, but local sponsors hope that it will provide a basis for federal support of local restoration and management efforts. | | [AS Watershed Management and Restoration Study (North East Trees)](http://www.arroyoseco.org/waterquality06.htm) | 2006 | Reviews water quality and habitat restoration data and prioritizes projects for water quality improvements | | [Central Arroyo Stream Restoration Program](http://www.arroyoseco.org/casrp.htm) | 2007–2008 | This program, which has now been completed, has improved stream conditions and water quality in the Arroyo Seco stream by habitat restoration, parking lot and trail improvements and trash capture devices. As a result, the [Arroyo chub](http://www.arroyoseco.org/arroyochub.htm), a native fish that once thrived in the stream but was wiped out by the flood control measures, has now been reintroduced to the stream.{{cite web\| url \= http://www.arroyoseco.org/newsfull.php?artic\=879\| title \= Arroyo Seco Project Finished}}, Pasadena Star\-News, August 28, 2008 | | | [Arroyo Seco Watershed Sustainability Program](http://www.arroyoseco.org/watershedsustainability.htm) | 2007–2010 | A program to improve conservation, watershed management and governance in the watershed | | [Fish Restoration in the Arroyo Seco](http://www.arroyoseco.org/Camm_Swift_Report.pdf) | 2008 | This study, conducted by C. Camm Swift, evaluates the potential for fish restoration in the stream and makes recommendations about needed improvements. | | [Arroyo Seco Watershed Assessment](http://www.arroyoseco.org/aswa.htm) | 2010 | This program provides an assessment of major projects to restore and enhance the Arroyo Seco Watershed and is intended to inform the Corps of Engineers ecosystem study of the Arroyo. The study was prepared by CDM for the Arroyo Seco Foundation. | | [Hahamongna Cooperative Nursery](http://www.arroyoseco.org/nursery.htm) | 2015 | Hahamongna Cooperative Nursery is a grassroots habitat restoration initiative led by the Arroyo Seco Foundation in partnership with Pasadena Water and Power and Pasadena Public Works Department. Under the leadership of Nursery Manager Nick Hummingbird, volunteers are working to propagate local native plant species for habitat restoration as part of the Arroyo Seco Canyon Project, a joint project with Pasadena Water and Power. In the process, volunteers learn about the Arroyo's native flora and ecology, horticultural technique, nursery management, and local ethnobotany. | | #### Restoration goals 1. Restore full flood control functions in the Arroyo Seco area. 2. Better manage, optimize, and [conserve water](/wiki/Water_conservation "Water conservation") resources while improving [water quality](/wiki/Water_quality "Water quality"). 3. Improve [regional park](/wiki/Regional_park "Regional park") [recreational](/wiki/Recreation "Recreation") opportunities and enhance [nature reserve](/wiki/Nature_reserve "Nature reserve") open space.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.arroyoseco.org/watershed.htm\|title\=Arroyo Seco Watershed – Arroyo Seco Foundation\|author\=Arroyo Seco Foundation\|work\=arroyoseco.org\|access\-date\=29 July 2015}} The restoration efforts are being carried out by the County of Los Angeles and local cities, primarily the City of Pasadena. #### Jet Propulsion Laboratory – NASA Early rocket\-engine\-testing began in the Arroyo Seco in 1936 and this led to the establishment of the [Jet Propulsion Laboratory](/wiki/Jet_Propulsion_Laboratory "Jet Propulsion Laboratory") (JPL) at the mouth of the Arroyo Seco by the [California Institute of Technology](/wiki/California_Institute_of_Technology "California Institute of Technology").{{cite web\|url\=http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/jplhistory/early/index.php\|title\=Early History\|website\=www.jpl.nasa.gov}} During the 1950s, JPL was heavily involved in rocket testing, and the roar of rocket engines could be heard emanating from the Arroyo Seco area for miles. These rocket projects were terminated at the facility by 1958\. By the mid\-1960s, JPL had become instrumental in the development, launching, and tracking of a number of unmanned near\-Earth and deep\-space [space probes](/wiki/Space_probe "Space probe") for the [National Aeronautics and Space Administration](/wiki/National_Aeronautics_and_Space_Administration "National Aeronautics and Space Administration"). One notable project was the [Mars rover](/wiki/Mars_rover "Mars rover"), which has returned a number of panoramic photos of the [Martian](/wiki/Mars "Mars") surface. JPL has been criticized by regional environmentalists and the community for its [water pollution](/wiki/Water_pollution "Water pollution") of the local [groundwater](/wiki/Groundwater "Groundwater") with [toxic](/wiki/Toxic "Toxic") chemicals, such as [solvents](/wiki/Solvent "Solvent") and [perchlorate](/wiki/Perchlorate "Perchlorate") [rocket fuel](/wiki/Rocket_fuel "Rocket fuel") [accelerants](/wiki/Accelerant "Accelerant"). A monumental cleanup project by NASA has begun, which includes a multimillion\-dollar pumping and [water filtration](/wiki/Water_filtration "Water filtration") system to treat the groundwater, removing toxins until the aquifer contamination level has been reduced below their federally\-specified limits. This project is carried out by a NASA project team and monitored by the [U.S. Environmental Protection Agency](/wiki/U.S._Environmental_Protection_Agency "U.S. Environmental Protection Agency"). Frequent public meetings are held with public comment, and recorded for the record on the quality and progress of the clean\-up. #### Trout Restoration Before channelization, the Arroyo Seco was a spawning habitat for Southern [Steelhead](/wiki/Steelhead "Steelhead"), the [Anadromous](/wiki/Anadromous "Anadromous") form of rainbow trout. The Arroyo was home to a resident rainbow trout population until at least 2009, when mudslides following the [Station Fire (2009\)](/wiki/Station_Fire_%282009%29 "Station Fire (2009)") were thought to have wiped out the population. In November 2020, the [California Department of Fish and Wildlife](/wiki/California_Department_of_Fish_and_Wildlife "California Department of Fish and Wildlife") transplanted almost 500 trout from the [West Fork San Gabriel River](/wiki/West_Fork_San_Gabriel_River "West Fork San Gabriel River"), definitively re\-establishing the presence of native trout in the stream.{{cite web\| url \= https://www.latimes.com/environment/story/2021\-06\-16/trout\-rescue\-operation\-ignites\-water\-war\-in\-pasadena\| title \= Trout rescue operation ignites water war in Pasadena – Los Angeles Times\| website \= \[\[Los Angeles Times]]\| date \= 16 June 2021}}
[ "Floods and controls\n-------------------", "The Arroyo Seco generally has a flow of several cubic feet per second,{{cite web\\|url\\=http://nwis.waterdata.usgs.gov/ca/nwis/uv/?site\\_no\\=11098000\\&\\|title\\=USGS Current Conditions for USGS 11098000 ARROYO SECO NR PASADENA CA\\|website\\=nwis.waterdata.usgs.gov}} but periodically it is inundated by torrential floods from its steep, erosion\\-prone mountain watershed. The reputation of Arroyo Seco floods led the Spanish to site the original [Pueblo de Los Ángeles](/wiki/Pueblo_de_Los_%C3%81ngeles \"Pueblo de Los Ángeles\") away from the [confluence](/wiki/Confluence \"Confluence\") of the Arroyo Seco and the [Los Angeles River](/wiki/Los_Angeles_River \"Los Angeles River\"). Historically, these floods would race down the stream bed and overflow through Pasadena, South Pasadena, Alhambra and Los Angeles communities all the way to the Los Angeles River. As Los Angeles developed into a city and grew outwards, the damage from these floods was particularly severe in 1914 and 1916\\.", "### Devil's Gate Dam", "[thumb\\|Postcard of the dam, circa 1935 to 1950](/wiki/File:DEVILS_GATE_DAM_PASADENA_CALIFORNIA_1935_to_1950_era_mass_digital_commonwealth_Tichnor_Brothers.jpg \"DEVILS GATE DAM PASADENA CALIFORNIA 1935 to 1950 era mass digital commonwealth Tichnor Brothers.jpg\")\nIn {{start date and age\\|1920\\|p\\=y}}, the [Los Angeles County Flood Control District](/wiki/Los_Angeles_County_Flood_Control_District \"Los Angeles County Flood Control District\") built the first flood control dam in Los Angeles County at Devil's Gate gorge.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.arroyoseco.org/History/ArroyoSecoFloodTimeline.pdf\\|title\\=Arroyo Seco Flood Timeline}} Named for a rock outcropping which resembles the face of a devil, this is the narrowest spot on the Arroyo Seco's course below Millard Canyon. The construction was by the [Bent Brothers Company](/wiki/Ernest_and_Florence_Bent_Halstead_House_and_Grounds \"Ernest and Florence Bent Halstead House and Grounds\"). Devil's Gate Dam in the Arroyo Seco in northern Pasadena between [La Cañada Flintridge](/wiki/La_Ca%C3%B1ada_Flintridge%2C_California \"La Cañada Flintridge, California\") and [Altadena](/wiki/Altadena%2C_California \"Altadena, California\") is managed by the [Los Angeles County Department of Public Works](/wiki/Los_Angeles_County_Department_of_Public_Works \"Los Angeles County Department of Public Works\").", "[thumb\\|Channelized lower creek section of the Arroyo Seco](/wiki/File:Curving_ramp_supported_over_Arroyo_Seco.jpg \"Curving ramp supported over Arroyo Seco.jpg\")\nThe flood basin above the dam captures the flows of the mountain watershed of the Arroyo Seco. This area is now called \"[Hahamongna](/wiki/Hahamongna \"Hahamongna\")\", a phrase meaning \"Flowing Waters, Fruitful Valley\" in the language of the Tongva tribe who first inhabited the area. In 2011, the flood basin had filled with debris brought down after the 2009 [Station Fire](/wiki/2009_California_wildfires \"2009 California wildfires\"), reducing its effectiveness as a flood control measure. The County of Los Angeles conducted public hearings on the [Environmental impact statement](/wiki/Environmental_impact_statement \"Environmental impact statement\") before selecting a method to remove debris from the Hahamongna area. In 2014, the Board of Supervisors approved a five\\-year project to remove 2\\.4 million cubic yards of sediment ({{convert\\|2400000\\|cuyd\\|m3\\|disp\\=out}}) from the basin despite strong opposition from neighbors and recreational enthusiasts. The opponents contended that hundreds of trucks would be required that would increase pollution and noise.{{Cite news\\|last\\=BERMONT\\|first\\=BRADLEY\\|date\\=2020\\-07\\-08\\|title\\=After lengthy legal battle, Pasadena groups victorious at Devil's Gate Dam\\|url\\=https://www.pasadenastarnews.com/after\\-lengthy\\-legal\\-battle\\-pasadena\\-groups\\-victorious\\-at\\-devils\\-gate\\-dam\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-08\\-27\\|work\\=Pasadena Star News\\|language\\=en\\-US}} They also said that the wildlife habitat would be destroyed and interfere with hikers, cyclists and horseback riders who use the area for recreation. The alternative supported by Pasadena officials would have removed 1\\.4 million cubic yards of sediment ({{convert\\|1400000\\|cuyd\\|m3\\|disp\\=out}}) and provided regular maintenance. County officials supported removing more sediment to reduce the flood risk for most major storms, the work having begun in early\\-2019\\.Karlamangla, Soumya (November 13, 2014\\) {{cite web\\| url \\= http://www.latimes.com/local/countygovernment/la\\-me\\-1113\\-devils\\-gate\\-2\\-20141113\\-story.html\\| title \\= \"L.A. County supervisors OK debris clearance for Devil's Gate Dam\"\\| website \\= \\[\\[Los Angeles Times]]\\| date \\= 13 November 2014}} *[Los Angeles Times](/wiki/Los_Angeles_Times \"Los Angeles Times\")*", "Below Devil's Gate Dam, most of the Arroyo Seco creek, with two short exceptions, is contained in a concrete channel that contains stormwater and municipal runoff. This channel and other similar flood control structures throughout the [Los Angeles Basin](/wiki/Los_Angeles_Basin \"Los Angeles Basin\") and along the foothills of the [San Gabriel Mountains](/wiki/San_Gabriel_Mountains \"San Gabriel Mountains\") were built following the devastating [Los Angeles Flood of 1938](/wiki/Los_Angeles_Flood_of_1938 \"Los Angeles Flood of 1938\").", "### Restoration programs", "[thumb\\|Arroyo Seco channel under the [Colorado Street](/wiki/Colorado_Street_Bridge_%28Pasadena%2C_California%29 \"Colorado Street Bridge (Pasadena, California)\") and [Ventura Freeway](/wiki/Ventura_Freeway \"Ventura Freeway\") bridges](/wiki/File:Arroyo_Seco_under_the_bridges.jpg \"Arroyo Seco under the bridges.jpg\")", "For more than one hundred years, the natural environment of the Arroyo Seco and its proximity to a large urban population have inspired efforts to protect, manage and preserve it.{{citation needed\\|date\\=July 2018}} L.A. County flood control was first founded in an effort to control the wild waters of the Arroyo Seco and [Charles Lummis](/wiki/Charles_Lummis \"Charles Lummis\") founded the Arroyo Seco Foundation in 1905 for the purpose of preserving recreational use and habitat, residents in Los Angeles and Pasadena contributed generously to efforts to buy up open space in the great canyon to protect for future generations.\nThere has been a series of studies conducted to assess and improve the management of the Arroyo Seco Watershed. These include:", "| Study or program | Year | Description |\n| --- | --- | --- |\n| [Arroyo Seco Watershed Restoration Feasibility Study](http://www.arroyoseco.org/aswrfs.htm) | 2002 | A cooperative partnership of North East Trees and the Arroyo Seco Foundation, this report released in May, 2002, provides a blueprint for restoration and better management for the watershed. The study contains a series of valuable technical reports on hydrology, biology, water resources and recreational uses. |\n| [US Army Corps of Engineers Arroyo Seco Watershed Reconnaissance Study](https://web.archive.org/web/20110716032051/http://www.arroyoseco.org/corpsasrecon.pdf) | 2002– | Evaluates watershed conditions and determines there is a federal purpose in Arroyo Seco work. |\n| [Pasadena Arroyo Seco Master Plan \\& EIR](https://web.archive.org/web/20090306135114/http://www.cityofpasadena.net/publicworks/PNR/ArroyoSeco/) | 2003 | Identifies a comprehensive series of projects and improvements for the five mile (8 km) stretch of the Arroyo Seco lying within Pasadena |\n| Angeles National Forest Master Plan – US Forest Service | 2005 | Defines the plan for the management of the upper mountain watershed of the Arroyo Seco |\n| [Arroyo Seco Watershed Coordination Program (Arroyo Seco Foundation)](http://www.arroyoseco.org/watershed.htm) | 2004– ongoing | Builds the capacity of local groups to cooperate and collaborate in watershed management. In addition to educational programs about California's water issues and local water programs, this program supports the Council of Arroyo Seco Organization, a network of Arroyo improvement groups. |\n| [Arroyo Seco Parkway Corridor Management Plan](http://www.arroyoseco.org/ARROYOSECOCMPfeb132004.pdf) | 2004 | Parkway management plan prepared for Caltrans by the National Scenic Byways Center, Federal Highways, the National Trust for Historic Preservation, and the Center for Preservation Education and Planning (CPEP, Inc.). This plan serves as the basis for signage and other recent improvements on the parkway. |\n| [USACE Arroyo Seco Watershed Feasibility Study](http://www.arroyoseco.org/corpsstudy.htm) | 2005– ongoing | This study, conducted by the US Army Corps of Engineers with the County of Los Angeles and other local partners is evaluating the watershed to determine the best program to improve water resources, habitat and recreational opportunities; the study, which actually began in 2001 continues on a slow pace, but local sponsors hope that it will provide a basis for federal support of local restoration and management efforts. |\n| [AS Watershed Management and Restoration Study (North East Trees)](http://www.arroyoseco.org/waterquality06.htm) | 2006 | Reviews water quality and habitat restoration data and prioritizes projects for water quality improvements |\n| [Central Arroyo Stream Restoration Program](http://www.arroyoseco.org/casrp.htm) | 2007–2008 | This program, which has now been completed, has improved stream conditions and water quality in the Arroyo Seco stream by habitat restoration, parking lot and trail improvements and trash capture devices. As a result, the [Arroyo chub](http://www.arroyoseco.org/arroyochub.htm), a native fish that once thrived in the stream but was wiped out by the flood control measures, has now been reintroduced to the stream.{{cite web\\| url \\= http://www.arroyoseco.org/newsfull.php?artic\\=879\\| title \\= Arroyo Seco Project Finished}}, Pasadena Star\\-News, August 28, 2008 |\n|\n| [Arroyo Seco Watershed Sustainability Program](http://www.arroyoseco.org/watershedsustainability.htm) | 2007–2010 | A program to improve conservation, watershed management and governance in the watershed |\n| [Fish Restoration in the Arroyo Seco](http://www.arroyoseco.org/Camm_Swift_Report.pdf) | 2008 | This study, conducted by C. Camm Swift, evaluates the potential for fish restoration in the stream and makes recommendations about needed improvements. |\n| [Arroyo Seco Watershed Assessment](http://www.arroyoseco.org/aswa.htm) | 2010 | This program provides an assessment of major projects to restore and enhance the Arroyo Seco Watershed and is intended to inform the Corps of Engineers ecosystem study of the Arroyo. The study was prepared by CDM for the Arroyo Seco Foundation. |\n| [Hahamongna Cooperative Nursery](http://www.arroyoseco.org/nursery.htm) | 2015 | Hahamongna Cooperative Nursery is a grassroots habitat restoration initiative led by the Arroyo Seco Foundation in partnership with Pasadena Water and Power and Pasadena Public Works Department. Under the leadership of Nursery Manager Nick Hummingbird, volunteers are working to propagate local native plant species for habitat restoration as part of the Arroyo Seco Canyon Project, a joint project with Pasadena Water and Power. In the process, volunteers learn about the Arroyo's native flora and ecology, horticultural technique, nursery management, and local ethnobotany. |\n|", "", "#### Restoration goals", "1. Restore full flood control functions in the Arroyo Seco area.\n2. Better manage, optimize, and [conserve water](/wiki/Water_conservation \"Water conservation\") resources while improving [water quality](/wiki/Water_quality \"Water quality\").\n3. Improve [regional park](/wiki/Regional_park \"Regional park\") [recreational](/wiki/Recreation \"Recreation\") opportunities and enhance [nature reserve](/wiki/Nature_reserve \"Nature reserve\") open space.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.arroyoseco.org/watershed.htm\\|title\\=Arroyo Seco Watershed – Arroyo Seco Foundation\\|author\\=Arroyo Seco Foundation\\|work\\=arroyoseco.org\\|access\\-date\\=29 July 2015}}", "The restoration efforts are being carried out by the County of Los Angeles and local cities, primarily the City of Pasadena.", "#### Jet Propulsion Laboratory – NASA", "Early rocket\\-engine\\-testing began in the Arroyo Seco in 1936 and this led to the establishment of the [Jet Propulsion Laboratory](/wiki/Jet_Propulsion_Laboratory \"Jet Propulsion Laboratory\") (JPL) at the mouth of the Arroyo Seco by the [California Institute of Technology](/wiki/California_Institute_of_Technology \"California Institute of Technology\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/jplhistory/early/index.php\\|title\\=Early History\\|website\\=www.jpl.nasa.gov}} During the 1950s, JPL was heavily involved in rocket testing, and the roar of rocket engines could be heard emanating from the Arroyo Seco area for miles. These rocket projects were terminated at the facility by 1958\\. By the mid\\-1960s, JPL had become instrumental in the development, launching, and tracking of a number of unmanned near\\-Earth and deep\\-space [space probes](/wiki/Space_probe \"Space probe\") for the [National Aeronautics and Space Administration](/wiki/National_Aeronautics_and_Space_Administration \"National Aeronautics and Space Administration\"). One notable project was the [Mars rover](/wiki/Mars_rover \"Mars rover\"), which has returned a number of panoramic photos of the [Martian](/wiki/Mars \"Mars\") surface.", "JPL has been criticized by regional environmentalists and the community for its [water pollution](/wiki/Water_pollution \"Water pollution\") of the local [groundwater](/wiki/Groundwater \"Groundwater\") with [toxic](/wiki/Toxic \"Toxic\") chemicals, such as [solvents](/wiki/Solvent \"Solvent\") and [perchlorate](/wiki/Perchlorate \"Perchlorate\") [rocket fuel](/wiki/Rocket_fuel \"Rocket fuel\") [accelerants](/wiki/Accelerant \"Accelerant\"). A monumental cleanup project by NASA has begun, which includes a multimillion\\-dollar pumping and [water filtration](/wiki/Water_filtration \"Water filtration\") system to treat the groundwater, removing toxins until the aquifer contamination level has been reduced below their federally\\-specified limits. This project is carried out by a NASA project team and monitored by the [U.S. Environmental Protection Agency](/wiki/U.S._Environmental_Protection_Agency \"U.S. Environmental Protection Agency\"). Frequent public meetings are held with public comment, and recorded for the record on the quality and progress of the clean\\-up.", "#### Trout Restoration", "Before channelization, the Arroyo Seco was a spawning habitat for Southern [Steelhead](/wiki/Steelhead \"Steelhead\"), the [Anadromous](/wiki/Anadromous \"Anadromous\") form of rainbow trout. The Arroyo was home to a resident rainbow trout population until at least 2009, when mudslides following the [Station Fire (2009\\)](/wiki/Station_Fire_%282009%29 \"Station Fire (2009)\") were thought to have wiped out the population. In November 2020, the [California Department of Fish and Wildlife](/wiki/California_Department_of_Fish_and_Wildlife \"California Department of Fish and Wildlife\") transplanted almost 500 trout from the [West Fork San Gabriel River](/wiki/West_Fork_San_Gabriel_River \"West Fork San Gabriel River\"), definitively re\\-establishing the presence of native trout in the stream.{{cite web\\| url \\= https://www.latimes.com/environment/story/2021\\-06\\-16/trout\\-rescue\\-operation\\-ignites\\-water\\-war\\-in\\-pasadena\\| title \\= Trout rescue operation ignites water war in Pasadena – Los Angeles Times\\| website \\= \\[\\[Los Angeles Times]]\\| date \\= 16 June 2021}}", "" ]
Running career -------------- ### 1983–84; 2x All American, 2x CCIW 5,000 meter champion, CCIW cross\-country champion, Lake County Marathon champion At Augustana College, he was an [All\-American](/wiki/All-American "All-American") in [cross\-country](/wiki/Cross_country_running "Cross country running") in 1983 and 1984\.["Year\-by\-year records,"](https://s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/sidearm.nextgen.sites/augustana.sidearmsports.com/documents/2022/8/16/2021mccRecordBook.pdf) *Augustana Men's Cross\-Country Record Book– 2021*. In 1983, he was the [College Conference of Illinois \& Wisconsin](/wiki/College_Conference_of_Illinois_%26_Wisconsin "College Conference of Illinois & Wisconsin") (CCIW) [5,000 meter](/wiki/5000_metres "5000 metres") champion, and won the silver medal in the CCIW Cross\-Country championship, with a time of 24\.49\.{{Cite web\|url\=https://issuu.com/cciw/docs/cc\_program09\|title\=Men's Individual Champions \|author\= Mike Krizman\|date\=October 23, 2009\|website\=2009 CCIW Cross Country Championship Program}}{{Cite web\|url\=https://collections.carli.illinois.edu/digital/collection/aug\_observer/id/19290/\|title\=Cross Country Looks Ahead\|website\=Augustana Observer\|date\=September 14, 1983\|page\=8}} In November 1983, he came in 8th in the [NCAA Men's Division III Cross Country Championship](/wiki/NCAA_Men%27s_Division_III_Cross_Country_Championship "NCAA Men's Division III Cross Country Championship") in [Newport News, Virginia](/wiki/Newport_News%2C_Virginia "Newport News, Virginia"). In May 1984, in a season in which he was co\-captain of the [Augustana Vikings Track and Field team](/wiki/Augustana_%28IL%29_Vikings_Athletics "Augustana (IL) Vikings Athletics"), he came in 2nd in the [10,000 meters](/wiki/10%2C000_metres "10,000 metres") (in 30:18\.48\) and 6th in the 5,000 meters, at the [NCAA Division III men's outdoor track and field championships](/wiki/NCAA_Division_III_men%27s_outdoor_track_and_field_championships "NCAA Division III men's outdoor track and field championships") in [Northfield, Minnesota](/wiki/Northfield%2C_Minnesota "Northfield, Minnesota").{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.upi.com/Archives/1984/05/25/Track\-Results\-NCAA\-Division\-III\-Track\-and\-Field\-Championships\-At\-Northfield\-Minn\-May\-25/9008454305600/\|title\=Track Results NCAA Division III Track and Field Championships At Northfield, Minn., May 25\|date\=May 25, 1984\|website\=UPI}} He also set the record in the CCIW 5,000 meters in 1984 (while winning the title for the second straight year), with a time of 14:24\.36 (still a CCIW championships record as of 2021\), and that year also set the Credit Island Park four\-mile course record with a time of 19:33 (as of 2009, that was still a school record in the four\-mile).["Men 5000 Meter Run,"](https://nparku_ftp.sidearmsports.com/custompages/TrackField/2021/2021%20CCIW%20Men%27s%20Track%20&%20Field%20Championships%20-%20Final%20Results.pdf) CCIW Championships; Augustana College Results.["Statistics,"](https://augustana.net/documents/athletics/Media%20Guides/2009-10/Men%27sCrossCountry.pdf) *2009 Men’s Cross Country Media Guide*.["Statistics,"](https://static.cciw.org/custompages/CCIW_Links/Outdoor_TrackField/History/OTF_Records.pdf) CCIW Outdoor Track \& Field History.{{Cite web\|url\=https://results.wayzatatiming.com/meets/36850/reports/records\|title\= Records: CCIW Championships \|website\=Athletic Live}} In 1984 he won the CCIW cross\-country championship, with a time of 24:52\.7, after having won the silver medal in 1983, and also won the [Notre Dame](/wiki/Notre_Dame_Fighting_Irish "Notre Dame Fighting Irish") Invitational in [South Bend, Indiana](/wiki/South_Bend%2C_Indiana "South Bend, Indiana"), with a time of 24\.06\.Dave Andrzejewski (October 9, 1984\). ["Harriers pace to top twenty finish at Notre Dame,"](https://scholarworks.gvsu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1005&context=lanthorn_vol19) *The Lanthom,* p. 10\.["CCIW Men’s Cross Country History,"](https://static.cciw.org/custompages/CCIW_Links/CrossCountry/History/CC_Records.pdf) CCIW. He was named team MVP in both 1983 and 1984\. In April 1984 he won his first marathon in his eighth race at that distance, in Chicago, Illinois, in the [Lake County](/wiki/Lake_County%2C_Illinois "Lake County, Illinois") Marathon in 2:21:47\. His personal best time in the marathon was 2:18:23, which he ran in June 1984 in [Duluth](/wiki/Duluth "Duluth"), Minnesota. ### 1984 Summer Olympics He competed for [Israel at the 1984 Summer Olympics](/wiki/Israel_at_the_1984_Summer_Olympics "Israel at the 1984 Summer Olympics") in Los Angeles, California, at the age of 25\. He had qualified with his time in his third marathon in three and a half months.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.chiropract.co.il/%d7%9b%d7%aa%d7%91%d7%95%d7%aa\-%d7%a2%d7%9c\-%d7%93%d7%a8\-%d7%a9%d7%92%d7%99%d7%91/\|title\=כתבות על ד"ר שגיב\|date\=January 27, 2016\|website\=chiropract.co.il}} Running in the [Men's Marathon](/wiki/Athletics_at_the_1984_Summer_Olympics_%E2%80%93_Men%27s_marathon "Athletics at the 1984 Summer Olympics – Men's marathon") in August 1984 he came in 60th out of 107 competitors, with a time of 2\-31:34\.{{Cite web\|url\=https://worldathletics.org/athletes/israel/shem\-tov\-sabag\-14445326\|title\=Shem\-Tov SABAG \| Profile\|website\=World Athletics}} When he competed in the Olympics, Sabag was {{convert\|5\|ft\|6\|in\|cm}} tall and weighed {{convert\|139\|lb\|kg}}. Speaking of the [Munich Massacre](/wiki/Munich_Massacre "Munich Massacre"), which had taken place 12 years earlier at the Olympics, he said: "As a representative of Israel, I am here to do what they tried to do. We are here to continue their job." ### 1984–present; Israel national marathon champion, Vancouver Marathon champion In December 1984 he won the silver medal in the [Tiberias Marathon](/wiki/Tiberias_Marathon "Tiberias Marathon") in Israel, with a time of 2:22:15, behind British marathoner [Lindsay Robertson](/wiki/Lindsay_Robertson "Lindsay Robertson"), and won the Israeli national marathon championship.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.gbrathletics.com/nc/isr.htm\|title\=Israeli Championships\|website\=GBR Athletics}}{{Cite web\|url\=https://arrs.run/NC\_MaraISR.htm\|title\=National Marathon Champions for Israel\|website\=Association of Road Racing Statisticians}} In the mid\-1980s, after transferring, he ran for the [University of Oregon Ducks track and field team](/wiki/Oregon_Ducks_track_and_field "Oregon Ducks track and field"), under coach [Bill Dellinger](/wiki/Bill_Dellinger "Bill Dellinger").["Oregon Update,"](https://static1.squarespace.com/static/5e790a23f3b4fb4a1e9f78c4/t/6047d358933fae7a12e43746/1615319897436/OTC+07+Fall+1986.pdf) *Inside Oregon Track Newsletter*, Fall 1986, p. 1\. His personal best in the [half\-marathon](/wiki/Half-marathon "Half-marathon") was 1\-06:13, which he ran in [Philadelphia](/wiki/Philadelphia "Philadelphia"), Pennsylvania, in September 1986\.{{cite web\|url\=https://more.arrs.run/runner/14700\|title\= Runner: Shem\-Tov Sabag\|work\=Association of Road Racing Statisticians}} Also that month, he won the [New York Road Runners Club](/wiki/New_York_Road_Runners_Club "New York Road Runners Club") Back\-To\-Work 4\-Mile Run in 19 minutes, 10 seconds in [Central Park](/wiki/Central_Park "Central Park").{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.orlandosentinel.com/1986/09/08/elsewhere\-olympian\-shemi\-sabag\-of\-israel\-won/\|title\=Elsewhere. Olympian Shemi Sabag of Israel won …\|date\=September 8, 1986\|work\=Orlando Sentinel}}{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.newspapers.com/newspage/163196712/\|title\=From Journal\-News wires \| page \=33\|date\=September 8, 1986\|website\=The Journal News from White Plains, New York}} In 1987 he won the Israeli national marathon championship in a time of 2:27:57\.{{Cite web\|url\=https://arrs.run/HP\_TibMa.htm\|title\=Tiberias International Marathon\|website\=Association of Road Racing Statisticians}} In September 1988, he won the 18th annual [NIKE/OTC (Nike/Oregon Track Club)](/wiki/Nike_OTC_Marathon "Nike OTC Marathon") [25K](/wiki/25K_run "25K run") in [Eugene, Oregon](/wiki/Eugene%2C_Oregon "Eugene, Oregon"), with a time of 1:20:26\.["Final Running of NlKE/OTC 25K,"](https://www.mastershistory.org/NMN/11_1988.pdf) *National Masters News*, November 1988, issue 133, p. 7\. Sabag won the [Vancouver Marathon](/wiki/Vancouver_Marathon "Vancouver Marathon") in Canada in May 1989 with a time of 2:19:41\. He did so against a field of 1,109 finishers.{{Cite web\|url\=https://runvan.org/legacy/1989marathon/\|title\=1989 Vancouver Marathon\|work\=RUNVAN}}
[ "Running career\n--------------", "### 1983–84; 2x All American, 2x CCIW 5,000 meter champion, CCIW cross\\-country champion, Lake County Marathon champion", "At Augustana College, he was an [All\\-American](/wiki/All-American \"All-American\") in [cross\\-country](/wiki/Cross_country_running \"Cross country running\") in 1983 and 1984\\.[\"Year\\-by\\-year records,\"](https://s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/sidearm.nextgen.sites/augustana.sidearmsports.com/documents/2022/8/16/2021mccRecordBook.pdf) *Augustana Men's Cross\\-Country Record Book– 2021*. In 1983, he was the [College Conference of Illinois \\& Wisconsin](/wiki/College_Conference_of_Illinois_%26_Wisconsin \"College Conference of Illinois & Wisconsin\") (CCIW) [5,000 meter](/wiki/5000_metres \"5000 metres\") champion, and won the silver medal in the CCIW Cross\\-Country championship, with a time of 24\\.49\\.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://issuu.com/cciw/docs/cc\\_program09\\|title\\=Men's Individual Champions \\|author\\= Mike Krizman\\|date\\=October 23, 2009\\|website\\=2009 CCIW Cross Country Championship Program}}{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://collections.carli.illinois.edu/digital/collection/aug\\_observer/id/19290/\\|title\\=Cross Country Looks Ahead\\|website\\=Augustana Observer\\|date\\=September 14, 1983\\|page\\=8}} In November 1983, he came in 8th in the [NCAA Men's Division III Cross Country Championship](/wiki/NCAA_Men%27s_Division_III_Cross_Country_Championship \"NCAA Men's Division III Cross Country Championship\") in [Newport News, Virginia](/wiki/Newport_News%2C_Virginia \"Newport News, Virginia\").", "In May 1984, in a season in which he was co\\-captain of the [Augustana Vikings Track and Field team](/wiki/Augustana_%28IL%29_Vikings_Athletics \"Augustana (IL) Vikings Athletics\"), he came in 2nd in the [10,000 meters](/wiki/10%2C000_metres \"10,000 metres\") (in 30:18\\.48\\) and 6th in the 5,000 meters, at the [NCAA Division III men's outdoor track and field championships](/wiki/NCAA_Division_III_men%27s_outdoor_track_and_field_championships \"NCAA Division III men's outdoor track and field championships\") in [Northfield, Minnesota](/wiki/Northfield%2C_Minnesota \"Northfield, Minnesota\").{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.upi.com/Archives/1984/05/25/Track\\-Results\\-NCAA\\-Division\\-III\\-Track\\-and\\-Field\\-Championships\\-At\\-Northfield\\-Minn\\-May\\-25/9008454305600/\\|title\\=Track Results NCAA Division III Track and Field Championships At Northfield, Minn., May 25\\|date\\=May 25, 1984\\|website\\=UPI}} He also set the record in the CCIW 5,000 meters in 1984 (while winning the title for the second straight year), with a time of 14:24\\.36 (still a CCIW championships record as of 2021\\), and that year also set the Credit Island Park four\\-mile course record with a time of 19:33 (as of 2009, that was still a school record in the four\\-mile).[\"Men 5000 Meter Run,\"](https://nparku_ftp.sidearmsports.com/custompages/TrackField/2021/2021%20CCIW%20Men%27s%20Track%20&%20Field%20Championships%20-%20Final%20Results.pdf) CCIW Championships; Augustana College Results.[\"Statistics,\"](https://augustana.net/documents/athletics/Media%20Guides/2009-10/Men%27sCrossCountry.pdf) *2009 Men’s Cross Country Media Guide*.[\"Statistics,\"](https://static.cciw.org/custompages/CCIW_Links/Outdoor_TrackField/History/OTF_Records.pdf) CCIW Outdoor Track \\& Field History.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://results.wayzatatiming.com/meets/36850/reports/records\\|title\\= Records: CCIW Championships \\|website\\=Athletic Live}} In 1984 he won the CCIW cross\\-country championship, with a time of 24:52\\.7, after having won the silver medal in 1983, and also won the [Notre Dame](/wiki/Notre_Dame_Fighting_Irish \"Notre Dame Fighting Irish\") Invitational in [South Bend, Indiana](/wiki/South_Bend%2C_Indiana \"South Bend, Indiana\"), with a time of 24\\.06\\.Dave Andrzejewski (October 9, 1984\\). [\"Harriers pace to top twenty finish at Notre Dame,\"](https://scholarworks.gvsu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1005&context=lanthorn_vol19) *The Lanthom,* p. 10\\.[\"CCIW Men’s Cross Country History,\"](https://static.cciw.org/custompages/CCIW_Links/CrossCountry/History/CC_Records.pdf) CCIW. He was named team MVP in both 1983 and 1984\\.", "In April 1984 he won his first marathon in his eighth race at that distance, in Chicago, Illinois, in the [Lake County](/wiki/Lake_County%2C_Illinois \"Lake County, Illinois\") Marathon in 2:21:47\\.", "His personal best time in the marathon was 2:18:23, which he ran in June 1984 in [Duluth](/wiki/Duluth \"Duluth\"), Minnesota.", "### 1984 Summer Olympics", "He competed for [Israel at the 1984 Summer Olympics](/wiki/Israel_at_the_1984_Summer_Olympics \"Israel at the 1984 Summer Olympics\") in Los Angeles, California, at the age of 25\\. He had qualified with his time in his third marathon in three and a half months.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.chiropract.co.il/%d7%9b%d7%aa%d7%91%d7%95%d7%aa\\-%d7%a2%d7%9c\\-%d7%93%d7%a8\\-%d7%a9%d7%92%d7%99%d7%91/\\|title\\=כתבות על ד\"ר שגיב\\|date\\=January 27, 2016\\|website\\=chiropract.co.il}} Running in the [Men's Marathon](/wiki/Athletics_at_the_1984_Summer_Olympics_%E2%80%93_Men%27s_marathon \"Athletics at the 1984 Summer Olympics – Men's marathon\") in August 1984 he came in 60th out of 107 competitors, with a time of 2\\-31:34\\.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://worldathletics.org/athletes/israel/shem\\-tov\\-sabag\\-14445326\\|title\\=Shem\\-Tov SABAG \\| Profile\\|website\\=World Athletics}} When he competed in the Olympics, Sabag was {{convert\\|5\\|ft\\|6\\|in\\|cm}} tall and weighed {{convert\\|139\\|lb\\|kg}}. Speaking of the [Munich Massacre](/wiki/Munich_Massacre \"Munich Massacre\"), which had taken place 12 years earlier at the Olympics, he said: \"As a representative of Israel, I am here to do what they tried to do. We are here to continue their job.\"", "### 1984–present; Israel national marathon champion, Vancouver Marathon champion", "In December 1984 he won the silver medal in the [Tiberias Marathon](/wiki/Tiberias_Marathon \"Tiberias Marathon\") in Israel, with a time of 2:22:15, behind British marathoner [Lindsay Robertson](/wiki/Lindsay_Robertson \"Lindsay Robertson\"), and won the Israeli national marathon championship.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.gbrathletics.com/nc/isr.htm\\|title\\=Israeli Championships\\|website\\=GBR Athletics}}{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://arrs.run/NC\\_MaraISR.htm\\|title\\=National Marathon Champions for Israel\\|website\\=Association of Road Racing Statisticians}}", "In the mid\\-1980s, after transferring, he ran for the [University of Oregon Ducks track and field team](/wiki/Oregon_Ducks_track_and_field \"Oregon Ducks track and field\"), under coach [Bill Dellinger](/wiki/Bill_Dellinger \"Bill Dellinger\").[\"Oregon Update,\"](https://static1.squarespace.com/static/5e790a23f3b4fb4a1e9f78c4/t/6047d358933fae7a12e43746/1615319897436/OTC+07+Fall+1986.pdf) *Inside Oregon Track Newsletter*, Fall 1986, p. 1\\.", "His personal best in the [half\\-marathon](/wiki/Half-marathon \"Half-marathon\") was 1\\-06:13, which he ran in [Philadelphia](/wiki/Philadelphia \"Philadelphia\"), Pennsylvania, in September 1986\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://more.arrs.run/runner/14700\\|title\\= Runner: Shem\\-Tov Sabag\\|work\\=Association of Road Racing Statisticians}} Also that month, he won the [New York Road Runners Club](/wiki/New_York_Road_Runners_Club \"New York Road Runners Club\") Back\\-To\\-Work 4\\-Mile Run in 19 minutes, 10 seconds in [Central Park](/wiki/Central_Park \"Central Park\").{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.orlandosentinel.com/1986/09/08/elsewhere\\-olympian\\-shemi\\-sabag\\-of\\-israel\\-won/\\|title\\=Elsewhere. Olympian Shemi Sabag of Israel won …\\|date\\=September 8, 1986\\|work\\=Orlando Sentinel}}{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.newspapers.com/newspage/163196712/\\|title\\=From Journal\\-News wires \\| page \\=33\\|date\\=September 8, 1986\\|website\\=The Journal News from White Plains, New York}}", "In 1987 he won the Israeli national marathon championship in a time of 2:27:57\\.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://arrs.run/HP\\_TibMa.htm\\|title\\=Tiberias International Marathon\\|website\\=Association of Road Racing Statisticians}}", "In September 1988, he won the 18th annual [NIKE/OTC (Nike/Oregon Track Club)](/wiki/Nike_OTC_Marathon \"Nike OTC Marathon\") [25K](/wiki/25K_run \"25K run\") in [Eugene, Oregon](/wiki/Eugene%2C_Oregon \"Eugene, Oregon\"), with a time of 1:20:26\\.[\"Final Running of NlKE/OTC 25K,\"](https://www.mastershistory.org/NMN/11_1988.pdf) *National Masters News*, November 1988, issue 133, p. 7\\.", "Sabag won the [Vancouver Marathon](/wiki/Vancouver_Marathon \"Vancouver Marathon\") in Canada in May 1989 with a time of 2:19:41\\. He did so against a field of 1,109 finishers.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://runvan.org/legacy/1989marathon/\\|title\\=1989 Vancouver Marathon\\|work\\=RUNVAN}}", "" ]
History ------- In 1932–1933 the club started in the district championship. In August 1933 the [Phoenix Stadium](/wiki/Stadionul_Phoenix "Stadionul Phoenix") was inaugurated and in the summer of 1934{{cite web\|url\=https://2mnews.ro/exclusiv\-ce\-a\-ajuns\-sportul\-baimarean\-stadionul\-phoenix\-scos\-la\-vanzare\-prin\-licitatie\-publica/\|date\=October 18, 2018\|title\=EXCLUSIV – Ce\-a ajuns sportul băimărean: stadionul Phoenix, scos la vânzare prin licitație publică\|website\=2mnews.ro}}{{in lang\|ro}} the team reached the quarter\-finals of the [Romanian Cup](/wiki/Romanian_Cup "Romanian Cup"), being eliminated by [AMEFA Arad](/wiki/AMEFA_Arad "AMEFA Arad") 0–1\. It participates at the first edition of the [Divizia B](/wiki/Divizia_B "Divizia B") (1934–1935\) and finishes 1st in the 3rd series with the following team: Ferencz (Szabó) – Ardos, Holzmann – Man, Sava, Kert – Bojtas, I. Prassler, Freiberg, Pfeiffer, Iovicin (Szeremi II). It lost the play\-off match, so missed out on the chance to play in the [First Division](/wiki/Liga_I "Liga I"). The situation repeats the following season, but the third time, at the end of the 1936–37 season it finishes once again on the first place and this time they were promoted. The team was: Ferencz, Szabó – Ardos, Holzmann, Man, Sava, Kert, Farkas, E. Prassler, Szeremi III, Freiberg, Szeremi II, Szeremi IV, Şt. Baskov, Iacobovits. In [1937–38](/wiki/Divizia_A_1937%E2%80%9338 "Divizia A 1937–38"), playing in the first series of the [First Division](/wiki/Liga_I "Liga I"), Phoenix finishes 5th. The coach was: Rudolf Jenny, the squad being completed with Telegdy and Sikola. The next season, [1938–39](/wiki/Divizia_A_1938%E2%80%9339 "Divizia A 1938–39"), the club appears with the name of **Carpaţi Baia Mare** (Al. Pop Chairman), finishing 7th, the same as in the [1939–40](/wiki/Divizia_A_1939%E2%80%9340 "Divizia A 1939–40") season. In the 1941–1944 period, the team played in the Hungarian Second Division. After [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II"), it changes its name back to *Phoenix* and in 1946 plays a play\-off for a place in the [Second Division](/wiki/Liga_II "Liga II") against *Minaur Baia Mare*. The coach at the time was Edmund Nagy and the team used: Czaczar – Lezniczki, Ardos – Magyeri, Molnár (Formanek) – Moskovits, Gallis IV, [Fr. Závoda I](/wiki/Francisc_Zavoda "Francisc Zavoda"), Dallos (Bodocs), Balogh. It won the play\-off and plays the following season in the [Second Division](/wiki/Liga_II "Liga II"). In the summer of 1948 it participated unsuccessfully in a play\-off tournament in Bucharest, for a place in the next season of the [First Division](/wiki/Liga_I "Liga I"). Immediately after this failure, it merged with *Minaur Baia Mare*, the resulting club being [FC Baia Mare](/wiki/FC_Baia_Mare "FC Baia Mare"), as it is named today. But the factory kept a team named *Cuprom* (in 1964–65 *Topitorul* and until 1974 *Chimistul*) which played in the [Third Division](/wiki/Liga_III "Liga III"). In 1993 the club was promoted to the [Second Division](/wiki/Liga_II "Liga II"), and changed its name to the traditional **Phoenix**, and plays at this level until 1995 when it was relegated. It then played in the [Third Division](/wiki/Liga_III "Liga III") until 2000 when it was dissolved.
[ "History\n-------", "In 1932–1933 the club started in the district championship. In August 1933 the [Phoenix Stadium](/wiki/Stadionul_Phoenix \"Stadionul Phoenix\") was inaugurated and in the summer of 1934{{cite web\\|url\\=https://2mnews.ro/exclusiv\\-ce\\-a\\-ajuns\\-sportul\\-baimarean\\-stadionul\\-phoenix\\-scos\\-la\\-vanzare\\-prin\\-licitatie\\-publica/\\|date\\=October 18, 2018\\|title\\=EXCLUSIV – Ce\\-a ajuns sportul băimărean: stadionul Phoenix, scos la vânzare prin licitație publică\\|website\\=2mnews.ro}}{{in lang\\|ro}} the team reached the quarter\\-finals of the [Romanian Cup](/wiki/Romanian_Cup \"Romanian Cup\"), being eliminated by [AMEFA Arad](/wiki/AMEFA_Arad \"AMEFA Arad\") 0–1\\. It participates at the first edition of the [Divizia B](/wiki/Divizia_B \"Divizia B\") (1934–1935\\) and finishes 1st in the 3rd series with the following team: Ferencz (Szabó) – Ardos, Holzmann – Man, Sava, Kert – Bojtas, I. Prassler, Freiberg, Pfeiffer, Iovicin (Szeremi II). It lost the play\\-off match, so missed out on the chance to play in the [First Division](/wiki/Liga_I \"Liga I\"). The situation repeats the following season, but the third time, at the end of the 1936–37 season it finishes once again on the first place and this time they were promoted. The team was: Ferencz, Szabó – Ardos, Holzmann, Man, Sava, Kert, Farkas, E. Prassler, Szeremi III, Freiberg, Szeremi II, Szeremi IV, Şt. Baskov, Iacobovits.", "In [1937–38](/wiki/Divizia_A_1937%E2%80%9338 \"Divizia A 1937–38\"), playing in the first series of the [First Division](/wiki/Liga_I \"Liga I\"), Phoenix finishes 5th. The coach was: Rudolf Jenny, the squad being completed with Telegdy and Sikola.", "The next season, [1938–39](/wiki/Divizia_A_1938%E2%80%9339 \"Divizia A 1938–39\"), the club appears with the name of **Carpaţi Baia Mare** (Al. Pop Chairman), finishing 7th, the same as in the [1939–40](/wiki/Divizia_A_1939%E2%80%9340 \"Divizia A 1939–40\") season.", "In the 1941–1944 period, the team played in the Hungarian Second Division.", "After [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\"), it changes its name back to *Phoenix* and in 1946 plays a play\\-off for a place in the [Second Division](/wiki/Liga_II \"Liga II\") against *Minaur Baia Mare*. The coach at the time was Edmund Nagy and the team used: Czaczar – Lezniczki, Ardos – Magyeri, Molnár (Formanek) – Moskovits, Gallis IV, [Fr. Závoda I](/wiki/Francisc_Zavoda \"Francisc Zavoda\"), Dallos (Bodocs), Balogh. It won the play\\-off and plays the following season in the [Second Division](/wiki/Liga_II \"Liga II\").", "In the summer of 1948 it participated unsuccessfully in a play\\-off tournament in Bucharest, for a place in the next season of the [First Division](/wiki/Liga_I \"Liga I\"). Immediately after this failure, it merged with *Minaur Baia Mare*, the resulting club being [FC Baia Mare](/wiki/FC_Baia_Mare \"FC Baia Mare\"), as it is named today.", "But the factory kept a team named *Cuprom* (in 1964–65 *Topitorul* and until 1974 *Chimistul*) which played in the [Third Division](/wiki/Liga_III \"Liga III\"). In 1993 the club was promoted to the [Second Division](/wiki/Liga_II \"Liga II\"), and changed its name to the traditional **Phoenix**, and plays at this level until 1995 when it was relegated. It then played in the [Third Division](/wiki/Liga_III \"Liga III\") until 2000 when it was dissolved.", "" ]
History ------- Sommocolonia was once a [Roman](/wiki/Roman_Empire "Roman Empire") settlement. A vast majority of its buildings were constructed during the [Middle Ages](/wiki/Middle_Ages "Middle Ages") and [Renaissance](/wiki/Renaissance "Renaissance") eras. In the 1930s, there were approximately 400 villagers in Sommocolonia. The village only received telephone service and proper roads in the 1950s; prior to that, communication was made with nearby villages and towns through [smoke signals](/wiki/Smoke_signal "Smoke signal"). ### World War II During [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II"), Sommocolonia was part of the [Gothic Line](/wiki/Gothic_Line "Gothic Line"). During the winter of 1944, the people of Sommocolonia had virtually nothing to eat other than [chestnuts](/wiki/Chestnut "Chestnut"). This changed when [African American](/wiki/African_Americans "African Americans") soldiers with the [United States Army's](/wiki/United_States_Army "United States Army") [segregated](/wiki/Racial_segregation_in_the_United_States_Armed_Forces "Racial segregation in the United States Armed Forces") [92nd Infantry Division](/wiki/92nd_Infantry_Division_%28United_States%29 "92nd Infantry Division (United States)") arrived in the village and shared their [field rations](/wiki/Field_ration "Field ration") with them.{{Cite web\|author\=Frank Viviano\|date\=2000\-07\-13\|title\=Almost\-Forgotten Heroes / Italian town honors black GIs who were shunned by their own country\|url\=https://www.sfgate.com/news/article/Almost\-Forgotten\-Heroes\-Italian\-town\-honors\-3240059\.php\|access\-date\=2021\-01\-17\|website\=SFGATE\|language\=en\-US}} On 26 December 1944, soldiers with the 92nd Infantry Division clashed with the [Wehrmacht's](/wiki/Wehrmacht "Wehrmacht") [Austrian](/wiki/Austria "Austria") 4th Mountain Battalion in Sommocolonia during the [Battle of Garfagnana](/wiki/Battle_of_Garfagnana "Battle of Garfagnana"). 70 American soldiers and 25 [Italian partisans](/wiki/Italian_resistance_movement "Italian resistance movement") were surrounded in the village by the Austrian forces, some of which were dressed as partisans. The Austrian troops began burning buildings containing wounded American troops, shooting anyone who attempted to escape. Out of the 95 American soldiers and partisans involved in the battle, only 18 managed to fight their way out of the village at night and return to [U.S. Fifth Army](/wiki/United_States_Army_North "United States Army North") lines. After the battle, the Austrians rounded up villagers who were hiding in cellars during the battle and forced them out of the village.{{Cite web\|date\=2020\-06\-02\|title\=That time a soldier saved the day by calling an artillery strike on himself\|url\=https://www.wearethemighty.com/mighty\-history/that\-time\-a\-soldier\-saved\-the\-day\-by\-calling\-an\-artillery\-strike\-on\-himself/\|access\-date\=2021\-01\-17\|website\=We Are The Mighty\|language\=en\-US}}{{Cite web\|last\=Hodges\|first\=Robert Jr.\|date\=2018\-02\-16\|title\=How the 'Buffalo Soldiers' helped turn the tide in Italy during World War II\|url\=https://www.militarytimes.com/military\-honor/black\-military\-history/2018/02/14/how\-the\-buffalo\-soldiers\-helped\-turn\-the\-tide\-in\-italy\-during\-world\-war\-ii/\|access\-date\=2021\-01\-17\|website\=Military Times\|language\=en\-US}} During the battle, [1st Lt.](/wiki/First_lieutenant "First lieutenant") [John R. Fox](/wiki/John_R._Fox "John R. Fox") with the [366th Infantry Regiment's](/wiki/366th_Infantry_Regiment_%28United_States%29 "366th Infantry Regiment (United States)") 598th Artillery Battalion volunteered to stay behind in the village as a [forward observer](/wiki/Forward_Observer "Forward Observer"). While calling defensive [artillery](/wiki/Artillery "Artillery") fire and a [smoke screen](/wiki/Smoke_screen "Smoke screen") to cover the escape of wounded American troops and partisans, he realized his observation post on the second floor of a house was surrounded by the Austrian soldiers. He then ordered a heavy concentration of [mortar](/wiki/Mortar_%28weapon%29 "Mortar (weapon)") and [105 mm](/wiki/105_mm_calibre "105 mm calibre") artillery shells on his own position. The artillery officer on the other end, Fox's close friend Otis Zachary, was stunned, knowing Fox's chances of survival would be very slim, but Fox demanded the barrage go ahead, saying "Fire it! There's more of them than there are of us. Give them hell!" as his last transmission. The resulting barrage killed Fox and approximately 100 Austrian troops surrounding his position. Fox's sacrifice halted the Wehrmacht's advance and allowed the U.S. Army to plan a counterattack. Sommocolonia was recaptured by 1 January 1945\.{{Cite web\|author\=Kevin Cullen \|date\=July 27, 2020\|title\=Here's an idea: rename one of the bases named after a Confederate general for Lt. John Fox \|url\=https://www.bostonglobe.com/2020/07/27/metro/heres\-an\-idea\-rename\-one\-bases\-named\-after\-confederate\-general\-lt\-john\-fox/\|access\-date\=2021\-01\-17\|website\=The Boston Globe\|language\=en\-US}} Due to the [systemic racism](/wiki/Institutional_racism "Institutional racism") within the [United States Armed Forces](/wiki/United_States_Armed_Forces "United States Armed Forces") at the time, Fox's sacrifice was not recognized, and there was no official record of the battle at Sommocolonia. After a review in 1982, Fox was posthumously awarded the [Distinguished Service Cross](/wiki/Distinguished_Service_Cross_%28United_States%29 "Distinguished Service Cross (United States)") for his actions. A later investigation in 1997 led to Fox and six other African American soldiers being awarded the [Medal of Honor](/wiki/Medal_of_Honor "Medal of Honor"), the highest military decoration for valor in the United States Armed Forces. The residents of Sommocolonia dedicated a monument to Fox and the eight Italian partisans who died while defending his position. In 2000, they also dedicated a peace park in memory of Fox and his unit. ### Post\-war After World War II, Sommocolonia's population began to decline as most residents gradually left in search of work. Due to the village's shrinking and aging population, the village's school closed in 1975 and the village's market closed in the 1980s. Groceries are now delivered to the town by a converted [ambulance](/wiki/Ambulance "Ambulance"). The village saw an increase of visitors in the 2010s. Around 2018, the village received funding from Barga's mayor to build a cultural center and the town's first bar in 30 years.
[ "History\n-------", "Sommocolonia was once a [Roman](/wiki/Roman_Empire \"Roman Empire\") settlement. A vast majority of its buildings were constructed during the [Middle Ages](/wiki/Middle_Ages \"Middle Ages\") and [Renaissance](/wiki/Renaissance \"Renaissance\") eras.", "In the 1930s, there were approximately 400 villagers in Sommocolonia. The village only received telephone service and proper roads in the 1950s; prior to that, communication was made with nearby villages and towns through [smoke signals](/wiki/Smoke_signal \"Smoke signal\").", "### World War II", "During [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\"), Sommocolonia was part of the [Gothic Line](/wiki/Gothic_Line \"Gothic Line\"). During the winter of 1944, the people of Sommocolonia had virtually nothing to eat other than [chestnuts](/wiki/Chestnut \"Chestnut\"). This changed when [African American](/wiki/African_Americans \"African Americans\") soldiers with the [United States Army's](/wiki/United_States_Army \"United States Army\") [segregated](/wiki/Racial_segregation_in_the_United_States_Armed_Forces \"Racial segregation in the United States Armed Forces\") [92nd Infantry Division](/wiki/92nd_Infantry_Division_%28United_States%29 \"92nd Infantry Division (United States)\") arrived in the village and shared their [field rations](/wiki/Field_ration \"Field ration\") with them.{{Cite web\\|author\\=Frank Viviano\\|date\\=2000\\-07\\-13\\|title\\=Almost\\-Forgotten Heroes / Italian town honors black GIs who were shunned by their own country\\|url\\=https://www.sfgate.com/news/article/Almost\\-Forgotten\\-Heroes\\-Italian\\-town\\-honors\\-3240059\\.php\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-01\\-17\\|website\\=SFGATE\\|language\\=en\\-US}}", "On 26 December 1944, soldiers with the 92nd Infantry Division clashed with the [Wehrmacht's](/wiki/Wehrmacht \"Wehrmacht\") [Austrian](/wiki/Austria \"Austria\") 4th Mountain Battalion in Sommocolonia during the [Battle of Garfagnana](/wiki/Battle_of_Garfagnana \"Battle of Garfagnana\"). 70 American soldiers and 25 [Italian partisans](/wiki/Italian_resistance_movement \"Italian resistance movement\") were surrounded in the village by the Austrian forces, some of which were dressed as partisans. The Austrian troops began burning buildings containing wounded American troops, shooting anyone who attempted to escape. Out of the 95 American soldiers and partisans involved in the battle, only 18 managed to fight their way out of the village at night and return to [U.S. Fifth Army](/wiki/United_States_Army_North \"United States Army North\") lines. After the battle, the Austrians rounded up villagers who were hiding in cellars during the battle and forced them out of the village.{{Cite web\\|date\\=2020\\-06\\-02\\|title\\=That time a soldier saved the day by calling an artillery strike on himself\\|url\\=https://www.wearethemighty.com/mighty\\-history/that\\-time\\-a\\-soldier\\-saved\\-the\\-day\\-by\\-calling\\-an\\-artillery\\-strike\\-on\\-himself/\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-01\\-17\\|website\\=We Are The Mighty\\|language\\=en\\-US}}{{Cite web\\|last\\=Hodges\\|first\\=Robert Jr.\\|date\\=2018\\-02\\-16\\|title\\=How the 'Buffalo Soldiers' helped turn the tide in Italy during World War II\\|url\\=https://www.militarytimes.com/military\\-honor/black\\-military\\-history/2018/02/14/how\\-the\\-buffalo\\-soldiers\\-helped\\-turn\\-the\\-tide\\-in\\-italy\\-during\\-world\\-war\\-ii/\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-01\\-17\\|website\\=Military Times\\|language\\=en\\-US}}", "During the battle, [1st Lt.](/wiki/First_lieutenant \"First lieutenant\") [John R. Fox](/wiki/John_R._Fox \"John R. Fox\") with the [366th Infantry Regiment's](/wiki/366th_Infantry_Regiment_%28United_States%29 \"366th Infantry Regiment (United States)\") 598th Artillery Battalion volunteered to stay behind in the village as a [forward observer](/wiki/Forward_Observer \"Forward Observer\"). While calling defensive [artillery](/wiki/Artillery \"Artillery\") fire and a [smoke screen](/wiki/Smoke_screen \"Smoke screen\") to cover the escape of wounded American troops and partisans, he realized his observation post on the second floor of a house was surrounded by the Austrian soldiers. He then ordered a heavy concentration of [mortar](/wiki/Mortar_%28weapon%29 \"Mortar (weapon)\") and [105 mm](/wiki/105_mm_calibre \"105 mm calibre\") artillery shells on his own position. The artillery officer on the other end, Fox's close friend Otis Zachary, was stunned, knowing Fox's chances of survival would be very slim, but Fox demanded the barrage go ahead, saying \"Fire it! There's more of them than there are of us. Give them hell!\" as his last transmission. The resulting barrage killed Fox and approximately 100 Austrian troops surrounding his position. Fox's sacrifice halted the Wehrmacht's advance and allowed the U.S. Army to plan a counterattack. Sommocolonia was recaptured by 1 January 1945\\.{{Cite web\\|author\\=Kevin Cullen \\|date\\=July 27, 2020\\|title\\=Here's an idea: rename one of the bases named after a Confederate general for Lt. John Fox \\|url\\=https://www.bostonglobe.com/2020/07/27/metro/heres\\-an\\-idea\\-rename\\-one\\-bases\\-named\\-after\\-confederate\\-general\\-lt\\-john\\-fox/\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-01\\-17\\|website\\=The Boston Globe\\|language\\=en\\-US}}", "Due to the [systemic racism](/wiki/Institutional_racism \"Institutional racism\") within the [United States Armed Forces](/wiki/United_States_Armed_Forces \"United States Armed Forces\") at the time, Fox's sacrifice was not recognized, and there was no official record of the battle at Sommocolonia. After a review in 1982, Fox was posthumously awarded the [Distinguished Service Cross](/wiki/Distinguished_Service_Cross_%28United_States%29 \"Distinguished Service Cross (United States)\") for his actions. A later investigation in 1997 led to Fox and six other African American soldiers being awarded the [Medal of Honor](/wiki/Medal_of_Honor \"Medal of Honor\"), the highest military decoration for valor in the United States Armed Forces.", "The residents of Sommocolonia dedicated a monument to Fox and the eight Italian partisans who died while defending his position. In 2000, they also dedicated a peace park in memory of Fox and his unit.", "### Post\\-war", "After World War II, Sommocolonia's population began to decline as most residents gradually left in search of work. Due to the village's shrinking and aging population, the village's school closed in 1975 and the village's market closed in the 1980s. Groceries are now delivered to the town by a converted [ambulance](/wiki/Ambulance \"Ambulance\").", "The village saw an increase of visitors in the 2010s. Around 2018, the village received funding from Barga's mayor to build a cultural center and the town's first bar in 30 years.", "" ]
Demographics ------------ {{US Census population \|1810\= 360 \|1820\= 428 \|1830\= 561 \|1840\= 857 \|1850\= 1189 \|1860\= 1319 \|1870\= 1242 \|1880\= 1184 \|1890\= 986 \|1900\= 900 \|1910\= 734 \|1920\= 658 \|1930\= 488 \|1940\= 497 \|1950\= 448 \|1960\= 547 \|1970\= 623 \|1980\= 894 \|1990\= 1004 \|2000\= 1361 \|2010\= 1466 \|2020\= 1632 \|footnote\=U.S. Decennial Census{{cite web\|url\=https://www.census.gov/programs\-surveys/decennial\-census.html\|title\=Census of Population and Housing\|publisher\=Census.gov\|access\-date\=June 4, 2015}} }} ### 2010 census As of the [census](/wiki/Census "Census"){{cite web\|title\=U.S. Census website\|url\=https://www.census.gov\|publisher\=\[\[United States Census Bureau]]\|access\-date\=December 16, 2012}} of 2010, there were 1,466 people, 673 households, and 429 families residing in the town. The [population density](/wiki/Population_density "Population density") was {{convert\|39\.7\|PD/sqmi\|PD/km2\|1}}. There were 1,119 housing units at an average density of {{convert\|30\.3\|/sqmi\|/km2\|1}}. The racial makeup of the town was 97\.3% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 "White (U.S. Census)"), 0\.2% [African American](/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29 "African American (U.S. Census)"), 0\.5% [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 "Native American (U.S. Census)"), 0\.8% [Asian](/wiki/Asian_%28U.S._Census%29 "Asian (U.S. Census)"), 0\.1% from [other races](/wiki/Race_%28U.S._Census%29 "Race (U.S. Census)"), and 1\.1% from two or more races. [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 "Hispanic (U.S. Census)") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 "Latino (U.S. Census)") of any race were 0\.7% of the population. There were 673 households, of which 23\.3% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 51\.9% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage "Marriage") living together, 7\.4% had a female householder with no husband present, 4\.5% had a male householder with no wife present, and 36\.3% were non\-families. 28\.8% of all households were made up of individuals, and 13\.6% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\.18 and the average family size was 2\.64\. The median age in the town was 49 years. 17\.3% of residents were under the age of 18; 5\.5% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 21\.5% were from 25 to 44; 34\.2% were from 45 to 64; and 21\.4% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the town was 49\.7% male and 50\.3% female. ### 2000 census As of the [census](/wiki/Census "Census"){{cite web\|url\=https://www.census.gov\|publisher\=\[\[United States Census Bureau]]\|access\-date\=January 31, 2008\|title\=U.S. Census website}} of 2000, there were 1,361 people, 551 households, and 404 families residing in the town. The population density was {{convert\|36\.5\|PD/sqmi\|PD/km2\|sp\=us\|adj\=off}}. There were 913 housing units at an average density of 24\.5 per square mile (9\.5/km{{sup\|2}}). The racial makeup of the town was 96\.84% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 "White (U.S. Census)"), 0\.15% [African American](/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29 "African American (U.S. Census)"), 0\.59% [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 "Native American (U.S. Census)"), 0\.37% [Asian](/wiki/Asian_%28U.S._Census%29 "Asian (U.S. Census)"), 0\.07% from [other races](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 "Race (United States Census)"), and 1\.98% from two or more races. [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 "Hispanic (U.S. Census)") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 "Latino (U.S. Census)") of any race were 0\.37% of the population. There were 551 households, out of which 30\.9% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 62\.8% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage "Marriage") living together, 7\.1% had a female householder with no husband present, and 26\.5% were non\-families. 21\.8% of all households were made up of individuals, and 10\.0% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\.47 and the average family size was 2\.84\. In the town, the population was spread out, with 24\.5% under the age of 18, 4\.6% from 18 to 24, 26\.3% from 25 to 44, 31\.3% from 45 to 64, and 13\.4% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 41 years. For every 100 females, there were 97\.0 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 90\.7 males. The median income for a household in the town was $36,932, and the median income for a family was $41,324\. Males had a median income of $30,871 versus $22,100 for females. The [per capita income](/wiki/Per_capita_income "Per capita income") for the town was $19,199\. About 11\.4% of families and 14\.6% of the population were below the [poverty line](/wiki/Poverty_line "Poverty line"), including 22\.5% of those under age 18 and 9\.5% of those age 65 or over.
[ "Demographics\n------------", "{{US Census population\n\\|1810\\= 360\n\\|1820\\= 428\n\\|1830\\= 561\n\\|1840\\= 857\n\\|1850\\= 1189\n\\|1860\\= 1319\n\\|1870\\= 1242\n\\|1880\\= 1184\n\\|1890\\= 986\n\\|1900\\= 900\n\\|1910\\= 734\n\\|1920\\= 658\n\\|1930\\= 488\n\\|1940\\= 497\n\\|1950\\= 448\n\\|1960\\= 547\n\\|1970\\= 623\n\\|1980\\= 894\n\\|1990\\= 1004\n\\|2000\\= 1361\n\\|2010\\= 1466\n\\|2020\\= 1632\n\\|footnote\\=U.S. Decennial Census{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.census.gov/programs\\-surveys/decennial\\-census.html\\|title\\=Census of Population and Housing\\|publisher\\=Census.gov\\|access\\-date\\=June 4, 2015}}\n}}", "### 2010 census", "As of the [census](/wiki/Census \"Census\"){{cite web\\|title\\=U.S. Census website\\|url\\=https://www.census.gov\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[United States Census Bureau]]\\|access\\-date\\=December 16, 2012}} of 2010, there were 1,466 people, 673 households, and 429 families residing in the town. The [population density](/wiki/Population_density \"Population density\") was {{convert\\|39\\.7\\|PD/sqmi\\|PD/km2\\|1}}. There were 1,119 housing units at an average density of {{convert\\|30\\.3\\|/sqmi\\|/km2\\|1}}. The racial makeup of the town was 97\\.3% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 \"White (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.2% [African American](/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"African American (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.5% [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Native American (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.8% [Asian](/wiki/Asian_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Asian (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.1% from [other races](/wiki/Race_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Race (U.S. Census)\"), and 1\\.1% from two or more races. [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Hispanic (U.S. Census)\") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Latino (U.S. Census)\") of any race were 0\\.7% of the population.", "There were 673 households, of which 23\\.3% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 51\\.9% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage \"Marriage\") living together, 7\\.4% had a female householder with no husband present, 4\\.5% had a male householder with no wife present, and 36\\.3% were non\\-families. 28\\.8% of all households were made up of individuals, and 13\\.6% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\\.18 and the average family size was 2\\.64\\.", "The median age in the town was 49 years. 17\\.3% of residents were under the age of 18; 5\\.5% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 21\\.5% were from 25 to 44; 34\\.2% were from 45 to 64; and 21\\.4% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the town was 49\\.7% male and 50\\.3% female.", "### 2000 census", "As of the [census](/wiki/Census \"Census\"){{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.census.gov\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[United States Census Bureau]]\\|access\\-date\\=January 31, 2008\\|title\\=U.S. Census website}} of 2000, there were 1,361 people, 551 households, and 404 families residing in the town. The population density was {{convert\\|36\\.5\\|PD/sqmi\\|PD/km2\\|sp\\=us\\|adj\\=off}}. There were 913 housing units at an average density of 24\\.5 per square mile (9\\.5/km{{sup\\|2}}). The racial makeup of the town was 96\\.84% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 \"White (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.15% [African American](/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"African American (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.59% [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Native American (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.37% [Asian](/wiki/Asian_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Asian (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.07% from [other races](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 \"Race (United States Census)\"), and 1\\.98% from two or more races. [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Hispanic (U.S. Census)\") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Latino (U.S. Census)\") of any race were 0\\.37% of the population.", "There were 551 households, out of which 30\\.9% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 62\\.8% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage \"Marriage\") living together, 7\\.1% had a female householder with no husband present, and 26\\.5% were non\\-families. 21\\.8% of all households were made up of individuals, and 10\\.0% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\\.47 and the average family size was 2\\.84\\.", "In the town, the population was spread out, with 24\\.5% under the age of 18, 4\\.6% from 18 to 24, 26\\.3% from 25 to 44, 31\\.3% from 45 to 64, and 13\\.4% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 41 years. For every 100 females, there were 97\\.0 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 90\\.7 males.", "The median income for a household in the town was $36,932, and the median income for a family was $41,324\\. Males had a median income of $30,871 versus $22,100 for females. The [per capita income](/wiki/Per_capita_income \"Per capita income\") for the town was $19,199\\. About 11\\.4% of families and 14\\.6% of the population were below the [poverty line](/wiki/Poverty_line \"Poverty line\"), including 22\\.5% of those under age 18 and 9\\.5% of those age 65 or over.", "" ]
History ------- The following information derives from George J. Varney's *A Gazetteer of the State of Maine*, published in Boston, Massachusetts, in 1886: Surry is situated on the west bank of Union River Bay, in Hancock County. On the north\-east it is bounded by Ellsworth, on the south\-west, by Blue Hill, on the west, by Orland and [Penobscot](/wiki/Penobscot%2C_Maine "Penobscot, Maine"). The town has an area of about {{convert\|21,025\|acre\|km2}}. Toddy Pond forms part of the boundary between Surry and Penobscot, and on the line between Surry and Ellsworth are the two Patten ponds whose outlet is Patten Stream. Fishways were constructed to these ponds in 1872, and the ponds have since been stocked with [alewives](/wiki/Alewives "Alewives") and salmon. The surface of the town is considerably broken. The land generally is valuable for tillage. The majority of the surface soil is so intermingled with comminuted quartz, or siliceous sand, that cranberries grow in the grass fields. The cultivation of this crop is receiving increased attention. A large deposit of nearly pure silica in the town may prove of much value for glass and other ware. A few years ago, a bleak profusion of granite boulders lay over miles of surface on the Toddy Pond road. Today those boulders are seen in every stage of ruin. On every hand they are smitten with decay, and here and there a patch of unworn gravel is all that remains of a once great boulder. A few miles beyond these is a field of immense boulders, still uncrumbled, lying in wild confusion boulder on boulder. The manufactories of Surry are a lumber, shingle, spool and two stave mills. Formerly there was a large business done in building small vessels, but it is now very much reduced. Surry has two mining companies: the Blue Hill Bay and the East Surry Company. Surry was Township No. 6, in the grant to Marsh and others. It was first occupied by the French at Newbury Neck. The first English settlers were Symonds, Weymouth and James Flye. The next settlers were John Patten, a Mr. Hopkinson, Andrew Flood, Wilbrahim Swett, Matthew and James Ray, Samuel Joy, Isaac Lord, Hezekiah Coggins and Leonard Jarvis. Mr. Jarvis represented the eastern district in Congress from 1831 to 1837\. Up to 1820, about {{convert\|13,000\|acre\|km2}} had been secured to settlers and by quiet possession titles, when Mr. Jarvis bought the remainder. In 1800, Surry included that portion of Ellsworth known as Ward 5; but in 1829 it was re\-annexed to Ellsworth. There was a population of 289 as early as 1790\. In 1874, a small quantity of silver coin was found at Weymouth Point. Surry furnished 135 men to the Union cause in the war of the Rebellion! The Baptist, Free Baptist and Methodist denominations have churches in town. There are nine public schoolhouses, and the school property is valued at $3,400\. The valuation of estates in 1870 was $207,137\. In 1880 it was $177,534\. The population in 1870 was 1,242\. In 1880 it was 1,185\."From George J. Varney's *A Gazetteer of the State of Maine*, published in Boston, Massachusetts in 1886: ### Recent The National Weather Service in [Caribou](/wiki/Caribou%2C_Maine "Caribou, Maine") established a cooperative weather station at East Surry in July 2007\. The NWS station, named Ellsworth\-3SSW, serves as an official meteorological recording site, providing daily weather and climate information to the (NWS) National Weather Service, (NCDC) National Climatic Data Center, CoCoRaHS (Community Collaborative Rain, Hail and Snow Network), and CWOP (Citizens Weather Observer Program). The station (Ellsworth\-3SSW) continues the climate history of [Ellsworth](/wiki/Ellsworth%2C_Maine "Ellsworth, Maine") dating back to the 1930s. The cooperative station is located at an elevation of 105 feet, approximately two miles east of Surry village. The NWS in Caribou renamed the station East Surry on July 1, 2011\. This station begins a new climate history for East Surry, as it was found to be incompatible to the old ELLSWORTH POLL CONTROL station. The new data set begins on June 1, 2007, from the East Surry location.
[ "History\n-------", "The following information derives from George J. Varney's *A Gazetteer of the State of Maine*, published in Boston, Massachusetts, in 1886:", "Surry is situated on the west bank of Union River Bay, in Hancock County. On the north\\-east it is bounded by Ellsworth, on the south\\-west, by Blue Hill, on the west, by Orland and [Penobscot](/wiki/Penobscot%2C_Maine \"Penobscot, Maine\"). The town has an area of about {{convert\\|21,025\\|acre\\|km2}}. Toddy Pond forms part of the boundary between Surry and Penobscot, and on the line between Surry and Ellsworth are the two Patten ponds whose outlet is Patten Stream. Fishways were constructed to these ponds in 1872, and the ponds have since been stocked with [alewives](/wiki/Alewives \"Alewives\") and salmon. The surface of the town is considerably broken. The land generally is valuable for tillage. The majority of the surface soil is so intermingled with comminuted quartz, or siliceous sand, that cranberries grow in the grass fields. The cultivation of this crop is receiving increased attention. A large deposit of nearly pure silica in the town may prove of much value for glass and other ware. A few years ago, a bleak profusion of granite boulders lay over miles of surface on the Toddy Pond road. Today those boulders are seen in every stage of ruin. On every hand they are smitten with decay, and here and there a patch of unworn gravel is all that remains of a once great boulder. A few miles beyond these is a field of immense boulders, still uncrumbled, lying in wild confusion boulder on boulder.", "The manufactories of Surry are a lumber, shingle, spool and two stave mills. Formerly there was a large business done in building small vessels, but it is now very much reduced. Surry has two mining companies: the Blue Hill Bay and the East Surry Company.", "Surry was Township No. 6, in the grant to Marsh and others. It was first occupied by the French at Newbury Neck. The first English settlers were Symonds, Weymouth and James Flye. The next settlers were John Patten, a Mr. Hopkinson, Andrew Flood, Wilbrahim Swett, Matthew and James Ray, Samuel Joy, Isaac Lord, Hezekiah Coggins and Leonard Jarvis. Mr. Jarvis represented the eastern district in Congress from 1831 to 1837\\.", "Up to 1820, about {{convert\\|13,000\\|acre\\|km2}} had been secured to settlers and by quiet possession titles, when Mr. Jarvis bought the remainder. In 1800, Surry included that portion of Ellsworth known as Ward 5; but in 1829 it was re\\-annexed to Ellsworth. There was a population of 289 as early as 1790\\. In 1874, a small quantity of silver coin was found at Weymouth Point. Surry furnished 135 men to the Union cause in the war of the Rebellion!", "The Baptist, Free Baptist and Methodist denominations have churches in town. There are nine public schoolhouses, and the school property is valued at $3,400\\. The valuation of estates in 1870 was $207,137\\. In 1880 it was $177,534\\. The population in 1870 was 1,242\\. In 1880 it was 1,185\\.\"From George J. Varney's *A Gazetteer of the State of Maine*, published in Boston, Massachusetts in 1886:", "### Recent", "The National Weather Service in [Caribou](/wiki/Caribou%2C_Maine \"Caribou, Maine\") established a cooperative weather station at East Surry in July 2007\\. The NWS station, named Ellsworth\\-3SSW, serves as an official meteorological recording site, providing daily weather and climate information to the (NWS) National Weather Service, (NCDC) National Climatic Data Center, CoCoRaHS (Community Collaborative Rain, Hail and Snow Network), and CWOP (Citizens Weather Observer Program). The station (Ellsworth\\-3SSW) continues the climate history of [Ellsworth](/wiki/Ellsworth%2C_Maine \"Ellsworth, Maine\") dating back to the 1930s. The cooperative station is located at an elevation of 105 feet, approximately two miles east of Surry village.", "The NWS in Caribou renamed the station East Surry on July 1, 2011\\. This station begins a new climate history for East Surry, as it was found to be incompatible to the old ELLSWORTH POLL CONTROL station. The new data set begins on June 1, 2007, from the East Surry location.", "" ]
Climate ------- The Ngel Nyaki Forest Reserve has a tropical climate, classified as Am according to the Köppen\-Geiger climate classification. This means that it has a consistently warm temperature, with no distinct winter season.{{cite web \|title\=Ngel Nyaki climate: Weather Ngel Nyaki \& temperature by month \|url\=https://en.climate\-data.org/africa/nigeria/taraba/ngel\-nyaki\-367249/ \|website\=en.climate\-data.org \|access\-date\=22 October 2023}} The average annual temperature in the forest reserve is 20\.2 °C \| 68\.3 °F. The hottest month is March, with an average temperature of 22\.5 °C \| 72\.6 °F. The coldest month is August, with an average temperature of 18\.3 °C \| 65\.0 °F. The forest reserve receives significant precipitation throughout the year, with an average annual rainfall of 3969 mm \| 156\.3 inches. The wet season runs from May to November, with the highest rainfall occurring in May and October. The driest month is January, with an average rainfall of only 4 mm \| 0\.2 inches. Due to its proximity to the equator, the forest reserve does not experience a distinct winter season. Temperature variations are not extreme throughout the year, with the temperature fluctuation between the coldest and warmest months being approximately 4\.2 °C \| 7\.6 °F. Relative humidity levels in Ngel Nyaki Forest Reserve vary throughout the year, with the highest humidity occurring in August (88%) and the lowest humidity occurring in January (29%). August has the highest number of rainy days (22 days), while December has the fewest rainy days (0\.77 days). Ngel Nyaki Forest Reserve receives an average of 3069\.31 hours of sunlight per year, with a monthly average of approximately 101\.06 hours. The sunniest month is January, with an average of 10\.51 hours of sunlight per day, while the cloudiest month is August, with an average of 5\.31 hours of sunlight per day. The climate of the forest reserve, is characterized by consistently warm temperatures, significant precipitation throughout the year, and high humidity levels. The wet season runs from May to November, with the highest rainfall occurring in May and October. {{Weather box \| name \= Ngel Nyaki Forest Reserve (Ngel Nyaki) \| width \= \| collapsed \= \| open \= \| single line \= \| trace \= \| location \= Ngel Nyaki Forest Reserve (Ngel Nyaki) \| temperature colour \= \| Jan high F \= 82\.3 \| Feb high F \= 84 \| Mar high F \= 83\.2 \| Apr high F \= 80 \| May high F \= 77\.4 \| Jun high F \= 74\.9 \| Jul high F \= 72\.5 \| Aug high F \= 72 \| Sep high F \= 73\.5 \| Oct high F \= 74\.8 \| Nov high F \= 77 \| Dec high F \= 80\.3 \| Jan mean F \= 69\.9 \| Feb mean F \= 71\.9 \| Mar mean F \= 72\.6 \| Apr mean F \= 70\.9 \| May mean F \= 69 \| Jun mean F \= 67\.1 \| Jul mean F \= 65\.4 \| Aug mean F \= 65 \| Sep mean F \= 65\.7 \| Oct mean F \= 66\.4 \| Nov mean F \= 67\.5 \| Dec mean F \= 68\.5 \| Jan low F \= 56\.7 \| Feb low F \= 59\.6 \| Mar low F \= 62\.5 \| Apr low F \= 63\.8 \| May low F \= 63\.2 \| Jun low F \= 61\.8 \| Jul low F \= 60\.6 \| Aug low F \= 60\.5 \| Sep low F \= 60\.6 \| Oct low F \= 60\.5 \| Nov low F \= 58\.8 \| Dec low F \= 56\.2 \| precipitation colour \= GREEN \| Jan precipitation inch \= 0 \| Feb precipitation inch \= 0 \| Mar precipitation inch \= 4 \| Apr precipitation inch \= 16 \| May precipitation inch \= 25 \| Jun precipitation inch \= 23 \| Jul precipitation inch \= 18 \| Aug precipitation inch \= 17 \| Sep precipitation inch \= 22 \| Oct precipitation inch \= 20 \| Nov precipitation inch \= 4 \| Dec precipitation inch \= 0 \| unit rain days \= \| Jan rain days \= 1 \| Feb rain days \= 1 \| Mar rain days \= 7 \| Apr rain days \= 17 \| May rain days \= 21 \| Jun rain days \= 21 \| Jul rain days \= 22 \| Aug rain days \= 22 \| Sep rain days \= 21 \| Oct rain days \= 20 \| Nov rain days \= 7 \| Dec rain days \= 1 \| humidity colour \= green \| time day \= \| daily \= \| Jan humidity \= 29 \| Feb humidity \= 29 \| Mar humidity \= 41 \| Apr humidity \= 65 \| May humidity \= 78 \| Jun humidity \= 83 \| Jul humidity \= 86 \| Aug humidity \= 88 \| Sep humidity \= 87 \| Oct humidity \= 83 \| Nov humidity \= 60 \| Dec humidity \= 37 \| Jand sun \= 10\.5 \| Febd sun \= 10\.5 \| Mard sun \= 10\.4 \| Aprd sun \= 9\.5 \| Mayd sun \= 8\.4 \| Jund sun \= 6\.7 \| Juld sun \= 5\.8 \| Augd sun \= 5\.3 \| Sepd sun \= 5\.8 \| Octd sun \= 7\.7 \| Novd sun \= 9\.9 \| Decd sun \= 10\.5 \| source \= climate\-data.org{{Cite web \|title\=Ngel Nyaki climate: Weather Ngel Nyaki \& temperature by month \|url\=https://en.climate\-data.org/africa/nigeria/taraba/ngel\-nyaki\-367249/ \|access\-date\=2023\-10\-21 \|website\=en.climate\-data.org}} }}
[ "Climate\n-------", "The Ngel Nyaki Forest Reserve has a tropical climate, classified as Am according to the Köppen\\-Geiger climate classification. This means that it has a consistently warm temperature, with no distinct winter season.{{cite web \\|title\\=Ngel Nyaki climate: Weather Ngel Nyaki \\& temperature by month \\|url\\=https://en.climate\\-data.org/africa/nigeria/taraba/ngel\\-nyaki\\-367249/ \\|website\\=en.climate\\-data.org \\|access\\-date\\=22 October 2023}}", "The average annual temperature in the forest reserve is 20\\.2 °C \\| 68\\.3 °F. The hottest month is March, with an average temperature of 22\\.5 °C \\| 72\\.6 °F. The coldest month is August, with an average temperature of 18\\.3 °C \\| 65\\.0 °F.", "The forest reserve receives significant precipitation throughout the year, with an average annual rainfall of 3969 mm \\| 156\\.3 inches. The wet season runs from May to November, with the highest rainfall occurring in May and October. The driest month is January, with an average rainfall of only 4 mm \\| 0\\.2 inches.", "Due to its proximity to the equator, the forest reserve does not experience a distinct winter season. Temperature variations are not extreme throughout the year, with the temperature fluctuation between the coldest and warmest months being approximately 4\\.2 °C \\| 7\\.6 °F.", "Relative humidity levels in Ngel Nyaki Forest Reserve vary throughout the year, with the highest humidity occurring in August (88%) and the lowest humidity occurring in January (29%).", "August has the highest number of rainy days (22 days), while December has the fewest rainy days (0\\.77 days).", "Ngel Nyaki Forest Reserve receives an average of 3069\\.31 hours of sunlight per year, with a monthly average of approximately 101\\.06 hours. The sunniest month is January, with an average of 10\\.51 hours of sunlight per day, while the cloudiest month is August, with an average of 5\\.31 hours of sunlight per day.", "The climate of the forest reserve, is characterized by consistently warm temperatures, significant precipitation throughout the year, and high humidity levels. The wet season runs from May to November, with the highest rainfall occurring in May and October.", "{{Weather box\n\\| name \\= Ngel Nyaki Forest Reserve (Ngel Nyaki) \n\\| width \\= \n\\| collapsed \\= \n\\| open \\= \n\\| single line \\= \n\\| trace \\= \n\\| location \\= Ngel Nyaki Forest Reserve (Ngel Nyaki) \n\\| temperature colour \\=", "\\| Jan high F \\= 82\\.3\n\\| Feb high F \\= 84\n\\| Mar high F \\= 83\\.2\n\\| Apr high F \\= 80\n\\| May high F \\= 77\\.4\n\\| Jun high F \\= 74\\.9\n\\| Jul high F \\= 72\\.5\n\\| Aug high F \\= 72\n\\| Sep high F \\= 73\\.5\n\\| Oct high F \\= 74\\.8\n\\| Nov high F \\= 77\n\\| Dec high F \\= 80\\.3", "", "\\| Jan mean F \\= 69\\.9\n\\| Feb mean F \\= 71\\.9\n\\| Mar mean F \\= 72\\.6\n\\| Apr mean F \\= 70\\.9\n\\| May mean F \\= 69\n\\| Jun mean F \\= 67\\.1\n\\| Jul mean F \\= 65\\.4\n\\| Aug mean F \\= 65\n\\| Sep mean F \\= 65\\.7\n\\| Oct mean F \\= 66\\.4\n\\| Nov mean F \\= 67\\.5\n\\| Dec mean F \\= 68\\.5", "", "\\| Jan low F \\= 56\\.7\n\\| Feb low F \\= 59\\.6\n\\| Mar low F \\= 62\\.5\n\\| Apr low F \\= 63\\.8\n\\| May low F \\= 63\\.2\n\\| Jun low F \\= 61\\.8\n\\| Jul low F \\= 60\\.6\n\\| Aug low F \\= 60\\.5\n\\| Sep low F \\= 60\\.6\n\\| Oct low F \\= 60\\.5\n\\| Nov low F \\= 58\\.8\n\\| Dec low F \\= 56\\.2", "", "\\| precipitation colour \\= GREEN \n\\| Jan precipitation inch \\= 0\n\\| Feb precipitation inch \\= 0\n\\| Mar precipitation inch \\= 4\n\\| Apr precipitation inch \\= 16\n\\| May precipitation inch \\= 25\n\\| Jun precipitation inch \\= 23\n\\| Jul precipitation inch \\= 18\n\\| Aug precipitation inch \\= 17\n\\| Sep precipitation inch \\= 22\n\\| Oct precipitation inch \\= 20\n\\| Nov precipitation inch \\= 4\n\\| Dec precipitation inch \\= 0", "", "\\| unit rain days \\= \n\\| Jan rain days \\= 1\n\\| Feb rain days \\= 1\n\\| Mar rain days \\= 7\n\\| Apr rain days \\= 17\n\\| May rain days \\= 21\n\\| Jun rain days \\= 21\n\\| Jul rain days \\= 22\n\\| Aug rain days \\= 22\n\\| Sep rain days \\= 21\n\\| Oct rain days \\= 20\n\\| Nov rain days \\= 7\n\\| Dec rain days \\= 1", "", "\\| humidity colour \\= green \n\\| time day \\= \n\\| daily \\= \n\\| Jan humidity \\= 29\n\\| Feb humidity \\= 29\n\\| Mar humidity \\= 41\n\\| Apr humidity \\= 65\n\\| May humidity \\= 78\n\\| Jun humidity \\= 83\n\\| Jul humidity \\= 86\n\\| Aug humidity \\= 88\n\\| Sep humidity \\= 87\n\\| Oct humidity \\= 83\n\\| Nov humidity \\= 60\n\\| Dec humidity \\= 37", "", "\\| Jand sun \\= 10\\.5\n\\| Febd sun \\= 10\\.5\n\\| Mard sun \\= 10\\.4\n\\| Aprd sun \\= 9\\.5\n\\| Mayd sun \\= 8\\.4\n\\| Jund sun \\= 6\\.7\n\\| Juld sun \\= 5\\.8\n\\| Augd sun \\= 5\\.3\n\\| Sepd sun \\= 5\\.8\n\\| Octd sun \\= 7\\.7\n\\| Novd sun \\= 9\\.9\n\\| Decd sun \\= 10\\.5", "", "\\| source \\= climate\\-data.org{{Cite web \\|title\\=Ngel Nyaki climate: Weather Ngel Nyaki \\& temperature by month \\|url\\=https://en.climate\\-data.org/africa/nigeria/taraba/ngel\\-nyaki\\-367249/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-10\\-21 \\|website\\=en.climate\\-data.org}}\n}}", "" ]
Plot ---- ### Part I It is April 15, 1861, the eve of a [rebellion](/wiki/Rebellion "Rebellion") in which seven southern states declare their secession from the United States (the "[Union](/wiki/Union_%28American_Civil_War%29 "Union (American Civil War)")") over a desire to continue the institution of [slavery](/wiki/Slavery "Slavery"), which was the economic engine of the South. In one of those states, [Georgia](/wiki/Georgia_%28U.S._state%29 "Georgia (U.S. state)"), the family of wealthy Irish immigrant Gerald O'Hara owns a [plantation](/wiki/Plantation_complexes_in_the_Southern_United_States "Plantation complexes in the Southern United States") ([Tara](/wiki/Tara_%28plantation%29 "Tara (plantation)")).Part 1, chapter 1 The oldest of the three O'Hara daughters, 16\-year\-old [Scarlett](/wiki/Scarlett_O%27Hara "Scarlett O'Hara"), is dismayed to learn that the man she secretly loves, her county neighbor [Ashley Wilkes](/wiki/Ashley_Wilkes "Ashley Wilkes"), is set to announce his engagement to his cousin [Melanie Hamilton](/wiki/Melanie_Hamilton "Melanie Hamilton"). The next day, the Wilkeses throw an all\-day party at their estate ("[Twelve Oaks](/wiki/Twelve_Oaks "Twelve Oaks")") where Scarlett notices someone leering at her. He turns out to be Rhett Butler, who has a reputation for seducing young women. Throughout the day, Scarlett attempts to turn Ashley's head by flirting with every man present, including Melanie's brother Charles Hamilton. In the afternoon, Scarlett gets Ashley alone and confesses her love for him, convinced he will return it. However, he says only that he cares for her as a friend and intends to marry Melanie. Stung, Scarlett insults Ashley and accuses him of being too cowardly to submit to his real feelings for her. As Ashley departs, Rhett reveals he has overheard their whole exchange. Scarlett feels humiliated.Part 1, chapter 6 Later, war is declared, and the men are going to enlist. Feeling petty and vengeful, Scarlett accepts Charles's marriage proposal. They marry, and two weeks later, Charles goes to war, where he dies of [measles](/wiki/Measles "Measles") two months later. Scarlett gives birth to his child, Wade Hampton Hamilton.Part 1, chapter 7 As a widow, she is bound to dye her dresses black, wear a veil in public, and avoid conversations with young men. Scarlett secretly mourns the loss of her youth, not the husband she barely knew. ### Part II Scarlett's mother, mistaking Scarlett's depression for grief, suggests that living with Melanie might lift her spirits. Melanie is living in [Atlanta](/wiki/Atlanta "Atlanta") with her Aunt Sarah Jane, who is called by her childhood nickname "Pittypat." After moving there, Scarlett's spirit is revived by the excitement of living in a growing city. She busies herself with hospital work and sewing circles for the Confederate Army. However, her heart is not in it{{snd}}she does it primarily to avoid being gossiped about by the other women of Atlanta society. Additionally, she believes her efforts may aid Ashley, with whom she is still in love. Scarlett is mortified when she runs into Rhett while staffing a sales stall at a public dance benefiting the troops. Rhett believes the war is a lost cause but is becoming rich as a [blockade runner](/wiki/Blockade_runner "Blockade runner") for profit. He sees through Scarlett's "lady in mourning" disguise and recognizes her longing to dance with the other young people, so he bids a lot of gold to win the honor of leading the first dance and chooses her as his partner. Scarlett scandalizes everyone by dancing joyfully while still dressed in widow's mourning. Her reputation is saved by Melanie, who is now her sister\-in\-law and highly respected in Atlanta; she argues that Scarlett is supporting the Confederate cause. Scarlett continues to act recklessly, flirting and dating while still in widow's clothes, always protected by Melanie's endorsement. She spends much of her time with Rhett, whose sexual attraction to Scarlett is ever\-present. At one point, he enrages her with a silky proposition that she become his mistress. Still, she appreciates Rhett for his money, his sophistication, and their shared irritation with the hypocrisy of Atlanta society.Part 2, chapter 9 At Christmas (1863\), Ashley is granted a furlough from the army and goes to Atlanta. Scarlett struggles to restrain her feelings for him. She remains convinced that he is secretly in love with her and is still married to Melanie out of duty. Scarlett is heartbroken when Melanie becomes pregnant with Ashley's child. ### Part III The war is going badly for the Confederacy. By September 1864, Atlanta is besieged from three sides.Part 3, chapter 17 The city becomes desperate as hundreds of wounded Confederate soldiers pour in. Melanie goes into labor with only the inexperienced Scarlett and a young enslaved woman called Prissy to assist, as all the trained doctors are attending to the soldiers. The tattered [Confederate States Army](/wiki/Confederate_States_Army "Confederate States Army") sets flame to Atlanta before they abandon it to the [Union Army](/wiki/Union_Army "Union Army"). Amidst the chaos, Melanie gives birth to a boy, Beau. Scarlett tracks down Rhett and begs him to take her, Wade, Melanie, Beau, and Prissy to Tara. Rhett laughs at this idea, explaining that the Yankees have likely burned Tara. Still, he steals an [emaciated](/wiki/Emaciated "Emaciated") horse and a wagon and begins driving them out of Atlanta. At the city's edge, Rhett has a change of heart and abandons Scarlett to join the army in their final, doomed push. Scarlett drives the wagon to Tara, which has avoided being burned like many of her neighbors' homes. However, the situation is bleak: Scarlett's mother is dead, her father has lost his mind with grief, her sisters are sick with [typhoid fever](/wiki/Typhoid_fever "Typhoid fever"), the [enslaved field workers](/wiki/Field_slaves_in_the_United_States "Field slaves in the United States") have left, the Yankees have burned all the cotton, and there is no food. A long struggle for survival begins, with Scarlett working in the fields. There are several hungry people and animals, along with an ever\-present threat from Yankees who steal or burn what little they can find. At one point, Scarlett kills a Yankee soldier who attempts to invade her home and buries his body in the garden. A long post\-war succession of Confederate soldiers returning home stop at Tara to find food and rest. Eventually, Ashley returns from the war with his idealistic view of the world shattered. Finding themselves alone one day, he and Scarlett share a kiss. Unable to trust himself with her nearby, Ashley says he will take his family and move away. Scarlett says she can not let them leave when they have nowhere to go and promises not to throw herself at him again. ### Part IV Life at Tara begins to recover, but exorbitant taxes are levied on the plantation. Scarlett knows only one man with enough money to help her{{snd}}Rhett. She puts on her only pretty dress (made from the velvet curtains at Tara) and finds him in a jailhouse in Atlanta. He is being held on a murder charge and is likely to hang. Although she nearly wins him over with a southern belle routine, he declines to help after realizing her sweetness is an act meant to use his money. Leaving the jailhouse in a snit, Scarlett meets Frank Kennedy, a middle\-aged storeowner betrothed to her sister, Suellen. Realizing that Frank also has money and that Suellen will turn her back on Tara once she is married, Scarlett hatches a plot to marry Frank. She lies to Frank that Suellen has changed her mind about marrying him. Dazed, Frank succumbs to Scarlett's charms and marries her two weeks later.Part 4, chapter 35 Wanting to keep his wife happy, Frank gives Scarlett the money to pay the taxes. While Frank has a cold and is pampered by Aunt Pittypat, Scarlett reviews the accounts at Frank's store and finds that many owe him money. Terrified of the possibility of more taxes and irritated with Frank's poor business sense, she takes control of the store; her business practices emasculate Frank and leave many Atlantans resentful of her. With a loan from Rhett, she also buys and runs a small [sawmill](/wiki/Sawmill "Sawmill"), which is viewed as even more scandalous conduct. To Frank's relief and Scarlett's dismay, she gets pregnant, which temporarily curtails her business activities. She convinces Ashley to come to Atlanta and manage her mill while still in love with him. At Melanie's urging, Ashley reluctantly accepts. Melanie becomes the center of Atlanta society, and Scarlett gives birth to baby Ella Lorena.Part 4, chapter 42 Georgia is under [martial law](/wiki/Martial_law "Martial law"), and life has become more frightening. For protection, Scarlett keeps Frank's pistol tucked in the upholstery of his buggy. Her lone trips to and from the mill take her past a [shanty town](/wiki/Shanty_town "Shanty town") where criminals live. While on her way home one evening, she is accosted by two men who try to rob her. However, she escapes with the help of Big Sam, a black former foreman from Tara. Attempting to avenge his wife, Frank and the [Ku Klux Klan](/wiki/Ku_Klux_Klan "Ku Klux Klan") raid the shanty town, where Frank is shot dead in the fracas. Rhett puts on a charade to keep the raiders from being arrested. He enters the Wilkeses' home with Hugh Elsing and Ashley, singing and pretending to be drunk. Yankee officers outside question Rhett, who says he and the other men had been at Belle Watling's brothel that evening, a story Belle later confirms to the officers. The men are indebted to Rhett, and his reputation among them improves. Meanwhile, the men's wives{{snd}}except Melanie{{snd}}are livid at owing their husbands' lives to the town madam. At Frank's funeral, Rhett asks Scarlett to marry him.Part 4, chapter 47 She refuses at first, but after a bit of repartee, he kisses her passionately, and in the heat of the moment, she accepts. One year later, Scarlett and Rhett announce their engagement, which becomes the talk of the town. ### Part V [thumbnail\|[The Bonnie Blue Flag](/wiki/The_Bonnie_Blue_Flag "The Bonnie Blue Flag") is an 1861 marching song that refers to the first unofficial flag of the Confederacy.](/wiki/File:The_Bonnie_Blue_Flag_-_Project_Gutenberg_eText_21566.jpg "The Bonnie Blue Flag - Project Gutenberg eText 21566.jpg") Mr. and Mrs. Butler honeymoon in New Orleans, spending lavishly. Returning to Atlanta, they build a gaudy mansion on [Peachtree Street](/wiki/Peachtree_Street "Peachtree Street"). Rhett happily pays for the house to be built to Scarlett's specifications but describes it as an "architectural horror."Part 5, chapter 50 Shortly after moving into the house, the sardonic jabs between them become quarrels. Scarlett wonders why Rhett married her and then, "with real hate in her eyes", tells Rhett she will have a baby, which she does not want. Wade is seven years old in 1869 when his half\-sister Eugenie Victoria is born. She has blue eyes, and Melanie nicknames her "Bonnie Blue" in reference to the [Bonnie Blue Flag](/wiki/Flags_of_the_Confederate_States_of_America "Flags of the Confederate States of America") of the Confederacy. After feeling well again, Scarlett makes a trip to the mill and talks to Ashley. In their conversation, she comes away believing Ashley still loves her and is jealous of Rhett. She returns home and tells Rhett she does not want more children. From then on, they sleep separately, and when Bonnie is two years old, she sleeps in a little bed beside Rhett. Rhett turns his attention entirely toward Bonnie, pampering her and working to ensure her a good reputation when she enters society. Meanwhile, Melanie plans a surprise birthday party for Ashley. Scarlett goes to the mill to stall him until the celebration – a rare opportunity to be alone together. The two reminisce about the old days and how far their lives have departed from what they imagined for themselves. They share an innocent embrace but are spotted in the moment by Ashley's sister, India. Before the party has even begun, a rumor of an affair between Ashley and Scarlett explodes across Atlanta, eventually reaching Rhett and Melanie. Melanie refuses to accept any criticism of Scarlett, and India is expelled from the Wilkes home. That night at home, Rhett, drunker than Scarlett has ever seen him and acting more violent than ever, encourages Scarlett to drink with him. However, she declines with deliberate rudeness. Rhett pins her to the wall and tells her they could have been happy together if she could have let go of Ashley. He then takes her in his arms and carries her to her bedroom, where they engage in intercourse. Several days later, a chagrined Rhett leaves town with Bonnie and Prissy for three months. Scarlett is uncertain about her feelings surrounding Rhett, for whom she feels a mixture of desire and revulsion. She then learns she is pregnant with her fourth child. When Rhett returns, he comments on Scarlett's paleness, and she reveals her pregnancy. Rhett sarcastically asks if the father is Ashley; Scarlett calls him a cad and says that no woman would want his baby, to which he replies, "Cheer up, maybe you'll have a miscarriage."Part 5, chapter 56 She lunges at him but misses and tumbles down the stairs. She is seriously ill for the first time in her life, having lost the baby and broken her ribs. Rhett is remorseful and fears Scarlett will die. Sobbing and drunk, he seeks consolation from Melanie and confesses he acted out of jealousy. Scarlett goes to Tara with Wade and Ella to regain her strength and vitality.Part 5, chapter 57 She returns healthy to Atlanta and sells the mills to Ashley. Bonnie is four years old in 1873, and Atlanta society is charmed by Rhett's transformation into a doting father. Rhett buys Bonnie a Shetland pony, teaching her to ride sidesaddle and paying a trainer to teach the pony to jump. One day, Bonnie makes her father raise the bar to one\-and\-a\-half feet. During the jump, she falls and dies of a broken neck. In the months following Bonnie's death, Rhett is often drunk and disheveled, while Scarlett, though equally bereaved, is more presentable. Melanie conceives a second child but loses the baby and soon dies due to complications. As she comforts the widowed Ashley, Scarlett realizes she stopped loving him long ago and perhaps never did. She is shocked to realize that she has always loved Rhett, and he has loved her in return. She returns home, brimming with her new love and determined to begin anew with him. She discovers him sitting in the library. In the wake of Melanie's death, Rhett has decided he wants to rediscover the calm Southern dignity he once knew in his youth and is leaving Atlanta to find it. Scarlett tries to persuade Rhett to either stay or take her with him, but he explains that while he once loved Scarlett, the years of hurt and neglect have killed that love. He says he may "come back often enough to keep gossip down" (since they have decided not to get a divorce), but in reply to Scarlett's plea of "What shall I do?" he replies, "My dear, I don't give a damn.", and walks out the front door. Amid her grief, Scarlett consoles herself with the knowledge that she still has Tara. She plans to return there with the certainty that she can recover and win Rhett back because "tomorrow is another day."Part 5, chapter 63
[ "Plot\n----", "### Part I", "It is April 15, 1861, the eve of a [rebellion](/wiki/Rebellion \"Rebellion\") in which seven southern states declare their secession from the United States (the \"[Union](/wiki/Union_%28American_Civil_War%29 \"Union (American Civil War)\")\") over a desire to continue the institution of [slavery](/wiki/Slavery \"Slavery\"), which was the economic engine of the South. In one of those states, [Georgia](/wiki/Georgia_%28U.S._state%29 \"Georgia (U.S. state)\"), the family of wealthy Irish immigrant Gerald O'Hara owns a [plantation](/wiki/Plantation_complexes_in_the_Southern_United_States \"Plantation complexes in the Southern United States\") ([Tara](/wiki/Tara_%28plantation%29 \"Tara (plantation)\")).Part 1, chapter 1", "The oldest of the three O'Hara daughters, 16\\-year\\-old [Scarlett](/wiki/Scarlett_O%27Hara \"Scarlett O'Hara\"), is dismayed to learn that the man she secretly loves, her county neighbor [Ashley Wilkes](/wiki/Ashley_Wilkes \"Ashley Wilkes\"), is set to announce his engagement to his cousin [Melanie Hamilton](/wiki/Melanie_Hamilton \"Melanie Hamilton\"). The next day, the Wilkeses throw an all\\-day party at their estate (\"[Twelve Oaks](/wiki/Twelve_Oaks \"Twelve Oaks\")\") where Scarlett notices someone leering at her. He turns out to be Rhett Butler, who has a reputation for seducing young women. Throughout the day, Scarlett attempts to turn Ashley's head by flirting with every man present, including Melanie's brother Charles Hamilton. In the afternoon, Scarlett gets Ashley alone and confesses her love for him, convinced he will return it. However, he says only that he cares for her as a friend and intends to marry Melanie. Stung, Scarlett insults Ashley and accuses him of being too cowardly to submit to his real feelings for her. As Ashley departs, Rhett reveals he has overheard their whole exchange. Scarlett feels humiliated.Part 1, chapter 6", "Later, war is declared, and the men are going to enlist. Feeling petty and vengeful, Scarlett accepts Charles's marriage proposal. They marry, and two weeks later, Charles goes to war, where he dies of [measles](/wiki/Measles \"Measles\") two months later. Scarlett gives birth to his child, Wade Hampton Hamilton.Part 1, chapter 7 As a widow, she is bound to dye her dresses black, wear a veil in public, and avoid conversations with young men. Scarlett secretly mourns the loss of her youth, not the husband she barely knew.", "### Part II", "Scarlett's mother, mistaking Scarlett's depression for grief, suggests that living with Melanie might lift her spirits. Melanie is living in [Atlanta](/wiki/Atlanta \"Atlanta\") with her Aunt Sarah Jane, who is called by her childhood nickname \"Pittypat.\" After moving there, Scarlett's spirit is revived by the excitement of living in a growing city. She busies herself with hospital work and sewing circles for the Confederate Army. However, her heart is not in it{{snd}}she does it primarily to avoid being gossiped about by the other women of Atlanta society. Additionally, she believes her efforts may aid Ashley, with whom she is still in love.", "Scarlett is mortified when she runs into Rhett while staffing a sales stall at a public dance benefiting the troops. Rhett believes the war is a lost cause but is becoming rich as a [blockade runner](/wiki/Blockade_runner \"Blockade runner\") for profit. He sees through Scarlett's \"lady in mourning\" disguise and recognizes her longing to dance with the other young people, so he bids a lot of gold to win the honor of leading the first dance and chooses her as his partner. Scarlett scandalizes everyone by dancing joyfully while still dressed in widow's mourning. Her reputation is saved by Melanie, who is now her sister\\-in\\-law and highly respected in Atlanta; she argues that Scarlett is supporting the Confederate cause. Scarlett continues to act recklessly, flirting and dating while still in widow's clothes, always protected by Melanie's endorsement. She spends much of her time with Rhett, whose sexual attraction to Scarlett is ever\\-present. At one point, he enrages her with a silky proposition that she become his mistress. Still, she appreciates Rhett for his money, his sophistication, and their shared irritation with the hypocrisy of Atlanta society.Part 2, chapter 9", "At Christmas (1863\\), Ashley is granted a furlough from the army and goes to Atlanta. Scarlett struggles to restrain her feelings for him. She remains convinced that he is secretly in love with her and is still married to Melanie out of duty. Scarlett is heartbroken when Melanie becomes pregnant with Ashley's child.", "### Part III", "The war is going badly for the Confederacy. By September 1864, Atlanta is besieged from three sides.Part 3, chapter 17 The city becomes desperate as hundreds of wounded Confederate soldiers pour in. Melanie goes into labor with only the inexperienced Scarlett and a young enslaved woman called Prissy to assist, as all the trained doctors are attending to the soldiers. The tattered [Confederate States Army](/wiki/Confederate_States_Army \"Confederate States Army\") sets flame to Atlanta before they abandon it to the [Union Army](/wiki/Union_Army \"Union Army\"). Amidst the chaos, Melanie gives birth to a boy, Beau.", "Scarlett tracks down Rhett and begs him to take her, Wade, Melanie, Beau, and Prissy to Tara. Rhett laughs at this idea, explaining that the Yankees have likely burned Tara. Still, he steals an [emaciated](/wiki/Emaciated \"Emaciated\") horse and a wagon and begins driving them out of Atlanta. At the city's edge, Rhett has a change of heart and abandons Scarlett to join the army in their final, doomed push. Scarlett drives the wagon to Tara, which has avoided being burned like many of her neighbors' homes. However, the situation is bleak: Scarlett's mother is dead, her father has lost his mind with grief, her sisters are sick with [typhoid fever](/wiki/Typhoid_fever \"Typhoid fever\"), the [enslaved field workers](/wiki/Field_slaves_in_the_United_States \"Field slaves in the United States\") have left, the Yankees have burned all the cotton, and there is no food.", "A long struggle for survival begins, with Scarlett working in the fields. There are several hungry people and animals, along with an ever\\-present threat from Yankees who steal or burn what little they can find. At one point, Scarlett kills a Yankee soldier who attempts to invade her home and buries his body in the garden. A long post\\-war succession of Confederate soldiers returning home stop at Tara to find food and rest. Eventually, Ashley returns from the war with his idealistic view of the world shattered. Finding themselves alone one day, he and Scarlett share a kiss. Unable to trust himself with her nearby, Ashley says he will take his family and move away. Scarlett says she can not let them leave when they have nowhere to go and promises not to throw herself at him again.", "### Part IV", "Life at Tara begins to recover, but exorbitant taxes are levied on the plantation. Scarlett knows only one man with enough money to help her{{snd}}Rhett. She puts on her only pretty dress (made from the velvet curtains at Tara) and finds him in a jailhouse in Atlanta. He is being held on a murder charge and is likely to hang. Although she nearly wins him over with a southern belle routine, he declines to help after realizing her sweetness is an act meant to use his money. Leaving the jailhouse in a snit, Scarlett meets Frank Kennedy, a middle\\-aged storeowner betrothed to her sister, Suellen. Realizing that Frank also has money and that Suellen will turn her back on Tara once she is married, Scarlett hatches a plot to marry Frank. She lies to Frank that Suellen has changed her mind about marrying him. Dazed, Frank succumbs to Scarlett's charms and marries her two weeks later.Part 4, chapter 35 Wanting to keep his wife happy, Frank gives Scarlett the money to pay the taxes.", "While Frank has a cold and is pampered by Aunt Pittypat, Scarlett reviews the accounts at Frank's store and finds that many owe him money. Terrified of the possibility of more taxes and irritated with Frank's poor business sense, she takes control of the store; her business practices emasculate Frank and leave many Atlantans resentful of her. With a loan from Rhett, she also buys and runs a small [sawmill](/wiki/Sawmill \"Sawmill\"), which is viewed as even more scandalous conduct. To Frank's relief and Scarlett's dismay, she gets pregnant, which temporarily curtails her business activities. She convinces Ashley to come to Atlanta and manage her mill while still in love with him. At Melanie's urging, Ashley reluctantly accepts. Melanie becomes the center of Atlanta society, and Scarlett gives birth to baby Ella Lorena.Part 4, chapter 42", "Georgia is under [martial law](/wiki/Martial_law \"Martial law\"), and life has become more frightening. For protection, Scarlett keeps Frank's pistol tucked in the upholstery of his buggy. Her lone trips to and from the mill take her past a [shanty town](/wiki/Shanty_town \"Shanty town\") where criminals live. While on her way home one evening, she is accosted by two men who try to rob her. However, she escapes with the help of Big Sam, a black former foreman from Tara. Attempting to avenge his wife, Frank and the [Ku Klux Klan](/wiki/Ku_Klux_Klan \"Ku Klux Klan\") raid the shanty town, where Frank is shot dead in the fracas. Rhett puts on a charade to keep the raiders from being arrested. He enters the Wilkeses' home with Hugh Elsing and Ashley, singing and pretending to be drunk. Yankee officers outside question Rhett, who says he and the other men had been at Belle Watling's brothel that evening, a story Belle later confirms to the officers. The men are indebted to Rhett, and his reputation among them improves. Meanwhile, the men's wives{{snd}}except Melanie{{snd}}are livid at owing their husbands' lives to the town madam. At Frank's funeral, Rhett asks Scarlett to marry him.Part 4, chapter 47 She refuses at first, but after a bit of repartee, he kisses her passionately, and in the heat of the moment, she accepts. One year later, Scarlett and Rhett announce their engagement, which becomes the talk of the town.", "### Part V", "[thumbnail\\|[The Bonnie Blue Flag](/wiki/The_Bonnie_Blue_Flag \"The Bonnie Blue Flag\") is an 1861 marching song that refers to the first unofficial flag of the Confederacy.](/wiki/File:The_Bonnie_Blue_Flag_-_Project_Gutenberg_eText_21566.jpg \"The Bonnie Blue Flag - Project Gutenberg eText 21566.jpg\")\nMr. and Mrs. Butler honeymoon in New Orleans, spending lavishly. Returning to Atlanta, they build a gaudy mansion on [Peachtree Street](/wiki/Peachtree_Street \"Peachtree Street\"). Rhett happily pays for the house to be built to Scarlett's specifications but describes it as an \"architectural horror.\"Part 5, chapter 50 Shortly after moving into the house, the sardonic jabs between them become quarrels. Scarlett wonders why Rhett married her and then, \"with real hate in her eyes\", tells Rhett she will have a baby, which she does not want. Wade is seven years old in 1869 when his half\\-sister Eugenie Victoria is born. She has blue eyes, and Melanie nicknames her \"Bonnie Blue\" in reference to the [Bonnie Blue Flag](/wiki/Flags_of_the_Confederate_States_of_America \"Flags of the Confederate States of America\") of the Confederacy. After feeling well again, Scarlett makes a trip to the mill and talks to Ashley. In their conversation, she comes away believing Ashley still loves her and is jealous of Rhett. She returns home and tells Rhett she does not want more children. From then on, they sleep separately, and when Bonnie is two years old, she sleeps in a little bed beside Rhett. Rhett turns his attention entirely toward Bonnie, pampering her and working to ensure her a good reputation when she enters society.", "Meanwhile, Melanie plans a surprise birthday party for Ashley. Scarlett goes to the mill to stall him until the celebration – a rare opportunity to be alone together. The two reminisce about the old days and how far their lives have departed from what they imagined for themselves. They share an innocent embrace but are spotted in the moment by Ashley's sister, India. Before the party has even begun, a rumor of an affair between Ashley and Scarlett explodes across Atlanta, eventually reaching Rhett and Melanie. Melanie refuses to accept any criticism of Scarlett, and India is expelled from the Wilkes home. That night at home, Rhett, drunker than Scarlett has ever seen him and acting more violent than ever, encourages Scarlett to drink with him. However, she declines with deliberate rudeness. Rhett pins her to the wall and tells her they could have been happy together if she could have let go of Ashley. He then takes her in his arms and carries her to her bedroom, where they engage in intercourse. Several days later, a chagrined Rhett leaves town with Bonnie and Prissy for three months. Scarlett is uncertain about her feelings surrounding Rhett, for whom she feels a mixture of desire and revulsion. She then learns she is pregnant with her fourth child.", "When Rhett returns, he comments on Scarlett's paleness, and she reveals her pregnancy. Rhett sarcastically asks if the father is Ashley; Scarlett calls him a cad and says that no woman would want his baby, to which he replies, \"Cheer up, maybe you'll have a miscarriage.\"Part 5, chapter 56 She lunges at him but misses and tumbles down the stairs. She is seriously ill for the first time in her life, having lost the baby and broken her ribs. Rhett is remorseful and fears Scarlett will die. Sobbing and drunk, he seeks consolation from Melanie and confesses he acted out of jealousy. Scarlett goes to Tara with Wade and Ella to regain her strength and vitality.Part 5, chapter 57 She returns healthy to Atlanta and sells the mills to Ashley. Bonnie is four years old in 1873, and Atlanta society is charmed by Rhett's transformation into a doting father. Rhett buys Bonnie a Shetland pony, teaching her to ride sidesaddle and paying a trainer to teach the pony to jump. One day, Bonnie makes her father raise the bar to one\\-and\\-a\\-half feet. During the jump, she falls and dies of a broken neck.", "In the months following Bonnie's death, Rhett is often drunk and disheveled, while Scarlett, though equally bereaved, is more presentable. Melanie conceives a second child but loses the baby and soon dies due to complications. As she comforts the widowed Ashley, Scarlett realizes she stopped loving him long ago and perhaps never did. She is shocked to realize that she has always loved Rhett, and he has loved her in return. She returns home, brimming with her new love and determined to begin anew with him. She discovers him sitting in the library. In the wake of Melanie's death, Rhett has decided he wants to rediscover the calm Southern dignity he once knew in his youth and is leaving Atlanta to find it. Scarlett tries to persuade Rhett to either stay or take her with him, but he explains that while he once loved Scarlett, the years of hurt and neglect have killed that love. He says he may \"come back often enough to keep gossip down\" (since they have decided not to get a divorce), but in reply to Scarlett's plea of \"What shall I do?\" he replies, \"My dear, I don't give a damn.\", and walks out the front door. Amid her grief, Scarlett consoles herself with the knowledge that she still has Tara. She plans to return there with the certainty that she can recover and win Rhett back because \"tomorrow is another day.\"Part 5, chapter 63", "" ]
Plot elements ------------- ### Slavery [Slavery](/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States "Slavery in the United States") in *Gone with the Wind* is a backdrop to a story that is essentially about other things.Junius P. Rodriguez (2007\), *Slavery in the United States: a social, political and historical encyclopedia*. Santa Barbara: ABC\-CLIO, Vol. 2: p. 372\. {{ISBN\|978\-1\-85109\-549\-0}} Southern plantation fiction (also known as [Anti\-Tom literature](/wiki/Anti-Tom_literature "Anti-Tom literature"), in reference to reactions to [Harriet Beecher Stowe](/wiki/Harriet_Beecher_Stowe "Harriet Beecher Stowe")'s [anti\-slavery](/wiki/Abolitionism_in_the_United_States "Abolitionism in the United States") novel, *[Uncle Tom's Cabin](/wiki/Uncle_Tom%27s_Cabin "Uncle Tom's Cabin")* of 1852\) from the mid\-19th century, culminating in *Gone with the Wind*, is written from the perspective and values of an enslaver and tends to present slaves as docile and happy.Tim A. Ryan (2008\), *Calls and Responses: the American Novel of Slavery since Gone With the Wind*, Louisiana State University Press, p. 69\. {{ISBN\|978\-0\-8071\-3322\-4}}. #### Caste system The characters in the novel are organized into two basic groups along class lines: the white planter class, such as Scarlett and Ashley, and the black house servant class. The enslaved people depicted in *Gone with the Wind* are primarily loyal house servants, such as Mammy, Pork, Prissy, and Uncle Peter.Ryan (2008\), *Calls and Responses*, pp. 22–23\. House servants are the highest "[caste](/wiki/Caste "Caste")" of enslaved people in Mitchell's caste system. They choose to stay with their masters after the [Emancipation Proclamation](/wiki/Emancipation_Proclamation "Emancipation Proclamation") of 1863 and subsequent [Thirteenth Amendment](/wiki/Thirteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution "Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution") of 1865 sets them free. Scarlett thinks of the servants who stayed at Tara, "There were qualities of loyalty and tirelessness and love in them that no strain could break, no money could buy."Part 4, chapter 38 The [enslaved field workers](/wiki/Field_slaves_in_the_United_States "Field slaves in the United States") make up the lower class in Mitchell's caste system.Ryan (2008\), *Calls and Responses*, p. 23\. The enslaved field workers from the [Tara plantation](/wiki/Tara_%28plantation%29 "Tara (plantation)") and the foreman, Big Sam, are taken away by Confederate soldiers to dig ditches and never return to the plantation. Mitchell wrote that other enslaved field workers were "loyal" and "refused to avail themselves of the new freedom", but the novel has no enslaved field workers who stay on the plantation to work after emancipation. American [William Wells Brown](/wiki/William_Wells_Brown "William Wells Brown") escaped from slavery and published his memoir, or [slave narrative](/wiki/Slave_narrative "Slave narrative"), in 1847\. He wrote of the disparity in conditions between the house servant and the field hand: > During the time that Mr. Cook was overseer, I was a house servant{{snd}}a situation preferable to a field hand, as I was better fed, better clothed, and not obliged to rise at the ringing bell, but about a half\-hour after. I have often laid and heard the crack of the whip, and the screams of the slave.William Wells Brown (1847\), *Narrative of William W. Brown, Fugitive Slave*, Boston: Published at the Anti\-Slavery Office, No. 25 Cornhill, p. 15\. {{OCLC\|12705739}} #### Faithful and devoted slave {{quote box \|quote \= Way back in the dark days of the Early Sixties, regrettable tho it was{{snd}}men fought, bled, and died for the freedom of the negro{{snd}}her freedom!{{snd}}and she stood by and did her ''duty'' to the last ditch{{snd}} It was and is her life to ''serve'', and she has done it well. While shot and shell thundered to release the shackles of slavery from her body and her soul{{snd}}she loved, fought for, and ''protected''{{snd}}Us who held her in bondage, her "Marster" and her "Missus!" \|source \=—Excerpt from ''My Old Black Mammy'' by James W. Elliott, 1914\.James W. Elliott (1914\), ''My Old Black Mammy'', New York City: Published weekly by James W. Elliott, Inc. {{OCLC\|823454}} \|width \= 30% \|align \= right }} Although the novel is more than 1,000 pages long, the character of Mammy never considers what her life might be like away from Tara.Kimberly Wallace\-Sanders (2008\), *Mammy: a century of race and Southern memory*, University of Michigan Press, p. 130\. {{ISBN\|978\-0\-472\-11614\-0}} She recognizes her freedom to come and go as she pleases, saying, "Ah is free, Miss Scarlett. You kain sen' me nowhar Ah doan wanter go", but Mammy remains duty\-bound to "Miss Ellen's chile". (No other name for Mammy is given in the novel.) Eighteen years before the publication of *Gone with the Wind*, an article titled "The Old Black Mammy", written in the *[Confederate Veteran](/wiki/Confederate_Veteran "Confederate Veteran")* in 1918, discussed the romanticized view of the [mammy character](/wiki/Mammy_archetype_in_the_United_States "Mammy archetype in the United States") persisting in [Southern literature](/wiki/Southern_United_States_literature "Southern United States literature"): > for her faithfulness and devotion, she has been immortalized in the literature of the South; so the memory of her will never pass, but live on in the tales that are told of those "dear dead days beyond recall".["The Old Black Mammy"](http://www.oldmagazinearticles.com/pdf/Black_Mammy.pdf), (January 1918\) *Confederate Veteran*. Retrieved April 24, 2011\.["Love's Old, Sweet Song"](http://www.james-joyce-music.com/song06_lyrics.html), J.L. Molloy and G. Clifton Bingham, 1884\. Retrieved April 27, 2011\. [Micki McElya](/wiki/Micki_McElya "Micki McElya"), in her book *Clinging to Mammy*, suggests the myth of the faithful enslaved person, in the figure of Mammy, lingered because white Americans wished to live in a world in which African Americans were not angry over the injustice of slavery.Micki McElya (2007\), *Clinging to Mammy: the faithful slave in twentieth\-century America*, Harvard University Press, p. 3\. {{ISBN\|978\-0\-674\-02433\-5}} The best\-selling anti\-slavery novel, *Uncle Tom's Cabin* by Harriet Beecher Stowe, published in 1852, is mentioned briefly in *Gone with the Wind* as being accepted by the Yankees as "revelation second only to the Bible". The enduring interest of both *Uncle Tom's Cabin* and *Gone with the Wind* has resulted in lingering stereotypes of 19th\-century enslaved Black people.Flora, J.M., et al., *The Companion to Southern Literature: themes, genres, places, people, movements and motifs*, pp. 140–144\. *Gone with the Wind* has become a reference point for subsequent writers about the South, both black and white alike.Carolyn Perry and Mary Louise Weaks (2002\), *The History of Southern Women's Literature*, Louisiana State University Press, p. 261\. {{ISBN\|0\-8071\-2753\-1}} ### Southern belle {{quote box \|quote \= Young misses whut frowns an' pushes out dey chins an' says 'Ah will' an' 'Ah woan' mos' gener'ly doan ketch husbands. \|source \=—Mammy \|width \= 30% \|align \= right }} The [southern belle](/wiki/Southern_belle "Southern belle") is an [archetype](/wiki/Archetype "Archetype") for a young woman of the [antebellum American South](/wiki/Antebellum_South "Antebellum South") upper class. The southern belle was considered physically attractive but, more importantly, personally charming with sophisticated social skills. She is subject to the correct code of female behavior.Seidel, K.L., *The Southern Belle in the American Novel*, pp. 53–54 The novel's heroine, Scarlett O'Hara, charming though not beautiful, is a classic southern belle. For young Scarlett, her mother, Ellen O'Hara, represents the ideal southern belle. In "A Study in Scarlett", published in *The New Yorker*, [Claudia Roth Pierpont](/wiki/Claudia_Roth_Pierpont "Claudia Roth Pierpont") wrote: > The Southern belle was bred to conform to a subspecies of the nineteenth\-century "lady" ... For Scarlett, the ideal is embodied in her adored mother, the saintly Ellen, whose back is never seen to rest against the back of any chair on which she sits, whose broken spirit everywhere is mistaken for righteous calmPierpont, C.R., "A Critic at Large: A Study in Scarlett", p. 92\. However, Scarlett is not always willing to conform. Kathryn Lee Seidel, in her book, *The Southern Belle in the American Novel*, wrote: > part of her does try to rebel against the restraints of a code of behavior that relentlessly attempts to mold her into a form to which she is not naturally suited.Seidel, K.L., *The Southern Belle in the American Novel*, p. 54\. Scarlett, the figure of a pampered southern belle, lives through an extreme reversal of fortune and wealth and survives to rebuild Tara and her self\-esteem.Perry, C., et al., *The History of Southern Women's Literature*, pp. 259, 261\. Her bad belle traits (Scarlett's deceitfulness, shrewdness, manipulation, and superficiality), in contrast to Melanie's good belle traits (trust, self\-sacrifice, and loyalty), enable her to survive in the post\-war South and pursue her main interest, which is to make enough money to survive and prosper.Betina Entzminger (2002\), *The Belle Gone Bad: White Southern women writers and the dark seductress*, Louisiana State University Press, p. 106\. {{ISBN\|0\-8071\-2785\-X}} Although Scarlett was "born" around 1845, she is portrayed to appeal to modern\-day readers for her passionate and independent spirit, determination, and obstinate refusal to feel defeated.[Why we love – and hate – 'Gone with the Wind'](http://www.cnn.com/2014/12/15/showbiz/movies/gone-with-the-wind-75th-anniversary-love-hate/). Todd Leopold (December 31, 2014\) [CNN](/wiki/CNN "CNN"). Retrieved February 26, 2015\. #### Historical background Marriage was supposed to be the goal of all southern belles, as that of their husbands largely determined women's status. All social and educational pursuits were directed towards it. Despite the Civil War and the loss of a generation of eligible men, young ladies were still expected to marry.Giselle Roberts (2003\), *The Confederate Belle*, University of Missouri Press, pp. 87–88\. {{ISBN\|0\-8262\-1464\-9}} By law and Southern social convention, household heads were adult, white propertied males, and all white women and all African Americans were thought to require protection and guidance because they lacked the capacity for reason and self\-control.Laura F. Edwards (2000\), *Scarlett Doesn't Live Here Anymore: Southern Women and the Civil War Era*, University of Illinois Press, p. 3\. {{ISBN\|0\-252\-02568\-7}} The [Atlanta Historical Society](/wiki/Atlanta_History_Center "Atlanta History Center") has produced many *Gone with the Wind* exhibits, among them a 1994 exhibit titled "Disputed Territories: *Gone with the Wind* and Southern Myths". The exhibit asked, "Was Scarlett a Lady?", finding that historically most women of the period were not involved in business activities as Scarlett was during Reconstruction when she ran a sawmill. White women performed traditional jobs such as teaching and sewing and generally disliked work outside the home.Jennifer W. Dickey (2014\), *A Tough Little Patch of History: Gone with the Wind and the politics of memory*, University of Arkansas Press, p. 66\. {{ISBN\|978\-1\-55728\-657\-4}} During the Civil War, Southern women played a significant role as volunteer nurses in makeshift hospitals. Many were middle\- and upper\-class women who had never worked for wages or seen the inside of a hospital. One such nurse was Ada W. Bacot, a young widow who had lost two children. Bacot came from a wealthy [South Carolina](/wiki/South_Carolina "South Carolina") plantation family that enslaved 87 people.Ada W. Bacot and Jean V. Berlin (1994\), *A Confederate Nurse: The Diary of Ada W. Bacot, 1860–1863*, University of South Carolina Press, pp. ix–x, 1, 4\. {{ISBN\|1\-57003\-386\-2}} In the fall of 1862, Confederate laws were changed to permit women to be employed in hospitals as members of the Confederate Medical Department.Kate Cumming and Richard Barksdale Harwell (1959\), *Kate: The Journal of a Confederate Nurse*, Louisiana State University Press, p. xiii. {{ISBN\|978\-0\-8071\-2267\-9}} Twenty\-seven\-year\-old nurse [Kate Cumming](/wiki/Kate_Cumming "Kate Cumming") from Mobile, Alabama, described the primitive hospital conditions in her journal: > They are in the hall, on the gallery, and crowded into very small rooms. The foul air from this mass of human beings at first made me giddy and sick, but I soon got over it. We have to walk, and when we give the men any thing kneel, in blood and water; but we think nothing of it at all.Cumming, K., et al., *Kate: The Journal of a Confederate Nurse*, p. 15\. ### Battles [thumb\|260px\|Battle of Kennesaw Mountain, June 27, 1864\.](/wiki/File:Battle_of_Kenesaw_Mountian.png "Battle of Kenesaw Mountian.png") The Civil War ended on April 26, 1865, when [Joseph E. Johnston](/wiki/Joseph_E._Johnston "Joseph E. Johnston") surrendered his armies in the [Carolinas campaign](/wiki/Carolinas_campaign "Carolinas campaign") to U.S. Army General [William Tecumseh Sherman](/wiki/William_Tecumseh_Sherman "William Tecumseh Sherman"). Several battles are mentioned or depicted in Gone with the Wind. #### Early and mid war years * [Seven Days Battles](/wiki/Seven_Days_Battles "Seven Days Battles"), June 25 – July 1, 1862, Richmond, Virginia, a Confederate victory. * [Battle of Fredericksburg](/wiki/Battle_of_Fredericksburg "Battle of Fredericksburg"), December 11–15, 1862, Fredericksburg, Virginia, a Confederate victory.Part 2, chapter 14 * [Streight's Raid](/wiki/Streight%27s_Raid "Streight's Raid"), April 19 – May 3, 1863, in northern Alabama. U.S. Army Colonel [Abel Streight](/wiki/Abel_Streight "Abel Streight") and his men were captured by Confederate General [Nathan Bedford Forrest](/wiki/Nathan_Bedford_Forrest "Nathan Bedford Forrest"). * [Battle of Chancellorsville](/wiki/Battle_of_Chancellorsville "Battle of Chancellorsville"), April 30 – May 6, 1863, in Spotsylvania County, Virginia, near the village of Chancellorsville, Virginia, a Confederate victory. Ashley Wilkes is stationed on the Rapidan River, Virginia, in the winter of 1863,Part 2, chapter 15 later captured and sent to a U.S. Army prisoner\-of\-war camp, [Rock Island Arsenal](/wiki/Rock_Island_Arsenal "Rock Island Arsenal").Part 2, chapter 16 * [Siege of Vicksburg](/wiki/Siege_of_Vicksburg "Siege of Vicksburg"), May 18 – July 4, 1863, Vicksburg, Mississippi, a Union victory. * [Battle of Gettysburg](/wiki/Battle_of_Gettysburg "Battle of Gettysburg"), July 1–3, 1863, fought in and around Gettysburg, Pennsylvania, a Union victory. "They expected death. They did not expect defeat." * [Battle of Chickamauga](/wiki/Battle_of_Chickamauga "Battle of Chickamauga"), September 19–20, 1863, northwestern Georgia. The first fighting in Georgia and the most significant Union defeat. * [Chattanooga Campaign](/wiki/Chattanooga_Campaign "Chattanooga Campaign"), November–December 1863, Tennessee, a Union victory. The city became the supply and logistics base for Sherman's 1864 Atlanta Campaign. #### Atlanta Campaign [thumb\|Sherman's Atlanta Campaign](/wiki/File:Atlanta_campaign.svg "Atlanta campaign.svg") The [Atlanta Campaign](/wiki/Atlanta_campaign "Atlanta campaign") (May–September 1864\) took place in northwest Georgia and the area around Atlanta. Confederate General Johnston fights and retreats from [Dalton](/wiki/Battle_of_Rocky_Face_Ridge "Battle of Rocky Face Ridge") (May 7–13\) to [Resaca](/wiki/Battle_of_Resaca "Battle of Resaca") (May 13–15\) to [Kennesaw Mountain](/wiki/Battle_of_Kennesaw_Mountain "Battle of Kennesaw Mountain") (June 27\). Union General Sherman suffers heavy losses to the entrenched Confederate army. Unable to pass through Kennesaw, Sherman swings his men around to the [Chattahoochee River](/wiki/Skirmish_at_Pace%27s_Ferry "Skirmish at Pace's Ferry"), where the Confederate army is waiting on the opposite side of the river. Once again, General Sherman flanks the Confederate army, forcing Johnston to retreat to [Peachtree Creek](/wiki/Battle_of_Peachtree_Creek "Battle of Peachtree Creek") (July 20\), five miles northeast of Atlanta. * [Battle of Atlanta](/wiki/Battle_of_Atlanta "Battle of Atlanta"), July 22, 1864, just southeast of Atlanta. The city would not fall until September 2, 1864—heavy losses for Confederate [John Bell Hood](/wiki/John_Bell_Hood "John Bell Hood"). * [Battle of Ezra Church](/wiki/Battle_of_Ezra_Church "Battle of Ezra Church"), July 28, 1864, Sherman's failed attack west of Atlanta where the railroad entered the city. * [Battle of Utoy Creek](/wiki/Battle_of_Utoy_Creek "Battle of Utoy Creek"), August 5–7, 1864, Sherman's failed attempt to break the railroad line at [East Point](/wiki/East_Point%2C_Georgia "East Point, Georgia"), into Atlanta from the west, heavy Union losses. * [Battle of Jonesborough](/wiki/Battle_of_Jonesborough "Battle of Jonesborough"), August 31 – September 1, 1864, Sherman successfully cut the railroad lines from the south into Atlanta. The city of Atlanta was abandoned by General Hood and then occupied by Union troops for the rest of the war. #### March to the Sea [Sherman's March to the Sea](/wiki/Sherman%27s_March_to_the_Sea "Sherman's March to the Sea") was conducted in Georgia during November and December 1864\. #### President Lincoln's murder Although [Abraham Lincoln](/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln "Abraham Lincoln") is mentioned in the novel 14 times, no reference is made to his [assassination](/wiki/Assassination_of_Abraham_Lincoln "Assassination of Abraham Lincoln") on April 14, 1865\. ### Manhood {{quote box \|quote \= Somebody's darling! so young and so brave! Wearing still on his pale, sweet face{{snd}} Soon to be hid by the dust of the grave{{snd}} The lingering light of his boyhood's grace! \|source \=—''Somebody's Darling'' by Marie La Coste, of Georgia.Henry Marvin Wharton (1904\), ''War Songs and Poems of the Southern Confederacy, 1861–1865'', Philadelphia: The John C. Winston Co., p. 188\. {{OCLC\|9348166}} \|width \= 35% \|align \= right }} Ashley Wilkes is the beau ideal of Southern manhood in Scarlett's eyes. A [planter](/wiki/Planter_class "Planter class") by inheritance, Ashley knew the Confederate cause had died.Daniel E. Sutherland (1988\), *The Confederate Carpetbaggers*, Louisiana State University Press, p. 4\. However, Ashley's name signifies paleness. His "pallid skin literalizes the idea of Confederate death".Elizabeth Young, (1999\) *Disarming the Nation: Women's Writing and the American Civil War*, University of Chicago Press, p. 254\. {{ISBN\|0\-226\-96087\-0}} Ashley contemplates leaving Georgia for New York City. Had he gone North, he would have joined numerous other ex\-Confederate transplants there. Ashley, embittered by war, tells Scarlett he has been "in a state of suspended animation" since the surrender. He feels he is not "shouldering a man's burden" at Tara and believes he is "much less than a man{{snd}}much less, indeed, than a woman". A "young girl's dream of the Perfect Knight", Ashley is like a young girl himself.Young, E., *Disarming the Nation: women's writing and the American Civil War*, p. 252 With his "poet's eye",[William Shakespeare](/wiki/William_Shakespeare "William Shakespeare"), *[A Midsummer Night's Dream](/wiki/A_Midsummer_Night%27s_Dream "A Midsummer Night's Dream")*, Act 5, Scene 1: The poet's eye, in fine frenzy rolling, Doth glance from heaven to Earth, from Earth to heaven. Ashley has a "feminine sensitivity".Anne Goodwyn Jones (1981\), *Tomorrow Is Another Day: The woman writer in the South 1859–1936*, Baton Rouge: University of Louisiana Press, pp. 354–355\. {{ISBN\|0\-8071\-0776\-X}} Scarlett is angered by the "slur of effeminacy flung at Ashley" when her father tells her the Wilkes family was "born queer". (Mitchell's use of the word "queer" is for its sexual connotation because [queer](/wiki/Queer "Queer"), in the 1930s, was associated with homosexuality.)Young, E., *Disarming the Nation: women's writing and the American Civil War*, p. 253\. Ashley's effeminacy is associated with his appearance, his lack of forcefulness, and sexual impotence.Jones, A.G., *Tomorrow is Another Day: the woman writer in the South 1859–1936*, p. 355\. He rides, plays poker, and drinks like "proper men", but his heart is not in it, Gerald claims.Darden Asbury Pyron (1991\), *Southern Daughter: the life of Margaret Mitchell*, New York: Oxford University Press, p. 320\. {{ISBN\|978\-0\-19\-505276\-3}} The embodiment of castration, Ashley wears the head of [Medusa](/wiki/Medusa "Medusa") on his [cravat](/wiki/Cravat_%28early%29 "Cravat (early)") pin. Scarlett's love interest, Ashley Wilkes, lacks manliness, and her husbands{{snd}}the "calf\-like" Charles Hamilton, and the "old\-maid in britches", Frank Kennedy{{snd}}are unmanly as well. Mitchell is critiquing masculinity in southern society since Reconstruction.Craig Thompson Friend, (2009\) *Southern Masculinity: Perspectives on Manhood in the South since Reconstruction*, University of Georgia Press, p. xviii. {{ISBN\|978\-0\-8203\-3674\-9}} Even Rhett Butler, the well\-groomed dandy,Part 4, chapter 33 is effeminate or "gay\-coded".Lutz, D., *The Dangerous Lover: Villains, Byronism, and the Nineteenth\-century Seduction Narrative*, p. 84\. Charles, Frank, and Ashley represent the impotence of the post\-war white South. Its power and influence have been diminished. ### Scallawag The word "scallawag" is defined as a loafer, a vagabond, or a rogue.John S. Farmer (1889\), *Farmer's Dictionary of Americanisms*, Thomas Poulter \& Sons, p. 473\. {{OCLC\|702331118}} [Scallawag](/wiki/Scalawag "Scalawag") had a special meaning after the Civil War as an epithet for a white Southerner who accepted and supported Republican reforms.Leslie Dunkling (1990\), *A Dictionary of Epithets and Terms of Address*, London; New York: Routledge, p. 216\. {{ISBN\|0\-415\-00761\-5}} Mitchell defines scallawags as "Southerners who had turned Republican very profitably."Part 4, chapter 31 Rhett Butler is accused of being a "damned Scallawag".Part 4, chapters 37 \& 46 In addition to scallawags, Mitchell portrays other types of scoundrels in the novel: Yankees, [carpetbaggers](/wiki/Carpetbagger "Carpetbagger"), Republicans, prostitutes, and overseers. In the early years of the Civil War, Rhett is called a "scoundrel" for his "selfish gains" profiteering as a blockade\-runner. As a scallawag, Rhett is despised. He is the "dark, mysterious, and slightly malevolent hero loose in the world".Numan V. Bartley (1988\), *The Evolution of Southern Culture*, University of Georgia Press, p. 99\. {{ISBN\|0\-8203\-0993\-1}} Literary scholars have identified elements of Mitchell's first husband, Berrien "Red" Upshaw, in the character of Rhett. Another sees the image of Italian actor [Rudolph Valentino](/wiki/Rudolph_Valentino "Rudolph Valentino"), whom Margaret Mitchell interviewed as a young reporter for *The Atlanta Journal*.Margaret Mitchell and Patrick Allen (2000\), *Margaret Mitchell: Reporter*, Athens: Hill Street Press, pp. 152–154\. {{ISBN\|978\-1\-57003\-937\-9}}Young, E., *Disarming the Nation: women's writing and the American Civil War*, p. 259\. Fictional hero Rhett Butler has a "swarthy face, flashing teeth and dark alert eyes".Part 5, chapter 62 He is a "scamp, blackguard, without scruple or honor".
[ "Plot elements\n-------------", "### Slavery", "[Slavery](/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States \"Slavery in the United States\") in *Gone with the Wind* is a backdrop to a story that is essentially about other things.Junius P. Rodriguez (2007\\), *Slavery in the United States: a social, political and historical encyclopedia*. Santa Barbara: ABC\\-CLIO, Vol. 2: p. 372\\. {{ISBN\\|978\\-1\\-85109\\-549\\-0}} Southern plantation fiction (also known as [Anti\\-Tom literature](/wiki/Anti-Tom_literature \"Anti-Tom literature\"), in reference to reactions to [Harriet Beecher Stowe](/wiki/Harriet_Beecher_Stowe \"Harriet Beecher Stowe\")'s [anti\\-slavery](/wiki/Abolitionism_in_the_United_States \"Abolitionism in the United States\") novel, *[Uncle Tom's Cabin](/wiki/Uncle_Tom%27s_Cabin \"Uncle Tom's Cabin\")* of 1852\\) from the mid\\-19th century, culminating in *Gone with the Wind*, is written from the perspective and values of an enslaver and tends to present slaves as docile and happy.Tim A. Ryan (2008\\), *Calls and Responses: the American Novel of Slavery since Gone With the Wind*, Louisiana State University Press, p. 69\\. {{ISBN\\|978\\-0\\-8071\\-3322\\-4}}.", "#### Caste system", "The characters in the novel are organized into two basic groups along class lines: the white planter class, such as Scarlett and Ashley, and the black house servant class. The enslaved people depicted in *Gone with the Wind* are primarily loyal house servants, such as Mammy, Pork, Prissy, and Uncle Peter.Ryan (2008\\), *Calls and Responses*, pp. 22–23\\. House servants are the highest \"[caste](/wiki/Caste \"Caste\")\" of enslaved people in Mitchell's caste system. They choose to stay with their masters after the [Emancipation Proclamation](/wiki/Emancipation_Proclamation \"Emancipation Proclamation\") of 1863 and subsequent [Thirteenth Amendment](/wiki/Thirteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution \"Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution\") of 1865 sets them free. Scarlett thinks of the servants who stayed at Tara, \"There were qualities of loyalty and tirelessness and love in them that no strain could break, no money could buy.\"Part 4, chapter 38", "The [enslaved field workers](/wiki/Field_slaves_in_the_United_States \"Field slaves in the United States\") make up the lower class in Mitchell's caste system.Ryan (2008\\), *Calls and Responses*, p. 23\\. The enslaved field workers from the [Tara plantation](/wiki/Tara_%28plantation%29 \"Tara (plantation)\") and the foreman, Big Sam, are taken away by Confederate soldiers to dig ditches and never return to the plantation. Mitchell wrote that other enslaved field workers were \"loyal\" and \"refused to avail themselves of the new freedom\", but the novel has no enslaved field workers who stay on the plantation to work after emancipation.", "American [William Wells Brown](/wiki/William_Wells_Brown \"William Wells Brown\") escaped from slavery and published his memoir, or [slave narrative](/wiki/Slave_narrative \"Slave narrative\"), in 1847\\. He wrote of the disparity in conditions between the house servant and the field hand:", "", "> During the time that Mr. Cook was overseer, I was a house servant{{snd}}a situation preferable to a field hand, as I was better fed, better clothed, and not obliged to rise at the ringing bell, but about a half\\-hour after. I have often laid and heard the crack of the whip, and the screams of the slave.William Wells Brown (1847\\), *Narrative of William W. Brown, Fugitive Slave*, Boston: Published at the Anti\\-Slavery Office, No. 25 Cornhill, p. 15\\. {{OCLC\\|12705739}}", "#### Faithful and devoted slave", "{{quote box\n \\|quote \\= Way back in the dark days of the Early Sixties, regrettable tho it was{{snd}}men fought, bled, and died for the freedom of the negro{{snd}}her freedom!{{snd}}and she stood by and did her ''duty'' to the last ditch{{snd}}", "It was and is her life to ''serve'', and she has done it well.", "While shot and shell thundered to release the shackles of slavery from her body and her soul{{snd}}she loved, fought for, and ''protected''{{snd}}Us who held her in bondage, her \"Marster\" and her \"Missus!\"\n\\|source \\=—Excerpt from ''My Old Black Mammy'' by James W. Elliott, 1914\\.James W. Elliott (1914\\), ''My Old Black Mammy'', New York City: Published weekly by James W. Elliott, Inc. {{OCLC\\|823454}}\n\\|width \\= 30%\n\\|align \\= right\n}}", "Although the novel is more than 1,000 pages long, the character of Mammy never considers what her life might be like away from Tara.Kimberly Wallace\\-Sanders (2008\\), *Mammy: a century of race and Southern memory*, University of Michigan Press, p. 130\\. {{ISBN\\|978\\-0\\-472\\-11614\\-0}} She recognizes her freedom to come and go as she pleases, saying, \"Ah is free, Miss Scarlett. You kain sen' me nowhar Ah doan wanter go\", but Mammy remains duty\\-bound to \"Miss Ellen's chile\". (No other name for Mammy is given in the novel.)", "Eighteen years before the publication of *Gone with the Wind*, an article titled \"The Old Black Mammy\", written in the *[Confederate Veteran](/wiki/Confederate_Veteran \"Confederate Veteran\")* in 1918, discussed the romanticized view of the [mammy character](/wiki/Mammy_archetype_in_the_United_States \"Mammy archetype in the United States\") persisting in [Southern literature](/wiki/Southern_United_States_literature \"Southern United States literature\"):", "", "> for her faithfulness and devotion, she has been immortalized in the literature of the South; so the memory of her will never pass, but live on in the tales that are told of those \"dear dead days beyond recall\".[\"The Old Black Mammy\"](http://www.oldmagazinearticles.com/pdf/Black_Mammy.pdf), (January 1918\\) *Confederate Veteran*. Retrieved April 24, 2011\\.[\"Love's Old, Sweet Song\"](http://www.james-joyce-music.com/song06_lyrics.html), J.L. Molloy and G. Clifton Bingham, 1884\\. Retrieved April 27, 2011\\.", "[Micki McElya](/wiki/Micki_McElya \"Micki McElya\"), in her book *Clinging to Mammy*, suggests the myth of the faithful enslaved person, in the figure of Mammy, lingered because white Americans wished to live in a world in which African Americans were not angry over the injustice of slavery.Micki McElya (2007\\), *Clinging to Mammy: the faithful slave in twentieth\\-century America*, Harvard University Press, p. 3\\. {{ISBN\\|978\\-0\\-674\\-02433\\-5}}", "The best\\-selling anti\\-slavery novel, *Uncle Tom's Cabin* by Harriet Beecher Stowe, published in 1852, is mentioned briefly in *Gone with the Wind* as being accepted by the Yankees as \"revelation second only to the Bible\". The enduring interest of both *Uncle Tom's Cabin* and *Gone with the Wind* has resulted in lingering stereotypes of 19th\\-century enslaved Black people.Flora, J.M., et al., *The Companion to Southern Literature: themes, genres, places, people, movements and motifs*, pp. 140–144\\. *Gone with the Wind* has become a reference point for subsequent writers about the South, both black and white alike.Carolyn Perry and Mary Louise Weaks (2002\\), *The History of Southern Women's Literature*, Louisiana State University Press, p. 261\\. {{ISBN\\|0\\-8071\\-2753\\-1}}", "### Southern belle", "{{quote box\n\\|quote \\= Young misses whut frowns an' pushes out dey chins an' says 'Ah will' an' 'Ah woan' mos' gener'ly doan ketch husbands.\n\\|source \\=—Mammy\n\\|width \\= 30%\n\\|align \\= right\n}}", "The [southern belle](/wiki/Southern_belle \"Southern belle\") is an [archetype](/wiki/Archetype \"Archetype\") for a young woman of the [antebellum American South](/wiki/Antebellum_South \"Antebellum South\") upper class. The southern belle was considered physically attractive but, more importantly, personally charming with sophisticated social skills. She is subject to the correct code of female behavior.Seidel, K.L., *The Southern Belle in the American Novel*, pp. 53–54 The novel's heroine, Scarlett O'Hara, charming though not beautiful, is a classic southern belle.", "For young Scarlett, her mother, Ellen O'Hara, represents the ideal southern belle. In \"A Study in Scarlett\", published in *The New Yorker*, [Claudia Roth Pierpont](/wiki/Claudia_Roth_Pierpont \"Claudia Roth Pierpont\") wrote:", "", "> The Southern belle was bred to conform to a subspecies of the nineteenth\\-century \"lady\" ... For Scarlett, the ideal is embodied in her adored mother, the saintly Ellen, whose back is never seen to rest against the back of any chair on which she sits, whose broken spirit everywhere is mistaken for righteous calmPierpont, C.R., \"A Critic at Large: A Study in Scarlett\", p. 92\\.", "However, Scarlett is not always willing to conform. Kathryn Lee Seidel, in her book, *The Southern Belle in the American Novel*, wrote:", "", "> part of her does try to rebel against the restraints of a code of behavior that relentlessly attempts to mold her into a form to which she is not naturally suited.Seidel, K.L., *The Southern Belle in the American Novel*, p. 54\\.", "Scarlett, the figure of a pampered southern belle, lives through an extreme reversal of fortune and wealth and survives to rebuild Tara and her self\\-esteem.Perry, C., et al., *The History of Southern Women's Literature*, pp. 259, 261\\. Her bad belle traits (Scarlett's deceitfulness, shrewdness, manipulation, and superficiality), in contrast to Melanie's good belle traits (trust, self\\-sacrifice, and loyalty), enable her to survive in the post\\-war South and pursue her main interest, which is to make enough money to survive and prosper.Betina Entzminger (2002\\), *The Belle Gone Bad: White Southern women writers and the dark seductress*, Louisiana State University Press, p. 106\\. {{ISBN\\|0\\-8071\\-2785\\-X}} Although Scarlett was \"born\" around 1845, she is portrayed to appeal to modern\\-day readers for her passionate and independent spirit, determination, and obstinate refusal to feel defeated.[Why we love – and hate – 'Gone with the Wind'](http://www.cnn.com/2014/12/15/showbiz/movies/gone-with-the-wind-75th-anniversary-love-hate/). Todd Leopold (December 31, 2014\\) [CNN](/wiki/CNN \"CNN\"). Retrieved February 26, 2015\\.", "#### Historical background", "Marriage was supposed to be the goal of all southern belles, as that of their husbands largely determined women's status. All social and educational pursuits were directed towards it. Despite the Civil War and the loss of a generation of eligible men, young ladies were still expected to marry.Giselle Roberts (2003\\), *The Confederate Belle*, University of Missouri Press, pp. 87–88\\. {{ISBN\\|0\\-8262\\-1464\\-9}} By law and Southern social convention, household heads were adult, white propertied males, and all white women and all African Americans were thought to require protection and guidance because they lacked the capacity for reason and self\\-control.Laura F. Edwards (2000\\), *Scarlett Doesn't Live Here Anymore: Southern Women and the Civil War Era*, University of Illinois Press, p. 3\\. {{ISBN\\|0\\-252\\-02568\\-7}}", "The [Atlanta Historical Society](/wiki/Atlanta_History_Center \"Atlanta History Center\") has produced many *Gone with the Wind* exhibits, among them a 1994 exhibit titled \"Disputed Territories: *Gone with the Wind* and Southern Myths\". The exhibit asked, \"Was Scarlett a Lady?\", finding that historically most women of the period were not involved in business activities as Scarlett was during Reconstruction when she ran a sawmill. White women performed traditional jobs such as teaching and sewing and generally disliked work outside the home.Jennifer W. Dickey (2014\\), *A Tough Little Patch of History: Gone with the Wind and the politics of memory*, University of Arkansas Press, p. 66\\. {{ISBN\\|978\\-1\\-55728\\-657\\-4}}", "During the Civil War, Southern women played a significant role as volunteer nurses in makeshift hospitals. Many were middle\\- and upper\\-class women who had never worked for wages or seen the inside of a hospital. One such nurse was Ada W. Bacot, a young widow who had lost two children. Bacot came from a wealthy [South Carolina](/wiki/South_Carolina \"South Carolina\") plantation family that enslaved 87 people.Ada W. Bacot and Jean V. Berlin (1994\\), *A Confederate Nurse: The Diary of Ada W. Bacot, 1860–1863*, University of South Carolina Press, pp. ix–x, 1, 4\\. {{ISBN\\|1\\-57003\\-386\\-2}}", "In the fall of 1862, Confederate laws were changed to permit women to be employed in hospitals as members of the Confederate Medical Department.Kate Cumming and Richard Barksdale Harwell (1959\\), *Kate: The Journal of a Confederate Nurse*, Louisiana State University Press, p. xiii. {{ISBN\\|978\\-0\\-8071\\-2267\\-9}} Twenty\\-seven\\-year\\-old nurse [Kate Cumming](/wiki/Kate_Cumming \"Kate Cumming\") from Mobile, Alabama, described the primitive hospital conditions in her journal:", "", "> They are in the hall, on the gallery, and crowded into very small rooms. The foul air from this mass of human beings at first made me giddy and sick, but I soon got over it. We have to walk, and when we give the men any thing kneel, in blood and water; but we think nothing of it at all.Cumming, K., et al., *Kate: The Journal of a Confederate Nurse*, p. 15\\.", "### Battles", "[thumb\\|260px\\|Battle of Kennesaw Mountain, June 27, 1864\\.](/wiki/File:Battle_of_Kenesaw_Mountian.png \"Battle of Kenesaw Mountian.png\")\nThe Civil War ended on April 26, 1865, when [Joseph E. Johnston](/wiki/Joseph_E._Johnston \"Joseph E. Johnston\") surrendered his armies in the [Carolinas campaign](/wiki/Carolinas_campaign \"Carolinas campaign\") to U.S. Army General [William Tecumseh Sherman](/wiki/William_Tecumseh_Sherman \"William Tecumseh Sherman\"). Several battles are mentioned or depicted in Gone with the Wind.", "#### Early and mid war years", "* [Seven Days Battles](/wiki/Seven_Days_Battles \"Seven Days Battles\"), June 25 – July 1, 1862, Richmond, Virginia, a Confederate victory.\n* [Battle of Fredericksburg](/wiki/Battle_of_Fredericksburg \"Battle of Fredericksburg\"), December 11–15, 1862, Fredericksburg, Virginia, a Confederate victory.Part 2, chapter 14\n* [Streight's Raid](/wiki/Streight%27s_Raid \"Streight's Raid\"), April 19 – May 3, 1863, in northern Alabama. U.S. Army Colonel [Abel Streight](/wiki/Abel_Streight \"Abel Streight\") and his men were captured by Confederate General [Nathan Bedford Forrest](/wiki/Nathan_Bedford_Forrest \"Nathan Bedford Forrest\").\n* [Battle of Chancellorsville](/wiki/Battle_of_Chancellorsville \"Battle of Chancellorsville\"), April 30 – May 6, 1863, in Spotsylvania County, Virginia, near the village of Chancellorsville, Virginia, a Confederate victory.", "Ashley Wilkes is stationed on the Rapidan River, Virginia, in the winter of 1863,Part 2, chapter 15 later captured and sent to a U.S. Army prisoner\\-of\\-war camp, [Rock Island Arsenal](/wiki/Rock_Island_Arsenal \"Rock Island Arsenal\").Part 2, chapter 16\n* [Siege of Vicksburg](/wiki/Siege_of_Vicksburg \"Siege of Vicksburg\"), May 18 – July 4, 1863, Vicksburg, Mississippi, a Union victory.\n* [Battle of Gettysburg](/wiki/Battle_of_Gettysburg \"Battle of Gettysburg\"), July 1–3, 1863, fought in and around Gettysburg, Pennsylvania, a Union victory. \"They expected death. They did not expect defeat.\"\n* [Battle of Chickamauga](/wiki/Battle_of_Chickamauga \"Battle of Chickamauga\"), September 19–20, 1863, northwestern Georgia. The first fighting in Georgia and the most significant Union defeat.\n* [Chattanooga Campaign](/wiki/Chattanooga_Campaign \"Chattanooga Campaign\"), November–December 1863, Tennessee, a Union victory. The city became the supply and logistics base for Sherman's 1864 Atlanta Campaign.", "#### Atlanta Campaign", "[thumb\\|Sherman's Atlanta Campaign](/wiki/File:Atlanta_campaign.svg \"Atlanta campaign.svg\")\nThe [Atlanta Campaign](/wiki/Atlanta_campaign \"Atlanta campaign\") (May–September 1864\\) took place in northwest Georgia and the area around Atlanta.", "Confederate General Johnston fights and retreats from [Dalton](/wiki/Battle_of_Rocky_Face_Ridge \"Battle of Rocky Face Ridge\") (May 7–13\\) to [Resaca](/wiki/Battle_of_Resaca \"Battle of Resaca\") (May 13–15\\) to [Kennesaw Mountain](/wiki/Battle_of_Kennesaw_Mountain \"Battle of Kennesaw Mountain\") (June 27\\). Union General Sherman suffers heavy losses to the entrenched Confederate army. Unable to pass through Kennesaw, Sherman swings his men around to the [Chattahoochee River](/wiki/Skirmish_at_Pace%27s_Ferry \"Skirmish at Pace's Ferry\"), where the Confederate army is waiting on the opposite side of the river. Once again, General Sherman flanks the Confederate army, forcing Johnston to retreat to [Peachtree Creek](/wiki/Battle_of_Peachtree_Creek \"Battle of Peachtree Creek\") (July 20\\), five miles northeast of Atlanta.", "* [Battle of Atlanta](/wiki/Battle_of_Atlanta \"Battle of Atlanta\"), July 22, 1864, just southeast of Atlanta. The city would not fall until September 2, 1864—heavy losses for Confederate [John Bell Hood](/wiki/John_Bell_Hood \"John Bell Hood\").\n* [Battle of Ezra Church](/wiki/Battle_of_Ezra_Church \"Battle of Ezra Church\"), July 28, 1864, Sherman's failed attack west of Atlanta where the railroad entered the city.\n* [Battle of Utoy Creek](/wiki/Battle_of_Utoy_Creek \"Battle of Utoy Creek\"), August 5–7, 1864, Sherman's failed attempt to break the railroad line at [East Point](/wiki/East_Point%2C_Georgia \"East Point, Georgia\"), into Atlanta from the west, heavy Union losses.\n* [Battle of Jonesborough](/wiki/Battle_of_Jonesborough \"Battle of Jonesborough\"), August 31 – September 1, 1864, Sherman successfully cut the railroad lines from the south into Atlanta. The city of Atlanta was abandoned by General Hood and then occupied by Union troops for the rest of the war.", "#### March to the Sea", "[Sherman's March to the Sea](/wiki/Sherman%27s_March_to_the_Sea \"Sherman's March to the Sea\") was conducted in Georgia during November and December 1864\\.", "#### President Lincoln's murder", "Although [Abraham Lincoln](/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln \"Abraham Lincoln\") is mentioned in the novel 14 times, no reference is made to his [assassination](/wiki/Assassination_of_Abraham_Lincoln \"Assassination of Abraham Lincoln\") on April 14, 1865\\.", "### Manhood", "{{quote box\n\\|quote \\= Somebody's darling! so young and so brave!\nWearing still on his pale, sweet face{{snd}}\nSoon to be hid by the dust of the grave{{snd}}\nThe lingering light of his boyhood's grace!\n\\|source \\=—''Somebody's Darling'' by Marie La Coste, of Georgia.Henry Marvin Wharton (1904\\), ''War Songs and Poems of the Southern Confederacy, 1861–1865'', Philadelphia: The John C. Winston Co., p. 188\\. {{OCLC\\|9348166}} \n\\|width \\= 35%\n\\|align \\= right\n}}", "Ashley Wilkes is the beau ideal of Southern manhood in Scarlett's eyes. A [planter](/wiki/Planter_class \"Planter class\") by inheritance, Ashley knew the Confederate cause had died.Daniel E. Sutherland (1988\\), *The Confederate Carpetbaggers*, Louisiana State University Press, p. 4\\. However, Ashley's name signifies paleness. His \"pallid skin literalizes the idea of Confederate death\".Elizabeth Young, (1999\\) *Disarming the Nation: Women's Writing and the American Civil War*, University of Chicago Press, p. 254\\. {{ISBN\\|0\\-226\\-96087\\-0}}", "Ashley contemplates leaving Georgia for New York City. Had he gone North, he would have joined numerous other ex\\-Confederate transplants there. Ashley, embittered by war, tells Scarlett he has been \"in a state of suspended animation\" since the surrender. He feels he is not \"shouldering a man's burden\" at Tara and believes he is \"much less than a man{{snd}}much less, indeed, than a woman\".", "A \"young girl's dream of the Perfect Knight\", Ashley is like a young girl himself.Young, E., *Disarming the Nation: women's writing and the American Civil War*, p. 252 With his \"poet's eye\",[William Shakespeare](/wiki/William_Shakespeare \"William Shakespeare\"), *[A Midsummer Night's Dream](/wiki/A_Midsummer_Night%27s_Dream \"A Midsummer Night's Dream\")*, Act 5, Scene 1: The poet's eye, in fine frenzy rolling, Doth glance from heaven to Earth, from Earth to heaven. Ashley has a \"feminine sensitivity\".Anne Goodwyn Jones (1981\\), *Tomorrow Is Another Day: The woman writer in the South 1859–1936*, Baton Rouge: University of Louisiana Press, pp. 354–355\\. {{ISBN\\|0\\-8071\\-0776\\-X}} Scarlett is angered by the \"slur of effeminacy flung at Ashley\" when her father tells her the Wilkes family was \"born queer\". (Mitchell's use of the word \"queer\" is for its sexual connotation because [queer](/wiki/Queer \"Queer\"), in the 1930s, was associated with homosexuality.)Young, E., *Disarming the Nation: women's writing and the American Civil War*, p. 253\\. Ashley's effeminacy is associated with his appearance, his lack of forcefulness, and sexual impotence.Jones, A.G., *Tomorrow is Another Day: the woman writer in the South 1859–1936*, p. 355\\. He rides, plays poker, and drinks like \"proper men\", but his heart is not in it, Gerald claims.Darden Asbury Pyron (1991\\), *Southern Daughter: the life of Margaret Mitchell*, New York: Oxford University Press, p. 320\\. {{ISBN\\|978\\-0\\-19\\-505276\\-3}} The embodiment of castration, Ashley wears the head of [Medusa](/wiki/Medusa \"Medusa\") on his [cravat](/wiki/Cravat_%28early%29 \"Cravat (early)\") pin.", "Scarlett's love interest, Ashley Wilkes, lacks manliness, and her husbands{{snd}}the \"calf\\-like\" Charles Hamilton, and the \"old\\-maid in britches\", Frank Kennedy{{snd}}are unmanly as well. Mitchell is critiquing masculinity in southern society since Reconstruction.Craig Thompson Friend, (2009\\) *Southern Masculinity: Perspectives on Manhood in the South since Reconstruction*, University of Georgia Press, p. xviii. {{ISBN\\|978\\-0\\-8203\\-3674\\-9}} Even Rhett Butler, the well\\-groomed dandy,Part 4, chapter 33 is effeminate or \"gay\\-coded\".Lutz, D., *The Dangerous Lover: Villains, Byronism, and the Nineteenth\\-century Seduction Narrative*, p. 84\\. Charles, Frank, and Ashley represent the impotence of the post\\-war white South. Its power and influence have been diminished.", "### Scallawag", "The word \"scallawag\" is defined as a loafer, a vagabond, or a rogue.John S. Farmer (1889\\), *Farmer's Dictionary of Americanisms*, Thomas Poulter \\& Sons, p. 473\\. {{OCLC\\|702331118}} [Scallawag](/wiki/Scalawag \"Scalawag\") had a special meaning after the Civil War as an epithet for a white Southerner who accepted and supported Republican reforms.Leslie Dunkling (1990\\), *A Dictionary of Epithets and Terms of Address*, London; New York: Routledge, p. 216\\. {{ISBN\\|0\\-415\\-00761\\-5}} Mitchell defines scallawags as \"Southerners who had turned Republican very profitably.\"Part 4, chapter 31 Rhett Butler is accused of being a \"damned Scallawag\".Part 4, chapters 37 \\& 46 In addition to scallawags, Mitchell portrays other types of scoundrels in the novel: Yankees, [carpetbaggers](/wiki/Carpetbagger \"Carpetbagger\"), Republicans, prostitutes, and overseers. In the early years of the Civil War, Rhett is called a \"scoundrel\" for his \"selfish gains\" profiteering as a blockade\\-runner.", "As a scallawag, Rhett is despised. He is the \"dark, mysterious, and slightly malevolent hero loose in the world\".Numan V. Bartley (1988\\), *The Evolution of Southern Culture*, University of Georgia Press, p. 99\\. {{ISBN\\|0\\-8203\\-0993\\-1}} Literary scholars have identified elements of Mitchell's first husband, Berrien \"Red\" Upshaw, in the character of Rhett. Another sees the image of Italian actor [Rudolph Valentino](/wiki/Rudolph_Valentino \"Rudolph Valentino\"), whom Margaret Mitchell interviewed as a young reporter for *The Atlanta Journal*.Margaret Mitchell and Patrick Allen (2000\\), *Margaret Mitchell: Reporter*, Athens: Hill Street Press, pp. 152–154\\. {{ISBN\\|978\\-1\\-57003\\-937\\-9}}Young, E., *Disarming the Nation: women's writing and the American Civil War*, p. 259\\. Fictional hero Rhett Butler has a \"swarthy face, flashing teeth and dark alert eyes\".Part 5, chapter 62 He is a \"scamp, blackguard, without scruple or honor\".", "" ]
Critical reception ------------------ ### Reviews The sales of Margaret Mitchell's novel in the summer of 1936, as the nation was recovering from the [Great Depression](/wiki/Great_Depression_in_the_United_States "Great Depression in the United States") and at the virtually unprecedented price of three dollars, reached about 1 million by the end of December. The book was a bestseller when reviews began appearing in national magazines. Herschel Brickell, a critic for the *New York Evening Post*, lauded Mitchell for the way she "tosses out the window all the thousands of technical tricks our novelists have been playing with for the past twenty years."Pierpont, C.R., *A Critic at Large: A Study in Scarlett*, p. 88\. Ralph Thompson, a book reviewer for *The New York Times*, was critical of the length of the novel and wrote in June 1936: > I happen to feel that the book would have been infinitely better had it been edited down to say, 500 pages, but there speaks the harassed daily reviewer as well as the would\-be judicious critic. Very nearly every reader will agree, no doubt, that a more disciplined and less prodigal piece of work would have more nearly done justice to the subject\-matter.["Books of the Times: *Gone With the Wind* by Margaret Mitchell"](http://xroads.virginia.edu/~1930s/print/ababgwtw/Mitchrev.html) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110604232010/http://xroads.virginia.edu/\~1930s/PRINT/ababgwtw/Mitchrev.html \|date\=June 4, 2011 }}, Ralph Thompson, (June 30, 1936\) *The New York Times*. Retrieved May 13, 2011\. Some reviewers compared the book to [William Thackeray](/wiki/William_Makepeace_Thackeray "William Makepeace Thackeray")'s *[Vanity Fair](/wiki/Vanity_Fair_%28novel%29 "Vanity Fair (novel)")* and [Leo Tolstoy](/wiki/Leo_Tolstoy "Leo Tolstoy")'s *[War and Peace](/wiki/War_and_Peace "War and Peace")*. Mitchell claimed [Charles Dickens](/wiki/Charles_Dickens "Charles Dickens") as an inspiration and called *Gone with the Wind* a "'[Victorian](/wiki/Victorian_era "Victorian era")' type novel."{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.georgiaencyclopedia.org/articles/arts\-culture/gone\-wind\-novel\|title\=Gone With the Wind (Novel)\|last\=McAlexander\|first\=Hubert H.\|date\=January 20, 2004\|website\=New Georgia Encyclopedia\|access\-date\=April 25, 2019}}[thumbnail\|Mitchell worried the high $3\.00 price would ruin its chance for success. When Mary Louise received this copy from Mother and Dad in December 1937, the novel was the best American fiction bestseller for the second year.Brown, E., et al., *Margaret Mitchell's Gone With the Wind: A Bestseller's Odyssey from Atlanta to Hollywood*, Taylor Trade Publishing, pp. 44 \& 167\.](/wiki/File:Gone_with_the_Wind_three_dollars.jpg "Gone with the Wind three dollars.jpg") [Helen Keller](/wiki/Helen_Keller "Helen Keller"), whose father had enslaved people and fought as a Confederate captain and who had later supported the [NAACP](/wiki/NAACP "NAACP") and the [ACLU](/wiki/American_Civil_Liberties_Union "American Civil Liberties Union"), read the 12\-volume Braille edition. The book brought her fond memories of her Southern infancy, but she also felt sadness compared to what she knew about the South.{{cite journal\| title\=The Southern Ties of Helen Keller\| year\=2007\| last\=Nielsen\| first\=Kim E.\| journal\=Journal of Southern History\| volume\=73\| issue\=4\| url\=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/242408791\|url\-access\=registration \|doi\=10\.2307/27649568 \|jstor\=27649568 \|jstor\-access\=free\| page \=800 }} ### Scholarship: Racial, ethnicity and social issues *Gone with the Wind* has been criticized for its stereotypical and derogatory portrayal of African Americans in the 19th century [South](/wiki/Southern_United_States "Southern United States").James Loewen ["Debunking History"](http://www.ushistory.org/us/historians/loewen.asp), US History transcript from May 12, 2000\. Retrieved April 2, 2011\. Former field hands during the early days of Reconstruction are described as behaving "as creatures of small intelligence might naturally be expected to do. Like monkeys or small children turned loose among treasured objects whose value is beyond their comprehension, they ran wild{{snd}}either from perverse pleasure in destruction or simply because of their ignorance." Commenting on this passage of the novel, [Jabari Asim](/wiki/Jabari_Asim "Jabari Asim"), author of *The N Word: Who Can Say It, Who Shouldn't, and Why*, says it is "one of the more charitable passages in *Gone With the Wind*, Margaret Mitchell hesitated to blame black 'insolence' during Reconstruction solely on 'mean niggers', of which, she said, there were few even in slavery days."Jabari Asim (2007\), *The N Word: Who Can Say It, Who Shouldn't, and Why*, New York: Houghton Mifflin Company, p. 150\. {{ISBN\|978\-0\-618\-19717\-0}} Critics say that Mitchell downplayed the violent role of the [Ku Klux Klan](/wiki/Ku_Klux_Klan "Ku Klux Klan") and their abuse of freedmen. Author [Pat Conroy](/wiki/Pat_Conroy "Pat Conroy"), in his preface to a later edition of the novel, describes Mitchell's portrayal of the Ku Klux Klan as having "the same romanticized role it had in *[The Birth of a Nation](/wiki/The_Birth_of_a_Nation "The Birth of a Nation")* and appears to be a benign combination of the [Elks Club](/wiki/Benevolent_and_Protective_Order_of_Elks "Benevolent and Protective Order of Elks") and a men's equestrian society".Pat Conroy, Preface to *Gone With the Wind*, Pocket Books edition Regarding the historical inaccuracies of the novel, historian [Richard N. Current](/wiki/Richard_N._Current "Richard N. Current") points out: > No doubt it is indeed unfortunate that *Gone with the Wind* perpetuates many myths about Reconstruction, particularly with respect to blacks. Margaret Mitchell did not originate them and a young novelist can scarcely be faulted for not knowing what the majority of mature, professional historians did not know until many years later.Albert E. Castel (2010\), *Winning and Losing in the Civil War: Essays and Stories*, University of South Carolina Press, p. 87\. {{ISBN\|978\-1\-57003\-917\-1}} In *Gone with the Wind*, Mitchell explores some complexities in racial issues. A Yankee woman asked Scarlett for advice on whom to appoint as a nurse for her children; Scarlett suggested a "darky", much to the disgust of the Yankee woman who was seeking an Irish maid, a "Bridget". African Americans and Irish Americans are treated "in precisely the same way" in *Gone with the Wind*, writes David O'Connell in his 1996 book, *The Irish Roots of Margaret Mitchell's Gone With the Wind*. Ethnic slurs on the Irish and Irish stereotypes pervade the novel, O'Connell claims, and Scarlett is not an exception to the terminology.O'Connell, D., *The Irish Roots of Margaret Mitchell's Gone With the Wind*, pp. 14–15 \& 71\. Irish scholar Geraldine Higgins notes that Jonas Wilkerson labels Scarlett: "you highflying, bogtrotting Irish".Part 5, chapter 49 Higgins says that, as the Irish American O'Haras were enslavers and held African Americans in bondage, the two ethnic groups are not equivalent in the ethnic hierarchy of the novel.Giemza, B.A., *Rethinking the Irish in the American South: Beyond Rounders and Reelers*, pp. 80–81 \& 83\. The novel has been criticized for promoting plantation values and romanticizing the white supremacy of the antebellum South. Mitchell biographer Marianne Walker, author of *Margaret Mitchell and John Marsh: The Love Story Behind Gone with the Wind*, believes those who attack the book on these grounds have not read it. She said that the popular 1939 film "promotes a false notion of the [Old South](/wiki/Old_South "Old South")". Mitchell was not involved in the screenplay or film production.Marianne Walker (1993\), *Margaret Mitchell and John Marsh: The Love Story behind Gone With the Wind*, Atlanta: Peachtree Publishers, p. vii (preface to 2011 edition). {{ISBN\|978\-1\-56145\-617\-8}} [James Loewen](/wiki/James_W._Loewen "James W. Loewen"), author of *[Lies My Teacher Told Me: Everything Your American History Textbook Got Wrong](/wiki/Lies_My_Teacher_Told_Me "Lies My Teacher Told Me")*, says this novel is "profoundly racist and profoundly wrong". In 1984, an alderman in Waukegan, Illinois, challenged the book's inclusion on the reading list of the Waukegan School District on the grounds of "racism" and "unacceptable language". He objected to the frequent use of the racial slur *[nigger](/wiki/Nigger "Nigger")*. He also objected to several other books: *[The Nigger of the 'Narcissus'](/wiki/The_Nigger_of_the_%27Narcissus%27 "The Nigger of the 'Narcissus'")*, *Uncle Tom's Cabin*, and *[Adventures of Huckleberry Finn](/wiki/Adventures_of_Huckleberry_Finn "Adventures of Huckleberry Finn")* for the same reason.Dawn B. Sova (2006\), *Banned Books: Literature Suppressed on Social Grounds*, New York: Infobase Publishing, p. 166\. {{ISBN\|0\-8160\-6271\-4}} Mitchell's use of color in the novel is symbolic and open to interpretation. Red, green, and a variety of hues of each of these colors are the predominant palette of colors related to Scarlett.["Color Symbolism and Mythology in Margaret Mitchell's Novel Gone with the Wind"](http://www.americanpopularculture.com/archive/bestsellers/mitchell.htm), O. Levitski and O. Dumer (September 2006\) *Magazine Americana*. Retrieved December 8, 2013\. The novel came under intense criticism for alleged racist and white supremacist themes in 2020 following the [murder of George Floyd](/wiki/Murder_of_George_Floyd "Murder of George Floyd"), and the ensuing [protests](/wiki/George_Floyd_protests "George Floyd protests") and focus on systemic [racism in the United States](/wiki/Racism_in_the_United_States "Racism in the United States").{{Cite web\|title\=After 84 Years, Gone With the Wind Finally Acknowledged as Racist as Shit\|url\=https://gizmodo.com/after\-84\-years\-gone\-with\-the\-wind\-finally\-acknowledged\-1844147115\|access\-date\=June 28, 2020\|website\=Gizmodo\|date\=June 25, 2020 \|language\=en\-us}} ### Awards and recognition In 1937, Margaret Mitchell received the [Pulitzer Prize for Fiction](/wiki/Pulitzer_Prize_for_Fiction "Pulitzer Prize for Fiction") for *Gone with the Wind* and the second annual [National Book Award for Fiction](/wiki/National_Book_Award_for_Fiction%23Most_Distinguished_Novel_%281935%E2%80%931936%29 "National Book Award for Fiction#Most Distinguished Novel (1935–1936)") from the [American Booksellers Association](/wiki/American_Booksellers_Association "American Booksellers Association")."5 Honors Awarded on the Year's Books:", *The New York Times*, February 26, 1937, page 23\. ProQuest Historical Newspapers *The New York Times* (1851–2007\) It is ranked as the second favorite book by American readers, just behind the Bible, according to a 2008 [Harris poll](/wiki/Harris_Insights_%26_Analytics "Harris Insights & Analytics").[The Bible is America's Favorite Book Followed by *Gone With the Wind*](http://www.businesswire.com/news/home/20080408005148/en/Bible-Americas-Favorite-Book-Wind), (April 8, 2008\) *Business Wire*. Retrieved May 10, 2011\. The poll found the novel has the strongest following among women, those aged 44 or more, both Southerners and Midwesterners, both whites and Hispanics, and those who have not attended college. In a 2014 Harris poll, Mitchell's novel ranked again as second, after the Bible.["The Bible Remains America's Favorite Book"](http://www.harrisinteractive.com/NewsRoom/HarrisPolls/tabid/447/ctl/ReadCustom%20Default/mid/1508/ArticleId/1422/Default.aspx) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924025030/http://www.harrisinteractive.com/NewsRoom/HarrisPolls/tabid/447/ctl/ReadCustom%20Default/mid/1508/ArticleId/1422/Default.aspx \|date\=September 24, 2015 }}, Harris Interactive; Retrieved April 29, 2014\. The novel is on the [list of best\-selling books](/wiki/List_of_best-selling_books "List of best-selling books"). As of 2010, over 30 million copies have been printed in the United States and abroad.Brown, Ellen F., et al., *Margaret Mitchell's Gone With the Wind: A Bestseller's Odyssey from Atlanta to Hollywood*, p. 320\. More than 24 editions of *Gone with the Wind* have been issued in China. *[Time](/wiki/Time_%28magazine%29 "Time (magazine)")* magazine critics [Lev Grossman](/wiki/Lev_Grossman "Lev Grossman") and [Richard Lacayo](/wiki/Richard_Lacayo "Richard Lacayo") included the novel on their list of the 100 best English\-language novels published between 1923 and 2005\.Grossman, Lev \& Lacayo, Richard (October 16, 2005\). ["All Time 100 Novels"](https://web.archive.org/web/20100216130650/http://www.time.com/time/specials/packages/completelist/0,29569,1951793,00.html), *[Time](/wiki/Time_%28magazine%29 "Time (magazine)")*. Retrieved May 10, 2011\.Kelly, James (October 16, 2005\). ["Time's List of the 100 Best Novels"](https://web.archive.org/web/20100310070348/http://www.time.com/time/specials/packages/article/0,28804,1951793_1952018_1952023,00.html), *Time*. Retrieved May 10, 2011 In 2003, the book was listed at number 21 on the BBC's [The Big Read](/wiki/The_Big_Read "The Big Read") poll of the UK's "best\-loved novel".["BBC – *The Big Read*"](https://www.bbc.co.uk/arts/bigread/top100.shtml). BBC. April 2003, Retrieved October 27, 2012 ### Censorship *Gone with the Wind* frequently has been the center of controversy. In 1978, the book was banned from English classrooms in the Anaheim Union High School District in [Anaheim, California](/wiki/Anaheim%2C_California "Anaheim, California").{{Cite web\|last\=Office of Intellectual Freedom\|date\=March 26, 2013\|title\=Banned \& Challenged Classics\|url\=https://www.ala.org/advocacy/bbooks/frequentlychallengedbooks/classics\|access\-date\=June 20, 2021\|website\=American Library Association\|language\=en}} In 1984, the book was challenged in the Waukegan, Illinois, School District due to the novel's use of the word *nigger*.
[ "Critical reception\n------------------", "### Reviews", "The sales of Margaret Mitchell's novel in the summer of 1936, as the nation was recovering from the [Great Depression](/wiki/Great_Depression_in_the_United_States \"Great Depression in the United States\") and at the virtually unprecedented price of three dollars, reached about 1 million by the end of December. The book was a bestseller when reviews began appearing in national magazines. Herschel Brickell, a critic for the *New York Evening Post*, lauded Mitchell for the way she \"tosses out the window all the thousands of technical tricks our novelists have been playing with for the past twenty years.\"Pierpont, C.R., *A Critic at Large: A Study in Scarlett*, p. 88\\.", "Ralph Thompson, a book reviewer for *The New York Times*, was critical of the length of the novel and wrote in June 1936:\n> I happen to feel that the book would have been infinitely better had it been edited down to say, 500 pages, but there speaks the harassed daily reviewer as well as the would\\-be judicious critic. Very nearly every reader will agree, no doubt, that a more disciplined and less prodigal piece of work would have more nearly done justice to the subject\\-matter.[\"Books of the Times: *Gone With the Wind* by Margaret Mitchell\"](http://xroads.virginia.edu/~1930s/print/ababgwtw/Mitchrev.html) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110604232010/http://xroads.virginia.edu/\\~1930s/PRINT/ababgwtw/Mitchrev.html \\|date\\=June 4, 2011 }}, Ralph Thompson, (June 30, 1936\\) *The New York Times*. Retrieved May 13, 2011\\.", "Some reviewers compared the book to [William Thackeray](/wiki/William_Makepeace_Thackeray \"William Makepeace Thackeray\")'s *[Vanity Fair](/wiki/Vanity_Fair_%28novel%29 \"Vanity Fair (novel)\")* and [Leo Tolstoy](/wiki/Leo_Tolstoy \"Leo Tolstoy\")'s *[War and Peace](/wiki/War_and_Peace \"War and Peace\")*. Mitchell claimed [Charles Dickens](/wiki/Charles_Dickens \"Charles Dickens\") as an inspiration and called *Gone with the Wind* a \"'[Victorian](/wiki/Victorian_era \"Victorian era\")' type novel.\"{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.georgiaencyclopedia.org/articles/arts\\-culture/gone\\-wind\\-novel\\|title\\=Gone With the Wind (Novel)\\|last\\=McAlexander\\|first\\=Hubert H.\\|date\\=January 20, 2004\\|website\\=New Georgia Encyclopedia\\|access\\-date\\=April 25, 2019}}[thumbnail\\|Mitchell worried the high $3\\.00 price would ruin its chance for success. When Mary Louise received this copy from Mother and Dad in December 1937, the novel was the best American fiction bestseller for the second year.Brown, E., et al., *Margaret Mitchell's Gone With the Wind: A Bestseller's Odyssey from Atlanta to Hollywood*, Taylor Trade Publishing, pp. 44 \\& 167\\.](/wiki/File:Gone_with_the_Wind_three_dollars.jpg \"Gone with the Wind three dollars.jpg\")\n[Helen Keller](/wiki/Helen_Keller \"Helen Keller\"), whose father had enslaved people and fought as a Confederate captain and who had later supported the [NAACP](/wiki/NAACP \"NAACP\") and the [ACLU](/wiki/American_Civil_Liberties_Union \"American Civil Liberties Union\"), read the 12\\-volume Braille edition.\nThe book brought her fond memories of her Southern infancy, but she also felt sadness compared to what she knew about the South.{{cite journal\\| title\\=The Southern Ties of Helen Keller\\| year\\=2007\\| last\\=Nielsen\\| first\\=Kim E.\\| journal\\=Journal of Southern History\\| volume\\=73\\| issue\\=4\\| url\\=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/242408791\\|url\\-access\\=registration \\|doi\\=10\\.2307/27649568 \\|jstor\\=27649568 \\|jstor\\-access\\=free\\| page \\=800 }}", "### Scholarship: Racial, ethnicity and social issues", "*Gone with the Wind* has been criticized for its stereotypical and derogatory portrayal of African Americans in the 19th century [South](/wiki/Southern_United_States \"Southern United States\").James Loewen [\"Debunking History\"](http://www.ushistory.org/us/historians/loewen.asp), US History transcript from May 12, 2000\\. Retrieved April 2, 2011\\. Former field hands during the early days of Reconstruction are described as behaving \"as creatures of small intelligence might naturally be expected to do. Like monkeys or small children turned loose among treasured objects whose value is beyond their comprehension, they ran wild{{snd}}either from perverse pleasure in destruction or simply because of their ignorance.\"", "Commenting on this passage of the novel, [Jabari Asim](/wiki/Jabari_Asim \"Jabari Asim\"), author of *The N Word: Who Can Say It, Who Shouldn't, and Why*, says it is \"one of the more charitable passages in *Gone With the Wind*, Margaret Mitchell hesitated to blame black 'insolence' during Reconstruction solely on 'mean niggers', of which, she said, there were few even in slavery days.\"Jabari Asim (2007\\), *The N Word: Who Can Say It, Who Shouldn't, and Why*, New York: Houghton Mifflin Company, p. 150\\. {{ISBN\\|978\\-0\\-618\\-19717\\-0}}", "Critics say that Mitchell downplayed the violent role of the [Ku Klux Klan](/wiki/Ku_Klux_Klan \"Ku Klux Klan\") and their abuse of freedmen. Author [Pat Conroy](/wiki/Pat_Conroy \"Pat Conroy\"), in his preface to a later edition of the novel, describes Mitchell's portrayal of the Ku Klux Klan as having \"the same romanticized role it had in *[The Birth of a Nation](/wiki/The_Birth_of_a_Nation \"The Birth of a Nation\")* and appears to be a benign combination of the [Elks Club](/wiki/Benevolent_and_Protective_Order_of_Elks \"Benevolent and Protective Order of Elks\") and a men's equestrian society\".Pat Conroy, Preface to *Gone With the Wind*, Pocket Books edition", "Regarding the historical inaccuracies of the novel, historian [Richard N. Current](/wiki/Richard_N._Current \"Richard N. Current\") points out:", "", "> No doubt it is indeed unfortunate that *Gone with the Wind* perpetuates many myths about Reconstruction, particularly with respect to blacks. Margaret Mitchell did not originate them and a young novelist can scarcely be faulted for not knowing what the majority of mature, professional historians did not know until many years later.Albert E. Castel (2010\\), *Winning and Losing in the Civil War: Essays and Stories*, University of South Carolina Press, p. 87\\. {{ISBN\\|978\\-1\\-57003\\-917\\-1}}", "In *Gone with the Wind*, Mitchell explores some complexities in racial issues. A Yankee woman asked Scarlett for advice on whom to appoint as a nurse for her children; Scarlett suggested a \"darky\", much to the disgust of the Yankee woman who was seeking an Irish maid, a \"Bridget\". African Americans and Irish Americans are treated \"in precisely the same way\" in *Gone with the Wind*, writes David O'Connell in his 1996 book, *The Irish Roots of Margaret Mitchell's Gone With the Wind*. Ethnic slurs on the Irish and Irish stereotypes pervade the novel, O'Connell claims, and Scarlett is not an exception to the terminology.O'Connell, D., *The Irish Roots of Margaret Mitchell's Gone With the Wind*, pp. 14–15 \\& 71\\. Irish scholar Geraldine Higgins notes that Jonas Wilkerson labels Scarlett: \"you highflying, bogtrotting Irish\".Part 5, chapter 49 Higgins says that, as the Irish American O'Haras were enslavers and held African Americans in bondage, the two ethnic groups are not equivalent in the ethnic hierarchy of the novel.Giemza, B.A., *Rethinking the Irish in the American South: Beyond Rounders and Reelers*, pp. 80–81 \\& 83\\.", "The novel has been criticized for promoting plantation values and romanticizing the white supremacy of the antebellum South. Mitchell biographer Marianne Walker, author of *Margaret Mitchell and John Marsh: The Love Story Behind Gone with the Wind*, believes those who attack the book on these grounds have not read it. She said that the popular 1939 film \"promotes a false notion of the [Old South](/wiki/Old_South \"Old South\")\". Mitchell was not involved in the screenplay or film production.Marianne Walker (1993\\), *Margaret Mitchell and John Marsh: The Love Story behind Gone With the Wind*, Atlanta: Peachtree Publishers, p. vii (preface to 2011 edition). {{ISBN\\|978\\-1\\-56145\\-617\\-8}}", "[James Loewen](/wiki/James_W._Loewen \"James W. Loewen\"), author of *[Lies My Teacher Told Me: Everything Your American History Textbook Got Wrong](/wiki/Lies_My_Teacher_Told_Me \"Lies My Teacher Told Me\")*, says this novel is \"profoundly racist and profoundly wrong\". In 1984, an alderman in Waukegan, Illinois, challenged the book's inclusion on the reading list of the Waukegan School District on the grounds of \"racism\" and \"unacceptable language\". He objected to the frequent use of the racial slur *[nigger](/wiki/Nigger \"Nigger\")*. He also objected to several other books: *[The Nigger of the 'Narcissus'](/wiki/The_Nigger_of_the_%27Narcissus%27 \"The Nigger of the 'Narcissus'\")*, *Uncle Tom's Cabin*, and *[Adventures of Huckleberry Finn](/wiki/Adventures_of_Huckleberry_Finn \"Adventures of Huckleberry Finn\")* for the same reason.Dawn B. Sova (2006\\), *Banned Books: Literature Suppressed on Social Grounds*, New York: Infobase Publishing, p. 166\\. {{ISBN\\|0\\-8160\\-6271\\-4}}", "Mitchell's use of color in the novel is symbolic and open to interpretation. Red, green, and a variety of hues of each of these colors are the predominant palette of colors related to Scarlett.[\"Color Symbolism and Mythology in Margaret Mitchell's Novel Gone with the Wind\"](http://www.americanpopularculture.com/archive/bestsellers/mitchell.htm), O. Levitski and O. Dumer (September 2006\\) *Magazine Americana*. Retrieved December 8, 2013\\.", "The novel came under intense criticism for alleged racist and white supremacist themes in 2020 following the [murder of George Floyd](/wiki/Murder_of_George_Floyd \"Murder of George Floyd\"), and the ensuing [protests](/wiki/George_Floyd_protests \"George Floyd protests\") and focus on systemic [racism in the United States](/wiki/Racism_in_the_United_States \"Racism in the United States\").{{Cite web\\|title\\=After 84 Years, Gone With the Wind Finally Acknowledged as Racist as Shit\\|url\\=https://gizmodo.com/after\\-84\\-years\\-gone\\-with\\-the\\-wind\\-finally\\-acknowledged\\-1844147115\\|access\\-date\\=June 28, 2020\\|website\\=Gizmodo\\|date\\=June 25, 2020 \\|language\\=en\\-us}}", "### Awards and recognition", "In 1937, Margaret Mitchell received the [Pulitzer Prize for Fiction](/wiki/Pulitzer_Prize_for_Fiction \"Pulitzer Prize for Fiction\") for *Gone with the Wind* and the second annual [National Book Award for Fiction](/wiki/National_Book_Award_for_Fiction%23Most_Distinguished_Novel_%281935%E2%80%931936%29 \"National Book Award for Fiction#Most Distinguished Novel (1935–1936)\") from the [American Booksellers Association](/wiki/American_Booksellers_Association \"American Booksellers Association\").\"5 Honors Awarded on the Year's Books:\", *The New York Times*, February 26, 1937, page 23\\. ProQuest Historical Newspapers *The New York Times* (1851–2007\\) It is ranked as the second favorite book by American readers, just behind the Bible, according to a 2008 [Harris poll](/wiki/Harris_Insights_%26_Analytics \"Harris Insights & Analytics\").[The Bible is America's Favorite Book Followed by *Gone With the Wind*](http://www.businesswire.com/news/home/20080408005148/en/Bible-Americas-Favorite-Book-Wind), (April 8, 2008\\) *Business Wire*. Retrieved May 10, 2011\\. The poll found the novel has the strongest following among women, those aged 44 or more, both Southerners and Midwesterners, both whites and Hispanics, and those who have not attended college. In a 2014 Harris poll, Mitchell's novel ranked again as second, after the Bible.[\"The Bible Remains America's Favorite Book\"](http://www.harrisinteractive.com/NewsRoom/HarrisPolls/tabid/447/ctl/ReadCustom%20Default/mid/1508/ArticleId/1422/Default.aspx) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924025030/http://www.harrisinteractive.com/NewsRoom/HarrisPolls/tabid/447/ctl/ReadCustom%20Default/mid/1508/ArticleId/1422/Default.aspx \\|date\\=September 24, 2015 }}, Harris Interactive; Retrieved April 29, 2014\\. The novel is on the [list of best\\-selling books](/wiki/List_of_best-selling_books \"List of best-selling books\"). As of 2010, over 30 million copies have been printed in the United States and abroad.Brown, Ellen F., et al., *Margaret Mitchell's Gone With the Wind: A Bestseller's Odyssey from Atlanta to Hollywood*, p. 320\\. More than 24 editions of *Gone with the Wind* have been issued in China. *[Time](/wiki/Time_%28magazine%29 \"Time (magazine)\")* magazine critics [Lev Grossman](/wiki/Lev_Grossman \"Lev Grossman\") and [Richard Lacayo](/wiki/Richard_Lacayo \"Richard Lacayo\") included the novel on their list of the 100 best English\\-language novels published between 1923 and 2005\\.Grossman, Lev \\& Lacayo, Richard (October 16, 2005\\). [\"All Time 100 Novels\"](https://web.archive.org/web/20100216130650/http://www.time.com/time/specials/packages/completelist/0,29569,1951793,00.html), *[Time](/wiki/Time_%28magazine%29 \"Time (magazine)\")*. Retrieved May 10, 2011\\.Kelly, James (October 16, 2005\\). [\"Time's List of the 100 Best Novels\"](https://web.archive.org/web/20100310070348/http://www.time.com/time/specials/packages/article/0,28804,1951793_1952018_1952023,00.html), *Time*. Retrieved May 10, 2011 In 2003, the book was listed at number 21 on the BBC's [The Big Read](/wiki/The_Big_Read \"The Big Read\") poll of the UK's \"best\\-loved novel\".[\"BBC – *The Big Read*\"](https://www.bbc.co.uk/arts/bigread/top100.shtml). BBC. April 2003, Retrieved October 27, 2012", "### Censorship", "*Gone with the Wind* frequently has been the center of controversy.", "In 1978, the book was banned from English classrooms in the Anaheim Union High School District in [Anaheim, California](/wiki/Anaheim%2C_California \"Anaheim, California\").{{Cite web\\|last\\=Office of Intellectual Freedom\\|date\\=March 26, 2013\\|title\\=Banned \\& Challenged Classics\\|url\\=https://www.ala.org/advocacy/bbooks/frequentlychallengedbooks/classics\\|access\\-date\\=June 20, 2021\\|website\\=American Library Association\\|language\\=en}}", "In 1984, the book was challenged in the Waukegan, Illinois, School District due to the novel's use of the word *nigger*.", "" ]
Publication history ------------------- ### Original manuscript [thumbnail\|The Crescent Apartments in Atlanta, Georgia, where Margaret Mitchell wrote her novel, is now operated as the [Margaret Mitchell House and Museum](/wiki/Margaret_Mitchell_House_and_Museum "Margaret Mitchell House and Museum").](/wiki/File:Crescent_Apartments%2C_Atlanta%2C_Georgia.jpg "Crescent Apartments, Atlanta, Georgia.jpg") Although some of Mitchell's papers and documents related to the writing of *Gone with the Wind* were burned after her death, many documents, including assorted draft chapters, were preserved.Brown, E. F., et al., *Margaret Mitchell's Gone With the Wind: A Bestseller's Odyssey from Atlanta to Hollywood*, pp. 271–272\. The last four chapters of the novel are held by the [Pequot Library](/wiki/Pequot_Library "Pequot Library") of Southport, Connecticut.[A Piece of 'Gone With the Wind' Isn't Gone After All](https://www.nytimes.com/2011/03/30/books/gone-with-the-wind-chapters-get-pequot-library-display.html?pagewanted=all), Charles McGrath, (March 29, 2011\) *The New York Times*. Retrieved October 29, 2012\. ### Publication and reprintings (1936 – US) The first printing of 10,000 copies contains the original publication date: "Published May, 1936". After the book was chosen as the Book\-of\-the\-Month Club's selection for July, the publication was delayed until June 30\. The second printing of 25,000 copies (and subsequent printings) contains the release date: "Published June, 1936". The third printing of 15,000 copies was made in June 1936\. Additionally, 50,000 copies were printed for the Book\-of\-the\-Month Club July selection. *Gone with the Wind* was officially released to the American public on June 30, 1936\.Brown, E. F., et al., *Margaret Mitchell's Gone With the Wind: A Bestseller's Odyssey from Atlanta to Hollywood*, pp. 61, 75, 81–82 \& 91\. ### Sequels and prequels Although Mitchell refused to write a sequel to *Gone with the Wind*, Mitchell's estate authorized [Alexandra Ripley](/wiki/Alexandra_Ripley "Alexandra Ripley") to write a sequel, which was titled *[Scarlett](/wiki/Scarlett_%28Ripley_novel%29 "Scarlett (Ripley novel)")*.Alexandra Ripley (1994\), *Scarlett*, Pan Books. {{ISBN\|978\-0\-330\-30752\-9}} The book was subsequently adapted into a [television mini\-series](/wiki/Scarlett_%28miniseries%29 "Scarlett (miniseries)") in 1994\.[IMDb Scarlett (TV mini\-series 1994\)](https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0108915/) A second sequel was authorized by Mitchell's estate titled *[Rhett Butler's People](/wiki/Rhett_Butler%27s_People "Rhett Butler's People")*, by [Donald McCaig](/wiki/Donald_McCaig "Donald McCaig").Donald McCaig (2007\), *Rhett Butler's People*, Macmillan. {{ISBN\|978\-0\-312\-94578\-7}} The novel parallels *Gone with the Wind* from Rhett Butler's perspective. In 2010, Mitchell's estate authorized McCaig to write a prequel, which follows the life of the house servant Mammy, whom McCaig names "Ruth". The novel, *Ruth's Journey*, was released in 2014\.["Mammy Revealed, and Not Just Her Red Petticoat *Gone With the Wind* Prequel Coming in October"](https://www.nytimes.com/2014/03/27/business/media/gone-with-the-wind-prequel-coming-in-october.html?hpw&rref=arts) Julie Bosman (March 26, 2014\) *The New York Times*. Retrieved March 26, 2014\. The copyright holders of *Gone with the Wind* attempted to suppress publication of *[The Wind Done Gone](/wiki/The_Wind_Done_Gone "The Wind Done Gone")* by [Alice Randall](/wiki/Alice_Randall "Alice Randall"),Alice Randall (2001\), *The Wind Done Gone*, Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. {{ISBN\|978\-0\-618\-10450\-5}}. which retold the story from the perspective of the enslaved people. A federal appeals court denied the plaintiffs an injunction (*[Suntrust v. Houghton Mifflin](/wiki/Suntrust_Bank_v._Houghton_Mifflin_Co. "Suntrust Bank v. Houghton Mifflin Co.")*) against publication on the basis that the book was a parody and therefore protected by the [First Amendment](/wiki/First_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution "First Amendment to the United States Constitution"). The parties subsequently settled out of court, and the book became a [*New York Times* Best Seller](/wiki/The_New_York_Times_Best_Seller_list "The New York Times Best Seller list"). A book sequel unauthorized by the copyright holders, *The Winds of Tara* by Katherine Pinotti,Katherine Pinotti (2008\), *The Winds of Tara*, Fontaine Press. {{ISBN\|978\-0\-9803623\-5\-0}} was blocked from publication in the United States. The novel was republished in Australia, avoiding U.S. copyright restrictions. Away from copyright lawsuits, Internet fan fiction has proved to be a fertile medium for sequels (some of them book\-length), parodies, and rewritings of *Gone with the Wind*.Gomez\-Galisteo, M. Carmen *The Wind Is Never Gone Sequels, Parodies and Rewritings of Gone with the Wind*. Jefferson, NC: McFarland, 2011\. Numerous unauthorized sequels to *Gone with the Wind* have been published in Russia, mostly under the pseudonym Yuliya Hilpatrik, a cover for a consortium of writers. *The New York Times* states that most have a "Slavic" flavor.["Frankly My Dear, Russians Do Give a Damn"](https://www.nytimes.com/1994/08/29/books/frankly-my-dear-russians-do-give-a-damn.html), Alessandra Stanley, (August 29, 1994\) *The New York Times*. Retrieved June 10, 2011\. Several sequels were written in Hungarian under the pseudonym Audrey D. Milland or Audrey Dee Milland by at least four different authors (who are named in the colophon as translators to make the book seem a translation from the English original, a procedure common in the 1990s but prohibited by law since then). The first picks up where Ripley's *Scarlett* ended; the next is about Scarlett's daughter Cat. Other books include a prequel trilogy about Scarlett's grandmother, Solange, and a three\-part miniseries about a supposed illegitimate daughter of Carreen.[Sequels of famous novels](http://katherines-bookstore.blogspot.hu/2010/12/es-boldogan-eltek-amig.html) ### Copyright status *Gone with the Wind* has been in the [public domain](/wiki/Public_domain "Public domain") in Australia since 1999 (50 years after Margaret Mitchell's death).{{Cite news\|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2004/11/08/technology/one\-internet\-many\-copyright\-laws.html\|title\=One Internet, Many Copyright Laws\|last\=Shannon\|first\=Victoria\|date\=November 8, 2004\|work\=The New York Times\|access\-date\=December 30, 2019\|language\=en\-US\|issn\=0362\-4331}} On January 1, 2020, the book entered the public domain in the European Union ([70 years after the author's death](/wiki/2020_in_public_domain%23Entering_the_public_domain_in_countries_with_life_%2B_70_years "2020 in public domain#Entering the public domain in countries with life + 70 years")). Under an extension of copyright law, *Gone with the Wind* will not enter the public domain in the United States until 2031\.{{Cite news\|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2004/11/08/technology/one\-internet\-many\-copyright\-laws.html\|title\=One Internet, Many Copyright Laws\|last\=Shannon\|first\=Victoria\|date\=November 8, 2004\|work\=The New York Times\|access\-date\=December 30, 2019\|language\=en\-US\|issn\=0362\-4331}}
[ "Publication history\n-------------------", "### Original manuscript", "[thumbnail\\|The Crescent Apartments in Atlanta, Georgia, where Margaret Mitchell wrote her novel, is now operated as the [Margaret Mitchell House and Museum](/wiki/Margaret_Mitchell_House_and_Museum \"Margaret Mitchell House and Museum\").](/wiki/File:Crescent_Apartments%2C_Atlanta%2C_Georgia.jpg \"Crescent Apartments, Atlanta, Georgia.jpg\")", "Although some of Mitchell's papers and documents related to the writing of *Gone with the Wind* were burned after her death, many documents, including assorted draft chapters, were preserved.Brown, E. F., et al., *Margaret Mitchell's Gone With the Wind: A Bestseller's Odyssey from Atlanta to Hollywood*, pp. 271–272\\. The last four chapters of the novel are held by the [Pequot Library](/wiki/Pequot_Library \"Pequot Library\") of Southport, Connecticut.[A Piece of 'Gone With the Wind' Isn't Gone After All](https://www.nytimes.com/2011/03/30/books/gone-with-the-wind-chapters-get-pequot-library-display.html?pagewanted=all), Charles McGrath, (March 29, 2011\\) *The New York Times*. Retrieved October 29, 2012\\.", "### Publication and reprintings (1936 – US)", "The first printing of 10,000 copies contains the original publication date: \"Published May, 1936\". After the book was chosen as the Book\\-of\\-the\\-Month Club's selection for July, the publication was delayed until June 30\\. The second printing of 25,000 copies (and subsequent printings) contains the release date: \"Published June, 1936\". The third printing of 15,000 copies was made in June 1936\\. Additionally, 50,000 copies were printed for the Book\\-of\\-the\\-Month Club July selection. *Gone with the Wind* was officially released to the American public on June 30, 1936\\.Brown, E. F., et al., *Margaret Mitchell's Gone With the Wind: A Bestseller's Odyssey from Atlanta to Hollywood*, pp. 61, 75, 81–82 \\& 91\\.", "### Sequels and prequels", "Although Mitchell refused to write a sequel to *Gone with the Wind*, Mitchell's estate authorized [Alexandra Ripley](/wiki/Alexandra_Ripley \"Alexandra Ripley\") to write a sequel, which was titled *[Scarlett](/wiki/Scarlett_%28Ripley_novel%29 \"Scarlett (Ripley novel)\")*.Alexandra Ripley (1994\\), *Scarlett*, Pan Books. {{ISBN\\|978\\-0\\-330\\-30752\\-9}} The book was subsequently adapted into a [television mini\\-series](/wiki/Scarlett_%28miniseries%29 \"Scarlett (miniseries)\") in 1994\\.[IMDb Scarlett (TV mini\\-series 1994\\)](https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0108915/) A second sequel was authorized by Mitchell's estate titled *[Rhett Butler's People](/wiki/Rhett_Butler%27s_People \"Rhett Butler's People\")*, by [Donald McCaig](/wiki/Donald_McCaig \"Donald McCaig\").Donald McCaig (2007\\), *Rhett Butler's People*, Macmillan. {{ISBN\\|978\\-0\\-312\\-94578\\-7}} The novel parallels *Gone with the Wind* from Rhett Butler's perspective. In 2010, Mitchell's estate authorized McCaig to write a prequel, which follows the life of the house servant Mammy, whom McCaig names \"Ruth\". The novel, *Ruth's Journey*, was released in 2014\\.[\"Mammy Revealed, and Not Just Her Red Petticoat *Gone With the Wind* Prequel Coming in October\"](https://www.nytimes.com/2014/03/27/business/media/gone-with-the-wind-prequel-coming-in-october.html?hpw&rref=arts) Julie Bosman (March 26, 2014\\) *The New York Times*. Retrieved March 26, 2014\\.", "The copyright holders of *Gone with the Wind* attempted to suppress publication of *[The Wind Done Gone](/wiki/The_Wind_Done_Gone \"The Wind Done Gone\")* by [Alice Randall](/wiki/Alice_Randall \"Alice Randall\"),Alice Randall (2001\\), *The Wind Done Gone*, Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. {{ISBN\\|978\\-0\\-618\\-10450\\-5}}. which retold the story from the perspective of the enslaved people. A federal appeals court denied the plaintiffs an injunction (*[Suntrust v. Houghton Mifflin](/wiki/Suntrust_Bank_v._Houghton_Mifflin_Co. \"Suntrust Bank v. Houghton Mifflin Co.\")*) against publication on the basis that the book was a parody and therefore protected by the [First Amendment](/wiki/First_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution \"First Amendment to the United States Constitution\"). The parties subsequently settled out of court, and the book became a [*New York Times* Best Seller](/wiki/The_New_York_Times_Best_Seller_list \"The New York Times Best Seller list\").", "A book sequel unauthorized by the copyright holders, *The Winds of Tara* by Katherine Pinotti,Katherine Pinotti (2008\\), *The Winds of Tara*, Fontaine Press. {{ISBN\\|978\\-0\\-9803623\\-5\\-0}} was blocked from publication in the United States. The novel was republished in Australia, avoiding U.S. copyright restrictions.", "Away from copyright lawsuits, Internet fan fiction has proved to be a fertile medium for sequels (some of them book\\-length), parodies, and rewritings of *Gone with the Wind*.Gomez\\-Galisteo, M. Carmen *The Wind Is Never Gone Sequels, Parodies and Rewritings of Gone with the Wind*. Jefferson, NC: McFarland, 2011\\.", "", "Numerous unauthorized sequels to *Gone with the Wind* have been published in Russia, mostly under the pseudonym Yuliya Hilpatrik, a cover for a consortium of writers. *The New York Times* states that most have a \"Slavic\" flavor.[\"Frankly My Dear, Russians Do Give a Damn\"](https://www.nytimes.com/1994/08/29/books/frankly-my-dear-russians-do-give-a-damn.html), Alessandra Stanley, (August 29, 1994\\) *The New York Times*. Retrieved June 10, 2011\\.", "Several sequels were written in Hungarian under the pseudonym Audrey D. Milland or Audrey Dee Milland by at least four different authors (who are named in the colophon as translators to make the book seem a translation from the English original, a procedure common in the 1990s but prohibited by law since then). The first picks up where Ripley's *Scarlett* ended; the next is about Scarlett's daughter Cat. Other books include a prequel trilogy about Scarlett's grandmother, Solange, and a three\\-part miniseries about a supposed illegitimate daughter of Carreen.[Sequels of famous novels](http://katherines-bookstore.blogspot.hu/2010/12/es-boldogan-eltek-amig.html)", "### Copyright status", "*Gone with the Wind* has been in the [public domain](/wiki/Public_domain \"Public domain\") in Australia since 1999 (50 years after Margaret Mitchell's death).{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2004/11/08/technology/one\\-internet\\-many\\-copyright\\-laws.html\\|title\\=One Internet, Many Copyright Laws\\|last\\=Shannon\\|first\\=Victoria\\|date\\=November 8, 2004\\|work\\=The New York Times\\|access\\-date\\=December 30, 2019\\|language\\=en\\-US\\|issn\\=0362\\-4331}} On January 1, 2020, the book entered the public domain in the European Union ([70 years after the author's death](/wiki/2020_in_public_domain%23Entering_the_public_domain_in_countries_with_life_%2B_70_years \"2020 in public domain#Entering the public domain in countries with life + 70 years\")). Under an extension of copyright law, *Gone with the Wind* will not enter the public domain in the United States until 2031\\.{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2004/11/08/technology/one\\-internet\\-many\\-copyright\\-laws.html\\|title\\=One Internet, Many Copyright Laws\\|last\\=Shannon\\|first\\=Victoria\\|date\\=November 8, 2004\\|work\\=The New York Times\\|access\\-date\\=December 30, 2019\\|language\\=en\\-US\\|issn\\=0362\\-4331}}", "" ]
### Sequels and prequels Although Mitchell refused to write a sequel to *Gone with the Wind*, Mitchell's estate authorized [Alexandra Ripley](/wiki/Alexandra_Ripley "Alexandra Ripley") to write a sequel, which was titled *[Scarlett](/wiki/Scarlett_%28Ripley_novel%29 "Scarlett (Ripley novel)")*.Alexandra Ripley (1994\), *Scarlett*, Pan Books. {{ISBN\|978\-0\-330\-30752\-9}} The book was subsequently adapted into a [television mini\-series](/wiki/Scarlett_%28miniseries%29 "Scarlett (miniseries)") in 1994\.[IMDb Scarlett (TV mini\-series 1994\)](https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0108915/) A second sequel was authorized by Mitchell's estate titled *[Rhett Butler's People](/wiki/Rhett_Butler%27s_People "Rhett Butler's People")*, by [Donald McCaig](/wiki/Donald_McCaig "Donald McCaig").Donald McCaig (2007\), *Rhett Butler's People*, Macmillan. {{ISBN\|978\-0\-312\-94578\-7}} The novel parallels *Gone with the Wind* from Rhett Butler's perspective. In 2010, Mitchell's estate authorized McCaig to write a prequel, which follows the life of the house servant Mammy, whom McCaig names "Ruth". The novel, *Ruth's Journey*, was released in 2014\.["Mammy Revealed, and Not Just Her Red Petticoat *Gone With the Wind* Prequel Coming in October"](https://www.nytimes.com/2014/03/27/business/media/gone-with-the-wind-prequel-coming-in-october.html?hpw&rref=arts) Julie Bosman (March 26, 2014\) *The New York Times*. Retrieved March 26, 2014\. The copyright holders of *Gone with the Wind* attempted to suppress publication of *[The Wind Done Gone](/wiki/The_Wind_Done_Gone "The Wind Done Gone")* by [Alice Randall](/wiki/Alice_Randall "Alice Randall"),Alice Randall (2001\), *The Wind Done Gone*, Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. {{ISBN\|978\-0\-618\-10450\-5}}. which retold the story from the perspective of the enslaved people. A federal appeals court denied the plaintiffs an injunction (*[Suntrust v. Houghton Mifflin](/wiki/Suntrust_Bank_v._Houghton_Mifflin_Co. "Suntrust Bank v. Houghton Mifflin Co.")*) against publication on the basis that the book was a parody and therefore protected by the [First Amendment](/wiki/First_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution "First Amendment to the United States Constitution"). The parties subsequently settled out of court, and the book became a [*New York Times* Best Seller](/wiki/The_New_York_Times_Best_Seller_list "The New York Times Best Seller list"). A book sequel unauthorized by the copyright holders, *The Winds of Tara* by Katherine Pinotti,Katherine Pinotti (2008\), *The Winds of Tara*, Fontaine Press. {{ISBN\|978\-0\-9803623\-5\-0}} was blocked from publication in the United States. The novel was republished in Australia, avoiding U.S. copyright restrictions. Away from copyright lawsuits, Internet fan fiction has proved to be a fertile medium for sequels (some of them book\-length), parodies, and rewritings of *Gone with the Wind*.Gomez\-Galisteo, M. Carmen *The Wind Is Never Gone Sequels, Parodies and Rewritings of Gone with the Wind*. Jefferson, NC: McFarland, 2011\. Numerous unauthorized sequels to *Gone with the Wind* have been published in Russia, mostly under the pseudonym Yuliya Hilpatrik, a cover for a consortium of writers. *The New York Times* states that most have a "Slavic" flavor.["Frankly My Dear, Russians Do Give a Damn"](https://www.nytimes.com/1994/08/29/books/frankly-my-dear-russians-do-give-a-damn.html), Alessandra Stanley, (August 29, 1994\) *The New York Times*. Retrieved June 10, 2011\. Several sequels were written in Hungarian under the pseudonym Audrey D. Milland or Audrey Dee Milland by at least four different authors (who are named in the colophon as translators to make the book seem a translation from the English original, a procedure common in the 1990s but prohibited by law since then). The first picks up where Ripley's *Scarlett* ended; the next is about Scarlett's daughter Cat. Other books include a prequel trilogy about Scarlett's grandmother, Solange, and a three\-part miniseries about a supposed illegitimate daughter of Carreen.[Sequels of famous novels](http://katherines-bookstore.blogspot.hu/2010/12/es-boldogan-eltek-amig.html)
[ "### Sequels and prequels", "Although Mitchell refused to write a sequel to *Gone with the Wind*, Mitchell's estate authorized [Alexandra Ripley](/wiki/Alexandra_Ripley \"Alexandra Ripley\") to write a sequel, which was titled *[Scarlett](/wiki/Scarlett_%28Ripley_novel%29 \"Scarlett (Ripley novel)\")*.Alexandra Ripley (1994\\), *Scarlett*, Pan Books. {{ISBN\\|978\\-0\\-330\\-30752\\-9}} The book was subsequently adapted into a [television mini\\-series](/wiki/Scarlett_%28miniseries%29 \"Scarlett (miniseries)\") in 1994\\.[IMDb Scarlett (TV mini\\-series 1994\\)](https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0108915/) A second sequel was authorized by Mitchell's estate titled *[Rhett Butler's People](/wiki/Rhett_Butler%27s_People \"Rhett Butler's People\")*, by [Donald McCaig](/wiki/Donald_McCaig \"Donald McCaig\").Donald McCaig (2007\\), *Rhett Butler's People*, Macmillan. {{ISBN\\|978\\-0\\-312\\-94578\\-7}} The novel parallels *Gone with the Wind* from Rhett Butler's perspective. In 2010, Mitchell's estate authorized McCaig to write a prequel, which follows the life of the house servant Mammy, whom McCaig names \"Ruth\". The novel, *Ruth's Journey*, was released in 2014\\.[\"Mammy Revealed, and Not Just Her Red Petticoat *Gone With the Wind* Prequel Coming in October\"](https://www.nytimes.com/2014/03/27/business/media/gone-with-the-wind-prequel-coming-in-october.html?hpw&rref=arts) Julie Bosman (March 26, 2014\\) *The New York Times*. Retrieved March 26, 2014\\.", "The copyright holders of *Gone with the Wind* attempted to suppress publication of *[The Wind Done Gone](/wiki/The_Wind_Done_Gone \"The Wind Done Gone\")* by [Alice Randall](/wiki/Alice_Randall \"Alice Randall\"),Alice Randall (2001\\), *The Wind Done Gone*, Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. {{ISBN\\|978\\-0\\-618\\-10450\\-5}}. which retold the story from the perspective of the enslaved people. A federal appeals court denied the plaintiffs an injunction (*[Suntrust v. Houghton Mifflin](/wiki/Suntrust_Bank_v._Houghton_Mifflin_Co. \"Suntrust Bank v. Houghton Mifflin Co.\")*) against publication on the basis that the book was a parody and therefore protected by the [First Amendment](/wiki/First_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution \"First Amendment to the United States Constitution\"). The parties subsequently settled out of court, and the book became a [*New York Times* Best Seller](/wiki/The_New_York_Times_Best_Seller_list \"The New York Times Best Seller list\").", "A book sequel unauthorized by the copyright holders, *The Winds of Tara* by Katherine Pinotti,Katherine Pinotti (2008\\), *The Winds of Tara*, Fontaine Press. {{ISBN\\|978\\-0\\-9803623\\-5\\-0}} was blocked from publication in the United States. The novel was republished in Australia, avoiding U.S. copyright restrictions.", "Away from copyright lawsuits, Internet fan fiction has proved to be a fertile medium for sequels (some of them book\\-length), parodies, and rewritings of *Gone with the Wind*.Gomez\\-Galisteo, M. Carmen *The Wind Is Never Gone Sequels, Parodies and Rewritings of Gone with the Wind*. Jefferson, NC: McFarland, 2011\\.", "", "Numerous unauthorized sequels to *Gone with the Wind* have been published in Russia, mostly under the pseudonym Yuliya Hilpatrik, a cover for a consortium of writers. *The New York Times* states that most have a \"Slavic\" flavor.[\"Frankly My Dear, Russians Do Give a Damn\"](https://www.nytimes.com/1994/08/29/books/frankly-my-dear-russians-do-give-a-damn.html), Alessandra Stanley, (August 29, 1994\\) *The New York Times*. Retrieved June 10, 2011\\.", "Several sequels were written in Hungarian under the pseudonym Audrey D. Milland or Audrey Dee Milland by at least four different authors (who are named in the colophon as translators to make the book seem a translation from the English original, a procedure common in the 1990s but prohibited by law since then). The first picks up where Ripley's *Scarlett* ended; the next is about Scarlett's daughter Cat. Other books include a prequel trilogy about Scarlett's grandmother, Solange, and a three\\-part miniseries about a supposed illegitimate daughter of Carreen.[Sequels of famous novels](http://katherines-bookstore.blogspot.hu/2010/12/es-boldogan-eltek-amig.html)", "" ]
Economy ------- The municipal authorities have promoted a future\-looking environment in Vila do Conde, that have concentrated on the tourist market, involving the requalification of many of the historical buildings (such as the Convent and customshouse), in addition to promoting an ocean\-centric tourist economy associated with the *Programa Polis* initiative. The communities along the coast, which include the main beaches and bird sanctuary, are essentially beach resorts with a high technology industrial park in [Mindelo](/wiki/Mindelo%2C_Portugal "Mindelo, Portugal") with some semi\-conductor industries. ### Transport Vila do Conde is serviced by an ample network of terrestrial, aerial and maritime transport links. The road networks include accesses to the national *auto\-estradas* ({{lang\-en\|roadway}}), and inter\-municipal roadways, along a north–south axis from [Vila Nova de Cerveira](/wiki/Vila_Nova_de_Cerveira "Vila Nova de Cerveira") until [Porto](/wiki/Porto "Porto") via the A28 Auto\-estrada. The A7 crosses the A28 along an east\-to\-west intersection, along the north of the city, linking [Vila Nova de Famalicão](/wiki/Vila_Nova_de_Famalic%C3%A3o "Vila Nova de Famalicão") to [Guimarães](/wiki/Guimar%C3%A3es "Guimarães"). The national roadways that cross the municipal borders as managed by the municipality, including the EN13, which crosses the municipality and city along a north\-to\-south axis, linking into the northern agglomeration of Póvoa de Varzim. In the north, the EN205 intersects the municipality along an east to west trajectory from Vila do Conde to [Vila Nova de Famalicão](/wiki/Vila_Nova_de_Famalic%C3%A3o "Vila Nova de Famalicão"). Similarly, the EN104 crosses the municipality in the centre, along a similar orientation (east to west), and connects Vila do Conde with [Trofa](/wiki/Trofa%2C_Portugal "Trofa, Portugal") and [Santo Tirso](/wiki/Santo_Tirso "Santo Tirso"). The ancillary EN205 and EN104 are primarily used by motorists within the municipality and interlink the many civil parishes. Municipal public transport is primarily operated by *Litoral Norte \- Transportes Urbanos da Póvoa de Varzim*, although the remains lines are managed by*Transdev*. The *B Line* of the Porto Metro system connects Vila do Conde with Porto and the airport, providing both normal and express services, in addition to northern connections to Póvoa de Varzim. The line also operated an older rail\-line that connected Porto and Póvoa de Varzim, with intermediary stops in Vila do Conde, but was discontinued in 2002 in favour of Metro services. Situated {{convert\|15\|km\|0\|abbr\=on}} from the centre of Vila do Conde, the [Porto\-Francisco de Sá Carneiro International Airport](/wiki/Francisco_de_S%C3%A1_Carneiro_Airport "Francisco de Sá Carneiro Airport") (OPO), the second largest international airport in the country is linked to Vila do Conde across the A28, EN13 and Porto Metro.
[ "Economy\n-------", "The municipal authorities have promoted a future\\-looking environment in Vila do Conde, that have concentrated on the tourist market, involving the requalification of many of the historical buildings (such as the Convent and customshouse), in addition to promoting an ocean\\-centric tourist economy associated with the *Programa Polis* initiative.", "The communities along the coast, which include the main beaches and bird sanctuary, are essentially beach resorts with a high technology industrial park in [Mindelo](/wiki/Mindelo%2C_Portugal \"Mindelo, Portugal\") with some semi\\-conductor industries.", "### Transport", "Vila do Conde is serviced by an ample network of terrestrial, aerial and maritime transport links. The road networks include accesses to the national *auto\\-estradas* ({{lang\\-en\\|roadway}}), and inter\\-municipal roadways, along a north–south axis from [Vila Nova de Cerveira](/wiki/Vila_Nova_de_Cerveira \"Vila Nova de Cerveira\") until [Porto](/wiki/Porto \"Porto\") via the A28 Auto\\-estrada. The A7 crosses the A28 along an east\\-to\\-west intersection, along the north of the city, linking [Vila Nova de Famalicão](/wiki/Vila_Nova_de_Famalic%C3%A3o \"Vila Nova de Famalicão\") to [Guimarães](/wiki/Guimar%C3%A3es \"Guimarães\").", "The national roadways that cross the municipal borders as managed by the municipality, including the EN13, which crosses the municipality and city along a north\\-to\\-south axis, linking into the northern agglomeration of Póvoa de Varzim. In the north, the EN205 intersects the municipality along an east to west trajectory from Vila do Conde to [Vila Nova de Famalicão](/wiki/Vila_Nova_de_Famalic%C3%A3o \"Vila Nova de Famalicão\"). Similarly, the EN104 crosses the municipality in the centre, along a similar orientation (east to west), and connects Vila do Conde with [Trofa](/wiki/Trofa%2C_Portugal \"Trofa, Portugal\") and [Santo Tirso](/wiki/Santo_Tirso \"Santo Tirso\"). The ancillary EN205 and EN104 are primarily used by motorists within the municipality and interlink the many civil parishes. Municipal public transport is primarily operated by *Litoral Norte \\- Transportes Urbanos da Póvoa de Varzim*, although the remains lines are managed by*Transdev*. The *B Line* of the Porto Metro system connects Vila do Conde with Porto and the airport, providing both normal and express services, in addition to northern connections to Póvoa de Varzim. The line also operated an older rail\\-line that connected Porto and Póvoa de Varzim, with intermediary stops in Vila do Conde, but was discontinued in 2002 in favour of Metro services.", "Situated {{convert\\|15\\|km\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} from the centre of Vila do Conde, the [Porto\\-Francisco de Sá Carneiro International Airport](/wiki/Francisco_de_S%C3%A1_Carneiro_Airport \"Francisco de Sá Carneiro Airport\") (OPO), the second largest international airport in the country is linked to Vila do Conde across the A28, EN13 and Porto Metro.", "" ]
Geography and geomorphology --------------------------- Tacora lies in the [Arica y Parinacota Region](/wiki/Arica_y_Parinacota_Region "Arica y Parinacota Region") of Chile, about {{convert\|100\|km}} northeast of [Arica](/wiki/Arica "Arica"). It is among the northernmost volcanoes of Chile{{sfn\|Capaccioni\|Aguilera\|Tassi\|Darrah\|2011\|p\=78}} and poorly known.{{sfn\|Capaccioni\|Aguilera\|Tassi\|Darrah\|2011\|p\=77}} Tacora is part of the [Central Volcanic Zone](/wiki/Central_Volcanic_Zone "Central Volcanic Zone"),{{sfn\|Capaccioni\|Aguilera\|Tassi\|Darrah\|2011\|p\=77}} one out of several volcanic belts of the Andes.{{sfn\|Capaccioni\|Aguilera\|Tassi\|Darrah\|2011\|p\=78}} The Central Volcanic Zone is one of the world's major volcanic provinces and features both a high density of volcanoes and some of the tallest volcanic edifices in the world.{{sfn\|Silva\|Francis\|1990\|p\=287}} Volcanoes in the Central Volcanic Zone include [Sabancaya](/wiki/Sabancaya "Sabancaya"), [El Misti](/wiki/El_Misti "El Misti") and [Ubinas](/wiki/Ubinas "Ubinas") in Peru and Tacora, [Isluga](/wiki/Isluga "Isluga"), [Irruputuncu](/wiki/Irruputuncu "Irruputuncu"), [Ollague](/wiki/Ollague "Ollague"), [San Pedro](/wiki/San_Pedro_%28Chile_volcano%29 "San Pedro (Chile volcano)"), [Putana](/wiki/Putana "Putana"), [Alitar](/wiki/Alitar "Alitar"), [Lascar](/wiki/Lascar_%28volcano%29 "Lascar (volcano)") and [Lastarria](/wiki/Lastarria "Lastarria") in Chile, Bolivia and Argentina;{{sfn\|Capaccioni\|Aguilera\|Tassi\|Darrah\|2011\|p\=78}} there are about 34 volcanoes in the Chilean portion of the Central Volcanic Zone alone.{{sfn\|Tamburello\|Hansteen\|Bredemeyer\|Aiuppa\|2014\|p\=4961}} Of these Lascar is considered to be the most active, with a large eruption in 1993\. Aside from volcanoes, the Central Volcanic Zone also features [geothermal](/wiki/Geothermal_activity "Geothermal activity") fields such as [El Tatio](/wiki/El_Tatio "El Tatio").{{sfn\|Capaccioni\|Aguilera\|Tassi\|Darrah\|2011\|p\=77}} The volcano is a {{convert\|5980\|m}} high{{sfn\|Pavez\|Comte\|Gutiérrez\|Gaytán\|2019\|p\=2}}{{cite web\|date\=14 April 2020\|others\=Page "Aguas Calientes" 50000:1\|title\=IGM Chile\|url\=https://www.igm.cl/\|website\=IGM Chile\|access\-date\=14 April 2020}} cone with a summit [caldera](/wiki/Caldera "Caldera") that opens northwest and a {{convert\|500\|m\|\|adj\=on}} wide [crater](/wiki/Volcanic_crater "Volcanic crater") below the summit{{sfn\|Capaccioni\|Aguilera\|Tassi\|Darrah\|2011\|p\=78}} within the caldera [scarp](/wiki/Cliff "Cliff").{{sfn\|Capaccioni\|Aguilera\|Tassi\|Darrah\|2011\|p\=79}} Steep [lava flows](/wiki/Lava_flow "Lava flow") form the bulk of the edifice,{{sfn\|Wörner\|Moorbath\|Horn\|Entenmann\|1994\|p\=81}} along with [lava domes](/wiki/Lava_dome "Lava dome") and [pyroclastic](/wiki/Pyroclastic_rock "Pyroclastic rock") material, and rise about {{convert\|1\.7\|km}} above the surrounding terrain.{{sfn\|Pavez\|Comte\|Gutiérrez\|Gaytán\|2019\|p\=2}} The edifice is heavily [eroded](/wiki/Eroded "Eroded") with about {{convert\|32\|m}} of rocks gone{{sfn\|Heine\|2019\|p\=274}} but still has a circular shape. There are traces of a [sector collapse](/wiki/Sector_collapse "Sector collapse") scar and of the resulting debris avalanche on the southeastern flank. According to some reports [glaciers](/wiki/Glacier "Glacier") occur within the caldera at elevations above {{convert\|5500\|m}},{{sfn\|Capaccioni\|Aguilera\|Tassi\|Darrah\|2011\|p\=78}} while other reports indicate the absence of perennial snow on the mountain. Glacial valleys and [moraines](/wiki/Moraine "Moraine") have been recognized on the eastern, southeastern and southern slopes of the volcano,{{sfn\|Capaccioni\|Aguilera\|Tassi\|Darrah\|2011\|p\=78}} and [cirques](/wiki/Cirque "Cirque") have been found at {{convert\|5000\|m}} elevation. These landforms suggest that the mountain was formerly glaciated. Three sets of moraines have been described, one at {{convert\|4400\|m}} elevation possibly linked to the [last glacial maximum](/wiki/Last_glacial_maximum "Last glacial maximum"), an older one at {{convert\|4500\|m}} elevation and a third at {{convert\|4900\|m}} elevation which may have formed during the [Little Ice Age](/wiki/Little_Ice_Age "Little Ice Age"); moraines reach thicknesses of {{convert\|200\|m}}.{{sfn\|Pavez\|Comte\|Gutiérrez\|Gaytán\|2019\|p\=2}} There is an additional set of moraines at {{convert\|4350\|\-\|4300\|m}} elevation that has been correlated to pre\-last glacial maximum glaciations,{{sfn\|Heine\|2019\|p\=271}} as well as traces of ice cored moraines and [rock glaciers](/wiki/Rock_glacier "Rock glacier").{{sfn\|Heine\|2019\|p\=277}} Some rock glaciers still exist; unlike other glacial bodies in Chile the fronts of rock glaciers on Tacora are not retreating. The mountain is an important source of water for the region. The [Lluta River](/wiki/Lluta_River "Lluta River") originates on Tacora, and its waters are highly salty owing to their origin on the volcano. The Chislluma River flows past the northeastern flank of Tacora and the Rio Caracarani past the southeastern one; finally, the [Mauri Canal](/wiki/Mauri_Canal "Mauri Canal") and [Uchusuma Canal](/wiki/Canal_Uchusuma "Canal Uchusuma") run along the southeastern slopes. On the western and northwestern flanks, [solfataras](/wiki/Solfatara "Solfatara") are present{{sfn\|Capaccioni\|Aguilera\|Tassi\|Darrah\|2011\|p\=77}} both in the form of [fumaroles](/wiki/Fumarole "Fumarole") and of steaming ground, and the Aguas Calientes de Tacora [hot springs](/wiki/Hot_springs "Hot springs") are located {{convert\|2\|km}} southwest of the volcano.{{sfn\|Capaccioni\|Aguilera\|Tassi\|Darrah\|2011\|p\=78}} Further, [geyserite](/wiki/Geyserite "Geyserite") cones indicate that [geysers](/wiki/Geyser "Geyser") were formerly active on the volcano.{{sfn\|Ferraris\|Vila\|1990\|p\=698}} [Seismic tomography](/wiki/Seismic_tomography "Seismic tomography") has been used to image both the hydrothermal systems and [magma](/wiki/Magma "Magma") systems of the volcano, and Tacora has been prospected for [geothermal power](/wiki/Geothermal_power "Geothermal power") generation. In 2009, the Chilean Ministry of Mining recorded bids for geothermal development at Tacora, and one bid was approved by the Ministry in early 2010\. ### Fumaroles Fumarole gases are dominated by [water vapour](/wiki/Water_vapour "Water vapour") with other components including [carbon dioxide](/wiki/Carbon_dioxide "Carbon dioxide"), [hydrogen chloride](/wiki/Hydrogen_chloride "Hydrogen chloride"), [hydrogen fluoride](/wiki/Hydrogen_fluoride "Hydrogen fluoride"), [hydrogen sulfide](/wiki/Hydrogen_sulfide "Hydrogen sulfide"), [nitrogen](/wiki/Nitrogen "Nitrogen") and [sulfur dioxide](/wiki/Sulfur_dioxide "Sulfur dioxide"). [Hydrogen](/wiki/Hydrogen "Hydrogen"), [methane](/wiki/Methane "Methane") and other [hydrocarbons](/wiki/Hydrocarbon "Hydrocarbon") are also common in the exhalations. The temperatures of the fumaroles reach {{convert\|82\|\-\|93\|C}}{{sfn\|Capaccioni\|Aguilera\|Tassi\|Darrah\|2011\|p\=79}} and daily sulfur dioxide emissions have been estimated to be {{convert\|0\.01\|\-\|0\.02\|t/day\|g/s}} in the major fumaroles. The fumarolic gases are interpreted to originate by the evaporation of an [aquifer](/wiki/Aquifer "Aquifer") that is saturated by solfataric components, resulting both in the exhalation of gases and the development of acid hot springs. This aquifer is mostly replenished by precipitation and to a lesser degree by [magmatic water](/wiki/Magmatic_water "Magmatic water").{{sfn\|Capaccioni\|Aguilera\|Tassi\|Darrah\|2011\|p\=80}} Further, there appears to be a [hydrothermal](/wiki/Hydrothermal "Hydrothermal") system with temperatures of {{convert\|270\|\-\|310\|C}} under the volcano that fumarolic gases pass through,{{sfn\|Capaccioni\|Aguilera\|Tassi\|Darrah\|2011\|p\=84}} and a [magma](/wiki/Magma "Magma") system between sea level and {{convert\|2\|km}} of depth.{{sfn\|Pavez\|Comte\|Gutiérrez\|Gaytán\|2019\|p\=10}} Overall, fumarolic gases at Tacora undergo substantial interaction with rocks and hydrothermal systems before they reach the surface.{{sfn\|Tamburello\|Hansteen\|Bredemeyer\|Aiuppa\|2014\|p\=4964}} A cluster of [seismic](/wiki/Seismic "Seismic") activity below the eastern flank may also be correlated to a fluid system at depth.{{sfn\|Pavez\|Comte\|Gutiérrez\|Gaytán\|2019\|p\=9}}
[ "Geography and geomorphology\n---------------------------", "Tacora lies in the [Arica y Parinacota Region](/wiki/Arica_y_Parinacota_Region \"Arica y Parinacota Region\") of Chile, about {{convert\\|100\\|km}} northeast of [Arica](/wiki/Arica \"Arica\"). It is among the northernmost volcanoes of Chile{{sfn\\|Capaccioni\\|Aguilera\\|Tassi\\|Darrah\\|2011\\|p\\=78}} and poorly known.{{sfn\\|Capaccioni\\|Aguilera\\|Tassi\\|Darrah\\|2011\\|p\\=77}}", "Tacora is part of the [Central Volcanic Zone](/wiki/Central_Volcanic_Zone \"Central Volcanic Zone\"),{{sfn\\|Capaccioni\\|Aguilera\\|Tassi\\|Darrah\\|2011\\|p\\=77}} one out of several volcanic belts of the Andes.{{sfn\\|Capaccioni\\|Aguilera\\|Tassi\\|Darrah\\|2011\\|p\\=78}} The Central Volcanic Zone is one of the world's major volcanic provinces and features both a high density of volcanoes and some of the tallest volcanic edifices in the world.{{sfn\\|Silva\\|Francis\\|1990\\|p\\=287}} Volcanoes in the Central Volcanic Zone include [Sabancaya](/wiki/Sabancaya \"Sabancaya\"), [El Misti](/wiki/El_Misti \"El Misti\") and [Ubinas](/wiki/Ubinas \"Ubinas\") in Peru and Tacora, [Isluga](/wiki/Isluga \"Isluga\"), [Irruputuncu](/wiki/Irruputuncu \"Irruputuncu\"), [Ollague](/wiki/Ollague \"Ollague\"), [San Pedro](/wiki/San_Pedro_%28Chile_volcano%29 \"San Pedro (Chile volcano)\"), [Putana](/wiki/Putana \"Putana\"), [Alitar](/wiki/Alitar \"Alitar\"), [Lascar](/wiki/Lascar_%28volcano%29 \"Lascar (volcano)\") and [Lastarria](/wiki/Lastarria \"Lastarria\") in Chile, Bolivia and Argentina;{{sfn\\|Capaccioni\\|Aguilera\\|Tassi\\|Darrah\\|2011\\|p\\=78}} there are about 34 volcanoes in the Chilean portion of the Central Volcanic Zone alone.{{sfn\\|Tamburello\\|Hansteen\\|Bredemeyer\\|Aiuppa\\|2014\\|p\\=4961}} Of these Lascar is considered to be the most active, with a large eruption in 1993\\. Aside from volcanoes, the Central Volcanic Zone also features [geothermal](/wiki/Geothermal_activity \"Geothermal activity\") fields such as [El Tatio](/wiki/El_Tatio \"El Tatio\").{{sfn\\|Capaccioni\\|Aguilera\\|Tassi\\|Darrah\\|2011\\|p\\=77}}", "The volcano is a {{convert\\|5980\\|m}} high{{sfn\\|Pavez\\|Comte\\|Gutiérrez\\|Gaytán\\|2019\\|p\\=2}}{{cite web\\|date\\=14 April 2020\\|others\\=Page \"Aguas Calientes\" 50000:1\\|title\\=IGM Chile\\|url\\=https://www.igm.cl/\\|website\\=IGM Chile\\|access\\-date\\=14 April 2020}} cone with a summit [caldera](/wiki/Caldera \"Caldera\") that opens northwest and a {{convert\\|500\\|m\\|\\|adj\\=on}} wide [crater](/wiki/Volcanic_crater \"Volcanic crater\") below the summit{{sfn\\|Capaccioni\\|Aguilera\\|Tassi\\|Darrah\\|2011\\|p\\=78}} within the caldera [scarp](/wiki/Cliff \"Cliff\").{{sfn\\|Capaccioni\\|Aguilera\\|Tassi\\|Darrah\\|2011\\|p\\=79}} Steep [lava flows](/wiki/Lava_flow \"Lava flow\") form the bulk of the edifice,{{sfn\\|Wörner\\|Moorbath\\|Horn\\|Entenmann\\|1994\\|p\\=81}} along with [lava domes](/wiki/Lava_dome \"Lava dome\") and [pyroclastic](/wiki/Pyroclastic_rock \"Pyroclastic rock\") material, and rise about {{convert\\|1\\.7\\|km}} above the surrounding terrain.{{sfn\\|Pavez\\|Comte\\|Gutiérrez\\|Gaytán\\|2019\\|p\\=2}} The edifice is heavily [eroded](/wiki/Eroded \"Eroded\") with about {{convert\\|32\\|m}} of rocks gone{{sfn\\|Heine\\|2019\\|p\\=274}} but still has a circular shape. There are traces of a [sector collapse](/wiki/Sector_collapse \"Sector collapse\") scar and of the resulting debris avalanche on the southeastern flank.", "According to some reports [glaciers](/wiki/Glacier \"Glacier\") occur within the caldera at elevations above {{convert\\|5500\\|m}},{{sfn\\|Capaccioni\\|Aguilera\\|Tassi\\|Darrah\\|2011\\|p\\=78}} while other reports indicate the absence of perennial snow on the mountain. Glacial valleys and [moraines](/wiki/Moraine \"Moraine\") have been recognized on the eastern, southeastern and southern slopes of the volcano,{{sfn\\|Capaccioni\\|Aguilera\\|Tassi\\|Darrah\\|2011\\|p\\=78}} and [cirques](/wiki/Cirque \"Cirque\") have been found at {{convert\\|5000\\|m}} elevation. These landforms suggest that the mountain was formerly glaciated. Three sets of moraines have been described, one at {{convert\\|4400\\|m}} elevation possibly linked to the [last glacial maximum](/wiki/Last_glacial_maximum \"Last glacial maximum\"), an older one at {{convert\\|4500\\|m}} elevation and a third at {{convert\\|4900\\|m}} elevation which may have formed during the [Little Ice Age](/wiki/Little_Ice_Age \"Little Ice Age\"); moraines reach thicknesses of {{convert\\|200\\|m}}.{{sfn\\|Pavez\\|Comte\\|Gutiérrez\\|Gaytán\\|2019\\|p\\=2}} There is an additional set of moraines at {{convert\\|4350\\|\\-\\|4300\\|m}} elevation that has been correlated to pre\\-last glacial maximum glaciations,{{sfn\\|Heine\\|2019\\|p\\=271}} as well as traces of ice cored moraines and [rock glaciers](/wiki/Rock_glacier \"Rock glacier\").{{sfn\\|Heine\\|2019\\|p\\=277}} Some rock glaciers still exist; unlike other glacial bodies in Chile the fronts of rock glaciers on Tacora are not retreating.", "The mountain is an important source of water for the region. The [Lluta River](/wiki/Lluta_River \"Lluta River\") originates on Tacora, and its waters are highly salty owing to their origin on the volcano. The Chislluma River flows past the northeastern flank of Tacora and the Rio Caracarani past the southeastern one; finally, the [Mauri Canal](/wiki/Mauri_Canal \"Mauri Canal\") and [Uchusuma Canal](/wiki/Canal_Uchusuma \"Canal Uchusuma\") run along the southeastern slopes.", "On the western and northwestern flanks, [solfataras](/wiki/Solfatara \"Solfatara\") are present{{sfn\\|Capaccioni\\|Aguilera\\|Tassi\\|Darrah\\|2011\\|p\\=77}} both in the form of [fumaroles](/wiki/Fumarole \"Fumarole\") and of steaming ground, and the Aguas Calientes de Tacora [hot springs](/wiki/Hot_springs \"Hot springs\") are located {{convert\\|2\\|km}} southwest of the volcano.{{sfn\\|Capaccioni\\|Aguilera\\|Tassi\\|Darrah\\|2011\\|p\\=78}} Further, [geyserite](/wiki/Geyserite \"Geyserite\") cones indicate that [geysers](/wiki/Geyser \"Geyser\") were formerly active on the volcano.{{sfn\\|Ferraris\\|Vila\\|1990\\|p\\=698}} [Seismic tomography](/wiki/Seismic_tomography \"Seismic tomography\") has been used to image both the hydrothermal systems and [magma](/wiki/Magma \"Magma\") systems of the volcano, and Tacora has been prospected for [geothermal power](/wiki/Geothermal_power \"Geothermal power\") generation. In 2009, the Chilean Ministry of Mining recorded bids for geothermal development at Tacora, and one bid was approved by the Ministry in early 2010\\.", "### Fumaroles", "Fumarole gases are dominated by [water vapour](/wiki/Water_vapour \"Water vapour\") with other components including [carbon dioxide](/wiki/Carbon_dioxide \"Carbon dioxide\"), [hydrogen chloride](/wiki/Hydrogen_chloride \"Hydrogen chloride\"), [hydrogen fluoride](/wiki/Hydrogen_fluoride \"Hydrogen fluoride\"), [hydrogen sulfide](/wiki/Hydrogen_sulfide \"Hydrogen sulfide\"), [nitrogen](/wiki/Nitrogen \"Nitrogen\") and [sulfur dioxide](/wiki/Sulfur_dioxide \"Sulfur dioxide\"). [Hydrogen](/wiki/Hydrogen \"Hydrogen\"), [methane](/wiki/Methane \"Methane\") and other [hydrocarbons](/wiki/Hydrocarbon \"Hydrocarbon\") are also common in the exhalations. The temperatures of the fumaroles reach {{convert\\|82\\|\\-\\|93\\|C}}{{sfn\\|Capaccioni\\|Aguilera\\|Tassi\\|Darrah\\|2011\\|p\\=79}} and daily sulfur dioxide emissions have been estimated to be {{convert\\|0\\.01\\|\\-\\|0\\.02\\|t/day\\|g/s}} in the major fumaroles.", "The fumarolic gases are interpreted to originate by the evaporation of an [aquifer](/wiki/Aquifer \"Aquifer\") that is saturated by solfataric components, resulting both in the exhalation of gases and the development of acid hot springs. This aquifer is mostly replenished by precipitation and to a lesser degree by [magmatic water](/wiki/Magmatic_water \"Magmatic water\").{{sfn\\|Capaccioni\\|Aguilera\\|Tassi\\|Darrah\\|2011\\|p\\=80}} Further, there appears to be a [hydrothermal](/wiki/Hydrothermal \"Hydrothermal\") system with temperatures of {{convert\\|270\\|\\-\\|310\\|C}} under the volcano that fumarolic gases pass through,{{sfn\\|Capaccioni\\|Aguilera\\|Tassi\\|Darrah\\|2011\\|p\\=84}} and a [magma](/wiki/Magma \"Magma\") system between sea level and {{convert\\|2\\|km}} of depth.{{sfn\\|Pavez\\|Comte\\|Gutiérrez\\|Gaytán\\|2019\\|p\\=10}} Overall, fumarolic gases at Tacora undergo substantial interaction with rocks and hydrothermal systems before they reach the surface.{{sfn\\|Tamburello\\|Hansteen\\|Bredemeyer\\|Aiuppa\\|2014\\|p\\=4964}} A cluster of [seismic](/wiki/Seismic \"Seismic\") activity below the eastern flank may also be correlated to a fluid system at depth.{{sfn\\|Pavez\\|Comte\\|Gutiérrez\\|Gaytán\\|2019\\|p\\=9}}", "" ]
Demographics ------------ {{US Census population \|1860\= 353 \|1870\= 294 \|1880\= 398 \|1890\= 306 \|1900\= 282 \|1910\= 262 \|1920\= 228 \|1930\= 251 \|1940\= 213 \|1950\= 191 \|1970\= 146 \|1980\= 163 \|1990\= 194 \|2000\= 231 \|2010\= 254 \|2020\= 230 \|footnote\=U.S. Decennial Census{{cite web\|url\=https://www.census.gov/programs\-surveys/decennial\-census.html\|title\=Census of Population and Housing\|publisher\=Census.gov\|accessdate\=June 4, 2015}} }} [thumb\|left\|The Piscataquis River in Medford, Maine](/wiki/File:Winter_sunset_03.jpg "Winter sunset 03.jpg") ### 2010 census As of the [census](/wiki/Census "Census"){{cite web\|title\=U.S. Census website\|url\=https://www.census.gov\|publisher\=\[\[United States Census Bureau]]\|accessdate\=December 16, 2012}} of 2010, there were 254 people, 104 households, and 74 families residing in the town. The [population density](/wiki/Population_density "Population density") was {{convert\|6\.0\|PD/sqmi\|PD/km2\|1}}. There were 164 housing units at an average density of {{convert\|3\.9\|/sqmi\|/km2\|1}}. The racial makeup of the town was 98\.8% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 "White (U.S. Census)"), 0\.8% [African American](/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29 "African American (U.S. Census)"), and 0\.4% from two or more races. [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 "Hispanic (U.S. Census)") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 "Latino (U.S. Census)") of any race were 0\.4% of the population. There were 104 households, of which 24\.0% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 60\.6% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage "Marriage") living together, 5\.8% had a female householder with no husband present, 4\.8% had a male householder with no wife present, and 28\.8% were non\-families. 14\.4% of all households were made up of individuals, and 2\.9% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\.44 and the average family size was 2\.61\. The median age in the town was 46\.5 years. 18\.1% of residents were under the age of 18; 8\.6% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 20% were from 25 to 44; 42\.2% were from 45 to 64; and 11% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the town was 53\.5% male and 46\.5% female. ### 2000 census As of the [census](/wiki/Census "Census"){{cite web\|url\=https://www.census.gov\|publisher\=\[\[United States Census Bureau]]\|accessdate\=January 31, 2008\|title\=U.S. Census website}} of 2000, there were 231 people, 88 households, and 69 families residing in the town. The [population density](/wiki/Population_density "Population density") was 5\.4 people per square mile (2\.1/km{{sup\|2}}). There were 135 housing units at an average density of 3\.2 per square mile (1\.2/km{{sup\|2}}). The racial makeup of the town was 99\.57% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 "White (U.S. Census)"), and 0\.43% from two or more races. [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 "Hispanic (U.S. Census)") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 "Latino (U.S. Census)") of any race were 0\.43% of the population. There were 88 households, out of which 38\.6% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 68\.2% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage "Marriage") living together, 4\.5% had a female householder with no husband present, and 20\.5% were non\-families. 19\.3% of all households were made up of individuals, and 4\.5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\.63 and the average family size was 2\.91\. In the town, the population was spread out, with 22\.1% under the age of 18, 6\.5% from 18 to 24, 37\.2% from 25 to 44, 22\.1% from 45 to 64, and 12\.1% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 39 years. For every 100 females, there were 124\.3 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 114\.3 males. The median income for a household in the town was $28,750, and the median income for a family was $30,000\. Males had a median income of $21,667 versus $26,250 for females. The [per capita income](/wiki/Per_capita_income "Per capita income") for the town was $12,609\. About 10\.0% of families and 15\.0% of the population were below the [poverty line](/wiki/Poverty_line "Poverty line"), including 31\.7% of those under the age of eighteen and none of those 65 or over.
[ "Demographics\n------------", "{{US Census population\n\\|1860\\= 353\n\\|1870\\= 294\n\\|1880\\= 398\n\\|1890\\= 306\n\\|1900\\= 282\n\\|1910\\= 262\n\\|1920\\= 228\n\\|1930\\= 251\n\\|1940\\= 213\n\\|1950\\= 191\n\\|1970\\= 146\n\\|1980\\= 163\n\\|1990\\= 194\n\\|2000\\= 231\n\\|2010\\= 254\n\\|2020\\= 230\n\\|footnote\\=U.S. Decennial Census{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.census.gov/programs\\-surveys/decennial\\-census.html\\|title\\=Census of Population and Housing\\|publisher\\=Census.gov\\|accessdate\\=June 4, 2015}}\n}}\n[thumb\\|left\\|The Piscataquis River in Medford, Maine](/wiki/File:Winter_sunset_03.jpg \"Winter sunset 03.jpg\")", "### 2010 census", "As of the [census](/wiki/Census \"Census\"){{cite web\\|title\\=U.S. Census website\\|url\\=https://www.census.gov\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[United States Census Bureau]]\\|accessdate\\=December 16, 2012}} of 2010, there were 254 people, 104 households, and 74 families residing in the town. The [population density](/wiki/Population_density \"Population density\") was {{convert\\|6\\.0\\|PD/sqmi\\|PD/km2\\|1}}. There were 164 housing units at an average density of {{convert\\|3\\.9\\|/sqmi\\|/km2\\|1}}. The racial makeup of the town was 98\\.8% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 \"White (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.8% [African American](/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"African American (U.S. Census)\"), and 0\\.4% from two or more races. [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Hispanic (U.S. Census)\") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Latino (U.S. Census)\") of any race were 0\\.4% of the population.", "There were 104 households, of which 24\\.0% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 60\\.6% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage \"Marriage\") living together, 5\\.8% had a female householder with no husband present, 4\\.8% had a male householder with no wife present, and 28\\.8% were non\\-families. 14\\.4% of all households were made up of individuals, and 2\\.9% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\\.44 and the average family size was 2\\.61\\.", "The median age in the town was 46\\.5 years. 18\\.1% of residents were under the age of 18; 8\\.6% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 20% were from 25 to 44; 42\\.2% were from 45 to 64; and 11% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the town was 53\\.5% male and 46\\.5% female.", "### 2000 census", "As of the [census](/wiki/Census \"Census\"){{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.census.gov\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[United States Census Bureau]]\\|accessdate\\=January 31, 2008\\|title\\=U.S. Census website}} of 2000, there were 231 people, 88 households, and 69 families residing in the town. The [population density](/wiki/Population_density \"Population density\") was 5\\.4 people per square mile (2\\.1/km{{sup\\|2}}). There were 135 housing units at an average density of 3\\.2 per square mile (1\\.2/km{{sup\\|2}}). The racial makeup of the town was 99\\.57% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 \"White (U.S. Census)\"), and 0\\.43% from two or more races. [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Hispanic (U.S. Census)\") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Latino (U.S. Census)\") of any race were 0\\.43% of the population.", "There were 88 households, out of which 38\\.6% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 68\\.2% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage \"Marriage\") living together, 4\\.5% had a female householder with no husband present, and 20\\.5% were non\\-families. 19\\.3% of all households were made up of individuals, and 4\\.5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\\.63 and the average family size was 2\\.91\\.", "In the town, the population was spread out, with 22\\.1% under the age of 18, 6\\.5% from 18 to 24, 37\\.2% from 25 to 44, 22\\.1% from 45 to 64, and 12\\.1% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 39 years. For every 100 females, there were 124\\.3 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 114\\.3 males.", "The median income for a household in the town was $28,750, and the median income for a family was $30,000\\. Males had a median income of $21,667 versus $26,250 for females. The [per capita income](/wiki/Per_capita_income \"Per capita income\") for the town was $12,609\\. About 10\\.0% of families and 15\\.0% of the population were below the [poverty line](/wiki/Poverty_line \"Poverty line\"), including 31\\.7% of those under the age of eighteen and none of those 65 or over.", "" ]
Metering methods ---------------- Custody transfer is one of the most important applications for [flow measurement](/wiki/Flow_measurement "Flow measurement"). Many flow measurement technologies are used for custody transfer applications; these include [differential pressure (DP) flowmeters](/wiki/Pressure_sensor "Pressure sensor"), [turbine flowmeters](/wiki/Flow_measurement "Flow measurement"), [positive displacement flowmeters](/wiki/Positive_displacement_meter "Positive displacement meter"), [Coriolis flowmeters](/wiki/Coriolis_flow_meter "Coriolis flow meter") and [ultrasonic flowmeters](/wiki/Ultrasonic_flow_meter "Ultrasonic flow meter").{{cite web\|url\=http://www.emersonprocessxperts.com/archives/applications/custody\_transfe/ \|title\=Custody Transfer Flow Measurement \|access\-date\=10 April 2011 \|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100709131303/http://www.emersonprocessxperts.com/archives/applications/custody\_transfe/ \|archive\-date\=9 July 2010 }} ### Differential pressure flowmeters [Differential pressure (DP) flowmeters](/wiki/Pressure_sensor "Pressure sensor") are used for the *custody transfer* of liquid and gas to measure the flow of liquid, gas, and steam. The DP flowmeter consist of a differential [pressure transmitter](/wiki/Pressure_transmitter "Pressure transmitter") and a primary element. The primary element places a constriction in a flow stream, while the DP transmitter measures the difference in pressure [upstream](/wiki/Upstream_%28petroleum_industry%29 "Upstream (petroleum industry)") and [downstream](/wiki/Downstream_%28petroleum_industry%29 "Downstream (petroleum industry)") of the constriction. In many cases, pressure transmitters and primary elements are bought by the end\-users from different suppliers. However, several vendors have integrated the pressure transmitter with the primary element to form a complete flowmeter. The advantage of this is that they can be calibrated with the primary element and DP transmitter already in place.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.pipelineandgasjournal.com/energy\-demand\-propels\-custody\-transfer\-flow\-measurement\|title\=Energy Demand Propels Custody Transfer Flow Measurement\|access\-date\=10 April 2011\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110106091214/http://pipelineandgasjournal.com/energy\-demand\-propels\-custody\-transfer\-flow\-measurement\|archive\-date\=2011\-01\-06\|url\-status\=dead}} Standards and criteria for the use of DP flowmeters for custody transfer applications are specified by the [American Gas Association](/wiki/American_Gas_Association "American Gas Association") (AGA) and the [American Petroleum Institute](/wiki/American_Petroleum_Institute "American Petroleum Institute") (API). An advantage of using a DP flowmeters is that they are the most studied and best understood type of flowmeter. A disadvantage of using a DP flowmeters is that they introduce a pressure drop into the flowmeter line. This is a necessary result of the constriction in the line that is required to make the DP flow measurement.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.omega.co.uk/literature/transactions/volume4/T9904\-07\-DIFF.html\|title\=Flow and Level Measurement \|access\-date\=11 April 2011}} One important development in the use of DP flowmeters for custody transfer applications has been the development of single and dual chamber [orifice](/wiki/Orifice_plate "Orifice plate") fittings. ### Turbine flowmeters The first [turbine flowmeter](/wiki/Flow_measurement "Flow measurement") was invented by Reinhard Woltman, a German engineer in 1790\. Turbine flowmeters consist of a rotor with propeller\-like blades that spins as water or some other fluid passes over it. The rotor spins in proportion to flow rate (see [turbine meters](/wiki/Gas_meter "Gas meter")) . There are many types of turbine meters, but many of those used for gas flow are called **axial meters**.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.custodytransfer.com/\|title\=The World Market for Custody Transfer of Natural Gas \|access\-date\=10 April 2011}} The turbine flowmeter is most useful when measuring clean, steady, high\-speed flow of [low\-viscosity fluids](/wiki/Viscosity "Viscosity"). In comparison to other flowmeters, the turbine flowmeter has a significant cost advantage over [ultrasonic flowmeters](/wiki/Ultrasonic_flow_meter "Ultrasonic flow meter"), especially in the larger line sizes, and it also has a favourable price compared to the prices of DP flowmeters, especially in cases where one turbine meter can replace several DP meters. The disadvantage of turbine flowmeters is that they have moving parts that are subject to wear. To prevent wear and inaccuracy, durable materials are used, including ceramic [ball bearings](/wiki/Ball_bearing "Ball bearing"). ### Positive displacement flowmeters [Positive displacement (PD) flowmeters](/wiki/Positive_displacement_meter "Positive displacement meter") are highly accurate meters that are widely used for custody transfer of [commercial](/wiki/Commerce "Commerce") and industrial water, as well as for custody transfer of many other liquids. PD flowmeters have the advantage that they have been approved by a number of regulatory bodies for this purpose, and they have not yet been displaced by other applications.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.flowcontrolnetwork.com/measurement/flowmeters/article/considering\-traditional\-technology\-flowmeters \|title\=Considering Traditional Technology Flowmeters \|author\=Jesse Yoder Phd \|access\-date\=10 April 2011 \|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110728132929/http://www.flowcontrolnetwork.com/measurement/flowmeters/article/considering\-traditional\-technology\-flowmeters \|archive\-date\=28 July 2011 }} PD meters excel at measuring low flows, and also at measuring highly [viscous flows](/wiki/Viscosity "Viscosity"), because PD meters captures the flow in a container of known volume. [Speed](/wiki/Speed "Speed") of flow doesn't matter when using a PD meter. ### Coriolis flowmeters [Coriolis flowmeters](/wiki/Coriolis_flow_meter "Coriolis flow meter") have been around for more than 30 years and are preferred in process industries such as [chemical](/wiki/Chemical "Chemical") and [food](/wiki/Food "Food") and [beverage](/wiki/Beverage "Beverage").{{cite web\|url\= http://www.instrumentation.co.za/article.aspx?pklArticleId\=4551\&pklCategoryId\=59\|title\=Custody transfer of oil products with Coriolis mass flowmeters \|access\-date\=10 April 2011}} Coriolis technology offers accuracy and reliability in measuring material flow, and is often hailed as among the best flow measurement technologies due to direct mass flow, fluid density, temperature, and precise calculated volume flow rates. Coriolis meters do not have any moving parts and provide long term stability, repeatability, and reliability. Because they are direct mass flow measurement devices, Coriolis meters can handle the widest range of fluids from gases to heavy liquids and are not impacted by viscosity or density changes that often effect velocity based technologies (PD, Turbine, Ultrasonic). With the widest flow range capability of any flow technology, Coriolis can be sized for low pressure drop. This combined with the fact that they are not flow profile dependent helps eliminate the need for straight runs and flow conditioning which enables custody transfer systems to be designed with minimal pressure drop. It has to be mentioned that any measurement instrument that relies on one measurement principle only will show a higher [measurement uncertainty](/wiki/Measurement_uncertainty "Measurement uncertainty") under two\-phase flow conditions. Conventional measurement principles, like [positive displacement](/wiki/Positive_displacement_meter "Positive displacement meter"), [turbine meters](/wiki/Turbine_meters "Turbine meters"), [orifice plates](/wiki/Orifice_plates "Orifice plates") will seemingly continue to measure, but will not be able to inform the user about the occurrence of two\-phase flow. Yet modern principles based on the [Coriolis effect](/wiki/Coriolis_effect "Coriolis effect") or [ultrasonic flow](/wiki/Ultrasonic_flow_meter "Ultrasonic flow meter") measurement will inform the user by means of diagnostic functions. Flow is measured using Coriolis meters by analyzing the changes in the Coriolis force of a flowing substance. The force is generated in a mass moving within a rotating frame of reference. An angular, outward [acceleration](/wiki/Acceleration "Acceleration"), which is factored with linear [velocity](/wiki/Velocity "Velocity") is produced due to the rotation. With a fluid mass, the Coriolis force is proportional to the mass flow rate of that fluid. A Coriolis meter has two main components: an oscillating flow tube equipped with [sensors](/wiki/Sensors "Sensors") and drivers, and an electronic [transmitter](/wiki/Transmitter "Transmitter") that controls the oscillations, analyzes the results, and transmits the information. The Coriolis principle for [flow measurement](/wiki/Flow_measurement "Flow measurement") requires the [oscillating](/wiki/Oscillating "Oscillating") section of a rotating pipe to be exploited. Oscillation produces the Coriolis force, which traditionally is sensed and analyzed to determine the rate of flow. Modern coriolis meters utilize the phase difference measured at each end of the oscillating pipe.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.pump\-zone.com/index2\.php?option\=com\_content\&task\=emailform\&id\=732\|title\=Digital Coriolis Flowmeters in Oil and Gas Custody Transfer \|access\-date\=10 April 2011}} ### Ultrasonic flowmeters [Ultrasonic flowmeters](/wiki/Ultrasonic_flow_meter "Ultrasonic flow meter") were first introduced into industrial markets in 1963 by ***Tokyo Keiki*** (now Tokimec) in Japan. Custody transfer measurements have been around for a long time, and over the past ten years, Coriolis and ultrasonic meters have become the flowmeters of choice for custody transfer in the [oil and gas industry](/wiki/Oil_and_gas_industry "Oil and gas industry"). Ultrasonic meters provide volumetric flow rate. They typically use the transit\-time method, where sounds waves transmitted in the direction of fluid flow travel faster than those travelling upstream. The transit time difference is proportional to fluid velocity. Ultrasonic flow meters have negligible pressure drop if recommended installation is followed, have high turndown capability, and can handle a wide range of applications. Crude oil production, transportation, and processing are typical applications for this technology. The use of ultrasonic flowmeters is continuing to grow for custody transfer. Unlike PD and turbine meters, ultrasonic flowmeters do not have moving parts. Pressure drop is much reduced with an ultrasonic meter when compared to PD, turbine, and DP meters. Installation of ultrasonic meters is relatively straightforward, and maintenance requirements are low. In June 1998, The [American Gas Association](/wiki/American_Gas_Association "American Gas Association") published a standard called AGA\-9\. This standard lays out the criteria for the use of [ultrasonic flowmeters](/wiki/Ultrasonic_flow_meter "Ultrasonic flow meter") for Custody Transfer of [Natural Gas](/wiki/Natural_Gas "Natural Gas").{{cite web\|url\=http://www.flowresearch.com/articles/PDF\_Files/FC\-0108\-FA.pdf\|title\=Ultrasonic Flowmeters for Custody Transfer\|access\-date\=10 April 2011\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120322140755/http://www.flowresearch.com/articles/PDF\_Files/FC\-0108\-FA.pdf\|archive\-date\=22 March 2012\|url\-status\=dead}}
[ "Metering methods\n----------------", "Custody transfer is one of the most important applications for [flow measurement](/wiki/Flow_measurement \"Flow measurement\"). Many flow measurement technologies are used for custody transfer applications; these include [differential pressure (DP) flowmeters](/wiki/Pressure_sensor \"Pressure sensor\"), [turbine flowmeters](/wiki/Flow_measurement \"Flow measurement\"), [positive displacement flowmeters](/wiki/Positive_displacement_meter \"Positive displacement meter\"), [Coriolis flowmeters](/wiki/Coriolis_flow_meter \"Coriolis flow meter\") and [ultrasonic flowmeters](/wiki/Ultrasonic_flow_meter \"Ultrasonic flow meter\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.emersonprocessxperts.com/archives/applications/custody\\_transfe/ \\|title\\=Custody Transfer Flow Measurement \\|access\\-date\\=10 April 2011 \\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100709131303/http://www.emersonprocessxperts.com/archives/applications/custody\\_transfe/ \\|archive\\-date\\=9 July 2010 }}", "### Differential pressure flowmeters", "[Differential pressure (DP) flowmeters](/wiki/Pressure_sensor \"Pressure sensor\") are used for the *custody transfer* of liquid and gas to measure the flow of liquid, gas, and steam. The DP flowmeter consist of a differential [pressure transmitter](/wiki/Pressure_transmitter \"Pressure transmitter\") and a primary element. The primary element places a constriction in a flow stream, while the DP transmitter measures the difference in pressure [upstream](/wiki/Upstream_%28petroleum_industry%29 \"Upstream (petroleum industry)\") and [downstream](/wiki/Downstream_%28petroleum_industry%29 \"Downstream (petroleum industry)\") of the constriction.", "In many cases, pressure transmitters and primary elements are bought by the end\\-users from different suppliers. However, several vendors have integrated the pressure transmitter with the primary element to form a complete flowmeter. The advantage of this is that they can be calibrated with the primary element and DP transmitter already in place.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.pipelineandgasjournal.com/energy\\-demand\\-propels\\-custody\\-transfer\\-flow\\-measurement\\|title\\=Energy Demand Propels Custody Transfer Flow Measurement\\|access\\-date\\=10 April 2011\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110106091214/http://pipelineandgasjournal.com/energy\\-demand\\-propels\\-custody\\-transfer\\-flow\\-measurement\\|archive\\-date\\=2011\\-01\\-06\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}", "Standards and criteria for the use of DP flowmeters for custody transfer applications are specified by the [American Gas Association](/wiki/American_Gas_Association \"American Gas Association\") (AGA) and the [American Petroleum Institute](/wiki/American_Petroleum_Institute \"American Petroleum Institute\") (API).", "An advantage of using a DP flowmeters is that they are the most studied and best understood type of flowmeter. A disadvantage of using a DP flowmeters is that they introduce a pressure drop into the flowmeter line. This is a necessary result of the constriction in the line that is required to make the DP flow measurement.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.omega.co.uk/literature/transactions/volume4/T9904\\-07\\-DIFF.html\\|title\\=Flow and Level Measurement \\|access\\-date\\=11 April 2011}}", "One important development in the use of DP flowmeters for custody transfer applications has been the development of single and dual chamber [orifice](/wiki/Orifice_plate \"Orifice plate\") fittings.", "### Turbine flowmeters", "The first [turbine flowmeter](/wiki/Flow_measurement \"Flow measurement\") was invented by Reinhard Woltman, a German engineer in 1790\\. Turbine flowmeters consist of a rotor with propeller\\-like blades that spins as water or some other fluid passes over it. The rotor spins in proportion to flow rate (see [turbine meters](/wiki/Gas_meter \"Gas meter\")) . There are many types of turbine meters, but many of those used for gas flow are called **axial meters**.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.custodytransfer.com/\\|title\\=The World Market for Custody Transfer of Natural Gas \\|access\\-date\\=10 April 2011}}", "The turbine flowmeter is most useful when measuring clean, steady, high\\-speed flow of [low\\-viscosity fluids](/wiki/Viscosity \"Viscosity\"). In comparison to other flowmeters, the turbine flowmeter has a significant cost advantage over [ultrasonic flowmeters](/wiki/Ultrasonic_flow_meter \"Ultrasonic flow meter\"), especially in the larger line sizes, and it also has a favourable price compared to the prices of DP flowmeters, especially in cases where one turbine meter can replace several DP meters.", "The disadvantage of turbine flowmeters is that they have moving parts that are subject to wear. To prevent wear and inaccuracy, durable materials are used, including ceramic [ball bearings](/wiki/Ball_bearing \"Ball bearing\").", "### Positive displacement flowmeters", "[Positive displacement (PD) flowmeters](/wiki/Positive_displacement_meter \"Positive displacement meter\") are highly accurate meters that are widely used for custody transfer of [commercial](/wiki/Commerce \"Commerce\") and industrial water, as well as for custody transfer of many other liquids. PD flowmeters have the advantage that they have been approved by a number of regulatory bodies for this purpose, and they have not yet been displaced by other applications.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.flowcontrolnetwork.com/measurement/flowmeters/article/considering\\-traditional\\-technology\\-flowmeters \\|title\\=Considering Traditional Technology Flowmeters \\|author\\=Jesse Yoder Phd \\|access\\-date\\=10 April 2011 \\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110728132929/http://www.flowcontrolnetwork.com/measurement/flowmeters/article/considering\\-traditional\\-technology\\-flowmeters \\|archive\\-date\\=28 July 2011 }}", "PD meters excel at measuring low flows, and also at measuring highly [viscous flows](/wiki/Viscosity \"Viscosity\"), because PD meters captures the flow in a container of known volume. [Speed](/wiki/Speed \"Speed\") of flow doesn't matter when using a PD meter.", "### Coriolis flowmeters", "[Coriolis flowmeters](/wiki/Coriolis_flow_meter \"Coriolis flow meter\") have been around for more than 30 years and are preferred in process industries such as [chemical](/wiki/Chemical \"Chemical\") and [food](/wiki/Food \"Food\") and [beverage](/wiki/Beverage \"Beverage\").{{cite web\\|url\\= http://www.instrumentation.co.za/article.aspx?pklArticleId\\=4551\\&pklCategoryId\\=59\\|title\\=Custody transfer of oil products with Coriolis mass flowmeters \\|access\\-date\\=10 April 2011}} Coriolis technology offers accuracy and reliability in measuring material flow, and is often hailed as among the best flow measurement technologies due to direct mass flow, fluid density, temperature, and precise calculated volume flow rates. Coriolis meters do not have any moving parts and provide long term stability, repeatability, and reliability. Because they are direct mass flow measurement devices, Coriolis meters can handle the widest range of fluids from gases to heavy liquids and are not impacted by viscosity or density changes that often effect velocity based technologies (PD, Turbine, Ultrasonic). With the widest flow range capability of any flow technology, Coriolis can be sized for low pressure drop. This combined with the fact that they are not flow profile dependent helps eliminate the need for straight runs and flow conditioning which enables custody transfer systems to be designed with minimal pressure drop.", "It has to be mentioned that any measurement instrument that relies on one measurement principle only will show a higher [measurement uncertainty](/wiki/Measurement_uncertainty \"Measurement uncertainty\") under two\\-phase flow conditions. Conventional measurement principles, like [positive displacement](/wiki/Positive_displacement_meter \"Positive displacement meter\"), [turbine meters](/wiki/Turbine_meters \"Turbine meters\"), [orifice plates](/wiki/Orifice_plates \"Orifice plates\") will seemingly continue to measure, but will not be able to inform the user about the occurrence of two\\-phase flow. Yet modern principles based on the [Coriolis effect](/wiki/Coriolis_effect \"Coriolis effect\") or [ultrasonic flow](/wiki/Ultrasonic_flow_meter \"Ultrasonic flow meter\") measurement will inform the user by means of diagnostic functions.", "Flow is measured using Coriolis meters by analyzing the changes in the Coriolis force of a flowing substance. The force is generated in a mass moving within a rotating frame of reference. An angular, outward [acceleration](/wiki/Acceleration \"Acceleration\"), which is factored with linear [velocity](/wiki/Velocity \"Velocity\") is produced due to the rotation. With a fluid mass, the Coriolis force is proportional to the mass flow rate of that fluid.", "A Coriolis meter has two main components: an oscillating flow tube equipped with [sensors](/wiki/Sensors \"Sensors\") and drivers, and an electronic [transmitter](/wiki/Transmitter \"Transmitter\") that controls the oscillations, analyzes the results, and transmits the information. The Coriolis principle for [flow measurement](/wiki/Flow_measurement \"Flow measurement\") requires the [oscillating](/wiki/Oscillating \"Oscillating\") section of a rotating pipe to be exploited. Oscillation produces the Coriolis force, which traditionally is sensed and analyzed to determine the rate of flow. Modern coriolis meters utilize the phase difference measured at each end of the oscillating pipe.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.pump\\-zone.com/index2\\.php?option\\=com\\_content\\&task\\=emailform\\&id\\=732\\|title\\=Digital Coriolis Flowmeters in Oil and Gas Custody Transfer \\|access\\-date\\=10 April 2011}}", "### Ultrasonic flowmeters", "[Ultrasonic flowmeters](/wiki/Ultrasonic_flow_meter \"Ultrasonic flow meter\") were first introduced into industrial markets in 1963 by ***Tokyo Keiki*** (now Tokimec) in Japan. Custody transfer measurements have been around for a long time, and over the past ten years, Coriolis and ultrasonic meters have become the flowmeters of choice for custody transfer in the [oil and gas industry](/wiki/Oil_and_gas_industry \"Oil and gas industry\").", "Ultrasonic meters provide volumetric flow rate. They typically use the transit\\-time method, where sounds waves transmitted in the direction of fluid flow travel faster than those travelling upstream. The transit time difference is proportional to fluid velocity. Ultrasonic flow meters have negligible pressure drop if recommended installation is followed, have high turndown capability, and can handle a wide range of applications. Crude oil production, transportation, and processing are typical applications for this technology.", "The use of ultrasonic flowmeters is continuing to grow for custody transfer. Unlike PD and turbine meters, ultrasonic flowmeters do not have moving parts. Pressure drop is much reduced with an ultrasonic meter when compared to PD, turbine, and DP meters. Installation of ultrasonic meters is relatively straightforward, and maintenance requirements are low.", "In June 1998, The [American Gas Association](/wiki/American_Gas_Association \"American Gas Association\") published a standard called AGA\\-9\\. This standard lays out the criteria for the use of [ultrasonic flowmeters](/wiki/Ultrasonic_flow_meter \"Ultrasonic flow meter\") for Custody Transfer of [Natural Gas](/wiki/Natural_Gas \"Natural Gas\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.flowresearch.com/articles/PDF\\_Files/FC\\-0108\\-FA.pdf\\|title\\=Ultrasonic Flowmeters for Custody Transfer\\|access\\-date\\=10 April 2011\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120322140755/http://www.flowresearch.com/articles/PDF\\_Files/FC\\-0108\\-FA.pdf\\|archive\\-date\\=22 March 2012\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}", "" ]
Liquid custody transfer ----------------------- Custody transfer of liquid flow measurement follow guidelines set by the [ISO](/wiki/International_Organization_for_Standardization "International Organization for Standardization"). By industrial consensus, liquid flow measurement is defined as having an overall [uncertainty](/wiki/Uncertainty "Uncertainty") of ±0\.25% or better. The overall uncertainty is derived from an appropriate statistical combination of the component uncertainties in the measurement system. ### Mode of measurement #### Volume or mass measurement Liquid flow measurements are usually in volumetric or mass unit. Volume is normally used for stand\-alone field tanker loading operations, while mass is used for multi\-field pipeline or offshore pipeline with an allocation requirement. Mass measurement and reporting are achieved by * Measurement of volume flow rate (for example, by turbine or ultrasonic meter) and fluid density * Direct mass measurement by Coriolis meter #### Sampling system An automatic flow\-proportional sampling system is used in flow measurement to determine the average water content, average density and for analysis purposes. Sampling systems should be broadly in accordance with [ISO](/wiki/International_Organization_for_Standardization "International Organization for Standardization") 3171\. The sampling system is a critical section during flow measurement. Any errors introduced through sampling error will generally have a direct, linear effect on the overall measurement. #### Temperature and pressure measurement Temperature and pressure measurement are important factors to consider when taking flow measurements of liquids. Temperature and pressure measurement points should be situated as close to the meter as possible, in reference to their conditions at the meter inlet. Temperature measurements that affect the accuracy of the metering system should have an overall loop accuracy of 0\.5 °C or better, and the corresponding readout should have a resolution of 0\.2 °C or better. Temperature checks are performed by certified [thermometers](/wiki/Thermometers "Thermometers") with the aid of [Thermowells](/wiki/Thermowell "Thermowell") Pressure measurements that affect the accuracy of the metering system should have an overall loop accuracy of 0\.5 bar or better and the corresponding readout should have a resolution of 0\.1 bar or better.
[ "Liquid custody transfer\n-----------------------", "Custody transfer of liquid flow measurement follow guidelines set by the [ISO](/wiki/International_Organization_for_Standardization \"International Organization for Standardization\"). By industrial consensus, liquid flow measurement is defined as having an overall [uncertainty](/wiki/Uncertainty \"Uncertainty\") of ±0\\.25% or better. The overall uncertainty is derived from an appropriate statistical combination of the component uncertainties in the measurement system.", "### Mode of measurement", "#### Volume or mass measurement", "Liquid flow measurements are usually in volumetric or mass unit. Volume is normally used for stand\\-alone field tanker loading operations, while mass is used for multi\\-field pipeline or offshore pipeline with an allocation requirement.", "Mass measurement and reporting are achieved by\n* Measurement of volume flow rate (for example, by turbine or ultrasonic meter) and fluid density\n* Direct mass measurement by Coriolis meter", "#### Sampling system", "An automatic flow\\-proportional sampling system is used in flow measurement to determine the average water content, average density and for analysis purposes. Sampling systems should be broadly in accordance with [ISO](/wiki/International_Organization_for_Standardization \"International Organization for Standardization\") 3171\\.\nThe sampling system is a critical section during flow measurement. Any errors introduced through sampling error will generally have a direct, linear effect on the overall measurement.", "#### Temperature and pressure measurement", "Temperature and pressure measurement are important factors to consider when taking flow measurements of liquids. Temperature and pressure measurement points should be situated as close to the meter as possible, in reference to their conditions at the meter inlet. Temperature measurements that affect the accuracy of the metering system should have an overall loop accuracy of 0\\.5 °C or better, and the corresponding readout should have a resolution of 0\\.2 °C or better.", "Temperature checks are performed by certified [thermometers](/wiki/Thermometers \"Thermometers\") with the aid of [Thermowells](/wiki/Thermowell \"Thermowell\")", "Pressure measurements that affect the accuracy of the metering system should have an overall loop accuracy of 0\\.5 bar or better and the corresponding readout should have a resolution of 0\\.1 bar or better.", "" ]
Colorado life ------------- ### Early years Returning to the United States, he first settled briefly in the [Colorado](/wiki/Colorado "Colorado") town of [Central City](/wiki/Central_City%2C_Colorado "Central City, Colorado"). In either 1877 or 1878, Grant moved to the newly founded Colorado town of [Leadville](/wiki/Leadville "Leadville").{{cite journal \|last1\=Cannon \|first1\=Helen \|title\=First Ladies of Colorado Mary Goodell Grant \|journal\=Colorado Magazine \|date\=Winter 1964 \|volume\=4 \|issue\=1 \|url\=https://www.historycolorado.org/sites/default/files/media/document/2018/ColoradoMagazine\_v41n1\_Winter1964\.pdf \|access\-date\=1 June 2020}} He started his career as a metallurgic engineer and smelting [magnate](/wiki/Magnate "Magnate") there. In Leadville, Grant constructed the {{convert\|353\|ft\|m}} tall Grant Smelter stack, which was at the time of its completion the third largest [smelter](/wiki/Smelter "Smelter") in the world and the tallest in the United States. Grant was also involved in the construction of the {{convert\|5\|mi\|km}} long Yak Tunnel, which facilitated deep mining. In Leadville, Grant married into the Goodell family, esteemed in Colorado, by marrying the young [Mary Goodell](/wiki/Mary_Goodell_Grant "Mary Goodell Grant"), the daughter of [Roswell Eaton Goodell](/wiki/Roswell_Eaton_Goodell "Roswell Eaton Goodell") and granddaughter of former Illinois governor [Joel Aldrich Matteson](/wiki/Joel_Aldrich_Matteson "Joel Aldrich Matteson"). The two wed in Leadville's newly built St. George's Episcopal Church. The ceremony was presided over by James J. Mackay. The wedding was a major social event in the community, and was the newly opened church's first\-ever wedding ceremony. After the wedding ceremony, a small reception was held at her family's home. The following day, a larger reception took place at Denver's Windsor Hotel. The couple left for their [honeymoon](/wiki/Honeymoon "Honeymoon") in [San Francisco](/wiki/San_Francisco "San Francisco") soon after. After the Grant Smelter was lost in a fire in 1882, Grant and his wife relocated to Denver, where Grant relocated his business and built a new smelter under the name Omaha and Grant. It was believed to the largest smelter in the world at the time. Its {{convert\|353\|ft\|m}} tall [smokestack](/wiki/Smokestack "Smokestack"), completed in 1892, stood for decades as one of the most recognizable landmarks in Denver's skyline until its 1950 demolition. The site of this smelter was near where the [Denver Coliseum](/wiki/Denver_Coliseum "Denver Coliseum") sits today. Denver had economic and rail transportation advantages. The Grants’ move to Denver likely also was related to James' ambitions to run for [governor of Colorado](/wiki/Governor_of_Colorado "Governor of Colorado"). ### Governorship Grant ran as the [Democratic Party](/wiki/Democratic_Party_%28United_States%29 "Democratic Party (United States)") nominee in the [1882 Colorado gubernatorial election](/wiki/1882_Colorado_gubernatorial_election "1882 Colorado gubernatorial election"). Grant was never very interested in politics. However, he was urged by Democrats to run, and agreed to. At the time, Colorado was seen as a [Republican Party](/wiki/Republican_Party_%28United_States%29 "Republican Party (United States)") stronghold due to the fact that most individuals that had moved there were northerners who had supported the [Union Army](/wiki/Union_Army "Union Army")'s cause in the American Civil War. This made Grant an [underdog](/wiki/Underdog_%28competition%29 "Underdog (competition)") in the election. Grant benefited from a major divide that year in the state’s Republican Party, as well as his marriage into a prominent family and his ever\-increasing notability as a successful smelting businessman. He won on the election, becoming the first Democrat to win a Colorado gubernatorial election in the state's young history. On January 9, 1883, Grant was inaugurated as governor. He was the state's first Democratic Party governor. Grant, having been only a week past his 35th birthday at the time of his inauguration, remains the youngest governor to serve after Colorado's statehood, and the second\-youngest ever governor of Colorado, after only territorial governor [Edward McCook](/wiki/Edward_McCook "Edward McCook"). As governor, he worked to expand the state's mining industry and its [commerce](/wiki/Commerce "Commerce"). Many mines opened in the state's southwestern portion during his governorship, especially in the "Gunnison Country" area that was formerly a part of the [Ute Indian](/wiki/Ute_Indian "Ute Indian") reservation. Mining growth and other factors led to a prosperous economy during his governorship. Grant also proposed the bill which authorized the construction of the [Colorado State Capitol](/wiki/Colorado_State_Capitol "Colorado State Capitol"). Grant also succeeded in achieving his priority of extending the length of the legislative session of [Colorado s state legislature](/wiki/Colorado_s_state_legislature "Colorado s state legislature"). During his governorship, Grant and his wife had their first child, son Lester Eames, on March 21, 1884\. Grant, still not very interested in politics, declined to seek reelection in the [1884 Colorado gubernatorial election](/wiki/1884_Colorado_gubernatorial_election "1884 Colorado gubernatorial election"). ### Post\-governorship Grant and his wife remained major society figures after he left office as governor, and he remained a major industry figure. Grant became a major figure in finance and industry of the Western United States. Grant also served eight years as the president of the [Denver Board of Education](/wiki/Denver_Board_of_Education "Denver Board of Education") from 1892 to 1897\.{{cite web \|title\=James Benton Grant \|url\=https://www.nga.org/governor/james\-benton\-grant/ \|website\=National Governors Association \|access\-date\=22 March 2023}} He also helped organize the creation of the [Denver National Bank](/wiki/Denver_National_Bank "Denver National Bank") and served tenures as a member of the board of directors and as its vice\-president. and was involved in the founding of the [Colorado Women’s College](/wiki/Colorado_Women%E2%80%99s_College "Colorado Women’s College"). He was involved in organizing the Colorado Scientific Society. On May 6, 1888, the Grants had their second and final child, son James Jr. By 1900, Grant's Denver smelter had produced $130 million of [gold](/wiki/Gold "Gold"), [silver](/wiki/Silver "Silver"), and [lead](/wiki/Lead "Lead"). In 1899, Grant's smelting business interests were merged with the newly founded [American Smelting and Refining Company](/wiki/American_Smelting_and_Refining_Company "American Smelting and Refining Company"). Grant continued to earn profits from his investment in mining and ore\-processing facilities across Colorado. In 1902, the Grants completed construction on and moved into an elaborate house now known as the [Grant\-Humphreys Mansion](/wiki/Grant-Humphreys_Mansion "Grant-Humphreys Mansion"). While his wife would entertain extensively at the residence, Grant himself receded from business and the social scene after his heart attack that year, instead spending much of the rest of his life concentrating on pleasurable outdoor activities such as the ranching on his ranch in [Littleton, Colorado](/wiki/Littleton%2C_Colorado "Littleton, Colorado"), as well as [hunting](/wiki/Hunting "Hunting") and [fishing](/wiki/Fishing "Fishing"). Grant died of [heart disease](/wiki/Heart_disease "Heart disease") on November 1, 1911, in [Excelsior Springs, Missouri](/wiki/Excelsior_Springs%2C_Missouri "Excelsior Springs, Missouri"). He is buried at Denver's [Fairmount Cemetery](/wiki/Fairmount_Cemetery_%28Denver%2C_Colorado%29 "Fairmount Cemetery (Denver, Colorado)"), and his wife was later buried beside him after her 1941 death.
[ "Colorado life\n-------------", "### Early years", "Returning to the United States, he first settled briefly in the [Colorado](/wiki/Colorado \"Colorado\") town of [Central City](/wiki/Central_City%2C_Colorado \"Central City, Colorado\"). In either 1877 or 1878, Grant moved to the newly founded Colorado town of [Leadville](/wiki/Leadville \"Leadville\").{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Cannon \\|first1\\=Helen \\|title\\=First Ladies of Colorado Mary Goodell Grant \\|journal\\=Colorado Magazine \\|date\\=Winter 1964 \\|volume\\=4 \\|issue\\=1 \\|url\\=https://www.historycolorado.org/sites/default/files/media/document/2018/ColoradoMagazine\\_v41n1\\_Winter1964\\.pdf \\|access\\-date\\=1 June 2020}} He started his career as a metallurgic engineer and smelting [magnate](/wiki/Magnate \"Magnate\") there. In Leadville, Grant constructed the {{convert\\|353\\|ft\\|m}} tall Grant Smelter stack, which was at the time of its completion the third largest [smelter](/wiki/Smelter \"Smelter\") in the world and the tallest in the United States. Grant was also involved in the construction of the {{convert\\|5\\|mi\\|km}} long Yak Tunnel, which facilitated deep mining.", "In Leadville, Grant married into the Goodell family, esteemed in Colorado, by marrying the young [Mary Goodell](/wiki/Mary_Goodell_Grant \"Mary Goodell Grant\"), the daughter of [Roswell Eaton Goodell](/wiki/Roswell_Eaton_Goodell \"Roswell Eaton Goodell\") and granddaughter of former Illinois governor [Joel Aldrich Matteson](/wiki/Joel_Aldrich_Matteson \"Joel Aldrich Matteson\"). The two wed in Leadville's newly built St. George's Episcopal Church. The ceremony was presided over by James J. Mackay. The wedding was a major social event in the community, and was the newly opened church's first\\-ever wedding ceremony. After the wedding ceremony, a small reception was held at her family's home. The following day, a larger reception took place at Denver's Windsor Hotel. The couple left for their [honeymoon](/wiki/Honeymoon \"Honeymoon\") in [San Francisco](/wiki/San_Francisco \"San Francisco\") soon after.", "After the Grant Smelter was lost in a fire in 1882, Grant and his wife relocated to Denver, where Grant relocated his business and built a new smelter under the name Omaha and Grant. It was believed to the largest smelter in the world at the time. Its {{convert\\|353\\|ft\\|m}} tall [smokestack](/wiki/Smokestack \"Smokestack\"), completed in 1892, stood for decades as one of the most recognizable landmarks in Denver's skyline until its 1950 demolition. The site of this smelter was near where the [Denver Coliseum](/wiki/Denver_Coliseum \"Denver Coliseum\") sits today. Denver had economic and rail transportation advantages. The Grants’ move to Denver likely also was related to James' ambitions to run for [governor of Colorado](/wiki/Governor_of_Colorado \"Governor of Colorado\").", "### Governorship", "Grant ran as the [Democratic Party](/wiki/Democratic_Party_%28United_States%29 \"Democratic Party (United States)\") nominee in the [1882 Colorado gubernatorial election](/wiki/1882_Colorado_gubernatorial_election \"1882 Colorado gubernatorial election\"). Grant was never very interested in politics. However, he was urged by Democrats to run, and agreed to. At the time, Colorado was seen as a [Republican Party](/wiki/Republican_Party_%28United_States%29 \"Republican Party (United States)\") stronghold due to the fact that most individuals that had moved there were northerners who had supported the [Union Army](/wiki/Union_Army \"Union Army\")'s cause in the American Civil War. This made Grant an [underdog](/wiki/Underdog_%28competition%29 \"Underdog (competition)\") in the election. Grant benefited from a major divide that year in the state’s Republican Party, as well as his marriage into a prominent family and his ever\\-increasing notability as a successful smelting businessman. He won on the election, becoming the first Democrat to win a Colorado gubernatorial election in the state's young history.", "On January 9, 1883, Grant was inaugurated as governor. He was the state's first Democratic Party governor. Grant, having been only a week past his 35th birthday at the time of his inauguration, remains the youngest governor to serve after Colorado's statehood, and the second\\-youngest ever governor of Colorado, after only territorial governor [Edward McCook](/wiki/Edward_McCook \"Edward McCook\"). As governor, he worked to expand the state's mining industry and its [commerce](/wiki/Commerce \"Commerce\"). Many mines opened in the state's southwestern portion during his governorship, especially in the \"Gunnison Country\" area that was formerly a part of the [Ute Indian](/wiki/Ute_Indian \"Ute Indian\") reservation. Mining growth and other factors led to a prosperous economy during his governorship. Grant also proposed the bill which authorized the construction of the [Colorado State Capitol](/wiki/Colorado_State_Capitol \"Colorado State Capitol\"). Grant also succeeded in achieving his priority of extending the length of the legislative session of [Colorado s state legislature](/wiki/Colorado_s_state_legislature \"Colorado s state legislature\").", "During his governorship, Grant and his wife had their first child, son Lester Eames, on March 21, 1884\\.", "Grant, still not very interested in politics, declined to seek reelection in the [1884 Colorado gubernatorial election](/wiki/1884_Colorado_gubernatorial_election \"1884 Colorado gubernatorial election\").", "### Post\\-governorship", "Grant and his wife remained major society figures after he left office as governor, and he remained a major industry figure. Grant became a major figure in finance and industry of the Western United States. Grant also served eight years as the president of the [Denver Board of Education](/wiki/Denver_Board_of_Education \"Denver Board of Education\") from 1892 to 1897\\.{{cite web \\|title\\=James Benton Grant \\|url\\=https://www.nga.org/governor/james\\-benton\\-grant/ \\|website\\=National Governors Association \\|access\\-date\\=22 March 2023}} He also helped organize the creation of the [Denver National Bank](/wiki/Denver_National_Bank \"Denver National Bank\") and served tenures as a member of the board of directors and as its vice\\-president. and was involved in the founding of the [Colorado Women’s College](/wiki/Colorado_Women%E2%80%99s_College \"Colorado Women’s College\"). He was involved in organizing the Colorado Scientific Society.", "On May 6, 1888, the Grants had their second and final child, son James Jr.", "By 1900, Grant's Denver smelter had produced $130 million of [gold](/wiki/Gold \"Gold\"), [silver](/wiki/Silver \"Silver\"), and [lead](/wiki/Lead \"Lead\"). In 1899, Grant's smelting business interests were merged with the newly founded [American Smelting and Refining Company](/wiki/American_Smelting_and_Refining_Company \"American Smelting and Refining Company\"). Grant continued to earn profits from his investment in mining and ore\\-processing facilities across Colorado.", "In 1902, the Grants completed construction on and moved into an elaborate house now known as the [Grant\\-Humphreys Mansion](/wiki/Grant-Humphreys_Mansion \"Grant-Humphreys Mansion\"). While his wife would entertain extensively at the residence, Grant himself receded from business and the social scene after his heart attack that year, instead spending much of the rest of his life concentrating on pleasurable outdoor activities such as the ranching on his ranch in [Littleton, Colorado](/wiki/Littleton%2C_Colorado \"Littleton, Colorado\"), as well as [hunting](/wiki/Hunting \"Hunting\") and [fishing](/wiki/Fishing \"Fishing\").", "Grant died of [heart disease](/wiki/Heart_disease \"Heart disease\") on November 1, 1911, in [Excelsior Springs, Missouri](/wiki/Excelsior_Springs%2C_Missouri \"Excelsior Springs, Missouri\"). He is buried at Denver's [Fairmount Cemetery](/wiki/Fairmount_Cemetery_%28Denver%2C_Colorado%29 \"Fairmount Cemetery (Denver, Colorado)\"), and his wife was later buried beside him after her 1941 death.", "" ]
"Indianthusiasm" (*Indianertümelei*), hobbyists and politics ------------------------------------------------------------ {{See also\|Karl May\#Indianertümelei}} [thumb\|[Rathen Open Air Stage](/wiki/Rathen_Open_Air_Stage "Rathen Open Air Stage") had a [völkisch](/wiki/V%C3%B6lkisch_movement "Völkisch movement") origin](/wiki/File:Regenbogen_05_07_006.jpg "Regenbogen 05 07 006.jpg") [thumb\|Willy Michl, who calls himself an "[Isar](/wiki/Isar "Isar") Indian", Munich, 2010](/wiki/File:2010-07-01_Willy_Michl_2591.jpg "2010-07-01 Willy Michl 2591.jpg") [thumb\|[Czech people](/wiki/Czech_people "Czech people") portraying Indians in a [kohte](/wiki/Kohte "Kohte"), 30th anniversary of the [Triptis](/wiki/Triptis "Triptis") *Indianistik* meeting, 1988](/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-1988-0708-307%2C_Th%C3%BCringen%2C_Zelt_einer_Prager_Indianistik-Gruppe.jpg "Bundesarchiv Bild 183-1988-0708-307, Thüringen, Zelt einer Prager Indianistik-Gruppe.jpg") There was a widespread cultural passion for Native Americans in Germany throughout the 19th and 20th centuries. "Indianthusiasm" ([German](/wiki/German_language "German language"): {{lang\|de\|Indianertümelei}}) contributed to the evolution of German national identity.Usbeck, Frank, *Fellow Tribesmen: The Image of Native Americans, National Identity, and Nazi Ideology in Germany*, forthcoming 2015, {{ISBN\|978\-1\-78238\-654\-4}}. Long before [German unification in 1871](/wiki/Unification_of_Germany "Unification of Germany"), it had been widely assumed in German nationalist circles that a unified *Reich* would also have a [colonial empire](/wiki/Colonial_empire "Colonial empire"), and many of the debates at the proto\-parliament in Frankfurt in 1848\-49 concerned colonialist ambitions.Grewling, Nicole "Blood Brothers? Indians and the Construction of a German Colonial Self in Friedrich Gerstäcker's Fiction" from The Arkansas Historical Quarterly Vol. 73, Issue 1, Spring 2014 p.91 In the late 19th century, a recurring complaint in Germany was that the *Reich* had a relatively small colonial empire compared to other nations, especially the United Kingdom.Watchman, Renne, Lutz, Hartmut \& Strzelczyk, Florence *Indianthusiasm*, Waterloo: Wilfrid Laurier Press, 2020 p.14 As a result, "Indianthusiasm" served as a sort of *Handlungsersatz*\-an untranslatable term meaning a surrogate for an action that substitutes for real power. Many of the colonial adventure stories in 19th century Germany had as their theme "stories of sexual conquest and surrender, love and blissful domestic relations between colonizer and colonized, set in colonial territory, stories that made the strange familiar and the familiar 'familial'".Grewling, Nicole "Blood Brothers? Indians and the Construction of a German Colonial Self in Friedrich Gerstäcker's Fiction" from The Arkansas Historical Quarterly Vol. 73, Issue 1, Spring 2014 p.92 A recurring theme of "Indianthusiasm" suggested that German immigrants would be act in a morally superior manner towards the indigenous population of North America than the "Anglo\-Saxon" powers of Great Britain, Canada, and the United States; this theme also promoted the idea that Germans held a genuine interest in [Native American culture](/wiki/Native_American_cultures_in_the_United_States "Native American cultures in the United States") that other Europeans lacked. A popular theme of Indianthusiasm novels in [Imperial Germany](/wiki/German_Empire "German Empire") were stories of German immigrants settling in rugged places such as the wilderness of Canada, where *Auslandsdeutschtum* ("Germanness abroad") served as a "civilizing force" that tamed the wilderness while also simultaneously offered up a very romanticized picture of the [Indigenous inhabitants of Canada](/wiki/First_Nations_in_Canada "First Nations in Canada") as "[noble savages](/wiki/Noble_savage "Noble savage")".Watchman, Renne, Lutz, Hartmut \& Strzelczyk, Florence *Indianthusiasm*, Waterloo: Wilfrid Laurier Press, 2020 p.15 The idealized picture of Indigenous Canadians as having an innate moral nobility served as a critique of modernity. Most notably, the image of Indigenous Canadians as "noble, but dying races" suffering from the "cruel misrule" of the [British Empire](/wiki/British_Empire "British Empire") not only allowed the authors of these books to portray the Germans as better colonizers than the British, but also allowed them to resolve the dilemma that the "civilizing process" begun by German immigrants and celebrated in these novels also meant the end of the traditional lifestyles of Indigenous Canadians by putting the latter down to the British. Imagery of Native Americans was appropriated in [Nazi propaganda](/wiki/Nazi_propaganda "Nazi propaganda") and used both against the US and to promote a "[holistic](/wiki/Holistic "Holistic") understanding of Nature" among Germans, which gained widespread support from various segments of the political spectrum in Germany.Usbeck, Frank, "Learning from 'Tribal Ancestors': How the Nazis Used Indian Imagery to Promote a 'Holistic' Understanding of Nature among Germans", *Elohi. Peuples Indigènes et Environnement*, Vol. 4\. 2014\. 45–60\.Usbeck, Frank, "Clash of Cultures? 'Noble Savages' in Germany and America", in: Iris Edenheiser and Astrid Nielsen (eds.), *Tecumseh, Keokuk, Black Hawk. Portrayals of Native Americans in Times of Treaties and Removal*. Stuttgart/Dresden: Arnoldsche, 2013, {{ISBN\|9783897904002}}, pp. 177–84\. The connection between [anti\-American](/wiki/Anti-Americanism "Anti-Americanism") sentiment and sympathetic feelings toward the underprivileged but authentic Indians is common in Germany, and it was to be found among both Nazi propagandists such as [Goebbels](/wiki/Joseph_Goebbels "Joseph Goebbels") and left\-leaning writers such as [Nikolaus Lenau](/wiki/Nikolaus_Lenau "Nikolaus Lenau") as well. During the [German Autumn](/wiki/German_Autumn "German Autumn") in 1977, an anonymous text by a leftist *[Göttinger](/wiki/G%C3%B6ttingen "Göttingen") [Mescalero](/wiki/Mescalero "Mescalero")* spoke "with secret joy" (klammheimliche Freude) of the murder of German attorney general [Siegfried Buback](/wiki/Siegfried_Buback "Siegfried Buback") and used the positive image of *[Stadtindianer](/wiki/Indiani_Metropolitani "Indiani Metropolitani")* (Urban Indians) within the radical left.["Warum Klaus Hülbrock in Weimar 'Goethes Gurkentruppe' etablieren will"](http://weimar.tlz.de/web/lokal/leben/detail/-/specific/Warum-Klaus-Huelbrock-in-Weimar-Goethes-Gurkentruppe-etablieren-will-1720621670).Paul, Reimar, ["68er\-Debatte: Streit der Häuptlinge"](http://www.tagesspiegel.de/zeitung/68er-debatte-streit-der-haeuptlinge/198262.html) *Tagesspiegel*, 30 January 2001\. In his book on the topic, *Indianthusiasm*, scholar Hartmut Lutz states that after the Second World War, Indianthusisam served as a surrogate for guilt about the Holocaust. After 1945, the "Wild West" of the 19th century became a historical zone in German popular imagination where it was the victors in World War II who were committing genocide. The 19th century "Wild West" became for Germans in the 1950s\-1960s a "distant, vaguely defined past" where it was the Americans who were perpetuating genocide while German immigrants to the United States like May's hero Old Shatterhand became the ones who were trying to stop the genocide. There was an implicit *[tu quoque](/wiki/Tu_quoque "Tu quoque")* argument to Indianthusisam in West Germany that [Allied nations](/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_II "Allies of World War II") such as the United States had also committed genocide in the 19th century with the obvious conclusion that therefore there was no reason for the Germans to feel especially guilty about the Holocaust. In East Germany, this message was made explicit where policies of the United States government towards Indians in the 19th century were linked to capitalism, and therefore the treatment of American Indians supposedly showed the brutal, rapacious and genocidal nature of American capitalism and imperialism. In East Germany, the frequency of films devoted to the subject of the Indians led to the term *Indianerfilme* being coined to describe the genre. In the East German *Indianerfilme*, the Americans were always the villains while the Indians were always the heroes. More recently, Indianthusiasm has been linked to the rise of environmentalism in Germany, where the traditional lifestyles of the Indians is portrayed in a romantic manner as superior to modern industrial civilization of the West.Watchman, Renne, Lutz, Hartmut \& Strzelczyk, Florence *Indianthusiasm*, Waterloo: Wilfrid Laurier Press, 2020 p.17\-19 ### Karl May festivals during the Nazi period In 1938 the first outdoor Karl May festivals took place at the [Rathen Open Air Stage](/wiki/Rathen_Open_Air_Stage "Rathen Open Air Stage"). The open\-air theatre was laid out in 1936, inspired by the ideas of the *[Thingspiele](/wiki/Thingspiele "Thingspiele")* movement, which was active in the early stages of the Nazi period.{{Cite book\|first\=Katrin \|last\=Sieg \|title\=Ethnic Drag: Performing Race, Nation, Sexuality in West Germany \|series\=Social history, popular culture, and politics in Germany \|publisher\=\[\[University of Michigan Press]] \|location\=Ann Arbor \|year\=2002 \|page\=82 \|isbn\=0\-472\-11282\-1 }} The Thingspiele movement failed in staging [neopagan](/wiki/Neopaganism_in_German-speaking_Europe "Neopaganism in German-speaking Europe") and [Nordic mythical](/wiki/Nordic_mythology "Nordic mythology") aspects of the [völkisch movement](/wiki/V%C3%B6lkisch_movement "Völkisch movement"), while May's all\-Christian legends found more approval with the mainstream. ### Communist interpretations The Communist [East German](/wiki/East_Germany "East Germany") government had major problems with the mixed heritage of May's works: his strong Christian leanings and his broad support, including on the political right. His books were not available for a long time, and "indianistic" reenactors were closely monitored by the security forces.von Borries, Friedrich; Fischer, Jens\-Uwe, *Sozialistische Cowboys. Der Wilde Westen Ostdeutschlands*, Frankfurt/ Main: Suhrkamp, 2008, {{ISBN\|9783518125281}}, pp. 35–39\. The Communist authorities tried to integrate the movement into the socialist world view. Some prominent communist philosophers, such as [Karl Marx](/wiki/Karl_Marx "Karl Marx")' friend and sponsor [Friedrich Engels](/wiki/Friedrich_Engels "Friedrich Engels"), had used Native American tribal structures as examples for theories on family, private property, and the state.Friedrich Engel, [*Origins of the Family, Private Property, and the State, The Iroquois Gens*](https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1884/origin-family/ch03.htm). Engels contributed to the controversy about whether the Native American tribes actually had a notion of [private property](/wiki/Private_property "Private property") before the [Columbian age](/wiki/Columbian_Exchange "Columbian Exchange").Krech, Shepard, *The Ecological Indian: Myth and History*, Norton, 1999, {{ISBN\|0\-393\-04755\-5}}. Indianerenthusiasm is now also being found in Russia.{{Cite web\|url \= http://indiancountrytodaymedianetwork.com/2014/08/04/russians\-behaving\-indian\-ly\-its\-not\-just\-germans\-anymore\-156212\|title \= Russians Behaving Indian\-ly: It's Not Just for Germans Anymore\|date \= 2014\-08\-04\|publisher \= Indian Country Today Media Network }} ### West German interpretations In [West Germany](/wiki/West_Germany "West Germany") May's heritage was less problematic; both the books and the festivals were soon copied and reprinted. The [Karl May Festival in Bad Segeberg](/wiki/Karl_May_Festival_in_Bad_Segeberg "Karl May Festival in Bad Segeberg") overtook its predecessor in Rathen, as the GDR officials discontinued the tradition there. The Federal Republic experienced some aspects of an idealized Indian image during the [Protests of 1968](/wiki/Protests_of_1968 "Protests of 1968") and the related generation and in the founding phase of [Die Grünen](/wiki/B%C3%BCndnis_90/Die_Gr%C3%BCnen "Bündnis 90/Die Grünen") and NGOs like [Greenpeace](/wiki/Greenpeace "Greenpeace"), which have a strong influence in Germany. [Cultural critics](/wiki/Cultural_critic "Cultural critic") tended to depict Indians positively to criticize Western society while conflicts of and with actual Native Americans over issues such as [fur hunting](/wiki/North_American_fur_trade "North American fur trade"), [slavery](/wiki/Slavery_among_Native_Americans_in_the_United_States "Slavery among Native Americans in the United States"), forest fire triggering, non\-sustainable practices such as [buffalo jumps](/wiki/Buffalo_jump "Buffalo jump"), [seal clubbing](/wiki/Seal_hunting "Seal hunting") and [whaling](/wiki/Aboriginal_whaling "Aboriginal whaling") were neglected. The positive image, however, also influenced the self\-image of actual Indians. ### Hobbyists **Native American hobbyism in Germany**, also called **Indian Hobbyism**, or **Indianism**, is the performance and attempt at [historical reenactment](/wiki/Historical_reenactment "Historical reenactment") of the [American Indian](/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas "Indigenous peoples of the Americas") culture of the early contact period, rather than the way contemporary [Indigenous peoples of the Americas](/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas "Indigenous peoples of the Americas") live.[Hagengruber, James (2002\). “Sitting Bull: Bush\-hating Germans might not sing ‘Hail to the Chief,’ but they’re infatuated with the first Americans”](http://www.salon.com/2002/11/27/indians/). *Salon*.Haircrow, Red (2014\). [“A Star Trek Convention for Native Enthusiasts: Inside a German Pow Wow”](http://indiancountrytodaymedianetwork.com/2014/02/24/star-trek-convention-native-enthusiasts-inside-german-pow-wow-153712). *Indian Country Today Media Network*. The cultures imitated are usually a romantic stereotype of [Plains Indian](/wiki/Plains_Indians "Plains Indians") cultures, with widely varying degrees of accuracy; influenced by [the stereotypes](/wiki/Stereotypes_about_indigenous_peoples_of_North_America "Stereotypes about indigenous peoples of North America") seen in Hollywood [Westerns](/wiki/Westerns "Westerns").Lopinto, Noemi (2009\). ["Der Indianer: Why Do 40,000 Germans spend their weekends dressed as Native Americans?"](http://www.utne.com/mind-and-body/germans-weekends-native-americans-indian-culture.aspx#axzz3Iclt4HSK). *Utne.com* . Some of the early to mid 20th century hobbyists gained widespread acclaim as selftaught experts in anything pertaining to the subjects of Native Americana, particularly the [Zurich](/wiki/Zurich "Zurich"), [Switzerland](/wiki/Switzerland "Switzerland"), based accountant, [Joseph Balmer](/wiki/Joseph_Balmer "Joseph Balmer").'The Indian Hobbyist Movement in Europe', inWilcomb E.Washburn (ed.) Handbook of American Indians Vol.4: History of Indian White Relations, Washington D.C.: Smithsonian Institution, pp. 562–569\. ——. 1986\. This is done by non\-Natives as a hobby and pastime, such as for a weekend retreat, hobbyist [pow wow](/wiki/Pow_wow "Pow wow"), or summer camp.Sieg, Katrin (2002\). *Ethnic Drag*. University of Michigan Press. {{ISBN\|9780472112821}}. It exists in several European countries, but is prominent in Germany, where approximately 40,000 practitioners, known as hobbyists, participate. Response to this by actual Native Americans has been largely negative.Deloria, Philip J. (1998\). *Playing Indian*. Yale University Press. {{ISBN\|978\-0300080674}}.Eddy, Melissa (2014\). [“Lost in Translation: Germany’s Fascination With the American Old West”](https://www.nytimes.com/2014/08/18/world/europe/germanys-fascination-with-american-old-west-native-american-scalps-human-remains.html?_r=0). *The New York Times*. #### Background According to the history laid out in H. Glenn Penny's *Kindred By Choice*,Penny, H. Glenn (2013\). *Kindred By Choice* . The University of North Carolina Press. {{ISBN\|978\-1469607641}}. many Germans identify their roots as tribes that lived independently of one another that were colonized by Romans and forced to become Christians. Because of this distant tribal background and history of colonization, and in fact all ancient Europeans lived tribally at some point in their history, many of these Germans identify with Native Americans more than European nations in contemporary times.Gilders, Adam (2003\). ["Ich Bin Ein Indianer: Germany's Obsession with a past it never had"](http://thewalrus.ca/2003-10-feature-2/). *The Walrus* . This belief in kindred lifestyle is detailed in Penny's in\-depth study of German fascination with and performances as their ideas of historical Native American peoples. These Germans are also interested in depiction of Native Americans in art and anthropology. Penny covers this history in *Kindred By Choice* and other published writings, chronicling German artists such as Rudolf Cronau, [Max Ernst](/wiki/Max_Ernst "Max Ernst"), [Georg Grosz](/wiki/Georg_Grosz "Georg Grosz"), [Otto Dix](/wiki/Otto_Dix "Otto Dix"), and [Rudolf Schlichter](/wiki/Rudolf_Schlichter "Rudolf Schlichter")'s portrayals of Native Americans.Penny, H. Glenn (2011\). ["The German Love Affair with American Indians: Rudolf Cronau's Epiphany"](http://www.common-place.org/vol-11/no-04/reading/). *Common\-Place.org*. German academics such as [Alexander von Humboldt](/wiki/Alexander_von_Humboldt "Alexander von Humboldt"), [Karl von den Steinen](/wiki/Karl_von_den_Steinen "Karl von den Steinen"), Paul Ehrenreich, and [Carl Jung](/wiki/Carl_Jung "Carl Jung") all traveled to the United States to learn more about Native Americans.{{citation needed\|date\=December 2015}} Their documentation of their journeys were regarded positively by the German public and assisted in fostering German fascination with Native Americans. Penny also details how Germans often denounced the violence inflicted upon Native peoples by the United States government.{{citation needed\|date\=December 2015}} Another factor in the popularity of Hobbyism in Germany can be attributed to the many [Wild West shows](/wiki/Wild_West_show "Wild West show") that toured throughout Germany and featured real Native Americans in stereotypical "cowboy and Indian" performances.Stetler, Julia Simone (2012\). "Buffalo Bill's Wild West in Germany. A Transnational History". University of Nevada, Las Vegas Theses/Dissertations/Professional Papers/Capstones. Paper 1634\. One of the most popular Wild West shows was organized by William Frederick "[Buffalo Bill](/wiki/Buffalo_Bill "Buffalo Bill")" Cody. German Hobbyism is generally believed to have been largely popularized by the dime\-store novelist [Karl May](/wiki/Karl_May "Karl May"), whose fictional Apache warrior character, [Winnetou](/wiki/Winnetou "Winnetou"), and his German blood\-brother, [Old Shatterhand](/wiki/Old_Shatterhand "Old Shatterhand"), adventure throughout the Wild West. In one of the many novels, Winnetou is murdered and Old Shatterhand avenges him and ultimately becomes an Apache chief. The Winnetou novels were first published in the 1890s.Taylor, Colin F.\[Dr.]'The Indian Hobbyist Movement in Europe', inWilcomb E.Washburn (ed.) Handbook of American Indians Vol.4: History of Indian White Relations, Washington D.C.: Smithsonian Institution, pp. 562–569\. ——. 1986\. #### In the 20th century [thumb\|*Die Indianerschlacht am Little Big Horn* ([Elk Eber](/wiki/Elk_Eber "Elk Eber"), 1936\)](/wiki/File:Elk_Eber_-_Die_Indianerschlacht_am_Little_Big_Horn%2C_1936.jpg "Elk Eber - Die Indianerschlacht am Little Big Horn, 1936.jpg") The first such hobbyist club was the Cowboy Club founded in Munich in 1913\.Watchman, Renne, Lutz, Hartmut \& Strzelczyk, Florence *Indianthusiasm*, Waterloo: Wilfrid Laurier Press, 2020 p.16 As part of the phenomenon of *Indianertümelei* a number of Western and Indian theme parks operate in Germany, the most popular of which are the Pullman City theme park outside of Munich and El Dorado theme park outside of Berlin. Hobbyism was greatly affected by the separation of Germany after World War II. [:de:Katrin Sieg](/wiki/Katrin_Sieg "Katrin Sieg")\|'s *Ethnic Drag* discusses the differences between [West German](/wiki/West_German "West German") Hobbyism and [East German](/wiki/East_German "East German") Hobbyism, saying that while West Germany could continue to openly participate in the hobby, East Germans had to go underground for fear of being targeted as rebels. This translated to a difference in opinion between East and West in how they interacted with real Native Americans; East German hobbyist clubs often interacted with Native Americans and supported them in their issues financially. On the other hand, West Germans often avoided contact with real Native Americans, which Sieg surmises is because they feared being told they are not truly Native American. These patterns continue to be true today. Dakota academic [Philip Deloria](/wiki/Philip_Deloria "Philip Deloria") theorizes in his book [Playing Indian](/wiki/Playing_Indian "Playing Indian") that there are two types of Hobbyism—people Hobbyism and item Hobbyism.Deloria, Philip J. (1998\). *Playing Indian*. Yale University Press. {{ISBN\|978\-0300080674}} West Germans would be considered, according to Deloria, as item hobbyists who focus on the objects, and the East Germans would be considered people hobbyists, who also include objects but want to interact with real Native Americans and issues facing Native communities. The East German interest in having hobbyists start engaging with living Native Americans may be partially attributable to the fact that the East German government began to recognize the propaganda value; criticism of the historical treatment of American Indians could be used as an example of why East Germans citizens should criticize US policies in general.von Borries, Friedrich, Jens\-Uwe Fischer (2008\). *[Cowboys Der Wilde Westen Ostdeutschlands](http://Sozialistische){{Dead link\|date\=April 2020 \|bot\=InternetArchiveBot \|fix\-attempted\=yes }}*. Frankfurt am Main: Suhrkamp. {{ISBN\|978\-3\-518\-12528\-1}} May's novels featuring Winnetou and Old Shatterhand have been adapted into both theatrical and film productions in German\-speaking countries. It is believed that film adaptations of Karl May's characters in the 1960s may have saved the West German film industry.Galchen, Rivka (2012\). [“Wild West Germany: Why do cowboys and Indians so captivate the country?”](https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2012/04/09/wild-west-germany). *The New Yorker*. Each summer in [Bad Segeberg](/wiki/Bad_Segeberg "Bad Segeberg"), [Schleswig\-Holstein](/wiki/Schleswig-Holstein "Schleswig-Holstein"), Germany, the [Karl May Festival](/wiki/Karl_May_Festival_in_Bad_Segeberg "Karl May Festival in Bad Segeberg") (Karl\-May\-Spiele) hosts stage productions weekly and particularly during the Karl May Festival. The Karl May Festival is an annual event purported to bring the Wild West to northern Germany #### In the 21st century German Hobbyism continues today in the form of festivals, museums, pow wows, theater, and clubs. The Karl May Festival in [Bad Segeberg](/wiki/Bad_Segeberg "Bad Segeberg") continues each year and is a popular attraction to families from all over Germany and Europe. Additionally, there are multiple Wild West Amusement Parks all throughout Germany. The Karl May Museum in Radebeul and other museums that host Native American exhibits continue to be wildly popular. Hobbyists that organize through the means of a club host pow wows and teach each other and communities about Native American culture. The topic of German Hobbyism has become more recently documented by mainstream news sources *[New York Times](/wiki/New_York_Times "New York Times")*, [the Huffington Post](/wiki/The_Huffington_Post "The Huffington Post"), and independent filmmakers such as Howie Summers, who created a short documentary titled Indianer that explores German Hobbyists and their fascinations.Levine, Carole Quattro (2008\). ["'Indianer': A glimpse inside the world of German Hobby Indians"](http://www.scene4.com/archivesqv6/may-2008/html/carolelevine0508.html). *Scene4 Magazine*. Writer, psychologist and filmmaker Red Haircrow, whose father is African American while his mother is of Native ([Chiricahua Apache](/wiki/Chiricahua "Chiricahua")/[Cherokee](/wiki/Cherokee "Cherokee")) heritage,[*About*](https://redhaircrow.com/about/).redhaircrow.com[June Chua (May 31, 2017\). *Film ‘Forget Winnetou!’ studies German idealization of Indigenous culture*](https://rabble.ca/columnists/forget-winnetou-surveys-german-idealization-indigenous-culture/).rabble.ca attended the Winter Pow\-wow 2014 in Berlin on 15 February. He described the participants as wearing as many "breastplates, bear claw necklaces, feathers and bone jewelry as they seemed able to physically support," and that the attendees also wore Native American costumes in addition to the hobbyist dancers. In 2019, it was estimated that between 40,000\-100,000 Germans are involved in *Indianer* hobbyist clubs at any given moment. Interviewed in 2007, one member of an *Indianer* club stated: "Our camp is always in summer, in July for two weeks. During this time, we live in tipis, we wear only Indian clothes. We don't use technology and we try to follow Indian traditions. We have those \[pretending to be] Lakota, Oglala, Blackfeet, Blood, Siksika, Pawneee...and we go on the warpath against each other day and night, anytime at all. In two weeks, every tribe can fight each other. We don't know when somebody will attack or when they will come to steal our horses. And the battles are always exciting, too. I really enjoy them".Watchman, Renne, Lutz, Hartmut \& Strzelczyk, Florence *Indianthusiasm*, Waterloo: Wilfrid Laurier Press, 2020 p.16\-17 #### Criticism The main criticism of German Hobbyism by Native American journalists and academics argues on the basis of [cultural appropriation](/wiki/Cultural_appropriation "Cultural appropriation") and misrepresentation of Native American cultures and identities.Chandler, Daniel and Rod Munday (2011\). *A Dictionary of Media and Communication*. Oxford University Press. {{ISBN\|978\-0\-19\-956875\-8}} When it comes to the borrowing of American Indian culture, [Philip J. Deloria](/wiki/Philip_J._Deloria "Philip J. Deloria") dubs it "playing Indian," which he defines as the adoption or portrayal of being Native by Anglo\-American individuals. These actions are often motivated by hobby and sometimes financial gain. Further, Deloria writes that these individuals and groups who play Indian build a collectivity in their performance of otherness, which in turn defines their own identity through the distinction of playing the national "[other](/wiki/Other_%28philosophy%29 "Other (philosophy)")." [Katrin Sieg](/wiki/Katrin_Sieg "Katrin Sieg") applies the thoughts and ideas of Deloria to the performance studies field in Germany. Her book *Ethnic Drag* discusses the ways in which Germans have historically dressed up as "othered" peoples, which includes [Jews](/wiki/Jews "Jews"), Native Americans, and [Turks](/wiki/Turkish_people "Turkish people"). While the portrayals of Jews and Turks were largely negative stereotypes, the portrayal of Native Americans differed in that they were seen as heroic and noble. The first Native American women's theater troupe known as [Spiderwoman Theater](/wiki/Spiderwoman_Theater "Spiderwoman Theater") traveled to Germany and Europe in order to perform a satire of the European and particularly German fascination with Native Americans. According to Spiderwoman Theater, it was an act of resistance meant to reclaim their identity as real Native Americans. Their show is titled *Winnetou's Snake Oil Show from Wigwam City*, and parodied Karl May's characters, [New Ageism](/wiki/New_Age "New Age"), and individuals who pretend to be Native American.Spiderwoman Theatre (1999\). [“Winnetou’s snake oil show from Wigwam City”](https://sites.dlib.nyu.edu/hidvl/q2bvq8dh). *Hemispheric Institute Digital Video Library*. In 1982, a Canadian [Ojibwe](/wiki/Ojibwe "Ojibwe") painter [Ahmoo Allen Angeconeb](/wiki/Ahmoo_Allen_Angeconeb "Ahmoo Allen Angeconeb") visited West Germany where he discovered his paintings were selling better than in Canada, looking for a chance to exhibit his work.Watchman, Renne, Lutz, Hartmut \& Strzelczyk, Florence *Indianthusiasm*, Waterloo: Wilfrid Laurier Press, 2020 p.25 Angeconeb soon discovered that most Germans were interested in the traditional culture of the Plains Indian peoples and had no interest in the Eastern Woodslands peoples such as the Ojibwe or in the modern First Nations peoples. His attempts to argue that there was more to the Indians of North America than the lifestyle of the Plains Indians in the 18th and 19th centuries did not meet with much success as he recalled in an interview: "Actually most of these Indian clubs were interested in Plains Indians. So when they found out I was Ojibwe they had no idea who the Ojibwe were. We weren't Plains Indians, so therefore we weren't "real Indians"...And then, they seem to have this romantic view that they didn't want to have altered. I was too "real" an Indian for them. They wanted to keep their romantic view; they didn't want to hear about the modern way of living for Ojibwe people here. That we lived in wooden\-structure homes, that we drove cars".Watchman, Renne, Lutz, Hartmut \& Strzelczyk, Florence *Indianthusiasm*, Waterloo: Wilfrid Laurier Press, 2020 p.36 Red Haircrow has written articles from [Berlin](/wiki/Berlin "Berlin"), where he resides, regarding the controversial aspects of Hobbyism from the perspective of a real Native American. Haircrow has traveled to pow wows and reported to [Indian Country Today Media Network](/wiki/Indian_Country_Today_Media_Network "Indian Country Today Media Network") about his experience as a Native American at an event in which Germans performed Native American identity. He reported the premiere of the blockbuster remake *[The Lone Ranger](/wiki/The_Lone_Ranger_%282013_film%29 "The Lone Ranger (2013 film)")*, in which Hobbyists were hired to perform as Native Americans in Berlin.Haircrow, Red (2013\). ["Ich Bin Ein Tonto: Johnny Depp at 'Lone Ranger' Premiere in Berlin"](http://indiancountrytodaymedianetwork.com/gallery/photo/ich-bin-ein-tonto-johnny-depp-lone-ranger-premiere-berlin-150589). *Indian Country Today Media Network*. Haircrow also covered a controversy at the [Karl May Museum](/wiki/Karl_May_Museum "Karl May Museum"), when the owners of the museum in [Radebeul](/wiki/Radebeul "Radebeul") refused to return Native American [scalps](/wiki/Scalping "Scalping") to the tribes from which they are claimed to have come.Haircrow, Red (2014\). [“Tribes Demand Return of Native Scalps From Karl May Museum in Germany”](http://indiancountrytodaymedianetwork.com/2014/03/25/tribes-demand-return-native-scalps-karl-may-museum-germany-154152). *Indian Country Today Media Network*. As an act of protest, Native American singer [Jana Mashonee](/wiki/Jana_Mashonee "Jana Mashonee") chose not to perform at the [Karl May Fest](/wiki/Karl_May_Fest "Karl May Fest") in [Radebeul](/wiki/Radebeul "Radebeul"), [Saxony](/wiki/Saxony "Saxony") and released an official statement denigrating the refusal of the Karl May Museum to return the Native American scalps. The scalps were not returned to the [Ojibwe](/wiki/Ojibwe "Ojibwe") nation as requested, but they were removed from display.{{cite web \|url\=https://indiancountrymedianetwork.com/news/indigenous\-peoples/an\-agreement\-is\-reached\-regarding\-scalps\-at\-the\-karl\-may\-museum/ \|title\=An Agreement Is Reached Regarding Scalps at the Karl May Museum \|last\=Haircrow \|first\=Red \|publisher\=Indian Country Media Network \|date\=14 June 2014 \|access\-date\=2 January 2017}} Haircrow also notes that not every Native American has a negative view of the German fascination with their culture. Comanche Laura Kerchee, who was stationed in Germany with the [U.S. Air Force](/wiki/U.S._Air_Force "U.S. Air Force"), told him that "she was impressed with how enthralled the Germans there were by Native Americans." Haircrow adds that "some tribes in North America \[are] reaching out to their fans in Europe. They realize that this is an opportunity to promote understanding and education and a way to market Native culture to a highly sympathetic audience."{{cite web \|url\=https://indiancountrymedianetwork.com/news/indigenous\-peoples/germanys\-obsession\-with\-american\-indians\-is\-touchingand\-occasionally\-surreal/ \|title\=Germany's Obsession With American Indians Is Touching—And Occasionally Surreal \|last\=Haircrow \|first\=Red \|publisher\=Indian Country Media Network \|date\=24 March 2013 \|access\-date\=2 January 2017}} Red Haircrow's 2018 documentary "Forget Winnetou! Loving in the Wrong Way" focuses more Native perspectives on Indian hobbyism, cultural appropriation and the connection to racism and continuing colonial practices in Germany,Chua, June (2017\). ["'Film 'Forget Winnetou!' studies German idealization of Indigenous culture"](http://rabble.ca/columnists/2017/05/film-forget-winnetou-studies-german-idealization-indigenous-culture). *Rabble Magazine*.Dell, Matthias (2017\). ["'Ich bin nur dem Nein begegnet"](https://www.freitag.de/autoren/mdell/ich-bin-nur-dem-nein-begegnet). *Der Freitag*. won the Audience Award at the Refugees Welcome Film Festival in Berlin, Germany in 2018\.Refugees Welcome Film Festival (2018\). ["Winners"](http://www.refugeesfilmfest.com/winners.html). *Refugees Welcome Film Festival website*. In the United States, there is a widespread criticism from Native Americans about the [misappropriation](/wiki/Cultural_appropriation "Cultural appropriation") and [misrepresentation](/wiki/Stereotypes_of_indigenous_peoples_of_Canada_and_the_United_States "Stereotypes of indigenous peoples of Canada and the United States") of Native American identity and culture. Examples include the [Native American mascot controversy](/wiki/Native_American_mascot_controversy "Native American mascot controversy"), backlash against artists such as [Gwen Stefani](/wiki/Gwen_Stefani "Gwen Stefani") and [Lana Del Rey](/wiki/Lana_Del_Rey "Lana Del Rey") who have performed in feather [war bonnets](/wiki/War_bonnets "War bonnets"), and campaigns to educate the public about not wearing Native American costumes for Halloween and themed parties, such as [My Culture Is Not a Costume](/wiki/My_Culture_Is_Not_a_Costume "My Culture Is Not a Costume"). This same sentiment was expressed by Haircrow's son, who claimed that "they are stealing from others, but don't want to admit it. That's why they didn't want us there, because they know we know what they are doing is wrong." In a *New York Times* short documentary titled *Lost in Translation: Germany's Fascination with the [American Old West](/wiki/American_Old_West "American Old West")*, the actor portraying Winnetou, [Jan Sosniok](/wiki/Jan_Sosniok "Jan Sosniok"), is asked if he thinks that real Native Americans would take offense to the portrayal of Native Americans. The actor responds that he does not believe they would be offended. The video also portrays a German man who studied at the [Institute of American Indian Arts](/wiki/Institute_of_American_Indian_Arts "Institute of American Indian Arts") in New Mexico. This person shares his discomfort with seeing a burial dance take place in the [Bad Segeberg](/wiki/Bad_Segeberg "Bad Segeberg") performance, and calls it grotesque and claims that it perpetuates a stereotypical image of the Native American. Journalist [James Hagengruber](/wiki/James_Hagengruber "James Hagengruber") discussed German hobbyists in an article for Salon's website, describing the occasional clashes between the German fantasists and actual Native Americans. Visiting Native American dancers were shocked when German hobbyists protested their use of microphones and details of their costumes (to which they counter\-protested). A hobbyist profiled in the article defended the German tendency to focus on Indian culture before 1880, instead of engaging with issues that affect contemporary tribes, comparing it to studying "the \[ancient] Romans." Some Germans{{who\|date\=December 2017}} have been surprised and irritated when real Native Americans don't act the way they do in the German imagination.{{citation needed\|date\=December 2017}} On the other hand, Hagengruber comments that "some dying Indian languages may end up being preserved by German hobbyists." Dick Littlebear, "a member of the Northern Cheyenne Nation and the president of [Chief Dull Knife College](/wiki/Chief_Dull_Knife_College "Chief Dull Knife College") in Lame Deer, MT," told Hagengruber "he doesn't worry about Germans fixating on his culture," as long as they do not copy sacred ceremonies, and pointed out that he had learned "lost Northern Cheyenne stitching methods from the 1850s" from German hobbyists.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.salon.com/2002/11/27/indians/ \|title\=Sitting Bull: Bush\-hating Germans might not sing "Hail to the Chief," but they're infatuated with the first Americans. \|last\=Hagengruber \|first\=James \|work\=Salon \|date\=27 November 2002 \|access\-date\=2 January 2017}} Journalist [Noemi Lopinto](/wiki/Noemi_Lopinto "Noemi Lopinto") in her article for UTNE reports that an Ojibwe man named David Redbird Baker found the performance of sacred ceremonies in Germany to be offensive: "They take the social and religious ceremonies and change them beyond recognition." Lopinto paraphrases Baker as adding, "They've held dances where anyone in modern dress is barred from attending—even visiting Natives." Both Lopinto and Hagengruber quote Carmen Kwasny, who works with the Native American Association of Germany, as saying the Germans need to learn to view Native Americans as people, rather than idealized cultural fantasy characters.
[ "\"Indianthusiasm\" (*Indianertümelei*), hobbyists and politics\n------------------------------------------------------------", "{{See also\\|Karl May\\#Indianertümelei}}\n[thumb\\|[Rathen Open Air Stage](/wiki/Rathen_Open_Air_Stage \"Rathen Open Air Stage\") had a [völkisch](/wiki/V%C3%B6lkisch_movement \"Völkisch movement\") origin](/wiki/File:Regenbogen_05_07_006.jpg \"Regenbogen 05 07 006.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|Willy Michl, who calls himself an \"[Isar](/wiki/Isar \"Isar\") Indian\", Munich, 2010](/wiki/File:2010-07-01_Willy_Michl_2591.jpg \"2010-07-01 Willy Michl 2591.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|[Czech people](/wiki/Czech_people \"Czech people\") portraying Indians in a [kohte](/wiki/Kohte \"Kohte\"), 30th anniversary of the [Triptis](/wiki/Triptis \"Triptis\") *Indianistik* meeting, 1988](/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-1988-0708-307%2C_Th%C3%BCringen%2C_Zelt_einer_Prager_Indianistik-Gruppe.jpg \"Bundesarchiv Bild 183-1988-0708-307, Thüringen, Zelt einer Prager Indianistik-Gruppe.jpg\")", "There was a widespread cultural passion for Native Americans in Germany throughout the 19th and 20th centuries. \"Indianthusiasm\" ([German](/wiki/German_language \"German language\"): {{lang\\|de\\|Indianertümelei}}) contributed to the evolution of German national identity.Usbeck, Frank, *Fellow Tribesmen: The Image of Native Americans, National Identity, and Nazi Ideology in Germany*, forthcoming 2015, {{ISBN\\|978\\-1\\-78238\\-654\\-4}}. Long before [German unification in 1871](/wiki/Unification_of_Germany \"Unification of Germany\"), it had been widely assumed in German nationalist circles that a unified *Reich* would also have a [colonial empire](/wiki/Colonial_empire \"Colonial empire\"), and many of the debates at the proto\\-parliament in Frankfurt in 1848\\-49 concerned colonialist ambitions.Grewling, Nicole \"Blood Brothers? Indians and the Construction of a German Colonial Self in Friedrich Gerstäcker's Fiction\" from The Arkansas Historical Quarterly Vol. 73, Issue 1, Spring 2014 p.91 In the late 19th century, a recurring complaint in Germany was that the *Reich* had a relatively small colonial empire compared to other nations, especially the United Kingdom.Watchman, Renne, Lutz, Hartmut \\& Strzelczyk, Florence *Indianthusiasm*, Waterloo: Wilfrid Laurier Press, 2020 p.14 As a result, \"Indianthusiasm\" served as a sort of *Handlungsersatz*\\-an untranslatable term meaning a surrogate for an action that substitutes for real power. Many of the colonial adventure stories in 19th century Germany had as their theme \"stories of sexual conquest and surrender, love and blissful domestic relations between colonizer and colonized, set in colonial territory, stories that made the strange familiar and the familiar 'familial'\".Grewling, Nicole \"Blood Brothers? Indians and the Construction of a German Colonial Self in Friedrich Gerstäcker's Fiction\" from The Arkansas Historical Quarterly Vol. 73, Issue 1, Spring 2014 p.92 A recurring theme of \"Indianthusiasm\" suggested that German immigrants would be act in a morally superior manner towards the indigenous population of North America than the \"Anglo\\-Saxon\" powers of Great Britain, Canada, and the United States; this theme also promoted the idea that Germans held a genuine interest in [Native American culture](/wiki/Native_American_cultures_in_the_United_States \"Native American cultures in the United States\") that other Europeans lacked.", "A popular theme of Indianthusiasm novels in [Imperial Germany](/wiki/German_Empire \"German Empire\") were stories of German immigrants settling in rugged places such as the wilderness of Canada, where *Auslandsdeutschtum* (\"Germanness abroad\") served as a \"civilizing force\" that tamed the wilderness while also simultaneously offered up a very romanticized picture of the [Indigenous inhabitants of Canada](/wiki/First_Nations_in_Canada \"First Nations in Canada\") as \"[noble savages](/wiki/Noble_savage \"Noble savage\")\".Watchman, Renne, Lutz, Hartmut \\& Strzelczyk, Florence *Indianthusiasm*, Waterloo: Wilfrid Laurier Press, 2020 p.15 The idealized picture of Indigenous Canadians as having an innate moral nobility served as a critique of modernity. Most notably, the image of Indigenous Canadians as \"noble, but dying races\" suffering from the \"cruel misrule\" of the [British Empire](/wiki/British_Empire \"British Empire\") not only allowed the authors of these books to portray the Germans as better colonizers than the British, but also allowed them to resolve the dilemma that the \"civilizing process\" begun by German immigrants and celebrated in these novels also meant the end of the traditional lifestyles of Indigenous Canadians by putting the latter down to the British.", "Imagery of Native Americans was appropriated in [Nazi propaganda](/wiki/Nazi_propaganda \"Nazi propaganda\") and used both against the US and to promote a \"[holistic](/wiki/Holistic \"Holistic\") understanding of Nature\" among Germans, which gained widespread support from various segments of the political spectrum in Germany.Usbeck, Frank, \"Learning from 'Tribal Ancestors': How the Nazis Used Indian Imagery to Promote a 'Holistic' Understanding of Nature among Germans\", *Elohi. Peuples Indigènes et Environnement*, Vol. 4\\. 2014\\. 45–60\\.Usbeck, Frank, \"Clash of Cultures? 'Noble Savages' in Germany and America\", in: Iris Edenheiser and Astrid Nielsen (eds.), *Tecumseh, Keokuk, Black Hawk. Portrayals of Native Americans in Times of Treaties and Removal*. Stuttgart/Dresden: Arnoldsche, 2013, {{ISBN\\|9783897904002}}, pp. 177–84\\. The connection between [anti\\-American](/wiki/Anti-Americanism \"Anti-Americanism\") sentiment and sympathetic feelings toward the underprivileged but authentic Indians is common in Germany, and it was to be found among both Nazi propagandists such as [Goebbels](/wiki/Joseph_Goebbels \"Joseph Goebbels\") and left\\-leaning writers such as [Nikolaus Lenau](/wiki/Nikolaus_Lenau \"Nikolaus Lenau\") as well. During the [German Autumn](/wiki/German_Autumn \"German Autumn\") in 1977, an anonymous text by a leftist *[Göttinger](/wiki/G%C3%B6ttingen \"Göttingen\") [Mescalero](/wiki/Mescalero \"Mescalero\")* spoke \"with secret joy\" (klammheimliche Freude) of the murder of German attorney general [Siegfried Buback](/wiki/Siegfried_Buback \"Siegfried Buback\") and used the positive image of *[Stadtindianer](/wiki/Indiani_Metropolitani \"Indiani Metropolitani\")* (Urban Indians) within the radical left.[\"Warum Klaus Hülbrock in Weimar 'Goethes Gurkentruppe' etablieren will\"](http://weimar.tlz.de/web/lokal/leben/detail/-/specific/Warum-Klaus-Huelbrock-in-Weimar-Goethes-Gurkentruppe-etablieren-will-1720621670).Paul, Reimar, [\"68er\\-Debatte: Streit der Häuptlinge\"](http://www.tagesspiegel.de/zeitung/68er-debatte-streit-der-haeuptlinge/198262.html) *Tagesspiegel*, 30 January 2001\\.", "In his book on the topic, *Indianthusiasm*, scholar Hartmut Lutz states that after the Second World War, Indianthusisam served as a surrogate for guilt about the Holocaust. After 1945, the \"Wild West\" of the 19th century became a historical zone in German popular imagination where it was the victors in World War II who were committing genocide. The 19th century \"Wild West\" became for Germans in the 1950s\\-1960s a \"distant, vaguely defined past\" where it was the Americans who were perpetuating genocide while German immigrants to the United States like May's hero Old Shatterhand became the ones who were trying to stop the genocide. There was an implicit *[tu quoque](/wiki/Tu_quoque \"Tu quoque\")* argument to Indianthusisam in West Germany that [Allied nations](/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_II \"Allies of World War II\") such as the United States had also committed genocide in the 19th century with the obvious conclusion that therefore there was no reason for the Germans to feel especially guilty about the Holocaust. In East Germany, this message was made explicit where policies of the United States government towards Indians in the 19th century were linked to capitalism, and therefore the treatment of American Indians supposedly showed the brutal, rapacious and genocidal nature of American capitalism and imperialism. In East Germany, the frequency of films devoted to the subject of the Indians led to the term *Indianerfilme* being coined to describe the genre. In the East German *Indianerfilme*, the Americans were always the villains while the Indians were always the heroes. More recently, Indianthusiasm has been linked to the rise of environmentalism in Germany, where the traditional lifestyles of the Indians is portrayed in a romantic manner as superior to modern industrial civilization of the West.Watchman, Renne, Lutz, Hartmut \\& Strzelczyk, Florence *Indianthusiasm*, Waterloo: Wilfrid Laurier Press, 2020 p.17\\-19", "### Karl May festivals during the Nazi period", "In 1938 the first outdoor Karl May festivals took place at the [Rathen Open Air Stage](/wiki/Rathen_Open_Air_Stage \"Rathen Open Air Stage\"). The open\\-air theatre was laid out in 1936, inspired by the ideas of the *[Thingspiele](/wiki/Thingspiele \"Thingspiele\")* movement, which was active in the early stages of the Nazi period.{{Cite book\\|first\\=Katrin \\|last\\=Sieg \\|title\\=Ethnic Drag: Performing Race, Nation, Sexuality in West Germany \\|series\\=Social history, popular culture, and politics in Germany \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[University of Michigan Press]] \\|location\\=Ann Arbor \\|year\\=2002 \\|page\\=82 \\|isbn\\=0\\-472\\-11282\\-1 }} The Thingspiele movement failed in staging [neopagan](/wiki/Neopaganism_in_German-speaking_Europe \"Neopaganism in German-speaking Europe\") and [Nordic mythical](/wiki/Nordic_mythology \"Nordic mythology\") aspects of the [völkisch movement](/wiki/V%C3%B6lkisch_movement \"Völkisch movement\"), while May's all\\-Christian legends found more approval with the mainstream.", "### Communist interpretations", "The Communist [East German](/wiki/East_Germany \"East Germany\") government had major problems with the mixed heritage of May's works: his strong Christian leanings and his broad support, including on the political right. His books were not available for a long time, and \"indianistic\" reenactors were closely monitored by the security forces.von Borries, Friedrich; Fischer, Jens\\-Uwe, *Sozialistische Cowboys. Der Wilde Westen Ostdeutschlands*, Frankfurt/ Main: Suhrkamp, 2008, {{ISBN\\|9783518125281}}, pp. 35–39\\. The Communist authorities tried to integrate the movement into the socialist world view. Some prominent communist philosophers, such as [Karl Marx](/wiki/Karl_Marx \"Karl Marx\")' friend and sponsor [Friedrich Engels](/wiki/Friedrich_Engels \"Friedrich Engels\"), had used Native American tribal structures as examples for theories on family, private property, and the state.Friedrich Engel, [*Origins of the Family, Private Property, and the State, The Iroquois Gens*](https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1884/origin-family/ch03.htm). Engels contributed to the controversy about whether the Native American tribes actually had a notion of [private property](/wiki/Private_property \"Private property\") before the [Columbian age](/wiki/Columbian_Exchange \"Columbian Exchange\").Krech, Shepard, *The Ecological Indian: Myth and History*, Norton, 1999, {{ISBN\\|0\\-393\\-04755\\-5}}. Indianerenthusiasm is now also being found in Russia.{{Cite web\\|url \\= http://indiancountrytodaymedianetwork.com/2014/08/04/russians\\-behaving\\-indian\\-ly\\-its\\-not\\-just\\-germans\\-anymore\\-156212\\|title \\= Russians Behaving Indian\\-ly: It's Not Just for Germans Anymore\\|date \\= 2014\\-08\\-04\\|publisher \\= Indian Country Today Media Network }}", "### West German interpretations", "In [West Germany](/wiki/West_Germany \"West Germany\") May's heritage was less problematic; both the books and the festivals were soon copied and reprinted. The [Karl May Festival in Bad Segeberg](/wiki/Karl_May_Festival_in_Bad_Segeberg \"Karl May Festival in Bad Segeberg\") overtook its predecessor in Rathen, as the GDR officials discontinued the tradition there. The Federal Republic experienced some aspects of an idealized Indian image during the [Protests of 1968](/wiki/Protests_of_1968 \"Protests of 1968\") and the related generation and in the founding phase of [Die Grünen](/wiki/B%C3%BCndnis_90/Die_Gr%C3%BCnen \"Bündnis 90/Die Grünen\") and NGOs like [Greenpeace](/wiki/Greenpeace \"Greenpeace\"), which have a strong influence in Germany. [Cultural critics](/wiki/Cultural_critic \"Cultural critic\") tended to depict Indians positively to criticize Western society while conflicts of and with actual Native Americans over issues such as [fur hunting](/wiki/North_American_fur_trade \"North American fur trade\"), [slavery](/wiki/Slavery_among_Native_Americans_in_the_United_States \"Slavery among Native Americans in the United States\"), forest fire triggering, non\\-sustainable practices such as [buffalo jumps](/wiki/Buffalo_jump \"Buffalo jump\"), [seal clubbing](/wiki/Seal_hunting \"Seal hunting\") and [whaling](/wiki/Aboriginal_whaling \"Aboriginal whaling\") were neglected. The positive image, however, also influenced the self\\-image of actual Indians.", "### Hobbyists", "**Native American hobbyism in Germany**, also called **Indian Hobbyism**, or **Indianism**, is the performance and attempt at [historical reenactment](/wiki/Historical_reenactment \"Historical reenactment\") of the [American Indian](/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas \"Indigenous peoples of the Americas\") culture of the early contact period, rather than the way contemporary [Indigenous peoples of the Americas](/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas \"Indigenous peoples of the Americas\") live.[Hagengruber, James (2002\\). “Sitting Bull: Bush\\-hating Germans might not sing ‘Hail to the Chief,’ but they’re infatuated with the first Americans”](http://www.salon.com/2002/11/27/indians/). *Salon*.Haircrow, Red (2014\\). [“A Star Trek Convention for Native Enthusiasts: Inside a German Pow Wow”](http://indiancountrytodaymedianetwork.com/2014/02/24/star-trek-convention-native-enthusiasts-inside-german-pow-wow-153712). *Indian Country Today Media Network*. The cultures imitated are usually a romantic stereotype of [Plains Indian](/wiki/Plains_Indians \"Plains Indians\") cultures, with widely varying degrees of accuracy; influenced by [the stereotypes](/wiki/Stereotypes_about_indigenous_peoples_of_North_America \"Stereotypes about indigenous peoples of North America\") seen in Hollywood [Westerns](/wiki/Westerns \"Westerns\").Lopinto, Noemi (2009\\). [\"Der Indianer: Why Do 40,000 Germans spend their weekends dressed as Native Americans?\"](http://www.utne.com/mind-and-body/germans-weekends-native-americans-indian-culture.aspx#axzz3Iclt4HSK). *Utne.com* . Some of the early to mid 20th century hobbyists gained widespread acclaim as selftaught experts in anything pertaining to the subjects of Native Americana, particularly the [Zurich](/wiki/Zurich \"Zurich\"), [Switzerland](/wiki/Switzerland \"Switzerland\"), based accountant, [Joseph Balmer](/wiki/Joseph_Balmer \"Joseph Balmer\").'The Indian Hobbyist Movement in Europe', inWilcomb E.Washburn (ed.) Handbook of American Indians Vol.4: History of Indian White Relations, Washington D.C.: Smithsonian Institution, pp. 562–569\\. ——. 1986\\.", "This is done by non\\-Natives as a hobby and pastime, such as for a weekend retreat, hobbyist [pow wow](/wiki/Pow_wow \"Pow wow\"), or summer camp.Sieg, Katrin (2002\\). *Ethnic Drag*. University of Michigan Press. {{ISBN\\|9780472112821}}. It exists in several European countries, but is prominent in Germany, where approximately 40,000 practitioners, known as hobbyists, participate. Response to this by actual Native Americans has been largely negative.Deloria, Philip J. (1998\\). *Playing Indian*. Yale University Press. {{ISBN\\|978\\-0300080674}}.Eddy, Melissa (2014\\). [“Lost in Translation: Germany’s Fascination With the American Old West”](https://www.nytimes.com/2014/08/18/world/europe/germanys-fascination-with-american-old-west-native-american-scalps-human-remains.html?_r=0). *The New York Times*.", "#### Background", "According to the history laid out in H. Glenn Penny's *Kindred By Choice*,Penny, H. Glenn (2013\\). *Kindred By Choice* . The University of North Carolina Press. {{ISBN\\|978\\-1469607641}}. many Germans identify their roots as tribes that lived independently of one another that were colonized by Romans and forced to become Christians. Because of this distant tribal background and history of colonization, and in fact all ancient Europeans lived tribally at some point in their history, many of these Germans identify with Native Americans more than European nations in contemporary times.Gilders, Adam (2003\\). [\"Ich Bin Ein Indianer: Germany's Obsession with a past it never had\"](http://thewalrus.ca/2003-10-feature-2/). *The Walrus* . This belief in kindred lifestyle is detailed in Penny's in\\-depth study of German fascination with and performances as their ideas of historical Native American peoples. These Germans are also interested in depiction of Native Americans in art and anthropology. Penny covers this history in *Kindred By Choice* and other published writings, chronicling German artists such as Rudolf Cronau, [Max Ernst](/wiki/Max_Ernst \"Max Ernst\"), [Georg Grosz](/wiki/Georg_Grosz \"Georg Grosz\"), [Otto Dix](/wiki/Otto_Dix \"Otto Dix\"), and [Rudolf Schlichter](/wiki/Rudolf_Schlichter \"Rudolf Schlichter\")'s portrayals of Native Americans.Penny, H. Glenn (2011\\). [\"The German Love Affair with American Indians: Rudolf Cronau's Epiphany\"](http://www.common-place.org/vol-11/no-04/reading/). *Common\\-Place.org*. German academics such as [Alexander von Humboldt](/wiki/Alexander_von_Humboldt \"Alexander von Humboldt\"), [Karl von den Steinen](/wiki/Karl_von_den_Steinen \"Karl von den Steinen\"), Paul Ehrenreich, and [Carl Jung](/wiki/Carl_Jung \"Carl Jung\") all traveled to the United States to learn more about Native Americans.{{citation needed\\|date\\=December 2015}} Their documentation of their journeys were regarded positively by the German public and assisted in fostering German fascination with Native Americans. Penny also details how Germans often denounced the violence inflicted upon Native peoples by the United States government.{{citation needed\\|date\\=December 2015}}", "Another factor in the popularity of Hobbyism in Germany can be attributed to the many [Wild West shows](/wiki/Wild_West_show \"Wild West show\") that toured throughout Germany and featured real Native Americans in stereotypical \"cowboy and Indian\" performances.Stetler, Julia Simone (2012\\). \"Buffalo Bill's Wild West in Germany. A Transnational History\". University of Nevada, Las Vegas Theses/Dissertations/Professional Papers/Capstones. Paper 1634\\. One of the most popular Wild West shows was organized by William Frederick \"[Buffalo Bill](/wiki/Buffalo_Bill \"Buffalo Bill\")\" Cody. German Hobbyism is generally believed to have been largely popularized by the dime\\-store novelist [Karl May](/wiki/Karl_May \"Karl May\"), whose fictional Apache warrior character, [Winnetou](/wiki/Winnetou \"Winnetou\"), and his German blood\\-brother, [Old Shatterhand](/wiki/Old_Shatterhand \"Old Shatterhand\"), adventure throughout the Wild West. In one of the many novels, Winnetou is murdered and Old Shatterhand avenges him and ultimately becomes an Apache chief. The Winnetou novels were first published in the 1890s.Taylor, Colin F.\\[Dr.]'The Indian Hobbyist Movement in Europe', inWilcomb E.Washburn (ed.) Handbook of American Indians Vol.4: History of Indian White Relations, Washington D.C.: Smithsonian Institution, pp. 562–569\\. ——. 1986\\.", "#### In the 20th century", "[thumb\\|*Die Indianerschlacht am Little Big Horn* ([Elk Eber](/wiki/Elk_Eber \"Elk Eber\"), 1936\\)](/wiki/File:Elk_Eber_-_Die_Indianerschlacht_am_Little_Big_Horn%2C_1936.jpg \"Elk Eber - Die Indianerschlacht am Little Big Horn, 1936.jpg\")\nThe first such hobbyist club was the Cowboy Club founded in Munich in 1913\\.Watchman, Renne, Lutz, Hartmut \\& Strzelczyk, Florence *Indianthusiasm*, Waterloo: Wilfrid Laurier Press, 2020 p.16 As part of the phenomenon of *Indianertümelei* a number of Western and Indian theme parks operate in Germany, the most popular of which are the Pullman City theme park outside of Munich and El Dorado theme park outside of Berlin.", "Hobbyism was greatly affected by the separation of Germany after World War II. [:de:Katrin Sieg](/wiki/Katrin_Sieg \"Katrin Sieg\")\\|'s *Ethnic Drag* discusses the differences between [West German](/wiki/West_German \"West German\") Hobbyism and [East German](/wiki/East_German \"East German\") Hobbyism, saying that while West Germany could continue to openly participate in the hobby, East Germans had to go underground for fear of being targeted as rebels. This translated to a difference in opinion between East and West in how they interacted with real Native Americans; East German hobbyist clubs often interacted with Native Americans and supported them in their issues financially. On the other hand, West Germans often avoided contact with real Native Americans, which Sieg surmises is because they feared being told they are not truly Native American. These patterns continue to be true today. Dakota academic [Philip Deloria](/wiki/Philip_Deloria \"Philip Deloria\") theorizes in his book [Playing Indian](/wiki/Playing_Indian \"Playing Indian\") that there are two types of Hobbyism—people Hobbyism and item Hobbyism.Deloria, Philip J. (1998\\). *Playing Indian*. Yale University Press. {{ISBN\\|978\\-0300080674}} West Germans would be considered, according to Deloria, as item hobbyists who focus on the objects, and the East Germans would be considered people hobbyists, who also include objects but want to interact with real Native Americans and issues facing Native communities.", "The East German interest in having hobbyists start engaging with living Native Americans may be partially attributable to the fact that the East German government began to recognize the propaganda value; criticism of the historical treatment of American Indians could be used as an example of why East Germans citizens should criticize US policies in general.von Borries, Friedrich, Jens\\-Uwe Fischer (2008\\). *[Cowboys Der Wilde Westen Ostdeutschlands](http://Sozialistische){{Dead link\\|date\\=April 2020 \\|bot\\=InternetArchiveBot \\|fix\\-attempted\\=yes }}*. Frankfurt am Main: Suhrkamp. {{ISBN\\|978\\-3\\-518\\-12528\\-1}}", "May's novels featuring Winnetou and Old Shatterhand have been adapted into both theatrical and film productions in German\\-speaking countries. It is believed that film adaptations of Karl May's characters in the 1960s may have saved the West German film industry.Galchen, Rivka (2012\\). [“Wild West Germany: Why do cowboys and Indians so captivate the country?”](https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2012/04/09/wild-west-germany). *The New Yorker*. Each summer in [Bad Segeberg](/wiki/Bad_Segeberg \"Bad Segeberg\"), [Schleswig\\-Holstein](/wiki/Schleswig-Holstein \"Schleswig-Holstein\"), Germany, the [Karl May Festival](/wiki/Karl_May_Festival_in_Bad_Segeberg \"Karl May Festival in Bad Segeberg\") (Karl\\-May\\-Spiele) hosts stage productions weekly and particularly during the Karl May Festival. The Karl May Festival is an annual event purported to bring the Wild West to northern Germany", "#### In the 21st century", "German Hobbyism continues today in the form of festivals, museums, pow wows, theater, and clubs. The Karl May Festival in [Bad Segeberg](/wiki/Bad_Segeberg \"Bad Segeberg\") continues each year and is a popular attraction to families from all over Germany and Europe. Additionally, there are multiple Wild West Amusement Parks all throughout Germany. The Karl May Museum in Radebeul and other museums that host Native American exhibits continue to be wildly popular. Hobbyists that organize through the means of a club host pow wows and teach each other and communities about Native American culture. The topic of German Hobbyism has become more recently documented by mainstream news sources *[New York Times](/wiki/New_York_Times \"New York Times\")*, [the Huffington Post](/wiki/The_Huffington_Post \"The Huffington Post\"), and independent filmmakers such as Howie Summers, who created a short documentary titled Indianer that explores German Hobbyists and their fascinations.Levine, Carole Quattro (2008\\). [\"'Indianer': A glimpse inside the world of German Hobby Indians\"](http://www.scene4.com/archivesqv6/may-2008/html/carolelevine0508.html). *Scene4 Magazine*.", "Writer, psychologist and filmmaker Red Haircrow, whose father is African American while his mother is of Native ([Chiricahua Apache](/wiki/Chiricahua \"Chiricahua\")/[Cherokee](/wiki/Cherokee \"Cherokee\")) heritage,[*About*](https://redhaircrow.com/about/).redhaircrow.com[June Chua (May 31, 2017\\). *Film ‘Forget Winnetou!’ studies German idealization of Indigenous culture*](https://rabble.ca/columnists/forget-winnetou-surveys-german-idealization-indigenous-culture/).rabble.ca attended the Winter Pow\\-wow 2014 in Berlin on 15 February. He described the participants as wearing as many \"breastplates, bear claw necklaces, feathers and bone jewelry as they seemed able to physically support,\" and that the attendees also wore Native American costumes in addition to the hobbyist dancers.", "In 2019, it was estimated that between 40,000\\-100,000 Germans are involved in *Indianer* hobbyist clubs at any given moment. Interviewed in 2007, one member of an *Indianer* club stated: \"Our camp is always in summer, in July for two weeks. During this time, we live in tipis, we wear only Indian clothes. We don't use technology and we try to follow Indian traditions. We have those \\[pretending to be] Lakota, Oglala, Blackfeet, Blood, Siksika, Pawneee...and we go on the warpath against each other day and night, anytime at all. In two weeks, every tribe can fight each other. We don't know when somebody will attack or when they will come to steal our horses. And the battles are always exciting, too. I really enjoy them\".Watchman, Renne, Lutz, Hartmut \\& Strzelczyk, Florence *Indianthusiasm*, Waterloo: Wilfrid Laurier Press, 2020 p.16\\-17", "#### Criticism", "The main criticism of German Hobbyism by Native American journalists and academics argues on the basis of [cultural appropriation](/wiki/Cultural_appropriation \"Cultural appropriation\") and misrepresentation of Native American cultures and identities.Chandler, Daniel and Rod Munday (2011\\). *A Dictionary of Media and Communication*. Oxford University Press. {{ISBN\\|978\\-0\\-19\\-956875\\-8}} When it comes to the borrowing of American Indian culture, [Philip J. Deloria](/wiki/Philip_J._Deloria \"Philip J. Deloria\") dubs it \"playing Indian,\" which he defines as the adoption or portrayal of being Native by Anglo\\-American individuals. These actions are often motivated by hobby and sometimes financial gain. Further, Deloria writes that these individuals and groups who play Indian build a collectivity in their performance of otherness, which in turn defines their own identity through the distinction of playing the national \"[other](/wiki/Other_%28philosophy%29 \"Other (philosophy)\").\"", "[Katrin Sieg](/wiki/Katrin_Sieg \"Katrin Sieg\") applies the thoughts and ideas of Deloria to the performance studies field in Germany. Her book *Ethnic Drag* discusses the ways in which Germans have historically dressed up as \"othered\" peoples, which includes [Jews](/wiki/Jews \"Jews\"), Native Americans, and [Turks](/wiki/Turkish_people \"Turkish people\"). While the portrayals of Jews and Turks were largely negative stereotypes, the portrayal of Native Americans differed in that they were seen as heroic and noble.", "The first Native American women's theater troupe known as [Spiderwoman Theater](/wiki/Spiderwoman_Theater \"Spiderwoman Theater\") traveled to Germany and Europe in order to perform a satire of the European and particularly German fascination with Native Americans. According to Spiderwoman Theater, it was an act of resistance meant to reclaim their identity as real Native Americans. Their show is titled *Winnetou's Snake Oil Show from Wigwam City*, and parodied Karl May's characters, [New Ageism](/wiki/New_Age \"New Age\"), and individuals who pretend to be Native American.Spiderwoman Theatre (1999\\). [“Winnetou’s snake oil show from Wigwam City”](https://sites.dlib.nyu.edu/hidvl/q2bvq8dh). *Hemispheric Institute Digital Video Library*.", "In 1982, a Canadian [Ojibwe](/wiki/Ojibwe \"Ojibwe\") painter [Ahmoo Allen Angeconeb](/wiki/Ahmoo_Allen_Angeconeb \"Ahmoo Allen Angeconeb\") visited West Germany where he discovered his paintings were selling better than in Canada, looking for a chance to exhibit his work.Watchman, Renne, Lutz, Hartmut \\& Strzelczyk, Florence *Indianthusiasm*, Waterloo: Wilfrid Laurier Press, 2020 p.25 Angeconeb soon discovered that most Germans were interested in the traditional culture of the Plains Indian peoples and had no interest in the Eastern Woodslands peoples such as the Ojibwe or in the modern First Nations peoples. His attempts to argue that there was more to the Indians of North America than the lifestyle of the Plains Indians in the 18th and 19th centuries did not meet with much success as he recalled in an interview: \"Actually most of these Indian clubs were interested in Plains Indians. So when they found out I was Ojibwe they had no idea who the Ojibwe were. We weren't Plains Indians, so therefore we weren't \"real Indians\"...And then, they seem to have this romantic view that they didn't want to have altered. I was too \"real\" an Indian for them. They wanted to keep their romantic view; they didn't want to hear about the modern way of living for Ojibwe people here. That we lived in wooden\\-structure homes, that we drove cars\".Watchman, Renne, Lutz, Hartmut \\& Strzelczyk, Florence *Indianthusiasm*, Waterloo: Wilfrid Laurier Press, 2020 p.36", "Red Haircrow has written articles from [Berlin](/wiki/Berlin \"Berlin\"), where he resides, regarding the controversial aspects of Hobbyism from the perspective of a real Native American. Haircrow has traveled to pow wows and reported to [Indian Country Today Media Network](/wiki/Indian_Country_Today_Media_Network \"Indian Country Today Media Network\") about his experience as a Native American at an event in which Germans performed Native American identity. He reported the premiere of the blockbuster remake *[The Lone Ranger](/wiki/The_Lone_Ranger_%282013_film%29 \"The Lone Ranger (2013 film)\")*, in which Hobbyists were hired to perform as Native Americans in Berlin.Haircrow, Red (2013\\). [\"Ich Bin Ein Tonto: Johnny Depp at 'Lone Ranger' Premiere in Berlin\"](http://indiancountrytodaymedianetwork.com/gallery/photo/ich-bin-ein-tonto-johnny-depp-lone-ranger-premiere-berlin-150589). *Indian Country Today Media Network*. Haircrow also covered a controversy at the [Karl May Museum](/wiki/Karl_May_Museum \"Karl May Museum\"), when the owners of the museum in [Radebeul](/wiki/Radebeul \"Radebeul\") refused to return Native American [scalps](/wiki/Scalping \"Scalping\") to the tribes from which they are claimed to have come.Haircrow, Red (2014\\). [“Tribes Demand Return of Native Scalps From Karl May Museum in Germany”](http://indiancountrytodaymedianetwork.com/2014/03/25/tribes-demand-return-native-scalps-karl-may-museum-germany-154152). *Indian Country Today Media Network*. As an act of protest, Native American singer [Jana Mashonee](/wiki/Jana_Mashonee \"Jana Mashonee\") chose not to perform at the [Karl May Fest](/wiki/Karl_May_Fest \"Karl May Fest\") in [Radebeul](/wiki/Radebeul \"Radebeul\"), [Saxony](/wiki/Saxony \"Saxony\") and released an official statement denigrating the refusal of the Karl May Museum to return the Native American scalps. The scalps were not returned to the [Ojibwe](/wiki/Ojibwe \"Ojibwe\") nation as requested, but they were removed from display.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://indiancountrymedianetwork.com/news/indigenous\\-peoples/an\\-agreement\\-is\\-reached\\-regarding\\-scalps\\-at\\-the\\-karl\\-may\\-museum/ \\|title\\=An Agreement Is Reached Regarding Scalps at the Karl May Museum \\|last\\=Haircrow \\|first\\=Red \\|publisher\\=Indian Country Media Network \\|date\\=14 June 2014 \\|access\\-date\\=2 January 2017}}", "Haircrow also notes that not every Native American has a negative view of the German fascination with their culture. Comanche Laura Kerchee, who was stationed in Germany with the [U.S. Air Force](/wiki/U.S._Air_Force \"U.S. Air Force\"), told him that \"she was impressed with how enthralled the Germans there were by Native Americans.\" Haircrow adds that \"some tribes in North America \\[are] reaching out to their fans in Europe. They realize that this is an opportunity to promote understanding and education and a way to market Native culture to a highly sympathetic audience.\"{{cite web \\|url\\=https://indiancountrymedianetwork.com/news/indigenous\\-peoples/germanys\\-obsession\\-with\\-american\\-indians\\-is\\-touchingand\\-occasionally\\-surreal/ \\|title\\=Germany's Obsession With American Indians Is Touching—And Occasionally Surreal \\|last\\=Haircrow \\|first\\=Red \\|publisher\\=Indian Country Media Network \\|date\\=24 March 2013 \\|access\\-date\\=2 January 2017}}\nRed Haircrow's 2018 documentary \"Forget Winnetou! Loving in the Wrong Way\" focuses more Native perspectives on Indian hobbyism, cultural appropriation and the connection to racism and continuing colonial practices in Germany,Chua, June (2017\\). [\"'Film 'Forget Winnetou!' studies German idealization of Indigenous culture\"](http://rabble.ca/columnists/2017/05/film-forget-winnetou-studies-german-idealization-indigenous-culture). *Rabble Magazine*.Dell, Matthias (2017\\). [\"'Ich bin nur dem Nein begegnet\"](https://www.freitag.de/autoren/mdell/ich-bin-nur-dem-nein-begegnet). *Der Freitag*. won the Audience Award at the Refugees Welcome Film Festival in Berlin, Germany in 2018\\.Refugees Welcome Film Festival (2018\\). [\"Winners\"](http://www.refugeesfilmfest.com/winners.html). *Refugees Welcome Film Festival website*.", "In the United States, there is a widespread criticism from Native Americans about the [misappropriation](/wiki/Cultural_appropriation \"Cultural appropriation\") and [misrepresentation](/wiki/Stereotypes_of_indigenous_peoples_of_Canada_and_the_United_States \"Stereotypes of indigenous peoples of Canada and the United States\") of Native American identity and culture. Examples include the [Native American mascot controversy](/wiki/Native_American_mascot_controversy \"Native American mascot controversy\"), backlash against artists such as [Gwen Stefani](/wiki/Gwen_Stefani \"Gwen Stefani\") and [Lana Del Rey](/wiki/Lana_Del_Rey \"Lana Del Rey\") who have performed in feather [war bonnets](/wiki/War_bonnets \"War bonnets\"), and campaigns to educate the public about not wearing Native American costumes for Halloween and themed parties, such as [My Culture Is Not a Costume](/wiki/My_Culture_Is_Not_a_Costume \"My Culture Is Not a Costume\"). This same sentiment was expressed by Haircrow's son, who claimed that \"they are stealing from others, but don't want to admit it. That's why they didn't want us there, because they know we know what they are doing is wrong.\" In a *New York Times* short documentary titled *Lost in Translation: Germany's Fascination with the [American Old West](/wiki/American_Old_West \"American Old West\")*, the actor portraying Winnetou, [Jan Sosniok](/wiki/Jan_Sosniok \"Jan Sosniok\"), is asked if he thinks that real Native Americans would take offense to the portrayal of Native Americans. The actor responds that he does not believe they would be offended. The video also portrays a German man who studied at the [Institute of American Indian Arts](/wiki/Institute_of_American_Indian_Arts \"Institute of American Indian Arts\") in New Mexico. This person shares his discomfort with seeing a burial dance take place in the [Bad Segeberg](/wiki/Bad_Segeberg \"Bad Segeberg\") performance, and calls it grotesque and claims that it perpetuates a stereotypical image of the Native American.", "Journalist [James Hagengruber](/wiki/James_Hagengruber \"James Hagengruber\") discussed German hobbyists in an article for Salon's website, describing the occasional clashes between the German fantasists and actual Native Americans. Visiting Native American dancers were shocked when German hobbyists protested their use of microphones and details of their costumes (to which they counter\\-protested). A hobbyist profiled in the article defended the German tendency to focus on Indian culture before 1880, instead of engaging with issues that affect contemporary tribes, comparing it to studying \"the \\[ancient] Romans.\" Some Germans{{who\\|date\\=December 2017}} have been surprised and irritated when real Native Americans don't act the way they do in the German imagination.{{citation needed\\|date\\=December 2017}} On the other hand, Hagengruber comments that \"some dying Indian languages may end up being preserved by German hobbyists.\" Dick Littlebear, \"a member of the Northern Cheyenne Nation and the president of [Chief Dull Knife College](/wiki/Chief_Dull_Knife_College \"Chief Dull Knife College\") in Lame Deer, MT,\" told Hagengruber \"he doesn't worry about Germans fixating on his culture,\" as long as they do not copy sacred ceremonies, and pointed out that he had learned \"lost Northern Cheyenne stitching methods from the 1850s\" from German hobbyists.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.salon.com/2002/11/27/indians/ \\|title\\=Sitting Bull: Bush\\-hating Germans might not sing \"Hail to the Chief,\" but they're infatuated with the first Americans. \\|last\\=Hagengruber \\|first\\=James \\|work\\=Salon \\|date\\=27 November 2002 \\|access\\-date\\=2 January 2017}}", "Journalist [Noemi Lopinto](/wiki/Noemi_Lopinto \"Noemi Lopinto\") in her article for UTNE reports that an Ojibwe man named David Redbird Baker found the performance of sacred ceremonies in Germany to be offensive: \"They take the social and religious ceremonies and change them beyond recognition.\" Lopinto paraphrases Baker as adding, \"They've held dances where anyone in modern dress is barred from attending—even visiting Natives.\" Both Lopinto and Hagengruber quote Carmen Kwasny, who works with the Native American Association of Germany, as saying the Germans need to learn to view Native Americans as people, rather than idealized cultural fantasy characters.", "" ]
### Hobbyists **Native American hobbyism in Germany**, also called **Indian Hobbyism**, or **Indianism**, is the performance and attempt at [historical reenactment](/wiki/Historical_reenactment "Historical reenactment") of the [American Indian](/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas "Indigenous peoples of the Americas") culture of the early contact period, rather than the way contemporary [Indigenous peoples of the Americas](/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas "Indigenous peoples of the Americas") live.[Hagengruber, James (2002\). “Sitting Bull: Bush\-hating Germans might not sing ‘Hail to the Chief,’ but they’re infatuated with the first Americans”](http://www.salon.com/2002/11/27/indians/). *Salon*.Haircrow, Red (2014\). [“A Star Trek Convention for Native Enthusiasts: Inside a German Pow Wow”](http://indiancountrytodaymedianetwork.com/2014/02/24/star-trek-convention-native-enthusiasts-inside-german-pow-wow-153712). *Indian Country Today Media Network*. The cultures imitated are usually a romantic stereotype of [Plains Indian](/wiki/Plains_Indians "Plains Indians") cultures, with widely varying degrees of accuracy; influenced by [the stereotypes](/wiki/Stereotypes_about_indigenous_peoples_of_North_America "Stereotypes about indigenous peoples of North America") seen in Hollywood [Westerns](/wiki/Westerns "Westerns").Lopinto, Noemi (2009\). ["Der Indianer: Why Do 40,000 Germans spend their weekends dressed as Native Americans?"](http://www.utne.com/mind-and-body/germans-weekends-native-americans-indian-culture.aspx#axzz3Iclt4HSK). *Utne.com* . Some of the early to mid 20th century hobbyists gained widespread acclaim as selftaught experts in anything pertaining to the subjects of Native Americana, particularly the [Zurich](/wiki/Zurich "Zurich"), [Switzerland](/wiki/Switzerland "Switzerland"), based accountant, [Joseph Balmer](/wiki/Joseph_Balmer "Joseph Balmer").'The Indian Hobbyist Movement in Europe', inWilcomb E.Washburn (ed.) Handbook of American Indians Vol.4: History of Indian White Relations, Washington D.C.: Smithsonian Institution, pp. 562–569\. ——. 1986\. This is done by non\-Natives as a hobby and pastime, such as for a weekend retreat, hobbyist [pow wow](/wiki/Pow_wow "Pow wow"), or summer camp.Sieg, Katrin (2002\). *Ethnic Drag*. University of Michigan Press. {{ISBN\|9780472112821}}. It exists in several European countries, but is prominent in Germany, where approximately 40,000 practitioners, known as hobbyists, participate. Response to this by actual Native Americans has been largely negative.Deloria, Philip J. (1998\). *Playing Indian*. Yale University Press. {{ISBN\|978\-0300080674}}.Eddy, Melissa (2014\). [“Lost in Translation: Germany’s Fascination With the American Old West”](https://www.nytimes.com/2014/08/18/world/europe/germanys-fascination-with-american-old-west-native-american-scalps-human-remains.html?_r=0). *The New York Times*. #### Background According to the history laid out in H. Glenn Penny's *Kindred By Choice*,Penny, H. Glenn (2013\). *Kindred By Choice* . The University of North Carolina Press. {{ISBN\|978\-1469607641}}. many Germans identify their roots as tribes that lived independently of one another that were colonized by Romans and forced to become Christians. Because of this distant tribal background and history of colonization, and in fact all ancient Europeans lived tribally at some point in their history, many of these Germans identify with Native Americans more than European nations in contemporary times.Gilders, Adam (2003\). ["Ich Bin Ein Indianer: Germany's Obsession with a past it never had"](http://thewalrus.ca/2003-10-feature-2/). *The Walrus* . This belief in kindred lifestyle is detailed in Penny's in\-depth study of German fascination with and performances as their ideas of historical Native American peoples. These Germans are also interested in depiction of Native Americans in art and anthropology. Penny covers this history in *Kindred By Choice* and other published writings, chronicling German artists such as Rudolf Cronau, [Max Ernst](/wiki/Max_Ernst "Max Ernst"), [Georg Grosz](/wiki/Georg_Grosz "Georg Grosz"), [Otto Dix](/wiki/Otto_Dix "Otto Dix"), and [Rudolf Schlichter](/wiki/Rudolf_Schlichter "Rudolf Schlichter")'s portrayals of Native Americans.Penny, H. Glenn (2011\). ["The German Love Affair with American Indians: Rudolf Cronau's Epiphany"](http://www.common-place.org/vol-11/no-04/reading/). *Common\-Place.org*. German academics such as [Alexander von Humboldt](/wiki/Alexander_von_Humboldt "Alexander von Humboldt"), [Karl von den Steinen](/wiki/Karl_von_den_Steinen "Karl von den Steinen"), Paul Ehrenreich, and [Carl Jung](/wiki/Carl_Jung "Carl Jung") all traveled to the United States to learn more about Native Americans.{{citation needed\|date\=December 2015}} Their documentation of their journeys were regarded positively by the German public and assisted in fostering German fascination with Native Americans. Penny also details how Germans often denounced the violence inflicted upon Native peoples by the United States government.{{citation needed\|date\=December 2015}} Another factor in the popularity of Hobbyism in Germany can be attributed to the many [Wild West shows](/wiki/Wild_West_show "Wild West show") that toured throughout Germany and featured real Native Americans in stereotypical "cowboy and Indian" performances.Stetler, Julia Simone (2012\). "Buffalo Bill's Wild West in Germany. A Transnational History". University of Nevada, Las Vegas Theses/Dissertations/Professional Papers/Capstones. Paper 1634\. One of the most popular Wild West shows was organized by William Frederick "[Buffalo Bill](/wiki/Buffalo_Bill "Buffalo Bill")" Cody. German Hobbyism is generally believed to have been largely popularized by the dime\-store novelist [Karl May](/wiki/Karl_May "Karl May"), whose fictional Apache warrior character, [Winnetou](/wiki/Winnetou "Winnetou"), and his German blood\-brother, [Old Shatterhand](/wiki/Old_Shatterhand "Old Shatterhand"), adventure throughout the Wild West. In one of the many novels, Winnetou is murdered and Old Shatterhand avenges him and ultimately becomes an Apache chief. The Winnetou novels were first published in the 1890s.Taylor, Colin F.\[Dr.]'The Indian Hobbyist Movement in Europe', inWilcomb E.Washburn (ed.) Handbook of American Indians Vol.4: History of Indian White Relations, Washington D.C.: Smithsonian Institution, pp. 562–569\. ——. 1986\. #### In the 20th century [thumb\|*Die Indianerschlacht am Little Big Horn* ([Elk Eber](/wiki/Elk_Eber "Elk Eber"), 1936\)](/wiki/File:Elk_Eber_-_Die_Indianerschlacht_am_Little_Big_Horn%2C_1936.jpg "Elk Eber - Die Indianerschlacht am Little Big Horn, 1936.jpg") The first such hobbyist club was the Cowboy Club founded in Munich in 1913\.Watchman, Renne, Lutz, Hartmut \& Strzelczyk, Florence *Indianthusiasm*, Waterloo: Wilfrid Laurier Press, 2020 p.16 As part of the phenomenon of *Indianertümelei* a number of Western and Indian theme parks operate in Germany, the most popular of which are the Pullman City theme park outside of Munich and El Dorado theme park outside of Berlin. Hobbyism was greatly affected by the separation of Germany after World War II. [:de:Katrin Sieg](/wiki/Katrin_Sieg "Katrin Sieg")\|'s *Ethnic Drag* discusses the differences between [West German](/wiki/West_German "West German") Hobbyism and [East German](/wiki/East_German "East German") Hobbyism, saying that while West Germany could continue to openly participate in the hobby, East Germans had to go underground for fear of being targeted as rebels. This translated to a difference in opinion between East and West in how they interacted with real Native Americans; East German hobbyist clubs often interacted with Native Americans and supported them in their issues financially. On the other hand, West Germans often avoided contact with real Native Americans, which Sieg surmises is because they feared being told they are not truly Native American. These patterns continue to be true today. Dakota academic [Philip Deloria](/wiki/Philip_Deloria "Philip Deloria") theorizes in his book [Playing Indian](/wiki/Playing_Indian "Playing Indian") that there are two types of Hobbyism—people Hobbyism and item Hobbyism.Deloria, Philip J. (1998\). *Playing Indian*. Yale University Press. {{ISBN\|978\-0300080674}} West Germans would be considered, according to Deloria, as item hobbyists who focus on the objects, and the East Germans would be considered people hobbyists, who also include objects but want to interact with real Native Americans and issues facing Native communities. The East German interest in having hobbyists start engaging with living Native Americans may be partially attributable to the fact that the East German government began to recognize the propaganda value; criticism of the historical treatment of American Indians could be used as an example of why East Germans citizens should criticize US policies in general.von Borries, Friedrich, Jens\-Uwe Fischer (2008\). *[Cowboys Der Wilde Westen Ostdeutschlands](http://Sozialistische){{Dead link\|date\=April 2020 \|bot\=InternetArchiveBot \|fix\-attempted\=yes }}*. Frankfurt am Main: Suhrkamp. {{ISBN\|978\-3\-518\-12528\-1}} May's novels featuring Winnetou and Old Shatterhand have been adapted into both theatrical and film productions in German\-speaking countries. It is believed that film adaptations of Karl May's characters in the 1960s may have saved the West German film industry.Galchen, Rivka (2012\). [“Wild West Germany: Why do cowboys and Indians so captivate the country?”](https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2012/04/09/wild-west-germany). *The New Yorker*. Each summer in [Bad Segeberg](/wiki/Bad_Segeberg "Bad Segeberg"), [Schleswig\-Holstein](/wiki/Schleswig-Holstein "Schleswig-Holstein"), Germany, the [Karl May Festival](/wiki/Karl_May_Festival_in_Bad_Segeberg "Karl May Festival in Bad Segeberg") (Karl\-May\-Spiele) hosts stage productions weekly and particularly during the Karl May Festival. The Karl May Festival is an annual event purported to bring the Wild West to northern Germany #### In the 21st century German Hobbyism continues today in the form of festivals, museums, pow wows, theater, and clubs. The Karl May Festival in [Bad Segeberg](/wiki/Bad_Segeberg "Bad Segeberg") continues each year and is a popular attraction to families from all over Germany and Europe. Additionally, there are multiple Wild West Amusement Parks all throughout Germany. The Karl May Museum in Radebeul and other museums that host Native American exhibits continue to be wildly popular. Hobbyists that organize through the means of a club host pow wows and teach each other and communities about Native American culture. The topic of German Hobbyism has become more recently documented by mainstream news sources *[New York Times](/wiki/New_York_Times "New York Times")*, [the Huffington Post](/wiki/The_Huffington_Post "The Huffington Post"), and independent filmmakers such as Howie Summers, who created a short documentary titled Indianer that explores German Hobbyists and their fascinations.Levine, Carole Quattro (2008\). ["'Indianer': A glimpse inside the world of German Hobby Indians"](http://www.scene4.com/archivesqv6/may-2008/html/carolelevine0508.html). *Scene4 Magazine*. Writer, psychologist and filmmaker Red Haircrow, whose father is African American while his mother is of Native ([Chiricahua Apache](/wiki/Chiricahua "Chiricahua")/[Cherokee](/wiki/Cherokee "Cherokee")) heritage,[*About*](https://redhaircrow.com/about/).redhaircrow.com[June Chua (May 31, 2017\). *Film ‘Forget Winnetou!’ studies German idealization of Indigenous culture*](https://rabble.ca/columnists/forget-winnetou-surveys-german-idealization-indigenous-culture/).rabble.ca attended the Winter Pow\-wow 2014 in Berlin on 15 February. He described the participants as wearing as many "breastplates, bear claw necklaces, feathers and bone jewelry as they seemed able to physically support," and that the attendees also wore Native American costumes in addition to the hobbyist dancers. In 2019, it was estimated that between 40,000\-100,000 Germans are involved in *Indianer* hobbyist clubs at any given moment. Interviewed in 2007, one member of an *Indianer* club stated: "Our camp is always in summer, in July for two weeks. During this time, we live in tipis, we wear only Indian clothes. We don't use technology and we try to follow Indian traditions. We have those \[pretending to be] Lakota, Oglala, Blackfeet, Blood, Siksika, Pawneee...and we go on the warpath against each other day and night, anytime at all. In two weeks, every tribe can fight each other. We don't know when somebody will attack or when they will come to steal our horses. And the battles are always exciting, too. I really enjoy them".Watchman, Renne, Lutz, Hartmut \& Strzelczyk, Florence *Indianthusiasm*, Waterloo: Wilfrid Laurier Press, 2020 p.16\-17 #### Criticism The main criticism of German Hobbyism by Native American journalists and academics argues on the basis of [cultural appropriation](/wiki/Cultural_appropriation "Cultural appropriation") and misrepresentation of Native American cultures and identities.Chandler, Daniel and Rod Munday (2011\). *A Dictionary of Media and Communication*. Oxford University Press. {{ISBN\|978\-0\-19\-956875\-8}} When it comes to the borrowing of American Indian culture, [Philip J. Deloria](/wiki/Philip_J._Deloria "Philip J. Deloria") dubs it "playing Indian," which he defines as the adoption or portrayal of being Native by Anglo\-American individuals. These actions are often motivated by hobby and sometimes financial gain. Further, Deloria writes that these individuals and groups who play Indian build a collectivity in their performance of otherness, which in turn defines their own identity through the distinction of playing the national "[other](/wiki/Other_%28philosophy%29 "Other (philosophy)")." [Katrin Sieg](/wiki/Katrin_Sieg "Katrin Sieg") applies the thoughts and ideas of Deloria to the performance studies field in Germany. Her book *Ethnic Drag* discusses the ways in which Germans have historically dressed up as "othered" peoples, which includes [Jews](/wiki/Jews "Jews"), Native Americans, and [Turks](/wiki/Turkish_people "Turkish people"). While the portrayals of Jews and Turks were largely negative stereotypes, the portrayal of Native Americans differed in that they were seen as heroic and noble. The first Native American women's theater troupe known as [Spiderwoman Theater](/wiki/Spiderwoman_Theater "Spiderwoman Theater") traveled to Germany and Europe in order to perform a satire of the European and particularly German fascination with Native Americans. According to Spiderwoman Theater, it was an act of resistance meant to reclaim their identity as real Native Americans. Their show is titled *Winnetou's Snake Oil Show from Wigwam City*, and parodied Karl May's characters, [New Ageism](/wiki/New_Age "New Age"), and individuals who pretend to be Native American.Spiderwoman Theatre (1999\). [“Winnetou’s snake oil show from Wigwam City”](https://sites.dlib.nyu.edu/hidvl/q2bvq8dh). *Hemispheric Institute Digital Video Library*. In 1982, a Canadian [Ojibwe](/wiki/Ojibwe "Ojibwe") painter [Ahmoo Allen Angeconeb](/wiki/Ahmoo_Allen_Angeconeb "Ahmoo Allen Angeconeb") visited West Germany where he discovered his paintings were selling better than in Canada, looking for a chance to exhibit his work.Watchman, Renne, Lutz, Hartmut \& Strzelczyk, Florence *Indianthusiasm*, Waterloo: Wilfrid Laurier Press, 2020 p.25 Angeconeb soon discovered that most Germans were interested in the traditional culture of the Plains Indian peoples and had no interest in the Eastern Woodslands peoples such as the Ojibwe or in the modern First Nations peoples. His attempts to argue that there was more to the Indians of North America than the lifestyle of the Plains Indians in the 18th and 19th centuries did not meet with much success as he recalled in an interview: "Actually most of these Indian clubs were interested in Plains Indians. So when they found out I was Ojibwe they had no idea who the Ojibwe were. We weren't Plains Indians, so therefore we weren't "real Indians"...And then, they seem to have this romantic view that they didn't want to have altered. I was too "real" an Indian for them. They wanted to keep their romantic view; they didn't want to hear about the modern way of living for Ojibwe people here. That we lived in wooden\-structure homes, that we drove cars".Watchman, Renne, Lutz, Hartmut \& Strzelczyk, Florence *Indianthusiasm*, Waterloo: Wilfrid Laurier Press, 2020 p.36 Red Haircrow has written articles from [Berlin](/wiki/Berlin "Berlin"), where he resides, regarding the controversial aspects of Hobbyism from the perspective of a real Native American. Haircrow has traveled to pow wows and reported to [Indian Country Today Media Network](/wiki/Indian_Country_Today_Media_Network "Indian Country Today Media Network") about his experience as a Native American at an event in which Germans performed Native American identity. He reported the premiere of the blockbuster remake *[The Lone Ranger](/wiki/The_Lone_Ranger_%282013_film%29 "The Lone Ranger (2013 film)")*, in which Hobbyists were hired to perform as Native Americans in Berlin.Haircrow, Red (2013\). ["Ich Bin Ein Tonto: Johnny Depp at 'Lone Ranger' Premiere in Berlin"](http://indiancountrytodaymedianetwork.com/gallery/photo/ich-bin-ein-tonto-johnny-depp-lone-ranger-premiere-berlin-150589). *Indian Country Today Media Network*. Haircrow also covered a controversy at the [Karl May Museum](/wiki/Karl_May_Museum "Karl May Museum"), when the owners of the museum in [Radebeul](/wiki/Radebeul "Radebeul") refused to return Native American [scalps](/wiki/Scalping "Scalping") to the tribes from which they are claimed to have come.Haircrow, Red (2014\). [“Tribes Demand Return of Native Scalps From Karl May Museum in Germany”](http://indiancountrytodaymedianetwork.com/2014/03/25/tribes-demand-return-native-scalps-karl-may-museum-germany-154152). *Indian Country Today Media Network*. As an act of protest, Native American singer [Jana Mashonee](/wiki/Jana_Mashonee "Jana Mashonee") chose not to perform at the [Karl May Fest](/wiki/Karl_May_Fest "Karl May Fest") in [Radebeul](/wiki/Radebeul "Radebeul"), [Saxony](/wiki/Saxony "Saxony") and released an official statement denigrating the refusal of the Karl May Museum to return the Native American scalps. The scalps were not returned to the [Ojibwe](/wiki/Ojibwe "Ojibwe") nation as requested, but they were removed from display.{{cite web \|url\=https://indiancountrymedianetwork.com/news/indigenous\-peoples/an\-agreement\-is\-reached\-regarding\-scalps\-at\-the\-karl\-may\-museum/ \|title\=An Agreement Is Reached Regarding Scalps at the Karl May Museum \|last\=Haircrow \|first\=Red \|publisher\=Indian Country Media Network \|date\=14 June 2014 \|access\-date\=2 January 2017}} Haircrow also notes that not every Native American has a negative view of the German fascination with their culture. Comanche Laura Kerchee, who was stationed in Germany with the [U.S. Air Force](/wiki/U.S._Air_Force "U.S. Air Force"), told him that "she was impressed with how enthralled the Germans there were by Native Americans." Haircrow adds that "some tribes in North America \[are] reaching out to their fans in Europe. They realize that this is an opportunity to promote understanding and education and a way to market Native culture to a highly sympathetic audience."{{cite web \|url\=https://indiancountrymedianetwork.com/news/indigenous\-peoples/germanys\-obsession\-with\-american\-indians\-is\-touchingand\-occasionally\-surreal/ \|title\=Germany's Obsession With American Indians Is Touching—And Occasionally Surreal \|last\=Haircrow \|first\=Red \|publisher\=Indian Country Media Network \|date\=24 March 2013 \|access\-date\=2 January 2017}} Red Haircrow's 2018 documentary "Forget Winnetou! Loving in the Wrong Way" focuses more Native perspectives on Indian hobbyism, cultural appropriation and the connection to racism and continuing colonial practices in Germany,Chua, June (2017\). ["'Film 'Forget Winnetou!' studies German idealization of Indigenous culture"](http://rabble.ca/columnists/2017/05/film-forget-winnetou-studies-german-idealization-indigenous-culture). *Rabble Magazine*.Dell, Matthias (2017\). ["'Ich bin nur dem Nein begegnet"](https://www.freitag.de/autoren/mdell/ich-bin-nur-dem-nein-begegnet). *Der Freitag*. won the Audience Award at the Refugees Welcome Film Festival in Berlin, Germany in 2018\.Refugees Welcome Film Festival (2018\). ["Winners"](http://www.refugeesfilmfest.com/winners.html). *Refugees Welcome Film Festival website*. In the United States, there is a widespread criticism from Native Americans about the [misappropriation](/wiki/Cultural_appropriation "Cultural appropriation") and [misrepresentation](/wiki/Stereotypes_of_indigenous_peoples_of_Canada_and_the_United_States "Stereotypes of indigenous peoples of Canada and the United States") of Native American identity and culture. Examples include the [Native American mascot controversy](/wiki/Native_American_mascot_controversy "Native American mascot controversy"), backlash against artists such as [Gwen Stefani](/wiki/Gwen_Stefani "Gwen Stefani") and [Lana Del Rey](/wiki/Lana_Del_Rey "Lana Del Rey") who have performed in feather [war bonnets](/wiki/War_bonnets "War bonnets"), and campaigns to educate the public about not wearing Native American costumes for Halloween and themed parties, such as [My Culture Is Not a Costume](/wiki/My_Culture_Is_Not_a_Costume "My Culture Is Not a Costume"). This same sentiment was expressed by Haircrow's son, who claimed that "they are stealing from others, but don't want to admit it. That's why they didn't want us there, because they know we know what they are doing is wrong." In a *New York Times* short documentary titled *Lost in Translation: Germany's Fascination with the [American Old West](/wiki/American_Old_West "American Old West")*, the actor portraying Winnetou, [Jan Sosniok](/wiki/Jan_Sosniok "Jan Sosniok"), is asked if he thinks that real Native Americans would take offense to the portrayal of Native Americans. The actor responds that he does not believe they would be offended. The video also portrays a German man who studied at the [Institute of American Indian Arts](/wiki/Institute_of_American_Indian_Arts "Institute of American Indian Arts") in New Mexico. This person shares his discomfort with seeing a burial dance take place in the [Bad Segeberg](/wiki/Bad_Segeberg "Bad Segeberg") performance, and calls it grotesque and claims that it perpetuates a stereotypical image of the Native American. Journalist [James Hagengruber](/wiki/James_Hagengruber "James Hagengruber") discussed German hobbyists in an article for Salon's website, describing the occasional clashes between the German fantasists and actual Native Americans. Visiting Native American dancers were shocked when German hobbyists protested their use of microphones and details of their costumes (to which they counter\-protested). A hobbyist profiled in the article defended the German tendency to focus on Indian culture before 1880, instead of engaging with issues that affect contemporary tribes, comparing it to studying "the \[ancient] Romans." Some Germans{{who\|date\=December 2017}} have been surprised and irritated when real Native Americans don't act the way they do in the German imagination.{{citation needed\|date\=December 2017}} On the other hand, Hagengruber comments that "some dying Indian languages may end up being preserved by German hobbyists." Dick Littlebear, "a member of the Northern Cheyenne Nation and the president of [Chief Dull Knife College](/wiki/Chief_Dull_Knife_College "Chief Dull Knife College") in Lame Deer, MT," told Hagengruber "he doesn't worry about Germans fixating on his culture," as long as they do not copy sacred ceremonies, and pointed out that he had learned "lost Northern Cheyenne stitching methods from the 1850s" from German hobbyists.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.salon.com/2002/11/27/indians/ \|title\=Sitting Bull: Bush\-hating Germans might not sing "Hail to the Chief," but they're infatuated with the first Americans. \|last\=Hagengruber \|first\=James \|work\=Salon \|date\=27 November 2002 \|access\-date\=2 January 2017}} Journalist [Noemi Lopinto](/wiki/Noemi_Lopinto "Noemi Lopinto") in her article for UTNE reports that an Ojibwe man named David Redbird Baker found the performance of sacred ceremonies in Germany to be offensive: "They take the social and religious ceremonies and change them beyond recognition." Lopinto paraphrases Baker as adding, "They've held dances where anyone in modern dress is barred from attending—even visiting Natives." Both Lopinto and Hagengruber quote Carmen Kwasny, who works with the Native American Association of Germany, as saying the Germans need to learn to view Native Americans as people, rather than idealized cultural fantasy characters.
[ "### Hobbyists", "**Native American hobbyism in Germany**, also called **Indian Hobbyism**, or **Indianism**, is the performance and attempt at [historical reenactment](/wiki/Historical_reenactment \"Historical reenactment\") of the [American Indian](/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas \"Indigenous peoples of the Americas\") culture of the early contact period, rather than the way contemporary [Indigenous peoples of the Americas](/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas \"Indigenous peoples of the Americas\") live.[Hagengruber, James (2002\\). “Sitting Bull: Bush\\-hating Germans might not sing ‘Hail to the Chief,’ but they’re infatuated with the first Americans”](http://www.salon.com/2002/11/27/indians/). *Salon*.Haircrow, Red (2014\\). [“A Star Trek Convention for Native Enthusiasts: Inside a German Pow Wow”](http://indiancountrytodaymedianetwork.com/2014/02/24/star-trek-convention-native-enthusiasts-inside-german-pow-wow-153712). *Indian Country Today Media Network*. The cultures imitated are usually a romantic stereotype of [Plains Indian](/wiki/Plains_Indians \"Plains Indians\") cultures, with widely varying degrees of accuracy; influenced by [the stereotypes](/wiki/Stereotypes_about_indigenous_peoples_of_North_America \"Stereotypes about indigenous peoples of North America\") seen in Hollywood [Westerns](/wiki/Westerns \"Westerns\").Lopinto, Noemi (2009\\). [\"Der Indianer: Why Do 40,000 Germans spend their weekends dressed as Native Americans?\"](http://www.utne.com/mind-and-body/germans-weekends-native-americans-indian-culture.aspx#axzz3Iclt4HSK). *Utne.com* . Some of the early to mid 20th century hobbyists gained widespread acclaim as selftaught experts in anything pertaining to the subjects of Native Americana, particularly the [Zurich](/wiki/Zurich \"Zurich\"), [Switzerland](/wiki/Switzerland \"Switzerland\"), based accountant, [Joseph Balmer](/wiki/Joseph_Balmer \"Joseph Balmer\").'The Indian Hobbyist Movement in Europe', inWilcomb E.Washburn (ed.) Handbook of American Indians Vol.4: History of Indian White Relations, Washington D.C.: Smithsonian Institution, pp. 562–569\\. ——. 1986\\.", "This is done by non\\-Natives as a hobby and pastime, such as for a weekend retreat, hobbyist [pow wow](/wiki/Pow_wow \"Pow wow\"), or summer camp.Sieg, Katrin (2002\\). *Ethnic Drag*. University of Michigan Press. {{ISBN\\|9780472112821}}. It exists in several European countries, but is prominent in Germany, where approximately 40,000 practitioners, known as hobbyists, participate. Response to this by actual Native Americans has been largely negative.Deloria, Philip J. (1998\\). *Playing Indian*. Yale University Press. {{ISBN\\|978\\-0300080674}}.Eddy, Melissa (2014\\). [“Lost in Translation: Germany’s Fascination With the American Old West”](https://www.nytimes.com/2014/08/18/world/europe/germanys-fascination-with-american-old-west-native-american-scalps-human-remains.html?_r=0). *The New York Times*.", "#### Background", "According to the history laid out in H. Glenn Penny's *Kindred By Choice*,Penny, H. Glenn (2013\\). *Kindred By Choice* . The University of North Carolina Press. {{ISBN\\|978\\-1469607641}}. many Germans identify their roots as tribes that lived independently of one another that were colonized by Romans and forced to become Christians. Because of this distant tribal background and history of colonization, and in fact all ancient Europeans lived tribally at some point in their history, many of these Germans identify with Native Americans more than European nations in contemporary times.Gilders, Adam (2003\\). [\"Ich Bin Ein Indianer: Germany's Obsession with a past it never had\"](http://thewalrus.ca/2003-10-feature-2/). *The Walrus* . This belief in kindred lifestyle is detailed in Penny's in\\-depth study of German fascination with and performances as their ideas of historical Native American peoples. These Germans are also interested in depiction of Native Americans in art and anthropology. Penny covers this history in *Kindred By Choice* and other published writings, chronicling German artists such as Rudolf Cronau, [Max Ernst](/wiki/Max_Ernst \"Max Ernst\"), [Georg Grosz](/wiki/Georg_Grosz \"Georg Grosz\"), [Otto Dix](/wiki/Otto_Dix \"Otto Dix\"), and [Rudolf Schlichter](/wiki/Rudolf_Schlichter \"Rudolf Schlichter\")'s portrayals of Native Americans.Penny, H. Glenn (2011\\). [\"The German Love Affair with American Indians: Rudolf Cronau's Epiphany\"](http://www.common-place.org/vol-11/no-04/reading/). *Common\\-Place.org*. German academics such as [Alexander von Humboldt](/wiki/Alexander_von_Humboldt \"Alexander von Humboldt\"), [Karl von den Steinen](/wiki/Karl_von_den_Steinen \"Karl von den Steinen\"), Paul Ehrenreich, and [Carl Jung](/wiki/Carl_Jung \"Carl Jung\") all traveled to the United States to learn more about Native Americans.{{citation needed\\|date\\=December 2015}} Their documentation of their journeys were regarded positively by the German public and assisted in fostering German fascination with Native Americans. Penny also details how Germans often denounced the violence inflicted upon Native peoples by the United States government.{{citation needed\\|date\\=December 2015}}", "Another factor in the popularity of Hobbyism in Germany can be attributed to the many [Wild West shows](/wiki/Wild_West_show \"Wild West show\") that toured throughout Germany and featured real Native Americans in stereotypical \"cowboy and Indian\" performances.Stetler, Julia Simone (2012\\). \"Buffalo Bill's Wild West in Germany. A Transnational History\". University of Nevada, Las Vegas Theses/Dissertations/Professional Papers/Capstones. Paper 1634\\. One of the most popular Wild West shows was organized by William Frederick \"[Buffalo Bill](/wiki/Buffalo_Bill \"Buffalo Bill\")\" Cody. German Hobbyism is generally believed to have been largely popularized by the dime\\-store novelist [Karl May](/wiki/Karl_May \"Karl May\"), whose fictional Apache warrior character, [Winnetou](/wiki/Winnetou \"Winnetou\"), and his German blood\\-brother, [Old Shatterhand](/wiki/Old_Shatterhand \"Old Shatterhand\"), adventure throughout the Wild West. In one of the many novels, Winnetou is murdered and Old Shatterhand avenges him and ultimately becomes an Apache chief. The Winnetou novels were first published in the 1890s.Taylor, Colin F.\\[Dr.]'The Indian Hobbyist Movement in Europe', inWilcomb E.Washburn (ed.) Handbook of American Indians Vol.4: History of Indian White Relations, Washington D.C.: Smithsonian Institution, pp. 562–569\\. ——. 1986\\.", "#### In the 20th century", "[thumb\\|*Die Indianerschlacht am Little Big Horn* ([Elk Eber](/wiki/Elk_Eber \"Elk Eber\"), 1936\\)](/wiki/File:Elk_Eber_-_Die_Indianerschlacht_am_Little_Big_Horn%2C_1936.jpg \"Elk Eber - Die Indianerschlacht am Little Big Horn, 1936.jpg\")\nThe first such hobbyist club was the Cowboy Club founded in Munich in 1913\\.Watchman, Renne, Lutz, Hartmut \\& Strzelczyk, Florence *Indianthusiasm*, Waterloo: Wilfrid Laurier Press, 2020 p.16 As part of the phenomenon of *Indianertümelei* a number of Western and Indian theme parks operate in Germany, the most popular of which are the Pullman City theme park outside of Munich and El Dorado theme park outside of Berlin.", "Hobbyism was greatly affected by the separation of Germany after World War II. [:de:Katrin Sieg](/wiki/Katrin_Sieg \"Katrin Sieg\")\\|'s *Ethnic Drag* discusses the differences between [West German](/wiki/West_German \"West German\") Hobbyism and [East German](/wiki/East_German \"East German\") Hobbyism, saying that while West Germany could continue to openly participate in the hobby, East Germans had to go underground for fear of being targeted as rebels. This translated to a difference in opinion between East and West in how they interacted with real Native Americans; East German hobbyist clubs often interacted with Native Americans and supported them in their issues financially. On the other hand, West Germans often avoided contact with real Native Americans, which Sieg surmises is because they feared being told they are not truly Native American. These patterns continue to be true today. Dakota academic [Philip Deloria](/wiki/Philip_Deloria \"Philip Deloria\") theorizes in his book [Playing Indian](/wiki/Playing_Indian \"Playing Indian\") that there are two types of Hobbyism—people Hobbyism and item Hobbyism.Deloria, Philip J. (1998\\). *Playing Indian*. Yale University Press. {{ISBN\\|978\\-0300080674}} West Germans would be considered, according to Deloria, as item hobbyists who focus on the objects, and the East Germans would be considered people hobbyists, who also include objects but want to interact with real Native Americans and issues facing Native communities.", "The East German interest in having hobbyists start engaging with living Native Americans may be partially attributable to the fact that the East German government began to recognize the propaganda value; criticism of the historical treatment of American Indians could be used as an example of why East Germans citizens should criticize US policies in general.von Borries, Friedrich, Jens\\-Uwe Fischer (2008\\). *[Cowboys Der Wilde Westen Ostdeutschlands](http://Sozialistische){{Dead link\\|date\\=April 2020 \\|bot\\=InternetArchiveBot \\|fix\\-attempted\\=yes }}*. Frankfurt am Main: Suhrkamp. {{ISBN\\|978\\-3\\-518\\-12528\\-1}}", "May's novels featuring Winnetou and Old Shatterhand have been adapted into both theatrical and film productions in German\\-speaking countries. It is believed that film adaptations of Karl May's characters in the 1960s may have saved the West German film industry.Galchen, Rivka (2012\\). [“Wild West Germany: Why do cowboys and Indians so captivate the country?”](https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2012/04/09/wild-west-germany). *The New Yorker*. Each summer in [Bad Segeberg](/wiki/Bad_Segeberg \"Bad Segeberg\"), [Schleswig\\-Holstein](/wiki/Schleswig-Holstein \"Schleswig-Holstein\"), Germany, the [Karl May Festival](/wiki/Karl_May_Festival_in_Bad_Segeberg \"Karl May Festival in Bad Segeberg\") (Karl\\-May\\-Spiele) hosts stage productions weekly and particularly during the Karl May Festival. The Karl May Festival is an annual event purported to bring the Wild West to northern Germany", "#### In the 21st century", "German Hobbyism continues today in the form of festivals, museums, pow wows, theater, and clubs. The Karl May Festival in [Bad Segeberg](/wiki/Bad_Segeberg \"Bad Segeberg\") continues each year and is a popular attraction to families from all over Germany and Europe. Additionally, there are multiple Wild West Amusement Parks all throughout Germany. The Karl May Museum in Radebeul and other museums that host Native American exhibits continue to be wildly popular. Hobbyists that organize through the means of a club host pow wows and teach each other and communities about Native American culture. The topic of German Hobbyism has become more recently documented by mainstream news sources *[New York Times](/wiki/New_York_Times \"New York Times\")*, [the Huffington Post](/wiki/The_Huffington_Post \"The Huffington Post\"), and independent filmmakers such as Howie Summers, who created a short documentary titled Indianer that explores German Hobbyists and their fascinations.Levine, Carole Quattro (2008\\). [\"'Indianer': A glimpse inside the world of German Hobby Indians\"](http://www.scene4.com/archivesqv6/may-2008/html/carolelevine0508.html). *Scene4 Magazine*.", "Writer, psychologist and filmmaker Red Haircrow, whose father is African American while his mother is of Native ([Chiricahua Apache](/wiki/Chiricahua \"Chiricahua\")/[Cherokee](/wiki/Cherokee \"Cherokee\")) heritage,[*About*](https://redhaircrow.com/about/).redhaircrow.com[June Chua (May 31, 2017\\). *Film ‘Forget Winnetou!’ studies German idealization of Indigenous culture*](https://rabble.ca/columnists/forget-winnetou-surveys-german-idealization-indigenous-culture/).rabble.ca attended the Winter Pow\\-wow 2014 in Berlin on 15 February. He described the participants as wearing as many \"breastplates, bear claw necklaces, feathers and bone jewelry as they seemed able to physically support,\" and that the attendees also wore Native American costumes in addition to the hobbyist dancers.", "In 2019, it was estimated that between 40,000\\-100,000 Germans are involved in *Indianer* hobbyist clubs at any given moment. Interviewed in 2007, one member of an *Indianer* club stated: \"Our camp is always in summer, in July for two weeks. During this time, we live in tipis, we wear only Indian clothes. We don't use technology and we try to follow Indian traditions. We have those \\[pretending to be] Lakota, Oglala, Blackfeet, Blood, Siksika, Pawneee...and we go on the warpath against each other day and night, anytime at all. In two weeks, every tribe can fight each other. We don't know when somebody will attack or when they will come to steal our horses. And the battles are always exciting, too. I really enjoy them\".Watchman, Renne, Lutz, Hartmut \\& Strzelczyk, Florence *Indianthusiasm*, Waterloo: Wilfrid Laurier Press, 2020 p.16\\-17", "#### Criticism", "The main criticism of German Hobbyism by Native American journalists and academics argues on the basis of [cultural appropriation](/wiki/Cultural_appropriation \"Cultural appropriation\") and misrepresentation of Native American cultures and identities.Chandler, Daniel and Rod Munday (2011\\). *A Dictionary of Media and Communication*. Oxford University Press. {{ISBN\\|978\\-0\\-19\\-956875\\-8}} When it comes to the borrowing of American Indian culture, [Philip J. Deloria](/wiki/Philip_J._Deloria \"Philip J. Deloria\") dubs it \"playing Indian,\" which he defines as the adoption or portrayal of being Native by Anglo\\-American individuals. These actions are often motivated by hobby and sometimes financial gain. Further, Deloria writes that these individuals and groups who play Indian build a collectivity in their performance of otherness, which in turn defines their own identity through the distinction of playing the national \"[other](/wiki/Other_%28philosophy%29 \"Other (philosophy)\").\"", "[Katrin Sieg](/wiki/Katrin_Sieg \"Katrin Sieg\") applies the thoughts and ideas of Deloria to the performance studies field in Germany. Her book *Ethnic Drag* discusses the ways in which Germans have historically dressed up as \"othered\" peoples, which includes [Jews](/wiki/Jews \"Jews\"), Native Americans, and [Turks](/wiki/Turkish_people \"Turkish people\"). While the portrayals of Jews and Turks were largely negative stereotypes, the portrayal of Native Americans differed in that they were seen as heroic and noble.", "The first Native American women's theater troupe known as [Spiderwoman Theater](/wiki/Spiderwoman_Theater \"Spiderwoman Theater\") traveled to Germany and Europe in order to perform a satire of the European and particularly German fascination with Native Americans. According to Spiderwoman Theater, it was an act of resistance meant to reclaim their identity as real Native Americans. Their show is titled *Winnetou's Snake Oil Show from Wigwam City*, and parodied Karl May's characters, [New Ageism](/wiki/New_Age \"New Age\"), and individuals who pretend to be Native American.Spiderwoman Theatre (1999\\). [“Winnetou’s snake oil show from Wigwam City”](https://sites.dlib.nyu.edu/hidvl/q2bvq8dh). *Hemispheric Institute Digital Video Library*.", "In 1982, a Canadian [Ojibwe](/wiki/Ojibwe \"Ojibwe\") painter [Ahmoo Allen Angeconeb](/wiki/Ahmoo_Allen_Angeconeb \"Ahmoo Allen Angeconeb\") visited West Germany where he discovered his paintings were selling better than in Canada, looking for a chance to exhibit his work.Watchman, Renne, Lutz, Hartmut \\& Strzelczyk, Florence *Indianthusiasm*, Waterloo: Wilfrid Laurier Press, 2020 p.25 Angeconeb soon discovered that most Germans were interested in the traditional culture of the Plains Indian peoples and had no interest in the Eastern Woodslands peoples such as the Ojibwe or in the modern First Nations peoples. His attempts to argue that there was more to the Indians of North America than the lifestyle of the Plains Indians in the 18th and 19th centuries did not meet with much success as he recalled in an interview: \"Actually most of these Indian clubs were interested in Plains Indians. So when they found out I was Ojibwe they had no idea who the Ojibwe were. We weren't Plains Indians, so therefore we weren't \"real Indians\"...And then, they seem to have this romantic view that they didn't want to have altered. I was too \"real\" an Indian for them. They wanted to keep their romantic view; they didn't want to hear about the modern way of living for Ojibwe people here. That we lived in wooden\\-structure homes, that we drove cars\".Watchman, Renne, Lutz, Hartmut \\& Strzelczyk, Florence *Indianthusiasm*, Waterloo: Wilfrid Laurier Press, 2020 p.36", "Red Haircrow has written articles from [Berlin](/wiki/Berlin \"Berlin\"), where he resides, regarding the controversial aspects of Hobbyism from the perspective of a real Native American. Haircrow has traveled to pow wows and reported to [Indian Country Today Media Network](/wiki/Indian_Country_Today_Media_Network \"Indian Country Today Media Network\") about his experience as a Native American at an event in which Germans performed Native American identity. He reported the premiere of the blockbuster remake *[The Lone Ranger](/wiki/The_Lone_Ranger_%282013_film%29 \"The Lone Ranger (2013 film)\")*, in which Hobbyists were hired to perform as Native Americans in Berlin.Haircrow, Red (2013\\). [\"Ich Bin Ein Tonto: Johnny Depp at 'Lone Ranger' Premiere in Berlin\"](http://indiancountrytodaymedianetwork.com/gallery/photo/ich-bin-ein-tonto-johnny-depp-lone-ranger-premiere-berlin-150589). *Indian Country Today Media Network*. Haircrow also covered a controversy at the [Karl May Museum](/wiki/Karl_May_Museum \"Karl May Museum\"), when the owners of the museum in [Radebeul](/wiki/Radebeul \"Radebeul\") refused to return Native American [scalps](/wiki/Scalping \"Scalping\") to the tribes from which they are claimed to have come.Haircrow, Red (2014\\). [“Tribes Demand Return of Native Scalps From Karl May Museum in Germany”](http://indiancountrytodaymedianetwork.com/2014/03/25/tribes-demand-return-native-scalps-karl-may-museum-germany-154152). *Indian Country Today Media Network*. As an act of protest, Native American singer [Jana Mashonee](/wiki/Jana_Mashonee \"Jana Mashonee\") chose not to perform at the [Karl May Fest](/wiki/Karl_May_Fest \"Karl May Fest\") in [Radebeul](/wiki/Radebeul \"Radebeul\"), [Saxony](/wiki/Saxony \"Saxony\") and released an official statement denigrating the refusal of the Karl May Museum to return the Native American scalps. The scalps were not returned to the [Ojibwe](/wiki/Ojibwe \"Ojibwe\") nation as requested, but they were removed from display.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://indiancountrymedianetwork.com/news/indigenous\\-peoples/an\\-agreement\\-is\\-reached\\-regarding\\-scalps\\-at\\-the\\-karl\\-may\\-museum/ \\|title\\=An Agreement Is Reached Regarding Scalps at the Karl May Museum \\|last\\=Haircrow \\|first\\=Red \\|publisher\\=Indian Country Media Network \\|date\\=14 June 2014 \\|access\\-date\\=2 January 2017}}", "Haircrow also notes that not every Native American has a negative view of the German fascination with their culture. Comanche Laura Kerchee, who was stationed in Germany with the [U.S. Air Force](/wiki/U.S._Air_Force \"U.S. Air Force\"), told him that \"she was impressed with how enthralled the Germans there were by Native Americans.\" Haircrow adds that \"some tribes in North America \\[are] reaching out to their fans in Europe. They realize that this is an opportunity to promote understanding and education and a way to market Native culture to a highly sympathetic audience.\"{{cite web \\|url\\=https://indiancountrymedianetwork.com/news/indigenous\\-peoples/germanys\\-obsession\\-with\\-american\\-indians\\-is\\-touchingand\\-occasionally\\-surreal/ \\|title\\=Germany's Obsession With American Indians Is Touching—And Occasionally Surreal \\|last\\=Haircrow \\|first\\=Red \\|publisher\\=Indian Country Media Network \\|date\\=24 March 2013 \\|access\\-date\\=2 January 2017}}\nRed Haircrow's 2018 documentary \"Forget Winnetou! Loving in the Wrong Way\" focuses more Native perspectives on Indian hobbyism, cultural appropriation and the connection to racism and continuing colonial practices in Germany,Chua, June (2017\\). [\"'Film 'Forget Winnetou!' studies German idealization of Indigenous culture\"](http://rabble.ca/columnists/2017/05/film-forget-winnetou-studies-german-idealization-indigenous-culture). *Rabble Magazine*.Dell, Matthias (2017\\). [\"'Ich bin nur dem Nein begegnet\"](https://www.freitag.de/autoren/mdell/ich-bin-nur-dem-nein-begegnet). *Der Freitag*. won the Audience Award at the Refugees Welcome Film Festival in Berlin, Germany in 2018\\.Refugees Welcome Film Festival (2018\\). [\"Winners\"](http://www.refugeesfilmfest.com/winners.html). *Refugees Welcome Film Festival website*.", "In the United States, there is a widespread criticism from Native Americans about the [misappropriation](/wiki/Cultural_appropriation \"Cultural appropriation\") and [misrepresentation](/wiki/Stereotypes_of_indigenous_peoples_of_Canada_and_the_United_States \"Stereotypes of indigenous peoples of Canada and the United States\") of Native American identity and culture. Examples include the [Native American mascot controversy](/wiki/Native_American_mascot_controversy \"Native American mascot controversy\"), backlash against artists such as [Gwen Stefani](/wiki/Gwen_Stefani \"Gwen Stefani\") and [Lana Del Rey](/wiki/Lana_Del_Rey \"Lana Del Rey\") who have performed in feather [war bonnets](/wiki/War_bonnets \"War bonnets\"), and campaigns to educate the public about not wearing Native American costumes for Halloween and themed parties, such as [My Culture Is Not a Costume](/wiki/My_Culture_Is_Not_a_Costume \"My Culture Is Not a Costume\"). This same sentiment was expressed by Haircrow's son, who claimed that \"they are stealing from others, but don't want to admit it. That's why they didn't want us there, because they know we know what they are doing is wrong.\" In a *New York Times* short documentary titled *Lost in Translation: Germany's Fascination with the [American Old West](/wiki/American_Old_West \"American Old West\")*, the actor portraying Winnetou, [Jan Sosniok](/wiki/Jan_Sosniok \"Jan Sosniok\"), is asked if he thinks that real Native Americans would take offense to the portrayal of Native Americans. The actor responds that he does not believe they would be offended. The video also portrays a German man who studied at the [Institute of American Indian Arts](/wiki/Institute_of_American_Indian_Arts \"Institute of American Indian Arts\") in New Mexico. This person shares his discomfort with seeing a burial dance take place in the [Bad Segeberg](/wiki/Bad_Segeberg \"Bad Segeberg\") performance, and calls it grotesque and claims that it perpetuates a stereotypical image of the Native American.", "Journalist [James Hagengruber](/wiki/James_Hagengruber \"James Hagengruber\") discussed German hobbyists in an article for Salon's website, describing the occasional clashes between the German fantasists and actual Native Americans. Visiting Native American dancers were shocked when German hobbyists protested their use of microphones and details of their costumes (to which they counter\\-protested). A hobbyist profiled in the article defended the German tendency to focus on Indian culture before 1880, instead of engaging with issues that affect contemporary tribes, comparing it to studying \"the \\[ancient] Romans.\" Some Germans{{who\\|date\\=December 2017}} have been surprised and irritated when real Native Americans don't act the way they do in the German imagination.{{citation needed\\|date\\=December 2017}} On the other hand, Hagengruber comments that \"some dying Indian languages may end up being preserved by German hobbyists.\" Dick Littlebear, \"a member of the Northern Cheyenne Nation and the president of [Chief Dull Knife College](/wiki/Chief_Dull_Knife_College \"Chief Dull Knife College\") in Lame Deer, MT,\" told Hagengruber \"he doesn't worry about Germans fixating on his culture,\" as long as they do not copy sacred ceremonies, and pointed out that he had learned \"lost Northern Cheyenne stitching methods from the 1850s\" from German hobbyists.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.salon.com/2002/11/27/indians/ \\|title\\=Sitting Bull: Bush\\-hating Germans might not sing \"Hail to the Chief,\" but they're infatuated with the first Americans. \\|last\\=Hagengruber \\|first\\=James \\|work\\=Salon \\|date\\=27 November 2002 \\|access\\-date\\=2 January 2017}}", "Journalist [Noemi Lopinto](/wiki/Noemi_Lopinto \"Noemi Lopinto\") in her article for UTNE reports that an Ojibwe man named David Redbird Baker found the performance of sacred ceremonies in Germany to be offensive: \"They take the social and religious ceremonies and change them beyond recognition.\" Lopinto paraphrases Baker as adding, \"They've held dances where anyone in modern dress is barred from attending—even visiting Natives.\" Both Lopinto and Hagengruber quote Carmen Kwasny, who works with the Native American Association of Germany, as saying the Germans need to learn to view Native Americans as people, rather than idealized cultural fantasy characters.", "" ]
Literature and art ------------------ [thumb\|German\-American painter [Albert Bierstadt](/wiki/Albert_Bierstadt "Albert Bierstadt")'s *Sketch for The Last of the Buffalo* 1888](/wiki/File:Albert_Bierstadt_-_Sketch_for_The_Last_of_the_Buffalo.jpg "Albert Bierstadt - Sketch for The Last of the Buffalo.jpg") [thumb\|Louis Maurer, 1895 *Great Royal Buffalo Hunt*](/wiki/File:Louis_Maurer_-_The_Great_Royal_Buffalo_Hunt_-_1895.jpg "Louis Maurer - The Great Royal Buffalo Hunt - 1895.jpg") The specific image of Indians originated earlier than May's writings. Already in the 18th century a specific German view on the fate of [Native Americans](/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_States "Native Americans in the United States") can be found in various travel reports and scientific excursions. Philipp Georg Friedrich von Reck (1710–1798\) traveled to [Massachusetts](/wiki/Massachusetts "Massachusetts") and [Georgia](/wiki/Georgia_%28U.S._state%29 "Georgia (U.S. state)") in 1733/34 and saw the [Muskogee nation](/wiki/Muscogee "Muscogee"). ["Philip Georg Friedrich von Reck: 18th Century German Artist in Georgia"](http://ahalenia.blogspot.de/2012/04/philip-georg-friedrich-von-reck-18th.html), Ahalenia, 30 April 2012 [James Fenimore Cooper](/wiki/James_Fenimore_Cooper "James Fenimore Cooper")'s *[Leatherstocking Tales](/wiki/Leatherstocking_Tales "Leatherstocking Tales")* were admired by [Johann Wolfgang von Goethe](/wiki/Johann_Wolfgang_von_Goethe "Johann Wolfgang von Goethe") and still are among the German youth literature classics. In 1815–18, the poet [Adelbert von Chamisso](/wiki/Adelbert_von_Chamisso "Adelbert von Chamisso") took part in a tour around the world led by [Otto von Kotzebue](/wiki/Otto_von_Kotzebue "Otto von Kotzebue") and met native people in Latin and Northern America. Christian Gottlieb Prieber, a lawyer and political utopian from [Zittau](/wiki/Zittau "Zittau"), emigrated to North America in 1735 and lived with the [Cherokee](/wiki/Cherokee "Cherokee") in Tennessee.Naumann, Ursula, *Pribers Paradies. Ein deutscher Utopist in der amerikanischen Wildnis*, Die Andere Bibliothek 193, Frankfurt am Main: Eichborn, 2001, {{ISBN\|9783821841939}}. He tried to build a society based on his ideals but was imprisoned in 1743 and died in prison in 1745\. [Maximilian zu Wied\-Neuwied](/wiki/Maximilian_zu_Wied-Neuwied "Maximilian zu Wied-Neuwied"), a nobleman and scientist, traveled from 1815 to 1817 to Brazil and from 1832 to 1834 to North America, accompanied by the Swiss painter [Karl Bodmer](/wiki/Karl_Bodmer "Karl Bodmer"). Bodmer's portraits of [North Dakota](/wiki/North_Dakota "North Dakota"), [Ohio River](/wiki/Ohio_River "Ohio River") and [Missouri River](/wiki/Missouri_River "Missouri River") Indians includes among others [Blackfoot](/wiki/Blackfoot "Blackfoot"), [Choctaw](/wiki/Choctaw "Choctaw"), [Cherokee](/wiki/Cherokee "Cherokee"), and [Chickasaw](/wiki/Chickasaw "Chickasaw"). Karl Postl (1793–1864\) wrote various novels about his experiences in the US between 1823 and 1831, using the pseudonym [Charles Sealsfield](/wiki/Charles_Sealsfield "Charles Sealsfield"). Similarly to [Friedrich Gerstäcker](/wiki/Friedrich_Gerst%C3%A4cker "Friedrich Gerstäcker"), he wrote about [Tecumseh](/wiki/Tecumseh "Tecumseh") and provided a more realistic picture than previous authors. [Fritz Steuben](/wiki/Fritz_Steuben "Fritz Steuben")'s Tecumseh novels were bestsellers in the 1930s. After some Nazi allegations had been erased, the novels were reprinted – and sold well again – in the 1950s.Thomas Kramer: Tecumseh und Toka\-itho: Edle Wilde unter roten Brüdern. Zur Rezeption der Indianerbücher von Fritz Steuben und Liselotte Welskopf\-Henrich in der DDR. In: Berliner Blätter. Ethnographische und Ethnologische Beiträge Painter and ice skater [Julius Seyler](/wiki/Julius_Seyler "Julius Seyler") (1873–1955\) lived in [Montana](/wiki/Montana "Montana") and depicted Blackfeet (*Three Bear*, *Eagle Calf*, *Bear Pipe Man*, etc.) and sacred locations such as the [Chief Mountain](/wiki/Chief_Mountain "Chief Mountain"). Early modern painters inspired by Native Americans include [August Macke](/wiki/August_Macke "August Macke"), [George Grosz](/wiki/George_Grosz "George Grosz"), [Max Slevogt](/wiki/Max_Slevogt "Max Slevogt") and [Rudolf Schlichter](/wiki/Rudolf_Schlichter "Rudolf Schlichter"). [Klaus Dill](/wiki/Klaus_Dill "Klaus Dill") (1922–2000\)Klaus Dill, with Eberhard Urban *et al.*, *WesternArt*. Bergisch Gladbach: Heider, 1997, {{ISBN\|3\-87314\-315\-1}} was a well known illustrator of German books about Native Americans. Bavarian musician [Willy Michl](/wiki/Willy_Michl "Willy Michl") describes himself as an "[Isar](/wiki/Isar "Isar") Indian".Ruhland, Michael, ["Bluessänger Willy Michl. Ein urbayerischer Indianer"](http://www.sueddeutsche.de/muenchen/2.1168/bluessaenger-willy-michl-ein-urbayerischer-indianer-1.972136), *[Süddeutsche Zeitung](/wiki/S%C3%BCddeutsche_Zeitung "Süddeutsche Zeitung")*, 8 July 2010\. Pop rock band [Nena](/wiki/Nena "Nena")'s first album, *[Nena](/wiki/Nena_%28album%29 "Nena (album)")* (1983\), includes a song about "Indians like you and me" ({{lang\-de\|Indianer wie du und ich}}). German musician Olaf Henning made a hit song called "Cowboy und Indianer" that was quite successful, reaching 6th position on the German charts in February of 2009\.{{Cite web \|title\=Offizielle Deutsche Charts \- Offizielle Deutsche Charts \|url\=https://www.offiziellecharts.de/titel\-details\-419388 \|access\-date\=2024\-05\-01 \|website\=www.offiziellecharts.de}} The [Vanilla Ninja](/wiki/Vanilla_Ninja "Vanilla Ninja") cover of "When the Indians Cry", originally by [Chris Norman](/wiki/Chris_Norman "Chris Norman"), became a major hit in Austria in 2004, reaching 7th in the charts.{{Cite web \|date\=2021\-08\-13 \|title\=Vanilla Ninja \- When The Indians Cry \- austriancharts.at \|url\=https://austriancharts.at/showitem.asp?interpret\=Vanilla\+Ninja\&titel\=When\+The\+Indians\+Cry\&cat\=s \|access\-date\=2024\-05\-01 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210813160157/https://austriancharts.at/showitem.asp?interpret\=Vanilla\+Ninja\&titel\=When\+The\+Indians\+Cry\&cat\=s \|archive\-date\=13 August 2021 }} [Franz Kafka](/wiki/Franz_Kafka "Franz Kafka")'s [short short story](/wiki/Short_short_story "Short short story") (just one sentence) "Wish to become an Indian" (*"[Wunsch, Indianer zu werden](/wiki/s:Wunsch%2C_Indianer_zu_werden "Wunsch, Indianer zu werden")"*) was published in 1912:Wish to become an Indian in *Betrachtung*, Leipzig: Rowohlt 1912: {{Quote\|If one were only an Indian, instantly alert, and on a racing horse, leaning against the wind, kept on quivering jerkily over the quivering ground, until one shed one's spurs, for there needed no spurs, threw away the reins, for there needed no reins, and hardly saw that the land before one was smoothly shorn heath when horse's neck and head would be already gone.\|Franz Kafka\[http://biblioklept.org/2012/07/31/the\-wish\-to\-be\-a\-red\-indian\-franz\-kafka/ Translation of Kafka's short story by Willa and Edwin Muir] at Comma Press.}}
[ "Literature and art\n------------------", "[thumb\\|German\\-American painter [Albert Bierstadt](/wiki/Albert_Bierstadt \"Albert Bierstadt\")'s *Sketch for The Last of the Buffalo* 1888](/wiki/File:Albert_Bierstadt_-_Sketch_for_The_Last_of_the_Buffalo.jpg \"Albert Bierstadt - Sketch for The Last of the Buffalo.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|Louis Maurer, 1895 *Great Royal Buffalo Hunt*](/wiki/File:Louis_Maurer_-_The_Great_Royal_Buffalo_Hunt_-_1895.jpg \"Louis Maurer - The Great Royal Buffalo Hunt - 1895.jpg\")", "The specific image of Indians originated earlier than May's writings. Already in the 18th century a specific German view on the fate of [Native Americans](/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_States \"Native Americans in the United States\") can be found in various travel reports and scientific excursions.", "Philipp Georg Friedrich von Reck (1710–1798\\) traveled to [Massachusetts](/wiki/Massachusetts \"Massachusetts\") and [Georgia](/wiki/Georgia_%28U.S._state%29 \"Georgia (U.S. state)\") in 1733/34 and saw the [Muskogee nation](/wiki/Muscogee \"Muscogee\"). [\"Philip Georg Friedrich von Reck: 18th Century German Artist in Georgia\"](http://ahalenia.blogspot.de/2012/04/philip-georg-friedrich-von-reck-18th.html), Ahalenia, 30 April 2012 [James Fenimore Cooper](/wiki/James_Fenimore_Cooper \"James Fenimore Cooper\")'s *[Leatherstocking Tales](/wiki/Leatherstocking_Tales \"Leatherstocking Tales\")* were admired by [Johann Wolfgang von Goethe](/wiki/Johann_Wolfgang_von_Goethe \"Johann Wolfgang von Goethe\") and still are among the German youth literature classics. In 1815–18, the poet [Adelbert von Chamisso](/wiki/Adelbert_von_Chamisso \"Adelbert von Chamisso\") took part in a tour around the world led by [Otto von Kotzebue](/wiki/Otto_von_Kotzebue \"Otto von Kotzebue\") and met native people in Latin and Northern America.", "Christian Gottlieb Prieber, a lawyer and political utopian from [Zittau](/wiki/Zittau \"Zittau\"), emigrated to North America in 1735 and lived with the [Cherokee](/wiki/Cherokee \"Cherokee\") in Tennessee.Naumann, Ursula, *Pribers Paradies. Ein deutscher Utopist in der amerikanischen Wildnis*, Die Andere Bibliothek 193, Frankfurt am Main: Eichborn, 2001, {{ISBN\\|9783821841939}}. He tried to build a society based on his ideals but was imprisoned in 1743 and died in prison in 1745\\. [Maximilian zu Wied\\-Neuwied](/wiki/Maximilian_zu_Wied-Neuwied \"Maximilian zu Wied-Neuwied\"), a nobleman and scientist, traveled from 1815 to 1817 to Brazil and from 1832 to 1834 to North America, accompanied by the Swiss painter [Karl Bodmer](/wiki/Karl_Bodmer \"Karl Bodmer\"). Bodmer's portraits of [North Dakota](/wiki/North_Dakota \"North Dakota\"), [Ohio River](/wiki/Ohio_River \"Ohio River\") and [Missouri River](/wiki/Missouri_River \"Missouri River\") Indians includes among others [Blackfoot](/wiki/Blackfoot \"Blackfoot\"), [Choctaw](/wiki/Choctaw \"Choctaw\"), [Cherokee](/wiki/Cherokee \"Cherokee\"), and [Chickasaw](/wiki/Chickasaw \"Chickasaw\"). Karl Postl (1793–1864\\) wrote various novels about his experiences in the US between 1823 and 1831, using the pseudonym [Charles Sealsfield](/wiki/Charles_Sealsfield \"Charles Sealsfield\"). Similarly to [Friedrich Gerstäcker](/wiki/Friedrich_Gerst%C3%A4cker \"Friedrich Gerstäcker\"), he wrote about [Tecumseh](/wiki/Tecumseh \"Tecumseh\") and provided a more realistic picture than previous authors. [Fritz Steuben](/wiki/Fritz_Steuben \"Fritz Steuben\")'s Tecumseh novels were bestsellers in the 1930s. After some Nazi allegations had been erased, the novels were reprinted – and sold well again – in the 1950s.Thomas Kramer: Tecumseh und Toka\\-itho: Edle Wilde unter roten Brüdern. Zur Rezeption der Indianerbücher von Fritz Steuben und Liselotte Welskopf\\-Henrich in der DDR. In: Berliner Blätter. Ethnographische und Ethnologische Beiträge", "Painter and ice skater [Julius Seyler](/wiki/Julius_Seyler \"Julius Seyler\") (1873–1955\\) lived in [Montana](/wiki/Montana \"Montana\") and depicted Blackfeet (*Three Bear*, *Eagle Calf*, *Bear Pipe Man*, etc.) and sacred locations such as the [Chief Mountain](/wiki/Chief_Mountain \"Chief Mountain\"). Early modern painters inspired by Native Americans include [August Macke](/wiki/August_Macke \"August Macke\"), [George Grosz](/wiki/George_Grosz \"George Grosz\"), [Max Slevogt](/wiki/Max_Slevogt \"Max Slevogt\") and [Rudolf Schlichter](/wiki/Rudolf_Schlichter \"Rudolf Schlichter\").", "[Klaus Dill](/wiki/Klaus_Dill \"Klaus Dill\") (1922–2000\\)Klaus Dill, with Eberhard Urban *et al.*, *WesternArt*. Bergisch Gladbach: Heider, 1997, {{ISBN\\|3\\-87314\\-315\\-1}} was a well known illustrator of German books about Native Americans.", "Bavarian musician [Willy Michl](/wiki/Willy_Michl \"Willy Michl\") describes himself as an \"[Isar](/wiki/Isar \"Isar\") Indian\".Ruhland, Michael, [\"Bluessänger Willy Michl. Ein urbayerischer Indianer\"](http://www.sueddeutsche.de/muenchen/2.1168/bluessaenger-willy-michl-ein-urbayerischer-indianer-1.972136), *[Süddeutsche Zeitung](/wiki/S%C3%BCddeutsche_Zeitung \"Süddeutsche Zeitung\")*, 8 July 2010\\.", "Pop rock band [Nena](/wiki/Nena \"Nena\")'s first album, *[Nena](/wiki/Nena_%28album%29 \"Nena (album)\")* (1983\\), includes a song about \"Indians like you and me\" ({{lang\\-de\\|Indianer wie du und ich}}).", "German musician Olaf Henning made a hit song called \"Cowboy und Indianer\" that was quite successful, reaching 6th position on the German charts in February of 2009\\.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Offizielle Deutsche Charts \\- Offizielle Deutsche Charts \\|url\\=https://www.offiziellecharts.de/titel\\-details\\-419388 \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-05\\-01 \\|website\\=www.offiziellecharts.de}}", "The [Vanilla Ninja](/wiki/Vanilla_Ninja \"Vanilla Ninja\") cover of \"When the Indians Cry\", originally by [Chris Norman](/wiki/Chris_Norman \"Chris Norman\"), became a major hit in Austria in 2004, reaching 7th in the charts.{{Cite web \\|date\\=2021\\-08\\-13 \\|title\\=Vanilla Ninja \\- When The Indians Cry \\- austriancharts.at \\|url\\=https://austriancharts.at/showitem.asp?interpret\\=Vanilla\\+Ninja\\&titel\\=When\\+The\\+Indians\\+Cry\\&cat\\=s \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-05\\-01 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210813160157/https://austriancharts.at/showitem.asp?interpret\\=Vanilla\\+Ninja\\&titel\\=When\\+The\\+Indians\\+Cry\\&cat\\=s \\|archive\\-date\\=13 August 2021 }}", "[Franz Kafka](/wiki/Franz_Kafka \"Franz Kafka\")'s [short short story](/wiki/Short_short_story \"Short short story\") (just one sentence) \"Wish to become an Indian\" (*\"[Wunsch, Indianer zu werden](/wiki/s:Wunsch%2C_Indianer_zu_werden \"Wunsch, Indianer zu werden\")\"*) was published in 1912:Wish to become an Indian in *Betrachtung*, Leipzig: Rowohlt 1912:", "{{Quote\\|If one were only an Indian, instantly alert, and on a racing horse, leaning against the wind, kept on quivering jerkily over the quivering ground, until one shed one's spurs, for there needed no spurs, threw away the reins, for there needed no reins, and hardly saw that the land before one was smoothly shorn heath when horse's neck and head would be already gone.\\|Franz Kafka\\[http://biblioklept.org/2012/07/31/the\\-wish\\-to\\-be\\-a\\-red\\-indian\\-franz\\-kafka/ Translation of Kafka's short story by Willa and Edwin Muir] at Comma Press.}}", "" ]
History ------- {{history of private equity and venture capital}} ### Founding and early history Carlyle was founded in 1987 as an [boutique investment bank](/wiki/Boutique_investment_bank "Boutique investment bank") by five partners with backgrounds in finance and government: [William E. Conway Jr.](/wiki/William_E._Conway_Jr. "William E. Conway Jr."), [Stephen L. Norris](/wiki/Stephen_L._Norris "Stephen L. Norris"), [David Rubenstein](/wiki/David_Rubenstein "David Rubenstein"), [Daniel A. D'Aniello](/wiki/Daniel_A._D%27Aniello "Daniel A. D'Aniello") and [Greg Rosenbaum](/wiki/Greg_Rosenbaum "Greg Rosenbaum").{{cite news\|last\=Vise\|first\=David A.\|date\=October 5, 1987\|title\=Area Merchant Banking Firm Formed\|newspaper\=\[\[The Washington Post]]\|url\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/business/1987/10/05/area\-merchant\-banking\-firm\-formed/c567202c\-e8ed\-409a\-8c08\-d552e1857844/\|access\-date\=August 21, 2020}} The founding partners named the firm after the [Carlyle Hotel](/wiki/Carlyle_Hotel "Carlyle Hotel") in [New York City](/wiki/New_York_City "New York City") (named for [Thomas Carlyle](/wiki/Thomas_Carlyle "Thomas Carlyle")){{Cite web \|title\=Our Story {{!}} The Carlyle, A Rosewood Hotel \|url\=https://www.rosewoodhotels.com/en/the\-carlyle\-new\-york/overview/our\-story \|access\-date\=August 6, 2022 \|website\=www.rosewoodhotels.com \|language\=en}} where Norris and Rubenstein had planned the new investment business.{{cite news\|last\=Mintz\|first\=John\|date\=January 9, 1995\|title\=Founder Going Beyond the Carlyle Group\|newspaper\=The Washington Post\|url\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/business/1995/01/09/founder\-going\-beyond\-the\-carlyle\-group/7149a5b8\-29e0\-4422\-a46c\-21fd0c42d2eb/\|access\-date\=August 21, 2020}} Rubenstein, a [Washington](/wiki/Washington%2C_D.C. "Washington, D.C.")\-based lawyer, had worked in the [Carter Administration](/wiki/Carter_Administration "Carter Administration").{{Cite book \|last\=Eizenstat \|first\=Stuart E. \|title\=President Carter: The White House Years \|publisher\=St. Martin's Publishing Group \|year\=2018 \|isbn\=978\-1\-250\-10457\-1 \|pages\=99 \|language\=en}} Norris and D'Aneillo had worked together at [Marriott Corporation](/wiki/Marriott_Corporation "Marriott Corporation");{{Cite news \|last\=Gilpin \|first\=Kenneth N. \|date\=1991\-03\-26 \|title\=Little\-Known Carlyle Scores Big \|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/1991/03/26/business/little\-known\-carlyle\-scores\-big.html \|access\-date\=2024\-05\-22 \|work\=The New York Times \|language\=en\-US \|issn\=0362\-4331}} Conway was a finance executive at [MCI Communications](/wiki/MCI_Communications "MCI Communications"). Rosenbaum left in the first year{{cite news\|last\=Farhi\|first\=Paul\|date\=June 6, 1988\|title\=Chi\-Chi's Bid Won D.C. Investment Firm Wall Street's Attention\|newspaper\=The Washington Post}} and Norris departed in 1995\.{{cite web\|last\=Thornton\|first\=Emily\|date\=February 12, 2007\|title\=Carlyle Changes Its Stripes\|url\=http://www.businessweek.com/magazine/content/07\_07/b4021001\.htm\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070228163811/http://www.businessweek.com/magazine/content/07\_07/b4021001\.htm\|archive\-date\=February 28, 2007\|website\=\[\[BusinessWeek]]}} Rubenstein, Conway and D'Aneillo remain active in the business. Carlyle was founded with $5 million of financial backing from [T. Rowe Price](/wiki/T._Rowe_Price "T. Rowe Price"), [Alex. Brown \& Sons](/wiki/Alex._Brown_%26_Sons "Alex. Brown & Sons"), First Interstate Equities, and the [Richard King Mellon](/wiki/Richard_King_Mellon "Richard King Mellon") family.{{cite news\|author\=\|date\=January 30, 1989\|title\=Carlucci Takes Job at Carlyle Group\|newspaper\=\[\[The New York Times]]\|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/1989/01/30/business/carlucci\-takes\-job\-at\-carlyle\-group.html\|access\-date\=August 21, 2020}}{{cite news\|last\=Gilpin\|first\=Kenneth N.\|date\=March 26, 1991\|title\=Little\-Known Carlyle Scores Big\|newspaper\=The New York Times\|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/1991/03/26/business/little\-known\-carlyle\-scores\-big.html\|access\-date\=August 21, 2020}} In the late 1980s, Carlyle raised capital deal\-by\-deal to pursue [leveraged buyout](/wiki/Leveraged_buyout "Leveraged buyout") investments, including a failed takeover battle for [Chi\-Chi's](/wiki/Chi-Chi%27s "Chi-Chi's"). The firm raised its first dedicated buyout fund with $100 million of investor commitments in 1990\. In its early years, Carlyle also advised in transactions including, in 1991, a $500 million investment in Citigroup by [Prince Al\-Waleed bin Talal](/wiki/Prince_Al-Waleed_bin_Talal "Prince Al-Waleed bin Talal"), a member of the [Saudi royal family](/wiki/Saudi_royal_family "Saudi royal family"). Carlyle developed a reputation for acquiring businesses related to the defense industry. In 1992, Carlyle completed the acquisition of the Electronics division of General Dynamics Corporation, renamed GDE Systems, a producer of military electronics systems.{{cite news\|author\=\|date\=October 6, 1992\|title\=General Dynamics Sells Unit To Private Group\|newspaper\=The New York Times\|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/1992/10/06/business/company\-news\-general\-dynamics\-sells\-unit\-to\-private\-group.html\|access\-date\=August 21, 2020}} Carlyle would sell the business to [Tracor](/wiki/Tracor "Tracor") in October 1994\.{{cite news\|author\=\|date\=October 14, 1994\|title\=Tracor To Buy GDE Systems From Carlyle Group\|newspaper\=The New York Times\|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/1994/10/14/business/company\-news\-tracor\-to\-buy\-gde\-systems\-from\-carlyle\-group.html\|access\-date\=August 21, 2020}} Carlyle acquired [Magnavox Electronic Systems](/wiki/Magnavox_Electronic_Systems "Magnavox Electronic Systems"), the military communications and electronic\-warfare systems segment of Magnavox, from [Philips Electronics](/wiki/Philips "Philips") in 1993\.{{cite news\|author\=\|date\=July 28, 1993\|title\=Philips To Sell Magnavox Electronic Systems\|newspaper\=The New York Times\|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/1993/07/28/business/company\-news\-philips\-to\-sell\-magnavox\-electronic\-systems.html\|access\-date\=August 21, 2020}} Carlyle sold Magnavox for about $370 million to [Hughes Aircraft Company](/wiki/Hughes_Aircraft_Company "Hughes Aircraft Company") in 1995\. Carlyle also invested in [Vought Aircraft](/wiki/Vought_Aircraft "Vought Aircraft") through a partnership with [Northrop Grumman](/wiki/Northrop_Grumman "Northrop Grumman").{{cite news\|author\=\|date\=September 12, 1995\|title\=Hughes Aircraft Sets Purchase of Magnavox for $370 Million\|newspaper\=The New York Times\|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/1995/09/12/business/hughes\-aircraft\-sets\-purchase\-of\-magnavox\-for\-370\-million.html\|access\-date\=August 21, 2020}} Carlyle's most notable defense industry investment came in October 1997 with its acquisition of [United Defense Industries](/wiki/United_Defense "United Defense"). The $850 million acquisition of United Defense represented Carlyle's largest investment to that point.{{cite news\|last\=Pasztor\|first\=Andy\|date\=August 27, 1997\|title\=Carlyle Beats General Dynamics In Bidding for United Defense\|newspaper\=The Wall Street Journal\|url\=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB872599088507278500\|access\-date\=August 21, 2020}}{{cite news\|last\=Gilpin\|first\=Kenneth N.\|date\=August 27, 1997\|title\=Military Contractor Sold to Buyout Firm\|newspaper\=The New York Times\|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/1997/08/27/business/military\-contractor\-sold\-to\-buyout\-firm.html\|access\-date\=August 21, 2020}} Carlyle completed an IPO of United Defense on the [New York Stock Exchange](/wiki/New_York_Stock_Exchange "New York Stock Exchange") in December 2001, then sold the rest of the stock in April 2004\.{{cite web\|date\=July 31, 2005\|title\=United Defense Industries\|url\=http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/industry/udi.htm\|access\-date\=October 22, 2008\|website\=GlobalSecurity.org}} In more recent years, Carlyle has invested less in the defense industry. ### Carlyle in the early 2000s Carlyle's 2001 investor conference took place on September 11, 2001\. In the weeks following the meeting, it was reported that [Shafiq bin Laden](/wiki/Shafiq_bin_Laden "Shafiq bin Laden"), a member of the [Bin Laden family](/wiki/Bin_Laden_family "Bin Laden family"), had been the "guest of honor", and that they were investors in Carlyle\-managed funds. Later reports confirmed that the Bin Laden family had invested $2 million into Carlyle's $1\.3 billion Carlyle Partners II Fund in 1995, making the family relatively small investors with the firm. However, their overall investment might have been considerably larger, with the $2 million committed in 1995 only being an initial contribution that grew over time.{{cite news\|date\=September 27, 2001\|title\=Bin Laden Family Is Tied To U.S. Group\|newspaper\=The Wall Street Journal}} These connections would later be profiled in [Michael Moore](/wiki/Michael_Moore "Michael Moore")'s *[Fahrenheit 9/11](/wiki/Fahrenheit_9/11 "Fahrenheit 9/11")*. The Bin Laden family liquidated its holdings in Carlyle's funds in October 2001, just after the September 11 attacks, when the connection of their family name to the Carlyle Group's name became impolitic.{{cite news\|last\=Eichenwald\|first\=Kurt\|date\=October 26, 2001\|title\=Bin Laden Family Liquidates Holdings With Carlyle Group\|newspaper\=The New York Times\|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2001/10/26/business/bin\-laden\-family\-liquidates\-holdings\-with\-carlyle\-group.html\|url\-status\=live\|access\-date\=August 21, 2020\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080421092850/http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res\=9400E5DD1031F935A15753C1A9679C8B63\|archive\-date\=April 21, 2008}} Buyouts declined after the collapse of the [dot\-com bubble](/wiki/Dot-com_bubble "Dot-com bubble") in 2000 and 2001\. But after the two\-stage buyout of [Dex Media](/wiki/Dex_Media "Dex Media") at the end of 2002 and 2003, large multibillion\-dollar U.S. buyouts could once again obtain high\-yield debt financing and larger transactions could be completed. Carlyle, together with [Welsh, Carson, Anderson \& Stowe](/wiki/Welsh%2C_Carson%2C_Anderson_%26_Stowe "Welsh, Carson, Anderson & Stowe"), led a $7\.5 billion buyout of QwestDex,{{Cite web\|date\=October 24, 2002\|title\=Carlyle and Welsh snap up QwestDex\|url\=https://www.privatedebtinvestor.com/carlyle\-and\-welsh\-snap\-up\-qwestdex/\|access\-date\=April 9, 2018\|work\=Private Debt Investor\|language\=en\-US}} the third\-largest corporate buyout since 1989\.{{Cite news\|last\=Heath\|first\=Thomas\|date\=June 3, 2011\|title\=Carlyle Group is ready for its close\-up\|language\=en\-US\|newspaper\=The Washington Post\|url\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/business/economy/carlyle\-group\-is\-ready\-for\-its\-close\-up/2011/05/24/AGnPf4HH\_story.html\|access\-date\=April 9, 2018\|issn\=0190\-8286}} QwestDex's purchase occurred in two stages: a $2\.75 billion acquisition of assets known as Dex Media East in November 2002 and a $4\.30 billion acquisition of assets known as Dex Media West in 2003\.{{Cite news\|date\=August 20, 2002\|title\=Qwest to Sell Directories Business for $7 Billion\|language\=en\-US\|newspaper\=Los Angeles Times\|url\=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la\-xpm\-2002\-aug\-20\-fi\-qwest20\-story.html\|access\-date\=April 9, 2018\|issn\=0458\-3035}} [R. H. Donnelley Corporation](/wiki/R._H._Donnelley "R. H. Donnelley") acquired Dex Media in 2006\.{{Cite web\|date\=October 4, 2005\|title\=R.H. Donnelley Buys Dex Media\|url\=https://www.mediapost.com/publications/article/34778/rh\-donnelley\-buys\-dex\-media.html\|access\-date\=April 9, 2018\|website\=MediaDailyNews}} Shortly after Dex Media, other larger buyouts would be completed, signaling a resurgence in private equity. [Lou Gerstner](/wiki/Lou_Gerstner "Lou Gerstner"), former chairman and CEO of [IBM](/wiki/IBM "IBM") and [Nabisco](/wiki/Nabisco "Nabisco"), replaced [Frank Carlucci](/wiki/Frank_Carlucci "Frank Carlucci") as chairman of Carlyle in January 2003\.{{Cite news\|last\=Lohr\|first\=Steve\|date\=November 22, 2002\|title\=Gerstner to Be Chairman of Carlyle Group\|language\=en\-US\|newspaper\=The New York Times\|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2002/11/22/business/gerstner\-to\-be\-chairman\-of\-carlyle\-group.html\|access\-date\=April 9, 2018\|issn\=0362\-4331}}{{cite news\|last1\=Scannell\|first1\=Kara\|last2\=Bulkeley\|first2\=William M.\|date\=November 22, 2002\|title\=IBM's Gerstner to Join Carlyle As Investment Firm's Chairman\|newspaper\=The Wall Street Journal\|url\=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB1037893592918171788\|access\-date\=August 21, 2020}}{{cite news\|date\=November 22, 2002\|title\=Gerstner to Be Carlyle Group Chairman; Former IBM Chief Brings Long List of Contacts to Private Equity Firm\|newspaper\=The Washington Post}} Gerstner would serve in that position through October 2008\.{{Cite web\|title\=Executive Profile: Louis V. Gerstner Jr.\|url\=https://www.bloomberg.com/markets/stocks\|access\-date\=April 9, 2018\|website\=Bloomberg.com}}{{Cite news\|last\=de la Merced\|first\=Michael J.\|date\=August 19, 2008\|title\=Leader of the Carlyle Group to Leave Post in September\|language\=en\-US\|newspaper\=The New York Times\|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/08/20/business/20carlyle.html\|access\-date\=April 9, 2018\|issn\=0362\-4331}} The hiring of Gerstner was intended to reduce the perception of Carlyle as a politically dominated firm.{{cite news\|last\=Sender\|first\=Henny\|date\=August 25, 2003\|title\=The Man Behind the Curtain at Carlyle Group\|newspaper\=The Wall Street Journal\|url\=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10617634897030200\|access\-date\=August 21, 2020}} At the time, Carlyle, which had been founded 15 years earlier, had accumulated $13\.9 billion of assets under management and had generated annualized returns for investors of 36%. Carlyle also announced the $1\.6 billion acquisition of [Hawaiian Telcom](/wiki/Hawaiian_Telcom "Hawaiian Telcom") from [Verizon](/wiki/Verizon "Verizon") in May 2004\.{{cite news\|author\=\|date\=May 22, 2004\|title\=Verizon Sells Hawaiian Unit For $1\.6 Billion\|newspaper\=The New York Times\|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2004/05/22/business/company\-news\-verizon\-sells\-hawaiian\-unit\-for\-1\.6\-billion.html\|access\-date\=August 21, 2020}} Carlyle's investment was immediately challenged when Hawaii regulators delayed the closing of the buyout. The company also suffered billing and customer\-service issues as it had to recreate its back\-office systems. Hawaiian Telcom ultimately filed for bankruptcy in December 2008, costing Carlyle the $425 million it had invested in the company.{{cite news\|last\=Lattman\|first\=Peter\|date\=December 2, 2008\|title\=Carlyle's Bet on Telecom in Hawaii Ends Badly\|newspaper\=The Wall Street Journal\|url\=http://online.wsj.com/article/SB122816620702669991\.html\|access\-date\=August 21, 2020}} [thumb\|left\|Carlyle led the $15 billion buyout of [Hertz](/wiki/The_Hertz_Corporation "The Hertz Corporation") in 2005](/wiki/File:Hertz_car_rental_office_Livonia_Michigan.JPG "Hertz car rental office Livonia Michigan.JPG") As the activity of the large private equity firms increased in the mid\-2000s, Carlyle kept pace with such competitors as [KKR](/wiki/Kohlberg_Kravis_Roberts "Kohlberg Kravis Roberts"), [Blackstone Group](/wiki/Blackstone_Group "Blackstone Group"), and [TPG Capital](/wiki/TPG_Capital "TPG Capital"). In 2005, Carlyle, together with [Clayton, Dubilier \& Rice](/wiki/Clayton%2C_Dubilier_%26_Rice "Clayton, Dubilier & Rice") and [Merrill Lynch](/wiki/Merrill_Lynch "Merrill Lynch") completed the $15\.0 billion leveraged buyout of [The Hertz Corporation](/wiki/The_Hertz_Corporation "The Hertz Corporation"), the largest car rental agency from [Ford](/wiki/Ford_Motor_Company "Ford Motor Company").{{cite news\|last1\=Sorkin\|first1\=Andrew Ross\|last2\=Hakim\|first2\=Danny\|date\=September 8, 2005\|title\=Ford Said to Be Ready to Pursue a Hertz Sale\|newspaper\=The New York Times\|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2005/09/08/business/08ford.html\|access\-date\=August 21, 2020}}{{cite news\|last\=Peters\|first\=Jeremy W.\|date\=September 13, 2005\|title\=Ford Completes Sale of Hertz to 3 Firms\|newspaper\=The New York Times\|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2005/09/13/business/13hertz.html\|access\-date\=August 21, 2020}} The following year, in August 2006, Carlyle and its [Riverstone Holdings](/wiki/Riverstone_Holdings "Riverstone Holdings") affiliate partnered with [Goldman Sachs Capital Partners](/wiki/Goldman_Sachs_Capital_Partners "Goldman Sachs Capital Partners") in the $27\.5 billion (including assumed debt) acquisition of [Kinder Morgan](/wiki/Kinder_Morgan "Kinder Morgan"), one of the largest pipeline operators in the US.{{Cite book \|last\=Kumar \|first\=B. \|title\=Mega Mergers and Acquisitions: Case Studies from Key Industries \|publisher\=Springer \|year\=2012 \|isbn\=978\-1\-137\-00589\-2 \|edition\=1st \|location\=New York \|pages\=177 \|language\=en}} The buyout was backed by [Richard Kinder](/wiki/Richard_Kinder "Richard Kinder"), the company's co\-founder and a former president of [Enron](/wiki/Enron "Enron").{{cite news\|last\=Mouawad\|first\=Jad\|date\=August 29, 2006\|title\=Kinder Morgan Agrees to an Improved Buyout Offer Led by Its Chairman\|newspaper\=The New York Times\|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2006/08/29/business/29kinder.html\|access\-date\=August 21, 2020}} In September 2006, Carlyle led a consortium, comprising [Blackstone Group](/wiki/Blackstone_Group "Blackstone Group"), [Permira](/wiki/Permira "Permira") and [TPG Capital](/wiki/TPG_Capital "TPG Capital"), in the $17\.6 billion takeover of [Freescale Semiconductor](/wiki/Freescale_Semiconductor "Freescale Semiconductor"). At the time of its announcement, Freescale would be the largest leveraged buyout of a technology company ever, surpassing the 2005 buyout of [SunGard](/wiki/SunGard "SunGard"). The buyers were forced to pay an extra $800 million because KKR made a last\-minute bid as the original deal was about to be signed. Shortly after the deal closed in late 2006, cell phone sales at Motorola Corp., Freescale's former corporate parent and a major customer, began dropping sharply. In addition, in the recession of 2008–2009, Freescale's chip sales to automakers fell off, and the company came under great financial strain.{{cite book\|last1\=Carey\|first1\=David\|title\=King of Capital\|last2\=Morris\|first2\=John E.\|date\=2010\|publisher\=\[\[Crown Publishers]]\|isbn\=978\-0\-3074\-5299\-3\|location\=New York\|pages\=231–235}}{{cite news\|last1\=Sorkin\|first1\=Andrew Ross\|last2\=Flynn\|first2\=Laurie J.\|date\=September 16, 2006\|title\=Blackstone Alliance to Buy Chip Maker for $17\.6 Billion\|newspaper\=The New York Times\|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2006/09/16/business/16freescale.html\|access\-date\=August 21, 2020}} Earlier that year, in January 2006, Carlyle together with [Blackstone Group](/wiki/Blackstone_Group "Blackstone Group"), [AlpInvest Partners](/wiki/AlpInvest_Partners "AlpInvest Partners"), [Hellman \& Friedman](/wiki/Hellman_%26_Friedman "Hellman & Friedman"), [KKR](/wiki/Kohlberg_Kravis_Roberts "Kohlberg Kravis Roberts") and [Thomas H. Lee Partners](/wiki/Thomas_H._Lee_Partners "Thomas H. Lee Partners") acquired [Nielsen Company](/wiki/Nielsen_Company "Nielsen Company"), the global information and media company formerly known as VNU in an $8\.9 billion buyout.{{cite web\|last\=Goldsmith\|first\=Charles\|date\=March 8, 2006\|title\=VNU Shareholders Reject $8\.9 Bln Offer From KKR Group (Update2\)\|url\=https://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid\=10000085\&sid\=apnoYIe8t31A\&refer\=europe\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090117121207/https://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid\=10000085\&sid\=apnoYIe8t31A\&refer\=europe\|archive\-date\=January 17, 2009\|access\-date\=October 16, 2015\|website\=Bloomberg}}{{cite news\|last1\=Pfanner\|first1\=Eric\|last2\=Timmons\|first2\=Heather\|date\=January 17, 2006\|title\=Buyout Bid For Parent of Nielsen\|newspaper\=The New York Times\|url\=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res\=9407E0DA143FF934A25752C0A9609C8B63\|access\-date\=August 21, 2020}}{{cite press release\|url\=http://www.nielsen.com/media/2006/pr\_2006\_0308\_2\.pdf\|title\=VNU Agrees To Public Offer From Private Equity Group\|date\=March 8, 2006\|publisher\=VNU N.V. and Valcon Acquisition B.V.\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20081116192808/http://www.nielsen.com/media/2006/pr\_2006\_0308\_2\.pdf\|archive\-date\=November 16, 2008}} Also in 2006, Carlyle acquired [Oriental Trading Company](/wiki/Oriental_Trading_Company "Oriental Trading Company") which ultimately declared bankruptcy in August 2010{{cite web\|last\=McCarty\|first\=Dawn\|date\=August 25, 2010\|title\=Oriental Trading Co. Files for Bankruptcy in Delaware\|url\=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/2010\-08\-25/oriental\-trading\-co\-files\-for\-bankruptcy\-with\-as\-much\-as\-1\-billion\-debt.html\|access\-date\=September 28, 2010\|website\=Bloomberg}} as well as Forba Dental Management, the owner of [Small Smiles Dental Centers](/wiki/Small_Smiles_Dental_Centers "Small Smiles Dental Centers"), the largest US chain of dental clinics for children.{{cite web\|title\=Portfolio: Forba LLC\|url\=http://www.carlyle.com/Portfolio/item7490\.html\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080829004004/http://www.carlyle.com/Portfolio/item7490\.html\|archive\-date\=August 29, 2008\|website\=The Carlyle Group}} ### Carlyle after the global financial crisis In 2011, Carlyle acquired [AlpInvest Partners](/wiki/AlpInvest_Partners "AlpInvest Partners") in a joint venture with the firm's management, entering into a new line of business managing fund of funds, secondary investments and co\-investments. Two years later, in 2013, Carlyle acquired the remaining ownership stake in AlpInvest after which that business became a wholly\-owned subsidiary.[Carlyle Buys Remaining 40% of AlpInvest as It Diversifies](https://www.bloomberg.com/news/2013-06-03/carlyle-buys-remaining-40-of-alpinvest-as-it-diversifies.html). Bloomberg, June 3, 2013 ### Since 2017 In October 2017, The Carlyle Group announced that its founders would remain executive chairmen on the board of directors but step down as the day\-to\-day leaders of the firm; they named [Glenn Youngkin](/wiki/Glenn_Youngkin "Glenn Youngkin") and [Kewsong Lee](/wiki/Kewsong_Lee "Kewsong Lee") to succeed them, as co\-CEOs, effective January 1, 2018\.{{cite news\|last1\=Banerjee\|first1\=Devin\|date\=October 25, 2017\|title\=Carlyle's Billionaire Founders Hand Reins to New Leaders\|work\=\[\[Bloomberg News]]\|url\=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2017\-10\-25/carlyle\-s\-billionaire\-founders\-hand\-reins\-to\-youngkin\-lee\|access\-date\=February 21, 2021}}{{cite news\|last1\=Gottfried\|first1\=Miriam\|date\=October 27, 2017\|title\=Carlyle's Next Generation: A Deal Whiz and a Homegrown Quarterback\|work\=\[\[Wall Street Journal]]\|url\=https://www.wsj.com/articles/carlyles\-next\-generation\-a\-deal\-whiz\-and\-a\-homegrown\-quarterback\-1509123465\|access\-date\=February 21, 2021}}{{cite news\|last1\=Grant\|first1\=Kinsey\|date\=October 25, 2017\|title\=Carlyle Group Co\-CEOs Rubenstein, Conway Stepping Down\|work\=\[\[TheStreet.com]]\|url\=https://www.thestreet.com/investing/stocks/carlyle\-group\-co\-ceos\-rubenstein\-conway\-stepping\-down\-14358451\|access\-date\=February 21, 2021}} In October 2017, The Carlyle Group made a $500 million investment in the brand [Supreme](/wiki/Supreme_%28brand%29 "Supreme (brand)") valuing the company at $1 billion. In 2020, the investment was acquired by [VF Corporation](/wiki/VF_Corporation "VF Corporation"), which owns [The North Face](/wiki/The_North_Face "The North Face"), [Timberland](/wiki/Timberland_%28company%29 "Timberland (company)"), and [Vans](/wiki/Vans "Vans") for $2\.1 billion. On October 14, 2019, The Carlyle Group and private equity firm Stellex Capital Management announced it had completed the acquisition and merger of shipbuilder Vigor Industrial LLC, Portland, Ore., and MHI Holdings LLC, a ship repair and maintenance company based in Norfolk, Va. The terms of the deal were not disclosed.{{Cite web\|date\=October 15, 2019\|title\=Vigor acquisition and merger completed\|url\=https://www.workboat.com/shipbuilding/vigor\-sold\-will\-merge\-with\-virginia\-shipyard\|access\-date\=October 15, 2019\|website\=Workboat}} On June 2, 2020, The Carlyle Group and T\&D Holdings reported that they had concluded their purchase of a 76\.6% stake in Fortitude Group Holdings, the latter of which comprises Fortitude Re, and American International Company Inc.{{Cite web\|date\=June 2, 2020\|title\=The Carlyle Group and T\&D Holdings Complete Acquisition of Majority Interest in Fortitude Group Holdings from AIG\|url\=https://www.businesswire.com/news/home/20200602005837/en/Carlyle\-Group\-TD\-Holdings\-Complete\-Acquisition\-Majority\|access\-date\=June 12, 2020\|website\=BusinessWire}} Also in June 2020, Unison had been purchased by the Carlyle Group and Unison management strategic investment company.{{Cite web\|date\=June 30, 2020\|title\=The Carlyle Group Partners with management to acquire Unison from Abry Partners\|url\=https://www.privateequitywire.co.uk/2020/06/30/287027/carlyle\-group\-partners\-management\-acquire\-unison\-abry\-partners\|access\-date\=July 6, 2020\|website\=Private Equity Wire}} In September 2020, The Carlyle Group acquired a majority stake in Minneapolis\-based sanitizing machine maker Victory Innovations. Terms of the deal were not disclosed.{{Cite news\|last\=Aeppel\|first\=Timothy\|date\=September 16, 2020\|title\=Carlyle buys disinfecting machine maker stake in COVID\-19 bet\|language\=en\|work\=Reuters\|url\=https://www.reuters.com/article/us\-victory\-innovations\-m\-a\-carlyle\-group\-idUSKBN2673AW\|access\-date\=September 17, 2020}} At the end of September 2020, Youngkin retired from the firm, stating his intention to focus on community and public service efforts; this left Lee as sole CEO.{{cite news\|last1\=Wiggi\|first1\=Kaye\|last2\=Vandevelde\|first2\=Mark\|date\=July 21, 2020\|title\=Carlyle co\-chief Glenn Youngkin to step down\|work\=\[\[Financial Times]]\|url\=https://www.ft.com/content/3bf2ba9c\-ab14\-41ca\-b3e0\-0ca8b85dde4b \|archive\-url\=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221210/https://www.ft.com/content/3bf2ba9c\-ab14\-41ca\-b3e0\-0ca8b85dde4b \|archive\-date\=December 10, 2022 \|url\-access\=subscription \|url\-status\=live\|access\-date\=February 21, 2021}}{{cite news\|last1\=Lewis\|first1\=Adam\|date\=July 21, 2020\|title\=Carlyle co\-CEO Glenn Youngkin to retire, leaving reins to Kewsong Lee\|work\=PitchBook\|url\=https://pitchbook.com/news/articles/carlyle\-glenn\-youngkin\-retire\|access\-date\=February 21, 2021}}{{cite news\|last1\=Louch\|first1\=William\|date\=July 21, 2020\|title\=Carlyle Co\-CEO Glenn Youngkin to Step Down\|work\=\[\[Wall Street Journal]]\|url\=https://www.wsj.com/articles/carlyle\-co\-ceo\-glenn\-youngkin\-to\-step\-down\-11595342495\|access\-date\=February 20, 2021}} Youngkin would later go on to be elected [Governor of Virginia](/wiki/Governor_of_Virginia "Governor of Virginia") in the state's [2021 gubernatorial election.](/wiki/2021_Virginia_gubernatorial_election "2021 Virginia gubernatorial election") In January 2021, The Carlyle Group acquired a majority stake in [Jagex](/wiki/Jagex "Jagex"), a British [video game development](/wiki/Video_game_development "Video game development") studio known for the [massively multiplayer online game](/wiki/Massively_multiplayer_online_game "Massively multiplayer online game") *[RuneScape](/wiki/RuneScape "RuneScape")*.{{cite news\|last\=Field\|first\=Matthew\|date\=January 22, 2021\|title\=Buyout fund Carlyle to swoop for Cambridge RuneScape studio Jagex\|url\=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/2021/01/22/buyout\-fund\-carlyle\-swoop\-cambridge\-runescape\-studio\-jagex/ \|archive\-url\=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220112/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/2021/01/22/buyout\-fund\-carlyle\-swoop\-cambridge\-runescape\-studio\-jagex/ \|archive\-date\=January 12, 2022 \|url\-access\=subscription \|url\-status\=live\|access\-date\=January 25, 2021\|work\=\[\[The Daily Telegraph]]}}{{cbignore}}{{cite web\|last\=Taylor\|first\=Moline\|date\=January 25, 2021\|title\=Runescape is now owned by the world's second\-largest private equity firm\|url\=https://www.pcgamer.com/runescape\-is\-now\-owned\-by\-the\-worlds\-second\-biggest\-private\-equity\-firm/\|access\-date\=January 25, 2021\|work\=\[\[PC Gamer]]}} In May 2021, The Carlyle Group entered a partnership agreement with [SPX Capital](/wiki/SPX_Capital "SPX Capital") to enter the Brazilian market. The Carlyle Group's employees would join SPX Capital to establish its [private equity](/wiki/Private_equity "Private equity") strategy. SPX Capital would also become a subadvisor to The Carlyle Group's $776 million buyout fund focused on South America.{{Cite news \|last\=Garcia \|first\=Luis \|date\=7 May 2021 \|title\=Carlyle Turns to SPX Capital in New Approach to Brazil \|url\=https://www.wsj.com/articles/carlyle\-turns\-to\-spx\-capital\-in\-new\-approach\-to\-brazil\-11620414298 \|access\-date\=11 February 2024 \|work\=WSJ \|language\=en\-US}} In March 2022, The Carlyle Group acquired [Dainese](/wiki/Dainese "Dainese") \- an Italian motorcycle kit and clothing company from [Investcorp](/wiki/Investcorp "Investcorp").{{Cite web \|last\=Hancocks \|first\=Simon \|title\=SOLD! Dainese acquired by Carlyle Group for €630 million \|url\=https://www.visordown.com/news/industry/sold\-dainese\-acquired\-carlyle\-group\-%E2%82%AC630\-million \|access\-date\=March 17, 2022 \|website\=Visordown \|language\=en}} Following this in May 2022, The Carlyle Group announced the acquisition deal of US government contractor for cyber security and IT defence, [ManTech International](/wiki/ManTech_International "ManTech International"). The deal, worth $3\.9 billion, will include the firm to buyout shares at $96 a share, representing a 32% premium to ManTech's closing price on February 2, 2022\. The acquisition aimed to increase the firms steady stream of recurring revenue.{{cite journal\|date\=May 17, 2022\|url\=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2022\-05\-16/carlyle\-group\-is\-said\-in\-advanced\-talks\-to\-buy\-mantech?srnd\=technology\-vp\|title\=Carlyle Agrees to Buy US Government Contractor ManTech for $3\.9 Billion\|journal\=Bloomberg\|access\-date\=May 17, 2022}} In August 2022, The Carlyle Group acquired [Abingworth](/wiki/Abingworth_%28company%29 "Abingworth (company)"), a transatlantic bioscience investment firm.{{Cite news \|date\=April 12, 2022 \|title\=Carlyle's acquisition of Abingworth brings $2 billion to fuel life science investments \|language\=en \|work\=Fierce Biotech \|url\=https://www.fiercebiotech.com/biotech/carlyle\-group\-absorbs\-global\-investment\-firm\-abingworth\-forms\-new\-holding\-company \|access\-date\=February 22, 2023}} In November 2022, it was announced The Carlyle Group has acquired the international marketing agency, Incubeta.{{Cite web \|last\=Wilkinson \|first\=Sol \|date\=November 16, 2022 \|title\=Global Investment Firm Carlyle to Acquire International Marketing Agency Incubeta \|url\=https://performancein.com/news/2022/11/16/global\-investment\-firm\-carlyle\-to\-acquire\-international\-marketing\-agency\-incubeta/ \|access\-date\=November 16, 2022 \|website\=PerformanceIN \|language\=en\-US}} In February 2023, [Harvey Schwartz](/wiki/Harvey_Schwartz "Harvey Schwartz") was appointed CEO of the group, replacing Kewsong Lee, who left the position abruptly the previous summer following a power struggle with the co\-founders.{{cite news \|last1\=Gara \|first1\=Antoine \|last2\=Franklin \|first2\=Joshua \|last3\=Fontanella\-Khan \|first3\=James \|date\=February 8, 2023 \|url\=https://www.ft.com/content/4946b6e2\-bb66\-4a8f\-8328\-28b26fcb20d1 \|title\='Street fighter' Harvey Schwartz takes the helm at rudderless Carlyle \|work\=\[\[Financial Times]]}} In 2023, The Carlyle Group has invested in [Anthesis Group](/wiki/Anthesis_Group "Anthesis Group") a premier provider of sustainability services for businesses. In September 2023, it was announced Carlyle initiated a tender offer to acquire the [Tokyo](/wiki/Tokyo "Tokyo")\-headquartered paper and ink chemicals manufacturer, Seiko PMC from its [parent company](/wiki/Holding_company "Holding company") [DIC Corporation](/wiki/DIC_Corporation "DIC Corporation") for $221 million.{{Cite web \|last\=Sebastian \|date\=September 4, 2023 \|title\=Carlyle Group to Acquire Seiko PMC in $221m Deal \|url\=https://rainmakrr.com/private\-equity\-news\-pe/japan\-latest/carlyle\-group\-tender\-offer\-for\-seiko\-pmc/ \|access\-date\=September 5, 2023 \|website\=Private Equity Insights \|language\=en\-US}} In June 2024, Carlyle announced the formation of a new Mediterranean\-focused oil and gas company, led by former [BP](/wiki/BP "BP") CEO [Tony Hayward](/wiki/Tony_Hayward "Tony Hayward"), after acquiring [Energean](/wiki/Energean "Energean")'s assets in Egypt, Italy, and Croatia for up to $945 million.{{Cite web \|last\=Bousso \|first\=Ron \|date\=20 June 2024 \|title\=Carlyle creates new Med oil and gas company with $945 million Energean deal \|url\=https://www.reuters.com/markets/deals/energean\-sell\-egypt\-other\-assets\-carlyle\-up\-945\-mln\-2024\-06\-20/ \|access\-date\=20 June 2024 \|website\=Reuters}} ### Ownership changes For the first 25 years of its existence, Carlyle operated as a private partnership controlled by its investment partners. In 2001, the [California Public Employees' Retirement System](/wiki/California_Public_Employees%27_Retirement_System "California Public Employees' Retirement System") ([CalPERS](/wiki/CalPERS "CalPERS")), which had been an investor in Carlyle managed funds since 1996, acquired a 5\.5% holding in Carlyle's management company for $175 million.{{cite news\|last\=Scannell\|first\=Kara\|date\=February 2, 2001\|title\=Deals \& Deal Makers: Calpers Buys 5% Stake in Carlyle Group For $175 Million, Invests in Some Funds\|newspaper\=The Wall Street Journal\|url\=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB981067457259999794\|access\-date\=August 21, 2020}} The investment was valued at about $1 billion by 2007 at the height of the 2000s buyout boom.{{Cite web\|last\=Heath\|first\=Thomas\|date\=September 21, 2007\|title\=Government of Abu Dhabi Buys Stake in Carlyle\|url\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp\-dyn/content/article/2007/09/20/AR2007092000451\.html\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20081014051109/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp\-dyn/content/article/2007/09/20/AR2007092000451\.html\|archive\-date\=October 14, 2008\|newspaper\=The Washington Post}} In September 2007, [Mubadala Development Company](/wiki/Mubadala_Development_Company "Mubadala Development Company"), an investment vehicle for the government of [Abu Dhabi](/wiki/Abu_Dhabi_%28emirate%29 "Abu Dhabi (emirate)") of the [United Arab Emirates](/wiki/United_Arab_Emirates "United Arab Emirates"), purchased a 7\.5% stake for $1\.35 billion.{{cite news\|last\=Sorkin\|first\=Andrew Ross\|date\=September 21, 2007\|title\=Carlyle to Sell Stake to a Mideast Government\|newspaper\=The New York Times\|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/09/21/business/worldbusiness/21carlyle.html\|access\-date\=August 21, 2020}} In February 2008, California legislators targeted Carlyle and Mubadala, proposing a bill that would have barred CalPERS from investing money "with private\-equity firms that are partly owned by countries with poor records on human rights." The bill, which was intended to draw attention to the connection between Carlyle and Mubadala Development, was later withdrawn.{{cite news\|last\=Kasler\|first\=Dale\|date\=April 9, 2008\|title\=Bill limiting CalPERS, CalSTRS investments withdrawn\|newspaper\=\[\[The Sacramento Bee]]\|url\=http://www.sacbee.com/103/story/849713\.html\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090215160947/http://www.sacbee.com/103/story/849713\.html\|archive\-date\=February 15, 2009}} In May 2012, Carlyle completed an initial public offering of the company, listing under the symbol CG on the [NASDAQ](/wiki/NASDAQ "NASDAQ"). The firm, which at the time managed about $147 billion of assets, raised $671 million in the offering. Following the IPO, Carlyle's three remaining founding partners, Rubenstein, D'Aniello and Conway retained the position as the company's largest shareholders.{{cite news\|last1\=Zuckerman\|first1\=Gregory\|last2\=Cowan\|first2\=Lynn\|date\=May 2, 2012\|title\=Carlyle Prices IPO at Lower Range\|newspaper\=The Wall Street Journal\|url\=http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424052702304743704577380111481098448\.html\|access\-date\=August 21, 2020}} In June 2017, Carlyle took its non\-traded BDC, TCG BDC, Inc., public in the first business development company IPO since 2014\.{{cite web\|title\=TCG BDC, Inc.\|url\=http://bdcstocks.com/tcg\-bdc\-inc\-cgbd/\|access\-date\=July 3, 2017\|website\=BDC Stocks}}{{cite web\|date\=June 13, 2017\|title\=TCG BDC, Inc. Prices Public Offering\|url\=https://www.carlyle.com/media\-room/news\-release\-archive/tcg\-bdc\-inc\-prices\-public\-offering\|access\-date\=July 3, 2017\|website\=The Carlyle Group}}
[ "History\n-------", "{{history of private equity and venture capital}}", "### Founding and early history", "Carlyle was founded in 1987 as an [boutique investment bank](/wiki/Boutique_investment_bank \"Boutique investment bank\") by five partners with backgrounds in finance and government: [William E. Conway Jr.](/wiki/William_E._Conway_Jr. \"William E. Conway Jr.\"), [Stephen L. Norris](/wiki/Stephen_L._Norris \"Stephen L. Norris\"), [David Rubenstein](/wiki/David_Rubenstein \"David Rubenstein\"), [Daniel A. D'Aniello](/wiki/Daniel_A._D%27Aniello \"Daniel A. D'Aniello\") and [Greg Rosenbaum](/wiki/Greg_Rosenbaum \"Greg Rosenbaum\").{{cite news\\|last\\=Vise\\|first\\=David A.\\|date\\=October 5, 1987\\|title\\=Area Merchant Banking Firm Formed\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The Washington Post]]\\|url\\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/business/1987/10/05/area\\-merchant\\-banking\\-firm\\-formed/c567202c\\-e8ed\\-409a\\-8c08\\-d552e1857844/\\|access\\-date\\=August 21, 2020}} The founding partners named the firm after the [Carlyle Hotel](/wiki/Carlyle_Hotel \"Carlyle Hotel\") in [New York City](/wiki/New_York_City \"New York City\") (named for [Thomas Carlyle](/wiki/Thomas_Carlyle \"Thomas Carlyle\")){{Cite web \\|title\\=Our Story {{!}} The Carlyle, A Rosewood Hotel \\|url\\=https://www.rosewoodhotels.com/en/the\\-carlyle\\-new\\-york/overview/our\\-story \\|access\\-date\\=August 6, 2022 \\|website\\=www.rosewoodhotels.com \\|language\\=en}} where Norris and Rubenstein had planned the new investment business.{{cite news\\|last\\=Mintz\\|first\\=John\\|date\\=January 9, 1995\\|title\\=Founder Going Beyond the Carlyle Group\\|newspaper\\=The Washington Post\\|url\\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/business/1995/01/09/founder\\-going\\-beyond\\-the\\-carlyle\\-group/7149a5b8\\-29e0\\-4422\\-a46c\\-21fd0c42d2eb/\\|access\\-date\\=August 21, 2020}} Rubenstein, a [Washington](/wiki/Washington%2C_D.C. \"Washington, D.C.\")\\-based lawyer, had worked in the [Carter Administration](/wiki/Carter_Administration \"Carter Administration\").{{Cite book \\|last\\=Eizenstat \\|first\\=Stuart E. \\|title\\=President Carter: The White House Years \\|publisher\\=St. Martin's Publishing Group \\|year\\=2018 \\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-250\\-10457\\-1 \\|pages\\=99 \\|language\\=en}} Norris and D'Aneillo had worked together at [Marriott Corporation](/wiki/Marriott_Corporation \"Marriott Corporation\");{{Cite news \\|last\\=Gilpin \\|first\\=Kenneth N. \\|date\\=1991\\-03\\-26 \\|title\\=Little\\-Known Carlyle Scores Big \\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/1991/03/26/business/little\\-known\\-carlyle\\-scores\\-big.html \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-05\\-22 \\|work\\=The New York Times \\|language\\=en\\-US \\|issn\\=0362\\-4331}} Conway was a finance executive at [MCI Communications](/wiki/MCI_Communications \"MCI Communications\"). Rosenbaum left in the first year{{cite news\\|last\\=Farhi\\|first\\=Paul\\|date\\=June 6, 1988\\|title\\=Chi\\-Chi's Bid Won D.C. Investment Firm Wall Street's Attention\\|newspaper\\=The Washington Post}} and Norris departed in 1995\\.{{cite web\\|last\\=Thornton\\|first\\=Emily\\|date\\=February 12, 2007\\|title\\=Carlyle Changes Its Stripes\\|url\\=http://www.businessweek.com/magazine/content/07\\_07/b4021001\\.htm\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070228163811/http://www.businessweek.com/magazine/content/07\\_07/b4021001\\.htm\\|archive\\-date\\=February 28, 2007\\|website\\=\\[\\[BusinessWeek]]}} Rubenstein, Conway and D'Aneillo remain active in the business. Carlyle was founded with $5 million of financial backing from [T. Rowe Price](/wiki/T._Rowe_Price \"T. Rowe Price\"), [Alex. Brown \\& Sons](/wiki/Alex._Brown_%26_Sons \"Alex. Brown & Sons\"), First Interstate Equities, and the [Richard King Mellon](/wiki/Richard_King_Mellon \"Richard King Mellon\") family.{{cite news\\|author\\=\\|date\\=January 30, 1989\\|title\\=Carlucci Takes Job at Carlyle Group\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]]\\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/1989/01/30/business/carlucci\\-takes\\-job\\-at\\-carlyle\\-group.html\\|access\\-date\\=August 21, 2020}}{{cite news\\|last\\=Gilpin\\|first\\=Kenneth N.\\|date\\=March 26, 1991\\|title\\=Little\\-Known Carlyle Scores Big\\|newspaper\\=The New York Times\\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/1991/03/26/business/little\\-known\\-carlyle\\-scores\\-big.html\\|access\\-date\\=August 21, 2020}}", "In the late 1980s, Carlyle raised capital deal\\-by\\-deal to pursue [leveraged buyout](/wiki/Leveraged_buyout \"Leveraged buyout\") investments, including a failed takeover battle for [Chi\\-Chi's](/wiki/Chi-Chi%27s \"Chi-Chi's\"). The firm raised its first dedicated buyout fund with $100 million of investor commitments in 1990\\. In its early years, Carlyle also advised in transactions including, in 1991, a $500 million investment in Citigroup by [Prince Al\\-Waleed bin Talal](/wiki/Prince_Al-Waleed_bin_Talal \"Prince Al-Waleed bin Talal\"), a member of the [Saudi royal family](/wiki/Saudi_royal_family \"Saudi royal family\").", "Carlyle developed a reputation for acquiring businesses related to the defense industry. In 1992, Carlyle completed the acquisition of the Electronics division of General Dynamics Corporation, renamed GDE Systems, a producer of military electronics systems.{{cite news\\|author\\=\\|date\\=October 6, 1992\\|title\\=General Dynamics Sells Unit To Private Group\\|newspaper\\=The New York Times\\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/1992/10/06/business/company\\-news\\-general\\-dynamics\\-sells\\-unit\\-to\\-private\\-group.html\\|access\\-date\\=August 21, 2020}} Carlyle would sell the business to [Tracor](/wiki/Tracor \"Tracor\") in October 1994\\.{{cite news\\|author\\=\\|date\\=October 14, 1994\\|title\\=Tracor To Buy GDE Systems From Carlyle Group\\|newspaper\\=The New York Times\\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/1994/10/14/business/company\\-news\\-tracor\\-to\\-buy\\-gde\\-systems\\-from\\-carlyle\\-group.html\\|access\\-date\\=August 21, 2020}} Carlyle acquired [Magnavox Electronic Systems](/wiki/Magnavox_Electronic_Systems \"Magnavox Electronic Systems\"), the military communications and electronic\\-warfare systems segment of Magnavox, from [Philips Electronics](/wiki/Philips \"Philips\") in 1993\\.{{cite news\\|author\\=\\|date\\=July 28, 1993\\|title\\=Philips To Sell Magnavox Electronic Systems\\|newspaper\\=The New York Times\\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/1993/07/28/business/company\\-news\\-philips\\-to\\-sell\\-magnavox\\-electronic\\-systems.html\\|access\\-date\\=August 21, 2020}} Carlyle sold Magnavox for about $370 million to [Hughes Aircraft Company](/wiki/Hughes_Aircraft_Company \"Hughes Aircraft Company\") in 1995\\. Carlyle also invested in [Vought Aircraft](/wiki/Vought_Aircraft \"Vought Aircraft\") through a partnership with [Northrop Grumman](/wiki/Northrop_Grumman \"Northrop Grumman\").{{cite news\\|author\\=\\|date\\=September 12, 1995\\|title\\=Hughes Aircraft Sets Purchase of Magnavox for $370 Million\\|newspaper\\=The New York Times\\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/1995/09/12/business/hughes\\-aircraft\\-sets\\-purchase\\-of\\-magnavox\\-for\\-370\\-million.html\\|access\\-date\\=August 21, 2020}} Carlyle's most notable defense industry investment came in October 1997 with its acquisition of [United Defense Industries](/wiki/United_Defense \"United Defense\"). The $850 million acquisition of United Defense represented Carlyle's largest investment to that point.{{cite news\\|last\\=Pasztor\\|first\\=Andy\\|date\\=August 27, 1997\\|title\\=Carlyle Beats General Dynamics In Bidding for United Defense\\|newspaper\\=The Wall Street Journal\\|url\\=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB872599088507278500\\|access\\-date\\=August 21, 2020}}{{cite news\\|last\\=Gilpin\\|first\\=Kenneth N.\\|date\\=August 27, 1997\\|title\\=Military Contractor Sold to Buyout Firm\\|newspaper\\=The New York Times\\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/1997/08/27/business/military\\-contractor\\-sold\\-to\\-buyout\\-firm.html\\|access\\-date\\=August 21, 2020}} Carlyle completed an IPO of United Defense on the [New York Stock Exchange](/wiki/New_York_Stock_Exchange \"New York Stock Exchange\") in December 2001, then sold the rest of the stock in April 2004\\.{{cite web\\|date\\=July 31, 2005\\|title\\=United Defense Industries\\|url\\=http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/industry/udi.htm\\|access\\-date\\=October 22, 2008\\|website\\=GlobalSecurity.org}} In more recent years, Carlyle has invested less in the defense industry.", "### Carlyle in the early 2000s", "Carlyle's 2001 investor conference took place on September 11, 2001\\. In the weeks following the meeting, it was reported that [Shafiq bin Laden](/wiki/Shafiq_bin_Laden \"Shafiq bin Laden\"), a member of the [Bin Laden family](/wiki/Bin_Laden_family \"Bin Laden family\"), had been the \"guest of honor\", and that they were investors in Carlyle\\-managed funds. Later reports confirmed that the Bin Laden family had invested $2 million into Carlyle's $1\\.3 billion Carlyle Partners II Fund in 1995, making the family relatively small investors with the firm. However, their overall investment might have been considerably larger, with the $2 million committed in 1995 only being an initial contribution that grew over time.{{cite news\\|date\\=September 27, 2001\\|title\\=Bin Laden Family Is Tied To U.S. Group\\|newspaper\\=The Wall Street Journal}} These connections would later be profiled in [Michael Moore](/wiki/Michael_Moore \"Michael Moore\")'s *[Fahrenheit 9/11](/wiki/Fahrenheit_9/11 \"Fahrenheit 9/11\")*. The Bin Laden family liquidated its holdings in Carlyle's funds in October 2001, just after the September 11 attacks, when the connection of their family name to the Carlyle Group's name became impolitic.{{cite news\\|last\\=Eichenwald\\|first\\=Kurt\\|date\\=October 26, 2001\\|title\\=Bin Laden Family Liquidates Holdings With Carlyle Group\\|newspaper\\=The New York Times\\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2001/10/26/business/bin\\-laden\\-family\\-liquidates\\-holdings\\-with\\-carlyle\\-group.html\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|access\\-date\\=August 21, 2020\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080421092850/http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res\\=9400E5DD1031F935A15753C1A9679C8B63\\|archive\\-date\\=April 21, 2008}}", "Buyouts declined after the collapse of the [dot\\-com bubble](/wiki/Dot-com_bubble \"Dot-com bubble\") in 2000 and 2001\\. But after the two\\-stage buyout of [Dex Media](/wiki/Dex_Media \"Dex Media\") at the end of 2002 and 2003, large multibillion\\-dollar U.S. buyouts could once again obtain high\\-yield debt financing and larger transactions could be completed. Carlyle, together with [Welsh, Carson, Anderson \\& Stowe](/wiki/Welsh%2C_Carson%2C_Anderson_%26_Stowe \"Welsh, Carson, Anderson & Stowe\"), led a $7\\.5 billion buyout of QwestDex,{{Cite web\\|date\\=October 24, 2002\\|title\\=Carlyle and Welsh snap up QwestDex\\|url\\=https://www.privatedebtinvestor.com/carlyle\\-and\\-welsh\\-snap\\-up\\-qwestdex/\\|access\\-date\\=April 9, 2018\\|work\\=Private Debt Investor\\|language\\=en\\-US}} the third\\-largest corporate buyout since 1989\\.{{Cite news\\|last\\=Heath\\|first\\=Thomas\\|date\\=June 3, 2011\\|title\\=Carlyle Group is ready for its close\\-up\\|language\\=en\\-US\\|newspaper\\=The Washington Post\\|url\\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/business/economy/carlyle\\-group\\-is\\-ready\\-for\\-its\\-close\\-up/2011/05/24/AGnPf4HH\\_story.html\\|access\\-date\\=April 9, 2018\\|issn\\=0190\\-8286}} QwestDex's purchase occurred in two stages: a $2\\.75 billion acquisition of assets known as Dex Media East in November 2002 and a $4\\.30 billion acquisition of assets known as Dex Media West in 2003\\.{{Cite news\\|date\\=August 20, 2002\\|title\\=Qwest to Sell Directories Business for $7 Billion\\|language\\=en\\-US\\|newspaper\\=Los Angeles Times\\|url\\=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la\\-xpm\\-2002\\-aug\\-20\\-fi\\-qwest20\\-story.html\\|access\\-date\\=April 9, 2018\\|issn\\=0458\\-3035}} [R. H. Donnelley Corporation](/wiki/R._H._Donnelley \"R. H. Donnelley\") acquired Dex Media in 2006\\.{{Cite web\\|date\\=October 4, 2005\\|title\\=R.H. Donnelley Buys Dex Media\\|url\\=https://www.mediapost.com/publications/article/34778/rh\\-donnelley\\-buys\\-dex\\-media.html\\|access\\-date\\=April 9, 2018\\|website\\=MediaDailyNews}} Shortly after Dex Media, other larger buyouts would be completed, signaling a resurgence in private equity.", "[Lou Gerstner](/wiki/Lou_Gerstner \"Lou Gerstner\"), former chairman and CEO of [IBM](/wiki/IBM \"IBM\") and [Nabisco](/wiki/Nabisco \"Nabisco\"), replaced [Frank Carlucci](/wiki/Frank_Carlucci \"Frank Carlucci\") as chairman of Carlyle in January 2003\\.{{Cite news\\|last\\=Lohr\\|first\\=Steve\\|date\\=November 22, 2002\\|title\\=Gerstner to Be Chairman of Carlyle Group\\|language\\=en\\-US\\|newspaper\\=The New York Times\\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2002/11/22/business/gerstner\\-to\\-be\\-chairman\\-of\\-carlyle\\-group.html\\|access\\-date\\=April 9, 2018\\|issn\\=0362\\-4331}}{{cite news\\|last1\\=Scannell\\|first1\\=Kara\\|last2\\=Bulkeley\\|first2\\=William M.\\|date\\=November 22, 2002\\|title\\=IBM's Gerstner to Join Carlyle As Investment Firm's Chairman\\|newspaper\\=The Wall Street Journal\\|url\\=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB1037893592918171788\\|access\\-date\\=August 21, 2020}}{{cite news\\|date\\=November 22, 2002\\|title\\=Gerstner to Be Carlyle Group Chairman; Former IBM Chief Brings Long List of Contacts to Private Equity Firm\\|newspaper\\=The Washington Post}} Gerstner would serve in that position through October 2008\\.{{Cite web\\|title\\=Executive Profile: Louis V. Gerstner Jr.\\|url\\=https://www.bloomberg.com/markets/stocks\\|access\\-date\\=April 9, 2018\\|website\\=Bloomberg.com}}{{Cite news\\|last\\=de la Merced\\|first\\=Michael J.\\|date\\=August 19, 2008\\|title\\=Leader of the Carlyle Group to Leave Post in September\\|language\\=en\\-US\\|newspaper\\=The New York Times\\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/08/20/business/20carlyle.html\\|access\\-date\\=April 9, 2018\\|issn\\=0362\\-4331}} The hiring of Gerstner was intended to reduce the perception of Carlyle as a politically dominated firm.{{cite news\\|last\\=Sender\\|first\\=Henny\\|date\\=August 25, 2003\\|title\\=The Man Behind the Curtain at Carlyle Group\\|newspaper\\=The Wall Street Journal\\|url\\=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10617634897030200\\|access\\-date\\=August 21, 2020}} At the time, Carlyle, which had been founded 15 years earlier, had accumulated $13\\.9 billion of assets under management and had generated annualized returns for investors of 36%.", "Carlyle also announced the $1\\.6 billion acquisition of [Hawaiian Telcom](/wiki/Hawaiian_Telcom \"Hawaiian Telcom\") from [Verizon](/wiki/Verizon \"Verizon\") in May 2004\\.{{cite news\\|author\\=\\|date\\=May 22, 2004\\|title\\=Verizon Sells Hawaiian Unit For $1\\.6 Billion\\|newspaper\\=The New York Times\\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2004/05/22/business/company\\-news\\-verizon\\-sells\\-hawaiian\\-unit\\-for\\-1\\.6\\-billion.html\\|access\\-date\\=August 21, 2020}} Carlyle's investment was immediately challenged when Hawaii regulators delayed the closing of the buyout. The company also suffered billing and customer\\-service issues as it had to recreate its back\\-office systems. Hawaiian Telcom ultimately filed for bankruptcy in December 2008, costing Carlyle the $425 million it had invested in the company.{{cite news\\|last\\=Lattman\\|first\\=Peter\\|date\\=December 2, 2008\\|title\\=Carlyle's Bet on Telecom in Hawaii Ends Badly\\|newspaper\\=The Wall Street Journal\\|url\\=http://online.wsj.com/article/SB122816620702669991\\.html\\|access\\-date\\=August 21, 2020}}", "[thumb\\|left\\|Carlyle led the $15 billion buyout of [Hertz](/wiki/The_Hertz_Corporation \"The Hertz Corporation\") in 2005](/wiki/File:Hertz_car_rental_office_Livonia_Michigan.JPG \"Hertz car rental office Livonia Michigan.JPG\")\nAs the activity of the large private equity firms increased in the mid\\-2000s, Carlyle kept pace with such competitors as [KKR](/wiki/Kohlberg_Kravis_Roberts \"Kohlberg Kravis Roberts\"), [Blackstone Group](/wiki/Blackstone_Group \"Blackstone Group\"), and [TPG Capital](/wiki/TPG_Capital \"TPG Capital\"). In 2005, Carlyle, together with [Clayton, Dubilier \\& Rice](/wiki/Clayton%2C_Dubilier_%26_Rice \"Clayton, Dubilier & Rice\") and [Merrill Lynch](/wiki/Merrill_Lynch \"Merrill Lynch\") completed the $15\\.0 billion leveraged buyout of [The Hertz Corporation](/wiki/The_Hertz_Corporation \"The Hertz Corporation\"), the largest car rental agency from [Ford](/wiki/Ford_Motor_Company \"Ford Motor Company\").{{cite news\\|last1\\=Sorkin\\|first1\\=Andrew Ross\\|last2\\=Hakim\\|first2\\=Danny\\|date\\=September 8, 2005\\|title\\=Ford Said to Be Ready to Pursue a Hertz Sale\\|newspaper\\=The New York Times\\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2005/09/08/business/08ford.html\\|access\\-date\\=August 21, 2020}}{{cite news\\|last\\=Peters\\|first\\=Jeremy W.\\|date\\=September 13, 2005\\|title\\=Ford Completes Sale of Hertz to 3 Firms\\|newspaper\\=The New York Times\\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2005/09/13/business/13hertz.html\\|access\\-date\\=August 21, 2020}}", "The following year, in August 2006, Carlyle and its [Riverstone Holdings](/wiki/Riverstone_Holdings \"Riverstone Holdings\") affiliate partnered with [Goldman Sachs Capital Partners](/wiki/Goldman_Sachs_Capital_Partners \"Goldman Sachs Capital Partners\") in the $27\\.5 billion (including assumed debt) acquisition of [Kinder Morgan](/wiki/Kinder_Morgan \"Kinder Morgan\"), one of the largest pipeline operators in the US.{{Cite book \\|last\\=Kumar \\|first\\=B. \\|title\\=Mega Mergers and Acquisitions: Case Studies from Key Industries \\|publisher\\=Springer \\|year\\=2012 \\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-137\\-00589\\-2 \\|edition\\=1st \\|location\\=New York \\|pages\\=177 \\|language\\=en}} The buyout was backed by [Richard Kinder](/wiki/Richard_Kinder \"Richard Kinder\"), the company's co\\-founder and a former president of [Enron](/wiki/Enron \"Enron\").{{cite news\\|last\\=Mouawad\\|first\\=Jad\\|date\\=August 29, 2006\\|title\\=Kinder Morgan Agrees to an Improved Buyout Offer Led by Its Chairman\\|newspaper\\=The New York Times\\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2006/08/29/business/29kinder.html\\|access\\-date\\=August 21, 2020}}", "In September 2006, Carlyle led a consortium, comprising [Blackstone Group](/wiki/Blackstone_Group \"Blackstone Group\"), [Permira](/wiki/Permira \"Permira\") and [TPG Capital](/wiki/TPG_Capital \"TPG Capital\"), in the $17\\.6 billion takeover of [Freescale Semiconductor](/wiki/Freescale_Semiconductor \"Freescale Semiconductor\"). At the time of its announcement, Freescale would be the largest leveraged buyout of a technology company ever, surpassing the 2005 buyout of [SunGard](/wiki/SunGard \"SunGard\"). The buyers were forced to pay an extra $800 million because KKR made a last\\-minute bid as the original deal was about to be signed. Shortly after the deal closed in late 2006, cell phone sales at Motorola Corp., Freescale's former corporate parent and a major customer, began dropping sharply. In addition, in the recession of 2008–2009, Freescale's chip sales to automakers fell off, and the company came under great financial strain.{{cite book\\|last1\\=Carey\\|first1\\=David\\|title\\=King of Capital\\|last2\\=Morris\\|first2\\=John E.\\|date\\=2010\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Crown Publishers]]\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-3074\\-5299\\-3\\|location\\=New York\\|pages\\=231–235}}{{cite news\\|last1\\=Sorkin\\|first1\\=Andrew Ross\\|last2\\=Flynn\\|first2\\=Laurie J.\\|date\\=September 16, 2006\\|title\\=Blackstone Alliance to Buy Chip Maker for $17\\.6 Billion\\|newspaper\\=The New York Times\\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2006/09/16/business/16freescale.html\\|access\\-date\\=August 21, 2020}}", "Earlier that year, in January 2006, Carlyle together with [Blackstone Group](/wiki/Blackstone_Group \"Blackstone Group\"), [AlpInvest Partners](/wiki/AlpInvest_Partners \"AlpInvest Partners\"), [Hellman \\& Friedman](/wiki/Hellman_%26_Friedman \"Hellman & Friedman\"), [KKR](/wiki/Kohlberg_Kravis_Roberts \"Kohlberg Kravis Roberts\") and [Thomas H. Lee Partners](/wiki/Thomas_H._Lee_Partners \"Thomas H. Lee Partners\") acquired [Nielsen Company](/wiki/Nielsen_Company \"Nielsen Company\"), the global information and media company formerly known as VNU in an $8\\.9 billion buyout.{{cite web\\|last\\=Goldsmith\\|first\\=Charles\\|date\\=March 8, 2006\\|title\\=VNU Shareholders Reject $8\\.9 Bln Offer From KKR Group (Update2\\)\\|url\\=https://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid\\=10000085\\&sid\\=apnoYIe8t31A\\&refer\\=europe\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090117121207/https://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid\\=10000085\\&sid\\=apnoYIe8t31A\\&refer\\=europe\\|archive\\-date\\=January 17, 2009\\|access\\-date\\=October 16, 2015\\|website\\=Bloomberg}}{{cite news\\|last1\\=Pfanner\\|first1\\=Eric\\|last2\\=Timmons\\|first2\\=Heather\\|date\\=January 17, 2006\\|title\\=Buyout Bid For Parent of Nielsen\\|newspaper\\=The New York Times\\|url\\=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res\\=9407E0DA143FF934A25752C0A9609C8B63\\|access\\-date\\=August 21, 2020}}{{cite press release\\|url\\=http://www.nielsen.com/media/2006/pr\\_2006\\_0308\\_2\\.pdf\\|title\\=VNU Agrees To Public Offer From Private Equity Group\\|date\\=March 8, 2006\\|publisher\\=VNU N.V. and Valcon Acquisition B.V.\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20081116192808/http://www.nielsen.com/media/2006/pr\\_2006\\_0308\\_2\\.pdf\\|archive\\-date\\=November 16, 2008}} Also in 2006, Carlyle acquired [Oriental Trading Company](/wiki/Oriental_Trading_Company \"Oriental Trading Company\") which ultimately declared bankruptcy in August 2010{{cite web\\|last\\=McCarty\\|first\\=Dawn\\|date\\=August 25, 2010\\|title\\=Oriental Trading Co. Files for Bankruptcy in Delaware\\|url\\=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/2010\\-08\\-25/oriental\\-trading\\-co\\-files\\-for\\-bankruptcy\\-with\\-as\\-much\\-as\\-1\\-billion\\-debt.html\\|access\\-date\\=September 28, 2010\\|website\\=Bloomberg}} as well as Forba Dental Management, the owner of [Small Smiles Dental Centers](/wiki/Small_Smiles_Dental_Centers \"Small Smiles Dental Centers\"), the largest US chain of dental clinics for children.{{cite web\\|title\\=Portfolio: Forba LLC\\|url\\=http://www.carlyle.com/Portfolio/item7490\\.html\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080829004004/http://www.carlyle.com/Portfolio/item7490\\.html\\|archive\\-date\\=August 29, 2008\\|website\\=The Carlyle Group}}", "### Carlyle after the global financial crisis", "In 2011, Carlyle acquired [AlpInvest Partners](/wiki/AlpInvest_Partners \"AlpInvest Partners\") in a joint venture with the firm's management, entering into a new line of business managing fund of funds, secondary investments and co\\-investments. Two years later, in 2013, Carlyle acquired the remaining ownership stake in AlpInvest after which that business became a wholly\\-owned subsidiary.[Carlyle Buys Remaining 40% of AlpInvest as It Diversifies](https://www.bloomberg.com/news/2013-06-03/carlyle-buys-remaining-40-of-alpinvest-as-it-diversifies.html). Bloomberg, June 3, 2013", "### Since 2017", "In October 2017, The Carlyle Group announced that its founders would remain executive chairmen on the board of directors but step down as the day\\-to\\-day leaders of the firm; they named [Glenn Youngkin](/wiki/Glenn_Youngkin \"Glenn Youngkin\") and [Kewsong Lee](/wiki/Kewsong_Lee \"Kewsong Lee\") to succeed them, as co\\-CEOs, effective January 1, 2018\\.{{cite news\\|last1\\=Banerjee\\|first1\\=Devin\\|date\\=October 25, 2017\\|title\\=Carlyle's Billionaire Founders Hand Reins to New Leaders\\|work\\=\\[\\[Bloomberg News]]\\|url\\=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2017\\-10\\-25/carlyle\\-s\\-billionaire\\-founders\\-hand\\-reins\\-to\\-youngkin\\-lee\\|access\\-date\\=February 21, 2021}}{{cite news\\|last1\\=Gottfried\\|first1\\=Miriam\\|date\\=October 27, 2017\\|title\\=Carlyle's Next Generation: A Deal Whiz and a Homegrown Quarterback\\|work\\=\\[\\[Wall Street Journal]]\\|url\\=https://www.wsj.com/articles/carlyles\\-next\\-generation\\-a\\-deal\\-whiz\\-and\\-a\\-homegrown\\-quarterback\\-1509123465\\|access\\-date\\=February 21, 2021}}{{cite news\\|last1\\=Grant\\|first1\\=Kinsey\\|date\\=October 25, 2017\\|title\\=Carlyle Group Co\\-CEOs Rubenstein, Conway Stepping Down\\|work\\=\\[\\[TheStreet.com]]\\|url\\=https://www.thestreet.com/investing/stocks/carlyle\\-group\\-co\\-ceos\\-rubenstein\\-conway\\-stepping\\-down\\-14358451\\|access\\-date\\=February 21, 2021}}", "In October 2017, The Carlyle Group made a $500 million investment in the brand [Supreme](/wiki/Supreme_%28brand%29 \"Supreme (brand)\") valuing the company at $1 billion. In 2020, the investment was acquired by [VF Corporation](/wiki/VF_Corporation \"VF Corporation\"), which owns [The North Face](/wiki/The_North_Face \"The North Face\"), [Timberland](/wiki/Timberland_%28company%29 \"Timberland (company)\"), and [Vans](/wiki/Vans \"Vans\") for $2\\.1 billion.", "On October 14, 2019, The Carlyle Group and private equity firm Stellex Capital Management announced it had completed the acquisition and merger of shipbuilder Vigor Industrial LLC, Portland, Ore., and MHI Holdings LLC, a ship repair and maintenance company based in Norfolk, Va. The terms of the deal were not disclosed.{{Cite web\\|date\\=October 15, 2019\\|title\\=Vigor acquisition and merger completed\\|url\\=https://www.workboat.com/shipbuilding/vigor\\-sold\\-will\\-merge\\-with\\-virginia\\-shipyard\\|access\\-date\\=October 15, 2019\\|website\\=Workboat}}", "On June 2, 2020, The Carlyle Group and T\\&D Holdings reported that they had concluded their purchase of a 76\\.6% stake in Fortitude Group Holdings, the latter of which comprises Fortitude Re, and American International Company Inc.{{Cite web\\|date\\=June 2, 2020\\|title\\=The Carlyle Group and T\\&D Holdings Complete Acquisition of Majority Interest in Fortitude Group Holdings from AIG\\|url\\=https://www.businesswire.com/news/home/20200602005837/en/Carlyle\\-Group\\-TD\\-Holdings\\-Complete\\-Acquisition\\-Majority\\|access\\-date\\=June 12, 2020\\|website\\=BusinessWire}} Also in June 2020, Unison had been purchased by the Carlyle Group and Unison management strategic investment company.{{Cite web\\|date\\=June 30, 2020\\|title\\=The Carlyle Group Partners with management to acquire Unison from Abry Partners\\|url\\=https://www.privateequitywire.co.uk/2020/06/30/287027/carlyle\\-group\\-partners\\-management\\-acquire\\-unison\\-abry\\-partners\\|access\\-date\\=July 6, 2020\\|website\\=Private Equity Wire}}", "In September 2020, The Carlyle Group acquired a majority stake in Minneapolis\\-based sanitizing machine maker Victory Innovations. Terms of the deal were not disclosed.{{Cite news\\|last\\=Aeppel\\|first\\=Timothy\\|date\\=September 16, 2020\\|title\\=Carlyle buys disinfecting machine maker stake in COVID\\-19 bet\\|language\\=en\\|work\\=Reuters\\|url\\=https://www.reuters.com/article/us\\-victory\\-innovations\\-m\\-a\\-carlyle\\-group\\-idUSKBN2673AW\\|access\\-date\\=September 17, 2020}}", "At the end of September 2020, Youngkin retired from the firm, stating his intention to focus on community and public service efforts; this left Lee as sole CEO.{{cite news\\|last1\\=Wiggi\\|first1\\=Kaye\\|last2\\=Vandevelde\\|first2\\=Mark\\|date\\=July 21, 2020\\|title\\=Carlyle co\\-chief Glenn Youngkin to step down\\|work\\=\\[\\[Financial Times]]\\|url\\=https://www.ft.com/content/3bf2ba9c\\-ab14\\-41ca\\-b3e0\\-0ca8b85dde4b \\|archive\\-url\\=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221210/https://www.ft.com/content/3bf2ba9c\\-ab14\\-41ca\\-b3e0\\-0ca8b85dde4b \\|archive\\-date\\=December 10, 2022 \\|url\\-access\\=subscription \\|url\\-status\\=live\\|access\\-date\\=February 21, 2021}}{{cite news\\|last1\\=Lewis\\|first1\\=Adam\\|date\\=July 21, 2020\\|title\\=Carlyle co\\-CEO Glenn Youngkin to retire, leaving reins to Kewsong Lee\\|work\\=PitchBook\\|url\\=https://pitchbook.com/news/articles/carlyle\\-glenn\\-youngkin\\-retire\\|access\\-date\\=February 21, 2021}}{{cite news\\|last1\\=Louch\\|first1\\=William\\|date\\=July 21, 2020\\|title\\=Carlyle Co\\-CEO Glenn Youngkin to Step Down\\|work\\=\\[\\[Wall Street Journal]]\\|url\\=https://www.wsj.com/articles/carlyle\\-co\\-ceo\\-glenn\\-youngkin\\-to\\-step\\-down\\-11595342495\\|access\\-date\\=February 20, 2021}} Youngkin would later go on to be elected [Governor of Virginia](/wiki/Governor_of_Virginia \"Governor of Virginia\") in the state's [2021 gubernatorial election.](/wiki/2021_Virginia_gubernatorial_election \"2021 Virginia gubernatorial election\")", "In January 2021, The Carlyle Group acquired a majority stake in [Jagex](/wiki/Jagex \"Jagex\"), a British [video game development](/wiki/Video_game_development \"Video game development\") studio known for the [massively multiplayer online game](/wiki/Massively_multiplayer_online_game \"Massively multiplayer online game\") *[RuneScape](/wiki/RuneScape \"RuneScape\")*.{{cite news\\|last\\=Field\\|first\\=Matthew\\|date\\=January 22, 2021\\|title\\=Buyout fund Carlyle to swoop for Cambridge RuneScape studio Jagex\\|url\\=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/2021/01/22/buyout\\-fund\\-carlyle\\-swoop\\-cambridge\\-runescape\\-studio\\-jagex/ \\|archive\\-url\\=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220112/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/2021/01/22/buyout\\-fund\\-carlyle\\-swoop\\-cambridge\\-runescape\\-studio\\-jagex/ \\|archive\\-date\\=January 12, 2022 \\|url\\-access\\=subscription \\|url\\-status\\=live\\|access\\-date\\=January 25, 2021\\|work\\=\\[\\[The Daily Telegraph]]}}{{cbignore}}{{cite web\\|last\\=Taylor\\|first\\=Moline\\|date\\=January 25, 2021\\|title\\=Runescape is now owned by the world's second\\-largest private equity firm\\|url\\=https://www.pcgamer.com/runescape\\-is\\-now\\-owned\\-by\\-the\\-worlds\\-second\\-biggest\\-private\\-equity\\-firm/\\|access\\-date\\=January 25, 2021\\|work\\=\\[\\[PC Gamer]]}}", "In May 2021, The Carlyle Group entered a partnership agreement with [SPX Capital](/wiki/SPX_Capital \"SPX Capital\") to enter the Brazilian market. The Carlyle Group's employees would join SPX Capital to establish its [private equity](/wiki/Private_equity \"Private equity\") strategy. SPX Capital would also become a subadvisor to The Carlyle Group's $776 million buyout fund focused on South America.{{Cite news \\|last\\=Garcia \\|first\\=Luis \\|date\\=7 May 2021 \\|title\\=Carlyle Turns to SPX Capital in New Approach to Brazil \\|url\\=https://www.wsj.com/articles/carlyle\\-turns\\-to\\-spx\\-capital\\-in\\-new\\-approach\\-to\\-brazil\\-11620414298 \\|access\\-date\\=11 February 2024 \\|work\\=WSJ \\|language\\=en\\-US}}", "In March 2022, The Carlyle Group acquired [Dainese](/wiki/Dainese \"Dainese\") \\- an Italian motorcycle kit and clothing company from [Investcorp](/wiki/Investcorp \"Investcorp\").{{Cite web \\|last\\=Hancocks \\|first\\=Simon \\|title\\=SOLD! Dainese acquired by Carlyle Group for €630 million \\|url\\=https://www.visordown.com/news/industry/sold\\-dainese\\-acquired\\-carlyle\\-group\\-%E2%82%AC630\\-million \\|access\\-date\\=March 17, 2022 \\|website\\=Visordown \\|language\\=en}} Following this in May 2022, The Carlyle Group announced the acquisition deal of US government contractor for cyber security and IT defence, [ManTech International](/wiki/ManTech_International \"ManTech International\"). The deal, worth $3\\.9 billion, will include the firm to buyout shares at $96 a share, representing a 32% premium to ManTech's closing price on February 2, 2022\\. The acquisition aimed to increase the firms steady stream of recurring revenue.{{cite journal\\|date\\=May 17, 2022\\|url\\=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2022\\-05\\-16/carlyle\\-group\\-is\\-said\\-in\\-advanced\\-talks\\-to\\-buy\\-mantech?srnd\\=technology\\-vp\\|title\\=Carlyle Agrees to Buy US Government Contractor ManTech for $3\\.9 Billion\\|journal\\=Bloomberg\\|access\\-date\\=May 17, 2022}}", "In August 2022, The Carlyle Group acquired [Abingworth](/wiki/Abingworth_%28company%29 \"Abingworth (company)\"), a transatlantic bioscience investment firm.{{Cite news \\|date\\=April 12, 2022 \\|title\\=Carlyle's acquisition of Abingworth brings $2 billion to fuel life science investments \\|language\\=en \\|work\\=Fierce Biotech \\|url\\=https://www.fiercebiotech.com/biotech/carlyle\\-group\\-absorbs\\-global\\-investment\\-firm\\-abingworth\\-forms\\-new\\-holding\\-company \\|access\\-date\\=February 22, 2023}}", "In November 2022, it was announced The Carlyle Group has acquired the international marketing agency, Incubeta.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Wilkinson \\|first\\=Sol \\|date\\=November 16, 2022 \\|title\\=Global Investment Firm Carlyle to Acquire International Marketing Agency Incubeta \\|url\\=https://performancein.com/news/2022/11/16/global\\-investment\\-firm\\-carlyle\\-to\\-acquire\\-international\\-marketing\\-agency\\-incubeta/ \\|access\\-date\\=November 16, 2022 \\|website\\=PerformanceIN \\|language\\=en\\-US}}", "In February 2023, [Harvey Schwartz](/wiki/Harvey_Schwartz \"Harvey Schwartz\") was appointed CEO of the group, replacing Kewsong Lee, who left the position abruptly the previous summer following a power struggle with the co\\-founders.{{cite news \\|last1\\=Gara \\|first1\\=Antoine \\|last2\\=Franklin \\|first2\\=Joshua \\|last3\\=Fontanella\\-Khan \\|first3\\=James \\|date\\=February 8, 2023 \\|url\\=https://www.ft.com/content/4946b6e2\\-bb66\\-4a8f\\-8328\\-28b26fcb20d1 \\|title\\='Street fighter' Harvey Schwartz takes the helm at rudderless Carlyle \\|work\\=\\[\\[Financial Times]]}}", "In 2023, The Carlyle Group has invested in [Anthesis Group](/wiki/Anthesis_Group \"Anthesis Group\") a premier provider of sustainability services for businesses.", "In September 2023, it was announced Carlyle initiated a tender offer to acquire the [Tokyo](/wiki/Tokyo \"Tokyo\")\\-headquartered paper and ink chemicals manufacturer, Seiko PMC from its [parent company](/wiki/Holding_company \"Holding company\") [DIC Corporation](/wiki/DIC_Corporation \"DIC Corporation\") for $221 million.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Sebastian \\|date\\=September 4, 2023 \\|title\\=Carlyle Group to Acquire Seiko PMC in $221m Deal \\|url\\=https://rainmakrr.com/private\\-equity\\-news\\-pe/japan\\-latest/carlyle\\-group\\-tender\\-offer\\-for\\-seiko\\-pmc/ \\|access\\-date\\=September 5, 2023 \\|website\\=Private Equity Insights \\|language\\=en\\-US}}", "In June 2024, Carlyle announced the formation of a new Mediterranean\\-focused oil and gas company, led by former [BP](/wiki/BP \"BP\") CEO [Tony Hayward](/wiki/Tony_Hayward \"Tony Hayward\"), after acquiring [Energean](/wiki/Energean \"Energean\")'s assets in Egypt, Italy, and Croatia for up to $945 million.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Bousso \\|first\\=Ron \\|date\\=20 June 2024 \\|title\\=Carlyle creates new Med oil and gas company with $945 million Energean deal \\|url\\=https://www.reuters.com/markets/deals/energean\\-sell\\-egypt\\-other\\-assets\\-carlyle\\-up\\-945\\-mln\\-2024\\-06\\-20/ \\|access\\-date\\=20 June 2024 \\|website\\=Reuters}}", "### Ownership changes", "For the first 25 years of its existence, Carlyle operated as a private partnership controlled by its investment partners. In 2001, the [California Public Employees' Retirement System](/wiki/California_Public_Employees%27_Retirement_System \"California Public Employees' Retirement System\") ([CalPERS](/wiki/CalPERS \"CalPERS\")), which had been an investor in Carlyle managed funds since 1996, acquired a 5\\.5% holding in Carlyle's management company for $175 million.{{cite news\\|last\\=Scannell\\|first\\=Kara\\|date\\=February 2, 2001\\|title\\=Deals \\& Deal Makers: Calpers Buys 5% Stake in Carlyle Group For $175 Million, Invests in Some Funds\\|newspaper\\=The Wall Street Journal\\|url\\=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB981067457259999794\\|access\\-date\\=August 21, 2020}} The investment was valued at about $1 billion by 2007 at the height of the 2000s buyout boom.{{Cite web\\|last\\=Heath\\|first\\=Thomas\\|date\\=September 21, 2007\\|title\\=Government of Abu Dhabi Buys Stake in Carlyle\\|url\\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp\\-dyn/content/article/2007/09/20/AR2007092000451\\.html\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20081014051109/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp\\-dyn/content/article/2007/09/20/AR2007092000451\\.html\\|archive\\-date\\=October 14, 2008\\|newspaper\\=The Washington Post}}", "In September 2007, [Mubadala Development Company](/wiki/Mubadala_Development_Company \"Mubadala Development Company\"), an investment vehicle for the government of [Abu Dhabi](/wiki/Abu_Dhabi_%28emirate%29 \"Abu Dhabi (emirate)\") of the [United Arab Emirates](/wiki/United_Arab_Emirates \"United Arab Emirates\"), purchased a 7\\.5% stake for $1\\.35 billion.{{cite news\\|last\\=Sorkin\\|first\\=Andrew Ross\\|date\\=September 21, 2007\\|title\\=Carlyle to Sell Stake to a Mideast Government\\|newspaper\\=The New York Times\\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/09/21/business/worldbusiness/21carlyle.html\\|access\\-date\\=August 21, 2020}}", "In February 2008, California legislators targeted Carlyle and Mubadala, proposing a bill that would have barred CalPERS from investing money \"with private\\-equity firms that are partly owned by countries with poor records on human rights.\" The bill, which was intended to draw attention to the connection between Carlyle and Mubadala Development, was later withdrawn.{{cite news\\|last\\=Kasler\\|first\\=Dale\\|date\\=April 9, 2008\\|title\\=Bill limiting CalPERS, CalSTRS investments withdrawn\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The Sacramento Bee]]\\|url\\=http://www.sacbee.com/103/story/849713\\.html\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090215160947/http://www.sacbee.com/103/story/849713\\.html\\|archive\\-date\\=February 15, 2009}}", "In May 2012, Carlyle completed an initial public offering of the company, listing under the symbol CG on the [NASDAQ](/wiki/NASDAQ \"NASDAQ\"). The firm, which at the time managed about $147 billion of assets, raised $671 million in the offering. Following the IPO, Carlyle's three remaining founding partners, Rubenstein, D'Aniello and Conway retained the position as the company's largest shareholders.{{cite news\\|last1\\=Zuckerman\\|first1\\=Gregory\\|last2\\=Cowan\\|first2\\=Lynn\\|date\\=May 2, 2012\\|title\\=Carlyle Prices IPO at Lower Range\\|newspaper\\=The Wall Street Journal\\|url\\=http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424052702304743704577380111481098448\\.html\\|access\\-date\\=August 21, 2020}}", "In June 2017, Carlyle took its non\\-traded BDC, TCG BDC, Inc., public in the first business development company IPO since 2014\\.{{cite web\\|title\\=TCG BDC, Inc.\\|url\\=http://bdcstocks.com/tcg\\-bdc\\-inc\\-cgbd/\\|access\\-date\\=July 3, 2017\\|website\\=BDC Stocks}}{{cite web\\|date\\=June 13, 2017\\|title\\=TCG BDC, Inc. Prices Public Offering\\|url\\=https://www.carlyle.com/media\\-room/news\\-release\\-archive/tcg\\-bdc\\-inc\\-prices\\-public\\-offering\\|access\\-date\\=July 3, 2017\\|website\\=The Carlyle Group}}", "" ]
Business segments ----------------- The firm is organized into three business segments: * Global Private Equity – Management of Carlyle's family of private equity funds investing primarily in leveraged buyout and growth capital transactions through a range of geographically focused investment funds. This segment also includes management of funds that pursue investments in real estate, infrastructure and energy and renewable resources. * Global Credit – Management of funds that pursue investments in distressed \& special situations, direct lending, energy credit, loans \& structured credit and opportunistic credit; and * Global Investment Solutions – Management of funds that invest in private equity and real estate fund of funds, co\-investment and secondaries through its [AlpInvest Partners](/wiki/AlpInvest_Partners "AlpInvest Partners") subsidiary. ### Corporate Private Equity Carlyle's Corporate Private Equity division manages a series of [leveraged buyout](/wiki/Leveraged_buyout "Leveraged buyout") and [growth capital](/wiki/Growth_capital "Growth capital") investment funds with specific geographic or industry focuses. Carlyle invests primarily in the following industries: [aerospace](/wiki/Aerospace_engineering "Aerospace engineering"), [defense](/wiki/Defense_contractor "Defense contractor") \& government services, consumer \& retail, energy, financial services, [health care](/wiki/Healthcare "Healthcare"), industrial, [Real Estate](/wiki/Real_Estate "Real Estate"), [technology and business services](/wiki/Quaternary_sector_of_industry "Quaternary sector of industry"), [telecommunications](/wiki/Telecommunications "Telecommunications") \& [media](/wiki/Mass_media "Mass media"), and [transportation](/wiki/Transportation "Transportation"). Carlyle's Corporate Private Equity segment advises 23 buyout and 10 growth capital funds, with $75 billion in Assets Under Management ("AUM") as of March 31, 2018\.{{cite web \|url\=http://files.shareholder.com/downloads/AMDA\-UYH8V/6244091540x0xS1527166\-18\-16/1527166/filing.pdf \|title\=Carlyle Group Form 10\-Q (Quarterly Report) March 2018 \|website\=U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180508054217/http://files.shareholder.com/downloads/AMDA\-UYH8V/6244091540x0xS1527166\-18\-16/1527166/filing.pdf \|archive\-date\=May 8, 2018}} ### Real Assets Carlyle's Real Assets segment advises 11 U.S. and internationally focused real estate funds, two infrastructure funds, two power funds, an international energy fund, and four Legacy Energy funds (funds that Carlyle jointly advises with Riverstone). The segment also includes nine funds advised by NGP. The Real Assets segment had about $44 billion in AUM as of March 31, 2018\. ### Global Credit Carlyle's Global Credit segment advises 53 funds that pursue investment opportunities across distressed and special situations, direct lending, energy credit, loans and structured credit and opportunistic credit. The Global Credit segment had about $34 billion in AUM as of March 31, 2018\. ### Investment Solutions {{Main\|AlpInvest Partners}} Carlyle's Investment Solutions segment advises global private equity through its subsidiary, [AlpInvest Partners](/wiki/AlpInvest_Partners "AlpInvest Partners"). AlpInvest manages [fund of funds](/wiki/Fund_of_funds "Fund of funds") programs and related [Co\-investments](/wiki/Equity_co-investment "Equity co-investment") and [Secondary investments](/wiki/Private_equity_secondary_market "Private equity secondary market") across more than 340 fund vehicles. The Investment Solutions segment has approximately $63 billion of assets under management as of December 31, 2022\. {{Infobox company \| name \= AlpInvest Partners \| logo \= \| logo\_size \= 210px \| type \= \[\[Subsidiary]] \| foundation \= {{start date and age\|2000}} \| industry \= \[\[Private equity]] \| products \= \[\[Fund of funds\|Fund investments]], \[\[Private equity secondary market\|Secondaries]], \[\[Equity co\-investment\|Co\-Investments]], \[\[Mezzanine capital\|Alternative Credit]] \| assets \= {{increase}}$63 billion (December 31, 2022\)Source: \[https://www.carlyle.com/our\-firm/global\-investment\-solutions Carlye Group website] {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131029223729/http://www.carlyle.com/our\-business/alpinvest\-partners \|date\=October 29, 2013 }} \| num\_employees \= 180 (2020\){{Cite web\|url\=https://www.alpinvest.com/about\-us\|title\=About us}} \| key\_people \= \| homepage \= \[http://www.alpinvest.com/ www.AlpInvest.com] \| footnotes \= \+US$85 billion in capital since inception$62 billion and 300 general partners }} [AlpInvest Partners](/wiki/AlpInvest_Partners "AlpInvest Partners") is one of the largest private equity investment managers globally with over $63 billion [under management](/wiki/Assets_under_management "Assets under management") as of December 31, 2022, invested alongside more than 325 private equity firms. Founded in 2000, AlpInvest had historically been the exclusive manager of [private equity](/wiki/Private_equity "Private equity") investments for the investment managers of two of the world's largest pension funds [Stichting Pensioenfonds ABP](/wiki/Stichting_Pensioenfonds_ABP "Stichting Pensioenfonds ABP") (ABP) and [Stichting Pensioenfonds Zorg en Welzijn](/wiki/Stichting_Pensioenfonds_Zorg_en_Welzijn "Stichting Pensioenfonds Zorg en Welzijn") (PFZW), both based in the [Netherlands](/wiki/Netherlands "Netherlands"). In 2011, Carlyle acquired AlpInvest and has integrated the business, including its leading fund\-of\-funds and secondary platforms, significantly expanding Carlyle's global asset management business. Since its acquisition in 2011, AlpInvest has grown its investor base from its two original Dutch pension sponsors to more than 450 institutional investors globally.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.alpinvest.com/about\-us\|title\=About us}} AlpInvest pursues investment opportunities across the entire spectrum of private equity including: [large buyout](/wiki/Leveraged_buyout "Leveraged buyout"), [middle\-market buyout](/wiki/Leveraged_buyout "Leveraged buyout"), [venture capital](/wiki/Venture_capital "Venture capital"), [growth capital](/wiki/Growth_capital "Growth capital"), [mezzanine](/wiki/Mezzanine_capital "Mezzanine capital"), [distressed](/wiki/Distressed_securities "Distressed securities") and [sustainable energy](/wiki/Sustainable_energy "Sustainable energy") investments. [New York](/wiki/New_York_City "New York City"), [Amsterdam](/wiki/Amsterdam "Amsterdam"), [London](/wiki/London "London"), [Hong Kong](/wiki/Hong_Kong "Hong Kong"), [San Francisco](/wiki/San_Francisco "San Francisco"), [Indianapolis](/wiki/Indianapolis "Indianapolis"), [Singapore](/wiki/Singapore "Singapore") and [Tokyo](/wiki/Tokyo "Tokyo") with over 100 investment professionals and over 175 employees. Carlyle had previously acquired a real estate fund of funds group, Metropolitan Real Estate, to provide investors with access to multi\-manager real estate funds and strategies with more than 85 fund managers in the United States, [Europe](/wiki/Europe "Europe"), [Asia](/wiki/Asia "Asia") and [Latin America](/wiki/Latin_America "Latin America"). Metropolitan was sold in 2021 to [BentallGreenOak](/wiki/BentallGreenOak "BentallGreenOak").
[ "Business segments\n-----------------", "The firm is organized into three business segments:\n* Global Private Equity – Management of Carlyle's family of private equity funds investing primarily in leveraged buyout and growth capital transactions through a range of geographically focused investment funds. This segment also includes management of funds that pursue investments in real estate, infrastructure and energy and renewable resources.\n* Global Credit – Management of funds that pursue investments in distressed \\& special situations, direct lending, energy credit, loans \\& structured credit and opportunistic credit; and\n* Global Investment Solutions – Management of funds that invest in private equity and real estate fund of funds, co\\-investment and secondaries through its [AlpInvest Partners](/wiki/AlpInvest_Partners \"AlpInvest Partners\") subsidiary.", "### Corporate Private Equity", "Carlyle's Corporate Private Equity division manages a series of [leveraged buyout](/wiki/Leveraged_buyout \"Leveraged buyout\") and [growth capital](/wiki/Growth_capital \"Growth capital\") investment funds with specific geographic or industry focuses. Carlyle invests primarily in the following industries: [aerospace](/wiki/Aerospace_engineering \"Aerospace engineering\"), [defense](/wiki/Defense_contractor \"Defense contractor\") \\& government services, consumer \\& retail, energy, financial services, [health care](/wiki/Healthcare \"Healthcare\"), industrial, [Real Estate](/wiki/Real_Estate \"Real Estate\"), [technology and business services](/wiki/Quaternary_sector_of_industry \"Quaternary sector of industry\"), [telecommunications](/wiki/Telecommunications \"Telecommunications\") \\& [media](/wiki/Mass_media \"Mass media\"), and [transportation](/wiki/Transportation \"Transportation\").", "Carlyle's Corporate Private Equity segment advises 23 buyout and 10 growth capital funds, with $75 billion in Assets Under Management (\"AUM\") as of March 31, 2018\\.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://files.shareholder.com/downloads/AMDA\\-UYH8V/6244091540x0xS1527166\\-18\\-16/1527166/filing.pdf \\|title\\=Carlyle Group Form 10\\-Q (Quarterly Report) March 2018 \\|website\\=U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180508054217/http://files.shareholder.com/downloads/AMDA\\-UYH8V/6244091540x0xS1527166\\-18\\-16/1527166/filing.pdf \\|archive\\-date\\=May 8, 2018}}", "### Real Assets", "Carlyle's Real Assets segment advises 11 U.S. and internationally focused real estate funds, two infrastructure funds, two power funds, an international energy fund, and four Legacy Energy funds (funds that Carlyle jointly advises with Riverstone). The segment also includes nine funds advised by NGP. The Real Assets segment had about $44 billion in AUM as of March 31, 2018\\.", "### Global Credit", "Carlyle's Global Credit segment advises 53 funds that pursue investment opportunities across distressed and special situations, direct lending, energy credit, loans and structured credit and opportunistic credit. The Global Credit segment had about $34 billion in AUM as of March 31, 2018\\.", "### Investment Solutions", "{{Main\\|AlpInvest Partners}}\nCarlyle's Investment Solutions segment advises global private equity through its subsidiary, [AlpInvest Partners](/wiki/AlpInvest_Partners \"AlpInvest Partners\"). AlpInvest manages [fund of funds](/wiki/Fund_of_funds \"Fund of funds\") programs and related [Co\\-investments](/wiki/Equity_co-investment \"Equity co-investment\") and [Secondary investments](/wiki/Private_equity_secondary_market \"Private equity secondary market\") across more than 340 fund vehicles. The Investment Solutions segment has approximately $63 billion of assets under management as of December 31, 2022\\.", "{{Infobox company\n\\| name \\= AlpInvest Partners\n\\| logo \\= \n\\| logo\\_size \\= 210px\n\\| type \\= \\[\\[Subsidiary]]\n\\| foundation \\= {{start date and age\\|2000}}\n\\| industry \\= \\[\\[Private equity]]\n\\| products \\= \\[\\[Fund of funds\\|Fund investments]], \\[\\[Private equity secondary market\\|Secondaries]], \\[\\[Equity co\\-investment\\|Co\\-Investments]], \\[\\[Mezzanine capital\\|Alternative Credit]]\n\\| assets \\= {{increase}}$63 billion (December 31, 2022\\)Source: \\[https://www.carlyle.com/our\\-firm/global\\-investment\\-solutions Carlye Group website] {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131029223729/http://www.carlyle.com/our\\-business/alpinvest\\-partners \\|date\\=October 29, 2013 }}\n\\| num\\_employees \\= 180 (2020\\){{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.alpinvest.com/about\\-us\\|title\\=About us}}\n\\| key\\_people \\= \n\\| homepage \\= \\[http://www.alpinvest.com/ www.AlpInvest.com]\n\\| footnotes \\= \\+US$85 billion in capital since inception$62 billion and 300 general partners\n}}", "[AlpInvest Partners](/wiki/AlpInvest_Partners \"AlpInvest Partners\") is one of the largest private equity investment managers globally with over $63 billion [under management](/wiki/Assets_under_management \"Assets under management\") as of December 31, 2022, invested alongside more than 325 private equity firms. Founded in 2000, AlpInvest had historically been the exclusive manager of [private equity](/wiki/Private_equity \"Private equity\") investments for the investment managers of two of the world's largest pension funds [Stichting Pensioenfonds ABP](/wiki/Stichting_Pensioenfonds_ABP \"Stichting Pensioenfonds ABP\") (ABP) and [Stichting Pensioenfonds Zorg en Welzijn](/wiki/Stichting_Pensioenfonds_Zorg_en_Welzijn \"Stichting Pensioenfonds Zorg en Welzijn\") (PFZW), both based in the [Netherlands](/wiki/Netherlands \"Netherlands\"). In 2011, Carlyle acquired AlpInvest and has integrated the business, including its leading fund\\-of\\-funds and secondary platforms, significantly expanding Carlyle's global asset management business. Since its acquisition in 2011, AlpInvest has grown its investor base from its two original Dutch pension sponsors to more than 450 institutional investors globally.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.alpinvest.com/about\\-us\\|title\\=About us}}", "AlpInvest pursues investment opportunities across the entire spectrum of private equity including: [large buyout](/wiki/Leveraged_buyout \"Leveraged buyout\"), [middle\\-market buyout](/wiki/Leveraged_buyout \"Leveraged buyout\"), [venture capital](/wiki/Venture_capital \"Venture capital\"), [growth capital](/wiki/Growth_capital \"Growth capital\"), [mezzanine](/wiki/Mezzanine_capital \"Mezzanine capital\"), [distressed](/wiki/Distressed_securities \"Distressed securities\") and [sustainable energy](/wiki/Sustainable_energy \"Sustainable energy\") investments. [New York](/wiki/New_York_City \"New York City\"), [Amsterdam](/wiki/Amsterdam \"Amsterdam\"), [London](/wiki/London \"London\"), [Hong Kong](/wiki/Hong_Kong \"Hong Kong\"), [San Francisco](/wiki/San_Francisco \"San Francisco\"), [Indianapolis](/wiki/Indianapolis \"Indianapolis\"), [Singapore](/wiki/Singapore \"Singapore\") and [Tokyo](/wiki/Tokyo \"Tokyo\") with over 100 investment professionals and over 175 employees.", "Carlyle had previously acquired a real estate fund of funds group, Metropolitan Real Estate, to provide investors with access to multi\\-manager real estate funds and strategies with more than 85 fund managers in the United States, [Europe](/wiki/Europe \"Europe\"), [Asia](/wiki/Asia \"Asia\") and [Latin America](/wiki/Latin_America \"Latin America\"). Metropolitan was sold in 2021 to [BentallGreenOak](/wiki/BentallGreenOak \"BentallGreenOak\").", "" ]
History ------- ### Toponymy The [etymology](/wiki/Etymology "Etymology") of Moira is somewhat uncertain. It seems to be an [anglicisation](/wiki/Anglicisation "Anglicisation") of the Irish *Maigh Rath*, which may mean either 'plain of the wheels'{{cite web\|url\=http://www.ulsterplacenames.org/PDF\+Files/Antrim\_(Crumlin\_ward)\_(C.\_Dunbar).pdf\|title\=ulsterplacenames.org \- ulsterplacenames Resources and Information.\|website\=ulsterplacenames.org\|access\-date\=24 April 2018\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180424131805/http://www.ulsterplacenames.org/PDF\+Files/Antrim\_(Crumlin\_ward)\_(C.\_Dunbar).pdf\|archive\-date\=24 April 2018}} or 'plain of the ringforts'.{{cite web \|last\=Rudd \|first\=Canon C.R.J. \|title\=Moira \- Lisburn.com \|url\=http://www.lisburn.com/books/moira/moira1\.html \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230924225930/http://lisburn.com/books/moira/moira1\.html \|archive\-date\=2023\-09\-24 \|work\=lisburn.com}} Another Irish form of the name is *Mag Rath*.{{cite web \|title\=The Battle of Mag Rath \|url\=http://www.askaboutireland.ie/reading\-room/history\-heritage/folklore\-of\-ireland/carlow\-folklore/the\-story\-of\-mad\-sweeney/the\-battle\-of\-mag\-rath/ \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240525083536/https://www.askaboutireland.ie/reading\-room/history\-heritage/folklore\-of\-ireland/carlow\-folklore/the\-story\-of\-mad\-sweeney/the\-battle\-of\-mag\-rath/ \|archive\-date\=2024\-05\-25 \|work\=askaboutireland.ie}} The change most probably occurred during or before the [Plantation of Ulster](/wiki/Plantation_of_Ulster "Plantation of Ulster"). Regardless Moira has now evolved to become both the official name and the one in everyday use. ### Prehistory to 1800 {{Main\|Prehistoric Ireland\|Early Medieval Ireland 800–1166\|Early Christian Ireland\|Ireland 1536–1691}} Moira has been a settlement for at least 1,500 years. For the period it consisted most probably only of small dwellings surrounded by several earthen [ringforts](/wiki/Ringforts "Ringforts"). Evidence of three such forts still remain. The best known of these is the so\-called "Rough Fort", situated on the Old Kilmore Road. However, the remains of "Pretty Mary's Fort" exist behind the Waringfield residential area. Finally evidence of a third ringfort can be found near Claremont. In fact the supposed ring fort in Moira is actually a henge dating back thousands of years. see the book "Finding Footprints" by David McFarland.{{cite web \| title \= Here long before us \| url \= http://www.moirahistory.uk/here\-long\-before\-us/ \| date \= 9 May 2017 \| website \= History of Moira \| access\-date \= 1 June 2021}} The existence of these primitive defences, coupled with the good\-view afforded from the top of Moira hill, made the settlement strategically valuable. Proximity to [Lough Neagh](/wiki/Lough_Neagh "Lough Neagh") enhanced this value. Accordingly, during the repeated power struggles of the first millennium the area was often fought over, and eventually witnessed the largest battle in the history of Ireland when three tribal kings contested the area to determine supremacy in [Ulster](/wiki/Ulster "Ulster") and beyond. This was the [Battle of Moira](/wiki/Battle_of_Moira "Battle of Moira"). Its impact on Moira is still felt; two townlands still bear battle names, Aughnafosker (meaning field of slaughter) and Carnalbanagh (meaning the Scotsman's grave). After the battle a bishop by the name of Ronan Finn (who was later [canonized](/wiki/Canonization "Canonization")) was alleged to have created a monastery in the area. The medieval period itself remains shrouded in mystery. It is known that the town and its hinterland were under the control of the O'Lavery Clan for a considerable period. They were [Catholic](/wiki/Roman_catholicism "Roman catholicism") families who held sway in large parts of Armagh. Indeed, prior to the [Nine Years War](/wiki/Nine_Years_War_%28Ireland%29 "Nine Years War (Ireland)") Ulster was the most [gaelic](/wiki/Gaels "Gaels") part of Ireland.R. R. Madden, *The United Irishmen, Their Lives and Times* Vol 1, J. Madden \& Co (London 1845\), Pg. 2\-5\. There were few towns, few roads and much of the country was thickly wooded.Cyril Falls: *The Birth of Ulster*.London, Constable and Company Ltd. 1996\. Pages 11\-12\. P. Robinson *The Plantation of Ulster*. Belfast, Ulster Historical Foundation. 2000\. Page 28\. Dr. I. Adamson: *The Identity of Ulster*. Bangor, Pretani Press. Third Impression, 1995\. Page 11\. However the subjugation of Ulster by the victorious armies of [Elizabeth I](/wiki/Elizabeth_I "Elizabeth I") greatly reduced the clout of Gaelic hierarchs, the O'Laverys included. But it was their participation in the [Irish Rebellion of 1641](/wiki/Irish_Rebellion_of_1641 "Irish Rebellion of 1641") doomed their dominance. The [English](/wiki/Kingdom_of_England%23Tudors_and_Stuarts "Kingdom of England#Tudors and Stuarts") authorities crushed the rebellion and confiscated vast amounts of native Irish property, in Moira as in the rest of Ireland. As a direct result of this the [Protestant](/wiki/Protestantism "Protestantism") plantations of Ulster (which began in 1606\) were accelerated. #### Arrival of the Rawdon family [thumb\|Moira Castle, County Down in 1799 by [Gabriel Beranger](/wiki/Gabriel_Beranger "Gabriel Beranger").](/wiki/File:Moira_Castle%2C_County_Down.png "Moira Castle, County Down.png") In 1631 Major [George Rawdon](/wiki/George_Rawdon "George Rawdon"), a wealthy man from the village of [Rawdon](/wiki/Rawdon%2C_West_Yorkshire "Rawdon, West Yorkshire") in [Yorkshire](/wiki/Yorkshire "Yorkshire"), settled in Moira. During the [Irish Rebellion of 1641](/wiki/Irish_Rebellion_of_1641 "Irish Rebellion of 1641") he and 200 English soldiers helped defeat the army of Sir Phelim O'Neill and re\-secure Moira and its environs for [the Crown](/wiki/The_Crown "The Crown"). In 1651 an officer by the name of Major de Burgh purchased a small estate and built a brick house in Moira. This house, the forerunner of Moira Castle, was subsequently purchased by Rawdon. Following his actions in putting down rebellion Rawdon subsequently purchased vast amounts of land in the area (most probably financed by confiscations from the dead or subjugated Catholic rebels), and was said to have developed it greatly. In 1665 he was created a [baronet](/wiki/Baronet "Baronet") by [Charles II](/wiki/Charles_II_of_England "Charles II of England"). At some point in his life he became a [Member of Parliament](/wiki/Parliament_of_Ireland "Parliament of Ireland"). He was nicknamed the 'Great Highwayman' for his development of roads infrastructure in and around Moira. Sir George Rawdon was succeeded in his title by his son Sir Arthur Rawdon. #### Later Rawdon Baronets [Sir Arthur](/wiki/Arthur_Rawdon "Arthur Rawdon") (who would also become an Irish MP) became a General in the armies of [King William III](/wiki/William_III_of_England "William III of England") during the [Jacobite War in Ireland](/wiki/Jacobite_War_in_Ireland "Jacobite War in Ireland"). He was quickly besieged in [Derry](/wiki/Derry "Derry"), but managed to escape. After the war, with the [Protestant Ascendancy](/wiki/Protestant_Ascendancy "Protestant Ascendancy") of which he was a part yet again restored, Sir Arthur (who had presumably profited greatly from the war) returned to Moira. Having inherited the brick manor house his father had purchased he decided to expand it greatly, and it became one of the largest residences in the whole island, to be called Moira Castle. The castle, which in fact was a mansion, was also accompanied by vast gardens. These gardens became world\-famous. In 1690 Sir Arthur utilised his friendship with fellow Down\-born botanist [Sir Hans Sloane](/wiki/Sir_Hans_Sloane "Sir Hans Sloane"), and acquired from him the seeds of 400 exotic plants, and instructions in how to grow them. To fit his ends Sir Arthur also constructed in Moira the first [hothouse](/wiki/Greenhouse "Greenhouse") in Europe. The subsequent baronets maintained the gardens (though the hothouse did not survive) for generations. In 1723 Sir John Rawdon, 3rd Baronet helped fund the construction of the [Anglican](/wiki/Anglican "Anglican") Moira Parish Church, dedicated to St. John. #### The Lords Rawdon [thumb\|180px\|right\|*[Portrait of Lord Moira](/wiki/Portrait_of_Lord_Moira "Portrait of Lord Moira")* by [Sir Joshua Reynolds](/wiki/Sir_Joshua_Reynolds "Sir Joshua Reynolds"), 1790\.](/wiki/File:Sir_Joshua_Reynolds_%281723-92%29_-_Francis_Rawdon-Hastings_%281754-1826%29%2C_Second_Earl_of_Moira_and_First_Marquess_of_Hastings_-_RCIN_407508_-_Royal_Collection.jpg "Sir Joshua Reynolds (1723-92) - Francis Rawdon-Hastings (1754-1826), Second Earl of Moira and First Marquess of Hastings - RCIN 407508 - Royal Collection.jpg") In 1750 [Sir John Rawdon, 4th Baronet](/wiki/Sir_John_Rawdon%2C_4th_Baronet "Sir John Rawdon, 4th Baronet") was raised to the [peerage](/wiki/Peerage_of_Ireland "Peerage of Ireland") by [King George II](/wiki/George_II_of_Great_Britain "George II of Great Britain") as the Baron Rawdon of Moira. He subsequently flirted with [Methodism](/wiki/Methodism "Methodism"), and invited [John Wesley](/wiki/John_Wesley "John Wesley") to speak at Moira Church. This caused a major religious rift in the town. And though Wesley did speak, he did so from the grounds of Moira Castle, not the church for which the Rawdons had largely paid. He was also granted a higher title in 1762 by [King George III](/wiki/King_George_III "King George III"), when he was made Earl of Moira. In addition to flirting with Methodism Lord Rawdon also flirted with Irish self\-government (albeit under the Ascendancy), opposing the efforts of [William Pitt](/wiki/William_Pitt_the_Younger "William Pitt the Younger") to forge closer links with [Great Britain](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Great_Britain "Kingdom of Great Britain") in the first decade of his [Ministry](/wiki/First_Pitt_the_Younger_ministry "First Pitt the Younger ministry"). His death in 1793 was significant in Moira history, in that it marked the largest funeral in the history of Ireland (a record now held by the attendance at the funeral of Michael Collins), a testament to his extensive political connections. Over four hundred carriages were in procession. This Lord Rawdon is buried in the family crypt in the church. Upon his death his son [Francis Rawdon\-Hastings](/wiki/Francis_Rawdon-Hastings "Francis Rawdon-Hastings") became the Earl of Moira. A respected general and politician with significant influence in London, his time as head of the family was nevertheless negative for the town of Moira, which had risen greatly in prestige as a result of his predecessors. He neglected the gardens in the Moira estate, which subsequently declined into decay. He also spent the vast majority of his time in England. ### Moira 1800–present The 2nd Earl was raised to a yet\-higher rank of the peerage in 1816, when he was created [Marquess of Hastings](/wiki/Marquess_of_Hastings "Marquess of Hastings"), subordinating the Moira title. Lord Hastings was the last member of the Rawdon family to reside in Moira Castle (which he had always used as a secondary residence in any case). In 1805 he sold it to [Sir Robert Bateson, 1st Baronet](/wiki/Sir_Robert_Bateson%2C_1st_Baronet "Sir Robert Bateson, 1st Baronet"), who also did not use it as a primary residence. The status of Moira thus declined considerably. The Rawdons' legacy lingered, however, with several streets and housing developments bearing their name centuries later. The [Acts of Union](/wiki/Acts_of_Union_1800 "Acts of Union 1800") had reduced the power of the Ascendency, and Moira was now directly governed by [London](/wiki/London "London") instead of [Dublin](/wiki/Dublin "Dublin"). In addition, the [Great Reform Act](/wiki/Great_Reform_Act "Great Reform Act") had reduced the ability of landowners in general and lords in particular to control Moira. Moira itself continued to develop during this period. A canal was built to the north (which became the boundary between Counties Antrim and Down), and a Market Hall completed at the expense of the Bateson family in about 1810\.{{cite web \|title\=aerialold600\.jpg \|url\=http://www.moirahistory.uk/wp\-content/uploads/2017/03/aerialold600\.jpg \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230603073813/http://www.moirahistory.uk/wp\-content/uploads/2017/03/aerialold600\.jpg \|archive\-date\=2023\-06\-03 \|access\-date\=24 April 2018 \|website\=moirahistory.uk}} It was considered to have market the completion of the village. In 1841 [Moira railway station](/wiki/Moira_railway_station "Moira railway station") was completed, and is now the oldest such structure on the island of Ireland. Moira Castle itself was vacated by the Batesons, and was demolished during the [Victorian Era](/wiki/Victorian_era "Victorian era"). A few gate stumps remain, as does some stepping for the famous gardens, and the dug\-out cellar. [thumb\|left\|300px\|Entrance to Moira Demesne](/wiki/File:Moira_Demesne_2010.PNG "Moira Demesne 2010.PNG") During the [Second World War](/wiki/Second_World_War "Second World War") the grounds of Moira Demesne (as the Castle had become known) were used by the [British Army](/wiki/British_Army "British Army") as a medical centre. In the summer of 2018, a prolonged dry spell revealed what appeared to be foundations beneath the lawns of the demesne. In May 2019 the local council commissioned an archaeological dig by members from the Centre for Archaeological Fieldwork and Archaeology at [Queen's University Belfast](/wiki/Queen%27s_University_Belfast "Queen's University Belfast"). For two weeks, assisted by community volunteers, they explored several trenches and found some fascinating artefacts of life in the 17th and 18th centuries.{{cite web \|date\=20 May 2019 \|title\=No archaeological interest? \|url\=http://www.moirahistory.uk/archaeological\-dig/ \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240525084852/http://www.moirahistory.uk/archaeological\-dig/ \|archive\-date\=2024\-05\-25 \|access\-date\=1 June 2021 \|website\=History of Moira}} #### 1998 bombing Moira remained relatively uneventful for most of the 20th century, but did not escape [The Troubles](/wiki/The_Troubles "The Troubles"). On 20 February 1998 dissident republicans planted a {{convert\|500\|lb\|kg}} [car bomb](/wiki/Car_bomb "Car bomb"), which exploded outside the police station, injuring 11 people. The bomb was intended to kill police officers during a shift change. The blast was so loud that it could be heard fully {{convert\|20\|mi\|km\|spell\=in}} away in [Belfast](/wiki/Belfast "Belfast").{{Citation needed\|date\=May 2024}} The bomb caused extensive damage, resulting in the police station and several nearby buildings having to be rebuilt. The bombing also threatened to derail the [peace process](/wiki/Northern_Ireland_peace_process "Northern Ireland peace process") at the time.{{cite news \|date\=22 February 1998 \|title\=Sinn Féin asks to meet Blair \|url\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/58958\.stm \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240525090004/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk\_news/58958\.stm \|archive\-date\=2024\-05\-25 \|work\=BBC News}} #### 21st century The present village is primarily a [dormitory settlement](/wiki/Dormitory_settlement "Dormitory settlement") for commuters into Belfast, Lisburn, and Craigavon. On 4 January 2019, it was announced that Frances and Patrick Connolly, a local couple in Moira, had won £115 million in the [EuroMillions](/wiki/EuroMillions "EuroMillions") lottery, making them the UK's fourth\-biggest lottery winners. The couple, who won precisely £114,969,775\.70, told the *Belfast Telegraph*: "This is a massive sum of money and we want it to have a huge impact on the lives of other people we know and love as well as on our future too. This win gives us the chance to really make a difference for our family and friends".{{Cite news \|date\=4 January 2019 \|title\=Watch: Frances and Patrick Connolly from Moira revealed as £115m Euromillions lottery winners \|url\=https://www.belfasttelegraph.co.uk/news/northern\-ireland/watch\-frances\-and\-patrick\-connolly\-from\-moira\-revealed\-as\-115m\-euromillions\-lottery\-winners/37680316\.html \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240525084248/https://www.belfasttelegraph.co.uk/news/northern\-ireland/watch\-frances\-and\-patrick\-connolly\-from\-moira\-revealed\-as\-115m\-euromillions\-lottery\-winners/37680316\.html \|archive\-date\=2024\-05\-25 \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-16 \|work\=\[\[Belfast Telegraph]] \|language\=en\-GB \|issn\=0307\-1235}}
[ "History\n-------", "### Toponymy", "The [etymology](/wiki/Etymology \"Etymology\") of Moira is somewhat uncertain. It seems to be an [anglicisation](/wiki/Anglicisation \"Anglicisation\") of the Irish *Maigh Rath*, which may mean either 'plain of the wheels'{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.ulsterplacenames.org/PDF\\+Files/Antrim\\_(Crumlin\\_ward)\\_(C.\\_Dunbar).pdf\\|title\\=ulsterplacenames.org \\- ulsterplacenames Resources and Information.\\|website\\=ulsterplacenames.org\\|access\\-date\\=24 April 2018\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180424131805/http://www.ulsterplacenames.org/PDF\\+Files/Antrim\\_(Crumlin\\_ward)\\_(C.\\_Dunbar).pdf\\|archive\\-date\\=24 April 2018}} or 'plain of the ringforts'.{{cite web \\|last\\=Rudd \\|first\\=Canon C.R.J. \\|title\\=Moira \\- Lisburn.com \\|url\\=http://www.lisburn.com/books/moira/moira1\\.html \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230924225930/http://lisburn.com/books/moira/moira1\\.html \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-09\\-24 \\|work\\=lisburn.com}} Another Irish form of the name is *Mag Rath*.{{cite web \\|title\\=The Battle of Mag Rath \\|url\\=http://www.askaboutireland.ie/reading\\-room/history\\-heritage/folklore\\-of\\-ireland/carlow\\-folklore/the\\-story\\-of\\-mad\\-sweeney/the\\-battle\\-of\\-mag\\-rath/ \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240525083536/https://www.askaboutireland.ie/reading\\-room/history\\-heritage/folklore\\-of\\-ireland/carlow\\-folklore/the\\-story\\-of\\-mad\\-sweeney/the\\-battle\\-of\\-mag\\-rath/ \\|archive\\-date\\=2024\\-05\\-25 \\|work\\=askaboutireland.ie}} The change most probably occurred during or before the [Plantation of Ulster](/wiki/Plantation_of_Ulster \"Plantation of Ulster\"). Regardless Moira has now evolved to become both the official name and the one in everyday use.", "### Prehistory to 1800", "{{Main\\|Prehistoric Ireland\\|Early Medieval Ireland 800–1166\\|Early Christian Ireland\\|Ireland 1536–1691}}", "Moira has been a settlement for at least 1,500 years. For the period it consisted most probably only of small dwellings surrounded by several earthen [ringforts](/wiki/Ringforts \"Ringforts\"). Evidence of three such forts still remain. The best known of these is the so\\-called \"Rough Fort\", situated on the Old Kilmore Road. However, the remains of \"Pretty Mary's Fort\" exist behind the Waringfield residential area. Finally evidence of a third ringfort can be found near Claremont.", "In fact the supposed ring fort in Moira is actually a henge dating back thousands of years. see the book \"Finding Footprints\" by David McFarland.{{cite web \\| title \\= Here long before us \\| url \\= http://www.moirahistory.uk/here\\-long\\-before\\-us/ \\| date \\= 9 May 2017 \\| website \\= History of Moira \\| access\\-date \\= 1 June 2021}}", "The existence of these primitive defences, coupled with the good\\-view afforded from the top of Moira hill, made the settlement strategically valuable. Proximity to [Lough Neagh](/wiki/Lough_Neagh \"Lough Neagh\") enhanced this value. Accordingly, during the repeated power struggles of the first millennium the area was often fought over, and eventually witnessed the largest battle in the history of Ireland when three tribal kings contested the area to determine supremacy in [Ulster](/wiki/Ulster \"Ulster\") and beyond. This was the [Battle of Moira](/wiki/Battle_of_Moira \"Battle of Moira\"). Its impact on Moira is still felt; two townlands still bear battle names, Aughnafosker (meaning field of slaughter) and Carnalbanagh (meaning the Scotsman's grave). After the battle a bishop by the name of Ronan Finn (who was later [canonized](/wiki/Canonization \"Canonization\")) was alleged to have created a monastery in the area.", "The medieval period itself remains shrouded in mystery. It is known that the town and its hinterland were under the control of the O'Lavery Clan for a considerable period. They were [Catholic](/wiki/Roman_catholicism \"Roman catholicism\") families who held sway in large parts of Armagh. Indeed, prior to the [Nine Years War](/wiki/Nine_Years_War_%28Ireland%29 \"Nine Years War (Ireland)\") Ulster was the most [gaelic](/wiki/Gaels \"Gaels\") part of Ireland.R. R. Madden, *The United Irishmen, Their Lives and Times* Vol 1, J. Madden \\& Co (London 1845\\), Pg. 2\\-5\\. There were few towns, few roads and much of the country was thickly wooded.Cyril Falls: *The Birth of Ulster*.London, Constable and Company Ltd. 1996\\. Pages 11\\-12\\. P. Robinson *The Plantation of Ulster*. Belfast, Ulster Historical Foundation. 2000\\. Page 28\\. Dr. I. Adamson: *The Identity of Ulster*. Bangor, Pretani Press. Third Impression, 1995\\. Page 11\\. However the subjugation of Ulster by the victorious armies of [Elizabeth I](/wiki/Elizabeth_I \"Elizabeth I\") greatly reduced the clout of Gaelic hierarchs, the O'Laverys included. But it was their participation in the [Irish Rebellion of 1641](/wiki/Irish_Rebellion_of_1641 \"Irish Rebellion of 1641\") doomed their dominance. The [English](/wiki/Kingdom_of_England%23Tudors_and_Stuarts \"Kingdom of England#Tudors and Stuarts\") authorities crushed the rebellion and confiscated vast amounts of native Irish property, in Moira as in the rest of Ireland. As a direct result of this the [Protestant](/wiki/Protestantism \"Protestantism\") plantations of Ulster (which began in 1606\\) were accelerated.", "#### Arrival of the Rawdon family", "[thumb\\|Moira Castle, County Down in 1799 by [Gabriel Beranger](/wiki/Gabriel_Beranger \"Gabriel Beranger\").](/wiki/File:Moira_Castle%2C_County_Down.png \"Moira Castle, County Down.png\")\nIn 1631 Major [George Rawdon](/wiki/George_Rawdon \"George Rawdon\"), a wealthy man from the village of [Rawdon](/wiki/Rawdon%2C_West_Yorkshire \"Rawdon, West Yorkshire\") in [Yorkshire](/wiki/Yorkshire \"Yorkshire\"), settled in Moira. During the [Irish Rebellion of 1641](/wiki/Irish_Rebellion_of_1641 \"Irish Rebellion of 1641\") he and 200 English soldiers helped defeat the army of Sir Phelim O'Neill and re\\-secure Moira and its environs for [the Crown](/wiki/The_Crown \"The Crown\"). In 1651 an officer by the name of Major de Burgh purchased a small estate and built a brick house in Moira. This house, the forerunner of Moira Castle, was subsequently purchased by Rawdon. Following his actions in putting down rebellion Rawdon subsequently purchased vast amounts of land in the area (most probably financed by confiscations from the dead or subjugated Catholic rebels), and was said to have developed it greatly. In 1665 he was created a [baronet](/wiki/Baronet \"Baronet\") by [Charles II](/wiki/Charles_II_of_England \"Charles II of England\"). At some point in his life he became a [Member of Parliament](/wiki/Parliament_of_Ireland \"Parliament of Ireland\"). He was nicknamed the 'Great Highwayman' for his development of roads infrastructure in and around Moira. Sir George Rawdon was succeeded in his title by his son Sir Arthur Rawdon.", "#### Later Rawdon Baronets", "[Sir Arthur](/wiki/Arthur_Rawdon \"Arthur Rawdon\") (who would also become an Irish MP) became a General in the armies of [King William III](/wiki/William_III_of_England \"William III of England\") during the [Jacobite War in Ireland](/wiki/Jacobite_War_in_Ireland \"Jacobite War in Ireland\"). He was quickly besieged in [Derry](/wiki/Derry \"Derry\"), but managed to escape. After the war, with the [Protestant Ascendancy](/wiki/Protestant_Ascendancy \"Protestant Ascendancy\") of which he was a part yet again restored, Sir Arthur (who had presumably profited greatly from the war) returned to Moira. Having inherited the brick manor house his father had purchased he decided to expand it greatly, and it became one of the largest residences in the whole island, to be called Moira Castle. The castle, which in fact was a mansion, was also accompanied by vast gardens. These gardens became world\\-famous. In 1690 Sir Arthur utilised his friendship with fellow Down\\-born botanist [Sir Hans Sloane](/wiki/Sir_Hans_Sloane \"Sir Hans Sloane\"), and acquired from him the seeds of 400 exotic plants, and instructions in how to grow them. To fit his ends Sir Arthur also constructed in Moira the first [hothouse](/wiki/Greenhouse \"Greenhouse\") in Europe.", "The subsequent baronets maintained the gardens (though the hothouse did not survive) for generations. In 1723 Sir John Rawdon, 3rd Baronet helped fund the construction of the [Anglican](/wiki/Anglican \"Anglican\") Moira Parish Church, dedicated to St. John.", "#### The Lords Rawdon", "[thumb\\|180px\\|right\\|*[Portrait of Lord Moira](/wiki/Portrait_of_Lord_Moira \"Portrait of Lord Moira\")* by [Sir Joshua Reynolds](/wiki/Sir_Joshua_Reynolds \"Sir Joshua Reynolds\"), 1790\\.](/wiki/File:Sir_Joshua_Reynolds_%281723-92%29_-_Francis_Rawdon-Hastings_%281754-1826%29%2C_Second_Earl_of_Moira_and_First_Marquess_of_Hastings_-_RCIN_407508_-_Royal_Collection.jpg \"Sir Joshua Reynolds (1723-92) - Francis Rawdon-Hastings (1754-1826), Second Earl of Moira and First Marquess of Hastings - RCIN 407508 - Royal Collection.jpg\")\nIn 1750 [Sir John Rawdon, 4th Baronet](/wiki/Sir_John_Rawdon%2C_4th_Baronet \"Sir John Rawdon, 4th Baronet\") was raised to the [peerage](/wiki/Peerage_of_Ireland \"Peerage of Ireland\") by [King George II](/wiki/George_II_of_Great_Britain \"George II of Great Britain\") as the Baron Rawdon of Moira. He subsequently flirted with [Methodism](/wiki/Methodism \"Methodism\"), and invited [John Wesley](/wiki/John_Wesley \"John Wesley\") to speak at Moira Church. This caused a major religious rift in the town. And though Wesley did speak, he did so from the grounds of Moira Castle, not the church for which the Rawdons had largely paid. He was also granted a higher title in 1762 by [King George III](/wiki/King_George_III \"King George III\"), when he was made Earl of Moira.", "In addition to flirting with Methodism Lord Rawdon also flirted with Irish self\\-government (albeit under the Ascendancy), opposing the efforts of [William Pitt](/wiki/William_Pitt_the_Younger \"William Pitt the Younger\") to forge closer links with [Great Britain](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Great_Britain \"Kingdom of Great Britain\") in the first decade of his [Ministry](/wiki/First_Pitt_the_Younger_ministry \"First Pitt the Younger ministry\"). His death in 1793 was significant in Moira history, in that it marked the largest funeral in the history of Ireland (a record now held by the attendance at the funeral of Michael Collins), a testament to his extensive political connections. Over four hundred carriages were in procession. This Lord Rawdon is buried in the family crypt in the church.", "Upon his death his son [Francis Rawdon\\-Hastings](/wiki/Francis_Rawdon-Hastings \"Francis Rawdon-Hastings\") became the Earl of Moira. A respected general and politician with significant influence in London, his time as head of the family was nevertheless negative for the town of Moira, which had risen greatly in prestige as a result of his predecessors. He neglected the gardens in the Moira estate, which subsequently declined into decay. He also spent the vast majority of his time in England.", "### Moira 1800–present", "The 2nd Earl was raised to a yet\\-higher rank of the peerage in 1816, when he was created [Marquess of Hastings](/wiki/Marquess_of_Hastings \"Marquess of Hastings\"), subordinating the Moira title.", "Lord Hastings was the last member of the Rawdon family to reside in Moira Castle (which he had always used as a secondary residence in any case). In 1805 he sold it to [Sir Robert Bateson, 1st Baronet](/wiki/Sir_Robert_Bateson%2C_1st_Baronet \"Sir Robert Bateson, 1st Baronet\"), who also did not use it as a primary residence. The status of Moira thus declined considerably. The Rawdons' legacy lingered, however, with several streets and housing developments bearing their name centuries later.", "The [Acts of Union](/wiki/Acts_of_Union_1800 \"Acts of Union 1800\") had reduced the power of the Ascendency, and Moira was now directly governed by [London](/wiki/London \"London\") instead of [Dublin](/wiki/Dublin \"Dublin\"). In addition, the [Great Reform Act](/wiki/Great_Reform_Act \"Great Reform Act\") had reduced the ability of landowners in general and lords in particular to control Moira.", "Moira itself continued to develop during this period. A canal was built to the north (which became the boundary between Counties Antrim and Down), and a Market Hall completed at the expense of the Bateson family in about 1810\\.{{cite web \\|title\\=aerialold600\\.jpg \\|url\\=http://www.moirahistory.uk/wp\\-content/uploads/2017/03/aerialold600\\.jpg \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230603073813/http://www.moirahistory.uk/wp\\-content/uploads/2017/03/aerialold600\\.jpg \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-06\\-03 \\|access\\-date\\=24 April 2018 \\|website\\=moirahistory.uk}} It was considered to have market the completion of the village. In 1841 [Moira railway station](/wiki/Moira_railway_station \"Moira railway station\") was completed, and is now the oldest such structure on the island of Ireland. Moira Castle itself was vacated by the Batesons, and was demolished during the [Victorian Era](/wiki/Victorian_era \"Victorian era\"). A few gate stumps remain, as does some stepping for the famous gardens, and the dug\\-out cellar.", "[thumb\\|left\\|300px\\|Entrance to Moira Demesne](/wiki/File:Moira_Demesne_2010.PNG \"Moira Demesne 2010.PNG\") \nDuring the [Second World War](/wiki/Second_World_War \"Second World War\") the grounds of Moira Demesne (as the Castle had become known) were used by the [British Army](/wiki/British_Army \"British Army\") as a medical centre.", "In the summer of 2018, a prolonged dry spell revealed what appeared to be foundations beneath the lawns of the demesne. In May 2019 the local council commissioned an archaeological dig by members from the Centre for Archaeological Fieldwork and Archaeology at [Queen's University Belfast](/wiki/Queen%27s_University_Belfast \"Queen's University Belfast\"). For two weeks, assisted by community volunteers, they explored several trenches and found some fascinating artefacts of life in the 17th and 18th centuries.{{cite web \\|date\\=20 May 2019 \\|title\\=No archaeological interest? \\|url\\=http://www.moirahistory.uk/archaeological\\-dig/ \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240525084852/http://www.moirahistory.uk/archaeological\\-dig/ \\|archive\\-date\\=2024\\-05\\-25 \\|access\\-date\\=1 June 2021 \\|website\\=History of Moira}}", "#### 1998 bombing", "Moira remained relatively uneventful for most of the 20th century, but did not escape [The Troubles](/wiki/The_Troubles \"The Troubles\"). On 20 February 1998 dissident republicans planted a {{convert\\|500\\|lb\\|kg}} [car bomb](/wiki/Car_bomb \"Car bomb\"), which exploded outside the police station, injuring 11 people. The bomb was intended to kill police officers during a shift change. The blast was so loud that it could be heard fully {{convert\\|20\\|mi\\|km\\|spell\\=in}} away in [Belfast](/wiki/Belfast \"Belfast\").{{Citation needed\\|date\\=May 2024}} The bomb caused extensive damage, resulting in the police station and several nearby buildings having to be rebuilt. The bombing also threatened to derail the [peace process](/wiki/Northern_Ireland_peace_process \"Northern Ireland peace process\") at the time.{{cite news \\|date\\=22 February 1998 \\|title\\=Sinn Féin asks to meet Blair \\|url\\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/58958\\.stm \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240525090004/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk\\_news/58958\\.stm \\|archive\\-date\\=2024\\-05\\-25 \\|work\\=BBC News}}", "#### 21st century", "The present village is primarily a [dormitory settlement](/wiki/Dormitory_settlement \"Dormitory settlement\") for commuters into Belfast, Lisburn, and Craigavon.", "On 4 January 2019, it was announced that Frances and Patrick Connolly, a local couple in Moira, had won £115 million in the [EuroMillions](/wiki/EuroMillions \"EuroMillions\") lottery, making them the UK's fourth\\-biggest lottery winners. The couple, who won precisely £114,969,775\\.70, told the *Belfast Telegraph*: \"This is a massive sum of money and we want it to have a huge impact on the lives of other people we know and love as well as on our future too. This win gives us the chance to really make a difference for our family and friends\".{{Cite news \\|date\\=4 January 2019 \\|title\\=Watch: Frances and Patrick Connolly from Moira revealed as £115m Euromillions lottery winners \\|url\\=https://www.belfasttelegraph.co.uk/news/northern\\-ireland/watch\\-frances\\-and\\-patrick\\-connolly\\-from\\-moira\\-revealed\\-as\\-115m\\-euromillions\\-lottery\\-winners/37680316\\.html \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240525084248/https://www.belfasttelegraph.co.uk/news/northern\\-ireland/watch\\-frances\\-and\\-patrick\\-connolly\\-from\\-moira\\-revealed\\-as\\-115m\\-euromillions\\-lottery\\-winners/37680316\\.html \\|archive\\-date\\=2024\\-05\\-25 \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-16 \\|work\\=\\[\\[Belfast Telegraph]] \\|language\\=en\\-GB \\|issn\\=0307\\-1235}}", "" ]
### Prehistory to 1800 {{Main\|Prehistoric Ireland\|Early Medieval Ireland 800–1166\|Early Christian Ireland\|Ireland 1536–1691}} Moira has been a settlement for at least 1,500 years. For the period it consisted most probably only of small dwellings surrounded by several earthen [ringforts](/wiki/Ringforts "Ringforts"). Evidence of three such forts still remain. The best known of these is the so\-called "Rough Fort", situated on the Old Kilmore Road. However, the remains of "Pretty Mary's Fort" exist behind the Waringfield residential area. Finally evidence of a third ringfort can be found near Claremont. In fact the supposed ring fort in Moira is actually a henge dating back thousands of years. see the book "Finding Footprints" by David McFarland.{{cite web \| title \= Here long before us \| url \= http://www.moirahistory.uk/here\-long\-before\-us/ \| date \= 9 May 2017 \| website \= History of Moira \| access\-date \= 1 June 2021}} The existence of these primitive defences, coupled with the good\-view afforded from the top of Moira hill, made the settlement strategically valuable. Proximity to [Lough Neagh](/wiki/Lough_Neagh "Lough Neagh") enhanced this value. Accordingly, during the repeated power struggles of the first millennium the area was often fought over, and eventually witnessed the largest battle in the history of Ireland when three tribal kings contested the area to determine supremacy in [Ulster](/wiki/Ulster "Ulster") and beyond. This was the [Battle of Moira](/wiki/Battle_of_Moira "Battle of Moira"). Its impact on Moira is still felt; two townlands still bear battle names, Aughnafosker (meaning field of slaughter) and Carnalbanagh (meaning the Scotsman's grave). After the battle a bishop by the name of Ronan Finn (who was later [canonized](/wiki/Canonization "Canonization")) was alleged to have created a monastery in the area. The medieval period itself remains shrouded in mystery. It is known that the town and its hinterland were under the control of the O'Lavery Clan for a considerable period. They were [Catholic](/wiki/Roman_catholicism "Roman catholicism") families who held sway in large parts of Armagh. Indeed, prior to the [Nine Years War](/wiki/Nine_Years_War_%28Ireland%29 "Nine Years War (Ireland)") Ulster was the most [gaelic](/wiki/Gaels "Gaels") part of Ireland.R. R. Madden, *The United Irishmen, Their Lives and Times* Vol 1, J. Madden \& Co (London 1845\), Pg. 2\-5\. There were few towns, few roads and much of the country was thickly wooded.Cyril Falls: *The Birth of Ulster*.London, Constable and Company Ltd. 1996\. Pages 11\-12\. P. Robinson *The Plantation of Ulster*. Belfast, Ulster Historical Foundation. 2000\. Page 28\. Dr. I. Adamson: *The Identity of Ulster*. Bangor, Pretani Press. Third Impression, 1995\. Page 11\. However the subjugation of Ulster by the victorious armies of [Elizabeth I](/wiki/Elizabeth_I "Elizabeth I") greatly reduced the clout of Gaelic hierarchs, the O'Laverys included. But it was their participation in the [Irish Rebellion of 1641](/wiki/Irish_Rebellion_of_1641 "Irish Rebellion of 1641") doomed their dominance. The [English](/wiki/Kingdom_of_England%23Tudors_and_Stuarts "Kingdom of England#Tudors and Stuarts") authorities crushed the rebellion and confiscated vast amounts of native Irish property, in Moira as in the rest of Ireland. As a direct result of this the [Protestant](/wiki/Protestantism "Protestantism") plantations of Ulster (which began in 1606\) were accelerated. #### Arrival of the Rawdon family [thumb\|Moira Castle, County Down in 1799 by [Gabriel Beranger](/wiki/Gabriel_Beranger "Gabriel Beranger").](/wiki/File:Moira_Castle%2C_County_Down.png "Moira Castle, County Down.png") In 1631 Major [George Rawdon](/wiki/George_Rawdon "George Rawdon"), a wealthy man from the village of [Rawdon](/wiki/Rawdon%2C_West_Yorkshire "Rawdon, West Yorkshire") in [Yorkshire](/wiki/Yorkshire "Yorkshire"), settled in Moira. During the [Irish Rebellion of 1641](/wiki/Irish_Rebellion_of_1641 "Irish Rebellion of 1641") he and 200 English soldiers helped defeat the army of Sir Phelim O'Neill and re\-secure Moira and its environs for [the Crown](/wiki/The_Crown "The Crown"). In 1651 an officer by the name of Major de Burgh purchased a small estate and built a brick house in Moira. This house, the forerunner of Moira Castle, was subsequently purchased by Rawdon. Following his actions in putting down rebellion Rawdon subsequently purchased vast amounts of land in the area (most probably financed by confiscations from the dead or subjugated Catholic rebels), and was said to have developed it greatly. In 1665 he was created a [baronet](/wiki/Baronet "Baronet") by [Charles II](/wiki/Charles_II_of_England "Charles II of England"). At some point in his life he became a [Member of Parliament](/wiki/Parliament_of_Ireland "Parliament of Ireland"). He was nicknamed the 'Great Highwayman' for his development of roads infrastructure in and around Moira. Sir George Rawdon was succeeded in his title by his son Sir Arthur Rawdon. #### Later Rawdon Baronets [Sir Arthur](/wiki/Arthur_Rawdon "Arthur Rawdon") (who would also become an Irish MP) became a General in the armies of [King William III](/wiki/William_III_of_England "William III of England") during the [Jacobite War in Ireland](/wiki/Jacobite_War_in_Ireland "Jacobite War in Ireland"). He was quickly besieged in [Derry](/wiki/Derry "Derry"), but managed to escape. After the war, with the [Protestant Ascendancy](/wiki/Protestant_Ascendancy "Protestant Ascendancy") of which he was a part yet again restored, Sir Arthur (who had presumably profited greatly from the war) returned to Moira. Having inherited the brick manor house his father had purchased he decided to expand it greatly, and it became one of the largest residences in the whole island, to be called Moira Castle. The castle, which in fact was a mansion, was also accompanied by vast gardens. These gardens became world\-famous. In 1690 Sir Arthur utilised his friendship with fellow Down\-born botanist [Sir Hans Sloane](/wiki/Sir_Hans_Sloane "Sir Hans Sloane"), and acquired from him the seeds of 400 exotic plants, and instructions in how to grow them. To fit his ends Sir Arthur also constructed in Moira the first [hothouse](/wiki/Greenhouse "Greenhouse") in Europe. The subsequent baronets maintained the gardens (though the hothouse did not survive) for generations. In 1723 Sir John Rawdon, 3rd Baronet helped fund the construction of the [Anglican](/wiki/Anglican "Anglican") Moira Parish Church, dedicated to St. John. #### The Lords Rawdon [thumb\|180px\|right\|*[Portrait of Lord Moira](/wiki/Portrait_of_Lord_Moira "Portrait of Lord Moira")* by [Sir Joshua Reynolds](/wiki/Sir_Joshua_Reynolds "Sir Joshua Reynolds"), 1790\.](/wiki/File:Sir_Joshua_Reynolds_%281723-92%29_-_Francis_Rawdon-Hastings_%281754-1826%29%2C_Second_Earl_of_Moira_and_First_Marquess_of_Hastings_-_RCIN_407508_-_Royal_Collection.jpg "Sir Joshua Reynolds (1723-92) - Francis Rawdon-Hastings (1754-1826), Second Earl of Moira and First Marquess of Hastings - RCIN 407508 - Royal Collection.jpg") In 1750 [Sir John Rawdon, 4th Baronet](/wiki/Sir_John_Rawdon%2C_4th_Baronet "Sir John Rawdon, 4th Baronet") was raised to the [peerage](/wiki/Peerage_of_Ireland "Peerage of Ireland") by [King George II](/wiki/George_II_of_Great_Britain "George II of Great Britain") as the Baron Rawdon of Moira. He subsequently flirted with [Methodism](/wiki/Methodism "Methodism"), and invited [John Wesley](/wiki/John_Wesley "John Wesley") to speak at Moira Church. This caused a major religious rift in the town. And though Wesley did speak, he did so from the grounds of Moira Castle, not the church for which the Rawdons had largely paid. He was also granted a higher title in 1762 by [King George III](/wiki/King_George_III "King George III"), when he was made Earl of Moira. In addition to flirting with Methodism Lord Rawdon also flirted with Irish self\-government (albeit under the Ascendancy), opposing the efforts of [William Pitt](/wiki/William_Pitt_the_Younger "William Pitt the Younger") to forge closer links with [Great Britain](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Great_Britain "Kingdom of Great Britain") in the first decade of his [Ministry](/wiki/First_Pitt_the_Younger_ministry "First Pitt the Younger ministry"). His death in 1793 was significant in Moira history, in that it marked the largest funeral in the history of Ireland (a record now held by the attendance at the funeral of Michael Collins), a testament to his extensive political connections. Over four hundred carriages were in procession. This Lord Rawdon is buried in the family crypt in the church. Upon his death his son [Francis Rawdon\-Hastings](/wiki/Francis_Rawdon-Hastings "Francis Rawdon-Hastings") became the Earl of Moira. A respected general and politician with significant influence in London, his time as head of the family was nevertheless negative for the town of Moira, which had risen greatly in prestige as a result of his predecessors. He neglected the gardens in the Moira estate, which subsequently declined into decay. He also spent the vast majority of his time in England.
[ "### Prehistory to 1800", "{{Main\\|Prehistoric Ireland\\|Early Medieval Ireland 800–1166\\|Early Christian Ireland\\|Ireland 1536–1691}}", "Moira has been a settlement for at least 1,500 years. For the period it consisted most probably only of small dwellings surrounded by several earthen [ringforts](/wiki/Ringforts \"Ringforts\"). Evidence of three such forts still remain. The best known of these is the so\\-called \"Rough Fort\", situated on the Old Kilmore Road. However, the remains of \"Pretty Mary's Fort\" exist behind the Waringfield residential area. Finally evidence of a third ringfort can be found near Claremont.", "In fact the supposed ring fort in Moira is actually a henge dating back thousands of years. see the book \"Finding Footprints\" by David McFarland.{{cite web \\| title \\= Here long before us \\| url \\= http://www.moirahistory.uk/here\\-long\\-before\\-us/ \\| date \\= 9 May 2017 \\| website \\= History of Moira \\| access\\-date \\= 1 June 2021}}", "The existence of these primitive defences, coupled with the good\\-view afforded from the top of Moira hill, made the settlement strategically valuable. Proximity to [Lough Neagh](/wiki/Lough_Neagh \"Lough Neagh\") enhanced this value. Accordingly, during the repeated power struggles of the first millennium the area was often fought over, and eventually witnessed the largest battle in the history of Ireland when three tribal kings contested the area to determine supremacy in [Ulster](/wiki/Ulster \"Ulster\") and beyond. This was the [Battle of Moira](/wiki/Battle_of_Moira \"Battle of Moira\"). Its impact on Moira is still felt; two townlands still bear battle names, Aughnafosker (meaning field of slaughter) and Carnalbanagh (meaning the Scotsman's grave). After the battle a bishop by the name of Ronan Finn (who was later [canonized](/wiki/Canonization \"Canonization\")) was alleged to have created a monastery in the area.", "The medieval period itself remains shrouded in mystery. It is known that the town and its hinterland were under the control of the O'Lavery Clan for a considerable period. They were [Catholic](/wiki/Roman_catholicism \"Roman catholicism\") families who held sway in large parts of Armagh. Indeed, prior to the [Nine Years War](/wiki/Nine_Years_War_%28Ireland%29 \"Nine Years War (Ireland)\") Ulster was the most [gaelic](/wiki/Gaels \"Gaels\") part of Ireland.R. R. Madden, *The United Irishmen, Their Lives and Times* Vol 1, J. Madden \\& Co (London 1845\\), Pg. 2\\-5\\. There were few towns, few roads and much of the country was thickly wooded.Cyril Falls: *The Birth of Ulster*.London, Constable and Company Ltd. 1996\\. Pages 11\\-12\\. P. Robinson *The Plantation of Ulster*. Belfast, Ulster Historical Foundation. 2000\\. Page 28\\. Dr. I. Adamson: *The Identity of Ulster*. Bangor, Pretani Press. Third Impression, 1995\\. Page 11\\. However the subjugation of Ulster by the victorious armies of [Elizabeth I](/wiki/Elizabeth_I \"Elizabeth I\") greatly reduced the clout of Gaelic hierarchs, the O'Laverys included. But it was their participation in the [Irish Rebellion of 1641](/wiki/Irish_Rebellion_of_1641 \"Irish Rebellion of 1641\") doomed their dominance. The [English](/wiki/Kingdom_of_England%23Tudors_and_Stuarts \"Kingdom of England#Tudors and Stuarts\") authorities crushed the rebellion and confiscated vast amounts of native Irish property, in Moira as in the rest of Ireland. As a direct result of this the [Protestant](/wiki/Protestantism \"Protestantism\") plantations of Ulster (which began in 1606\\) were accelerated.", "#### Arrival of the Rawdon family", "[thumb\\|Moira Castle, County Down in 1799 by [Gabriel Beranger](/wiki/Gabriel_Beranger \"Gabriel Beranger\").](/wiki/File:Moira_Castle%2C_County_Down.png \"Moira Castle, County Down.png\")\nIn 1631 Major [George Rawdon](/wiki/George_Rawdon \"George Rawdon\"), a wealthy man from the village of [Rawdon](/wiki/Rawdon%2C_West_Yorkshire \"Rawdon, West Yorkshire\") in [Yorkshire](/wiki/Yorkshire \"Yorkshire\"), settled in Moira. During the [Irish Rebellion of 1641](/wiki/Irish_Rebellion_of_1641 \"Irish Rebellion of 1641\") he and 200 English soldiers helped defeat the army of Sir Phelim O'Neill and re\\-secure Moira and its environs for [the Crown](/wiki/The_Crown \"The Crown\"). In 1651 an officer by the name of Major de Burgh purchased a small estate and built a brick house in Moira. This house, the forerunner of Moira Castle, was subsequently purchased by Rawdon. Following his actions in putting down rebellion Rawdon subsequently purchased vast amounts of land in the area (most probably financed by confiscations from the dead or subjugated Catholic rebels), and was said to have developed it greatly. In 1665 he was created a [baronet](/wiki/Baronet \"Baronet\") by [Charles II](/wiki/Charles_II_of_England \"Charles II of England\"). At some point in his life he became a [Member of Parliament](/wiki/Parliament_of_Ireland \"Parliament of Ireland\"). He was nicknamed the 'Great Highwayman' for his development of roads infrastructure in and around Moira. Sir George Rawdon was succeeded in his title by his son Sir Arthur Rawdon.", "#### Later Rawdon Baronets", "[Sir Arthur](/wiki/Arthur_Rawdon \"Arthur Rawdon\") (who would also become an Irish MP) became a General in the armies of [King William III](/wiki/William_III_of_England \"William III of England\") during the [Jacobite War in Ireland](/wiki/Jacobite_War_in_Ireland \"Jacobite War in Ireland\"). He was quickly besieged in [Derry](/wiki/Derry \"Derry\"), but managed to escape. After the war, with the [Protestant Ascendancy](/wiki/Protestant_Ascendancy \"Protestant Ascendancy\") of which he was a part yet again restored, Sir Arthur (who had presumably profited greatly from the war) returned to Moira. Having inherited the brick manor house his father had purchased he decided to expand it greatly, and it became one of the largest residences in the whole island, to be called Moira Castle. The castle, which in fact was a mansion, was also accompanied by vast gardens. These gardens became world\\-famous. In 1690 Sir Arthur utilised his friendship with fellow Down\\-born botanist [Sir Hans Sloane](/wiki/Sir_Hans_Sloane \"Sir Hans Sloane\"), and acquired from him the seeds of 400 exotic plants, and instructions in how to grow them. To fit his ends Sir Arthur also constructed in Moira the first [hothouse](/wiki/Greenhouse \"Greenhouse\") in Europe.", "The subsequent baronets maintained the gardens (though the hothouse did not survive) for generations. In 1723 Sir John Rawdon, 3rd Baronet helped fund the construction of the [Anglican](/wiki/Anglican \"Anglican\") Moira Parish Church, dedicated to St. John.", "#### The Lords Rawdon", "[thumb\\|180px\\|right\\|*[Portrait of Lord Moira](/wiki/Portrait_of_Lord_Moira \"Portrait of Lord Moira\")* by [Sir Joshua Reynolds](/wiki/Sir_Joshua_Reynolds \"Sir Joshua Reynolds\"), 1790\\.](/wiki/File:Sir_Joshua_Reynolds_%281723-92%29_-_Francis_Rawdon-Hastings_%281754-1826%29%2C_Second_Earl_of_Moira_and_First_Marquess_of_Hastings_-_RCIN_407508_-_Royal_Collection.jpg \"Sir Joshua Reynolds (1723-92) - Francis Rawdon-Hastings (1754-1826), Second Earl of Moira and First Marquess of Hastings - RCIN 407508 - Royal Collection.jpg\")\nIn 1750 [Sir John Rawdon, 4th Baronet](/wiki/Sir_John_Rawdon%2C_4th_Baronet \"Sir John Rawdon, 4th Baronet\") was raised to the [peerage](/wiki/Peerage_of_Ireland \"Peerage of Ireland\") by [King George II](/wiki/George_II_of_Great_Britain \"George II of Great Britain\") as the Baron Rawdon of Moira. He subsequently flirted with [Methodism](/wiki/Methodism \"Methodism\"), and invited [John Wesley](/wiki/John_Wesley \"John Wesley\") to speak at Moira Church. This caused a major religious rift in the town. And though Wesley did speak, he did so from the grounds of Moira Castle, not the church for which the Rawdons had largely paid. He was also granted a higher title in 1762 by [King George III](/wiki/King_George_III \"King George III\"), when he was made Earl of Moira.", "In addition to flirting with Methodism Lord Rawdon also flirted with Irish self\\-government (albeit under the Ascendancy), opposing the efforts of [William Pitt](/wiki/William_Pitt_the_Younger \"William Pitt the Younger\") to forge closer links with [Great Britain](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Great_Britain \"Kingdom of Great Britain\") in the first decade of his [Ministry](/wiki/First_Pitt_the_Younger_ministry \"First Pitt the Younger ministry\"). His death in 1793 was significant in Moira history, in that it marked the largest funeral in the history of Ireland (a record now held by the attendance at the funeral of Michael Collins), a testament to his extensive political connections. Over four hundred carriages were in procession. This Lord Rawdon is buried in the family crypt in the church.", "Upon his death his son [Francis Rawdon\\-Hastings](/wiki/Francis_Rawdon-Hastings \"Francis Rawdon-Hastings\") became the Earl of Moira. A respected general and politician with significant influence in London, his time as head of the family was nevertheless negative for the town of Moira, which had risen greatly in prestige as a result of his predecessors. He neglected the gardens in the Moira estate, which subsequently declined into decay. He also spent the vast majority of his time in England.", "" ]
### Moira 1800–present The 2nd Earl was raised to a yet\-higher rank of the peerage in 1816, when he was created [Marquess of Hastings](/wiki/Marquess_of_Hastings "Marquess of Hastings"), subordinating the Moira title. Lord Hastings was the last member of the Rawdon family to reside in Moira Castle (which he had always used as a secondary residence in any case). In 1805 he sold it to [Sir Robert Bateson, 1st Baronet](/wiki/Sir_Robert_Bateson%2C_1st_Baronet "Sir Robert Bateson, 1st Baronet"), who also did not use it as a primary residence. The status of Moira thus declined considerably. The Rawdons' legacy lingered, however, with several streets and housing developments bearing their name centuries later. The [Acts of Union](/wiki/Acts_of_Union_1800 "Acts of Union 1800") had reduced the power of the Ascendency, and Moira was now directly governed by [London](/wiki/London "London") instead of [Dublin](/wiki/Dublin "Dublin"). In addition, the [Great Reform Act](/wiki/Great_Reform_Act "Great Reform Act") had reduced the ability of landowners in general and lords in particular to control Moira. Moira itself continued to develop during this period. A canal was built to the north (which became the boundary between Counties Antrim and Down), and a Market Hall completed at the expense of the Bateson family in about 1810\.{{cite web \|title\=aerialold600\.jpg \|url\=http://www.moirahistory.uk/wp\-content/uploads/2017/03/aerialold600\.jpg \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230603073813/http://www.moirahistory.uk/wp\-content/uploads/2017/03/aerialold600\.jpg \|archive\-date\=2023\-06\-03 \|access\-date\=24 April 2018 \|website\=moirahistory.uk}} It was considered to have market the completion of the village. In 1841 [Moira railway station](/wiki/Moira_railway_station "Moira railway station") was completed, and is now the oldest such structure on the island of Ireland. Moira Castle itself was vacated by the Batesons, and was demolished during the [Victorian Era](/wiki/Victorian_era "Victorian era"). A few gate stumps remain, as does some stepping for the famous gardens, and the dug\-out cellar. [thumb\|left\|300px\|Entrance to Moira Demesne](/wiki/File:Moira_Demesne_2010.PNG "Moira Demesne 2010.PNG") During the [Second World War](/wiki/Second_World_War "Second World War") the grounds of Moira Demesne (as the Castle had become known) were used by the [British Army](/wiki/British_Army "British Army") as a medical centre. In the summer of 2018, a prolonged dry spell revealed what appeared to be foundations beneath the lawns of the demesne. In May 2019 the local council commissioned an archaeological dig by members from the Centre for Archaeological Fieldwork and Archaeology at [Queen's University Belfast](/wiki/Queen%27s_University_Belfast "Queen's University Belfast"). For two weeks, assisted by community volunteers, they explored several trenches and found some fascinating artefacts of life in the 17th and 18th centuries.{{cite web \|date\=20 May 2019 \|title\=No archaeological interest? \|url\=http://www.moirahistory.uk/archaeological\-dig/ \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240525084852/http://www.moirahistory.uk/archaeological\-dig/ \|archive\-date\=2024\-05\-25 \|access\-date\=1 June 2021 \|website\=History of Moira}} #### 1998 bombing Moira remained relatively uneventful for most of the 20th century, but did not escape [The Troubles](/wiki/The_Troubles "The Troubles"). On 20 February 1998 dissident republicans planted a {{convert\|500\|lb\|kg}} [car bomb](/wiki/Car_bomb "Car bomb"), which exploded outside the police station, injuring 11 people. The bomb was intended to kill police officers during a shift change. The blast was so loud that it could be heard fully {{convert\|20\|mi\|km\|spell\=in}} away in [Belfast](/wiki/Belfast "Belfast").{{Citation needed\|date\=May 2024}} The bomb caused extensive damage, resulting in the police station and several nearby buildings having to be rebuilt. The bombing also threatened to derail the [peace process](/wiki/Northern_Ireland_peace_process "Northern Ireland peace process") at the time.{{cite news \|date\=22 February 1998 \|title\=Sinn Féin asks to meet Blair \|url\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/58958\.stm \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240525090004/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk\_news/58958\.stm \|archive\-date\=2024\-05\-25 \|work\=BBC News}} #### 21st century The present village is primarily a [dormitory settlement](/wiki/Dormitory_settlement "Dormitory settlement") for commuters into Belfast, Lisburn, and Craigavon. On 4 January 2019, it was announced that Frances and Patrick Connolly, a local couple in Moira, had won £115 million in the [EuroMillions](/wiki/EuroMillions "EuroMillions") lottery, making them the UK's fourth\-biggest lottery winners. The couple, who won precisely £114,969,775\.70, told the *Belfast Telegraph*: "This is a massive sum of money and we want it to have a huge impact on the lives of other people we know and love as well as on our future too. This win gives us the chance to really make a difference for our family and friends".{{Cite news \|date\=4 January 2019 \|title\=Watch: Frances and Patrick Connolly from Moira revealed as £115m Euromillions lottery winners \|url\=https://www.belfasttelegraph.co.uk/news/northern\-ireland/watch\-frances\-and\-patrick\-connolly\-from\-moira\-revealed\-as\-115m\-euromillions\-lottery\-winners/37680316\.html \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240525084248/https://www.belfasttelegraph.co.uk/news/northern\-ireland/watch\-frances\-and\-patrick\-connolly\-from\-moira\-revealed\-as\-115m\-euromillions\-lottery\-winners/37680316\.html \|archive\-date\=2024\-05\-25 \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-16 \|work\=\[\[Belfast Telegraph]] \|language\=en\-GB \|issn\=0307\-1235}}
[ "### Moira 1800–present", "The 2nd Earl was raised to a yet\\-higher rank of the peerage in 1816, when he was created [Marquess of Hastings](/wiki/Marquess_of_Hastings \"Marquess of Hastings\"), subordinating the Moira title.", "Lord Hastings was the last member of the Rawdon family to reside in Moira Castle (which he had always used as a secondary residence in any case). In 1805 he sold it to [Sir Robert Bateson, 1st Baronet](/wiki/Sir_Robert_Bateson%2C_1st_Baronet \"Sir Robert Bateson, 1st Baronet\"), who also did not use it as a primary residence. The status of Moira thus declined considerably. The Rawdons' legacy lingered, however, with several streets and housing developments bearing their name centuries later.", "The [Acts of Union](/wiki/Acts_of_Union_1800 \"Acts of Union 1800\") had reduced the power of the Ascendency, and Moira was now directly governed by [London](/wiki/London \"London\") instead of [Dublin](/wiki/Dublin \"Dublin\"). In addition, the [Great Reform Act](/wiki/Great_Reform_Act \"Great Reform Act\") had reduced the ability of landowners in general and lords in particular to control Moira.", "Moira itself continued to develop during this period. A canal was built to the north (which became the boundary between Counties Antrim and Down), and a Market Hall completed at the expense of the Bateson family in about 1810\\.{{cite web \\|title\\=aerialold600\\.jpg \\|url\\=http://www.moirahistory.uk/wp\\-content/uploads/2017/03/aerialold600\\.jpg \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230603073813/http://www.moirahistory.uk/wp\\-content/uploads/2017/03/aerialold600\\.jpg \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-06\\-03 \\|access\\-date\\=24 April 2018 \\|website\\=moirahistory.uk}} It was considered to have market the completion of the village. In 1841 [Moira railway station](/wiki/Moira_railway_station \"Moira railway station\") was completed, and is now the oldest such structure on the island of Ireland. Moira Castle itself was vacated by the Batesons, and was demolished during the [Victorian Era](/wiki/Victorian_era \"Victorian era\"). A few gate stumps remain, as does some stepping for the famous gardens, and the dug\\-out cellar.", "[thumb\\|left\\|300px\\|Entrance to Moira Demesne](/wiki/File:Moira_Demesne_2010.PNG \"Moira Demesne 2010.PNG\") \nDuring the [Second World War](/wiki/Second_World_War \"Second World War\") the grounds of Moira Demesne (as the Castle had become known) were used by the [British Army](/wiki/British_Army \"British Army\") as a medical centre.", "In the summer of 2018, a prolonged dry spell revealed what appeared to be foundations beneath the lawns of the demesne. In May 2019 the local council commissioned an archaeological dig by members from the Centre for Archaeological Fieldwork and Archaeology at [Queen's University Belfast](/wiki/Queen%27s_University_Belfast \"Queen's University Belfast\"). For two weeks, assisted by community volunteers, they explored several trenches and found some fascinating artefacts of life in the 17th and 18th centuries.{{cite web \\|date\\=20 May 2019 \\|title\\=No archaeological interest? \\|url\\=http://www.moirahistory.uk/archaeological\\-dig/ \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240525084852/http://www.moirahistory.uk/archaeological\\-dig/ \\|archive\\-date\\=2024\\-05\\-25 \\|access\\-date\\=1 June 2021 \\|website\\=History of Moira}}", "#### 1998 bombing", "Moira remained relatively uneventful for most of the 20th century, but did not escape [The Troubles](/wiki/The_Troubles \"The Troubles\"). On 20 February 1998 dissident republicans planted a {{convert\\|500\\|lb\\|kg}} [car bomb](/wiki/Car_bomb \"Car bomb\"), which exploded outside the police station, injuring 11 people. The bomb was intended to kill police officers during a shift change. The blast was so loud that it could be heard fully {{convert\\|20\\|mi\\|km\\|spell\\=in}} away in [Belfast](/wiki/Belfast \"Belfast\").{{Citation needed\\|date\\=May 2024}} The bomb caused extensive damage, resulting in the police station and several nearby buildings having to be rebuilt. The bombing also threatened to derail the [peace process](/wiki/Northern_Ireland_peace_process \"Northern Ireland peace process\") at the time.{{cite news \\|date\\=22 February 1998 \\|title\\=Sinn Féin asks to meet Blair \\|url\\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/58958\\.stm \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240525090004/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk\\_news/58958\\.stm \\|archive\\-date\\=2024\\-05\\-25 \\|work\\=BBC News}}", "#### 21st century", "The present village is primarily a [dormitory settlement](/wiki/Dormitory_settlement \"Dormitory settlement\") for commuters into Belfast, Lisburn, and Craigavon.", "On 4 January 2019, it was announced that Frances and Patrick Connolly, a local couple in Moira, had won £115 million in the [EuroMillions](/wiki/EuroMillions \"EuroMillions\") lottery, making them the UK's fourth\\-biggest lottery winners. The couple, who won precisely £114,969,775\\.70, told the *Belfast Telegraph*: \"This is a massive sum of money and we want it to have a huge impact on the lives of other people we know and love as well as on our future too. This win gives us the chance to really make a difference for our family and friends\".{{Cite news \\|date\\=4 January 2019 \\|title\\=Watch: Frances and Patrick Connolly from Moira revealed as £115m Euromillions lottery winners \\|url\\=https://www.belfasttelegraph.co.uk/news/northern\\-ireland/watch\\-frances\\-and\\-patrick\\-connolly\\-from\\-moira\\-revealed\\-as\\-115m\\-euromillions\\-lottery\\-winners/37680316\\.html \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240525084248/https://www.belfasttelegraph.co.uk/news/northern\\-ireland/watch\\-frances\\-and\\-patrick\\-connolly\\-from\\-moira\\-revealed\\-as\\-115m\\-euromillions\\-lottery\\-winners/37680316\\.html \\|archive\\-date\\=2024\\-05\\-25 \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-16 \\|work\\=\\[\\[Belfast Telegraph]] \\|language\\=en\\-GB \\|issn\\=0307\\-1235}}", "" ]
Other Services and Activities ----------------------------- ### Commerce The village primarily exists as a commuter town, however, such jobs as there are tend to be in the services sector, with much replication. Moira is also famed for McCartney's of Moira, a 140\-year\-old family butchers. The firm has repeatedly won national awards for food, including the Northern Irish and National Sausage Competition.[http://www.mccartneysofmoira.com/awards/sausage\-awards/{{dead link\|date\=February 2018 \|bot\=InternetArchiveBot \|fix\-attempted\=yes }}](http://www.mccartneysofmoira.com/awards/sausage-awards/{{dead link|date=February 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}) In 2011 they also became Great Taste Awards 2011 Supreme Champion, among other accolades.{{cite web\|author\=Judith Millar\|title\=Home\|url\=http://www.mccartneysofmoira.com/\|work\=mccartneysofmoira.com}} Moira and specifically The Moira Drive Thru and Internet Cafe was also the filming location for Channel 4's award\-winning Facejacker comedy program which had over 3,000,000 viewers. ### Education Moira Primary School, reopened by [The Princess Royal](/wiki/Anne%2C_Princess_Royal "Anne, Princess Royal"), and Rowandale Integrated Primary School provide education for the first two key stages. Moira has no secondary education, with most children commuting into [Lurgan](/wiki/Lurgan "Lurgan"), Lisburn or Belfast to attend schools such as [Friends'](/wiki/Friends%27_School%2C_Lisburn "Friends' School, Lisburn"), [Wallace](/wiki/Wallace_High_School_%28Northern_Ireland%29 "Wallace High School (Northern Ireland)"), [RBAI](/wiki/Royal_Belfast_Academical_Institution "Royal Belfast Academical Institution"), [Hunterhouse](/wiki/Hunterhouse_College "Hunterhouse College"), [Lurgan Junior High School](/wiki/Lurgan_Junior_High_School "Lurgan Junior High School"), [St. Michael's Grammar School](/wiki/St._Michael%27s_Grammar_School "St. Michael's Grammar School"),(Lurgan), [Lismore Comprehensive School](/wiki/Lismore_Comprehensive_School "Lismore Comprehensive School"); [St. Patrick's Grammar School, Armagh](/wiki/St._Patrick%27s_Grammar_School%2C_Armagh "St. Patrick's Grammar School, Armagh"); [St Colman's College, Newry](/wiki/St_Colman%27s_College%2C_Newry "St Colman's College, Newry"); [St. Patrick's Academy, Lisburn](/wiki/St._Patrick%27s_Academy%2C_Lisburn "St. Patrick's Academy, Lisburn") and [Rathmore Grammar School](/wiki/Rathmore_Grammar_School "Rathmore Grammar School"). Since the closure of St. Colman's PS Kilwarlin, pupils now attend a range of local primary schools including St. Patrick's PS in [Magheralin](/wiki/Magheralin "Magheralin"). Moira's library has been rebuilt. ### Sport Moira has two junior football clubs: Moira FC that fields several young teams that play locally, and Moira Youth FC. Moira FC, which started in the Autumn of 2009, is linked to The LOGIC Cafe, which is part of St John's Parish Church in the village. Moira Youth FC prides itself on being a community club. The club are the reigning MUYL U12 Bowl champions and currently cater for players born in 2007 and 2008\. In 2019 Moira Youth FC affiliated with Premier Intermediate League club [Dollingstown FC](/wiki/Dollingstown_F.C. "Dollingstown F.C.") in order to develop local youth players with a view to them eventually playing senior football for Dollingstown FC and retaining local talent in the area. Moira Youth FC folded in 2021\. Moira has another (unrelated) football team, *Moira Albion*, an amateur football club who host two teams and play in the Mid Ulster League. The Moira area is represented in [Gaelic games](/wiki/Gaelic_games "Gaelic games") by the St. Michael's club in Magheralin as Moira falls within the Magheralin Parish. St. Michael's play in the Down County League and their most notable player to date is George Lavery, who came from Moira and won two senior all\-irelands with Down in 1960 and 1961\. George played soccer for Moira Young Men's club in the 1940s and 1950s, playing in the local league before being offered a contract by Belfast Celtic.
[ "Other Services and Activities\n-----------------------------", "### Commerce", "The village primarily exists as a commuter town, however, such jobs as there are tend to be in the services sector, with much replication. Moira is also famed for McCartney's of Moira, a 140\\-year\\-old family butchers. The firm has repeatedly won national awards for food, including the Northern Irish and National Sausage Competition.[http://www.mccartneysofmoira.com/awards/sausage\\-awards/{{dead link\\|date\\=February 2018 \\|bot\\=InternetArchiveBot \\|fix\\-attempted\\=yes }}](http://www.mccartneysofmoira.com/awards/sausage-awards/{{dead link|date=February 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}) In 2011 they also became Great Taste Awards 2011 Supreme Champion, among other accolades.{{cite web\\|author\\=Judith Millar\\|title\\=Home\\|url\\=http://www.mccartneysofmoira.com/\\|work\\=mccartneysofmoira.com}}", "Moira and specifically The Moira Drive Thru and Internet Cafe was also the filming location for Channel 4's award\\-winning Facejacker comedy program which had over 3,000,000 viewers.", "### Education", "Moira Primary School, reopened by [The Princess Royal](/wiki/Anne%2C_Princess_Royal \"Anne, Princess Royal\"), and Rowandale Integrated Primary School provide education for the first two key stages. Moira has no secondary education, with most children commuting into [Lurgan](/wiki/Lurgan \"Lurgan\"), Lisburn or Belfast to attend schools such as [Friends'](/wiki/Friends%27_School%2C_Lisburn \"Friends' School, Lisburn\"), [Wallace](/wiki/Wallace_High_School_%28Northern_Ireland%29 \"Wallace High School (Northern Ireland)\"), [RBAI](/wiki/Royal_Belfast_Academical_Institution \"Royal Belfast Academical Institution\"), [Hunterhouse](/wiki/Hunterhouse_College \"Hunterhouse College\"), [Lurgan Junior High School](/wiki/Lurgan_Junior_High_School \"Lurgan Junior High School\"), [St. Michael's Grammar School](/wiki/St._Michael%27s_Grammar_School \"St. Michael's Grammar School\"),(Lurgan), [Lismore Comprehensive School](/wiki/Lismore_Comprehensive_School \"Lismore Comprehensive School\"); [St. Patrick's Grammar School, Armagh](/wiki/St._Patrick%27s_Grammar_School%2C_Armagh \"St. Patrick's Grammar School, Armagh\"); [St Colman's College, Newry](/wiki/St_Colman%27s_College%2C_Newry \"St Colman's College, Newry\"); [St. Patrick's Academy, Lisburn](/wiki/St._Patrick%27s_Academy%2C_Lisburn \"St. Patrick's Academy, Lisburn\") and [Rathmore Grammar School](/wiki/Rathmore_Grammar_School \"Rathmore Grammar School\"). Since the closure of St. Colman's PS Kilwarlin, pupils now attend a range of local primary schools including St. Patrick's PS in [Magheralin](/wiki/Magheralin \"Magheralin\").", "Moira's library has been rebuilt.", "### Sport", "Moira has two junior football clubs: Moira FC that fields several young teams that play locally, and Moira Youth FC. Moira FC, which started in the Autumn of 2009, is linked to The LOGIC Cafe, which is part of St John's Parish Church in the village. Moira Youth FC prides itself on being a community club. The club are the reigning MUYL U12 Bowl champions and currently cater for players born in 2007 and 2008\\. In 2019 Moira Youth FC affiliated with Premier Intermediate League club [Dollingstown FC](/wiki/Dollingstown_F.C. \"Dollingstown F.C.\") in order to develop local youth players with a view to them eventually playing senior football for Dollingstown FC and retaining local talent in the area. Moira Youth FC folded in 2021\\.", "Moira has another (unrelated) football team, *Moira Albion*, an amateur football club who host two teams and play in the Mid Ulster League.", "The Moira area is represented in [Gaelic games](/wiki/Gaelic_games \"Gaelic games\") by the St. Michael's club in Magheralin as Moira falls within the Magheralin Parish. St. Michael's play in the Down County League and their most notable player to date is George Lavery, who came from Moira and won two senior all\\-irelands with Down in 1960 and 1961\\. George played soccer for Moira Young Men's club in the 1940s and 1950s, playing in the local league before being offered a contract by Belfast Celtic.", "" ]
Appearances ----------- ### Knight Grand Companion It is awarded in a set of breast star, a collar, a badge and a yellow coloured sash with two red stripes, worn from right shoulder to the left waist. The collar is made of gold\-plated silver. It is 132 cm long and worn on the same length at the front and back. This necklace has 14 connecting chain links. The two middle chains contain compositions of two crossed Selangor flags. Six of the remaining chain links are round and the other six are [nonagon](/wiki/Nonagon "Nonagon") in shape, and are arranged alternately. The round shaped links contain the word "Sultan Idris Shah" while the rest contain "Selangor Darul Ehsan" phrase. They are written in [Islamic calligraphy](/wiki/Islamic_calligraphy "Islamic calligraphy"). Each of these compositions are made of enamel. The breast star is made of gold\-plated silver, its surface length is 9 cm long and has nine fractions. In the center of this star is the word "Sultan Idris Shah Selangor", written both in [rumi](/wiki/Rumi_script "Rumi script") and [khat](/wiki/Islamic_calligraphy "Islamic calligraphy"), with red enamel as its base. The badge has the same design as the breast star. Its surface length is 6 cm long. The center part of the badge is oval in shape, 2\.07 cm wide and 3\.05 cm high. It has engraving of the word "Sultan Idris Shah Selangor" in rumi on red enamel background. At the top part of the badge, there is a decoration in the form of the Sultan's crown which is 2\.2 cm in height. This badge is made to be suspended on the collar or sash. The sash is made of yellow silk cloth 11\.7 cm in width for male, 7\.7 cm for female, with two 0\.2 cm wide red stripes on each sides. ### Knight Companion It is awarded in a set of breast star, a badge and a red coloured sash with two yellow stripes, worn from right shoulder to the left waist. The shape of the breast star is the same as the Knight Grand Companion's. The center of the star contains the royal symbol. The symbol is shown on emerald green background, replacing the engraved script in red enamel background in the former. The badge is also of the same size and shape as Knight Grand Companion's but with emerald green enamel background. The sash is made of red silk cloth 11\.7 cm in width for male, 7\.7 cm for female, with two 0\.3 cm wide yellow stripes on each sides.
[ "Appearances\n-----------", "### Knight Grand Companion", "It is awarded in a set of breast star, a collar, a badge and a yellow coloured sash with two red stripes, worn from right shoulder to the left waist.", "The collar is made of gold\\-plated silver. It is 132 cm long and worn on the same length at the front and back. This necklace has 14 connecting chain links. The two middle chains contain compositions of two crossed Selangor flags. Six of the remaining chain links are round and the other six are [nonagon](/wiki/Nonagon \"Nonagon\") in shape, and are arranged alternately. The round shaped links contain the word \"Sultan Idris Shah\" while the rest contain \"Selangor Darul Ehsan\" phrase. They are written in [Islamic calligraphy](/wiki/Islamic_calligraphy \"Islamic calligraphy\"). Each of these compositions are made of enamel.", "The breast star is made of gold\\-plated silver, its surface length is 9 cm long and has nine fractions. In the center of this star is the word \"Sultan Idris Shah Selangor\", written both in [rumi](/wiki/Rumi_script \"Rumi script\") and [khat](/wiki/Islamic_calligraphy \"Islamic calligraphy\"), with red enamel as its base.", "The badge has the same design as the breast star. Its surface length is 6 cm long. The center part of the badge is oval in shape, 2\\.07 cm wide and 3\\.05 cm high. It has engraving of the word \"Sultan Idris Shah Selangor\" in rumi on red enamel background. At the top part of the badge, there is a decoration in the form of the Sultan's crown which is 2\\.2 cm in height. This badge is made to be suspended on the collar or sash.", "The sash is made of yellow silk cloth 11\\.7 cm in width for male, 7\\.7 cm for female, with two 0\\.2 cm wide red stripes on each sides.", "### Knight Companion", "It is awarded in a set of breast star, a badge and a red coloured sash with two yellow stripes, worn from right shoulder to the left waist.", "The shape of the breast star is the same as the Knight Grand Companion's. The center of the star contains the royal symbol. The symbol is shown on emerald green background, replacing the engraved script in red enamel background in the former. The badge is also of the same size and shape as Knight Grand Companion's but with emerald green enamel background.", "The sash is made of red silk cloth 11\\.7 cm in width for male, 7\\.7 cm for female, with two 0\\.3 cm wide yellow stripes on each sides.", "" ]
### Knight Grand Companion It is awarded in a set of breast star, a collar, a badge and a yellow coloured sash with two red stripes, worn from right shoulder to the left waist. The collar is made of gold\-plated silver. It is 132 cm long and worn on the same length at the front and back. This necklace has 14 connecting chain links. The two middle chains contain compositions of two crossed Selangor flags. Six of the remaining chain links are round and the other six are [nonagon](/wiki/Nonagon "Nonagon") in shape, and are arranged alternately. The round shaped links contain the word "Sultan Idris Shah" while the rest contain "Selangor Darul Ehsan" phrase. They are written in [Islamic calligraphy](/wiki/Islamic_calligraphy "Islamic calligraphy"). Each of these compositions are made of enamel. The breast star is made of gold\-plated silver, its surface length is 9 cm long and has nine fractions. In the center of this star is the word "Sultan Idris Shah Selangor", written both in [rumi](/wiki/Rumi_script "Rumi script") and [khat](/wiki/Islamic_calligraphy "Islamic calligraphy"), with red enamel as its base. The badge has the same design as the breast star. Its surface length is 6 cm long. The center part of the badge is oval in shape, 2\.07 cm wide and 3\.05 cm high. It has engraving of the word "Sultan Idris Shah Selangor" in rumi on red enamel background. At the top part of the badge, there is a decoration in the form of the Sultan's crown which is 2\.2 cm in height. This badge is made to be suspended on the collar or sash. The sash is made of yellow silk cloth 11\.7 cm in width for male, 7\.7 cm for female, with two 0\.2 cm wide red stripes on each sides.
[ "### Knight Grand Companion", "It is awarded in a set of breast star, a collar, a badge and a yellow coloured sash with two red stripes, worn from right shoulder to the left waist.", "The collar is made of gold\\-plated silver. It is 132 cm long and worn on the same length at the front and back. This necklace has 14 connecting chain links. The two middle chains contain compositions of two crossed Selangor flags. Six of the remaining chain links are round and the other six are [nonagon](/wiki/Nonagon \"Nonagon\") in shape, and are arranged alternately. The round shaped links contain the word \"Sultan Idris Shah\" while the rest contain \"Selangor Darul Ehsan\" phrase. They are written in [Islamic calligraphy](/wiki/Islamic_calligraphy \"Islamic calligraphy\"). Each of these compositions are made of enamel.", "The breast star is made of gold\\-plated silver, its surface length is 9 cm long and has nine fractions. In the center of this star is the word \"Sultan Idris Shah Selangor\", written both in [rumi](/wiki/Rumi_script \"Rumi script\") and [khat](/wiki/Islamic_calligraphy \"Islamic calligraphy\"), with red enamel as its base.", "The badge has the same design as the breast star. Its surface length is 6 cm long. The center part of the badge is oval in shape, 2\\.07 cm wide and 3\\.05 cm high. It has engraving of the word \"Sultan Idris Shah Selangor\" in rumi on red enamel background. At the top part of the badge, there is a decoration in the form of the Sultan's crown which is 2\\.2 cm in height. This badge is made to be suspended on the collar or sash.", "The sash is made of yellow silk cloth 11\\.7 cm in width for male, 7\\.7 cm for female, with two 0\\.2 cm wide red stripes on each sides.", "" ]
Tradition --------- [thumb\|243x243px\|Image of Buddha inside a room of the [Lalitagiri](/wiki/Lalitgiri "Lalitgiri") monastery, [Jajpur](/wiki/Jajpur_district "Jajpur district")](/wiki/File:Lalitgiri_-_Odisha_-_002.jpg "Lalitgiri - Odisha - 002.jpg") ### Charyapada and Buddhist Music For a long period [Buddhism](/wiki/Buddhism "Buddhism") was the major religion of Odisha. The [Vajrayana](/wiki/Vajrayana "Vajrayana") and [Sahajayana](/wiki/Sahaja "Sahaja") branches of Buddhism were particularly influential, and scholars opine that Odisha or Oddiyana was the birth place of Vajrayana itself. Between the seventh and eleventh centuries, the *[Charya Gitika](/wiki/Charyapada "Charyapada")* of Buddhist [Mahasiddhas](/wiki/Mahasiddha "Mahasiddha") or Siddhacharyas were written and composed. Many of the Mahasiddhas were born in Odisha and wrote in a language that is extremely close to present\-day Odia. Some of these songs were ritually sung on the ratha of Jagannatha during the [Ratha Jatra](/wiki/Ratha_Yatra "Ratha Yatra"). The Charyapadas or Charya songs usually consist of five or six *pada*s. The last *pada* bears the name of the poet. The *raga*s to sing them have been indicated by the authors themselves, but no mention of *tala* is found. The ragas used by the Mahasiddhas continued to be popular in Odissi music for centuries afterwards, and remain important to this day. Many of the raga names as written bear significant resemblance with the raga nomenclature of Odisha \& the pronunciations of raga names in the Odissi tradition, such as the mention of *Baradi* and not *Varali*. Some of the ragas mentioned in the Charyapadas are : | \+ | Raga name as mentioned in the Charyapadas | Present\-day raga name in Odissi music | | --- | --- | --- | | Aru | | | Bangāla | Bangāla | | Barādī | Barādī | | Bhairabī | Bhairabī | | Debakrī | Debakirī | | Deśākha | Deśākhya | | Dhanāśrī | Dhanāśrī | | Gabadā | Gaudā | | Gunjarī | Gujjarī | | Kāhnu Gunjarī | | | Kāmoda | Kāmoda | | Mallārī | | | Mālasī | Mālaśrī | | Mālasī Gabudā | Mālaśrī Gaudā | | Rāmakrī | Rāmakerī | | Śābarī | Śābarī | ### Jayadeva and Gita Govinda [thumb\|379x379px\|Palm leaf manuscript (*pothi*) of [Gita Govinda](/wiki/Gita_Govinda "Gita Govinda") written by iconic medieval Odissi poet [Gopalakrusna Pattanayaka](/wiki/Gopalakrusna_Pattanayaka "Gopalakrusna Pattanayaka") of [Paralakhemundi](/wiki/Paralakhemundi "Paralakhemundi")](/wiki/File:Odissi_poet_Gopalakrusna%27s_handwritten_Gitagobinda_Pothi.jpg "Odissi poet Gopalakrusna's handwritten Gitagobinda Pothi.jpg") The *[Gitagovinda](/wiki/Gita_Govinda "Gita Govinda")* written by 12th\-century poet [Jayadeva](/wiki/Jayadeva "Jayadeva") is known to be one of the earliest, if not the earliest Indian song where the author has indicated with precision the exact *raga* and *tala* (mode of singing and the rhythm) of each song. This makes it one of the earliest texts of Indian classical music. Many of the ragas indicated in the Gitagovinda continue to be highly popular in Odissi music even now, and some of the talas mentioned in it are exclusive to the tradition of Odissi music. These indications have been compiled below according to the *ashtapadi* number, based on the important ancient copies of the Gita Govinda and its commentaries such as *Sarvangasundari Tika* of Narayana Dasa (14th century), Dharanidhara's Tika (16th century), Jagannatha Mishra's Tika (16th century), *Rasikapriya* of Rana Kumbha (16th century) and *Arthagobinda* of Bajuri Dasa (17th century).{{Cite book\|last\=Panda\|first\=Gopal Chandra\|title\=Sri Gita Gobinda Swara Lipi\|publisher\=Smt. Bhagabati Panda\|year\=1995\|location\=Bhubaneswar\|language\=or\|trans\-title\=Notated music of the Gita Govinda\|author\-link\=Gopal Chandra Panda}} 1. Mālava, Mālavagauḍa or Mālavagauḍā 2. Maṅgala Gujjarī or Gurjarī 3. Basanta 4. Rāmakirī or Rāmakerī 5. Gujjarī or Gurjarī 6. Guṇḍakirī or Guṇḍakerī or Mālavagauḍa 7. Gujjarī or Gurjarī 8. Karṇṇāṭa 9. Deśākhya or Deśākṣa 10. Deśī Barāḍi or Deśa Barāḍi or Pañchama Barāḍi 11. Gujjarī or Gurjarī 12. Guṇḍakirī or Guṇḍakerī 13. Mālava or Mālavagauḍā 14. Basanta 15. Gujjarī or Gurjarī 16. Barāḍi or Deśa Barāḍi or Deśī Barāḍi 17. Bhairabī 18. Gujjarī or Gurjarī or Rāmakerī 19. Deśī or Deśa Barāḍi 20. Basanta 21. Barāḍi or Deśa Barāḍi 22. Barāḍi 23. Rāmakirī or Rāmakerī or Bibhāsa 24. Rāmakirī or Rāmakerī Most of the ragas and talas indicated by Jayadeva, with the exception of one or two, continue to be in practice in the tradition of Odissi music. The poet Jayadeva is known to have started the Mahari or Devadasi tradition at the [Jagannatha temple](/wiki/Jagannath_Temple%2C_Puri "Jagannath Temple, Puri") of Puri, where every night the *Gitagovinda* is ritually sung \& enacted in front of Jagannatha, continuing to this day. In the *Jayabijaya Dwara* inscription of [Prataparudra Deba](/wiki/Prataparudra_Deva "Prataparudra Deva"), the singing of Gitagovinda and adherence to the traditional Odissi ragas indicated by the poet has been referred to as mandatory. The Maharis were also banned from learning any other songs except the Gitagovinda ; this was considered an 'act of defiance towards Jagannatha'. Pt. [Raghunath Panigrahi](/wiki/Raghunath_Panigrahi "Raghunath Panigrahi") is known for his contributions in popularising the Gitagovinda through Odissi music \& [Odissi dance](/wiki/Odissi "Odissi") across the globe. Scholar\-musicians such as Guru [Gopal Chandra Panda](/wiki/Gopal_Chandra_Panda "Gopal Chandra Panda") have also attempted to reconstruct melodies of the *ashtapadi*s of the Gita Govinda in adherence to the poet's original indications, and based on extant traditional rhythmic \& melodic patterns in Odissi music. #### Gopala Nayaka During the reign of [Alauddin Khilji](/wiki/Alauddin_Khalji "Alauddin Khalji"), Gopala Nayaka had an important role of popularising old Indian music. Some scholars from Odisha in the first part of the 20th century have written about local legend that states Gopala Nayaka was from Odisha.{{Cite book\|last\=Samanta\|first\=Basudeba\|title\=Sangita Kalakara\|publisher\=Srinibasa Rajamani\|year\=1927\|location\=Manjusa}} After the reign of Mukunda Deba in the 16th century, Odissi music suffered during the Maratha rule in Odisha during the 17th and 18th century AD. ### British rule {{multiple image \| align \= right \| image1 \= \| width1 \= \| alt1 \= \| caption1 \= ''Desaraja Maudamani Adiguru'' Singhari Shyamasundar Kar. Born in a sebāyata family of the Jagannatha temple of Puri, he is widely considered as one of the greatest Gurus of Odissi music in the twentieth century. \| image2 \= \| width2 \= \| alt2 \= \| caption2 \= ''Banikantha'' Nimai Charan Harichandan, iconic Odissi musician of the 20th century and pioneer of recording traditional Odissi music on gramophone records. \| footer \= \| direction \= \| total\_width \= 400 }} During the 18th and 19th centuries, Odissi music was chiefly patronised by local kings of princely states of Odisha. This included the [Gajapati](/wiki/Gajapati_Kingdom "Gajapati Kingdom") of [Puri](/wiki/Puri "Puri") as well as the rulers of the kingdoms of [Paralakhemundi](/wiki/Paralakhemundi "Paralakhemundi"), [Mayurbhanj](/wiki/Mayurbhanj_State "Mayurbhanj State"), [Ghumusara](/wiki/Ghumusar_Gangapur "Ghumusar Gangapur"), [Athagada](/wiki/Athagarh "Athagarh"), [Athagada Patana](/wiki/Athagada_Patna "Athagada Patna"), [Digapahandi](/wiki/Digapahandi "Digapahandi") (Badakhemundi), [Khallikote](/wiki/Khallikote "Khallikote"), [Sanakhemundi](/wiki/Sanakhemundi "Sanakhemundi"), [Chikiti](/wiki/Chikiti "Chikiti"), Surangi, [Jeypore](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Jeypore "Kingdom of Jeypore"), [Ali](/wiki/Aul%2C_Odisha "Aul, Odisha"), [Kanika](/wiki/Rajkanika "Rajkanika"), [Dhenkanal](/wiki/Dhenkanal_%28State%29 "Dhenkanal (State)"), [Banapur](/wiki/Banapur "Banapur"), [Sonepur](/wiki/Sonepur_State "Sonepur State"), [Baramba](/wiki/Baramba_State "Baramba State"), [Nilgiri](/wiki/Nilgiri_State "Nilgiri State"), [Nayagarh](/wiki/Nayagarh_State "Nayagarh State"), [Tigiria](/wiki/Tigiria_State "Tigiria State"), [Baudh](/wiki/Baudh_State "Baudh State"), [Daspalla](/wiki/Daspalla_State "Daspalla State"), [Bamanda](/wiki/Bamra_State "Bamra State") (Bamra), [Narasinghapur](/wiki/Narsinghpur_State "Narsinghpur State"), [Athamallik](/wiki/Athmallik "Athmallik") as well as places with a significant Odia population and cultural history such as Tarala (Tharlakota), Jalantara (Jalantrakota), [Manjusa](/wiki/Mandasa "Mandasa") (Mandasa), [Tikili](/wiki/Tekkali "Tekkali") (Tekkali) and [Sadheikala](/wiki/Saraikela "Saraikela") (Seraikela). Rulers often patronised poet\-composers and skilled musicians, vocalists and instrumentalists. Musicians were appointed in royal courts and honoured with land or other rewards. Many kings were themselves skilled musicians and poets, such as Gajapati [Kapilendra Deba](/wiki/Kapilendra_Deva "Kapilendra Deva") of Puri or [Biswambhara Rajendradeba](/wiki/Biswambhara_Rajendradeba "Biswambhara Rajendradeba") of Chikiti.
[ "Tradition\n---------", "[thumb\\|243x243px\\|Image of Buddha inside a room of the [Lalitagiri](/wiki/Lalitgiri \"Lalitgiri\") monastery, [Jajpur](/wiki/Jajpur_district \"Jajpur district\")](/wiki/File:Lalitgiri_-_Odisha_-_002.jpg \"Lalitgiri - Odisha - 002.jpg\")", "### Charyapada and Buddhist Music", "For a long period [Buddhism](/wiki/Buddhism \"Buddhism\") was the major religion of Odisha. The [Vajrayana](/wiki/Vajrayana \"Vajrayana\") and [Sahajayana](/wiki/Sahaja \"Sahaja\") branches of Buddhism were particularly influential, and scholars opine that Odisha or Oddiyana was the birth place of Vajrayana itself. Between the seventh and eleventh centuries, the *[Charya Gitika](/wiki/Charyapada \"Charyapada\")* of Buddhist [Mahasiddhas](/wiki/Mahasiddha \"Mahasiddha\") or Siddhacharyas were written and composed. Many of the Mahasiddhas were born in Odisha and wrote in a language that is extremely close to present\\-day Odia. Some of these songs were ritually sung on the ratha of Jagannatha during the [Ratha Jatra](/wiki/Ratha_Yatra \"Ratha Yatra\").", "The Charyapadas or Charya songs usually consist of five or six *pada*s. The last *pada* bears the name of the poet. The *raga*s to sing them have been indicated by the authors themselves, but no mention of *tala* is found. The ragas used by the Mahasiddhas continued to be popular in Odissi music for centuries afterwards, and remain important to this day. Many of the raga names as written bear significant resemblance with the raga nomenclature of Odisha \\& the pronunciations of raga names in the Odissi tradition, such as the mention of *Baradi* and not *Varali*. Some of the ragas mentioned in the Charyapadas are :", "| \\+ | Raga name as mentioned in the Charyapadas | Present\\-day raga name in Odissi music |\n| --- | --- | --- |\n| Aru | |\n| Bangāla | Bangāla |\n| Barādī | Barādī |\n| Bhairabī | Bhairabī |\n| Debakrī | Debakirī |\n| Deśākha | Deśākhya |\n| Dhanāśrī | Dhanāśrī |\n| Gabadā | Gaudā |\n| Gunjarī | Gujjarī |\n| Kāhnu Gunjarī | |\n| Kāmoda | Kāmoda |\n| Mallārī | |\n| Mālasī | Mālaśrī |\n| Mālasī Gabudā | Mālaśrī Gaudā |\n| Rāmakrī | Rāmakerī |\n| Śābarī | Śābarī |", "", "### Jayadeva and Gita Govinda", "[thumb\\|379x379px\\|Palm leaf manuscript (*pothi*) of [Gita Govinda](/wiki/Gita_Govinda \"Gita Govinda\") written by iconic medieval Odissi poet [Gopalakrusna Pattanayaka](/wiki/Gopalakrusna_Pattanayaka \"Gopalakrusna Pattanayaka\") of [Paralakhemundi](/wiki/Paralakhemundi \"Paralakhemundi\")](/wiki/File:Odissi_poet_Gopalakrusna%27s_handwritten_Gitagobinda_Pothi.jpg \"Odissi poet Gopalakrusna's handwritten Gitagobinda Pothi.jpg\")\nThe *[Gitagovinda](/wiki/Gita_Govinda \"Gita Govinda\")* written by 12th\\-century poet [Jayadeva](/wiki/Jayadeva \"Jayadeva\") is known to be one of the earliest, if not the earliest Indian song where the author has indicated with precision the exact *raga* and *tala* (mode of singing and the rhythm) of each song. This makes it one of the earliest texts of Indian classical music. Many of the ragas indicated in the Gitagovinda continue to be highly popular in Odissi music even now, and some of the talas mentioned in it are exclusive to the tradition of Odissi music.", "These indications have been compiled below according to the *ashtapadi* number, based on the important ancient copies of the Gita Govinda and its commentaries such as *Sarvangasundari Tika* of Narayana Dasa (14th century), Dharanidhara's Tika (16th century), Jagannatha Mishra's Tika (16th century), *Rasikapriya* of Rana Kumbha (16th century) and *Arthagobinda* of Bajuri Dasa (17th century).{{Cite book\\|last\\=Panda\\|first\\=Gopal Chandra\\|title\\=Sri Gita Gobinda Swara Lipi\\|publisher\\=Smt. Bhagabati Panda\\|year\\=1995\\|location\\=Bhubaneswar\\|language\\=or\\|trans\\-title\\=Notated music of the Gita Govinda\\|author\\-link\\=Gopal Chandra Panda}}", "1. Mālava, Mālavagauḍa or Mālavagauḍā\n2. Maṅgala Gujjarī or Gurjarī\n3. Basanta\n4. Rāmakirī or Rāmakerī\n5. Gujjarī or Gurjarī\n6. Guṇḍakirī or Guṇḍakerī or Mālavagauḍa\n7. Gujjarī or Gurjarī\n8. Karṇṇāṭa\n9. Deśākhya or Deśākṣa\n10. Deśī Barāḍi or Deśa Barāḍi or Pañchama Barāḍi\n11. Gujjarī or Gurjarī\n12. Guṇḍakirī or Guṇḍakerī\n13. Mālava or Mālavagauḍā\n14. Basanta\n15. Gujjarī or Gurjarī\n16. Barāḍi or Deśa Barāḍi or Deśī Barāḍi\n17. Bhairabī\n18. Gujjarī or Gurjarī or Rāmakerī\n19. Deśī or Deśa Barāḍi\n20. Basanta\n21. Barāḍi or Deśa Barāḍi\n22. Barāḍi\n23. Rāmakirī or Rāmakerī or Bibhāsa\n24. Rāmakirī or Rāmakerī", "Most of the ragas and talas indicated by Jayadeva, with the exception of one or two, continue to be in practice in the tradition of Odissi music.", "The poet Jayadeva is known to have started the Mahari or Devadasi tradition at the [Jagannatha temple](/wiki/Jagannath_Temple%2C_Puri \"Jagannath Temple, Puri\") of Puri, where every night the *Gitagovinda* is ritually sung \\& enacted in front of Jagannatha, continuing to this day. In the *Jayabijaya Dwara* inscription of [Prataparudra Deba](/wiki/Prataparudra_Deva \"Prataparudra Deva\"), the singing of Gitagovinda and adherence to the traditional Odissi ragas indicated by the poet has been referred to as mandatory. The Maharis were also banned from learning any other songs except the Gitagovinda ; this was considered an 'act of defiance towards Jagannatha'.", "Pt. [Raghunath Panigrahi](/wiki/Raghunath_Panigrahi \"Raghunath Panigrahi\") is known for his contributions in popularising the Gitagovinda through Odissi music \\& [Odissi dance](/wiki/Odissi \"Odissi\") across the globe. Scholar\\-musicians such as Guru [Gopal Chandra Panda](/wiki/Gopal_Chandra_Panda \"Gopal Chandra Panda\") have also attempted to reconstruct melodies of the *ashtapadi*s of the Gita Govinda in adherence to the poet's original indications, and based on extant traditional rhythmic \\& melodic patterns in Odissi music.", "#### Gopala Nayaka", "During the reign of [Alauddin Khilji](/wiki/Alauddin_Khalji \"Alauddin Khalji\"), Gopala Nayaka had an important role of popularising old Indian music. Some scholars from Odisha in the first part of the 20th century have written about local legend that states Gopala Nayaka was from Odisha.{{Cite book\\|last\\=Samanta\\|first\\=Basudeba\\|title\\=Sangita Kalakara\\|publisher\\=Srinibasa Rajamani\\|year\\=1927\\|location\\=Manjusa}}", "After the reign of Mukunda Deba in the 16th century, Odissi music suffered during the Maratha rule in Odisha during the 17th and 18th century AD.", "### British rule", "{{multiple image\n\\| align \\= right\n\\| image1 \\= \n\\| width1 \\= \n\\| alt1 \\= \n\\| caption1 \\= ''Desaraja Maudamani Adiguru'' Singhari Shyamasundar Kar. Born in a sebāyata family of the Jagannatha temple of Puri, he is widely considered as one of the greatest Gurus of Odissi music in the twentieth century.\n\\| image2 \\= \n\\| width2 \\= \n\\| alt2 \\= \n\\| caption2 \\= ''Banikantha'' Nimai Charan Harichandan, iconic Odissi musician of the 20th century and pioneer of recording traditional Odissi music on gramophone records.\n\\| footer \\= \n\\| direction \\= \n\\| total\\_width \\= 400\n}}", "During the 18th and 19th centuries, Odissi music was chiefly patronised by local kings of princely states of Odisha. This included the [Gajapati](/wiki/Gajapati_Kingdom \"Gajapati Kingdom\") of [Puri](/wiki/Puri \"Puri\") as well as the rulers of the kingdoms of [Paralakhemundi](/wiki/Paralakhemundi \"Paralakhemundi\"), [Mayurbhanj](/wiki/Mayurbhanj_State \"Mayurbhanj State\"), [Ghumusara](/wiki/Ghumusar_Gangapur \"Ghumusar Gangapur\"), [Athagada](/wiki/Athagarh \"Athagarh\"), [Athagada Patana](/wiki/Athagada_Patna \"Athagada Patna\"), [Digapahandi](/wiki/Digapahandi \"Digapahandi\") (Badakhemundi), [Khallikote](/wiki/Khallikote \"Khallikote\"), [Sanakhemundi](/wiki/Sanakhemundi \"Sanakhemundi\"), [Chikiti](/wiki/Chikiti \"Chikiti\"), Surangi, [Jeypore](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Jeypore \"Kingdom of Jeypore\"), [Ali](/wiki/Aul%2C_Odisha \"Aul, Odisha\"), [Kanika](/wiki/Rajkanika \"Rajkanika\"), [Dhenkanal](/wiki/Dhenkanal_%28State%29 \"Dhenkanal (State)\"), [Banapur](/wiki/Banapur \"Banapur\"), [Sonepur](/wiki/Sonepur_State \"Sonepur State\"), [Baramba](/wiki/Baramba_State \"Baramba State\"), [Nilgiri](/wiki/Nilgiri_State \"Nilgiri State\"), [Nayagarh](/wiki/Nayagarh_State \"Nayagarh State\"), [Tigiria](/wiki/Tigiria_State \"Tigiria State\"), [Baudh](/wiki/Baudh_State \"Baudh State\"), [Daspalla](/wiki/Daspalla_State \"Daspalla State\"), [Bamanda](/wiki/Bamra_State \"Bamra State\") (Bamra), [Narasinghapur](/wiki/Narsinghpur_State \"Narsinghpur State\"), [Athamallik](/wiki/Athmallik \"Athmallik\") as well as places with a significant Odia population and cultural history such as Tarala (Tharlakota), Jalantara (Jalantrakota), [Manjusa](/wiki/Mandasa \"Mandasa\") (Mandasa), [Tikili](/wiki/Tekkali \"Tekkali\") (Tekkali) and [Sadheikala](/wiki/Saraikela \"Saraikela\") (Seraikela). Rulers often patronised poet\\-composers and skilled musicians, vocalists and instrumentalists. Musicians were appointed in royal courts and honoured with land or other rewards. Many kings were themselves skilled musicians and poets, such as Gajapati [Kapilendra Deba](/wiki/Kapilendra_Deva \"Kapilendra Deva\") of Puri or [Biswambhara Rajendradeba](/wiki/Biswambhara_Rajendradeba \"Biswambhara Rajendradeba\") of Chikiti.", "" ]
Characteristics --------------- Odissi Sangita comprises four *shastric* classifications i.e. Dhruvapada, Chitrapada, Chitrakala and Panchali, described in the above\-mentioned texts. The Dhruvapada is the first line or lines to be sung repeatedly. Chitrapada means the arrangement of words in an alliterative style. The use of art in music is called Chitrakala. [Kabisurjya Baladeba Ratha](/wiki/Baladeba_Ratha "Baladeba Ratha"), the renowned Odia poet wrote lyrics, which are the best examples of Chitrakala. All of these were Chhanda (metrical section) contains the essence of Odissi music. The Chhandas were composed by combining Bhava (theme), Kala (time), and Swara (tune). The [Chautisa](/wiki/Chautisa "Chautisa") represents the originality of Odissi style. All the thirty four (34\) letters of the Odia alphabet from 'Ka' to 'Ksa' are used chronologically at the beginning of each line. A special feature of Odissi music is the padi, which consists of words to be sung in Druta Tala (fast beat).{{Cite book\|last\=Hota\|first\=Damodar\|title\=Sangita Sastra\|publisher\=Swara\-Ranga\|year\=2005\|edition\=2\|volume\=1\|location\=Bhubaneswar\|pages\=90–100\|language\=or\|author\-link\=Damodar Hota}} Odissi music can be sung to different [talas](/wiki/Tala_%28music%29 "Tala (music)"): Navatala (nine beats), Dashatala (ten beats) or Egaratala (eleven beats). Odissi [ragas](/wiki/Raga "Raga") are different from the [ragas](/wiki/Raga "Raga") of Hindustani and Karnataki classical music. The primary Odissi *mela* ragas are *Kalyana, Nata, Sri, Gouri, Baradi, Panchama, Dhanasri, Karnata, Bhairabi* and *Sokabaradi*.{{Cite book \|last\=Parhi \|first\=Kirtan Narayan \|title\=Odisi Sangita: Kichi Jana Ajana Tathya \|publisher\=Ink Odisha, Bhubaneswar \|year\=2007 \|pages\= \|language\=Odia \|trans\-title\=Odissi music: Some known and unknown facets \|author\-link\=Kirtan Narayan Parhi}} Some of the distinctive and authentic ragas of the Odissi music tradition are : *Abhiri*, *Amara, Ananda, Anandabhairabi, Ananda Kamodi, Ananda Kedara, Arabhi, Asabari, Bangala, Baradi, Basanta, Bhairabi, Bichitra Desakhya, Bichitradesi, Bichitra Kamodi, Chakrakeli, Chalaghanta Kedara, Chhayatodi, Chintabhairaba, Chinta Kamodi, Debagandhari, Debakiri, Desa Baradi, Desakhya, Desapala, Dhanasri, Dhannasika, Gauda, Gaudi, Ghantaraba, Gundakeri, Kali, Kalyana, Kalyana Ahari, Kamoda, Kamodi, Kaphi, Karnata, Kausiki, Kedara, Kedaragauda, Kedara Kamodi, Karunasri, Khambabati, Khanda Bangalasri, Khandakamodi, Kolahala, Krusna Kedara, Kumbhakamodi, Kusuma Kedara, Lalita, Lalita Basanta, Lalita Kamodi, Lalita Kedara, Lilataranga, Madhumangala, Madhumanjari, Madhura Gujjari, Madhusri, Madhu Saranga, Madhyamadi, Malasri, Malasrigauda, Mangala, Mangala Dhanasri, Mangala Gujjari, Mangala Kamodi, Mangala Kausiki, Mangala Kedara, Mallara, Manini (Malini), Marua, Megha, Meghaparnni, Misramukhari, Mohana, Mohana Kedara, Mukhabari (Mukhari), Nagaballi, Nagadhwani, Nalinigauda, Nata, Nata Kedara, Natanarayana, Natasaranga, Panchama, Punnaga, Punnaga Baradi, Pahadia Kedara, Panchama Baradi, Paraja, Rajahansi Chokhi, Ranabije, Rasakamodi, Rasamandara, Rasamanjari, Sabari, Saberi, Sankarabharana, Sindhukamodi, Sokabaradi, Sokakamodi, Soma, Sri, Suddhadesi, Surata, Suratha Gujjari, Todi*.{{Cite book\|last\=Panda\|first\=Gopal Chandra\|title\=Odisi Raga Darpana\|date\=December 2011\|location\=Bhubaneswar\|language\=or\|author\-link\=Gopal Chandra Panda}}{{Cite book\|title\=Odisi Raga Sarani\|publisher\=Odissi Research Centre\|year\=2004\|location\=Bhubaneswar}}{{Cite book\|last\=Panda\|first\=Gopal Chandra\|title\=Odisi Raga Ratnabali\|year\=2004\|location\=Bhubaneswar \|publisher\=Bhagavatī Prakāśanī \|language\=hi\|script\-title\=hi:ओडिसी राग रत्नावली\|oclc\=225908458\|author\-link\=Gopal Chandra Panda}} Odissi music is sung through Raganga, Bhabanga and Natyanga, Dhrubapadanga followed by Champu, Chhanda, Chautisa, [Pallabi](/wiki/Pallabi "Pallabi"), [Bhajana](/wiki/Bhajan "Bhajan"), Janana, and [Gita Govinda](/wiki/Gita_Govinda "Gita Govinda"). Odissi music has codified grammars, which are presented with specified Raagas. It has also a distinctive rendition style. It is lyrical in its movement with wave\-like ornamentation (*gati andolita*). The pace of singing in Odissi is not very fast nor too slow (*na druta na bilambita*), and it maintains a proportional tempo (*sama sangita*) that is very soothing. Though there has been cross\-cultural influence between Hindustani music and Persian music, Odissi music has remained relatively unaffected. ### Mardala {{Main\|Mardala}} [thumb\|302x302px\|*[Mardala](/wiki/Mardala "Mardala")*, the traditional percussion instrument of Odissi music](/wiki/File:Odissi_Mardala_2.jpg "Odissi Mardala 2.jpg") The [Mardala](/wiki/Mardala "Mardala") is a percussive instrument native to the state of Odisha. It is traditionally used as the primary percussive instrument with Odissi music. The Mardala is different from other instruments that might have similar names in the Indian subcontinent due to its unique construction, acoustic features and traditional playing technique.{{Cite journal\|last\=Mohanty\|first\=Gopinath\|date\=August 2007\|title\=Odissi \- The Classical Music\|journal\=Orissa Review\|publisher\=Culture Department, Government of Orissa\|pages\=108–111}} Raghunatha Ratha, an ancient musicologist of Odisha extols the Mardala in his treatise, the *[Natya Manorama](/wiki/Natyamanorama "Natyamanorama")* as:{{Cite book \|last\=Ratha \|first\=Raghunatha \|title\=Natyamanorama \|title\-link\=Natya Manorama \|publisher\=Odisha Sangeet Natak Akademi \|year\=1976 \|editor\-last\=Patnaik \|editor\-first\=Kali Charan \|location\=Bhubaneswar, Odisha \|language\=sa \|author\-link\=Raghunatha Ratha}} {{Verse translation\|ānaddhe marddaḻaḥ śreṣṭho yatastallakṣaṇaṃbrube /\|Among the membranophones, Mardala is the superlative. So I narrate its features.\|lang\=sa\-latn\|attr1\=\|attr2\=}} The [Jagannatha temple](/wiki/Jagannath_Temple%2C_Puri "Jagannath Temple, Puri") of Puri has for centuries had a Mardala servitor. This was known as the 'Madeli Seba' and the percussionist was ritually initiated into the temple by the [Gajapati](/wiki/Gajapati_Kingdom "Gajapati Kingdom") ruler. The Mardala used to be the accompanying instrument to the [Mahari](/wiki/Devadasi "Devadasi") dance, the ancestor of present\-day [Odissi dance](/wiki/Odissi "Odissi"), one of the major classical dance forms of India. In hundreds of Kalingan temples across the state of Odisha, including famous shrines such as [Mukteswara](/wiki/Mukteshvara_Temple%2C_Bhubaneswar "Mukteshvara Temple, Bhubaneswar") and [Konarka](/wiki/Konark_Sun_Temple "Konark Sun Temple"), the Mardala features prominently, usually in a niche of an *alasakanya* playing the instrument. There is a pose by the name *mardalika* replicating the same stance in Odissi dance. The playing of the Mardala is based on the *tala\-paddhati* or rhythmic system of Odissi music. A [tala](/wiki/Tala_%28music%29 "Tala (music)") is a rhythmic structure in Indian music. The *tala*s in use in Odissi music are distinctive, and are not found in other systems of Indian music. The regional terminology used in the Mardala's context are *kalā, ansā, māna, aḍasā, bhaunri, bhaunri aḍasā, tāli, khāli, phānka, bāṇi, ukuṭa, pāṭa, chhanda, bhangi,* etc. The *sabda\-swara pata*, a traditional component based on the Mardala's beats was integrated into Odissi dance by Guru [Deba Prasad Das](/wiki/Deba_Prasad_Das "Deba Prasad Das").{{Cite news\|last\=Chakra\|first\=Shyamhari\|date\=3 November 2016\|title\=Celebrating an alternate style of Odissi\|work\=The Hindu\|url\=https://www.thehindu.com/features/friday\-review/Celebrating\-an\-alternate\-style\-of\-Odissi/article16091714\.ece\|access\-date\=28 July 2020\|archive\-date\=28 July 2020\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200728090412/https://www.thehindu.com/features/friday\-review/Celebrating\-an\-alternate\-style\-of\-Odissi/article16091714\.ece\|url\-status\=live}} Though several hundred talas are defined in treatises, some are more common : *ekatāli, khemaṭā* or *jhulā, rūpaka, tripaṭā, jhampā, āḍatāli, jati, āditala, maṭhā*.{{Cite book\|last\=Hota\|first\=Damodar\|title\=Udra Paddhatiya Sangita\|publisher\=Swara\-Ranga\|year\=2012\|volume\=2\|location\=Bhubaneswar\|pages\=18–19\|language\=or\|author\-link\=Damodar Hota}} Other talas that are also used are *nihsāri*, *kuḍuka, duāḍamāna, sarimāna, upāḍḍa, paḍitāla, pahapaṭa, aṭṭatāla, āṭhatāli* and *jagannātha.* The talas have a characteristic swing that is typical of and universally found in Odissi music. The Mardala is intimately associated with the Jagannatha temple and thus has a very esteemed position in the culture of Odisha. Many Gurus have worked for carrying forward the legacy of the instrument. Adiguru [Singhari Shyamsundar Kar](/wiki/Singhari_Shyamsundar_Kar "Singhari Shyamsundar Kar"), Guru [Banamali Maharana](/wiki/Banamali_Maharana "Banamali Maharana"), Guru [Kelucharan Mahapatra](/wiki/Kelucharan_Mohapatra "Kelucharan Mohapatra"), Guru Padmanabha Panda, Guru Basudeba Khuntia, and Guru Mahadev Rout were among the great Gurus of Mardala in the 20th century. Guru Rabinarayan Panda, Guru Janardana Dash, Guru [Dhaneswar Swain](/wiki/Dhaneswar_Swain "Dhaneswar Swain"), Guru [Sachidananda Das](/wiki/Sachidananda_Das "Sachidananda Das"), Guru Bijaya Kumar Barik, Guru Jagannath Kuanr are among modern\-day exponents of the Mardala. Many veteran Gotipua masters have also excelled in the Mardala : Guru Birabara Sahu, Guru Lingaraj Barik, Guru Maguni Das and others. #### As a solo instrument The role of the Mardala as a solo instrument has been presented for the last few decades with great success, apart from its better\-known role as an accompaniment in the ensemble for Odissi music and dance.{{Cite news\|last\=Chakra\|first\=Shyamhari\|title\=Moment of victory for Odissi Mardal\|work\=The Samikshya\|url\=https://thesamikhsya.com/culture/moment\-of\-victory\-for\-odissi\-mardal\|access\-date\=4 September 2020\|archive\-date\=22 May 2022\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220522212303/https://thesamikhsya.com/culture/moment\-of\-victory\-for\-odissi\-mardal\|url\-status\=live}} The solo performances follow a specific rule or *pranali* : starting with a *jamana*, then proceeding onto *chhanda prakarana*, *ragada*, etc.{{Cite news\|last\=Vidyarthi\|first\=Nita\|date\=6 February 2014\|title\=His own beat\|work\=The Hindu\|url\=https://www.thehindu.com/features/friday\-review/music/his\-own\-beat/article5660641\.ece\|access\-date\=28 July 2020\|archive\-date\=22 June 2020\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200622090904/https://www.thehindu.com/features/friday\-review/music/his\-own\-beat/article5660641\.ece\|url\-status\=live}} Guru [Dhaneswar Swain](/wiki/Dhaneswar_Swain "Dhaneswar Swain") is known for his pioneering efforts to promote solo performances of the Mardala and bring other traditional percussion instruments of Odisha onto the concert stage.{{cite web\|last\=Nicodemus\|first\=Paul\|date\=10 October 2020\|title\=Dhaneswar Swain: A Maestro of Odissi Mardal\|url\=https://thedanceindia.com/dhaneswar\-swain\-a\-maestro\-of\-odissi\-mardal/\|access\-date\=2020\-12\-07\|website\=The Dance India\|language\=en\-US\|archive\-date\=2020\-10\-31\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201031235159/https://thedanceindia.com/dhaneswar\-swain\-a\-maestro\-of\-odissi\-mardal/\|url\-status\=live}}{{cite web\|title\=Dhaneswar Swain\|url\=https://sangeetnatak.gov.in/sna/citation\_popup.php?id\=887\&at\=2\|access\-date\=7 December 2020\|website\=\[\[Sangeet Natak Akademi]]\|archive\-date\=28 November 2020\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201128041625/https://sangeetnatak.gov.in/sna/citation\_popup.php?id\=887\&at\=2\|url\-status\=live}}{{cite web\|last\=Chakra\|first\=Shyamhari\|date\=2020\-11\-23\|title\=The missionary mardal maestro\|url\=https://thesamikhsya.com/city/bhubaneswar/the\-missionary\-mardal\-maestro\|access\-date\=2020\-12\-07\|website\=The Samikhsya\|language\=en\-US\|archive\-date\=2020\-11\-24\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201124065755/https://thesamikhsya.com/city/bhubaneswar/the\-missionary\-mardal\-maestro\|url\-status\=live}} Guru [Dhaneswar Swain](/wiki/Dhaneswar_Swain "Dhaneswar Swain"), the first solo [Mardala](/wiki/Mardala "Mardala") player who had presented an extended solo performance on the [Mardala](/wiki/Mardala "Mardala") under the guidance of Guru [Banamali Maharana](/wiki/Banamali_Maharana "Banamali Maharana"), was the very first of its kind. [thumb\|316x316px\|Guru Ramarao Patra, Odissi Bina (Veena) exponent, disciple of Acharya [Tarini Charan Patra](/wiki/Tarini_Charan_Patra "Tarini Charan Patra")](/wiki/File:Odissi_Veena_Guru_Ramarao_Patra.jpg "Odissi Veena Guru Ramarao Patra.jpg") ### Ensemble The traditional ensemble accompanying an Odissi music recital is said to be 'binā benu mardala' : *Bina* or *[Veena](/wiki/Veena "Veena")*, *Benu* or Flute and the [Mardala](/wiki/Mardala "Mardala"). These form the three primary classes of instruments described in the shastras : *tat* or stringed, *susira* or wind and *anaddha* or percussive. All three instruments have been depicted in the stone temples \& caves of Odisha built over the last two millennia. The three instruments were also officially appointed as *sebāyatas* in the Jagannatha Temple of Puri as described in the [Madala Panji](/wiki/Madala_Panji "Madala Panji"). Apart from these three instruments, some other traditional accompanying instruments are the *gini*, *karatāla*, *khola* or *mrudanga*, *jodināgarā*, *[mahurī](/wiki/Mahuri_%28instrument%29 "Mahuri (instrument)")* or *mukhabīnā*, *jalataranga* etc. At least since the 18th century, other instruments such as the [violin](/wiki/Violin "Violin") (*behelā*) and [Sitar](/wiki/Sitar "Sitar") have also been employed. The harmonium has become popular from the early twentieth century. While the flute and Mardala continue to be popular, the Odissi Bina is no longer as widespread as it once used to be. Some of the exponents of the Odissi Bina were *Sangitacharya* Adwaita Guru and *Gayaka Siromani* Andha Apanna Panigrahi. The Odissi Bina (Veena) was preserved by Acharya [Tarini Charan Patra](/wiki/Tarini_Charan_Patra "Tarini Charan Patra") in the twentieth century and is now kept alive by his disciple Guru [Ramarao Patra](/wiki/Ramarao_Patra "Ramarao Patra").
[ "Characteristics\n---------------", "Odissi Sangita comprises four *shastric* classifications i.e. Dhruvapada, Chitrapada, Chitrakala and Panchali, described in the above\\-mentioned texts. The Dhruvapada is the first line or lines to be sung repeatedly. Chitrapada means the arrangement of words in an alliterative style. The use of art in music is called Chitrakala. [Kabisurjya Baladeba Ratha](/wiki/Baladeba_Ratha \"Baladeba Ratha\"), the renowned Odia poet wrote lyrics, which are the best examples of Chitrakala. All of these were Chhanda (metrical section) contains the essence of Odissi music. The Chhandas were composed by combining Bhava (theme), Kala (time), and Swara (tune). The [Chautisa](/wiki/Chautisa \"Chautisa\") represents the originality of Odissi style. All the thirty four (34\\) letters of the Odia alphabet from 'Ka' to 'Ksa' are used chronologically at the beginning of each line.", "A special feature of Odissi music is the padi, which consists of words to be sung in Druta Tala (fast beat).{{Cite book\\|last\\=Hota\\|first\\=Damodar\\|title\\=Sangita Sastra\\|publisher\\=Swara\\-Ranga\\|year\\=2005\\|edition\\=2\\|volume\\=1\\|location\\=Bhubaneswar\\|pages\\=90–100\\|language\\=or\\|author\\-link\\=Damodar Hota}} Odissi music can be sung to different [talas](/wiki/Tala_%28music%29 \"Tala (music)\"): Navatala (nine beats), Dashatala (ten beats) or Egaratala (eleven beats). Odissi [ragas](/wiki/Raga \"Raga\") are different from the [ragas](/wiki/Raga \"Raga\") of Hindustani and Karnataki classical music.", "The primary Odissi *mela* ragas are *Kalyana, Nata, Sri, Gouri, Baradi, Panchama, Dhanasri, Karnata, Bhairabi* and *Sokabaradi*.{{Cite book \\|last\\=Parhi \\|first\\=Kirtan Narayan \\|title\\=Odisi Sangita: Kichi Jana Ajana Tathya \\|publisher\\=Ink Odisha, Bhubaneswar \\|year\\=2007 \\|pages\\= \\|language\\=Odia \\|trans\\-title\\=Odissi music: Some known and unknown facets \\|author\\-link\\=Kirtan Narayan Parhi}}", "Some of the distinctive and authentic ragas of the Odissi music tradition are : *Abhiri*, *Amara, Ananda, Anandabhairabi, Ananda Kamodi, Ananda Kedara, Arabhi, Asabari, Bangala, Baradi, Basanta, Bhairabi, Bichitra Desakhya, Bichitradesi, Bichitra Kamodi, Chakrakeli, Chalaghanta Kedara, Chhayatodi, Chintabhairaba, Chinta Kamodi, Debagandhari, Debakiri, Desa Baradi, Desakhya, Desapala, Dhanasri, Dhannasika, Gauda, Gaudi, Ghantaraba, Gundakeri, Kali, Kalyana, Kalyana Ahari, Kamoda, Kamodi, Kaphi, Karnata, Kausiki, Kedara, Kedaragauda, Kedara Kamodi, Karunasri, Khambabati, Khanda Bangalasri, Khandakamodi, Kolahala, Krusna Kedara, Kumbhakamodi, Kusuma Kedara, Lalita, Lalita Basanta, Lalita Kamodi, Lalita Kedara, Lilataranga, Madhumangala, Madhumanjari, Madhura Gujjari, Madhusri, Madhu Saranga, Madhyamadi, Malasri, Malasrigauda, Mangala, Mangala Dhanasri, Mangala Gujjari, Mangala Kamodi, Mangala Kausiki, Mangala Kedara, Mallara, Manini (Malini), Marua, Megha, Meghaparnni, Misramukhari, Mohana, Mohana Kedara, Mukhabari (Mukhari), Nagaballi, Nagadhwani, Nalinigauda, Nata, Nata Kedara, Natanarayana, Natasaranga, Panchama, Punnaga, Punnaga Baradi, Pahadia Kedara, Panchama Baradi, Paraja, Rajahansi Chokhi, Ranabije, Rasakamodi, Rasamandara, Rasamanjari, Sabari, Saberi, Sankarabharana, Sindhukamodi, Sokabaradi, Sokakamodi, Soma, Sri, Suddhadesi, Surata, Suratha Gujjari, Todi*.{{Cite book\\|last\\=Panda\\|first\\=Gopal Chandra\\|title\\=Odisi Raga Darpana\\|date\\=December 2011\\|location\\=Bhubaneswar\\|language\\=or\\|author\\-link\\=Gopal Chandra Panda}}{{Cite book\\|title\\=Odisi Raga Sarani\\|publisher\\=Odissi Research Centre\\|year\\=2004\\|location\\=Bhubaneswar}}{{Cite book\\|last\\=Panda\\|first\\=Gopal Chandra\\|title\\=Odisi Raga Ratnabali\\|year\\=2004\\|location\\=Bhubaneswar \\|publisher\\=Bhagavatī Prakāśanī \\|language\\=hi\\|script\\-title\\=hi:ओडिसी राग रत्नावली\\|oclc\\=225908458\\|author\\-link\\=Gopal Chandra Panda}}", "Odissi music is sung through Raganga, Bhabanga and Natyanga, Dhrubapadanga followed by Champu, Chhanda, Chautisa, [Pallabi](/wiki/Pallabi \"Pallabi\"), [Bhajana](/wiki/Bhajan \"Bhajan\"), Janana, and [Gita Govinda](/wiki/Gita_Govinda \"Gita Govinda\").", "Odissi music has codified grammars, which are presented with specified Raagas. It has also a distinctive rendition style. It is lyrical in its movement with wave\\-like ornamentation (*gati andolita*). The pace of singing in Odissi is not very fast nor too slow (*na druta na bilambita*), and it maintains a proportional tempo (*sama sangita*) that is very soothing.", "Though there has been cross\\-cultural influence between Hindustani music and Persian music, Odissi music has remained relatively unaffected.", "### Mardala", "{{Main\\|Mardala}}\n[thumb\\|302x302px\\|*[Mardala](/wiki/Mardala \"Mardala\")*, the traditional percussion instrument of Odissi music](/wiki/File:Odissi_Mardala_2.jpg \"Odissi Mardala 2.jpg\")\nThe [Mardala](/wiki/Mardala \"Mardala\") is a percussive instrument native to the state of Odisha. It is traditionally used as the primary percussive instrument with Odissi music. The Mardala is different from other instruments that might have similar names in the Indian subcontinent due to its unique construction, acoustic features and traditional playing technique.{{Cite journal\\|last\\=Mohanty\\|first\\=Gopinath\\|date\\=August 2007\\|title\\=Odissi \\- The Classical Music\\|journal\\=Orissa Review\\|publisher\\=Culture Department, Government of Orissa\\|pages\\=108–111}}", "Raghunatha Ratha, an ancient musicologist of Odisha extols the Mardala in his treatise, the *[Natya Manorama](/wiki/Natyamanorama \"Natyamanorama\")* as:{{Cite book \\|last\\=Ratha \\|first\\=Raghunatha \\|title\\=Natyamanorama \\|title\\-link\\=Natya Manorama \\|publisher\\=Odisha Sangeet Natak Akademi \\|year\\=1976 \\|editor\\-last\\=Patnaik \\|editor\\-first\\=Kali Charan \\|location\\=Bhubaneswar, Odisha \\|language\\=sa \\|author\\-link\\=Raghunatha Ratha}}\n{{Verse translation\\|ānaddhe marddaḻaḥ śreṣṭho\nyatastallakṣaṇaṃbrube /\\|Among the membranophones,\nMardala is the superlative. \nSo I narrate its features.\\|lang\\=sa\\-latn\\|attr1\\=\\|attr2\\=}}\nThe [Jagannatha temple](/wiki/Jagannath_Temple%2C_Puri \"Jagannath Temple, Puri\") of Puri has for centuries had a Mardala servitor. This was known as the 'Madeli Seba' and the percussionist was ritually initiated into the temple by the [Gajapati](/wiki/Gajapati_Kingdom \"Gajapati Kingdom\") ruler. The Mardala used to be the accompanying instrument to the [Mahari](/wiki/Devadasi \"Devadasi\") dance, the ancestor of present\\-day [Odissi dance](/wiki/Odissi \"Odissi\"), one of the major classical dance forms of India. In hundreds of Kalingan temples across the state of Odisha, including famous shrines such as [Mukteswara](/wiki/Mukteshvara_Temple%2C_Bhubaneswar \"Mukteshvara Temple, Bhubaneswar\") and [Konarka](/wiki/Konark_Sun_Temple \"Konark Sun Temple\"), the Mardala features prominently, usually in a niche of an *alasakanya* playing the instrument. There is a pose by the name *mardalika* replicating the same stance in Odissi dance.", "The playing of the Mardala is based on the *tala\\-paddhati* or rhythmic system of Odissi music. A [tala](/wiki/Tala_%28music%29 \"Tala (music)\") is a rhythmic structure in Indian music. The *tala*s in use in Odissi music are distinctive, and are not found in other systems of Indian music. The regional terminology used in the Mardala's context are *kalā, ansā, māna, aḍasā, bhaunri, bhaunri aḍasā, tāli, khāli, phānka, bāṇi, ukuṭa, pāṭa, chhanda, bhangi,* etc. The *sabda\\-swara pata*, a traditional component based on the Mardala's beats was integrated into Odissi dance by Guru [Deba Prasad Das](/wiki/Deba_Prasad_Das \"Deba Prasad Das\").{{Cite news\\|last\\=Chakra\\|first\\=Shyamhari\\|date\\=3 November 2016\\|title\\=Celebrating an alternate style of Odissi\\|work\\=The Hindu\\|url\\=https://www.thehindu.com/features/friday\\-review/Celebrating\\-an\\-alternate\\-style\\-of\\-Odissi/article16091714\\.ece\\|access\\-date\\=28 July 2020\\|archive\\-date\\=28 July 2020\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200728090412/https://www.thehindu.com/features/friday\\-review/Celebrating\\-an\\-alternate\\-style\\-of\\-Odissi/article16091714\\.ece\\|url\\-status\\=live}} Though several hundred talas are defined in treatises, some are more common : *ekatāli, khemaṭā* or *jhulā, rūpaka, tripaṭā, jhampā, āḍatāli, jati, āditala, maṭhā*.{{Cite book\\|last\\=Hota\\|first\\=Damodar\\|title\\=Udra Paddhatiya Sangita\\|publisher\\=Swara\\-Ranga\\|year\\=2012\\|volume\\=2\\|location\\=Bhubaneswar\\|pages\\=18–19\\|language\\=or\\|author\\-link\\=Damodar Hota}} Other talas that are also used are *nihsāri*, *kuḍuka, duāḍamāna, sarimāna, upāḍḍa, paḍitāla, pahapaṭa, aṭṭatāla, āṭhatāli* and *jagannātha.* The talas have a characteristic swing that is typical of and universally found in Odissi music.", "The Mardala is intimately associated with the Jagannatha temple and thus has a very esteemed position in the culture of Odisha. Many Gurus have worked for carrying forward the legacy of the instrument. Adiguru [Singhari Shyamsundar Kar](/wiki/Singhari_Shyamsundar_Kar \"Singhari Shyamsundar Kar\"), Guru [Banamali Maharana](/wiki/Banamali_Maharana \"Banamali Maharana\"), Guru [Kelucharan Mahapatra](/wiki/Kelucharan_Mohapatra \"Kelucharan Mohapatra\"), Guru Padmanabha Panda, Guru Basudeba Khuntia, and Guru Mahadev Rout were among the great Gurus of Mardala in the 20th century.", "Guru Rabinarayan Panda, Guru Janardana Dash, Guru [Dhaneswar Swain](/wiki/Dhaneswar_Swain \"Dhaneswar Swain\"), Guru [Sachidananda Das](/wiki/Sachidananda_Das \"Sachidananda Das\"), Guru Bijaya Kumar Barik, Guru Jagannath Kuanr are among modern\\-day exponents of the Mardala. Many veteran Gotipua masters have also excelled in the Mardala : Guru Birabara Sahu, Guru Lingaraj Barik, Guru Maguni Das and others.", "#### As a solo instrument", "The role of the Mardala as a solo instrument has been presented for the last few decades with great success, apart from its better\\-known role as an accompaniment in the ensemble for Odissi music and dance.{{Cite news\\|last\\=Chakra\\|first\\=Shyamhari\\|title\\=Moment of victory for Odissi Mardal\\|work\\=The Samikshya\\|url\\=https://thesamikhsya.com/culture/moment\\-of\\-victory\\-for\\-odissi\\-mardal\\|access\\-date\\=4 September 2020\\|archive\\-date\\=22 May 2022\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220522212303/https://thesamikhsya.com/culture/moment\\-of\\-victory\\-for\\-odissi\\-mardal\\|url\\-status\\=live}} The solo performances follow a specific rule or *pranali* : starting with a *jamana*, then proceeding onto *chhanda prakarana*, *ragada*, etc.{{Cite news\\|last\\=Vidyarthi\\|first\\=Nita\\|date\\=6 February 2014\\|title\\=His own beat\\|work\\=The Hindu\\|url\\=https://www.thehindu.com/features/friday\\-review/music/his\\-own\\-beat/article5660641\\.ece\\|access\\-date\\=28 July 2020\\|archive\\-date\\=22 June 2020\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200622090904/https://www.thehindu.com/features/friday\\-review/music/his\\-own\\-beat/article5660641\\.ece\\|url\\-status\\=live}} Guru [Dhaneswar Swain](/wiki/Dhaneswar_Swain \"Dhaneswar Swain\") is known for his pioneering efforts to promote solo performances of the Mardala and bring other traditional percussion instruments of Odisha onto the concert stage.{{cite web\\|last\\=Nicodemus\\|first\\=Paul\\|date\\=10 October 2020\\|title\\=Dhaneswar Swain: A Maestro of Odissi Mardal\\|url\\=https://thedanceindia.com/dhaneswar\\-swain\\-a\\-maestro\\-of\\-odissi\\-mardal/\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-12\\-07\\|website\\=The Dance India\\|language\\=en\\-US\\|archive\\-date\\=2020\\-10\\-31\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201031235159/https://thedanceindia.com/dhaneswar\\-swain\\-a\\-maestro\\-of\\-odissi\\-mardal/\\|url\\-status\\=live}}{{cite web\\|title\\=Dhaneswar Swain\\|url\\=https://sangeetnatak.gov.in/sna/citation\\_popup.php?id\\=887\\&at\\=2\\|access\\-date\\=7 December 2020\\|website\\=\\[\\[Sangeet Natak Akademi]]\\|archive\\-date\\=28 November 2020\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201128041625/https://sangeetnatak.gov.in/sna/citation\\_popup.php?id\\=887\\&at\\=2\\|url\\-status\\=live}}{{cite web\\|last\\=Chakra\\|first\\=Shyamhari\\|date\\=2020\\-11\\-23\\|title\\=The missionary mardal maestro\\|url\\=https://thesamikhsya.com/city/bhubaneswar/the\\-missionary\\-mardal\\-maestro\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-12\\-07\\|website\\=The Samikhsya\\|language\\=en\\-US\\|archive\\-date\\=2020\\-11\\-24\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201124065755/https://thesamikhsya.com/city/bhubaneswar/the\\-missionary\\-mardal\\-maestro\\|url\\-status\\=live}} Guru [Dhaneswar Swain](/wiki/Dhaneswar_Swain \"Dhaneswar Swain\"), the first solo [Mardala](/wiki/Mardala \"Mardala\") player who had presented an extended solo performance on the [Mardala](/wiki/Mardala \"Mardala\") under the guidance of Guru [Banamali Maharana](/wiki/Banamali_Maharana \"Banamali Maharana\"), was the very first of its kind. \n[thumb\\|316x316px\\|Guru Ramarao Patra, Odissi Bina (Veena) exponent, disciple of Acharya [Tarini Charan Patra](/wiki/Tarini_Charan_Patra \"Tarini Charan Patra\")](/wiki/File:Odissi_Veena_Guru_Ramarao_Patra.jpg \"Odissi Veena Guru Ramarao Patra.jpg\")", "### Ensemble", "The traditional ensemble accompanying an Odissi music recital is said to be 'binā benu mardala' : *Bina* or *[Veena](/wiki/Veena \"Veena\")*, *Benu* or Flute and the [Mardala](/wiki/Mardala \"Mardala\"). These form the three primary classes of instruments described in the shastras : *tat* or stringed, *susira* or wind and *anaddha* or percussive. All three instruments have been depicted in the stone temples \\& caves of Odisha built over the last two millennia. The three instruments were also officially appointed as *sebāyatas* in the Jagannatha Temple of Puri as described in the [Madala Panji](/wiki/Madala_Panji \"Madala Panji\"). Apart from these three instruments, some other traditional accompanying instruments are the *gini*, *karatāla*, *khola* or *mrudanga*, *jodināgarā*, *[mahurī](/wiki/Mahuri_%28instrument%29 \"Mahuri (instrument)\")* or *mukhabīnā*, *jalataranga* etc. At least since the 18th century, other instruments such as the [violin](/wiki/Violin \"Violin\") (*behelā*) and [Sitar](/wiki/Sitar \"Sitar\") have also been employed. The harmonium has become popular from the early twentieth century.", "While the flute and Mardala continue to be popular, the Odissi Bina is no longer as widespread as it once used to be. Some of the exponents of the Odissi Bina were *Sangitacharya* Adwaita Guru and *Gayaka Siromani* Andha Apanna Panigrahi. The Odissi Bina (Veena) was preserved by Acharya [Tarini Charan Patra](/wiki/Tarini_Charan_Patra \"Tarini Charan Patra\") in the twentieth century and is now kept alive by his disciple Guru [Ramarao Patra](/wiki/Ramarao_Patra \"Ramarao Patra\").", "" ]
Research history ---------------- ### Recognized species During the 1890s, Russian paleontologist [Vladimir Amalitsky](/wiki/Vladimir_Prokhorovich_Amalitskii "Vladimir Prokhorovich Amalitskii") discovered freshwater sediments dating from the [Upper Permian](/wiki/Upper_Permian "Upper Permian") in [Northern Dvina](/wiki/Northern_Dvina "Northern Dvina"), [Arkhangelsk Oblast](/wiki/Arkhangelsk_Oblast "Arkhangelsk Oblast"), northern [European Russia](/wiki/European_Russia "European Russia"). The locality, known as PIN 2005, consists of a [creek](/wiki/Stream%23Creek "Stream#Creek") with [sandstone](/wiki/Sandstone "Sandstone") and [lens](/wiki/Lens_%28geology%29 "Lens (geology)")\-shaped exposures in a [bank](/wiki/Bank_%28geography%29 "Bank (geography)") [escarpment](/wiki/Escarpment "Escarpment"), containing many particularly well\-preserved fossil skeletons.{{cite journal \|last\=Amalitzky \|first\=V. \|year\=1922 \|title\=Diagnoses of the new forms of vertebrates and plants from the Upper Permian on North Dvina \|url\=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/151415\#page/341/mode/1up \|journal\=Bulletin de l'Académie des Sciences de Russie \|volume\=16 \|issue\=6 \|pages\=329–340}} This type of fauna from this period, previously known only from [South Africa](/wiki/South_Africa "South Africa") and [India](/wiki/India "India"), is considered as one of the greatest paleontological discoveries of the late 19th and early 20th centuries.{{Sfn\|Benton\|Shishkin\|Unwin\|Kurochkin\|2000\|page\=4}} After the preliminary reconnaissance of the place, Amalitsky conducts systematic research with his companion {{ill\|Anna P. Amalitsky\|ru\|Амалицкая, Анна Петровна}}. The first excavations began in 1899,{{sfn\|Gebauer\|2007\|p\=9}} and several of her findings where sent to [Warsaw](/wiki/Warsaw "Warsaw"), [Poland](/wiki/Poland "Poland"), in order to be prepared there.{{sfn\|Lankester\|1905\|p\=214\-215}} The exhumations of the fossils then lasted until 1914, when the research stopped due to the start of the [World War I](/wiki/World_War_I "World War I").{{Sfn\|Benton\|Shishkin\|Unwin\|Kurochkin\|2000\|page\=5}} The fossils discovered within the site will subsequently be moved to the Museum of Geology and Mineralogy of the [Russian Academy of Sciences](/wiki/Russian_Academy_of_Sciences "Russian Academy of Sciences"). All the fossils listed were not prepared, and more than 100 tons of concretions were promised for new discoveries by the museum in question. [thumb\|left\|PIN 2005/1578, the [lectotype](/wiki/Lectotype "Lectotype") skeleton of *I. alexandri*](/wiki/File:Inostrancevia.jpg "Inostrancevia.jpg") The multiple administrative activities and difficult conditions during Amalitsky's last years have severely hampered his fossil research, leading to his unexpected death in 1917\. However, among all the fossils identified before his death are two remarkably complete skeletons of large [gorgonopsians](/wiki/Gorgonopsia "Gorgonopsia"), cataloged [PIN](/wiki/Paleontological_Institute%2C_Russian_Academy_of_Sciences "Paleontological Institute, Russian Academy of Sciences") 1758 and PIN 2005/1578\.{{Sfn\|Benton\|Shishkin\|Unwin\|Kurochkin\|2000\|pages\=93\-94}}{{sfn\|Gebauer\|2007\|p\=229}} After identification, he assigned the two specimens to a completely new [genus](/wiki/Genus "Genus") and [species](/wiki/Species "Species"), which he named *Inostranzevia alexandri*, the specimen PIN 2005/1578 being recognized as its [lectotype](/wiki/Lectotype "Lectotype").{{Sfn\|Benton\|Shishkin\|Unwin\|Kurochkin\|2000\|pages\=93\-94}}{{sfn\|Gebauer\|2007\|p\=229}} Although the [taxon](/wiki/Taxon "Taxon") was not officially described posthumously until 1922, the use of this name in [scientific literature](/wiki/Scientific_literature "Scientific literature") dates back to the beginning of the 20th century, notably in the works of [Friedrich von Huene](/wiki/Friedrich_von_Huene "Friedrich von Huene") and [Edwin Ray Lankester](/wiki/Edwin_Ray_Lankester "Edwin Ray Lankester").{{sfn\|von Huene\|1902\|p\=36}}{{sfn\|Lankester\|1905\|p\=221}}{{sfn\|Hutchinson\|1910\|p\=Plate XI}}{{cite web \|last\=Greenfield \|first\=Tyler \|date\=2023\-12\-26 \|title\=Who named ''Inostrancevia''? \|url\=https://incertaesedisblog.wordpress.com/2023/12/26/who\-named\-inostrancevia/ \|website\=Incertae Sedis}} Taxonomic issues regarding the original naming of the genus are the subject of a study which should be published later. Although the [etymology](/wiki/Etymology "Etymology") of the genus and [type species](/wiki/Type_species "Type species") is not provided in the earliest\-known descriptions of the taxon, the full name of the animal is named in honor of the renowned geologist {{ill\|Alexander Inostrantsev\|ru\|Иностранцев, Александр Александрович}},{{cite web\|title\=''Inostrancevia''\|url\=http://www.paleofile.com/Theriodontia/Inostrancevia.asp\|website\=Paleofile}} who was one of Amalitsky's teachers.{{cite journal \|last1\=Jagt\-Yazykova \|first1\=Elena A. \|last2\=Racki \|first2\=Grzegorz \|year\=2017 \|title\=Vladimir P. Amalitsky and Dmitry N. Sobolev – late nineteenth/ early twentieth century pioneers of modern concepts of palaeobiogeography, biosphere evolution and mass extinctions \|journal\=\[\[Episodes (journal)\|Episodes]] \|volume\=40 \|issue\=3 \|pages\=189–199 \|doi\=10\.18814/EPIIUGS/2017/V40I3/017022 \|s2cid\=133685968 \|doi\-access\=free}} Amalitsky's article generally describes all the fossil discoveries made in the Northern Dvina, and not *Inostrancevia* itself, the article mentioning that further research on this gorgonopsian is subject to research. It was in 1927 that one of Amalitsky's colleagues, {{ill\|Pavel A. Pravoslavlev\|ru\|Православлев, Павел Александрович}}, published the first formal description of the genus. In his monograph he names several additional species,{{efn\|1\=The existence of these \[\[taxa]] are already mentioned in the article describing ''I. alexandri'', but were not officially named and described in detail until 1927\.}} and revises in detail the [morphology](/wiki/Morphology_%28biology%29 "Morphology (biology)") of the two known skeletons of *I. alexandri*.{{cite book \|last\=Pravoslavlev \|first\=P. A. \|title\=Gorgonopsidae from the North Dvina expedition of V. P. Amalitzki \|publisher\=\[\[Doklady Akademii Nauk\|Akademii Nauk SSSR]] \|year\=1927 \|volume\=3 \|pages\=1–117 \|language\=ru}} Of all the named species, only *I. latifrons* was the only one recognized as a clearly distinct species within the genus, being based on skulls discovered within Arkhangelsk Oblast as well as a very incomplete skeleton from the village of [Zavrazhye](/wiki/Zavrazhye "Zavrazhye"), located in [Vladimir Oblast](/wiki/Vladimir_Oblast "Vladimir Oblast").{{Sfn\|Benton\|Shishkin\|Unwin\|Kurochkin\|2000\|pages\=93\-94}} The specific epithet *latifrons* comes from the [Latin](/wiki/Latin "Latin") *latus* "broad" and *frōns* "forehead", in reference to the size and the more robust cranial constitution than that of *I. alexandri*. In his book, Pravoslavlev also changed the typography of the name "*Inostranzevia*" to "*Inostrancevia*".{{efn\|1\=The latter name had already been changed previously by \[\[Samuel Wendell Williston]] in 1925, but it was not until Pravoslavlev's publication that the taxon was mainly known under this designation.}} This last term has since entered into universal usage and must be maintained according to the rule of article 33\.3\.1 of the [ICZN](/wiki/ICZN "ICZN").{{cite journal \|last1\=Kammerer \|first1\=Christian F. \|last2\=Masyutin \|first2\=Vladimir \|name\-list\-style\=amp \|date\=2018 \|title\=Gorgonopsian therapsids (''Nochnitsa'' gen. nov. and ''Viatkogorgon'') from the Permian Kotelnich locality of Russia \|journal\=\[\[PeerJ]] \|volume\=6 \|pages\=e4954 \|doi\=10\.7717/peerj.4954 \|pmc\=5995105 \|pmid\=29900078 \|doi\-access\=free}} Although Pravoslavlev's work was of major importance, more recent work requires that a re\-examination of the skeletal anatomy of the genus is necessary in order to broaden the understanding of the animal's biology. {{External media\|float\=right\|image1\=\[https://age\-of\-mammals.ucoz.ru/\_si/5/99456799\.jpg Photograph and sketch of the holotype specimen of ''I. uralensis'']\|title\=External picture}} In 1974, [Leonid Tatarinov](/wiki/Leonid_Petrovich_Tatarinov "Leonid Petrovich Tatarinov") described the third species, *I. uralensis*, based on rare remains of part of the skull from an individual smaller than the other two recognized species. The holotype specimen, cataloged PIN 2896/1, consists of a left [basioccipital](/wiki/Basioccipital "Basioccipital") discovered in the locality of Blumental\-3, in the [Orenburg Oblast](/wiki/Orenburg_Oblast "Orenburg Oblast"). The specific epithet *uralensis* refers to the [Ural River](/wiki/Ural_River "Ural River"), where the holotype specimen of the taxon was found.{{sfn\|Tatarinov\|1974\|p\=96\-99}} However, due to its poor fossil preservation of this species, Tatarinov argues that it is possible that *I. uralensis* could belong to a new genus of large gorgonopsians without having a certain confirmation.{{sfn\|Tatarinov\|1974\|p\=99}} The fourth known species, *I. africana*, was discovered from two specimens found between 2010 and 2011, respectively, by Nthaopa Ntheri and [John Nyaphuli](/wiki/John_Nyaphuli "John Nyaphuli") at Nooitgedacht Farm in the [Karoo Basin](/wiki/Karoo_Supergroup "Karoo Supergroup"), South Africa. The two known specimens, holotype NMQR 4000 and paratype NMQR 3707, are recorded in the [Balfour Formation](/wiki/Balfour_Formation "Balfour Formation"), and more specifically in the [*Daptocephalus* Assemblage Zone](/wiki/Daptocephalus_Assemblage_Zone "Daptocephalus Assemblage Zone"), from where they are dated to between 254 and 251\.9 million years ago. The two specimens were mentioned in 2014 in the chapter of a work listing the discoveries made at Nooitgedacht.{{Citation \|last1\=Botha\-Brink \|first1\=Jennifer \|title\=Early Evolutionary History of the Synapsida \|date\=2014 \|pages\=289–304 \|editor\-last\=Kammerer \|editor\-first\=Christian F. \|series\=Vertebrate Paleobiology and Paleoanthropology \|chapter\=Vertebrate Paleontology of Nooitgedacht 68: A ''Lystrosaurus maccaigi''\-rich Permo\-Triassic Boundary Locality in South Africa \|chapter\-url\=https://nasmus.co.za/wp\-content/uploads/2019/01/Botha\-Brink\-et\-al.\-2014\.Early\-Evolutionary\-History\-of\-the\-Synapsida.pdf \|publisher\=\[\[Springer Netherlands]] \|doi\=10\.1007/978\-94\-007\-6841\-3\_17 \|isbn\=978\-94\-007\-6840\-6 \|s2cid\=82860920 \|last2\=Huttenlocker \|first2\=Adam K. \|last3\=Modesto \|first3\=Sean P. \|editor2\-last\=Angielczyk \|editor2\-first\=Kenneth D. \|editor3\-last\=Fröbisch \|editor3\-first\=Jörg}} It was in 2023 that Christian F. Kammerer and his colleagues publish a revision which unexpectedly confirmed that these specimens belonged to the genus *Inostrancevia*, which is a significant first, because the genus was previously reported only in Russia. However, these specimens have some differences with the Russian species, being classified in the newly erected species *I. africana*, the specific epithet referring to Africa, the continent from which the taxon lived. The article officially describing this animal is mainly concerned with the [stratigraphic](/wiki/Stratigraphic "Stratigraphic") significance of the finds and is only a brief introduction to the anatomy of the new fossil material, the latter being subjects for a study to be published later. ### Formerly assigned species and synonyms In his 1927 [monograph](/wiki/Monograph "Monograph"), Pravoslavlev names two additional species of the genus *Inostrancevia*: *I. parva* and *I. proclivis*. In 1940, the paleontologist [Ivan Yefremov](/wiki/Ivan_Yefremov "Ivan Yefremov") expressed doubts about this classification, and considered that the holotype specimen of *I. parva* should be viewed as a [juvenile](/wiki/Juvenile_%28organism%29 "Juvenile (organism)") of the genus and not as a distinct species.{{Cite journal \|last\=Yefremov \|first\=Ivan \|author\-link\=Ivan Yefremov \|year\=1940 \|title\=On the composition of the Severodvinian Permian Fauna from the excavation of V. P. Amalitzky. \|journal\=Academy of Sciences of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics \|volume\=26 \|pages\=893–896}} It was in 1953 that Boris Pavlovich Vyuschkov completely revised the species named for *Inostrancevia*. For *I. parva*, he moves it to a new genus, which he names *[Pravoslavlevia](/wiki/Pravoslavlevia "Pravoslavlevia")*, in honor of the original author who named the species.{{cite journal \|last\=Vyushkov \|first\=Boris P. \|year\=1953 \|title\=On gorgonopsians from the Severodvinian Fauna \|journal\=\[\[Proceedings of the USSR Academy of Sciences\|Doklady Akademii Nauk SSSR]] \|language\=ru \|volume\=91 \|pages\=397–400}} Although being a distinct and [valid](/wiki/Valid_name_%28zoology%29 "Valid name (zoology)") genus, *Pravoslavlevia* turns out to be a closely related taxon.{{Sfn\|Benton\|Shishkin\|Unwin\|Kurochkin\|2000\|pages\=93\-94}}{{cite journal \|last1\=Bendel \|first1\=Eva\-Maria \|last2\=Kammerer \|first2\=Christian F. \|last3\=Kardjilov \|first3\=Nikolay \|last4\=Fernandez \|first4\=Vincent \|last5\=Fröbisch \|first5\=Jörg \|date\=2018 \|title\=Cranial anatomy of the gorgonopsian ''Cynariops robustus'' based on CT\-reconstruction \|journal\=\[\[PLOS ONE]] \|volume\=13 \|issue\=11 \|pages\=e0207367 \|doi\=10\.1371/journal.pone.0207367 \|pmc\=6261584 \|pmid\=30485338 \|doi\-access\=free\|bibcode\=2018PLoSO..1307367B }} Also in his article, he considers that *I. proclivis* is a junior synonym of *I. alexandri*, but remains open to the question of the existence of this species, arguing his opinion with the insufficient preservation of type specimens. This taxon will be definitively judged as being conspecific to *I. alexandri* in the revision of the genus carried out by Tatarinov in 1974\.{{sfn\|Tatarinov\|1974\|p\=89}} Also in is work, Pravoslavlev names another genus of gorgonopsians, *Amalitzkia*, with the two species it includes: *A. vladimiri* and *A. annae*, both named in reference to the pair of paleontologists who carried out the work on the first specimens known of *I. alexandri*. In 1953, Vjuschkov discovered that the genus *Amalitzkia* is a junior synonym of *Inostrancevia*, renaming *A. vladimiri* to *I. vladimiri*, before the latter was itself recognized as a junior synonym of *I. latifrons* by later publications.{{Sfn\|Benton\|Shishkin\|Unwin\|Kurochkin\|2000\|pages\=93\-94}}{{sfn\|Tatarinov\|1974\|p\=93}} For some unclear reason, Vjuschkov refers *A. annae* as a *[nomen nudum](/wiki/Nomen_nudum "Nomen nudum")*, when his description is quite viable. Just like *A. vladimiri*, *A. annae* will be synonymized with *I. latifrons* by Tatarinov in 1974\.{{sfn\|Tatarinov\|1974\|p\=93}} In 2003, [Mikhail F. Ivakhnenko](/wiki/Mikhail_Ivakhnenko "Mikhail Ivakhnenko") erected a new genus of Russian gorgonopsian under the name of *[Leogorgon klimovensis](/wiki/Leogorgon "Leogorgon")*, on the basis of a partial [braincase](/wiki/Braincase "Braincase") and a large referred [canine](/wiki/Canine_tooth "Canine tooth"), both discovered in the Klimovo\-1 locality, in the [Vologda Oblast](/wiki/Vologda_Oblast "Vologda Oblast"). In his official description, Ivakhnenko classifies this taxon among the subfamily [Rubidgeinae](/wiki/Rubidgeinae "Rubidgeinae"), whose fossils are exclusively known from what is now Africa. This would therefore make *Leogorgon* the first known representative of this group to have lived outside this continent. In 2008, however, Ivakhnenko noted that, due to its poorly known anatomy, *Leogorgon* could be a relative of the Russian [Phthinosuchidae](/wiki/Phthinosuchidae "Phthinosuchidae") rather than the sole Russian representative of the Rubidgeinae. In 2016, Kammerer formally rejected Ivakhnenko's classifications, because the holotype braincase of *Leogorgon* likely came from a [dicynodont](/wiki/Dicynodont "Dicynodont"), while the attributed canine tooth is indistinguishable from that of *Inostrancevia*. Since then, *Leogorgon* has been recognized as a *[nomen dubium](/wiki/Nomen_dubium "Nomen dubium")* of which part of the fossils possibly come from *Inostrancevia*. Other species belonging to distinct lineages were sometimes inadvertently classified in the genus *Inostrancevia*. For example, in 1940, Efremov classifies a gorgonopsian of then\-problematic status as *I. progressus*.{{Sfn\|Benton\|Shishkin\|Unwin\|Kurochkin\|2000\|pages\=93\-94}} However, in 1955, [Alexey Bystrow](/wiki/Alexey_Bystrow "Alexey Bystrow") moved this species to the separate genus *[Sauroctonus](/wiki/Sauroctonus "Sauroctonus")*.{{Sfn\|Benton\|Shishkin\|Unwin\|Kurochkin\|2000\|pages\=93\-94}}{{Cite journal \|last\=Bystrow \|first\=A. P. \|year\=1955 \|title\=A gorgonopsian from the Upper Permian beds of the Volga \|journal\=Voprosy Paleontologii \|volume\=2 \|pages\=7–18}}{{sfn\|Tatarinov\|1974\|p\=62}} A large [maxilla](/wiki/Maxilla "Maxilla") discovered in [Vladimir Oblast](/wiki/Vladimir_Oblast "Vladimir Oblast") in the 1950s was also assigned to *Inostrancevia*, but the fossil would be reassigned to a large [therocephalian](/wiki/Therocephalian "Therocephalian") in 1997, and later designated as the holotype of the genus *[Megawhaitsia](/wiki/Megawhaitsia "Megawhaitsia")* in 2008\.{{cite journal \|last1\=Ivakhnenko \|first1\=M. F. \|year\=2008 \|title\=The First Whaitsiid (Therocephalia, Theromorpha) \|journal\=\[\[Paleontological Journal]] \|volume\=42 \|issue\=4 \|pages\=409–413 \|doi\=10\.1134/S0031030108040102 \|s2cid\=140547244}}
[ "Research history\n----------------", "### Recognized species", "During the 1890s, Russian paleontologist [Vladimir Amalitsky](/wiki/Vladimir_Prokhorovich_Amalitskii \"Vladimir Prokhorovich Amalitskii\") discovered freshwater sediments dating from the [Upper Permian](/wiki/Upper_Permian \"Upper Permian\") in [Northern Dvina](/wiki/Northern_Dvina \"Northern Dvina\"), [Arkhangelsk Oblast](/wiki/Arkhangelsk_Oblast \"Arkhangelsk Oblast\"), northern [European Russia](/wiki/European_Russia \"European Russia\"). The locality, known as PIN 2005, consists of a [creek](/wiki/Stream%23Creek \"Stream#Creek\") with [sandstone](/wiki/Sandstone \"Sandstone\") and [lens](/wiki/Lens_%28geology%29 \"Lens (geology)\")\\-shaped exposures in a [bank](/wiki/Bank_%28geography%29 \"Bank (geography)\") [escarpment](/wiki/Escarpment \"Escarpment\"), containing many particularly well\\-preserved fossil skeletons.{{cite journal \\|last\\=Amalitzky \\|first\\=V. \\|year\\=1922 \\|title\\=Diagnoses of the new forms of vertebrates and plants from the Upper Permian on North Dvina \\|url\\=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/151415\\#page/341/mode/1up \\|journal\\=Bulletin de l'Académie des Sciences de Russie \\|volume\\=16 \\|issue\\=6 \\|pages\\=329–340}} This type of fauna from this period, previously known only from [South Africa](/wiki/South_Africa \"South Africa\") and [India](/wiki/India \"India\"), is considered as one of the greatest paleontological discoveries of the late 19th and early 20th centuries.{{Sfn\\|Benton\\|Shishkin\\|Unwin\\|Kurochkin\\|2000\\|page\\=4}} After the preliminary reconnaissance of the place, Amalitsky conducts systematic research with his companion {{ill\\|Anna P. Amalitsky\\|ru\\|Амалицкая, Анна Петровна}}. The first excavations began in 1899,{{sfn\\|Gebauer\\|2007\\|p\\=9}} and several of her findings where sent to [Warsaw](/wiki/Warsaw \"Warsaw\"), [Poland](/wiki/Poland \"Poland\"), in order to be prepared there.{{sfn\\|Lankester\\|1905\\|p\\=214\\-215}} The exhumations of the fossils then lasted until 1914, when the research stopped due to the start of the [World War I](/wiki/World_War_I \"World War I\").{{Sfn\\|Benton\\|Shishkin\\|Unwin\\|Kurochkin\\|2000\\|page\\=5}} The fossils discovered within the site will subsequently be moved to the Museum of Geology and Mineralogy of the [Russian Academy of Sciences](/wiki/Russian_Academy_of_Sciences \"Russian Academy of Sciences\"). All the fossils listed were not prepared, and more than 100 tons of concretions were promised for new discoveries by the museum in question.", "[thumb\\|left\\|PIN 2005/1578, the [lectotype](/wiki/Lectotype \"Lectotype\") skeleton of *I. alexandri*](/wiki/File:Inostrancevia.jpg \"Inostrancevia.jpg\")", "The multiple administrative activities and difficult conditions during Amalitsky's last years have severely hampered his fossil research, leading to his unexpected death in 1917\\. However, among all the fossils identified before his death are two remarkably complete skeletons of large [gorgonopsians](/wiki/Gorgonopsia \"Gorgonopsia\"), cataloged [PIN](/wiki/Paleontological_Institute%2C_Russian_Academy_of_Sciences \"Paleontological Institute, Russian Academy of Sciences\") 1758 and PIN 2005/1578\\.{{Sfn\\|Benton\\|Shishkin\\|Unwin\\|Kurochkin\\|2000\\|pages\\=93\\-94}}{{sfn\\|Gebauer\\|2007\\|p\\=229}} After identification, he assigned the two specimens to a completely new [genus](/wiki/Genus \"Genus\") and [species](/wiki/Species \"Species\"), which he named *Inostranzevia alexandri*, the specimen PIN 2005/1578 being recognized as its [lectotype](/wiki/Lectotype \"Lectotype\").{{Sfn\\|Benton\\|Shishkin\\|Unwin\\|Kurochkin\\|2000\\|pages\\=93\\-94}}{{sfn\\|Gebauer\\|2007\\|p\\=229}} Although the [taxon](/wiki/Taxon \"Taxon\") was not officially described posthumously until 1922, the use of this name in [scientific literature](/wiki/Scientific_literature \"Scientific literature\") dates back to the beginning of the 20th century, notably in the works of [Friedrich von Huene](/wiki/Friedrich_von_Huene \"Friedrich von Huene\") and [Edwin Ray Lankester](/wiki/Edwin_Ray_Lankester \"Edwin Ray Lankester\").{{sfn\\|von Huene\\|1902\\|p\\=36}}{{sfn\\|Lankester\\|1905\\|p\\=221}}{{sfn\\|Hutchinson\\|1910\\|p\\=Plate XI}}{{cite web \\|last\\=Greenfield \\|first\\=Tyler \\|date\\=2023\\-12\\-26 \\|title\\=Who named ''Inostrancevia''? \\|url\\=https://incertaesedisblog.wordpress.com/2023/12/26/who\\-named\\-inostrancevia/ \\|website\\=Incertae Sedis}} Taxonomic issues regarding the original naming of the genus are the subject of a study which should be published later. Although the [etymology](/wiki/Etymology \"Etymology\") of the genus and [type species](/wiki/Type_species \"Type species\") is not provided in the earliest\\-known descriptions of the taxon, the full name of the animal is named in honor of the renowned geologist {{ill\\|Alexander Inostrantsev\\|ru\\|Иностранцев, Александр Александрович}},{{cite web\\|title\\=''Inostrancevia''\\|url\\=http://www.paleofile.com/Theriodontia/Inostrancevia.asp\\|website\\=Paleofile}} who was one of Amalitsky's teachers.{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Jagt\\-Yazykova \\|first1\\=Elena A. \\|last2\\=Racki \\|first2\\=Grzegorz \\|year\\=2017 \\|title\\=Vladimir P. Amalitsky and Dmitry N. Sobolev – late nineteenth/ early twentieth century pioneers of modern concepts of palaeobiogeography, biosphere evolution and mass extinctions \\|journal\\=\\[\\[Episodes (journal)\\|Episodes]] \\|volume\\=40 \\|issue\\=3 \\|pages\\=189–199 \\|doi\\=10\\.18814/EPIIUGS/2017/V40I3/017022 \\|s2cid\\=133685968 \\|doi\\-access\\=free}} Amalitsky's article generally describes all the fossil discoveries made in the Northern Dvina, and not *Inostrancevia* itself, the article mentioning that further research on this gorgonopsian is subject to research.", "It was in 1927 that one of Amalitsky's colleagues, {{ill\\|Pavel A. Pravoslavlev\\|ru\\|Православлев, Павел Александрович}}, published the first formal description of the genus. In his monograph he names several additional species,{{efn\\|1\\=The existence of these \\[\\[taxa]] are already mentioned in the article describing ''I. alexandri'', but were not officially named and described in detail until 1927\\.}} and revises in detail the [morphology](/wiki/Morphology_%28biology%29 \"Morphology (biology)\") of the two known skeletons of *I. alexandri*.{{cite book \\|last\\=Pravoslavlev \\|first\\=P. A. \\|title\\=Gorgonopsidae from the North Dvina expedition of V. P. Amalitzki \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Doklady Akademii Nauk\\|Akademii Nauk SSSR]] \\|year\\=1927 \\|volume\\=3 \\|pages\\=1–117 \\|language\\=ru}} Of all the named species, only *I. latifrons* was the only one recognized as a clearly distinct species within the genus, being based on skulls discovered within Arkhangelsk Oblast as well as a very incomplete skeleton from the village of [Zavrazhye](/wiki/Zavrazhye \"Zavrazhye\"), located in [Vladimir Oblast](/wiki/Vladimir_Oblast \"Vladimir Oblast\").{{Sfn\\|Benton\\|Shishkin\\|Unwin\\|Kurochkin\\|2000\\|pages\\=93\\-94}} The specific epithet *latifrons* comes from the [Latin](/wiki/Latin \"Latin\") *latus* \"broad\" and *frōns* \"forehead\", in reference to the size and the more robust cranial constitution than that of *I. alexandri*. In his book, Pravoslavlev also changed the typography of the name \"*Inostranzevia*\" to \"*Inostrancevia*\".{{efn\\|1\\=The latter name had already been changed previously by \\[\\[Samuel Wendell Williston]] in 1925, but it was not until Pravoslavlev's publication that the taxon was mainly known under this designation.}} This last term has since entered into universal usage and must be maintained according to the rule of article 33\\.3\\.1 of the [ICZN](/wiki/ICZN \"ICZN\").{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Kammerer \\|first1\\=Christian F. \\|last2\\=Masyutin \\|first2\\=Vladimir \\|name\\-list\\-style\\=amp \\|date\\=2018 \\|title\\=Gorgonopsian therapsids (''Nochnitsa'' gen. nov. and ''Viatkogorgon'') from the Permian Kotelnich locality of Russia \\|journal\\=\\[\\[PeerJ]] \\|volume\\=6 \\|pages\\=e4954 \\|doi\\=10\\.7717/peerj.4954 \\|pmc\\=5995105 \\|pmid\\=29900078 \\|doi\\-access\\=free}} Although Pravoslavlev's work was of major importance, more recent work requires that a re\\-examination of the skeletal anatomy of the genus is necessary in order to broaden the understanding of the animal's biology.", "{{External media\\|float\\=right\\|image1\\=\\[https://age\\-of\\-mammals.ucoz.ru/\\_si/5/99456799\\.jpg Photograph and sketch of the holotype specimen of ''I. uralensis'']\\|title\\=External picture}}", "In 1974, [Leonid Tatarinov](/wiki/Leonid_Petrovich_Tatarinov \"Leonid Petrovich Tatarinov\") described the third species, *I. uralensis*, based on rare remains of part of the skull from an individual smaller than the other two recognized species. The holotype specimen, cataloged PIN 2896/1, consists of a left [basioccipital](/wiki/Basioccipital \"Basioccipital\") discovered in the locality of Blumental\\-3, in the [Orenburg Oblast](/wiki/Orenburg_Oblast \"Orenburg Oblast\"). The specific epithet *uralensis* refers to the [Ural River](/wiki/Ural_River \"Ural River\"), where the holotype specimen of the taxon was found.{{sfn\\|Tatarinov\\|1974\\|p\\=96\\-99}} However, due to its poor fossil preservation of this species, Tatarinov argues that it is possible that *I. uralensis* could belong to a new genus of large gorgonopsians without having a certain confirmation.{{sfn\\|Tatarinov\\|1974\\|p\\=99}}", "The fourth known species, *I. africana*, was discovered from two specimens found between 2010 and 2011, respectively, by Nthaopa Ntheri and [John Nyaphuli](/wiki/John_Nyaphuli \"John Nyaphuli\") at Nooitgedacht Farm in the [Karoo Basin](/wiki/Karoo_Supergroup \"Karoo Supergroup\"), South Africa. The two known specimens, holotype NMQR 4000 and paratype NMQR 3707, are recorded in the [Balfour Formation](/wiki/Balfour_Formation \"Balfour Formation\"), and more specifically in the [*Daptocephalus* Assemblage Zone](/wiki/Daptocephalus_Assemblage_Zone \"Daptocephalus Assemblage Zone\"), from where they are dated to between 254 and 251\\.9 million years ago. The two specimens were mentioned in 2014 in the chapter of a work listing the discoveries made at Nooitgedacht.{{Citation \\|last1\\=Botha\\-Brink \\|first1\\=Jennifer \\|title\\=Early Evolutionary History of the Synapsida \\|date\\=2014 \\|pages\\=289–304 \\|editor\\-last\\=Kammerer \\|editor\\-first\\=Christian F. \\|series\\=Vertebrate Paleobiology and Paleoanthropology \\|chapter\\=Vertebrate Paleontology of Nooitgedacht 68: A ''Lystrosaurus maccaigi''\\-rich Permo\\-Triassic Boundary Locality in South Africa \\|chapter\\-url\\=https://nasmus.co.za/wp\\-content/uploads/2019/01/Botha\\-Brink\\-et\\-al.\\-2014\\.Early\\-Evolutionary\\-History\\-of\\-the\\-Synapsida.pdf \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Springer Netherlands]] \\|doi\\=10\\.1007/978\\-94\\-007\\-6841\\-3\\_17 \\|isbn\\=978\\-94\\-007\\-6840\\-6 \\|s2cid\\=82860920 \\|last2\\=Huttenlocker \\|first2\\=Adam K. \\|last3\\=Modesto \\|first3\\=Sean P. \\|editor2\\-last\\=Angielczyk \\|editor2\\-first\\=Kenneth D. \\|editor3\\-last\\=Fröbisch \\|editor3\\-first\\=Jörg}} It was in 2023 that Christian F. Kammerer and his colleagues publish a revision which unexpectedly confirmed that these specimens belonged to the genus *Inostrancevia*, which is a significant first, because the genus was previously reported only in Russia. However, these specimens have some differences with the Russian species, being classified in the newly erected species *I. africana*, the specific epithet referring to Africa, the continent from which the taxon lived. The article officially describing this animal is mainly concerned with the [stratigraphic](/wiki/Stratigraphic \"Stratigraphic\") significance of the finds and is only a brief introduction to the anatomy of the new fossil material, the latter being subjects for a study to be published later.", "### Formerly assigned species and synonyms", "In his 1927 [monograph](/wiki/Monograph \"Monograph\"), Pravoslavlev names two additional species of the genus *Inostrancevia*: *I. parva* and *I. proclivis*. In 1940, the paleontologist [Ivan Yefremov](/wiki/Ivan_Yefremov \"Ivan Yefremov\") expressed doubts about this classification, and considered that the holotype specimen of *I. parva* should be viewed as a [juvenile](/wiki/Juvenile_%28organism%29 \"Juvenile (organism)\") of the genus and not as a distinct species.{{Cite journal \\|last\\=Yefremov \\|first\\=Ivan \\|author\\-link\\=Ivan Yefremov \\|year\\=1940 \\|title\\=On the composition of the Severodvinian Permian Fauna from the excavation of V. P. Amalitzky. \\|journal\\=Academy of Sciences of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics \\|volume\\=26 \\|pages\\=893–896}} It was in 1953 that Boris Pavlovich Vyuschkov completely revised the species named for *Inostrancevia*. For *I. parva*, he moves it to a new genus, which he names *[Pravoslavlevia](/wiki/Pravoslavlevia \"Pravoslavlevia\")*, in honor of the original author who named the species.{{cite journal \\|last\\=Vyushkov \\|first\\=Boris P. \\|year\\=1953 \\|title\\=On gorgonopsians from the Severodvinian Fauna \\|journal\\=\\[\\[Proceedings of the USSR Academy of Sciences\\|Doklady Akademii Nauk SSSR]] \\|language\\=ru \\|volume\\=91 \\|pages\\=397–400}} Although being a distinct and [valid](/wiki/Valid_name_%28zoology%29 \"Valid name (zoology)\") genus, *Pravoslavlevia* turns out to be a closely related taxon.{{Sfn\\|Benton\\|Shishkin\\|Unwin\\|Kurochkin\\|2000\\|pages\\=93\\-94}}{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Bendel \\|first1\\=Eva\\-Maria \\|last2\\=Kammerer \\|first2\\=Christian F. \\|last3\\=Kardjilov \\|first3\\=Nikolay \\|last4\\=Fernandez \\|first4\\=Vincent \\|last5\\=Fröbisch \\|first5\\=Jörg \\|date\\=2018 \\|title\\=Cranial anatomy of the gorgonopsian ''Cynariops robustus'' based on CT\\-reconstruction \\|journal\\=\\[\\[PLOS ONE]] \\|volume\\=13 \\|issue\\=11 \\|pages\\=e0207367 \\|doi\\=10\\.1371/journal.pone.0207367 \\|pmc\\=6261584 \\|pmid\\=30485338 \\|doi\\-access\\=free\\|bibcode\\=2018PLoSO..1307367B }} Also in his article, he considers that *I. proclivis* is a junior synonym of *I. alexandri*, but remains open to the question of the existence of this species, arguing his opinion with the insufficient preservation of type specimens. This taxon will be definitively judged as being conspecific to *I. alexandri* in the revision of the genus carried out by Tatarinov in 1974\\.{{sfn\\|Tatarinov\\|1974\\|p\\=89}}", "Also in is work, Pravoslavlev names another genus of gorgonopsians, *Amalitzkia*, with the two species it includes: *A. vladimiri* and *A. annae*, both named in reference to the pair of paleontologists who carried out the work on the first specimens known of *I. alexandri*. In 1953, Vjuschkov discovered that the genus *Amalitzkia* is a junior synonym of *Inostrancevia*, renaming *A. vladimiri* to *I. vladimiri*, before the latter was itself recognized as a junior synonym of *I. latifrons* by later publications.{{Sfn\\|Benton\\|Shishkin\\|Unwin\\|Kurochkin\\|2000\\|pages\\=93\\-94}}{{sfn\\|Tatarinov\\|1974\\|p\\=93}} For some unclear reason, Vjuschkov refers *A. annae* as a *[nomen nudum](/wiki/Nomen_nudum \"Nomen nudum\")*, when his description is quite viable. Just like *A. vladimiri*, *A. annae* will be synonymized with *I. latifrons* by Tatarinov in 1974\\.{{sfn\\|Tatarinov\\|1974\\|p\\=93}}", "In 2003, [Mikhail F. Ivakhnenko](/wiki/Mikhail_Ivakhnenko \"Mikhail Ivakhnenko\") erected a new genus of Russian gorgonopsian under the name of *[Leogorgon klimovensis](/wiki/Leogorgon \"Leogorgon\")*, on the basis of a partial [braincase](/wiki/Braincase \"Braincase\") and a large referred [canine](/wiki/Canine_tooth \"Canine tooth\"), both discovered in the Klimovo\\-1 locality, in the [Vologda Oblast](/wiki/Vologda_Oblast \"Vologda Oblast\"). In his official description, Ivakhnenko classifies this taxon among the subfamily [Rubidgeinae](/wiki/Rubidgeinae \"Rubidgeinae\"), whose fossils are exclusively known from what is now Africa. This would therefore make *Leogorgon* the first known representative of this group to have lived outside this continent. In 2008, however, Ivakhnenko noted that, due to its poorly known anatomy, *Leogorgon* could be a relative of the Russian [Phthinosuchidae](/wiki/Phthinosuchidae \"Phthinosuchidae\") rather than the sole Russian representative of the Rubidgeinae. In 2016, Kammerer formally rejected Ivakhnenko's classifications, because the holotype braincase of *Leogorgon* likely came from a [dicynodont](/wiki/Dicynodont \"Dicynodont\"), while the attributed canine tooth is indistinguishable from that of *Inostrancevia*. Since then, *Leogorgon* has been recognized as a *[nomen dubium](/wiki/Nomen_dubium \"Nomen dubium\")* of which part of the fossils possibly come from *Inostrancevia*.", "Other species belonging to distinct lineages were sometimes inadvertently classified in the genus *Inostrancevia*. For example, in 1940, Efremov classifies a gorgonopsian of then\\-problematic status as *I. progressus*.{{Sfn\\|Benton\\|Shishkin\\|Unwin\\|Kurochkin\\|2000\\|pages\\=93\\-94}} However, in 1955, [Alexey Bystrow](/wiki/Alexey_Bystrow \"Alexey Bystrow\") moved this species to the separate genus *[Sauroctonus](/wiki/Sauroctonus \"Sauroctonus\")*.{{Sfn\\|Benton\\|Shishkin\\|Unwin\\|Kurochkin\\|2000\\|pages\\=93\\-94}}{{Cite journal \\|last\\=Bystrow \\|first\\=A. P. \\|year\\=1955 \\|title\\=A gorgonopsian from the Upper Permian beds of the Volga \\|journal\\=Voprosy Paleontologii \\|volume\\=2 \\|pages\\=7–18}}{{sfn\\|Tatarinov\\|1974\\|p\\=62}} A large [maxilla](/wiki/Maxilla \"Maxilla\") discovered in [Vladimir Oblast](/wiki/Vladimir_Oblast \"Vladimir Oblast\") in the 1950s was also assigned to *Inostrancevia*, but the fossil would be reassigned to a large [therocephalian](/wiki/Therocephalian \"Therocephalian\") in 1997, and later designated as the holotype of the genus *[Megawhaitsia](/wiki/Megawhaitsia \"Megawhaitsia\")* in 2008\\.{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Ivakhnenko \\|first1\\=M. F. \\|year\\=2008 \\|title\\=The First Whaitsiid (Therocephalia, Theromorpha) \\|journal\\=\\[\\[Paleontological Journal]] \\|volume\\=42 \\|issue\\=4 \\|pages\\=409–413 \\|doi\\=10\\.1134/S0031030108040102 \\|s2cid\\=140547244}}", "" ]
Methods ------- ICRA created a [content description system](/wiki/Content_rating "Content rating") which allowed webmasters and digital content creators to self\-label their content in categories such as [nudity](/wiki/Nudity "Nudity"), [sex](/wiki/Sex "Sex"), [language](/wiki/Language "Language") (profanity etc.), [violence](/wiki/Violence "Violence"), other potentially undesired material and online interactivity such as social networking and chat. There are context variables such as [art](/wiki/Art "Art"), [medicine](/wiki/Medicine "Medicine") and [news](/wiki/News "News")—for example, a piece of content or site can be described as having depictions of nudes, but they are in an artistic context. A key point is that ICRA does not rate internet content, nor do it make value judgements about sites – the content providers self\-label, and then parents and other concerned adults make a value judgement as to what is or is not appropriate content. The labelling was done using a web\-based questionnaire. The content creators checked which of the elements in the questionnaire are present or absent from their Web sites, and a small file is automatically generated using the [RDF](/wiki/Resource_Description_Framework "Resource Description Framework") format, which is then linked to the content on one or more domains. Formerly, the system was based on [PICS](/wiki/Platform_for_Internet_Content_Selection "Platform for Internet Content Selection"). Users could then use [content filtering software](/wiki/Content_filtering_software "Content filtering software") to censor various types of content. One such application, ICRAplus, was maintained by ICRA itself. ICRA also had a validator which tested all versions of ICRA and old [RSACi](/wiki/RSACi "RSACi") labels. The content descriptions were revised in 2005 to enable easier application to a wide range of digital content, not just websites. The ICRA also intended to launch a service to verify the accuracy of ICRA labels and to provide this information to third\-party tools and services, such as [search engines](/wiki/Web_search_engine "Web search engine"). Alternative labelling projects include Quatro, an [EU](/wiki/European_Union "European Union")\-funded project which integrates content labels with quality and trust marks, and its successor, QuatroPlus.
[ "Methods\n-------", "ICRA created a [content description system](/wiki/Content_rating \"Content rating\") which allowed webmasters and digital content creators to self\\-label their content in categories such as [nudity](/wiki/Nudity \"Nudity\"), [sex](/wiki/Sex \"Sex\"), [language](/wiki/Language \"Language\") (profanity etc.), [violence](/wiki/Violence \"Violence\"), other potentially undesired material and online interactivity such as social networking and chat. There are context variables such as [art](/wiki/Art \"Art\"), [medicine](/wiki/Medicine \"Medicine\") and [news](/wiki/News \"News\")—for example, a piece of content or site can be described as having depictions of nudes, but they are in an artistic context. A key point is that ICRA does not rate internet content, nor do it make value judgements about sites – the content providers self\\-label, and then parents and other concerned adults make a value judgement as to what is or is not appropriate content.", "The labelling was done using a web\\-based questionnaire. The content creators checked which of the elements in the questionnaire are present or absent from their Web sites, and a small file is automatically generated using the [RDF](/wiki/Resource_Description_Framework \"Resource Description Framework\") format, which is then linked to the content on one or more domains. Formerly, the system was based on [PICS](/wiki/Platform_for_Internet_Content_Selection \"Platform for Internet Content Selection\").", "Users could then use [content filtering software](/wiki/Content_filtering_software \"Content filtering software\") to censor various types of content. One such application, ICRAplus, was maintained by ICRA itself. ICRA also had a validator which tested all versions of ICRA and old [RSACi](/wiki/RSACi \"RSACi\") labels.", "The content descriptions were revised in 2005 to enable easier application to a wide range of digital content, not just websites.", "The ICRA also intended to launch a service to verify the accuracy of ICRA labels and to provide this information to third\\-party tools and services, such as [search engines](/wiki/Web_search_engine \"Web search engine\").", "Alternative labelling projects include Quatro, an [EU](/wiki/European_Union \"European Union\")\\-funded project which integrates content labels with quality and trust marks, and its successor, QuatroPlus.", "" ]
Ski resort ---------- [thumb\|left\|300px\|Snowbird: Great Scott \- Upper, Middle and Lower Cirque](/wiki/File:Snowbird_Upper_Middle_and_Lower_Cirque_photo_D_Ramey_Logan.jpg "Snowbird Upper Middle and Lower Cirque photo D Ramey Logan.jpg") [thumb\|150px\|right\|Inside the Snowbird Cliff Lodge in 2006](/wiki/Image:May_28_2006_Snowbird_UT_USA_inside_lodge.jpg "May 28 2006 Snowbird UT USA inside lodge.jpg") Snowbird resort is a year\-round ski and summer resort located in the heart of the [Wasatch National Forest](/wiki/Wasatch-Cache_National_Forest "Wasatch-Cache National Forest") on the eastern border of the [Salt Lake City](/wiki/Salt_Lake_City "Salt Lake City") suburb of [Sandy](/wiki/Sandy%2C_Utah "Sandy, Utah"). It is {{convert\|29\|mi}} from [Salt Lake City International Airport](/wiki/Salt_Lake_City_International_Airport "Salt Lake City International Airport"), {{convert\|24\|mi}} from [downtown Salt Lake City](/wiki/Downtown_Salt_Lake_City "Downtown Salt Lake City") and {{convert\|4\|mi\|0}} east of the [suburb](/wiki/Suburb "Suburb") of [Sandy](/wiki/Sandy%2C_Utah "Sandy, Utah"). The resort first opened in December 1971\. Snowbird shares Little Cottonwood Canyon with [Alta Ski Area](/wiki/Alta_Ski_Area "Alta Ski Area") to the east, just up the canyon over a ridge that separates the two. Beginning winter 2002, the two resorts offer a joint day pass and a joint season ticket allowing full access all of the terrain on both mountains: 26 ski lifts and tows and a skiable area of {{convert\|4700\|acre\|km2\|0}}. The collaboration coincided with the opening of a new lift in Mineral Basin, a large bowl owned by Snowbird on the back of Snowbird's Hidden Peak and Alta's Sugarloaf mountains that had been skiable within the resort since 1999\. The installation of Baldy Express in 2002 allowed access to Alta from the Basin. Other access points between the two resorts exist as well. The offer is open to skiers only, as a result of Alta's skiers\-only (no snowboarders) policy. Both areas receive more than {{convert\|500\|in\|cm\|\-1}} of [snowfall](/wiki/Snowfall "Snowfall") per year due to [lake\-effect](/wiki/Great_Salt_Lake_effect "Great Salt Lake effect") enhancement from the [Great Salt Lake](/wiki/Great_Salt_Lake "Great Salt Lake"), making them the second snowiest ski areas in the United States (after the ones in the [Cascades](/wiki/Cascade_Range "Cascade Range")). In contrast to the humid and wet conditions in the Cascades near the [Pacific Ocean](/wiki/Pacific_Ocean "Pacific Ocean"), the arid condition of the [Great Basin](/wiki/Great_Basin "Great Basin") produces very dry and powdery snow, making Snowbird and Alta top global destinations for powder\-skiing aficionados. Another benefit of being East of the Great Salt Lake is that salt from the lake provides the condensation nuclei that creates ice pellet snow that doesn't pack like normal snowflakes. Loose powder for days after a snowfall is common. On very windy days the salt is lifted thousands of feet and has been known to coat the windshield of airplanes flying into Salt Lake City. Snowbird, which operates primarily on privately owned land, usually closes on [Memorial Day](/wiki/Memorial_Day "Memorial Day") in late May while the occasional ski year can last as long as the [Fourth of July](/wiki/Fourth_of_July "Fourth of July") on the upper part of the mountain (accessed by the aerial tram), perennially offering the longest ski season in Utah as other Utah resorts must close earlier because they are on Forest Service land{{Citation needed\|date\=September 2024\|reason\=Specifically for the claim that private land vs. Forest Service affects the closing date; obviously they do stay open later, but the reason needs a source.}}. Snowbird has a skiable area of {{convert\|2500\|acre\|km2\|1}} with a vertical drop of {{convert\|3240\|ft\|0}} from the summit of Hidden Peak, which has an elevation of above {{convert\|11000\|ft\|0}}. Hidden Peak is serviced by an aerial tram from the base area. The resort covers three drainage areas: Peruvian Gulch, Gad Valley, and Mineral Basin. Snowbird is perennially celebrated by industry magazines for its exceptional snowfall, vast and wide\-ranging terrain and easy accessibility from the Salt Lake City International Airport. Snowbird set a resort record of {{convert\|776\|in\|cm\|0}} of cumulative snow (mid\-mountain measurement) in May 2011\. Snowbird is known for its particularly challenging terrain, with most ski runs having a difficulty of "intermediates only" or higher. The most difficult part of the mountain is the cirque traverse, which contains all runs for experts only. ### Lifts | Lift Name | Length | Vertical | Type | Make | Year Installed | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Aerial Tram | 8,395 ft | 2,900 ft | [Aerial Tram](/wiki/Aerial_tramway "Aerial tramway") | [Yan](/wiki/Lift_Engineering "Lift Engineering") | 1971 | | Baby Thunder | 1,966 ft | 638 ft | [Fixed Double](/wiki/Chairlift "Chairlift") | [Doppelmayr](/wiki/Doppelmayr_%28North_America%29 "Doppelmayr (North America)") | 1995 | | Baldy | 3,482 ft | 1,019 ft | [High Speed Quad](/wiki/High-speed_quad_chairlift "High-speed quad chairlift") | [Garaventa CTEC](/wiki/Doppelmayr_%28North_America%29 "Doppelmayr (North America)") | 2001 | | Chickadee | 830 ft | 149 ft | [Fixed Double](/wiki/Chairlift "Chairlift") | [Thiokol](/wiki/Thiokol "Thiokol") | 1972 | | Gad 2 | 4,017 ft | 1,242 ft | [High Speed Quad](/wiki/High-speed_quad_chairlift "High-speed quad chairlift") | [Doppelmayr](/wiki/Doppelmayr_%28North_America%29 "Doppelmayr (North America)") | 2013 | | Gadzoom | 6,457 ft | 1,823 ft | [High Speed Quad](/wiki/High-speed_quad_chairlift "High-speed quad chairlift") | [Garaventa CTEC](/wiki/Doppelmayr_%28North_America%29 "Doppelmayr (North America)") | 1997 | | Little Cloud | 3,204 ft | 1,302 ft | [High Speed Quad](/wiki/High-speed_quad_chairlift "High-speed quad chairlift") | [Doppelmayr](/wiki/Doppelmayr_%28North_America%29 "Doppelmayr (North America)") | 2012 | | Mid Gad | 4,287 ft | 1,315 ft | [Fixed Double](/wiki/Chairlift "Chairlift") | [Doppelmayr](/wiki/Doppelmayr_%28North_America%29 "Doppelmayr (North America)") | 1980 | | Mineral Basin | 3,515 ft | 1,435 ft | [High Speed Quad](/wiki/High-speed_quad_chairlift "High-speed quad chairlift") | [Garaventa CTEC](/wiki/Doppelmayr_%28North_America%29 "Doppelmayr (North America)") | 1999 | | Peruvian | 8,031 ft | 2,421 ft | [High Speed Quad](/wiki/High-speed_quad_chairlift "High-speed quad chairlift") | [Doppelmayr CTEC](/wiki/Doppelmayr_%28North_America%29 "Doppelmayr (North America)") | 2006 | | Wilbere | 1,968 ft | 668 ft | [Fixed Double](/wiki/Chairlift "Chairlift") | [Doppelmayr](/wiki/Doppelmayr_%28North_America%29 "Doppelmayr (North America)") | 1971 | Snowbird currently has 10 [chairlifts](/wiki/Chairlift "Chairlift") (6 [high\-speed quads](/wiki/Detachable_chairlift "Detachable chairlift"), 4 doubles), a surface lift, an [aerial tram](/wiki/Aerial_tramway "Aerial tramway"), and a {{convert\|600\|ft\|m\|adj\=on}} tunnel enclosing a one\-way conveyor lift connecting Peruvian Gulch to Mineral Basin allowing easier access for beginners and intermediates to new terrain. The tunnel, the only of its kind in North America, also allows for skier transport when winds require the closing of the aerial tram. The tunnel connects the front half of the resort to Mineral Basin, which is the back half of the mountain. Inside of the tunnel, there are also pictures with descriptions about the history of the tunnel's construction.[thumb\|left\|Video of the Peruvian Tunnel](/wiki/File:Snowbird_Magic_Carpet.ogv "Snowbird Magic Carpet.ogv") ### Facilities [thumb\|The Aerial Tram](/wiki/File:Snowbird_Tram_Wikipedia_Video_by_D_Ramey_Logan.ogv "Snowbird Tram Wikipedia Video by D Ramey Logan.ogv") The Little Cottonwood Canyon resort has a total of four lodges: the Iron {{Not a typo\|Blosam}}, the Inn, the Lodge at Snowbird, and the Cliff Lodge. The resort also has gift shops, restaurants, arcades, hiking trails, pools and a rooftop spa. The summit restaurant was built at Hidden Peak during summer 2015\. The resort has {{convert\|50000\|sqft\|m2}} of meeting space, with 31 meeting rooms and a {{convert\|15000\|sqft\|m2\|adj\=on}} Event Center available in the summer. ### Summer activities While being widely known as a ski resort, Snowbird is also open during the summer. Throughout the warmer months, Snowbird offers a wide variety of activities that allow visitors to enjoy all the features, without the snow. There are many different activities that travelers can participate in during the summer, but there are five that most people tend to gravitate towards: The Alpine Slide, The Mountain Coaster, Summer Tubing, The Vertical Drop, and Ropes Courses. The Alpine Slide is a dual track that runs down the Chickadee ski slope and includes twists, turns, and tunnels. The driver must be at least seven years old, but three to six\-year\-olds can ride on an adult's lap (18\+). The Mountain Coaster is a 3,120 feet coaster that fits up to two riders. It sits near the base of the Peruvian Express chairlift outside the Snowbird Center. Riders must be at least three years old, and in order to ride alone they must be 54 inches tall. Participants between 38 and 54 inches can ride with an adult (16\+). Summer Tubing is the warm weather version of snow tubing and is available to the east of Chickadee by the entrance of The Cliff Lodge. Participants must be at least four years old and 40 inches tall. The Vertical Drop is a 50\-foot tower located near the top of Chickadee. Participants experience what is known as the “Big Drop”, which includes nine feet of free\-falling that is followed by a gradual fall to the ground. To partake, visitors must weigh between 44 and 285 pounds. The Ropes Course, located near the Chickadee bowl, allows travelers to be strapped into a harness and walk high above ground to see all of Snowbird's beauty. Participants must be at least 48 inches tall, weigh under 300 pounds, and have on closed toed shoes. For children ages two to six that do not meet those requirements, there is also The Mini Ropes Course. The kids must be under 130 pounds and have on closed toed shoes, but this alternative is parent guided and includes all the same challenges without the height factor.“Summer Activities.” Home, www.snowbird.com/summer\-activities/. ### Awards *Skiing Magazine* ranked the Alta\-Snowbird ski area second in North America overall and first in the United States for the 2003–04 and 2004–05 seasons. According to *SKI Magazine* (October 2002\) Snowbird ranked 20th in North America with gold medals in snow, access, challenge, terrain, scenery, weather, and lifts. In specific categories it was ranked third in North America for snow, fourth in North America for challenge, and fifth in North America for terrain. Snowbird ranks as the second best resort in North America, runner\-up to [Whistler Blackcomb](/wiki/Whistler_Blackcomb "Whistler Blackcomb") resort in Canada, according to *Skiing Magazine*. In 2008, *Outside* named Alta\-Snowbird the number one ski destination in North America. More recently, ZRankings ranked Snowbird as the fourth best ski resort in North America. Snowbird's snowfall and weather is also considered to be amongst the best in the world for skiing; ZRankings rated Snowbird's snow as the second best in North America (behind its next\-door neighbor, Alta).{{cite web\|title\=Best Ski Resorts: Snowbird Terrain, Snow Quality and Mountain Ranks\|url\=http://zrankings.com/resort/show?id\=141\-snowbird\|website\=ZRankings\|publisher\=ZRankings LLC\|access\-date\=27 April 2015}} Two of Snowbird's mountain school instructors, Rob Sogard and Nancy Thoreson, made *SKI Magazine'''s Top 100 list. [thumb\|Snowbird, Utah tram top station, mechanical details](/wiki/File:Snowbird_Tram_top_station%2C_UT.jpg "Snowbird Tram top station, UT.jpg")* Images ------ Image:Salt Lake Valley from the Hidden Peaks summit photo D Ramey Logan.jpg\|The Salt Lake Valley from Snowbird Image:Snowbird Gondola photo D Ramey Logan.jpg\|Snowbird Tram to 11,000 ft. Image:Skiing at Snowbird Utah photo Ramey Logan.jpg\|Skiing in Snowbird Image:Snowbirdutah.jpg\|Snowbird mid\-June 2003 References ---------- {{reflist}} Shelton, Peter (1989\) * Insiders Guide to the Best Skiing in Utah *Telluride: Western Eye Press {{ISBN\|0\-941283\-03\-8}} Asmus, Brad (1993\)* * Powder Hound's Guide to Skiing Snowbird'' {{ISBN\|0\-9631113\-1\-0}}
[ "Ski resort\n----------", "[thumb\\|left\\|300px\\|Snowbird: Great Scott \\- Upper, Middle and Lower Cirque](/wiki/File:Snowbird_Upper_Middle_and_Lower_Cirque_photo_D_Ramey_Logan.jpg \"Snowbird Upper Middle and Lower Cirque photo D Ramey Logan.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|150px\\|right\\|Inside the Snowbird Cliff Lodge in 2006](/wiki/Image:May_28_2006_Snowbird_UT_USA_inside_lodge.jpg \"May 28 2006 Snowbird UT USA inside lodge.jpg\")", "Snowbird resort is a year\\-round ski and summer resort located in the heart of the [Wasatch National Forest](/wiki/Wasatch-Cache_National_Forest \"Wasatch-Cache National Forest\") on the eastern border of the [Salt Lake City](/wiki/Salt_Lake_City \"Salt Lake City\") suburb of [Sandy](/wiki/Sandy%2C_Utah \"Sandy, Utah\"). It is {{convert\\|29\\|mi}} from [Salt Lake City International Airport](/wiki/Salt_Lake_City_International_Airport \"Salt Lake City International Airport\"), {{convert\\|24\\|mi}} from [downtown Salt Lake City](/wiki/Downtown_Salt_Lake_City \"Downtown Salt Lake City\") and {{convert\\|4\\|mi\\|0}} east of the [suburb](/wiki/Suburb \"Suburb\") of [Sandy](/wiki/Sandy%2C_Utah \"Sandy, Utah\"). The resort first opened in December 1971\\.", "Snowbird shares Little Cottonwood Canyon with [Alta Ski Area](/wiki/Alta_Ski_Area \"Alta Ski Area\") to the east, just up the canyon over a ridge that separates the two. Beginning winter 2002, the two resorts offer a joint day pass and a joint season ticket allowing full access all of the terrain on both mountains: 26 ski lifts and tows and a skiable area of {{convert\\|4700\\|acre\\|km2\\|0}}. The collaboration coincided with the opening of a new lift in Mineral Basin, a large bowl owned by Snowbird on the back of Snowbird's Hidden Peak and Alta's Sugarloaf mountains that had been skiable within the resort since 1999\\. The installation of Baldy Express in 2002 allowed access to Alta from the Basin. Other access points between the two resorts exist as well. The offer is open to skiers only, as a result of Alta's skiers\\-only (no snowboarders) policy.", "Both areas receive more than {{convert\\|500\\|in\\|cm\\|\\-1}} of [snowfall](/wiki/Snowfall \"Snowfall\") per year due to [lake\\-effect](/wiki/Great_Salt_Lake_effect \"Great Salt Lake effect\") enhancement from the [Great Salt Lake](/wiki/Great_Salt_Lake \"Great Salt Lake\"), making them the second snowiest ski areas in the United States (after the ones in the [Cascades](/wiki/Cascade_Range \"Cascade Range\")). In contrast to the humid and wet conditions in the Cascades near the [Pacific Ocean](/wiki/Pacific_Ocean \"Pacific Ocean\"), the arid condition of the [Great Basin](/wiki/Great_Basin \"Great Basin\") produces very dry and powdery snow, making Snowbird and Alta top global destinations for powder\\-skiing aficionados. Another benefit of being East of the Great Salt Lake is that salt from the lake provides the condensation nuclei that creates ice pellet snow that doesn't pack like normal snowflakes. Loose powder for days after a snowfall is common. On very windy days the salt is lifted thousands of feet and has been known to coat the windshield of airplanes flying into Salt Lake City.", "Snowbird, which operates primarily on privately owned land, usually closes on [Memorial Day](/wiki/Memorial_Day \"Memorial Day\") in late May while the occasional ski year can last as long as the [Fourth of July](/wiki/Fourth_of_July \"Fourth of July\") on the upper part of the mountain (accessed by the aerial tram), perennially offering the longest ski season in Utah as other Utah resorts must close earlier because they are on Forest Service land{{Citation needed\\|date\\=September 2024\\|reason\\=Specifically for the claim that private land vs. Forest Service affects the closing date; obviously they do stay open later, but the reason needs a source.}}. Snowbird has a skiable area of {{convert\\|2500\\|acre\\|km2\\|1}} with a vertical drop of {{convert\\|3240\\|ft\\|0}} from the summit of Hidden Peak, which has an elevation of above {{convert\\|11000\\|ft\\|0}}. Hidden Peak is serviced by an aerial tram from the base area.", "The resort covers three drainage areas: Peruvian Gulch, Gad Valley, and Mineral Basin. Snowbird is perennially celebrated by industry magazines for its exceptional snowfall, vast and wide\\-ranging terrain and easy accessibility from the Salt Lake City International Airport.", "Snowbird set a resort record of {{convert\\|776\\|in\\|cm\\|0}} of cumulative snow (mid\\-mountain measurement) in May 2011\\. Snowbird is known for its particularly challenging terrain, with most ski runs having a difficulty of \"intermediates only\" or higher. The most difficult part of the mountain is the cirque traverse, which contains all runs for experts only.", "### Lifts", "", "| Lift Name | Length | Vertical | Type | Make | Year Installed |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| Aerial Tram | 8,395 ft | 2,900 ft | [Aerial Tram](/wiki/Aerial_tramway \"Aerial tramway\") | [Yan](/wiki/Lift_Engineering \"Lift Engineering\") | 1971 |\n| Baby Thunder | 1,966 ft | 638 ft | [Fixed Double](/wiki/Chairlift \"Chairlift\") | [Doppelmayr](/wiki/Doppelmayr_%28North_America%29 \"Doppelmayr (North America)\") | 1995 |\n| Baldy | 3,482 ft | 1,019 ft | [High Speed Quad](/wiki/High-speed_quad_chairlift \"High-speed quad chairlift\") | [Garaventa CTEC](/wiki/Doppelmayr_%28North_America%29 \"Doppelmayr (North America)\") | 2001 |\n| Chickadee | 830 ft | 149 ft | [Fixed Double](/wiki/Chairlift \"Chairlift\") | [Thiokol](/wiki/Thiokol \"Thiokol\") | 1972 |\n| Gad 2 | 4,017 ft | 1,242 ft | [High Speed Quad](/wiki/High-speed_quad_chairlift \"High-speed quad chairlift\") | [Doppelmayr](/wiki/Doppelmayr_%28North_America%29 \"Doppelmayr (North America)\") | 2013 |\n| Gadzoom | 6,457 ft | 1,823 ft | [High Speed Quad](/wiki/High-speed_quad_chairlift \"High-speed quad chairlift\") | [Garaventa CTEC](/wiki/Doppelmayr_%28North_America%29 \"Doppelmayr (North America)\") | 1997 |\n| Little Cloud | 3,204 ft | 1,302 ft | [High Speed Quad](/wiki/High-speed_quad_chairlift \"High-speed quad chairlift\") | [Doppelmayr](/wiki/Doppelmayr_%28North_America%29 \"Doppelmayr (North America)\") | 2012 |\n| Mid Gad | 4,287 ft | 1,315 ft | [Fixed Double](/wiki/Chairlift \"Chairlift\") | [Doppelmayr](/wiki/Doppelmayr_%28North_America%29 \"Doppelmayr (North America)\") | 1980 |\n| Mineral Basin | 3,515 ft | 1,435 ft | [High Speed Quad](/wiki/High-speed_quad_chairlift \"High-speed quad chairlift\") | [Garaventa CTEC](/wiki/Doppelmayr_%28North_America%29 \"Doppelmayr (North America)\") | 1999 |\n| Peruvian | 8,031 ft | 2,421 ft | [High Speed Quad](/wiki/High-speed_quad_chairlift \"High-speed quad chairlift\") | [Doppelmayr CTEC](/wiki/Doppelmayr_%28North_America%29 \"Doppelmayr (North America)\") | 2006 |\n| Wilbere | 1,968 ft | 668 ft | [Fixed Double](/wiki/Chairlift \"Chairlift\") | [Doppelmayr](/wiki/Doppelmayr_%28North_America%29 \"Doppelmayr (North America)\") | 1971 |", "Snowbird currently has 10 [chairlifts](/wiki/Chairlift \"Chairlift\") (6 [high\\-speed quads](/wiki/Detachable_chairlift \"Detachable chairlift\"), 4 doubles), a surface lift, an [aerial tram](/wiki/Aerial_tramway \"Aerial tramway\"), and a {{convert\\|600\\|ft\\|m\\|adj\\=on}} tunnel enclosing a one\\-way conveyor lift connecting Peruvian Gulch to Mineral Basin allowing easier access for beginners and intermediates to new terrain. The tunnel, the only of its kind in North America, also allows for skier transport when winds require the closing of the aerial tram. The tunnel connects the front half of the resort to Mineral Basin, which is the back half of the mountain. Inside of the tunnel, there are also pictures with descriptions about the history of the tunnel's construction.[thumb\\|left\\|Video of the Peruvian Tunnel](/wiki/File:Snowbird_Magic_Carpet.ogv \"Snowbird Magic Carpet.ogv\")", "### Facilities", "[thumb\\|The Aerial Tram](/wiki/File:Snowbird_Tram_Wikipedia_Video_by_D_Ramey_Logan.ogv \"Snowbird Tram Wikipedia Video by D Ramey Logan.ogv\")\nThe Little Cottonwood Canyon resort has a total of four lodges: the Iron {{Not a typo\\|Blosam}}, the Inn, the Lodge at Snowbird, and the Cliff Lodge. The resort also has gift shops, restaurants, arcades, hiking trails, pools and a rooftop spa. The summit restaurant was built at Hidden Peak during summer 2015\\.", "The resort has {{convert\\|50000\\|sqft\\|m2}} of meeting space, with 31 meeting rooms and a {{convert\\|15000\\|sqft\\|m2\\|adj\\=on}} Event Center available in the summer.", "### Summer activities", "While being widely known as a ski resort, Snowbird is also open during the summer. Throughout the warmer months, Snowbird offers a wide variety of activities that allow visitors to enjoy all the features, without the snow. There are many different activities that travelers can participate in during the summer, but there are five that most people tend to gravitate towards: The Alpine Slide, The Mountain Coaster, Summer Tubing, The Vertical Drop, and Ropes Courses.", "The Alpine Slide is a dual track that runs down the Chickadee ski slope and includes twists, turns, and tunnels. The driver must be at least seven years old, but three to six\\-year\\-olds can ride on an adult's lap (18\\+). The Mountain Coaster is a 3,120 feet coaster that fits up to two riders. It sits near the base of the Peruvian Express chairlift outside the Snowbird Center. Riders must be at least three years old, and in order to ride alone they must be 54 inches tall. Participants between 38 and 54 inches can ride with an adult (16\\+). Summer Tubing is the warm weather version of snow tubing and is available to the east of Chickadee by the entrance of The Cliff Lodge. Participants must be at least four years old and 40 inches tall. The Vertical Drop is a 50\\-foot tower located near the top of Chickadee. Participants experience what is known as the “Big Drop”, which includes nine feet of free\\-falling that is followed by a gradual fall to the ground. To partake, visitors must weigh between 44 and 285 pounds. The Ropes Course, located near the Chickadee bowl, allows travelers to be strapped into a harness and walk high above ground to see all of Snowbird's beauty. Participants must be at least 48 inches tall, weigh under 300 pounds, and have on closed toed shoes. For children ages two to six that do not meet those requirements, there is also The Mini Ropes Course. The kids must be under 130 pounds and have on closed toed shoes, but this alternative is parent guided and includes all the same challenges without the height factor.“Summer Activities.” Home, www.snowbird.com/summer\\-activities/.", "### Awards", "*Skiing Magazine* ranked the Alta\\-Snowbird ski area second in North America overall and first in the United States for the 2003–04 and 2004–05 seasons.\nAccording to *SKI Magazine* (October 2002\\) Snowbird ranked 20th in North America with gold medals in snow, access, challenge, terrain, scenery, weather, and lifts. In specific categories it was ranked third in North America for snow, fourth in North America for challenge, and fifth in North America for terrain. Snowbird ranks as the second best resort in North America, runner\\-up to [Whistler Blackcomb](/wiki/Whistler_Blackcomb \"Whistler Blackcomb\") resort in Canada, according to *Skiing Magazine*. In 2008, *Outside* named Alta\\-Snowbird the number one ski destination in North America. More recently, ZRankings ranked Snowbird as the fourth best ski resort in North America. Snowbird's snowfall and weather is also considered to be amongst the best in the world for skiing; ZRankings rated Snowbird's snow as the second best in North America (behind its next\\-door neighbor, Alta).{{cite web\\|title\\=Best Ski Resorts: Snowbird Terrain, Snow Quality and Mountain Ranks\\|url\\=http://zrankings.com/resort/show?id\\=141\\-snowbird\\|website\\=ZRankings\\|publisher\\=ZRankings LLC\\|access\\-date\\=27 April 2015}}\nTwo of Snowbird's mountain school instructors, Rob Sogard and Nancy Thoreson, made *SKI Magazine'''s Top 100 list.\n[thumb\\|Snowbird, Utah tram top station, mechanical details](/wiki/File:Snowbird_Tram_top_station%2C_UT.jpg \"Snowbird Tram top station, UT.jpg\")*", "Images\n------", "", "Image:Salt Lake Valley from the Hidden Peaks summit photo D Ramey Logan.jpg\\|The Salt Lake Valley from Snowbird\nImage:Snowbird Gondola photo D Ramey Logan.jpg\\|Snowbird Tram to 11,000 ft.\nImage:Skiing at Snowbird Utah photo Ramey Logan.jpg\\|Skiing in Snowbird\nImage:Snowbirdutah.jpg\\|Snowbird mid\\-June 2003", "References\n----------", "{{reflist}}\n Shelton, Peter (1989\\) * Insiders Guide to the Best Skiing in Utah *Telluride: Western Eye Press {{ISBN\\|0\\-941283\\-03\\-8}}\n Asmus, Brad (1993\\)*\n* Powder Hound's Guide to Skiing Snowbird'' {{ISBN\\|0\\-9631113\\-1\\-0}}" ]
Development ----------- [thumb\|Participants in the march carrying a Colombian flag](/wiki/File:Marchando_por_la_libertad_en_Colombia.jpg "Marchando por la libertad en Colombia.jpg") On February 4, 2008, protest marches were held, in which close to 6 million people participated in different cities of Colombia and the world.{{cite web \|url\=https://www.equinoxio.org/destacado/especial\-marcha\-4\-de\-febrero\-2297/ \|title\=Especial marcha 4 de febrero \|access\-date\=March 22, 2023 \|last\= \|first\= \|date\= \|work\=Equinoxio \|publisher\= \|location\= \|language\=Spanish \|quote\= }} The call for these marches began on the Internet and spread to the media. The idea of holding a march and its organization arose from a Facebook group created to reject the mistreatment to which the hostages were being subjected and to show indignation at the failed Operation Emmanuel. The phenomenon arose at the beginning of January 2008{{cite web \|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080403123156/http://www.calibuenanota.com/GENTE/ver\_nota.php?idn\=112846\&ids\=24 \|title\=Colombia soy yo, por una nación sin FARC \|access\-date\=March 22, 2023 \|last\= \|first\= \|date\=January 29, 2008 \|work\=Cali buena nota \|publisher\= \|location\= \|language\=Spanish \|quote\= }} when, thanks to the reception given to the Facebook group, in less than 3 days it managed to unite more than 10,000 users. Meanwhile, Oscar Morales, Carlos Andrés Santiago, Rosa Cristina Parra, Álvaro González, Pierre Onzaga, Cristina Lucena and other young people organized themselves{{cite web \|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080817070628/http://www.harrymagazine.com/200801/farc.htm \|title\=Las FARC: ¿al basurero de la historia? \|access\-date\=March 22, 2023 \|last\= \|first\= \|date\= \|work\=Harry Magazine \|publisher\= \|location\= \|language\=Spanish \|quote\= }} to express their rejection of the acts of violence and terrorism committed by the FARC, such as attacks with [car bomb](/wiki/Car_bomb "Car bomb"), the recruitment of children, the planting of [antipersonnel mines](/wiki/Anti-personnel_mine "Anti-personnel mine"), the forced displacement, the massacres perpetrated and the kidnapping of thousands of Colombians and foreigners by the FARC, which at the time had kidnapped more than 750 civilians and soldiers for several years. After a few days the Facebook group had gathered around 250,000 users supporting the cause according to sources from the group itself.{{cite web \|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080318035212/http://colombiasoyyo.org/ \|title\= Colombia Soy Yo – Por una Latinoamérica sin Farc \|access\-date\=March 22, 2023 \|last\= \|first\= \|date\=March 5, 2008 \|work\= \|publisher\= \|location\= \|language\=Spanish \|quote\= }} The mobilizations carried out had the support of the Colombian government, the media, as well as different public personalities, such as the recently released [Clara Rojas](/wiki/Clara_Rojas "Clara Rojas"), members of the opposition and some spokespersons for the [paramilitary groups](/wiki/United_Self-Defense_Forces_of_Colombia "United Self-Defense Forces of Colombia") (although these support were rejected by the organizers of the march).{{cite web \|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080408013243/http://www.semana.com/wf\_InfoArticulo.aspx?idArt\=109143 \|title\=Organizadores de la marcha rechazan el apoyo de Salvatore Mancuso \|access\-date\=March 22, 2023 \|last\= \|first\= \|date\=February 1, 2008 \|work\=Semana \|publisher\= \|location\= \|language\=Spanish \|quote\= }} The march managed to convene millions of people in all regions of the country and in various countries abroad, repeating the slogan "No más FARC" (in English: "No more FARC"). According to press reports, the march on February 4 surpassed the march organized by the País Libre Foundation in 1996\. Some experts believe that this fact was due to the fact that the call was made over the Internet,{{cite web \|url\=https://www.eltiempo.com/archivo/documento/CMS\-3945957 \|title\= Marcha contra las Farc, mayor movilización en la historia del país \|access\-date\=March 22, 2023 \|last\= \|first\= \|date\=February 4, 2008 \|work\=El Tiempo \|publisher\=Casa Editorial El Tiempo \|location\=Bogotá \|language\=Spanish \|quote\= }} but in reality the massive convocation was carried out by traditional media with messages that permeated a population hypersensitive to the news of the kidnapped. However, during the march there were frictions between people who defended different points of view and the organizers, as happened in Paris (France), where there was a strong discussion between some organizers and participants of the event. The discussion arose around a banner alluding to the crimes of the paramilitaries and other criminal organizations.{{cite web \|url\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\=JgLW8bt644I \|title\=Marcha contra todos los tipos de violencia en Colombia \|access\-date\=March 22, 2023 \|last\= \|first\= \|date\=February 5, 2008 \|work\= \|publisher\= \|location\= \|language\=Spanish \|quote\= }} In the [Plaza de Bolívar in Bogotá](/wiki/Plaza_de_Bol%C3%ADvar%2C_Bogot%C3%A1 "Plaza de Bolívar, Bogotá") there were attempts at verbal confrontation between different groups of people. The burning of banners and harangues against the ideas and movements defended by other attendees at the event took place.{{cite web \|url\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\=cWxdlAu\_BEk \|title\=Lo que no se vió en la marcha del 4 de Febrero \|access\-date\=March 22, 2023 \|last\= \|first\= \|date\=February 5, 2008 \|work\= \|publisher\= \|location\= \|language\=Spanish \|quote\= }} During the event, the strong polarization between the positions that advocated sending a message to a single armed actor and those who considered that this led to an unfair bias{{cite web \|url\=https://patadas\-de\-ahogado.blogspot.com/2009/01/de\-la\-ingenuidad\-la\-hipocresa\-y\-la.html?showComment\=1231542360000 \|title\=De la Ingenuidad a la Hipocresía – la Movilización del 4 de Febrero \|access\-date\=March 22, 2023 \|last\= \|first\= \|date\=January 5, 2009 \|work\=Patadas de Ahogado \|publisher\= \|location\= \|language\=Spanish \|quote\= }} or that the march had a political background became evident support for the government. According to the Colombian newspaper [El Tiempo](/wiki/El_Tiempo_%28Colombia%29 "El Tiempo (Colombia)"), the march "against the FARC" took place in 193 cities in Colombia and the world. The call was extended throughout the country and was also supported in different cities of the world,{{cite web \|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080115061501/http://www.colombiasoyyo.org/puntos.html \|title\=Puntos de encuentro \|access\-date\=March 22, 2023 \|last\= \|first\= \|date\= \|work\= \|publisher\= \|location\= \|language\=Spanish \|quote\= }} in some of them they were supported by the Uribe government through the consulates and embassies to prevent the marches from being affected by the legislation of each country. The most numerous international gatherings took place in cities in the United States as well as in different European countries such as Spain and France, and in some Latin American countries. However, the highest concentration of people occurred in Bogotá, where it exceeded one million people.
[ "Development\n-----------", "[thumb\\|Participants in the march carrying a Colombian flag](/wiki/File:Marchando_por_la_libertad_en_Colombia.jpg \"Marchando por la libertad en Colombia.jpg\")", "On February 4, 2008, protest marches were held, in which close to 6 million people participated in different cities of Colombia and the world.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.equinoxio.org/destacado/especial\\-marcha\\-4\\-de\\-febrero\\-2297/ \\|title\\=Especial marcha 4 de febrero \\|access\\-date\\=March 22, 2023 \\|last\\= \\|first\\= \\|date\\= \\|work\\=Equinoxio \\|publisher\\= \\|location\\= \\|language\\=Spanish \\|quote\\= }} The call for these marches began on the Internet and spread to the media. The idea of holding a march and its organization arose from a Facebook group created to reject the mistreatment to which the hostages were being subjected and to show indignation at the failed Operation Emmanuel.", "The phenomenon arose at the beginning of January 2008{{cite web \\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080403123156/http://www.calibuenanota.com/GENTE/ver\\_nota.php?idn\\=112846\\&ids\\=24 \\|title\\=Colombia soy yo, por una nación sin FARC \\|access\\-date\\=March 22, 2023 \\|last\\= \\|first\\= \\|date\\=January 29, 2008 \\|work\\=Cali buena nota \\|publisher\\= \\|location\\= \\|language\\=Spanish \\|quote\\= }} when, thanks to the reception given to the Facebook group, in less than 3 days it managed to unite more than 10,000 users. Meanwhile, Oscar Morales, Carlos Andrés Santiago, Rosa Cristina Parra, Álvaro González, Pierre Onzaga, Cristina Lucena and other young people organized themselves{{cite web \\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080817070628/http://www.harrymagazine.com/200801/farc.htm \\|title\\=Las FARC: ¿al basurero de la historia? \\|access\\-date\\=March 22, 2023 \\|last\\= \\|first\\= \\|date\\= \\|work\\=Harry Magazine \\|publisher\\= \\|location\\= \\|language\\=Spanish \\|quote\\= }} to express their rejection of the acts of violence and terrorism committed by the FARC, such as attacks with [car bomb](/wiki/Car_bomb \"Car bomb\"), the recruitment of children, the planting of [antipersonnel mines](/wiki/Anti-personnel_mine \"Anti-personnel mine\"), the forced displacement, the massacres perpetrated and the kidnapping of thousands of Colombians and foreigners by the FARC, which at the time had kidnapped more than 750 civilians and soldiers for several years. After a few days the Facebook group had gathered around 250,000 users supporting the cause according to sources from the group itself.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080318035212/http://colombiasoyyo.org/ \\|title\\= Colombia Soy Yo – Por una Latinoamérica sin Farc \\|access\\-date\\=March 22, 2023 \\|last\\= \\|first\\= \\|date\\=March 5, 2008 \\|work\\= \\|publisher\\= \\|location\\= \\|language\\=Spanish \\|quote\\= }}", "The mobilizations carried out had the support of the Colombian government, the media, as well as different public personalities, such as the recently released [Clara Rojas](/wiki/Clara_Rojas \"Clara Rojas\"), members of the opposition and some spokespersons for the [paramilitary groups](/wiki/United_Self-Defense_Forces_of_Colombia \"United Self-Defense Forces of Colombia\") (although these support were rejected by the organizers of the march).{{cite web \\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080408013243/http://www.semana.com/wf\\_InfoArticulo.aspx?idArt\\=109143 \\|title\\=Organizadores de la marcha rechazan el apoyo de Salvatore Mancuso \\|access\\-date\\=March 22, 2023 \\|last\\= \\|first\\= \\|date\\=February 1, 2008 \\|work\\=Semana \\|publisher\\= \\|location\\= \\|language\\=Spanish \\|quote\\= }}", "The march managed to convene millions of people in all regions of the country and in various countries abroad, repeating the slogan \"No más FARC\" (in English: \"No more FARC\"). According to press reports, the march on February 4 surpassed the march organized by the País Libre Foundation in 1996\\. Some experts believe that this fact was due to the fact that the call was made over the Internet,{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.eltiempo.com/archivo/documento/CMS\\-3945957 \\|title\\= Marcha contra las Farc, mayor movilización en la historia del país \\|access\\-date\\=March 22, 2023 \\|last\\= \\|first\\= \\|date\\=February 4, 2008 \\|work\\=El Tiempo \\|publisher\\=Casa Editorial El Tiempo \\|location\\=Bogotá \\|language\\=Spanish \\|quote\\= }} but in reality the massive convocation was carried out by traditional media with messages that permeated a population hypersensitive to the news of the kidnapped.", "However, during the march there were frictions between people who defended different points of view and the organizers, as happened in Paris (France), where there was a strong discussion between some organizers and participants of the event. The discussion arose around a banner alluding to the crimes of the paramilitaries and other criminal organizations.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\\=JgLW8bt644I \\|title\\=Marcha contra todos los tipos de violencia en Colombia \\|access\\-date\\=March 22, 2023 \\|last\\= \\|first\\= \\|date\\=February 5, 2008 \\|work\\= \\|publisher\\= \\|location\\= \\|language\\=Spanish \\|quote\\= }}", "In the [Plaza de Bolívar in Bogotá](/wiki/Plaza_de_Bol%C3%ADvar%2C_Bogot%C3%A1 \"Plaza de Bolívar, Bogotá\") there were attempts at verbal confrontation between different groups of people. The burning of banners and harangues against the ideas and movements defended by other attendees at the event took place.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\\=cWxdlAu\\_BEk \\|title\\=Lo que no se vió en la marcha del 4 de Febrero \\|access\\-date\\=March 22, 2023 \\|last\\= \\|first\\= \\|date\\=February 5, 2008 \\|work\\= \\|publisher\\= \\|location\\= \\|language\\=Spanish \\|quote\\= }} During the event, the strong polarization between the positions that advocated sending a message to a single armed actor and those who considered that this led to an unfair bias{{cite web \\|url\\=https://patadas\\-de\\-ahogado.blogspot.com/2009/01/de\\-la\\-ingenuidad\\-la\\-hipocresa\\-y\\-la.html?showComment\\=1231542360000 \\|title\\=De la Ingenuidad a la Hipocresía – la Movilización del 4 de Febrero \\|access\\-date\\=March 22, 2023 \\|last\\= \\|first\\= \\|date\\=January 5, 2009 \\|work\\=Patadas de Ahogado \\|publisher\\= \\|location\\= \\|language\\=Spanish \\|quote\\= }} or that the march had a political background became evident support for the government.", "According to the Colombian newspaper [El Tiempo](/wiki/El_Tiempo_%28Colombia%29 \"El Tiempo (Colombia)\"), the march \"against the FARC\" took place in 193 cities in Colombia and the world. The call was extended throughout the country and was also supported in different cities of the world,{{cite web \\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080115061501/http://www.colombiasoyyo.org/puntos.html \\|title\\=Puntos de encuentro \\|access\\-date\\=March 22, 2023 \\|last\\= \\|first\\= \\|date\\= \\|work\\= \\|publisher\\= \\|location\\= \\|language\\=Spanish \\|quote\\= }} in some of them they were supported by the Uribe government through the consulates and embassies to prevent the marches from being affected by the legislation of each country.", "The most numerous international gatherings took place in cities in the United States as well as in different European countries such as Spain and France, and in some Latin American countries. However, the highest concentration of people occurred in Bogotá, where it exceeded one million people.", "" ]
Demographics ------------ {{US Census population \|1930\= 515 \|1940\= 469 \|1950\= 374 \|1960\= 262 \|1970\= 185 \|1980\= 142 \|1990\= 88 \|2000\= 87 \|2010\= 71 \|2020\= 63 \|footnote\=\[https://web.archive.org/web/20060208103743/http://www.census.gov:80/prod/www/abs/decennial/ U.S. Decennial Census] }} ### 2010 census As of the [census](/wiki/Census "Census"){{cite web\|title\=U.S. Census website\|url\=https://www.census.gov\|publisher\=\[\[United States Census Bureau]]\|access\-date\=December 18, 2012}} of 2010, there were 71 people, 37 households, and 17 families residing in the town. The [population density](/wiki/Population_density "Population density") was {{convert\|710\.0\|PD/sqmi\|PD/km2\|1}}. There were 55 housing units at an average density of {{convert\|550\.0\|/sqmi\|/km2\|1}}. The racial makeup of the town was 93\.0% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 "White (U.S. Census)"), 1\.4% [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 "Native American (U.S. Census)"), and 5\.6% from two or more races. [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 "Hispanic (U.S. Census)") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 "Latino (U.S. Census)") of any race were 1\.4% of the population. There were 37 households, of which 13\.5% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 43\.2% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage "Marriage") living together, 2\.7% had a female householder with no husband present, and 54\.1% were non\-families. 43\.2% of all households were made up of individuals, and 13\.5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 1\.92 and the average family size was 2\.76\. The median age in the town was 46\.5 years. 15\.5% of residents were under the age of 18; 6\.9% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 22\.5% were from 25 to 44; 36\.7% were from 45 to 64; and 18\.3% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the town was 47\.9% male and 52\.1% female. ### 2000 census As of the [census](/wiki/Census "Census"){{cite web \|url\=https://www.census.gov \|publisher\=\[\[United States Census Bureau]] \|access\-date\=January 31, 2008 \|title\=U.S. Census website }} of 2000, there were 87 people, 44 households, and 20 families residing in the town. The population density was {{convert\|837\.7\|PD/sqmi\|PD/km2\|sp\=us\|adj\=off}}. There were 59 housing units at an average density of {{convert\|568\.1\|/sqmi\|/km2\|sp\=us\|adj\=off}}. The racial makeup of the town was 91\.95% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 "White (U.S. Census)"), 2\.30% [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 "Native American (U.S. Census)"), 1\.15% [Asian](/wiki/Asian_%28U.S._Census%29 "Asian (U.S. Census)"), 2\.30% from [other races](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 "Race (United States Census)"), and 2\.30% from two or more races. There were 44 households, out of which 13\.6% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 40\.9% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage "Marriage") living together, 4\.5% had a female householder with no husband present, and 52\.3% were non\-families. 47\.7% of all households were made up of individuals, and 27\.3% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 1\.98 and the average family size was 2\.95\. In the town, the population was spread out, with 21\.8% under the age of 18, 2\.3% from 18 to 24, 24\.1% from 25 to 44, 19\.5% from 45 to 64, and 32\.2% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 48 years. For every 100 females there were 102\.3 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 119\.4 males. The median income for a household in the town was $34,688, and the median income for a family was $39,375\. Males had a median income of $35,625 versus $42,917 for females. The [per capita income](/wiki/Per_capita_income "Per capita income") for the town was $18,567\. There were 8\.7% of families and 9\.1% of the population living below the [poverty line](/wiki/Poverty_line "Poverty line"), including no under eighteens and 25\.0% of those over 64\.
[ "Demographics\n------------", "{{US Census population\n\\|1930\\= 515\n\\|1940\\= 469\n\\|1950\\= 374\n\\|1960\\= 262\n\\|1970\\= 185\n\\|1980\\= 142\n\\|1990\\= 88\n\\|2000\\= 87\n\\|2010\\= 71\n\\|2020\\= 63\n\\|footnote\\=\\[https://web.archive.org/web/20060208103743/http://www.census.gov:80/prod/www/abs/decennial/ U.S. Decennial Census]\n}}", "### 2010 census", "As of the [census](/wiki/Census \"Census\"){{cite web\\|title\\=U.S. Census website\\|url\\=https://www.census.gov\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[United States Census Bureau]]\\|access\\-date\\=December 18, 2012}} of 2010, there were 71 people, 37 households, and 17 families residing in the town. The [population density](/wiki/Population_density \"Population density\") was {{convert\\|710\\.0\\|PD/sqmi\\|PD/km2\\|1}}. There were 55 housing units at an average density of {{convert\\|550\\.0\\|/sqmi\\|/km2\\|1}}. The racial makeup of the town was 93\\.0% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 \"White (U.S. Census)\"), 1\\.4% [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Native American (U.S. Census)\"), and 5\\.6% from two or more races. [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Hispanic (U.S. Census)\") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Latino (U.S. Census)\") of any race were 1\\.4% of the population.", "There were 37 households, of which 13\\.5% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 43\\.2% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage \"Marriage\") living together, 2\\.7% had a female householder with no husband present, and 54\\.1% were non\\-families. 43\\.2% of all households were made up of individuals, and 13\\.5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 1\\.92 and the average family size was 2\\.76\\.", "The median age in the town was 46\\.5 years. 15\\.5% of residents were under the age of 18; 6\\.9% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 22\\.5% were from 25 to 44; 36\\.7% were from 45 to 64; and 18\\.3% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the town was 47\\.9% male and 52\\.1% female.", "### 2000 census", "As of the [census](/wiki/Census \"Census\"){{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.census.gov \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[United States Census Bureau]] \\|access\\-date\\=January 31, 2008 \\|title\\=U.S. Census website }} of 2000, there were 87 people, 44 households, and 20 families residing in the town. The population density was {{convert\\|837\\.7\\|PD/sqmi\\|PD/km2\\|sp\\=us\\|adj\\=off}}. There were 59 housing units at an average density of {{convert\\|568\\.1\\|/sqmi\\|/km2\\|sp\\=us\\|adj\\=off}}. The racial makeup of the town was 91\\.95% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 \"White (U.S. Census)\"), 2\\.30% [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Native American (U.S. Census)\"), 1\\.15% [Asian](/wiki/Asian_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Asian (U.S. Census)\"), 2\\.30% from [other races](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 \"Race (United States Census)\"), and 2\\.30% from two or more races.", "There were 44 households, out of which 13\\.6% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 40\\.9% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage \"Marriage\") living together, 4\\.5% had a female householder with no husband present, and 52\\.3% were non\\-families. 47\\.7% of all households were made up of individuals, and 27\\.3% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 1\\.98 and the average family size was 2\\.95\\.", "In the town, the population was spread out, with 21\\.8% under the age of 18, 2\\.3% from 18 to 24, 24\\.1% from 25 to 44, 19\\.5% from 45 to 64, and 32\\.2% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 48 years. For every 100 females there were 102\\.3 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 119\\.4 males.", "The median income for a household in the town was $34,688, and the median income for a family was $39,375\\. Males had a median income of $35,625 versus $42,917 for females. The [per capita income](/wiki/Per_capita_income \"Per capita income\") for the town was $18,567\\. There were 8\\.7% of families and 9\\.1% of the population living below the [poverty line](/wiki/Poverty_line \"Poverty line\"), including no under eighteens and 25\\.0% of those over 64\\.", "" ]
Synopsis -------- *Time*: 15th century *Place*: Mountains of southern France ### Scene 1 Princess Iolanta has been blind from birth. No one has ever told her (nor does she know) that she is a princess. She lives in a beautiful enclosed garden on the king's estate, secluded from the world, in the care of Bertrand and Martha. Her attendants bring flowers and sing to her. She declares her sadness, and her vague sense that she is missing something important that other people can experience. Her father, King René, insists that she must not discover she is blind, nor that her betrothed, Duke Robert, find out about this. ### Scene 2 After announcing the king's arrival, Alméric is warned by Bertrand not to speak of light with Iolanta or to reveal that Iolanta's father is the king. The king arrives with Ibn\-Hakia, a famed Moorish physician, who states that Iolanta can be cured, but the physical cure will only work if she is psychologically prepared by being made aware of her own blindness. Ibn\-Hakia sings the monologue "Two worlds", explaining the interdependence of the mind and the body within the divinely ordained universe, which merges spirit and matter. The king refuses the treatment, fearing for Iolanta's happiness if the cure should fail after she has learned what she is missing. ### Scene 3 Robert arrives at the court with his friend Count Vaudémont. Robert tells Vaudémont that he wishes to avoid the marriage as he has fallen in love with Countess Matilde. He sings of his love in his aria "Who can compare with my Mathilde" (Кто может сравниться с Матильдой моей). Vaudémont finds the entrance to Iolanta's secret garden, ignoring the sign which threatens death to anyone who enters. He sees the sleeping Iolanta without realising who she is, and instantly falls in love. Robert, astounded by his friend's behavior, is convinced she is a sorceress who has bewitched Vaudémont. He tells him to leave, but Vaudémont is too entranced. Robert departs to bring troops to rescue him. Iolanta awakens and Vaudémont, who asks her to give him a red rose as a keepsake, realizes she is blind when she twice offers him a white one. She has no concept of light, vision, or blindness. They fall in love, after he explains light and color to her. ### Scene 4 The couple is discovered by the king. Vaudémont pledges his love, whether Iolanta is blind or not. Ibn\-Hakia tells the king that as Iolanta is now aware of her blindness, the treatment might be a success. Iolanta, who has no will to see, is unsure whether she should agree to the treatment or not. Ibn\-Hakia points out that the lack of will proves that, without inner desire, change cannot take place. After Vaudémont admits seeing the warning sign at the garden entrance, the furious king threatens to execute him for revealing the truth to Iolanta. He tells Iolanta that Vaudémont will die if the physician fails to restore her sight, in the hope that this will restore her will. Iolanta is horrified, and agrees to the treatment. After Ibn\-Hakia leaves with Iolanta, the king explains to Vaudémont that he was feigning in order to motivate Iolanta. Robert returns with his troops. He admits to the king he has fallen in love with another, but is still willing to go ahead with the agreed marriage. The king cancels the wedding contract, and gives Iolanta to Vaudémont. Ibn\-Hakia and Iolanta return. The treatment has worked and Iolanta can see. At first uncertain of her new gift, she eventually sings of the magical new world now visible to her. The court rejoices.
[ "Synopsis\n--------", "*Time*: 15th century", "*Place*: Mountains of southern France", "### Scene 1", "Princess Iolanta has been blind from birth. No one has ever told her (nor does she know) that she is a princess. She lives in a beautiful enclosed garden on the king's estate, secluded from the world, in the care of Bertrand and Martha. Her attendants bring flowers and sing to her. She declares her sadness, and her vague sense that she is missing something important that other people can experience. Her father, King René, insists that she must not discover she is blind, nor that her betrothed, Duke Robert, find out about this.", "### Scene 2", "After announcing the king's arrival, Alméric is warned by Bertrand not to speak of light with Iolanta or to reveal that Iolanta's father is the king. The king arrives with Ibn\\-Hakia, a famed Moorish physician, who states that Iolanta can be cured, but the physical cure will only work if she is psychologically prepared by being made aware of her own blindness. Ibn\\-Hakia sings the monologue \"Two worlds\", explaining the interdependence of the mind and the body within the divinely ordained universe, which merges spirit and matter. The king refuses the treatment, fearing for Iolanta's happiness if the cure should fail after she has learned what she is missing.", "### Scene 3", "Robert arrives at the court with his friend Count Vaudémont. Robert tells Vaudémont that he wishes to avoid the marriage as he has fallen in love with Countess Matilde. He sings of his love in his aria \"Who can compare with my Mathilde\" (Кто может сравниться с Матильдой моей). Vaudémont finds the entrance to Iolanta's secret garden, ignoring the sign which threatens death to anyone who enters. He sees the sleeping Iolanta without realising who she is, and instantly falls in love. Robert, astounded by his friend's behavior, is convinced she is a sorceress who has bewitched Vaudémont. He tells him to leave, but Vaudémont is too entranced. Robert departs to bring troops to rescue him. Iolanta awakens and Vaudémont, who asks her to give him a red rose as a keepsake, realizes she is blind when she twice offers him a white one. She has no concept of light, vision, or blindness. They fall in love, after he explains light and color to her.", "### Scene 4", "The couple is discovered by the king. Vaudémont pledges his love, whether Iolanta is blind or not. Ibn\\-Hakia tells the king that as Iolanta is now aware of her blindness, the treatment might be a success. Iolanta, who has no will to see, is unsure whether she should agree to the treatment or not. Ibn\\-Hakia points out that the lack of will proves that, without inner desire, change cannot take place.", "After Vaudémont admits seeing the warning sign at the garden entrance, the furious king threatens to execute him for revealing the truth to Iolanta. He tells Iolanta that Vaudémont will die if the physician fails to restore her sight, in the hope that this will restore her will. Iolanta is horrified, and agrees to the treatment. After Ibn\\-Hakia leaves with Iolanta, the king explains to Vaudémont that he was feigning in order to motivate Iolanta. Robert returns with his troops. He admits to the king he has fallen in love with another, but is still willing to go ahead with the agreed marriage. The king cancels the wedding contract, and gives Iolanta to Vaudémont. Ibn\\-Hakia and Iolanta return. The treatment has worked and Iolanta can see. At first uncertain of her new gift, she eventually sings of the magical new world now visible to her. The court rejoices.", "" ]
World War I and its causes -------------------------- [World War I](/wiki/World_War_I "World War I") would prove to be a watershed in the imperial relationship between Britain and India. 1\.4 million Indian and British soldiers of the [British Indian Army](/wiki/British_Indian_Army "British Indian Army") would [take part in the war](/wiki/Indian_Army_during_World_War_I "Indian Army during World War I") and their participation would have a wider cultural fallout: news of Indian soldiers fighting and dying with British soldiers, as well as soldiers from [dominions](/wiki/British_Dominions "British Dominions") like Canada, Australia and New Zealand, would travel to distant corners of the world both in newsprint and by the new medium of the radio.{{Harvnb\|Brown\|1994\|pp\=197–198}} India's international profile would thereby rise and would continue to rise during the 1920s. It was to lead, among other things, to India, under its own name, becoming a [founding member](/wiki/League_of_Nations_members%231920:Founder_members "Founder members") of the [League of Nations](/wiki/League_of_Nations "League of Nations") in 1920 and participating, under the name, "Les Indes Anglaises" (The British Indies), in the [1920 Summer Olympics](/wiki/1920_Summer_Olympics "1920 Summer Olympics") in Antwerp.[Olympic Games Antwerp 1920: Official Report](http://www.la84foundation.org/6oic/OfficialReports/1920/1920.pdf) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110505163318/http://www.la84foundation.org/6oic/OfficialReports/1920/1920\.pdf \|date\=5 May 2011 }}, Nombre de bations representees, p. 168\. Quote: "31 Nations avaient accepté l'invitation du Comité Olympique Belge:... la Grèce – la Hollande Les Indes Anglaises – l'Italie – le Japon ..." Back in India, especially among the leaders of the [Indian National Congress](/wiki/Indian_National_Congress "Indian National Congress"), it would lead to calls for greater self\-government for Indians through [Sport in India](/wiki/Sport_in_India "Sport in India"). In 1916, in the face of new strength demonstrated by the nationalists with the signing of the [Lucknow Pact](/wiki/Lucknow_Pact "Lucknow Pact") and the founding of the [Home Rule leagues](/wiki/Home_Rule_Movement "Home Rule Movement"), and the realisation, after the disaster in the [Mesopotamian campaign](/wiki/Mesopotamian_campaign "Mesopotamian campaign"), that the war would likely last longer, the new Viceroy, [Lord Chelmsford](/wiki/Frederic_Thesiger%2C_1st_Viscount_Chelmsford "Frederic Thesiger, 1st Viscount Chelmsford"), cautioned that the Government of India needed to be more responsive to Indian opinion. Towards the end of the year, after discussions with the government in London, he suggested that the British demonstrate their good faith – in light of the Indian war role – through a number of public actions, including awards of titles and honours to princes, granting of commissions in the army to Indians, and removal of the much\-reviled cotton excise duty, but most importantly, an announcement of Britain's future plans for India and an indication of some concrete steps. After more discussion, in August 1917, the new Liberal [Secretary of State for India](/wiki/Secretary_of_State_for_India "Secretary of State for India"), [Edwin Montagu](/wiki/Edwin_Montagu "Edwin Montagu"), announced the British aim of "increasing association of Indians in every branch of the administration, and the gradual development of self\-governing institutions, with a view to the progressive realization of responsible government in India as an integral part of the British Empire." This envisioned reposing confidence in the educated Indians, so far disdained as an unrepresentative minority, who were described by Montague as "Intellectually our children".{{Harvnb\|Metcalf\|Metcalf\|2006\|p\=166}} The pace of the reforms where to be determined by Britain as and when the Indians were seen to have earned it. However, although the plan envisioned limited self\-government at first only in the provinces – with India emphatically within the British Empire – it represented the first British proposal for any form of representative government in a non\-white colony. Earlier, at the onset of World War I, the reassignment of most of the British army in India to Europe and [Mesopotamia](/wiki/Mesopotamian_campaign "Mesopotamian campaign") had led the previous Viceroy, [Lord Harding](/wiki/Charles_Hardinge%2C_1st_Baron_Hardinge_of_Penshurst "Charles Hardinge, 1st Baron Hardinge of Penshurst"), to worry about the "risks involved in denuding India of troops." [Revolutionary violence](/wiki/Revolutionary_movement_for_Indian_independence "Revolutionary movement for Indian independence") had already been a concern in British India; consequently in 1915, to strengthen its powers during what it saw was a time of increased vulnerability, the Government of India passed the [Defence of India Act](/wiki/Defence_of_India_Act_1915 "Defence of India Act 1915"), which allowed it to intern politically dangerous dissidents without due process and added to the power it already had – under the 1910 Press Act – both to imprison journalists without trial and to censor the press.{{Harvnb\|Brown\|1994\|pp\=201–203}} Now, as constitutional reform began to be discussed in earnest, the British began to consider how new moderate Indians could be brought into the fold of constitutional politics and simultaneously, how the hand of established constitutionalists could be strengthened. However, since the reform plan was devised during a time when extremist violence had ebbed as a result of increased [wartime governmental control](/wiki/Defence_of_India_act_1915 "Defence of India act 1915") and it now feared a revival of revolutionary violence, the government also began to consider how some of its wartime powers could be extended into peacetime. [left\|thumb\|[Edwin Montagu](/wiki/Edwin_Montagu "Edwin Montagu"), left, the [Secretary of State for India](/wiki/Secretary_of_State_for_India "Secretary of State for India"), whose report led to the [Government of India Act 1919](/wiki/Government_of_India_Act_1919 "Government of India Act 1919"), also known as the Montford Reforms or the Montagu\-Chelmsford Reforms.](/wiki/File:Montagu_left.jpg "Montagu left.jpg") Consequently, in 1917, even as Edwin Montagu announced the new constitutional reforms, [a sedition committee](/wiki/Rowlatt_Committee "Rowlatt Committee") chaired by a British judge, Mr. S. A. T. Rowlatt, was tasked with investigating [wartime revolutionary conspiracies](/wiki/Hindu-German_Conspiracy "Hindu-German Conspiracy") and the [German](/wiki/Imperial_Germany "Imperial Germany") and [Bolshevik](/wiki/Bolshevik "Bolshevik") links to the violence in India,{{Harvnb\|Lovett\|1920\|pp\=94, 187–191}}{{Harvnb\|Sarkar\|1921\|p\=137}}{{Harvnb\|Tinker\|1968\|p\=92}} with the unstated goal of extending the government's wartime powers.{{Harvnb\|Brown\|1994\|pp\=203–204}} The Rowlatt committee presented its report in July 1918 and identified three regions of conspiratorial insurgency: [Bengal](/wiki/Bengal "Bengal"), the [Bombay presidency](/wiki/Bombay_presidency "Bombay presidency"), and the Punjab. To combat subversive acts in these regions, the committee recommended that the government use emergency powers akin to its wartime authority, which included the ability to try cases of sedition by a panel of three judges and without juries, exaction of securities from suspects, governmental overseeing of residences of suspects, and the power for provincial governments to arrest and detain suspects in short\-term detention facilities and without trial. With the end of World War I, there was also a change in the economic climate. By year's end 1919, 1\.5 million Indians had served in the armed services in either combatant or non\-combatant roles, and India had provided £146 million in revenue for the war.{{Harvnb\|Brown\|1994\|pp\=195–196}} The increased taxes coupled with disruptions in both domestic and international trade had the effect of approximately doubling the index of overall prices in India between 1914 and 1920\. Returning war veterans, especially in the Punjab, created a growing unemployment crisis{{Harvnb\|Stein\|2001\|p\=304}} and post\-war inflation led to food riots in Bombay, Madras, and Bengal provinces, a situation that was made only worse by the failure of the 1918–19 monsoon and by profiteering and speculation. The [global influenza epidemic](/wiki/Spanish_flu "Spanish flu") and the [Bolshevik Revolution](/wiki/Bolshevik_Revolution "Bolshevik Revolution") of 1917 added to the general jitters; the former among the population already experiencing economic woes, and the latter among government officials, fearing a similar revolution in India.{{Harvnb\|Ludden\|2002\|p\=208}} To combat what it saw as a coming crisis, the government now drafted the Rowlatt committee's recommendations into two [Rowlatt Bills](/wiki/Rowlatt_Acts "Rowlatt Acts").{{Harvnb\|Spear\|1990\|p\=190}} Although the bills were authorised for legislative consideration by Edwin Montagu, they were done so unwillingly, with the accompanying declaration, "I loathe the suggestion at first sight of preserving the Defence of India Act in peace time to such an extent as Rowlatt and his friends think necessary." In the ensuing discussion and vote in the [Imperial Legislative Council](/wiki/Imperial_Legislative_Council_%28India%29 "Imperial Legislative Council (India)"), all Indian members voiced opposition to the bills. The Government of India was nevertheless able to use of its "official majority" to ensure passage of the bills early in 1919\. However, what it passed, in deference to the Indian opposition, was a lesser version of the first bill, which now allowed extrajudicial powers, but for a period of exactly three years and for the prosecution solely of "anarchical and revolutionary movements," dropping entirely the second bill involving modification of the [Indian Penal Code](/wiki/Indian_Penal_Code "Indian Penal Code"). Even so, when it was passed the new [Rowlatt Act](/wiki/Rowlatt_Act "Rowlatt Act") aroused widespread indignation throughout India and brought [Mohandas Gandhi](/wiki/Mohandas_Gandhi "Mohandas Gandhi") to the forefront of the nationalist movement. ### Montagu–Chelmsford Report 1919 Meanwhile, Montagu and Chelmsford themselves finally presented their report in July 1918 after a long fact\-finding trip through India the previous winter.{{Harvnb\|Brown\|1994\|pp\=205–207}} After more discussion by the government and parliament in Britain, and another tour by the Franchise and Functions Committee for the purpose of identifying who among the Indian population could vote in future elections, the [Government of India Act 1919](/wiki/Government_of_India_Act_1919 "Government of India Act 1919") (also known as the [Montagu–Chelmsford Reforms](/wiki/Montagu%E2%80%93Chelmsford_Reforms "Montagu–Chelmsford Reforms")) was passed in December 1919\. The new Act enlarged the provincial councils and converted the [Imperial Legislative Council](/wiki/Imperial_Legislative_Council "Imperial Legislative Council") into an enlarged [Central Legislative Assembly](/wiki/Central_Legislative_Assembly "Central Legislative Assembly"). It also repealed the Government of India's recourse to the "official majority" in unfavourable votes. Although departments like defence, foreign affairs, criminal law, communications and income\-tax were retained by the [Viceroy](/wiki/Governor-General_of_India "Governor-General of India") and the central government in New Delhi, other departments like public health, education, land\-revenue and local self\-government were transferred to the provinces. The provinces themselves were now to be administered under a new [dyarchical](/wiki/Diarchy "Diarchy") system, whereby some areas like education, agriculture, infrastructure development, and local self\-government became the preserve of Indian ministers and legislatures, and ultimately the Indian electorates, while others like irrigation, land\-revenue, police, prisons, and control of media remained within the purview of the British governor and his executive council. The new Act also made it easier for Indians to be admitted into the civil service and the army officer corps. A greater number of Indians were now enfranchised, although, for voting at the national level, they constituted only 10% of the total adult male population, many of whom were still illiterate. In the provincial legislatures, the British continued to exercise some control by setting aside seats for special interests they considered cooperative or useful. In particular, rural candidates, generally sympathetic to British rule and less confrontational, were assigned more seats than their urban counterparts. Seats were also reserved for non\-Brahmins, landowners, businessmen, and college graduates. The principal of "communal representation", an integral part of the [Minto–Morley Reforms](/wiki/Minto%E2%80%93Morley_Reforms "Minto–Morley Reforms"), and more recently of the Congress\-Muslim League Lucknow Pact, was reaffirmed, with seats being reserved for [Muslims](/wiki/Muslims "Muslims"), [Sikhs](/wiki/Sikhs "Sikhs"), [Indian Christians](/wiki/Christianity_in_India "Christianity in India"), [Anglo\-Indians](/wiki/Anglo-Indians "Anglo-Indians"), and domiciled Europeans, in both provincial and Imperial legislative councils. The Montagu–Chelmsford reforms offered Indians the most significant opportunity yet for exercising legislative power, especially at the provincial level; however, that opportunity was also restricted by the still limited number of eligible voters, by the small budgets available to provincial legislatures, and by the presence of rural and special interest seats that were seen as instruments of British control. [right\|thumb\|British Prime Minister MacDonald to the right of Gandhi at the Second Round Table Conference in London, October 1931\.](/wiki/File:Gandhi_in_London_meeting%2C_1931.jpg "Gandhi in London meeting, 1931.jpg") ### Round Table Conferences 1930–31–32 {{main\|Round Table Conferences (India)}} The three [Round Table Conferences](/wiki/Round_Table_Conferences_%28India%29 "Round Table Conferences (India)") of 1930–32 were a series of conferences organised by the British Government to discuss constitutional reforms in India. They were conducted according to the recommendation of Muslim leader [Muhammad Ali Jinnah](/wiki/Muhammad_Ali_Jinnah "Muhammad Ali Jinnah") to the Viceroy [Lord Irwin](/wiki/Lord_Irwin "Lord Irwin") and the Prime Minister [Ramsay MacDonald](/wiki/Ramsay_MacDonald "Ramsay MacDonald"),{{cite book\|last1\=Wolpert\|first1\=Stanley\|title\=Jinnah of Pakistan\|date\=2013\|publisher\=Oxford University Press\|location\=Karachi, Pakistan\|isbn\=978\-0\-19\-577389\-7\|page\=107\|edition\=15}}{{cite book\|last1\=Wolpert\|first1\=Stanley\|title\=Shameful Flight\|date\=2012\|publisher\=Oxford University Press\|location\=Karachi, Pakistan\|isbn\=978\-0\-19\-906606\-3\|page\=5\|edition\=1st}} and by the report submitted by the [Simon Commission](/wiki/Simon_Commission "Simon Commission") in May 1930\. Demands for [swaraj](/wiki/Swaraj "Swaraj"), or self\-rule, in India had been growing increasingly strong. By the 1930s, many British politicians believed that India needed to move towards [dominion status](/wiki/Dominion_status "Dominion status"). However, there were significant disagreements between the Indian and the British leaders that the Conferences could not resolve.{{cite book\|title\=Students' Britannica India\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=ISFBJarYX7YC\&pg\=PA309\|year\=2000\|page\=309\|isbn \= 9780852297605\|last1 \= Hoiberg\|first1 \= Dale\| publisher\=Popular Prakashan }} [thumb\|left\|A cartoon from 1932 depicting Viscount Willingdon on a [hunger strike](/wiki/Hunger_strike "Hunger strike") against Gandhi](/wiki/File:Gandhi_Willingdon_caricature_1932.jpg "Gandhi Willingdon caricature 1932.jpg") ### Willingdon imprisons leaders of Congress In 1932 the Viceroy, [Lord Willingdon](/wiki/Freeman_Freeman-Thomas%2C_1st_Marquess_of_Willingdon "Freeman Freeman-Thomas, 1st Marquess of Willingdon"), after the failure of the three [Round Table Conferences (India)](/wiki/Round_Table_Conferences_%28India%29 "Round Table Conferences (India)") in London, now confronted Gandhi's Congress in action. The [India Office](/wiki/India_Office "India Office") told Willingdon that he should conciliate only those elements of Indian opinion that were willing to work with the Raj. That did not include Gandhi and the Indian National Congress, which launched its Civil Disobedience Movement on 4 January 1932\. Therefore, Willingdon took decisive action.{{cite book\|author\=John F. Riddick\|title\=The History of British India: A Chronology\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=Es6x4u\_g19UC\&pg\=PA110\|year\=2006\|publisher\=Greenwood \|page\=110\|isbn\=9780313322808}} He imprisoned Gandhi. He outlawed the Congress; he rounded up all members of the Working Committee and the Provincial Committees and imprisoned them; and he banned Congress youth organisations. In total he imprisoned 80,000 Indian activists. Without most of their leaders, protests were uneven and disorganised, boycotts were ineffective, illegal youth organisations proliferated but were ineffective, more women became involved, and there was terrorism, especially in the North\-West Frontier Province. Gandhi remained in prison until 1933\.Brian Roger Tomlinson, *The Indian National Congress and the Raj, 1929–1942: the penultimate phase* (Springer, 1976\).Rosemary Rees. *India 1900–47* (Heineman, 2006\) p 122 Willingdon relied on his military secretary, [Hastings Ismay](/wiki/Hastings_Ismay%2C_1st_Baron_Ismay "Hastings Ismay, 1st Baron Ismay"), for his personal safety.{{cite book\| title\=The Memoirs of General Lord Ismay\| first\=Hastings\| last\=Ismay\| location\=New York\| publisher\=Viking Press\| page\=66\| year\=1960\| isbn\=978\-0\-8371\-6280\-5}} ### Communal Award: 1932 MacDonald, trying to resolve the critical issue of how Indians would be represented, on 16 August 1932 announced the [Communal Award](/wiki/Communal_Award "Communal Award"), which retained [separate electorates](/wiki/Separate_electorate "Separate electorate") for Muslims, Sikhs, and Europeans in India and increased the number of provinces that offered separate electorates to Anglo\-Indians and Indian Christians. The Depressed Classes (now known as the [Dalits](/wiki/Dalits "Dalits")) obtained a separate electorate. Gandhi, representing the Indian National Congress during negotiations, rejected separate electorates for the Depressed Classes, Europeans, Anglo\-Indians, and Indian Christians because, according to historian [Helen Nugent](/wiki/Helen_Nugent "Helen Nugent"), he believed those separate electorates would weaken Congress' claim to be nationally representative. The award went into effect anyway.{{cite journal \|last\=Nugent \|first\=Helen M. \|author\-link\=Helen Nugent \|year\=1979 \|title\=The communal award: The process of decision\-making \|journal\=South Asia: Journal of South Asian Studies \|volume\=2 \|issue\=1–2 \|pages\=112–129 \|doi\=10\.1080/00856407908722988}}
[ "World War I and its causes\n--------------------------", "[World War I](/wiki/World_War_I \"World War I\") would prove to be a watershed in the imperial relationship between Britain and India. 1\\.4 million Indian and British soldiers of the [British Indian Army](/wiki/British_Indian_Army \"British Indian Army\") would [take part in the war](/wiki/Indian_Army_during_World_War_I \"Indian Army during World War I\") and their participation would have a wider cultural fallout: news of Indian soldiers fighting and dying with British soldiers, as well as soldiers from [dominions](/wiki/British_Dominions \"British Dominions\") like Canada, Australia and New Zealand, would travel to distant corners of the world both in newsprint and by the new medium of the radio.{{Harvnb\\|Brown\\|1994\\|pp\\=197–198}} India's international profile would thereby rise and would continue to rise during the 1920s. It was to lead, among other things, to India, under its own name, becoming a [founding member](/wiki/League_of_Nations_members%231920:Founder_members \"Founder members\") of the [League of Nations](/wiki/League_of_Nations \"League of Nations\") in 1920 and participating, under the name, \"Les Indes Anglaises\" (The British Indies), in the [1920 Summer Olympics](/wiki/1920_Summer_Olympics \"1920 Summer Olympics\") in Antwerp.[Olympic Games Antwerp 1920: Official Report](http://www.la84foundation.org/6oic/OfficialReports/1920/1920.pdf) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110505163318/http://www.la84foundation.org/6oic/OfficialReports/1920/1920\\.pdf \\|date\\=5 May 2011 }}, Nombre de bations representees, p. 168\\. Quote: \"31 Nations avaient accepté l'invitation du Comité Olympique Belge:... la Grèce – la Hollande Les Indes Anglaises – l'Italie – le Japon ...\" Back in India, especially among the leaders of the [Indian National Congress](/wiki/Indian_National_Congress \"Indian National Congress\"), it would lead to calls for greater self\\-government for Indians through [Sport in India](/wiki/Sport_in_India \"Sport in India\").", "In 1916, in the face of new strength demonstrated by the nationalists with the signing of the [Lucknow Pact](/wiki/Lucknow_Pact \"Lucknow Pact\") and the founding of the [Home Rule leagues](/wiki/Home_Rule_Movement \"Home Rule Movement\"), and the realisation, after the disaster in the [Mesopotamian campaign](/wiki/Mesopotamian_campaign \"Mesopotamian campaign\"), that the war would likely last longer, the new Viceroy, [Lord Chelmsford](/wiki/Frederic_Thesiger%2C_1st_Viscount_Chelmsford \"Frederic Thesiger, 1st Viscount Chelmsford\"), cautioned that the Government of India needed to be more responsive to Indian opinion. Towards the end of the year, after discussions with the government in London, he suggested that the British demonstrate their good faith – in light of the Indian war role – through a number of public actions, including awards of titles and honours to princes, granting of commissions in the army to Indians, and removal of the much\\-reviled cotton excise duty, but most importantly, an announcement of Britain's future plans for India and an indication of some concrete steps. After more discussion, in August 1917, the new Liberal [Secretary of State for India](/wiki/Secretary_of_State_for_India \"Secretary of State for India\"), [Edwin Montagu](/wiki/Edwin_Montagu \"Edwin Montagu\"), announced the British aim of \"increasing association of Indians in every branch of the administration, and the gradual development of self\\-governing institutions, with a view to the progressive realization of responsible government in India as an integral part of the British Empire.\" This envisioned reposing confidence in the educated Indians, so far disdained as an unrepresentative minority, who were described by Montague as \"Intellectually our children\".{{Harvnb\\|Metcalf\\|Metcalf\\|2006\\|p\\=166}} The pace of the reforms where to be determined by Britain as and when the Indians were seen to have earned it. However, although the plan envisioned limited self\\-government at first only in the provinces – with India emphatically within the British Empire – it represented the first British proposal for any form of representative government in a non\\-white colony.", "Earlier, at the onset of World War I, the reassignment of most of the British army in India to Europe and [Mesopotamia](/wiki/Mesopotamian_campaign \"Mesopotamian campaign\") had led the previous Viceroy, [Lord Harding](/wiki/Charles_Hardinge%2C_1st_Baron_Hardinge_of_Penshurst \"Charles Hardinge, 1st Baron Hardinge of Penshurst\"), to worry about the \"risks involved in denuding India of troops.\" [Revolutionary violence](/wiki/Revolutionary_movement_for_Indian_independence \"Revolutionary movement for Indian independence\") had already been a concern in British India; consequently in 1915, to strengthen its powers during what it saw was a time of increased vulnerability, the Government of India passed the [Defence of India Act](/wiki/Defence_of_India_Act_1915 \"Defence of India Act 1915\"), which allowed it to intern politically dangerous dissidents without due process and added to the power it already had – under the 1910 Press Act – both to imprison journalists without trial and to censor the press.{{Harvnb\\|Brown\\|1994\\|pp\\=201–203}} Now, as constitutional reform began to be discussed in earnest, the British began to consider how new moderate Indians could be brought into the fold of constitutional politics and simultaneously, how the hand of established constitutionalists could be strengthened. However, since the reform plan was devised during a time when extremist violence had ebbed as a result of increased [wartime governmental control](/wiki/Defence_of_India_act_1915 \"Defence of India act 1915\") and it now feared a revival of revolutionary violence, the government also began to consider how some of its wartime powers could be extended into peacetime.", "[left\\|thumb\\|[Edwin Montagu](/wiki/Edwin_Montagu \"Edwin Montagu\"), left, the [Secretary of State for India](/wiki/Secretary_of_State_for_India \"Secretary of State for India\"), whose report led to the [Government of India Act 1919](/wiki/Government_of_India_Act_1919 \"Government of India Act 1919\"), also known as the Montford Reforms or the Montagu\\-Chelmsford Reforms.](/wiki/File:Montagu_left.jpg \"Montagu left.jpg\")\nConsequently, in 1917, even as Edwin Montagu announced the new constitutional reforms, [a sedition committee](/wiki/Rowlatt_Committee \"Rowlatt Committee\") chaired by a British judge, Mr. S. A. T. Rowlatt, was tasked with investigating [wartime revolutionary conspiracies](/wiki/Hindu-German_Conspiracy \"Hindu-German Conspiracy\") and the [German](/wiki/Imperial_Germany \"Imperial Germany\") and [Bolshevik](/wiki/Bolshevik \"Bolshevik\") links to the violence in India,{{Harvnb\\|Lovett\\|1920\\|pp\\=94, 187–191}}{{Harvnb\\|Sarkar\\|1921\\|p\\=137}}{{Harvnb\\|Tinker\\|1968\\|p\\=92}} with the unstated goal of extending the government's wartime powers.{{Harvnb\\|Brown\\|1994\\|pp\\=203–204}} The Rowlatt committee presented its report in July 1918 and identified three regions of conspiratorial insurgency: [Bengal](/wiki/Bengal \"Bengal\"), the [Bombay presidency](/wiki/Bombay_presidency \"Bombay presidency\"), and the Punjab. To combat subversive acts in these regions, the committee recommended that the government use emergency powers akin to its wartime authority, which included the ability to try cases of sedition by a panel of three judges and without juries, exaction of securities from suspects, governmental overseeing of residences of suspects, and the power for provincial governments to arrest and detain suspects in short\\-term detention facilities and without trial.", "With the end of World War I, there was also a change in the economic climate. By year's end 1919, 1\\.5 million Indians had served in the armed services in either combatant or non\\-combatant roles, and India had provided £146 million in revenue for the war.{{Harvnb\\|Brown\\|1994\\|pp\\=195–196}} The increased taxes coupled with disruptions in both domestic and international trade had the effect of approximately doubling the index of overall prices in India between 1914 and 1920\\. Returning war veterans, especially in the Punjab, created a growing unemployment crisis{{Harvnb\\|Stein\\|2001\\|p\\=304}} and post\\-war inflation led to food riots in Bombay, Madras, and Bengal provinces, a situation that was made only worse by the failure of the 1918–19 monsoon and by profiteering and speculation. The [global influenza epidemic](/wiki/Spanish_flu \"Spanish flu\") and the [Bolshevik Revolution](/wiki/Bolshevik_Revolution \"Bolshevik Revolution\") of 1917 added to the general jitters; the former among the population already experiencing economic woes, and the latter among government officials, fearing a similar revolution in India.{{Harvnb\\|Ludden\\|2002\\|p\\=208}}", "To combat what it saw as a coming crisis, the government now drafted the Rowlatt committee's recommendations into two [Rowlatt Bills](/wiki/Rowlatt_Acts \"Rowlatt Acts\").{{Harvnb\\|Spear\\|1990\\|p\\=190}} Although the bills were authorised for legislative consideration by Edwin Montagu, they were done so unwillingly, with the accompanying declaration, \"I loathe the suggestion at first sight of preserving the Defence of India Act in peace time to such an extent as Rowlatt and his friends think necessary.\" In the ensuing discussion and vote in the [Imperial Legislative Council](/wiki/Imperial_Legislative_Council_%28India%29 \"Imperial Legislative Council (India)\"), all Indian members voiced opposition to the bills. The Government of India was nevertheless able to use of its \"official majority\" to ensure passage of the bills early in 1919\\. However, what it passed, in deference to the Indian opposition, was a lesser version of the first bill, which now allowed extrajudicial powers, but for a period of exactly three years and for the prosecution solely of \"anarchical and revolutionary movements,\" dropping entirely the second bill involving modification of the [Indian Penal Code](/wiki/Indian_Penal_Code \"Indian Penal Code\"). Even so, when it was passed the new [Rowlatt Act](/wiki/Rowlatt_Act \"Rowlatt Act\") aroused widespread indignation throughout India and brought [Mohandas Gandhi](/wiki/Mohandas_Gandhi \"Mohandas Gandhi\") to the forefront of the nationalist movement.", "### Montagu–Chelmsford Report 1919", "Meanwhile, Montagu and Chelmsford themselves finally presented their report in July 1918 after a long fact\\-finding trip through India the previous winter.{{Harvnb\\|Brown\\|1994\\|pp\\=205–207}} After more discussion by the government and parliament in Britain, and another tour by the Franchise and Functions Committee for the purpose of identifying who among the Indian population could vote in future elections, the [Government of India Act 1919](/wiki/Government_of_India_Act_1919 \"Government of India Act 1919\") (also known as the [Montagu–Chelmsford Reforms](/wiki/Montagu%E2%80%93Chelmsford_Reforms \"Montagu–Chelmsford Reforms\")) was passed in December 1919\\. The new Act enlarged the provincial councils and converted the [Imperial Legislative Council](/wiki/Imperial_Legislative_Council \"Imperial Legislative Council\") into an enlarged [Central Legislative Assembly](/wiki/Central_Legislative_Assembly \"Central Legislative Assembly\"). It also repealed the Government of India's recourse to the \"official majority\" in unfavourable votes. Although departments like defence, foreign affairs, criminal law, communications and income\\-tax were retained by the [Viceroy](/wiki/Governor-General_of_India \"Governor-General of India\") and the central government in New Delhi, other departments like public health, education, land\\-revenue and local self\\-government were transferred to the provinces. The provinces themselves were now to be administered under a new [dyarchical](/wiki/Diarchy \"Diarchy\") system, whereby some areas like education, agriculture, infrastructure development, and local self\\-government became the preserve of Indian ministers and legislatures, and ultimately the Indian electorates, while others like irrigation, land\\-revenue, police, prisons, and control of media remained within the purview of the British governor and his executive council. The new Act also made it easier for Indians to be admitted into the civil service and the army officer corps.", "A greater number of Indians were now enfranchised, although, for voting at the national level, they constituted only 10% of the total adult male population, many of whom were still illiterate. In the provincial legislatures, the British continued to exercise some control by setting aside seats for special interests they considered cooperative or useful. In particular, rural candidates, generally sympathetic to British rule and less confrontational, were assigned more seats than their urban counterparts. Seats were also reserved for non\\-Brahmins, landowners, businessmen, and college graduates. The principal of \"communal representation\", an integral part of the [Minto–Morley Reforms](/wiki/Minto%E2%80%93Morley_Reforms \"Minto–Morley Reforms\"), and more recently of the Congress\\-Muslim League Lucknow Pact, was reaffirmed, with seats being reserved for [Muslims](/wiki/Muslims \"Muslims\"), [Sikhs](/wiki/Sikhs \"Sikhs\"), [Indian Christians](/wiki/Christianity_in_India \"Christianity in India\"), [Anglo\\-Indians](/wiki/Anglo-Indians \"Anglo-Indians\"), and domiciled Europeans, in both provincial and Imperial legislative councils. The Montagu–Chelmsford reforms offered Indians the most significant opportunity yet for exercising legislative power, especially at the provincial level; however, that opportunity was also restricted by the still limited number of eligible voters, by the small budgets available to provincial legislatures, and by the presence of rural and special interest seats that were seen as instruments of British control.", "[right\\|thumb\\|British Prime Minister MacDonald to the right of Gandhi at the Second Round Table Conference in London, October 1931\\.](/wiki/File:Gandhi_in_London_meeting%2C_1931.jpg \"Gandhi in London meeting, 1931.jpg\")", "### Round Table Conferences 1930–31–32", "{{main\\|Round Table Conferences (India)}}\nThe three [Round Table Conferences](/wiki/Round_Table_Conferences_%28India%29 \"Round Table Conferences (India)\") of 1930–32 were a series of conferences organised by the British Government to discuss constitutional reforms in India. They were conducted according to the recommendation of Muslim leader [Muhammad Ali Jinnah](/wiki/Muhammad_Ali_Jinnah \"Muhammad Ali Jinnah\") to the Viceroy [Lord Irwin](/wiki/Lord_Irwin \"Lord Irwin\") and the Prime Minister [Ramsay MacDonald](/wiki/Ramsay_MacDonald \"Ramsay MacDonald\"),{{cite book\\|last1\\=Wolpert\\|first1\\=Stanley\\|title\\=Jinnah of Pakistan\\|date\\=2013\\|publisher\\=Oxford University Press\\|location\\=Karachi, Pakistan\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-19\\-577389\\-7\\|page\\=107\\|edition\\=15}}{{cite book\\|last1\\=Wolpert\\|first1\\=Stanley\\|title\\=Shameful Flight\\|date\\=2012\\|publisher\\=Oxford University Press\\|location\\=Karachi, Pakistan\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-19\\-906606\\-3\\|page\\=5\\|edition\\=1st}} and by the report submitted by the [Simon Commission](/wiki/Simon_Commission \"Simon Commission\") in May 1930\\. Demands for [swaraj](/wiki/Swaraj \"Swaraj\"), or self\\-rule, in India had been growing increasingly strong. By the 1930s, many British politicians believed that India needed to move towards [dominion status](/wiki/Dominion_status \"Dominion status\"). However, there were significant disagreements between the Indian and the British leaders that the Conferences could not resolve.{{cite book\\|title\\=Students' Britannica India\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=ISFBJarYX7YC\\&pg\\=PA309\\|year\\=2000\\|page\\=309\\|isbn \\= 9780852297605\\|last1 \\= Hoiberg\\|first1 \\= Dale\\| publisher\\=Popular Prakashan }}", "[thumb\\|left\\|A cartoon from 1932 depicting Viscount Willingdon on a [hunger strike](/wiki/Hunger_strike \"Hunger strike\") against Gandhi](/wiki/File:Gandhi_Willingdon_caricature_1932.jpg \"Gandhi Willingdon caricature 1932.jpg\")", "### Willingdon imprisons leaders of Congress", "In 1932 the Viceroy, [Lord Willingdon](/wiki/Freeman_Freeman-Thomas%2C_1st_Marquess_of_Willingdon \"Freeman Freeman-Thomas, 1st Marquess of Willingdon\"), after the failure of the three [Round Table Conferences (India)](/wiki/Round_Table_Conferences_%28India%29 \"Round Table Conferences (India)\") in London, now confronted Gandhi's Congress in action. The [India Office](/wiki/India_Office \"India Office\") told Willingdon that he should conciliate only those elements of Indian opinion that were willing to work with the Raj. That did not include Gandhi and the Indian National Congress, which launched its Civil Disobedience Movement on 4 January 1932\\. Therefore, Willingdon took decisive action.{{cite book\\|author\\=John F. Riddick\\|title\\=The History of British India: A Chronology\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=Es6x4u\\_g19UC\\&pg\\=PA110\\|year\\=2006\\|publisher\\=Greenwood \\|page\\=110\\|isbn\\=9780313322808}} He imprisoned Gandhi. He outlawed the Congress; he rounded up all members of the Working Committee and the Provincial Committees and imprisoned them; and he banned Congress youth organisations. In total he imprisoned 80,000 Indian activists. Without most of their leaders, protests were uneven and disorganised, boycotts were ineffective, illegal youth organisations proliferated but were ineffective, more women became involved, and there was terrorism, especially in the North\\-West Frontier Province. Gandhi remained in prison until 1933\\.Brian Roger Tomlinson, *The Indian National Congress and the Raj, 1929–1942: the penultimate phase* (Springer, 1976\\).Rosemary Rees. *India 1900–47* (Heineman, 2006\\) p 122 Willingdon relied on his military secretary, [Hastings Ismay](/wiki/Hastings_Ismay%2C_1st_Baron_Ismay \"Hastings Ismay, 1st Baron Ismay\"), for his personal safety.{{cite book\\| title\\=The Memoirs of General Lord Ismay\\| first\\=Hastings\\| last\\=Ismay\\| location\\=New York\\| publisher\\=Viking Press\\| page\\=66\\| year\\=1960\\| isbn\\=978\\-0\\-8371\\-6280\\-5}}", "### Communal Award: 1932", "MacDonald, trying to resolve the critical issue of how Indians would be represented, on 16 August 1932 announced the [Communal Award](/wiki/Communal_Award \"Communal Award\"), which retained [separate electorates](/wiki/Separate_electorate \"Separate electorate\") for Muslims, Sikhs, and Europeans in India and increased the number of provinces that offered separate electorates to Anglo\\-Indians and Indian Christians. The Depressed Classes (now known as the [Dalits](/wiki/Dalits \"Dalits\")) obtained a separate electorate. Gandhi, representing the Indian National Congress during negotiations, rejected separate electorates for the Depressed Classes, Europeans, Anglo\\-Indians, and Indian Christians because, according to historian [Helen Nugent](/wiki/Helen_Nugent \"Helen Nugent\"), he believed those separate electorates would weaken Congress' claim to be nationally representative. The award went into effect anyway.{{cite journal \\|last\\=Nugent \\|first\\=Helen M. \\|author\\-link\\=Helen Nugent \\|year\\=1979 \\|title\\=The communal award: The process of decision\\-making \\|journal\\=South Asia: Journal of South Asian Studies \\|volume\\=2 \\|issue\\=1–2 \\|pages\\=112–129 \\|doi\\=10\\.1080/00856407908722988}}", "" ]
Investigation, litigation and controversy ----------------------------------------- On 20 October, the day after the bombing, the government convened a press conference presided over by [Augustus Aikhomu](/wiki/Augustus_Aikhomu "Augustus Aikhomu"). Before the press conference started, all press photographers, foreign journalists, and Nigerians that worked for foreign news media were ordered out. Those left behind were told that the briefing was "off the record" and Aikhomu would not be entertaining any questions.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.newswatchngr.com/index.php?option\=com\_content\&task\=view\&id\=3605\&Itemid\=26 \|publisher\=Newswatch \|title\=Dele Giwa \|author\=Demola Abimboye \|access\-date\=5 January 2012 \|archive\-date\=23 October 2011 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20111023215513/http://www.newswatchngr.com/index.php?option\=com\_content\&task\=view\&id\=3605\&Itemid\=26 \|url\-status\=live }} Aikhomu then went on to ask [Ismaila Gwarzo](/wiki/Ismaila_Gwarzo "Ismaila Gwarzo"), the Director of the SSS and Haliru Akilu to render their accounts of what had transpired between Dele Giwa and their agencies in the recent past. Gwarzo confirmed that the SSS had invited Giwa for questioning over allegations of gun running. Akilu on his part confirmed that he had called Giwa's home on 18 October to ask for directions to the house so he could stop over to see Giwa while on his way to [Kano](/wiki/Kano_%28city%29 "Kano (city)") through Ikeja airport. Akilu also said that he had wanted to visit Giwa at home to "prove a Hausa adage that if you visit someone in his house, you show him you are really a friend." Ekpu claimed that he remembered Gwarzo saying that the killing was "quite embarrassing" and also that Tony Momoh had described it as "a clear case of assassination"; later he was quoted saying, "a special probe would serve no useful purpose". Graffiti of the time implied a belief that the SSS had been responsible.{{cite book \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=\_0C\_W0BZaXIC\&pg\=PA123 \|page\=123 \|title\=Radical media: rebellious communication and social movements \|author\=John Downing \|publisher\=SAGE \|year\=2001 \|isbn\=0\-8039\-5699\-1}} In a newspaper interview years later in retirement, Chris Omeben who at the time was the Deputy Inspector General of Police (DIG) in charge of the Federal Investigation and Intelligence Bureau (FIIB) at Alagbon, on his part recalled that he was the second officer to have handled the case file after he had taken it over from his predecessor at the FIIB, Victor Pam. Omeben explained that he had done what any competent investigator would have done in unraveling the circumstances surrounding the death of Dele Giwa. He went on to say that he had examined the crime scene and found it suspicious that the toilet adjacent to the blast site which Kayode Soyinka alleged he was occupying when the explosion occurred had also suffered damage from the blast but Soyinka was left unscathed. Omeben described the force of the explosion to have been strong enough to blow out the steel bars over the toilet window (burglary protection), which in his own assessment made Soyinka's story less convincing. Omeben also claims he requested to interview Dan Agbese, Ray Ekpu and Kayode Soyinka. Of the three, only Agbese turned up, he was later to find out that Soyinka had fled the country.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.sunnewsonline.com/webpages/features/icon/2012/feb/05/icon\-05\-02\-2012\-001\.html \|publisher\=The Sun newspapers \|title\=Me and Dele Giwa's murder \|author\=Beifoh Osewele \|access\-date\=17 April 2012 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120419041009/http://www.sunnewsonline.com/webpages/features/icon/2012/feb/05/icon\-05\-02\-2012\-001\.html \|archive\-date\=19 April 2012 \|url\-status\=dead }} Omeben also recalled that in the course of his investigations he had cause to interrogate both Haliru Akilu and Tunde Togun. According to Omeben Akilu defended Giwa's invitation to the DMI by saying Giwa was invited to clarify statements he made to a New York daily which had been assessed as having potential to paint the country in a bad light in the international press.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.premiumtimesng.com/news/top\-news/192176\-ex\-dig\-omeben\-opens\-up\-on\-dele\-giwa\-assassination.html \|publisher\=Premium Times \|title\=Ex\-DIG Omeben opens up on Dele Giwa assassination \|author\=Agency report \|date\=26 October 2015 \|access\-date\=26 October 2015}} The only known interview Giwa gave to any New York daily was one published eight months earlier in a New York Times story about rising religious nationalism and extremism in Nigeria. On the issue of rising Islamic nationalism, Giwa gave this singular quote in the story, *It's a dangerous, explosive trend,...in the worst case, I see a situation where die\-hard Christians and die\-hard Moslems are fighting in the streets.*{{cite news \|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/1986/02/21/world/a\-burst\-of\-moslem\-fervor\-in\-nigeria\-the\-north\-stirs\-and\-the\-south\-frets.html?pagewanted\=all \|work\=The New York Times \|title\=A BURST OF MOSLEM FERVOR IN NIGERIA: THE NORTH STIRS AND THE SOUTH FRETS \|author\=EDWARD A. GARGAN \|date\=21 February 1986 \|access\-date\=26 October 2015 \|archive\-date\=7 March 2016 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160307123244/http://www.nytimes.com/1986/02/21/world/a\-burst\-of\-moslem\-fervor\-in\-nigeria\-the\-north\-stirs\-and\-the\-south\-frets.html?pagewanted\=all \|url\-status\=live }} Omeben said he was satisfied with the reasons Akilu and Togun gave for inviting Giwa. However, Soyinka has come out to reply Omeben and accused him of spreading deliberate falsehood with his comments on him on his involvement with the parcel bomb incident. In an interview he granted The Nation newspaper of Lagos of Saturday, 19 January 2013, Soyinka denied that he ran to the toilet when the bomb exploded. He said he did not know where Omeben got that false information from. When questioned, Soyinka requested to not be required to relive the experience again.{{Cite news\|title\=Dele Giwa: Kayode Soyinka replies ex\-Police boss:'I didn't run to the toilet when the bomb exploded'\|url\=https://thenationonlineng.net/dele\-giwa\-kayode\-soyinka\-replies\-ex\-police\-bossi\-didnt\-run\-to\-the\-toilet\-when\-the\-bomb\-exploded/\|date\=19 January 2013\|newspaper\=The Nation Newspaper\|language\=en\-US\|access\-date\=27 May 2020\|archive\-date\=19 January 2021\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210119192722/https://thenationonlineng.net/dele\-giwa\-kayode\-soyinka\-replies\-ex\-police\-bossi\-didnt\-run\-to\-the\-toilet\-when\-the\-bomb\-exploded/\|url\-status\=live}} Omeben also alleged that he was being pressured into naming Babangida and Akilu as suspects when he yet had no evidence linking them to the crime. Some of this pressure led to the formation of a special squad to investigate the case, the squad was headed by Assistant Commissioner of Police Abubakar Tsav. Omeben alleges that the then Inspector General of Police Gambo Jimeta has asked him to leave the case with the Tsav team out of anger at how messy the whole situation was getting. Omeben also spoke about certain "fixations" in the minds of the general public about the case, in his own words "...There is the tendency for people to make up their minds as to what they want to see or hear. It may not necessarily be the truth and once they are so fixated, every other thing that somebody else would say would not mean anything to them. Dele Giwa's case suffered such a fixation". In testimony that he gave on 3 July 2001, before the Justice Oputa led Human Rights Violations Investigations Commission (HRVIC), Tsav alleged that the government stonewalled his investigation into the assassination. Tsav claimed that he was not granted permission to question key actors involved, including Tunde Togun, [Ismaila Gwarzo](/wiki/Ismaila_Gwarzo "Ismaila Gwarzo") and Haliru Akilu. He also said that he had requested that the privileges of these officers be withdrawn so he could take their statements and conduct a search of their offices and residences for items of evidential value but this request was denied. Tsav averred that in his final report, he had concluded that there was enough circumstantial evidence to accuse the duo of Togun and Akilu of conspiracy to murder but still the government did not make these two officers available for interrogation or a voice identification as he had requested.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.newswatchngr.com/editorial/allaccess/2001/09072001/ng10709213328\.htm \|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20130130163047/http://www.newswatchngr.com/editorial/allaccess/2001/09072001/ng10709213328\.htm \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-date\=30 January 2013 \|publisher\=Newswatch \|title\=The Finger Points upwards \|author\=Tunde Asaju \|access\-date\=5 January 2012 }} Tsav claims that he handed the case file back to Chris Omeben. Tsav alleged that none of his recommendations were implemented, the case file was never returned to him and that there was no evidence that the case was transferred to another officer or agency. Tsav said he believed Giwa was killed because he believed Giwa was in "the way of some powerful forces". After the investigation stalled, various conspiracy theories arose to explain why Giwa was killed. One of the most popular and still the most enduring has been the Gloria Okon connection. Gloria Okon was a Lady who was arrested in 1985 at the [Aminu Kano](/wiki/Aminu_Kano "Aminu Kano") International airport on suspicion of drug smuggling. Soon after, it was alleged that she had died in custody, the government subsequently constituted a commission of inquiry to investigate the matter.{{cite web \|url\=http://mobile.saharareporters.com/interview/nigeria\-ripe\-revolution\-solomon\-adun\-asemota\-san?page\=1 \|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20130201223921/http://mobile.saharareporters.com/interview/nigeria\-ripe\-revolution\-solomon\-adun\-asemota\-san?page\=1 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-date\=1 February 2013 \|publisher\=Sahara Reporters \|title\=Nigeria is ripe for a revolution \|author\=Solomon Adun Asemota \|access\-date\=5 January 2012 }} Conspiracy theorists allege that Gloria Okon was a drug mule working for the wife of General [Ibrahim Babangida](/wiki/Ibrahim_Babangida "Ibrahim Babangida") who was then the Minister of Defence in the regime of General Muhammadu Buhari. The theorists allege that during interrogation Okon had claimed that she worked for highly placed Nigerians, in particular Babangida's wife. The theory goes on that Babangida spirited Okon out of detention to the United Kingdom, sold the public the ruse of a dead Gloria Okon and that Dele Giwa happened upon Okon on a trip to the UK where she told him her story. The story goes on that armed with this information, Giwa tried to blackmail the now Military President, Ibrahim Babangida and this was why he was killed. This blackmail theory might not be unconnected with the off\-the\-record interview that Lt Col A.K Togun gave to airport correspondents of the Guardian on 27 October 1986\. In the interview, when asked about Dele Giwa's killing and the suspicion in the public that he was killed by the government, Togun was quoted as saying "...one person cannot come out to blackmail us. I am an expert in blackmail. I can blackmail very well. I studied propaganda so no one person can come and blackmail us after an agreement...". Togun's statement was in the context of the secret agreement reached by Giwa and other media executives at the 9 October meeting, he seemed to accuse Giwa of reneging on the agreement leading to Giwa being invited for questioning on 16 October. Theorists also allege that Babangida's drug running activities were brought to the attention of the Buhari\-Idiagbon regime which led the regime to slate him for retirement on 1 October 1985\. They also say that it was his impending retirement that inspired him to plan the coup that toppled Buhari in August 1985\.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.republicreport.com/dele\-giwa%E2%80%99s\-greed\-ibbgloria\-okon\-saga\-1980s\-drug\-trafficking\-revisited/ \|publisher\=REPUBLIC REPORT \|title\=Dele Giwa's Greed, IBB/Gloria Okon Saga, \& 1980s Drug\-Trafficking REVISITED \|author\=REPUBLIC REPORT \|access\-date\=5 January 2012 \|archive\-date\=24 October 2012 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121024002933/http://www.republicreport.com/dele\-giwa%E2%80%99s\-greed\-ibbgloria\-okon\-saga\-1980s\-drug\-trafficking\-revisited/ \|url\-status\=live }} Giwa's colleagues at *[Newswatch](/wiki/Newswatch_%28Nigeria%29 "Newswatch (Nigeria)")* have debunked this theory and deny any link between Giwa, Gloria Okon and Mrs. Babangida. In a *Newswatch* interview marking the 25th anniversary of the magazine, one of the founding partners of the organisation Yakubu Mohammed explained the Giwa\-*Newswatch*\-Gloria Okon link. Mohammed claims that Dele Giwa had not been writing any Gloria Okon story and that the closest *Newswatch* got to a Gloria Okon story was at one of the magazine's editorial conferences where a *Newswatch* reporter, Bose lasaki, who was a niece to President [Olusegun Obasanjo](/wiki/Olusegun_Obasanjo "Olusegun Obasanjo") spoke about a "rumour" making the rounds to the effect that Gloria Okon had not died in detention but had been spirited out of the country. Mohammed claimed that Lasaki's story was dismissed off\-hand but that she was asked to find out more about the rumour. Lasaki was alleged to have returned for the next editorial conference the following week and declared that there was no substance to the rumour. Mohammed alleged that Giwa was not at any of these meetings. The [Ibrahim Babangida](/wiki/Ibrahim_Babangida "Ibrahim Babangida") drug running angle was also called into question by revelations made by the embittered former head of the [National Security Organization](/wiki/National_Security_Organization "National Security Organization") (NSO), Alhaji Mohammed Lawal Rafindadi. In 1985, following a request by the [Supreme Military Council](/wiki/Supreme_Military_Council_%28Nigeria_1983%29 "Supreme Military Council (Nigeria 1983)"), the NSO under Rafindadi investigated Babangida and found him complicit of forgery and activities inimical to national security. This issue arose as a result of Babangida and his in\-law, Mr Sunny Okogwu's interest in an arms manufacturing venture in [Kaduna](/wiki/Kaduna "Kaduna") called Black Gold. The SMC, based on the NSO's findings slated Babangida for retirement.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.newswatchngr.com/index.php?option\=com\_content\&task\=view\&id\=1748\&Itemid\=42 \|publisher\=Newswatch \|title\=Newswatch at 25: How the Journey Started \|author1\=Chris Ajaero \|author2\=Danusa Ocholi \|author3\=Dike Onwuamaeze \|author4\=Ishaya Ibrahim \|access\-date\=5 January 2012 \|archive\-date\=13 October 2023 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20231013151258/https://www.newswatchngr.com/?option\=com\_content\&task\=view\&id\=1748\&Itemid\=42 \|url\-status\=live }}{{cite web \|url\=http://www.newswatchngr.com/editorial/prime/backissues/2000/ng311\.htm \|publisher\=Newswatch \|title\=NIGERIA: In Search of Justice; Rafindadi, Agila royal families give evidence before Oputa, receive sermon on peace \|author\=Mike Akpan \|access\-date\=17 December 2011 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20240525154142/https://www.webcitation.org/6401aH8Tx?url\=http://www.newswatchngr.com/editorial/prime/backissues/2000/ng311\.htm \|archive\-date\=25 May 2024 }} The only witness to the events shortly before the bomb exploded, Mr Kayode Soyinka had alleged that the package had a label with the seal of the Nigerian President and also claimed that the label indicated that it was from the office of the president. However, no other witness has corroborated this claim, Giwa's 17\-year\-old son, Billy, who had delivered the package to Giwa has never corroborated this claim. Soyinka's testimony about the events prior to and after the bombing have also been brought into question, there have been accusations made to the effect that he might have been the same person that detonated the bomb by remote control as he was not injured in the explosion.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.kwenu.com/publications/max/dele\_giwa.htm \|publisher\=www.kwenku.com \|title\=Open Letter to Dele Giwa \|author\=Max Gbanite \|access\-date\=5 January 2012 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20111208223121/http://kwenu.com/publications/max/dele\_giwa.htm \|archive\-date\=8 December 2011 \|url\-status\=dead }} Soyinka is also alleged to have given conflicting accounts of the events to the Police and media outlets, he is also accused of fleeing the country while investigations were ongoing. To the accusation of fleeing the country, Soyinka has this to say in that his interview with The Nation (Saturday, 19 January 2013\): "Dele was very close to his mother. He did not joke with her at all. It was an honour for me to have met her. The last time I saw her was at Dele's burial in their village near Auchi, in Edo State. I was there live with my wife contrary to the erroneous story of Babangida's government's mischief makers who tried to deceive the Nigerian people in order to exonerate the government from the assassination of Dele Giwa, saying that I had fled the country. They deliberately spread all kinds of falsehood, ignoring even newspaper reports and pictures of myself and my wife in attendance at the burial. And mind you, how could I have fled the country? My wife and children were not in Nigeria with me when the bomb exploded, they had to take the next available flight to Nigeria to join me. Yet, Babangida's men said I fled the country. And my family and I remained in the country throughout the whole period of the controversy and burial arrangement. We returned to London together through the former British Caledonian Airways, through Muritala Mohammed Airport. There was no way we could have left quietly. We were accompanied to and seen off at the airport by friends, including the *Newswatch* editors, and family. The airline people recognised us. Our two children were still small then. The air hostesses took them from us, played with them, and they were asking me if I was feeling better – knowing the trauma one must have been through in the past weeks, and took us straight and right inside the aircraft, even before checking in other passengers. Yet the Babangida men kept saying, even till today, that I fled the country. Can you imagine?" Giwa's lawyer was also accused of prematurely accusing the government of Dele Giwa's murder thereby truncating the investigation into the case, *Newswatch* magazine in an edition of 18 November 1986, disowned Fawehimni. The subsequent court cases instituted by Fawehinmi against the government to enable him try the case as a private prosecutor after the Director of Public Prosecution, Mrs. Eniola Fadayomi had refused to prosecute based on the evidence available were mostly unsuccessful. An excerpt of the Judgement by the then Lagos State Chief Judge, Justice Candido Johnson reads thus "...Even if one considers the reasonableness of time, I would say that the incident that gave birth to the death of the late Dele Giwa is not only unique in its form but also complex and would require sufficient time to conduct detailed and balanced investigation, a report on which the appropriate authority would reasonably act. The timing here appears hasty and premature. It appears impulsive without giving reasonable time and chance for a detailed and balanced investigation into this sordid incident. In the circumstances and having regard to the review made above, it is my ruling that this (ex\-parte) application is misconceived and it is therefore dismissed. Leave to apply for mandamus is hereby refused." Fawehinmi went on to the [Supreme Court](/wiki/Supreme_court "Supreme court") and got a favourable judgement which enabled him go back to the [Lagos](/wiki/Lagos "Lagos") State [High Court](/wiki/High_Court "High Court"), this judgement also mandated the Justice Candido to recuse himself from the case and appoint another judge to hear the case. On 23 February 1988, Justice Longe ruled that the two security officers, Lt. Col Tunde Togun and Col. Haliru Akilu could not be tried for the murder of Dele Giwa. In his ruling Justice Longe averred among other things that,"...the Attorney general did not oppose the objection raised by counsel to the 'accused' persons, Chief [Rotimi Williams](/wiki/Frederick_Rotimi_Williams "Frederick Rotimi Williams"), on the ground that the information was filed by private prosecutor ([Chief](/wiki/Oba_%28ruler%29 "Oba (ruler)") [Gani Fawehinmi](/wiki/Gani_Fawehinmi "Gani Fawehinmi")) when the information had not been completed and especially when the 'INFORMATION IMPLICATED ONE OF THE PROSECUTION WITNESSES'(Kayode Soyinka)...the proof of evidence before the Court was mere HEARSAY…. Based on the evidence available before the court, it will be an abuse of the process of court to call the two security chiefs for trial. The information is therefore quashed accordingly." Kayode Soyinka was represented in court by Kayode Sofola SAN, representing the chambers of Kehinde Sofola SAN, that succeeded to getting the court to rule as frivolous the reference to Soyinka being "implicated". The court also ordered that cost be paid Soyinka by the 'accused' persons.{{Cite web\|title\=Nigeria: Oputa: Gani Breaks Down In Tears Over Dele Giwa\|url\=https://allafrica.com/stories/200012120321\.html\|last\=Vanguard\|date\=12 December 2000\|website\=\|access\-date\=28 May 2020\|archive\-date\=24 January 2001\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20010124104600/http://allafrica.com/stories/200012120321\.html\|url\-status\=live}}{{Cite web\|title\=Dele Giwa\|url\=http://www.gamji.com/article6000/NEWS7528\.htm\|website\=www.gamji.com\|access\-date\=27 May 2020\|archive\-date\=10 June 2020\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200610122540/http://www.gamji.com/article6000/NEWS7528\.htm\|url\-status\=live}} In 2001, General Ibrahim Babangida refused to testify before a national human rights commission about the Giwa murder. Babangida, Hakilu and Togun went to court and obtained an order restraining the commission from summoning them to appear before it. The Chairman of the commission commented that the commission had the power to issue arrest warrants for the trio but decided against this "in the over\-all interest of national reconciliation".{{cite web \|url\=http://www.ifex.org/en/content/view/full/14400 \|title\=CPJ urges former Nigerian dictator to testify in journalist's unsolved murder \|work\=\[\[International Freedom of Expression Exchange\|IFEX]] \|date\=28 August 2001 \|access\-date\=24 June 2011}}{{cite web \|url\=http://www.nigerianmuse.com/nigeriawatch/oputa/OputaSummaryRecommendations.pdf \|publisher\=Nigerian Muse \|title\=Synoptic Overview of HRVIC Report: Conclusions and Recommendations \|author\=HUMAN RIGHTS VIOLATIONS INVESTIGATION COMMISSION \|access\-date\=5 January 2012 \|archive\-date\=20 August 2008 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080820083819/http://www.nigerianmuse.com/nigeriawatch/oputa/OputaSummaryRecommendations.pdf \|url\-status\=live }} In 2008, the Government of [Nigeria](/wiki/Nigeria "Nigeria") named a street in the New Federal Capital [Abuja](/wiki/Abuja "Abuja") after Dele Giwa, as they did with other activists such as [Fela Anikulapo\-Kuti](/wiki/Fela_Anikulapo-Kuti "Fela Anikulapo-Kuti") and [Ken Saro Wiwa](/wiki/Ken_Saro_Wiwa "Ken Saro Wiwa"){{cite web \|url\=https://lists.mayfirst.org/pipermail/friends/2008\-September/004042\.html \|title\=Govt names streets Saro\-Wiwa, Dele Giwa, Fela and others \|author\=KORNEBARI NWIKE \|date\=23 September 2008 \|access\-date\=24 June 2011 \|archive\-date\=24 July 2011 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110724081400/https://lists.mayfirst.org/pipermail/friends/2008\-September/004042\.html \|url\-status\=live }}
[ "Investigation, litigation and controversy\n-----------------------------------------", "On 20 October, the day after the bombing, the government convened a press conference presided over by [Augustus Aikhomu](/wiki/Augustus_Aikhomu \"Augustus Aikhomu\"). Before the press conference started, all press photographers, foreign journalists, and Nigerians that worked for foreign news media were ordered out. Those left behind were told that the briefing was \"off the record\" and Aikhomu would not be entertaining any questions.{{cite web\n \\|url\\=http://www.newswatchngr.com/index.php?option\\=com\\_content\\&task\\=view\\&id\\=3605\\&Itemid\\=26\n \\|publisher\\=Newswatch\n \\|title\\=Dele Giwa\n \\|author\\=Demola Abimboye\n \\|access\\-date\\=5 January 2012\n \\|archive\\-date\\=23 October 2011\n \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20111023215513/http://www.newswatchngr.com/index.php?option\\=com\\_content\\&task\\=view\\&id\\=3605\\&Itemid\\=26\n \\|url\\-status\\=live\n }}", "Aikhomu then went on to ask [Ismaila Gwarzo](/wiki/Ismaila_Gwarzo \"Ismaila Gwarzo\"), the Director of the SSS and Haliru Akilu to render their accounts of what had transpired between Dele Giwa and their agencies in the recent past. Gwarzo confirmed that the SSS had invited Giwa for questioning over allegations of gun running. Akilu on his part confirmed that he had called Giwa's home on 18 October to ask for directions to the house so he could stop over to see Giwa while on his way to [Kano](/wiki/Kano_%28city%29 \"Kano (city)\") through Ikeja airport. Akilu also said that he had wanted to visit Giwa at home to \"prove a Hausa adage that if you visit someone in his house, you show him you are really a friend.\" Ekpu claimed that he remembered Gwarzo saying that the killing was \"quite embarrassing\" and also that Tony Momoh had described it as \"a clear case of assassination\"; later he was quoted saying, \"a special probe would serve no useful purpose\".\nGraffiti of the time implied a belief that the SSS had been responsible.{{cite book\n \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=\\_0C\\_W0BZaXIC\\&pg\\=PA123\n \\|page\\=123\n \\|title\\=Radical media: rebellious communication and social movements\n \\|author\\=John Downing\n \\|publisher\\=SAGE \\|year\\=2001\n \\|isbn\\=0\\-8039\\-5699\\-1}}", "In a newspaper interview years later in retirement, Chris Omeben who at the time was the Deputy Inspector General of Police (DIG) in charge of the Federal Investigation and Intelligence Bureau (FIIB) at Alagbon, on his part recalled that he was the second officer to have handled the case file after he had taken it over from his predecessor at the FIIB, Victor Pam. Omeben explained that he had done what any competent investigator would have done in unraveling the circumstances surrounding the death of Dele Giwa. He went on to say that he had examined the crime scene and found it suspicious that the toilet adjacent to the blast site which Kayode Soyinka alleged he was occupying when the explosion occurred had also suffered damage from the blast but Soyinka was left unscathed. Omeben described the force of the explosion to have been strong enough to blow out the steel bars over the toilet window (burglary protection), which in his own assessment made Soyinka's story less convincing. Omeben also claims he requested to interview Dan Agbese, Ray Ekpu and Kayode Soyinka. Of the three, only Agbese turned up, he was later to find out that Soyinka had fled the country.{{cite web\n \\|url\\=http://www.sunnewsonline.com/webpages/features/icon/2012/feb/05/icon\\-05\\-02\\-2012\\-001\\.html\n \\|publisher\\=The Sun newspapers\n \\|title\\=Me and Dele Giwa's murder\n \\|author\\=Beifoh Osewele\n \\|access\\-date\\=17 April 2012\n \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120419041009/http://www.sunnewsonline.com/webpages/features/icon/2012/feb/05/icon\\-05\\-02\\-2012\\-001\\.html\n \\|archive\\-date\\=19 April 2012\n \\|url\\-status\\=dead\n }} Omeben also recalled that in the course of his investigations he had cause to interrogate both Haliru Akilu and Tunde Togun. According to Omeben Akilu defended Giwa's invitation to the DMI by saying Giwa was invited to clarify statements he made to a New York daily which had been assessed as having potential to paint the country in a bad light in the international press.{{cite web \n \\|url\\=http://www.premiumtimesng.com/news/top\\-news/192176\\-ex\\-dig\\-omeben\\-opens\\-up\\-on\\-dele\\-giwa\\-assassination.html\n \\|publisher\\=Premium Times\n \\|title\\=Ex\\-DIG Omeben opens up on Dele Giwa assassination\n \\|author\\=Agency report\n \\|date\\=26 October 2015\n \\|access\\-date\\=26 October 2015}} The only known interview Giwa gave to any New York daily was one published eight months earlier in a New York Times story about rising religious nationalism and extremism in Nigeria. On the issue of rising Islamic nationalism, Giwa gave this singular quote in the story, *It's a dangerous, explosive trend,...in the worst case, I see a situation where die\\-hard Christians and die\\-hard Moslems are fighting in the streets.*{{cite news\n \\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/1986/02/21/world/a\\-burst\\-of\\-moslem\\-fervor\\-in\\-nigeria\\-the\\-north\\-stirs\\-and\\-the\\-south\\-frets.html?pagewanted\\=all\n \\|work\\=The New York Times\n \\|title\\=A BURST OF MOSLEM FERVOR IN NIGERIA: THE NORTH STIRS AND THE SOUTH FRETS\n \\|author\\=EDWARD A. GARGAN\n \\|date\\=21 February 1986\n \\|access\\-date\\=26 October 2015\n \\|archive\\-date\\=7 March 2016\n \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160307123244/http://www.nytimes.com/1986/02/21/world/a\\-burst\\-of\\-moslem\\-fervor\\-in\\-nigeria\\-the\\-north\\-stirs\\-and\\-the\\-south\\-frets.html?pagewanted\\=all\n \\|url\\-status\\=live\n }} Omeben said he was satisfied with the reasons Akilu and Togun gave for inviting Giwa.", "However, Soyinka has come out to reply Omeben and accused him of spreading deliberate falsehood with his comments on him on his involvement with the parcel bomb incident. In an interview he granted The Nation newspaper of Lagos of Saturday, 19 January 2013, Soyinka denied that he ran to the toilet when the bomb exploded. He said he did not know where Omeben got that false information from. When questioned, Soyinka requested to not be required to relive the experience again.{{Cite news\\|title\\=Dele Giwa: Kayode Soyinka replies ex\\-Police boss:'I didn't run to the toilet when the bomb exploded'\\|url\\=https://thenationonlineng.net/dele\\-giwa\\-kayode\\-soyinka\\-replies\\-ex\\-police\\-bossi\\-didnt\\-run\\-to\\-the\\-toilet\\-when\\-the\\-bomb\\-exploded/\\|date\\=19 January 2013\\|newspaper\\=The Nation Newspaper\\|language\\=en\\-US\\|access\\-date\\=27 May 2020\\|archive\\-date\\=19 January 2021\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210119192722/https://thenationonlineng.net/dele\\-giwa\\-kayode\\-soyinka\\-replies\\-ex\\-police\\-bossi\\-didnt\\-run\\-to\\-the\\-toilet\\-when\\-the\\-bomb\\-exploded/\\|url\\-status\\=live}}", "Omeben also alleged that he was being pressured into naming Babangida and Akilu as suspects when he yet had no evidence linking them to the crime. Some of this pressure led to the formation of a special squad to investigate the case, the squad was headed by Assistant Commissioner of Police Abubakar Tsav. Omeben alleges that the then Inspector General of Police Gambo Jimeta has asked him to leave the case with the Tsav team out of anger at how messy the whole situation was getting.", "Omeben also spoke about certain \"fixations\" in the minds of the general public about the case, in his own words \"...There is the tendency for people to make up their minds as to what they want to see or hear. It may not necessarily be the truth and once they are so fixated, every other thing that somebody else would say would not mean anything to them. Dele Giwa's case suffered such a fixation\".", "In testimony that he gave on 3 July 2001, before the Justice Oputa led Human Rights Violations Investigations Commission (HRVIC), Tsav alleged that the government stonewalled his investigation into the assassination. Tsav claimed that he was not granted permission to question key actors involved, including Tunde Togun, [Ismaila Gwarzo](/wiki/Ismaila_Gwarzo \"Ismaila Gwarzo\") and Haliru Akilu. He also said that he had requested that the privileges of these officers be withdrawn so he could take their statements and conduct a search of their offices and residences for items of evidential value but this request was denied. Tsav averred that in his final report, he had concluded that there was enough circumstantial evidence to accuse the duo of Togun and Akilu of conspiracy to murder but still the government did not make these two officers available for interrogation or a voice identification as he had requested.{{cite web\n \\|url\\=http://www.newswatchngr.com/editorial/allaccess/2001/09072001/ng10709213328\\.htm\n \\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20130130163047/http://www.newswatchngr.com/editorial/allaccess/2001/09072001/ng10709213328\\.htm\n \\|url\\-status\\=dead\n \\|archive\\-date\\=30 January 2013\n \\|publisher\\=Newswatch\n \\|title\\=The Finger Points upwards\n \\|author\\=Tunde Asaju\n \\|access\\-date\\=5 January 2012\n}}", "Tsav claims that he handed the case file back to Chris Omeben. Tsav alleged that none of his recommendations were implemented, the case file was never returned to him and that there was no evidence that the case was transferred to another officer or agency. Tsav said he believed Giwa was killed because he believed Giwa was in \"the way of some powerful forces\".", "After the investigation stalled, various conspiracy theories arose to explain why Giwa was killed. One of the most popular and still the most enduring has been the Gloria Okon connection. Gloria Okon was a Lady who was arrested in 1985 at the [Aminu Kano](/wiki/Aminu_Kano \"Aminu Kano\") International airport on suspicion of drug smuggling. Soon after, it was alleged that she had died in custody, the government subsequently constituted a commission of inquiry to investigate the matter.{{cite web\n \\|url\\=http://mobile.saharareporters.com/interview/nigeria\\-ripe\\-revolution\\-solomon\\-adun\\-asemota\\-san?page\\=1\n \\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20130201223921/http://mobile.saharareporters.com/interview/nigeria\\-ripe\\-revolution\\-solomon\\-adun\\-asemota\\-san?page\\=1\n \\|url\\-status\\=dead\n \\|archive\\-date\\=1 February 2013\n \\|publisher\\=Sahara Reporters\n \\|title\\=Nigeria is ripe for a revolution\n \\|author\\=Solomon Adun Asemota\n \\|access\\-date\\=5 January 2012\n}}", "Conspiracy theorists allege that Gloria Okon was a drug mule working for the wife of General [Ibrahim Babangida](/wiki/Ibrahim_Babangida \"Ibrahim Babangida\") who was then the Minister of Defence in the regime of General Muhammadu Buhari. The theorists allege that during interrogation Okon had claimed that she worked for highly placed Nigerians, in particular Babangida's wife. The theory goes on that Babangida spirited Okon out of detention to the United Kingdom, sold the public the ruse of a dead Gloria Okon and that Dele Giwa happened upon Okon on a trip to the UK where she told him her story. The story goes on that armed with this information, Giwa tried to blackmail the now Military President, Ibrahim Babangida and this was why he was killed. This blackmail theory might not be unconnected with the off\\-the\\-record interview that Lt Col A.K Togun gave to airport correspondents of the Guardian on 27 October 1986\\. In the interview, when asked about Dele Giwa's killing and the suspicion in the public that he was killed by the government, Togun was quoted as saying \"...one person cannot come out to blackmail us. I am an expert in blackmail. I can blackmail very well. I studied propaganda so no one person can come and blackmail us after an agreement...\". Togun's statement was in the context of the secret agreement reached by Giwa and other media executives at the 9 October meeting, he seemed to accuse Giwa of reneging on the agreement leading to Giwa being invited for questioning on 16 October. Theorists also allege that Babangida's drug running activities were brought to the attention of the Buhari\\-Idiagbon regime which led the regime to slate him for retirement on 1 October 1985\\. They also say that it was his impending retirement that inspired him to plan the coup that toppled Buhari in August 1985\\.{{cite web\n \\|url\\=http://www.republicreport.com/dele\\-giwa%E2%80%99s\\-greed\\-ibbgloria\\-okon\\-saga\\-1980s\\-drug\\-trafficking\\-revisited/\n \\|publisher\\=REPUBLIC REPORT\n \\|title\\=Dele Giwa's Greed, IBB/Gloria Okon Saga, \\& 1980s Drug\\-Trafficking REVISITED\n \\|author\\=REPUBLIC REPORT\n \\|access\\-date\\=5 January 2012\n \\|archive\\-date\\=24 October 2012\n \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121024002933/http://www.republicreport.com/dele\\-giwa%E2%80%99s\\-greed\\-ibbgloria\\-okon\\-saga\\-1980s\\-drug\\-trafficking\\-revisited/\n \\|url\\-status\\=live\n }}", "Giwa's colleagues at *[Newswatch](/wiki/Newswatch_%28Nigeria%29 \"Newswatch (Nigeria)\")* have debunked this theory and deny any link between Giwa, Gloria Okon and Mrs. Babangida. In a *Newswatch* interview marking the 25th anniversary of the magazine, one of the founding partners of the organisation Yakubu Mohammed explained the Giwa\\-*Newswatch*\\-Gloria Okon link.\nMohammed claims that Dele Giwa had not been writing any Gloria Okon story and that the closest *Newswatch* got to a Gloria Okon story was at one of the magazine's editorial conferences where a *Newswatch* reporter, Bose lasaki, who was a niece to President [Olusegun Obasanjo](/wiki/Olusegun_Obasanjo \"Olusegun Obasanjo\") spoke about a \"rumour\" making the rounds to the effect that Gloria Okon had not died in detention but had been spirited out of the country. Mohammed claimed that Lasaki's story was dismissed off\\-hand but that she was asked to find out more about the rumour. Lasaki was alleged to have returned for the next editorial conference the following week and declared that there was no substance to the rumour. Mohammed alleged that Giwa was not at any of these meetings. The [Ibrahim Babangida](/wiki/Ibrahim_Babangida \"Ibrahim Babangida\") drug running angle was also called into question by revelations made by the embittered former head of the [National Security Organization](/wiki/National_Security_Organization \"National Security Organization\") (NSO), Alhaji Mohammed Lawal Rafindadi. In 1985, following a request by the [Supreme Military Council](/wiki/Supreme_Military_Council_%28Nigeria_1983%29 \"Supreme Military Council (Nigeria 1983)\"), the NSO under Rafindadi investigated Babangida and found him complicit of forgery and activities inimical to national security. This issue arose as a result of Babangida and his in\\-law, Mr Sunny Okogwu's interest in an arms manufacturing venture in [Kaduna](/wiki/Kaduna \"Kaduna\") called Black Gold. The SMC, based on the NSO's findings slated Babangida for retirement.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.newswatchngr.com/index.php?option\\=com\\_content\\&task\\=view\\&id\\=1748\\&Itemid\\=42 \\|publisher\\=Newswatch \\|title\\=Newswatch at 25: How the Journey Started \\|author1\\=Chris Ajaero \\|author2\\=Danusa Ocholi \\|author3\\=Dike Onwuamaeze \\|author4\\=Ishaya Ibrahim \\|access\\-date\\=5 January 2012 \\|archive\\-date\\=13 October 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20231013151258/https://www.newswatchngr.com/?option\\=com\\_content\\&task\\=view\\&id\\=1748\\&Itemid\\=42 \\|url\\-status\\=live }}{{cite web\n \\|url\\=http://www.newswatchngr.com/editorial/prime/backissues/2000/ng311\\.htm \n \\|publisher\\=Newswatch \n \\|title\\=NIGERIA: In Search of Justice; Rafindadi, Agila royal families give evidence before Oputa, receive sermon on peace \n \\|author\\=Mike Akpan \n \\|access\\-date\\=17 December 2011\n \\|url\\-status\\=dead \n \\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20240525154142/https://www.webcitation.org/6401aH8Tx?url\\=http://www.newswatchngr.com/editorial/prime/backissues/2000/ng311\\.htm\n \\|archive\\-date\\=25 May 2024\n}}\nThe only witness to the events shortly before the bomb exploded, Mr Kayode Soyinka had alleged that the package had a label with the seal of the Nigerian President and also claimed that the label indicated that it was from the office of the president. However, no other witness has corroborated this claim, Giwa's 17\\-year\\-old son, Billy, who had delivered the package to Giwa has never corroborated this claim. Soyinka's testimony about the events prior to and after the bombing have also been brought into question, there have been accusations made to the effect that he might have been the same person that detonated the bomb by remote control as he was not injured in the explosion.{{cite web\n \\|url\\=http://www.kwenu.com/publications/max/dele\\_giwa.htm\n \\|publisher\\=www.kwenku.com\n \\|title\\=Open Letter to Dele Giwa\n \\|author\\=Max Gbanite\n \\|access\\-date\\=5 January 2012\n \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20111208223121/http://kwenu.com/publications/max/dele\\_giwa.htm\n \\|archive\\-date\\=8 December 2011\n \\|url\\-status\\=dead\n }}", "Soyinka is also alleged to have given conflicting accounts of the events to the Police and media outlets, he is also accused of fleeing the country while investigations were ongoing. To the accusation of fleeing the country, Soyinka has this to say in that his interview with The Nation (Saturday, 19 January 2013\\): \"Dele was very close to his mother. He did not joke with her at all. It was an honour for me to have met her. The last time I saw her was at Dele's burial in their village near Auchi, in Edo State. I was there live with my wife contrary to the erroneous story of Babangida's government's mischief makers who tried to deceive the Nigerian people in order to exonerate the government from the assassination of Dele Giwa, saying that I had fled the country. They deliberately spread all kinds of falsehood, ignoring even newspaper reports and pictures of myself and my wife in attendance at the burial. And mind you, how could I have fled the country? My wife and children were not in Nigeria with me when the bomb exploded, they had to take the next available flight to Nigeria to join me. Yet, Babangida's men said I fled the country. And my family and I remained in the country throughout the whole period of the controversy and burial arrangement. We returned to London together through the former British Caledonian Airways, through Muritala Mohammed Airport. There was no way we could have left quietly. We were accompanied to and seen off at the airport by friends, including the *Newswatch* editors, and family. The airline people recognised us. Our two children were still small then. The air hostesses took them from us, played with them, and they were asking me if I was feeling better – knowing the trauma one must have been through in the past weeks, and took us straight and right inside the aircraft, even before checking in other passengers. Yet the Babangida men kept saying, even till today, that I fled the country. Can you imagine?\"", "Giwa's lawyer was also accused of prematurely accusing the government of Dele Giwa's murder thereby truncating the investigation into the case, *Newswatch* magazine in an edition of 18 November 1986, disowned Fawehimni.", "The subsequent court cases instituted by Fawehinmi against the government to enable him try the case as a private prosecutor after the Director of Public Prosecution, Mrs. Eniola Fadayomi had refused to prosecute based on the evidence available were mostly unsuccessful. An excerpt of the Judgement by the then Lagos State Chief Judge, Justice Candido Johnson reads thus \"...Even if one considers the reasonableness of time, I would say that the incident that gave birth to the death of the late Dele Giwa is not only unique in its form but also complex and would require sufficient time to conduct detailed and balanced investigation, a report on which the appropriate authority would reasonably act. The timing here appears hasty and premature. It appears impulsive without giving reasonable time and chance for a detailed and balanced investigation into this sordid incident.\nIn the circumstances and having regard to the review made above, it is my ruling that this (ex\\-parte) application is misconceived and it is therefore dismissed. Leave to apply for mandamus is hereby refused.\"", "Fawehinmi went on to the [Supreme Court](/wiki/Supreme_court \"Supreme court\") and got a favourable judgement which enabled him go back to the [Lagos](/wiki/Lagos \"Lagos\") State [High Court](/wiki/High_Court \"High Court\"), this judgement also mandated the Justice Candido to recuse himself from the case and appoint another judge to hear the case. On 23 February 1988, Justice Longe ruled that the two security officers, Lt. Col Tunde Togun and Col. Haliru Akilu could not be tried for the murder of Dele Giwa. In his ruling Justice Longe averred among other things that,\"...the Attorney general did not oppose the objection raised by counsel to the 'accused' persons, Chief [Rotimi Williams](/wiki/Frederick_Rotimi_Williams \"Frederick Rotimi Williams\"), on the ground that the information was filed by private prosecutor ([Chief](/wiki/Oba_%28ruler%29 \"Oba (ruler)\") [Gani Fawehinmi](/wiki/Gani_Fawehinmi \"Gani Fawehinmi\")) when the information had not been completed and especially when the 'INFORMATION IMPLICATED ONE OF THE PROSECUTION WITNESSES'(Kayode Soyinka)...the proof of evidence before the Court was mere HEARSAY…. Based on the evidence available before the court, it will be an abuse of the process of court to call the two security chiefs for trial. The information is therefore quashed accordingly.\" Kayode Soyinka was represented in court by Kayode Sofola SAN, representing the chambers of Kehinde Sofola SAN, that succeeded to getting the court to rule as frivolous the reference to Soyinka being \"implicated\". The court also ordered that cost be paid Soyinka by the 'accused' persons.{{Cite web\\|title\\=Nigeria: Oputa: Gani Breaks Down In Tears Over Dele Giwa\\|url\\=https://allafrica.com/stories/200012120321\\.html\\|last\\=Vanguard\\|date\\=12 December 2000\\|website\\=\\|access\\-date\\=28 May 2020\\|archive\\-date\\=24 January 2001\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20010124104600/http://allafrica.com/stories/200012120321\\.html\\|url\\-status\\=live}}{{Cite web\\|title\\=Dele Giwa\\|url\\=http://www.gamji.com/article6000/NEWS7528\\.htm\\|website\\=www.gamji.com\\|access\\-date\\=27 May 2020\\|archive\\-date\\=10 June 2020\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200610122540/http://www.gamji.com/article6000/NEWS7528\\.htm\\|url\\-status\\=live}}", "In 2001, General Ibrahim Babangida refused to testify before a national human rights commission about the Giwa murder. Babangida, Hakilu and Togun went to court and obtained an order restraining the commission from summoning them to appear before it. The Chairman of the commission commented that the commission had the power to issue arrest warrants for the trio but decided against this \"in the over\\-all interest of national reconciliation\".{{cite web\n \\|url\\=http://www.ifex.org/en/content/view/full/14400\n \\|title\\=CPJ urges former Nigerian dictator to testify in journalist's unsolved murder\n \\|work\\=\\[\\[International Freedom of Expression Exchange\\|IFEX]]\n \\|date\\=28 August 2001\n \\|access\\-date\\=24 June 2011}}{{cite web\n \\|url\\=http://www.nigerianmuse.com/nigeriawatch/oputa/OputaSummaryRecommendations.pdf\n \\|publisher\\=Nigerian Muse\n \\|title\\=Synoptic Overview of HRVIC Report: Conclusions and Recommendations\n \\|author\\=HUMAN RIGHTS VIOLATIONS INVESTIGATION COMMISSION\n \\|access\\-date\\=5 January 2012\n \\|archive\\-date\\=20 August 2008\n \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080820083819/http://www.nigerianmuse.com/nigeriawatch/oputa/OputaSummaryRecommendations.pdf\n \\|url\\-status\\=live\n }}", "In 2008, the Government of [Nigeria](/wiki/Nigeria \"Nigeria\") named a street in the New Federal Capital [Abuja](/wiki/Abuja \"Abuja\") after Dele Giwa, as they did with other activists such as [Fela Anikulapo\\-Kuti](/wiki/Fela_Anikulapo-Kuti \"Fela Anikulapo-Kuti\") and [Ken Saro Wiwa](/wiki/Ken_Saro_Wiwa \"Ken Saro Wiwa\"){{cite web\n \\|url\\=https://lists.mayfirst.org/pipermail/friends/2008\\-September/004042\\.html\n \\|title\\=Govt names streets Saro\\-Wiwa, Dele Giwa, Fela and others\n \\|author\\=KORNEBARI NWIKE\n \\|date\\=23 September 2008\n \\|access\\-date\\=24 June 2011\n \\|archive\\-date\\=24 July 2011\n \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110724081400/https://lists.mayfirst.org/pipermail/friends/2008\\-September/004042\\.html\n \\|url\\-status\\=live\n }}", "" ]
Overview -------- ### Fourth Division The pre\-season saw general manager [Stanley Matthews](/wiki/Stanley_Matthews "Stanley Matthews") injured in a car accident with a [National Coal Board](/wiki/National_Coal_Board "National Coal Board") lorry on 29 July. [Jackie Mudie](/wiki/Jackie_Mudie "Jackie Mudie") was also in the car but remained relatively unharmed. As Matthews recovered, in came four new forwards, the most significant of which was [Crystal Palace](/wiki/Crystal_Palace_F.C. "Crystal Palace F.C.")'s [Ian Lawson](/wiki/Ian_Lawson_%28footballer%2C_born_1939%29 "Ian Lawson (footballer, born 1939)"). Lawson cost £1,000 with an additional £1,000 signing on fee. Other new faces included winger [Mick Mahon](/wiki/Mick_Mahon "Mick Mahon") (Loughborough United); inside\-forward [Jimmy Goodfellow](/wiki/Jimmy_Goodfellow "Jimmy Goodfellow") ([Bishop Auckland](/wiki/Bishop_Auckland_F.C. "Bishop Auckland F.C.")); and [Billy McCartney](/wiki/Billy_McCartney "Billy McCartney") ([Rangers](/wiki/Rangers_F.C. "Rangers F.C.")). There was a [kit](/wiki/Kit_%28association_football%29 "Kit (association football)") change to an all\-white strip, upon the suggestion of Stanley Matthews. The season opened with a 2–1 home win over [Southport](/wiki/Southport_F.C. "Southport F.C.") using an optimistic 4–2–4 [formation](/wiki/Formation_%28association_football%29 "Formation (association football)"). Following [Roy Sproson](/wiki/Roy_Sproson "Roy Sproson")'s winning goal there was a [pitch invasion](/wiki/Pitch_invasion "Pitch invasion") – by then a disturbingly common occurrence. Six games without a loss followed, leaving the club in fourth position. Goals were still rare, however, and so Lawson was dropped from the [first XI](/wiki/First_XI "First XI"), despite the departure of in\-form forward [John Rowland](/wiki/John_Rowland_%28footballer%2C_born_1941%29 "John Rowland (footballer, born 1941)") to [Mansfield Town](/wiki/Mansfield_Town_F.C. "Mansfield Town F.C.") for £6,500\. Financial difficulties made the atmosphere around [Burslem](/wiki/Burslem "Burslem") quite gloomy, not helped by the news that former Valiant [John Nicholson](/wiki/John_Nicholson_%28footballer%2C_born_1936%29 "John Nicholson (footballer, born 1936)") had been killed in a car crash. Vale's form suffered, though the defence remained quite strong. Young Scot [Mick Cullerton](/wiki/Mick_Cullerton "Mick Cullerton") was a ray of sunshine for the club in front of goal. Good form in the [Christmas](/wiki/Christmas "Christmas") period continued into an unbeaten January in the league, as the club climbed to within five points of the [promotion](/wiki/Promotion_and_relegation "Promotion and relegation") places. In came forward [Mel Charles](/wiki/Mel_Charles "Mel Charles") from [Porthmadog](/wiki/Porthmadog_F.C. "Porthmadog F.C.") for a £1,250 fee. A 1–0 defeat at [Gresty Road](/wiki/Alexandra_Stadium "Alexandra Stadium") to [Crewe Alexandra](/wiki/Crewe_Alexandra_F.C. "Crewe Alexandra F.C.") in front of an unruly crowd marked the first of a crucial seven\-game sequence against the promotion hopefuls. A win over [Barrow](/wiki/Barrow_A.F.C. "Barrow A.F.C.") and a draw at [Stockport County](/wiki/Stockport_County_F.C. "Stockport County F.C.") was succeeded by five straight defeats, killing Vale's promotion hopes dead. They reversed the decline by doing the double over [Rochdale](/wiki/Rochdale_A.F.C. "Rochdale A.F.C.") within two days, including a 5–0 victory witnessed by 3,004 fans at [Vale Park](/wiki/Vale_Park "Vale Park"). In April, popular player John Ritchie was sold to [Preston North End](/wiki/Preston_North_End_F.C. "Preston North End F.C.") for £17,500\. [Mel Charles](/wiki/Mel_Charles "Mel Charles") sidelined with a knee injury, Vale limped to the season's end without a win in their final five games. On 3 May, [Stuart Chapman](/wiki/Stuart_Chapman "Stuart Chapman") made his debut at the age of fifteen in a 2–2 draw with [Lincoln City](/wiki/Lincoln_City_F.C. "Lincoln City F.C."). Five days later, [manager](/wiki/Manager_%28association_football%29 "Manager (association football)") Jackie Mudie tendered his resignation as [player\-manager](/wiki/Player-coach "Player-coach"), citing 'personal reasons'. They finished in thirteenth place with 43 points, marking a slight improvement on the previous campaign. Mick Cullerton's twelve goals in all competitions were enough to make him the top\-scorer. In the club's first ever [Player of the Year](/wiki/Port_Vale_F.C._Player_of_the_Year "Port Vale F.C. Player of the Year") ceremony, veteran defender [Roy Sproson](/wiki/Roy_Sproson "Roy Sproson") was bestowed with the honour. Meanwhile, the club's [youth team](/wiki/Youth_system "Youth system") performed brilliantly, reaching the quarter\-finals of the [FA Youth Cup](/wiki/FA_Youth_Cup "FA Youth Cup"), where they were eliminated 3–0 by [Scunthorpe United](/wiki/Scunthorpe_United_F.C. "Scunthorpe United F.C."). ### Finances On the financial side, there was a loss of £7,925 despite a [transfer](/wiki/Transfer_%28association_football%29 "Transfer (association football)") credit of £20,425 and a donation of £19,381 from the Sportsmen's Association and the Development Pool. Gate receipts were just £30,298, whilst the club's [overdraft](/wiki/Overdraft "Overdraft") stood at £82,373\. Nine players were released at the end of the season, most notably: Mel Charles ([Oswestry Town](/wiki/Oswestry_Town_F.C. "Oswestry Town F.C.")); Ian Lawson and [Brian Taylor](/wiki/Brian_Taylor_%28footballer%2C_born_1937%29 "Brian Taylor (footballer, born 1937)") ([Barnsley](/wiki/Barnsley_F.C. "Barnsley F.C.")); and untested [reserve](/wiki/Reserve_team "Reserve team") [Ray Kennedy](/wiki/Ray_Kennedy "Ray Kennedy") – who would take a break from football before returning to the game to play for [Liverpool](/wiki/Liverpool_F.C. "Liverpool F.C.") and [England](/wiki/England_national_football_team "England national football team"). Roddy Georgeson was also released at his own request to work in a bank, though he soon turned out for [Dundee](/wiki/Dundee_F.C. "Dundee F.C.") before beginning a long career in Scottish football. ### Cup competitions In the [FA Cup](/wiki/FA_Cup "FA Cup"), a 4–3–3 formation was used to defeat [Bradford City](/wiki/Bradford_City_A.F.C. "Bradford City A.F.C.") 2–1 at [Valley Parade](/wiki/Valley_Parade "Valley Parade") with a {{convert\|40\|yd}} 'goal of a lifetime' from [John Ritchie](/wiki/John_Ritchie_%28footballer%2C_born_1944%29 "John Ritchie (footballer, born 1944)"). Vale drew [Barnsley](/wiki/Barnsley_F.C. "Barnsley F.C.") in the Second Round, and earned a [replay](/wiki/Replay_%28sports%29 "Replay (sports)") with a 1–1 draw at [Oakwell](/wiki/Oakwell "Oakwell"). The replay attracted 12,784 supporters, but "Tykes" ran out 3–1 winners. In the [League Cup](/wiki/EFL_Cup "EFL Cup"), [Third Division](/wiki/Football_League_Third_Division "Football League Third Division") [Walsall](/wiki/Walsall_F.C. "Walsall F.C.") knocked out the Vale at the first stage with a 3–1 win.
[ "Overview\n--------", "### Fourth Division", "The pre\\-season saw general manager [Stanley Matthews](/wiki/Stanley_Matthews \"Stanley Matthews\") injured in a car accident with a [National Coal Board](/wiki/National_Coal_Board \"National Coal Board\") lorry on 29 July. [Jackie Mudie](/wiki/Jackie_Mudie \"Jackie Mudie\") was also in the car but remained relatively unharmed. As Matthews recovered, in came four new forwards, the most significant of which was [Crystal Palace](/wiki/Crystal_Palace_F.C. \"Crystal Palace F.C.\")'s [Ian Lawson](/wiki/Ian_Lawson_%28footballer%2C_born_1939%29 \"Ian Lawson (footballer, born 1939)\"). Lawson cost £1,000 with an additional £1,000 signing on fee. Other new faces included winger [Mick Mahon](/wiki/Mick_Mahon \"Mick Mahon\") (Loughborough United); inside\\-forward [Jimmy Goodfellow](/wiki/Jimmy_Goodfellow \"Jimmy Goodfellow\") ([Bishop Auckland](/wiki/Bishop_Auckland_F.C. \"Bishop Auckland F.C.\")); and [Billy McCartney](/wiki/Billy_McCartney \"Billy McCartney\") ([Rangers](/wiki/Rangers_F.C. \"Rangers F.C.\")). There was a [kit](/wiki/Kit_%28association_football%29 \"Kit (association football)\") change to an all\\-white strip, upon the suggestion of Stanley Matthews.", "The season opened with a 2–1 home win over [Southport](/wiki/Southport_F.C. \"Southport F.C.\") using an optimistic 4–2–4 [formation](/wiki/Formation_%28association_football%29 \"Formation (association football)\"). Following [Roy Sproson](/wiki/Roy_Sproson \"Roy Sproson\")'s winning goal there was a [pitch invasion](/wiki/Pitch_invasion \"Pitch invasion\") – by then a disturbingly common occurrence. Six games without a loss followed, leaving the club in fourth position. Goals were still rare, however, and so Lawson was dropped from the [first XI](/wiki/First_XI \"First XI\"), despite the departure of in\\-form forward [John Rowland](/wiki/John_Rowland_%28footballer%2C_born_1941%29 \"John Rowland (footballer, born 1941)\") to [Mansfield Town](/wiki/Mansfield_Town_F.C. \"Mansfield Town F.C.\") for £6,500\\. Financial difficulties made the atmosphere around [Burslem](/wiki/Burslem \"Burslem\") quite gloomy, not helped by the news that former Valiant [John Nicholson](/wiki/John_Nicholson_%28footballer%2C_born_1936%29 \"John Nicholson (footballer, born 1936)\") had been killed in a car crash. Vale's form suffered, though the defence remained quite strong. Young Scot [Mick Cullerton](/wiki/Mick_Cullerton \"Mick Cullerton\") was a ray of sunshine for the club in front of goal.", "Good form in the [Christmas](/wiki/Christmas \"Christmas\") period continued into an unbeaten January in the league, as the club climbed to within five points of the [promotion](/wiki/Promotion_and_relegation \"Promotion and relegation\") places. In came forward [Mel Charles](/wiki/Mel_Charles \"Mel Charles\") from [Porthmadog](/wiki/Porthmadog_F.C. \"Porthmadog F.C.\") for a £1,250 fee. A 1–0 defeat at [Gresty Road](/wiki/Alexandra_Stadium \"Alexandra Stadium\") to [Crewe Alexandra](/wiki/Crewe_Alexandra_F.C. \"Crewe Alexandra F.C.\") in front of an unruly crowd marked the first of a crucial seven\\-game sequence against the promotion hopefuls. A win over [Barrow](/wiki/Barrow_A.F.C. \"Barrow A.F.C.\") and a draw at [Stockport County](/wiki/Stockport_County_F.C. \"Stockport County F.C.\") was succeeded by five straight defeats, killing Vale's promotion hopes dead. They reversed the decline by doing the double over [Rochdale](/wiki/Rochdale_A.F.C. \"Rochdale A.F.C.\") within two days, including a 5–0 victory witnessed by 3,004 fans at [Vale Park](/wiki/Vale_Park \"Vale Park\"). In April, popular player John Ritchie was sold to [Preston North End](/wiki/Preston_North_End_F.C. \"Preston North End F.C.\") for £17,500\\. [Mel Charles](/wiki/Mel_Charles \"Mel Charles\") sidelined with a knee injury, Vale limped to the season's end without a win in their final five games. On 3 May, [Stuart Chapman](/wiki/Stuart_Chapman \"Stuart Chapman\") made his debut at the age of fifteen in a 2–2 draw with [Lincoln City](/wiki/Lincoln_City_F.C. \"Lincoln City F.C.\"). Five days later, [manager](/wiki/Manager_%28association_football%29 \"Manager (association football)\") Jackie Mudie tendered his resignation as [player\\-manager](/wiki/Player-coach \"Player-coach\"), citing 'personal reasons'.", "They finished in thirteenth place with 43 points, marking a slight improvement on the previous campaign. Mick Cullerton's twelve goals in all competitions were enough to make him the top\\-scorer. In the club's first ever [Player of the Year](/wiki/Port_Vale_F.C._Player_of_the_Year \"Port Vale F.C. Player of the Year\") ceremony, veteran defender [Roy Sproson](/wiki/Roy_Sproson \"Roy Sproson\") was bestowed with the honour. Meanwhile, the club's [youth team](/wiki/Youth_system \"Youth system\") performed brilliantly, reaching the quarter\\-finals of the [FA Youth Cup](/wiki/FA_Youth_Cup \"FA Youth Cup\"), where they were eliminated 3–0 by [Scunthorpe United](/wiki/Scunthorpe_United_F.C. \"Scunthorpe United F.C.\").", "### Finances", "On the financial side, there was a loss of £7,925 despite a [transfer](/wiki/Transfer_%28association_football%29 \"Transfer (association football)\") credit of £20,425 and a donation of £19,381 from the Sportsmen's Association and the Development Pool. Gate receipts were just £30,298, whilst the club's [overdraft](/wiki/Overdraft \"Overdraft\") stood at £82,373\\. Nine players were released at the end of the season, most notably: Mel Charles ([Oswestry Town](/wiki/Oswestry_Town_F.C. \"Oswestry Town F.C.\")); Ian Lawson and [Brian Taylor](/wiki/Brian_Taylor_%28footballer%2C_born_1937%29 \"Brian Taylor (footballer, born 1937)\") ([Barnsley](/wiki/Barnsley_F.C. \"Barnsley F.C.\")); and untested [reserve](/wiki/Reserve_team \"Reserve team\") [Ray Kennedy](/wiki/Ray_Kennedy \"Ray Kennedy\") – who would take a break from football before returning to the game to play for [Liverpool](/wiki/Liverpool_F.C. \"Liverpool F.C.\") and [England](/wiki/England_national_football_team \"England national football team\"). Roddy Georgeson was also released at his own request to work in a bank, though he soon turned out for [Dundee](/wiki/Dundee_F.C. \"Dundee F.C.\") before beginning a long career in Scottish football.", "### Cup competitions", "In the [FA Cup](/wiki/FA_Cup \"FA Cup\"), a 4–3–3 formation was used to defeat [Bradford City](/wiki/Bradford_City_A.F.C. \"Bradford City A.F.C.\") 2–1 at [Valley Parade](/wiki/Valley_Parade \"Valley Parade\") with a {{convert\\|40\\|yd}} 'goal of a lifetime' from [John Ritchie](/wiki/John_Ritchie_%28footballer%2C_born_1944%29 \"John Ritchie (footballer, born 1944)\"). Vale drew [Barnsley](/wiki/Barnsley_F.C. \"Barnsley F.C.\") in the Second Round, and earned a [replay](/wiki/Replay_%28sports%29 \"Replay (sports)\") with a 1–1 draw at [Oakwell](/wiki/Oakwell \"Oakwell\"). The replay attracted 12,784 supporters, but \"Tykes\" ran out 3–1 winners.", "In the [League Cup](/wiki/EFL_Cup \"EFL Cup\"), [Third Division](/wiki/Football_League_Third_Division \"Football League Third Division\") [Walsall](/wiki/Walsall_F.C. \"Walsall F.C.\") knocked out the Vale at the first stage with a 3–1 win.", "" ]
Career ------ Son of Senator [Francesco Carmelo Salerno](/wiki/Francesco_Carmelo_Salerno "Francesco Carmelo Salerno"), former president of Matera, he started his football career in [Serie C2](/wiki/Serie_C2 "Serie C2") as sporting director from 1983\-1984 until 1985–1986\. He later worked as sports director and market manager at [Ravenna](/wiki/Ravenna "Ravenna"), the [Licata](/wiki/A.S.D._Licata_1931 "A.S.D. Licata 1931"), with whom he landed in [Serie B](/wiki/Serie_B "Serie B") in season 1988–1989, and then at [Trieste](/wiki/Trieste "Trieste") from 1989 to 1993\. After serving an initial disqualification as sports director of [Messina](/wiki/Messina "Messina") from 1997 to 2002\. Salerno was touted as one of the architects of the revival of the *Giallorossi* as they climbed in a few years from the National Amateur Championship to Serie B. In 2002–2003, after new leadership at Messina, Salerno left to join [Catania](/wiki/Catania "Catania"), also in Serie B. The following season he moved to Serie A side [Cagliari Calcio](/wiki/Cagliari_Calcio "Cagliari Calcio") where he started his working relationship with the then Cagliari owner [Massimo Cellino](/wiki/Massimo_Cellino "Massimo Cellino"), who won the championship of Serie B for 2003–2004, and he stayed until 2006\. After one season as sporting director at [Foggia](/wiki/Foggia "Foggia") in [Serie C1](/wiki/Serie_C1 "Serie C1") from 2006 to 2007, where the [Apulian](/wiki/Apulia "Apulia") side earned promotion to Serie B in the last minute of the playoff final against [Avellino](/wiki/Avellino "Avellino"). Salerno then went back to Cagliari in 2007, but was dismissed in February 2008\. On 12 October 2009 he became the sports director of [U.S. Salernitana 1919](/wiki/U.S._Salernitana_1919 "U.S. Salernitana 1919"); after his resignation on 11 February 2011 subsequent to the start of the new owners at the helm of the club. After the summer of 2011, after the experience with Salernitana, after having been in touching distance of a return to Serie B until losing the play\-off final against [Hellas Verona F.C.](/wiki/Hellas_Verona_F.C. "Hellas Verona F.C.") Salerno made a brief return to Messina (who had fallen to Series D), where he served as the technical advisor. In November 2011, he was appointed as the new sporting director of [Grosseto](/wiki/Grosseto "Grosseto") in Serie B. In the summer of 2012, he was appointed sporting director of Catania, where he prepared to compete in Serie A 2012–2013, returning to the top flight again after experiencing Serie A with Cagliari. On July 5, 2013, he returned for the third time to Cagliari after five years away, becoming the first head of the technical team and the business of football. When owner Massimo Cellino sold the club in June 2014, to concentrate on the ownership of [Leeds United](/wiki/Leeds_United "Leeds United"), Salerno left Cagliari straight away. On 11 July 2014, owner Massimo Cellino revealed Salerno would be joining [Leeds United](/wiki/Leeds_United "Leeds United") on a 2\-year deal.{{cite news \|url\=https://audioboo.fm/boos/2319566\-leeds\-united\-president\-massimo\-cellino\-on\-new\-signings\-mccormack\-elland\-road\-buying\-a\-bus \|title\=Leeds United President Massimo Cellino on new signings, McCormack, Elland Road \& buying a bus \|publisher\=BBC Sport \|date\=11 July 2014 \|accessdate\=11 July 2014}} On 2 April Salerno mysteriously suspended [Steve Thompson](/wiki/Steve_Thompson_%28footballer%2C_born_1964%29 "Steve Thompson (footballer, born 1964)"), Leeds Assistant Manager who was credited with lifting Leeds from a place above relegation to 10th in the Football Championship. Leeds had won 6 out of the previous 10 matches. On 9 April 2015 Leeds United's suspended owner, Massimo Cellino, informed the press that he believed Salerno had resigned.{{cite news \|url\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/0/football/2091921https://www.theguardian.com/football/2015/apr/02/leeds\-assistant\-manager\-steve\-thompson \|title\=Leeds United suspend assistant manager Steve Thompson \|date\=2 April 2015 \|work\=The Guardian \|accessdate\=2 April 2015 }} With Salerno still contracted to [Leeds United](/wiki/Leeds_United "Leeds United"), On 24 June 2015, it was announced that after Salerno had helped the club sign [Sol Bamba](/wiki/Sol_Bamba "Sol Bamba") from [Palermo](/wiki/U.S._Citt%C3%A0_di_Palermo "U.S. Città di Palermo"){{cite web\|title\=Sol Bamba Signs Permanent Deal \|url\=http://www.leedsunited.com/news/article/1j2rtmixcjnu4zb363s7ebb4q/title/sol\-bamba\-signs\-permanent\-deal\|publisher\=Leeds United\|date\=24 June 2015\|accessdate\= 24 June 2015}} that Salerno and the club had agreed a mutual termination of Salerno's contract, with the club stating *Leeds United would like to thank Nicola for his efforts over the past year and he will always be welcomed back to Elland Road in the future*.{{cite web\|title\=Agreement Reached with Salerno \|url\=http://www.leedsunited.com/news/article/hl7tr54rrnhh16k3kcs3maf50/title/agreement\-reached\-with\-salerno\|publisher\=Leeds United\|date\=24 June 2015\|accessdate\= 24 June 2015}} On 24 June, Salerno gave a tell all interview to [Sky Sports](/wiki/Sky_Sports "Sky Sports") talking about his relationship with Cellino, [Neil Redfearn](/wiki/Neil_Redfearn "Neil Redfearn") and also the contract situation of [Mirco Antenucci](/wiki/Mirco_Antenucci "Mirco Antenucci"). He also talked about [Steve Thompson](/wiki/Steve_Thompson_%28footballer%2C_born_1964%29 "Steve Thompson (footballer, born 1964)"), proclaiming "I had a bad relationship with Steve but I didn’t speak to Massimo about him."{{cite web\|title\=Leeds United under Massimo Cellino \- Nicola Salerno lifts the lid\|url\=http://www1\.skysports.com/football/news/11715/9874680/leeds\-uniteds\-madcap\-methods\-under\-massimo\-cellino\-explained\-by\-nicola\-salerno\|publisher\=Sky Sports\|date\=24 June 2015\|accessdate\= 24 June 2015}} On 24 June 2015, it was announced that Salerno has joined [Premier League](/wiki/Premier_League "Premier League") side [Watford F.C.](/wiki/Watford_F.C. "Watford F.C.") as Consultant, and would oversee the recruitment of Watford's oversees players.{{cite web\|title\=Former Leeds United sporting director Nicola Salerno is set to join Watford as a consultant for the club's overseas recruitment\|url\=http://www.watfordobserver.co.uk/sport/watfordfc/watfordfcnews/13351244\.Salerno\_to\_assist\_Hornets\_\_overseas\_recruitment/?ref\=rss\|publisher\=Sky Sports\|date\=24 June 2015\|accessdate\= 24 June 2015}} On 16 January 2017, Salerno was appointed sporting director of [U.S. Città di Palermo](/wiki/U.S._Citt%C3%A0_di_Palermo "U.S. Città di Palermo").{{cite web\|url\=http://palermocalcio.it/it/1617/news/nicola\-salerno\-e\-il\-nuovo\-direttore\-sportivo\-33817\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170119012950/palermocalcio.it/it/1617/news/nicola\-salerno\-e\-il\-nuovo\-direttore\-sportivo\-33817\|archive\-date\=2017\-01\-19\|title\=NICOLA SALERNO E' IL NUOVO DIRETTORE SPORTIVO}} He resigned on 11 April 2017\.{{cite web\| url \= http://www.football\-italia.net/100962/official\-salerno\-lopez\-out\-palermo\| url\-status \= dead\| archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20170412061418/http://www.football\-italia.net/100962/official\-salerno\-lopez\-out\-palermo\| archive\-date \= 2017\-04\-12\| title \= Official: Salerno, Lopez out at Palermo {{!}} Football Italia}}
[ "Career\n------", "Son of Senator [Francesco Carmelo Salerno](/wiki/Francesco_Carmelo_Salerno \"Francesco Carmelo Salerno\"), former president of Matera, he started his football career in [Serie C2](/wiki/Serie_C2 \"Serie C2\") as sporting director from 1983\\-1984 until 1985–1986\\. He later worked as sports director and market manager at [Ravenna](/wiki/Ravenna \"Ravenna\"), the [Licata](/wiki/A.S.D._Licata_1931 \"A.S.D. Licata 1931\"), with whom he landed in [Serie B](/wiki/Serie_B \"Serie B\") in season 1988–1989, and then at [Trieste](/wiki/Trieste \"Trieste\") from 1989 to 1993\\.", "After serving an initial disqualification as sports director of [Messina](/wiki/Messina \"Messina\") from 1997 to 2002\\. Salerno was touted as one of the architects of the revival of the *Giallorossi* as they climbed in a few years from the National Amateur Championship to Serie B. In 2002–2003, after new leadership at Messina, Salerno left to join [Catania](/wiki/Catania \"Catania\"), also in Serie B.", "The following season he moved to Serie A side [Cagliari Calcio](/wiki/Cagliari_Calcio \"Cagliari Calcio\") where he started his working relationship with the then Cagliari owner [Massimo Cellino](/wiki/Massimo_Cellino \"Massimo Cellino\"), who won the championship of Serie B for 2003–2004, and he stayed until 2006\\.", "After one season as sporting director at [Foggia](/wiki/Foggia \"Foggia\") in [Serie C1](/wiki/Serie_C1 \"Serie C1\") from 2006 to 2007, where the [Apulian](/wiki/Apulia \"Apulia\") side earned promotion to Serie B in the last minute of the playoff final against [Avellino](/wiki/Avellino \"Avellino\").", "Salerno then went back to Cagliari in 2007, but was dismissed in February 2008\\.", "On 12 October 2009 he became the sports director of [U.S. Salernitana 1919](/wiki/U.S._Salernitana_1919 \"U.S. Salernitana 1919\"); after his resignation on 11 February 2011 subsequent to the start of the new owners at the helm of the club.", "After the summer of 2011, after the experience with Salernitana, after having been in touching distance of a return to Serie B until losing the play\\-off final against [Hellas Verona F.C.](/wiki/Hellas_Verona_F.C. \"Hellas Verona F.C.\") Salerno made a brief return to Messina (who had fallen to Series D), where he served as the technical advisor. In November 2011, he was appointed as the new sporting director of [Grosseto](/wiki/Grosseto \"Grosseto\") in Serie B.", "In the summer of 2012, he was appointed sporting director of Catania, where he prepared to compete in Serie A 2012–2013, returning to the top flight again after experiencing Serie A with Cagliari.", "On July 5, 2013, he returned for the third time to Cagliari after five years away, becoming the first head of the technical team and the business of football. When owner Massimo Cellino sold the club in June 2014, to concentrate on the ownership of [Leeds United](/wiki/Leeds_United \"Leeds United\"), Salerno left Cagliari straight away.", "On 11 July 2014, owner Massimo Cellino revealed Salerno would be joining [Leeds United](/wiki/Leeds_United \"Leeds United\") on a 2\\-year deal.{{cite news \n\\|url\\=https://audioboo.fm/boos/2319566\\-leeds\\-united\\-president\\-massimo\\-cellino\\-on\\-new\\-signings\\-mccormack\\-elland\\-road\\-buying\\-a\\-bus\n\\|title\\=Leeds United President Massimo Cellino on new signings, McCormack, Elland Road \\& buying a bus\n\\|publisher\\=BBC Sport\n\\|date\\=11 July 2014 \\|accessdate\\=11 July 2014}}", "On 2 April Salerno mysteriously suspended [Steve Thompson](/wiki/Steve_Thompson_%28footballer%2C_born_1964%29 \"Steve Thompson (footballer, born 1964)\"), Leeds Assistant Manager who was credited with lifting Leeds from a place above relegation to 10th in the Football Championship. Leeds had won 6 out of the previous 10 matches. On 9 April 2015 Leeds United's suspended owner, Massimo Cellino, informed the press that he believed Salerno had resigned.{{cite news \\|url\\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/0/football/2091921https://www.theguardian.com/football/2015/apr/02/leeds\\-assistant\\-manager\\-steve\\-thompson \\|title\\=Leeds United suspend assistant manager Steve Thompson \\|date\\=2 April 2015 \\|work\\=The Guardian \\|accessdate\\=2 April 2015 }}", "With Salerno still contracted to [Leeds United](/wiki/Leeds_United \"Leeds United\"), On 24 June 2015, it was announced that after Salerno had helped the club sign [Sol Bamba](/wiki/Sol_Bamba \"Sol Bamba\") from [Palermo](/wiki/U.S._Citt%C3%A0_di_Palermo \"U.S. Città di Palermo\"){{cite web\\|title\\=Sol Bamba Signs Permanent Deal \\|url\\=http://www.leedsunited.com/news/article/1j2rtmixcjnu4zb363s7ebb4q/title/sol\\-bamba\\-signs\\-permanent\\-deal\\|publisher\\=Leeds United\\|date\\=24 June 2015\\|accessdate\\= 24 June 2015}} that Salerno and the club had agreed a mutual termination of Salerno's contract, with the club stating *Leeds United would like to thank Nicola for his efforts over the past year and he will always be welcomed back to Elland Road in the future*.{{cite web\\|title\\=Agreement Reached with Salerno \\|url\\=http://www.leedsunited.com/news/article/hl7tr54rrnhh16k3kcs3maf50/title/agreement\\-reached\\-with\\-salerno\\|publisher\\=Leeds United\\|date\\=24 June 2015\\|accessdate\\= 24 June 2015}} On 24 June, Salerno gave a tell all interview to [Sky Sports](/wiki/Sky_Sports \"Sky Sports\") talking about his relationship with Cellino, [Neil Redfearn](/wiki/Neil_Redfearn \"Neil Redfearn\") and also the contract situation of [Mirco Antenucci](/wiki/Mirco_Antenucci \"Mirco Antenucci\"). He also talked about [Steve Thompson](/wiki/Steve_Thompson_%28footballer%2C_born_1964%29 \"Steve Thompson (footballer, born 1964)\"), proclaiming \"I had a bad relationship with Steve but I didn’t speak to Massimo about him.\"{{cite web\\|title\\=Leeds United under Massimo Cellino \\- Nicola Salerno lifts the lid\\|url\\=http://www1\\.skysports.com/football/news/11715/9874680/leeds\\-uniteds\\-madcap\\-methods\\-under\\-massimo\\-cellino\\-explained\\-by\\-nicola\\-salerno\\|publisher\\=Sky Sports\\|date\\=24 June 2015\\|accessdate\\= 24 June 2015}}", "On 24 June 2015, it was announced that Salerno has joined [Premier League](/wiki/Premier_League \"Premier League\") side [Watford F.C.](/wiki/Watford_F.C. \"Watford F.C.\") as Consultant, and would oversee the recruitment of Watford's oversees players.{{cite web\\|title\\=Former Leeds United sporting director Nicola Salerno is set to join Watford as a consultant for the club's overseas recruitment\\|url\\=http://www.watfordobserver.co.uk/sport/watfordfc/watfordfcnews/13351244\\.Salerno\\_to\\_assist\\_Hornets\\_\\_overseas\\_recruitment/?ref\\=rss\\|publisher\\=Sky Sports\\|date\\=24 June 2015\\|accessdate\\= 24 June 2015}}", "On 16 January 2017, Salerno was appointed sporting director of [U.S. Città di Palermo](/wiki/U.S._Citt%C3%A0_di_Palermo \"U.S. Città di Palermo\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://palermocalcio.it/it/1617/news/nicola\\-salerno\\-e\\-il\\-nuovo\\-direttore\\-sportivo\\-33817\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170119012950/palermocalcio.it/it/1617/news/nicola\\-salerno\\-e\\-il\\-nuovo\\-direttore\\-sportivo\\-33817\\|archive\\-date\\=2017\\-01\\-19\\|title\\=NICOLA SALERNO E' IL NUOVO DIRETTORE SPORTIVO}} He resigned on 11 April 2017\\.{{cite web\\| url \\= http://www.football\\-italia.net/100962/official\\-salerno\\-lopez\\-out\\-palermo\\| url\\-status \\= dead\\| archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20170412061418/http://www.football\\-italia.net/100962/official\\-salerno\\-lopez\\-out\\-palermo\\| archive\\-date \\= 2017\\-04\\-12\\| title \\= Official: Salerno, Lopez out at Palermo {{!}} Football Italia}}", "" ]
Company history --------------- {{advert\|nocat\=true\|date\=February 2013}} Pennsylvania Ballet was established in 1963 by Barbara Weisberger, a protégée of [George Balanchine](/wiki/George_Balanchine "George Balanchine"), through a [Ford Foundation](/wiki/Ford_Foundation "Ford Foundation") initiative to develop regional professional dance companies. The company is considered a cultural institution and is noted for its focus on the Balanchine repertoire. The company performed nationally for the first time in 1968 at the [New York City Center](/wiki/New_York_City_Center "New York City Center"), which led to a decade of national touring, appearances on [PBS](/wiki/Public_Broadcasting_Service "Public Broadcasting Service")'s *Dance in America* series, and a stint as the official company of the [Brooklyn Academy of Music](/wiki/Brooklyn_Academy_of_Music "Brooklyn Academy of Music") during the 1970s. In 1982, Pennsylvania Ballet became the first major American ballet company to promote an African\-American woman, [Debra Austin](/wiki/Debra_Austin_%28dancer%29 "Debra Austin (dancer)"), to principal dancer. Between 1987 and 1989, Pennsylvania Ballet forged an alliance with [Milwaukee Ballet](/wiki/Milwaukee_Ballet "Milwaukee Ballet") to create one company. The new organization had 43 dancers, and was the first in the country to offer its dancers year\-round employment. In 1995, Roy Kaiser was appointed as artistic director by the trustees of Pennsylvania Ballet. Kaiser was a former principal dancer and had been hired as a company member in 1979 by Weisberger. Following his retirement from the stage in 1992, Kaiser served as principal ballet master and associate artistic director under [Christopher d'Amboise](/wiki/Christopher_d%27Amboise "Christopher d'Amboise") before being named to his current position. Under Kaiser's leadership, the company expanded its Balanchine\-based repertoire to include new works from both established and emerging choreographers. New works included premieres of original ballets from choreographers [Merce Cunningham](/wiki/Merce_Cunningham "Merce Cunningham"), Christopher d'Amboise, [Trey McIntyre](/wiki/Trey_McIntyre "Trey McIntyre"), Matthew Neenan, [David Parsons](/wiki/David_Parsons_%28dancer%29 "David Parsons (dancer)"), [Val Caniparoli](/wiki/Val_Caniparoli "Val Caniparoli"), [Benjamin Millepied](/wiki/Benjamin_Millepied "Benjamin Millepied"), and [Christopher Wheeldon](/wiki/Christopher_Wheeldon "Christopher Wheeldon"), as well as the 40th\-anniversary commission of [Swan Lake](/wiki/Swan_Lake "Swan Lake") by Christopher Wheeldon and the 2007 world premiere of Matthew Neenan's *[Carmina Burana](/wiki/Carmina_Burana_%28Orff%29 "Carmina Burana (Orff)")*. Pennsylvania Ballet currently employs 37 dancers and annually presents a season of six programs, which includes their annual signature production of Balanchine's *The Nutcracker*. The season combines classic ballets with new works and challenges the dancers while attracting a diverse audience. The company also tours throughout Pennsylvania and elsewhere, including venues such as [New York City Center](/wiki/New_York_City_Center "New York City Center") and the [John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts](/wiki/John_F._Kennedy_Center_for_the_Performing_Arts "John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts") in Washington DC. Pennsylvania Ballet made its international debut at the [Edinburgh International Festival](/wiki/Edinburgh_International_Festival "Edinburgh International Festival") in August 2005\. Fourteen members of the Pennsylvania Ballet appeared as the corps in the 2010 film *[Black Swan](/wiki/Black_Swan_%28film%29 "Black Swan (film)")*.{{Cite news \|last\=Wloszczyna \|first\=Susan \|date\=July 22, 2010 \|title\='Black Swan' stars step deftly into roles \|work\=USA Today \|url\=https://www.usatoday.com/life/movies/news/2010\-07\-22\-blackswaninside22\_ST\_N.htm \|access\-date\=February 17, 2011 \|series\=Life – Movies}}{{Cite web \|last\=Jenet \|first\=Nicole \|date\=December 21, 2010 \|title\=Philadelphia Ballet dancer from Abington in 'Black Swan' \|url\=http://www.montgomerynews.com/articles/2010/12/21/entertainment/doc4d10dbcde1b5d571604551\.txt \|access\-date\=February 17, 2011 \|publisher\=Montgomery News}} In September 2014, [Ángel Corella](/wiki/Angel_Corella "Angel Corella") was named artistic director. In July 2021, Pennsylvania Ballet rebranded and became the Philadelphia Ballet. This name change reflected the company's commitment to its history, inspiration, and identity following 60 years of performance in [Philadelphia](/wiki/Philadelphia "Philadelphia"). The Philadelphia Ballet II (the company's second company) provides outreach and educational performances. Matthew Neenan, Philadelphia Ballet's first choreographer in residence, danced for the company from 1994 to 2007\.{{Cite web \|title\=Articulate — Matthew Neenan \|url\=https://www.articulateshow.org/articulate/matthew\-neenan \|access\-date\=2020\-07\-28 \|website\=Articulate \|language\=en\-US}}
[ "Company history\n---------------", "{{advert\\|nocat\\=true\\|date\\=February 2013}}", "Pennsylvania Ballet was established in 1963 by Barbara Weisberger, a protégée of [George Balanchine](/wiki/George_Balanchine \"George Balanchine\"), through a [Ford Foundation](/wiki/Ford_Foundation \"Ford Foundation\") initiative to develop regional professional dance companies. The company is considered a cultural institution and is noted for its focus on the Balanchine repertoire.", "The company performed nationally for the first time in 1968 at the [New York City Center](/wiki/New_York_City_Center \"New York City Center\"), which led to a decade of national touring, appearances on [PBS](/wiki/Public_Broadcasting_Service \"Public Broadcasting Service\")'s *Dance in America* series, and a stint as the official company of the [Brooklyn Academy of Music](/wiki/Brooklyn_Academy_of_Music \"Brooklyn Academy of Music\") during the 1970s.", "In 1982, Pennsylvania Ballet became the first major American ballet company to promote an African\\-American woman, [Debra Austin](/wiki/Debra_Austin_%28dancer%29 \"Debra Austin (dancer)\"), to principal dancer. Between 1987 and 1989, Pennsylvania Ballet forged an alliance with [Milwaukee Ballet](/wiki/Milwaukee_Ballet \"Milwaukee Ballet\") to create one company. The new organization had 43 dancers, and was the first in the country to offer its dancers year\\-round employment.", "In 1995, Roy Kaiser was appointed as artistic director by the trustees of Pennsylvania Ballet. Kaiser was a former principal dancer and had been hired as a company member in 1979 by Weisberger. Following his retirement from the stage in 1992, Kaiser served as principal ballet master and associate artistic director under [Christopher d'Amboise](/wiki/Christopher_d%27Amboise \"Christopher d'Amboise\") before being named to his current position.", "Under Kaiser's leadership, the company expanded its Balanchine\\-based repertoire to include new works from both established and emerging choreographers. New works included premieres of original ballets from choreographers [Merce Cunningham](/wiki/Merce_Cunningham \"Merce Cunningham\"), Christopher d'Amboise, [Trey McIntyre](/wiki/Trey_McIntyre \"Trey McIntyre\"), Matthew Neenan, [David Parsons](/wiki/David_Parsons_%28dancer%29 \"David Parsons (dancer)\"), [Val Caniparoli](/wiki/Val_Caniparoli \"Val Caniparoli\"), [Benjamin Millepied](/wiki/Benjamin_Millepied \"Benjamin Millepied\"), and [Christopher Wheeldon](/wiki/Christopher_Wheeldon \"Christopher Wheeldon\"), as well as the 40th\\-anniversary commission of [Swan Lake](/wiki/Swan_Lake \"Swan Lake\") by Christopher Wheeldon and the 2007 world premiere of Matthew Neenan's *[Carmina Burana](/wiki/Carmina_Burana_%28Orff%29 \"Carmina Burana (Orff)\")*. Pennsylvania Ballet currently employs 37 dancers and annually presents a season of six programs, which includes their annual signature production of Balanchine's *The Nutcracker*. The season combines classic ballets with new works and challenges the dancers while attracting a diverse audience. The company also tours throughout Pennsylvania and elsewhere, including venues such as [New York City Center](/wiki/New_York_City_Center \"New York City Center\") and the [John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts](/wiki/John_F._Kennedy_Center_for_the_Performing_Arts \"John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts\") in Washington DC. Pennsylvania Ballet made its international debut at the [Edinburgh International Festival](/wiki/Edinburgh_International_Festival \"Edinburgh International Festival\") in August 2005\\.", "Fourteen members of the Pennsylvania Ballet appeared as the corps in the 2010 film *[Black Swan](/wiki/Black_Swan_%28film%29 \"Black Swan (film)\")*.{{Cite news \\|last\\=Wloszczyna \\|first\\=Susan \\|date\\=July 22, 2010 \\|title\\='Black Swan' stars step deftly into roles \\|work\\=USA Today \\|url\\=https://www.usatoday.com/life/movies/news/2010\\-07\\-22\\-blackswaninside22\\_ST\\_N.htm \\|access\\-date\\=February 17, 2011 \\|series\\=Life – Movies}}{{Cite web \\|last\\=Jenet \\|first\\=Nicole \\|date\\=December 21, 2010 \\|title\\=Philadelphia Ballet dancer from Abington in 'Black Swan' \\|url\\=http://www.montgomerynews.com/articles/2010/12/21/entertainment/doc4d10dbcde1b5d571604551\\.txt \\|access\\-date\\=February 17, 2011 \\|publisher\\=Montgomery News}} In September 2014, [Ángel Corella](/wiki/Angel_Corella \"Angel Corella\") was named artistic director.", "In July 2021, Pennsylvania Ballet rebranded and became the Philadelphia Ballet. This name change reflected the company's commitment to its history, inspiration, and identity following 60 years of performance in [Philadelphia](/wiki/Philadelphia \"Philadelphia\"). The Philadelphia Ballet II (the company's second company) provides outreach and educational performances.", "Matthew Neenan, Philadelphia Ballet's first choreographer in residence, danced for the company from 1994 to 2007\\.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Articulate — Matthew Neenan \\|url\\=https://www.articulateshow.org/articulate/matthew\\-neenan \\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-07\\-28 \\|website\\=Articulate \\|language\\=en\\-US}}", "" ]
GT (1968–1973\) --------------- {{Infobox automobile \| name \= GT \| image \= Opel GT 17RM0442\.jpg \| production \= 1968–1973 \| transmission \= 4\-speed \[\[Manual transmission\|manual]] 3\-speed \[\[Automatic transmission\|automatic]] \| assembly \= West Germany: \[\[Bochum]] \| engine \= {{unbulleted list \| {{convert\|1078\|cc\|cuin\|1\|abbr\=on}} ''\[\[Opel OHV engine\#1\.1\|OHV]]'' \[\[Inline\-four engine\|I4]] (gasoline)\|{{convert\|1897\|cc\|cuin\|1\|abbr\=on}} ''\[\[Opel cam\-in\-head engine\#1\.9 liter I4\|CIH]]'' I4 (gasoline)}} \| successor \= \[\[Opel Manta]] (indirect) \| class \= \[\[Sports car]] \| body\_style \= 2\-door \[\[coupé]] \| layout \= \[\[Mid\-engine design\#FMR layout – Front Mid\-engine / Rear\-wheel drive\|Front mid\-engined, rear\-wheel drive]] \| wheelbase \= {{convert\|2415\|mm\|in\|1\|abbr\=on}} \| length \= {{convert\|4113\|mm\|in\|1\|abbr\=on}} \| width \= {{convert\|1580\|mm\|in\|1\|abbr\=on}} \| height \= {{convert\|1225\|mm\|in\|1\|abbr\=on}} \| weight \= {{convert\|845\|kg\|lb\|0\|abbr\=on}}–{{convert\|940\|kg\|lb\|0\|abbr\=on}} \| designer \= Erhard Schnell, \[\[Clare MacKichan]] }} [left\|thumb\|The reduced specification GT/J (for "Junior") introduced in 1971 represented an attempt to broaden the appeal of the Opel GT.](/wiki/File:Opel_GTJ_ca_1972_Schaffen-Diest.jpg "Opel GTJ ca 1972 Schaffen-Diest.jpg") [left\|thumb\|Rear view](/wiki/File:Opel_GT_red_h.jpg "Opel GT red h.jpg") [thumb\|left\|GT interior](/wiki/File:1969_Opel_GT_A-L_1900_Interior.jpg "1969 Opel GT A-L 1900 Interior.jpg") [thumb\|283px\|Opel GT with headlights turned up](/wiki/File:A_visitors_Opel_GT_A-L%2C_1971_%287126133427%29_%28cropped%29.jpg "A visitors Opel GT A-L, 1971 (7126133427) (cropped).jpg") [thumb\|left\|When raising or lowering, both headlights turn in the same direction](/wiki/File:Opel_50_Jahre_Design_%2814520095774%29.jpg "Opel 50 Jahre Design (14520095774).jpg") The Opel GT was equipped with a base 1\.1 L [OHV](/wiki/Overhead_valve "Overhead valve") [inline\-four engine](/wiki/Inline-four_engine "Inline-four engine"), which produced 67 hp (SAE) at 6,000 rpm. However, most buyers chose an optional 1\.9 L [camshaft in head](/wiki/Opel_cam-in-head_engine "Opel cam-in-head engine") engine, which produced 102 hp (SAE) at 5200 to 5400 rpm. Some of the early 1968 models also came with a slightly higher compression "H" code cylinder head. In 1971, due to emissions regulations, Opel reduced the [compression ratio](/wiki/Compression_ratio "Compression ratio") of the 1\.9 L engine used in the US and output fell to 83 hp (SAE). There was also a GT/J model, which was a less expensive version of the 1\.9 L GT that lacked nearly all chrome parts and offered fewer standard features, sold only in Europe. The base transmission was a four\-speed [manual](/wiki/Manual_transmission "Manual transmission"). A three\-speed automatic was available with the 1\.9 L engine. The model run of the Opel GT was from 1968 to 1973\. The Opel GT has a steel [unibody chassis](/wiki/Vehicle_frame%23Unibody "Vehicle frame#Unibody") and a [front mid\-engined, rear\-wheel drive](/wiki/Mid-engine_design%23FMR_layout_%E2%80%93_Front_Mid-engine_/_Rear-wheel_drive "Mid-engine design#FMR layout – Front Mid-engine / Rear-wheel drive") layout. The engine is mounted far back in the chassis to improve weight distribution. Front [suspension](/wiki/Suspension_%28vehicle%29 "Suspension (vehicle)") consists of upper [A\-arms](/wiki/Control_arm "Control arm") and a lower transverse leaf spring. A [live axle](/wiki/Beam_axle "Beam axle") and coil springs are used in the rear. The power\-assisted braking system uses discs in the front, drums in the rear. Steering is unassisted. One unusual feature of the Opel GT is the operation of the [Hidden headlamps](/wiki/Hidden_headlamps "Hidden headlamps"). They are manually operated, by way of a large lever along the center console next to the shifter. Unlike pop\-up headlights, they both rotate in the same direction (counterclockwise from inside the car) about a longitudinal axis. Designed by Opel stylist Erhard Schnell,{{cite web\|url\=https://opelpost.com/06/2014/opel\-design\-studio\-first\-of\-its\-kind\-in\-europe/ \|title\= Opel GT designed by Stylist Erhard Schnell\|date\= 30 June 2014}} the GT is a [fastback](/wiki/Fastback "Fastback"), that has neither an externally accessible trunk nor a conventional [hatchback](/wiki/Hatchback "Hatchback"). There is a parcel shelf behind the seats that can only be accessed through the main doors. Behind the parcel shelf is a fold\-up panel that conceals a spare tire and jack. During 1968 to 1973, a total of 103,463 were sold — including the first few hundred cars hand\-assembled in 1968 and the 1968–1970 models with the 1\.1 L engine, which totaled 3,573 cars. Of the later GTs, 10,760 were the cheaper model GT/J model. In some markets, items like a [limited slip differential](/wiki/Limited_slip_differential "Limited slip differential"), front and rear anti\-sway bars, heated rear window, and engine bay light were standard, although most cars were shipped without them. In North America, the GT was marketed at Buick dealerships.{{cite journal \|last1\=Scherr \|first1\=Elana \|title\=Ode to an Opel \|journal\=\[\[Road \& Track]] \|date\=March 2019 \|volume\=70 \|issue\=7 \|page\=80}} There was, unusually, no [Vauxhall](/wiki/Vauxhall_Motors "Vauxhall Motors") counterpart to the GT for the United Kingdom. Reasons for ending production were the need to redesign the car to remain competitive with up\-and\-coming sports models, such as the Datsun 240Z, as well as the termination of [Brissonneau and Lotz](/wiki/Brissonneau_and_Lotz "Brissonneau and Lotz")' bodybuilding contract. The Opel GT was also used by Italian coachbuilder [Sergio Coggiola](/wiki/Sergio_Coggiola "Sergio Coggiola") to create the **Opel Sylvia GT**, an angular design of the folded\-paper school. The 1973 Sylvia was also designed with an eye to safety.{{Cite book \| title \= World Cars 1975 \| publisher \= L'Editrice dell'Automobile LEA/Herald Books \| location \= Pelham, NY \| ref \= WC75 \| page \= 19 \| year \= 1975 \| isbn \= 0\-910714\-07\-X }} Automotive magazine *[Road \& Track](/wiki/Road_%26_Track "Road & Track")* reviewed the GT in their June 1969 issue, recording 0–96 km/h in 10\.8 seconds and a top speed of 182 km/h. *Road \& Track* also found the car to have strong understeer, suggesting the 165x13 tires to be too small, although the ride was comfortable.{{cite magazine \|author\= \|title\=1\.9 Opel GT \|url\= \|magazine\=\[\[Road \& Track]] \|page\=93 \|location\= \|publisher\= \|date\=June 1969 \|access\-date\=}} {{clear}}
[ "GT (1968–1973\\)\n---------------", "{{Infobox automobile\n\\| name \\= GT\n\\| image \\= Opel GT 17RM0442\\.jpg\n\\| production \\= 1968–1973\n\\| transmission \\= 4\\-speed \\[\\[Manual transmission\\|manual]] \n3\\-speed \\[\\[Automatic transmission\\|automatic]]\n\\| assembly \\= West Germany: \\[\\[Bochum]]\n\\| engine \\= {{unbulleted list \\| {{convert\\|1078\\|cc\\|cuin\\|1\\|abbr\\=on}} ''\\[\\[Opel OHV engine\\#1\\.1\\|OHV]]'' \\[\\[Inline\\-four engine\\|I4]] (gasoline)\\|{{convert\\|1897\\|cc\\|cuin\\|1\\|abbr\\=on}} ''\\[\\[Opel cam\\-in\\-head engine\\#1\\.9 liter I4\\|CIH]]'' I4 (gasoline)}}\n\\| successor \\= \\[\\[Opel Manta]] (indirect)\n\\| class \\= \\[\\[Sports car]]\n\\| body\\_style \\= 2\\-door \\[\\[coupé]]\n\\| layout \\= \\[\\[Mid\\-engine design\\#FMR layout – Front Mid\\-engine / Rear\\-wheel drive\\|Front mid\\-engined, rear\\-wheel drive]]\n\\| wheelbase \\= {{convert\\|2415\\|mm\\|in\\|1\\|abbr\\=on}}\n\\| length \\= {{convert\\|4113\\|mm\\|in\\|1\\|abbr\\=on}}\n\\| width \\= {{convert\\|1580\\|mm\\|in\\|1\\|abbr\\=on}}\n\\| height \\= {{convert\\|1225\\|mm\\|in\\|1\\|abbr\\=on}}\n\\| weight \\= {{convert\\|845\\|kg\\|lb\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}}–{{convert\\|940\\|kg\\|lb\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}}\n\\| designer \\= Erhard Schnell, \\[\\[Clare MacKichan]]\n}}\n[left\\|thumb\\|The reduced specification GT/J (for \"Junior\") introduced in 1971 represented an attempt to broaden the appeal of the Opel GT.](/wiki/File:Opel_GTJ_ca_1972_Schaffen-Diest.jpg \"Opel GTJ ca 1972 Schaffen-Diest.jpg\")\n[left\\|thumb\\|Rear view](/wiki/File:Opel_GT_red_h.jpg \"Opel GT red h.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|left\\|GT interior](/wiki/File:1969_Opel_GT_A-L_1900_Interior.jpg \"1969 Opel GT A-L 1900 Interior.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|283px\\|Opel GT with headlights turned up](/wiki/File:A_visitors_Opel_GT_A-L%2C_1971_%287126133427%29_%28cropped%29.jpg \"A visitors Opel GT A-L, 1971 (7126133427) (cropped).jpg\")\n[thumb\\|left\\|When raising or lowering, both headlights turn in the same direction](/wiki/File:Opel_50_Jahre_Design_%2814520095774%29.jpg \"Opel 50 Jahre Design (14520095774).jpg\")\nThe Opel GT was equipped with a base 1\\.1 L [OHV](/wiki/Overhead_valve \"Overhead valve\") [inline\\-four engine](/wiki/Inline-four_engine \"Inline-four engine\"), which produced 67 hp (SAE) at 6,000 rpm. However, most buyers chose an optional 1\\.9 L [camshaft in head](/wiki/Opel_cam-in-head_engine \"Opel cam-in-head engine\") engine, which produced 102 hp (SAE) at 5200 to 5400 rpm. Some of the early 1968 models also came with a slightly higher compression \"H\" code cylinder head. In 1971, due to emissions regulations, Opel reduced the [compression ratio](/wiki/Compression_ratio \"Compression ratio\") of the 1\\.9 L engine used in the US and output fell to 83 hp (SAE). There was also a GT/J model, which was a less expensive version of the 1\\.9 L GT that lacked nearly all chrome parts and offered fewer standard features, sold only in Europe. The base transmission was a four\\-speed [manual](/wiki/Manual_transmission \"Manual transmission\"). A three\\-speed automatic was available with the 1\\.9 L engine. The model run of the Opel GT was from 1968 to 1973\\.", "The Opel GT has a steel [unibody chassis](/wiki/Vehicle_frame%23Unibody \"Vehicle frame#Unibody\") and a [front mid\\-engined, rear\\-wheel drive](/wiki/Mid-engine_design%23FMR_layout_%E2%80%93_Front_Mid-engine_/_Rear-wheel_drive \"Mid-engine design#FMR layout – Front Mid-engine / Rear-wheel drive\") layout. The engine is mounted far back in the chassis to improve weight distribution. Front [suspension](/wiki/Suspension_%28vehicle%29 \"Suspension (vehicle)\") consists of upper [A\\-arms](/wiki/Control_arm \"Control arm\") and a lower transverse leaf spring. A [live axle](/wiki/Beam_axle \"Beam axle\") and coil springs are used in the rear. The power\\-assisted braking system uses discs in the front, drums in the rear. Steering is unassisted.", "One unusual feature of the Opel GT is the operation of the [Hidden headlamps](/wiki/Hidden_headlamps \"Hidden headlamps\"). They are manually operated, by way of a large lever along the center console next to the shifter. Unlike pop\\-up headlights, they both rotate in the same direction (counterclockwise from inside the car) about a longitudinal axis.", "Designed by Opel stylist Erhard Schnell,{{cite web\\|url\\=https://opelpost.com/06/2014/opel\\-design\\-studio\\-first\\-of\\-its\\-kind\\-in\\-europe/ \\|title\\= Opel GT designed by Stylist Erhard Schnell\\|date\\= 30 June 2014}} the GT is a [fastback](/wiki/Fastback \"Fastback\"), that has neither an externally accessible trunk nor a conventional [hatchback](/wiki/Hatchback \"Hatchback\"). There is a parcel shelf behind the seats that can only be accessed through the main doors. Behind the parcel shelf is a fold\\-up panel that conceals a spare tire and jack.", "During 1968 to 1973, a total of 103,463 were sold — including the first few hundred cars hand\\-assembled in 1968 and the 1968–1970 models with the 1\\.1 L engine, which totaled 3,573 cars. Of the later GTs, 10,760 were the cheaper model GT/J model. In some markets, items like a [limited slip differential](/wiki/Limited_slip_differential \"Limited slip differential\"), front and rear anti\\-sway bars, heated rear window, and engine bay light were standard, although most cars were shipped without them.", "In North America, the GT was marketed at Buick dealerships.{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Scherr \\|first1\\=Elana \\|title\\=Ode to an Opel \\|journal\\=\\[\\[Road \\& Track]] \\|date\\=March 2019 \\|volume\\=70 \\|issue\\=7 \\|page\\=80}} There was, unusually, no [Vauxhall](/wiki/Vauxhall_Motors \"Vauxhall Motors\") counterpart to the GT for the United Kingdom.", "Reasons for ending production were the need to redesign the car to remain competitive with up\\-and\\-coming sports models, such as the Datsun 240Z, as well as the termination of [Brissonneau and Lotz](/wiki/Brissonneau_and_Lotz \"Brissonneau and Lotz\")' bodybuilding contract.", "The Opel GT was also used by Italian coachbuilder [Sergio Coggiola](/wiki/Sergio_Coggiola \"Sergio Coggiola\") to create the **Opel Sylvia GT**, an angular design of the folded\\-paper school. The 1973 Sylvia was also designed with an eye to safety.{{Cite book \\| title \\= World Cars 1975 \\| publisher \\= L'Editrice dell'Automobile LEA/Herald Books \\| location \\= Pelham, NY \\| ref \\= WC75 \\| page \\= 19 \\| year \\= 1975 \\| isbn \\= 0\\-910714\\-07\\-X }}", "Automotive magazine *[Road \\& Track](/wiki/Road_%26_Track \"Road & Track\")* reviewed the GT in their June 1969 issue, recording 0–96 km/h in 10\\.8 seconds and a top speed of 182 km/h. *Road \\& Track* also found the car to have strong understeer, suggesting the 165x13 tires to be too small, although the ride was comfortable.{{cite magazine \\|author\\= \\|title\\=1\\.9 Opel GT \\|url\\= \\|magazine\\=\\[\\[Road \\& Track]] \\|page\\=93 \\|location\\= \\|publisher\\= \\|date\\=June 1969 \\|access\\-date\\=}}", "{{clear}}", "" ]
History ------- Medicine was formed by ex\-[Savage Republic](/wiki/Savage_Republic "Savage Republic") drummer [Brad Laner](/wiki/Brad_Laner "Brad Laner"),{{cite web\|url\=http://www.home\-tapes.com/Hometapes/Brad\_Laner.html\|title\=Brad Laner\|publisher\=home\-tapes.com\|url\-status\=dead\|archiveurl\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090818043338/http://home\-tapes.com/Hometapes/Brad\_Laner.html\|archivedate\=August 18, 2009}} based on some 4\-track recordings Laner was working on in 1990\. After playing the tapes for music industry representatives, he was told that if he formed a band that sounded like the tapes, he could get a record deal. Laner then assembled a band of musicians from the Los Angeles music scene. Medicine's early lineup included Laner, drummer Jim Goodall (Severed Head in a Bag, [Jon Wayne](/wiki/Jon_Wayne "Jon Wayne"), Lopez Beatles, [Flying Burrito Brothers](/wiki/Flying_Burrito_Brothers "Flying Burrito Brothers")), guitarist Jim Putnam, bassist Eddie Ruscha and singer [Annette Zilinskas](/wiki/Annette_Zilinskas "Annette Zilinskas") (an original member of [the Bangles](/wiki/The_Bangles "The Bangles")). Zilinskas left before any official releases and was replaced by former Fourwaycross singer Beth Thompson. On the basis of the original demo, the band was signed to [Creation Records](/wiki/Creation_Records "Creation Records"), becoming the first American band to do so. In America, Medicine signed to [Rick Rubin](/wiki/Rick_Rubin "Rick Rubin")'s [American Recordings](/wiki/American_Recordings_%28US%29 "American Recordings (US)") label in 1992\. With a signature guitar tone, created by running Laner's guitar through a Yamaha [4\-track](/wiki/4-track_%28multitrack%29 "4-track (multitrack)") recorder, Medicine's music managed to distinguish itself from some of the more ambiguous endeavors of the shoegaze movement. Their first album, *[Shot Forth Self Living](/wiki/Shot_Forth_Self_Living "Shot Forth Self Living")*, was released in 1992\. It received airplay on college radio and coverage in alternative newspapers, with even a few of their videos played on [MTV](/wiki/MTV "MTV"). Their second album, *[The Buried Life](/wiki/The_Buried_Life_%28album%29 "The Buried Life (album)")*, was released the following year, and gained Medicine more mainstream attention, including coverage in magazines like *[Creem](/wiki/Creem "Creem")*. For their third album, *[Her Highness](/wiki/Her_Highness_%28album%29 "Her Highness (album)")* (1995\), Matt Devine and Justin Meldal\-Johnsen replaced Putnam and Ruscha, respectively. The band broke up soon after, and Laner formed [supergroup](/wiki/Supergroup_%28music%29 "Supergroup (music)") [Lusk](/wiki/Lusk_%28band%29 "Lusk (band)"). Medicine reformed briefly in 2003, solely as a duo including Laner and [Shannon Lee](/wiki/Shannon_Lee "Shannon Lee"), the daughter of actor [Bruce Lee](/wiki/Bruce_Lee "Bruce Lee"). They released one album, *[The Mechanical Forces of Love](/wiki/The_Mechanical_Forces_of_Love "The Mechanical Forces of Love")*. The band's core lineup of Laner, Thompson and Goodall later reformed again and signed with the [Captured Tracks](/wiki/Captured_Tracks "Captured Tracks") label. Medicine released a new studio album, *[To the Happy Few](/wiki/To_the_Happy_Few "To the Happy Few")*, in July 2013, preceded by the single "Long as the Sun". On October 27, 2014, they released their sixth studio album, *[Home Everywhere](/wiki/Home_Everywhere "Home Everywhere")*. Medicine's 2019 album *Scarred for Life*{{Cite web\|url\=https://bigtakeover.com/recordings/MedicineScarredforLifeDrawingRoomRecords\|title\=Medicine \- Scarred for Life (Drawing Room Records)\|website\=The Big Takeover}} featured Laner, Goodall, Zilinskas, and Devine.{{Cite web\|url\=https://paisleystageraspberryandrhyme.podbean.com/e/episode\-54\-our\-conversation\-with\-members\-of\-medicine\-brad\-laner\-annette\-zilinskas\-matt\-devine\-about\-their\-new\-album\-scarred\-for\-life/\|title\=Episode \#54: Our conversation with members of MEDICINE (Brad Laner, Annette Zilinskas \& Matt Devine) about their new album, SCARRED FOR LIFE\|website\=Paisleystageraspberryandrhyme.podbean.com}}
[ "History\n-------", "Medicine was formed by ex\\-[Savage Republic](/wiki/Savage_Republic \"Savage Republic\") drummer [Brad Laner](/wiki/Brad_Laner \"Brad Laner\"),{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.home\\-tapes.com/Hometapes/Brad\\_Laner.html\\|title\\=Brad Laner\\|publisher\\=home\\-tapes.com\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archiveurl\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090818043338/http://home\\-tapes.com/Hometapes/Brad\\_Laner.html\\|archivedate\\=August 18, 2009}} based on some 4\\-track recordings Laner was working on in 1990\\. After playing the tapes for music industry representatives, he was told that if he formed a band that sounded like the tapes, he could get a record deal. Laner then assembled a band of musicians from the Los Angeles music scene. Medicine's early lineup included Laner, drummer Jim Goodall (Severed Head in a Bag, [Jon Wayne](/wiki/Jon_Wayne \"Jon Wayne\"), Lopez Beatles, [Flying Burrito Brothers](/wiki/Flying_Burrito_Brothers \"Flying Burrito Brothers\")), guitarist Jim Putnam, bassist Eddie Ruscha and singer [Annette Zilinskas](/wiki/Annette_Zilinskas \"Annette Zilinskas\") (an original member of [the Bangles](/wiki/The_Bangles \"The Bangles\")). Zilinskas left before any official releases and was replaced by former Fourwaycross singer Beth Thompson. On the basis of the original demo, the band was signed to [Creation Records](/wiki/Creation_Records \"Creation Records\"), becoming the first American band to do so. In America, Medicine signed to [Rick Rubin](/wiki/Rick_Rubin \"Rick Rubin\")'s [American Recordings](/wiki/American_Recordings_%28US%29 \"American Recordings (US)\") label in 1992\\. With a signature guitar tone, created by running Laner's guitar through a Yamaha [4\\-track](/wiki/4-track_%28multitrack%29 \"4-track (multitrack)\") recorder, Medicine's music managed to distinguish itself from some of the more ambiguous endeavors of the shoegaze movement.", "Their first album, *[Shot Forth Self Living](/wiki/Shot_Forth_Self_Living \"Shot Forth Self Living\")*, was released in 1992\\. It received airplay on college radio and coverage in alternative newspapers, with even a few of their videos played on [MTV](/wiki/MTV \"MTV\").", "Their second album, *[The Buried Life](/wiki/The_Buried_Life_%28album%29 \"The Buried Life (album)\")*, was released the following year, and gained Medicine more mainstream attention, including coverage in magazines like *[Creem](/wiki/Creem \"Creem\")*.", "For their third album, *[Her Highness](/wiki/Her_Highness_%28album%29 \"Her Highness (album)\")* (1995\\), Matt Devine and Justin Meldal\\-Johnsen replaced Putnam and Ruscha, respectively. The band broke up soon after, and Laner formed [supergroup](/wiki/Supergroup_%28music%29 \"Supergroup (music)\") [Lusk](/wiki/Lusk_%28band%29 \"Lusk (band)\").", "Medicine reformed briefly in 2003, solely as a duo including Laner and [Shannon Lee](/wiki/Shannon_Lee \"Shannon Lee\"), the daughter of actor [Bruce Lee](/wiki/Bruce_Lee \"Bruce Lee\"). They released one album, *[The Mechanical Forces of Love](/wiki/The_Mechanical_Forces_of_Love \"The Mechanical Forces of Love\")*.", "The band's core lineup of Laner, Thompson and Goodall later reformed again and signed with the [Captured Tracks](/wiki/Captured_Tracks \"Captured Tracks\") label. Medicine released a new studio album, *[To the Happy Few](/wiki/To_the_Happy_Few \"To the Happy Few\")*, in July 2013, preceded by the single \"Long as the Sun\". On October 27, 2014, they released their sixth studio album, *[Home Everywhere](/wiki/Home_Everywhere \"Home Everywhere\")*.", "Medicine's 2019 album *Scarred for Life*{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://bigtakeover.com/recordings/MedicineScarredforLifeDrawingRoomRecords\\|title\\=Medicine \\- Scarred for Life (Drawing Room Records)\\|website\\=The Big Takeover}} featured Laner, Goodall, Zilinskas, and Devine.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://paisleystageraspberryandrhyme.podbean.com/e/episode\\-54\\-our\\-conversation\\-with\\-members\\-of\\-medicine\\-brad\\-laner\\-annette\\-zilinskas\\-matt\\-devine\\-about\\-their\\-new\\-album\\-scarred\\-for\\-life/\\|title\\=Episode \\#54: Our conversation with members of MEDICINE (Brad Laner, Annette Zilinskas \\& Matt Devine) about their new album, SCARRED FOR LIFE\\|website\\=Paisleystageraspberryandrhyme.podbean.com}}", "" ]
Professional wrestling career ----------------------------- ### Early career and first championship matches (2012–2014\) Ferguson began wrestling training in 2009, training with [Joel Redman](/wiki/Joel_Redman "Joel Redman") and the UK Dominator at the Devon Wrestling Alliance wrestling school; however due to other commitments did not pursue wrestling further at that time. In 2012, Ferguson started pro wrestling training again at the Limited Edition Promotions training school in [Torquay](/wiki/Torquay "Torquay"), which coincided with his brother Darren opening [Pro Wrestling Pride](/wiki/Pro_Wrestling_Pride "Pro Wrestling Pride"). Later that year Ferguson joined Megaslam wrestling in [Yorkshire](/wiki/Yorkshire "Yorkshire") at their annual holiday camp tour, before his debut match for PWP against Morgan Webster in April 2013; which he would win.{{cite web \| url\=https://www.prowrestlingpride.com/teignmouth\-carlton\-theatre\-\-\-sunday\-28th\-april\-2013\.html \| title\=Teignmouth Carlton Theatre Sunday 28th April 2013 \| publisher\=Pro Wrestling Pride \| access\-date\=24 October 2017 }}{{dead link\|date\=May 2018 \|bot\=Lee Vilenski \|fix\-attempted\=yes }} Tiger wrestled exclusively for [Pro Wrestling Pride](/wiki/Pro_Wrestling_Pride "Pro Wrestling Pride") in 2013, with his second match being involved in a fatal\-4\-way for the [PWP Catch Division Championship](/wiki/PWP_Catch_Division_Championship "PWP Catch Division Championship"), won by Darren Saviour. He challenged for the championship twice more in 2013, losing on both occasions to Tyler Hawke. This led to an ["I Quit" match](/wiki/%22I_Quit%22_match) between the two, with Tiger putting his mask on the line for the championship.{{cite web \| url\=https://www.prowrestlingpride.com/saltash\-sunday\-22nd\-june/archives/06\-2014 \| title\=Saltash Members Club 22nd June \| access\-date\=24 October 2017 }}{{dead link\|date\=May 2018 \|bot\=Lee Vilenski \|fix\-attempted\=yes }} Tiger defeated Hawke to win his first professional wrestling championship. Tiger held onto the championship for just over a month, but lost his first defence of the belt to Dick Riley in [Saltash](/wiki/Saltash "Saltash"), [Cornwall](/wiki/Cornwall "Cornwall"). ### Wrestling Time (2014–2015\) Tiger tagged with [Raven](/wiki/Raven_%28wrestler%29 "Raven (wrestler)"), and Darren Saviour in a hardcore 6\-man tag in August 2014, which was thought to be Raven's last ever UK appearance, as the trio defeated Hawke, and his stable mates (Mark Walsh \& Calum Cain).{{cite web \| url\=https://eyeonwrestling.blogspot.co.uk/2015/07/pro\-wrestling\-pride\-nevermorenever.html?q\=pride \| title\=PWP Nevermore \- Never Again \| publisher\=Eye On Wrestling \| access\-date\=24 October 2017 \| url\-status\=live \| archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171028042434/https://eyeonwrestling.blogspot.co.uk/2015/07/pro\-wrestling\-pride\-nevermorenever.html?q\=pride \| archive\-date\=28 October 2017 }} Tiger start edup a new tag team, teaming with Saviour, calling the team "Wrestling Time",{{cite web \| url\=https://allevents.in/saltash/pro\-wrestling\-pride\-present\-christmas\-chaos\-aka\-fighting\-to\-keep\-off\-the\-naughty\-list\-saltash\-dec\-14/541366049296996 \| title\=PWP presents Christmas Chaos \| publisher\=Allevents.in \| access\-date\=24 October 2017 \| url\-status\=live \| archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171027232854/https://allevents.in/saltash/pro\-wrestling\-pride\-present\-christmas\-chaos\-aka\-fighting\-to\-keep\-off\-the\-naughty\-list\-saltash\-dec\-14/541366049296996 \| archive\-date\=27 October 2017 }} based on the popular animated TV show *[Adventure Time](/wiki/Adventure_Time "Adventure Time")*. The pair wpm the vacant PWP Tag team Championships on 5 October 2014, defeating French pair 'Le Cousins Autier', for Tiger's second championship. "Wrestling Time" looked to hold the championships into 2015, with a win over The Dunne Bros (Damien Dunne and [Pete Dunne](/wiki/Pete_Dunne_%28wrestler%29 "Pete Dunne (wrestler)")), but lost the belts to Danny and Mark Walsh in December. On 25 January 2015, Tiger wrestled former [Tiger Mask](/wiki/Tiger_Mask "Tiger Mask") [Koji Kanemoto](/wiki/Koji_Kanemoto "Koji Kanemoto"), at *PWP Fighting Spirit*, but would lose.{{cite web \| url\=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/bios/k/koji\-kanemoto/ \| title\=Online World Of Wrestling \- Koji Kanemoto \| publisher\=Online World Of Wrestling \| access\-date\=26 October 2017}} Tiger claimed the match was "probably one of the biggest moments in wrestling (he) will ever have." Tiger then defeated Dick Riley,{{cite web \| url\=https://hashtagwrest.wordpress.com/results\-2015/ \| title\=\#Results015 \| publisher\=Hashtag Wrestling \| access\-date\=26 October 2017}} before claiming his second [PWP Catch Division Championship](/wiki/PWP_Catch_Division_Championship "PWP Catch Division Championship") once again defeating Tyler Hawke in [Newton Abbot](/wiki/Newton_Abbot "Newton Abbot"). Tiger made his debut outside of Pro Wrestling Pride when he wrestled for the Plymouth Wrestling Alliance tag team championships on 22 February 2015\. "Wrestling Time" challenged P. J. Jones and The UK Dominator, for the belts, but would come up short. Tiger returned to defeat John Harding at the companies 6th anniversary show, at the Plymouth Guildhall. Tiger also wrestled for the Combat Sports Federation in May, defeating Joshua Knott. He defended the Catch Division championship throughout the first half of 2015, defeating [Chris Sabin](/wiki/Chris_Sabin "Chris Sabin") (in a four\-way including Harding and Knott), [Jigsaw](/wiki/Jigsaw_%28wrestler%29 "Jigsaw (wrestler)"),{{cite web \| url\=https://www.theexeterdaily.co.uk/whats\-on/events/one\-night\-only\-live\-pro\-wrestling\-wwe\-ecw\-legend\-sabu\-jigsaw \| title\=One Night Only! live Pro Wrestling Sabu \& Jigsaw \| date\=24 April 2015 \| publisher\=Exeter Daily \| access\-date\=26 October 2017 \| url\-status\=live \| archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171027233937/https://www.theexeterdaily.co.uk/whats\-on/events/one\-night\-only\-live\-pro\-wrestling\-wwe\-ecw\-legend\-sabu\-jigsaw \| archive\-date\=27 October 2017 }} [Rockstar Spud](/wiki/Rockstar_Spud "Rockstar Spud") and Kiaser in a triple threat and [Chris Hero](/wiki/Chris_Hero "Chris Hero").{{cite web \| url\=http://www.theindycorner.com/news/british\-wrestling\-round\-up/ \| title\=British Wrestling Round\-Up \| publisher\=Indy Corner \| date\=11 August 2015 \| access\-date\=26 October 2017 \| url\-status\=live \| archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170619221810/http://www.theindycorner.com/news/british\-wrestling\-round\-up/ \| archive\-date\=19 June 2017 }} On 2 August 2015 Tiger lost the belt to [Doug Williams](/wiki/Doug_Williams_%28wrestler%29 "Doug Williams (wrestler)"), when the latter cashed in a [Money in the Bank](/wiki/Money_in_the_Bank_ladder_match "Money in the Bank ladder match") briefcase, having only just defeated Hero. Tiger regained the championship against Williams two weeks later in [Taunton](/wiki/Taunton "Taunton"). On 21 August 2015 Tiger successfully defended the championship in a fatal\-4\-way match in Newton Abbot, defeating Gideon, John Harding and [Eddie Ryan](/wiki/Eddie_Ryan "Eddie Ryan").{{cite web \| url\=http://jonswrestleview.blogspot.co.uk/2015/08/pro\-wreslting\-pride\-show\-review\-w.html \| title\=PWP Show Review \| publisher\=Jons Wrestle View \| access\-date\=26 October 2017 \| author\=Orchard, Jonathan}} Later that month, on 30 August, Tiger defeated JD Knight and defended the championship in [Truro](/wiki/Truro "Truro"). In September 2015 Tiger took part in the 'Plex Wrestling King of the Brit's [tournament](/wiki/Tournament "Tournament"), with his semi\-final coming to a double\-pin draw against [El Ligero](/wiki/El_Ligero "El Ligero").{{cite web \| url\=https://hashtagwrest.wordpress.com/2015/09/07/results\-plex\-plexwrestlinguk\-king\-of\-the\-brits\-champions\-are\-crowned/ \| title\=\#Results: Plex King Of The Brits Champion Crowned \| date\=7 September 2015 \| publisher\=Hashtag Wrestling \| access\-date\=26 October 2017 \| url\-status\=live \| archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171028042331/https://hashtagwrest.wordpress.com/2015/09/07/results\-plex\-plexwrestlinguk\-king\-of\-the\-brits\-champions\-are\-crowned/ \| archive\-date\=28 October 2017 }} He returned twice more in 2015 defeating Preston Sage \& Lion Kid. He concluded 2015 as Catch Division Champion, winning another 4\-way match at *PWP Heroes \& Legends 2*, defeating Scotty Essex, Tiger Ali \& [Ho Ho Lun](/wiki/Ho_Ho_Lun "Ho Ho Lun").{{cite web \| url\=http://www.thisisthewestcountry.co.uk/news/devon\_news/13891960\.Pro\_Wrestling\_Pride\_taking\_over\_Devon\_leisure\_centre/ \| title\=Pro Wrestling Pride taking over Devon Leisure Centre \| date\=23 October 2015 \| publisher\=This Is The West Country \| access\-date\=26 October 2017 \| url\-status\=live \| archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171027232234/http://www.thisisthewestcountry.co.uk/news/devon\_news/13891960\.Pro\_Wrestling\_Pride\_taking\_over\_Devon\_leisure\_centre/ \| archive\-date\=27 October 2017 }} ### Heavyweight Champion (2016\) Starting in 2016 Tiger wrestled [Kenny Omega](/wiki/Kenny_Omega "Kenny Omega") in Taunton, in a non\-championship match; which he lost. He also lost his Catch Division Championship, in a triple threat when Scotty Essex pinned [Tajiri](/wiki/Yoshihiro_Tajiri "Yoshihiro Tajiri") on 7 February 2016\.{{cite web \| url\=https://believeingeek.com/2016/02/09/pride\-promotions\-the\-real\-rock\-n\-rollas/ \| title\=Pride Promotions The Real Rock \& Rollas \| access\-date\=26 October 2017 \| url\-status\=live \| archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171027232813/https://believeingeek.com/2016/02/09/pride\-promotions\-the\-real\-rock\-n\-rollas/ \| archive\-date\=27 October 2017 }} Shortly afterwards, Tiger travelled to Portugal, where he wrestled for the French APC (Association les Professionnels du Catch) championship, but did not defeat champion Hellmer Lo'Guennec. Tiger got his first opportunity for the [PWP Heavyweight Championship](/wiki/PWP_Heavyweight_Championship "PWP Heavyweight Championship") on 28 February 2016, however he lost to Steve Griffiths, before winning a match against Scotty Essex for the Catch title in March, 2016\. Despite winning the match, Tiger did not win the championship because he won the match by disqualification. On 8 May 2016 he wrestled for the [Wrestle\-1](/wiki/Wrestle-1 "Wrestle-1") [Cruiserweight Championship](/wiki/Wrestle-1_Cruiser_Division_Championship "Wrestle-1 Cruiser Division Championship"), in a match against [Kotaro Suzuki](/wiki/Kotaro_Suzuki "Kotaro Suzuki"){{cite web \| url\=http://wrestlekingdom.boards.net/thread/1581/kotaro\-suzuki\-ultimo\-tiger\-pwp?q\= \| title\=Kotaro Suzuki vs Ultimo Tiger \| publisher\=Wrestle Kingdom \| access\-date\=26 October 2017 \| url\-status\=live \| archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180320111524/http://wrestlekingdom.boards.net/thread/1581/kotaro\-suzuki\-ultimo\-tiger\-pwp?q\= \| archive\-date\=20 March 2018 }} in Penzance.{{cite web \| url\=https://superluchas.com/wrestle\-1\-kotaro\-suzuki\-defiende\-el\-titulo\-crucero\-en\-inglaterra/ \| title\=Wrestle\-1: Kotaro Suzuki defends the title in England \| date\=9 May 2016 \| publisher\=SuperLuchas \| access\-date\=26 October 2017 \| url\-status\=live \| archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171027233241/https://superluchas.com/wrestle\-1\-kotaro\-suzuki\-defiende\-el\-titulo\-crucero\-en\-inglaterra/ \| archive\-date\=27 October 2017 }} In May 2016 Tiger started appearing for the Devon Wrestling Association, where he defeated Tyler Hawke, and returned later that year to wrestle the UK Dominator, and Joshua Knott.{{cite web \| url\=http://www.f4wonline.com/indies/week\-british\-wrestling\-progress\-kick\-volume\-four\-223021 \| title\=This Week in British Wrestling 20/10/2016 \| publisher\=Figure\-4 Online \| access\-date\=24 October 2017 \| url\-status\=live \| archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171028042630/http://www.f4wonline.com/indies/week\-british\-wrestling\-progress\-kick\-volume\-four\-223021 \| archive\-date\=28 October 2017 }} On 26 June 2016 he won a six\-man tag team match at *PWP One of a Kind*{{cite web \| url\=http://www.theindycorner.com/reviews/pro\-wrestling\-pride\-one\-of\-a\-kind\-26616\-review/ \| title\=PWP One of a Kind Review \| date\=28 June 2016 \| access\-date\=26 October 2017 \| url\-status\=live \| archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171027232136/http://www.theindycorner.com/reviews/pro\-wrestling\-pride\-one\-of\-a\-kind\-26616\-review/ \| archive\-date\=27 October 2017 }} He made his debut for Pro Evolution Wrestling winning a tag team match with Matt Maddoxx, defeating the Heritage City Hitmen,{{cite web \| url\=https://wrestleropesuk.wordpress.com/2016/07/10/pro\-evolution\-wrestling\-live\-in\-bristol\-full\-results\-3/ \| title\=Pro Evolution Wrestling 'Live In Bristol' Full Results \| date\=10 July 2016 \| publisher\=Wrestle Ropes UK \| access\-date\=15 September 2023 \| url\-status\=live \| archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171027232908/https://wrestleropesuk.wordpress.com/2016/07/10/pro\-evolution\-wrestling\-live\-in\-bristol\-full\-results\-3/ \| archive\-date\=27 October 2017 }} before on the 10th, winning a four\-way including [P. J. Black](/wiki/P._J._Black "P. J. Black"), [Mark Andrews](/wiki/Mark_Andrews_%28wrestler%29 "Mark Andrews (wrestler)") and Scotty Essex to regain the PWP Catch Division Trophy for a record fourth time.{{cite web \| url\=https://www.wherecanwego.com/item/e982117/pro\-wrestling\-pride\-live\-heroes\-legends\-3\-with\-wwe\-star\-justin\-gabriel \| title\=PWP Live Heroes \& Legends 3\. \| publisher\=Where Can We Go \| access\-date\=26 October 2017 \| url\-status\=live \| archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171027232218/https://www.wherecanwego.com/item/e982117/pro\-wrestling\-pride\-live\-heroes\-legends\-3\-with\-wwe\-star\-justin\-gabriel \| archive\-date\=27 October 2017 }} He defended the belt three times at [Hyper Japan](/wiki/Hyper_Japan "Hyper Japan") 2016; against Kelly Sixx, Keizer, and Spanish wrestler HardFlyer.{{cite web \| url\=https://hyperjapan.co.uk/latest\-news/wrestling/ \| title\=Pride: Pro Wrestling goes Hyper Japan \| access\-date\=26 October 2017}}{{cite web \| url\=https://hashtagwrest.wordpress.com/tag/hyper\-japan/ \| title\=\#HyperJapan \- Results \| publisher\=Hashtag Wrestling \| access\-date\=26 October 2017 \| url\-status\=live \| archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171027232956/https://hashtagwrest.wordpress.com/tag/hyper\-japan/ \| archive\-date\=27 October 2017 }} Tiger challenged [Abyss](/wiki/Abyss_%28wrestler%29 "Abyss (wrestler)") on 18 August 2016, losing the match in Bideford, Devon.{{cite web \| url\=https://www.evensi.uk/pwp\-live\-the\-battle\-of\-bideford\-2\-enter\-the\-abyss\-live\-pro/178165427 \| title\=PWP Live The Battle Of Bideford 2 \| publisher\=Events SI \| access\-date\=26 October 2017}} Tiger defended the catch championship twice against Josh Knott, with the second encounter resulting in a double disqualification.{{cite web \| url\=https://believeingeek.com/2016/09/05/pride\-promotions\-quote\-the\-raven\-its\-yersel/ \| title\=Pride Promotions \- Quote The Raven "It's Yersel" \| publisher\=Believe In Geek \| access\-date\=26 October 2017 \| url\-status\=live \| archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171027232502/https://believeingeek.com/2016/09/05/pride\-promotions\-quote\-the\-raven\-its\-yersel/ \| archive\-date\=27 October 2017 }} Tiger lost a non\-title match in [Tavistock](/wiki/Tavistock "Tavistock") to Kelly Sixx, leading to a [PWP Catch Division Championship](/wiki/PWP_Catch_Division_Championship "PWP Catch Division Championship") [Tables, Ladders \& Chairs](/wiki/Tables%2C_Ladders_%26_Chairs "Tables, Ladders & Chairs") [Triple Threat](/wiki/Professional_wrestling_match_types%23Basic_non-elimination_matches "Professional wrestling match types#Basic non-elimination matches") between Sixx, Tiger \& Knott. Sixx won match, pinning Knott to win the championship with Tiger handcuffed in the ring.{{cite web \| url\=https://believeingeek.com/2016/11/11/pride\-promotions\-undisputed\-2/ \| title\=Pride Promotions Unidisputed 2 Review \| publisher\=Believe In Geek \| access\-date\=26 October 2017 \| url\-status\=live \| archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171028042435/https://believeingeek.com/2016/11/11/pride\-promotions\-undisputed\-2/ \| archive\-date\=28 October 2017 }} Tiger challenged for the [PWP Heavyweight Championship](/wiki/PWP_Heavyweight_Championship "PWP Heavyweight Championship") once again, this time facing champion [Bram](/wiki/Bram_%28wrestler%29 "Bram (wrestler)"). He successfully wom the heavyweight championship, defeating Bram with a piledriver, and a balcony dive.{{cite web \| url\=https://believeingeek.com/2016/12/18/pride\-promotions\-heroes\-legends\-4/ \| title\=Pride Promotions: Heroes \& Legends 4 \| publisher\=Believe In Geek \| access\-date\=26 October 2017 \| url\-status\=live \| archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171027232401/https://believeingeek.com/2016/12/18/pride\-promotions\-heroes\-legends\-4/ \| archive\-date\=27 October 2017 }} In winning the championship, he became the first person to win the Pro Wrestling Pride [Triple Crown](/wiki/PWP_Heavyweight_Championship%23Triple_Crown "PWP Heavyweight Championship#Triple Crown"); winning the PWP Tag Team Championships, the [PWP Catch Division Championship](/wiki/PWP_Catch_Division_Championship "PWP Catch Division Championship"), and the [PWP Heavyweight Championship](/wiki/PWP_Heavyweight_Championship "PWP Heavyweight Championship"). He defended the championship successfully against Kay Jutler in Penzance, in December. ### Championship Defences (2017\) Tiger took the PWP Heavyweight Championship into 2017, defeating [Dick Justice](/wiki/Dick_Justice "Dick Justice") on 22 January 2017, before tagging with him later that evening. He had wins over John Harding and [Joel Redman](/wiki/Joel_Redman "Joel Redman") for the championship. Tiger defended the belt in a triple threat at *PWP Prizefighters 2017* against Tyler Hawke \& Lomaxx.{{cite web \| url\=http://www.totalwrestlingmagazine.co.uk/the\-road\-to\-scrappermania\-iii\-high\-octane\-and\-the\-kris\-travis\-tag\-team\-invitational/ \| title\=The Road to Scrappermania \| publisher\=Total Wrestling Magazine \| access\-date\=26 October 2017 \| url\-status\=live \| archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171028043902/http://www.totalwrestlingmagazine.co.uk/the\-road\-to\-scrappermania\-iii\-high\-octane\-and\-the\-kris\-travis\-tag\-team\-invitational/ \| archive\-date\=28 October 2017 }} He appeared for Exposure Entertainment Wrestling, wrestling in a four\-corners tag team match with Tyler Hawke, at *EWE Luchamania II*. He defeated Gideon at *Battle for Bideford 4* but lost the championship back to Bram, who he had defeated the championship for in [Falmouth](/wiki/Falmouth%2C_Cornwall "Falmouth, Cornwall"). After losing the heavyweight championship, Tiger wrestled two current [Impact Wrestling](/wiki/Impact_Wrestling "Impact Wrestling") champions, where he lost to [Impact X Division Champion](/wiki/Impact_X_Division_Championship "Impact X Division Championship") [Low Ki](/wiki/Low_Ki "Low Ki")on 7 May 2017\. He would also come up short against then [Impact Grand Champion](/wiki/Impact_Grand_Champion "Impact Grand Champion") [Moose](/wiki/Moose_%28wrestler%29 "Moose (wrestler)"), on 25 June 2017; but neither championship was on the line. Tiger won his return match to the Devon Wrestling Alliance, defeating Buddaine. Tiger competed in the *PWP Heroes \& Legends 5* weekend; competing in [Taunton](/wiki/Taunton "Taunton"), [Launceston](/wiki/Launceston%2C_Cornwall "Launceston, Cornwall"), and [Plymouth](/wiki/Plymouth "Plymouth"), winning two triple threats (Against Eddie Dennis \& HardFlyer, and HardFlyer \& Hellmer Lo'Guennec), before losing [Simon Grimm](/wiki/Simon_Grimm "Simon Grimm") on the Sunday. Tiger would later win the *Fight League Pro* championship in [Brussels](/wiki/Brussels "Brussels") on 12 November, defeating longtime nemesis Bram. After the fold of Pro Wrestling Pride, Tiger would later remove his mask full\-time, and wrestle as *Glen Alexander*.
[ "Professional wrestling career\n-----------------------------", "### Early career and first championship matches (2012–2014\\)", "Ferguson began wrestling training in 2009, training with [Joel Redman](/wiki/Joel_Redman \"Joel Redman\") and the UK Dominator at the Devon Wrestling Alliance wrestling school; however due to other commitments did not pursue wrestling further at that time. In 2012, Ferguson started pro wrestling training again at the Limited Edition Promotions training school in [Torquay](/wiki/Torquay \"Torquay\"), which coincided with his brother Darren opening [Pro Wrestling Pride](/wiki/Pro_Wrestling_Pride \"Pro Wrestling Pride\"). Later that year Ferguson joined Megaslam wrestling in [Yorkshire](/wiki/Yorkshire \"Yorkshire\") at their annual holiday camp tour, before his debut match for PWP against Morgan Webster in April 2013; which he would win.{{cite web \\| url\\=https://www.prowrestlingpride.com/teignmouth\\-carlton\\-theatre\\-\\-\\-sunday\\-28th\\-april\\-2013\\.html \\| title\\=Teignmouth Carlton Theatre Sunday 28th April 2013 \\| publisher\\=Pro Wrestling Pride \\| access\\-date\\=24 October 2017 }}{{dead link\\|date\\=May 2018 \\|bot\\=Lee Vilenski \\|fix\\-attempted\\=yes }}", "Tiger wrestled exclusively for [Pro Wrestling Pride](/wiki/Pro_Wrestling_Pride \"Pro Wrestling Pride\") in 2013, with his second match being involved in a fatal\\-4\\-way for the [PWP Catch Division Championship](/wiki/PWP_Catch_Division_Championship \"PWP Catch Division Championship\"), won by Darren Saviour. He challenged for the championship twice more in 2013, losing on both occasions to Tyler Hawke. This led to an [\"I Quit\" match](/wiki/%22I_Quit%22_match) between the two, with Tiger putting his mask on the line for the championship.{{cite web \\| url\\=https://www.prowrestlingpride.com/saltash\\-sunday\\-22nd\\-june/archives/06\\-2014 \\| title\\=Saltash Members Club 22nd June \\| access\\-date\\=24 October 2017 }}{{dead link\\|date\\=May 2018 \\|bot\\=Lee Vilenski \\|fix\\-attempted\\=yes }} Tiger defeated Hawke to win his first professional wrestling championship. Tiger held onto the championship for just over a month, but lost his first defence of the belt to Dick Riley in [Saltash](/wiki/Saltash \"Saltash\"), [Cornwall](/wiki/Cornwall \"Cornwall\").", "### Wrestling Time (2014–2015\\)", "Tiger tagged with [Raven](/wiki/Raven_%28wrestler%29 \"Raven (wrestler)\"), and Darren Saviour in a hardcore 6\\-man tag in August 2014, which was thought to be Raven's last ever UK appearance, as the trio defeated Hawke, and his stable mates (Mark Walsh \\& Calum Cain).{{cite web \\| url\\=https://eyeonwrestling.blogspot.co.uk/2015/07/pro\\-wrestling\\-pride\\-nevermorenever.html?q\\=pride \\| title\\=PWP Nevermore \\- Never Again \\| publisher\\=Eye On Wrestling \\| access\\-date\\=24 October 2017 \\| url\\-status\\=live \\| archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171028042434/https://eyeonwrestling.blogspot.co.uk/2015/07/pro\\-wrestling\\-pride\\-nevermorenever.html?q\\=pride \\| archive\\-date\\=28 October 2017 }} Tiger start edup a new tag team, teaming with Saviour, calling the team \"Wrestling Time\",{{cite web \\| url\\=https://allevents.in/saltash/pro\\-wrestling\\-pride\\-present\\-christmas\\-chaos\\-aka\\-fighting\\-to\\-keep\\-off\\-the\\-naughty\\-list\\-saltash\\-dec\\-14/541366049296996 \\| title\\=PWP presents Christmas Chaos \\| publisher\\=Allevents.in \\| access\\-date\\=24 October 2017 \\| url\\-status\\=live \\| archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171027232854/https://allevents.in/saltash/pro\\-wrestling\\-pride\\-present\\-christmas\\-chaos\\-aka\\-fighting\\-to\\-keep\\-off\\-the\\-naughty\\-list\\-saltash\\-dec\\-14/541366049296996 \\| archive\\-date\\=27 October 2017 }} based on the popular animated TV show *[Adventure Time](/wiki/Adventure_Time \"Adventure Time\")*. The pair wpm the vacant PWP Tag team Championships on 5 October 2014, defeating French pair 'Le Cousins Autier', for Tiger's second championship.", "\"Wrestling Time\" looked to hold the championships into 2015, with a win over The Dunne Bros (Damien Dunne and [Pete Dunne](/wiki/Pete_Dunne_%28wrestler%29 \"Pete Dunne (wrestler)\")), but lost the belts to Danny and Mark Walsh in December. On 25 January 2015, Tiger wrestled former [Tiger Mask](/wiki/Tiger_Mask \"Tiger Mask\") [Koji Kanemoto](/wiki/Koji_Kanemoto \"Koji Kanemoto\"), at *PWP Fighting Spirit*, but would lose.{{cite web \\| url\\=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/bios/k/koji\\-kanemoto/ \\| title\\=Online World Of Wrestling \\- Koji Kanemoto \\| publisher\\=Online World Of Wrestling \\| access\\-date\\=26 October 2017}} Tiger claimed the match was \"probably one of the biggest moments in wrestling (he) will ever have.\" Tiger then defeated Dick Riley,{{cite web \\| url\\=https://hashtagwrest.wordpress.com/results\\-2015/ \\| title\\=\\#Results015 \\| publisher\\=Hashtag Wrestling \\| access\\-date\\=26 October 2017}} before claiming his second [PWP Catch Division Championship](/wiki/PWP_Catch_Division_Championship \"PWP Catch Division Championship\") once again defeating Tyler Hawke in [Newton Abbot](/wiki/Newton_Abbot \"Newton Abbot\").", "Tiger made his debut outside of Pro Wrestling Pride when he wrestled for the Plymouth Wrestling Alliance tag team championships on 22 February 2015\\. \"Wrestling Time\" challenged P. J. Jones and The UK Dominator, for the belts, but would come up short. Tiger returned to defeat John Harding at the companies 6th anniversary show, at the Plymouth Guildhall. Tiger also wrestled for the Combat Sports Federation in May, defeating Joshua Knott. He defended the Catch Division championship throughout the first half of 2015, defeating [Chris Sabin](/wiki/Chris_Sabin \"Chris Sabin\") (in a four\\-way including Harding and Knott), [Jigsaw](/wiki/Jigsaw_%28wrestler%29 \"Jigsaw (wrestler)\"),{{cite web \\| url\\=https://www.theexeterdaily.co.uk/whats\\-on/events/one\\-night\\-only\\-live\\-pro\\-wrestling\\-wwe\\-ecw\\-legend\\-sabu\\-jigsaw \\| title\\=One Night Only! live Pro Wrestling Sabu \\& Jigsaw \\| date\\=24 April 2015 \\| publisher\\=Exeter Daily \\| access\\-date\\=26 October 2017 \\| url\\-status\\=live \\| archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171027233937/https://www.theexeterdaily.co.uk/whats\\-on/events/one\\-night\\-only\\-live\\-pro\\-wrestling\\-wwe\\-ecw\\-legend\\-sabu\\-jigsaw \\| archive\\-date\\=27 October 2017 }} [Rockstar Spud](/wiki/Rockstar_Spud \"Rockstar Spud\") and Kiaser in a triple threat and [Chris Hero](/wiki/Chris_Hero \"Chris Hero\").{{cite web \\| url\\=http://www.theindycorner.com/news/british\\-wrestling\\-round\\-up/ \\| title\\=British Wrestling Round\\-Up \\| publisher\\=Indy Corner \\| date\\=11 August 2015 \\| access\\-date\\=26 October 2017 \\| url\\-status\\=live \\| archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170619221810/http://www.theindycorner.com/news/british\\-wrestling\\-round\\-up/ \\| archive\\-date\\=19 June 2017 }} On 2 August 2015 Tiger lost the belt to [Doug Williams](/wiki/Doug_Williams_%28wrestler%29 \"Doug Williams (wrestler)\"), when the latter cashed in a [Money in the Bank](/wiki/Money_in_the_Bank_ladder_match \"Money in the Bank ladder match\") briefcase, having only just defeated Hero. Tiger regained the championship against Williams two weeks later in [Taunton](/wiki/Taunton \"Taunton\").", "On 21 August 2015 Tiger successfully defended the championship in a fatal\\-4\\-way match in Newton Abbot, defeating Gideon, John Harding and [Eddie Ryan](/wiki/Eddie_Ryan \"Eddie Ryan\").{{cite web \\| url\\=http://jonswrestleview.blogspot.co.uk/2015/08/pro\\-wreslting\\-pride\\-show\\-review\\-w.html \\| title\\=PWP Show Review \\| publisher\\=Jons Wrestle View \\| access\\-date\\=26 October 2017 \\| author\\=Orchard, Jonathan}} Later that month, on 30 August, Tiger defeated JD Knight and defended the championship in [Truro](/wiki/Truro \"Truro\"). In September 2015 Tiger took part in the 'Plex Wrestling King of the Brit's [tournament](/wiki/Tournament \"Tournament\"), with his semi\\-final coming to a double\\-pin draw against [El Ligero](/wiki/El_Ligero \"El Ligero\").{{cite web \\| url\\=https://hashtagwrest.wordpress.com/2015/09/07/results\\-plex\\-plexwrestlinguk\\-king\\-of\\-the\\-brits\\-champions\\-are\\-crowned/ \\| title\\=\\#Results: Plex King Of The Brits Champion Crowned \\| date\\=7 September 2015 \\| publisher\\=Hashtag Wrestling \\| access\\-date\\=26 October 2017 \\| url\\-status\\=live \\| archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171028042331/https://hashtagwrest.wordpress.com/2015/09/07/results\\-plex\\-plexwrestlinguk\\-king\\-of\\-the\\-brits\\-champions\\-are\\-crowned/ \\| archive\\-date\\=28 October 2017 }} He returned twice more in 2015 defeating Preston Sage \\& Lion Kid. He concluded 2015 as Catch Division Champion, winning another 4\\-way match at *PWP Heroes \\& Legends 2*, defeating Scotty Essex, Tiger Ali \\& [Ho Ho Lun](/wiki/Ho_Ho_Lun \"Ho Ho Lun\").{{cite web \\| url\\=http://www.thisisthewestcountry.co.uk/news/devon\\_news/13891960\\.Pro\\_Wrestling\\_Pride\\_taking\\_over\\_Devon\\_leisure\\_centre/ \\| title\\=Pro Wrestling Pride taking over Devon Leisure Centre \\| date\\=23 October 2015 \\| publisher\\=This Is The West Country \\| access\\-date\\=26 October 2017 \\| url\\-status\\=live \\| archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171027232234/http://www.thisisthewestcountry.co.uk/news/devon\\_news/13891960\\.Pro\\_Wrestling\\_Pride\\_taking\\_over\\_Devon\\_leisure\\_centre/ \\| archive\\-date\\=27 October 2017 }}", "### Heavyweight Champion (2016\\)", "Starting in 2016 Tiger wrestled [Kenny Omega](/wiki/Kenny_Omega \"Kenny Omega\") in Taunton, in a non\\-championship match; which he lost. He also lost his Catch Division Championship, in a triple threat when Scotty Essex pinned [Tajiri](/wiki/Yoshihiro_Tajiri \"Yoshihiro Tajiri\") on 7 February 2016\\.{{cite web \\| url\\=https://believeingeek.com/2016/02/09/pride\\-promotions\\-the\\-real\\-rock\\-n\\-rollas/ \\| title\\=Pride Promotions The Real Rock \\& Rollas \\| access\\-date\\=26 October 2017 \\| url\\-status\\=live \\| archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171027232813/https://believeingeek.com/2016/02/09/pride\\-promotions\\-the\\-real\\-rock\\-n\\-rollas/ \\| archive\\-date\\=27 October 2017 }} Shortly afterwards, Tiger travelled to Portugal, where he wrestled for the French APC (Association les Professionnels du Catch) championship, but did not defeat champion Hellmer Lo'Guennec.", "Tiger got his first opportunity for the [PWP Heavyweight Championship](/wiki/PWP_Heavyweight_Championship \"PWP Heavyweight Championship\") on 28 February 2016, however he lost to Steve Griffiths, before winning a match against Scotty Essex for the Catch title in March, 2016\\. Despite winning the match, Tiger did not win the championship because he won the match by disqualification. On 8 May 2016 he wrestled for the [Wrestle\\-1](/wiki/Wrestle-1 \"Wrestle-1\") [Cruiserweight Championship](/wiki/Wrestle-1_Cruiser_Division_Championship \"Wrestle-1 Cruiser Division Championship\"), in a match against [Kotaro Suzuki](/wiki/Kotaro_Suzuki \"Kotaro Suzuki\"){{cite web \\| url\\=http://wrestlekingdom.boards.net/thread/1581/kotaro\\-suzuki\\-ultimo\\-tiger\\-pwp?q\\= \\| title\\=Kotaro Suzuki vs Ultimo Tiger \\| publisher\\=Wrestle Kingdom \\| access\\-date\\=26 October 2017 \\| url\\-status\\=live \\| archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180320111524/http://wrestlekingdom.boards.net/thread/1581/kotaro\\-suzuki\\-ultimo\\-tiger\\-pwp?q\\= \\| archive\\-date\\=20 March 2018 }} in Penzance.{{cite web \\| url\\=https://superluchas.com/wrestle\\-1\\-kotaro\\-suzuki\\-defiende\\-el\\-titulo\\-crucero\\-en\\-inglaterra/ \\| title\\=Wrestle\\-1: Kotaro Suzuki defends the title in England \\| date\\=9 May 2016 \\| publisher\\=SuperLuchas \\| access\\-date\\=26 October 2017 \\| url\\-status\\=live \\| archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171027233241/https://superluchas.com/wrestle\\-1\\-kotaro\\-suzuki\\-defiende\\-el\\-titulo\\-crucero\\-en\\-inglaterra/ \\| archive\\-date\\=27 October 2017 }}", "In May 2016 Tiger started appearing for the Devon Wrestling Association, where he defeated Tyler Hawke, and returned later that year to wrestle the UK Dominator, and Joshua Knott.{{cite web \\| url\\=http://www.f4wonline.com/indies/week\\-british\\-wrestling\\-progress\\-kick\\-volume\\-four\\-223021 \\| title\\=This Week in British Wrestling 20/10/2016 \\| publisher\\=Figure\\-4 Online \\| access\\-date\\=24 October 2017 \\| url\\-status\\=live \\| archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171028042630/http://www.f4wonline.com/indies/week\\-british\\-wrestling\\-progress\\-kick\\-volume\\-four\\-223021 \\| archive\\-date\\=28 October 2017 }} On 26 June 2016 he won a six\\-man tag team match at *PWP One of a Kind*{{cite web \\| url\\=http://www.theindycorner.com/reviews/pro\\-wrestling\\-pride\\-one\\-of\\-a\\-kind\\-26616\\-review/ \\| title\\=PWP One of a Kind Review \\| date\\=28 June 2016 \\| access\\-date\\=26 October 2017 \\| url\\-status\\=live \\| archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171027232136/http://www.theindycorner.com/reviews/pro\\-wrestling\\-pride\\-one\\-of\\-a\\-kind\\-26616\\-review/ \\| archive\\-date\\=27 October 2017 }}", "He made his debut for Pro Evolution Wrestling winning a tag team match with Matt Maddoxx, defeating the Heritage City Hitmen,{{cite web \\| url\\=https://wrestleropesuk.wordpress.com/2016/07/10/pro\\-evolution\\-wrestling\\-live\\-in\\-bristol\\-full\\-results\\-3/ \\| title\\=Pro Evolution Wrestling 'Live In Bristol' Full Results \\| date\\=10 July 2016 \\| publisher\\=Wrestle Ropes UK \\| access\\-date\\=15 September 2023 \\| url\\-status\\=live \\| archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171027232908/https://wrestleropesuk.wordpress.com/2016/07/10/pro\\-evolution\\-wrestling\\-live\\-in\\-bristol\\-full\\-results\\-3/ \\| archive\\-date\\=27 October 2017 }} before on the 10th, winning a four\\-way including [P. J. Black](/wiki/P._J._Black \"P. J. Black\"), [Mark Andrews](/wiki/Mark_Andrews_%28wrestler%29 \"Mark Andrews (wrestler)\") and Scotty Essex to regain the PWP Catch Division Trophy for a record fourth time.{{cite web \\| url\\=https://www.wherecanwego.com/item/e982117/pro\\-wrestling\\-pride\\-live\\-heroes\\-legends\\-3\\-with\\-wwe\\-star\\-justin\\-gabriel \\| title\\=PWP Live Heroes \\& Legends 3\\. \\| publisher\\=Where Can We Go \\| access\\-date\\=26 October 2017 \\| url\\-status\\=live \\| archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171027232218/https://www.wherecanwego.com/item/e982117/pro\\-wrestling\\-pride\\-live\\-heroes\\-legends\\-3\\-with\\-wwe\\-star\\-justin\\-gabriel \\| archive\\-date\\=27 October 2017 }} He defended the belt three times at [Hyper Japan](/wiki/Hyper_Japan \"Hyper Japan\") 2016; against Kelly Sixx, Keizer, and Spanish wrestler HardFlyer.{{cite web \\| url\\=https://hyperjapan.co.uk/latest\\-news/wrestling/ \\| title\\=Pride: Pro Wrestling goes Hyper Japan \\| access\\-date\\=26 October 2017}}{{cite web \\| url\\=https://hashtagwrest.wordpress.com/tag/hyper\\-japan/ \\| title\\=\\#HyperJapan \\- Results \\| publisher\\=Hashtag Wrestling \\| access\\-date\\=26 October 2017 \\| url\\-status\\=live \\| archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171027232956/https://hashtagwrest.wordpress.com/tag/hyper\\-japan/ \\| archive\\-date\\=27 October 2017 }}", "Tiger challenged [Abyss](/wiki/Abyss_%28wrestler%29 \"Abyss (wrestler)\") on 18 August 2016, losing the match in Bideford, Devon.{{cite web \\| url\\=https://www.evensi.uk/pwp\\-live\\-the\\-battle\\-of\\-bideford\\-2\\-enter\\-the\\-abyss\\-live\\-pro/178165427 \\| title\\=PWP Live The Battle Of Bideford 2 \\| publisher\\=Events SI \\| access\\-date\\=26 October 2017}} Tiger defended the catch championship twice against Josh Knott, with the second encounter resulting in a double disqualification.{{cite web \\| url\\=https://believeingeek.com/2016/09/05/pride\\-promotions\\-quote\\-the\\-raven\\-its\\-yersel/ \\| title\\=Pride Promotions \\- Quote The Raven \"It's Yersel\" \\| publisher\\=Believe In Geek \\| access\\-date\\=26 October 2017 \\| url\\-status\\=live \\| archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171027232502/https://believeingeek.com/2016/09/05/pride\\-promotions\\-quote\\-the\\-raven\\-its\\-yersel/ \\| archive\\-date\\=27 October 2017 }} Tiger lost a non\\-title match in [Tavistock](/wiki/Tavistock \"Tavistock\") to Kelly Sixx, leading to a [PWP Catch Division Championship](/wiki/PWP_Catch_Division_Championship \"PWP Catch Division Championship\") [Tables, Ladders \\& Chairs](/wiki/Tables%2C_Ladders_%26_Chairs \"Tables, Ladders & Chairs\") [Triple Threat](/wiki/Professional_wrestling_match_types%23Basic_non-elimination_matches \"Professional wrestling match types#Basic non-elimination matches\") between Sixx, Tiger \\& Knott. Sixx won match, pinning Knott to win the championship with Tiger handcuffed in the ring.{{cite web \\| url\\=https://believeingeek.com/2016/11/11/pride\\-promotions\\-undisputed\\-2/ \\| title\\=Pride Promotions Unidisputed 2 Review \\| publisher\\=Believe In Geek \\| access\\-date\\=26 October 2017 \\| url\\-status\\=live \\| archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171028042435/https://believeingeek.com/2016/11/11/pride\\-promotions\\-undisputed\\-2/ \\| archive\\-date\\=28 October 2017 }}", "Tiger challenged for the [PWP Heavyweight Championship](/wiki/PWP_Heavyweight_Championship \"PWP Heavyweight Championship\") once again, this time facing champion [Bram](/wiki/Bram_%28wrestler%29 \"Bram (wrestler)\"). He successfully wom the heavyweight championship, defeating Bram with a piledriver, and a balcony dive.{{cite web \\| url\\=https://believeingeek.com/2016/12/18/pride\\-promotions\\-heroes\\-legends\\-4/ \\| title\\=Pride Promotions: Heroes \\& Legends 4 \\| publisher\\=Believe In Geek \\| access\\-date\\=26 October 2017 \\| url\\-status\\=live \\| archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171027232401/https://believeingeek.com/2016/12/18/pride\\-promotions\\-heroes\\-legends\\-4/ \\| archive\\-date\\=27 October 2017 }} In winning the championship, he became the first person to win the Pro Wrestling Pride [Triple Crown](/wiki/PWP_Heavyweight_Championship%23Triple_Crown \"PWP Heavyweight Championship#Triple Crown\"); winning the PWP Tag Team Championships, the [PWP Catch Division Championship](/wiki/PWP_Catch_Division_Championship \"PWP Catch Division Championship\"), and the [PWP Heavyweight Championship](/wiki/PWP_Heavyweight_Championship \"PWP Heavyweight Championship\"). He defended the championship successfully against Kay Jutler in Penzance, in December.", "### Championship Defences (2017\\)", "Tiger took the PWP Heavyweight Championship into 2017, defeating [Dick Justice](/wiki/Dick_Justice \"Dick Justice\") on 22 January 2017, before tagging with him later that evening. He had wins over John Harding and [Joel Redman](/wiki/Joel_Redman \"Joel Redman\") for the championship. Tiger defended the belt in a triple threat at *PWP Prizefighters 2017* against Tyler Hawke \\& Lomaxx.{{cite web \\| url\\=http://www.totalwrestlingmagazine.co.uk/the\\-road\\-to\\-scrappermania\\-iii\\-high\\-octane\\-and\\-the\\-kris\\-travis\\-tag\\-team\\-invitational/ \\| title\\=The Road to Scrappermania \\| publisher\\=Total Wrestling Magazine \\| access\\-date\\=26 October 2017 \\| url\\-status\\=live \\| archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171028043902/http://www.totalwrestlingmagazine.co.uk/the\\-road\\-to\\-scrappermania\\-iii\\-high\\-octane\\-and\\-the\\-kris\\-travis\\-tag\\-team\\-invitational/ \\| archive\\-date\\=28 October 2017 }} He appeared for Exposure Entertainment Wrestling, wrestling in a four\\-corners tag team match with Tyler Hawke, at *EWE Luchamania II*. He defeated Gideon at *Battle for Bideford 4* but lost the championship back to Bram, who he had defeated the championship for in [Falmouth](/wiki/Falmouth%2C_Cornwall \"Falmouth, Cornwall\").", "After losing the heavyweight championship, Tiger wrestled two current [Impact Wrestling](/wiki/Impact_Wrestling \"Impact Wrestling\") champions, where he lost to [Impact X Division Champion](/wiki/Impact_X_Division_Championship \"Impact X Division Championship\") [Low Ki](/wiki/Low_Ki \"Low Ki\")on 7 May 2017\\. He would also come up short against then [Impact Grand Champion](/wiki/Impact_Grand_Champion \"Impact Grand Champion\") [Moose](/wiki/Moose_%28wrestler%29 \"Moose (wrestler)\"), on 25 June 2017; but neither championship was on the line. Tiger won his return match to the Devon Wrestling Alliance, defeating Buddaine.", "Tiger competed in the *PWP Heroes \\& Legends 5* weekend; competing in [Taunton](/wiki/Taunton \"Taunton\"), [Launceston](/wiki/Launceston%2C_Cornwall \"Launceston, Cornwall\"), and [Plymouth](/wiki/Plymouth \"Plymouth\"), winning two triple threats (Against Eddie Dennis \\& HardFlyer, and HardFlyer \\& Hellmer Lo'Guennec), before losing [Simon Grimm](/wiki/Simon_Grimm \"Simon Grimm\") on the Sunday. Tiger would later win the *Fight League Pro* championship in [Brussels](/wiki/Brussels \"Brussels\") on 12 November, defeating longtime nemesis Bram. After the fold of Pro Wrestling Pride, Tiger would later remove his mask full\\-time, and wrestle as *Glen Alexander*.", "" ]
Overview -------- [thumb\|upright 1\.5\|Golomb coding example for a source x with geometric distribution, with parameter {{math\|''p''(0\) {{\=}} 0\.2}}, using Golomb code with {{math\|''M'' {{\=}} 3}}. The 2\-bit code 00 is used 20% of the time; the 3\-bit codes 010, 011, and 100 are used over 38% of the time; 4 bits or more are needed in a minority of cases. For this source, entropy \= 3\.610 bits; for this code with this source, rate \= 3\.639 bits; therefore redundancy \= 0\.030 bits, or efficiency \= 0\.992 bits per bit.](/wiki/File:Golomb_code_example.png "Golomb code example.png") ### Construction of codes Golomb coding uses a tunable parameter {{mvar\|M}} to divide an input value {{mvar\|x}} into two parts: {{mvar\|q}}, the result of a division by {{mvar\|M}}, and {{mvar\|r}}, the remainder. The quotient is sent in [unary coding](/wiki/Unary_coding "Unary coding"), followed by the remainder in [truncated binary encoding](/wiki/Truncated_binary_encoding "Truncated binary encoding"). When M\=1, Golomb coding is equivalent to unary coding. Golomb–Rice codes can be thought of as codes that indicate a number by the position of the *bin* ({{mvar\|q}}), and the *offset* within the *bin* ({{mvar\|r}}). The example figure shows the position {{mvar\|q}} and offset {{mvar\|r}} for the encoding of integer {{mvar\|x}} using Golomb–Rice parameter {{math\|''M'' {{\=}} 3}}, with source probabilities following a geometric distribution with {{math\|''p''(0\) {{\=}} 0\.2}}. Formally, the two parts are given by the following expression, where {{mvar\|x}} is the nonnegative integer being encoded: q \= \\left \\lfloor \\frac{x}{M} \\right \\rfloor and r \= x \- qM. [thumb\|upright 1\.5\|This image shows the redundancy, in bits, of the Golomb code, when {{mvar\|M}} is chosen optimally, for {{math\| 1 − ''p''(0\) ≥ 0\.45}}](/wiki/File:GolombCodeRedundancy.svg "GolombCodeRedundancy.svg") Both {{mvar\|q}} and {{mvar\|r}} will be encoded using variable numbers of bits: {{mvar\|q}} by a unary code, and {{mvar\|r}} by {{mvar\|b}} bits for Rice code, or a choice between {{mvar\|b}} and {{math\|{{var\|b}}\+1}} bits for Golomb code (i.e. {{mvar\|M}} is not a power of 2\), with b \= \\lfloor\\log\_2(M)\\rfloor. If r \< 2^{b\+1} \- M, then use {{mvar\|b}} bits to encode {{mvar\|r}}; otherwise, use {{mvar\|b}}\+1 bits to encode {{mvar\|r}}. Clearly, b\=\\log\_2(M) if {{mvar\|M}} is a power of 2 and we can encode all values of {{mvar\|r}} with {{mvar\|b}} bits. The integer {{mvar\|x}} treated by Golomb was the run length of a [Bernoulli process](/wiki/Bernoulli_process "Bernoulli process"), which has a [geometric distribution](/wiki/Geometric_distribution "Geometric distribution") starting at 0\. The best choice of parameter {{mvar\|M}} is a function of the corresponding Bernoulli process, which is parameterized by p \= P(x\=0\) the probability of success in a given [Bernoulli trial](/wiki/Bernoulli_trial "Bernoulli trial"). {{mvar\|M}} is either the median of the distribution or the median ±1\. It can be determined by these inequalities: (1\-p)^M \+ (1\-p)^{M\+1} \\leq 1 \< (1\-p)^{M\-1} \+ (1\-p)^M, which are solved by M \= \\left\\lceil \-\\frac{\\log(2 \-p)}{\\log(1\-p)}\\right\\rceil. For the example with {{math\|''p''(0\) {{\=}} 0\.2}}: M \= \\left\\lceil \-\\frac{\\log(1\.8\)}{\\log(0\.8\)}\\right\\rceil \= \\left\\lceil 2\.634 \\right\\rceil \= 3. The Golomb code for this distribution is equivalent to the [Huffman code](/wiki/Huffman_code "Huffman code") for the same probabilities, if it were possible to compute the Huffman code for the infinite set of source values. ### Use with signed integers Golomb's scheme was designed to encode sequences of non\-negative numbers. However, it is easily extended to accept sequences containing negative numbers using an *overlap and interleave* scheme, in which all values are reassigned to some positive number in a unique and reversible way. The sequence begins: 0, −1, 1, −2, 2, −3, 3, −4, 4, ... The *n*\-th negative value (i.e., {{tmath\|\-n}}) is mapped to the *n*th odd number ({{tmath\|2n\-1}}), and the *m*th positive value is mapped to the *m*\-th even number ({{tmath\|2m}}). This may be expressed mathematically as follows: a positive value {{mvar\|x}} is mapped to (x' \= 2\|x\| \= 2x,\\ x \\ge 0), and a negative value {{mvar\|y}} is mapped to (y' \= 2\|y\| \- 1 \= \-2y \- 1,\\ y \< 0). Such a code may be used for simplicity, even if suboptimal. Truly optimal codes for two\-sided geometric distributions include multiple variants of the Golomb code, depending on the distribution parameters, including this one.{{Cite journal \| last1 \= Merhav \| first1 \= N. \| last2 \= Seroussi \| first2 \= G. \| last3 \= Weinberger \| first3 \= M. J. \| title \= Coding of sources with two\-sided geometric distributions and unknown parameters \| journal \= \[\[IEEE Transactions on Information Theory]]\| volume \= 46 \| issue \= 1 \| pages \= 229–236 \| year \= 2000 \| doi\=10\.1109/18\.817520}}
[ "Overview\n--------", "[thumb\\|upright 1\\.5\\|Golomb coding example for a source x with geometric distribution, with parameter {{math\\|''p''(0\\) {{\\=}} 0\\.2}}, using Golomb code with {{math\\|''M'' {{\\=}} 3}}. The 2\\-bit code 00 is used 20% of the time; the 3\\-bit codes 010, 011, and 100 are used over 38% of the time; 4 bits or more are needed in a minority of cases. For this source, entropy \\= 3\\.610 bits; for this code with this source, rate \\= 3\\.639 bits; therefore redundancy \\= 0\\.030 bits, or efficiency \\= 0\\.992 bits per bit.](/wiki/File:Golomb_code_example.png \"Golomb code example.png\")", "### Construction of codes", "Golomb coding uses a tunable parameter {{mvar\\|M}} to divide an input value {{mvar\\|x}} into two parts: {{mvar\\|q}}, the result of a division by {{mvar\\|M}}, and {{mvar\\|r}}, the remainder. The quotient is sent in [unary coding](/wiki/Unary_coding \"Unary coding\"), followed by the remainder in [truncated binary encoding](/wiki/Truncated_binary_encoding \"Truncated binary encoding\"). When M\\=1, Golomb coding is equivalent to unary coding.", "Golomb–Rice codes can be thought of as codes that indicate a number by the position of the *bin* ({{mvar\\|q}}), and the *offset* within the *bin* ({{mvar\\|r}}). The example figure shows the position {{mvar\\|q}} and offset {{mvar\\|r}} for the encoding of integer {{mvar\\|x}} using Golomb–Rice parameter {{math\\|''M'' {{\\=}} 3}}, with source probabilities following a geometric distribution with {{math\\|''p''(0\\) {{\\=}} 0\\.2}}.", "Formally, the two parts are given by the following expression, where {{mvar\\|x}} is the nonnegative integer being encoded:", "q \\= \\\\left \\\\lfloor \\\\frac{x}{M} \\\\right \\\\rfloor\nand", "r \\= x \\- qM.\n[thumb\\|upright 1\\.5\\|This image shows the redundancy, in bits, of the Golomb code, when {{mvar\\|M}} is chosen optimally, for {{math\\| 1 − ''p''(0\\) ≥ 0\\.45}}](/wiki/File:GolombCodeRedundancy.svg \"GolombCodeRedundancy.svg\")", "Both {{mvar\\|q}} and {{mvar\\|r}} will be encoded using variable numbers of bits: {{mvar\\|q}} by a unary code, and {{mvar\\|r}} by {{mvar\\|b}} bits for Rice code, or a choice between {{mvar\\|b}} and {{math\\|{{var\\|b}}\\+1}} bits for Golomb code (i.e. {{mvar\\|M}} is not a power of 2\\), with b \\= \\\\lfloor\\\\log\\_2(M)\\\\rfloor. If r \\< 2^{b\\+1} \\- M, then use {{mvar\\|b}} bits to encode {{mvar\\|r}}; otherwise, use {{mvar\\|b}}\\+1 bits to encode {{mvar\\|r}}. Clearly, b\\=\\\\log\\_2(M) if {{mvar\\|M}} is a power of 2 and we can encode all values of {{mvar\\|r}} with {{mvar\\|b}} bits.", "The integer {{mvar\\|x}} treated by Golomb was the run length of a [Bernoulli process](/wiki/Bernoulli_process \"Bernoulli process\"), which has a [geometric distribution](/wiki/Geometric_distribution \"Geometric distribution\") starting at 0\\. The best choice of parameter {{mvar\\|M}} is a function of the corresponding Bernoulli process, which is parameterized by p \\= P(x\\=0\\) the probability of success in a given [Bernoulli trial](/wiki/Bernoulli_trial \"Bernoulli trial\"). {{mvar\\|M}} is either the median of the distribution or the median ±1\\. It can be determined by these inequalities:\n (1\\-p)^M \\+ (1\\-p)^{M\\+1} \\\\leq 1 \\< (1\\-p)^{M\\-1} \\+ (1\\-p)^M,\nwhich are solved by \n M \\= \\\\left\\\\lceil \\-\\\\frac{\\\\log(2 \\-p)}{\\\\log(1\\-p)}\\\\right\\\\rceil.", "For the example with {{math\\|''p''(0\\) {{\\=}} 0\\.2}}:\n M \\= \\\\left\\\\lceil \\-\\\\frac{\\\\log(1\\.8\\)}{\\\\log(0\\.8\\)}\\\\right\\\\rceil \\= \\\\left\\\\lceil 2\\.634 \\\\right\\\\rceil \\= 3.", "The Golomb code for this distribution is equivalent to the [Huffman code](/wiki/Huffman_code \"Huffman code\") for the same probabilities, if it were possible to compute the Huffman code for the infinite set of source values.", "### Use with signed integers", "Golomb's scheme was designed to encode sequences of non\\-negative numbers. However, it is easily extended to accept sequences containing negative numbers using an *overlap and interleave* scheme, in which all values are reassigned to some positive number in a unique and reversible way. The sequence begins: 0, −1, 1, −2, 2, −3, 3, −4, 4, ... The *n*\\-th negative value (i.e., {{tmath\\|\\-n}}) is mapped to the *n*th odd number ({{tmath\\|2n\\-1}}), and the *m*th positive value is mapped to the *m*\\-th even number ({{tmath\\|2m}}). This may be expressed mathematically as follows: a positive value {{mvar\\|x}} is mapped to (x' \\= 2\\|x\\| \\= 2x,\\\\ x \\\\ge 0), and a negative value {{mvar\\|y}} is mapped to (y' \\= 2\\|y\\| \\- 1 \\= \\-2y \\- 1,\\\\ y \\< 0). Such a code may be used for simplicity, even if suboptimal. Truly optimal codes for two\\-sided geometric distributions include multiple variants of the Golomb code, depending on the distribution parameters, including this one.{{Cite journal \\| last1 \\= Merhav \\| first1 \\= N. \\| last2 \\= Seroussi \\| first2 \\= G. \\| last3 \\= Weinberger \\| first3 \\= M. J. \\| title \\= Coding of sources with two\\-sided geometric distributions and unknown parameters \\| journal \\= \\[\\[IEEE Transactions on Information Theory]]\\| volume \\= 46 \\| issue \\= 1 \\| pages \\= 229–236 \\| year \\= 2000 \\| doi\\=10\\.1109/18\\.817520}}", "" ]
### Construction of codes Golomb coding uses a tunable parameter {{mvar\|M}} to divide an input value {{mvar\|x}} into two parts: {{mvar\|q}}, the result of a division by {{mvar\|M}}, and {{mvar\|r}}, the remainder. The quotient is sent in [unary coding](/wiki/Unary_coding "Unary coding"), followed by the remainder in [truncated binary encoding](/wiki/Truncated_binary_encoding "Truncated binary encoding"). When M\=1, Golomb coding is equivalent to unary coding. Golomb–Rice codes can be thought of as codes that indicate a number by the position of the *bin* ({{mvar\|q}}), and the *offset* within the *bin* ({{mvar\|r}}). The example figure shows the position {{mvar\|q}} and offset {{mvar\|r}} for the encoding of integer {{mvar\|x}} using Golomb–Rice parameter {{math\|''M'' {{\=}} 3}}, with source probabilities following a geometric distribution with {{math\|''p''(0\) {{\=}} 0\.2}}. Formally, the two parts are given by the following expression, where {{mvar\|x}} is the nonnegative integer being encoded: q \= \\left \\lfloor \\frac{x}{M} \\right \\rfloor and r \= x \- qM. [thumb\|upright 1\.5\|This image shows the redundancy, in bits, of the Golomb code, when {{mvar\|M}} is chosen optimally, for {{math\| 1 − ''p''(0\) ≥ 0\.45}}](/wiki/File:GolombCodeRedundancy.svg "GolombCodeRedundancy.svg") Both {{mvar\|q}} and {{mvar\|r}} will be encoded using variable numbers of bits: {{mvar\|q}} by a unary code, and {{mvar\|r}} by {{mvar\|b}} bits for Rice code, or a choice between {{mvar\|b}} and {{math\|{{var\|b}}\+1}} bits for Golomb code (i.e. {{mvar\|M}} is not a power of 2\), with b \= \\lfloor\\log\_2(M)\\rfloor. If r \< 2^{b\+1} \- M, then use {{mvar\|b}} bits to encode {{mvar\|r}}; otherwise, use {{mvar\|b}}\+1 bits to encode {{mvar\|r}}. Clearly, b\=\\log\_2(M) if {{mvar\|M}} is a power of 2 and we can encode all values of {{mvar\|r}} with {{mvar\|b}} bits. The integer {{mvar\|x}} treated by Golomb was the run length of a [Bernoulli process](/wiki/Bernoulli_process "Bernoulli process"), which has a [geometric distribution](/wiki/Geometric_distribution "Geometric distribution") starting at 0\. The best choice of parameter {{mvar\|M}} is a function of the corresponding Bernoulli process, which is parameterized by p \= P(x\=0\) the probability of success in a given [Bernoulli trial](/wiki/Bernoulli_trial "Bernoulli trial"). {{mvar\|M}} is either the median of the distribution or the median ±1\. It can be determined by these inequalities: (1\-p)^M \+ (1\-p)^{M\+1} \\leq 1 \< (1\-p)^{M\-1} \+ (1\-p)^M, which are solved by M \= \\left\\lceil \-\\frac{\\log(2 \-p)}{\\log(1\-p)}\\right\\rceil. For the example with {{math\|''p''(0\) {{\=}} 0\.2}}: M \= \\left\\lceil \-\\frac{\\log(1\.8\)}{\\log(0\.8\)}\\right\\rceil \= \\left\\lceil 2\.634 \\right\\rceil \= 3. The Golomb code for this distribution is equivalent to the [Huffman code](/wiki/Huffman_code "Huffman code") for the same probabilities, if it were possible to compute the Huffman code for the infinite set of source values.
[ "### Construction of codes", "Golomb coding uses a tunable parameter {{mvar\\|M}} to divide an input value {{mvar\\|x}} into two parts: {{mvar\\|q}}, the result of a division by {{mvar\\|M}}, and {{mvar\\|r}}, the remainder. The quotient is sent in [unary coding](/wiki/Unary_coding \"Unary coding\"), followed by the remainder in [truncated binary encoding](/wiki/Truncated_binary_encoding \"Truncated binary encoding\"). When M\\=1, Golomb coding is equivalent to unary coding.", "Golomb–Rice codes can be thought of as codes that indicate a number by the position of the *bin* ({{mvar\\|q}}), and the *offset* within the *bin* ({{mvar\\|r}}). The example figure shows the position {{mvar\\|q}} and offset {{mvar\\|r}} for the encoding of integer {{mvar\\|x}} using Golomb–Rice parameter {{math\\|''M'' {{\\=}} 3}}, with source probabilities following a geometric distribution with {{math\\|''p''(0\\) {{\\=}} 0\\.2}}.", "Formally, the two parts are given by the following expression, where {{mvar\\|x}} is the nonnegative integer being encoded:", "q \\= \\\\left \\\\lfloor \\\\frac{x}{M} \\\\right \\\\rfloor\nand", "r \\= x \\- qM.\n[thumb\\|upright 1\\.5\\|This image shows the redundancy, in bits, of the Golomb code, when {{mvar\\|M}} is chosen optimally, for {{math\\| 1 − ''p''(0\\) ≥ 0\\.45}}](/wiki/File:GolombCodeRedundancy.svg \"GolombCodeRedundancy.svg\")", "Both {{mvar\\|q}} and {{mvar\\|r}} will be encoded using variable numbers of bits: {{mvar\\|q}} by a unary code, and {{mvar\\|r}} by {{mvar\\|b}} bits for Rice code, or a choice between {{mvar\\|b}} and {{math\\|{{var\\|b}}\\+1}} bits for Golomb code (i.e. {{mvar\\|M}} is not a power of 2\\), with b \\= \\\\lfloor\\\\log\\_2(M)\\\\rfloor. If r \\< 2^{b\\+1} \\- M, then use {{mvar\\|b}} bits to encode {{mvar\\|r}}; otherwise, use {{mvar\\|b}}\\+1 bits to encode {{mvar\\|r}}. Clearly, b\\=\\\\log\\_2(M) if {{mvar\\|M}} is a power of 2 and we can encode all values of {{mvar\\|r}} with {{mvar\\|b}} bits.", "The integer {{mvar\\|x}} treated by Golomb was the run length of a [Bernoulli process](/wiki/Bernoulli_process \"Bernoulli process\"), which has a [geometric distribution](/wiki/Geometric_distribution \"Geometric distribution\") starting at 0\\. The best choice of parameter {{mvar\\|M}} is a function of the corresponding Bernoulli process, which is parameterized by p \\= P(x\\=0\\) the probability of success in a given [Bernoulli trial](/wiki/Bernoulli_trial \"Bernoulli trial\"). {{mvar\\|M}} is either the median of the distribution or the median ±1\\. It can be determined by these inequalities:\n (1\\-p)^M \\+ (1\\-p)^{M\\+1} \\\\leq 1 \\< (1\\-p)^{M\\-1} \\+ (1\\-p)^M,\nwhich are solved by \n M \\= \\\\left\\\\lceil \\-\\\\frac{\\\\log(2 \\-p)}{\\\\log(1\\-p)}\\\\right\\\\rceil.", "For the example with {{math\\|''p''(0\\) {{\\=}} 0\\.2}}:\n M \\= \\\\left\\\\lceil \\-\\\\frac{\\\\log(1\\.8\\)}{\\\\log(0\\.8\\)}\\\\right\\\\rceil \\= \\\\left\\\\lceil 2\\.634 \\\\right\\\\rceil \\= 3.", "The Golomb code for this distribution is equivalent to the [Huffman code](/wiki/Huffman_code \"Huffman code\") for the same probabilities, if it were possible to compute the Huffman code for the infinite set of source values.", "" ]
Plot ---- {{More plot\|date\=May 2013}} Kermit the Frog welcomes the viewer to the Muppet Sing\-Along Video and allows us to hear a story about a bunny who travels outside his home to learn new songs from his animal friends and to sing\-along to them. The story begins when Billy Bunny is at his family home, singing "Hoppity\-Boppity", which is the only song he knows, much to the annoyance of his family. Billy's mommy asks him to go outside to learn new songs. Billy first stops by at a gopher village, where he discovers that every gopher looks the same, despite them having different personalities ("We Are Different"). Next, he meets three polite bears \- Cecil, Edgar, and Percival \- who sing a rap about their personalities and why they roar ("Bear Rap"). Next, Billy meets a termite, who sings about his joys of eating wood ("The Termite Chew"). As Billy enters a deep forest, he meets two raccoons. When he asks them what they're doing here in the woods, they explain that it's a secret and they sing about it ("I Have a Secret"). Next, Billy accidentally bumps into a porcupine. He appears to be fine, but the porcupine invites him to her nightclub and sings "Please Don't Bump Into Me", about less harmful things to bump into, such as a beagle and a kangaroo. Midway, during the instrumental break, a penguin waiter asks Billy what he'd say to a little carrot juice (Billy: "Well, I’d say ’hello, little carrot juice’.") When the porcupine's song is over, she asks Billy if she'd like to stay for the second show. Billy leaves, right before the penguin arrives with a glass of carrot juice. Next, Billy goes over to a pond, where he meets some frogs, who sing about their "Frog Talk". Finally, Billy meets a turtle and asks if he knows any songs. The turtle says he doesn't know much... except that he likes to observe what's going on around the bay and then does a "teeter\-totter" on a rock and swims away. The turtle sums it up into a song \- "Swim Away, Hooray!" \- and Billy joins in with him. It's now late and Billy has to go home. When Billy comes home just in time for dinner, he explains to his family that he knows eight songs, and the one song that's his favorite is "Hoppity\-Boppity". Billy's family joins in with him and Kermit thanks the viewers for singing along with Billy. All the animals reprise "Hoppity\-Boppity" together, ending the video.
[ "Plot\n----", "{{More plot\\|date\\=May 2013}}\nKermit the Frog welcomes the viewer to the Muppet Sing\\-Along Video and allows us to hear a story about a bunny who travels outside his home to learn new songs from his animal friends and to sing\\-along to them.", "The story begins when Billy Bunny is at his family home, singing \"Hoppity\\-Boppity\", which is the only song he knows, much to the annoyance of his family. Billy's mommy asks him to go outside to learn new songs. Billy first stops by at a gopher village, where he discovers that every gopher looks the same, despite them having different personalities (\"We Are Different\"). Next, he meets three polite bears \\- Cecil, Edgar, and Percival \\- who sing a rap about their personalities and why they roar (\"Bear Rap\").", "Next, Billy meets a termite, who sings about his joys of eating wood (\"The Termite Chew\"). As Billy enters a deep forest, he meets two raccoons. When he asks them what they're doing here in the woods, they explain that it's a secret and they sing about it (\"I Have a Secret\").", "Next, Billy accidentally bumps into a porcupine. He appears to be fine, but the porcupine invites him to her nightclub and sings \"Please Don't Bump Into Me\", about less harmful things to bump into, such as a beagle and a kangaroo. Midway, during the instrumental break, a penguin waiter asks Billy what he'd say to a little carrot juice (Billy: \"Well, I’d say ’hello, little carrot juice’.\") When the porcupine's song is over, she asks Billy if she'd like to stay for the second show. Billy leaves, right before the penguin arrives with a glass of carrot juice.", "Next, Billy goes over to a pond, where he meets some frogs, who sing about their \"Frog Talk\". Finally, Billy meets a turtle and asks if he knows any songs. The turtle says he doesn't know much... except that he likes to observe what's going on around the bay and then does a \"teeter\\-totter\" on a rock and swims away. The turtle sums it up into a song \\- \"Swim Away, Hooray!\" \\- and Billy joins in with him. It's now late and Billy has to go home.", "When Billy comes home just in time for dinner, he explains to his family that he knows eight songs, and the one song that's his favorite is \"Hoppity\\-Boppity\". Billy's family joins in with him and Kermit thanks the viewers for singing along with Billy. All the animals reprise \"Hoppity\\-Boppity\" together, ending the video.", "" ]
Academic career --------------- In 1898, [Exeter College, Oxford](/wiki/Exeter_College%2C_Oxford "Exeter College, Oxford") elected him a Fellow. The University of Oxford selected its first lecturer in military history, Sir [Foster Cunliffe](/wiki/Foster_Cunliffe "Foster Cunliffe") in 1905\. Three years later, the university appointed an additional tutor to assist in a special subject on military history, focusing on the Napoleonic Wars. Atkinson was the first to hold this post. After Cunliffe's post expired in 1908 and then made redundant with the establishment of the [Chichele Professor of Military History](/wiki/Chichele_Professor_of_Military_History "Chichele Professor of Military History") in 1909, Atkinson continued as the tutor for the special subject in conjunction with Professor [Charles Oman](/wiki/Charles_Oman "Charles Oman"). By 1924, a relatively small number of students had chosen to read the special subject. Oman and Atkinson believed that this was largely due to the fact that the study up to that point had focused too much on tactics rather than strategy and that the campaigns studied had shifted to continental campaigns that did not involve British troops in the 1805–1808 period. They proposed a new syllabus that included Clausewitz *On War* and Hamley *Operations of War*, complemented by an outline study of the [Peninsular War](/wiki/Peninsular_War "Peninsular War") with a special study within it of the Peninsular campaign of 1812\. The university's History faculty Board adopted the proposal and it remained the topic in use for the next 25 years until 1950\. In 1951, the special subject in military history shifted to a study of Britain in the Mediterranean, 1797–1802, to include naval history and substituting [Julian Corbett](/wiki/Julian_Corbett "Julian Corbett") *Some Principles of Maritime Strategy* for Hamley's *Operations of War*. The study improved on the previous special subject by including more political material and staying away from narrowly conceived approaches to military history.[John B. Hattendorf](/wiki/John_B._Hattendorf "John B. Hattendorf"), "The Study of War History at Oxford, 1862–1990" in Hattendorf and Malcom H. Murfett, eds. *The Limitations of Military Power: Essays Presented to Professor [Norman Gibbs](/wiki/Norman_Gibbs "Norman Gibbs") on his eightieth birthday* (London: Macmillan, 1990\), p. 13, 22–23, 36\. From 1909 to 1920, Atkinson was an active officer in the [Oxford University Officer Training Corps](/wiki/Oxford_University_Officer_Training_Corps "Oxford University Officer Training Corps"). He remained at Exeter for his entire career, except for wartime service between 1914 and 1918, when he served as an Army Captain in the Historical Section of the [Committee of Imperial Defence](/wiki/Committee_of_Imperial_Defence "Committee of Imperial Defence") (CID) in Whitehall Garden, London. On 27 January 1915, Atkinson and [Julian Corbett](/wiki/Julian_Corbett "Julian Corbett") were formally appointed to begin collecting material for an official history of the war. Atkinson was eventually based at the [Public Record Office](/wiki/Public_Record_Office "Public Record Office"), where he eventually became head of the Army Historical Office, while Corbett became head of the CID Historical Section.Andrew Lambert, *The British Way of War: Sir Julian Corbett and the Battle for a National Strategy.* (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2021\), pp. 185, 363, 364, 377, 415\. From 1928 to 1949, he served as a member of the Oxford University Delegacy for Military Instruction. During the Second World War, he was a member of the [Home Guard](/wiki/Home_Guard_%28United_Kingdom%29 "Home Guard (United Kingdom)"). He retired at Exeter in 1941, becoming an Emeritus Fellow of the college.T. H. McG., "Obituary: C.T. Atkinson (1874\-1964\)," *Journal of the Society for Army Historical Research,* vol. 42, No. 170 (June 1964\), p. 83\. Atkinson was still teaching the Special Subject in military history at Oxford as late as the Autumn and Winter of 1954–55\.John Fraser, "C. T. Atkinson," *Journal of the Society for Army Historical Research,* vol. 74, No. 300 (Winter 1996\), pp. 254–259"Dedicatory Article," in John Marshall Deane, *A Journal of Marlborough's Campaigns during the War of the Spanish Succession, 1704–1711*, edited by David G. Chandler. Special Publication No. 12 (London: Society for Army Historical Research, 1984\), p. iv. As a tutor, he was remembered for his sharp mind, downright phrases, and ironic turn of phrase along with many idiosyncrasies and prejudices that included his dislike of Sir [Basil Liddle Hart](/wiki/Basil_Liddle_Hart "Basil Liddle Hart") and [Napoleon](/wiki/Napoleon "Napoleon"). One obituarist wrote "remarks on essays could be downright salty, but they were always in character and never ill\-natured, so they were received by their victims with relish rather than resentment."J. G. Edwards, "Obituary," *Oxford Magazine,* (May 1964\). He was a long\-time member of the [Navy Records Society](/wiki/Navy_Records_Society "Navy Records Society") (NRS), where he became involved in his Oxford colleague [S. R. Gardiner](/wiki/S._R._Gardiner "S. R. Gardiner") in completing his series of edited volumes on the *First Anglo\-Dutch War* between 1898 and 1930\. He served as a member of the NRS Council from 1903\-to 1906 and 1909 to 1914\.Andrew Lambert, *The British Way of War: Sir Julian Corbett and the Battle for a National Strategy.* (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2021\), p. 468, note 69\. LAter, he became notably active with the [Society for Army Historical Research](/wiki/Society_for_Army_Historical_Research "Society for Army Historical Research"), became a regular contributor to its *Journal,* to which he contributed 91 articles between 1927 and 1960\."Dedicatory Article," in John Marshall Deane, *A Journal of Marlborough's Campaigns during the War of the Spanish Succession, 1704–1711*, edited by David G. Chandler. Special Publication No. 12 (London: Society for Army Historical Research, 1984\), pp. ii–vi. He served many years on its council, later becoming a vice\-president of the Society.T. H. McG., "Obituary: C.T. Atkinson (1874–1964\)," *Journal of the Society for Army Historical Research,* vol. 42, No. 170 (June 1964\), p. 83\.
[ "Academic career\n---------------", "In 1898, [Exeter College, Oxford](/wiki/Exeter_College%2C_Oxford \"Exeter College, Oxford\") elected him a Fellow. The University of Oxford selected its first lecturer in military history, Sir [Foster Cunliffe](/wiki/Foster_Cunliffe \"Foster Cunliffe\") in 1905\\. Three years later, the university appointed an additional tutor to assist in a special subject on military history, focusing on the Napoleonic Wars. Atkinson was the first to hold this post. After Cunliffe's post expired in 1908 and then made redundant with the establishment of the [Chichele Professor of Military History](/wiki/Chichele_Professor_of_Military_History \"Chichele Professor of Military History\") in 1909, Atkinson continued as the tutor for the special subject in conjunction with Professor [Charles Oman](/wiki/Charles_Oman \"Charles Oman\"). By 1924, a relatively small number of students had chosen to read the special subject. Oman and Atkinson believed that this was largely due to the fact that the study up to that point had focused too much on tactics rather than strategy and that the campaigns studied had shifted to continental campaigns that did not involve British troops in the 1805–1808 period. They proposed a new syllabus that included Clausewitz *On War* and Hamley *Operations of War*, complemented by an outline study of the [Peninsular War](/wiki/Peninsular_War \"Peninsular War\") with a special study within it of the Peninsular campaign of 1812\\. The university's History faculty Board adopted the proposal and it remained the topic in use for the next 25 years until 1950\\. In 1951, the special subject in military history shifted to a study of Britain in the Mediterranean, 1797–1802, to include naval history and substituting [Julian Corbett](/wiki/Julian_Corbett \"Julian Corbett\") *Some Principles of Maritime Strategy* for Hamley's *Operations of War*. The study improved on the previous special subject by including more political material and staying away from narrowly conceived approaches to military history.[John B. Hattendorf](/wiki/John_B._Hattendorf \"John B. Hattendorf\"), \"The Study of War History at Oxford, 1862–1990\" in Hattendorf and Malcom H. Murfett, eds. *The Limitations of Military Power: Essays Presented to Professor [Norman Gibbs](/wiki/Norman_Gibbs \"Norman Gibbs\") on his eightieth birthday* (London: Macmillan, 1990\\), p. 13, 22–23, 36\\.", "From 1909 to 1920, Atkinson was an active officer in the [Oxford University Officer Training Corps](/wiki/Oxford_University_Officer_Training_Corps \"Oxford University Officer Training Corps\"). He remained at Exeter for his entire career, except for wartime service between 1914 and 1918, when he served as an Army Captain in the Historical Section of the [Committee of Imperial Defence](/wiki/Committee_of_Imperial_Defence \"Committee of Imperial Defence\") (CID) in Whitehall Garden, London. On 27 January 1915, Atkinson and [Julian Corbett](/wiki/Julian_Corbett \"Julian Corbett\") were formally appointed to begin collecting material for an official history of the war. Atkinson was eventually based at the [Public Record Office](/wiki/Public_Record_Office \"Public Record Office\"), where he eventually became head of the Army Historical Office, while Corbett became head of the CID Historical Section.Andrew Lambert, *The British Way of War: Sir Julian Corbett and the Battle for a National Strategy.* (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2021\\), pp. 185, 363, 364, 377, 415\\.", "From 1928 to 1949, he served as a member of the Oxford University Delegacy for Military Instruction. During the Second World War, he was a member of the [Home Guard](/wiki/Home_Guard_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"Home Guard (United Kingdom)\"). He retired at Exeter in 1941, becoming an Emeritus Fellow of the college.T. H. McG., \"Obituary: C.T. Atkinson (1874\\-1964\\),\" *Journal of the Society for Army Historical Research,* vol. 42, No. 170 (June 1964\\), p. 83\\.", "Atkinson was still teaching the Special Subject in military history at Oxford as late as the Autumn and Winter of 1954–55\\.John Fraser, \"C. T. Atkinson,\" *Journal of the Society for Army Historical Research,* vol. 74, No. 300 (Winter 1996\\), pp. 254–259\"Dedicatory Article,\" in John Marshall Deane, *A Journal of Marlborough's Campaigns during the War of the Spanish Succession, 1704–1711*, edited by David G. Chandler. Special Publication No. 12 (London: Society for Army Historical Research, 1984\\), p. iv.", "As a tutor, he was remembered for his sharp mind, downright phrases, and ironic turn of phrase along with many idiosyncrasies and prejudices that included his dislike of Sir [Basil Liddle Hart](/wiki/Basil_Liddle_Hart \"Basil Liddle Hart\") and [Napoleon](/wiki/Napoleon \"Napoleon\"). One obituarist wrote \"remarks on essays could be downright salty, but they were always in character and never ill\\-natured, so they were received by their victims with relish rather than resentment.\"J. G. Edwards, \"Obituary,\" *Oxford Magazine,* (May 1964\\).", "He was a long\\-time member of the [Navy Records Society](/wiki/Navy_Records_Society \"Navy Records Society\") (NRS), where he became involved in his Oxford colleague [S. R. Gardiner](/wiki/S._R._Gardiner \"S. R. Gardiner\") in completing his series of edited volumes on the *First Anglo\\-Dutch War* between 1898 and 1930\\. He served as a member of the NRS Council from 1903\\-to 1906 and 1909 to 1914\\.Andrew Lambert, *The British Way of War: Sir Julian Corbett and the Battle for a National Strategy.* (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2021\\), p. 468, note 69\\. LAter, he became notably active with the [Society for Army Historical Research](/wiki/Society_for_Army_Historical_Research \"Society for Army Historical Research\"), became a regular contributor to its *Journal,* to which he contributed 91 articles between 1927 and 1960\\.\"Dedicatory Article,\" in John Marshall Deane, *A Journal of Marlborough's Campaigns during the War of the Spanish Succession, 1704–1711*, edited by David G. Chandler. Special Publication No. 12 (London: Society for Army Historical Research, 1984\\), pp. ii–vi. He served many years on its council, later becoming a vice\\-president of the Society.T. H. McG., \"Obituary: C.T. Atkinson (1874–1964\\),\" *Journal of the Society for Army Historical Research,* vol. 42, No. 170 (June 1964\\), p. 83\\.", "" ]
Qualification ------------- The Qualification for the European Championship 2018 was held in three stages. In the first round, twelve teams played a single playoff round. The six winners and two further teams played the second round, in two tournaments of four teams. Another two teams entered the qualification in the third round in playoff games against the two tournament winners of the second round. Four teams were already qualified for the European Championship 2018\. Altogether an all\-time record number of twenty teams competed to win the European title in 2018\. One team, [Germany](/wiki/Germany_national_American_football_team "Germany national American football team"), did not play a single game due to the national federation of American Football in Germany having an unresolved dispute with [IFAF](/wiki/IFAF "IFAF"). ### First round The first round was played from August to October 2015\. Six of the twelve teams took part in one of the tournaments of the last championship. These were the seeded teams playing against an unseeded team. The seeded teams were the hosts of their playoff game. [Israel](/wiki/Israel_national_American_football_team "Israel national American football team") defeating [Spain](/wiki/Spain_national_American_football_team "Spain national American football team") was the only unseeded team to make it to the next round. | Date | Kickoff | Away | Score | Home | Game site | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 30 August | 12:00 p.m. [CEST](/wiki/Central_European_Summer_Time "Central European Summer Time") | {{af\-rt\|ISR}} 28–20 | {{af\|SPA}} | Estadio Santo Domingo, [Alcorcón](/wiki/Alcorc%C3%B3n "Alcorcón") | | 26 September | 6:00 p.m. [CEST](/wiki/Central_European_Summer_Time "Central European Summer Time") | {{af\-rt\|SVK}} {{0}}0–21 |  {{af\|CHE}} [Stadion Rankhof](/wiki/Stadion_Rankhof "Stadion Rankhof"), [Basel](/wiki/Basel "Basel") | | 10 October | 1:00 p.m. [CEST](/wiki/Central_European_Summer_Time "Central European Summer Time") | {{af\-rt\|NOR}} {{0}}0–20 | {{af\|RUS}} Tsarskoye Selo Stadium, [Pushkin](/wiki/Pushkin%2C_Saint_Petersburg "Pushkin, Saint Petersburg") | | 10 October | 2:00 p.m. [CEST](/wiki/Central_European_Summer_Time "Central European Summer Time") | {{af\-rt\|HUN}} {{0}}0–56 | {{af\|SER}} [Voždovac Stadium](/wiki/Vo%C5%BEdovac_Stadium "Voždovac Stadium"), [Belgrade](/wiki/Belgrade "Belgrade") | | 11 October | 2:00 p.m. [CEST](/wiki/Central_European_Summer_Time "Central European Summer Time") | {{af\-rt\|POL}} {{0}}7–14 | {{af\|CZE}} [Letní stadion](/wiki/Letn%C3%AD_stadion_%28Pardubice%29 "Letní stadion (Pardubice)"), [Pardubice](/wiki/Pardubice "Pardubice") | | 24 October | 6:00 p.m. [CEST](/wiki/Central_European_Summer_Time "Central European Summer Time") | {{af\-rt\|BEL}} {{0}}3–17 | {{af\|NLD}} | [Mandemakers Stadion](/wiki/Mandemakers_Stadion "Mandemakers Stadion"), [Waalwijk](/wiki/Waalwijk "Waalwijk") | ### Second round The second round tournaments were played in 2016\. As runner\-up and third in the B Group Tournament in 2013, [Italy](/wiki/Italy_national_American_football_team "Italy national American football team") and [Great Britain](/wiki/Great_Britain_national_American_football_team "Great Britain national American football team") earned a spot as the host nation of one of the tournaments. #### Tournament in Italy * {{af\|ITA}} * {{af\|SER}} * {{af\|CHE}} * {{af\|ISR}} | Date | Kickoff | Away | Score | Home | Game site | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | **Semifinals** | 2 September | 2:00 p.m. [CEST](/wiki/Central_European_Summer_Time "Central European Summer Time") | {{af\-rt\|ISR}} | 10–40 | {{af\|ITA}} | Stadio G. Teghil, [Lignano Sabbiadoro](/wiki/Lignano_Sabbiadoro "Lignano Sabbiadoro") | | 2 September | 7:00 p.m. [CEST](/wiki/Central_European_Summer_Time "Central European Summer Time") | {{af\-rt\|CHE}} | {{0}}0–17 | {{af\|SER}} Stadio G. Teghil, [Lignano Sabbiadoro](/wiki/Lignano_Sabbiadoro "Lignano Sabbiadoro") | | **Classification game** | 4 September | 3:00 p.m. [CEST](/wiki/Central_European_Summer_Time "Central European Summer Time") | {{af\-rt\|ISR}} {{0}}0–51 | {{af\|CHE}} Stadio G. Teghil, [Lignano Sabbiadoro](/wiki/Lignano_Sabbiadoro "Lignano Sabbiadoro") | | **Final** | 4 September | 7:00 p.m. [CEST](/wiki/Central_European_Summer_Time "Central European Summer Time") | {{af\-rt\|SER}} 14–17 | {{af\|ITA}} Stadio G. Teghil, [Lignano Sabbiadoro](/wiki/Lignano_Sabbiadoro "Lignano Sabbiadoro") | #### Tournament in Great Britain * {{af\|GBR}} * {{af\|CZE}} * {{af\|NLD}} * {{af\|RUS}} | Date | Kickoff | Away | Score | Home | Game site | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | **Semifinals** | 16 September | | {{af\-rt\|RUS}} {{0}}3–30 | {{af\|GBR}} [Sixways Stadium](/wiki/Sixways_Stadium "Sixways Stadium"), [Worcester](/wiki/Worcester%2C_England "Worcester, England") | | 16 September | | {{af\-rt\|NLD}} 13–20 | {{af\|CZE}} [Sixways Stadium](/wiki/Sixways_Stadium "Sixways Stadium"), [Worcester](/wiki/Worcester%2C_England "Worcester, England") | | **Classification game** | 18 September | | {{af\-rt\|RUS}} {{0}}6–17 | {{af\|NLD}} [Sixways Stadium](/wiki/Sixways_Stadium "Sixways Stadium"), [Worcester](/wiki/Worcester%2C_England "Worcester, England") | | **Final** | 18 September | | {{af\-rt\|CZE}} 13–38 | {{af\|GBR}} [Sixways Stadium](/wiki/Sixways_Stadium "Sixways Stadium"), [Worcester](/wiki/Worcester%2C_England "Worcester, England") | ### Third round Italy and Great Britain, as the winners of the tournaments in Italy and Great Britain, were respectively assigned to play against Sweden and Denmark (fifth and sixth place at the [2014 EFAF Championship](/wiki/2014_European_Championship_of_American_football "2014 European Championship of American football")), with the winners advancing to the 2018 tournament. In June 2017, Italy was announced to have qualified for the final tournament{{Cite web \|url\=http://www.afvd.de/text.php?Inhalt\=newsmeldung\&ID\=9473\&HP\=AFVD \|title\=Archived copy \|access\-date\=21 July 2016 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160813093317/http://www.afvd.de/text.php?Inhalt\=newsmeldung\&ID\=9473\&HP\=AFVD \|archive\-date\=13 August 2016 \|url\-status\=dead }} as only one of the four teams without any match played. Finland, who was already qualified, did not appear on the schedule. No reasons were given. In March 2018, IFAF New York announced to have Sweden, Denmark, and Great Britain advancing to the final tournament. Now reigning Champion Germany and Italy were not on the list. Again, no reasons were given. On 28 March, the website American Football International reported that the reason for Germany not joining was due to the teams in the [German Football League](/wiki/German_Football_League "German Football League") voting not to change the league schedule to accommodate the European Championships.American Football International. 28 March 2018, retrieved on 1 August 2018\. [http://www.americanfootballinternational.com/german\-american\-football\-clubs\-will\-not\-change\-schedule\-to\-accommodate\-ifaf\-european\-championships/](http://www.americanfootballinternational.com/german-american-football-clubs-will-not-change-schedule-to-accommodate-ifaf-european-championships/)
[ "Qualification\n-------------", "The Qualification for the European Championship 2018 was held in three stages. In the first round, twelve teams played a single playoff round. The six winners and two further teams played the second round, in two tournaments of four teams. Another two teams entered the qualification in the third round in playoff games against the two tournament winners of the second round. Four teams were already qualified for the European Championship 2018\\. Altogether an all\\-time record number of twenty teams competed to win the European title in 2018\\. One team, [Germany](/wiki/Germany_national_American_football_team \"Germany national American football team\"), did not play a single game due to the national federation of American Football in Germany having an unresolved dispute with [IFAF](/wiki/IFAF \"IFAF\").", "### First round", "The first round was played from August to October 2015\\. Six of the twelve teams took part in one of the tournaments of the last championship. These were the seeded teams playing against an unseeded team. The seeded teams were the hosts of their playoff game. [Israel](/wiki/Israel_national_American_football_team \"Israel national American football team\") defeating [Spain](/wiki/Spain_national_American_football_team \"Spain national American football team\") was the only unseeded team to make it to the next round.", "", "| Date | Kickoff | Away | Score | Home | Game site |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| 30 August | 12:00 p.m. [CEST](/wiki/Central_European_Summer_Time \"Central European Summer Time\") | {{af\\-rt\\|ISR}}", "28–20 |\n {{af\\|SPA}} |\n Estadio Santo Domingo, [Alcorcón](/wiki/Alcorc%C3%B3n \"Alcorcón\") |\n| 26 September | 6:00 p.m. [CEST](/wiki/Central_European_Summer_Time \"Central European Summer Time\") | {{af\\-rt\\|SVK}}", "{{0}}0–21 |\n  {{af\\|CHE}}", "[Stadion Rankhof](/wiki/Stadion_Rankhof \"Stadion Rankhof\"), [Basel](/wiki/Basel \"Basel\") |\n| 10 October | 1:00 p.m. [CEST](/wiki/Central_European_Summer_Time \"Central European Summer Time\") | {{af\\-rt\\|NOR}}", "{{0}}0–20 |\n {{af\\|RUS}}", "Tsarskoye Selo Stadium, [Pushkin](/wiki/Pushkin%2C_Saint_Petersburg \"Pushkin, Saint Petersburg\") |\n| 10 October | 2:00 p.m. [CEST](/wiki/Central_European_Summer_Time \"Central European Summer Time\") | {{af\\-rt\\|HUN}}", "{{0}}0–56 |\n {{af\\|SER}}", "[Voždovac Stadium](/wiki/Vo%C5%BEdovac_Stadium \"Voždovac Stadium\"), [Belgrade](/wiki/Belgrade \"Belgrade\") |\n| 11 October | 2:00 p.m. [CEST](/wiki/Central_European_Summer_Time \"Central European Summer Time\") | {{af\\-rt\\|POL}}", "{{0}}7–14 |\n {{af\\|CZE}}", "[Letní stadion](/wiki/Letn%C3%AD_stadion_%28Pardubice%29 \"Letní stadion (Pardubice)\"), [Pardubice](/wiki/Pardubice \"Pardubice\") |\n| 24 October | 6:00 p.m. [CEST](/wiki/Central_European_Summer_Time \"Central European Summer Time\") | {{af\\-rt\\|BEL}}", "{{0}}3–17 |\n {{af\\|NLD}} |\n [Mandemakers Stadion](/wiki/Mandemakers_Stadion \"Mandemakers Stadion\"), [Waalwijk](/wiki/Waalwijk \"Waalwijk\") |", "### Second round", "The second round tournaments were played in 2016\\. As runner\\-up and third in the B Group Tournament in 2013, [Italy](/wiki/Italy_national_American_football_team \"Italy national American football team\") and [Great Britain](/wiki/Great_Britain_national_American_football_team \"Great Britain national American football team\") earned a spot as the host nation of one of the tournaments.", "#### Tournament in Italy", "* {{af\\|ITA}}\n* {{af\\|SER}}\n* {{af\\|CHE}}\n* {{af\\|ISR}}", "", "| Date | Kickoff | Away | Score | Home | Game site |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| **Semifinals**", "| 2 September | 2:00 p.m. [CEST](/wiki/Central_European_Summer_Time \"Central European Summer Time\") | {{af\\-rt\\|ISR}} | 10–40 | {{af\\|ITA}} | Stadio G. Teghil, [Lignano Sabbiadoro](/wiki/Lignano_Sabbiadoro \"Lignano Sabbiadoro\") |\n| 2 September | 7:00 p.m. [CEST](/wiki/Central_European_Summer_Time \"Central European Summer Time\") | {{af\\-rt\\|CHE}} | {{0}}0–17 | {{af\\|SER}}", "Stadio G. Teghil, [Lignano Sabbiadoro](/wiki/Lignano_Sabbiadoro \"Lignano Sabbiadoro\") |\n| **Classification game**", "| 4 September | 3:00 p.m. [CEST](/wiki/Central_European_Summer_Time \"Central European Summer Time\") | {{af\\-rt\\|ISR}}", "{{0}}0–51 |\n {{af\\|CHE}}", "Stadio G. Teghil, [Lignano Sabbiadoro](/wiki/Lignano_Sabbiadoro \"Lignano Sabbiadoro\") |\n| **Final**", "| 4 September | 7:00 p.m. [CEST](/wiki/Central_European_Summer_Time \"Central European Summer Time\") | {{af\\-rt\\|SER}}", "14–17 |\n {{af\\|ITA}}", "Stadio G. Teghil, [Lignano Sabbiadoro](/wiki/Lignano_Sabbiadoro \"Lignano Sabbiadoro\") |", "#### Tournament in Great Britain", "* {{af\\|GBR}}\n* {{af\\|CZE}}\n* {{af\\|NLD}}\n* {{af\\|RUS}}", "", "| Date | Kickoff | Away | Score | Home | Game site |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| **Semifinals**", "| 16 September | | {{af\\-rt\\|RUS}}", "{{0}}3–30 |\n {{af\\|GBR}}", "[Sixways Stadium](/wiki/Sixways_Stadium \"Sixways Stadium\"), [Worcester](/wiki/Worcester%2C_England \"Worcester, England\") |\n| 16 September | | {{af\\-rt\\|NLD}}", "13–20 |\n {{af\\|CZE}}", "[Sixways Stadium](/wiki/Sixways_Stadium \"Sixways Stadium\"), [Worcester](/wiki/Worcester%2C_England \"Worcester, England\") |\n| **Classification game**", "| 18 September | | {{af\\-rt\\|RUS}}", "{{0}}6–17 |\n {{af\\|NLD}}", "[Sixways Stadium](/wiki/Sixways_Stadium \"Sixways Stadium\"), [Worcester](/wiki/Worcester%2C_England \"Worcester, England\") |\n| **Final**", "| 18 September | | {{af\\-rt\\|CZE}}", "13–38 |\n {{af\\|GBR}}", "[Sixways Stadium](/wiki/Sixways_Stadium \"Sixways Stadium\"), [Worcester](/wiki/Worcester%2C_England \"Worcester, England\") |", "### Third round", "Italy and Great Britain, as the winners of the tournaments in Italy and Great Britain, were respectively assigned to play against Sweden and Denmark (fifth and sixth place at the [2014 EFAF Championship](/wiki/2014_European_Championship_of_American_football \"2014 European Championship of American football\")), with the winners advancing to the 2018 tournament.", "In June 2017, Italy was announced to have qualified for the final tournament{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://www.afvd.de/text.php?Inhalt\\=newsmeldung\\&ID\\=9473\\&HP\\=AFVD \\|title\\=Archived copy \\|access\\-date\\=21 July 2016 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160813093317/http://www.afvd.de/text.php?Inhalt\\=newsmeldung\\&ID\\=9473\\&HP\\=AFVD \\|archive\\-date\\=13 August 2016 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }} as only one of the four teams without any match played. Finland, who was already qualified, did not appear on the schedule. No reasons were given.", "In March 2018, IFAF New York announced to have Sweden, Denmark, and Great Britain advancing to the final tournament. Now reigning Champion Germany and Italy were not on the list. Again, no reasons were given. On 28 March, the website American Football International reported that the reason for Germany not joining was due to the teams in the [German Football League](/wiki/German_Football_League \"German Football League\") voting not to change the league schedule to accommodate the European Championships.American Football International. 28 March 2018, retrieved on 1 August 2018\\. [http://www.americanfootballinternational.com/german\\-american\\-football\\-clubs\\-will\\-not\\-change\\-schedule\\-to\\-accommodate\\-ifaf\\-european\\-championships/](http://www.americanfootballinternational.com/german-american-football-clubs-will-not-change-schedule-to-accommodate-ifaf-european-championships/)", "" ]
Career ------ Nurikyan first had to go to the army and was later discharged. He then went to the Higher School of Sports, where Abadjiev was now the federative coach of [Sofia](/wiki/Sofia "Sofia"). Nurikyan was not the best at first, but with hard work soon became second in his category on the Bulgarian national weightlifting team, behind Atanas Kirov, the first Bulgarian to become a European Champion. He credited Abadjiev for always believing in him as the reason why he improved. In 1969, Nurikyan achieved his first international success outside Bulgaria, becoming third in European and fifth in the world that year. He soon became second in European and third in the world in 1971\. During preparations in Bulgaria for the [1972 Summer Olympics](/wiki/1972_Summer_Olympics "1972 Summer Olympics"), Nurikyan broke a bone in his right wrist in January 1972 and couldn't train. Abadjiev then had the genius idea for him to just squat with the barbell. So, while others would snatch, Nurikyan would squat, and while other clean and jerked, he squatted. He did this for three months until his bone healed. Nurikyan's squats improved from 200 kg to 230 kg during this time. On the first day of the 1972 Olympic Games, the bus that was taking them to the hall burst into flames. By fate, another bus was going that way and took the team in time for weighing. If they had not made it, they would have been disqualified. The next day, competition in Nurikyan's category started. The favorite was Soviet Georgian [Dito Shanidze](/wiki/Dito_Shanidze "Dito Shanidze"), who was considered a sure winner by everyone. Nurikyan and Shanidze both set the military press Olympic record. Shanidze narrowly beat Nurikyan in the snatch. Abadjiev told Norair the one with the stronger mind and character will become Olympic Champion. In order to win the Olympic gold medal, Nurikyan needed to lift 157\.5 kg in the clean and jerk, which would be a new world record. Nurikyan pulled the barbell to his chest and then lifted it above his head. It took him three to steps to maintain his balance. The three white lamps lit up and Nurikyan became the Olympic gold medalist and set the division total record at 402\.5 kg. Nurikyan became the first weightlifter from Bulgaria to become an Olympic medalist in weightlifting, an Olympic Champion in weightlifting and an Olympic Champion in heavy athletics. After the 1972 Olympics, Nurikyan had met his wife and for a while training "went to the background." He began to get his "normal" second and third place in European and World Championships. In 1975, Nurikyan returned to top shape and was ready to win. It was at this time that Nurikyan and Abadjiev tried an experiment. They tried to compete at a lower category. Nurikyan was unable to set a total at the World Championships that year and Abadjiev was greatly criticized. By 1976, Nurikyan had finally adjusted to his new category and won the European Championships in that weight category. At the [1976 Summer Olympics](/wiki/1976_Summer_Olympics "1976 Summer Olympics"), Nurikyan had no problem winning his second Olympic gold medal. Nurikyan was later told by his wife that Abadjiev had cried. Nurikyan became the first weightlifter from Bulgaria to become an Olympic medalist and Olympic Champion twice. Nurikyan retired afterward in order to be with his family more. He soon became a coach, assistant to Abadjiev on the national team. He later became head coach himself for sometime.
[ "Career\n------", "Nurikyan first had to go to the army and was later discharged. He then went to the Higher School of Sports, where Abadjiev was now the federative coach of [Sofia](/wiki/Sofia \"Sofia\"). Nurikyan was not the best at first, but with hard work soon became second in his category on the Bulgarian national weightlifting team, behind Atanas Kirov, the first Bulgarian to become a European Champion. He credited Abadjiev for always believing in him as the reason why he improved.", "In 1969, Nurikyan achieved his first international success outside Bulgaria, becoming third in European and fifth in the world that year. He soon became second in European and third in the world in 1971\\. During preparations in Bulgaria for the [1972 Summer Olympics](/wiki/1972_Summer_Olympics \"1972 Summer Olympics\"), Nurikyan broke a bone in his right wrist in January 1972 and couldn't train. Abadjiev then had the genius idea for him to just squat with the barbell. So, while others would snatch, Nurikyan would squat, and while other clean and jerked, he squatted. He did this for three months until his bone healed. Nurikyan's squats improved from 200 kg to 230 kg during this time.", "On the first day of the 1972 Olympic Games, the bus that was taking them to the hall burst into flames. By fate, another bus was going that way and took the team in time for weighing. If they had not made it, they would have been disqualified.", "The next day, competition in Nurikyan's category started. The favorite was Soviet Georgian [Dito Shanidze](/wiki/Dito_Shanidze \"Dito Shanidze\"), who was considered a sure winner by everyone. Nurikyan and Shanidze both set the military press Olympic record. Shanidze narrowly beat Nurikyan in the snatch. Abadjiev told Norair the one with the stronger mind and character will become Olympic Champion. In order to win the Olympic gold medal, Nurikyan needed to lift 157\\.5 kg in the clean and jerk, which would be a new world record. Nurikyan pulled the barbell to his chest and then lifted it above his head. It took him three to steps to maintain his balance. The three white lamps lit up and Nurikyan became the Olympic gold medalist and set the division total record at 402\\.5 kg. Nurikyan became the first weightlifter from Bulgaria to become an Olympic medalist in weightlifting, an Olympic Champion in weightlifting and an Olympic Champion in heavy athletics.", "After the 1972 Olympics, Nurikyan had met his wife and for a while training \"went to the background.\" He began to get his \"normal\" second and third place in European and World Championships. In 1975, Nurikyan returned to top shape and was ready to win. It was at this time that Nurikyan and Abadjiev tried an experiment. They tried to compete at a lower category. Nurikyan was unable to set a total at the World Championships that year and Abadjiev was greatly criticized.", "By 1976, Nurikyan had finally adjusted to his new category and won the European Championships in that weight category. At the [1976 Summer Olympics](/wiki/1976_Summer_Olympics \"1976 Summer Olympics\"), Nurikyan had no problem winning his second Olympic gold medal. Nurikyan was later told by his wife that Abadjiev had cried. Nurikyan became the first weightlifter from Bulgaria to become an Olympic medalist and Olympic Champion twice.", "Nurikyan retired afterward in order to be with his family more. He soon became a coach, assistant to Abadjiev on the national team. He later became head coach himself for sometime.", "" ]
Gameplay -------- ### First round Three contestants played, each represented by a color (red, gold, and green). Contestants attempted to take control of the eight groups of colored properties on a giant Monopoly board. To do so, they had to solve crossword\-style clues. The first letter of each answer was given to the contestants, and each side of the four\-sided board, referred to as "blocks" (with the block containing the five properties between the Go to Jail corner and "GO" referred to as the "high rent district"), had a different starting letter for clues. Each clue was a toss\-up, and answering correctly won money equal to the value of the property, from $60 for Mediterranean Avenue to $400 for Boardwalk. Answering incorrectly deducted that value from a contestant's score. In the event that all three contestants failed to answer a clue, the property value was cut in half and another clue was read. Each color group, referred to as a monopoly, had to be controlled by one of the contestants before play moved on to another. Once a contestant controlled a monopoly, the total monetary value of its properties was added to his/her score. The lowest monopoly value was $120, which was for Mediterranean and Baltic Avenues. The highest was $920, for the three\-property monopoly consisting of Pacific, North Carolina, and Pennsylvania Avenues. If the properties in a monopoly ended up under the control of multiple contestants, a series of toss\-up clues were played between them to determine ownership. A contestant who owned two properties in a group of three had to give one correct answer in order to take full control, while the contestant who owned the third had to give two. If all three contestants each owned one property, the first to give a correct answer challenged one opponent and took over the property of the other, and the remainder of the showdown followed the two\-contestant format. An incorrect answer on the initial toss\-up forfeited that contestant's property, which was then awarded to one of the others through a second toss\-up. In the case of the Mediterranean/Baltic and Park Place/Boardwalk monopolies being split between two contestants, the first to answer a clue correctly took control. ### Big Money Round During the commercial break following the completion of the first round, the contestants used the money they had earned to build houses and hotels on their properties. These cost $50 and $250 respectively, regardless of the properties' position on the board, and contestants had to build evenly within a color group. The number of houses/hotels on a property determined the amount of its rent, which was used as the value of its clues. Once the contestants' construction purchases had been revealed and the corresponding cost deducted from their scores, the Big Money Round began. An indicator light started at "GO" and moved clockwise around the board, according to the total of two oversized dice rolled by the show's hostess. Every contestant received a $200 bonus whenever the indicator light passed or landed on "GO." If a property was landed on, O'Donnell called out its rent value and Reilly read a clue to the contestant who owned it. A correct response added the rent value to his/her score. A miss incurred no penalty but allowed either of the opponents to buzz in under the same rules as the first round, with an incorrect answer deducting from that contestant's score. Squares other than properties affected the gameplay as follows: * **Utilities (Electric Company and Water Works)**: a tossup clue was asked, worth $100 times the total on the dice. * **Railroads**: if the indicator light landed on one of the four railroads, contestants got the chance to "ride" the particular railroad to a monopoly and initiate a "hostile takeover". A tossup was asked, and the first contestant to answer the clue correctly chose one of his/her opponents' monopolies to take over.{{Cite episode \|title\=Monopoly \|series\=Monopoly \|network\=\[\[American Broadcasting Company]] \|airdate\=11 August 1990}} The indicator light then moved to the first property in the chosen monopoly, and the contestant trying to take it over had to answer a series of clues unopposed, one for each property. Every correct answer advanced the indicator light to the next property in line. If the contestant answered all the clues correctly, he/she won control of the monopoly; its combined value was added to his/her score, and any houses or hotels built on it became his/her property. A wrong answer ended the takeover attempt and the contestant had to pay the corresponding rent to the owner of the monopoly, based on where the indicator was when the wrong answer was given. * **Chance and Community Chest**: a card was drawn from the appropriate deck and its instructions (bonuses, fines, movement) were followed. * **Tax Spaces**: landing on Income Tax deducted 10% from every contestant's score, while Luxury Tax deducted $75\. * **Free Parking**: a tossup was asked and the first contestant to answer correctly won $500, plus all money collected in taxes/fines since the last correct Free Parking response. * **Go To Jail**: if the indicator landed on this space, it moved to the "In Jail" space and each contestant lost $250\. The second round was played until time was called. At this point, all houses and hotels were sold back to the bank at their original purchase price and the money was credited to the contestants who owned the properties, regardless of who had originally built them. The contestant with the highest total won the game, kept his/her money, and advanced to the bonus round. ### Bonus Round ("Once Around the Board") The champion tried to complete one full clockwise circuit of the board within five rolls while staying out of jail. The contestant first chose four spaces – one each on the maroon/orange and red/yellow sides, and two on the green/blue side – to become Go to Jail spaces. The original Go to Jail space remained on the board, for a total of five Go to Jail spaces. The champion started at "GO" and rolled the dice to move around the board. The contestant could quit and take $100 per space passed after each successful roll. Rolling doubles awarded an extra roll. The champion won $25,000 for passing "GO" without running out of rolls, or $50,000 for landing on "GO" exactly. If the champion landed on a Go to Jail space at any time, the round ended and he/she forfeited the money. The contestant won $100 for each space passed if all rolls were exhausted and the contestant failed to pass "GO" without landing on a "Go to Jail" space.
[ "Gameplay\n--------", "### First round", "Three contestants played, each represented by a color (red, gold, and green).", "Contestants attempted to take control of the eight groups of colored properties on a giant Monopoly board. To do so, they had to solve crossword\\-style clues. The first letter of each answer was given to the contestants, and each side of the four\\-sided board, referred to as \"blocks\" (with the block containing the five properties between the Go to Jail corner and \"GO\" referred to as the \"high rent district\"), had a different starting letter for clues. Each clue was a toss\\-up, and answering correctly won money equal to the value of the property, from $60 for Mediterranean Avenue to $400 for Boardwalk. Answering incorrectly deducted that value from a contestant's score. In the event that all three contestants failed to answer a clue, the property value was cut in half and another clue was read.", "Each color group, referred to as a monopoly, had to be controlled by one of the contestants before play moved on to another. Once a contestant controlled a monopoly, the total monetary value of its properties was added to his/her score. The lowest monopoly value was $120, which was for Mediterranean and Baltic Avenues. The highest was $920, for the three\\-property monopoly consisting of Pacific, North Carolina, and Pennsylvania Avenues.", "If the properties in a monopoly ended up under the control of multiple contestants, a series of toss\\-up clues were played between them to determine ownership. A contestant who owned two properties in a group of three had to give one correct answer in order to take full control, while the contestant who owned the third had to give two. If all three contestants each owned one property, the first to give a correct answer challenged one opponent and took over the property of the other, and the remainder of the showdown followed the two\\-contestant format. An incorrect answer on the initial toss\\-up forfeited that contestant's property, which was then awarded to one of the others through a second toss\\-up. In the case of the Mediterranean/Baltic and Park Place/Boardwalk monopolies being split between two contestants, the first to answer a clue correctly took control.", "### Big Money Round", "During the commercial break following the completion of the first round, the contestants used the money they had earned to build houses and hotels on their properties. These cost $50 and $250 respectively, regardless of the properties' position on the board, and contestants had to build evenly within a color group. The number of houses/hotels on a property determined the amount of its rent, which was used as the value of its clues.", "Once the contestants' construction purchases had been revealed and the corresponding cost deducted from their scores, the Big Money Round began. An indicator light started at \"GO\" and moved clockwise around the board, according to the total of two oversized dice rolled by the show's hostess. Every contestant received a $200 bonus whenever the indicator light passed or landed on \"GO.\"", "If a property was landed on, O'Donnell called out its rent value and Reilly read a clue to the contestant who owned it. A correct response added the rent value to his/her score. A miss incurred no penalty but allowed either of the opponents to buzz in under the same rules as the first round, with an incorrect answer deducting from that contestant's score.", "Squares other than properties affected the gameplay as follows:", "* **Utilities (Electric Company and Water Works)**: a tossup clue was asked, worth $100 times the total on the dice.\n* **Railroads**: if the indicator light landed on one of the four railroads, contestants got the chance to \"ride\" the particular railroad to a monopoly and initiate a \"hostile takeover\". A tossup was asked, and the first contestant to answer the clue correctly chose one of his/her opponents' monopolies to take over.{{Cite episode \\|title\\=Monopoly \\|series\\=Monopoly \\|network\\=\\[\\[American Broadcasting Company]] \\|airdate\\=11 August 1990}} The indicator light then moved to the first property in the chosen monopoly, and the contestant trying to take it over had to answer a series of clues unopposed, one for each property. Every correct answer advanced the indicator light to the next property in line. If the contestant answered all the clues correctly, he/she won control of the monopoly; its combined value was added to his/her score, and any houses or hotels built on it became his/her property. A wrong answer ended the takeover attempt and the contestant had to pay the corresponding rent to the owner of the monopoly, based on where the indicator was when the wrong answer was given.\n* **Chance and Community Chest**: a card was drawn from the appropriate deck and its instructions (bonuses, fines, movement) were followed.\n* **Tax Spaces**: landing on Income Tax deducted 10% from every contestant's score, while Luxury Tax deducted $75\\.\n* **Free Parking**: a tossup was asked and the first contestant to answer correctly won $500, plus all money collected in taxes/fines since the last correct Free Parking response.\n* **Go To Jail**: if the indicator landed on this space, it moved to the \"In Jail\" space and each contestant lost $250\\.", "The second round was played until time was called. At this point, all houses and hotels were sold back to the bank at their original purchase price and the money was credited to the contestants who owned the properties, regardless of who had originally built them. The contestant with the highest total won the game, kept his/her money, and advanced to the bonus round.", "### Bonus Round (\"Once Around the Board\")", "The champion tried to complete one full clockwise circuit of the board within five rolls while staying out of jail. The contestant first chose four spaces – one each on the maroon/orange and red/yellow sides, and two on the green/blue side – to become Go to Jail spaces. The original Go to Jail space remained on the board, for a total of five Go to Jail spaces.", "The champion started at \"GO\" and rolled the dice to move around the board. The contestant could quit and take $100 per space passed after each successful roll. Rolling doubles awarded an extra roll. The champion won $25,000 for passing \"GO\" without running out of rolls, or $50,000 for landing on \"GO\" exactly. If the champion landed on a Go to Jail space at any time, the round ended and he/she forfeited the money. The contestant won $100 for each space passed if all rolls were exhausted and the contestant failed to pass \"GO\" without landing on a \"Go to Jail\" space.", "" ]
Biography --------- Born in [Sveaborg](/wiki/Sveaborg "Sveaborg"), part of [Helsinki](/wiki/Helsinki "Helsinki"), Vissarion Belinsky lived in the town of Chembar (now [Belinsky](/wiki/Belinsky%2C_Penza_Oblast "Belinsky, Penza Oblast") in [Belinsky District](/wiki/Belinsky_District "Belinsky District") of [Penza Oblast](/wiki/Penza_Oblast "Penza Oblast")) and in [Penza](/wiki/Penza "Penza"), where he studied in [gymnazia](/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B8%D1%8F_%E2%84%96_1_%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8_%D0%92._%D0%93._%D0%91%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE "Классическая гимназия № 1 имени В. Г. Белинского") (1825–1829\). In 1829–1832 he was a student of [Moscow University](/wiki/Moscow_University "Moscow University"). In Moscow he published his first famous articles.[Thomas Garrigue Masaryk](/wiki/Thomas_Garrigue_Masaryk "Thomas Garrigue Masaryk"), *The Spirit of Russia*, [Eden](/wiki/Eden_Paul "Eden Paul") and [Cedar Paul](/wiki/Cedar_Paul "Cedar Paul"), transl., [Vol.1, p.350, n.1](https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Page:The_Spirit_of_Russia_by_T_G_Masaryk,_volume_1.pdf/376) (London: [George Allen \& Unwin, Ltd.](/wiki/Allen_%26_Unwin "Allen & Unwin"), 1919\). In 1839 Belinsky went to [St. Petersburg](/wiki/Saint_Petersburg "Saint Petersburg"), Russia, where he became a respected critic and editor of two major [literary magazines](/wiki/Literary_magazine "Literary magazine"): *[Otechestvennye Zapiski](/wiki/Otechestvennye_Zapiski "Otechestvennye Zapiski")* ("Notes of the Fatherland"), and *Sovremennik* ("The Contemporary"). In both magazines Belinsky worked with younger [Nikolay Nekrasov](/wiki/Nikolay_Nekrasov "Nikolay Nekrasov"). He was unlike most of the other Russian intellectuals of the 1830s and 1840s. The son of a rural medical doctor, he was not a wealthy aristocrat. The fact that Belinsky was relatively underprivileged meant, among other effects, that he was mainly self\-educated; this was partly due to being expelled from Moscow University for political activity. But it was less for his philosophical skill that Belinsky was admired and more for emotional commitment and fervor. “For me, to think, to feel, to understand and to suffer are one and the same thing,” he liked to say. This was, of course, true to the [Romantic](/wiki/Romanticism "Romanticism") ideal, to the beliefs that real understanding comes not only from mere thinking ([reason](/wiki/Reason "Reason")), but also from intuitive insight. This combination of thinking and feeling pervaded Belinsky's life. Ideologically, Belinsky shared, but with exceptional intellectual and moral passion, the central value of most of [Westernizer](/wiki/Westernizer "Westernizer") [intelligentsia](/wiki/Intelligentsia "Intelligentsia"): the notion of the individual self, a person (*lichnost’*(личность)), that which makes people human, and gives them [dignity](/wiki/Dignity "Dignity") and rights. With this idea in hand (achieved through a complex intellectual struggle), he faced the world around him armed to do battle. He took on much conventional philosophical thinking among educated Russians, including the dry and [abstract philosophizing](/wiki/Abstraction "Abstraction") of the German [idealists](/wiki/Idealists "Idealists") and their Russian followers although maintaining the perspective of literary realism in his critical writings. In his words, “What is it to me that the Universal exists when the individual personality \[*lichnost’*] is suffering.” Or: “The fate of the individual, of the person, is more important than the fate of the whole world.” Also upon this principle, Belinsky constructed an extensive critique of the world around him (especially the Russian one). He bitterly criticized [autocracy](/wiki/Autocracy "Autocracy") and [serfdom](/wiki/Serfdom "Serfdom") (as “trampling upon everything that is even remotely human and noble”) but also [poverty](/wiki/Poverty "Poverty"), [prostitution](/wiki/Prostitution "Prostitution"), drunkenness, [bureaucratic](/wiki/Bureaucracy "Bureaucracy") coldness, and cruelty toward the less powerful (including women). Belinsky worked most of his short life as a literary critic. His writings on literature were inseparable from these moral judgments. Belinsky believed that the only realm of freedom in the repressive reign of [Nicholas I](/wiki/Nicholas_I_of_Russia "Nicholas I of Russia") was through the written word. What Belinsky required most of a work of literature was “truth.” This meant not only a probing portrayal of real life (he hated works of mere fantasy, or escape, or [aestheticism](/wiki/Aestheticism "Aestheticism")), but also commitment to “true” ideas — the correct moral stance (above all this meant a concern for the dignity of individual people): As he told [Nikolai Gogol](/wiki/Nikolai_Gogol "Nikolai Gogol") (in a famous letter{{cite web \|title\=V. G. Belinsky 1847, Letter to N. V. Gogol \|url\=https://www.marxists.org/subject/art/lit\_crit/works/belinsky/gogol.htm \|website\=Marxists Internet Archive \|access\-date\=2 September 2022}}) the public “is always ready to forgive a writer for a bad book \[i.e. aesthetically bad], but never for a pernicious one \[ideologically and morally bad].” Belinsky viewed Gogol's recent book, *Correspondence with Friends*, as pernicious because it renounced the need to “awaken in the people a sense of their human [dignity](/wiki/Dignity "Dignity"), trampled down in the mud and the filth for so many centuries.” [Fyodor Dostoevsky](/wiki/Fyodor_Dostoevsky "Fyodor Dostoevsky") read aloud at several public events Belinsky's letter, which called for the end of serfdom. A secret press was assembled to print and distribute Belinsky's letter. For these offenses Dostoevsky was arrested, convicted and condemned to death in 1849, a sentence later commuted to 4 years incarceration in the [prison camps of Siberia](/wiki/Katorga "Katorga").{{cite book \|last\=Frank \|first\=Joseph \|author\-link\=Joseph Frank (writer) \|date\=1976 \|title\=Dostoevsky: The Seeds of Revolt, 1821–1849, Volume 1 \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=K3ppAQAACAAJ\&q\=0691062609 \|publisher\=\[\[Princeton University Press]] \|pages\=157–73 \|isbn\=0691062609}} In his role as perhaps the most influential liberal critic and ideologist of his day, Belinsky advocated literature that was socially conscious. He hailed [Fyodor Dostoyevsky](/wiki/Fyodor_Dostoyevsky "Fyodor Dostoyevsky")'s first novel, *[Poor Folk](/wiki/Poor_Folk "Poor Folk")* (1845\); however, Dostoevsky soon thereafter broke with Belinsky.{{Citation \| title \= Commentaries on Demons by Fyodor Dostoevsky \| journal \= Soviet Academy of Sciences \| publication\-place \= New York \| place \= Leningrad \| publisher \= Alfred A. Knopf, Inc. \| publication\-date \= 1994 \| editor\-last \= Pevear \| editor\-first \= Richard \| editor2\-last \= Volokhonsky \| editor2\-first \= Larissa \| year \= 1975 \| volume \= 12 \| page \= \[https://archive.org/details/isbn\_9780679423140/page/715 715] \| url \= https://archive.org/details/isbn\_9780679423140/page/715 \| isbn \= 0\-679\-42314\-1 \| author \= Fyodor Dostoevsky; translated and annotated by Richard Pevear and Larissa Volokhonsky. }} Inspired by these ideas, which led to thinking about radical [changes](/wiki/Social_change "Social change") in society's organization, Belinsky began to call himself a [socialist](/wiki/Socialist "Socialist") starting in 1841\. Among his last great efforts were his move to join [Nikolay Nekrasov](/wiki/Nikolay_Nekrasov "Nikolay Nekrasov") in the popular magazine *The Contemporary* (*Sovremennik*), where the two critics established the new literary center of [St. Petersburg](/wiki/St._Petersburg "St. Petersburg") and Russia. At that time Belinsky published his *Literary Review for the Year 1847*. In 1848, shortly before his death, Belinsky granted full rights to Nikolay Nekrasov and his magazine, *The Contemporary* (*Sovremennik*), to publish various articles and other material originally planned for an almanac, to be called the Leviathan. Belinsky died of [consumption](/wiki/Tuberculosis "Tuberculosis") on the eve of his arrest by the [Tsar](/wiki/Tsar "Tsar")'s police on account of his political views. In 1910, Russia celebrated the centenary of his birth with enthusiasm and appreciation. His surname has variously been spelled *Belinsky* or *Byelinski*. His works, in twelve volumes, were first published in 1859–1862\. Following the expiration of the copyright in 1898, several new editions appeared. The best of these is by S. Vengerov; it is supplied with profuse notes. Belinsky early supported the work of [Ivan Turgenev](/wiki/Ivan_Turgenev "Ivan Turgenev"). The two became close friends and Turgenev fondly recalls Belinsky in his book *Literary Reminiscences and Autobiographical Fragments*. The British writer [Isaiah Berlin](/wiki/Isaiah_Berlin "Isaiah Berlin") has a chapter on Belinsky on his 1978 book *Russian Thinkers*. Here he points out some deficiencies of Belinsky's critical insight: > He was wildly erratic, and all his enthusiasm and seriousness and integrity do not make up for lapses of insight or intellectual power. He declared that Dante was not a poet; that [Fenimore Cooper](/wiki/Fenimore_Cooper "Fenimore Cooper") was the equal of Shakespeare; that *[Othello](/wiki/Othello "Othello")* was the product of a barbarous age... But further on in the same essay, Berlin remarks: > Because he was naturally responsive to everything that was living and genuine, he transformed the concept of the critic's calling in his native country. The lasting effect of his work was in altering and altering crucially and irretrievably, the moral and social outlook of the leading younger writers and thinkers of his time. He altered the quality and the tone both of the experience and of the expression of so much Russian thought and feeling that his role as a dominant social influence overshadows his attainments as a literary critic. Berlin's book introduced Belinsky to playwright [Tom Stoppard](/wiki/Tom_Stoppard "Tom Stoppard"), who included Belinsky as one of the principal characters in his trilogy of plays about Russian writers and activists: *[The Coast of Utopia](/wiki/The_Coast_of_Utopia "The Coast of Utopia")* (2002\)
[ "Biography\n---------", "Born in [Sveaborg](/wiki/Sveaborg \"Sveaborg\"), part of [Helsinki](/wiki/Helsinki \"Helsinki\"), Vissarion Belinsky lived in the town of Chembar (now [Belinsky](/wiki/Belinsky%2C_Penza_Oblast \"Belinsky, Penza Oblast\") in [Belinsky District](/wiki/Belinsky_District \"Belinsky District\") of [Penza Oblast](/wiki/Penza_Oblast \"Penza Oblast\")) and in [Penza](/wiki/Penza \"Penza\"), where he studied in [gymnazia](/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B8%D1%8F_%E2%84%96_1_%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8_%D0%92._%D0%93._%D0%91%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE \"Классическая гимназия № 1 имени В. Г. Белинского\") (1825–1829\\). In 1829–1832 he was a student of [Moscow University](/wiki/Moscow_University \"Moscow University\"). In Moscow he published his first famous articles.[Thomas Garrigue Masaryk](/wiki/Thomas_Garrigue_Masaryk \"Thomas Garrigue Masaryk\"), *The Spirit of Russia*, [Eden](/wiki/Eden_Paul \"Eden Paul\") and [Cedar Paul](/wiki/Cedar_Paul \"Cedar Paul\"), transl., [Vol.1, p.350, n.1](https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Page:The_Spirit_of_Russia_by_T_G_Masaryk,_volume_1.pdf/376) (London: [George Allen \\& Unwin, Ltd.](/wiki/Allen_%26_Unwin \"Allen & Unwin\"), 1919\\).", "In 1839 Belinsky went to [St. Petersburg](/wiki/Saint_Petersburg \"Saint Petersburg\"), Russia, where he became a respected critic and editor of two major [literary magazines](/wiki/Literary_magazine \"Literary magazine\"): *[Otechestvennye Zapiski](/wiki/Otechestvennye_Zapiski \"Otechestvennye Zapiski\")* (\"Notes of the Fatherland\"), and *Sovremennik* (\"The Contemporary\"). In both magazines Belinsky worked with younger [Nikolay Nekrasov](/wiki/Nikolay_Nekrasov \"Nikolay Nekrasov\").", "He was unlike most of the other Russian intellectuals of the 1830s and 1840s. The son of a rural medical doctor, he was not a wealthy aristocrat. The fact that Belinsky was relatively underprivileged meant, among other effects, that he was mainly self\\-educated; this was partly due to being expelled from Moscow University for political activity. But it was less for his philosophical skill that Belinsky was admired and more for emotional commitment and fervor. “For me, to think, to feel, to understand and to suffer are one and the same thing,” he liked to say. This was, of course, true to the [Romantic](/wiki/Romanticism \"Romanticism\") ideal, to the beliefs that real understanding comes not only from mere thinking ([reason](/wiki/Reason \"Reason\")), but also from intuitive insight. This combination of thinking and feeling pervaded Belinsky's life.", "Ideologically, Belinsky shared, but with exceptional intellectual and moral passion, the central value of most of [Westernizer](/wiki/Westernizer \"Westernizer\") [intelligentsia](/wiki/Intelligentsia \"Intelligentsia\"): the notion of the individual self, a person (*lichnost’*(личность)), that which makes people human, and gives them [dignity](/wiki/Dignity \"Dignity\") and rights. With this idea in hand (achieved through a complex intellectual struggle), he faced the world around him armed to do battle. He took on much conventional philosophical thinking among educated Russians, including the dry and [abstract philosophizing](/wiki/Abstraction \"Abstraction\") of the German [idealists](/wiki/Idealists \"Idealists\") and their Russian followers although maintaining the perspective of literary realism in his critical writings. In his words, “What is it to me that the Universal exists when the individual personality \\[*lichnost’*] is suffering.” Or: “The fate of the individual, of the person, is more important than the fate of the whole world.” Also upon this principle, Belinsky constructed an extensive critique of the world around him (especially the Russian one). He bitterly criticized [autocracy](/wiki/Autocracy \"Autocracy\") and [serfdom](/wiki/Serfdom \"Serfdom\") (as “trampling upon everything that is even remotely human and noble”) but also [poverty](/wiki/Poverty \"Poverty\"), [prostitution](/wiki/Prostitution \"Prostitution\"), drunkenness, [bureaucratic](/wiki/Bureaucracy \"Bureaucracy\") coldness, and cruelty toward the less powerful (including women). \n \nBelinsky worked most of his short life as a literary critic. His writings on literature were inseparable from these moral judgments. Belinsky believed that the only realm of freedom in the repressive reign of [Nicholas I](/wiki/Nicholas_I_of_Russia \"Nicholas I of Russia\") was through the written word. What Belinsky required most of a work of literature was “truth.” This meant not only a probing portrayal of real life (he hated works of mere fantasy, or escape, or [aestheticism](/wiki/Aestheticism \"Aestheticism\")), but also commitment to “true” ideas — the correct moral stance (above all this meant a concern for the dignity of individual people): As he told [Nikolai Gogol](/wiki/Nikolai_Gogol \"Nikolai Gogol\") (in a famous letter{{cite web \\|title\\=V. G. Belinsky 1847, Letter to N. V. Gogol \\|url\\=https://www.marxists.org/subject/art/lit\\_crit/works/belinsky/gogol.htm \\|website\\=Marxists Internet Archive \\|access\\-date\\=2 September 2022}}) the public “is always ready to forgive a writer for a bad book \\[i.e. aesthetically bad], but never for a pernicious one \\[ideologically and morally bad].” Belinsky viewed Gogol's recent book, *Correspondence with Friends*, as pernicious because it renounced the need to “awaken in the people a sense of their human [dignity](/wiki/Dignity \"Dignity\"), trampled down in the mud and the filth for so many centuries.”", "[Fyodor Dostoevsky](/wiki/Fyodor_Dostoevsky \"Fyodor Dostoevsky\") read aloud at several public events Belinsky's letter, which called for the end of serfdom. A secret press was assembled to print and distribute Belinsky's letter. For these offenses Dostoevsky was arrested, convicted and condemned to death in 1849, a sentence later commuted to 4 years incarceration in the [prison camps of Siberia](/wiki/Katorga \"Katorga\").{{cite book \\|last\\=Frank \\|first\\=Joseph \\|author\\-link\\=Joseph Frank (writer) \\|date\\=1976 \\|title\\=Dostoevsky: The Seeds of Revolt, 1821–1849, Volume 1 \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=K3ppAQAACAAJ\\&q\\=0691062609 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Princeton University Press]] \\|pages\\=157–73 \\|isbn\\=0691062609}}", "In his role as perhaps the most influential liberal critic and ideologist of his day, Belinsky advocated literature that was socially conscious. He hailed [Fyodor Dostoyevsky](/wiki/Fyodor_Dostoyevsky \"Fyodor Dostoyevsky\")'s first novel, *[Poor Folk](/wiki/Poor_Folk \"Poor Folk\")* (1845\\); however, Dostoevsky soon thereafter broke with Belinsky.{{Citation\n \\| title \\= Commentaries on Demons by Fyodor Dostoevsky\n \\| journal \\= Soviet Academy of Sciences\n \\| publication\\-place \\= New York\n \\| place \\= Leningrad\n \\| publisher \\= Alfred A. Knopf, Inc.\n \\| publication\\-date \\= 1994\n \\| editor\\-last \\= Pevear\n \\| editor\\-first \\= Richard\n \\| editor2\\-last \\= Volokhonsky\n \\| editor2\\-first \\= Larissa\n \\| year \\= 1975\n \\| volume \\= 12\n \\| page \\= \\[https://archive.org/details/isbn\\_9780679423140/page/715 715]\n \\| url \\= https://archive.org/details/isbn\\_9780679423140/page/715\n \\| isbn \\= 0\\-679\\-42314\\-1\n \\| author \\= Fyodor Dostoevsky; translated and annotated by Richard Pevear and Larissa Volokhonsky.\n }}", "Inspired by these ideas, which led to thinking about radical [changes](/wiki/Social_change \"Social change\") in society's organization, Belinsky began to call himself a [socialist](/wiki/Socialist \"Socialist\") starting in 1841\\. \nAmong his last great efforts were his move to join [Nikolay Nekrasov](/wiki/Nikolay_Nekrasov \"Nikolay Nekrasov\") in the popular magazine *The Contemporary* (*Sovremennik*), where the two critics established the new literary center of [St. Petersburg](/wiki/St._Petersburg \"St. Petersburg\") and Russia. At that time Belinsky published his *Literary Review for the Year 1847*.", "In 1848, shortly before his death, Belinsky granted full rights to Nikolay Nekrasov and his magazine, *The Contemporary* (*Sovremennik*), to publish various articles and other material originally planned for an almanac, to be called the Leviathan.", "Belinsky died of [consumption](/wiki/Tuberculosis \"Tuberculosis\") on the eve of his arrest by the [Tsar](/wiki/Tsar \"Tsar\")'s police on account of his political views. In 1910, Russia celebrated the centenary of his birth with enthusiasm and appreciation.", "His surname has variously been spelled *Belinsky* or *Byelinski*. His works, in twelve volumes, were first published in 1859–1862\\. Following the expiration of the copyright in 1898, several new editions appeared. The best of these is by S. Vengerov; it is supplied with profuse notes.", "Belinsky early supported the work of [Ivan Turgenev](/wiki/Ivan_Turgenev \"Ivan Turgenev\"). The two became close friends and Turgenev fondly recalls Belinsky in his book *Literary Reminiscences and Autobiographical Fragments*. The British writer [Isaiah Berlin](/wiki/Isaiah_Berlin \"Isaiah Berlin\") has a chapter on Belinsky on his 1978 book *Russian Thinkers*. Here he points out some deficiencies of Belinsky's critical insight:", "", "> He was wildly erratic, and all his enthusiasm and seriousness and integrity do not make up for lapses of insight or intellectual power. He declared that Dante was not a poet; that [Fenimore Cooper](/wiki/Fenimore_Cooper \"Fenimore Cooper\") was the equal of Shakespeare; that *[Othello](/wiki/Othello \"Othello\")* was the product of a barbarous age...", "But further on in the same essay, Berlin remarks:", "", "> Because he was naturally responsive to everything that was living and genuine, he transformed the concept of the critic's calling in his native country. The lasting effect of his work was in altering and altering crucially and irretrievably, the moral and social outlook of the leading younger writers and thinkers of his time. He altered the quality and the tone both of the experience and of the expression of so much Russian thought and feeling that his role as a dominant social influence overshadows his attainments as a literary critic.", "Berlin's book introduced Belinsky to playwright [Tom Stoppard](/wiki/Tom_Stoppard \"Tom Stoppard\"), who included Belinsky as one of the principal characters in his trilogy of plays about Russian writers and activists: *[The Coast of Utopia](/wiki/The_Coast_of_Utopia \"The Coast of Utopia\")* (2002\\)", "" ]
Career ------ Molloy started his league career with [Shamrock Rovers](/wiki/Shamrock_Rovers_F.C. "Shamrock Rovers F.C.") at 18 making his [League of Ireland](/wiki/League_of_Ireland "League of Ireland") debut at St Mel's Park on 7 January 1996 but after only a handful of appearances he moved to [First Division](/wiki/League_of_Ireland_First_Division "League of Ireland First Division") club [Athlone Town](/wiki/Athlone_Town_A.F.C. "Athlone Town A.F.C.") in 1996\. He immediately hit his stride and ended up the division's second top scorer in [1996–97](/wiki/1996%E2%80%9397_League_of_Ireland_First_Division "1996–97 League of Ireland First Division") season earning him a move to [St Patrick's Athletic](/wiki/St_Patrick%27s_Athletic "St Patrick's Athletic") and a shock call up by [Brian Kerr](/wiki/Brian_Kerr_%28Irish_football_manager%29 "Brian Kerr (Irish football manager)") to the [Republic of Ireland national football team](/wiki/Republic_of_Ireland_national_football_team "Republic of Ireland national football team") for the [1997 FIFA World Youth Championships](/wiki/FIFA_World_Youth_Championship_1997 "FIFA World Youth Championship 1997"). Molloy played every game and was Ireland's joint top scorer (2\) [www.fifa.com](https://web.archive.org/web/20071022131635/http://fifa.com/tournaments/archive/tournament=104/edition=191276/matches/match=30977/report.html)[www.fifa.com](https://web.archive.org/web/20071022131942/http://fifa.com/tournaments/archive/tournament=104/edition=191276/matches/match=31018/report.html) as they reached the semi\-final stage only to lose to eventual winners Argentina. Ireland won [bronze medals](/wiki/Bronze_medal "Bronze medal") after beating [Ghana](/wiki/Ghana_national_football_team "Ghana national football team") in the 3rd/4th place play\-off game. At St. Pats he linked up with Ireland teammates [Colin Hawkins](/wiki/Colin_Hawkins "Colin Hawkins") and [Thomas Morgan](/wiki/Thomas_Morgan_%28footballer%29 "Thomas Morgan (footballer)"), who had been added to the nucleus of the squad that had won the [1995–96 League of Ireland Premier Division](/wiki/1995%E2%80%9396_League_of_Ireland_Premier_Division "1995–96 League of Ireland Premier Division"), and a lot was expected of the obviously talented squad. All three players made an immediate impact with Molloy enjoying a terrific partnership with [Ian Gilzean](/wiki/Ian_Gilzean "Ian Gilzean") as St. Pats won the league with a dramatic last day win in [Kilkenny](/wiki/Kilkenny_City_A.F.C. "Kilkenny City A.F.C.") while arch\-rivals [Shelbourne](/wiki/Shelbourne_F.C. "Shelbourne F.C.") lost to [Dundalk](/wiki/Dundalk_F.C. "Dundalk F.C."). During this season Molloy won the first of his Under 21 caps. In [1998–99](/wiki/1998%E2%80%9399_League_of_Ireland_Premier_Division "1998–99 League of Ireland Premier Division") Molloy finished as the [League of Ireland Premier Division](/wiki/League_of_Ireland_Premier_Division "League of Ireland Premier Division") top scorer as St. Pats raced to another league title.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.rsssf.org/tablesi/iertops.html\|title\=Ireland – List of Topscorers\|accessdate\=6 July 2016\|publisher\=\[\[Rec.Sport.Soccer Statistics Foundation]]}}{{cite book\|last\=Graham\|first\=Alex\|title\=Football in the Republic of Ireland a Statistical Record 1921–2005\|year\=2005\|publisher\=Soccer Books Limited\|isbn\=1\-86223\-135\-4}} After a disappointing 1999/2000 season Molloy was transferred to [Bohemians](/wiki/Bohemian_F.C. "Bohemian F.C.") for a St. Pats record of IR£40,000\. Molloy repaid that fee instantly by scoring the winner as Bohemians knocked out [Aberdeen](/wiki/Aberdeen_F.C. "Aberdeen F.C.") in the [UEFA Cup](/wiki/2000%E2%80%9301_UEFA_Cup "2000–01 UEFA Cup").{{cite news\| url\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/football/teams/a/aberdeen/874931\.stm \| publisher\=BBC News \| title\=Aberdeen crash to defeat \| date\=10 August 2000}} However he then got sent off against [FC Kaiserslautern](/wiki/FC_Kaiserslautern "FC Kaiserslautern") in the next round. He would go on to play a vital role as Bohs won the League and [FAI Cup](/wiki/FAI_Cup "FAI Cup") double under manager [Roddy Collins](/wiki/Roddy_Collins "Roddy Collins"). The following year was not as successful for Bohs but they did reach the FAI Cup final only to lose to [Dundalk](/wiki/Dundalk_F.C. "Dundalk F.C."). In July 2002, Molloy was again signed by Roddy Collins, this time for [Carlisle United](/wiki/Carlisle_United "Carlisle United") of the [English Third Division](/wiki/Football_League_Third_Division "Football League Third Division"). After only a handful of appearances yielding a solitary goal against [Lincoln City](/wiki/Lincoln_City_F.C. "Lincoln City F.C.") (a game in which he also got sent off),{{cite news \|url\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/eng\_div\_3/2195568\.stm \|title\=Lincoln 0–1 Carlisle \|publisher\=\[\[BBC]] \|date\=17 August 2002 \|accessdate\=24 August 2012}} Molloy returned to Ireland to play for [Shelbourne FC](/wiki/Shelbourne_FC "Shelbourne FC") (and become one of a select few players to have played for Dublin football's 'Big 4'.There are currently 5 Dublin Clubs in eircom league football and there has at times been as many as 8\. Since [Drumcondra](/wiki/Drumcondra_FC "Drumcondra FC")'s demise, the 'Big 4' are (in order Molloy played for them); Shamrock Rovers, St Patrick's Athletic, Bohemians and Shelbourne. Although Shelbourne finished 2nd in the league that season, it was not a successful season for Molloy and he moved on again, this time to his first club, Shamrock Rovers in October 2002\.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.irishfootballonline.com/news/194\.html \|title\=Molloy becomes a Hoop » Irish Football Online \|accessdate\=2013\-02\-28 \|url\-status\=dead \|archiveurl\=https://archive.today/20130411050546/http://www.irishfootballonline.com/news/194\.html \|archivedate\=11 April 2013 }} A self\-confessed Shamrock Rovers fan with a Rovers crest tattooed on his arm (now removed), commentators saw this as a dream move for Molloy. However he joined a club that had been struggling both on and off the field, as they fought to find a permanent home for themselves. For three years Molloy performed admirably (he was top club goalscorer in 2003 and the Player of the Year in 2004\) and his dynamic displays saw him become a hero for the Rovers fans who had a love/hate relationship with him for years. His best efforts, though, were not enough to stop Rovers being relegated to the First Division as they lost a two legged play\-off to [Dublin City FC](/wiki/Dublin_City_FC "Dublin City FC"). In total he made 4 appearances in the [2003 UEFA Intertoto Cup](/wiki/2003_UEFA_Intertoto_Cup "2003 UEFA Intertoto Cup") for the Hoops. With Rovers relegation came financial restraints and Molloy was permitted a move away from Rovers. In January 2006, he re\-signed for St. Patrick's Athletic and immediately set about scoring goals, winning April's [League of Ireland](/wiki/League_of_Ireland "League of Ireland") Goal of the Month. Molloy scored in the [2006 FAI Cup final](/wiki/2006_FAI_Cup_final "2006 FAI Cup final").{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.fai.ie/index.php?option\=com\_content\&task\=view\&id\=1517\|title\=Football Association of Ireland}} In January 2007 he joined Motherwell for an undisclosed fee.{{cite news\|url\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/teams/m/motherwell/6222643\.stm\|publisher\=BBC Sport website\|title\=Well snap up Eircom League trio\|date\=1 January 2007}} He left Motherwell by mutual consent in October 2007,{{cite news\|url\=http://www.motherwellfc.co.uk/page/NewsDetail/0,,10292\~1145907,00\.html\|publisher\=Motherwell F.C. official website\|title\=Trevor Molloy leaves 'Well\|date\=18 October 2007}} having been informed he did not feature in the future plans of manager [Mark McGhee](/wiki/Mark_McGhee "Mark McGhee"). Molloy signed for Glenavon in December 2007\.{{cite news\|url\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/irish/7158875\.stm\|publisher\=BBC Sport website\|title\=Malone boosting Mourneview squad\|date\=24 December 2007}} and was released by the club in June 2011 having not been offered a new contract.
[ "Career\n------", "Molloy started his league career with [Shamrock Rovers](/wiki/Shamrock_Rovers_F.C. \"Shamrock Rovers F.C.\") at 18 making his [League of Ireland](/wiki/League_of_Ireland \"League of Ireland\") debut at St Mel's Park on 7 January 1996 but after only a handful of appearances he moved to [First Division](/wiki/League_of_Ireland_First_Division \"League of Ireland First Division\") club [Athlone Town](/wiki/Athlone_Town_A.F.C. \"Athlone Town A.F.C.\") in 1996\\. He immediately hit his stride and ended up the division's second top scorer in [1996–97](/wiki/1996%E2%80%9397_League_of_Ireland_First_Division \"1996–97 League of Ireland First Division\") season earning him a move to [St Patrick's Athletic](/wiki/St_Patrick%27s_Athletic \"St Patrick's Athletic\") and a shock call up by [Brian Kerr](/wiki/Brian_Kerr_%28Irish_football_manager%29 \"Brian Kerr (Irish football manager)\") to the [Republic of Ireland national football team](/wiki/Republic_of_Ireland_national_football_team \"Republic of Ireland national football team\") for the [1997 FIFA World Youth Championships](/wiki/FIFA_World_Youth_Championship_1997 \"FIFA World Youth Championship 1997\"). Molloy played every game and was Ireland's joint top scorer (2\\) [www.fifa.com](https://web.archive.org/web/20071022131635/http://fifa.com/tournaments/archive/tournament=104/edition=191276/matches/match=30977/report.html)[www.fifa.com](https://web.archive.org/web/20071022131942/http://fifa.com/tournaments/archive/tournament=104/edition=191276/matches/match=31018/report.html) as they reached the semi\\-final stage only to lose to eventual winners Argentina. Ireland won [bronze medals](/wiki/Bronze_medal \"Bronze medal\") after beating [Ghana](/wiki/Ghana_national_football_team \"Ghana national football team\") in the 3rd/4th place play\\-off game.", "At St. Pats he linked up with Ireland teammates [Colin Hawkins](/wiki/Colin_Hawkins \"Colin Hawkins\") and [Thomas Morgan](/wiki/Thomas_Morgan_%28footballer%29 \"Thomas Morgan (footballer)\"), who had been added to the nucleus of the squad that had won the [1995–96 League of Ireland Premier Division](/wiki/1995%E2%80%9396_League_of_Ireland_Premier_Division \"1995–96 League of Ireland Premier Division\"), and a lot was expected of the obviously talented squad. All three players made an immediate impact with Molloy enjoying a terrific partnership with [Ian Gilzean](/wiki/Ian_Gilzean \"Ian Gilzean\") as St. Pats won the league with a dramatic last day win in [Kilkenny](/wiki/Kilkenny_City_A.F.C. \"Kilkenny City A.F.C.\") while arch\\-rivals [Shelbourne](/wiki/Shelbourne_F.C. \"Shelbourne F.C.\") lost to [Dundalk](/wiki/Dundalk_F.C. \"Dundalk F.C.\"). During this season Molloy won the first of his Under 21 caps. In [1998–99](/wiki/1998%E2%80%9399_League_of_Ireland_Premier_Division \"1998–99 League of Ireland Premier Division\") Molloy finished as the [League of Ireland Premier Division](/wiki/League_of_Ireland_Premier_Division \"League of Ireland Premier Division\") top scorer as St. Pats raced to another league title.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.rsssf.org/tablesi/iertops.html\\|title\\=Ireland – List of Topscorers\\|accessdate\\=6 July 2016\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Rec.Sport.Soccer Statistics Foundation]]}}{{cite book\\|last\\=Graham\\|first\\=Alex\\|title\\=Football in the Republic of Ireland a Statistical Record 1921–2005\\|year\\=2005\\|publisher\\=Soccer Books Limited\\|isbn\\=1\\-86223\\-135\\-4}}", "After a disappointing 1999/2000 season Molloy was transferred to [Bohemians](/wiki/Bohemian_F.C. \"Bohemian F.C.\") for a St. Pats record of IR£40,000\\. Molloy repaid that fee instantly by scoring the winner as Bohemians knocked out [Aberdeen](/wiki/Aberdeen_F.C. \"Aberdeen F.C.\") in the [UEFA Cup](/wiki/2000%E2%80%9301_UEFA_Cup \"2000–01 UEFA Cup\").{{cite news\\| url\\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/football/teams/a/aberdeen/874931\\.stm \\| publisher\\=BBC News \\| title\\=Aberdeen crash to defeat \\| date\\=10 August 2000}} However he then got sent off against [FC Kaiserslautern](/wiki/FC_Kaiserslautern \"FC Kaiserslautern\") in the next round. He would go on to play a vital role as Bohs won the League and [FAI Cup](/wiki/FAI_Cup \"FAI Cup\") double under manager [Roddy Collins](/wiki/Roddy_Collins \"Roddy Collins\"). The following year was not as successful for Bohs but they did reach the FAI Cup final only to lose to [Dundalk](/wiki/Dundalk_F.C. \"Dundalk F.C.\").", "In July 2002, Molloy was again signed by Roddy Collins, this time for [Carlisle United](/wiki/Carlisle_United \"Carlisle United\") of the [English Third Division](/wiki/Football_League_Third_Division \"Football League Third Division\"). After only a handful of appearances yielding a solitary goal against [Lincoln City](/wiki/Lincoln_City_F.C. \"Lincoln City F.C.\") (a game in which he also got sent off),{{cite news\n\\|url\\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/eng\\_div\\_3/2195568\\.stm\n\\|title\\=Lincoln 0–1 Carlisle\n\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[BBC]]\n\\|date\\=17 August 2002 \\|accessdate\\=24 August 2012}} Molloy returned to Ireland to play for [Shelbourne FC](/wiki/Shelbourne_FC \"Shelbourne FC\") (and become one of a select few players to have played for Dublin football's 'Big 4'.There are currently 5 Dublin Clubs in eircom league football and there has at times been as many as 8\\. Since [Drumcondra](/wiki/Drumcondra_FC \"Drumcondra FC\")'s demise, the 'Big 4' are (in order Molloy played for them); Shamrock Rovers, St Patrick's Athletic, Bohemians and Shelbourne. Although Shelbourne finished 2nd in the league that season, it was not a successful season for Molloy and he moved on again, this time to his first club, Shamrock Rovers in October 2002\\.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.irishfootballonline.com/news/194\\.html \\|title\\=Molloy becomes a Hoop » Irish Football Online \\|accessdate\\=2013\\-02\\-28 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archiveurl\\=https://archive.today/20130411050546/http://www.irishfootballonline.com/news/194\\.html \\|archivedate\\=11 April 2013 }}", "A self\\-confessed Shamrock Rovers fan with a Rovers crest tattooed on his arm (now removed), commentators saw this as a dream move for Molloy. However he joined a club that had been struggling both on and off the field, as they fought to find a permanent home for themselves. For three years Molloy performed admirably (he was top club goalscorer in 2003 and the Player of the Year in 2004\\) and his dynamic displays saw him become a hero for the Rovers fans who had a love/hate relationship with him for years. His best efforts, though, were not enough to stop Rovers being relegated to the First Division as they lost a two legged play\\-off to [Dublin City FC](/wiki/Dublin_City_FC \"Dublin City FC\"). In total he made 4 appearances in the [2003 UEFA Intertoto Cup](/wiki/2003_UEFA_Intertoto_Cup \"2003 UEFA Intertoto Cup\") for the Hoops.", "With Rovers relegation came financial restraints and Molloy was permitted a move away from Rovers. In January 2006, he re\\-signed for St. Patrick's Athletic and immediately set about scoring goals, winning April's [League of Ireland](/wiki/League_of_Ireland \"League of Ireland\") Goal of the Month.", "Molloy scored in the [2006 FAI Cup final](/wiki/2006_FAI_Cup_final \"2006 FAI Cup final\").{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.fai.ie/index.php?option\\=com\\_content\\&task\\=view\\&id\\=1517\\|title\\=Football Association of Ireland}}", "In January 2007 he joined Motherwell for an undisclosed fee.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/teams/m/motherwell/6222643\\.stm\\|publisher\\=BBC Sport website\\|title\\=Well snap up Eircom League trio\\|date\\=1 January 2007}} He left Motherwell by mutual consent in October 2007,{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.motherwellfc.co.uk/page/NewsDetail/0,,10292\\~1145907,00\\.html\\|publisher\\=Motherwell F.C. official website\\|title\\=Trevor Molloy leaves 'Well\\|date\\=18 October 2007}} having been informed he did not feature in the future plans of manager [Mark McGhee](/wiki/Mark_McGhee \"Mark McGhee\").", "Molloy signed for Glenavon in December 2007\\.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/irish/7158875\\.stm\\|publisher\\=BBC Sport website\\|title\\=Malone boosting Mourneview squad\\|date\\=24 December 2007}} and was released by the club in June 2011 having not been offered a new contract.", "" ]
The Situation at Grovebury -------------------------- Grovebury seems never to have been a true house on the elaborate Fontevraud [double monastery](/wiki/Double_monastery "Double monastery") model, but largely a land holding administered by a small number of male religious.Marjorie Chibnall, *L'Ordre de Fontevraud en Angleterre au XIIe siècle*, in *Cahiers de civilisation médiévale* 29 (1986\) 44\. [http://www.persee.fr/doc/ccmed\_0007\-9731\_1986\_num\_29\_113\_2313](http://www.persee.fr/doc/ccmed_0007-9731_1986_num_29_113_2313) \[accessed 30 September 2017]. This format was known among other "priories" classed by the English crown as *[alien priories](/wiki/Alien_priories "Alien priories")* and explains why, unlike the other Fontevraud houses in England, Grovebury was classed as such. An altogether banal but instructive example would be [Blakenham Priory](/wiki/Blakenham_Priory "Blakenham Priory") in [Suffolk](/wiki/Suffolk "Suffolk") (a possession of the great [Benedictine](/wiki/Order_of_Saint_Benedict "Order of Saint Benedict") abbey of [Bec](/wiki/Bec_Abbey "Bec Abbey")William Dugdale, *Monasticon Anglicanum*, vol. 6, part 2, Bohn, London, 1846, p. 1002\. in [Normandy](/wiki/Normandy "Normandy")), where it is doubtful that true conventual monastic buildings ever existed, at least of any size. At La Grava there is never talk of a prioress. A [prior](/wiki/Prior_%28ecclesiastical%29 "Prior (ecclesiastical)") is first mentioned in 1195–1196, and at that time he is referred to as the Prior of Leighton, even the name of La Grave or La Grava not appearing till late in the reign of [Henry III](/wiki/Henry_III_of_England "Henry III of England"). This prior of Leighton had a good deal of trouble with his tenants on the subject of feudal services during the thirteenth century, which involved him in suits before the [Curia Regis](/wiki/Curia_regis "Curia regis") from 1213 to 1290\. The nature of the enterprise at this house is shown from the fact that the Prior during the latter part of the century was William de Lyencourt. This was a person of some importance, since he doubled as the proctor general of the abbess of Fontevraud in England, and in that capacity was obliged to make journeys for which he had to seek safe conducts from the king.*Alien house: Priory of La Grave or Grovebury*, in *A History of the County of Bedford, vol. 1*, London, 1904, pp. 403\-404\. British History Online [http://www.british\-history.ac.uk/vch/beds/vol1/pp403\-404](http://www.british-history.ac.uk/vch/beds/vol1/pp403-404) \[accessed 29 September 2017]. Both the mother house at Fontevraud and the priory of Almesbury in England, where the king's mother resided at the end of her life and where his daughter had made their profession, were in great poverty at this time. It was said that at Fontevraud, at one time they had only the blackest of bread to eat on Fridays,*Alien house: Priory of La Grave or Grovebury*, in *A History of the County of Bedford, vol. 1*, London, 1904, pp. 403\-404\. British History Online [http://www.british\-history.ac.uk/vch/beds/vol1/pp403\-404](http://www.british-history.ac.uk/vch/beds/vol1/pp403-404) \[accessed 29 September 2017]. For whatever reason, there is no mention made of poverty at La Grave. The history of the house is in general is a little difficult to trace. Even the dedication of the church is unknown and other than William de Lyencourt, mentioned explicitly as prior in 1283, 1287, 1297, only a single prior's name is known, that of one Nicholas, who occurs in 1258 and 1263\.William Page \& Herbert Arthur Doubleday (edd.),*The Victoria History of the County of Bedford, vol. 1*, 1904, pp.403\-404\. [http://www.british\-history.ac.uk/report.aspx?compid\=40054](http://www.british-history.ac.uk/report.aspx?compid=40054) Such difficulties are especially true of the fourteenth century. In 1316 the manor was stated to be the property of the abbess of Fontevraud, but "now in the hand of the [Princess Mary](/wiki/Mary_of_Woodstock "Mary of Woodstock"),"[Princess Mary](/wiki/Mary_of_Woodstock "Mary of Woodstock") is said to have been given the administration of Grovebury Priory, holding this until her death. Cf. [The Medieval Manor of Leighton Alias Grovebury](http://www.bedfordshire.gov.uk/CommunityAndLiving/ArchivesAndRecordOffice/CommunityArchives/LeightonBuzzard/TheMedievalManorOfLeightonAliasGrovebury.aspx) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110615093238/http://www.bedfordshire.gov.uk/CommunityAndLiving/ArchivesAndRecordOffice/CommunityArchives/LeightonBuzzard/TheMedievalManorOfLeightonAliasGrovebury.aspx \|date\=2011\-06\-15 }}, [Bedfordshire County Council](/wiki/Bedfordshire_County_Council "Bedfordshire County Council"). and in 1349 the pope wrote to [Edward III](/wiki/Edward_III_of_England "Edward III of England"), asking him to allow the abbess and convent to regain possession of the house of La Grave, of which they had been [despoiled](/wiki/Looting "Looting"). It seems however to have returned to its original position as a cell of Fontevraud, for it was reckoned in the next century among the [alien priories](/wiki/Alien_priory "Alien priory"), and in consequence of the measures introduced by 1414 was seized and granted in 1438, along with many other properties, to [Eton College](/wiki/Eton_College "Eton College"); and a few years later, in 1481, transferred to the dean and canons of [St. George's Chapel, Windsor Castle](/wiki/St._George%27s_Chapel%2C_Windsor_Castle "St. George's Chapel, Windsor Castle").William Page \& Herbert Arthur Doubleday (edd.),*The Victoria History of the County of Bedford, vol. 1*, 1904, pp.403\-404\. [http://www.british\-history.ac.uk/report.aspx?compid\=40054](http://www.british-history.ac.uk/report.aspx?compid=40054)
[ "The Situation at Grovebury\n--------------------------", "Grovebury seems never to have been a true house on the elaborate Fontevraud [double monastery](/wiki/Double_monastery \"Double monastery\") model, but largely a land holding administered by a small number of male religious.Marjorie Chibnall, *L'Ordre de Fontevraud en Angleterre au XIIe siècle*, in *Cahiers de civilisation médiévale* 29 (1986\\) 44\\. [http://www.persee.fr/doc/ccmed\\_0007\\-9731\\_1986\\_num\\_29\\_113\\_2313](http://www.persee.fr/doc/ccmed_0007-9731_1986_num_29_113_2313) \\[accessed 30 September 2017]. This format was known among other \"priories\" classed by the English crown as *[alien priories](/wiki/Alien_priories \"Alien priories\")* and explains why, unlike the other Fontevraud houses in England, Grovebury was classed as such. An altogether banal but instructive example would be [Blakenham Priory](/wiki/Blakenham_Priory \"Blakenham Priory\") in [Suffolk](/wiki/Suffolk \"Suffolk\") (a possession of the great [Benedictine](/wiki/Order_of_Saint_Benedict \"Order of Saint Benedict\") abbey of [Bec](/wiki/Bec_Abbey \"Bec Abbey\")William Dugdale, *Monasticon Anglicanum*, vol. 6, part 2, Bohn, London, 1846, p. 1002\\. in [Normandy](/wiki/Normandy \"Normandy\")), where it is doubtful that true conventual monastic buildings ever existed, at least of any size.", "At La Grava there is never talk of a prioress. A [prior](/wiki/Prior_%28ecclesiastical%29 \"Prior (ecclesiastical)\") is first mentioned in 1195–1196, and at that time he is referred to as the Prior of Leighton, even the name of La Grave or La Grava not appearing till late in the reign of [Henry III](/wiki/Henry_III_of_England \"Henry III of England\").", "This prior of Leighton had a good deal of trouble with his tenants on the subject of feudal services during the thirteenth century, which involved him in suits before the [Curia Regis](/wiki/Curia_regis \"Curia regis\") from 1213 to 1290\\.", "The nature of the enterprise at this house is shown from the fact that the Prior during the latter part of the century was William de Lyencourt. This was a person of some importance, since he doubled as the proctor general of the abbess of Fontevraud in England, and in that capacity was obliged to make journeys for which he had to seek safe conducts from the king.*Alien house: Priory of La Grave or Grovebury*, in *A History of the County of Bedford, vol. 1*, London, 1904, pp. 403\\-404\\. British History Online [http://www.british\\-history.ac.uk/vch/beds/vol1/pp403\\-404](http://www.british-history.ac.uk/vch/beds/vol1/pp403-404) \\[accessed 29 September 2017].", "Both the mother house at Fontevraud and the priory of Almesbury in England, where the king's mother resided at the end of her life and where his daughter had made their profession, were in great poverty at this time. It was said that at Fontevraud, at one time they had only the blackest of bread to eat on Fridays,*Alien house: Priory of La Grave or Grovebury*, in *A History of the County of Bedford, vol. 1*, London, 1904, pp. 403\\-404\\. British History Online [http://www.british\\-history.ac.uk/vch/beds/vol1/pp403\\-404](http://www.british-history.ac.uk/vch/beds/vol1/pp403-404) \\[accessed 29 September 2017]. For whatever reason, there is no mention made of poverty at La Grave.", "The history of the house is in general is a little difficult to trace. Even the dedication of the church is unknown and other than William de Lyencourt, mentioned explicitly as prior in 1283, 1287, 1297, only a single prior's name is known, that of one Nicholas, who occurs in 1258 and 1263\\.William Page \\& Herbert Arthur Doubleday (edd.),*The Victoria History of the County of Bedford, vol. 1*, 1904, pp.403\\-404\\. [http://www.british\\-history.ac.uk/report.aspx?compid\\=40054](http://www.british-history.ac.uk/report.aspx?compid=40054)", "Such difficulties are especially true of the fourteenth century. In 1316 the manor was stated to be the property of the abbess of Fontevraud, but \"now in the hand of the [Princess Mary](/wiki/Mary_of_Woodstock \"Mary of Woodstock\"),\"[Princess Mary](/wiki/Mary_of_Woodstock \"Mary of Woodstock\") is said to have been given the administration of Grovebury Priory, holding this until her death. Cf. [The Medieval Manor of Leighton Alias Grovebury](http://www.bedfordshire.gov.uk/CommunityAndLiving/ArchivesAndRecordOffice/CommunityArchives/LeightonBuzzard/TheMedievalManorOfLeightonAliasGrovebury.aspx) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110615093238/http://www.bedfordshire.gov.uk/CommunityAndLiving/ArchivesAndRecordOffice/CommunityArchives/LeightonBuzzard/TheMedievalManorOfLeightonAliasGrovebury.aspx \\|date\\=2011\\-06\\-15 }}, [Bedfordshire County Council](/wiki/Bedfordshire_County_Council \"Bedfordshire County Council\"). and in 1349 the pope wrote to [Edward III](/wiki/Edward_III_of_England \"Edward III of England\"), asking him to allow the abbess and convent to regain possession of the house of La Grave, of which they had been [despoiled](/wiki/Looting \"Looting\"). It seems however to have returned to its original position as a cell of Fontevraud, for it was reckoned in the next century among the [alien priories](/wiki/Alien_priory \"Alien priory\"), and in consequence of the measures introduced by 1414 was seized and granted in 1438, along with many other properties, to [Eton College](/wiki/Eton_College \"Eton College\"); and a few years later, in 1481, transferred to the dean and canons of [St. George's Chapel, Windsor Castle](/wiki/St._George%27s_Chapel%2C_Windsor_Castle \"St. George's Chapel, Windsor Castle\").William Page \\& Herbert Arthur Doubleday (edd.),*The Victoria History of the County of Bedford, vol. 1*, 1904, pp.403\\-404\\. [http://www.british\\-history.ac.uk/report.aspx?compid\\=40054](http://www.british-history.ac.uk/report.aspx?compid=40054)", "" ]
Athletics --------- The Camden High School Panthers compete in the [Olympic Conference](/wiki/Olympic_Conference_%28New_Jersey%29 "Olympic Conference (New Jersey)"),[Camden High School](https://www.njsiaa.org/schools/camden-high-school), [New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association](/wiki/New_Jersey_State_Interscholastic_Athletic_Association "New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association"). Accessed October 20, 2020\. an athletic conference consisting of public and private high schools located in [Burlington County](/wiki/Burlington_County%2C_New_Jersey "Burlington County, New Jersey"), Camden County and [Gloucester County](/wiki/Gloucester_County%2C_New_Jersey "Gloucester County, New Jersey").[Member Schools](http://www.olympicconference.org/g5-bin/client.cgi?G5genie=349), Olympic Conference. Accessed July 30, 2017\. The Olympic Conference operates under the supervision of the [New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association](/wiki/New_Jersey_State_Interscholastic_Athletic_Association "New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association") (NJSIAA).[League \& Conference Officers/Affiliated Schools 2020\-2021](https://www.njsiaa.org/sites/default/files/documents/2020-10/2020-2021-lc-officers-schools.pdf), [New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association](/wiki/New_Jersey_State_Interscholastic_Athletic_Association "New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association"). Accessed October 20, 2020\. With 683 students in grades 10–12, the school was classified by the NJSIAA for the 2022–24 school years as Group II South for most athletic competition purposes.[NJSIAA General Classifications \- Public Schools 2022\-2023 and 2023\-2024](https://www.njsiaa.org/sites/default/files/documents/2022-08/General%20Classifications%20%2722-%2723%20-%20%2723-%2724.pdf), [New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association](/wiki/New_Jersey_State_Interscholastic_Athletic_Association "New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association"). Accessed September 1, 2022\. The football team competes in the Constitution Division of the 94\-team [West Jersey Football League](/wiki/West_Jersey_Football_League "West Jersey Football League") superconference[Camden Panthers](https://www.gridironnewjersey.com/schoolDetail.aspx?schoolid=33), [West Jersey Football League](/wiki/West_Jersey_Football_League "West Jersey Football League"). Accessed May 1, 2023\.[Home Page](https://www.westjerseyfootball.com), [West Jersey Football League](/wiki/West_Jersey_Football_League "West Jersey Football League"). Accessed May 1, 2023\. "The WJFL is a 94\-school super conference that stretches from Princeton to Wildwood encompassing schools from the Colonial Valley Conference, the Burlington County Scholastic League, the Olympic Conference, the Tri\-County Conference, the Colonial Conference, and the Cape Atlantic League. The WJFL is made up of sixteen divisions with divisional alignments based on school size, geography and a strength\-of\-program component." and was classified by the NJSIAA as Group II South for football for 2024–2026, which included schools with 514 to 685 students.[NJSIAA Football Public School Classifications 2024–2026](https://www.njsiaa.org/sites/default/files/documents/2024-08/football-2024-2026.pdf), [New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association](/wiki/New_Jersey_State_Interscholastic_Athletic_Association "New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association"), updated September 2024\. Accessed September 1, 2024\. Previously, the athletic teams at Camden High School were called/known as the "Purple Avalanche," a fitting name for the large football teams (60 or more players) on the sideline at the start of their games in the 1960s and 1970s.Callahan, Kevin. ["Frambes was go\-to guy for S.J. sports history"](https://archive.today/20130131141603/http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/courierpostonline/access/1701203161.html?FMT=ABS&FMTS=ABS:FT&type=current&date=Jul+06,+2008&author=KEVIN+CALLAHAN&pub=Courier+Post&desc=Frambes+was+go-to+guy+for+S.J.+sports+history&pqatl=google), *[Courier\-Post](/wiki/Courier-Post "Courier-Post")*, July 6, 2008\. Accessed July 19, 2012\. That was because often unbeaten seasons and championships were on the line when the Purple Avalanche (Camden's old nickname) played the Panthers of Collingswood." As of 2009, Camden High had won over 41 South Jersey Championships, and appeared in over 20 state championship games, winning 11 of them.{{citation needed\|date\=July 2012}} The school and their crosstown rival, [Woodrow Wilson High School](/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson_High_School_%28New_Jersey%29 "Woodrow Wilson High School (New Jersey)"), still play the traditional Thanksgiving Day football game each year. The Thanksgiving Day game in 1979 was suspended after rival gangs started shooting at each other, resulting in at least 14 injuries and dozens of arrests.Staff. ["14 Hurt at Camden Stadium As Gangs Exchange Gunfire; 37 Taken Into Custody"](https://www.nytimes.com/1979/11/23/archives/14-hurt-at-camden-stadium-as-gangs-exchange-gunfire-37-taken-into.html), *[The New York Times](/wiki/The_New_York_Times "The New York Times")*, November 23, 1979\. Accessed July 1, 2011\. "Three separate volleys of shots, perhaps a dozen in all, set off a stampede of hundreds of an estimated total of 3,600 football fans and led to the suspension of the Thanksgiving Day game between Camden and Woodrow Wilson High School, which are traditional rivals." The school has had a football rivalry since 1931 with [Camden Catholic High School](/wiki/Camden_Catholic_High_School "Camden Catholic High School"); Camden Catholic leads the series with an overall record of 35–29–2 through the 2017 season. [NJ.com](/wiki/NJ.com "NJ.com") listed the rivalry as 28th on its 2017 list "Ranking the 31 fiercest rivalries in N.J. HS football"Stypulkoski, Matt. ["Ranking the 31 fiercest rivalries in N.J. HS football"](https://www.nj.com/highschoolsports/article/ranking-njs-31-best-high-school-football-rivalries/), NJ Advance Media for [NJ.com](/wiki/NJ.com "NJ.com"), October 27, 2017, updated May 15, 2019\. Accessed December 1, 2020\. "25\-Camden vs. Camden Catholic.. This is a local rivalry that started in 1931 between Camden and Camden Catholic, which is located in nearby Cherry Hill.... All\-time series: Camden Catholic leads, 35\-29\-2" The boys basketball team won the Group IV state championship in 1945 (vs. [Union Hill High School](/wiki/Union_Hill_High_School "Union Hill High School") in the final game of the tournament), 1959 (vs. [Weequahic High School](/wiki/Weequahic_High_School "Weequahic High School")), 1960 (vs. Weequahic), 1978 (vs. [Linden High School](/wiki/Linden_High_School_%28New_Jersey%29 "Linden High School (New Jersey)")), 1979 (vs. Union Hill), 1982 (vs. [Montclair High School](/wiki/Montclair_High_School_%28New_Jersey%29 "Montclair High School (New Jersey)")), 1984 (vs. [JFK of Paterson](/wiki/John_F._Kennedy_High_School_%28Paterson%2C_New_Jersey%29 "John F. Kennedy High School (Paterson, New Jersey)")), 1986 (vs. Montclair), 1987 (vs. JFK of Paterson), and won the Group III title in 1974 (vs. [Memorial of West New York](/wiki/Memorial_High_School_%28West_New_York%2C_New_Jersey%29 "Memorial High School (West New York, New Jersey)")) and 2000 (vs. [Lawrence High School](/wiki/Lawrence_High_School_%28New_Jersey%29 "Lawrence High School (New Jersey)")). The 11 group championships won by the program is tied for the fourth\-most of any school in the state.[NJSIAA Boys Basketball Championship History](https://www.njsiaa.org/sites/default/files/documents/2020-11/2020-basketball-history_0.pdf), [New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association](/wiki/New_Jersey_State_Interscholastic_Athletic_Association "New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association"). Accessed September 1, 2022\. The 1945 team won the Group IV title with a 46–38 win against Union Hill in the championship game played at the Elizabeth Armory.["Camden Beats Union City To Win State Championship; Carter Nets 21 Points in 46\-38 Victory; Outstanding Player in Tourney"](https://www.newspapers.com/newspage/447752421/), *[Courier\-Post](/wiki/Courier-Post "Courier-Post")*, March 19, 1945\. Accessed January 9, 2021, via [Newspapers.com](/wiki/Newspapers.com "Newspapers.com"). "For the first time in the history of the 27 year\-old New Jersey State Interscholastic Association basketball tournament, which concluded a four\-night run Saturday at the Armory, Camden High school carried off a state championship. The South Jersey Group 4 representatives, who completely dominated the tourney from the minute they stepped on the floor on Friday night, turned in another super\-fine exhibition in the title round, routing Union Hill, 46\-38\." The boys' basketball team went undefeated in both 1959 and 1960, winning state championships each year. The team won the 1959 Group IV state title with a 94\-73 win against Weequahic in the championship game.["Unbeaten Camden Gains State Title; Defeats Weequahic, 94\-73, in Group 4 Basketball As Smith Scores 42"](https://www.nytimes.com/1959/03/22/archives/unbeaten-camden-gains-state-title-defeats-weequahic-9473-in-group-4.html), *[The New York Times](/wiki/The_New_York_Times "The New York Times")*, March 22, 1959\. Accessed February 27, 2021\. "Unbeaten Camden High School, sparked by Ronald (Itchy) Smith, defeated Weequahic High, 94\-73, tonight to take the Group 4 championship in the New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association basketball tournament." A crowd of 5,000 at the Camden Convention Hall watched the 1960 team win the Group IV title with a 64–49 victory against Weequahic in the finals to extended the team's unbeaten streak to 47 games over two seasons.Hall, Bill. ["Camden High Romps, 64\-49\. To Win State Group 4 Title"](https://www.newspapers.com/newspage/168052934/), *[The Philadelphia Inquirer](/wiki/The_Philadelphia_Inquirer "The Philadelphia Inquirer")*, March 20, 1960\. Accessed March 6, 2021, via [Newspapers.com](/wiki/Newspapers.com "Newspapers.com"). "Coach Tony Alfano's Purple Avalanche, more widely known as Camden High School's basketball team, fell on Weequahic (Newark) High, 64\-49, and thereby donned its second straight New Jersey State Interscholastic AA Group 4 crown Saturday night in Camden Convention Hall before more than 5000 (4650 paid) howling; partisans."Ryan, John. ["Camden Emerges As Lone Repeater; South Jersey Club Routs Weequahic To Run Victory Skein To 47 Games"](https://www.newspapers.com/newspage/489739961/), *[The Record](/wiki/The_Record_%28North_Jersey%29 "The Record (North Jersey)")*, March 21, 1960\. Accessed March 6, 2021, via [Newspapers.com](/wiki/Newspapers.com "Newspapers.com"). "Powerful Camden emerged as the lone successful defending , champion in the forty\-second annual New Jersey State Interscholastic A. A. Basketball Tournament by whipping Weequahic, 64\-49, Saturday night The South Jersey quintet, in winning the Group 4 crown, extended its 2\-year undefeated string to 47, easily the best in the state at the present time." The team won a total of seven state championships in the 1970s and 1980s. *[USA Today](/wiki/USA_Today "USA Today")* ranked the 1986 team as number one nationwide. Curtis Walls, Lee Wall, Louis Banks, Sean Turner, Larry Cohen, Reggie Lawrence, Kevin Smith, Dennis Brown, Davis Nieves, and Vic Carstarphen all played on this team. The 2000 boys' basketball team won the South Jersey Group III state championship as the seventh\-seeded team, with an 89–64 win against top seed [Lakewood High School](/wiki/Lakewood_High_School_%28New_Jersey%29 "Lakewood High School (New Jersey)"), as [Dajuan Wagner](/wiki/Dajuan_Wagner "Dajuan Wagner") topped all scorers with 43 points.Narducci, Marc. ["Wagner Powers Camden To S.J. Title With 43 Points; The Super Junior Took Advantage Of A Man\-to\-man Defense By Lakewood. The Result Was An 89\-64 Camden Romp."](http://articles.philly.com/2000-03-08/sports/25607184_1_big-picture-lakewood-state-semifinals), *[The Philadelphia Inquirer](/wiki/The_Philadelphia_Inquirer "The Philadelphia Inquirer")*, March 8, 2000\. Accessed August 19, 2007\.[Public Sectionals \- South, Group III](http://www.bracketmaker.com/tmenu.cfm?tid=323&tclass=South%2C%20Group%20III), [New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association](/wiki/New_Jersey_State_Interscholastic_Athletic_Association "New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association"). Accessed August 19, 2007\. Camden High went on to win the State Group III title against [Malcolm X Shabazz High School](/wiki/Malcolm_X_Shabazz_High_School "Malcolm X Shabazz High School"). From there they moved on to the [Tournament of Champions](/wiki/Tournament_of_Champions_%28NJSIAA%29 "Tournament of Champions (NJSIAA)"), which pits the six state group champions (four public school and two private school groups) against each other to determine one overall champion. Camden defeated [Seton Hall Preparatory School](/wiki/Seton_Hall_Preparatory_School "Seton Hall Preparatory School") by a score of 50–46 in the tournament final.[NJSIAA Boys Basketball Tournament of Champions History](https://www.njsiaa.org/sites/default/files/documents/2020-11/2020-basketball-tofc-history.pdf), [New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association](/wiki/New_Jersey_State_Interscholastic_Athletic_Association "New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association"). Accessed November 20, 2020\. The boys track team won the Group IV spring / outdoor track state championship in 1975 and 1995–1997, and won the Group III title in 1998–2001, 2004 and 2005\. The program's 10 state titles are tied for eighth in the state.[NJSIAA Spring Track Summary of Group Titles Boys](https://www.njsiaa.org/sites/default/files/documents/2021-08/21-history.pdf), [New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association](/wiki/New_Jersey_State_Interscholastic_Athletic_Association "New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association"). Accessed September 1, 2022\. The 1976 football team finished the season with an 11–0 record after winning the NJSIAA South Jersey Group IV state sectional title with a 30–13 victory against [Toms River High School South](/wiki/Toms_River_High_School_South "Toms River High School South") in the championship game.[NJSIAA Football History](https://www.njsiaa.org/sites/default/files/documents/2021-12/21-football.pdf), [New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association](/wiki/New_Jersey_State_Interscholastic_Athletic_Association "New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association"). Accessed September 1, 2022\.Denman, Elliott. ["Unlisted Camden Player Heartbreaker to South"](https://www.newspapers.com/clip/67294899/camden-defeats-toms-river-south-for/), *[Asbury Park Press](/wiki/Asbury_Park_Press "Asbury Park Press")*, December 5, 1976\. Accessed January 9, 2021, via [Newspapers.com](/wiki/Newspapers.com "Newspapers.com"). But yesterday he broke out of the ranks of the anonymous with an 82\-yard return of a fumble recovery for the touchdown that gave Camden the momentum to march to a 30\-13 victory over Toms River South and the NJSIAA South Jersey Group IV championship."Pray, Rusty. ["1976 Defense key as Camden captures Group 4 title; Sets up 2 TDs, scores 3rd in rout of Toms River South"](https://www.newspapers.com/newspage/182682885/), *[Courier\-Post](/wiki/Courier-Post "Courier-Post")*, December 6, 1976\. Accessed February 21, 2021, via [Newspapers.com](/wiki/Newspapers.com "Newspapers.com"). "You can talk, but the fact of the matter is, Camden finished its football season 11\-0\-0 and as the Group 4 champion on defense. Even in what seemed was a romp over Toms River South, 30\-13, at Farnham Park Saturday for the title." The girls team won the NJSIAA spring track Group IV state championship in 1978 and 1979, won the Group III title in 2008, and won in Group II in 2009\.[NJSIAA Spring Track Summary of Group Titles Girls](https://www.njsiaa.org/sites/default/files/documents/2021-08/21-spring-track-group-history.pdf), [New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association](/wiki/New_Jersey_State_Interscholastic_Athletic_Association "New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association"). Accessed September 1, 2022\. The girls track team won the indoor relay championship in Group III in 1994 and 2008\. The boys team won the Group III title in 1997 and 1999, and won the Group II title in 2005[History of the NJSIAA Indoor Relay Championships](https://www.njsiaa.org/sites/default/files/documents/2020-12/20-relay-history_0.pdf), [New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association](/wiki/New_Jersey_State_Interscholastic_Athletic_Association "New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association"). Accessed September 1, 2022\. The boys track team won the indoor track championship in Group IV in 1996, in Group III in 1997, 2001, 2007 and 2008 (as co\-champion) and won in Group II in 2005\.[*Boys Winter Track and Field Championship History: 1922\-2023*](https://www.njsiaa.org/sites/default/files/documents/2024-01/Boys%20Indoor%20Track%20%26%20Field_0.pdf), [New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association](/wiki/New_Jersey_State_Interscholastic_Athletic_Association "New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association"), updated November 2023\. Accessed February 1, 2024\.
[ "Athletics\n---------", "The Camden High School Panthers compete in the [Olympic Conference](/wiki/Olympic_Conference_%28New_Jersey%29 \"Olympic Conference (New Jersey)\"),[Camden High School](https://www.njsiaa.org/schools/camden-high-school), [New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association](/wiki/New_Jersey_State_Interscholastic_Athletic_Association \"New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association\"). Accessed October 20, 2020\\. an athletic conference consisting of public and private high schools located in [Burlington County](/wiki/Burlington_County%2C_New_Jersey \"Burlington County, New Jersey\"), Camden County and [Gloucester County](/wiki/Gloucester_County%2C_New_Jersey \"Gloucester County, New Jersey\").[Member Schools](http://www.olympicconference.org/g5-bin/client.cgi?G5genie=349), Olympic Conference. Accessed July 30, 2017\\. The Olympic Conference operates under the supervision of the [New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association](/wiki/New_Jersey_State_Interscholastic_Athletic_Association \"New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association\") (NJSIAA).[League \\& Conference Officers/Affiliated Schools 2020\\-2021](https://www.njsiaa.org/sites/default/files/documents/2020-10/2020-2021-lc-officers-schools.pdf), [New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association](/wiki/New_Jersey_State_Interscholastic_Athletic_Association \"New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association\"). Accessed October 20, 2020\\. With 683 students in grades 10–12, the school was classified by the NJSIAA for the 2022–24 school years as Group II South for most athletic competition purposes.[NJSIAA General Classifications \\- Public Schools 2022\\-2023 and 2023\\-2024](https://www.njsiaa.org/sites/default/files/documents/2022-08/General%20Classifications%20%2722-%2723%20-%20%2723-%2724.pdf), [New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association](/wiki/New_Jersey_State_Interscholastic_Athletic_Association \"New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association\"). Accessed September 1, 2022\\. The football team competes in the Constitution Division of the 94\\-team [West Jersey Football League](/wiki/West_Jersey_Football_League \"West Jersey Football League\") superconference[Camden Panthers](https://www.gridironnewjersey.com/schoolDetail.aspx?schoolid=33), [West Jersey Football League](/wiki/West_Jersey_Football_League \"West Jersey Football League\"). Accessed May 1, 2023\\.[Home Page](https://www.westjerseyfootball.com), [West Jersey Football League](/wiki/West_Jersey_Football_League \"West Jersey Football League\"). Accessed May 1, 2023\\. \"The WJFL is a 94\\-school super conference that stretches from Princeton to Wildwood encompassing schools from the Colonial Valley Conference, the Burlington County Scholastic League, the Olympic Conference, the Tri\\-County Conference, the Colonial Conference, and the Cape Atlantic League. The WJFL is made up of sixteen divisions with divisional alignments based on school size, geography and a strength\\-of\\-program component.\" and was classified by the NJSIAA as Group II South for football for 2024–2026, which included schools with 514 to 685 students.[NJSIAA Football Public School Classifications 2024–2026](https://www.njsiaa.org/sites/default/files/documents/2024-08/football-2024-2026.pdf), [New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association](/wiki/New_Jersey_State_Interscholastic_Athletic_Association \"New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association\"), updated September 2024\\. Accessed September 1, 2024\\.", "Previously, the athletic teams at Camden High School were called/known as the \"Purple Avalanche,\" a fitting name for the large football teams (60 or more players) on the sideline at the start of their games in the 1960s and 1970s.Callahan, Kevin. [\"Frambes was go\\-to guy for S.J. sports history\"](https://archive.today/20130131141603/http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/courierpostonline/access/1701203161.html?FMT=ABS&FMTS=ABS:FT&type=current&date=Jul+06,+2008&author=KEVIN+CALLAHAN&pub=Courier+Post&desc=Frambes+was+go-to+guy+for+S.J.+sports+history&pqatl=google), *[Courier\\-Post](/wiki/Courier-Post \"Courier-Post\")*, July 6, 2008\\. Accessed July 19, 2012\\. That was because often unbeaten seasons and championships were on the line when the Purple Avalanche (Camden's old nickname) played the Panthers of Collingswood.\" As of 2009, Camden High had won over 41 South Jersey Championships, and appeared in over 20 state championship games, winning 11 of them.{{citation needed\\|date\\=July 2012}}", "The school and their crosstown rival, [Woodrow Wilson High School](/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson_High_School_%28New_Jersey%29 \"Woodrow Wilson High School (New Jersey)\"), still play the traditional Thanksgiving Day football game each year. The Thanksgiving Day game in 1979 was suspended after rival gangs started shooting at each other, resulting in at least 14 injuries and dozens of arrests.Staff. [\"14 Hurt at Camden Stadium As Gangs Exchange Gunfire; 37 Taken Into Custody\"](https://www.nytimes.com/1979/11/23/archives/14-hurt-at-camden-stadium-as-gangs-exchange-gunfire-37-taken-into.html), *[The New York Times](/wiki/The_New_York_Times \"The New York Times\")*, November 23, 1979\\. Accessed July 1, 2011\\. \"Three separate volleys of shots, perhaps a dozen in all, set off a stampede of hundreds of an estimated total of 3,600 football fans and led to the suspension of the Thanksgiving Day game between Camden and Woodrow Wilson High School, which are traditional rivals.\" The school has had a football rivalry since 1931 with [Camden Catholic High School](/wiki/Camden_Catholic_High_School \"Camden Catholic High School\"); Camden Catholic leads the series with an overall record of 35–29–2 through the 2017 season. [NJ.com](/wiki/NJ.com \"NJ.com\") listed the rivalry as 28th on its 2017 list \"Ranking the 31 fiercest rivalries in N.J. HS football\"Stypulkoski, Matt. [\"Ranking the 31 fiercest rivalries in N.J. HS football\"](https://www.nj.com/highschoolsports/article/ranking-njs-31-best-high-school-football-rivalries/), NJ Advance Media for [NJ.com](/wiki/NJ.com \"NJ.com\"), October 27, 2017, updated May 15, 2019\\. Accessed December 1, 2020\\. \"25\\-Camden vs. Camden Catholic.. This is a local rivalry that started in 1931 between Camden and Camden Catholic, which is located in nearby Cherry Hill.... All\\-time series: Camden Catholic leads, 35\\-29\\-2\"", "The boys basketball team won the Group IV state championship in 1945 (vs. [Union Hill High School](/wiki/Union_Hill_High_School \"Union Hill High School\") in the final game of the tournament), 1959 (vs. [Weequahic High School](/wiki/Weequahic_High_School \"Weequahic High School\")), 1960 (vs. Weequahic), 1978 (vs. [Linden High School](/wiki/Linden_High_School_%28New_Jersey%29 \"Linden High School (New Jersey)\")), 1979 (vs. Union Hill), 1982 (vs. [Montclair High School](/wiki/Montclair_High_School_%28New_Jersey%29 \"Montclair High School (New Jersey)\")), 1984 (vs. [JFK of Paterson](/wiki/John_F._Kennedy_High_School_%28Paterson%2C_New_Jersey%29 \"John F. Kennedy High School (Paterson, New Jersey)\")), 1986 (vs. Montclair), 1987 (vs. JFK of Paterson), and won the Group III title in 1974 (vs. [Memorial of West New York](/wiki/Memorial_High_School_%28West_New_York%2C_New_Jersey%29 \"Memorial High School (West New York, New Jersey)\")) and 2000 (vs. [Lawrence High School](/wiki/Lawrence_High_School_%28New_Jersey%29 \"Lawrence High School (New Jersey)\")). The 11 group championships won by the program is tied for the fourth\\-most of any school in the state.[NJSIAA Boys Basketball Championship History](https://www.njsiaa.org/sites/default/files/documents/2020-11/2020-basketball-history_0.pdf), [New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association](/wiki/New_Jersey_State_Interscholastic_Athletic_Association \"New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association\"). Accessed September 1, 2022\\. The 1945 team won the Group IV title with a 46–38 win against Union Hill in the championship game played at the Elizabeth Armory.[\"Camden Beats Union City To Win State Championship; Carter Nets 21 Points in 46\\-38 Victory; Outstanding Player in Tourney\"](https://www.newspapers.com/newspage/447752421/), *[Courier\\-Post](/wiki/Courier-Post \"Courier-Post\")*, March 19, 1945\\. Accessed January 9, 2021, via [Newspapers.com](/wiki/Newspapers.com \"Newspapers.com\"). \"For the first time in the history of the 27 year\\-old New Jersey State Interscholastic Association basketball tournament, which concluded a four\\-night run Saturday at the Armory, Camden High school carried off a state championship. The South Jersey Group 4 representatives, who completely dominated the tourney from the minute they stepped on the floor on Friday night, turned in another super\\-fine exhibition in the title round, routing Union Hill, 46\\-38\\.\" The boys' basketball team went undefeated in both 1959 and 1960, winning state championships each year. The team won the 1959 Group IV state title with a 94\\-73 win against Weequahic in the championship game.[\"Unbeaten Camden Gains State Title; Defeats Weequahic, 94\\-73, in Group 4 Basketball As Smith Scores 42\"](https://www.nytimes.com/1959/03/22/archives/unbeaten-camden-gains-state-title-defeats-weequahic-9473-in-group-4.html), *[The New York Times](/wiki/The_New_York_Times \"The New York Times\")*, March 22, 1959\\. Accessed February 27, 2021\\. \"Unbeaten Camden High School, sparked by Ronald (Itchy) Smith, defeated Weequahic High, 94\\-73, tonight to take the Group 4 championship in the New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association basketball tournament.\" A crowd of 5,000 at the Camden Convention Hall watched the 1960 team win the Group IV title with a 64–49 victory against Weequahic in the finals to extended the team's unbeaten streak to 47 games over two seasons.Hall, Bill. [\"Camden High Romps, 64\\-49\\. To Win State Group 4 Title\"](https://www.newspapers.com/newspage/168052934/), *[The Philadelphia Inquirer](/wiki/The_Philadelphia_Inquirer \"The Philadelphia Inquirer\")*, March 20, 1960\\. Accessed March 6, 2021, via [Newspapers.com](/wiki/Newspapers.com \"Newspapers.com\"). \"Coach Tony Alfano's Purple Avalanche, more widely known as Camden High School's basketball team, fell on Weequahic (Newark) High, 64\\-49, and thereby donned its second straight New Jersey State Interscholastic AA Group 4 crown Saturday night in Camden Convention Hall before more than 5000 (4650 paid) howling; partisans.\"Ryan, John. [\"Camden Emerges As Lone Repeater; South Jersey Club Routs Weequahic To Run Victory Skein To 47 Games\"](https://www.newspapers.com/newspage/489739961/), *[The Record](/wiki/The_Record_%28North_Jersey%29 \"The Record (North Jersey)\")*, March 21, 1960\\. Accessed March 6, 2021, via [Newspapers.com](/wiki/Newspapers.com \"Newspapers.com\"). \"Powerful Camden emerged as the lone successful defending , champion in the forty\\-second annual New Jersey State Interscholastic A. A. Basketball Tournament by whipping Weequahic, 64\\-49, Saturday night The South Jersey quintet, in winning the Group 4 crown, extended its 2\\-year undefeated string to 47, easily the best in the state at the present time.\" The team won a total of seven state championships in the 1970s and 1980s. *[USA Today](/wiki/USA_Today \"USA Today\")* ranked the 1986 team as number one nationwide. Curtis Walls, Lee Wall, Louis Banks, Sean Turner, Larry Cohen, Reggie Lawrence, Kevin Smith, Dennis Brown, Davis Nieves, and Vic Carstarphen all played on this team. The 2000 boys' basketball team won the South Jersey Group III state championship as the seventh\\-seeded team, with an 89–64 win against top seed [Lakewood High School](/wiki/Lakewood_High_School_%28New_Jersey%29 \"Lakewood High School (New Jersey)\"), as [Dajuan Wagner](/wiki/Dajuan_Wagner \"Dajuan Wagner\") topped all scorers with 43 points.Narducci, Marc. [\"Wagner Powers Camden To S.J. Title With 43 Points; The Super Junior Took Advantage Of A Man\\-to\\-man Defense By Lakewood. The Result Was An 89\\-64 Camden Romp.\"](http://articles.philly.com/2000-03-08/sports/25607184_1_big-picture-lakewood-state-semifinals), *[The Philadelphia Inquirer](/wiki/The_Philadelphia_Inquirer \"The Philadelphia Inquirer\")*, March 8, 2000\\. Accessed August 19, 2007\\.[Public Sectionals \\- South, Group III](http://www.bracketmaker.com/tmenu.cfm?tid=323&tclass=South%2C%20Group%20III), [New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association](/wiki/New_Jersey_State_Interscholastic_Athletic_Association \"New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association\"). Accessed August 19, 2007\\. Camden High went on to win the State Group III title against [Malcolm X Shabazz High School](/wiki/Malcolm_X_Shabazz_High_School \"Malcolm X Shabazz High School\"). From there they moved on to the [Tournament of Champions](/wiki/Tournament_of_Champions_%28NJSIAA%29 \"Tournament of Champions (NJSIAA)\"), which pits the six state group champions (four public school and two private school groups) against each other to determine one overall champion. Camden defeated [Seton Hall Preparatory School](/wiki/Seton_Hall_Preparatory_School \"Seton Hall Preparatory School\") by a score of 50–46 in the tournament final.[NJSIAA Boys Basketball Tournament of Champions History](https://www.njsiaa.org/sites/default/files/documents/2020-11/2020-basketball-tofc-history.pdf), [New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association](/wiki/New_Jersey_State_Interscholastic_Athletic_Association \"New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association\"). Accessed November 20, 2020\\.", "The boys track team won the Group IV spring / outdoor track state championship in 1975 and 1995–1997, and won the Group III title in 1998–2001, 2004 and 2005\\. The program's 10 state titles are tied for eighth in the state.[NJSIAA Spring Track Summary of Group Titles Boys](https://www.njsiaa.org/sites/default/files/documents/2021-08/21-history.pdf), [New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association](/wiki/New_Jersey_State_Interscholastic_Athletic_Association \"New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association\"). Accessed September 1, 2022\\.", "The 1976 football team finished the season with an 11–0 record after winning the NJSIAA South Jersey Group IV state sectional title with a 30–13 victory against [Toms River High School South](/wiki/Toms_River_High_School_South \"Toms River High School South\") in the championship game.[NJSIAA Football History](https://www.njsiaa.org/sites/default/files/documents/2021-12/21-football.pdf), [New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association](/wiki/New_Jersey_State_Interscholastic_Athletic_Association \"New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association\"). Accessed September 1, 2022\\.Denman, Elliott. [\"Unlisted Camden Player Heartbreaker to South\"](https://www.newspapers.com/clip/67294899/camden-defeats-toms-river-south-for/), *[Asbury Park Press](/wiki/Asbury_Park_Press \"Asbury Park Press\")*, December 5, 1976\\. Accessed January 9, 2021, via [Newspapers.com](/wiki/Newspapers.com \"Newspapers.com\"). But yesterday he broke out of the ranks of the anonymous with an 82\\-yard return of a fumble recovery for the touchdown that gave Camden the momentum to march to a 30\\-13 victory over Toms River South and the NJSIAA South Jersey Group IV championship.\"Pray, Rusty. [\"1976 Defense key as Camden captures Group 4 title; Sets up 2 TDs, scores 3rd in rout of Toms River South\"](https://www.newspapers.com/newspage/182682885/), *[Courier\\-Post](/wiki/Courier-Post \"Courier-Post\")*, December 6, 1976\\. Accessed February 21, 2021, via [Newspapers.com](/wiki/Newspapers.com \"Newspapers.com\"). \"You can talk, but the fact of the matter is, Camden finished its football season 11\\-0\\-0 and as the Group 4 champion on defense. Even in what seemed was a romp over Toms River South, 30\\-13, at Farnham Park Saturday for the title.\"", "The girls team won the NJSIAA spring track Group IV state championship in 1978 and 1979, won the Group III title in 2008, and won in Group II in 2009\\.[NJSIAA Spring Track Summary of Group Titles Girls](https://www.njsiaa.org/sites/default/files/documents/2021-08/21-spring-track-group-history.pdf), [New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association](/wiki/New_Jersey_State_Interscholastic_Athletic_Association \"New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association\"). Accessed September 1, 2022\\.", "The girls track team won the indoor relay championship in Group III in 1994 and 2008\\. The boys team won the Group III title in 1997 and 1999, and won the Group II title in 2005[History of the NJSIAA Indoor Relay Championships](https://www.njsiaa.org/sites/default/files/documents/2020-12/20-relay-history_0.pdf), [New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association](/wiki/New_Jersey_State_Interscholastic_Athletic_Association \"New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association\"). Accessed September 1, 2022\\.", "The boys track team won the indoor track championship in Group IV in 1996, in Group III in 1997, 2001, 2007 and 2008 (as co\\-champion) and won in Group II in 2005\\.[*Boys Winter Track and Field Championship History: 1922\\-2023*](https://www.njsiaa.org/sites/default/files/documents/2024-01/Boys%20Indoor%20Track%20%26%20Field_0.pdf), [New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association](/wiki/New_Jersey_State_Interscholastic_Athletic_Association \"New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association\"), updated November 2023\\. Accessed February 1, 2024\\.", "" ]
Chief of Naval Staff -------------------- {{quote box \|quote \= I am duty\-bound to continue to ensure the rightful maritime status for my country that it deserves so that it must be dealt and treated in proper manners.\|Admiral Bashir, interview given to ''\[\[Geo News]]'' in 2008\|Cited source{{cite news\|last\=GEO News\|title\=Pak territory can't be used against any county: Admiral Noman\|url\=http://www.geo.tv/10\-6\-2008/26361\.htm\|accessdate\=11 March 2013\|newspaper\=GEO News Pakistan\|date\=6 October 2008}} }} Upon the retirement of Adm. [Afzal Tahir](/wiki/Afzal_Tahir "Afzal Tahir") being confirmed, Vice\-Adm. Noman Bashir was in the race of the promotion to [four\-star](/wiki/Four-star_rank "Four-star rank") rank alongside with four senior navy admirals included with seniority:{{cite news \|title\=Noman Bashir new Chief of Naval Staff \|url\=https://www.dawn.com/news/324051 \|accessdate\=5 August 2018 \|work\=DAWN.COM \|agency\=Dawn Newspaper \|publisher\=Dawn Newspaper \|date\=6 October 2008}} * + [V\-Adm.](/wiki/Vice-Admiral "Vice-Admiral") [Asaf Humayun](/wiki/Asaf_Humayun "Asaf Humayun"), senior [fleet commander](/wiki/Fleet_Commander "Fleet Commander") of Pakistan Fleet based in Karachi. + V\-Adm. Noman Bashir, Commander of [Karachi coast](/wiki/Karachi_coast "Karachi coast") based in Karachi. + V\-Adm. Saleem Minai, [DCNS (Personnel)](/wiki/Deputy_Chief_of_the_Naval_Staff_%28Pakistan%29 "Deputy Chief of the Naval Staff (Pakistan)") in [Navy NHQ](/wiki/NHQ_%28Pakistan_Navy%29 "NHQ (Pakistan Navy)") in [Islamabad](/wiki/Islamabad "Islamabad"). + V\-Adm. M. A. Khan, [DCNS (Operations)](/wiki/Deputy_Chief_of_the_Naval_Staff_%28Pakistan%29 "Deputy Chief of the Naval Staff (Pakistan)") in [Navy NHQ](/wiki/NHQ_%28Pakistan_Navy%29 "NHQ (Pakistan Navy)") in [Islamabad](/wiki/Islamabad "Islamabad"). On 5 October 2008, [President](/wiki/President_of_Pakistan "President of Pakistan") [Asif Zardari](/wiki/Asif_Ali_Zardari "Asif Ali Zardari") eventually promoted V\-Adm. Bashir as the [four\-star admiral](/wiki/Four-star_admiral "Four-star admiral") in the Navy and appointed Adm. Noman as [Chief of Naval Staff](/wiki/Chief_of_Naval_Staff_%28Pakistan%29 "Chief of Naval Staff (Pakistan)") (CNS), superseding the senior most V\-Adm. [Asaf Humayun](/wiki/Asaf_Humayun "Asaf Humayun") who was moved to be appointed as [Vice Chief of Naval Staff](/wiki/Chief_of_Naval_Staff_%28Pakistan%29%23Vice_Chief_of_Naval_Staff "Chief of Naval Staff (Pakistan)#Vice Chief of Naval Staff") (VCNS).{{cite news \|title\=Vice\-chief of naval staff \|url\=https://www.dawn.com/news/968854 \|accessdate\=5 August 2018 \|work\=DAWN.COM \|date\=31 October 2008}}{{cite news\|last\=GEO News headlines\|title\=President appoints Noman Bashir as Naval Chief\|url\=http://www.geo.tv/10\-5\-2008/26322\.htm\|accessdate\=11 March 2013\|newspaper\=GEO News headlines\|date\=5 October 2008}}["Vice Admiral Asaf Humayun appointed as Vice Chief of Naval Staff "](http://www.app.com.pk/en_/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=57707) *Associated Press of Pakistan*, 31 October 2008 It was reported that then\-[Defence Minister](/wiki/Defence_Minister_of_Pakistan "Defence Minister of Pakistan") [Ahmed Mukhtar](/wiki/Ahmed_Mukhtar "Ahmed Mukhtar") had recommended Adm. Noman's name over V\-Adm. Humayun to be elevated at the four\-star rank. Eventually, V\-Adm. Humayun was appointed as vice naval chief on 31 October 2008\. After assuming the command, Admiral Bashir thanked the president for the appointment and recognized the role of Navy facing the multiple challenges in the realm of maritime security due to the presence of various powers in Pakistan's area of interest. Talking to the media, Bashir vowed that Navy to rise to the occasion to safeguard the national interests at any cost.{{cite news\|last\=Sajjad Malik\|title\=Noman Bashir assumes command of Pakistan Navy\|url\=http://www.dailytimes.com.pk/default.asp?page\=2008\\10\\08\\story\_8\-10\-2008\_pg7\_13\|accessdate\=11 March 2013\|newspaper\=Daily Pakistan, 2080\|date\=8 October 2008}} He commanded and coordinated the navy\-army operations in [north\-western](/wiki/War_in_North-West_Pakistan "War in North-West Pakistan") contingent of the country and expanded the role of navy on wide range of its operational capacity.{{cite news\|last\=Staff\|title\=Pakistan Navy Planning Massive Overhaul Acquisitions\|url\=http://news.oneindia.in/2010/04/23/paknavy\-planning\-massive\-overhaul\-new\-acquisitions\-tocou.html\|accessdate\=11 March 2013\|newspaper\=One India\|date\=23 April 2012}} Major deployments of navy was made under Admiral Bashir in all over the country to curbed the terrorism.{{cite news\|last\=Staff\|title\=Move for maritime body to prevent terror attacks\|url\=http://archives.dawn.com/archives/38008\|accessdate\=11 March 2013\|newspaper\=Dawn News Archives\|date\=30 October 2009}} Admiral Bashir earned public notability and public appraise after successfully executing the cross\-border [operation](/wiki/Operation_Umeed-e-Nuh "Operation Umeed-e-Nuh") to evacuated the Pakistani nationals from [Somalia](/wiki/Somalia "Somalia").{{cite news\|last\=News Desk\|title\=MV Suez crew to be shifted to PNS Babur\|url\=http://www.geo.tv/6\-19\-2011/82672\.htm\|accessdate\=11 March 2013\|newspaper\=GEO NEWs 2011\|date\=19 June 2011}} This cross border operation was conducted by Navy alone; and Admiral Bashir personally supervised the execution of the operation.{{cite news\|last\=APP\|title\=PN successfully completes rescue operation\|url\=http://app.com.pk/en\_/index.php?option\=com\_content\&task\=view\&id\=142709\&Itemid\=38\|accessdate\=11 March 2013\|newspaper\=APP Pakistan\|date\=19 June 2011\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20111007203611/http://app.com.pk/en\_/index.php?option\=com\_content\&task\=view\&id\=142709\&Itemid\=38\|archive\-date\=7 October 2011\|url\-status\=dead}} ### Indo\-Pakistani standoff in 2008 {{Main\|2008 Indo\-Pakistani standoff}} [250px\|right\|thumb\|CNS Admiral Bashir meeting with American [CNO](/wiki/Chief_of_Naval_Operations "Chief of Naval Operations") Admiral [Gary Roughead](/wiki/Gary_Roughead "Gary Roughead").](/wiki/File:US_Navy_090820-N-8273J-088_hief_of_Naval_Operations_%28CNO%29_Adm._Gary_Roughead_meets_with_Chief_of_Naval_Staff_of_Pakistan%2C_Adm._Noman_Bashir_during_an_office_call.jpg "US Navy 090820-N-8273J-088 hief of Naval Operations (CNO) Adm. Gary Roughead meets with Chief of Naval Staff of Pakistan, Adm. Noman Bashir during an office call.jpg") Only a month of assuming his role as [Chief of Naval Staff](/wiki/Chief_of_Naval_Staff_%28Pakistan%29 "Chief of Naval Staff (Pakistan)"), Adm. Bashir faced the major crises with neighboring India after the [deadly attacks](/wiki/2008_Mumbai_attacks "2008 Mumbai attacks") were perpetuated in [Mumbai](/wiki/Mumbai "Mumbai") in November 2008\. Adm. Bashir high\-alerted the Navy and deployed the combatant commands of the Navy to protect the naval vicinity of [Sindh](/wiki/Sindh "Sindh") and [Balochistan](/wiki/Balochistan%2C_Pakistan "Balochistan, Pakistan"). Initially, Adm. Bashir denied that the terrorists who attacked the city had not used the sea routes from Pakistan to reach the city.{{cite news\|last\=Staff\|title\=Mumbai terrorists did come through sea\|url\=http://www.thedailystar.net/newDesign/news\-details.php?nid\=77936\|accessdate\=11 March 2013\|newspaper\=The Daily Star\|date\=1 March 2009}} In a pressing briefing at the [ISPR](/wiki/Inter-Services_Public_Relations "Inter-Services Public Relations"), Adm. Bashir maintained that: "We have no evidence whatsoever that [\[Ajmal Kasab]](/wiki/Ajmal_Kasab "Ajmal Kasab") had gone to India from Pakistani waters. The [Indian Navy](/wiki/Indian_Navy "Indian Navy") is much larger than ours, and if Ajmal Kasab had gone from here, then what were [their Coast Guards](/wiki/Indian_Coast_Guard "Indian Coast Guard") doing, and why did they did not stop the terrorists?."{{cite news\|last\=Staff\|title\=Mumbai attack: Antony, Navy chief strongly rebut Pakistan's about turn\|url\=http://www.kashmirnow.com/kashmir\_news/National/10917\-Mumbai\-attack\-Antony\-Navy\-chief\-strongly\-rebut\-Pakistans\-about\-turn.html\|accessdate\=11 March 2013\|newspaper\=Kashmir webnews\|date\=28 February 2009}} His statement was widely criticized by [Indian government](/wiki/Indian_government "Indian government") and [Indian Defence Minister](/wiki/Defence_Minister_of_India "Defence Minister of India") [A. K. Antony](/wiki/A._K._Antony "A. K. Antony") strongly rebutted his statement. However, after a day of releasing his statement, Adm. Bashir retraced his statement and reiterated that "whatever evidence \[Indians] have is correct."{{cite news\|last\=Agencies\|title\=A day after, Pak Navy Chief says, India's proof correct\|url\=http://www.indianexpress.com/news/a\-day\-after\-pak\-navy\-chief\-says\-india\-s\-proof\-correct/429234/\|accessdate\=11 March 2013\|newspaper\=The Indian Express\|date\=11 March 2013}} Adm. Bashir strongly criticized [Indian](/wiki/Indian_Army "Indian Army") [army chief](/wiki/Chief_of_Army_Staff_of_the_Indian_Army "Chief of Army Staff of the Indian Army") General [Deepak Kapoor](/wiki/Deepak_Kapoor "Deepak Kapoor")'s statement about simultaneous war with [China](/wiki/China "China") and Pakistan.{{cite news\|last\=News Desk\|title\=Indian generals aware of our strength: Admiral Noman\|url\=http://www.aaj.tv/2010/01/indian\-generals\-aware\-of\-our\-strength\-admiral\-noman/\|accessdate\=11 March 2013\|newspaper\=AAJ TV\|date\=7 January 2010}} Talking to the *[AAJ TV](/wiki/AAJ_TV "AAJ TV")*, Admiral Bashir quoted that :"[Indian generals](/wiki/Indian_Army "Indian Army") are well aware of our strength." He maintained to the television correspondents that he does not take Indian army chief General Deepak Kapoor's statement seriously as he "knows about the strength of his neighboring countries, [Pakistan and China](/wiki/Pakistan_and_China "Pakistan and China")." In 2008, in an interview to a *[Daily Pakistan](/wiki/Daily_Pakistan "Daily Pakistan")*, the Admiral Noman Bashir, had told his interviewer that "Pakistan was quite capable of building a [nuclear submarine](/wiki/Nuclear_submarine "Nuclear submarine") and would do so "if required".{{cite news\|last\=Singh\|first\=Abhijit\|title\=Pakistan Navy's 'Nuclear' Aspirations – Analysis\|url\=http://www.eurasiareview.com/30062012\-pakistan\-navys\-nuclear\-aspirations\-analysis/\|accessdate\=11 March 2013\|newspaper\=Euroasia review\|date\=30 June 2012}} Pakistan is a "recognized [nuclear power](/wiki/Nuclear_power "Nuclear power")" and if the government made a decision, the nation would develop a naval variant nuclear weapon. During this time, he began pushed and lobbied for building the [nuclear submarine](/wiki/Nuclear_submarine "Nuclear submarine") and finally, in February 2012, the government gave green signals and authorised the development of the nation's first nuclear submarine after releasing the funds.{{cite news\|last\=Staff\|title\=Pak Navy to build nuclear submarine\|url\=http://www.arynews.tv/english/newsdetail.asp?nid\=54527\|accessdate\=11 March 2013\|newspaper\=AR News\|date\=10 February 2012\|url\-status\=dead\|archiveurl\=https://archive.today/20130418182536/http://www.arynews.tv/english/newsdetail.asp?nid\=54527\|archivedate\=18 April 2013}} In 2010, Bashir noted that "the [Indian Navy](/wiki/Indian_Navy "Indian Navy") wants to increase military might in the region."{{cite news\|last\=News Desk\|title\=India wants to increase military might: Adm. Noman Bashir\|url\=http://dunyanews.tv/print\_news\_eng.php?nid\=22202\&catid\=2\&flag\=d\|accessdate\=11 March 2013\|newspaper\=Dunya News\|date\=26 February 2010}} ### PNS Mehran attack {{Main\|Operation Black Thunderstorm\|Operation Rah\-e\-Nijat\|PNS Mehran attack}} [200px\|thumb\|left\|Admiral Bashir salutes to Navy personnel of Pakistan and U.S.](/wiki/File:US_Navy_100324-N-8590G-005_Chief_of_Naval_Staff_of_the_Pakistan_Navy_Adm._Noman_Bashir_departs_the_guided-missile_frigate_USS_Klakring_%28FFG_42%29_after_a_ship_tour.jpg "US Navy 100324-N-8590G-005 Chief of Naval Staff of the Pakistan Navy Adm. Noman Bashir departs the guided-missile frigate USS Klakring (FFG 42) after a ship tour.jpg") Admiral Noman Bashir was the chief of naval staff when [Al Qaeda](/wiki/Al_Qaeda "Al Qaeda") attacked [PNS Mehran](/wiki/PNS_Mehran "PNS Mehran"), a Pakistan Naval Air Station in retaliation for the killing of [Osama Bin Ladin](/wiki/Osama_Bin_Ladin "Osama Bin Ladin"). Despite being Naval chief at the breach of the [insurgency](/wiki/War_in_North-West_Pakistan "War in North-West Pakistan") in the country his command failed to intercept the threat of an attack on a sensitive installation of the [Pakistan Naval Air Arm](/wiki/Pakistan_Naval_Air_Arm "Pakistan Naval Air Arm"), the failure of which lead to a day long siege of the base in the middle of Pakistan's largest city, Karachi. Admiral Bashir was widely criticized for not properly protecting the [naval base](/wiki/PNS_Mehran "PNS Mehran") from being [attacked](/wiki/PNS_Mehran_Operation "PNS Mehran Operation") by group of terrorists or moving quickly enough to organise the defence of the base and the operation to take it back, leading to PNS Mehran being over\-run by terrorists for nearly an entire day.{{cite news\|last\=Ejaz Haider\|title\=Hopes dancing on bald men's hair\|url\=http://tribune.com.pk/story/174998/hopes\-dancing\-on\-bald\-mens\-hair/\|accessdate\=11 March 2013\|newspaper\=Tribune Express\|date\=25 May 2011}}
[ "Chief of Naval Staff\n--------------------", "{{quote box \\|quote \\= I am duty\\-bound to continue to ensure the rightful maritime status for my country that it deserves so that it must be dealt and treated in proper manners.\\|Admiral Bashir, interview given to ''\\[\\[Geo News]]'' in 2008\\|Cited source{{cite news\\|last\\=GEO News\\|title\\=Pak territory can't be used against any county: Admiral Noman\\|url\\=http://www.geo.tv/10\\-6\\-2008/26361\\.htm\\|accessdate\\=11 March 2013\\|newspaper\\=GEO News Pakistan\\|date\\=6 October 2008}} }}", "Upon the retirement of Adm. [Afzal Tahir](/wiki/Afzal_Tahir \"Afzal Tahir\") being confirmed, Vice\\-Adm. Noman Bashir was in the race of the promotion to [four\\-star](/wiki/Four-star_rank \"Four-star rank\") rank \nalongside with four senior navy admirals included with seniority:{{cite news \\|title\\=Noman Bashir new Chief of Naval Staff \\|url\\=https://www.dawn.com/news/324051 \\|accessdate\\=5 August 2018 \\|work\\=DAWN.COM \\|agency\\=Dawn Newspaper \\|publisher\\=Dawn Newspaper \\|date\\=6 October 2008}}\n* + [V\\-Adm.](/wiki/Vice-Admiral \"Vice-Admiral\") [Asaf Humayun](/wiki/Asaf_Humayun \"Asaf Humayun\"), senior [fleet commander](/wiki/Fleet_Commander \"Fleet Commander\") of Pakistan Fleet based in Karachi.\n\t+ V\\-Adm. Noman Bashir, Commander of [Karachi coast](/wiki/Karachi_coast \"Karachi coast\") based in Karachi.\n\t+ V\\-Adm. Saleem Minai, [DCNS (Personnel)](/wiki/Deputy_Chief_of_the_Naval_Staff_%28Pakistan%29 \"Deputy Chief of the Naval Staff (Pakistan)\") in [Navy NHQ](/wiki/NHQ_%28Pakistan_Navy%29 \"NHQ (Pakistan Navy)\") in [Islamabad](/wiki/Islamabad \"Islamabad\").\n\t+ V\\-Adm. M. A. Khan, [DCNS (Operations)](/wiki/Deputy_Chief_of_the_Naval_Staff_%28Pakistan%29 \"Deputy Chief of the Naval Staff (Pakistan)\") in [Navy NHQ](/wiki/NHQ_%28Pakistan_Navy%29 \"NHQ (Pakistan Navy)\") in [Islamabad](/wiki/Islamabad \"Islamabad\").", "On 5 October 2008, [President](/wiki/President_of_Pakistan \"President of Pakistan\") [Asif Zardari](/wiki/Asif_Ali_Zardari \"Asif Ali Zardari\") eventually promoted V\\-Adm. Bashir as the [four\\-star admiral](/wiki/Four-star_admiral \"Four-star admiral\") in the Navy and appointed Adm. Noman as [Chief of Naval Staff](/wiki/Chief_of_Naval_Staff_%28Pakistan%29 \"Chief of Naval Staff (Pakistan)\") (CNS), superseding the senior most V\\-Adm. [Asaf Humayun](/wiki/Asaf_Humayun \"Asaf Humayun\") who was moved to be appointed as [Vice Chief of Naval Staff](/wiki/Chief_of_Naval_Staff_%28Pakistan%29%23Vice_Chief_of_Naval_Staff \"Chief of Naval Staff (Pakistan)#Vice Chief of Naval Staff\") (VCNS).{{cite news \\|title\\=Vice\\-chief of naval staff \\|url\\=https://www.dawn.com/news/968854 \\|accessdate\\=5 August 2018 \\|work\\=DAWN.COM \\|date\\=31 October 2008}}{{cite news\\|last\\=GEO News headlines\\|title\\=President appoints Noman Bashir as Naval Chief\\|url\\=http://www.geo.tv/10\\-5\\-2008/26322\\.htm\\|accessdate\\=11 March 2013\\|newspaper\\=GEO News headlines\\|date\\=5 October 2008}}[\"Vice Admiral Asaf Humayun appointed as Vice Chief of Naval Staff \"](http://www.app.com.pk/en_/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=57707) *Associated Press of Pakistan*, 31 October 2008", "It was reported that then\\-[Defence Minister](/wiki/Defence_Minister_of_Pakistan \"Defence Minister of Pakistan\") [Ahmed Mukhtar](/wiki/Ahmed_Mukhtar \"Ahmed Mukhtar\") had recommended Adm. Noman's name over V\\-Adm. Humayun to be elevated at the four\\-star rank. Eventually, V\\-Adm. Humayun was appointed as vice naval chief on 31 October 2008\\.", "After assuming the command, Admiral Bashir thanked the president for the appointment and recognized the role of Navy facing the multiple challenges in the realm of maritime security due to the presence of various powers in Pakistan's area of interest.", "Talking to the media, Bashir vowed that Navy to rise to the occasion to safeguard the national interests at any cost.{{cite news\\|last\\=Sajjad Malik\\|title\\=Noman Bashir assumes command of Pakistan Navy\\|url\\=http://www.dailytimes.com.pk/default.asp?page\\=2008\\\\10\\\\08\\\\story\\_8\\-10\\-2008\\_pg7\\_13\\|accessdate\\=11 March 2013\\|newspaper\\=Daily Pakistan, 2080\\|date\\=8 October 2008}}", "He commanded and coordinated the navy\\-army operations in [north\\-western](/wiki/War_in_North-West_Pakistan \"War in North-West Pakistan\") contingent of the country and expanded the role of navy on wide range of its operational capacity.{{cite news\\|last\\=Staff\\|title\\=Pakistan Navy Planning Massive Overhaul Acquisitions\\|url\\=http://news.oneindia.in/2010/04/23/paknavy\\-planning\\-massive\\-overhaul\\-new\\-acquisitions\\-tocou.html\\|accessdate\\=11 March 2013\\|newspaper\\=One India\\|date\\=23 April 2012}} Major deployments of navy was made under Admiral Bashir in all over the country to curbed the terrorism.{{cite news\\|last\\=Staff\\|title\\=Move for maritime body to prevent terror attacks\\|url\\=http://archives.dawn.com/archives/38008\\|accessdate\\=11 March 2013\\|newspaper\\=Dawn News Archives\\|date\\=30 October 2009}} Admiral Bashir earned public notability and public appraise after successfully executing the cross\\-border [operation](/wiki/Operation_Umeed-e-Nuh \"Operation Umeed-e-Nuh\") to evacuated the Pakistani nationals from [Somalia](/wiki/Somalia \"Somalia\").{{cite news\\|last\\=News Desk\\|title\\=MV Suez crew to be shifted to PNS Babur\\|url\\=http://www.geo.tv/6\\-19\\-2011/82672\\.htm\\|accessdate\\=11 March 2013\\|newspaper\\=GEO NEWs 2011\\|date\\=19 June 2011}} This cross border operation was conducted by Navy alone; and Admiral Bashir personally supervised the execution of the operation.{{cite news\\|last\\=APP\\|title\\=PN successfully completes rescue operation\\|url\\=http://app.com.pk/en\\_/index.php?option\\=com\\_content\\&task\\=view\\&id\\=142709\\&Itemid\\=38\\|accessdate\\=11 March 2013\\|newspaper\\=APP Pakistan\\|date\\=19 June 2011\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20111007203611/http://app.com.pk/en\\_/index.php?option\\=com\\_content\\&task\\=view\\&id\\=142709\\&Itemid\\=38\\|archive\\-date\\=7 October 2011\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}", "### Indo\\-Pakistani standoff in 2008", "{{Main\\|2008 Indo\\-Pakistani standoff}}\n[250px\\|right\\|thumb\\|CNS Admiral Bashir meeting with American [CNO](/wiki/Chief_of_Naval_Operations \"Chief of Naval Operations\") Admiral [Gary Roughead](/wiki/Gary_Roughead \"Gary Roughead\").](/wiki/File:US_Navy_090820-N-8273J-088_hief_of_Naval_Operations_%28CNO%29_Adm._Gary_Roughead_meets_with_Chief_of_Naval_Staff_of_Pakistan%2C_Adm._Noman_Bashir_during_an_office_call.jpg \"US Navy 090820-N-8273J-088 hief of Naval Operations (CNO) Adm. Gary Roughead meets with Chief of Naval Staff of Pakistan, Adm. Noman Bashir during an office call.jpg\")", "Only a month of assuming his role as [Chief of Naval Staff](/wiki/Chief_of_Naval_Staff_%28Pakistan%29 \"Chief of Naval Staff (Pakistan)\"), Adm. Bashir faced the major crises with neighboring India after the [deadly attacks](/wiki/2008_Mumbai_attacks \"2008 Mumbai attacks\") were perpetuated in [Mumbai](/wiki/Mumbai \"Mumbai\") in November 2008\\. Adm. Bashir high\\-alerted the Navy and deployed the combatant commands of the Navy to protect the naval vicinity of [Sindh](/wiki/Sindh \"Sindh\") and [Balochistan](/wiki/Balochistan%2C_Pakistan \"Balochistan, Pakistan\"). Initially, Adm. Bashir denied that the terrorists who attacked the city had not used the sea routes from Pakistan to reach the city.{{cite news\\|last\\=Staff\\|title\\=Mumbai terrorists did come through sea\\|url\\=http://www.thedailystar.net/newDesign/news\\-details.php?nid\\=77936\\|accessdate\\=11 March 2013\\|newspaper\\=The Daily Star\\|date\\=1 March 2009}} In a pressing briefing at the [ISPR](/wiki/Inter-Services_Public_Relations \"Inter-Services Public Relations\"), Adm. Bashir maintained that: \"We have no evidence whatsoever that [\\[Ajmal Kasab]](/wiki/Ajmal_Kasab \"Ajmal Kasab\") had gone to India from Pakistani waters. The [Indian Navy](/wiki/Indian_Navy \"Indian Navy\") is much larger than ours, and if Ajmal Kasab had gone from here, then what were [their Coast Guards](/wiki/Indian_Coast_Guard \"Indian Coast Guard\") doing, and why did they did not stop the terrorists?.\"{{cite news\\|last\\=Staff\\|title\\=Mumbai attack: Antony, Navy chief strongly rebut Pakistan's about turn\\|url\\=http://www.kashmirnow.com/kashmir\\_news/National/10917\\-Mumbai\\-attack\\-Antony\\-Navy\\-chief\\-strongly\\-rebut\\-Pakistans\\-about\\-turn.html\\|accessdate\\=11 March 2013\\|newspaper\\=Kashmir webnews\\|date\\=28 February 2009}}", "His statement was widely criticized by [Indian government](/wiki/Indian_government \"Indian government\") and [Indian Defence Minister](/wiki/Defence_Minister_of_India \"Defence Minister of India\") [A. K. Antony](/wiki/A._K._Antony \"A. K. Antony\") strongly rebutted his statement.", "However, after a day of releasing his statement, Adm. Bashir retraced his statement and reiterated that \"whatever evidence \\[Indians] have is correct.\"{{cite news\\|last\\=Agencies\\|title\\=A day after, Pak Navy Chief says, India's proof correct\\|url\\=http://www.indianexpress.com/news/a\\-day\\-after\\-pak\\-navy\\-chief\\-says\\-india\\-s\\-proof\\-correct/429234/\\|accessdate\\=11 March 2013\\|newspaper\\=The Indian Express\\|date\\=11 March 2013}} Adm. Bashir strongly criticized [Indian](/wiki/Indian_Army \"Indian Army\") [army chief](/wiki/Chief_of_Army_Staff_of_the_Indian_Army \"Chief of Army Staff of the Indian Army\") General [Deepak Kapoor](/wiki/Deepak_Kapoor \"Deepak Kapoor\")'s statement about simultaneous war with [China](/wiki/China \"China\") and Pakistan.{{cite news\\|last\\=News Desk\\|title\\=Indian generals aware of our strength: Admiral Noman\\|url\\=http://www.aaj.tv/2010/01/indian\\-generals\\-aware\\-of\\-our\\-strength\\-admiral\\-noman/\\|accessdate\\=11 March 2013\\|newspaper\\=AAJ TV\\|date\\=7 January 2010}} Talking to the *[AAJ TV](/wiki/AAJ_TV \"AAJ TV\")*, Admiral Bashir quoted that :\"[Indian generals](/wiki/Indian_Army \"Indian Army\") are well aware of our strength.\" He maintained to the television correspondents that he does not take Indian army chief General Deepak Kapoor's statement seriously as he \"knows about the strength of his neighboring countries, [Pakistan and China](/wiki/Pakistan_and_China \"Pakistan and China\").\"", "In 2008, in an interview to a *[Daily Pakistan](/wiki/Daily_Pakistan \"Daily Pakistan\")*, the Admiral Noman Bashir, had told his interviewer that \"Pakistan was quite capable of building a [nuclear submarine](/wiki/Nuclear_submarine \"Nuclear submarine\") and would do so \"if required\".{{cite news\\|last\\=Singh\\|first\\=Abhijit\\|title\\=Pakistan Navy's 'Nuclear' Aspirations – Analysis\\|url\\=http://www.eurasiareview.com/30062012\\-pakistan\\-navys\\-nuclear\\-aspirations\\-analysis/\\|accessdate\\=11 March 2013\\|newspaper\\=Euroasia review\\|date\\=30 June 2012}} Pakistan is a \"recognized [nuclear power](/wiki/Nuclear_power \"Nuclear power\")\" and if the government made a decision, the nation would develop a naval variant nuclear weapon.", "During this time, he began pushed and lobbied for building the [nuclear submarine](/wiki/Nuclear_submarine \"Nuclear submarine\") and finally, in February 2012, the government gave green signals and authorised the development of the nation's first nuclear submarine after releasing the funds.{{cite news\\|last\\=Staff\\|title\\=Pak Navy to build nuclear submarine\\|url\\=http://www.arynews.tv/english/newsdetail.asp?nid\\=54527\\|accessdate\\=11 March 2013\\|newspaper\\=AR News\\|date\\=10 February 2012\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archiveurl\\=https://archive.today/20130418182536/http://www.arynews.tv/english/newsdetail.asp?nid\\=54527\\|archivedate\\=18 April 2013}} In 2010, Bashir noted that \"the [Indian Navy](/wiki/Indian_Navy \"Indian Navy\") wants to increase military might in the region.\"{{cite news\\|last\\=News Desk\\|title\\=India wants to increase military might: Adm. Noman Bashir\\|url\\=http://dunyanews.tv/print\\_news\\_eng.php?nid\\=22202\\&catid\\=2\\&flag\\=d\\|accessdate\\=11 March 2013\\|newspaper\\=Dunya News\\|date\\=26 February 2010}}", "### PNS Mehran attack", "{{Main\\|Operation Black Thunderstorm\\|Operation Rah\\-e\\-Nijat\\|PNS Mehran attack}}\n[200px\\|thumb\\|left\\|Admiral Bashir salutes to Navy personnel of Pakistan and U.S.](/wiki/File:US_Navy_100324-N-8590G-005_Chief_of_Naval_Staff_of_the_Pakistan_Navy_Adm._Noman_Bashir_departs_the_guided-missile_frigate_USS_Klakring_%28FFG_42%29_after_a_ship_tour.jpg \"US Navy 100324-N-8590G-005 Chief of Naval Staff of the Pakistan Navy Adm. Noman Bashir departs the guided-missile frigate USS Klakring (FFG 42) after a ship tour.jpg\")\nAdmiral Noman Bashir was the chief of naval staff when [Al Qaeda](/wiki/Al_Qaeda \"Al Qaeda\") attacked [PNS Mehran](/wiki/PNS_Mehran \"PNS Mehran\"), a Pakistan Naval Air Station in retaliation for the killing of [Osama Bin Ladin](/wiki/Osama_Bin_Ladin \"Osama Bin Ladin\"). Despite being Naval chief at the breach of the [insurgency](/wiki/War_in_North-West_Pakistan \"War in North-West Pakistan\") in the country his command failed to intercept the threat of an attack on a sensitive installation of the [Pakistan Naval Air Arm](/wiki/Pakistan_Naval_Air_Arm \"Pakistan Naval Air Arm\"), the failure of which lead to a day long siege of the base in the middle of Pakistan's largest city, Karachi. Admiral Bashir was widely criticized for not properly protecting the [naval base](/wiki/PNS_Mehran \"PNS Mehran\") from being [attacked](/wiki/PNS_Mehran_Operation \"PNS Mehran Operation\") by group of terrorists or moving quickly enough to organise the defence of the base and the operation to take it back, leading to PNS Mehran being over\\-run by terrorists for nearly an entire day.{{cite news\\|last\\=Ejaz Haider\\|title\\=Hopes dancing on bald men's hair\\|url\\=http://tribune.com.pk/story/174998/hopes\\-dancing\\-on\\-bald\\-mens\\-hair/\\|accessdate\\=11 March 2013\\|newspaper\\=Tribune Express\\|date\\=25 May 2011}}", "" ]
Plot ---- For years, as [pastor](/wiki/Pastor "Pastor") of an affluent, suburban [Catholic](/wiki/Catholic "Catholic") [parish](/wiki/Parish "Parish"), Father Tim Farley has maintained a close relationship with his congregation by delivering folksy homilies filled with practical advice and adhering to clerical policies without waver. One Sunday, his sermon is interrupted by [seminarian](/wiki/Seminary "Seminary") Mark Dolson, who questions Farley's position on the [ordination of women](/wiki/Ordination_of_women "Ordination of women"). The older priest charmingly sidesteps the young man but is annoyed that he was placed in an uncomfortable position. Dolson defends two seminarians who were expelled after being suspected of engaging in a homosexual relationship. After he is ordained a [deacon](/wiki/Deacon "Deacon"), frustrated [Monsignor](/wiki/Monsignor "Monsignor") Thomas Burke assigns him to Farley's parish in the hope the older man will inspire him to toe the line and become more complacent. Although in some ways conservative—he criticizes his sister Liz for her affair with a married man—the young man is primarily a liberal firebrand who is anxious to make changes in the church, whereas Farley prefers to study with a bottle of alcohol and not make waves. The pastor tries to become a mentor to his new charge, but Dolson ignores the priest's efforts to teach him the necessity of tact. He enrages the congregation with his first, highly critical sermon. Questions as to why Dolson defended the gay seminarians arise. He confides having spent two years engaging in sexual relations with both men and women, saying he now is committed to [celibacy](/wiki/Celibacy "Celibacy"). Farley urges him to keep quiet about his past, but the deacon admits his secret to the monsignor and is expelled. Farley promises to convince his followers that the church needs liberal thinkers who do not always do things by the book. As soon as he senses he is losing support, however, the priest backs down. Dolson angrily confronts him with a feeling of betrayal, forcing Farley to rethink his position and do the right thing, even if it means the loss of his parish.
[ "Plot\n----", "For years, as [pastor](/wiki/Pastor \"Pastor\") of an affluent, suburban [Catholic](/wiki/Catholic \"Catholic\") [parish](/wiki/Parish \"Parish\"), Father Tim Farley has maintained a close relationship with his congregation by delivering folksy homilies filled with practical advice and adhering to clerical policies without waver. One Sunday, his sermon is interrupted by [seminarian](/wiki/Seminary \"Seminary\") Mark Dolson, who questions Farley's position on the [ordination of women](/wiki/Ordination_of_women \"Ordination of women\"). The older priest charmingly sidesteps the young man but is annoyed that he was placed in an uncomfortable position.", "Dolson defends two seminarians who were expelled after being suspected of engaging in a homosexual relationship. After he is ordained a [deacon](/wiki/Deacon \"Deacon\"), frustrated [Monsignor](/wiki/Monsignor \"Monsignor\") Thomas Burke assigns him to Farley's parish in the hope the older man will inspire him to toe the line and become more complacent. Although in some ways conservative—he criticizes his sister Liz for her affair with a married man—the young man is primarily a liberal firebrand who is anxious to make changes in the church, whereas Farley prefers to study with a bottle of alcohol and not make waves.", "The pastor tries to become a mentor to his new charge, but Dolson ignores the priest's efforts to teach him the necessity of tact. He enrages the congregation with his first, highly critical sermon.", "Questions as to why Dolson defended the gay seminarians arise. He confides having spent two years engaging in sexual relations with both men and women, saying he now is committed to [celibacy](/wiki/Celibacy \"Celibacy\"). Farley urges him to keep quiet about his past, but the deacon admits his secret to the monsignor and is expelled.", "Farley promises to convince his followers that the church needs liberal thinkers who do not always do things by the book. As soon as he senses he is losing support, however, the priest backs down. Dolson angrily confronts him with a feeling of betrayal, forcing Farley to rethink his position and do the right thing, even if it means the loss of his parish.", "" ]
History ------- Paleolithic man probably roamed around the areas of lower Godavari valley{{cite book\|title\=Paleolithic History of Godavari valley\|url \=https://books.google.com/books?id\=OBJuAAAAMAAJ\&q\=Bhadrachalam\|year \=1984}} and the surroundings of [Wyra](/wiki/Wyra "Wyra"), [Sathupalli](/wiki/Sathupalli "Sathupalli") Taluks in the district. Prehistoric rock paintings were found near Neeladri konda{{cite book\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=yK8D8c5\-HXAC\&q\=neolithic\+sites\+in\+medak\&pg\=PA155\|title\=Comprehensive History and Culture of Andhra Pradesh: Pre\- and protohistoric ...\|isbn\=9788125024750\|last1\=Murty\|first1\=M. L. K.\|year\=2003}} near Lankapalli of Sathupalli Taluk. Megalithic site on the campus of Government Degree college in Khammam has yielded pottery and skeletal remains.{{cite news\| url\=http://www.thehindu.com/todays\-paper/tp\-national/excavation\-throws\-light\-on\-burial\-practices\-of\-megalithic\-age/article3488158\.ece \| location\=Chennai, India \| work\=The Hindu \| first\=P \| last\=Sridhar \| title\=Excavation throws light on burial practices of megalithic age \| date\=2012\-06\-04}} Kistapuram{{cite news\| url\=http://www.thehindu.com/todays\-paper/tp\-national/three\-megalithic\-sites\-discovered/article2918017\.ece \| location\=Chennai, India \| work\=The Hindu \| first\=P. \| last\=Sridhar \| title\=Three megalithic sites discovered \| date\=2012\-02\-22}} of the district were rich in Megalithic cultural remnants explored and discovered. The southern parts of Khammam district flourished as famous Buddhist centers along with Amaravathi and Vijayapuri along the rivulets [Munneru](/wiki/Munneru "Munneru"), Wyra and Murredu. Important Buddhist sites in the district are [Nelakondapalli](/wiki/Nelakondapalli "Nelakondapalli") and [Mudigonda](/wiki/Mudigonda "Mudigonda") ### Post Independence Khammam town which was the seat of [Taluk](/wiki/Taluk "Taluk") Administration was a part of the larger Warangal district, till 1 October 1953\. Six taluks of the Warangal district viz., Khammam, [Madhira](/wiki/Madhira "Madhira"), [Yellandu](/wiki/Yellandu "Yellandu"), [Paloncha](/wiki/Paloncha "Paloncha"), [Kothagudem](/wiki/Kothagudem "Kothagudem") and [Burgampadu](/wiki/Burgampadu "Burgampadu") were carved out as a new district with Khammam as headquarters. On 1 November 1956, Hyderabad state was dissolved, and Khammam district became part of Andhra Pradesh. In 1959, Bhadrachalam revenue division consisting of Bhadrachalam and [Nuguru Venkatapuram](/wiki/Venkatapuram%2C_Khammam "Venkatapuram, Khammam") Taluks of [East Godavari district](/wiki/East_Godavari_district "East Godavari district"), which were on the other side of the river [Godavari](/wiki/Godavari "Godavari") were merged into Khammam on grounds of geographical contiguity and administrative viability. [Aswaraopeta](/wiki/Aswaraopeta "Aswaraopeta") was also part of [West Godavari](/wiki/West_Godavari "West Godavari") District up to 1959\. In 1973 a new taluk with [Sathupalli](/wiki/Sathupalli "Sathupalli") as headquarters was carved out from Madhira and Kothagudem taluks. In the year 1976 three new taluks were formed viz., [Tirumalayapalem](/wiki/Tirumalayapalem "Tirumalayapalem"), [Aswaraopeta](/wiki/Aswaraopeta "Aswaraopeta") and [Manuguru](/wiki/Manuguru "Manuguru") by bifurcating Khammam, Kothagudem and Burgampadu taluks respectively. In the year 1985, following the introduction of the mandal system, the district has been divided into 46 mandals, under four Revenue Divisions – Khammam, Kothagudem, Paloncha and Bhadrachalam. On 2 June 2014, Khammam together with nine other districts became the new state of [Telangana](/wiki/Telangana "Telangana"), which was separated from Andhra Pradesh. On 11 July 2014, the [Lok Sabha](/wiki/Lok_Sabha "Lok Sabha") approved a bill transferring seven mandals of Khammam district (Kukunoor, Velairpadu, Bhurgampadu, Chintoor, Kunavaram, Vararamachandrapuram and Bhadrachalam) back to Andhra Pradesh, in order to facilitate the [Polavaram Irrigation project](/wiki/Polavaram_Project "Polavaram Project")."The Andhra Pradesh Reorganisation (Amendment) Bill, 2014" Accessed 13 July 2014 [http://164\.100\.24\.219/BillsTexts/LSBillTexts/asintroduced/15\_2014\_LS\_Eng.pdf](http://164.100.24.219/BillsTexts/LSBillTexts/asintroduced/15_2014_LS_Eng.pdf)"Protests against Centre, Andhra Pradesh in Khammam over Polavaram Bill". Deccan Chronicle, 12 July 2014\. Accessed 13 July 2014\. [https://www.deccanchronicle.com/140712/nation\-current\-affairs/article/polavaram\-row\-protests\-against\-centre\-andhra\-pradesh\-khammam](https://www.deccanchronicle.com/140712/nation-current-affairs/article/polavaram-row-protests-against-centre-andhra-pradesh-khammam)
[ "History\n-------", "Paleolithic man probably roamed around the areas of lower Godavari valley{{cite book\\|title\\=Paleolithic History of Godavari valley\\|url \\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=OBJuAAAAMAAJ\\&q\\=Bhadrachalam\\|year \\=1984}} and the surroundings of [Wyra](/wiki/Wyra \"Wyra\"), [Sathupalli](/wiki/Sathupalli \"Sathupalli\") Taluks in the district. Prehistoric rock paintings were found near Neeladri konda{{cite book\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=yK8D8c5\\-HXAC\\&q\\=neolithic\\+sites\\+in\\+medak\\&pg\\=PA155\\|title\\=Comprehensive History and Culture of Andhra Pradesh: Pre\\- and protohistoric ...\\|isbn\\=9788125024750\\|last1\\=Murty\\|first1\\=M. L. K.\\|year\\=2003}} near Lankapalli of Sathupalli Taluk.", "Megalithic site on the campus of Government Degree college in Khammam has yielded pottery and skeletal remains.{{cite news\\| url\\=http://www.thehindu.com/todays\\-paper/tp\\-national/excavation\\-throws\\-light\\-on\\-burial\\-practices\\-of\\-megalithic\\-age/article3488158\\.ece \\| location\\=Chennai, India \\| work\\=The Hindu \\| first\\=P \\| last\\=Sridhar \\| title\\=Excavation throws light on burial practices of megalithic age \\| date\\=2012\\-06\\-04}} Kistapuram{{cite news\\| url\\=http://www.thehindu.com/todays\\-paper/tp\\-national/three\\-megalithic\\-sites\\-discovered/article2918017\\.ece \\| location\\=Chennai, India \\| work\\=The Hindu \\| first\\=P. \\| last\\=Sridhar \\| title\\=Three megalithic sites discovered \\| date\\=2012\\-02\\-22}} of the district were rich in Megalithic cultural remnants explored and discovered.", "The southern parts of Khammam district flourished as famous Buddhist centers along with Amaravathi and Vijayapuri along the rivulets [Munneru](/wiki/Munneru \"Munneru\"), Wyra and Murredu. Important Buddhist sites in the district are [Nelakondapalli](/wiki/Nelakondapalli \"Nelakondapalli\") and [Mudigonda](/wiki/Mudigonda \"Mudigonda\")", "### Post Independence", "Khammam town which was the seat of [Taluk](/wiki/Taluk \"Taluk\") Administration was a part of the larger Warangal district, till 1 October 1953\\. Six taluks of the Warangal district viz., Khammam, [Madhira](/wiki/Madhira \"Madhira\"), [Yellandu](/wiki/Yellandu \"Yellandu\"), [Paloncha](/wiki/Paloncha \"Paloncha\"), [Kothagudem](/wiki/Kothagudem \"Kothagudem\") and [Burgampadu](/wiki/Burgampadu \"Burgampadu\") were carved out as a new district with Khammam as headquarters. On 1 November 1956, Hyderabad state was dissolved, and Khammam district became part of Andhra Pradesh.", "In 1959, Bhadrachalam revenue division consisting of Bhadrachalam and [Nuguru Venkatapuram](/wiki/Venkatapuram%2C_Khammam \"Venkatapuram, Khammam\") Taluks of [East Godavari district](/wiki/East_Godavari_district \"East Godavari district\"), which were on the other side of the river [Godavari](/wiki/Godavari \"Godavari\") were merged into Khammam on grounds of geographical contiguity and administrative viability. [Aswaraopeta](/wiki/Aswaraopeta \"Aswaraopeta\") was also part of [West Godavari](/wiki/West_Godavari \"West Godavari\") District up to 1959\\. In 1973 a new taluk with [Sathupalli](/wiki/Sathupalli \"Sathupalli\") as headquarters was carved out from Madhira and Kothagudem taluks. In the year 1976 three new taluks were formed viz., [Tirumalayapalem](/wiki/Tirumalayapalem \"Tirumalayapalem\"), [Aswaraopeta](/wiki/Aswaraopeta \"Aswaraopeta\") and [Manuguru](/wiki/Manuguru \"Manuguru\") by bifurcating Khammam, Kothagudem and Burgampadu taluks respectively.", "In the year 1985, following the introduction of the mandal system, the district has been divided into 46 mandals, under four Revenue Divisions – Khammam, Kothagudem, Paloncha and Bhadrachalam.", "On 2 June 2014, Khammam together with nine other districts became the new state of [Telangana](/wiki/Telangana \"Telangana\"), which was separated from Andhra Pradesh. On 11 July 2014, the [Lok Sabha](/wiki/Lok_Sabha \"Lok Sabha\") approved a bill transferring seven mandals of Khammam district (Kukunoor, Velairpadu, Bhurgampadu, Chintoor, Kunavaram, Vararamachandrapuram and Bhadrachalam) back to Andhra Pradesh, in order to facilitate the [Polavaram Irrigation project](/wiki/Polavaram_Project \"Polavaram Project\").\"The Andhra Pradesh Reorganisation (Amendment) Bill, 2014\" Accessed 13 July 2014 [http://164\\.100\\.24\\.219/BillsTexts/LSBillTexts/asintroduced/15\\_2014\\_LS\\_Eng.pdf](http://164.100.24.219/BillsTexts/LSBillTexts/asintroduced/15_2014_LS_Eng.pdf)\"Protests against Centre, Andhra Pradesh in Khammam over Polavaram Bill\". Deccan Chronicle, 12 July 2014\\. Accessed 13 July 2014\\. [https://www.deccanchronicle.com/140712/nation\\-current\\-affairs/article/polavaram\\-row\\-protests\\-against\\-centre\\-andhra\\-pradesh\\-khammam](https://www.deccanchronicle.com/140712/nation-current-affairs/article/polavaram-row-protests-against-centre-andhra-pradesh-khammam)", "" ]
Military career --------------- ### Spanish–American War In the Spanish war fervor of 1898, Butler lied about his age to receive a direct commission as a Marine [second lieutenant](/wiki/Second_lieutenant%23United_States "Second lieutenant#United States"). He trained at [Marine Barracks, Washington, D.C.](/wiki/Marine_Barracks%2C_Washington%2C_D.C. "Marine Barracks, Washington, D.C.") In July 1898, he went to [Guantánamo Bay](/wiki/Guant%C3%A1namo_Bay "Guantánamo Bay"), [Cuba](/wiki/Cuba "Cuba"), arriving shortly after its [invasion and capture](/wiki/Battle_of_Guant%C3%A1namo_Bay "Battle of Guantánamo Bay").Butler, Smedley Darlington and Venzon, Anne Cipria, 1992, p. 10 His company soon returned to the U.S., and after a short break, he was assigned to the armored cruiser {{USS\|New York\|ACR\-2\|6}} for four months.Schmidt, 1998, p. 9 He came home to be mustered out of service in February 1899, but on April 8, 1899, he accepted a commission as a [first lieutenant](/wiki/First_lieutenant%23United_States "First lieutenant#United States") in the Marine Corps. ### Philippine–American War [thumb\|Smedley Butler, {{circa\|1898}}](/wiki/File:Smedley_Butler%2C_circa_1898_%286141243540%29.jpg "Smedley Butler, circa 1898 (6141243540).jpg") The Marine Corps sent him to [Manila](/wiki/Manila "Manila"), Philippines.Schmidt, 1998, p. 10 On garrison duty with little to do, Butler turned to alcohol to relieve the boredom. He once became drunk and was temporarily relieved of command after an unspecified incident in his room.Schmidt, 1998, p. 11 In October 1899, he saw his first combat action when he led 300 Marines to take the town of [Noveleta](/wiki/Noveleta "Noveleta") from Filipino troops of the new Philippine republic. In the initial moments of the assault, his [first sergeant](/wiki/First_sergeant "First sergeant") was wounded. Butler briefly panicked, but he quickly regained his composure and led his Marines in pursuit of the fleeing enemy. By noon, the Marines had dispersed the native defenders and taken the town. One Marine had been killed, 10 were wounded, and another 50 had been incapacitated by the humid tropical heat.Schmidt, 1998, p. 12 After the excitement of this combat, garrison duty again became routine. He met [Littleton Waller](/wiki/Littleton_Waller "Littleton Waller"), a fellow Marine with whom he maintained a lifelong friendship. When Waller received command of a company in [Guam](/wiki/Guam "Guam"), he was allowed to select five officers to take with him. Butler was amongst his choices. Before they had departed, their orders were changed, and they were sent to China aboard the {{USS\|Solace\|AH\-2\|6}} to help put down the [Boxer Rebellion](/wiki/Boxer_Rebellion "Boxer Rebellion"). ### Boxer Rebellion [thumbnail\|left\|Butler being carried on the back of another Marine to safety across a river at the Battle of Tientsin.](/wiki/File:Gallentry_Storming_of_Tientsin.png "Gallentry Storming of Tientsin.png") Once in China, Butler was initially deployed at [Tianjin](/wiki/Tianjin "Tianjin") (then often romanized as Tientsin). He took part in the [Battle of Tientsin](/wiki/Battle_of_Tientsin "Battle of Tientsin") on July 13, 1900, and in the subsequent [Gaselee Expedition](/wiki/Gaselee_Expedition "Gaselee Expedition"), during which he saw the mutilated remains of Japanese soldiers. When he saw another Marine officer fall wounded, he climbed out of a trench to rescue him. Butler was then shot in the thigh. Another Marine helped him get to safety, but he was also shot. Despite his leg wound, Butler assisted the wounded officer to the rear. Four [enlisted men](/wiki/Enlisted_rank "Enlisted rank") would receive the Medal of Honor in the battle. Butler's commanding officer, Major Waller, personally commended him and wrote that "for such reward as you may deem proper the following officers: Lieutenant Smedley D. Butler, for the admirable control of his men in all the fights of the week, for saving a wounded man at the risk of his own life, and under a very severe fire." Commissioned officers were not then eligible to receive the Medal of Honor, and Butler instead received a promotion to [captain](/wiki/Captain_%28United_States%29 "Captain (United States)") by [brevet](/wiki/Brevet_%28military%29 "Brevet (military)") while he recovered in the hospital, two weeks before his 19th birthday.{{Citation needed\|date\=July 2019}} He was eligible for the Marine Corps [Brevet Medal](/wiki/Brevet_Medal "Brevet Medal") when it was created in 1921, and was one of only 20 Marines to receive it.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.history.navy.mil/docs/boxer/boxer2\.htm\|title\=Report of the Commandant of the United States Marine Corps, Marines in China: The Relief Expedition\|publisher\=\[\[United States Marine Corps]]\|date\=September 29, 1900\|access\-date\=August 17, 2006\|archive\-date\=August 10, 2006\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20060810182744/http://www.history.navy.mil/docs/boxer/boxer2\.htm\|url\-status\=dead}} His citation reads: {{blockquote\|The Secretary of the Navy takes pleasure in transmitting to First Lieutenant Smedley Darlington Butler, United States Marine Corps, the Brevet Medal which is awarded in accordance with Marine Corps Order No. 26 (1921\), for distinguished conduct and public service in the presence of the enemy while serving with the Second Battalion of Marines, near Tientsin, China, on 13 July 1900\. On 28 March 1901, First Lieutenant Butler is appointed Captain by brevet, to take rank from 13 July 1900\.}} ### Banana Wars Butler participated in a series of occupations, "police actions", and interventions by the United States in Central America and the Caribbean, later called the [Banana Wars](/wiki/Banana_Wars "Banana Wars") due to their goal of protecting American commercial interests in the region, particularly those of the [United Fruit Company](/wiki/United_Fruit_Company "United Fruit Company"). This company had significant financial stakes in the production of bananas, tobacco, sugar cane, and other products throughout the Caribbean, Central America, and the northern portions of South America. The U.S. was also trying to advance its own political interests by maintaining its influence in the region and especially its control of the [Panama Canal](/wiki/Panama_Canal "Panama Canal"). These interventions started with the Spanish–American War in 1898 and ended with the [withdrawal of troops from Haiti](/wiki/United_States_occupation_of_Haiti "United States occupation of Haiti") and President Franklin D. Roosevelt's [Good Neighbor policy](/wiki/Good_Neighbor_policy "Good Neighbor policy") in 1934\.Langley, 1983 After his retirement, Butler became an outspoken critic of the United States' business interests in the Caribbean, criticizing the ways in which American businesses and [Wall Street](/wiki/Wall_Street "Wall Street") bankers imposed their agenda on U.S. foreign policy. #### Honduras In 1903, Butler was stationed in [Puerto Rico](/wiki/Puerto_Rico "Puerto Rico") on [Culebra Island](/wiki/Culebra%2C_Puerto_Rico "Culebra, Puerto Rico"). Hearing rumors of a Honduran revolt, the United States government ordered his unit and a supporting naval detachment to sail to Honduras, {{convert\|1500\|mi\|0\|sp\=us}} to the west, to defend the [U.S. Consulate](/wiki/List_of_diplomatic_missions_of_the_United_States "List of diplomatic missions of the United States") there. Using a converted [banana boat](/wiki/Banana_boat_%28ship%29 "Banana boat (ship)") renamed the *Panther*, Butler and several hundred Marines landed at the port town of [Puerto Cortés](/wiki/Puerto_Cort%C3%A9s "Puerto Cortés"). In a letter home, he describes the action: they were "prepared to land and shoot everybody and everything that was breaking the peace",Schmidt, 1998, pp. 28–32 but instead found a quiet town. The Marines re\-boarded the *Panther* and continued up the coastline, looking for rebels at several towns, but found none. When they arrived at [Trujillo](/wiki/Trujillo%2C_Honduras "Trujillo, Honduras"), however, they heard gunfire and came upon a battle in progress that had been ongoing for 55 hours between rebels called *Bonillista* and Honduran government soldiers at a local fort. At the sight of the Marines, the fighting ceased, and Butler led a detachment of Marines to the American consulate, where he found the consul, wrapped in an American flag, hiding among the floor beams. As soon as the Marines left the area with the shaken consul, the battle resumed, and the Bonillistas soon controlled the government. During this expedition, Butler earned the first of his nicknames: "Old [Gimlet](/wiki/Gimlet_%28tool%29 "Gimlet (tool)") Eye". It was attributed to his feverish, bloodshot eyes (he was suffering from some unnamed tropical fever at the time) that enhanced his penetrating and bellicose stare.Schmidt, 1998, p. 50 #### Marriage and business After the Honduran campaign, Butler returned to Philadelphia. He married Ethel Conway Peters of Philadelphia, a daughter of civil engineer and railroad executive [Richard Peters](/wiki/Richard_Peters_%28clubman%29 "Richard Peters (clubman)"), on June 30, 1905\.{{cite news\|title\=Butler−Peters\|url\=https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1905/07/01/101705904\.pdf\|access\-date\=October 9, 2012\|newspaper\=The New York Times\|date\=July 1, 1905}} His best man at the wedding was his former commanding officer in China, Lieutenant Colonel Littleton Waller.Schmidt, 1998, p. 39 The couple eventually had three children, a daughter, Ethel Peters Butler, and two sons, Smedley Darlington Jr. and Thomas Richard.{{cite news\|title\=Mrs. Smedley Butler\|url\=https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1962/06/16/102999712\.pdf\|access\-date\=October 9, 2012\|newspaper\=The New York Times\|date\=June 16, 1962}} Butler was next assigned to garrison duty in the Philippines, where he once launched a resupply mission across the stormy waters of [Subic Bay](/wiki/Subic_Bay "Subic Bay") after his isolated outpost ran out of rations. In 1908, he was diagnosed as having a nervous breakdown and received nine months sick leave, which he spent at home. He successfully managed a coal mine in [West Virginia](/wiki/West_Virginia "West Virginia"), but returned to active duty in the Marine Corps at the first opportunity.Boot, 2003, p. 144 #### Central America From 1909 to 1912, Butler served in [Nicaragua](/wiki/Nicaragua "Nicaragua"), enforcing U.S. policy. With a 104\-degree fever, he led his battalion to the relief of the rebel\-besieged city of [Granada](/wiki/Granada%2C_Nicaragua "Granada, Nicaragua"). In December 1909, he commanded the [3rd Battalion, 1st Marine Regiment](/wiki/3rd_Battalion%2C_1st_Marines "3rd Battalion, 1st Marines") on the [Isthmus of Panama](/wiki/Isthmus_of_Panama "Isthmus of Panama"). On August 11, 1912, he was temporarily detached to command an expeditionary battalion he led in the [Battle of Masaya](/wiki/Battle_of_Masaya_%281912%29 "Battle of Masaya (1912)") on September 19, 1912, and the bombardment, assault, and [capture of Coyotepe Hill](/wiki/Battle_of_Coyotepe_Hill "Battle of Coyotepe Hill"), Nicaragua, in October 1912\. He remained in Nicaragua until November 1912, when he rejoined the 3rd Battalion, 1st Marines at [Camp Elliott](/wiki/Camp_Kearny "Camp Kearny"), Panama. In private Butler was highly critical of the operation, writing to his parents: > What makes me mad is that the whole revolution is inspired and financed by Americans who have wild cat investments down here and want to make them good by putting in a Government which will declare a monopoly in their favor . . . The whole business is rotten to the core.{{cite book \|last\= Kovalik\|first\=Dan\|author\-link\=Dan Kovalik\|title\=Nicaragua: A History of US Intervention \& Resistance\|year\=2023 \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=XeCtEAAAQBAJ\&pg\=PT38\|location\= \|publisher\=Clarity Press\|page\=38 \|isbn\=978\-1949762600}} #### Veracruz and first Medal of Honor [right\|thumb\|250px\|Marine Officers at Veracruz. Front row, left to right: [Wendell C. Neville](/wiki/Wendell_C._Neville "Wendell C. Neville"); [John A. Lejeune](/wiki/John_A._Lejeune "John A. Lejeune"); Littleton W.T. Waller, Commanding; Smedley Butler\|alt\=Eight people in military uniforms. They are wearing hats and are standing in formation.](/wiki/File:Littleton_Waller_and_Staff%2C_Vera_Cruz%2C_Mexico%2C_1914_%2814775680222%29.jpg "Littleton Waller and Staff, Vera Cruz, Mexico, 1914 (14775680222).jpg") Butler and his family were living in Panama in January 1914, when he was ordered to report as the Marine officer of a battleship squadron massing off the coast of Mexico, near [Veracruz](/wiki/Veracruz "Veracruz"), to monitor a revolutionary movement. He did not like leaving his family and the home they had established in Panama, so he intended to request orders home as soon as he determined he was not needed.Schmidt, 1998, pp. 60–61 On March 1, 1914, Butler and Navy Lieutenant [Frank J. Fletcher](/wiki/Frank_Jack_Fletcher "Frank Jack Fletcher") (not to be confused with his uncle, Rear Admiral [Frank F. Fletcher](/wiki/Frank_Friday_Fletcher "Frank Friday Fletcher")) "went ashore at Veracruz, where they met the American superintendent of the Inter\-Oceanic Railway and surreptitiously rode in his private car \[a railway car] up the line 75 miles to [Jalapa](/wiki/Xalapa "Xalapa") and back".Schmidt, 1998, p. 64 A purpose of the trip was to allow Butler and Fletcher to discuss the details of a future expedition into Mexico. Fletcher's plan required Butler to make his way into the country and develop a more\-detailed invasion plan while inside its borders. It was a spy mission, and Butler was enthusiastic to get started. When Fletcher explained the plan to the commanders in Washington, DC, they agreed to it. Butler was given the go\-ahead.{{Citation needed\|date\=July 2019}} A few days later, he set out by train on his spy mission to Mexico City, with a stopover at Puebla. He made his way to the U.S. Consulate in [Mexico City](/wiki/Mexico_City "Mexico City"), posing as a railroad official named "Mr. Johnson". * *March 5*. As I was reading last night, waiting for dinner to be served, a visitant, rather than a visitor, appeared in my drawing\-room *incognito* – a simple "Mr. Johnson," eager, intrepid, dynamic, efficient, unshaven! \* \* \*Edith O'Shaughnessy, *A Diplomat's Wife in Mexico* (Harper \& Brothers, 1916\) p. 212 He and the chief railroad inspector scoured the city, saying that they were searching for a lost railroad employee; there was no lost employee, and in fact, the employee who they said was lost never existed. The ruse gave Butler access to various areas of the city. In the process of the so\-called search, they located weapons in use by the Mexican army and determined the size of units and states of readiness. They updated maps and verified the railroad lines for use in an impending U.S. invasion.Schmidt, 1998, pp. 64–65 On March 7, 1914, he returned to Veracruz with the information he had gathered and presented it to his commanders. The invasion plan was eventually scrapped, when authorities loyal to Mexican General [Victoriano Huerta](/wiki/Victoriano_Huerta "Victoriano Huerta") detained a small American naval landing party (that had gone ashore to buy gasoline) in [Tampico, Mexico](/wiki/Tampico "Tampico"), which led to what became known as the [Tampico Affair](/wiki/Tampico_Affair "Tampico Affair").Schmidt, 1998, pp. 67–68 When President [Woodrow Wilson](/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson "Woodrow Wilson") discovered that an arms shipment was about to arrive in Mexico, he sent a contingent of Marines and sailors to Veracruz to intercept it on April 21, 1914\. Over the next few days, street fighting and sniper fire posed a threat to Butler's force, but a door\-to\-door search rooted out most of the resistance. By April 26, the landing force of 5,800 Marines and sailors secured the city, which they held for the next six months. By the end of the conflict, the Americans reported 17 dead and 63 wounded; the Mexican forces had 126 dead and 195 wounded. After the actions at Veracruz, the U.S. decided to minimize the bloodshed and changed their plans from a full invasion of Mexico to simply [maintaining the city of Veracruz](/wiki/United_States_occupation_of_Veracruz "United States occupation of Veracruz").Schmidt, 1998, pp. 68–70 For his actions on April 22, Butler was awarded his first Medal of Honor. The citation reads: {{blockquote\|For distinguished conduct in battle, engagement of Vera Cruz, 22 April 1914\. Major Butler was eminent and conspicuous in command of his battalion. He exhibited courage and skill in leading his men through the action of the 22d and in the final occupation of the city.}} After the occupation of Veracruz, an unusually high number of U.S. military personnel received the Medal of Honor. The Army presented one, nine went to Marines, and 46 were bestowed upon naval personnel. During World War I, Butler attempted to return his medal, explaining he had done nothing to deserve it. The medal was returned to him with orders to keep it and to wear it, as well.{{cite book \|title\=Above and Beyond, A History of the Medal of Honor from the Civil War to Vietnam \|page\=\[https://archive.org/details/abovebeyondhist00bost/page/113 113] \|author\=((Editors of the Boston Publishing Company ))\|year\=1985 \|publisher\=Boston Publishing Company \|isbn\=978\-0\-8094\-5628\-4 \|url\=https://archive.org/details/abovebeyondhist00bost/page/113 }} #### Haiti and second Medal of Honor In 1915, Haitian President [Vilbrun Guillaume Sam](/wiki/Vilbrun_Guillaume_Sam "Vilbrun Guillaume Sam") was killed by a mob. In response, the United States ordered the {{USS\|Connecticut\|BB\-18\|6}} to Haiti, with Major Butler and a group of Marines on board. On October 24, 1915, an estimated [400 *Cacos* ambushed](/wiki/Battle_of_Fort_Dipitie "Battle of Fort Dipitie") Butler's patrol of 44 mounted Marines when they approached [Fort Dipitie](/wiki/Fort_Dipitie "Fort Dipitie"). Surrounded by *Cacos*, the Marines maintained their perimeter throughout the night. The next morning, they charged the much\-larger enemy force by breaking out in three directions. The startled Haitians fled.Schmidt, 1998, p. 80 In early November, Butler and a force of 700 Marines and sailors returned to the mountains to clear the area. At their temporary headquarters base at Le Trou, they fought off an attack by about 100 *Cacos*. After the Americans took several other forts and ramparts during the following days, only [Fort Rivière](/wiki/Fort_Rivi%C3%A8re "Fort Rivière"), an old, French\-built stronghold atop Montagne Noire, was left. For the operation, Butler was given three companies of Marines and some sailors from the USS *Connecticut*, about 100 men. They encircled the fort and gradually closed in on it. Butler reached the fort from the southern side with the 15th Company and found a small opening in the wall. The Marines entered through the opening and engaged the *Cacos* in hand\-to\-hand combat. Butler and the Marines took the rebel stronghold on November 17, 1915, an action for which he received his second Medal of Honor, as well as the Haitian Medal of Honor.{{Hall of Valor\|2879\|access\-date\=March 4, 2010}} The entire battle lasted less than 20 minutes. Reportedly, only one Marine was injured in the assault; he was struck by a rock and lost two teeth. About 50 Haitians in the fort were killed. Butler's exploits impressed [Assistant Secretary of the Navy](/wiki/Assistant_Secretary_of_the_Navy "Assistant Secretary of the Navy") Franklin D. Roosevelt, who recommended the award, based on Butler's performance during the engagement.Schmidt, 1995, p. 81 Once the medal was approved and presented in 1917, Butler achieved the distinction, shared with [Dan Daly](/wiki/Daniel_Daly "Daniel Daly"), of being the only Marines to receive the Medal of Honor twice for separate actions. The citation reads: {{blockquote\|For extraordinary heroism in action as Commanding Officer of detachments from the 5th, 13th, 23d Companies and the Marine and sailor detachment from the U.S.S. Connecticut, Major Butler led the attack on Fort Rivière, Haiti, 17 November 1915\. Following a concentrated drive, several different detachments of Marines gradually closed in on the old French bastion fort in an effort to cut off all avenues of retreat for the Cacos. Reaching the fort on the southern side where there was a small opening in the wall, Major Butler gave the signal to attack and Marines from the 15th Company poured through the breach, engaged the Cacos, took the bastion, and crushed the Cacos resistance.}} Subsequently, as the initial organizer and commanding officer of the [Gendarmerie d'Haïti](/wiki/Gendarmerie_d%27Ha%C3%AFti "Gendarmerie d'Haïti") (the native police force), Butler established a record as a capable administrator. Under his supervision, social order, administered by the dictatorship, was largely restored.Schmidt, 1998, p. 92 He recalled later that during his time in Haiti, he and his troops "hunted the *Cacos* like pigs."Schmidt, 1995, p. 85 ### World War I [200px\|thumb\|right\|Butler (far right) with other Marines in Vera Cruz, Mexico, 1914\. From left to right: Sgt. Maj. [John H. Quick](/wiki/John_H._Quick "John H. Quick"), Maj. Gen. [Wendell Cushing Neville](/wiki/Wendell_Cushing_Neville "Wendell Cushing Neville"), [Lt. Gen.](/wiki/Lieutenant_general_%28United_States%29 "Lieutenant general (United States)") [John Archer Lejeune](/wiki/John_Archer_Lejeune "John Archer Lejeune")\|alt\=Four men in military uniforms wearing hats. Three are seated on a bench and one is standing behind the others.](/wiki/File:Marine_Officers%2C_Vera_Cruz%2C_Mexico%2C_1914_%2814772867731%29.jpg "Marine Officers, Vera Cruz, Mexico, 1914 (14772867731).jpg") During World War I, Butler was (to his disappointment) not assigned to a combat command on the [Western Front](/wiki/Western_Front_%28World_War_I%29 "Western Front (World War I)"). He made several requests for a posting in France, writing letters to his personal friend, [Wendell Cushing Neville](/wiki/Wendell_Cushing_Neville "Wendell Cushing Neville"). While Butler's superiors considered him brave and brilliant, they described him as "unreliable." In October 1918, at the age of 37, he was promoted to the rank of [brigadier general](/wiki/Brigadier_general_%28United_States%29 "Brigadier general (United States)") and placed in command of [Camp Pontanezen](/wiki/Camp_Pontanezen "Camp Pontanezen") at [Brest, France](/wiki/Brest%2C_France "Brest, France"), a debarkation depot that funneled troops of the [American Expeditionary Force](/wiki/American_Expeditionary_Force "American Expeditionary Force") to the battlefields. The camp had been unsanitary, overcrowded, and disorganized. [U.S. Secretary of War](/wiki/U.S._Secretary_of_War "U.S. Secretary of War") [Newton Baker](/wiki/Newton_Baker "Newton Baker") sent novelist [Mary Roberts Rinehart](/wiki/Mary_Roberts_Rinehart "Mary Roberts Rinehart") to report on the camp. She later described how Butler tackled the sanitation problems. He began by solving the problem of mud. "\[T]he ground under the tents was nothing but mud, \[so] he had raided the wharf at Brest of the [duckboards](/wiki/Duckboards "Duckboards") no longer needed for the trenches, carted the first one himself up that four\-mile hill to the camp, and thus provided something in the way of protection for the men to sleep on." [Gen.](/wiki/General_officer "General officer") [John J. Pershing](/wiki/John_J._Pershing "John J. Pershing") authorized a duckboard shoulder patch for the units. This earned Butler another nickname: "Old Duckboard." For his exemplary service, he was awarded both the [Army Distinguished Service Medal](/wiki/Distinguished_Service_Medal_%28U.S._Army%29 "Distinguished Service Medal (U.S. Army)") and the [Navy Distinguished Service Medal](/wiki/Navy_Distinguished_Service_Medal "Navy Distinguished Service Medal"), as well as the French [Order of the Black Star](/wiki/Order_of_the_Black_Star "Order of the Black Star"). The citation for the Army Distinguished Service Medal states: {{blockquote\|The President of the United States of America, authorized by Act of Congress, July 9, 1918, takes pleasure in presenting the Army Distinguished Service Medal to Brigadier General Smedley Darlington Butler, United States Marine Corps, for exceptionally meritorious and distinguished services to the Government of the United States, in a duty of great responsibility during World War I. Brigadier General Butler commanded with ability and energy Pontanezen Camp at Brest during the time in which it has developed into the largest embarkation camp in the world. Confronted with problems of extraordinary magnitude in supervising the reception, entertainment and departure of the large numbers of officers and soldiers passing through this camp, he has solved all with conspicuous success, performing services of the highest character for the American Expeditionary Forces.}} The citation for the Navy Distinguished Service Medal states: {{blockquote\|The President of the United States of America takes pleasure in presenting the Navy Distinguished Service Medal to Brigadier General Smedley Darlington Butler, United States Marine Corps, for exceptionally meritorious and distinguished services in France, during World War I. Brigadier General Butler organized, trained and commanded the 13th Regiment Marines; also the 5th Brigade of Marines. He commanded with ability and energy Camp Pontanezen at Brest during the time in which it has developed into the largest embarkation camp in the world. Confronted with problems of extraordinary magnitude in supervising the reception, entertainment and departure of large numbers of officers and soldiers passing through the camp, he has solved all with conspicuous success, performing services of the highest character for the American Expeditionary Forces.}} ### Quantico [thumb\|200 px\|Butler sitting in car at [Gettysburg](/wiki/Gettysburg%2C_Pennsylvania "Gettysburg, Pennsylvania") during a [Pickett's Charge](/wiki/Pickett%27s_Charge "Pickett's Charge") reenactment by Marines in 1922\.](/wiki/File:Smedley_D._Butler_at_Gettysburg%2C_Pennsylvania_in_1922.jpg "Smedley D. Butler at Gettysburg, Pennsylvania in 1922.jpg") Following the war, he became commanding general of the Marine barracks at [Marine Corps Base Quantico](/wiki/Marine_Corps_Base_Quantico "Marine Corps Base Quantico"), [Virginia](/wiki/Virginia "Virginia"). At Quantico, he transformed the wartime training camp into a permanent Marine post. He directed the Quantico camp's growth until it became the "showplace" of the Corps.Ward Butler won national attention by taking thousands of his men on long field marches (many of which he led from the front) to Gettysburg and other [Civil War](/wiki/American_Civil_War "American Civil War") battle sites, where they conducted large\-scale re\-enactments before crowds of distinguished spectators. In 1921, during a training exercise near the Wilderness battlefield in Virginia, he was told by a local farmer that [Stonewall Jackson's arm](/wiki/Stonewall_Jackson%27s_arm "Stonewall Jackson's arm") was buried nearby, to which he replied, "Bosh! I will take a squad of Marines and dig up that spot to prove you wrong!"Farwell, 1993, p. 513 Butler found the arm in a box. He later replaced the wooden box with a metal one and reburied the arm. He left a plaque on the granite monument marking the burial place of Jackson's arm; the plaque is no longer on the marker, but it can be viewed at the Chancellorsville Battlefield visitor's center.Horwitz, 1999, p. 232 ### Philadelphia Director of Public Safety In 1924, newly elected [Mayor of Philadelphia](/wiki/Mayor_of_Philadelphia "Mayor of Philadelphia") [W. Freeland Kendrick](/wiki/W._Freeland_Kendrick "W. Freeland Kendrick") asked President [Calvin Coolidge](/wiki/Calvin_Coolidge "Calvin Coolidge") to lend the city a military general to help him rid [Philadelphia's municipal government](/wiki/Philadelphia%27s_municipal_government "Philadelphia's municipal government") of crime and corruption. At the urging of Butler's father, Coolidge authorized Butler to take the necessary leave from the Corps to serve as Philadelphia's director of public safety, in charge of running the city's police and fire departments from January 1924 until December 1925\. He began his new job by assembling all 4,000 of the city police into the [Metropolitan Opera House](/wiki/Metropolitan_Opera_House_%28Philadelphia%29 "Metropolitan Opera House (Philadelphia)") in shifts to introduce himself and inform them that things would change while he was in charge. Since he had not been given authority to fire corrupt police officers, he switched entire units from one part of the city to another, in order to undermine local protection rackets and profiteering.Schmidt, 1998, p. 146Schmidt, 1998, p. 147 Within 48 hours of taking over, Butler organized raids on more than 900 [speakeasies](/wiki/Speakeasy "Speakeasy"), ordering that they be padlocked and destroyed in many cases. In addition to raiding the speakeasies, he also attempted to eliminate other illegal activities, including bootlegging, prostitution, gambling, and police corruption. More zealous than he was political, he ordered crackdowns on the social elite's favorite hangouts, such as the [Ritz\-Carlton](/wiki/Ritz-Carlton "Ritz-Carlton") and the [Union League](/wiki/Union_League "Union League"), as well as on drinking establishments that served the working class.{{cite journal \|title\=Leatherneck legends; Swapping some sea stories at the birthday ball? Here are 8 of the Corps' best \|journal\=Marine Corps Times \|date\=November 15, 2004\|pages\=22}} Although he was effective in reducing crime and police corruption, he was a controversial leader. In one instance, he made a statement that he would promote the first officer to kill a bandit and stated, "I don't believe there is a single bandit notch on a policeman's guns {{Sic}} in this city; go out and get some." Although many of the local citizens and police felt that the raids were just a show, they continued for several weeks. [thumb\|Butler on the Philadelphia Police Baseball Team](/wiki/File:Smedley_Butler%2C_Philadelphia_Police_Baseball_Team%2C_circa_1925_%2814590086149%29.jpg "Smedley Butler, Philadelphia Police Baseball Team, circa 1925 (14590086149).jpg") Among his many accomplishments as the director of public safety, he implemented programs to improve city safety and security, established policies and guidelines for the administration, and developed a Philadelphia police uniform that resembled that of the Marine Corps.Schmidt, 1998, p. 148 Other changes included military\-style checkpoints into the city and bandit\-chasing squads, who were armed with [sawed\-off shotguns](/wiki/Sawed-off_shotgun "Sawed-off shotgun") and armored police cars. The press began reporting on both the good and the bad aspects of Butler's personal war on crime. They praised the new uniforms, the new programs, and the reductions in crime, but they also reflected the public's negative opinion of their new public safety director. Many felt that he was being too aggressive in his tactics and resented the reductions in their civil rights, such as the stopping of citizens at the city checkpoints. Butler frequently swore in his radio addresses, causing many citizens to suggest that his behavior, and particularly his language, was inappropriate for someone of his rank and stature.Schmidt, 1998, p. 149 Some even suggested that Butler was acting like a military dictator, even charging that he wrongfully used active\-duty Marines in some of his raids. Maj. R.A. Haynes, the federal prohibition commissioner, visited the city in 1924, six months after Butler was appointed. He announced that "great progress"Schmidt, 1998, p. 150 had been made in the city, and he attributed that success to Butler. Eventually, Butler's leadership style and the directness of actions undermined his support within the community, so his departure seemed imminent. Mayor Kendrick reported to the press, "I had the guts to bring General Butler to Philadelphia and I have the guts to fire him."Schmidt, 1998, p. 153 Feeling that his duties in Philadelphia were coming to an end, Butler contacted Gen. Lejeune to prepare for his return to the Marine Corps. Not all of the citizens felt that Butler was doing a bad job, though, and when the news started to leak that he would be leaving, people began to gather at the [Academy of Music](/wiki/Academy_of_Music_%28Philadelphia%29 "Academy of Music (Philadelphia)"). A group of 4,000 supporters assembled and negotiated a truce between him and the mayor to keep him in Philadelphia for a while longer, and the president authorized a one\-year extension.Schmidt, 1998, pp. 153–4 Butler devoted much of his second year to executing arrest warrants, cracking down on crooked police, and enforcing prohibition. On January 1, 1926, his leave from the Marine Corps ended, and the president declined a request for a second extension. Butler received orders to report to [San Diego](/wiki/San_Diego "San Diego") and prepared his family and his belongings for the new assignment.Schmidt, 1998, pp. 154–5 In light of his pending departure, he began to defy the mayor and other key city officials. On the eve of his departure, he had an article printed in the paper that stated his intention to stay and "finish the job".Schmidt, 1998, pp. 156–7 The mayor was surprised and furious when he read the press release the next morning and demanded Butler's resignation. After almost two years in office, Butler resigned under pressure, stating later that "cleaning up Philadelphia was worse than any battle I was ever in." ### San Diego duty Following the period of service as the director of public safety in Philadelphia, Butler assumed command on February 28, 1926, of the [U.S. Marine Corps base](/wiki/Marine_Corps_Recruit_Depot_San_Diego "Marine Corps Recruit Depot San Diego") in San Diego, California, in ceremonies involving officers and the band of the [4th Marine Regiment](/wiki/4th_Marine_Regiment "4th Marine Regiment").Associated Press, "Butler Takes Over San Diego Marines," *The San Bernardino Daily Sun*, San Bernardino, California, Monday March 1, 1926, Volume LVIII, Number 1, page 4\. ### China and stateside service From 1927 to 1929, Butler was commander of a [Marine Expeditionary Force](/wiki/Marine_Expeditionary_Force "Marine Expeditionary Force") in [Tianjin](/wiki/Tianjin "Tianjin"), China, (the [China Marines](/wiki/China_Marines "China Marines")). While there, he cleverly parlayed his influence among various generals and warlords to the protection of U.S. interests, ultimately winning the public acclaim of contending Chinese leaders. When he returned to the United States in 1929 he was promoted to major general, becoming, at age 48, the youngest major general of the Marine Corps. But, the death of his father on May 26, 1928, ended the Pennsylvania Congressman's ability to protect Smedley from political retribution for his outspoken views.{{cite journal \|last\=Bartlett \|first\=Merrill L. \|year\=1986 \|title\=Old Gimlet Eye \|journal\=Proceedings \|volume\=112 \|issue\=11 \|pages\=64–72 \|publisher\=\[\[United States Naval Institute]] }} In 1931, Butler violated diplomatic norms by publicly recounting gossip{{cite book\|last\=Talbot\|first\=David\|title\=Devil dog : the amazing true story of the man who saved America\|date\=2010\|publisher\=Simon \& Schuster\|location\=New York\|isbn\=978\-1\-4391\-0902\-1\|page\=114\|edition\=1st\|others\=Spain Rodriguez, illustrator \|type\=hardcover\|quote\=as more evidence of Mussolini's road mayhem began to surface...Il Duce's American passenger came forward to corroborate the story. He turned out to be globe\-trotting newspaperman and son of fortune Cornelius Vanderbilt, Jr...}}{{cite web\|url\=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid\=2199\&dat\=19310213\&id\=bTNXAAAAIBAJ\&pg\=2912,1977522\|title\=Vanderbilt Tells Mussolini Story: Hit\-Run Incident Happened But Butler Garbled It, He Says\|website\=\[\[Lawrence Journal\-World\|Lawrence Daily Journal\-World]]\|issue\=38 \|quote\=(p.1\) ...Vanderbilt's story of the Mussolini incident was as follows: I was riding with Mussolini, who drove. A small child ran in front of the machine at a sharp turn in the run and was hit. I looked back to see if the child was hurt. Mussolini put his hand on my knee and said 'Never look back, Vanderbilt, always look ahead in life.'\|date\=February 13, 1931}} about [Benito Mussolini](/wiki/Benito_Mussolini "Benito Mussolini") in which the dictator allegedly struck and killed a child with his speeding automobile in a hit\-and\-run accident. The Italian government protested and President [Hoover](/wiki/Herbert_Hoover "Herbert Hoover"), who strongly disliked Butler,{{citation\|title\=Devil Dog: The Amazing True Story Of The Man Who Saved America\|quote\=Butler...told the young officer that President Hoover had an ulterior motive for punishing him so harshly...During the \[\[Boxer Rebellion]] \[and the] \[\[Battle of Tientsin\#The Siege\|siege of Tientsin]] \[Butler's marines were] disgusted to find an American engineer hiding in the basement with the women and children... 'Do you know who that man was?' Butler asked his visitor. 'Herbert Hoover.'\|author\=David Talbot\|others\=Spain Rodriguez, illustrator \|date\=October 5, 2010\|edition\=1st\|type\=hardcover\|page\=114\|publisher\=Simon \& Schuster \|isbn\=978\-1\-4391\-0902\-1}} forced [Secretary of the Navy](/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_the_Navy "United States Secretary of the Navy") [Charles Francis Adams III](/wiki/Charles_Francis_Adams_III "Charles Francis Adams III") to [court\-martial](/wiki/Court-martial "Court-martial") him. Butler became the first general officer to be placed under arrest since the Civil War. He apologized to Secretary Adams and the court\-martial was canceled with only a reprimand.Schmidt, 1998, p. 212
[ "Military career\n---------------", "### Spanish–American War", "In the Spanish war fervor of 1898, Butler lied about his age to receive a direct commission as a Marine [second lieutenant](/wiki/Second_lieutenant%23United_States \"Second lieutenant#United States\"). He trained at [Marine Barracks, Washington, D.C.](/wiki/Marine_Barracks%2C_Washington%2C_D.C. \"Marine Barracks, Washington, D.C.\") In July 1898, he went to [Guantánamo Bay](/wiki/Guant%C3%A1namo_Bay \"Guantánamo Bay\"), [Cuba](/wiki/Cuba \"Cuba\"), arriving shortly after its [invasion and capture](/wiki/Battle_of_Guant%C3%A1namo_Bay \"Battle of Guantánamo Bay\").Butler, Smedley Darlington and Venzon, Anne Cipria, 1992, p. 10 His company soon returned to the U.S., and after a short break, he was assigned to the armored cruiser {{USS\\|New York\\|ACR\\-2\\|6}} for four months.Schmidt, 1998, p. 9 He came home to be mustered out of service in February 1899, but on April 8, 1899, he accepted a commission as a [first lieutenant](/wiki/First_lieutenant%23United_States \"First lieutenant#United States\") in the Marine Corps.", "### Philippine–American War", "[thumb\\|Smedley Butler, {{circa\\|1898}}](/wiki/File:Smedley_Butler%2C_circa_1898_%286141243540%29.jpg \"Smedley Butler, circa 1898 (6141243540).jpg\")\nThe Marine Corps sent him to [Manila](/wiki/Manila \"Manila\"), Philippines.Schmidt, 1998, p. 10 On garrison duty with little to do, Butler turned to alcohol to relieve the boredom. He once became drunk and was temporarily relieved of command after an unspecified incident in his room.Schmidt, 1998, p. 11", "In October 1899, he saw his first combat action when he led 300 Marines to take the town of [Noveleta](/wiki/Noveleta \"Noveleta\") from Filipino troops of the new Philippine republic. In the initial moments of the assault, his [first sergeant](/wiki/First_sergeant \"First sergeant\") was wounded. Butler briefly panicked, but he quickly regained his composure and led his Marines in pursuit of the fleeing enemy. By noon, the Marines had dispersed the native defenders and taken the town. One Marine had been killed, 10 were wounded, and another 50 had been incapacitated by the humid tropical heat.Schmidt, 1998, p. 12", "After the excitement of this combat, garrison duty again became routine. He met [Littleton Waller](/wiki/Littleton_Waller \"Littleton Waller\"), a fellow Marine with whom he maintained a lifelong friendship. When Waller received command of a company in [Guam](/wiki/Guam \"Guam\"), he was allowed to select five officers to take with him. Butler was amongst his choices. Before they had departed, their orders were changed, and they were sent to China aboard the {{USS\\|Solace\\|AH\\-2\\|6}} to help put down the [Boxer Rebellion](/wiki/Boxer_Rebellion \"Boxer Rebellion\").", "### Boxer Rebellion", "[thumbnail\\|left\\|Butler being carried on the back of another Marine to safety across a river at the Battle of Tientsin.](/wiki/File:Gallentry_Storming_of_Tientsin.png \"Gallentry Storming of Tientsin.png\")\nOnce in China, Butler was initially deployed at [Tianjin](/wiki/Tianjin \"Tianjin\") (then often romanized as Tientsin). He took part in the [Battle of Tientsin](/wiki/Battle_of_Tientsin \"Battle of Tientsin\") on July 13, 1900, and in the subsequent [Gaselee Expedition](/wiki/Gaselee_Expedition \"Gaselee Expedition\"), during which he saw the mutilated remains of Japanese soldiers. When he saw another Marine officer fall wounded, he climbed out of a trench to rescue him. Butler was then shot in the thigh. Another Marine helped him get to safety, but he was also shot. Despite his leg wound, Butler assisted the wounded officer to the rear. Four [enlisted men](/wiki/Enlisted_rank \"Enlisted rank\") would receive the Medal of Honor in the battle. Butler's commanding officer, Major Waller, personally commended him and wrote that \"for such reward as you may deem proper the following officers: Lieutenant Smedley D. Butler, for the admirable control of his men in all the fights of the week, for saving a wounded man at the risk of his own life, and under a very severe fire.\" Commissioned officers were not then eligible to receive the Medal of Honor, and Butler instead received a promotion to [captain](/wiki/Captain_%28United_States%29 \"Captain (United States)\") by [brevet](/wiki/Brevet_%28military%29 \"Brevet (military)\") while he recovered in the hospital, two weeks before his 19th birthday.{{Citation needed\\|date\\=July 2019}}", "He was eligible for the Marine Corps [Brevet Medal](/wiki/Brevet_Medal \"Brevet Medal\") when it was created in 1921, and was one of only 20 Marines to receive it.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.history.navy.mil/docs/boxer/boxer2\\.htm\\|title\\=Report of the Commandant of the United States Marine Corps, Marines in China: The Relief Expedition\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[United States Marine Corps]]\\|date\\=September 29, 1900\\|access\\-date\\=August 17, 2006\\|archive\\-date\\=August 10, 2006\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20060810182744/http://www.history.navy.mil/docs/boxer/boxer2\\.htm\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} His citation reads: {{blockquote\\|The Secretary of the Navy takes pleasure in transmitting to First Lieutenant Smedley Darlington Butler, United States Marine Corps, the Brevet Medal which is awarded in accordance with Marine Corps Order No. 26 (1921\\), for distinguished conduct and public service in the presence of the enemy while serving with the Second Battalion of Marines, near Tientsin, China, on 13 July 1900\\. On 28 March 1901, First Lieutenant Butler is appointed Captain by brevet, to take rank from 13 July 1900\\.}}", "### Banana Wars", "Butler participated in a series of occupations, \"police actions\", and interventions by the United States in Central America and the Caribbean, later called the [Banana Wars](/wiki/Banana_Wars \"Banana Wars\") due to their goal of protecting American commercial interests in the region, particularly those of the [United Fruit Company](/wiki/United_Fruit_Company \"United Fruit Company\"). This company had significant financial stakes in the production of bananas, tobacco, sugar cane, and other products throughout the Caribbean, Central America, and the northern portions of South America. The U.S. was also trying to advance its own political interests by maintaining its influence in the region and especially its control of the [Panama Canal](/wiki/Panama_Canal \"Panama Canal\"). These interventions started with the Spanish–American War in 1898 and ended with the [withdrawal of troops from Haiti](/wiki/United_States_occupation_of_Haiti \"United States occupation of Haiti\") and President Franklin D. Roosevelt's [Good Neighbor policy](/wiki/Good_Neighbor_policy \"Good Neighbor policy\") in 1934\\.Langley, 1983 After his retirement, Butler became an outspoken critic of the United States' business interests in the Caribbean, criticizing the ways in which American businesses and [Wall Street](/wiki/Wall_Street \"Wall Street\") bankers imposed their agenda on U.S. foreign policy.", "#### Honduras", "In 1903, Butler was stationed in [Puerto Rico](/wiki/Puerto_Rico \"Puerto Rico\") on [Culebra Island](/wiki/Culebra%2C_Puerto_Rico \"Culebra, Puerto Rico\"). Hearing rumors of a Honduran revolt, the United States government ordered his unit and a supporting naval detachment to sail to Honduras, {{convert\\|1500\\|mi\\|0\\|sp\\=us}} to the west, to defend the [U.S. Consulate](/wiki/List_of_diplomatic_missions_of_the_United_States \"List of diplomatic missions of the United States\") there. Using a converted [banana boat](/wiki/Banana_boat_%28ship%29 \"Banana boat (ship)\") renamed the *Panther*, Butler and several hundred Marines landed at the port town of [Puerto Cortés](/wiki/Puerto_Cort%C3%A9s \"Puerto Cortés\"). In a letter home, he describes the action: they were \"prepared to land and shoot everybody and everything that was breaking the peace\",Schmidt, 1998, pp. 28–32 but instead found a quiet town. The Marines re\\-boarded the *Panther* and continued up the coastline, looking for rebels at several towns, but found none.", "When they arrived at [Trujillo](/wiki/Trujillo%2C_Honduras \"Trujillo, Honduras\"), however, they heard gunfire and came upon a battle in progress that had been ongoing for 55 hours between rebels called *Bonillista* and Honduran government soldiers at a local fort. At the sight of the Marines, the fighting ceased, and Butler led a detachment of Marines to the American consulate, where he found the consul, wrapped in an American flag, hiding among the floor beams. As soon as the Marines left the area with the shaken consul, the battle resumed, and the Bonillistas soon controlled the government. During this expedition, Butler earned the first of his nicknames: \"Old [Gimlet](/wiki/Gimlet_%28tool%29 \"Gimlet (tool)\") Eye\". It was attributed to his feverish, bloodshot eyes (he was suffering from some unnamed tropical fever at the time) that enhanced his penetrating and bellicose stare.Schmidt, 1998, p. 50", "#### Marriage and business", "After the Honduran campaign, Butler returned to Philadelphia. He married Ethel Conway Peters of Philadelphia, a daughter of civil engineer and railroad executive [Richard Peters](/wiki/Richard_Peters_%28clubman%29 \"Richard Peters (clubman)\"), on June 30, 1905\\.{{cite news\\|title\\=Butler−Peters\\|url\\=https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1905/07/01/101705904\\.pdf\\|access\\-date\\=October 9, 2012\\|newspaper\\=The New York Times\\|date\\=July 1, 1905}} His best man at the wedding was his former commanding officer in China, Lieutenant Colonel Littleton Waller.Schmidt, 1998, p. 39 The couple eventually had three children, a daughter, Ethel Peters Butler, and two sons, Smedley Darlington Jr. and Thomas Richard.{{cite news\\|title\\=Mrs. Smedley Butler\\|url\\=https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1962/06/16/102999712\\.pdf\\|access\\-date\\=October 9, 2012\\|newspaper\\=The New York Times\\|date\\=June 16, 1962}}", "Butler was next assigned to garrison duty in the Philippines, where he once launched a resupply mission across the stormy waters of [Subic Bay](/wiki/Subic_Bay \"Subic Bay\") after his isolated outpost ran out of rations. In 1908, he was diagnosed as having a nervous breakdown and received nine months sick leave, which he spent at home. He successfully managed a coal mine in [West Virginia](/wiki/West_Virginia \"West Virginia\"), but returned to active duty in the Marine Corps at the first opportunity.Boot, 2003, p. 144", "#### Central America", "From 1909 to 1912, Butler served in [Nicaragua](/wiki/Nicaragua \"Nicaragua\"), enforcing U.S. policy. With a 104\\-degree fever, he led his battalion to the relief of the rebel\\-besieged city of [Granada](/wiki/Granada%2C_Nicaragua \"Granada, Nicaragua\"). In December 1909, he commanded the [3rd Battalion, 1st Marine Regiment](/wiki/3rd_Battalion%2C_1st_Marines \"3rd Battalion, 1st Marines\") on the [Isthmus of Panama](/wiki/Isthmus_of_Panama \"Isthmus of Panama\"). On August 11, 1912, he was temporarily detached to command an expeditionary battalion he led in the [Battle of Masaya](/wiki/Battle_of_Masaya_%281912%29 \"Battle of Masaya (1912)\") on September 19, 1912, and the bombardment, assault, and [capture of Coyotepe Hill](/wiki/Battle_of_Coyotepe_Hill \"Battle of Coyotepe Hill\"), Nicaragua, in October 1912\\. He remained in Nicaragua until November 1912, when he rejoined the 3rd Battalion, 1st Marines at [Camp Elliott](/wiki/Camp_Kearny \"Camp Kearny\"), Panama. In private Butler was highly critical of the operation, writing to his parents:", "", "> What makes me mad is that the whole revolution is inspired and financed by Americans who have wild cat investments down here and want to make them good by putting in a Government which will declare a monopoly in their favor . . . The whole business is rotten to the core.{{cite book \\|last\\= Kovalik\\|first\\=Dan\\|author\\-link\\=Dan Kovalik\\|title\\=Nicaragua: A History of US Intervention \\& Resistance\\|year\\=2023 \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=XeCtEAAAQBAJ\\&pg\\=PT38\\|location\\= \\|publisher\\=Clarity Press\\|page\\=38 \\|isbn\\=978\\-1949762600}}", "#### Veracruz and first Medal of Honor", "[right\\|thumb\\|250px\\|Marine Officers at Veracruz. Front row, left to right: [Wendell C. Neville](/wiki/Wendell_C._Neville \"Wendell C. Neville\"); [John A. Lejeune](/wiki/John_A._Lejeune \"John A. Lejeune\"); Littleton W.T. Waller, Commanding; Smedley Butler\\|alt\\=Eight people in military uniforms. They are wearing hats and are standing in formation.](/wiki/File:Littleton_Waller_and_Staff%2C_Vera_Cruz%2C_Mexico%2C_1914_%2814775680222%29.jpg \"Littleton Waller and Staff, Vera Cruz, Mexico, 1914 (14775680222).jpg\")\nButler and his family were living in Panama in January 1914, when he was ordered to report as the Marine officer of a battleship squadron massing off the coast of Mexico, near [Veracruz](/wiki/Veracruz \"Veracruz\"), to monitor a revolutionary movement. He did not like leaving his family and the home they had established in Panama, so he intended to request orders home as soon as he determined he was not needed.Schmidt, 1998, pp. 60–61", "On March 1, 1914, Butler and Navy Lieutenant [Frank J. Fletcher](/wiki/Frank_Jack_Fletcher \"Frank Jack Fletcher\") (not to be confused with his uncle, Rear Admiral [Frank F. Fletcher](/wiki/Frank_Friday_Fletcher \"Frank Friday Fletcher\")) \"went ashore at Veracruz, where they met the American superintendent of the Inter\\-Oceanic Railway and surreptitiously rode in his private car \\[a railway car] up the line 75 miles to [Jalapa](/wiki/Xalapa \"Xalapa\") and back\".Schmidt, 1998, p. 64 A purpose of the trip was to allow Butler and Fletcher to discuss the details of a future expedition into Mexico. Fletcher's plan required Butler to make his way into the country and develop a more\\-detailed invasion plan while inside its borders. It was a spy mission, and Butler was enthusiastic to get started. When Fletcher explained the plan to the commanders in Washington, DC, they agreed to it. Butler was given the go\\-ahead.{{Citation needed\\|date\\=July 2019}} A few days later, he set out by train on his spy mission to Mexico City, with a stopover at Puebla. He made his way to the U.S. Consulate in [Mexico City](/wiki/Mexico_City \"Mexico City\"), posing as a railroad official named \"Mr. Johnson\".\n* *March 5*. As I was reading last night, waiting for dinner to be served, a visitant, rather than a visitor, appeared in my drawing\\-room *incognito* – a simple \"Mr. Johnson,\" eager, intrepid, dynamic, efficient, unshaven! \\* \\* \\*Edith O'Shaughnessy, *A Diplomat's Wife in Mexico* (Harper \\& Brothers, 1916\\) p. 212", "He and the chief railroad inspector scoured the city, saying that they were searching for a lost railroad employee; there was no lost employee, and in fact, the employee who they said was lost never existed. The ruse gave Butler access to various areas of the city. In the process of the so\\-called search, they located weapons in use by the Mexican army and determined the size of units and states of readiness. They updated maps and verified the railroad lines for use in an impending U.S. invasion.Schmidt, 1998, pp. 64–65 On March 7, 1914, he returned to Veracruz with the information he had gathered and presented it to his commanders. The invasion plan was eventually scrapped, when authorities loyal to Mexican General [Victoriano Huerta](/wiki/Victoriano_Huerta \"Victoriano Huerta\") detained a small American naval landing party (that had gone ashore to buy gasoline) in [Tampico, Mexico](/wiki/Tampico \"Tampico\"), which led to what became known as the [Tampico Affair](/wiki/Tampico_Affair \"Tampico Affair\").Schmidt, 1998, pp. 67–68", "When President [Woodrow Wilson](/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson \"Woodrow Wilson\") discovered that an arms shipment was about to arrive in Mexico, he sent a contingent of Marines and sailors to Veracruz to intercept it on April 21, 1914\\. Over the next few days, street fighting and sniper fire posed a threat to Butler's force, but a door\\-to\\-door search rooted out most of the resistance. By April 26, the landing force of 5,800 Marines and sailors secured the city, which they held for the next six months. By the end of the conflict, the Americans reported 17 dead and 63 wounded; the Mexican forces had 126 dead and 195 wounded. After the actions at Veracruz, the U.S. decided to minimize the bloodshed and changed their plans from a full invasion of Mexico to simply [maintaining the city of Veracruz](/wiki/United_States_occupation_of_Veracruz \"United States occupation of Veracruz\").Schmidt, 1998, pp. 68–70 For his actions on April 22, Butler was awarded his first Medal of Honor. The citation reads:", "{{blockquote\\|For distinguished conduct in battle, engagement of Vera Cruz, 22 April 1914\\. Major Butler was eminent and conspicuous in command of his battalion. He exhibited courage and skill in leading his men through the action of the 22d and in the final occupation of the city.}}", "After the occupation of Veracruz, an unusually high number of U.S. military personnel received the Medal of Honor. The Army presented one, nine went to Marines, and 46 were bestowed upon naval personnel. During World War I, Butler attempted to return his medal, explaining he had done nothing to deserve it. The medal was returned to him with orders to keep it and to wear it, as well.{{cite book \\|title\\=Above and Beyond, A History of the Medal of Honor from the Civil War to Vietnam \\|page\\=\\[https://archive.org/details/abovebeyondhist00bost/page/113 113] \\|author\\=((Editors of the Boston Publishing Company ))\\|year\\=1985 \\|publisher\\=Boston Publishing Company \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-8094\\-5628\\-4 \\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/abovebeyondhist00bost/page/113 }}", "#### Haiti and second Medal of Honor", "In 1915, Haitian President [Vilbrun Guillaume Sam](/wiki/Vilbrun_Guillaume_Sam \"Vilbrun Guillaume Sam\") was killed by a mob. In response, the United States ordered the {{USS\\|Connecticut\\|BB\\-18\\|6}} to Haiti, with Major Butler and a group of Marines on board. On October 24, 1915, an estimated [400 *Cacos* ambushed](/wiki/Battle_of_Fort_Dipitie \"Battle of Fort Dipitie\") Butler's patrol of 44 mounted Marines when they approached [Fort Dipitie](/wiki/Fort_Dipitie \"Fort Dipitie\"). Surrounded by *Cacos*, the Marines maintained their perimeter throughout the night. The next morning, they charged the much\\-larger enemy force by breaking out in three directions. The startled Haitians fled.Schmidt, 1998, p. 80 In early November, Butler and a force of 700 Marines and sailors returned to the mountains to clear the area. At their temporary headquarters base at Le Trou, they fought off an attack by about 100 *Cacos*. After the Americans took several other forts and ramparts during the following days, only [Fort Rivière](/wiki/Fort_Rivi%C3%A8re \"Fort Rivière\"), an old, French\\-built stronghold atop Montagne Noire, was left.", "For the operation, Butler was given three companies of Marines and some sailors from the USS *Connecticut*, about 100 men. They encircled the fort and gradually closed in on it. Butler reached the fort from the southern side with the 15th Company and found a small opening in the wall. The Marines entered through the opening and engaged the *Cacos* in hand\\-to\\-hand combat. Butler and the Marines took the rebel stronghold on November 17, 1915, an action for which he received his second Medal of Honor, as well as the Haitian Medal of Honor.{{Hall of Valor\\|2879\\|access\\-date\\=March 4, 2010}} The entire battle lasted less than 20 minutes. Reportedly, only one Marine was injured in the assault; he was struck by a rock and lost two teeth. About 50 Haitians in the fort were killed. Butler's exploits impressed [Assistant Secretary of the Navy](/wiki/Assistant_Secretary_of_the_Navy \"Assistant Secretary of the Navy\") Franklin D. Roosevelt, who recommended the award, based on Butler's performance during the engagement.Schmidt, 1995, p. 81 Once the medal was approved and presented in 1917, Butler achieved the distinction, shared with [Dan Daly](/wiki/Daniel_Daly \"Daniel Daly\"), of being the only Marines to receive the Medal of Honor twice for separate actions. The citation reads:", "{{blockquote\\|For extraordinary heroism in action as Commanding Officer of detachments from the 5th, 13th, 23d Companies and the Marine and sailor detachment from the U.S.S. Connecticut, Major Butler led the attack on Fort Rivière, Haiti, 17 November 1915\\. Following a concentrated drive, several different detachments of Marines gradually closed in on the old French bastion fort in an effort to cut off all avenues of retreat for the Cacos. Reaching the fort on the southern side where there was a small opening in the wall, Major Butler gave the signal to attack and Marines from the 15th Company poured through the breach, engaged the Cacos, took the bastion, and crushed the Cacos resistance.}}", "Subsequently, as the initial organizer and commanding officer of the [Gendarmerie d'Haïti](/wiki/Gendarmerie_d%27Ha%C3%AFti \"Gendarmerie d'Haïti\") (the native police force), Butler established a record as a capable administrator. Under his supervision, social order, administered by the dictatorship, was largely restored.Schmidt, 1998, p. 92 He recalled later that during his time in Haiti, he and his troops \"hunted the *Cacos* like pigs.\"Schmidt, 1995, p. 85", "### World War I", "[200px\\|thumb\\|right\\|Butler (far right) with other Marines in Vera Cruz, Mexico, 1914\\. From left to right: Sgt. Maj. [John H. Quick](/wiki/John_H._Quick \"John H. Quick\"), Maj. Gen. [Wendell Cushing Neville](/wiki/Wendell_Cushing_Neville \"Wendell Cushing Neville\"), [Lt. Gen.](/wiki/Lieutenant_general_%28United_States%29 \"Lieutenant general (United States)\") [John Archer Lejeune](/wiki/John_Archer_Lejeune \"John Archer Lejeune\")\\|alt\\=Four men in military uniforms wearing hats. Three are seated on a bench and one is standing behind the others.](/wiki/File:Marine_Officers%2C_Vera_Cruz%2C_Mexico%2C_1914_%2814772867731%29.jpg \"Marine Officers, Vera Cruz, Mexico, 1914 (14772867731).jpg\")\nDuring World War I, Butler was (to his disappointment) not assigned to a combat command on the [Western Front](/wiki/Western_Front_%28World_War_I%29 \"Western Front (World War I)\"). He made several requests for a posting in France, writing letters to his personal friend, [Wendell Cushing Neville](/wiki/Wendell_Cushing_Neville \"Wendell Cushing Neville\"). While Butler's superiors considered him brave and brilliant, they described him as \"unreliable.\"", "In October 1918, at the age of 37, he was promoted to the rank of [brigadier general](/wiki/Brigadier_general_%28United_States%29 \"Brigadier general (United States)\") and placed in command of [Camp Pontanezen](/wiki/Camp_Pontanezen \"Camp Pontanezen\") at [Brest, France](/wiki/Brest%2C_France \"Brest, France\"), a debarkation depot that funneled troops of the [American Expeditionary Force](/wiki/American_Expeditionary_Force \"American Expeditionary Force\") to the battlefields. The camp had been unsanitary, overcrowded, and disorganized. [U.S. Secretary of War](/wiki/U.S._Secretary_of_War \"U.S. Secretary of War\") [Newton Baker](/wiki/Newton_Baker \"Newton Baker\") sent novelist [Mary Roberts Rinehart](/wiki/Mary_Roberts_Rinehart \"Mary Roberts Rinehart\") to report on the camp. She later described how Butler tackled the sanitation problems. He began by solving the problem of mud. \"\\[T]he ground under the tents was nothing but mud, \\[so] he had raided the wharf at Brest of the [duckboards](/wiki/Duckboards \"Duckboards\") no longer needed for the trenches, carted the first one himself up that four\\-mile hill to the camp, and thus provided something in the way of protection for the men to sleep on.\" [Gen.](/wiki/General_officer \"General officer\") [John J. Pershing](/wiki/John_J._Pershing \"John J. Pershing\") authorized a duckboard shoulder patch for the units. This earned Butler another nickname: \"Old Duckboard.\" For his exemplary service, he was awarded both the [Army Distinguished Service Medal](/wiki/Distinguished_Service_Medal_%28U.S._Army%29 \"Distinguished Service Medal (U.S. Army)\") and the [Navy Distinguished Service Medal](/wiki/Navy_Distinguished_Service_Medal \"Navy Distinguished Service Medal\"), as well as the French [Order of the Black Star](/wiki/Order_of_the_Black_Star \"Order of the Black Star\"). The citation for the Army Distinguished Service Medal states: {{blockquote\\|The President of the United States of America, authorized by Act of Congress, July 9, 1918, takes pleasure in presenting the Army Distinguished Service Medal to Brigadier General Smedley Darlington Butler, United States Marine Corps, for exceptionally meritorious and distinguished services to the Government of the United States, in a duty of great responsibility during World War I. Brigadier General Butler commanded with ability and energy Pontanezen Camp at Brest during the time in which it has developed into the largest embarkation camp in the world. Confronted with problems of extraordinary magnitude in supervising the reception, entertainment and departure of the large numbers of officers and soldiers passing through this camp, he has solved all with conspicuous success, performing services of the highest character for the American Expeditionary Forces.}} The citation for the Navy Distinguished Service Medal states: {{blockquote\\|The President of the United States of America takes pleasure in presenting the Navy Distinguished Service Medal to Brigadier General Smedley Darlington Butler, United States Marine Corps, for exceptionally meritorious and distinguished services in France, during World War I. Brigadier General Butler organized, trained and commanded the 13th Regiment Marines; also the 5th Brigade of Marines. He commanded with ability and energy Camp Pontanezen at Brest during the time in which it has developed into the largest embarkation camp in the world. Confronted with problems of extraordinary magnitude in supervising the reception, entertainment and departure of large numbers of officers and soldiers passing through the camp, he has solved all with conspicuous success, performing services of the highest character for the American Expeditionary Forces.}}", "### Quantico", "[thumb\\|200 px\\|Butler sitting in car at [Gettysburg](/wiki/Gettysburg%2C_Pennsylvania \"Gettysburg, Pennsylvania\") during a [Pickett's Charge](/wiki/Pickett%27s_Charge \"Pickett's Charge\") reenactment by Marines in 1922\\.](/wiki/File:Smedley_D._Butler_at_Gettysburg%2C_Pennsylvania_in_1922.jpg \"Smedley D. Butler at Gettysburg, Pennsylvania in 1922.jpg\")\nFollowing the war, he became commanding general of the Marine barracks at [Marine Corps Base Quantico](/wiki/Marine_Corps_Base_Quantico \"Marine Corps Base Quantico\"), [Virginia](/wiki/Virginia \"Virginia\"). At Quantico, he transformed the wartime training camp into a permanent Marine post. He directed the Quantico camp's growth until it became the \"showplace\" of the Corps.Ward Butler won national attention by taking thousands of his men on long field marches (many of which he led from the front) to Gettysburg and other [Civil War](/wiki/American_Civil_War \"American Civil War\") battle sites, where they conducted large\\-scale re\\-enactments before crowds of distinguished spectators.", "In 1921, during a training exercise near the Wilderness battlefield in Virginia, he was told by a local farmer that [Stonewall Jackson's arm](/wiki/Stonewall_Jackson%27s_arm \"Stonewall Jackson's arm\") was buried nearby, to which he replied, \"Bosh! I will take a squad of Marines and dig up that spot to prove you wrong!\"Farwell, 1993, p. 513 Butler found the arm in a box. He later replaced the wooden box with a metal one and reburied the arm. He left a plaque on the granite monument marking the burial place of Jackson's arm; the plaque is no longer on the marker, but it can be viewed at the Chancellorsville Battlefield visitor's center.Horwitz, 1999, p. 232", "### Philadelphia Director of Public Safety", "In 1924, newly elected [Mayor of Philadelphia](/wiki/Mayor_of_Philadelphia \"Mayor of Philadelphia\") [W. Freeland Kendrick](/wiki/W._Freeland_Kendrick \"W. Freeland Kendrick\") asked President [Calvin Coolidge](/wiki/Calvin_Coolidge \"Calvin Coolidge\") to lend the city a military general to help him rid [Philadelphia's municipal government](/wiki/Philadelphia%27s_municipal_government \"Philadelphia's municipal government\") of crime and corruption. At the urging of Butler's father, Coolidge authorized Butler to take the necessary leave from the Corps to serve as Philadelphia's director of public safety, in charge of running the city's police and fire departments from January 1924 until December 1925\\. He began his new job by assembling all 4,000 of the city police into the [Metropolitan Opera House](/wiki/Metropolitan_Opera_House_%28Philadelphia%29 \"Metropolitan Opera House (Philadelphia)\") in shifts to introduce himself and inform them that things would change while he was in charge. Since he had not been given authority to fire corrupt police officers, he switched entire units from one part of the city to another, in order to undermine local protection rackets and profiteering.Schmidt, 1998, p. 146Schmidt, 1998, p. 147", "Within 48 hours of taking over, Butler organized raids on more than 900 [speakeasies](/wiki/Speakeasy \"Speakeasy\"), ordering that they be padlocked and destroyed in many cases. In addition to raiding the speakeasies, he also attempted to eliminate other illegal activities, including bootlegging, prostitution, gambling, and police corruption. More zealous than he was political, he ordered crackdowns on the social elite's favorite hangouts, such as the [Ritz\\-Carlton](/wiki/Ritz-Carlton \"Ritz-Carlton\") and the [Union League](/wiki/Union_League \"Union League\"), as well as on drinking establishments that served the working class.{{cite journal \\|title\\=Leatherneck legends; Swapping some sea stories at the birthday ball? Here are 8 of the Corps' best \\|journal\\=Marine Corps Times \\|date\\=November 15, 2004\\|pages\\=22}} Although he was effective in reducing crime and police corruption, he was a controversial leader. In one instance, he made a statement that he would promote the first officer to kill a bandit and stated, \"I don't believe there is a single bandit notch on a policeman's guns {{Sic}} in this city; go out and get some.\" Although many of the local citizens and police felt that the raids were just a show, they continued for several weeks.\n[thumb\\|Butler on the Philadelphia Police Baseball Team](/wiki/File:Smedley_Butler%2C_Philadelphia_Police_Baseball_Team%2C_circa_1925_%2814590086149%29.jpg \"Smedley Butler, Philadelphia Police Baseball Team, circa 1925 (14590086149).jpg\")\nAmong his many accomplishments as the director of public safety, he implemented programs to improve city safety and security, established policies and guidelines for the administration, and developed a Philadelphia police uniform that resembled that of the Marine Corps.Schmidt, 1998, p. 148 Other changes included military\\-style checkpoints into the city and bandit\\-chasing squads, who were armed with [sawed\\-off shotguns](/wiki/Sawed-off_shotgun \"Sawed-off shotgun\") and armored police cars. The press began reporting on both the good and the bad aspects of Butler's personal war on crime. They praised the new uniforms, the new programs, and the reductions in crime, but they also reflected the public's negative opinion of their new public safety director. Many felt that he was being too aggressive in his tactics and resented the reductions in their civil rights, such as the stopping of citizens at the city checkpoints. Butler frequently swore in his radio addresses, causing many citizens to suggest that his behavior, and particularly his language, was inappropriate for someone of his rank and stature.Schmidt, 1998, p. 149 Some even suggested that Butler was acting like a military dictator, even charging that he wrongfully used active\\-duty Marines in some of his raids. Maj. R.A. Haynes, the federal prohibition commissioner, visited the city in 1924, six months after Butler was appointed. He announced that \"great progress\"Schmidt, 1998, p. 150 had been made in the city, and he attributed that success to Butler.", "Eventually, Butler's leadership style and the directness of actions undermined his support within the community, so his departure seemed imminent. Mayor Kendrick reported to the press, \"I had the guts to bring General Butler to Philadelphia and I have the guts to fire him.\"Schmidt, 1998, p. 153 Feeling that his duties in Philadelphia were coming to an end, Butler contacted Gen. Lejeune to prepare for his return to the Marine Corps. Not all of the citizens felt that Butler was doing a bad job, though, and when the news started to leak that he would be leaving, people began to gather at the [Academy of Music](/wiki/Academy_of_Music_%28Philadelphia%29 \"Academy of Music (Philadelphia)\"). A group of 4,000 supporters assembled and negotiated a truce between him and the mayor to keep him in Philadelphia for a while longer, and the president authorized a one\\-year extension.Schmidt, 1998, pp. 153–4", "Butler devoted much of his second year to executing arrest warrants, cracking down on crooked police, and enforcing prohibition. On January 1, 1926, his leave from the Marine Corps ended, and the president declined a request for a second extension. Butler received orders to report to [San Diego](/wiki/San_Diego \"San Diego\") and prepared his family and his belongings for the new assignment.Schmidt, 1998, pp. 154–5 In light of his pending departure, he began to defy the mayor and other key city officials. On the eve of his departure, he had an article printed in the paper that stated his intention to stay and \"finish the job\".Schmidt, 1998, pp. 156–7 The mayor was surprised and furious when he read the press release the next morning and demanded Butler's resignation. After almost two years in office, Butler resigned under pressure, stating later that \"cleaning up Philadelphia was worse than any battle I was ever in.\"", "### San Diego duty", "Following the period of service as the director of public safety in Philadelphia, Butler assumed command on February 28, 1926, of the [U.S. Marine Corps base](/wiki/Marine_Corps_Recruit_Depot_San_Diego \"Marine Corps Recruit Depot San Diego\") in San Diego, California, in ceremonies involving officers and the band of the [4th Marine Regiment](/wiki/4th_Marine_Regiment \"4th Marine Regiment\").Associated Press, \"Butler Takes Over San Diego Marines,\" *The San Bernardino Daily Sun*, San Bernardino, California, Monday March 1, 1926, Volume LVIII, Number 1, page 4\\.", "### China and stateside service", "From 1927 to 1929, Butler was commander of a [Marine Expeditionary Force](/wiki/Marine_Expeditionary_Force \"Marine Expeditionary Force\") in [Tianjin](/wiki/Tianjin \"Tianjin\"), China, (the [China Marines](/wiki/China_Marines \"China Marines\")). While there, he cleverly parlayed his influence among various generals and warlords to the protection of U.S. interests, ultimately winning the public acclaim of contending Chinese leaders. When he returned to the United States in 1929 he was promoted to major general, becoming, at age 48, the youngest major general of the Marine Corps. But, the death of his father on May 26, 1928, ended the Pennsylvania Congressman's ability to protect Smedley from political retribution for his outspoken views.{{cite journal \\|last\\=Bartlett \\|first\\=Merrill L. \\|year\\=1986 \\|title\\=Old Gimlet Eye \\|journal\\=Proceedings \\|volume\\=112 \\|issue\\=11 \\|pages\\=64–72 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[United States Naval Institute]] }}", "In 1931, Butler violated diplomatic norms by publicly recounting gossip{{cite book\\|last\\=Talbot\\|first\\=David\\|title\\=Devil dog : the amazing true story of the man who saved America\\|date\\=2010\\|publisher\\=Simon \\& Schuster\\|location\\=New York\\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-4391\\-0902\\-1\\|page\\=114\\|edition\\=1st\\|others\\=Spain Rodriguez, illustrator \\|type\\=hardcover\\|quote\\=as more evidence of Mussolini's road mayhem began to surface...Il Duce's American passenger came forward to corroborate the story. He turned out to be globe\\-trotting newspaperman and son of fortune Cornelius Vanderbilt, Jr...}}{{cite web\\|url\\=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid\\=2199\\&dat\\=19310213\\&id\\=bTNXAAAAIBAJ\\&pg\\=2912,1977522\\|title\\=Vanderbilt Tells Mussolini Story: Hit\\-Run Incident Happened But Butler Garbled It, He Says\\|website\\=\\[\\[Lawrence Journal\\-World\\|Lawrence Daily Journal\\-World]]\\|issue\\=38\n\\|quote\\=(p.1\\) ...Vanderbilt's story of the Mussolini incident was as follows: I was riding with Mussolini, who drove. A small child ran in front of the machine at a sharp turn in the run and was hit. I looked back to see if the child was hurt. Mussolini put his hand on my knee and said 'Never look back, Vanderbilt, always look ahead in life.'\\|date\\=February 13, 1931}} about [Benito Mussolini](/wiki/Benito_Mussolini \"Benito Mussolini\") in which the dictator allegedly struck and killed a child with his speeding automobile in a hit\\-and\\-run accident. The Italian government protested and President [Hoover](/wiki/Herbert_Hoover \"Herbert Hoover\"), who strongly disliked Butler,{{citation\\|title\\=Devil Dog: The Amazing True Story Of The Man Who Saved America\\|quote\\=Butler...told the young officer that President Hoover had an ulterior motive for punishing him so harshly...During the \\[\\[Boxer Rebellion]] \\[and the] \\[\\[Battle of Tientsin\\#The Siege\\|siege of Tientsin]] \\[Butler's marines were] disgusted to find an American engineer hiding in the basement with the women and children... 'Do you know who that man was?' Butler asked his visitor. 'Herbert Hoover.'\\|author\\=David Talbot\\|others\\=Spain Rodriguez, illustrator \\|date\\=October 5, 2010\\|edition\\=1st\\|type\\=hardcover\\|page\\=114\\|publisher\\=Simon \\& Schuster \\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-4391\\-0902\\-1}} forced [Secretary of the Navy](/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_the_Navy \"United States Secretary of the Navy\") [Charles Francis Adams III](/wiki/Charles_Francis_Adams_III \"Charles Francis Adams III\") to [court\\-martial](/wiki/Court-martial \"Court-martial\") him. Butler became the first general officer to be placed under arrest since the Civil War. He apologized to Secretary Adams and the court\\-martial was canceled with only a reprimand.Schmidt, 1998, p. 212", "" ]
History ------- ### Military [thumb\|A B.E.2c of the RFC](/wiki/File:Royal_Aircraft_Factory_B.E.2C_biplane_Biplan_Royal_Aircraft_Factory_B.E.2C_%2833217604931%29.jpg "Royal Aircraft Factory B.E.2C biplane Biplan Royal Aircraft Factory B.E.2C (33217604931).jpg") In response to German [Zeppelin](/wiki/Zeppelin "Zeppelin") airship raids over the industrially vital Tyneside area in 1915, a flight of three [Royal Flying Corps](/wiki/Royal_Flying_Corps "Royal Flying Corps") (RFC) [B.E.2c](/wiki/Royal_Aircraft_Factory_B.E.2%23B.E.2c "Royal Aircraft Factory B.E.2#B.E.2c") fighters were based at a field near [Cramlington](/wiki/Cramlington "Cramlington") in late November to defend against further raids. The aircraft arrived on 1 December 1915 and were housed in canvas hangars. The site was chosen as it was higher and thus less prone to fog than local coastal locations. The British Army and Royal Navy at first debated who should operate the field, with the army winning, and on 1 February 1916 [No. 36 (Home Defence) Squadron](/wiki/No._36_Squadron_RAF "No. 36 Squadron RAF") was officially formed and three hangars were built. The airfield officially became **RFC Cramlington**, the first RFC airfield in the north\-east of England. Extensive wooden buildings were constructed for offices, stores and accommodation,{{cite web \|last1\=Davis \|first1\=Mick \|title\=Cramlington Aerodrome \|url\=https://www.nelsam.org.uk/NEAR/Airfields/Histories/Cramlington.htm \|website\=North East Aviation Research \|publisher\=North East Aircraft Museum \|access\-date\=10 February 2022}} mostly on the far side of the road that ran down the east side of the airfield, which was also bordered to the north by a railway line. Training became an important function at the airfield. It was used by Reserve Squadrons 47, 52 and 61, as well as 75 Training Squadron, later renamed to 52 Training Depot Station.{{cite book \|last1\=Smith \|first1\=David J. \|title\=Action Stations 7: Military Airfields of Scotland, the North\-East and Northern Ireland \|date\=1989 \|publisher\=Patrick Stephens Ltd \|location\=Wellingborough, UK \|isbn\=1\-85260\-309\-7 \|page\=73}} Operations continued at high intensity throughout the rest of the war, and a {{convert\|70\|ft\|abbr\=on}} radio transmitter mast was erected to enable information and instructions to be sent to pilots from the ground. When the RFC became the [Royal Air Force](/wiki/Royal_Air_Force "Royal Air Force") on 1 April 1918 the airfield became **RAF Cramlington**. In April 1918, the first flight of the [Armstrong Whitworth F.M.4 Armadillo](/wiki/Armstrong_Whitworth_Armadillo "Armstrong Whitworth Armadillo") fighter took place at Cramlington because their normal field, at [Town Moor Aerodrome](/wiki/Town_Moor%2C_Newcastle_upon_Tyne "Town Moor, Newcastle upon Tyne") in Newcastle, was surrounded by obstructions and too rough. The aircraft was not a success.{{cite book \|last1\=Tapper \|first1\=Oliver \|title\=Armstrong Whitworth Aircraft since 1913 \|date\=1988 \|publisher\=Putnam \|location\=London \|isbn\=0\-85177\-826\-7 \|page\=82 \|edition\=2nd}} Further land was requisitioned for the construction of a larger hangar, the building of which extended into 1919\. However the RAF had no further plans for the airfield, and it was reduced to Care and Maintenance status on 22 January 1920, and the RAF left completely in March. #### Units Major units based at Cramlington (in date order){{cite book \|last1\=Jefford \|first1\=C.G. \|title\=RAF Squadrons \|date\=2001 \|publisher\=Airlife Publishing Ltd \|location\=Shrewsbury, UK \|isbn\=1\-84037\-141\-2 \|page\=147 \|edition\=2nd}} * [36 Sqn](/wiki/No._36_Squadron_RAF "No. 36 Squadron RAF") Formed at Cramlington on 1 February 1916, moved to Newcastle 12 October 1916 * [58 Sqn](/wiki/No._58_Squadron_RAF "No. 58 Squadron RAF") Formed Cramlington 8 June 1916, to Dover 17 December 1917 * [76 Sqn](/wiki/No._76_Squadron_RAF "No. 76 Squadron RAF") Formed Cramlington 15 September 1916, to [Ripon](/wiki/RAF_Ripon "RAF Ripon") 10 October 1916 * [63 Sqn](/wiki/No._63_Squadron_RAF "No. 63 Squadron RAF") From Stirling 31 October 1916, to Middle East June 1917 * [120 Sqn](/wiki/No._120_Squadron_RAF "No. 120 Squadron RAF") Formed Cramlington 1 January 1918, to [Bracebridge Heath](/wiki/Bracebridge_Heath%23RAF_Bracebridge_Heath "Bracebridge Heath#RAF Bracebridge Heath") 3 August 1918 * [252 Sqn](/wiki/No._252_Squadron_RAF "No. 252 Squadron RAF") Based Tynemouth, detachment to Cramlington May 1918, to [Killingholme](/wiki/RNAS_Killingholme "RNAS Killingholme") 31 January 1919 ### Civil [thumb\|left\|De Havilland DH.60 Cirrus Moths G\-EBLX and G\-EBLY at Cramlington Aerodrome, possibly during their naming ceremony on 26 November 1925](/wiki/File:015825-Newcastle_upon_Tyne_Aero_Club_Cramlington_Aerodrome_Unknown_1925.jpg "015825-Newcastle upon Tyne Aero Club Cramlington Aerodrome Unknown 1925.jpg") In the early 1920s, the airfield, then known as "Cramlington Aerodrome", or sometimes "Newcastle Airport", saw little use, and the buildings received little maintenance. However in July 1925 The Newcastle upon Tyne Light Aeroplane Club, later renamed the Newcastle on Tyne Aero Club, was formed. It was commonly called the "Newcastle Aero Club". The members funded the building of a new hangar and with a grant from the [Air Ministry](/wiki/Air_Ministry "Air Ministry"){{efn\-ua\| Thanks to subsidies organised by the Director of Civil Aviation, Sir \[\[Sefton Brancker]], five new flying clubs were formed, all receiving two of the earliest production Moths in the summer of 1925\. The other clubs were \[\[Lancashire Aero Club]], London Aeroplane Club, Midland Aero Club and Yorkshire Aeroplane Club.{{cite book \|last1\=Jackson \|first1\=A. J. \|title\=De Havilland Aircraft since 1915 \|date\=1962 \|publisher\=Putnam \|location\=London \|page\=194}}}} bought two [de Havilland DH.60 Cirrus Moths](/wiki/De_Havilland_DH.60_Moth "De Havilland DH.60 Moth"),{{cite web \|title\=Cramlington \|url\=https://forgottenairfields.com/airfield\-cramlington\-955\.html \|website\=Abandoned Forgotten \& Little Known Airfields in Europe \|access\-date\=10 February 2022}} G\-EBLX, named 'Novocastria', and G\-EBLY, named 'Bernicia', soon followed by two more. The club remained a loyal Moth operator with at least another six acquired over the following years.{{cite web \|last1\=Fillmore \|first1\=Malcolm \|title\=De Havilland DH60 File \|url\=https://www.ab\-ix.co.uk/pdfs/dh60\.pdf \|date\=September 2018\|website\=Air\-Britain \|accessdate\=10 February 2022}} [thumb\|Avro 548 G\-EBPO of the Newcastle on Tyne Aero Club at Cramlington Aerodrome c.1928](/wiki/File:Newcastle_upon_Tyne_Aero_Club_Avro_548_G-EBPO_Cramlington_Aerodrome.jpg "Newcastle upon Tyne Aero Club Avro 548 G-EBPO Cramlington Aerodrome.jpg") A small company named *Pleasure Flying Services Ltd.* operated pleasure flights from early 1929 using [Avro 548](/wiki/Avro_548 "Avro 548") G\-EBPO,{{cite book \|last1\=Jackson \|first1\=A.J. \|last2\=Jackson \|first2\=R.T. \|title\=Avro Aircraft since 1908 \|date\=1990 \|publisher\=Putnam Aeronautical Books \|location\=London \|isbn\=0\-85177\-834\-8 \|page\=192 \|edition\=2nd}} which they acquired from the Aero Club. It was a three\-seat conversion of the two\-seat [Avro 504](/wiki/Avro_504 "Avro 504").{{efn\-ua\|There is film of this aircraft in Pleasure Flying Services markings giving joy rides from the beach at \[\[St Andrews]], \[\[Scotland]] in 1929\.{{cite web \|title\=Penniwells and St Andrews \|url\=https://movingimage.nls.uk/film/2830 \|website\=Moving Image Archive \|publisher\=National Library of Scotland \|access\-date\=11 February 2022}}}} Later that year they expanded, acquiring [Simmonds Spartan](/wiki/Simmonds_Spartan "Simmonds Spartan") two\-seater G\-AAGV and three\-seater G\-AAHV. 'GV crashed in September 1930 and was rebuilt as a three\-seater re\-registered as G\-ABXO.{{cite web \|title\=Simmonds Spartan Aircraft \|url\=https://wight.hampshireairfields.co.uk/sim.html \|website\=Isle of Wight Aviation \|access\-date\=14 February 2022}} One of the earliest pupils of the Aero Club was [Constance "Connie" Leathart](/wiki/Constance_Leathart "Constance Leathart"), a young socialite who, despite crashing on her first solo flight, 24 February 1926, went on to become an accomplished pilot.{{cite web \|title\=Constance Leathart: A Life in the Clouds \|url\=https://www.northumberlandarchives.com/archive\-exhibitions/constanceleathart\-clouds/ \|website\=Northumberland Archives \|publisher\=Northumberland County Council \|access\-date\=11 February 2022}} With her great friend, Walter [Leslie Runciman, 2nd Viscount Runciman of Doxford](/wiki/Leslie_Runciman%2C_2nd_Viscount_Runciman_of_Doxford "Leslie Runciman, 2nd Viscount Runciman of Doxford"), they formed Cramlington Aircraft Ltd, and took over the aircraft and business of Pleasure Flying Services on 30 October 1929\. The company managed the aerodrome{{cite web \|title\=Constance Leathart \|url\=https://hyperleap.com/topic/Constance\_Leathart \|website\=hyperleap \|access\-date\=11 February 2022}} and ran a maintenance and repair operation. It also built gliders from scratch including a [Zögling](/wiki/DFS_Z%C3%B6gling "DFS Zögling") type designed by Mr Alec Bell,{{cite journal \|title\=Gliding Gossip and News \|journal\=MotorSport \|date\=May 1930 \|page\=36 \|url\=https://www.motorsportmagazine.com/archive/article/may\-1930/36/gliding\-gossip\-and\-news\-7 \|access\-date\=11 February 2022}} and in 1930 designed and built three examples of the [Cramlington Cramcraft](/wiki/Cramlington_Cramcraft "Cramlington Cramcraft") primary glider.{{cite journal \|title\=A North\-Country Glider \|journal\=The Sailplane and Glider \|date\=3 October 1930 \|volume\=5 \|issue\=1 \|pages\=35, 36}} A president of the Newcastle Aero Club, Sam Smith,{{cite web \|first1\=Arthur \|last1\=Andrews \|title\=Heaton fliers: the Smith family and Newcastle Aero Club \|url\=https://heatonhistorygroup.org/2017/05/17/heaton\-fliers\-the\-smith\-family\-and\-newcastle\-aero\-club/ \|website\=Heaton History Group \|access\-date\=27 August 2023}} was the founder of Ringtons Tea. In 1931{{cite web \|title\=Carlton Moor Gliding Club \|url\=http://www.hidden\-teesside.co.uk/2013/01/08/carlton\-moor\-gliding\-club/ \|website\=Hidden Teesside \|access\-date\=10 February 2022}} he was a founder member of Newcastle Gliding Club at Cramlington, which mainly used [winch\-launching](/wiki/Winch-launching "Winch-launching") for take\-offs.{{cite web \|title\=Cramlington (Airfield) (Newcastle) \|url\=https://www.abct.org.uk/airfields/airfield\-finder/cramlington\-airfield\-newcastle/ \|website\=Airfields of Britain Conservation Trust \|access\-date\=11 February 2022}} The club's president was Walter Leslie Runciman, and they used a Cramlington Cramcraft as a basic trainer.{{cite book \|title\=Gliding Yearbook 1931 \|date\=1931 \|publisher\=Dorset Gliding Club \|page\=78 \|url\=https://www.j2mcl\-planeurs.net/dbj2mcl/planeurs\-biblio/fac\-similes/Gliding\_Year\_Book\_1931\_(Dorset\_1931\).pdf \|access\-date\=11 February 2022}} #### Scheduled services George Nicholson started an experimental service, trading as "Northern Airways", from his base at Cramlington to the [Isle of Man](/wiki/Isle_of_Man "Isle of Man") ([Hall Caine Airport](/wiki/Hall_Caine_Airport "Hall Caine Airport")) via [Carlisle](/wiki/Carlisle "Carlisle") ([Kingstown Municipal Airport](/wiki/RAF_Carlisle "RAF Carlisle")) in his [De Havilland DH.84 Dragon](/wiki/De_Havilland_Dragon "De Havilland Dragon") G\-ACFG, running from 1 August 1934 to 30 September. He went on to start [Northern \& Scottish Airways](/wiki/Northern_%26_Scottish_Airways "Northern & Scottish Airways") in [Glasgow](/wiki/Glasgow_Airport "Glasgow Airport") later that year.{{cite book \|last1\=Davies \|first1\=R. E. G. \|title\=British Airways: An airline and its aircraft Volume 1: 1919 \- 1939 \|date\=2005 \|publisher\=Paladwr Press \|location\=McLean, Virginia, USA \|isbn\=1\-888962\-24\-0 \|page\=66 }} In April 1935, [North Eastern Airways](/wiki/North_Eastern_Airways "North Eastern Airways") started a service to link [Edinburgh](/wiki/Edinburgh "Edinburgh") [(Turnhouse)](/wiki/Edinburgh_Airport "Edinburgh Airport") with [London](/wiki/London "London") ([Heston Airport](/wiki/Heston_Airport "Heston Airport")) via Newcastle (Cramlington) and [Leeds](/wiki/Leeds "Leeds") ([Yeadon](/wiki/Leeds_Bradford_Airport "Leeds Bradford Airport")).{{cite web \|title\=North Eastern Airways April 1935 \|url\=http://www.timetableimages.com/ttimages/neaw/neaw3504/neaw35i.jpg \|website\=Airline Timetable Images \|access\-date\=11 February 2022}} The Edinburgh leg was delayed until 27 May. There was little demand, and the service stopped on 27 June.{{cite book \|last1\=Davies \|first1\=R. E. G. \|title\=British Airways: An airline and its aircraft Volume 1: 1919 \- 1939 \|date\=2005 \|publisher\=Paladwr Press \|location\=McLean, Virginia, USA \|isbn\=1\-888962\-24\-0 \|page\=73 }} #### Events The Newcastle Aero Club held its opening ceremony on 26 November 1925, at which its first two Moths were named. It organised its first Annual Flying Meeting on 4 September 1926 in which the [Fleet Air Arm](/wiki/Fleet_Air_Arm "Fleet Air Arm") took part, with 406 Flight sending a large number of [Fairey Flycatchers](/wiki/Fairey_Flycatcher "Fairey Flycatcher").{{cite web \|title\=Cramlington Flying Sites \|url\=https://www.ukairfieldguide.net/airfields/Cramlington\-flying\-sites \|website\=UK Airfields \& Airports \|access\-date\=11 February 2022}} On 7 July 1929, [Alan Cobham](/wiki/Alan_Cobham "Alan Cobham") visited Cramlington on his Municipal Aerodrome Campaign. He judged that the airfield at Newcastle's Town Moor, from which he had operated the previous day, was too rough and dangerous for his [de Havilland DH.61 Giant Moth](/wiki/De_Havilland_Giant_Moth "De Havilland Giant Moth") (registered G\-AEEV and named *Youth of Britain*) and had relocated to Cramlington. The engine cut out and he landed, demolishing a tent and running into a wire fence, tearing off a wing, and stopping a few yards from the clubhouse. No one was harmed, and the aircraft was quickly repaired.{{cite news \|title\=Ten Passengers in 'Plane Smash \|url\=https://www.ukairfieldguide.net/airfields/Town\-Moor \|access\-date\=23 February 2022 \|work\=Yorkshire Post and Leeds Intelligencer \|date\=8 July 1929}} On 5 October 1929, three significant air races were held during an Air Pageant; the Air League Challenge Cup, the [Grosvenor Challenge Cup](/wiki/Grosvenor_Challenge_Cup "Grosvenor Challenge Cup"), and the SBAC Challenge Cup. They were all won by members of the Newcastle Aero Club in its DH.60 Moth G\-EBPT.{{cite book \|last1\=Lewis \|first1\=Peter \|title\=British Racing and Record\-Breaking Aircraft \|date\=1970 \|publisher\=Putnam \|location\=London \|isbn\=0\-370\-00067\-6 \|page\=204}} [thumb\|[Winifred Brown](/wiki/Winifred_Brown "Winifred Brown"), winner of the 1930 King's Cup.](/wiki/File:Winifred_Sawley_Brown_who_became_Winifred_Adams.png "Winifred Sawley Brown who became Winifred Adams.png") The [King's Cup Air Race](/wiki/King%27s_Cup_Air_Race "King's Cup Air Race") took place on 5 July 1930, and Cramlington was the third of four stops on the circular route which started and finished in [Hanworth Air Park](/wiki/London_Air_Park "London Air Park") in London. With 88 starters, this was to be the largest field in the history of the race, and the 71 aircraft which survived as far as Cramlington all arrived in the space of just over an hour, causing considerable chaos but only two minor accidents.{{cite book \|last1\=Boughton \|first1\=Terence \|title\=The Story of the British Light Aeroplane \|date\=1963 \|publisher\=John Murray \|location\=London \|pages\=174, 177}} On 31 August 1930, an Air Fete was held which included a race.{{cite book \|last1\=Lewis \|first1\=Peter \|title\=British Racing and Record\-Breaking Aircraft \|date\=1970 \|publisher\=Putnam \|location\=London \|isbn\=0\-370\-00067\-6 \|page\=214}} The Grosvenor Challenge Cup race was held again on 22 August 1931\.{{cite book \|last1\=Lewis \|first1\=Peter \|title\=British Racing and Record\-Breaking Aircraft \|date\=1970 \|publisher\=Putnam \|location\=London \|isbn\=0\-370\-00067\-6 \|page\=228}} A London to Newcastle Air Race was instituted by the Aero Club, flying from Heston to Cramlington on 30 May 1931\. It was repeated, starting from Brooklands in 1932, 1933 and 1934, and the last ones were to Woolsington in 1935 and 36\.{{cite web \|title\=London to Newcastle Air Races \|url\=https://www.nelsam.org.uk/NEAR/Events/LonNewAirRace/LonNewAirRace.htm \|website\=North East Aviation Research \|publisher\=North East Aircraft Museum \|access\-date\=12 February 2022}}. Alan Cobham's National Aviation Day "Flying Circus" displays visited Cramlington on the following dates: 2 and 3 July 1932, 1 and 2 July 1933 (No. 2 Tour), 8 September 1934 and 26 and 27 July 1935 (Astra Show).{{efn\-ua\|In 1933 there were two simultaneous tours throughout the season, named Number 1 and Number 2\. In 1935 there again were two, but only from 1 July, named Astra and Ferry.}}{{cite book \|last1\=Cobham \|first1\=Sir Alan \|title\=A Time to Fly \|date\=1978 \|publisher\=Shepheard\-Walwyn (Publishers) \|location\=London, UK \|isbn\=0\-85683\-037\-2 \|pages\=205–214}} The British Hospitals Air Pageant visited on 12 August 1933\.{{cite web \|title\=ACA News Reel Events of 1933 \|url\=https://www.yfanefa.com/record/25991 \|website\=North East Film Archive \|publisher\=Yorkshire/North East Film Archive \|at\=at 7\.40 \|access\-date\=16 February 2022}} Among the displays was the unique [Miles M.1 Satyr](/wiki/Miles_M.1_Satyr "Miles M.1 Satyr") G\-ABVG and the [De Havilland DH.60M Moth](/wiki/De_Havilland_DH.60M_Moth "De Havilland DH.60M Moth") VH\-UQA in which [C. W. A. Scott](/wiki/C._W._A._Scott "C. W. A. Scott") made his record\-breaking return flights from Australia to Britain. ### Demise On 26 July 1935, Woolsington Aerodrome opened, about {{convert\|5\|mi\|km}} to the south\-west, as a great improvement on Cramlington (it would become [Newcastle International Airport](/wiki/Newcastle_International_Airport "Newcastle International Airport") later). Almost all of Cramlington's users and residents had moved there by May 1936 in which month Cramlington Aircraft ceased trading, and the airfield was left almost deserted. An exception was the Gliding Club, which remained until the outbreak of [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II") in September 1939\. Cramlington Aircraft Ltd entered voluntary liquidation in January 1939\.{{London Gazette\|issue\=34589 \|date\=13 January 1939 \|page\=340 }} During World War II the airfield was unused. After the war, attempts were made to restart some aviation activity, but the airfield was soon abandoned. Little of the old aerodrome remains. The landing ground is now open grassland encroached upon by the [Shotton open\-cast coal mine](/wiki/Shotton_Surface_Mine "Shotton Surface Mine"). and the buildings area is now the Bassington Industrial Estate. ### Airship station [thumb\|Painting of an RNAS SST on patrol](/wiki/File:Watching_for_Prey%2C_Frank_Willis%2C_Luftschiff_SST_1914%E2%80%931918.jpg "Watching for Prey, Frank Willis, Luftschiff SST 1914–1918.jpg") Construction of a Royal Naval Airship Station, **RNAS Cramlington**, started in 1918{{cite web \|title\=Cramlington (Airship) \|url\=https://www.abct.org.uk/airfields/airfield\-finder/cramlington\-airship/ \|website\=Airfields of Britain Conservation Trust \|access\-date\=12 February 2022}} at Nelson Village, about half a mile (0\.8 km) to the east of the existing aerodrome. It was planned that four [Submarine Scout Twin](/wiki/SST_class_airship "SST class airship") (SST) airships would be based here, but construction of the large airship shed to house them was not finished until 1919\. However the planned airships did operate from here for a short period, along with a complement of twenty officers and around 280 men.{{cite web \|title\=United Kingdom \- Cramlington \|url\=https://www.airshipsonline.com/sheds/Cramlington.htm \|website\=Airship Heritage Trust \|access\-date\=12 February 2022}} The site was soon abandoned, but the huge airship shed was taken over by British Airships Ltd which later changed its name to the Airship Development Company. Here they assembled what was claimed to be Britain's first private airship, the [AD.1](/wiki/Airship_Development_AD1 "Airship Development AD1"). This had been designed principally by [Reginald Foster Dagnall](/wiki/Reginald_Foster_Dagnall "Reginald Foster Dagnall"), who had designed previous airships{{efn\-ua\|Dagnall was the designer of \[\[Willows airships]] in the early 1900s.}} and founded the RFD company. The airship was built in [Guildford](/wiki/Guildford "Guildford"), [Surrey](/wiki/Surrey "Surrey"), but as most airship sheds in Britain had been demolished, it was brought to Cramlington for inflation and testing. Registered G\-FAAX, its first flight was on 18 September 1929 and after several test flights{{efn\-ua\|There is film of an early flight from Cramlington.{{cite web \|title\=Aviation: Airship On Its First Flight From Cramlington, Yorkshire (sic) 1929 \|url\=https://www.britishpathe.com/video/VLVA8D9R4M5GLYUMDK4O94E5NRJNL\-AVIATION\-AIRSHIP\-ON\-ITS\-FIRST\-FLIGHT\-FROM\-CRAMLINGTON\-YORKSHIRE \|website\=British Pathé \|access\-date\=15 February 2022}}}} was deflated for modifications. Flying again the following May,{{cite web \|title\=Lighter–than–Air Register \|url\=https://www.ab\-ix.co.uk/pdfs/lighterthanairregister.pdf \|website\=Air\-Britain \|access\-date\=12 February 2022}} it performed its intended role in aerial advertising, with large banners attached to its sides. Business was hard to come by, however, and the airship had to travel far to get work.{{cite web \|title\=Ill\-fated history of Britain's first private airship \|url\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk\-england\-24934015 \|website\=BBC News \|access\-date\=9 November 2023 \|date\=5 January 2014}} On a commission in Belgium for a cigarette company, it was destroyed in a storm on 5 October 1930\. The remains were returned to Britain and auctioned, and the company was liquidated the next year. The shed was little used until after World War II, but in later years was used for the production of concrete lamp posts, It survived until 1967 when it was demolished. The site is now the South Nelson Industrial Estate.
[ "History\n-------", "### Military", "[thumb\\|A B.E.2c of the RFC](/wiki/File:Royal_Aircraft_Factory_B.E.2C_biplane_Biplan_Royal_Aircraft_Factory_B.E.2C_%2833217604931%29.jpg \"Royal Aircraft Factory B.E.2C biplane Biplan Royal Aircraft Factory B.E.2C (33217604931).jpg\")\nIn response to German [Zeppelin](/wiki/Zeppelin \"Zeppelin\") airship raids over the industrially vital Tyneside area in 1915, a flight of three [Royal Flying Corps](/wiki/Royal_Flying_Corps \"Royal Flying Corps\") (RFC) [B.E.2c](/wiki/Royal_Aircraft_Factory_B.E.2%23B.E.2c \"Royal Aircraft Factory B.E.2#B.E.2c\") fighters were based at a field near [Cramlington](/wiki/Cramlington \"Cramlington\") in late November to defend against further raids. The aircraft arrived on 1 December 1915 and were housed in canvas hangars. The site was chosen as it was higher and thus less prone to fog than local coastal locations.", "The British Army and Royal Navy at first debated who should operate the field, with the army winning, and on 1 February 1916 [No. 36 (Home Defence) Squadron](/wiki/No._36_Squadron_RAF \"No. 36 Squadron RAF\") was officially formed and three hangars were built. The airfield officially became **RFC Cramlington**, the first RFC airfield in the north\\-east of England. Extensive wooden buildings were constructed for offices, stores and accommodation,{{cite web \\|last1\\=Davis \\|first1\\=Mick \\|title\\=Cramlington Aerodrome \\|url\\=https://www.nelsam.org.uk/NEAR/Airfields/Histories/Cramlington.htm \\|website\\=North East Aviation Research \\|publisher\\=North East Aircraft Museum \\|access\\-date\\=10 February 2022}} mostly on the far side of the road that ran down the east side of the airfield, which was also bordered to the north by a railway line.", "Training became an important function at the airfield. It was used by Reserve Squadrons 47, 52 and 61, as well as 75 Training Squadron, later renamed to 52 Training Depot Station.{{cite book \\|last1\\=Smith \\|first1\\=David J. \\|title\\=Action Stations 7: Military Airfields of Scotland, the North\\-East and Northern Ireland \\|date\\=1989 \\|publisher\\=Patrick Stephens Ltd \\|location\\=Wellingborough, UK \\|isbn\\=1\\-85260\\-309\\-7 \\|page\\=73}}", "Operations continued at high intensity throughout the rest of the war, and a {{convert\\|70\\|ft\\|abbr\\=on}} radio transmitter mast was erected to enable information and instructions to be sent to pilots from the ground. When the RFC became the [Royal Air Force](/wiki/Royal_Air_Force \"Royal Air Force\") on 1 April 1918 the airfield became **RAF Cramlington**.", "In April 1918, the first flight of the [Armstrong Whitworth F.M.4 Armadillo](/wiki/Armstrong_Whitworth_Armadillo \"Armstrong Whitworth Armadillo\") fighter took place at Cramlington because their normal field, at [Town Moor Aerodrome](/wiki/Town_Moor%2C_Newcastle_upon_Tyne \"Town Moor, Newcastle upon Tyne\") in Newcastle, was surrounded by obstructions and too rough. The aircraft was not a success.{{cite book \\|last1\\=Tapper \\|first1\\=Oliver \\|title\\=Armstrong Whitworth Aircraft since 1913 \\|date\\=1988 \\|publisher\\=Putnam \\|location\\=London \\|isbn\\=0\\-85177\\-826\\-7 \\|page\\=82 \\|edition\\=2nd}}", "Further land was requisitioned for the construction of a larger hangar, the building of which extended into 1919\\. However the RAF had no further plans for the airfield, and it was reduced to Care and Maintenance status on 22 January 1920, and the RAF left completely in March.", "#### Units", "Major units based at Cramlington (in date order){{cite book \\|last1\\=Jefford \\|first1\\=C.G. \\|title\\=RAF Squadrons \\|date\\=2001 \\|publisher\\=Airlife Publishing Ltd \\|location\\=Shrewsbury, UK \\|isbn\\=1\\-84037\\-141\\-2 \\|page\\=147 \\|edition\\=2nd}}\n* [36 Sqn](/wiki/No._36_Squadron_RAF \"No. 36 Squadron RAF\") Formed at Cramlington on 1 February 1916, moved to Newcastle 12 October 1916\n* [58 Sqn](/wiki/No._58_Squadron_RAF \"No. 58 Squadron RAF\") Formed Cramlington 8 June 1916, to Dover 17 December 1917\n* [76 Sqn](/wiki/No._76_Squadron_RAF \"No. 76 Squadron RAF\") Formed Cramlington 15 September 1916, to [Ripon](/wiki/RAF_Ripon \"RAF Ripon\") 10 October 1916\n* [63 Sqn](/wiki/No._63_Squadron_RAF \"No. 63 Squadron RAF\") From Stirling 31 October 1916, to Middle East June 1917\n* [120 Sqn](/wiki/No._120_Squadron_RAF \"No. 120 Squadron RAF\") Formed Cramlington 1 January 1918, to [Bracebridge Heath](/wiki/Bracebridge_Heath%23RAF_Bracebridge_Heath \"Bracebridge Heath#RAF Bracebridge Heath\") 3 August 1918\n* [252 Sqn](/wiki/No._252_Squadron_RAF \"No. 252 Squadron RAF\") Based Tynemouth, detachment to Cramlington May 1918, to [Killingholme](/wiki/RNAS_Killingholme \"RNAS Killingholme\") 31 January 1919", "### Civil", "[thumb\\|left\\|De Havilland DH.60 Cirrus Moths G\\-EBLX and G\\-EBLY at Cramlington Aerodrome, possibly during their naming ceremony on 26 November 1925](/wiki/File:015825-Newcastle_upon_Tyne_Aero_Club_Cramlington_Aerodrome_Unknown_1925.jpg \"015825-Newcastle upon Tyne Aero Club Cramlington Aerodrome Unknown 1925.jpg\")\nIn the early 1920s, the airfield, then known as \"Cramlington Aerodrome\", or sometimes \"Newcastle Airport\", saw little use, and the buildings received little maintenance. However in July 1925 The Newcastle upon Tyne Light Aeroplane Club, later renamed the Newcastle on Tyne Aero Club, was formed. It was commonly called the \"Newcastle Aero Club\". The members funded the building of a new hangar and with a grant from the [Air Ministry](/wiki/Air_Ministry \"Air Ministry\"){{efn\\-ua\\| Thanks to subsidies organised by the Director of Civil Aviation, Sir \\[\\[Sefton Brancker]], five new flying clubs were formed, all receiving two of the earliest production Moths in the summer of 1925\\. The other clubs were \\[\\[Lancashire Aero Club]], London Aeroplane Club, Midland Aero Club and Yorkshire Aeroplane Club.{{cite book \\|last1\\=Jackson \\|first1\\=A. J. \\|title\\=De Havilland Aircraft since 1915 \\|date\\=1962 \\|publisher\\=Putnam \\|location\\=London \\|page\\=194}}}} bought two [de Havilland DH.60 Cirrus Moths](/wiki/De_Havilland_DH.60_Moth \"De Havilland DH.60 Moth\"),{{cite web \\|title\\=Cramlington \\|url\\=https://forgottenairfields.com/airfield\\-cramlington\\-955\\.html \\|website\\=Abandoned Forgotten \\& Little Known Airfields in Europe \\|access\\-date\\=10 February 2022}} G\\-EBLX, named 'Novocastria', and G\\-EBLY, named 'Bernicia', soon followed by two more. The club remained a loyal Moth operator with at least another six acquired over the following years.{{cite web \\|last1\\=Fillmore \\|first1\\=Malcolm \\|title\\=De Havilland DH60 File \\|url\\=https://www.ab\\-ix.co.uk/pdfs/dh60\\.pdf \\|date\\=September 2018\\|website\\=Air\\-Britain \\|accessdate\\=10 February 2022}}", "[thumb\\|Avro 548 G\\-EBPO of the Newcastle on Tyne Aero Club at Cramlington Aerodrome c.1928](/wiki/File:Newcastle_upon_Tyne_Aero_Club_Avro_548_G-EBPO_Cramlington_Aerodrome.jpg \"Newcastle upon Tyne Aero Club Avro 548 G-EBPO Cramlington Aerodrome.jpg\")\nA small company named *Pleasure Flying Services Ltd.* operated pleasure flights from early 1929 using [Avro 548](/wiki/Avro_548 \"Avro 548\") G\\-EBPO,{{cite book \\|last1\\=Jackson \\|first1\\=A.J. \\|last2\\=Jackson \\|first2\\=R.T. \\|title\\=Avro Aircraft since 1908 \\|date\\=1990 \\|publisher\\=Putnam Aeronautical Books \\|location\\=London \\|isbn\\=0\\-85177\\-834\\-8 \\|page\\=192 \\|edition\\=2nd}} which they acquired from the Aero Club. It was a three\\-seat conversion of the two\\-seat [Avro 504](/wiki/Avro_504 \"Avro 504\").{{efn\\-ua\\|There is film of this aircraft in Pleasure Flying Services markings giving joy rides from the beach at \\[\\[St Andrews]], \\[\\[Scotland]] in 1929\\.{{cite web \\|title\\=Penniwells and St Andrews \\|url\\=https://movingimage.nls.uk/film/2830 \\|website\\=Moving Image Archive \\|publisher\\=National Library of Scotland \\|access\\-date\\=11 February 2022}}}} Later that year they expanded, acquiring [Simmonds Spartan](/wiki/Simmonds_Spartan \"Simmonds Spartan\") two\\-seater G\\-AAGV and three\\-seater G\\-AAHV. 'GV crashed in September 1930 and was rebuilt as a three\\-seater re\\-registered as G\\-ABXO.{{cite web \\|title\\=Simmonds Spartan Aircraft \\|url\\=https://wight.hampshireairfields.co.uk/sim.html \\|website\\=Isle of Wight Aviation \\|access\\-date\\=14 February 2022}}", "One of the earliest pupils of the Aero Club was [Constance \"Connie\" Leathart](/wiki/Constance_Leathart \"Constance Leathart\"), a young socialite who, despite crashing on her first solo flight, 24 February 1926, went on to become an accomplished pilot.{{cite web \\|title\\=Constance Leathart: A Life in the Clouds \\|url\\=https://www.northumberlandarchives.com/archive\\-exhibitions/constanceleathart\\-clouds/ \\|website\\=Northumberland Archives \\|publisher\\=Northumberland County Council \\|access\\-date\\=11 February 2022}} With her great friend, Walter [Leslie Runciman, 2nd Viscount Runciman of Doxford](/wiki/Leslie_Runciman%2C_2nd_Viscount_Runciman_of_Doxford \"Leslie Runciman, 2nd Viscount Runciman of Doxford\"), they formed Cramlington Aircraft Ltd, and took over the aircraft and business of Pleasure Flying Services on 30 October 1929\\. The company managed the aerodrome{{cite web \\|title\\=Constance Leathart \\|url\\=https://hyperleap.com/topic/Constance\\_Leathart \\|website\\=hyperleap \\|access\\-date\\=11 February 2022}} and ran a maintenance and repair operation. It also built gliders from scratch including a [Zögling](/wiki/DFS_Z%C3%B6gling \"DFS Zögling\") type designed by Mr Alec Bell,{{cite journal \\|title\\=Gliding Gossip and News \\|journal\\=MotorSport \\|date\\=May 1930 \\|page\\=36 \\|url\\=https://www.motorsportmagazine.com/archive/article/may\\-1930/36/gliding\\-gossip\\-and\\-news\\-7 \\|access\\-date\\=11 February 2022}} and in 1930 designed and built three examples of the [Cramlington Cramcraft](/wiki/Cramlington_Cramcraft \"Cramlington Cramcraft\") primary glider.{{cite journal \\|title\\=A North\\-Country Glider \\|journal\\=The Sailplane and Glider \\|date\\=3 October 1930 \\|volume\\=5 \\|issue\\=1 \\|pages\\=35, 36}}", "A president of the Newcastle Aero Club, Sam Smith,{{cite web \\|first1\\=Arthur \\|last1\\=Andrews \\|title\\=Heaton fliers: the Smith family and Newcastle Aero Club \\|url\\=https://heatonhistorygroup.org/2017/05/17/heaton\\-fliers\\-the\\-smith\\-family\\-and\\-newcastle\\-aero\\-club/ \\|website\\=Heaton History Group \\|access\\-date\\=27 August 2023}} was the founder of Ringtons Tea. In 1931{{cite web \\|title\\=Carlton Moor Gliding Club \\|url\\=http://www.hidden\\-teesside.co.uk/2013/01/08/carlton\\-moor\\-gliding\\-club/ \\|website\\=Hidden Teesside \\|access\\-date\\=10 February 2022}} he was a founder member of Newcastle Gliding Club at Cramlington, which mainly used [winch\\-launching](/wiki/Winch-launching \"Winch-launching\") for take\\-offs.{{cite web \\|title\\=Cramlington (Airfield) (Newcastle) \\|url\\=https://www.abct.org.uk/airfields/airfield\\-finder/cramlington\\-airfield\\-newcastle/ \\|website\\=Airfields of Britain Conservation Trust \\|access\\-date\\=11 February 2022}} The club's president was Walter Leslie Runciman, and they used a Cramlington Cramcraft as a basic trainer.{{cite book \\|title\\=Gliding Yearbook 1931 \\|date\\=1931 \\|publisher\\=Dorset Gliding Club \\|page\\=78 \\|url\\=https://www.j2mcl\\-planeurs.net/dbj2mcl/planeurs\\-biblio/fac\\-similes/Gliding\\_Year\\_Book\\_1931\\_(Dorset\\_1931\\).pdf \\|access\\-date\\=11 February 2022}}", "#### Scheduled services", "George Nicholson started an experimental service, trading as \"Northern Airways\", from his base at Cramlington to the [Isle of Man](/wiki/Isle_of_Man \"Isle of Man\") ([Hall Caine Airport](/wiki/Hall_Caine_Airport \"Hall Caine Airport\")) via [Carlisle](/wiki/Carlisle \"Carlisle\") ([Kingstown Municipal Airport](/wiki/RAF_Carlisle \"RAF Carlisle\")) in his [De Havilland DH.84 Dragon](/wiki/De_Havilland_Dragon \"De Havilland Dragon\") G\\-ACFG, running from 1 August 1934 to 30 September. He went on to start [Northern \\& Scottish Airways](/wiki/Northern_%26_Scottish_Airways \"Northern & Scottish Airways\") in [Glasgow](/wiki/Glasgow_Airport \"Glasgow Airport\") later that year.{{cite book \\|last1\\=Davies \\|first1\\=R. E. G. \\|title\\=British Airways: An airline and its aircraft Volume 1: 1919 \\- 1939 \\|date\\=2005 \\|publisher\\=Paladwr Press \\|location\\=McLean, Virginia, USA \\|isbn\\=1\\-888962\\-24\\-0 \\|page\\=66 }}", "In April 1935, [North Eastern Airways](/wiki/North_Eastern_Airways \"North Eastern Airways\") started a service to link [Edinburgh](/wiki/Edinburgh \"Edinburgh\") [(Turnhouse)](/wiki/Edinburgh_Airport \"Edinburgh Airport\") with [London](/wiki/London \"London\") ([Heston Airport](/wiki/Heston_Airport \"Heston Airport\")) via Newcastle (Cramlington) and [Leeds](/wiki/Leeds \"Leeds\") ([Yeadon](/wiki/Leeds_Bradford_Airport \"Leeds Bradford Airport\")).{{cite web \\|title\\=North Eastern Airways April 1935 \\|url\\=http://www.timetableimages.com/ttimages/neaw/neaw3504/neaw35i.jpg \\|website\\=Airline Timetable Images \\|access\\-date\\=11 February 2022}} The Edinburgh leg was delayed until 27 May. There was little demand, and the service stopped on 27 June.{{cite book \\|last1\\=Davies \\|first1\\=R. E. G. \\|title\\=British Airways: An airline and its aircraft Volume 1: 1919 \\- 1939 \\|date\\=2005 \\|publisher\\=Paladwr Press \\|location\\=McLean, Virginia, USA \\|isbn\\=1\\-888962\\-24\\-0 \\|page\\=73 }}", "#### Events", "The Newcastle Aero Club held its opening ceremony on 26 November 1925, at which its first two Moths were named. It organised its first Annual Flying Meeting on 4 September 1926 in which the [Fleet Air Arm](/wiki/Fleet_Air_Arm \"Fleet Air Arm\") took part, with 406 Flight sending a large number of [Fairey Flycatchers](/wiki/Fairey_Flycatcher \"Fairey Flycatcher\").{{cite web \\|title\\=Cramlington Flying Sites \\|url\\=https://www.ukairfieldguide.net/airfields/Cramlington\\-flying\\-sites \\|website\\=UK Airfields \\& Airports \\|access\\-date\\=11 February 2022}}", "On 7 July 1929, [Alan Cobham](/wiki/Alan_Cobham \"Alan Cobham\") visited Cramlington on his Municipal Aerodrome Campaign. He judged that the airfield at Newcastle's Town Moor, from which he had operated the previous day, was too rough and dangerous for his [de Havilland DH.61 Giant Moth](/wiki/De_Havilland_Giant_Moth \"De Havilland Giant Moth\") (registered G\\-AEEV and named *Youth of Britain*) and had relocated to Cramlington. The engine cut out and he landed, demolishing a tent and running into a wire fence, tearing off a wing, and stopping a few yards from the clubhouse. No one was harmed, and the aircraft was quickly repaired.{{cite news \\|title\\=Ten Passengers in 'Plane Smash \\|url\\=https://www.ukairfieldguide.net/airfields/Town\\-Moor \\|access\\-date\\=23 February 2022 \\|work\\=Yorkshire Post and Leeds Intelligencer \\|date\\=8 July 1929}}", "On 5 October 1929, three significant air races were held during an Air Pageant; the Air League Challenge Cup, the [Grosvenor Challenge Cup](/wiki/Grosvenor_Challenge_Cup \"Grosvenor Challenge Cup\"), and the SBAC Challenge Cup. They were all won by members of the Newcastle Aero Club in its DH.60 Moth G\\-EBPT.{{cite book \\|last1\\=Lewis \\|first1\\=Peter \\|title\\=British Racing and Record\\-Breaking Aircraft \\|date\\=1970 \\|publisher\\=Putnam \\|location\\=London \\|isbn\\=0\\-370\\-00067\\-6 \\|page\\=204}}", "[thumb\\|[Winifred Brown](/wiki/Winifred_Brown \"Winifred Brown\"), winner of the 1930 King's Cup.](/wiki/File:Winifred_Sawley_Brown_who_became_Winifred_Adams.png \"Winifred Sawley Brown who became Winifred Adams.png\")\nThe [King's Cup Air Race](/wiki/King%27s_Cup_Air_Race \"King's Cup Air Race\") took place on 5 July 1930, and Cramlington was the third of four stops on the circular route which started and finished in [Hanworth Air Park](/wiki/London_Air_Park \"London Air Park\") in London. With 88 starters, this was to be the largest field in the history of the race, and the 71 aircraft which survived as far as Cramlington all arrived in the space of just over an hour, causing considerable chaos but only two minor accidents.{{cite book \\|last1\\=Boughton \\|first1\\=Terence \\|title\\=The Story of the British Light Aeroplane \\|date\\=1963 \\|publisher\\=John Murray \\|location\\=London \\|pages\\=174, 177}}", "On 31 August 1930, an Air Fete was held which included a race.{{cite book \\|last1\\=Lewis \\|first1\\=Peter \\|title\\=British Racing and Record\\-Breaking Aircraft \\|date\\=1970 \\|publisher\\=Putnam \\|location\\=London \\|isbn\\=0\\-370\\-00067\\-6 \\|page\\=214}} The Grosvenor Challenge Cup race was held again on 22 August 1931\\.{{cite book \\|last1\\=Lewis \\|first1\\=Peter \\|title\\=British Racing and Record\\-Breaking Aircraft \\|date\\=1970 \\|publisher\\=Putnam \\|location\\=London \\|isbn\\=0\\-370\\-00067\\-6 \\|page\\=228}}", "A London to Newcastle Air Race was instituted by the Aero Club, flying from Heston to Cramlington on 30 May 1931\\. It was repeated, starting from Brooklands in 1932, 1933 and 1934, and the last ones were to Woolsington in 1935 and 36\\.{{cite web \\|title\\=London to Newcastle Air Races \\|url\\=https://www.nelsam.org.uk/NEAR/Events/LonNewAirRace/LonNewAirRace.htm \\|website\\=North East Aviation Research \\|publisher\\=North East Aircraft Museum \\|access\\-date\\=12 February 2022}}.", "Alan Cobham's National Aviation Day \"Flying Circus\" displays visited Cramlington on the following dates: 2 and 3 July 1932, 1 and 2 July 1933 (No. 2 Tour), 8 September 1934 and 26 and 27 July 1935 (Astra Show).{{efn\\-ua\\|In 1933 there were two simultaneous tours throughout the season, named Number 1 and Number 2\\. In 1935 there again were two, but only from 1 July, named Astra and Ferry.}}{{cite book \\|last1\\=Cobham \\|first1\\=Sir Alan \\|title\\=A Time to Fly \\|date\\=1978 \\|publisher\\=Shepheard\\-Walwyn (Publishers) \\|location\\=London, UK \\|isbn\\=0\\-85683\\-037\\-2 \\|pages\\=205–214}}", "The British Hospitals Air Pageant visited on 12 August 1933\\.{{cite web \\|title\\=ACA News Reel Events of 1933 \\|url\\=https://www.yfanefa.com/record/25991 \\|website\\=North East Film Archive \\|publisher\\=Yorkshire/North East Film Archive \\|at\\=at 7\\.40 \\|access\\-date\\=16 February 2022}} Among the displays was the unique [Miles M.1 Satyr](/wiki/Miles_M.1_Satyr \"Miles M.1 Satyr\") G\\-ABVG and the [De Havilland DH.60M Moth](/wiki/De_Havilland_DH.60M_Moth \"De Havilland DH.60M Moth\") VH\\-UQA in which [C. W. A. Scott](/wiki/C._W._A._Scott \"C. W. A. Scott\") made his record\\-breaking return flights from Australia to Britain.", "### Demise", "On 26 July 1935, Woolsington Aerodrome opened, about {{convert\\|5\\|mi\\|km}} to the south\\-west, as a great improvement on Cramlington (it would become [Newcastle International Airport](/wiki/Newcastle_International_Airport \"Newcastle International Airport\") later). Almost all of Cramlington's users and residents had moved there by May 1936 in which month Cramlington Aircraft ceased trading, and the airfield was left almost deserted. An exception was the Gliding Club, which remained until the outbreak of [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\") in September 1939\\. Cramlington Aircraft Ltd entered voluntary liquidation in January 1939\\.{{London Gazette\\|issue\\=34589 \\|date\\=13 January 1939 \\|page\\=340 }}", "During World War II the airfield was unused. After the war, attempts were made to restart some aviation activity, but the airfield was soon abandoned. Little of the old aerodrome remains. The landing ground is now open grassland encroached upon by the [Shotton open\\-cast coal mine](/wiki/Shotton_Surface_Mine \"Shotton Surface Mine\"). and the buildings area is now the Bassington Industrial Estate.", "### Airship station", "[thumb\\|Painting of an RNAS SST on patrol](/wiki/File:Watching_for_Prey%2C_Frank_Willis%2C_Luftschiff_SST_1914%E2%80%931918.jpg \"Watching for Prey, Frank Willis, Luftschiff SST 1914–1918.jpg\")\nConstruction of a Royal Naval Airship Station, **RNAS Cramlington**, started in 1918{{cite web \\|title\\=Cramlington (Airship) \\|url\\=https://www.abct.org.uk/airfields/airfield\\-finder/cramlington\\-airship/ \\|website\\=Airfields of Britain Conservation Trust \\|access\\-date\\=12 February 2022}} at Nelson Village, about half a mile (0\\.8 km) to the east of the existing aerodrome. It was planned that four [Submarine Scout Twin](/wiki/SST_class_airship \"SST class airship\") (SST) airships would be based here, but construction of the large airship shed to house them was not finished until 1919\\. However the planned airships did operate from here for a short period, along with a complement of twenty officers and around 280 men.{{cite web \\|title\\=United Kingdom \\- Cramlington \\|url\\=https://www.airshipsonline.com/sheds/Cramlington.htm \\|website\\=Airship Heritage Trust \\|access\\-date\\=12 February 2022}}", "The site was soon abandoned, but the huge airship shed was taken over by British Airships Ltd which later changed its name to the Airship Development Company. Here they assembled what was claimed to be Britain's first private airship, the [AD.1](/wiki/Airship_Development_AD1 \"Airship Development AD1\"). This had been designed principally by [Reginald Foster Dagnall](/wiki/Reginald_Foster_Dagnall \"Reginald Foster Dagnall\"), who had designed previous airships{{efn\\-ua\\|Dagnall was the designer of \\[\\[Willows airships]] in the early 1900s.}} and founded the RFD company. The airship was built in [Guildford](/wiki/Guildford \"Guildford\"), [Surrey](/wiki/Surrey \"Surrey\"), but as most airship sheds in Britain had been demolished, it was brought to Cramlington for inflation and testing.", "Registered G\\-FAAX, its first flight was on 18 September 1929 and after several test flights{{efn\\-ua\\|There is film of an early flight from Cramlington.{{cite web \\|title\\=Aviation: Airship On Its First Flight From Cramlington, Yorkshire (sic) 1929 \\|url\\=https://www.britishpathe.com/video/VLVA8D9R4M5GLYUMDK4O94E5NRJNL\\-AVIATION\\-AIRSHIP\\-ON\\-ITS\\-FIRST\\-FLIGHT\\-FROM\\-CRAMLINGTON\\-YORKSHIRE \\|website\\=British Pathé \\|access\\-date\\=15 February 2022}}}} was deflated for modifications. Flying again the following May,{{cite web \\|title\\=Lighter–than–Air Register \\|url\\=https://www.ab\\-ix.co.uk/pdfs/lighterthanairregister.pdf \\|website\\=Air\\-Britain \\|access\\-date\\=12 February 2022}} it performed its intended role in aerial advertising, with large banners attached to its sides. Business was hard to come by, however, and the airship had to travel far to get work.{{cite web \\|title\\=Ill\\-fated history of Britain's first private airship \\|url\\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk\\-england\\-24934015 \\|website\\=BBC News \\|access\\-date\\=9 November 2023 \\|date\\=5 January 2014}} On a commission in Belgium for a cigarette company, it was destroyed in a storm on 5 October 1930\\. The remains were returned to Britain and auctioned, and the company was liquidated the next year.", "The shed was little used until after World War II, but in later years was used for the production of concrete lamp posts, It survived until 1967 when it was demolished. The site is now the South Nelson Industrial Estate.", "" ]
Racing career ------------- ### Early career Rydquist began his racing career with sports car club racing in 1996 with his father's [Lotus Super Seven Replica](/wiki/Lotus_Seven "Lotus Seven"), going on to win the Göteborg Sports Car Club racing championship in 2000\. In 2001, Rydquist qualified as the fastest driver during the Eurosport Super Racing Weekend Challenge. The qualifier has more than 1100 drivers competing. Rydquist's first\-place laptime secured a spot in the Top 32 driver roster. In the final 6\-driver heat, Rydquist took 3rd place, with professional racing star [Peter Dumbreck](/wiki/Peter_Dumbreck "Peter Dumbreck") and karting racer Fredrik Danielsson coming in front. Rydquist was later invited to test for the Swedish GT racing team, [Apex Racing](/wiki/Apex_Motorsport "Apex Motorsport"). The test was successful. Rydquist brought the Apex Racing [Porsche 964](/wiki/Porsche_911_%28964%29 "Porsche 911 (964)") RS to the 2001 Swedish Endurance Cup season through four 8H and 12H races, claiming 1 pole position and 1 victory. Rydquist also took 2nd place in the 2001 Endurance Racing Cup (Touring cars) season finale. In 2002 and 2003, Rydquist visited the one\-spec Swedish Junior Touring Car Challenge with MH Motorsport in a front\-wheel driven Volvo S40 JTCC car. Rydquist won a podium position after taking 4th in two earlier heats in the JTCC. In the Radical Scandinavian Sports Racing Car Challenge, Rydquist took a podium finish in his first race. In 2003, Rydquist qualified an ex\-BTCC BMW M3 in 3rd place in a Swedish Endurance Racing Series event. Rydquist was back full\-time in the 2004 Swedish Endurance Racing Cup with MV Racing's Porsche 993 RSR. Rydquist broke four official class lap records, took two pole positions, and won three out of six 3\-hour races. In 2005, Rydquist won the premiere 3\-hour race of the season, piloting MV Racing's Porsche 911 GT3 Cup in the Swedish Endurance Racing series, which was officially dubbed the National Swedish Endurance Racing Championship. Rydquist was invited by Loehr Racing at the end of 2005 to race in the Zandvoort 500 in the team's Porsche 911 GT3 RS. Rydquist raced with teammates Martin Morin and Bernard Loehr. In 2006, Rydquist went to race in the 24 Hours of Nurburgring Nordschleife. The team salvaged a 9th\-place finish in class. [thumb\|Rydquist racing in the 2005 Swedish Endurance Racing Championship](/wiki/File:Carl_rydquist_porsche_996_gt3cup_swedish_endurance_gt_championship.jpg "Carl rydquist porsche 996 gt3cup swedish endurance gt championship.jpg") ### 2007–2012 In 2007, the team was in the top 10 until a teammate had an on\-track accident at night. In 2008, Rydquist qualified side by side with [Heinz\-Harald Frentzen](/wiki/Heinz-Harald_Frentzen "Heinz-Harald Frentzen") in a [Gumpert Apollo](/wiki/Gumpert_Apollo "Gumpert Apollo"). In 2009, the team landed a sponsorship contract with [Hankook Tire](/wiki/Hankook "Hankook"), but their race ended with an engine problem. In 2010, Rydquist won the Redline Time Attack Championship by 4 victories and 3 podium finishes racing the City Tire Online [Nissan 350Z](/wiki/Nissan_350Z "Nissan 350Z"). Rydquist set a new track lap record for his class at [Willow Springs International Raceway](/wiki/Willow_Springs_International_Motorsports_Park "Willow Springs International Motorsports Park"). In 2011, Rydquist won a 2nd\-place finish in a one\-off visit to the MotoIQ Pacific Tuner Car Championship. An electrical glitch during the closing stages of the race happened; however, when the engine restarted, Rydquist got 2nd place. [thumb\|Rydquist on the grid of the 2011 24 Hours of Nürburgring\|left](/wiki/File:Carl_rydquist_porsche_997_gt3cup_24h_nurburgring_startaufstellung_grid.jpg "Carl rydquist porsche 997 gt3cup 24h nurburgring startaufstellung grid.jpg") Rydquist celebrated his 5th start in the 24 Hours of [Nurburgring Nordschleife](/wiki/N%C3%BCrburgring "Nürburgring") race in 2011, racing for German Steam Racing. The team's race ended early when a co\-driver had a collision. Rydquist finished 2nd in September in the Porsche class and 8th overall. Upon his return from Barcelona, Rydquist was drafted by Santa Ana\-based Berk Technology to set up and race their BMW 135i in the 2011 Eurotuner GP and the 2011 Super Lap Battle finals. Rydquist won the Eurotuner GP road course shootout. ### 2013–2017 In 2015, Rydquist returned to sports car racing with German [Mercedes\-Benz](/wiki/Mercedes-Benz "Mercedes-Benz") dealer team Motorsport Sing, piloting their [SLK 350R](/wiki/Mercedes-Benz_SLK-Class "Mercedes-Benz SLK-Class") in the VLN series at the Nurburgring. He was in a collaboration with Utah\-based Competition Associates Sport (CA Sport). He placed 5th in the [25 Hours of Thunderhill](/wiki/25_Hours_of_Thunderhill "25 Hours of Thunderhill"). Rydquist went on to race the team's \#34 Nissan 370Z Nismo Touring Car in the season opener of the 2016 [Pirelli World Challenge](/wiki/Pirelli_World_Challenge "Pirelli World Challenge") at [Circuit of the Americas](/wiki/Circuit_of_the_Americas "Circuit of the Americas"). Rydquist captured 3rd in the first race. The \#34 car was retired at the halfway mark due to an oil leak. Rydquist also joined thr California\-based Prototype Development Group for a full\-season campaign in the 2016 National Auto Sport Association Endurance Racing Championship. In 2016, Rydquist drove in the 25 Hours of Thunderhill with the same car he had raced in the NASA endurance season. Racing with former top 3 finishers, Mike Holland, [Beau Borders](/wiki/Beau_Borders "Beau Borders") and Troy Lindstrom, Rydquist and the team's main competitors were Flying Lizards [Porsche 997](/wiki/Porsche_911_%28997%29 "Porsche 911 (997)") GT3 RSR and Audi R8 GT3 LMS, as well as a [Lamborghini Super Trofeo](/wiki/Lamborghini_Super_Trofeo "Lamborghini Super Trofeo") campaigned by CLP Motorsports. Halfway into the race Rydquist and his teammates were running 3rd in the ES (GT) class. Later in the race, a rear balljoint failure dropped the team out of contention for a top\-10 finish. In 2017, Rydquist won the Touring Car Championship title in the Grand Touring (GT) class. Rydquist raced the team's Factory Five Racing GTM. He took the GT class and won the season opener, a rain race at [Laguna Seca](/wiki/Laguna_Seca "Laguna Seca"). He then went on to claim second place at [Auto Club Speedway](/wiki/Auto_Club_Speedway "Auto Club Speedway") before winning again both at [Sonoma Raceway](/wiki/Sonoma_Raceway "Sonoma Raceway") and at the series' second visit to Laguna Seca. ### 2018–2023 In 2018, he raced with Holland, Borders and Lindstrom in the Prototype Development Group's \#4 Factory Five Racing GTM featuring [Hankook Tire](/wiki/Hankook "Hankook") as the title sponsor. The team challenged the Toyo Tires Flying Lizard Porsche 997 RSR piloted by [Wolf Henzler](/wiki/Wolf_Henzler "Wolf Henzler"), [Johannes van Overbeek](/wiki/Johannes_van_Overbeek "Johannes van Overbeek"), [Justin Marks](/wiki/Justin_Marks "Justin Marks"), Charlie Hayes and Andy Wilzoch for the ES class pole. Rydquist and his team claimed 2nd in the ES class and 3rd overall behind the Porsche (ES) and One Motorsports Hankook Tire Radical SR3 (ESR). In the 2020 Trans Am Series presented by Pirelli West Coast Championship, Rydquist competed in the SGT category driving the Prototype Development Group's Factory Five Racing GTM. Rydquist won every race the team entered. He won a podium finish in a rain race at Sonoma, where he finished third behind Greg Pickett and [Thomas Merrill](/wiki/Thomas_Merrill_%28racing_driver%29 "Thomas Merrill (racing driver)") in TA and TA2 category Ford Mustangs. In 2023, Rydquist returned to the United States Touring Car Championship GT class alongside Indycar at the [Grand Prix of Portland](/wiki/Grand_Prix_of_Portland "Grand Prix of Portland"). Piloting the Optimal Stunt TA2 Chevrolet Camaro. Rydquist suffered a driveshaft failure in qualifying, forfeiting pole position and sitting out the first race of the doubleheader. In the second race, Rydquist was the overall winner.
[ "Racing career\n-------------", "### Early career", "Rydquist began his racing career with sports car club racing in 1996 with his father's [Lotus Super Seven Replica](/wiki/Lotus_Seven \"Lotus Seven\"), going on to win the Göteborg Sports Car Club racing championship in 2000\\.", "In 2001, Rydquist qualified as the fastest driver during the Eurosport Super Racing Weekend Challenge. The qualifier has more than 1100 drivers competing. Rydquist's first\\-place laptime secured a spot in the Top 32 driver roster. In the final 6\\-driver heat, Rydquist took 3rd place, with professional racing star [Peter Dumbreck](/wiki/Peter_Dumbreck \"Peter Dumbreck\") and karting racer Fredrik Danielsson coming in front. Rydquist was later invited to test for the Swedish GT racing team, [Apex Racing](/wiki/Apex_Motorsport \"Apex Motorsport\"). The test was successful. Rydquist brought the Apex Racing [Porsche 964](/wiki/Porsche_911_%28964%29 \"Porsche 911 (964)\") RS to the 2001 Swedish Endurance Cup season through four 8H and 12H races, claiming 1 pole position and 1 victory. Rydquist also took 2nd place in the 2001 Endurance Racing Cup (Touring cars) season finale.", "In 2002 and 2003, Rydquist visited the one\\-spec Swedish Junior Touring Car Challenge with MH Motorsport in a front\\-wheel driven Volvo S40 JTCC car. Rydquist won a podium position after taking 4th in two earlier heats in the JTCC. In the Radical Scandinavian Sports Racing Car Challenge, Rydquist took a podium finish in his first race. In 2003, Rydquist qualified an ex\\-BTCC BMW M3 in 3rd place in a Swedish Endurance Racing Series event.", "Rydquist was back full\\-time in the 2004 Swedish Endurance Racing Cup with MV Racing's Porsche 993 RSR. Rydquist broke four official class lap records, took two pole positions, and won three out of six 3\\-hour races. In 2005, Rydquist won the premiere 3\\-hour race of the season, piloting MV Racing's Porsche 911 GT3 Cup in the Swedish Endurance Racing series, which was officially dubbed the National Swedish Endurance Racing Championship. Rydquist was invited by Loehr Racing at the end of 2005 to race in the Zandvoort 500 in the team's Porsche 911 GT3 RS. Rydquist raced with teammates Martin Morin and Bernard Loehr. In 2006, Rydquist went to race in the 24 Hours of Nurburgring Nordschleife. The team salvaged a 9th\\-place finish in class.", "[thumb\\|Rydquist racing in the 2005 Swedish Endurance Racing Championship](/wiki/File:Carl_rydquist_porsche_996_gt3cup_swedish_endurance_gt_championship.jpg \"Carl rydquist porsche 996 gt3cup swedish endurance gt championship.jpg\")\n### 2007–2012", "In 2007, the team was in the top 10 until a teammate had an on\\-track accident at night. In 2008, Rydquist qualified side by side with [Heinz\\-Harald Frentzen](/wiki/Heinz-Harald_Frentzen \"Heinz-Harald Frentzen\") in a [Gumpert Apollo](/wiki/Gumpert_Apollo \"Gumpert Apollo\"). In 2009, the team landed a sponsorship contract with [Hankook Tire](/wiki/Hankook \"Hankook\"), but their race ended with an engine problem. In 2010, Rydquist won the Redline Time Attack Championship by 4 victories and 3 podium finishes racing the City Tire Online [Nissan 350Z](/wiki/Nissan_350Z \"Nissan 350Z\"). Rydquist set a new track lap record for his class at [Willow Springs International Raceway](/wiki/Willow_Springs_International_Motorsports_Park \"Willow Springs International Motorsports Park\"). In 2011, Rydquist won a 2nd\\-place finish in a one\\-off visit to the MotoIQ Pacific Tuner Car Championship. An electrical glitch during the closing stages of the race happened; however, when the engine restarted, Rydquist got 2nd place.", "[thumb\\|Rydquist on the grid of the 2011 24 Hours of Nürburgring\\|left](/wiki/File:Carl_rydquist_porsche_997_gt3cup_24h_nurburgring_startaufstellung_grid.jpg \"Carl rydquist porsche 997 gt3cup 24h nurburgring startaufstellung grid.jpg\")\nRydquist celebrated his 5th start in the 24 Hours of [Nurburgring Nordschleife](/wiki/N%C3%BCrburgring \"Nürburgring\") race in 2011, racing for German Steam Racing. The team's race ended early when a co\\-driver had a collision. Rydquist finished 2nd in September in the Porsche class and 8th overall. Upon his return from Barcelona, Rydquist was drafted by Santa Ana\\-based Berk Technology to set up and race their BMW 135i in the 2011 Eurotuner GP and the 2011 Super Lap Battle finals. Rydquist won the Eurotuner GP road course shootout.", "### 2013–2017", "In 2015, Rydquist returned to sports car racing with German [Mercedes\\-Benz](/wiki/Mercedes-Benz \"Mercedes-Benz\") dealer team Motorsport Sing, piloting their [SLK 350R](/wiki/Mercedes-Benz_SLK-Class \"Mercedes-Benz SLK-Class\") in the VLN series at the Nurburgring. He was in a collaboration with Utah\\-based Competition Associates Sport (CA Sport). He placed 5th in the [25 Hours of Thunderhill](/wiki/25_Hours_of_Thunderhill \"25 Hours of Thunderhill\").", "Rydquist went on to race the team's \\#34 Nissan 370Z Nismo Touring Car in the season opener of the 2016 [Pirelli World Challenge](/wiki/Pirelli_World_Challenge \"Pirelli World Challenge\") at [Circuit of the Americas](/wiki/Circuit_of_the_Americas \"Circuit of the Americas\"). Rydquist captured 3rd in the first race. The \\#34 car was retired at the halfway mark due to an oil leak. Rydquist also joined thr California\\-based Prototype Development Group for a full\\-season campaign in the 2016 National Auto Sport Association Endurance Racing Championship. In 2016, Rydquist drove in the 25 Hours of Thunderhill with the same car he had raced in the NASA endurance season. Racing with former top 3 finishers, Mike Holland, [Beau Borders](/wiki/Beau_Borders \"Beau Borders\") and Troy Lindstrom, Rydquist and the team's main competitors were Flying Lizards [Porsche 997](/wiki/Porsche_911_%28997%29 \"Porsche 911 (997)\") GT3 RSR and Audi R8 GT3 LMS, as well as a [Lamborghini Super Trofeo](/wiki/Lamborghini_Super_Trofeo \"Lamborghini Super Trofeo\") campaigned by CLP Motorsports. Halfway into the race Rydquist and his teammates were running 3rd in the ES (GT) class. Later in the race, a rear balljoint failure dropped the team out of contention for a top\\-10 finish.", "In 2017, Rydquist won the Touring Car Championship title in the Grand Touring (GT) class. Rydquist raced the team's Factory Five Racing GTM. He took the GT class and won the season opener, a rain race at [Laguna Seca](/wiki/Laguna_Seca \"Laguna Seca\"). He then went on to claim second place at [Auto Club Speedway](/wiki/Auto_Club_Speedway \"Auto Club Speedway\") before winning again both at [Sonoma Raceway](/wiki/Sonoma_Raceway \"Sonoma Raceway\") and at the series' second visit to Laguna Seca.", "### 2018–2023", "In 2018, he raced with Holland, Borders and Lindstrom in the Prototype Development Group's \\#4 Factory Five Racing GTM featuring [Hankook Tire](/wiki/Hankook \"Hankook\") as the title sponsor. The team challenged the Toyo Tires Flying Lizard Porsche 997 RSR piloted by [Wolf Henzler](/wiki/Wolf_Henzler \"Wolf Henzler\"), [Johannes van Overbeek](/wiki/Johannes_van_Overbeek \"Johannes van Overbeek\"), [Justin Marks](/wiki/Justin_Marks \"Justin Marks\"), Charlie Hayes and Andy Wilzoch for the ES class pole. Rydquist and his team claimed 2nd in the ES class and 3rd overall behind the Porsche (ES) and One Motorsports Hankook Tire Radical SR3 (ESR).", "In the 2020 Trans Am Series presented by Pirelli West Coast Championship, Rydquist competed in the SGT category driving the Prototype Development Group's Factory Five Racing GTM. Rydquist won every race the team entered. He won a podium finish in a rain race at Sonoma, where he finished third behind Greg Pickett and [Thomas Merrill](/wiki/Thomas_Merrill_%28racing_driver%29 \"Thomas Merrill (racing driver)\") in TA and TA2 category Ford Mustangs. In 2023, Rydquist returned to the United States Touring Car Championship GT class alongside Indycar at the [Grand Prix of Portland](/wiki/Grand_Prix_of_Portland \"Grand Prix of Portland\"). Piloting the Optimal Stunt TA2 Chevrolet Camaro. Rydquist suffered a driveshaft failure in qualifying, forfeiting pole position and sitting out the first race of the doubleheader. In the second race, Rydquist was the overall winner.", "" ]